95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"102","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":76,"score":99677},{"content":"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .","qid":"102","docid":"Future_of_Earth","rank":77,"score":99596},{"content":"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :","qid":"102","docid":"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative","rank":78,"score":99477},{"content":"Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .","qid":"102","docid":"Global_dimming","rank":79,"score":99372},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Hawaii Content: Hawaii Governor Linda Lingle has approved a number of energy-related bills to address climate change and promote local renewable energy production . The governor 's energy bill-signing streak started in late April 2008 with the approval of House Bill 2502 , which allows solar energy facilities to be located on less-productive agricultural lands , followed in late May by the approval of HB 3179 , which makes it easier for biofuel producers to lease state lands . In the same time frame , the governor approved SB 2034 , SB 3190 , and HB 2168 , which authorize special purpose revenue bonds to help finance a 2.7-megawatt wave energy facility off the coast of Maui , a solar energy facility on Oahu , and hydrogen generation and conversion facilities at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority , located on the island of Hawaii . Senate Bill 644 , approved on June 26 , 2008 prohibits the issuing of building permits for new homes without solar water heaters as of 2010 . The bill excludes homes located in areas with poor solar energy resources , homes using other renewable energy sources , and homes employing on-demand gas-fired water heaters . The bill also eliminates solar thermal energy tax credits for those homes . On June 6 , 2008 the governor approved SB 988 , which allows the Hawaii Public Utility Commission to establish a rebate for solar photovoltaic electric systems , and HB 2550 , which encourages net metering for residential and small commercial customers . On July 1 , 2008 the governor approved the final three energy bills , including HB 2863 , which provides streamlined permitting for new renewable energy facilities of at least 200 megawatts in capacity . HB 2505 creates a full-time renewable energy facilitator to help the state expedite those permits , while a third bill , HB 2261 , will provide loans of up to $ 1.5 million and up to 85 % of the cost of renewable energy projects at farms and aquaculture facilities .","qid":"102","docid":"Global_warming_in_Hawaii","rank":80,"score":98882},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .","qid":"102","docid":"Carbon_emission_label","rank":81,"score":98686},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"102","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":82,"score":98642},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"102","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":83,"score":98511},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"102","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":84,"score":98410},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"102","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":85,"score":98213},{"content":"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .","qid":"102","docid":"North_American_Carbon_Program","rank":86,"score":98172},{"content":"Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .","qid":"102","docid":"Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera","rank":87,"score":98164},{"content":"Title: Aquifer thermal energy storage Content: Aquifer thermal energy storage ( ATES ) is the storage and recovery of thermal energy in the subsurface . ATES is applied to provide heating and cooling to buildings . Storage and recovery of thermal energy is achieved by extraction and injection of groundwater from aquifers using groundwater wells . Systems commonly operate in a seasonal mode . The groundwater that is extracted in summer , is used for cooling by transferring heat from the building to the groundwater by means of a heat exchanger . Subsequently , the heated groundwater is injected back into the aquifer , which creates a storage of heated groundwater . In wintertime , the flow direction is reversed such that the heated groundwater is extracted and can be used for heating ( often in combination with a heat pump ) . Therefore , operating an ATES system uses the subsurface as a temporal storage to buffer seasonal variations in heating and cooling demand . When replacing traditional fossil fuel dependent heating and cooling systems , ATES can serve as a cost-effective technology to reduce the primary energy consumption of a building and the associated CO2 emissions . In 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , many countries and regions have made targets for global climate protection . The European Union also set a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , increase use of sustainable energy and improve energy efficiency . For this target , ATES can actually contribute significantly , as about 40 % of global energy consumption is done by buildings , and is mainly for heating and cooling . Therefore , the development of ATES has been paid a lot of attention and the number of ATES has increased dramatically , especially in Europe . For example , in the Netherlands , it was estimated that about 20,000 ATES systems could be achieved by 2020 . This can yield a CO2 emission reduction of about 11 % , for the target of the Netherlands . Besides the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Turkey , and Sweden are also increasing the application of ATES . ATES can be applied worldwide , as long as the climatic conditions and geohydrological conditions are right . As ATES systems cumulate in urban areas optimisation of subsurface space requires attention in areas with suitable conditions .","qid":"102","docid":"Aquifer_thermal_energy_storage","rank":88,"score":98071},{"content":"Title: World Energy Outlook Content: The annual World Energy Outlook is the International Energy Agency 's flagship publication , widely recognised as the most authoritative source for global energy projections and analysis . It represents the leading source for medium to long-term energy market projections , extensive statistics , analysis and advice for both governments and the energy business . It is produced by the Office of the Chief Economist , presently under the direction of Dr. Fatih Birol . Using a Reference Scenario based on no change in current policies , it enables policy-makers to evaluate their current path . The WEO has also developed an alternative scenario that puts the global energy systems on a trajectory to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions in line with limiting the increase in temperature to 2 ° C.","qid":"102","docid":"World_Energy_Outlook","rank":89,"score":97689},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"102","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":90,"score":97546},{"content":"Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .","qid":"102","docid":"Climate_oscillation","rank":91,"score":97288},{"content":"Title: Solar Energy Perspectives Content: Solar Energy Perspectives is a 2011 book by the International Energy Agency . Solar energy technologies come in various forms -- solar heating , solar photovoltaics , solar thermal electricity -- and can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces : The development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits . It will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating climate change , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared . Solar Energy Perspectives builds upon past analyses of solar energy deployment contained in the World Energy Outlook , Energy Technology Perspectives and several IEA Technology Roadmaps . It aims at `` offering an updated picture of current technology trends and markets , as well as new analyses on how solar energy technologies for electricity , heat and fuels can be used in the various energy consuming sectors , now and in the future '' .","qid":"102","docid":"Solar_Energy_Perspectives","rank":92,"score":97258},{"content":"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .","qid":"102","docid":"Volcanic_winter","rank":93,"score":96862},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"102","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":94,"score":96817},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"102","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":95,"score":96772},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"102","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":96,"score":96461},{"content":"Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .","qid":"102","docid":"Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming","rank":97,"score":96369},{"content":"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .","qid":"102","docid":"8.2_kiloyear_event","rank":98,"score":96291},{"content":"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .","qid":"102","docid":"Carbon_footprint","rank":99,"score":96223},{"content":"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .","qid":"102","docid":"Antarctica_cooling_controversy","rank":100,"score":95978}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 151218\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 147628\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 137234\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 136407\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 135489\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_cloud_brightening\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 129885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_Earth_50\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 129626\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 129616\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 124829\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 124040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 123834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar radiation management Content: Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_radiation_management\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 123075\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 122631\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 122091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 120666\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 120241\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 119319\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_engineering\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 119285\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Milankovitch cycles Content: Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth . The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer . Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important . Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Milankovitch_cycles\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 117547\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Little_Ice_Age\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 117522\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 117371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 116742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 115604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Haworth projection Content: A Haworth projection is a common way of writing a structural formula to represent the cyclic structure of monosaccharides with a simple three-dimensional perspective . Organic chemistry and especially biochemistry are the areas of chemistry that use the Haworth projection the most . The Haworth projection was named after the English chemist Sir Norman Haworth . A Haworth projection has the following characteristics : Carbon is the implicit type of atom . In the example on the right , the atoms numbered from 1 to 6 are all carbon atoms . Carbon 1 is known as the anomeric carbon . Hydrogen atoms on carbon are implicit . In the example , atoms 1 to 6 have extra hydrogen atoms not depicted . A thicker line indicates atoms that are closer to the observer . In the example on the right , atoms 2 and 3 ( and their corresponding OH groups ) are the closest to the observer . Atoms 1 and 4 are farther from the observer . Atom 5 and the other atoms are the farthest . The groups below the plane of the ring in Haworth projections correspond to those on the right-hand side of a Fischer projection . This rule does not apply to the groups on the two ring carbons bonded to the endocyclic oxygen atom .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Haworth_projection\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 114781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 114460\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 114402\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 114344\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 114313\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_geoengineering\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 113277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 112813\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 112478\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 111489\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Raupach\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 111306\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Theodor_Landscheidt\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 110351\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme Content: The International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme ( IEA SHC ) is one of over 40 multilateral Technology Collaboration Programmes ( also known as TCPs ) of the International Energy Agency . It was one of the first of such programmes , founded in 1977 . Its current mission is to `` advance international collaborative efforts for solar energy to reach the goal set in the vision of contributing 50 % of the low temperature heating and cooling demand by 2030 . '' . Its international solar collector statistics Solar Heat Worldwide serve as a reference document for governments , financial institutions , consulting firms and non-profit organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"IEA_Solar_Heating_and_Cooling_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 109635\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 109090\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 108878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 108329\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Senate_Bill_32\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 107054\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 107005\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 106823\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 106363\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar variability Content: Solar variability refers to changes in solar activity , such as : Solar variation , the change in the amount of radiation emitted by the Sun ( see Solar radiation ) see also solar cycle , specifically for the 11-year cyclic variation in solar activity Changes in the solar wind , i.e. , charged particles ( moving much slower than the speed of light ) Category : Solar phenomena\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_variability\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 106184\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 106166\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 106089\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 10:10 Content: 10:10 is a charity that enables people to take practical action on climate change , and combines these local actions to inspire a more ambitious approach to the issue at every level of society . Founded in 2009 , 10:10 began by campaigning for a 10 % reduction in carbon emissions in 2010 , and has since broadened its approach to include a range of projects focused on carbon reduction and renewable energy . Its three main projects are Solar Schools , which helps communities crowdfund the cost of solar panels for their local schools ; #itshappening , which showcases positive examples of progress on climate change ; and Back Balcombe , which supports a solar power cooperative in the Sussex village targeted for oil drilling , and promotes community-scale renewable energy nationally .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"10:10\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 106081\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 105933\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Representative_Concentration_Pathways\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 105753\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"ECOCITIES_(software)\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 105567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_gain\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 105374\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nevada Solar One Content: Nevada Solar One is a concentrated solar power plant , with a nominal capacity of 64 MW and maximum steam turbine power output up to 72 MW net ( 75 MW gross ) , spread over an area of 400 acre . The projected CO2 emissions avoided is equivalent to taking approximately 20,000 cars off the road annually . The project required an investment of $ 266 million USD , and the project officially went into operation in June 2007 . Electricity production is estimated to be 134 million kilowatt hours per year . It is the second solar thermal energy ( STE ) power plant built in the United States in more than 16 years , and the largest STE plant built in the world since 1991 . It is located in Eldorado Valley in the southwest fringe of Boulder City , Nevada , and was built in that city 's Energy Resource Zone , which requires renewable generation as part of plant development permits ; Nevada Solar One was approved as part of Duke Energy 's larger El Dorado Energy project that built 1 GW of electrical generation capacity . The solar trough generation was built by Acciona Solar Power , a partially owned subsidiary of Spanish conglomerate Acciona Energy . Lauren Engineers & Constructors ( Abilene , TX ) was the EPC contractor for the project . Acciona purchased a 55 percent stake in Solargenix ( formerly Duke Solar ) and Acciona owns 95 percent of the project . Nevada Solar One is unrelated to the Solar One power plant in California .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Nevada_Solar_One\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 105345\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 105274\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 105253\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 105195\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool the Earth Content: Cool the Earth Inc. is a non-profit educational organization based in Northern California . The mission of Cool the Earth is to educate kids and their families about climate change and motivate them to take simple measurable actions at home to reduce their carbon emissions . Currently , the organization offers programming to over 100 elementary schools .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_the_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 104949\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 104929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Financial incentives for photovoltaics Content: Financial incentives for photovoltaics are incentives offered to electricity consumers to install and operate solar-electric generating systems , also known as photovoltaics ( PV ) . A government may offer incentives in order to encourage the PV industry to achieve the economies of scale needed to compete where the cost of PV-generated electricity is above the cost from the existing grid . Such policies are implemented to promote national or territorial energy independence , high tech job creation and reduction of carbon dioxide emissions which cause climate change . When , in a given country or territory , the cost of solar electricity falls to meet the rising cost of grid electricity , then ` grid parity ' is reached , and in principle incentives are no longer needed . In some places , the price of electricity varies as a function of time and day ( due to demand variations ) . In places where high demand ( and high electricity prices ) coincide with high sunshine ( usually hot places with air conditioning ) then grid parity is reached before the cost solar electricity meets the average price of grid electricity .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Financial_incentives_for_photovoltaics\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 104637\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Vatican_Climate_Forest\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 104358\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 104089\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool School Challenge Content: The Cool School Challenge is a program part of the Puget Sound Clean Air Agency , designed to spread climate education and engage students and teachers in reducing the greenhouse gas emissions of their schools . The program also aims to encourage student leadership and empowerment in the process . Most of the schools that have taken on the program are located in the Puget Sound area , however there are various schools from around the United States ( and one international school , the American School of Dubai ) that have done so as well . The program has reports on their website to have reduced a total of over 2.2 million pounds of carbon .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_School_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 104018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 103631\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cyclostratigraphy Content: Cyclostratigraphy is the study of astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions . Astronomical cycles are variations of the Earth 's orbit around the sun due to the gravitational interaction with other masses within the solar system . Due to this cyclicity solar irradiation differs through time on different hemispheres and seasonality is affected . These insolation variations have influence on Earth 's climate and so on the deposition of sedimentary rocks . The main orbital cycles are precession with at present main periods of 19 and 23 kyr , obliquity with at present main periods of 41 kyr , and 1.2 Myr , and eccentricity with at present main periods of around 100 kyr , 405 kyr , and 2.4 Myr . Cyclostratigraphic studies of rock records can lead to accurate dating of events in the geological past , to increase understanding of cause and consequences of Earth 's ( climate ) history , and to more control on depositional mechanisms of sediments and the acting of sedimentary systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Cyclostratigraphy\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 103470\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 103357\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_scenario\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 102625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 102196\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 101721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 101181\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 100880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Politics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 100851\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool Effect Content: Cool Effect is a crowdfunding platform that provides individuals the opportunity to support carbon emissions reductions by funding carbon-reducing projects around the world . Cool Effect is a registered 501 ( c ) 3 nonprofit organization headquartered in Kentfield , California .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_Effect\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 100432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 100227\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Idealized_greenhouse_model\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 100224\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Z._Jacobson\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 100112\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Selling Solar Content: Selling Solar : The Diffusion of Renewable Energy in Emerging Markets is a 2009 Earthscan book by Damian Miller . Dr Miller argues that , in order to solve the climate crisis , the world must immediately and dramatically accelerate the commercialization of renewable energy technology . This needs to happen in the industrialized world , as well as in the emerging markets of the developing world where most future GHG emissions will occur . Author Damian Miller holds a doctorate from the Judge School of Business , Cambridge , and is the CEO of Orb Energy which is based in India .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Selling_Solar\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 99926\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_maximum\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 99921\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 99677\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 99596\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 99477\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_dimming\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 99372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Hawaii Content: Hawaii Governor Linda Lingle has approved a number of energy-related bills to address climate change and promote local renewable energy production . The governor 's energy bill-signing streak started in late April 2008 with the approval of House Bill 2502 , which allows solar energy facilities to be located on less-productive agricultural lands , followed in late May by the approval of HB 3179 , which makes it easier for biofuel producers to lease state lands . In the same time frame , the governor approved SB 2034 , SB 3190 , and HB 2168 , which authorize special purpose revenue bonds to help finance a 2.7-megawatt wave energy facility off the coast of Maui , a solar energy facility on Oahu , and hydrogen generation and conversion facilities at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority , located on the island of Hawaii . Senate Bill 644 , approved on June 26 , 2008 prohibits the issuing of building permits for new homes without solar water heaters as of 2010 . The bill excludes homes located in areas with poor solar energy resources , homes using other renewable energy sources , and homes employing on-demand gas-fired water heaters . The bill also eliminates solar thermal energy tax credits for those homes . On June 6 , 2008 the governor approved SB 988 , which allows the Hawaii Public Utility Commission to establish a rebate for solar photovoltaic electric systems , and HB 2550 , which encourages net metering for residential and small commercial customers . On July 1 , 2008 the governor approved the final three energy bills , including HB 2863 , which provides streamlined permitting for new renewable energy facilities of at least 200 megawatts in capacity . HB 2505 creates a full-time renewable energy facilitator to help the state expedite those permits , while a third bill , HB 2261 , will provide loans of up to $ 1.5 million and up to 85 % of the cost of renewable energy projects at farms and aquaculture facilities .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Hawaii\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 98882\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_label\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 98686\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 98642\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 98511\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 98410\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 98213\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Carbon_Program\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 98172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 98164\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aquifer thermal energy storage Content: Aquifer thermal energy storage ( ATES ) is the storage and recovery of thermal energy in the subsurface . ATES is applied to provide heating and cooling to buildings . Storage and recovery of thermal energy is achieved by extraction and injection of groundwater from aquifers using groundwater wells . Systems commonly operate in a seasonal mode . The groundwater that is extracted in summer , is used for cooling by transferring heat from the building to the groundwater by means of a heat exchanger . Subsequently , the heated groundwater is injected back into the aquifer , which creates a storage of heated groundwater . In wintertime , the flow direction is reversed such that the heated groundwater is extracted and can be used for heating ( often in combination with a heat pump ) . Therefore , operating an ATES system uses the subsurface as a temporal storage to buffer seasonal variations in heating and cooling demand . When replacing traditional fossil fuel dependent heating and cooling systems , ATES can serve as a cost-effective technology to reduce the primary energy consumption of a building and the associated CO2 emissions . In 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , many countries and regions have made targets for global climate protection . The European Union also set a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , increase use of sustainable energy and improve energy efficiency . For this target , ATES can actually contribute significantly , as about 40 % of global energy consumption is done by buildings , and is mainly for heating and cooling . Therefore , the development of ATES has been paid a lot of attention and the number of ATES has increased dramatically , especially in Europe . For example , in the Netherlands , it was estimated that about 20,000 ATES systems could be achieved by 2020 . This can yield a CO2 emission reduction of about 11 % , for the target of the Netherlands . Besides the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Turkey , and Sweden are also increasing the application of ATES . ATES can be applied worldwide , as long as the climatic conditions and geohydrological conditions are right . As ATES systems cumulate in urban areas optimisation of subsurface space requires attention in areas with suitable conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Aquifer_thermal_energy_storage\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 98071\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Energy Outlook Content: The annual World Energy Outlook is the International Energy Agency 's flagship publication , widely recognised as the most authoritative source for global energy projections and analysis . It represents the leading source for medium to long-term energy market projections , extensive statistics , analysis and advice for both governments and the energy business . It is produced by the Office of the Chief Economist , presently under the direction of Dr. Fatih Birol . Using a Reference Scenario based on no change in current policies , it enables policy-makers to evaluate their current path . The WEO has also developed an alternative scenario that puts the global energy systems on a trajectory to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions in line with limiting the increase in temperature to 2 ° C.\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Energy_Outlook\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 97689\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 97546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 97288\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar Energy Perspectives Content: Solar Energy Perspectives is a 2011 book by the International Energy Agency . Solar energy technologies come in various forms -- solar heating , solar photovoltaics , solar thermal electricity -- and can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces : The development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits . It will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating climate change , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared . Solar Energy Perspectives builds upon past analyses of solar energy deployment contained in the World Energy Outlook , Energy Technology Perspectives and several IEA Technology Roadmaps . It aims at `` offering an updated picture of current technology trends and markets , as well as new analyses on how solar energy technologies for electricity , heat and fuels can be used in the various energy consuming sectors , now and in the future '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_Energy_Perspectives\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 97258\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Volcanic_winter\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 96862\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 96817\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 96772\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 96461\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 96369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"8.2_kiloyear_event\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 96291\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_footprint\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 96223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"102\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_cooling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 95978\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":50,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"global warming ceased around the end of the twentieth century and was followed (since 1997) by 19 years of stable temperature"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .","qid":"103","docid":"Global_warming_hiatus","rank":1,"score":145066},{"content":"Title: 20th century Content: The 20th century was a century that began on January 1 , 1901 and ended on December 31 , 2000 . It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium . It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 . The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : World War I and World War II , nuclear power and space exploration , nationalism and decolonization , the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts ; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology ; poverty reduction and world population growth , awareness of environmental degradation , ecological extinction ; and the birth of the Digital Revolution . It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life . The term `` short twentieth century '' was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991 . Global total fertility rates , sea level rise and ecological collapses increased ; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation , water depletion . and the mass extinction of half the world 's estimated nine million unique species and wildlife population ; consequences which are now being dealt with . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927 ; by late 1999 , the global population reached 6 billion . Global literacy averaged 80 % ; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history , with over half achieving 70 + years ( three decades longer than it was a century ago ) .","qid":"103","docid":"20th_century","rank":2,"score":135617},{"content":"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .","qid":"103","docid":"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years","rank":3,"score":134217},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"103","docid":"Hockey_stick_graph","rank":4,"score":128401},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"103","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":5,"score":128164},{"content":"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .","qid":"103","docid":"8.2_kiloyear_event","rank":6,"score":127622},{"content":"Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .","qid":"103","docid":"Bølling-Allerød_warming","rank":7,"score":127345},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"103","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":8,"score":125876},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"103","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":9,"score":122786},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"103","docid":"Global_warming","rank":10,"score":121490},{"content":"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.","qid":"103","docid":"Global_temperature_record","rank":11,"score":118711},{"content":"Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .","qid":"103","docid":"Year_Without_a_Summer","rank":12,"score":117825},{"content":"Title: Short twentieth century Content: The term `` short 20th century '' , originally proposed by Iván Berend ( Hungarian Academy of Sciences ) but defined by Eric Hobsbawm , a British Marxist historian and author , refers to the period between the years 1914 and 1991 . That period begins with the beginning of World War I , and ends with the fall of the Soviet Union . The chain of events represented such significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : It started with World War I , which caused the end of the German , Ottoman , Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires . World War II was greatly influenced by the outcome of World War I . The Cold War was a result of World War II and ended with the fall of the Soviet Union . The term is analogous to the long 19th century , also coined by Hobsbawm , denoting the period 1789 to 1914 , and to the long 18th century , or approximately 1688 to 1815 .","qid":"103","docid":"Short_twentieth_century","rank":13,"score":117739},{"content":"Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .","qid":"103","docid":"Little_Ice_Age","rank":14,"score":117556},{"content":"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .","qid":"103","docid":"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years","rank":15,"score":117374},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"103","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":16,"score":116461},{"content":"Title: 20th century (disambiguation) Content: The 20th century of the Common Era began on 1 January 1901 and ended on 31 December 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar . 20th century may also refer to : Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 Broadway play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 American comedy Twentieth Century Pictures , a 1930s film studio The 20th Century , the 1950s television series Twentieth Century ( Cold Chisel album ) , 1984 Twentieth Century ( Alabama album ) , 1999 Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a sans-serif typeface 20th Century ( album ) , an album 3X Krazy 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a gin cocktail 20th Century Fox , a movie and television production company 20th Century Limited , the flagship passenger train of the New York Central Railroad 20th Century Records , a record label begun as a soundtrack division of Twentieth Century Pictures 20th Century with Mike Wallace , the 1990s-2000s television series 20th Century , a sub-unit of Japanese boyband V6 `` Twentieth Century '' , a song from the 2006 album , Fundamental by the Pet Shop Boys","qid":"103","docid":"20th_century_(disambiguation)","rank":17,"score":113802},{"content":"Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .","qid":"103","docid":"Medieval_Warm_Period","rank":18,"score":113714},{"content":"Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .","qid":"103","docid":"Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2","rank":19,"score":113609},{"content":"Title: 2000s (decade) Content: The 2000s ( pronounced `` two-thousands '' or `` twenty-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 2000 , and ended on December 31 , 2009 . The growth of the Internet contributed to globalization during the decade , which allowed faster communication among people around the world . The economic growth of the 2000s had considerable social , environmental and mass extinction consequences , raised demand for diminishing energy resources , and was still vulnerable , as demonstrated by the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 .","qid":"103","docid":"2000s_(decade)","rank":20,"score":113309},{"content":"Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .","qid":"103","docid":"Interglacial","rank":21,"score":111506},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"103","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":22,"score":110136},{"content":"Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .","qid":"103","docid":"World_Climate_Report","rank":23,"score":109827},{"content":"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .","qid":"103","docid":"Carnian_Pluvial_Event","rank":24,"score":108468},{"content":"Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .","qid":"103","docid":"Neoglaciation","rank":25,"score":107205},{"content":"Title: Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1894 -- 95 was severe for the British Isles with a CET of 1.27 C . Many climatologists have come to view this winter as the end of the Little Ice Age and the culmination of a decade of harsh winters in Britain . Whereas the average CET for the ten winters from 1885 -- 86 to 1894 -- 95 was 2.87 C , no winter with a CET under 3.0 C followed for twenty-two years and no month as cold as February or January 1895 until 1940 . In contrast , between 1659 and 1894 no spell with every winter CET above 3.0 C had lasted longer than twelve winters . Although this winter -- which featured the lowest North Atlantic Oscillation index between 1882 and 1962 with lower values recorded only in 1880/1881 , 1962/1963 and 1968/1969 -- affected most of Europe and North America very severely , the difficulties Britain had coping with it vis-à-vis the United States and Germany is seen as marking a beginning in the decline of British hegemony in global affairs . The severe winter led to mass unemployment and severe disruptions to shipping on the River Thames , which froze for the last time on record . Because mass political activism had not yet created the welfare state , most workers were left without sustenance and in industrial centres large soup kitchens were widespread to feed these people . There were also numerous skating festivals organised to take advantage of the unusually cold and sunny weather , with up to fifty thousand people skating on The Serpentine in London 's Hyde Park and speed skating races being widely popular and generating money to be used for relief of the poor , and in some cases to provide them with temporary work as vendors for spectators . Coal supplies dwindled as transporting coal by river was impossible , whilst many recently introduced exotic plants were killed by the cold .","qid":"103","docid":"Winter_of_1894–95_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":26,"score":107094},{"content":"Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre","qid":"103","docid":"Pliocene_climate","rank":27,"score":106706},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"103","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":28,"score":106064},{"content":"Title: 1750 Content: Various sources , including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , use the year 1750 as a baseline year for the end of the pre-industrial era .","qid":"103","docid":"1750","rank":29,"score":104850},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"103","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":30,"score":103824},{"content":"Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .","qid":"103","docid":"Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age","rank":31,"score":103500},{"content":"Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency","qid":"103","docid":"Global_cooling_(disambiguation)","rank":32,"score":103272},{"content":"Title: The End of the Twentieth Century Content: The End of the Twentieth Century ( Das Ende des 20 . Jahrhunderts ) is a monumental installation by the German artist Joseph Beuys from 1983 . It consists of large , oblong pieces of basalt , all of which have a conical hole bored into them at one end . In these holes smaller cones of rock have been placed , lined with clay and felt . The rocks evoke bones or corpses , and in their random alignment could produce the sensation in a viewer that `` the state of the world is beyond control '' . This inevitably brings to mind Beuys ' experiences during World War II , in which he served as a Luftwaffe pilot and many of his family members were killed . However , the materials of clay and felt symbolize potential growth and `` suggest the possibility of new life emerging at the end of a dark century '' . The project 's theme of renewal is closely associated with the project 7000 Oaks , in which basalt stones were paired with oak trees . The impermanence of the materials Beuys chose for the installation has presented problems for conservators .","qid":"103","docid":"The_End_of_the_Twentieth_Century","rank":33,"score":102500},{"content":"Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .","qid":"103","docid":"Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)","rank":34,"score":102457},{"content":"Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .","qid":"103","docid":"1997–98_El_Niño_event","rank":35,"score":102452},{"content":"Title: The End of Nature Content: The End of Nature is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Anchor in 1989 . It has been called the first book on global warming written for a general audience . McKibben had thought that simply stating the problem would provoke people to action .","qid":"103","docid":"The_End_of_Nature","rank":36,"score":101977},{"content":"Title: Twentieth century (disambiguation) Content: Twentieth century may refer to : The 20th century AD , the period between the years 1901 and 2000 of the Gregorian calendar The 20th century BC 20th Century Fox 20th Century Limited , a passenger train between Chicago and New York City that operated from 1902 to 1967 Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 film On the Twentieth Century , a 1978 musical based on the play and film Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a geometric sans-serif typeface . 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a cocktail Twentieth Century ( TV series ) , a long-running TV documentary series telecast on CBS from 1957 to 1970 , and hosted by Walter Cronkite","qid":"103","docid":"Twentieth_century_(disambiguation)","rank":37,"score":101573},{"content":"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .","qid":"103","docid":"Global_warming_(disambiguation)","rank":38,"score":101079},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"103","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":39,"score":101065},{"content":"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .","qid":"103","docid":"Abrupt_climate_change","rank":40,"score":100971},{"content":"Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .","qid":"103","docid":"The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming","rank":41,"score":100744},{"content":"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .","qid":"103","docid":"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years","rank":42,"score":100595},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:","qid":"103","docid":"Global_warming_in_Turkey","rank":43,"score":100486},{"content":"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"103","docid":"Climate_change_in_popular_culture","rank":44,"score":100153},{"content":"Title: Pattern Recognition in Physics Content: Pattern Recognition in Physics was an open-access journal originally published by Copernicus Publications which was established in March 2013 and terminated in January 2014 . The editors-in-chief were Sid-Ali Ouadfeul ( Algerian Petroleum Institute ) and Nils-Axel Mörner , the latter of whom is a well-known global warming skeptic . Copernicus ceased its publication due to concerns over the publications views towards the scientific consensus of global climate change and the method of peer review . In March 2014 Ouadfeul reopened the journal , `` run on private founding '' -LSB- sic -RSB-","qid":"103","docid":"Pattern_Recognition_in_Physics","rank":45,"score":100029},{"content":"Title: Global Warming (Sonny Rollins album) Content: Global Warming is an album by jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins , released on the Milestone label in 1998 , featuring performances by Rollins with Stephen Scott , Bob Cranshaw , Idris Muhammad , Clifton Anderson , Victor See Yuen and Perry Wilson .","qid":"103","docid":"Global_Warming_(Sonny_Rollins_album)","rank":46,"score":99844},{"content":"Title: The 20th Century Content: The Twentieth Century was a documentary television program sponsored by the Prudential Insurance Company that ran on the CBS network from 20 October 1957 until 4 January 1970 . It was hosted by Walter Cronkite . The opening and closing theme music was written by composer George Antheil . The program presented filmed reports on news and cultural events that were important for the development of the 20th century . The show did not just present the events but also interpreted them . Such subjects as World War I and major assassinations were presented in context . On 20 January 1967 the show , sponsored by Union Carbide ( `` The Discovery Company '' ) , was renamed The 21st Century . The show 's focus changed to the future and to what mankind could look forward to . The 21st Century was cancelled after three seasons ( its final broadcast was on 4 January 1970 ) . The reason given was that the writers had run out of things to talk about . However , it is possible that CBS may have wished to replace it with a more commercially successful program .","qid":"103","docid":"The_20th_Century","rank":47,"score":99308},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"103","docid":"Climate_change","rank":48,"score":98941},{"content":"Title: The 20th Anniversary Collection Content: The 20th Anniversary Collection is a 2001 compilation CD from Rational Youth , released , as suggested by the title , to commemorate the band 's twentieth anniversary . It would also prove to be their last release to date , as the band ceased operations in February , 2002 .","qid":"103","docid":"The_20th_Anniversary_Collection","rank":49,"score":98781},{"content":"Title: Twentieth Century (Cold Chisel album) Content: Twentieth Century is the final studio album for Australian band Cold Chisel until the group reformed in 1998 . The album was written and recorded over various sessions during the period of the band 's break-up and during breaks in their final tour . It was released in early 1984 and peaked at No. 1 on the Australian albums chart , their 3rd consecutive album to do so . It charted for a total of 46 weeks .","qid":"103","docid":"Twentieth_Century_(Cold_Chisel_album)","rank":50,"score":98449},{"content":"Title: 20th-century events Content: The 20th-century events include many notable events which occurred throughout the 20th century , which began on January 1 , 1901 , and ended on December 31 , 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar .","qid":"103","docid":"20th-century_events","rank":51,"score":98355},{"content":"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .","qid":"103","docid":"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know","rank":52,"score":97812},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"103","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":53,"score":97231},{"content":"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.","qid":"103","docid":"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves","rank":54,"score":96742},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"103","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":55,"score":96624},{"content":"Title: Older Dryas Content: The Older Dryas was a stadial ( cold ) period between the Bølling and Allerød interstadials ( warmer phases ) approximately 14,000 years ago ( BP ) , towards the end of the Pleistocene epoch . Its age is not well defined , with estimates varying by 400 years , but its duration is agreed to have been around two centuries . The gradual warming since the last glacial maximum 27-24 ,000 years BP has been interrupted by two cold spells , the Older Dryas having been followed by the Younger Dryas ( c. 12,900-11 ,650 BP ) . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and deeper during the Older than the succeeding Younger Dryas , and there is no evidence of human occupation of Britain . In north-west Europe an earlier Oldest Dryas is also recognised . They are named after an indicator genus , the arctic and alpine plant Dryas , the remains of which are found in higher concentrations in deposits from colder periods . The Older Dryas was a variable cold , dry Blytt-Sernander period , observed in climatological evidence in only some regions , depending on latitude . In regions where it is not observed , the Bølling-Allerød is considered a single interstadial ( warm ) period . Evidence of the Older Dryas is strongest in northern Eurasia , particularly part of North Europe roughly equivalent to Pollen zone Ic .","qid":"103","docid":"Older_Dryas","rank":56,"score":96545},{"content":"Title: 20th century BC Content: The 20th century BC was a century which lasted from the year 2000 BC to 1901 BC .","qid":"103","docid":"20th_century_BC","rank":57,"score":96473},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"103","docid":"Hockey_stick_controversy","rank":58,"score":96270},{"content":"Title: Allerød oscillation Content: The Allerød oscillation ( Allerødtiden ) was a warm and moist global interstadial that occurred at the end of the last glacial period . It raised temperatures in the northern Atlantic region to almost present-day levels , before they declined again in the succeeding Younger Dryas period , which was followed by the present interglacial period . In some regions , especially in northern Eurasia , there is evidence for a cold period known as the Older Dryas interrupting the interstadial . In such regions the shorter oscillation ending with the Older Dryas is known as the Bølling oscillation , and the Allerød period is the interstadial following the Older Dryas . The Allerød period was named after a type site in Furesø municipality in Sjælland , Denmark ( near Copenhagen ) , where deposits created during the period were first identified in work published in 1901 by Hartz and Milthers . This Blytt-Sernander period corresponds to Pollen zone II .","qid":"103","docid":"Allerød_oscillation","rank":59,"score":96120},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"103","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":60,"score":96048},{"content":"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .","qid":"103","docid":"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network","rank":61,"score":95991},{"content":"Title: Ende Gelände 2016 Content: Ende Gelände 2016 was a large civil disobedience protest movement in Germany to limit global warming through fossil fuel phase-out . 3,500 -- 4,000 environmental activists from twelve countries blocked the Welzow-Süd open-pit coal mine and the coal-fired Schwarze Pumpe power station , then owned by Vattenfall ( Spremberg ) , from 13 to 15 May 2016 .","qid":"103","docid":"Ende_Gelände_2016","rank":62,"score":95429},{"content":"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .","qid":"103","docid":"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":63,"score":95194},{"content":"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .","qid":"103","docid":"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves","rank":64,"score":95176},{"content":"Title: Water export Content: Water exports involve exporting freshwater from one country to another . Large increases in human population and economic growth throughout the world during the twentieth century placed a huge stress on the world 's freshwater resources . Combined with climate change , they will place an even greater demand on water resources in this century . Water shortages have become an international concern , and freshwater has been described as `` blue gold '' and `` the oil of the 21st Century . ''","qid":"103","docid":"Water_export","rank":65,"score":94372},{"content":"Title: Leslie Collier Content: Leslie Harold Collier ( 9 February 1921 -- 14 March 2011 ) was a scientist responsible for developing a freeze-drying method to produce a more heat stable smallpox vaccine in the late 1940s . Collier added a key component , peptone , a soluble protein , to the process . This protected the virus , enabling the production of a heat-stable vaccine in powdered form . Previously , smallpox vaccines would become ineffective after 1 -- 2 days at ambient temperature . The development of his vaccine production method played a large role in enabling the World Health Organization to initiate its global smallpox eradication campaign in 1967 .","qid":"103","docid":"Leslie_Collier","rank":66,"score":94323},{"content":"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .","qid":"103","docid":"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm","rank":67,"score":94295},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Tour Content: The Global Warming Tour was a concert tour by American hard rock band Aerosmith that included 67 concert performances across North America , Oceania , Asia and Latin America . Prior to the first leg of the tour , the band played a private event for Walmart shareholders . The first leg of the tour included 23 performances and lasted from late May through early August 2012 . The second leg included 14 performances in November and December 2012 . Before the second leg of the tour , the band performed a brief set at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in mid September . Also prior to the second leg , to promote the release of their new album in early November , the band made three special nationally-televised performances in New York City and also did a special performance in front of their old Boston apartment . The performances on the first two legs of the tour were held primarily in indoor arenas , with a couple outdoor shows and a few festival dates on the first leg , including three festivals in eastern Canada and Milwaukee 's Summerfest . The third leg of the tour ran from late April to mid May 2013 and saw Aerosmith playing their first shows in Australia since 1990 , as well as their first-ever shows in New Zealand and the Philippines . On May 30 , the band performed as part of the `` Boston Strong '' charity concert for victims of the Boston Marathon bombings . In July 2013 , the band played at the Greenbrier Classic in West Virginia and at Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut . In August 2013 , the band performed four concerts in Japan , but their first-ever shows in China and Taiwan were cancelled due to poor ticket sales . The band also performed in August at the Harley-Davidson 110th anniversary concert series in Milwaukee . Concerts were planned for Latin America in September and October , including their first-ever shows in Uruguay , Guatemala and El Salvador . Cheap Trick was the opening act for all dates in the first two legs except for a few festival shows . The Dead Dasies , a supergroup featuring Jon Stevens and Richard Fortus , were the opening act for the Australia/New Zealand leg . The tour is in promotion of Aerosmith 's new album Music from Another Dimension ! , released on November 6 , 2012 . In addition to many of their biggest hits and a few choice album cuts , the band has so far performed four new songs from Music from Another Dimension on this tour , three of them regularly ( `` Oh Yeah '' , `` Legendary Child '' , and `` Lover Alot '' ) , with the potential for more songs to be played in the 2013 leg . During the South America leg , specifically in Argentina and Brazil , Aerosmith toured with Whitesnake , including performances at the Personal Fest in Buenos Aires and at the Monsters of Rock in São Paulo . On May 5 , 2013 , the band announced they had cancelled their first-ever show in Jakarta due to safety concerns . In 2014 , Aerosmith played 17 concerts across Europe from May 14 to July 2 . A new tour , the Let Rock Rule Tour , was scheduled to follow in July , August , and September 2014 that saw Aerosmith play several dates in North America . This tour featured Slash ( with Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators ) as the opening act . Full details of the tour were announced on April 8 , 2014 . On May 14 , 2014 , the band announced that they had cancelled their concert in Istanbul after Turkey declared a three-day mourning for the victims of Soma mine disaster . July 2 , 2014 concert in Kiev was cancelled due to civil unrest in Ukraine .","qid":"103","docid":"Global_Warming_Tour","rank":68,"score":94220},{"content":"Title: Year 2000 problem Content: The Year 2000 problem , also known as the Y2K problem , the Millennium bug , the Y2K bug , or Y2K , was a computer bug related to the formatting and storage of calendar data . Problems were anticipated , and arose , because twentieth-century software often represented the four-digit year with only the final two digits -- making the year 2000 indistinguishable from 1900 . The assumption of a twentieth-century date in such programs caused various errors , such as the incorrect display of dates and the inaccurate ordering of automated dated records or real-time events . In 1997 the British Standards Institute ( BSI ) developed standard DISC PD2000-1 defining `` Year 2000 Conformity requirements '' as four rules : ( 1 ) No valid date will cause any interruption in operations ; ( 2 ) Calculation of durations between , or the sequence of , pairs of dates will be correct whether any dates are in different centuries ; ( 3 ) In all interfaces and in all storage , the century must be unambiguous , either specified , or calculable by algorithm ; ( 4 ) Year 2000 must be recognised as a leap year . It identifies two problems that may exist in many computer programs . First , the practice of representing the year with two digits became problematic with logical error ( s ) arising upon `` rollover '' from x99 to x00 . This had caused some date-related processing to operate incorrectly for dates and times on and after 1 January 2000 , and on other critical dates which were billed `` event horizons '' . Without corrective action , long-working systems would break down when the '' ... 97 , 98 , 99 , 00 ... '' ascending numbering assumption suddenly became invalid . Secondly , some programmers had misunderstood the Gregorian calendar rule that determines whether years that are exactly divisible by 100 are not leap years , and assumed the year 2000 would not be a leap year . Years divisible by 100 are not leap years , except for years that are divisible by 400 . Thus the year 2000 was a leap year . Companies and organisations worldwide checked , fixed , and upgraded their computer systems to address the anticipated problem . Very few computer failures were reported when the clocks rolled over into 2000 . It is not known how many problems went unrecorded .","qid":"103","docid":"Year_2000_problem","rank":69,"score":93553},{"content":"Title: Middle Miocene Content: The Middle Miocene is a sub-epoch of the Miocene Epoch made up of two stages : the Langhian and Serravallian stages . The Middle Miocene is preceded by the Early Miocene . The sub-epoch lasted from 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma to 11.608 ± 0.005 Ma ( million years ago ) . During this period , a sharp drop in global temperatures took place . This event is known as the Middle Miocene Climate Transition . For the purposes of establishing European Land Mammal Ages this sub-epoch is equivalent to the Astaracian age .","qid":"103","docid":"Middle_Miocene","rank":70,"score":92846},{"content":"Title: The Carbon War Content: The Carbon War : Global Warming and the End of the Oil Era is a 1999 book by former oil geologist Jeremy Leggett about global warming .","qid":"103","docid":"The_Carbon_War","rank":71,"score":92757},{"content":"Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .","qid":"103","docid":"World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming","rank":72,"score":92440},{"content":"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .","qid":"103","docid":"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)","rank":73,"score":92398},{"content":"Title: 2nd millennium Content: The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1 , 1001 and ended on December 31 , 2000 of the Gregorian calendar . It was the second period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era . It encompassed the High and Late Middle Ages , the Mongol Empire , the Renaissance , the Baroque era , the early Modern Age , the age of Enlightenment , the age of colonialism , industrialization , the rise of nation states , and the 19th and 20th century with the impact of science , widespread education , and universal health care and vaccinations in many nations . The centuries of expanding large-scale warfare with high-tech weaponry ( of the World Wars and nuclear bombs ) were offset by growing peace movements , the United Nations , plus doctors and health workers crossing borders to treat injuries and disease , and the return of the Olympics as contest without combat . Scientists prevailed in explaining intellectual freedom ; humans took their first steps on the Moon during the 20th century ; and new technology was developed by governments , industry , and academia across the world , with education shared by many international conferences and journals . The development of movable type , radio , television , and the internet spread information worldwide , within minutes , in audio , video , and print-image format to inform , educate and entertain billions of people by the end of the 20th century . The Renaissance saw the beginning of the second migration of humans from Europe , Africa , and Asia to the Americas , beginning the ever-accelerating process of globalization . The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations , with home offices in multiple countries . International business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought . The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium ( from 310 million in 1000 to 600 million in 1700 ) and later increased tenfold over its last three centuries , exceeding 6 billion in 2000 . Consequently , unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences , giving rise to extreme poverty , climate change and biotic crisis .","qid":"103","docid":"2nd_millennium","rank":74,"score":92159},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"103","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":75,"score":91930},{"content":"Title: Paleogene Content: The Paleogene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliːədʒiːn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈpeɪliːədʒiːn -RSB- also spelled Palaeogene or Palæogene ; informally Lower Tertiary ) is a geologic period and system that spans 43 million years from the end of the Cretaceous Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Neogene Period Mya . It is the beginning of the Cenozoic Era of the present Phanerozoic Eon . The Paleogene is most notable for being the time during which mammals diversified from relatively small , simple forms into a large group of diverse animals in the wake of the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event that ended the preceding Cretaceous Period . This period consists of the Paleocene , Eocene and Oligocene epochs . The end of the Paleocene ( 55.5 / 54.8 Mya ) was marked by the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic , which upset oceanic and atmospheric circulation and led to the extinction of numerous deep-sea benthic foraminifera and on land , a major turnover in mammals . The terms ` Paleogene System ' ( formal ) and ` lower Tertiary System ' ( informal ) are applied to the rocks deposited during the ` Paleogene Period ' . The somewhat confusing terminology seems to be due to attempts to deal with the comparatively fine subdivisions of time possible in the relatively recent geologic past , for which more details are preserved . By dividing the Tertiary Period into two periods instead of directly into five epochs , the periods are more closely comparable to the duration of ` periods ' of the preceding Mesozoic and Paleozoic Eras .","qid":"103","docid":"Paleogene","rank":76,"score":91690},{"content":"Title: Climate stabilization wedge Content: The Climate stabilization Wedges is an approach produced by Princeton University researchers looking at Climate change mitigation scenarios . The project was funded by Ford Motor Company between 2000 and 2009 and has been receiving funding from BP since 2000 . The goal of the approach , Stephen Pacala and Robert H. Socolow , is to demonstrate that global warming is a problem which can be attacked using today 's commercially available technologies to reduce emissions . The objective is to stabilize concentrations under 500ppm for the next fifty years , using wedges from a variety of different strategies which fit into the stabilization triangle . A newer estimate by the original authors indicated that by 2011 , the number of necessary wedges had increased from seven to nine . This was due to the continuing increase in emissions since the original 2004 paper which determined the number of wedges that would have been necessary , if serious action to mitigate climate change had begun then .","qid":"103","docid":"Climate_stabilization_wedge","rank":77,"score":91458},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"103","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":78,"score":91409},{"content":"Title: Global warming taxes Content:","qid":"103","docid":"Global_warming_taxes","rank":79,"score":91251},{"content":"Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .","qid":"103","docid":"The_Great_Warming","rank":80,"score":91233},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .","qid":"103","docid":"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal","rank":81,"score":91174},{"content":"Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .","qid":"103","docid":"Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850","rank":82,"score":90948},{"content":"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .","qid":"103","docid":"Runaway_climate_change","rank":83,"score":90637},{"content":"Title: Planet Relief Content: Planet Relief was a proposed BBC television special dealing with the issue of global warming , originally scheduled for broadcast in January 2008 . The programme , which had been in development for 18 months , was meant to be similar to previous BBC programmes such as Comic Relief and Sport Relief . However , it was cancelled before it was broadcast , allegedly because the BBC was concerned that it would be `` biased '' towards promoting responses based on acceptance of mainstream climate change science .","qid":"103","docid":"Planet_Relief","rank":84,"score":90482},{"content":"Title: Team of the century Content: In team sport , team of the century and team of the decade are hypothetical best teams over a given time period . For the century team , it can be either 100 years , or for a century ( always the 20th ) . Similarly the team of the decade can be for 10 years or a decade ( for example the 1980s ) . Teams of the decade and century are selected for both leagues and clubs and sometimes selected for other reasons , such as to honour the contribution of a particular ethnic group . Teams of the 20th century in particular have been controversial due to their loose criteria and the systemic bias toward current players , given that the performance of players before the advent of broadcasting of matches can not be reviewed and relies on hearsay and archival records . The Team of the Century concept used extensively in the sport of Australian rules football , where , since the mid-1990s , leagues ( such as the VFL/AFL or SANFL ) , as well as football clubs , have named their best team ( see Football ( Australian rules ) positions ) . Teams of the decades followed . One of the most famous examples of the team of the century concept was in 1996 , when the AFL Team of the Century was named on 2 September 1996 , during the League 's centenary season . An example from Ireland was when in 1984 the GAA selected their Football Team of the Century and Hurling Team of the Century to celebrate the first 100 years of the GAA . The term was used again in 2011 when the Team of Century from the Sigerson Cup was chosen .","qid":"103","docid":"Team_of_the_century","rank":85,"score":90349},{"content":"Title: Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Content: The Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt ( notated Dynasty XX , alternatively 20th Dynasty or Dynasty 20 ) is classified as the third and last Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period , lasting from 1189 BC to 1077 BC . The 20th Dynasty and the 19th Dynasty furthermore together constitute an era known as the Ramesside period .","qid":"103","docid":"Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt","rank":86,"score":90345},{"content":"Title: Solar cycle 20 Content: Solar cycle 20 was the twentieth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.4 years , beginning in October 1964 and ending in March 1976 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 156.6 ( November 1968 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 20 to 21 , there were a total of 272 days with no sunspots . Comparison with other cycles shows that geomagnetic activity during the declining phase of cycle 20 ( 1973 -- 1975 ) was unusually high . Data from solar cycle 20 was used to build the K-1974 solar proton fluence model , used for planning space missions during solar cycle 21 .","qid":"103","docid":"Solar_cycle_20","rank":87,"score":90266},{"content":"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .","qid":"103","docid":"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle","rank":88,"score":90146},{"content":"Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .","qid":"103","docid":"Long-term_effects_of_global_warming","rank":89,"score":90067},{"content":"Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .","qid":"103","docid":"Hirnantian","rank":90,"score":90018},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"103","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":91,"score":89977},{"content":"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''","qid":"103","docid":"Duncan_Wingham","rank":92,"score":89766},{"content":"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .","qid":"103","docid":"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States","rank":93,"score":89650},{"content":"Title: Early anthropocene Content: The Early Anthropocene Hypothesis ( sometimes called Early Anthropogenic ) was proposed by William Ruddiman . It posits that the Anthropocene era , as some scientists call the most recent period in Earth 's history when the activities of the human race first began to have a significant global impact on Earth 's climate and ecosystems , did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the industrial era , as was commonly assumed , but dates back to 8,000 years ago , triggered by intense farming activities after agriculture became widespread . It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior , a pattern that is explained by natural variations in Earth 's orbit known as Milankovitch cycles .","qid":"103","docid":"Early_anthropocene","rank":94,"score":89565},{"content":"Title: 2000 Content: 2000 was designated as : International Year for the Culture of Peace World Mathematical Year Popular culture holds the year 2000 as the first year of the 21st century and the 3rd millennium due to a tendency of grouping the years according to decimal values , as if year zero were counted . According to the Gregorian Calendar , these distinctions fall to the year 2001 because the 1st century was retroactively said to start with year AD 1 . Since the calendar does not have year zero , its first millennium spanned from years 1 to 1000 inclusively and its second millennium from years 1001 to 2000 ( See more at Millennium ) . The year 2000 is sometimes abbreviated as `` Y2K '' ( the `` Y '' stands for `` year '' , and the `` K '' stands for `` kilo '' which means `` thousand '' ) . The year 2000 was the subject of Y2K concerns , which are fears that computers would not shift from 1999 to 2000 correctly . However , by the end of 1999 , many companies had already converted to new , or upgraded , existing software . Some even obtained Y2K certification . As a result of massive effort , relatively few problems occurred .","qid":"103","docid":"2000","rank":95,"score":89435},{"content":"Title: Twentieth Century (typeface) Content: Twentieth Century is a geometric sans-serif typeface designed by Sol Hess for Lanston Monotype in 1937 . It was created as a competitor to the successful Futura typeface for Monotype 's hot metal typesetting system . Like Futura it has a single-story ` a ' ( as in handwriting ) and a straight ` j' with no bend . A very large font family , Twentieth Century is particularly known for a limited range of styles being bundled with many Microsoft products such as Office . Numerous other variants exist , including versions for very small text and an Art Deco-influenced titling capitals design , Twentieth Century Poster , with rounded capitals . In addition , Twentieth Century served as an inspiration for Century Gothic , designed by Monotype in 1991 .","qid":"103","docid":"Twentieth_Century_(typeface)","rank":96,"score":89142},{"content":"Title: Cretaceous Content: The Cretaceous ( -LSB- pronkrᵻˈteɪʃəs -RSB- , ) is a geologic period and system that spans 79 million years from the end of the Jurassic Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Paleogene Period Mya . It is the last period of the Mesozoic Era . The Cretaceous Period is usually abbreviated K , for its German translation Kreide ( chalk ) . The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate , resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas . These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles , ammonites and rudists , while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land . During this time , new groups of mammals and birds , as well as flowering plants , appeared . The Cretaceous ended with a large mass extinction , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , in which many groups , including non-avian dinosaurs , pterosaurs and large marine reptiles died out . The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg boundary ) , a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction which lies between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras .","qid":"103","docid":"Cretaceous","rank":97,"score":89070},{"content":"Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .","qid":"103","docid":"Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming","rank":98,"score":89010},{"content":"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .","qid":"103","docid":"North_Report","rank":99,"score":88871},{"content":"Title: 1900s (decade) Content: The 1900s ( pronounced `` nineteen-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1909 . The term `` nineteen-hundreds '' can also equally be used for the years 1900 -- 1999 ( see 1900s ) . The Edwardian era ( 1901 -- 1910 ) covers a similar span of time .","qid":"103","docid":"1900s_(decade)","rank":100,"score":88789}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_hiatus\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 145066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century Content: The 20th century was a century that began on January 1 , 1901 and ended on December 31 , 2000 . It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium . It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 . The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : World War I and World War II , nuclear power and space exploration , nationalism and decolonization , the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts ; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology ; poverty reduction and world population growth , awareness of environmental degradation , ecological extinction ; and the birth of the Digital Revolution . It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life . The term `` short twentieth century '' was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991 . Global total fertility rates , sea level rise and ecological collapses increased ; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation , water depletion . and the mass extinction of half the world 's estimated nine million unique species and wildlife population ; consequences which are now being dealt with . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927 ; by late 1999 , the global population reached 6 billion . Global literacy averaged 80 % ; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history , with over half achieving 70 + years ( three decades longer than it was a century ago ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 135617\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 134217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_graph\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 128401\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 128164\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"8.2_kiloyear_event\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 127622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Bølling-Allerød_warming\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 127345\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 125876\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 122786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 121490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 118711\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Year_Without_a_Summer\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 117825\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Short twentieth century Content: The term `` short 20th century '' , originally proposed by Iván Berend ( Hungarian Academy of Sciences ) but defined by Eric Hobsbawm , a British Marxist historian and author , refers to the period between the years 1914 and 1991 . That period begins with the beginning of World War I , and ends with the fall of the Soviet Union . The chain of events represented such significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : It started with World War I , which caused the end of the German , Ottoman , Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires . World War II was greatly influenced by the outcome of World War I . The Cold War was a result of World War II and ended with the fall of the Soviet Union . The term is analogous to the long 19th century , also coined by Hobsbawm , denoting the period 1789 to 1914 , and to the long 18th century , or approximately 1688 to 1815 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Short_twentieth_century\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 117739\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Little_Ice_Age\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 117556\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 117374\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 116461\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century (disambiguation) Content: The 20th century of the Common Era began on 1 January 1901 and ended on 31 December 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar . 20th century may also refer to : Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 Broadway play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 American comedy Twentieth Century Pictures , a 1930s film studio The 20th Century , the 1950s television series Twentieth Century ( Cold Chisel album ) , 1984 Twentieth Century ( Alabama album ) , 1999 Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a sans-serif typeface 20th Century ( album ) , an album 3X Krazy 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a gin cocktail 20th Century Fox , a movie and television production company 20th Century Limited , the flagship passenger train of the New York Central Railroad 20th Century Records , a record label begun as a soundtrack division of Twentieth Century Pictures 20th Century with Mike Wallace , the 1990s-2000s television series 20th Century , a sub-unit of Japanese boyband V6 `` Twentieth Century '' , a song from the 2006 album , Fundamental by the Pet Shop Boys\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 113802\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Medieval_Warm_Period\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 113714\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 113609\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2000s (decade) Content: The 2000s ( pronounced `` two-thousands '' or `` twenty-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 2000 , and ended on December 31 , 2009 . The growth of the Internet contributed to globalization during the decade , which allowed faster communication among people around the world . The economic growth of the 2000s had considerable social , environmental and mass extinction consequences , raised demand for diminishing energy resources , and was still vulnerable , as demonstrated by the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"2000s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 113309\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Interglacial\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 111506\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 110136\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Report\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 109827\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Carnian_Pluvial_Event\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 108468\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Neoglaciation\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 107205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1894 -- 95 was severe for the British Isles with a CET of 1.27 C . Many climatologists have come to view this winter as the end of the Little Ice Age and the culmination of a decade of harsh winters in Britain . Whereas the average CET for the ten winters from 1885 -- 86 to 1894 -- 95 was 2.87 C , no winter with a CET under 3.0 C followed for twenty-two years and no month as cold as February or January 1895 until 1940 . In contrast , between 1659 and 1894 no spell with every winter CET above 3.0 C had lasted longer than twelve winters . Although this winter -- which featured the lowest North Atlantic Oscillation index between 1882 and 1962 with lower values recorded only in 1880/1881 , 1962/1963 and 1968/1969 -- affected most of Europe and North America very severely , the difficulties Britain had coping with it vis-à-vis the United States and Germany is seen as marking a beginning in the decline of British hegemony in global affairs . The severe winter led to mass unemployment and severe disruptions to shipping on the River Thames , which froze for the last time on record . Because mass political activism had not yet created the welfare state , most workers were left without sustenance and in industrial centres large soup kitchens were widespread to feed these people . There were also numerous skating festivals organised to take advantage of the unusually cold and sunny weather , with up to fifty thousand people skating on The Serpentine in London 's Hyde Park and speed skating races being widely popular and generating money to be used for relief of the poor , and in some cases to provide them with temporary work as vendors for spectators . Coal supplies dwindled as transporting coal by river was impossible , whilst many recently introduced exotic plants were killed by the cold .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Winter_of_1894–95_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 107094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Pliocene_climate\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 106706\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 106064\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1750 Content: Various sources , including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , use the year 1750 as a baseline year for the end of the pre-industrial era .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"1750\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 104850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 103824\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 103500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 103272\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The End of the Twentieth Century Content: The End of the Twentieth Century ( Das Ende des 20 . Jahrhunderts ) is a monumental installation by the German artist Joseph Beuys from 1983 . It consists of large , oblong pieces of basalt , all of which have a conical hole bored into them at one end . In these holes smaller cones of rock have been placed , lined with clay and felt . The rocks evoke bones or corpses , and in their random alignment could produce the sensation in a viewer that `` the state of the world is beyond control '' . This inevitably brings to mind Beuys ' experiences during World War II , in which he served as a Luftwaffe pilot and many of his family members were killed . However , the materials of clay and felt symbolize potential growth and `` suggest the possibility of new life emerging at the end of a dark century '' . The project 's theme of renewal is closely associated with the project 7000 Oaks , in which basalt stones were paired with oak trees . The impermanence of the materials Beuys chose for the installation has presented problems for conservators .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"The_End_of_the_Twentieth_Century\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 102500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 102457\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"1997–98_El_Niño_event\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 102452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The End of Nature Content: The End of Nature is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Anchor in 1989 . It has been called the first book on global warming written for a general audience . McKibben had thought that simply stating the problem would provoke people to action .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"The_End_of_Nature\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 101977\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twentieth century (disambiguation) Content: Twentieth century may refer to : The 20th century AD , the period between the years 1901 and 2000 of the Gregorian calendar The 20th century BC 20th Century Fox 20th Century Limited , a passenger train between Chicago and New York City that operated from 1902 to 1967 Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 film On the Twentieth Century , a 1978 musical based on the play and film Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a geometric sans-serif typeface . 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a cocktail Twentieth Century ( TV series ) , a long-running TV documentary series telecast on CBS from 1957 to 1970 , and hosted by Walter Cronkite\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Twentieth_century_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 101573\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 101079\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 101065\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Abrupt_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 100971\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 100744\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 100595\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Turkey\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 100486\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_popular_culture\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 100153\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pattern Recognition in Physics Content: Pattern Recognition in Physics was an open-access journal originally published by Copernicus Publications which was established in March 2013 and terminated in January 2014 . The editors-in-chief were Sid-Ali Ouadfeul ( Algerian Petroleum Institute ) and Nils-Axel Mörner , the latter of whom is a well-known global warming skeptic . Copernicus ceased its publication due to concerns over the publications views towards the scientific consensus of global climate change and the method of peer review . In March 2014 Ouadfeul reopened the journal , `` run on private founding '' -LSB- sic -RSB-\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Pattern_Recognition_in_Physics\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 100029\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming (Sonny Rollins album) Content: Global Warming is an album by jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins , released on the Milestone label in 1998 , featuring performances by Rollins with Stephen Scott , Bob Cranshaw , Idris Muhammad , Clifton Anderson , Victor See Yuen and Perry Wilson .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_(Sonny_Rollins_album)\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 99844\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The 20th Century Content: The Twentieth Century was a documentary television program sponsored by the Prudential Insurance Company that ran on the CBS network from 20 October 1957 until 4 January 1970 . It was hosted by Walter Cronkite . The opening and closing theme music was written by composer George Antheil . The program presented filmed reports on news and cultural events that were important for the development of the 20th century . The show did not just present the events but also interpreted them . Such subjects as World War I and major assassinations were presented in context . On 20 January 1967 the show , sponsored by Union Carbide ( `` The Discovery Company '' ) , was renamed The 21st Century . The show 's focus changed to the future and to what mankind could look forward to . The 21st Century was cancelled after three seasons ( its final broadcast was on 4 January 1970 ) . The reason given was that the writers had run out of things to talk about . However , it is possible that CBS may have wished to replace it with a more commercially successful program .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"The_20th_Century\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 99308\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 98941\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The 20th Anniversary Collection Content: The 20th Anniversary Collection is a 2001 compilation CD from Rational Youth , released , as suggested by the title , to commemorate the band 's twentieth anniversary . It would also prove to be their last release to date , as the band ceased operations in February , 2002 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"The_20th_Anniversary_Collection\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 98781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twentieth Century (Cold Chisel album) Content: Twentieth Century is the final studio album for Australian band Cold Chisel until the group reformed in 1998 . The album was written and recorded over various sessions during the period of the band 's break-up and during breaks in their final tour . It was released in early 1984 and peaked at No. 1 on the Australian albums chart , their 3rd consecutive album to do so . It charted for a total of 46 weeks .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Twentieth_Century_(Cold_Chisel_album)\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 98449\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th-century events Content: The 20th-century events include many notable events which occurred throughout the 20th century , which began on January 1 , 1901 , and ended on December 31 , 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"20th-century_events\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 98355\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 97812\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 97231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 96742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 96624\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Older Dryas Content: The Older Dryas was a stadial ( cold ) period between the Bølling and Allerød interstadials ( warmer phases ) approximately 14,000 years ago ( BP ) , towards the end of the Pleistocene epoch . Its age is not well defined , with estimates varying by 400 years , but its duration is agreed to have been around two centuries . The gradual warming since the last glacial maximum 27-24 ,000 years BP has been interrupted by two cold spells , the Older Dryas having been followed by the Younger Dryas ( c. 12,900-11 ,650 BP ) . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and deeper during the Older than the succeeding Younger Dryas , and there is no evidence of human occupation of Britain . In north-west Europe an earlier Oldest Dryas is also recognised . They are named after an indicator genus , the arctic and alpine plant Dryas , the remains of which are found in higher concentrations in deposits from colder periods . The Older Dryas was a variable cold , dry Blytt-Sernander period , observed in climatological evidence in only some regions , depending on latitude . In regions where it is not observed , the Bølling-Allerød is considered a single interstadial ( warm ) period . Evidence of the Older Dryas is strongest in northern Eurasia , particularly part of North Europe roughly equivalent to Pollen zone Ic .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Older_Dryas\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 96545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 20th century BC Content: The 20th century BC was a century which lasted from the year 2000 BC to 1901 BC .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"20th_century_BC\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 96473\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 96270\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Allerød oscillation Content: The Allerød oscillation ( Allerødtiden ) was a warm and moist global interstadial that occurred at the end of the last glacial period . It raised temperatures in the northern Atlantic region to almost present-day levels , before they declined again in the succeeding Younger Dryas period , which was followed by the present interglacial period . In some regions , especially in northern Eurasia , there is evidence for a cold period known as the Older Dryas interrupting the interstadial . In such regions the shorter oscillation ending with the Older Dryas is known as the Bølling oscillation , and the Allerød period is the interstadial following the Older Dryas . The Allerød period was named after a type site in Furesø municipality in Sjælland , Denmark ( near Copenhagen ) , where deposits created during the period were first identified in work published in 1901 by Hartz and Milthers . This Blytt-Sernander period corresponds to Pollen zone II .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Allerød_oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 96120\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 96048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 95991\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ende Gelände 2016 Content: Ende Gelände 2016 was a large civil disobedience protest movement in Germany to limit global warming through fossil fuel phase-out . 3,500 -- 4,000 environmental activists from twelve countries blocked the Welzow-Süd open-pit coal mine and the coal-fired Schwarze Pumpe power station , then owned by Vattenfall ( Spremberg ) , from 13 to 15 May 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Ende_Gelände_2016\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 95429\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 95194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 95176\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Water export Content: Water exports involve exporting freshwater from one country to another . Large increases in human population and economic growth throughout the world during the twentieth century placed a huge stress on the world 's freshwater resources . Combined with climate change , they will place an even greater demand on water resources in this century . Water shortages have become an international concern , and freshwater has been described as `` blue gold '' and `` the oil of the 21st Century . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Water_export\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 94372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leslie Collier Content: Leslie Harold Collier ( 9 February 1921 -- 14 March 2011 ) was a scientist responsible for developing a freeze-drying method to produce a more heat stable smallpox vaccine in the late 1940s . Collier added a key component , peptone , a soluble protein , to the process . This protected the virus , enabling the production of a heat-stable vaccine in powdered form . Previously , smallpox vaccines would become ineffective after 1 -- 2 days at ambient temperature . The development of his vaccine production method played a large role in enabling the World Health Organization to initiate its global smallpox eradication campaign in 1967 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Leslie_Collier\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 94323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 94295\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Tour Content: The Global Warming Tour was a concert tour by American hard rock band Aerosmith that included 67 concert performances across North America , Oceania , Asia and Latin America . Prior to the first leg of the tour , the band played a private event for Walmart shareholders . The first leg of the tour included 23 performances and lasted from late May through early August 2012 . The second leg included 14 performances in November and December 2012 . Before the second leg of the tour , the band performed a brief set at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in mid September . Also prior to the second leg , to promote the release of their new album in early November , the band made three special nationally-televised performances in New York City and also did a special performance in front of their old Boston apartment . The performances on the first two legs of the tour were held primarily in indoor arenas , with a couple outdoor shows and a few festival dates on the first leg , including three festivals in eastern Canada and Milwaukee 's Summerfest . The third leg of the tour ran from late April to mid May 2013 and saw Aerosmith playing their first shows in Australia since 1990 , as well as their first-ever shows in New Zealand and the Philippines . On May 30 , the band performed as part of the `` Boston Strong '' charity concert for victims of the Boston Marathon bombings . In July 2013 , the band played at the Greenbrier Classic in West Virginia and at Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut . In August 2013 , the band performed four concerts in Japan , but their first-ever shows in China and Taiwan were cancelled due to poor ticket sales . The band also performed in August at the Harley-Davidson 110th anniversary concert series in Milwaukee . Concerts were planned for Latin America in September and October , including their first-ever shows in Uruguay , Guatemala and El Salvador . Cheap Trick was the opening act for all dates in the first two legs except for a few festival shows . The Dead Dasies , a supergroup featuring Jon Stevens and Richard Fortus , were the opening act for the Australia/New Zealand leg . The tour is in promotion of Aerosmith 's new album Music from Another Dimension ! , released on November 6 , 2012 . In addition to many of their biggest hits and a few choice album cuts , the band has so far performed four new songs from Music from Another Dimension on this tour , three of them regularly ( `` Oh Yeah '' , `` Legendary Child '' , and `` Lover Alot '' ) , with the potential for more songs to be played in the 2013 leg . During the South America leg , specifically in Argentina and Brazil , Aerosmith toured with Whitesnake , including performances at the Personal Fest in Buenos Aires and at the Monsters of Rock in São Paulo . On May 5 , 2013 , the band announced they had cancelled their first-ever show in Jakarta due to safety concerns . In 2014 , Aerosmith played 17 concerts across Europe from May 14 to July 2 . A new tour , the Let Rock Rule Tour , was scheduled to follow in July , August , and September 2014 that saw Aerosmith play several dates in North America . This tour featured Slash ( with Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators ) as the opening act . Full details of the tour were announced on April 8 , 2014 . On May 14 , 2014 , the band announced that they had cancelled their concert in Istanbul after Turkey declared a three-day mourning for the victims of Soma mine disaster . July 2 , 2014 concert in Kiev was cancelled due to civil unrest in Ukraine .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Tour\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 94220\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Year 2000 problem Content: The Year 2000 problem , also known as the Y2K problem , the Millennium bug , the Y2K bug , or Y2K , was a computer bug related to the formatting and storage of calendar data . Problems were anticipated , and arose , because twentieth-century software often represented the four-digit year with only the final two digits -- making the year 2000 indistinguishable from 1900 . The assumption of a twentieth-century date in such programs caused various errors , such as the incorrect display of dates and the inaccurate ordering of automated dated records or real-time events . In 1997 the British Standards Institute ( BSI ) developed standard DISC PD2000-1 defining `` Year 2000 Conformity requirements '' as four rules : ( 1 ) No valid date will cause any interruption in operations ; ( 2 ) Calculation of durations between , or the sequence of , pairs of dates will be correct whether any dates are in different centuries ; ( 3 ) In all interfaces and in all storage , the century must be unambiguous , either specified , or calculable by algorithm ; ( 4 ) Year 2000 must be recognised as a leap year . It identifies two problems that may exist in many computer programs . First , the practice of representing the year with two digits became problematic with logical error ( s ) arising upon `` rollover '' from x99 to x00 . This had caused some date-related processing to operate incorrectly for dates and times on and after 1 January 2000 , and on other critical dates which were billed `` event horizons '' . Without corrective action , long-working systems would break down when the '' ... 97 , 98 , 99 , 00 ... '' ascending numbering assumption suddenly became invalid . Secondly , some programmers had misunderstood the Gregorian calendar rule that determines whether years that are exactly divisible by 100 are not leap years , and assumed the year 2000 would not be a leap year . Years divisible by 100 are not leap years , except for years that are divisible by 400 . Thus the year 2000 was a leap year . Companies and organisations worldwide checked , fixed , and upgraded their computer systems to address the anticipated problem . Very few computer failures were reported when the clocks rolled over into 2000 . It is not known how many problems went unrecorded .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Year_2000_problem\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 93553\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Middle Miocene Content: The Middle Miocene is a sub-epoch of the Miocene Epoch made up of two stages : the Langhian and Serravallian stages . The Middle Miocene is preceded by the Early Miocene . The sub-epoch lasted from 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma to 11.608 ± 0.005 Ma ( million years ago ) . During this period , a sharp drop in global temperatures took place . This event is known as the Middle Miocene Climate Transition . For the purposes of establishing European Land Mammal Ages this sub-epoch is equivalent to the Astaracian age .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Middle_Miocene\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 92846\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Carbon War Content: The Carbon War : Global Warming and the End of the Oil Era is a 1999 book by former oil geologist Jeremy Leggett about global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Carbon_War\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 92757\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 92440\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 92398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2nd millennium Content: The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1 , 1001 and ended on December 31 , 2000 of the Gregorian calendar . It was the second period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era . It encompassed the High and Late Middle Ages , the Mongol Empire , the Renaissance , the Baroque era , the early Modern Age , the age of Enlightenment , the age of colonialism , industrialization , the rise of nation states , and the 19th and 20th century with the impact of science , widespread education , and universal health care and vaccinations in many nations . The centuries of expanding large-scale warfare with high-tech weaponry ( of the World Wars and nuclear bombs ) were offset by growing peace movements , the United Nations , plus doctors and health workers crossing borders to treat injuries and disease , and the return of the Olympics as contest without combat . Scientists prevailed in explaining intellectual freedom ; humans took their first steps on the Moon during the 20th century ; and new technology was developed by governments , industry , and academia across the world , with education shared by many international conferences and journals . The development of movable type , radio , television , and the internet spread information worldwide , within minutes , in audio , video , and print-image format to inform , educate and entertain billions of people by the end of the 20th century . The Renaissance saw the beginning of the second migration of humans from Europe , Africa , and Asia to the Americas , beginning the ever-accelerating process of globalization . The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations , with home offices in multiple countries . International business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought . The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium ( from 310 million in 1000 to 600 million in 1700 ) and later increased tenfold over its last three centuries , exceeding 6 billion in 2000 . Consequently , unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences , giving rise to extreme poverty , climate change and biotic crisis .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"2nd_millennium\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 92159\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 91930\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleogene Content: The Paleogene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliːədʒiːn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈpeɪliːədʒiːn -RSB- also spelled Palaeogene or Palæogene ; informally Lower Tertiary ) is a geologic period and system that spans 43 million years from the end of the Cretaceous Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Neogene Period Mya . It is the beginning of the Cenozoic Era of the present Phanerozoic Eon . The Paleogene is most notable for being the time during which mammals diversified from relatively small , simple forms into a large group of diverse animals in the wake of the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event that ended the preceding Cretaceous Period . This period consists of the Paleocene , Eocene and Oligocene epochs . The end of the Paleocene ( 55.5 / 54.8 Mya ) was marked by the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic , which upset oceanic and atmospheric circulation and led to the extinction of numerous deep-sea benthic foraminifera and on land , a major turnover in mammals . The terms ` Paleogene System ' ( formal ) and ` lower Tertiary System ' ( informal ) are applied to the rocks deposited during the ` Paleogene Period ' . The somewhat confusing terminology seems to be due to attempts to deal with the comparatively fine subdivisions of time possible in the relatively recent geologic past , for which more details are preserved . By dividing the Tertiary Period into two periods instead of directly into five epochs , the periods are more closely comparable to the duration of ` periods ' of the preceding Mesozoic and Paleozoic Eras .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleogene\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 91690\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate stabilization wedge Content: The Climate stabilization Wedges is an approach produced by Princeton University researchers looking at Climate change mitigation scenarios . The project was funded by Ford Motor Company between 2000 and 2009 and has been receiving funding from BP since 2000 . The goal of the approach , Stephen Pacala and Robert H. Socolow , is to demonstrate that global warming is a problem which can be attacked using today 's commercially available technologies to reduce emissions . The objective is to stabilize concentrations under 500ppm for the next fifty years , using wedges from a variety of different strategies which fit into the stabilization triangle . A newer estimate by the original authors indicated that by 2011 , the number of necessary wedges had increased from seven to nine . This was due to the continuing increase in emissions since the original 2004 paper which determined the number of wedges that would have been necessary , if serious action to mitigate climate change had begun then .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_stabilization_wedge\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 91458\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 91409\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming taxes Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_taxes\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 91251\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 91233\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 91174\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 90948\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 90637\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Planet Relief Content: Planet Relief was a proposed BBC television special dealing with the issue of global warming , originally scheduled for broadcast in January 2008 . The programme , which had been in development for 18 months , was meant to be similar to previous BBC programmes such as Comic Relief and Sport Relief . However , it was cancelled before it was broadcast , allegedly because the BBC was concerned that it would be `` biased '' towards promoting responses based on acceptance of mainstream climate change science .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Planet_Relief\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 90482\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Team of the century Content: In team sport , team of the century and team of the decade are hypothetical best teams over a given time period . For the century team , it can be either 100 years , or for a century ( always the 20th ) . Similarly the team of the decade can be for 10 years or a decade ( for example the 1980s ) . Teams of the decade and century are selected for both leagues and clubs and sometimes selected for other reasons , such as to honour the contribution of a particular ethnic group . Teams of the 20th century in particular have been controversial due to their loose criteria and the systemic bias toward current players , given that the performance of players before the advent of broadcasting of matches can not be reviewed and relies on hearsay and archival records . The Team of the Century concept used extensively in the sport of Australian rules football , where , since the mid-1990s , leagues ( such as the VFL/AFL or SANFL ) , as well as football clubs , have named their best team ( see Football ( Australian rules ) positions ) . Teams of the decades followed . One of the most famous examples of the team of the century concept was in 1996 , when the AFL Team of the Century was named on 2 September 1996 , during the League 's centenary season . An example from Ireland was when in 1984 the GAA selected their Football Team of the Century and Hurling Team of the Century to celebrate the first 100 years of the GAA . The term was used again in 2011 when the Team of Century from the Sigerson Cup was chosen .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Team_of_the_century\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 90349\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Content: The Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt ( notated Dynasty XX , alternatively 20th Dynasty or Dynasty 20 ) is classified as the third and last Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period , lasting from 1189 BC to 1077 BC . The 20th Dynasty and the 19th Dynasty furthermore together constitute an era known as the Ramesside period .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 90345\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar cycle 20 Content: Solar cycle 20 was the twentieth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.4 years , beginning in October 1964 and ending in March 1976 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 156.6 ( November 1968 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 20 to 21 , there were a total of 272 days with no sunspots . Comparison with other cycles shows that geomagnetic activity during the declining phase of cycle 20 ( 1973 -- 1975 ) was unusually high . Data from solar cycle 20 was used to build the K-1974 solar proton fluence model , used for planning space missions during solar cycle 21 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_cycle_20\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 90266\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 90146\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Long-term_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 90067\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Hirnantian\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 90018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 89977\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Duncan_Wingham\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 89766\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 89650\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Early anthropocene Content: The Early Anthropocene Hypothesis ( sometimes called Early Anthropogenic ) was proposed by William Ruddiman . It posits that the Anthropocene era , as some scientists call the most recent period in Earth 's history when the activities of the human race first began to have a significant global impact on Earth 's climate and ecosystems , did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the industrial era , as was commonly assumed , but dates back to 8,000 years ago , triggered by intense farming activities after agriculture became widespread . It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior , a pattern that is explained by natural variations in Earth 's orbit known as Milankovitch cycles .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Early_anthropocene\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 89565\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2000 Content: 2000 was designated as : International Year for the Culture of Peace World Mathematical Year Popular culture holds the year 2000 as the first year of the 21st century and the 3rd millennium due to a tendency of grouping the years according to decimal values , as if year zero were counted . According to the Gregorian Calendar , these distinctions fall to the year 2001 because the 1st century was retroactively said to start with year AD 1 . Since the calendar does not have year zero , its first millennium spanned from years 1 to 1000 inclusively and its second millennium from years 1001 to 2000 ( See more at Millennium ) . The year 2000 is sometimes abbreviated as `` Y2K '' ( the `` Y '' stands for `` year '' , and the `` K '' stands for `` kilo '' which means `` thousand '' ) . The year 2000 was the subject of Y2K concerns , which are fears that computers would not shift from 1999 to 2000 correctly . However , by the end of 1999 , many companies had already converted to new , or upgraded , existing software . Some even obtained Y2K certification . As a result of massive effort , relatively few problems occurred .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"2000\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 89435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twentieth Century (typeface) Content: Twentieth Century is a geometric sans-serif typeface designed by Sol Hess for Lanston Monotype in 1937 . It was created as a competitor to the successful Futura typeface for Monotype 's hot metal typesetting system . Like Futura it has a single-story ` a ' ( as in handwriting ) and a straight ` j' with no bend . A very large font family , Twentieth Century is particularly known for a limited range of styles being bundled with many Microsoft products such as Office . Numerous other variants exist , including versions for very small text and an Art Deco-influenced titling capitals design , Twentieth Century Poster , with rounded capitals . In addition , Twentieth Century served as an inspiration for Century Gothic , designed by Monotype in 1991 .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Twentieth_Century_(typeface)\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 89142\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cretaceous Content: The Cretaceous ( -LSB- pronkrᵻˈteɪʃəs -RSB- , ) is a geologic period and system that spans 79 million years from the end of the Jurassic Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Paleogene Period Mya . It is the last period of the Mesozoic Era . The Cretaceous Period is usually abbreviated K , for its German translation Kreide ( chalk ) . The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate , resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas . These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles , ammonites and rudists , while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land . During this time , new groups of mammals and birds , as well as flowering plants , appeared . The Cretaceous ended with a large mass extinction , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , in which many groups , including non-avian dinosaurs , pterosaurs and large marine reptiles died out . The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg boundary ) , a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction which lies between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 89070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 89010\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Report\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 88871\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1900s (decade) Content: The 1900s ( pronounced `` nineteen-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1909 . The term `` nineteen-hundreds '' can also equally be used for the years 1900 -- 1999 ( see 1900s ) . The Edwardian era ( 1901 -- 1910 ) covers a similar span of time .\",\n \"qid\": \"103\",\n \"docid\": \"1900s_(decade)\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 88789\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":51,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Increases in atmospheric CO2 followed increases in temperature."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"104","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":1,"score":142793},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"104","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":2,"score":122587},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"104","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":3,"score":118827},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":4,"score":117605},{"content":"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .","qid":"104","docid":"Cap_carbonate","rank":5,"score":117218},{"content":"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .","qid":"104","docid":"Suess_effect","rank":6,"score":111844},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"104","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":7,"score":109565},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"104","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":8,"score":109414},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"104","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":9,"score":109221},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"104","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":10,"score":108897},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"104","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":11,"score":107150},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"104","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":12,"score":106694},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"104","docid":"Climate_change_in_Wyoming","rank":13,"score":104525},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"104","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":14,"score":102368},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"104","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":15,"score":101372},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"104","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":16,"score":100381},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"104","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":17,"score":100338},{"content":"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .","qid":"104","docid":"Keith_E._Idso","rank":18,"score":100321},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"104","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":19,"score":99408},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"104","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":20,"score":98247},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"104","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":21,"score":97274},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"104","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":22,"score":97199},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"104","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":23,"score":97177},{"content":"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .","qid":"104","docid":"Climate_sensitivity","rank":24,"score":96618},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"104","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":25,"score":96248},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_flooding","rank":26,"score":95423},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":27,"score":95010},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"104","docid":"350.org","rank":28,"score":94916},{"content":"Title: Mars atmospheric entry Content: Mars atmospheric entry is the entry into the atmosphere of Mars . High velocity entry into Martian air creates a CO2-N2 plasma , as opposed to O2-N2 for Earth air . Mars entry is affected by the radiative effects of hot CO2 gas and Martian dust suspended in the air . Flight regimes for entry , descent , and landing systems include aerocapture , hypersonic , supersonic , and subsonic . Thermal protection systems and atmospheric friction have been used historically to reduce most of the kinetic energy that needs to be lost prior to landing , with parachutes and , sometimes , a final bit of retropropulsion used in the final landing . High-altitude high-velocity retropropulsion is being researched for future transport flights landing heavier cargos . For example , Mars Pathfinder entered in 1997 . About 30 minutes prior to entry , the cruise stage and entry capsule separated . When the capsule hit the atmosphere it de-accelerated from about 7.3 km/s to 0.4 km/s ( 16330 mph to 900 mph ) over three minutes . As it descended the parachute opened to slow it down further , and soon after the heat shield was released . During entry a signal was relayed back to Earth , including semaphore signals for important events .","qid":"104","docid":"Mars_atmospheric_entry","rank":29,"score":93715},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"104","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":30,"score":93393},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"104","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":31,"score":93293},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Pluto Content: The atmosphere of Pluto is the tenuous layer of gases surrounding Pluto . It consists mainly of nitrogen ( N2 ) , with minor amounts of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , all of which are vaporized from their ices on Pluto 's surface . It contains layered haze , probably consisting of heavier compounds which form from these gases due to high-energy radiation . The atmosphere of Pluto is notable for its strong and not completely clear seasonal changes caused by peculiarities of the orbital and axial rotation of Pluto . Surface pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto , measured by New Horizons in 2015 , is about , roughly 100,000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . Temperature on the surface is 40 to , but it quickly grows with altitude due to methane-generated greenhouse effect . Near the altitude it reaches 110 K , and then slowly decreases . Pluto is the only trans-Neptunian object with a known atmosphere . Its closest analog is the atmosphere of Triton , although in some aspects it resembles even the atmosphere of Mars . The atmosphere of Pluto has been studied since the 1980s by way of earth-based observation of occultations of stars by Pluto and spectroscopy . In 2015 , it was studied from a close distance by the spacecraft New Horizons .","qid":"104","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Pluto","rank":32,"score":93091},{"content":"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .","qid":"104","docid":"Revelle_factor","rank":33,"score":93073},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":34,"score":92963},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"104","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":35,"score":92941},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .","qid":"104","docid":"Atmosphere","rank":36,"score":91735},{"content":"Title: Respiratory acidosis Content: Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.","qid":"104","docid":"Respiratory_acidosis","rank":37,"score":91673},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"104","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":38,"score":91059},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"104","docid":"Global_warming","rank":39,"score":90927},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"104","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":40,"score":90582},{"content":"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .","qid":"104","docid":"Gilbert_Plass","rank":41,"score":90307},{"content":"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .","qid":"104","docid":"Amorphous_carbonia","rank":42,"score":90273},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric convection Content: Atmospheric convection is the result of a parcel-environment instability , or temperature difference , layer in the atmosphere . Different lapse rates within dry and moist air lead to instability . Mixing of air during the day which expands the height of the planetary boundary layer leads to increased winds , cumulus cloud development , and decreased surface dew points . Moist convection leads to thunderstorm development , which is often responsible for severe weather throughout the world . Special threats from thunderstorms include hail , downbursts , and tornadoes .","qid":"104","docid":"Atmospheric_convection","rank":43,"score":90107},{"content":"Title: Estuarine acidification Content: Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +","qid":"104","docid":"Estuarine_acidification","rank":44,"score":89911},{"content":"Title: Fink effect Content: The Fink effect , also known as `` diffusion anoxia '' , `` diffusion hypoxia '' , or the `` third gas effect '' , is a factor that influences the pO2 ( partial pressure of oxygen ) within the alveolus . When soluble gases ( e.g. nitrous oxide , N2O ) are breathed in large quantities they can be dissolved in body fluids rapidly . This can lead to a temporary increase in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolus , causing an increase in their respective partial pressures . The effect is named for Bernard Raymond Fink ( 1914 -- 2000 ) , whose 1955 paper first explained it . When a patient is recovering from N2O anaesthesia , large quantities of this gas cross from the blood into the alveolus ( down its concentration gradient ) and so for a short period of time , the O2 and CO2 in the alveolus are diluted by this gas . This could cause the partial pressure of oxygen to decrease and could temporarily lead to hypoxia . The decrease in CO2 could also potentiate this effect as ventilation would be suppressed , leading to potential hypoxaemia . Nonetheless , this effect would only last a couple of minutes and hypoxia can be avoided by increasing the fractional inspired oxygen concentration when recovering from N2O anaesthesia .","qid":"104","docid":"Fink_effect","rank":45,"score":89829},{"content":"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .","qid":"104","docid":"Runaway_greenhouse_effect","rank":46,"score":89661},{"content":"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .","qid":"104","docid":"Hypercapnia","rank":47,"score":88740},{"content":"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .","qid":"104","docid":"Scott_Denning","rank":48,"score":88188},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .","qid":"104","docid":"Greenhouse_effect","rank":49,"score":87882},{"content":"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_sequestration","rank":50,"score":87547},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .","qid":"104","docid":"Atmospheric_temperature","rank":51,"score":87242},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"104","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":52,"score":87047},{"content":"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .","qid":"104","docid":"Modified_atmosphere","rank":53,"score":86984},{"content":"Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .","qid":"104","docid":"993–994_carbon-14_spike","rank":54,"score":86971},{"content":"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .","qid":"104","docid":"Mesopause","rank":55,"score":86545},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":56,"score":86462},{"content":"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .","qid":"104","docid":"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory","rank":57,"score":86437},{"content":"Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .","qid":"104","docid":"774–775_carbon-14_spike","rank":58,"score":86233},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":59,"score":86197},{"content":"Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .","qid":"104","docid":"Bomb_pulse","rank":60,"score":85969},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"104","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":61,"score":85432},{"content":"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .","qid":"104","docid":"Idealized_greenhouse_model","rank":62,"score":85375},{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"104","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":63,"score":85324},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":64,"score":84873},{"content":"Title: Keeling (disambiguation) Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that depicts the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the twentieth century . It is named after Charles David Keeling who discovered the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations and plotted the graph . Keeling may also refer to : Keeling , Virginia North Keeling Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Surname Charles Keeling , climatologist Edward Keeling Harold Keeling John Keeling , MP Ralph Keeling , son of Charles , also climatologist William Keeling , English sea captain","qid":"104","docid":"Keeling_(disambiguation)","rank":65,"score":84828},{"content":"Title: Bohr effect Content: The Bohr effect is a physiological phenomenon first described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian Bohr , stating that haemoglobin 's oxygen binding affinity ( see Oxygen -- haemoglobin dissociation curve ) is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide . Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid , an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH , resulting in hemoglobin proteins releasing their load of oxygen . Conversely , a decrease in carbon dioxide provokes an increase in pH , which results in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen .","qid":"104","docid":"Bohr_effect","rank":66,"score":84661},{"content":"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .","qid":"104","docid":"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis","rank":67,"score":84610},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''","qid":"104","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Venus","rank":68,"score":84520},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"104","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":69,"score":84513},{"content":"Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .","qid":"104","docid":"C3_carbon_fixation","rank":70,"score":84339},{"content":"Title: Inversion (meteorology) Content: In meteorology , an inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude . It almost always refers to a `` temperature inversion '' , i.e. an increase in temperature with height , or to the layer ( `` inversion layer '' ) within which such an increase occurs . An inversion can lead to pollution such as smog being trapped close to the ground , with possible adverse effects on health . An inversion can also suppress convection by acting as a `` cap '' . If this cap is broken for any of several reasons , convection of any moisture present can then erupt into violent thunderstorms . Temperature inversion can notoriously result in freezing rain in cold climates .","qid":"104","docid":"Inversion_(meteorology)","rank":71,"score":84222},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"104","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":72,"score":84216},{"content":"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .","qid":"104","docid":"North_American_Carbon_Program","rank":73,"score":83773},{"content":"Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_cycle_re-balancing","rank":74,"score":83671},{"content":"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .","qid":"104","docid":"8.2_kiloyear_event","rank":75,"score":83517},{"content":"Title: Bosch reaction Content: The Bosch reaction is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon ( graphite ) , water , and a 10 % return of invested heat . It is named after the German chemist Carl Bosch . This reaction requires the introduction of iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees Celsius . The overall reaction is as follows : CO2 ( g ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → C ( s ) + 2 H2O ( g ) The above reaction is actually the result of two reactions . The first reaction , the reverse water gas shift reaction , is a fast one : CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O The second reaction controls the reaction rate : CO + H2 → C + H2O The overall reaction produces 2.3 × 103 joules for every gram of carbon dioxide reacted at 650 ° C. Reaction temperatures are in the range of 450 to 600 ° C. The reaction can be accelerated in the presence of an iron , cobalt or nickel catalyst . Ruthenium also serves to speed up the reaction . Together with the Sabatier reaction , the Bosch reaction is studied as a way to remove carbon dioxide and to generate clean water aboard a space station . The reaction is also used to produce graphite for radiocarbon dating with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . The Bosch reaction is being investigated for use in maintaining space station life support . Though the Bosch reaction would present a completely closed hydrogen and oxygen cycle which only produces atomic carbon as waste , difficulties in maintaining its higher required temperature and properly handling carbon deposits mean that significantly more research will be required before a Bosch reactor can become a reality . One problem is that the production of elemental carbon tends to foul the catalyst 's surface , which is detrimental to the reaction 's efficiency .","qid":"104","docid":"Bosch_reaction","rank":76,"score":83459},{"content":"Title: Kappa mechanism Content: The κ -- mechanism is the driving mechanism behind the changes in luminosity of many types of pulsating variable stars . Here , the Greek letter kappa is used to indicate the radiative opacity at any particular depth of the stellar atmosphere . In a normal star , an increase in compression of the atmosphere causes an increase in temperature and density ; this produces a decrease in the opacity of the atmosphere , allowing heat energy to escape more rapidly . The result is an equilibrium condition where temperature and pressure are maintained in a balance . However , in cases where the opacity increases with temperature , the atmosphere becomes unstable against pulsations . If a layer of a stellar atmosphere moves inward , it becomes denser and more opaque , causing heat flow to be checked . In return , this heat increase causes a build-up of pressure that pushes the layer back out again . The result is a cyclic process as the layer repeatedly moves inward and then is forced back out again . Stellar non-adiabatic pulsation resulting from the κ -- mechanism occurs in regions where hydrogen and helium are partly ionized , or where there are negative hydrogen ions . An example of such a zone is in RR Lyrae variables where the partial second ionization of helium occurs . Hydrogen ionization is most likely the cause of pulsation activity in Mira variables , rapidly oscillating Ap stars ( roAp ) and ZZ Ceti variables . In Beta Cephei variables , stellar pulsations occur at a depth where the temperature reaches approximately 200,000 K and there is an abundance of iron . The increase in the opacity of iron at this depth is known as the Z bump , where Z is the astronomical symbol for elements other than hydrogen and helium .","qid":"104","docid":"Kappa_mechanism","rank":77,"score":83028},{"content":"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .","qid":"104","docid":"Charles_David_Keeling","rank":78,"score":82888},{"content":"Title: Inversion temperature Content: The inversion temperature in thermodynamics and cryogenics is the critical temperature below which a non-ideal gas ( all gases in reality ) that is expanding at constant enthalpy will experience a temperature decrease , and above which will experience a temperature increase . This temperature change is known as the Joule-Thomson effect , and is exploited in the liquefaction of gases.Inversion temperature depends on the nature of gas .","qid":"104","docid":"Inversion_temperature","rank":79,"score":82745},{"content":"Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .","qid":"104","docid":"Ocean_acidification","rank":80,"score":82668},{"content":"Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .","qid":"104","docid":"William_D._Sellers","rank":81,"score":82554},{"content":"Title: Lime kiln Content: A lime kiln is a kiln used for the calcination of limestone ( calcium carbonate ) to produce the form of lime called quicklime ( calcium oxide ) . The chemical equation for this reaction is CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2 This reaction takes place at 900 ° C ( 1650 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 1 atmosphere ) , but a temperature around 1000 ° C ( 1800 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 3.8 atmospheres ) is usually used to make the reaction proceed quickly . Excessive temperature is avoided because it produces unreactive , `` dead-burned '' lime . Slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ) can be formed by mixing water with quicklime .","qid":"104","docid":"Lime_kiln","rank":82,"score":82320},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_generator","rank":83,"score":82285},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"104","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":84,"score":81819},{"content":"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O","qid":"104","docid":"Wetland_methane_emissions","rank":85,"score":81816},{"content":"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_monoxide","rank":86,"score":81638},{"content":"Title: Temperature dependence of liquid viscosity Content: The temperature dependence of liquid viscosity is the phenomenon by which liquid viscosity tends to decrease ( or , alternatively , its fluidity tends to increase ) as its temperature increases . This can be observed , for example , by watching how cooking oil appears to move more fluidly upon a frying pan after being heated by a stove .","qid":"104","docid":"Temperature_dependence_of_liquid_viscosity","rank":87,"score":81414},{"content":"Title: Heat burst Content: In meteorology , a heat burst is a rare atmospheric phenomenon characterized by gusty winds and a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in dew point ( moisture ) . Heat bursts typically occur during night-time and are associated with decaying thunderstorms . Although this phenomenon is not fully understood , it is theorized that the event is caused when rain evaporates ( virga ) into a parcel of cold dry air high in the atmosphere making the air denser than its surroundings . The parcel descends rapidly , warming due to compression , overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface , similar to a downburst . Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above 38 ° C , sometimes rising by 20 F-change or more within only a few minutes . More extreme events have also been documented , where temperatures have been reported to exceed 120 ° F. However , such extreme events have never been officially verified . Heat bursts are also characterized by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong , even damaging , winds .","qid":"104","docid":"Heat_burst","rank":88,"score":81412},{"content":"Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_sink","rank":89,"score":81329},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"104","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":90,"score":81295},{"content":"Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .","qid":"104","docid":"Central_chemoreceptors","rank":91,"score":81133},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"104","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":92,"score":80902},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric instability Content: Atmospheric instability is a condition where the Earth 's atmosphere is generally considered to be unstable and as a result the weather is subjected to a high degree of variability through distance and time . Atmospheric stability is a measure of the atmosphere 's tendency to encourage or deter vertical motion , and vertical motion is directly correlated to different types of weather systems and their severity . In unstable conditions , a lifted thing , such as a parcel of air will be warmer than the surrounding air at altitude . Because it is warmer , it is less dense and is prone to further ascent . In meteorology , instability can be described by various indices such as the Bulk Richardson Number , lifted index , K-index , convective available potential energy ( CAPE ) , the Showalter , and the Vertical totals . These indices , as well as atmospheric instability itself , involve temperature changes through the troposphere with height , or lapse rate . Effects of atmospheric instability in moist atmospheres include thunderstorm development , which over warm oceans can lead to tropical cyclogenesis , and turbulence . In dry atmospheres , inferior mirages , dust devils , steam devils , and fire whirls can form . Stable atmospheres can be associated with drizzle , fog , increased air pollution , a lack of turbulence , and undular bore formation .","qid":"104","docid":"Atmospheric_instability","rank":93,"score":80863},{"content":"Title: Stratosphere Content: The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .","qid":"104","docid":"Stratosphere","rank":94,"score":80757},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"104","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":95,"score":80662},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric temperature range Content: Atmospheric temperature range is the numerical difference between the minimum and maximum values of temperature observed in a given location during a period of time ( e.g. , in a given day , month , year , century ) or the average ( average of all temperature ranges in a period of time ) . The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called diurnal temperature variation .","qid":"104","docid":"Atmospheric_temperature_range","rank":96,"score":80171},{"content":"Title: Hot-dip galvanization Content: Hot-dip galvanization is a form of galvanization . It is the process of coating iron and steel with zinc , which alloys with the surface of the base metal when immersing the metal in a bath of molten zinc at a temperature of around 840 F . When exposed to the atmosphere , the pure zinc ( Zn ) reacts with oxygen ( O2 ) to form zinc oxide ( ZnO ) , which further reacts with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) to form zinc carbonate ( ZnCO3 ) , a usually dull grey , fairly strong material that protects the steel underneath from further corrosion in many circumstances . Galvanized steel is widely used in applications where corrosion resistance is needed without the cost of stainless steel , and is considered superior in terms of cost and life-cycle . It can be identified by the crystallization patterning on the surface ( often called a `` spangle '' ) . Galvanized steel can be welded ; however , one must exercise caution around the resulting toxic zinc fumes . Galvanized steel is suitable for high-temperature applications of up to 392 F . The use of galvanized steel at temperatures above this will result in peeling of the zinc at the inter metallic layer . Electrogalvanized sheet steel is often used in automotive manufacturing to enhance the corrosion performance of exterior body panels ; this is , however , a completely different process which tends to achieve lower coating thicknesses of zinc . Like other corrosion protection systems , galvanizing protects steel by acting as a barrier between steel and the atmosphere . However , zinc is a more electropositive ( active ) metal in comparison to steel . This is a unique characteristic for galvanizing , which means that when a galvanized coating is damaged and steel is exposed to the atmosphere , zinc can continue to protect steel through galvanic corrosion ( often within an annulus of 5 mm , above which electron transfer rate decreases ) .","qid":"104","docid":"Hot-dip_galvanization","rank":97,"score":80115},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric thermometer Content: A atmospheric thermometer is a device that measures the temperature of the indoor or outdoor atmosphere . The most common type consists of a long tube that contains mercury or colored alcohol at the base , although there are also other kinds , such as spring and digital thermometers . When the atmospheric temperature rises , it causes the material inside the air thermometer to expand . Conversely , when the air gets colder , the material contracts and travels back down.Thermometers use temperature scales either Fahrenheit , Celsius , Kelvin , to provide a measure of heat in degrees . Category : Thermometers","qid":"104","docid":"Atmospheric_thermometer","rank":98,"score":80049},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"104","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":99,"score":79830},{"content":"Title: Controlled atmosphere Content: A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen , as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated . Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres .","qid":"104","docid":"Controlled_atmosphere","rank":100,"score":79827}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 142793\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 122587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 118827\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 117605\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 117218\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Suess_effect\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 111844\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 109565\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 109414\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 109221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 108897\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 107150\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 106694\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 104525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 102368\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 101372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 100381\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 100338\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Keith_E._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 100321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 99408\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 98247\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 97274\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 97199\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 97177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 96618\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 96248\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_flooding\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 95423\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 95010\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 94916\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mars atmospheric entry Content: Mars atmospheric entry is the entry into the atmosphere of Mars . High velocity entry into Martian air creates a CO2-N2 plasma , as opposed to O2-N2 for Earth air . Mars entry is affected by the radiative effects of hot CO2 gas and Martian dust suspended in the air . Flight regimes for entry , descent , and landing systems include aerocapture , hypersonic , supersonic , and subsonic . Thermal protection systems and atmospheric friction have been used historically to reduce most of the kinetic energy that needs to be lost prior to landing , with parachutes and , sometimes , a final bit of retropropulsion used in the final landing . High-altitude high-velocity retropropulsion is being researched for future transport flights landing heavier cargos . For example , Mars Pathfinder entered in 1997 . About 30 minutes prior to entry , the cruise stage and entry capsule separated . When the capsule hit the atmosphere it de-accelerated from about 7.3 km/s to 0.4 km/s ( 16330 mph to 900 mph ) over three minutes . As it descended the parachute opened to slow it down further , and soon after the heat shield was released . During entry a signal was relayed back to Earth , including semaphore signals for important events .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Mars_atmospheric_entry\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 93715\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 93393\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 93293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Pluto Content: The atmosphere of Pluto is the tenuous layer of gases surrounding Pluto . It consists mainly of nitrogen ( N2 ) , with minor amounts of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , all of which are vaporized from their ices on Pluto 's surface . It contains layered haze , probably consisting of heavier compounds which form from these gases due to high-energy radiation . The atmosphere of Pluto is notable for its strong and not completely clear seasonal changes caused by peculiarities of the orbital and axial rotation of Pluto . Surface pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto , measured by New Horizons in 2015 , is about , roughly 100,000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . Temperature on the surface is 40 to , but it quickly grows with altitude due to methane-generated greenhouse effect . Near the altitude it reaches 110 K , and then slowly decreases . Pluto is the only trans-Neptunian object with a known atmosphere . Its closest analog is the atmosphere of Triton , although in some aspects it resembles even the atmosphere of Mars . The atmosphere of Pluto has been studied since the 1980s by way of earth-based observation of occultations of stars by Pluto and spectroscopy . In 2015 , it was studied from a close distance by the spacecraft New Horizons .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Pluto\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 93091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Revelle_factor\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 93073\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 92963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 92941\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 91735\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Respiratory acidosis Content: Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Respiratory_acidosis\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 91673\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 91059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 90927\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_potatoes\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 90582\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Gilbert_Plass\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 90307\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Amorphous_carbonia\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 90273\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric convection Content: Atmospheric convection is the result of a parcel-environment instability , or temperature difference , layer in the atmosphere . Different lapse rates within dry and moist air lead to instability . Mixing of air during the day which expands the height of the planetary boundary layer leads to increased winds , cumulus cloud development , and decreased surface dew points . Moist convection leads to thunderstorm development , which is often responsible for severe weather throughout the world . Special threats from thunderstorms include hail , downbursts , and tornadoes .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_convection\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 90107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Estuarine acidification Content: Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Estuarine_acidification\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 89911\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fink effect Content: The Fink effect , also known as `` diffusion anoxia '' , `` diffusion hypoxia '' , or the `` third gas effect '' , is a factor that influences the pO2 ( partial pressure of oxygen ) within the alveolus . When soluble gases ( e.g. nitrous oxide , N2O ) are breathed in large quantities they can be dissolved in body fluids rapidly . This can lead to a temporary increase in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolus , causing an increase in their respective partial pressures . The effect is named for Bernard Raymond Fink ( 1914 -- 2000 ) , whose 1955 paper first explained it . When a patient is recovering from N2O anaesthesia , large quantities of this gas cross from the blood into the alveolus ( down its concentration gradient ) and so for a short period of time , the O2 and CO2 in the alveolus are diluted by this gas . This could cause the partial pressure of oxygen to decrease and could temporarily lead to hypoxia . The decrease in CO2 could also potentiate this effect as ventilation would be suppressed , leading to potential hypoxaemia . Nonetheless , this effect would only last a couple of minutes and hypoxia can be avoided by increasing the fractional inspired oxygen concentration when recovering from N2O anaesthesia .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Fink_effect\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 89829\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 89661\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercapnia\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 88740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Scott_Denning\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 88188\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 87882\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sequestration\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 87547\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 87242\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 87047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Modified_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 86984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"993–994_carbon-14_spike\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 86971\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Mesopause\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 86545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 86462\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 86437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"774–775_carbon-14_spike\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 86233\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 86197\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Bomb_pulse\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 85969\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 85432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Idealized_greenhouse_model\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 85375\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 85324\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 84873\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling (disambiguation) Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that depicts the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the twentieth century . It is named after Charles David Keeling who discovered the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations and plotted the graph . Keeling may also refer to : Keeling , Virginia North Keeling Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Surname Charles Keeling , climatologist Edward Keeling Harold Keeling John Keeling , MP Ralph Keeling , son of Charles , also climatologist William Keeling , English sea captain\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 84828\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bohr effect Content: The Bohr effect is a physiological phenomenon first described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian Bohr , stating that haemoglobin 's oxygen binding affinity ( see Oxygen -- haemoglobin dissociation curve ) is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide . Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid , an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH , resulting in hemoglobin proteins releasing their load of oxygen . Conversely , a decrease in carbon dioxide provokes an increase in pH , which results in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Bohr_effect\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 84661\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 84610\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Venus\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 84520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 84513\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"C3_carbon_fixation\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 84339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Inversion (meteorology) Content: In meteorology , an inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude . It almost always refers to a `` temperature inversion '' , i.e. an increase in temperature with height , or to the layer ( `` inversion layer '' ) within which such an increase occurs . An inversion can lead to pollution such as smog being trapped close to the ground , with possible adverse effects on health . An inversion can also suppress convection by acting as a `` cap '' . If this cap is broken for any of several reasons , convection of any moisture present can then erupt into violent thunderstorms . Temperature inversion can notoriously result in freezing rain in cold climates .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Inversion_(meteorology)\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 84222\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 84216\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Carbon_Program\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 83773\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_cycle_re-balancing\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 83671\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"8.2_kiloyear_event\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 83517\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bosch reaction Content: The Bosch reaction is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon ( graphite ) , water , and a 10 % return of invested heat . It is named after the German chemist Carl Bosch . This reaction requires the introduction of iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees Celsius . The overall reaction is as follows : CO2 ( g ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → C ( s ) + 2 H2O ( g ) The above reaction is actually the result of two reactions . The first reaction , the reverse water gas shift reaction , is a fast one : CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O The second reaction controls the reaction rate : CO + H2 → C + H2O The overall reaction produces 2.3 × 103 joules for every gram of carbon dioxide reacted at 650 ° C. Reaction temperatures are in the range of 450 to 600 ° C. The reaction can be accelerated in the presence of an iron , cobalt or nickel catalyst . Ruthenium also serves to speed up the reaction . Together with the Sabatier reaction , the Bosch reaction is studied as a way to remove carbon dioxide and to generate clean water aboard a space station . The reaction is also used to produce graphite for radiocarbon dating with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . The Bosch reaction is being investigated for use in maintaining space station life support . Though the Bosch reaction would present a completely closed hydrogen and oxygen cycle which only produces atomic carbon as waste , difficulties in maintaining its higher required temperature and properly handling carbon deposits mean that significantly more research will be required before a Bosch reactor can become a reality . One problem is that the production of elemental carbon tends to foul the catalyst 's surface , which is detrimental to the reaction 's efficiency .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Bosch_reaction\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 83459\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kappa mechanism Content: The κ -- mechanism is the driving mechanism behind the changes in luminosity of many types of pulsating variable stars . Here , the Greek letter kappa is used to indicate the radiative opacity at any particular depth of the stellar atmosphere . In a normal star , an increase in compression of the atmosphere causes an increase in temperature and density ; this produces a decrease in the opacity of the atmosphere , allowing heat energy to escape more rapidly . The result is an equilibrium condition where temperature and pressure are maintained in a balance . However , in cases where the opacity increases with temperature , the atmosphere becomes unstable against pulsations . If a layer of a stellar atmosphere moves inward , it becomes denser and more opaque , causing heat flow to be checked . In return , this heat increase causes a build-up of pressure that pushes the layer back out again . The result is a cyclic process as the layer repeatedly moves inward and then is forced back out again . Stellar non-adiabatic pulsation resulting from the κ -- mechanism occurs in regions where hydrogen and helium are partly ionized , or where there are negative hydrogen ions . An example of such a zone is in RR Lyrae variables where the partial second ionization of helium occurs . Hydrogen ionization is most likely the cause of pulsation activity in Mira variables , rapidly oscillating Ap stars ( roAp ) and ZZ Ceti variables . In Beta Cephei variables , stellar pulsations occur at a depth where the temperature reaches approximately 200,000 K and there is an abundance of iron . The increase in the opacity of iron at this depth is known as the Z bump , where Z is the astronomical symbol for elements other than hydrogen and helium .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Kappa_mechanism\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 83028\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_David_Keeling\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 82888\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Inversion temperature Content: The inversion temperature in thermodynamics and cryogenics is the critical temperature below which a non-ideal gas ( all gases in reality ) that is expanding at constant enthalpy will experience a temperature decrease , and above which will experience a temperature increase . This temperature change is known as the Joule-Thomson effect , and is exploited in the liquefaction of gases.Inversion temperature depends on the nature of gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Inversion_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 82745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Ocean_acidification\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 82668\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"William_D._Sellers\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 82554\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lime kiln Content: A lime kiln is a kiln used for the calcination of limestone ( calcium carbonate ) to produce the form of lime called quicklime ( calcium oxide ) . The chemical equation for this reaction is CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2 This reaction takes place at 900 ° C ( 1650 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 1 atmosphere ) , but a temperature around 1000 ° C ( 1800 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 3.8 atmospheres ) is usually used to make the reaction proceed quickly . Excessive temperature is avoided because it produces unreactive , `` dead-burned '' lime . Slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ) can be formed by mixing water with quicklime .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Lime_kiln\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 82320\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_generator\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 82285\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 81819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Wetland_methane_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 81816\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monoxide\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 81638\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature dependence of liquid viscosity Content: The temperature dependence of liquid viscosity is the phenomenon by which liquid viscosity tends to decrease ( or , alternatively , its fluidity tends to increase ) as its temperature increases . This can be observed , for example , by watching how cooking oil appears to move more fluidly upon a frying pan after being heated by a stove .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_dependence_of_liquid_viscosity\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 81414\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat burst Content: In meteorology , a heat burst is a rare atmospheric phenomenon characterized by gusty winds and a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in dew point ( moisture ) . Heat bursts typically occur during night-time and are associated with decaying thunderstorms . Although this phenomenon is not fully understood , it is theorized that the event is caused when rain evaporates ( virga ) into a parcel of cold dry air high in the atmosphere making the air denser than its surroundings . The parcel descends rapidly , warming due to compression , overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface , similar to a downburst . Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above 38 ° C , sometimes rising by 20 F-change or more within only a few minutes . More extreme events have also been documented , where temperatures have been reported to exceed 120 ° F. However , such extreme events have never been officially verified . Heat bursts are also characterized by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong , even damaging , winds .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_burst\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 81412\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sink\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 81329\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 81295\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Central_chemoreceptors\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 81133\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 80902\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric instability Content: Atmospheric instability is a condition where the Earth 's atmosphere is generally considered to be unstable and as a result the weather is subjected to a high degree of variability through distance and time . Atmospheric stability is a measure of the atmosphere 's tendency to encourage or deter vertical motion , and vertical motion is directly correlated to different types of weather systems and their severity . In unstable conditions , a lifted thing , such as a parcel of air will be warmer than the surrounding air at altitude . Because it is warmer , it is less dense and is prone to further ascent . In meteorology , instability can be described by various indices such as the Bulk Richardson Number , lifted index , K-index , convective available potential energy ( CAPE ) , the Showalter , and the Vertical totals . These indices , as well as atmospheric instability itself , involve temperature changes through the troposphere with height , or lapse rate . Effects of atmospheric instability in moist atmospheres include thunderstorm development , which over warm oceans can lead to tropical cyclogenesis , and turbulence . In dry atmospheres , inferior mirages , dust devils , steam devils , and fire whirls can form . Stable atmospheres can be associated with drizzle , fog , increased air pollution , a lack of turbulence , and undular bore formation .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_instability\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 80863\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stratosphere Content: The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Stratosphere\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 80757\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 80662\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric temperature range Content: Atmospheric temperature range is the numerical difference between the minimum and maximum values of temperature observed in a given location during a period of time ( e.g. , in a given day , month , year , century ) or the average ( average of all temperature ranges in a period of time ) . The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called diurnal temperature variation .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_temperature_range\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 80171\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hot-dip galvanization Content: Hot-dip galvanization is a form of galvanization . It is the process of coating iron and steel with zinc , which alloys with the surface of the base metal when immersing the metal in a bath of molten zinc at a temperature of around 840 F . When exposed to the atmosphere , the pure zinc ( Zn ) reacts with oxygen ( O2 ) to form zinc oxide ( ZnO ) , which further reacts with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) to form zinc carbonate ( ZnCO3 ) , a usually dull grey , fairly strong material that protects the steel underneath from further corrosion in many circumstances . Galvanized steel is widely used in applications where corrosion resistance is needed without the cost of stainless steel , and is considered superior in terms of cost and life-cycle . It can be identified by the crystallization patterning on the surface ( often called a `` spangle '' ) . Galvanized steel can be welded ; however , one must exercise caution around the resulting toxic zinc fumes . Galvanized steel is suitable for high-temperature applications of up to 392 F . The use of galvanized steel at temperatures above this will result in peeling of the zinc at the inter metallic layer . Electrogalvanized sheet steel is often used in automotive manufacturing to enhance the corrosion performance of exterior body panels ; this is , however , a completely different process which tends to achieve lower coating thicknesses of zinc . Like other corrosion protection systems , galvanizing protects steel by acting as a barrier between steel and the atmosphere . However , zinc is a more electropositive ( active ) metal in comparison to steel . This is a unique characteristic for galvanizing , which means that when a galvanized coating is damaged and steel is exposed to the atmosphere , zinc can continue to protect steel through galvanic corrosion ( often within an annulus of 5 mm , above which electron transfer rate decreases ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Hot-dip_galvanization\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 80115\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric thermometer Content: A atmospheric thermometer is a device that measures the temperature of the indoor or outdoor atmosphere . The most common type consists of a long tube that contains mercury or colored alcohol at the base , although there are also other kinds , such as spring and digital thermometers . When the atmospheric temperature rises , it causes the material inside the air thermometer to expand . Conversely , when the air gets colder , the material contracts and travels back down.Thermometers use temperature scales either Fahrenheit , Celsius , Kelvin , to provide a measure of heat in degrees . Category : Thermometers\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_thermometer\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 80049\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 79830\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Controlled atmosphere Content: A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen , as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated . Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres .\",\n \"qid\": \"104\",\n \"docid\": \"Controlled_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 79827\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":52,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Therefore, CO2 levels could not have forced temperatures to rise."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"105","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":1,"score":121268},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"105","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":2,"score":115539},{"content":"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .","qid":"105","docid":"Cap_carbonate","rank":3,"score":115384},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":4,"score":111591},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"105","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":5,"score":111474},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"105","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":6,"score":110008},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"105","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":7,"score":108269},{"content":"Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .","qid":"105","docid":"The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth","rank":8,"score":108022},{"content":"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .","qid":"105","docid":"Climate_sensitivity","rank":9,"score":102782},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"105","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":10,"score":101463},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"105","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":11,"score":100954},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"105","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":12,"score":100514},{"content":"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .","qid":"105","docid":"Hypercapnia","rank":13,"score":99981},{"content":"Title: Bosch reaction Content: The Bosch reaction is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon ( graphite ) , water , and a 10 % return of invested heat . It is named after the German chemist Carl Bosch . This reaction requires the introduction of iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees Celsius . The overall reaction is as follows : CO2 ( g ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → C ( s ) + 2 H2O ( g ) The above reaction is actually the result of two reactions . The first reaction , the reverse water gas shift reaction , is a fast one : CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O The second reaction controls the reaction rate : CO + H2 → C + H2O The overall reaction produces 2.3 × 103 joules for every gram of carbon dioxide reacted at 650 ° C. Reaction temperatures are in the range of 450 to 600 ° C. The reaction can be accelerated in the presence of an iron , cobalt or nickel catalyst . Ruthenium also serves to speed up the reaction . Together with the Sabatier reaction , the Bosch reaction is studied as a way to remove carbon dioxide and to generate clean water aboard a space station . The reaction is also used to produce graphite for radiocarbon dating with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . The Bosch reaction is being investigated for use in maintaining space station life support . Though the Bosch reaction would present a completely closed hydrogen and oxygen cycle which only produces atomic carbon as waste , difficulties in maintaining its higher required temperature and properly handling carbon deposits mean that significantly more research will be required before a Bosch reactor can become a reality . One problem is that the production of elemental carbon tends to foul the catalyst 's surface , which is detrimental to the reaction 's efficiency .","qid":"105","docid":"Bosch_reaction","rank":14,"score":99676},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":15,"score":98991},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"105","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":16,"score":98540},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_flooding","rank":17,"score":98397},{"content":"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .","qid":"105","docid":"Fisheries_and_climate_change","rank":18,"score":97872},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"105","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":19,"score":97629},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"105","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":20,"score":97349},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"105","docid":"Climate_change_in_Wyoming","rank":21,"score":95953},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"105","docid":"Global_warming","rank":22,"score":95386},{"content":"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .","qid":"105","docid":"Suess_effect","rank":23,"score":95217},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"105","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":24,"score":94707},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"105","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":25,"score":94307},{"content":"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .","qid":"105","docid":"Climate_inertia","rank":26,"score":94013},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"105","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":27,"score":93416},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"105","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":28,"score":91495},{"content":"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .","qid":"105","docid":"Black_carbon","rank":29,"score":90803},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"105","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":30,"score":90316},{"content":"Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .","qid":"105","docid":"Bølling-Allerød_warming","rank":31,"score":90235},{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"105","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":32,"score":89704},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"105","docid":"350.org","rank":33,"score":89546},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"105","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":34,"score":89500},{"content":"Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .","qid":"105","docid":"CO2_is_Green","rank":35,"score":88671},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":36,"score":88427},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_generator","rank":37,"score":87649},{"content":"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .","qid":"105","docid":"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning","rank":38,"score":87087},{"content":"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .","qid":"105","docid":"Amorphous_carbonia","rank":39,"score":86774},{"content":"Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .","qid":"105","docid":"Katsuko_Saruhashi","rank":40,"score":86684},{"content":"Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_cycle_re-balancing","rank":41,"score":86550},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"105","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":42,"score":86494},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"105","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":43,"score":86304},{"content":"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .","qid":"105","docid":"Idealized_greenhouse_model","rank":44,"score":85781},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"105","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":45,"score":85673},{"content":"Title: Carbon-burning process Content: The carbon-burning process or carbon fusion is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in the cores of massive stars ( at least 8 at birth ) that combines carbon into other elements . It requires high temperatures ( > 5 × 108 K or 50 keV ) and densities ( > 3 × 109 kg/m3 ) . These figures for temperature and density are only a guide . More massive stars burn their nuclear fuel more quickly , since they have to offset greater gravitational forces to stay in ( approximate ) hydrostatic equilibrium . That generally means higher temperatures , although lower densities , than for less massive stars . To get the right figures for a particular mass , and a particular stage of evolution , it is necessary to use a numerical stellar model computed with computer algorithms . Such models are continually being refined based on nuclear physics experiments ( which measure nuclear reaction rates ) and astronomical observations ( which include direct observation of mass loss , detection of nuclear products from spectrum observations after convection zones develop from the surface to fusion-burning regions -- known as ` dredge-up ' events -- and so bring nuclear products to the surface , and many other observations relevant to models ) .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon-burning_process","rank":46,"score":84862},{"content":"Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .","qid":"105","docid":"C3_carbon_fixation","rank":47,"score":84666},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"105","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":48,"score":84634},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"105","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":49,"score":84554},{"content":"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_monoxide","rank":50,"score":84190},{"content":"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .","qid":"105","docid":"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide","rank":51,"score":83942},{"content":"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .","qid":"105","docid":"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis","rank":52,"score":83923},{"content":"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.","qid":"105","docid":"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system","rank":53,"score":83513},{"content":"Title: Fink effect Content: The Fink effect , also known as `` diffusion anoxia '' , `` diffusion hypoxia '' , or the `` third gas effect '' , is a factor that influences the pO2 ( partial pressure of oxygen ) within the alveolus . When soluble gases ( e.g. nitrous oxide , N2O ) are breathed in large quantities they can be dissolved in body fluids rapidly . This can lead to a temporary increase in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolus , causing an increase in their respective partial pressures . The effect is named for Bernard Raymond Fink ( 1914 -- 2000 ) , whose 1955 paper first explained it . When a patient is recovering from N2O anaesthesia , large quantities of this gas cross from the blood into the alveolus ( down its concentration gradient ) and so for a short period of time , the O2 and CO2 in the alveolus are diluted by this gas . This could cause the partial pressure of oxygen to decrease and could temporarily lead to hypoxia . The decrease in CO2 could also potentiate this effect as ventilation would be suppressed , leading to potential hypoxaemia . Nonetheless , this effect would only last a couple of minutes and hypoxia can be avoided by increasing the fractional inspired oxygen concentration when recovering from N2O anaesthesia .","qid":"105","docid":"Fink_effect","rank":54,"score":83183},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"105","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":55,"score":82750},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":56,"score":82608},{"content":"Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .","qid":"105","docid":"Radiative_forcing","rank":57,"score":82600},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"105","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":58,"score":82434},{"content":"Title: Dicyanoacetylene Content: Dicyanoacetylene , also called carbon subnitride or but-2-ynedinitrile '' ' ( IUPAC ) , is a compound of carbon and nitrogen with chemical formula C4N2 . It has a linear molecular structure , N ≡ C − C ≡ C − C ≡ N ( often abbreviated as NC4N ) , with alternating triple and single covalent bonds . It can be viewed as acetylene with the two hydrogen atoms replaced by cyanide groups . At room temperature , dicyanoacetylene is a clear liquid . Because of its high endothermic heat of formation , it can explode to carbon powder and nitrogen gas , and it burns in oxygen with a bright blue-white flame at a temperature of 5260 K ( 4990 ° C , 9010 ° F ) , which is the hottest flame of any known chemical reaction .","qid":"105","docid":"Dicyanoacetylene","rank":59,"score":82042},{"content":"Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .","qid":"105","docid":"Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":60,"score":81993},{"content":"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .","qid":"105","docid":"North_American_Carbon_Program","rank":61,"score":81624},{"content":"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .","qid":"105","docid":"Revelle_factor","rank":62,"score":81366},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"105","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":63,"score":81317},{"content":"Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_suboxide","rank":64,"score":81283},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"105","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":65,"score":81260},{"content":"Title: Sabatier reaction Content: The Sabatier reaction or Sabatier process was discovered by the French chemist Paul Sabatier in the 1910s . It involves the reaction of hydrogen with carbon dioxide at elevated temperatures ( optimally 300 -- 400 ° C ) and pressures in the presence of a nickel catalyst to produce methane and water . Optionally , ruthenium on alumina ( aluminium oxide ) makes a more efficient catalyst . It is described by the following exothermic reaction : CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O + energy ∆ H = − 165.0 kJ/mol ( some initial energy/heat is required to start the reaction )","qid":"105","docid":"Sabatier_reaction","rank":66,"score":81238},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"105","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":67,"score":81026},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"105","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":68,"score":80915},{"content":"Title: Cobalt(II) fluoride Content: Cobalt ( II ) fluoride is a chemical compound with the formula ( CoF2 ) . It is a pink crystalline solid compound which is antiferromagnetic at low temperatures ( TN = 37.7 K ) The formula is given for both the red tetragonal crystal , ( CoF2 ) , and the tetrahydrate red orthogonal crystal , ( CoF2 · 4H2O ) . CoF2 is used in oxygen-sensitive fields , namely metal production . In low concentrations , it has public health uses . CoF2 is sparingly soluble in water . The compound can be dissolved in warm mineral acid , and will decompose in boiling water . Yet the hydrate is water-soluble , especially the di-hydrate CoF2 · 2H2 O and tri-hydrate CoF2 · 3H2O forms of the compound . The hydrate will also decompose with heat .","qid":"105","docid":"Cobalt(II)_fluoride","rank":69,"score":80850},{"content":"Title: Temperature's Rising Content: Temperature 's Rising is a compilation album released in 1995 by the Canadian rock band Loverboy . The album was the third compilation by the band , but this particular compilation aimed at the more rarely heard songs by the band , and the minor hits that the previous compilations did not cover .","qid":"105","docid":"Temperature's_Rising","rank":70,"score":80814},{"content":"Title: Respiratory failure Content: Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system , meaning that the arterial oxygen , carbon dioxide or both can not be kept at normal levels . A drop in the oxygen carried in blood is known as hypoxemia ; a rise in arterial carbon dioxide levels is called hypercapnia . Respiratory failure is classified as either Type I or Type II , based on whether there is a high carbon dioxide level . The definition of respiratory failure in clinical trials usually includes increased respiratory rate , abnormal blood gases ( hypoxemia , hypercapnia , or both ) , and evidence of increased work of breathing . The normal partial pressure reference values are : oxygen PaO2 more than 80 mmHg , and carbon dioxide PaCO2 lesser than 45 mmHg .","qid":"105","docid":"Respiratory_failure","rank":71,"score":80569},{"content":"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .","qid":"105","docid":"Hypercane","rank":72,"score":80473},{"content":"Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .","qid":"105","docid":"Central_chemoreceptors","rank":73,"score":80343},{"content":"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .","qid":"105","docid":"Mesopause","rank":74,"score":80337},{"content":"Title: Oxocarbon Content: An oxocarbon or oxide of carbon is a chemical compound consisting only of carbon and oxygen . The simplest and most common oxocarbons are carbon monoxide ( CO ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Many other stable ( practically if not thermodynamically ) or metastable oxides of carbon are known , but they are rarely encountered , such as carbon suboxide ( C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O ) and mellitic anhydride ( C12O9 ) . While textbooks will often list only the first three , and rarely the fourth , a large number of other oxides are known today , most of them synthesized since the 1960s . Some of these new oxides are stable at room temperature . Some are metastable or stable only at very low temperatures , but decompose to simpler oxocarbons when warmed . Many are inherently unstable and can be observed only momentarily as intermediates in chemical reactions or are so reactive that they can exist only in the gas phase or under matrix isolation conditions . The inventory of oxocarbons appears to be steadily growing . The existence of graphene oxide and of other stable polymeric carbon oxides with unbounded molecular structures suggests that many more remain to be discovered .","qid":"105","docid":"Oxocarbon","rank":75,"score":80217},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":76,"score":80102},{"content":"Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology","qid":"105","docid":"LOWERN","rank":77,"score":80035},{"content":"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .","qid":"105","docid":"Gilbert_Plass","rank":78,"score":79865},{"content":"Title: Angelo Battelli Content: Angelo Battelli ( 28 March 1862 -- 11 December 1916 ) was an Italian scientist , notable for having measured temperatures and heats of fusion of non-metallic substances , metallic conductivities and thermoelectric effects in magnetic metals , and the Thomson effect . He investigated osmotic pressures , surface tensions , and physical properties of carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) , water ( H2O ) , and alcohols , especially their vapor pressures , critical points , and densities . He studied X-rays and cathode rays . He investigated the resistance of solenoids to high-frequency alternating currents .","qid":"105","docid":"Angelo_Battelli","rank":79,"score":79624},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":80,"score":79549},{"content":"Title: Carbon detonation Content: Carbon detonation is the violent reignition of thermonuclear fusion in a white dwarf , which produces a Type Ia supernova . A white dwarf undergoes carbon detonation only if it has a binary star companion , be it a normal star or another white dwarf , close enough for the dwarf star to siphon sufficient amounts of matter onto itself , the siphoned matter having been expelled during the process of the companion 's own late stage stellar evolution . If the companion supplies enough matter to the dead star , the white dwarf 's internal pressure and temperature will rise high enough to fuse the previously unfusable carbon in the white dwarf 's core . Carbon detonation generally occurs when the accreted matter pushes the white dwarf 's mass close to the Chandrasekhar limit of roughly 1.4 solar masses . The same happens when two white dwarfs collide and the mass of the remnant is also over the Chandrasekhar limit . While heat is released by the fusion reactions , pressure initially is due almost entirely to electron degeneracy pressure rather than thermal energy and thus does not increase much , inhibiting expansion of the star ( until too late ) and allowing temperature and thus the rate of fusion to increase dramatically in a runaway process . The resumption of fusion spreads outward in a series of uneven , expanding `` bubbles '' exhibiting Rayleigh -- Taylor instability . Within the fusion area , the increase in heat with unchanged volume results in an exponentially rapid increase in the rate of fusion -- a sort of supercritical event as thermal pressure increases boundlessly . With no hydrostatic equilibrium possible , this triggers a `` thermonuclear flame , '' and an explosive eruption through the dwarf star 's surface that completely disrupts it , seen as a Ia supernova . This process , of a volume supported by electron degeneracy pressure instead of thermal pressure gradually reaching conditions capable of igniting runaway fusion , is also found in a less dramatic form in a helium flash in the core of a sufficiently massive red giant star .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_detonation","rank":81,"score":79319},{"content":"Title: Temperature Rising (album) Content: Temperature Rising is the second English language album by Thai singer Tata Young . It was released in 2006 . The album consist of cover songs and original songs . The first single is `` El Nin-YO ! '' , from the lyrics of which the album 's title comes from . ( `` You got my temperature rising like El Nin-YO ! '' ) . Her second single is `` Zoom '' which was released in September . `` Come Rain Come Shine '' , the third single , was used in Star World 's station promo 's from December 2006 to mid-2007 . The promo includes footage of Tata Young singing `` Come Rain Come Shine '' as well as scenes from some of Star World 's television shows ( Everybody Loves Raymond , American Idol etc. . ) Track # 7 , `` Zoom '' , was covered by Ashley Tisdale on her 2007 debut album Headstrong , under the title as `` Do n't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) '' . Temperature Rising was last Tata Young album released on cassette tapes , but in very small numbers produced in a short time until September 2006 .","qid":"105","docid":"Temperature_Rising_(album)","rank":82,"score":79158},{"content":"Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .","qid":"105","docid":"Timothy_Ball","rank":83,"score":79086},{"content":"Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .","qid":"105","docid":"Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction","rank":84,"score":79040},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .","qid":"105","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_York_City","rank":85,"score":78958},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":86,"score":78670},{"content":"Title: Gustav Lorentzen (scientist) Content: Gustav Fredrik Lorentzen ( 13 January 1915 -- 7 August 1995 ) was a thermodynamic scientist from Norway . Gustav Lorentzen was a professor at Norwegian Institute of Technology , and Norwegian University of Science and Technology . In the late 1980s , Gustav Lorentzen rediscovered how CO2 could be used as a refrigerant in heating and cooling applications . He developed the modern thermodynamic transcritical cycle in 1988-1991 . In 1988 Lorentzen designed a concept for a new , but simple and efficient way of regulating CO2 systems . This idea became the turning point in the re-invention of CO2 cooling technology . Meanwhile , the Japanese corporation Denso had familiarized itself with Lorentzen 's dissertation in 1993 , and was evaluating the concept as a basis for a new air-condition application in cars . A series of communications between Lorentzen and Denso followed and the result of the collaboration between Lorentzen and Denso was a fundamental step in the innovation of EcoCute which was commercialized in 2000s .","qid":"105","docid":"Gustav_Lorentzen_(scientist)","rank":87,"score":78538},{"content":"Title: Heat of combustion Content: The calorific value is the total energy released as heat when a substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions . The chemical reaction is typically a hydrocarbon or other organic molecule reacting with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water and release heat . It may be expressed with the quantities : energy/mole of fuel ( kJ/mol ) energy/mass of fuel energy/volume of the fuel The calorific value is conventionally measured with a bomb calorimeter . It may also be calculated as the difference between the heat of formation ΔH of the products and reactants ( though this approach is purely empirical since most heats of formation are calculated from measured heats of combustion ) . For a fuel of composition CcHhOoNn , the magnitude of the heat of combustion is to a good approximation ( ± 3 % ) . The calorific value of all organic compounds has the sign corresponding to an exothermic reaction ( negative in the standard chemical convention ) because the double bond in molecular oxygen is much weaker than other double bonds or pairs of single bonds , particularly those in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water ; conversion of the weak bonds in O2 to the stronger bonds in CO2 and H2O releases energy as heat . The heating value ( or energy value or calorific value ) of a substance , usually a fuel or food ( see food energy ) , is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it . The energy value is a characteristic for each substance . It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance , usually mass , such as : kJ/kg , kJ/mol , kcal/kg , Btu/lb . Heating value is commonly determined by use of a bomb calorimeter . Heating value unit conversions : MJ/kg = kcal/kg × 238.846 Btu/lb = kJ/kg × 2.326 Btu/lb = kcals/kg x0 .5556 The heat of combustion for fuels is expressed as the HHV , LHV , or GHV .","qid":"105","docid":"Heat_of_combustion","rank":88,"score":78301},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"105","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":89,"score":78249},{"content":"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .","qid":"105","docid":"Keith_E._Idso","rank":90,"score":77927},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .","qid":"105","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate","rank":91,"score":77795},{"content":"Title: Boudouard reaction Content: The Boudouard reaction , named after Octave Leopold Boudouard , is the redox reaction of a chemical equilibrium mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide at a given temperature . It is the disproportionation of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide and graphite or its reverse : 2CO + C The Boudouard Reaction to form carbon dioxide and carbon is exothermic at all temperatures . However , the standard enthalpy of the Boudouard reaction becomes less negative with increasing temperature , as shown to the side . While the formation enthalpy of is higher than that of , the formation entropy is much lower . Consequently , the standard free energy of formation of from its component elements is almost constant and independent of the temperature , while the free energy of formation of decreases with temperature . At high temperatures , the forward reaction is therefore endergonic , favoring the ( exergonic ) reverse reaction toward CO , even though the forward reaction is still exothermic . The effect of temperature on the extent of the Boudouard reaction is indicated better by the value of the equilibrium constant than by the standard free energy of reaction . The value of log10 ( Keq ) for the reaction ( valid between 500 -- ) is : has a value of zero at . The implication of the change in Keq with temperature is that a gas containing may form elemental carbon if the mixture cools below a certain temperature . The thermodynamic activity of carbon may be calculated for a / mixture by knowing the partial pressure of each species and the value of Keq . For instance , in a high temperature reducing environment , such as that created for the reduction of iron oxide in a blast furnace or the preparation of carburizing atmospheres , carbon monoxide is the stable oxide of carbon . When a gas rich in is cooled to the point where the activity of carbon exceeds one , the Boudouard Reaction can take place . Carbon monoxide then tends to disproportionate into carbon dioxide and graphite , which forms soot . In industrial catalysis , this is not just an eyesore ; sooting ( also called coking ) can cause serious and even irreversible damage to catalysts and catalyst beds . This is a problem in the catalytic reforming of petroleum and the steam reforming of natural gas . The reaction is named after the French chemist , Octave Leopold Boudouard ( 1872 -- 1923 ) , who investigated this equilibrium in 1905 .","qid":"105","docid":"Boudouard_reaction","rank":92,"score":77642},{"content":"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .","qid":"105","docid":"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory","rank":93,"score":77567},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"105","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":94,"score":77509},{"content":"Title: CO2 dragster Content: CO2 dragsters are miniature racing cars which are propelled by a carbon dioxide cartridge , pierced to start the release of the gas , and which race on a typically 60 foot track . They are frequently used to demonstrate mechanical principles such as mass , force , acceleration , or aerodynamics . Two hooks ( eyelets or screw eyes ) linked to a string ( usually monofilament fishing line ) the bottom of the car prevent the vehicle from losing control during launch . In a race , a laser scanner records the speed of the car at the end of its run . Often , the dragster is carved out of balsa wood because of its light weight . CO2 cars are a part of engineering curriculae in diverse parts of the world such as Australia , New Zealand and the United States . In the United States , classroom projects and competitions can operate under the aegis of the Technology Student Association at middle school and high school levels . Competitions can be featured in local newspapers . Students learn about the forces of gravity , drag , wind resistance , and the motion of air as a fluid . The projects mainly test the aerodynamic , mass and friction properties of a car . These forces can influence performance in a race , so it is vital to take them into account when building .","qid":"105","docid":"CO2_dragster","rank":95,"score":77475},{"content":"Title: Multi-component gas analyzer system Content: A multi-component gas analyzer system ( Multi-GAS ) is an instrument package used to take real-time high-resolution measurements of volcanic gas plumes . A Multi-GAS package includes an infrared spectrometer for CO2 , two electrochemical sensors for SO2 and H2S , and pressure -- temperature -- humidity sensors , all in a weatherproof box weighing approximately 3 kg , as well as radio transmitters to transmit data to remote locations . The instrument package is portable , and its operation and data analysis are simple enough to be conducted by non-specialists . Multi-GAS instruments have been used to measure volcanic gas plumes at Mount Etna , Stromboli , Vulcano Italy , Villarrica ( volcano ) Chile , Masaya Volcano Nicaragua , Mount Yasur and Ambrym Vanuatu , Miyake-jima and Mount Asama Japan , Soufrière Hills Montserrat , with permanent installations at Etna and Stromboli . Multi-GAS measurements of CO2/SO2 ratios can allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas , improving prediction of volcanic activity .","qid":"105","docid":"Multi-component_gas_analyzer_system","rank":96,"score":77375},{"content":"Title: Martian polar ice caps Content: The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice .","qid":"105","docid":"Martian_polar_ice_caps","rank":97,"score":77310},{"content":"Title: 1,2-Dioxetanedione Content: The chemical compound 1,2-dioxetanedione , or 1,2-dioxacyclobutane-3 ,4 - dione , often called peroxyacid ester , is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) with formula C2O4 . It can be viewed as a double ketone of 1,2-dioxetane ( 1,2-dioxacyclobutane ) , or a cyclic dimer of carbon dioxide . In ordinary conditions , it quickly decomposes to carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) even at 180 K , but can be detected by mass spectrometry and other techniques . 1,2-Dioxetanedione is an intermediate in the chemoluminescent reactions used in glowsticks . The decomposition proceeds via a paramagnetic oxalate biradical intermediate . Recently it has been found that a high-energy intermediate in one of these reactions ( between oxalyl chloride and hydrogen peroxide in ethyl acetate ) , which is presumed to be 1,2-dioxetanedione , can accumulate in solution at room temperature ( up to a few micromoles at least ) , provided that the activating dye and all traces of metals and other reducing agents are removed from the system , and the reactions are carried out in an inert atmosphere .","qid":"105","docid":"1,2-Dioxetanedione","rank":98,"score":77241},{"content":"Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .","qid":"105","docid":"CO2_content","rank":99,"score":77203},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"105","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":100,"score":77079}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 121268\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 115539\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 115384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 111591\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 111474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 110008\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 108269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 108022\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 102782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 101463\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 100954\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 100514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercapnia\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 99981\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bosch reaction Content: The Bosch reaction is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon ( graphite ) , water , and a 10 % return of invested heat . It is named after the German chemist Carl Bosch . This reaction requires the introduction of iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees Celsius . The overall reaction is as follows : CO2 ( g ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → C ( s ) + 2 H2O ( g ) The above reaction is actually the result of two reactions . The first reaction , the reverse water gas shift reaction , is a fast one : CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O The second reaction controls the reaction rate : CO + H2 → C + H2O The overall reaction produces 2.3 × 103 joules for every gram of carbon dioxide reacted at 650 ° C. Reaction temperatures are in the range of 450 to 600 ° C. The reaction can be accelerated in the presence of an iron , cobalt or nickel catalyst . Ruthenium also serves to speed up the reaction . Together with the Sabatier reaction , the Bosch reaction is studied as a way to remove carbon dioxide and to generate clean water aboard a space station . The reaction is also used to produce graphite for radiocarbon dating with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . The Bosch reaction is being investigated for use in maintaining space station life support . Though the Bosch reaction would present a completely closed hydrogen and oxygen cycle which only produces atomic carbon as waste , difficulties in maintaining its higher required temperature and properly handling carbon deposits mean that significantly more research will be required before a Bosch reactor can become a reality . One problem is that the production of elemental carbon tends to foul the catalyst 's surface , which is detrimental to the reaction 's efficiency .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Bosch_reaction\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 99676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 98991\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 98540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_flooding\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 98397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Fisheries_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 97872\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 97629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 97349\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 95953\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 95386\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Suess_effect\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 95217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 94707\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 94307\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_inertia\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 94013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 93416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 91495\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 90803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 90316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Bølling-Allerød_warming\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 90235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 89704\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 89546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 89500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_is_Green\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 88671\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 88427\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_generator\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 87649\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 87087\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Amorphous_carbonia\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 86774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Katsuko_Saruhashi\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 86684\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_cycle_re-balancing\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 86550\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 86494\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 86304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Idealized_greenhouse_model\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 85781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 85673\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-burning process Content: The carbon-burning process or carbon fusion is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in the cores of massive stars ( at least 8 at birth ) that combines carbon into other elements . It requires high temperatures ( > 5 × 108 K or 50 keV ) and densities ( > 3 × 109 kg/m3 ) . These figures for temperature and density are only a guide . More massive stars burn their nuclear fuel more quickly , since they have to offset greater gravitational forces to stay in ( approximate ) hydrostatic equilibrium . That generally means higher temperatures , although lower densities , than for less massive stars . To get the right figures for a particular mass , and a particular stage of evolution , it is necessary to use a numerical stellar model computed with computer algorithms . Such models are continually being refined based on nuclear physics experiments ( which measure nuclear reaction rates ) and astronomical observations ( which include direct observation of mass loss , detection of nuclear products from spectrum observations after convection zones develop from the surface to fusion-burning regions -- known as ` dredge-up ' events -- and so bring nuclear products to the surface , and many other observations relevant to models ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-burning_process\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 84862\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"C3_carbon_fixation\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 84666\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 84634\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 84554\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monoxide\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 84190\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 83942\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 83923\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 83513\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fink effect Content: The Fink effect , also known as `` diffusion anoxia '' , `` diffusion hypoxia '' , or the `` third gas effect '' , is a factor that influences the pO2 ( partial pressure of oxygen ) within the alveolus . When soluble gases ( e.g. nitrous oxide , N2O ) are breathed in large quantities they can be dissolved in body fluids rapidly . This can lead to a temporary increase in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolus , causing an increase in their respective partial pressures . The effect is named for Bernard Raymond Fink ( 1914 -- 2000 ) , whose 1955 paper first explained it . When a patient is recovering from N2O anaesthesia , large quantities of this gas cross from the blood into the alveolus ( down its concentration gradient ) and so for a short period of time , the O2 and CO2 in the alveolus are diluted by this gas . This could cause the partial pressure of oxygen to decrease and could temporarily lead to hypoxia . The decrease in CO2 could also potentiate this effect as ventilation would be suppressed , leading to potential hypoxaemia . Nonetheless , this effect would only last a couple of minutes and hypoxia can be avoided by increasing the fractional inspired oxygen concentration when recovering from N2O anaesthesia .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Fink_effect\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 83183\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 82750\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 82608\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiative_forcing\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 82600\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 82434\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dicyanoacetylene Content: Dicyanoacetylene , also called carbon subnitride or but-2-ynedinitrile '' ' ( IUPAC ) , is a compound of carbon and nitrogen with chemical formula C4N2 . It has a linear molecular structure , N ≡ C − C ≡ C − C ≡ N ( often abbreviated as NC4N ) , with alternating triple and single covalent bonds . It can be viewed as acetylene with the two hydrogen atoms replaced by cyanide groups . At room temperature , dicyanoacetylene is a clear liquid . Because of its high endothermic heat of formation , it can explode to carbon powder and nitrogen gas , and it burns in oxygen with a bright blue-white flame at a temperature of 5260 K ( 4990 ° C , 9010 ° F ) , which is the hottest flame of any known chemical reaction .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Dicyanoacetylene\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 82042\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 81993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Carbon_Program\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 81624\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Revelle_factor\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 81366\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 81317\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_suboxide\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 81283\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 81260\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sabatier reaction Content: The Sabatier reaction or Sabatier process was discovered by the French chemist Paul Sabatier in the 1910s . It involves the reaction of hydrogen with carbon dioxide at elevated temperatures ( optimally 300 -- 400 ° C ) and pressures in the presence of a nickel catalyst to produce methane and water . Optionally , ruthenium on alumina ( aluminium oxide ) makes a more efficient catalyst . It is described by the following exothermic reaction : CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O + energy ∆ H = − 165.0 kJ/mol ( some initial energy/heat is required to start the reaction )\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Sabatier_reaction\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 81238\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 81026\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 80915\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cobalt(II) fluoride Content: Cobalt ( II ) fluoride is a chemical compound with the formula ( CoF2 ) . It is a pink crystalline solid compound which is antiferromagnetic at low temperatures ( TN = 37.7 K ) The formula is given for both the red tetragonal crystal , ( CoF2 ) , and the tetrahydrate red orthogonal crystal , ( CoF2 · 4H2O ) . CoF2 is used in oxygen-sensitive fields , namely metal production . In low concentrations , it has public health uses . CoF2 is sparingly soluble in water . The compound can be dissolved in warm mineral acid , and will decompose in boiling water . Yet the hydrate is water-soluble , especially the di-hydrate CoF2 · 2H2 O and tri-hydrate CoF2 · 3H2O forms of the compound . The hydrate will also decompose with heat .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Cobalt(II)_fluoride\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 80850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature's Rising Content: Temperature 's Rising is a compilation album released in 1995 by the Canadian rock band Loverboy . The album was the third compilation by the band , but this particular compilation aimed at the more rarely heard songs by the band , and the minor hits that the previous compilations did not cover .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature's_Rising\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 80814\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Respiratory failure Content: Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system , meaning that the arterial oxygen , carbon dioxide or both can not be kept at normal levels . A drop in the oxygen carried in blood is known as hypoxemia ; a rise in arterial carbon dioxide levels is called hypercapnia . Respiratory failure is classified as either Type I or Type II , based on whether there is a high carbon dioxide level . The definition of respiratory failure in clinical trials usually includes increased respiratory rate , abnormal blood gases ( hypoxemia , hypercapnia , or both ) , and evidence of increased work of breathing . The normal partial pressure reference values are : oxygen PaO2 more than 80 mmHg , and carbon dioxide PaCO2 lesser than 45 mmHg .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Respiratory_failure\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 80569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercane\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 80473\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Central_chemoreceptors\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 80343\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Mesopause\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 80337\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oxocarbon Content: An oxocarbon or oxide of carbon is a chemical compound consisting only of carbon and oxygen . The simplest and most common oxocarbons are carbon monoxide ( CO ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Many other stable ( practically if not thermodynamically ) or metastable oxides of carbon are known , but they are rarely encountered , such as carbon suboxide ( C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O ) and mellitic anhydride ( C12O9 ) . While textbooks will often list only the first three , and rarely the fourth , a large number of other oxides are known today , most of them synthesized since the 1960s . Some of these new oxides are stable at room temperature . Some are metastable or stable only at very low temperatures , but decompose to simpler oxocarbons when warmed . Many are inherently unstable and can be observed only momentarily as intermediates in chemical reactions or are so reactive that they can exist only in the gas phase or under matrix isolation conditions . The inventory of oxocarbons appears to be steadily growing . The existence of graphene oxide and of other stable polymeric carbon oxides with unbounded molecular structures suggests that many more remain to be discovered .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Oxocarbon\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 80217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 80102\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"LOWERN\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 80035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Gilbert_Plass\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 79865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Angelo Battelli Content: Angelo Battelli ( 28 March 1862 -- 11 December 1916 ) was an Italian scientist , notable for having measured temperatures and heats of fusion of non-metallic substances , metallic conductivities and thermoelectric effects in magnetic metals , and the Thomson effect . He investigated osmotic pressures , surface tensions , and physical properties of carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) , water ( H2O ) , and alcohols , especially their vapor pressures , critical points , and densities . He studied X-rays and cathode rays . He investigated the resistance of solenoids to high-frequency alternating currents .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Angelo_Battelli\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 79624\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 79549\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon detonation Content: Carbon detonation is the violent reignition of thermonuclear fusion in a white dwarf , which produces a Type Ia supernova . A white dwarf undergoes carbon detonation only if it has a binary star companion , be it a normal star or another white dwarf , close enough for the dwarf star to siphon sufficient amounts of matter onto itself , the siphoned matter having been expelled during the process of the companion 's own late stage stellar evolution . If the companion supplies enough matter to the dead star , the white dwarf 's internal pressure and temperature will rise high enough to fuse the previously unfusable carbon in the white dwarf 's core . Carbon detonation generally occurs when the accreted matter pushes the white dwarf 's mass close to the Chandrasekhar limit of roughly 1.4 solar masses . The same happens when two white dwarfs collide and the mass of the remnant is also over the Chandrasekhar limit . While heat is released by the fusion reactions , pressure initially is due almost entirely to electron degeneracy pressure rather than thermal energy and thus does not increase much , inhibiting expansion of the star ( until too late ) and allowing temperature and thus the rate of fusion to increase dramatically in a runaway process . The resumption of fusion spreads outward in a series of uneven , expanding `` bubbles '' exhibiting Rayleigh -- Taylor instability . Within the fusion area , the increase in heat with unchanged volume results in an exponentially rapid increase in the rate of fusion -- a sort of supercritical event as thermal pressure increases boundlessly . With no hydrostatic equilibrium possible , this triggers a `` thermonuclear flame , '' and an explosive eruption through the dwarf star 's surface that completely disrupts it , seen as a Ia supernova . This process , of a volume supported by electron degeneracy pressure instead of thermal pressure gradually reaching conditions capable of igniting runaway fusion , is also found in a less dramatic form in a helium flash in the core of a sufficiently massive red giant star .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_detonation\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 79319\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature Rising (album) Content: Temperature Rising is the second English language album by Thai singer Tata Young . It was released in 2006 . The album consist of cover songs and original songs . The first single is `` El Nin-YO ! '' , from the lyrics of which the album 's title comes from . ( `` You got my temperature rising like El Nin-YO ! '' ) . Her second single is `` Zoom '' which was released in September . `` Come Rain Come Shine '' , the third single , was used in Star World 's station promo 's from December 2006 to mid-2007 . The promo includes footage of Tata Young singing `` Come Rain Come Shine '' as well as scenes from some of Star World 's television shows ( Everybody Loves Raymond , American Idol etc. . ) Track # 7 , `` Zoom '' , was covered by Ashley Tisdale on her 2007 debut album Headstrong , under the title as `` Do n't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) '' . Temperature Rising was last Tata Young album released on cassette tapes , but in very small numbers produced in a short time until September 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_Rising_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 79158\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Timothy_Ball\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 79086\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 79040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_York_City\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 78958\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 78670\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gustav Lorentzen (scientist) Content: Gustav Fredrik Lorentzen ( 13 January 1915 -- 7 August 1995 ) was a thermodynamic scientist from Norway . Gustav Lorentzen was a professor at Norwegian Institute of Technology , and Norwegian University of Science and Technology . In the late 1980s , Gustav Lorentzen rediscovered how CO2 could be used as a refrigerant in heating and cooling applications . He developed the modern thermodynamic transcritical cycle in 1988-1991 . In 1988 Lorentzen designed a concept for a new , but simple and efficient way of regulating CO2 systems . This idea became the turning point in the re-invention of CO2 cooling technology . Meanwhile , the Japanese corporation Denso had familiarized itself with Lorentzen 's dissertation in 1993 , and was evaluating the concept as a basis for a new air-condition application in cars . A series of communications between Lorentzen and Denso followed and the result of the collaboration between Lorentzen and Denso was a fundamental step in the innovation of EcoCute which was commercialized in 2000s .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Gustav_Lorentzen_(scientist)\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 78538\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat of combustion Content: The calorific value is the total energy released as heat when a substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions . The chemical reaction is typically a hydrocarbon or other organic molecule reacting with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water and release heat . It may be expressed with the quantities : energy/mole of fuel ( kJ/mol ) energy/mass of fuel energy/volume of the fuel The calorific value is conventionally measured with a bomb calorimeter . It may also be calculated as the difference between the heat of formation ΔH of the products and reactants ( though this approach is purely empirical since most heats of formation are calculated from measured heats of combustion ) . For a fuel of composition CcHhOoNn , the magnitude of the heat of combustion is to a good approximation ( ± 3 % ) . The calorific value of all organic compounds has the sign corresponding to an exothermic reaction ( negative in the standard chemical convention ) because the double bond in molecular oxygen is much weaker than other double bonds or pairs of single bonds , particularly those in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water ; conversion of the weak bonds in O2 to the stronger bonds in CO2 and H2O releases energy as heat . The heating value ( or energy value or calorific value ) of a substance , usually a fuel or food ( see food energy ) , is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it . The energy value is a characteristic for each substance . It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance , usually mass , such as : kJ/kg , kJ/mol , kcal/kg , Btu/lb . Heating value is commonly determined by use of a bomb calorimeter . Heating value unit conversions : MJ/kg = kcal/kg × 238.846 Btu/lb = kJ/kg × 2.326 Btu/lb = kcals/kg x0 .5556 The heat of combustion for fuels is expressed as the HHV , LHV , or GHV .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_of_combustion\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 78301\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 78249\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Keith_E._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 77927\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 77795\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Boudouard reaction Content: The Boudouard reaction , named after Octave Leopold Boudouard , is the redox reaction of a chemical equilibrium mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide at a given temperature . It is the disproportionation of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide and graphite or its reverse : 2CO + C The Boudouard Reaction to form carbon dioxide and carbon is exothermic at all temperatures . However , the standard enthalpy of the Boudouard reaction becomes less negative with increasing temperature , as shown to the side . While the formation enthalpy of is higher than that of , the formation entropy is much lower . Consequently , the standard free energy of formation of from its component elements is almost constant and independent of the temperature , while the free energy of formation of decreases with temperature . At high temperatures , the forward reaction is therefore endergonic , favoring the ( exergonic ) reverse reaction toward CO , even though the forward reaction is still exothermic . The effect of temperature on the extent of the Boudouard reaction is indicated better by the value of the equilibrium constant than by the standard free energy of reaction . The value of log10 ( Keq ) for the reaction ( valid between 500 -- ) is : has a value of zero at . The implication of the change in Keq with temperature is that a gas containing may form elemental carbon if the mixture cools below a certain temperature . The thermodynamic activity of carbon may be calculated for a / mixture by knowing the partial pressure of each species and the value of Keq . For instance , in a high temperature reducing environment , such as that created for the reduction of iron oxide in a blast furnace or the preparation of carburizing atmospheres , carbon monoxide is the stable oxide of carbon . When a gas rich in is cooled to the point where the activity of carbon exceeds one , the Boudouard Reaction can take place . Carbon monoxide then tends to disproportionate into carbon dioxide and graphite , which forms soot . In industrial catalysis , this is not just an eyesore ; sooting ( also called coking ) can cause serious and even irreversible damage to catalysts and catalyst beds . This is a problem in the catalytic reforming of petroleum and the steam reforming of natural gas . The reaction is named after the French chemist , Octave Leopold Boudouard ( 1872 -- 1923 ) , who investigated this equilibrium in 1905 .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Boudouard_reaction\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 77642\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 77567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 77509\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 dragster Content: CO2 dragsters are miniature racing cars which are propelled by a carbon dioxide cartridge , pierced to start the release of the gas , and which race on a typically 60 foot track . They are frequently used to demonstrate mechanical principles such as mass , force , acceleration , or aerodynamics . Two hooks ( eyelets or screw eyes ) linked to a string ( usually monofilament fishing line ) the bottom of the car prevent the vehicle from losing control during launch . In a race , a laser scanner records the speed of the car at the end of its run . Often , the dragster is carved out of balsa wood because of its light weight . CO2 cars are a part of engineering curriculae in diverse parts of the world such as Australia , New Zealand and the United States . In the United States , classroom projects and competitions can operate under the aegis of the Technology Student Association at middle school and high school levels . Competitions can be featured in local newspapers . Students learn about the forces of gravity , drag , wind resistance , and the motion of air as a fluid . The projects mainly test the aerodynamic , mass and friction properties of a car . These forces can influence performance in a race , so it is vital to take them into account when building .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_dragster\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 77475\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Multi-component gas analyzer system Content: A multi-component gas analyzer system ( Multi-GAS ) is an instrument package used to take real-time high-resolution measurements of volcanic gas plumes . A Multi-GAS package includes an infrared spectrometer for CO2 , two electrochemical sensors for SO2 and H2S , and pressure -- temperature -- humidity sensors , all in a weatherproof box weighing approximately 3 kg , as well as radio transmitters to transmit data to remote locations . The instrument package is portable , and its operation and data analysis are simple enough to be conducted by non-specialists . Multi-GAS instruments have been used to measure volcanic gas plumes at Mount Etna , Stromboli , Vulcano Italy , Villarrica ( volcano ) Chile , Masaya Volcano Nicaragua , Mount Yasur and Ambrym Vanuatu , Miyake-jima and Mount Asama Japan , Soufrière Hills Montserrat , with permanent installations at Etna and Stromboli . Multi-GAS measurements of CO2/SO2 ratios can allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas , improving prediction of volcanic activity .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Multi-component_gas_analyzer_system\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 77375\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Martian polar ice caps Content: The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Martian_polar_ice_caps\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 77310\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1,2-Dioxetanedione Content: The chemical compound 1,2-dioxetanedione , or 1,2-dioxacyclobutane-3 ,4 - dione , often called peroxyacid ester , is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) with formula C2O4 . It can be viewed as a double ketone of 1,2-dioxetane ( 1,2-dioxacyclobutane ) , or a cyclic dimer of carbon dioxide . In ordinary conditions , it quickly decomposes to carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) even at 180 K , but can be detected by mass spectrometry and other techniques . 1,2-Dioxetanedione is an intermediate in the chemoluminescent reactions used in glowsticks . The decomposition proceeds via a paramagnetic oxalate biradical intermediate . Recently it has been found that a high-energy intermediate in one of these reactions ( between oxalyl chloride and hydrogen peroxide in ethyl acetate ) , which is presumed to be 1,2-dioxetanedione , can accumulate in solution at room temperature ( up to a few micromoles at least ) , provided that the activating dye and all traces of metals and other reducing agents are removed from the system , and the reactions are carried out in an inert atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"1,2-Dioxetanedione\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 77241\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_content\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 77203\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"105\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 77079\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":53,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"sea-level rise is not accelerating."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"108","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":1,"score":132430},{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"108","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":2,"score":118430},{"content":"Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .","qid":"108","docid":"Meltwater_pulse_1B","rank":3,"score":99162},{"content":"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''","qid":"108","docid":"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)","rank":4,"score":96920},{"content":"Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .","qid":"108","docid":"Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis","rank":5,"score":92527},{"content":"Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .","qid":"108","docid":"The_Sea_is_Rising","rank":6,"score":92163},{"content":"Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .","qid":"108","docid":"Sea_level","rank":7,"score":91107},{"content":"Title: NAIRU Content: NAIRU is an acronym for non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment , and refers to a level of unemployment below which inflation rises . It was first introduced as NIRU ( non-inflationary rate of unemployment ) by Franco Modigliani and Lucas Papademos in 1975 , as an improvement over the `` natural rate of unemployment '' concept , which was proposed earlier by Milton Friedman . Monetary policy conducted under the assumption of a NAIRU involves allowing just enough unemployment in the economy to prevent inflation rising above a given target figure . Prices are allowed to increase gradually and some unemployment is tolerated .","qid":"108","docid":"NAIRU","rank":8,"score":90839},{"content":"Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .","qid":"108","docid":"The_Sea_Has_Risen","rank":9,"score":90257},{"content":"Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .","qid":"108","docid":"Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea","rank":10,"score":87493},{"content":"Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .","qid":"108","docid":"Meltwater_pulse_1A","rank":11,"score":85849},{"content":"Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .","qid":"108","docid":"Tide","rank":12,"score":85226},{"content":"Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .","qid":"108","docid":"Rising_from_the_Sea","rank":13,"score":85094},{"content":"Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .","qid":"108","docid":"Josh_Willis","rank":14,"score":84552},{"content":"Title: Yoldia Sea Content: Yoldia Sea is a name given by geologists to a variable brackish-water stage in the Baltic Sea basin that prevailed after the Baltic ice lake was drained to sea level during the Weichsel glaciation . Dates for the Yoldia sea are obtained mainly by radiocarbon dating material from ancient sediments and shore lines and from clay-varve chronology . They tend to vary by as much as a thousand years , but a good estimate is 10,300 -- 9500 radiocarbon years BP , equivalent to ca 11,700-10 ,700 calendar years BP . The sea ended gradually when isostatic rise of Scandinavia closed or nearly closed its effluents , altering the balance between saline and fresh water . The Yoldia Sea became Ancylus Lake . The Yoldia Sea stage had three phases of which only the middle phase had brackish water . The name of the sea is adapted from the obsolete name of the bivalve , Portlandia arctica ( previously known as Yoldia arctica ) , found around Stockholm . This bivalve requires cold saline water . It characterizes the middle phase of the Yoldia Sea , during which saline water poured into the Baltic , before the acceleration of glacial melting .","qid":"108","docid":"Yoldia_Sea","rank":15,"score":84304},{"content":"Title: Seaford Rise, South Australia Content: Seaford Rise is a metropolitan suburb of Adelaide , South Australia . It lies within the City of Onkaparinga . Its boundaries are formed by Griffiths Drive in the north , Commercial Road in the west , Main South Road in the east , and by an arbitrary border with Maslin Beach in the south .","qid":"108","docid":"Seaford_Rise,_South_Australia","rank":16,"score":83952},{"content":"Title: Accelerating change Content: In futures studies and the history of technology , accelerating change is a perceived increase in the rate of technological change throughout history , which may suggest faster and more profound change in the future and may or may not be accompanied by equally profound social and cultural change .","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerating_change","rank":17,"score":83362},{"content":"Title: Nonradiation condition Content: Classical nonradiation conditions define the conditions according to classical electromagnetism under which a distribution of accelerating charges will not emit electromagnetic radiation . According to the Larmor formula in classical electromagnetism , a single point charge under acceleration will emit electromagnetic radiation , i.e. light . In some classical electron models a distribution of charges can however be accelerated so that no radiation is emitted . The modern derivation of these nonradiation conditions by Hermann A. Haus is based on the Fourier components of the current produced by a moving point charge . It states that a distribution of accelerated charges will radiate if and only if it has Fourier components synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light .","qid":"108","docid":"Nonradiation_condition","rank":18,"score":83345},{"content":"Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :","qid":"108","docid":"Tide_(disambiguation)","rank":19,"score":83340},{"content":"Title: Advanced Graphics Riser Content: The Advanced Graphics Riser is a variation of the Accelerated Graphics Port ( AGP ) used in some PCIe motherboards made by MSI to offer a limited backwards compatibility with AGP . It is , effectively , a modified PCIe slot allowing for performance comparable to an AGP 4x/8x slot , but with limited support of AGP cards . The manufacturer has published a non-exhaustive compatibility list of cards and chipsets that work with the modified slot .","qid":"108","docid":"Advanced_Graphics_Riser","rank":20,"score":81830},{"content":"Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .","qid":"108","docid":"Past_sea_level","rank":21,"score":81721},{"content":"Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .","qid":"108","docid":"Tide_gauge","rank":22,"score":81505},{"content":"Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .","qid":"108","docid":"Sea-level_curve","rank":23,"score":80972},{"content":"Title: Risella Content: Risella is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .","qid":"108","docid":"Risella","rank":24,"score":80578},{"content":"Title: When the Sea Rises Content: When the Sea Rises ( Quand la mer monte ... ) is a 2004 French-Belgian romantic comedy film directed by Yolande Moreau and Gilles Porte . It was Moreau 's directorial debut .","qid":"108","docid":"When_the_Sea_Rises","rank":25,"score":80543},{"content":"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .","qid":"108","docid":"Equilibrium_level","rank":26,"score":80422},{"content":"Title: Accelerating expansion of the universe Content: The accelerating expansion of the universe is the observation that the universe appears to be expanding at an increasing rate , so that the velocity at which a distant galaxy is receding from the observer is continuously increasing with time . The accelerated expansion was discovered in 1998 , by two independent projects , the Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team , which both used distant type Ia supernovae as standard candles to measure the acceleration . The discovery was unexpected , cosmologists at the time expecting that the expansion would be decelerating due to the gravitational attraction of the matter in the universe . Three members of these two groups have subsequently been awarded Nobel Prizes for their discovery . Confirmatory evidence has been found in baryon acoustic oscillations and in analyses of the clustering of galaxies . The expansion of the universe is thought to have been accelerating since the universe entered its dark-energy-dominated era roughly 5 billion years ago . Within the framework of general relativity , an accelerating expansion can be accounted for by a positive value of the cosmological constant , equivalent to the presence of a positive vacuum energy , dubbed `` dark energy '' . While there are alternative possible explanations , the description assuming dark energy ( positive ) is used in the current standard model of cosmology , which also includes cold dark matter ( CDM ) and is known as the Lambda-CDM model .","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe","rank":27,"score":80394},{"content":"Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .","qid":"108","docid":"Sea_level_equation","rank":28,"score":79941},{"content":"Title: Ice rise Content: An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .","qid":"108","docid":"Ice_rise","rank":29,"score":79666},{"content":"Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .","qid":"108","docid":"Sea_Level_(band)","rank":30,"score":79509},{"content":"Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .","qid":"108","docid":"Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)","rank":31,"score":79381},{"content":"Title: Accelerate (disambiguation) Content: In general , to accelerate is to change velocity or increase speed ; see Acceleration . Accelerate may also refer to : Accelerate ( Jump5 album ) , a 2003 pop album Accelerate ( R.E.M. album ) , a 2008 alternative rock album Accelerate ( Peter Andre ) , a 2010 a pop album USS Accelerate ( ARS-30 ) , a salvage ship","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerate_(disambiguation)","rank":32,"score":79330},{"content":"Title: Rising Tide (Forgotten Realms novel) Content: Rising Tide is a fantasy novel by Mel Odom , set in the world of the Forgotten Realms , and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game . It is the first novel in `` The Threat from the Sea '' trilogy . It was published in paperback in January 1999 .","qid":"108","docid":"Rising_Tide_(Forgotten_Realms_novel)","rank":33,"score":79080},{"content":"Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .","qid":"108","docid":"Seamount","rank":34,"score":78655},{"content":"Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .","qid":"108","docid":"Marine_transgression","rank":35,"score":78040},{"content":"Title: A Nation Deceived Content: A Nation Deceived : How Schools Hold Back America 's Brightest Students is The Templeton National Report on Acceleration , a report which was published in 2004 and edited by Nicholas Colangelo , Susan G. Assouline , and Miraca Gross . This report argues for the academic acceleration of qualified gifted and talented students , based on the results of studies on outcomes of accelerating and not accelerating high-achieving students . Despite the evidence that acceleration is a beneficial practice when implemented correctly , many teachers and parents are reluctant to accelerate students . The report presents the research on acceleration in an effort to increase the number of students who have access to acceleration . The report is divided into two parts : Volume I , which summarizes the research and provides an introduction to acceleration as an academic intervention for gifted students ; and Volume II , an edited volume that provides a more detailed overview of relevant research studies . The success of A Nation Deceived led to the creation of the Acceleration Institute ( formerly the Institute for Research and Policy on Acceleration ) , which is dedicated to the study and support of educational acceleration for academically talented students . A Nation Empowered , a follow-up to A Nation Deceived , was published in 2015 . It expands upon findings of the original report and incorporates research that has emerged since publication of A Nation Deceived .","qid":"108","docid":"A_Nation_Deceived","rank":36,"score":78034},{"content":"Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .","qid":"108","docid":"East_Pacific_Rise","rank":37,"score":77427},{"content":"Title: Accelerate (R.E.M. album) Content: Accelerate is the fourteenth studio album by American alternative rock band R.E.M. , released on March 31 , 2008 in Europe , and on April 1 in North America . Produced with Jacknife Lee , Accelerate was intended as a departure from the 2004 album Around the Sun . R.E.M. previewed several of the album 's tracks during a five-night residency at the Olympia Theatre in Dublin , Republic of Ireland , and recorded the album in a nine-week schedule . The album received a warm reception from music critics , earning a 79/100 rating on Metacritic . Reviewers often complimented the aggressive , purposeful sound of the songs , with Q magazine critic Keith Cameron stating that `` Accelerate is the sound of a band having enjoyed a good word with themselves -- and us . ''","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerate_(R.E.M._album)","rank":38,"score":77251},{"content":"Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .","qid":"108","docid":"A_Sea_So_Far","rank":39,"score":77049},{"content":"Title: Benham Plateau Content: The Benham Rise , officially known as the Philippine Rise , is a seismically active undersea region and extinct volcanic ridge located in the Philippine Sea approximately 250 km east of the northern coastline of Dinapigue , Isabela . Under the Philippine Sea lie a number of basins including the West Philippine Sea Basin , inside of which is located the Central Basin Fault ( CBF ) . The Benham Plateau is located in the CBF and its basement probably is a micro-continent . Several scientific surveys have been made on the feature to study its nature and its impact on tectonic subduction , including one about its effects on the 1990 Luzon earthquake . The Philippines claimed this feature as part of its continental shelf in a claim lodged with the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on 8 April 2009 , and which was approved under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) in 2012 . It is designated as a `` protected food supply exclusive zone '' by the Philippine government in May 2017 . Mining and oil exploration is banned in the Benham Plateau as a protected area . On May 16 , 2017 , Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 25 renaming the region to Philippine Rise .","qid":"108","docid":"Benham_Plateau","rank":40,"score":77005},{"content":"Title: Risellopsis Content: Risellopsis is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .","qid":"108","docid":"Risellopsis","rank":41,"score":76442},{"content":"Title: USS Accelerate (ARS-30) Content: USS Accelerate ( ARS-30 ) was a salvage ship in the service of the United States Navy . She was originally built as the steam-propelled mooring tender Toteco by Kyle & Purdy , for International Petroleum . Either late in 1929 or early 1930 , the vessel was renamed Walling .","qid":"108","docid":"USS_Accelerate_(ARS-30)","rank":42,"score":76267},{"content":"Title: Acceleration due to gravity Content: Acceleration due to gravity may refer to Gravitational acceleration , the acceleration caused by the gravitational attraction of massive bodies in general Gravity of Earth , the acceleration caused by the gravitational attraction of the Earth Standard gravity , or g , the standard value of gravitational acceleration at sea level on Earth","qid":"108","docid":"Acceleration_due_to_gravity","rank":43,"score":76256},{"content":"Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .","qid":"108","docid":"Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level","rank":44,"score":75868},{"content":"Title: Risella tantillus Content: Risella tantillus is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .","qid":"108","docid":"Risella_tantillus","rank":45,"score":75474},{"content":"Title: Accelerated freefall Content: Accelerated freefall ( AFF ) ( known in Canada as progressive freefall , in Finland as Nova ( = NOpeutettu VApaapudotus , a literal translation ) ) is a method of skydiving training . This method of skydiving training is called `` accelerated '' because the progression is the fastest way to experience solo freefall , normally from 10,000 to 15,000 feet `` Above Ground Level '' ( AGL ) . In static line progression , more jumps are required to experience freefall , but the jumps are less expensive for the student as one instructor can dispatch multiple students per load and students are initially dispatched from lower altitudes . Under accelerated freefall , one or sometimes two instructors are dedicated just to one student .","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerated_freefall","rank":46,"score":75318},{"content":"Title: Accelerate (Jump5 album) Content: Accelerate is the fourth album by the Christian pop group Jump5 . It was released on October 7 , 2003 . The album demonstrated the group 's shift towards a pop/rock sound , and was also the first album on which a member of the group had writing credits . Half of the album was made up of covers , including `` Walking on Sunshine '' by Katrina and the Waves and `` Shining Star '' by Earth , Wind & Fire . The group 's cover of Sister Sledge 's `` We Are Family '' was used as the theme for the Radio Disney Family Pledge Initiative . It charted at # 150 on the Billboard Top 200 and at # 8 on the Top Christian Albums charts .","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerate_(Jump5_album)","rank":47,"score":74549},{"content":"Title: Accelerate (Peter Andre album) Content: Accelerate is the seventh album released by British singer-songwriter Peter Andre .","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerate_(Peter_Andre_album)","rank":48,"score":74530},{"content":"Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .","qid":"108","docid":"Tidal_range","rank":49,"score":74399},{"content":"Title: J-PAS Content: J-PAS ( Javalambre Physics of the accelerating universe Astronomical Survey ) is an astronomical facility located in Pico del Buitre in Sierra de Javalambre , near Teruel , in Spain . It is constituted of two telescopes : a 2.5 metre primary mirror telescope ( T250 ) and an 80-centimeter telescope ( T80 ) . The T250 will observe the sky in 56 colors with a large field 1.2 Giga-pixel camera , constituted by an array of 14 CCDs . J-PAS will observe more than 8000 square degrees ( about 1/5 of the whole sky ) during 5/6 years . J-PAS filters cover the entire visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum ( 3500 Å to 10000 Å ) .","qid":"108","docid":"J-PAS","rank":50,"score":74319},{"content":"Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .","qid":"108","docid":"Sea_Level_(album)","rank":51,"score":74284},{"content":"Title: Thiel Trough Content: Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf","qid":"108","docid":"Thiel_Trough","rank":52,"score":74187},{"content":"Title: Mark Meier Content: Mark F. Meier ( 1925 -- November 25 , 2012 ) was an American glaciologist who was considered a leading expert on the study of rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers . Meier was the Director of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research ( INSTAAR ) from 1985 to 1994 and remained the institute 's director emeritus until his death in 2012 . He was also a professor of geological sciences at the University of Colorado - Boulder . Meier was born and raised in Iowa . He resided in Boulder , Colorado , since 1985 . In 1956 , Meier founded the U.S. Geological Survey 's department of glaciology . He obtained doctorate in 1957 from the California Institute of Technology . Meier served as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey 's Project Office of Glaciology in Tacoma , Washington , until he became the director of INSTAAR in 1985 . Meier was one of the first glaciologists to use remote sensing to study glaciers and rates of melting . He headed several studies of tidewater glacier dynamics in the U.S. state of Alaska . Meier organized the systematic measurement and assessment of glacier mass balance within North America to mark the International Geophysical Year and International Hydrological Decade , which was observed from 1965 to 1975 . His numerous recognitions and awards included the Seligman Crystal from the International Glaciological Society in 1993 , the Robert E. Horton Medal in 1996 , three medals from the USSR Academy of Sciences ( now the Russian Academy of Sciences ) and the United States Department of the Interior 's Distinguished Service Award . Meier died in Boulder , Colorado , on November 25 , 2012 , at the age of 86 . He is survived by his wife , Barbara , his children , Lauren Meier , Gretchen Meier , and Mark S. Meier , and his seven grandchildren .","qid":"108","docid":"Mark_Meier","rank":53,"score":74069},{"content":"Title: Continental rise Content: The continental rise is an underwater feature found between the continental slope and the abyssal plain . This feature can be found all around the world , and it represents the final stage in the boundary between continents and the deepest part of the ocean . The environment in the continental rise is quite unique , and many oceanographers study it extensively in the hopes of learning more about the ocean and geologic history . At the bottom of the continental slope , one will find the continental rise , an underwater hill composed of tons of accumulated sediments . The general slope of the continental rise is between 0.5 degrees and 1.0 degrees . Deposition of sediments at the mouth of submarine canyons may form enormous fan-shaped accumulations called submarine fans . Submarine fans form part of the continental rise . Beyond the continental rise stretches the abyssal plain , an extremely deep and flat area of the sea floor . The abyssal plain hosts many unique life forms which are uniquely adapted to survival in its cold , high pressure , and dark conditions . The flatness of the abyssal plain is interrupted by massive underwater mountain chains near the tectonic boundaries of the Earth 's plates.The sediments are mostly sand and pieces of coral or rock . Category : Oceanography","qid":"108","docid":"Continental_rise","rank":54,"score":73872},{"content":"Title: The Threat from the Sea Content: The Threat From the Sea is a series of fantasy novels written mostly by Mel Odom . It contains three novels : Rising Tide , Under Fallen Stars , and The Sea Devil 's Eye . It also contains the anthology book , Realms of the Deep .","qid":"108","docid":"The_Threat_from_the_Sea","rank":55,"score":73617},{"content":"Title: Young Detective Dee: Rise of the Sea Dragon Content: Young Detective Dee : Rise of the Sea Dragon is a 2013 Chinese action-adventure fantasy mystery film directed , produced , and co-written by Tsui Hark . It is a prequel to Hark 's 2010 film Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame , which starred Andy Lau . Taiwanese-Canadian actor Mark Chao takes over from him as a young Detective Dee , while Feng Shaofeng , Lin Gengxin , Kim Bum ( in his Chinese debut ) , and Angelababy co-star alongside a returning Carina Lau from Mystery of the Phantom Flame , rounding up the ensemble cast . A sequel of the film and the third installment of the Detective Dee series , titled Detective Dee : The Four Heavenly Kings will be released in 2018 . Filming will begin in March 2017 .","qid":"108","docid":"Young_Detective_Dee:_Rise_of_the_Sea_Dragon","rank":56,"score":73537},{"content":"Title: I/O Acceleration Technology Content: I/O Acceleration Technology ( I/OAT ) is a DMA engine ( an embedded DMA controller ) by Intel bundled with high-end server motherboards , that offloads memory copies from the main processor by performing direct memory accesses ( DMA ) . It is typically used for accelerating network traffic , but supports any kind of copy . For the Internet of Autonomous Things , see Autonomous Things . Using I/OAT for network acceleration is supported by Microsoft Windows since the release of Scalable Networking Pack for Windows Server 2003 SP1 . It was used by the Linux kernel starting in 2006 but this feature was subsequently disabled due to an alleged lack of performance benefits while creating a possibility of data corruption .","qid":"108","docid":"I/O_Acceleration_Technology","rank":57,"score":73451},{"content":"Title: Viral decay acceleration Content: Viral decay acceleration ( VDA ) is a therapeutic strategy which increases the mutation frequency of a virus toward an error catastrophe threshold . Viruses evolve at rates approximately one million times faster than the human genome . The high mutation rate increases diversity within the viral population and facilitates survival in the face of host immune responses , depletion of target cells and antiviral therapeutics . This evolutionary advantage however comes at a considerable cost in that the vast majority of virus particles have mutated beyond a survivability threshold and are therefore non-infectious . Laboratory studies have demonstrated that therapeutics capable of increasing the mutation frequency as little as 2-fold results in collapse of the viral population . These therapeutics , termed VDA agents , accelerate the accumulation of additional mutations in the viral genome , progressively debilitating the virus which causes decay and eventual extinction of the entire viral population .","qid":"108","docid":"Viral_decay_acceleration","rank":58,"score":73441},{"content":"Title: Accelerated-X Content: Accelerated-X is a proprietary port of the X Window System to Intel x86 machines .","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerated-X","rank":59,"score":73412},{"content":"Title: Unicorn Skeleton Mask Content: Unicorn Skeleton Mask is the twenty-fifth studio album by Omar Rodríguez-López as a solo artist . It was given a `` surprise '' digital release on January 2 , 2013 , just a day after the release of Equinox and Woman Gives Birth To Tomato ! . Three of the album 's songs , `` Sea Is Rising , '' `` Maria Te Canta , '' and `` Bored To Burns '' were previously debuted live as instrumental pieces during Omar Rodriguez Lopez Group 2010 tour . These tracks resurfaced in the 2016 Ipecac series with `` Sea Is Rising '' appearing on the album Corazones , half of the songs present as alternate versions on Zapopan , and with most of the rest surfacing in 2017 as alternate recordings on Zen Thrills . Since 2014 the album is no longer available to purchase officially , as Rodriguez-Lopez 's Bandcamp page has been taken down after a split with Sargent House label . Parts of a couple of these songs were also used on the following record , ¿ Sólo Extraño ? as well as its proper release in 2016 of Nom de Guerre Cabal . `` Right Of Way '' appears reworked in `` House in the Sand '' / `` Life Proves Its Worth '' and the drum track for `` Tennessee '' is present on `` Invisible Laziness '' / `` Bitter Sunsets '' before reappearing as `` With You If You Give A Damn '' on Zen Thrills . As of January 2017 , `` Names '' remains the only track to not be re-released in the Ipecac Series .","qid":"108","docid":"Unicorn_Skeleton_Mask","rank":60,"score":73368},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"108","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":61,"score":73162},{"content":"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .","qid":"108","docid":"Fisheries_and_climate_change","rank":62,"score":72981},{"content":"Title: Accelerated Math Content: Accelerated Math is a daily , progress-monitoring software tool that monitors and manages mathematics skills practice , from preschool math through calculus . It is primarily used by primary and secondary schools , and it is published by Renaissance Learning , Inc. . Currently , there are five versions : a desktop version and a web-based version in Renaissance Place , the company 's web software for Accelerated Math and a number of other software products ( e.g. Accelerated Reader ) . In Australia and the United Kingdom , the software is referred to as `` Accelerated Maths '' .","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerated_Math","rank":63,"score":72952},{"content":"Title: Outer trench swell Content: The outer trench swell , outer trench high , or outer rise is a subtle ridge on the seafloor near an oceanic trench , where a descending plate begins to flex and fault in preparation for its descent into the mantle at a subduction zone . The lithosphere is bent upwards by plate stresses , and is not in isostatic equilibrium ( distinguish from the `` outer ridge '' of a forearc ) . Typically , the gravity field over the outer swell is about 50 mGal ( 0.5 mm/s ² ) higher than expected from isostasy , while gravity over the trench is about 200 mGal ( 2 mm/s ² ) less than that expected from isostatic considerations . The bending of the plate is associated with tension in the upper 20 km , and shallow earthquakes , caused by tensional failure induced by the downward bending of the oceanic plate are common ; about 20 extensional outer rise earthquakes with magnitude 5 or greater occur annually . Most tension axes are perpendicular to the trench , independent of the direction of relative motion between the two plates , indicating that failure is controlled by bending stresses in the plate . Plate bending also causes deeper ( down to 50 km ) earthquakes due to compression . The wavelength and amplitude of this flexure can be used to constrain the state of stress across the plate boundary . The width of the outer rise is directly related to the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere . The thickness of the elastic lithosphere varies between 20 and 30 km for most trench profiles . Faulting related to plate bending and stair-stepping of the descending slab into the trench may allow seawater to infiltrate deep into the crust and perhaps upper mantle . This may lead to large scale formation of serpentinite in the upper mantle of the downgoing plate ( Ranero et al. , 2003 ) . Faulting of the downgoing plate results in a horst and graben structure that allows sediment that reaches the trench to be deposited in graben and carried downward . This faulting also breaks up seamounts as they approach the trench . The principal mechanism of frontal erosion may reflect combined effects of seamount tunneling , mass wasting and transport to the trench , deposition in a graben on the downgoing plate , and descent into the mantle . Outer trench swells are geoscientific frontiers and much remains to be learned about them . Recent volcanoes have been discovered on ~ 135-million-year-old Pacific Plate east of Japan ( Hirano et al. , 2006 ) . These small alkalic volcanoes are small percent melts of asthenosphere that exploit bending-related lithospheric faults to reach the seafloor . Hirano et al. , ( 2006 ) proposed that these small volcanoes erupted along lithospheric fractures in response to plate flexure during subduction . If bending-related faulting and serpentinization is an important process beneath outer trench swells , there are probably also abundant low-temperature hydrothermal vents on the swells , similar to those of the Lost City ( hydrothermal field ) .","qid":"108","docid":"Outer_trench_swell","rank":64,"score":72628},{"content":"Title: OpenRL Content: PowerVR OpenRL ™ is a flexible low level interactive ray tracing API , available for download as an SDK for accelerating ray tracing in both graphics and non-graphics ( e.g. , physics ) applications . OpenRL was developed by the Caustic Professional division of Imagination Technologies . A free perpetual license of OpenRL is available for integration , with either commercial or non-commercial applications . In OpenRL , acceleration structures are built and maintained transparently , behind the scenes , and this eliminates the need for the client application to write any code to create or traverse them . This also allows for ray tracing hardware acceleration of the acceleration structure assembly .","qid":"108","docid":"OpenRL","rank":65,"score":72535},{"content":"Title: Lord Howe Rise Content: The Lord Howe Rise is a deep sea plateau which extends from south west of New Caledonia to the Challenger Plateau , west of New Zealand in the south west of the Pacific Ocean . To its west is the Tasman Basin and to the east is the New Caledonia Basin . Lord Howe Rise has a total area of about 1,500,000 square km , and generally lies about 750 to 1,200 metres under water . It is part of Zealandia , a much larger continent that is now mostly submerged , and so is composed of continental crust .","qid":"108","docid":"Lord_Howe_Rise","rank":66,"score":72446},{"content":"Title: Risellopsis varia Content: Risellopsis varia is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .","qid":"108","docid":"Risellopsis_varia","rank":67,"score":72412},{"content":"Title: Human accelerated region 1 Content: In molecular biology , Human accelerated region 1 ( highly accelerated region 1 , HAR1 ) is a segment of the human genome found on the long arm of chromosome 20 . It is a Human accelerated region . It is located within a pair of overlapping long non-coding RNA genes , HAR1A ( HAR1F ) and HAR1B ( HAR1R ) .","qid":"108","docid":"Human_accelerated_region_1","rank":68,"score":72362},{"content":"Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :","qid":"108","docid":"Sea_level_(disambiguation)","rank":69,"score":72324},{"content":"Title: Chatham Rise Content: The Chatham Rise is an area of ocean floor to the east of New Zealand , forming part of the Zealandia continent . It stretches for some 1000 km from near the South Island in the west , to the Chatham Islands in the east . It is New Zealand 's most productive and important fishing ground , as well as important habitat for whales . Relative to the rest of the Pacific Ocean waters around New Zealand , the Chatham Rise is relatively shallow , no more than 1000 m deep at any point . This shallowness is made more remarkable by the depth of the ocean immediately to the north and south . To the northeast , the Hikurangi Trench , an extension of the much deeper Kermadec Trench , drops to below 3000 m close to the New Zealand coast , and further from the coast the Rise borders on the Hikurangi Plateau . To the south , similar depths are achieved in the Bounty Trough . Past the eastern end of the rise , the sea floor drops away to the abyssal plain .","qid":"108","docid":"Chatham_Rise","rank":70,"score":72221},{"content":"Title: Sea cave Content: A sea cave , also known as a littoral cave , is a type of cave formed primarily by the wave action of the sea . The primary process involved is erosion . Sea caves are found throughout the world , actively forming along present coastlines and as relict sea caves on former coastlines . Some of the largest wave-cut caves in the world are found on the coast of Norway , but are now 100 feet or more above present sea level . These would still be classified as littoral caves . By contrast , in places like Thailand 's Phang Nga Bay , solutionally formed caves in limestone have been flooded by the rising sea and are now subject to littoral erosion , representing a new phase of their enlargement . Some of the best-known sea caves are European . Fingal 's Cave , on the Scottish island of Staffa , is a spacious cave some 70 m long , formed in columnar basalt . The Blue Grotto of Capri , although smaller , is famous for the apparent luminescent quality of its water , imparted by light passing through underwater openings . The Romans built a stairway in its rear and a now-collapsed tunnel to the surface . The Greek islands are also noted for the variety and beauty of their sea caves . Numerous sea caves have been surveyed in England , Scotland , and in France , particularly on the Normandy coast . Until 2013 , the largest known sea caves were found along the west coast of the United States , the Hawaiian islands , and the Shetland Islands . In 2013 the discovery and survey of the world 's largest sea cave was announced . Located on New Zealand 's Otago coast on the South Island , Matainaka Cave has proven to be the world 's most extensive at 1.5 km in length . Also in 2013 , Crossley reported a newly surveyed complex reaching just over a kilometer in survey at Bethells Beach on New Zealand 's North Island .","qid":"108","docid":"Sea_cave","rank":71,"score":72048},{"content":"Title: Academic acceleration Content: Academic acceleration is the advancement of gifted students in subjects at a rate that places them ahead of where they would be in the regular school curriculum . Because it provides students with level-appropriate material , academic acceleration has been described as a `` fundamental need '' for gifted students . Although the bulk of educational research on academic acceleration has been within the United States , the practice occurs worldwide .","qid":"108","docid":"Academic_acceleration","rank":72,"score":71475},{"content":"Title: Ingression coast Content: An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level . Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral ( tidal ) processes , because the sea level , which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period , did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago . Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform -- e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief -- various types of ingression coast emerge , such as rias , skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts .","qid":"108","docid":"Ingression_coast","rank":73,"score":71452},{"content":"Title: Sea Level, North Carolina Content: Sea Level is an unincorporated community in northeastern Carteret County , North Carolina . It rests on the banks of the Core Sound and has a population of roughly 450 . It is located in what was known to early settlers as Hunting Quarters . Sea Level has one of the lowest elevations in North Carolina ; it is estimated that approximately 75 % of the community floods when hurricanes pass through . US 70 is the major thoroughfare through the community . The community is the location of NC 12 's southern terminus .","qid":"108","docid":"Sea_Level,_North_Carolina","rank":74,"score":71419},{"content":"Title: South Tasman Rise Content: The South Tasman Rise is an area of seafloor that lies 550 km south of Hobart , Tasmania in the Southern Ocean where water depths are about 1,500 metres . The South Tasman Rise is also known as the Tasmania Ridge or South Tasmania Ridge .","qid":"108","docid":"South_Tasman_Rise","rank":75,"score":71326},{"content":"Title: Martin Ford (author) Content: Martin Ford is a futurist focusing on the impact of artificial intelligence and robotics on society and the economy , and the author of two books : Rise of the Robots : Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future ( 2015 ) and The Lights In the Tunnel : Automation , Accelerating Technology and the Economy of the Future ( 2009 ) . Both books deal with the effects of automation and the potential for structural unemployment and dramatically increasing inequality . His most recent book , Rise of the Robots , was a New York Times bestseller and won the # 30,000 Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year Award in 2015 . Ford is the founder of a Silicon Valley-based software development firm , and earned a BSE in computer engineering , Magna cum laude , from the University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , and a graduate business degree from UCLA 's Anderson School of Management .","qid":"108","docid":"Martin_Ford_(author)","rank":76,"score":70864},{"content":"Title: Accelerated pluralism Content: Accelerated pluralism is a theory coined by Bruce Bimber which claims that `` the net is accelerating the process of issue group formation and action '' . Accelerated pluralism is a method of mobilization used in the formation of social movements that is facilitated by the use of information communication technologies . This method of group formation is unique because through the use of the Internet people are able congregate in the virtual public sphere and decide which form of action to take . According to the Center for Democracy and Technology 's Daniel Weitnzer , the Internet facilitates a `` one-to-one interaction ... between citizens and government '' something that is missing in today 's politics . Accelerated pluralism played a major role in the mobilization efforts of the Arab Spring , Occupy and Black Lives Matter social movements by allowing the participants to congregate cheaply and quickly . ICTs in combination with accelerated pluralism played a major role in the `` ignition of social protest , the cascade of inspiring images and stories '' in social movements .","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerated_pluralism","rank":77,"score":70789},{"content":"Title: Rise (non-governmental organization) Content: Rise , Inc. is an American non-governmental civil rights organization working with multiple state legislatures and the U.S. Congress to implement a sexual assault survivors ' bill of rights . Its founder and president is Amanda Nguyen . In October 2016 , the Sexual Assault Survivors ' Rights Act was enacted in the United States .","qid":"108","docid":"Rise_(non-governmental_organization)","rank":78,"score":70696},{"content":"Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .","qid":"108","docid":"Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929","rank":79,"score":70562},{"content":"Title: Particle acceleration Content: In a compressible sound transmission medium - mainly air - air particles get an accelerated motion : the particle acceleration or sound acceleration with the symbol a in metre/second2 . In acoustics or physics , acceleration ( symbol : a ) is defined as the rate of change ( or time derivative ) of velocity . It is thus a vector quantity with dimension length/time2 . In SI units , this is m/s2 . To accelerate an object ( air particle ) is to change its velocity over a period . Acceleration is defined technically as `` the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time '' and is given by the equation where a is the acceleration vector v is the velocity vector expressed in m/s t is time expressed in seconds . This equation gives a the units of m / ( s · s ) , or m/s2 ( read as `` metres per second per second '' , or `` metres per second squared '' ) . An alternative equation is : where is the average acceleration ( m/s2 ) is the initial velocity ( m/s ) is the final velocity ( m/s ) is the time interval ( s ) Transverse acceleration ( perpendicular to velocity ) causes change in direction . If it is constant in magnitude and changing in direction with the velocity , we get a circular motion . For this centripetal acceleration we have One common unit of acceleration is g-force , one g being the acceleration caused by the gravity of Earth . In classical mechanics , acceleration is related to force and mass ( assumed to be constant ) by way of Newton 's second law :","qid":"108","docid":"Particle_acceleration","rank":80,"score":70221},{"content":"Title: MV Cape Rise (T-AKR-9678) Content: The , formerly Audi Riyadh , formerly Seaspeed Arabia is a roll-on/roll-off and container ship built in 1977 .","qid":"108","docid":"MV_Cape_Rise_(T-AKR-9678)","rank":81,"score":70210},{"content":"Title: 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake Content: The 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake or 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake occurred on May 26 , at 11:59:57 local time ( 02:59:59.6 UTC ) , It had a magnitude of 7.8 on the moment magnitude scale . It occurred in the Sea of Japan , about 100 km west of the coast of Noshiro in Akita Prefecture , Japan . Out of the 104 fatalities , all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami , which struck communities along the coast , especially Aomori and Akita Prefectures and the east coast of Noto Peninsula . Images of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbor of Wajima on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV . The waves exceeded 10 m in some areas . Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of South Korea ( whether North Korea was affected is not known ) . The tsunami also hit Okushiri Island , the site of a more deadly tsunami 10 years later .","qid":"108","docid":"1983_Sea_of_Japan_earthquake","rank":82,"score":69819},{"content":"Title: Decay-accelerating factor Content: Complement decay-accelerating factor , also known as CD55 or DAF , is a protein that , in humans , is encoded by the CD55 gene . DAF regulates the complement system on the cell surface . It recognizes C4b and C3b fragments that are created during C4 ( classical complement pathway and lectin pathway ) and C3 ( alternate complement pathway ) activation . Interaction of DAF with cell-associated C4b of the classical and lectin pathways interferes with the conversion of C2 to C2a , thereby preventing formation of the C4b2a C3 convertase , and interaction of DAF with C3b of the alternative pathway interferes with the conversion of factor B to Bb by factor D , thereby preventing formation of the C3bBb C3 convertase of the alternative pathway . Thus , by limiting the amplification convertases of the complement cascade , DAF indirectly blocks the formation of the membrane attack complex . This glycoprotein is broadly distributed among hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells . It is a determinant for the Cromer blood group system .","qid":"108","docid":"Decay-accelerating_factor","rank":83,"score":69411},{"content":"Title: CryoSat Content: CryoSat is an ESA programme to monitor variations in the extent and thickness of polar ice through use of a satellite in low Earth orbit . The information provided about the behaviour of coastal glaciers that drain thinning ice sheets will be key to better predictions of future sea level rise . The CryoSat-1 spacecraft was lost in a launch failure in 2005 , however the programme was resumed with the successful launch of a replacement , CryoSat-2 , launched on 8 April 2010 . CryoSat is operated from the European Space Operations Centre ( ESOC ) in Darmstadt , Germany .","qid":"108","docid":"CryoSat","rank":84,"score":69378},{"content":"Title: Heartbeats Accelerating Content: Heartbeats Accelerating is the sixth album by Kate & Anna McGarrigle , released in 1990 . It was their first album in eight years , after Love Over and Over in 1982 , and received favourable reviews from many music critics . Bill Dillon , Pierre Marchand , Joel Zifkin and Kate 's son Rufus Wainwright appear as guest musicians . The title track was covered by Linda Ronstadt on her 1993 album Winter Light . It was given a New Age treatment and became a worldwide hit . Issued as a single , Ronstadt 's version of the song reached the top 30 at the Adult Contemporary chart , number 12 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart in the United States , and peaked at number 17 on Canada 's RPM 100 Hit Tracks ( the Canadian equivalent of the Billboard Hot 100 ) . It was also successful in several other countries , including Australia . The song `` I Eat Dinner ( When the Hunger 's Gone ) '' was covered in 2004 by Kate 's son Rufus Wainwright along with Dido for the film Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason and it appears on the soundtrack album . Cœur de pirate covered the album 's title track on the soundtrack album for the fifth season of the television drama series Trauma .","qid":"108","docid":"Heartbeats_Accelerating","rank":85,"score":69129},{"content":"Title: Music for an Accelerated Culture Content: Music for an Accelerated Culture is the debut album from new rave/grindie band Hadouken ! . The album contains nine new songs , three of which ( `` Spend Your Life '' , `` What She Did '' and `` Declaration of War '' ) have been previously played on tour , the album also includes two older Hadouken ! songs ; Liquid Lives and That Boy That Girl . The title is thought to be a reference to both Douglas Coupland 's book Generation X : Tales for an Accelerated Culture and The Prodigy 's album , Music for the Jilted Generation .","qid":"108","docid":"Music_for_an_Accelerated_Culture","rank":86,"score":69110},{"content":"Title: Irminger Sea Content: The Irminger Sea is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is 480 km long and 290 km wide at its narrowest . The northern limit is the Greenland-Iceland Rise on the bottom of the Denmark Strait between Iceland and East Greenland , which connects to the Greenland Sea . To the southwest , it reaches to Cape Farvel , the southern tip of Greenland , and meets the Labrador Sea at this point . South of this point is the open North Atlantic Ocean . The sea floor of the Irminger Sea is largely part of the Irminger Basin , a northeastern continuation of the maximally 4600 m deep Labrador Basin , which on the east is bordered by the Reykjanes Ridge . This delineation is oceanographic only and does not represent any official borders . The Irminger Sea is one of the main fishing areas of the Rose fish . The Irminger Sea was named after Danish vice-admiral Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger ( 1802 -- 1888 ) , after whom also the Irminger Current was named .","qid":"108","docid":"Irminger_Sea","rank":87,"score":69007},{"content":"Title: Rising Tide North America Content: Rising Tide North America is a grassroots network of groups and individuals in North America organizing action against the root causes of climate change and work towards a non-carbon society . Rising Tide North America is part of an international network dedicated to building a climate justice and anti-extraction movement . Rising Tide generally takes a strongly `` no compromise '' stance on the environment and a vehement opposition to solutions proposed by corporations who , they say , are responsible for creating environmental problems in the first place .","qid":"108","docid":"Rising_Tide_North_America","rank":88,"score":68176},{"content":"Title: Plasma acceleration Content: Plasma acceleration is a technique for accelerating charged particles , such as electrons , positrons and ions , using an electric field associated with electron plasma wave or other high-gradient plasma structures ( like shock and sheath fields ) . The plasma acceleration structures are created either using ultra-short laser pulses or energetic particle beams that are matched to the plasma parameters . These techniques offer a way to build high performance particle accelerators of much smaller size than conventional devices . The basic concepts of plasma acceleration and its possibilities were originally conceived by Toshiki Tajima and Prof. John M. Dawson of UCLA in 1979 . Initial designs of experiment for `` wakefield '' were conceived at UCLA by the group of Prof. Chan Joshi . Current experimental devices show accelerating gradients several orders of magnitude better than current particle accelerators . Plasma accelerators have immense promise for innovation of affordable and compact accelerators for various applications ranging from high energy physics to medical and industrial applications . Medical applications include betatron and free-electron light sources for diagnostics or radiation therapy and protons sources for hadron therapy . Plasma accelerators generally use wakefields generated by plasma density waves . However , plasma accelerators can operate in many different regimes depending upon the characteristics of the plasmas used . For example , an experimental laser plasma accelerator at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory accelerates electrons to 1 GeV over about 3.3 cm ( 5.4 x1020 gn ) , and one at the SLAC conventional accelerator ( highest electron energy accelerator ) requires 64 m to reach the same energy . Similarly , using plasmas an energy gain of more than 40 GeV was achieved using the SLAC SLC beam ( 42 GeV ) in just 85 cm using a plasma wakefield accelerator ( 8.9 x1020 gn ) . Once fully developed , the technology could replace many of the traditional RF accelerators currently found in particle colliders , hospitals and research facilities . The Texas Petawatt laser facility at the University of Texas at Austin accelerated electrons to 2 GeV over about 2 cm ( 1.6 x1021 gn ) . This record was broken ( by more than 2x ) in 2014 by the scientists at the BELLA ( laser ) Center at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , when they produced electron beams up to 4.25 GeV . In late 2014 , researchers from SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory using the Facility for Advanced Accelerator Experimental Tests ( FACET ) published proof of the viability of plasma acceleration technology . It was shown to be able to achieve 400 to 500 times higher energy transfer compared to a general linear accelerator design . A proof-of-principle plasma wakefield accelerator experiment using a 400 GeV proton beam from the Super Proton Synchrotron is currently under construction at CERN . The experiment , named AWAKE , is scheduled for start-up at the end of 2016 .","qid":"108","docid":"Plasma_acceleration","rank":89,"score":68029},{"content":"Title: Over Sea, Under Stone Content: Over Sea , Under Stone is a contemporary fantasy novel written for children by the English author Susan Cooper , first published in London by Jonathan Cape in 1965 . Cooper wrote four sequels about ten years later , making it the first volume in a series usually called The Dark is Rising ( 1965 to 1977 ) . In contrast to the rest of the series , it is more a mystery , with traditional fantasy elements mainly the subject of hints later in the narrative . Thus it may ease readers into the fantasy genre .","qid":"108","docid":"Over_Sea,_Under_Stone","rank":90,"score":68004},{"content":"Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .","qid":"108","docid":"Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System","rank":91,"score":67888},{"content":"Title: Mortgage acceleration Content: Mortgage acceleration is the practice of paying off a mortgage loan faster than required by terms of the mortgage agreement . As interest on mortgages is compounded , early payments diminish the period needed to pay off the mortgage , and avoid a quotient of compounded interest . In addition , acceleration may refer to a clause in a mortgage note ( See Acceleration clause ) that allows the mortgage holder to declare the entire debt of a defaulted mortgagor due and payable . A commonplace method of mortgage acceleration is a so-called bi-weekly payment plan , in which half of the normal calendar monthly payment is made every two weeks , so that 13/12 of the yearly amount due is paid per annum . Commonplace too , is the practice of making ad hoc additional payments . The agreements associated with certain mortgages preclude or penalize early payments .","qid":"108","docid":"Mortgage_acceleration","rank":92,"score":67859},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .","qid":"108","docid":"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu","rank":93,"score":67781},{"content":"Title: Accelerationen Content: Accelerationen ( Accelerations ) , op. 234 , is a waltz composed by Johann Strauss II in 1860 for the Engineering Students ' Ball at the Sofienbad-Saal in Vienna . It is one of his best-known waltzes , famous especially for its rapidly accelerating opening waltz theme . Accelerations is featured in Erich Wolfgang Korngold 's The Tales of Strauss , Op. 21 as well as many of Strauss 's other well-known waltzes .","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerationen","rank":94,"score":67745},{"content":"Title: Corazones (Omar Rodríguez-López album) Content: Corazones is the twenty-eighth studio album by Omar Rodríguez-López as a solo artist , released on 29 July 2016 . It is his second release in the 12 album series initiated by Ipecac Recordings . The song `` Sea is Rising '' made its first studio appearance on 2013 's Unicorn Skeleton Mask , while the song was actually debuted instrumentally on the Omar Rodriguez Lopez Group 2010 tour . `` Running Away '' was uploaded in advance as the album 's single . On August 1 , 2016 , Pitchfork released a music video for the song `` Running Away '' directed by Violeta Felix which features John Frusciante , former Mars Volta bassist Eva Gardner , Teri Gender Bender ( of Le Butcherettes and Bosnian Rainbows ) , photographer Robin Laananen , actress Tatiana Velazquez , visual artist Aura T-09 and Buzz Osborne ( of The Melvins ) all punching Omar in the face .","qid":"108","docid":"Corazones_(Omar_Rodríguez-López_album)","rank":95,"score":67555},{"content":"Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .","qid":"108","docid":"Ocean_heat_content","rank":96,"score":67531},{"content":"Title: Mark Lesko Content: Mark J. Lesko ( born February 4 , 1967 ) is the Executive Director of Accelerate Long Island . He is a former American politician and Assistant U.S. Attorney . Accelerate Long Island is a regional collaboration among Long Island 's major research institutions , including Brookhaven National Laboratory , Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory , Hofstra University , the North Shore-LIJ Feinstein Institute , Stony Brook University , and the business community to commercialize research and create high tech startup companies .","qid":"108","docid":"Mark_Lesko","rank":97,"score":67366},{"content":"Title: The 10,000 Year Explosion Content: The 10,000 Year Explosion : How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution is a 2009 book by anthropologists Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending . Starting with their own take on the conventional wisdom that the evolutionary process stopped when modern humans appeared , the authors explain the genetic basis of their view that human evolution is accelerating , illustrating it with some examples .","qid":"108","docid":"The_10,000_Year_Explosion","rank":98,"score":67353},{"content":"Title: Accelerationism Content: In political and social theory , accelerationism is the idea that either the prevailing system of capitalism , or certain technosocial processes that have historically characterised it , should be expanded , repurposed , or accelerated in order to generate radical social change . Some contemporary accelerationist philosophy takes as its starting point the Deleuzo-Guattarian theory of deterritorialisation , aiming to identify , deepen , and radicalise the forces of deterritorialisation with a view to overcoming the countervailing tendencies that suppress the possibility of far-reaching social transformation . Accelerationism may also refer more broadly , and usually pejoratively , to support for the deepening of capitalism in the belief that this will hasten its self-destructive tendencies and ultimately lead to its collapse . Accelerationist theory has been divided into mutually contradictory left-wing and right-wing variants . `` Left-accelerationism '' attempts to press `` the process of technological evolution '' beyond the constrictive horizon of capitalism , for example by repurposing modern technology for socially beneficial and emancipatory ends ; `` right-accelerationism '' supports the indefinite intensification of capitalism itself , possibly in order to bring about a technological singularity .","qid":"108","docid":"Accelerationism","rank":99,"score":67301},{"content":"Title: Monterey Accelerated Research System Content: Monterey Accelerated Research System ( MARS ) is a cabled-based observatory system below the surface of Monterey Bay , developed and managed by the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute . The system , operational since November 10 , 2008 , incorporates a 52 km undersea cable that carries data and power to benthic instrument nodes , AUVs , and various benthic and moored instrumentation .","qid":"108","docid":"Monterey_Accelerated_Research_System","rank":100,"score":67268}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 132430\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 118430\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Meltwater_pulse_1B\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 99162\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 96920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 92527\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Sea_is_Rising\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 92163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 91107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NAIRU Content: NAIRU is an acronym for non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment , and refers to a level of unemployment below which inflation rises . It was first introduced as NIRU ( non-inflationary rate of unemployment ) by Franco Modigliani and Lucas Papademos in 1975 , as an improvement over the `` natural rate of unemployment '' concept , which was proposed earlier by Milton Friedman . Monetary policy conducted under the assumption of a NAIRU involves allowing just enough unemployment in the economy to prevent inflation rising above a given target figure . Prices are allowed to increase gradually and some unemployment is tolerated .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"NAIRU\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 90839\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Sea_Has_Risen\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 90257\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 87493\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Meltwater_pulse_1A\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 85849\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 85226\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_from_the_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 85094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Josh_Willis\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 84552\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Yoldia Sea Content: Yoldia Sea is a name given by geologists to a variable brackish-water stage in the Baltic Sea basin that prevailed after the Baltic ice lake was drained to sea level during the Weichsel glaciation . Dates for the Yoldia sea are obtained mainly by radiocarbon dating material from ancient sediments and shore lines and from clay-varve chronology . They tend to vary by as much as a thousand years , but a good estimate is 10,300 -- 9500 radiocarbon years BP , equivalent to ca 11,700-10 ,700 calendar years BP . The sea ended gradually when isostatic rise of Scandinavia closed or nearly closed its effluents , altering the balance between saline and fresh water . The Yoldia Sea became Ancylus Lake . The Yoldia Sea stage had three phases of which only the middle phase had brackish water . The name of the sea is adapted from the obsolete name of the bivalve , Portlandia arctica ( previously known as Yoldia arctica ) , found around Stockholm . This bivalve requires cold saline water . It characterizes the middle phase of the Yoldia Sea , during which saline water poured into the Baltic , before the acceleration of glacial melting .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Yoldia_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 84304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seaford Rise, South Australia Content: Seaford Rise is a metropolitan suburb of Adelaide , South Australia . It lies within the City of Onkaparinga . Its boundaries are formed by Griffiths Drive in the north , Commercial Road in the west , Main South Road in the east , and by an arbitrary border with Maslin Beach in the south .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Seaford_Rise,_South_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 83952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerating change Content: In futures studies and the history of technology , accelerating change is a perceived increase in the rate of technological change throughout history , which may suggest faster and more profound change in the future and may or may not be accompanied by equally profound social and cultural change .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerating_change\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 83362\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nonradiation condition Content: Classical nonradiation conditions define the conditions according to classical electromagnetism under which a distribution of accelerating charges will not emit electromagnetic radiation . According to the Larmor formula in classical electromagnetism , a single point charge under acceleration will emit electromagnetic radiation , i.e. light . In some classical electron models a distribution of charges can however be accelerated so that no radiation is emitted . The modern derivation of these nonradiation conditions by Hermann A. Haus is based on the Fourier components of the current produced by a moving point charge . It states that a distribution of accelerated charges will radiate if and only if it has Fourier components synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Nonradiation_condition\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 83345\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 83340\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Advanced Graphics Riser Content: The Advanced Graphics Riser is a variation of the Accelerated Graphics Port ( AGP ) used in some PCIe motherboards made by MSI to offer a limited backwards compatibility with AGP . It is , effectively , a modified PCIe slot allowing for performance comparable to an AGP 4x/8x slot , but with limited support of AGP cards . The manufacturer has published a non-exhaustive compatibility list of cards and chipsets that work with the modified slot .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Advanced_Graphics_Riser\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 81830\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Past_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 81721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_gauge\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 81505\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea-level_curve\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 80972\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Risella Content: Risella is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Risella\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 80578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: When the Sea Rises Content: When the Sea Rises ( Quand la mer monte ... ) is a 2004 French-Belgian romantic comedy film directed by Yolande Moreau and Gilles Porte . It was Moreau 's directorial debut .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"When_the_Sea_Rises\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 80543\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Equilibrium_level\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 80422\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerating expansion of the universe Content: The accelerating expansion of the universe is the observation that the universe appears to be expanding at an increasing rate , so that the velocity at which a distant galaxy is receding from the observer is continuously increasing with time . The accelerated expansion was discovered in 1998 , by two independent projects , the Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team , which both used distant type Ia supernovae as standard candles to measure the acceleration . The discovery was unexpected , cosmologists at the time expecting that the expansion would be decelerating due to the gravitational attraction of the matter in the universe . Three members of these two groups have subsequently been awarded Nobel Prizes for their discovery . Confirmatory evidence has been found in baryon acoustic oscillations and in analyses of the clustering of galaxies . The expansion of the universe is thought to have been accelerating since the universe entered its dark-energy-dominated era roughly 5 billion years ago . Within the framework of general relativity , an accelerating expansion can be accounted for by a positive value of the cosmological constant , equivalent to the presence of a positive vacuum energy , dubbed `` dark energy '' . While there are alternative possible explanations , the description assuming dark energy ( positive ) is used in the current standard model of cosmology , which also includes cold dark matter ( CDM ) and is known as the Lambda-CDM model .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 80394\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_equation\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 79941\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice rise Content: An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_rise\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 79666\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 79509\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 79381\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerate (disambiguation) Content: In general , to accelerate is to change velocity or increase speed ; see Acceleration . Accelerate may also refer to : Accelerate ( Jump5 album ) , a 2003 pop album Accelerate ( R.E.M. album ) , a 2008 alternative rock album Accelerate ( Peter Andre ) , a 2010 a pop album USS Accelerate ( ARS-30 ) , a salvage ship\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerate_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 79330\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising Tide (Forgotten Realms novel) Content: Rising Tide is a fantasy novel by Mel Odom , set in the world of the Forgotten Realms , and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game . It is the first novel in `` The Threat from the Sea '' trilogy . It was published in paperback in January 1999 .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_Tide_(Forgotten_Realms_novel)\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 79080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Seamount\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 78655\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_transgression\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 78040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Nation Deceived Content: A Nation Deceived : How Schools Hold Back America 's Brightest Students is The Templeton National Report on Acceleration , a report which was published in 2004 and edited by Nicholas Colangelo , Susan G. Assouline , and Miraca Gross . This report argues for the academic acceleration of qualified gifted and talented students , based on the results of studies on outcomes of accelerating and not accelerating high-achieving students . Despite the evidence that acceleration is a beneficial practice when implemented correctly , many teachers and parents are reluctant to accelerate students . The report presents the research on acceleration in an effort to increase the number of students who have access to acceleration . The report is divided into two parts : Volume I , which summarizes the research and provides an introduction to acceleration as an academic intervention for gifted students ; and Volume II , an edited volume that provides a more detailed overview of relevant research studies . The success of A Nation Deceived led to the creation of the Acceleration Institute ( formerly the Institute for Research and Policy on Acceleration ) , which is dedicated to the study and support of educational acceleration for academically talented students . A Nation Empowered , a follow-up to A Nation Deceived , was published in 2015 . It expands upon findings of the original report and incorporates research that has emerged since publication of A Nation Deceived .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Nation_Deceived\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 78034\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"East_Pacific_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 77427\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerate (R.E.M. album) Content: Accelerate is the fourteenth studio album by American alternative rock band R.E.M. , released on March 31 , 2008 in Europe , and on April 1 in North America . Produced with Jacknife Lee , Accelerate was intended as a departure from the 2004 album Around the Sun . R.E.M. previewed several of the album 's tracks during a five-night residency at the Olympia Theatre in Dublin , Republic of Ireland , and recorded the album in a nine-week schedule . The album received a warm reception from music critics , earning a 79/100 rating on Metacritic . Reviewers often complimented the aggressive , purposeful sound of the songs , with Q magazine critic Keith Cameron stating that `` Accelerate is the sound of a band having enjoyed a good word with themselves -- and us . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerate_(R.E.M._album)\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 77251\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Sea_So_Far\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 77049\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Benham Plateau Content: The Benham Rise , officially known as the Philippine Rise , is a seismically active undersea region and extinct volcanic ridge located in the Philippine Sea approximately 250 km east of the northern coastline of Dinapigue , Isabela . Under the Philippine Sea lie a number of basins including the West Philippine Sea Basin , inside of which is located the Central Basin Fault ( CBF ) . The Benham Plateau is located in the CBF and its basement probably is a micro-continent . Several scientific surveys have been made on the feature to study its nature and its impact on tectonic subduction , including one about its effects on the 1990 Luzon earthquake . The Philippines claimed this feature as part of its continental shelf in a claim lodged with the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on 8 April 2009 , and which was approved under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) in 2012 . It is designated as a `` protected food supply exclusive zone '' by the Philippine government in May 2017 . Mining and oil exploration is banned in the Benham Plateau as a protected area . On May 16 , 2017 , Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 25 renaming the region to Philippine Rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Benham_Plateau\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 77005\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Risellopsis Content: Risellopsis is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Risellopsis\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 76442\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: USS Accelerate (ARS-30) Content: USS Accelerate ( ARS-30 ) was a salvage ship in the service of the United States Navy . She was originally built as the steam-propelled mooring tender Toteco by Kyle & Purdy , for International Petroleum . Either late in 1929 or early 1930 , the vessel was renamed Walling .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"USS_Accelerate_(ARS-30)\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 76267\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acceleration due to gravity Content: Acceleration due to gravity may refer to Gravitational acceleration , the acceleration caused by the gravitational attraction of massive bodies in general Gravity of Earth , the acceleration caused by the gravitational attraction of the Earth Standard gravity , or g , the standard value of gravitational acceleration at sea level on Earth\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Acceleration_due_to_gravity\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 76256\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 75868\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Risella tantillus Content: Risella tantillus is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Risella_tantillus\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 75474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerated freefall Content: Accelerated freefall ( AFF ) ( known in Canada as progressive freefall , in Finland as Nova ( = NOpeutettu VApaapudotus , a literal translation ) ) is a method of skydiving training . This method of skydiving training is called `` accelerated '' because the progression is the fastest way to experience solo freefall , normally from 10,000 to 15,000 feet `` Above Ground Level '' ( AGL ) . In static line progression , more jumps are required to experience freefall , but the jumps are less expensive for the student as one instructor can dispatch multiple students per load and students are initially dispatched from lower altitudes . Under accelerated freefall , one or sometimes two instructors are dedicated just to one student .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerated_freefall\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 75318\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerate (Jump5 album) Content: Accelerate is the fourth album by the Christian pop group Jump5 . It was released on October 7 , 2003 . The album demonstrated the group 's shift towards a pop/rock sound , and was also the first album on which a member of the group had writing credits . Half of the album was made up of covers , including `` Walking on Sunshine '' by Katrina and the Waves and `` Shining Star '' by Earth , Wind & Fire . The group 's cover of Sister Sledge 's `` We Are Family '' was used as the theme for the Radio Disney Family Pledge Initiative . It charted at # 150 on the Billboard Top 200 and at # 8 on the Top Christian Albums charts .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerate_(Jump5_album)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 74549\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerate (Peter Andre album) Content: Accelerate is the seventh album released by British singer-songwriter Peter Andre .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerate_(Peter_Andre_album)\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 74530\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Tidal_range\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 74399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: J-PAS Content: J-PAS ( Javalambre Physics of the accelerating universe Astronomical Survey ) is an astronomical facility located in Pico del Buitre in Sierra de Javalambre , near Teruel , in Spain . It is constituted of two telescopes : a 2.5 metre primary mirror telescope ( T250 ) and an 80-centimeter telescope ( T80 ) . The T250 will observe the sky in 56 colors with a large field 1.2 Giga-pixel camera , constituted by an array of 14 CCDs . J-PAS will observe more than 8000 square degrees ( about 1/5 of the whole sky ) during 5/6 years . J-PAS filters cover the entire visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum ( 3500 Å to 10000 Å ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"J-PAS\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 74319\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 74284\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thiel Trough Content: Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Thiel_Trough\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 74187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Meier Content: Mark F. Meier ( 1925 -- November 25 , 2012 ) was an American glaciologist who was considered a leading expert on the study of rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers . Meier was the Director of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research ( INSTAAR ) from 1985 to 1994 and remained the institute 's director emeritus until his death in 2012 . He was also a professor of geological sciences at the University of Colorado - Boulder . Meier was born and raised in Iowa . He resided in Boulder , Colorado , since 1985 . In 1956 , Meier founded the U.S. Geological Survey 's department of glaciology . He obtained doctorate in 1957 from the California Institute of Technology . Meier served as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey 's Project Office of Glaciology in Tacoma , Washington , until he became the director of INSTAAR in 1985 . Meier was one of the first glaciologists to use remote sensing to study glaciers and rates of melting . He headed several studies of tidewater glacier dynamics in the U.S. state of Alaska . Meier organized the systematic measurement and assessment of glacier mass balance within North America to mark the International Geophysical Year and International Hydrological Decade , which was observed from 1965 to 1975 . His numerous recognitions and awards included the Seligman Crystal from the International Glaciological Society in 1993 , the Robert E. Horton Medal in 1996 , three medals from the USSR Academy of Sciences ( now the Russian Academy of Sciences ) and the United States Department of the Interior 's Distinguished Service Award . Meier died in Boulder , Colorado , on November 25 , 2012 , at the age of 86 . He is survived by his wife , Barbara , his children , Lauren Meier , Gretchen Meier , and Mark S. Meier , and his seven grandchildren .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Meier\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 74069\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Continental rise Content: The continental rise is an underwater feature found between the continental slope and the abyssal plain . This feature can be found all around the world , and it represents the final stage in the boundary between continents and the deepest part of the ocean . The environment in the continental rise is quite unique , and many oceanographers study it extensively in the hopes of learning more about the ocean and geologic history . At the bottom of the continental slope , one will find the continental rise , an underwater hill composed of tons of accumulated sediments . The general slope of the continental rise is between 0.5 degrees and 1.0 degrees . Deposition of sediments at the mouth of submarine canyons may form enormous fan-shaped accumulations called submarine fans . Submarine fans form part of the continental rise . Beyond the continental rise stretches the abyssal plain , an extremely deep and flat area of the sea floor . The abyssal plain hosts many unique life forms which are uniquely adapted to survival in its cold , high pressure , and dark conditions . The flatness of the abyssal plain is interrupted by massive underwater mountain chains near the tectonic boundaries of the Earth 's plates.The sediments are mostly sand and pieces of coral or rock . Category : Oceanography\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Continental_rise\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 73872\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Threat from the Sea Content: The Threat From the Sea is a series of fantasy novels written mostly by Mel Odom . It contains three novels : Rising Tide , Under Fallen Stars , and The Sea Devil 's Eye . It also contains the anthology book , Realms of the Deep .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Threat_from_the_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 73617\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Young Detective Dee: Rise of the Sea Dragon Content: Young Detective Dee : Rise of the Sea Dragon is a 2013 Chinese action-adventure fantasy mystery film directed , produced , and co-written by Tsui Hark . It is a prequel to Hark 's 2010 film Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame , which starred Andy Lau . Taiwanese-Canadian actor Mark Chao takes over from him as a young Detective Dee , while Feng Shaofeng , Lin Gengxin , Kim Bum ( in his Chinese debut ) , and Angelababy co-star alongside a returning Carina Lau from Mystery of the Phantom Flame , rounding up the ensemble cast . A sequel of the film and the third installment of the Detective Dee series , titled Detective Dee : The Four Heavenly Kings will be released in 2018 . Filming will begin in March 2017 .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Young_Detective_Dee:_Rise_of_the_Sea_Dragon\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 73537\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: I/O Acceleration Technology Content: I/O Acceleration Technology ( I/OAT ) is a DMA engine ( an embedded DMA controller ) by Intel bundled with high-end server motherboards , that offloads memory copies from the main processor by performing direct memory accesses ( DMA ) . It is typically used for accelerating network traffic , but supports any kind of copy . For the Internet of Autonomous Things , see Autonomous Things . Using I/OAT for network acceleration is supported by Microsoft Windows since the release of Scalable Networking Pack for Windows Server 2003 SP1 . It was used by the Linux kernel starting in 2006 but this feature was subsequently disabled due to an alleged lack of performance benefits while creating a possibility of data corruption .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"I/O_Acceleration_Technology\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 73451\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Viral decay acceleration Content: Viral decay acceleration ( VDA ) is a therapeutic strategy which increases the mutation frequency of a virus toward an error catastrophe threshold . Viruses evolve at rates approximately one million times faster than the human genome . The high mutation rate increases diversity within the viral population and facilitates survival in the face of host immune responses , depletion of target cells and antiviral therapeutics . This evolutionary advantage however comes at a considerable cost in that the vast majority of virus particles have mutated beyond a survivability threshold and are therefore non-infectious . Laboratory studies have demonstrated that therapeutics capable of increasing the mutation frequency as little as 2-fold results in collapse of the viral population . These therapeutics , termed VDA agents , accelerate the accumulation of additional mutations in the viral genome , progressively debilitating the virus which causes decay and eventual extinction of the entire viral population .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Viral_decay_acceleration\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 73441\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerated-X Content: Accelerated-X is a proprietary port of the X Window System to Intel x86 machines .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerated-X\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 73412\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unicorn Skeleton Mask Content: Unicorn Skeleton Mask is the twenty-fifth studio album by Omar Rodríguez-López as a solo artist . It was given a `` surprise '' digital release on January 2 , 2013 , just a day after the release of Equinox and Woman Gives Birth To Tomato ! . Three of the album 's songs , `` Sea Is Rising , '' `` Maria Te Canta , '' and `` Bored To Burns '' were previously debuted live as instrumental pieces during Omar Rodriguez Lopez Group 2010 tour . These tracks resurfaced in the 2016 Ipecac series with `` Sea Is Rising '' appearing on the album Corazones , half of the songs present as alternate versions on Zapopan , and with most of the rest surfacing in 2017 as alternate recordings on Zen Thrills . Since 2014 the album is no longer available to purchase officially , as Rodriguez-Lopez 's Bandcamp page has been taken down after a split with Sargent House label . Parts of a couple of these songs were also used on the following record , ¿ Sólo Extraño ? as well as its proper release in 2016 of Nom de Guerre Cabal . `` Right Of Way '' appears reworked in `` House in the Sand '' / `` Life Proves Its Worth '' and the drum track for `` Tennessee '' is present on `` Invisible Laziness '' / `` Bitter Sunsets '' before reappearing as `` With You If You Give A Damn '' on Zen Thrills . As of January 2017 , `` Names '' remains the only track to not be re-released in the Ipecac Series .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Unicorn_Skeleton_Mask\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 73368\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 73162\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Fisheries_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 72981\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerated Math Content: Accelerated Math is a daily , progress-monitoring software tool that monitors and manages mathematics skills practice , from preschool math through calculus . It is primarily used by primary and secondary schools , and it is published by Renaissance Learning , Inc. . Currently , there are five versions : a desktop version and a web-based version in Renaissance Place , the company 's web software for Accelerated Math and a number of other software products ( e.g. Accelerated Reader ) . In Australia and the United Kingdom , the software is referred to as `` Accelerated Maths '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerated_Math\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 72952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Outer trench swell Content: The outer trench swell , outer trench high , or outer rise is a subtle ridge on the seafloor near an oceanic trench , where a descending plate begins to flex and fault in preparation for its descent into the mantle at a subduction zone . The lithosphere is bent upwards by plate stresses , and is not in isostatic equilibrium ( distinguish from the `` outer ridge '' of a forearc ) . Typically , the gravity field over the outer swell is about 50 mGal ( 0.5 mm/s ² ) higher than expected from isostasy , while gravity over the trench is about 200 mGal ( 2 mm/s ² ) less than that expected from isostatic considerations . The bending of the plate is associated with tension in the upper 20 km , and shallow earthquakes , caused by tensional failure induced by the downward bending of the oceanic plate are common ; about 20 extensional outer rise earthquakes with magnitude 5 or greater occur annually . Most tension axes are perpendicular to the trench , independent of the direction of relative motion between the two plates , indicating that failure is controlled by bending stresses in the plate . Plate bending also causes deeper ( down to 50 km ) earthquakes due to compression . The wavelength and amplitude of this flexure can be used to constrain the state of stress across the plate boundary . The width of the outer rise is directly related to the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere . The thickness of the elastic lithosphere varies between 20 and 30 km for most trench profiles . Faulting related to plate bending and stair-stepping of the descending slab into the trench may allow seawater to infiltrate deep into the crust and perhaps upper mantle . This may lead to large scale formation of serpentinite in the upper mantle of the downgoing plate ( Ranero et al. , 2003 ) . Faulting of the downgoing plate results in a horst and graben structure that allows sediment that reaches the trench to be deposited in graben and carried downward . This faulting also breaks up seamounts as they approach the trench . The principal mechanism of frontal erosion may reflect combined effects of seamount tunneling , mass wasting and transport to the trench , deposition in a graben on the downgoing plate , and descent into the mantle . Outer trench swells are geoscientific frontiers and much remains to be learned about them . Recent volcanoes have been discovered on ~ 135-million-year-old Pacific Plate east of Japan ( Hirano et al. , 2006 ) . These small alkalic volcanoes are small percent melts of asthenosphere that exploit bending-related lithospheric faults to reach the seafloor . Hirano et al. , ( 2006 ) proposed that these small volcanoes erupted along lithospheric fractures in response to plate flexure during subduction . If bending-related faulting and serpentinization is an important process beneath outer trench swells , there are probably also abundant low-temperature hydrothermal vents on the swells , similar to those of the Lost City ( hydrothermal field ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Outer_trench_swell\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 72628\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: OpenRL Content: PowerVR OpenRL ™ is a flexible low level interactive ray tracing API , available for download as an SDK for accelerating ray tracing in both graphics and non-graphics ( e.g. , physics ) applications . OpenRL was developed by the Caustic Professional division of Imagination Technologies . A free perpetual license of OpenRL is available for integration , with either commercial or non-commercial applications . In OpenRL , acceleration structures are built and maintained transparently , behind the scenes , and this eliminates the need for the client application to write any code to create or traverse them . This also allows for ray tracing hardware acceleration of the acceleration structure assembly .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"OpenRL\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 72535\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lord Howe Rise Content: The Lord Howe Rise is a deep sea plateau which extends from south west of New Caledonia to the Challenger Plateau , west of New Zealand in the south west of the Pacific Ocean . To its west is the Tasman Basin and to the east is the New Caledonia Basin . Lord Howe Rise has a total area of about 1,500,000 square km , and generally lies about 750 to 1,200 metres under water . It is part of Zealandia , a much larger continent that is now mostly submerged , and so is composed of continental crust .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Lord_Howe_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 72446\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Risellopsis varia Content: Risellopsis varia is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Risellopsis_varia\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 72412\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human accelerated region 1 Content: In molecular biology , Human accelerated region 1 ( highly accelerated region 1 , HAR1 ) is a segment of the human genome found on the long arm of chromosome 20 . It is a Human accelerated region . It is located within a pair of overlapping long non-coding RNA genes , HAR1A ( HAR1F ) and HAR1B ( HAR1R ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_accelerated_region_1\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 72362\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 72324\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chatham Rise Content: The Chatham Rise is an area of ocean floor to the east of New Zealand , forming part of the Zealandia continent . It stretches for some 1000 km from near the South Island in the west , to the Chatham Islands in the east . It is New Zealand 's most productive and important fishing ground , as well as important habitat for whales . Relative to the rest of the Pacific Ocean waters around New Zealand , the Chatham Rise is relatively shallow , no more than 1000 m deep at any point . This shallowness is made more remarkable by the depth of the ocean immediately to the north and south . To the northeast , the Hikurangi Trench , an extension of the much deeper Kermadec Trench , drops to below 3000 m close to the New Zealand coast , and further from the coast the Rise borders on the Hikurangi Plateau . To the south , similar depths are achieved in the Bounty Trough . Past the eastern end of the rise , the sea floor drops away to the abyssal plain .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Chatham_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 72221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea cave Content: A sea cave , also known as a littoral cave , is a type of cave formed primarily by the wave action of the sea . The primary process involved is erosion . Sea caves are found throughout the world , actively forming along present coastlines and as relict sea caves on former coastlines . Some of the largest wave-cut caves in the world are found on the coast of Norway , but are now 100 feet or more above present sea level . These would still be classified as littoral caves . By contrast , in places like Thailand 's Phang Nga Bay , solutionally formed caves in limestone have been flooded by the rising sea and are now subject to littoral erosion , representing a new phase of their enlargement . Some of the best-known sea caves are European . Fingal 's Cave , on the Scottish island of Staffa , is a spacious cave some 70 m long , formed in columnar basalt . The Blue Grotto of Capri , although smaller , is famous for the apparent luminescent quality of its water , imparted by light passing through underwater openings . The Romans built a stairway in its rear and a now-collapsed tunnel to the surface . The Greek islands are also noted for the variety and beauty of their sea caves . Numerous sea caves have been surveyed in England , Scotland , and in France , particularly on the Normandy coast . Until 2013 , the largest known sea caves were found along the west coast of the United States , the Hawaiian islands , and the Shetland Islands . In 2013 the discovery and survey of the world 's largest sea cave was announced . Located on New Zealand 's Otago coast on the South Island , Matainaka Cave has proven to be the world 's most extensive at 1.5 km in length . Also in 2013 , Crossley reported a newly surveyed complex reaching just over a kilometer in survey at Bethells Beach on New Zealand 's North Island .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_cave\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 72048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Academic acceleration Content: Academic acceleration is the advancement of gifted students in subjects at a rate that places them ahead of where they would be in the regular school curriculum . Because it provides students with level-appropriate material , academic acceleration has been described as a `` fundamental need '' for gifted students . Although the bulk of educational research on academic acceleration has been within the United States , the practice occurs worldwide .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Academic_acceleration\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 71475\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ingression coast Content: An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level . Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral ( tidal ) processes , because the sea level , which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period , did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago . Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform -- e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief -- various types of ingression coast emerge , such as rias , skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Ingression_coast\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 71452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level, North Carolina Content: Sea Level is an unincorporated community in northeastern Carteret County , North Carolina . It rests on the banks of the Core Sound and has a population of roughly 450 . It is located in what was known to early settlers as Hunting Quarters . Sea Level has one of the lowest elevations in North Carolina ; it is estimated that approximately 75 % of the community floods when hurricanes pass through . US 70 is the major thoroughfare through the community . The community is the location of NC 12 's southern terminus .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level,_North_Carolina\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 71419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: South Tasman Rise Content: The South Tasman Rise is an area of seafloor that lies 550 km south of Hobart , Tasmania in the Southern Ocean where water depths are about 1,500 metres . The South Tasman Rise is also known as the Tasmania Ridge or South Tasmania Ridge .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"South_Tasman_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 71326\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Martin Ford (author) Content: Martin Ford is a futurist focusing on the impact of artificial intelligence and robotics on society and the economy , and the author of two books : Rise of the Robots : Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future ( 2015 ) and The Lights In the Tunnel : Automation , Accelerating Technology and the Economy of the Future ( 2009 ) . Both books deal with the effects of automation and the potential for structural unemployment and dramatically increasing inequality . His most recent book , Rise of the Robots , was a New York Times bestseller and won the # 30,000 Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year Award in 2015 . Ford is the founder of a Silicon Valley-based software development firm , and earned a BSE in computer engineering , Magna cum laude , from the University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , and a graduate business degree from UCLA 's Anderson School of Management .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Martin_Ford_(author)\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 70864\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerated pluralism Content: Accelerated pluralism is a theory coined by Bruce Bimber which claims that `` the net is accelerating the process of issue group formation and action '' . Accelerated pluralism is a method of mobilization used in the formation of social movements that is facilitated by the use of information communication technologies . This method of group formation is unique because through the use of the Internet people are able congregate in the virtual public sphere and decide which form of action to take . According to the Center for Democracy and Technology 's Daniel Weitnzer , the Internet facilitates a `` one-to-one interaction ... between citizens and government '' something that is missing in today 's politics . Accelerated pluralism played a major role in the mobilization efforts of the Arab Spring , Occupy and Black Lives Matter social movements by allowing the participants to congregate cheaply and quickly . ICTs in combination with accelerated pluralism played a major role in the `` ignition of social protest , the cascade of inspiring images and stories '' in social movements .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerated_pluralism\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 70789\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rise (non-governmental organization) Content: Rise , Inc. is an American non-governmental civil rights organization working with multiple state legislatures and the U.S. Congress to implement a sexual assault survivors ' bill of rights . Its founder and president is Amanda Nguyen . In October 2016 , the Sexual Assault Survivors ' Rights Act was enacted in the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Rise_(non-governmental_organization)\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 70696\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 70562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Particle acceleration Content: In a compressible sound transmission medium - mainly air - air particles get an accelerated motion : the particle acceleration or sound acceleration with the symbol a in metre/second2 . In acoustics or physics , acceleration ( symbol : a ) is defined as the rate of change ( or time derivative ) of velocity . It is thus a vector quantity with dimension length/time2 . In SI units , this is m/s2 . To accelerate an object ( air particle ) is to change its velocity over a period . Acceleration is defined technically as `` the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time '' and is given by the equation where a is the acceleration vector v is the velocity vector expressed in m/s t is time expressed in seconds . This equation gives a the units of m / ( s · s ) , or m/s2 ( read as `` metres per second per second '' , or `` metres per second squared '' ) . An alternative equation is : where is the average acceleration ( m/s2 ) is the initial velocity ( m/s ) is the final velocity ( m/s ) is the time interval ( s ) Transverse acceleration ( perpendicular to velocity ) causes change in direction . If it is constant in magnitude and changing in direction with the velocity , we get a circular motion . For this centripetal acceleration we have One common unit of acceleration is g-force , one g being the acceleration caused by the gravity of Earth . In classical mechanics , acceleration is related to force and mass ( assumed to be constant ) by way of Newton 's second law :\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Particle_acceleration\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 70221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MV Cape Rise (T-AKR-9678) Content: The , formerly Audi Riyadh , formerly Seaspeed Arabia is a roll-on/roll-off and container ship built in 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"MV_Cape_Rise_(T-AKR-9678)\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 70210\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake Content: The 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake or 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake occurred on May 26 , at 11:59:57 local time ( 02:59:59.6 UTC ) , It had a magnitude of 7.8 on the moment magnitude scale . It occurred in the Sea of Japan , about 100 km west of the coast of Noshiro in Akita Prefecture , Japan . Out of the 104 fatalities , all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami , which struck communities along the coast , especially Aomori and Akita Prefectures and the east coast of Noto Peninsula . Images of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbor of Wajima on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV . The waves exceeded 10 m in some areas . Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of South Korea ( whether North Korea was affected is not known ) . The tsunami also hit Okushiri Island , the site of a more deadly tsunami 10 years later .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"1983_Sea_of_Japan_earthquake\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 69819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decay-accelerating factor Content: Complement decay-accelerating factor , also known as CD55 or DAF , is a protein that , in humans , is encoded by the CD55 gene . DAF regulates the complement system on the cell surface . It recognizes C4b and C3b fragments that are created during C4 ( classical complement pathway and lectin pathway ) and C3 ( alternate complement pathway ) activation . Interaction of DAF with cell-associated C4b of the classical and lectin pathways interferes with the conversion of C2 to C2a , thereby preventing formation of the C4b2a C3 convertase , and interaction of DAF with C3b of the alternative pathway interferes with the conversion of factor B to Bb by factor D , thereby preventing formation of the C3bBb C3 convertase of the alternative pathway . Thus , by limiting the amplification convertases of the complement cascade , DAF indirectly blocks the formation of the membrane attack complex . This glycoprotein is broadly distributed among hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells . It is a determinant for the Cromer blood group system .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Decay-accelerating_factor\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 69411\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CryoSat Content: CryoSat is an ESA programme to monitor variations in the extent and thickness of polar ice through use of a satellite in low Earth orbit . The information provided about the behaviour of coastal glaciers that drain thinning ice sheets will be key to better predictions of future sea level rise . The CryoSat-1 spacecraft was lost in a launch failure in 2005 , however the programme was resumed with the successful launch of a replacement , CryoSat-2 , launched on 8 April 2010 . CryoSat is operated from the European Space Operations Centre ( ESOC ) in Darmstadt , Germany .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"CryoSat\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 69378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heartbeats Accelerating Content: Heartbeats Accelerating is the sixth album by Kate & Anna McGarrigle , released in 1990 . It was their first album in eight years , after Love Over and Over in 1982 , and received favourable reviews from many music critics . Bill Dillon , Pierre Marchand , Joel Zifkin and Kate 's son Rufus Wainwright appear as guest musicians . The title track was covered by Linda Ronstadt on her 1993 album Winter Light . It was given a New Age treatment and became a worldwide hit . Issued as a single , Ronstadt 's version of the song reached the top 30 at the Adult Contemporary chart , number 12 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart in the United States , and peaked at number 17 on Canada 's RPM 100 Hit Tracks ( the Canadian equivalent of the Billboard Hot 100 ) . It was also successful in several other countries , including Australia . The song `` I Eat Dinner ( When the Hunger 's Gone ) '' was covered in 2004 by Kate 's son Rufus Wainwright along with Dido for the film Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason and it appears on the soundtrack album . Cœur de pirate covered the album 's title track on the soundtrack album for the fifth season of the television drama series Trauma .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Heartbeats_Accelerating\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 69129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Music for an Accelerated Culture Content: Music for an Accelerated Culture is the debut album from new rave/grindie band Hadouken ! . The album contains nine new songs , three of which ( `` Spend Your Life '' , `` What She Did '' and `` Declaration of War '' ) have been previously played on tour , the album also includes two older Hadouken ! songs ; Liquid Lives and That Boy That Girl . The title is thought to be a reference to both Douglas Coupland 's book Generation X : Tales for an Accelerated Culture and The Prodigy 's album , Music for the Jilted Generation .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Music_for_an_Accelerated_Culture\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 69110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Irminger Sea Content: The Irminger Sea is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is 480 km long and 290 km wide at its narrowest . The northern limit is the Greenland-Iceland Rise on the bottom of the Denmark Strait between Iceland and East Greenland , which connects to the Greenland Sea . To the southwest , it reaches to Cape Farvel , the southern tip of Greenland , and meets the Labrador Sea at this point . South of this point is the open North Atlantic Ocean . The sea floor of the Irminger Sea is largely part of the Irminger Basin , a northeastern continuation of the maximally 4600 m deep Labrador Basin , which on the east is bordered by the Reykjanes Ridge . This delineation is oceanographic only and does not represent any official borders . The Irminger Sea is one of the main fishing areas of the Rose fish . The Irminger Sea was named after Danish vice-admiral Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger ( 1802 -- 1888 ) , after whom also the Irminger Current was named .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Irminger_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 69007\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising Tide North America Content: Rising Tide North America is a grassroots network of groups and individuals in North America organizing action against the root causes of climate change and work towards a non-carbon society . Rising Tide North America is part of an international network dedicated to building a climate justice and anti-extraction movement . Rising Tide generally takes a strongly `` no compromise '' stance on the environment and a vehement opposition to solutions proposed by corporations who , they say , are responsible for creating environmental problems in the first place .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_Tide_North_America\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 68176\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plasma acceleration Content: Plasma acceleration is a technique for accelerating charged particles , such as electrons , positrons and ions , using an electric field associated with electron plasma wave or other high-gradient plasma structures ( like shock and sheath fields ) . The plasma acceleration structures are created either using ultra-short laser pulses or energetic particle beams that are matched to the plasma parameters . These techniques offer a way to build high performance particle accelerators of much smaller size than conventional devices . The basic concepts of plasma acceleration and its possibilities were originally conceived by Toshiki Tajima and Prof. John M. Dawson of UCLA in 1979 . Initial designs of experiment for `` wakefield '' were conceived at UCLA by the group of Prof. Chan Joshi . Current experimental devices show accelerating gradients several orders of magnitude better than current particle accelerators . Plasma accelerators have immense promise for innovation of affordable and compact accelerators for various applications ranging from high energy physics to medical and industrial applications . Medical applications include betatron and free-electron light sources for diagnostics or radiation therapy and protons sources for hadron therapy . Plasma accelerators generally use wakefields generated by plasma density waves . However , plasma accelerators can operate in many different regimes depending upon the characteristics of the plasmas used . For example , an experimental laser plasma accelerator at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory accelerates electrons to 1 GeV over about 3.3 cm ( 5.4 x1020 gn ) , and one at the SLAC conventional accelerator ( highest electron energy accelerator ) requires 64 m to reach the same energy . Similarly , using plasmas an energy gain of more than 40 GeV was achieved using the SLAC SLC beam ( 42 GeV ) in just 85 cm using a plasma wakefield accelerator ( 8.9 x1020 gn ) . Once fully developed , the technology could replace many of the traditional RF accelerators currently found in particle colliders , hospitals and research facilities . The Texas Petawatt laser facility at the University of Texas at Austin accelerated electrons to 2 GeV over about 2 cm ( 1.6 x1021 gn ) . This record was broken ( by more than 2x ) in 2014 by the scientists at the BELLA ( laser ) Center at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , when they produced electron beams up to 4.25 GeV . In late 2014 , researchers from SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory using the Facility for Advanced Accelerator Experimental Tests ( FACET ) published proof of the viability of plasma acceleration technology . It was shown to be able to achieve 400 to 500 times higher energy transfer compared to a general linear accelerator design . A proof-of-principle plasma wakefield accelerator experiment using a 400 GeV proton beam from the Super Proton Synchrotron is currently under construction at CERN . The experiment , named AWAKE , is scheduled for start-up at the end of 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Plasma_acceleration\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 68029\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Over Sea, Under Stone Content: Over Sea , Under Stone is a contemporary fantasy novel written for children by the English author Susan Cooper , first published in London by Jonathan Cape in 1965 . Cooper wrote four sequels about ten years later , making it the first volume in a series usually called The Dark is Rising ( 1965 to 1977 ) . In contrast to the rest of the series , it is more a mystery , with traditional fantasy elements mainly the subject of hints later in the narrative . Thus it may ease readers into the fantasy genre .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Over_Sea,_Under_Stone\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 68004\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 67888\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mortgage acceleration Content: Mortgage acceleration is the practice of paying off a mortgage loan faster than required by terms of the mortgage agreement . As interest on mortgages is compounded , early payments diminish the period needed to pay off the mortgage , and avoid a quotient of compounded interest . In addition , acceleration may refer to a clause in a mortgage note ( See Acceleration clause ) that allows the mortgage holder to declare the entire debt of a defaulted mortgagor due and payable . A commonplace method of mortgage acceleration is a so-called bi-weekly payment plan , in which half of the normal calendar monthly payment is made every two weeks , so that 13/12 of the yearly amount due is paid per annum . Commonplace too , is the practice of making ad hoc additional payments . The agreements associated with certain mortgages preclude or penalize early payments .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Mortgage_acceleration\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 67859\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 67781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerationen Content: Accelerationen ( Accelerations ) , op. 234 , is a waltz composed by Johann Strauss II in 1860 for the Engineering Students ' Ball at the Sofienbad-Saal in Vienna . It is one of his best-known waltzes , famous especially for its rapidly accelerating opening waltz theme . Accelerations is featured in Erich Wolfgang Korngold 's The Tales of Strauss , Op. 21 as well as many of Strauss 's other well-known waltzes .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerationen\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 67745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Corazones (Omar Rodríguez-López album) Content: Corazones is the twenty-eighth studio album by Omar Rodríguez-López as a solo artist , released on 29 July 2016 . It is his second release in the 12 album series initiated by Ipecac Recordings . The song `` Sea is Rising '' made its first studio appearance on 2013 's Unicorn Skeleton Mask , while the song was actually debuted instrumentally on the Omar Rodriguez Lopez Group 2010 tour . `` Running Away '' was uploaded in advance as the album 's single . On August 1 , 2016 , Pitchfork released a music video for the song `` Running Away '' directed by Violeta Felix which features John Frusciante , former Mars Volta bassist Eva Gardner , Teri Gender Bender ( of Le Butcherettes and Bosnian Rainbows ) , photographer Robin Laananen , actress Tatiana Velazquez , visual artist Aura T-09 and Buzz Osborne ( of The Melvins ) all punching Omar in the face .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Corazones_(Omar_Rodríguez-López_album)\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 67555\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Ocean_heat_content\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 67531\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Lesko Content: Mark J. Lesko ( born February 4 , 1967 ) is the Executive Director of Accelerate Long Island . He is a former American politician and Assistant U.S. Attorney . Accelerate Long Island is a regional collaboration among Long Island 's major research institutions , including Brookhaven National Laboratory , Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory , Hofstra University , the North Shore-LIJ Feinstein Institute , Stony Brook University , and the business community to commercialize research and create high tech startup companies .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Lesko\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 67366\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The 10,000 Year Explosion Content: The 10,000 Year Explosion : How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution is a 2009 book by anthropologists Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending . Starting with their own take on the conventional wisdom that the evolutionary process stopped when modern humans appeared , the authors explain the genetic basis of their view that human evolution is accelerating , illustrating it with some examples .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"The_10,000_Year_Explosion\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 67353\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Accelerationism Content: In political and social theory , accelerationism is the idea that either the prevailing system of capitalism , or certain technosocial processes that have historically characterised it , should be expanded , repurposed , or accelerated in order to generate radical social change . Some contemporary accelerationist philosophy takes as its starting point the Deleuzo-Guattarian theory of deterritorialisation , aiming to identify , deepen , and radicalise the forces of deterritorialisation with a view to overcoming the countervailing tendencies that suppress the possibility of far-reaching social transformation . Accelerationism may also refer more broadly , and usually pejoratively , to support for the deepening of capitalism in the belief that this will hasten its self-destructive tendencies and ultimately lead to its collapse . Accelerationist theory has been divided into mutually contradictory left-wing and right-wing variants . `` Left-accelerationism '' attempts to press `` the process of technological evolution '' beyond the constrictive horizon of capitalism , for example by repurposing modern technology for socially beneficial and emancipatory ends ; `` right-accelerationism '' supports the indefinite intensification of capitalism itself , possibly in order to bring about a technological singularity .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Accelerationism\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 67301\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Monterey Accelerated Research System Content: Monterey Accelerated Research System ( MARS ) is a cabled-based observatory system below the surface of Monterey Bay , developed and managed by the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute . The system , operational since November 10 , 2008 , incorporates a 52 km undersea cable that carries data and power to benthic instrument nodes , AUVs , and various benthic and moored instrumentation .\",\n \"qid\": \"108\",\n \"docid\": \"Monterey_Accelerated_Research_System\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 67268\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":54,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Local and regional sea levels continue to exhibit typical natural variability—in some places rising and in others falling."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"109","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":1,"score":135164},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"109","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":2,"score":126775},{"content":"Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .","qid":"109","docid":"Tide","rank":3,"score":125127},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"109","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":4,"score":113339},{"content":"Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .","qid":"109","docid":"Past_sea_level","rank":5,"score":108363},{"content":"Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.","qid":"109","docid":"Coral_in_non-tropical_regions","rank":6,"score":103149},{"content":"Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .","qid":"109","docid":"Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level","rank":7,"score":102304},{"content":"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''","qid":"109","docid":"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)","rank":8,"score":98963},{"content":"Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .","qid":"109","docid":"Sea_level","rank":9,"score":98638},{"content":"Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .","qid":"109","docid":"Arctic_sea_ice_decline","rank":10,"score":97848},{"content":"Title: Annual cycle of sea level height Content: The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .","qid":"109","docid":"Annual_cycle_of_sea_level_height","rank":11,"score":97764},{"content":"Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .","qid":"109","docid":"Sea_level_equation","rank":12,"score":96440},{"content":"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .","qid":"109","docid":"Fisheries_and_climate_change","rank":13,"score":94132},{"content":"Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .","qid":"109","docid":"Josh_Willis","rank":14,"score":93763},{"content":"Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.","qid":"109","docid":"Climate_variability","rank":15,"score":93528},{"content":"Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :","qid":"109","docid":"Tide_(disambiguation)","rank":16,"score":91598},{"content":"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.","qid":"109","docid":"Climate_change_(general_concept)","rank":17,"score":90560},{"content":"Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .","qid":"109","docid":"Marine_transgression","rank":18,"score":90085},{"content":"Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .","qid":"109","docid":"Tidal_range","rank":19,"score":89830},{"content":"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''","qid":"109","docid":"Duncan_Wingham","rank":20,"score":88809},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"109","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":21,"score":87403},{"content":"Title: Measurement of sea ice Content: Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .","qid":"109","docid":"Measurement_of_sea_ice","rank":22,"score":86630},{"content":"Title: National Tidal and Sea Level Facility Content: Established in 2002 , The National Tidal and Sea Level Facility is responsible for monitoring sea levels in the UK . The NTSLF comprises the UK National Tide Gauge Network , geodetic networks , and gauges in the British Dependent Territories of the South Atlantic and Gibraltar . Data collected is used to create tidal predictions , monitor climate change and determine extreme sea levels for navigation and coastal engineering design . The Network is funded by the UK Environment Agency . Associated scientific research is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) .","qid":"109","docid":"National_Tidal_and_Sea_Level_Facility","rank":23,"score":86596},{"content":"Title: Orientation (computer vision) Content: In computer vision and image processing a common assumption is that sufficiently small image regions can be characterized as locally one-dimensional , e.g. , in terms of lines or edges . For natural images this assumption is usually correct except at specific points , e.g. , corners or line junctions or crossings , or in regions of high frequency textures . However , what size the regions have to be in order to appear as one-dimensional varies both between images and within an image . Also , in practice a local region is never exactly one-dimensional but can be so to a sufficient degree of approximation . Image regions which are one-dimensional are also referred to as simple or intrinsic one-dimensional ( i1D ) . Given an image of dimension d ( d = 2 for ordinary images ) , a mathematical representation of a local i1D image region is where is the image intensity function which varies over a local image coordinate ( a d-dimensional vector ) , is a one-variable function , and is a unit vector . The intensity function is constant in all directions which are perpendicular to . Intuitively , the orientation of an i1D-region is therefore represented by the vector . However , for a given , is not uniquely determined . If then can be written as which implies that also is a valid representation of the local orientation . In order to avoid this ambiguity in the representation of local orientation two representations have been proposed The double angle representation The tensor representation The double angle representation is only valid for 2D images ( d = 2 ) , but the tensor representation can be defined for arbitrary dimensions d of the image data .","qid":"109","docid":"Orientation_(computer_vision)","rank":24,"score":86593},{"content":"Title: Regional variation Content: A regional variation generally refers to times when a radio station or television station simultaneously broadcasts different programmes , continuity or advertisements to different parts of its coverage area . This may be so as to provide programming specific to a particular region , such as local news or may be so as to allow advertisements to be targeted to a particular area . Some regional variations are the consequence of a federal style television network or radio network where a local station is part of a larger broadcast network and broadcasts the network 's programmes some of the time and its own programming the rest of the time . The latter is therefore sometimes considered a regional variation . Examples of this include the UK 's ITV network throughout much of its history , and American network affiliate stations . Regional variation is also a common term used in British television listings publications , such as magazines and newspapers , to show the different programmes broadcast in different areas of the country .","qid":"109","docid":"Regional_variation","rank":25,"score":86220},{"content":"Title: Pacific decadal oscillation Content: The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California . During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .","qid":"109","docid":"Pacific_decadal_oscillation","rank":26,"score":85508},{"content":"Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .","qid":"109","docid":"Deglaciation","rank":27,"score":85017},{"content":"Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .","qid":"109","docid":"Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea","rank":28,"score":84816},{"content":"Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .","qid":"109","docid":"Sea-level_curve","rank":29,"score":84116},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .","qid":"109","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_York_City","rank":30,"score":83994},{"content":"Title: South Pacific Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project Content: The primary goal of the project is to provide accurate , long term records of the variance of the sea level in the Pacific and South Pacific oceans .","qid":"109","docid":"South_Pacific_Sea_Level_and_Climate_Monitoring_Project","rank":31,"score":83903},{"content":"Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .","qid":"109","docid":"The_Sea_is_Rising","rank":32,"score":82168},{"content":"Title: Multiscale European Soil Information System Content: Multiscale European Soil Information System ( MEUSIS ) is based on local , regional , national and European Soil Data sets . On the one hand , the high geographical variability of soil and the close interface between the soil status and the local conditions require the soil information and assessment criteria to have a strong built-in local element . On the other hand , soil issues have also a broader and wider dimension with global consequences . The major bottleneck of the assessment of the soil condition in Europe , based on already existing data , is the lack of comparable methodologies for soil survey , digital soil mapping , monitoring and data transfer . There is a high variability of soil information in Europe , which also varies from country to country . Local , Regional and National Authorities are derailing with soil data ; soil data sets from different countries are often implemented using different methodologies and measuring techniques .","qid":"109","docid":"Multiscale_European_Soil_Information_System","rank":33,"score":81340},{"content":"Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .","qid":"109","docid":"Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis","rank":34,"score":81158},{"content":"Title: Spice (oceanography) Content: In oceanography the term spice refers to spatial variations in the temperature and salinity of seawater whose effects on density cancel each other . Such density compensated thermohaline variability is ubiquitous in the upper ocean . Warmer , saltier water is more spicy while cooler , less salty water is more minty . For a density ratio of 1 , all the thermohaline variability is spice , and there are no density fluctuations . Category : Oceanography","qid":"109","docid":"Spice_(oceanography)","rank":35,"score":81032},{"content":"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .","qid":"109","docid":"Equilibrium_level","rank":36,"score":80723},{"content":"Title: Bond event Content: Bond events are North Atlantic ice rafting events that are tentatively linked to climate fluctuations in the Holocene . Eight such events have been identified . Bond events were previously believed to exhibit a quasi ~ 1,500-year cycle , but the primary period of variability is now put at ~ 1,000 years . Gerard C. Bond of the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University was the lead author of the 1997 paper that postulated the theory of 1470-year climate cycles in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic . However , more recent work has shown that these tracers provide little support for 1,500-year intervals of climate change , and the reported ~ 1,500 ± 500-year period was a statistical artifact . Furthermore , following publication of the Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 ( GICC05 ) for the North GRIP ice core , it became clear that Dansgaar-Oescher Events also show no such a pattern . The North Atlantic ice-rafting events happen to correlate with episodes of lowered lake levels in the Mid-Atlantic region , USA , the most weak events of the Asian monsoon for at least the past 9,000 years , and also correlate with most aridification events in the Middle East for the past 55,000 years ( both Heinrich and Bond events ) . For reasons that are unclear , the only Holocene Bond event that has a clear temperature signal in the Greenland ice cores is the 8.2 kyr event .","qid":"109","docid":"Bond_event","rank":37,"score":80407},{"content":"Title: Rising Tide UK Content: Rising Tide UK is the United Kingdom part of the International Rising Tide Network , both of which were created in 2000 to carry out direct action against the root causes of climate change , and to work towards a fossil fuel free future . RTUK takes a no-compromise position and believes that only the complete dismantling of the fossil fuel industry and a shift to low consumption lifestyles will be sufficient to halt climate change . Rising Tide UK is formed of regional and local groups in the UK , and supports networks of similar groups around the country . Actions carried out by Rising Tide UK groups range from protests and street-theatre style events , to mass occupations of petrol stations , and blockades of key fossil fuel industrial sites .","qid":"109","docid":"Rising_Tide_UK","rank":38,"score":79629},{"content":"Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .","qid":"109","docid":"Climate_oscillation","rank":39,"score":79013},{"content":"Title: Rossby whistle Content: The Rossby whistle is the oscillation of sea-level and bottom pressure in the Caribbean Sea with the period of 120 days and influenced by propagating westward oceanic Rossby wave . It is observed that a baroclinic Rossby wave propagating westward across the Caribbean Sea , oscillating with a period of 120 days , is rapidly returned to the east along the southern boundary as coastal shelf waves . The porous boundary of the Caribbean Sea results in this oscillation influencing a mass exchange with the wider ocean , leading to an almost uniform bottom pressure variability over the Grenada , Venezuela , and Colombia basins . These observations are based on satellite observation of the sea-level , monthly means of basin-averaged ocean bottom pressure using GRACE data , tide gauge measurements , and data from a bottom pressure recorder . The oscillation was first found in a numerical modelling simulation , from which is shown one cycle of the least squares fit of ( left ) sea level and ( right ) bottom pressure on basin averaged bottom pressure in the Caribbean Sea .","qid":"109","docid":"Rossby_whistle","rank":40,"score":78551},{"content":"Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .","qid":"109","docid":"Tide_gauge","rank":41,"score":78356},{"content":"Title: Regional accents of English Content: -LSB- noticelang = en -RSB- Spoken English shows great variation across regions where it is the predominant language . This article provides an overview of the numerous identifiable variations in pronunciation ; such distinctions usually derive from the phonetic inventory of local dialects , as well as from broader differences in the Standard English of different primary-speaking populations . Accent is the part of dialect concerning local pronunciation . Vocabulary and grammar are described elsewhere ; see List of dialects of the English language . Secondary English speakers tend to carry over the intonation and phonetics of their mother tongue in English speech . For more details , see Non-native pronunciations of English . Primary English-speakers show great variability in terms of regional accents . Some , such as Pennsylvania Dutch English , are easily identified by key characteristics ; others are more obscure or easily confused . Broad regions can possess sub-forms as identified below ; for instance , towns located less than 10 mi from the city of Manchester , such as Bolton , Oldham and Salford , each have distinct accents , all of which together comprise the broader accent of Lancashire county ; while these sub-dialects are very similar to each other , non-local listeners can identify firm differences . English accents can differ enough to create room for misunderstandings . For example , the pronunciation of pearl in some variants of Scottish English can sound like the entirely unrelated word petal to an American ear . For a summary of the differences between accents , see International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects .","qid":"109","docid":"Regional_accents_of_English","rank":42,"score":78275},{"content":"Title: Tidewater region Content: The Tidewater region is a geographic area of southeast Virginia and northeastern North Carolina , part of the Atlantic coastal plain in the United States of America . Portions of Maryland facing the Chesapeake Bay are also given this designation . The area gains its name because of the effects of the changing tides on local rivers , sounds , and the ocean . The area is generally flat and low and composed of tidal marsh and large expanses of swamp . Much of the area is covered with pocosin and the higher areas are used for agricultural farmlands . Geographically , in North Carolina and Virginia the Tidewater area is the land between the Suffolk Scarp and the Atlantic Ocean . The Hampton Roads area of Virginia is considered to be in the Tidewater . Extreme Southern Maryland and parts of the lower Eastern Shore round out the northern fringe of the region on the Chesapeake Bay . The term tidewater may be correctly applied to all portions of any area , including Virginia , where the water level is affected by the tides ( more specifically , where the water level rises when the tide comes in ) . In the case of Virginia , the Tidewater region includes the land east of the Fall Line , the natural border with the Piedmont Region . It includes Hampton Roads , the rest of the Virginia Peninsula , the Middle Peninsula , the Northern Neck , and the Eastern Shore . Planters in the early American colonies extended their tobacco productions above the `` fall line , '' where waterfalls or rapids mark the end of the Tidewater and the beginning of the foothill region known as the Piedmont . Tidewater is host to flora commonly associated with the South Atlantic pine forests and lower Southeast Coastal Plain maritime flora , the latter found primarily in southeastern Virginia .","qid":"109","docid":"Tidewater_region","rank":43,"score":78220},{"content":"Title: David Battisti Content: David Battisti is The Tamaki Endowed Chair of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington and a fellow at the American Geophysical Union . His research interests include understanding how interactions between the ocean , land , atmosphere , and sea ice lead to climatic variability at timescales that vary from seasonal to decadal timescales , as well as the paleoclimate . He is also interested in how climate variability ( including El Nino ) affects food production . He received his PhD in 1988 at the University of Washington Department of Atmospheric Sciences . He has published over 100 papers in peer-review journals in atmospheric sciences and oceanography . He also helps organize an annual set of climate dynamics courses .","qid":"109","docid":"David_Battisti","rank":44,"score":78074},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .","qid":"109","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations","rank":45,"score":77823},{"content":"Title: Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling Content: The Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling ( CPOM ) is a centre for research into polar region processes which may affect : polar atmosphere and ocean circulation ; the Earth 's albedo ; and global sea levels . It is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council , a UK Research Council . CPOM comprises research groups from 3 Universities : University College London , University of Bristol , and University of Edinburgh . In 2006 , research carried out by CPOM resulted in the press report `` Secret rivers found in Antarctic '' . The survey used the European Space Agency 's ERS-2 satellite radar to measure a region in East Antarctica with some of the oldest , thickest ice on the continent . The survey revealed synchronous changes in ice surface height ( both rise and falls ) at locations hundreds of kilometres apart . According to CPOM Director , Duncan Wingham , the only conceivable mechanism for the observations was the movement of water .","qid":"109","docid":"Centre_for_Polar_Observation_&_Modelling","rank":46,"score":77805},{"content":"Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .","qid":"109","docid":"The_Sea_Has_Risen","rank":47,"score":77625},{"content":"Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .","qid":"109","docid":"Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System","rank":48,"score":77360},{"content":"Title: Independent Natural Resources, Inc Content: Independent Natural Resources , Inc. or INRI is an American IP holding company based in Eden Prairie , Minnesota . `` It formed Renew Blue in Dallas as a wholly owned subsidiary charged with licensing the SEADOG pump . '' The SEADOG Pump is an ocean-wave energy technology patented by Independent Natural Resources Inc. ( INRI ) and invented by Kenneth W. Welch , Jr. . The SEADOG Pump rises and falls with ocean swells , effectively capturing the energy in the ocean waves , to pump seawater to a land-based elevated holding tank . Once in the tank , the potential energy of the water can be used to drive hydroelectric generators to generate electricity or desalinated water . The technology was tested in the Gulf of Mexico with results validated by Texas A&M University at Galveston . The SEADOG Pump 's manufacturer estimates that `` a square-mile field of pumps could generate 50 to 1,500 megawatts of electricity -- enough to power thousands of homes -- depending on the size and frequency of waves . '' The company 's technology has been showcased in multiple energy conferences including the Gulf Coast Innovation Conference & Showcase and the Energy and Clean Technology Venture Forum . It also has had features in The Star Tribune , The Houston Business Journal , The Houston Chronicle , and Popular Mechanics . INRI ceased operations in 2010 and have since gone through bankruptcy and liquidation .","qid":"109","docid":"Independent_Natural_Resources,_Inc","rank":49,"score":77188},{"content":"Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .","qid":"109","docid":"Sea_ice","rank":50,"score":77172},{"content":"Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .","qid":"109","docid":"A_Sea_So_Far","rank":51,"score":76624},{"content":"Title: List of places on land with elevations below sea level Content: This is a list of places below mean sea level that are on land . Places in tunnels , mines , basements , dug holes ( also with open sky ) , under water , under ice , or existing temporarily as a result of ebbing of sea tide etc. are not included . Places where seawater and rainwater is pumped away are included . Fully natural places below sea level require a dry climate , otherwise rain would exceed evaporation and fill the area . All figures are in meters below sea level , arranged by depth , lowest first :","qid":"109","docid":"List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level","rank":52,"score":76006},{"content":"Title: Atlantic Equatorial mode Content: The Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño is a quasiperiodic interannual climate pattern of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean . It is the dominant mode of year-to-year variability that results in alternating warming and cooling episodes of sea surface temperatures accompanied by changes in atmospheric circulation . The term Atlantic Niño comes from its close similarity with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) that dominates the tropical Pacific basin . The Atlantic Niño is not the same as the Atlantic Meridional ( Interhemispheric ) Mode that consists of a north-south dipole and operates more on decadal timescales . The equatorial warming and cooling events associated with the Atlantic Niño are known to be strongly related to atmospheric climate anomalies , especially in African countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea . Therefore , understanding of the Atlantic Niño ( or lack thereof ) has important implications for climate prediction in those regions . Although the Atlantic Niño is an intrinsic mode to the equatorial Atlantic , there may be a tenuous causal relationship between ENSO and the Atlantic Niño in some circumstances .","qid":"109","docid":"Atlantic_Equatorial_mode","rank":53,"score":75806},{"content":"Title: Sea breeze Content: A sea breeze or onshore breeze is any wind that blows from a large body of water toward or onto a landmass ; it develops due to differences in air pressure created by the differing heat capacities of water and dry land . As such sea breezes are more localised than prevailing winds . Because land absorbs solar radiation far more quickly than water , a sea breeze is a common occurrence along coasts after sunrise . By contrast , a land breeze or offshore breeze is the reverse effect : dry land also cools more quickly than water and , after sunset , a sea breeze dissipates and the wind instead flows from the land towards the sea . Sea breezes and land breezes are both important factors in coastal regions ' prevailing winds . The term offshore wind may refer to any wind over open water . Wind farms are often situated near a coast to take advantage of the normal daily fluctuations of wind speed resulting from sea or land breezes . While many onshore wind farms and offshore wind farms do not rely on these winds , a nearshore wind farm is a type of offshore wind farm located on shallow coastal waters to take advantage of both sea and land breezes . ( For practical reasons , other offshore wind farms are situated further out to sea and rely on prevailing winds rather than sea breezes . )","qid":"109","docid":"Sea_breeze","rank":54,"score":75732},{"content":"Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .","qid":"109","docid":"Meltwater_pulse_1A","rank":55,"score":75693},{"content":"Title: Sea cave Content: A sea cave , also known as a littoral cave , is a type of cave formed primarily by the wave action of the sea . The primary process involved is erosion . Sea caves are found throughout the world , actively forming along present coastlines and as relict sea caves on former coastlines . Some of the largest wave-cut caves in the world are found on the coast of Norway , but are now 100 feet or more above present sea level . These would still be classified as littoral caves . By contrast , in places like Thailand 's Phang Nga Bay , solutionally formed caves in limestone have been flooded by the rising sea and are now subject to littoral erosion , representing a new phase of their enlargement . Some of the best-known sea caves are European . Fingal 's Cave , on the Scottish island of Staffa , is a spacious cave some 70 m long , formed in columnar basalt . The Blue Grotto of Capri , although smaller , is famous for the apparent luminescent quality of its water , imparted by light passing through underwater openings . The Romans built a stairway in its rear and a now-collapsed tunnel to the surface . The Greek islands are also noted for the variety and beauty of their sea caves . Numerous sea caves have been surveyed in England , Scotland , and in France , particularly on the Normandy coast . Until 2013 , the largest known sea caves were found along the west coast of the United States , the Hawaiian islands , and the Shetland Islands . In 2013 the discovery and survey of the world 's largest sea cave was announced . Located on New Zealand 's Otago coast on the South Island , Matainaka Cave has proven to be the world 's most extensive at 1.5 km in length . Also in 2013 , Crossley reported a newly surveyed complex reaching just over a kilometer in survey at Bethells Beach on New Zealand 's North Island .","qid":"109","docid":"Sea_cave","rank":56,"score":75329},{"content":"Title: Ingression coast Content: An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level . Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral ( tidal ) processes , because the sea level , which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period , did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago . Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform -- e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief -- various types of ingression coast emerge , such as rias , skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts .","qid":"109","docid":"Ingression_coast","rank":57,"score":75291},{"content":"Title: Rising Tide North America Content: Rising Tide North America is a grassroots network of groups and individuals in North America organizing action against the root causes of climate change and work towards a non-carbon society . Rising Tide North America is part of an international network dedicated to building a climate justice and anti-extraction movement . Rising Tide generally takes a strongly `` no compromise '' stance on the environment and a vehement opposition to solutions proposed by corporations who , they say , are responsible for creating environmental problems in the first place .","qid":"109","docid":"Rising_Tide_North_America","rank":58,"score":75277},{"content":"Title: North Sea Region Programme Content:","qid":"109","docid":"North_Sea_Region_Programme","rank":59,"score":75225},{"content":"Title: Tropical Atlantic SST Dipole Content: The Tropical Atlantic SST Dipole refers to a cross-equatorial sea surface temperature ( SST ) pattern that appears dominant on decadal timescales . It has a period of about 12 years , with the SST anomalies manifesting their most pronounced features around 10 -- 15 degrees of latitude off of the Equator . The term Tropical Atlantic SST dipole is only one of the characteristic names used to refer to this mode of variability ; other definitions include the interhemispheric SST gradient or the Meridional Atlantic mode . This decadal-scale SST pattern constitutes one of the key features of SST variability in the Tropical Atlantic ocean , with another one being the Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño , which occurs in the zonal ( east-west ) direction at interannual timescales , with sea surface temperature and heat content anomalies being observed in the eastern equatorial basin . Its importance in climate dynamics and decadal-scale climate prediction is evident when investigating its impact on adjacent continental regions such as the Northeast Brazil , the Sahel as well as its influence on North Atlantic cyclogenesis .","qid":"109","docid":"Tropical_Atlantic_SST_Dipole","rank":60,"score":75087},{"content":"Title: Regional Scale Nodes Content: The National Science Foundation 's ( NSF ) Ocean Observatories Initiative ( OOI ) Regional Scale Nodes ( RSN ) component is an electro-optically cabled underwater observatory that directly connects to the global Internet . It is the largest cable-linked seabed observatory in the world , and also the first of its kind in the United States . Located on the southern part of the Juan de Fuca plate , off the coast of Washington and Oregon , it is the first ocean observatory to span a tectonic plate . RSN utilizes several high-power , high-bandwidth sub-sea terminals called primary nodes which are linked together by fiber-optic cable and provide support to oceanographic sensors at key locations . Upon completion of the network in 2014 , RSN will cover a distance of over 900 kilometers at depths of up to 3000 meters . Implementation of the OOI Regional Scale Nodes is led by the University of Washington 's ( UW ) School of Oceanography , the UW Applied Physics Laboratory , and L-3 MariPro . Live RSN data from > 100 seafloor and water column instruments will be made available live on the Internet . This will allow both scientists and the general public to study long-term changes in ocean systems over the next 25 years . Construction of RSN will be completed in 2014 . Efforts are substantially aided by the crews of ROPOS ( Remotely Operated Platform for Observation Sciences . The 83-day VISIONS ’14 expedition aboard the 274-foot global-class R/V Thomas G. Thompson is responsible for the observatory 's final implementation .","qid":"109","docid":"Regional_Scale_Nodes","rank":61,"score":74856},{"content":"Title: Natural process variation Content: Natural process variation , sometimes just called process variation , is the statistical description of natural fluctuations in process outputs .","qid":"109","docid":"Natural_process_variation","rank":62,"score":74762},{"content":"Title: The Threat from the Sea Content: The Threat From the Sea is a series of fantasy novels written mostly by Mel Odom . It contains three novels : Rising Tide , Under Fallen Stars , and The Sea Devil 's Eye . It also contains the anthology book , Realms of the Deep .","qid":"109","docid":"The_Threat_from_the_Sea","rank":63,"score":74532},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"109","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":64,"score":74525},{"content":"Title: Dunkirk transgression Content: The three Dunkirk transgressions are events of marine transgression ( rising seas ) around the shores of the Low Countries in the late Roman period . Soil survey geological evidences and lack of human occupation artefacts led scientists to formulate the claim that the Netherlands was largely underwater between the 3rd century and 1050 . This is the so-called third Dunkirk Transgression . The reality of the events , hypothetically determined by cyclical phases of strong sea level rises in historical times , is debated . The low-lying continental coast of Europe was lightly populated until c. 200 BC , when the climate and environment became more amenable to human habitation . Conditions remained favourable from 200 BC to 250 AD , and the region became densely populated . However the region had been undergoing a series of marine transgressions ( called Dunkirk 0 through Dunkirk IIIb ) characterised by a rising water table and floods that left layers of clay on the land . The heaviest blow came with the `` Dunkirk II transgression '' that began in the 3rd century and continually worsened , leaving large areas of the coast uninhabitable from c. 350 -- c. 700 . People were forced to abandon their homes and emigrate . Archaeologists conducting research along the historically flood-prone coast tell this same story for The Rhine/Meuse delta ( Zeeland , Brabant , parts of South Holland and Limburg ) ; Friesland ; Groningen ; Ostfriesland , German Friesland and the Weser/Jade estuary ; and Dithmarschen , Eiderstedt and Nordfriesland . In the Rhine/Meuse delta , the population became scanty . Between the 5th and 7th centuries there were few centers of occupation in the delta region , and in the estuarine and peat areas no settlements at all have been found . The area would not be repopulated until the Carolingian Era . The areas with river clay were so covered with sedimentation that habitation was almost impossible between 250 -- 650 .","qid":"109","docid":"Dunkirk_transgression","rank":65,"score":74332},{"content":"Title: River regime Content: River regime can describe one of two characteristics of a reach of an alluvial river : The variability in its discharge throughout the course of a year in response to precipitation , temperature , evapotranspiration , and drainage basin characteristics ( Beckinsale , 1969 ) A series of characteristic power-law relationships between discharge and width , depth , and slope The latter is described by the fact that the discharge through a river of an approximate rectangular cross-section must , through conservation of mass , equal where is the volumetric discharge , is the mean flow velocity , is the channel width ( breadth ) and is the channel depth . Because of this relationship , as discharge increases , depth , width , and/or mean velocity must increase as well . Empirically-derived relationships between depth , slope , and velocity are : refers to a `` dominant discharge '' or `` channel-forming discharge '' , which is typically the 1 -- 2 year flood , though there is a large amount of scatter around this mean . This is the event that causes significant erosion and deposition and determines the channel morphology . The variability in discharge over the course of a year is commonly represented by a hydrograph with mean monthly discharge variations plotted over the annual time scale . When interpreting such records of discharge , it is important to factor in the time scale over which the average monthly values were calculated . It is particularly difficult to establish a typical annual river regime for rivers with high interannual variability in monthly discharge and/or significant changes in the catchment 's characteristics ( e.g. tectonic influences or the introduction of water management practices ) .","qid":"109","docid":"River_regime","rank":66,"score":74025},{"content":"Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .","qid":"109","docid":"Rising_from_the_Sea","rank":67,"score":73914},{"content":"Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .","qid":"109","docid":"Paleoflooding","rank":68,"score":73854},{"content":"Title: Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture Content: SEARCA or the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture is one of the oldest among 21 regional centers of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization ( SEAMEO ) . Founded on 27 November 1966 , SEARCA is mandated to strengthen institutional capacities in agricultural and rural development in Southeast Asia . For its Tenth Five-Year Plan ( FY2014/2015 - FY2018/2019 ) , SEARCA works to strengthen institutional capacities toward inclusive and sustainable agricultural and rural development ( ISARD ) in Southeast Asia through graduate education and institutional development , research and development , and knowledge management . These programs are anchored on SEARCA 's strategic thrusts that promote social inclusion , environmental sustainability , and cross-cutting concerns that impact Southeast Asia . SEARCA serves the 11 SEAMEO member countries , namely : Brunei Darussalam , Cambodia , Indonesia , Lao People 's Democratic Republic , Malaysia , Myanmar , the Philippines , Singapore , Thailand , Vietnam , and Timor-Leste . The Center is hosted by the Government of the Philippines on the campus of the University of the Philippines Los Baños ( UPLB ) in Laguna , Philippines .","qid":"109","docid":"Southeast_Asian_Regional_Center_for_Graduate_Study_and_Research_in_Agriculture","rank":69,"score":73817},{"content":"Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .","qid":"109","docid":"Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)","rank":70,"score":73730},{"content":"Title: Local adaptation Content: A population is said to be locally adapted if organisms in that population have differentially evolved as compared to other populations within their species in response to selective pressures imposed by some aspect of their local environment , be that aspect biotic or abiotic . Therefore , Local adaptation is simply when a population of organisms has evolved to be more well-suited to its environment than other members of the same species . Local adaptation is often determined via reciprocal transplant experiments , where organisms from one population are transplanted into another population , and vice versa , and their finesses measured . If the transplanted organisms have lower fitness in the novel environment , than the native population can be said to be locally adapted . Populations located in different environments may be faced with different biotic and abiotic pressures , consequently natural selection may drive the evolution of these populations in different directions . This divergent natural selection can lead to differences in trait values among populations for those traits that are heritable and impact organism fitness . Local adaptation of a variety of traits has been demonstrated in numerous , phylogenetically disparate organisms . Examples of local adaptation abound in the natural world . For instance , many plant populations exhibit local adaptation . This has been established by reciprocally transplanting plants from one population into another population , and vice versa . The transplanted plants often do worse in the novel environment , than their conspecifics that are locally adapted . Many examples of local adaptation exist in host-parasite systems as well . For instance , a host may be resistant to a locally-abundant pathogen or parasite , but conspecific hosts from elsewhere where that pathogen is not abundant may have no evolved no such adaptation . -","qid":"109","docid":"Local_adaptation","rank":71,"score":73682},{"content":"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .","qid":"109","docid":"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis","rank":72,"score":73640},{"content":"Title: Regionalized variable theory Content: Regionalized variable theory ( RVT ) is a geostatistical method used for interpolation in space . The concept of the theory is that interpolation from points in space should not be based on a smooth continuous object . It should be , however , based on a stochastic model that takes into consideration the various trends in the original set of points . The theory considers that within any dataset , three types of relationships can be detected : Structural part , which is also called the trend . Correlated variation . Uncorrelated variation , or noise . After defining the above three relationships , RVT then applies the first law of geography , in order to predict the unknown values of points . The major application of this theory is the Kriging method for interpolation . Category : Interpolation","qid":"109","docid":"Regionalized_variable_theory","rank":73,"score":73586},{"content":"Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .","qid":"109","docid":"Sea_Level_(band)","rank":74,"score":73548},{"content":"Title: Rises and falls Content: Rises and falls is a category of the ballroom dance technique that refers to rises and falls of the body of a dancer achieved through actions of knees and feet ( ankles ) . This technique is primarily recognized in International Standard and American Smooth dance categories . Rises and falls are important in Waltz , Foxtrot , Quickstep , and Viennese Waltz . Tango is described the `` level '' or `` flat '' dance , and its basic technique specifically eliminates rises/falls in the overall motion , with the exception of certain advanced figures and styles . The expression `` rises and falls of the body '' is a rather vague one , and in attempts to be more precise some texts refer to center of gravity , rather than body . This may also be misleading if taken out of context : the center of gravity may be lowered , e.g. , by bends and sways . In addition , a certain amount of body rise and fall may be achieved by hip action , used in Latin dance , but absolutely proscribed in Standard and Smooth . Rises and falls of the body is a natural phenomenon during casual walking : when feet are apart the body is closer to the ground than when the feet are together . Some dances , e.g. , Charleston , exaggerate this natural `` bobbing '' , while in many others bobbing at each step is considered to be bad style or lack of proper technique .","qid":"109","docid":"Rises_and_falls","rank":75,"score":73317},{"content":"Title: SEARCC Content: The South East Asia Regional Computer Confederation ( SEARCC ) is a not-for-profit association of national computer professional associations of the Asia-Pacific region . The South East Asia Regional Computer Confederation ( SEARCC ) is a forum of national Information Technology professional societies in the Asia Pacific region.The Charter and Constitution of SEARCC was signed in Singapore on the 28th February 1978 . Six national societies from the region , the Hong Kong Computer Society , Indonesian Computer Society , Malaysian National Computer Confederation , Philippines Computer Society , Singapore Computer Society and Computer Association of Thailand were the founding signatories . SEARCC is a member of IFIP ( International Federation for Information Processing ) . IFIP is an umbrella organization for national societies working in the field of information technology . It is a non-governmental , non-profit organization with offices in Laxenburg , Austria . IFIP was established in 1960 under the auspices of UNESCO . Its members are : Australian Computer Society Canadian Information Processing Society Hong Kong Computer Society Computer Society of India Computer and Informatics Professionals Society of Indonesia ( IPKIN ) Information Processing Society of Japan Malaysian National Computer Confederation Institute of IT Professionals New Zealand Computer Society of Pakistan Philippine Computer Society Computer Society of Sri Lanka Computer Society of the Republic of China Computer Association of Thailand SEARCC also runs the annual International Schools ' Software Competition , a teams programming competition , normally contested by winning teams from the country 's national programming competitions .","qid":"109","docid":"SEARCC","rank":76,"score":73205},{"content":"Title: Phytodetritus Content: In oceanography , phytodetritus is the organic particulate matter resulting from phytoplankton and other organic material in surface waters falling to the seabed . This process takes place almost continuously as a `` marine snow '' of descending particles , falling at the rate of about 100 to per day . Under certain conditions , phytoplankton may aggregate and fall rapidly through the water column to arrive little changed on the seabed . These fluxes sometimes occur seasonally or periodically , are sometimes associated with algal blooms and may constitute the greater part of descending organic matter . If the amount is greater than the benthic detritivores can process , the phytodetritus forms a fluffy layer on the surface of the sediment . It accumulates in many shallow and deep water locations throughout the world . Phytodetritus varies in colour and appearance and may be greenish , brown or grey , flocculent or gelatinous . It includes the microscopic remains of diatoms , dinoflagellates , dictyochales , coccolithophores , foraminiferans , phaeodareans , tintinnids , crustacean eggs and moults , protozoan faecal pellets , picoplankton and other planktonic matter embedded in a membranous gelatinous matrix . One of the most important genera of forams is Globigerina ; vast areas of the ocean floor are covered with `` Globigerina ooze '' , so named by Murray and Renard in 1873 , dominated by the shells of planktonic forms . Larger materials may also be present including large animal remains such as carcases , large fragments of plant and faecal matter .","qid":"109","docid":"Phytodetritus","rank":77,"score":73156},{"content":"Title: Benham Plateau Content: The Benham Rise , officially known as the Philippine Rise , is a seismically active undersea region and extinct volcanic ridge located in the Philippine Sea approximately 250 km east of the northern coastline of Dinapigue , Isabela . Under the Philippine Sea lie a number of basins including the West Philippine Sea Basin , inside of which is located the Central Basin Fault ( CBF ) . The Benham Plateau is located in the CBF and its basement probably is a micro-continent . Several scientific surveys have been made on the feature to study its nature and its impact on tectonic subduction , including one about its effects on the 1990 Luzon earthquake . The Philippines claimed this feature as part of its continental shelf in a claim lodged with the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on 8 April 2009 , and which was approved under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) in 2012 . It is designated as a `` protected food supply exclusive zone '' by the Philippine government in May 2017 . Mining and oil exploration is banned in the Benham Plateau as a protected area . On May 16 , 2017 , Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 25 renaming the region to Philippine Rise .","qid":"109","docid":"Benham_Plateau","rank":78,"score":73059},{"content":"Title: Land and Sea Content: Land and Sea is a locally produced Canadian documentary television show broadcast in Newfoundland and Labrador on CBNT-DT in St. John 's , and on all CBC Television outlets throughout the province . It has been on the air since 1964 ( interrupted only by a short cancellation in the early 1990s , but revived after an outcry from fans ) , and is the longest running regional television program on CBC Television . Originally a black-and-white program , it began broadcasting in colour in the late 1960s/early 1970s . There is also a Maritime version of Land and Sea which is broadcast on the full CBC network on Sunday afternoons , and episodes from that version are often alternated with Newfoundland-based episodes .","qid":"109","docid":"Land_and_Sea","rank":79,"score":72934},{"content":"Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :","qid":"109","docid":"Sea_level_(disambiguation)","rank":80,"score":72830},{"content":"Title: Natural region Content: A natural region is a basic geographic unit . Usually it is a region which is distinguished by its common natural features of geography , geology , and climate . From the ecological point of view , the naturally occurring flora and fauna of the region are likely to be influenced by its geographical and geological factors , such as soil and water availability , in a significant manner . Thus most natural regions are homogeneous ecosystems . Human impact can be an important factor in the shaping and destiny of a particular natural region .","qid":"109","docid":"Natural_region","rank":81,"score":72721},{"content":"Title: Southern Economic Association Content: The Southern Economic Association ( SEA ) is a regional-based scholarly economic organization based at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga . The SEA was founded in 1928 . It is one of five general professional economic associations . For the SEA member characteristics ( e.g. political affiliation , policy opinions ) in relation to the other major economic associations see Klein et . al. .","qid":"109","docid":"Southern_Economic_Association","rank":82,"score":72678},{"content":"Title: Klaus Hasselmann Content: Klaus Hasselmann ( born 25 October 1931 ) is a leading oceanographer and climate modeller . He is probably best known for developing the Hasselmann model of climate variability , where a system with a long memory ( the ocean ) integrates stochastic forcing , thereby transforming a white-noise signal into a red-noise one , thus explaining ( without special assumptions ) the ubiquitous red-noise signals seen in the climate .","qid":"109","docid":"Klaus_Hasselmann","rank":83,"score":72523},{"content":"Title: Whale fall Content: A whale fall is the carcass of a cetacean that has fallen into the bathyal or abyssal zone ( i.e. deeper than 1000 m ) on the ocean floor . They can create complex localized ecosystems that supply sustenance to deep-sea organisms for decades . This is unlike in shallower waters , where a whale carcass will be consumed by scavengers over a relatively short period of time . It was with the development of deep-sea robotic exploration that whale falls were first observed in the late 1970s . Organisms that have been observed at deep-sea whale falls include giant isopods , squat lobsters , bristleworms , prawns , shrimp , lobsters , hagfish , Osedax , crabs , sea cucumbers , and sleeper sharks . Whale falls are able to occur in the deep open ocean due to cold temperatures and high hydrostatic pressures . In the coastal ocean , a higher incidence of predators as well as warmer waters hasten the decomposition of whale carcasses . Carcasses may also float due to decompositional gases , keeping the carcass at the surface . In the deep-sea , cold temperatures slow decomposition rates , and high hydrostatic pressures increase gas solubility , allowing food falls to remain intact and sink to great depths . There have also been studies based on the carcasses of other , non-mammalian marine vertebrates that have fallen to the deep sea . In particular , the chance discovery of a whale shark carcass and three mobulid ray carcasses led to observations on the communities that form surrounding large elasmobranch falls as opposed to whale falls . Whale sharks inhabit waters of roughly 1,000 meters depth regularly , which suggests it could be a regular form of food fall in areas where it is abundant . Many eelpouts ( Zoarcidae ) were found surrounding the whale shark with some evidence of direct feeding as boreholes were observed on the carcass . Another theory suggests that the eelpouts were waiting for their main prey , amphipods and other small benthic animals . The three rays found were at varying stages of decomposition , leading to varying assemblages found surrounding the individuals . A higher abundance of scavengers was found surrounding the more intact individuals , including scavengers typical of whale falls like hagfish . Around the least intact individual a bacterial mat was observed in the zone of enrichment , but no clams or mussels typical of this environment ( i.e. whale falls ) were seen . Overall , the four carcasses observed showed no evidence of progression past the scavenger stage ( Stage 1 below ) . The size limitations , as well as physiological differences between large elasmobranchs and whales more than likely causes the changes observed in the communities surrounding their respective carcasses . Osedax worms have the ability to extract collagen from bones as well as lipids , enabling them to sustain themselves on bones other than the lipid-rich remains of whales . Although no Osedax were found on the non-mammalian remains in this study , their absence may have been due to the timing of observation , and the Osedax had not yet colonized the carcasses . Various studies on smaller cetaceans and other marine vertebrate food falls come to similar conclusions that these falls bring a large amount of new organic material to depth , but support mostly a scavenger community , as opposed to the diverse assemblage seen at whale falls . This conclusion can be drawn based on the knowledge that large whales have much higher lipid content in their bulk composition and bone marrow , which supports the diverse communities present in succession at whale falls . ( Witte , 1999 ; Janssen et al. , 2000 ; Kemp et al. , 2006 ; Higgs et al. , 2014 ) .","qid":"109","docid":"Whale_fall","rank":84,"score":72519},{"content":"Title: Water board (Netherlands) Content: Dutch water boards ( waterschappen or hoogheemraadschappen ) are regional government bodies charged with managing water barriers , waterways , water levels , water quality and sewage treatment in their respective regions . These regional water authorities are among the oldest forms of local government in the Netherlands , some of them having been founded in the 13th century . Around 26 percent of the area of the Netherlands is at or below sea level and several branches of the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta run through this relatively small country . Historically there always was a good deal of coastal and river flooding . Flood control in the Netherlands is a national priority , since about two thirds of the country is vulnerable to flooding , while at the same time it is one of the most densely populated areas on Earth . Natural sand dunes and man-made dikes , dams and floodgates provide defense against storm surges from the sea . River dikes prevent flooding of land by the major rivers Rhine and Meuse , while a complicated system of drainage ditches , canals and pumping stations ( historically : windmills ) keep the low-lying parts dry for habitation and agriculture . Water boards are independent local government bodies responsible for maintaining this system . An Unie van Waterschappen ( the association of Dutch regional water authorities , referring to itself as ` Dutch Water Authorities ' ) promotes the interests of Dutch water boards at a national and international level . 23 of the water boards are members of this association . The Unie van Waterschappen acts collaboratively with other appropriate bodies or institutions to pursue the Association 's objectives , including association with other European organisations through membership of the EUWMA , ( European Union of Water Management Associations ) .","qid":"109","docid":"Water_board_(Netherlands)","rank":85,"score":72445},{"content":"Title: 98.7 Sea FM Content: 98.7 Sea FM ( ACMA callsign : 4RGM ) is an Australian radio station in Queensland . Owned and operated as part of Southern Cross Austereo 's LocalWorks network , it broadcasts an adult contemporary format to Mackay , Queensland and the Whitsunday Islands . First broadcast on 21 September 1999 , it was established by RG Capital - later sold to Macquarie Regional RadioWorks and Southern Cross Media Group - and is based in the Suncorp building on Victoria Street in Mackay , alongside sister station Hot FM .","qid":"109","docid":"98.7_Sea_FM","rank":86,"score":72368},{"content":"Title: Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar Content: The Regional Museum of Natural History , Bhubaneswar is a museum in Bhubaneswar , Odisha , India with exhibits on plants , animals and geology of the eastern region of India . The Regional Museum of Natural History at Bhubaneswar , was inaugurated in 2004 . It was undertaken by the Ministry of Environment and Forests , Government of India . The museum is located near Acharaya Vihar Square on Sachivalaya Marg , Bhubaneswar . The museum exhibits plants , animals and geology of the Odisha , the Eastern and north-eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India . The galleries emphasize the conservation of nature and natural resources while depicting ecological interrelationship among plants and animals . Visually challenged students can feel the exhibits of animals on the premises . The museum provides an extracurricular activity for schools and promotes environmental awareness . A skeleton of baleen whale has been installed in the museum , which is supposed to be largest for any museum in India .","qid":"109","docid":"Regional_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Bhubaneswar","rank":87,"score":72363},{"content":"Title: South East Asia Youth Soccer Cup Content: The SEA Cup is the pre-eminent regional football tournament for school boys in South-East Asia . These boys individually represent their own state school boys team . The SEA Cup was founded by Julian Verdina in 1988 , and then taken over by Dave Phelp ( now retired to Aberdeen ) in 1989 . Other names associated with the tournament are Peter Dixon , Sally Ann Spellman , Joe Keiser , Keith Thorn ( ANZA ) , Jim Boyd , Terry Thodesen , David Straffon , John Stamp , Steve Wise , Gary Mundy ( Bangkok ) , and Gerry Burgon ( Jakarta ) . The countries represented are : - Malaysia : Kuala Lumpur Youth Soccer - Singapore : ANZA Soccer , Singapore - Thailand : Bangkok Soccer League - Indonesia Jakarta Youth Soccer ( since withdrawn ) Up to 2002 , tournaments were held at Under 12 and Under 15 levels . From the 2003 tournament , the Under 12 age group was changed to be Under 13 . An Under 18 age group was held for the 1st time in 2008 . In 2010 , an award was inaugurated for the Overall SEA Cup Champions for the year . In 2015 U9 and U11 categories were introduced for 7 a side In 2010 , Kuala Lumpur won all 3 age groups ( U13 , U15 & U18 ) , an achievement which had not previously been achieved in the SEA Cup , although prior to 2008 three countries had won both U12/U13 & U15 in a single year . KLYS became the first winners of the Overall Champions award . 2011 , during the 24th Annual SEA Cup . Kuala Lumpur retained the Overall Champions on home soil in Kuala Lumpur , recording wins in all 3 age groups ( U13 , U15 and U18 ) . 2012 , saw Kuala Lumpur retaining the Overall Championship in Bangkok , Thailand at the Bangkok Patana School . Kuala Lumpur recorded wins in the U15 and the U18 age group . Coach Luis Pablo led the U18 's to their 5th consecutive title and Coach Aidil Sulaiman led the U15 's to the U15 's 3rd consecutive title . Kuala Lumpur U18 's also smashed the overall SEA Cup record for most goals scored by scoring 23 goals in 3 games . ANZA Singapore we 're also the winners of the U13 competition winning all 3 of their matches . 2014 brought a year of change . The event was hosted in Kuala Lumpur but surprisingly Singapore became Overall Champions . Anza placed first in the U13 's category , 2nd in the U15 's category and secured their place as Champions with a victory against KLYS in the U18 finals , after a last minute winner in the very last game . This dramatic end to the tournament saw Singapore become overall Champions for the first time in 27 years . 2015 saw BSL win the Overall Championship on home soil recording wins in all three categories U13 , U15 and U18 . The tournament was expanded to include U9s and U11s for the first time with KLYS and ANZA proving victorious respectively . 2016 , in Singapore , ANZA won the Championship for the second time in 3 years recording wins in the U15 and U18 groupings and runners up in the U13s . The ANZA Juniors also recorded success in the U9 and U11 competitions","qid":"109","docid":"South_East_Asia_Youth_Soccer_Cup","rank":88,"score":72261},{"content":"Title: David H. Bromwich Content: David H. Bromwich is a member of the Byrd Polar Research Center and a professor at the Department of Geography , The Ohio State University . His work has involved the evaluation and diagnosis of polar weather and climate variability . He received his Ph.D. in meteorology from the University of Wisconsin , Madison . In 1979 he joined Ohio State 's Byrd Polar Research Center as a research scientist . His research has focused on the variability of precipitation over Antarctica , Greenland , and the Arctic Ocean , thus contributing to the understanding of climate and potential sea level changes . He has made contributions to defining aspects of U.S. science policy . Having helped identify the need to improve numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) for the Antarctic , Bromwich has been influential in the development and evaluation of the Antarctic Mesoscale Prediction System ( AMPS ) . In April 2001 AMPS was one of four weather models used to predict a window of opportunity for the emergency medical evacuation of Ronald Shemenski from the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . Flights to the base are normally halted from late February until November because of the extreme winter cold and darkness . But the airlift was successfully completed and pilot Sean Loutitt confirmed the reliance on the forecasts , stating `` The weather was the biggest concern '' .","qid":"109","docid":"David_H._Bromwich","rank":89,"score":72131},{"content":"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .","qid":"109","docid":"Ice2sea","rank":90,"score":71945},{"content":"Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .","qid":"109","docid":"Ocean_heat_content","rank":91,"score":71733},{"content":"Title: Falls of Lora Content: The Falls of Lora is a tidal race which forms at the mouth of Loch Etive when a particularly high tide runs out from the loch . They form white water rapids for two to five days either side of the spring tides . The falls of Lora are generated when the water level in the Firth of Lorn ( i.e. the open sea ) drops below the level of the water in Loch Etive as the tide goes out . As the seawater in Loch Etive pours out through the narrow mouth of the loch , it passes over a rocky shelf which causes the rapids to form . As the tide rises again there is a period of slack water when the levels are the same on either side . However , due to the narrow entrance to the Loch , the tide rises more quickly than the water can flow into the Loch . Thus there is still considerable turbulence at high tide caused by flow into the Loch . Thus , unlike most situations where slack water is at high and low tides , in the case of the Falls of Lora slack water occurs when the levels on either side are the same , not when the tidal change is at its least . As a result , the tidal range is much greater on the coast than it is inside the loch . A 3 m range at Oban may produce only a 1.3 m at Bonawe on the loch shore . The loch mouth is spanned by Connel Bridge . The race is popular with white water kayakers and divers as well as tourists and photographers .","qid":"109","docid":"Falls_of_Lora","rank":92,"score":71721},{"content":"Title: Horizontal Falls Content: The Horizontal Falls or Horizontal Waterfalls ( nicknamed the `` Horries '' ) is the name given to a natural phenomenon on the coast of the Kimberley region in Western Australia . Horizontal Falls are described as `` One of the greatest wonders of the natural world '' ( Attenborough , 2013 ) . They are formed from a break in-between the McLarty Ranges reaching up to 25m in width . The natural phenomenon is created as seawater builds up faster on one side of the gaps than the other , creating a waterfall up to 5m high on a King tide . Within each change of the tide the direction of the falls reverses , creating vast tidal whirlpools . Within this area live the Balangarra , Bardi Jawa , Uunguu , and Dambimangari indigenous communities , which tour companies must take care to respect . The northern , most seaward gorge is 20 m-wide and the southern , more inland gorge is 12 m. Above each of the gorges are natural reservoirs between 6 -- long which fill and empty with seawater through the gorge openings . The inner gorge is also partly fed by fresh water from Poulton Creek .","qid":"109","docid":"Horizontal_Falls","rank":93,"score":71648},{"content":"Title: British regional literature Content: The setting is particularly important in regional literature . In literature regionalism refers to fiction or poetry that focuses on specific features , such as dialect , customs , history , and landscape , of a particular region ( also called local colour ) : `` Such a locale is likely to be rural and/or provincial . ''","qid":"109","docid":"British_regional_literature","rank":94,"score":71614},{"content":"Title: Variability Content: Variability is how spread out or closely clustered a set of data is . Variability may refer to : Climate variability , changes in the components of Earth 's climate system and their interactions Genetic variability , a measure of the tendency of individual genotypes in a population to vary from one another Heart rate variability , a physiological phenomenon where the time interval between heart beats varies Human variability , the range of possible values for any measurable characteristic , physical or mental , of human beings Spatial variability , when a quantity that is measured at different spatial locations exhibits values that differ across the locations Statistical variability , a measure of dispersion in statistics Variable renewable energy Variability function , a component of Bernoulli stochastics , a mathematical model Variability hypothesis , nineteenth century hypothesis that males have a greater range of ability than females","qid":"109","docid":"Variability","rank":95,"score":71574},{"content":"Title: North Atlantic oscillation Content: The North Atlantic Oscillation ( NAO ) is a weather phenomenon in the North Atlantic Ocean of fluctuations in the difference of atmospheric pressure at sea level ( SLP ) between the Icelandic low and the Azores high . Through fluctuations in the strength of the Icelandic low and the Azores high , it controls the strength and direction of westerly winds and location of storm tracks across the North Atlantic . It is part of the Arctic oscillation , and varies over time with no particular periodicity . The NAO was discovered through several studies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Unlike the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean , the NAO is a largely atmospheric mode . It is one of the most important manifestations of climate fluctuations in the North Atlantic and surrounding humid climates . The North Atlantic Oscillation is closely related to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) , but should not be confused with the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) .","qid":"109","docid":"North_Atlantic_oscillation","rank":96,"score":71290},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .","qid":"109","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans","rank":97,"score":71222},{"content":"Title: Regional park Content: A regional park is an area of land preserved on account of its natural beauty , historic interest , recreational use or other reason , and under the administration of a form of local government .","qid":"109","docid":"Regional_park","rank":98,"score":71051},{"content":"Title: Caribbean natural region Content: The Caribbean region is mostly lowland plains extending from the northern reaches of the Colombian Andes to the Caribbean Sea that are characterized by a variety of ecosystems including : humid forests , dry forests , savannas , wetlands and desert . The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta rise from the plains to snow-capped peaks , separated from the Andes as an isolated area of high biodiversity and endemism . It contains one of the largest marshes in Colombia , the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta . The main river is the Magdalena which is fully navigable in the region and a major path for the flow of shipments to and from inland Colombia .","qid":"109","docid":"Caribbean_natural_region","rank":99,"score":71015},{"content":"Title: Regional climate levels in viticulture Content: In viticulture , there are several levels of regional climates that are used to describe the terroir or immutable characteristics of an area . These levels can be as broad as a macroclimate which includes entire wine regions or as small as a microclimate which includes the unique environment around an individual grapevine . In the middle is the mesoclimate which usually describes the characteristics of a particular vineyard site .","qid":"109","docid":"Regional_climate_levels_in_viticulture","rank":100,"score":70844}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 135164\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 126775\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 125127\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 113339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Past_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 108363\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \\\"canaries in the coal mine,\\\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \\\"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\\\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_in_non-tropical_regions\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 103149\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 102304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 98963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 98638\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_sea_ice_decline\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 97848\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Annual cycle of sea level height Content: The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Annual_cycle_of_sea_level_height\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 97764\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_equation\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 96440\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Fisheries_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 94132\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Josh_Willis\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 93763\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \\\"internal variability\\\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_variability\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 93528\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 91598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \\\"internal variability\\\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_(general_concept)\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 90560\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_transgression\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 90085\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Tidal_range\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 89830\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Duncan_Wingham\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 88809\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 87403\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Measurement of sea ice Content: Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Measurement_of_sea_ice\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 86630\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Tidal and Sea Level Facility Content: Established in 2002 , The National Tidal and Sea Level Facility is responsible for monitoring sea levels in the UK . The NTSLF comprises the UK National Tide Gauge Network , geodetic networks , and gauges in the British Dependent Territories of the South Atlantic and Gibraltar . Data collected is used to create tidal predictions , monitor climate change and determine extreme sea levels for navigation and coastal engineering design . The Network is funded by the UK Environment Agency . Associated scientific research is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Tidal_and_Sea_Level_Facility\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 86596\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orientation (computer vision) Content: In computer vision and image processing a common assumption is that sufficiently small image regions can be characterized as locally one-dimensional , e.g. , in terms of lines or edges . For natural images this assumption is usually correct except at specific points , e.g. , corners or line junctions or crossings , or in regions of high frequency textures . However , what size the regions have to be in order to appear as one-dimensional varies both between images and within an image . Also , in practice a local region is never exactly one-dimensional but can be so to a sufficient degree of approximation . Image regions which are one-dimensional are also referred to as simple or intrinsic one-dimensional ( i1D ) . Given an image of dimension d ( d = 2 for ordinary images ) , a mathematical representation of a local i1D image region is where is the image intensity function which varies over a local image coordinate ( a d-dimensional vector ) , is a one-variable function , and is a unit vector . The intensity function is constant in all directions which are perpendicular to . Intuitively , the orientation of an i1D-region is therefore represented by the vector . However , for a given , is not uniquely determined . If then can be written as which implies that also is a valid representation of the local orientation . In order to avoid this ambiguity in the representation of local orientation two representations have been proposed The double angle representation The tensor representation The double angle representation is only valid for 2D images ( d = 2 ) , but the tensor representation can be defined for arbitrary dimensions d of the image data .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Orientation_(computer_vision)\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 86593\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional variation Content: A regional variation generally refers to times when a radio station or television station simultaneously broadcasts different programmes , continuity or advertisements to different parts of its coverage area . This may be so as to provide programming specific to a particular region , such as local news or may be so as to allow advertisements to be targeted to a particular area . Some regional variations are the consequence of a federal style television network or radio network where a local station is part of a larger broadcast network and broadcasts the network 's programmes some of the time and its own programming the rest of the time . The latter is therefore sometimes considered a regional variation . Examples of this include the UK 's ITV network throughout much of its history , and American network affiliate stations . Regional variation is also a common term used in British television listings publications , such as magazines and newspapers , to show the different programmes broadcast in different areas of the country .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_variation\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 86220\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific decadal oscillation Content: The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California . During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_decadal_oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 85508\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Deglaciation\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 85017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 84816\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea-level_curve\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 84116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_York_City\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 83994\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: South Pacific Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project Content: The primary goal of the project is to provide accurate , long term records of the variance of the sea level in the Pacific and South Pacific oceans .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"South_Pacific_Sea_Level_and_Climate_Monitoring_Project\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 83903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Sea_is_Rising\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 82168\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Multiscale European Soil Information System Content: Multiscale European Soil Information System ( MEUSIS ) is based on local , regional , national and European Soil Data sets . On the one hand , the high geographical variability of soil and the close interface between the soil status and the local conditions require the soil information and assessment criteria to have a strong built-in local element . On the other hand , soil issues have also a broader and wider dimension with global consequences . The major bottleneck of the assessment of the soil condition in Europe , based on already existing data , is the lack of comparable methodologies for soil survey , digital soil mapping , monitoring and data transfer . There is a high variability of soil information in Europe , which also varies from country to country . Local , Regional and National Authorities are derailing with soil data ; soil data sets from different countries are often implemented using different methodologies and measuring techniques .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Multiscale_European_Soil_Information_System\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 81340\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 81158\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spice (oceanography) Content: In oceanography the term spice refers to spatial variations in the temperature and salinity of seawater whose effects on density cancel each other . Such density compensated thermohaline variability is ubiquitous in the upper ocean . Warmer , saltier water is more spicy while cooler , less salty water is more minty . For a density ratio of 1 , all the thermohaline variability is spice , and there are no density fluctuations . Category : Oceanography\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Spice_(oceanography)\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 81032\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Equilibrium_level\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 80723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bond event Content: Bond events are North Atlantic ice rafting events that are tentatively linked to climate fluctuations in the Holocene . Eight such events have been identified . Bond events were previously believed to exhibit a quasi ~ 1,500-year cycle , but the primary period of variability is now put at ~ 1,000 years . Gerard C. Bond of the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University was the lead author of the 1997 paper that postulated the theory of 1470-year climate cycles in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic . However , more recent work has shown that these tracers provide little support for 1,500-year intervals of climate change , and the reported ~ 1,500 ± 500-year period was a statistical artifact . Furthermore , following publication of the Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 ( GICC05 ) for the North GRIP ice core , it became clear that Dansgaar-Oescher Events also show no such a pattern . The North Atlantic ice-rafting events happen to correlate with episodes of lowered lake levels in the Mid-Atlantic region , USA , the most weak events of the Asian monsoon for at least the past 9,000 years , and also correlate with most aridification events in the Middle East for the past 55,000 years ( both Heinrich and Bond events ) . For reasons that are unclear , the only Holocene Bond event that has a clear temperature signal in the Greenland ice cores is the 8.2 kyr event .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Bond_event\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 80407\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising Tide UK Content: Rising Tide UK is the United Kingdom part of the International Rising Tide Network , both of which were created in 2000 to carry out direct action against the root causes of climate change , and to work towards a fossil fuel free future . RTUK takes a no-compromise position and believes that only the complete dismantling of the fossil fuel industry and a shift to low consumption lifestyles will be sufficient to halt climate change . Rising Tide UK is formed of regional and local groups in the UK , and supports networks of similar groups around the country . Actions carried out by Rising Tide UK groups range from protests and street-theatre style events , to mass occupations of petrol stations , and blockades of key fossil fuel industrial sites .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_Tide_UK\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 79629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 79013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rossby whistle Content: The Rossby whistle is the oscillation of sea-level and bottom pressure in the Caribbean Sea with the period of 120 days and influenced by propagating westward oceanic Rossby wave . It is observed that a baroclinic Rossby wave propagating westward across the Caribbean Sea , oscillating with a period of 120 days , is rapidly returned to the east along the southern boundary as coastal shelf waves . The porous boundary of the Caribbean Sea results in this oscillation influencing a mass exchange with the wider ocean , leading to an almost uniform bottom pressure variability over the Grenada , Venezuela , and Colombia basins . These observations are based on satellite observation of the sea-level , monthly means of basin-averaged ocean bottom pressure using GRACE data , tide gauge measurements , and data from a bottom pressure recorder . The oscillation was first found in a numerical modelling simulation , from which is shown one cycle of the least squares fit of ( left ) sea level and ( right ) bottom pressure on basin averaged bottom pressure in the Caribbean Sea .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Rossby_whistle\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 78551\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_gauge\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 78356\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional accents of English Content: -LSB- noticelang = en -RSB- Spoken English shows great variation across regions where it is the predominant language . This article provides an overview of the numerous identifiable variations in pronunciation ; such distinctions usually derive from the phonetic inventory of local dialects , as well as from broader differences in the Standard English of different primary-speaking populations . Accent is the part of dialect concerning local pronunciation . Vocabulary and grammar are described elsewhere ; see List of dialects of the English language . Secondary English speakers tend to carry over the intonation and phonetics of their mother tongue in English speech . For more details , see Non-native pronunciations of English . Primary English-speakers show great variability in terms of regional accents . Some , such as Pennsylvania Dutch English , are easily identified by key characteristics ; others are more obscure or easily confused . Broad regions can possess sub-forms as identified below ; for instance , towns located less than 10 mi from the city of Manchester , such as Bolton , Oldham and Salford , each have distinct accents , all of which together comprise the broader accent of Lancashire county ; while these sub-dialects are very similar to each other , non-local listeners can identify firm differences . English accents can differ enough to create room for misunderstandings . For example , the pronunciation of pearl in some variants of Scottish English can sound like the entirely unrelated word petal to an American ear . For a summary of the differences between accents , see International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_accents_of_English\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 78275\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tidewater region Content: The Tidewater region is a geographic area of southeast Virginia and northeastern North Carolina , part of the Atlantic coastal plain in the United States of America . Portions of Maryland facing the Chesapeake Bay are also given this designation . The area gains its name because of the effects of the changing tides on local rivers , sounds , and the ocean . The area is generally flat and low and composed of tidal marsh and large expanses of swamp . Much of the area is covered with pocosin and the higher areas are used for agricultural farmlands . Geographically , in North Carolina and Virginia the Tidewater area is the land between the Suffolk Scarp and the Atlantic Ocean . The Hampton Roads area of Virginia is considered to be in the Tidewater . Extreme Southern Maryland and parts of the lower Eastern Shore round out the northern fringe of the region on the Chesapeake Bay . The term tidewater may be correctly applied to all portions of any area , including Virginia , where the water level is affected by the tides ( more specifically , where the water level rises when the tide comes in ) . In the case of Virginia , the Tidewater region includes the land east of the Fall Line , the natural border with the Piedmont Region . It includes Hampton Roads , the rest of the Virginia Peninsula , the Middle Peninsula , the Northern Neck , and the Eastern Shore . Planters in the early American colonies extended their tobacco productions above the `` fall line , '' where waterfalls or rapids mark the end of the Tidewater and the beginning of the foothill region known as the Piedmont . Tidewater is host to flora commonly associated with the South Atlantic pine forests and lower Southeast Coastal Plain maritime flora , the latter found primarily in southeastern Virginia .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Tidewater_region\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 78220\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Battisti Content: David Battisti is The Tamaki Endowed Chair of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington and a fellow at the American Geophysical Union . His research interests include understanding how interactions between the ocean , land , atmosphere , and sea ice lead to climatic variability at timescales that vary from seasonal to decadal timescales , as well as the paleoclimate . He is also interested in how climate variability ( including El Nino ) affects food production . He received his PhD in 1988 at the University of Washington Department of Atmospheric Sciences . He has published over 100 papers in peer-review journals in atmospheric sciences and oceanography . He also helps organize an annual set of climate dynamics courses .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Battisti\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 78074\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 77823\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling Content: The Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling ( CPOM ) is a centre for research into polar region processes which may affect : polar atmosphere and ocean circulation ; the Earth 's albedo ; and global sea levels . It is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council , a UK Research Council . CPOM comprises research groups from 3 Universities : University College London , University of Bristol , and University of Edinburgh . In 2006 , research carried out by CPOM resulted in the press report `` Secret rivers found in Antarctic '' . The survey used the European Space Agency 's ERS-2 satellite radar to measure a region in East Antarctica with some of the oldest , thickest ice on the continent . The survey revealed synchronous changes in ice surface height ( both rise and falls ) at locations hundreds of kilometres apart . According to CPOM Director , Duncan Wingham , the only conceivable mechanism for the observations was the movement of water .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Centre_for_Polar_Observation_&_Modelling\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 77805\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Sea_Has_Risen\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 77625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 77360\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Independent Natural Resources, Inc Content: Independent Natural Resources , Inc. or INRI is an American IP holding company based in Eden Prairie , Minnesota . `` It formed Renew Blue in Dallas as a wholly owned subsidiary charged with licensing the SEADOG pump . '' The SEADOG Pump is an ocean-wave energy technology patented by Independent Natural Resources Inc. ( INRI ) and invented by Kenneth W. Welch , Jr. . The SEADOG Pump rises and falls with ocean swells , effectively capturing the energy in the ocean waves , to pump seawater to a land-based elevated holding tank . Once in the tank , the potential energy of the water can be used to drive hydroelectric generators to generate electricity or desalinated water . The technology was tested in the Gulf of Mexico with results validated by Texas A&M University at Galveston . The SEADOG Pump 's manufacturer estimates that `` a square-mile field of pumps could generate 50 to 1,500 megawatts of electricity -- enough to power thousands of homes -- depending on the size and frequency of waves . '' The company 's technology has been showcased in multiple energy conferences including the Gulf Coast Innovation Conference & Showcase and the Energy and Clean Technology Venture Forum . It also has had features in The Star Tribune , The Houston Business Journal , The Houston Chronicle , and Popular Mechanics . INRI ceased operations in 2010 and have since gone through bankruptcy and liquidation .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Independent_Natural_Resources,_Inc\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 77188\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_ice\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 77172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Sea_So_Far\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 76624\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of places on land with elevations below sea level Content: This is a list of places below mean sea level that are on land . Places in tunnels , mines , basements , dug holes ( also with open sky ) , under water , under ice , or existing temporarily as a result of ebbing of sea tide etc. are not included . Places where seawater and rainwater is pumped away are included . Fully natural places below sea level require a dry climate , otherwise rain would exceed evaporation and fill the area . All figures are in meters below sea level , arranged by depth , lowest first :\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 76006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atlantic Equatorial mode Content: The Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño is a quasiperiodic interannual climate pattern of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean . It is the dominant mode of year-to-year variability that results in alternating warming and cooling episodes of sea surface temperatures accompanied by changes in atmospheric circulation . The term Atlantic Niño comes from its close similarity with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) that dominates the tropical Pacific basin . The Atlantic Niño is not the same as the Atlantic Meridional ( Interhemispheric ) Mode that consists of a north-south dipole and operates more on decadal timescales . The equatorial warming and cooling events associated with the Atlantic Niño are known to be strongly related to atmospheric climate anomalies , especially in African countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea . Therefore , understanding of the Atlantic Niño ( or lack thereof ) has important implications for climate prediction in those regions . Although the Atlantic Niño is an intrinsic mode to the equatorial Atlantic , there may be a tenuous causal relationship between ENSO and the Atlantic Niño in some circumstances .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Atlantic_Equatorial_mode\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 75806\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea breeze Content: A sea breeze or onshore breeze is any wind that blows from a large body of water toward or onto a landmass ; it develops due to differences in air pressure created by the differing heat capacities of water and dry land . As such sea breezes are more localised than prevailing winds . Because land absorbs solar radiation far more quickly than water , a sea breeze is a common occurrence along coasts after sunrise . By contrast , a land breeze or offshore breeze is the reverse effect : dry land also cools more quickly than water and , after sunset , a sea breeze dissipates and the wind instead flows from the land towards the sea . Sea breezes and land breezes are both important factors in coastal regions ' prevailing winds . The term offshore wind may refer to any wind over open water . Wind farms are often situated near a coast to take advantage of the normal daily fluctuations of wind speed resulting from sea or land breezes . While many onshore wind farms and offshore wind farms do not rely on these winds , a nearshore wind farm is a type of offshore wind farm located on shallow coastal waters to take advantage of both sea and land breezes . ( For practical reasons , other offshore wind farms are situated further out to sea and rely on prevailing winds rather than sea breezes . )\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_breeze\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 75732\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Meltwater_pulse_1A\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 75693\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea cave Content: A sea cave , also known as a littoral cave , is a type of cave formed primarily by the wave action of the sea . The primary process involved is erosion . Sea caves are found throughout the world , actively forming along present coastlines and as relict sea caves on former coastlines . Some of the largest wave-cut caves in the world are found on the coast of Norway , but are now 100 feet or more above present sea level . These would still be classified as littoral caves . By contrast , in places like Thailand 's Phang Nga Bay , solutionally formed caves in limestone have been flooded by the rising sea and are now subject to littoral erosion , representing a new phase of their enlargement . Some of the best-known sea caves are European . Fingal 's Cave , on the Scottish island of Staffa , is a spacious cave some 70 m long , formed in columnar basalt . The Blue Grotto of Capri , although smaller , is famous for the apparent luminescent quality of its water , imparted by light passing through underwater openings . The Romans built a stairway in its rear and a now-collapsed tunnel to the surface . The Greek islands are also noted for the variety and beauty of their sea caves . Numerous sea caves have been surveyed in England , Scotland , and in France , particularly on the Normandy coast . Until 2013 , the largest known sea caves were found along the west coast of the United States , the Hawaiian islands , and the Shetland Islands . In 2013 the discovery and survey of the world 's largest sea cave was announced . Located on New Zealand 's Otago coast on the South Island , Matainaka Cave has proven to be the world 's most extensive at 1.5 km in length . Also in 2013 , Crossley reported a newly surveyed complex reaching just over a kilometer in survey at Bethells Beach on New Zealand 's North Island .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_cave\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 75329\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ingression coast Content: An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level . Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral ( tidal ) processes , because the sea level , which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period , did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago . Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform -- e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief -- various types of ingression coast emerge , such as rias , skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Ingression_coast\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 75291\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising Tide North America Content: Rising Tide North America is a grassroots network of groups and individuals in North America organizing action against the root causes of climate change and work towards a non-carbon society . Rising Tide North America is part of an international network dedicated to building a climate justice and anti-extraction movement . Rising Tide generally takes a strongly `` no compromise '' stance on the environment and a vehement opposition to solutions proposed by corporations who , they say , are responsible for creating environmental problems in the first place .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_Tide_North_America\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 75277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Sea Region Programme Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Sea_Region_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 75225\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical Atlantic SST Dipole Content: The Tropical Atlantic SST Dipole refers to a cross-equatorial sea surface temperature ( SST ) pattern that appears dominant on decadal timescales . It has a period of about 12 years , with the SST anomalies manifesting their most pronounced features around 10 -- 15 degrees of latitude off of the Equator . The term Tropical Atlantic SST dipole is only one of the characteristic names used to refer to this mode of variability ; other definitions include the interhemispheric SST gradient or the Meridional Atlantic mode . This decadal-scale SST pattern constitutes one of the key features of SST variability in the Tropical Atlantic ocean , with another one being the Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño , which occurs in the zonal ( east-west ) direction at interannual timescales , with sea surface temperature and heat content anomalies being observed in the eastern equatorial basin . Its importance in climate dynamics and decadal-scale climate prediction is evident when investigating its impact on adjacent continental regions such as the Northeast Brazil , the Sahel as well as its influence on North Atlantic cyclogenesis .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_Atlantic_SST_Dipole\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 75087\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional Scale Nodes Content: The National Science Foundation 's ( NSF ) Ocean Observatories Initiative ( OOI ) Regional Scale Nodes ( RSN ) component is an electro-optically cabled underwater observatory that directly connects to the global Internet . It is the largest cable-linked seabed observatory in the world , and also the first of its kind in the United States . Located on the southern part of the Juan de Fuca plate , off the coast of Washington and Oregon , it is the first ocean observatory to span a tectonic plate . RSN utilizes several high-power , high-bandwidth sub-sea terminals called primary nodes which are linked together by fiber-optic cable and provide support to oceanographic sensors at key locations . Upon completion of the network in 2014 , RSN will cover a distance of over 900 kilometers at depths of up to 3000 meters . Implementation of the OOI Regional Scale Nodes is led by the University of Washington 's ( UW ) School of Oceanography , the UW Applied Physics Laboratory , and L-3 MariPro . Live RSN data from > 100 seafloor and water column instruments will be made available live on the Internet . This will allow both scientists and the general public to study long-term changes in ocean systems over the next 25 years . Construction of RSN will be completed in 2014 . Efforts are substantially aided by the crews of ROPOS ( Remotely Operated Platform for Observation Sciences . The 83-day VISIONS ’14 expedition aboard the 274-foot global-class R/V Thomas G. Thompson is responsible for the observatory 's final implementation .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_Scale_Nodes\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 74856\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Natural process variation Content: Natural process variation , sometimes just called process variation , is the statistical description of natural fluctuations in process outputs .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Natural_process_variation\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 74762\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Threat from the Sea Content: The Threat From the Sea is a series of fantasy novels written mostly by Mel Odom . It contains three novels : Rising Tide , Under Fallen Stars , and The Sea Devil 's Eye . It also contains the anthology book , Realms of the Deep .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Threat_from_the_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 74532\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 74525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dunkirk transgression Content: The three Dunkirk transgressions are events of marine transgression ( rising seas ) around the shores of the Low Countries in the late Roman period . Soil survey geological evidences and lack of human occupation artefacts led scientists to formulate the claim that the Netherlands was largely underwater between the 3rd century and 1050 . This is the so-called third Dunkirk Transgression . The reality of the events , hypothetically determined by cyclical phases of strong sea level rises in historical times , is debated . The low-lying continental coast of Europe was lightly populated until c. 200 BC , when the climate and environment became more amenable to human habitation . Conditions remained favourable from 200 BC to 250 AD , and the region became densely populated . However the region had been undergoing a series of marine transgressions ( called Dunkirk 0 through Dunkirk IIIb ) characterised by a rising water table and floods that left layers of clay on the land . The heaviest blow came with the `` Dunkirk II transgression '' that began in the 3rd century and continually worsened , leaving large areas of the coast uninhabitable from c. 350 -- c. 700 . People were forced to abandon their homes and emigrate . Archaeologists conducting research along the historically flood-prone coast tell this same story for The Rhine/Meuse delta ( Zeeland , Brabant , parts of South Holland and Limburg ) ; Friesland ; Groningen ; Ostfriesland , German Friesland and the Weser/Jade estuary ; and Dithmarschen , Eiderstedt and Nordfriesland . In the Rhine/Meuse delta , the population became scanty . Between the 5th and 7th centuries there were few centers of occupation in the delta region , and in the estuarine and peat areas no settlements at all have been found . The area would not be repopulated until the Carolingian Era . The areas with river clay were so covered with sedimentation that habitation was almost impossible between 250 -- 650 .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Dunkirk_transgression\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 74332\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: River regime Content: River regime can describe one of two characteristics of a reach of an alluvial river : The variability in its discharge throughout the course of a year in response to precipitation , temperature , evapotranspiration , and drainage basin characteristics ( Beckinsale , 1969 ) A series of characteristic power-law relationships between discharge and width , depth , and slope The latter is described by the fact that the discharge through a river of an approximate rectangular cross-section must , through conservation of mass , equal where is the volumetric discharge , is the mean flow velocity , is the channel width ( breadth ) and is the channel depth . Because of this relationship , as discharge increases , depth , width , and/or mean velocity must increase as well . Empirically-derived relationships between depth , slope , and velocity are : refers to a `` dominant discharge '' or `` channel-forming discharge '' , which is typically the 1 -- 2 year flood , though there is a large amount of scatter around this mean . This is the event that causes significant erosion and deposition and determines the channel morphology . The variability in discharge over the course of a year is commonly represented by a hydrograph with mean monthly discharge variations plotted over the annual time scale . When interpreting such records of discharge , it is important to factor in the time scale over which the average monthly values were calculated . It is particularly difficult to establish a typical annual river regime for rivers with high interannual variability in monthly discharge and/or significant changes in the catchment 's characteristics ( e.g. tectonic influences or the introduction of water management practices ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"River_regime\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 74025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_from_the_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 73914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoflooding\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 73854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture Content: SEARCA or the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture is one of the oldest among 21 regional centers of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization ( SEAMEO ) . Founded on 27 November 1966 , SEARCA is mandated to strengthen institutional capacities in agricultural and rural development in Southeast Asia . For its Tenth Five-Year Plan ( FY2014/2015 - FY2018/2019 ) , SEARCA works to strengthen institutional capacities toward inclusive and sustainable agricultural and rural development ( ISARD ) in Southeast Asia through graduate education and institutional development , research and development , and knowledge management . These programs are anchored on SEARCA 's strategic thrusts that promote social inclusion , environmental sustainability , and cross-cutting concerns that impact Southeast Asia . SEARCA serves the 11 SEAMEO member countries , namely : Brunei Darussalam , Cambodia , Indonesia , Lao People 's Democratic Republic , Malaysia , Myanmar , the Philippines , Singapore , Thailand , Vietnam , and Timor-Leste . The Center is hosted by the Government of the Philippines on the campus of the University of the Philippines Los Baños ( UPLB ) in Laguna , Philippines .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Southeast_Asian_Regional_Center_for_Graduate_Study_and_Research_in_Agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 73817\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 73730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Local adaptation Content: A population is said to be locally adapted if organisms in that population have differentially evolved as compared to other populations within their species in response to selective pressures imposed by some aspect of their local environment , be that aspect biotic or abiotic . Therefore , Local adaptation is simply when a population of organisms has evolved to be more well-suited to its environment than other members of the same species . Local adaptation is often determined via reciprocal transplant experiments , where organisms from one population are transplanted into another population , and vice versa , and their finesses measured . If the transplanted organisms have lower fitness in the novel environment , than the native population can be said to be locally adapted . Populations located in different environments may be faced with different biotic and abiotic pressures , consequently natural selection may drive the evolution of these populations in different directions . This divergent natural selection can lead to differences in trait values among populations for those traits that are heritable and impact organism fitness . Local adaptation of a variety of traits has been demonstrated in numerous , phylogenetically disparate organisms . Examples of local adaptation abound in the natural world . For instance , many plant populations exhibit local adaptation . This has been established by reciprocally transplanting plants from one population into another population , and vice versa . The transplanted plants often do worse in the novel environment , than their conspecifics that are locally adapted . Many examples of local adaptation exist in host-parasite systems as well . For instance , a host may be resistant to a locally-abundant pathogen or parasite , but conspecific hosts from elsewhere where that pathogen is not abundant may have no evolved no such adaptation . -\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Local_adaptation\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 73682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 73640\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regionalized variable theory Content: Regionalized variable theory ( RVT ) is a geostatistical method used for interpolation in space . The concept of the theory is that interpolation from points in space should not be based on a smooth continuous object . It should be , however , based on a stochastic model that takes into consideration the various trends in the original set of points . The theory considers that within any dataset , three types of relationships can be detected : Structural part , which is also called the trend . Correlated variation . Uncorrelated variation , or noise . After defining the above three relationships , RVT then applies the first law of geography , in order to predict the unknown values of points . The major application of this theory is the Kriging method for interpolation . Category : Interpolation\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Regionalized_variable_theory\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 73586\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 73548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rises and falls Content: Rises and falls is a category of the ballroom dance technique that refers to rises and falls of the body of a dancer achieved through actions of knees and feet ( ankles ) . This technique is primarily recognized in International Standard and American Smooth dance categories . Rises and falls are important in Waltz , Foxtrot , Quickstep , and Viennese Waltz . Tango is described the `` level '' or `` flat '' dance , and its basic technique specifically eliminates rises/falls in the overall motion , with the exception of certain advanced figures and styles . The expression `` rises and falls of the body '' is a rather vague one , and in attempts to be more precise some texts refer to center of gravity , rather than body . This may also be misleading if taken out of context : the center of gravity may be lowered , e.g. , by bends and sways . In addition , a certain amount of body rise and fall may be achieved by hip action , used in Latin dance , but absolutely proscribed in Standard and Smooth . Rises and falls of the body is a natural phenomenon during casual walking : when feet are apart the body is closer to the ground than when the feet are together . Some dances , e.g. , Charleston , exaggerate this natural `` bobbing '' , while in many others bobbing at each step is considered to be bad style or lack of proper technique .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Rises_and_falls\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 73317\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SEARCC Content: The South East Asia Regional Computer Confederation ( SEARCC ) is a not-for-profit association of national computer professional associations of the Asia-Pacific region . The South East Asia Regional Computer Confederation ( SEARCC ) is a forum of national Information Technology professional societies in the Asia Pacific region.The Charter and Constitution of SEARCC was signed in Singapore on the 28th February 1978 . Six national societies from the region , the Hong Kong Computer Society , Indonesian Computer Society , Malaysian National Computer Confederation , Philippines Computer Society , Singapore Computer Society and Computer Association of Thailand were the founding signatories . SEARCC is a member of IFIP ( International Federation for Information Processing ) . IFIP is an umbrella organization for national societies working in the field of information technology . It is a non-governmental , non-profit organization with offices in Laxenburg , Austria . IFIP was established in 1960 under the auspices of UNESCO . Its members are : Australian Computer Society Canadian Information Processing Society Hong Kong Computer Society Computer Society of India Computer and Informatics Professionals Society of Indonesia ( IPKIN ) Information Processing Society of Japan Malaysian National Computer Confederation Institute of IT Professionals New Zealand Computer Society of Pakistan Philippine Computer Society Computer Society of Sri Lanka Computer Society of the Republic of China Computer Association of Thailand SEARCC also runs the annual International Schools ' Software Competition , a teams programming competition , normally contested by winning teams from the country 's national programming competitions .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"SEARCC\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 73205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phytodetritus Content: In oceanography , phytodetritus is the organic particulate matter resulting from phytoplankton and other organic material in surface waters falling to the seabed . This process takes place almost continuously as a `` marine snow '' of descending particles , falling at the rate of about 100 to per day . Under certain conditions , phytoplankton may aggregate and fall rapidly through the water column to arrive little changed on the seabed . These fluxes sometimes occur seasonally or periodically , are sometimes associated with algal blooms and may constitute the greater part of descending organic matter . If the amount is greater than the benthic detritivores can process , the phytodetritus forms a fluffy layer on the surface of the sediment . It accumulates in many shallow and deep water locations throughout the world . Phytodetritus varies in colour and appearance and may be greenish , brown or grey , flocculent or gelatinous . It includes the microscopic remains of diatoms , dinoflagellates , dictyochales , coccolithophores , foraminiferans , phaeodareans , tintinnids , crustacean eggs and moults , protozoan faecal pellets , picoplankton and other planktonic matter embedded in a membranous gelatinous matrix . One of the most important genera of forams is Globigerina ; vast areas of the ocean floor are covered with `` Globigerina ooze '' , so named by Murray and Renard in 1873 , dominated by the shells of planktonic forms . Larger materials may also be present including large animal remains such as carcases , large fragments of plant and faecal matter .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Phytodetritus\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 73156\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Benham Plateau Content: The Benham Rise , officially known as the Philippine Rise , is a seismically active undersea region and extinct volcanic ridge located in the Philippine Sea approximately 250 km east of the northern coastline of Dinapigue , Isabela . Under the Philippine Sea lie a number of basins including the West Philippine Sea Basin , inside of which is located the Central Basin Fault ( CBF ) . The Benham Plateau is located in the CBF and its basement probably is a micro-continent . Several scientific surveys have been made on the feature to study its nature and its impact on tectonic subduction , including one about its effects on the 1990 Luzon earthquake . The Philippines claimed this feature as part of its continental shelf in a claim lodged with the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on 8 April 2009 , and which was approved under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) in 2012 . It is designated as a `` protected food supply exclusive zone '' by the Philippine government in May 2017 . Mining and oil exploration is banned in the Benham Plateau as a protected area . On May 16 , 2017 , Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 25 renaming the region to Philippine Rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Benham_Plateau\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 73059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land and Sea Content: Land and Sea is a locally produced Canadian documentary television show broadcast in Newfoundland and Labrador on CBNT-DT in St. John 's , and on all CBC Television outlets throughout the province . It has been on the air since 1964 ( interrupted only by a short cancellation in the early 1990s , but revived after an outcry from fans ) , and is the longest running regional television program on CBC Television . Originally a black-and-white program , it began broadcasting in colour in the late 1960s/early 1970s . There is also a Maritime version of Land and Sea which is broadcast on the full CBC network on Sunday afternoons , and episodes from that version are often alternated with Newfoundland-based episodes .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_and_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 72934\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 72830\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Natural region Content: A natural region is a basic geographic unit . Usually it is a region which is distinguished by its common natural features of geography , geology , and climate . From the ecological point of view , the naturally occurring flora and fauna of the region are likely to be influenced by its geographical and geological factors , such as soil and water availability , in a significant manner . Thus most natural regions are homogeneous ecosystems . Human impact can be an important factor in the shaping and destiny of a particular natural region .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Natural_region\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 72721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Southern Economic Association Content: The Southern Economic Association ( SEA ) is a regional-based scholarly economic organization based at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga . The SEA was founded in 1928 . It is one of five general professional economic associations . For the SEA member characteristics ( e.g. political affiliation , policy opinions ) in relation to the other major economic associations see Klein et . al. .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Southern_Economic_Association\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 72678\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Klaus Hasselmann Content: Klaus Hasselmann ( born 25 October 1931 ) is a leading oceanographer and climate modeller . He is probably best known for developing the Hasselmann model of climate variability , where a system with a long memory ( the ocean ) integrates stochastic forcing , thereby transforming a white-noise signal into a red-noise one , thus explaining ( without special assumptions ) the ubiquitous red-noise signals seen in the climate .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Klaus_Hasselmann\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 72523\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Whale fall Content: A whale fall is the carcass of a cetacean that has fallen into the bathyal or abyssal zone ( i.e. deeper than 1000 m ) on the ocean floor . They can create complex localized ecosystems that supply sustenance to deep-sea organisms for decades . This is unlike in shallower waters , where a whale carcass will be consumed by scavengers over a relatively short period of time . It was with the development of deep-sea robotic exploration that whale falls were first observed in the late 1970s . Organisms that have been observed at deep-sea whale falls include giant isopods , squat lobsters , bristleworms , prawns , shrimp , lobsters , hagfish , Osedax , crabs , sea cucumbers , and sleeper sharks . Whale falls are able to occur in the deep open ocean due to cold temperatures and high hydrostatic pressures . In the coastal ocean , a higher incidence of predators as well as warmer waters hasten the decomposition of whale carcasses . Carcasses may also float due to decompositional gases , keeping the carcass at the surface . In the deep-sea , cold temperatures slow decomposition rates , and high hydrostatic pressures increase gas solubility , allowing food falls to remain intact and sink to great depths . There have also been studies based on the carcasses of other , non-mammalian marine vertebrates that have fallen to the deep sea . In particular , the chance discovery of a whale shark carcass and three mobulid ray carcasses led to observations on the communities that form surrounding large elasmobranch falls as opposed to whale falls . Whale sharks inhabit waters of roughly 1,000 meters depth regularly , which suggests it could be a regular form of food fall in areas where it is abundant . Many eelpouts ( Zoarcidae ) were found surrounding the whale shark with some evidence of direct feeding as boreholes were observed on the carcass . Another theory suggests that the eelpouts were waiting for their main prey , amphipods and other small benthic animals . The three rays found were at varying stages of decomposition , leading to varying assemblages found surrounding the individuals . A higher abundance of scavengers was found surrounding the more intact individuals , including scavengers typical of whale falls like hagfish . Around the least intact individual a bacterial mat was observed in the zone of enrichment , but no clams or mussels typical of this environment ( i.e. whale falls ) were seen . Overall , the four carcasses observed showed no evidence of progression past the scavenger stage ( Stage 1 below ) . The size limitations , as well as physiological differences between large elasmobranchs and whales more than likely causes the changes observed in the communities surrounding their respective carcasses . Osedax worms have the ability to extract collagen from bones as well as lipids , enabling them to sustain themselves on bones other than the lipid-rich remains of whales . Although no Osedax were found on the non-mammalian remains in this study , their absence may have been due to the timing of observation , and the Osedax had not yet colonized the carcasses . Various studies on smaller cetaceans and other marine vertebrate food falls come to similar conclusions that these falls bring a large amount of new organic material to depth , but support mostly a scavenger community , as opposed to the diverse assemblage seen at whale falls . This conclusion can be drawn based on the knowledge that large whales have much higher lipid content in their bulk composition and bone marrow , which supports the diverse communities present in succession at whale falls . ( Witte , 1999 ; Janssen et al. , 2000 ; Kemp et al. , 2006 ; Higgs et al. , 2014 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Whale_fall\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 72519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Water board (Netherlands) Content: Dutch water boards ( waterschappen or hoogheemraadschappen ) are regional government bodies charged with managing water barriers , waterways , water levels , water quality and sewage treatment in their respective regions . These regional water authorities are among the oldest forms of local government in the Netherlands , some of them having been founded in the 13th century . Around 26 percent of the area of the Netherlands is at or below sea level and several branches of the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta run through this relatively small country . Historically there always was a good deal of coastal and river flooding . Flood control in the Netherlands is a national priority , since about two thirds of the country is vulnerable to flooding , while at the same time it is one of the most densely populated areas on Earth . Natural sand dunes and man-made dikes , dams and floodgates provide defense against storm surges from the sea . River dikes prevent flooding of land by the major rivers Rhine and Meuse , while a complicated system of drainage ditches , canals and pumping stations ( historically : windmills ) keep the low-lying parts dry for habitation and agriculture . Water boards are independent local government bodies responsible for maintaining this system . An Unie van Waterschappen ( the association of Dutch regional water authorities , referring to itself as ` Dutch Water Authorities ' ) promotes the interests of Dutch water boards at a national and international level . 23 of the water boards are members of this association . The Unie van Waterschappen acts collaboratively with other appropriate bodies or institutions to pursue the Association 's objectives , including association with other European organisations through membership of the EUWMA , ( European Union of Water Management Associations ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Water_board_(Netherlands)\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 72445\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 98.7 Sea FM Content: 98.7 Sea FM ( ACMA callsign : 4RGM ) is an Australian radio station in Queensland . Owned and operated as part of Southern Cross Austereo 's LocalWorks network , it broadcasts an adult contemporary format to Mackay , Queensland and the Whitsunday Islands . First broadcast on 21 September 1999 , it was established by RG Capital - later sold to Macquarie Regional RadioWorks and Southern Cross Media Group - and is based in the Suncorp building on Victoria Street in Mackay , alongside sister station Hot FM .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"98.7_Sea_FM\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 72368\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar Content: The Regional Museum of Natural History , Bhubaneswar is a museum in Bhubaneswar , Odisha , India with exhibits on plants , animals and geology of the eastern region of India . The Regional Museum of Natural History at Bhubaneswar , was inaugurated in 2004 . It was undertaken by the Ministry of Environment and Forests , Government of India . The museum is located near Acharaya Vihar Square on Sachivalaya Marg , Bhubaneswar . The museum exhibits plants , animals and geology of the Odisha , the Eastern and north-eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India . The galleries emphasize the conservation of nature and natural resources while depicting ecological interrelationship among plants and animals . Visually challenged students can feel the exhibits of animals on the premises . The museum provides an extracurricular activity for schools and promotes environmental awareness . A skeleton of baleen whale has been installed in the museum , which is supposed to be largest for any museum in India .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Bhubaneswar\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 72363\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: South East Asia Youth Soccer Cup Content: The SEA Cup is the pre-eminent regional football tournament for school boys in South-East Asia . These boys individually represent their own state school boys team . The SEA Cup was founded by Julian Verdina in 1988 , and then taken over by Dave Phelp ( now retired to Aberdeen ) in 1989 . Other names associated with the tournament are Peter Dixon , Sally Ann Spellman , Joe Keiser , Keith Thorn ( ANZA ) , Jim Boyd , Terry Thodesen , David Straffon , John Stamp , Steve Wise , Gary Mundy ( Bangkok ) , and Gerry Burgon ( Jakarta ) . The countries represented are : - Malaysia : Kuala Lumpur Youth Soccer - Singapore : ANZA Soccer , Singapore - Thailand : Bangkok Soccer League - Indonesia Jakarta Youth Soccer ( since withdrawn ) Up to 2002 , tournaments were held at Under 12 and Under 15 levels . From the 2003 tournament , the Under 12 age group was changed to be Under 13 . An Under 18 age group was held for the 1st time in 2008 . In 2010 , an award was inaugurated for the Overall SEA Cup Champions for the year . In 2015 U9 and U11 categories were introduced for 7 a side In 2010 , Kuala Lumpur won all 3 age groups ( U13 , U15 & U18 ) , an achievement which had not previously been achieved in the SEA Cup , although prior to 2008 three countries had won both U12/U13 & U15 in a single year . KLYS became the first winners of the Overall Champions award . 2011 , during the 24th Annual SEA Cup . Kuala Lumpur retained the Overall Champions on home soil in Kuala Lumpur , recording wins in all 3 age groups ( U13 , U15 and U18 ) . 2012 , saw Kuala Lumpur retaining the Overall Championship in Bangkok , Thailand at the Bangkok Patana School . Kuala Lumpur recorded wins in the U15 and the U18 age group . Coach Luis Pablo led the U18 's to their 5th consecutive title and Coach Aidil Sulaiman led the U15 's to the U15 's 3rd consecutive title . Kuala Lumpur U18 's also smashed the overall SEA Cup record for most goals scored by scoring 23 goals in 3 games . ANZA Singapore we 're also the winners of the U13 competition winning all 3 of their matches . 2014 brought a year of change . The event was hosted in Kuala Lumpur but surprisingly Singapore became Overall Champions . Anza placed first in the U13 's category , 2nd in the U15 's category and secured their place as Champions with a victory against KLYS in the U18 finals , after a last minute winner in the very last game . This dramatic end to the tournament saw Singapore become overall Champions for the first time in 27 years . 2015 saw BSL win the Overall Championship on home soil recording wins in all three categories U13 , U15 and U18 . The tournament was expanded to include U9s and U11s for the first time with KLYS and ANZA proving victorious respectively . 2016 , in Singapore , ANZA won the Championship for the second time in 3 years recording wins in the U15 and U18 groupings and runners up in the U13s . The ANZA Juniors also recorded success in the U9 and U11 competitions\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"South_East_Asia_Youth_Soccer_Cup\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 72261\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David H. Bromwich Content: David H. Bromwich is a member of the Byrd Polar Research Center and a professor at the Department of Geography , The Ohio State University . His work has involved the evaluation and diagnosis of polar weather and climate variability . He received his Ph.D. in meteorology from the University of Wisconsin , Madison . In 1979 he joined Ohio State 's Byrd Polar Research Center as a research scientist . His research has focused on the variability of precipitation over Antarctica , Greenland , and the Arctic Ocean , thus contributing to the understanding of climate and potential sea level changes . He has made contributions to defining aspects of U.S. science policy . Having helped identify the need to improve numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) for the Antarctic , Bromwich has been influential in the development and evaluation of the Antarctic Mesoscale Prediction System ( AMPS ) . In April 2001 AMPS was one of four weather models used to predict a window of opportunity for the emergency medical evacuation of Ronald Shemenski from the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . Flights to the base are normally halted from late February until November because of the extreme winter cold and darkness . But the airlift was successfully completed and pilot Sean Loutitt confirmed the reliance on the forecasts , stating `` The weather was the biggest concern '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"David_H._Bromwich\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 72131\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice2sea\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 71945\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Ocean_heat_content\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 71733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Falls of Lora Content: The Falls of Lora is a tidal race which forms at the mouth of Loch Etive when a particularly high tide runs out from the loch . They form white water rapids for two to five days either side of the spring tides . The falls of Lora are generated when the water level in the Firth of Lorn ( i.e. the open sea ) drops below the level of the water in Loch Etive as the tide goes out . As the seawater in Loch Etive pours out through the narrow mouth of the loch , it passes over a rocky shelf which causes the rapids to form . As the tide rises again there is a period of slack water when the levels are the same on either side . However , due to the narrow entrance to the Loch , the tide rises more quickly than the water can flow into the Loch . Thus there is still considerable turbulence at high tide caused by flow into the Loch . Thus , unlike most situations where slack water is at high and low tides , in the case of the Falls of Lora slack water occurs when the levels on either side are the same , not when the tidal change is at its least . As a result , the tidal range is much greater on the coast than it is inside the loch . A 3 m range at Oban may produce only a 1.3 m at Bonawe on the loch shore . The loch mouth is spanned by Connel Bridge . The race is popular with white water kayakers and divers as well as tourists and photographers .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Falls_of_Lora\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 71721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Horizontal Falls Content: The Horizontal Falls or Horizontal Waterfalls ( nicknamed the `` Horries '' ) is the name given to a natural phenomenon on the coast of the Kimberley region in Western Australia . Horizontal Falls are described as `` One of the greatest wonders of the natural world '' ( Attenborough , 2013 ) . They are formed from a break in-between the McLarty Ranges reaching up to 25m in width . The natural phenomenon is created as seawater builds up faster on one side of the gaps than the other , creating a waterfall up to 5m high on a King tide . Within each change of the tide the direction of the falls reverses , creating vast tidal whirlpools . Within this area live the Balangarra , Bardi Jawa , Uunguu , and Dambimangari indigenous communities , which tour companies must take care to respect . The northern , most seaward gorge is 20 m-wide and the southern , more inland gorge is 12 m. Above each of the gorges are natural reservoirs between 6 -- long which fill and empty with seawater through the gorge openings . The inner gorge is also partly fed by fresh water from Poulton Creek .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Horizontal_Falls\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 71648\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: British regional literature Content: The setting is particularly important in regional literature . In literature regionalism refers to fiction or poetry that focuses on specific features , such as dialect , customs , history , and landscape , of a particular region ( also called local colour ) : `` Such a locale is likely to be rural and/or provincial . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"British_regional_literature\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 71614\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Variability Content: Variability is how spread out or closely clustered a set of data is . Variability may refer to : Climate variability , changes in the components of Earth 's climate system and their interactions Genetic variability , a measure of the tendency of individual genotypes in a population to vary from one another Heart rate variability , a physiological phenomenon where the time interval between heart beats varies Human variability , the range of possible values for any measurable characteristic , physical or mental , of human beings Spatial variability , when a quantity that is measured at different spatial locations exhibits values that differ across the locations Statistical variability , a measure of dispersion in statistics Variable renewable energy Variability function , a component of Bernoulli stochastics , a mathematical model Variability hypothesis , nineteenth century hypothesis that males have a greater range of ability than females\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Variability\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 71574\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Atlantic oscillation Content: The North Atlantic Oscillation ( NAO ) is a weather phenomenon in the North Atlantic Ocean of fluctuations in the difference of atmospheric pressure at sea level ( SLP ) between the Icelandic low and the Azores high . Through fluctuations in the strength of the Icelandic low and the Azores high , it controls the strength and direction of westerly winds and location of storm tracks across the North Atlantic . It is part of the Arctic oscillation , and varies over time with no particular periodicity . The NAO was discovered through several studies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Unlike the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean , the NAO is a largely atmospheric mode . It is one of the most important manifestations of climate fluctuations in the North Atlantic and surrounding humid climates . The North Atlantic Oscillation is closely related to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) , but should not be confused with the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Atlantic_oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 71290\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 71222\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional park Content: A regional park is an area of land preserved on account of its natural beauty , historic interest , recreational use or other reason , and under the administration of a form of local government .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_park\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 71051\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Caribbean natural region Content: The Caribbean region is mostly lowland plains extending from the northern reaches of the Colombian Andes to the Caribbean Sea that are characterized by a variety of ecosystems including : humid forests , dry forests , savannas , wetlands and desert . The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta rise from the plains to snow-capped peaks , separated from the Andes as an isolated area of high biodiversity and endemism . It contains one of the largest marshes in Colombia , the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta . The main river is the Magdalena which is fully navigable in the region and a major path for the flow of shipments to and from inland Colombia .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Caribbean_natural_region\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 71015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional climate levels in viticulture Content: In viticulture , there are several levels of regional climates that are used to describe the terroir or immutable characteristics of an area . These levels can be as broad as a macroclimate which includes entire wine regions or as small as a microclimate which includes the unique environment around an individual grapevine . In the middle is the mesoclimate which usually describes the characteristics of a particular vineyard site .\",\n \"qid\": \"109\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_climate_levels_in_viticulture\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 70844\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":55,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The temperature is not rising nearly as fast as the alarmist computer models predicted."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Temperature's Rising Content: Temperature 's Rising is a compilation album released in 1995 by the Canadian rock band Loverboy . The album was the third compilation by the band , but this particular compilation aimed at the more rarely heard songs by the band , and the minor hits that the previous compilations did not cover .","qid":"113","docid":"Temperature's_Rising","rank":1,"score":95510},{"content":"Title: Temperature Rising (album) Content: Temperature Rising is the second English language album by Thai singer Tata Young . It was released in 2006 . The album consist of cover songs and original songs . The first single is `` El Nin-YO ! '' , from the lyrics of which the album 's title comes from . ( `` You got my temperature rising like El Nin-YO ! '' ) . Her second single is `` Zoom '' which was released in September . `` Come Rain Come Shine '' , the third single , was used in Star World 's station promo 's from December 2006 to mid-2007 . The promo includes footage of Tata Young singing `` Come Rain Come Shine '' as well as scenes from some of Star World 's television shows ( Everybody Loves Raymond , American Idol etc. . ) Track # 7 , `` Zoom '' , was covered by Ashley Tisdale on her 2007 debut album Headstrong , under the title as `` Do n't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) '' . Temperature Rising was last Tata Young album released on cassette tapes , but in very small numbers produced in a short time until September 2006 .","qid":"113","docid":"Temperature_Rising_(album)","rank":2,"score":92635},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"113","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":3,"score":91198},{"content":"Title: Temperatures Rising Content: Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from September 12 , 1972 to August 29 , 1974 . During its 46-episode run , it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups . The series was developed for the network by William Asher and Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems . Set in a fictional Washington , D.C. hospital , the series featured James Whitmore as a no-nonsense chief of staff , forced to deal with the outlandish antics of a young intern ( Cleavon Little ) and three nurses ( Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox ) . For the first season , 26 episodes were produced and broadcast . In the second season , Whitmore was replaced in the lead role by comedian Paul Lynde , and Asher was replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson . The series was re-titled The New Temperatures Rising Show , and featured a new supporting cast : Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner . Cleavon Little was the only returning member of the original cast . In this season , Lynde was presented as the penny-pinching chief of staff , with Bond as his nagging mother and owner of the hospital . The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus in January 1974 due to poor ratings . It returned in July in yet another incarnation . Asher returned as producer and restored the series to its original format -- albeit with Lynde continuing in the lead . Reverting to the original title of Temperatures Rising , Little remained in the show 's cast , accompanied by a new line-up of supporting players : Alice Ghostley , Barbara Rucker and , returning from the first season 's cast , Nancy Fox . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third version of the sitcom ran for seven episodes , after which it was cancelled permanently .","qid":"113","docid":"Temperatures_Rising","rank":4,"score":89746},{"content":"Title: List of Temperatures Rising episodes Content: Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired for two years on the ABC network , during which time it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups with a total of 46 episodes . The series was originally developed , produced , and occasionally directed by William Asher for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems and premiered on September 12 , 1972 , in the time slot of Tuesday nights at 8:00 PM . The regular cast consisted of Cleavon Little as Dr. Jerry Noland , Joan Van Ark as Nurse Annie Carlisle , Reva Rose as Nurse Mildred `` Millie '' MacInerny , Nancy Fox as Student Nurse Ellen Turner , and James Whitmore as Dr. Vincent Campanelli . The premise of the series featured Campanelli as the no-nonsense chief-of-staff of Capitol General , a ( fictional ) Washington , D.C. hospital , who is forced to deal with the outlandish antics of Noland and the three nurses , whom Campanelli refers to as `` the four horsemen of aggravation '' . During its first season -- and first format -- 26 episodes were aired with the final one broadcast on . Reruns of the season 's episodes continued until September 4 , 1973 . Despite heavy competition in the ratings from Maude on CBS and Bonanza on NBC , Temperatures Rising did well enough in its first season to be renewed for a second . For this second season , John Mitchell , the head of Screen Gems , decided to replace James Whitmore with comedian Paul Lynde , whose own sitcom , The Paul Lynde Show ( also produced by William Asher for the 1972 -- 73 season ) was to be cancelled . Asher was against the change and declined to continue with Temperatures Rising , resulting in him being replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson . Under them , Van Ark , Rose , and Fox were dropped from the cast along with Whitmore , thus retaining Little as the only returning member . The New Temperatures Rising Show , as the series was now retitled , began airing on , and starred Paul Lynde as Dr. Paul Mercy , Sudie Bond as his mother Martha Mercy , Barbara Cason as Miss Tillis , the head nurse , Jennifer Darling as Nurse `` Windy '' Winchester , Jeff Morrow as Dr. Lloyd Axton , John Dehner as Dr. Charles Cleveland Claver , and Cleavon Little as Dr. Jerry Noland , while Jerry Houser was featured in a recurring role as an intern named Haskell . In this season Mercy was presented as the penny-pinching chief-of-staff , with his nagging mother as the owner of the hospital . Little 's character was changed to the chief surgeon and `` the only sane member of this medical madhouse '' . The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus on . The ratings for the show were poor and , as a result , Mitchell asked Asher to return to the series as producer and restore it to its original format -- albeit with Paul Lynde continuing in the lead . For the third format of the series -- which reverted to the original title of Temperatures Rising -- Bond , Cason , Darling , Morrow , Dehner , and Houser were dropped from the cast while Lynde and Little continued on as , respectively , Dr. Mercy and Dr. Nolan . Added to the line-up were Alice Ghostley as Nurse Edwina Moffitt , sister of Dr. Mercy , and Barbara Rucker as Nurse Kelly , while Nancy Fox , from the first-season cast , returned as Nurse Ellen Turner . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third format of the sitcom ran for seven episodes from July 18 to , after which it was cancelled permanently . As of , , Temperatures Rising has not been released on DVD or Blu-ray Disc .","qid":"113","docid":"List_of_Temperatures_Rising_episodes","rank":5,"score":89328},{"content":"Title: Temperature Rising Content: Temperature Rising may refer to : Temperature Rising ( album ) , a 2006 album by Tata Young Temperature 's Rising , an album by Loverboy `` Temperature 's Rising '' ( song ) , a 1995 song by Mobb Deep from The Infamous Temperatures Rising , an American television situation comedy","qid":"113","docid":"Temperature_Rising","rank":6,"score":87420},{"content":"Title: List of temperature sensors Content:","qid":"113","docid":"List_of_temperature_sensors","rank":7,"score":86605},{"content":"Title: Heat detector Content: A heat detector is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the convected thermal energy of a fire increases the temperature of a heat sensitive element . The thermal mass and conductivity of the element regulate the rate flow of heat into the element . All heat detectors have this thermal lag . Heat detectors have two main classifications of operation , `` rate-of-rise '' and `` fixed temperature '' . The Heat detector is used to help in the reduction of damaged property . It is triggered when temperature increases .","qid":"113","docid":"Heat_detector","rank":8,"score":86074},{"content":"Title: Temperature's Rising (song) Content: `` Temperature 's Rising '' is the third single from Mobb Deep 's 2nd album , The Infamous . The song is in the form of a letter to an associate that is hiding from the police , who went by the name Killa Black , he was also the older brother of Havoc . Killa Black , according to Prodigy in his 2011 autobiography `` My Infamous Life : The Autobiography of Mobb Deep 's Prodigy '' , murdered a man over Walkman speakers , & Havoc hid Killa Black 's gun in his basket of clothes . In the song , the narrator reveals that he is covering up evidence of his imprisoned friends ' criminal actions , and speaks of his paranoia , fearing that the police are closing in on him . It contains a sample of `` Where There Is Love '' by Patrice Rushen . A few years after the song was released , Killa Black committed suicide , in his mother 's bathroom , from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head after coming home for the murder that is mentioned in the song . After being released , Killa Black became a Muslim . The B-side is `` Give Up the Goods ( Just Step ) '' . There is a remix to the single , also produced by Q-Tip , that utilizes the same Patrice Rushen sample that is used on the album version . The original version of the song was produced by Mobb Deep .","qid":"113","docid":"Temperature's_Rising_(song)","rank":9,"score":85881},{"content":"Title: Thermal simulations for integrated circuits Content: Miniaturizing components has always been a primary goal in the semiconductor industry because it cuts production cost and lets companies build smaller computers and other devices . Miniaturization , however , has increased dissipated power per unit area and made it a key limiting factor in integrated circuit performance . Temperature increase becomes relevant for relatively small-cross-sections wires , where it may affect normal semiconductor behavior . Besides , since the generation of heat is proportional to the frequency of operation for switching circuits , fast computers have larger heat generation than slow ones , an undesired effect for chips manufacturers . This article summaries physical concepts that describe the generation and conduction of heat in an integrated circuit , and presents numerical methods that model heat transfer from a macroscopic point of view .","qid":"113","docid":"Thermal_simulations_for_integrated_circuits","rank":10,"score":85729},{"content":"Title: Thaw (weather) Content: January thaw is a term applied to a thaw or rise in temperature in mid-winter found in mid-latitude North America . Sinusoidal estimates of expected temperatures , for northern locales , usually place the lowest temperatures around January 23 and the highest around July 24 , and provide fairly accurate estimates of temperature expectations . Actual average temperatures in North America usually significantly differ twice over the course of the year : Mid-autumn temperatures tend to be warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal model , creating the impression of extended summer warmth known as Indian summer . For five days around January 25 , temperatures are usually significantly warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal estimate , and also warmer than neighboring temperatures on both sides . During this `` thaw '' period , usually lasting for about a week , temperatures are generally about 6 ° C ( 10 ° F ) above normal . This varies from year to year , and temperatures fluctuate enough that such a rise in late-January temperature would be unremarkable ; what is remarkable ( and unexplained ) is the tendency for such rises to occur more commonly in late January than in mid-January or early February , which sinusoidal estimates have to be slightly warmer . In some regions ( such as northern Canada ) this phenomenon will not be manifest as a `` thaw '' in the technical sense , since temperatures will remain below freezing . The January thaw is believed to be a weather singularity . A possible physical mechanism for such phenomena was offered in the 1950s by E.G. Bowen : he suggested that some `` calendaricities '' ( as he called them ) might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory then received some support from several sources . However , Bowen 's ideas later fell out of favour with the development of atmospheric dynamic modelling techniques , although one of his rainfall peaks does seem to correspond with the date of the January thaw . Data analysis has not found statistically significant support for the supposed January thaw . The authors of this study state that `` the effects of sampling in finite climate records are wholly adequate to account for the existence of January thaw ` features ' in northeastern U.S. temperature data . ''","qid":"113","docid":"Thaw_(weather)","rank":11,"score":81951},{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"113","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":12,"score":80740},{"content":"Title: Tm2 Content: TM2 , or Thermal Monitoring 2 , is a throttling control method used on LGA 775 versions of the Pentium 4 , Pentium D and Celeron processors and also on the Pentium M series of processors . TM2 reduces processor temperature by lowering the CPU clock multiplier , and thereby the processor core speed . In contrast , TM1 inserts an idle cycle into the CPU for thermal control without decreasing multipliers . TM1 and TM2 are associated with DTS/PECI -- Digital Temperature Sensor/Platform Environment Control Interface .","qid":"113","docid":"Tm2","rank":13,"score":80093},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"113","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":14,"score":79454},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"113","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":15,"score":79350},{"content":"Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .","qid":"113","docid":"HD_73256_b","rank":16,"score":78688},{"content":"Title: Mathematical Modeling of Mercury Thermometer Content: A mathematical model is use to study the behavior of a system as it evolves over time.Mathematical model basically takes the form of a set of assumptions related to operation of the system.These assumptions are expressed in form of mathematical or logical relationships between the entities of system . Let us consider an mercury thermometer which is located in a flowing stream of fluid for which temperature T0 varies with time.We have to calculate the response or the time variation of the thermometer reading T for a particular change in T0 . Following assumptions are made for the analysis : 1 . The resistance to heat transfer offered by glass and mercury is negligible.So all the resistance to heat transfer is present in the film surrounding the bulb . 2 . At any instant mercury assumes a uniform temperature throughout.And all the thermal capacity is in the mercury . The above 2 assumptions are known as lumping of parameters because all the resistance is `` lumped '' into one location and all the capacitance into another.Thus it is a lumped model of mercury thermometer . 3 . There is no expansion or contraction in the glass wall which contains mercury during the transient response . ( Hence mercury reading will not rise or fall due to change in volume of glass wall ) . 4 . Initially thermometer is assumed to be at steady state at t = 0 . Diagram : Energy balance : On applying the unsteady-state energy balance ( Input rate ) - ( output rate ) = ( Rate of accumulation ) We get , = ( 1 ) Ԏ + ( 2 ) where Ԏ = m = mass of mercury in bulb c = heat capacity of mercury A = surface area of bulb for heat transfer t = time h = film coefficient of heat transfer Ԏ = time constant of the system At steady state , ( 3 ) for t ≤ 0 Subtracting ( 3 ) from ( 2 ) we get Ԏ + ( 4 ) Let & where Y , X are known as deviation variables . Therefore equation ( 4 ) become Ԏ + ( 5 ) Taking Laplace transform on equation ( 5 ) , we get Ԏ ( 6 ) Ԏ ( 7 ) Ԏ = G ( s ) is the transfer function . X ( s ) = Transform of forcing function or input , in deviation form Y ( s ) = Transform of response or output , in deviation form . Transfer function is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the deviation in thermometer reading ( output ) to the Laplace transform of the deviation in the surrounding temperature ( input ) . We can find the response of the system or output by giving various types of inputs like step input , impulse input , sinusoidal input , etc. .","qid":"113","docid":"Mathematical_Modeling_of_Mercury_Thermometer","rank":17,"score":77846},{"content":"Title: Apparent temperature Content: Apparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans , caused by the combined effects of air temperature , relative humidity and wind speed . The measures are most commonly applied to perceived outdoor temperatures , but also apply to indoors , especially to saunas or when homes or workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled or insulated to provide comfortable or healthy conditions . The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above 80 ° F ( 27 degrees C ) . In humid conditions , the air feels much hotter , because of the reduction in evaporation of perspiration . The wind chill factor measures the effect of wind speed on cooling of the human body below 50 ° F ( 10 degrees C ) . As airflow increases over the skin , more heat will be removed . Standard models and conditions are used . The wet-bulb globe temperature ( WBGT ) combines the effects of radiation , humidity , temperature and wind speed on the perception of temperature . It is not often used as the resulting figure is very location specific ( e.g. cloud cover and/or wind shielding ) .","qid":"113","docid":"Apparent_temperature","rank":18,"score":77598},{"content":"Title: Fujitsu Celsius Content: The Fujitsu Celsius is a line of laptop and workstation computers manufactured by Fujitsu . The brand name has also been used for graphic accelerators . The computers are intended for applications such as computer-aided design , digital content creation , geographical information systems work , architecture , engineering , financial forecasting , flux balance analysis , scientific simulation , electronic design , and virtual reality . The laptops have Intel Core vPro , i5 , or i7 processors , while the workstations have one or two Intel Xeon processors for a total of up to 16 cores . The R920 is able to accept up to 512 GB of RAM . Fujitsu Celsius equipment was used to stitch together thousands of individual photographic images to create large-scale 360-degree panoramic images : an 80-gigapixel image of London was published in November 2010 , stating : `` using this excellent workstation allowed this record-breaking photo to be created a few weeks faster than would have been possible on any other available PC . '' The 320-gigapixel photomosaic of London published in February 2013 was prepared on a Celsius R920 in three months ' time .","qid":"113","docid":"Fujitsu_Celsius","rank":19,"score":76887},{"content":"Title: Heat burst Content: In meteorology , a heat burst is a rare atmospheric phenomenon characterized by gusty winds and a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in dew point ( moisture ) . Heat bursts typically occur during night-time and are associated with decaying thunderstorms . Although this phenomenon is not fully understood , it is theorized that the event is caused when rain evaporates ( virga ) into a parcel of cold dry air high in the atmosphere making the air denser than its surroundings . The parcel descends rapidly , warming due to compression , overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface , similar to a downburst . Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above 38 ° C , sometimes rising by 20 F-change or more within only a few minutes . More extreme events have also been documented , where temperatures have been reported to exceed 120 ° F. However , such extreme events have never been officially verified . Heat bursts are also characterized by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong , even damaging , winds .","qid":"113","docid":"Heat_burst","rank":20,"score":76398},{"content":"Title: Held-Hou Model Content: The Held-Hou Model is a model for the Hadley circulation of the atmosphere that would exist in the absence of atmospheric turbulence . The model was developed by Isaac Held and Arthur Hou in 1980 . The essence of the model is that air rising from the surface at the equator conserves its angular momentum as it moves poleward . This distribution of wind , in turn , determines the distribution of temperature , which determines the latitudinal extent of the circulation by requiring energy conservation . This stands in contrast to George Hadley 's original conception of the circulation , which he argued reached the poles . The Hadley circulation has a cooling effect at and near the equator and a warming effect at higher latitudes within the Hadley Cell . This energy transport can be converted into a mass transport , to determine the strength of the circulation , by normalizing by the appropriate vertical stability . The effects of moisture and seasons on the model have been studied . Earth 's atmosphere violates the underlying assumptions of the model : angular momentum is not conserved and the tropical atmosphere is not energetically closed . As such , the Held-Hou model is a conceptual model that does not make quantitatively accurate predictions of the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation to changes in atmospheric parameters .","qid":"113","docid":"Held-Hou_Model","rank":21,"score":76048},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"113","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":22,"score":75843},{"content":"Title: SpeedFan Content: SpeedFan is a system monitor for Microsoft Windows that can read temperatures , voltages and fan speeds of computer components . It can change computer fan speeds depending on the temperature of various components . The program can display system variables as charts and as an indicator in the system tray . Fully configurable user events can be defined to execute specific actions based on system status .","qid":"113","docid":"SpeedFan","rank":23,"score":75321},{"content":"Title: Recording thermometer Content: A recording thermometer is a type of thermometer that records temperature changes over a period of time . One end of the strip is attached to a long , light metal lever that holds a special pen . Tiny movement of the bimetallic strip causes much larger movement of the free end of the lever and the pen . The pen traces a rising and falling line on a strip of paper attached to a slowly turning drum . The drum usually makes one turn every seven or so days , so afterwards each strip of paper contains a complete and accurate record of temperature changes for a whole week . There are normally two types of metal on the bimetallic strip . Mostly one is steel and one is copper . Because these metals expand and contract at different rates.When one of these metals expand it curls tighter , when one contracts it uncurl slightly . When it curls or uncurls , the data is converted into electric signals , which record the temperature change . Category : Thermometers","qid":"113","docid":"Recording_thermometer","rank":24,"score":75059},{"content":"Title: Urban thermal plume Content: An urban thermal plume describes rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earth 's atmosphere caused by urban areas being warmer than surrounding areas . Over the past thirty years there has been increasing interest in what have been called urban heat island ( UHI ) , but it is only since 2007 that thought has been given to the rising columns of warm air , or ` thermal plumes ' that they produce . We are all familiar with on-shore breezes at the seaside on a warm day , and off-shore breezes at night . These are caused by the land heating up faster on a sunny day and cooling faster after sunset , respectively . Our personal experience of on-shore breezes shows us that the thermals , or warm airs , that rise from the land and sea respectively have a sensible effect on the local microscale meteorology ; and perhaps at times on the mesometeorology . Urban thermal plumes have as powerful although less localized an effect . London is generally 3 to 9 Celsius hotter than the Home Counties . London 's meteorological aberrations were first studied by Luke Howard , FRS in the 1810s , but the notion that this large warm area would produce a significant urban thermal plume was not seriously proposed until very recently . Microscale thermal plumes , whose diameters may be measured in tens of metres , such as those produced by industrial chimney stacks , have been extensively investigated , but largely from the point of view of the plumes dispersal by local micrometeorology . Though their velocity is generally less , their very much greater magnitude ( diameter ) means that urban thermal plumes will have a more significant effect upon the mesometeorology and even continental macrometeorology .","qid":"113","docid":"Urban_thermal_plume","rank":25,"score":74825},{"content":"Title: Temperature in Canada Content:","qid":"113","docid":"Temperature_in_Canada","rank":26,"score":74578},{"content":"Title: Raijin-2 Content: Raijin-2 ( Rising-2 ) is a Japanese micro-satellite launched in 2014 . The satellite is built around a 10 cm diameter , 1m focal length Cassegrain telescope and features the following instruments : HPT - main telescope with 5m resolution at nadir , operating in visible and near-infrared bands BOL - bolometer array camera for cloud temperature measurement WFC - wide field-of-view CCD camera LSI-N and LSI-W - 2 CMOS medium field-of-view cameras for near-infrared imaging VLF-ANT , R - radio antenna to receive signatures of lighting events All instruments are powered by GaAs solar cells mounted on the spacecraft body , with estimated electrical power of 47.6 W . The spacecraft features an unusual central-pillar bus , inherited from the Sprite-Sat satellite . The attitude control is done by means of reaction wheels and magneto-torquers , and qualified for 0.1 degrees angular accuracy .","qid":"113","docid":"Raijin-2","rank":27,"score":74525},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"113","docid":"Global_warming","rank":28,"score":74458},{"content":"Title: Thermal Content: A thermal column ( or thermal ) is a column of rising air in the lower altitudes of Earth 's atmosphere , a form of atmospheric updraft . Thermals are created by the uneven heating of Earth 's surface from solar radiation , and are an example of convection , specifically atmospheric convection . The Sun warms the ground , which in turn warms the air directly above it .","qid":"113","docid":"Thermal","rank":29,"score":74365},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"113","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":30,"score":74219},{"content":"Title: Insulation system Content: The electrical insulation system for wires used in generators , electric motors , transformers , and other wire-wound electrical components is divided into different classes by temperature and temperature rise . The electrical insulation system is sometimes referred to as insulation class or thermal classification . The different classes are defined by NEMA , Underwriters Laboratories ( UL ) , and IEC standards . The maximum hot-spot operating temperature is reached by adding the rated ambient temperature of the machine ( often 40 ° C ) , a temperature rise , and a 10 ° C hot-spot allowance . Electrical machines are usually designed with an average temperature below the rated hot-spot temperature to allow for acceptable life . Insulation does not suddenly fail if the hot-spot temperature is reached , but useful operating life declines rapidly ; a rule of thumb is a halving of life for every 10 ° C. Older editions of standards listed materials to be used for the various temperature classes . Modern editions of standards are proscriptive , only indicating that the insulation system must provide acceptable life at the specified temperature rise . In large machines , different systems may be used according to the predicted temperature rise of the machine ; for example , in large hydroelectric generators , stator windings may be Class B but the more difficult to cool rotor winding may be Class F.","qid":"113","docid":"Insulation_system","rank":31,"score":74076},{"content":"Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .","qid":"113","docid":"Excessive_heat_watch","rank":32,"score":73573},{"content":"Title: Thermal Credits Content: Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .","qid":"113","docid":"Thermal_Credits","rank":33,"score":73515},{"content":"Title: Temperature gradient Content: A temperature gradient is a physical quantity that describes in which direction and at what rate the temperature changes the most rapidly around a particular location . The temperature gradient is a dimensional quantity expressed in units of degrees ( on a particular temperature scale ) per unit length . The SI unit is kelvin per meter ( K/m ) . It can be also seen in the formula of dQ/dt i.e. the formula of rate of heat transfer per second . Temperature gradients in the atmosphere are important in the atmospheric sciences ( meteorology , climatology and related fields ) .","qid":"113","docid":"Temperature_gradient","rank":34,"score":73300},{"content":"Title: Temperature Content: A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold . It is measured by a thermometer . Several scales and units exist for measuring temperature , the most common being Celsius ( denoted ° C ; formerly called centigrade ) , Fahrenheit ( denoted ° F ) , and , especially in science , Kelvin ( denoted K ) . The coldest theoretical temperature is absolute zero , at which the thermal motion of atoms and molecules reaches its minimum -- classically , this would be a state of motionlessness , but quantum uncertainty dictates that the particles still possess a finite zero-point energy . Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale , − 273.15 ° C on the Celsius scale , and − 459.67 ° F on the Fahrenheit scale . The kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies , especially of fluids . It indicates the absolute temperature as proportional to the average kinetic energy of the random microscopic motions of those of their constituent microscopic particles , such as electrons , atoms , and molecules , that move freely within the material . Temperature is important in all fields of natural science including physics , geology , chemistry , atmospheric sciences , medicine and biology as well as most aspects of daily life .","qid":"113","docid":"Temperature","rank":35,"score":73046},{"content":"Title: Thermally Advantaged Chassis Content: A Thermally Advantaged Chassis ( TAC ) is a computer enclosure that complies with the Thermally Advantaged Chassis specifications created by Intel . It is capable of maintaining an internal ambient temperature below 38 degrees Celsius when functioning with Intel 's Pentium 4 and Celeron D processors based on 90 nm process technology , and an ambient temperature below 39 degrees Celsius when using a Pentium D processor . Intel maintains that using a thermally advantaged chassis is the absolute minimum requirement for using Pentium 4 ( Prescott ) , Pentium D , and Celeron D , processors .","qid":"113","docid":"Thermally_Advantaged_Chassis","rank":36,"score":72871},{"content":"Title: Laser flash analysis Content: The laser flash analysis or laser flash method is used to measure thermal diffusivity of a variety of different materials . An energy pulse heats one side of a plane-parallel sample and the resulting time dependant temperature rise on the backside due to the energy input is detected . The higher the thermal diffusivity of the sample , the faster the energy reaches the backside . A state-of-the-art laser flash apparatus ( LFA ) to measure thermal diffusivity over a broad temperature range , is shown on the right hand side . In a one-dimensional , adiabatic case the thermal diffusivity is calculated from this temperature rise as follows : Where is the thermal diffusivity in cm ² / s is the thickness of the sample in cm is the time to the half maximum in s","qid":"113","docid":"Laser_flash_analysis","rank":37,"score":71986},{"content":"Title: Thermoscope Content: A thermoscope is a device that shows changes in temperature . A typical design is a tube in which a liquid rises and falls as the temperature changes . The modern thermometer gradually evolved from it with the addition of a scale in the early 17th century and standardisation through the 17th and 18th centuries .","qid":"113","docid":"Thermoscope","rank":38,"score":71968},{"content":"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''","qid":"113","docid":"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)","rank":39,"score":71920},{"content":"Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.","qid":"113","docid":"Coral_in_non-tropical_regions","rank":40,"score":71687},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"113","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":41,"score":71444},{"content":"Title: Debye model Content: In thermodynamics and solid state physics , the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contribution to the specific heat ( heat capacity ) in a solid . It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice ( heat ) as phonons in a box , in contrast to the Einstein model , which treats the solid as many individual , non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators . The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity , which is proportional to -- the Debye T3 law . Just like the Einstein model , it also recovers the Dulong -- Petit law at high temperatures . But due to simplifying assumptions , its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures . See M. Shubin and T. Sunada for a rigorous treatment of the Debye model .","qid":"113","docid":"Debye_model","rank":42,"score":71360},{"content":"Title: Galileo thermometer Content: A Galileo thermometer ( or Galilean thermometer ) is a thermometer made of a sealed glass cylinder containing a clear liquid and several glass vessels of varying mass . As the temperature changes , the individual floats rise or fall in proportion to their respective weights and the density of the surrounding liquid . It is named after Galileo Galilei because he discovered the principle on which this thermometer is based -- that the density of a liquid changes in proportion to its temperature -- and he also invented a thermoscope based on this principle .","qid":"113","docid":"Galileo_thermometer","rank":43,"score":71122},{"content":"Title: RTTOV (radiative transfer code) Content: RTTOV - the fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave nadir scanning radiometers ( see push broom scanner ) . Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties RTTOV calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory input is water vapour . Optionally ozone , carbon dioxide , nitrous oxide , methane and carbon monoxide can be variable with all other constituents assumed to be constant . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used . The spectral range of the RTTOV9 .1 model is 3-20 micrometres ( 500 -- 3000 cm-1 ) in the infrared . RTTOV contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules for variational assimilation or retrieval applications . One of several applications of RTTOV are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .","qid":"113","docid":"RTTOV_(radiative_transfer_code)","rank":44,"score":70740},{"content":"Title: Rise over thermal Content: In wireless communication systems , the rise over thermal ( ROT ) indicates the ratio between the total interference received on a base station and the thermal noise . The ROT is a measurement of congestion of a cellular telephone network . The acceptable level of ROT is often used to define the capacity of systems using CDMA ( code division multiple access ) .","qid":"113","docid":"Rise_over_thermal","rank":45,"score":70582},{"content":"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''","qid":"113","docid":"Duncan_Wingham","rank":46,"score":70329},{"content":"Title: Computer cooling Content: Computer cooling is required to remove the waste heat produced by computer components , to keep components within permissible operating temperature limits . Components that are susceptible to temporary malfunction or permanent failure if overheated include integrated circuits such as CPUs , chipset , graphics cards , and hard disk drives . Components are often designed to generate as little heat as possible , and computers and operating systems may be designed to reduce power consumption and consequent heating according to workload , but more heat may still be produced than can be removed without attention to cooling . Use of heatsinks cooled by airflow reduces the temperature rise produced by a given amount of heat . Attention to patterns of airflow can prevent the development of hotspots . Computer fans are widely used along with heatsinks to reduce temperature by actively exhausting hot air . There are also more exotic cooling techniques , such as liquid cooling . All modern day processors are designed to cut out or reduce their voltage ( which translates to power usage ) and/or clock speed if the internal temperature of the processor exceeds a specified limit . Cooling may be designed to reduce the ambient temperature within the case of a computer e.g. by exhausting hot air , or to cool a single component or small area ( spot cooling ) . Components commonly individually cooled include the CPU , GPU and the northbridge .","qid":"113","docid":"Computer_cooling","rank":47,"score":70159},{"content":"Title: Absolute hot Content: Absolute hot is a concept of temperature that postulates the existence of a highest attainable temperature of matter . The concept has been popularized by the television series Nova . In this presentation , absolute hot is assumed to be the high end of a temperature scale starting at absolute zero , which is the temperature at which entropy is minimal and classical thermal energy is zero . Contemporary models of physical cosmology postulate that the highest possible temperature is the Planck temperature , which has the value , or 142 quintillion kelvins ( 142 nonillion on the short scale ) . Above about , particle energies become so large that gravitational forces between them would become as strong as other fundamental forces according to current theories . There is no existing scientific theory for the behavior of matter at these energies . A quantum theory of gravity would be required . The models of the origin of the universe based on the Big Bang theory assume that the universe passed through this temperature about 10 − 42 seconds after the Big Bang as a result of enormous entropy expansion . Another theory of absolute hot is based on the Hagedorn temperature , where the thermal energies of the particles exceed the mass-energy of a hadron particle-antiparticle pair . Instead of temperature rising , at the Hagedorn temperature more and heavier particles are produced by pair production , thus preventing effective further heating , given that only hadrons are produced . However , further heating is possible ( with pressure ) if the matter undergoes a phase change into a quark -- gluon plasma . Therefore , this temperature is more akin to a boiling point rather than an insurmountable barrier . For hadrons , the Hagedorn temperature is 2 × 1012 K , which has been reached and exceeded in LHC and RHIC experiments . However , in string theory , a separate Hagedorn temperature can be defined , where strings similarly provide the extra degrees of freedom . However , it is so high ( 1030 K ) that no current or foreseeable experiment can reach it . Quantum physics formally assumes infinitely positive or negative temperatures in descriptions of spin system undergoing population inversion from the ground state to a higher energy state by excitation with electromagnetic radiation . The temperature function in these systems exhibits a singularity , meaning the temperature tends to positive infinity , before discontinuously switching to negative infinity . However , this applies only to specific degrees of freedom in the system , while others would have normal temperature dependency . If equipartitioning were possible , such formalisms ignore the fact that the spin system would be destroyed by the decomposition of ordinary matter before infinite temperature could be reached uniformly in the sample .","qid":"113","docid":"Absolute_hot","rank":48,"score":69720},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"113","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":49,"score":69720},{"content":"Title: Brightness temperature Content: Brightness temperature is the temperature a black body in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings would have to be to duplicate the observed intensity of a grey body object at a frequency . This concept is extensively used in radio astronomy and planetary science . The brightness temperature is not a temperature as ordinarily understood . It characterizes radiation , and depending on the mechanism of radiation can differ considerably from the physical temperature of a radiating body ( though it is theoretically possible to construct a device which will heat up by a source of radiation with some brightness temperature to the actual temperature equal to brightness temperature ) . Nonthermal sources can have very high brightness temperatures . In pulsars the brightness temperature can reach 1026 K. For the radiation of a typical helium -- neon laser with a power of 60 mW and a coherence length of 20 cm , focused in a spot with a diameter of 10 µm , the brightness temperature will be nearly . For a black body , Planck 's law gives : where ( the Intensity or Brightness ) is the amount of energy emitted per unit surface area per unit time per unit solid angle and in the frequency range between and ; is the temperature of the black body ; is Planck 's constant ; is frequency ; is the speed of light ; and is Boltzmann 's constant . For a grey body the spectral radiance is a portion of the black body radiance , determined by the emissivity . That makes the reciprocal of the brightness temperature : At low frequency and high temperatures , when , we can use the Rayleigh -- Jeans law : so that the brightness temperature can be simply written as : In general , the brightness temperature is a function of , and only in the case of blackbody radiation it is the same at all frequencies . The brightness temperature can be used to calculate the spectral index of a body , in the case of non-thermal radiation .","qid":"113","docid":"Brightness_temperature","rank":50,"score":69685},{"content":"Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .","qid":"113","docid":"Excessive_heat_warning","rank":51,"score":69309},{"content":"Title: Marconi Transistorised Automatic Computer (T.A.C.) Content: The Marconi Transistorized Automatic Computer was Marconi Company 's first computer , designed and manufactured from around 1959 . They employed Germanium transistors which by this time were sufficiently reliable with room temperatures kept below about 23 degrees C. Apart from transistor failure other common faults included Power Supply capacitors ` drying out ' resulting in excess ripple and poor connections on the computer input output highway . Paper tape peripherals had their own poor reliability influenced by degree of operator usage . The type S3301 was a 500 kHz clocked 20 bit word machine with two Mullard core memory stores providing 4k of 20 bit data , see Ref . 4 . The internal CPU logic was synchronised to even and odd clock signals and special signals generated via the microinstruction diode boards . The memory logic had slow and fast loops to speed the transfer of sequential data bursts . Its microinstructions were programmed on diode boards . A facility was provided to microstep through instructions to help with fault finding . Processor status bits were provided with machine instructions being decoded from 6 bits in the current address memory word . Double word data had the MSB designated a sign bit coded as binary fractions ( -1 to +1 ) for the square root , multiply and divide instructions . The instruction set had the usual functions based on three registers named A , B and D ( C was the current address in memory register , M ) . An additional instruction assisted with checksum calculation for data transferred to and from main data stores ( viz . Sperry Rand magnetic drums . ) . Applications included marking up radar screens with aircraft info and providing data processing for operators in a Nuclear Power Station . Surviving computers ( ex Power Station ) are on display at Bletchley Park National Museum of Computing ( operational ) and Jim Austin 's collection near the University of York . Addition manuals and documentation exist at the School of Computer Science , University of Manchester and the Manchester John Rylands Library , the original performance summary specification at . Marconi went on to develop the Myriad series of computers","qid":"113","docid":"Marconi_Transistorised_Automatic_Computer_(T.A.C.)","rank":52,"score":69269},{"content":"Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .","qid":"113","docid":"MSU_temperature_measurements","rank":53,"score":69164},{"content":"Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .","qid":"113","docid":"Thermal_runaway","rank":54,"score":69002},{"content":"Title: Operating temperature Content: An operating temperature is the temperature at which an electrical or mechanical device operates . The device will operate effectively within a specified temperature range which varies based on the device function and application context , and ranges from the minimum operating temperature to the maximum operating temperature ( or peak operating temperature ) . Outside this range of safe operating temperatures the device may fail . Aerospace and military-grade devices generally operate over a broader temperature range than industrial devices ; commercial-grade devices generally have the narrowest operating temperature range . It is one component of reliability engineering . Similarly , biological systems have a viable temperature range , which might be referred to as an `` operating temperature '' .","qid":"113","docid":"Operating_temperature","rank":55,"score":68792},{"content":"Title: Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array Content: The Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array ( RAPID/MOCHA ) program is a collaborative research project between the National Oceanography Centre ( Southampton , U.K. ) , the University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( RSMAS ) , and NOAA 's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ( AOML ) that measure the meridional overturning circulation ( MOC ) and ocean heat transport in the North Atlantic Ocean . This array was deployed in March 2004 to continuously monitor the MOC and ocean heat transport that are primarily associated with the Thermohaline Circulation across the basin at 26 ° N . The RAPID-MOCHA array is planned to be continued through 2014 to provide a decade or longer continuous time series . The continuous observations are measured by an array of instruments along 26 ° N . This monitoring array directly measures the transport of the Gulf Stream in the Florida Strait using an undersea cable and a moored array measures bottom pressure and water column density ( including temperature and salinity ) at the western and eastern boundary and on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( MAR ) . Absolute transports including barotropic circulation are monitored using precision bottom pressure gauges . `` Dynamic height '' moorings are used to estimate the spatially average geostropic velocity profile and associated transports over relatively wide mooring separations . The dynamic height moorings requires measurements on both sides of the current field only , rather both the horizontal and vertical structure of the current field to be sufficiently well resolved to estimate transports . The basin-wide MOC strength and vertical structure are estimated via Ekman transports by satellite scatterometer measurements and the geotrophic and direct current observations . RAPID-MOCHA is funded by the National Environmental Research Council ( NERC ) and the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .","qid":"113","docid":"Rapid_Climate_Change-Meridional_Overturning_Circulation_and_Heatflux_Array","rank":56,"score":68596},{"content":"Title: Quartz thermometer Content: The quartz thermometer is a high-precision , high accuracy temperature sensor . It measures temperature by measuring the frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator . The oscillator contains a specially cut crystal that results in a linear temperature coefficient of frequency , so the measurement of the temperature is essentially reduced to measurement of the oscillator frequency . Resolutions of .0001 ° C , and accuracy of .02 ° C from 0-100 ° C are achievable . The high linearity makes it possible to achieve high accuracy over an important temperature range that contains only one convenient temperature reference point for calibration , the triple point of water . Introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1965 , the successor company , Agilent , has discontinued the Model 2804A Quartz Thermometer . Other manufacturers make nearly linear-in-temperature quartz crystals that may be used to construct thermometers of similar performance .","qid":"113","docid":"Quartz_thermometer","rank":57,"score":68538},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"113","docid":"Hockey_stick_controversy","rank":58,"score":68491},{"content":"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .","qid":"113","docid":"Mesopause","rank":59,"score":68405},{"content":"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .","qid":"113","docid":"Fisheries_and_climate_change","rank":60,"score":68362},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric thermometer Content: A atmospheric thermometer is a device that measures the temperature of the indoor or outdoor atmosphere . The most common type consists of a long tube that contains mercury or colored alcohol at the base , although there are also other kinds , such as spring and digital thermometers . When the atmospheric temperature rises , it causes the material inside the air thermometer to expand . Conversely , when the air gets colder , the material contracts and travels back down.Thermometers use temperature scales either Fahrenheit , Celsius , Kelvin , to provide a measure of heat in degrees . Category : Thermometers","qid":"113","docid":"Atmospheric_thermometer","rank":61,"score":68220},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"113","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":62,"score":68151},{"content":"Title: Rapid thermal processing Content: Rapid Thermal Processing ( RTP ) refers to a semiconductor manufacturing process which heats silicon wafers to high temperatures ( over 1,000 ° C ) on a timescale of several seconds or less . During cooling , however , wafer temperatures must be brought down slowly to prevent dislocations and wafer breakage due to thermal shock . Such rapid heating rates are often attained by high intensity lamps or lasers . These processes are used for a wide variety of applications in semiconductor manufacturing including dopant activation , thermal oxidation , metal reflow and chemical vapor deposition .","qid":"113","docid":"Rapid_thermal_processing","rank":63,"score":68147},{"content":"Title: Temperature jump Content: The temperature jump method is a technique used in chemical kinetics for the measurement of very rapid reaction rates . It is one of a class of chemical relaxation methods pioneered by the German physical chemist Manfred Eigen in the 1950s . In these methods , a reacting system initially at equilibrium is perturbed rapidly and then observed as it relaxes back to equilibrium . In the case of temperature jump , the perturbation involves rapid heating which changes the value of the equilibrium constant , followed by relaxation to equilibrium at the new temperature . The heating usually involves discharging of a capacitor ( in the kV range ) through a small volume ( < 1 mL ) of a conducting solution containing the molecule/reaction to be studied . In some versions of the apparatus used , the solution is heated instead by the output of a pulsed laser which emits in the near infra-red . When laser heating is employed , the solution need not be conducting . In both cases , the temperature of the solution is caused to rise by a small amount in microseconds ( or less in the case of laser heating ) . This allows the study of the shift in equilibrium of reactions that equilibrate in milliseconds ( or microseconds with laser temperature jump ) , these changes most commonly being observed using absorption spectroscopy or fluorescence spectroscopy . Due to the small volumes involved the temperature of the solution returns to that of its surroundings in minutes . The fractional extent of the reaction ( i.e. the percentage change in concentration of a measurable species ) depends on the molar enthalpy change ( ΔH ° ) between the reactants and products and the equilibrium position . If K is the equilibrium constant and dT is the change in temperature then the enthalpy change is given by the Van ' t Hoff equation : where R is the universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature . When a single step in a reaction is perturbed in a temperature jump experiment , the reaction follows a single exponential decay function with time constant equal to a function of the forward ( ka ) and reverse ( kb ) rate constants . For the perturbation of a simple equilibrium A < = > B which is first order in both directions , the reciprocal of the time constant equals the sum of the two rate constants The two rate constants can be determined from the values of and the equilibrium constant : , yielding two equations for two unknowns . In more complex reaction networks , when multiple reaction steps are perturbed , then the reciprocal time constants are given by the eigenvalues of the characteristic rate equations . The ability to observe intermediate steps in a reaction pathway is one of the attractive features of this technology . Related chemical relaxation methods include pressure jump , electric field jump and pH jump .","qid":"113","docid":"Temperature_jump","rank":64,"score":68003},{"content":"Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .","qid":"113","docid":"Thermal_low","rank":65,"score":67989},{"content":"Title: Thermal fluctuations Content: In statistical mechanics , thermal fluctuations are random deviations of a system from its average state , that occur in a system at equilibrium . All thermal fluctuations become larger and more frequent as the temperature increases , and likewise they decrease as temperature approaches absolute zero . Thermal fluctuations are a basic manifestation of the temperature of systems : A system at nonzero temperature does not stay in its equilibrium microscopic state , but instead randomly samples all possible states , with probabilities given by the Boltzmann distribution . Thermal fluctuations generally affect all the degrees of freedom of a system : There can be random vibrations ( phonons ) , random rotations ( rotons ) , random electronic excitations , and so forth . Thermodynamic variables , such as pressure , temperature , or entropy , likewise undergo thermal fluctuations . For example , for a system that has an equilibrium pressure , the system pressure fluctuates to some extent about the equilibrium value . Only the ` control variables ' of statistical ensembles ( such as N , V and E in the microcanonical ensemble ) do not fluctuate . Thermal fluctuations are a source of noise in many systems . The random forces that give rise to thermal fluctuations are a source of both diffusion and dissipation ( including damping and viscosity ) . The competing effects of random drift and resistance to drift are related by the fluctuation-dissipation theorem . Thermal fluctuations play a major role in phase transitions and chemical kinetics .","qid":"113","docid":"Thermal_fluctuations","rank":66,"score":67903},{"content":"Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .","qid":"113","docid":"Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave","rank":67,"score":67892},{"content":"Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .","qid":"113","docid":"Bjørn_Lomborg","rank":68,"score":67756},{"content":"Title: Blizzard Warning Content: A Blizzard Warning ( SAME code : BZW ) is an advisory issued by the National Weather Service of the United States which means sustained winds or frequent gusts of 35 mph / 15 m/s or greater with heavy snow is forecast for a period of 3 hours or more . A blizzard tends to reduce visibilities to 1/4 of a mile ( 400 m ) or less . A Severe Blizzard Warning is a variation issued in some cases of winds above 45 mph / 20 m/s and temperatures below 10 ° F / -12 ° C. Most local weather offices will activate and broadcast the SAME alarm tone on relevant NOAA Weather Radio stations for both varieties of warning . In Canada , comparable warnings are issued by Environment Canada . These are the main two types of Canadian blizzard warnings as of 2010 : National Warning below tree line - when winds are 40 kilometres/hr or greater with widespread reductions in visibility to 400 metres ( 1/4 mile ) or less from blowing snow or blowing snow with falling snow for at least 4 hours . Northern ( Arctic ) Warning above tree line - same as National Warning but must last for at least 6 hours . The same warnings are issued by Weatheradio Canada and re-issued by media outlets like The Weather Network .","qid":"113","docid":"Blizzard_Warning","rank":69,"score":67741},{"content":"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Content: The Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model was run four times a day and produced weather forecasts . The NOGAPS was replaced by the NAVGEM in February 2013 .","qid":"113","docid":"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System","rank":70,"score":67708},{"content":"Title: Thermal velocity Content: The thermal velocity or thermal speed is a typical velocity of the thermal motion of particles which make up a gas , liquid , etc. . Thus , indirectly , thermal velocity is a measure of temperature . Technically speaking it is a measure of the width of the peak in the Maxwell -- Boltzmann particle velocity distribution . Note that in the strictest sense thermal velocity is not a velocity , since velocity usually describes a vector rather than simply a scalar speed . Since the thermal velocity is only a `` typical '' velocity , a number of different definitions can be and are used . Taking to be the Boltzmann constant , is the temperature , and is the mass of a particle , then we can write the different thermal velocities :","qid":"113","docid":"Thermal_velocity","rank":71,"score":67703},{"content":"Title: Total air temperature Content: In aviation , stagnation temperature is known as total air temperature and is measured by a temperature probe mounted on the surface of the aircraft . The probe is designed to bring the air to rest relative to the aircraft . As the air is brought to rest , kinetic energy is converted to internal energy . The air is compressed and experiences an adiabatic increase in temperature . Therefore total air temperature is higher than the static ( or ambient ) air temperature . Total air temperature is an essential input to an air data computer in order to enable computation of static air temperature and hence true airspeed . The relationship between static and total air temperatures is given by : where : static air temperature , SAT ( kelvins or degrees Rankine ) total air temperature , TAT ( kelvins or degrees Rankine ) Mach number ratio of specific heats , approx 1.400 for dry air In practice , the total air temperature probe will not perfectly recover the energy of the airflow , and the temperature rise may not be entirely due to adiabatic process . In this case , an empirical recovery factor ( less than 1 ) may be introduced to compensate : ( 1 ) : Where : e = recovery factor ( also noted Ct ) Typical recovery factors Platinum wire ratiometer thermometer ( `` flush bulb type '' ) : e ≈ 0.75 - 0.9 Double platinum tube ratiometer thermometer ( `` TAT probe '' ) : e ≈ 1 Other notations Total air temperature ( TAT ) is also called : indicated air temperature ( IAT ) or ram air temperature ( RAT ) Static air temperature ( SAT ) is also called : outside air temperature ( OAT ) or true air temperature","qid":"113","docid":"Total_air_temperature","rank":72,"score":67673},{"content":"Title: Cooling flow Content: A cooling flow occurs according to the theory that the intracluster medium ( ICM ) in the centres of galaxy clusters should be rapidly cooling at the rate of tens to thousands of solar masses per year . This should happen as the ICM ( a plasma ) is quickly losing its energy by the emission of X-rays . The X-ray brightness of the ICM is proportional to the square of its density , which rises steeply towards the centres of many clusters . Also the temperature falls to typically a third or a half of the temperature in the outskirts of the cluster . The typical -LSB- predicted -RSB- timescale for the ICM to cool is relatively short , less than a billion years . As material in the centre of the cluster cools out , the pressure of the overlying ICM should cause more material to flow inwards ( the cooling flow ) . In a steady state , the rate of mass deposition , i.e. the rate at which the plasma cools , is given by where L is the bolometric ( i.e. over the entire spectrum ) luminosity of the cooling region , T is its temperature , k is the Boltzmann constant and μm is the mean molecular mass .","qid":"113","docid":"Cooling_flow","rank":73,"score":67655},{"content":"Title: Overheating (electricity) Content: Overheating is a phenomenon of rising of temperature in an electric circuit ( or portion of a circuit ) . Overheating causes potential damage to the circuit components , and can cause fire , explosion , or injury . Damage caused by overheating are commonly irreversible ; i.e. the only way to repair is to replace some components .","qid":"113","docid":"Overheating_(electricity)","rank":74,"score":67636},{"content":"Title: Hugh Pelham Content: Sir Hugh Reginald Brentnall Pelham ( born 1954 ) FRS FMedSci is a cell biologist who has contributed to our understanding of the body 's response to rises in temperature through the synthesis of heat shock proteins . He has been the Director of the Medical Research Council ( MRC ) Laboratory of Molecular Biology ( LMB ) at the University of Cambridge since 2006 .","qid":"113","docid":"Hugh_Pelham","rank":75,"score":67615},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .","qid":"113","docid":"Climate_change_in_Texas","rank":76,"score":67559},{"content":"Title: Rapid Refresh Content: The Rapid Refresh ( RR or RAP ) is a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model . The model is designed to provide short-range hourly weather forecasts for North America . The Rapid Refresh was officially made operational on May 1 , 2012 , replacing the Rapid Update Cycle ( RUC ) . The Rapid Refresh is run at the NOAA National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) . It is based on the framework of the Weather Research and Forecasting model ( WRF ) ; the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) provides the boundary parameters . The grid points are spaced every 13 km , with 50 vertical intervals extending up to the 10-hectopascal ( 10 mb ) level of the atmosphere . The model runs once each hour , with forecasts given hourly out to 18 hours . An experimental version of the Rapid Refresh runs at the Earth System Research Laboratory ( ESRL ) , a NOAA unit that develops models in the research stage prior to operational implementation . This version uses more modern model framework and also has a higher-resolution mode , the High Resolution Rapid Refresh ( HRRR ) , that uses a 3 km grid spacing and gives forecasts in 15-minute intervals ( though still only issued once an hour ) .","qid":"113","docid":"Rapid_Refresh","rank":77,"score":67551},{"content":"Title: Silicon bandgap temperature sensor Content: The silicon bandgap temperature sensor is an extremely common form of temperature sensor ( thermometer ) used in electronic equipment . Its main advantage is that it can be included in a silicon integrated circuit at very low cost . The principle of the sensor is that the forward voltage of a silicon diode , which may be the base-emitter junction of a bipolar junction transistor ( BJT ) , is temperature-dependent , according to the following equation : where T = temperature in kelvins , T0 = reference temperature , VG0 = bandgap voltage at absolute zero , VBE0 = junction voltage at temperature T0 and current IC0 , K = Boltzmann 's constant , q = charge on an electron , n = a device-dependent constant . By comparing the voltages of two junctions at the same temperature , but at two different currents , IC1 and IC2 , many of the variables in the above equation can be eliminated , resulting in the relationship : Note that the junction voltage is a function of current density , i.e. current/junction area , and a similar output voltage can be obtained by operating the two junctions at the same current , if one is of a different area to the other . A circuit that forces IC1 and IC2 to have a fixed N :1 ratio , gives the relationship : An electronic circuit , such as the Brokaw bandgap reference , that measures ΔVBE can therefore be used to calculate the temperature of the diode . The result remains valid up to about 200 ° C to 250 ° C , when leakage currents become large enough to corrupt the measurement . Above these temperatures , materials such as silicon carbide can be used instead of silicon . The voltage difference between two p-n junctions ( e.g. diodes ) , operated at different current densities , is proportional to absolute temperature ( PTAT ) . PTAT circuits using either BJT or CMOS transistors are widely used in temperature sensors ( where we want the output to vary with temperature ) , and also in bandgap voltage references and other temperature-compensating circuits ( where we want the same output at every temperature ) . If high precision is not required it is enough to bias a diode with any constant low current and use its − 2 mV / ˚C thermal coefficient for temperature calculation , however this requires calibration for each diode type . This method is common in monolithic temperature sensors . -LSB- citation required -RSB-","qid":"113","docid":"Silicon_bandgap_temperature_sensor","rank":78,"score":66959},{"content":"Title: Mean radiant temperature Content: __ NOTOC __ The mean radiant temperature ( MRT ) is defined as the uniform temperature of an imaginary enclosure in which the radiant heat transfer from the human body is equal to the radiant heat transfer in the actual non-uniform enclosure . MRT is a concept arising from the fact that the net exchange of radiant energy between two objects is approximately proportional to their temperature difference multiplied by their ability to emit and absorb heat ( emissivity ) . It is simply the area weighted mean temperature of all the objects surrounding the body . This is valid as long as the absolute temperatures of objects in question are large compared to the temperature differences , allowing linearization of the Stefan-Boltzmann Law in the relevant temperature range . MRT also has a strong influence on thermophysiological comfort indexes such as physiological equivalent temperature ( PET ) or predicted mean vote ( PMV ) . What we experience and feel relating to thermal comfort in a building is related to the influence of both the air temperature and the temperature of surfaces in that space . The mean radiant temperature is expressed as this surface temperature and is controlled by enclosure performances . Maintaining a balance between the operative temperature and the mean radiant temperature can create a more comfortable space . This is done with effective design of the building , interior and with the use of high temperature radiant cooling and low temperature radiant heating .","qid":"113","docid":"Mean_radiant_temperature","rank":79,"score":66919},{"content":"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model Content: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by Fleet Numerical . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) it is one of several synoptic scale medium-range models in general use .","qid":"113","docid":"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System_Model","rank":80,"score":66651},{"content":"Title: Heat generation in integrated circuits Content: The heat dissipation in integrated circuits problem has gained an increasing interest in recent years due to the miniaturization of semiconductor devices . The temperature increase becomes relevant for cases of relatively small-cross-sections wires , because such temperature increase may affect the normal behavior of semiconductor devices .","qid":"113","docid":"Heat_generation_in_integrated_circuits","rank":81,"score":66581},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"113","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":82,"score":66534},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .","qid":"113","docid":"Climate_change_in_Argentina","rank":83,"score":66498},{"content":"Title: RAD750 Content: The RAD750 is a radiation-hardened single board computer manufactured by BAE Systems Electronics , Intelligence & Support . The successor of the RAD6000 , the RAD750 is for use in high radiation environments experienced on board satellites and spacecraft . The RAD750 was released in 2001 , with the first units launched into space in 2005 . The CPU has 10.4 million transistors , nearly an order of magnitude more than the RAD6000 ( which had 1.1 million ) . It is manufactured using either 250 or 150 nm photolithography and has a die area of 130 mm2 . It has a core clock of 110 to 200 MHz and can process at 266 MIPS or more . The CPU can include an extended L2 cache to improve performance . The CPU itself can withstand 200,000 to 1,000,000 rads ( 2,000 to 10,000 gray ) , temperature ranges between -- 55 ° C and 125 ° C and requires 5 watts of power . The standard RAD750 single-board system ( CPU and motherboard ) can withstand 100,000 rads ( 1,000 gray ) , temperature ranges between -- 55 ° C and 70 ° C and requires 10 watts of power . The RAD750 system has a price that is comparable to the RAD6000 which is US$ 200,000 per board ( per 2002 reference ) . However customer program requirements and quantities will greatly affect the final unit costs . The RAD750 is based on the PowerPC 750 . Its packaging and logic functions are completely compatible with the PowerPC 7xx family . The term RAD750 is a registered trademark of BAE Systems Information and Electronic Systems Integration Inc. .","qid":"113","docid":"RAD750","rank":84,"score":66485},{"content":"Title: Infrared thermometer Content: An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted by the object being measured . They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer , or non-contact thermometers or temperature guns , to describe the device 's ability to measure temperature from a distance . By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity , the object 's temperature can often be determined . Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices known as `` thermal radiation thermometers '' . Sometimes , especially near ambient temperatures , readings may be subject to error due to the reflection of radiation from a hotter body -- even the person holding the instrument -- rather than radiated by the object being measured , and to an incorrect assumed emissivity . The design essentially consists of a lens to focus the infrared thermal radiation on to a detector , which converts the radiant power to an electrical signal that can be displayed in units of temperature after being compensated for ambient temperature . This permits temperature measurement from a distance without contact with the object to be measured . A non-contact infrared thermometer is useful for measuring temperature under circumstances where thermocouples or other probe-type sensors can not be used or do not produce accurate data for a variety of reasons .","qid":"113","docid":"Infrared_thermometer","rank":85,"score":66483},{"content":"Title: Frog thermometer Content: The frog thermometer or - as the Cimento academicians defined it , the botticino -LSB- small-toad -RSB- thermometer - contained small glass spheres of different density , which were immersed in alcohol . The device was used as a clinical thermometer , tied to the wrist or the arm of the patient with the head of the frog facing upward . The variations in body temperature were registered by the movement of the spheres . The rise in temperature causes an increase in the volume of the alcohol , reflected in the movement of the small spheres ( first the less dense , then the more dense ) . Because of the spheres ' sluggish motion , this thermometer was also called infingardo -LSB- slothful , slow -RSB- . The invention of this model is attributed to Ferdinand II de ' Medici .","qid":"113","docid":"Frog_thermometer","rank":86,"score":66437},{"content":"Title: United States temperature extremes Content: For the United States , the extremes are 134 F in Death Valley , California in 1913 and -79.8 F recorded in Prospect Creek , Alaska in 1971 . The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15 , 1972 in Loma , Montana , when the temperature rose from -54 to . The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds . For example , the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 F-change occurred in Spearfish , South Dakota , a rise from -4 to .","qid":"113","docid":"United_States_temperature_extremes","rank":87,"score":66369},{"content":"Title: Temperature (song) Content: `` Temperature '' is the third worldwide and the second American single from Jamaican DJ Sean Paul 's album The Trinity ( 2005 ) . The song was produced by Rohan `` Snowcone '' Fuller and received a positive reception from music critics . The song was released as the second U.S. single in the first quarter of 2006 and reached number one in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 and became Paul 's third number one hit single . It reached the top ten in Canada and France and the top twenty in the United Kingdom , peaking at # 11 there . In Australia , `` Temperature '' debuted at number nineteen but quickly found its way to number five the following weeks . `` Temperature '' won Dance Song Of The Year at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards in 2007 . `` Temperature '' became Sean Paul 's biggest hit single in the US . In Australia it became a hit , with Sean Paul making interview appearances on radio , including on the Paul Celoni Radio Show . Even though it only spent one week at # 1 , `` Temperature '' showed extreme longevity on the Billboard Hot 100 , spending 17 weeks in the top 10 . Until Nelly Furtado and Timbaland 's `` Promiscuous '' , this was the longest run in the top ten for a single in 2006 . It became Sean Paul 's first single to sell an excess of one million digital downloads , earning platinum certification . The song uses the dancehall riddim `` Applause '' . It was used in the games Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA 2 and Dance Central ( in the latter as DLC ) . It can also be heard in the 2007 film , Norbit . Officially , there are two versions of the song , which only differ in their rhythm . In 2008 , the media reported that Stacey Gayle of New York City experienced seizures as a result of hearing the song .","qid":"113","docid":"Temperature_(song)","rank":88,"score":66346},{"content":"Title: Community Radiative Transfer Model Content: Community Radiative Transfer Model ( CRTM ) is a fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave radiometers . Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties CRTM calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory inputs in terms of variable gases are water vapor and ozone . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used . CRTM contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules are used in inversion methods , including variational assimilation and satellite retrievals . One of several applications of CRTM are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .","qid":"113","docid":"Community_Radiative_Transfer_Model","rank":89,"score":66035},{"content":"Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .","qid":"113","docid":"Polar_High","rank":90,"score":65822},{"content":"Title: 1911 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The United Kingdom heatwave of 1911 was a particularly severe heat wave and associated drought . Records were set around the country for temperature in England , including the highest accepted temperature , at the time , of 36.7 C ( 98.6 F ) , only broken 79 years later in the 1990 heatwave , which reached 37.1 C ( 98.78 F ) . The highest ever accepted temperature is currently 38.5 C ( 101.3 F ) recorded on 10 August 2003 in Faversham , Kent . North America was also affected around about this time .","qid":"113","docid":"1911_United_Kingdom_heat_wave","rank":91,"score":65794},{"content":"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .","qid":"113","docid":"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska","rank":92,"score":65739},{"content":"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .","qid":"113","docid":"Climate_change_in_South_Korea","rank":93,"score":65688},{"content":"Title: Rise (perfume) Content: Rise ( also known as Beyoncé Rise ) is a perfume endorsed by Beyoncé and distributed through division Coty Beauty of manufacturer Coty , Inc. . She collaborated with perfumer Loc Dong from the company International Flavors & Fragrances ( IFF ) for creating the scent . It marks her third fragrance following the release of Heat ( 2010 ) and Pulse ( 2011 ) . Inspired by African-American author Maya Angelou and meant to showcase private sides of Beyoncé 's personal life , Rise was created as a woman 's fragrance . It was released in February 2014 to various stores ; a promotional poster and a commercial shot by English music video director Jake Nava were released the same month with the latter featuring Beyoncé surrounded by golden glitter . Upon their release , the perfume and the commercial were positively received by critics with Rise 's various scents and its feminist inspiration being particularly hailed . Rise features top notes of Italian bergamot orange , golden apricot and a basil sorbet middle notes of gold symphony orchid freesia blossom and jasminum sambac and base notes of autumn woods accord , cashmere musk and a vetiver extract .","qid":"113","docid":"Rise_(perfume)","rank":94,"score":65565},{"content":"Title: Chassis Air Guide Content: Chassis Air Guide or CAG in abbreviation , is Intel 's thermal system to PC chassis . The system includes an air duct for CPU , because in an environment of increasing thermal loads , the processor is generally the most demanding component in terms of system thermal design . It also describes optimal locations for intake and exhaust fans . Lower chassis temperature brings lower processor die temperature , while most computer enclosures typically provide an internal thermal environment of approximately 40-45 ° C at a 35 ° C room , Intel claims . CAG provides a system to lower processor 's thermal environment . The initial revision known as CAG 1.0 was released on May 2002 . The recent version known as CAG 1.1 was then released on September 2003 .","qid":"113","docid":"Chassis_Air_Guide","rank":95,"score":65482},{"content":"Title: Antenna noise temperature Content: In telecommunication , antenna noise temperature is the temperature of a hypothetical resistor at the input of an ideal noise-free receiver that would generate the same output noise power per unit bandwidth as that at the antenna output at a specified frequency . In other words , antenna noise temperature is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces in a given environment . This temperature is not the physical temperature of the antenna . Moreover , an antenna does not have an intrinsic `` antenna temperature '' associated with it ; rather the temperature depends on its gain pattern and the thermal environment that it is placed in . Antenna noise temperature has contributions from several sources : Galactic radiation Earth heating The sun Electrical devices The antenna itself Galactic noise is high below 1000 MHz . At around 150 MHz , it is approximately 1000K . At 2500 MHz , it has leveled off to around 10K . Earth has an accepted standard temperature of 290K . The level of the sun 's contribution depends on the solar flux . It is given by where is the solar flux , is the wavelength , and is the gain of the antenna in decibels . The antenna noise temperature depends on antenna coupling to all noise sources in its environment as well as on noise generated within the antenna . That is , in a directional antenna , the portion of the noise source that the antenna 's main and side lobes intersect contribute proportionally . For example , a satellite antenna may not receive noise contribution from the earth in its main lobe , but sidelobes will contribute a portion of the 290K earth noise to its overall noise temperature .","qid":"113","docid":"Antenna_noise_temperature","rank":96,"score":65325},{"content":"Title: Heat (American Me album) Content: Heat is the debut album by American hardcore punk band American Me . It was released on February 19 , 2008 through Rise Records . It 's the only album to feature Doug Funny on bass , Phillip Ralston on guitars and Scott Walker on drums .","qid":"113","docid":"Heat_(American_Me_album)","rank":97,"score":65276},{"content":"Title: Liquid crystal thermometer Content: A liquid crystal thermometer , temperature strip or plastic strip thermometer is a type of thermometer that contains heat-sensitive ( thermochromic ) liquid crystals in a plastic strip that change colour to indicate different temperatures . Liquid crystals possess the mechanical properties of a liquid , but have the optical properties of a single crystal . Temperature changes can affect the colour of a liquid crystal , which makes them useful for temperature measurement . The resolution of liquid crystal sensors is in the 0.1 ° C range . Disposable liquid crystal thermometers have been developed for home and medical use . For example if the thermometer is black and it is put onto someone 's forehead it will change colour depending on the temperature of the person . There are two stages in the liquid crystals : the hot nematic stage is the closest to the liquid phase where the molecules are freely moving around and only partly ordered . the cold smectic stage is closest to a solid phase where the molecules align themselves into tightly wound chiral matrixes . Liquid crystal thermometers portray temperatures as colors and can be used to follow temperature changes caused by heat flow . They can be used to observe that heat flows by conduction , convection , and radiation . In medical applications , liquid crystal thermometers may be used to read body temperature by placing against the forehead . These are safer than a mercury-in-glass thermometer , and may be advantageous in some patients , but do not always give an exact result , except the analytic liquid crystal thermometer which show the exact temperature between 35.5 to 40.5 Celsius . Liquid crystal thermometers are also commonly used in aquariums in homebrewing , and in mood rings . The Liquid crystal thermometer was invented by Bob Parker in California , one of many of the inventor 's thermochromic applications patented in the 1970s .","qid":"113","docid":"Liquid_crystal_thermometer","rank":98,"score":65199},{"content":"Title: Temperature-programmed reduction Content: Temperature-programmed reduction ( TPR ) is a technique for the characterization of solid materials and is often used in the field of heterogeneous catalysis to find the most efficient reduction conditions , an oxidized catalyst precursor is submitted to a programmed temperature rise while a reducing gas mixture is flowed over it . It was developed by John Ward Jenkins whilst developing heterogeneous catalysts for Shell Oil company , but was never patented .","qid":"113","docid":"Temperature-programmed_reduction","rank":99,"score":65190},{"content":"Title: Conjugate convective heat transfer Content: The contemporary conjugate heat transfer model was developed after computers came into wide use in order to substitute the empirical relation of proportionality of heat flux to temperature difference with heat transfer coefficient which was the only tool in theoretical heat convection since the times of Newton . This model , based on a strictly mathematically-stated problem , describes the heat transfer between a body and a fluid flowing over or inside it as a result of the interaction of two objects . The physical processes and solutions of the governing equations are considered separately for each object in two subdomains . Matching conditions for these solutions at the interface provide the distributions of temperature and heat flux along the body/flow interface , eliminating the need for a heat transfer coefficient . Moreover , it may be calculated using these data .","qid":"113","docid":"Conjugate_convective_heat_transfer","rank":100,"score":65056}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature's Rising Content: Temperature 's Rising is a compilation album released in 1995 by the Canadian rock band Loverboy . The album was the third compilation by the band , but this particular compilation aimed at the more rarely heard songs by the band , and the minor hits that the previous compilations did not cover .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature's_Rising\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 95510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature Rising (album) Content: Temperature Rising is the second English language album by Thai singer Tata Young . It was released in 2006 . The album consist of cover songs and original songs . The first single is `` El Nin-YO ! '' , from the lyrics of which the album 's title comes from . ( `` You got my temperature rising like El Nin-YO ! '' ) . Her second single is `` Zoom '' which was released in September . `` Come Rain Come Shine '' , the third single , was used in Star World 's station promo 's from December 2006 to mid-2007 . The promo includes footage of Tata Young singing `` Come Rain Come Shine '' as well as scenes from some of Star World 's television shows ( Everybody Loves Raymond , American Idol etc. . ) Track # 7 , `` Zoom '' , was covered by Ashley Tisdale on her 2007 debut album Headstrong , under the title as `` Do n't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) '' . Temperature Rising was last Tata Young album released on cassette tapes , but in very small numbers produced in a short time until September 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_Rising_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 92635\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 91198\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperatures Rising Content: Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from September 12 , 1972 to August 29 , 1974 . During its 46-episode run , it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups . The series was developed for the network by William Asher and Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems . Set in a fictional Washington , D.C. hospital , the series featured James Whitmore as a no-nonsense chief of staff , forced to deal with the outlandish antics of a young intern ( Cleavon Little ) and three nurses ( Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox ) . For the first season , 26 episodes were produced and broadcast . In the second season , Whitmore was replaced in the lead role by comedian Paul Lynde , and Asher was replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson . The series was re-titled The New Temperatures Rising Show , and featured a new supporting cast : Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner . Cleavon Little was the only returning member of the original cast . In this season , Lynde was presented as the penny-pinching chief of staff , with Bond as his nagging mother and owner of the hospital . The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus in January 1974 due to poor ratings . It returned in July in yet another incarnation . Asher returned as producer and restored the series to its original format -- albeit with Lynde continuing in the lead . Reverting to the original title of Temperatures Rising , Little remained in the show 's cast , accompanied by a new line-up of supporting players : Alice Ghostley , Barbara Rucker and , returning from the first season 's cast , Nancy Fox . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third version of the sitcom ran for seven episodes , after which it was cancelled permanently .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperatures_Rising\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 89746\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of Temperatures Rising episodes Content: Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired for two years on the ABC network , during which time it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups with a total of 46 episodes . The series was originally developed , produced , and occasionally directed by William Asher for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems and premiered on September 12 , 1972 , in the time slot of Tuesday nights at 8:00 PM . The regular cast consisted of Cleavon Little as Dr. Jerry Noland , Joan Van Ark as Nurse Annie Carlisle , Reva Rose as Nurse Mildred `` Millie '' MacInerny , Nancy Fox as Student Nurse Ellen Turner , and James Whitmore as Dr. Vincent Campanelli . The premise of the series featured Campanelli as the no-nonsense chief-of-staff of Capitol General , a ( fictional ) Washington , D.C. hospital , who is forced to deal with the outlandish antics of Noland and the three nurses , whom Campanelli refers to as `` the four horsemen of aggravation '' . During its first season -- and first format -- 26 episodes were aired with the final one broadcast on . Reruns of the season 's episodes continued until September 4 , 1973 . Despite heavy competition in the ratings from Maude on CBS and Bonanza on NBC , Temperatures Rising did well enough in its first season to be renewed for a second . For this second season , John Mitchell , the head of Screen Gems , decided to replace James Whitmore with comedian Paul Lynde , whose own sitcom , The Paul Lynde Show ( also produced by William Asher for the 1972 -- 73 season ) was to be cancelled . Asher was against the change and declined to continue with Temperatures Rising , resulting in him being replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson . Under them , Van Ark , Rose , and Fox were dropped from the cast along with Whitmore , thus retaining Little as the only returning member . The New Temperatures Rising Show , as the series was now retitled , began airing on , and starred Paul Lynde as Dr. Paul Mercy , Sudie Bond as his mother Martha Mercy , Barbara Cason as Miss Tillis , the head nurse , Jennifer Darling as Nurse `` Windy '' Winchester , Jeff Morrow as Dr. Lloyd Axton , John Dehner as Dr. Charles Cleveland Claver , and Cleavon Little as Dr. Jerry Noland , while Jerry Houser was featured in a recurring role as an intern named Haskell . In this season Mercy was presented as the penny-pinching chief-of-staff , with his nagging mother as the owner of the hospital . Little 's character was changed to the chief surgeon and `` the only sane member of this medical madhouse '' . The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus on . The ratings for the show were poor and , as a result , Mitchell asked Asher to return to the series as producer and restore it to its original format -- albeit with Paul Lynde continuing in the lead . For the third format of the series -- which reverted to the original title of Temperatures Rising -- Bond , Cason , Darling , Morrow , Dehner , and Houser were dropped from the cast while Lynde and Little continued on as , respectively , Dr. Mercy and Dr. Nolan . Added to the line-up were Alice Ghostley as Nurse Edwina Moffitt , sister of Dr. Mercy , and Barbara Rucker as Nurse Kelly , while Nancy Fox , from the first-season cast , returned as Nurse Ellen Turner . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third format of the sitcom ran for seven episodes from July 18 to , after which it was cancelled permanently . As of , , Temperatures Rising has not been released on DVD or Blu-ray Disc .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_Temperatures_Rising_episodes\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 89328\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature Rising Content: Temperature Rising may refer to : Temperature Rising ( album ) , a 2006 album by Tata Young Temperature 's Rising , an album by Loverboy `` Temperature 's Rising '' ( song ) , a 1995 song by Mobb Deep from The Infamous Temperatures Rising , an American television situation comedy\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_Rising\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 87420\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of temperature sensors Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_temperature_sensors\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 86605\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat detector Content: A heat detector is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the convected thermal energy of a fire increases the temperature of a heat sensitive element . The thermal mass and conductivity of the element regulate the rate flow of heat into the element . All heat detectors have this thermal lag . Heat detectors have two main classifications of operation , `` rate-of-rise '' and `` fixed temperature '' . The Heat detector is used to help in the reduction of damaged property . It is triggered when temperature increases .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_detector\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 86074\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature's Rising (song) Content: `` Temperature 's Rising '' is the third single from Mobb Deep 's 2nd album , The Infamous . The song is in the form of a letter to an associate that is hiding from the police , who went by the name Killa Black , he was also the older brother of Havoc . Killa Black , according to Prodigy in his 2011 autobiography `` My Infamous Life : The Autobiography of Mobb Deep 's Prodigy '' , murdered a man over Walkman speakers , & Havoc hid Killa Black 's gun in his basket of clothes . In the song , the narrator reveals that he is covering up evidence of his imprisoned friends ' criminal actions , and speaks of his paranoia , fearing that the police are closing in on him . It contains a sample of `` Where There Is Love '' by Patrice Rushen . A few years after the song was released , Killa Black committed suicide , in his mother 's bathroom , from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head after coming home for the murder that is mentioned in the song . After being released , Killa Black became a Muslim . The B-side is `` Give Up the Goods ( Just Step ) '' . There is a remix to the single , also produced by Q-Tip , that utilizes the same Patrice Rushen sample that is used on the album version . The original version of the song was produced by Mobb Deep .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature's_Rising_(song)\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 85881\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal simulations for integrated circuits Content: Miniaturizing components has always been a primary goal in the semiconductor industry because it cuts production cost and lets companies build smaller computers and other devices . Miniaturization , however , has increased dissipated power per unit area and made it a key limiting factor in integrated circuit performance . Temperature increase becomes relevant for relatively small-cross-sections wires , where it may affect normal semiconductor behavior . Besides , since the generation of heat is proportional to the frequency of operation for switching circuits , fast computers have larger heat generation than slow ones , an undesired effect for chips manufacturers . This article summaries physical concepts that describe the generation and conduction of heat in an integrated circuit , and presents numerical methods that model heat transfer from a macroscopic point of view .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_simulations_for_integrated_circuits\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 85729\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thaw (weather) Content: January thaw is a term applied to a thaw or rise in temperature in mid-winter found in mid-latitude North America . Sinusoidal estimates of expected temperatures , for northern locales , usually place the lowest temperatures around January 23 and the highest around July 24 , and provide fairly accurate estimates of temperature expectations . Actual average temperatures in North America usually significantly differ twice over the course of the year : Mid-autumn temperatures tend to be warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal model , creating the impression of extended summer warmth known as Indian summer . For five days around January 25 , temperatures are usually significantly warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal estimate , and also warmer than neighboring temperatures on both sides . During this `` thaw '' period , usually lasting for about a week , temperatures are generally about 6 ° C ( 10 ° F ) above normal . This varies from year to year , and temperatures fluctuate enough that such a rise in late-January temperature would be unremarkable ; what is remarkable ( and unexplained ) is the tendency for such rises to occur more commonly in late January than in mid-January or early February , which sinusoidal estimates have to be slightly warmer . In some regions ( such as northern Canada ) this phenomenon will not be manifest as a `` thaw '' in the technical sense , since temperatures will remain below freezing . The January thaw is believed to be a weather singularity . A possible physical mechanism for such phenomena was offered in the 1950s by E.G. Bowen : he suggested that some `` calendaricities '' ( as he called them ) might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory then received some support from several sources . However , Bowen 's ideas later fell out of favour with the development of atmospheric dynamic modelling techniques , although one of his rainfall peaks does seem to correspond with the date of the January thaw . Data analysis has not found statistically significant support for the supposed January thaw . The authors of this study state that `` the effects of sampling in finite climate records are wholly adequate to account for the existence of January thaw ` features ' in northeastern U.S. temperature data . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Thaw_(weather)\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 81951\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 80740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tm2 Content: TM2 , or Thermal Monitoring 2 , is a throttling control method used on LGA 775 versions of the Pentium 4 , Pentium D and Celeron processors and also on the Pentium M series of processors . TM2 reduces processor temperature by lowering the CPU clock multiplier , and thereby the processor core speed . In contrast , TM1 inserts an idle cycle into the CPU for thermal control without decreasing multipliers . TM1 and TM2 are associated with DTS/PECI -- Digital Temperature Sensor/Platform Environment Control Interface .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Tm2\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 80093\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 79454\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 79350\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"HD_73256_b\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 78688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mathematical Modeling of Mercury Thermometer Content: A mathematical model is use to study the behavior of a system as it evolves over time.Mathematical model basically takes the form of a set of assumptions related to operation of the system.These assumptions are expressed in form of mathematical or logical relationships between the entities of system . Let us consider an mercury thermometer which is located in a flowing stream of fluid for which temperature T0 varies with time.We have to calculate the response or the time variation of the thermometer reading T for a particular change in T0 . Following assumptions are made for the analysis : 1 . The resistance to heat transfer offered by glass and mercury is negligible.So all the resistance to heat transfer is present in the film surrounding the bulb . 2 . At any instant mercury assumes a uniform temperature throughout.And all the thermal capacity is in the mercury . The above 2 assumptions are known as lumping of parameters because all the resistance is `` lumped '' into one location and all the capacitance into another.Thus it is a lumped model of mercury thermometer . 3 . There is no expansion or contraction in the glass wall which contains mercury during the transient response . ( Hence mercury reading will not rise or fall due to change in volume of glass wall ) . 4 . Initially thermometer is assumed to be at steady state at t = 0 . Diagram : Energy balance : On applying the unsteady-state energy balance ( Input rate ) - ( output rate ) = ( Rate of accumulation ) We get , = ( 1 ) Ԏ + ( 2 ) where Ԏ = m = mass of mercury in bulb c = heat capacity of mercury A = surface area of bulb for heat transfer t = time h = film coefficient of heat transfer Ԏ = time constant of the system At steady state , ( 3 ) for t ≤ 0 Subtracting ( 3 ) from ( 2 ) we get Ԏ + ( 4 ) Let & where Y , X are known as deviation variables . Therefore equation ( 4 ) become Ԏ + ( 5 ) Taking Laplace transform on equation ( 5 ) , we get Ԏ ( 6 ) Ԏ ( 7 ) Ԏ = G ( s ) is the transfer function . X ( s ) = Transform of forcing function or input , in deviation form Y ( s ) = Transform of response or output , in deviation form . Transfer function is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the deviation in thermometer reading ( output ) to the Laplace transform of the deviation in the surrounding temperature ( input ) . We can find the response of the system or output by giving various types of inputs like step input , impulse input , sinusoidal input , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Mathematical_Modeling_of_Mercury_Thermometer\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 77846\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Apparent temperature Content: Apparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans , caused by the combined effects of air temperature , relative humidity and wind speed . The measures are most commonly applied to perceived outdoor temperatures , but also apply to indoors , especially to saunas or when homes or workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled or insulated to provide comfortable or healthy conditions . The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above 80 ° F ( 27 degrees C ) . In humid conditions , the air feels much hotter , because of the reduction in evaporation of perspiration . The wind chill factor measures the effect of wind speed on cooling of the human body below 50 ° F ( 10 degrees C ) . As airflow increases over the skin , more heat will be removed . Standard models and conditions are used . The wet-bulb globe temperature ( WBGT ) combines the effects of radiation , humidity , temperature and wind speed on the perception of temperature . It is not often used as the resulting figure is very location specific ( e.g. cloud cover and/or wind shielding ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Apparent_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 77598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fujitsu Celsius Content: The Fujitsu Celsius is a line of laptop and workstation computers manufactured by Fujitsu . The brand name has also been used for graphic accelerators . The computers are intended for applications such as computer-aided design , digital content creation , geographical information systems work , architecture , engineering , financial forecasting , flux balance analysis , scientific simulation , electronic design , and virtual reality . The laptops have Intel Core vPro , i5 , or i7 processors , while the workstations have one or two Intel Xeon processors for a total of up to 16 cores . The R920 is able to accept up to 512 GB of RAM . Fujitsu Celsius equipment was used to stitch together thousands of individual photographic images to create large-scale 360-degree panoramic images : an 80-gigapixel image of London was published in November 2010 , stating : `` using this excellent workstation allowed this record-breaking photo to be created a few weeks faster than would have been possible on any other available PC . '' The 320-gigapixel photomosaic of London published in February 2013 was prepared on a Celsius R920 in three months ' time .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Fujitsu_Celsius\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 76887\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat burst Content: In meteorology , a heat burst is a rare atmospheric phenomenon characterized by gusty winds and a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in dew point ( moisture ) . Heat bursts typically occur during night-time and are associated with decaying thunderstorms . Although this phenomenon is not fully understood , it is theorized that the event is caused when rain evaporates ( virga ) into a parcel of cold dry air high in the atmosphere making the air denser than its surroundings . The parcel descends rapidly , warming due to compression , overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface , similar to a downburst . Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above 38 ° C , sometimes rising by 20 F-change or more within only a few minutes . More extreme events have also been documented , where temperatures have been reported to exceed 120 ° F. However , such extreme events have never been officially verified . Heat bursts are also characterized by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong , even damaging , winds .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_burst\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 76398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Held-Hou Model Content: The Held-Hou Model is a model for the Hadley circulation of the atmosphere that would exist in the absence of atmospheric turbulence . The model was developed by Isaac Held and Arthur Hou in 1980 . The essence of the model is that air rising from the surface at the equator conserves its angular momentum as it moves poleward . This distribution of wind , in turn , determines the distribution of temperature , which determines the latitudinal extent of the circulation by requiring energy conservation . This stands in contrast to George Hadley 's original conception of the circulation , which he argued reached the poles . The Hadley circulation has a cooling effect at and near the equator and a warming effect at higher latitudes within the Hadley Cell . This energy transport can be converted into a mass transport , to determine the strength of the circulation , by normalizing by the appropriate vertical stability . The effects of moisture and seasons on the model have been studied . Earth 's atmosphere violates the underlying assumptions of the model : angular momentum is not conserved and the tropical atmosphere is not energetically closed . As such , the Held-Hou model is a conceptual model that does not make quantitatively accurate predictions of the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation to changes in atmospheric parameters .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Held-Hou_Model\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 76048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 75843\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SpeedFan Content: SpeedFan is a system monitor for Microsoft Windows that can read temperatures , voltages and fan speeds of computer components . It can change computer fan speeds depending on the temperature of various components . The program can display system variables as charts and as an indicator in the system tray . Fully configurable user events can be defined to execute specific actions based on system status .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"SpeedFan\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 75321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Recording thermometer Content: A recording thermometer is a type of thermometer that records temperature changes over a period of time . One end of the strip is attached to a long , light metal lever that holds a special pen . Tiny movement of the bimetallic strip causes much larger movement of the free end of the lever and the pen . The pen traces a rising and falling line on a strip of paper attached to a slowly turning drum . The drum usually makes one turn every seven or so days , so afterwards each strip of paper contains a complete and accurate record of temperature changes for a whole week . There are normally two types of metal on the bimetallic strip . Mostly one is steel and one is copper . Because these metals expand and contract at different rates.When one of these metals expand it curls tighter , when one contracts it uncurl slightly . When it curls or uncurls , the data is converted into electric signals , which record the temperature change . Category : Thermometers\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Recording_thermometer\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 75059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Urban thermal plume Content: An urban thermal plume describes rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earth 's atmosphere caused by urban areas being warmer than surrounding areas . Over the past thirty years there has been increasing interest in what have been called urban heat island ( UHI ) , but it is only since 2007 that thought has been given to the rising columns of warm air , or ` thermal plumes ' that they produce . We are all familiar with on-shore breezes at the seaside on a warm day , and off-shore breezes at night . These are caused by the land heating up faster on a sunny day and cooling faster after sunset , respectively . Our personal experience of on-shore breezes shows us that the thermals , or warm airs , that rise from the land and sea respectively have a sensible effect on the local microscale meteorology ; and perhaps at times on the mesometeorology . Urban thermal plumes have as powerful although less localized an effect . London is generally 3 to 9 Celsius hotter than the Home Counties . London 's meteorological aberrations were first studied by Luke Howard , FRS in the 1810s , but the notion that this large warm area would produce a significant urban thermal plume was not seriously proposed until very recently . Microscale thermal plumes , whose diameters may be measured in tens of metres , such as those produced by industrial chimney stacks , have been extensively investigated , but largely from the point of view of the plumes dispersal by local micrometeorology . Though their velocity is generally less , their very much greater magnitude ( diameter ) means that urban thermal plumes will have a more significant effect upon the mesometeorology and even continental macrometeorology .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Urban_thermal_plume\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 74825\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature in Canada Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_in_Canada\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 74578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Raijin-2 Content: Raijin-2 ( Rising-2 ) is a Japanese micro-satellite launched in 2014 . The satellite is built around a 10 cm diameter , 1m focal length Cassegrain telescope and features the following instruments : HPT - main telescope with 5m resolution at nadir , operating in visible and near-infrared bands BOL - bolometer array camera for cloud temperature measurement WFC - wide field-of-view CCD camera LSI-N and LSI-W - 2 CMOS medium field-of-view cameras for near-infrared imaging VLF-ANT , R - radio antenna to receive signatures of lighting events All instruments are powered by GaAs solar cells mounted on the spacecraft body , with estimated electrical power of 47.6 W . The spacecraft features an unusual central-pillar bus , inherited from the Sprite-Sat satellite . The attitude control is done by means of reaction wheels and magneto-torquers , and qualified for 0.1 degrees angular accuracy .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Raijin-2\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 74525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 74458\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal Content: A thermal column ( or thermal ) is a column of rising air in the lower altitudes of Earth 's atmosphere , a form of atmospheric updraft . Thermals are created by the uneven heating of Earth 's surface from solar radiation , and are an example of convection , specifically atmospheric convection . The Sun warms the ground , which in turn warms the air directly above it .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 74365\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 74219\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Insulation system Content: The electrical insulation system for wires used in generators , electric motors , transformers , and other wire-wound electrical components is divided into different classes by temperature and temperature rise . The electrical insulation system is sometimes referred to as insulation class or thermal classification . The different classes are defined by NEMA , Underwriters Laboratories ( UL ) , and IEC standards . The maximum hot-spot operating temperature is reached by adding the rated ambient temperature of the machine ( often 40 ° C ) , a temperature rise , and a 10 ° C hot-spot allowance . Electrical machines are usually designed with an average temperature below the rated hot-spot temperature to allow for acceptable life . Insulation does not suddenly fail if the hot-spot temperature is reached , but useful operating life declines rapidly ; a rule of thumb is a halving of life for every 10 ° C. Older editions of standards listed materials to be used for the various temperature classes . Modern editions of standards are proscriptive , only indicating that the insulation system must provide acceptable life at the specified temperature rise . In large machines , different systems may be used according to the predicted temperature rise of the machine ; for example , in large hydroelectric generators , stator windings may be Class B but the more difficult to cool rotor winding may be Class F.\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Insulation_system\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 74076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Excessive_heat_watch\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 73573\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal Credits Content: Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_Credits\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 73515\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature gradient Content: A temperature gradient is a physical quantity that describes in which direction and at what rate the temperature changes the most rapidly around a particular location . The temperature gradient is a dimensional quantity expressed in units of degrees ( on a particular temperature scale ) per unit length . The SI unit is kelvin per meter ( K/m ) . It can be also seen in the formula of dQ/dt i.e. the formula of rate of heat transfer per second . Temperature gradients in the atmosphere are important in the atmospheric sciences ( meteorology , climatology and related fields ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_gradient\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 73300\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature Content: A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold . It is measured by a thermometer . Several scales and units exist for measuring temperature , the most common being Celsius ( denoted ° C ; formerly called centigrade ) , Fahrenheit ( denoted ° F ) , and , especially in science , Kelvin ( denoted K ) . The coldest theoretical temperature is absolute zero , at which the thermal motion of atoms and molecules reaches its minimum -- classically , this would be a state of motionlessness , but quantum uncertainty dictates that the particles still possess a finite zero-point energy . Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale , − 273.15 ° C on the Celsius scale , and − 459.67 ° F on the Fahrenheit scale . The kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies , especially of fluids . It indicates the absolute temperature as proportional to the average kinetic energy of the random microscopic motions of those of their constituent microscopic particles , such as electrons , atoms , and molecules , that move freely within the material . Temperature is important in all fields of natural science including physics , geology , chemistry , atmospheric sciences , medicine and biology as well as most aspects of daily life .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 73046\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermally Advantaged Chassis Content: A Thermally Advantaged Chassis ( TAC ) is a computer enclosure that complies with the Thermally Advantaged Chassis specifications created by Intel . It is capable of maintaining an internal ambient temperature below 38 degrees Celsius when functioning with Intel 's Pentium 4 and Celeron D processors based on 90 nm process technology , and an ambient temperature below 39 degrees Celsius when using a Pentium D processor . Intel maintains that using a thermally advantaged chassis is the absolute minimum requirement for using Pentium 4 ( Prescott ) , Pentium D , and Celeron D , processors .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermally_Advantaged_Chassis\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 72871\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Laser flash analysis Content: The laser flash analysis or laser flash method is used to measure thermal diffusivity of a variety of different materials . An energy pulse heats one side of a plane-parallel sample and the resulting time dependant temperature rise on the backside due to the energy input is detected . The higher the thermal diffusivity of the sample , the faster the energy reaches the backside . A state-of-the-art laser flash apparatus ( LFA ) to measure thermal diffusivity over a broad temperature range , is shown on the right hand side . In a one-dimensional , adiabatic case the thermal diffusivity is calculated from this temperature rise as follows : Where is the thermal diffusivity in cm ² / s is the thickness of the sample in cm is the time to the half maximum in s\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Laser_flash_analysis\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 71986\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermoscope Content: A thermoscope is a device that shows changes in temperature . A typical design is a tube in which a liquid rises and falls as the temperature changes . The modern thermometer gradually evolved from it with the addition of a scale in the early 17th century and standardisation through the 17th and 18th centuries .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermoscope\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 71968\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 71920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \\\"canaries in the coal mine,\\\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \\\"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\\\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_in_non-tropical_regions\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 71687\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 71444\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Debye model Content: In thermodynamics and solid state physics , the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contribution to the specific heat ( heat capacity ) in a solid . It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice ( heat ) as phonons in a box , in contrast to the Einstein model , which treats the solid as many individual , non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators . The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity , which is proportional to -- the Debye T3 law . Just like the Einstein model , it also recovers the Dulong -- Petit law at high temperatures . But due to simplifying assumptions , its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures . See M. Shubin and T. Sunada for a rigorous treatment of the Debye model .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Debye_model\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 71360\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Galileo thermometer Content: A Galileo thermometer ( or Galilean thermometer ) is a thermometer made of a sealed glass cylinder containing a clear liquid and several glass vessels of varying mass . As the temperature changes , the individual floats rise or fall in proportion to their respective weights and the density of the surrounding liquid . It is named after Galileo Galilei because he discovered the principle on which this thermometer is based -- that the density of a liquid changes in proportion to its temperature -- and he also invented a thermoscope based on this principle .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Galileo_thermometer\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 71122\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: RTTOV (radiative transfer code) Content: RTTOV - the fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave nadir scanning radiometers ( see push broom scanner ) . Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties RTTOV calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory input is water vapour . Optionally ozone , carbon dioxide , nitrous oxide , methane and carbon monoxide can be variable with all other constituents assumed to be constant . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used . The spectral range of the RTTOV9 .1 model is 3-20 micrometres ( 500 -- 3000 cm-1 ) in the infrared . RTTOV contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules for variational assimilation or retrieval applications . One of several applications of RTTOV are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"RTTOV_(radiative_transfer_code)\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 70740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rise over thermal Content: In wireless communication systems , the rise over thermal ( ROT ) indicates the ratio between the total interference received on a base station and the thermal noise . The ROT is a measurement of congestion of a cellular telephone network . The acceptable level of ROT is often used to define the capacity of systems using CDMA ( code division multiple access ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Rise_over_thermal\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 70582\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Duncan_Wingham\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 70329\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Computer cooling Content: Computer cooling is required to remove the waste heat produced by computer components , to keep components within permissible operating temperature limits . Components that are susceptible to temporary malfunction or permanent failure if overheated include integrated circuits such as CPUs , chipset , graphics cards , and hard disk drives . Components are often designed to generate as little heat as possible , and computers and operating systems may be designed to reduce power consumption and consequent heating according to workload , but more heat may still be produced than can be removed without attention to cooling . Use of heatsinks cooled by airflow reduces the temperature rise produced by a given amount of heat . Attention to patterns of airflow can prevent the development of hotspots . Computer fans are widely used along with heatsinks to reduce temperature by actively exhausting hot air . There are also more exotic cooling techniques , such as liquid cooling . All modern day processors are designed to cut out or reduce their voltage ( which translates to power usage ) and/or clock speed if the internal temperature of the processor exceeds a specified limit . Cooling may be designed to reduce the ambient temperature within the case of a computer e.g. by exhausting hot air , or to cool a single component or small area ( spot cooling ) . Components commonly individually cooled include the CPU , GPU and the northbridge .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Computer_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 70159\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Absolute hot Content: Absolute hot is a concept of temperature that postulates the existence of a highest attainable temperature of matter . The concept has been popularized by the television series Nova . In this presentation , absolute hot is assumed to be the high end of a temperature scale starting at absolute zero , which is the temperature at which entropy is minimal and classical thermal energy is zero . Contemporary models of physical cosmology postulate that the highest possible temperature is the Planck temperature , which has the value , or 142 quintillion kelvins ( 142 nonillion on the short scale ) . Above about , particle energies become so large that gravitational forces between them would become as strong as other fundamental forces according to current theories . There is no existing scientific theory for the behavior of matter at these energies . A quantum theory of gravity would be required . The models of the origin of the universe based on the Big Bang theory assume that the universe passed through this temperature about 10 − 42 seconds after the Big Bang as a result of enormous entropy expansion . Another theory of absolute hot is based on the Hagedorn temperature , where the thermal energies of the particles exceed the mass-energy of a hadron particle-antiparticle pair . Instead of temperature rising , at the Hagedorn temperature more and heavier particles are produced by pair production , thus preventing effective further heating , given that only hadrons are produced . However , further heating is possible ( with pressure ) if the matter undergoes a phase change into a quark -- gluon plasma . Therefore , this temperature is more akin to a boiling point rather than an insurmountable barrier . For hadrons , the Hagedorn temperature is 2 × 1012 K , which has been reached and exceeded in LHC and RHIC experiments . However , in string theory , a separate Hagedorn temperature can be defined , where strings similarly provide the extra degrees of freedom . However , it is so high ( 1030 K ) that no current or foreseeable experiment can reach it . Quantum physics formally assumes infinitely positive or negative temperatures in descriptions of spin system undergoing population inversion from the ground state to a higher energy state by excitation with electromagnetic radiation . The temperature function in these systems exhibits a singularity , meaning the temperature tends to positive infinity , before discontinuously switching to negative infinity . However , this applies only to specific degrees of freedom in the system , while others would have normal temperature dependency . If equipartitioning were possible , such formalisms ignore the fact that the spin system would be destroyed by the decomposition of ordinary matter before infinite temperature could be reached uniformly in the sample .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Absolute_hot\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 69720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 69720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brightness temperature Content: Brightness temperature is the temperature a black body in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings would have to be to duplicate the observed intensity of a grey body object at a frequency . This concept is extensively used in radio astronomy and planetary science . The brightness temperature is not a temperature as ordinarily understood . It characterizes radiation , and depending on the mechanism of radiation can differ considerably from the physical temperature of a radiating body ( though it is theoretically possible to construct a device which will heat up by a source of radiation with some brightness temperature to the actual temperature equal to brightness temperature ) . Nonthermal sources can have very high brightness temperatures . In pulsars the brightness temperature can reach 1026 K. For the radiation of a typical helium -- neon laser with a power of 60 mW and a coherence length of 20 cm , focused in a spot with a diameter of 10 µm , the brightness temperature will be nearly . For a black body , Planck 's law gives : where ( the Intensity or Brightness ) is the amount of energy emitted per unit surface area per unit time per unit solid angle and in the frequency range between and ; is the temperature of the black body ; is Planck 's constant ; is frequency ; is the speed of light ; and is Boltzmann 's constant . For a grey body the spectral radiance is a portion of the black body radiance , determined by the emissivity . That makes the reciprocal of the brightness temperature : At low frequency and high temperatures , when , we can use the Rayleigh -- Jeans law : so that the brightness temperature can be simply written as : In general , the brightness temperature is a function of , and only in the case of blackbody radiation it is the same at all frequencies . The brightness temperature can be used to calculate the spectral index of a body , in the case of non-thermal radiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Brightness_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 69685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Excessive_heat_warning\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 69309\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marconi Transistorised Automatic Computer (T.A.C.) Content: The Marconi Transistorized Automatic Computer was Marconi Company 's first computer , designed and manufactured from around 1959 . They employed Germanium transistors which by this time were sufficiently reliable with room temperatures kept below about 23 degrees C. Apart from transistor failure other common faults included Power Supply capacitors ` drying out ' resulting in excess ripple and poor connections on the computer input output highway . Paper tape peripherals had their own poor reliability influenced by degree of operator usage . The type S3301 was a 500 kHz clocked 20 bit word machine with two Mullard core memory stores providing 4k of 20 bit data , see Ref . 4 . The internal CPU logic was synchronised to even and odd clock signals and special signals generated via the microinstruction diode boards . The memory logic had slow and fast loops to speed the transfer of sequential data bursts . Its microinstructions were programmed on diode boards . A facility was provided to microstep through instructions to help with fault finding . Processor status bits were provided with machine instructions being decoded from 6 bits in the current address memory word . Double word data had the MSB designated a sign bit coded as binary fractions ( -1 to +1 ) for the square root , multiply and divide instructions . The instruction set had the usual functions based on three registers named A , B and D ( C was the current address in memory register , M ) . An additional instruction assisted with checksum calculation for data transferred to and from main data stores ( viz . Sperry Rand magnetic drums . ) . Applications included marking up radar screens with aircraft info and providing data processing for operators in a Nuclear Power Station . Surviving computers ( ex Power Station ) are on display at Bletchley Park National Museum of Computing ( operational ) and Jim Austin 's collection near the University of York . Addition manuals and documentation exist at the School of Computer Science , University of Manchester and the Manchester John Rylands Library , the original performance summary specification at . Marconi went on to develop the Myriad series of computers\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Marconi_Transistorised_Automatic_Computer_(T.A.C.)\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 69269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"MSU_temperature_measurements\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 69164\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_runaway\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 69002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Operating temperature Content: An operating temperature is the temperature at which an electrical or mechanical device operates . The device will operate effectively within a specified temperature range which varies based on the device function and application context , and ranges from the minimum operating temperature to the maximum operating temperature ( or peak operating temperature ) . Outside this range of safe operating temperatures the device may fail . Aerospace and military-grade devices generally operate over a broader temperature range than industrial devices ; commercial-grade devices generally have the narrowest operating temperature range . It is one component of reliability engineering . Similarly , biological systems have a viable temperature range , which might be referred to as an `` operating temperature '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Operating_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 68792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array Content: The Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array ( RAPID/MOCHA ) program is a collaborative research project between the National Oceanography Centre ( Southampton , U.K. ) , the University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( RSMAS ) , and NOAA 's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ( AOML ) that measure the meridional overturning circulation ( MOC ) and ocean heat transport in the North Atlantic Ocean . This array was deployed in March 2004 to continuously monitor the MOC and ocean heat transport that are primarily associated with the Thermohaline Circulation across the basin at 26 ° N . The RAPID-MOCHA array is planned to be continued through 2014 to provide a decade or longer continuous time series . The continuous observations are measured by an array of instruments along 26 ° N . This monitoring array directly measures the transport of the Gulf Stream in the Florida Strait using an undersea cable and a moored array measures bottom pressure and water column density ( including temperature and salinity ) at the western and eastern boundary and on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( MAR ) . Absolute transports including barotropic circulation are monitored using precision bottom pressure gauges . `` Dynamic height '' moorings are used to estimate the spatially average geostropic velocity profile and associated transports over relatively wide mooring separations . The dynamic height moorings requires measurements on both sides of the current field only , rather both the horizontal and vertical structure of the current field to be sufficiently well resolved to estimate transports . The basin-wide MOC strength and vertical structure are estimated via Ekman transports by satellite scatterometer measurements and the geotrophic and direct current observations . RAPID-MOCHA is funded by the National Environmental Research Council ( NERC ) and the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Rapid_Climate_Change-Meridional_Overturning_Circulation_and_Heatflux_Array\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 68596\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Quartz thermometer Content: The quartz thermometer is a high-precision , high accuracy temperature sensor . It measures temperature by measuring the frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator . The oscillator contains a specially cut crystal that results in a linear temperature coefficient of frequency , so the measurement of the temperature is essentially reduced to measurement of the oscillator frequency . Resolutions of .0001 ° C , and accuracy of .02 ° C from 0-100 ° C are achievable . The high linearity makes it possible to achieve high accuracy over an important temperature range that contains only one convenient temperature reference point for calibration , the triple point of water . Introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1965 , the successor company , Agilent , has discontinued the Model 2804A Quartz Thermometer . Other manufacturers make nearly linear-in-temperature quartz crystals that may be used to construct thermometers of similar performance .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Quartz_thermometer\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 68538\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 68491\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Mesopause\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 68405\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Fisheries_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 68362\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric thermometer Content: A atmospheric thermometer is a device that measures the temperature of the indoor or outdoor atmosphere . The most common type consists of a long tube that contains mercury or colored alcohol at the base , although there are also other kinds , such as spring and digital thermometers . When the atmospheric temperature rises , it causes the material inside the air thermometer to expand . Conversely , when the air gets colder , the material contracts and travels back down.Thermometers use temperature scales either Fahrenheit , Celsius , Kelvin , to provide a measure of heat in degrees . Category : Thermometers\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_thermometer\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 68220\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 68151\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rapid thermal processing Content: Rapid Thermal Processing ( RTP ) refers to a semiconductor manufacturing process which heats silicon wafers to high temperatures ( over 1,000 ° C ) on a timescale of several seconds or less . During cooling , however , wafer temperatures must be brought down slowly to prevent dislocations and wafer breakage due to thermal shock . Such rapid heating rates are often attained by high intensity lamps or lasers . These processes are used for a wide variety of applications in semiconductor manufacturing including dopant activation , thermal oxidation , metal reflow and chemical vapor deposition .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Rapid_thermal_processing\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 68147\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature jump Content: The temperature jump method is a technique used in chemical kinetics for the measurement of very rapid reaction rates . It is one of a class of chemical relaxation methods pioneered by the German physical chemist Manfred Eigen in the 1950s . In these methods , a reacting system initially at equilibrium is perturbed rapidly and then observed as it relaxes back to equilibrium . In the case of temperature jump , the perturbation involves rapid heating which changes the value of the equilibrium constant , followed by relaxation to equilibrium at the new temperature . The heating usually involves discharging of a capacitor ( in the kV range ) through a small volume ( < 1 mL ) of a conducting solution containing the molecule/reaction to be studied . In some versions of the apparatus used , the solution is heated instead by the output of a pulsed laser which emits in the near infra-red . When laser heating is employed , the solution need not be conducting . In both cases , the temperature of the solution is caused to rise by a small amount in microseconds ( or less in the case of laser heating ) . This allows the study of the shift in equilibrium of reactions that equilibrate in milliseconds ( or microseconds with laser temperature jump ) , these changes most commonly being observed using absorption spectroscopy or fluorescence spectroscopy . Due to the small volumes involved the temperature of the solution returns to that of its surroundings in minutes . The fractional extent of the reaction ( i.e. the percentage change in concentration of a measurable species ) depends on the molar enthalpy change ( ΔH ° ) between the reactants and products and the equilibrium position . If K is the equilibrium constant and dT is the change in temperature then the enthalpy change is given by the Van ' t Hoff equation : where R is the universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature . When a single step in a reaction is perturbed in a temperature jump experiment , the reaction follows a single exponential decay function with time constant equal to a function of the forward ( ka ) and reverse ( kb ) rate constants . For the perturbation of a simple equilibrium A < = > B which is first order in both directions , the reciprocal of the time constant equals the sum of the two rate constants The two rate constants can be determined from the values of and the equilibrium constant : , yielding two equations for two unknowns . In more complex reaction networks , when multiple reaction steps are perturbed , then the reciprocal time constants are given by the eigenvalues of the characteristic rate equations . The ability to observe intermediate steps in a reaction pathway is one of the attractive features of this technology . Related chemical relaxation methods include pressure jump , electric field jump and pH jump .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_jump\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 68003\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_low\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 67989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal fluctuations Content: In statistical mechanics , thermal fluctuations are random deviations of a system from its average state , that occur in a system at equilibrium . All thermal fluctuations become larger and more frequent as the temperature increases , and likewise they decrease as temperature approaches absolute zero . Thermal fluctuations are a basic manifestation of the temperature of systems : A system at nonzero temperature does not stay in its equilibrium microscopic state , but instead randomly samples all possible states , with probabilities given by the Boltzmann distribution . Thermal fluctuations generally affect all the degrees of freedom of a system : There can be random vibrations ( phonons ) , random rotations ( rotons ) , random electronic excitations , and so forth . Thermodynamic variables , such as pressure , temperature , or entropy , likewise undergo thermal fluctuations . For example , for a system that has an equilibrium pressure , the system pressure fluctuates to some extent about the equilibrium value . Only the ` control variables ' of statistical ensembles ( such as N , V and E in the microcanonical ensemble ) do not fluctuate . Thermal fluctuations are a source of noise in many systems . The random forces that give rise to thermal fluctuations are a source of both diffusion and dissipation ( including damping and viscosity ) . The competing effects of random drift and resistance to drift are related by the fluctuation-dissipation theorem . Thermal fluctuations play a major role in phase transitions and chemical kinetics .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_fluctuations\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 67903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 67892\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Bjørn_Lomborg\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 67756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blizzard Warning Content: A Blizzard Warning ( SAME code : BZW ) is an advisory issued by the National Weather Service of the United States which means sustained winds or frequent gusts of 35 mph / 15 m/s or greater with heavy snow is forecast for a period of 3 hours or more . A blizzard tends to reduce visibilities to 1/4 of a mile ( 400 m ) or less . A Severe Blizzard Warning is a variation issued in some cases of winds above 45 mph / 20 m/s and temperatures below 10 ° F / -12 ° C. Most local weather offices will activate and broadcast the SAME alarm tone on relevant NOAA Weather Radio stations for both varieties of warning . In Canada , comparable warnings are issued by Environment Canada . These are the main two types of Canadian blizzard warnings as of 2010 : National Warning below tree line - when winds are 40 kilometres/hr or greater with widespread reductions in visibility to 400 metres ( 1/4 mile ) or less from blowing snow or blowing snow with falling snow for at least 4 hours . Northern ( Arctic ) Warning above tree line - same as National Warning but must last for at least 6 hours . The same warnings are issued by Weatheradio Canada and re-issued by media outlets like The Weather Network .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Blizzard_Warning\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 67741\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Content: The Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model was run four times a day and produced weather forecasts . The NOGAPS was replaced by the NAVGEM in February 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 67708\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal velocity Content: The thermal velocity or thermal speed is a typical velocity of the thermal motion of particles which make up a gas , liquid , etc. . Thus , indirectly , thermal velocity is a measure of temperature . Technically speaking it is a measure of the width of the peak in the Maxwell -- Boltzmann particle velocity distribution . Note that in the strictest sense thermal velocity is not a velocity , since velocity usually describes a vector rather than simply a scalar speed . Since the thermal velocity is only a `` typical '' velocity , a number of different definitions can be and are used . Taking to be the Boltzmann constant , is the temperature , and is the mass of a particle , then we can write the different thermal velocities :\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_velocity\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 67703\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Total air temperature Content: In aviation , stagnation temperature is known as total air temperature and is measured by a temperature probe mounted on the surface of the aircraft . The probe is designed to bring the air to rest relative to the aircraft . As the air is brought to rest , kinetic energy is converted to internal energy . The air is compressed and experiences an adiabatic increase in temperature . Therefore total air temperature is higher than the static ( or ambient ) air temperature . Total air temperature is an essential input to an air data computer in order to enable computation of static air temperature and hence true airspeed . The relationship between static and total air temperatures is given by : where : static air temperature , SAT ( kelvins or degrees Rankine ) total air temperature , TAT ( kelvins or degrees Rankine ) Mach number ratio of specific heats , approx 1.400 for dry air In practice , the total air temperature probe will not perfectly recover the energy of the airflow , and the temperature rise may not be entirely due to adiabatic process . In this case , an empirical recovery factor ( less than 1 ) may be introduced to compensate : ( 1 ) : Where : e = recovery factor ( also noted Ct ) Typical recovery factors Platinum wire ratiometer thermometer ( `` flush bulb type '' ) : e ≈ 0.75 - 0.9 Double platinum tube ratiometer thermometer ( `` TAT probe '' ) : e ≈ 1 Other notations Total air temperature ( TAT ) is also called : indicated air temperature ( IAT ) or ram air temperature ( RAT ) Static air temperature ( SAT ) is also called : outside air temperature ( OAT ) or true air temperature\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Total_air_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 67673\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling flow Content: A cooling flow occurs according to the theory that the intracluster medium ( ICM ) in the centres of galaxy clusters should be rapidly cooling at the rate of tens to thousands of solar masses per year . This should happen as the ICM ( a plasma ) is quickly losing its energy by the emission of X-rays . The X-ray brightness of the ICM is proportional to the square of its density , which rises steeply towards the centres of many clusters . Also the temperature falls to typically a third or a half of the temperature in the outskirts of the cluster . The typical -LSB- predicted -RSB- timescale for the ICM to cool is relatively short , less than a billion years . As material in the centre of the cluster cools out , the pressure of the overlying ICM should cause more material to flow inwards ( the cooling flow ) . In a steady state , the rate of mass deposition , i.e. the rate at which the plasma cools , is given by where L is the bolometric ( i.e. over the entire spectrum ) luminosity of the cooling region , T is its temperature , k is the Boltzmann constant and μm is the mean molecular mass .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling_flow\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 67655\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Overheating (electricity) Content: Overheating is a phenomenon of rising of temperature in an electric circuit ( or portion of a circuit ) . Overheating causes potential damage to the circuit components , and can cause fire , explosion , or injury . Damage caused by overheating are commonly irreversible ; i.e. the only way to repair is to replace some components .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Overheating_(electricity)\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 67636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hugh Pelham Content: Sir Hugh Reginald Brentnall Pelham ( born 1954 ) FRS FMedSci is a cell biologist who has contributed to our understanding of the body 's response to rises in temperature through the synthesis of heat shock proteins . He has been the Director of the Medical Research Council ( MRC ) Laboratory of Molecular Biology ( LMB ) at the University of Cambridge since 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Hugh_Pelham\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 67615\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Texas\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 67559\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rapid Refresh Content: The Rapid Refresh ( RR or RAP ) is a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model . The model is designed to provide short-range hourly weather forecasts for North America . The Rapid Refresh was officially made operational on May 1 , 2012 , replacing the Rapid Update Cycle ( RUC ) . The Rapid Refresh is run at the NOAA National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) . It is based on the framework of the Weather Research and Forecasting model ( WRF ) ; the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) provides the boundary parameters . The grid points are spaced every 13 km , with 50 vertical intervals extending up to the 10-hectopascal ( 10 mb ) level of the atmosphere . The model runs once each hour , with forecasts given hourly out to 18 hours . An experimental version of the Rapid Refresh runs at the Earth System Research Laboratory ( ESRL ) , a NOAA unit that develops models in the research stage prior to operational implementation . This version uses more modern model framework and also has a higher-resolution mode , the High Resolution Rapid Refresh ( HRRR ) , that uses a 3 km grid spacing and gives forecasts in 15-minute intervals ( though still only issued once an hour ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Rapid_Refresh\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 67551\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Silicon bandgap temperature sensor Content: The silicon bandgap temperature sensor is an extremely common form of temperature sensor ( thermometer ) used in electronic equipment . Its main advantage is that it can be included in a silicon integrated circuit at very low cost . The principle of the sensor is that the forward voltage of a silicon diode , which may be the base-emitter junction of a bipolar junction transistor ( BJT ) , is temperature-dependent , according to the following equation : where T = temperature in kelvins , T0 = reference temperature , VG0 = bandgap voltage at absolute zero , VBE0 = junction voltage at temperature T0 and current IC0 , K = Boltzmann 's constant , q = charge on an electron , n = a device-dependent constant . By comparing the voltages of two junctions at the same temperature , but at two different currents , IC1 and IC2 , many of the variables in the above equation can be eliminated , resulting in the relationship : Note that the junction voltage is a function of current density , i.e. current/junction area , and a similar output voltage can be obtained by operating the two junctions at the same current , if one is of a different area to the other . A circuit that forces IC1 and IC2 to have a fixed N :1 ratio , gives the relationship : An electronic circuit , such as the Brokaw bandgap reference , that measures ΔVBE can therefore be used to calculate the temperature of the diode . The result remains valid up to about 200 ° C to 250 ° C , when leakage currents become large enough to corrupt the measurement . Above these temperatures , materials such as silicon carbide can be used instead of silicon . The voltage difference between two p-n junctions ( e.g. diodes ) , operated at different current densities , is proportional to absolute temperature ( PTAT ) . PTAT circuits using either BJT or CMOS transistors are widely used in temperature sensors ( where we want the output to vary with temperature ) , and also in bandgap voltage references and other temperature-compensating circuits ( where we want the same output at every temperature ) . If high precision is not required it is enough to bias a diode with any constant low current and use its − 2 mV / ˚C thermal coefficient for temperature calculation , however this requires calibration for each diode type . This method is common in monolithic temperature sensors . -LSB- citation required -RSB-\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Silicon_bandgap_temperature_sensor\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 66959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mean radiant temperature Content: __ NOTOC __ The mean radiant temperature ( MRT ) is defined as the uniform temperature of an imaginary enclosure in which the radiant heat transfer from the human body is equal to the radiant heat transfer in the actual non-uniform enclosure . MRT is a concept arising from the fact that the net exchange of radiant energy between two objects is approximately proportional to their temperature difference multiplied by their ability to emit and absorb heat ( emissivity ) . It is simply the area weighted mean temperature of all the objects surrounding the body . This is valid as long as the absolute temperatures of objects in question are large compared to the temperature differences , allowing linearization of the Stefan-Boltzmann Law in the relevant temperature range . MRT also has a strong influence on thermophysiological comfort indexes such as physiological equivalent temperature ( PET ) or predicted mean vote ( PMV ) . What we experience and feel relating to thermal comfort in a building is related to the influence of both the air temperature and the temperature of surfaces in that space . The mean radiant temperature is expressed as this surface temperature and is controlled by enclosure performances . Maintaining a balance between the operative temperature and the mean radiant temperature can create a more comfortable space . This is done with effective design of the building , interior and with the use of high temperature radiant cooling and low temperature radiant heating .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Mean_radiant_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 66919\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model Content: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by Fleet Numerical . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) it is one of several synoptic scale medium-range models in general use .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System_Model\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 66651\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat generation in integrated circuits Content: The heat dissipation in integrated circuits problem has gained an increasing interest in recent years due to the miniaturization of semiconductor devices . The temperature increase becomes relevant for cases of relatively small-cross-sections wires , because such temperature increase may affect the normal behavior of semiconductor devices .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_generation_in_integrated_circuits\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 66581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 66534\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Argentina\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 66498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: RAD750 Content: The RAD750 is a radiation-hardened single board computer manufactured by BAE Systems Electronics , Intelligence & Support . The successor of the RAD6000 , the RAD750 is for use in high radiation environments experienced on board satellites and spacecraft . The RAD750 was released in 2001 , with the first units launched into space in 2005 . The CPU has 10.4 million transistors , nearly an order of magnitude more than the RAD6000 ( which had 1.1 million ) . It is manufactured using either 250 or 150 nm photolithography and has a die area of 130 mm2 . It has a core clock of 110 to 200 MHz and can process at 266 MIPS or more . The CPU can include an extended L2 cache to improve performance . The CPU itself can withstand 200,000 to 1,000,000 rads ( 2,000 to 10,000 gray ) , temperature ranges between -- 55 ° C and 125 ° C and requires 5 watts of power . The standard RAD750 single-board system ( CPU and motherboard ) can withstand 100,000 rads ( 1,000 gray ) , temperature ranges between -- 55 ° C and 70 ° C and requires 10 watts of power . The RAD750 system has a price that is comparable to the RAD6000 which is US$ 200,000 per board ( per 2002 reference ) . However customer program requirements and quantities will greatly affect the final unit costs . The RAD750 is based on the PowerPC 750 . Its packaging and logic functions are completely compatible with the PowerPC 7xx family . The term RAD750 is a registered trademark of BAE Systems Information and Electronic Systems Integration Inc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"RAD750\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 66485\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Infrared thermometer Content: An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted by the object being measured . They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer , or non-contact thermometers or temperature guns , to describe the device 's ability to measure temperature from a distance . By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity , the object 's temperature can often be determined . Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices known as `` thermal radiation thermometers '' . Sometimes , especially near ambient temperatures , readings may be subject to error due to the reflection of radiation from a hotter body -- even the person holding the instrument -- rather than radiated by the object being measured , and to an incorrect assumed emissivity . The design essentially consists of a lens to focus the infrared thermal radiation on to a detector , which converts the radiant power to an electrical signal that can be displayed in units of temperature after being compensated for ambient temperature . This permits temperature measurement from a distance without contact with the object to be measured . A non-contact infrared thermometer is useful for measuring temperature under circumstances where thermocouples or other probe-type sensors can not be used or do not produce accurate data for a variety of reasons .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Infrared_thermometer\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 66483\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Frog thermometer Content: The frog thermometer or - as the Cimento academicians defined it , the botticino -LSB- small-toad -RSB- thermometer - contained small glass spheres of different density , which were immersed in alcohol . The device was used as a clinical thermometer , tied to the wrist or the arm of the patient with the head of the frog facing upward . The variations in body temperature were registered by the movement of the spheres . The rise in temperature causes an increase in the volume of the alcohol , reflected in the movement of the small spheres ( first the less dense , then the more dense ) . Because of the spheres ' sluggish motion , this thermometer was also called infingardo -LSB- slothful , slow -RSB- . The invention of this model is attributed to Ferdinand II de ' Medici .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Frog_thermometer\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 66437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States temperature extremes Content: For the United States , the extremes are 134 F in Death Valley , California in 1913 and -79.8 F recorded in Prospect Creek , Alaska in 1971 . The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15 , 1972 in Loma , Montana , when the temperature rose from -54 to . The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds . For example , the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 F-change occurred in Spearfish , South Dakota , a rise from -4 to .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_temperature_extremes\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 66369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature (song) Content: `` Temperature '' is the third worldwide and the second American single from Jamaican DJ Sean Paul 's album The Trinity ( 2005 ) . The song was produced by Rohan `` Snowcone '' Fuller and received a positive reception from music critics . The song was released as the second U.S. single in the first quarter of 2006 and reached number one in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 and became Paul 's third number one hit single . It reached the top ten in Canada and France and the top twenty in the United Kingdom , peaking at # 11 there . In Australia , `` Temperature '' debuted at number nineteen but quickly found its way to number five the following weeks . `` Temperature '' won Dance Song Of The Year at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards in 2007 . `` Temperature '' became Sean Paul 's biggest hit single in the US . In Australia it became a hit , with Sean Paul making interview appearances on radio , including on the Paul Celoni Radio Show . Even though it only spent one week at # 1 , `` Temperature '' showed extreme longevity on the Billboard Hot 100 , spending 17 weeks in the top 10 . Until Nelly Furtado and Timbaland 's `` Promiscuous '' , this was the longest run in the top ten for a single in 2006 . It became Sean Paul 's first single to sell an excess of one million digital downloads , earning platinum certification . The song uses the dancehall riddim `` Applause '' . It was used in the games Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA 2 and Dance Central ( in the latter as DLC ) . It can also be heard in the 2007 film , Norbit . Officially , there are two versions of the song , which only differ in their rhythm . In 2008 , the media reported that Stacey Gayle of New York City experienced seizures as a result of hearing the song .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_(song)\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 66346\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Community Radiative Transfer Model Content: Community Radiative Transfer Model ( CRTM ) is a fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave radiometers . Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties CRTM calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory inputs in terms of variable gases are water vapor and ozone . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used . CRTM contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules are used in inversion methods , including variational assimilation and satellite retrievals . One of several applications of CRTM are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Community_Radiative_Transfer_Model\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 66035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_High\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 65822\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1911 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The United Kingdom heatwave of 1911 was a particularly severe heat wave and associated drought . Records were set around the country for temperature in England , including the highest accepted temperature , at the time , of 36.7 C ( 98.6 F ) , only broken 79 years later in the 1990 heatwave , which reached 37.1 C ( 98.78 F ) . The highest ever accepted temperature is currently 38.5 C ( 101.3 F ) recorded on 10 August 2003 in Faversham , Kent . North America was also affected around about this time .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"1911_United_Kingdom_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 65794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 65739\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 65688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rise (perfume) Content: Rise ( also known as Beyoncé Rise ) is a perfume endorsed by Beyoncé and distributed through division Coty Beauty of manufacturer Coty , Inc. . She collaborated with perfumer Loc Dong from the company International Flavors & Fragrances ( IFF ) for creating the scent . It marks her third fragrance following the release of Heat ( 2010 ) and Pulse ( 2011 ) . Inspired by African-American author Maya Angelou and meant to showcase private sides of Beyoncé 's personal life , Rise was created as a woman 's fragrance . It was released in February 2014 to various stores ; a promotional poster and a commercial shot by English music video director Jake Nava were released the same month with the latter featuring Beyoncé surrounded by golden glitter . Upon their release , the perfume and the commercial were positively received by critics with Rise 's various scents and its feminist inspiration being particularly hailed . Rise features top notes of Italian bergamot orange , golden apricot and a basil sorbet middle notes of gold symphony orchid freesia blossom and jasminum sambac and base notes of autumn woods accord , cashmere musk and a vetiver extract .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Rise_(perfume)\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 65565\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chassis Air Guide Content: Chassis Air Guide or CAG in abbreviation , is Intel 's thermal system to PC chassis . The system includes an air duct for CPU , because in an environment of increasing thermal loads , the processor is generally the most demanding component in terms of system thermal design . It also describes optimal locations for intake and exhaust fans . Lower chassis temperature brings lower processor die temperature , while most computer enclosures typically provide an internal thermal environment of approximately 40-45 ° C at a 35 ° C room , Intel claims . CAG provides a system to lower processor 's thermal environment . The initial revision known as CAG 1.0 was released on May 2002 . The recent version known as CAG 1.1 was then released on September 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Chassis_Air_Guide\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 65482\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antenna noise temperature Content: In telecommunication , antenna noise temperature is the temperature of a hypothetical resistor at the input of an ideal noise-free receiver that would generate the same output noise power per unit bandwidth as that at the antenna output at a specified frequency . In other words , antenna noise temperature is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces in a given environment . This temperature is not the physical temperature of the antenna . Moreover , an antenna does not have an intrinsic `` antenna temperature '' associated with it ; rather the temperature depends on its gain pattern and the thermal environment that it is placed in . Antenna noise temperature has contributions from several sources : Galactic radiation Earth heating The sun Electrical devices The antenna itself Galactic noise is high below 1000 MHz . At around 150 MHz , it is approximately 1000K . At 2500 MHz , it has leveled off to around 10K . Earth has an accepted standard temperature of 290K . The level of the sun 's contribution depends on the solar flux . It is given by where is the solar flux , is the wavelength , and is the gain of the antenna in decibels . The antenna noise temperature depends on antenna coupling to all noise sources in its environment as well as on noise generated within the antenna . That is , in a directional antenna , the portion of the noise source that the antenna 's main and side lobes intersect contribute proportionally . For example , a satellite antenna may not receive noise contribution from the earth in its main lobe , but sidelobes will contribute a portion of the 290K earth noise to its overall noise temperature .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Antenna_noise_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 65325\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat (American Me album) Content: Heat is the debut album by American hardcore punk band American Me . It was released on February 19 , 2008 through Rise Records . It 's the only album to feature Doug Funny on bass , Phillip Ralston on guitars and Scott Walker on drums .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_(American_Me_album)\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 65276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Liquid crystal thermometer Content: A liquid crystal thermometer , temperature strip or plastic strip thermometer is a type of thermometer that contains heat-sensitive ( thermochromic ) liquid crystals in a plastic strip that change colour to indicate different temperatures . Liquid crystals possess the mechanical properties of a liquid , but have the optical properties of a single crystal . Temperature changes can affect the colour of a liquid crystal , which makes them useful for temperature measurement . The resolution of liquid crystal sensors is in the 0.1 ° C range . Disposable liquid crystal thermometers have been developed for home and medical use . For example if the thermometer is black and it is put onto someone 's forehead it will change colour depending on the temperature of the person . There are two stages in the liquid crystals : the hot nematic stage is the closest to the liquid phase where the molecules are freely moving around and only partly ordered . the cold smectic stage is closest to a solid phase where the molecules align themselves into tightly wound chiral matrixes . Liquid crystal thermometers portray temperatures as colors and can be used to follow temperature changes caused by heat flow . They can be used to observe that heat flows by conduction , convection , and radiation . In medical applications , liquid crystal thermometers may be used to read body temperature by placing against the forehead . These are safer than a mercury-in-glass thermometer , and may be advantageous in some patients , but do not always give an exact result , except the analytic liquid crystal thermometer which show the exact temperature between 35.5 to 40.5 Celsius . Liquid crystal thermometers are also commonly used in aquariums in homebrewing , and in mood rings . The Liquid crystal thermometer was invented by Bob Parker in California , one of many of the inventor 's thermochromic applications patented in the 1970s .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Liquid_crystal_thermometer\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 65199\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature-programmed reduction Content: Temperature-programmed reduction ( TPR ) is a technique for the characterization of solid materials and is often used in the field of heterogeneous catalysis to find the most efficient reduction conditions , an oxidized catalyst precursor is submitted to a programmed temperature rise while a reducing gas mixture is flowed over it . It was developed by John Ward Jenkins whilst developing heterogeneous catalysts for Shell Oil company , but was never patented .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature-programmed_reduction\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 65190\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Conjugate convective heat transfer Content: The contemporary conjugate heat transfer model was developed after computers came into wide use in order to substitute the empirical relation of proportionality of heat flux to temperature difference with heat transfer coefficient which was the only tool in theoretical heat convection since the times of Newton . This model , based on a strictly mathematically-stated problem , describes the heat transfer between a body and a fluid flowing over or inside it as a result of the interaction of two objects . The physical processes and solutions of the governing equations are considered separately for each object in two subdomains . Matching conditions for these solutions at the interface provide the distributions of temperature and heat flux along the body/flow interface , eliminating the need for a heat transfer coefficient . Moreover , it may be calculated using these data .\",\n \"qid\": \"113\",\n \"docid\": \"Conjugate_convective_heat_transfer\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 65056\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":56,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"more than 100 per cent of the warming over the past century is due to human actions"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"118","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":1,"score":126632},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"118","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":2,"score":126244},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"118","docid":"Global_warming","rank":3,"score":121039},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"118","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":4,"score":113897},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"118","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":5,"score":110124},{"content":"Title: Global Day of Action Content: Global Day of Action is a direct action protest format . Environmentalism initiatives begun to use it in 2005 in connection with Global Climate Campaign . They aimed to focus world attention on the anthropogenic effect that humans are having on global warming . Its main objective is to spearhead demands that elected representatives of their respective governments honor commitments set forth by the Kyoto Protocol , by conducting in unison peaceful demonstrations around the world . The demonstration , or rallies , are intended to coincide with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , a meeting of world leaders from 189 nations , that meet annually to discuss climate change .","qid":"118","docid":"Global_Day_of_Action","rank":6,"score":106804},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"118","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":7,"score":106486},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"118","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":8,"score":105002},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"118","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":9,"score":104633},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"118","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":10,"score":103749},{"content":"Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.","qid":"118","docid":"United_Nations_Ocean_Conference","rank":11,"score":102398},{"content":"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''","qid":"118","docid":"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change","rank":12,"score":100074},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation","rank":13,"score":99145},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"118","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":14,"score":98847},{"content":"Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .","qid":"118","docid":"Human_extinction","rank":15,"score":97037},{"content":"Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .","qid":"118","docid":"Forests_for_the_21st_Century","rank":16,"score":96036},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"118","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":17,"score":93964},{"content":"Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"118","docid":"Lee_Hannah","rank":18,"score":93317},{"content":"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .","qid":"118","docid":"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":19,"score":93001},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"118","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":20,"score":92991},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"118","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":21,"score":92587},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_change","rank":22,"score":92191},{"content":"Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .","qid":"118","docid":"100%_renewable_energy","rank":23,"score":91893},{"content":"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_change_in_popular_culture","rank":24,"score":91328},{"content":"Title: Early anthropocene Content: The Early Anthropocene Hypothesis ( sometimes called Early Anthropogenic ) was proposed by William Ruddiman . It posits that the Anthropocene era , as some scientists call the most recent period in Earth 's history when the activities of the human race first began to have a significant global impact on Earth 's climate and ecosystems , did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the industrial era , as was commonly assumed , but dates back to 8,000 years ago , triggered by intense farming activities after agriculture became widespread . It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior , a pattern that is explained by natural variations in Earth 's orbit known as Milankovitch cycles .","qid":"118","docid":"Early_anthropocene","rank":25,"score":90397},{"content":"Title: Business action on climate change Content: Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )","qid":"118","docid":"Business_action_on_climate_change","rank":26,"score":90220},{"content":"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .","qid":"118","docid":"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years","rank":27,"score":89929},{"content":"Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __","qid":"118","docid":"Air_pollution_in_Germany","rank":28,"score":89258},{"content":"Title: Cumulative effects (environment) Content: Cumulative environmental effects can be defined as effects on the environment which are caused by the combined results of past , current and future activities . Over time , direct and indirect human activities combine to collectively impact the environment . These effects may differ from the original , individual activities . For example , ecosystems can be damaged by the combined effects of human activities , such as air , land , and/or water pollution , improper handling of industrial waste , and other human development activities . Global warming is the cumulative effect caused by too much greenhouse gas , and it may then cause a loss in biodiversity and acid rain . North America has contributed to creating various cumulative effects on the environment . Many states in the United States have inadequate or no formal environmental review requirements in order to assess the cumulative effects on the environment from harmful practices . The extent to which cumulative effects in each state are evaluated varies greatly . For example , some programs only require an assessment on specific natural resource issues and others require comprehensive examination of cumulative effects on the environment . Environmental assessments are a necessity to ensure the further advancement of healthy ecosystems , habitats , and wildlife .","qid":"118","docid":"Cumulative_effects_(environment)","rank":29,"score":89180},{"content":"Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_change_denial","rank":30,"score":88652},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":31,"score":88384},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on human health Content: The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .","qid":"118","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health","rank":32,"score":88230},{"content":"Title: Human impact on marine life Content: Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.According to the IPCC (2019), since 1950 \"many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats.\"It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as wilderness, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast.","qid":"118","docid":"Human_impact_on_marine_life","rank":33,"score":88128},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .","qid":"118","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_shipping","rank":34,"score":88060},{"content":"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .","qid":"118","docid":"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change","rank":35,"score":87929},{"content":"Title: Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011–2020 Content: The Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011 -- 2020 was officially proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in March 2010 . Its goal is to stabilize and reduce the forecast level of road traffic deaths around the world . It is estimated that 5 millions lives could be saved on the world 's roads during the Decade . According to the Global status report on road safety , road traffic crashes take the lives of nearly 1.3 million people every year , and injure 20 -- 50 million more . More than 90 % of road traffic deaths and injuries occur in low-income and middle-income countries , which have only 48 % of the world 's registered vehicles . If no action is taken , road traffic crashes are predicted to result in the deaths of around 1.9 million people annually by 2020 . Global activities related to the Decade are coordinated by the United Nations Road Safety Collaboration . Grover , fictional character from the television show Sesame Street was named a Global Ambassador by the WHO .","qid":"118","docid":"Decade_of_Action_for_Road_Safety_2011–2020","rank":36,"score":87808},{"content":"Title: Action/2015 Content: action/2015 was a global coalition of more than 2200 organisations and networks from over 150 countries , united by the belief that 2015 was a critical year for progress in the fight against climate change , poverty and inequality . Throughout the year , this coalition engaged and mobilised the public at critical decision-making points to call on leaders to commit to strong goals and agreements at two crucial UN summits in 2015 - the UN General Assembly and the UN Climate Change Conference . Throughout the year millions of activists came together through action/2015 to ensure world leaders would feel the pressure to seize the opportunity to tackle poverty , inequality and climate change . With 31 million campaign actions taken in 157 countries , action/2015 was a massive global movement for change -- the biggest-ever of its kind .","qid":"118","docid":"Action/2015","rank":37,"score":87299},{"content":"Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .","qid":"118","docid":"Stockholm_Memorandum","rank":38,"score":87237},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"118","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":39,"score":86508},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"118","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":40,"score":86489},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"118","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":41,"score":85806},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"118","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":42,"score":85554},{"content":"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_Code_Red","rank":43,"score":85290},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"118","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":44,"score":85218},{"content":"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .","qid":"118","docid":"Environmental_issue","rank":45,"score":84510},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"118","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":46,"score":84282},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"118","docid":"350.org","rank":47,"score":84268},{"content":"Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .","qid":"118","docid":"Global_dimming","rank":48,"score":84113},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_change_in_Australia","rank":49,"score":83936},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"118","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":50,"score":83896},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"118","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":51,"score":83887},{"content":"Title: Boulder Climate Action Plan Content: The Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide community efforts for reducing greenhouse gas emissions . Those strategies have focused on improving energy efficiency and conservation in our homes and businesses -- the source of nearly three-fourths of local emissions . The plan also promotes strategies to reduce emissions from transportation , which account for over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources .","qid":"118","docid":"Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":52,"score":83844},{"content":"Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .","qid":"118","docid":"New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001","rank":53,"score":83785},{"content":"Title: Chicago Climate Action Plan Content: The Chicago Climate Action Plan ( CCAP ) is Chicago 's climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy that was adopted in September 2008 . The CCAP has an overarching goal of reducing Chicago 's greenhouse gas emissions by 80 percent below 1990 levels by 2050 , with an interim goal of 25 percent below 1990 levels by 2020 .","qid":"118","docid":"Chicago_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":54,"score":83743},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .","qid":"118","docid":"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs","rank":55,"score":83315},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"118","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":56,"score":82782},{"content":"Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_change_and_gender","rank":57,"score":82659},{"content":"Title: Chesapeake Climate Action Network Content: The Chesapeake Climate Action Network ( CCAN ) is the first grassroots nonprofit organization dedicated exclusively to fighting global warming in Maryland , Virginia , and the District of Columbia . The organization 's mission is to foster a rapid societal switch to clean energy and energy-efficient products , joining similar efforts worldwide to address global warming .","qid":"118","docid":"Chesapeake_Climate_Action_Network","rank":58,"score":82524},{"content":"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .","qid":"118","docid":"Abrupt_climate_change","rank":59,"score":82360},{"content":"Title: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle Content: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse . Agricultural and industrial nitrogen ( N ) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation . As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs , the global nitrogen cycle ( Fig. 1 ) has been significantly altered over the past century . Global atmospheric nitrous oxide ( N2O ) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~ 270 nmol/mol to ~ 319 nmol/mol in 2005 . Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions , most of which are due to the agricultural sector . This article is intended to give a brief review of the history of anthropogenic N inputs , and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems .","qid":"118","docid":"Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle","rank":60,"score":82288},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"118","docid":"Hockey_stick_controversy","rank":61,"score":82028},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":62,"score":81794},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"118","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":63,"score":81733},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Performance Index Content: The Climate Change Performance Index ( CCPI ) is an annual publication by Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe . It evaluates the climate protection performance of 58 countries , responsible for over 90 % of global energy-related emissions . CCPI 2013 publication covers emissions from the fossil fuels , except emissions from the shipping industry . Following CCPI 2013 publication may include emissions from deforestation , agriculture and waste . 50 % of the evaluation is based on emissions trend , 30 % on emissions level and 20 % on national and international climate policy assessments made by more than 200 experts . The most recent results ( published December 2014 ) illustrate that efforts are still insufficient to prevent dangerous climate change . Thus , no country received rankings one to three in the results for 2015 although Denmark which topped the list was praised for its efforts .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_Change_Performance_Index","rank":64,"score":81254},{"content":"Title: List of climate change initiatives Content: Here is a list of international , national , regional , and local political initiatives to take action on climate change ( global warming ) . A Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide efforts for climate change mitigation .","qid":"118","docid":"List_of_climate_change_initiatives","rank":65,"score":81005},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":66,"score":80744},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in Mongolia Content: There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to both human and biophysical wellness . These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors , but increasingly because of human actions . One of these issues is climate change , which will be responsible for an increase in desertification , natural disasters , and land degradation . Another is deforestation , which is expanding due to human recklessness , pests , disease , and fire . Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification , a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible land use . Additionally , more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction . And , especially in population centers , Mongolians deal with air and water pollution caused by human industrialization .","qid":"118","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_Mongolia","rank":67,"score":80290},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"118","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":68,"score":80231},{"content":"Title: San Francisco Climate Action Plan Content: The San Francisco Climate Action Plan is a greenhouse gas reduction initiative adopted by the City and County of San Francisco , United States in 2002 . It aims to reduce the city 's greenhouse gas emissions to 20 % below 1990 levels by 2012 .","qid":"118","docid":"San_Francisco_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":69,"score":80163},{"content":"Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .","qid":"118","docid":"Turning_the_Corner_Plan","rank":70,"score":80053},{"content":"Title: Climate Action Network Content: Climate Action Network -- International ( CAN ) is an umbrella group of environmental non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) active on the issue of climate change . It is most active at meetings of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where it publishes a daily newsletter `` ECO '' , presenting the views of the Environmental NGO community . The Climate Action Network-International is a worldwide network of over 1100 non-governmental organizations in 120 countries working to promote government and individual action to limit human-induced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels . CAN members work to achieve this goal through the coordination of information exchange and NGO strategy on international , regional and national climate issues . CAN has formal regional networks which coordinate these efforts in Africa , Central and Eastern Europe , Europe , Latin America , North America , South Asia , Southeast Asia , and Japan . CAN also has members in China , the Pacific and the Middle East . CAN members place a high priority on both a healthy environment and development that `` meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs '' ( Brundtland Commission ) . Climate Action Network 's vision is to protect the atmosphere while allowing for sustainable and equitable development worldwide .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_Action_Network","rank":71,"score":79373},{"content":"Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .","qid":"118","docid":"Wildland_fire_emission","rank":72,"score":78860},{"content":"Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .","qid":"118","docid":"Compact_of_Mayors","rank":73,"score":78391},{"content":"Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .","qid":"118","docid":"Future_Evolution","rank":74,"score":77947},{"content":"Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_justice","rank":75,"score":77794},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"118","docid":"Hockey_stick_graph","rank":76,"score":77509},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"118","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":77,"score":77387},{"content":"Title: Green Zone Community Climate Action Content: Green Zone Community Climate Action is a charitable unincorporated association formed in November 2016 . Based in Broomfield , Essex , this organisation delivers climate change awareness at a grass roots level to improve public understanding of Global warming and promote individual actions that can help to address this . The charity works with Marks & Spencer through the project Neighbourly among other retailers to reduce food waste and share unsold food within the community . The charity also supports climate education for primary school children through clubs . The charity took part in the worldwide 24 Hours of Reality campaign broadcast by The Climate Reality Project . Working alongside additional community charities Green Zone Community Climate Action is one of many new projects created to assist the UK in meeting the United Nations global Sustainable Development Goals","qid":"118","docid":"Green_Zone_Community_Climate_Action","rank":78,"score":77246},{"content":"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .","qid":"118","docid":"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change","rank":79,"score":76789},{"content":"Title: World Poverty and Human Rights Content: World Poverty and Human Rights : Cosmopolitan Responsibilities and Reforms is a 2002 book by Thomas Pogge . In the book , Pogge explains that the poorest 44 percent of humankind have 1.3 percent of global income and their purchasing power per person per day is less than that of $ 2.15 in the US in 1993 ; 826 million of them do not have enough to eat . One-third of all human deaths are from poverty-related causes : 18 million annually , including 12 million children under five . At the other end of the spectrum , the 15 percent of humankind in the developed countries have 80 percent of global income . Pogge argues that shifting 1 or 2 percent of the wealthy states ' share toward poverty eradication is morally compelling . Yet most of the affluent believe that they have no such responsibility and Thomas Pogge 's book seeks to explain how this belief is sustained . He analyses how our `` moral and economic theorizing and our global economic order '' have adapted to make us appear disconnected from mass poverty abroad . Dispelling the illusion , he also offers a normative standard of global economic justice and makes detailed , realistic proposals toward fulfilling it .","qid":"118","docid":"World_Poverty_and_Human_Rights","rank":80,"score":76770},{"content":"Title: Individual and political action on climate change Content: Individual and political action on climate change can take many forms . Many actions aim to build social and political support to limit , and subsequently reduce , the concentration of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) in the atmosphere , with the goal of mitigating climate change . Other actions seek to address the ethical and moral aspects of climate justice , especially with regard to the anticipated unequal impacts of climate change adaptation .","qid":"118","docid":"Individual_and_political_action_on_climate_change","rank":81,"score":76715},{"content":"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''","qid":"118","docid":"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents","rank":82,"score":76249},{"content":"Title: Dengue fever outbreaks Content: As of 2010 dengue fever is believed to infect 50 to 100 million people worldwide a year with 1/2 million life-threatening infections . It dramatically increased in frequency between 1960 and 2010 , by 30 fold . This increase is believed to be due to a combination of urbanization , population growth , increased international travel , and global warming . The geographical distribution is around the equator with 70 % of the total 2.5 billion people living in endemic areas from Asia and the Pacific . Many people in outbreaks are not virally tested , therefore their infections may also be due to chikungunya , a coinfection of both , or even other similar viruses .","qid":"118","docid":"Dengue_fever_outbreaks","rank":83,"score":76199},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"118","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":84,"score":75738},{"content":"Title: US Climate Symposium Content: The US Climate Symposium ( also known as USCAN ( US Climate Action Network ) ) was established in 1989 by groups and organizations working towards fight and threat of global warming . The need for a forum for a joint strategy development and advocacy to effect change in a coordinated way at the state and local level as well as at the United Nations and in Washington , D.C.","qid":"118","docid":"US_Climate_Symposium","rank":85,"score":75711},{"content":"Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .","qid":"118","docid":"Friends_of_Science","rank":86,"score":75631},{"content":"Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .","qid":"118","docid":"Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming","rank":87,"score":75607},{"content":"Title: Bird conservation Content: Bird conservation is a field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds . Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species . Over one hundred species have gone extinct in historical times , although the most dramatic human-caused extinctions occurred in the Pacific Ocean as humans colonised the islands of Melanesia , Polynesia and Micronesia , during which an estimated 750-1800 species of bird became extinct . According to Worldwatch Institute , many bird populations are currently declining worldwide , with 1,200 species facing extinction in the next century . The biggest cited reason surrounds habitat loss . Other threats include overhunting , accidental mortality due to structural collisions , long-line fishing bycatch , pollution , competition and predation by pet cats , oil spills and pesticide use and climate change . Governments , along with numerous conservation charities , work to protect birds in various ways , including legislation , preserving and restoring bird habitat , and establishing captive populations for reintroductions . See Late Quaternary prehistoric birds for birds which disappeared in prehistoric and early historic times , usually due to human activity ( i.e. , starting with the Upper Paleolithic Revolution ) . For birds having gone extinct in modern times ( since 1500 ) , see List of extinct birds .","qid":"118","docid":"Bird_conservation","rank":88,"score":75380},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"118","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":89,"score":75242},{"content":"Title: History of sustainability Content: The history of sustainability traces human-dominated ecological systems from the earliest civilizations to the present . This history is characterized by the increased regional success of a particular society , followed by crises that were either resolved , producing sustainability , or not , leading to decline . In early human history , the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plant and animal communities . Between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago , agrarian communities emerged which depended largely on their environment and the creation of a `` structure of permanence '' . The Western industrial revolution of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in fossil fuels . Coal was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity . Modern sanitation systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease . In the mid-20th century , a gathering environmental movement pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed . In the late 20th century , environmental problems became global in scale . The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-renewable energy resources . In the 21st century , there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by the human-induced enhanced greenhouse effect , produced largely by forest clearing and the burning of fossil fuels .","qid":"118","docid":"History_of_sustainability","rank":90,"score":75168},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"118","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":91,"score":75146},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences","qid":"118","docid":"Greenhouse_debt","rank":92,"score":75085},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"118","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":93,"score":74948},{"content":"Title: List of Australian environmental books Content: This is a list of Australian environmental books : Global Spin : The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism ( 1997 ) , by Sharon Beder Human Ecology , Human Economy : Ideas for an Ecologically Sustainable Future ( 1997 ) , edited by Mark Diesendorf and Clive Hamilton Running from the Storm : The Development of Climate Change Policy in Australia ( 2001 ) , by Clive Hamilton A Big Fix : Radical Solutions for Australia 's Environmental Crisis ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe The Weather Makers ( 2005 ) , by Tim Flannery Environmental Principles and Policies ( 2006 ) , by Sharon Beder Patriots : Defending Australia 's Natural Heritage ( 2006 ) , by William J Lines Chasing Kangaroos ( 2007 ) , by Tim Flannery Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy ( 2007 ) , by Mark Diesendorf High and Dry : John Howard , Climate Change and the Selling of Australia 's Future ( 2007 ) , by Guy Pearse The 3rd Degree : Frontline in Australia 's Climate War ( 2007 ) , by Murray Hogarth Maralinga : Australia 's Nuclear Waste Cover-up ( 2007 ) , by Alan Parkinson Reaction Time : Climate Change and the Nuclear Option ( 2007 ) , by Ian Lowe Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change ( 2007 ) , by Clive Hamilton Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action ( 2008 ) , by David Spratt and Philip Sutton Now or Never : A Sustainable Future for Australia ? ( 2008 ) , by Tim Flannery Quarry Vision : Coal , Climate Change and the End of the Resources Boom ( 2009 ) , by Guy Pearse Requiem for a Species ( 2010 ) , by Clive Hamilton","qid":"118","docid":"List_of_Australian_environmental_books","rank":94,"score":74914},{"content":"Title: Water export Content: Water exports involve exporting freshwater from one country to another . Large increases in human population and economic growth throughout the world during the twentieth century placed a huge stress on the world 's freshwater resources . Combined with climate change , they will place an even greater demand on water resources in this century . Water shortages have become an international concern , and freshwater has been described as `` blue gold '' and `` the oil of the 21st Century . ''","qid":"118","docid":"Water_export","rank":95,"score":74716},{"content":"Title: European Commissioner for Climate Action Content: The Commissioner for Climate Action is a new post in the European Commission . It was created in 2010 , being split from the environmental portfolio to focus on fighting climate change . The current Commissioner is Miguel Arias Cañete . The European Union has made a number of moves in regard to climate change . Most notably it signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 , set up its Emission Trading Scheme in 2005 and is currently agreeing to unilaterally cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % by 2020 .","qid":"118","docid":"European_Commissioner_for_Climate_Action","rank":96,"score":74651},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"118","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":97,"score":74627},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"118","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":98,"score":74569},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .","qid":"118","docid":"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia","rank":99,"score":73945},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"118","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":100,"score":73912}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 126632\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 126244\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 121039\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 113897\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 110124\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Day of Action Content: Global Day of Action is a direct action protest format . Environmentalism initiatives begun to use it in 2005 in connection with Global Climate Campaign . They aimed to focus world attention on the anthropogenic effect that humans are having on global warming . Its main objective is to spearhead demands that elected representatives of their respective governments honor commitments set forth by the Kyoto Protocol , by conducting in unison peaceful demonstrations around the world . The demonstration , or rallies , are intended to coincide with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , a meeting of world leaders from 189 nations , that meet annually to discuss climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Day_of_Action\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 106804\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 106486\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 105002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 104633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 103749\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \\\"under threat as never before\\\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \\\"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\\\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \\\"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\\\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Nations_Ocean_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 102398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 100074\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 99145\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 98847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_extinction\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 97037\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Forests_for_the_21st_Century\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 96036\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 93964\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Lee_Hannah\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 93317\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 93001\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 92991\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 92587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 92191\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"100%_renewable_energy\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 91893\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_popular_culture\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 91328\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Early anthropocene Content: The Early Anthropocene Hypothesis ( sometimes called Early Anthropogenic ) was proposed by William Ruddiman . It posits that the Anthropocene era , as some scientists call the most recent period in Earth 's history when the activities of the human race first began to have a significant global impact on Earth 's climate and ecosystems , did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the industrial era , as was commonly assumed , but dates back to 8,000 years ago , triggered by intense farming activities after agriculture became widespread . It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior , a pattern that is explained by natural variations in Earth 's orbit known as Milankovitch cycles .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Early_anthropocene\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 90397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Business action on climate change Content: Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Business_action_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 90220\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 89929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_pollution_in_Germany\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 89258\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cumulative effects (environment) Content: Cumulative environmental effects can be defined as effects on the environment which are caused by the combined results of past , current and future activities . Over time , direct and indirect human activities combine to collectively impact the environment . These effects may differ from the original , individual activities . For example , ecosystems can be damaged by the combined effects of human activities , such as air , land , and/or water pollution , improper handling of industrial waste , and other human development activities . Global warming is the cumulative effect caused by too much greenhouse gas , and it may then cause a loss in biodiversity and acid rain . North America has contributed to creating various cumulative effects on the environment . Many states in the United States have inadequate or no formal environmental review requirements in order to assess the cumulative effects on the environment from harmful practices . The extent to which cumulative effects in each state are evaluated varies greatly . For example , some programs only require an assessment on specific natural resource issues and others require comprehensive examination of cumulative effects on the environment . Environmental assessments are a necessity to ensure the further advancement of healthy ecosystems , habitats , and wildlife .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Cumulative_effects_(environment)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 89180\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_denial\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 88652\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 88384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on human health Content: The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 88230\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human impact on marine life Content: Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.According to the IPCC (2019), since 1950 \\\"many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats.\\\"It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as wilderness, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast.\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_impact_on_marine_life\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 88128\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_shipping\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 88060\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 87929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011–2020 Content: The Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011 -- 2020 was officially proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in March 2010 . Its goal is to stabilize and reduce the forecast level of road traffic deaths around the world . It is estimated that 5 millions lives could be saved on the world 's roads during the Decade . According to the Global status report on road safety , road traffic crashes take the lives of nearly 1.3 million people every year , and injure 20 -- 50 million more . More than 90 % of road traffic deaths and injuries occur in low-income and middle-income countries , which have only 48 % of the world 's registered vehicles . If no action is taken , road traffic crashes are predicted to result in the deaths of around 1.9 million people annually by 2020 . Global activities related to the Decade are coordinated by the United Nations Road Safety Collaboration . Grover , fictional character from the television show Sesame Street was named a Global Ambassador by the WHO .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Decade_of_Action_for_Road_Safety_2011–2020\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 87808\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Action/2015 Content: action/2015 was a global coalition of more than 2200 organisations and networks from over 150 countries , united by the belief that 2015 was a critical year for progress in the fight against climate change , poverty and inequality . Throughout the year , this coalition engaged and mobilised the public at critical decision-making points to call on leaders to commit to strong goals and agreements at two crucial UN summits in 2015 - the UN General Assembly and the UN Climate Change Conference . Throughout the year millions of activists came together through action/2015 to ensure world leaders would feel the pressure to seize the opportunity to tackle poverty , inequality and climate change . With 31 million campaign actions taken in 157 countries , action/2015 was a massive global movement for change -- the biggest-ever of its kind .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Action/2015\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 87299\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Stockholm_Memorandum\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 87237\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 86508\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 86489\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 85806\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 85554\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Code_Red\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 85290\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 85218\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issue\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 84510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 84282\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 84268\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_dimming\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 84113\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 83936\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 83896\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 83887\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Boulder Climate Action Plan Content: The Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide community efforts for reducing greenhouse gas emissions . Those strategies have focused on improving energy efficiency and conservation in our homes and businesses -- the source of nearly three-fourths of local emissions . The plan also promotes strategies to reduce emissions from transportation , which account for over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 83844\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 83785\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chicago Climate Action Plan Content: The Chicago Climate Action Plan ( CCAP ) is Chicago 's climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy that was adopted in September 2008 . The CCAP has an overarching goal of reducing Chicago 's greenhouse gas emissions by 80 percent below 1990 levels by 2050 , with an interim goal of 25 percent below 1990 levels by 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Chicago_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 83743\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 83315\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 82782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_gender\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 82659\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chesapeake Climate Action Network Content: The Chesapeake Climate Action Network ( CCAN ) is the first grassroots nonprofit organization dedicated exclusively to fighting global warming in Maryland , Virginia , and the District of Columbia . The organization 's mission is to foster a rapid societal switch to clean energy and energy-efficient products , joining similar efforts worldwide to address global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Chesapeake_Climate_Action_Network\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 82524\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Abrupt_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 82360\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle Content: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse . Agricultural and industrial nitrogen ( N ) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation . As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs , the global nitrogen cycle ( Fig. 1 ) has been significantly altered over the past century . Global atmospheric nitrous oxide ( N2O ) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~ 270 nmol/mol to ~ 319 nmol/mol in 2005 . Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions , most of which are due to the agricultural sector . This article is intended to give a brief review of the history of anthropogenic N inputs , and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 82288\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 82028\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 81794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 81733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Performance Index Content: The Climate Change Performance Index ( CCPI ) is an annual publication by Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe . It evaluates the climate protection performance of 58 countries , responsible for over 90 % of global energy-related emissions . CCPI 2013 publication covers emissions from the fossil fuels , except emissions from the shipping industry . Following CCPI 2013 publication may include emissions from deforestation , agriculture and waste . 50 % of the evaluation is based on emissions trend , 30 % on emissions level and 20 % on national and international climate policy assessments made by more than 200 experts . The most recent results ( published December 2014 ) illustrate that efforts are still insufficient to prevent dangerous climate change . Thus , no country received rankings one to three in the results for 2015 although Denmark which topped the list was praised for its efforts .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Performance_Index\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 81254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of climate change initiatives Content: Here is a list of international , national , regional , and local political initiatives to take action on climate change ( global warming ) . A Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide efforts for climate change mitigation .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_climate_change_initiatives\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 81005\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 80744\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in Mongolia Content: There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to both human and biophysical wellness . These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors , but increasingly because of human actions . One of these issues is climate change , which will be responsible for an increase in desertification , natural disasters , and land degradation . Another is deforestation , which is expanding due to human recklessness , pests , disease , and fire . Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification , a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible land use . Additionally , more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction . And , especially in population centers , Mongolians deal with air and water pollution caused by human industrialization .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_Mongolia\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 80290\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 80231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: San Francisco Climate Action Plan Content: The San Francisco Climate Action Plan is a greenhouse gas reduction initiative adopted by the City and County of San Francisco , United States in 2002 . It aims to reduce the city 's greenhouse gas emissions to 20 % below 1990 levels by 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"San_Francisco_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 80163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Turning_the_Corner_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 80053\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Action Network Content: Climate Action Network -- International ( CAN ) is an umbrella group of environmental non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) active on the issue of climate change . It is most active at meetings of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where it publishes a daily newsletter `` ECO '' , presenting the views of the Environmental NGO community . The Climate Action Network-International is a worldwide network of over 1100 non-governmental organizations in 120 countries working to promote government and individual action to limit human-induced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels . CAN members work to achieve this goal through the coordination of information exchange and NGO strategy on international , regional and national climate issues . CAN has formal regional networks which coordinate these efforts in Africa , Central and Eastern Europe , Europe , Latin America , North America , South Asia , Southeast Asia , and Japan . CAN also has members in China , the Pacific and the Middle East . CAN members place a high priority on both a healthy environment and development that `` meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs '' ( Brundtland Commission ) . Climate Action Network 's vision is to protect the atmosphere while allowing for sustainable and equitable development worldwide .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Action_Network\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 79373\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Wildland_fire_emission\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 78860\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Compact_of_Mayors\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 78391\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_Evolution\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 77947\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_justice\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 77794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_graph\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 77509\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 77387\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Green Zone Community Climate Action Content: Green Zone Community Climate Action is a charitable unincorporated association formed in November 2016 . Based in Broomfield , Essex , this organisation delivers climate change awareness at a grass roots level to improve public understanding of Global warming and promote individual actions that can help to address this . The charity works with Marks & Spencer through the project Neighbourly among other retailers to reduce food waste and share unsold food within the community . The charity also supports climate education for primary school children through clubs . The charity took part in the worldwide 24 Hours of Reality campaign broadcast by The Climate Reality Project . Working alongside additional community charities Green Zone Community Climate Action is one of many new projects created to assist the UK in meeting the United Nations global Sustainable Development Goals\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Green_Zone_Community_Climate_Action\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 77246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 76789\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Poverty and Human Rights Content: World Poverty and Human Rights : Cosmopolitan Responsibilities and Reforms is a 2002 book by Thomas Pogge . In the book , Pogge explains that the poorest 44 percent of humankind have 1.3 percent of global income and their purchasing power per person per day is less than that of $ 2.15 in the US in 1993 ; 826 million of them do not have enough to eat . One-third of all human deaths are from poverty-related causes : 18 million annually , including 12 million children under five . At the other end of the spectrum , the 15 percent of humankind in the developed countries have 80 percent of global income . Pogge argues that shifting 1 or 2 percent of the wealthy states ' share toward poverty eradication is morally compelling . Yet most of the affluent believe that they have no such responsibility and Thomas Pogge 's book seeks to explain how this belief is sustained . He analyses how our `` moral and economic theorizing and our global economic order '' have adapted to make us appear disconnected from mass poverty abroad . Dispelling the illusion , he also offers a normative standard of global economic justice and makes detailed , realistic proposals toward fulfilling it .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Poverty_and_Human_Rights\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 76770\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Individual and political action on climate change Content: Individual and political action on climate change can take many forms . Many actions aim to build social and political support to limit , and subsequently reduce , the concentration of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) in the atmosphere , with the goal of mitigating climate change . Other actions seek to address the ethical and moral aspects of climate justice , especially with regard to the anticipated unequal impacts of climate change adaptation .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Individual_and_political_action_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 76715\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 76249\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dengue fever outbreaks Content: As of 2010 dengue fever is believed to infect 50 to 100 million people worldwide a year with 1/2 million life-threatening infections . It dramatically increased in frequency between 1960 and 2010 , by 30 fold . This increase is believed to be due to a combination of urbanization , population growth , increased international travel , and global warming . The geographical distribution is around the equator with 70 % of the total 2.5 billion people living in endemic areas from Asia and the Pacific . Many people in outbreaks are not virally tested , therefore their infections may also be due to chikungunya , a coinfection of both , or even other similar viruses .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Dengue_fever_outbreaks\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 76199\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 75738\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: US Climate Symposium Content: The US Climate Symposium ( also known as USCAN ( US Climate Action Network ) ) was established in 1989 by groups and organizations working towards fight and threat of global warming . The need for a forum for a joint strategy development and advocacy to effect change in a coordinated way at the state and local level as well as at the United Nations and in Washington , D.C.\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"US_Climate_Symposium\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 75711\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Friends_of_Science\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 75631\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 75607\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bird conservation Content: Bird conservation is a field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds . Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species . Over one hundred species have gone extinct in historical times , although the most dramatic human-caused extinctions occurred in the Pacific Ocean as humans colonised the islands of Melanesia , Polynesia and Micronesia , during which an estimated 750-1800 species of bird became extinct . According to Worldwatch Institute , many bird populations are currently declining worldwide , with 1,200 species facing extinction in the next century . The biggest cited reason surrounds habitat loss . Other threats include overhunting , accidental mortality due to structural collisions , long-line fishing bycatch , pollution , competition and predation by pet cats , oil spills and pesticide use and climate change . Governments , along with numerous conservation charities , work to protect birds in various ways , including legislation , preserving and restoring bird habitat , and establishing captive populations for reintroductions . See Late Quaternary prehistoric birds for birds which disappeared in prehistoric and early historic times , usually due to human activity ( i.e. , starting with the Upper Paleolithic Revolution ) . For birds having gone extinct in modern times ( since 1500 ) , see List of extinct birds .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Bird_conservation\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 75380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 75242\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of sustainability Content: The history of sustainability traces human-dominated ecological systems from the earliest civilizations to the present . This history is characterized by the increased regional success of a particular society , followed by crises that were either resolved , producing sustainability , or not , leading to decline . In early human history , the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plant and animal communities . Between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago , agrarian communities emerged which depended largely on their environment and the creation of a `` structure of permanence '' . The Western industrial revolution of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in fossil fuels . Coal was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity . Modern sanitation systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease . In the mid-20th century , a gathering environmental movement pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed . In the late 20th century , environmental problems became global in scale . The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-renewable energy resources . In the 21st century , there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by the human-induced enhanced greenhouse effect , produced largely by forest clearing and the burning of fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_sustainability\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 75168\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 75146\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_debt\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 75085\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 74948\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of Australian environmental books Content: This is a list of Australian environmental books : Global Spin : The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism ( 1997 ) , by Sharon Beder Human Ecology , Human Economy : Ideas for an Ecologically Sustainable Future ( 1997 ) , edited by Mark Diesendorf and Clive Hamilton Running from the Storm : The Development of Climate Change Policy in Australia ( 2001 ) , by Clive Hamilton A Big Fix : Radical Solutions for Australia 's Environmental Crisis ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe The Weather Makers ( 2005 ) , by Tim Flannery Environmental Principles and Policies ( 2006 ) , by Sharon Beder Patriots : Defending Australia 's Natural Heritage ( 2006 ) , by William J Lines Chasing Kangaroos ( 2007 ) , by Tim Flannery Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy ( 2007 ) , by Mark Diesendorf High and Dry : John Howard , Climate Change and the Selling of Australia 's Future ( 2007 ) , by Guy Pearse The 3rd Degree : Frontline in Australia 's Climate War ( 2007 ) , by Murray Hogarth Maralinga : Australia 's Nuclear Waste Cover-up ( 2007 ) , by Alan Parkinson Reaction Time : Climate Change and the Nuclear Option ( 2007 ) , by Ian Lowe Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change ( 2007 ) , by Clive Hamilton Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action ( 2008 ) , by David Spratt and Philip Sutton Now or Never : A Sustainable Future for Australia ? ( 2008 ) , by Tim Flannery Quarry Vision : Coal , Climate Change and the End of the Resources Boom ( 2009 ) , by Guy Pearse Requiem for a Species ( 2010 ) , by Clive Hamilton\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_Australian_environmental_books\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 74914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Water export Content: Water exports involve exporting freshwater from one country to another . Large increases in human population and economic growth throughout the world during the twentieth century placed a huge stress on the world 's freshwater resources . Combined with climate change , they will place an even greater demand on water resources in this century . Water shortages have become an international concern , and freshwater has been described as `` blue gold '' and `` the oil of the 21st Century . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Water_export\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 74716\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Commissioner for Climate Action Content: The Commissioner for Climate Action is a new post in the European Commission . It was created in 2010 , being split from the environmental portfolio to focus on fighting climate change . The current Commissioner is Miguel Arias Cañete . The European Union has made a number of moves in regard to climate change . Most notably it signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 , set up its Emission Trading Scheme in 2005 and is currently agreeing to unilaterally cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % by 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Commissioner_for_Climate_Action\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 74651\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 74627\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 74569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 73945\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"118\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 73912\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":57,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"90 per cent of the world's coral reefs will disappear in the next 35 years due to coral bleaching induced by global warming, pollution and over-development."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Coral bleaching Content: Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel algae that lives inside their tissues . Normally , coral polyps live in an endosymbiotic relationship with the algae and that relationship is crucial for the coral and hence for the health of the whole reef . Bleached corals continue to live . But as the algae provide the coral with 90 % of its energy , after expelling the algae the coral begins to starve . Above-average sea water temperatures caused by global warming have been identified as a leading cause for coral bleaching worldwide . Between 2014 and 2016 , the longest global bleaching events ever were recorded . According to the United Nations Environment Programme , these bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale . In 2016 , bleaching hit 90 percent of coral on the Great Barrier Reef and killed 29 percent of the reef 's coral . In 2017 , the bleaching further expanded to areas of the park that were previously spared , such as the central one . __ TOC __","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_bleaching","rank":1,"score":217668},{"content":"Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_in_non-tropical_regions","rank":2,"score":191313},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .","qid":"120","docid":"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs","rank":3,"score":177567},{"content":"Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.","qid":"120","docid":"United_Nations_Ocean_Conference","rank":4,"score":164891},{"content":"Title: Yellow-band disease Content: Yellow-band disease ( similar to Yellow Blotch disease ) is a disease that attacks colonies of coral at a time when coral is already under stress from pollution , overfishing , and climate change . It is characterized by large blotches or patches of bleached , yellowed tissue on Caribbean scleractinian corals . Yellow-band disease is a bacterial infection that spreads over coral , causing the discolored bands of pale-yellow or white lesions along the surface of an infected coral colony . The lesions are the locations where the bacteria have killed the coral 's symbiotic photosynthetic algae , called zooxanthellae which are a major energy source for the coral . This cellular damage and the loss of its major energy source cause the coral to starve , and usually cause coral death . There is evidence that climate change could be worsening the disease .","qid":"120","docid":"Yellow-band_disease","rank":5,"score":148589},{"content":"Title: Census of Coral Reefs Content: The Census of Coral Reefs ( CReefs ) is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that surveys the biodiversity of coral reef ecosystems internationally . The project works to study what species live in coral reef ecosystems , to develop standardized protocols for studying coral reef ecosystems , and to increase access to and exchange of information about coral reefs scattered throughout the globe . The CReefs project uses the implementation of autonomous reef-monitoring structures ( ARMS ) to study the species that inhabit coral reefs . These structures are placed on the sea floor in areas where coral reefs exist , where they are left for one year . At the end of the year , the ARMS is pulled to the surface , along with the species which have inhabited it , for analysis . Coral reefs are thought to be the most organically different of all marine ecosystems . Major declines in key reef ecosystems suggest a decline in reef population throughout the world due to environmental stresses . The vulnerability of coral reef ecosystems is expected to increase significantly in response to climate change . The reefs are also being threatened by induced coral bleaching , ocean acidification , sea-level rise , and changing storm tracks . Reef biodiversity could be in danger of being lost before it is even documented , and researchers will be left with a limited and poor understanding of these complex ecosystems . In an attempt to enhance global understanding of reef biodiversity , the goals of the CReefs Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems were to conduct a diverse global census of coral reef ecosystems . And increase access to and exchange of coral reef data throughout the world . Because coral reefs are the most diverse and among the most threatened of all marine ecosystems , there is great justification to learn more about them .","qid":"120","docid":"Census_of_Coral_Reefs","rank":6,"score":145128},{"content":"Title: Acanthastrea hillae Content: Acanthastrea hillae is a species of coral that can be found throughout Indo-Pacific waters . This species is moderately common , but is susceptible to coral bleaching and the global decline in coral reef habitat .","qid":"120","docid":"Acanthastrea_hillae","rank":7,"score":142977},{"content":"Title: Resilience of coral reefs Content: The resilience of coral reefs is the biological ability of coral reefs to recover from natural disturbances such as storms and bleaching episodes . Resilience refers to the ability of biological or social systems to overcome pressures and stresses by maintaining key functions through resisting or adapting to change . Reef resistance measures how well coral reefs tolerate changes in ocean chemistry , sea level , and sea surface temperature . Reef resistance and resilience are important factors in coral reef recovery from the effects of ocean acidification . Natural reef resilience can be used as a recovery model for coral reefs and an opportunity for management in marine protected areas ( MPAs ) . __ TOC __","qid":"120","docid":"Resilience_of_coral_reefs","rank":8,"score":135109},{"content":"Title: Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest reef system , stretching along the East coast of Australia from the northern tip down to the town of Bundaberg , is composed of roughly 2,900 individual reefs and 940 islands and cays that stretch for 2,300 kilometres ( 1,616 mi ) and cover an area of approximately 344,400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland in northeast Australia . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . According to the 2014 report of the Australian Government 's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) , says that climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef , while the other major environmental pressures are listed as decreased water quality from land-based runoff , impacts from coastal development and some persistent impacts from fishing activities . The reef is also threatened by storms , coral bleaching and ocean acidification . The 2014 report also shows that , while numerous marine life species have recovered after previous declines , the strength of the dugong population is continuing to decline . Terry Hughes , Federation Fellow , ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University , wrote in a 14 August 2014 Conversation piece that harmful government policies and ongoing conflicts of interest over mining royalties are risks of an equivalent magnitude . The GBRMPA consider climate change , poor water quality , coastal development , and some impacts from fishing to be the area 's major threats , but reef scientists Jon Day , Bob Pressey , Jon Brodie and Hughes stated that the `` cumulative effects of many combined impacts '' is the real issue . In a Conversation Article , Mathieu Mongin , a biogeochemical modeller at CSIRO and colleagues mapped parts of the Great Barrier Reef that are most exposed to ocean acidification . This map of pH on the Great Barrier Reef presents the exposure to ocean acidification on each of the 3,581 reefs , providing managers with the information they need to tailor management to individual reefs . The Great Barrier Reef is not a singular reef nor a physical barrier that prevents exchange between reefs ; it is a mixture of thousands of productive reefs and shallow areas lying on a continental shelf with complex oceanic circulation .","qid":"120","docid":"Environmental_threats_to_the_Great_Barrier_Reef","rank":9,"score":134580},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"120","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":10,"score":132837},{"content":"Title: African coral reefs Content: African coral reefs are coral reefs mainly found along the south and east coasts of Africa . The east coast corals extend from the Red Sea to Madagascar in the south , and are an important resource for the fishersmen of Kenya , Tanzania and Madagascar . As with coral reefs elsewhere , African coral reefs are more biologically diverse than the surrounding ocean , and support species such as the mantis shrimp , potato grouper , humphead wrasse and maxima clam , as well as many seaweeds and corals . On the east coast , temperatures average about 26 C over the year . The average rainfall is highest between January to April , at about 300 mm , and lowest during August to November , at about 100 mm . There are multiple threats to the reefs , such a tourist diving and damaging the corals , or taking samples . Then there are industrial run-offs and pollutants , untreated sewage and the increasing sediment flows in rivers that threaten all of the coastal ecosystems . The reef is also threatened by climate change . Due to global warming , the sea surface temperature increases and in 1997/98 a particularly severe ` El Nino ' killed 90 percent of corals on the reef . The CORDIO ( COral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean ) NGO have set up an East African task force to monitor the reef 's management .","qid":"120","docid":"African_coral_reefs","rank":11,"score":131400},{"content":"Title: Coral Reef Alliance Content: The Coral Reef Alliance ( CORAL ) is a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco , California , that partners with local reef communities around the world to protect coral reefs . CORAL was founded in Berkeley , California , in 1994 by Stephen Colwell , and is currently headed by Dr. Michael Webster . With 19 % of the world 's coral reefs already destroyed and another 35 % at immediate risk or threatened due to human pressures , organizations like CORAL are addressing an urgent need .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_Reef_Alliance","rank":12,"score":130682},{"content":"Title: Acanthastrea regularis Content: Acanthastrea regularis is a species of coral found in Indo-Pacific waters from Australia to the western Pacific Ocean . It is usually uncommon throughout its range , but can be more common locally . It has a narrow depth range , and so is susceptible to coral bleaching and disease . It is also threatened by the global decline in coral reef habitats .","qid":"120","docid":"Acanthastrea_regularis","rank":13,"score":128623},{"content":"Title: White pox disease Content: White pox disease ( also `` acroporid serratiosis '' and `` patchy necrosis '' ) , first noted in 1996 on coral reefs near the Florida keys , is a coral disease affecting Elkhorn coral ( Acropora palmata ) throughout the Caribbean . It causes irregular white patches or blotches on the coral that result from the loss of coral tissue . These patches distinguish white pox disease from white band disease which produces a distinctive white band where the coral skeleton has been denuded . The blotches caused by this disease are also clearly differentiated from coral bleaching and scars caused by coral-eating snails . It is very contagious , spreading to nearby coral . At the locations where white pox disease has been observed , it is estimated to have reduced the living tissue in elkhorn corals by 50 -- 80 % . In the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary ( FKNMS ) , the losses of living coral are estimated to average around 88 % . Elkhorn coral was formerly the dominant shallow water reef-building coral throughout the Caribbean but now is listed as a threatened , due in part to disease . Elkhorn coral is the first species of coral to be listed as threatened in the United States , Also due in part to this disease .","qid":"120","docid":"White_pox_disease","rank":14,"score":128594},{"content":"Title: Acanthastrea brevis Content: Acanthastrea brevis is a vulnerable species of stony coral found in reef habitats at depths of 1 -- 20 m . It is threatened by habitat loss and crown-of-thorns starfish predation . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and ocean acidification .","qid":"120","docid":"Acanthastrea_brevis","rank":15,"score":127269},{"content":"Title: Acanthastrea ishigakiensis Content: Acanthastrea ishigakiensis is a species of coral found in Indo-Pacific waters . It is widespread but uncommon throughout its range . It has a narrow depth range , and is susceptible to coral bleaching and disease . It is also threatened by the global loss of coral reef habitats .","qid":"120","docid":"Acanthastrea_ishigakiensis","rank":16,"score":127100},{"content":"Title: Goniastrea stelligera Content: Goniastrea stelligera , commonly known as knob coral , is a species of stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs in shallow water on the coast of East Africa and in the Indo-Pacific region . This is a common species of coral but it seems to be decreasing in abundance . The main threat it faces is from the destruction of its coral reef habitat , and it is also moderately susceptible to coral bleaching , so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being `` near threatened '' .","qid":"120","docid":"Goniastrea_stelligera","rank":17,"score":126774},{"content":"Title: Coral Reef Adventure Content: Coral Reef Adventure is a 70mm American documentary film released in 2003 to IMAX theaters . It is narrated by actor Liam Neeson , and directed by Greg MacGillivray . Embarking on a 10-month expedition through the islands of the South Pacific , husband and wife underwater photography-duo Michele and Howard Hall explore the declining reefs and failing health of the world 's oceans . From Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , to a friend 's coral reef-sustained village in Fiji , the diving expeditions show a range of coral reefs , from flourishing ones filled with unusual and exotic inhabitants , to vast stretches of bleached coral decline which prompted the Hall 's activism . Along their journey , scientists working to understand and save the reefs meet with the Hall 's . Jean-Michel Cousteau , son of the famed oceanographer Jacques Cousteau , also makes an appearance , as do well-known dive guide and singer Rusi Vulakoro , brother of Vude singer Laisa Vulakoro , who guides the Halls in their dive adventure . This documentary film is the third oceanic , ecologically-themed IMAX production from director MacGillivray , after The Living Sea and Dolphins . Crosby Stills & Nash contribute to the film 's soundtrack . The Giant Screen Theater Association named it the best film achievement of 2003 .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_Reef_Adventure","rank":18,"score":126609},{"content":"Title: Coral reef protection Content: Coral reef protection is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy coral reefs and to help damaged reefs recover . The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health . One management technique is to create Marine Protected Areas ( MPAs ) that directly limit human activities such as fishing . It takes approximately 10 thousand years for coral polyps to form a reef , and between 100,000 and 30 million years for a fully mature reef to form .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_reef_protection","rank":19,"score":123498},{"content":"Title: Southeast Asian coral reefs Content: Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world 's marine ecosystems . They serve many functions , such as forming the livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials . Coral reefs are developed by the carbonate-based skeletons of a variety of animals and algae . Slowly and overtime , the reefs build up to the surface in oceans . Coral reefs are found in shallow , warm salt water . The sunlight filters through clear water and allows microscopic organisms to live and reproduce . The Indian Ocean holds 60 % of the world 's coastal reefs , 25 % are in the Pacific and 15 % are in the western Atlantic . There are coral reefs in the Persian Gulf , Madagascar , the Philippines , Hawaiian Islands and off Southeast Asia . Coral reefs have been preserved and identified in rocks over 400 million years old . Coral reefs are actually composed of tiny , fragile animals known as coral polyps . Coral reefs are significantly important because of the biodiversity . Although the number of fish are decreasing , the remaining coral reefs contain more unique sea creatures . The variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than anywhere else in the world . An estimation of 70-90 % of fish caught are dependent on coral reefs in Southeast Asia and reefs support over 25 % of all known marine species . However , those sensitive coral reefs are facing detrimental effects on them due to variety of factors : overfishing , sedimentation and pollution , bleaching , and even tourist-related damage .","qid":"120","docid":"Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs","rank":20,"score":123011},{"content":"Title: Oyster reef restoration Content: Oyster reef restoration refers to the process of rebuilding or restoring of oyster reefs all over the globe . Over time , oysters have been negatively affected by environmental change , such as harmful fishing techniques , over harvesting , water pollution , and other factors . The results of these factors have been disease and ultimately , a large decline in the global population of oysters and the prevalence and sustainability of oyster reefs . Apart from the ecological importance of oyster reefs , oyster farming is an important industry , particularly in coastal areas . Both artificial materials and natural components have been used to rebuild the reefs in an attempt to regenerate the oyster population thus fostering the reformation of reefs .","qid":"120","docid":"Oyster_reef_restoration","rank":21,"score":122051},{"content":"Title: The Great Barrier Reef: Biology, Environment and Management Content: The Great Barrier Reef : Biology , Environment and Management is a 2007 book by Pat Hutchings , Mike Kingsford and Ove Hoegh-Guldberg . It describes the organisms and ecosystems of Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , and the biological , chemical and physical processes that influence them . Issues discussed include climate change , coral bleaching , coral disease and coral reef fishing . The book includes a field guide to help people identify the common animals and plants on the reef . The book has illustrations and contributions from 33 international experts . Pat Hutchings is a Senior Principal Research Scientist at the Australian Museum . Michael Kingsford is the Head of School of Marine Biology and Aquaculture at James Cook University . Ove Hoegh-Guldberg is the Director of the Centre for Marine Studies at the University of Queensland .","qid":"120","docid":"The_Great_Barrier_Reef:_Biology,_Environment_and_Management","rank":22,"score":121878},{"content":"Title: Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef is the world 's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2300 km over an area of approximately 344400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland , Australia . The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world 's biggest single structure made by living organisms . This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms , known as coral polyps . It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981 . CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world . The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which helps to limit the impact of human use , such as fishing and tourism . Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff , climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching , and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish . According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985 . The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples , and is an important part of local groups ' cultures and spirituality . The reef is a very popular destination for tourists , especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions . Tourism is an important economic activity for the region , generating over AUD$ 3 billion per year . In November 2014 , Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef . A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought , seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures . In October 2016 , Outside published an obituary for the reef ; the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef . In March 2017 , the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of a 800-kilometre ( 500 mi ) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures , an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change .","qid":"120","docid":"Great_Barrier_Reef","rank":23,"score":121761},{"content":"Title: Impacts of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef Content: Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs . The Great Barrier Reef , considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot , is located in Australia . Similar to other coral reefs , it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification . Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which is taken up by the ocean . This process can increase sea surface temperature , decrease aragonite , and lower the pH of the ocean . Calcifying organisms are under risk , due to the resulting lack of aragonite in the water and the decreasing pH. This decreased health of coral reefs , particularly the Great Barrier Reef , can result in reduced biodiversity . Organisms can become stressed due to ocean acidification and the disappearance of healthy coral reefs , such as the Great Barrier Reef , is a loss of habitat for several taxa .","qid":"120","docid":"Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_on_the_Great_Barrier_Reef","rank":24,"score":121701},{"content":"Title: Holocene extinction Content: The Holocene extinction , otherwise referred to as the Sixth extinction or Anthropocene extinction , is the ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch , mainly due to human activity . The large number of extinctions spans numerous families of plants and animals , including mammals , birds , amphibians , reptiles and arthropods . With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforest , as well as other areas , the vast majority of these extinctions is thought to be undocumented . According to the species-area theory , and based on upper-bound estimating , the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year , making it the greatest loss of biodiversity since the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event . The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna , starting at the end of the last Ice Age . Megafauna outside of the African continent , which did not evolve alongside humans , proved highly sensitive to the introduction of new predation , and many died out shortly after early humans began spreading and hunting across the Earth ( additionally , many African species have also gone extinct in the Holocene ) . These extinctions , occurring near the Pleistocene -- Holocene boundary , are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event . The arrival of humans on different continents coincides with megafaunal extinction . The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species added to existing stress conditions . Although there is debate regarding how much human predation affected their decline , certain population declines have been directly correlated with human activity , such as the extinction events of New Zealand and Hawaii . Aside from humans , climate change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions , especially at the end of the Quaternary . The ecology of humanity has been noted as being that of an unprecedented `` global superpredator '' that regularly preys on the adults of other apex predators and has worldwide effects on food webs . Extinctions of species have occurred on every land mass and ocean , with many famous examples within Africa , Asia , Europe , Australia , North and South America , and on smaller islands . Overall , the Holocene extinction can be characterized by the human impact on the environment . The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century , with meat consumption , overfishing , ocean acidification and the amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal , cosmopolitan decline in biodiversity . A ballooning human population along with profligate consumption are considered to be the primary drivers of this rapid decline .","qid":"120","docid":"Holocene_extinction","rank":25,"score":121264},{"content":"Title: Porites nodifera Content: Porites nodifera , also known as Dome Coral , is a species of stony coral in the Poritidae family . In the Persian Gulf , Porites spp. , including Porites nodifera are the dominant corals present . This may be as a result of coral bleaching affecting Acropora spp . to a greater extent , and Porites filling in resulting gaps in the reef .","qid":"120","docid":"Porites_nodifera","rank":26,"score":120295},{"content":"Title: Alveopora fenestrata Content: Alveopora fenestrata is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia and the oceanic west Pacific Ocean . It can be found in shallow coral reefs , to a depth of 30 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching .","qid":"120","docid":"Alveopora_fenestrata","rank":27,"score":119339},{"content":"Title: Acropora acuminata Content: Acropora acuminata is a species of acroporid coral found in Australia , the Red Sea , the central Indo-Pacific , Japan , the northern Indian Ocean , the East China Sea , southeast Asia , and the western Pacific Ocean . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , the crown-of-thorns sea star ( Acanthaster planci ) , and harvesting for the aquarium trade . It is found on shallow coral reefs from depths of 5 -- 20 m . It was described by Verrill in 1864 .","qid":"120","docid":"Acropora_acuminata","rank":28,"score":118957},{"content":"Title: Alveopora viridis Content: Alveopora viridis is a species of stony coral that has a highly disjunct range , and can be found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the northern Indian Ocean and in Palau and the Mariana Islands . It is found on lower coral reef slopes to depths of 50 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and is harvested for the aquarium trade .","qid":"120","docid":"Alveopora_viridis","rank":29,"score":118275},{"content":"Title: Coral reef fish Content: Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs . Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity . Among the myriad inhabitants , the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch . Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef , many of them hidden or well camouflaged . Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs . Coral reefs occupy less than one percent of the surface area of the world oceans , but still they provide a home for 25 percent of all marine fish species . Reef habitats are a sharp contrast to the open water habitats that make up the other 99 % of the world oceans . However , loss and degradation of coral reef habitat , increasing pollution , and overfishing including the use of destructive fishing practices , are threatening the survival of the coral reefs and the associated reef fish .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_reef_fish","rank":30,"score":117006},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .","qid":"120","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka","rank":31,"score":116364},{"content":"Title: Alveopora allingi Content: Alveopora allingi is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean . It has also been found in Palau and the Mariana Islands . It is susceptible to coral bleaching and is rated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as a `` vulnerable species '' .","qid":"120","docid":"Alveopora_allingi","rank":32,"score":115973},{"content":"Title: Acropora hemprichii Content: Acropora hemprichii is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg in 1834 . Found in shallow reefs in marine environments , this species occurs at depths of 3 to , and lives for between 13 and 24 years . The species is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List , and has a decreasing population . It is common with a wide range , and is listed on Appendix II of CITES .","qid":"120","docid":"Acropora_hemprichii","rank":33,"score":114863},{"content":"Title: Platygyra daedalea Content: Platygyra daedalea , sometimes known as the lesser valley coral , is a colonial species of stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow water in the Indo-Pacific region . It is a common species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of `` least concern '' .","qid":"120","docid":"Platygyra_daedalea","rank":34,"score":114740},{"content":"Title: Kimbe Bay Content: Kimbe Bay is a large bay in West New Britain Province , off the northern coast of New Britain , Papua New Guinea , at . Kimbe Bay is an important biodiversity hotspot . 60 percent of the coral species of the entire Indo-Pacific region live here . Kimbe Bay is the home of more than 860 coral reef fish species . Because of a massive die-off of coral worldwide due to pollution , human activities , and global warming , Kimbe Bay has become increasingly important , since it is seen as one of the last holdouts for coral should the degradation continue . Efforts are currently underway to limit the human impact on the bay . Due to its beauty it is also a popular diving site .","qid":"120","docid":"Kimbe_Bay","rank":35,"score":114597},{"content":"Title: Alveopora verrilliana Content: Alveopora verrilliana is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan , the East China Sea , the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean and the Johnston Atoll . It can also be found in Palau and the southern Mariana Islands . It grows on shallow coral reefs to a depth of 30 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and is harvested for the aquarium trade .","qid":"120","docid":"Alveopora_verrilliana","rank":36,"score":114222},{"content":"Title: Acropora abrotanoides Content: Acropora abrotanoides is a species of acroporid coral found in Indo-Pacific waters from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden east to the East China Sea , the central Pacific Ocean and Australia . It is found in shallow coral reefs to a maximum depth of 10 -- 15 m . It is vulnerable to coral bleaching , disease and crown-of-thorns starfish . It is resistant to predation as it has well-developed radial corallite lips . It was described by Lamarck in 1816 .","qid":"120","docid":"Acropora_abrotanoides","rank":37,"score":114182},{"content":"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .","qid":"120","docid":"Carnian_Pluvial_Event","rank":38,"score":114032},{"content":"Title: Anacropora puertogalerae Content: Anacropora puertogalerae is a species of briar coral that can be found in the central Indo-Pacific , Japan , the East China Sea , eastern Australia , the oceanic west Pacific Ocean , the Philippines and the Maldives . It is also found in the Andaman Islands , Rodrigues , Fiji and Vanuatu . It occurs in shallow reefs , from depths of 5 -- 20 m . It is very fragile , and is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease and habitat loss .","qid":"120","docid":"Anacropora_puertogalerae","rank":39,"score":113582},{"content":"Title: Alveopora spongiosa Content: Alveopora spongiosa is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean . It can be found on protected upper coral reef slopes , generally from depth of 9 -- 20 m , but can grow at depths of up to 50 m . It is moderately susceptible to coral bleaching , and is harvested for the aquarium trade .","qid":"120","docid":"Alveopora_spongiosa","rank":40,"score":113212},{"content":"Title: Decline in amphibian populations Content: The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide . Since the 1980s , decreases in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world . These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity , and several causes are believed to be involved , including disease , habitat destruction and modification , exploitation , pollution , pesticide use , introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation ( UV-B ) . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research . Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000 -- 45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation . Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s , awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s . By 1993 , more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline . Today , the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction , with severe implications for global biodiversity .","qid":"120","docid":"Decline_in_amphibian_populations","rank":41,"score":111733},{"content":"Title: Coral Triangle Initiative Content: The Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs , Fisheries , and Food Security ( CTI-CFF ) , also shortly known as the Coral Triangle Initiative ( CTI ) , is a multilateral partnership of six countries ( Indonesia , Malaysia , Philippines , Papua New Guinea , Solomon Islands , Timor-Leste ) working together to sustain extraordinary marine and coastal resources by addressing crucial issues such as food security , climate change , and marine biodiversity .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_Triangle_Initiative","rank":42,"score":110919},{"content":"Title: Anacropora spinosa Content: Anacropora spinosa is a species of briar coral that can be found in the central Indo-Pacific , Southeast Asia , the Solomon Islands , Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west Pacific Ocean . It is also found in Rodrigues and the Andaman Islands . It occurs in shallow reefs , from depths of 5 -- 15 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease and reduction of coral reef habitats .","qid":"120","docid":"Anacropora_spinosa","rank":43,"score":110777},{"content":"Title: Acropora aculeus Content: Acropora aculeus is a species of acroporid corals found throughout the Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , southeast Asia , Japan and the East China Sea . It is also present in the western Pacific Ocean . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease , and crown-of-thorns starfish predation . It is also harvested for aquaria .","qid":"120","docid":"Acropora_aculeus","rank":44,"score":110350},{"content":"Title: Coral poaching Content: Coral poaching is the confiscation of highly valued coral species from protected areas for sale as many types of jewellery that could be sold of upwards to $ 1,800 per gram . The illegal removal of coral is one of the most major environmental issues in many counties of Eastern Asia that destroys valuable ecosystems that harbors marine life . The resulting effect of harvesting coral colonies causes a significant financial loss to the surrounding economies and the destruction of environments .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_poaching","rank":45,"score":109448},{"content":"Title: Acropora nasuta Content: Acropora nasuta is a species of branching stony coral in the family Acroporidae . It is native to the western and central Indo-Pacific where it is found in shallow reef habitats . Like other corals of the genus Acropora , it is susceptible to coral bleaching and coral diseases and the IUCN has listed it as being `` Near Threatened '' .","qid":"120","docid":"Acropora_nasuta","rank":46,"score":109267},{"content":"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .","qid":"120","docid":"Future_of_Earth","rank":47,"score":109056},{"content":"Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .","qid":"120","docid":"1997–98_El_Niño_event","rank":48,"score":108719},{"content":"Title: Seriatopora aculeata Content: Seriatopora aculeata is a species of colonial stony coral in the family Pocilloporidae . It forms a bushy clump . It is native to the Central Indo-Pacific and the Oceanic West Pacific . Its range includes the Philippines , the Great Barrier Reef , Fiji , Indonesia , the Coral Sea , southern Madagascar and Vanuatu . It grows in shallow reef environments , at depths down to about 40 m . It is an uncommon species and subject to coral diseases and bleaching . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the conservation status of this species as being `` vulnerable '' .","qid":"120","docid":"Seriatopora_aculeata","rank":49,"score":108692},{"content":"Title: Ordovician–Silurian extinction events Content: The Ordovician -- Silurian extinction events , when combined , are the second-largest of the five major extinction events in Earth 's history in terms of percentage of genera that became extinct . This event greatly affected marine communities , which caused the disappearance of one third of all brachiopod and bryozoan families , as well as numerous groups of conodonts , trilobites , and graptolites . The Ordovician-Silurian extinction occurred during the Hirnantian stage of the Ordovician Period and the subsequent Rhuddanian stage of the Silurian Period . The last event is dated in the interval of 455 -- 430 Ma ago , i.e. , lasting from the Middle Ordovician to Early Silurian , thus including the extinction period . This event was the first of the big five Phanerozoic events and was the first to significantly affect animal-based communities . Almost all major taxonomic groups were affected during this extinction event . Extinction was global during this period , eliminating 49-60 % of marine genera and nearly 85 % of marine species . Brachiopods , bivalves , echinoderms , bryozoans and corals were particularly affected . Prior to the late Ordovician cooling , temperatures were relatively warm and it is the suddenness of the climate changes and the elimination of habitats due to sea-level fall that are believed to have precipitated the extinctions . The falling sea level disrupted or eliminated habitats along the continental shelves . Evidence for the glaciation was found through deposits in the Sahara Desert . A combination of lowering of sea level and glacially driven cooling were likely driving agents for the Ordovician mass extinction .","qid":"120","docid":"Ordovician–Silurian_extinction_events","rank":50,"score":105554},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"120","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":51,"score":105532},{"content":"Title: Coral reef Content: Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals . Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups . The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria , which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones , corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps . Most reefs grow best in warm , shallow , clear , sunny and agitated waters . Often called `` rainforests of the sea '' , shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth . They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface , about half the area of France , yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Paradoxically , coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients . They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters , but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas . Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism , fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$ 29.8-375 billion . However , coral reefs are fragile ecosystems , partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature . They are under threat from climate change , oceanic acidification , blast fishing , cyanide fishing for aquarium fish , sunscreen use , overuse of reef resources , and harmful land-use practices , including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution , which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_reef","rank":52,"score":105474},{"content":"Title: Bird conservation Content: Bird conservation is a field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds . Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species . Over one hundred species have gone extinct in historical times , although the most dramatic human-caused extinctions occurred in the Pacific Ocean as humans colonised the islands of Melanesia , Polynesia and Micronesia , during which an estimated 750-1800 species of bird became extinct . According to Worldwatch Institute , many bird populations are currently declining worldwide , with 1,200 species facing extinction in the next century . The biggest cited reason surrounds habitat loss . Other threats include overhunting , accidental mortality due to structural collisions , long-line fishing bycatch , pollution , competition and predation by pet cats , oil spills and pesticide use and climate change . Governments , along with numerous conservation charities , work to protect birds in various ways , including legislation , preserving and restoring bird habitat , and establishing captive populations for reintroductions . See Late Quaternary prehistoric birds for birds which disappeared in prehistoric and early historic times , usually due to human activity ( i.e. , starting with the Upper Paleolithic Revolution ) . For birds having gone extinct in modern times ( since 1500 ) , see List of extinct birds .","qid":"120","docid":"Bird_conservation","rank":53,"score":105213},{"content":"Title: Coral Triangle Content: The Coral Triangle is a geographical term so named as it refers to a roughly triangular area of the tropical marine waters of Indonesia , Malaysia , Papua New Guinea , Philippines , Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste that contain at least 500 species of reef-building corals in each ecoregion . This region encompasses portions of two biogeographic regions : the Indonesian-Philippines Region , and the Far Southwestern Pacific Region . The Coral Triangle is recognized as the global centre of marine biodiversity and a global priority for conservation . It is also called the `` Amazon of the seas '' and covers 5.7 e6km2 of ocean waters . Its biological resources sustain the lives of over 120 million people . According to the Coral Triangle Knowledge Network , about $ 3 billion in fisheries exports and another $ 3 billion in coastal tourism revenues are derived as annual foreign exchange income in the region . The WWF considers the region a top priority for marine conservation , and the organization is addressing the threats it faces through its Coral Triangle Program , launched in 2007 .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_Triangle","rank":54,"score":105087},{"content":"Title: Coenothecalia Content: Coenothecalia ( also known as Helioporacea ) is an order of the subclass Octocorallia that forms massive lobed crystalline calcareous skeletons in colonial corals . These corals first appeared in the Cretaceous period . The blue coral ( Heliopora coerulea ) , the only species in the family Helioporidae , is most common in shallow water of the tropical Pacific and Indo-Pacific reefs . It has no spicule , and is the only octocoral known to produce a massive skeleton formed of fibrocrystalline aragonite fused into lamellae , similar to that of the Scleractinia ( stony corals ) . They form large colonies that can exceed a meter in diameter . They are composed of vertical branches , or folia . The surface of blue coral and similar species appears smooth and the color in life is a distinctive grey-brown with white tips . The entire skeleton , however , has an unusual blue color and therefore the species is commonly exploited for decorative uses . The blue color of the skeleton ( which is covered with a layer of brown polyps ) is caused by iron salts . Blue coral can be used in tropical aquaria , and the crystalline calcareous fibres in the skeletons can be used for jewelry . Individual polyps have eight feathery tentacles and , in the gastrovascular cavity , eight septa , or partitions . Cilia ( tiny hairlike projections ) on six septa draw water into the cavity . Cilia on the other two septa expel water . The skeleton consists of spicules that form a protective cup around each polyp . This order also includes the family Lithotelestidae .","qid":"120","docid":"Coenothecalia","rank":55,"score":104521},{"content":"Title: Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (biologist) Content: Ove Hoegh-Guldberg ( born 26 September 1959 , in Sydney , Australia ) , is the inaugural Director of the Global Change Institute at the University of Queensland , and the holder of a Queensland Smart State Premier fellowship ( 2008 -- 2013 ) . He studies climate change and coral reefs . Hoegh-Guldberg has appeared on television , including two Australian Story series profiling his life and work , and radio , and maintains a blog on coral reefs , politics and the environment . He is of Danish ancestry and is a direct descendant and namesake of Ove Høegh-Guldberg , a politician in late 18th Century Denmark .","qid":"120","docid":"Ove_Hoegh-Guldberg_(biologist)","rank":56,"score":103629},{"content":"Title: Seacology Content: Seacology is a nonprofit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) charitable organization headquartered in Berkeley , California , that works to preserve island ecosystems and cultures around the world . Founded in 1991 , it began with the work of ethnobotanist Paul Alan Cox , who researched tropical plants and their medicinal value in the village of Falealupo in Samoa during the mid-1980s . When the villagers were pressured into selling logging rights to their rainforest in 1988 to build a new school , Cox and his wife offered to help secure funds for the new school in return for an agreement with the villagers to protect their forest . With the help of his friends and family , Cox secured the funds within six months , later earning him and the village chief , Fuiono Senio , the Goldman Environmental Prize for their efforts . Word spread throughout the islands , and with increasing demand for similar projects , Cox , along with Bill Marré and Ken Murdock , decided to form Seacology and expand their work internationally . For the first few years , the organization operated on a volunteer basis . Duane Silverstein became the first employee in 1999 , and headquarters were relocated to Berkeley , not far from his residence . Because of the high risk of extinction for island fauna and the decline in coral reef ecosystems , Seacology 's primary focus is projects in which villagers sign contracts under which they agree to help protect either terrestrial or marine habitat for a specified time in return for new buildings or services . The operations are low-cost , averaging around US$ 20,000 to $ 25,000 . Construction is done with local labor and without the use of machinery . Seacology selects its projects by reviewing the recommendations of its field representatives and its scientific advisory board . By mid-2016 , Seacology had initiated more than 275 projects globally , and helped preserve 753456 acre of marine habitat and 615745 acre of terrestrial habitat . At the same time , they had helped construct 104 new facilities and provided 36 programs , which included educational materials , vital medical services , and environmental training . In addition to helping local people on islands like Fiji , Kendhoo , and many others , their projects have helped protect mangrove forests , sea turtles , dugongs , and one of the rarest primates in the world : the Hainan black crested gibbon . Seacology also awards an annual Seacology Prize to indigenous islanders for their efforts in conservation and cultural preservation . The organization helps support island communities by fostering ecotourism , and has helped raise emergency funds following destructive tsunamis . Its budget is modest , and it does not compensate its board members . It has won awards from Yahoo! and Travel + Leisure magazine , and has been featured in the music video `` What About Now '' by the American rock band Daughtry .","qid":"120","docid":"Seacology","rank":57,"score":103338},{"content":"Title: Reef Content: A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface . Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish .","qid":"120","docid":"Reef","rank":58,"score":103267},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"120","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":59,"score":102994},{"content":"Title: International Coral Reef Initiative Content: The International Coral Reef Initiative ( ICRI ) is an informal partnership among nations , international organisations and non-government organisations to help protect coral reefs globally . It aims to implement Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 , Aichi Target 10 of the Convention on Biological Diversity 's 10-year Strategic Plan , and other relevant internationally agreed objectives and targets . It does so by : raising global awareness on the plight of coral reefs around the world promoting the sharing of best practices in coral reef management and building capacity of coral reef managers around the world ensuring that coral reefs are included in relevant international deliberations . It is the `` only global entity solely devoted to coral reefs '' .","qid":"120","docid":"International_Coral_Reef_Initiative","rank":60,"score":102490},{"content":"Title: Halysitidae Content: Halysitidae is an extinct family of tabulate corals . These tabulate corals lived from Ordovician to Devonian ( from 471.8 to 412.3 Ma ) . Fossil corals of the family Halysitidae have been found in the sediments of Afghanistan , Canada , United States , Venezuela and Australia .","qid":"120","docid":"Halysitidae","rank":61,"score":101758},{"content":"Title: Mehmet Coral Content: Mehmet Gündüz Coral ( born 11 September 1947 ) is a Turkish novelist , known for his novels with historical settings . His works , such as Extinct Times of Byzantium ( author house/USA 2000 ) and The Lost Diaries of Constantinople ( DK Publishing 2008 ) , are also translated to foreign languages .","qid":"120","docid":"Mehmet_Coral","rank":62,"score":101568},{"content":"Title: Thomas J. Goreau Content: Thomas J. Goreau ( Tom Goreau , * in Jamaica ) is a biogeochemist and marine biologist ; son of Thomas F. Goreau and Nora I. Goreau . After studying in Jamaican primary and secondary schools , he earned degrees in planetary physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , in planetary astronomy at the California Institute of Technology , and in biogeochemistry at Harvard University ( Ph.D. ) . With his parents he researched the coral reefs of Jamaica , and continues to conduct research on the impacts of global climate change , pollution , and new diseases in reefs all across the Caribbean , Indian Ocean , and Pacific . His current work focuses on coral reef restoration , fisheries restoration , shore line protection , renewable energy , community based coral reef management , mariculture , soil metabolism , and stabilization of global carbon dioxide . He was formerly Senior Scientific Affairs Officer at the United Nations Centre for Science and Technology for Development . He is currently President of the Global Coral Reef Alliance .","qid":"120","docid":"Thomas_J._Goreau","rank":63,"score":101240},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"120","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":64,"score":101152},{"content":"Title: Robert O. Mendelsohn Content: Robert O. Mendelsohn ( born 1952 in New York City ) is an American environmental economist . He is currently the Edwin Weyerhaeuser Davis Professor of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University , Professor of Economics in Economics Department at Yale University and Professor in the School of Management at Yale University.Professor Mendelsohn is a major figure in the economics of global warming , being for example a contributor to the first Copenhagen Consensus report . Mendelsohn received a BA in economics from Harvard University in 1973 and obtained his Ph.D. in economics from Yale University in 1978 . Professor Mendelsohn has written over one hundred peer-reviewed articles and edited six books . The focus of his research has been the valuation of the environment . He has developed methods to value natural ecosystems including coral reefs , old-growth forests , non-timber forest products , ecotourism , and outdoor recreation . He has also developed methods to value pollution including emissions of criteria pollutants ( such as particulates and sulfur dioxide ) and hazardous waste sites . His most recent work values the impacts of greenhouse gases , including the effects of climate change on agriculture , forests , water resources , energy , and coasts . This research carefully integrates adaptation into impact assessment and has recently been extended to developing countries around the world . He has also been involved in studies of nonrenewable resources , forest management , and specifically carbon sequestration in forests .","qid":"120","docid":"Robert_O._Mendelsohn","rank":65,"score":101141},{"content":"Title: Coral Reefs (film) Content: Coral Reefs ( French title : Le Récif de corail ) is a 1938 French language motion picture adventure drama directed by Maurice Gleize . The screenplay was written by Charles Spaak , based on novel by Jean Martet . The film stars Jean Gabin , Michèle Morgan , Pierre Renoir and Gina Manès . It tells the story of a charged innocent Mexican sailor who escapes to a lagoon in the Pacific Ocean . He meets with a lonely girl in the woods , having an affair . However his current gunrunning operation is noticed by an earnest detective .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_Reefs_(film)","rank":66,"score":101114},{"content":"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .","qid":"120","docid":"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years","rank":67,"score":100537},{"content":"Title: Paraclinus cingulatus Content: Paraclinus cingulatus , the coral blenny , is a species of labrisomid blenny native to the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea from southern Florida to Honduras and through the Greater Antilles . It is an inhabitant of coral reefs and lives amongst rubble and can also be found in tide pools . This species can reach a length of 3 cm TL .","qid":"120","docid":"Paraclinus_cingulatus","rank":68,"score":100395},{"content":"Title: Coral Reef Restaurant Content: The Coral Reef Restaurant is a themed seafood restaurant in The Seas with Nemo & Friends , which is located in Epcot 's Future World . One entire wall of the restaurant consists of a glass window that is eight inches thick and that provides a view into an aquarium . While they eat , restaurant guests are able to watch tarpons , sharks , sea turtles , stingrays , groupers , and sometimes scuba divers in the six-million-gallon aquarium . Artist Kim Minichiello painted the underwater scene that appears on the restaurant 's menu covers . Ron Douglas 's cookbook America 's Most Wanted Recipes : Just Desserts includes two dishes from the Coral Reef Restaurant : the Baileys and Jack Daniel 's Mousse and the Chocolate Wave Cake . One reviewer from The Guardian compares the Coral Reef Restaurant to the Sci-Fi Dine-In Theater Restaurant in Disney 's Hollywood Studios , writing that both restaurants `` are great settings '' where `` eating is awful . '' In The Unofficial Guide to Walt Disney World with Kids 2015 , Bob Sehlinger , Liliane Opsomer , and Len Testa call the Coral Reef Restaurant one of the two most overpriced restaurants in Epcot , the other being Monsieur Paul . In Pauline Frommer 's Walt Disney World and Orlando , Jason Cochran writes of his experience of the Coral Reef Restaurant , saying , `` I had some of the worst food in my life ... although the setting rocks . '' In Beyond the Attractions : A Guide to Walt Disney World with Preschoolers , Lisa Battista calls the aquarium view `` incredible '' .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_Reef_Restaurant","rank":69,"score":99318},{"content":"Title: Brain coral Content: Brain coral is a common name given to corals in the family Mussidae , so called due to their generally spheroid shape and grooved surface which resembles a brain . Each head of coral is formed by a colony of genetically identical polyps which secrete a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate ; this makes them important coral reef builders like other stony corals in the order Scleractinia . Brain corals are found in shallow warm-water coral reefs in all the world 's oceans . They are part of the phylum Cnidaria , in a class called Anthozoa or `` flower animals '' . The lifespan of the largest brain corals is 900 years . Colonies can grow as large as 1.8 m ( 6 ft ) or more in height . Brain corals extend their tentacles to catch food at night . During the day , they use their tentacles for protection by wrapping them over the grooves on their surface . The surface is hard and offers good protection against fish or hurricanes . Branching corals , such as staghorn corals , grow more rapidly , but are more vulnerable to storm damage . Like other genera of corals , brain corals feed on small drifting animals , and also receive nutrients provided by the algae which live within their tissues . The behavior of one of the most common genera , Favia , is semiaggressive ; it will sting other corals with its extended sweeper tentacles during the night . The genus and species have not been defined through the scientific classification segment .","qid":"120","docid":"Brain_coral","rank":70,"score":99122},{"content":"Title: SECORE Content: SECORE ( SExual COral REproduction ) is an international non-profit organization focused on coral reef conservation . The group has over sixty supporters in North America , Europe and Japan , and comprises public aquariums , institutes , and universities . Founded in 2001 at the Rotterdam Zoo in the Netherlands , the organization has been developing methods of captive coral reproduction and preservation , citing studies that have predicted coral reefs could be extinct within decades due to climate change . Based on the coral reproduction research of Dr. Dirk Petersen at the Rotterdam Zoo ( The Netherlands ) , SECORE was born in 2002 . Petersen 's findings led to innovative techniques on the use sexual coral reproduction for coral reef conservation . Established by the aquarium community and coral conservation scientists , SECORE initially focused on ex situ conservation and later as well on reef restoration ( in situ conservation ) . In 2004 , Mike Brittsan , M.Sc. , of the Columbus Zoo & Aquarium joined SECORE to take over the leading role in the USA . Over the years , both institutions , the Rotterdam Zoo and the Columbus Zoo & Aquarium -- in collaboration with other organisations -- started a very successful workshop program not only to train experts in the SECORE techniques , but also to bring different institutions together for a common goal -- help saving the greatest marine ecosystem on our planet , the coral reef . SECORE supports excellent science in various fields , such as coral restoration , coral population genetics or coral cryopreservation . Together with its more than 60 supporting partner institutions , SECORE reaches millions of people to spread the word about the dramatic situation of our ocean and what we can do about it .","qid":"120","docid":"SECORE","rank":71,"score":98917},{"content":"Title: Syringoporidae Content: Syringoporidae is an extinct family of phaceloid tabulate coral . These tabulate corals lived from the Ordovician to the Permian period ( from 449.5 to 279.5 Ma ) . Fossils of species belonging to the Syringoporidae family have been found in the sediments of Europe , Russia , China , Japan , Thailand , Australia , Canada and United States .","qid":"120","docid":"Syringoporidae","rank":72,"score":98766},{"content":"Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .","qid":"120","docid":"Forests_for_the_21st_Century","rank":73,"score":98057},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in Sri Lanka Content: Environmental issues in Sri Lanka include large-scale logging of forests and degradation of mangroves , coral reefs and soil . Air pollution and water pollution are challenges for Sri Lanka since both cause negative health impacts . Insufficient waste management , especially in rural areas , leads to environmental pollution . Sri Lanka is also vulnerable to climate change impacts such as extreme weather events and sea level rise . Industrialization and population growth are major drivers of these environmental issues . A lack of public awareness and governmental guidelines intensify the problems .","qid":"120","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_Sri_Lanka","rank":74,"score":97973},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"120","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":75,"score":97915},{"content":"Title: Reef Check Content: Reef Check is an international non-governmental organization dedicated to the conservation of two reef ecosystems : tropical coral reefs and Californian rocky reefs . The Foundation is headquartered in Los Angeles , California , United States , but uses data from volunteer scuba diver teams in over 80 countries , ranging from Australia , Japan , to even Germany . It is the United Nations ' official coral reef monitoring program .","qid":"120","docid":"Reef_Check","rank":76,"score":97752},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"120","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":77,"score":97585},{"content":"Title: Sponge reef Content: Sponge reefs serve an important ecological function as habitat , breeding and nursery areas for fish and invertebrates . The reefs are currently threatened by the fishery , offshore oil and gas industries . Attempts are being made to protect these unique ecosystems through fishery closures and potentially the establishment of Marine Protected Areas ( MAPs ) around the sponge reefs . Hexactinellid sponge reefs were common in the Late Jurassic period , and were believed to have gone extinct during or shortly after the Cretaceous period . Living sponge reefs were discovered in the Queen Charlotte Basin ( QCB ) in 1987 -- 1988 , and were reported in the Georgia Basin ( GB ) in 2005 . These sponge reefs are considered to be `` living fossils '' .","qid":"120","docid":"Sponge_reef","rank":78,"score":97505},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"120","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":79,"score":97418},{"content":"Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .","qid":"120","docid":"Future_Evolution","rank":80,"score":97131},{"content":"Title: Colony collapse disorder Content: Colony collapse disorder ( CCD ) is the phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a colony disappear and leave behind a queen , plenty of food and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees and the queen . While such disappearances have occurred throughout the history of apiculture , and were known by various names ( disappearing disease , spring dwindle , May disease , autumn collapse , and fall dwindle disease ) , the syndrome was renamed colony collapse disorder in late 2006 in conjunction with a drastic rise in the number of disappearances of western honey bee ( Apis mellifera ) colonies in North America . European beekeepers observed similar phenomena in Belgium , France , the Netherlands , Greece , Italy , Portugal , and Spain , Switzerland and Germany , albeit to a lesser degree , and the Northern Ireland Assembly received reports of a decline greater than 50 % . Colony collapse disorder causes significant economic losses because many agricultural crops ( although no staple foods ) worldwide are pollinated by western honey bees . According to the Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , the worth of global crops with honey bee pollination was estimated at close to $ 200 billion in 2005 . Shortages of bees in the US have increased the cost to farmers renting them for pollination services by up to 20 % . In the six years leading up to 2013 , more than 10 million beehives were lost , often to CCD , nearly twice the normal rate of loss . To put this in perspective , according to U.N. FAO data , the world 's beehive stock rose from around 50 million in 1961 to around 83 million in 2014 , which is about 1.3 % average annual growth . Average annual growth has accelerated to 1.9 % since 2009 . Several possible causes for CCD have been proposed , but no single proposal has gained widespread acceptance among the scientific community . Suggested causes include : infections with Varroa and Acarapis mites ; malnutrition ; various pathogens ; genetic factors ; immunodeficiencies ; loss of habitat ; changing beekeeping practices ; or a combination of factors . A large amount of speculation has surrounded a family of pesticides called neonicotinoids as having caused CCD .","qid":"120","docid":"Colony_collapse_disorder","rank":81,"score":96974},{"content":"Title: Coral World Ocean Park Content: Coral World is a marine park located on the island of St. Thomas , U.S. Virgin Islands . The ocean park consists of an open-water system where water flows through each of the exhibits and back out to the ocean . Exhibits include the Caribbean Reef Encounter an 80,000 gallon circular tank open at the top for the natural elements to filter in . Marine Gardens which has 21 smaller tanks displaying ocean life in the Caribbean . Shark Shallows a nursery for adolescent sharks . A stingray pool where guests can feed the stingray after the presentation . Two turtle pools with rescued sea turtles . A touch pool with sea stars , couch , hermit crabs , sea cucumbers and sea urchins . The lorikeet aviary where you can feed lorikeets . A sea lion show that is held twice daily in Marine Gardens . And an Underwater Observatory Tower that goes down 20 feet under the ocean with windows for looking and watching ocean life in its natural habit . Gift shops and restaurants are also on site . Coral World was inaugurated in the 1970s . It has been one of St. Thomas ' most important tourist attractions since then . In September 1998 , workers at Coral World began to breed seahorses . In 2000 , the park was awarded the EPA Environmental Quality Award .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_World_Ocean_Park","rank":82,"score":96907},{"content":"Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .","qid":"120","docid":"Human_extinction","rank":83,"score":96570},{"content":"Title: Ambodivahibe Marine Reserve Content: Ambodivahibe Marine Reserve is a new marine protected area that was identified during a marine Rapid assessment ( RAP ) in the north-east of Madagascar as an unusually rich zone for marine biodiversity . A cool upwelling from the deep bay is thought to provide natural resilience to coral bleaching and this may explain the unusually pristine coral habitat . Category : Marine sanctuaries","qid":"120","docid":"Ambodivahibe_Marine_Reserve","rank":84,"score":96319},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"120","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":85,"score":95879},{"content":"Title: Halysites Content: Halysites ( meaning chain coral ) is an extinct genus of tabulate coral . Colonies range from less than one to tens of centimeters in diameter , and they fed upon plankton . These tabulate corals lived from Ordovician to Silurian ( from 449.5 to 412.3 Ma ) . Fossils of Halysites species have been found in the sediments of Canada , United States , Poland and Australia .","qid":"120","docid":"Halysites","rank":86,"score":95865},{"content":"Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"120","docid":"Lee_Hannah","rank":87,"score":95553},{"content":"Title: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific Content: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific ( CRISP ) is a French inter-ministerial project founded in 2002 . Its aims focus on developing a vision for the future for coral reef eco-systems and the communities that depend on them within the French overseas territories and Pacific Island developing countries . Programme coordination is provided by the CRISP Coordination Unit and a programme manager who is supported by scientific counselors . The programme is hosted by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community who is located in Nouméa , New-Caledonia . CRISP is under the institutional protection from the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme . It is a regional initiative that promotes the protection and sustainable management of the coral reefs of the Pacific island states .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_Reef_Initiative_for_the_South_Pacific","rank":88,"score":95389},{"content":"Title: Aquaculture of coral Content: Coral aquaculture , also known as coral farming or coral gardening , is the cultivation of corals for commercial purposes or coral reef restoration . Aquaculture is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs , which have been declining around the world . The process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying . Small corals are propagated in nurseries then replanted on the reef . Coral is farmed by coral farmers who live locally to the reefs and farm for reef conservation or for income . It is also farmed by scientists for research , by businesses for the supply of the live and ornamental coral trade , and by private aquarium hobbyists . __ TOC __","qid":"120","docid":"Aquaculture_of_coral","rank":89,"score":95284},{"content":"Title: Skeletal eroding band Content: Skeletal eroding band ( SEB ) is a disease of corals that appears a black or dark gray band that slowly advances over corals , leaving a spotted region of dead coral in its wake . It is the most common disease of corals in the Indian and Pacific Oceans , and is also found in the Red Sea . So far one agent has been clearly identified , the ciliate Halofolliculina corallasia . This makes SEB the first coral disease known to be caused by a protozoan . When H. corallasia divides , the daughter cells move to the leading edge of the dark band and produce a protective shell called a lorica . To do this , they drill into the coral 's limestone skeleton , killing coral polyps in the process . A disease with very similar symptoms has been found in the Caribbean Sea , but has been given a different name as it is caused by a different species in the genus Halofolliculina and occurs in a different type of environment .","qid":"120","docid":"Skeletal_eroding_band","rank":90,"score":94963},{"content":"Title: Favosites Content: Favosites is an extinct genus of tabulate coral characterized by polygonal closely packed corallites ( giving it the common name `` honeycomb coral '' ) . The walls between corallites are pierced by pores known as mural pores which allowed transfer of nutrients between polyps . Favosites , like all coral , thrived in warm sunlit seas , forming colorful reefs , feeding by filtering microscopic plankton with their stinging tentacles . The genus had a worldwide distribution from the Late Ordovician to Late Permian .","qid":"120","docid":"Favosites","rank":91,"score":94960},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"120","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":92,"score":94929},{"content":"Title: Defaunation Content: Defaunation is the loss of animals from ecological communities . The growth of the human population , combined with advances in harvesting technologies , has led to more intense and efficient exploitation of the environment . This has resulted in the depletion of large vertebrates from ecological communities , creating what has been termed `` empty forest '' . Defaunation differs from extinction ; it includes both the disappearance of species and declines in abundance . Defaunation effects were first implied at the Symposium of Plant-Animal Interactions at the University of Campinas , Brazil in 1988 in the context of neotropical forests . Since then , the term has gained broader usage in conservation biology as a global phenomenon . It is estimated that more than 50 percent of all wildlife has been lost in the last 40 years . in 2020 it is estimated that 68 % of the worlds wildlife will be lost . In South America , there is believed to be a 70 percent loss .","qid":"120","docid":"Defaunation","rank":93,"score":94781},{"content":"Title: Coral Triangle Day Content: The Coral Triangle Day was established on June 9 , to celebrate and raise awareness of the ocean conservation and protection , especially on the Coral Triangle , the world 's epicenter of marine biodiversity . Intended as an open-sourced event , the day is celebrated by individuals , organizations , and establishment concerned on the Coral Triangle . The Coral Triangle day was observed the first time on June 9 , 2012 , in conjunction with the World Oceans Day on June 8 .","qid":"120","docid":"Coral_Triangle_Day","rank":94,"score":94518},{"content":"Title: Bruno Van Peteghem Content: Bruno Van Peteghem ( born in New Caledonia ) was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2001 , for his campaign to place the island 's coral reef ( among the world 's largest and most unusual ) on UNESCO 's World Heritage List in order to protect the reef against destruction from nickel mining industries .","qid":"120","docid":"Bruno_Van_Peteghem","rank":95,"score":94457},{"content":"Title: Deep-water coral Content: The habitat of deep-water corals , also known as cold-water corals , extends to deeper , darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals , ranging from near the surface to the abyss , beyond 2000 m where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 C. Deep-water corals belong to the Phylum Cnidaria and are most often stony corals , but also include black and horny corals and soft corals including the Gorgonians ( sea fans ) . Like tropical corals , they provide habitat to other species , but deep-water corals do not require zooxanthellae to survive . While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species , only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs . Instead , they form aggregations called patches , banks , bioherms , massifs , thickets or groves . These aggregations are often referred to as `` reefs , '' but differ structurally and functionally . Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as `` mounds , '' which more accurately describes the large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off , rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates . Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs . Submarine communications cables and fishing methods such as bottom trawling tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs . The deep-water habitat is designated as a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan habitat .","qid":"120","docid":"Deep-water_coral","rank":96,"score":94234},{"content":"Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .","qid":"120","docid":"Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850","rank":97,"score":94233},{"content":"Title: Coralliozetus micropes Content: Coralliozetus micropes , the Scarletfin blenny , is a species of chaenopsid blenny found in coral reefs in the eastern central Pacific ocean . It can reach a maximum length of 4 cm TL . This species feeds primarily on zooplankton .","qid":"120","docid":"Coralliozetus_micropes","rank":98,"score":93851},{"content":"Title: Acropora dendrum Content: Acropora dendrum is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by Bassett-Smith in 1890 . Found in tropical , shallow reefs in areas of powerful waves at depths of 5 to , it is threatened by disease . The species is rated as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List , with a decreasing population . It is not common but found over a large area , and is listed on CITES Appendix II .","qid":"120","docid":"Acropora_dendrum","rank":99,"score":93757},{"content":"Title: Millepora dichotoma Content: Millepora dichotoma '' , the net fire coral , is a species of hydrozoan , consisting of a colony of polyps with a calcareous skeleton . Part of the metabolism of the fire coral relies on zooxanthellae included in their anatomy . They are found from the Red Sea to Samoa and South Africa . They form fan-shaped colonies up to 60 cm across , but clumps may be several metres across . Coloured mustard to olive-yellow , the fans form in a single plane . Feeding polyps snare plankton from the passing current along exposed portions of upper reef slopes up to 15 m depth , growing transverse to the prevailing current to ensure maximum exposure to passing foodstuff . The stinging nematocysts contain a toxin which causes painful burn-like wounds on contact . At worst , this may cause collapse in those with a severe allergic reaction . Skin irritation may continue for up to two weeks .","qid":"120","docid":"Millepora_dichotoma","rank":100,"score":93538}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral bleaching Content: Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel algae that lives inside their tissues . Normally , coral polyps live in an endosymbiotic relationship with the algae and that relationship is crucial for the coral and hence for the health of the whole reef . Bleached corals continue to live . But as the algae provide the coral with 90 % of its energy , after expelling the algae the coral begins to starve . Above-average sea water temperatures caused by global warming have been identified as a leading cause for coral bleaching worldwide . Between 2014 and 2016 , the longest global bleaching events ever were recorded . According to the United Nations Environment Programme , these bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale . In 2016 , bleaching hit 90 percent of coral on the Great Barrier Reef and killed 29 percent of the reef 's coral . In 2017 , the bleaching further expanded to areas of the park that were previously spared , such as the central one . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_bleaching\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 217668\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \\\"canaries in the coal mine,\\\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \\\"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\\\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_in_non-tropical_regions\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 191313\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 177567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \\\"under threat as never before\\\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \\\"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\\\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \\\"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\\\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Nations_Ocean_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 164891\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Yellow-band disease Content: Yellow-band disease ( similar to Yellow Blotch disease ) is a disease that attacks colonies of coral at a time when coral is already under stress from pollution , overfishing , and climate change . It is characterized by large blotches or patches of bleached , yellowed tissue on Caribbean scleractinian corals . Yellow-band disease is a bacterial infection that spreads over coral , causing the discolored bands of pale-yellow or white lesions along the surface of an infected coral colony . The lesions are the locations where the bacteria have killed the coral 's symbiotic photosynthetic algae , called zooxanthellae which are a major energy source for the coral . This cellular damage and the loss of its major energy source cause the coral to starve , and usually cause coral death . There is evidence that climate change could be worsening the disease .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Yellow-band_disease\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 148589\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Census of Coral Reefs Content: The Census of Coral Reefs ( CReefs ) is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that surveys the biodiversity of coral reef ecosystems internationally . The project works to study what species live in coral reef ecosystems , to develop standardized protocols for studying coral reef ecosystems , and to increase access to and exchange of information about coral reefs scattered throughout the globe . The CReefs project uses the implementation of autonomous reef-monitoring structures ( ARMS ) to study the species that inhabit coral reefs . These structures are placed on the sea floor in areas where coral reefs exist , where they are left for one year . At the end of the year , the ARMS is pulled to the surface , along with the species which have inhabited it , for analysis . Coral reefs are thought to be the most organically different of all marine ecosystems . Major declines in key reef ecosystems suggest a decline in reef population throughout the world due to environmental stresses . The vulnerability of coral reef ecosystems is expected to increase significantly in response to climate change . The reefs are also being threatened by induced coral bleaching , ocean acidification , sea-level rise , and changing storm tracks . Reef biodiversity could be in danger of being lost before it is even documented , and researchers will be left with a limited and poor understanding of these complex ecosystems . In an attempt to enhance global understanding of reef biodiversity , the goals of the CReefs Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems were to conduct a diverse global census of coral reef ecosystems . And increase access to and exchange of coral reef data throughout the world . Because coral reefs are the most diverse and among the most threatened of all marine ecosystems , there is great justification to learn more about them .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Census_of_Coral_Reefs\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 145128\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acanthastrea hillae Content: Acanthastrea hillae is a species of coral that can be found throughout Indo-Pacific waters . This species is moderately common , but is susceptible to coral bleaching and the global decline in coral reef habitat .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Acanthastrea_hillae\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 142977\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Resilience of coral reefs Content: The resilience of coral reefs is the biological ability of coral reefs to recover from natural disturbances such as storms and bleaching episodes . Resilience refers to the ability of biological or social systems to overcome pressures and stresses by maintaining key functions through resisting or adapting to change . Reef resistance measures how well coral reefs tolerate changes in ocean chemistry , sea level , and sea surface temperature . Reef resistance and resilience are important factors in coral reef recovery from the effects of ocean acidification . Natural reef resilience can be used as a recovery model for coral reefs and an opportunity for management in marine protected areas ( MPAs ) . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Resilience_of_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 135109\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest reef system , stretching along the East coast of Australia from the northern tip down to the town of Bundaberg , is composed of roughly 2,900 individual reefs and 940 islands and cays that stretch for 2,300 kilometres ( 1,616 mi ) and cover an area of approximately 344,400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland in northeast Australia . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . According to the 2014 report of the Australian Government 's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) , says that climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef , while the other major environmental pressures are listed as decreased water quality from land-based runoff , impacts from coastal development and some persistent impacts from fishing activities . The reef is also threatened by storms , coral bleaching and ocean acidification . The 2014 report also shows that , while numerous marine life species have recovered after previous declines , the strength of the dugong population is continuing to decline . Terry Hughes , Federation Fellow , ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University , wrote in a 14 August 2014 Conversation piece that harmful government policies and ongoing conflicts of interest over mining royalties are risks of an equivalent magnitude . The GBRMPA consider climate change , poor water quality , coastal development , and some impacts from fishing to be the area 's major threats , but reef scientists Jon Day , Bob Pressey , Jon Brodie and Hughes stated that the `` cumulative effects of many combined impacts '' is the real issue . In a Conversation Article , Mathieu Mongin , a biogeochemical modeller at CSIRO and colleagues mapped parts of the Great Barrier Reef that are most exposed to ocean acidification . This map of pH on the Great Barrier Reef presents the exposure to ocean acidification on each of the 3,581 reefs , providing managers with the information they need to tailor management to individual reefs . The Great Barrier Reef is not a singular reef nor a physical barrier that prevents exchange between reefs ; it is a mixture of thousands of productive reefs and shallow areas lying on a continental shelf with complex oceanic circulation .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_threats_to_the_Great_Barrier_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 134580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 132837\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: African coral reefs Content: African coral reefs are coral reefs mainly found along the south and east coasts of Africa . The east coast corals extend from the Red Sea to Madagascar in the south , and are an important resource for the fishersmen of Kenya , Tanzania and Madagascar . As with coral reefs elsewhere , African coral reefs are more biologically diverse than the surrounding ocean , and support species such as the mantis shrimp , potato grouper , humphead wrasse and maxima clam , as well as many seaweeds and corals . On the east coast , temperatures average about 26 C over the year . The average rainfall is highest between January to April , at about 300 mm , and lowest during August to November , at about 100 mm . There are multiple threats to the reefs , such a tourist diving and damaging the corals , or taking samples . Then there are industrial run-offs and pollutants , untreated sewage and the increasing sediment flows in rivers that threaten all of the coastal ecosystems . The reef is also threatened by climate change . Due to global warming , the sea surface temperature increases and in 1997/98 a particularly severe ` El Nino ' killed 90 percent of corals on the reef . The CORDIO ( COral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean ) NGO have set up an East African task force to monitor the reef 's management .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"African_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 131400\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Reef Alliance Content: The Coral Reef Alliance ( CORAL ) is a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco , California , that partners with local reef communities around the world to protect coral reefs . CORAL was founded in Berkeley , California , in 1994 by Stephen Colwell , and is currently headed by Dr. Michael Webster . With 19 % of the world 's coral reefs already destroyed and another 35 % at immediate risk or threatened due to human pressures , organizations like CORAL are addressing an urgent need .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Reef_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 130682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acanthastrea regularis Content: Acanthastrea regularis is a species of coral found in Indo-Pacific waters from Australia to the western Pacific Ocean . It is usually uncommon throughout its range , but can be more common locally . It has a narrow depth range , and so is susceptible to coral bleaching and disease . It is also threatened by the global decline in coral reef habitats .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Acanthastrea_regularis\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 128623\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: White pox disease Content: White pox disease ( also `` acroporid serratiosis '' and `` patchy necrosis '' ) , first noted in 1996 on coral reefs near the Florida keys , is a coral disease affecting Elkhorn coral ( Acropora palmata ) throughout the Caribbean . It causes irregular white patches or blotches on the coral that result from the loss of coral tissue . These patches distinguish white pox disease from white band disease which produces a distinctive white band where the coral skeleton has been denuded . The blotches caused by this disease are also clearly differentiated from coral bleaching and scars caused by coral-eating snails . It is very contagious , spreading to nearby coral . At the locations where white pox disease has been observed , it is estimated to have reduced the living tissue in elkhorn corals by 50 -- 80 % . In the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary ( FKNMS ) , the losses of living coral are estimated to average around 88 % . Elkhorn coral was formerly the dominant shallow water reef-building coral throughout the Caribbean but now is listed as a threatened , due in part to disease . Elkhorn coral is the first species of coral to be listed as threatened in the United States , Also due in part to this disease .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"White_pox_disease\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 128594\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acanthastrea brevis Content: Acanthastrea brevis is a vulnerable species of stony coral found in reef habitats at depths of 1 -- 20 m . It is threatened by habitat loss and crown-of-thorns starfish predation . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Acanthastrea_brevis\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 127269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acanthastrea ishigakiensis Content: Acanthastrea ishigakiensis is a species of coral found in Indo-Pacific waters . It is widespread but uncommon throughout its range . It has a narrow depth range , and is susceptible to coral bleaching and disease . It is also threatened by the global loss of coral reef habitats .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Acanthastrea_ishigakiensis\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 127100\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Goniastrea stelligera Content: Goniastrea stelligera , commonly known as knob coral , is a species of stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs in shallow water on the coast of East Africa and in the Indo-Pacific region . This is a common species of coral but it seems to be decreasing in abundance . The main threat it faces is from the destruction of its coral reef habitat , and it is also moderately susceptible to coral bleaching , so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being `` near threatened '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Goniastrea_stelligera\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 126774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Reef Adventure Content: Coral Reef Adventure is a 70mm American documentary film released in 2003 to IMAX theaters . It is narrated by actor Liam Neeson , and directed by Greg MacGillivray . Embarking on a 10-month expedition through the islands of the South Pacific , husband and wife underwater photography-duo Michele and Howard Hall explore the declining reefs and failing health of the world 's oceans . From Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , to a friend 's coral reef-sustained village in Fiji , the diving expeditions show a range of coral reefs , from flourishing ones filled with unusual and exotic inhabitants , to vast stretches of bleached coral decline which prompted the Hall 's activism . Along their journey , scientists working to understand and save the reefs meet with the Hall 's . Jean-Michel Cousteau , son of the famed oceanographer Jacques Cousteau , also makes an appearance , as do well-known dive guide and singer Rusi Vulakoro , brother of Vude singer Laisa Vulakoro , who guides the Halls in their dive adventure . This documentary film is the third oceanic , ecologically-themed IMAX production from director MacGillivray , after The Living Sea and Dolphins . Crosby Stills & Nash contribute to the film 's soundtrack . The Giant Screen Theater Association named it the best film achievement of 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Reef_Adventure\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 126609\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral reef protection Content: Coral reef protection is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy coral reefs and to help damaged reefs recover . The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health . One management technique is to create Marine Protected Areas ( MPAs ) that directly limit human activities such as fishing . It takes approximately 10 thousand years for coral polyps to form a reef , and between 100,000 and 30 million years for a fully mature reef to form .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_reef_protection\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 123498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Southeast Asian coral reefs Content: Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world 's marine ecosystems . They serve many functions , such as forming the livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials . Coral reefs are developed by the carbonate-based skeletons of a variety of animals and algae . Slowly and overtime , the reefs build up to the surface in oceans . Coral reefs are found in shallow , warm salt water . The sunlight filters through clear water and allows microscopic organisms to live and reproduce . The Indian Ocean holds 60 % of the world 's coastal reefs , 25 % are in the Pacific and 15 % are in the western Atlantic . There are coral reefs in the Persian Gulf , Madagascar , the Philippines , Hawaiian Islands and off Southeast Asia . Coral reefs have been preserved and identified in rocks over 400 million years old . Coral reefs are actually composed of tiny , fragile animals known as coral polyps . Coral reefs are significantly important because of the biodiversity . Although the number of fish are decreasing , the remaining coral reefs contain more unique sea creatures . The variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than anywhere else in the world . An estimation of 70-90 % of fish caught are dependent on coral reefs in Southeast Asia and reefs support over 25 % of all known marine species . However , those sensitive coral reefs are facing detrimental effects on them due to variety of factors : overfishing , sedimentation and pollution , bleaching , and even tourist-related damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 123011\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oyster reef restoration Content: Oyster reef restoration refers to the process of rebuilding or restoring of oyster reefs all over the globe . Over time , oysters have been negatively affected by environmental change , such as harmful fishing techniques , over harvesting , water pollution , and other factors . The results of these factors have been disease and ultimately , a large decline in the global population of oysters and the prevalence and sustainability of oyster reefs . Apart from the ecological importance of oyster reefs , oyster farming is an important industry , particularly in coastal areas . Both artificial materials and natural components have been used to rebuild the reefs in an attempt to regenerate the oyster population thus fostering the reformation of reefs .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Oyster_reef_restoration\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 122051\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Barrier Reef: Biology, Environment and Management Content: The Great Barrier Reef : Biology , Environment and Management is a 2007 book by Pat Hutchings , Mike Kingsford and Ove Hoegh-Guldberg . It describes the organisms and ecosystems of Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , and the biological , chemical and physical processes that influence them . Issues discussed include climate change , coral bleaching , coral disease and coral reef fishing . The book includes a field guide to help people identify the common animals and plants on the reef . The book has illustrations and contributions from 33 international experts . Pat Hutchings is a Senior Principal Research Scientist at the Australian Museum . Michael Kingsford is the Head of School of Marine Biology and Aquaculture at James Cook University . Ove Hoegh-Guldberg is the Director of the Centre for Marine Studies at the University of Queensland .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Barrier_Reef:_Biology,_Environment_and_Management\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 121878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef is the world 's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2300 km over an area of approximately 344400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland , Australia . The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world 's biggest single structure made by living organisms . This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms , known as coral polyps . It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981 . CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world . The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which helps to limit the impact of human use , such as fishing and tourism . Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff , climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching , and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish . According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985 . The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples , and is an important part of local groups ' cultures and spirituality . The reef is a very popular destination for tourists , especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions . Tourism is an important economic activity for the region , generating over AUD$ 3 billion per year . In November 2014 , Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef . A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought , seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures . In October 2016 , Outside published an obituary for the reef ; the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef . In March 2017 , the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of a 800-kilometre ( 500 mi ) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures , an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Great_Barrier_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 121761\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Impacts of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef Content: Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs . The Great Barrier Reef , considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot , is located in Australia . Similar to other coral reefs , it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification . Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which is taken up by the ocean . This process can increase sea surface temperature , decrease aragonite , and lower the pH of the ocean . Calcifying organisms are under risk , due to the resulting lack of aragonite in the water and the decreasing pH. This decreased health of coral reefs , particularly the Great Barrier Reef , can result in reduced biodiversity . Organisms can become stressed due to ocean acidification and the disappearance of healthy coral reefs , such as the Great Barrier Reef , is a loss of habitat for several taxa .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_on_the_Great_Barrier_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 121701\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Holocene extinction Content: The Holocene extinction , otherwise referred to as the Sixth extinction or Anthropocene extinction , is the ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch , mainly due to human activity . The large number of extinctions spans numerous families of plants and animals , including mammals , birds , amphibians , reptiles and arthropods . With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforest , as well as other areas , the vast majority of these extinctions is thought to be undocumented . According to the species-area theory , and based on upper-bound estimating , the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year , making it the greatest loss of biodiversity since the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event . The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna , starting at the end of the last Ice Age . Megafauna outside of the African continent , which did not evolve alongside humans , proved highly sensitive to the introduction of new predation , and many died out shortly after early humans began spreading and hunting across the Earth ( additionally , many African species have also gone extinct in the Holocene ) . These extinctions , occurring near the Pleistocene -- Holocene boundary , are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event . The arrival of humans on different continents coincides with megafaunal extinction . The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species added to existing stress conditions . Although there is debate regarding how much human predation affected their decline , certain population declines have been directly correlated with human activity , such as the extinction events of New Zealand and Hawaii . Aside from humans , climate change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions , especially at the end of the Quaternary . The ecology of humanity has been noted as being that of an unprecedented `` global superpredator '' that regularly preys on the adults of other apex predators and has worldwide effects on food webs . Extinctions of species have occurred on every land mass and ocean , with many famous examples within Africa , Asia , Europe , Australia , North and South America , and on smaller islands . Overall , the Holocene extinction can be characterized by the human impact on the environment . The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century , with meat consumption , overfishing , ocean acidification and the amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal , cosmopolitan decline in biodiversity . A ballooning human population along with profligate consumption are considered to be the primary drivers of this rapid decline .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Holocene_extinction\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 121264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Porites nodifera Content: Porites nodifera , also known as Dome Coral , is a species of stony coral in the Poritidae family . In the Persian Gulf , Porites spp. , including Porites nodifera are the dominant corals present . This may be as a result of coral bleaching affecting Acropora spp . to a greater extent , and Porites filling in resulting gaps in the reef .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Porites_nodifera\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 120295\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alveopora fenestrata Content: Alveopora fenestrata is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia and the oceanic west Pacific Ocean . It can be found in shallow coral reefs , to a depth of 30 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Alveopora_fenestrata\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 119339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acropora acuminata Content: Acropora acuminata is a species of acroporid coral found in Australia , the Red Sea , the central Indo-Pacific , Japan , the northern Indian Ocean , the East China Sea , southeast Asia , and the western Pacific Ocean . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , the crown-of-thorns sea star ( Acanthaster planci ) , and harvesting for the aquarium trade . It is found on shallow coral reefs from depths of 5 -- 20 m . It was described by Verrill in 1864 .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Acropora_acuminata\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 118957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alveopora viridis Content: Alveopora viridis is a species of stony coral that has a highly disjunct range , and can be found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the northern Indian Ocean and in Palau and the Mariana Islands . It is found on lower coral reef slopes to depths of 50 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and is harvested for the aquarium trade .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Alveopora_viridis\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 118275\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral reef fish Content: Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs . Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity . Among the myriad inhabitants , the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch . Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef , many of them hidden or well camouflaged . Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs . Coral reefs occupy less than one percent of the surface area of the world oceans , but still they provide a home for 25 percent of all marine fish species . Reef habitats are a sharp contrast to the open water habitats that make up the other 99 % of the world oceans . However , loss and degradation of coral reef habitat , increasing pollution , and overfishing including the use of destructive fishing practices , are threatening the survival of the coral reefs and the associated reef fish .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_reef_fish\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 117006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 116364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alveopora allingi Content: Alveopora allingi is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean . It has also been found in Palau and the Mariana Islands . It is susceptible to coral bleaching and is rated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as a `` vulnerable species '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Alveopora_allingi\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 115973\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acropora hemprichii Content: Acropora hemprichii is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg in 1834 . Found in shallow reefs in marine environments , this species occurs at depths of 3 to , and lives for between 13 and 24 years . The species is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List , and has a decreasing population . It is common with a wide range , and is listed on Appendix II of CITES .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Acropora_hemprichii\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 114863\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Platygyra daedalea Content: Platygyra daedalea , sometimes known as the lesser valley coral , is a colonial species of stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow water in the Indo-Pacific region . It is a common species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of `` least concern '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Platygyra_daedalea\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 114740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kimbe Bay Content: Kimbe Bay is a large bay in West New Britain Province , off the northern coast of New Britain , Papua New Guinea , at . Kimbe Bay is an important biodiversity hotspot . 60 percent of the coral species of the entire Indo-Pacific region live here . Kimbe Bay is the home of more than 860 coral reef fish species . Because of a massive die-off of coral worldwide due to pollution , human activities , and global warming , Kimbe Bay has become increasingly important , since it is seen as one of the last holdouts for coral should the degradation continue . Efforts are currently underway to limit the human impact on the bay . Due to its beauty it is also a popular diving site .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Kimbe_Bay\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 114597\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alveopora verrilliana Content: Alveopora verrilliana is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan , the East China Sea , the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean and the Johnston Atoll . It can also be found in Palau and the southern Mariana Islands . It grows on shallow coral reefs to a depth of 30 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and is harvested for the aquarium trade .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Alveopora_verrilliana\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 114222\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acropora abrotanoides Content: Acropora abrotanoides is a species of acroporid coral found in Indo-Pacific waters from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden east to the East China Sea , the central Pacific Ocean and Australia . It is found in shallow coral reefs to a maximum depth of 10 -- 15 m . It is vulnerable to coral bleaching , disease and crown-of-thorns starfish . It is resistant to predation as it has well-developed radial corallite lips . It was described by Lamarck in 1816 .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Acropora_abrotanoides\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 114182\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Carnian_Pluvial_Event\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 114032\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anacropora puertogalerae Content: Anacropora puertogalerae is a species of briar coral that can be found in the central Indo-Pacific , Japan , the East China Sea , eastern Australia , the oceanic west Pacific Ocean , the Philippines and the Maldives . It is also found in the Andaman Islands , Rodrigues , Fiji and Vanuatu . It occurs in shallow reefs , from depths of 5 -- 20 m . It is very fragile , and is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease and habitat loss .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Anacropora_puertogalerae\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 113582\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alveopora spongiosa Content: Alveopora spongiosa is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean . It can be found on protected upper coral reef slopes , generally from depth of 9 -- 20 m , but can grow at depths of up to 50 m . It is moderately susceptible to coral bleaching , and is harvested for the aquarium trade .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Alveopora_spongiosa\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 113212\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decline in amphibian populations Content: The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide . Since the 1980s , decreases in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world . These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity , and several causes are believed to be involved , including disease , habitat destruction and modification , exploitation , pollution , pesticide use , introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation ( UV-B ) . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research . Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000 -- 45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation . Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s , awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s . By 1993 , more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline . Today , the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction , with severe implications for global biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Decline_in_amphibian_populations\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 111733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Triangle Initiative Content: The Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs , Fisheries , and Food Security ( CTI-CFF ) , also shortly known as the Coral Triangle Initiative ( CTI ) , is a multilateral partnership of six countries ( Indonesia , Malaysia , Philippines , Papua New Guinea , Solomon Islands , Timor-Leste ) working together to sustain extraordinary marine and coastal resources by addressing crucial issues such as food security , climate change , and marine biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Triangle_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 110919\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anacropora spinosa Content: Anacropora spinosa is a species of briar coral that can be found in the central Indo-Pacific , Southeast Asia , the Solomon Islands , Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west Pacific Ocean . It is also found in Rodrigues and the Andaman Islands . It occurs in shallow reefs , from depths of 5 -- 15 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease and reduction of coral reef habitats .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Anacropora_spinosa\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 110777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acropora aculeus Content: Acropora aculeus is a species of acroporid corals found throughout the Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , southeast Asia , Japan and the East China Sea . It is also present in the western Pacific Ocean . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease , and crown-of-thorns starfish predation . It is also harvested for aquaria .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Acropora_aculeus\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 110350\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral poaching Content: Coral poaching is the confiscation of highly valued coral species from protected areas for sale as many types of jewellery that could be sold of upwards to $ 1,800 per gram . The illegal removal of coral is one of the most major environmental issues in many counties of Eastern Asia that destroys valuable ecosystems that harbors marine life . The resulting effect of harvesting coral colonies causes a significant financial loss to the surrounding economies and the destruction of environments .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_poaching\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 109448\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acropora nasuta Content: Acropora nasuta is a species of branching stony coral in the family Acroporidae . It is native to the western and central Indo-Pacific where it is found in shallow reef habitats . Like other corals of the genus Acropora , it is susceptible to coral bleaching and coral diseases and the IUCN has listed it as being `` Near Threatened '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Acropora_nasuta\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 109267\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 109056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"1997–98_El_Niño_event\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 108719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seriatopora aculeata Content: Seriatopora aculeata is a species of colonial stony coral in the family Pocilloporidae . It forms a bushy clump . It is native to the Central Indo-Pacific and the Oceanic West Pacific . Its range includes the Philippines , the Great Barrier Reef , Fiji , Indonesia , the Coral Sea , southern Madagascar and Vanuatu . It grows in shallow reef environments , at depths down to about 40 m . It is an uncommon species and subject to coral diseases and bleaching . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the conservation status of this species as being `` vulnerable '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Seriatopora_aculeata\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 108692\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ordovician–Silurian extinction events Content: The Ordovician -- Silurian extinction events , when combined , are the second-largest of the five major extinction events in Earth 's history in terms of percentage of genera that became extinct . This event greatly affected marine communities , which caused the disappearance of one third of all brachiopod and bryozoan families , as well as numerous groups of conodonts , trilobites , and graptolites . The Ordovician-Silurian extinction occurred during the Hirnantian stage of the Ordovician Period and the subsequent Rhuddanian stage of the Silurian Period . The last event is dated in the interval of 455 -- 430 Ma ago , i.e. , lasting from the Middle Ordovician to Early Silurian , thus including the extinction period . This event was the first of the big five Phanerozoic events and was the first to significantly affect animal-based communities . Almost all major taxonomic groups were affected during this extinction event . Extinction was global during this period , eliminating 49-60 % of marine genera and nearly 85 % of marine species . Brachiopods , bivalves , echinoderms , bryozoans and corals were particularly affected . Prior to the late Ordovician cooling , temperatures were relatively warm and it is the suddenness of the climate changes and the elimination of habitats due to sea-level fall that are believed to have precipitated the extinctions . The falling sea level disrupted or eliminated habitats along the continental shelves . Evidence for the glaciation was found through deposits in the Sahara Desert . A combination of lowering of sea level and glacially driven cooling were likely driving agents for the Ordovician mass extinction .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Ordovician–Silurian_extinction_events\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 105554\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 105532\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral reef Content: Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals . Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups . The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria , which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones , corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps . Most reefs grow best in warm , shallow , clear , sunny and agitated waters . Often called `` rainforests of the sea '' , shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth . They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface , about half the area of France , yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Paradoxically , coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients . They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters , but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas . Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism , fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$ 29.8-375 billion . However , coral reefs are fragile ecosystems , partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature . They are under threat from climate change , oceanic acidification , blast fishing , cyanide fishing for aquarium fish , sunscreen use , overuse of reef resources , and harmful land-use practices , including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution , which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_reef\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 105474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bird conservation Content: Bird conservation is a field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds . Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species . Over one hundred species have gone extinct in historical times , although the most dramatic human-caused extinctions occurred in the Pacific Ocean as humans colonised the islands of Melanesia , Polynesia and Micronesia , during which an estimated 750-1800 species of bird became extinct . According to Worldwatch Institute , many bird populations are currently declining worldwide , with 1,200 species facing extinction in the next century . The biggest cited reason surrounds habitat loss . Other threats include overhunting , accidental mortality due to structural collisions , long-line fishing bycatch , pollution , competition and predation by pet cats , oil spills and pesticide use and climate change . Governments , along with numerous conservation charities , work to protect birds in various ways , including legislation , preserving and restoring bird habitat , and establishing captive populations for reintroductions . See Late Quaternary prehistoric birds for birds which disappeared in prehistoric and early historic times , usually due to human activity ( i.e. , starting with the Upper Paleolithic Revolution ) . For birds having gone extinct in modern times ( since 1500 ) , see List of extinct birds .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Bird_conservation\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 105213\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Triangle Content: The Coral Triangle is a geographical term so named as it refers to a roughly triangular area of the tropical marine waters of Indonesia , Malaysia , Papua New Guinea , Philippines , Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste that contain at least 500 species of reef-building corals in each ecoregion . This region encompasses portions of two biogeographic regions : the Indonesian-Philippines Region , and the Far Southwestern Pacific Region . The Coral Triangle is recognized as the global centre of marine biodiversity and a global priority for conservation . It is also called the `` Amazon of the seas '' and covers 5.7 e6km2 of ocean waters . Its biological resources sustain the lives of over 120 million people . According to the Coral Triangle Knowledge Network , about $ 3 billion in fisheries exports and another $ 3 billion in coastal tourism revenues are derived as annual foreign exchange income in the region . The WWF considers the region a top priority for marine conservation , and the organization is addressing the threats it faces through its Coral Triangle Program , launched in 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Triangle\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 105087\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coenothecalia Content: Coenothecalia ( also known as Helioporacea ) is an order of the subclass Octocorallia that forms massive lobed crystalline calcareous skeletons in colonial corals . These corals first appeared in the Cretaceous period . The blue coral ( Heliopora coerulea ) , the only species in the family Helioporidae , is most common in shallow water of the tropical Pacific and Indo-Pacific reefs . It has no spicule , and is the only octocoral known to produce a massive skeleton formed of fibrocrystalline aragonite fused into lamellae , similar to that of the Scleractinia ( stony corals ) . They form large colonies that can exceed a meter in diameter . They are composed of vertical branches , or folia . The surface of blue coral and similar species appears smooth and the color in life is a distinctive grey-brown with white tips . The entire skeleton , however , has an unusual blue color and therefore the species is commonly exploited for decorative uses . The blue color of the skeleton ( which is covered with a layer of brown polyps ) is caused by iron salts . Blue coral can be used in tropical aquaria , and the crystalline calcareous fibres in the skeletons can be used for jewelry . Individual polyps have eight feathery tentacles and , in the gastrovascular cavity , eight septa , or partitions . Cilia ( tiny hairlike projections ) on six septa draw water into the cavity . Cilia on the other two septa expel water . The skeleton consists of spicules that form a protective cup around each polyp . This order also includes the family Lithotelestidae .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coenothecalia\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 104521\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (biologist) Content: Ove Hoegh-Guldberg ( born 26 September 1959 , in Sydney , Australia ) , is the inaugural Director of the Global Change Institute at the University of Queensland , and the holder of a Queensland Smart State Premier fellowship ( 2008 -- 2013 ) . He studies climate change and coral reefs . Hoegh-Guldberg has appeared on television , including two Australian Story series profiling his life and work , and radio , and maintains a blog on coral reefs , politics and the environment . He is of Danish ancestry and is a direct descendant and namesake of Ove Høegh-Guldberg , a politician in late 18th Century Denmark .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Ove_Hoegh-Guldberg_(biologist)\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 103629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seacology Content: Seacology is a nonprofit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) charitable organization headquartered in Berkeley , California , that works to preserve island ecosystems and cultures around the world . Founded in 1991 , it began with the work of ethnobotanist Paul Alan Cox , who researched tropical plants and their medicinal value in the village of Falealupo in Samoa during the mid-1980s . When the villagers were pressured into selling logging rights to their rainforest in 1988 to build a new school , Cox and his wife offered to help secure funds for the new school in return for an agreement with the villagers to protect their forest . With the help of his friends and family , Cox secured the funds within six months , later earning him and the village chief , Fuiono Senio , the Goldman Environmental Prize for their efforts . Word spread throughout the islands , and with increasing demand for similar projects , Cox , along with Bill Marré and Ken Murdock , decided to form Seacology and expand their work internationally . For the first few years , the organization operated on a volunteer basis . Duane Silverstein became the first employee in 1999 , and headquarters were relocated to Berkeley , not far from his residence . Because of the high risk of extinction for island fauna and the decline in coral reef ecosystems , Seacology 's primary focus is projects in which villagers sign contracts under which they agree to help protect either terrestrial or marine habitat for a specified time in return for new buildings or services . The operations are low-cost , averaging around US$ 20,000 to $ 25,000 . Construction is done with local labor and without the use of machinery . Seacology selects its projects by reviewing the recommendations of its field representatives and its scientific advisory board . By mid-2016 , Seacology had initiated more than 275 projects globally , and helped preserve 753456 acre of marine habitat and 615745 acre of terrestrial habitat . At the same time , they had helped construct 104 new facilities and provided 36 programs , which included educational materials , vital medical services , and environmental training . In addition to helping local people on islands like Fiji , Kendhoo , and many others , their projects have helped protect mangrove forests , sea turtles , dugongs , and one of the rarest primates in the world : the Hainan black crested gibbon . Seacology also awards an annual Seacology Prize to indigenous islanders for their efforts in conservation and cultural preservation . The organization helps support island communities by fostering ecotourism , and has helped raise emergency funds following destructive tsunamis . Its budget is modest , and it does not compensate its board members . It has won awards from Yahoo! and Travel + Leisure magazine , and has been featured in the music video `` What About Now '' by the American rock band Daughtry .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Seacology\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 103338\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef Content: A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface . Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 103267\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 102994\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Coral Reef Initiative Content: The International Coral Reef Initiative ( ICRI ) is an informal partnership among nations , international organisations and non-government organisations to help protect coral reefs globally . It aims to implement Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 , Aichi Target 10 of the Convention on Biological Diversity 's 10-year Strategic Plan , and other relevant internationally agreed objectives and targets . It does so by : raising global awareness on the plight of coral reefs around the world promoting the sharing of best practices in coral reef management and building capacity of coral reef managers around the world ensuring that coral reefs are included in relevant international deliberations . It is the `` only global entity solely devoted to coral reefs '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Coral_Reef_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 102490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Halysitidae Content: Halysitidae is an extinct family of tabulate corals . These tabulate corals lived from Ordovician to Devonian ( from 471.8 to 412.3 Ma ) . Fossil corals of the family Halysitidae have been found in the sediments of Afghanistan , Canada , United States , Venezuela and Australia .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Halysitidae\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 101758\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mehmet Coral Content: Mehmet Gündüz Coral ( born 11 September 1947 ) is a Turkish novelist , known for his novels with historical settings . His works , such as Extinct Times of Byzantium ( author house/USA 2000 ) and The Lost Diaries of Constantinople ( DK Publishing 2008 ) , are also translated to foreign languages .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Mehmet_Coral\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 101568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thomas J. Goreau Content: Thomas J. Goreau ( Tom Goreau , * in Jamaica ) is a biogeochemist and marine biologist ; son of Thomas F. Goreau and Nora I. Goreau . After studying in Jamaican primary and secondary schools , he earned degrees in planetary physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , in planetary astronomy at the California Institute of Technology , and in biogeochemistry at Harvard University ( Ph.D. ) . With his parents he researched the coral reefs of Jamaica , and continues to conduct research on the impacts of global climate change , pollution , and new diseases in reefs all across the Caribbean , Indian Ocean , and Pacific . His current work focuses on coral reef restoration , fisheries restoration , shore line protection , renewable energy , community based coral reef management , mariculture , soil metabolism , and stabilization of global carbon dioxide . He was formerly Senior Scientific Affairs Officer at the United Nations Centre for Science and Technology for Development . He is currently President of the Global Coral Reef Alliance .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Thomas_J._Goreau\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 101240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 101152\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert O. Mendelsohn Content: Robert O. Mendelsohn ( born 1952 in New York City ) is an American environmental economist . He is currently the Edwin Weyerhaeuser Davis Professor of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University , Professor of Economics in Economics Department at Yale University and Professor in the School of Management at Yale University.Professor Mendelsohn is a major figure in the economics of global warming , being for example a contributor to the first Copenhagen Consensus report . Mendelsohn received a BA in economics from Harvard University in 1973 and obtained his Ph.D. in economics from Yale University in 1978 . Professor Mendelsohn has written over one hundred peer-reviewed articles and edited six books . The focus of his research has been the valuation of the environment . He has developed methods to value natural ecosystems including coral reefs , old-growth forests , non-timber forest products , ecotourism , and outdoor recreation . He has also developed methods to value pollution including emissions of criteria pollutants ( such as particulates and sulfur dioxide ) and hazardous waste sites . His most recent work values the impacts of greenhouse gases , including the effects of climate change on agriculture , forests , water resources , energy , and coasts . This research carefully integrates adaptation into impact assessment and has recently been extended to developing countries around the world . He has also been involved in studies of nonrenewable resources , forest management , and specifically carbon sequestration in forests .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_O._Mendelsohn\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 101141\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Reefs (film) Content: Coral Reefs ( French title : Le Récif de corail ) is a 1938 French language motion picture adventure drama directed by Maurice Gleize . The screenplay was written by Charles Spaak , based on novel by Jean Martet . The film stars Jean Gabin , Michèle Morgan , Pierre Renoir and Gina Manès . It tells the story of a charged innocent Mexican sailor who escapes to a lagoon in the Pacific Ocean . He meets with a lonely girl in the woods , having an affair . However his current gunrunning operation is noticed by an earnest detective .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Reefs_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 101114\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 100537\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paraclinus cingulatus Content: Paraclinus cingulatus , the coral blenny , is a species of labrisomid blenny native to the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea from southern Florida to Honduras and through the Greater Antilles . It is an inhabitant of coral reefs and lives amongst rubble and can also be found in tide pools . This species can reach a length of 3 cm TL .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Paraclinus_cingulatus\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 100395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Reef Restaurant Content: The Coral Reef Restaurant is a themed seafood restaurant in The Seas with Nemo & Friends , which is located in Epcot 's Future World . One entire wall of the restaurant consists of a glass window that is eight inches thick and that provides a view into an aquarium . While they eat , restaurant guests are able to watch tarpons , sharks , sea turtles , stingrays , groupers , and sometimes scuba divers in the six-million-gallon aquarium . Artist Kim Minichiello painted the underwater scene that appears on the restaurant 's menu covers . Ron Douglas 's cookbook America 's Most Wanted Recipes : Just Desserts includes two dishes from the Coral Reef Restaurant : the Baileys and Jack Daniel 's Mousse and the Chocolate Wave Cake . One reviewer from The Guardian compares the Coral Reef Restaurant to the Sci-Fi Dine-In Theater Restaurant in Disney 's Hollywood Studios , writing that both restaurants `` are great settings '' where `` eating is awful . '' In The Unofficial Guide to Walt Disney World with Kids 2015 , Bob Sehlinger , Liliane Opsomer , and Len Testa call the Coral Reef Restaurant one of the two most overpriced restaurants in Epcot , the other being Monsieur Paul . In Pauline Frommer 's Walt Disney World and Orlando , Jason Cochran writes of his experience of the Coral Reef Restaurant , saying , `` I had some of the worst food in my life ... although the setting rocks . '' In Beyond the Attractions : A Guide to Walt Disney World with Preschoolers , Lisa Battista calls the aquarium view `` incredible '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Reef_Restaurant\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 99318\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brain coral Content: Brain coral is a common name given to corals in the family Mussidae , so called due to their generally spheroid shape and grooved surface which resembles a brain . Each head of coral is formed by a colony of genetically identical polyps which secrete a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate ; this makes them important coral reef builders like other stony corals in the order Scleractinia . Brain corals are found in shallow warm-water coral reefs in all the world 's oceans . They are part of the phylum Cnidaria , in a class called Anthozoa or `` flower animals '' . The lifespan of the largest brain corals is 900 years . Colonies can grow as large as 1.8 m ( 6 ft ) or more in height . Brain corals extend their tentacles to catch food at night . During the day , they use their tentacles for protection by wrapping them over the grooves on their surface . The surface is hard and offers good protection against fish or hurricanes . Branching corals , such as staghorn corals , grow more rapidly , but are more vulnerable to storm damage . Like other genera of corals , brain corals feed on small drifting animals , and also receive nutrients provided by the algae which live within their tissues . The behavior of one of the most common genera , Favia , is semiaggressive ; it will sting other corals with its extended sweeper tentacles during the night . The genus and species have not been defined through the scientific classification segment .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Brain_coral\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 99122\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SECORE Content: SECORE ( SExual COral REproduction ) is an international non-profit organization focused on coral reef conservation . The group has over sixty supporters in North America , Europe and Japan , and comprises public aquariums , institutes , and universities . Founded in 2001 at the Rotterdam Zoo in the Netherlands , the organization has been developing methods of captive coral reproduction and preservation , citing studies that have predicted coral reefs could be extinct within decades due to climate change . Based on the coral reproduction research of Dr. Dirk Petersen at the Rotterdam Zoo ( The Netherlands ) , SECORE was born in 2002 . Petersen 's findings led to innovative techniques on the use sexual coral reproduction for coral reef conservation . Established by the aquarium community and coral conservation scientists , SECORE initially focused on ex situ conservation and later as well on reef restoration ( in situ conservation ) . In 2004 , Mike Brittsan , M.Sc. , of the Columbus Zoo & Aquarium joined SECORE to take over the leading role in the USA . Over the years , both institutions , the Rotterdam Zoo and the Columbus Zoo & Aquarium -- in collaboration with other organisations -- started a very successful workshop program not only to train experts in the SECORE techniques , but also to bring different institutions together for a common goal -- help saving the greatest marine ecosystem on our planet , the coral reef . SECORE supports excellent science in various fields , such as coral restoration , coral population genetics or coral cryopreservation . Together with its more than 60 supporting partner institutions , SECORE reaches millions of people to spread the word about the dramatic situation of our ocean and what we can do about it .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"SECORE\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 98917\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Syringoporidae Content: Syringoporidae is an extinct family of phaceloid tabulate coral . These tabulate corals lived from the Ordovician to the Permian period ( from 449.5 to 279.5 Ma ) . Fossils of species belonging to the Syringoporidae family have been found in the sediments of Europe , Russia , China , Japan , Thailand , Australia , Canada and United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Syringoporidae\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 98766\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Forests_for_the_21st_Century\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 98057\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in Sri Lanka Content: Environmental issues in Sri Lanka include large-scale logging of forests and degradation of mangroves , coral reefs and soil . Air pollution and water pollution are challenges for Sri Lanka since both cause negative health impacts . Insufficient waste management , especially in rural areas , leads to environmental pollution . Sri Lanka is also vulnerable to climate change impacts such as extreme weather events and sea level rise . Industrialization and population growth are major drivers of these environmental issues . A lack of public awareness and governmental guidelines intensify the problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_Sri_Lanka\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 97973\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 97915\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef Check Content: Reef Check is an international non-governmental organization dedicated to the conservation of two reef ecosystems : tropical coral reefs and Californian rocky reefs . The Foundation is headquartered in Los Angeles , California , United States , but uses data from volunteer scuba diver teams in over 80 countries , ranging from Australia , Japan , to even Germany . It is the United Nations ' official coral reef monitoring program .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_Check\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 97752\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 97585\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sponge reef Content: Sponge reefs serve an important ecological function as habitat , breeding and nursery areas for fish and invertebrates . The reefs are currently threatened by the fishery , offshore oil and gas industries . Attempts are being made to protect these unique ecosystems through fishery closures and potentially the establishment of Marine Protected Areas ( MAPs ) around the sponge reefs . Hexactinellid sponge reefs were common in the Late Jurassic period , and were believed to have gone extinct during or shortly after the Cretaceous period . Living sponge reefs were discovered in the Queen Charlotte Basin ( QCB ) in 1987 -- 1988 , and were reported in the Georgia Basin ( GB ) in 2005 . These sponge reefs are considered to be `` living fossils '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Sponge_reef\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 97505\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 97418\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_Evolution\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 97131\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Colony collapse disorder Content: Colony collapse disorder ( CCD ) is the phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a colony disappear and leave behind a queen , plenty of food and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees and the queen . While such disappearances have occurred throughout the history of apiculture , and were known by various names ( disappearing disease , spring dwindle , May disease , autumn collapse , and fall dwindle disease ) , the syndrome was renamed colony collapse disorder in late 2006 in conjunction with a drastic rise in the number of disappearances of western honey bee ( Apis mellifera ) colonies in North America . European beekeepers observed similar phenomena in Belgium , France , the Netherlands , Greece , Italy , Portugal , and Spain , Switzerland and Germany , albeit to a lesser degree , and the Northern Ireland Assembly received reports of a decline greater than 50 % . Colony collapse disorder causes significant economic losses because many agricultural crops ( although no staple foods ) worldwide are pollinated by western honey bees . According to the Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , the worth of global crops with honey bee pollination was estimated at close to $ 200 billion in 2005 . Shortages of bees in the US have increased the cost to farmers renting them for pollination services by up to 20 % . In the six years leading up to 2013 , more than 10 million beehives were lost , often to CCD , nearly twice the normal rate of loss . To put this in perspective , according to U.N. FAO data , the world 's beehive stock rose from around 50 million in 1961 to around 83 million in 2014 , which is about 1.3 % average annual growth . Average annual growth has accelerated to 1.9 % since 2009 . Several possible causes for CCD have been proposed , but no single proposal has gained widespread acceptance among the scientific community . Suggested causes include : infections with Varroa and Acarapis mites ; malnutrition ; various pathogens ; genetic factors ; immunodeficiencies ; loss of habitat ; changing beekeeping practices ; or a combination of factors . A large amount of speculation has surrounded a family of pesticides called neonicotinoids as having caused CCD .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Colony_collapse_disorder\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 96974\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral World Ocean Park Content: Coral World is a marine park located on the island of St. Thomas , U.S. Virgin Islands . The ocean park consists of an open-water system where water flows through each of the exhibits and back out to the ocean . Exhibits include the Caribbean Reef Encounter an 80,000 gallon circular tank open at the top for the natural elements to filter in . Marine Gardens which has 21 smaller tanks displaying ocean life in the Caribbean . Shark Shallows a nursery for adolescent sharks . A stingray pool where guests can feed the stingray after the presentation . Two turtle pools with rescued sea turtles . A touch pool with sea stars , couch , hermit crabs , sea cucumbers and sea urchins . The lorikeet aviary where you can feed lorikeets . A sea lion show that is held twice daily in Marine Gardens . And an Underwater Observatory Tower that goes down 20 feet under the ocean with windows for looking and watching ocean life in its natural habit . Gift shops and restaurants are also on site . Coral World was inaugurated in the 1970s . It has been one of St. Thomas ' most important tourist attractions since then . In September 1998 , workers at Coral World began to breed seahorses . In 2000 , the park was awarded the EPA Environmental Quality Award .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_World_Ocean_Park\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 96907\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_extinction\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 96570\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ambodivahibe Marine Reserve Content: Ambodivahibe Marine Reserve is a new marine protected area that was identified during a marine Rapid assessment ( RAP ) in the north-east of Madagascar as an unusually rich zone for marine biodiversity . A cool upwelling from the deep bay is thought to provide natural resilience to coral bleaching and this may explain the unusually pristine coral habitat . Category : Marine sanctuaries\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Ambodivahibe_Marine_Reserve\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 96319\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 95879\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Halysites Content: Halysites ( meaning chain coral ) is an extinct genus of tabulate coral . Colonies range from less than one to tens of centimeters in diameter , and they fed upon plankton . These tabulate corals lived from Ordovician to Silurian ( from 449.5 to 412.3 Ma ) . Fossils of Halysites species have been found in the sediments of Canada , United States , Poland and Australia .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Halysites\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 95865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Lee_Hannah\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 95553\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific Content: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific ( CRISP ) is a French inter-ministerial project founded in 2002 . Its aims focus on developing a vision for the future for coral reef eco-systems and the communities that depend on them within the French overseas territories and Pacific Island developing countries . Programme coordination is provided by the CRISP Coordination Unit and a programme manager who is supported by scientific counselors . The programme is hosted by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community who is located in Nouméa , New-Caledonia . CRISP is under the institutional protection from the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme . It is a regional initiative that promotes the protection and sustainable management of the coral reefs of the Pacific island states .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Reef_Initiative_for_the_South_Pacific\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 95389\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aquaculture of coral Content: Coral aquaculture , also known as coral farming or coral gardening , is the cultivation of corals for commercial purposes or coral reef restoration . Aquaculture is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs , which have been declining around the world . The process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying . Small corals are propagated in nurseries then replanted on the reef . Coral is farmed by coral farmers who live locally to the reefs and farm for reef conservation or for income . It is also farmed by scientists for research , by businesses for the supply of the live and ornamental coral trade , and by private aquarium hobbyists . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Aquaculture_of_coral\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 95284\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Skeletal eroding band Content: Skeletal eroding band ( SEB ) is a disease of corals that appears a black or dark gray band that slowly advances over corals , leaving a spotted region of dead coral in its wake . It is the most common disease of corals in the Indian and Pacific Oceans , and is also found in the Red Sea . So far one agent has been clearly identified , the ciliate Halofolliculina corallasia . This makes SEB the first coral disease known to be caused by a protozoan . When H. corallasia divides , the daughter cells move to the leading edge of the dark band and produce a protective shell called a lorica . To do this , they drill into the coral 's limestone skeleton , killing coral polyps in the process . A disease with very similar symptoms has been found in the Caribbean Sea , but has been given a different name as it is caused by a different species in the genus Halofolliculina and occurs in a different type of environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Skeletal_eroding_band\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 94963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Favosites Content: Favosites is an extinct genus of tabulate coral characterized by polygonal closely packed corallites ( giving it the common name `` honeycomb coral '' ) . The walls between corallites are pierced by pores known as mural pores which allowed transfer of nutrients between polyps . Favosites , like all coral , thrived in warm sunlit seas , forming colorful reefs , feeding by filtering microscopic plankton with their stinging tentacles . The genus had a worldwide distribution from the Late Ordovician to Late Permian .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Favosites\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 94960\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 94929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Defaunation Content: Defaunation is the loss of animals from ecological communities . The growth of the human population , combined with advances in harvesting technologies , has led to more intense and efficient exploitation of the environment . This has resulted in the depletion of large vertebrates from ecological communities , creating what has been termed `` empty forest '' . Defaunation differs from extinction ; it includes both the disappearance of species and declines in abundance . Defaunation effects were first implied at the Symposium of Plant-Animal Interactions at the University of Campinas , Brazil in 1988 in the context of neotropical forests . Since then , the term has gained broader usage in conservation biology as a global phenomenon . It is estimated that more than 50 percent of all wildlife has been lost in the last 40 years . in 2020 it is estimated that 68 % of the worlds wildlife will be lost . In South America , there is believed to be a 70 percent loss .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Defaunation\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 94781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Triangle Day Content: The Coral Triangle Day was established on June 9 , to celebrate and raise awareness of the ocean conservation and protection , especially on the Coral Triangle , the world 's epicenter of marine biodiversity . Intended as an open-sourced event , the day is celebrated by individuals , organizations , and establishment concerned on the Coral Triangle . The Coral Triangle day was observed the first time on June 9 , 2012 , in conjunction with the World Oceans Day on June 8 .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Triangle_Day\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 94518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bruno Van Peteghem Content: Bruno Van Peteghem ( born in New Caledonia ) was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2001 , for his campaign to place the island 's coral reef ( among the world 's largest and most unusual ) on UNESCO 's World Heritage List in order to protect the reef against destruction from nickel mining industries .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Bruno_Van_Peteghem\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 94457\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deep-water coral Content: The habitat of deep-water corals , also known as cold-water corals , extends to deeper , darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals , ranging from near the surface to the abyss , beyond 2000 m where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 C. Deep-water corals belong to the Phylum Cnidaria and are most often stony corals , but also include black and horny corals and soft corals including the Gorgonians ( sea fans ) . Like tropical corals , they provide habitat to other species , but deep-water corals do not require zooxanthellae to survive . While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species , only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs . Instead , they form aggregations called patches , banks , bioherms , massifs , thickets or groves . These aggregations are often referred to as `` reefs , '' but differ structurally and functionally . Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as `` mounds , '' which more accurately describes the large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off , rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates . Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs . Submarine communications cables and fishing methods such as bottom trawling tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs . The deep-water habitat is designated as a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan habitat .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Deep-water_coral\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 94234\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 94233\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coralliozetus micropes Content: Coralliozetus micropes , the Scarletfin blenny , is a species of chaenopsid blenny found in coral reefs in the eastern central Pacific ocean . It can reach a maximum length of 4 cm TL . This species feeds primarily on zooplankton .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Coralliozetus_micropes\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 93851\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acropora dendrum Content: Acropora dendrum is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by Bassett-Smith in 1890 . Found in tropical , shallow reefs in areas of powerful waves at depths of 5 to , it is threatened by disease . The species is rated as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List , with a decreasing population . It is not common but found over a large area , and is listed on CITES Appendix II .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Acropora_dendrum\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 93757\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Millepora dichotoma Content: Millepora dichotoma '' , the net fire coral , is a species of hydrozoan , consisting of a colony of polyps with a calcareous skeleton . Part of the metabolism of the fire coral relies on zooxanthellae included in their anatomy . They are found from the Red Sea to Samoa and South Africa . They form fan-shaped colonies up to 60 cm across , but clumps may be several metres across . Coloured mustard to olive-yellow , the fans form in a single plane . Feeding polyps snare plankton from the passing current along exposed portions of upper reef slopes up to 15 m depth , growing transverse to the prevailing current to ensure maximum exposure to passing foodstuff . The stinging nematocysts contain a toxin which causes painful burn-like wounds on contact . At worst , this may cause collapse in those with a severe allergic reaction . Skin irritation may continue for up to two weeks .\",\n \"qid\": \"120\",\n \"docid\": \"Millepora_dichotoma\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 93538\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":58,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"the warming is not nearly as great as the climate change computer models have predicted."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"123","docid":"Global_warming","rank":1,"score":103290},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":2,"score":99369},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_Argentina","rank":3,"score":98939},{"content":"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .","qid":"123","docid":"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":4,"score":96808},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"123","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":5,"score":95972},{"content":"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_model","rank":6,"score":95609},{"content":"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_South_Korea","rank":7,"score":95399},{"content":"Title: Syukuro Manabe Content: is a meteorologist and climatologist who pioneered the use of computers to simulate global climate change and natural climate variations .","qid":"123","docid":"Syukuro_Manabe","rank":8,"score":93540},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"123","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":9,"score":93402},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"123","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":10,"score":92999},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change","rank":11,"score":92885},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":12,"score":92861},{"content":"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .","qid":"123","docid":"The_Weather_of_the_Future","rank":13,"score":91857},{"content":"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .","qid":"123","docid":"Mark_Z._Jacobson","rank":14,"score":91781},{"content":"Title: Navy Global Environmental Model Content: The Navy Global Environmental Model ( NAVGEM ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer simulation run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the NWS 's Global Forecast System , which runs out to 16 days , the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) and the CMC 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) , both of which run out 10 days , and the UK Met Office 's Unified Model , which runs out to 6 days , it is one of five synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The NAVGEM became operational in February 2013 , replacing the NOGAPS . It uses the same forecast range as the NOGAPS did ( three-hour intervals out 180 hours ) but also uses a refurbished dynamic core and improvements to the physics simulations compared to its predecessor . Category : Numerical climate and weather models Category : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration","qid":"123","docid":"Navy_Global_Environmental_Model","rank":15,"score":91699},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"123","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":16,"score":91047},{"content":"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .","qid":"123","docid":"Simon_Tett","rank":17,"score":90517},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .","qid":"123","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia","rank":18,"score":90488},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"123","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":19,"score":89339},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":20,"score":89110},{"content":"Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .","qid":"123","docid":"Jonathan_M._Gregory","rank":21,"score":89107},{"content":"Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link","qid":"123","docid":"Vicky_Pope","rank":22,"score":88595},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"123","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":23,"score":88337},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"123","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":24,"score":88242},{"content":"Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .","qid":"123","docid":"Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera","rank":25,"score":88135},{"content":"Title: DICE model Content: The Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy model , referred to as the DICE model or Dice model , is a computer-based integrated assessment model developed by William Nordhaus that `` integrates in an end-to-end fashion the economics , carbon cycle , climate science , and impacts in a highly aggregated model that allows a weighing of the costs and benefits of taking steps to slow greenhouse warming . '' Nordhaus also developed the RICE model ( Regional Integrated Climate-Economy model ) , a variant of the DICE model that was updated and developed alongside the DICE model . Others who collaborated with Nordhaus to develop the model include David Popp , Zili Yang , Joseph Boyer , and other colleagues . The DICE model is one of the three main integrated assessment models used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency , and it provides estimates intermediate between the other two models .","qid":"123","docid":"DICE_model","rank":26,"score":87860},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_Zealand","rank":27,"score":87804},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"123","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":28,"score":87744},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"123","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":29,"score":87361},{"content":"Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .","qid":"123","docid":"Ecological_forecasting","rank":30,"score":87338},{"content":"Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .","qid":"123","docid":"General_circulation_model","rank":31,"score":87259},{"content":"Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_scenario","rank":32,"score":87166},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"123","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":33,"score":87129},{"content":"Title: EdGCM Content: The Educational Global Climate Model or EdGCM is a fully functional global climate model ( GCM ) that has been ported for use on desktop computers ( Windows PCs and Macs ) . It operates through a graphical user interface and is integrated with a relational database and scientific visualization utllities , all of which aim at helping improve the quality of teaching and understanding of climatology by making real-world research experiences more accessible . EdGCM is designed to permit teachers and students to conduct in-depth investigations of past , present and future climate scenarios in a manner that is essentially identical to the techniques used by national and international climate research organizations . EdGCM was developed at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies as a joint project of Columbia University and NASA scientists and programmers . The Global Climate Model at the core of EdGCM is GISS Model II . During the 1980s and early 1990s this GCM was one of NASA 's primary climate research tools . Results from the model have appeared in hundreds of scientific publications . The coarser resolution of the climate model in EdGCM ( 8 ° x 10 ° , latitude x longitude ) makes it inexpensive to run . But , because it contains most of the key atmospheric physics of modern GCMs , EdGCM is also used by climate researchers who do not have access to the most recent GCM versions .","qid":"123","docid":"EdGCM","rank":34,"score":87014},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"123","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":35,"score":86239},{"content":"Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .","qid":"123","docid":"Global_warming_game","rank":36,"score":85618},{"content":"Title: Numerical weather prediction Content: Numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions . Though first attempted in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results . A number of global and regional forecast models are run in different countries worldwide , using current weather observations relayed from radiosondes , weather satellites and other observing systems as inputs . Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions ; the latter are widely applied for understanding and projecting climate change . The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts ; however , atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area , such as wildfires . Manipulating the vast datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to only about six days . Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts , along with deficiencies in the numerical models themselves . Post-processing techniques such as model output statistics ( MOS ) have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions . A more fundamental problem lies in the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations that govern the atmosphere . It is impossible to solve these equations exactly , and small errors grow with time ( doubling about every five days ) . Present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to about 14 days even with perfectly accurate input data and a flawless model . In addition , the partial differential equations used in the model need to be supplemented with parameterizations for solar radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , and the effects of terrain . In an effort to quantify the large amount of inherent uncertainty remaining in numerical predictions , ensemble forecasts have been used since the 1990s to help gauge the confidence in the forecast , and to obtain useful results farther into the future than otherwise possible . This approach analyzes multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model or multiple models .","qid":"123","docid":"Numerical_weather_prediction","rank":37,"score":85533},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_Texas","rank":38,"score":85378},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":39,"score":85348},{"content":"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .","qid":"123","docid":"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle","rank":40,"score":85207},{"content":"Title: PRECIS Content: PRECIS ( Providing REgional Climates for Impacts Studies , pronounced pray-sea ) is developed at the Hadley Centre at the UK Met Office , PRECIS is a regional climate modelling system designed to run on a Linux based PC . PRECIS can be applied to any area of the globe to generate detailed climate change projections .","qid":"123","docid":"PRECIS","rank":41,"score":85125},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":42,"score":84890},{"content":"Title: James Annan Content: James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .","qid":"123","docid":"James_Annan","rank":43,"score":84652},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"123","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":44,"score":84462},{"content":"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .","qid":"123","docid":"Antarctica_cooling_controversy","rank":45,"score":84439},{"content":"Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .","qid":"123","docid":"Petar_Gburčik","rank":46,"score":84289},{"content":"Title: Transient climate simulation Content: A transient climate simulation is a mode of running a global climate model ( GCM ) in which a period of time ( typically 1850 -- 2100 ) is simulated with continuously-varying concentrations of greenhouse gases so that the climate of the model represents a realistic mode of possible change in the real world .","qid":"123","docid":"Transient_climate_simulation","rank":47,"score":83941},{"content":"Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .","qid":"123","docid":"The_Great_Warming","rank":48,"score":83853},{"content":"Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .","qid":"123","docid":"John_F._B._Mitchell","rank":49,"score":83717},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"123","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":50,"score":83443},{"content":"Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .","qid":"123","docid":"Fate_of_the_World","rank":51,"score":83256},{"content":"Title: Climateprediction.net Content: Climateprediction.net ( CPDN ) is a distributed computing project to investigate and reduce uncertainties in climate modelling . It aims to do this by running hundreds of thousands of different models ( a large climate ensemble ) using the donated idle time of ordinary personal computers , thereby leading to a better understanding of how models are affected by small changes in the many parameters known to influence the global climate . The project relies on the volunteer computing model using the BOINC framework where voluntary participants agree to run some processes of the project at the client-side in their personal computers after receiving tasks from the server-side for treatment . CPDN , which is run primarily by Oxford University in England , has harnessed more computing power and generated more data than any other climate modelling project . It has produced over 100 million model years of data so far . , there are more than 12,000 active participants from 223 countries with a total BOINC credit of more than 27 billion , reporting about 55 teraflops ( 55 trillion operations per second ) of processing power .","qid":"123","docid":"Climateprediction.net","rank":52,"score":83109},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"123","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":53,"score":82911},{"content":"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model Content: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by Fleet Numerical . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) it is one of several synoptic scale medium-range models in general use .","qid":"123","docid":"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System_Model","rank":54,"score":82854},{"content":"Title: Dynamic global vegetation model Content: A Dynamic Global Vegetation Model ( DGVM ) is a computer program that simulates shifts in potential vegetation and its associated biogeochemical and hydrological cycles as a response to shifts in climate . DGVMs use time series of climate data and , given constraints of latitude , topography , and soil characteristics , simulate monthly or daily dynamics of ecosystem processes . DGVMs are used most often to simulate the effects of future climate change on natural vegetation and its carbon and water cycles . DGVMs generally combine biogeochemistry , biogeography , and disturbance submodels . Disturbance is often limited to wildfires , but in principle could include any of : forest/land management decisions , windthrow , insect damage , ozone damage etc. . DGVMs usually `` spin up '' their simulations from bare ground to `` equilibrium '' vegetation to establish realistic initial values for their various `` pools '' : carbon and nitrogen in live and dead vegetation , soil organic matter , etc. corresponding to a documented historical vegetation cover . DGVMs are usually run in a spatially distributed mode , with simulations carried out for thousands of `` cells '' , geographic points which are assumed to have homogeneous conditions within each cell . Simulations are carried out across a range of spatial scales , from global to landscape . Cells are usually arranged as lattice points ; the distance between adjacent lattice points may be as coarse as a few degrees of latitude or longitude , or as fine as 30 arc-seconds . Simulations of the conterminous United States in the first DGVM comparison exercise ( LPJ and MC1 ) called the VEMAP project in the 1990s used a lattice grain of one-half degree . Global simulations by the PIK group and collaborators using 6 different DGVMs ( HYBRID , IBIS , LPJ , SDGVM , TRIFFID , and VECODE ) used the same resolution as the general circulation model ( GCM ) that provided the climate data , 3.75 deg longitude x 2.5 deg latitude , a total of 1631 land grid cells . Sometimes lattice distances are specified in kilometers rather than angular measure , especially for finer grains , so a project like VEMAP is often referred to as 50 km grain . Several DGVMs appeared in the middle 1990s . The first was apparently IBIS ( Foley et al. , 1996 ) , VECODE ( Brovkin et al. , 1997 ) , followed by several others described below : Several DGVMs have been developed by various research groups around the world : LPJ - Germany , Sweden IBIS - Integrated Biosphere Simulator - U.S. MC1 - U.S. HYBRID - U.K. SDGVM - U.K. SEIB-DGVM - Japan TRIFFID - U.K. VECODE - Germany CLM-DVGM - U.S. Ecosystem Demography ( ED , ED2 ) The next generation of models - earth system models ( ex . CCSM , ORCHIDEE , JULES , CTEM ) - now includes the important feedbacks from the biosphere to the atmosphere so that vegetation shifts and changes in the carbon and hydrological cycles affect the climate . DGVMs commonly simulate a variety of plant and soil physiological processes . The processes simulated by various DGVMs are summarized in the table below . Abbreviations are : NPP , net primary production ; PFT , plant functional type ; SAW , soil available water ; LAI , leaf area index ; I , solar radiation ; T , air temperature ; Wr , root zone water supply ; PET , potential evapotranspiration ; vegc , total live vegetation carbon . References : Category : Scientific modeling","qid":"123","docid":"Dynamic_global_vegetation_model","rank":55,"score":82687},{"content":"Title: CLIVAR Content: CLIVAR ( climate variability and predictability ) is a component of the World Climate Research Programme . Its purpose is to describe and understand climate variability and predictability on seasonal to centennial time-scales , identify the physical processes responsible for climate change and develop modeling and predictive capabilities for climate modelling .","qid":"123","docid":"CLIVAR","rank":56,"score":82480},{"content":"Title: Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Content: The Copernicus Climate Change Service ( C3S ) is one of the six thematic services provided by the European Union 's Copernicus Programme . The Copernicus Programme is managed by the European Commission and the C3S is implemented by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) and is expected to become operational in 2018 . The objective of the Copernicus Climate Change Service is to build an EU knowledge base in support of mitigation and adaptation policies for Climate Change and Global Warming . The goal of the operational Climate Change service is to provide reliable information about the current and past state of the climate , the forecasts on a seasonal time scale , and the more likely projections in the coming decades for various scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions and other Climate Change contributors .","qid":"123","docid":"Copernicus_Climate_Change_Service_(C3S)","rank":57,"score":82178},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"123","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":58,"score":81911},{"content":"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .","qid":"123","docid":"Cloud_feedback","rank":59,"score":81702},{"content":"Title: Climate Forecast System Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Forecast System or Coupled Forecast System ( both names abbreviated CFS ) is a medium to long range numerical weather prediction and a climate model run by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) to bridge weather and climate timescales . Version 2 became operational as CFSv2 in 2011 .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_Forecast_System","rank":60,"score":81454},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":61,"score":81385},{"content":"Title: History of numerical weather prediction Content: The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .","qid":"123","docid":"History_of_numerical_weather_prediction","rank":62,"score":80217},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"123","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":63,"score":80204},{"content":"Title: Adam Scaife Content: Adam Arthur Scaife B.A. M.A. MSc PhD FRMetS ( born 18 March 1970 ) is a British physicist , and head of long range prediction at the Met Office . He is an honorary visiting Professor at Exeter University . Scaife carries out research into long range weather forecasting and computer modelling of the climate . Scaife has published over 100 peer reviewed studies on atmospheric dynamics , computer modelling and climate predictability and change and recently published popular science and academic books on meteorology .","qid":"123","docid":"Adam_Scaife","rank":64,"score":80187},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_Change_Science_Program","rank":65,"score":80133},{"content":"Title: CCCma Content: CCCma ( Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis ) is part of the Climate Research Division of Environment Canada and is located at the University of Victoria , Victoria , British Columbia . Its purpose is to develop and apply climate models to improve understanding of climate change and make quantitative projections of future climate in Canada and globally . Its seasonal forecasting system provides climate forecasts over Canada on timescales of months to years .","qid":"123","docid":"CCCma","rank":66,"score":80082},{"content":"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''","qid":"123","docid":"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents","rank":67,"score":79974},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"123","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":68,"score":79808},{"content":"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Content: The Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model was run four times a day and produced weather forecasts . The NOGAPS was replaced by the NAVGEM in February 2013 .","qid":"123","docid":"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System","rank":69,"score":79800},{"content":"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .","qid":"123","docid":"Runaway_climate_change","rank":70,"score":79548},{"content":"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .","qid":"123","docid":"Global_warming_(disambiguation)","rank":71,"score":79008},{"content":"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States","rank":72,"score":78978},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"123","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":73,"score":78873},{"content":"Title: Environmental niche modelling Content: Environmental niche modelling , alternatively known as species distribution modelling , ( ecological ) niche modelling , predictive habitat distribution modelling , and climate envelope modelling refers to the process of using computer algorithms to predict the distribution of species in geographic space on the basis of a mathematical representation of their known distribution in environmental space ( = realized ecological niche ) . The environment is in most cases represented by climate data ( such as temperature , and precipitation ) , but other variables such as soil type , water depth , and land cover can also be used . These models allow for interpolating between a limited number of species occurrence and they are used in several research areas in conservation biology , ecology and evolution . The extent to which such modelled data reflect real-world species distributions will depend on a number of factors , including the nature , complexity , and accuracy of the models used and the quality of the available environmental data layers ; the availability of sufficient and reliable species distribution data as model input ; and the influence of various factors such as barriers to dispersal , geologic history , or biotic interactions , that increase the difference between the realized niche and the fundamental niche . Environmental niche modelling may be considered a part of the discipline of biodiversity informatics .","qid":"123","docid":"Environmental_niche_modelling","rank":74,"score":78748},{"content":"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .","qid":"123","docid":"Ice2sea","rank":75,"score":78151},{"content":"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .","qid":"123","docid":"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":76,"score":78117},{"content":"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .","qid":"123","docid":"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change","rank":77,"score":77904},{"content":"Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .","qid":"123","docid":"Long-term_effects_of_global_warming","rank":78,"score":77887},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"123","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":79,"score":77842},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan","rank":80,"score":77816},{"content":"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia","rank":81,"score":77487},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":82,"score":77416},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":83,"score":77366},{"content":"Title: Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison Content: The Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison ( PCMDI ) is a program at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore , California . Livermore is in the San Francisco Bay Area in the United States . It is funded by the Regional and Global Climate Modeling Group ( RGCM ) and the Atmospheric System Research ( ASR ) programs of the Climate and Environment Sciences Division of the United States Department of Energy .","qid":"123","docid":"Program_for_Climate_Model_Diagnosis_and_Intercomparison","rank":84,"score":77339},{"content":"Title: CliSAP Content: The `` Integrated Climate System Analysis and Prediction '' ( CliSAP ) Cluster of Excellence is a research association of the Universität Hamburg , the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology ( MPI-M ) , the Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht ( Centre for Materials and Coastal Research , HZG ) , and the German Climate Computing Center ( DKRZ ) . The Cluster of Excellence started in 2007 as part of the Excellence Initiative of the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research . It is therefore funded by the German Research Foundation ( DFG ) . CliSAP conducts fundamental research on climate and climate change in the fields of natural , economic and social sciences .","qid":"123","docid":"CliSAP","rank":85,"score":77329},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"123","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":86,"score":77291},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_York_City","rank":87,"score":77034},{"content":"Title: Regional Atmospheric Modeling System Content: The Regional Atmospheric Modeling System ( RAMS ) is a set of computer program that simulates the atmosphere for weather and climate research and for numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) . Other components include a data analysis and a visualization package . RAMS was developed in the 1980s at Colorado State University ( CSU ) , spearheaded by William R. Cotton and Roger A. Pielke , for mesoscale meteorological modeling . Subsequent development is primarily done by Robert L. Walko and Craig J. Tremback under the supervision of Cotton and Pielke . It is a comprehensive non-hydrostatic model . It is written primarily in Fortran with some C code and it runs best under the Unix operating system . Version 6 was released in 2009 . RAMS is the basis for a system simulating the Martian atmosphere that is named MRAMS .","qid":"123","docid":"Regional_Atmospheric_Modeling_System","rank":88,"score":77013},{"content":"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska","rank":89,"score":76844},{"content":"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .","qid":"123","docid":"Abrupt_climate_change","rank":90,"score":76812},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_Australia","rank":91,"score":76718},{"content":"Title: Model for Prediction Across Scales Content: The Model for Prediction Across Scales ( MPAS ) is a coupled Earth system modeling package that integrates atmospheric , oceanographic and cryospheric modeling on a variety of scales from the planetary to regional and mesoscale/microscale . It includes climate and weather modeling and simulations that were first used by researchers in 2013 . The atmospheric components ( MPAS-A ) were led by the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) 's Earth System Laboratory ( NESL ) and the oceanographic components ( MPAS-O ) by the Climate , Ocean , and Sea Ice Modeling Group ( COSIM ) at Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) . It has been used for real-time weather as well as seasonal forecasting of convection , tornadoes and tropical cyclones , among other uses . Its atmospheric modeling aspects are intended to use and complement rather than replace the Weather Research and Forecasting Model ( WRF-ARW/NMM ) , the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) and the Community Earth System Model ( CESM ) .","qid":"123","docid":"Model_for_Prediction_Across_Scales","rank":92,"score":76709},{"content":"Title: Penny Whetton Content: Penelope Whetton ( born 5 January 1958 ) is a climatologist and an expert in regional climate change projections due to global warming and in the impacts of those changes . Her primary scientific focus has been Australia .","qid":"123","docid":"Penny_Whetton","rank":93,"score":76577},{"content":"Title: Unified Model Content: The Unified Model is a Numerical Weather Prediction and climate modeling software suite originally developed by the United Kingdom Met Office , and now both used and further developed by many weather-forecasting agencies around the world . The Unified Model gets its name because a single model is used across a range of both timescales ( nowcasting to centennial ) and spatial scales ( convective scale to climate system earth modelling ) . The models are grid-point based , rather than wave based , and are run on a variety of supercomputers around the world . The Unified Model atmosphere can be coupled to a number of ocean models . At the Met Office it is used for the main suite of Global Model , North Atlantic and Europe model ( NAE ) and a high-resolution UK model ( UKV ) , in addition to a variety of Crisis Area Models and other models that can be run on demand . Similar Unified Model suites with global and regional domains are used by many other national or military weather agencies around the world for operational forecasting . Data for numerical weather prediction is provided by observations from satellites , from the ground ( both human and from automatic weather stations ) , from buoys at sea , radar , radiosonde weather balloons , wind profilers , commercial aircraft and a background field from previous model runs . The computer model is only adjusted towards the observations using assimilation , rather than forcing the model to accept an observed value that might make the system unstable ( and could be an inaccurate observation ) . The Unified Model software suite is written in Fortran ( originally 77 but now predominantly 90 ) and uses height as the vertical variable . Because most developments of interest are at near to the ground the vertical layers are closer together near the surface .","qid":"123","docid":"Unified_Model","rank":94,"score":76398},{"content":"Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .","qid":"123","docid":"People's_Climate_March","rank":95,"score":76262},{"content":"Title: Model year (computer modeling) Content: The term model year in computer modeling is used for calculated equations describing one calendar year of data . If a climate model , for example , is calculating the climate from 2015 to 2020 , the computer has to calculate 5 model years , however it most likely takes much less time for the computer to do so . The term is used in descriptions for models like climateprediction.net , which has produced about 125 million model years of data until May 2011 .","qid":"123","docid":"Model_year_(computer_modeling)","rank":96,"score":76242},{"content":"Title: Tropical cyclone forecast model Content: A tropical cyclone forecast model is a computer program that uses meteorological data to forecast aspects of the future state of tropical cyclones . There are three types of models : statistical , dynamical , or combined statistical-dynamic . Dynamical models utilize powerful supercomputers with sophisticated mathematical modeling software and meteorological data to calculate future weather conditions . Statistical models forecast the evolution of a tropical cyclone in a simpler manner , by extrapolating from historical datasets , and thus can be run quickly on platforms such as personal computers . Statistical-dynamical models use aspects of both types of forecasting . Four primary types of forecasts exist for tropical cyclones : track , intensity , storm surge , and rainfall . Dynamical models were not developed until the 1970s and the 1980s , with earlier efforts focused on the storm surge problem . Track models did not show forecast skill when compared to statistical models until the 1980s . Statistical-dynamical models were used from the 1970s into the 1990s . Early models use data from previous model runs while late models produce output after the official hurricane forecast has been sent . The use of consensus , ensemble , and superensemble forecasts lowers errors more than any individual forecast model . Both consensus and superensemble forecasts can use the guidance of global and regional models runs to improve the performance more than any of their respective components . Techniques used at the Joint Typhoon Warning Center indicate that superensemble forecasts are a very powerful tool for track forecasting .","qid":"123","docid":"Tropical_cyclone_forecast_model","rank":97,"score":76025},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_Grenada","rank":98,"score":76002},{"content":"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"123","docid":"Climate_change_in_popular_culture","rank":99,"score":75959},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .","qid":"123","docid":"Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge","rank":100,"score":75925}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 103290\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 99369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Argentina\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 98939\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 96808\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 95972\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_model\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 95609\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 95399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Syukuro Manabe Content: is a meteorologist and climatologist who pioneered the use of computers to simulate global climate change and natural climate variations .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Syukuro_Manabe\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 93540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 93402\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 92999\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 92885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_potatoes\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 92861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Weather_of_the_Future\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 91857\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Z._Jacobson\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 91781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Navy Global Environmental Model Content: The Navy Global Environmental Model ( NAVGEM ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer simulation run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the NWS 's Global Forecast System , which runs out to 16 days , the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) and the CMC 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) , both of which run out 10 days , and the UK Met Office 's Unified Model , which runs out to 6 days , it is one of five synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The NAVGEM became operational in February 2013 , replacing the NOGAPS . It uses the same forecast range as the NOGAPS did ( three-hour intervals out 180 hours ) but also uses a refurbished dynamic core and improvements to the physics simulations compared to its predecessor . Category : Numerical climate and weather models Category : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Navy_Global_Environmental_Model\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 91699\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 91047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Simon_Tett\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 90517\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 90488\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 89339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 89110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Jonathan_M._Gregory\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 89107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Vicky_Pope\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 88595\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 88337\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 88242\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 88135\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: DICE model Content: The Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy model , referred to as the DICE model or Dice model , is a computer-based integrated assessment model developed by William Nordhaus that `` integrates in an end-to-end fashion the economics , carbon cycle , climate science , and impacts in a highly aggregated model that allows a weighing of the costs and benefits of taking steps to slow greenhouse warming . '' Nordhaus also developed the RICE model ( Regional Integrated Climate-Economy model ) , a variant of the DICE model that was updated and developed alongside the DICE model . Others who collaborated with Nordhaus to develop the model include David Popp , Zili Yang , Joseph Boyer , and other colleagues . The DICE model is one of the three main integrated assessment models used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency , and it provides estimates intermediate between the other two models .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"DICE_model\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 87860\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_Zealand\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 87804\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 87744\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 87361\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Ecological_forecasting\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 87338\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"General_circulation_model\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 87259\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_scenario\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 87166\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 87129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: EdGCM Content: The Educational Global Climate Model or EdGCM is a fully functional global climate model ( GCM ) that has been ported for use on desktop computers ( Windows PCs and Macs ) . It operates through a graphical user interface and is integrated with a relational database and scientific visualization utllities , all of which aim at helping improve the quality of teaching and understanding of climatology by making real-world research experiences more accessible . EdGCM is designed to permit teachers and students to conduct in-depth investigations of past , present and future climate scenarios in a manner that is essentially identical to the techniques used by national and international climate research organizations . EdGCM was developed at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies as a joint project of Columbia University and NASA scientists and programmers . The Global Climate Model at the core of EdGCM is GISS Model II . During the 1980s and early 1990s this GCM was one of NASA 's primary climate research tools . Results from the model have appeared in hundreds of scientific publications . The coarser resolution of the climate model in EdGCM ( 8 ° x 10 ° , latitude x longitude ) makes it inexpensive to run . But , because it contains most of the key atmospheric physics of modern GCMs , EdGCM is also used by climate researchers who do not have access to the most recent GCM versions .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"EdGCM\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 87014\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 86239\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_game\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 85618\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Numerical weather prediction Content: Numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions . Though first attempted in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results . A number of global and regional forecast models are run in different countries worldwide , using current weather observations relayed from radiosondes , weather satellites and other observing systems as inputs . Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions ; the latter are widely applied for understanding and projecting climate change . The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts ; however , atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area , such as wildfires . Manipulating the vast datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to only about six days . Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts , along with deficiencies in the numerical models themselves . Post-processing techniques such as model output statistics ( MOS ) have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions . A more fundamental problem lies in the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations that govern the atmosphere . It is impossible to solve these equations exactly , and small errors grow with time ( doubling about every five days ) . Present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to about 14 days even with perfectly accurate input data and a flawless model . In addition , the partial differential equations used in the model need to be supplemented with parameterizations for solar radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , and the effects of terrain . In an effort to quantify the large amount of inherent uncertainty remaining in numerical predictions , ensemble forecasts have been used since the 1990s to help gauge the confidence in the forecast , and to obtain useful results farther into the future than otherwise possible . This approach analyzes multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model or multiple models .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Numerical_weather_prediction\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 85533\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Texas\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 85378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 85348\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 85207\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: PRECIS Content: PRECIS ( Providing REgional Climates for Impacts Studies , pronounced pray-sea ) is developed at the Hadley Centre at the UK Met Office , PRECIS is a regional climate modelling system designed to run on a Linux based PC . PRECIS can be applied to any area of the globe to generate detailed climate change projections .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"PRECIS\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 85125\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 84890\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Annan Content: James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Annan\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 84652\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 84462\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_cooling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 84439\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Petar_Gburčik\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 84289\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Transient climate simulation Content: A transient climate simulation is a mode of running a global climate model ( GCM ) in which a period of time ( typically 1850 -- 2100 ) is simulated with continuously-varying concentrations of greenhouse gases so that the climate of the model represents a realistic mode of possible change in the real world .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Transient_climate_simulation\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 83941\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 83853\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"John_F._B._Mitchell\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 83717\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 83443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Fate_of_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 83256\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climateprediction.net Content: Climateprediction.net ( CPDN ) is a distributed computing project to investigate and reduce uncertainties in climate modelling . It aims to do this by running hundreds of thousands of different models ( a large climate ensemble ) using the donated idle time of ordinary personal computers , thereby leading to a better understanding of how models are affected by small changes in the many parameters known to influence the global climate . The project relies on the volunteer computing model using the BOINC framework where voluntary participants agree to run some processes of the project at the client-side in their personal computers after receiving tasks from the server-side for treatment . CPDN , which is run primarily by Oxford University in England , has harnessed more computing power and generated more data than any other climate modelling project . It has produced over 100 million model years of data so far . , there are more than 12,000 active participants from 223 countries with a total BOINC credit of more than 27 billion , reporting about 55 teraflops ( 55 trillion operations per second ) of processing power .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climateprediction.net\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 83109\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 82911\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model Content: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by Fleet Numerical . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) it is one of several synoptic scale medium-range models in general use .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System_Model\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 82854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dynamic global vegetation model Content: A Dynamic Global Vegetation Model ( DGVM ) is a computer program that simulates shifts in potential vegetation and its associated biogeochemical and hydrological cycles as a response to shifts in climate . DGVMs use time series of climate data and , given constraints of latitude , topography , and soil characteristics , simulate monthly or daily dynamics of ecosystem processes . DGVMs are used most often to simulate the effects of future climate change on natural vegetation and its carbon and water cycles . DGVMs generally combine biogeochemistry , biogeography , and disturbance submodels . Disturbance is often limited to wildfires , but in principle could include any of : forest/land management decisions , windthrow , insect damage , ozone damage etc. . DGVMs usually `` spin up '' their simulations from bare ground to `` equilibrium '' vegetation to establish realistic initial values for their various `` pools '' : carbon and nitrogen in live and dead vegetation , soil organic matter , etc. corresponding to a documented historical vegetation cover . DGVMs are usually run in a spatially distributed mode , with simulations carried out for thousands of `` cells '' , geographic points which are assumed to have homogeneous conditions within each cell . Simulations are carried out across a range of spatial scales , from global to landscape . Cells are usually arranged as lattice points ; the distance between adjacent lattice points may be as coarse as a few degrees of latitude or longitude , or as fine as 30 arc-seconds . Simulations of the conterminous United States in the first DGVM comparison exercise ( LPJ and MC1 ) called the VEMAP project in the 1990s used a lattice grain of one-half degree . Global simulations by the PIK group and collaborators using 6 different DGVMs ( HYBRID , IBIS , LPJ , SDGVM , TRIFFID , and VECODE ) used the same resolution as the general circulation model ( GCM ) that provided the climate data , 3.75 deg longitude x 2.5 deg latitude , a total of 1631 land grid cells . Sometimes lattice distances are specified in kilometers rather than angular measure , especially for finer grains , so a project like VEMAP is often referred to as 50 km grain . Several DGVMs appeared in the middle 1990s . The first was apparently IBIS ( Foley et al. , 1996 ) , VECODE ( Brovkin et al. , 1997 ) , followed by several others described below : Several DGVMs have been developed by various research groups around the world : LPJ - Germany , Sweden IBIS - Integrated Biosphere Simulator - U.S. MC1 - U.S. HYBRID - U.K. SDGVM - U.K. SEIB-DGVM - Japan TRIFFID - U.K. VECODE - Germany CLM-DVGM - U.S. Ecosystem Demography ( ED , ED2 ) The next generation of models - earth system models ( ex . CCSM , ORCHIDEE , JULES , CTEM ) - now includes the important feedbacks from the biosphere to the atmosphere so that vegetation shifts and changes in the carbon and hydrological cycles affect the climate . DGVMs commonly simulate a variety of plant and soil physiological processes . The processes simulated by various DGVMs are summarized in the table below . Abbreviations are : NPP , net primary production ; PFT , plant functional type ; SAW , soil available water ; LAI , leaf area index ; I , solar radiation ; T , air temperature ; Wr , root zone water supply ; PET , potential evapotranspiration ; vegc , total live vegetation carbon . References : Category : Scientific modeling\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Dynamic_global_vegetation_model\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 82687\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CLIVAR Content: CLIVAR ( climate variability and predictability ) is a component of the World Climate Research Programme . Its purpose is to describe and understand climate variability and predictability on seasonal to centennial time-scales , identify the physical processes responsible for climate change and develop modeling and predictive capabilities for climate modelling .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"CLIVAR\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 82480\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Content: The Copernicus Climate Change Service ( C3S ) is one of the six thematic services provided by the European Union 's Copernicus Programme . The Copernicus Programme is managed by the European Commission and the C3S is implemented by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) and is expected to become operational in 2018 . The objective of the Copernicus Climate Change Service is to build an EU knowledge base in support of mitigation and adaptation policies for Climate Change and Global Warming . The goal of the operational Climate Change service is to provide reliable information about the current and past state of the climate , the forecasts on a seasonal time scale , and the more likely projections in the coming decades for various scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions and other Climate Change contributors .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Copernicus_Climate_Change_Service_(C3S)\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 82178\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 81911\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 81702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Forecast System Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Forecast System or Coupled Forecast System ( both names abbreviated CFS ) is a medium to long range numerical weather prediction and a climate model run by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) to bridge weather and climate timescales . Version 2 became operational as CFSv2 in 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Forecast_System\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 81454\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 81385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of numerical weather prediction Content: The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_numerical_weather_prediction\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 80217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 80204\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Adam Scaife Content: Adam Arthur Scaife B.A. M.A. MSc PhD FRMetS ( born 18 March 1970 ) is a British physicist , and head of long range prediction at the Met Office . He is an honorary visiting Professor at Exeter University . Scaife carries out research into long range weather forecasting and computer modelling of the climate . Scaife has published over 100 peer reviewed studies on atmospheric dynamics , computer modelling and climate predictability and change and recently published popular science and academic books on meteorology .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Adam_Scaife\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 80187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Science_Program\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 80133\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CCCma Content: CCCma ( Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis ) is part of the Climate Research Division of Environment Canada and is located at the University of Victoria , Victoria , British Columbia . Its purpose is to develop and apply climate models to improve understanding of climate change and make quantitative projections of future climate in Canada and globally . Its seasonal forecasting system provides climate forecasts over Canada on timescales of months to years .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"CCCma\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 80082\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 79974\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 79808\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Content: The Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model was run four times a day and produced weather forecasts . The NOGAPS was replaced by the NAVGEM in February 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 79800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 79548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 79008\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 78978\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 78873\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental niche modelling Content: Environmental niche modelling , alternatively known as species distribution modelling , ( ecological ) niche modelling , predictive habitat distribution modelling , and climate envelope modelling refers to the process of using computer algorithms to predict the distribution of species in geographic space on the basis of a mathematical representation of their known distribution in environmental space ( = realized ecological niche ) . The environment is in most cases represented by climate data ( such as temperature , and precipitation ) , but other variables such as soil type , water depth , and land cover can also be used . These models allow for interpolating between a limited number of species occurrence and they are used in several research areas in conservation biology , ecology and evolution . The extent to which such modelled data reflect real-world species distributions will depend on a number of factors , including the nature , complexity , and accuracy of the models used and the quality of the available environmental data layers ; the availability of sufficient and reliable species distribution data as model input ; and the influence of various factors such as barriers to dispersal , geologic history , or biotic interactions , that increase the difference between the realized niche and the fundamental niche . Environmental niche modelling may be considered a part of the discipline of biodiversity informatics .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_niche_modelling\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 78748\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice2sea\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 78151\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 78117\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 77904\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Long-term_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 77887\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 77842\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 77816\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 77487\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 77416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 77366\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison Content: The Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison ( PCMDI ) is a program at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore , California . Livermore is in the San Francisco Bay Area in the United States . It is funded by the Regional and Global Climate Modeling Group ( RGCM ) and the Atmospheric System Research ( ASR ) programs of the Climate and Environment Sciences Division of the United States Department of Energy .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Program_for_Climate_Model_Diagnosis_and_Intercomparison\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 77339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CliSAP Content: The `` Integrated Climate System Analysis and Prediction '' ( CliSAP ) Cluster of Excellence is a research association of the Universität Hamburg , the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology ( MPI-M ) , the Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht ( Centre for Materials and Coastal Research , HZG ) , and the German Climate Computing Center ( DKRZ ) . The Cluster of Excellence started in 2007 as part of the Excellence Initiative of the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research . It is therefore funded by the German Research Foundation ( DFG ) . CliSAP conducts fundamental research on climate and climate change in the fields of natural , economic and social sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"CliSAP\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 77329\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 77291\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_York_City\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 77034\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional Atmospheric Modeling System Content: The Regional Atmospheric Modeling System ( RAMS ) is a set of computer program that simulates the atmosphere for weather and climate research and for numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) . Other components include a data analysis and a visualization package . RAMS was developed in the 1980s at Colorado State University ( CSU ) , spearheaded by William R. Cotton and Roger A. Pielke , for mesoscale meteorological modeling . Subsequent development is primarily done by Robert L. Walko and Craig J. Tremback under the supervision of Cotton and Pielke . It is a comprehensive non-hydrostatic model . It is written primarily in Fortran with some C code and it runs best under the Unix operating system . Version 6 was released in 2009 . RAMS is the basis for a system simulating the Martian atmosphere that is named MRAMS .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_Atmospheric_Modeling_System\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 77013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 76844\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Abrupt_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 76812\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 76718\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Model for Prediction Across Scales Content: The Model for Prediction Across Scales ( MPAS ) is a coupled Earth system modeling package that integrates atmospheric , oceanographic and cryospheric modeling on a variety of scales from the planetary to regional and mesoscale/microscale . It includes climate and weather modeling and simulations that were first used by researchers in 2013 . The atmospheric components ( MPAS-A ) were led by the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) 's Earth System Laboratory ( NESL ) and the oceanographic components ( MPAS-O ) by the Climate , Ocean , and Sea Ice Modeling Group ( COSIM ) at Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) . It has been used for real-time weather as well as seasonal forecasting of convection , tornadoes and tropical cyclones , among other uses . Its atmospheric modeling aspects are intended to use and complement rather than replace the Weather Research and Forecasting Model ( WRF-ARW/NMM ) , the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) and the Community Earth System Model ( CESM ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Model_for_Prediction_Across_Scales\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 76709\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Penny Whetton Content: Penelope Whetton ( born 5 January 1958 ) is a climatologist and an expert in regional climate change projections due to global warming and in the impacts of those changes . Her primary scientific focus has been Australia .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Penny_Whetton\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 76577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unified Model Content: The Unified Model is a Numerical Weather Prediction and climate modeling software suite originally developed by the United Kingdom Met Office , and now both used and further developed by many weather-forecasting agencies around the world . The Unified Model gets its name because a single model is used across a range of both timescales ( nowcasting to centennial ) and spatial scales ( convective scale to climate system earth modelling ) . The models are grid-point based , rather than wave based , and are run on a variety of supercomputers around the world . The Unified Model atmosphere can be coupled to a number of ocean models . At the Met Office it is used for the main suite of Global Model , North Atlantic and Europe model ( NAE ) and a high-resolution UK model ( UKV ) , in addition to a variety of Crisis Area Models and other models that can be run on demand . Similar Unified Model suites with global and regional domains are used by many other national or military weather agencies around the world for operational forecasting . Data for numerical weather prediction is provided by observations from satellites , from the ground ( both human and from automatic weather stations ) , from buoys at sea , radar , radiosonde weather balloons , wind profilers , commercial aircraft and a background field from previous model runs . The computer model is only adjusted towards the observations using assimilation , rather than forcing the model to accept an observed value that might make the system unstable ( and could be an inaccurate observation ) . The Unified Model software suite is written in Fortran ( originally 77 but now predominantly 90 ) and uses height as the vertical variable . Because most developments of interest are at near to the ground the vertical layers are closer together near the surface .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Unified_Model\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 76398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"People's_Climate_March\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 76262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Model year (computer modeling) Content: The term model year in computer modeling is used for calculated equations describing one calendar year of data . If a climate model , for example , is calculating the climate from 2015 to 2020 , the computer has to calculate 5 model years , however it most likely takes much less time for the computer to do so . The term is used in descriptions for models like climateprediction.net , which has produced about 125 million model years of data until May 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Model_year_(computer_modeling)\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 76242\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical cyclone forecast model Content: A tropical cyclone forecast model is a computer program that uses meteorological data to forecast aspects of the future state of tropical cyclones . There are three types of models : statistical , dynamical , or combined statistical-dynamic . Dynamical models utilize powerful supercomputers with sophisticated mathematical modeling software and meteorological data to calculate future weather conditions . Statistical models forecast the evolution of a tropical cyclone in a simpler manner , by extrapolating from historical datasets , and thus can be run quickly on platforms such as personal computers . Statistical-dynamical models use aspects of both types of forecasting . Four primary types of forecasts exist for tropical cyclones : track , intensity , storm surge , and rainfall . Dynamical models were not developed until the 1970s and the 1980s , with earlier efforts focused on the storm surge problem . Track models did not show forecast skill when compared to statistical models until the 1980s . Statistical-dynamical models were used from the 1970s into the 1990s . Early models use data from previous model runs while late models produce output after the official hurricane forecast has been sent . The use of consensus , ensemble , and superensemble forecasts lowers errors more than any individual forecast model . Both consensus and superensemble forecasts can use the guidance of global and regional models runs to improve the performance more than any of their respective components . Techniques used at the Joint Typhoon Warning Center indicate that superensemble forecasts are a very powerful tool for track forecasting .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_cyclone_forecast_model\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 76025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Grenada\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 76002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_popular_culture\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 75959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .\",\n \"qid\": \"123\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 75925\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":59,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"El Niño drove record highs in global temperatures suggesting rise may not be down to man-made emissions."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .","qid":"126","docid":"1997–98_El_Niño_event","rank":1,"score":174155},{"content":"Title: 2014–16 El Niño event Content: The 2014 -- 16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line . These unusually warm waters influenced the world 's weather in a number of ways , which in turn significantly affected various parts of the world . These included drought conditions in Venezuela , Australia and a number of Pacific islands while significant flooding was also recorded . During the event more tropical cyclones than normal occurred within the Pacific Ocean , while fewer than normal occurred in the Atlantic Ocean .","qid":"126","docid":"2014–16_El_Niño_event","rank":2,"score":167179},{"content":"Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .","qid":"126","docid":"El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation","rank":3,"score":155937},{"content":"Title: El Niño Content: El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall . Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' .","qid":"126","docid":"El_Niño","rank":4,"score":155761},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"126","docid":"Global_warming","rank":5,"score":154277},{"content":"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.","qid":"126","docid":"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves","rank":6,"score":149610},{"content":"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .","qid":"126","docid":"Global_warming_hiatus","rank":7,"score":146274},{"content":"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .","qid":"126","docid":"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves","rank":8,"score":144600},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":9,"score":136845},{"content":"Title: 1982–83 El Niño event Content: The 1982 -- 83 El Niño event was one of the strongest El Niño events since records were kept . It led to widespread flooding across the southern United States , droughts in Indonesia and Australia , and lack of snow in northern areas of the United States . The estimated economic impact was over US$ 8 billion . This El Niño event also led to an abnormal amount of hurricanes in the Pacific Ocean during this time span ; the strongest hurricane up to 1983 hit Hawaii during this El Niño event . It led to declines of 77 % among Galápagos penguins and 49 % among flightless cormorants . In addition to these losses in penguins and cormorants , this El Niño event caused a quarter of adult native sea lions and fur seals on Peru 's coast to starve , while the entirety of both seals ' pup populations perished . In Ecuador heavy rainfall and flooding led to high fish and shrimp harvests , however the large amounts of standing water also allowed mosquito populations to thrive , leading to large outbreaks of malaria .","qid":"126","docid":"1982–83_El_Niño_event","rank":10,"score":136681},{"content":"Title: La Niña Content: La Niña ( -LSB- lɑːˈniːnjə -RSB- , -LSB- la ˈniɲa -RSB- ) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is the counterpart of El Niño as part of the broader El Niño -- Southern Oscillation climate pattern . The name La Niña originates from Spanish , meaning `` the little girl '' , analogous to El Niño meaning `` the little boy '' . It has also in the past been called anti-El Niño , and El Viejo ( meaning `` the old man '' ) . During a period of La Niña , the sea surface temperature across the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3 to 5 ° C . In the United States , an appearance of La Niña persists for at least five months . It has extensive effects on the weather in North America , even affecting the Atlantic Hurricane Season .","qid":"126","docid":"La_Niña","rank":11,"score":132047},{"content":"Title: Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the United States Content: The El Niño -- Southern Oscillation affects the location of the jet stream , which alters rainfall patterns across the West , Midwest , the Southeast , and throughout the tropics . The shift in the jet stream also leads to shifts in the occurrence of severe weather , and the number of tropical cyclones expected within the tropics in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans affected by changes in the ocean temperature and the subtropical jet stream . The winter will have a negative phase according to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) .","qid":"126","docid":"Effects_of_the_El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation_in_the_United_States","rank":12,"score":129278},{"content":"Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .","qid":"126","docid":"Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave","rank":13,"score":125211},{"content":"Title: Atlantic Equatorial mode Content: The Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño is a quasiperiodic interannual climate pattern of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean . It is the dominant mode of year-to-year variability that results in alternating warming and cooling episodes of sea surface temperatures accompanied by changes in atmospheric circulation . The term Atlantic Niño comes from its close similarity with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) that dominates the tropical Pacific basin . The Atlantic Niño is not the same as the Atlantic Meridional ( Interhemispheric ) Mode that consists of a north-south dipole and operates more on decadal timescales . The equatorial warming and cooling events associated with the Atlantic Niño are known to be strongly related to atmospheric climate anomalies , especially in African countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea . Therefore , understanding of the Atlantic Niño ( or lack thereof ) has important implications for climate prediction in those regions . Although the Atlantic Niño is an intrinsic mode to the equatorial Atlantic , there may be a tenuous causal relationship between ENSO and the Atlantic Niño in some circumstances .","qid":"126","docid":"Atlantic_Equatorial_mode","rank":14,"score":124410},{"content":"Title: El Niño (disambiguation) Content: El Niño is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon . El Niño may also refer to : El Niño ( Def Squad album ) El Niño ( oratorio ) , by American composer John Adams El Niño ( Eldritch album ) El Niño ( film ) El Niño , a race car in the video game Need for Speed III : Hot Pursuit El Niño , a nickname of Spanish golfer Sergio García El Niño , a nickname of Spanish footballer Fernando Torres El Niño , a nickname of baseball player Hanley Ramírez El Niño , a nickname of hockey player Nino Niederreiter El Niño , a nickname of mixed martial artist Gilbert Melendez El Niño , a fictional airline of a non-existing country San Escobar","qid":"126","docid":"El_Niño_(disambiguation)","rank":15,"score":123333},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"126","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":16,"score":123054},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"126","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":17,"score":123032},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"126","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":18,"score":120676},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"126","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":19,"score":120326},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"126","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":20,"score":120296},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"126","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":21,"score":120262},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"126","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":22,"score":120075},{"content":"Title: Late Victorian Holocausts Content: Late Victorian Holocausts : El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World is a book by Mike Davis about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns , particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries , Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism , and the relation with famine in particular . Davis argues that `` Millions died , not outside the ` modern world system ' , but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures . They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism ; indeed , many were murdered ... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith , Bentham and Mill . ''","qid":"126","docid":"Late_Victorian_Holocausts","rank":23,"score":119065},{"content":"Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_oscillation","rank":24,"score":118809},{"content":"Title: List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes Content: Category 4 , the second-highest classification on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale , is used for tropical cyclones that have winds of 130 -- 156 mph ( 209 -- 251 km/h ; 113 -- 136 kn ) . The division of the eastern and central Pacific basins occurs at 140 ° W ; the eastern Pacific covers area east of 140 ° W , while the central Pacific extends between 140 ° W to 180 ° W. Both basins ' division points are at 66 ° N as a northern point and the equator as the southern point . As of , 116 hurricanes have attained Category 4 status in the northeastern Pacific basins . This list does not include storms that also attained Category 5 status on the scale . Numerous climatological factors influence the formation of hurricanes in the Pacific basins . The North Pacific High and Aleutian Low , usually present between January and April , cause strong wind shear and unfavorable conditions for the development of hurricanes . During its presence , El Niño results in increased numbers of powerful hurricanes through weaker wind shear , while La Niña reduces the number of such hurricanes through the opposite . Global warming may also influence the formation of tropical cyclones in the Pacific basin . During a thirty-year period with two sub-periods , the first between 1975 and 1989 and the second between 1990 and 2004 , an increase of thirteen Category 4 or 5 storms was observed from the first sub-period . __ TOC __","qid":"126","docid":"List_of_Category_4_Pacific_hurricanes","rank":25,"score":116520},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":26,"score":115065},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"126","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":27,"score":114945},{"content":"Title: May 2016 United States storm complex Content: The May 2016 United States storm complex was a flood in the United States that occurred on May 31 , 2016 , affecting the states of Arkansas , Kansas , Nebraska , Oklahoma , and Texas . The inundation set precipitation records in Texas and Oklahoma . On June 2 , 2016 , the rising of the Brazos River required evacuations for portions of Brazoria County , Texas . Ten deaths of Texans and thousands of home evacuations led Texas Governor Greg Abbott to issue a statewide Disaster Proclamation on June 1 , 2016 considering the damage in thirty-one counties including Austin , Bandera , Bastrop , Brazoria , Brazos , Burleson , Coleman , Colorado , Erath , Fayette , Fort Bend , Grimes , Hidalgo , Hood , Jasper , Kleberg , Lee , Leon , Liberty , Lubbock , Montgomery , Palo Pinto , Parker , Polk , Robertson , San Jacinto , Tyler , Walker , Waller , Washington and Wharton counties . Meteorologists attribute this storm 's devastation to the power of the El Niño climate cycle . An El Niño system is identified following fluctuation in the climate , characterized by an eastern shift of warming ocean water from the western tropical Pacific Ocean and rainfall along the equator .","qid":"126","docid":"May_2016_United_States_storm_complex","rank":28,"score":114525},{"content":"Title: 2010–12 La Niña event Content: The 2010 -- 12 La Niña event was one of the strongest on record . It caused Australia to experience its wettest September on record in 2010 , and its second-wettest year on record in 2010 . It also led to an unusual intensification of the Leeuwin Current , the 2010 Pakistan floods , the 2010 -- 11 Queensland floods , and the 2011 East Africa drought . It also helped keep the average global temperature below recent trends , leading to 2011 tying with 1997 for the 14th-warmest year on record .","qid":"126","docid":"2010–12_La_Niña_event","rank":29,"score":114035},{"content":"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_inertia","rank":30,"score":113032},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"126","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":31,"score":112567},{"content":"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .","qid":"126","docid":"Hypercane","rank":32,"score":111432},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":33,"score":111126},{"content":"Title: Subtropical ridge Content: The subtropical ridge , also known as the subtropical high or horse latitudes , is a significant belt of atmospheric high pressure situated around the latitudes of 30 ° N in the Northern Hemisphere and 30 ° S in the Southern Hemisphere . It is the product of the global air circulation cell known as the Hadley Cell . The subtropical ridge is characterized by mostly calm winds , which act to reduce air quality under its axis by causing fog overnight , and haze during daylight hours as a result of the stable atmosphere found near its location . The air descending from the upper troposphere flows out from its center at surface level toward the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere , creating both the trade winds and the westerlies . The subtropical ridge moves poleward during the summer , reaching its most northern latitude in early fall , before moving equatorward during the cold season . The El Niño southern climate oscillation ( ENSO ) can displace the northern hemisphere subtropical ridge , with La Niñas allowing for a more northerly axis for the ridge , while El Niños show flatter , more southerly ridges . The change of the ridge position during ENSO cycles changes the tracks of tropical cyclones that form around their equatorward and western peripheries . As the subtropical ridge varies in position and strength , it can enhance or depress monsoon regimes around their low-latitude periphery . The term `` horse latitudes '' refers to and is synonymous with the subtropical ridge or subtropical high .","qid":"126","docid":"Subtropical_ridge","rank":34,"score":110230},{"content":"Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .","qid":"126","docid":"Satellite_temperature_measurements","rank":35,"score":109936},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"126","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":36,"score":109881},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"126","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":37,"score":109473},{"content":"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .","qid":"126","docid":"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm","rank":38,"score":109397},{"content":"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.","qid":"126","docid":"Global_temperature_record","rank":39,"score":109293},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"126","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":40,"score":109017},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"126","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":41,"score":108993},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"126","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":42,"score":108950},{"content":"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .","qid":"126","docid":"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)","rank":43,"score":108418},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"126","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":44,"score":108295},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .","qid":"126","docid":"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu","rank":45,"score":108206},{"content":"Title: Indian Ocean Dipole Content: The Indian Ocean Dipole ( IOD ) , also known as the Indian Niño , is an irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperatures in which the western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer and then colder than the eastern part of the ocean . Monsoon in India is generally affected by the temperature between bay of Bangal in the east and The Arabian sea in the west","qid":"126","docid":"Indian_Ocean_Dipole","rank":46,"score":107664},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":47,"score":107291},{"content":"Title: Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project Content: The Tropical Atmosphere Ocean ( TAO ) project is a major international effort that instrumented the entire tropical Pacific Ocean with approximately 70 deep ocean moorings . The development of the TAO array in 1985 was motivated by the 1982-1983 El Niño event and ultimately designed for the study of year-to-year climate variations related to El Niño and the Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Led by the TAO Project Office of the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory ( PMEL ) , the full array of 70 moorings was completed in 1994 . The completed TAO array provides in-situ data collection of high quality oceanographic and surface meteorological data for monitoring , forecasting , and understanding of climate swings associated with El Niño and La Nina . In January 2000 , the TAO array was renamed the TAO/TRITON array in recognition of the contribution made by the TRITON ( Triangle Trans-Ocean Buoy Network ) moorings . The TRITON moorings are situated along , and to the west of , 156E and are operated and managed by JAMSTEC .","qid":"126","docid":"Tropical_Atmosphere_Ocean_project","rank":48,"score":106935},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"126","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":49,"score":105872},{"content":"Title: 2004 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest Atlantic hurricane season on record until surpassed by the following year . More than half of the 16 tropical cyclones brushed or struck the United States . The season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . Due to a Modoki El Niño -- a rare type of El Niño in which unfavorable conditions are produced over the eastern Pacific instead of the Atlantic basin due to warmer sea surface temperatures farther west along the equatorial Pacific -- activity was above average . The first storm , Alex , developed offshore of the Southeastern United States on July 31 . It brushed the Carolinas and the Mid-Atlantic , causing one death and $ 7.5 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage . Several storms caused only minor damage , including tropical storms Bonnie , Earl , Hermine , and Matthew . In addition , hurricanes Danielle , Karl , and Lisa , Tropical Depression Ten , Subtropical Storm Nicole and Tropical Storm Otto had no effect on land while tropical cyclones . Hurricane Charley made landfall in Florida as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) , causing $ 15.1 billion in damage in the United States alone . Later in August , Hurricane Frances struck the Bahamas and Florida , causing at least 49 deaths and $ 9.5 billion in damage . The most intense storm , and the one that caused the most damage , was Hurricane Ivan . It was a Category 5 hurricane that devastated multiple countries adjacent to the Caribbean Sea , before entering the Gulf of Mexico and causing catastrophic destruction on the Gulf Coast of the United States , especially Alabama and Florida . Throughout the countries it passed through , Ivan left 129 fatalities and over $ 23.33 billion in damage . The most significant tropical cyclone in terms of deaths was Hurricane Jeanne . In Haiti , torrential rainfall in the mountainous areas resulted in mudslides and severe flooding , causing at least 3,006 fatalities . Jeanne also struck Florida , inflicting extensive destruction . Overall , the storm caused at least $ 8.1 billion in damage and 3,042 deaths . Collectively , the storms of this season caused at least 3,270 deaths and about $ 57.37 billion in damage , making it the costliest Atlantic hurricane season at the time , until the following season . With six hurricanes reaching at least Category 3 intensity , 2004 also had the most major hurricanes since 1996 . However , that record would also be surpassed in 2005 , with seven major hurricanes that year . In the spring of 2005 , four names were retired : Charley , Frances , Ivan , and Jeanne . This tied the then-record most names retired with 1955 and 1995 , while five were retired in 2005 .","qid":"126","docid":"2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season","rank":50,"score":105723},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"126","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":51,"score":105137},{"content":"Title: Nino Content: Nino or Niño may refer to : Nino ( name ) El Niño , a climate pattern in the tropical Pacific Ocean NINO , an abbreviation for National insurance number in the United Kingdom Niño , the smallest conga drum Niño ( single ) , a single from the album Dulce Beat by Belanova Nino ( novel ) , a 1938 children 's novel by Valenti Angelo Niño ( TV series ) , a 2014 Philippine TV series Philips Nino , a PDA-style device The Netherlands Institute for the Near East","qid":"126","docid":"Nino","rank":52,"score":105018},{"content":"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .","qid":"126","docid":"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe","rank":53,"score":104777},{"content":"Title: 1998 Klang Valley water crisis Content: The 1998 Klang Valley water crisis occurred in Malaysia in February 1998 when the three reservoir dams in Klang Valley , Klang Gates Dam , Batu Dam and Semenyih Dam suffered a substantial drop in water level following the El Niño phenomenon . The subsequent water shortage affected almost all the residents in the Klang Valley causing the government to impose water rationing prior to the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur . The shortage was blamed on El Nino despite actual rainfall in the months leading up to February 1998 in Federal Territory not being significantly below average . In fact in November 1997 , Klang Gates Dam had its highest recorded rainfall . Similarly in October 1997 the Kajang station not far from the Semenyih dam had its highest rainfall in record .","qid":"126","docid":"1998_Klang_Valley_water_crisis","rank":54,"score":104620},{"content":"Title: John Michael Wallace Content: John Michael Wallace ( born October 28 , 1940 ) , is a professor of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington , as well as the former director of the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean ( JISAO ) -- a joint research venture between the University of Washington and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research concerns understanding global climate and its variations using observations and covers the quasi biennial oscillation , Pacific decadal oscillation and the annular modes of the Arctic oscillation and the Antarctic oscillation , and the dominant spatial patterns in month-to-month and year-to-year climate variability , including the one through which El Niño phenomenon in the tropical Pacific influences climate over North America . He is also the coauthor with Peter V. Hobbs of what is generally considered the standard introductory textbook in the field : Atmospheric Science : An Introductory Survey . He was the third most cited geoscientist during the period 1973 -- 2007 .","qid":"126","docid":"John_Michael_Wallace","rank":55,"score":104163},{"content":"Title: Eric Guilyardi Content: Eric Guilyardi is a climate scientist , professor in the department of meteorology at the University of Reading and directeur de recherche CNRS at LOCEAN at Institute Pierre Simon Laplace ( IPSL ) in Paris , France . He is an expert of the El Niño phenomenon . He has been a Lead Author for the IPCC AR5 report .","qid":"126","docid":"Eric_Guilyardi","rank":56,"score":104090},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"126","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":57,"score":103725},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"126","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":58,"score":103333},{"content":"Title: Maximum parcel level Content: The maximum parcel level ( MPL ) is the highest level in the atmosphere that a moist convectively rising air parcel will reach after ascending from the level of free convection ( LFC ) through the free convective layer ( FCL ) and reaching the equilibrium level ( EL ) , near the tropopause . As the parcel rises through the FCL it expands adiabatically causing its temperature to drop , often below the temperature of its surroundings , and eventually lose buoyancy . Because of this , the EL is approximately the region where the distinct flat tops ( called anvils ) often observed on cumulonimbus clouds form . If the air parcel ascended quickly enough then it retains momentum after it has cooled and continues rising past the EL , ceasing at the MPL ( visually represented by the overshooting top , above the anvil ) .","qid":"126","docid":"Maximum_parcel_level","rank":59,"score":102736},{"content":"Title: El Niño (Def Squad album) Content: El Niño is the only album from hip hop supergroup Def Squad . The three Def Squad members , Redman , Erick Sermon and Keith Murray , released this album on June 30 , 1998 to positive critical and commercial feedback . The album is now out of print . It reached # 2 on The Billboard 200 and had one single , `` Full Cooperation '' . The CD was released as a Promotional Package including a `` Survival Of the Illest 3 '' disc , a mixtape featuring Method Man and Redman hosting . The song `` Ride Wit Us '' later appeared on Keith Murray 's third album It 's a Beautiful Thing .","qid":"126","docid":"El_Niño_(Def_Squad_album)","rank":60,"score":101446},{"content":"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .","qid":"126","docid":"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network","rank":61,"score":100975},{"content":"Title: Temperature Rising (album) Content: Temperature Rising is the second English language album by Thai singer Tata Young . It was released in 2006 . The album consist of cover songs and original songs . The first single is `` El Nin-YO ! '' , from the lyrics of which the album 's title comes from . ( `` You got my temperature rising like El Nin-YO ! '' ) . Her second single is `` Zoom '' which was released in September . `` Come Rain Come Shine '' , the third single , was used in Star World 's station promo 's from December 2006 to mid-2007 . The promo includes footage of Tata Young singing `` Come Rain Come Shine '' as well as scenes from some of Star World 's television shows ( Everybody Loves Raymond , American Idol etc. . ) Track # 7 , `` Zoom '' , was covered by Ashley Tisdale on her 2007 debut album Headstrong , under the title as `` Do n't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) '' . Temperature Rising was last Tata Young album released on cassette tapes , but in very small numbers produced in a short time until September 2006 .","qid":"126","docid":"Temperature_Rising_(album)","rank":62,"score":100761},{"content":"Title: Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program Content: The Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program ( TOGA ) was a ten-year study ( 1985-1994 ) of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) aimed specifically at the prediction of climate phenomena on time scales of months to years . TOGA emphasized the tropical oceans and their relationship to the global atmosphere . Underlying TOGA is the premise that the dynamic adjustment of the ocean in the tropics is far more rapid than at higher latitudes . Thus disturbances emanating from the western Pacific Ocean ( such as El Niño ) may propagate across the basin on time scales of weeks compared to years for corresponding basin-wide propagation at higher latitudes . The significance of shorter dynamic times scales near the equator is that they are similar to those of highly energetic atmospheric modes . This similarity allows the formation of coupled modes between the ocean and the atmosphere . TOGA was instrumental in developing a comprehensive observing system for the equatorial Pacific Ocean and laid important groundwork for ENSO prediction , data assimilation and understanding of air-sea interaction .","qid":"126","docid":"Tropical_Ocean_Global_Atmosphere_program","rank":63,"score":100222},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"126","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":64,"score":100142},{"content":"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .","qid":"126","docid":"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":65,"score":99742},{"content":"Title: Hurricane Nora (1997) Content: Hurricane Nora was only the third tropical cyclone on record to reach Arizona as a tropical storm . Nora was the fourteenth named tropical cyclone and seventh hurricane of the 1997 Pacific hurricane season . The September storm formed off the Pacific coast of Mexico , and aided by waters warmed by the 1997 -- 98 El Niño event , eventually peaked at Category 4 intensity on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane scale . Nora took an unusual path , making landfall twice as a hurricane in Baja California . Weakening quickly after landfall , its remnants lashed the Southwestern United States with tropical-storm-force winds , torrential rain and flooding . The storm was blamed for two direct casualties in Mexico , as well as substantial beach erosion on the Mexican coast , flash flooding in Baja California , and record precipitation in Arizona . It persisted far inland and eventually dissipated near the Arizona -- Nevada border .","qid":"126","docid":"Hurricane_Nora_(1997)","rank":66,"score":99726},{"content":"Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .","qid":"126","docid":"David_Karoly","rank":67,"score":99647},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":68,"score":99501},{"content":"Title: Doji bara famine Content: The Doji bara famine ( also , Skull famine ) of 1791-92 in South Asia was brought on by a major El Niño event lasting from 1789 CE to 1795 CE and producing prolonged droughts . Recorded by William Roxburgh , a surgeon with the British East India Company , in a series of pioneering meteorological observations , the El Niño event caused the failure of the South Asian monsoon for four consecutive years starting in 1789 . The resulting famine , which was severe , caused widespread mortality in Hyderabad , Southern Maratha Kingdom , Deccan , Gujarat , and Marwar ( then all ruled by Indian rulers ) . In regions like the Madras Presidency ( governed by the East India Company ) , where the famine was less severe , and where records were kept , half the population perished in some districts , such as in the Northern Circars . In other areas , such as Bijapur , although no records were kept , both the famine and the year 1791 came to be known in folklore as the Doji bara ( also Doĝi Bar ) or the `` skull famine , '' on account , it was said , of the `` bones of the victims which lay unburied whitening the roads and the fields . '' As in the Chalisa famine of a decade earlier , many areas were depopulated from death or migration . According to one study , a total of 11 million people may have died during the years 1789 -- 1792 as a result of starvation or accompanying epidemics of disease .","qid":"126","docid":"Doji_bara_famine","rank":69,"score":99463},{"content":"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_system","rank":70,"score":99127},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"126","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":71,"score":99079},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"126","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":72,"score":98703},{"content":"Title: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Content: Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .","qid":"126","docid":"Post–Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissions","rank":73,"score":98558},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_change","rank":74,"score":98317},{"content":"Title: Tropical instability waves Content: Tropical instability waves , often abbreviated TIW , are a phenomenon in which the interface between areas of warm and cold sea surface temperatures near the equator form a regular pattern of westward-propagating waves . These waves are often present in the Atlantic Ocean , extending westward from the African coast , but are more easily recognizable in the Pacific , extending westward from South America . They have an average period of about 30 days and wavelength of about 1100 kilometers , and are largest in amplitude between June and November . They are also largest during La Niña conditions , and may disappear when strong El Niño conditions are present . Tropical instability waves are not related to tropical waves , which are atmospheric disturbances that propagate westward along the Intertropical Convergence Zone , sometimes giving rise to tropical storms .","qid":"126","docid":"Tropical_instability_waves","rank":75,"score":98309},{"content":"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska","rank":76,"score":98196},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"126","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":77,"score":98196},{"content":"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .","qid":"126","docid":"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years","rank":78,"score":97986},{"content":"Title: Cosculluela: El Niño Content: El Niño is the second album by Reggaeton artist Cosculluela . It was released by Rotweilas Inc. and White Lion Records on December 13 , 2011 . The first single was `` Si Tu No Estas '' , the second single was `` Soñando Despierto '' , and the third single was `` Rompan Fila '' . El Niño was one of the most successful and anticipated reggaeton albums of the year .","qid":"126","docid":"Cosculluela:_El_Niño","rank":79,"score":97718},{"content":"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .","qid":"126","docid":"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007","rank":80,"score":97207},{"content":"Title: Methane emissions Content: Global methane emissions are major part of the global greenhouse gas emissions . Methane in the atmosphere has a 100-year global warming potential of 34 .","qid":"126","docid":"Methane_emissions","rank":81,"score":97124},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"126","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":82,"score":97070},{"content":"Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .","qid":"126","docid":"Global_dimming","rank":83,"score":96926},{"content":"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .","qid":"126","docid":"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme","rank":84,"score":96787},{"content":"Title: 1965 Philmont Scout Ranch flash flood Content: On June 17 , 1965 , a large flash flood occurred in the Scouting camp Philmont Scout Ranch , which is near Cimarron , New Mexico , United States . Heavy rain throughout the area caused waters in Rayado Canyon and the Cimarron River to rise to extreme levels ; up to 12.42 feet at the highest . After June 17 , water levels gradually decreased over the course of several days . The impacts of the flood included the destruction of several campsites and the loss of many old photographs and documents kept at Philmont , however no injuries or deaths resulted from the flood . The 1965 flash flood was the largest flash flood in the history of Philmont until the 2015 flood , which occurred 50 years later in the same month . Both of the floods occurred in El Niño years as well .","qid":"126","docid":"1965_Philmont_Scout_Ranch_flash_flood","rank":85,"score":96693},{"content":"Title: 2014–15 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2014 -- 15 Australian bushfire season was expected to have the potential for many fires in eastern Australia after lower than expected rainfall was received in many areas . Authorities released warnings in the early spring that the season could be particularly bad . Warmer and drier weather conditions were experienced during winter and extended into 2015 , due to a developing El Niño event . Sydney was on track to record its hottest autumn on record and only had one fifth of the average rainfall in May . Adelaide recorded sixteen consecutive days of 20 C in May 2014 . Queensland sweltered through a heatwave , with record October temperatures being set in many towns through the state . New October records included Toowoomba with 36.4 C , St George with 42.6 C , Amberley with 41.3 C and Roma with 41.6 C. Throughout 2014 and the first 6 months of 2015 , 18 fires were declared `` national disasters '' affecting a total of 68 local government areas across New South Wales , South Australia , Victoria and the Northern Territory .","qid":"126","docid":"2014–15_Australian_bushfire_season","rank":86,"score":96547},{"content":"Title: African coral reefs Content: African coral reefs are coral reefs mainly found along the south and east coasts of Africa . The east coast corals extend from the Red Sea to Madagascar in the south , and are an important resource for the fishersmen of Kenya , Tanzania and Madagascar . As with coral reefs elsewhere , African coral reefs are more biologically diverse than the surrounding ocean , and support species such as the mantis shrimp , potato grouper , humphead wrasse and maxima clam , as well as many seaweeds and corals . On the east coast , temperatures average about 26 C over the year . The average rainfall is highest between January to April , at about 300 mm , and lowest during August to November , at about 100 mm . There are multiple threats to the reefs , such a tourist diving and damaging the corals , or taking samples . Then there are industrial run-offs and pollutants , untreated sewage and the increasing sediment flows in rivers that threaten all of the coastal ecosystems . The reef is also threatened by climate change . Due to global warming , the sea surface temperature increases and in 1997/98 a particularly severe ` El Nino ' killed 90 percent of corals on the reef . The CORDIO ( COral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean ) NGO have set up an East African task force to monitor the reef 's management .","qid":"126","docid":"African_coral_reefs","rank":87,"score":96095},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"126","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":88,"score":96093},{"content":"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .","qid":"126","docid":"Fugitive_emissions","rank":89,"score":96041},{"content":"Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .","qid":"126","docid":"Kevin_E._Trenberth","rank":90,"score":96025},{"content":"Title: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow Content: The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .","qid":"126","docid":"Committee_for_a_Constructive_Tomorrow","rank":91,"score":96013},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan","rank":92,"score":95928},{"content":"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .","qid":"126","docid":"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change","rank":93,"score":95850},{"content":"Title: Water resources management in the Dominican Republic Content: With surface water resources of 20 billion m3 ( BCM ) per year , of which 12 BCM are groundwater recharge , water resources in the Dominican Republic ( DR ) could be considered abundant . But irregular spatial and seasonal distribution , coupled with high consumption in irrigation and urban water supply , translates into water scarcity . Rapid economic growth and increased urbanization have also affected environmental quality and placed strains on the DR 's water resources base . In addition , the DR is exposed to a number of natural hazards , such as hurricanes , storms , floods , Drought , earthquakes , and fires . Global climate change is expected to induce permanent climate shocks to the Caribbean region , which will likely affect the DR in the form of sea level rise , higher surface air and sea temperatures , extreme weather events ( such as tropical storms and hurricanes ) , increased rainfall intensity ( leading to both more frequent and severe flooding ) and more frequent and more severe `` El Niño-like '' conditions . Water resources management in the country , in particular water quality , quantity and Watershed management faces major challenges today . Despite of the lack of systematic data limiting an accurate and detailed assessment of the scope of the problems , there is a consensus that : ( i ) the overall poor quality of surface , groundwater and coastal water resources is the result of a lack of waste water management and agricultural run-off , causing health problems that disproportionally affect the poor ; ( ii ) water scarcity is a regional problem resulting from poor demand management in irrigation , urban water supply and tourist infrastructure in drier regions ; ( iii ) weak watershed management leads to soil erosion and amplifies the damage and frequency of flooding ; and ( iv ) the overall lack of solid waste management pollutes water sources , causes disease and is a nuisance for inhabitants and visitors alike . The DR government is in the process of reducing its role as main investor for water resources infrastructure and services provider decentralizing some responsibilities to local and regional government , water users organizations , and private companies .","qid":"126","docid":"Water_resources_management_in_the_Dominican_Republic","rank":94,"score":95750},{"content":"Title: Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Content: Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) is a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . OAR is also referred to as NOAA Research . NOAA Research is the research and development arm of NOAA and is the driving force behind NOAA environmental products and services aimed at protecting life and property and promoting sustainable economic growth . Research , conducted by programs within NOAA and through collaborations outside NOAA , focuses on enhancing the understanding of environmental phenomena such as tornadoes , hurricanes , climate variability , changes in the ozone layer , El Niño / La Niña events , fisheries productivity , ocean currents , deep sea thermal vents , and coastal ecosystem health . The origins of NOAA Research date back more than 200 years with the creation of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 by Thomas Jefferson . The Coast Survey , which became the U.S. Lake Survey office in 1841 , was developed to undertake `` a hydrographic survey of northwestern -LSB- Great -RSB- lakes . '' Research executed by the scientists of this group was innovative and holistic : the first current meters were developed to understand water flow rates , and forecasting techniques were greatly enhanced to predict water levels and the relationship to lakefront property . The same traits of world class , long-term research continue to define NOAA Research today . The science and technology that NOAA Research produces is not only relevant to society , it anticipates and responds to partners ' needs to demonstrates the value of technologies so that partners can deploy them into their applications . OAR works with end-users to integrate mature technologies ( and associated expertise ) into larger systems , either in NOAA operations or partner applications , via testbeds , patents , etc. .","qid":"126","docid":"Office_of_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Research","rank":95,"score":95739},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Russia Content: Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .","qid":"126","docid":"Global_warming_in_Russia","rank":96,"score":95642},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"126","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":97,"score":95573},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .","qid":"126","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka","rank":98,"score":95489},{"content":"Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .","qid":"126","docid":"Drawdown_(climate)","rank":99,"score":95396},{"content":"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .","qid":"126","docid":"Equilibrium_level","rank":100,"score":95296}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"1997–98_El_Niño_event\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 174155\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2014–16 El Niño event Content: The 2014 -- 16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line . These unusually warm waters influenced the world 's weather in a number of ways , which in turn significantly affected various parts of the world . These included drought conditions in Venezuela , Australia and a number of Pacific islands while significant flooding was also recorded . During the event more tropical cyclones than normal occurred within the Pacific Ocean , while fewer than normal occurred in the Atlantic Ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"2014–16_El_Niño_event\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 167179\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 155937\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: El Niño Content: El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall . Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"El_Niño\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 155761\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 154277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 149610\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_hiatus\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 146274\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 144600\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 136845\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1982–83 El Niño event Content: The 1982 -- 83 El Niño event was one of the strongest El Niño events since records were kept . It led to widespread flooding across the southern United States , droughts in Indonesia and Australia , and lack of snow in northern areas of the United States . The estimated economic impact was over US$ 8 billion . This El Niño event also led to an abnormal amount of hurricanes in the Pacific Ocean during this time span ; the strongest hurricane up to 1983 hit Hawaii during this El Niño event . It led to declines of 77 % among Galápagos penguins and 49 % among flightless cormorants . In addition to these losses in penguins and cormorants , this El Niño event caused a quarter of adult native sea lions and fur seals on Peru 's coast to starve , while the entirety of both seals ' pup populations perished . In Ecuador heavy rainfall and flooding led to high fish and shrimp harvests , however the large amounts of standing water also allowed mosquito populations to thrive , leading to large outbreaks of malaria .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"1982–83_El_Niño_event\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 136681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: La Niña Content: La Niña ( -LSB- lɑːˈniːnjə -RSB- , -LSB- la ˈniɲa -RSB- ) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is the counterpart of El Niño as part of the broader El Niño -- Southern Oscillation climate pattern . The name La Niña originates from Spanish , meaning `` the little girl '' , analogous to El Niño meaning `` the little boy '' . It has also in the past been called anti-El Niño , and El Viejo ( meaning `` the old man '' ) . During a period of La Niña , the sea surface temperature across the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3 to 5 ° C . In the United States , an appearance of La Niña persists for at least five months . It has extensive effects on the weather in North America , even affecting the Atlantic Hurricane Season .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"La_Niña\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 132047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the United States Content: The El Niño -- Southern Oscillation affects the location of the jet stream , which alters rainfall patterns across the West , Midwest , the Southeast , and throughout the tropics . The shift in the jet stream also leads to shifts in the occurrence of severe weather , and the number of tropical cyclones expected within the tropics in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans affected by changes in the ocean temperature and the subtropical jet stream . The winter will have a negative phase according to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_the_El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 129278\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 125211\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atlantic Equatorial mode Content: The Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño is a quasiperiodic interannual climate pattern of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean . It is the dominant mode of year-to-year variability that results in alternating warming and cooling episodes of sea surface temperatures accompanied by changes in atmospheric circulation . The term Atlantic Niño comes from its close similarity with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) that dominates the tropical Pacific basin . The Atlantic Niño is not the same as the Atlantic Meridional ( Interhemispheric ) Mode that consists of a north-south dipole and operates more on decadal timescales . The equatorial warming and cooling events associated with the Atlantic Niño are known to be strongly related to atmospheric climate anomalies , especially in African countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea . Therefore , understanding of the Atlantic Niño ( or lack thereof ) has important implications for climate prediction in those regions . Although the Atlantic Niño is an intrinsic mode to the equatorial Atlantic , there may be a tenuous causal relationship between ENSO and the Atlantic Niño in some circumstances .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Atlantic_Equatorial_mode\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 124410\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: El Niño (disambiguation) Content: El Niño is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon . El Niño may also refer to : El Niño ( Def Squad album ) El Niño ( oratorio ) , by American composer John Adams El Niño ( Eldritch album ) El Niño ( film ) El Niño , a race car in the video game Need for Speed III : Hot Pursuit El Niño , a nickname of Spanish golfer Sergio García El Niño , a nickname of Spanish footballer Fernando Torres El Niño , a nickname of baseball player Hanley Ramírez El Niño , a nickname of hockey player Nino Niederreiter El Niño , a nickname of mixed martial artist Gilbert Melendez El Niño , a fictional airline of a non-existing country San Escobar\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"El_Niño_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 123333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 123054\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 123032\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 120676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 120326\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 120296\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 120262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 120075\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Late Victorian Holocausts Content: Late Victorian Holocausts : El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World is a book by Mike Davis about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns , particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries , Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism , and the relation with famine in particular . Davis argues that `` Millions died , not outside the ` modern world system ' , but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures . They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism ; indeed , many were murdered ... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith , Bentham and Mill . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Late_Victorian_Holocausts\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 119065\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 118809\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes Content: Category 4 , the second-highest classification on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale , is used for tropical cyclones that have winds of 130 -- 156 mph ( 209 -- 251 km/h ; 113 -- 136 kn ) . The division of the eastern and central Pacific basins occurs at 140 ° W ; the eastern Pacific covers area east of 140 ° W , while the central Pacific extends between 140 ° W to 180 ° W. Both basins ' division points are at 66 ° N as a northern point and the equator as the southern point . As of , 116 hurricanes have attained Category 4 status in the northeastern Pacific basins . This list does not include storms that also attained Category 5 status on the scale . Numerous climatological factors influence the formation of hurricanes in the Pacific basins . The North Pacific High and Aleutian Low , usually present between January and April , cause strong wind shear and unfavorable conditions for the development of hurricanes . During its presence , El Niño results in increased numbers of powerful hurricanes through weaker wind shear , while La Niña reduces the number of such hurricanes through the opposite . Global warming may also influence the formation of tropical cyclones in the Pacific basin . During a thirty-year period with two sub-periods , the first between 1975 and 1989 and the second between 1990 and 2004 , an increase of thirteen Category 4 or 5 storms was observed from the first sub-period . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_Category_4_Pacific_hurricanes\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 116520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 115065\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 114945\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: May 2016 United States storm complex Content: The May 2016 United States storm complex was a flood in the United States that occurred on May 31 , 2016 , affecting the states of Arkansas , Kansas , Nebraska , Oklahoma , and Texas . The inundation set precipitation records in Texas and Oklahoma . On June 2 , 2016 , the rising of the Brazos River required evacuations for portions of Brazoria County , Texas . Ten deaths of Texans and thousands of home evacuations led Texas Governor Greg Abbott to issue a statewide Disaster Proclamation on June 1 , 2016 considering the damage in thirty-one counties including Austin , Bandera , Bastrop , Brazoria , Brazos , Burleson , Coleman , Colorado , Erath , Fayette , Fort Bend , Grimes , Hidalgo , Hood , Jasper , Kleberg , Lee , Leon , Liberty , Lubbock , Montgomery , Palo Pinto , Parker , Polk , Robertson , San Jacinto , Tyler , Walker , Waller , Washington and Wharton counties . Meteorologists attribute this storm 's devastation to the power of the El Niño climate cycle . An El Niño system is identified following fluctuation in the climate , characterized by an eastern shift of warming ocean water from the western tropical Pacific Ocean and rainfall along the equator .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"May_2016_United_States_storm_complex\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 114525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010–12 La Niña event Content: The 2010 -- 12 La Niña event was one of the strongest on record . It caused Australia to experience its wettest September on record in 2010 , and its second-wettest year on record in 2010 . It also led to an unusual intensification of the Leeuwin Current , the 2010 Pakistan floods , the 2010 -- 11 Queensland floods , and the 2011 East Africa drought . It also helped keep the average global temperature below recent trends , leading to 2011 tying with 1997 for the 14th-warmest year on record .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"2010–12_La_Niña_event\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 114035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_inertia\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 113032\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 112567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercane\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 111432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 111126\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Subtropical ridge Content: The subtropical ridge , also known as the subtropical high or horse latitudes , is a significant belt of atmospheric high pressure situated around the latitudes of 30 ° N in the Northern Hemisphere and 30 ° S in the Southern Hemisphere . It is the product of the global air circulation cell known as the Hadley Cell . The subtropical ridge is characterized by mostly calm winds , which act to reduce air quality under its axis by causing fog overnight , and haze during daylight hours as a result of the stable atmosphere found near its location . The air descending from the upper troposphere flows out from its center at surface level toward the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere , creating both the trade winds and the westerlies . The subtropical ridge moves poleward during the summer , reaching its most northern latitude in early fall , before moving equatorward during the cold season . The El Niño southern climate oscillation ( ENSO ) can displace the northern hemisphere subtropical ridge , with La Niñas allowing for a more northerly axis for the ridge , while El Niños show flatter , more southerly ridges . The change of the ridge position during ENSO cycles changes the tracks of tropical cyclones that form around their equatorward and western peripheries . As the subtropical ridge varies in position and strength , it can enhance or depress monsoon regimes around their low-latitude periphery . The term `` horse latitudes '' refers to and is synonymous with the subtropical ridge or subtropical high .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Subtropical_ridge\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 110230\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Satellite_temperature_measurements\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 109936\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 109881\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 109473\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 109397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 109293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 109017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 108993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 108950\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 108418\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 108295\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 108206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Indian Ocean Dipole Content: The Indian Ocean Dipole ( IOD ) , also known as the Indian Niño , is an irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperatures in which the western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer and then colder than the eastern part of the ocean . Monsoon in India is generally affected by the temperature between bay of Bangal in the east and The Arabian sea in the west\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Indian_Ocean_Dipole\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 107664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 107291\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project Content: The Tropical Atmosphere Ocean ( TAO ) project is a major international effort that instrumented the entire tropical Pacific Ocean with approximately 70 deep ocean moorings . The development of the TAO array in 1985 was motivated by the 1982-1983 El Niño event and ultimately designed for the study of year-to-year climate variations related to El Niño and the Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Led by the TAO Project Office of the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory ( PMEL ) , the full array of 70 moorings was completed in 1994 . The completed TAO array provides in-situ data collection of high quality oceanographic and surface meteorological data for monitoring , forecasting , and understanding of climate swings associated with El Niño and La Nina . In January 2000 , the TAO array was renamed the TAO/TRITON array in recognition of the contribution made by the TRITON ( Triangle Trans-Ocean Buoy Network ) moorings . The TRITON moorings are situated along , and to the west of , 156E and are operated and managed by JAMSTEC .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_Atmosphere_Ocean_project\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 106935\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 105872\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2004 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest Atlantic hurricane season on record until surpassed by the following year . More than half of the 16 tropical cyclones brushed or struck the United States . The season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . Due to a Modoki El Niño -- a rare type of El Niño in which unfavorable conditions are produced over the eastern Pacific instead of the Atlantic basin due to warmer sea surface temperatures farther west along the equatorial Pacific -- activity was above average . The first storm , Alex , developed offshore of the Southeastern United States on July 31 . It brushed the Carolinas and the Mid-Atlantic , causing one death and $ 7.5 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage . Several storms caused only minor damage , including tropical storms Bonnie , Earl , Hermine , and Matthew . In addition , hurricanes Danielle , Karl , and Lisa , Tropical Depression Ten , Subtropical Storm Nicole and Tropical Storm Otto had no effect on land while tropical cyclones . Hurricane Charley made landfall in Florida as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) , causing $ 15.1 billion in damage in the United States alone . Later in August , Hurricane Frances struck the Bahamas and Florida , causing at least 49 deaths and $ 9.5 billion in damage . The most intense storm , and the one that caused the most damage , was Hurricane Ivan . It was a Category 5 hurricane that devastated multiple countries adjacent to the Caribbean Sea , before entering the Gulf of Mexico and causing catastrophic destruction on the Gulf Coast of the United States , especially Alabama and Florida . Throughout the countries it passed through , Ivan left 129 fatalities and over $ 23.33 billion in damage . The most significant tropical cyclone in terms of deaths was Hurricane Jeanne . In Haiti , torrential rainfall in the mountainous areas resulted in mudslides and severe flooding , causing at least 3,006 fatalities . Jeanne also struck Florida , inflicting extensive destruction . Overall , the storm caused at least $ 8.1 billion in damage and 3,042 deaths . Collectively , the storms of this season caused at least 3,270 deaths and about $ 57.37 billion in damage , making it the costliest Atlantic hurricane season at the time , until the following season . With six hurricanes reaching at least Category 3 intensity , 2004 also had the most major hurricanes since 1996 . However , that record would also be surpassed in 2005 , with seven major hurricanes that year . In the spring of 2005 , four names were retired : Charley , Frances , Ivan , and Jeanne . This tied the then-record most names retired with 1955 and 1995 , while five were retired in 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 105723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 105137\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nino Content: Nino or Niño may refer to : Nino ( name ) El Niño , a climate pattern in the tropical Pacific Ocean NINO , an abbreviation for National insurance number in the United Kingdom Niño , the smallest conga drum Niño ( single ) , a single from the album Dulce Beat by Belanova Nino ( novel ) , a 1938 children 's novel by Valenti Angelo Niño ( TV series ) , a 2014 Philippine TV series Philips Nino , a PDA-style device The Netherlands Institute for the Near East\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Nino\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 105018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 104777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1998 Klang Valley water crisis Content: The 1998 Klang Valley water crisis occurred in Malaysia in February 1998 when the three reservoir dams in Klang Valley , Klang Gates Dam , Batu Dam and Semenyih Dam suffered a substantial drop in water level following the El Niño phenomenon . The subsequent water shortage affected almost all the residents in the Klang Valley causing the government to impose water rationing prior to the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur . The shortage was blamed on El Nino despite actual rainfall in the months leading up to February 1998 in Federal Territory not being significantly below average . In fact in November 1997 , Klang Gates Dam had its highest recorded rainfall . Similarly in October 1997 the Kajang station not far from the Semenyih dam had its highest rainfall in record .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"1998_Klang_Valley_water_crisis\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 104620\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Michael Wallace Content: John Michael Wallace ( born October 28 , 1940 ) , is a professor of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington , as well as the former director of the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean ( JISAO ) -- a joint research venture between the University of Washington and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research concerns understanding global climate and its variations using observations and covers the quasi biennial oscillation , Pacific decadal oscillation and the annular modes of the Arctic oscillation and the Antarctic oscillation , and the dominant spatial patterns in month-to-month and year-to-year climate variability , including the one through which El Niño phenomenon in the tropical Pacific influences climate over North America . He is also the coauthor with Peter V. Hobbs of what is generally considered the standard introductory textbook in the field : Atmospheric Science : An Introductory Survey . He was the third most cited geoscientist during the period 1973 -- 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Michael_Wallace\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 104163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eric Guilyardi Content: Eric Guilyardi is a climate scientist , professor in the department of meteorology at the University of Reading and directeur de recherche CNRS at LOCEAN at Institute Pierre Simon Laplace ( IPSL ) in Paris , France . He is an expert of the El Niño phenomenon . He has been a Lead Author for the IPCC AR5 report .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Eric_Guilyardi\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 104090\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 103725\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 103333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Maximum parcel level Content: The maximum parcel level ( MPL ) is the highest level in the atmosphere that a moist convectively rising air parcel will reach after ascending from the level of free convection ( LFC ) through the free convective layer ( FCL ) and reaching the equilibrium level ( EL ) , near the tropopause . As the parcel rises through the FCL it expands adiabatically causing its temperature to drop , often below the temperature of its surroundings , and eventually lose buoyancy . Because of this , the EL is approximately the region where the distinct flat tops ( called anvils ) often observed on cumulonimbus clouds form . If the air parcel ascended quickly enough then it retains momentum after it has cooled and continues rising past the EL , ceasing at the MPL ( visually represented by the overshooting top , above the anvil ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Maximum_parcel_level\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 102736\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: El Niño (Def Squad album) Content: El Niño is the only album from hip hop supergroup Def Squad . The three Def Squad members , Redman , Erick Sermon and Keith Murray , released this album on June 30 , 1998 to positive critical and commercial feedback . The album is now out of print . It reached # 2 on The Billboard 200 and had one single , `` Full Cooperation '' . The CD was released as a Promotional Package including a `` Survival Of the Illest 3 '' disc , a mixtape featuring Method Man and Redman hosting . The song `` Ride Wit Us '' later appeared on Keith Murray 's third album It 's a Beautiful Thing .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"El_Niño_(Def_Squad_album)\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 101446\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 100975\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature Rising (album) Content: Temperature Rising is the second English language album by Thai singer Tata Young . It was released in 2006 . The album consist of cover songs and original songs . The first single is `` El Nin-YO ! '' , from the lyrics of which the album 's title comes from . ( `` You got my temperature rising like El Nin-YO ! '' ) . Her second single is `` Zoom '' which was released in September . `` Come Rain Come Shine '' , the third single , was used in Star World 's station promo 's from December 2006 to mid-2007 . The promo includes footage of Tata Young singing `` Come Rain Come Shine '' as well as scenes from some of Star World 's television shows ( Everybody Loves Raymond , American Idol etc. . ) Track # 7 , `` Zoom '' , was covered by Ashley Tisdale on her 2007 debut album Headstrong , under the title as `` Do n't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) '' . Temperature Rising was last Tata Young album released on cassette tapes , but in very small numbers produced in a short time until September 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_Rising_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 100761\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program Content: The Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program ( TOGA ) was a ten-year study ( 1985-1994 ) of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) aimed specifically at the prediction of climate phenomena on time scales of months to years . TOGA emphasized the tropical oceans and their relationship to the global atmosphere . Underlying TOGA is the premise that the dynamic adjustment of the ocean in the tropics is far more rapid than at higher latitudes . Thus disturbances emanating from the western Pacific Ocean ( such as El Niño ) may propagate across the basin on time scales of weeks compared to years for corresponding basin-wide propagation at higher latitudes . The significance of shorter dynamic times scales near the equator is that they are similar to those of highly energetic atmospheric modes . This similarity allows the formation of coupled modes between the ocean and the atmosphere . TOGA was instrumental in developing a comprehensive observing system for the equatorial Pacific Ocean and laid important groundwork for ENSO prediction , data assimilation and understanding of air-sea interaction .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_Ocean_Global_Atmosphere_program\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 100222\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 100142\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 99742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hurricane Nora (1997) Content: Hurricane Nora was only the third tropical cyclone on record to reach Arizona as a tropical storm . Nora was the fourteenth named tropical cyclone and seventh hurricane of the 1997 Pacific hurricane season . The September storm formed off the Pacific coast of Mexico , and aided by waters warmed by the 1997 -- 98 El Niño event , eventually peaked at Category 4 intensity on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane scale . Nora took an unusual path , making landfall twice as a hurricane in Baja California . Weakening quickly after landfall , its remnants lashed the Southwestern United States with tropical-storm-force winds , torrential rain and flooding . The storm was blamed for two direct casualties in Mexico , as well as substantial beach erosion on the Mexican coast , flash flooding in Baja California , and record precipitation in Arizona . It persisted far inland and eventually dissipated near the Arizona -- Nevada border .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Hurricane_Nora_(1997)\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 99726\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Karoly\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 99647\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 99501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Doji bara famine Content: The Doji bara famine ( also , Skull famine ) of 1791-92 in South Asia was brought on by a major El Niño event lasting from 1789 CE to 1795 CE and producing prolonged droughts . Recorded by William Roxburgh , a surgeon with the British East India Company , in a series of pioneering meteorological observations , the El Niño event caused the failure of the South Asian monsoon for four consecutive years starting in 1789 . The resulting famine , which was severe , caused widespread mortality in Hyderabad , Southern Maratha Kingdom , Deccan , Gujarat , and Marwar ( then all ruled by Indian rulers ) . In regions like the Madras Presidency ( governed by the East India Company ) , where the famine was less severe , and where records were kept , half the population perished in some districts , such as in the Northern Circars . In other areas , such as Bijapur , although no records were kept , both the famine and the year 1791 came to be known in folklore as the Doji bara ( also Doĝi Bar ) or the `` skull famine , '' on account , it was said , of the `` bones of the victims which lay unburied whitening the roads and the fields . '' As in the Chalisa famine of a decade earlier , many areas were depopulated from death or migration . According to one study , a total of 11 million people may have died during the years 1789 -- 1792 as a result of starvation or accompanying epidemics of disease .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Doji_bara_famine\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 99463\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 99127\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 99079\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 98703\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Content: Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Post–Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 98558\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 98317\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical instability waves Content: Tropical instability waves , often abbreviated TIW , are a phenomenon in which the interface between areas of warm and cold sea surface temperatures near the equator form a regular pattern of westward-propagating waves . These waves are often present in the Atlantic Ocean , extending westward from the African coast , but are more easily recognizable in the Pacific , extending westward from South America . They have an average period of about 30 days and wavelength of about 1100 kilometers , and are largest in amplitude between June and November . They are also largest during La Niña conditions , and may disappear when strong El Niño conditions are present . Tropical instability waves are not related to tropical waves , which are atmospheric disturbances that propagate westward along the Intertropical Convergence Zone , sometimes giving rise to tropical storms .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_instability_waves\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 98309\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 98196\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 98196\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 97986\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cosculluela: El Niño Content: El Niño is the second album by Reggaeton artist Cosculluela . It was released by Rotweilas Inc. and White Lion Records on December 13 , 2011 . The first single was `` Si Tu No Estas '' , the second single was `` Soñando Despierto '' , and the third single was `` Rompan Fila '' . El Niño was one of the most successful and anticipated reggaeton albums of the year .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Cosculluela:_El_Niño\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 97718\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 97207\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Methane emissions Content: Global methane emissions are major part of the global greenhouse gas emissions . Methane in the atmosphere has a 100-year global warming potential of 34 .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Methane_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 97124\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 97070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_dimming\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 96926\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 96787\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1965 Philmont Scout Ranch flash flood Content: On June 17 , 1965 , a large flash flood occurred in the Scouting camp Philmont Scout Ranch , which is near Cimarron , New Mexico , United States . Heavy rain throughout the area caused waters in Rayado Canyon and the Cimarron River to rise to extreme levels ; up to 12.42 feet at the highest . After June 17 , water levels gradually decreased over the course of several days . The impacts of the flood included the destruction of several campsites and the loss of many old photographs and documents kept at Philmont , however no injuries or deaths resulted from the flood . The 1965 flash flood was the largest flash flood in the history of Philmont until the 2015 flood , which occurred 50 years later in the same month . Both of the floods occurred in El Niño years as well .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"1965_Philmont_Scout_Ranch_flash_flood\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 96693\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2014–15 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2014 -- 15 Australian bushfire season was expected to have the potential for many fires in eastern Australia after lower than expected rainfall was received in many areas . Authorities released warnings in the early spring that the season could be particularly bad . Warmer and drier weather conditions were experienced during winter and extended into 2015 , due to a developing El Niño event . Sydney was on track to record its hottest autumn on record and only had one fifth of the average rainfall in May . Adelaide recorded sixteen consecutive days of 20 C in May 2014 . Queensland sweltered through a heatwave , with record October temperatures being set in many towns through the state . New October records included Toowoomba with 36.4 C , St George with 42.6 C , Amberley with 41.3 C and Roma with 41.6 C. Throughout 2014 and the first 6 months of 2015 , 18 fires were declared `` national disasters '' affecting a total of 68 local government areas across New South Wales , South Australia , Victoria and the Northern Territory .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"2014–15_Australian_bushfire_season\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 96547\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: African coral reefs Content: African coral reefs are coral reefs mainly found along the south and east coasts of Africa . The east coast corals extend from the Red Sea to Madagascar in the south , and are an important resource for the fishersmen of Kenya , Tanzania and Madagascar . As with coral reefs elsewhere , African coral reefs are more biologically diverse than the surrounding ocean , and support species such as the mantis shrimp , potato grouper , humphead wrasse and maxima clam , as well as many seaweeds and corals . On the east coast , temperatures average about 26 C over the year . The average rainfall is highest between January to April , at about 300 mm , and lowest during August to November , at about 100 mm . There are multiple threats to the reefs , such a tourist diving and damaging the corals , or taking samples . Then there are industrial run-offs and pollutants , untreated sewage and the increasing sediment flows in rivers that threaten all of the coastal ecosystems . The reef is also threatened by climate change . Due to global warming , the sea surface temperature increases and in 1997/98 a particularly severe ` El Nino ' killed 90 percent of corals on the reef . The CORDIO ( COral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean ) NGO have set up an East African task force to monitor the reef 's management .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"African_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 96095\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 96093\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Fugitive_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 96041\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Kevin_E._Trenberth\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 96025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow Content: The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Committee_for_a_Constructive_Tomorrow\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 96013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 95928\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 95850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Water resources management in the Dominican Republic Content: With surface water resources of 20 billion m3 ( BCM ) per year , of which 12 BCM are groundwater recharge , water resources in the Dominican Republic ( DR ) could be considered abundant . But irregular spatial and seasonal distribution , coupled with high consumption in irrigation and urban water supply , translates into water scarcity . Rapid economic growth and increased urbanization have also affected environmental quality and placed strains on the DR 's water resources base . In addition , the DR is exposed to a number of natural hazards , such as hurricanes , storms , floods , Drought , earthquakes , and fires . Global climate change is expected to induce permanent climate shocks to the Caribbean region , which will likely affect the DR in the form of sea level rise , higher surface air and sea temperatures , extreme weather events ( such as tropical storms and hurricanes ) , increased rainfall intensity ( leading to both more frequent and severe flooding ) and more frequent and more severe `` El Niño-like '' conditions . Water resources management in the country , in particular water quality , quantity and Watershed management faces major challenges today . Despite of the lack of systematic data limiting an accurate and detailed assessment of the scope of the problems , there is a consensus that : ( i ) the overall poor quality of surface , groundwater and coastal water resources is the result of a lack of waste water management and agricultural run-off , causing health problems that disproportionally affect the poor ; ( ii ) water scarcity is a regional problem resulting from poor demand management in irrigation , urban water supply and tourist infrastructure in drier regions ; ( iii ) weak watershed management leads to soil erosion and amplifies the damage and frequency of flooding ; and ( iv ) the overall lack of solid waste management pollutes water sources , causes disease and is a nuisance for inhabitants and visitors alike . The DR government is in the process of reducing its role as main investor for water resources infrastructure and services provider decentralizing some responsibilities to local and regional government , water users organizations , and private companies .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Water_resources_management_in_the_Dominican_Republic\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 95750\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Content: Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) is a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . OAR is also referred to as NOAA Research . NOAA Research is the research and development arm of NOAA and is the driving force behind NOAA environmental products and services aimed at protecting life and property and promoting sustainable economic growth . Research , conducted by programs within NOAA and through collaborations outside NOAA , focuses on enhancing the understanding of environmental phenomena such as tornadoes , hurricanes , climate variability , changes in the ozone layer , El Niño / La Niña events , fisheries productivity , ocean currents , deep sea thermal vents , and coastal ecosystem health . The origins of NOAA Research date back more than 200 years with the creation of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 by Thomas Jefferson . The Coast Survey , which became the U.S. Lake Survey office in 1841 , was developed to undertake `` a hydrographic survey of northwestern -LSB- Great -RSB- lakes . '' Research executed by the scientists of this group was innovative and holistic : the first current meters were developed to understand water flow rates , and forecasting techniques were greatly enhanced to predict water levels and the relationship to lakefront property . The same traits of world class , long-term research continue to define NOAA Research today . The science and technology that NOAA Research produces is not only relevant to society , it anticipates and responds to partners ' needs to demonstrates the value of technologies so that partners can deploy them into their applications . OAR works with end-users to integrate mature technologies ( and associated expertise ) into larger systems , either in NOAA operations or partner applications , via testbeds , patents , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Office_of_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Research\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 95739\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Russia Content: Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Russia\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 95642\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 95573\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 95489\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Drawdown_(climate)\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 95396\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"126\",\n \"docid\": \"Equilibrium_level\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 95296\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":60,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide has helped raise global food production and reduce poverty."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":1,"score":182818},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":2,"score":165700},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"127","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":3,"score":153548},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"127","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":4,"score":149259},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"127","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":5,"score":148280},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":6,"score":147802},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"127","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":7,"score":147685},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"127","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":8,"score":147664},{"content":"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_sequestration","rank":9,"score":144772},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"127","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":10,"score":142797},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"127","docid":"350.org","rank":11,"score":142698},{"content":"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .","qid":"127","docid":"Individual_action_on_climate_change","rank":12,"score":141671},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"127","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":13,"score":141231},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"127","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":14,"score":140612},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"127","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":15,"score":140006},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"127","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":16,"score":138702},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"127","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":17,"score":138401},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"127","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":18,"score":138180},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":19,"score":137222},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":20,"score":136240},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"127","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":21,"score":136063},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"127","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":22,"score":135973},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .","qid":"127","docid":"Low-carbon_diet","rank":23,"score":135706},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"127","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":24,"score":135423},{"content":"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .","qid":"127","docid":"Charles_David_Keeling","rank":25,"score":135399},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":26,"score":135380},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"127","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":27,"score":135351},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":28,"score":132034},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"127","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":29,"score":131792},{"content":"Title: D. James Baker Content: D. James Baker ( born March 23 , 1937 ) is an American scientist who was trained as a physicist , practiced as an oceanographer , and has held science and management positions in academia , non-profit institutions , and government agencies . He a former Under Secretary of Commerce for Atmosphere and Oceans and Administrator of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , and currently Director , Global Carbon Measurement Program , William J. Clinton Foundation working with forestry programs in developing countries with the aim of reducing carbon dioxide emissions and at the same time helping alleviate poverty .","qid":"127","docid":"D._James_Baker","rank":30,"score":131589},{"content":"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .","qid":"127","docid":"Keith_E._Idso","rank":31,"score":131262},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"127","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":32,"score":130830},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"127","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":33,"score":130808},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"127","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":34,"score":130519},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"127","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":35,"score":128532},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"127","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":36,"score":127965},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia","rank":37,"score":127366},{"content":"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .","qid":"127","docid":"The_Green_Initiative","rank":38,"score":127255},{"content":"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012","qid":"127","docid":"Emission_Reduction_Unit","rank":39,"score":127162},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":40,"score":126506},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"127","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":41,"score":126457},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":42,"score":125596},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"127","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":43,"score":125319},{"content":"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .","qid":"127","docid":"Biosequestration","rank":44,"score":124591},{"content":"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .","qid":"127","docid":"Campus_carbon_neutrality","rank":45,"score":124148},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .","qid":"127","docid":"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia","rank":46,"score":123750},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":47,"score":123257},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_emission_label","rank":48,"score":123088},{"content":"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .","qid":"127","docid":"Mark_Z._Jacobson","rank":49,"score":123039},{"content":"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_shifting","rank":50,"score":122644},{"content":"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .","qid":"127","docid":"Modified_atmosphere","rank":51,"score":122217},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"127","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":52,"score":120356},{"content":"Title: Environmentalism in motorsport Content: The issue of environmentalism in motorsport surrounds the whole of auto racing to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions contributing to global warming .","qid":"127","docid":"Environmentalism_in_motorsport","rank":53,"score":119933},{"content":"Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .","qid":"127","docid":"Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution","rank":54,"score":119466},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"127","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":55,"score":119004},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .","qid":"127","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_shipping","rank":56,"score":118365},{"content":"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_finance","rank":57,"score":117974},{"content":"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .","qid":"127","docid":"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World","rank":58,"score":117813},{"content":"Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .","qid":"127","docid":"Tropical_peat","rank":59,"score":117808},{"content":"Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .","qid":"127","docid":"Politics_of_global_warming","rank":60,"score":117680},{"content":"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .","qid":"127","docid":"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry","rank":61,"score":117502},{"content":"Title: Sustainability and environmental management Content: At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , according to sustainability principles . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles . Management of the Earth 's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms .","qid":"127","docid":"Sustainability_and_environmental_management","rank":62,"score":116743},{"content":"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .","qid":"127","docid":"Environmental_issue","rank":63,"score":116629},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_reforming","rank":64,"score":116247},{"content":"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .","qid":"127","docid":"Stuart_Agnew","rank":65,"score":116178},{"content":"Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_bubble","rank":66,"score":116138},{"content":"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .","qid":"127","docid":"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation","rank":67,"score":116137},{"content":"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .","qid":"127","docid":"California_Senate_Bill_32","rank":68,"score":115756},{"content":"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )","qid":"127","docid":"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita","rank":69,"score":115433},{"content":"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance","rank":70,"score":115333},{"content":"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_footprint","rank":71,"score":115326},{"content":"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_governance_in_England","rank":72,"score":114618},{"content":"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .","qid":"127","docid":"Kaya_identity","rank":73,"score":114398},{"content":"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .","qid":"127","docid":"Christine_Wiedinmyer","rank":74,"score":114367},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":75,"score":114230},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"127","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":76,"score":114059},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"127","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":77,"score":114031},{"content":"Title: Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels Content: The indirect land use change impacts of biofuels , also known as ILUC , relates to the unintended consequence of releasing more carbon emissions due to land-use changes around the world induced by the expansion of croplands for ethanol or biodiesel production in response to the increased global demand for biofuels . As farmers worldwide respond to higher crop prices in order to maintain the global food supply-and-demand balance , pristine lands are cleared to replace the food crops that were diverted elsewhere to biofuels ' production . Because natural lands , such as rainforests and grasslands , store carbon in their soil and biomass as plants grow each year , clearance of wilderness for new farms translates to a net increase in greenhouse gas emissions . Due to this change in the carbon stock of the soil and the biomass , indirect land use change has consequences in the GHG balance of a biofuel . Other authors have also argued that indirect land use changes produce other significant social and environmental impacts , affecting biodiversity , water quality , food prices and supply , land tenure , worker migration , and community and cultural stability .","qid":"127","docid":"Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels","rank":78,"score":113942},{"content":"Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .","qid":"127","docid":"Forests_for_the_21st_Century","rank":79,"score":113629},{"content":"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .","qid":"127","docid":"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States","rank":80,"score":113013},{"content":"Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .","qid":"127","docid":"Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":81,"score":112995},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .","qid":"127","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage","rank":82,"score":112872},{"content":"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .","qid":"127","docid":"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources","rank":83,"score":112662},{"content":"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .","qid":"127","docid":"Climate-friendly_gardening","rank":84,"score":112651},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .","qid":"127","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita","rank":85,"score":112341},{"content":"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .","qid":"127","docid":"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory","rank":86,"score":112322},{"content":"Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .","qid":"127","docid":"Wildland_fire_emission","rank":87,"score":112011},{"content":"Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .","qid":"127","docid":"Mootral","rank":88,"score":111731},{"content":"Title: Sherwood B. Idso Content: Sherwood B. Idso ( born June 12 , 1942 ) is the president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization . Prior to that time he was a Research Physicist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Agricultural Research Service at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix , Arizona , where he worked since June 1967 . He was also closely associated with Arizona State University over most of this period , serving as an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Geology , Geography , and Botany and Microbiology . His two sons , Craig and Keith , are , respectively , the founder and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Idso is the author or co-author of over 500 publications including the books Carbon Dioxide : Friend or Foe ? ( 1982 ) and Carbon Dioxide and Global Change : Earth in Transition ( 1989 ) . He served on the editorial board of the international journal Agricultural and Forest Meteorology from 1973 to 1993 and since 1993 has served on the editorial board of Environmental and Experimental Botany . Over the course of his career , he has been an invited reviewer of manuscripts for 56 different scientific journals and 17 different funding agencies , representing an unusually large array of disciplines . He is an ISI highly cited researcher .","qid":"127","docid":"Sherwood_B._Idso","rank":89,"score":111404},{"content":"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .","qid":"127","docid":"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance","rank":90,"score":111207},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"127","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":91,"score":111072},{"content":"Title: Mary Christina Wood Content: Mary Christina Wood ( born 1962 ) is an Oregon Philip H. Knight Professor of Law and author , best known for her writings advocating for the use of the Public trust doctrine to compel government action on climate change . Wood originated the approach , called atmospheric trust litigation , `` to hold governments worldwide accountable for reducing carbon pollution within their jurisdictions , and her research is being used in cases and petitions brought on behalf of children and youth throughout the United States and in other countries . '' In 2014 , after a number of atmospheric trust litigation and petitions were brought by young people worldwide , Forbes contributor James Conca wrote , '' ( i ) f the Supreme Court holds the government responsible for at least trying to protect our atmosphere , things could certainly change here in America . ''","qid":"127","docid":"Mary_Christina_Wood","rank":92,"score":111051},{"content":"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O","qid":"127","docid":"Wetland_methane_emissions","rank":93,"score":110951},{"content":"Title: Criegee intermediate Content: A Criegee intermediate ( also called a Criegee zwitterion or Criegee biradical ) is a carbonyl oxide with two charge centers . These molecules help to break down sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere , and may help offset global warming . The formation of this sort of structure was first postulated in the 1950s by Rudolf Criegee , for whom it is named , but it was n't until 2013 that direct detection of such chemicals was reported . Infrared spectroscopy suggests the electronic structure is a zwitterion rather than a biradical as some had proposed .","qid":"127","docid":"Criegee_intermediate","rank":94,"score":110930},{"content":"Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .","qid":"127","docid":"Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction","rank":95,"score":110790},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"127","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":96,"score":110724},{"content":"Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .","qid":"127","docid":"Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage","rank":97,"score":110481},{"content":"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .","qid":"127","docid":"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies","rank":98,"score":110467},{"content":"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .","qid":"127","docid":"Cap_carbonate","rank":99,"score":110072},{"content":"Title: List of carbon ranches Content: This is a working list of Carbon Ranches a term referring to regenerative agriculture practices that specifically accomplish carbon sequestration in the soil . `` The world 's cultivated soils have lost between 50 and 70 percent of their original carbon stock . '' ( Lal ) `` A mere two percent increase in the carbon content of the planet 's soils could offset 100 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions going into the atmosphere . '' ( Lal ) Grasslands cover 350 billion hectares , comprising 70 % of global agricultural land making carbon ranching an especially climate beneficial alternative to meat produced as part of a Concentrated animal feeding operation . Carbon ranching may include , but is not limited to Managed intensive rotational grazing , Compost application , Holistic management ( agriculture ) and Tree planting . There are many research groups and NGO 's studying and advancing this field including Arizona State University , The Carbon Cycle Institute , Holistic Management International , The Ohio State University , The Quivira Coalition , The Savory Institute , The Soil Carbon Coalition , Texas A&M University . This list does not necessarily reflect scientific or academic endorsements insofar as best practices and results vary across ranches , climates , time periods , and sources of funding and are therefore challenging to quantify and/or compare . Currently , confirmation of the carbon ranching designation is confirmed through either third party citation or Soil Organic Matter test result .","qid":"127","docid":"List_of_carbon_ranches","rank":100,"score":110006}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 182818\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 165700\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 153548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 149259\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 148280\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 147802\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 147685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 147664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sequestration\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 144772\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 142797\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 142698\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Individual_action_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 141671\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 141231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 140612\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 140006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 138702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 138401\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 138180\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 137222\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 136240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 136063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 135973\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 135706\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 135423\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_David_Keeling\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 135399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 135380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 135351\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 132034\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_potatoes\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 131792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: D. James Baker Content: D. James Baker ( born March 23 , 1937 ) is an American scientist who was trained as a physicist , practiced as an oceanographer , and has held science and management positions in academia , non-profit institutions , and government agencies . He a former Under Secretary of Commerce for Atmosphere and Oceans and Administrator of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , and currently Director , Global Carbon Measurement Program , William J. Clinton Foundation working with forestry programs in developing countries with the aim of reducing carbon dioxide emissions and at the same time helping alleviate poverty .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"D._James_Baker\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 131589\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Keith_E._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 131262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 130830\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 130808\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 130519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 128532\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 127965\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 127366\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Green_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 127255\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Emission_Reduction_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 127162\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 126506\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 126457\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 125596\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 125319\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Biosequestration\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 124591\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Campus_carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 124148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 123750\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 123257\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_label\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 123088\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Z._Jacobson\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 123039\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_shifting\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 122644\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Modified_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 122217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 120356\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmentalism in motorsport Content: The issue of environmentalism in motorsport surrounds the whole of auto racing to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions contributing to global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmentalism_in_motorsport\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 119933\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 119466\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 119004\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_shipping\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 118365\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_finance\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 117974\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 117813\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_peat\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 117808\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Politics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 117680\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 117502\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainability and environmental management Content: At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , according to sustainability principles . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles . Management of the Earth 's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainability_and_environmental_management\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 116743\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issue\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 116629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_reforming\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 116247\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Stuart_Agnew\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 116178\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_bubble\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 116138\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 116137\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Senate_Bill_32\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 115756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 115433\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 115333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_footprint\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 115326\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_governance_in_England\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 114618\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Kaya_identity\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 114398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Christine_Wiedinmyer\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 114367\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 114230\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 114059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 114031\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels Content: The indirect land use change impacts of biofuels , also known as ILUC , relates to the unintended consequence of releasing more carbon emissions due to land-use changes around the world induced by the expansion of croplands for ethanol or biodiesel production in response to the increased global demand for biofuels . As farmers worldwide respond to higher crop prices in order to maintain the global food supply-and-demand balance , pristine lands are cleared to replace the food crops that were diverted elsewhere to biofuels ' production . Because natural lands , such as rainforests and grasslands , store carbon in their soil and biomass as plants grow each year , clearance of wilderness for new farms translates to a net increase in greenhouse gas emissions . Due to this change in the carbon stock of the soil and the biomass , indirect land use change has consequences in the GHG balance of a biofuel . Other authors have also argued that indirect land use changes produce other significant social and environmental impacts , affecting biodiversity , water quality , food prices and supply , land tenure , worker migration , and community and cultural stability .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 113942\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Forests_for_the_21st_Century\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 113629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 113013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 112995\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 112872\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 112662\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate-friendly_gardening\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 112651\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 112341\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 112322\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Wildland_fire_emission\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 112011\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Mootral\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 111731\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sherwood B. Idso Content: Sherwood B. Idso ( born June 12 , 1942 ) is the president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization . Prior to that time he was a Research Physicist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Agricultural Research Service at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix , Arizona , where he worked since June 1967 . He was also closely associated with Arizona State University over most of this period , serving as an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Geology , Geography , and Botany and Microbiology . His two sons , Craig and Keith , are , respectively , the founder and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Idso is the author or co-author of over 500 publications including the books Carbon Dioxide : Friend or Foe ? ( 1982 ) and Carbon Dioxide and Global Change : Earth in Transition ( 1989 ) . He served on the editorial board of the international journal Agricultural and Forest Meteorology from 1973 to 1993 and since 1993 has served on the editorial board of Environmental and Experimental Botany . Over the course of his career , he has been an invited reviewer of manuscripts for 56 different scientific journals and 17 different funding agencies , representing an unusually large array of disciplines . He is an ISI highly cited researcher .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Sherwood_B._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 111404\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 111207\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 111072\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mary Christina Wood Content: Mary Christina Wood ( born 1962 ) is an Oregon Philip H. Knight Professor of Law and author , best known for her writings advocating for the use of the Public trust doctrine to compel government action on climate change . Wood originated the approach , called atmospheric trust litigation , `` to hold governments worldwide accountable for reducing carbon pollution within their jurisdictions , and her research is being used in cases and petitions brought on behalf of children and youth throughout the United States and in other countries . '' In 2014 , after a number of atmospheric trust litigation and petitions were brought by young people worldwide , Forbes contributor James Conca wrote , '' ( i ) f the Supreme Court holds the government responsible for at least trying to protect our atmosphere , things could certainly change here in America . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Mary_Christina_Wood\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 111051\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Wetland_methane_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 110951\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Criegee intermediate Content: A Criegee intermediate ( also called a Criegee zwitterion or Criegee biradical ) is a carbonyl oxide with two charge centers . These molecules help to break down sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere , and may help offset global warming . The formation of this sort of structure was first postulated in the 1950s by Rudolf Criegee , for whom it is named , but it was n't until 2013 that direct detection of such chemicals was reported . Infrared spectroscopy suggests the electronic structure is a zwitterion rather than a biradical as some had proposed .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Criegee_intermediate\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 110930\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 110790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 110724\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 110481\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 110467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 110072\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of carbon ranches Content: This is a working list of Carbon Ranches a term referring to regenerative agriculture practices that specifically accomplish carbon sequestration in the soil . `` The world 's cultivated soils have lost between 50 and 70 percent of their original carbon stock . '' ( Lal ) `` A mere two percent increase in the carbon content of the planet 's soils could offset 100 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions going into the atmosphere . '' ( Lal ) Grasslands cover 350 billion hectares , comprising 70 % of global agricultural land making carbon ranching an especially climate beneficial alternative to meat produced as part of a Concentrated animal feeding operation . Carbon ranching may include , but is not limited to Managed intensive rotational grazing , Compost application , Holistic management ( agriculture ) and Tree planting . There are many research groups and NGO 's studying and advancing this field including Arizona State University , The Carbon Cycle Institute , Holistic Management International , The Ohio State University , The Quivira Coalition , The Savory Institute , The Soil Carbon Coalition , Texas A&M University . This list does not necessarily reflect scientific or academic endorsements insofar as best practices and results vary across ranches , climates , time periods , and sources of funding and are therefore challenging to quantify and/or compare . Currently , confirmation of the carbon ranching designation is confirmed through either third party citation or Soil Organic Matter test result .\",\n \"qid\": \"127\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_carbon_ranches\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 110006\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":61,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Sea level rise, which was occurring long before humans could be blamed, has not accelerated."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"128","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":1,"score":115479},{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"128","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":2,"score":109398},{"content":"Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .","qid":"128","docid":"Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis","rank":3,"score":100017},{"content":"Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .","qid":"128","docid":"Meltwater_pulse_1B","rank":4,"score":94839},{"content":"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''","qid":"128","docid":"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)","rank":5,"score":89078},{"content":"Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .","qid":"128","docid":"Past_sea_level","rank":6,"score":86532},{"content":"Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .","qid":"128","docid":"Marine_transgression","rank":7,"score":86301},{"content":"Title: Marine regression Content: Marine regression is a geological process occurring when areas of submerged seafloor are exposed above the sea level . The opposite event , marine transgression , occurs when flooding from the sea covers previously exposed land . Evidence of marine regressions and transgressions occurs throughout the fossil record , and these fluctuations are thought to have caused or contributed to several mass extinctions , among them the Permian-Triassic extinction event ( 250 million years ago ) and Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event ( 66 Ma ) . At the time of the Permian-Triassic extinction , the largest extinction event in the Earth 's history , global sea level fell 250 m ( 820 ft ) . A major regression could itself cause marine organisms in shallow seas to go extinct , but mass extinctions tend to involve both terrestrial and aquatic species , and it is harder to see how a marine regression could cause widespread extinctions of land animals . Regressions are , therefore , seen as correlates or symptoms of major extinctions , rather than primary causes . The Permian regression might have been related to the formation of Pangaea : the accumulation of all the major landmasses into one body could have facilitated a regression , by providing `` a slight enlargement of the ocean basins as the great continents coalesced . '' However , that cause could not have applied in all , or even many , other cases . During the ice ages of the Pleistocene , a clear correlation existed between marine regressions and episodes of glaciation ; as the balance shifts between the global cryosphere and hydrosphere , more of the planet 's water in ice sheets means less in the oceans . At the height of the last ice age , at around 18,000 years before the present , the global sea level was 120 to 130 m ( 390-425 ft ) lower than today . A cold spell around 6 million years ago was linked to an advance in glaciation , a marine regression , and the start of the Messinian salinity crisis in the Mediterranean basin . Some major regressions of the past , however , seem unrelated to glaciation episodes -- the regression that accompanied the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous Period being one example . A clear and certain understanding of major marine regressions has not yet been achieved ; according to one hypothesis , regressions may be linked to a `` slowdown in sea-floor spreading , leading to a generalized drop in sea level ( as the mid-ocean ridges would take up less space ) ... '' In that view , major marine regressions are one aspect of a normal variation in rates of plate tectonic activity , which lead to major episodes of global volcanism like the Siberian Traps and the Deccan Traps , which in turn cause large extinction events .","qid":"128","docid":"Marine_regression","rank":8,"score":85794},{"content":"Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .","qid":"128","docid":"The_Sea_Has_Risen","rank":9,"score":84166},{"content":"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .","qid":"128","docid":"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis","rank":10,"score":83929},{"content":"Title: Dunkirk transgression Content: The three Dunkirk transgressions are events of marine transgression ( rising seas ) around the shores of the Low Countries in the late Roman period . Soil survey geological evidences and lack of human occupation artefacts led scientists to formulate the claim that the Netherlands was largely underwater between the 3rd century and 1050 . This is the so-called third Dunkirk Transgression . The reality of the events , hypothetically determined by cyclical phases of strong sea level rises in historical times , is debated . The low-lying continental coast of Europe was lightly populated until c. 200 BC , when the climate and environment became more amenable to human habitation . Conditions remained favourable from 200 BC to 250 AD , and the region became densely populated . However the region had been undergoing a series of marine transgressions ( called Dunkirk 0 through Dunkirk IIIb ) characterised by a rising water table and floods that left layers of clay on the land . The heaviest blow came with the `` Dunkirk II transgression '' that began in the 3rd century and continually worsened , leaving large areas of the coast uninhabitable from c. 350 -- c. 700 . People were forced to abandon their homes and emigrate . Archaeologists conducting research along the historically flood-prone coast tell this same story for The Rhine/Meuse delta ( Zeeland , Brabant , parts of South Holland and Limburg ) ; Friesland ; Groningen ; Ostfriesland , German Friesland and the Weser/Jade estuary ; and Dithmarschen , Eiderstedt and Nordfriesland . In the Rhine/Meuse delta , the population became scanty . Between the 5th and 7th centuries there were few centers of occupation in the delta region , and in the estuarine and peat areas no settlements at all have been found . The area would not be repopulated until the Carolingian Era . The areas with river clay were so covered with sedimentation that habitation was almost impossible between 250 -- 650 .","qid":"128","docid":"Dunkirk_transgression","rank":11,"score":81228},{"content":"Title: Kačák Event Content: The Kačák Event ( -LSB- ˈkatʃaːk -RSB- ) or Kačák-otomari Event is a widely recognised bioevent or series of events that occurred close to the end of the Eifelian Age of the Middle Devonian Epoch . It involved a global eustatic rise in sea level . It was named for the Kačák Member of the Srbsko Formation in Bohemia , where it is represented by a black shale interval within a sequence of limestone . In marine environments , this appears as an anoxic event , often forming potential hydrocarbon source rocks such as the Marcellus Shale . Within the Old Red Sandstone continent , it is represented by the Achanarras lake , the deepest and most widespread lake that developed within the Orcadian Basin . The event is associated with significant extinctions , particularly amongst the Ammonoidea .","qid":"128","docid":"Kačák_Event","rank":12,"score":80927},{"content":"Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .","qid":"128","docid":"Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea","rank":13,"score":80211},{"content":"Title: North Sea flood of 1953 Content: The 1953 North Sea flood ( Watersnoodramp , literally `` water emergency disaster '' ) was a major flood caused by a heavy storm that occurred on the night of Saturday , 31 January 1953 and morning of Sunday , 1 February 1953 . The floods struck the Netherlands , Belgium , England and Scotland . A combination of a high spring tide and a severe European windstorm over the North Sea caused a storm tide ; the combination of wind , high tide , and low pressure led to a water level of more than 5.6 m above mean sea level in some locations . The flood and waves overwhelmed sea defences and caused extensive flooding . The Netherlands , a country with 20 % of its territory below mean sea level and 50 % less than 1 m above sea level and which relies heavily on sea defences , was worst affected , recording 1,836 deaths and widespread property damage . Most of the casualties occurred in the southern province of Zeeland . In England , 307 people were killed in the counties of Lincolnshire , Norfolk , Suffolk and Essex . Nineteen were killed in Scotland . Twenty-eight people were killed in West Flanders , Belgium . In addition , more than 230 deaths occurred on water craft along Northern European coasts as well as on ships in deeper waters of the North Sea . The ferry MV Princess Victoria was lost at sea in the North Channel east of Belfast with 133 fatalities , and many fishing trawlers sank . Realising that such infrequent events could recur , the Netherlands particularly , and the United Kingdom carried out major studies on strengthening of coastal defences . The Netherlands developed the Delta Works , an extensive system of dams and storm surge barriers . The UK constructed storm surge barriers on the River Thames below London and on the River Hull where it meets the Humber estuary .","qid":"128","docid":"North_Sea_flood_of_1953","rank":14,"score":80194},{"content":"Title: Clade (novel) Content: Clade is a science fiction novel written by Mark Budz , published in 2003 . In Clade , an environmental disaster called the Ecocaust has caused sea levels to rise and causing additional strains on human resources . The government , in response , becomes more restrictive on human freedoms , and this novel explores what happens after the Ecocaust .","qid":"128","docid":"Clade_(novel)","rank":15,"score":80052},{"content":"Title: Curtis Marean Content: Curtis W. Marean is a professor of archaeology at Arizona State University . In a 2010 article in Scientific American , Marean explained how anatomically modern humans survived the MIS 6 glacial stage 195-123 thousand years ago , a period during which the human population was limited to only a few hundreds breeding individuals . During this period , sea levels dropped more than a hundred meters and the sloping South African Agulhas Bank was transformed into a plain on which humans could survive on shellfish and wash-ups from the sea . He is currently the associate director of the Institute of Human Origins in Tempe , Arizona .","qid":"128","docid":"Curtis_Marean","rank":16,"score":79512},{"content":"Title: Doggerland Content: Doggerland was an area now beneath the southern North Sea that connected Great Britain to continental Europe during and after the last glacial period . It was flooded by rising sea levels around 6,500 -- 6,200 BCE . Geological surveys have suggested that it stretched from Britain 's east coast to the Netherlands and the western coasts of Germany and the peninsula of Jutland . It was probably a rich habitat with human habitation in the Mesolithic period , although rising sea levels gradually reduced it to low-lying islands before its final submergence , possibly following a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slide . The archaeological potential of the area had first been identified in the early 20th century , but interest intensified in 1931 when a fishing trawler operating east of the Wash dragged up a barbed antler point that was subsequently dated to a time when the area was tundra . Vessels have dragged up remains of mammoth , lion and other animals , as well as a few prehistoric tools and weapons . Doggerland was named after the Dogger Bank , which in turn was named after the 17th century Dutch fishing boats called doggers .","qid":"128","docid":"Doggerland","rank":17,"score":79387},{"content":"Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .","qid":"128","docid":"The_Sea_is_Rising","rank":18,"score":79195},{"content":"Title: The 10,000 Year Explosion Content: The 10,000 Year Explosion : How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution is a 2009 book by anthropologists Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending . Starting with their own take on the conventional wisdom that the evolutionary process stopped when modern humans appeared , the authors explain the genetic basis of their view that human evolution is accelerating , illustrating it with some examples .","qid":"128","docid":"The_10,000_Year_Explosion","rank":19,"score":78805},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"128","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":20,"score":78685},{"content":"Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .","qid":"128","docid":"Josh_Willis","rank":21,"score":78208},{"content":"Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .","qid":"128","docid":"Sea_level","rank":22,"score":77794},{"content":"Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .","qid":"128","docid":"Deglaciation","rank":23,"score":77528},{"content":"Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .","qid":"128","docid":"Meltwater_pulse_1A","rank":24,"score":76733},{"content":"Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .","qid":"128","docid":"Rising_from_the_Sea","rank":25,"score":76489},{"content":"Title: Acceleration (human development) Content: thumb | 400px | Secular trend in decrease in age of menarche in Western European and North American girlsAfter : thumb | 400px | Stature comparison between American-born children of European descent and earlier populations of the same heritageAfter : Acceleration in human development process is the phenomenon which has been registered in many populations around the world . This applies equally to the growth of certain anthropometric parameters and the speed of reaching sexual maturity . These facts illustrate the results of secular changes in body height and appearance of the first menstruation ( menarche ) . Increases in human stature are a main indicator of improvements in the average health of populations . The newest data set for the average height of adult male birth cohorts , from the mid-nineteenth century to 1980 , in 15 European countries was studied ( in the populations listed ) . During a century average height increased by 11 cm representing a dramatic improvement of this phenomenon . It is interesting that the apparent acceleration of body height occurred during the Ĝ . Also , in the mid-nineteenth century young European women 's menarche occurred at the average age of 16.5 years . One hundred years later , this age was reduced to under 12 years . Increase in adult height of birth cohorts ( cm/decade )","qid":"128","docid":"Acceleration_(human_development)","rank":26,"score":75880},{"content":"Title: Hangenberg event Content: The Hangenberg event is a bioevent that occurred at the end of the Famennian epoch ( late Devonian ) associated with the Late Devonian extinction ( roughly 358.9 ± 0.4 million years ago ) ; it was an anoxic event marked by a black shale . It has been proposed that this was related to a rapid sea-level fall due to the last phase of the Devonian Southern Hemisphere glaciation . It has also been suggested that it was linked to an increase in terrestrial plant cover , leading to increased nutrient supply in rivers . This may have led to eutrophication of semi-restricted epicontinental seas and could have stimulated algal blooms . It is named from the Hangenberg Shale , part of a sequence that straddles the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary , from the Rhenish Massif in Germany . Following the extinction , vertebrates experienced reduced body size for the following 36 million years , at least in part because smaller taxa diversified more successfully .","qid":"128","docid":"Hangenberg_event","rank":27,"score":75408},{"content":"Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .","qid":"128","docid":"Hirnantian","rank":28,"score":74822},{"content":"Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .","qid":"128","docid":"Sea_Level_(band)","rank":29,"score":74754},{"content":"Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .","qid":"128","docid":"Tide","rank":30,"score":74635},{"content":"Title: Messinian salinity crisis Content: The Messinian Salinity Crisis ( MSC ) , also referred to as the Messinian Event , and in its latest stage as the Lago Mare event , was a geological event during which the Mediterranean Sea went into a cycle of partly or nearly complete desiccation throughout the latter part of the Messinian age of the Miocene epoch , from 5.96 to 5.33 Ma ( million years ago ) . It ended with the Zanclean flood , when the Atlantic reclaimed the basin . Sediment samples from below the deep seafloor of the Mediterranean Sea , which include evaporite minerals , soils , and fossil plants , indicate that the precursor of the Strait of Gibraltar closed tight about 5.96 million years ago , sealing the Mediterranean off from the Atlantic . This resulted in a period of partial desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea , the first of several such periods during the late Miocene . After the strait closed for the last time around 5.6 Ma , the region 's generally dry climate conditions at the time caused the Mediterranean basin to nearly dry out completely within a mere millennium . This massive desiccation left a deep and dry basin , reaching a depth of 3 to below normal sea level , with a few hypersaline pockets similar to today 's Dead Sea . Then , around 5.5 Ma , less dry climatic conditions resulted in the basin receiving more freshwater from rivers , progressively filling and diluting the hypersaline lakes into larger pockets of brackish water ( much like today 's Caspian sea ) . The Messinian Salinity Crisis ended with the Strait of Gibraltar finally reopening 5.33 Ma , when the Atlantic rapidly filled up the Mediterranean basin in what is known as the Zanclean flood . Even today , the Mediterranean is considerably saltier than the North Atlantic due to its near isolation by the Strait of Gibraltar and its high rate of evaporation . If the Strait of Gibraltar closes again ( which is likely to happen in the near future on a geological time scale ) , the Mediterranean would mostly evaporate in about a thousand years , after which continued northward movement of Africa may obliterate the Mediterranean altogether .","qid":"128","docid":"Messinian_salinity_crisis","rank":31,"score":74483},{"content":"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .","qid":"128","docid":"Fisheries_and_climate_change","rank":32,"score":74102},{"content":"Title: Beach evolution Content: The shoreline is where the land meets the sea and it is continually changing . Over the long term , the water is eroding the land . Beaches represent a special case , in that they exist where sand accumulated from the same processes that strip away rocky and sedimentary material . That is , they can grow as well as erode . River deltas are another exception , in that silt that erodes up river can accrete at the river 's outlet and extend ocean shorelines . Catastrophic events such as tsunamis , hurricanes and storm surges accelerate beach erosion , potentially carrying away the entire sand load . Human activities can be as catastrophic as hurricanes , albeit usually over a longer time interval .","qid":"128","docid":"Beach_evolution","rank":33,"score":73588},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .","qid":"128","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations","rank":34,"score":73471},{"content":"Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .","qid":"128","docid":"Sea-level_curve","rank":35,"score":72887},{"content":"Title: Human wave attack Content: The human wave attack , also known as the human sea attack , is an offensive infantry tactic in which an attacker conducts an unprotected frontal assault with densely concentrated infantry formations against the enemy line , intended to overrun the defenders by engaging in melee combat .","qid":"128","docid":"Human_wave_attack","rank":36,"score":72730},{"content":"Title: Baltic Sea hypoxia Content: Baltic Sea hypoxia refers to low levels of oxygen in bottom waters , also known as hypoxia , occurring regularly in the Baltic Sea . the total area of bottom covered with hypoxic waters with oxygen concentrations less than 2 mg/l in the Baltic Sea has averaged 49,000 km2 over the last 40 years . The ultimate cause of hypoxia is excess nutrient loading from human activities causing algal blooms . The blooms sink to the bottom and use oxygen to decompose at a rate faster than it can be added back into the system through the physical processes of mixing . The lack of oxygen ( anoxia ) kills bottom-living organisms and creates dead zones .","qid":"128","docid":"Baltic_Sea_hypoxia","rank":37,"score":72300},{"content":"Title: Late Glacial Content: The Late Glacial ( c. 13,000 -- 10,000 years ago ) , or Tardiglacial ( `` Late Glacial '' ) , is defined primarily by the beginning of the modern warm period , in which climates in the Northern Hemisphere warmed substantially , causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum ( c. 25,000 -- 13,000 years ago ) . At this time , human populations , previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum climatic conditions , gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere 's Eurasian landmass and eventually populate North America via Beringia for the first time . Evidence for its occurrence stems from two main types of analysis . The first is the use of oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) gathered from stratified deep-sea sediment cores . Samples are gathered and measured for change in isotope levels to determine temperature fluctuation for given periods of time . The second is a proxy measurement , the observation of certain reappearing fauna and flora fossils that can survive only in temperate climates , thus indicating warming trends for a given geographic area . Archaeological evidence of settlement and resettlement in certain areas by humans also serve as proxy measurements . Towards the end of OIS 2 in which the Late Glacial Maximum occurs , the deep-sea sediment cores indicate a gradually warming climate , and the reappearance of certain warm-weather flora and fauna remains throughout the Northern Hemisphere correlate with that trend . A period of relatively brief cold oscillation , referred to as the Younger Dryas , is detected during OIS 2 , as can be inferred from an increase in isotope weight .","qid":"128","docid":"Late_Glacial","rank":38,"score":72298},{"content":"Title: 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake Content: The 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake or 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake occurred on May 26 , at 11:59:57 local time ( 02:59:59.6 UTC ) , It had a magnitude of 7.8 on the moment magnitude scale . It occurred in the Sea of Japan , about 100 km west of the coast of Noshiro in Akita Prefecture , Japan . Out of the 104 fatalities , all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami , which struck communities along the coast , especially Aomori and Akita Prefectures and the east coast of Noto Peninsula . Images of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbor of Wajima on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV . The waves exceeded 10 m in some areas . Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of South Korea ( whether North Korea was affected is not known ) . The tsunami also hit Okushiri Island , the site of a more deadly tsunami 10 years later .","qid":"128","docid":"1983_Sea_of_Japan_earthquake","rank":39,"score":72236},{"content":"Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :","qid":"128","docid":"Tide_(disambiguation)","rank":40,"score":72096},{"content":"Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .","qid":"128","docid":"Tide_gauge","rank":41,"score":71711},{"content":"Title: Yoldia Sea Content: Yoldia Sea is a name given by geologists to a variable brackish-water stage in the Baltic Sea basin that prevailed after the Baltic ice lake was drained to sea level during the Weichsel glaciation . Dates for the Yoldia sea are obtained mainly by radiocarbon dating material from ancient sediments and shore lines and from clay-varve chronology . They tend to vary by as much as a thousand years , but a good estimate is 10,300 -- 9500 radiocarbon years BP , equivalent to ca 11,700-10 ,700 calendar years BP . The sea ended gradually when isostatic rise of Scandinavia closed or nearly closed its effluents , altering the balance between saline and fresh water . The Yoldia Sea became Ancylus Lake . The Yoldia Sea stage had three phases of which only the middle phase had brackish water . The name of the sea is adapted from the obsolete name of the bivalve , Portlandia arctica ( previously known as Yoldia arctica ) , found around Stockholm . This bivalve requires cold saline water . It characterizes the middle phase of the Yoldia Sea , during which saline water poured into the Baltic , before the acceleration of glacial melting .","qid":"128","docid":"Yoldia_Sea","rank":42,"score":71172},{"content":"Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .","qid":"128","docid":"Tidal_range","rank":43,"score":70863},{"content":"Title: 1872 Baltic Sea flood Content: The 1872 Baltic Sea flood ( Ostseesturmhochwasser 1872 ) , often referred to as a storm flood , ravaged the Baltic Sea coast from Denmark to Pomerania in the night of 12/13 November 1872 and was , until then , the worst storm surge in the Baltic . The highest recorded peak water level was about 3.3 m above sea level ( NN ) .","qid":"128","docid":"1872_Baltic_Sea_flood","rank":44,"score":70834},{"content":"Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .","qid":"128","docid":"Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level","rank":45,"score":70774},{"content":"Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .","qid":"128","docid":"Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)","rank":46,"score":70607},{"content":"Title: Seaford Rise, South Australia Content: Seaford Rise is a metropolitan suburb of Adelaide , South Australia . It lies within the City of Onkaparinga . Its boundaries are formed by Griffiths Drive in the north , Commercial Road in the west , Main South Road in the east , and by an arbitrary border with Maslin Beach in the south .","qid":"128","docid":"Seaford_Rise,_South_Australia","rank":47,"score":70519},{"content":"Title: Rising Tide (Forgotten Realms novel) Content: Rising Tide is a fantasy novel by Mel Odom , set in the world of the Forgotten Realms , and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game . It is the first novel in `` The Threat from the Sea '' trilogy . It was published in paperback in January 1999 .","qid":"128","docid":"Rising_Tide_(Forgotten_Realms_novel)","rank":48,"score":70512},{"content":"Title: When the Sea Rises Content: When the Sea Rises ( Quand la mer monte ... ) is a 2004 French-Belgian romantic comedy film directed by Yolande Moreau and Gilles Porte . It was Moreau 's directorial debut .","qid":"128","docid":"When_the_Sea_Rises","rank":49,"score":70315},{"content":"Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .","qid":"128","docid":"Sea_level_equation","rank":50,"score":69846},{"content":"Title: Older Peron Content: The Older Peron was the name for a period identified in 1961 as an episode of a global sea-level ( i.e. eustatic ) high-stand during the Holocene Epoch . Modern understanding of the various factors involved in quantifying eustatic sea level , particularly processes relating to ocean siphoning and glacio-hydro-isostatic adjustment , claim that such previous instances of purported high-stands were not globally coherent , and do not constitute episodes of eustatic sea level higher than present .","qid":"128","docid":"Older_Peron","rank":51,"score":69748},{"content":"Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .","qid":"128","docid":"Loss_and_damage","rank":52,"score":69518},{"content":"Title: Human accelerated regions Content: Human accelerated regions ( HARs ) , first described in August 2006 , are a set of 49 segments of the human genome that are conserved throughout vertebrate evolution but are strikingly different in humans . They are named according to their degree of difference between humans and chimpanzees ( HAR1 showing the largest degree of human-chimpanzee differences ) . Found by scanning through genomic databases of multiple species , some of these highly mutated areas may contribute to human-specific traits . Others may represent loss of function mutations , possibly due to the action of biased gene conversion rather than adaptive evolution . Several of the HARs encompass genes known to produce proteins important in neurodevelopment . HAR1 is an 106-base pair stretch found on the long arm of chromosome 20 overlapping with part of the RNA genes HAR1F and HAR1R . HAR1F is active in the developing human brain . The HAR1 sequence is found ( and conserved ) in chickens and chimpanzees but is not present in fish or frogs that have been studied . There are 18 base pair mutations different between humans and chimpanzees , far more than expected by its history of conservation . HAR2 includes HACNS1 a gene enhancer `` that may have contributed to the evolution of the uniquely opposable human thumb , and possibly also modifications in the ankle or foot that allow humans to walk on two legs '' . Evidence to date shows that of the 110,000 gene enhancer sequences identified in the human genome , HACNS1 has undergone the most change during the evolution of humans following the split with the ancestors of chimpanzees . The substitutions in HAR2 may have resulted in loss of binding sites for a repressor , possibly due to biased gene conversion .","qid":"128","docid":"Human_accelerated_regions","rank":53,"score":69429},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .","qid":"128","docid":"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu","rank":54,"score":69351},{"content":"Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .","qid":"128","docid":"Seamount","rank":55,"score":69108},{"content":"Title: Retrogradation Content: Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common : during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets . with extremely low sediment input .","qid":"128","docid":"Retrogradation","rank":56,"score":68817},{"content":"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .","qid":"128","docid":"Equilibrium_level","rank":57,"score":68775},{"content":"Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .","qid":"128","docid":"Sea_Level_(album)","rank":58,"score":68528},{"content":"Title: Flood (Baxter novel) Content: Flood is a 2008 work of hard science fiction by English author Stephen Baxter . It describes a near future world where deep submarine seismic activity leads to seabed fragmentation , and the opening of deep subterranean reservoirs of water . Human civilisation is almost destroyed by the rising inundation , which covers Mount Everest in 2052 . Baxter issued a sequel to this work , entitled Ark , in 2009 . Flood was nominated for the British Science Fiction Award in 2008 .","qid":"128","docid":"Flood_(Baxter_novel)","rank":59,"score":68495},{"content":"Title: 1978 North Sea storm surge Content: 1978 North Sea storm surge was a storm surge which occurred over 11 -- 12 January causing extensive coastal flooding and considerable damage on the east coast of England between the Humber and Kent . Higher water levels were reached than during the devastating North Sea flood of 1953 from North Shields to King 's Lynn , but values were lower towards the Thames . Locally severe flooding occurred in Lincolnshire , The Wash , north Norfolk and Kent . Improvements in flood protection following the devastating flood of 1953 meant that the catastrophic losses seen during that storm were not repeated . The storm caused severe damage to many piers along the east coast of England .","qid":"128","docid":"1978_North_Sea_storm_surge","rank":60,"score":68487},{"content":"Title: 9th millennium BC in North American history Content: The 9th millennium BC in North American history provides a timeline of events occurring within the North American continent from 9000 years ago through 8001 BC in the Gregorian calendar . Although this timeline segment may include some European or other world events that profoundly influenced later American life , it focuses on developments within Native American communities . The archaeological records supplements indigenous recorded and oral history . Because of the inaccuracies inherent in radiocarbon dating and in interpreting other elements of the archaeological record , most dates in this timeline represent approximations that may vary a century or more from source to source . The assumptions implicit in archaeological dating methods also may yield a general bias in the dating in this timeline . 9000 BC : Archaeological materials found on Channel Islands off the California coast 9000 BC : Human settlers arrive in the Great Basin with its cool , wet prevailing climate 9000 -- 8900 BC : The Folsom culture in New Mexico leaves Bison bones and stone spear points . 8700 BC : Human settlement reaches the Northwestern Plateau region . 8001 BC : The last glacial ends , causing sea levels to rise and flood the Beringia land bridge , closing the primary migration route from Siberia . 8001 BC : Sufficient rain falls on the American Southwest to support many large mammal species -- mammoth , mastodon , and a bison species - -- that soon go extinct . 8001 BC : Native Americans leave documented traces of their presence in every habitable corner of the Americas , including the American Northeast , the Pacific Northwest , and a cave on Prince of Wales Island in the Alexander archipelago of southeast Alaska , possibly following these game animals . 8001 BC : Hunters in the American Southwest both use the atlatl .","qid":"128","docid":"9th_millennium_BC_in_North_American_history","rank":61,"score":68364},{"content":"Title: Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary Content: The climate across the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg or formerly the K -- T boundary ) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid , volcanism , or sea level changes . While the mass extinction is well documented , there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event . The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known , which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact . Oxygen isotopes across the K -- T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself . Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K -- T boundary suggest rapid , repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction , and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary , indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction . The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate , direct consequences of the impact .","qid":"128","docid":"Climate_across_Cretaceous–Paleogene_boundary","rank":62,"score":68236},{"content":"Title: Champlain Sea Content: The Champlain Sea was a temporary inlet of the Atlantic Ocean , created by the retreating glaciers during the close of the last ice age . The Sea once included lands in what are now the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario , as well as parts of the American states of New York and Vermont . The mass of ice from the continental ice sheets had depressed the rock beneath it over millennia . At the end of the last ice age , while the rock was still depressed , the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa River valleys , as well as modern Lake Champlain , were below sea level and flooded with rising worldwide sea levels , once the ice no longer prevented the ocean from flowing into the region . As the land gradually rose again , in the process known as isostatic rebound , the sea coast gradually retreated to its current location . The sea lasted from about 13,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago and was continuously shrinking during that time , since the rebounding continent was slowly rising above sea level . At its peak , the sea extended inland as far south as Lake Champlain and somewhat farther west than the city of Ottawa , Ontario , and farther up the Ottawa River past Pembroke . The remaining glaciers fed the sea during that time , making it more brackish than typical seawater . It is estimated that the sea was as much as 150 m above the level of today 's Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers . The best evidence of this former sea is the vast clay plain deposited along the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers . This resulted in distinctive forest types , and large wetlands . Other modern evidence of the sea can be seen in the form of whale fossils , ( belugas , fin whales , and bowhead whales ) and marine shells that have been found near the cities of Ottawa , Ontario , and Montreal , Quebec . There are also fossils of oceanic fish such as capelin . The Sea also left ancient raised shorelines in the former coastal regions , and the Leda clay deposits in areas of deeper water . The northern shore of the lake was in southern Quebec where outcrops of the Canadian shield form the Eardley Escarpment . This escarpment still has distinctive plants that may date back to the sea . The Eardley Escarpment is known locally as the Gatineau Hills ; part of the Mattawa fault at the southeastern edge of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben , in Eastern Ontario and the Outaouais region of Quebec , more commonly known as the Ottawa Valley .","qid":"128","docid":"Champlain_Sea","rank":63,"score":68088},{"content":"Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .","qid":"128","docid":"A_Sea_So_Far","rank":64,"score":68048},{"content":"Title: Risella Content: Risella is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .","qid":"128","docid":"Risella","rank":65,"score":68026},{"content":"Title: Benham Plateau Content: The Benham Rise , officially known as the Philippine Rise , is a seismically active undersea region and extinct volcanic ridge located in the Philippine Sea approximately 250 km east of the northern coastline of Dinapigue , Isabela . Under the Philippine Sea lie a number of basins including the West Philippine Sea Basin , inside of which is located the Central Basin Fault ( CBF ) . The Benham Plateau is located in the CBF and its basement probably is a micro-continent . Several scientific surveys have been made on the feature to study its nature and its impact on tectonic subduction , including one about its effects on the 1990 Luzon earthquake . The Philippines claimed this feature as part of its continental shelf in a claim lodged with the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on 8 April 2009 , and which was approved under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) in 2012 . It is designated as a `` protected food supply exclusive zone '' by the Philippine government in May 2017 . Mining and oil exploration is banned in the Benham Plateau as a protected area . On May 16 , 2017 , Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 25 renaming the region to Philippine Rise .","qid":"128","docid":"Benham_Plateau","rank":66,"score":67738},{"content":"Title: Quaternary extinction event Content: The Quaternary period saw the extinctions of numerous predominantly larger , especially megafaunal , species , many of which occurred during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch . However , this extinction wave did not stop at the end of the Pleistocene , but continued , especially on isolated islands , in human-caused extinctions , although there is debate as to whether these should be considered separate events or part of the same event . Among the main causes hypothesized by paleontologists are natural climate change and overkill by humans , who appeared during the Middle Pleistocene and migrated to many regions of the world during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene . A variant of the latter possibility is the second-order predation hypothesis , which focuses more on the indirect damage caused by overcompetition with nonhuman predators . The spread of disease is also discussed as a possible reason .","qid":"128","docid":"Quaternary_extinction_event","rank":67,"score":67703},{"content":"Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .","qid":"128","docid":"Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929","rank":68,"score":67702},{"content":"Title: Mark Meier Content: Mark F. Meier ( 1925 -- November 25 , 2012 ) was an American glaciologist who was considered a leading expert on the study of rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers . Meier was the Director of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research ( INSTAAR ) from 1985 to 1994 and remained the institute 's director emeritus until his death in 2012 . He was also a professor of geological sciences at the University of Colorado - Boulder . Meier was born and raised in Iowa . He resided in Boulder , Colorado , since 1985 . In 1956 , Meier founded the U.S. Geological Survey 's department of glaciology . He obtained doctorate in 1957 from the California Institute of Technology . Meier served as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey 's Project Office of Glaciology in Tacoma , Washington , until he became the director of INSTAAR in 1985 . Meier was one of the first glaciologists to use remote sensing to study glaciers and rates of melting . He headed several studies of tidewater glacier dynamics in the U.S. state of Alaska . Meier organized the systematic measurement and assessment of glacier mass balance within North America to mark the International Geophysical Year and International Hydrological Decade , which was observed from 1965 to 1975 . His numerous recognitions and awards included the Seligman Crystal from the International Glaciological Society in 1993 , the Robert E. Horton Medal in 1996 , three medals from the USSR Academy of Sciences ( now the Russian Academy of Sciences ) and the United States Department of the Interior 's Distinguished Service Award . Meier died in Boulder , Colorado , on November 25 , 2012 , at the age of 86 . He is survived by his wife , Barbara , his children , Lauren Meier , Gretchen Meier , and Mark S. Meier , and his seven grandchildren .","qid":"128","docid":"Mark_Meier","rank":69,"score":67530},{"content":"Title: 1938 Banda Sea earthquake Content: The 1938 Banda Sea earthquake occurred in the Banda Sea region on February 1 . It had an estimated magnitude of 8.4 on the moment magnitude scale , and intensities as high as VII ( Very strong ) . It generated destructive tsunamis of up to 1.5 metres , but no human lives were lost .","qid":"128","docid":"1938_Banda_Sea_earthquake","rank":70,"score":67518},{"content":"Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .","qid":"128","docid":"Weddell_Polynya","rank":71,"score":67417},{"content":"Title: Steptoean positive carbon isotope excursion Content: The Steptoean Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion ( SPICE ) was a geological event which occurred about 500 million years ago at the end of the Cambrian Period . The SPICE event was a sudden reversal of the anoxia ( lack of oxygen ) that had steadily spread throughout the oceans during the Cambrian which also affected the atmosphere . After the SPICE event , oxygen levels recovered and levels in the atmosphere may have risen as high as 30 % , higher than the 21 % of the atmosphere that prevails today . The sudden increase in oxygen led to an explosion of life across the globe .","qid":"128","docid":"Steptoean_positive_carbon_isotope_excursion","rank":72,"score":67348},{"content":"Title: Mulde event Content: The Mulde event was an anoxic event , and marked the second of three relatively minor mass extinctions ( the Ireviken , Mulde , and Lau events ) during the Silurian period . It coincided with a global drop in sea level , and is closely followed by an excursion in geochemical isotopes . Its onset is synchronous with the deposition of the Fröel formation in Gotland .","qid":"128","docid":"Mulde_event","rank":73,"score":67206},{"content":"Title: Draupner wave Content: The Draupner wave or New Year 's wave was the first rogue wave to be detected by a measuring instrument , occurring at the Draupner platform in the North Sea off the coast of Norway on 1 January 1995 . In an area with significant wave height of approximately 12 m , a freak wave with a maximum wave height of 25.6 m occurred ( peak elevation above still water level was 18.5 m ) . Prior to that measurement , no instrument-recorded evidence for rogue waves existed -- just anecdotal evidence provided by those who had encountered them at sea , although ships such as the British Ocean Weather Reporter had recorded very large waves that did not differ quite enough from their neighbors to be considered rogue . Minor damage was inflicted on the platform during this event , confirming the validity of the reading made by a downwards-pointing laser sensor .","qid":"128","docid":"Draupner_wave","rank":74,"score":67116},{"content":"Title: Ingression coast Content: An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level . Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral ( tidal ) processes , because the sea level , which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period , did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago . Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform -- e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief -- various types of ingression coast emerge , such as rias , skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts .","qid":"128","docid":"Ingression_coast","rank":75,"score":66948},{"content":"Title: National Tidal and Sea Level Facility Content: Established in 2002 , The National Tidal and Sea Level Facility is responsible for monitoring sea levels in the UK . The NTSLF comprises the UK National Tide Gauge Network , geodetic networks , and gauges in the British Dependent Territories of the South Atlantic and Gibraltar . Data collected is used to create tidal predictions , monitor climate change and determine extreme sea levels for navigation and coastal engineering design . The Network is funded by the UK Environment Agency . Associated scientific research is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) .","qid":"128","docid":"National_Tidal_and_Sea_Level_Facility","rank":76,"score":66794},{"content":"Title: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event Content: The Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) extinction event , also known as the Cretaceous -- Tertiary ( K -- T ) extinction , was a mass extinction of some three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth that occurred over a geologically short period of time approximately 65 million years ago . With the exception of some ectothermic species like the leatherback sea turtle and crocodiles , no tetrapods weighing more than 25 kg survived . It marked the end of the Cretaceous period and with it , the entire Mesozoic Era , opening the Cenozoic Era that continues today . In the geologic record , the K -- Pg event is marked by a thin layer of sediment called the K -- Pg boundary , which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks . The boundary clay shows high levels of the metal iridium , which is rare in the Earth 's crust but abundant in asteroids . As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by Luis Alvarez , it is now generally thought that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by a massive comet or asteroid impact , estimated to be 10 km wide , 66 million years ago and its catastrophic effects on the global environment , including a lingering impact winter that made it impossible for plants and plankton to carry out photosynthesis . The impact hypothesis , also known as the Alvarez hypothesis , was bolstered by the discovery of the 180 km Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico in the early 1990s , which provided conclusive evidence that the K -- Pg boundary clay represented debris from an asteroid impact . The fact that the extinctions occurred at the same time as the impact provides strong situational evidence that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by the asteroid . It was possibly accelerated by the creation of the Deccan Traps . However , some scientists maintain the extinction was caused or exacerbated by other factors , such as volcanic eruptions , climate change , or sea level change , separately or together . A wide range of species perished in the K -- Pg extinction . The best-known victims are the non-avian dinosaurs . However , the extinction also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms , including certain mammals , pterosaurs , birds , lizards , insects , and plants . In the oceans , the K -- Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards ( Mosasauridae ) and devastated fish , sharks , mollusks ( especially ammonites , which became extinct ) and many species of plankton . It is estimated that 75 % or more of all species on Earth vanished . Yet the devastation caused by the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities . In the wake of the extinction , many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiations -- a sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches resulting from the event . Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene , producing new forms such as horses , whales , bats , and primates . Birds , fish and perhaps lizards also radiated .","qid":"128","docid":"Cretaceous–Paleogene_extinction_event","rank":77,"score":66120},{"content":"Title: Darwin Rise Content: The Darwin Rise is broad triangular region in the north central Pacific Ocean where there is a concentration of atolls . During his voyage across the globe Charles Darwin realised that vertical crustal motion must be responsible for the formation of continents and ocean basins , as well as isolated atolls in the Pacific . He deduced that the central basin of the Pacific had subsided while surrounding areas had risen . In 1964 U.S. geologist Henry Menard subsequently named the uplifted area in the Pacific after the English naturalist .","qid":"128","docid":"Darwin_Rise","rank":78,"score":65869},{"content":"Title: Human accelerated region 1 Content: In molecular biology , Human accelerated region 1 ( highly accelerated region 1 , HAR1 ) is a segment of the human genome found on the long arm of chromosome 20 . It is a Human accelerated region . It is located within a pair of overlapping long non-coding RNA genes , HAR1A ( HAR1F ) and HAR1B ( HAR1R ) .","qid":"128","docid":"Human_accelerated_region_1","rank":79,"score":65799},{"content":"Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .","qid":"128","docid":"Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System","rank":80,"score":65698},{"content":"Title: 1954 Yangtze River floods Content: From June to September 1954 , the Yangtze River Floods were a series of catastrophic floodings that occurred mostly in Hubei Province . Due to unusually high volume of precipitation as well as an extraordinarily long rainy season in the middle stretch of the Yangtze River late in the spring of 1954 , the river started to rise above its usual level in around late June . Despite efforts to open three important flood gates to alleviate the rising water by diverting it , the flood level continued to rise until it hit the historic high of 44.67 m in Jingzhou , Hubei and 29.73 m in Wuhan . The number of dead from this flood was estimated at around 33,000 , including those who died of plague in the aftermath of the disaster .","qid":"128","docid":"1954_Yangtze_River_floods","rank":81,"score":65480},{"content":"Title: Red Sea species hazardous to humans Content: Although most species in the Red Sea pose no threat to humans , there are a few notable exceptions .","qid":"128","docid":"Red_Sea_species_hazardous_to_humans","rank":82,"score":65294},{"content":"Title: North Sea flood of 2007 Content: The North Sea flood of 2007 also known as Cyclone Tilo , and as Andrea in Norway was a storm tide of the North Sea affecting the coastlines of the Netherlands , the United Kingdom , Germany , Denmark , Norway and Belgium , starting on the night of 8 -- 9 November 2007 .","qid":"128","docid":"North_Sea_flood_of_2007","rank":83,"score":64777},{"content":"Title: Sea cave Content: A sea cave , also known as a littoral cave , is a type of cave formed primarily by the wave action of the sea . The primary process involved is erosion . Sea caves are found throughout the world , actively forming along present coastlines and as relict sea caves on former coastlines . Some of the largest wave-cut caves in the world are found on the coast of Norway , but are now 100 feet or more above present sea level . These would still be classified as littoral caves . By contrast , in places like Thailand 's Phang Nga Bay , solutionally formed caves in limestone have been flooded by the rising sea and are now subject to littoral erosion , representing a new phase of their enlargement . Some of the best-known sea caves are European . Fingal 's Cave , on the Scottish island of Staffa , is a spacious cave some 70 m long , formed in columnar basalt . The Blue Grotto of Capri , although smaller , is famous for the apparent luminescent quality of its water , imparted by light passing through underwater openings . The Romans built a stairway in its rear and a now-collapsed tunnel to the surface . The Greek islands are also noted for the variety and beauty of their sea caves . Numerous sea caves have been surveyed in England , Scotland , and in France , particularly on the Normandy coast . Until 2013 , the largest known sea caves were found along the west coast of the United States , the Hawaiian islands , and the Shetland Islands . In 2013 the discovery and survey of the world 's largest sea cave was announced . Located on New Zealand 's Otago coast on the South Island , Matainaka Cave has proven to be the world 's most extensive at 1.5 km in length . Also in 2013 , Crossley reported a newly surveyed complex reaching just over a kilometer in survey at Bethells Beach on New Zealand 's North Island .","qid":"128","docid":"Sea_cave","rank":84,"score":64719},{"content":"Title: 1958 Yellow River flood Content: The 1958 Yellow River flood was an extraordinarily large rise in the water flow of the Yellow River in China that coincided with the onset of the Great Leap Forward . In July 1958 , the peak discharge of the Yellow River at Huayuankou was 22,300 m3/s and the flood water level was so high that it rose up to the top of the levee in several places .","qid":"128","docid":"1958_Yellow_River_flood","rank":85,"score":64666},{"content":"Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .","qid":"128","docid":"Ocean_heat_content","rank":86,"score":64639},{"content":"Title: Viral decay acceleration Content: Viral decay acceleration ( VDA ) is a therapeutic strategy which increases the mutation frequency of a virus toward an error catastrophe threshold . Viruses evolve at rates approximately one million times faster than the human genome . The high mutation rate increases diversity within the viral population and facilitates survival in the face of host immune responses , depletion of target cells and antiviral therapeutics . This evolutionary advantage however comes at a considerable cost in that the vast majority of virus particles have mutated beyond a survivability threshold and are therefore non-infectious . Laboratory studies have demonstrated that therapeutics capable of increasing the mutation frequency as little as 2-fold results in collapse of the viral population . These therapeutics , termed VDA agents , accelerate the accumulation of additional mutations in the viral genome , progressively debilitating the virus which causes decay and eventual extinction of the entire viral population .","qid":"128","docid":"Viral_decay_acceleration","rank":87,"score":64632},{"content":"Title: Risellopsis Content: Risellopsis is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .","qid":"128","docid":"Risellopsis","rank":88,"score":64501},{"content":"Title: Zanclean flood Content: The Zanclean flood or Zanclean Deluge is a flood theorized to have refilled the Mediterranean Sea 5.33 million years ago . This flooding ended the Messinian salinity crisis and marks the beginning of the Zanclean age . The term was coined by Maria Bianca Cita in 1972 during the Deep Sea Drilling Project study that investigated the transition between the Messinian and Zanclean ages in the Mediterranean . According to this model , water from the Atlantic Ocean refilled the cut-off inland seas through the modern-day Strait of Gibraltar . The Mediterranean Basin flooded mostly during a period estimated to have been between several months and two years . Sea level rise in the basin may have reached rates at times greater than 10 m/d . Based on the erosion features preserved until modern times under the Pliocene sediment , these authors estimate that water rushed down a drop of more than 1 km with a discharge of up to 2e8 m3/s , about 1,000 times that of the present day Amazon River . Studies of the underground structures at the Gibraltar Strait show that the flooding channel descended in a rather gradual way toward the bottom of the basin rather than forming a steep waterfall . Not all scientific studies have agreed with the catastrophistic interpretation of this event . Some researchers have estimated that the reinstallment of a `` normal '' Mediterranean Sea basin following the Messinian `` Lago Mare '' episode took place in a much more gradual way , taking as long as 10,000 years .","qid":"128","docid":"Zanclean_flood","rank":89,"score":64485},{"content":"Title: Young Detective Dee: Rise of the Sea Dragon Content: Young Detective Dee : Rise of the Sea Dragon is a 2013 Chinese action-adventure fantasy mystery film directed , produced , and co-written by Tsui Hark . It is a prequel to Hark 's 2010 film Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame , which starred Andy Lau . Taiwanese-Canadian actor Mark Chao takes over from him as a young Detective Dee , while Feng Shaofeng , Lin Gengxin , Kim Bum ( in his Chinese debut ) , and Angelababy co-star alongside a returning Carina Lau from Mystery of the Phantom Flame , rounding up the ensemble cast . A sequel of the film and the third installment of the Detective Dee series , titled Detective Dee : The Four Heavenly Kings will be released in 2018 . Filming will begin in March 2017 .","qid":"128","docid":"Young_Detective_Dee:_Rise_of_the_Sea_Dragon","rank":90,"score":64401},{"content":"Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .","qid":"128","docid":"Paleoflooding","rank":91,"score":64346},{"content":"Title: Coastal management Content: Coastal management is defense against flooding and erosion , and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands . Coastal zones occupy less than 15 % of the Earth 's land area , while they host more than 40 % of the world population . Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 km of a shoreline and 100 m of sea level , with an average density nearly 3 times higher than the global average for population . With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025 , human activities originating from this small land area will impose heavy pressure on coasts . Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities . In the European Union , almost half of the population lives within 50 kilometres of the sea and coastal resources produce much of the Union 's economic wealth . The fishing , shipping and tourism industries all compete for space along Europe 's estimated 89,000 km of coastline and coastal zones contain some of Europe 's most fragile and valuable natural habitats . Protection against sea level rise in the 21st century will be especially important , as sea level rise accelerates . Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems . Coastal sediments are disturbed and suspended by wave and tide energy .","qid":"128","docid":"Coastal_management","rank":92,"score":64242},{"content":"Title: Sea in culture Content: The role of the sea in human culture has been important for centuries , as people experience the sea in contradictory ways : as powerful but serene , beautiful but dangerous . Human responses to the sea can be found in artforms including literature , art , poetry , film , theatre , and classical music . The earliest art representing boats is 40,000 years old . Since then , artists in different countries and cultures have depicted the sea . Symbolically , the sea has been perceived as a hostile environment populated by fantastic creatures : the Leviathan of the Bible , Isonade in Japanese mythology , and the kraken of late Norse mythology . In the works of the psychiatrist Carl Jung , the sea symbolises the personal and the collective unconscious in dream interpretation . The sea and ships have been depicted in art ranging from simple drawings on the walls of huts in Lamu to seascapes by Joseph Turner and Dutch Golden Age painting . The Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai created colour prints of the moods of the sea , including The Great Wave off Kanagawa . The sea has appeared in literature since Homer 's Odyssey ( 8th century BC ) . The sea is a recurring theme in the Haiku poems of the Japanese Edo period poet Matsuo Bashō ( 1644 -- 1694 ) . The sea plays a major role in Homer 's epic poem the Odyssey , describing the ten-year voyage of the Greek hero Odysseus who struggles to return home across the sea , encountering sea monsters along the way . In the Middle Ages , the sea appears in romances such as the Tristan legend , with motifs such as mythical islands and self-propelled ships . Pilgrimage is a common theme in stories and poems such as The Book of Margery Kempe . Contemporary sea-inspired novels have been written by Joseph Conrad , Herman Wouk , and Herman Melville ; poems about the sea have been written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Rudyard Kipling and John Masefield . The sea has inspired much music over the centuries including sea shanties , Richard Wagner 's The Flying Dutchman , Claude Debussy 's La mer ( 1903 -- 05 ) , Charles Villiers Stanford 's Songs of the Sea ( 1904 ) and Songs of the Fleet ( 1910 ) , Edward Elgar 's Sea Pictures ( 1899 ) and Ralph Vaughan Williams ' A Sea Symphony ( 1903 -- 1909 ) . Burial at sea has been practised in various ways by countries around the world since the ancient civilisations of Egypt , Greece , and Rome .","qid":"128","docid":"Sea_in_culture","rank":93,"score":64176},{"content":"Title: Risella tantillus Content: Risella tantillus is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .","qid":"128","docid":"Risella_tantillus","rank":94,"score":64085},{"content":"Title: Sea Empress oil spill Content: The Sea Empress oil spill occurred at the entrance to the Milford Haven Waterway in Pembrokeshire , Wales on 15 February 1996 . The Sea Empress was en route to the Texaco oil refinery near Pembroke when she became grounded on mid-channel rocks at St. Ann 's Head . Over the course of a week , she spilt 72,000 tons of crude oil into the sea . The spill occurred within the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park -- one of Europe 's most important and sensitive wildlife and marine conservation areas . It was Britain 's third largest oil spillage and the twelfth largest in the world at the time . Sailing against the outgoing tide and in calm conditions , at 20:07 GMT the ship was pushed off course by the current and became grounded after hitting rocks in the middle of the channel . The collision punctured her starboard hull causing oil to pour out into the sea . Tugs from Milford Haven Port Authority were sent to the scene and attempted to pull the vessel free and re-float her . During the initial rescue attempts , she detached several times from the tugs and grounded repeatedly -- each time slicing open new sections of her hull and releasing more oil . A full scale emergency plan was activated by the authorities . News of the grounding was first reported at 21:18 on the BBC 's Nine O'Clock News -- just over an hour after she ran aground . Over the next few days , frantic efforts to pull the vessel from the rocks continued . Tugboats were drafted in from the ports of Dublin , Liverpool and Plymouth to assist with the salvage operation .","qid":"128","docid":"Sea_Empress_oil_spill","rank":95,"score":64079},{"content":"Title: Sea Level, North Carolina Content: Sea Level is an unincorporated community in northeastern Carteret County , North Carolina . It rests on the banks of the Core Sound and has a population of roughly 450 . It is located in what was known to early settlers as Hunting Quarters . Sea Level has one of the lowest elevations in North Carolina ; it is estimated that approximately 75 % of the community floods when hurricanes pass through . US 70 is the major thoroughfare through the community . The community is the location of NC 12 's southern terminus .","qid":"128","docid":"Sea_Level,_North_Carolina","rank":96,"score":64054},{"content":"Title: North Aral Sea Content: The North Aral Sea is the portion of the former Aral Sea that is fed by the Syr Darya River . It split from the South Aral Sea in 1986 as water levels dropped due to river diversion for agriculture . The poorly built Dike Kokaral intended to contain the North Aral Sea and save its fisheries failed twice , but in 2005 the government of Kazakhstan was able to fund a more robust design . Since then , water levels have risen faster than expected and fish stocks have increased . Plans to build a second dike to increase water levels further were due to begin in 2010 .","qid":"128","docid":"North_Aral_Sea","rank":97,"score":63979},{"content":"Title: Slack water Content: Slack water , also known as ` the stand of the tide ' , is a short period in a body of tidal water when the water is completely unstressed , and there is no movement either way in the tidal stream , and which occurs before the direction of the tidal stream reverses . Slack water can be estimated using a tidal atlas or the tidal diamond information on a nautical chart . The time of slack water , particularly in constricted waters , does not occur at high and low water , and in certain areas , such as Primera Angostura , the ebb may run for up to three hours after the water level has started to rise , and the flood may run for three hours after the water has started to fall . Thornton Lecky , writing in 1884 , illustrates the phenomenon with an inland basin of infinite size , connected to the sea by a narrow mouth . Since the level of the basin is always at mean sea level , the flood in the mouth starts at half tide , and its velocity is at its greatest at the time of high water , with the strongest ebb occurring conversely at low water .","qid":"128","docid":"Slack_water","rank":98,"score":63869},{"content":"Title: HI-SEAS Content: HI-SEAS ( Hawaii Space Exploration Analog and Simulation ) is an analog habitat for human spaceflight to Mars . HI-SEAS is located in an isolated position on the slopes of the Mauna Loa volcano on the island of Hawaii . The area has Mars-like features and an elevation of approximately 8200 ft above sea level . The first HI-SEAS study was in 2013 and NASA 's Human Research Program continues to fund and sponsor follow-up studies . The missions are of extended duration from four months to a year . The purpose of the detailed research studies is to determine what is required to keep a space flight crew happy and healthy during an extended mission to Mars and while living on Mars . Research into food , crew dynamics , behaviors , roles and performance , and other aspects of space flight and a mission on Mars itself is the primary focus . The HI-SEAS researchers also carry out studies on a variety of other topics as part of their daily activities . One thing under study by NASA is trying to understand crew dynamics such as morale , stress management , and how they solve problems as group .","qid":"128","docid":"HI-SEAS","rank":99,"score":63865},{"content":"Title: The Threat from the Sea Content: The Threat From the Sea is a series of fantasy novels written mostly by Mel Odom . It contains three novels : Rising Tide , Under Fallen Stars , and The Sea Devil 's Eye . It also contains the anthology book , Realms of the Deep .","qid":"128","docid":"The_Threat_from_the_Sea","rank":100,"score":63746}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 115479\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 109398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 100017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Meltwater_pulse_1B\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 94839\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 89078\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Past_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 86532\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_transgression\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 86301\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine regression Content: Marine regression is a geological process occurring when areas of submerged seafloor are exposed above the sea level . The opposite event , marine transgression , occurs when flooding from the sea covers previously exposed land . Evidence of marine regressions and transgressions occurs throughout the fossil record , and these fluctuations are thought to have caused or contributed to several mass extinctions , among them the Permian-Triassic extinction event ( 250 million years ago ) and Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event ( 66 Ma ) . At the time of the Permian-Triassic extinction , the largest extinction event in the Earth 's history , global sea level fell 250 m ( 820 ft ) . A major regression could itself cause marine organisms in shallow seas to go extinct , but mass extinctions tend to involve both terrestrial and aquatic species , and it is harder to see how a marine regression could cause widespread extinctions of land animals . Regressions are , therefore , seen as correlates or symptoms of major extinctions , rather than primary causes . The Permian regression might have been related to the formation of Pangaea : the accumulation of all the major landmasses into one body could have facilitated a regression , by providing `` a slight enlargement of the ocean basins as the great continents coalesced . '' However , that cause could not have applied in all , or even many , other cases . During the ice ages of the Pleistocene , a clear correlation existed between marine regressions and episodes of glaciation ; as the balance shifts between the global cryosphere and hydrosphere , more of the planet 's water in ice sheets means less in the oceans . At the height of the last ice age , at around 18,000 years before the present , the global sea level was 120 to 130 m ( 390-425 ft ) lower than today . A cold spell around 6 million years ago was linked to an advance in glaciation , a marine regression , and the start of the Messinian salinity crisis in the Mediterranean basin . Some major regressions of the past , however , seem unrelated to glaciation episodes -- the regression that accompanied the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous Period being one example . A clear and certain understanding of major marine regressions has not yet been achieved ; according to one hypothesis , regressions may be linked to a `` slowdown in sea-floor spreading , leading to a generalized drop in sea level ( as the mid-ocean ridges would take up less space ) ... '' In that view , major marine regressions are one aspect of a normal variation in rates of plate tectonic activity , which lead to major episodes of global volcanism like the Siberian Traps and the Deccan Traps , which in turn cause large extinction events .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_regression\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 85794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Sea_Has_Risen\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 84166\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 83929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dunkirk transgression Content: The three Dunkirk transgressions are events of marine transgression ( rising seas ) around the shores of the Low Countries in the late Roman period . Soil survey geological evidences and lack of human occupation artefacts led scientists to formulate the claim that the Netherlands was largely underwater between the 3rd century and 1050 . This is the so-called third Dunkirk Transgression . The reality of the events , hypothetically determined by cyclical phases of strong sea level rises in historical times , is debated . The low-lying continental coast of Europe was lightly populated until c. 200 BC , when the climate and environment became more amenable to human habitation . Conditions remained favourable from 200 BC to 250 AD , and the region became densely populated . However the region had been undergoing a series of marine transgressions ( called Dunkirk 0 through Dunkirk IIIb ) characterised by a rising water table and floods that left layers of clay on the land . The heaviest blow came with the `` Dunkirk II transgression '' that began in the 3rd century and continually worsened , leaving large areas of the coast uninhabitable from c. 350 -- c. 700 . People were forced to abandon their homes and emigrate . Archaeologists conducting research along the historically flood-prone coast tell this same story for The Rhine/Meuse delta ( Zeeland , Brabant , parts of South Holland and Limburg ) ; Friesland ; Groningen ; Ostfriesland , German Friesland and the Weser/Jade estuary ; and Dithmarschen , Eiderstedt and Nordfriesland . In the Rhine/Meuse delta , the population became scanty . Between the 5th and 7th centuries there were few centers of occupation in the delta region , and in the estuarine and peat areas no settlements at all have been found . The area would not be repopulated until the Carolingian Era . The areas with river clay were so covered with sedimentation that habitation was almost impossible between 250 -- 650 .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Dunkirk_transgression\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 81228\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kačák Event Content: The Kačák Event ( -LSB- ˈkatʃaːk -RSB- ) or Kačák-otomari Event is a widely recognised bioevent or series of events that occurred close to the end of the Eifelian Age of the Middle Devonian Epoch . It involved a global eustatic rise in sea level . It was named for the Kačák Member of the Srbsko Formation in Bohemia , where it is represented by a black shale interval within a sequence of limestone . In marine environments , this appears as an anoxic event , often forming potential hydrocarbon source rocks such as the Marcellus Shale . Within the Old Red Sandstone continent , it is represented by the Achanarras lake , the deepest and most widespread lake that developed within the Orcadian Basin . The event is associated with significant extinctions , particularly amongst the Ammonoidea .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Kačák_Event\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 80927\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 80211\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Sea flood of 1953 Content: The 1953 North Sea flood ( Watersnoodramp , literally `` water emergency disaster '' ) was a major flood caused by a heavy storm that occurred on the night of Saturday , 31 January 1953 and morning of Sunday , 1 February 1953 . The floods struck the Netherlands , Belgium , England and Scotland . A combination of a high spring tide and a severe European windstorm over the North Sea caused a storm tide ; the combination of wind , high tide , and low pressure led to a water level of more than 5.6 m above mean sea level in some locations . The flood and waves overwhelmed sea defences and caused extensive flooding . The Netherlands , a country with 20 % of its territory below mean sea level and 50 % less than 1 m above sea level and which relies heavily on sea defences , was worst affected , recording 1,836 deaths and widespread property damage . Most of the casualties occurred in the southern province of Zeeland . In England , 307 people were killed in the counties of Lincolnshire , Norfolk , Suffolk and Essex . Nineteen were killed in Scotland . Twenty-eight people were killed in West Flanders , Belgium . In addition , more than 230 deaths occurred on water craft along Northern European coasts as well as on ships in deeper waters of the North Sea . The ferry MV Princess Victoria was lost at sea in the North Channel east of Belfast with 133 fatalities , and many fishing trawlers sank . Realising that such infrequent events could recur , the Netherlands particularly , and the United Kingdom carried out major studies on strengthening of coastal defences . The Netherlands developed the Delta Works , an extensive system of dams and storm surge barriers . The UK constructed storm surge barriers on the River Thames below London and on the River Hull where it meets the Humber estuary .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Sea_flood_of_1953\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 80194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clade (novel) Content: Clade is a science fiction novel written by Mark Budz , published in 2003 . In Clade , an environmental disaster called the Ecocaust has caused sea levels to rise and causing additional strains on human resources . The government , in response , becomes more restrictive on human freedoms , and this novel explores what happens after the Ecocaust .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Clade_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 80052\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Curtis Marean Content: Curtis W. Marean is a professor of archaeology at Arizona State University . In a 2010 article in Scientific American , Marean explained how anatomically modern humans survived the MIS 6 glacial stage 195-123 thousand years ago , a period during which the human population was limited to only a few hundreds breeding individuals . During this period , sea levels dropped more than a hundred meters and the sloping South African Agulhas Bank was transformed into a plain on which humans could survive on shellfish and wash-ups from the sea . He is currently the associate director of the Institute of Human Origins in Tempe , Arizona .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Curtis_Marean\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 79512\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Doggerland Content: Doggerland was an area now beneath the southern North Sea that connected Great Britain to continental Europe during and after the last glacial period . It was flooded by rising sea levels around 6,500 -- 6,200 BCE . Geological surveys have suggested that it stretched from Britain 's east coast to the Netherlands and the western coasts of Germany and the peninsula of Jutland . It was probably a rich habitat with human habitation in the Mesolithic period , although rising sea levels gradually reduced it to low-lying islands before its final submergence , possibly following a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slide . The archaeological potential of the area had first been identified in the early 20th century , but interest intensified in 1931 when a fishing trawler operating east of the Wash dragged up a barbed antler point that was subsequently dated to a time when the area was tundra . Vessels have dragged up remains of mammoth , lion and other animals , as well as a few prehistoric tools and weapons . Doggerland was named after the Dogger Bank , which in turn was named after the 17th century Dutch fishing boats called doggers .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Doggerland\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 79387\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Sea_is_Rising\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 79195\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The 10,000 Year Explosion Content: The 10,000 Year Explosion : How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution is a 2009 book by anthropologists Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending . Starting with their own take on the conventional wisdom that the evolutionary process stopped when modern humans appeared , the authors explain the genetic basis of their view that human evolution is accelerating , illustrating it with some examples .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"The_10,000_Year_Explosion\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 78805\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 78685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Josh_Willis\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 78208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 77794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Deglaciation\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 77528\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Meltwater_pulse_1A\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 76733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_from_the_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 76489\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acceleration (human development) Content: thumb | 400px | Secular trend in decrease in age of menarche in Western European and North American girlsAfter : thumb | 400px | Stature comparison between American-born children of European descent and earlier populations of the same heritageAfter : Acceleration in human development process is the phenomenon which has been registered in many populations around the world . This applies equally to the growth of certain anthropometric parameters and the speed of reaching sexual maturity . These facts illustrate the results of secular changes in body height and appearance of the first menstruation ( menarche ) . Increases in human stature are a main indicator of improvements in the average health of populations . The newest data set for the average height of adult male birth cohorts , from the mid-nineteenth century to 1980 , in 15 European countries was studied ( in the populations listed ) . During a century average height increased by 11 cm representing a dramatic improvement of this phenomenon . It is interesting that the apparent acceleration of body height occurred during the Ĝ . Also , in the mid-nineteenth century young European women 's menarche occurred at the average age of 16.5 years . One hundred years later , this age was reduced to under 12 years . Increase in adult height of birth cohorts ( cm/decade )\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Acceleration_(human_development)\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 75880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hangenberg event Content: The Hangenberg event is a bioevent that occurred at the end of the Famennian epoch ( late Devonian ) associated with the Late Devonian extinction ( roughly 358.9 ± 0.4 million years ago ) ; it was an anoxic event marked by a black shale . It has been proposed that this was related to a rapid sea-level fall due to the last phase of the Devonian Southern Hemisphere glaciation . It has also been suggested that it was linked to an increase in terrestrial plant cover , leading to increased nutrient supply in rivers . This may have led to eutrophication of semi-restricted epicontinental seas and could have stimulated algal blooms . It is named from the Hangenberg Shale , part of a sequence that straddles the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary , from the Rhenish Massif in Germany . Following the extinction , vertebrates experienced reduced body size for the following 36 million years , at least in part because smaller taxa diversified more successfully .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Hangenberg_event\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 75408\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Hirnantian\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 74822\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 74754\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 74635\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Messinian salinity crisis Content: The Messinian Salinity Crisis ( MSC ) , also referred to as the Messinian Event , and in its latest stage as the Lago Mare event , was a geological event during which the Mediterranean Sea went into a cycle of partly or nearly complete desiccation throughout the latter part of the Messinian age of the Miocene epoch , from 5.96 to 5.33 Ma ( million years ago ) . It ended with the Zanclean flood , when the Atlantic reclaimed the basin . Sediment samples from below the deep seafloor of the Mediterranean Sea , which include evaporite minerals , soils , and fossil plants , indicate that the precursor of the Strait of Gibraltar closed tight about 5.96 million years ago , sealing the Mediterranean off from the Atlantic . This resulted in a period of partial desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea , the first of several such periods during the late Miocene . After the strait closed for the last time around 5.6 Ma , the region 's generally dry climate conditions at the time caused the Mediterranean basin to nearly dry out completely within a mere millennium . This massive desiccation left a deep and dry basin , reaching a depth of 3 to below normal sea level , with a few hypersaline pockets similar to today 's Dead Sea . Then , around 5.5 Ma , less dry climatic conditions resulted in the basin receiving more freshwater from rivers , progressively filling and diluting the hypersaline lakes into larger pockets of brackish water ( much like today 's Caspian sea ) . The Messinian Salinity Crisis ended with the Strait of Gibraltar finally reopening 5.33 Ma , when the Atlantic rapidly filled up the Mediterranean basin in what is known as the Zanclean flood . Even today , the Mediterranean is considerably saltier than the North Atlantic due to its near isolation by the Strait of Gibraltar and its high rate of evaporation . If the Strait of Gibraltar closes again ( which is likely to happen in the near future on a geological time scale ) , the Mediterranean would mostly evaporate in about a thousand years , after which continued northward movement of Africa may obliterate the Mediterranean altogether .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Messinian_salinity_crisis\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 74483\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Fisheries_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 74102\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Beach evolution Content: The shoreline is where the land meets the sea and it is continually changing . Over the long term , the water is eroding the land . Beaches represent a special case , in that they exist where sand accumulated from the same processes that strip away rocky and sedimentary material . That is , they can grow as well as erode . River deltas are another exception , in that silt that erodes up river can accrete at the river 's outlet and extend ocean shorelines . Catastrophic events such as tsunamis , hurricanes and storm surges accelerate beach erosion , potentially carrying away the entire sand load . Human activities can be as catastrophic as hurricanes , albeit usually over a longer time interval .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Beach_evolution\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 73588\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 73471\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea-level_curve\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 72887\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human wave attack Content: The human wave attack , also known as the human sea attack , is an offensive infantry tactic in which an attacker conducts an unprotected frontal assault with densely concentrated infantry formations against the enemy line , intended to overrun the defenders by engaging in melee combat .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_wave_attack\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 72730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Baltic Sea hypoxia Content: Baltic Sea hypoxia refers to low levels of oxygen in bottom waters , also known as hypoxia , occurring regularly in the Baltic Sea . the total area of bottom covered with hypoxic waters with oxygen concentrations less than 2 mg/l in the Baltic Sea has averaged 49,000 km2 over the last 40 years . The ultimate cause of hypoxia is excess nutrient loading from human activities causing algal blooms . The blooms sink to the bottom and use oxygen to decompose at a rate faster than it can be added back into the system through the physical processes of mixing . The lack of oxygen ( anoxia ) kills bottom-living organisms and creates dead zones .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Baltic_Sea_hypoxia\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 72300\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Late Glacial Content: The Late Glacial ( c. 13,000 -- 10,000 years ago ) , or Tardiglacial ( `` Late Glacial '' ) , is defined primarily by the beginning of the modern warm period , in which climates in the Northern Hemisphere warmed substantially , causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum ( c. 25,000 -- 13,000 years ago ) . At this time , human populations , previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum climatic conditions , gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere 's Eurasian landmass and eventually populate North America via Beringia for the first time . Evidence for its occurrence stems from two main types of analysis . The first is the use of oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) gathered from stratified deep-sea sediment cores . Samples are gathered and measured for change in isotope levels to determine temperature fluctuation for given periods of time . The second is a proxy measurement , the observation of certain reappearing fauna and flora fossils that can survive only in temperate climates , thus indicating warming trends for a given geographic area . Archaeological evidence of settlement and resettlement in certain areas by humans also serve as proxy measurements . Towards the end of OIS 2 in which the Late Glacial Maximum occurs , the deep-sea sediment cores indicate a gradually warming climate , and the reappearance of certain warm-weather flora and fauna remains throughout the Northern Hemisphere correlate with that trend . A period of relatively brief cold oscillation , referred to as the Younger Dryas , is detected during OIS 2 , as can be inferred from an increase in isotope weight .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Late_Glacial\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 72298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake Content: The 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake or 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake occurred on May 26 , at 11:59:57 local time ( 02:59:59.6 UTC ) , It had a magnitude of 7.8 on the moment magnitude scale . It occurred in the Sea of Japan , about 100 km west of the coast of Noshiro in Akita Prefecture , Japan . Out of the 104 fatalities , all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami , which struck communities along the coast , especially Aomori and Akita Prefectures and the east coast of Noto Peninsula . Images of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbor of Wajima on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV . The waves exceeded 10 m in some areas . Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of South Korea ( whether North Korea was affected is not known ) . The tsunami also hit Okushiri Island , the site of a more deadly tsunami 10 years later .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"1983_Sea_of_Japan_earthquake\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 72236\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 72096\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_gauge\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 71711\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Yoldia Sea Content: Yoldia Sea is a name given by geologists to a variable brackish-water stage in the Baltic Sea basin that prevailed after the Baltic ice lake was drained to sea level during the Weichsel glaciation . Dates for the Yoldia sea are obtained mainly by radiocarbon dating material from ancient sediments and shore lines and from clay-varve chronology . They tend to vary by as much as a thousand years , but a good estimate is 10,300 -- 9500 radiocarbon years BP , equivalent to ca 11,700-10 ,700 calendar years BP . The sea ended gradually when isostatic rise of Scandinavia closed or nearly closed its effluents , altering the balance between saline and fresh water . The Yoldia Sea became Ancylus Lake . The Yoldia Sea stage had three phases of which only the middle phase had brackish water . The name of the sea is adapted from the obsolete name of the bivalve , Portlandia arctica ( previously known as Yoldia arctica ) , found around Stockholm . This bivalve requires cold saline water . It characterizes the middle phase of the Yoldia Sea , during which saline water poured into the Baltic , before the acceleration of glacial melting .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Yoldia_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 71172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Tidal_range\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 70863\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1872 Baltic Sea flood Content: The 1872 Baltic Sea flood ( Ostseesturmhochwasser 1872 ) , often referred to as a storm flood , ravaged the Baltic Sea coast from Denmark to Pomerania in the night of 12/13 November 1872 and was , until then , the worst storm surge in the Baltic . The highest recorded peak water level was about 3.3 m above sea level ( NN ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"1872_Baltic_Sea_flood\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 70834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 70774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 70607\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seaford Rise, South Australia Content: Seaford Rise is a metropolitan suburb of Adelaide , South Australia . It lies within the City of Onkaparinga . Its boundaries are formed by Griffiths Drive in the north , Commercial Road in the west , Main South Road in the east , and by an arbitrary border with Maslin Beach in the south .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Seaford_Rise,_South_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 70519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising Tide (Forgotten Realms novel) Content: Rising Tide is a fantasy novel by Mel Odom , set in the world of the Forgotten Realms , and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game . It is the first novel in `` The Threat from the Sea '' trilogy . It was published in paperback in January 1999 .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_Tide_(Forgotten_Realms_novel)\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 70512\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: When the Sea Rises Content: When the Sea Rises ( Quand la mer monte ... ) is a 2004 French-Belgian romantic comedy film directed by Yolande Moreau and Gilles Porte . It was Moreau 's directorial debut .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"When_the_Sea_Rises\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 70315\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_equation\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 69846\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Older Peron Content: The Older Peron was the name for a period identified in 1961 as an episode of a global sea-level ( i.e. eustatic ) high-stand during the Holocene Epoch . Modern understanding of the various factors involved in quantifying eustatic sea level , particularly processes relating to ocean siphoning and glacio-hydro-isostatic adjustment , claim that such previous instances of purported high-stands were not globally coherent , and do not constitute episodes of eustatic sea level higher than present .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Older_Peron\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 69748\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Loss_and_damage\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 69518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human accelerated regions Content: Human accelerated regions ( HARs ) , first described in August 2006 , are a set of 49 segments of the human genome that are conserved throughout vertebrate evolution but are strikingly different in humans . They are named according to their degree of difference between humans and chimpanzees ( HAR1 showing the largest degree of human-chimpanzee differences ) . Found by scanning through genomic databases of multiple species , some of these highly mutated areas may contribute to human-specific traits . Others may represent loss of function mutations , possibly due to the action of biased gene conversion rather than adaptive evolution . Several of the HARs encompass genes known to produce proteins important in neurodevelopment . HAR1 is an 106-base pair stretch found on the long arm of chromosome 20 overlapping with part of the RNA genes HAR1F and HAR1R . HAR1F is active in the developing human brain . The HAR1 sequence is found ( and conserved ) in chickens and chimpanzees but is not present in fish or frogs that have been studied . There are 18 base pair mutations different between humans and chimpanzees , far more than expected by its history of conservation . HAR2 includes HACNS1 a gene enhancer `` that may have contributed to the evolution of the uniquely opposable human thumb , and possibly also modifications in the ankle or foot that allow humans to walk on two legs '' . Evidence to date shows that of the 110,000 gene enhancer sequences identified in the human genome , HACNS1 has undergone the most change during the evolution of humans following the split with the ancestors of chimpanzees . The substitutions in HAR2 may have resulted in loss of binding sites for a repressor , possibly due to biased gene conversion .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_accelerated_regions\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 69429\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 69351\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Seamount\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 69108\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Retrogradation Content: Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common : during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets . with extremely low sediment input .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Retrogradation\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 68817\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Equilibrium_level\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 68775\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 68528\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flood (Baxter novel) Content: Flood is a 2008 work of hard science fiction by English author Stephen Baxter . It describes a near future world where deep submarine seismic activity leads to seabed fragmentation , and the opening of deep subterranean reservoirs of water . Human civilisation is almost destroyed by the rising inundation , which covers Mount Everest in 2052 . Baxter issued a sequel to this work , entitled Ark , in 2009 . Flood was nominated for the British Science Fiction Award in 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Flood_(Baxter_novel)\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 68495\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1978 North Sea storm surge Content: 1978 North Sea storm surge was a storm surge which occurred over 11 -- 12 January causing extensive coastal flooding and considerable damage on the east coast of England between the Humber and Kent . Higher water levels were reached than during the devastating North Sea flood of 1953 from North Shields to King 's Lynn , but values were lower towards the Thames . Locally severe flooding occurred in Lincolnshire , The Wash , north Norfolk and Kent . Improvements in flood protection following the devastating flood of 1953 meant that the catastrophic losses seen during that storm were not repeated . The storm caused severe damage to many piers along the east coast of England .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"1978_North_Sea_storm_surge\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 68487\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 9th millennium BC in North American history Content: The 9th millennium BC in North American history provides a timeline of events occurring within the North American continent from 9000 years ago through 8001 BC in the Gregorian calendar . Although this timeline segment may include some European or other world events that profoundly influenced later American life , it focuses on developments within Native American communities . The archaeological records supplements indigenous recorded and oral history . Because of the inaccuracies inherent in radiocarbon dating and in interpreting other elements of the archaeological record , most dates in this timeline represent approximations that may vary a century or more from source to source . The assumptions implicit in archaeological dating methods also may yield a general bias in the dating in this timeline . 9000 BC : Archaeological materials found on Channel Islands off the California coast 9000 BC : Human settlers arrive in the Great Basin with its cool , wet prevailing climate 9000 -- 8900 BC : The Folsom culture in New Mexico leaves Bison bones and stone spear points . 8700 BC : Human settlement reaches the Northwestern Plateau region . 8001 BC : The last glacial ends , causing sea levels to rise and flood the Beringia land bridge , closing the primary migration route from Siberia . 8001 BC : Sufficient rain falls on the American Southwest to support many large mammal species -- mammoth , mastodon , and a bison species - -- that soon go extinct . 8001 BC : Native Americans leave documented traces of their presence in every habitable corner of the Americas , including the American Northeast , the Pacific Northwest , and a cave on Prince of Wales Island in the Alexander archipelago of southeast Alaska , possibly following these game animals . 8001 BC : Hunters in the American Southwest both use the atlatl .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"9th_millennium_BC_in_North_American_history\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 68364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary Content: The climate across the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg or formerly the K -- T boundary ) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid , volcanism , or sea level changes . While the mass extinction is well documented , there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event . The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known , which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact . Oxygen isotopes across the K -- T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself . Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K -- T boundary suggest rapid , repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction , and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary , indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction . The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate , direct consequences of the impact .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_across_Cretaceous–Paleogene_boundary\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 68236\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Champlain Sea Content: The Champlain Sea was a temporary inlet of the Atlantic Ocean , created by the retreating glaciers during the close of the last ice age . The Sea once included lands in what are now the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario , as well as parts of the American states of New York and Vermont . The mass of ice from the continental ice sheets had depressed the rock beneath it over millennia . At the end of the last ice age , while the rock was still depressed , the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa River valleys , as well as modern Lake Champlain , were below sea level and flooded with rising worldwide sea levels , once the ice no longer prevented the ocean from flowing into the region . As the land gradually rose again , in the process known as isostatic rebound , the sea coast gradually retreated to its current location . The sea lasted from about 13,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago and was continuously shrinking during that time , since the rebounding continent was slowly rising above sea level . At its peak , the sea extended inland as far south as Lake Champlain and somewhat farther west than the city of Ottawa , Ontario , and farther up the Ottawa River past Pembroke . The remaining glaciers fed the sea during that time , making it more brackish than typical seawater . It is estimated that the sea was as much as 150 m above the level of today 's Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers . The best evidence of this former sea is the vast clay plain deposited along the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers . This resulted in distinctive forest types , and large wetlands . Other modern evidence of the sea can be seen in the form of whale fossils , ( belugas , fin whales , and bowhead whales ) and marine shells that have been found near the cities of Ottawa , Ontario , and Montreal , Quebec . There are also fossils of oceanic fish such as capelin . The Sea also left ancient raised shorelines in the former coastal regions , and the Leda clay deposits in areas of deeper water . The northern shore of the lake was in southern Quebec where outcrops of the Canadian shield form the Eardley Escarpment . This escarpment still has distinctive plants that may date back to the sea . The Eardley Escarpment is known locally as the Gatineau Hills ; part of the Mattawa fault at the southeastern edge of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben , in Eastern Ontario and the Outaouais region of Quebec , more commonly known as the Ottawa Valley .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Champlain_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 68088\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Sea_So_Far\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 68048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Risella Content: Risella is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Risella\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 68026\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Benham Plateau Content: The Benham Rise , officially known as the Philippine Rise , is a seismically active undersea region and extinct volcanic ridge located in the Philippine Sea approximately 250 km east of the northern coastline of Dinapigue , Isabela . Under the Philippine Sea lie a number of basins including the West Philippine Sea Basin , inside of which is located the Central Basin Fault ( CBF ) . The Benham Plateau is located in the CBF and its basement probably is a micro-continent . Several scientific surveys have been made on the feature to study its nature and its impact on tectonic subduction , including one about its effects on the 1990 Luzon earthquake . The Philippines claimed this feature as part of its continental shelf in a claim lodged with the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on 8 April 2009 , and which was approved under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) in 2012 . It is designated as a `` protected food supply exclusive zone '' by the Philippine government in May 2017 . Mining and oil exploration is banned in the Benham Plateau as a protected area . On May 16 , 2017 , Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 25 renaming the region to Philippine Rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Benham_Plateau\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 67738\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Quaternary extinction event Content: The Quaternary period saw the extinctions of numerous predominantly larger , especially megafaunal , species , many of which occurred during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch . However , this extinction wave did not stop at the end of the Pleistocene , but continued , especially on isolated islands , in human-caused extinctions , although there is debate as to whether these should be considered separate events or part of the same event . Among the main causes hypothesized by paleontologists are natural climate change and overkill by humans , who appeared during the Middle Pleistocene and migrated to many regions of the world during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene . A variant of the latter possibility is the second-order predation hypothesis , which focuses more on the indirect damage caused by overcompetition with nonhuman predators . The spread of disease is also discussed as a possible reason .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Quaternary_extinction_event\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 67703\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 67702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Meier Content: Mark F. Meier ( 1925 -- November 25 , 2012 ) was an American glaciologist who was considered a leading expert on the study of rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers . Meier was the Director of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research ( INSTAAR ) from 1985 to 1994 and remained the institute 's director emeritus until his death in 2012 . He was also a professor of geological sciences at the University of Colorado - Boulder . Meier was born and raised in Iowa . He resided in Boulder , Colorado , since 1985 . In 1956 , Meier founded the U.S. Geological Survey 's department of glaciology . He obtained doctorate in 1957 from the California Institute of Technology . Meier served as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey 's Project Office of Glaciology in Tacoma , Washington , until he became the director of INSTAAR in 1985 . Meier was one of the first glaciologists to use remote sensing to study glaciers and rates of melting . He headed several studies of tidewater glacier dynamics in the U.S. state of Alaska . Meier organized the systematic measurement and assessment of glacier mass balance within North America to mark the International Geophysical Year and International Hydrological Decade , which was observed from 1965 to 1975 . His numerous recognitions and awards included the Seligman Crystal from the International Glaciological Society in 1993 , the Robert E. Horton Medal in 1996 , three medals from the USSR Academy of Sciences ( now the Russian Academy of Sciences ) and the United States Department of the Interior 's Distinguished Service Award . Meier died in Boulder , Colorado , on November 25 , 2012 , at the age of 86 . He is survived by his wife , Barbara , his children , Lauren Meier , Gretchen Meier , and Mark S. Meier , and his seven grandchildren .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Meier\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 67530\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1938 Banda Sea earthquake Content: The 1938 Banda Sea earthquake occurred in the Banda Sea region on February 1 . It had an estimated magnitude of 8.4 on the moment magnitude scale , and intensities as high as VII ( Very strong ) . It generated destructive tsunamis of up to 1.5 metres , but no human lives were lost .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"1938_Banda_Sea_earthquake\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 67518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Weddell_Polynya\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 67417\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steptoean positive carbon isotope excursion Content: The Steptoean Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion ( SPICE ) was a geological event which occurred about 500 million years ago at the end of the Cambrian Period . The SPICE event was a sudden reversal of the anoxia ( lack of oxygen ) that had steadily spread throughout the oceans during the Cambrian which also affected the atmosphere . After the SPICE event , oxygen levels recovered and levels in the atmosphere may have risen as high as 30 % , higher than the 21 % of the atmosphere that prevails today . The sudden increase in oxygen led to an explosion of life across the globe .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Steptoean_positive_carbon_isotope_excursion\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 67348\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mulde event Content: The Mulde event was an anoxic event , and marked the second of three relatively minor mass extinctions ( the Ireviken , Mulde , and Lau events ) during the Silurian period . It coincided with a global drop in sea level , and is closely followed by an excursion in geochemical isotopes . Its onset is synchronous with the deposition of the Fröel formation in Gotland .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Mulde_event\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 67206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Draupner wave Content: The Draupner wave or New Year 's wave was the first rogue wave to be detected by a measuring instrument , occurring at the Draupner platform in the North Sea off the coast of Norway on 1 January 1995 . In an area with significant wave height of approximately 12 m , a freak wave with a maximum wave height of 25.6 m occurred ( peak elevation above still water level was 18.5 m ) . Prior to that measurement , no instrument-recorded evidence for rogue waves existed -- just anecdotal evidence provided by those who had encountered them at sea , although ships such as the British Ocean Weather Reporter had recorded very large waves that did not differ quite enough from their neighbors to be considered rogue . Minor damage was inflicted on the platform during this event , confirming the validity of the reading made by a downwards-pointing laser sensor .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Draupner_wave\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 67116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ingression coast Content: An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level . Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral ( tidal ) processes , because the sea level , which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period , did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago . Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform -- e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief -- various types of ingression coast emerge , such as rias , skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Ingression_coast\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 66948\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Tidal and Sea Level Facility Content: Established in 2002 , The National Tidal and Sea Level Facility is responsible for monitoring sea levels in the UK . The NTSLF comprises the UK National Tide Gauge Network , geodetic networks , and gauges in the British Dependent Territories of the South Atlantic and Gibraltar . Data collected is used to create tidal predictions , monitor climate change and determine extreme sea levels for navigation and coastal engineering design . The Network is funded by the UK Environment Agency . Associated scientific research is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Tidal_and_Sea_Level_Facility\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 66794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event Content: The Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) extinction event , also known as the Cretaceous -- Tertiary ( K -- T ) extinction , was a mass extinction of some three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth that occurred over a geologically short period of time approximately 65 million years ago . With the exception of some ectothermic species like the leatherback sea turtle and crocodiles , no tetrapods weighing more than 25 kg survived . It marked the end of the Cretaceous period and with it , the entire Mesozoic Era , opening the Cenozoic Era that continues today . In the geologic record , the K -- Pg event is marked by a thin layer of sediment called the K -- Pg boundary , which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks . The boundary clay shows high levels of the metal iridium , which is rare in the Earth 's crust but abundant in asteroids . As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by Luis Alvarez , it is now generally thought that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by a massive comet or asteroid impact , estimated to be 10 km wide , 66 million years ago and its catastrophic effects on the global environment , including a lingering impact winter that made it impossible for plants and plankton to carry out photosynthesis . The impact hypothesis , also known as the Alvarez hypothesis , was bolstered by the discovery of the 180 km Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico in the early 1990s , which provided conclusive evidence that the K -- Pg boundary clay represented debris from an asteroid impact . The fact that the extinctions occurred at the same time as the impact provides strong situational evidence that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by the asteroid . It was possibly accelerated by the creation of the Deccan Traps . However , some scientists maintain the extinction was caused or exacerbated by other factors , such as volcanic eruptions , climate change , or sea level change , separately or together . A wide range of species perished in the K -- Pg extinction . The best-known victims are the non-avian dinosaurs . However , the extinction also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms , including certain mammals , pterosaurs , birds , lizards , insects , and plants . In the oceans , the K -- Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards ( Mosasauridae ) and devastated fish , sharks , mollusks ( especially ammonites , which became extinct ) and many species of plankton . It is estimated that 75 % or more of all species on Earth vanished . Yet the devastation caused by the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities . In the wake of the extinction , many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiations -- a sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches resulting from the event . Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene , producing new forms such as horses , whales , bats , and primates . Birds , fish and perhaps lizards also radiated .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Cretaceous–Paleogene_extinction_event\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 66120\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Darwin Rise Content: The Darwin Rise is broad triangular region in the north central Pacific Ocean where there is a concentration of atolls . During his voyage across the globe Charles Darwin realised that vertical crustal motion must be responsible for the formation of continents and ocean basins , as well as isolated atolls in the Pacific . He deduced that the central basin of the Pacific had subsided while surrounding areas had risen . In 1964 U.S. geologist Henry Menard subsequently named the uplifted area in the Pacific after the English naturalist .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Darwin_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 65869\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human accelerated region 1 Content: In molecular biology , Human accelerated region 1 ( highly accelerated region 1 , HAR1 ) is a segment of the human genome found on the long arm of chromosome 20 . It is a Human accelerated region . It is located within a pair of overlapping long non-coding RNA genes , HAR1A ( HAR1F ) and HAR1B ( HAR1R ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_accelerated_region_1\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 65799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 65698\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1954 Yangtze River floods Content: From June to September 1954 , the Yangtze River Floods were a series of catastrophic floodings that occurred mostly in Hubei Province . Due to unusually high volume of precipitation as well as an extraordinarily long rainy season in the middle stretch of the Yangtze River late in the spring of 1954 , the river started to rise above its usual level in around late June . Despite efforts to open three important flood gates to alleviate the rising water by diverting it , the flood level continued to rise until it hit the historic high of 44.67 m in Jingzhou , Hubei and 29.73 m in Wuhan . The number of dead from this flood was estimated at around 33,000 , including those who died of plague in the aftermath of the disaster .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"1954_Yangtze_River_floods\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 65480\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Red Sea species hazardous to humans Content: Although most species in the Red Sea pose no threat to humans , there are a few notable exceptions .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Red_Sea_species_hazardous_to_humans\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 65294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Sea flood of 2007 Content: The North Sea flood of 2007 also known as Cyclone Tilo , and as Andrea in Norway was a storm tide of the North Sea affecting the coastlines of the Netherlands , the United Kingdom , Germany , Denmark , Norway and Belgium , starting on the night of 8 -- 9 November 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Sea_flood_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 64777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea cave Content: A sea cave , also known as a littoral cave , is a type of cave formed primarily by the wave action of the sea . The primary process involved is erosion . Sea caves are found throughout the world , actively forming along present coastlines and as relict sea caves on former coastlines . Some of the largest wave-cut caves in the world are found on the coast of Norway , but are now 100 feet or more above present sea level . These would still be classified as littoral caves . By contrast , in places like Thailand 's Phang Nga Bay , solutionally formed caves in limestone have been flooded by the rising sea and are now subject to littoral erosion , representing a new phase of their enlargement . Some of the best-known sea caves are European . Fingal 's Cave , on the Scottish island of Staffa , is a spacious cave some 70 m long , formed in columnar basalt . The Blue Grotto of Capri , although smaller , is famous for the apparent luminescent quality of its water , imparted by light passing through underwater openings . The Romans built a stairway in its rear and a now-collapsed tunnel to the surface . The Greek islands are also noted for the variety and beauty of their sea caves . Numerous sea caves have been surveyed in England , Scotland , and in France , particularly on the Normandy coast . Until 2013 , the largest known sea caves were found along the west coast of the United States , the Hawaiian islands , and the Shetland Islands . In 2013 the discovery and survey of the world 's largest sea cave was announced . Located on New Zealand 's Otago coast on the South Island , Matainaka Cave has proven to be the world 's most extensive at 1.5 km in length . Also in 2013 , Crossley reported a newly surveyed complex reaching just over a kilometer in survey at Bethells Beach on New Zealand 's North Island .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_cave\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 64719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1958 Yellow River flood Content: The 1958 Yellow River flood was an extraordinarily large rise in the water flow of the Yellow River in China that coincided with the onset of the Great Leap Forward . In July 1958 , the peak discharge of the Yellow River at Huayuankou was 22,300 m3/s and the flood water level was so high that it rose up to the top of the levee in several places .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"1958_Yellow_River_flood\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 64666\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Ocean_heat_content\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 64639\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Viral decay acceleration Content: Viral decay acceleration ( VDA ) is a therapeutic strategy which increases the mutation frequency of a virus toward an error catastrophe threshold . Viruses evolve at rates approximately one million times faster than the human genome . The high mutation rate increases diversity within the viral population and facilitates survival in the face of host immune responses , depletion of target cells and antiviral therapeutics . This evolutionary advantage however comes at a considerable cost in that the vast majority of virus particles have mutated beyond a survivability threshold and are therefore non-infectious . Laboratory studies have demonstrated that therapeutics capable of increasing the mutation frequency as little as 2-fold results in collapse of the viral population . These therapeutics , termed VDA agents , accelerate the accumulation of additional mutations in the viral genome , progressively debilitating the virus which causes decay and eventual extinction of the entire viral population .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Viral_decay_acceleration\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 64632\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Risellopsis Content: Risellopsis is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Risellopsis\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 64501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zanclean flood Content: The Zanclean flood or Zanclean Deluge is a flood theorized to have refilled the Mediterranean Sea 5.33 million years ago . This flooding ended the Messinian salinity crisis and marks the beginning of the Zanclean age . The term was coined by Maria Bianca Cita in 1972 during the Deep Sea Drilling Project study that investigated the transition between the Messinian and Zanclean ages in the Mediterranean . According to this model , water from the Atlantic Ocean refilled the cut-off inland seas through the modern-day Strait of Gibraltar . The Mediterranean Basin flooded mostly during a period estimated to have been between several months and two years . Sea level rise in the basin may have reached rates at times greater than 10 m/d . Based on the erosion features preserved until modern times under the Pliocene sediment , these authors estimate that water rushed down a drop of more than 1 km with a discharge of up to 2e8 m3/s , about 1,000 times that of the present day Amazon River . Studies of the underground structures at the Gibraltar Strait show that the flooding channel descended in a rather gradual way toward the bottom of the basin rather than forming a steep waterfall . Not all scientific studies have agreed with the catastrophistic interpretation of this event . Some researchers have estimated that the reinstallment of a `` normal '' Mediterranean Sea basin following the Messinian `` Lago Mare '' episode took place in a much more gradual way , taking as long as 10,000 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Zanclean_flood\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 64485\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Young Detective Dee: Rise of the Sea Dragon Content: Young Detective Dee : Rise of the Sea Dragon is a 2013 Chinese action-adventure fantasy mystery film directed , produced , and co-written by Tsui Hark . It is a prequel to Hark 's 2010 film Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame , which starred Andy Lau . Taiwanese-Canadian actor Mark Chao takes over from him as a young Detective Dee , while Feng Shaofeng , Lin Gengxin , Kim Bum ( in his Chinese debut ) , and Angelababy co-star alongside a returning Carina Lau from Mystery of the Phantom Flame , rounding up the ensemble cast . A sequel of the film and the third installment of the Detective Dee series , titled Detective Dee : The Four Heavenly Kings will be released in 2018 . Filming will begin in March 2017 .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Young_Detective_Dee:_Rise_of_the_Sea_Dragon\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 64401\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoflooding\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 64346\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coastal management Content: Coastal management is defense against flooding and erosion , and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands . Coastal zones occupy less than 15 % of the Earth 's land area , while they host more than 40 % of the world population . Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 km of a shoreline and 100 m of sea level , with an average density nearly 3 times higher than the global average for population . With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025 , human activities originating from this small land area will impose heavy pressure on coasts . Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities . In the European Union , almost half of the population lives within 50 kilometres of the sea and coastal resources produce much of the Union 's economic wealth . The fishing , shipping and tourism industries all compete for space along Europe 's estimated 89,000 km of coastline and coastal zones contain some of Europe 's most fragile and valuable natural habitats . Protection against sea level rise in the 21st century will be especially important , as sea level rise accelerates . Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems . Coastal sediments are disturbed and suspended by wave and tide energy .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Coastal_management\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 64242\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea in culture Content: The role of the sea in human culture has been important for centuries , as people experience the sea in contradictory ways : as powerful but serene , beautiful but dangerous . Human responses to the sea can be found in artforms including literature , art , poetry , film , theatre , and classical music . The earliest art representing boats is 40,000 years old . Since then , artists in different countries and cultures have depicted the sea . Symbolically , the sea has been perceived as a hostile environment populated by fantastic creatures : the Leviathan of the Bible , Isonade in Japanese mythology , and the kraken of late Norse mythology . In the works of the psychiatrist Carl Jung , the sea symbolises the personal and the collective unconscious in dream interpretation . The sea and ships have been depicted in art ranging from simple drawings on the walls of huts in Lamu to seascapes by Joseph Turner and Dutch Golden Age painting . The Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai created colour prints of the moods of the sea , including The Great Wave off Kanagawa . The sea has appeared in literature since Homer 's Odyssey ( 8th century BC ) . The sea is a recurring theme in the Haiku poems of the Japanese Edo period poet Matsuo Bashō ( 1644 -- 1694 ) . The sea plays a major role in Homer 's epic poem the Odyssey , describing the ten-year voyage of the Greek hero Odysseus who struggles to return home across the sea , encountering sea monsters along the way . In the Middle Ages , the sea appears in romances such as the Tristan legend , with motifs such as mythical islands and self-propelled ships . Pilgrimage is a common theme in stories and poems such as The Book of Margery Kempe . Contemporary sea-inspired novels have been written by Joseph Conrad , Herman Wouk , and Herman Melville ; poems about the sea have been written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Rudyard Kipling and John Masefield . The sea has inspired much music over the centuries including sea shanties , Richard Wagner 's The Flying Dutchman , Claude Debussy 's La mer ( 1903 -- 05 ) , Charles Villiers Stanford 's Songs of the Sea ( 1904 ) and Songs of the Fleet ( 1910 ) , Edward Elgar 's Sea Pictures ( 1899 ) and Ralph Vaughan Williams ' A Sea Symphony ( 1903 -- 1909 ) . Burial at sea has been practised in various ways by countries around the world since the ancient civilisations of Egypt , Greece , and Rome .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_in_culture\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 64176\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Risella tantillus Content: Risella tantillus is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Risella_tantillus\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 64085\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Empress oil spill Content: The Sea Empress oil spill occurred at the entrance to the Milford Haven Waterway in Pembrokeshire , Wales on 15 February 1996 . The Sea Empress was en route to the Texaco oil refinery near Pembroke when she became grounded on mid-channel rocks at St. Ann 's Head . Over the course of a week , she spilt 72,000 tons of crude oil into the sea . The spill occurred within the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park -- one of Europe 's most important and sensitive wildlife and marine conservation areas . It was Britain 's third largest oil spillage and the twelfth largest in the world at the time . Sailing against the outgoing tide and in calm conditions , at 20:07 GMT the ship was pushed off course by the current and became grounded after hitting rocks in the middle of the channel . The collision punctured her starboard hull causing oil to pour out into the sea . Tugs from Milford Haven Port Authority were sent to the scene and attempted to pull the vessel free and re-float her . During the initial rescue attempts , she detached several times from the tugs and grounded repeatedly -- each time slicing open new sections of her hull and releasing more oil . A full scale emergency plan was activated by the authorities . News of the grounding was first reported at 21:18 on the BBC 's Nine O'Clock News -- just over an hour after she ran aground . Over the next few days , frantic efforts to pull the vessel from the rocks continued . Tugboats were drafted in from the ports of Dublin , Liverpool and Plymouth to assist with the salvage operation .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Empress_oil_spill\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 64079\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level, North Carolina Content: Sea Level is an unincorporated community in northeastern Carteret County , North Carolina . It rests on the banks of the Core Sound and has a population of roughly 450 . It is located in what was known to early settlers as Hunting Quarters . Sea Level has one of the lowest elevations in North Carolina ; it is estimated that approximately 75 % of the community floods when hurricanes pass through . US 70 is the major thoroughfare through the community . The community is the location of NC 12 's southern terminus .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level,_North_Carolina\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 64054\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Aral Sea Content: The North Aral Sea is the portion of the former Aral Sea that is fed by the Syr Darya River . It split from the South Aral Sea in 1986 as water levels dropped due to river diversion for agriculture . The poorly built Dike Kokaral intended to contain the North Aral Sea and save its fisheries failed twice , but in 2005 the government of Kazakhstan was able to fund a more robust design . Since then , water levels have risen faster than expected and fish stocks have increased . Plans to build a second dike to increase water levels further were due to begin in 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Aral_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 63979\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Slack water Content: Slack water , also known as ` the stand of the tide ' , is a short period in a body of tidal water when the water is completely unstressed , and there is no movement either way in the tidal stream , and which occurs before the direction of the tidal stream reverses . Slack water can be estimated using a tidal atlas or the tidal diamond information on a nautical chart . The time of slack water , particularly in constricted waters , does not occur at high and low water , and in certain areas , such as Primera Angostura , the ebb may run for up to three hours after the water level has started to rise , and the flood may run for three hours after the water has started to fall . Thornton Lecky , writing in 1884 , illustrates the phenomenon with an inland basin of infinite size , connected to the sea by a narrow mouth . Since the level of the basin is always at mean sea level , the flood in the mouth starts at half tide , and its velocity is at its greatest at the time of high water , with the strongest ebb occurring conversely at low water .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"Slack_water\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 63869\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HI-SEAS Content: HI-SEAS ( Hawaii Space Exploration Analog and Simulation ) is an analog habitat for human spaceflight to Mars . HI-SEAS is located in an isolated position on the slopes of the Mauna Loa volcano on the island of Hawaii . The area has Mars-like features and an elevation of approximately 8200 ft above sea level . The first HI-SEAS study was in 2013 and NASA 's Human Research Program continues to fund and sponsor follow-up studies . The missions are of extended duration from four months to a year . The purpose of the detailed research studies is to determine what is required to keep a space flight crew happy and healthy during an extended mission to Mars and while living on Mars . Research into food , crew dynamics , behaviors , roles and performance , and other aspects of space flight and a mission on Mars itself is the primary focus . The HI-SEAS researchers also carry out studies on a variety of other topics as part of their daily activities . One thing under study by NASA is trying to understand crew dynamics such as morale , stress management , and how they solve problems as group .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"HI-SEAS\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 63865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Threat from the Sea Content: The Threat From the Sea is a series of fantasy novels written mostly by Mel Odom . It contains three novels : Rising Tide , Under Fallen Stars , and The Sea Devil 's Eye . It also contains the anthology book , Realms of the Deep .\",\n \"qid\": \"128\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Threat_from_the_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 63746\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":62,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Sea level rise could reach six or seven feet by the year 2100."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''","qid":"129","docid":"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)","rank":1,"score":142957},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"129","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":2,"score":140882},{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"129","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":3,"score":108939},{"content":"Title: Draupner wave Content: The Draupner wave or New Year 's wave was the first rogue wave to be detected by a measuring instrument , occurring at the Draupner platform in the North Sea off the coast of Norway on 1 January 1995 . In an area with significant wave height of approximately 12 m , a freak wave with a maximum wave height of 25.6 m occurred ( peak elevation above still water level was 18.5 m ) . Prior to that measurement , no instrument-recorded evidence for rogue waves existed -- just anecdotal evidence provided by those who had encountered them at sea , although ships such as the British Ocean Weather Reporter had recorded very large waves that did not differ quite enough from their neighbors to be considered rogue . Minor damage was inflicted on the platform during this event , confirming the validity of the reading made by a downwards-pointing laser sensor .","qid":"129","docid":"Draupner_wave","rank":4,"score":100648},{"content":"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .","qid":"129","docid":"Equilibrium_level","rank":5,"score":98090},{"content":"Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .","qid":"129","docid":"Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929","rank":6,"score":96272},{"content":"Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .","qid":"129","docid":"Sea_level","rank":7,"score":95861},{"content":"Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .","qid":"129","docid":"Seamount","rank":8,"score":95385},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.","qid":"129","docid":"Climate_change_in_Tuvalu","rank":9,"score":94780},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .","qid":"129","docid":"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu","rank":10,"score":94730},{"content":"Title: Extreme points of Antarctica Content: The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .","qid":"129","docid":"Extreme_points_of_Antarctica","rank":11,"score":92239},{"content":"Title: Thiel Trough Content: Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf","qid":"129","docid":"Thiel_Trough","rank":12,"score":90469},{"content":"Title: Annual cycle of sea level height Content: The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .","qid":"129","docid":"Annual_cycle_of_sea_level_height","rank":13,"score":90194},{"content":"Title: Badwater Ultramarathon Content: The Badwater Ultramarathon describes itself as `` the world 's toughest foot race '' . It is a 135 mi course starting at 279 ft below sea level in the Badwater Basin , in California 's Death Valley , and ending at an elevation of 8360 feet ( 2548 m ) at Whitney Portal , the trailhead to Mount Whitney . It takes place annually in mid-July , when the weather conditions are most extreme and temperatures can reach 130 F. Consequently , very few people -- even among ultramarathoners -- are capable of finishing this grueling race .","qid":"129","docid":"Badwater_Ultramarathon","rank":14,"score":89330},{"content":"Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''","qid":"129","docid":"Earth_2100","rank":15,"score":89321},{"content":"Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .","qid":"129","docid":"Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea","rank":16,"score":88440},{"content":"Title: Maximum parcel level Content: The maximum parcel level ( MPL ) is the highest level in the atmosphere that a moist convectively rising air parcel will reach after ascending from the level of free convection ( LFC ) through the free convective layer ( FCL ) and reaching the equilibrium level ( EL ) , near the tropopause . As the parcel rises through the FCL it expands adiabatically causing its temperature to drop , often below the temperature of its surroundings , and eventually lose buoyancy . Because of this , the EL is approximately the region where the distinct flat tops ( called anvils ) often observed on cumulonimbus clouds form . If the air parcel ascended quickly enough then it retains momentum after it has cooled and continues rising past the EL , ceasing at the MPL ( visually represented by the overshooting top , above the anvil ) .","qid":"129","docid":"Maximum_parcel_level","rank":17,"score":87400},{"content":"Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :","qid":"129","docid":"Sea_level_(disambiguation)","rank":18,"score":87112},{"content":"Title: 1872 Baltic Sea flood Content: The 1872 Baltic Sea flood ( Ostseesturmhochwasser 1872 ) , often referred to as a storm flood , ravaged the Baltic Sea coast from Denmark to Pomerania in the night of 12/13 November 1872 and was , until then , the worst storm surge in the Baltic . The highest recorded peak water level was about 3.3 m above sea level ( NN ) .","qid":"129","docid":"1872_Baltic_Sea_flood","rank":19,"score":85860},{"content":"Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .","qid":"129","docid":"Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis","rank":20,"score":85486},{"content":"Title: Ice rise Content: An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .","qid":"129","docid":"Ice_rise","rank":21,"score":85311},{"content":"Title: Flight level Content: In aviation and aviation meteorology , a flight level ( FL ) is defined as a vertical altitude at standard pressure , nominally expressed in hundreds of feet . The pressure is computed assuming an International standard sea-level pressure datum of 1013.2 hPa ( 29.92 inHg ) , and therefore is not necessarily the same as the aircraft 's actual altitude either above mean sea level or above ground level .","qid":"129","docid":"Flight_level","rank":22,"score":85021},{"content":"Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .","qid":"129","docid":"Meltwater_pulse_1A","rank":23,"score":85009},{"content":"Title: Effects of high altitude on humans Content: The effects of high altitude on humans are considerable . The percentage oxygen saturation of hemoglobin determines the content of oxygen in blood . After the human body reaches around 2,100 m ( 7,000 feet ) above sea level , the saturation of oxyhemoglobin begins to plummet . However , the human body has both short-term and long-term adaptations to altitude that allow it to partially compensate for the lack of oxygen . Athletes use these adaptations to help their performance . There is a limit to the level of adaptation ; mountaineers refer to the altitudes above 8000 m as the `` death zone '' , where it is generally believed that no human body can acclimatize .","qid":"129","docid":"Effects_of_high_altitude_on_humans","rank":24,"score":84105},{"content":"Title: South Summit (Mount Everest) Content: The South Summit of Mount Everest is the second-highest peak on Earth , and is a subsidiary peak to the primary peak of Mount Everest . Although its elevation above sea level of 8749 m is higher than the second-highest mountain on Earth , K2 ( whose summit is 8611 m above sea level ) , it is only considered a separate peak and not a separate mountain as its prominence is only 11 meters . The peak is a dome-shaped peak of snow and ice , and is connected to the summit of Mount Everest by the Cornice Traverse and Hillary Step . It was first climbed by Charles Evans and Tom Bourdillon on the 1953 British Mount Everest expedition , on May 26 , 1953 . They were unable to continue on to the primary summit , but Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay , the next pair to make a summit bid , traversed the South Summit to reach the main peak . The distance separating the two summits is approximately 130 m. A geologist with a 1965 Indian Everest expedition discovered a deposit of fossils of seashells in limestone about 100 feet above the South Summit . This expedition put nine climbers on the main summit . Describing his first ascent of Mount Everest without supplemental oxygen in 1978 , Reinhold Messner described the South Summit as `` quite a milestone for me '' . During the 1996 Mount Everest disaster , mountain guide Rob Hall and three other people died at the South Summit while descending from the main summit in an unexpected blizzard . Hall survived overnight , and established radio contact the following day , but froze to death later that day , May 11 , 1996 . His body remains on the South Summit . In 2012 Dr. Eberhard Schaaf died on descent at the south summit from altitude sickness .","qid":"129","docid":"South_Summit_(Mount_Everest)","rank":25,"score":83217},{"content":"Title: J. Val Klump Content: Jeffrey Val Klump ( born December 17 , 1948 ) is an American limnologist . He was the first person to reach the deepest spot in Lake Superior , a depth of 1333 feet ( 733 feet below sea level ) , the second lowest point in the United States after Iliamna Lake , on July 30 , 1985 while aboard the R/V Seward Johnson with the Johnson Sea Link-II submersible . Klump was also the first person to reach to the deepest point in Lake Michigan as part of the same expedition . He is currently a professor in the School of Freshwater Sciences at the University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee in Milwaukee , Wisconsin and director of the Great Lakes WATER Institute .","qid":"129","docid":"J._Val_Klump","rank":26,"score":83209},{"content":"Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .","qid":"129","docid":"Josh_Willis","rank":27,"score":82829},{"content":"Title: Ieodo Ocean Research Station Content: Ieodo Ocean Research Station is an ocean platform constructed by South Korea and placed on the submerged Socotra Rock in the East China Sea . The stated purpose of the platform is the collection of meteorological data , provision for maritime safety , and fisheries monitoring . However , as South Korea and China both claim that Socotra Rock lies in their respective Exclusive Economic Zones , the platform does have strategic implications . The platform was officially opened in June 2003 . The platform has a helipad a couple of lower decks for equipment and workspace . Although the station has residential facilities that can comfortably accommodate 8 people for 15 days , the station is typically uninhabited and operated remotely . While Socotra Rock rises to a maximum of 4.6 m below sea level , the platform is founded on a portion of the rock that is substantially deeper at 40m below sea level . As a result , the platform is approximately 700m from the rock 's `` peak . '' The platform rises approximately 36m from sea level .","qid":"129","docid":"Ieodo_Ocean_Research_Station","rank":28,"score":82786},{"content":"Title: Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes Content: The fifteen volcanoes that make up the eight principal islands of Hawaii are the youngest in a chain of more than 129 volcanoes that stretch 5800 km across the North Pacific Ocean , called the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain . Hawaii 's volcanoes rise an average of 4572 m to reach sea level from their base . The largest and most famous , Mauna Loa , has built itself up to a height of 4169 m . As shield volcanoes , they are built by accumulated lava flows , growing no more than 3 m at a time to form a broad and gently sloping shape . Hawaiian volcanoes all follow a specific pattern of eruption , building , and erosion . Hawaiian islands undergo a systematic pattern of submarine and subaerial growth that is followed by erosion . An island 's stage of development reflects its distance from the Hawaii hotspot .","qid":"129","docid":"Evolution_of_Hawaiian_volcanoes","rank":29,"score":82590},{"content":"Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .","qid":"129","docid":"The_Sea_is_Rising","rank":30,"score":82115},{"content":"Title: Seabee Heights Content: Seabee Heights is a rugged snow-covered heights rising to 3400 m in the Queen Maud Mountains . The heights are about 15 nmi long and 5 nmi wide and are bounded by the flow of the DeGanahl , LaVergne and Liv Glaciers . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for the U.S. Navy Construction Battalions ( Seabees ) which have played a significant role in the building of U.S. Antarctic stations .","qid":"129","docid":"Seabee_Heights","rank":31,"score":81761},{"content":"Title: High-altitude football controversy Content: The high-altitude football controversy arose in May 2007 when FIFA introduced a temporary ban on international matches at more than 2500 m above sea level , citing concerns about players ' health and the `` unfair '' advantage to acclimatised home teams . The ruling meant that Bolivia , Ecuador and Colombia would be prevented from hosting FIFA World Cup qualifiers in their own capital cities . The ban was revoked in May 2008 .","qid":"129","docid":"High-altitude_football_controversy","rank":32,"score":81612},{"content":"Title: Seahpo Peak Content: Seahpo Peak is a subsidiary peak of Mount Shuksan , which rises in the U.S. state of Washington . It is located about 2 mi east of the main peak of Shuksan and rises to about 7441 ft. It is located in North Cascades National Park and is part of the North Cascades range . Connected to the main peak by the roughly 7000 ft-high Jagged Ridge , Seahpo Peak stands to the north at the headwaters of a headstream of Sulphide Creek , a tributary of the Baker River . Several waterfalls tumble off its flanks , including Seahpo Peak Falls and Cloudcap Falls . ( Seahpo Peak is sometimes referred to as Cloudcap Peak . ) The mountain is also on the south side of the Nooksack Cirque , which forms the headwaters of the Nooksack River . It is bordered by the East Nooksack Glacier to the north and a few smaller unnamed glaciers to the south . It is also connected to Icy Peak by another unnamed ridge . The mountain derives its name from a French word , chapeau , meaning `` hat '' .","qid":"129","docid":"Seahpo_Peak","rank":33,"score":81604},{"content":"Title: Altitude diving Content: Altitude diving is underwater diving using scuba or surface supplied diving equipment where the surface is 300 meters ( 1,000 feet ) or more above sea level ( for example , a mountain lake ) . The U.S. Navy tables recommend that no alteration be made for dives at altitudes lower than 91 meters ( 300 feet ) and dives between 91 meters and 300 meters correction is required for dives over 44 meters sea water ( 145 feet sea water ) . Altitude is significant in diving because the depths and decompression used for dives at altitude are different from those used for the same dive profile at sea level .","qid":"129","docid":"Altitude_diving","rank":34,"score":81514},{"content":"Title: Trölladyngja Content: Situated in the Ódáðahraun lava field , Trölladyngja is the biggest of the Icelandic shield volcanoes , reaching a height of 1468 m above sea level , and rising almost 600 metres above the surrounding desert and lava fields . It is about 10 kilometres in diameter and its inclination is 4 to 5 ° in the lower slopes , but 6 to 8 ° at higher elevations . Its oblong crater is about 1,200 to 1,500 metres in length , 500 metres broad , and about 100 metres deep . Most of its lava fields have flowed in a northerly direction , with one branch of it reaching the valley of Bárðardalur , a distance of roughly 100 km .","qid":"129","docid":"Trölladyngja","rank":35,"score":81321},{"content":"Title: Thirteener Content: In mountaineering in the United States , a thirteener is a mountain that exceeds 13000 ft above mean sea level , similar to the more familiar `` fourteeners , '' which exceed 14000 ft. In most instances , `` thirteeners '' refers only to those peaks between 13,000 and 13,999 feet in elevation . The importance of thirteeners is greatest in Colorado , which has the majority of such peaks in North America with over 600 of them . Despite the large number of peaks , over 20 peak baggers have reported climbing all of Colorado 's thirteeners . Thirteeners are also significant in states whose highpoints fall between 13,000 and 13,999 feet . Regarding whether or not peaks in excess of 13,999 feet should be considered as `` thirteeners '' , this article will count them as such for statistical purposes , but concentrate its focus on those peaks less than 14,000 feet since the higher peaks are already covered in the fourteeners list . Not all summits over 13,000 feet qualify as thirteeners , but only those summits that mountaineers consider to be independent . Objective standards for independence include topographic prominence and isolation ( distance from a higher summit ) , or a combination . However thirteener lists do not always consistently use such objective rules . A rule commonly used by mountaineers in the contiguous United States is that a peak must have at least 300 ft of prominence to qualify . According to the Mountaineering Club of Alaska , it is standard in Alaska to use a 500 ft prominence rule rather than a 300-foot rule . These are the standards applied for the lists below .","qid":"129","docid":"Thirteener","rank":36,"score":81286},{"content":"Title: Hailwood's Height Content: Hailwood 's Height , preceded by Hailwood 's Rise , is situated between the 31st and 32nd Milestone road-side markers on the Snaefell Mountain Course used for the Isle of Man TT Races on the A18 Snaefell Mountain Road in the parishes of Lezayre and Lonan in the Isle of Man . The uphill section of the Mountain Course from the Bungalow to the highest point of the course at Ordnance Survey spot height 422 m above sea level near Brandywell was named Hailwood 's Rise in memory of Mike Hailwood , the former world motorcycle champion who died in 1981 . The highest point of the course adjacent to the Brandywell/B10 road junction is named Hailwood 's Height . Hailwood 's Height and Hailwood 's Rise were part of the Highland Course and the Four Inch Course used for the Gordon Bennett Trial and Tourist Trophy automobile car races held in the Isle of Man between 1904 and 1922 . Hailwood 's Height is now part of the Snaefell Mountain Course used since 1911 for the Isle of Man TT and from 1923 for the Manx Grand Prix Races .","qid":"129","docid":"Hailwood's_Height","rank":37,"score":80905},{"content":"Title: Australian Height Datum Content: The Australian Height Datum is a geodetic datum for altitude measurement in Australia . According to Geoscience Australia , `` In 1971 the mean sea level for 1966-1968 was assigned the value of 0.000 m on the Australian Height Datum at thirty tide gauges around the coast of the Australian continent . The resulting datum surface , with minor modifications in two metropolitan areas , has been termed the Australian Height Datum ( AHD ) and was adopted by the National Mapping Council as the datum to which all vertical control for mapping ( and other surveying functions ) is to be referred . ''","qid":"129","docid":"Australian_Height_Datum","rank":38,"score":80843},{"content":"Title: Apharwat Peak Content: Apharwat Peak is a summit , situated at a height of 4390 m above the sea level , in Gulmarg . It receives heavy snowfall and remains covered with snow for much of the year . The Line of Control ( LOC ) is barely a few kilometres away from here . Lying in the second phase of the cable car ride from Gulmarg , reaching this spot is highly dependent on the weather conditions .","qid":"129","docid":"Apharwat_Peak","rank":39,"score":80759},{"content":"Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .","qid":"129","docid":"A_Sea_So_Far","rank":40,"score":80548},{"content":"Title: Windy Hill (Pennines) Content: Windy Hill in the South Pennines within the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale in Greater Manchester , England , rises to 389 metres above sea level . The hill is located west of the A672 road and south west of Junction 22 on the M62 motorway . Windy Hill cutting is up to 120 feet deep and the longest on the M62 . A pedestrian footbridge , 320 feet long and 65 feet above the carriageways , carries the Pennine Way above Windy Hill cutting . Its parabolic arch and splayed legs are designed to withstand wind speeds up to 120 mph . Snow lies on Windy Hill for an average of 35 days annually and the area is prone to fog or low cloud . The boundary stone between Greater Manchester and West Yorkshire is in the cutting . The Longden End Brook rises between the hill and the motorway and the Piethorne Brook drains to reservoirs to the southwest . A radio transmitter is located to the east .","qid":"129","docid":"Windy_Hill_(Pennines)","rank":41,"score":80466},{"content":"Title: 2100 Ross Avenue Content: 2100 Ross Avenue ( formerly San Jacinto Tower ) is a 33-story postmodern skyscraper located at 2100 Ross Avenue/2121 San Jacinto Street in the City Center District of downtown Dallas , Texas , in the United States . The structure stands at a height of 456 feet ( 139 m ) and contains 844,000 square feet ( 78,000 m ² ) of office space . The top floor of San Jacinto Tower was the fictional location of the Oil Barons Club - an exclusive restaurant and lounge on the TV series Dallas . Exterior shots zooming onto the top floor were used .","qid":"129","docid":"2100_Ross_Avenue","rank":42,"score":80420},{"content":"Title: Ferg Hawke Content: Fergus ( ` Ferg ' ) Hawke ( born November 16 , 1957 , New Westminster , British Columbia , Canada ) is a leading international ultra-distance runner , residing in South Surrey , British Columbia , Canada . Badwater Ultramarathon He has placed second in the Badwater Ultramarathon twice ( 2004 , 2005 ) , to Dean Karnazes ( 2004 : 27:30:20 ; finished second by 8 minutes ) and Scott Jurek ( 2005 : 26:33:00 ; finished second by 1:57 ) . His 2005 time is the ninth best time ever in the history of the race . The Badwater Ultramarathon is a 135-mile ( 217 km ) ultramarathon through Death Valley in mid-July , starting at Badwater Basin , the second-lowest point in the Western Hemisphere , 282 feet below sea level , and finishing 8300 feet up Mount Whitney . With a cumulative vertical ascent of 13,000 ft ( 4000 m ) and a cumulative descent of 4,700 ft ( 1400 m ) , and temperatures reaching 130 degrees Fahrenheit ( 54 degrees Celsius ) , it is considered by some people to be the most difficult footrace in the world . Other ultramarathons He holds the second-best time by a North American in the Marathon des Sables , a staged 150-mile ultramarathon race through the Sahara Desert , in Morocco : 2002 , with a time of 22:51:03 ( the record is held by Eric Deshaies of Ottawa , Canada : 2007 ) . Other notable race results include : Chuckanut Mountain 50 km , Bellingham , Washington , USA : first-place finisher overall ( 1995 ) , second ( 1998 ) , third ( 1996 and 1999 ) . Elk Beaver 50 mile Canadian Championships , Vancouver Island , B.C. : first-place finisher overall ( 1996 ) . Rose City 50 mile Ultramarathon , Portland , Oregon , USA : first-place finisher overall ( 1995 ) . Eagle Run 100 mile , Apex Mountain , British Columbia : first-place finisher overall ( 1995 ) . This race was the first official 100 mile distance ultramarathon ever held in Canada . Triathalons and ultramans His introduction to endurance events came with triathlons . He served on the Canadian National Triathlon team in 1991 , representing Canada at the World Triathlon Championships in Surfers Paradise , Australia that same year . He has competed in several ultra-triathlons , including the Ultraman World Championships in Hawaii . The Ultraman is a three-day endurance triathlon consisting of a 6.2 mile swim and a 90-mile cycle on day 1 , a 171.4 mile cycle on day 2 , and a 52.4 mile double marathon on the final day . The course circumnavigates the Big Island of Hawaii and is considered to be one of the most challenging triathlons in the world . At the 1999 Ultraman World Championships he finished third overall , with a combined time of 23:41:16 . The Distance of Truth He is the subject of a documentary film , `` The Distance of Truth '' ( directed by Robert Letson under the name of ` Meno ' ) , available at www.thedistanceoftruth.com , and has been featured in numerous television , radio , and print articles .","qid":"129","docid":"Ferg_Hawke","rank":43,"score":80306},{"content":"Title: Walleralm Content: The Walleralm is an alp with a mountain inn ( Berggasthaus ) that lies at a height of 1170 m above sea level at the foot of the Zettenkaiserkopf , a fore peak of the Zettenkaiser in the Austrian state of Tyrol . The alp is easily and quickly reached by mountain bike or on foot from Lake Hinterstein near Scheffau am Wilden Kaiser along a forest track . The alp has a panoramic view of the Kitzbüheler Horn mountain above the Hohe Salve and across to the Inn valley , in the distance the glaciers of the High Tauern are visible .","qid":"129","docid":"Walleralm","rank":44,"score":80272},{"content":"Title: Metres above sea level Content: Redirected here : feet above sea level ; AMSL means `` above mean sea level '' , and may be used for heights specified in any units . Metres above mean sea level ( MAMSL ) or simply metres above sea level ( MASL or m a.s.l. ) is a standard metric measurement in metres of the elevation or altitude of a location in reference to a historic mean sea level . Mean sea levels are affected by climate change and other factors and change over time . For this and other reasons , recorded measurements of elevation above sea level might differ from the actual elevation of a given location over sea level at a given moment .","qid":"129","docid":"Metres_above_sea_level","rank":45,"score":80254},{"content":"Title: South Tasman Rise Content: The South Tasman Rise is an area of seafloor that lies 550 km south of Hobart , Tasmania in the Southern Ocean where water depths are about 1,500 metres . The South Tasman Rise is also known as the Tasmania Ridge or South Tasmania Ridge .","qid":"129","docid":"South_Tasman_Rise","rank":46,"score":80213},{"content":"Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .","qid":"129","docid":"Tide_gauge","rank":47,"score":79959},{"content":"Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .","qid":"129","docid":"The_Sea_Has_Risen","rank":48,"score":79957},{"content":"Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .","qid":"129","docid":"Past_sea_level","rank":49,"score":79699},{"content":"Title: Dvořák Ice Rise Content: Dvořák Ice Rise is an ice rise 1.5 nmi in extent , rising above the ice of Mendelssohn Inlet in the southwest part of Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was first mapped , from air photos taken by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition , 1947 -- 48 , by D. Searle of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1960 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Antonín Dvořák , the Czech composer . ( 1841-1904 ) .","qid":"129","docid":"Dvořák_Ice_Rise","rank":50,"score":79174},{"content":"Title: Ishpatina Ridge Content: Ishpatina Ridge is the highest point of land in the Canadian province of Ontario , at an estimated 693 m above sea level . Ishpatina Ridge rises approximately 300 m above the immediate area . It was only truly recognized as Ontario 's highest point after federal government topographical mapping revealed this fact in the 1970s . Before then , the more popular Maple Mountain was thought to be higher . The ridge lies in Lady Evelyn-Smoothwater Provincial Park . Due to its remote location , Ishpatina Ridge is a challenge to reach . The closest major highway , Highway 560 , is more than 30 km north . There are a few logging roads and trails in the remote area , but they are difficult to travel in poor weather . The most popular approach route to Ishpatina is by canoe/portage via a logging road to the south out of the town of Capreol north of Sudbury . While a northern route exists ( out of Gowganda , the nearest community ) , there are numerous portages making it particularly onerous . This route has traditionally been used for a winter-time approach by ski/snowshoe . Historically , a fire tower atop the ridge was staffed by forest workers and they would have been ferried to the site by float plane . The name `` Ishpatina '' comes from an Ojibwe language word ishpadinaa , meaning `` high place/ridge '' . The city of Ishpeming , Michigan , in Marquette County , and Spadina Avenue in Toronto , Ontario derive their names from the same word . Although the Ishpatina Ridge is the highest point in Ontario , at least one other geographic feature , Maple Mountain ( approximately 25 km to the east ) has greater prominence , 37 m higher than Ishpatina Ridge 's rise over Scarecrow Lake . An abandoned firetower , often referred to as the Ellis Tower , is still standing on the highest section of the Ridge ( left ) . The original tower was an 80 ft structure erected in 1930 . The successor , currently standing , is 100 ft high and was abandoned in the 1960s . The towerman would have resided in a cabin on the shore of Scarecrow Lake and would have hiked a 3.5 km trail daily taking approximately two hours to summit and a little over one hour to descend again . Located between Tower Peak and the North Peak , the Ishpatina Canyon is one of the deepest in Ontario . The elevation of Tower Peak is 2274 feet , the bottom of the Canyon is at 1750 feet and the North Peak at 2250 feet above sea level . The canyon is nearly twice as deep as Ouimet Canyon , often considered Ontario 's deepest . However , the more gradual descent into the canyon hides the fact . The ridge was featured on an interactive web series called The Peakbaggers .","qid":"129","docid":"Ishpatina_Ridge","rank":51,"score":79128},{"content":"Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .","qid":"129","docid":"Sea_Level_(album)","rank":52,"score":78860},{"content":"Title: Astrolabe Needle Content: Astrolabe Needle is a conspicuous monolith rising 50 m above sea level south of Claude Point , Brabant Island , in the Palmer Archipelago . It was discovered by the French Antarctic Expedition under Jean-Baptiste Charcot , 1903 -- 05 , and named after the Astrolabe , one of the ships of the French expedition under Captain Jules Dumont d'Urville , 1837 -- 40 .","qid":"129","docid":"Astrolabe_Needle","rank":53,"score":78678},{"content":"Title: Hillary Step Content: The Hillary Step is , or possibly was , a nearly vertical rock face with a height of around 12 m located high on Mount Everest at approximately 8790 m above sea level . It is located on the southeast ridge , halfway between the `` South Summit '' and the true summit , and is the last real challenge before reaching the top of the mountain via the southeast route . The Step is named after Sir Edmund Hillary , who was the first known person , along with Tenzing Norgay , to scale it on the way to the summit . It was suspected in 2016 that the 2015 earthquake had altered the Hillary Step , but there was so much snow it was not clear whether it had truly changed . It was reported in May 2017 by climbers including professional high-altitude expedition leader and six-time Everest summiteer Tim Mosedale that `` the Hillary Step is no more '' , although the full extent and interpretation of the changes are still nascent . There are multiple pictures of before and after . Another climber who thought the Step changed by 2016 was six-time Everest summiter David Liaño Gonzalez , who summited in 2013 and 2016 , when the relevant changes are reported to have occurred . However , some important Nepalese climbers , including Ang Tshering Sherpa , chairman of the Nepal Mountaineering Association , have reported that the Step is still intact but covered in more snow than before . Peter Hillary , Edmund Hillary 's son , was asked his opinion about the Step based on photos . He agreed it was there in part , but seemed to think it had undergone some sort of a change , noting especially what looked like a fresh broken rock . The Step is known as the most technically difficult part of the typical Nepal-side Everest climb In some climbing seasons after heavy snowfall , the rock face could be bypassed with snow/ice climbing . Climbing the Hillary Step has the danger of a 10000 ft drop on the right ( when going up ) and an 8000 ft drop on the left . The Hillary Step is where the late Anatoli Boukreev found a body hanging from ropes at the base of the step as relayed by his book The Climb . One expedition noted that climbing the Hillary Step was `` strenuous '' , but did offer some protection from the elements . An unaided Hillary Step climb was rated as a Class 4 rock climb , but at almost 29,000 feet altitude . When Hillary and Tenzing first climbed the Hillary Step on 29 May 1953 , they climbed the crack between the snow and the rock . Hillary reported that the snow on the step was harder than at lower elevation . In later years ascent and descent over the Step has generally been made with the assistance of fixed ropes , usually placed there by the first ascending team of the season . With increasing numbers of people climbing the mountain , the Step frequently becomes a bottleneck , with climbers forced to wait significant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes , leading to problems in getting climbers efficiently up and down the mountain . Only one climber at a time can traverse it . In a good climbing situation it is about a two-hour climb from the South Summit to the Hillary Step , one to two hours to climb the cliff , and then another 20 minutes from the top of the Hillary Step to the summit of Mount Everest . Before 2015 , the descending sequence along Everest 's southeast ridge was : Summit of Everest Final slope to summit Hillary Step 40 ft / 12 m rock cliff Cornice traverse ( knife-edge ridge ) South Summit of Everest The Balcony ( 27,500 feet / 8380 m ) < / ref","qid":"129","docid":"Hillary_Step","rank":54,"score":78372},{"content":"Title: Protector Shoal Content: Protector Shoal is a submarine volcano , also called seamount , which rises gently from an ocean depth of 3900 ft to about 55 m below sea level approximately 31 mi NW of Zavodovski Island in the South Sandwich Islands chain . The last eruption occurred during March 1962 . Protector Shoal is the only volcano in the arc that has erupted rhyolite pumice .","qid":"129","docid":"Protector_Shoal","rank":55,"score":78361},{"content":"Title: Sonny Bono Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Sonny Bono Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuge is located 40 mi north of the Mexican border at the southern end of the Salton Sea in California 's Imperial Valley . Situated along the Pacific Flyway , the Refuge is the only one of its kind , located 227 ft below sea level . Because of its southern latitude , elevation and location in the Colorado Desert , the Refuge experiences some of the highest temperatures in the nation . Daily temperatures from May to October generally exceed 100 ° F with temperatures of 116 ° -- 120 ° F recorded yearly .","qid":"129","docid":"Sonny_Bono_Salton_Sea_National_Wildlife_Refuge","rank":56,"score":78301},{"content":"Title: List of summits of the San Francisco Bay Area Content: This is a list of named summits in the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area that are more than 1000 ft above sea level . Note that there are no natural features above 1000 ft in the city of San Francisco . Unless otherwise referenced , all data are from the Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS ) . GNIS elevations are imprecise .","qid":"129","docid":"List_of_summits_of_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area","rank":57,"score":78107},{"content":"Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .","qid":"129","docid":"Sea_Level_(band)","rank":58,"score":78094},{"content":"Title: Queen Mary's Peak Content: Queen Mary 's Peak is the summit of the island of Tristan da Cunha , in the South Atlantic Ocean . It has an elevation of 2,062 metres ( 6,765 ft ) above sea level . It is named after Mary of Teck , the Queen consort of King George V . It is the highest point of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena , Ascension and Tristan da Cunha . The mountain is the peak of the massive shield volcano which forms the island . A 300 m wide summit crater caps the peak , and it contains a heart-shaped crater lake . This lake is normally frozen during the winter , and the upper slopes of the volcano are covered in snow . The only recorded eruption began on 10 October 1961 from a vent on the north shore of the island , and continued into March 1962 . The entire population of the island had to be evacuated and did not return until 1963 . Queen Mary 's Peak was used by sailors on the route from Europe to the Indian Ocean and beyond as a navigational aid . In the 17th century the East India Company instructed captains to sail via Tristan . In 2004 , Ellen MacArthur sighted the Peak on her record-breaking circumnavigation of the world .","qid":"129","docid":"Queen_Mary's_Peak","rank":59,"score":78056},{"content":"Title: Irminger Sea Content: The Irminger Sea is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is 480 km long and 290 km wide at its narrowest . The northern limit is the Greenland-Iceland Rise on the bottom of the Denmark Strait between Iceland and East Greenland , which connects to the Greenland Sea . To the southwest , it reaches to Cape Farvel , the southern tip of Greenland , and meets the Labrador Sea at this point . South of this point is the open North Atlantic Ocean . The sea floor of the Irminger Sea is largely part of the Irminger Basin , a northeastern continuation of the maximally 4600 m deep Labrador Basin , which on the east is bordered by the Reykjanes Ridge . This delineation is oceanographic only and does not represent any official borders . The Irminger Sea is one of the main fishing areas of the Rose fish . The Irminger Sea was named after Danish vice-admiral Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger ( 1802 -- 1888 ) , after whom also the Irminger Current was named .","qid":"129","docid":"Irminger_Sea","rank":60,"score":78027},{"content":"Title: 210 Trade Content: 210 Trade was a 601 ft tall , residential-use skyscraper originally under construction in Charlotte , North Carolina . It was to be part of the EpiCentre entertainment complex that was completed in 2008 . Once completed , 210 Trade would have had 53 floors . The EpiCentre Entertainment Complex has a movie theater , restaurants , bars , shops , four floors of parking , five floors of offices and retail topped by 210 Trade with 44 residential floors . It will be connected to Uptown 's Overstreet Mall and Bank of America Plaza via skywalk over South College Street . It would have been the tallest residential building in Charlotte and the Carolinas , and it was originally going to have the second highest floor count after the Bank of America Corporate Center . The site was next to the Time Warner Cable Arena , on the site once occupied by the Old Charlotte Convention Center . As of 2016 , the project has changed from a condo to a dual Hotel ( AC/Hotel and Residence Inn ) topping out at 325 feet .","qid":"129","docid":"210_Trade","rank":61,"score":77790},{"content":"Title: 2102 Tantalus Content: 2102 Tantalus ( 1975 YA ) is an Apollo asteroid discovered on December 27 , 1975 , by C. Kowal at Palomar Observatory . It is a Q-type asteroid . 2102 Tantalus is a potentially hazardous asteroid ( PHA ) because its minimum orbit intersection distance ( MOID ) is less than 0.05 AU and its diameter is greater than 150 meters . The Earth-MOID is 0.0439 AU . Its orbit is well-determined for the next several hundred years . It will pass 0.04439 AU from Earth on 2038-Dec-27 , which is just slightly closer than the 1975-Dec-26 approach of 0.046 AU . The asteroid is about 2 -- 4 km in diameter .","qid":"129","docid":"2102_Tantalus","rank":62,"score":77643},{"content":"Title: Slavkovský štít Content: Slavkovský štít is the fourth highest mountain peak in the High Tatra mountains in Slovakia . Its summit is 2452 metres above sea level . It can be reached by foot on a walking trail in about four and a half hours from Starý Smokovec . The first recorded ascent was by Juraj Buchholtz in 1664 .","qid":"129","docid":"Slavkovský_štít","rank":63,"score":77621},{"content":"Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .","qid":"129","docid":"Rising_from_the_Sea","rank":64,"score":77538},{"content":"Title: 1995 K2 disaster Content: The 1995 K2 disaster was a mountaineering disaster on K2 in Pakistan , the world 's second tallest mountain . Six are reported to have died on August 13 , 1995 on K2 , largely related to bad weather especially reported high winds . Scott Fischer of Mountain Madness was climbing Broad Peak at the time , and suggested that a contributing factor was combination of brutal cold and 100-mph-plus winds . An American team had gained a permit to climb 8611 m K2 in the summer of 1995 . K2 is regarded as a significantly more difficult and dangerous climb than Mount Everest . By August 13 , 1995 , the remnants of the US team and Alison Hargreaves had joined forces with a New Zealand and Canadian team at Camp 4 , around 7600 m above sea level , and at least 12 hours from the summit . Later that day , having joined with a Spanish team of mountaineers above Camp 4 , New Zealander Peter Hillary , son of Everest pioneer Sir Edmund Hillary , decided to turn back , noting that the weather that had been fine for the previous four days appeared to be changing . At 6:45 pm , in fine conditions , Alison Hargreaves and Spaniard Javier Olivar reached the summit , followed by American Rob Slater , Spaniards Javier Escartín and Lorenzo Ortíz , and New Zealander Bruce Grant . All six died in a violent storm while returning from the summit . Canadian Jeff Lakes , who had turned back below the summit earlier , managed to reach one of the lower camps but died from the effects of exposure . The next day , two Spanish climbers , Pepe Garces and Lorenzo Ortas ( not Lorenzo Ortíz , who was killed in the storm ) , who had survived the storm at Camp 4 , were descending the mountain suffering from frostbite and exhaustion . Before reaching Camp 3 they found a bloodstained anorak , a climbing boot , and a harness . They recognized the equipment as belonging to Hargreaves . From Camp 3 they could also see a body in the distance . They did not approach the body , so it was not positively identified , but they had little doubt it was Hargreaves ' and concluded she had been blown off the mountain during the storm . Fatalities reported for August 13 , 1995 : Alison Hargreaves Javier Olivar Rob Slater Javier Escartín Lorenzo Ortíz Bruce Grant Also , Jeff Lakes reached a lower camp but died from exposure on August 15 , 1995 . Lorenzo Ortas and Pepe Garces survived but had to be airlifted out , enduring 6 days without a tent . Another fatality this season was earlier in the summer , in July Jordi Anglès is reported to have died from a fall at K2 .","qid":"129","docid":"1995_K2_disaster","rank":65,"score":77529},{"content":"Title: Rogers Pass (Montana) Content: Rogers Pass rises 5610 ft above sea level and is located on the Continental Divide in the U.S. state of Montana . The pass is adjacent to Helena National Forest and is traversed by Montana Highway 200 . Wide shoulders provide parking for those wishing to hike the Continental Divide Trail . Bicyclists should note that the wide shoulders are limited to the very top and will not be found elsewhere on 200 . The pass is the best route between the cities of Great Falls and Missoula , Montana -- more than 800 ft lower than Lewis and Clark Pass , 5.3 mi to the northwest , which was used by Meriwether Lewis of the eponymous expedition on July 7 , 1806 . Rogers Pass is known for being the location of the coldest recorded temperature in the United States outside of Alaska . On January 20 , 1954 , a temperature of -70 degrees Fahrenheit was recorded . Rogers Pass is more than 100 mi south of Marias Pass , and there are no other roads that cross the Continental Divide between these two passes . The region between the two passes is mostly wilderness , and the majority of it has been set aside and protected from future development . The Great Bear , Scapegoat and Bob Marshall Wildernesses have been consolidated into the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex and permanently protect 1535352 acre . The region is noted for its inaccessibility and as one of the last strongholds for the grizzly bear in the lower 48 states . The Scapegoat Wilderness is a 10 mi hike north of Rogers Pass via the Continental Divide Trail .","qid":"129","docid":"Rogers_Pass_(Montana)","rank":66,"score":77426},{"content":"Title: João Valente (reef) Content: João Valente is a reef located nearly between the islands of Boa Vista ( 20 nmi , 35 km ) and Maio ( 25 mmi , 45 km ) . The reef 's lowest point is about 100 meters above sea level . The seamount is about 1,000 meters tall . The highest point is 14 meters below sea level and dominates the area of about 1,000 to 2,000 km2 , probably and erosion affected the volcano ( Guyot ) . The reef is partly visible during low tide . During the Ice Age , it was a larger island that once included Boa Vista and Maio , it was in the middle part and had two isthmus connecting the former Boa Vista and the Southern peninsulas . Around 7,000 to 6,000 BC , the isthmus were flooded and separated Boa Vista and Maio to form its own islands . João Valente was a flat island until around 4,000 to 3,000 BC when a rise in sea level flooded the whole island and became a reef . In about 2000 to 1000 BC , the elevation was about ten meters below sea level . The reef was mentioned as `` Baixa '' ( Portuguese for lower as being underwater and a submerged rocky area ) in a 1598 map titled Insulae Capitis Viridis which is now at the National Library of France . In a map from 1747 by Jacques-Nicolas Bellin , the reef was mentioned as a submerged rock named Jean Letton ( Roche de Jean Letton , Middle Dutch : Rotz van Jean Letton , Portuguese : Rochas de João Leitão ) . On April 20 , 1806 , the English ship The Lady Burgess sank into the reef . The high biodiversity of fishes in the reef along with other seamounts discovered in 1981 , ichthyofauna has been studied . Also it is the area where other sealife including coral are founded and may be Cape Verde 's most abundant including the waters surrounding Boa Vista .","qid":"129","docid":"João_Valente_(reef)","rank":67,"score":77142},{"content":"Title: Seagaia Ocean Dome Content: The , was one of the world 's largest indoor waterparks , located in Miyazaki , Miyazaki , Japan . The Polynesia-themed Ocean Dome , which was a part of the Sheraton Seagaia Resort , measured 300 metres in length and 100 metres in width , and was listed on the Guinness World Records . It opened in 1993 , and visitor numbers peaked in 1995 at 1.25 million a year . Depending on the season , entrance cost was ¥ 2600 ( $ 21.17 ) for an adult and ¥ 1600 ( $ 13.03 ) for a child . The Ocean Dome was officially closed on October 1 , 2007 as part of a renovation and partial re-branding of the resort . The roof of the structure was retractable in four sections . The Ocean Dome sported a simulated flame-spitting volcano , artificial sand and the world 's largest retractable roof , which provided a permanently blue sky even on a rainy day . The air temperature was always held at around 30 C and the water at around 28 C.","qid":"129","docid":"Seagaia_Ocean_Dome","rank":68,"score":77089},{"content":"Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .","qid":"129","docid":"East_Pacific_Rise","rank":69,"score":77059},{"content":"Title: Footpaths of Gibraltar Content: The footpaths of Gibraltar provide access to key areas of the Upper Rock Nature Reserve , a refuge for hundreds of species of flora and fauna which in some cases are found nowhere else in Europe . The reserve occupies the upper part of the Rock of Gibraltar , a long and narrow mountain that rises to a maximum height of 424 m above sea level , and constitutes around 40 per cent of Gibraltar 's total land area . The unusual geology of the Rock of Gibraltar -- a limestone peak adjoining a sandstone hinterland -- provides a habitat for plants and animals , such as the Gibraltar candytuft and Barbary partridge , which are found nowhere else in mainland Europe . For many years , the Upper Rock was reserved exclusively for military use ; it was fenced off for military purposes , but was decommissioned and converted into a nature reserve in 1993 . The footpaths link many of the fortifications of Gibraltar . They were constructed from the 18th century onwards using chisels , hammers and rods to dig through the solid rock , in order to permit cannon , soldiers and supplies to be moved from ground level to gun positions and observation points established in numerous places on the Upper Rock . Most of these supply routes were later widened to permit vehicular traffic . Many of the roads on the Upper Rock have steel rings embedded in the rock alongside the carriageway , which were used as safety brakes for heavy loads such as cannon being pulled up the slope . Some routes were retained as footpaths to enable troop movements to be concealed behind the surrounding shrubbery , and to provide alternative routes to key points if a road was congested with a heavy load . Several of the paths can be combined into a strenuous circuit of around 10 km that takes about four hours to complete , providing broad views of the Gibraltar peninsula , the Strait of Gibraltar , Spain and the coast of Morocco .","qid":"129","docid":"Footpaths_of_Gibraltar","rank":70,"score":77015},{"content":"Title: Lomnický štít Content: Lomnický štít ( Lomnica Peak or Lomnický Peak ) is one of the highest and most visited mountain peaks in the High Tatras mountains of Slovakia . Connected by cable car to Tatranská Lomnica , its summit is 2634 metres above sea level , making it the second highest peak in the High Tatras after Gerlachovský štít ( 2654 m ) . The first ascent was made by local shoemaker and amateur miner Štefan Fábry around 1760-1790 , but the first recorded ascent was made by the English traveler Robert Townson and guide on 16 August 1793 . He measured almost precisely the elevation of the peak at 2633 m . The first winter ascent was made in 1891 . In the past , Lomnický štít was called Dedo ( `` Grandpa '' ) . Before the 19th century , the peak was also thought to be the highest of all . Since 1940 , tourists have reached the peak by cable car , which was the most modern in Europe at the time of opening . They are allowed to stay on the peak for 50 minutes . The cable car system is normally closed in the month of May for annual maintenance . It is also possible to climb the peak from Lomnický Saddle , but this is only permitted with a mountain guide . There is a solar observatory and weather station permanently manned year round at the terminus of the cable car .","qid":"129","docid":"Lomnický_štít","rank":71,"score":76957},{"content":"Title: Amsterdam Ordnance Datum Content: Normaal Amsterdams Peil ( NAP ) or Amsterdam Ordnance Datum is a vertical datum in use in large parts of Western Europe . Originally created for use in the Netherlands , its height was used by Prussia in 1879 for defining Normalnull , and in 1955 by other European countries . In the 1990s , it was used as the reference level for the United European leveling Network ( UELN ) which in turn led to the European Vertical Reference System ( EVRS ) . Mayor Johannes Hudde of Amsterdam in a way came up with the idea after he expanded the sea-dike after a flood in Amsterdam in 1675 . Of course a dike should be storm-resistant to protect a city against flooding , and in this case a margin of `` 9 feet and 5 inches '' ( 2.67 m - margin is defined in Amsterdam feet ) was deemed enough to cope with rising water . So he measured the water level of the adjacent sea arm , -LSB- IJ ( Amsterdam ) , Het IJ -RSB- and compared it with the water level in the canals within the city itself . He found that the water level at an average summer flood in the sea arm ( when the water level reaches its maximum , not counting storms ) was about the same as the level on the other side of the sea-dike , plus the margin of 9 feet and 5 inches . The relatively constant water level in the canals of Amsterdam , called Amsterdams Peil ( `` Amsterdam level '' , AP ) , equalled the level at summer flood at sea in the sea-inlet , which changes throughout the year . AP was carried over to other areas in the Netherlands in 1860 , to replace locally used levels . In this operation , an error was introduced which was corrected ( normalised ) between 1885 and 1894 , resulting in the Normaal Amsterdams Peil . Originally the zero level of NAP was the average summer flood water level in the IJ just north of the centre of Amsterdam ( which was at the time , in 1684 , the main shipping area , then still connected with the open sea ) . Currently it is physically realised by a brass benchmark on a 22-meter pile below the Dam square in Amsterdam . The brass benchmark in the Amsterdam Stopera ( combined city hall and opera house ) , which is a popular tourist attraction , is no longer used as a reference point .","qid":"129","docid":"Amsterdam_Ordnance_Datum","rank":72,"score":76917},{"content":"Title: Seaquist Peak Content: Seaquist Peak is a peak , 800 m , surmounting the northwest end of the Meyer Hills in the Heritage Range . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos from 1961-66 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Larry R. Seaquist , a United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) meteorologist at Ellsworth Station in 1961 . Category : Mountains of Ellsworth Land","qid":"129","docid":"Seaquist_Peak","rank":73,"score":76843},{"content":"Title: Evolution on Gardiner Content: Evolution on Gardiner is a high-rise residential building and the tallest structure in Darwin , Northern Territory . It is located on the eastern part of the Darwin CBD on Knuckey Street . The roof of the tower is 100 metres above ground , reaching Darwin 's maximum height limit of 120 meters above sea level . The project was designed by architectural firm Burling Brown Architects and was built by Darwin-based Sunbuild . When first proposed in 2004 , the project faced opposition from the Department of Defence , who control the airspace over the city . Defence objected to the height of the tower which would be more than twice the height of any other building in Darwin at the time , calling for it to be reduced to 28 stories . Sunbuild successfully lobbied the department to have the height restriction raised in order to ensure the project 's viability and secure construction . The building will contain five commercial suites on the ground floor , 104 apartments , and two penthouse units . Construction began on Evolution in July 2006 and was completed in July 2008 . The building contains 1500 m ² of floor area . Evolution will comprise three high-speed lifts .","qid":"129","docid":"Evolution_on_Gardiner","rank":74,"score":76758},{"content":"Title: 3 Feet High and Rising Content: 3 Feet High and Rising is the debut studio album by American hip hop trio De La Soul . It was released on March 14 , 1989 , by Tommy Boy Records and Warner Bros. . Records . It marked the first of three full-length collaborations with producer Prince Paul , which would become the critical and commercial peak of both parties . It is consistently placed on ` greatest albums ' lists by noted music critics and publications . Robert Christgau called the record `` unlike any rap album you or anybody else has ever heard . '' In 1998 , the album was selected as one of The Source Magazine 's 100 Best Rap Albums . Critically , as well as commercially , the album was a success . It contains the singles , `` Me Myself and I '' , `` The Magic Number '' , `` Buddy '' , and `` Eye Know '' . In 2001 , the album was re-issued along with an extra disc of B-side tracks , and alternative versions . The album title came from the Johnny Cash song `` Five Feet High and Rising '' . It was selected by the Library of Congress as a 2010 addition to the National Recording Registry , which selects recordings annually that are culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant .","qid":"129","docid":"3_Feet_High_and_Rising","rank":75,"score":76736},{"content":"Title: Besh Barmag Mountain Content: Besh Barmag ( Beş Barmaq ) literally translated as Five Finger Mountain , is in Siazan District of Azerbaijan , not far from the Caspian Sea . It rises to 382 m above the sea level overlooking the Baku-Quba Highway . The mountain is a solid rock and is one of the most famous mountains in the Caucasus , known for its mythical stories . It is a sacred place for regular visitation by pilgrims . Tide marks on the mount attest to meltwater inundation from the northern glacial ice caps and date back to the end of the last ice age . The tidelines confirm the theory of a Holocene outflow of meltwater from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea , rather than a direct incursion of sea water into the Black Sea as a result of global sea level rise . Estimates of the increase in Caspian Sea level height are between + 20 and 30 meters .","qid":"129","docid":"Besh_Barmag_Mountain","rank":76,"score":76444},{"content":"Title: Mosbytoppane Content: Mosbytoppane ( earlier Mosbytoppen , sometimes anglicized as Mosby Peak ) , are two crags to the southwest of the caldera of the island of Bouvetøya . The tallest is a snow-covered peak 670 m above mean sea level and 1.3 km northeast of Norvegiaodden . It was charted by the First Norvegia Expedition in 1927 -- 28 , under Captain Harald Horntvedt . It is named for Hakon Mosby , an oceanographer and meteorologist who was one of two scientists on the expedition .","qid":"129","docid":"Mosbytoppane","rank":77,"score":76321},{"content":"Title: Salish Sea human foot discoveries Content: Since August 20 , 2007 , several detached human feet have been discovered on the coasts of the Salish Sea in British Columbia , Canada , and Washington , USA . The feet belonged to five men , one woman and three other people of unknown sex . Of the 16 feet found , only two have been left feet ; both of those were matched with right feet . As of February 2012 , only five feet of four people have been identified ; it is not known to whom the rest of the feet belong . In addition , several hoax feet have been planted in the area .","qid":"129","docid":"Salish_Sea_human_foot_discoveries","rank":78,"score":76281},{"content":"Title: EverestMax Content: EverestMax was the first expedition to successfully travel from the lowest point on land , the Dead Sea , to the highest point , Mount Everest , by unpowered means . The 6 person cycling expedition , led by Dominic Faulkner , an ex UK SAS soldier , set out on 21 December 2005 and two members of the team achieved the summit of Everest 5 months later on 21 May 2006 . The expedition cycled 5000 miles passing through the countries of Jordan , Syria , Turkey , Iran , Pakistan , India , Nepal and Tibet , before ascending Everest on foot from the Northern side .","qid":"129","docid":"EverestMax","rank":79,"score":76250},{"content":"Title: Lord Howe Rise Content: The Lord Howe Rise is a deep sea plateau which extends from south west of New Caledonia to the Challenger Plateau , west of New Zealand in the south west of the Pacific Ocean . To its west is the Tasman Basin and to the east is the New Caledonia Basin . Lord Howe Rise has a total area of about 1,500,000 square km , and generally lies about 750 to 1,200 metres under water . It is part of Zealandia , a much larger continent that is now mostly submerged , and so is composed of continental crust .","qid":"129","docid":"Lord_Howe_Rise","rank":80,"score":76095},{"content":"Title: Dagger Peak Content: Dagger Peak is a rock peak rising steeply from sea level to about 90 m at the west end of Comb Ridge , located near the extremity of The Naze on James Ross Island , close south of Trinity Peninsula . This area was first explored in 1902 by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Otto Nordenskiöld . The peak was charted and given this descriptive name by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1945 .","qid":"129","docid":"Dagger_Peak","rank":81,"score":76050},{"content":"Title: 210th Battalion (Frontiersmen), CEF Content: The 210th ( Frontiersmen ) Battalion , CEF was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War . Based in Moose Jaw , Saskatchewan , the unit was raised by the local Legion of Frontiersmen in early 1916 in that city and surrounding district . After sailing to England in April 1917 , the battalion was absorbed into the 19th Reserve Battalion on April 22 , 1917 . The 210th ( Frontiersmen ) Battalion , CEF had one Commanding Officer : Lieut-Col . W. E. Seaborn . The Battalion was awarded the Battle Honour `` Honour of the Great War '' .","qid":"129","docid":"210th_Battalion_(Frontiersmen),_CEF","rank":82,"score":75923},{"content":"Title: Tryvannstårnet Content: Tryvannstårnet is an 118-metre ( 387 feet ) tall broadcasting tower near Oslo , located 529 metres ( 1,736 feet ) above mean sea level on the summit of Tryvannshøyden hill overlooking lake Tryvann . Tryvannstårnet was built in 1962 and has an observation deck at a height of 60 metres ( 197 feet ) , from which , weather conditions permitting , the view extends to the border with Sweden and Gaustatoppen mountain . The observation deck was closed in 2005 because of new fire safety regulations which would have required expensive modifications which coincided with rapidly declining visitor numbers . In the 1980s and 1990s annual visitor numbers averaged 100,000 , but in the last year it was open to the public , only 25,000 . There is a large underground shelter beneath Tryvannstårnet .","qid":"129","docid":"Tryvannstårnet","rank":83,"score":75889},{"content":"Title: Don Walsh Content: Don Walsh ( born November 2 , 1931 ) is an American oceanographer , explorer and marine policy specialist . He and Jacques Piccard were aboard the bathyscaphe Trieste when it made a record maximum descent into the Mariana Trench on January 23 , 1960 , the deepest point of the world 's oceans . The depth was measured at 35813 ft , but later and more accurate measurements have measured it at 35,798 feet ( 10,911 m ) .","qid":"129","docid":"Don_Walsh","rank":84,"score":75842},{"content":"Title: Henry Ice Rise Content: Henry Ice Rise is a triangular-shaped ice rise about 70 mi long located between Korff Ice Rise and the southern portion of Berkner Island in the Ronne Ice Shelf , Antarctica . It was first visited by the United States International Geophysical Year geophysical traverse party from Ellsworth Station , 1957 -- 58 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Captain Clifford D. Henry of the Military Sealift Command , a veteran American polar sea captain and master of . Henry died aboard his ship , February 16 , 1975 , while returning from his fourteenth voyage to Antarctica in support of the U.S. Antarctic Research Program .","qid":"129","docid":"Henry_Ice_Rise","rank":85,"score":75753},{"content":"Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .","qid":"129","docid":"Last_Glacial_Maximum","rank":86,"score":75679},{"content":"Title: Rosemary Bank Content: Rosemary Bank is a seamount approximately 120 kilometres west of Scotland , located in the Rockall Trough , in the northeast Atlantic . It was discovered in 1930 by the survey vessel HMS Rosemary , from which it takes its name . The feature originated about 70 million years ago , as a result of volcanic activity . Rosemary Bank rises to approximately 2000 metres , its highest point being 300 metres below sea-level . The sea bed immediately surrounding it is approximately 2300 metres below sea-level . Around its base lies a thin `` moat '' , where the sea-bottom is at a lower depth than the surrounding terrain . Category : Seamounts of the Atlantic Ocean","qid":"129","docid":"Rosemary_Bank","rank":87,"score":75669},{"content":"Title: Sullivan Heights Content: Sullivan Heights is a compact group of mountains in western Antarctica rising to 2760 m in Mount Levack centered 11.5 nmi east-northeast of Mount Tyree in the Sentinel Range , Ellsworth Mountains . Roughly elliptical in plan and 11 nmi long , the feature includes sharp mountain peaks , rugged ridges , and steep peripheral scarps . The heights are encompassed by the flow of the Crosswell , Ellen , and Dater Glaciers , with their interior drained also by Pulpudeva and Strinava Glaciers . Separated from Vinson Massif to the south-southwest by Vranya Pass . The feature was named in 1997 by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after Cornelius Wayne Sullivan ( b. 1943 ) , American oceanographer ; United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) field team leader for Sea Ice Microbial Communities ( SIMCO ) studies in McMurdo Sound , 1980 -- 86 , 1988 , 1989 ; chief scientist and cruise coordinator for AMERIEZ ( Antarctic Marine Ecosystem Research at the Ice Edge Zone ) projects in Weddell Sea , Nov -- Dec 1983 , Feb -- Apr 1986 , June -- July 1988 ; Professor of Biological Science , Hancock Institute of Marine Studies , Director , 1991 -- 93 ; Director , Office of Polar Programs , National Science Foundation , 1993 -- 97 .","qid":"129","docid":"Sullivan_Heights","rank":88,"score":75549},{"content":"Title: SeaGate Convention Centre Content: SeaGate Convention Centre is a performing arts and convention center located in downtown Toledo , Ohio . Opened on March 27 , 1987 , the Centre 's exhibit hall measures 74,520 square feet ( 207 feet by 360 feet ) of space and seats up to 5,100 for a banquet , 9,000 for a meeting , and 4,000 in a classroom configuration . It can be divided into three smaller halls , and , when used for concerts with a 60 foot by 40 foot stage , can seat 2,000 ( in one of the smaller halls ) , 3,000 ( in two of the smaller halls ) or 5,900 ( in the entire hall ) for concerts , stage shows , and other shows , this so that there are no bad seats in the house . Many of those seats used for concerts are in telescopic risers ; there are 18 telescopic units at the arena , set up in sections of six ; as a result there are six sections of riser seating and a total of 3,216 in the risers ( 536 per section ) . SeaGate Convention Centre also features 17552 sqft of meeting space . The facility was host for the following notable events : Gathering of the Juggalos 2001 ( July 13 -- 15 , 2001 ) Mid-American Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament ( 1996-1999 , annually ) Toledo Ice ( ABA ) ( partial 2005-2006 season ) Glass City Rollers ( WFTDA ) ( current tenant ) Jehovah 's Witnesses ; Also was annually used for Jehovah 's witnesses conventions from 2005-2012","qid":"129","docid":"SeaGate_Convention_Centre","rank":89,"score":75547},{"content":"Title: List of Ultras of the Caribbean Content: The following sortable table comprises the seven ultra-prominent summits on the islands of the Caribbean Sea . Each of these peaks has at least 1500 m of topographic prominence . Five of these peaks rise on the island of Hispaniola and one each on Jamaica and Cuba . Topographic elevation is the vertical distance above the reference geoid , a mathematical model of the Earth 's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface . The topographic prominence of a summit is the elevation difference between that summit and the highest or key col to a higher summit . The topographic isolation of a summit is the minimum great-circle distance to a point of equal elevation . This article defines a significant summit as a summit with at least 100 m of topographic prominence , and a major summit as a summit with at least 500 m of topographic prominence . An ultra-prominent summit is a summit with at least 1500 m of topographic prominence . If an elevation or prominence is calculated as a range of values , the arithmetic mean is shown .","qid":"129","docid":"List_of_Ultras_of_the_Caribbean","rank":90,"score":75328},{"content":"Title: Mariana Trench Content: The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench is the deepest part of the world 's oceans . It is located in the western Pacific Ocean , an average of 200 km to the east of the Mariana Islands , in the Western Pacific East of Philippines . It is a crescent-shaped scar in the Earth 's crust , and measures about 2550 km long and 69 km wide on average . It reaches a maximum-known depth of 10994 m ( ± 40 m ) at a small slot-shaped valley in its floor known as the Challenger Deep , at its southern end , although some unrepeated measurements place the deepest portion at 11034 m . If Mount Everest were dropped into the trench at this point , its peak would still be over 1 mile underwater . At the bottom of the trench the water column above exerts a pressure of 1086 bar , more than 1,000 times the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level . At this pressure , the density of water is increased by 4.96 % , so that 95 litres of water under the pressure of the Challenger Deep would contain the same mass as 100 litres at the surface . The temperature at the bottom is 1 to . The trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the center of the Earth . This is because the Earth is not a perfect sphere ; its radius is about 25 km less at the poles than at the equator . As a result , parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13 km closer to the Earth 's center than the Challenger Deep seafloor . Xenophyophores have been found in the trench by Scripps Institution of Oceanography researchers at a record depth of 10.6 km below the sea surface . On 17 March 2013 , researchers reported data that suggested microbial life forms thrive within the trench .","qid":"129","docid":"Mariana_Trench","rank":91,"score":75262},{"content":"Title: Lange Anna Content: Lange Anna ( `` Tall Anna '' ) , is a 47 m high sea stack of Buntsandstein in the North Sea island of Helgoland , Germany . Its real local name is Nathurn Stak ( Northern Stack ) . Climbing the stack is not allowed but tourists can look at the rock from a distance . Lange Anna is somewhat similar to the Old Man of Hoy . In 1969 it was declared a natural monument . The stack is subject to severe weathering wear and decomposition . It was decided that any further effort for its conservation could do nothing but slowing down the process , so the Lange Anna today is consigned to its fate . Experts assume an acute danger of collapse of the top two thirds because of an instable layer of sands 16 metres above sea level , which already is the thinnest part of Lange Anna .","qid":"129","docid":"Lange_Anna","rank":92,"score":75232},{"content":"Title: 2100 Ra-Shalom Content: 2100 Ra-Shalom , provisional designation , is an eccentric , carbonaceous asteroid , classified as Aten asteroid and near-Earth object , about 2.7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Eleanor Helin at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 10 September 1978 . It was the second Aten asteroid to be discovered after 2062 Aten , the family 's namesake , also discovered by Helin in 1976 . The group of Aten asteroids feature a semi-major axis of less than 1 AU . Of this group , `` Ra-Shalom '' has one of the smallest semi-major axes , just 0.832 AU . It comes within 30 gigameter ( Gm ) of Mars , Earth , Venus , and Mercury . The closest approaches are to Mercury , to about 0.0784 AU ( 11.7 Gm ) . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.5 -- 1.2 AU once every 0 years and 9 months ( 277 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.44 and an inclination of 16 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It has a C-type and Xc-type spectrum on the Tholen and SMASS taxonomic scheme , respectively , and an Earth Minimum Orbit Intersection Distance ( MOID ) of nearly 0.15 AU , which is far too large to make it a potentially hazardous object . Over the last two decades , a large number of photometric light-curve observations have determined a concurring , well-defined rotation period of 19.8 hours , while the body 's albedo varies from 0.08 to 0.16 and its diameter lies in the range of 1.98 to 2.79 kilometers ( also see infobox ) . Among these differing results , the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) considers an albedo of 0.082 with a diameter of 2.78 kilometers as the most reliable result . In 1981 , the asteroid was detected using radar , revealing a relatively smooth surface at decimeter scales . The minor planet 's composed named was chosen by the discoverer to commemorate the Camp David Peace Accords between Egypt and Israel in September 1978 , and as a symbol for the universal hope for peace . Ra is the Egyptian Sun-god , who symbolizes enlightenment and life , while Shalom is the traditional Hebrew greeting meaning peace . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .","qid":"129","docid":"2100_Ra-Shalom","rank":93,"score":75194},{"content":"Title: Chatham Rise Content: The Chatham Rise is an area of ocean floor to the east of New Zealand , forming part of the Zealandia continent . It stretches for some 1000 km from near the South Island in the west , to the Chatham Islands in the east . It is New Zealand 's most productive and important fishing ground , as well as important habitat for whales . Relative to the rest of the Pacific Ocean waters around New Zealand , the Chatham Rise is relatively shallow , no more than 1000 m deep at any point . This shallowness is made more remarkable by the depth of the ocean immediately to the north and south . To the northeast , the Hikurangi Trench , an extension of the much deeper Kermadec Trench , drops to below 3000 m close to the New Zealand coast , and further from the coast the Rise borders on the Hikurangi Plateau . To the south , similar depths are achieved in the Bounty Trough . Past the eastern end of the rise , the sea floor drops away to the abyssal plain .","qid":"129","docid":"Chatham_Rise","rank":94,"score":75189},{"content":"Title: Eight-thousander Content: The eight-thousanders are the 14 independent mountains on Earth that are more than 8000 m high above sea level . All eight-thousanders are located in the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges in Asia . Their summits are in the death zone . The first recorded attempt on an eight-thousander was when Albert F. Mummery and J. Norman Collie tried to climb Pakistan 's Nanga Parbat in 1895 . The attempt was unsuccessful when Mummery and two Gurkhas , Ragobir and Goman Singh , were killed by an avalanche . The first recorded successful ascent of an eight-thousander was by the French Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal , who reached the summit of Annapurna on June 3 , 1950 . The first person to climb all 14 eight-thousanders was the Italian Reinhold Messner , who completed this feat on 16 October 1986 . In 1987 , Polish climber Jerzy Kukuczka became the second person to accomplish this feat . Kukuczka is also the man who established the most ( 9 ) new routes on the main eight-thousanders . Messner summitted each of the 14 peaks without the aid of supplemental oxygen . This feat was not repeated until nine years later by the Swiss Erhard Loretan in 1995 . Phurba Tashi of Nepal has completed the most climbs of the eight-thousanders , with 30 ascents between 1998 and 2011 . Juanito Oiarzabal has completed the second most , with a total of 25 ascents between 1985 and 2011 . The alpinists with the highest number of winter ascents are Jerzy Kukuczka and the Italian Simone Moro , both with four peaks ( K2 has never been summited in the winter ) . The first woman who summited all 14 eight-thousanders with no disputed climbing was the Spanish Edurne Pasaban , in 2010 . In August 2011 , Austrian climber Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner became the first woman to climb the 14 eight-thousanders without the use of supplementary oxygen . The first couple who summited all 14 eight-thousanders were the Italians Nives Meroi , and her husband Romano Benet in 2017 . They climbed without the use of supplementary oxygen . The countries with the highest number of climbers that have climbed all 14 eight-thousanders is Italy with seven climbers , followed by South Korea and Spain with five climbers . Kazakhstan and Poland have three climbers each that completed the `` Crown of the Himalaya '' .","qid":"129","docid":"Eight-thousander","rank":95,"score":75068},{"content":"Title: North Sea flood of 1953 Content: The 1953 North Sea flood ( Watersnoodramp , literally `` water emergency disaster '' ) was a major flood caused by a heavy storm that occurred on the night of Saturday , 31 January 1953 and morning of Sunday , 1 February 1953 . The floods struck the Netherlands , Belgium , England and Scotland . A combination of a high spring tide and a severe European windstorm over the North Sea caused a storm tide ; the combination of wind , high tide , and low pressure led to a water level of more than 5.6 m above mean sea level in some locations . The flood and waves overwhelmed sea defences and caused extensive flooding . The Netherlands , a country with 20 % of its territory below mean sea level and 50 % less than 1 m above sea level and which relies heavily on sea defences , was worst affected , recording 1,836 deaths and widespread property damage . Most of the casualties occurred in the southern province of Zeeland . In England , 307 people were killed in the counties of Lincolnshire , Norfolk , Suffolk and Essex . Nineteen were killed in Scotland . Twenty-eight people were killed in West Flanders , Belgium . In addition , more than 230 deaths occurred on water craft along Northern European coasts as well as on ships in deeper waters of the North Sea . The ferry MV Princess Victoria was lost at sea in the North Channel east of Belfast with 133 fatalities , and many fishing trawlers sank . Realising that such infrequent events could recur , the Netherlands particularly , and the United Kingdom carried out major studies on strengthening of coastal defences . The Netherlands developed the Delta Works , an extensive system of dams and storm surge barriers . The UK constructed storm surge barriers on the River Thames below London and on the River Hull where it meets the Humber estuary .","qid":"129","docid":"North_Sea_flood_of_1953","rank":96,"score":75057},{"content":"Title: Forty Foot Content: The Forty Foot is a promontory on the southern tip of Dublin Bay at Sandycove , County Dublin , Ireland , from which people have been swimming in the Irish Sea all year round for some 250 years .","qid":"129","docid":"Forty_Foot","rank":97,"score":75017},{"content":"Title: List of deaths on eight-thousanders Content: The eight-thousanders are the 14 mountains that rise more than 8000 m above sea level ; they are all in the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges . This is a list of mountaineers who have died on these mountains .","qid":"129","docid":"List_of_deaths_on_eight-thousanders","rank":98,"score":74585},{"content":"Title: Shaigiri Content: Shaigiri is a mountain in Pakistan 's western Himalayas . The peak rises precipitously from the south end of the Rupal Valley , soaring 5584 m above sea level and some 6500 ft above the valley floor . To its east stands Rupal Peak , to its west , the iceflows of Rupal Glacier . Despite its impressive height and unique pyramid shape , Shaigiri is greatly overshadowed by its giant neighbor to the north , 8,126-metre Nanga Parbat . Though the peak itself is seldom climbed , its northern base camp ( 11,989 ft/3 ,655 m ) is a summer destination for travelers , mountaineers and local herdsmen . The peak is highly visible from most of the Rupal Valley . From Shaigiri 's base one can see Nanga Parbat 's Rupal Face and the eastern end of the Mazeno Wall . Shaigiri is accessible via the Astore Valley , which opens to the great Indus River south of Gilgit . Most treks to Shaigiri , the Mazeno Pass and Nanga Parbat 's Rupal Face are staged from the remote village of Tarashing , which is reached by jeep from Astore . Astore can be reached by bus or jeep from Gilgit , a major town on the Karakorum Highway .","qid":"129","docid":"Shaigiri","rank":99,"score":74536},{"content":"Title: Botev Peak Content: Botev Peak ( Връх Ботев , Vrah Botev ) is , at 2376 m above sea level , the highest peak of the Balkan Mountains . It is located close to the geographic centre of Bulgaria , and is part of the Central Balkan National Park . Until 1950 , when it was renamed in honour of Bulgarian poet and revolutionary Hristo Botev , the peak was called Yumrukchal ( Юмрукчал , from Ottoman Turkish Yumrukçal , ' a fist-like peak ' ) . A weather station and a radio tower ( opened on 10 July 1966 ) that covers 65 % of the country are located on Botev Peak . The average temperature is -8.9 ° C in January and 7.9 ° C in July . `` Botev Peak '' is the main facility of Bulgarian FM and TV broadcasting network . The situation at the top near the geographical center of Bulgaria contribute to national radio broadcasts and television broadcast here to cover more than 65 % throughout the country , also in parts of Romania and Turkey .","qid":"129","docid":"Botev_Peak","rank":100,"score":74434}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 142957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 140882\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 108939\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Draupner wave Content: The Draupner wave or New Year 's wave was the first rogue wave to be detected by a measuring instrument , occurring at the Draupner platform in the North Sea off the coast of Norway on 1 January 1995 . In an area with significant wave height of approximately 12 m , a freak wave with a maximum wave height of 25.6 m occurred ( peak elevation above still water level was 18.5 m ) . Prior to that measurement , no instrument-recorded evidence for rogue waves existed -- just anecdotal evidence provided by those who had encountered them at sea , although ships such as the British Ocean Weather Reporter had recorded very large waves that did not differ quite enough from their neighbors to be considered rogue . Minor damage was inflicted on the platform during this event , confirming the validity of the reading made by a downwards-pointing laser sensor .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Draupner_wave\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 100648\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Equilibrium_level\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 98090\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 96272\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 95861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Seamount\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 95385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Tuvalu\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 94780\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Tuvalu\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 94730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extreme points of Antarctica Content: The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Extreme_points_of_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 92239\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thiel Trough Content: Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Thiel_Trough\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 90469\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Annual cycle of sea level height Content: The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Annual_cycle_of_sea_level_height\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 90194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Badwater Ultramarathon Content: The Badwater Ultramarathon describes itself as `` the world 's toughest foot race '' . It is a 135 mi course starting at 279 ft below sea level in the Badwater Basin , in California 's Death Valley , and ending at an elevation of 8360 feet ( 2548 m ) at Whitney Portal , the trailhead to Mount Whitney . It takes place annually in mid-July , when the weather conditions are most extreme and temperatures can reach 130 F. Consequently , very few people -- even among ultramarathoners -- are capable of finishing this grueling race .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Badwater_Ultramarathon\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 89330\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth_2100\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 89321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 88440\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Maximum parcel level Content: The maximum parcel level ( MPL ) is the highest level in the atmosphere that a moist convectively rising air parcel will reach after ascending from the level of free convection ( LFC ) through the free convective layer ( FCL ) and reaching the equilibrium level ( EL ) , near the tropopause . As the parcel rises through the FCL it expands adiabatically causing its temperature to drop , often below the temperature of its surroundings , and eventually lose buoyancy . Because of this , the EL is approximately the region where the distinct flat tops ( called anvils ) often observed on cumulonimbus clouds form . If the air parcel ascended quickly enough then it retains momentum after it has cooled and continues rising past the EL , ceasing at the MPL ( visually represented by the overshooting top , above the anvil ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Maximum_parcel_level\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 87400\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 87112\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1872 Baltic Sea flood Content: The 1872 Baltic Sea flood ( Ostseesturmhochwasser 1872 ) , often referred to as a storm flood , ravaged the Baltic Sea coast from Denmark to Pomerania in the night of 12/13 November 1872 and was , until then , the worst storm surge in the Baltic . The highest recorded peak water level was about 3.3 m above sea level ( NN ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"1872_Baltic_Sea_flood\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 85860\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 85486\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice rise Content: An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_rise\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 85311\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flight level Content: In aviation and aviation meteorology , a flight level ( FL ) is defined as a vertical altitude at standard pressure , nominally expressed in hundreds of feet . The pressure is computed assuming an International standard sea-level pressure datum of 1013.2 hPa ( 29.92 inHg ) , and therefore is not necessarily the same as the aircraft 's actual altitude either above mean sea level or above ground level .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Flight_level\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 85021\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Meltwater_pulse_1A\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 85009\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of high altitude on humans Content: The effects of high altitude on humans are considerable . The percentage oxygen saturation of hemoglobin determines the content of oxygen in blood . After the human body reaches around 2,100 m ( 7,000 feet ) above sea level , the saturation of oxyhemoglobin begins to plummet . However , the human body has both short-term and long-term adaptations to altitude that allow it to partially compensate for the lack of oxygen . Athletes use these adaptations to help their performance . There is a limit to the level of adaptation ; mountaineers refer to the altitudes above 8000 m as the `` death zone '' , where it is generally believed that no human body can acclimatize .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_high_altitude_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 84105\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: South Summit (Mount Everest) Content: The South Summit of Mount Everest is the second-highest peak on Earth , and is a subsidiary peak to the primary peak of Mount Everest . Although its elevation above sea level of 8749 m is higher than the second-highest mountain on Earth , K2 ( whose summit is 8611 m above sea level ) , it is only considered a separate peak and not a separate mountain as its prominence is only 11 meters . The peak is a dome-shaped peak of snow and ice , and is connected to the summit of Mount Everest by the Cornice Traverse and Hillary Step . It was first climbed by Charles Evans and Tom Bourdillon on the 1953 British Mount Everest expedition , on May 26 , 1953 . They were unable to continue on to the primary summit , but Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay , the next pair to make a summit bid , traversed the South Summit to reach the main peak . The distance separating the two summits is approximately 130 m. A geologist with a 1965 Indian Everest expedition discovered a deposit of fossils of seashells in limestone about 100 feet above the South Summit . This expedition put nine climbers on the main summit . Describing his first ascent of Mount Everest without supplemental oxygen in 1978 , Reinhold Messner described the South Summit as `` quite a milestone for me '' . During the 1996 Mount Everest disaster , mountain guide Rob Hall and three other people died at the South Summit while descending from the main summit in an unexpected blizzard . Hall survived overnight , and established radio contact the following day , but froze to death later that day , May 11 , 1996 . His body remains on the South Summit . In 2012 Dr. Eberhard Schaaf died on descent at the south summit from altitude sickness .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"South_Summit_(Mount_Everest)\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 83217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: J. Val Klump Content: Jeffrey Val Klump ( born December 17 , 1948 ) is an American limnologist . He was the first person to reach the deepest spot in Lake Superior , a depth of 1333 feet ( 733 feet below sea level ) , the second lowest point in the United States after Iliamna Lake , on July 30 , 1985 while aboard the R/V Seward Johnson with the Johnson Sea Link-II submersible . Klump was also the first person to reach to the deepest point in Lake Michigan as part of the same expedition . He is currently a professor in the School of Freshwater Sciences at the University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee in Milwaukee , Wisconsin and director of the Great Lakes WATER Institute .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"J._Val_Klump\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 83209\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Josh_Willis\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 82829\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ieodo Ocean Research Station Content: Ieodo Ocean Research Station is an ocean platform constructed by South Korea and placed on the submerged Socotra Rock in the East China Sea . The stated purpose of the platform is the collection of meteorological data , provision for maritime safety , and fisheries monitoring . However , as South Korea and China both claim that Socotra Rock lies in their respective Exclusive Economic Zones , the platform does have strategic implications . The platform was officially opened in June 2003 . The platform has a helipad a couple of lower decks for equipment and workspace . Although the station has residential facilities that can comfortably accommodate 8 people for 15 days , the station is typically uninhabited and operated remotely . While Socotra Rock rises to a maximum of 4.6 m below sea level , the platform is founded on a portion of the rock that is substantially deeper at 40m below sea level . As a result , the platform is approximately 700m from the rock 's `` peak . '' The platform rises approximately 36m from sea level .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Ieodo_Ocean_Research_Station\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 82786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes Content: The fifteen volcanoes that make up the eight principal islands of Hawaii are the youngest in a chain of more than 129 volcanoes that stretch 5800 km across the North Pacific Ocean , called the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain . Hawaii 's volcanoes rise an average of 4572 m to reach sea level from their base . The largest and most famous , Mauna Loa , has built itself up to a height of 4169 m . As shield volcanoes , they are built by accumulated lava flows , growing no more than 3 m at a time to form a broad and gently sloping shape . Hawaiian volcanoes all follow a specific pattern of eruption , building , and erosion . Hawaiian islands undergo a systematic pattern of submarine and subaerial growth that is followed by erosion . An island 's stage of development reflects its distance from the Hawaii hotspot .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Evolution_of_Hawaiian_volcanoes\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 82590\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Sea_is_Rising\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 82115\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seabee Heights Content: Seabee Heights is a rugged snow-covered heights rising to 3400 m in the Queen Maud Mountains . The heights are about 15 nmi long and 5 nmi wide and are bounded by the flow of the DeGanahl , LaVergne and Liv Glaciers . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for the U.S. Navy Construction Battalions ( Seabees ) which have played a significant role in the building of U.S. Antarctic stations .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Seabee_Heights\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 81761\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: High-altitude football controversy Content: The high-altitude football controversy arose in May 2007 when FIFA introduced a temporary ban on international matches at more than 2500 m above sea level , citing concerns about players ' health and the `` unfair '' advantage to acclimatised home teams . The ruling meant that Bolivia , Ecuador and Colombia would be prevented from hosting FIFA World Cup qualifiers in their own capital cities . The ban was revoked in May 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"High-altitude_football_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 81612\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seahpo Peak Content: Seahpo Peak is a subsidiary peak of Mount Shuksan , which rises in the U.S. state of Washington . It is located about 2 mi east of the main peak of Shuksan and rises to about 7441 ft. It is located in North Cascades National Park and is part of the North Cascades range . Connected to the main peak by the roughly 7000 ft-high Jagged Ridge , Seahpo Peak stands to the north at the headwaters of a headstream of Sulphide Creek , a tributary of the Baker River . Several waterfalls tumble off its flanks , including Seahpo Peak Falls and Cloudcap Falls . ( Seahpo Peak is sometimes referred to as Cloudcap Peak . ) The mountain is also on the south side of the Nooksack Cirque , which forms the headwaters of the Nooksack River . It is bordered by the East Nooksack Glacier to the north and a few smaller unnamed glaciers to the south . It is also connected to Icy Peak by another unnamed ridge . The mountain derives its name from a French word , chapeau , meaning `` hat '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Seahpo_Peak\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 81604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Altitude diving Content: Altitude diving is underwater diving using scuba or surface supplied diving equipment where the surface is 300 meters ( 1,000 feet ) or more above sea level ( for example , a mountain lake ) . The U.S. Navy tables recommend that no alteration be made for dives at altitudes lower than 91 meters ( 300 feet ) and dives between 91 meters and 300 meters correction is required for dives over 44 meters sea water ( 145 feet sea water ) . Altitude is significant in diving because the depths and decompression used for dives at altitude are different from those used for the same dive profile at sea level .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Altitude_diving\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 81514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Trölladyngja Content: Situated in the Ódáðahraun lava field , Trölladyngja is the biggest of the Icelandic shield volcanoes , reaching a height of 1468 m above sea level , and rising almost 600 metres above the surrounding desert and lava fields . It is about 10 kilometres in diameter and its inclination is 4 to 5 ° in the lower slopes , but 6 to 8 ° at higher elevations . Its oblong crater is about 1,200 to 1,500 metres in length , 500 metres broad , and about 100 metres deep . Most of its lava fields have flowed in a northerly direction , with one branch of it reaching the valley of Bárðardalur , a distance of roughly 100 km .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Trölladyngja\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 81321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thirteener Content: In mountaineering in the United States , a thirteener is a mountain that exceeds 13000 ft above mean sea level , similar to the more familiar `` fourteeners , '' which exceed 14000 ft. In most instances , `` thirteeners '' refers only to those peaks between 13,000 and 13,999 feet in elevation . The importance of thirteeners is greatest in Colorado , which has the majority of such peaks in North America with over 600 of them . Despite the large number of peaks , over 20 peak baggers have reported climbing all of Colorado 's thirteeners . Thirteeners are also significant in states whose highpoints fall between 13,000 and 13,999 feet . Regarding whether or not peaks in excess of 13,999 feet should be considered as `` thirteeners '' , this article will count them as such for statistical purposes , but concentrate its focus on those peaks less than 14,000 feet since the higher peaks are already covered in the fourteeners list . Not all summits over 13,000 feet qualify as thirteeners , but only those summits that mountaineers consider to be independent . Objective standards for independence include topographic prominence and isolation ( distance from a higher summit ) , or a combination . However thirteener lists do not always consistently use such objective rules . A rule commonly used by mountaineers in the contiguous United States is that a peak must have at least 300 ft of prominence to qualify . According to the Mountaineering Club of Alaska , it is standard in Alaska to use a 500 ft prominence rule rather than a 300-foot rule . These are the standards applied for the lists below .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Thirteener\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 81286\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hailwood's Height Content: Hailwood 's Height , preceded by Hailwood 's Rise , is situated between the 31st and 32nd Milestone road-side markers on the Snaefell Mountain Course used for the Isle of Man TT Races on the A18 Snaefell Mountain Road in the parishes of Lezayre and Lonan in the Isle of Man . The uphill section of the Mountain Course from the Bungalow to the highest point of the course at Ordnance Survey spot height 422 m above sea level near Brandywell was named Hailwood 's Rise in memory of Mike Hailwood , the former world motorcycle champion who died in 1981 . The highest point of the course adjacent to the Brandywell/B10 road junction is named Hailwood 's Height . Hailwood 's Height and Hailwood 's Rise were part of the Highland Course and the Four Inch Course used for the Gordon Bennett Trial and Tourist Trophy automobile car races held in the Isle of Man between 1904 and 1922 . Hailwood 's Height is now part of the Snaefell Mountain Course used since 1911 for the Isle of Man TT and from 1923 for the Manx Grand Prix Races .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Hailwood's_Height\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 80905\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Australian Height Datum Content: The Australian Height Datum is a geodetic datum for altitude measurement in Australia . According to Geoscience Australia , `` In 1971 the mean sea level for 1966-1968 was assigned the value of 0.000 m on the Australian Height Datum at thirty tide gauges around the coast of the Australian continent . The resulting datum surface , with minor modifications in two metropolitan areas , has been termed the Australian Height Datum ( AHD ) and was adopted by the National Mapping Council as the datum to which all vertical control for mapping ( and other surveying functions ) is to be referred . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Australian_Height_Datum\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 80843\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Apharwat Peak Content: Apharwat Peak is a summit , situated at a height of 4390 m above the sea level , in Gulmarg . It receives heavy snowfall and remains covered with snow for much of the year . The Line of Control ( LOC ) is barely a few kilometres away from here . Lying in the second phase of the cable car ride from Gulmarg , reaching this spot is highly dependent on the weather conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Apharwat_Peak\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 80759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Sea_So_Far\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 80548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Windy Hill (Pennines) Content: Windy Hill in the South Pennines within the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale in Greater Manchester , England , rises to 389 metres above sea level . The hill is located west of the A672 road and south west of Junction 22 on the M62 motorway . Windy Hill cutting is up to 120 feet deep and the longest on the M62 . A pedestrian footbridge , 320 feet long and 65 feet above the carriageways , carries the Pennine Way above Windy Hill cutting . Its parabolic arch and splayed legs are designed to withstand wind speeds up to 120 mph . Snow lies on Windy Hill for an average of 35 days annually and the area is prone to fog or low cloud . The boundary stone between Greater Manchester and West Yorkshire is in the cutting . The Longden End Brook rises between the hill and the motorway and the Piethorne Brook drains to reservoirs to the southwest . A radio transmitter is located to the east .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Windy_Hill_(Pennines)\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 80466\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2100 Ross Avenue Content: 2100 Ross Avenue ( formerly San Jacinto Tower ) is a 33-story postmodern skyscraper located at 2100 Ross Avenue/2121 San Jacinto Street in the City Center District of downtown Dallas , Texas , in the United States . The structure stands at a height of 456 feet ( 139 m ) and contains 844,000 square feet ( 78,000 m ² ) of office space . The top floor of San Jacinto Tower was the fictional location of the Oil Barons Club - an exclusive restaurant and lounge on the TV series Dallas . Exterior shots zooming onto the top floor were used .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"2100_Ross_Avenue\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 80420\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ferg Hawke Content: Fergus ( ` Ferg ' ) Hawke ( born November 16 , 1957 , New Westminster , British Columbia , Canada ) is a leading international ultra-distance runner , residing in South Surrey , British Columbia , Canada . Badwater Ultramarathon He has placed second in the Badwater Ultramarathon twice ( 2004 , 2005 ) , to Dean Karnazes ( 2004 : 27:30:20 ; finished second by 8 minutes ) and Scott Jurek ( 2005 : 26:33:00 ; finished second by 1:57 ) . His 2005 time is the ninth best time ever in the history of the race . The Badwater Ultramarathon is a 135-mile ( 217 km ) ultramarathon through Death Valley in mid-July , starting at Badwater Basin , the second-lowest point in the Western Hemisphere , 282 feet below sea level , and finishing 8300 feet up Mount Whitney . With a cumulative vertical ascent of 13,000 ft ( 4000 m ) and a cumulative descent of 4,700 ft ( 1400 m ) , and temperatures reaching 130 degrees Fahrenheit ( 54 degrees Celsius ) , it is considered by some people to be the most difficult footrace in the world . Other ultramarathons He holds the second-best time by a North American in the Marathon des Sables , a staged 150-mile ultramarathon race through the Sahara Desert , in Morocco : 2002 , with a time of 22:51:03 ( the record is held by Eric Deshaies of Ottawa , Canada : 2007 ) . Other notable race results include : Chuckanut Mountain 50 km , Bellingham , Washington , USA : first-place finisher overall ( 1995 ) , second ( 1998 ) , third ( 1996 and 1999 ) . Elk Beaver 50 mile Canadian Championships , Vancouver Island , B.C. : first-place finisher overall ( 1996 ) . Rose City 50 mile Ultramarathon , Portland , Oregon , USA : first-place finisher overall ( 1995 ) . Eagle Run 100 mile , Apex Mountain , British Columbia : first-place finisher overall ( 1995 ) . This race was the first official 100 mile distance ultramarathon ever held in Canada . Triathalons and ultramans His introduction to endurance events came with triathlons . He served on the Canadian National Triathlon team in 1991 , representing Canada at the World Triathlon Championships in Surfers Paradise , Australia that same year . He has competed in several ultra-triathlons , including the Ultraman World Championships in Hawaii . The Ultraman is a three-day endurance triathlon consisting of a 6.2 mile swim and a 90-mile cycle on day 1 , a 171.4 mile cycle on day 2 , and a 52.4 mile double marathon on the final day . The course circumnavigates the Big Island of Hawaii and is considered to be one of the most challenging triathlons in the world . At the 1999 Ultraman World Championships he finished third overall , with a combined time of 23:41:16 . The Distance of Truth He is the subject of a documentary film , `` The Distance of Truth '' ( directed by Robert Letson under the name of ` Meno ' ) , available at www.thedistanceoftruth.com , and has been featured in numerous television , radio , and print articles .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Ferg_Hawke\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 80306\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Walleralm Content: The Walleralm is an alp with a mountain inn ( Berggasthaus ) that lies at a height of 1170 m above sea level at the foot of the Zettenkaiserkopf , a fore peak of the Zettenkaiser in the Austrian state of Tyrol . The alp is easily and quickly reached by mountain bike or on foot from Lake Hinterstein near Scheffau am Wilden Kaiser along a forest track . The alp has a panoramic view of the Kitzbüheler Horn mountain above the Hohe Salve and across to the Inn valley , in the distance the glaciers of the High Tauern are visible .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Walleralm\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 80272\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Metres above sea level Content: Redirected here : feet above sea level ; AMSL means `` above mean sea level '' , and may be used for heights specified in any units . Metres above mean sea level ( MAMSL ) or simply metres above sea level ( MASL or m a.s.l. ) is a standard metric measurement in metres of the elevation or altitude of a location in reference to a historic mean sea level . Mean sea levels are affected by climate change and other factors and change over time . For this and other reasons , recorded measurements of elevation above sea level might differ from the actual elevation of a given location over sea level at a given moment .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Metres_above_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 80254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: South Tasman Rise Content: The South Tasman Rise is an area of seafloor that lies 550 km south of Hobart , Tasmania in the Southern Ocean where water depths are about 1,500 metres . The South Tasman Rise is also known as the Tasmania Ridge or South Tasmania Ridge .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"South_Tasman_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 80213\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Tide_gauge\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 79959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Sea_Has_Risen\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 79957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Past_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 79699\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dvořák Ice Rise Content: Dvořák Ice Rise is an ice rise 1.5 nmi in extent , rising above the ice of Mendelssohn Inlet in the southwest part of Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was first mapped , from air photos taken by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition , 1947 -- 48 , by D. Searle of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1960 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Antonín Dvořák , the Czech composer . ( 1841-1904 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Dvořák_Ice_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 79174\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ishpatina Ridge Content: Ishpatina Ridge is the highest point of land in the Canadian province of Ontario , at an estimated 693 m above sea level . Ishpatina Ridge rises approximately 300 m above the immediate area . It was only truly recognized as Ontario 's highest point after federal government topographical mapping revealed this fact in the 1970s . Before then , the more popular Maple Mountain was thought to be higher . The ridge lies in Lady Evelyn-Smoothwater Provincial Park . Due to its remote location , Ishpatina Ridge is a challenge to reach . The closest major highway , Highway 560 , is more than 30 km north . There are a few logging roads and trails in the remote area , but they are difficult to travel in poor weather . The most popular approach route to Ishpatina is by canoe/portage via a logging road to the south out of the town of Capreol north of Sudbury . While a northern route exists ( out of Gowganda , the nearest community ) , there are numerous portages making it particularly onerous . This route has traditionally been used for a winter-time approach by ski/snowshoe . Historically , a fire tower atop the ridge was staffed by forest workers and they would have been ferried to the site by float plane . The name `` Ishpatina '' comes from an Ojibwe language word ishpadinaa , meaning `` high place/ridge '' . The city of Ishpeming , Michigan , in Marquette County , and Spadina Avenue in Toronto , Ontario derive their names from the same word . Although the Ishpatina Ridge is the highest point in Ontario , at least one other geographic feature , Maple Mountain ( approximately 25 km to the east ) has greater prominence , 37 m higher than Ishpatina Ridge 's rise over Scarecrow Lake . An abandoned firetower , often referred to as the Ellis Tower , is still standing on the highest section of the Ridge ( left ) . The original tower was an 80 ft structure erected in 1930 . The successor , currently standing , is 100 ft high and was abandoned in the 1960s . The towerman would have resided in a cabin on the shore of Scarecrow Lake and would have hiked a 3.5 km trail daily taking approximately two hours to summit and a little over one hour to descend again . Located between Tower Peak and the North Peak , the Ishpatina Canyon is one of the deepest in Ontario . The elevation of Tower Peak is 2274 feet , the bottom of the Canyon is at 1750 feet and the North Peak at 2250 feet above sea level . The canyon is nearly twice as deep as Ouimet Canyon , often considered Ontario 's deepest . However , the more gradual descent into the canyon hides the fact . The ridge was featured on an interactive web series called The Peakbaggers .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Ishpatina_Ridge\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 79128\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 78860\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Astrolabe Needle Content: Astrolabe Needle is a conspicuous monolith rising 50 m above sea level south of Claude Point , Brabant Island , in the Palmer Archipelago . It was discovered by the French Antarctic Expedition under Jean-Baptiste Charcot , 1903 -- 05 , and named after the Astrolabe , one of the ships of the French expedition under Captain Jules Dumont d'Urville , 1837 -- 40 .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Astrolabe_Needle\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 78678\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hillary Step Content: The Hillary Step is , or possibly was , a nearly vertical rock face with a height of around 12 m located high on Mount Everest at approximately 8790 m above sea level . It is located on the southeast ridge , halfway between the `` South Summit '' and the true summit , and is the last real challenge before reaching the top of the mountain via the southeast route . The Step is named after Sir Edmund Hillary , who was the first known person , along with Tenzing Norgay , to scale it on the way to the summit . It was suspected in 2016 that the 2015 earthquake had altered the Hillary Step , but there was so much snow it was not clear whether it had truly changed . It was reported in May 2017 by climbers including professional high-altitude expedition leader and six-time Everest summiteer Tim Mosedale that `` the Hillary Step is no more '' , although the full extent and interpretation of the changes are still nascent . There are multiple pictures of before and after . Another climber who thought the Step changed by 2016 was six-time Everest summiter David Liaño Gonzalez , who summited in 2013 and 2016 , when the relevant changes are reported to have occurred . However , some important Nepalese climbers , including Ang Tshering Sherpa , chairman of the Nepal Mountaineering Association , have reported that the Step is still intact but covered in more snow than before . Peter Hillary , Edmund Hillary 's son , was asked his opinion about the Step based on photos . He agreed it was there in part , but seemed to think it had undergone some sort of a change , noting especially what looked like a fresh broken rock . The Step is known as the most technically difficult part of the typical Nepal-side Everest climb In some climbing seasons after heavy snowfall , the rock face could be bypassed with snow/ice climbing . Climbing the Hillary Step has the danger of a 10000 ft drop on the right ( when going up ) and an 8000 ft drop on the left . The Hillary Step is where the late Anatoli Boukreev found a body hanging from ropes at the base of the step as relayed by his book The Climb . One expedition noted that climbing the Hillary Step was `` strenuous '' , but did offer some protection from the elements . An unaided Hillary Step climb was rated as a Class 4 rock climb , but at almost 29,000 feet altitude . When Hillary and Tenzing first climbed the Hillary Step on 29 May 1953 , they climbed the crack between the snow and the rock . Hillary reported that the snow on the step was harder than at lower elevation . In later years ascent and descent over the Step has generally been made with the assistance of fixed ropes , usually placed there by the first ascending team of the season . With increasing numbers of people climbing the mountain , the Step frequently becomes a bottleneck , with climbers forced to wait significant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes , leading to problems in getting climbers efficiently up and down the mountain . Only one climber at a time can traverse it . In a good climbing situation it is about a two-hour climb from the South Summit to the Hillary Step , one to two hours to climb the cliff , and then another 20 minutes from the top of the Hillary Step to the summit of Mount Everest . Before 2015 , the descending sequence along Everest 's southeast ridge was : Summit of Everest Final slope to summit Hillary Step 40 ft / 12 m rock cliff Cornice traverse ( knife-edge ridge ) South Summit of Everest The Balcony ( 27,500 feet / 8380 m ) < / ref\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Hillary_Step\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 78372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Protector Shoal Content: Protector Shoal is a submarine volcano , also called seamount , which rises gently from an ocean depth of 3900 ft to about 55 m below sea level approximately 31 mi NW of Zavodovski Island in the South Sandwich Islands chain . The last eruption occurred during March 1962 . Protector Shoal is the only volcano in the arc that has erupted rhyolite pumice .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Protector_Shoal\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 78361\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sonny Bono Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Sonny Bono Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuge is located 40 mi north of the Mexican border at the southern end of the Salton Sea in California 's Imperial Valley . Situated along the Pacific Flyway , the Refuge is the only one of its kind , located 227 ft below sea level . Because of its southern latitude , elevation and location in the Colorado Desert , the Refuge experiences some of the highest temperatures in the nation . Daily temperatures from May to October generally exceed 100 ° F with temperatures of 116 ° -- 120 ° F recorded yearly .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Sonny_Bono_Salton_Sea_National_Wildlife_Refuge\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 78301\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of summits of the San Francisco Bay Area Content: This is a list of named summits in the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area that are more than 1000 ft above sea level . Note that there are no natural features above 1000 ft in the city of San Francisco . Unless otherwise referenced , all data are from the Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS ) . GNIS elevations are imprecise .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_summits_of_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 78107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Level_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 78094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Queen Mary's Peak Content: Queen Mary 's Peak is the summit of the island of Tristan da Cunha , in the South Atlantic Ocean . It has an elevation of 2,062 metres ( 6,765 ft ) above sea level . It is named after Mary of Teck , the Queen consort of King George V . It is the highest point of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena , Ascension and Tristan da Cunha . The mountain is the peak of the massive shield volcano which forms the island . A 300 m wide summit crater caps the peak , and it contains a heart-shaped crater lake . This lake is normally frozen during the winter , and the upper slopes of the volcano are covered in snow . The only recorded eruption began on 10 October 1961 from a vent on the north shore of the island , and continued into March 1962 . The entire population of the island had to be evacuated and did not return until 1963 . Queen Mary 's Peak was used by sailors on the route from Europe to the Indian Ocean and beyond as a navigational aid . In the 17th century the East India Company instructed captains to sail via Tristan . In 2004 , Ellen MacArthur sighted the Peak on her record-breaking circumnavigation of the world .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Queen_Mary's_Peak\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 78056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Irminger Sea Content: The Irminger Sea is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is 480 km long and 290 km wide at its narrowest . The northern limit is the Greenland-Iceland Rise on the bottom of the Denmark Strait between Iceland and East Greenland , which connects to the Greenland Sea . To the southwest , it reaches to Cape Farvel , the southern tip of Greenland , and meets the Labrador Sea at this point . South of this point is the open North Atlantic Ocean . The sea floor of the Irminger Sea is largely part of the Irminger Basin , a northeastern continuation of the maximally 4600 m deep Labrador Basin , which on the east is bordered by the Reykjanes Ridge . This delineation is oceanographic only and does not represent any official borders . The Irminger Sea is one of the main fishing areas of the Rose fish . The Irminger Sea was named after Danish vice-admiral Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger ( 1802 -- 1888 ) , after whom also the Irminger Current was named .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Irminger_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 78027\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 210 Trade Content: 210 Trade was a 601 ft tall , residential-use skyscraper originally under construction in Charlotte , North Carolina . It was to be part of the EpiCentre entertainment complex that was completed in 2008 . Once completed , 210 Trade would have had 53 floors . The EpiCentre Entertainment Complex has a movie theater , restaurants , bars , shops , four floors of parking , five floors of offices and retail topped by 210 Trade with 44 residential floors . It will be connected to Uptown 's Overstreet Mall and Bank of America Plaza via skywalk over South College Street . It would have been the tallest residential building in Charlotte and the Carolinas , and it was originally going to have the second highest floor count after the Bank of America Corporate Center . The site was next to the Time Warner Cable Arena , on the site once occupied by the Old Charlotte Convention Center . As of 2016 , the project has changed from a condo to a dual Hotel ( AC/Hotel and Residence Inn ) topping out at 325 feet .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"210_Trade\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 77790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2102 Tantalus Content: 2102 Tantalus ( 1975 YA ) is an Apollo asteroid discovered on December 27 , 1975 , by C. Kowal at Palomar Observatory . It is a Q-type asteroid . 2102 Tantalus is a potentially hazardous asteroid ( PHA ) because its minimum orbit intersection distance ( MOID ) is less than 0.05 AU and its diameter is greater than 150 meters . The Earth-MOID is 0.0439 AU . Its orbit is well-determined for the next several hundred years . It will pass 0.04439 AU from Earth on 2038-Dec-27 , which is just slightly closer than the 1975-Dec-26 approach of 0.046 AU . The asteroid is about 2 -- 4 km in diameter .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"2102_Tantalus\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 77643\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Slavkovský štít Content: Slavkovský štít is the fourth highest mountain peak in the High Tatra mountains in Slovakia . Its summit is 2452 metres above sea level . It can be reached by foot on a walking trail in about four and a half hours from Starý Smokovec . The first recorded ascent was by Juraj Buchholtz in 1664 .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Slavkovský_štít\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 77621\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Rising_from_the_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 77538\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1995 K2 disaster Content: The 1995 K2 disaster was a mountaineering disaster on K2 in Pakistan , the world 's second tallest mountain . Six are reported to have died on August 13 , 1995 on K2 , largely related to bad weather especially reported high winds . Scott Fischer of Mountain Madness was climbing Broad Peak at the time , and suggested that a contributing factor was combination of brutal cold and 100-mph-plus winds . An American team had gained a permit to climb 8611 m K2 in the summer of 1995 . K2 is regarded as a significantly more difficult and dangerous climb than Mount Everest . By August 13 , 1995 , the remnants of the US team and Alison Hargreaves had joined forces with a New Zealand and Canadian team at Camp 4 , around 7600 m above sea level , and at least 12 hours from the summit . Later that day , having joined with a Spanish team of mountaineers above Camp 4 , New Zealander Peter Hillary , son of Everest pioneer Sir Edmund Hillary , decided to turn back , noting that the weather that had been fine for the previous four days appeared to be changing . At 6:45 pm , in fine conditions , Alison Hargreaves and Spaniard Javier Olivar reached the summit , followed by American Rob Slater , Spaniards Javier Escartín and Lorenzo Ortíz , and New Zealander Bruce Grant . All six died in a violent storm while returning from the summit . Canadian Jeff Lakes , who had turned back below the summit earlier , managed to reach one of the lower camps but died from the effects of exposure . The next day , two Spanish climbers , Pepe Garces and Lorenzo Ortas ( not Lorenzo Ortíz , who was killed in the storm ) , who had survived the storm at Camp 4 , were descending the mountain suffering from frostbite and exhaustion . Before reaching Camp 3 they found a bloodstained anorak , a climbing boot , and a harness . They recognized the equipment as belonging to Hargreaves . From Camp 3 they could also see a body in the distance . They did not approach the body , so it was not positively identified , but they had little doubt it was Hargreaves ' and concluded she had been blown off the mountain during the storm . Fatalities reported for August 13 , 1995 : Alison Hargreaves Javier Olivar Rob Slater Javier Escartín Lorenzo Ortíz Bruce Grant Also , Jeff Lakes reached a lower camp but died from exposure on August 15 , 1995 . Lorenzo Ortas and Pepe Garces survived but had to be airlifted out , enduring 6 days without a tent . Another fatality this season was earlier in the summer , in July Jordi Anglès is reported to have died from a fall at K2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"1995_K2_disaster\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 77529\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rogers Pass (Montana) Content: Rogers Pass rises 5610 ft above sea level and is located on the Continental Divide in the U.S. state of Montana . The pass is adjacent to Helena National Forest and is traversed by Montana Highway 200 . Wide shoulders provide parking for those wishing to hike the Continental Divide Trail . Bicyclists should note that the wide shoulders are limited to the very top and will not be found elsewhere on 200 . The pass is the best route between the cities of Great Falls and Missoula , Montana -- more than 800 ft lower than Lewis and Clark Pass , 5.3 mi to the northwest , which was used by Meriwether Lewis of the eponymous expedition on July 7 , 1806 . Rogers Pass is known for being the location of the coldest recorded temperature in the United States outside of Alaska . On January 20 , 1954 , a temperature of -70 degrees Fahrenheit was recorded . Rogers Pass is more than 100 mi south of Marias Pass , and there are no other roads that cross the Continental Divide between these two passes . The region between the two passes is mostly wilderness , and the majority of it has been set aside and protected from future development . The Great Bear , Scapegoat and Bob Marshall Wildernesses have been consolidated into the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex and permanently protect 1535352 acre . The region is noted for its inaccessibility and as one of the last strongholds for the grizzly bear in the lower 48 states . The Scapegoat Wilderness is a 10 mi hike north of Rogers Pass via the Continental Divide Trail .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Rogers_Pass_(Montana)\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 77426\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: João Valente (reef) Content: João Valente is a reef located nearly between the islands of Boa Vista ( 20 nmi , 35 km ) and Maio ( 25 mmi , 45 km ) . The reef 's lowest point is about 100 meters above sea level . The seamount is about 1,000 meters tall . The highest point is 14 meters below sea level and dominates the area of about 1,000 to 2,000 km2 , probably and erosion affected the volcano ( Guyot ) . The reef is partly visible during low tide . During the Ice Age , it was a larger island that once included Boa Vista and Maio , it was in the middle part and had two isthmus connecting the former Boa Vista and the Southern peninsulas . Around 7,000 to 6,000 BC , the isthmus were flooded and separated Boa Vista and Maio to form its own islands . João Valente was a flat island until around 4,000 to 3,000 BC when a rise in sea level flooded the whole island and became a reef . In about 2000 to 1000 BC , the elevation was about ten meters below sea level . The reef was mentioned as `` Baixa '' ( Portuguese for lower as being underwater and a submerged rocky area ) in a 1598 map titled Insulae Capitis Viridis which is now at the National Library of France . In a map from 1747 by Jacques-Nicolas Bellin , the reef was mentioned as a submerged rock named Jean Letton ( Roche de Jean Letton , Middle Dutch : Rotz van Jean Letton , Portuguese : Rochas de João Leitão ) . On April 20 , 1806 , the English ship The Lady Burgess sank into the reef . The high biodiversity of fishes in the reef along with other seamounts discovered in 1981 , ichthyofauna has been studied . Also it is the area where other sealife including coral are founded and may be Cape Verde 's most abundant including the waters surrounding Boa Vista .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"João_Valente_(reef)\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 77142\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seagaia Ocean Dome Content: The , was one of the world 's largest indoor waterparks , located in Miyazaki , Miyazaki , Japan . The Polynesia-themed Ocean Dome , which was a part of the Sheraton Seagaia Resort , measured 300 metres in length and 100 metres in width , and was listed on the Guinness World Records . It opened in 1993 , and visitor numbers peaked in 1995 at 1.25 million a year . Depending on the season , entrance cost was ¥ 2600 ( $ 21.17 ) for an adult and ¥ 1600 ( $ 13.03 ) for a child . The Ocean Dome was officially closed on October 1 , 2007 as part of a renovation and partial re-branding of the resort . The roof of the structure was retractable in four sections . The Ocean Dome sported a simulated flame-spitting volcano , artificial sand and the world 's largest retractable roof , which provided a permanently blue sky even on a rainy day . The air temperature was always held at around 30 C and the water at around 28 C.\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Seagaia_Ocean_Dome\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 77089\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"East_Pacific_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 77059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Footpaths of Gibraltar Content: The footpaths of Gibraltar provide access to key areas of the Upper Rock Nature Reserve , a refuge for hundreds of species of flora and fauna which in some cases are found nowhere else in Europe . The reserve occupies the upper part of the Rock of Gibraltar , a long and narrow mountain that rises to a maximum height of 424 m above sea level , and constitutes around 40 per cent of Gibraltar 's total land area . The unusual geology of the Rock of Gibraltar -- a limestone peak adjoining a sandstone hinterland -- provides a habitat for plants and animals , such as the Gibraltar candytuft and Barbary partridge , which are found nowhere else in mainland Europe . For many years , the Upper Rock was reserved exclusively for military use ; it was fenced off for military purposes , but was decommissioned and converted into a nature reserve in 1993 . The footpaths link many of the fortifications of Gibraltar . They were constructed from the 18th century onwards using chisels , hammers and rods to dig through the solid rock , in order to permit cannon , soldiers and supplies to be moved from ground level to gun positions and observation points established in numerous places on the Upper Rock . Most of these supply routes were later widened to permit vehicular traffic . Many of the roads on the Upper Rock have steel rings embedded in the rock alongside the carriageway , which were used as safety brakes for heavy loads such as cannon being pulled up the slope . Some routes were retained as footpaths to enable troop movements to be concealed behind the surrounding shrubbery , and to provide alternative routes to key points if a road was congested with a heavy load . Several of the paths can be combined into a strenuous circuit of around 10 km that takes about four hours to complete , providing broad views of the Gibraltar peninsula , the Strait of Gibraltar , Spain and the coast of Morocco .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Footpaths_of_Gibraltar\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 77015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lomnický štít Content: Lomnický štít ( Lomnica Peak or Lomnický Peak ) is one of the highest and most visited mountain peaks in the High Tatras mountains of Slovakia . Connected by cable car to Tatranská Lomnica , its summit is 2634 metres above sea level , making it the second highest peak in the High Tatras after Gerlachovský štít ( 2654 m ) . The first ascent was made by local shoemaker and amateur miner Štefan Fábry around 1760-1790 , but the first recorded ascent was made by the English traveler Robert Townson and guide on 16 August 1793 . He measured almost precisely the elevation of the peak at 2633 m . The first winter ascent was made in 1891 . In the past , Lomnický štít was called Dedo ( `` Grandpa '' ) . Before the 19th century , the peak was also thought to be the highest of all . Since 1940 , tourists have reached the peak by cable car , which was the most modern in Europe at the time of opening . They are allowed to stay on the peak for 50 minutes . The cable car system is normally closed in the month of May for annual maintenance . It is also possible to climb the peak from Lomnický Saddle , but this is only permitted with a mountain guide . There is a solar observatory and weather station permanently manned year round at the terminus of the cable car .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Lomnický_štít\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 76957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amsterdam Ordnance Datum Content: Normaal Amsterdams Peil ( NAP ) or Amsterdam Ordnance Datum is a vertical datum in use in large parts of Western Europe . Originally created for use in the Netherlands , its height was used by Prussia in 1879 for defining Normalnull , and in 1955 by other European countries . In the 1990s , it was used as the reference level for the United European leveling Network ( UELN ) which in turn led to the European Vertical Reference System ( EVRS ) . Mayor Johannes Hudde of Amsterdam in a way came up with the idea after he expanded the sea-dike after a flood in Amsterdam in 1675 . Of course a dike should be storm-resistant to protect a city against flooding , and in this case a margin of `` 9 feet and 5 inches '' ( 2.67 m - margin is defined in Amsterdam feet ) was deemed enough to cope with rising water . So he measured the water level of the adjacent sea arm , -LSB- IJ ( Amsterdam ) , Het IJ -RSB- and compared it with the water level in the canals within the city itself . He found that the water level at an average summer flood in the sea arm ( when the water level reaches its maximum , not counting storms ) was about the same as the level on the other side of the sea-dike , plus the margin of 9 feet and 5 inches . The relatively constant water level in the canals of Amsterdam , called Amsterdams Peil ( `` Amsterdam level '' , AP ) , equalled the level at summer flood at sea in the sea-inlet , which changes throughout the year . AP was carried over to other areas in the Netherlands in 1860 , to replace locally used levels . In this operation , an error was introduced which was corrected ( normalised ) between 1885 and 1894 , resulting in the Normaal Amsterdams Peil . Originally the zero level of NAP was the average summer flood water level in the IJ just north of the centre of Amsterdam ( which was at the time , in 1684 , the main shipping area , then still connected with the open sea ) . Currently it is physically realised by a brass benchmark on a 22-meter pile below the Dam square in Amsterdam . The brass benchmark in the Amsterdam Stopera ( combined city hall and opera house ) , which is a popular tourist attraction , is no longer used as a reference point .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Amsterdam_Ordnance_Datum\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 76917\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seaquist Peak Content: Seaquist Peak is a peak , 800 m , surmounting the northwest end of the Meyer Hills in the Heritage Range . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos from 1961-66 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Larry R. Seaquist , a United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) meteorologist at Ellsworth Station in 1961 . Category : Mountains of Ellsworth Land\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Seaquist_Peak\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 76843\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evolution on Gardiner Content: Evolution on Gardiner is a high-rise residential building and the tallest structure in Darwin , Northern Territory . It is located on the eastern part of the Darwin CBD on Knuckey Street . The roof of the tower is 100 metres above ground , reaching Darwin 's maximum height limit of 120 meters above sea level . The project was designed by architectural firm Burling Brown Architects and was built by Darwin-based Sunbuild . When first proposed in 2004 , the project faced opposition from the Department of Defence , who control the airspace over the city . Defence objected to the height of the tower which would be more than twice the height of any other building in Darwin at the time , calling for it to be reduced to 28 stories . Sunbuild successfully lobbied the department to have the height restriction raised in order to ensure the project 's viability and secure construction . The building will contain five commercial suites on the ground floor , 104 apartments , and two penthouse units . Construction began on Evolution in July 2006 and was completed in July 2008 . The building contains 1500 m ² of floor area . Evolution will comprise three high-speed lifts .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Evolution_on_Gardiner\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 76758\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 3 Feet High and Rising Content: 3 Feet High and Rising is the debut studio album by American hip hop trio De La Soul . It was released on March 14 , 1989 , by Tommy Boy Records and Warner Bros. . Records . It marked the first of three full-length collaborations with producer Prince Paul , which would become the critical and commercial peak of both parties . It is consistently placed on ` greatest albums ' lists by noted music critics and publications . Robert Christgau called the record `` unlike any rap album you or anybody else has ever heard . '' In 1998 , the album was selected as one of The Source Magazine 's 100 Best Rap Albums . Critically , as well as commercially , the album was a success . It contains the singles , `` Me Myself and I '' , `` The Magic Number '' , `` Buddy '' , and `` Eye Know '' . In 2001 , the album was re-issued along with an extra disc of B-side tracks , and alternative versions . The album title came from the Johnny Cash song `` Five Feet High and Rising '' . It was selected by the Library of Congress as a 2010 addition to the National Recording Registry , which selects recordings annually that are culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"3_Feet_High_and_Rising\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 76736\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Besh Barmag Mountain Content: Besh Barmag ( Beş Barmaq ) literally translated as Five Finger Mountain , is in Siazan District of Azerbaijan , not far from the Caspian Sea . It rises to 382 m above the sea level overlooking the Baku-Quba Highway . The mountain is a solid rock and is one of the most famous mountains in the Caucasus , known for its mythical stories . It is a sacred place for regular visitation by pilgrims . Tide marks on the mount attest to meltwater inundation from the northern glacial ice caps and date back to the end of the last ice age . The tidelines confirm the theory of a Holocene outflow of meltwater from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea , rather than a direct incursion of sea water into the Black Sea as a result of global sea level rise . Estimates of the increase in Caspian Sea level height are between + 20 and 30 meters .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Besh_Barmag_Mountain\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 76444\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mosbytoppane Content: Mosbytoppane ( earlier Mosbytoppen , sometimes anglicized as Mosby Peak ) , are two crags to the southwest of the caldera of the island of Bouvetøya . The tallest is a snow-covered peak 670 m above mean sea level and 1.3 km northeast of Norvegiaodden . It was charted by the First Norvegia Expedition in 1927 -- 28 , under Captain Harald Horntvedt . It is named for Hakon Mosby , an oceanographer and meteorologist who was one of two scientists on the expedition .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Mosbytoppane\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 76321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Salish Sea human foot discoveries Content: Since August 20 , 2007 , several detached human feet have been discovered on the coasts of the Salish Sea in British Columbia , Canada , and Washington , USA . The feet belonged to five men , one woman and three other people of unknown sex . Of the 16 feet found , only two have been left feet ; both of those were matched with right feet . As of February 2012 , only five feet of four people have been identified ; it is not known to whom the rest of the feet belong . In addition , several hoax feet have been planted in the area .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Salish_Sea_human_foot_discoveries\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 76281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: EverestMax Content: EverestMax was the first expedition to successfully travel from the lowest point on land , the Dead Sea , to the highest point , Mount Everest , by unpowered means . The 6 person cycling expedition , led by Dominic Faulkner , an ex UK SAS soldier , set out on 21 December 2005 and two members of the team achieved the summit of Everest 5 months later on 21 May 2006 . The expedition cycled 5000 miles passing through the countries of Jordan , Syria , Turkey , Iran , Pakistan , India , Nepal and Tibet , before ascending Everest on foot from the Northern side .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"EverestMax\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 76250\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lord Howe Rise Content: The Lord Howe Rise is a deep sea plateau which extends from south west of New Caledonia to the Challenger Plateau , west of New Zealand in the south west of the Pacific Ocean . To its west is the Tasman Basin and to the east is the New Caledonia Basin . Lord Howe Rise has a total area of about 1,500,000 square km , and generally lies about 750 to 1,200 metres under water . It is part of Zealandia , a much larger continent that is now mostly submerged , and so is composed of continental crust .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Lord_Howe_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 76095\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dagger Peak Content: Dagger Peak is a rock peak rising steeply from sea level to about 90 m at the west end of Comb Ridge , located near the extremity of The Naze on James Ross Island , close south of Trinity Peninsula . This area was first explored in 1902 by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Otto Nordenskiöld . The peak was charted and given this descriptive name by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1945 .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Dagger_Peak\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 76050\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 210th Battalion (Frontiersmen), CEF Content: The 210th ( Frontiersmen ) Battalion , CEF was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War . Based in Moose Jaw , Saskatchewan , the unit was raised by the local Legion of Frontiersmen in early 1916 in that city and surrounding district . After sailing to England in April 1917 , the battalion was absorbed into the 19th Reserve Battalion on April 22 , 1917 . The 210th ( Frontiersmen ) Battalion , CEF had one Commanding Officer : Lieut-Col . W. E. Seaborn . The Battalion was awarded the Battle Honour `` Honour of the Great War '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"210th_Battalion_(Frontiersmen),_CEF\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 75923\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tryvannstårnet Content: Tryvannstårnet is an 118-metre ( 387 feet ) tall broadcasting tower near Oslo , located 529 metres ( 1,736 feet ) above mean sea level on the summit of Tryvannshøyden hill overlooking lake Tryvann . Tryvannstårnet was built in 1962 and has an observation deck at a height of 60 metres ( 197 feet ) , from which , weather conditions permitting , the view extends to the border with Sweden and Gaustatoppen mountain . The observation deck was closed in 2005 because of new fire safety regulations which would have required expensive modifications which coincided with rapidly declining visitor numbers . In the 1980s and 1990s annual visitor numbers averaged 100,000 , but in the last year it was open to the public , only 25,000 . There is a large underground shelter beneath Tryvannstårnet .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Tryvannstårnet\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 75889\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Don Walsh Content: Don Walsh ( born November 2 , 1931 ) is an American oceanographer , explorer and marine policy specialist . He and Jacques Piccard were aboard the bathyscaphe Trieste when it made a record maximum descent into the Mariana Trench on January 23 , 1960 , the deepest point of the world 's oceans . The depth was measured at 35813 ft , but later and more accurate measurements have measured it at 35,798 feet ( 10,911 m ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Don_Walsh\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 75842\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Henry Ice Rise Content: Henry Ice Rise is a triangular-shaped ice rise about 70 mi long located between Korff Ice Rise and the southern portion of Berkner Island in the Ronne Ice Shelf , Antarctica . It was first visited by the United States International Geophysical Year geophysical traverse party from Ellsworth Station , 1957 -- 58 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Captain Clifford D. Henry of the Military Sealift Command , a veteran American polar sea captain and master of . Henry died aboard his ship , February 16 , 1975 , while returning from his fourteenth voyage to Antarctica in support of the U.S. Antarctic Research Program .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Henry_Ice_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 75753\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Last_Glacial_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 75679\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rosemary Bank Content: Rosemary Bank is a seamount approximately 120 kilometres west of Scotland , located in the Rockall Trough , in the northeast Atlantic . It was discovered in 1930 by the survey vessel HMS Rosemary , from which it takes its name . The feature originated about 70 million years ago , as a result of volcanic activity . Rosemary Bank rises to approximately 2000 metres , its highest point being 300 metres below sea-level . The sea bed immediately surrounding it is approximately 2300 metres below sea-level . Around its base lies a thin `` moat '' , where the sea-bottom is at a lower depth than the surrounding terrain . Category : Seamounts of the Atlantic Ocean\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Rosemary_Bank\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 75669\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sullivan Heights Content: Sullivan Heights is a compact group of mountains in western Antarctica rising to 2760 m in Mount Levack centered 11.5 nmi east-northeast of Mount Tyree in the Sentinel Range , Ellsworth Mountains . Roughly elliptical in plan and 11 nmi long , the feature includes sharp mountain peaks , rugged ridges , and steep peripheral scarps . The heights are encompassed by the flow of the Crosswell , Ellen , and Dater Glaciers , with their interior drained also by Pulpudeva and Strinava Glaciers . Separated from Vinson Massif to the south-southwest by Vranya Pass . The feature was named in 1997 by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after Cornelius Wayne Sullivan ( b. 1943 ) , American oceanographer ; United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) field team leader for Sea Ice Microbial Communities ( SIMCO ) studies in McMurdo Sound , 1980 -- 86 , 1988 , 1989 ; chief scientist and cruise coordinator for AMERIEZ ( Antarctic Marine Ecosystem Research at the Ice Edge Zone ) projects in Weddell Sea , Nov -- Dec 1983 , Feb -- Apr 1986 , June -- July 1988 ; Professor of Biological Science , Hancock Institute of Marine Studies , Director , 1991 -- 93 ; Director , Office of Polar Programs , National Science Foundation , 1993 -- 97 .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Sullivan_Heights\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 75549\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SeaGate Convention Centre Content: SeaGate Convention Centre is a performing arts and convention center located in downtown Toledo , Ohio . Opened on March 27 , 1987 , the Centre 's exhibit hall measures 74,520 square feet ( 207 feet by 360 feet ) of space and seats up to 5,100 for a banquet , 9,000 for a meeting , and 4,000 in a classroom configuration . It can be divided into three smaller halls , and , when used for concerts with a 60 foot by 40 foot stage , can seat 2,000 ( in one of the smaller halls ) , 3,000 ( in two of the smaller halls ) or 5,900 ( in the entire hall ) for concerts , stage shows , and other shows , this so that there are no bad seats in the house . Many of those seats used for concerts are in telescopic risers ; there are 18 telescopic units at the arena , set up in sections of six ; as a result there are six sections of riser seating and a total of 3,216 in the risers ( 536 per section ) . SeaGate Convention Centre also features 17552 sqft of meeting space . The facility was host for the following notable events : Gathering of the Juggalos 2001 ( July 13 -- 15 , 2001 ) Mid-American Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament ( 1996-1999 , annually ) Toledo Ice ( ABA ) ( partial 2005-2006 season ) Glass City Rollers ( WFTDA ) ( current tenant ) Jehovah 's Witnesses ; Also was annually used for Jehovah 's witnesses conventions from 2005-2012\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"SeaGate_Convention_Centre\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 75547\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of Ultras of the Caribbean Content: The following sortable table comprises the seven ultra-prominent summits on the islands of the Caribbean Sea . Each of these peaks has at least 1500 m of topographic prominence . Five of these peaks rise on the island of Hispaniola and one each on Jamaica and Cuba . Topographic elevation is the vertical distance above the reference geoid , a mathematical model of the Earth 's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface . The topographic prominence of a summit is the elevation difference between that summit and the highest or key col to a higher summit . The topographic isolation of a summit is the minimum great-circle distance to a point of equal elevation . This article defines a significant summit as a summit with at least 100 m of topographic prominence , and a major summit as a summit with at least 500 m of topographic prominence . An ultra-prominent summit is a summit with at least 1500 m of topographic prominence . If an elevation or prominence is calculated as a range of values , the arithmetic mean is shown .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_Ultras_of_the_Caribbean\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 75328\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mariana Trench Content: The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench is the deepest part of the world 's oceans . It is located in the western Pacific Ocean , an average of 200 km to the east of the Mariana Islands , in the Western Pacific East of Philippines . It is a crescent-shaped scar in the Earth 's crust , and measures about 2550 km long and 69 km wide on average . It reaches a maximum-known depth of 10994 m ( ± 40 m ) at a small slot-shaped valley in its floor known as the Challenger Deep , at its southern end , although some unrepeated measurements place the deepest portion at 11034 m . If Mount Everest were dropped into the trench at this point , its peak would still be over 1 mile underwater . At the bottom of the trench the water column above exerts a pressure of 1086 bar , more than 1,000 times the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level . At this pressure , the density of water is increased by 4.96 % , so that 95 litres of water under the pressure of the Challenger Deep would contain the same mass as 100 litres at the surface . The temperature at the bottom is 1 to . The trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the center of the Earth . This is because the Earth is not a perfect sphere ; its radius is about 25 km less at the poles than at the equator . As a result , parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13 km closer to the Earth 's center than the Challenger Deep seafloor . Xenophyophores have been found in the trench by Scripps Institution of Oceanography researchers at a record depth of 10.6 km below the sea surface . On 17 March 2013 , researchers reported data that suggested microbial life forms thrive within the trench .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Mariana_Trench\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 75262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lange Anna Content: Lange Anna ( `` Tall Anna '' ) , is a 47 m high sea stack of Buntsandstein in the North Sea island of Helgoland , Germany . Its real local name is Nathurn Stak ( Northern Stack ) . Climbing the stack is not allowed but tourists can look at the rock from a distance . Lange Anna is somewhat similar to the Old Man of Hoy . In 1969 it was declared a natural monument . The stack is subject to severe weathering wear and decomposition . It was decided that any further effort for its conservation could do nothing but slowing down the process , so the Lange Anna today is consigned to its fate . Experts assume an acute danger of collapse of the top two thirds because of an instable layer of sands 16 metres above sea level , which already is the thinnest part of Lange Anna .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Lange_Anna\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 75232\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2100 Ra-Shalom Content: 2100 Ra-Shalom , provisional designation , is an eccentric , carbonaceous asteroid , classified as Aten asteroid and near-Earth object , about 2.7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Eleanor Helin at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 10 September 1978 . It was the second Aten asteroid to be discovered after 2062 Aten , the family 's namesake , also discovered by Helin in 1976 . The group of Aten asteroids feature a semi-major axis of less than 1 AU . Of this group , `` Ra-Shalom '' has one of the smallest semi-major axes , just 0.832 AU . It comes within 30 gigameter ( Gm ) of Mars , Earth , Venus , and Mercury . The closest approaches are to Mercury , to about 0.0784 AU ( 11.7 Gm ) . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.5 -- 1.2 AU once every 0 years and 9 months ( 277 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.44 and an inclination of 16 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It has a C-type and Xc-type spectrum on the Tholen and SMASS taxonomic scheme , respectively , and an Earth Minimum Orbit Intersection Distance ( MOID ) of nearly 0.15 AU , which is far too large to make it a potentially hazardous object . Over the last two decades , a large number of photometric light-curve observations have determined a concurring , well-defined rotation period of 19.8 hours , while the body 's albedo varies from 0.08 to 0.16 and its diameter lies in the range of 1.98 to 2.79 kilometers ( also see infobox ) . Among these differing results , the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) considers an albedo of 0.082 with a diameter of 2.78 kilometers as the most reliable result . In 1981 , the asteroid was detected using radar , revealing a relatively smooth surface at decimeter scales . The minor planet 's composed named was chosen by the discoverer to commemorate the Camp David Peace Accords between Egypt and Israel in September 1978 , and as a symbol for the universal hope for peace . Ra is the Egyptian Sun-god , who symbolizes enlightenment and life , while Shalom is the traditional Hebrew greeting meaning peace . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"2100_Ra-Shalom\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 75194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chatham Rise Content: The Chatham Rise is an area of ocean floor to the east of New Zealand , forming part of the Zealandia continent . It stretches for some 1000 km from near the South Island in the west , to the Chatham Islands in the east . It is New Zealand 's most productive and important fishing ground , as well as important habitat for whales . Relative to the rest of the Pacific Ocean waters around New Zealand , the Chatham Rise is relatively shallow , no more than 1000 m deep at any point . This shallowness is made more remarkable by the depth of the ocean immediately to the north and south . To the northeast , the Hikurangi Trench , an extension of the much deeper Kermadec Trench , drops to below 3000 m close to the New Zealand coast , and further from the coast the Rise borders on the Hikurangi Plateau . To the south , similar depths are achieved in the Bounty Trough . Past the eastern end of the rise , the sea floor drops away to the abyssal plain .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Chatham_Rise\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 75189\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eight-thousander Content: The eight-thousanders are the 14 independent mountains on Earth that are more than 8000 m high above sea level . All eight-thousanders are located in the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges in Asia . Their summits are in the death zone . The first recorded attempt on an eight-thousander was when Albert F. Mummery and J. Norman Collie tried to climb Pakistan 's Nanga Parbat in 1895 . The attempt was unsuccessful when Mummery and two Gurkhas , Ragobir and Goman Singh , were killed by an avalanche . The first recorded successful ascent of an eight-thousander was by the French Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal , who reached the summit of Annapurna on June 3 , 1950 . The first person to climb all 14 eight-thousanders was the Italian Reinhold Messner , who completed this feat on 16 October 1986 . In 1987 , Polish climber Jerzy Kukuczka became the second person to accomplish this feat . Kukuczka is also the man who established the most ( 9 ) new routes on the main eight-thousanders . Messner summitted each of the 14 peaks without the aid of supplemental oxygen . This feat was not repeated until nine years later by the Swiss Erhard Loretan in 1995 . Phurba Tashi of Nepal has completed the most climbs of the eight-thousanders , with 30 ascents between 1998 and 2011 . Juanito Oiarzabal has completed the second most , with a total of 25 ascents between 1985 and 2011 . The alpinists with the highest number of winter ascents are Jerzy Kukuczka and the Italian Simone Moro , both with four peaks ( K2 has never been summited in the winter ) . The first woman who summited all 14 eight-thousanders with no disputed climbing was the Spanish Edurne Pasaban , in 2010 . In August 2011 , Austrian climber Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner became the first woman to climb the 14 eight-thousanders without the use of supplementary oxygen . The first couple who summited all 14 eight-thousanders were the Italians Nives Meroi , and her husband Romano Benet in 2017 . They climbed without the use of supplementary oxygen . The countries with the highest number of climbers that have climbed all 14 eight-thousanders is Italy with seven climbers , followed by South Korea and Spain with five climbers . Kazakhstan and Poland have three climbers each that completed the `` Crown of the Himalaya '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Eight-thousander\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 75068\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Sea flood of 1953 Content: The 1953 North Sea flood ( Watersnoodramp , literally `` water emergency disaster '' ) was a major flood caused by a heavy storm that occurred on the night of Saturday , 31 January 1953 and morning of Sunday , 1 February 1953 . The floods struck the Netherlands , Belgium , England and Scotland . A combination of a high spring tide and a severe European windstorm over the North Sea caused a storm tide ; the combination of wind , high tide , and low pressure led to a water level of more than 5.6 m above mean sea level in some locations . The flood and waves overwhelmed sea defences and caused extensive flooding . The Netherlands , a country with 20 % of its territory below mean sea level and 50 % less than 1 m above sea level and which relies heavily on sea defences , was worst affected , recording 1,836 deaths and widespread property damage . Most of the casualties occurred in the southern province of Zeeland . In England , 307 people were killed in the counties of Lincolnshire , Norfolk , Suffolk and Essex . Nineteen were killed in Scotland . Twenty-eight people were killed in West Flanders , Belgium . In addition , more than 230 deaths occurred on water craft along Northern European coasts as well as on ships in deeper waters of the North Sea . The ferry MV Princess Victoria was lost at sea in the North Channel east of Belfast with 133 fatalities , and many fishing trawlers sank . Realising that such infrequent events could recur , the Netherlands particularly , and the United Kingdom carried out major studies on strengthening of coastal defences . The Netherlands developed the Delta Works , an extensive system of dams and storm surge barriers . The UK constructed storm surge barriers on the River Thames below London and on the River Hull where it meets the Humber estuary .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Sea_flood_of_1953\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 75057\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Forty Foot Content: The Forty Foot is a promontory on the southern tip of Dublin Bay at Sandycove , County Dublin , Ireland , from which people have been swimming in the Irish Sea all year round for some 250 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Forty_Foot\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 75017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of deaths on eight-thousanders Content: The eight-thousanders are the 14 mountains that rise more than 8000 m above sea level ; they are all in the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges . This is a list of mountaineers who have died on these mountains .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_deaths_on_eight-thousanders\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 74585\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shaigiri Content: Shaigiri is a mountain in Pakistan 's western Himalayas . The peak rises precipitously from the south end of the Rupal Valley , soaring 5584 m above sea level and some 6500 ft above the valley floor . To its east stands Rupal Peak , to its west , the iceflows of Rupal Glacier . Despite its impressive height and unique pyramid shape , Shaigiri is greatly overshadowed by its giant neighbor to the north , 8,126-metre Nanga Parbat . Though the peak itself is seldom climbed , its northern base camp ( 11,989 ft/3 ,655 m ) is a summer destination for travelers , mountaineers and local herdsmen . The peak is highly visible from most of the Rupal Valley . From Shaigiri 's base one can see Nanga Parbat 's Rupal Face and the eastern end of the Mazeno Wall . Shaigiri is accessible via the Astore Valley , which opens to the great Indus River south of Gilgit . Most treks to Shaigiri , the Mazeno Pass and Nanga Parbat 's Rupal Face are staged from the remote village of Tarashing , which is reached by jeep from Astore . Astore can be reached by bus or jeep from Gilgit , a major town on the Karakorum Highway .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Shaigiri\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 74536\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Botev Peak Content: Botev Peak ( Връх Ботев , Vrah Botev ) is , at 2376 m above sea level , the highest peak of the Balkan Mountains . It is located close to the geographic centre of Bulgaria , and is part of the Central Balkan National Park . Until 1950 , when it was renamed in honour of Bulgarian poet and revolutionary Hristo Botev , the peak was called Yumrukchal ( Юмрукчал , from Ottoman Turkish Yumrukçal , ' a fist-like peak ' ) . A weather station and a radio tower ( opened on 10 July 1966 ) that covers 65 % of the country are located on Botev Peak . The average temperature is -8.9 ° C in January and 7.9 ° C in July . `` Botev Peak '' is the main facility of Bulgarian FM and TV broadcasting network . The situation at the top near the geographical center of Bulgaria contribute to national radio broadcasts and television broadcast here to cover more than 65 % throughout the country , also in parts of Romania and Turkey .\",\n \"qid\": \"129\",\n \"docid\": \"Botev_Peak\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 74434\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":63,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Climate change is not making natural disasters worse"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .","qid":"132","docid":"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe","rank":1,"score":124924},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_in_Argentina","rank":2,"score":122303},{"content":"Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .","qid":"132","docid":"Loss_and_damage","rank":3,"score":121588},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"132","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":4,"score":119180},{"content":"Title: Natural disasters in India Content: Natural disasters in India , many of them related to the climate of India , cause massive losses of life and property . Droughts , flash floods , cyclones , avalanches , landslides brought on by torrential rains , and snowstorms pose the greatest threats . A natural disaster might be caused by earthquakes , flooding , volcanic eruption , landslides , hurricanes etc. . In order to be classified as a disaster it will have profound environmental effect and/or human loss and frequently incurs financial loss . Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms , which usually track from north to south ; they cause extensive property damage in North India and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions . Hail is also common in parts of India , causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat .","qid":"132","docid":"Natural_disasters_in_India","rank":5,"score":118710},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":6,"score":113680},{"content":"Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal","rank":7,"score":112312},{"content":"Title: Environmental emergency Content: Environmental emergencies are defined as `` sudden-onset disasters or accidents resulting from natural , technological or human-induced factors , or a combination of these , that causes or threatens to cause severe environmental damage as well as loss of human lives and property . '' ( UNEP/GC .22 / INF/5 , 13 November 2002 . ) Following a disaster or conflict , an environmental emergency can occur when people 's health and livelihoods are at risk due to the release of hazardous and noxious substances , or because of significant damage to the ecosystem . Examples include fires , oil spills , chemical accidents , toxic-waste dumping and groundwater pollution . The environmental risks can be acute and life-threatening . According to the International Disaster Database ( EM-DAT ) , between 2003 and 2013 , there were 380 industrial accidents reported , affecting 207 668 people and resulting in over US$ 22 million in losses . Climate change is having an unprecedented effect on the occurrence of natural disasters and the associated risk of environmental emergencies . With climate change already stretching the disaster relief system , future climate-related emergency events will generate increased and more costly demands for assistance .","qid":"132","docid":"Environmental_emergency","rank":8,"score":112083},{"content":"Title: VNREDSat 1A Content: VNREDSat-1 ( short for Vietnam Natural Resources , Environment and Disaster Monitoring Satellite ) is the first optical Earth Observing satellite of Vietnam ; its primary mission is to monitor and study the effects of climate change , predict and take measures to prevent natural disasters , and optimise the management of Vietnam 's natural resources .","qid":"132","docid":"VNREDSat_1A","rank":9,"score":105313},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"132","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":10,"score":103269},{"content":"Title: Natural disaster Content: A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth ; examples include floods , hurricanes , tornadoes , volcanic eruptions , earthquakes , tsunamis , and other geologic processes . A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage , and typically leaves some economic damage in its wake , the severity of which depends on the affected population 's resilience , or ability to recover and also on the infrastructure available . An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population . In a vulnerable area , however , such as Nepal during the 2015 earthquake , an earthquake can have disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage , requiring years to repair .","qid":"132","docid":"Natural_disaster","rank":11,"score":102205},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"132","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":12,"score":101893},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"132","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":13,"score":99984},{"content":"Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .","qid":"132","docid":"Nature_Climate_Change","rank":14,"score":99665},{"content":"Title: Nature Based Solutions Content: Nature-based solutions ( NbS ) generally refer to the sustainable management and use of nature for tackling societal challenges such as climate change , water security , food security , human health , and disaster risk management . For instance , the protection of mangroves in coastal areas can limit risks of coastal erosion associated to extreme weather conditions , while providing nurseries for fish production to feed local people and sequestering CO2 . Similarly greening roofs or walls can be used to cool down city areas during summer , to capture storm water , to abate pollution , and to increase human well-being while enhancing biodiversity and connecting the city with the wider ecosystem . With NbS , healthy , resilient and diverse ecosystems ( either ` natural ' , managed or newly created ) are viewed as providing solutions for the benefit of our societies and overall biodiversity , in the face of global change . The term NbS was put forward by practitioners in the late 2000s ( in particular the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and the World Bank ) and quickly thereafter by policymakers in Europe ( most notably the European Commission ) . While the term itself is still being framed , case studies from around the world exemplify its potential , as well as the added-value with respect to existing terms and concepts and in complementing traditional conservation approaches . As a consequence , NbS are on their way to being mainstreamed in national and international policies and programmes ( e.g. climate change policy , law , infrastructure investment and financing mechanisms ) .","qid":"132","docid":"Nature_Based_Solutions","rank":15,"score":99358},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change","rank":16,"score":99076},{"content":"Title: List of natural disasters by death toll Content: A natural disaster is a sudden event that causes widespread destruction , lots of collateral damage or loss of life , brought about by forces other than the acts of human beings . A natural disaster might be caused by earthquakes , flooding , volcanic eruption , landslide , hurricanes etc. . In order to be classified as a disaster , it will have profound environmental effect and/or human loss and frequently incurs financial loss .","qid":"132","docid":"List_of_natural_disasters_by_death_toll","rank":17,"score":98881},{"content":"Title: Aaranyak Content: Aaranyak is a leading wildlife NGO based in Guwahati . It is a Scientific , Industrial Research and frontline environmental organization of India . It works all over the eastern Himalayan region on nature conservation , natural resources management , climate change , disaster management and livelihood enhancement of marginalized communities through research , education and advocacy . The group says its mission is to foster conservation of biodiversity in Northeast India through research , environmental education , capacity building and advocacy for legal and policy reform to usher a new era of ecological security . Recently , UN framework convention on climate change announced Aaranyak in partnership with the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development ( ICIMOD ) as winner of its UN Lighthouse Activity Award 2014 for the successful implementation of the community-based flood early warning system in the Lakhimpur and Dhemaji Districts of Assam .","qid":"132","docid":"Aaranyak","rank":18,"score":98690},{"content":"Title: Environmental disaster Content: An environmental disaster is a disaster to the natural environment due to human activity , which distinguishes it from the concept of a natural disaster . It is also distinct from intentional acts of war such as nuclear bombings . In this case , the impact of humans ' alteration of the ecosystem has led to widespread and/or long-lasting consequences . It can include the deaths of animals ( including humans ) and plants , or severe disruption of human life , possibly requiring migration .","qid":"132","docid":"Environmental_disaster","rank":19,"score":98206},{"content":"Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .","qid":"132","docid":"Peter_A._Stott","rank":20,"score":98088},{"content":"Title: Meteorological disasters Content: Meteorological disasters are caused by extreme weather , e.g. rain , drought , snow , extreme heat or cold , ice , or wind . Violent , sudden and destructive change to the environment related to , produced by , or affecting the earth 's atmosphere , especially the weather-forming processes . Examples of weather disasters include blizzard , cyclones , droughts , hailstorms , heat waves , hurricanes , floods ( caused by rain ) , and tornadoes .","qid":"132","docid":"Meteorological_disasters","rank":21,"score":97259},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in Mongolia Content: There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to both human and biophysical wellness . These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors , but increasingly because of human actions . One of these issues is climate change , which will be responsible for an increase in desertification , natural disasters , and land degradation . Another is deforestation , which is expanding due to human recklessness , pests , disease , and fire . Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification , a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible land use . Additionally , more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction . And , especially in population centers , Mongolians deal with air and water pollution caused by human industrialization .","qid":"132","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_Mongolia","rank":22,"score":96747},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in Pakistan Content: Environmental issues in Pakistan include deforestation , air pollution , water pollution , noise pollution , climate change , pesticide misuse , soil erosion , natural disasters and desertification . These are serious environmental problems that Pakistan is facing , and they are getting worse as the country 's economy expands and the population grows . Unfortunately , not much is being done to tackle these issues , because the goals of economic growth and tackling terrorism within the country supersede the goals of environmental preservation . Although NGOs and government departments have taken initiatives to stop environmental degradation , Pakistans environmental issues still remain .","qid":"132","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_Pakistan","rank":23,"score":96398},{"content":"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_(general_concept)","rank":24,"score":96048},{"content":"Title: Music for Relief Content: ` Music for Relief ' was founded by the band Linkin Park in response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami . Since inception in 2005 MFR has responded to more than 25 natural disasters across four continents including Hurricane Katrina , China 's Wenchuan earthquake , a cholera outbreak in Zimbabwe , earthquakes in Haiti in 2010 and Japan in 2011 , and most recently the Nepal earthquakes in 2015 . Music for Relief has also planted over 1.3 million trees to help reduce climate change . Recognizing the consequences of global climate change , Music for Relief expanded its focus to environmental protection and restoration in 2007 . Through programs like Power the World , a collaboration with the United Nations Foundation aimed at providing sustainable energy solutions to vulnerable populations , Music for Relief is helping people , wildlife , and the environment . Rooted in the music community , Music for Relief leverages its unique position to reach artists and countless fans around the world to raise funds and awareness for humanitarian causes .","qid":"132","docid":"Music_for_Relief","rank":25,"score":95979},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"132","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":26,"score":95924},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"132","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":27,"score":95902},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":28,"score":95719},{"content":"Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_risk","rank":29,"score":95442},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .","qid":"132","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations","rank":30,"score":95091},{"content":"Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_and_gender","rank":31,"score":95061},{"content":"Title: Climate risk management Content: Climate Risk Management ( CRM ) is a term is used for a large and growing body of work , bridging the climate change adaptation , disaster management and development sectors , amongst many others .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_risk_management","rank":32,"score":94608},{"content":"Title: Natural hazard Content: A natural hazard is a natural phenomenon that might have a negative effect on people or the environment . Natural hazard events can be grouped into two broad categories . Geophysical hazards encompass geological and meteorological phenomena such as earthquakes , volcanic eruption , wildfire , cyclonic storms , flood , drought , and coastal erosion . Biological hazards can refer to a diverse array of disease and infestation . Many geophysical hazards are related ; for example , submarine earthquakes can cause tsunamis , and hurricanes can lead to coastal flooding and erosion . Floods and wildfires can result from a combination of geological , hydrological , and climatic factors . It is possible that some natural hazards are intertemporally correlated as well . An example of the division between a natural hazard and a natural disaster is that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was a disaster , whereas living on a fault line is a hazard . Some natural hazards can be provoked or affected by anthropogenic processes ( e.g. land-use change , drainage and construction ) .","qid":"132","docid":"Natural_hazard","rank":33,"score":94132},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"132","docid":"Global_warming","rank":34,"score":92899},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_York_City","rank":35,"score":92703},{"content":"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_Code_Red","rank":36,"score":92686},{"content":"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .","qid":"132","docid":"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years","rank":37,"score":92657},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"132","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":38,"score":92568},{"content":"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States","rank":39,"score":92269},{"content":"Title: Green building in Bangladesh Content: Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable nations in the world due to climate change . As the ninth most populous country and twelfth most densely populated countries in the world , its rising population and limited land space have put tremendous strains on the urban ecosystem . The capital of Dhaka itself underwent severe transformations in recent years to catch up the increased rate of urbanisation . This change was paralleled by a boom in the real estate , construction and housing industry . According to United Nations Population Fund ( UNFPA ) , Dhaka is one of the most polluted cities in the world . Unified measures have been adopted from the national community in an effort to avoid further man made calamities due to climate change and higher emissions . There are six main sectors most likely to be affected by climate change in Bangladesh -- water resources and coastal zones , infrastructure and human settlements , agriculture and food security , forestry and biodiversity , fisheries , and human health . Deforestation has resulted in several man made disasters in the country 's history . Green buildings assure efficient usage of water and energy and the nation is struggling in the production of electricity and suffering from a shortage of water .","qid":"132","docid":"Green_building_in_Bangladesh","rank":40,"score":92248},{"content":"Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .","qid":"132","docid":"Physical_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":41,"score":92246},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"132","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":42,"score":91618},{"content":"Title: Cyclone Aila Content: Severe Cyclonic Storm Aila was the worst natural disaster to affect Bangladesh since Cyclone Sidr in November 2007 . The second tropical cyclone of the 2009 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , Aila formed over the Bay of Bengal on May 23 . A relatively strong tropical cyclone , it caused extensive damage in India and Bangladesh . The storm was responsible for at least 339 deaths across Bangladesh and India ; more than 1 million people were left homeless . Health officials in Bangladesh confirmed a deadly outbreak of diarrhoea on 29 May , with more than 7,000 people being infected and four dying . In Bangladesh , an estimated 20 million people were at risk of post-disaster diseases due to Aila .","qid":"132","docid":"Cyclone_Aila","rank":43,"score":91478},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in Haiti Content: Environmental issues in Haiti include a severe deforestation problem , overpopulation , a lack of sanitation , natural disasters , and food insecurity . A major reason for these environmental issues is that there is not sufficient protection or management of the country 's natural resources . Other environmental issues , such as decreases in precipitation and more severe natural disasters , will likely arise in Haiti as a result of climate change . Experts agree that Haiti needs to adopt new policies to address both the issues that already exist and to prepare for the effects of climate change .","qid":"132","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_Haiti","rank":44,"score":91173},{"content":"Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_and_poverty","rank":45,"score":90491},{"content":"Title: International Disaster and Risk Conference Content: Organized and hosted by the Global Risk Forum The International Disaster and Risk Conference IDRC is a global gathering of experts for risk reduction , disaster management , and climate change adaptation . IDRCs are held as a biennial conference in Davos , Switzerland and complemented every other year with regional conferences hosted in different regions of the world and endorse the UNISDR Global Platform meetings ( GP in 2007 , 2009 , 2011 , 2013 , and 2015 ) . The IDRC conferences promote the integral risk management approach -- across subject areas , professions , and sectors -- encompassing scientific understanding with business , policy responses , the media and citizen participation . The IDRCs encourage stronger ties with adequate public-private partnership models and devising approaches for moving towards a more truly integrative way of thinking about disaster and risks . Additional conferences and workshops dealing with specific disaster and risk topics may be organized in Davos or elsewhere . The conferences and workshops aim to provide solutions for effective and efficient global disaster and risk management and climate change adaptation . These issues need the involvement of all stakeholders of the public and the private sector . Originally organized by the Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL , since 2007 IDRCs are organised by the Global Risk Forum GRF Davos . Patronage of IDRC include the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SDC , UN organisations such as UNESCO , UN ISDR , UNDP , UNEP and ILO as well as the private sector like SWISS RE . IDRC conferences and workshops contribute to harmonizing risk reduction and disaster management with climate change adaptation measures . The IDRC Conferences provide an ideal platform for assessment and dissemination activities , as well as for networking activities . The next IDRC conference will be held from 28 August to 1 September 2014 in Davos , Switzerland .","qid":"132","docid":"International_Disaster_and_Risk_Conference","rank":46,"score":90240},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_Change_Act_2008","rank":47,"score":90131},{"content":"Title: Historical impacts of climate change Content: Climate has affected human life and civilization from the emergence of hominins to the present day . These historical impacts of climate change can improve human life and cause societies to flourish , or can be instrumental in civilization 's societal collapse .","qid":"132","docid":"Historical_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":48,"score":89800},{"content":"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .","qid":"132","docid":"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change","rank":49,"score":89689},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_in_Grenada","rank":50,"score":89647},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_Zealand","rank":51,"score":89310},{"content":"Title: Executive Order 13653 Content: Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise","qid":"132","docid":"Executive_Order_13653","rank":52,"score":88860},{"content":"Title: The Natural Disasters Content: The Natural Disasters were a professional wrestling tag team composed of Earthquake ( John Tenta ) and Typhoon ( Fred Ottman ) who competed in the World Wrestling Federation between 1991 and 1993 . The team held the WWF Tag Team Championship on one occasion .","qid":"132","docid":"The_Natural_Disasters","rank":53,"score":88726},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":54,"score":88522},{"content":"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .","qid":"132","docid":"Fisheries_and_climate_change","rank":55,"score":88384},{"content":"Title: 1980 United States heat wave Content: The 1980 United States Heat Wave was a period of intense heat and drought that wreaked havoc on much of the Midwestern United States and Southern Plains throughout the summer of 1980 . It is among the most devastating natural disasters in terms of deaths and destruction in U.S. history , claiming at least 1,700 lives and because of the massive drought , agricultural damage reached US$ 20.0 billion ( US$ 55.4 billion in 2007 dollars , adjusted for the GNP inflation index ) . It is among the billion-dollar weather disasters listed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration .","qid":"132","docid":"1980_United_States_heat_wave","rank":56,"score":88058},{"content":"Title: Environmental change Content: Environmental change is a change or disturbance of the environment most often caused by human influences and natural ecological processes . Environmental changes can include any number of things , including natural disasters , human interference , or animal interaction . Environmental change does not only encompass physical changes , but it can be things like an infestation of invasive species is also environmental changes .","qid":"132","docid":"Environmental_change","rank":57,"score":88045},{"content":"Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_variability","rank":58,"score":87774},{"content":"Title: Climate Change (album) Content: Climate Change is the tenth studio album by rapper and songwriter Pitbull . It was released on March 17 , 2017 . through RCA Records , Polo Grounds Music and Mr. 305 Inc. . It features Enrique Iglesias , Flo Rida , Jennifer Lopez and Jason Derulo .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_Change_(album)","rank":59,"score":87729},{"content":"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .","qid":"132","docid":"Reasons_for_concern","rank":60,"score":87721},{"content":"Title: This is worse Content: This is worse ( Spanish : Esto es peor ) is an etching and wash drawing by the Spanish artist Francisco Goya ( 1746 -- 1828 ) . Completed between 1812 -- 1815 , though not published until 1863 , it forms part of his Disasters of War series , which Goya created as a visual protest against the violence of the 1808 Dos de Mayo Uprising and subsequent Peninsular War of 1808 -- 1814 . The image is based on a scene which occurred in Chinchón in December 1808 , at a time when Goya 's brother was living there as parish priest . When two French soldiers were killed by Spanish rebels , the French retaliated by massacring local men . Goya shows the mutilated body of a rebel impaled on the branches of a tree at two points -- through his anus and shoulder blade . The victim 's head is turned towards the picture 's viewer , in a motif that echoes the title of another work in the Disasters series - One can not look . His right arm has been chopped off above the elbow . In the background , French soldiers carry on with the massacre . The drawing contains sexual undertones in that the victim appears to have been raped . The figuration of the dead man is based in part on the Hellenistic fragment of a male nude , the Belvedere Torso , by an Athenian sculptor . Goya had earlier made a black wash drawing study of the statue during a visit to Rome . However , he subverts the classical motifs used in war art by adding a degree of theatre -- the branch through the anus , animated shoulders and close framing . The man is naked , itself a daring presentation for Spanish art in the 19th century . An 1863 print of This is Worse was purchased by the National Galleries of Scotland in 1967 .","qid":"132","docid":"This_is_worse","rank":61,"score":87698},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"132","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":62,"score":87607},{"content":"Title: Natural Disaster (Plain White T's song) Content: `` Natural Disaster '' is the first single from the Plain White T 's fifth studio album Big Bad World . It was released to pop radio on August 8 , 2008 and peaked at # 25 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and # 38 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart .","qid":"132","docid":"Natural_Disaster_(Plain_White_T's_song)","rank":63,"score":87315},{"content":"Title: Greg Craven (teacher) Content: Greg Craven is an American high school science teacher and climate change author . The creator of a 2007 viral video on YouTube , he is the author of the 2009 book What 's the Worst That Could Happen ? : A Rational Response to the Climate Change Debate .","qid":"132","docid":"Greg_Craven_(teacher)","rank":64,"score":87237},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in Wyoming Content: The U.S. state of Wyoming faces a broad array of environmental issues stemming from environmental changes including species introduction , endangered species , global climate change , and natural resource extraction . These changes have led to varying ecological harm to the forests and natural species of wildlife that call Wyoming home . Within the state organizations and governments are working to combat these environmental threats and restore balance to the ecology . This article details several major ecological disasters within the state while also describing the steps that are being taken by local governments , organizations , and groups to prevent future disasters .","qid":"132","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_Wyoming","rank":65,"score":87220},{"content":"Title: Werner Kurz Content: Werner Kurz is a Canadian research scientist at Canada 's Pacific Forestry Centre in Victoria , British Columbia . He is leading the development of an accounting system to assess potential climate change known as the National Forest Carbon Accounting System for Canada . Currently , his research focuses on using forest land to its maximum carbon efficiency , reducing the impact of natural disasters , and managing forests . Kurz holds a PhD in forest ecology from the University of British Columbia . He has made significant contributions to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognized by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize .","qid":"132","docid":"Werner_Kurz","rank":66,"score":87089},{"content":"Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .","qid":"132","docid":"Global_warming_game","rank":67,"score":86983},{"content":"Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .","qid":"132","docid":"European_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":68,"score":86636},{"content":"Title: Hurricane Liza (1976) Content: Hurricane Liza is considered the worst natural disaster in the history of Baja California Sur . The seventeenth tropical cyclone , thirteenth named storm , and eighth hurricane of the 1976 Pacific hurricane season , Liza developed from an area of disturbed weather southwest of the Mexican coast on September 25 . Slowly intensifying , the system attained tropical storm strength the following day . In favorable conditions , Liza continued to intensify , reaching hurricane strength on September 28 after developing an eye . The hurricane peaked in intensity as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane scale on September 30 , with winds of 140 mph and a minimum barometric pressure of 948 mbar ( hPa ; 28.00 inHg ) . Liza weakened as it moved northward into the Gulf of California . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane made its second landfall north of Los Mochis , Sinaloa with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km/h ) , making it one of 13 storms to make landfall as major hurricanes in the basin . Inland , the hurricane rapidly weakened and dissipated on October 2 . Prior to the arrival of Liza , residents along the Gulf of California coastline were evacuated , although some refused to leave their homes . Radio stations warned all nearby ships to remain at harbor . Liza brought heavy rainfall to the area , which caused significant flash flooding . Following a dam burst by the El Cajoncito Creek along the outskirts of La Paz , hundreds of people were swept away by flood waters . In La Paz , the capital of the state , 412 people died and 20,000 were left homeless . Nearly one-third of the homes in the town were destroyed . Throughout the state , a variety of death tolls were reported , but officials estimated that 1,000 people had perished . In the states of Sinaloa and Sonora , Liza caused moderate damage and left 30,000 to 54,000 homeless , along with 155 more casualties . Along the Gulf of California , 108 people were presumed dead after 12 boats were lost . The remnants of the storm later affected the United States , bringing moderate rainfall In the aftermath of the storm , rescue workers spent days digging through mud to find victims of the hurricane until the search was disbanded on October 6 . The government received criticism for the tragedy , citing that the dam that broke had been poorly built . Overall , at least 1,263 fatalities and $ 100 million ( 1976 USD ) in damage are attributed to the hurricane , making it one of the deadliest tropical cyclones on record in the eastern Pacific , as well as one of the few Pacific hurricanes to kill more than 1,000 people .","qid":"132","docid":"Hurricane_Liza_(1976)","rank":69,"score":86629},{"content":"Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_adaptation","rank":70,"score":86597},{"content":"Title: Climate appraisal Content: A climate appraisal is a unique , location-based report for a specific property on climate change ( from global warming ) and other environmental risks . Information in a climate appraisal report enables property owners and/or buyers to assess for themselves how climate change risks could impact a specific property address in the future , probably by utilizing both historical and projected data from scientific modeling to display those potential risks . A climate appraisal report may include historical and projected information in the following categories : shoreline reduction from sea level rise , risk from hurricanes , tornadoes , earthquakes , volcanoes , droughts , wildfires , floods , diseasees , and industrial pollution . A report may integrate a wide range of environmental risk information after geocoding a location .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_appraisal","rank":71,"score":86563},{"content":"Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .","qid":"132","docid":"Tyndall_Centre","rank":72,"score":86205},{"content":"Title: Alertnet Content: AlertNet is a free global humanitarian news service provided by the Thomson Reuters Foundation . AlertNet covers natural disasters , conflicts , refugees , hunger , diseases and the human impacts of climate change . Content comes from AlertNet reporters around the globe , Reuters news bureaux and 60 specialist news content partners . A global team of 25 journalists provides information on the most pressing humanitarian issues of our time . They report the world 's under-reported stories , the ` forgotten ' crises that rarely make mainstream headlines . The news service has become an essential tool for relief workers , donors , policy makers , students , journalists and the general public .","qid":"132","docid":"Alertnet","rank":73,"score":86174},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"132","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":74,"score":86046},{"content":"Title: Views on the Kyoto Protocol Content: This article is about certain views on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . A 2007 study by Gupta et al. assessed the literature on climate change policy which showed no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol , that assert these agreements have , or will , succeed in fully solving the climate problem . It was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed . The Framework Convention and its Protocol , include provisions for future policy actions to be taken . Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is `` the only game in town , '' and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions ( Aldy et al. . , 2003 , p. 9 ) . Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 5 ) . On the other hand , many economists think that the commitments are stronger than is justified . Particularly in the US , many economists have also been critical of the failure to include quantified commitments for developing countries ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 31 ) .","qid":"132","docid":"Views_on_the_Kyoto_Protocol","rank":75,"score":86026},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation","rank":76,"score":86003},{"content":"Title: David Beerling Content: David John Beerling FRS ( born 21 June 1965 ) is the Director of the Leverhulme Centre for Climate change mitigation and Sorby Professor of Natural Sciences in the Department of Animal and Plant Sciences ( APS ) at the University of Sheffield , UK .","qid":"132","docid":"David_Beerling","rank":77,"score":85993},{"content":"Title: Htun Lwin Content: Dr. Htun Lwin or Tun Lwin is a Burmese meteorologist . He holds a PhD in Physics and has worked in Burma 's Department of Meteorology and Hydrology since he was 17 years old in 1965 for 44 years until 2009 when he retired from his ( then ) position as Director General . Dr Tun Lwin is a well-known , active `` netizen '' in Myanmar who operates a free , non-profit online service called Myanmar Climate Change Watch ( MCCW ) . Through various social media platforms such as Facebook and his website , he primarily gives weather and climate updates as well as some posts and updates about his own personal life and opinions . He has written numerous successful books on weather in Myanmar , works with local radio stations on weather-related segments and regularly writes articles on various topics not limited to just weather updates in Burmese magazines and newspaper journals . His book , The Girl Called La Niña and Articles about Natural Disasters , won the Science Knowledge Prize in the Thuta Swesone literary awards in 2007 . He also gives presentations at talks and seminars relating to climate change frequently both locally and internationally , in cities and villages in rural areas . On December 10 -- 11 , 2009 , Lwin presented his 30-page paper at a seminar hosted by the International Centre for Water Hazard ( ICHARM ) in Tsukuba , Japan , stressing the importance of awareness of storms , tsunamis and flooding in delta regions and potential atural disaster preparedness strategies in the region . In October 2010 he spoke to the Burmese media about the expected path of Cyclone Giri . He currently resides in Yangon , Myanmar with his wife , Mu Mu Than , and three children , two daughters and one son , of which the eldest is married with three children of her own .","qid":"132","docid":"Htun_Lwin","rank":78,"score":85919},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":79,"score":85878},{"content":"Title: Natural hazards in Colombia Content: Natural disasters in Colombia are the result of several different natural hazards that affect the country according to its particular geographic and geologic features . Human vulnerability , exacerbated by the lack of planning or lack of appropriate emergency management , and the fragility of the economy and infrastructure contribute to a high rate of financial , structural , and human losses . Some of the natural hazards present in Colombia are :","qid":"132","docid":"Natural_hazards_in_Colombia","rank":80,"score":85874},{"content":"Title: Climate fiction Content: Climate fiction , or climate change fiction , popularly abbreviated as cli-fi ( modelled after the assonance of `` sci-fi '' ) is literature that deals with climate change and global warming . Not necessarily speculative in nature , works of cli-fi may take place in the world as we know it or in the near future . University courses on literature and environmental issues may include climate change fiction in their syllabi . This body of literature has been discussed by a variety of publications , including The New York Times , The Guardian , and Dissent magazine , among other international media outlets .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_fiction","rank":81,"score":85814},{"content":"Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_ethics","rank":82,"score":85807},{"content":"Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_justice","rank":83,"score":85759},{"content":"Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .","qid":"132","docid":"United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change","rank":84,"score":85636},{"content":"Title: Climate Challenge Content: Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_Challenge","rank":85,"score":85616},{"content":"Title: Artists' Project Earth Content: Artists ' Project Earth is a UK registered charity which recruits internationally known musicians and artists through albums , concerts , art exhibitions and art related projects to raise awareness of climate change and funds for campaigns and disaster relief .","qid":"132","docid":"Artists'_Project_Earth","rank":86,"score":85562},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"132","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":87,"score":85469},{"content":"Title: A Natural Disaster Content: A Natural Disaster is the seventh album by the British rock band Anathema . It was released on 3 November 2003 in the United Kingdom and on 24 February 2004 in the United States through Music for Nations . It is the first album to feature the band 's original bassist Jamie Cavanagh , brother of band members Vincent and Daniel Cavanagh , who left Anathema prior to any release in 1991 and returned in 2001 . It is also Daniel 's first album since his departure in 2002 ( after the release of the previous album A Fine Day to Exit '' ) .","qid":"132","docid":"A_Natural_Disaster","rank":88,"score":85340},{"content":"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .","qid":"132","docid":"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":89,"score":85333},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_Change_Science_Program","rank":90,"score":85284},{"content":"Title: Natural Resources Stewardship Project Content: The Natural Resources Stewardship Project is a Canadian non-profit organization that presents itself as undertaking `` a proactive grassroots campaign to counter the Kyoto Protocol and other greenhouse gas reduction schemes while promoting sensible climate change policy . '' The group was founded in October 2005 . A report in the Toronto Star on January 28 , 2007 stated that the organization had not revealed who funds the Stewardship Project . The Guardian and Vancouver Sun stated in 2008 that the organization is funded by energy firms . Until April 2008 , it was headed by global warming skeptic Tom Harris , formerly Ottawa director of the consulting firm High Park Group , and , until later in 2008 , Tim Ball , formerly Professor of Geography at the University of Winnipeg . Harris has stated that the NRSP was set up on the initiative of the High Park Group . NRSP has been mentioned in at least two op-ed pieces . According to the Toronto Star , the group has been described by critics as an Astroturf organization .","qid":"132","docid":"Natural_Resources_Stewardship_Project","rank":91,"score":85204},{"content":"Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .","qid":"132","docid":"List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change","rank":92,"score":85172},{"content":"Title: A Change of Climate Content: A Change of Climate is a novel by English author Hilary Mantel , first published in 1994 by Viking Books . At the time The Observer described it as the best book she had written . It was published in the United States by Henry Holt in 1997 and was recognised by the New York Times Book Review as one of the notable books of that year . The novel has also been identified as one of the best of the 1990s .","qid":"132","docid":"A_Change_of_Climate","rank":93,"score":85160},{"content":"Title: Natural Disaster (Example song) Content: `` Natural Disaster '' is a song by Dutch DJ Laidback Luke and British singer and rapper Example . It was released on 4 October 2011 in the USA and on 16 October 2011 in the UK as the third single of Example 's third studio album , Playing in the Shadows , with an entire remix EP on iTunes . A 5-minute extended explicit album version of the song was included on the album Playing in the Shadows . The song was written by Example , Laidback Luke , and Dipesh Parmar , and was produced by Laidback Luke .","qid":"132","docid":"Natural_Disaster_(Example_song)","rank":94,"score":84946},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"132","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":95,"score":84914},{"content":"Title: The Weather Makers Content: The Weather Makers : The History and Future Impact of Climate Change is a 2005 book by Tim Flannery . The book received critical acclaim . It won the major prize at the 2006 New South Wales Premier 's Literary Awards , and was short-listed for the 2010 Jan Michalski Prize for Literature .","qid":"132","docid":"The_Weather_Makers","rank":96,"score":84848},{"content":"Title: Environment and Climate Change Canada Content: Environment and Climate Change Canada ( or simply its former name , Environment Canada , or EC ) ( Environnement et Changement climatique Canada ) , legally incorporated as the Department of the Environment under the Department of the Environment Act ( R.S. , 1985 , c. E-10 ) , is the department of the Government of Canada with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources . The powers , duties and functions of the Minister of the Environment extend to and include matters relating to : `` preserve and enhance the quality of the natural environment , including water , air , soil , flora and fauna ; conserve Canada 's renewable resources ; conserve and protect Canada 's water resources ; forecast daily weather conditions and warnings , and provide detailed meteorological information to all of Canada ; enforce rules relating to boundary waters ; and coordinate environmental policies and programs for the federal government . '' Its ministerial headquarters is located in les Terrasses de la Chaudière , Gatineau , Quebec . Under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act ( CEPA 1999 ) ( R.S. , 1999 , c. 33 ) , Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the cleanup of hazardous waste and oil spills for which the government is responsible , and to provide technical assistance to other jurisdictions and the private sector as required . The department is also responsible for international environmental issues ( e.g. , Canada-USA air issues ) . CEPA was the central piece of Canada 's environmental legislation but was replaced when budget implementation bill ( C-38 ) entered into effect in June 2012 . Under the Constitution of Canada , responsibility for environmental management in Canada is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments . For example , provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges ( e.g. , to the air ) . The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country ( e.g. , benzene ) . Environment Canada provides stewardship of the Environmental Choice Program , which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of ( GEN ) Global Ecolabelling Network . Environment Canada continues ( 2005 -- present ) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making , and to standardize policy implementation .","qid":"132","docid":"Environment_and_Climate_Change_Canada","rank":97,"score":84786},{"content":"Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .","qid":"132","docid":"Storms_of_My_Grandchildren","rank":98,"score":84763},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .","qid":"132","docid":"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan","rank":99,"score":84722},{"content":"Title: Droughts in the United States Content: Drought in the United States is similar to that of other portions of the globe . Below normal precipitation leads to drought , which is caused by an above average persistence of high pressure over the drought area . Changes in the track of extratropical cyclones , which can occur during climate cycles such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , or ENSO , as well as the North Atlantic Oscillation , Pacific Decadal Oscillation , and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation , modulates which areas would be more prone to drought and when drought develops . Increased drought frequency is expected to be one of the effects of global warming . In dry areas , removing grass cover and going with a more natural vegetation for the area can reduce the impact of drought , since a significant amount of fresh water is used to keep lawns green . Droughts are periodic , alternating with floods over a series of years . The worst droughts in the history of the United States occurred during the 1930s and 1950s , periods of time known as ` Dust Bowl ' years in which droughts lead to significant economic damages and social changes . In particular , relief and health agencies became overburdened and many local community banks had to close .","qid":"132","docid":"Droughts_in_the_United_States","rank":100,"score":84650}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 124924\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Argentina\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 122303\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Loss_and_damage\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 121588\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 119180\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Natural disasters in India Content: Natural disasters in India , many of them related to the climate of India , cause massive losses of life and property . Droughts , flash floods , cyclones , avalanches , landslides brought on by torrential rains , and snowstorms pose the greatest threats . A natural disaster might be caused by earthquakes , flooding , volcanic eruption , landslides , hurricanes etc. . In order to be classified as a disaster it will have profound environmental effect and/or human loss and frequently incurs financial loss . Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms , which usually track from north to south ; they cause extensive property damage in North India and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions . Hail is also common in parts of India , causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Natural_disasters_in_India\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 118710\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 113680\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 112312\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental emergency Content: Environmental emergencies are defined as `` sudden-onset disasters or accidents resulting from natural , technological or human-induced factors , or a combination of these , that causes or threatens to cause severe environmental damage as well as loss of human lives and property . '' ( UNEP/GC .22 / INF/5 , 13 November 2002 . ) Following a disaster or conflict , an environmental emergency can occur when people 's health and livelihoods are at risk due to the release of hazardous and noxious substances , or because of significant damage to the ecosystem . Examples include fires , oil spills , chemical accidents , toxic-waste dumping and groundwater pollution . The environmental risks can be acute and life-threatening . According to the International Disaster Database ( EM-DAT ) , between 2003 and 2013 , there were 380 industrial accidents reported , affecting 207 668 people and resulting in over US$ 22 million in losses . Climate change is having an unprecedented effect on the occurrence of natural disasters and the associated risk of environmental emergencies . With climate change already stretching the disaster relief system , future climate-related emergency events will generate increased and more costly demands for assistance .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_emergency\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 112083\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: VNREDSat 1A Content: VNREDSat-1 ( short for Vietnam Natural Resources , Environment and Disaster Monitoring Satellite ) is the first optical Earth Observing satellite of Vietnam ; its primary mission is to monitor and study the effects of climate change , predict and take measures to prevent natural disasters , and optimise the management of Vietnam 's natural resources .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"VNREDSat_1A\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 105313\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 103269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Natural disaster Content: A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth ; examples include floods , hurricanes , tornadoes , volcanic eruptions , earthquakes , tsunamis , and other geologic processes . A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage , and typically leaves some economic damage in its wake , the severity of which depends on the affected population 's resilience , or ability to recover and also on the infrastructure available . An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population . In a vulnerable area , however , such as Nepal during the 2015 earthquake , an earthquake can have disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage , requiring years to repair .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Natural_disaster\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 102205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 101893\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 99984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Nature_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 99665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nature Based Solutions Content: Nature-based solutions ( NbS ) generally refer to the sustainable management and use of nature for tackling societal challenges such as climate change , water security , food security , human health , and disaster risk management . For instance , the protection of mangroves in coastal areas can limit risks of coastal erosion associated to extreme weather conditions , while providing nurseries for fish production to feed local people and sequestering CO2 . Similarly greening roofs or walls can be used to cool down city areas during summer , to capture storm water , to abate pollution , and to increase human well-being while enhancing biodiversity and connecting the city with the wider ecosystem . With NbS , healthy , resilient and diverse ecosystems ( either ` natural ' , managed or newly created ) are viewed as providing solutions for the benefit of our societies and overall biodiversity , in the face of global change . The term NbS was put forward by practitioners in the late 2000s ( in particular the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and the World Bank ) and quickly thereafter by policymakers in Europe ( most notably the European Commission ) . While the term itself is still being framed , case studies from around the world exemplify its potential , as well as the added-value with respect to existing terms and concepts and in complementing traditional conservation approaches . As a consequence , NbS are on their way to being mainstreamed in national and international policies and programmes ( e.g. climate change policy , law , infrastructure investment and financing mechanisms ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Nature_Based_Solutions\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 99358\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 99076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of natural disasters by death toll Content: A natural disaster is a sudden event that causes widespread destruction , lots of collateral damage or loss of life , brought about by forces other than the acts of human beings . A natural disaster might be caused by earthquakes , flooding , volcanic eruption , landslide , hurricanes etc. . In order to be classified as a disaster , it will have profound environmental effect and/or human loss and frequently incurs financial loss .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_natural_disasters_by_death_toll\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 98881\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aaranyak Content: Aaranyak is a leading wildlife NGO based in Guwahati . It is a Scientific , Industrial Research and frontline environmental organization of India . It works all over the eastern Himalayan region on nature conservation , natural resources management , climate change , disaster management and livelihood enhancement of marginalized communities through research , education and advocacy . The group says its mission is to foster conservation of biodiversity in Northeast India through research , environmental education , capacity building and advocacy for legal and policy reform to usher a new era of ecological security . Recently , UN framework convention on climate change announced Aaranyak in partnership with the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development ( ICIMOD ) as winner of its UN Lighthouse Activity Award 2014 for the successful implementation of the community-based flood early warning system in the Lakhimpur and Dhemaji Districts of Assam .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Aaranyak\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 98690\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental disaster Content: An environmental disaster is a disaster to the natural environment due to human activity , which distinguishes it from the concept of a natural disaster . It is also distinct from intentional acts of war such as nuclear bombings . In this case , the impact of humans ' alteration of the ecosystem has led to widespread and/or long-lasting consequences . It can include the deaths of animals ( including humans ) and plants , or severe disruption of human life , possibly requiring migration .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_disaster\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 98206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_A._Stott\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 98088\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meteorological disasters Content: Meteorological disasters are caused by extreme weather , e.g. rain , drought , snow , extreme heat or cold , ice , or wind . Violent , sudden and destructive change to the environment related to , produced by , or affecting the earth 's atmosphere , especially the weather-forming processes . Examples of weather disasters include blizzard , cyclones , droughts , hailstorms , heat waves , hurricanes , floods ( caused by rain ) , and tornadoes .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Meteorological_disasters\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 97259\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in Mongolia Content: There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to both human and biophysical wellness . These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors , but increasingly because of human actions . One of these issues is climate change , which will be responsible for an increase in desertification , natural disasters , and land degradation . Another is deforestation , which is expanding due to human recklessness , pests , disease , and fire . Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification , a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible land use . Additionally , more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction . And , especially in population centers , Mongolians deal with air and water pollution caused by human industrialization .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_Mongolia\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 96747\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in Pakistan Content: Environmental issues in Pakistan include deforestation , air pollution , water pollution , noise pollution , climate change , pesticide misuse , soil erosion , natural disasters and desertification . These are serious environmental problems that Pakistan is facing , and they are getting worse as the country 's economy expands and the population grows . Unfortunately , not much is being done to tackle these issues , because the goals of economic growth and tackling terrorism within the country supersede the goals of environmental preservation . Although NGOs and government departments have taken initiatives to stop environmental degradation , Pakistans environmental issues still remain .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 96398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \\\"internal variability\\\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_(general_concept)\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 96048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Music for Relief Content: ` Music for Relief ' was founded by the band Linkin Park in response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami . Since inception in 2005 MFR has responded to more than 25 natural disasters across four continents including Hurricane Katrina , China 's Wenchuan earthquake , a cholera outbreak in Zimbabwe , earthquakes in Haiti in 2010 and Japan in 2011 , and most recently the Nepal earthquakes in 2015 . Music for Relief has also planted over 1.3 million trees to help reduce climate change . Recognizing the consequences of global climate change , Music for Relief expanded its focus to environmental protection and restoration in 2007 . Through programs like Power the World , a collaboration with the United Nations Foundation aimed at providing sustainable energy solutions to vulnerable populations , Music for Relief is helping people , wildlife , and the environment . Rooted in the music community , Music for Relief leverages its unique position to reach artists and countless fans around the world to raise funds and awareness for humanitarian causes .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Music_for_Relief\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 95979\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 95924\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 95902\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 95719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_risk\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 95442\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 95091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_gender\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 95061\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate risk management Content: Climate Risk Management ( CRM ) is a term is used for a large and growing body of work , bridging the climate change adaptation , disaster management and development sectors , amongst many others .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_risk_management\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 94608\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Natural hazard Content: A natural hazard is a natural phenomenon that might have a negative effect on people or the environment . Natural hazard events can be grouped into two broad categories . Geophysical hazards encompass geological and meteorological phenomena such as earthquakes , volcanic eruption , wildfire , cyclonic storms , flood , drought , and coastal erosion . Biological hazards can refer to a diverse array of disease and infestation . Many geophysical hazards are related ; for example , submarine earthquakes can cause tsunamis , and hurricanes can lead to coastal flooding and erosion . Floods and wildfires can result from a combination of geological , hydrological , and climatic factors . It is possible that some natural hazards are intertemporally correlated as well . An example of the division between a natural hazard and a natural disaster is that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was a disaster , whereas living on a fault line is a hazard . Some natural hazards can be provoked or affected by anthropogenic processes ( e.g. land-use change , drainage and construction ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Natural_hazard\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 94132\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 92899\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_York_City\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 92703\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Code_Red\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 92686\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 92657\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 92568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 92269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Green building in Bangladesh Content: Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable nations in the world due to climate change . As the ninth most populous country and twelfth most densely populated countries in the world , its rising population and limited land space have put tremendous strains on the urban ecosystem . The capital of Dhaka itself underwent severe transformations in recent years to catch up the increased rate of urbanisation . This change was paralleled by a boom in the real estate , construction and housing industry . According to United Nations Population Fund ( UNFPA ) , Dhaka is one of the most polluted cities in the world . Unified measures have been adopted from the national community in an effort to avoid further man made calamities due to climate change and higher emissions . There are six main sectors most likely to be affected by climate change in Bangladesh -- water resources and coastal zones , infrastructure and human settlements , agriculture and food security , forestry and biodiversity , fisheries , and human health . Deforestation has resulted in several man made disasters in the country 's history . Green buildings assure efficient usage of water and energy and the nation is struggling in the production of electricity and suffering from a shortage of water .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Green_building_in_Bangladesh\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 92248\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Physical_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 92246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 91618\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cyclone Aila Content: Severe Cyclonic Storm Aila was the worst natural disaster to affect Bangladesh since Cyclone Sidr in November 2007 . The second tropical cyclone of the 2009 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , Aila formed over the Bay of Bengal on May 23 . A relatively strong tropical cyclone , it caused extensive damage in India and Bangladesh . The storm was responsible for at least 339 deaths across Bangladesh and India ; more than 1 million people were left homeless . Health officials in Bangladesh confirmed a deadly outbreak of diarrhoea on 29 May , with more than 7,000 people being infected and four dying . In Bangladesh , an estimated 20 million people were at risk of post-disaster diseases due to Aila .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Cyclone_Aila\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 91478\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in Haiti Content: Environmental issues in Haiti include a severe deforestation problem , overpopulation , a lack of sanitation , natural disasters , and food insecurity . A major reason for these environmental issues is that there is not sufficient protection or management of the country 's natural resources . Other environmental issues , such as decreases in precipitation and more severe natural disasters , will likely arise in Haiti as a result of climate change . Experts agree that Haiti needs to adopt new policies to address both the issues that already exist and to prepare for the effects of climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_Haiti\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 91173\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_poverty\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 90491\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Disaster and Risk Conference Content: Organized and hosted by the Global Risk Forum The International Disaster and Risk Conference IDRC is a global gathering of experts for risk reduction , disaster management , and climate change adaptation . IDRCs are held as a biennial conference in Davos , Switzerland and complemented every other year with regional conferences hosted in different regions of the world and endorse the UNISDR Global Platform meetings ( GP in 2007 , 2009 , 2011 , 2013 , and 2015 ) . The IDRC conferences promote the integral risk management approach -- across subject areas , professions , and sectors -- encompassing scientific understanding with business , policy responses , the media and citizen participation . The IDRCs encourage stronger ties with adequate public-private partnership models and devising approaches for moving towards a more truly integrative way of thinking about disaster and risks . Additional conferences and workshops dealing with specific disaster and risk topics may be organized in Davos or elsewhere . The conferences and workshops aim to provide solutions for effective and efficient global disaster and risk management and climate change adaptation . These issues need the involvement of all stakeholders of the public and the private sector . Originally organized by the Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL , since 2007 IDRCs are organised by the Global Risk Forum GRF Davos . Patronage of IDRC include the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SDC , UN organisations such as UNESCO , UN ISDR , UNDP , UNEP and ILO as well as the private sector like SWISS RE . IDRC conferences and workshops contribute to harmonizing risk reduction and disaster management with climate change adaptation measures . The IDRC Conferences provide an ideal platform for assessment and dissemination activities , as well as for networking activities . The next IDRC conference will be held from 28 August to 1 September 2014 in Davos , Switzerland .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Disaster_and_Risk_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 90240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Act_2008\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 90131\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical impacts of climate change Content: Climate has affected human life and civilization from the emergence of hominins to the present day . These historical impacts of climate change can improve human life and cause societies to flourish , or can be instrumental in civilization 's societal collapse .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 89800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 89689\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Grenada\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 89647\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_Zealand\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 89310\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Executive Order 13653 Content: Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Executive_Order_13653\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 88860\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Natural Disasters Content: The Natural Disasters were a professional wrestling tag team composed of Earthquake ( John Tenta ) and Typhoon ( Fred Ottman ) who competed in the World Wrestling Federation between 1991 and 1993 . The team held the WWF Tag Team Championship on one occasion .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Natural_Disasters\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 88726\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 88522\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Fisheries_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 88384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1980 United States heat wave Content: The 1980 United States Heat Wave was a period of intense heat and drought that wreaked havoc on much of the Midwestern United States and Southern Plains throughout the summer of 1980 . It is among the most devastating natural disasters in terms of deaths and destruction in U.S. history , claiming at least 1,700 lives and because of the massive drought , agricultural damage reached US$ 20.0 billion ( US$ 55.4 billion in 2007 dollars , adjusted for the GNP inflation index ) . It is among the billion-dollar weather disasters listed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"1980_United_States_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 88058\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental change Content: Environmental change is a change or disturbance of the environment most often caused by human influences and natural ecological processes . Environmental changes can include any number of things , including natural disasters , human interference , or animal interaction . Environmental change does not only encompass physical changes , but it can be things like an infestation of invasive species is also environmental changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_change\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 88045\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \\\"internal variability\\\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_variability\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 87774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change (album) Content: Climate Change is the tenth studio album by rapper and songwriter Pitbull . It was released on March 17 , 2017 . through RCA Records , Polo Grounds Music and Mr. 305 Inc. . It features Enrique Iglesias , Flo Rida , Jennifer Lopez and Jason Derulo .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 87729\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Reasons_for_concern\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 87721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: This is worse Content: This is worse ( Spanish : Esto es peor ) is an etching and wash drawing by the Spanish artist Francisco Goya ( 1746 -- 1828 ) . Completed between 1812 -- 1815 , though not published until 1863 , it forms part of his Disasters of War series , which Goya created as a visual protest against the violence of the 1808 Dos de Mayo Uprising and subsequent Peninsular War of 1808 -- 1814 . The image is based on a scene which occurred in Chinchón in December 1808 , at a time when Goya 's brother was living there as parish priest . When two French soldiers were killed by Spanish rebels , the French retaliated by massacring local men . Goya shows the mutilated body of a rebel impaled on the branches of a tree at two points -- through his anus and shoulder blade . The victim 's head is turned towards the picture 's viewer , in a motif that echoes the title of another work in the Disasters series - One can not look . His right arm has been chopped off above the elbow . In the background , French soldiers carry on with the massacre . The drawing contains sexual undertones in that the victim appears to have been raped . The figuration of the dead man is based in part on the Hellenistic fragment of a male nude , the Belvedere Torso , by an Athenian sculptor . Goya had earlier made a black wash drawing study of the statue during a visit to Rome . However , he subverts the classical motifs used in war art by adding a degree of theatre -- the branch through the anus , animated shoulders and close framing . The man is naked , itself a daring presentation for Spanish art in the 19th century . An 1863 print of This is Worse was purchased by the National Galleries of Scotland in 1967 .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"This_is_worse\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 87698\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 87607\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Natural Disaster (Plain White T's song) Content: `` Natural Disaster '' is the first single from the Plain White T 's fifth studio album Big Bad World . It was released to pop radio on August 8 , 2008 and peaked at # 25 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and # 38 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Natural_Disaster_(Plain_White_T's_song)\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 87315\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greg Craven (teacher) Content: Greg Craven is an American high school science teacher and climate change author . The creator of a 2007 viral video on YouTube , he is the author of the 2009 book What 's the Worst That Could Happen ? : A Rational Response to the Climate Change Debate .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Greg_Craven_(teacher)\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 87237\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in Wyoming Content: The U.S. state of Wyoming faces a broad array of environmental issues stemming from environmental changes including species introduction , endangered species , global climate change , and natural resource extraction . These changes have led to varying ecological harm to the forests and natural species of wildlife that call Wyoming home . Within the state organizations and governments are working to combat these environmental threats and restore balance to the ecology . This article details several major ecological disasters within the state while also describing the steps that are being taken by local governments , organizations , and groups to prevent future disasters .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 87220\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Werner Kurz Content: Werner Kurz is a Canadian research scientist at Canada 's Pacific Forestry Centre in Victoria , British Columbia . He is leading the development of an accounting system to assess potential climate change known as the National Forest Carbon Accounting System for Canada . Currently , his research focuses on using forest land to its maximum carbon efficiency , reducing the impact of natural disasters , and managing forests . Kurz holds a PhD in forest ecology from the University of British Columbia . He has made significant contributions to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognized by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Werner_Kurz\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 87089\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_game\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 86983\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 86636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hurricane Liza (1976) Content: Hurricane Liza is considered the worst natural disaster in the history of Baja California Sur . The seventeenth tropical cyclone , thirteenth named storm , and eighth hurricane of the 1976 Pacific hurricane season , Liza developed from an area of disturbed weather southwest of the Mexican coast on September 25 . Slowly intensifying , the system attained tropical storm strength the following day . In favorable conditions , Liza continued to intensify , reaching hurricane strength on September 28 after developing an eye . The hurricane peaked in intensity as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane scale on September 30 , with winds of 140 mph and a minimum barometric pressure of 948 mbar ( hPa ; 28.00 inHg ) . Liza weakened as it moved northward into the Gulf of California . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane made its second landfall north of Los Mochis , Sinaloa with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km/h ) , making it one of 13 storms to make landfall as major hurricanes in the basin . Inland , the hurricane rapidly weakened and dissipated on October 2 . Prior to the arrival of Liza , residents along the Gulf of California coastline were evacuated , although some refused to leave their homes . Radio stations warned all nearby ships to remain at harbor . Liza brought heavy rainfall to the area , which caused significant flash flooding . Following a dam burst by the El Cajoncito Creek along the outskirts of La Paz , hundreds of people were swept away by flood waters . In La Paz , the capital of the state , 412 people died and 20,000 were left homeless . Nearly one-third of the homes in the town were destroyed . Throughout the state , a variety of death tolls were reported , but officials estimated that 1,000 people had perished . In the states of Sinaloa and Sonora , Liza caused moderate damage and left 30,000 to 54,000 homeless , along with 155 more casualties . Along the Gulf of California , 108 people were presumed dead after 12 boats were lost . The remnants of the storm later affected the United States , bringing moderate rainfall In the aftermath of the storm , rescue workers spent days digging through mud to find victims of the hurricane until the search was disbanded on October 6 . The government received criticism for the tragedy , citing that the dam that broke had been poorly built . Overall , at least 1,263 fatalities and $ 100 million ( 1976 USD ) in damage are attributed to the hurricane , making it one of the deadliest tropical cyclones on record in the eastern Pacific , as well as one of the few Pacific hurricanes to kill more than 1,000 people .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Hurricane_Liza_(1976)\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 86629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_adaptation\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 86597\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate appraisal Content: A climate appraisal is a unique , location-based report for a specific property on climate change ( from global warming ) and other environmental risks . Information in a climate appraisal report enables property owners and/or buyers to assess for themselves how climate change risks could impact a specific property address in the future , probably by utilizing both historical and projected data from scientific modeling to display those potential risks . A climate appraisal report may include historical and projected information in the following categories : shoreline reduction from sea level rise , risk from hurricanes , tornadoes , earthquakes , volcanoes , droughts , wildfires , floods , diseasees , and industrial pollution . A report may integrate a wide range of environmental risk information after geocoding a location .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_appraisal\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 86563\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Tyndall_Centre\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 86205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alertnet Content: AlertNet is a free global humanitarian news service provided by the Thomson Reuters Foundation . AlertNet covers natural disasters , conflicts , refugees , hunger , diseases and the human impacts of climate change . Content comes from AlertNet reporters around the globe , Reuters news bureaux and 60 specialist news content partners . A global team of 25 journalists provides information on the most pressing humanitarian issues of our time . They report the world 's under-reported stories , the ` forgotten ' crises that rarely make mainstream headlines . The news service has become an essential tool for relief workers , donors , policy makers , students , journalists and the general public .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Alertnet\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 86174\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 86046\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Views on the Kyoto Protocol Content: This article is about certain views on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . A 2007 study by Gupta et al. assessed the literature on climate change policy which showed no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol , that assert these agreements have , or will , succeed in fully solving the climate problem . It was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed . The Framework Convention and its Protocol , include provisions for future policy actions to be taken . Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is `` the only game in town , '' and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions ( Aldy et al. . , 2003 , p. 9 ) . Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 5 ) . On the other hand , many economists think that the commitments are stronger than is justified . Particularly in the US , many economists have also been critical of the failure to include quantified commitments for developing countries ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 31 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Views_on_the_Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 86026\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 86003\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Beerling Content: David John Beerling FRS ( born 21 June 1965 ) is the Director of the Leverhulme Centre for Climate change mitigation and Sorby Professor of Natural Sciences in the Department of Animal and Plant Sciences ( APS ) at the University of Sheffield , UK .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Beerling\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 85993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Htun Lwin Content: Dr. Htun Lwin or Tun Lwin is a Burmese meteorologist . He holds a PhD in Physics and has worked in Burma 's Department of Meteorology and Hydrology since he was 17 years old in 1965 for 44 years until 2009 when he retired from his ( then ) position as Director General . Dr Tun Lwin is a well-known , active `` netizen '' in Myanmar who operates a free , non-profit online service called Myanmar Climate Change Watch ( MCCW ) . Through various social media platforms such as Facebook and his website , he primarily gives weather and climate updates as well as some posts and updates about his own personal life and opinions . He has written numerous successful books on weather in Myanmar , works with local radio stations on weather-related segments and regularly writes articles on various topics not limited to just weather updates in Burmese magazines and newspaper journals . His book , The Girl Called La Niña and Articles about Natural Disasters , won the Science Knowledge Prize in the Thuta Swesone literary awards in 2007 . He also gives presentations at talks and seminars relating to climate change frequently both locally and internationally , in cities and villages in rural areas . On December 10 -- 11 , 2009 , Lwin presented his 30-page paper at a seminar hosted by the International Centre for Water Hazard ( ICHARM ) in Tsukuba , Japan , stressing the importance of awareness of storms , tsunamis and flooding in delta regions and potential atural disaster preparedness strategies in the region . In October 2010 he spoke to the Burmese media about the expected path of Cyclone Giri . He currently resides in Yangon , Myanmar with his wife , Mu Mu Than , and three children , two daughters and one son , of which the eldest is married with three children of her own .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Htun_Lwin\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 85919\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 85878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Natural hazards in Colombia Content: Natural disasters in Colombia are the result of several different natural hazards that affect the country according to its particular geographic and geologic features . Human vulnerability , exacerbated by the lack of planning or lack of appropriate emergency management , and the fragility of the economy and infrastructure contribute to a high rate of financial , structural , and human losses . Some of the natural hazards present in Colombia are :\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Natural_hazards_in_Colombia\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 85874\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate fiction Content: Climate fiction , or climate change fiction , popularly abbreviated as cli-fi ( modelled after the assonance of `` sci-fi '' ) is literature that deals with climate change and global warming . Not necessarily speculative in nature , works of cli-fi may take place in the world as we know it or in the near future . University courses on literature and environmental issues may include climate change fiction in their syllabi . This body of literature has been discussed by a variety of publications , including The New York Times , The Guardian , and Dissent magazine , among other international media outlets .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_fiction\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 85814\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_ethics\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 85807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_justice\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 85759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 85636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Challenge Content: Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 85616\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Artists' Project Earth Content: Artists ' Project Earth is a UK registered charity which recruits internationally known musicians and artists through albums , concerts , art exhibitions and art related projects to raise awareness of climate change and funds for campaigns and disaster relief .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Artists'_Project_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 85562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 85469\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Natural Disaster Content: A Natural Disaster is the seventh album by the British rock band Anathema . It was released on 3 November 2003 in the United Kingdom and on 24 February 2004 in the United States through Music for Nations . It is the first album to feature the band 's original bassist Jamie Cavanagh , brother of band members Vincent and Daniel Cavanagh , who left Anathema prior to any release in 1991 and returned in 2001 . It is also Daniel 's first album since his departure in 2002 ( after the release of the previous album A Fine Day to Exit '' ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Natural_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 85340\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 85333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Science_Program\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 85284\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Natural Resources Stewardship Project Content: The Natural Resources Stewardship Project is a Canadian non-profit organization that presents itself as undertaking `` a proactive grassroots campaign to counter the Kyoto Protocol and other greenhouse gas reduction schemes while promoting sensible climate change policy . '' The group was founded in October 2005 . A report in the Toronto Star on January 28 , 2007 stated that the organization had not revealed who funds the Stewardship Project . The Guardian and Vancouver Sun stated in 2008 that the organization is funded by energy firms . Until April 2008 , it was headed by global warming skeptic Tom Harris , formerly Ottawa director of the consulting firm High Park Group , and , until later in 2008 , Tim Ball , formerly Professor of Geography at the University of Winnipeg . Harris has stated that the NRSP was set up on the initiative of the High Park Group . NRSP has been mentioned in at least two op-ed pieces . According to the Toronto Star , the group has been described by critics as an Astroturf organization .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Natural_Resources_Stewardship_Project\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 85204\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 85172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Change of Climate Content: A Change of Climate is a novel by English author Hilary Mantel , first published in 1994 by Viking Books . At the time The Observer described it as the best book she had written . It was published in the United States by Henry Holt in 1997 and was recognised by the New York Times Book Review as one of the notable books of that year . The novel has also been identified as one of the best of the 1990s .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Change_of_Climate\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 85160\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Natural Disaster (Example song) Content: `` Natural Disaster '' is a song by Dutch DJ Laidback Luke and British singer and rapper Example . It was released on 4 October 2011 in the USA and on 16 October 2011 in the UK as the third single of Example 's third studio album , Playing in the Shadows , with an entire remix EP on iTunes . A 5-minute extended explicit album version of the song was included on the album Playing in the Shadows . The song was written by Example , Laidback Luke , and Dipesh Parmar , and was produced by Laidback Luke .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Natural_Disaster_(Example_song)\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 84946\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 84914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Weather Makers Content: The Weather Makers : The History and Future Impact of Climate Change is a 2005 book by Tim Flannery . The book received critical acclaim . It won the major prize at the 2006 New South Wales Premier 's Literary Awards , and was short-listed for the 2010 Jan Michalski Prize for Literature .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Weather_Makers\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 84848\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environment and Climate Change Canada Content: Environment and Climate Change Canada ( or simply its former name , Environment Canada , or EC ) ( Environnement et Changement climatique Canada ) , legally incorporated as the Department of the Environment under the Department of the Environment Act ( R.S. , 1985 , c. E-10 ) , is the department of the Government of Canada with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources . The powers , duties and functions of the Minister of the Environment extend to and include matters relating to : `` preserve and enhance the quality of the natural environment , including water , air , soil , flora and fauna ; conserve Canada 's renewable resources ; conserve and protect Canada 's water resources ; forecast daily weather conditions and warnings , and provide detailed meteorological information to all of Canada ; enforce rules relating to boundary waters ; and coordinate environmental policies and programs for the federal government . '' Its ministerial headquarters is located in les Terrasses de la Chaudière , Gatineau , Quebec . Under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act ( CEPA 1999 ) ( R.S. , 1999 , c. 33 ) , Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the cleanup of hazardous waste and oil spills for which the government is responsible , and to provide technical assistance to other jurisdictions and the private sector as required . The department is also responsible for international environmental issues ( e.g. , Canada-USA air issues ) . CEPA was the central piece of Canada 's environmental legislation but was replaced when budget implementation bill ( C-38 ) entered into effect in June 2012 . Under the Constitution of Canada , responsibility for environmental management in Canada is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments . For example , provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges ( e.g. , to the air ) . The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country ( e.g. , benzene ) . Environment Canada provides stewardship of the Environmental Choice Program , which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of ( GEN ) Global Ecolabelling Network . Environment Canada continues ( 2005 -- present ) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making , and to standardize policy implementation .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Environment_and_Climate_Change_Canada\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 84786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Storms_of_My_Grandchildren\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 84763\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 84722\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Droughts in the United States Content: Drought in the United States is similar to that of other portions of the globe . Below normal precipitation leads to drought , which is caused by an above average persistence of high pressure over the drought area . Changes in the track of extratropical cyclones , which can occur during climate cycles such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , or ENSO , as well as the North Atlantic Oscillation , Pacific Decadal Oscillation , and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation , modulates which areas would be more prone to drought and when drought develops . Increased drought frequency is expected to be one of the effects of global warming . In dry areas , removing grass cover and going with a more natural vegetation for the area can reduce the impact of drought , since a significant amount of fresh water is used to keep lawns green . Droughts are periodic , alternating with floods over a series of years . The worst droughts in the history of the United States occurred during the 1930s and 1950s , periods of time known as ` Dust Bowl ' years in which droughts lead to significant economic damages and social changes . In particular , relief and health agencies became overburdened and many local community banks had to close .\",\n \"qid\": \"132\",\n \"docid\": \"Droughts_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 84650\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":64,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The amount of land we use for meat — humankind’s biggest use of land — has declined by an area nearly as large as Alaska"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Meat Mountain Content: Meat Mountain ( elevation 2513 ft ) is a summit in North Slope Borough , Alaska , in the United States . Meat Mountain is an English translation of the Eskimo name Nikipak .","qid":"133","docid":"Meat_Mountain","rank":1,"score":102376},{"content":"Title: National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska Content: The National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska ( NPRA ) is an area of land on the Alaska North Slope owned by the United States federal government and managed by the Department of the Interior , Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) . It lies to the west of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge , which , is a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service managed National Wildlife Refuge , is also considered federal land . At a size of 23599999 acre , the NPRA is the largest tract of undisturbed public land in the United States . Inupiat live in several villages around its perimeter , the largest of which is Barrow , the seat of the North Slope Borough .","qid":"133","docid":"National_Petroleum_Reserve–Alaska","rank":2,"score":98575},{"content":"Title: Land consumption Content: Land consumption as part of human resource consumption is the conversion of land with healthy soil and intact habitats into areas for industrial agriculture , traffic ( road building ) and especially urban human settlements . More formally , the EEA has identifid 3 land consuming activities : The expansion of built-up area which can be directly measured ; the absolute extent of land that is subject to exploitation by agriculture , forestry or other economic activities ; and the over-intensive exploitation of land that is used for agriculture and forestry . In all of those respects , land consumption is equivalent to typical land use in industrialized regions and civilizations . Since often aforementioned conversion activities are virtually irreversible , the term land loss is also used . From 1990 to 2000 , 1.4 e6ha of open space were consumed in the U.S. . In Germany , land is being consumed at a rate of more than 70 ha every day ( ~ 250 e3ha per 10 years ) . Land loss can also happen due to natural factors , like erosion or desertification - nevertheless most of those can also eventually be tracked back to human activities . Another slightly different interpretation of the term is the forced displacement or compulsory acquisition of a native people or settlers from their original land due to land grabbing , etc. . Again , in most cases , this will be due to economic reasons like search for profitable investment and commodification of natural resources . Even though global land loss progresses at an alarming rate , the land footprint , the area required by some Western countries can a lot larger than the land actually used or even available in the country itself . While land prices have surged in the first few years of the 21st century , land consumption economy still lacks environmental full-cost accounting to add the long-term costs of environmental degradation .","qid":"133","docid":"Land_consumption","rank":3,"score":96147},{"content":"Title: Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act Content: The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act ( ANILCA ) is a United States federal law passed on November 12 , 1980 by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on December 2 of that year . ANILCA provided varying degrees of special protection to over 157,000,000 acres of land , including national parks , national wildlife refuges , national monuments , wild and scenic rivers , recreational areas , national forests , and conservation areas . The Act provided for 43,585,000 acres of new national parklands in Alaska ; the addition of 9.8 million acres to the National Wildlife Refuge System ; twenty-five wild and scenic rivers , with twelve more to be studied for that designation ; establishment of Misty Fjords and Admiralty Island National Monuments in Southeast Alaska ; establishment of Steese National Conservation Area and White Mountains National Recreation Area to be managed by the Bureau of Land Management ; the addition of 9.1 million acres to the Wilderness Preservation System , and the addition of 3,350,000 acres to Tongass and Chugach National Forests .","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska_National_Interest_Lands_Conservation_Act","rank":4,"score":95425},{"content":"Title: Arctic Refuge drilling controversy Content: The question of whether to drill for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ( ANWR ) has been an ongoing political and media controversy in the United States since 1977 . ANWR comprises 19000000 acre of the north Alaskan coast . The land is situated between the Beaufort Sea to the north , Brooks Range to the south , and Prudhoe Bay to the west . It is the largest protected wilderness in the United States and was created by Congress under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 . Section 1002 of that act deferred a decision on the management of oil and gas exploration and development of 1500000 acre in the coastal plain , known as the `` 1002 area '' . The controversy surrounds drilling for oil in this subsection of ANWR . Much of the debate over whether to drill in the 1002 area of ANWR rests on the amount of economically recoverable oil , as it relates to world oil markets , weighed against the potential harm oil exploration might have upon the natural wildlife , in particular the calving ground of the Porcupine caribou . In their documentary Being Caribou the Porcupine herd was followed in its yearly migration by author and wildlife biologist Karsten Heuer and filmmaker Leanne Allison to provide a broader understanding of what is at stake if the oil drilling should happen , and educating the public . President Barack Obama once proposed to declare an additional 5 million acres of the refuge as a wilderness area , which would put a total of 12.8 million acres of the refuge permanently off-limits to drilling or other development , including the coastal plain where oil exploration has been sought .","qid":"133","docid":"Arctic_Refuge_drilling_controversy","rank":5,"score":94900},{"content":"Title: Taylor Complex Fire Content: The Taylor Complex Fire was a 2004 wildfire in Alaska that consumed approximately 1305592 acre of land . By acreage , it was the largest wildfire in the United States between 1997-2007 . The fire also was part of the record-breaking 2004 Alaska fire season that burned more than 6600000 acre , the most in recorded history .","qid":"133","docid":"Taylor_Complex_Fire","rank":6,"score":93352},{"content":"Title: Seismo Creek Content: Seismo Creek is a stream in North Slope Borough , Alaska , in the United States . It heads near Meat Mountain and flows to the Utukok River . Seismo Creek was named in 1950 for nearby seismic operations .","qid":"133","docid":"Seismo_Creek","rank":7,"score":92918},{"content":"Title: Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 Content: The Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 is a United States federal law that provides for the regulation of grazing on the public lands ( excluding Alaska ) to improve rangeland conditions and regulate their use . The law initially permitted 80,000,000 ac ( 32,000,000 ha ) of previously unreserved public lands of the United States to be placed into grazing districts to be administered by the Department of the Interior . As amended , the law now sets no limit on the amount of lands in grazing districts . Currently , there are approximately 162,000,000 ac ( 65,600,000 ha ) inside grazing allotments . These can be vacant , unappropriated , and unreserved land from public lands , all except for Alaska , national forests , parks , monuments , Indian reservations , railroad grant lands , and revested Coos Bay Wagon Road grant lands . Surrounding land owners may be granted right of passage over these districts . Permits are given for grazing privileges in the districts . Also permits can be given to build fences , reservoirs , and other improvements . The permittees are required to pay a fee , and the permit can not exceed ten years but is renewable . Permits can be revoked because of severe drought or other natural disasters that deplete grazing lands .","qid":"133","docid":"Taylor_Grazing_Act_of_1934","rank":8,"score":92305},{"content":"Title: List of U.S. Wilderness Areas Content: Four federal agencies of the United States government administer the National Wilderness Preservation System , which includes 765 Wildernesses and 109129657 acre as of 2016 . These agencies are : United States Forest Service United States National Park Service United States Bureau of Land Management United States Fish and Wildlife Service This is an area larger than Iraq or the state of California . In Alaska , there are 57425569 acre of wilderness . This represents about 52 % of the wilderness area in the United States . The National Park Service ( NPS ) has oversight of 43890500 acre of wilderness at 60 locations . The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has responsibility for 20702350 acre in 71 areas . The Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) oversees 8726011 acre at 222 unique sites . The Department of Agriculture , the U.S. Forest Service oversees 36160078 acre of wilderness areas in 442 areas . Some wilderness areas are managed by multiple agencies , so the above totals exceed the actual number of units ( 759 ) in the system . In addition , some of the 60 NPS areas with wilderness have multiple units designated as such ( for example , Lake Mead National Recreation Area ) . Some areas are designated wilderness by state or tribal governments . These are not governed by the Federal National Wilderness Preservation System . The following sortable table lists all U.S. areas that have been designated by the United States Congress under the Wilderness Act . The listed designation date is the date that the wilderness was signed into law . Some areas have been expanded or otherwise changed since the original designation date . For more information about a specific area , see the wilderness name link .","qid":"133","docid":"List_of_U.S._Wilderness_Areas","rank":9,"score":92272},{"content":"Title: Steese National Conservation Area Content: The Steese National Conservation Area encompasses 1200000 acre of public land about 100 mi northeast of Fairbanks , Alaska , and is administered by the Bureau of Land Management as part of the National Landscape Conservation System . Created by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 , the Steese NCA 's special values include Birch Creek National Wild River , crucial caribou calving grounds and home range , and Dall sheep habitat . While various land uses are allowed in the Steese NCA , the area is managed so that its scenic , scientific , cultural and other resources are protected . The Steese NCA is split into the North and South Units , located on either side of the Steese Highway . The popular Pinnell Mountain National Recreation Trail skirts the edge of the North Unit .","qid":"133","docid":"Steese_National_Conservation_Area","rank":10,"score":92228},{"content":"Title: Alaska Loyal League Content: The Alaska Loyal League was a small group of Fairbanks businessmen who were instrumental in supporting early Tanana Valley agriculture and enterprise . They included : A. Browning ; George Coleman , manager of the Northern Commercial Company ; F.S. Gordon , a merchant ; H.B. Parkin , Fairbanks Meat Company transportation agent ; E.R. Peoples , merchant ; Harry E. St. George , real estate agent ; William Fentress Thompson , editor and publisher of the Fairbanks Daily News-Miner ; and R.C. Wood , a banker . In April 1917 , the League hosted a Farmers ' Day lunch and convention , for the purpose of organizing area agriculturalists and making the valley agriculturally self-sufficient . They were behind the formation of a short-lived Farmers Bank , the Tanana Valley Agriculture Association , and later a Flouring Mill Corporation .","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska_Loyal_League","rank":11,"score":90903},{"content":"Title: Peak farmland Content: Peak farmland is the maximum usable amount of land needed for crop cultivation ( agricultural land ) for a given region ( country or an entire world ) . Supporters of the peak farmland theory argue that even with the growing world population , the need for more farmland is decreasing , as food production yields per acre of farmland are rising faster than the global demand for food . This is supported by the fact that the area dedicated to farmland in some countries , both developed ( e.g. Finland ) and developing ( e.g. India , China ) , has already begun to decline . It is argued that other countries , such as the United States , are at their peak farmland now . The concept is usually referenced to the work of Jesse Ausubel and Iddo Wernick . They predict that over the next fifty years an area of at least 146 million hectares is going to be released from farming and will probably revert to its natural state . As land conversion ( from a natural state to human use ) is one of the greatest threats to the natural environment in general , and biodiversity in particular , this is seen as good for the environment . Geisler and Currens note , however , that `` Peak Farmland , though newly named , is a long-standing issue '' that has been debated by scholars for decades . The issue deals with two opposing views : one that predicts that more and more farmland will be needed to sustain the growing world population , and the other ( the peak farmland view ) that progress in agricultural techniques , measured in steadily increasing crop yields from a set amount of farmland , will result in a decrease in the amount of farmland needed to feed the world 's population , eventually leading to a decrease in the world 's acreage of farmland .","qid":"133","docid":"Peak_farmland","rank":12,"score":90449},{"content":"Title: Agriculture in Alaska Content: Agriculture in Alaska faces many challenges , largely due to the climate , the short growing season , and generally poor soils . However , the exceptionally long days of summer enable some vegetables to attain world record sizes .","qid":"133","docid":"Agriculture_in_Alaska","rank":13,"score":89489},{"content":"Title: 2004 Alaska wildfires Content: The 2004 Alaska fire season was the worst on record in terms of area burned by wildfires in the U.S. state of Alaska . Though there were fewer fires than in 1989 when almost 1,000 were recorded , more than 6600000 acre were burned by 701 fires . The largest of these fires was the Taylor Complex Fire . This fire consumed over 1700000 acre and was the deemed to be the largest fire in the United States from 1997 to 2007 . Out of all 701 fires , 426 fires were started by humans and 215 by lightning .","qid":"133","docid":"2004_Alaska_wildfires","rank":14,"score":88797},{"content":"Title: Yellow-cedar decline Content: Yellow-cedar decline is the accelerated decline and mortality of Yellow-Cedar ( Chamaecyparis nootkatensis ) occurring in the Pacific Northwest Temperate Rainforest of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia in North America . This phenomena has been observed on over 200,000 hectares of forest and is believed to be due to reduced winter snowpacks and increased soil freezing .","qid":"133","docid":"Yellow-cedar_decline","rank":15,"score":86970},{"content":"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .","qid":"133","docid":"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry","rank":16,"score":86380},{"content":"Title: Alaska Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station Content: The Alaska Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station ( AFES ) was established in 1898 in Sitka , Alaska , also the site of the first agricultural experiment farm in what was then Alaska Territory . Today the station is administered by the University of Alaska Fairbanks through the School of Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences . Facilities and programs include the Fairbanks Experiment Farm ( est. 1906 ) , the Georgeson Botanical Garden , the Palmer Research and Extension Center , the Matanuska Experiment Farm , and the Reindeer Research Program . Research at AFES has concentrated on introducing vegetable cultivars appropriate to Alaska and developing adapted cultivars of grains , grasses , potatoes , and berries ( for example , strawberries and raspberries ) . Animal and poultry management was also important in early research , with studies on sheep , yaks , cattle , dairy cows , and swine over the years . Modern animal husbandry study at AFES is focused on reindeer and muskoxen , with some research on fisheries . Other research is in soils ( cryosols and carbon cycling studies , for example ) and climate change , revegetation , forest ecology and management , and rural and economic development , including energy and biomass research .","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska_Agricultural_and_Forestry_Experiment_Station","rank":17,"score":86069},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of meat production Content: The environmental impact of meat production varies because of the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world . All agricultural practices have been found to have a variety of effects on the environment . Some of the environmental effects that have been associated with meat production are pollution through fossil fuel usage , animal methane , effluent waste , and water and land consumption . Meat is obtained through a variety of methods , including organic farming , free range farming , intensive livestock production , subsistence agriculture , hunting , and fishing . The 2006 report Livestock 's Long Shadow , released by the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) of the United Nations , states that `` the livestock sector is a major stressor on many ecosystems and on the planet as a whole . Globally it is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases and one of the leading causal factors in the loss of biodiversity , while in developed and emerging countries it is perhaps the leading source of water pollution . '' ( In this and much other FAO usage , but not always elsewhere , poultry are included as `` livestock '' . ) Some fraction of these effects is assignable to non-meat components of the livestock sector such as the wool , egg and dairy industries , and to the livestock used for tillage . Livestock have been estimated to provide power for tillage of as much as half of the world 's cropland . According to production data compiled by the FAO , 74 percent of global livestock product tonnage in 2011 was accounted for by non-meat products such as wool , eggs and milk . Meat is also considered one of the prime factors contributing to the current sixth mass extinction .","qid":"133","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_meat_production","rank":18,"score":85959},{"content":"Title: Sitkinak Island Content: Sitkinak Island is an island of the Kodiak Archipelago of the state of Alaska , United States . It lies south of the southern tip of Kodiak Island in the western part of the Gulf of Alaska . Tugidak Island lies to its west . The two islands are the largest components of the Trinity Islands of Alaska . The Trinity Islands , and thus Sitkinak , are part of the Gulf of Alaska unit of Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge . Sitkinak Island has a land area of 235.506 km ² ( 90.929 sq mi ) and no resident population . Cattle Operation Bob Mudd runs a totally free range cattle operation with his son , Nathan . They have about 600 head which are slaughtered and processed on the island in late fall to sell as `` Beyond Organic '' beef . The unique herd of cattle have thrived on the eastern and western islands of Sitkinak since 1937 . It is one of the few pristine islands in the world to support this rare species of cattle . More information can be found at Alaska Meat Company , Sitkinak Webspace , and other websites that chronicle past military activity on Sitkinak . There is a healthy population of red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) on the island . Fox pelages varies widely with many cross individuals and cross variants .","qid":"133","docid":"Sitkinak_Island","rank":19,"score":85042},{"content":"Title: Alaska Department of Natural Resources Content: The Alaska Department of Natural Resources is a department within the government of Alaska . The Department 's mission is to responsibly develop Alaska 's resources by making them available for maximum use and benefit consistent with the public interest . The Department comprises seven Divisions : Division of Agriculture Division of Forestry Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys Division of Mining , Land and Water Division of Oil and Gas Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation Support Services Division","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska_Department_of_Natural_Resources","rank":20,"score":84988},{"content":"Title: Whale meat Content: Whale meat is the flesh of whales used for consumption by humans or other animals , and broadly includes other consumed parts as blubber , skin , and organs . It is prepared in various ways , and has historically been eaten in many parts of the world , including across Western Europe and Colonial America , and not necessarily restricted to coastal communities , since flesh and blubber can be salt-cured . Practice of whale consumption continues today in Japan , Norway , Iceland , Faroe Islands , South Korea , China , the Inuit and other indigenous peoples of the United States ( including the Makah people of the Pacific Northwest ) , Canada , Greenland ; the Chukchi people of Siberia , and in St. Vincent and the Grenadines ( mainly on the island of Bequia ) in the Caribbean . Human consumption of whale meat is controversial and has been denounced by detractors on wildlife conservation , toxicity , and animal rights grounds .","qid":"133","docid":"Whale_meat","rank":21,"score":84366},{"content":"Title: Wrangell–Saint Elias Wilderness Content: Wrangell -- Saint Elias Wilderness is a wilderness area in Alaska , United States . At 9078675 acre , it is the largest designated U.S. Wilderness Area , and lies within Wrangell -- St. Elias National Park and Preserve , the largest national park in the United States . It is a land of remote valleys , wild rivers , and a fabulous wildlife population that includes Dall sheep , grizzly bears , black bears , coyotes , bison , caribou , wolverines , moose , beavers , mountain goats , gray wolves , red foxes , and marmots . In the north the glaciated peaks drop to tundra and boreal forested uplands . In the south massive glaciers spread from the mountains almost to the Gulf of Alaska . Several trails provide foot or horse access , but large braided rivers often stop progress unless a packraft is used . The classic route across the wilderness links the gold-rush era settlement of Chisana with the copper-mining era community of McCarthy , via 100 mi of tundra , trails and gravel bars . Unmaintained trails lead through spruce forests near Chisana , across high tundra plains to the White River , below 16000 ft mountains over Skolai Pass , and into the Chitistone Gorge and Canyon with waterfalls to 1500 ft high . Mosquitoes are thick in the low country during the summer , and enough snow accumulates in the high country to make avalanches a year-round danger . On the Canadian side of the border lies Kluane National Park , and together these two areas house some of the continent 's most spectacular mountain landscapes .","qid":"133","docid":"Wrangell–Saint_Elias_Wilderness","rank":22,"score":84329},{"content":"Title: Adak Island Content: Adak Island ( Adaax ) is an island near the western extent of the Andreanof Islands group of the Aleutian Islands in Alaska . Alaska 's southernmost town , Adak , is located on the island . The island has a land area of 711.18 km2 , measuring 54.5 km on length and 35 km on width , making it the 25th largest island in the United States . Due to harsh winds , frequent cloud cover , and cold temperatures , vegetation is mostly tundra ( grasses , mosses , berries , low-lying flowering plants ) at lower elevations . The highest point is Mt. Moffett , near the northwest end of the island , at an elevation of 3,924 feet ( 1,196 m ) . It is snow covered the greater part of the year . Adak , Alaska is its largest and principal city . The word Adak is from the Aleut word adaq , which means `` father '' .","qid":"133","docid":"Adak_Island","rank":23,"score":83339},{"content":"Title: Geography of Alaska Content: Alaska is one of two U.S. states not bordered by another state ; Hawaii the other . Alaska has more ocean coastline than all of the other U.S. states combined . About 500 mi of Canadian territory separate Alaska from Washington State . Alaska is thus an exclave of the United States that is part of the continental U.S. but is not part of the contiguous U.S. Alaska is also the only state , other than Hawaii , whose capital city is accessible only via ship or air , because no roads connect Juneau to the rest of the continent . The state is bordered by Yukon and British Columbia , Canada to the east , the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south , the Bering Sea , Bering Strait , and Chukchi Sea to the west , and the Beaufort Sea and the Arctic Ocean to the north . Because it extends into the Eastern Hemisphere , it is technically both the westernmost and easternmost state in the United States , as well as also being the northernmost . Alaska is the largest state in the United States in terms of land area at 570,380 sqmi , over twice ( roughly 2.47 times ) as large as Texas , the next largest state . If the state 's westernmost point were superimposed on San Francisco , California , its easternmost point would be in Jacksonville , Florida . It is larger than all but 16 sovereign nations . Alaska is home to 3.5 million lakes of 20 acre or larger . Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover 188,320 sqmi ( mostly in northern , western and southwest flatlands ) . Frozen water , in the form of glacier ice , covers some 16,000 sqmi of land and 1,200 sqmi of tidal zone . The Bering Glacier complex near the southeastern border with Yukon , Canada , covers 2,250 sqmi alone .","qid":"133","docid":"Geography_of_Alaska","rank":24,"score":82665},{"content":"Title: Meat Content: Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food . Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times . The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens , sheep , pigs and cattle . This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses . Meat is mainly composed of water , protein , and fat . It is edible raw , but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways . Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria and fungi . Most often , meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues , but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal . Meat is sometimes also used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species ( pigs , cattle , lambs , etc. ) raised and prepared for human consumption , to the exclusion of fish , other seafood , poultry , or other animals .","qid":"133","docid":"Meat","rank":25,"score":82474},{"content":"Title: Alaska Content: Alaska ( -LSB- əˈlæskə -RSB- ) is a U.S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America . The Canadian administrative divisions of British Columbia and Yukon border the state to the east ; its most extreme western part is Attu Island ; it has a maritime border with Russia to the west across the Bering Strait . To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas -- the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean . The Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest . It is the largest state in the United States by area . In addition , it is the 3rd least populous and the most sparsely populated of the 50 United States ; nevertheless , it is by far the most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel in North America , its population ( the total estimated at 738,432 by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015 ) more than quadrupling the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland . Approximately half of Alaska 's residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area . Alaska 's economy is dominated by the fishing , natural gas , and oil industries , resources which it has in abundance . Military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy . The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30 , 1867 , for 7.2 million U.S. dollars at approximately two cents per acre ( $ 4.74 / km2 ) . The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11 , 1912 . It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3 , 1959 .","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska","rank":26,"score":82294},{"content":"Title: Poker Flat Research Range Content: The Poker Flat Research Range ( PFRR ) is a launch facility and rocket range for sounding rockets in the U.S. state of Alaska . The world 's largest land-based rocket range , it is on a 5132 acre site about 30 miles ( 50 km ) northeast of Fairbanks . More than 1,700 launches have been conducted at the range to study the Earth 's atmosphere and the interaction between the atmosphere and the space environment . Areas studied at PFRR include the aurora , plasma physics , the ozone layer , solar proton events , Earth 's magnetic field , and ultraviolet radiation . PFRR is owned by the University of Alaska Fairbanks ( UAF ) Geophysical Institute , which operates it under contract to the NASA Wallops Flight Facility . Other users include the United States Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) , the Air Force Geophysics Lab ( AFGL ) , and various universities and research laboratories . Since its founding in 1948 , PFRR has been closely aligned with and funded by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency and its predecessor , the Defense Nuclear Agency ( DNA ) .","qid":"133","docid":"Poker_Flat_Research_Range","rank":27,"score":82196},{"content":"Title: Gardening in Alaska Content: Agriculture in Alaska has become more popular and more acceptable as a general idea . Although agriculture in Alaska poses many challenges , largely due to the climate , the short growing season , and generally poor soils for agriculture , there have been a number of recent successes in agriculture and gardening in Alaska . Knowledge of appropriate northern climate crops , as well as tips and tricks for the northern climate conditions will greatly enhance a gardener 's chance of success in Alaska . Additionally , there are a number of local and regional resources available to gardeners in Alaska , which are mentioned at the bottom of this article .","qid":"133","docid":"Gardening_in_Alaska","rank":28,"score":82192},{"content":"Title: Seal meat Content: Seal meat is the flesh , including the blubber and organs , of seals used as food for humans or other animals . It is prepared in numerous ways , often being hung and dried before consumption . Historically , it has been eaten in many parts of the world , both as a part of a normal diet , and as sustenance . The blubber is fed to chickens in the United States . Practice of human consumption continues today in Japan , Norway , Iceland , Faroe Islands , the Inuit and other indigenous peoples of the United States ( including the Makah people of the Pacific Northwest ) , Canada , Greenland ; the Chukchi people of Siberia , and Bequia in the Caribbean Sea .","qid":"133","docid":"Seal_meat","rank":29,"score":81799},{"content":"Title: Alaska salmon fishery Content: The Alaska salmon fishery was saved due to strict mitigation measures and the implementation of policies . Alaska 's successful conservation of their salmon resources is reflected in recent healthy and abundant salmon runs . Currently , the harvest in Alaska represents about 80 % of the total wild-caught North American harvest of salmon , harvests from Canada representing about 15 % , and harvests from Pacific Northwest states representing about 5 % .","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska_salmon_fishery","rank":30,"score":81659},{"content":"Title: Aquaculture in Alaska Content: Aquaculture in Alaska is dominated by the production shellfish and aquatic plants . These include Pacific oysters , blue mussels , littleneck clams , scallops , and bull kelp . Finfish farming has been prohibited in Alaska by the 16.40.210 Alaskan statute , however non-profit mariculture continues to provide a steady supply of aquaculture in the state . Many organizations that helped the ban , now encourage the growing of shellfish and other oysters .","qid":"133","docid":"Aquaculture_in_Alaska","rank":31,"score":80903},{"content":"Title: Land use statistics by country Content: This article includes the table with land use statistics by country . Countries are sorted by their total cultivated land area which is a sum of total arable land area and total area of permanent crops . Arable land is a land cultivated for crops like wheat , maize , and rice that are replanted after each harvest ; permanent crops land is a land cultivated for crops like citrus , coffee , and rubber that are not replanted after each harvest ; this also includes land under flowering shrubs , fruit trees , nut trees , and vines , but excludes land under trees grown for wood or timber . Other lands are any lands not arable or under permanent crops ; this includes permanent meadows and pastures , forests and woodlands , built-on areas , roads , barren land , etc. . Percentage figures for arable land , permanent crops land and other lands are all taken from CIA World Factbook as well as total land area figures ( note that total area of a country is a sum of total land area and total water area ) . All other figures , including total cultivated land area , are calculated on the basis of this mentioned data .","qid":"133","docid":"Land_use_statistics_by_country","rank":32,"score":80541},{"content":"Title: Afognak Content: Afognak ( Alutiiq : Agw ' aneq ) is an island 5 km north of Kodiak Island in the U.S. state of Alaska . It is 43 miles from east to west and 23 miles from north to south and has a land area of 1,812.58 km2 , making it the 18th largest island in the United States . The coast is split by many long , narrow bays . The highest point is 2,546 feet . The dense spruce forests of Afognak are home to brown bears , Roosevelt elk and Sitka black-tailed deer . Many people visit the island recreationally for hunting and fishing .","qid":"133","docid":"Afognak","rank":33,"score":80398},{"content":"Title: Solar power in Alaska Content: Solar power in Alaska has been primarily used in remote locations , such as the Nenana Teen Center near Fairbanks , where long summer days provide most of the electricity generated . In 2015 , Alaska ranked 45th in installed solar among U.S. states . Rooftop solar panels could provide 23 % of all electricity used in Alaska . Net metering is available for PV systems up to 25 kW but is limited to 1.5 % of average demand . IREC best practices , based on experience , recommends no limits to net metering , individual or aggregate , and perpetual roll over of kWh credits . In 2011 , Alaska 's largest solar array was the 17.28 kW array installed on a building in Anchorage . A 12 kW solar array installed in Lime Village in July 2001 helped reduce electricity costs . Annual insolation and thus power production per capacity installed is similar in Alaska to central Europe , where Germany became a leader in worldwide solar power use in the years around 2010 .","qid":"133","docid":"Solar_power_in_Alaska","rank":34,"score":80072},{"content":"Title: Afognak Forest Content: Afognak Forest and Fish Culture was established by the General Land Office in Alaska on December 24 , 1892 as a forest preserve . It covered 403640 acre in 1905 , when the forest reserves were transferred to the U.S. Forest Service . On July 1 , 1908 the entire forest was combined with Chugach National Forest and the name was discontinued .","qid":"133","docid":"Afognak_Forest","rank":35,"score":79979},{"content":"Title: Innoko National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Innoko National Wildlife Refuge is a national wildlife refuge of the United States located in western Alaska . It consists of 3,850,481 acres ( 15,582 km2 ) , of which 1,240,000 acres ( 5,018 km2 ) is designated a wilderness area . It is the fifth-largest national wildlife refuge in the United States . The refuge is administered from offices in Galena . The refuge was established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . The northern part of the refuge , called Kaiyuh Flats , is adjacent to the Yukon River southwest of Galena . It contains 751,000 acres ( 3,040 km2 ) . The southern part contains approximately 3,099,000 acres ( 12,540 km2 ) of land surrounding the Innoko River . The land is swampy and is the nesting area for hundreds of thousands of birds including ospreys , northern hawk-owls , trumpeter swans , bald eagles , common ravens , short-eared owls , and red-tailed hawks . Mammalian species that habitat this refuge are brown and black bears , Alaskan moose , wolf packs , Canadian lynx , marten , porcupine , beaver , river otter , red fox , wolverine , muskrat , and mink . The refuge has no road access from outside and contains no roads . Air access can be arranged in McGrath .","qid":"133","docid":"Innoko_National_Wildlife_Refuge","rank":36,"score":79636},{"content":"Title: List of largest National Wildlife Refuges Content: Here is a list of the 67 largest National Wildlife Refuges in the 50 United States . It includes all that are larger than 50,000 acres ( 200 km ² ) , and excludes those in U.S. territories ( also officially in the system ) . Acreage/Area includes water as well as land areas . Statistics are as of 30 September 2007 . The eleven largest NWRs are all in the state of Alaska .","qid":"133","docid":"List_of_largest_National_Wildlife_Refuges","rank":37,"score":79587},{"content":"Title: Heliciculture Content: Heliciculture , also known as heliculture , commonly known as snail farming , is the process of raising land snails specifically for human use , either to use their flesh as edible escargot , or more recently , to obtain snail slime for use in cosmetics , or snail eggs for human consumption as a type of caviar . Perhaps the best known edible land snail species in the Western world is Helix pomatia ( also known as Roman snail or Burgundy snail ) . This snail is located throughout much of Europe . Helix aspersa , being next most known , were found originally in the Mediterranean region . Helix aspera are now common in many parts of North America , Central America , and Australasia .","qid":"133","docid":"Heliciculture","rank":38,"score":79420},{"content":"Title: Minto Flats South Fire Content: The Minto Flats South Fire was a large lightning-caused wildfire in Interior Alaska south of Fairbanks that ignited in late June 2009 . It was by far the largest in what was termed the `` Railbelt complex '' of fires , so named because they were all near the main route of the Alaska Railroad . By July 16 it had burned more than 156469 acre . Alaska was experiencing an unusually hot and dry start to the summer season , which in turn led to a very active wildfire season . By the time the Minto Flats fire had become the largest fire in Alaska , over seventy other blazes were active throughout the state , stretching resources to their limits . The main body of the fire was deemed too large to actually try to extinguish , and firefighting efforts were focused from the beginning on protecting lives and property . In mid July it had grown to over 20000 acres , and was rapidly expanding along its souther edge ; smokejumpers were deployed to protect cabins along the Teklanika River near Nenana . There is also an oil drilling rig in this area , and firefighters cleared the area surrounding it of fuel and instructed the drilling crew on the use of firefighting equipment . By the end of July , over 350 persons were involved in the firefighting effort , and continued hot , dry weather had helped the fire grow to over 300000 acres . The fire was not declared under control until late August .","qid":"133","docid":"Minto_Flats_South_Fire","rank":39,"score":79280},{"content":"Title: Agricultural land Content: Agricultural land is typically land devoted to agriculture , the systematic and controlled use of other forms of lifeparticularly the rearing of livestock and production of cropsto produce food for humans . It is thus generally synonymous with farmland or cropland . The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and others following its definitions , however , also use agricultural land or as a term of art , where it means the collection of : `` arable land '' ( a.k.a. cropland ) : here redefined to refer to land producing crops requiring annual replanting or fallowland or pasture used for such crops within any five-year period `` permanent cropland '' : land producing crops which do not require annual replanting permanent pastures : natural or artificial grasslands and shrublands able to be used for grazing livestock This sense of `` agricultural land '' thus includes a great deal of land not devoted to agricultural use . The land actually under annually-replanted crops in any given year is instead said to constitute or `` Permanent cropland '' includes forested plantations used to harvest coffee , rubber , or fruit but not tree farms or proper forests used for wood or timber . Land able to be used for farming is called . Farmland , meanwhile , is used variously in reference to all agricultural land , to all cultivable land , or just to the newly restricted sense of `` arable land '' . Depending upon its use of artificial irrigation , the FAO 's `` agricultural land '' may be divided into irrigated and non-irrigated land . In the context of zoning , agricultural land or agriculturally-zoned land refers to plots that are permitted to be used for agricultural activities , without regard to its present use or even suitability . In some areas , agricultural land is protected so that it can be farmed without any threat of development . The Agricultural Land Reserve in British Columbia in Canada , for instance , requires approval from its Agricultural Land Commission before its lands can be removed or subdivided .","qid":"133","docid":"Agricultural_land","rank":40,"score":78770},{"content":"Title: Inventoried roadless area Content: Inventoried Roadless Areas are a group of United States Forest Service lands that have been identified by government reviews as lands without existing roads that could be suitable for roadless area conservation as wilderness or other non-standard protections . The Inventoried Roadless areas include approximately 60000000 acre of land in 40 states and Puerto Rico . Most of these lands are in the western portion of the lower 48 states and Alaska . Idaho alone contains over 9 e6acre of inventoried roadless areas . The inventoried roadless areas range from large unroaded areas with wilderness characteristics to small tracts of land that are immediately adjacent to wilderness areas , parks and other protected lands .","qid":"133","docid":"Inventoried_roadless_area","rank":41,"score":78691},{"content":"Title: Deforestation in Thailand Content: Between 1945 and 1975 forest cover in Thailand declined from 61 percent to 34 percent of the country 's land area . Over the succeeding 11 years , Thailand lost close to 28 percent of all of its remaining forests . This means that the country lost 3.1 percent of its forest cover each year over that period . An estimate by the World Wildlife Fund concluded that between 1973 and 2009 , Thailand 's forests declined by 43 percent . The Thai Highlands in northern Thailand , the most heavily forested region of the country , were not subject to central government control and settlement until the second half of the 19th century when British timber firms , notably the Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation and the Borneo Company Limited , entered the teak trade in the late-1880s and early-1890s . The Royal Forest Department , created in 1896 and headed by a British forester until 1925 , sought to conserve the forests against the worst business practices of British , Thai , and Chinese timber firms who worked in the region . During the 20th century , deforestation in Thailand was driven primarily by agricultural expansion , although teak deforestation happened as a direct result of timber-cutting . Much of Thailand 's recent economic improvement can be attributed to increased agricultural production for export . The country was able to increase production by clearing much of their forest and converting it to cropland . The Thai government is beginning to emphasize forest restoration .","qid":"133","docid":"Deforestation_in_Thailand","rank":42,"score":78629},{"content":"Title: University of Alaska Fairbanks Content: The University of Alaska Fairbanks ( also referred to as UAF or Alaska ) is a public research university in Fairbanks , Alaska , United States . It is a flagship campus of the University of Alaska System . UAF is a land-grant , sea-grant , and space-grant institution , and it also participates in the sun-grant program through Oregon State University . UAF was established in 1917 and opened for classes in 1922 . UAF was originally named Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines and later as the University of Alaska from 1925 to 1975 . UAF is home to seven major research units : the Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station ; the Geophysical Institute , which operates the Poker Flat Research Range ; the International Arctic Research Center ; the Arctic Region Supercomputing Center ; the Institute of Arctic Biology ; the Institute of Marine Science ; and the Institute of Northern Engineering . Located just 200 miles ( 320 km ) south of the Arctic Circle , the Fairbanks campus ' unique location is situated favorably for arctic and northern research . The campus ' several lines of research are renowned worldwide , most notably arctic biology , arctic engineering , geophysics , supercomputing and Native Studies . The University of Alaska Museum of the North is also on the Fairbanks campus . In addition to the Fairbanks campus , UAF encompasses seven rural and urban campuses : Bristol Bay Campus in Dillingham ; Chukchi Campus in Kotzebue ; Interior-Aleutians Campus , which covers both the Aleutian Islands and the Interior ; Kuskokwim Campus in Bethel ; Northwest Campus in Nome ; and the UAF Community and Technical College in Fairbanks , UAF 's community college arm . Fairbanks is also the home of the eLearning and Distance Education , an independent learning and distance delivery program . In fall 2013 , UAF enrolled 10,214 students . Of those students , 59.3 percent were female and 40.7 percent were male ; 88 percent were undergraduates , and 12 percent were graduate students . As of May 2013 , 1,288 students had graduated during the immediately preceding summer , fall and spring semesters .","qid":"133","docid":"University_of_Alaska_Fairbanks","rank":43,"score":78513},{"content":"Title: Economy of Alaska Content: The 2007 gross state product was $ 44.9 billion , 45th in the nation . Its per capita personal income for 2007 was $ 40,042 , ranking 15th in the nation . The state 's economy has been described by University of Alaska Anchorage economist Scott Goldsmith as a `` three-legged stool '' - with one leg being the petroleum and gas industry , the second leg being the federal government and the third leg being all other industries and services . Between 2004 and 2006 , the federal government was responsible for 135,000 Alaska jobs , the petroleum sector provided 110,000 jobs and all other industries and services combined for 122,000 jobs . Alaska 's main export product after oil and natural gas is seafood , primarily salmon , cod , Pollock and crab . Agriculture represents only a fraction of the Alaskan economy . Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock , dairy products , vegetables , and livestock . Manufacturing is limited , with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere . Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction , shipping , and transportation . Military bases are a significant component of the economy in both Fairbanks and Anchorage . Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy , allowing the state to keep taxes low . Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum , natural gas , coal , gold , precious metals , zinc and other mining , seafood processing , timber and wood products . There is also a growing service and tourism sector . Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging .","qid":"133","docid":"Economy_of_Alaska","rank":44,"score":78447},{"content":"Title: Glacier Bay Basin Content: Glacier Bay Basin in southeastern Alaska , in the United States , encompasses the Glacier Bay and surrounding mountains and glaciers , which was first proclaimed a U.S. National Monument on February 25 , 1925 , and which was later , on December 2 , 1980 , enlarged and designated as the Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act , covering an area of 3,283,000 acres ( 1,329,000 ha ) . In 1986 , UNESCO declared an area of 57,000 acres ( 23,000 ha ) within a World Biosphere Reserve . This is the largest UNESCO protected biosphere in the world . In 1992 , UNESCO included this area as a part of a World Heritage site , extending over an area of 24,300,000-acre ( 98,000 km2 ) which also included the Wrangell-St . Elias National Park , Kluane National Park ( Canada ) and Tatshenshini-Alsek Park ( Canada ) . Part of the National Park is also designated a Wilderness area covering 2,658,000 acres ( 1,076,000 ha ) . Current glaciers cover an area 1,375 square miles ( 3,560 km2 ) and accounts for 27 % of the Park area . Up until the early 1700s the area was a large single glacier of solid ice . It has since retreated and evolved into the largest protected water area park in the world . Glacier Bay , on the Gulf of Alaska , was known as the Grand Pacific Glacier , about 4,000 feet ( 1,200 m ) thick and around 20 miles ( 32 km ) in width . Over the last 200 years the glaciers have retreated , exposing 65 miles ( 105 km ) of ocean , and in this process left 20 separate other glaciers in its trail . In 1890 , the name `` Glacier Bay '' as such was given to the bay by Captain Lester A. Beardslee of the U.S. Navy . It was first proclaimed a U.S. National Monument on February 25 , 1925 , by President Calvin Coolidge . The Glacier Bay has many branches , inlets , lagoons , islands , and channels that holds prospects for scientific exploration and visual treat . Thus , the area is popular as a cruise ship destination during summer season . However , there are restrictions imposed by the National Park Service on the numbers of vessels that can operate in a day to 2 cruise ships , 3 tour boats , 6 charter vessels , and 25 private vessels . According to National Park Service statistics for calendar year 2009 , 444,653 people visited Glacier Bay , with 422,919 of those being cruise ship passengers .","qid":"133","docid":"Glacier_Bay_Basin","rank":45,"score":78396},{"content":"Title: Alaska's at-large congressional district Content: Alaska 's at-large Congressional District is the sole congressional district for the state of Alaska . Based on area , it is the largest congressional district in the nation and is one of the largest electoral districts in the world . The district has been represented by Republican Don Young since March 6 , 1973 .","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska's_at-large_congressional_district","rank":46,"score":78358},{"content":"Title: Meat Atlas Content: Meat Atlas ( Der Fleischatlas ) is an annual report , published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe , on the methods and impact of industrial animal agriculture . Consisting of 27 short essays by different authors , the report aims to inform consumers about the impact of meat consumption on global poverty , climate change , animal welfare , biodiversity , and the migration of workers . Meat Atlas was first published in German in 2013 , and in German and English in 2014 , both under a Creative Commons license ( CC BY-SA 3.0 ) . The executive editors are Christine Chemnitz of the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Stanka Becheva of Friends of the Earth Europe .","qid":"133","docid":"Meat_Atlas","rank":47,"score":78129},{"content":"Title: List of census-designated places in Alaska Content: Alaska is a state situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent . According to the 2010 United States Census , Alaska is the 3rd least populous state with 736,732 inhabitants but is the largest by land area spanning 665,384.04 sqmi of land . Alaska has 204 census-designated places and six former census-designated places . Changes for 2010 include the addition of twelve new census-designated places : Badger , Chena Ridge , Eureka Roadhouse , Farmers Loop , Goldstream , Loring , Mertarvik , Nabesna , Point Possession , South Van Horn , Steele Creek , and Whitestone . Six former census-designated places counted for the 2000 census were included in 2010 : Alpine , Copperville ( merged into Tazlina CDP ) , Cube Cove , Miller Landing ( annexed to Homer city ) , Meyers Chuck and Thoms Place ( both incorporated into Wrangell city and borough ) . Two former CDPs became cities : Adak ( incorporated in 2001 ) and Gustavus ( incorporated in 2004 ) . Skagway ( disincorporated in 2007 ) is now a census-designated places . Finally , one census-designated place has a new name : Y is now Susitna North .","qid":"133","docid":"List_of_census-designated_places_in_Alaska","rank":48,"score":78026},{"content":"Title: Wind power in Alaska Content: Wind power in Alaska has the potential to provide all of the electricity used in the U.S. state of Alaska . From its installation , in July 2009 through October 2012 , the Pillar Mountain Wind 4.5 MW wind farm has saved the use of nearly 3,000,000 gallons of diesel fuel in Kodiak , Alaska .","qid":"133","docid":"Wind_power_in_Alaska","rank":49,"score":77885},{"content":"Title: Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ( ANWR or Arctic Refuge ) is a national wildlife refuge in northeastern Alaska , United States . It consists of 19286722 acre in the Alaska North Slope region . It is the largest National Wildlife Refuge in the country , slightly larger than the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge . The refuge is administered from offices in Fairbanks . Just across the border in Yukon , Canada , are two Canadian National Parks , Ivvavik and Vuntut .","qid":"133","docid":"Arctic_National_Wildlife_Refuge","rank":50,"score":77834},{"content":"Title: Sustainability and environmental management Content: At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , according to sustainability principles . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles . Management of the Earth 's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms .","qid":"133","docid":"Sustainability_and_environmental_management","rank":51,"score":77779},{"content":"Title: Major Land Resource Areas Content: In United States conservation policy , Major Land Resource Areas ( MLRA ) are geographically associated land resource units delineated by the Natural Resources Conservation Service and characterized by a particular pattern that combines soils , water , climate , vegetation , land use , and type of farming . There are 204 MLRAs in the United States , ranging in size from less than 500000 acres to more than 60 e6acre .","qid":"133","docid":"Major_Land_Resource_Areas","rank":52,"score":77635},{"content":"Title: Unga Island Content: Unga Island ( Uĝnaasaqax̂ in Aleut ) is the largest of the Shumagin Islands off the Alaska Peninsula in southwestern Alaska , United States . The island has a land area of 170.73 sq mi ( 442.188 km ² ) , making it the 35th largest island in the United States . As of the 2000 census , it had a permanent population of one . Unga Island was formerly named Grekodelarovskoe ( Greek Delarov ) for Evstratii Ivanovich Delarov who explored the area in the late 18th century on behalf of the Russian-American Company .","qid":"133","docid":"Unga_Island","rank":53,"score":77125},{"content":"Title: Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Content: Prudhoe Bay Oil Field is a large oil field on Alaska 's North Slope . It is the largest oil field in both the United States and in North America , covering 213543 acre and originally containing approximately 25 Goilbbl of oil . The amount of recoverable oil in the field is more than double that of the next largest field in the United States , the East Texas oil field . The field is operated by BP ; partners are ExxonMobil and ConocoPhillips Alaska .","qid":"133","docid":"Prudhoe_Bay_Oil_Field","rank":54,"score":77035},{"content":"Title: Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Content: The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act ( ANCSA ) was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 18 , 1971 , constituting at the time the largest land claims settlement in United States history . ANCSA was intended to resolve long-standing issues surrounding aboriginal land claims in Alaska , as well as to stimulate economic development throughout Alaska . The settlement established Alaska Native claims to the land by transferring titles to twelve Alaska Native regional corporations and over 200 local village corporations . A thirteenth regional corporation was later created for Alaska Natives who no longer resided in Alaska . The act is codified as 43 U.S.C. 1601 et seq. .","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act","rank":55,"score":77024},{"content":"Title: Southeast Alaska Conservation Council Content: The Southeast Alaska Conservation Council ( SEACC ) is a non-profit organization that focusses on protecting the lands and waters of Southeast Alaska . They promote conservation and advocate for sustainable natural resource management . SEACC is located in Alaska 's capital : Juneau . The environmental organization focuses specifically on concerns in the Southeast region of Alaska : including the Panhandle , the Tongass National Forest and the Inside Passage .","qid":"133","docid":"Southeast_Alaska_Conservation_Council","rank":56,"score":77017},{"content":"Title: Selawik National Wildlife Refuge Content: Selawik National Wildlife Refuge in northwest Alaska in the Waring Mountains was officially established in 1980 with the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act ( ANILCA ) . The 3,400 square mile ( 8,700 km ² ) refuge is situated on the Arctic Circle to the east of Kotzebue Sound . It is bounded on the north by the Waring Mountains and Kobuk Valley National Park ; and to the south by the Selawik Hills and the Purcell Mountains . Refuge lands extend eastward toward the headwaters of the Selawik River and the Continental Divide . The refuge is administered from offices in Kotzebue . Some of the land includes alpine tundra , arctic tundra , taiga , lake and wetland complexes , large river deltas , open grass and sedge meadows , and previously glaciated mountains and river valleys . Rolling , vegetated sand dunes were formed by the last retreat of the glaciers . These dunes are the remnant of a much larger system that once included the Great Kobuk Sand Dunes to the north . This area is a transition zone where the northernmost boreal forests give way to open Arctic tundra . The Selawik and Kobuk River deltas , located on the eastern shores of Selawik Lake and Hotham Inlet ( Kobuk Lake ) , provide habitat for migratory bird species . The complex array of freshwater and brackish lakes , riparian areas , and wet meadows , provide habitat and large , undisturbed , tracts for a variety of wildlife species . The approximately 21,000 lakes that occur on refuge lowlands create a large Arctic tundra lake complex .","qid":"133","docid":"Selawik_National_Wildlife_Refuge","rank":57,"score":77011},{"content":"Title: Izembek Wilderness Content: Izembek Wilderness is a 307982 acre wilderness area in a coastal region of the U.S. state of Alaska panhandle , facing Bristol Bay . Located within the 315000 acre Izembek National Wildlife Refuge , all of the land has been designated Wilderness , with the exception of that along a gravel road system and several private holdings . The area was designated wilderness in 1980 with the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act .","qid":"133","docid":"Izembek_Wilderness","rank":58,"score":76874},{"content":"Title: Alaska Botanical Garden Content: The Alaska Botanical Garden is a 110-acre ( 44.5-ha ) botanical garden located at 4601 Campbell Airstrip Road , Anchorage , Alaska , United States . It is an independent non-profit organization which opened in 1993 , is open year-round , and charges admission to support its mission . The mission of the Garden it to enhance the beauty and value of plant material through education , preservation , recreation and research . The Garden 's land consists mainly of spruce and birch forest . It features 8 developed demonstration gardens and a special location for Junior Master Gardeners . 80 acres of the 110 acre site is fenced to protect these gardens from moose . The gardens include : Over 1,100 species of perennials in the Upper and Lower Perennial Gardens ( of which some 150 are native to Alaska ) An herb garden A rock garden with over 350 types of alpine plants A wildflower walk The 1.1-mile ( 1.8-km ) Lowenfels Family Nature Trail","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska_Botanical_Garden","rank":59,"score":76763},{"content":"Title: Natural gas in Alaska Content: The State of Alaska is both a producer and consumer of natural gas . In 2006 , Alaska consumed 180.4 Bcf of natural gas . Alaskan gas wells are located in two regions . The largest source is the North Slope area around Prudhoe Bay where gas was discovered along with oil in 1968 . In 1974 the State of Alaska 's Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys estimated that the field held 26 Tcuft of natural gas . Because there is no way to transport the Prudhoe Bay gas to markets , as gas comes out of the wells , it is separated from the oil stream and reinjected into the ground to maintain the oil reservoir pressures . There are several proposals to transport the Prudhoe Bay gas . See , Alaska Gas Pipeline . The second source is located on the Kenai Peninsula on the South coast of Alaska . There are probable gas reserves of 1,726.4 Bcf in this area . Most of this gas is exported to Japan through a liquefied natural gas terminal located on the Cook Inlet . The Cook Inlet basin contains large oil and gas deposits including several offshore fields . As of 2005 there were 16 platforms in Cook Inlet , the oldest of which is the XTO A platform first installed by Shell in 1964 , and newest of which is the Kitchen Lights Unit platform installed by Crowley and supported by the German engineering and project management companies Heavylift@Sea,Overdick and Projektbox installed in 2015 . Most of the platforms are operated by Union Oil which was acquired by Chevron in 2005 . There are also numerous oil and gas pipelines running around and under the Cook Inlet . The main destinations of the gas pipelines are to Kenai where the gas is primarily used to fuel commercial fertilizer production and a liquified natural gas ( LNG ) plant and to Anchorage where the gas is consumed largely for domestic uses . ConocoPhillips and Marathon operate the LNG terminal under a series of two-year-long licenses issued by the U.S. Department of Energy under Section 3 of the Natural Gas Act . When these companies applied for another two-year extension of the license , various Alaskan entities , including the local fertizer plant opposed the application on the grounds that there was not sufficient gas to meet local requirements as well as the proposed exports . The Agrium fertilizer plant claimed it closed because it could not obtain a gas supply . On June 3 , 2008 , the Department of Energy granted the extension having found that there were sufficient supplies for Alaska 's needs . On 22 July 2014 , the Alaska LNG project submitted an application to export LNG to the US Department of Energy ( DOE ) . ExxonMobil has confirmed that the Alaska LNG project will seek to export up to 20 million tpa of LNG . The project will export LNG for a period of 30 years to countries that have existing free trade agreements ( FTA ) with the US , as well as to non-FTA countries . The project is anticipated to create up to 15,000 jobs during construction and approximately 1000 jobs for operation of the project . ExxonMobil has confirmed that the Alaska LNG project will seek to export up to 20 million tpa of LNG . The LNG project will export LNG for a period of 30 years to countries that have existing free trade agreements ( FTA ) with the US , as well as to non-FTA countries . The Alaska LNG project participants are the Alaska Gasline Development Corp. ( AGDC ) and affiliates of TransCanada , BP , ConocoPhillips , and ExxonMobil . The LNG project is now in the pre-front-end engineering and design phase , which is expected to be completed in 2016 .","qid":"133","docid":"Natural_gas_in_Alaska","rank":60,"score":76527},{"content":"Title: List of turkey meat producing companies in the United States Content: The United States is the world largest exporter of turkey and related products . Nearly 361,884 metric tons ( MT ) of turkey meat has been exported in 2012 . In comparison with 2011 , the industry had experienced 14 percent growth . In 2013 the turkey products were valued at nearly $ 678.9 million . 13 percent increase from 2012 . The dominant market for U.S. turkey meat is Mexico . It has been purchasing meat valued at nearly $ 372.6 million and accounting for 55 percent of turkey exports . The second largest market for U.S. turkey , purchasing more than $ 70.5 million of meat , is China . Canada and Hong Kong were other significant markets for U.S. turkey meat . ( FAS 2012 ) The United States imports a notably small percent of turkey meat ( $ 31.8 million in 2012 ) , mostly from Chile and Canada . ( FAS 2012 ) There is a list of turkey meat producing companies in the United States .","qid":"133","docid":"List_of_turkey_meat_producing_companies_in_the_United_States","rank":61,"score":76397},{"content":"Title: List of the largest counties in the United States by area Content: This is a list of the 100 largest counties in the United States by area . The list is based upon the total area of a county , both land and water surface , reported by the United States Census Bureau during the 2000 Census . Alaska is not divided into counties . A different ranking becomes apparent when comparing county areas by land area alone as opposed to total area . Some counties , such as Keweenaw and Alger Counties in Michigan , include significant amounts of water in their total area and would not appear on a list that considered land area alone . This list also includes the four counties that would be included when water area is not included .","qid":"133","docid":"List_of_the_largest_counties_in_the_United_States_by_area","rank":62,"score":76311},{"content":"Title: Sea otter conservation Content: Modern efforts in sea otter conservation began in the early 19th century , when the sea otter was nearly extinct due to large-scale commercial hunting . The sea otter was once abundant in a wide arc across the North Pacific ocean , from northern Japan to Alaska to Mexico . By 1911 , hunting for the animal 's luxurious fur had reduced the sea otter population to fewer than 2000 individuals in the most remote and inaccessible parts of its range . During the 20th century , sea otter populations recovered from remnant populations in the far east of Russia , western Alaska , and California . Beginning in the 1960s , efforts to translocate sea otters to previously populated areas were also successful in restoring sea otters to other parts of the west coast of North America . Populations in some areas are now thriving , and the recovery of the sea otter is considered one of the greatest successes in marine conservation . In two important parts of its range , however , sea otter populations have recently declined or have plateaued at depressed levels . In the Aleutian Islands , a massive and unexpected disappearance of sea otters has occurred in recent decades . The cause of the decline is not known , although the observed pattern of disappearances is consistent with a rise in orca predation . Sea otters give live birth . In the 1990s , California 's sea otter population stopped growing for reasons that are probably different from the difficulties facing Alaska 's otters . A high prevalence of infectious disease in juveniles and adults has been found to cause many sea otter deaths , however it is not known why California sea otters would be more vulnerable to disease than populations elsewhere . Other threats to sea otters are well-known . In particular , sea otters are highly vulnerable to oil spills , and a major spill can rapidly kill thousands of the animals . The IUCN lists the sea otter as an endangered species .","qid":"133","docid":"Sea_otter_conservation","rank":63,"score":76208},{"content":"Title: List of cities in Alaska Content: Alaska is a state of the United States situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent . According to the 2010 United States Census , Alaska is the 4th least populous state with 710,231 inhabitants but is the largest by land area spanning 570640.95 sqmi . , Alaska has 148 incorporated cities : four unified home rule municipalities , which are considered both boroughs and cities , ten home rule cities , nineteen first class cities and 115 second class cities . As reflected in the 2010 Census , Alaska 's incorporated cities cover only of the territory 's land mass but are home to of its population . The majority of the incorporated land mass consists of the four unified municipalities , each over 1700 sqmi in size . Only two other cities have an incorporated area exceeding 100 sqmi : Unalaska , which includes the fishing port of Dutch Harbor , and Valdez , which includes the terminus of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System . Incorporated cities in Alaska are categorized as either `` general law '' ( subdivided into `` first class '' and `` second class '' ) or `` home rule '' . Home rule cities occur when a community establishes a commission to draft a charter , which is then ratified by voters at an election . Home rule cities have all legislative powers not prohibited by law or charter . The powers and functions of general law cities are defined by Alaska state laws . Title 29 of the Alaska Statutes , which covers municipal government , requires that a community must have at least 400 permanent residents to incorporate as a home rule or first class city . This status does not diminish if a city 's population declines ; one home rule city ( Nenana ) and four first class cities ( Hydaburg , Pelican , Seldovia and Tanana ) reported populations falling below that threshold in the 2010 Census .","qid":"133","docid":"List_of_cities_in_Alaska","rank":64,"score":76083},{"content":"Title: Southeast Alaska Content: Southeast Alaska , sometimes referred to as the Alaska Panhandle , is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska , which lies west from the northern half of the Canadian province , British Columbia . The majority of Southeast Alaska 's area is part of the Tongass National Forest , the United States ' largest national forest . In many places , the international border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains ( see Alaska boundary dispute ) . The region is noted for its scenery and mild rainy climate .","qid":"133","docid":"Southeast_Alaska","rank":65,"score":75965},{"content":"Title: Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve Content: Wrangell -- St. Elias National Park and Preserve is a United States national park and national preserve managed by the National Park Service in south central Alaska . The park and preserve was established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . This protected area is included in an International Biosphere Reserve and is part of the Kluane/Wrangell -- St. Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek UNESCO World Heritage Site . The park and preserve form the largest area managed by the National Park Service in the United States by area with a total of 13175799 acre , an expanse that could encapsulate a total of six Yellowstone National Parks . The park includes a large portion of the Saint Elias Mountains , which include most of the highest peaks in the United States and Canada , yet are within 10 mi of tidewater , one of the highest reliefs in the world . Wrangell -- St. Elias borders on Canada 's Kluane National Park and Reserve to the east and approaches the U.S. Glacier Bay National Park to the south . The chief distinction between park and preserve lands is that sport hunting is prohibited in the park and permitted in the preserve . In addition , 9078675 acre of the park are designated as the largest single wilderness in the United States . Wrangell -- St. Elias National Monument was initially designated on December 1 , 1978 , by President Jimmy Carter using the Antiquities Act , pending final legislation to resolve the allotment of public lands in Alaska . Establishment as a national park and preserve followed the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 . The park , which is bigger than the country Switzerland , has long , extremely cold winters and a short summer season . It supports a variety of large mammals in an environment defined by relative land elevation . Plate tectonics are responsible for the uplift of the mountain ranges that cross the park . The park 's extreme high point is Mount St. Elias at 18008 ft , the second tallest mountain in both the United States and Canada . The park has been shaped by the competing forces of volcanism and glaciation . Mount Wrangell is an active volcano , one of several volcanoes in the western Wrangell Mountains . In the St. Elias Range Mount Churchill has erupted explosively within the past 2,000 years . The park 's glacial features include Malaspina Glacier , the largest piedmont glacier in North America , Hubbard Glacier , the longest tidewater glacier in Alaska , and Nabesna Glacier , the world 's longest valley glacier . The Bagley Icefield covers much of the park 's interior , which includes 60 % of the permanently ice-covered terrain in Alaska . At the center of the park , the boomtown of Kennecott exploited one of the world 's richest deposits of copper from 1903 to 1938 , exposed by and in part incorporated into Kennicott Glacier . The mine buildings and mills , now abandoned , compose a National Historic Landmark district .","qid":"133","docid":"Wrangell–St._Elias_National_Park_and_Preserve","rank":66,"score":75947},{"content":"Title: Bureau of Land Management Content: The Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) is an agency within the United States Department of the Interior that administers more than 247.3 e6acre of public lands in the United States which constitutes one-eighth of the landmass of the country . President Harry S. Truman created the BLM in 1946 by combining two existing agencies : the General Land Office and the Grazing Service . The agency manages the federal government 's nearly 700 e6acre of subsurface mineral estate located beneath federal , state and private lands severed from their surface rights by the Homestead Act of 1862 . Most BLM public lands are located in these 12 western states : Alaska , Arizona , California , Colorado , Idaho , Montana , Nevada , New Mexico , Oregon , Utah , Washington and Wyoming . The mission of the BLM is `` to sustain the health , diversity , and productivity of the public lands for the use and enjoyment of present and future generations . '' Originally BLM holdings were described as `` land nobody wanted '' because homesteaders had passed them by . All the same , ranchers hold nearly 18,000 permits and leases for livestock grazing on 155 e6acre of BLM public lands . The agency manages 221 wilderness areas , 23 national monuments and some 636 other protected areas as part of the National Landscape Conservation System totaling about 30 e6acre . There are more than 63,000 oil and gas wells on BLM public lands . Total energy leases generated approximately $ 5.4 billion in 2013 , an amount divided among the Treasury , the states , and Native American groups .","qid":"133","docid":"Bureau_of_Land_Management","rank":67,"score":75935},{"content":"Title: Kenai Fjords National Park Content: Kenai Fjords National Park is a United States National Park established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . The park covers an area of 669,984 acre on the Kenai Peninsula in southcentral Alaska , near the town of Seward . The park contains the Harding Icefield , one of the largest ice fields in the United States . The park is named for the numerous fjords carved by glaciers moving down the mountains from the ice field . The field is the source of at least 38 glaciers , the largest of which is Bear Glacier . The park lies just to the west of Seward , a popular port for cruise ships . Exit Glacier is reachable by road and is a popular tour destination . The remainder of the park is primarily accessible by boat . The fjords are glacial valleys that have been submerged below sea level by a combination of rising sea levels and land subsidence . Kenai Fjords National Monument was initially designated by President Jimmy Carter on December 1 , 1978 , using the Antiquities Act , pending final legislation to resolve the allotment of public lands in Alaska . Establishment as a national park followed the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 . The park protects the icefield , a narrow fringe of forested land between the mountains and the sea , and the deeply indented coastline . The park is home to a variety of terrestrial and marine mammals , including black bears , whales ( humpback and killer whales ) , seals and moose .","qid":"133","docid":"Kenai_Fjords_National_Park","rank":68,"score":75726},{"content":"Title: Esther Island (Alaska) Content: Esther Island is an island in the northwestern part of Prince William Sound of the Gulf of Alaska in the state of Alaska , United States . It has a land area of 127.336 km ² ( 49.165 sq mi ) and a resident population of 31 persons as of the 2000 census . The island is the site of the South Esther Island State Marine Park , one of the Alaska State Parks system . The island includes no permanent settlements other than the Wally Noerenberg Hatchery , one of the world 's largest Salmon hatcheries , owned and operated by the Prince William Sound Aquaculture Corporation ( PWSAC ) . The hatchery raises three different species of salmon Pink salmon , Chum salmon , and Coho salmon . The hatchery is located within the State Marine Park . The island is only accessible by floatplane or boat .","qid":"133","docid":"Esther_Island_(Alaska)","rank":69,"score":75472},{"content":"Title: Commercial fishing in Alaska Content: Commercial fishing is a major industry in Alaska , and has been for hundreds of years . Alaska Natives have been harvesting salmon and many other types of fish since the early 17th century . Russians came to Alaska to harvest its abundance of sealife , as well as Japanese and other Asian cultures .","qid":"133","docid":"Commercial_fishing_in_Alaska","rank":70,"score":75121},{"content":"Title: Geoduck aquaculture Content: Geoduck aquaculture or geoduck farming is the practice of cultivating geoducks ( specifically the Pacific geoduck , Panopea generosa ) for human consumption . The geoduck is a large edible saltwater clam , a marine bivalve mollusk , that is native to the Pacific Northwest . Juvenile geoducks are planted or seeded on the ocean floor or substrate within the soft intertidal and subtidal zones , then harvested five to seven years later when they have reached marketable size ( about 1 kg or 2.2 lbs ) . They are native to the Pacific region and are found from Baja California , through the Pacific Northwest and Southern Alaska . Most geoducks are harvested from the wild , but because of state government-instituted limits on the amount that can be harvested , the need to grow geoducks in farms to meet an increasing demand has led to the growth of the geoduck aquaculture industry , particularly in Puget Sound , Washington . Geoduck meat is a prized delicacy in Asian cuisine ; the majority of exports are sent to China ( Shanghai , Shenzhen , Guangzhou , Beijing , are the main Chinese markets ) , Hong Kong and Japan .","qid":"133","docid":"Geoduck_aquaculture","rank":71,"score":75018},{"content":"Title: Land use Content: Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as arable fields , pastures , and managed woods . It also has been defined as `` the total of arrangements , activities , and inputs that people undertake in a certain land cover type . ''","qid":"133","docid":"Land_use","rank":72,"score":74944},{"content":"Title: Paleontology in Alaska Content: Paleontology in Alaska refers to paleontological research occurring within or conducted by people from the U.S. state of Alaska . During the Late Precambrian , Alaska was covered by a shallow sea that was home to stromatolite-forming bacteria . Alaska remained submerged into the Paleozoic era and the sea came to be home to creatures including ammonites , brachiopods , and reef-forming corals . An island chain formed in the eastern part of the state . Alaska remained covered in seawater during the Triassic and Jurassic . Local wildlife included ammonites , belemnites , bony fish and ichthyosaurs . Alaska was a more terrestrial environment during the Cretaceous , with a rich flora and dinosaur fauna . During the early Cenozoic , Alaska had a subtropical environment . The local seas continued to drop until a land bridge connected the state with Asia . Early humans crossed this bridge and remains of contemporary local wildlife such as woolly mammoths often show signs of having been butchered . More recent Native Americans interpreted local fossils through a mythological lens . The local fossils had attracted the attention of formally trained scientists by the 1830s . Major local finds include the Kikak-Tegoseak Pachyrhinosaurus bonebed . The Pleistocene-aged wooly mammoth , Mammuthus primigenius is the Alaska state fossil .","qid":"133","docid":"Paleontology_in_Alaska","rank":73,"score":74903},{"content":"Title: Land use in China Content: China is experiencing massive land use changes and impacts to the environment due to an unprecedented period of economic growth , which has catapulted it from one of the world 's poorest countries 30 years ago to the world 's second largest economy today . Based on trends in economic development , population growth , and land use , China 's natural landscape will experience significant and increasing pressures well into the future .","qid":"133","docid":"Land_use_in_China","rank":74,"score":74519},{"content":"Title: South Prince of Wales Wilderness Content: The South Prince of Wales Wilderness is a wilderness area on Prince of Wales Island , Alaska , protecting 90,968 acres of undeveloped Pacific temperate rainforest , much of which is old-growth . Managed by the United States Forest Service as part of the Tongass National Forest , the wilderness area was designated in a provision of the 1980 Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . This wilderness contains 75 or more islands that range from a few to over 500 acres in size . The South Prince of Wales Wilderness sees tidal bores , tidal surges , fierce winds , and heavy storms regularly .","qid":"133","docid":"South_Prince_of_Wales_Wilderness","rank":75,"score":74512},{"content":"Title: Exxon Valdez oil spill Content: The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince William Sound , Alaska , March 24 , 1989 , when Exxon Valdez , an oil tanker owned by Exxon Shipping Company , bound for Long Beach , California , struck Prince William Sound 's Bligh Reef at 12:04 am local time and spilled 10.8 e6USgal of crude oil over the next few days . It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters . The Valdez spill is the second largest in US waters , after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill , in terms of volume released . Prince William Sound 's remote location , accessible only by helicopter , plane , or boat , made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing plans for response . The region is a habitat for salmon , sea otters , seals and seabirds . The oil , originally extracted at the Prudhoe Bay oil field , eventually covered 1300 mi of coastline , and 11000 sqmi of ocean . According to official reports , the ship was carrying approximately 54 e6USgal of oil , of which about 10.8 e6USgal were spilled into the Prince William Sound . A figure of 11 e6USgal was a commonly accepted estimate of the spill 's volume and has been used by the State of Alaska 's Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and environmental groups such as Greenpeace and the Sierra Club .","qid":"133","docid":"Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill","rank":76,"score":74476},{"content":"Title: National Register of Big Trees Content: The National Register of Big Trees is a list of the largest recorded living specimens of each tree variety found in the continental United States . A tree on this list is called a National Champion Tree . This list has been maintained since 1940 by American Forests , a nonprofit conservation organization . To be eligible , a species must be recognized as native or naturalized in the continental United States , including Alaska but not Hawaii , as documented in Elbert L. Little Jr. 's Checklist of United States Trees ( Native and Naturalized ) , published in 1979 as Agricultural Handbook 541 by the United States Department of Agriculture . At present 747 native and 79 naturalized trees are eligible , for a total of 826 eligible species and varieties . American Forests uses the following formula to calculate a point score for each tree so that they may be compared to others : Trunk Circumference ( in inches ) + Height ( in feet ) + 1/4 Average Crown Spread ( in feet ) = Total Points The current list of National Champion Trees is available online . In addition to the national list , several states , counties , and cities maintain their own list of local Champion Trees . Many are on public ground and can be visited without obtaining prior permission . The public may nominate trees as well . , the largest National Champion Tree is a giant sequoia in California . Known as the General Sherman tree , it is some 83.8 m ( 274.9 feet ) tall , 31.1 m ( 85.3 feet ) in circumference and 32.5 m ( 106.5 feet ) in average crown spread .","qid":"133","docid":"National_Register_of_Big_Trees","rank":77,"score":74394},{"content":"Title: Skiland Content: Ski Land is a lift-served ski and snowboard area at Cleary Summit on the Steese Highway , 20 miles north of Fairbanks , Alaska . The area has one chairlift , North America 's most-northern ; it is 3300 feet long and serves 1057 feet of vertical rise . Road access and the lodge are on a ridge at an elevation of 2470 feet , overlooking a wooded , north-facing bowl . The location is one the best viewing spots in the winter for the northern lights , and looks over the Poker Flat research station and rocket range . The ski season typically runs from November into late April , on weekends only . Tree and glade skiing opportunities abound . On a least one occasion slopes were re-opened in May after a heavy snowfall . The slopes are patrolled by the National Ski Patrol . From 1962 - 1990 a pair of tow ropes ( upper and lower ) served 900 vertical feet total , and were generally operated by volunteers . From 1990-2014 the Birdsall family leased the resort , installing a double chairlift originally installed at the Silver Star ski area in British Columbia , to replace the ropes , and ran the hill as a family business. , In 2015 the area was acquired by locally owned Far North Alpine Ventures , LLC , who now operates it as a ski area and Aurora viewing lodge . Extensive updates to the lodges , trails , lift , maintenance equipment and other facilities have taken place recently . A new learning area and Magic Carpet will be installed in the summer of 2017 . Over the next 10 years more expansion including lodging , snow making , trail expansion , a new lodge , and new lifts are in the master development plan for the ski area . The area encourages year round , non-motorized , non-comercial , recreation for locals and visitors on its trail system . The lodges and grounds can also be rented for private events such as weddings or reunions , and the facilities can also me leased for film production or other commercial use .","qid":"133","docid":"Skiland","rank":78,"score":74380},{"content":"Title: Katmai National Park and Preserve Content: Katmai National Park and Preserve is a United States National Park and Preserve in southern Alaska , notable for the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes and for its Alaskan brown bears . The park and preserve covers 4,093,077 acres , being roughly the size of Wales . Most of this is a designated wilderness area in the national park where all hunting is banned , including over 3922000 acres of land . The park is named after Mount Katmai , its centerpiece stratovolcano . The park is located on the Alaska Peninsula , across from Kodiak Island , with headquarters in nearby King Salmon , about 290 mi southwest of Anchorage . The area was first designated a national monument in 1918 to protect the area around the major 1912 volcanic eruption of Novarupta , which formed the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes , a 40 sqmi , 100 to pyroclastic flow . The park includes as many as 18 individual volcanoes , seven of which have been active since 1900 . Following its designation , the monument was left undeveloped and largely unvisited until the 1950s . Initially designated because of its violent volcanic history , the monument and surrounding lands became appreciated for their abundance of sockeye salmon , the grizzly bears that fed upon them , and a wide variety of other Alaskan wildlife and marine life . After a series of boundary expansions , the present national park and preserve were established in 1980 under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 .","qid":"133","docid":"Katmai_National_Park_and_Preserve","rank":79,"score":74334},{"content":"Title: Alaska Raptor Center Content: The Alaska Raptor Center is a raptor rehabilitation center in Sitka in the U.S. state of Alaska . Located on a 17 -- acre campus bordering the Tongass National Forest and the Indian River , its primary mission is the rehabilitation of sick and injured eagles , hawks , falcons , owls , and other birds of prey which are brought in from all over Alaska . The Center ( the largest of its type in the state , and one of the largest in North America ) receives between 100 -- 200 birds a year , with many suffering from gunshot wounds and traffic accident-related trauma . Most of the birds arriving at the center arrive in special containers , having been flown in via the baggage compartments of Alaska Airlines planes . The Center 's goal is to introduce the birds back into the wild , once they are healed and retrained in `` raptor life skills '' ( such as flying ) in the enclosed , 20000 sqft Bald Eagle Flight-Training Center . Many birds that are no longer able to live outside captivity are sent to zoos and wildlife centers located throughout the United States . A few of the animals that could not be returned to nature have become permanent guests . More than 40,000 visitors annually come to see the two dozen resident eagles , hawks , owls , and ravens , who assist in the Center 's secondary function , that of public education . The most well-known resident is Volta , a bald eagle who suffered permanent damage after a 1992 collision with power lines ( hence the name ) . Though since nursed back to health , Volta now regularly travels to the lower 48 states as an ambassador for the Center ( out of the 100,000 or so bald eagles on Earth , half live in Alaska ) . The Center is open to the public and offers daily tours . The Alaska Raptor Center is a private , nonprofit organization .","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska_Raptor_Center","rank":80,"score":74318},{"content":"Title: Alaska Cooperative Extension Service Content: University of Alaska Fairbanks Cooperative Extension Service is an outreach-based educational delivery system supported by a partnership between the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) and the University of Alaska Fairbanks ( UAF ) . The UAF Cooperative Extension Service annually serves approximately 80,000 Alaskans , `` providing a link between Alaska 's diverse people and communities by interpreting and extending relevant university , research-based knowledge in an understandable and usable form to the public . '' Since 1930 the UAF Extension Service has partnered with many organizations across the state of Alaska in pursuit of fulfilling its land-grant university mission to disseminate agricultural research and other scientific information .","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska_Cooperative_Extension_Service","rank":81,"score":74107},{"content":"Title: Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium Land Transfer Act Content: The Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium Land Transfer Act is a bill that would transfer some land in Alaska from the federal government to the Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium , a non-profit health organization . The land will be used to build a patient housing facility so that the organization can treat people who travel there from distant rural areas . The bill passed in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress . The bill was signed into law .","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska_Native_Tribal_Health_Consortium_Land_Transfer_Act","rank":82,"score":74094},{"content":"Title: Kuiu Island Content: Kuiu Island is an island in the Alexander Archipelago in southeastern Alaska . It lies between Kupreanof Island , to its east , and Baranof Island , to its west . The island is 105 km long , and 10 to wide . It is nearly cut in two by Affleck Canal . It has 1,936.16 km2 of land area , making it the 15th largest island in the United States . The entire island is part of Tongass National Forest . The population was 10 persons at the 2000 census . It is separated from Baranof Island by Chatham Strait . The Cape Decision Light is located on Kuiu Island . Also on the island are the Kuiu Wilderness and the Tebenkof Bay Wilderness areas .","qid":"133","docid":"Kuiu_Island","rank":83,"score":73979},{"content":"Title: Misty Fiords National Monument Content: Misty Fiords National Monument ( or Misty Fjords National Monument ) is a national monument and wilderness area administered by the U.S. Forest Service as part of the Tongass National Forest . Misty Fiords is about 40 mi east of Ketchikan , Alaska , along the Inside Passage coast in extreme southeastern Alaska , comprising 2294343 acre of Tongass National Forest in Alaska 's Panhandle . All but 151832 acre are designated as wilderness . Congress reserved the remainder for the Quartz Hill molybdenum deposit , possibly the largest such mineral deposit in the world . The national monument was originally proclaimed by President Jimmy Carter in December 1978 as Misty Fiords National Monument , using the authorization of the Antiquities Act and became a part of an ongoing political struggle between the federal government and the State of Alaska over land use policy and authority that finally led to the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 . In that law , it was statutorily established as Misty Fjords National Monument .","qid":"133","docid":"Misty_Fiords_National_Monument","rank":84,"score":73973},{"content":"Title: Flesh fly (fly fishing) Content: Flesh Fly is a popular fly pattern used by rainbow trout anglers in Western Alaska . This particular fly fishing pattern is designed to mimic a chunk of rotten salmon flesh washing down stream . The pattern is usually tied using white or off white rabbit hair .","qid":"133","docid":"Flesh_fly_(fly_fishing)","rank":85,"score":73914},{"content":"Title: Nushagak Peninsula Content: The Nushagak Peninsula is an uninhabited peninsula in the U.S. state of Alaska . It is situated in the Dillingham Census Area , west of the Alaska Peninsula . The 520000 acre byland measures 35 x . It was named for Nushagak Bay in 1910 by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey . With a large area of lakes , ponds and tidal sloughs , the peninsula contains the biggest complex of wetlands of the Togiak National Wildlife Refuge .","qid":"133","docid":"Nushagak_Peninsula","rank":86,"score":73886},{"content":"Title: United States Department of the Interior Content: The United States Department of the Interior ( DOI ) is the United States federal executive department of the U.S. government responsible for the management and conservation of most federal land and natural resources , and the administration of programs relating to Native American , Alaska Natives , Native Hawaiians , territorial affairs , and insular areas of the United States . About 75 % of federal public land is managed by the department , with most of the remainder managed by the United States Department of Agriculture 's United States Forest Service . The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior , who is a member of the Cabinet of the President . The current Secretary is Ryan Zinke . The Inspector General position is currently vacant , with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General . Despite its name , the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the interior ministries of other nations , which are usually responsible for police matters and internal security . In the United States , national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily and the Department of Justice secondarily . The Department of the Interior has often been humorously called `` The Department of Everything Else '' because of its broad range of responsibilities .","qid":"133","docid":"United_States_Department_of_the_Interior","rank":87,"score":73807},{"content":"Title: Outline of Alaska Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the U.S. state of Alaska : Alaska -- most extensive , northernmost , westernmost , highest , second newest , and least densely populated of the 50 states of the United States of America . Alaska occupies the westernmost extent of the Americas , bordering British Columbia and the Yukon , and is detached from the other 49 states . The summit of Denali ( formerly Mount McKinley ) at 6194 meters is the highest point of North America .","qid":"133","docid":"Outline_of_Alaska","rank":88,"score":73759},{"content":"Title: Livestock in Sri Lanka Content: In Sri Lanka many farmers depend on animal husbandry for their livelihood , but not a large proportion . Therefore , many livestock products have to be imported . The main livestock products in Sri Lanka are milk , meat and eggs . Hides , wools and other products are still not produced within the country . Animal power formerly used in the cultivation of rice and vegetables has been replaced by modern technology to farm lands . However animal husbandry plays an important role in the rural economy for improving the living conditions of farmers in the country . The land area of Sri Lanka is 65,610 km2 . and of this , 30 % belongs to agricultural activities . From that 30 % , 70 % is solely devoted to crop production . The remainder consists of a mixture of crops and livestock . Hence , a very small proportion of the farm land is solely devoted to livestock production . In Sri Lanka , livestock sector contributes around 1.2 % of national GDP . Livestock are spread throughout all regions of Sri Lanka with concentrations of certain farming systems in particular areas due to cultural , market and agro-climatic reasons . According to statistics from the Department of Animal Production and Health , there are about 1.3 million cattle , 0.3 million buffalo , 0.4 million goats , 13 million poultry and 0.08 million pigs in the country with negligible numbers of sheep , ducks and other animal breeds .","qid":"133","docid":"Livestock_in_Sri_Lanka","rank":89,"score":73678},{"content":"Title: Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge ( often shortened to Alaska Maritime or AMNWR ) is a United States National Wildlife Refuge comprising 2,400 islands , headlands , rocks , islets , spires and reefs in Alaska , with a total area of 4.9 e6acre , of which 2.64 e6acre is wilderness . The refuge stretches from Cape Lisburne on the Chukchi Sea to the tip of the Aleutian Islands in the west and Forrester Island in the southern Alaska Panhandle region in the east . The refuge has diverse landforms and terrains , including tundra , rainforest , cliffs , volcanoes , beaches , lakes , and streams . Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge is well known for its abundance of seabirds . About 75 percent of Alaskan native marine birds , 15 to 30 million among 55 species , use the refuge . AMNWR also provides a nesting habitat for an estimated 40 million seabirds , representing 80 percent of all seabirds in North America . The birds congregate in `` bird cities '' ( colonies ) along the coast . Each species has a specialized nesting site ( rock ledge , crevice , boulder rubble , pinnacle , or burrow ) . Other animals present in the park include sea lions , seals , walrus , whales and sea otters . The administrative headquarters and visitor center are located in Homer , Alaska .","qid":"133","docid":"Alaska_Maritime_National_Wildlife_Refuge","rank":90,"score":73598},{"content":"Title: Alligator meat Content: Alligator meat is the meat from alligators that is for consumption . It has been used both historically and in contemporary times in various cuisines of the Southern United States . Alligator eggs are also for consumption . Alligator meat has been described as a healthy meat source for humans due to its high protein and low fat composition . It has been described as being mild flavored and firm in texture . In the United States , it can only be legally sourced from alligator farms , and is available for consumer purchase in specialty food stores , some grocery stores , and can also be mail ordered . Some U.S. companies process and market alligator meat derived only from the tail of alligators .","qid":"133","docid":"Alligator_meat","rank":91,"score":73541},{"content":"Title: Tongass National Forest Content: The Tongass National Forest -LSB- ˈtɒŋɡəs -RSB- in Southeast Alaska is the largest national forest in the United States at 17 e6acre . Most of its area is part of the temperate rain forest WWF ecoregion , itself part of the larger Pacific temperate rain forest WWF ecoregion , and is remote enough to be home to many species of endangered and rare flora and fauna . The Tongass , which is managed by the United States Forest Service , encompasses islands of the Alexander Archipelago , fjords and glaciers , and peaks of the Coast Mountains . An international border with Canada ( British Columbia ) runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains . The forest is administered from Forest Service offices in Ketchikan . There are local ranger district offices located in Craig , Hoonah , Juneau , Ketchikan , Petersburg , Sitka , Thorne Bay , Wrangell , and Yakutat .","qid":"133","docid":"Tongass_National_Forest","rank":92,"score":73490},{"content":"Title: Land systems Content: Land systems constitute the terrestrial component of the Earth system and encompass all processes and activities related to the human use of land , including socioeconomic , technological and organizational investments and arrangements , as well as the benefits gained from land and the unintended social and ecological outcomes of societal activities . Changes in land systems have large consequences for the local environment and human well-being and are at the same time pervasive factors of global environmental change . Land provides vital resources to society , such as food , fuel , fibres and many other ecosystem services that support production functions , regulate risks of natural hazards , or provide cultural and spiritual services . By using the land , society alters and modifies the quantity and quality of the provision of these services . Land system changes are the direct result of human decision making at multiple scales ranging from local land owners decisions to national scale land use planning and global trade agreements . The aggregate impact of many local land system changes has far reaching consequences for the Earth System , that feedback on ecosystem services , human well-being and decision making . As a consequence , land system change is both a cause and consequence of socio-ecological processes . The Global Land Programme ( GLP ) of Future Earth is an interdisciplinary community of science and practice fostering the study of land systems and the co-design of solutions for global sustainability . References Category : Geography Category : Land systems Category : Land management es :","qid":"133","docid":"Land_systems","rank":93,"score":73469},{"content":"Title: Chugach National Forest Content: The Chugach National Forest is a 6,908,540 acre United States National Forest in south central Alaska . Covering portions of Prince William Sound , the Kenai Peninsula and the Copper River Delta , it was formed in 1907 from part of a larger forest reserve . The Chugach includes extensive shorelines , glaciers , forests and rivers , much of which is untouched by roads or trails . It hosts numerous bird , mammal and marine species , including extensive shorebird habitat and a bald eagle population larger than the continental 48 states combined . Human industry in the forest includes extensive tourism and some mining and oil and gas operations .","qid":"133","docid":"Chugach_National_Forest","rank":94,"score":73466},{"content":"Title: Agriculture in Kyrgyzstan Content: Agriculture in Kyrgyzstan is a significant sector of the economy . According to the CIA World Factbook , it comprises 18 % of the total GDP and occupies 48 % of the total labor force . Only 6.8 % of the total land area is used for crop cultivation , but 44 % of the land is used as pastures for livestock . Because of the many mountains of Kyrgyzstan , animal husbandry remains a significant part of the agricultural economy . Cultivation is centered in the Ferghana Valley , Talas Province , and Chuy Province . Among Kyrgyzstan 's agricultural products are tobacco , cotton , potatoes , vegetables , grapes , fruits , and berries . As far as total production , the largest crop is assorted types of animal fodder to feed the livestock of the country . The second largest crop is winter wheat , followed by barley , corn , and rice . Significant animal derived products include sheep , goats , cattle , and wool . Chickens , horses , and pigs are also present . In some regions , yaks are herded and bred . Of these , the top products for export are cotton and tobacco . Meat is also exported , but in less significant quantities . However , the country has over 9 million hectares of pasture and a favourable environment for the development of animal husbandry . Recently Kyrgyzstan concluded accords to export meat to Saudi Arabia from September , 2012 .","qid":"133","docid":"Agriculture_in_Kyrgyzstan","rank":95,"score":73410},{"content":"Title: Atka Island Content: Atka Island ( Atx̂ax̂ ) is the largest island in the Andreanof Islands of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska . The island is 50 mi east of Adak Island . It is 65 mi long and 2 - wide with a land area of 404.6 sqmi , making it the 22nd largest island in the United States . The northeast of Atka Island contains the Korovin volcano which reaches a peak of 5030 ft. Oglodak Island is located 3.4 mi off Cape Kigun , Atka 's westernmost point . The city of Atka , Alaska is on the east side of the island . The 2000 census population of the island was 95 persons , almost all in the city of Atka . On December 5 , 2008 , President George W. Bush created the World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument . A crashed B-24 Liberator on Atka is one of the 9 sites in the monument .","qid":"133","docid":"Atka_Island","rank":96,"score":73304},{"content":"Title: Land Content: Land , sometimes referred to as dry land , is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water . The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture , habitat , and various natural resources . Some life forms ( including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals ) have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water . Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones . The division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans . The demarcation between land and water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors . A maritime boundary is one example of a political demarcation . A variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where water meets land . Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries , where there is no clear point at which the land ends and a body of water has begun . Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather .","qid":"133","docid":"Land","rank":97,"score":73260},{"content":"Title: Bushmeat Content: Bushmeat , wildmeat , or game meat is meat from non-domesticated mammals , reptiles , amphibians and birds hunted for food in tropical forests . Commercial harvesting and the trade of wildlife is considered a threat to biodiversity . Bushmeat also provides a route for a number of serious tropical diseases to spread to humans from their animal hosts . Bushmeat is used for sustenance in remote areas , while in major towns and cities in bushmeat eating societies it is treated as a delicacy .","qid":"133","docid":"Bushmeat","rank":98,"score":73240},{"content":"Title: Western Arctic National Parklands Content: The Western Arctic National Parklands describes four United States National Park Service units in western Alaska that are managed by a single park superintendent and their staff . The western Arctic parklands are Kobuk Valley National Park , Noatak National Preserve , Cape Krusenstern National Monument and Bering Land Bridge National Preserve . The four units have a total area of about 11000000 acre and are managed from the Northwest Arctic Heritage Center in Kotzebue , Alaska . Bering Land Bridge National Preserve has administrative offices in Nome .","qid":"133","docid":"Western_Arctic_National_Parklands","rank":99,"score":73184},{"content":"Title: Southcentral Alaska Content: Southcentral Alaska is the portion of the U.S. state of Alaska consisting of the shorelines and uplands of the central Gulf of Alaska . Most of the population of the state lives in this region , concentrated in and around the city of Anchorage . The area includes Cook Inlet , the Matanuska-Susitna Valley , the Kenai Peninsula , Prince William Sound , and the Copper River Valley . Tourism , fisheries , and petroleum production are important economic activities .","qid":"133","docid":"Southcentral_Alaska","rank":100,"score":73139}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meat Mountain Content: Meat Mountain ( elevation 2513 ft ) is a summit in North Slope Borough , Alaska , in the United States . Meat Mountain is an English translation of the Eskimo name Nikipak .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Meat_Mountain\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 102376\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska Content: The National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska ( NPRA ) is an area of land on the Alaska North Slope owned by the United States federal government and managed by the Department of the Interior , Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) . It lies to the west of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge , which , is a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service managed National Wildlife Refuge , is also considered federal land . At a size of 23599999 acre , the NPRA is the largest tract of undisturbed public land in the United States . Inupiat live in several villages around its perimeter , the largest of which is Barrow , the seat of the North Slope Borough .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Petroleum_Reserve–Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 98575\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land consumption Content: Land consumption as part of human resource consumption is the conversion of land with healthy soil and intact habitats into areas for industrial agriculture , traffic ( road building ) and especially urban human settlements . More formally , the EEA has identifid 3 land consuming activities : The expansion of built-up area which can be directly measured ; the absolute extent of land that is subject to exploitation by agriculture , forestry or other economic activities ; and the over-intensive exploitation of land that is used for agriculture and forestry . In all of those respects , land consumption is equivalent to typical land use in industrialized regions and civilizations . Since often aforementioned conversion activities are virtually irreversible , the term land loss is also used . From 1990 to 2000 , 1.4 e6ha of open space were consumed in the U.S. . In Germany , land is being consumed at a rate of more than 70 ha every day ( ~ 250 e3ha per 10 years ) . Land loss can also happen due to natural factors , like erosion or desertification - nevertheless most of those can also eventually be tracked back to human activities . Another slightly different interpretation of the term is the forced displacement or compulsory acquisition of a native people or settlers from their original land due to land grabbing , etc. . Again , in most cases , this will be due to economic reasons like search for profitable investment and commodification of natural resources . Even though global land loss progresses at an alarming rate , the land footprint , the area required by some Western countries can a lot larger than the land actually used or even available in the country itself . While land prices have surged in the first few years of the 21st century , land consumption economy still lacks environmental full-cost accounting to add the long-term costs of environmental degradation .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_consumption\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 96147\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act Content: The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act ( ANILCA ) is a United States federal law passed on November 12 , 1980 by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on December 2 of that year . ANILCA provided varying degrees of special protection to over 157,000,000 acres of land , including national parks , national wildlife refuges , national monuments , wild and scenic rivers , recreational areas , national forests , and conservation areas . The Act provided for 43,585,000 acres of new national parklands in Alaska ; the addition of 9.8 million acres to the National Wildlife Refuge System ; twenty-five wild and scenic rivers , with twelve more to be studied for that designation ; establishment of Misty Fjords and Admiralty Island National Monuments in Southeast Alaska ; establishment of Steese National Conservation Area and White Mountains National Recreation Area to be managed by the Bureau of Land Management ; the addition of 9.1 million acres to the Wilderness Preservation System , and the addition of 3,350,000 acres to Tongass and Chugach National Forests .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_National_Interest_Lands_Conservation_Act\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 95425\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic Refuge drilling controversy Content: The question of whether to drill for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ( ANWR ) has been an ongoing political and media controversy in the United States since 1977 . ANWR comprises 19000000 acre of the north Alaskan coast . The land is situated between the Beaufort Sea to the north , Brooks Range to the south , and Prudhoe Bay to the west . It is the largest protected wilderness in the United States and was created by Congress under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 . Section 1002 of that act deferred a decision on the management of oil and gas exploration and development of 1500000 acre in the coastal plain , known as the `` 1002 area '' . The controversy surrounds drilling for oil in this subsection of ANWR . Much of the debate over whether to drill in the 1002 area of ANWR rests on the amount of economically recoverable oil , as it relates to world oil markets , weighed against the potential harm oil exploration might have upon the natural wildlife , in particular the calving ground of the Porcupine caribou . In their documentary Being Caribou the Porcupine herd was followed in its yearly migration by author and wildlife biologist Karsten Heuer and filmmaker Leanne Allison to provide a broader understanding of what is at stake if the oil drilling should happen , and educating the public . President Barack Obama once proposed to declare an additional 5 million acres of the refuge as a wilderness area , which would put a total of 12.8 million acres of the refuge permanently off-limits to drilling or other development , including the coastal plain where oil exploration has been sought .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_Refuge_drilling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 94900\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Taylor Complex Fire Content: The Taylor Complex Fire was a 2004 wildfire in Alaska that consumed approximately 1305592 acre of land . By acreage , it was the largest wildfire in the United States between 1997-2007 . The fire also was part of the record-breaking 2004 Alaska fire season that burned more than 6600000 acre , the most in recorded history .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Taylor_Complex_Fire\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 93352\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seismo Creek Content: Seismo Creek is a stream in North Slope Borough , Alaska , in the United States . It heads near Meat Mountain and flows to the Utukok River . Seismo Creek was named in 1950 for nearby seismic operations .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Seismo_Creek\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 92918\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 Content: The Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 is a United States federal law that provides for the regulation of grazing on the public lands ( excluding Alaska ) to improve rangeland conditions and regulate their use . The law initially permitted 80,000,000 ac ( 32,000,000 ha ) of previously unreserved public lands of the United States to be placed into grazing districts to be administered by the Department of the Interior . As amended , the law now sets no limit on the amount of lands in grazing districts . Currently , there are approximately 162,000,000 ac ( 65,600,000 ha ) inside grazing allotments . These can be vacant , unappropriated , and unreserved land from public lands , all except for Alaska , national forests , parks , monuments , Indian reservations , railroad grant lands , and revested Coos Bay Wagon Road grant lands . Surrounding land owners may be granted right of passage over these districts . Permits are given for grazing privileges in the districts . Also permits can be given to build fences , reservoirs , and other improvements . The permittees are required to pay a fee , and the permit can not exceed ten years but is renewable . Permits can be revoked because of severe drought or other natural disasters that deplete grazing lands .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Taylor_Grazing_Act_of_1934\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 92305\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of U.S. Wilderness Areas Content: Four federal agencies of the United States government administer the National Wilderness Preservation System , which includes 765 Wildernesses and 109129657 acre as of 2016 . These agencies are : United States Forest Service United States National Park Service United States Bureau of Land Management United States Fish and Wildlife Service This is an area larger than Iraq or the state of California . In Alaska , there are 57425569 acre of wilderness . This represents about 52 % of the wilderness area in the United States . The National Park Service ( NPS ) has oversight of 43890500 acre of wilderness at 60 locations . The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has responsibility for 20702350 acre in 71 areas . The Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) oversees 8726011 acre at 222 unique sites . The Department of Agriculture , the U.S. Forest Service oversees 36160078 acre of wilderness areas in 442 areas . Some wilderness areas are managed by multiple agencies , so the above totals exceed the actual number of units ( 759 ) in the system . In addition , some of the 60 NPS areas with wilderness have multiple units designated as such ( for example , Lake Mead National Recreation Area ) . Some areas are designated wilderness by state or tribal governments . These are not governed by the Federal National Wilderness Preservation System . The following sortable table lists all U.S. areas that have been designated by the United States Congress under the Wilderness Act . The listed designation date is the date that the wilderness was signed into law . Some areas have been expanded or otherwise changed since the original designation date . For more information about a specific area , see the wilderness name link .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_U.S._Wilderness_Areas\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 92272\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steese National Conservation Area Content: The Steese National Conservation Area encompasses 1200000 acre of public land about 100 mi northeast of Fairbanks , Alaska , and is administered by the Bureau of Land Management as part of the National Landscape Conservation System . Created by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 , the Steese NCA 's special values include Birch Creek National Wild River , crucial caribou calving grounds and home range , and Dall sheep habitat . While various land uses are allowed in the Steese NCA , the area is managed so that its scenic , scientific , cultural and other resources are protected . The Steese NCA is split into the North and South Units , located on either side of the Steese Highway . The popular Pinnell Mountain National Recreation Trail skirts the edge of the North Unit .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Steese_National_Conservation_Area\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 92228\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Loyal League Content: The Alaska Loyal League was a small group of Fairbanks businessmen who were instrumental in supporting early Tanana Valley agriculture and enterprise . They included : A. Browning ; George Coleman , manager of the Northern Commercial Company ; F.S. Gordon , a merchant ; H.B. Parkin , Fairbanks Meat Company transportation agent ; E.R. Peoples , merchant ; Harry E. St. George , real estate agent ; William Fentress Thompson , editor and publisher of the Fairbanks Daily News-Miner ; and R.C. Wood , a banker . In April 1917 , the League hosted a Farmers ' Day lunch and convention , for the purpose of organizing area agriculturalists and making the valley agriculturally self-sufficient . They were behind the formation of a short-lived Farmers Bank , the Tanana Valley Agriculture Association , and later a Flouring Mill Corporation .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Loyal_League\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 90903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peak farmland Content: Peak farmland is the maximum usable amount of land needed for crop cultivation ( agricultural land ) for a given region ( country or an entire world ) . Supporters of the peak farmland theory argue that even with the growing world population , the need for more farmland is decreasing , as food production yields per acre of farmland are rising faster than the global demand for food . This is supported by the fact that the area dedicated to farmland in some countries , both developed ( e.g. Finland ) and developing ( e.g. India , China ) , has already begun to decline . It is argued that other countries , such as the United States , are at their peak farmland now . The concept is usually referenced to the work of Jesse Ausubel and Iddo Wernick . They predict that over the next fifty years an area of at least 146 million hectares is going to be released from farming and will probably revert to its natural state . As land conversion ( from a natural state to human use ) is one of the greatest threats to the natural environment in general , and biodiversity in particular , this is seen as good for the environment . Geisler and Currens note , however , that `` Peak Farmland , though newly named , is a long-standing issue '' that has been debated by scholars for decades . The issue deals with two opposing views : one that predicts that more and more farmland will be needed to sustain the growing world population , and the other ( the peak farmland view ) that progress in agricultural techniques , measured in steadily increasing crop yields from a set amount of farmland , will result in a decrease in the amount of farmland needed to feed the world 's population , eventually leading to a decrease in the world 's acreage of farmland .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Peak_farmland\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 90449\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Agriculture in Alaska Content: Agriculture in Alaska faces many challenges , largely due to the climate , the short growing season , and generally poor soils . However , the exceptionally long days of summer enable some vegetables to attain world record sizes .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Agriculture_in_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 89489\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2004 Alaska wildfires Content: The 2004 Alaska fire season was the worst on record in terms of area burned by wildfires in the U.S. state of Alaska . Though there were fewer fires than in 1989 when almost 1,000 were recorded , more than 6600000 acre were burned by 701 fires . The largest of these fires was the Taylor Complex Fire . This fire consumed over 1700000 acre and was the deemed to be the largest fire in the United States from 1997 to 2007 . Out of all 701 fires , 426 fires were started by humans and 215 by lightning .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"2004_Alaska_wildfires\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 88797\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Yellow-cedar decline Content: Yellow-cedar decline is the accelerated decline and mortality of Yellow-Cedar ( Chamaecyparis nootkatensis ) occurring in the Pacific Northwest Temperate Rainforest of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia in North America . This phenomena has been observed on over 200,000 hectares of forest and is believed to be due to reduced winter snowpacks and increased soil freezing .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Yellow-cedar_decline\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 86970\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 86380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station Content: The Alaska Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station ( AFES ) was established in 1898 in Sitka , Alaska , also the site of the first agricultural experiment farm in what was then Alaska Territory . Today the station is administered by the University of Alaska Fairbanks through the School of Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences . Facilities and programs include the Fairbanks Experiment Farm ( est. 1906 ) , the Georgeson Botanical Garden , the Palmer Research and Extension Center , the Matanuska Experiment Farm , and the Reindeer Research Program . Research at AFES has concentrated on introducing vegetable cultivars appropriate to Alaska and developing adapted cultivars of grains , grasses , potatoes , and berries ( for example , strawberries and raspberries ) . Animal and poultry management was also important in early research , with studies on sheep , yaks , cattle , dairy cows , and swine over the years . Modern animal husbandry study at AFES is focused on reindeer and muskoxen , with some research on fisheries . Other research is in soils ( cryosols and carbon cycling studies , for example ) and climate change , revegetation , forest ecology and management , and rural and economic development , including energy and biomass research .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Agricultural_and_Forestry_Experiment_Station\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 86069\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of meat production Content: The environmental impact of meat production varies because of the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world . All agricultural practices have been found to have a variety of effects on the environment . Some of the environmental effects that have been associated with meat production are pollution through fossil fuel usage , animal methane , effluent waste , and water and land consumption . Meat is obtained through a variety of methods , including organic farming , free range farming , intensive livestock production , subsistence agriculture , hunting , and fishing . The 2006 report Livestock 's Long Shadow , released by the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) of the United Nations , states that `` the livestock sector is a major stressor on many ecosystems and on the planet as a whole . Globally it is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases and one of the leading causal factors in the loss of biodiversity , while in developed and emerging countries it is perhaps the leading source of water pollution . '' ( In this and much other FAO usage , but not always elsewhere , poultry are included as `` livestock '' . ) Some fraction of these effects is assignable to non-meat components of the livestock sector such as the wool , egg and dairy industries , and to the livestock used for tillage . Livestock have been estimated to provide power for tillage of as much as half of the world 's cropland . According to production data compiled by the FAO , 74 percent of global livestock product tonnage in 2011 was accounted for by non-meat products such as wool , eggs and milk . Meat is also considered one of the prime factors contributing to the current sixth mass extinction .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_meat_production\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 85959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sitkinak Island Content: Sitkinak Island is an island of the Kodiak Archipelago of the state of Alaska , United States . It lies south of the southern tip of Kodiak Island in the western part of the Gulf of Alaska . Tugidak Island lies to its west . The two islands are the largest components of the Trinity Islands of Alaska . The Trinity Islands , and thus Sitkinak , are part of the Gulf of Alaska unit of Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge . Sitkinak Island has a land area of 235.506 km ² ( 90.929 sq mi ) and no resident population . Cattle Operation Bob Mudd runs a totally free range cattle operation with his son , Nathan . They have about 600 head which are slaughtered and processed on the island in late fall to sell as `` Beyond Organic '' beef . The unique herd of cattle have thrived on the eastern and western islands of Sitkinak since 1937 . It is one of the few pristine islands in the world to support this rare species of cattle . More information can be found at Alaska Meat Company , Sitkinak Webspace , and other websites that chronicle past military activity on Sitkinak . There is a healthy population of red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) on the island . Fox pelages varies widely with many cross individuals and cross variants .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Sitkinak_Island\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 85042\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Department of Natural Resources Content: The Alaska Department of Natural Resources is a department within the government of Alaska . The Department 's mission is to responsibly develop Alaska 's resources by making them available for maximum use and benefit consistent with the public interest . The Department comprises seven Divisions : Division of Agriculture Division of Forestry Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys Division of Mining , Land and Water Division of Oil and Gas Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation Support Services Division\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Department_of_Natural_Resources\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 84988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Whale meat Content: Whale meat is the flesh of whales used for consumption by humans or other animals , and broadly includes other consumed parts as blubber , skin , and organs . It is prepared in various ways , and has historically been eaten in many parts of the world , including across Western Europe and Colonial America , and not necessarily restricted to coastal communities , since flesh and blubber can be salt-cured . Practice of whale consumption continues today in Japan , Norway , Iceland , Faroe Islands , South Korea , China , the Inuit and other indigenous peoples of the United States ( including the Makah people of the Pacific Northwest ) , Canada , Greenland ; the Chukchi people of Siberia , and in St. Vincent and the Grenadines ( mainly on the island of Bequia ) in the Caribbean . Human consumption of whale meat is controversial and has been denounced by detractors on wildlife conservation , toxicity , and animal rights grounds .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Whale_meat\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 84366\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wrangell–Saint Elias Wilderness Content: Wrangell -- Saint Elias Wilderness is a wilderness area in Alaska , United States . At 9078675 acre , it is the largest designated U.S. Wilderness Area , and lies within Wrangell -- St. Elias National Park and Preserve , the largest national park in the United States . It is a land of remote valleys , wild rivers , and a fabulous wildlife population that includes Dall sheep , grizzly bears , black bears , coyotes , bison , caribou , wolverines , moose , beavers , mountain goats , gray wolves , red foxes , and marmots . In the north the glaciated peaks drop to tundra and boreal forested uplands . In the south massive glaciers spread from the mountains almost to the Gulf of Alaska . Several trails provide foot or horse access , but large braided rivers often stop progress unless a packraft is used . The classic route across the wilderness links the gold-rush era settlement of Chisana with the copper-mining era community of McCarthy , via 100 mi of tundra , trails and gravel bars . Unmaintained trails lead through spruce forests near Chisana , across high tundra plains to the White River , below 16000 ft mountains over Skolai Pass , and into the Chitistone Gorge and Canyon with waterfalls to 1500 ft high . Mosquitoes are thick in the low country during the summer , and enough snow accumulates in the high country to make avalanches a year-round danger . On the Canadian side of the border lies Kluane National Park , and together these two areas house some of the continent 's most spectacular mountain landscapes .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Wrangell–Saint_Elias_Wilderness\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 84329\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Adak Island Content: Adak Island ( Adaax ) is an island near the western extent of the Andreanof Islands group of the Aleutian Islands in Alaska . Alaska 's southernmost town , Adak , is located on the island . The island has a land area of 711.18 km2 , measuring 54.5 km on length and 35 km on width , making it the 25th largest island in the United States . Due to harsh winds , frequent cloud cover , and cold temperatures , vegetation is mostly tundra ( grasses , mosses , berries , low-lying flowering plants ) at lower elevations . The highest point is Mt. Moffett , near the northwest end of the island , at an elevation of 3,924 feet ( 1,196 m ) . It is snow covered the greater part of the year . Adak , Alaska is its largest and principal city . The word Adak is from the Aleut word adaq , which means `` father '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Adak_Island\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 83339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geography of Alaska Content: Alaska is one of two U.S. states not bordered by another state ; Hawaii the other . Alaska has more ocean coastline than all of the other U.S. states combined . About 500 mi of Canadian territory separate Alaska from Washington State . Alaska is thus an exclave of the United States that is part of the continental U.S. but is not part of the contiguous U.S. Alaska is also the only state , other than Hawaii , whose capital city is accessible only via ship or air , because no roads connect Juneau to the rest of the continent . The state is bordered by Yukon and British Columbia , Canada to the east , the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south , the Bering Sea , Bering Strait , and Chukchi Sea to the west , and the Beaufort Sea and the Arctic Ocean to the north . Because it extends into the Eastern Hemisphere , it is technically both the westernmost and easternmost state in the United States , as well as also being the northernmost . Alaska is the largest state in the United States in terms of land area at 570,380 sqmi , over twice ( roughly 2.47 times ) as large as Texas , the next largest state . If the state 's westernmost point were superimposed on San Francisco , California , its easternmost point would be in Jacksonville , Florida . It is larger than all but 16 sovereign nations . Alaska is home to 3.5 million lakes of 20 acre or larger . Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover 188,320 sqmi ( mostly in northern , western and southwest flatlands ) . Frozen water , in the form of glacier ice , covers some 16,000 sqmi of land and 1,200 sqmi of tidal zone . The Bering Glacier complex near the southeastern border with Yukon , Canada , covers 2,250 sqmi alone .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Geography_of_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 82665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meat Content: Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food . Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times . The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens , sheep , pigs and cattle . This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses . Meat is mainly composed of water , protein , and fat . It is edible raw , but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways . Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria and fungi . Most often , meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues , but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal . Meat is sometimes also used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species ( pigs , cattle , lambs , etc. ) raised and prepared for human consumption , to the exclusion of fish , other seafood , poultry , or other animals .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Meat\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 82474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Content: Alaska ( -LSB- əˈlæskə -RSB- ) is a U.S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America . The Canadian administrative divisions of British Columbia and Yukon border the state to the east ; its most extreme western part is Attu Island ; it has a maritime border with Russia to the west across the Bering Strait . To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas -- the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean . The Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest . It is the largest state in the United States by area . In addition , it is the 3rd least populous and the most sparsely populated of the 50 United States ; nevertheless , it is by far the most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel in North America , its population ( the total estimated at 738,432 by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015 ) more than quadrupling the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland . Approximately half of Alaska 's residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area . Alaska 's economy is dominated by the fishing , natural gas , and oil industries , resources which it has in abundance . Military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy . The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30 , 1867 , for 7.2 million U.S. dollars at approximately two cents per acre ( $ 4.74 / km2 ) . The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11 , 1912 . It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3 , 1959 .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 82294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Poker Flat Research Range Content: The Poker Flat Research Range ( PFRR ) is a launch facility and rocket range for sounding rockets in the U.S. state of Alaska . The world 's largest land-based rocket range , it is on a 5132 acre site about 30 miles ( 50 km ) northeast of Fairbanks . More than 1,700 launches have been conducted at the range to study the Earth 's atmosphere and the interaction between the atmosphere and the space environment . Areas studied at PFRR include the aurora , plasma physics , the ozone layer , solar proton events , Earth 's magnetic field , and ultraviolet radiation . PFRR is owned by the University of Alaska Fairbanks ( UAF ) Geophysical Institute , which operates it under contract to the NASA Wallops Flight Facility . Other users include the United States Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) , the Air Force Geophysics Lab ( AFGL ) , and various universities and research laboratories . Since its founding in 1948 , PFRR has been closely aligned with and funded by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency and its predecessor , the Defense Nuclear Agency ( DNA ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Poker_Flat_Research_Range\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 82196\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gardening in Alaska Content: Agriculture in Alaska has become more popular and more acceptable as a general idea . Although agriculture in Alaska poses many challenges , largely due to the climate , the short growing season , and generally poor soils for agriculture , there have been a number of recent successes in agriculture and gardening in Alaska . Knowledge of appropriate northern climate crops , as well as tips and tricks for the northern climate conditions will greatly enhance a gardener 's chance of success in Alaska . Additionally , there are a number of local and regional resources available to gardeners in Alaska , which are mentioned at the bottom of this article .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Gardening_in_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 82192\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seal meat Content: Seal meat is the flesh , including the blubber and organs , of seals used as food for humans or other animals . It is prepared in numerous ways , often being hung and dried before consumption . Historically , it has been eaten in many parts of the world , both as a part of a normal diet , and as sustenance . The blubber is fed to chickens in the United States . Practice of human consumption continues today in Japan , Norway , Iceland , Faroe Islands , the Inuit and other indigenous peoples of the United States ( including the Makah people of the Pacific Northwest ) , Canada , Greenland ; the Chukchi people of Siberia , and Bequia in the Caribbean Sea .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Seal_meat\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 81799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska salmon fishery Content: The Alaska salmon fishery was saved due to strict mitigation measures and the implementation of policies . Alaska 's successful conservation of their salmon resources is reflected in recent healthy and abundant salmon runs . Currently , the harvest in Alaska represents about 80 % of the total wild-caught North American harvest of salmon , harvests from Canada representing about 15 % , and harvests from Pacific Northwest states representing about 5 % .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_salmon_fishery\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 81659\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aquaculture in Alaska Content: Aquaculture in Alaska is dominated by the production shellfish and aquatic plants . These include Pacific oysters , blue mussels , littleneck clams , scallops , and bull kelp . Finfish farming has been prohibited in Alaska by the 16.40.210 Alaskan statute , however non-profit mariculture continues to provide a steady supply of aquaculture in the state . Many organizations that helped the ban , now encourage the growing of shellfish and other oysters .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Aquaculture_in_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 80903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land use statistics by country Content: This article includes the table with land use statistics by country . Countries are sorted by their total cultivated land area which is a sum of total arable land area and total area of permanent crops . Arable land is a land cultivated for crops like wheat , maize , and rice that are replanted after each harvest ; permanent crops land is a land cultivated for crops like citrus , coffee , and rubber that are not replanted after each harvest ; this also includes land under flowering shrubs , fruit trees , nut trees , and vines , but excludes land under trees grown for wood or timber . Other lands are any lands not arable or under permanent crops ; this includes permanent meadows and pastures , forests and woodlands , built-on areas , roads , barren land , etc. . Percentage figures for arable land , permanent crops land and other lands are all taken from CIA World Factbook as well as total land area figures ( note that total area of a country is a sum of total land area and total water area ) . All other figures , including total cultivated land area , are calculated on the basis of this mentioned data .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_use_statistics_by_country\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 80541\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Afognak Content: Afognak ( Alutiiq : Agw ' aneq ) is an island 5 km north of Kodiak Island in the U.S. state of Alaska . It is 43 miles from east to west and 23 miles from north to south and has a land area of 1,812.58 km2 , making it the 18th largest island in the United States . The coast is split by many long , narrow bays . The highest point is 2,546 feet . The dense spruce forests of Afognak are home to brown bears , Roosevelt elk and Sitka black-tailed deer . Many people visit the island recreationally for hunting and fishing .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Afognak\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 80398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar power in Alaska Content: Solar power in Alaska has been primarily used in remote locations , such as the Nenana Teen Center near Fairbanks , where long summer days provide most of the electricity generated . In 2015 , Alaska ranked 45th in installed solar among U.S. states . Rooftop solar panels could provide 23 % of all electricity used in Alaska . Net metering is available for PV systems up to 25 kW but is limited to 1.5 % of average demand . IREC best practices , based on experience , recommends no limits to net metering , individual or aggregate , and perpetual roll over of kWh credits . In 2011 , Alaska 's largest solar array was the 17.28 kW array installed on a building in Anchorage . A 12 kW solar array installed in Lime Village in July 2001 helped reduce electricity costs . Annual insolation and thus power production per capacity installed is similar in Alaska to central Europe , where Germany became a leader in worldwide solar power use in the years around 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_power_in_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 80072\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Afognak Forest Content: Afognak Forest and Fish Culture was established by the General Land Office in Alaska on December 24 , 1892 as a forest preserve . It covered 403640 acre in 1905 , when the forest reserves were transferred to the U.S. Forest Service . On July 1 , 1908 the entire forest was combined with Chugach National Forest and the name was discontinued .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Afognak_Forest\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 79979\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Innoko National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Innoko National Wildlife Refuge is a national wildlife refuge of the United States located in western Alaska . It consists of 3,850,481 acres ( 15,582 km2 ) , of which 1,240,000 acres ( 5,018 km2 ) is designated a wilderness area . It is the fifth-largest national wildlife refuge in the United States . The refuge is administered from offices in Galena . The refuge was established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . The northern part of the refuge , called Kaiyuh Flats , is adjacent to the Yukon River southwest of Galena . It contains 751,000 acres ( 3,040 km2 ) . The southern part contains approximately 3,099,000 acres ( 12,540 km2 ) of land surrounding the Innoko River . The land is swampy and is the nesting area for hundreds of thousands of birds including ospreys , northern hawk-owls , trumpeter swans , bald eagles , common ravens , short-eared owls , and red-tailed hawks . Mammalian species that habitat this refuge are brown and black bears , Alaskan moose , wolf packs , Canadian lynx , marten , porcupine , beaver , river otter , red fox , wolverine , muskrat , and mink . The refuge has no road access from outside and contains no roads . Air access can be arranged in McGrath .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Innoko_National_Wildlife_Refuge\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 79636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of largest National Wildlife Refuges Content: Here is a list of the 67 largest National Wildlife Refuges in the 50 United States . It includes all that are larger than 50,000 acres ( 200 km ² ) , and excludes those in U.S. territories ( also officially in the system ) . Acreage/Area includes water as well as land areas . Statistics are as of 30 September 2007 . The eleven largest NWRs are all in the state of Alaska .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_largest_National_Wildlife_Refuges\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 79587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heliciculture Content: Heliciculture , also known as heliculture , commonly known as snail farming , is the process of raising land snails specifically for human use , either to use their flesh as edible escargot , or more recently , to obtain snail slime for use in cosmetics , or snail eggs for human consumption as a type of caviar . Perhaps the best known edible land snail species in the Western world is Helix pomatia ( also known as Roman snail or Burgundy snail ) . This snail is located throughout much of Europe . Helix aspersa , being next most known , were found originally in the Mediterranean region . Helix aspera are now common in many parts of North America , Central America , and Australasia .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Heliciculture\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 79420\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Minto Flats South Fire Content: The Minto Flats South Fire was a large lightning-caused wildfire in Interior Alaska south of Fairbanks that ignited in late June 2009 . It was by far the largest in what was termed the `` Railbelt complex '' of fires , so named because they were all near the main route of the Alaska Railroad . By July 16 it had burned more than 156469 acre . Alaska was experiencing an unusually hot and dry start to the summer season , which in turn led to a very active wildfire season . By the time the Minto Flats fire had become the largest fire in Alaska , over seventy other blazes were active throughout the state , stretching resources to their limits . The main body of the fire was deemed too large to actually try to extinguish , and firefighting efforts were focused from the beginning on protecting lives and property . In mid July it had grown to over 20000 acres , and was rapidly expanding along its souther edge ; smokejumpers were deployed to protect cabins along the Teklanika River near Nenana . There is also an oil drilling rig in this area , and firefighters cleared the area surrounding it of fuel and instructed the drilling crew on the use of firefighting equipment . By the end of July , over 350 persons were involved in the firefighting effort , and continued hot , dry weather had helped the fire grow to over 300000 acres . The fire was not declared under control until late August .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Minto_Flats_South_Fire\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 79280\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Agricultural land Content: Agricultural land is typically land devoted to agriculture , the systematic and controlled use of other forms of lifeparticularly the rearing of livestock and production of cropsto produce food for humans . It is thus generally synonymous with farmland or cropland . The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and others following its definitions , however , also use agricultural land or as a term of art , where it means the collection of : `` arable land '' ( a.k.a. cropland ) : here redefined to refer to land producing crops requiring annual replanting or fallowland or pasture used for such crops within any five-year period `` permanent cropland '' : land producing crops which do not require annual replanting permanent pastures : natural or artificial grasslands and shrublands able to be used for grazing livestock This sense of `` agricultural land '' thus includes a great deal of land not devoted to agricultural use . The land actually under annually-replanted crops in any given year is instead said to constitute or `` Permanent cropland '' includes forested plantations used to harvest coffee , rubber , or fruit but not tree farms or proper forests used for wood or timber . Land able to be used for farming is called . Farmland , meanwhile , is used variously in reference to all agricultural land , to all cultivable land , or just to the newly restricted sense of `` arable land '' . Depending upon its use of artificial irrigation , the FAO 's `` agricultural land '' may be divided into irrigated and non-irrigated land . In the context of zoning , agricultural land or agriculturally-zoned land refers to plots that are permitted to be used for agricultural activities , without regard to its present use or even suitability . In some areas , agricultural land is protected so that it can be farmed without any threat of development . The Agricultural Land Reserve in British Columbia in Canada , for instance , requires approval from its Agricultural Land Commission before its lands can be removed or subdivided .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Agricultural_land\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 78770\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Inventoried roadless area Content: Inventoried Roadless Areas are a group of United States Forest Service lands that have been identified by government reviews as lands without existing roads that could be suitable for roadless area conservation as wilderness or other non-standard protections . The Inventoried Roadless areas include approximately 60000000 acre of land in 40 states and Puerto Rico . Most of these lands are in the western portion of the lower 48 states and Alaska . Idaho alone contains over 9 e6acre of inventoried roadless areas . The inventoried roadless areas range from large unroaded areas with wilderness characteristics to small tracts of land that are immediately adjacent to wilderness areas , parks and other protected lands .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Inventoried_roadless_area\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 78691\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation in Thailand Content: Between 1945 and 1975 forest cover in Thailand declined from 61 percent to 34 percent of the country 's land area . Over the succeeding 11 years , Thailand lost close to 28 percent of all of its remaining forests . This means that the country lost 3.1 percent of its forest cover each year over that period . An estimate by the World Wildlife Fund concluded that between 1973 and 2009 , Thailand 's forests declined by 43 percent . The Thai Highlands in northern Thailand , the most heavily forested region of the country , were not subject to central government control and settlement until the second half of the 19th century when British timber firms , notably the Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation and the Borneo Company Limited , entered the teak trade in the late-1880s and early-1890s . The Royal Forest Department , created in 1896 and headed by a British forester until 1925 , sought to conserve the forests against the worst business practices of British , Thai , and Chinese timber firms who worked in the region . During the 20th century , deforestation in Thailand was driven primarily by agricultural expansion , although teak deforestation happened as a direct result of timber-cutting . Much of Thailand 's recent economic improvement can be attributed to increased agricultural production for export . The country was able to increase production by clearing much of their forest and converting it to cropland . The Thai government is beginning to emphasize forest restoration .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_in_Thailand\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 78629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: University of Alaska Fairbanks Content: The University of Alaska Fairbanks ( also referred to as UAF or Alaska ) is a public research university in Fairbanks , Alaska , United States . It is a flagship campus of the University of Alaska System . UAF is a land-grant , sea-grant , and space-grant institution , and it also participates in the sun-grant program through Oregon State University . UAF was established in 1917 and opened for classes in 1922 . UAF was originally named Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines and later as the University of Alaska from 1925 to 1975 . UAF is home to seven major research units : the Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station ; the Geophysical Institute , which operates the Poker Flat Research Range ; the International Arctic Research Center ; the Arctic Region Supercomputing Center ; the Institute of Arctic Biology ; the Institute of Marine Science ; and the Institute of Northern Engineering . Located just 200 miles ( 320 km ) south of the Arctic Circle , the Fairbanks campus ' unique location is situated favorably for arctic and northern research . The campus ' several lines of research are renowned worldwide , most notably arctic biology , arctic engineering , geophysics , supercomputing and Native Studies . The University of Alaska Museum of the North is also on the Fairbanks campus . In addition to the Fairbanks campus , UAF encompasses seven rural and urban campuses : Bristol Bay Campus in Dillingham ; Chukchi Campus in Kotzebue ; Interior-Aleutians Campus , which covers both the Aleutian Islands and the Interior ; Kuskokwim Campus in Bethel ; Northwest Campus in Nome ; and the UAF Community and Technical College in Fairbanks , UAF 's community college arm . Fairbanks is also the home of the eLearning and Distance Education , an independent learning and distance delivery program . In fall 2013 , UAF enrolled 10,214 students . Of those students , 59.3 percent were female and 40.7 percent were male ; 88 percent were undergraduates , and 12 percent were graduate students . As of May 2013 , 1,288 students had graduated during the immediately preceding summer , fall and spring semesters .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"University_of_Alaska_Fairbanks\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 78513\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economy of Alaska Content: The 2007 gross state product was $ 44.9 billion , 45th in the nation . Its per capita personal income for 2007 was $ 40,042 , ranking 15th in the nation . The state 's economy has been described by University of Alaska Anchorage economist Scott Goldsmith as a `` three-legged stool '' - with one leg being the petroleum and gas industry , the second leg being the federal government and the third leg being all other industries and services . Between 2004 and 2006 , the federal government was responsible for 135,000 Alaska jobs , the petroleum sector provided 110,000 jobs and all other industries and services combined for 122,000 jobs . Alaska 's main export product after oil and natural gas is seafood , primarily salmon , cod , Pollock and crab . Agriculture represents only a fraction of the Alaskan economy . Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock , dairy products , vegetables , and livestock . Manufacturing is limited , with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere . Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction , shipping , and transportation . Military bases are a significant component of the economy in both Fairbanks and Anchorage . Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy , allowing the state to keep taxes low . Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum , natural gas , coal , gold , precious metals , zinc and other mining , seafood processing , timber and wood products . There is also a growing service and tourism sector . Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Economy_of_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 78447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glacier Bay Basin Content: Glacier Bay Basin in southeastern Alaska , in the United States , encompasses the Glacier Bay and surrounding mountains and glaciers , which was first proclaimed a U.S. National Monument on February 25 , 1925 , and which was later , on December 2 , 1980 , enlarged and designated as the Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act , covering an area of 3,283,000 acres ( 1,329,000 ha ) . In 1986 , UNESCO declared an area of 57,000 acres ( 23,000 ha ) within a World Biosphere Reserve . This is the largest UNESCO protected biosphere in the world . In 1992 , UNESCO included this area as a part of a World Heritage site , extending over an area of 24,300,000-acre ( 98,000 km2 ) which also included the Wrangell-St . Elias National Park , Kluane National Park ( Canada ) and Tatshenshini-Alsek Park ( Canada ) . Part of the National Park is also designated a Wilderness area covering 2,658,000 acres ( 1,076,000 ha ) . Current glaciers cover an area 1,375 square miles ( 3,560 km2 ) and accounts for 27 % of the Park area . Up until the early 1700s the area was a large single glacier of solid ice . It has since retreated and evolved into the largest protected water area park in the world . Glacier Bay , on the Gulf of Alaska , was known as the Grand Pacific Glacier , about 4,000 feet ( 1,200 m ) thick and around 20 miles ( 32 km ) in width . Over the last 200 years the glaciers have retreated , exposing 65 miles ( 105 km ) of ocean , and in this process left 20 separate other glaciers in its trail . In 1890 , the name `` Glacier Bay '' as such was given to the bay by Captain Lester A. Beardslee of the U.S. Navy . It was first proclaimed a U.S. National Monument on February 25 , 1925 , by President Calvin Coolidge . The Glacier Bay has many branches , inlets , lagoons , islands , and channels that holds prospects for scientific exploration and visual treat . Thus , the area is popular as a cruise ship destination during summer season . However , there are restrictions imposed by the National Park Service on the numbers of vessels that can operate in a day to 2 cruise ships , 3 tour boats , 6 charter vessels , and 25 private vessels . According to National Park Service statistics for calendar year 2009 , 444,653 people visited Glacier Bay , with 422,919 of those being cruise ship passengers .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Glacier_Bay_Basin\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 78396\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska's at-large congressional district Content: Alaska 's at-large Congressional District is the sole congressional district for the state of Alaska . Based on area , it is the largest congressional district in the nation and is one of the largest electoral districts in the world . The district has been represented by Republican Don Young since March 6 , 1973 .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska's_at-large_congressional_district\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 78358\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meat Atlas Content: Meat Atlas ( Der Fleischatlas ) is an annual report , published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe , on the methods and impact of industrial animal agriculture . Consisting of 27 short essays by different authors , the report aims to inform consumers about the impact of meat consumption on global poverty , climate change , animal welfare , biodiversity , and the migration of workers . Meat Atlas was first published in German in 2013 , and in German and English in 2014 , both under a Creative Commons license ( CC BY-SA 3.0 ) . The executive editors are Christine Chemnitz of the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Stanka Becheva of Friends of the Earth Europe .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Meat_Atlas\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 78129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of census-designated places in Alaska Content: Alaska is a state situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent . According to the 2010 United States Census , Alaska is the 3rd least populous state with 736,732 inhabitants but is the largest by land area spanning 665,384.04 sqmi of land . Alaska has 204 census-designated places and six former census-designated places . Changes for 2010 include the addition of twelve new census-designated places : Badger , Chena Ridge , Eureka Roadhouse , Farmers Loop , Goldstream , Loring , Mertarvik , Nabesna , Point Possession , South Van Horn , Steele Creek , and Whitestone . Six former census-designated places counted for the 2000 census were included in 2010 : Alpine , Copperville ( merged into Tazlina CDP ) , Cube Cove , Miller Landing ( annexed to Homer city ) , Meyers Chuck and Thoms Place ( both incorporated into Wrangell city and borough ) . Two former CDPs became cities : Adak ( incorporated in 2001 ) and Gustavus ( incorporated in 2004 ) . Skagway ( disincorporated in 2007 ) is now a census-designated places . Finally , one census-designated place has a new name : Y is now Susitna North .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_census-designated_places_in_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 78026\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in Alaska Content: Wind power in Alaska has the potential to provide all of the electricity used in the U.S. state of Alaska . From its installation , in July 2009 through October 2012 , the Pillar Mountain Wind 4.5 MW wind farm has saved the use of nearly 3,000,000 gallons of diesel fuel in Kodiak , Alaska .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 77885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ( ANWR or Arctic Refuge ) is a national wildlife refuge in northeastern Alaska , United States . It consists of 19286722 acre in the Alaska North Slope region . It is the largest National Wildlife Refuge in the country , slightly larger than the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge . The refuge is administered from offices in Fairbanks . Just across the border in Yukon , Canada , are two Canadian National Parks , Ivvavik and Vuntut .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_National_Wildlife_Refuge\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 77834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainability and environmental management Content: At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , according to sustainability principles . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles . Management of the Earth 's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainability_and_environmental_management\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 77779\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Major Land Resource Areas Content: In United States conservation policy , Major Land Resource Areas ( MLRA ) are geographically associated land resource units delineated by the Natural Resources Conservation Service and characterized by a particular pattern that combines soils , water , climate , vegetation , land use , and type of farming . There are 204 MLRAs in the United States , ranging in size from less than 500000 acres to more than 60 e6acre .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Major_Land_Resource_Areas\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 77635\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unga Island Content: Unga Island ( Uĝnaasaqax̂ in Aleut ) is the largest of the Shumagin Islands off the Alaska Peninsula in southwestern Alaska , United States . The island has a land area of 170.73 sq mi ( 442.188 km ² ) , making it the 35th largest island in the United States . As of the 2000 census , it had a permanent population of one . Unga Island was formerly named Grekodelarovskoe ( Greek Delarov ) for Evstratii Ivanovich Delarov who explored the area in the late 18th century on behalf of the Russian-American Company .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Unga_Island\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 77125\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Content: Prudhoe Bay Oil Field is a large oil field on Alaska 's North Slope . It is the largest oil field in both the United States and in North America , covering 213543 acre and originally containing approximately 25 Goilbbl of oil . The amount of recoverable oil in the field is more than double that of the next largest field in the United States , the East Texas oil field . The field is operated by BP ; partners are ExxonMobil and ConocoPhillips Alaska .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Prudhoe_Bay_Oil_Field\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 77035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Content: The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act ( ANCSA ) was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 18 , 1971 , constituting at the time the largest land claims settlement in United States history . ANCSA was intended to resolve long-standing issues surrounding aboriginal land claims in Alaska , as well as to stimulate economic development throughout Alaska . The settlement established Alaska Native claims to the land by transferring titles to twelve Alaska Native regional corporations and over 200 local village corporations . A thirteenth regional corporation was later created for Alaska Natives who no longer resided in Alaska . The act is codified as 43 U.S.C. 1601 et seq. .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 77024\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Southeast Alaska Conservation Council Content: The Southeast Alaska Conservation Council ( SEACC ) is a non-profit organization that focusses on protecting the lands and waters of Southeast Alaska . They promote conservation and advocate for sustainable natural resource management . SEACC is located in Alaska 's capital : Juneau . The environmental organization focuses specifically on concerns in the Southeast region of Alaska : including the Panhandle , the Tongass National Forest and the Inside Passage .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Southeast_Alaska_Conservation_Council\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 77017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Selawik National Wildlife Refuge Content: Selawik National Wildlife Refuge in northwest Alaska in the Waring Mountains was officially established in 1980 with the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act ( ANILCA ) . The 3,400 square mile ( 8,700 km ² ) refuge is situated on the Arctic Circle to the east of Kotzebue Sound . It is bounded on the north by the Waring Mountains and Kobuk Valley National Park ; and to the south by the Selawik Hills and the Purcell Mountains . Refuge lands extend eastward toward the headwaters of the Selawik River and the Continental Divide . The refuge is administered from offices in Kotzebue . Some of the land includes alpine tundra , arctic tundra , taiga , lake and wetland complexes , large river deltas , open grass and sedge meadows , and previously glaciated mountains and river valleys . Rolling , vegetated sand dunes were formed by the last retreat of the glaciers . These dunes are the remnant of a much larger system that once included the Great Kobuk Sand Dunes to the north . This area is a transition zone where the northernmost boreal forests give way to open Arctic tundra . The Selawik and Kobuk River deltas , located on the eastern shores of Selawik Lake and Hotham Inlet ( Kobuk Lake ) , provide habitat for migratory bird species . The complex array of freshwater and brackish lakes , riparian areas , and wet meadows , provide habitat and large , undisturbed , tracts for a variety of wildlife species . The approximately 21,000 lakes that occur on refuge lowlands create a large Arctic tundra lake complex .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Selawik_National_Wildlife_Refuge\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 77011\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Izembek Wilderness Content: Izembek Wilderness is a 307982 acre wilderness area in a coastal region of the U.S. state of Alaska panhandle , facing Bristol Bay . Located within the 315000 acre Izembek National Wildlife Refuge , all of the land has been designated Wilderness , with the exception of that along a gravel road system and several private holdings . The area was designated wilderness in 1980 with the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Izembek_Wilderness\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 76874\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Botanical Garden Content: The Alaska Botanical Garden is a 110-acre ( 44.5-ha ) botanical garden located at 4601 Campbell Airstrip Road , Anchorage , Alaska , United States . It is an independent non-profit organization which opened in 1993 , is open year-round , and charges admission to support its mission . The mission of the Garden it to enhance the beauty and value of plant material through education , preservation , recreation and research . The Garden 's land consists mainly of spruce and birch forest . It features 8 developed demonstration gardens and a special location for Junior Master Gardeners . 80 acres of the 110 acre site is fenced to protect these gardens from moose . The gardens include : Over 1,100 species of perennials in the Upper and Lower Perennial Gardens ( of which some 150 are native to Alaska ) An herb garden A rock garden with over 350 types of alpine plants A wildflower walk The 1.1-mile ( 1.8-km ) Lowenfels Family Nature Trail\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Botanical_Garden\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 76763\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Natural gas in Alaska Content: The State of Alaska is both a producer and consumer of natural gas . In 2006 , Alaska consumed 180.4 Bcf of natural gas . Alaskan gas wells are located in two regions . The largest source is the North Slope area around Prudhoe Bay where gas was discovered along with oil in 1968 . In 1974 the State of Alaska 's Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys estimated that the field held 26 Tcuft of natural gas . Because there is no way to transport the Prudhoe Bay gas to markets , as gas comes out of the wells , it is separated from the oil stream and reinjected into the ground to maintain the oil reservoir pressures . There are several proposals to transport the Prudhoe Bay gas . See , Alaska Gas Pipeline . The second source is located on the Kenai Peninsula on the South coast of Alaska . There are probable gas reserves of 1,726.4 Bcf in this area . Most of this gas is exported to Japan through a liquefied natural gas terminal located on the Cook Inlet . The Cook Inlet basin contains large oil and gas deposits including several offshore fields . As of 2005 there were 16 platforms in Cook Inlet , the oldest of which is the XTO A platform first installed by Shell in 1964 , and newest of which is the Kitchen Lights Unit platform installed by Crowley and supported by the German engineering and project management companies Heavylift@Sea,Overdick and Projektbox installed in 2015 . Most of the platforms are operated by Union Oil which was acquired by Chevron in 2005 . There are also numerous oil and gas pipelines running around and under the Cook Inlet . The main destinations of the gas pipelines are to Kenai where the gas is primarily used to fuel commercial fertilizer production and a liquified natural gas ( LNG ) plant and to Anchorage where the gas is consumed largely for domestic uses . ConocoPhillips and Marathon operate the LNG terminal under a series of two-year-long licenses issued by the U.S. Department of Energy under Section 3 of the Natural Gas Act . When these companies applied for another two-year extension of the license , various Alaskan entities , including the local fertizer plant opposed the application on the grounds that there was not sufficient gas to meet local requirements as well as the proposed exports . The Agrium fertilizer plant claimed it closed because it could not obtain a gas supply . On June 3 , 2008 , the Department of Energy granted the extension having found that there were sufficient supplies for Alaska 's needs . On 22 July 2014 , the Alaska LNG project submitted an application to export LNG to the US Department of Energy ( DOE ) . ExxonMobil has confirmed that the Alaska LNG project will seek to export up to 20 million tpa of LNG . The project will export LNG for a period of 30 years to countries that have existing free trade agreements ( FTA ) with the US , as well as to non-FTA countries . The project is anticipated to create up to 15,000 jobs during construction and approximately 1000 jobs for operation of the project . ExxonMobil has confirmed that the Alaska LNG project will seek to export up to 20 million tpa of LNG . The LNG project will export LNG for a period of 30 years to countries that have existing free trade agreements ( FTA ) with the US , as well as to non-FTA countries . The Alaska LNG project participants are the Alaska Gasline Development Corp. ( AGDC ) and affiliates of TransCanada , BP , ConocoPhillips , and ExxonMobil . The LNG project is now in the pre-front-end engineering and design phase , which is expected to be completed in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Natural_gas_in_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 76527\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of turkey meat producing companies in the United States Content: The United States is the world largest exporter of turkey and related products . Nearly 361,884 metric tons ( MT ) of turkey meat has been exported in 2012 . In comparison with 2011 , the industry had experienced 14 percent growth . In 2013 the turkey products were valued at nearly $ 678.9 million . 13 percent increase from 2012 . The dominant market for U.S. turkey meat is Mexico . It has been purchasing meat valued at nearly $ 372.6 million and accounting for 55 percent of turkey exports . The second largest market for U.S. turkey , purchasing more than $ 70.5 million of meat , is China . Canada and Hong Kong were other significant markets for U.S. turkey meat . ( FAS 2012 ) The United States imports a notably small percent of turkey meat ( $ 31.8 million in 2012 ) , mostly from Chile and Canada . ( FAS 2012 ) There is a list of turkey meat producing companies in the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_turkey_meat_producing_companies_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 76397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of the largest counties in the United States by area Content: This is a list of the 100 largest counties in the United States by area . The list is based upon the total area of a county , both land and water surface , reported by the United States Census Bureau during the 2000 Census . Alaska is not divided into counties . A different ranking becomes apparent when comparing county areas by land area alone as opposed to total area . Some counties , such as Keweenaw and Alger Counties in Michigan , include significant amounts of water in their total area and would not appear on a list that considered land area alone . This list also includes the four counties that would be included when water area is not included .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_the_largest_counties_in_the_United_States_by_area\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 76311\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea otter conservation Content: Modern efforts in sea otter conservation began in the early 19th century , when the sea otter was nearly extinct due to large-scale commercial hunting . The sea otter was once abundant in a wide arc across the North Pacific ocean , from northern Japan to Alaska to Mexico . By 1911 , hunting for the animal 's luxurious fur had reduced the sea otter population to fewer than 2000 individuals in the most remote and inaccessible parts of its range . During the 20th century , sea otter populations recovered from remnant populations in the far east of Russia , western Alaska , and California . Beginning in the 1960s , efforts to translocate sea otters to previously populated areas were also successful in restoring sea otters to other parts of the west coast of North America . Populations in some areas are now thriving , and the recovery of the sea otter is considered one of the greatest successes in marine conservation . In two important parts of its range , however , sea otter populations have recently declined or have plateaued at depressed levels . In the Aleutian Islands , a massive and unexpected disappearance of sea otters has occurred in recent decades . The cause of the decline is not known , although the observed pattern of disappearances is consistent with a rise in orca predation . Sea otters give live birth . In the 1990s , California 's sea otter population stopped growing for reasons that are probably different from the difficulties facing Alaska 's otters . A high prevalence of infectious disease in juveniles and adults has been found to cause many sea otter deaths , however it is not known why California sea otters would be more vulnerable to disease than populations elsewhere . Other threats to sea otters are well-known . In particular , sea otters are highly vulnerable to oil spills , and a major spill can rapidly kill thousands of the animals . The IUCN lists the sea otter as an endangered species .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_otter_conservation\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 76208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of cities in Alaska Content: Alaska is a state of the United States situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent . According to the 2010 United States Census , Alaska is the 4th least populous state with 710,231 inhabitants but is the largest by land area spanning 570640.95 sqmi . , Alaska has 148 incorporated cities : four unified home rule municipalities , which are considered both boroughs and cities , ten home rule cities , nineteen first class cities and 115 second class cities . As reflected in the 2010 Census , Alaska 's incorporated cities cover only of the territory 's land mass but are home to of its population . The majority of the incorporated land mass consists of the four unified municipalities , each over 1700 sqmi in size . Only two other cities have an incorporated area exceeding 100 sqmi : Unalaska , which includes the fishing port of Dutch Harbor , and Valdez , which includes the terminus of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System . Incorporated cities in Alaska are categorized as either `` general law '' ( subdivided into `` first class '' and `` second class '' ) or `` home rule '' . Home rule cities occur when a community establishes a commission to draft a charter , which is then ratified by voters at an election . Home rule cities have all legislative powers not prohibited by law or charter . The powers and functions of general law cities are defined by Alaska state laws . Title 29 of the Alaska Statutes , which covers municipal government , requires that a community must have at least 400 permanent residents to incorporate as a home rule or first class city . This status does not diminish if a city 's population declines ; one home rule city ( Nenana ) and four first class cities ( Hydaburg , Pelican , Seldovia and Tanana ) reported populations falling below that threshold in the 2010 Census .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_cities_in_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 76083\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Southeast Alaska Content: Southeast Alaska , sometimes referred to as the Alaska Panhandle , is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska , which lies west from the northern half of the Canadian province , British Columbia . The majority of Southeast Alaska 's area is part of the Tongass National Forest , the United States ' largest national forest . In many places , the international border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains ( see Alaska boundary dispute ) . The region is noted for its scenery and mild rainy climate .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Southeast_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 75965\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve Content: Wrangell -- St. Elias National Park and Preserve is a United States national park and national preserve managed by the National Park Service in south central Alaska . The park and preserve was established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . This protected area is included in an International Biosphere Reserve and is part of the Kluane/Wrangell -- St. Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek UNESCO World Heritage Site . The park and preserve form the largest area managed by the National Park Service in the United States by area with a total of 13175799 acre , an expanse that could encapsulate a total of six Yellowstone National Parks . The park includes a large portion of the Saint Elias Mountains , which include most of the highest peaks in the United States and Canada , yet are within 10 mi of tidewater , one of the highest reliefs in the world . Wrangell -- St. Elias borders on Canada 's Kluane National Park and Reserve to the east and approaches the U.S. Glacier Bay National Park to the south . The chief distinction between park and preserve lands is that sport hunting is prohibited in the park and permitted in the preserve . In addition , 9078675 acre of the park are designated as the largest single wilderness in the United States . Wrangell -- St. Elias National Monument was initially designated on December 1 , 1978 , by President Jimmy Carter using the Antiquities Act , pending final legislation to resolve the allotment of public lands in Alaska . Establishment as a national park and preserve followed the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 . The park , which is bigger than the country Switzerland , has long , extremely cold winters and a short summer season . It supports a variety of large mammals in an environment defined by relative land elevation . Plate tectonics are responsible for the uplift of the mountain ranges that cross the park . The park 's extreme high point is Mount St. Elias at 18008 ft , the second tallest mountain in both the United States and Canada . The park has been shaped by the competing forces of volcanism and glaciation . Mount Wrangell is an active volcano , one of several volcanoes in the western Wrangell Mountains . In the St. Elias Range Mount Churchill has erupted explosively within the past 2,000 years . The park 's glacial features include Malaspina Glacier , the largest piedmont glacier in North America , Hubbard Glacier , the longest tidewater glacier in Alaska , and Nabesna Glacier , the world 's longest valley glacier . The Bagley Icefield covers much of the park 's interior , which includes 60 % of the permanently ice-covered terrain in Alaska . At the center of the park , the boomtown of Kennecott exploited one of the world 's richest deposits of copper from 1903 to 1938 , exposed by and in part incorporated into Kennicott Glacier . The mine buildings and mills , now abandoned , compose a National Historic Landmark district .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Wrangell–St._Elias_National_Park_and_Preserve\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 75947\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bureau of Land Management Content: The Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) is an agency within the United States Department of the Interior that administers more than 247.3 e6acre of public lands in the United States which constitutes one-eighth of the landmass of the country . President Harry S. Truman created the BLM in 1946 by combining two existing agencies : the General Land Office and the Grazing Service . The agency manages the federal government 's nearly 700 e6acre of subsurface mineral estate located beneath federal , state and private lands severed from their surface rights by the Homestead Act of 1862 . Most BLM public lands are located in these 12 western states : Alaska , Arizona , California , Colorado , Idaho , Montana , Nevada , New Mexico , Oregon , Utah , Washington and Wyoming . The mission of the BLM is `` to sustain the health , diversity , and productivity of the public lands for the use and enjoyment of present and future generations . '' Originally BLM holdings were described as `` land nobody wanted '' because homesteaders had passed them by . All the same , ranchers hold nearly 18,000 permits and leases for livestock grazing on 155 e6acre of BLM public lands . The agency manages 221 wilderness areas , 23 national monuments and some 636 other protected areas as part of the National Landscape Conservation System totaling about 30 e6acre . There are more than 63,000 oil and gas wells on BLM public lands . Total energy leases generated approximately $ 5.4 billion in 2013 , an amount divided among the Treasury , the states , and Native American groups .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Bureau_of_Land_Management\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 75935\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kenai Fjords National Park Content: Kenai Fjords National Park is a United States National Park established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . The park covers an area of 669,984 acre on the Kenai Peninsula in southcentral Alaska , near the town of Seward . The park contains the Harding Icefield , one of the largest ice fields in the United States . The park is named for the numerous fjords carved by glaciers moving down the mountains from the ice field . The field is the source of at least 38 glaciers , the largest of which is Bear Glacier . The park lies just to the west of Seward , a popular port for cruise ships . Exit Glacier is reachable by road and is a popular tour destination . The remainder of the park is primarily accessible by boat . The fjords are glacial valleys that have been submerged below sea level by a combination of rising sea levels and land subsidence . Kenai Fjords National Monument was initially designated by President Jimmy Carter on December 1 , 1978 , using the Antiquities Act , pending final legislation to resolve the allotment of public lands in Alaska . Establishment as a national park followed the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 . The park protects the icefield , a narrow fringe of forested land between the mountains and the sea , and the deeply indented coastline . The park is home to a variety of terrestrial and marine mammals , including black bears , whales ( humpback and killer whales ) , seals and moose .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Kenai_Fjords_National_Park\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 75726\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Esther Island (Alaska) Content: Esther Island is an island in the northwestern part of Prince William Sound of the Gulf of Alaska in the state of Alaska , United States . It has a land area of 127.336 km ² ( 49.165 sq mi ) and a resident population of 31 persons as of the 2000 census . The island is the site of the South Esther Island State Marine Park , one of the Alaska State Parks system . The island includes no permanent settlements other than the Wally Noerenberg Hatchery , one of the world 's largest Salmon hatcheries , owned and operated by the Prince William Sound Aquaculture Corporation ( PWSAC ) . The hatchery raises three different species of salmon Pink salmon , Chum salmon , and Coho salmon . The hatchery is located within the State Marine Park . The island is only accessible by floatplane or boat .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Esther_Island_(Alaska)\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 75472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Commercial fishing in Alaska Content: Commercial fishing is a major industry in Alaska , and has been for hundreds of years . Alaska Natives have been harvesting salmon and many other types of fish since the early 17th century . Russians came to Alaska to harvest its abundance of sealife , as well as Japanese and other Asian cultures .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Commercial_fishing_in_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 75121\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geoduck aquaculture Content: Geoduck aquaculture or geoduck farming is the practice of cultivating geoducks ( specifically the Pacific geoduck , Panopea generosa ) for human consumption . The geoduck is a large edible saltwater clam , a marine bivalve mollusk , that is native to the Pacific Northwest . Juvenile geoducks are planted or seeded on the ocean floor or substrate within the soft intertidal and subtidal zones , then harvested five to seven years later when they have reached marketable size ( about 1 kg or 2.2 lbs ) . They are native to the Pacific region and are found from Baja California , through the Pacific Northwest and Southern Alaska . Most geoducks are harvested from the wild , but because of state government-instituted limits on the amount that can be harvested , the need to grow geoducks in farms to meet an increasing demand has led to the growth of the geoduck aquaculture industry , particularly in Puget Sound , Washington . Geoduck meat is a prized delicacy in Asian cuisine ; the majority of exports are sent to China ( Shanghai , Shenzhen , Guangzhou , Beijing , are the main Chinese markets ) , Hong Kong and Japan .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Geoduck_aquaculture\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 75018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land use Content: Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as arable fields , pastures , and managed woods . It also has been defined as `` the total of arrangements , activities , and inputs that people undertake in a certain land cover type . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_use\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 74944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleontology in Alaska Content: Paleontology in Alaska refers to paleontological research occurring within or conducted by people from the U.S. state of Alaska . During the Late Precambrian , Alaska was covered by a shallow sea that was home to stromatolite-forming bacteria . Alaska remained submerged into the Paleozoic era and the sea came to be home to creatures including ammonites , brachiopods , and reef-forming corals . An island chain formed in the eastern part of the state . Alaska remained covered in seawater during the Triassic and Jurassic . Local wildlife included ammonites , belemnites , bony fish and ichthyosaurs . Alaska was a more terrestrial environment during the Cretaceous , with a rich flora and dinosaur fauna . During the early Cenozoic , Alaska had a subtropical environment . The local seas continued to drop until a land bridge connected the state with Asia . Early humans crossed this bridge and remains of contemporary local wildlife such as woolly mammoths often show signs of having been butchered . More recent Native Americans interpreted local fossils through a mythological lens . The local fossils had attracted the attention of formally trained scientists by the 1830s . Major local finds include the Kikak-Tegoseak Pachyrhinosaurus bonebed . The Pleistocene-aged wooly mammoth , Mammuthus primigenius is the Alaska state fossil .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleontology_in_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 74903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land use in China Content: China is experiencing massive land use changes and impacts to the environment due to an unprecedented period of economic growth , which has catapulted it from one of the world 's poorest countries 30 years ago to the world 's second largest economy today . Based on trends in economic development , population growth , and land use , China 's natural landscape will experience significant and increasing pressures well into the future .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_use_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 74519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: South Prince of Wales Wilderness Content: The South Prince of Wales Wilderness is a wilderness area on Prince of Wales Island , Alaska , protecting 90,968 acres of undeveloped Pacific temperate rainforest , much of which is old-growth . Managed by the United States Forest Service as part of the Tongass National Forest , the wilderness area was designated in a provision of the 1980 Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . This wilderness contains 75 or more islands that range from a few to over 500 acres in size . The South Prince of Wales Wilderness sees tidal bores , tidal surges , fierce winds , and heavy storms regularly .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"South_Prince_of_Wales_Wilderness\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 74512\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Exxon Valdez oil spill Content: The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince William Sound , Alaska , March 24 , 1989 , when Exxon Valdez , an oil tanker owned by Exxon Shipping Company , bound for Long Beach , California , struck Prince William Sound 's Bligh Reef at 12:04 am local time and spilled 10.8 e6USgal of crude oil over the next few days . It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters . The Valdez spill is the second largest in US waters , after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill , in terms of volume released . Prince William Sound 's remote location , accessible only by helicopter , plane , or boat , made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing plans for response . The region is a habitat for salmon , sea otters , seals and seabirds . The oil , originally extracted at the Prudhoe Bay oil field , eventually covered 1300 mi of coastline , and 11000 sqmi of ocean . According to official reports , the ship was carrying approximately 54 e6USgal of oil , of which about 10.8 e6USgal were spilled into the Prince William Sound . A figure of 11 e6USgal was a commonly accepted estimate of the spill 's volume and has been used by the State of Alaska 's Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and environmental groups such as Greenpeace and the Sierra Club .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 74476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Register of Big Trees Content: The National Register of Big Trees is a list of the largest recorded living specimens of each tree variety found in the continental United States . A tree on this list is called a National Champion Tree . This list has been maintained since 1940 by American Forests , a nonprofit conservation organization . To be eligible , a species must be recognized as native or naturalized in the continental United States , including Alaska but not Hawaii , as documented in Elbert L. Little Jr. 's Checklist of United States Trees ( Native and Naturalized ) , published in 1979 as Agricultural Handbook 541 by the United States Department of Agriculture . At present 747 native and 79 naturalized trees are eligible , for a total of 826 eligible species and varieties . American Forests uses the following formula to calculate a point score for each tree so that they may be compared to others : Trunk Circumference ( in inches ) + Height ( in feet ) + 1/4 Average Crown Spread ( in feet ) = Total Points The current list of National Champion Trees is available online . In addition to the national list , several states , counties , and cities maintain their own list of local Champion Trees . Many are on public ground and can be visited without obtaining prior permission . The public may nominate trees as well . , the largest National Champion Tree is a giant sequoia in California . Known as the General Sherman tree , it is some 83.8 m ( 274.9 feet ) tall , 31.1 m ( 85.3 feet ) in circumference and 32.5 m ( 106.5 feet ) in average crown spread .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Register_of_Big_Trees\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 74394\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Skiland Content: Ski Land is a lift-served ski and snowboard area at Cleary Summit on the Steese Highway , 20 miles north of Fairbanks , Alaska . The area has one chairlift , North America 's most-northern ; it is 3300 feet long and serves 1057 feet of vertical rise . Road access and the lodge are on a ridge at an elevation of 2470 feet , overlooking a wooded , north-facing bowl . The location is one the best viewing spots in the winter for the northern lights , and looks over the Poker Flat research station and rocket range . The ski season typically runs from November into late April , on weekends only . Tree and glade skiing opportunities abound . On a least one occasion slopes were re-opened in May after a heavy snowfall . The slopes are patrolled by the National Ski Patrol . From 1962 - 1990 a pair of tow ropes ( upper and lower ) served 900 vertical feet total , and were generally operated by volunteers . From 1990-2014 the Birdsall family leased the resort , installing a double chairlift originally installed at the Silver Star ski area in British Columbia , to replace the ropes , and ran the hill as a family business. , In 2015 the area was acquired by locally owned Far North Alpine Ventures , LLC , who now operates it as a ski area and Aurora viewing lodge . Extensive updates to the lodges , trails , lift , maintenance equipment and other facilities have taken place recently . A new learning area and Magic Carpet will be installed in the summer of 2017 . Over the next 10 years more expansion including lodging , snow making , trail expansion , a new lodge , and new lifts are in the master development plan for the ski area . The area encourages year round , non-motorized , non-comercial , recreation for locals and visitors on its trail system . The lodges and grounds can also be rented for private events such as weddings or reunions , and the facilities can also me leased for film production or other commercial use .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Skiland\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 74380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Katmai National Park and Preserve Content: Katmai National Park and Preserve is a United States National Park and Preserve in southern Alaska , notable for the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes and for its Alaskan brown bears . The park and preserve covers 4,093,077 acres , being roughly the size of Wales . Most of this is a designated wilderness area in the national park where all hunting is banned , including over 3922000 acres of land . The park is named after Mount Katmai , its centerpiece stratovolcano . The park is located on the Alaska Peninsula , across from Kodiak Island , with headquarters in nearby King Salmon , about 290 mi southwest of Anchorage . The area was first designated a national monument in 1918 to protect the area around the major 1912 volcanic eruption of Novarupta , which formed the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes , a 40 sqmi , 100 to pyroclastic flow . The park includes as many as 18 individual volcanoes , seven of which have been active since 1900 . Following its designation , the monument was left undeveloped and largely unvisited until the 1950s . Initially designated because of its violent volcanic history , the monument and surrounding lands became appreciated for their abundance of sockeye salmon , the grizzly bears that fed upon them , and a wide variety of other Alaskan wildlife and marine life . After a series of boundary expansions , the present national park and preserve were established in 1980 under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Katmai_National_Park_and_Preserve\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 74334\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Raptor Center Content: The Alaska Raptor Center is a raptor rehabilitation center in Sitka in the U.S. state of Alaska . Located on a 17 -- acre campus bordering the Tongass National Forest and the Indian River , its primary mission is the rehabilitation of sick and injured eagles , hawks , falcons , owls , and other birds of prey which are brought in from all over Alaska . The Center ( the largest of its type in the state , and one of the largest in North America ) receives between 100 -- 200 birds a year , with many suffering from gunshot wounds and traffic accident-related trauma . Most of the birds arriving at the center arrive in special containers , having been flown in via the baggage compartments of Alaska Airlines planes . The Center 's goal is to introduce the birds back into the wild , once they are healed and retrained in `` raptor life skills '' ( such as flying ) in the enclosed , 20000 sqft Bald Eagle Flight-Training Center . Many birds that are no longer able to live outside captivity are sent to zoos and wildlife centers located throughout the United States . A few of the animals that could not be returned to nature have become permanent guests . More than 40,000 visitors annually come to see the two dozen resident eagles , hawks , owls , and ravens , who assist in the Center 's secondary function , that of public education . The most well-known resident is Volta , a bald eagle who suffered permanent damage after a 1992 collision with power lines ( hence the name ) . Though since nursed back to health , Volta now regularly travels to the lower 48 states as an ambassador for the Center ( out of the 100,000 or so bald eagles on Earth , half live in Alaska ) . The Center is open to the public and offers daily tours . The Alaska Raptor Center is a private , nonprofit organization .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Raptor_Center\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 74318\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Cooperative Extension Service Content: University of Alaska Fairbanks Cooperative Extension Service is an outreach-based educational delivery system supported by a partnership between the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) and the University of Alaska Fairbanks ( UAF ) . The UAF Cooperative Extension Service annually serves approximately 80,000 Alaskans , `` providing a link between Alaska 's diverse people and communities by interpreting and extending relevant university , research-based knowledge in an understandable and usable form to the public . '' Since 1930 the UAF Extension Service has partnered with many organizations across the state of Alaska in pursuit of fulfilling its land-grant university mission to disseminate agricultural research and other scientific information .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Cooperative_Extension_Service\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 74107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium Land Transfer Act Content: The Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium Land Transfer Act is a bill that would transfer some land in Alaska from the federal government to the Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium , a non-profit health organization . The land will be used to build a patient housing facility so that the organization can treat people who travel there from distant rural areas . The bill passed in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress . The bill was signed into law .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Native_Tribal_Health_Consortium_Land_Transfer_Act\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 74094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kuiu Island Content: Kuiu Island is an island in the Alexander Archipelago in southeastern Alaska . It lies between Kupreanof Island , to its east , and Baranof Island , to its west . The island is 105 km long , and 10 to wide . It is nearly cut in two by Affleck Canal . It has 1,936.16 km2 of land area , making it the 15th largest island in the United States . The entire island is part of Tongass National Forest . The population was 10 persons at the 2000 census . It is separated from Baranof Island by Chatham Strait . The Cape Decision Light is located on Kuiu Island . Also on the island are the Kuiu Wilderness and the Tebenkof Bay Wilderness areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Kuiu_Island\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 73979\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Misty Fiords National Monument Content: Misty Fiords National Monument ( or Misty Fjords National Monument ) is a national monument and wilderness area administered by the U.S. Forest Service as part of the Tongass National Forest . Misty Fiords is about 40 mi east of Ketchikan , Alaska , along the Inside Passage coast in extreme southeastern Alaska , comprising 2294343 acre of Tongass National Forest in Alaska 's Panhandle . All but 151832 acre are designated as wilderness . Congress reserved the remainder for the Quartz Hill molybdenum deposit , possibly the largest such mineral deposit in the world . The national monument was originally proclaimed by President Jimmy Carter in December 1978 as Misty Fiords National Monument , using the authorization of the Antiquities Act and became a part of an ongoing political struggle between the federal government and the State of Alaska over land use policy and authority that finally led to the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 . In that law , it was statutorily established as Misty Fjords National Monument .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Misty_Fiords_National_Monument\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 73973\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flesh fly (fly fishing) Content: Flesh Fly is a popular fly pattern used by rainbow trout anglers in Western Alaska . This particular fly fishing pattern is designed to mimic a chunk of rotten salmon flesh washing down stream . The pattern is usually tied using white or off white rabbit hair .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Flesh_fly_(fly_fishing)\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 73914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nushagak Peninsula Content: The Nushagak Peninsula is an uninhabited peninsula in the U.S. state of Alaska . It is situated in the Dillingham Census Area , west of the Alaska Peninsula . The 520000 acre byland measures 35 x . It was named for Nushagak Bay in 1910 by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey . With a large area of lakes , ponds and tidal sloughs , the peninsula contains the biggest complex of wetlands of the Togiak National Wildlife Refuge .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Nushagak_Peninsula\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 73886\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States Department of the Interior Content: The United States Department of the Interior ( DOI ) is the United States federal executive department of the U.S. government responsible for the management and conservation of most federal land and natural resources , and the administration of programs relating to Native American , Alaska Natives , Native Hawaiians , territorial affairs , and insular areas of the United States . About 75 % of federal public land is managed by the department , with most of the remainder managed by the United States Department of Agriculture 's United States Forest Service . The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior , who is a member of the Cabinet of the President . The current Secretary is Ryan Zinke . The Inspector General position is currently vacant , with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General . Despite its name , the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the interior ministries of other nations , which are usually responsible for police matters and internal security . In the United States , national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily and the Department of Justice secondarily . The Department of the Interior has often been humorously called `` The Department of Everything Else '' because of its broad range of responsibilities .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_Department_of_the_Interior\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 73807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Outline of Alaska Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the U.S. state of Alaska : Alaska -- most extensive , northernmost , westernmost , highest , second newest , and least densely populated of the 50 states of the United States of America . Alaska occupies the westernmost extent of the Americas , bordering British Columbia and the Yukon , and is detached from the other 49 states . The summit of Denali ( formerly Mount McKinley ) at 6194 meters is the highest point of North America .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Outline_of_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 73759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Livestock in Sri Lanka Content: In Sri Lanka many farmers depend on animal husbandry for their livelihood , but not a large proportion . Therefore , many livestock products have to be imported . The main livestock products in Sri Lanka are milk , meat and eggs . Hides , wools and other products are still not produced within the country . Animal power formerly used in the cultivation of rice and vegetables has been replaced by modern technology to farm lands . However animal husbandry plays an important role in the rural economy for improving the living conditions of farmers in the country . The land area of Sri Lanka is 65,610 km2 . and of this , 30 % belongs to agricultural activities . From that 30 % , 70 % is solely devoted to crop production . The remainder consists of a mixture of crops and livestock . Hence , a very small proportion of the farm land is solely devoted to livestock production . In Sri Lanka , livestock sector contributes around 1.2 % of national GDP . Livestock are spread throughout all regions of Sri Lanka with concentrations of certain farming systems in particular areas due to cultural , market and agro-climatic reasons . According to statistics from the Department of Animal Production and Health , there are about 1.3 million cattle , 0.3 million buffalo , 0.4 million goats , 13 million poultry and 0.08 million pigs in the country with negligible numbers of sheep , ducks and other animal breeds .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Livestock_in_Sri_Lanka\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 73678\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge ( often shortened to Alaska Maritime or AMNWR ) is a United States National Wildlife Refuge comprising 2,400 islands , headlands , rocks , islets , spires and reefs in Alaska , with a total area of 4.9 e6acre , of which 2.64 e6acre is wilderness . The refuge stretches from Cape Lisburne on the Chukchi Sea to the tip of the Aleutian Islands in the west and Forrester Island in the southern Alaska Panhandle region in the east . The refuge has diverse landforms and terrains , including tundra , rainforest , cliffs , volcanoes , beaches , lakes , and streams . Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge is well known for its abundance of seabirds . About 75 percent of Alaskan native marine birds , 15 to 30 million among 55 species , use the refuge . AMNWR also provides a nesting habitat for an estimated 40 million seabirds , representing 80 percent of all seabirds in North America . The birds congregate in `` bird cities '' ( colonies ) along the coast . Each species has a specialized nesting site ( rock ledge , crevice , boulder rubble , pinnacle , or burrow ) . Other animals present in the park include sea lions , seals , walrus , whales and sea otters . The administrative headquarters and visitor center are located in Homer , Alaska .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alaska_Maritime_National_Wildlife_Refuge\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 73598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alligator meat Content: Alligator meat is the meat from alligators that is for consumption . It has been used both historically and in contemporary times in various cuisines of the Southern United States . Alligator eggs are also for consumption . Alligator meat has been described as a healthy meat source for humans due to its high protein and low fat composition . It has been described as being mild flavored and firm in texture . In the United States , it can only be legally sourced from alligator farms , and is available for consumer purchase in specialty food stores , some grocery stores , and can also be mail ordered . Some U.S. companies process and market alligator meat derived only from the tail of alligators .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Alligator_meat\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 73541\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tongass National Forest Content: The Tongass National Forest -LSB- ˈtɒŋɡəs -RSB- in Southeast Alaska is the largest national forest in the United States at 17 e6acre . Most of its area is part of the temperate rain forest WWF ecoregion , itself part of the larger Pacific temperate rain forest WWF ecoregion , and is remote enough to be home to many species of endangered and rare flora and fauna . The Tongass , which is managed by the United States Forest Service , encompasses islands of the Alexander Archipelago , fjords and glaciers , and peaks of the Coast Mountains . An international border with Canada ( British Columbia ) runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains . The forest is administered from Forest Service offices in Ketchikan . There are local ranger district offices located in Craig , Hoonah , Juneau , Ketchikan , Petersburg , Sitka , Thorne Bay , Wrangell , and Yakutat .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Tongass_National_Forest\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 73490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land systems Content: Land systems constitute the terrestrial component of the Earth system and encompass all processes and activities related to the human use of land , including socioeconomic , technological and organizational investments and arrangements , as well as the benefits gained from land and the unintended social and ecological outcomes of societal activities . Changes in land systems have large consequences for the local environment and human well-being and are at the same time pervasive factors of global environmental change . Land provides vital resources to society , such as food , fuel , fibres and many other ecosystem services that support production functions , regulate risks of natural hazards , or provide cultural and spiritual services . By using the land , society alters and modifies the quantity and quality of the provision of these services . Land system changes are the direct result of human decision making at multiple scales ranging from local land owners decisions to national scale land use planning and global trade agreements . The aggregate impact of many local land system changes has far reaching consequences for the Earth System , that feedback on ecosystem services , human well-being and decision making . As a consequence , land system change is both a cause and consequence of socio-ecological processes . The Global Land Programme ( GLP ) of Future Earth is an interdisciplinary community of science and practice fostering the study of land systems and the co-design of solutions for global sustainability . References Category : Geography Category : Land systems Category : Land management es :\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_systems\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 73469\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chugach National Forest Content: The Chugach National Forest is a 6,908,540 acre United States National Forest in south central Alaska . Covering portions of Prince William Sound , the Kenai Peninsula and the Copper River Delta , it was formed in 1907 from part of a larger forest reserve . The Chugach includes extensive shorelines , glaciers , forests and rivers , much of which is untouched by roads or trails . It hosts numerous bird , mammal and marine species , including extensive shorebird habitat and a bald eagle population larger than the continental 48 states combined . Human industry in the forest includes extensive tourism and some mining and oil and gas operations .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Chugach_National_Forest\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 73466\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Agriculture in Kyrgyzstan Content: Agriculture in Kyrgyzstan is a significant sector of the economy . According to the CIA World Factbook , it comprises 18 % of the total GDP and occupies 48 % of the total labor force . Only 6.8 % of the total land area is used for crop cultivation , but 44 % of the land is used as pastures for livestock . Because of the many mountains of Kyrgyzstan , animal husbandry remains a significant part of the agricultural economy . Cultivation is centered in the Ferghana Valley , Talas Province , and Chuy Province . Among Kyrgyzstan 's agricultural products are tobacco , cotton , potatoes , vegetables , grapes , fruits , and berries . As far as total production , the largest crop is assorted types of animal fodder to feed the livestock of the country . The second largest crop is winter wheat , followed by barley , corn , and rice . Significant animal derived products include sheep , goats , cattle , and wool . Chickens , horses , and pigs are also present . In some regions , yaks are herded and bred . Of these , the top products for export are cotton and tobacco . Meat is also exported , but in less significant quantities . However , the country has over 9 million hectares of pasture and a favourable environment for the development of animal husbandry . Recently Kyrgyzstan concluded accords to export meat to Saudi Arabia from September , 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Agriculture_in_Kyrgyzstan\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 73410\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atka Island Content: Atka Island ( Atx̂ax̂ ) is the largest island in the Andreanof Islands of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska . The island is 50 mi east of Adak Island . It is 65 mi long and 2 - wide with a land area of 404.6 sqmi , making it the 22nd largest island in the United States . The northeast of Atka Island contains the Korovin volcano which reaches a peak of 5030 ft. Oglodak Island is located 3.4 mi off Cape Kigun , Atka 's westernmost point . The city of Atka , Alaska is on the east side of the island . The 2000 census population of the island was 95 persons , almost all in the city of Atka . On December 5 , 2008 , President George W. Bush created the World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument . A crashed B-24 Liberator on Atka is one of the 9 sites in the monument .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Atka_Island\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 73304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land Content: Land , sometimes referred to as dry land , is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water . The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture , habitat , and various natural resources . Some life forms ( including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals ) have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water . Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones . The division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans . The demarcation between land and water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors . A maritime boundary is one example of a political demarcation . A variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where water meets land . Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries , where there is no clear point at which the land ends and a body of water has begun . Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Land\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 73260\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bushmeat Content: Bushmeat , wildmeat , or game meat is meat from non-domesticated mammals , reptiles , amphibians and birds hunted for food in tropical forests . Commercial harvesting and the trade of wildlife is considered a threat to biodiversity . Bushmeat also provides a route for a number of serious tropical diseases to spread to humans from their animal hosts . Bushmeat is used for sustenance in remote areas , while in major towns and cities in bushmeat eating societies it is treated as a delicacy .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Bushmeat\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 73240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Western Arctic National Parklands Content: The Western Arctic National Parklands describes four United States National Park Service units in western Alaska that are managed by a single park superintendent and their staff . The western Arctic parklands are Kobuk Valley National Park , Noatak National Preserve , Cape Krusenstern National Monument and Bering Land Bridge National Preserve . The four units have a total area of about 11000000 acre and are managed from the Northwest Arctic Heritage Center in Kotzebue , Alaska . Bering Land Bridge National Preserve has administrative offices in Nome .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Western_Arctic_National_Parklands\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 73184\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Southcentral Alaska Content: Southcentral Alaska is the portion of the U.S. state of Alaska consisting of the shorelines and uplands of the central Gulf of Alaska . Most of the population of the state lives in this region , concentrated in and around the city of Anchorage . The area includes Cook Inlet , the Matanuska-Susitna Valley , the Kenai Peninsula , Prince William Sound , and the Copper River Valley . Tourism , fisheries , and petroleum production are important economic activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"133\",\n \"docid\": \"Southcentral_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 73139\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":65,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Carbon emissions are declining in most rich nations and have been declining in Britain, Germany, and France since the mid-1970s"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .","qid":"135","docid":"German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol","rank":1,"score":175248},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"135","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":2,"score":164721},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"135","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":3,"score":161506},{"content":"Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong","qid":"135","docid":"List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":4,"score":152829},{"content":"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .","qid":"135","docid":"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":5,"score":152536},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .","qid":"135","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita","rank":6,"score":149458},{"content":"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_governance_in_England","rank":7,"score":147693},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":8,"score":146011},{"content":"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .","qid":"135","docid":"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme","rank":9,"score":145023},{"content":"Title: Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate Change Content: See Also : climate change mitigation , emissions trading . The Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate ( MEF ) was launched on March 28 , 2009 . The MEF is intended to facilitate a candid dialogue among major developed and developing economies , help generate the political leadership necessary to achieve a successful outcome at the December UN climate change conference in Copenhagen , and advance the exploration of concrete initiatives and joint ventures that increase the supply of clean energy while cutting greenhouse gas emissions . The 17 major economies are : Australia , Brazil , Canada , China , the European Union , France , Germany , India , Indonesia , Italy , Japan , South Korea , Mexico , Russia , South Africa , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Denmark , in its capacity as the President of the December 2009 Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change , and the United Nations have also participated in this dialogue along with Observers .","qid":"135","docid":"Major_Economies_Forum_on_Energy_and_Climate_Change","rank":10,"score":144910},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":11,"score":144640},{"content":"Title: Wind power in the United Kingdom Content: The United Kingdom is one of the best locations for wind power in the world , and is considered to be the best in Europe . Wind power contributed 11 % of UK electricity generation in 2015 , and 17 % in December 2015 . Allowing for the costs of pollution , particularly the carbon emissions of other forms of production , onshore wind power is the cheapest form of energy in the United Kingdom . In 2016 , the UK generated more electricity from wind power than from coal . Wind power delivers a growing percentage of the energy of the United Kingdom and at the end of May 2017 , it consisted of 7,520 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of almost 15.5 gigawatts : 10,128 megawatts of onshore capacity and 5,356 megawatts of offshore capacity . This placed the United Kingdom at this time as the world 's sixth largest producer of wind power ( behind 1 . China , 2 . USA , 3 . Germany , 4 . India and 5 . Spain ) , having overtaken France and Italy in 2012 . Polling of public opinion consistently shows strong support for wind power in the UK , with nearly three quarters of the population agreeing with its use , even for people living near onshore wind turbines . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . Three large offshore wind farms came on stream in 2015 , Gwynt y Môr ( 576 MW max . capacity ) , Humber Gateway ( 219 MW ) and Westermost Rough ( 210 MW ) . Through the Renewables Obligation , British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee . The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate ( ROC ) for each MW · h of electricity they have purchased . Within the United Kingdom , wind power is the largest source of renewable electricity , and the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass . However , the UK 's Conservative government is opposed to onshore wind power and has attempted to cancel existing subsidies for onshore wind turbines a year early from April 2016 , although the House of Lords have struck these changes down . Overall , wind power raises costs of electricity slightly . In 2015 , it was estimated that the use of wind power in the UK had added # 18 to the average yearly electricity bill . This was the additional cost to consumers of using wind to generate about 9.3 % of the annual total ( see table below ) -- about # 2 for each 1 % . Nevertheless , offshore wind power is significantly more expensive than onshore , which raises costs . Offshore wind projects completed in 2012 -- 14 had a levelised cost of electricity of # 131/MW · h compared to a wholesale price of # 40 -- 50/MW · h ; the industry hopes to get the cost down to # 100/MW · h for projects approved in 2020 .","qid":"135","docid":"Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":12,"score":143365},{"content":"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )","qid":"135","docid":"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita","rank":13,"score":143348},{"content":"Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __","qid":"135","docid":"Air_pollution_in_Germany","rank":14,"score":141811},{"content":"Title: UK Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The UK Emissions Trading Scheme was a voluntary emissions trading system created as a pilot prior to the mandatory European Union Emissions Trading Scheme which it now runs in parallel with . It ran from 2002 and it closed to new entrants in 2009 . Management of the scheme transferred to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2008 . At the time , the scheme was a novel economic approach , being the first multi-industry carbon trading system in the world . ( Denmark ran a pilot greenhouse gas trading scheme between 2001 and 2003 but this only involved eight electricity companies ) . It took note of the emerging international consensus on the benefits of carbon trading that were being proposed in the mandatory Kyoto Protocol , which had not been ratified at that time , and allowed government and corporate early movers and to gain experience in the auction process and the trading system that the later schemes have entailed . It ran in parallel to a tax on energy use , the Climate Change Levy , introduced in April 2001 , but companies could get a discount on the tax if they elected to make reductions through participation in the trading scheme . The voluntary trading scheme recruited 34 participants from UK industries and organisations who promised to make reductions in their carbon emissions , this has since expanded to 54 sectors of the UK economy . In return they received a share of a # 215 million `` incentive fund '' from the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) . Each agreed to hold sufficient allowances to cover its actual emissions for that year , and participate in a cap and trade system , with an annually reducing cap . Each participant could then decide to take action to manage its emissions to exactly meet its target , or reduce its actual emissions below its target ( thereby releasing allowances that it could sell on , or save for use in future years ) , or buy allowances from other participants to cover any excess . From March 2002 , DEFRA ran an auction of emission allowances to perform allocations to participants , after the start of the mandatory EU scheme .","qid":"135","docid":"UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme","rank":15,"score":141748},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"135","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":16,"score":140146},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"135","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":17,"score":139301},{"content":"Title: ETSWAP Content: ETSWAP ( Emissions Trading Scheme Workflow Automation Project ) is the web-based system operated by the UK Environment Agency for emitters to manage , verify and report their emissions of Carbon Dioxide ( and in the future , other Greenhouse Gases ) , as required by the EU ETS ( European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ) . The structure and process of the ETSWAP system was outlined in a Mutual Understanding Document produced by the governments of the UK , Germany , Ireland and The Netherlands , which also dubbed the system `` Workflow Automation Project '' ( WAP ) . The application is designed to meet the new requirements of the EU ETS resulting from the 2008/101/CE Directive . The system is designed to facilitate completion and submission of verified emissions and benchmarking reports , viewing of approved emissions/benchmarking plans for existing operators and submission of emissions plans for new operators . As at July 2011 , ETSWAP is configured for reporting of carbon emissions by the aviation sector and has been used by 600 aviation operators in the UK and 200 in the Republic of Ireland . The system is being expanded to cover emissions by fixed installations by 2012 .","qid":"135","docid":"ETSWAP","rank":18,"score":138564},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"135","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":19,"score":138416},{"content":"Title: List of least carbon efficient power stations Content: This is a list of least carbon efficient power stations in selected countries . Lists were created by the WWF and lists the most polluting power stations in terms of the level of carbon dioxide produced per unit of electricity generated . In 2005 WWF created list of power stations from 30 industrialised countries , also list for EU , in 2007 WWF published updated EU list . In 2009 European Commission list with absolute emissions only , also in 2014 Climate Action Network Europe , WWF , European Environmental Bureau , Health and Environment Alliance and Climate Alliance Germany .","qid":"135","docid":"List_of_least_carbon_efficient_power_stations","rank":20,"score":137803},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Performance Index Content: The Climate Change Performance Index ( CCPI ) is an annual publication by Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe . It evaluates the climate protection performance of 58 countries , responsible for over 90 % of global energy-related emissions . CCPI 2013 publication covers emissions from the fossil fuels , except emissions from the shipping industry . Following CCPI 2013 publication may include emissions from deforestation , agriculture and waste . 50 % of the evaluation is based on emissions trend , 30 % on emissions level and 20 % on national and international climate policy assessments made by more than 200 experts . The most recent results ( published December 2014 ) illustrate that efforts are still insufficient to prevent dangerous climate change . Thus , no country received rankings one to three in the results for 2015 although Denmark which topped the list was praised for its efforts .","qid":"135","docid":"Climate_Change_Performance_Index","rank":21,"score":136523},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":22,"score":136418},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"135","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":23,"score":136340},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"135","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":24,"score":134578},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"135","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":25,"score":133756},{"content":"Title: Energy in the United Kingdom Content: Energy use in the United Kingdom stood at 2,249 TWh ( 193.4 million tonnes of oil equivalent ) in 2014 . This equates to energy consumption per capita of 34.82 MWh ( 3.00 tonnes of oil equivalent ) compared to a 2010 world average of 21.54 MWh ( 1.85 tonnes of oil equivalent ) . Demand for electricity in 2014 was 34.42 GW on average ( 301.7 TWh over the year ) coming from a total electricity generation of 335.0 TWh . Successive UK governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions . One such announcement was the Low Carbon Transition Plan launched by the Brown ministry in July 2009 , which aimed to generate 30 % electricity from renewable sources , and 40 % from low carbon content fuels by 2020 . Notably , the UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy , and wind power production is its fastest growing supply , in 2014 it generated 9.3 % of the UK 's total electricity . Government commitments to reduce emissions are occurring against a backdrop of economic crisis across Europe . During the European financial crisis , Europe 's consumption of electricity shrank by 5 % , with primary production also facing a noticeable decline . Britain 's trade deficit was reduced by 8 % due to substantial cuts in energy imports . Between 2007 and 2015 , the UK 's peak electrical demand fell from 61.5 GW to 52.7 . GW . UK government energy policy aims to play a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions , whilst meeting energy demand . Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country 's energy mix through changes in costs . In 2016 , the United Kingdom was ranked 12th in the World on the Environmental Performance Index , which measures how well a country carries through environmental policy .","qid":"135","docid":"Energy_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":26,"score":133683},{"content":"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .","qid":"135","docid":"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions","rank":27,"score":132860},{"content":"Title: Emissions Trading Scheme in South Korea Content: South Korea 's Emissions Trading Scheme ( KETS ) is the second largest in scale after the European Union Emission Trading Scheme and was launched on January 1 , 2015 . South Korea is the second country in Asia to initiate a nation-wide carbon market after Kazakhstan . Complying to the country 's pledge made at the Copenhagen Accord of 2009 , the South Korean government aims to reduce its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by 30 % below its business as usual scenario by 2020 . They have officially employed the cap-and-trade system and the operation applies to over 525 companies which are accountable for approximately 68 % of the nation 's GHG output . The operation is divided up into three periods . The first and second phases consist of 3 years each , 2015 to 2017 and 2018 to 2020 . The final phase will spread out over the next 5 years from 2021 to 2025 . The cap-and-trade system is a tool of carbon pricing that has been adapted by several countries to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through a market mechanism . It entails a market open to the transaction of trade permits , which allow participating businesses or countries to emit a given amount of greenhouse gases . A cap is set by the government which defines the maximum level of total emissions permitted during a certain time period . The South Korean government had set the emissions cap for the first year of implementation ( 2015 ) as 573 MtCO2e . The major objectives of the KETS is to place South Korea at the forefront of the global effort in reducing GHG emissions and to develop its market competitiveness in the clean energy sector . As one of the top 10 largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions and a nation with the highest growth rate in GHG emissions , South Korea 's awareness of its carbon footprint has increased over the years . The country grows more vulnerable to climate change as the average temperature has risen by 1.5 degrees Celsius causing frequent natural disasters . Furthermore , the South Korean government aims to cut back its reliance on imported fossil fuel energy which accounts for roughly 97 % of its primary energy consumption . Lastly , by implementing the emissions trading scheme , the government has prospects of developing its green industries and increase its global share of the clean energy market .","qid":"135","docid":"Emissions_Trading_Scheme_in_South_Korea","rank":28,"score":131968},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"135","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":29,"score":131806},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"135","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":30,"score":131531},{"content":"Title: 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions is an agreement to provide for a further reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary fluxes . It is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution and supplements the 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions . opened for signature - 14 June 1994 entered into force - 5 August 1998 parties - ( 29 ) Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Croatia , Cyprus , Czech Republic , Denmark , European Union , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Monaco , Netherlands , Norway , Slovakia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , United Kingdom countries that have signed , but not yet ratified - ( 3 ) Poland , Russia , Ukraine","qid":"135","docid":"1994_Oslo_Protocol_on_Further_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions","rank":31,"score":130450},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"135","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":32,"score":130213},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"135","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":33,"score":129398},{"content":"Title: Low carbon leakage Content: Low carbon leakage refers to the phenomenon of a country or a region losing its low carbon industries to another country or region . The underlying low carbon leakage trend can also be identified by looking into clean energy patent distribution around the World . The threat of low carbon leakage to the European Union has been repeatedly expressed by a number of European Politicians such as climate Commissioner Connie Hedegaard , UK Energy Secretary Edward Davey and others . The low carbon leakage increases its relevance for the industrial competitiveness as the low carbon economy grows and has reached in 2013 $ 4 trillion and continues to grow at 4 % per year . Not taking relevant part in this growth opportunity is also considered as low carbon leakage . In October 2014 E&Y published a report `` European Low Carbon Industries . A Health Check . '' specifically examining the state of the European low carbon sectors . The report lists a wide variety of cases in which `` low carbon leakage '' occurs or could occur . Low carbon leakage could lead to a significant loss of competitiveness for Europe . According to former German federal minister Trittin : `` In reality there is no carbon leakage . The danger of low carbon leakage is much more real . '' I typical example is the solar panel manufacturing that has developed rapidly in China and shrunk in Europe .","qid":"135","docid":"Low_carbon_leakage","rank":34,"score":128556},{"content":"Title: Carbon audit regime Content: A carbon audit regime is a means of accounting for quantifiable greenhouse gas control efforts . It establishes that the claimed reductions in emissions or enhancements of carbon sinks , has actually occurred and is stable . The UK is the only nation in the world that presently has such a regime .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_audit_regime","rank":35,"score":128443},{"content":"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .","qid":"135","docid":"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation","rank":36,"score":128042},{"content":"Title: Energy efficiency in British housing Content: Domestic housing in the United Kingdom presents a possible opportunity for achieving the 20 % overall cut in UK carbon dioxide emissions targeted by the Government for 2010 . However , the process of achieving that drop is proving problematic given the very wide range of age and condition of the UK housing stock .","qid":"135","docid":"Energy_efficiency_in_British_housing","rank":37,"score":127994},{"content":"Title: Bonn Challenge Content: The Bonn Challenge is a global effort to restore 150 million hectares of the world 's degraded and deforested lands by 2020 . It was hosted and launched by Germany and the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) in Bonn on 2 September 2011 , in collaboration with the Global Partnership on Forest/Landscape Restoration and targets delivery on the Rio Conventions and other outcomes of the 1992 Earth Summit . As at 2013 over 20 million hectares of land had been pledged for restoration from countries including Brazil , Costa Rica , El Salvador , Rwanda , and the United States . South Korea , Costa Rica , China , Rwanda and Brazil have embarked on successful landscape restoration programmes . The IUCN estimates that fulfilling the goals of the Bonn challenge would create approximately $ 84 billion per year in net benefits that could positively affect income opportunities for rural communities . It is also estimated that a reduction of the current carbondioxide emissions gap by 11-17 % will be achieved by meeting the challenge .","qid":"135","docid":"Bonn_Challenge","rank":38,"score":127657},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"135","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":39,"score":127394},{"content":"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .","qid":"135","docid":"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform","rank":40,"score":127179},{"content":"Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .","qid":"135","docid":"Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions","rank":41,"score":127165},{"content":"Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_Disclosure_Project","rank":42,"score":125753},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":43,"score":125625},{"content":"Title: EU Allowances Content: EU Allowances are Climate credits ( or Carbon credits ) used in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . EU Allowances are issued by the EU Member States into Member State Registry accounts . By April 30 of each year , operators of installations covered by the EU ETS must surrender an EU Allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted in the previous year . Category : Carbon emissions in the European Union","qid":"135","docid":"EU_Allowances","rank":44,"score":125289},{"content":"Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .","qid":"135","docid":"ACEA_agreement","rank":45,"score":125134},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"135","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":46,"score":124882},{"content":"Title: Nitrogen Oxide Protocol Content: Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes , opened for signature on 31 October 1988 and entered into force on 14 February 1991 , was to provide for the control or reduction of nitrogen oxides and their transboundary fluxes . It was concluded in Sofia , Bulgaria . Parties ( as of September 2016 ) : ( 36 ) Albania , Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Croatia , Cyprus , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , European Union , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovakia , Slovenia . Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , Ukraine , United Kingdom , United States .","qid":"135","docid":"Nitrogen_Oxide_Protocol","rank":47,"score":124664},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon intensity Content: This article lists countries by their carbon intensity . Carbon intensity is defined as a country 's annual carbon dioxide emissions divided by the country 's gross domestic product . National incomes are calculated using market exchange rates ( MER ) and purchasing power parities ( PPP ) . Units are metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars .","qid":"135","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity","rank":48,"score":124240},{"content":"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012","qid":"135","docid":"Emission_Reduction_Unit","rank":49,"score":124005},{"content":"Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .","qid":"135","docid":"2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":50,"score":123895},{"content":"Title: International Carbon Action Partnership Content: The International Carbon Action Partnership ( ICAP ) was founded in 2007 by more than 15 government representatives as an international cooperative forum , bringing together states and sub-national jurisdictions that have implemented or are planning to implement emissions trading systems ( ETS ) . Then governor of California , Arnold Schwarzenegger , stated at ICAP 's founding ceremony : `` This first of its kind partnership will provide more incentives for clean-tech investment and economic growth while not letting polluters off the hook . And it will help renew the health of our planet . '' José Sócrates , the Portuguese prime minister further added that ICAP was launched in order to join carbon markets all over the world and by that be more successful in combating climate change . ICAP includes members from the European Union Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) , Western Climate Initiative ( WCI ) , Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) , Australia , New Zealand , Norway , and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . Japan and Ukraine are observers.Member jurisdictions share best practices and discuss ETS design elements with a view to creating a well-functioning global carbon market . The rationale behind ICAP 's work is that linking carbon cap and trade systems would lead to economic , social and environmental benefits .","qid":"135","docid":"International_Carbon_Action_Partnership","rank":51,"score":123808},{"content":"Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .","qid":"135","docid":"2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":52,"score":123077},{"content":"Title: CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Content: The CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme ( the CRC , formerly the Carbon Reduction Commitment ) is a mandatory carbon emissions reduction scheme in the United Kingdom that applies to large non-energy-intensive organisations in the public and private sectors . It has been estimated that the scheme will reduce carbon emissions by 1.2 million tonnes of carbon per year by 2020 . In an effort to avoid dangerous climate change , the British Government first committed to cutting UK carbon emissions by 60 % by 2050 ( compared to 1990 levels ) , and in October 2008 increased this commitment to 80 % . The scheme has also been credited with driving up demand for energy-efficient goods and services . The CRC was announced in the 2007 Energy White Paper , published on 23 May 2007 . A consultation in 2006 showed strong support for it to be mandatory , rather than voluntary . The Commitment was introduced under enabling powers in Part 3 of the Climate Change Act 2008 . A consultation into the scheme 's implementation was launched in June 2007 . The Scheme is being introduced under the CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Order 2010 .","qid":"135","docid":"CRC_Energy_Efficiency_Scheme","rank":53,"score":122768},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"135","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":54,"score":122672},{"content":"Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .","qid":"135","docid":"ECOCITIES_(software)","rank":55,"score":122267},{"content":"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .","qid":"135","docid":"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States","rank":56,"score":122216},{"content":"Title: The Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership Content: The Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership ( LowCVP ) was announced by the UK Government in 2002 as an element of its Powering Future Vehicles Strategy . The purpose of the LowCVP is support reduction of carbon emissions from road transport in the UK with a clear focus on accelerating the adoption of low carbon vehicles and fuels ; other strategies for reducing transport carbon emissions , for example modal shift towards cycling and walking or reducing traffic congestion through intelligent transport systems are out of scope and are the preserve of other bodies who are more expert in those fields . The UK government has set a target for reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions and recognises that achieving its target will require emissions from road transport , which are significant , to be cut .","qid":"135","docid":"The_Low_Carbon_Vehicle_Partnership","rank":57,"score":122201},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_emission_trading","rank":58,"score":122104},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"135","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":59,"score":121825},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":60,"score":121782},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"135","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":61,"score":121753},{"content":"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme","rank":62,"score":121714},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"135","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":63,"score":121497},{"content":"Title: Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants Content: The Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants ( CCAC ) was launched by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and six countries -- Bangladesh , Canada , Ghana , Mexico , Sweden and the United States -- on 16February 2012 . The CCAC aims to catalyze rapid reductions in short-lived climate pollutants to protect human health , agriculture and the environment . To date , more than $ 47million has been pledged to the Climate and Clean Air Coalition from Canada , Denmark , the European Commission , Germany , Japan , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , and the United States . The program is managed out of the United Nations Environmental Programme through a Secretariat in Paris , France .","qid":"135","docid":"Climate_and_Clean_Air_Coalition_to_Reduce_Short-Lived_Climate_Pollutants","rank":64,"score":121344},{"content":"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .","qid":"135","docid":"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance","rank":65,"score":120722},{"content":"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .","qid":"135","docid":"Stuart_Agnew","rank":66,"score":120519},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in Austria Content: The Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection of Austria , established in 1972 , is responsible for the coordination at the national level of all environmental protection efforts , addressing its efforts toward problems including waste disposal , pollution , noise , sulfur dioxide , and carbon monoxide levels , as well as emissions by the iron , steel , and ceramics industries . A toxic waste law enacted in 1984 established strict regulations for the collection , transport , and disposal of dangerous substances . The Austrian government has imposed strict regulations on gas emissions , which helped to reduce sulfur dioxide by two-thirds over an eight-year period beginning in 1980 . In 1992 Austria was among the 50 countries with the highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emissions , producing 56.6 million metric tons of emissions , or 7.29 m tons per capita . In 1996 , the level rose to 59.3 million metric tons . In 2000 , the total was 60.8 million metric tons .","qid":"135","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_Austria","rank":67,"score":120214},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"135","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":68,"score":119971},{"content":"Title: Asia-Pacific Emissions Trading Forum Content: The Asia-Pacific Emissions Trading Forum ( AETF ) was an information service and business network dealing with domestic and international developments in emissions trading policy in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region . The AETF was originally called the Australasian Emissions Trading Forum , and was founded in 1998 under the auspices of the Sydney Futures Exchange following a proposal from Beck Consulting Services . From 2001 until 2011 the AETF published the AETF Review ( Bib ID 3998494 ) , held regular member meetings and convened numerous events and conferences . The AETF Review was published six times per year and included original articles on emissions trading developments and related topics . In 2011 the AETF formed the foundation of the new Carbon Market Institute , a not-for-profit institute , established in Melbourne , Australia to continue and develop the AETF programs . The AETF was founded to assist all potential stakeholders understand and respond to emissions trading developments both domestically and internationally . Emissions trading is a key element of the Kyoto Protocol and subsequent proposals to manage global greenhouse gas emissions under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . National or regional schemes are operating in the European Union , New Zealand and the United States and are under active consideration in China , Japan and elsewhere . In Australia , legislation under Clean Energy Future Scheme has been passed to introduce a national emissions trading scheme from 2015 .","qid":"135","docid":"Asia-Pacific_Emissions_Trading_Forum","rank":69,"score":119342},{"content":"Title: Electricity sector in Luxembourg Content: Electricity sector in Luxembourg describes electricity issues in Luxembourg . Luxembourg is a member of OECD and European Union . Luxembourg imports most of its energy . Luxembourg is the EU country with the second smallest forecast of renewables in 2020 . Luxembourg has one of the highest emissions of carbon dioxide per person in Europe .","qid":"135","docid":"Electricity_sector_in_Luxembourg","rank":70,"score":119147},{"content":"Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .","qid":"135","docid":"Paris_Agreement","rank":71,"score":118938},{"content":"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_finance","rank":72,"score":118880},{"content":"Title: Ecosecurities Content: EcoSecurities is a business that sources and develops carbon credits and carbon offsets from greenhouse gas emission reduction projects throughout the world . The company has offices in Europe , Middle East , Americas and Asia and has a large portfolio of green house gas emission reduction projects covering numerous countries and technologies . EcoSecurities was created in January 1997 , 12 months before the Kyoto conference . After a period of organic growth , the company floated on the Alternative Investment Market of the London Stock Exchange in December 2005 , allowing it to grow its geographic presence by placing over 300 staff in 30 countries . Its portfolio grew to over 150 million CERs - the largest in the world at the time . In June 2007 , the company raised an additional $ 100 million to expand into new markets , with Credit Suisse becoming a major investor . It trades in the international carbon market which was valued at $ 38 billion in the first six months of 2008 . The former President and co-founder of EcoSecurities was Pedro Moura-Costa and the former CEO was Bruce Usher . At the end of 2009 the firm was acquired by JP Morgan and is now an indirect wholly owned subsidiarly of JPMorgan Chase and Co. and can provide its clients with access to the scope of services provided by the bank 's Environmental Markets business in addition to those activities of sourcing and developing greenhouse gas abatement projects outlined above . Following on from acquisition of EcoSecurities the company appointed Paul Mark Kelly as Chief Executive Officer of the company in December 2009 , when the company subsequently delisted from the Alternative Investment Market of the London Stock Exchange .","qid":"135","docid":"Ecosecurities","rank":73,"score":118863},{"content":"Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_retirement","rank":74,"score":118810},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":75,"score":118767},{"content":"Title: Embedded emissions Content: One way of attributing greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions of goods that are being consumed ( also referred to as `` embodied emissions '' ) . This is different from the question of to what extent the policies of one country to reduce emissions affect emissions in other countries ( the `` spillover effect '' and `` carbon leakage '' of an emissions reduction policy ) . The UNFCCC measures emissions according to production , rather than consumption ( UK Parliament , 2010 ) . Consequently , embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting , rather than the importing , country . The question of whether to measure emissions on production instead of consumption is partly an issue of equity , i.e. , who is responsible for emissions ( Toth et al. , 2001 , p. 670 ) . The 37 Kyoto Protocol Parties , listed in Annex B of the treaty , have agreed to legally binding emission reduction commitments . Under the UNFCCC accounting of emissions , their emission reduction commitments do not include emissions attributable to their imports . In a briefing note , Wang and Watson ( 2007 ) asked the question , `` who owns China 's carbon emissions ? '' In their study , they suggested that nearly a quarter of China 's CO2 emissions might be a result of its production of goods for export , primarily to the USA but also to Europe . Based on this , they suggested that international negotiations based on within country emissions ( i.e. , emissions measured by production ) may be '' -LSB- missing -RSB- the point . '' Recent research confirms that , in 2004 , 23 % of global emissions were embedded in goods traded internationally , mostly flowing from China and other developing countries to the U.S. , Europe and Japan . Research by the Carbon Trust in 2011 revealed that approximately 25 % of all emissions from human activities ` flow ' ( i.e. are imported or exported ) from one country to another . The flow of carbon was found to be roughly 50 % emissions associated with trade in commodities such as steel , cement , and chemicals , and 50 % in semi-finished/finished products such as motor vehicles , clothing or industrial machinery and equipment .","qid":"135","docid":"Embedded_emissions","rank":76,"score":118718},{"content":"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .","qid":"135","docid":"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":77,"score":118012},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_emission_label","rank":78,"score":117850},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":79,"score":117776},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"135","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":80,"score":117707},{"content":"Title: Industrial Emissions Directive Content: The Industrial Emissions Directive ( Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions ( integrated pollution prevention and control ) ) is a European Union directive which commits European Union member states to control and reduce the impact of industrial emissions on the environment .","qid":"135","docid":"Industrial_Emissions_Directive","rank":81,"score":117397},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"135","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":82,"score":116331},{"content":"Title: Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds or Their Transboundary Fluxes ( known as the Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol or the VOC Protocol ) is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution which aims to provide for the control and reduction of emissions of volatile organic compounds in order to reduce their transboundary fluxes so as to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects . The protocol was concluded at Geneva , Switzerland . Opened for signature - November 18 , 1991 Entered into force - September 29 , 1997 Parties - ( 24 ) Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Croatia , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Monaco , Netherlands , Norway , Slovakia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , United Kingdom Countries that have signed , but not yet ratified - ( 6 ) Canada , European Union , Greece , Portugal , Ukraine , United States","qid":"135","docid":"Volatile_Organic_Compounds_Protocol","rank":83,"score":116238},{"content":"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .","qid":"135","docid":"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut","rank":84,"score":115832},{"content":"Title: 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 per cent is a 1985 protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution agreement that provided for a 30 per cent reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary fluxes by 1993 . The protocol has been supplemented by the 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions . opened for signature - July 8 , 1985 entered into force - September 2 , 1987 parties - ( 25 ) Albania , Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Netherlands , Norway , Russia , Slovakia , Sweden , Switzerland , Ukraine","qid":"135","docid":"1985_Helsinki_Protocol_on_the_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions","rank":85,"score":115719},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .","qid":"135","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_accounting","rank":86,"score":115619},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":87,"score":115597},{"content":"Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .","qid":"135","docid":"Airport_Carbon_Accreditation","rank":88,"score":115562},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Mexico Content: Mexico highly depends on the burning of its fossil fuels , and for the same reason , it is in its interest to look into mitigation solutions for its corresponding emissions . In the General Law on Climate Change on 2012 , Mexico promised to reduce 20 % of its GHG emissions by 2020 and 50 % by 2050 , as well as in the Paris Agreement . 19 % of the this new mitigation plan will be dedicated to carbon capture and storage and specifically 10 % to the energetic industry .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Mexico","rank":89,"score":115453},{"content":"Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''","qid":"135","docid":"Maximilian_Auffhammer","rank":90,"score":115416},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":91,"score":115415},{"content":"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .","qid":"135","docid":"California_Senate_Bill_32","rank":92,"score":115110},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia","rank":93,"score":114907},{"content":"Title: Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport (HBEFA) Content: The Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport ( HBEFA ) is a Microsoft Access database application providing emission factors , i.e. the specific emissions in g/km , for all current road vehicle categories ( passenger cars , light duty vehicles , heavy duty vehicles , buses , and motorcycles ) . Emission factors are provided for all regulated and the most important non-regulated air pollutants as well as for fuel consumption and CO2 . HBEFA is used to estimate road transport emissions on different spatial aggregation levels from national to street level . HBEFA was originally developed on behalf of the Environmental Protection Agencies of Germany ( UBA ) , Switzerland ( FOEN/BAFU ) , and Austria ( Umweltbundesamt ) . In the meantime , further countries ( Sweden , Norway , France ) and the JRC ( Joint Research Centre of the European Commission ) are supporting HBEFA . The handbook is developed and provided by INFRAS , a Swiss research institute and independent consulting group based in Zurich and Bern . HBEFA ( the so-called `` public version '' ) is available for download for everyone ( chargeable at a fee of 250 EUR for new users ) . This public version allows users to view emission factors at different disaggregation levels . For selected experts participating in the development of HBEFA an extended version with additional features ( referred to as `` expert version '' ) is available .","qid":"135","docid":"Handbook_Emission_Factors_for_Road_Transport_(HBEFA)","rank":94,"score":114815},{"content":"Title: United Nations REDD Programme Content: The United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation ( or UN-REDD Programme ) is a collaborative programme of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) , the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , created in 2008 in response to the UNFCCC decisions on the Bali Action Plan and REDD at COP-13 . It should not be confused with `` REDD + '' , a voluntary climate change mitigation approach that has been developed by Parties to the UNFCCC ( see below `` Difference between REDD + and the UN-REDD Programme '' ) . The overall development goal of the Programme is `` to reduce forest emissions and enhance carbon stocks in forests while contributing to national sustainable development '' . The UN-REDD Programme supports nationally led REDD + processes and promotes the informed and meaningful involvement of all stakeholders , including indigenous peoples and other forest-dependent communities , in national and international REDD + implementation . The Programme has expanded steadily since its establishment and now has over 60 official Partner Countries spanning Africa , Asia-Pacific and Latin America-Caribbean . In addition to the UN-REDD Programme , other initiatives assisting countries that are engaged in REDD + include the World Bank 's Forest Carbon Partnership Facility , Norway 's International Climate and Forest Initiative , the Global Environment Facility , Australia 's International Forest Carbon Initiative , the Collaborative Partnership on Forests , and the Green Climate Fund . The UN-REDD Programme publicly releases each year an Annual Programme Progress Report and a Semi-Annual Report .","qid":"135","docid":"United_Nations_REDD_Programme","rank":95,"score":114622},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"135","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":96,"score":114146},{"content":"Title: Verified Carbon Standard Content: The Verified Carbon Standard ( VCS ) is a voluntary greenhouse gas program . The organization was founded by a collection of business and environmental leaders . In 2005 , The Climate Group , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) and The World Economic Forum - convened a team of global carbon market experts to draft the first VCS requirements . The World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) joined the effort soon after . These experts soon formed the VCS Steering Committee , which worked to draft the first and subsequent versions of the VCS Standard . Many of the members of the original steering committee went on to be on the original Board of Directors , which now has evolved into a body of 12 members that offers input and guidance to the organization . By 2008 , with the VCS Standard becoming more widely adopted , the Board of Directors named David Antonioli the organization 's first Chief Executive Officer . Soon after in 2009 , VCS incorporated in Washington D.C as a non-profit NGO .","qid":"135","docid":"Verified_Carbon_Standard","rank":97,"score":114132},{"content":"Title: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Content: The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum ( CSLF ) is an international initiative to advance carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) technology . The Forum is a Ministerial-level organization that includes 23 member countries and the European Commission . Membership is open to national governmental entities that are significant producers or users of fossil fuel and that have a commitment to invest resources in research , development and demonstration activities in carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies . CSLF also recognizes that stakeholders , those organizations that are affected by and can affect the goals of CSLF , form an essential component of CSLF activities . The CSLF Charter , signed in June 2003 , organized the CSLF by creating a Policy Group , which governs the overall framework and policies of the CSLF , a Technical Group , which reviews the progress of collaborative projects and makes recommendations to the Policy Group on any needed actions , and an administrative Secretariat , which organizes CSLF meetings , coordinates communications among CSLF Members , and acts as a clearinghouse of information . In July 2005 , the G8 Summit endorsed the CSLF in its Plan of Action on Climate Change , Clean Energy and Sustainable Development , and identified it as a medium of cooperation and collaboration with key developing countries in dealing with greenhouse gases . Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include : the joint statement of the U.S.-European Union Summit on Energy Security , Energy Efficiency , Renewables and Economic Development , and the Mainz Declaration of Germany and the United States on Cleaner and More Efficient Energy , Development and Climate Change . In 2006 and 2007 , the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage . Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders . The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO2 capture , transport and storage research and activities .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum","rank":98,"score":113989},{"content":"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .","qid":"135","docid":"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance","rank":99,"score":113892},{"content":"Title: Black Triangle (region) Content: The Black Triangle ( German Schwarzes Dreieck ) is a border region shared by Germany , Poland and the Czech Republic , long characterized by extremely high levels of pollution . The term was coined in the 1980s . For decades , industrially produced air pollutants ( chiefly sulfur dioxide ) , water pollution , acid rain and other effects took an enormous toll on the health of local residents and the surrounding environment . After the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe , the three nations acted to cut emissions . This has resulted in significant environmental improvement .","qid":"135","docid":"Black_Triangle_(region)","rank":100,"score":113849}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 175248\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 164721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 161506\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 152829\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 152536\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 149458\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_governance_in_England\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 147693\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 146011\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 145023\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate Change Content: See Also : climate change mitigation , emissions trading . The Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate ( MEF ) was launched on March 28 , 2009 . The MEF is intended to facilitate a candid dialogue among major developed and developing economies , help generate the political leadership necessary to achieve a successful outcome at the December UN climate change conference in Copenhagen , and advance the exploration of concrete initiatives and joint ventures that increase the supply of clean energy while cutting greenhouse gas emissions . The 17 major economies are : Australia , Brazil , Canada , China , the European Union , France , Germany , India , Indonesia , Italy , Japan , South Korea , Mexico , Russia , South Africa , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Denmark , in its capacity as the President of the December 2009 Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change , and the United Nations have also participated in this dialogue along with Observers .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Major_Economies_Forum_on_Energy_and_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 144910\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 144640\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wind power in the United Kingdom Content: The United Kingdom is one of the best locations for wind power in the world , and is considered to be the best in Europe . Wind power contributed 11 % of UK electricity generation in 2015 , and 17 % in December 2015 . Allowing for the costs of pollution , particularly the carbon emissions of other forms of production , onshore wind power is the cheapest form of energy in the United Kingdom . In 2016 , the UK generated more electricity from wind power than from coal . Wind power delivers a growing percentage of the energy of the United Kingdom and at the end of May 2017 , it consisted of 7,520 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of almost 15.5 gigawatts : 10,128 megawatts of onshore capacity and 5,356 megawatts of offshore capacity . This placed the United Kingdom at this time as the world 's sixth largest producer of wind power ( behind 1 . China , 2 . USA , 3 . Germany , 4 . India and 5 . Spain ) , having overtaken France and Italy in 2012 . Polling of public opinion consistently shows strong support for wind power in the UK , with nearly three quarters of the population agreeing with its use , even for people living near onshore wind turbines . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . Three large offshore wind farms came on stream in 2015 , Gwynt y Môr ( 576 MW max . capacity ) , Humber Gateway ( 219 MW ) and Westermost Rough ( 210 MW ) . Through the Renewables Obligation , British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee . The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate ( ROC ) for each MW · h of electricity they have purchased . Within the United Kingdom , wind power is the largest source of renewable electricity , and the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass . However , the UK 's Conservative government is opposed to onshore wind power and has attempted to cancel existing subsidies for onshore wind turbines a year early from April 2016 , although the House of Lords have struck these changes down . Overall , wind power raises costs of electricity slightly . In 2015 , it was estimated that the use of wind power in the UK had added # 18 to the average yearly electricity bill . This was the additional cost to consumers of using wind to generate about 9.3 % of the annual total ( see table below ) -- about # 2 for each 1 % . Nevertheless , offshore wind power is significantly more expensive than onshore , which raises costs . Offshore wind projects completed in 2012 -- 14 had a levelised cost of electricity of # 131/MW · h compared to a wholesale price of # 40 -- 50/MW · h ; the industry hopes to get the cost down to # 100/MW · h for projects approved in 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 143365\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 143348\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_pollution_in_Germany\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 141811\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: UK Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The UK Emissions Trading Scheme was a voluntary emissions trading system created as a pilot prior to the mandatory European Union Emissions Trading Scheme which it now runs in parallel with . It ran from 2002 and it closed to new entrants in 2009 . Management of the scheme transferred to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2008 . At the time , the scheme was a novel economic approach , being the first multi-industry carbon trading system in the world . ( Denmark ran a pilot greenhouse gas trading scheme between 2001 and 2003 but this only involved eight electricity companies ) . It took note of the emerging international consensus on the benefits of carbon trading that were being proposed in the mandatory Kyoto Protocol , which had not been ratified at that time , and allowed government and corporate early movers and to gain experience in the auction process and the trading system that the later schemes have entailed . It ran in parallel to a tax on energy use , the Climate Change Levy , introduced in April 2001 , but companies could get a discount on the tax if they elected to make reductions through participation in the trading scheme . The voluntary trading scheme recruited 34 participants from UK industries and organisations who promised to make reductions in their carbon emissions , this has since expanded to 54 sectors of the UK economy . In return they received a share of a # 215 million `` incentive fund '' from the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) . Each agreed to hold sufficient allowances to cover its actual emissions for that year , and participate in a cap and trade system , with an annually reducing cap . Each participant could then decide to take action to manage its emissions to exactly meet its target , or reduce its actual emissions below its target ( thereby releasing allowances that it could sell on , or save for use in future years ) , or buy allowances from other participants to cover any excess . From March 2002 , DEFRA ran an auction of emission allowances to perform allocations to participants , after the start of the mandatory EU scheme .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 141748\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 140146\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 139301\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ETSWAP Content: ETSWAP ( Emissions Trading Scheme Workflow Automation Project ) is the web-based system operated by the UK Environment Agency for emitters to manage , verify and report their emissions of Carbon Dioxide ( and in the future , other Greenhouse Gases ) , as required by the EU ETS ( European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ) . The structure and process of the ETSWAP system was outlined in a Mutual Understanding Document produced by the governments of the UK , Germany , Ireland and The Netherlands , which also dubbed the system `` Workflow Automation Project '' ( WAP ) . The application is designed to meet the new requirements of the EU ETS resulting from the 2008/101/CE Directive . The system is designed to facilitate completion and submission of verified emissions and benchmarking reports , viewing of approved emissions/benchmarking plans for existing operators and submission of emissions plans for new operators . As at July 2011 , ETSWAP is configured for reporting of carbon emissions by the aviation sector and has been used by 600 aviation operators in the UK and 200 in the Republic of Ireland . The system is being expanded to cover emissions by fixed installations by 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"ETSWAP\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 138564\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 138416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of least carbon efficient power stations Content: This is a list of least carbon efficient power stations in selected countries . Lists were created by the WWF and lists the most polluting power stations in terms of the level of carbon dioxide produced per unit of electricity generated . In 2005 WWF created list of power stations from 30 industrialised countries , also list for EU , in 2007 WWF published updated EU list . In 2009 European Commission list with absolute emissions only , also in 2014 Climate Action Network Europe , WWF , European Environmental Bureau , Health and Environment Alliance and Climate Alliance Germany .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_least_carbon_efficient_power_stations\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 137803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Performance Index Content: The Climate Change Performance Index ( CCPI ) is an annual publication by Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe . It evaluates the climate protection performance of 58 countries , responsible for over 90 % of global energy-related emissions . CCPI 2013 publication covers emissions from the fossil fuels , except emissions from the shipping industry . Following CCPI 2013 publication may include emissions from deforestation , agriculture and waste . 50 % of the evaluation is based on emissions trend , 30 % on emissions level and 20 % on national and international climate policy assessments made by more than 200 experts . The most recent results ( published December 2014 ) illustrate that efforts are still insufficient to prevent dangerous climate change . Thus , no country received rankings one to three in the results for 2015 although Denmark which topped the list was praised for its efforts .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Performance_Index\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 136523\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 136418\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 136340\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 134578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 133756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy in the United Kingdom Content: Energy use in the United Kingdom stood at 2,249 TWh ( 193.4 million tonnes of oil equivalent ) in 2014 . This equates to energy consumption per capita of 34.82 MWh ( 3.00 tonnes of oil equivalent ) compared to a 2010 world average of 21.54 MWh ( 1.85 tonnes of oil equivalent ) . Demand for electricity in 2014 was 34.42 GW on average ( 301.7 TWh over the year ) coming from a total electricity generation of 335.0 TWh . Successive UK governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions . One such announcement was the Low Carbon Transition Plan launched by the Brown ministry in July 2009 , which aimed to generate 30 % electricity from renewable sources , and 40 % from low carbon content fuels by 2020 . Notably , the UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy , and wind power production is its fastest growing supply , in 2014 it generated 9.3 % of the UK 's total electricity . Government commitments to reduce emissions are occurring against a backdrop of economic crisis across Europe . During the European financial crisis , Europe 's consumption of electricity shrank by 5 % , with primary production also facing a noticeable decline . Britain 's trade deficit was reduced by 8 % due to substantial cuts in energy imports . Between 2007 and 2015 , the UK 's peak electrical demand fell from 61.5 GW to 52.7 . GW . UK government energy policy aims to play a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions , whilst meeting energy demand . Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country 's energy mix through changes in costs . In 2016 , the United Kingdom was ranked 12th in the World on the Environmental Performance Index , which measures how well a country carries through environmental policy .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 133683\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 132860\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emissions Trading Scheme in South Korea Content: South Korea 's Emissions Trading Scheme ( KETS ) is the second largest in scale after the European Union Emission Trading Scheme and was launched on January 1 , 2015 . South Korea is the second country in Asia to initiate a nation-wide carbon market after Kazakhstan . Complying to the country 's pledge made at the Copenhagen Accord of 2009 , the South Korean government aims to reduce its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by 30 % below its business as usual scenario by 2020 . They have officially employed the cap-and-trade system and the operation applies to over 525 companies which are accountable for approximately 68 % of the nation 's GHG output . The operation is divided up into three periods . The first and second phases consist of 3 years each , 2015 to 2017 and 2018 to 2020 . The final phase will spread out over the next 5 years from 2021 to 2025 . The cap-and-trade system is a tool of carbon pricing that has been adapted by several countries to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through a market mechanism . It entails a market open to the transaction of trade permits , which allow participating businesses or countries to emit a given amount of greenhouse gases . A cap is set by the government which defines the maximum level of total emissions permitted during a certain time period . The South Korean government had set the emissions cap for the first year of implementation ( 2015 ) as 573 MtCO2e . The major objectives of the KETS is to place South Korea at the forefront of the global effort in reducing GHG emissions and to develop its market competitiveness in the clean energy sector . As one of the top 10 largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions and a nation with the highest growth rate in GHG emissions , South Korea 's awareness of its carbon footprint has increased over the years . The country grows more vulnerable to climate change as the average temperature has risen by 1.5 degrees Celsius causing frequent natural disasters . Furthermore , the South Korean government aims to cut back its reliance on imported fossil fuel energy which accounts for roughly 97 % of its primary energy consumption . Lastly , by implementing the emissions trading scheme , the government has prospects of developing its green industries and increase its global share of the clean energy market .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Emissions_Trading_Scheme_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 131968\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 131806\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 131531\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions is an agreement to provide for a further reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary fluxes . It is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution and supplements the 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions . opened for signature - 14 June 1994 entered into force - 5 August 1998 parties - ( 29 ) Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Croatia , Cyprus , Czech Republic , Denmark , European Union , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Monaco , Netherlands , Norway , Slovakia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , United Kingdom countries that have signed , but not yet ratified - ( 3 ) Poland , Russia , Ukraine\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"1994_Oslo_Protocol_on_Further_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 130450\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 130213\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 129398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low carbon leakage Content: Low carbon leakage refers to the phenomenon of a country or a region losing its low carbon industries to another country or region . The underlying low carbon leakage trend can also be identified by looking into clean energy patent distribution around the World . The threat of low carbon leakage to the European Union has been repeatedly expressed by a number of European Politicians such as climate Commissioner Connie Hedegaard , UK Energy Secretary Edward Davey and others . The low carbon leakage increases its relevance for the industrial competitiveness as the low carbon economy grows and has reached in 2013 $ 4 trillion and continues to grow at 4 % per year . Not taking relevant part in this growth opportunity is also considered as low carbon leakage . In October 2014 E&Y published a report `` European Low Carbon Industries . A Health Check . '' specifically examining the state of the European low carbon sectors . The report lists a wide variety of cases in which `` low carbon leakage '' occurs or could occur . Low carbon leakage could lead to a significant loss of competitiveness for Europe . According to former German federal minister Trittin : `` In reality there is no carbon leakage . The danger of low carbon leakage is much more real . '' I typical example is the solar panel manufacturing that has developed rapidly in China and shrunk in Europe .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Low_carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 128556\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon audit regime Content: A carbon audit regime is a means of accounting for quantifiable greenhouse gas control efforts . It establishes that the claimed reductions in emissions or enhancements of carbon sinks , has actually occurred and is stable . The UK is the only nation in the world that presently has such a regime .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_audit_regime\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 128443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 128042\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy efficiency in British housing Content: Domestic housing in the United Kingdom presents a possible opportunity for achieving the 20 % overall cut in UK carbon dioxide emissions targeted by the Government for 2010 . However , the process of achieving that drop is proving problematic given the very wide range of age and condition of the UK housing stock .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_efficiency_in_British_housing\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 127994\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bonn Challenge Content: The Bonn Challenge is a global effort to restore 150 million hectares of the world 's degraded and deforested lands by 2020 . It was hosted and launched by Germany and the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) in Bonn on 2 September 2011 , in collaboration with the Global Partnership on Forest/Landscape Restoration and targets delivery on the Rio Conventions and other outcomes of the 1992 Earth Summit . As at 2013 over 20 million hectares of land had been pledged for restoration from countries including Brazil , Costa Rica , El Salvador , Rwanda , and the United States . South Korea , Costa Rica , China , Rwanda and Brazil have embarked on successful landscape restoration programmes . The IUCN estimates that fulfilling the goals of the Bonn challenge would create approximately $ 84 billion per year in net benefits that could positively affect income opportunities for rural communities . It is also estimated that a reduction of the current carbondioxide emissions gap by 11-17 % will be achieved by meeting the challenge .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Bonn_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 127657\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 127394\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 127179\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 127165\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Disclosure_Project\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 125753\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 125625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: EU Allowances Content: EU Allowances are Climate credits ( or Carbon credits ) used in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . EU Allowances are issued by the EU Member States into Member State Registry accounts . By April 30 of each year , operators of installations covered by the EU ETS must surrender an EU Allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted in the previous year . Category : Carbon emissions in the European Union\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"EU_Allowances\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 125289\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"ACEA_agreement\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 125134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 124882\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nitrogen Oxide Protocol Content: Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes , opened for signature on 31 October 1988 and entered into force on 14 February 1991 , was to provide for the control or reduction of nitrogen oxides and their transboundary fluxes . It was concluded in Sofia , Bulgaria . Parties ( as of September 2016 ) : ( 36 ) Albania , Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Croatia , Cyprus , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , European Union , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovakia , Slovenia . Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , Ukraine , United Kingdom , United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Nitrogen_Oxide_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 124664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon intensity Content: This article lists countries by their carbon intensity . Carbon intensity is defined as a country 's annual carbon dioxide emissions divided by the country 's gross domestic product . National incomes are calculated using market exchange rates ( MER ) and purchasing power parities ( PPP ) . Units are metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 124240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Emission_Reduction_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 124005\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 123895\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Carbon Action Partnership Content: The International Carbon Action Partnership ( ICAP ) was founded in 2007 by more than 15 government representatives as an international cooperative forum , bringing together states and sub-national jurisdictions that have implemented or are planning to implement emissions trading systems ( ETS ) . Then governor of California , Arnold Schwarzenegger , stated at ICAP 's founding ceremony : `` This first of its kind partnership will provide more incentives for clean-tech investment and economic growth while not letting polluters off the hook . And it will help renew the health of our planet . '' José Sócrates , the Portuguese prime minister further added that ICAP was launched in order to join carbon markets all over the world and by that be more successful in combating climate change . ICAP includes members from the European Union Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) , Western Climate Initiative ( WCI ) , Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) , Australia , New Zealand , Norway , and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . Japan and Ukraine are observers.Member jurisdictions share best practices and discuss ETS design elements with a view to creating a well-functioning global carbon market . The rationale behind ICAP 's work is that linking carbon cap and trade systems would lead to economic , social and environmental benefits .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Carbon_Action_Partnership\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 123808\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 123077\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Content: The CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme ( the CRC , formerly the Carbon Reduction Commitment ) is a mandatory carbon emissions reduction scheme in the United Kingdom that applies to large non-energy-intensive organisations in the public and private sectors . It has been estimated that the scheme will reduce carbon emissions by 1.2 million tonnes of carbon per year by 2020 . In an effort to avoid dangerous climate change , the British Government first committed to cutting UK carbon emissions by 60 % by 2050 ( compared to 1990 levels ) , and in October 2008 increased this commitment to 80 % . The scheme has also been credited with driving up demand for energy-efficient goods and services . The CRC was announced in the 2007 Energy White Paper , published on 23 May 2007 . A consultation in 2006 showed strong support for it to be mandatory , rather than voluntary . The Commitment was introduced under enabling powers in Part 3 of the Climate Change Act 2008 . A consultation into the scheme 's implementation was launched in June 2007 . The Scheme is being introduced under the CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Order 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"CRC_Energy_Efficiency_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 122768\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 122672\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"ECOCITIES_(software)\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 122267\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 122216\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership Content: The Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership ( LowCVP ) was announced by the UK Government in 2002 as an element of its Powering Future Vehicles Strategy . The purpose of the LowCVP is support reduction of carbon emissions from road transport in the UK with a clear focus on accelerating the adoption of low carbon vehicles and fuels ; other strategies for reducing transport carbon emissions , for example modal shift towards cycling and walking or reducing traffic congestion through intelligent transport systems are out of scope and are the preserve of other bodies who are more expert in those fields . The UK government has set a target for reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions and recognises that achieving its target will require emissions from road transport , which are significant , to be cut .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Low_Carbon_Vehicle_Partnership\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 122201\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_trading\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 122104\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 121825\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 121782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 121753\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 121714\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 121497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants Content: The Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants ( CCAC ) was launched by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and six countries -- Bangladesh , Canada , Ghana , Mexico , Sweden and the United States -- on 16February 2012 . The CCAC aims to catalyze rapid reductions in short-lived climate pollutants to protect human health , agriculture and the environment . To date , more than $ 47million has been pledged to the Climate and Clean Air Coalition from Canada , Denmark , the European Commission , Germany , Japan , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , and the United States . The program is managed out of the United Nations Environmental Programme through a Secretariat in Paris , France .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_and_Clean_Air_Coalition_to_Reduce_Short-Lived_Climate_Pollutants\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 121344\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 120722\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Stuart_Agnew\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 120519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in Austria Content: The Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection of Austria , established in 1972 , is responsible for the coordination at the national level of all environmental protection efforts , addressing its efforts toward problems including waste disposal , pollution , noise , sulfur dioxide , and carbon monoxide levels , as well as emissions by the iron , steel , and ceramics industries . A toxic waste law enacted in 1984 established strict regulations for the collection , transport , and disposal of dangerous substances . The Austrian government has imposed strict regulations on gas emissions , which helped to reduce sulfur dioxide by two-thirds over an eight-year period beginning in 1980 . In 1992 Austria was among the 50 countries with the highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emissions , producing 56.6 million metric tons of emissions , or 7.29 m tons per capita . In 1996 , the level rose to 59.3 million metric tons . In 2000 , the total was 60.8 million metric tons .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_Austria\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 120214\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 119971\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Asia-Pacific Emissions Trading Forum Content: The Asia-Pacific Emissions Trading Forum ( AETF ) was an information service and business network dealing with domestic and international developments in emissions trading policy in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region . The AETF was originally called the Australasian Emissions Trading Forum , and was founded in 1998 under the auspices of the Sydney Futures Exchange following a proposal from Beck Consulting Services . From 2001 until 2011 the AETF published the AETF Review ( Bib ID 3998494 ) , held regular member meetings and convened numerous events and conferences . The AETF Review was published six times per year and included original articles on emissions trading developments and related topics . In 2011 the AETF formed the foundation of the new Carbon Market Institute , a not-for-profit institute , established in Melbourne , Australia to continue and develop the AETF programs . The AETF was founded to assist all potential stakeholders understand and respond to emissions trading developments both domestically and internationally . Emissions trading is a key element of the Kyoto Protocol and subsequent proposals to manage global greenhouse gas emissions under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . National or regional schemes are operating in the European Union , New Zealand and the United States and are under active consideration in China , Japan and elsewhere . In Australia , legislation under Clean Energy Future Scheme has been passed to introduce a national emissions trading scheme from 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Asia-Pacific_Emissions_Trading_Forum\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 119342\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electricity sector in Luxembourg Content: Electricity sector in Luxembourg describes electricity issues in Luxembourg . Luxembourg is a member of OECD and European Union . Luxembourg imports most of its energy . Luxembourg is the EU country with the second smallest forecast of renewables in 2020 . Luxembourg has one of the highest emissions of carbon dioxide per person in Europe .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Electricity_sector_in_Luxembourg\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 119147\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Paris_Agreement\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 118938\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_finance\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 118880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ecosecurities Content: EcoSecurities is a business that sources and develops carbon credits and carbon offsets from greenhouse gas emission reduction projects throughout the world . The company has offices in Europe , Middle East , Americas and Asia and has a large portfolio of green house gas emission reduction projects covering numerous countries and technologies . EcoSecurities was created in January 1997 , 12 months before the Kyoto conference . After a period of organic growth , the company floated on the Alternative Investment Market of the London Stock Exchange in December 2005 , allowing it to grow its geographic presence by placing over 300 staff in 30 countries . Its portfolio grew to over 150 million CERs - the largest in the world at the time . In June 2007 , the company raised an additional $ 100 million to expand into new markets , with Credit Suisse becoming a major investor . It trades in the international carbon market which was valued at $ 38 billion in the first six months of 2008 . The former President and co-founder of EcoSecurities was Pedro Moura-Costa and the former CEO was Bruce Usher . At the end of 2009 the firm was acquired by JP Morgan and is now an indirect wholly owned subsidiarly of JPMorgan Chase and Co. and can provide its clients with access to the scope of services provided by the bank 's Environmental Markets business in addition to those activities of sourcing and developing greenhouse gas abatement projects outlined above . Following on from acquisition of EcoSecurities the company appointed Paul Mark Kelly as Chief Executive Officer of the company in December 2009 , when the company subsequently delisted from the Alternative Investment Market of the London Stock Exchange .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Ecosecurities\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 118863\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_retirement\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 118810\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 118767\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Embedded emissions Content: One way of attributing greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions of goods that are being consumed ( also referred to as `` embodied emissions '' ) . This is different from the question of to what extent the policies of one country to reduce emissions affect emissions in other countries ( the `` spillover effect '' and `` carbon leakage '' of an emissions reduction policy ) . The UNFCCC measures emissions according to production , rather than consumption ( UK Parliament , 2010 ) . Consequently , embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting , rather than the importing , country . The question of whether to measure emissions on production instead of consumption is partly an issue of equity , i.e. , who is responsible for emissions ( Toth et al. , 2001 , p. 670 ) . The 37 Kyoto Protocol Parties , listed in Annex B of the treaty , have agreed to legally binding emission reduction commitments . Under the UNFCCC accounting of emissions , their emission reduction commitments do not include emissions attributable to their imports . In a briefing note , Wang and Watson ( 2007 ) asked the question , `` who owns China 's carbon emissions ? '' In their study , they suggested that nearly a quarter of China 's CO2 emissions might be a result of its production of goods for export , primarily to the USA but also to Europe . Based on this , they suggested that international negotiations based on within country emissions ( i.e. , emissions measured by production ) may be '' -LSB- missing -RSB- the point . '' Recent research confirms that , in 2004 , 23 % of global emissions were embedded in goods traded internationally , mostly flowing from China and other developing countries to the U.S. , Europe and Japan . Research by the Carbon Trust in 2011 revealed that approximately 25 % of all emissions from human activities ` flow ' ( i.e. are imported or exported ) from one country to another . The flow of carbon was found to be roughly 50 % emissions associated with trade in commodities such as steel , cement , and chemicals , and 50 % in semi-finished/finished products such as motor vehicles , clothing or industrial machinery and equipment .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Embedded_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 118718\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 118012\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_label\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 117850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 117776\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 117707\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial Emissions Directive Content: The Industrial Emissions Directive ( Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions ( integrated pollution prevention and control ) ) is a European Union directive which commits European Union member states to control and reduce the impact of industrial emissions on the environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_Emissions_Directive\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 117397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 116331\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds or Their Transboundary Fluxes ( known as the Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol or the VOC Protocol ) is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution which aims to provide for the control and reduction of emissions of volatile organic compounds in order to reduce their transboundary fluxes so as to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects . The protocol was concluded at Geneva , Switzerland . Opened for signature - November 18 , 1991 Entered into force - September 29 , 1997 Parties - ( 24 ) Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Croatia , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Monaco , Netherlands , Norway , Slovakia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , United Kingdom Countries that have signed , but not yet ratified - ( 6 ) Canada , European Union , Greece , Portugal , Ukraine , United States\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Volatile_Organic_Compounds_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 116238\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 115832\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 per cent is a 1985 protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution agreement that provided for a 30 per cent reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary fluxes by 1993 . The protocol has been supplemented by the 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions . opened for signature - July 8 , 1985 entered into force - September 2 , 1987 parties - ( 25 ) Albania , Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Netherlands , Norway , Russia , Slovakia , Sweden , Switzerland , Ukraine\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"1985_Helsinki_Protocol_on_the_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 115719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_accounting\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 115619\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 115597\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Airport_Carbon_Accreditation\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 115562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Mexico Content: Mexico highly depends on the burning of its fossil fuels , and for the same reason , it is in its interest to look into mitigation solutions for its corresponding emissions . In the General Law on Climate Change on 2012 , Mexico promised to reduce 20 % of its GHG emissions by 2020 and 50 % by 2050 , as well as in the Paris Agreement . 19 % of the this new mitigation plan will be dedicated to carbon capture and storage and specifically 10 % to the energetic industry .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Mexico\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 115453\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Maximilian_Auffhammer\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 115416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 115415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Senate_Bill_32\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 115110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 114907\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport (HBEFA) Content: The Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport ( HBEFA ) is a Microsoft Access database application providing emission factors , i.e. the specific emissions in g/km , for all current road vehicle categories ( passenger cars , light duty vehicles , heavy duty vehicles , buses , and motorcycles ) . Emission factors are provided for all regulated and the most important non-regulated air pollutants as well as for fuel consumption and CO2 . HBEFA is used to estimate road transport emissions on different spatial aggregation levels from national to street level . HBEFA was originally developed on behalf of the Environmental Protection Agencies of Germany ( UBA ) , Switzerland ( FOEN/BAFU ) , and Austria ( Umweltbundesamt ) . In the meantime , further countries ( Sweden , Norway , France ) and the JRC ( Joint Research Centre of the European Commission ) are supporting HBEFA . The handbook is developed and provided by INFRAS , a Swiss research institute and independent consulting group based in Zurich and Bern . HBEFA ( the so-called `` public version '' ) is available for download for everyone ( chargeable at a fee of 250 EUR for new users ) . This public version allows users to view emission factors at different disaggregation levels . For selected experts participating in the development of HBEFA an extended version with additional features ( referred to as `` expert version '' ) is available .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Handbook_Emission_Factors_for_Road_Transport_(HBEFA)\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 114815\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Nations REDD Programme Content: The United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation ( or UN-REDD Programme ) is a collaborative programme of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) , the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , created in 2008 in response to the UNFCCC decisions on the Bali Action Plan and REDD at COP-13 . It should not be confused with `` REDD + '' , a voluntary climate change mitigation approach that has been developed by Parties to the UNFCCC ( see below `` Difference between REDD + and the UN-REDD Programme '' ) . The overall development goal of the Programme is `` to reduce forest emissions and enhance carbon stocks in forests while contributing to national sustainable development '' . The UN-REDD Programme supports nationally led REDD + processes and promotes the informed and meaningful involvement of all stakeholders , including indigenous peoples and other forest-dependent communities , in national and international REDD + implementation . The Programme has expanded steadily since its establishment and now has over 60 official Partner Countries spanning Africa , Asia-Pacific and Latin America-Caribbean . In addition to the UN-REDD Programme , other initiatives assisting countries that are engaged in REDD + include the World Bank 's Forest Carbon Partnership Facility , Norway 's International Climate and Forest Initiative , the Global Environment Facility , Australia 's International Forest Carbon Initiative , the Collaborative Partnership on Forests , and the Green Climate Fund . The UN-REDD Programme publicly releases each year an Annual Programme Progress Report and a Semi-Annual Report .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Nations_REDD_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 114622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 114146\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Verified Carbon Standard Content: The Verified Carbon Standard ( VCS ) is a voluntary greenhouse gas program . The organization was founded by a collection of business and environmental leaders . In 2005 , The Climate Group , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) and The World Economic Forum - convened a team of global carbon market experts to draft the first VCS requirements . The World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) joined the effort soon after . These experts soon formed the VCS Steering Committee , which worked to draft the first and subsequent versions of the VCS Standard . Many of the members of the original steering committee went on to be on the original Board of Directors , which now has evolved into a body of 12 members that offers input and guidance to the organization . By 2008 , with the VCS Standard becoming more widely adopted , the Board of Directors named David Antonioli the organization 's first Chief Executive Officer . Soon after in 2009 , VCS incorporated in Washington D.C as a non-profit NGO .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Verified_Carbon_Standard\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 114132\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Content: The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum ( CSLF ) is an international initiative to advance carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) technology . The Forum is a Ministerial-level organization that includes 23 member countries and the European Commission . Membership is open to national governmental entities that are significant producers or users of fossil fuel and that have a commitment to invest resources in research , development and demonstration activities in carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies . CSLF also recognizes that stakeholders , those organizations that are affected by and can affect the goals of CSLF , form an essential component of CSLF activities . The CSLF Charter , signed in June 2003 , organized the CSLF by creating a Policy Group , which governs the overall framework and policies of the CSLF , a Technical Group , which reviews the progress of collaborative projects and makes recommendations to the Policy Group on any needed actions , and an administrative Secretariat , which organizes CSLF meetings , coordinates communications among CSLF Members , and acts as a clearinghouse of information . In July 2005 , the G8 Summit endorsed the CSLF in its Plan of Action on Climate Change , Clean Energy and Sustainable Development , and identified it as a medium of cooperation and collaboration with key developing countries in dealing with greenhouse gases . Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include : the joint statement of the U.S.-European Union Summit on Energy Security , Energy Efficiency , Renewables and Economic Development , and the Mainz Declaration of Germany and the United States on Cleaner and More Efficient Energy , Development and Climate Change . In 2006 and 2007 , the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage . Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders . The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO2 capture , transport and storage research and activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 113989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 113892\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Triangle (region) Content: The Black Triangle ( German Schwarzes Dreieck ) is a border region shared by Germany , Poland and the Czech Republic , long characterized by extremely high levels of pollution . The term was coined in the 1980s . For decades , industrially produced air pollutants ( chiefly sulfur dioxide ) , water pollution , acid rain and other effects took an enormous toll on the health of local residents and the surrounding environment . After the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe , the three nations acted to cut emissions . This has resulted in significant environmental improvement .\",\n \"qid\": \"135\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Triangle_(region)\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 113849\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":66,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Preventing future pandemics requires more not less “industrial” agriculture"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Intensive animal farming Content: Intensive animal farming or industrial livestock production , also known as factory farming by opponents of the practice , is a modern form of intensive farming that refers to animal husbandry , the keeping of livestock such as cattle , poultry , and fish at higher stocking densities than is usually the case with other forms of animal agriculture -- a practice typical in industrial farming by agribusinesses . The main products of this industry are meat , milk and eggs for human consumption . There are issues regarding whether factory farming is sustainable and ethical . Confinement at high stocking density is one part of a systematic effort to produce the highest output at the lowest cost by relying on economies of scale , modern machinery , biotechnology , and global trade . There are differences in the way factory farming techniques are practiced around the world . There is a continuing debate over the benefits , risks and ethical questions of factory farming . The issues include the efficiency of food production ; animal welfare ; whether it is essential for feeding the growing global population ; and the environmental impact ( e.g. pollution ) and health risks .","qid":"137","docid":"Intensive_animal_farming","rank":1,"score":93234},{"content":"Title: NanoMemPro IPPC Database Content: The NanoMemPro IPPC database focus the operations where membranes are introduced as Best Available Techniques in the industrial areas addressed by the IPPC Directive . The Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control ( IPPC ) Directive was adopted by the European Council on September 24 , 1996 . It defines the obligations with which highly polluting industrial and agricultural activities must comply . It establishes a procedure for authorizing these activities : a permit is issued if certain environmental conditions are met . The IPPC Directive aims to minimise pollution from various sources throughout the European Union ( it concerns both new and existing installations ) . To do so , all industrial installations covered by the Annex I of the IPPC Directive ( see ) are required to obtain an authorisation ( permit ) from the authorities in the EU countries before they are allowed to operate . The permits granted must be based on the concept of Best Available Techniques ( or BAT ) . The IPPC Directive covers 33 industrial sectors where in almost all of them membrane processes appear as BAT , not only as an end-of-pipe solution for effluent treatment but mainly as a part of the industrial production processes . Membrane process integration play a crucial role , depending on the industrial sector in which they are integrated , and these roles may be : Confinement of pollutants in concentrate streams ( that may be further treated by destructive processes ) , Permeate recycle or re-use in the industrial process , thus reducing water input and discharge , Water recycling and effluent minimization , tending to zero discharge industrial processes . The IPPC Database was designed by the NanoMemPro Network of Excellence to focus the operations where membranes are introduced as BAT in the industrial areas addressed by the IPPC Directive documents . The Database built allows any user to search information upon the following criteria : Membrane process ( Reverse Osmosis , Nanofiltration , etc. ) , Industrial sector ( Pulp and Paper , Textile Industry , etc. ) , State of Reference document approval ( BREF , DRAFT , etc. ) . The information states which membrane processes are defined as a BAT in a given industrial sector and what is the application/purpose of that membrane process ( es ) . When accessing the Database , one can enter a username and password . This password insertion is used only by the database manager . To view and search the information of the database , just press the OK button , ignoring the password insertion procedure . This IPPC Database is available in the NanoMemPro website .","qid":"137","docid":"NanoMemPro_IPPC_Database","rank":2,"score":86243},{"content":"Title: Nondegradation standard Content: In United States agricultural policy , a nondegradation standard is defined in the 2002 Farm Bill provisions establishing the Conservation Security Program ( CSP ; P.L. 107-171 , Sec . 2001 ) to mean the level of measures required to protect and prevent degradation of 1 or more natural resources , as determined by the Natural Resources Conservation Service . Participating farmers ' conservation security plans must address resources of concern and meet the appropriate nondegradation standard .","qid":"137","docid":"Nondegradation_standard","rank":3,"score":84123},{"content":"Title: African Institute for Future Studies Content: The African Institute for Future Studies , also known as Panafrican Institute for Future Studies or INADEP , is a research institution and university founded in 1989 by the President of Zaire ( present day Democratic Republic of the Congo ) ( Ordinance 89 -- 287 of 9 November 1989 ) . It is located in Kinshasa , Democratic Republic of the Congo , though it was originally located in Zomba , Malawi . In addition to subsidiary departments that are funded for the future studies or for the exploration of the future , INADEP has funded a Centre for the exploration of the past , named Diop 's Center for Egyptology . INADEP is a member of the National Research Council of Congo and one of the National Government Organizations devoted exclusively to scientific research and to the training of new researchers .","qid":"137","docid":"African_Institute_for_Future_Studies","rank":4,"score":83489},{"content":"Title: Cleaner production Content: Cleaner production is a preventive , company-specific environmental protection initiative . It is intended to minimize waste and emissions and maximize product output . By analysing the flow of materials and energy in a company , one tries to identify options to minimize waste and emissions out of industrial processes through source reduction strategies . Improvements of organisation and technology help to reduce or suggest better choices in use of materials and energy , and to avoid waste , waste water generation , and gaseous emissions , and also waste heat and noise . The concept was developed during the preparation of the Rio Summit as a programme of UNEP ( United Nations Environmental Programme ) and UNIDO ( United Nations Industrial Development Organization ) under the leadership of Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel , the former Assistant Executive Director of UNEP . The programme was meant to reduce the environmental impact of industry . It built on ideas used by 3M in its 3P programme ( pollution prevention pays ) . It has found more international support than all other comparable programmes . The programme idea was described '' ... to assist developing nations in leapfrogging from pollution to less pollution , using available technologies '' . Starting from the simple idea to produce with less waste Cleaner Production was developed into a concept to increase the resource efficiency of production in general . UNIDO has been operating National Cleaner Production Centers and Programmes ( NCPCs/NCPPs ) with centres in Latin America , Africa , Asia and Europe . In the US , the term pollution prevention is more commonly used for cleaner production . Examples for cleaner production options are : Documentation of consumption ( as a basic analysis of material and energy flows , e. g. with a Sankey diagram ) Use of indicators and controlling ( to identify losses from poor planning , poor education and training , mistakes ) Substitution of raw materials and auxiliary materials ( especially renewable materials and energy ) Increase of useful life of auxiliary materials and process liquids ( by avoiding drag in , drag out , contamination ) Improved control and automatisation Reuse of waste ( internal or external ) New , low waste processes and technologies One of the first European initiatives in cleaner production was started in Austria in 1992 by the BMVIT ( Bundesministerium für Verkehr , Innovation und Technologie ) . This resulted in two initiatives : `` Prepare '' and EcoProfit . The `` PIUS '' initiative was founded in Germany in 1999 . Since 1994 , the United Nations Industrial Development Organization operates the National Cleaner Production Centre Programme with centres in Central America , South America , Africa , Asia , and Europe .","qid":"137","docid":"Cleaner_production","rank":5,"score":80066},{"content":"Title: Crops for the Future (CFF) Content: Crops for the Future , known by its acronym CFF , is an independent international organisation with a mandate to promote and facilitate the greater use of neglected and underutilised crops for enhanced diversification of agricultural systems and human diets , particularly for the benefit of poor people in developing countries . Crops for the Future is the only such organisation exclusively dedicated to an agenda increasingly recognised as important to achieving food security in a sustainable manner and making use of local agricultural biodiversity .","qid":"137","docid":"Crops_for_the_Future_(CFF)","rank":6,"score":79123},{"content":"Title: Intensive crop farming Content: Intensive crop farming is a modern form of intensive farming that refers to the industrialized production of crops . Intensive crop farming 's methods include innovation in agricultural machinery , farming methods , genetic engineering technology , techniques for achieving economies of scale in production , the creation of new markets for consumption , patent protection of genetic information , and global trade . These methods are widespread in developed nations . The practice of industrial agriculture is a relatively recent development in the history of agriculture , and the result of scientific discoveries and technological advances . Innovations in agriculture beginning in the late 19th century generally parallel developments in mass production in other industries that characterized the latter part of the Industrial Revolution . The identification of nitrogen and phosphorus as critical factors in plant growth led to the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers , making more intensive uses of farmland for crop production possible . Similarly , the discovery of vitamins and their role in animal nutrition , in the first two decades of the 20th century , led to vitamin supplements , which in the 1920s allowed certain livestock to be raised indoors , reducing their exposure to adverse natural elements . The discovery of antibiotics and vaccines facilitated raising livestock in larger numbers by reducing disease . Chemicals developed for use in World War II gave rise to synthetic pesticides . Developments in shipping networks and technology have made long-distance distribution of produce feasible .","qid":"137","docid":"Intensive_crop_farming","rank":7,"score":78918},{"content":"Title: Issues in American commodity farming Content: Aside from food production , industrial agriculture also provides fuel sources and provides export opportunities . The three commodity crops are predominate : corn , soybeans and wheat . Every year , farmers use 50 e6acre to 70 e6acre for cultivating each of these three crops .","qid":"137","docid":"Issues_in_American_commodity_farming","rank":8,"score":78731},{"content":"Title: Pandemic Content: A pandemic ( from Greek πᾶν pan `` all '' and δῆμος demos `` people '' ) is an epidemic of infectious disease that has spread through human populations across a large region ; for instance multiple continents , or even worldwide . A widespread endemic disease that is stable in terms of how many people are getting sick from it is not a pandemic . Further , flu pandemics generally exclude recurrences of seasonal flu . Throughout history , there have been a number of pandemics , such as smallpox and tuberculosis . One of the most devastating pandemics was the Black Death , killing over 75 million people in 1350 . The most recent pandemics include the HIV pandemic as well as the 1918 and 2009 H1N1 pandemics .","qid":"137","docid":"Pandemic","rank":9,"score":78087},{"content":"Title: The Triumph of Technique Content: The Triumph of Technique : The Industrialization of Agriculture and the Destruction of Rural America is a 2004 book by Robert Wolf . The Triumph of Technique examines contemporary agriculture and its impact on rural economies . This book has been hailed by leaders of the sustainable agriculture movement as a significant contribution to understanding the depth of the current crisis in agriculture and its implications . The `` technique '' of the title refers not only to technologies but to any methods developed for the purpose of achieving predetermined ends . Wolf argues that technique , as he defines it , has taken the art out of farming by transforming it into agribusiness , on a much larger scale . He claims that this transformation has led to the decline of rural communities . Category :2004 books Category : Agriculture books Category : Intensive farming","qid":"137","docid":"The_Triumph_of_Technique","rank":10,"score":77959},{"content":"Title: Industrial crop Content: An industrial crop , also called a non-food crop , is a crop grown to produce goods for manufacturing , for example of fibre for clothing , rather than food for consumption .","qid":"137","docid":"Industrial_crop","rank":11,"score":77913},{"content":"Title: Mechanised agriculture Content: Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanise the work of agriculture , greatly increasing farm worker productivity . In modern times , powered machinery has replaced many farm jobs formerly carried out by manual labour or by working animals such as oxen , horses and mules . The entire history of agriculture contains many examples of the use of tools , such as the hoe and the plough . But the ongoing integration of machines since the Industrial Revolution has allowed farming to become much less labour-intensive . Current mechanised agriculture includes the use of tractors , trucks , combine harvesters , countless types of farm implements , aeroplanes and helicopters ( for aerial application ) , and other vehicles . Precision agriculture even uses computers in conjunction with satellite imagery and satellite navigation ( GPS guidance ) to increase yields . Mechanisation was one of the large factors responsible for urbanisation and industrial economies . Besides improving production efficiency , mechanisation encourages large scale production and sometimes can improve the quality of farm produce . On the other hand , it can displace unskilled farm labour and can cause environmental degradation ( such as pollution , deforestation , and soil erosion ) , especially if it is applied shortsightedly rather than holistically .","qid":"137","docid":"Mechanised_agriculture","rank":12,"score":77742},{"content":"Title: Pandurang Vasudeo Sukhatme Content: Pandurang Vasudeo Sukhatme ( 1911 -- 1997 ) was an Indian statistician who did pioneering work in the 1940s by applying random sampling methods in agricultural statistics and in biometry . He was influential in the establishment of the Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute . Later , while working at FAO in Rome , he developed statistical models for assessing the dimensions of hunger and future food supplies for the world . He also developed methods for measuring the size and nature of the protein gap . Another of his major contributions was the application of statistical techniques for studying human nutrition . One of his ideas , the Sukhatme -- Margen hypothesis , suggested that at low calorie intake levels , stored energy in the body is used with greater metabolic efficiency and that the metabolic efficiency decreases as the intake increases above the homeostatic range . This involved paying attention to intra-individual variability that was found to be more than the inter-individual variability in protein or calorie intake . He gave a genetic interpretation of the intra-individual variation jointly with P. Narain . He was conferred the Padma Bhushan by the President of India in 1971 .","qid":"137","docid":"Pandurang_Vasudeo_Sukhatme","rank":13,"score":77280},{"content":"Title: FHCRAA Content: The Future Harvest Consortium to Rebuild Agriculture in Afghanistan ( FHCRAA ) is a consortium of aid organizations working to restructure agriculture in the central Asian nation . In the beginning of January 2002 , ICARDA , with the support of USAID , brought together 34 organizations including CGIAR centers and other research institutes , relief and development organizations , NGOs , U.S. universities , donor agencies and the Afghanistan Ministry of Agriculture at a meeting in Tashkent , Uzbekistan . FHCRAA was the result . The first stage was to identify areas , aid recipients and donor agency capabilities . The most important parters were USAID , CGIAR , ICARDA -LSB- International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas -RSB- and ICRIST ( International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ) . CGIAR is a strategic alliance of countries , international and regional organizations , and private foundations supporting 15 international agricultural centers that work with national agricultural programs and civil society organizations including the private sector .","qid":"137","docid":"FHCRAA","rank":14,"score":76781},{"content":"Title: Notifiable disease Content: A notifiable disease is any disease that is required by law to be reported to government authorities . The collation of information allows the authorities to monitor the disease , and provides early warning of possible outbreaks . In the case of livestock diseases , there may also be the legal requirement to destroy the infected livestock upon notification . Many governments have enacted regulations for reporting of both human and animal ( generally livestock ) diseases . This usually happens during pandemics .","qid":"137","docid":"Notifiable_disease","rank":15,"score":76764},{"content":"Title: Prevention of Genocide Task Force Content: On 8 December 2008 , the Genocide Prevention Task Force , co-chaired by Madeleine Albright , a former US Secretary of State , and William Cohen , a former US Secretary of Defense , released its final report which concludes that the US government can prevent genocide and mass atrocities in the future . In the words of Mr. Cohen , `` This report provides a blueprint that can enable the United States to take preventive action , along with international partners , to forestall the specter of future cases of genocide and mass atrocities . '' Recommendations include : a proactive role of the US president which would demonstrate to the US and the world that preventing genocide and mass atrocities is a national priority creating a body within the United States National Security Council to analyze threats and consider preventative action set up a fund of $ 250 million for crisis prevention and response help create an international network for the sharing of information and the coordination of preventative action","qid":"137","docid":"Prevention_of_Genocide_Task_Force","rank":16,"score":76019},{"content":"Title: Pandesara Content: Pandesara is an Industrial Area in city of Surat , India . It is about 10 km from Surat central Railway Station and 5 km from Udhana . It hosts more than 230 industries and is home to 150,000 residents . Once , Pandesara was a small village in Surat district , but owing to the establishment of industries it became a large commercial hub . It comes under Surat Municipal Corporation . Pandesara was the only area of Surat which was not affected by the floods of 2006 owing to its elevation , the highest in Surat . Pandesara adjoins to City Light , Althan , Sachin and Udhana .","qid":"137","docid":"Pandesara","rank":17,"score":75569},{"content":"Title: Pollution prevention Content: Pollution prevention reduces the amount of pollution generated by a process , whether by industry , agriculture , or consumers . In contrast to most pollution control strategies , which seek to manage a pollutant after it is emitted and reduce its impact upon the environment , the pollution prevention approach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process , the reducing the amount of pollution generated at its source . Although there is wide agreement that source reduction is the preferred strategy , some professionals also use the term pollution prevention to include pollution reduction . With increasing human population , pollution has become a great concern . Pollution from human activities is a problem that does not have to be inevitable . With a comprehensive pollution prevention program , most pollution can be reduced , reused , or prevented . The US Environmental Protection Agency works to introduce pollution prevention programs to reduce and manage waste . Reducing and managing pollution may decrease the number of deaths and illnesses from pollution-related diseases .","qid":"137","docid":"Pollution_prevention","rank":18,"score":75558},{"content":"Title: National Farm Safety & Health Week Content: National Farm Safety & Health Week is a week of commemoration , recognized annually on the third week of September in the United States . In 1944 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the first proclamation for farm safety due to the high injury rate in agriculture . Agriculture is one of the most hazardous industries with a death rate of 23.2 deaths per 100,000 workers annually according to U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2013 . However , many injuries are preventable through education . Serious injuries and death can be prevented by cautiously approaching field adjustments or repairs , taking precautions to avoid slips and falls , making smart decisions while assigning tasks to youth , using and maintaining the slow moving vehicle emblem correctly , and retrofitting tractors with rollover structures . In September 2015 , President Obama gave an official proclamation to accentuate the importance of agriculture for our society and economy as well as affirm farm safety and health programs `` America 's farmers and ranchers have played a critical role in shaping our progress and forging a better future for coming generations . Through centuries of hard work , they have supplied our Nation with products and services essential to the economic and physical well-being of our society . `` Across our country , those who work on farms bolster our economy and nourish our people by providing what we need at a most human level , helping to uphold America 's founding creed : Out of many , we are one . This week , let us recognize the steadfast dedication and commitment of agricultural producers and their families , and let us reaffirm our resolve to promote their health and safety . '' Over the years , the development and dissemination of National Farm Safety & Health Week materials shifted from the National Safety Council to National Education Center for Ag Safety ( NECAS ) . NECAS is the agricultural partner for the National Safety Council and has been serving the agricultural family and business community since 1997 . Each year they provide farmers with programs and materials to promote farmer safety and health .","qid":"137","docid":"National_Farm_Safety_&_Health_Week","rank":19,"score":75321},{"content":"Title: Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems Content: Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems is a competitive research grants program authorized in the Agricultural Research , Extension , and Education Reform Act of 1998 ( P.L. 105-185 ) and reauthorized in the 2002 farm bill ( P.L. 107-171 , Sec . 7205 ) . The law allows mandatory funds available from savings in food stamp program administration to be used to support the program . Grants were awarded in FY2000 and FY2001 ; in all other years congressional appropriators have prohibited USDA from spending funds on personnel to operate the program except for oversight of existing grants .","qid":"137","docid":"Initiative_for_Future_Agriculture_and_Food_Systems","rank":20,"score":75007},{"content":"Title: PANACA Content: PANACA ( Parque Nacional De La Cultura Agropecuaria ) is a farming theme park that promotes contact between humans and nature , intended for those who live in the city and to create awareness about nature . The park was created in Quimbaya , in the Coffee Area of Colombia by a group of businessmen in 1990 , and today , is one of the biggest agricultural parks in the country .","qid":"137","docid":"PANACA","rank":21,"score":74574},{"content":"Title: Future Group Content: Future Group is an Indian private conglomerate , headquartered in Mumbai . The company is known for having a significant prominence in Indian retail and fashion sectors , with popular supermarket chains like Big Bazaar and Food Bazaar , lifestyle stores like Brand Factory , Central etc. and also for having a notable presence in integrated foods and FMCG manufacturing sectors . Future Retail ( initially Pantaloons Retail India Ltd ( PRIL ) ) and Future Lifestyle Fashions , two operating companies of Future Group , are among the top retail companies listed in BSE with respect to assets , and in NSE with respect to market capitalization . On May 2012 , Future Group announced 50.1 % stake sale of its fashion chain Pantaloons to Aditya Birla Group in order to reduce its debt of around . To do so , Pantaloons fashion segment was demerged from Pantaloons Retail India Ltd ; the latter was then merged into another subsidiary -- Future Value Retail Ltd -- and rechristened Future Retail Ltd. .","qid":"137","docid":"Future_Group","rank":22,"score":74498},{"content":"Title: Industrial production Content: Industrial production is a measure of output of the industrial sector of the economy . The industrial sector includes manufacturing , mining , and utilities . Although these sectors contribute only a small portion of gross domestic product ( GDP ) , they are highly sensitive to interest rates and consumer demand . This makes industrial production an important tool for forecasting future GDP and economic performance . Industrial production figures are also used by central banks to measure inflation , as high levels of industrial production can lead to uncontrolled levels of consumption and rapid inflation .","qid":"137","docid":"Industrial_production","rank":23,"score":73208},{"content":"Title: The Automated Society Content: In a diagram from the book The Automated Society , Bloomfield defines the history of humanity beginning over two million years ago and ending over a hundred thousand years in the future . The diagram is base on biological punctuated equilibrium and a parallel cultural evolution . The predictions of the future follow what has happened in the past . The diagram of history shows humanity having long periods of stability interrupted with short periods of transition . Humanity is currently experiencing one of those short periods of transition , from a stable agricultural period going through a transitional industrial society leading to a stable automated period . Productivity is the key to the transition ; when it is impossible to increase productivity , humanity will have arrived at the automated society . Before humanity enters the automated society , we will suffer from two near term trends . One trend is the relentlessly increasing number of human beings . The second is the relentlessly decreasing number of jobs . Jobs will be eliminated by substituting men with machines . An example of this is agriculture where once in the peasant society there were ninety percent of the people working as farmers . With the introduction of tractors , only three percent of Americans work on the farm . Once the problems of the lack of jobs , increased pollution and fewer natural resources are solved and the food factory put in operation , there should be a reconciliation of man to automation . In the automated society , men will live in affluence along with a total control of population . The one place where man will have an unlimited future will be in space . Space can provide for an unlimited increase in population and potentially the introduction of new human biological species .","qid":"137","docid":"The_Automated_Society","rank":24,"score":73173},{"content":"Title: Pandemic (board game) Content: Pandemic is a cooperative board game designed by Matt Leacock and published by Z-Man Games in 2007 . Pandemic is based on the premise that four diseases have broken out in the world , each threatening to wipe out a region . The game accommodates 2 to 4 players , each playing one of five possible specialists : dispatcher , medic , scientist , researcher , or operations expert . The game is unlike most board games in that the gameplay is cooperative , rather than competitive . Through the combined effort of all the players , the goal is to discover all four cures before any of several game-losing conditions are reached . Three expansions , Pandemic : On the Brink , Pandemic : In the Lab , and Pandemic : State of Emergency , co-designed by Matt Leacock and Tom Lehmann , each add several new roles and special events , as well as rule adjustments to allow a fifth player or to play in teams . In addition , several rule expansions are included , referred to as `` challenge kits '' . Pandemic is considered one of the most successful cooperative games that has reached mainstream market sales , condensing the type of deep strategy offered by earlier cooperative games , like Arkham Horror , into a game that can be played in a limited time by a wider range of players . Pandemic Legacy : Season 1 , a spinoff version of Pandemic , which adds an ongoing storyline to the game , is currently rated by the website Board Game Geek as the greatest board game ever made .","qid":"137","docid":"Pandemic_(board_game)","rank":25,"score":72867},{"content":"Title: Genocide prevention Content: Genocide Prevention is any act or actions that works toward averting a future genocide . One of the main goals of the United Nations with the passage of the Genocide Convention after the Second World War and Holocaust is to prevent future genocide from taking place . Since genocides take a lot of planning , resources , and involved parties to carry out , they do not just happen instantaneously . Using risk assessments , policy makers and NGO 's can predict how at risk a country is for genocide . From this assessment of the risk , appropriate steps can be taken to stop a situation from evolving into a genocide . The overriding aim of genocide prevention is to prevent genocide entirely before a crisis or violence begins .","qid":"137","docid":"Genocide_prevention","rank":26,"score":72358},{"content":"Title: The Future of Forestry Content: The Future of Forestry is a poem by C. S. Lewis and one of three poems , along with `` Under Sentence '' and `` Pan 's Purge '' , where he expressed concern about the impact that modern society and technology would have on the countryside . It was first published in The Oxford Magazine in February 1938 and contains themes of social critique that would be present in Lewis 's later Narnia series . The poem has been compared to later poems , such as Philip Larkin 's 1972 work `` Going , Going '' . The name of the poem helped influence the naming of the California band Future of Forestry .","qid":"137","docid":"The_Future_of_Forestry","rank":27,"score":71929},{"content":"Title: Pantnagar Content: Pantnagar is a town and a university campus in Udham Singh Nagar district , Uttarakhand . Nainital , Kashipur , Rudrapur and Kiccha , Haldwani are the major cities surrounding Pantnagar . The town is famous for having the first agricultural university of India which was established on 17 November 1960 . Previously the university was called the Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University or Pantnagar University . It was rechristened G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology . keeping in view the contributions of Pt . Govind Ballabh Pant , the then Chief Minister of UP . In recent years , an integrated industrial estate has been established near the campus which houses companies such as Tata motor , Bajaj , Britannia , HP , HCL , Voltas , Schneider Electric , Nestle , Dabur , Vedanta Resources etc. , as a part of SIDCUL industrial area developed by government owned State Industrial Development Corporation of Uttarakhand Limited .","qid":"137","docid":"Pantnagar","rank":28,"score":71821},{"content":"Title: College of Agriculture, Pantnagar Content: The College of Agriculture , Pantnagar , India , is a constituent of Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology , Pantnagar . It was opened on 17 November 1960 when Jawaharlal Nehru , the first Prime Minister of India , inaugurated the university . It has a triple mandate of teaching , research and extension . The college has more than 200 faculty members engaged in agricultural sciences . The college has played a role in the Green Revolution in the country . More than 185 varieties of crops like cereals , pulses , oilseeds , forages , fruits and vegetables , etc. have been released . The 4 year Bachelor of Science in Agriculture ( BScAg ) is the flagship course of the college .","qid":"137","docid":"College_of_Agriculture,_Pantnagar","rank":29,"score":71634},{"content":"Title: Pandemic (disambiguation) Content: A pandemic is a large epidemic . Pandemic may also refer to : Pandemic ( board game ) , a board game by Z-Man Games Pandemic ( comics ) , a Marvel Comics fictional character Pandemic ( film ) , a 2016 American science-fiction film Pandemic ( novel ) , 2014 sci-fi novel by Scott Sigler `` Pandemic '' ( South Park ) , the 177th episode of Comedy Central 's South Park `` Pandemic 2 : The Startling '' , the 178th episode of Comedy Central 's South Park ( continuation of above episode ) Pandemic ( TV miniseries ) , a 2007 Hallmark production starring Tiffani Thiessen and Faye Dunaway Pandemic Studios , a defunct video game developer ( The Saboteur , Star Wars Battlefront I and II )","qid":"137","docid":"Pandemic_(disambiguation)","rank":30,"score":71552},{"content":"Title: Industrial applicability Content: In certain jurisdictions ' patent law , industrial applicability or industrial application is a patentability requirement according to which a patent can only be granted for an invention which is susceptible of industrial application , i.e. for an invention which can be made or used in some kind of industry . In this context , the concept of `` industry '' is far-reaching : it includes agriculture , for instance . An example of invention which would not be susceptible of industrial application is `` a method of contraception -LSB- ... -RSB- to be applied in the private and personal sphere of a human being '' . In relationship with United States patent law , the utility requirement is a more or less corresponding , but different , requirement .","qid":"137","docid":"Industrial_applicability","rank":31,"score":71263},{"content":"Title: Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 Content: __ NOTOC __ The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 ( PPA ) in the United States created a national policy to have pollution prevented or reduced at the source wherever possible . It also expanded the Toxics Release Inventory . The Pollution Prevention Act focused industry , government , and public attention on reducing the amount of pollution through cost-effective changes in production , operation , and raw materials use . Opportunities for source reduction are often not realized because of existing regulations , and the industrial resources required for compliance , focus on treatment and disposal .","qid":"137","docid":"Pollution_Prevention_Act_of_1990","rank":32,"score":71142},{"content":"Title: College of Technology, Pantnagar Content: College of Technology , Pantnagar also known as COT , Pantnagar or COT , is a state government funded engineering college located at Pantnagar in the state of Uttarakhand , India . It was established under the then Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University and now called Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology . The College of Technology was established in this university in 1962 . It has eleven departments that offer eight Bachelor of Technology ( B. Tech . ) degree programmes . The college also offers 24 postgraduate programs including a self-financed MCA program . The College is an institute in the world bank project for Technical Education Quality Improvement Program ( TEQIP ) and is also the Regional Academy Centre of CISCO . The institute also holds ISO 9001:2000 certification . The college receives financial aid from various sources including All India Council of Technical Education ( AICTE ) , University Grants Commission ( UGC ) , Department of Science and Technology ( DST ) , Indian Council of Agricultural Research ( ICAR ) and the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research ( CSIR ) in addition to aid from the Department of Higher Education , Government of Uttarakhand .","qid":"137","docid":"College_of_Technology,_Pantnagar","rank":33,"score":71123},{"content":"Title: Agriculture Content: Agriculture or farming is the cultivation and breeding of animals , plants and fungi for food , fiber , biofuel , medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life . Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization , whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization . The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science . The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years , and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates , cultures , and technologies . Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology . Modern agronomy , plant breeding , agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers , and technological developments have in many cases sharply increased yields from cultivation , but at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects . Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat , but have raised concerns about animal welfare and the health effects of the antibiotics , growth hormones , and other chemicals commonly used in industrial meat production . Genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture , although they are banned in several countries . Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts . Significant degradation of land and water resources , including the depletion of aquifers , has been observed in recent decades , and the effects of global warming on agriculture and of agriculture on global warming are still not fully understood . The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods , fibers , fuels , and raw materials . Specific foods include cereals ( grains ) , vegetables , fruits , oils , meats and spices . Fibers include cotton , wool , hemp , silk and flax . Raw materials include lumber and bamboo . Other useful materials are also produced by plants , such as resins , dyes , drugs , perfumes , biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants . Over one third of the world 's workers are employed in agriculture , second only to the service sector , although the percentages of agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly over the past several centuries .","qid":"137","docid":"Agriculture","rank":34,"score":71006},{"content":"Title: 2009 flu pandemic in Mexico Content: In March and April 2009 , an outbreak of a new strain of influenza commonly referred to as `` swine flu '' infected many people in Mexico and other parts of the world , causing illness ranging from mild to severe . Initial reports suggested that the outbreak had started in February due to farming practices at a pig farm half-owned by Smithfield Foods . Smithfield Foods stated that it had found no clinical signs or symptoms of the presence of swine influenza in the company 's swine herd , or among its employees at its joint ventures in Mexico , that it routinely administers influenza virus vaccination to their swine herds and that it conducts monthly testing for the presence of swine influenza . The new strain was identified as a combination of several different strains of Influenzavirus A , subtype H1N1 , including separate strains of this subtype circulating in humans and in pigs . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) have expressed serious concerns that the new strain , which transmits between humans and has had a relatively high mortality rate in the possible and confirmed Mexican cases , has the potential to become an influenza pandemic . It is reported that , because the virus is already widespread , containment will be impossible . As of April 27 , 2009 , all schools nationwide remained closed until at least May 6 . Health Minister Córdova noted that the number of new cases had declined during the three days : from 141 on Saturday to 119 on Sunday and 110 on Monday . It is unclear why there were more deaths in Mexico than in other areas , as there were multiple potential variables , such as a stronger strain of the virus or more exposure to it . No definite conclusion had been reached , however the CDC reported that swine flu viruses in the US and Mexico matched .","qid":"137","docid":"2009_flu_pandemic_in_Mexico","rank":35,"score":70996},{"content":"Title: Industrial Emissions Directive Content: The Industrial Emissions Directive ( Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions ( integrated pollution prevention and control ) ) is a European Union directive which commits European Union member states to control and reduce the impact of industrial emissions on the environment .","qid":"137","docid":"Industrial_Emissions_Directive","rank":36,"score":70860},{"content":"Title: Meet Your Meat Content: Meet Your Meat is a 2002 documentary about factory farming created by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , narrated by Alec Baldwin , and directed by Bruce Friedrich and Cem Akin . The documentary explores the treatment of animals in modern animal agriculture ( also known as industrial agriculture or factory farming ) . The film runs 12 minutes long . The film documents several cases of cruelty to animals , including : Egg-laying hens live in crowded cages , six or seven hens to one battery cage the size of a file drawer . Cattle are castrated , their horns are removed and third-degree burns ( livestock branding ) are inflicted on them , all without anesthetic . Cows used for their milk have calves removed from them shortly after birth . These calves are sent to veal farms . Chickens bred and drugged to grow so quickly that their hearts , lungs , and limbs often ca n't keep up . Mother pigs ( sows ) are confined to gestation crates that are so small that the pigs can not turn around or even lie down . Chickens ' and turkeys ' beaks are burned or cut off without anesthetic . Meet Your Meat helped influence Burger King to adopt more humane policies .","qid":"137","docid":"Meet_Your_Meat","rank":37,"score":70742},{"content":"Title: Pandemic (miniseries) Content: Pandemic is a 2007 Hallmark Channel original mini-series with an ensemble cast . It premiered on Saturday , May 26 , 2007 at 8:00 PM as part of Hallmark Channel 's `` Uncharted Adventures '' weekend . It is now available on DVD through Hallmark Entertainment .","qid":"137","docid":"Pandemic_(miniseries)","rank":38,"score":70624},{"content":"Title: Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 Content: The Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 is a bill that was introduced in the United States House of Representatives by Ron Paul ( R-Texas ) and Barney Frank ( D-Massachusetts ) on April 2 , 2009 . Also known as H.R. 1866 , the bill clarifies the differences between marijuana and industrial hemp as well as repeals federal laws that prohibit American farmers from cultivating industrial hemp . Industrial hemp is the non-psychoactive , low-THC , oilseed and fibers varieties of the cannabis sativa plant . Hemp is a sustainable resource that can be used to create thousands of different products including fuel , fabrics , paper , household products , and food and has been used for hundreds of centuries by civilizations around the world . If H.R. 1866 passes American farmers will be permitted to compete in global hemp markets . On March 10 , 2009 , both Paul and Frank wrote a letter to their Congressional colleagues urging them to support the legislation . This bill was previously introduced in 2005 under the title of Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005 .","qid":"137","docid":"Industrial_Hemp_Farming_Act_of_2009","rank":39,"score":70474},{"content":"Title: Future food technology Content: New food technologies can offer solutions to malnutrition . According to the WHO ( World Healthcare Organization ) approximately 30 % of global population is malnourished . It is suggested that by 2020 the whole European Union will consume less food than China and India together .","qid":"137","docid":"Future_food_technology","rank":40,"score":70456},{"content":"Title: Pandemic (comics) Content: Pandemic ( Richard Palance ) is a fictional supervillan in Marvel Comics who was first mentioned in X-Men vol . 2 # 188 ( 2006 ) and appeared in X-Men vol . 2 # 194 ( 2007 ) . He was created by Mike Carey and Humberto Ramos .","qid":"137","docid":"Pandemic_(comics)","rank":41,"score":70429},{"content":"Title: Dan James Pantone Content: Dan James Pantone is an American ecologist and conservationist with a Ph.D. from the University of California , Davis . A former professor at Texas A&M University , Dr. Pantone is a researcher who has published numerous refereed articles on agroecology and sustainable agriculture . In addition , he is a specialist in Geographical Information Systems ( GIS ) which he has used to help conserve endangered species . Dr. Pantone has established his broad experience in numerous scientific disciplines by publishing diverse articles ranging from the biological control of pests to the conservation biology of endangered species .","qid":"137","docid":"Dan_James_Pantone","rank":42,"score":70174},{"content":"Title: Pandemic (film) Content: Pandemic is a 2016 American science fiction thriller film based on the eponymous board game directed by John Suits and written by Dustin T. Benson . Rachel Nichols stars as a doctor who leads a group to find survivors of a worldwide pandemic . The film is shot in a first-person POV , similar to first-person shooter video games .","qid":"137","docid":"Pandemic_(film)","rank":43,"score":69797},{"content":"Title: Cooperation for a Green Future Content: Cooperation for a Green Future is a non-profit foundation in the Republic of Georgia working to identify and assess environmental problems , and develop and implement innovative solutions . Their work focuses on environmental issues within the context of physical and social processes and structures . The organization seeks to create and spread within the Georgian public a common vision for a socially progressive and ecologically sustainable society , identify potential pathways toward realizing this vision , and implement specific projects and tasks in this direction . Currently , the organization conducts projects to mitigate the effects of lead pollution , to encourage the use of public transport , and to facilitate the implementation of industrial ecology practices in Georgia .","qid":"137","docid":"Cooperation_for_a_Green_Future","rank":44,"score":69738},{"content":"Title: Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (Queensland) Content: Agriculture and Fisheries is a department of the Queensland Government which aims to maximise the economic potential for Queensland 's primary industries on a sustainable basis through strategic industrial development . The unit was formerly known as the Department of Primary Industries which was established on 26 September 1963 .","qid":"137","docid":"Department_of_Agriculture,_Fisheries_and_Forestry_(Queensland)","rank":45,"score":69294},{"content":"Title: Industrielleneingabe Content: The Industrielleneingabe ( Industrial petition ) was a petition signed by twenty representatives of industry , finance , and agriculture on November 19 , 1932 , requesting that the President of Germany Paul von Hindenburg make Adolf Hitler the Chancellor of Germany . There had already been two similar attempts to assist the Nazi party in gaining control of the government , namely a petition by the Wirtschaftspolitischen Vereinigung Frankfurt ( Frankfurt Socioeconomic Union ) on July 27 , 1931 , and a declaration by 51 professors in July 1932 in Völkischer Beobachter . The idea for the Industrielleneingabe had emerged at the end of October 1932 in the Keppler-Kreis and was supported by Heinrich Himmler , who worked as a liaison to Brown House . The drafting of the letter was aided especially by Hjalmar Schacht , who was the only member of the Keppler-Kreis with any significant political experience . The Industrielleneingabe was first published in 1956 in the Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft and is used as evidence to support the idea that big business played a central role in the rise of the Nazi Party .","qid":"137","docid":"Industrielleneingabe","rank":46,"score":69253},{"content":"Title: Pandemic (novel) Content: Pandemic is a 2014 science fiction thriller novel by Scott Sigler and the final novel in the Infected trilogy . The book was released in hardback , e-book , and audiobook on January 21 , 2014 through Crown Publishing and is set several years after the events in Contagious .","qid":"137","docid":"Pandemic_(novel)","rank":47,"score":69214},{"content":"Title: Intensive farming Content: Intensive farming or intensive agriculture involves various types of agriculture with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area . It is characterised by a low fallow ratio , higher use of inputs such as capital and labour , and higher crop yields per unit land area . This contrasts with traditional agriculture , in which the inputs per unit land are lower . The term `` intensive '' involves various meanings , some of which refer to organic farming methods ( such as biointensive agriculture and French intensive gardening ) , and others that refer to nonorganic and industrial methods . Intensive animal farming involves either large numbers of animals raised on limited land , usually confined animal feeding operations ( CAFOs ) , often referred to as factory farms , or managed intensive rotational grazing ( MIRG ) , which has both organic and non-organic types . Both increase the yields of food and fiber per acre as compared to traditional animal husbandry . In CAFO , feed is brought to the seldom-moved animals , while in MIRG the animals are repeatedly moved to fresh forage . Most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways . Forms that rely especially heavily on industrial methods are often called industrial agriculture , which is characterised by innovations designed to increase yield . Techniques include planting multiple crops per year , reducing the frequency of fallow years , and improving cultivars . It also involves increased use of fertilizers , plant growth regulators , pesticides and mechanised agriculture , controlled by increased and more detailed analysis of growing conditions , including weather , soil , water , weeds and pests . This system is supported by ongoing innovation in agricultural machinery and farming methods , genetic technology , techniques for achieving economies of scale , logistics , and data collection and analysis technology . Intensive farms are widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide . Most of the meat , dairy , eggs , fruits and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced by such farms . Smaller intensive farms usually include higher inputs of labor and more often use sustainable intensive methods . The farming practices commonly found on such farms are referred to as appropriate technology . These farms are less widespread in both developed countries and worldwide , but are growing more rapidly . Most of the food available in specialty markets such as farmers markets is produced by these smallholder farms .","qid":"137","docid":"Intensive_farming","rank":48,"score":69113},{"content":"Title: Museum of Industry and Agriculture Content: The Museum of Industry and Agriculture ( Muzeum Przemysłu i Rolnictwa ) is a former museum of technology at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66 in Warsaw , Poland .","qid":"137","docid":"Museum_of_Industry_and_Agriculture","rank":49,"score":69095},{"content":"Title: Ecological farming Content: Ecological farming is recognised as the high-end objective among the proponents of sustainable agriculture . Ecological farming is not the same as organic farming , however there are many similarities and they are not necessarily incompatible . Ecological farming includes all methods , including organic , which regenerate ecosystem services like : prevention of soil erosion , water infiltration and retention , carbon sequestration in the form of humus , and increased biodiversity . Many techniques are used including no till , multispecies cover crops , strip cropping , terrace cultivation , shelter belts , pasture cropping etc. .","qid":"137","docid":"Ecological_farming","rank":50,"score":69071},{"content":"Title: Wild farming Content: The agricultural technique known as `` Wild Farming '' is a growing alternative to `` factory farming '' . Wild farming consists of planting crops that are highly associated and supportive to the natural ecosystem . This includes intercropping with native plants , following the contours and geography of the land , and supporting local food chains . The goal is to produce large crop yields , while still promoting a healthy environment . Wild farming is a backlash against the dominance of factory farming . Up until the mid 20th century , agricultural crop yields relied on natural inputs such as rainfall patterns , natural soil resources , recycling of organic matter , and built-in biological control mechanisms . Currently , agricultural practices have been conventionalized to include large monocropped fields and use of synthetics : pesticides and fertilizers . Avoiding the conventional farming practices , wild farming adopts many practices from sustainable agricultural systems such as agroecology , permaculture , forest farming , and greywater systems . The four basic guiding principles of the wild farming movement are : Direct managers to develop long-term vision for future of landscape Basic recognition of ecosystem processes . High value on biological diversity . To consider the quality of life of the community as well as the self .","qid":"137","docid":"Wild_farming","rank":51,"score":68988},{"content":"Title: Pandemic (South Park) Content: `` Pandemic '' is the tenth episode in the twelfth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 177th episode of the series overall , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on October 22 , 2008 . It is the first of a two-part episode . In the episode , the boys try to capitalize on a sudden rise in Peruvian flute bands , unwittingly becoming players in a demonic being 's plan to employ giant guinea pigs to attack the public . The storyline of this episode concludes in the next episode , `` Pandemic 2 : The Startling '' . The episode was written and directed by series co-creator Trey Parker .","qid":"137","docid":"Pandemic_(South_Park)","rank":52,"score":68959},{"content":"Title: Soil conservation Content: Soil conservation is the preventing of soil loss from erosion or reduced fertility caused by over usage , acidification , salinization or other chemical soil contamination . Slash-and-burn and other unsustainable methods of subsistence farming are practiced in some lesser developed areas . A sequel to the deforestation is typically large scale erosion , loss of soil nutrients and sometimes total desertification . Techniques for improved soil conservation include crop rotation , cover crops , conservation tillage and planted windbreaks and affect both erosion and fertility . When plants , especially trees , die , they decay and become part of the soil . Code 330 defines standard methods recommended by the US Natural Resources Conservation Service . Farmers have practiced soil conservation for millennia .","qid":"137","docid":"Soil_conservation","rank":53,"score":68921},{"content":"Title: Committee on Rural Economy, Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Environment Content: The Committee on Rural Economy Agriculture , Natural Resources and Environment is one of the Ten Permanent Committees of the Pan-African Parliament . Functions of the committee : Consider the development of common regional and continental policies in the agricultural sector . Assist the Parliament to oversee and assist with the harmonisation of policies for rural and agricultural development and promote the development policy and the implementation of programmes of the Union relating of natural resources and environment . The Chairperson of the Committee is Malik Hussein from Sudan . Louis Chimango from Malawi is Deputy Chairperson . Diop Hamdi Kalidou from Mauritania is Rapporteur . Rural Economy","qid":"137","docid":"Committee_on_Rural_Economy,_Agriculture,_Natural_Resources,_and_Environment","rank":54,"score":68904},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Agreement Content: When the Climate Change Levy was introduced in the United Kingdom , the position of energy-intensive industries was considered , given their energy usage , the requirements of the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control regime and their exposure to international competition . As a result , a 65 % discount from the levy was allowed for those sectors that agreed targets for improving their energy efficiency or reducing carbon emissions . The discount on electricity increased to 90 % in 2013 . An ` energy-intensive ' sector is one which either carries out activities which are listed as Part A ( 1 ) or A ( 2 ) activities in Part 2 of Schedule 1 to the Environmental Permitting ( England and Wales ) Regulations 2010 ( Statutory Instrument 2010 No. 675 ) ( as amended ) , or that satisfies energy intensity criteria provided by the Department of Energy and Climate Change . The regulations cover the ten main energy-intensive sectors of industry ( aluminium , cement , ceramics , chemicals , food and drink , foundries , glass , non-ferrous metals , paper , and steel ) and over thirty smaller sectors , and in agriculture , livestock units for the intensive rearing of pigs and poultry .","qid":"137","docid":"Climate_Change_Agreement","rank":55,"score":68850},{"content":"Title: The Future of the American Negro Content: The Future of the American Negro , a book written in 1899 by American educator Booker T. Washington , set forth his ideas regarding the history of enslaved and freed African-American people and their need for education to advance themselves . It was re-published as a second edition in 1900 and was made available in electronic form in 2008 via Project Gutenberg . Background In the beginning of the book , the author mentions the term `` industrial education '' . Washington describes this term as meaning , learning the necessities to become a valuable member of society as well and being able to apply this knowledge to industrial business . He believes that even though slavery is illegal , the freed African-Americans are still enslaved to the white people . Those who are freed can not be members of society because they are not given the same opportunities . As the book continues , Booker T. Washington writes that in order to understand the stress he applies to industrial education , the reader must `` review the condition of affairs at the present time in the Southern States . '' He provides the information that the North and South are linked even though they were once at war . If the North can not provide education then the South will not provide it . Washington also states that the African-Americans are not superior , but that they are definitely not inferior to the white people . Slaves have had a hard time throughout their life in the United States . Their strength , knowledge , and perseverance has been tested by the white people that have run their lives for the longest time . Booker T. Washington asks , why should African-Americans have to prove themselves over and over when they have been proving themselves since they entered the country ? The author also reminds them that , `` An individual can not succeed unless that individual has a great amount of faith himself . '' African-Americans can have all the faith they want , but Washington argues that knowledge is needed to become useful members of society . Blacks have worked hard but will have to understand what they are working for . Throughout the book , Washington refers to Tuskegee , a university founded by himself and others . It was a historically black university in Tuskegee , Alabama . In The Future of an American Negro , Booker writes that the university is , `` placing men and women of intelligence , religion , modesty , conscience , and skill in every community in the South . '' Washington believes that Tuskegee University is providing the South with valuable members of society . In `` Chapter V '' , there is a reference to a study showing that some 3,000 graduates or students are doing `` commendable '' work in the Southern community . Near the end of the book , Washington describes the difference for freed slaves in the North and South . He reminds the reader that North has fewer employment option for black people which perpetuates the stress on the morals of an African-American . The South , however , having more opportunities for work and less stress on trying to do the right thing . He goes on to end the book with five principles that will aid African-Americans in their fight to have truly equal rights and opportunities . He states that these principle will be essential by saying , `` So long as the Negro is permitted to get education , acquire property , and secure employment , and is treated with respect in the business or commercials world , ... I shall have the greatest faith in his working out his own destiny in the Southern States . ''","qid":"137","docid":"The_Future_of_the_American_Negro","rank":56,"score":68600},{"content":"Title: Prevented planting acreage Content: Prevented planting , under crop insurance , refers to acreage that can not be planted because of flood , drought , or other natural disaster and so is eligibor indemnification . Also , prevented planting acreage may be excluded from the time frame used for calculating support program base acres .","qid":"137","docid":"Prevented_planting_acreage","rank":57,"score":68562},{"content":"Title: World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates Content: The World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates ( WASDE ) is a monthly report published by the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) providing comprehensive forecast of supply and demand for major crops ( global and United States ) and livestock ( U.S. only ) . The report provides an analysis of the fundamental condition of the agricultural commodity markets for the use of farmers , governments and other market participants . The WASDE report is compiled using information from a number of statistical reports produced by the USDA and other government agencies . It is widely considered to be the benchmark to which all other private and public agricultural forecasts are compared . The recent releases of the WASDE report provide forecasts covering : Crops ( U.S. and global ) including wheat , rice , corn , sorghum , barley , oats , soybeans , cotton , and sugar . Livestock ( U.S. only ) including meat animals , poultry , and dairy . The WASDE report is generally released between the 8th and 12th of each month at 12:00 noon Eastern Time . It is available in electronic form ( as a PDF or text file ) and can be downloaded from the USDA website from the time of release . Subscription to the report can be made through the Albert R. Mann Library for delivery by e-mail shortly after release on the Internet . As a work of the United States government , the WASDE reports are released into the public domain in accordance with U.S. copyright law , .","qid":"137","docid":"World_Agricultural_Supply_and_Demand_Estimates","rank":58,"score":68437},{"content":"Title: National Agriculture Market Content: e-NAM ( National Agricultural Market ) is a pan-India electronic trading portal launched by Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers ' Welfare , Govt of India , to facilitate farmers , traders , buyers , exporters and processors with a common platform for trading commodities . It currently links 250 APMCs ( Agriculture Produce Marketing Committees ) from across 10 states . The Portal is managed by Small Farmers ' Agribusiness Consortium ( SFAC ) appointed by the Ministry in association with a group of strategic partner selected for the purpose . Traders and exporters need to get themselves registered with the portal to access its services . 69 commodities including staple food grains , vegetables and fruits are currently listed in its list of commodities available for trade .","qid":"137","docid":"National_Agriculture_Market","rank":59,"score":68163},{"content":"Title: Farmers Undertake Environmental Land Stewardship Act Content: The Farmers Undertake Environmental Land Stewardship Act is a bill that would require the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) to modify the Spill Prevention , Control , and Countermeasure ( SPCC ) rule , which regulates oil discharges into navigable waters and adjoining shorelines . The rule requires certain farmers to develop an oil spill prevention plan that is certified by a professional engineer and may require them to make infrastructure changes . According to supporters , this bill would `` ease the burden placed on farmers and ranchers '' by making it easier for smaller farms to self-certify and raising the level of storage capacity under which farms are exempted . These rules apply to any storage units that contain oil , whether petroleum products or animal fats . The bill was introduced into the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .","qid":"137","docid":"Farmers_Undertake_Environmental_Land_Stewardship_Act","rank":60,"score":68145},{"content":"Title: Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013 Content: The Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013 is a law enacted by the 113th United States Congress . The Act amends the Public Health Service Act in order to extend , fund , and improve several programs designed to prepare the United States and health professionals in the event of a pandemic , epidemic , or biological , chemical , radiological , or nuclear accident or attack . The Act clarifies the authority of different American officials , makes it easier to temporarily reassign personnel to respond to emergency situations , and alters the process for testing and producing medical countermeasures . The Act is focused on improving preparedness for any public health emergency .","qid":"137","docid":"Pandemic_and_All-Hazards_Preparedness_Reauthorization_Act_of_2013","rank":61,"score":68121},{"content":"Title: U.S. Farmers and Ranchers Alliance Content: The U.S. Farmers and Ranchers Alliance is an alliance of agriculture related advocacy groups and organizations that promote industrial agriculture in the United States . Their aim is to promote a positive image of modern agricultural practices . They are supported by checkoff funds from the United States Department of Agriculture and by cooperate donations . They have been criticized for not including organic agriculture , close ties with Big Ag , and underplaying the overuse of antibiotics in animal feed .","qid":"137","docid":"U.S._Farmers_and_Ranchers_Alliance","rank":62,"score":67877},{"content":"Title: Small-scale agriculture Content: Small-scale agriculture is an alternative to factory farming or more broadly , intensive agriculture or unsustainable farming methods that are prevalent in primarily first world countries . It is sometimes identified with sustainable agriculture Environmental Health Perspectives has noted that `` Sustainable agriculture is not merely a package of prescribed methods . More important , it is a change in mind set whereby agriculture acknowledges its dependence on a finite natural resource base -- including the finite quality of fossil fuel energy that is now a critical component of conventional farming systems . '' Small-scale agriculture includes a number of sustainable agriculture practices such as : organic farming , which may follow rules and regulations set by International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements ( IFOAM ) permaculture , which provides a holistic methodology for farm design arable land use , arable land ( from Latin arare , to plough ) is a form of agricultural land use , meaning land that can be ( and is ) used for growing crops . David Ricardo incorporated the idea of arable land into economic theory . non-arable land use pastoral , pastoral refers to the lifestyle of shepherds and pastoralists , moving livestock around larger areas of land according to seasons and availability of water and feed . rainfed agriculture biodynamic agriculture was developed by Rudolf Steiner , which consists of using herbal and homeopathic preparations for the cow dung/manure that is used extensively on the crops for fertilizer . The methods of food sustainability and economics are hotly debated . This is a question between agricultural economics and the draining of the largely unaccounted natural capital .","qid":"137","docid":"Small-scale_agriculture","rank":63,"score":67782},{"content":"Title: Influenza pandemic Content: An Influenza pandemic is an epidemic of an influenza virus that spreads on a worldwide scale and infects a large proportion of the world population . In contrast to the regular seasonal epidemics of influenza , these pandemics occur irregularly - there have been about 9 Influenza pandemics during the last 300 years . Pandemics can cause high levels of mortality , with the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic being the worst in recorded history - estimated to be responsible for the deaths of approximately 50-100 million people . There have been about three influenza pandemics in each century for the last 300 years , the most recent one being the 2009 flu pandemic . Influenza pandemics occur when a new strain of the influenza virus is transmitted to humans from another animal species . Species that are thought to be important in the emergence of new human strains are pigs , chickens and ducks . These novel strains are unaffected by any immunity people may have to older strains of human influenza and can therefore spread extremely rapidly and infect very large numbers of people . Influenza A viruses can occasionally be transmitted from wild birds to other species causing outbreaks in domestic poultry and may give rise to human influenza pandemics . The propagation of influenza viruses throughout the world is thought in part to be by bird migrations , though commercial shipments of live bird products might also be implicated , as well as human travel patterns . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) has produced a six-stage classification that describes the process by which a novel influenza virus moves from the first few infections in humans through to a pandemic . This starts with the virus mostly infecting animals , with a few cases where animals infect people , then moves through the stage where the virus begins to spread directly between people , and ends with a pandemic when infections from the new virus have spread worldwide . One strain of virus that may produce a pandemic in the future is a highly pathogenic variation of the H5N1 subtype of influenza A virus . On 11 June 2009 , a new strain of H1N1 influenza was declared to be a global pandemic ( Stage 6 ) by the WHO after evidence of spreading in the southern hemisphere . The 13 November 2009 worldwide update by the WHO stated that '' -LSB- a -RSB- s of 8 November 2009 , worldwide more than 206 countries and overseas territories or communities have reported -LSB- 503,536 -RSB- laboratory confirmed cases of pandemic influenza H1N1 2009 , including over 6,250 deaths . ''","qid":"137","docid":"Influenza_pandemic","rank":64,"score":67779},{"content":"Title: Will's Future Content: Will 's Future is Taiwanese Mandopop artist Wilber Pan 's first Mandarin compilation album . It was released by Universal Music Taiwan on 18 July 2008 , between Will 's sixth album Play It Cool in 2007 and seventh album 007 in 2009 . The initial release contains two CDs and a bonus DVD with 12 music videos . It features three new tracks , two medley remixes and 29 previously released songs , from his debut album Gecko Stroll in 2002 to his sixth album Play It Cool in 2007 , as well as one track from Will Pan 's Freestyle Remix 2005 . The album is organized with dance tracks on CD one and ballads on CD two . One of the new tracks is the opening theme song , '' 夏日瘋 '' ( Summer Craze ) of 2008 Taiwanese drama Miss No Good , starring Will , Rainie Yang and Dean Fujioka . A second edition was released by Universal Music Taiwan on 24 October 2008 , Will 's Future ( Trend Expert Limited Edition ) ( 3 CD ) with a bonus CD containing insert song , '' 同一個遺憾 '' ( Same Regret ) by Wilber Pan and Blue J , and four instrumental tracks from Miss No Good . The track '' 夏日瘋 '' ( Summer Craze ) is listed at number 52 on Hit Fm Taiwan 's Hit Fm Annual Top 100 Singles Chart ( Hit-Fm年度百首單曲 ) for 2008 .","qid":"137","docid":"Will's_Future","rank":65,"score":67675},{"content":"Title: Panjabrao Deshmukh Content: Panjabrao Shamrao Deshmukh ( Marathi : पंजाबराव शामराव देशमुख ) ( 27 December 1898 -- 10 April 1965 ) famously known as Bhausaheb Deshmukh was a social activist and a farmer 's leader in India . He was the Minister of Agriculture in the first cabinet of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in 1952 .","qid":"137","docid":"Panjabrao_Deshmukh","rank":66,"score":67396},{"content":"Title: Sustainable Table Content: Sustainable Table was created in 2003 by the nonprofit organization GRACE to help consumers understand the problems with our food supply and offer viable solutions and alternatives from sustainable agriculture . Rather than be overwhelmed by the problems created by our industrial agricultural system , Sustainable Table celebrates the joy of food and eating from sustainable food systems . Today 's dominant form of agriculture relies on synthetic fertilizers and chemical pesticides , large amounts of water , major transportation systems and factory-style practices for raising livestock and crops . Artificial hormones in milk , antibiotic-resistant bacteria , mad cow disease , and large-scale outbreaks of potentially deadly E. coli are all associated with this industrial form of food production . Sustainable agriculture involves food production methods that are healthy , do not harm the environment , respect workers , are humane to animals , provide fair wages to farmers , and support farming communities . But rather than focus on the problems , Sustainable Table promotes the positive shift toward local , small-scale sustainable farming . The program is home to the Eat Well Guide , an online directory of sustainable products in the U.S. and Canada , and the critically acclaimed , award-winning Meatrix movies - The Meatrix , The Meatrix II : Revolting and The Meatrix II 1/2 . Sustainable Table celebrates local sustainable food , educates consumers on food-related issues and works to build community through food .","qid":"137","docid":"Sustainable_Table","rank":67,"score":67321},{"content":"Title: State Agricultural Farm Content: __ NOTOC __ A State Agricultural Farm ( Państwowe Gospodarstwo Rolne , PGR ) was a form of collective farming in the People 's Republic of Poland , similar to Soviet sovkhoz and to the East German Volkseigenes Gut . They were created in 1949 as a form of socialist ownership of agricultural land by the government . They were primarily formed on the Regained Territories - lands that Poland acquired from Germany after the Second World War - but existed throughout Poland . Some farms took over farms of monasteries , e.g. in Szczyrzyc , see the picture . Relatively inefficient and subsidized by the government , most PGRs went bankrupt quickly after the fall of communism and adoption of a market economy by Poland . The state run many specialised farms , which bred and trained horses ( especially Arabians , e.g. Bask ) , bred cows , fishes , produced certified seed and potatoes . Some of the farms were state ones before the World War II . Many of the specialised farms still exist , controlled by the Agricultural Property Agency . Farms were created primarily on the basis of the earlier estates . Many of these households was founded on the Regained Territories . Low efficiency of work and extensive social benefits for workers in many cases led to disastrous management with low productivity , causing state deficit . After moving to the market economy under the Act of October 19 , 1991 on agricultural property of the Treasury collective farms were liquidated and their assets were taken over by the Agricultural Property Agency of the Treasury ( now Agricultural Property Agency ) , and their workers - 300 to 450 thousand people - joined the ranks of the unemployed . Households that have not been sold or leased were administered by the Agency of the State Treasury and managed by administrators appointed by the Agency . Then sought to sell or lease property holdings and the accompanying holdings , such as apartments , holiday resorts , etc. . The social base has also been a sale of land to individual farmers . The weakest part of the land remained undeveloped for several years . The process of selling and leasing land societies and social services continues . Liquidation of state-owned farms has often been restricted , or permanent abandonment of animal husbandry , crop production limitation , changes in farming methods . This led to a drastic reduction of jobs and the resulting wide range of local problems ; in many regions , PGR were the only employer , the new owners after restructuring usually significantly reduced the employment . State-owned farms were very often the organizers of social life , and theoretically adequately met all the needs of workers . Their downfall has often caused damage to the structure of the local communities , which were not adapted to the new situation of economic activity . It has also devastated the property - partly as a result of theft , partly because of the lack of elementary security . On 22 July 2008 in Bolegorzyn , near Złocieniec a museum of the State Farms was opened .","qid":"137","docid":"State_Agricultural_Farm","rank":68,"score":67308},{"content":"Title: Agriculture in Connecticut Content: Agriculture played a major role in the early growth of Connecticut as one of the original 13 colonies that would form the United States of America , particularly in the Connecticut River valley which provided fertile soil , temperate climate and easy access to markets . As the Industrial Revolution helped focus capital on mercantile centers in the 19th century , Connecticut farmers over time ceded their relative economic and political influence . In the 21st century , farming remains a relatively small but still significant industry in Connecticut , employing some 12,000 people as of 2010 . Ending years of steady declines , between 2002 and 2012 the number of Connecticut farms increased 43 percent , with one possible cause an increased consumer appetite for locally sourced food , drawing some younger people to start up small farms . Connecticut had nearly 6,000 farms with 437,000 acres of land as of 2012 , producing $ 551 million in revenue that year . In 2012 , the total value of Connecticut farmland and buildings was $ 4.4 billion , down 3.5 % from 2011 . Connecticut farms received $ 141 million in federal subsidies between 1995 and 2012 , including commodity programs , conservation payments , crop insurance , and disaster aid , ranking it 45th of the 50 states .","qid":"137","docid":"Agriculture_in_Connecticut","rank":69,"score":67175},{"content":"Title: Pan African School of Theology Content: Pan African School of Theology ( PAST ) is an evangelical theological college located in Nyahururu , Kenya . PAST is a globally significant entity as the first academic institution in the world solely dedicated to engaging men and women of African descent in scholarly dialogue over Pan-African issues in theology and ethnic teleology from a Biblical perspective .","qid":"137","docid":"Pan_African_School_of_Theology","rank":70,"score":67152},{"content":"Title: Baikampady Content: Baikampady is a place north of Panambur in Dakshina Kannada district . It is at 6 km from Surathkal.There is an industrial estate , where many small scale industries are located . The Baikampadi industrial estate has many electrical , engineering , leaf spring , hollow blocks and pharmaceutical industries . It serves nearby New Mangalore port ( NMPT ) , Mangalore Fertilizers and Mangalore petroleum refinery ( MRPL ) . There is market yard for agriculture produce ( APMC ) built few years ago is lying unutilised . Very famous Sri Ram Mandir kodical is also located in baikampady .","qid":"137","docid":"Baikampady","rank":71,"score":67043},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of pig farming Content: The environmental impact of pig farming refers to the threats posed to the natural environment by large-scale pig farming . Industrial pig farming , a subset of concentrated animal feeding operations , poses numerous threats to the environment . CAFOs house thousands of swine and other farm animals in confined areas , where feces and waste often spread to surrounding neighborhoods , polluting air and water with toxic waste particles . Waste from these farms have the potential to carry pathogens , bacteria ( often antibiotic resistant ) , and heavy metals that can be toxic when ingested . Pig waste also contributes to groundwater pollution in the forms of groundwater seepage and waste spray , which is essentially the usage of a sprinkler to spray vats of pig waste into neighboring areas . The contents in the spray and waste drift have been shown to cause mucosal irritation , respiratory ailment , increased stress , decreased quality of life , and higher blood pressure . This improper way to get rid of waste is an attempt for CAFOs to be cost efficient . This presents an environmental injustice problem , since the communities do not receive any benefit from the operations , and instead , suffer negative externalities , such as pollution and health problems . The Agriculture and Consumer Health Department has stated explicitly that the `` main direct environmental impact of pig production is related to the manure produced .","qid":"137","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_pig_farming","rank":72,"score":66995},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"137","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":73,"score":66876},{"content":"Title: Pesticide Action Network Content: Pesticide Action Network ( PAN ) is `` an international coalition of around 600 NGOs , citizens ' groups , and individuals in about 60 countries . '' PAN is involved in fighting problems caused by pesticide use , and advocates ecologically sound alternatives . Branches include PAN North America , U. K. , Germany , Mexico , Asia and Pacific , and Africa . In November 2010 , PAN publicized a leaked Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) memo that showed that the EPA suspected the crop spray clothianidin , manufactured by German agrochemical company Bayer , as a possible cause of bee colony collapse disorder . This pesticide has a conditional approval in the U. S. , where it is widely used on sugar beets , canola , soy , sunflowers , wheat , and corn , In December 2010 , PAN North America joined with other organizations in suing California , to challenge `` the state 's approval of the cancer-causing strawberry pesticide methyl iodide . ''","qid":"137","docid":"Pesticide_Action_Network","rank":74,"score":66832},{"content":"Title: Alberto Cárdenas Content: Alberto Cárdenas Jiménez ( born April 4 , 1958 in Zapotlán el Grande , Jalisco ) is a Mexican politician affiliated with the conservative National Action Party ( PAN ) . He is a former governor of Jalisco , and Secretary of Agriculture in the cabinet of Felipe Calderón ( 1 December 2006 - 7 September 2009 ) . In 2006 he was elected to the Senate for PAN , representing the state of Jalisco , with his term running until 2012 . Cárdenas received a bachelor 's degree in Industrial Engineering from the Ciudad Guzmán Technological Institute and both a master 's degree in Business Planning and Ph.D. in Industrial Engineering from the Polytechnical University of Madrid , in Spain . He was the mayor of Ciudad Guzmán from 1992 until 1994 and served as governor of Jalisco from 1995 until 2001 . After leaving the post he was appointed general director of the National Forestry Commission . From 2003 until 2005 he headed the Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources in the cabinet of Vicente Fox . On July 7 , 2005 he was formally registered in the presidential primary election of the National Action Party . He competed for the nomination with former fellow cabinet members Santiago Creel and Felipe Calderón , but ultimately lost to Calderón . In the general election of July 2 , 2006 , he was elected to the Senate for the PAN , representing the state of Jalisco . Cárdenas is married to Joann Novoa Mossberger and has three children : Andrea , Alberto and Álvaro .","qid":"137","docid":"Alberto_Cárdenas","rank":75,"score":66818},{"content":"Title: Could not care less Content:","qid":"137","docid":"Could_not_care_less","rank":76,"score":66695},{"content":"Title: Industrial Scars Content: Industrial Scars is an environmental photography project by J Henry Fair , which explores the detritus of our consumer society , through large-scale aerial photo shoots and accompanying documentary research . Industrial Scars subjects range from oil drilling and coal ash waste to large-scale agricultural production and abandoned mining operations . In small airplanes , Fair circles above industrial areas and photographs with a bird 's eye perspective the effects these operations have on our environment . Topics of particular interest to Fair include the global warming process , environmental pollution , and habitat destruction - all of which are illustrated in Fair 's photographs . With his photos , Fair has called attention to environmental and political problems in different regions of the world . Fair has had touring photography exhibits in the USA , Europe , and Asia . Additionally , he travels around the world , giving environmental symposia to teach audiences about consumer responsibility and environmental awareness . Images from the Industrial Scars series have been published in National Geographic Magazine , TIME Magazine , New York Magazine , and were featured on the TODAY Show .","qid":"137","docid":"Industrial_Scars","rank":77,"score":66374},{"content":"Title: G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology Content: Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology also known as GBPUA&T , Pantnagar University or Pantvarsity is the first agricultural university of India . It was inaugurated by Jawaharlal Nehru on 17 November 1960 as the `` Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University '' ( UPAU ) . Later the name was changed to `` Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology '' in 1972 in memory of the first Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh , statesman and Bharat Ratna recipient Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant . The University was declared as the best among all the other State Universities in India , in 1997 . The University lies in the campus-town of Pantnagar in the district of Udham Singh Nagar in the state of Uttarakhand . The university is regarded as the harbinger of Green Revolution in India .","qid":"137","docid":"G._B._Pant_University_of_Agriculture_and_Technology","rank":78,"score":66263},{"content":"Title: Regenerative agriculture Content: Regenerative agriculture is an approach to food and farming systems that regenerates topsoil and enhances biodiversity now and long into the future . Regenerative Agriculture improves water cycles , enhances ecosystem services , increases resilience to climate fluctuation and strengthens the health and vitality of farming and ranching communities . Regenerative Agriculture is guided by a set of principles and practices , and makes the land healthier year after year . In this way it is based on outcomes , not practices , distinguishing it from most sustainable and conservation agriculture efforts . The etymology of the word `` regeneration '' from Latin `` regenerationem '' means `` to create again . ''","qid":"137","docid":"Regenerative_agriculture","rank":79,"score":66223},{"content":"Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .","qid":"137","docid":"Future_Evolution","rank":80,"score":65924},{"content":"Title: Industrialisation Content: Industrialisation or industrialization is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial one , involving the extensive re-organisation of an economy for the purpose of manufacturing . As industrial workers ' incomes rise , markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds tend to expand and provide a further stimulus to industrial investment and economic growth .","qid":"137","docid":"Industrialisation","rank":81,"score":65468},{"content":"Title: Pandeli Cale Content: Pandeli Cale ( 1879 -- 1923 ) was one of the signatories of Albanian Declaration of Independence , who subsequently served as Minister of Agriculture in the Provisional Government of Albania .","qid":"137","docid":"Pandeli_Cale","rank":82,"score":65444},{"content":"Title: DreDDup discography Content: The discography of the Serbian industrial rock band dreDDup comprises seven studio albums , one live albums , one video album , and twenty music videos . The band released their debut album , Mr Borndeads Feast in 2004 , after the release of the compact cassette Abnormal Waltz , recorded in 1998 . With the release of the band 's second studio album , Future Porn Machine , the band abolished the early mainstream concept , and turned towards industrial rock music . However , it was on the followup , El Conquistadors , that the band found their own musical style and expression , an artistically oriented industrial rock , captured live on the Live in 219 , also found on the third studio album El Conquistadors , released in 2009 . In 2009 , the band released the Industrial Renaissance DVD featuring the live recording of the 2007 Belgrade performance , and all the music videos the band had made throughout their career . Their fourth release was self-titled dreDDup ( album ) released for dPulse in 2011 . Soon after that one , band announced the last album to be ` Nautilus ' . After it was released in 2012 , the band soon went silent on studio work . Surprisingly in 2014 , they presented ' I Dreamt of a Dragon ' , their sixth studio album which contained more commercial sound . In early 2016 . band came back with another release - their seventh studio album ` DeathOven ( Rebels Have no Kings ) ' . They are currently working on their next record .","qid":"137","docid":"DreDDup_discography","rank":83,"score":65389},{"content":"Title: Industrial slave Content: An industrial slave is a type of slave who typically worked in an industrial setting . These slaves often had work that was more dangerous than agricultural slaves .","qid":"137","docid":"Industrial_slave","rank":84,"score":65202},{"content":"Title: Sandy Kemper Content: Alexander Sandy Kemper ( born June 18 , 1965 ) is an American entrepreneur , known for being founder and board chairman of Agriculture Future of America , founder of Education , Inc. , chairman of Global Trading Web Association , founder of The Collector 's Fund , and founder and CEO Perfect Commerce , formerly known as eScout .","qid":"137","docid":"Sandy_Kemper","rank":85,"score":65143},{"content":"Title: Panduranga Hegde Content: Panduranga Hegde is an environmentalist from Uttara Kannada district , Karnataka , India and is known as the person who started Appiko movement to protect trees in Western Ghats .","qid":"137","docid":"Panduranga_Hegde","rank":86,"score":65138},{"content":"Title: Industrial Commission Content: The Industrial Commission was a United States government body in existence from 1898 to 1902 . It was appointed by President William McKinley to investigate railroad pricing policy , industrial concentration , and the impact of immigration on labor markets , and make recommendations to the President and Congress . McKinley and the Commissioners launched the trust-busting era . The Industrial Commission included McKinley 's Ohio running mate , Commissioner Andrew L. Harris ( a Governor of Ohio and Civil War General ) who served as Chair of the Agriculture Subcommittee , and prominent Senators and Congressmen . After McKinley was assassinated in 1901 , President Theodore Roosevelt heeded the advice of the Commissioners and further regulated the large trusts . Roosevelt became known as the nation 's toughest trust-buster .","qid":"137","docid":"Industrial_Commission","rank":87,"score":65066},{"content":"Title: Panayikulam Content: Panayikulam is a small village which falls in the Alangad Grama Panchayat , Paravur Taluk , Kerala , India . A nice place to live in , easily accessible to Aluva Railway Station at 7 km , Nedumbassery International Airport 10 km and the Kochi City at 15 km . It is a preferred residential locality due to its proximity to the industrial areas , viz Binanipuram , Eloor and Kalamassery , where major factories like FACT , HMT , HIL , TCC , Binani , CMRL etc. , are situated . Can commute on daily basis to the InfoPark , Kochi which is almost 12 km away . The place is providing its residents with pure water with no salinity in it and plain beautiful land very close to the Periyar River . The people here mainly rely on agriculture . Panayikulam is well known for the cultivation of Snap Melon ( Pottuvellari ) . Panayikulam is home to a lot of Non Resident Indians .","qid":"137","docid":"Panayikulam","rank":88,"score":65043},{"content":"Title: ACC Loan Management Content: ACC Loan Management Limited , formerly ACCBank plc , was formerly a commercial bank in Ireland that focused on agriculture and SME lending , and is now a company that focusses on managing the lending facilities of its existing clients . The bank had its origins in the Agricultural Credit Corporation ( Corparáid an Chairde Talmhaíochta ) set up in 1927 in the Irish Free State to finance agriculture ; the bank was successful and led to the creation of the Industrial Credit Company , which was modelled on it and provided finance to industry . In the early 1990s , the company name was changed from `` Agricultural Credit Corporation plc '' to `` ACCBank plc '' in order to signify that the company was now targeting more than simply agricultural customers . In early 2002 , the bank was sold by the Irish Government to Rabobank , it is now one of the three entities of the Rabobank ( Ireland ) .","qid":"137","docid":"ACC_Loan_Management","rank":89,"score":64984},{"content":"Title: Agroindustrial Content: Agroindustrial ( -LSB- aɡroïdustriˈaw -RSB- , `` place for agriculture and manufacturer '' ) is a bairro in the District of Sede in the municipality of Santa Maria , in the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul . It is located in west Santa Maria .","qid":"137","docid":"Agroindustrial","rank":90,"score":64896},{"content":"Title: Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005 Content: The Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005 was a bill introduced as H.R. 3037 in the United States House of Representatives on June 22 , 2005 . The bill proposes `` to amend the Controlled Substances Act to exclude industrial hemp from the definition of marihuana , and for other purposes '' . Submitted by Ron Paul , Pete Stark , Jim McDermott and Raul Grijalva , the bill was referred to the Committee on Energy and Commerce and the United States House Committee on the Judiciary . On July 1 , 2005 , Energy and Commerce referred the bill to the Subcommittee on Health . H.R. 3037 was not passed , and would need to be reintroduced before a second vote could take place . In 2009 Ron Paul ( R-Texas ) and Barney Frank ( D-Massachusetts ) proposed H.R. 1866 , commonly known as the Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 , urging fellow legistors to reconsider the definition of marijuana .","qid":"137","docid":"Industrial_Hemp_Farming_Act_of_2005","rank":91,"score":64869},{"content":"Title: Agriculture in Nepal Content: In Nepal , the economy is dominated by agriculture . In the late 1980s , it was the livelihood for more than 90 percent of the population , although only approximately 20 percent of the total land area was cultivable , it accounted for , on average , about 60 percent of the GDP and approximately 75 percent of exports . Since the formulation of the Fifth Five-Year Plan ( 1975 -- 80 ) , agriculture has been the highest priority because economic growth was dependent on both increasing the productivity of existing crops and diversifying the agricultural base for use as industrial inputs . According to the World Bank , agriculture is the main source of food , income , and employment for the majority . In trying to increase agricultural production and diversify the agricultural base , the government focused on irrigation , the use of fertilizers and insecticides , the introduction of new implements and new seeds of high-yield varieties , and the provision of credit . The lack of distribution of these inputs , as well as problems in obtaining supplies , however , inhibited progress . Although land reclamation and settlement were occurring in the Terai Region , environmental degradation and ecological imbalance resulting from deforestation also prevented progress . Although new agricultural technologies helped increase food production , there still was room for further growth . Past experience indicated bottlenecks , however , in using modern technology to achieve a healthy growth . The conflicting goals of producing cash crops both for food and for industrial inputs also were problematic .","qid":"137","docid":"Agriculture_in_Nepal","rank":92,"score":64848},{"content":"Title: Africa's Children-Africa's Future Content: Africa 's Children-Africa 's Future ( AC-AF ) was founded in 2006 and was recognized as a registered charity in 2009 . The organization conducted programming in Canada and Tanzania to encourage the empowerment of children and youth in response to the various challenges posed by the AIDS pandemic . AC-AF 's programming offered grassroots responses and sustainable solutions to build , strengthen and support community resources . Due to significant reforms in funding opportunities , the organization was forced to close its doors in 2014 .","qid":"137","docid":"Africa's_Children-Africa's_Future","rank":93,"score":64777},{"content":"Title: Pan Britannica Industries Content: Pan Britannica Industries Ltd ( PBI ) was a small company which had 400 employees . It was a household and agrochemical formulation company based at Britannica House , Stewardstone Road , Waltham Cross and with a distribution presence in Wisbech in Cambridgeshire . PBI was , in common with many other UK household names , both a manufacturer and marketing organisation for both agricultural and horticultural products . PBI produced many agro-chemical formulations that were popular with farmers in many parts of the globe . However It was best known for its product Baby Bio , a liquid plant food that came in a notable small perfume-shaped bottle . Other major products by PBI are the Expert range of books , such as the Garden Expert , House Plant Expert , Greenhouse Expert etc. written by , Dr D.G. Hessayon , who later became chairman of PBI . The motto of these books is `` Easy-to-follow advice and information you can trust '' . With this in mind they are colourful , informative , and contain accurate product information and literature . The Company adopted this approach throughout all its products and brands . Such an approach was in no small way attributable to Dr. Hessayon , who was highly regarded within and outside both Agriculture and Horticulture , for many years . The company was sold to the Sumitomo corporation in the late eighties , but continued to be run largely by the same management . It is now part of the Bayer Corporation , which markets the best of its brands . The Waltham Abbey site has been redeveloped into a housing estate . There is still a presence in Waltham Cross called PBI Home & Garden Ltd in the same building , now renamed Durkan house . Similar UK operations were run by ICI Agriculture , Murphy Chemical Co , Allbright & Wilson ( Farm Protection ) , Shell Chemical Company , BP and Fisons . Some small scale horticultural products were also packaged at the Waltham Abbey plant , including Draza Slug Pellets for Bayer Agriculture ( now owner of the Bio Trade Mark ) . Companies such as Elanco , DuPont , Rohm & Haas and Stauffer actually manufactured , packaged , and labelled the vast majority of Chemical marketed by PBI . Many of the products which PBI marketed gave it , a very small player , a strong market presence on the global agrochemicals scene . Due to legislation , many of the products have been discontinued in the west due to long-term human health issues , but were considered safe and manufactured by other companies around the world . Now only the benign formulas like Baby Bio have continued availability . Dr Hessayon still writes Expert books but these are now published by Transworld .","qid":"137","docid":"Pan_Britannica_Industries","rank":94,"score":64752},{"content":"Title: Farming (disambiguation) Content: Farming or Agriculture is the practice of cultivating crops , livestock or fungi on a farm . Animal farming , the cultivation of livestock Intensive animal farming , aka factory farming Fish farming , raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures Fungus farming , the process of producing food , medicine , and other products by the farming of mushrooms and other fungi Horticulture , the cultivation of plants Crop farming Farming may also refer to : Baby farming , a practice in Victorian Britain involving the taking-in of an infant or child for payment Tax farming , the privatization of tax collection Farming , Minnesota","qid":"137","docid":"Farming_(disambiguation)","rank":95,"score":64658},{"content":"Title: Pandemic Preparedness and Response Act Content: The Pandemic Preparedness and Response Act is a bill introduced on October 5 , 2005 by U.S. Senators Harry Reid , Evan Bayh , Dick Durbin , Ted Kennedy , Barack Obama , and Tom Harkin in response to the growing threat of an outbreak of avian influenza . The bill calls for : Preparing for a pandemic by finalizing , implementing and funding pandemic preparedness and response plans . Improving surveillance and international partnerships to monitor the spread of avian flu and detect the emergence of a flu strain with pandemic potential immediately . Protecting Americans through the development , production and distribution of an effective vaccine . Planning ahead for a pandemic by stockpiling antivirals , vaccines and other essential medications and supplies . Strengthening the public health infrastructure . Increasing awareness and education about pandemic flu . Devoting adequate resources to pandemic preparedness . `` This bill never became law . This bill was proposed in a previous session of Congress . Sessions of Congress last two years , and at the end of each session all proposed bills and resolutions that have n't passed are cleared from the books . Members often reintroduce bills that did not come up for debate under a new number in the next session . ... Sometimes the text of one bill or resolution is incorporated into another , and in those cases the original bill or resolution , as it would appear here , would seem to be abandoned . '' ( http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=s109-1821 )","qid":"137","docid":"Pandemic_Preparedness_and_Response_Act","rank":96,"score":64607},{"content":"Title: Pollution haven hypothesis Content: The pollution haven hypothesis posits that , when large industrialized nations seek to set up factories or offices abroad , they will often look for the cheapest option in terms of resources and labor that offers the land and material access they require . However , this often comes at the cost of environmentally sound practices . Developing nations with cheap resources and labor tend to have less stringent environmental regulations , and conversely , nations with stricter environmental regulations become more expensive for companies as a result of the costs associated with meeting these standards . Thus , companies that choose to physically invest in foreign countries tend to ( re ) locate to the countries with the lowest environmental standards or weakest enforcement .","qid":"137","docid":"Pollution_haven_hypothesis","rank":97,"score":64605},{"content":"Title: Bohdan Dobrzański Institute of Agrophysics Content: The Bohdan Dobrzański Institute of Agrophysics of the Polish Academy of Sciences ( IA PAS , Instytut Agrofizyki im . Bohdana Dobrzańskiego Polskiej Akademii Nauk , IA PAN ) is a public research and higher education institution dedicated to the study of agrophysics , agricultural sciences and research on physical problems of agriculture . The Institute publishes two English-language scientific journals , the quarterly Acta Agrophysica ( since 1993 ) and the semi-annual Polish Journal of Soil Science ( since 1968 ) . The Institute promotes agrophysics as a part of agricultural sciences that uses knowledge and methods of basic sciences such as physics , biology and chemistry for solving contemporary problems in agronomy . It develops new methods , experimental and numerical tools , products , and technological and service innovations for agriculture and for exploitation of the agricultural resources . The Institute is funded by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education . It is located in Lublin , Poland . Its email addresses include sekretariat@ipan.lublin.pl and agrof@demeter.ipan.lublin.pl . Its telephone numbers include ( 48 81 ) 744 50 61 ( to 66 ) , and its facsimile line is ( 48 81 ) 744 50 67 .","qid":"137","docid":"Bohdan_Dobrzański_Institute_of_Agrophysics","rank":98,"score":64527},{"content":"Title: Our Common Future Content: __ NOTOC __ Our Common Future , also known as the Brundtland Report , from the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development ( WCED ) was published in 1987 . Its targets were multilateralism and interdependence of nations in the search for a sustainable development path . The report sought to recapture the spirit of the Stockholm Conference - which had introduced environmental concerns to the formal political development sphere . Our Common Future placed environmental issues firmly on the political agenda ; it aimed to discuss the environment and development as one single issue . The document was the culmination of a `` 900-day '' international-exercise which catalogued , analysed , and synthesised : written submissions and expert testimony from `` senior government representatives , scientists and experts , research institutes , industrialists , representatives of non-governmental organizations , and the general public '' held at public hearings throughout the world . The Brundtland Commission 's mandate was to : `` re-examine the critical issues of environment and development and to formulate innovative , concrete , and realistic action proposals to deal with them ; strengthen international cooperation on environment and development and to assess and propose new forms of cooperation that can break out of existing patterns and influence policies and events in the direction of needed change ; and raise the level of understanding and commitment to action on the part of individuals , voluntary organizations , businesses , institutes , and governments '' ( 1987 : 347 ) . `` The Commission focused its attention in the areas of population , food security , the loss of species and genetic resources , energy , industry , and human settlements - realizing that all of these are connected and can not be treated in isolation one from another '' The Brundtland Commission Report recognised that human resource development in the form of poverty reduction , gender equity , and wealth redistribution was crucial to formulating strategies for environmental conservation , and it also recognised that environmental-limits to economic growth in industrialised and industrialising societies existed . The Brundtland Report claimed that poverty reduces sustainability and accelerates environmental pressures -- creating a need for the balancing between economy and ecology . As such , the Report offered `` -LSB- the -RSB- analysis , the broad remedies , and the recommendations for a sustainable course of development '' within such societies ( 1987 : 16 ) . However , the Report was unable to identify the mode ( s ) of production that are responsible for degradation of the environment , and in the absence of analysing the principles governing market-led economic growth , the Report postulated that such growth could be reformed ( and expanded ) ; this lack of analysis resulted in an obfuscated-introduction of the term sustainable development . The publication of Our Common Future and the work of the World Commission on Environment and Development laid the groundwork for the convening of the 1992 Earth Summit and the adoption of Agenda 21 , the Rio Declaration and to the establishment of the Commission on Sustainable Development . An oft-quoted definition of sustainable development is defined in the report as : `` development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs . '' In addition , key contributions of Our Common Future to the concept of sustainable development include the recognition that the many crises facing the planet are interlocking crises that are elements of a single crisis of the whole and of the vital need for the active participation of all sectors of society in consultation and decisions relating to sustainable development . Our Common Future is also known as the Brundtland Report in recognition of former Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland 's role as Chair of the World Commission on Environment and Development .","qid":"137","docid":"Our_Common_Future","rank":99,"score":64371},{"content":"Title: Green industrial policy Content: Green industrial policy ( GIP ) is strategic government policy that attempts to accelerate the development and growth of green industries to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Natural scientists warn that immediate action must be taken to lower greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change . Social scientists argue that the mitigation of climate change requires state intervention and governance reform . Thus , governments use GIP to address the economic , political , and environmental issues of climate change . GIP is conducive to sustainable economic , institutional , and technological transformation . It goes beyond the free market economic structure to address market failures and commitment problems that hinder sustainable investment . Effective GIP builds political support for carbon regulation which is necessary to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Several governments use different types of GIP that lead to various outcomes . GIP and industrial policy are similar , although GIP has unique challenges and goals . GIP faces the particular challenge of reconciling economic and environmental issues . It deals with a high uncertainty of green investment profitability . Furthermore , it addresses the reluctance of industry to invest in green development , and it helps current governments influence future climate policy . GIP offers opportunities for energy transition to renewables and a low-carbon economy . A large challenge for climate policy is a lack of industry and public support . GIP creates benefits that attract support for sustainability . It can create strategic niche management and generate a `` green spiral '' , or a process of feedback that combines industrial interests with climate policy . GIP can protect employees in emerging and declining industries , which leads to political support for other climate policy . Carbon pricing , sustainable energy transitions , and decreases in greenhouse gas emissions have higher chances of success as political support increases . GIP faces many risks . Some risks include poor government choices about which industries to support ; political capture of economic policy ; wasted resources ; ineffective action to combat climate change ; poor policy design that lacks policy objectives and exit strategies ; trade disputes ; and coordination failure . Strategic steps can be taken to manage the risks of GIP . Some include public and private sector communication , transparency , and accountability ; policy with clear objectives , evaluation techniques and exit strategies ; policy learning and policy experimentation ; green rent management ; strong institutions ; and a free press . Governments in various countries , states , provinces , territories , and cities use different types of green industrial policy . Distinct policy instruments lead to several outcomes . Examples include sunrise and sunset policies , subsidies , research and development , local content requirements , feed-in tariffs , tax credits , export restrictions , consumer mandates , green public procurement rules , and renewable portfolio standards .","qid":"137","docid":"Green_industrial_policy","rank":100,"score":64325}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intensive animal farming Content: Intensive animal farming or industrial livestock production , also known as factory farming by opponents of the practice , is a modern form of intensive farming that refers to animal husbandry , the keeping of livestock such as cattle , poultry , and fish at higher stocking densities than is usually the case with other forms of animal agriculture -- a practice typical in industrial farming by agribusinesses . The main products of this industry are meat , milk and eggs for human consumption . There are issues regarding whether factory farming is sustainable and ethical . Confinement at high stocking density is one part of a systematic effort to produce the highest output at the lowest cost by relying on economies of scale , modern machinery , biotechnology , and global trade . There are differences in the way factory farming techniques are practiced around the world . There is a continuing debate over the benefits , risks and ethical questions of factory farming . The issues include the efficiency of food production ; animal welfare ; whether it is essential for feeding the growing global population ; and the environmental impact ( e.g. pollution ) and health risks .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Intensive_animal_farming\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 93234\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NanoMemPro IPPC Database Content: The NanoMemPro IPPC database focus the operations where membranes are introduced as Best Available Techniques in the industrial areas addressed by the IPPC Directive . The Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control ( IPPC ) Directive was adopted by the European Council on September 24 , 1996 . It defines the obligations with which highly polluting industrial and agricultural activities must comply . It establishes a procedure for authorizing these activities : a permit is issued if certain environmental conditions are met . The IPPC Directive aims to minimise pollution from various sources throughout the European Union ( it concerns both new and existing installations ) . To do so , all industrial installations covered by the Annex I of the IPPC Directive ( see ) are required to obtain an authorisation ( permit ) from the authorities in the EU countries before they are allowed to operate . The permits granted must be based on the concept of Best Available Techniques ( or BAT ) . The IPPC Directive covers 33 industrial sectors where in almost all of them membrane processes appear as BAT , not only as an end-of-pipe solution for effluent treatment but mainly as a part of the industrial production processes . Membrane process integration play a crucial role , depending on the industrial sector in which they are integrated , and these roles may be : Confinement of pollutants in concentrate streams ( that may be further treated by destructive processes ) , Permeate recycle or re-use in the industrial process , thus reducing water input and discharge , Water recycling and effluent minimization , tending to zero discharge industrial processes . The IPPC Database was designed by the NanoMemPro Network of Excellence to focus the operations where membranes are introduced as BAT in the industrial areas addressed by the IPPC Directive documents . The Database built allows any user to search information upon the following criteria : Membrane process ( Reverse Osmosis , Nanofiltration , etc. ) , Industrial sector ( Pulp and Paper , Textile Industry , etc. ) , State of Reference document approval ( BREF , DRAFT , etc. ) . The information states which membrane processes are defined as a BAT in a given industrial sector and what is the application/purpose of that membrane process ( es ) . When accessing the Database , one can enter a username and password . This password insertion is used only by the database manager . To view and search the information of the database , just press the OK button , ignoring the password insertion procedure . This IPPC Database is available in the NanoMemPro website .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"NanoMemPro_IPPC_Database\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 86243\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nondegradation standard Content: In United States agricultural policy , a nondegradation standard is defined in the 2002 Farm Bill provisions establishing the Conservation Security Program ( CSP ; P.L. 107-171 , Sec . 2001 ) to mean the level of measures required to protect and prevent degradation of 1 or more natural resources , as determined by the Natural Resources Conservation Service . Participating farmers ' conservation security plans must address resources of concern and meet the appropriate nondegradation standard .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Nondegradation_standard\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 84123\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: African Institute for Future Studies Content: The African Institute for Future Studies , also known as Panafrican Institute for Future Studies or INADEP , is a research institution and university founded in 1989 by the President of Zaire ( present day Democratic Republic of the Congo ) ( Ordinance 89 -- 287 of 9 November 1989 ) . It is located in Kinshasa , Democratic Republic of the Congo , though it was originally located in Zomba , Malawi . In addition to subsidiary departments that are funded for the future studies or for the exploration of the future , INADEP has funded a Centre for the exploration of the past , named Diop 's Center for Egyptology . INADEP is a member of the National Research Council of Congo and one of the National Government Organizations devoted exclusively to scientific research and to the training of new researchers .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"African_Institute_for_Future_Studies\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 83489\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cleaner production Content: Cleaner production is a preventive , company-specific environmental protection initiative . It is intended to minimize waste and emissions and maximize product output . By analysing the flow of materials and energy in a company , one tries to identify options to minimize waste and emissions out of industrial processes through source reduction strategies . Improvements of organisation and technology help to reduce or suggest better choices in use of materials and energy , and to avoid waste , waste water generation , and gaseous emissions , and also waste heat and noise . The concept was developed during the preparation of the Rio Summit as a programme of UNEP ( United Nations Environmental Programme ) and UNIDO ( United Nations Industrial Development Organization ) under the leadership of Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel , the former Assistant Executive Director of UNEP . The programme was meant to reduce the environmental impact of industry . It built on ideas used by 3M in its 3P programme ( pollution prevention pays ) . It has found more international support than all other comparable programmes . The programme idea was described '' ... to assist developing nations in leapfrogging from pollution to less pollution , using available technologies '' . Starting from the simple idea to produce with less waste Cleaner Production was developed into a concept to increase the resource efficiency of production in general . UNIDO has been operating National Cleaner Production Centers and Programmes ( NCPCs/NCPPs ) with centres in Latin America , Africa , Asia and Europe . In the US , the term pollution prevention is more commonly used for cleaner production . Examples for cleaner production options are : Documentation of consumption ( as a basic analysis of material and energy flows , e. g. with a Sankey diagram ) Use of indicators and controlling ( to identify losses from poor planning , poor education and training , mistakes ) Substitution of raw materials and auxiliary materials ( especially renewable materials and energy ) Increase of useful life of auxiliary materials and process liquids ( by avoiding drag in , drag out , contamination ) Improved control and automatisation Reuse of waste ( internal or external ) New , low waste processes and technologies One of the first European initiatives in cleaner production was started in Austria in 1992 by the BMVIT ( Bundesministerium für Verkehr , Innovation und Technologie ) . This resulted in two initiatives : `` Prepare '' and EcoProfit . The `` PIUS '' initiative was founded in Germany in 1999 . Since 1994 , the United Nations Industrial Development Organization operates the National Cleaner Production Centre Programme with centres in Central America , South America , Africa , Asia , and Europe .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Cleaner_production\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 80066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Crops for the Future (CFF) Content: Crops for the Future , known by its acronym CFF , is an independent international organisation with a mandate to promote and facilitate the greater use of neglected and underutilised crops for enhanced diversification of agricultural systems and human diets , particularly for the benefit of poor people in developing countries . Crops for the Future is the only such organisation exclusively dedicated to an agenda increasingly recognised as important to achieving food security in a sustainable manner and making use of local agricultural biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Crops_for_the_Future_(CFF)\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 79123\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intensive crop farming Content: Intensive crop farming is a modern form of intensive farming that refers to the industrialized production of crops . Intensive crop farming 's methods include innovation in agricultural machinery , farming methods , genetic engineering technology , techniques for achieving economies of scale in production , the creation of new markets for consumption , patent protection of genetic information , and global trade . These methods are widespread in developed nations . The practice of industrial agriculture is a relatively recent development in the history of agriculture , and the result of scientific discoveries and technological advances . Innovations in agriculture beginning in the late 19th century generally parallel developments in mass production in other industries that characterized the latter part of the Industrial Revolution . The identification of nitrogen and phosphorus as critical factors in plant growth led to the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers , making more intensive uses of farmland for crop production possible . Similarly , the discovery of vitamins and their role in animal nutrition , in the first two decades of the 20th century , led to vitamin supplements , which in the 1920s allowed certain livestock to be raised indoors , reducing their exposure to adverse natural elements . The discovery of antibiotics and vaccines facilitated raising livestock in larger numbers by reducing disease . Chemicals developed for use in World War II gave rise to synthetic pesticides . Developments in shipping networks and technology have made long-distance distribution of produce feasible .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Intensive_crop_farming\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 78918\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Issues in American commodity farming Content: Aside from food production , industrial agriculture also provides fuel sources and provides export opportunities . The three commodity crops are predominate : corn , soybeans and wheat . Every year , farmers use 50 e6acre to 70 e6acre for cultivating each of these three crops .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Issues_in_American_commodity_farming\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 78731\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandemic Content: A pandemic ( from Greek πᾶν pan `` all '' and δῆμος demos `` people '' ) is an epidemic of infectious disease that has spread through human populations across a large region ; for instance multiple continents , or even worldwide . A widespread endemic disease that is stable in terms of how many people are getting sick from it is not a pandemic . Further , flu pandemics generally exclude recurrences of seasonal flu . Throughout history , there have been a number of pandemics , such as smallpox and tuberculosis . One of the most devastating pandemics was the Black Death , killing over 75 million people in 1350 . The most recent pandemics include the HIV pandemic as well as the 1918 and 2009 H1N1 pandemics .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandemic\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 78087\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Triumph of Technique Content: The Triumph of Technique : The Industrialization of Agriculture and the Destruction of Rural America is a 2004 book by Robert Wolf . The Triumph of Technique examines contemporary agriculture and its impact on rural economies . This book has been hailed by leaders of the sustainable agriculture movement as a significant contribution to understanding the depth of the current crisis in agriculture and its implications . The `` technique '' of the title refers not only to technologies but to any methods developed for the purpose of achieving predetermined ends . Wolf argues that technique , as he defines it , has taken the art out of farming by transforming it into agribusiness , on a much larger scale . He claims that this transformation has led to the decline of rural communities . Category :2004 books Category : Agriculture books Category : Intensive farming\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Triumph_of_Technique\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 77959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial crop Content: An industrial crop , also called a non-food crop , is a crop grown to produce goods for manufacturing , for example of fibre for clothing , rather than food for consumption .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_crop\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 77913\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mechanised agriculture Content: Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanise the work of agriculture , greatly increasing farm worker productivity . In modern times , powered machinery has replaced many farm jobs formerly carried out by manual labour or by working animals such as oxen , horses and mules . The entire history of agriculture contains many examples of the use of tools , such as the hoe and the plough . But the ongoing integration of machines since the Industrial Revolution has allowed farming to become much less labour-intensive . Current mechanised agriculture includes the use of tractors , trucks , combine harvesters , countless types of farm implements , aeroplanes and helicopters ( for aerial application ) , and other vehicles . Precision agriculture even uses computers in conjunction with satellite imagery and satellite navigation ( GPS guidance ) to increase yields . Mechanisation was one of the large factors responsible for urbanisation and industrial economies . Besides improving production efficiency , mechanisation encourages large scale production and sometimes can improve the quality of farm produce . On the other hand , it can displace unskilled farm labour and can cause environmental degradation ( such as pollution , deforestation , and soil erosion ) , especially if it is applied shortsightedly rather than holistically .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Mechanised_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 77742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandurang Vasudeo Sukhatme Content: Pandurang Vasudeo Sukhatme ( 1911 -- 1997 ) was an Indian statistician who did pioneering work in the 1940s by applying random sampling methods in agricultural statistics and in biometry . He was influential in the establishment of the Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute . Later , while working at FAO in Rome , he developed statistical models for assessing the dimensions of hunger and future food supplies for the world . He also developed methods for measuring the size and nature of the protein gap . Another of his major contributions was the application of statistical techniques for studying human nutrition . One of his ideas , the Sukhatme -- Margen hypothesis , suggested that at low calorie intake levels , stored energy in the body is used with greater metabolic efficiency and that the metabolic efficiency decreases as the intake increases above the homeostatic range . This involved paying attention to intra-individual variability that was found to be more than the inter-individual variability in protein or calorie intake . He gave a genetic interpretation of the intra-individual variation jointly with P. Narain . He was conferred the Padma Bhushan by the President of India in 1971 .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandurang_Vasudeo_Sukhatme\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 77280\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: FHCRAA Content: The Future Harvest Consortium to Rebuild Agriculture in Afghanistan ( FHCRAA ) is a consortium of aid organizations working to restructure agriculture in the central Asian nation . In the beginning of January 2002 , ICARDA , with the support of USAID , brought together 34 organizations including CGIAR centers and other research institutes , relief and development organizations , NGOs , U.S. universities , donor agencies and the Afghanistan Ministry of Agriculture at a meeting in Tashkent , Uzbekistan . FHCRAA was the result . The first stage was to identify areas , aid recipients and donor agency capabilities . The most important parters were USAID , CGIAR , ICARDA -LSB- International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas -RSB- and ICRIST ( International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ) . CGIAR is a strategic alliance of countries , international and regional organizations , and private foundations supporting 15 international agricultural centers that work with national agricultural programs and civil society organizations including the private sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"FHCRAA\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 76781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Notifiable disease Content: A notifiable disease is any disease that is required by law to be reported to government authorities . The collation of information allows the authorities to monitor the disease , and provides early warning of possible outbreaks . In the case of livestock diseases , there may also be the legal requirement to destroy the infected livestock upon notification . Many governments have enacted regulations for reporting of both human and animal ( generally livestock ) diseases . This usually happens during pandemics .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Notifiable_disease\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 76764\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Prevention of Genocide Task Force Content: On 8 December 2008 , the Genocide Prevention Task Force , co-chaired by Madeleine Albright , a former US Secretary of State , and William Cohen , a former US Secretary of Defense , released its final report which concludes that the US government can prevent genocide and mass atrocities in the future . In the words of Mr. Cohen , `` This report provides a blueprint that can enable the United States to take preventive action , along with international partners , to forestall the specter of future cases of genocide and mass atrocities . '' Recommendations include : a proactive role of the US president which would demonstrate to the US and the world that preventing genocide and mass atrocities is a national priority creating a body within the United States National Security Council to analyze threats and consider preventative action set up a fund of $ 250 million for crisis prevention and response help create an international network for the sharing of information and the coordination of preventative action\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Prevention_of_Genocide_Task_Force\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 76019\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandesara Content: Pandesara is an Industrial Area in city of Surat , India . It is about 10 km from Surat central Railway Station and 5 km from Udhana . It hosts more than 230 industries and is home to 150,000 residents . Once , Pandesara was a small village in Surat district , but owing to the establishment of industries it became a large commercial hub . It comes under Surat Municipal Corporation . Pandesara was the only area of Surat which was not affected by the floods of 2006 owing to its elevation , the highest in Surat . Pandesara adjoins to City Light , Althan , Sachin and Udhana .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandesara\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 75569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pollution prevention Content: Pollution prevention reduces the amount of pollution generated by a process , whether by industry , agriculture , or consumers . In contrast to most pollution control strategies , which seek to manage a pollutant after it is emitted and reduce its impact upon the environment , the pollution prevention approach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process , the reducing the amount of pollution generated at its source . Although there is wide agreement that source reduction is the preferred strategy , some professionals also use the term pollution prevention to include pollution reduction . With increasing human population , pollution has become a great concern . Pollution from human activities is a problem that does not have to be inevitable . With a comprehensive pollution prevention program , most pollution can be reduced , reused , or prevented . The US Environmental Protection Agency works to introduce pollution prevention programs to reduce and manage waste . Reducing and managing pollution may decrease the number of deaths and illnesses from pollution-related diseases .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pollution_prevention\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 75558\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Farm Safety & Health Week Content: National Farm Safety & Health Week is a week of commemoration , recognized annually on the third week of September in the United States . In 1944 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the first proclamation for farm safety due to the high injury rate in agriculture . Agriculture is one of the most hazardous industries with a death rate of 23.2 deaths per 100,000 workers annually according to U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2013 . However , many injuries are preventable through education . Serious injuries and death can be prevented by cautiously approaching field adjustments or repairs , taking precautions to avoid slips and falls , making smart decisions while assigning tasks to youth , using and maintaining the slow moving vehicle emblem correctly , and retrofitting tractors with rollover structures . In September 2015 , President Obama gave an official proclamation to accentuate the importance of agriculture for our society and economy as well as affirm farm safety and health programs `` America 's farmers and ranchers have played a critical role in shaping our progress and forging a better future for coming generations . Through centuries of hard work , they have supplied our Nation with products and services essential to the economic and physical well-being of our society . `` Across our country , those who work on farms bolster our economy and nourish our people by providing what we need at a most human level , helping to uphold America 's founding creed : Out of many , we are one . This week , let us recognize the steadfast dedication and commitment of agricultural producers and their families , and let us reaffirm our resolve to promote their health and safety . '' Over the years , the development and dissemination of National Farm Safety & Health Week materials shifted from the National Safety Council to National Education Center for Ag Safety ( NECAS ) . NECAS is the agricultural partner for the National Safety Council and has been serving the agricultural family and business community since 1997 . Each year they provide farmers with programs and materials to promote farmer safety and health .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Farm_Safety_&_Health_Week\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 75321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems Content: Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems is a competitive research grants program authorized in the Agricultural Research , Extension , and Education Reform Act of 1998 ( P.L. 105-185 ) and reauthorized in the 2002 farm bill ( P.L. 107-171 , Sec . 7205 ) . The law allows mandatory funds available from savings in food stamp program administration to be used to support the program . Grants were awarded in FY2000 and FY2001 ; in all other years congressional appropriators have prohibited USDA from spending funds on personnel to operate the program except for oversight of existing grants .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Initiative_for_Future_Agriculture_and_Food_Systems\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 75007\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: PANACA Content: PANACA ( Parque Nacional De La Cultura Agropecuaria ) is a farming theme park that promotes contact between humans and nature , intended for those who live in the city and to create awareness about nature . The park was created in Quimbaya , in the Coffee Area of Colombia by a group of businessmen in 1990 , and today , is one of the biggest agricultural parks in the country .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"PANACA\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 74574\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future Group Content: Future Group is an Indian private conglomerate , headquartered in Mumbai . The company is known for having a significant prominence in Indian retail and fashion sectors , with popular supermarket chains like Big Bazaar and Food Bazaar , lifestyle stores like Brand Factory , Central etc. and also for having a notable presence in integrated foods and FMCG manufacturing sectors . Future Retail ( initially Pantaloons Retail India Ltd ( PRIL ) ) and Future Lifestyle Fashions , two operating companies of Future Group , are among the top retail companies listed in BSE with respect to assets , and in NSE with respect to market capitalization . On May 2012 , Future Group announced 50.1 % stake sale of its fashion chain Pantaloons to Aditya Birla Group in order to reduce its debt of around . To do so , Pantaloons fashion segment was demerged from Pantaloons Retail India Ltd ; the latter was then merged into another subsidiary -- Future Value Retail Ltd -- and rechristened Future Retail Ltd. .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_Group\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 74498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial production Content: Industrial production is a measure of output of the industrial sector of the economy . The industrial sector includes manufacturing , mining , and utilities . Although these sectors contribute only a small portion of gross domestic product ( GDP ) , they are highly sensitive to interest rates and consumer demand . This makes industrial production an important tool for forecasting future GDP and economic performance . Industrial production figures are also used by central banks to measure inflation , as high levels of industrial production can lead to uncontrolled levels of consumption and rapid inflation .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_production\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 73208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Automated Society Content: In a diagram from the book The Automated Society , Bloomfield defines the history of humanity beginning over two million years ago and ending over a hundred thousand years in the future . The diagram is base on biological punctuated equilibrium and a parallel cultural evolution . The predictions of the future follow what has happened in the past . The diagram of history shows humanity having long periods of stability interrupted with short periods of transition . Humanity is currently experiencing one of those short periods of transition , from a stable agricultural period going through a transitional industrial society leading to a stable automated period . Productivity is the key to the transition ; when it is impossible to increase productivity , humanity will have arrived at the automated society . Before humanity enters the automated society , we will suffer from two near term trends . One trend is the relentlessly increasing number of human beings . The second is the relentlessly decreasing number of jobs . Jobs will be eliminated by substituting men with machines . An example of this is agriculture where once in the peasant society there were ninety percent of the people working as farmers . With the introduction of tractors , only three percent of Americans work on the farm . Once the problems of the lack of jobs , increased pollution and fewer natural resources are solved and the food factory put in operation , there should be a reconciliation of man to automation . In the automated society , men will live in affluence along with a total control of population . The one place where man will have an unlimited future will be in space . Space can provide for an unlimited increase in population and potentially the introduction of new human biological species .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Automated_Society\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 73173\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandemic (board game) Content: Pandemic is a cooperative board game designed by Matt Leacock and published by Z-Man Games in 2007 . Pandemic is based on the premise that four diseases have broken out in the world , each threatening to wipe out a region . The game accommodates 2 to 4 players , each playing one of five possible specialists : dispatcher , medic , scientist , researcher , or operations expert . The game is unlike most board games in that the gameplay is cooperative , rather than competitive . Through the combined effort of all the players , the goal is to discover all four cures before any of several game-losing conditions are reached . Three expansions , Pandemic : On the Brink , Pandemic : In the Lab , and Pandemic : State of Emergency , co-designed by Matt Leacock and Tom Lehmann , each add several new roles and special events , as well as rule adjustments to allow a fifth player or to play in teams . In addition , several rule expansions are included , referred to as `` challenge kits '' . Pandemic is considered one of the most successful cooperative games that has reached mainstream market sales , condensing the type of deep strategy offered by earlier cooperative games , like Arkham Horror , into a game that can be played in a limited time by a wider range of players . Pandemic Legacy : Season 1 , a spinoff version of Pandemic , which adds an ongoing storyline to the game , is currently rated by the website Board Game Geek as the greatest board game ever made .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandemic_(board_game)\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 72867\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Genocide prevention Content: Genocide Prevention is any act or actions that works toward averting a future genocide . One of the main goals of the United Nations with the passage of the Genocide Convention after the Second World War and Holocaust is to prevent future genocide from taking place . Since genocides take a lot of planning , resources , and involved parties to carry out , they do not just happen instantaneously . Using risk assessments , policy makers and NGO 's can predict how at risk a country is for genocide . From this assessment of the risk , appropriate steps can be taken to stop a situation from evolving into a genocide . The overriding aim of genocide prevention is to prevent genocide entirely before a crisis or violence begins .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Genocide_prevention\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 72358\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Future of Forestry Content: The Future of Forestry is a poem by C. S. Lewis and one of three poems , along with `` Under Sentence '' and `` Pan 's Purge '' , where he expressed concern about the impact that modern society and technology would have on the countryside . It was first published in The Oxford Magazine in February 1938 and contains themes of social critique that would be present in Lewis 's later Narnia series . The poem has been compared to later poems , such as Philip Larkin 's 1972 work `` Going , Going '' . The name of the poem helped influence the naming of the California band Future of Forestry .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Future_of_Forestry\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 71929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pantnagar Content: Pantnagar is a town and a university campus in Udham Singh Nagar district , Uttarakhand . Nainital , Kashipur , Rudrapur and Kiccha , Haldwani are the major cities surrounding Pantnagar . The town is famous for having the first agricultural university of India which was established on 17 November 1960 . Previously the university was called the Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University or Pantnagar University . It was rechristened G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology . keeping in view the contributions of Pt . Govind Ballabh Pant , the then Chief Minister of UP . In recent years , an integrated industrial estate has been established near the campus which houses companies such as Tata motor , Bajaj , Britannia , HP , HCL , Voltas , Schneider Electric , Nestle , Dabur , Vedanta Resources etc. , as a part of SIDCUL industrial area developed by government owned State Industrial Development Corporation of Uttarakhand Limited .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pantnagar\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 71821\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: College of Agriculture, Pantnagar Content: The College of Agriculture , Pantnagar , India , is a constituent of Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology , Pantnagar . It was opened on 17 November 1960 when Jawaharlal Nehru , the first Prime Minister of India , inaugurated the university . It has a triple mandate of teaching , research and extension . The college has more than 200 faculty members engaged in agricultural sciences . The college has played a role in the Green Revolution in the country . More than 185 varieties of crops like cereals , pulses , oilseeds , forages , fruits and vegetables , etc. have been released . The 4 year Bachelor of Science in Agriculture ( BScAg ) is the flagship course of the college .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"College_of_Agriculture,_Pantnagar\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 71634\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandemic (disambiguation) Content: A pandemic is a large epidemic . Pandemic may also refer to : Pandemic ( board game ) , a board game by Z-Man Games Pandemic ( comics ) , a Marvel Comics fictional character Pandemic ( film ) , a 2016 American science-fiction film Pandemic ( novel ) , 2014 sci-fi novel by Scott Sigler `` Pandemic '' ( South Park ) , the 177th episode of Comedy Central 's South Park `` Pandemic 2 : The Startling '' , the 178th episode of Comedy Central 's South Park ( continuation of above episode ) Pandemic ( TV miniseries ) , a 2007 Hallmark production starring Tiffani Thiessen and Faye Dunaway Pandemic Studios , a defunct video game developer ( The Saboteur , Star Wars Battlefront I and II )\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandemic_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 71552\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial applicability Content: In certain jurisdictions ' patent law , industrial applicability or industrial application is a patentability requirement according to which a patent can only be granted for an invention which is susceptible of industrial application , i.e. for an invention which can be made or used in some kind of industry . In this context , the concept of `` industry '' is far-reaching : it includes agriculture , for instance . An example of invention which would not be susceptible of industrial application is `` a method of contraception -LSB- ... -RSB- to be applied in the private and personal sphere of a human being '' . In relationship with United States patent law , the utility requirement is a more or less corresponding , but different , requirement .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_applicability\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 71263\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 Content: __ NOTOC __ The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 ( PPA ) in the United States created a national policy to have pollution prevented or reduced at the source wherever possible . It also expanded the Toxics Release Inventory . The Pollution Prevention Act focused industry , government , and public attention on reducing the amount of pollution through cost-effective changes in production , operation , and raw materials use . Opportunities for source reduction are often not realized because of existing regulations , and the industrial resources required for compliance , focus on treatment and disposal .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pollution_Prevention_Act_of_1990\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 71142\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: College of Technology, Pantnagar Content: College of Technology , Pantnagar also known as COT , Pantnagar or COT , is a state government funded engineering college located at Pantnagar in the state of Uttarakhand , India . It was established under the then Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University and now called Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology . The College of Technology was established in this university in 1962 . It has eleven departments that offer eight Bachelor of Technology ( B. Tech . ) degree programmes . The college also offers 24 postgraduate programs including a self-financed MCA program . The College is an institute in the world bank project for Technical Education Quality Improvement Program ( TEQIP ) and is also the Regional Academy Centre of CISCO . The institute also holds ISO 9001:2000 certification . The college receives financial aid from various sources including All India Council of Technical Education ( AICTE ) , University Grants Commission ( UGC ) , Department of Science and Technology ( DST ) , Indian Council of Agricultural Research ( ICAR ) and the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research ( CSIR ) in addition to aid from the Department of Higher Education , Government of Uttarakhand .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"College_of_Technology,_Pantnagar\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 71123\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Agriculture Content: Agriculture or farming is the cultivation and breeding of animals , plants and fungi for food , fiber , biofuel , medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life . Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization , whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization . The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science . The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years , and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates , cultures , and technologies . Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology . Modern agronomy , plant breeding , agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers , and technological developments have in many cases sharply increased yields from cultivation , but at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects . Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat , but have raised concerns about animal welfare and the health effects of the antibiotics , growth hormones , and other chemicals commonly used in industrial meat production . Genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture , although they are banned in several countries . Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts . Significant degradation of land and water resources , including the depletion of aquifers , has been observed in recent decades , and the effects of global warming on agriculture and of agriculture on global warming are still not fully understood . The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods , fibers , fuels , and raw materials . Specific foods include cereals ( grains ) , vegetables , fruits , oils , meats and spices . Fibers include cotton , wool , hemp , silk and flax . Raw materials include lumber and bamboo . Other useful materials are also produced by plants , such as resins , dyes , drugs , perfumes , biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants . Over one third of the world 's workers are employed in agriculture , second only to the service sector , although the percentages of agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly over the past several centuries .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 71006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2009 flu pandemic in Mexico Content: In March and April 2009 , an outbreak of a new strain of influenza commonly referred to as `` swine flu '' infected many people in Mexico and other parts of the world , causing illness ranging from mild to severe . Initial reports suggested that the outbreak had started in February due to farming practices at a pig farm half-owned by Smithfield Foods . Smithfield Foods stated that it had found no clinical signs or symptoms of the presence of swine influenza in the company 's swine herd , or among its employees at its joint ventures in Mexico , that it routinely administers influenza virus vaccination to their swine herds and that it conducts monthly testing for the presence of swine influenza . The new strain was identified as a combination of several different strains of Influenzavirus A , subtype H1N1 , including separate strains of this subtype circulating in humans and in pigs . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) have expressed serious concerns that the new strain , which transmits between humans and has had a relatively high mortality rate in the possible and confirmed Mexican cases , has the potential to become an influenza pandemic . It is reported that , because the virus is already widespread , containment will be impossible . As of April 27 , 2009 , all schools nationwide remained closed until at least May 6 . Health Minister Córdova noted that the number of new cases had declined during the three days : from 141 on Saturday to 119 on Sunday and 110 on Monday . It is unclear why there were more deaths in Mexico than in other areas , as there were multiple potential variables , such as a stronger strain of the virus or more exposure to it . No definite conclusion had been reached , however the CDC reported that swine flu viruses in the US and Mexico matched .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"2009_flu_pandemic_in_Mexico\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 70996\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial Emissions Directive Content: The Industrial Emissions Directive ( Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions ( integrated pollution prevention and control ) ) is a European Union directive which commits European Union member states to control and reduce the impact of industrial emissions on the environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_Emissions_Directive\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 70860\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meet Your Meat Content: Meet Your Meat is a 2002 documentary about factory farming created by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , narrated by Alec Baldwin , and directed by Bruce Friedrich and Cem Akin . The documentary explores the treatment of animals in modern animal agriculture ( also known as industrial agriculture or factory farming ) . The film runs 12 minutes long . The film documents several cases of cruelty to animals , including : Egg-laying hens live in crowded cages , six or seven hens to one battery cage the size of a file drawer . Cattle are castrated , their horns are removed and third-degree burns ( livestock branding ) are inflicted on them , all without anesthetic . Cows used for their milk have calves removed from them shortly after birth . These calves are sent to veal farms . Chickens bred and drugged to grow so quickly that their hearts , lungs , and limbs often ca n't keep up . Mother pigs ( sows ) are confined to gestation crates that are so small that the pigs can not turn around or even lie down . Chickens ' and turkeys ' beaks are burned or cut off without anesthetic . Meet Your Meat helped influence Burger King to adopt more humane policies .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Meet_Your_Meat\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 70742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandemic (miniseries) Content: Pandemic is a 2007 Hallmark Channel original mini-series with an ensemble cast . It premiered on Saturday , May 26 , 2007 at 8:00 PM as part of Hallmark Channel 's `` Uncharted Adventures '' weekend . It is now available on DVD through Hallmark Entertainment .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandemic_(miniseries)\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 70624\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 Content: The Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 is a bill that was introduced in the United States House of Representatives by Ron Paul ( R-Texas ) and Barney Frank ( D-Massachusetts ) on April 2 , 2009 . Also known as H.R. 1866 , the bill clarifies the differences between marijuana and industrial hemp as well as repeals federal laws that prohibit American farmers from cultivating industrial hemp . Industrial hemp is the non-psychoactive , low-THC , oilseed and fibers varieties of the cannabis sativa plant . Hemp is a sustainable resource that can be used to create thousands of different products including fuel , fabrics , paper , household products , and food and has been used for hundreds of centuries by civilizations around the world . If H.R. 1866 passes American farmers will be permitted to compete in global hemp markets . On March 10 , 2009 , both Paul and Frank wrote a letter to their Congressional colleagues urging them to support the legislation . This bill was previously introduced in 2005 under the title of Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_Hemp_Farming_Act_of_2009\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 70474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future food technology Content: New food technologies can offer solutions to malnutrition . According to the WHO ( World Healthcare Organization ) approximately 30 % of global population is malnourished . It is suggested that by 2020 the whole European Union will consume less food than China and India together .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_food_technology\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 70456\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandemic (comics) Content: Pandemic ( Richard Palance ) is a fictional supervillan in Marvel Comics who was first mentioned in X-Men vol . 2 # 188 ( 2006 ) and appeared in X-Men vol . 2 # 194 ( 2007 ) . He was created by Mike Carey and Humberto Ramos .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandemic_(comics)\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 70429\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dan James Pantone Content: Dan James Pantone is an American ecologist and conservationist with a Ph.D. from the University of California , Davis . A former professor at Texas A&M University , Dr. Pantone is a researcher who has published numerous refereed articles on agroecology and sustainable agriculture . In addition , he is a specialist in Geographical Information Systems ( GIS ) which he has used to help conserve endangered species . Dr. Pantone has established his broad experience in numerous scientific disciplines by publishing diverse articles ranging from the biological control of pests to the conservation biology of endangered species .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Dan_James_Pantone\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 70174\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandemic (film) Content: Pandemic is a 2016 American science fiction thriller film based on the eponymous board game directed by John Suits and written by Dustin T. Benson . Rachel Nichols stars as a doctor who leads a group to find survivors of a worldwide pandemic . The film is shot in a first-person POV , similar to first-person shooter video games .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandemic_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 69797\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooperation for a Green Future Content: Cooperation for a Green Future is a non-profit foundation in the Republic of Georgia working to identify and assess environmental problems , and develop and implement innovative solutions . Their work focuses on environmental issues within the context of physical and social processes and structures . The organization seeks to create and spread within the Georgian public a common vision for a socially progressive and ecologically sustainable society , identify potential pathways toward realizing this vision , and implement specific projects and tasks in this direction . Currently , the organization conducts projects to mitigate the effects of lead pollution , to encourage the use of public transport , and to facilitate the implementation of industrial ecology practices in Georgia .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooperation_for_a_Green_Future\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 69738\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (Queensland) Content: Agriculture and Fisheries is a department of the Queensland Government which aims to maximise the economic potential for Queensland 's primary industries on a sustainable basis through strategic industrial development . The unit was formerly known as the Department of Primary Industries which was established on 26 September 1963 .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Department_of_Agriculture,_Fisheries_and_Forestry_(Queensland)\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 69294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrielleneingabe Content: The Industrielleneingabe ( Industrial petition ) was a petition signed by twenty representatives of industry , finance , and agriculture on November 19 , 1932 , requesting that the President of Germany Paul von Hindenburg make Adolf Hitler the Chancellor of Germany . There had already been two similar attempts to assist the Nazi party in gaining control of the government , namely a petition by the Wirtschaftspolitischen Vereinigung Frankfurt ( Frankfurt Socioeconomic Union ) on July 27 , 1931 , and a declaration by 51 professors in July 1932 in Völkischer Beobachter . The idea for the Industrielleneingabe had emerged at the end of October 1932 in the Keppler-Kreis and was supported by Heinrich Himmler , who worked as a liaison to Brown House . The drafting of the letter was aided especially by Hjalmar Schacht , who was the only member of the Keppler-Kreis with any significant political experience . The Industrielleneingabe was first published in 1956 in the Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft and is used as evidence to support the idea that big business played a central role in the rise of the Nazi Party .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrielleneingabe\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 69253\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandemic (novel) Content: Pandemic is a 2014 science fiction thriller novel by Scott Sigler and the final novel in the Infected trilogy . The book was released in hardback , e-book , and audiobook on January 21 , 2014 through Crown Publishing and is set several years after the events in Contagious .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandemic_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 69214\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intensive farming Content: Intensive farming or intensive agriculture involves various types of agriculture with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area . It is characterised by a low fallow ratio , higher use of inputs such as capital and labour , and higher crop yields per unit land area . This contrasts with traditional agriculture , in which the inputs per unit land are lower . The term `` intensive '' involves various meanings , some of which refer to organic farming methods ( such as biointensive agriculture and French intensive gardening ) , and others that refer to nonorganic and industrial methods . Intensive animal farming involves either large numbers of animals raised on limited land , usually confined animal feeding operations ( CAFOs ) , often referred to as factory farms , or managed intensive rotational grazing ( MIRG ) , which has both organic and non-organic types . Both increase the yields of food and fiber per acre as compared to traditional animal husbandry . In CAFO , feed is brought to the seldom-moved animals , while in MIRG the animals are repeatedly moved to fresh forage . Most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways . Forms that rely especially heavily on industrial methods are often called industrial agriculture , which is characterised by innovations designed to increase yield . Techniques include planting multiple crops per year , reducing the frequency of fallow years , and improving cultivars . It also involves increased use of fertilizers , plant growth regulators , pesticides and mechanised agriculture , controlled by increased and more detailed analysis of growing conditions , including weather , soil , water , weeds and pests . This system is supported by ongoing innovation in agricultural machinery and farming methods , genetic technology , techniques for achieving economies of scale , logistics , and data collection and analysis technology . Intensive farms are widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide . Most of the meat , dairy , eggs , fruits and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced by such farms . Smaller intensive farms usually include higher inputs of labor and more often use sustainable intensive methods . The farming practices commonly found on such farms are referred to as appropriate technology . These farms are less widespread in both developed countries and worldwide , but are growing more rapidly . Most of the food available in specialty markets such as farmers markets is produced by these smallholder farms .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Intensive_farming\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 69113\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Museum of Industry and Agriculture Content: The Museum of Industry and Agriculture ( Muzeum Przemysłu i Rolnictwa ) is a former museum of technology at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66 in Warsaw , Poland .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Museum_of_Industry_and_Agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 69095\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ecological farming Content: Ecological farming is recognised as the high-end objective among the proponents of sustainable agriculture . Ecological farming is not the same as organic farming , however there are many similarities and they are not necessarily incompatible . Ecological farming includes all methods , including organic , which regenerate ecosystem services like : prevention of soil erosion , water infiltration and retention , carbon sequestration in the form of humus , and increased biodiversity . Many techniques are used including no till , multispecies cover crops , strip cropping , terrace cultivation , shelter belts , pasture cropping etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Ecological_farming\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 69071\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wild farming Content: The agricultural technique known as `` Wild Farming '' is a growing alternative to `` factory farming '' . Wild farming consists of planting crops that are highly associated and supportive to the natural ecosystem . This includes intercropping with native plants , following the contours and geography of the land , and supporting local food chains . The goal is to produce large crop yields , while still promoting a healthy environment . Wild farming is a backlash against the dominance of factory farming . Up until the mid 20th century , agricultural crop yields relied on natural inputs such as rainfall patterns , natural soil resources , recycling of organic matter , and built-in biological control mechanisms . Currently , agricultural practices have been conventionalized to include large monocropped fields and use of synthetics : pesticides and fertilizers . Avoiding the conventional farming practices , wild farming adopts many practices from sustainable agricultural systems such as agroecology , permaculture , forest farming , and greywater systems . The four basic guiding principles of the wild farming movement are : Direct managers to develop long-term vision for future of landscape Basic recognition of ecosystem processes . High value on biological diversity . To consider the quality of life of the community as well as the self .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Wild_farming\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 68988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandemic (South Park) Content: `` Pandemic '' is the tenth episode in the twelfth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 177th episode of the series overall , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on October 22 , 2008 . It is the first of a two-part episode . In the episode , the boys try to capitalize on a sudden rise in Peruvian flute bands , unwittingly becoming players in a demonic being 's plan to employ giant guinea pigs to attack the public . The storyline of this episode concludes in the next episode , `` Pandemic 2 : The Startling '' . The episode was written and directed by series co-creator Trey Parker .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandemic_(South_Park)\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 68959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soil conservation Content: Soil conservation is the preventing of soil loss from erosion or reduced fertility caused by over usage , acidification , salinization or other chemical soil contamination . Slash-and-burn and other unsustainable methods of subsistence farming are practiced in some lesser developed areas . A sequel to the deforestation is typically large scale erosion , loss of soil nutrients and sometimes total desertification . Techniques for improved soil conservation include crop rotation , cover crops , conservation tillage and planted windbreaks and affect both erosion and fertility . When plants , especially trees , die , they decay and become part of the soil . Code 330 defines standard methods recommended by the US Natural Resources Conservation Service . Farmers have practiced soil conservation for millennia .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Soil_conservation\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 68921\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Committee on Rural Economy, Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Environment Content: The Committee on Rural Economy Agriculture , Natural Resources and Environment is one of the Ten Permanent Committees of the Pan-African Parliament . Functions of the committee : Consider the development of common regional and continental policies in the agricultural sector . Assist the Parliament to oversee and assist with the harmonisation of policies for rural and agricultural development and promote the development policy and the implementation of programmes of the Union relating of natural resources and environment . The Chairperson of the Committee is Malik Hussein from Sudan . Louis Chimango from Malawi is Deputy Chairperson . Diop Hamdi Kalidou from Mauritania is Rapporteur . Rural Economy\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Committee_on_Rural_Economy,_Agriculture,_Natural_Resources,_and_Environment\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 68904\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Agreement Content: When the Climate Change Levy was introduced in the United Kingdom , the position of energy-intensive industries was considered , given their energy usage , the requirements of the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control regime and their exposure to international competition . As a result , a 65 % discount from the levy was allowed for those sectors that agreed targets for improving their energy efficiency or reducing carbon emissions . The discount on electricity increased to 90 % in 2013 . An ` energy-intensive ' sector is one which either carries out activities which are listed as Part A ( 1 ) or A ( 2 ) activities in Part 2 of Schedule 1 to the Environmental Permitting ( England and Wales ) Regulations 2010 ( Statutory Instrument 2010 No. 675 ) ( as amended ) , or that satisfies energy intensity criteria provided by the Department of Energy and Climate Change . The regulations cover the ten main energy-intensive sectors of industry ( aluminium , cement , ceramics , chemicals , food and drink , foundries , glass , non-ferrous metals , paper , and steel ) and over thirty smaller sectors , and in agriculture , livestock units for the intensive rearing of pigs and poultry .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Agreement\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 68850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Future of the American Negro Content: The Future of the American Negro , a book written in 1899 by American educator Booker T. Washington , set forth his ideas regarding the history of enslaved and freed African-American people and their need for education to advance themselves . It was re-published as a second edition in 1900 and was made available in electronic form in 2008 via Project Gutenberg . Background In the beginning of the book , the author mentions the term `` industrial education '' . Washington describes this term as meaning , learning the necessities to become a valuable member of society as well and being able to apply this knowledge to industrial business . He believes that even though slavery is illegal , the freed African-Americans are still enslaved to the white people . Those who are freed can not be members of society because they are not given the same opportunities . As the book continues , Booker T. Washington writes that in order to understand the stress he applies to industrial education , the reader must `` review the condition of affairs at the present time in the Southern States . '' He provides the information that the North and South are linked even though they were once at war . If the North can not provide education then the South will not provide it . Washington also states that the African-Americans are not superior , but that they are definitely not inferior to the white people . Slaves have had a hard time throughout their life in the United States . Their strength , knowledge , and perseverance has been tested by the white people that have run their lives for the longest time . Booker T. Washington asks , why should African-Americans have to prove themselves over and over when they have been proving themselves since they entered the country ? The author also reminds them that , `` An individual can not succeed unless that individual has a great amount of faith himself . '' African-Americans can have all the faith they want , but Washington argues that knowledge is needed to become useful members of society . Blacks have worked hard but will have to understand what they are working for . Throughout the book , Washington refers to Tuskegee , a university founded by himself and others . It was a historically black university in Tuskegee , Alabama . In The Future of an American Negro , Booker writes that the university is , `` placing men and women of intelligence , religion , modesty , conscience , and skill in every community in the South . '' Washington believes that Tuskegee University is providing the South with valuable members of society . In `` Chapter V '' , there is a reference to a study showing that some 3,000 graduates or students are doing `` commendable '' work in the Southern community . Near the end of the book , Washington describes the difference for freed slaves in the North and South . He reminds the reader that North has fewer employment option for black people which perpetuates the stress on the morals of an African-American . The South , however , having more opportunities for work and less stress on trying to do the right thing . He goes on to end the book with five principles that will aid African-Americans in their fight to have truly equal rights and opportunities . He states that these principle will be essential by saying , `` So long as the Negro is permitted to get education , acquire property , and secure employment , and is treated with respect in the business or commercials world , ... I shall have the greatest faith in his working out his own destiny in the Southern States . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Future_of_the_American_Negro\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 68600\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Prevented planting acreage Content: Prevented planting , under crop insurance , refers to acreage that can not be planted because of flood , drought , or other natural disaster and so is eligibor indemnification . Also , prevented planting acreage may be excluded from the time frame used for calculating support program base acres .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Prevented_planting_acreage\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 68562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates Content: The World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates ( WASDE ) is a monthly report published by the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) providing comprehensive forecast of supply and demand for major crops ( global and United States ) and livestock ( U.S. only ) . The report provides an analysis of the fundamental condition of the agricultural commodity markets for the use of farmers , governments and other market participants . The WASDE report is compiled using information from a number of statistical reports produced by the USDA and other government agencies . It is widely considered to be the benchmark to which all other private and public agricultural forecasts are compared . The recent releases of the WASDE report provide forecasts covering : Crops ( U.S. and global ) including wheat , rice , corn , sorghum , barley , oats , soybeans , cotton , and sugar . Livestock ( U.S. only ) including meat animals , poultry , and dairy . The WASDE report is generally released between the 8th and 12th of each month at 12:00 noon Eastern Time . It is available in electronic form ( as a PDF or text file ) and can be downloaded from the USDA website from the time of release . Subscription to the report can be made through the Albert R. Mann Library for delivery by e-mail shortly after release on the Internet . As a work of the United States government , the WASDE reports are released into the public domain in accordance with U.S. copyright law , .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Agricultural_Supply_and_Demand_Estimates\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 68437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Agriculture Market Content: e-NAM ( National Agricultural Market ) is a pan-India electronic trading portal launched by Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers ' Welfare , Govt of India , to facilitate farmers , traders , buyers , exporters and processors with a common platform for trading commodities . It currently links 250 APMCs ( Agriculture Produce Marketing Committees ) from across 10 states . The Portal is managed by Small Farmers ' Agribusiness Consortium ( SFAC ) appointed by the Ministry in association with a group of strategic partner selected for the purpose . Traders and exporters need to get themselves registered with the portal to access its services . 69 commodities including staple food grains , vegetables and fruits are currently listed in its list of commodities available for trade .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Agriculture_Market\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 68163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Farmers Undertake Environmental Land Stewardship Act Content: The Farmers Undertake Environmental Land Stewardship Act is a bill that would require the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) to modify the Spill Prevention , Control , and Countermeasure ( SPCC ) rule , which regulates oil discharges into navigable waters and adjoining shorelines . The rule requires certain farmers to develop an oil spill prevention plan that is certified by a professional engineer and may require them to make infrastructure changes . According to supporters , this bill would `` ease the burden placed on farmers and ranchers '' by making it easier for smaller farms to self-certify and raising the level of storage capacity under which farms are exempted . These rules apply to any storage units that contain oil , whether petroleum products or animal fats . The bill was introduced into the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Farmers_Undertake_Environmental_Land_Stewardship_Act\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 68145\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013 Content: The Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013 is a law enacted by the 113th United States Congress . The Act amends the Public Health Service Act in order to extend , fund , and improve several programs designed to prepare the United States and health professionals in the event of a pandemic , epidemic , or biological , chemical , radiological , or nuclear accident or attack . The Act clarifies the authority of different American officials , makes it easier to temporarily reassign personnel to respond to emergency situations , and alters the process for testing and producing medical countermeasures . The Act is focused on improving preparedness for any public health emergency .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandemic_and_All-Hazards_Preparedness_Reauthorization_Act_of_2013\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 68121\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: U.S. Farmers and Ranchers Alliance Content: The U.S. Farmers and Ranchers Alliance is an alliance of agriculture related advocacy groups and organizations that promote industrial agriculture in the United States . Their aim is to promote a positive image of modern agricultural practices . They are supported by checkoff funds from the United States Department of Agriculture and by cooperate donations . They have been criticized for not including organic agriculture , close ties with Big Ag , and underplaying the overuse of antibiotics in animal feed .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"U.S._Farmers_and_Ranchers_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 67877\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Small-scale agriculture Content: Small-scale agriculture is an alternative to factory farming or more broadly , intensive agriculture or unsustainable farming methods that are prevalent in primarily first world countries . It is sometimes identified with sustainable agriculture Environmental Health Perspectives has noted that `` Sustainable agriculture is not merely a package of prescribed methods . More important , it is a change in mind set whereby agriculture acknowledges its dependence on a finite natural resource base -- including the finite quality of fossil fuel energy that is now a critical component of conventional farming systems . '' Small-scale agriculture includes a number of sustainable agriculture practices such as : organic farming , which may follow rules and regulations set by International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements ( IFOAM ) permaculture , which provides a holistic methodology for farm design arable land use , arable land ( from Latin arare , to plough ) is a form of agricultural land use , meaning land that can be ( and is ) used for growing crops . David Ricardo incorporated the idea of arable land into economic theory . non-arable land use pastoral , pastoral refers to the lifestyle of shepherds and pastoralists , moving livestock around larger areas of land according to seasons and availability of water and feed . rainfed agriculture biodynamic agriculture was developed by Rudolf Steiner , which consists of using herbal and homeopathic preparations for the cow dung/manure that is used extensively on the crops for fertilizer . The methods of food sustainability and economics are hotly debated . This is a question between agricultural economics and the draining of the largely unaccounted natural capital .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Small-scale_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 67782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Influenza pandemic Content: An Influenza pandemic is an epidemic of an influenza virus that spreads on a worldwide scale and infects a large proportion of the world population . In contrast to the regular seasonal epidemics of influenza , these pandemics occur irregularly - there have been about 9 Influenza pandemics during the last 300 years . Pandemics can cause high levels of mortality , with the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic being the worst in recorded history - estimated to be responsible for the deaths of approximately 50-100 million people . There have been about three influenza pandemics in each century for the last 300 years , the most recent one being the 2009 flu pandemic . Influenza pandemics occur when a new strain of the influenza virus is transmitted to humans from another animal species . Species that are thought to be important in the emergence of new human strains are pigs , chickens and ducks . These novel strains are unaffected by any immunity people may have to older strains of human influenza and can therefore spread extremely rapidly and infect very large numbers of people . Influenza A viruses can occasionally be transmitted from wild birds to other species causing outbreaks in domestic poultry and may give rise to human influenza pandemics . The propagation of influenza viruses throughout the world is thought in part to be by bird migrations , though commercial shipments of live bird products might also be implicated , as well as human travel patterns . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) has produced a six-stage classification that describes the process by which a novel influenza virus moves from the first few infections in humans through to a pandemic . This starts with the virus mostly infecting animals , with a few cases where animals infect people , then moves through the stage where the virus begins to spread directly between people , and ends with a pandemic when infections from the new virus have spread worldwide . One strain of virus that may produce a pandemic in the future is a highly pathogenic variation of the H5N1 subtype of influenza A virus . On 11 June 2009 , a new strain of H1N1 influenza was declared to be a global pandemic ( Stage 6 ) by the WHO after evidence of spreading in the southern hemisphere . The 13 November 2009 worldwide update by the WHO stated that '' -LSB- a -RSB- s of 8 November 2009 , worldwide more than 206 countries and overseas territories or communities have reported -LSB- 503,536 -RSB- laboratory confirmed cases of pandemic influenza H1N1 2009 , including over 6,250 deaths . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Influenza_pandemic\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 67779\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Will's Future Content: Will 's Future is Taiwanese Mandopop artist Wilber Pan 's first Mandarin compilation album . It was released by Universal Music Taiwan on 18 July 2008 , between Will 's sixth album Play It Cool in 2007 and seventh album 007 in 2009 . The initial release contains two CDs and a bonus DVD with 12 music videos . It features three new tracks , two medley remixes and 29 previously released songs , from his debut album Gecko Stroll in 2002 to his sixth album Play It Cool in 2007 , as well as one track from Will Pan 's Freestyle Remix 2005 . The album is organized with dance tracks on CD one and ballads on CD two . One of the new tracks is the opening theme song , '' 夏日瘋 '' ( Summer Craze ) of 2008 Taiwanese drama Miss No Good , starring Will , Rainie Yang and Dean Fujioka . A second edition was released by Universal Music Taiwan on 24 October 2008 , Will 's Future ( Trend Expert Limited Edition ) ( 3 CD ) with a bonus CD containing insert song , '' 同一個遺憾 '' ( Same Regret ) by Wilber Pan and Blue J , and four instrumental tracks from Miss No Good . The track '' 夏日瘋 '' ( Summer Craze ) is listed at number 52 on Hit Fm Taiwan 's Hit Fm Annual Top 100 Singles Chart ( Hit-Fm年度百首單曲 ) for 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Will's_Future\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 67675\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Panjabrao Deshmukh Content: Panjabrao Shamrao Deshmukh ( Marathi : पंजाबराव शामराव देशमुख ) ( 27 December 1898 -- 10 April 1965 ) famously known as Bhausaheb Deshmukh was a social activist and a farmer 's leader in India . He was the Minister of Agriculture in the first cabinet of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in 1952 .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Panjabrao_Deshmukh\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 67396\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable Table Content: Sustainable Table was created in 2003 by the nonprofit organization GRACE to help consumers understand the problems with our food supply and offer viable solutions and alternatives from sustainable agriculture . Rather than be overwhelmed by the problems created by our industrial agricultural system , Sustainable Table celebrates the joy of food and eating from sustainable food systems . Today 's dominant form of agriculture relies on synthetic fertilizers and chemical pesticides , large amounts of water , major transportation systems and factory-style practices for raising livestock and crops . Artificial hormones in milk , antibiotic-resistant bacteria , mad cow disease , and large-scale outbreaks of potentially deadly E. coli are all associated with this industrial form of food production . Sustainable agriculture involves food production methods that are healthy , do not harm the environment , respect workers , are humane to animals , provide fair wages to farmers , and support farming communities . But rather than focus on the problems , Sustainable Table promotes the positive shift toward local , small-scale sustainable farming . The program is home to the Eat Well Guide , an online directory of sustainable products in the U.S. and Canada , and the critically acclaimed , award-winning Meatrix movies - The Meatrix , The Meatrix II : Revolting and The Meatrix II 1/2 . Sustainable Table celebrates local sustainable food , educates consumers on food-related issues and works to build community through food .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_Table\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 67321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: State Agricultural Farm Content: __ NOTOC __ A State Agricultural Farm ( Państwowe Gospodarstwo Rolne , PGR ) was a form of collective farming in the People 's Republic of Poland , similar to Soviet sovkhoz and to the East German Volkseigenes Gut . They were created in 1949 as a form of socialist ownership of agricultural land by the government . They were primarily formed on the Regained Territories - lands that Poland acquired from Germany after the Second World War - but existed throughout Poland . Some farms took over farms of monasteries , e.g. in Szczyrzyc , see the picture . Relatively inefficient and subsidized by the government , most PGRs went bankrupt quickly after the fall of communism and adoption of a market economy by Poland . The state run many specialised farms , which bred and trained horses ( especially Arabians , e.g. Bask ) , bred cows , fishes , produced certified seed and potatoes . Some of the farms were state ones before the World War II . Many of the specialised farms still exist , controlled by the Agricultural Property Agency . Farms were created primarily on the basis of the earlier estates . Many of these households was founded on the Regained Territories . Low efficiency of work and extensive social benefits for workers in many cases led to disastrous management with low productivity , causing state deficit . After moving to the market economy under the Act of October 19 , 1991 on agricultural property of the Treasury collective farms were liquidated and their assets were taken over by the Agricultural Property Agency of the Treasury ( now Agricultural Property Agency ) , and their workers - 300 to 450 thousand people - joined the ranks of the unemployed . Households that have not been sold or leased were administered by the Agency of the State Treasury and managed by administrators appointed by the Agency . Then sought to sell or lease property holdings and the accompanying holdings , such as apartments , holiday resorts , etc. . The social base has also been a sale of land to individual farmers . The weakest part of the land remained undeveloped for several years . The process of selling and leasing land societies and social services continues . Liquidation of state-owned farms has often been restricted , or permanent abandonment of animal husbandry , crop production limitation , changes in farming methods . This led to a drastic reduction of jobs and the resulting wide range of local problems ; in many regions , PGR were the only employer , the new owners after restructuring usually significantly reduced the employment . State-owned farms were very often the organizers of social life , and theoretically adequately met all the needs of workers . Their downfall has often caused damage to the structure of the local communities , which were not adapted to the new situation of economic activity . It has also devastated the property - partly as a result of theft , partly because of the lack of elementary security . On 22 July 2008 in Bolegorzyn , near Złocieniec a museum of the State Farms was opened .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"State_Agricultural_Farm\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 67308\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Agriculture in Connecticut Content: Agriculture played a major role in the early growth of Connecticut as one of the original 13 colonies that would form the United States of America , particularly in the Connecticut River valley which provided fertile soil , temperate climate and easy access to markets . As the Industrial Revolution helped focus capital on mercantile centers in the 19th century , Connecticut farmers over time ceded their relative economic and political influence . In the 21st century , farming remains a relatively small but still significant industry in Connecticut , employing some 12,000 people as of 2010 . Ending years of steady declines , between 2002 and 2012 the number of Connecticut farms increased 43 percent , with one possible cause an increased consumer appetite for locally sourced food , drawing some younger people to start up small farms . Connecticut had nearly 6,000 farms with 437,000 acres of land as of 2012 , producing $ 551 million in revenue that year . In 2012 , the total value of Connecticut farmland and buildings was $ 4.4 billion , down 3.5 % from 2011 . Connecticut farms received $ 141 million in federal subsidies between 1995 and 2012 , including commodity programs , conservation payments , crop insurance , and disaster aid , ranking it 45th of the 50 states .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Agriculture_in_Connecticut\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 67175\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pan African School of Theology Content: Pan African School of Theology ( PAST ) is an evangelical theological college located in Nyahururu , Kenya . PAST is a globally significant entity as the first academic institution in the world solely dedicated to engaging men and women of African descent in scholarly dialogue over Pan-African issues in theology and ethnic teleology from a Biblical perspective .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pan_African_School_of_Theology\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 67152\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Baikampady Content: Baikampady is a place north of Panambur in Dakshina Kannada district . It is at 6 km from Surathkal.There is an industrial estate , where many small scale industries are located . The Baikampadi industrial estate has many electrical , engineering , leaf spring , hollow blocks and pharmaceutical industries . It serves nearby New Mangalore port ( NMPT ) , Mangalore Fertilizers and Mangalore petroleum refinery ( MRPL ) . There is market yard for agriculture produce ( APMC ) built few years ago is lying unutilised . Very famous Sri Ram Mandir kodical is also located in baikampady .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Baikampady\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 67043\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of pig farming Content: The environmental impact of pig farming refers to the threats posed to the natural environment by large-scale pig farming . Industrial pig farming , a subset of concentrated animal feeding operations , poses numerous threats to the environment . CAFOs house thousands of swine and other farm animals in confined areas , where feces and waste often spread to surrounding neighborhoods , polluting air and water with toxic waste particles . Waste from these farms have the potential to carry pathogens , bacteria ( often antibiotic resistant ) , and heavy metals that can be toxic when ingested . Pig waste also contributes to groundwater pollution in the forms of groundwater seepage and waste spray , which is essentially the usage of a sprinkler to spray vats of pig waste into neighboring areas . The contents in the spray and waste drift have been shown to cause mucosal irritation , respiratory ailment , increased stress , decreased quality of life , and higher blood pressure . This improper way to get rid of waste is an attempt for CAFOs to be cost efficient . This presents an environmental injustice problem , since the communities do not receive any benefit from the operations , and instead , suffer negative externalities , such as pollution and health problems . The Agriculture and Consumer Health Department has stated explicitly that the `` main direct environmental impact of pig production is related to the manure produced .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_pig_farming\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 66995\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 66876\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pesticide Action Network Content: Pesticide Action Network ( PAN ) is `` an international coalition of around 600 NGOs , citizens ' groups , and individuals in about 60 countries . '' PAN is involved in fighting problems caused by pesticide use , and advocates ecologically sound alternatives . Branches include PAN North America , U. K. , Germany , Mexico , Asia and Pacific , and Africa . In November 2010 , PAN publicized a leaked Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) memo that showed that the EPA suspected the crop spray clothianidin , manufactured by German agrochemical company Bayer , as a possible cause of bee colony collapse disorder . This pesticide has a conditional approval in the U. S. , where it is widely used on sugar beets , canola , soy , sunflowers , wheat , and corn , In December 2010 , PAN North America joined with other organizations in suing California , to challenge `` the state 's approval of the cancer-causing strawberry pesticide methyl iodide . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pesticide_Action_Network\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 66832\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alberto Cárdenas Content: Alberto Cárdenas Jiménez ( born April 4 , 1958 in Zapotlán el Grande , Jalisco ) is a Mexican politician affiliated with the conservative National Action Party ( PAN ) . He is a former governor of Jalisco , and Secretary of Agriculture in the cabinet of Felipe Calderón ( 1 December 2006 - 7 September 2009 ) . In 2006 he was elected to the Senate for PAN , representing the state of Jalisco , with his term running until 2012 . Cárdenas received a bachelor 's degree in Industrial Engineering from the Ciudad Guzmán Technological Institute and both a master 's degree in Business Planning and Ph.D. in Industrial Engineering from the Polytechnical University of Madrid , in Spain . He was the mayor of Ciudad Guzmán from 1992 until 1994 and served as governor of Jalisco from 1995 until 2001 . After leaving the post he was appointed general director of the National Forestry Commission . From 2003 until 2005 he headed the Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources in the cabinet of Vicente Fox . On July 7 , 2005 he was formally registered in the presidential primary election of the National Action Party . He competed for the nomination with former fellow cabinet members Santiago Creel and Felipe Calderón , but ultimately lost to Calderón . In the general election of July 2 , 2006 , he was elected to the Senate for the PAN , representing the state of Jalisco . Cárdenas is married to Joann Novoa Mossberger and has three children : Andrea , Alberto and Álvaro .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Alberto_Cárdenas\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 66818\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Could not care less Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Could_not_care_less\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 66695\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial Scars Content: Industrial Scars is an environmental photography project by J Henry Fair , which explores the detritus of our consumer society , through large-scale aerial photo shoots and accompanying documentary research . Industrial Scars subjects range from oil drilling and coal ash waste to large-scale agricultural production and abandoned mining operations . In small airplanes , Fair circles above industrial areas and photographs with a bird 's eye perspective the effects these operations have on our environment . Topics of particular interest to Fair include the global warming process , environmental pollution , and habitat destruction - all of which are illustrated in Fair 's photographs . With his photos , Fair has called attention to environmental and political problems in different regions of the world . Fair has had touring photography exhibits in the USA , Europe , and Asia . Additionally , he travels around the world , giving environmental symposia to teach audiences about consumer responsibility and environmental awareness . Images from the Industrial Scars series have been published in National Geographic Magazine , TIME Magazine , New York Magazine , and were featured on the TODAY Show .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_Scars\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 66374\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology Content: Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology also known as GBPUA&T , Pantnagar University or Pantvarsity is the first agricultural university of India . It was inaugurated by Jawaharlal Nehru on 17 November 1960 as the `` Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University '' ( UPAU ) . Later the name was changed to `` Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology '' in 1972 in memory of the first Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh , statesman and Bharat Ratna recipient Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant . The University was declared as the best among all the other State Universities in India , in 1997 . The University lies in the campus-town of Pantnagar in the district of Udham Singh Nagar in the state of Uttarakhand . The university is regarded as the harbinger of Green Revolution in India .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"G._B._Pant_University_of_Agriculture_and_Technology\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 66263\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regenerative agriculture Content: Regenerative agriculture is an approach to food and farming systems that regenerates topsoil and enhances biodiversity now and long into the future . Regenerative Agriculture improves water cycles , enhances ecosystem services , increases resilience to climate fluctuation and strengthens the health and vitality of farming and ranching communities . Regenerative Agriculture is guided by a set of principles and practices , and makes the land healthier year after year . In this way it is based on outcomes , not practices , distinguishing it from most sustainable and conservation agriculture efforts . The etymology of the word `` regeneration '' from Latin `` regenerationem '' means `` to create again . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Regenerative_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 66223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_Evolution\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 65924\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrialisation Content: Industrialisation or industrialization is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial one , involving the extensive re-organisation of an economy for the purpose of manufacturing . As industrial workers ' incomes rise , markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds tend to expand and provide a further stimulus to industrial investment and economic growth .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrialisation\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 65468\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandeli Cale Content: Pandeli Cale ( 1879 -- 1923 ) was one of the signatories of Albanian Declaration of Independence , who subsequently served as Minister of Agriculture in the Provisional Government of Albania .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandeli_Cale\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 65444\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: DreDDup discography Content: The discography of the Serbian industrial rock band dreDDup comprises seven studio albums , one live albums , one video album , and twenty music videos . The band released their debut album , Mr Borndeads Feast in 2004 , after the release of the compact cassette Abnormal Waltz , recorded in 1998 . With the release of the band 's second studio album , Future Porn Machine , the band abolished the early mainstream concept , and turned towards industrial rock music . However , it was on the followup , El Conquistadors , that the band found their own musical style and expression , an artistically oriented industrial rock , captured live on the Live in 219 , also found on the third studio album El Conquistadors , released in 2009 . In 2009 , the band released the Industrial Renaissance DVD featuring the live recording of the 2007 Belgrade performance , and all the music videos the band had made throughout their career . Their fourth release was self-titled dreDDup ( album ) released for dPulse in 2011 . Soon after that one , band announced the last album to be ` Nautilus ' . After it was released in 2012 , the band soon went silent on studio work . Surprisingly in 2014 , they presented ' I Dreamt of a Dragon ' , their sixth studio album which contained more commercial sound . In early 2016 . band came back with another release - their seventh studio album ` DeathOven ( Rebels Have no Kings ) ' . They are currently working on their next record .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"DreDDup_discography\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 65389\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial slave Content: An industrial slave is a type of slave who typically worked in an industrial setting . These slaves often had work that was more dangerous than agricultural slaves .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_slave\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 65202\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sandy Kemper Content: Alexander Sandy Kemper ( born June 18 , 1965 ) is an American entrepreneur , known for being founder and board chairman of Agriculture Future of America , founder of Education , Inc. , chairman of Global Trading Web Association , founder of The Collector 's Fund , and founder and CEO Perfect Commerce , formerly known as eScout .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Sandy_Kemper\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 65143\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Panduranga Hegde Content: Panduranga Hegde is an environmentalist from Uttara Kannada district , Karnataka , India and is known as the person who started Appiko movement to protect trees in Western Ghats .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Panduranga_Hegde\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 65138\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial Commission Content: The Industrial Commission was a United States government body in existence from 1898 to 1902 . It was appointed by President William McKinley to investigate railroad pricing policy , industrial concentration , and the impact of immigration on labor markets , and make recommendations to the President and Congress . McKinley and the Commissioners launched the trust-busting era . The Industrial Commission included McKinley 's Ohio running mate , Commissioner Andrew L. Harris ( a Governor of Ohio and Civil War General ) who served as Chair of the Agriculture Subcommittee , and prominent Senators and Congressmen . After McKinley was assassinated in 1901 , President Theodore Roosevelt heeded the advice of the Commissioners and further regulated the large trusts . Roosevelt became known as the nation 's toughest trust-buster .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_Commission\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 65066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Panayikulam Content: Panayikulam is a small village which falls in the Alangad Grama Panchayat , Paravur Taluk , Kerala , India . A nice place to live in , easily accessible to Aluva Railway Station at 7 km , Nedumbassery International Airport 10 km and the Kochi City at 15 km . It is a preferred residential locality due to its proximity to the industrial areas , viz Binanipuram , Eloor and Kalamassery , where major factories like FACT , HMT , HIL , TCC , Binani , CMRL etc. , are situated . Can commute on daily basis to the InfoPark , Kochi which is almost 12 km away . The place is providing its residents with pure water with no salinity in it and plain beautiful land very close to the Periyar River . The people here mainly rely on agriculture . Panayikulam is well known for the cultivation of Snap Melon ( Pottuvellari ) . Panayikulam is home to a lot of Non Resident Indians .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Panayikulam\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 65043\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ACC Loan Management Content: ACC Loan Management Limited , formerly ACCBank plc , was formerly a commercial bank in Ireland that focused on agriculture and SME lending , and is now a company that focusses on managing the lending facilities of its existing clients . The bank had its origins in the Agricultural Credit Corporation ( Corparáid an Chairde Talmhaíochta ) set up in 1927 in the Irish Free State to finance agriculture ; the bank was successful and led to the creation of the Industrial Credit Company , which was modelled on it and provided finance to industry . In the early 1990s , the company name was changed from `` Agricultural Credit Corporation plc '' to `` ACCBank plc '' in order to signify that the company was now targeting more than simply agricultural customers . In early 2002 , the bank was sold by the Irish Government to Rabobank , it is now one of the three entities of the Rabobank ( Ireland ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"ACC_Loan_Management\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 64984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Agroindustrial Content: Agroindustrial ( -LSB- aɡroïdustriˈaw -RSB- , `` place for agriculture and manufacturer '' ) is a bairro in the District of Sede in the municipality of Santa Maria , in the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul . It is located in west Santa Maria .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Agroindustrial\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 64896\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005 Content: The Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005 was a bill introduced as H.R. 3037 in the United States House of Representatives on June 22 , 2005 . The bill proposes `` to amend the Controlled Substances Act to exclude industrial hemp from the definition of marihuana , and for other purposes '' . Submitted by Ron Paul , Pete Stark , Jim McDermott and Raul Grijalva , the bill was referred to the Committee on Energy and Commerce and the United States House Committee on the Judiciary . On July 1 , 2005 , Energy and Commerce referred the bill to the Subcommittee on Health . H.R. 3037 was not passed , and would need to be reintroduced before a second vote could take place . In 2009 Ron Paul ( R-Texas ) and Barney Frank ( D-Massachusetts ) proposed H.R. 1866 , commonly known as the Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 , urging fellow legistors to reconsider the definition of marijuana .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_Hemp_Farming_Act_of_2005\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 64869\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Agriculture in Nepal Content: In Nepal , the economy is dominated by agriculture . In the late 1980s , it was the livelihood for more than 90 percent of the population , although only approximately 20 percent of the total land area was cultivable , it accounted for , on average , about 60 percent of the GDP and approximately 75 percent of exports . Since the formulation of the Fifth Five-Year Plan ( 1975 -- 80 ) , agriculture has been the highest priority because economic growth was dependent on both increasing the productivity of existing crops and diversifying the agricultural base for use as industrial inputs . According to the World Bank , agriculture is the main source of food , income , and employment for the majority . In trying to increase agricultural production and diversify the agricultural base , the government focused on irrigation , the use of fertilizers and insecticides , the introduction of new implements and new seeds of high-yield varieties , and the provision of credit . The lack of distribution of these inputs , as well as problems in obtaining supplies , however , inhibited progress . Although land reclamation and settlement were occurring in the Terai Region , environmental degradation and ecological imbalance resulting from deforestation also prevented progress . Although new agricultural technologies helped increase food production , there still was room for further growth . Past experience indicated bottlenecks , however , in using modern technology to achieve a healthy growth . The conflicting goals of producing cash crops both for food and for industrial inputs also were problematic .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Agriculture_in_Nepal\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 64848\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Africa's Children-Africa's Future Content: Africa 's Children-Africa 's Future ( AC-AF ) was founded in 2006 and was recognized as a registered charity in 2009 . The organization conducted programming in Canada and Tanzania to encourage the empowerment of children and youth in response to the various challenges posed by the AIDS pandemic . AC-AF 's programming offered grassroots responses and sustainable solutions to build , strengthen and support community resources . Due to significant reforms in funding opportunities , the organization was forced to close its doors in 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Africa's_Children-Africa's_Future\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 64777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pan Britannica Industries Content: Pan Britannica Industries Ltd ( PBI ) was a small company which had 400 employees . It was a household and agrochemical formulation company based at Britannica House , Stewardstone Road , Waltham Cross and with a distribution presence in Wisbech in Cambridgeshire . PBI was , in common with many other UK household names , both a manufacturer and marketing organisation for both agricultural and horticultural products . PBI produced many agro-chemical formulations that were popular with farmers in many parts of the globe . However It was best known for its product Baby Bio , a liquid plant food that came in a notable small perfume-shaped bottle . Other major products by PBI are the Expert range of books , such as the Garden Expert , House Plant Expert , Greenhouse Expert etc. written by , Dr D.G. Hessayon , who later became chairman of PBI . The motto of these books is `` Easy-to-follow advice and information you can trust '' . With this in mind they are colourful , informative , and contain accurate product information and literature . The Company adopted this approach throughout all its products and brands . Such an approach was in no small way attributable to Dr. Hessayon , who was highly regarded within and outside both Agriculture and Horticulture , for many years . The company was sold to the Sumitomo corporation in the late eighties , but continued to be run largely by the same management . It is now part of the Bayer Corporation , which markets the best of its brands . The Waltham Abbey site has been redeveloped into a housing estate . There is still a presence in Waltham Cross called PBI Home & Garden Ltd in the same building , now renamed Durkan house . Similar UK operations were run by ICI Agriculture , Murphy Chemical Co , Allbright & Wilson ( Farm Protection ) , Shell Chemical Company , BP and Fisons . Some small scale horticultural products were also packaged at the Waltham Abbey plant , including Draza Slug Pellets for Bayer Agriculture ( now owner of the Bio Trade Mark ) . Companies such as Elanco , DuPont , Rohm & Haas and Stauffer actually manufactured , packaged , and labelled the vast majority of Chemical marketed by PBI . Many of the products which PBI marketed gave it , a very small player , a strong market presence on the global agrochemicals scene . Due to legislation , many of the products have been discontinued in the west due to long-term human health issues , but were considered safe and manufactured by other companies around the world . Now only the benign formulas like Baby Bio have continued availability . Dr Hessayon still writes Expert books but these are now published by Transworld .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pan_Britannica_Industries\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 64752\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Farming (disambiguation) Content: Farming or Agriculture is the practice of cultivating crops , livestock or fungi on a farm . Animal farming , the cultivation of livestock Intensive animal farming , aka factory farming Fish farming , raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures Fungus farming , the process of producing food , medicine , and other products by the farming of mushrooms and other fungi Horticulture , the cultivation of plants Crop farming Farming may also refer to : Baby farming , a practice in Victorian Britain involving the taking-in of an infant or child for payment Tax farming , the privatization of tax collection Farming , Minnesota\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Farming_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 64658\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pandemic Preparedness and Response Act Content: The Pandemic Preparedness and Response Act is a bill introduced on October 5 , 2005 by U.S. Senators Harry Reid , Evan Bayh , Dick Durbin , Ted Kennedy , Barack Obama , and Tom Harkin in response to the growing threat of an outbreak of avian influenza . The bill calls for : Preparing for a pandemic by finalizing , implementing and funding pandemic preparedness and response plans . Improving surveillance and international partnerships to monitor the spread of avian flu and detect the emergence of a flu strain with pandemic potential immediately . Protecting Americans through the development , production and distribution of an effective vaccine . Planning ahead for a pandemic by stockpiling antivirals , vaccines and other essential medications and supplies . Strengthening the public health infrastructure . Increasing awareness and education about pandemic flu . Devoting adequate resources to pandemic preparedness . `` This bill never became law . This bill was proposed in a previous session of Congress . Sessions of Congress last two years , and at the end of each session all proposed bills and resolutions that have n't passed are cleared from the books . Members often reintroduce bills that did not come up for debate under a new number in the next session . ... Sometimes the text of one bill or resolution is incorporated into another , and in those cases the original bill or resolution , as it would appear here , would seem to be abandoned . '' ( http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=s109-1821 )\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pandemic_Preparedness_and_Response_Act\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 64607\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pollution haven hypothesis Content: The pollution haven hypothesis posits that , when large industrialized nations seek to set up factories or offices abroad , they will often look for the cheapest option in terms of resources and labor that offers the land and material access they require . However , this often comes at the cost of environmentally sound practices . Developing nations with cheap resources and labor tend to have less stringent environmental regulations , and conversely , nations with stricter environmental regulations become more expensive for companies as a result of the costs associated with meeting these standards . Thus , companies that choose to physically invest in foreign countries tend to ( re ) locate to the countries with the lowest environmental standards or weakest enforcement .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Pollution_haven_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 64605\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bohdan Dobrzański Institute of Agrophysics Content: The Bohdan Dobrzański Institute of Agrophysics of the Polish Academy of Sciences ( IA PAS , Instytut Agrofizyki im . Bohdana Dobrzańskiego Polskiej Akademii Nauk , IA PAN ) is a public research and higher education institution dedicated to the study of agrophysics , agricultural sciences and research on physical problems of agriculture . The Institute publishes two English-language scientific journals , the quarterly Acta Agrophysica ( since 1993 ) and the semi-annual Polish Journal of Soil Science ( since 1968 ) . The Institute promotes agrophysics as a part of agricultural sciences that uses knowledge and methods of basic sciences such as physics , biology and chemistry for solving contemporary problems in agronomy . It develops new methods , experimental and numerical tools , products , and technological and service innovations for agriculture and for exploitation of the agricultural resources . The Institute is funded by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education . It is located in Lublin , Poland . Its email addresses include sekretariat@ipan.lublin.pl and agrof@demeter.ipan.lublin.pl . Its telephone numbers include ( 48 81 ) 744 50 61 ( to 66 ) , and its facsimile line is ( 48 81 ) 744 50 67 .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Bohdan_Dobrzański_Institute_of_Agrophysics\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 64527\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Our Common Future Content: __ NOTOC __ Our Common Future , also known as the Brundtland Report , from the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development ( WCED ) was published in 1987 . Its targets were multilateralism and interdependence of nations in the search for a sustainable development path . The report sought to recapture the spirit of the Stockholm Conference - which had introduced environmental concerns to the formal political development sphere . Our Common Future placed environmental issues firmly on the political agenda ; it aimed to discuss the environment and development as one single issue . The document was the culmination of a `` 900-day '' international-exercise which catalogued , analysed , and synthesised : written submissions and expert testimony from `` senior government representatives , scientists and experts , research institutes , industrialists , representatives of non-governmental organizations , and the general public '' held at public hearings throughout the world . The Brundtland Commission 's mandate was to : `` re-examine the critical issues of environment and development and to formulate innovative , concrete , and realistic action proposals to deal with them ; strengthen international cooperation on environment and development and to assess and propose new forms of cooperation that can break out of existing patterns and influence policies and events in the direction of needed change ; and raise the level of understanding and commitment to action on the part of individuals , voluntary organizations , businesses , institutes , and governments '' ( 1987 : 347 ) . `` The Commission focused its attention in the areas of population , food security , the loss of species and genetic resources , energy , industry , and human settlements - realizing that all of these are connected and can not be treated in isolation one from another '' The Brundtland Commission Report recognised that human resource development in the form of poverty reduction , gender equity , and wealth redistribution was crucial to formulating strategies for environmental conservation , and it also recognised that environmental-limits to economic growth in industrialised and industrialising societies existed . The Brundtland Report claimed that poverty reduces sustainability and accelerates environmental pressures -- creating a need for the balancing between economy and ecology . As such , the Report offered `` -LSB- the -RSB- analysis , the broad remedies , and the recommendations for a sustainable course of development '' within such societies ( 1987 : 16 ) . However , the Report was unable to identify the mode ( s ) of production that are responsible for degradation of the environment , and in the absence of analysing the principles governing market-led economic growth , the Report postulated that such growth could be reformed ( and expanded ) ; this lack of analysis resulted in an obfuscated-introduction of the term sustainable development . The publication of Our Common Future and the work of the World Commission on Environment and Development laid the groundwork for the convening of the 1992 Earth Summit and the adoption of Agenda 21 , the Rio Declaration and to the establishment of the Commission on Sustainable Development . An oft-quoted definition of sustainable development is defined in the report as : `` development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs . '' In addition , key contributions of Our Common Future to the concept of sustainable development include the recognition that the many crises facing the planet are interlocking crises that are elements of a single crisis of the whole and of the vital need for the active participation of all sectors of society in consultation and decisions relating to sustainable development . Our Common Future is also known as the Brundtland Report in recognition of former Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland 's role as Chair of the World Commission on Environment and Development .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Our_Common_Future\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 64371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Green industrial policy Content: Green industrial policy ( GIP ) is strategic government policy that attempts to accelerate the development and growth of green industries to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Natural scientists warn that immediate action must be taken to lower greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change . Social scientists argue that the mitigation of climate change requires state intervention and governance reform . Thus , governments use GIP to address the economic , political , and environmental issues of climate change . GIP is conducive to sustainable economic , institutional , and technological transformation . It goes beyond the free market economic structure to address market failures and commitment problems that hinder sustainable investment . Effective GIP builds political support for carbon regulation which is necessary to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Several governments use different types of GIP that lead to various outcomes . GIP and industrial policy are similar , although GIP has unique challenges and goals . GIP faces the particular challenge of reconciling economic and environmental issues . It deals with a high uncertainty of green investment profitability . Furthermore , it addresses the reluctance of industry to invest in green development , and it helps current governments influence future climate policy . GIP offers opportunities for energy transition to renewables and a low-carbon economy . A large challenge for climate policy is a lack of industry and public support . GIP creates benefits that attract support for sustainability . It can create strategic niche management and generate a `` green spiral '' , or a process of feedback that combines industrial interests with climate policy . GIP can protect employees in emerging and declining industries , which leads to political support for other climate policy . Carbon pricing , sustainable energy transitions , and decreases in greenhouse gas emissions have higher chances of success as political support increases . GIP faces many risks . Some risks include poor government choices about which industries to support ; political capture of economic policy ; wasted resources ; ineffective action to combat climate change ; poor policy design that lacks policy objectives and exit strategies ; trade disputes ; and coordination failure . Strategic steps can be taken to manage the risks of GIP . Some include public and private sector communication , transparency , and accountability ; policy with clear objectives , evaluation techniques and exit strategies ; policy learning and policy experimentation ; green rent management ; strong institutions ; and a free press . Governments in various countries , states , provinces , territories , and cities use different types of green industrial policy . Distinct policy instruments lead to several outcomes . Examples include sunrise and sunset policies , subsidies , research and development , local content requirements , feed-in tariffs , tax credits , export restrictions , consumer mandates , green public procurement rules , and renewable portfolio standards .\",\n \"qid\": \"137\",\n \"docid\": \"Green_industrial_policy\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 64325\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":67,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"As a result, half of the people surveyed around the world last year said they thought climate change would make humanity extinct."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"138","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":1,"score":140033},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"138","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":2,"score":126450},{"content":"Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"138","docid":"Lee_Hannah","rank":3,"score":118670},{"content":"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .","qid":"138","docid":"Future_of_Earth","rank":4,"score":118135},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"138","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":5,"score":118019},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"138","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":6,"score":114286},{"content":"Title: Climate change opinion by country Content: Climate change opinion is the aggregate of public opinion held by the adult population . Cost constraints often restrict surveys to sample only one or two countries from each continent or focus on only one region . Because of differences among questions , wording , and methods -- it is difficult to reliably compare results or to generalize them to opinions held worldwide . In 2007 -- 2008 , the Gallup Poll surveyed individuals from 128 countries in the first comprehensive study of global opinions . The Gallup Organization aggregated opinion from the adult population fifteen years of age and older , either through the telephone or personal interviews , and in both rural and urban areas except in areas where the safety of interviewer was threatened and in scarcely populated islands . Personal interviews were stratified by population size or geography and cluster sampling was achieved through one or more stages . Although error bounds vary , they were all below ± 6 % with 95 % confidence . Weighting countries to a 2008 World Bank population estimate , sixty-one percent of individuals worldwide were aware of global warming , developed countries more aware than developing , with Africa the least aware . The median of people perceiving it as a threat was 47 % . Latin America and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change was a result of human activities , while Africa , parts of Asia and the Middle East , and countries from the Former Soviet Union led in the opposite . Awareness often translates to concern , although of those aware , individuals in Europe and developed countries in Asia perceived global warming as a greater threat than others .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_opinion_by_country","rank":7,"score":113123},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"138","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":8,"score":111587},{"content":"Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .","qid":"138","docid":"Human_extinction","rank":9,"score":111225},{"content":"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''","qid":"138","docid":"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change","rank":10,"score":108933},{"content":"Title: What a Way to Go: Life at the End of Empire Content: What A Way To Go : Life at the End of Empire is a 2007 documentary film about the current situation facing humanity and the world . It discusses issues such as peak oil , climate change and the effects of global warming , population overshoot and species extinction , as well as how this situation has developed . The documentary features supporting data and interviews of Daniel Quinn , environmental activist Derrick Jensen and academics such as Richard Heinberg and many others . The tagline of the documentary is , `` A middle-class white guy comes to grips with Peak Oil , Climate Change , Mass Extinction , Population Overshoot and the demise of the American lifestyle . ''","qid":"138","docid":"What_a_Way_to_Go:_Life_at_the_End_of_Empire","rank":11,"score":106130},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"138","docid":"Global_warming","rank":12,"score":105988},{"content":"Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .","qid":"138","docid":"Stockholm_Memorandum","rank":13,"score":105484},{"content":"Title: Extinction risk from global warming Content: The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .","qid":"138","docid":"Extinction_risk_from_global_warming","rank":14,"score":104751},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .","qid":"138","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations","rank":15,"score":104535},{"content":"Title: Genyornis Content: Genyornis newtoni was a large , flightless bird that lived in Australia . Over two metres in height , they were likely either omnivorous or herbivorous . They became extinct 30 ± 5 thousand years ago . Many other species became extinct in Australia around that time , coinciding with the arrival of humans . Their closest living relatives are fowl . Two main theories propose a cause for megafauna extinction - human impact and climate change . A study has been performed in which more than 700 Genyornis eggshell fragments were dated . Through this , it was determined that Genyornis declined and became extinct over a short period -- too short for it to be plausibly explained by climate change . The authors considered this to be a very good indication that the entire mass extinction event in Australia was due to human activity , rather than climate change . A 2015 study collected egg shell fragments of Genyornis from around 200 sites that show burn marks . Analysis of amino acids in the egg shells showed a thermal gradient consistent with the egg being placed on an ember fire . The egg shells were dated to between 53.9 and 43.4 thousand years before present , suggesting that humans were collecting and cooking Genyornis eggs in the thousands of years before their extinction . A later study , however , suggests that the eggs actually belogned to Progura , a genus of giant megapodes . In May 2010 , archaeologists announced the rediscovery of an Aboriginal rock art painting , possibly 40,000 years old , at the Nawarla Gabarnmung rock art site in the Northern Territory , that depicts two of the birds in detail . Late survival of Genyornis in temperate south west Victoria has also recently been suggested , based on dateable Aboriginal traditions .","qid":"138","docid":"Genyornis","rank":16,"score":104442},{"content":"Title: Historical impacts of climate change Content: Climate has affected human life and civilization from the emergence of hominins to the present day . These historical impacts of climate change can improve human life and cause societies to flourish , or can be instrumental in civilization 's societal collapse .","qid":"138","docid":"Historical_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":17,"score":103846},{"content":"Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .","qid":"138","docid":"Future_Evolution","rank":18,"score":103624},{"content":"Title: Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary Content: The climate across the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg or formerly the K -- T boundary ) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid , volcanism , or sea level changes . While the mass extinction is well documented , there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event . The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known , which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact . Oxygen isotopes across the K -- T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself . Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K -- T boundary suggest rapid , repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction , and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary , indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction . The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate , direct consequences of the impact .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_across_Cretaceous–Paleogene_boundary","rank":19,"score":103293},{"content":"Title: World People's Conference on Climate Change Content: The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth was a global gathering of civil society and governments hosted by the government of Bolivia in Tiquipaya , just outside the city of Cochabamba from April 19 -- 22 , 2010 . The event was attended by around 30,000 people from over 100 countries , and the proceedings were transmitted live online by OneClimate and the Global Campaign for Climate Action ( GCCA ) . The conference was viewed as a response to what some termed failed climate talks in Copenhagen during the 15th United Nations Conference of Parties ( COP15 ) climate meetings in December 2009 . There have been claims after the Conference ended that there were flaws in its organization and that the Venezuelan government funded it partially . One of the important objectives of the conference was to produce proposals for new commitments to the Kyoto Protocol and projects in the lead-up to the next UN climate negotiations scheduled during the COP16 meeting in Cancun , Mexico in December 2010 . Conference topics included a Universal Declaration on the Rights of Mother Earth ( see external links below ) , a World People 's Referendum on Climate Change , and the establishment of a Climate Justice Tribunal . The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of the Mother Earth resulted in a People 's Accord .","qid":"138","docid":"World_People's_Conference_on_Climate_Change","rank":20,"score":101508},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change","rank":21,"score":100889},{"content":"Title: Quaternary extinction event Content: The Quaternary period saw the extinctions of numerous predominantly larger , especially megafaunal , species , many of which occurred during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch . However , this extinction wave did not stop at the end of the Pleistocene , but continued , especially on isolated islands , in human-caused extinctions , although there is debate as to whether these should be considered separate events or part of the same event . Among the main causes hypothesized by paleontologists are natural climate change and overkill by humans , who appeared during the Middle Pleistocene and migrated to many regions of the world during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene . A variant of the latter possibility is the second-order predation hypothesis , which focuses more on the indirect damage caused by overcompetition with nonhuman predators . The spread of disease is also discussed as a possible reason .","qid":"138","docid":"Quaternary_extinction_event","rank":22,"score":100610},{"content":"Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_and_gender","rank":23,"score":100460},{"content":"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .","qid":"138","docid":"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change","rank":24,"score":100202},{"content":"Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_and_poverty","rank":25,"score":99986},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":26,"score":99836},{"content":"Title: Annihilationism Content: Annihilationism ( also known as extinctionism or destructionism ) is a belief that after the final judgment some human beings will be totally destroyed so as to not exist , or that their consciousness will be extinguished , rather than suffer everlasting torment in hell ( often synonymized with the lake of fire ) . Annihilationism is directly related to the doctrine of conditional immortality , the idea that a human soul is not immortal unless it is given eternal life . Annihilationism asserts that God will eventually destroy the wicked , leaving only the righteous to live on in immortality . Some annihilationists ( e.g. Seventh-day Adventists ) believe God 's love is scripturally described as an all-consuming fire and that sinful creatures can not exist in God 's presence . Thus those who elect to reject salvation through their free will are eternally destroyed because of the inherent incompatibility of sin with God 's holy character . Seventh-day Adventists posit that living in eternal hell is a false doctrine of pagan origin , as the Wicked will perish as the Bible says in the Lake of fire . Jehovah 's Witnesses believe that there can be no punishment after death because the dead cease to exist . Annihilationism stands in contrast to both the traditional and long-standing belief in eternal torture in the lake of fire , and the belief that everyone will be saved ( universal reconciliation or simply `` universalism '' ) . The belief in Annihilationism , has appeared throughout Christian history , but has always been in the minority . It experienced a resurgence in the 1980s when several prominent theologians including John Stott were prepared to argue that it could be held sincerely as a legitimate interpretation of biblical texts ( alternative to the more traditional interpretation of them ) , by those who give supreme authority to scripture . Earlier in the 20th century , some theologians at the University of Cambridge including Basil Atkinson supported the belief . 20th-century English theologians who favor annihilation include Bishop Charles Gore ( 1916 ) , William Temple , 98th Archbishop of Canterbury ( 1924 ) ; Oliver Chase Quick , Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury ( 1933 ) , Ulrich Ernst Simon ( 1964 ) , and G. B. Caird ( 1966 ) . Some Christian denominations which are annihilationist were influenced by the Millerite/Adventist movement of the mid-19th century . These include the Seventh-day Adventists , Bible Students , Christadelphians and the various Advent Christian churches . Additionally , the Church of England 's Doctrine Commission reported in 1995 that '' -LSB- h -RSB- ell is not eternal torment '' , but `` non-being '' . Some Protestant and Anglican writers have also proposed annihilationist doctrines . Annihilationists base the doctrine on their exegesis of scripture , some early church writing , historical criticism of the doctrine of hell , and the concept of God as too loving to torment his creations forever . They claim that the popular conceptions of hell stem from Jewish speculation during the intertestamental period , belief in an immortal soul which originated in Greek philosophy and influenced Christian theologians , and also graphic and imaginative medieval art and poetry . Contrasting beliefs include universal reconciliation , where all souls are seen as immortal and eventually receive salvation , and special salvation , where a positive afterlife is exclusively held by just some souls .","qid":"138","docid":"Annihilationism","rank":27,"score":99762},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":28,"score":99221},{"content":"Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.","qid":"138","docid":"United_Nations_Ocean_Conference","rank":29,"score":98875},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"138","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":30,"score":98366},{"content":"Title: Guy McPherson Content: Guy R. McPherson ( born 29 February 1960 ) is an American scientist , professor emeritus of natural resources and ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Arizona . He is best known for promoting the idea of near term extinction ( NTE ) , a term he coined about the possibility of human extinction as soon as 2030 . McPherson is also an author , independent scholar , lecturer , blogger , cultural critic , and permaculturist . He also is the co-host of his own radio show , `` Nature Bats Last '' . He has taught for twenty years at the University of Arizona and has served as an expert witness for legal cases involving forest fires . In May 2009 , McPherson began transitioning to living on an off-grid homestead in southern New Mexico . McPherson authors a blog called `` Nature Bats Last '' , that focuses on global climate change , energy decline and the possibility of imminent human extinction due to the increasing accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . On November 1 , 2015 , McPherson was interviewed on National Geographic Explorer with host Bill Nye . Regarding his NTE views , Andrew Revkin in The New York Times said McPherson was a `` apocalyptic ecologist ... who has built something of an ` End of Days ' following '' . Michael Tobis , a climate scientist from the University of Wisconsin , said McPherson was out of his depth and `` is not the opposite of a denialist . He is a denialist , albeit of a different stripe . ''","qid":"138","docid":"Guy_McPherson","rank":31,"score":97960},{"content":"Title: Bird conservation Content: Bird conservation is a field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds . Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species . Over one hundred species have gone extinct in historical times , although the most dramatic human-caused extinctions occurred in the Pacific Ocean as humans colonised the islands of Melanesia , Polynesia and Micronesia , during which an estimated 750-1800 species of bird became extinct . According to Worldwatch Institute , many bird populations are currently declining worldwide , with 1,200 species facing extinction in the next century . The biggest cited reason surrounds habitat loss . Other threats include overhunting , accidental mortality due to structural collisions , long-line fishing bycatch , pollution , competition and predation by pet cats , oil spills and pesticide use and climate change . Governments , along with numerous conservation charities , work to protect birds in various ways , including legislation , preserving and restoring bird habitat , and establishing captive populations for reintroductions . See Late Quaternary prehistoric birds for birds which disappeared in prehistoric and early historic times , usually due to human activity ( i.e. , starting with the Upper Paleolithic Revolution ) . For birds having gone extinct in modern times ( since 1500 ) , see List of extinct birds .","qid":"138","docid":"Bird_conservation","rank":32,"score":97910},{"content":"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .","qid":"138","docid":"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":33,"score":97795},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"138","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":34,"score":97062},{"content":"Title: Endangered language Content: An endangered language is a language that is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speaking another language . Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers and becomes a `` dead language '' . If no one can speak the language at all , it becomes an `` extinct language '' . A dead language may still be studied through recordings or writings , but it is still dead or extinct unless there are fluent speakers . Although languages have always become extinct throughout human history , they are currently dying at an accelerated rate because of globalization and neocolonialism . Language shift most commonly occurs when speakers switch to a language associated with social or economic power or spoken more widely , the ultimate result being language death . The general consensus is that there are between 6000 and 7000 languages currently spoken , and that between 50 and 90 % of them will have become extinct by 2100 . The 20 most common languages , spoken by more than 50 million speakers each , are spoken by 50 % of the world 's population , but most languages are spoken by fewer than 10,000 people . The first step is in language death is potential endangerment . This is when a language faces strong external pressure , but there are still communities of speakers who pass the language to their children . The second stage is endangerment . Once a language has reached the endangerment stage , there are only a few speakers left and children are , for the most part , not learning the language . The third stage of language extinction is seriously endangered . During this stage , a language is unlikely to survive another generation and will soon be extinct . The fourth stage is moribund , followed by the fifth stage extinction . Many projects are under way aimed at preventing or slowing this loss by revitalizing endangered languages and promoting education and literacy in minority languages , often involving joint projects between language communities and linguists . Across the world , many countries have enacted specific legislation aimed at protecting and stabilizing the language of indigenous speech communities . Recognizing that most of the world 's endangered languages are unlikely to be revitalized , many linguists are also working on documenting the thousands of languages of the world about which little or nothing is known .","qid":"138","docid":"Endangered_language","rank":35,"score":97022},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"138","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":36,"score":96587},{"content":"Title: Global Climate Network Content: The Global Climate Network ( GCN ) is an alliance of influential think tanks and research institutes in different countries that collaborate on research into climate change policy and whose stated aim is to help address the political blockages to ambitious action to tackle global warming . The Network has members in nine countries worldwide , including the USA , China , India , UK , Australia , Brazil , Norway , South Africa and Nigeria . Its Secretariat is housed at the Institute for Public Policy Research in London , UK . GCN members are engaged jointly in a programme of research projects , the results of which each member feeds into policy making at the domestic and international levels . Collectively , members of the Global Climate Network are committed to a vision of a prosperous and secure world in which greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced to a level that is no longer harmful to the climate system . Working together , the Network construct a narrative for action on climate change that is concerned with human and economic progress as well as environmental wellbeing . The Network 's patrons are Dr Rajendra Pachauri , chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and director-general of the Energy and Resources Institute in India ; John Podesta , former Chief of Staff to President Bill Clinton and director of Center for American Progress , and Lord Christopher Patten of Barnes , former European Commissioner for External Affairs .","qid":"138","docid":"Global_Climate_Network","rank":37,"score":96120},{"content":"Title: World Scientists' Warning to Humanity Content: In late 1992 , the late Henry W. Kendall , a former chair of the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) board of directors , wrote `` World Scientists ' Warning to Humanity '' , which begins : `` Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course . '' A majority of the Nobel Prize laureates in the sciences signed the document ; about 1,700 of the world 's leading scientists appended their signature . It is sometimes offered in opposition to the Heidelberg Appeal -- also signed by numerous scientists and Nobel laureates earlier in 1992 -- which begins by criticizing `` an irrational ideology which is opposed to scientific and industrial progress , and impedes economic and social development . '' This document is often cited by those who oppose theories relating to climate change . However , the Heidelberg Appeal offers no specific recommendations and is not an indictment of environmental science : `` We fully subscribe to the objectives of a scientific ecology for a universe whose resources must be taken stock of , monitored and preserved . But we herewith demand that this stock-taking , monitoring and preservation be founded on scientific criteria and not on irrational pre-conceptions . '' In contrast , the UCS-led petition contains specific recommendations : `` We must , for example , move away from fossil fuels to more benign , inexhaustible energy sources to cut greenhouse gas emissions and the pollution of our air and water . ... We must stabilize population . ''","qid":"138","docid":"World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity","rank":38,"score":96063},{"content":"Title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement Content: The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement ( VHEMT ) is an environmental movement that calls for all people to abstain from reproduction to cause the gradual voluntary extinction of humankind . VHEMT supports human extinction primarily because , in the group 's view , it would prevent environmental degradation . The group states that a decrease in the human population would prevent a significant amount of human-caused suffering . The extinctions of non-human species and the scarcity of resources required by humans are frequently cited by the group as evidence of the harm caused by human overpopulation . VHEMT was founded in 1991 by Les U. Knight , an American activist who became involved in the environmental movement in the 1970s and thereafter concluded that human extinction was the best solution to the problems facing the Earth 's biosphere and humanity . Knight publishes the group 's newsletter and serves as its spokesman . Although the group is promoted by a website and represented at some environmental events , it relies heavily on coverage from outside media to spread its message . Many commentators view its platform as unacceptably extreme , though other writers have applauded VHEMT 's perspective . In response to VHEMT , some journalists and academics have argued that humans can develop sustainable lifestyles or can reduce their population to sustainable levels . Others maintain that , whatever the merits of the idea , the human reproductive drive will prevent humankind from ever voluntarily seeking extinction .","qid":"138","docid":"Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement","rank":39,"score":95978},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"138","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":40,"score":95899},{"content":"Title: Migration and global environmental change (Report) Content: Migration and Global Environmental Change was a report about the influence of climate change on patterns of human migration and displacement published in 2011 . The report was produced by the Foresight unit at the UK 's Government Office of Science . It became known colloquially as ` The Foresight Report ' among people working in the field of climate-linked migration . The report was led by Professor Richard Black of Sussex University . The report was one of the first assessments of all the existing evidence and research on the connections between climate change and migration . The report authors also commissioned a number of new peer reviewed articles on migration and climate change , significant adding to the evidence base of the topic . The report attracted significant media attention on its release . The report was critical of previous predictions of the number of people who could be forced to move by climate change . It argued that making such numerical predictions was impossible because attributing climate change as the sole cause of someone 's migration was difficult . The report popularized the idea of trapped populations . The report argued that as well as being forced to move by climate change impacts , people might also be forced to stay where they are . The report drew on evidence showing that as people become poorer as a result of a degraded environment , they become less able to migrate . The idea of trapped populations had been present in the academic literature for sometime , however the media attention results from the release of the report brought the idea to a wider public for the first time . The report also popularized the idea of migration as climate change adaptation . Again , the authors drew on existing academic literature on the topic . They made the case that migration should be seen as a legitimate and empowering way for some people to adapt to the impacts of climate change .","qid":"138","docid":"Migration_and_global_environmental_change_(Report)","rank":41,"score":95541},{"content":"Title: Extinct language Content: An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers , especially if it has no living descendants . A dead language is `` one that is no longer the native language of any community '' , even if it is still in use , like Latin . In the modern period , language death has typically resulted from the process of cultural assimilation leading to language shift , and the gradual abandonment of a native language in favour of a foreign lingua franca . A language that currently has living native speakers is called a modern language . As of the 2000s , a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide . Most of these are minor languages in danger of extinction ; one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90 % of the currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050 .","qid":"138","docid":"Extinct_language","rank":42,"score":95122},{"content":"Title: Requiem for a Species Content: Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non-fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications . It argues that climate change will bring about large-scale , harmful consequences for habitability for life on Earth including humans , which it is too late to prevent . Hamilton explores why politicians , corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality . He invokes a variety of explanations , including wishful thinking , ideology , consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry . The book builds on the author 's fifteen-year prior history of writing about these subjects , with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change . Requiem for a Species has been reviewed in Resurgence magazine , Socialist Review , Sydney Morning Herald , The Age , The Common Review , and Times Higher Education , which named it `` Book of the Week '' . Extracts of the book have appeared in The Guardian and Geographical magazine . The book won a 2010 Queensland Premier 's Literary Award .","qid":"138","docid":"Requiem_for_a_Species","rank":43,"score":95096},{"content":"Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_denial","rank":44,"score":95039},{"content":"Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_adaptation","rank":45,"score":94604},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"138","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":46,"score":93798},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"138","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":47,"score":93791},{"content":"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .","qid":"138","docid":"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":48,"score":93120},{"content":"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .","qid":"138","docid":"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change","rank":49,"score":93048},{"content":"Title: Extinction Content: In biology and ecology , extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms ( taxon ) , normally a species . The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species , although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point . Because a species ' potential range may be very large , determining this moment is difficult , and is usually done retrospectively . This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa , where a species presumed extinct abruptly `` reappears '' ( typically in the fossil record ) after a period of apparent absence . More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . Through evolution , species arise through the process of speciation -- where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche -- and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition . The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established . A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance , although some species , called living fossils , survive with virtually no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years . Mass extinctions are relatively rare events ; however , isolated extinctions are quite common . Only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions . Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented . Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100 . A dagger symbol next to a species name is often used to indicate its extinction .","qid":"138","docid":"Extinction","rank":50,"score":93014},{"content":"Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_ethics","rank":51,"score":92835},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"138","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":52,"score":92735},{"content":"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_in_popular_culture","rank":53,"score":92437},{"content":"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .","qid":"138","docid":"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe","rank":54,"score":91948},{"content":"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .","qid":"138","docid":"Carnian_Pluvial_Event","rank":55,"score":91898},{"content":"Title: How the Other Half Dies Content: How the Other Half Dies : The Real Reasons for World Hunger is a book by Franco-American activist Susan George , a member of the Transnational Institute . It was originally published in 1976 , not long after the World Food Conference , and has been reprinted several times since . In the book , George examines and disputes two popular ideas : first , that there is not enough food , and second , that the world is over-populated . She argues that the planet could easily feed its present population and many more . She also insists that the problem is not climate change and that food technology will not provide the solution . George instead believes that the problem is that world food supply is controlled by the wealthy elite and that the poor have no say on the terms of trade that keep them hungry . The title is a parody of Jacob Riis 's book How the Other Half Lives .","qid":"138","docid":"How_the_Other_Half_Dies","rank":56,"score":91632},{"content":"Title: Global Climate March Content: The Global Climate March took place in various cities around the world on 29 November 2015 , the day before the opening of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The march was organized by a huge coalition of climate groups and global activists ( such as Avaaz and the international environmental organization 350 . org ) , and involved more than 2,000 events around the globe , in 175 different countries . An estimated number of 785,000 people took part at the marches . Follow-on marches scheduled in 2017 include the March for Science on 22 April 2017 ) and the People 's Climate Mobilization scheduled 29 April 2017 .","qid":"138","docid":"Global_Climate_March","rank":57,"score":91609},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_Change_Science_Program","rank":58,"score":91359},{"content":"Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .","qid":"138","docid":"People's_Climate_March","rank":59,"score":91204},{"content":"Title: Evolutionary suicide Content: Evolutionary suicide is an evolutionary phenomenon in which the process of adaptation causes the population to become extinct . For example , individuals might be selected to switch from eating mature plants to seedlings , and thereby deplete their food plant 's population . Selection on individuals can theoretically produce adaptations that threaten the survival of the population . Much of the research on evolutionary suicide has used the mathematical modeling technique adaptive dynamics , in which genetic changes are studied together with population dynamics . This allows the model to predict how population density will change as a given trait invades the population . Evolutionary suicide has also been referred to as `` Darwinian extinction '' , `` runaway selection to self-extinction '' , and `` evolutionary collapse '' . The idea is similar in concept to the tragedy of the commons and the Tendency of the rate of profit to fall , namely that they are all examples of an accumulation of individual changes leading to a collective disaster such that it negates those individual changes . Many adaptations have apparently negative effects on population dynamics , for example infanticide by male lions , or the production of toxins by bacteria . However , empirically establishing that an extinction event was unambiguously caused by the process of adaptation is not a trivial task .","qid":"138","docid":"Evolutionary_suicide","rank":60,"score":91081},{"content":"Title: Ecological effects of biodiversity Content: The diversity of species and genes in ecological communities affects the functioning of these communities . These ecological effects of biodiversity in turn are affected by both climate change through enhanced greenhouse gases , aerosols and loss of land cover , and biological diversity , causing a rapid loss of ecosystems and extinctions of species and local populations . The current rate of extinction is sometimes considered a mass extinction , with current species extinction rates on the order of 100 to 1000 times as high as in the past . The two main areas where the effect of biodiversity on ecosystem function have been studied are the relationship between diversity and productivity , and the relationship between diversity and community stability . More biologically diverse communities appear to be more productive ( in terms of biomass production ) than are less diverse communities , and they appear to be more stable in the face of perturbations . Also animals that inhabit an area may alter the surviving conditions by factors assimilated by climate .","qid":"138","docid":"Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity","rank":61,"score":91042},{"content":"Title: Action/2015 Content: action/2015 was a global coalition of more than 2200 organisations and networks from over 150 countries , united by the belief that 2015 was a critical year for progress in the fight against climate change , poverty and inequality . Throughout the year , this coalition engaged and mobilised the public at critical decision-making points to call on leaders to commit to strong goals and agreements at two crucial UN summits in 2015 - the UN General Assembly and the UN Climate Change Conference . Throughout the year millions of activists came together through action/2015 to ensure world leaders would feel the pressure to seize the opportunity to tackle poverty , inequality and climate change . With 31 million campaign actions taken in 157 countries , action/2015 was a massive global movement for change -- the biggest-ever of its kind .","qid":"138","docid":"Action/2015","rank":62,"score":90582},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"138","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":63,"score":90524},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on marine mammals Content: The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .","qid":"138","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_marine_mammals","rank":64,"score":90444},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"138","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":65,"score":90397},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .","qid":"138","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka","rank":66,"score":90151},{"content":"Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .","qid":"138","docid":"Loss_and_damage","rank":67,"score":90076},{"content":"Title: Earth immune system Content: The Earth immune system is a controversial proposal , claimed to be a consequence of the Gaia hypothesis . The Gaia hypothesis holds that the entire earth may be considered a single organism ( Gaia ) . As a self-maintaining organism , Earth would have an immune system of some sort in order to maintain its health . Some proponents of this speculative concept , for example , hold that humankind can be considered an `` infection '' of Gaia , and that AIDS is an attempt by this immune system to reject the infection . `` Cancer '' might be a more accurate term , as humans evolved within Gaia , and are not external invaders . An opposite view is that humankind is Gaia 's immune system itself , perhaps evolved to avert future catastrophes such as the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions of species . James Lovelock 's book `` The Revenge of Gaia '' suggests that Gaia has many mechanisms for eliminating civilizations that do harm through greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , but suggests that with increasing heat being received from the sun , Gaia 's ability to `` bounce back '' as it did after the Permian and Cretaceous extinction events , may be increasingly compromised . Paul Hawken suggests in Blessed Unrest that when Earth is considered a living system then Earth 's immune system is made up of the million or so organizations all around the globe that are working for social justice , the environment , and indigenous people 's rights . Many of these groups are linked through the Internet and other means so there is a vast network of interconnected people and groups working to protect the planet , its people , and all beings . For example , one organization that serves to link groups working on sustainable energy is Inforse in Denmark .","qid":"138","docid":"Earth_immune_system","rank":68,"score":89786},{"content":"Title: Klimaforum09 Content: Klimaforum09 - People 's Climate Summit , an open and alternative climate conference in December 2009 , was attended by about 50,000 people . Environmental activists from regions of the world most affected by climate change convened in Copenhagen at Klimaforum09 with leaders such as Vandana Shiva , founder of Navdanya , Nnimmo Bassey , chair of Friends of the Earth International , and author Naomi Klein . A People 's Declaration from Klimaforum09 was formulated before and during the People 's Climate Summit calling for `` System change - not climate change '' and handed over to the 15th Conference of the Parties of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at 18 December . Klimaforum09 took place from 7 December to 18 December 2009 in the DGI-byen conference center , near the Copenhagen Central Station , as open and alternative event during UNFCCC COP15 . The summit with over 300 debates , exhibitions , films , concerts and plays was organised by the Klimaforum network , a broad network of civil society organisations , and realized with the help of hundreds of volunteers .","qid":"138","docid":"Klimaforum09","rank":69,"score":89744},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":70,"score":89701},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation","rank":71,"score":89678},{"content":"Title: Holocene extinction Content: The Holocene extinction , otherwise referred to as the Sixth extinction or Anthropocene extinction , is the ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch , mainly due to human activity . The large number of extinctions spans numerous families of plants and animals , including mammals , birds , amphibians , reptiles and arthropods . With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforest , as well as other areas , the vast majority of these extinctions is thought to be undocumented . According to the species-area theory , and based on upper-bound estimating , the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year , making it the greatest loss of biodiversity since the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event . The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna , starting at the end of the last Ice Age . Megafauna outside of the African continent , which did not evolve alongside humans , proved highly sensitive to the introduction of new predation , and many died out shortly after early humans began spreading and hunting across the Earth ( additionally , many African species have also gone extinct in the Holocene ) . These extinctions , occurring near the Pleistocene -- Holocene boundary , are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event . The arrival of humans on different continents coincides with megafaunal extinction . The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species added to existing stress conditions . Although there is debate regarding how much human predation affected their decline , certain population declines have been directly correlated with human activity , such as the extinction events of New Zealand and Hawaii . Aside from humans , climate change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions , especially at the end of the Quaternary . The ecology of humanity has been noted as being that of an unprecedented `` global superpredator '' that regularly preys on the adults of other apex predators and has worldwide effects on food webs . Extinctions of species have occurred on every land mass and ocean , with many famous examples within Africa , Asia , Europe , Australia , North and South America , and on smaller islands . Overall , the Holocene extinction can be characterized by the human impact on the environment . The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century , with meat consumption , overfishing , ocean acidification and the amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal , cosmopolitan decline in biodiversity . A ballooning human population along with profligate consumption are considered to be the primary drivers of this rapid decline .","qid":"138","docid":"Holocene_extinction","rank":72,"score":89630},{"content":"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States","rank":73,"score":89556},{"content":"Title: Economists' Statement on Climate Change Content: The Economists ' Statement on Climate Change was published in 1997 , prior to the Kyoto Protocol negotiated that same year , to promote market-based solutions to climate change . It was signed by more than 2,600 economists , including 18 Nobel Prize laureates , and remains the largest public statement in the history of the economics profession . The statement was coordinated by Redefining Progress , an environmental economics think tank founded by Ted Halstead .","qid":"138","docid":"Economists'_Statement_on_Climate_Change","rank":74,"score":89504},{"content":"Title: Global catastrophic risk Content: A global catastrophic risk is a hypothetical future event that has the potential to damage human well-being on a global scale . Some events could cripple or destroy modern civilization . Any event that could cause human extinction is known as an existential risk . Potential global catastrophic risks include anthropogenic risks ( technology risks , governance risks ) and natural or external risks . Examples of technology risks are hostile artificial intelligence , biotechnology risks , or nanotechnology weapons . Insufficient global governance creates risks in the social and political domain ( potentially leading to a global war with or without a nuclear holocaust , bioterrorism using genetically modified organisms , cyberterrorism destroying critical infrastructures like the electrical grid , or the failure to manage a natural pandemic ) as well as problems and risks in the domain of earth system governance ( with risks resulting from global warming , environmental degradation , mineral resource exhaustion , fossil energy exhaustion , or famine as a result of non-equitable resource distribution , human overpopulation , crop failures and non-sustainable agriculture ) . Examples for non-anthropogenic risks are an asteroid impact event , a supervolcanic eruption , a lethal gamma-ray burst , a geomagnetic storm destroying all electronic equipment , natural long-term climate change , or extraterrestrial life impacting life on Earth .","qid":"138","docid":"Global_catastrophic_risk","rank":75,"score":89477},{"content":"Title: Bird extinction Content: Out of the approximately 10,400 known bird species , about 1,300 ( 13 % ) are classified as threatened with extinction , 9 % as near threatened and of the remaining 78 % many populations are declining . There is a general consensus among scientists who study these trends that if human impact on the environment continues as it has one-third of all bird species and an even greater proportion of bird populations will be gone by the end of this century . Since 1500 , 150 species of birds have become extinct Historically , the majority of bird extinctions have occurred on islands , particularly those in the pacific . These include countries such as Australia , Fiji , and Papua New Guinea .","qid":"138","docid":"Bird_extinction","rank":76,"score":89099},{"content":"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .","qid":"138","docid":"Abrupt_climate_change","rank":77,"score":89005},{"content":"Title: Plows, Plagues and Petroleum Content: Plows , Plagues and Petroleum : How Humans Took Control of Climate is a 2005 book published by Princeton University Press and written by William Ruddiman , a paleoclimatologist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Virginia . He has authored and co-authored several books and academic papers on the subject of climate change . Scientists often refer to this period as the `` Anthropocene '' and define it as the era in which humans first began to alter the earth 's climate and ecosystems . Ruddiman contends that human induced climate change began as a result of the advent of agriculture thousands of years ago and resulted in warmer temperatures that could have possibly averted another ice age ; this is the early anthropocene hypothesis .","qid":"138","docid":"Plows,_Plagues_and_Petroleum","rank":78,"score":88803},{"content":"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_(general_concept)","rank":79,"score":88778},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"138","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":80,"score":88712},{"content":"Title: Peter Luff (campaigner) Content: Peter John Roussel Luff , Director Mass1 , Trustee , Mass Extinction Monitoringl Observatory ( MEMO ) , Vice Chair , World Federalist Movement - Institute for Global Policy , Trustee , China Dialogue , formerly CEO Action for a Global Climate Community ( 2003-2011 ) Director of the Royal Commonwealth Society ( 1997 -- 2001 ) ; formerly Director and Vice Chair of The European Movement UK , The International European Movement ( 1986 -- 1995 ) Funding and Marketing Director of the Social Democratic Party ( 1981 -- 1987 ) and Assistant Director of Amnesty International UK ( 1974 -- 1978 )","qid":"138","docid":"Peter_Luff_(campaigner)","rank":81,"score":88540},{"content":"Title: Existential risk from artificial general intelligence Content: The existential risk from artificial general intelligence is the hypothetical threat that dramatic progress in artificial intelligence ( AI ) could someday result in human extinction ( or some other unrecoverable global catastrophe ) . The argument for the existence of the threat is that the human race currently dominates other species because the human brain has some distinctive capabilities that the brains of other animals lack . If AI surpasses humanity in general intelligence and becomes `` superintelligent '' , then this new superintelligence could become powerful and difficult to control . By way of example , just as the fate of the mountain gorilla depends on human goodwill , so might the fate of humanity depend on the actions of a future machine superintelligence . The severity of different AI risk scenarios is widely debated , and rests on a number of unresolved questions about future progress in computer science . Two sources of concern are that a sudden and unexpected `` intelligence explosion '' might take an unprepared human race by surprise , and that controlling a superintelligent machine ( or even instilling it with human-compatible values ) may be an even harder problem than naively supposed .","qid":"138","docid":"Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence","rank":82,"score":88432},{"content":"Title: Campaign against Climate Change Content: The Campaign against Climate Change ( variously abbreviated to CCC or CaCC ) is a UK-based pressure group that aims to raise public awareness of anthropogenic climate change through mobilizing mass demonstrations . Founded in 2001 in response to President Bush 's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol , the organization saw a steady increase in attendance on marches before a sudden take-off in interest between October - December 2005 . An estimated 10,000 people attended a rally in London on December 3 , 2005 . The following year on November 4 , 2006 the Campaign organized a march from the US Embassy to the iCount event in Trafalgar Square . At least 25,000 people gathered in Trafalgar Square that day making it easily the biggest demonstration on climate change in the UK to date , until The Wave march in December 2009 . The December 3rd , 2005 protests were not confined to the UK , but formed part of the first Global Day of Action on Climate Change , in which CCC played a key role in co-ordinating . The demonstrations , in more than 30 countries around the world , were timed to coincide with the crucial Montreal Climate talks in Canada , at which preliminary agreements were made for a post-Kyoto treaty to take effect after 2012 . Outside Montreal itself , a crowd of between 25,000 - 40,000 gathered in a protest organized by the American-based Climate Crisis Coalition . The December 2006 protests again had an international flavour , with the London , UK protest attracting 10,000 participants . The Campaign against Climate Change has a network of local groups around the UK , which are currently in the process of being extended . On February 9 , 2008 the Campaign against Climate Change hosted a Trade Union conference on climate change . Over 300 delegates attended and heard speakers , including several Trade Union general secretaries or their deputies , from most of the major British unions . This conference was followed by two more Trade Union events in 2009 and 2010 . The campaign has also produced a report to a number of British Trade Union 's on `` One Million Climate Jobs '' . Arguing that direct government funding must be used to create jobs that can reduce Carbon emissions . CCC is an example of a growing number of climate-related environmental pressure groups that have developed during the last decade , including organizations like Rising Tide , Climaction and the coalition group Stop Climate Chaos , of which the Campaign against Climate Change is a member . CCC was heavily involved in the campaign against the closure of the Vestas Wind Turbine plant on the Isle of Wight and the occupation of the factory by the workers . The CCC was part of the mobilisations for the demonstrations that marked the United Nations talks on Climate Change in Copenhagen , in December 2009 .","qid":"138","docid":"Campaign_against_Climate_Change","rank":83,"score":87957},{"content":"Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .","qid":"138","docid":"World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow","rank":84,"score":87847},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .","qid":"138","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia","rank":85,"score":87385},{"content":"Title: Say Yes demonstrations Content: The `` Say Yes '' demonstrations were a series of simultaneous political demonstrations held in major cities across Australia on 5 June 2011 to coincide with World Environment Day . The gatherings were organised as demonstrations of some public support for political action on climate change in Australia , including support for mitigation , investment in renewable energy and decommissioning of fossil fuel power stations and polluting industry . The largest individual gatherings attracting 10,000 in Melbourne and 8,000 in Sydney . The `` Say Yes '' campaign was started with actors Cate Blanchett and Michael Caton appearing in a national television advertisement . The demonstrations were organised by Say Yes Australia , a coalition of community groups , environmental organisations , unions , associations and other groups and was apolitical . All demonstrations were peaceful with no injuries or arrests . The Federal Treasurer , Wayne Swan , attended the Brisbane rally . In Canberra , the ACT Chief Minister , Katy Gallagher , was in attendance .","qid":"138","docid":"Say_Yes_demonstrations","rank":86,"score":87094},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":87,"score":86989},{"content":"Title: Woods Hole Research Center Content: The Woods Hole Research Center ( WHRC ) is a scientific research organization that studies climate change , land use change , soils , wetlands , and forests . WHRC was named the world 's top climate change think tank for 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 by the International Center for Climate Governance . The Center conducts research throughout the Amazon , the Arctic , central Africa , and North America . WHRC collaborates with a wide variety of partners to understand the causes and impacts of climate change and to implement more science-based policies .","qid":"138","docid":"Woods_Hole_Research_Center","rank":88,"score":86952},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"138","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":89,"score":86749},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"138","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":90,"score":86615},{"content":"Title: Language preservation Content: Language preservation is the effort to prevent languages from becoming unknown . A language is at risk of being lost when it no longer is taught to younger generations , while fluent speakers of the language ( usually the elderly ) die . Language is an important part of any society , because it enables people to communicate and express themselves . When a language dies out , future generations lose a vital part of the culture that is necessary to completely understand it . This makes language a vulnerable aspect of cultural heritage , and it becomes especially important to preserve it . According to the United Nations Educational , Scientific , and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) , from facts published in their `` Atlas of Languages in Danger of Disappearing , '' there are an estimated 6,000 languages spoken worldwide today , and half of the world 's population speaks the eight most common . More than 3,000 languages are reportedly spoken by fewer than 10,000 people each . Ethnologue , a reference work published by SIL International , has cataloged the world 's known living languages , and it estimates that 417 languages are on the verge of extinction .","qid":"138","docid":"Language_preservation","rank":91,"score":86542},{"content":"Title: Eocene–Oligocene extinction event Content: The transition between the end of the Eocene and the beginning of the Oligocene is marked by large-scale extinction and floral and faunal turnover ( although minor in comparison to the largest mass extinctions ) . Most of the affected organisms were marine or aquatic in nature . They included the last of the ancient cetaceans , the Archaeoceti . This was a time of major climatic change , especially cooling , not obviously linked with any single major impact or any catastrophic volcanic event . One cause of the extinction event is speculated to be extended volcanic activity . Another speculation is that the extinctions are related to several large meteorite impacts that occurred about this time . One such event caused the Chesapeake Bay impact crater ( 40 km ) , and another at the Popigai crater ( 100 km ) of central Siberia , scattering debris perhaps as far as Europe . New dating of the Popigai meteor suggests it may be a cause of the mass extinction . A leading scientific theory on climate cooling at this time is decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which slowly declined in the mid to late Eocene and possibly reached some threshold approximately 34 million years ago . This boundary is closely linked with the Oligocene Oi-1 event , an oxygen isotope excursion that marks the beginning of ice sheet coverage on Antarctica .","qid":"138","docid":"Eocene–Oligocene_extinction_event","rank":92,"score":86535},{"content":"Title: Neanderthal extinction Content: Neanderthal extinction began around 40,000 years ago in Europe , after anatomically modern humans had reached the continent . This date , which is based on research published in Nature in 2014 , is much earlier than previous estimates , and it was established through improved radio carbon dating methods analysing 40 sites from Spain to Russia . The survey did not include sites in Asia , where Neanderthals may have survived longer . In October 2015 , studies suggest Neanderthals may have survived even longer , as recently as 24,000 years ago instead . Hypotheses on the fate of the Neanderthals include violence from encroaching anatomically modern humans , parasites and pathogens , competitive replacement , competitive exclusion , extinction by interbreeding with early modern human populations , and failure or inability to adapt to climate change . Interbreeding took place in western Asia about 50,000 to 60,000 years ago , as evidenced by 1 to 4 percent of genomic material carried by non-African people living today . It is unlikely that any one of these hypotheses is sufficient on its own ; rather , multiple factors probably contributed to the demise of an already widely dispersed population .","qid":"138","docid":"Neanderthal_extinction","rank":93,"score":86386},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"138","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":94,"score":86342},{"content":"Title: Global change Content: Global change refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system . The system consists of the land , oceans , atmosphere , polar regions , life , the planet 's natural cycles and deep Earth processes . These constituent parts influence one another . The Earth system now includes human society , so global change also refers to large-scale changes in society . More completely , the term `` global change '' encompasses : population , climate , the economy , resource use , energy development , transport , communication , land use and land cover , urbanization , globalization , atmospheric circulation , ocean circulation , the carbon cycle , the nitrogen cycle , the water cycle and other cycles , sea ice loss , sea-level rise , food webs , biological diversity , pollution , health , over fishing , and more .","qid":"138","docid":"Global_change","rank":95,"score":86283},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":96,"score":86258},{"content":"Title: Decline in amphibian populations Content: The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide . Since the 1980s , decreases in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world . These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity , and several causes are believed to be involved , including disease , habitat destruction and modification , exploitation , pollution , pesticide use , introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation ( UV-B ) . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research . Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000 -- 45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation . Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s , awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s . By 1993 , more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline . Today , the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction , with severe implications for global biodiversity .","qid":"138","docid":"Decline_in_amphibian_populations","rank":97,"score":86172},{"content":"Title: Doomer Content: A doomer is a researcher of current and near future trends who believes that global problems of ecological exhaustion -- such as overpopulation , climate change , pollution , and especially peak oil -- will cause the collapse of industrial civilization , and a significant human population die-off . Many doomers are also survivalists or ` preppers ' , that is , they are actively preparing themselves for the doom they anticipate . Peak oil doomers are alarmed that humanity 's over-reliance on petroleum for agricultural and industrial productivity will cause severe problems on the downward slope of the peak . By contrast , a `` peakist '' would be one who takes a brighter view on the implications of peak oil , although this label has been dismissed from within the doomer 's movement as vacuous . The opposite of a doomer is represented by the cornucopian , who takes the optimistic position that Earth -- and outer space as well -- will provide an abundance of resources for mankind to thrive on forever . The middle ground between the doomer and the cornucopian is occupied by the environmental skeptic , who believes that claims made by environmentalists in general -- and by doomers in particular -- may be exaggerated or false .","qid":"138","docid":"Doomer","rank":98,"score":85975},{"content":"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .","qid":"138","docid":"Runaway_climate_change","rank":99,"score":85971},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Performance Index Content: The Climate Change Performance Index ( CCPI ) is an annual publication by Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe . It evaluates the climate protection performance of 58 countries , responsible for over 90 % of global energy-related emissions . CCPI 2013 publication covers emissions from the fossil fuels , except emissions from the shipping industry . Following CCPI 2013 publication may include emissions from deforestation , agriculture and waste . 50 % of the evaluation is based on emissions trend , 30 % on emissions level and 20 % on national and international climate policy assessments made by more than 200 experts . The most recent results ( published December 2014 ) illustrate that efforts are still insufficient to prevent dangerous climate change . Thus , no country received rankings one to three in the results for 2015 although Denmark which topped the list was praised for its efforts .","qid":"138","docid":"Climate_Change_Performance_Index","rank":100,"score":85899}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 140033\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 126450\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Lee_Hannah\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 118670\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 118135\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 118019\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 114286\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change opinion by country Content: Climate change opinion is the aggregate of public opinion held by the adult population . Cost constraints often restrict surveys to sample only one or two countries from each continent or focus on only one region . Because of differences among questions , wording , and methods -- it is difficult to reliably compare results or to generalize them to opinions held worldwide . In 2007 -- 2008 , the Gallup Poll surveyed individuals from 128 countries in the first comprehensive study of global opinions . The Gallup Organization aggregated opinion from the adult population fifteen years of age and older , either through the telephone or personal interviews , and in both rural and urban areas except in areas where the safety of interviewer was threatened and in scarcely populated islands . Personal interviews were stratified by population size or geography and cluster sampling was achieved through one or more stages . Although error bounds vary , they were all below ± 6 % with 95 % confidence . Weighting countries to a 2008 World Bank population estimate , sixty-one percent of individuals worldwide were aware of global warming , developed countries more aware than developing , with Africa the least aware . The median of people perceiving it as a threat was 47 % . Latin America and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change was a result of human activities , while Africa , parts of Asia and the Middle East , and countries from the Former Soviet Union led in the opposite . Awareness often translates to concern , although of those aware , individuals in Europe and developed countries in Asia perceived global warming as a greater threat than others .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_opinion_by_country\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 113123\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 111587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_extinction\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 111225\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 108933\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: What a Way to Go: Life at the End of Empire Content: What A Way To Go : Life at the End of Empire is a 2007 documentary film about the current situation facing humanity and the world . It discusses issues such as peak oil , climate change and the effects of global warming , population overshoot and species extinction , as well as how this situation has developed . The documentary features supporting data and interviews of Daniel Quinn , environmental activist Derrick Jensen and academics such as Richard Heinberg and many others . The tagline of the documentary is , `` A middle-class white guy comes to grips with Peak Oil , Climate Change , Mass Extinction , Population Overshoot and the demise of the American lifestyle . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"What_a_Way_to_Go:_Life_at_the_End_of_Empire\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 106130\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 105988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Stockholm_Memorandum\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 105484\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extinction risk from global warming Content: The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Extinction_risk_from_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 104751\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 104535\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Genyornis Content: Genyornis newtoni was a large , flightless bird that lived in Australia . Over two metres in height , they were likely either omnivorous or herbivorous . They became extinct 30 ± 5 thousand years ago . Many other species became extinct in Australia around that time , coinciding with the arrival of humans . Their closest living relatives are fowl . Two main theories propose a cause for megafauna extinction - human impact and climate change . A study has been performed in which more than 700 Genyornis eggshell fragments were dated . Through this , it was determined that Genyornis declined and became extinct over a short period -- too short for it to be plausibly explained by climate change . The authors considered this to be a very good indication that the entire mass extinction event in Australia was due to human activity , rather than climate change . A 2015 study collected egg shell fragments of Genyornis from around 200 sites that show burn marks . Analysis of amino acids in the egg shells showed a thermal gradient consistent with the egg being placed on an ember fire . The egg shells were dated to between 53.9 and 43.4 thousand years before present , suggesting that humans were collecting and cooking Genyornis eggs in the thousands of years before their extinction . A later study , however , suggests that the eggs actually belogned to Progura , a genus of giant megapodes . In May 2010 , archaeologists announced the rediscovery of an Aboriginal rock art painting , possibly 40,000 years old , at the Nawarla Gabarnmung rock art site in the Northern Territory , that depicts two of the birds in detail . Late survival of Genyornis in temperate south west Victoria has also recently been suggested , based on dateable Aboriginal traditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Genyornis\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 104442\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical impacts of climate change Content: Climate has affected human life and civilization from the emergence of hominins to the present day . These historical impacts of climate change can improve human life and cause societies to flourish , or can be instrumental in civilization 's societal collapse .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 103846\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_Evolution\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 103624\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary Content: The climate across the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg or formerly the K -- T boundary ) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid , volcanism , or sea level changes . While the mass extinction is well documented , there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event . The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known , which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact . Oxygen isotopes across the K -- T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself . Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K -- T boundary suggest rapid , repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction , and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary , indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction . The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate , direct consequences of the impact .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_across_Cretaceous–Paleogene_boundary\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 103293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World People's Conference on Climate Change Content: The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth was a global gathering of civil society and governments hosted by the government of Bolivia in Tiquipaya , just outside the city of Cochabamba from April 19 -- 22 , 2010 . The event was attended by around 30,000 people from over 100 countries , and the proceedings were transmitted live online by OneClimate and the Global Campaign for Climate Action ( GCCA ) . The conference was viewed as a response to what some termed failed climate talks in Copenhagen during the 15th United Nations Conference of Parties ( COP15 ) climate meetings in December 2009 . There have been claims after the Conference ended that there were flaws in its organization and that the Venezuelan government funded it partially . One of the important objectives of the conference was to produce proposals for new commitments to the Kyoto Protocol and projects in the lead-up to the next UN climate negotiations scheduled during the COP16 meeting in Cancun , Mexico in December 2010 . Conference topics included a Universal Declaration on the Rights of Mother Earth ( see external links below ) , a World People 's Referendum on Climate Change , and the establishment of a Climate Justice Tribunal . The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of the Mother Earth resulted in a People 's Accord .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"World_People's_Conference_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 101508\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 100889\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Quaternary extinction event Content: The Quaternary period saw the extinctions of numerous predominantly larger , especially megafaunal , species , many of which occurred during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch . However , this extinction wave did not stop at the end of the Pleistocene , but continued , especially on isolated islands , in human-caused extinctions , although there is debate as to whether these should be considered separate events or part of the same event . Among the main causes hypothesized by paleontologists are natural climate change and overkill by humans , who appeared during the Middle Pleistocene and migrated to many regions of the world during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene . A variant of the latter possibility is the second-order predation hypothesis , which focuses more on the indirect damage caused by overcompetition with nonhuman predators . The spread of disease is also discussed as a possible reason .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Quaternary_extinction_event\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 100610\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_gender\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 100460\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 100202\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_poverty\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 99986\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 99836\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Annihilationism Content: Annihilationism ( also known as extinctionism or destructionism ) is a belief that after the final judgment some human beings will be totally destroyed so as to not exist , or that their consciousness will be extinguished , rather than suffer everlasting torment in hell ( often synonymized with the lake of fire ) . Annihilationism is directly related to the doctrine of conditional immortality , the idea that a human soul is not immortal unless it is given eternal life . Annihilationism asserts that God will eventually destroy the wicked , leaving only the righteous to live on in immortality . Some annihilationists ( e.g. Seventh-day Adventists ) believe God 's love is scripturally described as an all-consuming fire and that sinful creatures can not exist in God 's presence . Thus those who elect to reject salvation through their free will are eternally destroyed because of the inherent incompatibility of sin with God 's holy character . Seventh-day Adventists posit that living in eternal hell is a false doctrine of pagan origin , as the Wicked will perish as the Bible says in the Lake of fire . Jehovah 's Witnesses believe that there can be no punishment after death because the dead cease to exist . Annihilationism stands in contrast to both the traditional and long-standing belief in eternal torture in the lake of fire , and the belief that everyone will be saved ( universal reconciliation or simply `` universalism '' ) . The belief in Annihilationism , has appeared throughout Christian history , but has always been in the minority . It experienced a resurgence in the 1980s when several prominent theologians including John Stott were prepared to argue that it could be held sincerely as a legitimate interpretation of biblical texts ( alternative to the more traditional interpretation of them ) , by those who give supreme authority to scripture . Earlier in the 20th century , some theologians at the University of Cambridge including Basil Atkinson supported the belief . 20th-century English theologians who favor annihilation include Bishop Charles Gore ( 1916 ) , William Temple , 98th Archbishop of Canterbury ( 1924 ) ; Oliver Chase Quick , Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury ( 1933 ) , Ulrich Ernst Simon ( 1964 ) , and G. B. Caird ( 1966 ) . Some Christian denominations which are annihilationist were influenced by the Millerite/Adventist movement of the mid-19th century . These include the Seventh-day Adventists , Bible Students , Christadelphians and the various Advent Christian churches . Additionally , the Church of England 's Doctrine Commission reported in 1995 that '' -LSB- h -RSB- ell is not eternal torment '' , but `` non-being '' . Some Protestant and Anglican writers have also proposed annihilationist doctrines . Annihilationists base the doctrine on their exegesis of scripture , some early church writing , historical criticism of the doctrine of hell , and the concept of God as too loving to torment his creations forever . They claim that the popular conceptions of hell stem from Jewish speculation during the intertestamental period , belief in an immortal soul which originated in Greek philosophy and influenced Christian theologians , and also graphic and imaginative medieval art and poetry . Contrasting beliefs include universal reconciliation , where all souls are seen as immortal and eventually receive salvation , and special salvation , where a positive afterlife is exclusively held by just some souls .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Annihilationism\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 99762\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 99221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \\\"under threat as never before\\\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \\\"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\\\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \\\"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\\\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Nations_Ocean_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 98875\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 98366\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy McPherson Content: Guy R. McPherson ( born 29 February 1960 ) is an American scientist , professor emeritus of natural resources and ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Arizona . He is best known for promoting the idea of near term extinction ( NTE ) , a term he coined about the possibility of human extinction as soon as 2030 . McPherson is also an author , independent scholar , lecturer , blogger , cultural critic , and permaculturist . He also is the co-host of his own radio show , `` Nature Bats Last '' . He has taught for twenty years at the University of Arizona and has served as an expert witness for legal cases involving forest fires . In May 2009 , McPherson began transitioning to living on an off-grid homestead in southern New Mexico . McPherson authors a blog called `` Nature Bats Last '' , that focuses on global climate change , energy decline and the possibility of imminent human extinction due to the increasing accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . On November 1 , 2015 , McPherson was interviewed on National Geographic Explorer with host Bill Nye . Regarding his NTE views , Andrew Revkin in The New York Times said McPherson was a `` apocalyptic ecologist ... who has built something of an ` End of Days ' following '' . Michael Tobis , a climate scientist from the University of Wisconsin , said McPherson was out of his depth and `` is not the opposite of a denialist . He is a denialist , albeit of a different stripe . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_McPherson\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 97960\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bird conservation Content: Bird conservation is a field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds . Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species . Over one hundred species have gone extinct in historical times , although the most dramatic human-caused extinctions occurred in the Pacific Ocean as humans colonised the islands of Melanesia , Polynesia and Micronesia , during which an estimated 750-1800 species of bird became extinct . According to Worldwatch Institute , many bird populations are currently declining worldwide , with 1,200 species facing extinction in the next century . The biggest cited reason surrounds habitat loss . Other threats include overhunting , accidental mortality due to structural collisions , long-line fishing bycatch , pollution , competition and predation by pet cats , oil spills and pesticide use and climate change . Governments , along with numerous conservation charities , work to protect birds in various ways , including legislation , preserving and restoring bird habitat , and establishing captive populations for reintroductions . See Late Quaternary prehistoric birds for birds which disappeared in prehistoric and early historic times , usually due to human activity ( i.e. , starting with the Upper Paleolithic Revolution ) . For birds having gone extinct in modern times ( since 1500 ) , see List of extinct birds .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Bird_conservation\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 97910\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 97795\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 97062\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Endangered language Content: An endangered language is a language that is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speaking another language . Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers and becomes a `` dead language '' . If no one can speak the language at all , it becomes an `` extinct language '' . A dead language may still be studied through recordings or writings , but it is still dead or extinct unless there are fluent speakers . Although languages have always become extinct throughout human history , they are currently dying at an accelerated rate because of globalization and neocolonialism . Language shift most commonly occurs when speakers switch to a language associated with social or economic power or spoken more widely , the ultimate result being language death . The general consensus is that there are between 6000 and 7000 languages currently spoken , and that between 50 and 90 % of them will have become extinct by 2100 . The 20 most common languages , spoken by more than 50 million speakers each , are spoken by 50 % of the world 's population , but most languages are spoken by fewer than 10,000 people . The first step is in language death is potential endangerment . This is when a language faces strong external pressure , but there are still communities of speakers who pass the language to their children . The second stage is endangerment . Once a language has reached the endangerment stage , there are only a few speakers left and children are , for the most part , not learning the language . The third stage of language extinction is seriously endangered . During this stage , a language is unlikely to survive another generation and will soon be extinct . The fourth stage is moribund , followed by the fifth stage extinction . Many projects are under way aimed at preventing or slowing this loss by revitalizing endangered languages and promoting education and literacy in minority languages , often involving joint projects between language communities and linguists . Across the world , many countries have enacted specific legislation aimed at protecting and stabilizing the language of indigenous speech communities . Recognizing that most of the world 's endangered languages are unlikely to be revitalized , many linguists are also working on documenting the thousands of languages of the world about which little or nothing is known .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Endangered_language\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 97022\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 96587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Climate Network Content: The Global Climate Network ( GCN ) is an alliance of influential think tanks and research institutes in different countries that collaborate on research into climate change policy and whose stated aim is to help address the political blockages to ambitious action to tackle global warming . The Network has members in nine countries worldwide , including the USA , China , India , UK , Australia , Brazil , Norway , South Africa and Nigeria . Its Secretariat is housed at the Institute for Public Policy Research in London , UK . GCN members are engaged jointly in a programme of research projects , the results of which each member feeds into policy making at the domestic and international levels . Collectively , members of the Global Climate Network are committed to a vision of a prosperous and secure world in which greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced to a level that is no longer harmful to the climate system . Working together , the Network construct a narrative for action on climate change that is concerned with human and economic progress as well as environmental wellbeing . The Network 's patrons are Dr Rajendra Pachauri , chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and director-general of the Energy and Resources Institute in India ; John Podesta , former Chief of Staff to President Bill Clinton and director of Center for American Progress , and Lord Christopher Patten of Barnes , former European Commissioner for External Affairs .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Climate_Network\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 96120\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Scientists' Warning to Humanity Content: In late 1992 , the late Henry W. Kendall , a former chair of the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) board of directors , wrote `` World Scientists ' Warning to Humanity '' , which begins : `` Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course . '' A majority of the Nobel Prize laureates in the sciences signed the document ; about 1,700 of the world 's leading scientists appended their signature . It is sometimes offered in opposition to the Heidelberg Appeal -- also signed by numerous scientists and Nobel laureates earlier in 1992 -- which begins by criticizing `` an irrational ideology which is opposed to scientific and industrial progress , and impedes economic and social development . '' This document is often cited by those who oppose theories relating to climate change . However , the Heidelberg Appeal offers no specific recommendations and is not an indictment of environmental science : `` We fully subscribe to the objectives of a scientific ecology for a universe whose resources must be taken stock of , monitored and preserved . But we herewith demand that this stock-taking , monitoring and preservation be founded on scientific criteria and not on irrational pre-conceptions . '' In contrast , the UCS-led petition contains specific recommendations : `` We must , for example , move away from fossil fuels to more benign , inexhaustible energy sources to cut greenhouse gas emissions and the pollution of our air and water . ... We must stabilize population . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 96063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement Content: The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement ( VHEMT ) is an environmental movement that calls for all people to abstain from reproduction to cause the gradual voluntary extinction of humankind . VHEMT supports human extinction primarily because , in the group 's view , it would prevent environmental degradation . The group states that a decrease in the human population would prevent a significant amount of human-caused suffering . The extinctions of non-human species and the scarcity of resources required by humans are frequently cited by the group as evidence of the harm caused by human overpopulation . VHEMT was founded in 1991 by Les U. Knight , an American activist who became involved in the environmental movement in the 1970s and thereafter concluded that human extinction was the best solution to the problems facing the Earth 's biosphere and humanity . Knight publishes the group 's newsletter and serves as its spokesman . Although the group is promoted by a website and represented at some environmental events , it relies heavily on coverage from outside media to spread its message . Many commentators view its platform as unacceptably extreme , though other writers have applauded VHEMT 's perspective . In response to VHEMT , some journalists and academics have argued that humans can develop sustainable lifestyles or can reduce their population to sustainable levels . Others maintain that , whatever the merits of the idea , the human reproductive drive will prevent humankind from ever voluntarily seeking extinction .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 95978\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 95899\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration and global environmental change (Report) Content: Migration and Global Environmental Change was a report about the influence of climate change on patterns of human migration and displacement published in 2011 . The report was produced by the Foresight unit at the UK 's Government Office of Science . It became known colloquially as ` The Foresight Report ' among people working in the field of climate-linked migration . The report was led by Professor Richard Black of Sussex University . The report was one of the first assessments of all the existing evidence and research on the connections between climate change and migration . The report authors also commissioned a number of new peer reviewed articles on migration and climate change , significant adding to the evidence base of the topic . The report attracted significant media attention on its release . The report was critical of previous predictions of the number of people who could be forced to move by climate change . It argued that making such numerical predictions was impossible because attributing climate change as the sole cause of someone 's migration was difficult . The report popularized the idea of trapped populations . The report argued that as well as being forced to move by climate change impacts , people might also be forced to stay where they are . The report drew on evidence showing that as people become poorer as a result of a degraded environment , they become less able to migrate . The idea of trapped populations had been present in the academic literature for sometime , however the media attention results from the release of the report brought the idea to a wider public for the first time . The report also popularized the idea of migration as climate change adaptation . Again , the authors drew on existing academic literature on the topic . They made the case that migration should be seen as a legitimate and empowering way for some people to adapt to the impacts of climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_and_global_environmental_change_(Report)\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 95541\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extinct language Content: An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers , especially if it has no living descendants . A dead language is `` one that is no longer the native language of any community '' , even if it is still in use , like Latin . In the modern period , language death has typically resulted from the process of cultural assimilation leading to language shift , and the gradual abandonment of a native language in favour of a foreign lingua franca . A language that currently has living native speakers is called a modern language . As of the 2000s , a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide . Most of these are minor languages in danger of extinction ; one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90 % of the currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Extinct_language\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 95122\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Requiem for a Species Content: Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non-fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications . It argues that climate change will bring about large-scale , harmful consequences for habitability for life on Earth including humans , which it is too late to prevent . Hamilton explores why politicians , corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality . He invokes a variety of explanations , including wishful thinking , ideology , consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry . The book builds on the author 's fifteen-year prior history of writing about these subjects , with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change . Requiem for a Species has been reviewed in Resurgence magazine , Socialist Review , Sydney Morning Herald , The Age , The Common Review , and Times Higher Education , which named it `` Book of the Week '' . Extracts of the book have appeared in The Guardian and Geographical magazine . The book won a 2010 Queensland Premier 's Literary Award .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Requiem_for_a_Species\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 95096\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_denial\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 95039\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_adaptation\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 94604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 93798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 93791\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 93120\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 93048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extinction Content: In biology and ecology , extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms ( taxon ) , normally a species . The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species , although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point . Because a species ' potential range may be very large , determining this moment is difficult , and is usually done retrospectively . This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa , where a species presumed extinct abruptly `` reappears '' ( typically in the fossil record ) after a period of apparent absence . More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . Through evolution , species arise through the process of speciation -- where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche -- and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition . The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established . A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance , although some species , called living fossils , survive with virtually no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years . Mass extinctions are relatively rare events ; however , isolated extinctions are quite common . Only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions . Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented . Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100 . A dagger symbol next to a species name is often used to indicate its extinction .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Extinction\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 93014\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_ethics\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 92835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 92735\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_popular_culture\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 92437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 91948\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Carnian_Pluvial_Event\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 91898\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: How the Other Half Dies Content: How the Other Half Dies : The Real Reasons for World Hunger is a book by Franco-American activist Susan George , a member of the Transnational Institute . It was originally published in 1976 , not long after the World Food Conference , and has been reprinted several times since . In the book , George examines and disputes two popular ideas : first , that there is not enough food , and second , that the world is over-populated . She argues that the planet could easily feed its present population and many more . She also insists that the problem is not climate change and that food technology will not provide the solution . George instead believes that the problem is that world food supply is controlled by the wealthy elite and that the poor have no say on the terms of trade that keep them hungry . The title is a parody of Jacob Riis 's book How the Other Half Lives .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"How_the_Other_Half_Dies\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 91632\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Climate March Content: The Global Climate March took place in various cities around the world on 29 November 2015 , the day before the opening of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The march was organized by a huge coalition of climate groups and global activists ( such as Avaaz and the international environmental organization 350 . org ) , and involved more than 2,000 events around the globe , in 175 different countries . An estimated number of 785,000 people took part at the marches . Follow-on marches scheduled in 2017 include the March for Science on 22 April 2017 ) and the People 's Climate Mobilization scheduled 29 April 2017 .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Climate_March\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 91609\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Science_Program\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 91359\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"People's_Climate_March\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 91204\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evolutionary suicide Content: Evolutionary suicide is an evolutionary phenomenon in which the process of adaptation causes the population to become extinct . For example , individuals might be selected to switch from eating mature plants to seedlings , and thereby deplete their food plant 's population . Selection on individuals can theoretically produce adaptations that threaten the survival of the population . Much of the research on evolutionary suicide has used the mathematical modeling technique adaptive dynamics , in which genetic changes are studied together with population dynamics . This allows the model to predict how population density will change as a given trait invades the population . Evolutionary suicide has also been referred to as `` Darwinian extinction '' , `` runaway selection to self-extinction '' , and `` evolutionary collapse '' . The idea is similar in concept to the tragedy of the commons and the Tendency of the rate of profit to fall , namely that they are all examples of an accumulation of individual changes leading to a collective disaster such that it negates those individual changes . Many adaptations have apparently negative effects on population dynamics , for example infanticide by male lions , or the production of toxins by bacteria . However , empirically establishing that an extinction event was unambiguously caused by the process of adaptation is not a trivial task .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Evolutionary_suicide\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 91081\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ecological effects of biodiversity Content: The diversity of species and genes in ecological communities affects the functioning of these communities . These ecological effects of biodiversity in turn are affected by both climate change through enhanced greenhouse gases , aerosols and loss of land cover , and biological diversity , causing a rapid loss of ecosystems and extinctions of species and local populations . The current rate of extinction is sometimes considered a mass extinction , with current species extinction rates on the order of 100 to 1000 times as high as in the past . The two main areas where the effect of biodiversity on ecosystem function have been studied are the relationship between diversity and productivity , and the relationship between diversity and community stability . More biologically diverse communities appear to be more productive ( in terms of biomass production ) than are less diverse communities , and they appear to be more stable in the face of perturbations . Also animals that inhabit an area may alter the surviving conditions by factors assimilated by climate .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 91042\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Action/2015 Content: action/2015 was a global coalition of more than 2200 organisations and networks from over 150 countries , united by the belief that 2015 was a critical year for progress in the fight against climate change , poverty and inequality . Throughout the year , this coalition engaged and mobilised the public at critical decision-making points to call on leaders to commit to strong goals and agreements at two crucial UN summits in 2015 - the UN General Assembly and the UN Climate Change Conference . Throughout the year millions of activists came together through action/2015 to ensure world leaders would feel the pressure to seize the opportunity to tackle poverty , inequality and climate change . With 31 million campaign actions taken in 157 countries , action/2015 was a massive global movement for change -- the biggest-ever of its kind .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Action/2015\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 90582\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 90524\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on marine mammals Content: The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_marine_mammals\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 90444\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 90397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 90151\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Loss_and_damage\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 90076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth immune system Content: The Earth immune system is a controversial proposal , claimed to be a consequence of the Gaia hypothesis . The Gaia hypothesis holds that the entire earth may be considered a single organism ( Gaia ) . As a self-maintaining organism , Earth would have an immune system of some sort in order to maintain its health . Some proponents of this speculative concept , for example , hold that humankind can be considered an `` infection '' of Gaia , and that AIDS is an attempt by this immune system to reject the infection . `` Cancer '' might be a more accurate term , as humans evolved within Gaia , and are not external invaders . An opposite view is that humankind is Gaia 's immune system itself , perhaps evolved to avert future catastrophes such as the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions of species . James Lovelock 's book `` The Revenge of Gaia '' suggests that Gaia has many mechanisms for eliminating civilizations that do harm through greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , but suggests that with increasing heat being received from the sun , Gaia 's ability to `` bounce back '' as it did after the Permian and Cretaceous extinction events , may be increasingly compromised . Paul Hawken suggests in Blessed Unrest that when Earth is considered a living system then Earth 's immune system is made up of the million or so organizations all around the globe that are working for social justice , the environment , and indigenous people 's rights . Many of these groups are linked through the Internet and other means so there is a vast network of interconnected people and groups working to protect the planet , its people , and all beings . For example , one organization that serves to link groups working on sustainable energy is Inforse in Denmark .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth_immune_system\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 89786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Klimaforum09 Content: Klimaforum09 - People 's Climate Summit , an open and alternative climate conference in December 2009 , was attended by about 50,000 people . Environmental activists from regions of the world most affected by climate change convened in Copenhagen at Klimaforum09 with leaders such as Vandana Shiva , founder of Navdanya , Nnimmo Bassey , chair of Friends of the Earth International , and author Naomi Klein . A People 's Declaration from Klimaforum09 was formulated before and during the People 's Climate Summit calling for `` System change - not climate change '' and handed over to the 15th Conference of the Parties of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at 18 December . Klimaforum09 took place from 7 December to 18 December 2009 in the DGI-byen conference center , near the Copenhagen Central Station , as open and alternative event during UNFCCC COP15 . The summit with over 300 debates , exhibitions , films , concerts and plays was organised by the Klimaforum network , a broad network of civil society organisations , and realized with the help of hundreds of volunteers .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Klimaforum09\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 89744\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 89701\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 89678\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Holocene extinction Content: The Holocene extinction , otherwise referred to as the Sixth extinction or Anthropocene extinction , is the ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch , mainly due to human activity . The large number of extinctions spans numerous families of plants and animals , including mammals , birds , amphibians , reptiles and arthropods . With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforest , as well as other areas , the vast majority of these extinctions is thought to be undocumented . According to the species-area theory , and based on upper-bound estimating , the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year , making it the greatest loss of biodiversity since the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event . The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna , starting at the end of the last Ice Age . Megafauna outside of the African continent , which did not evolve alongside humans , proved highly sensitive to the introduction of new predation , and many died out shortly after early humans began spreading and hunting across the Earth ( additionally , many African species have also gone extinct in the Holocene ) . These extinctions , occurring near the Pleistocene -- Holocene boundary , are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event . The arrival of humans on different continents coincides with megafaunal extinction . The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species added to existing stress conditions . Although there is debate regarding how much human predation affected their decline , certain population declines have been directly correlated with human activity , such as the extinction events of New Zealand and Hawaii . Aside from humans , climate change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions , especially at the end of the Quaternary . The ecology of humanity has been noted as being that of an unprecedented `` global superpredator '' that regularly preys on the adults of other apex predators and has worldwide effects on food webs . Extinctions of species have occurred on every land mass and ocean , with many famous examples within Africa , Asia , Europe , Australia , North and South America , and on smaller islands . Overall , the Holocene extinction can be characterized by the human impact on the environment . The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century , with meat consumption , overfishing , ocean acidification and the amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal , cosmopolitan decline in biodiversity . A ballooning human population along with profligate consumption are considered to be the primary drivers of this rapid decline .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Holocene_extinction\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 89630\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 89556\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economists' Statement on Climate Change Content: The Economists ' Statement on Climate Change was published in 1997 , prior to the Kyoto Protocol negotiated that same year , to promote market-based solutions to climate change . It was signed by more than 2,600 economists , including 18 Nobel Prize laureates , and remains the largest public statement in the history of the economics profession . The statement was coordinated by Redefining Progress , an environmental economics think tank founded by Ted Halstead .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Economists'_Statement_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 89504\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global catastrophic risk Content: A global catastrophic risk is a hypothetical future event that has the potential to damage human well-being on a global scale . Some events could cripple or destroy modern civilization . Any event that could cause human extinction is known as an existential risk . Potential global catastrophic risks include anthropogenic risks ( technology risks , governance risks ) and natural or external risks . Examples of technology risks are hostile artificial intelligence , biotechnology risks , or nanotechnology weapons . Insufficient global governance creates risks in the social and political domain ( potentially leading to a global war with or without a nuclear holocaust , bioterrorism using genetically modified organisms , cyberterrorism destroying critical infrastructures like the electrical grid , or the failure to manage a natural pandemic ) as well as problems and risks in the domain of earth system governance ( with risks resulting from global warming , environmental degradation , mineral resource exhaustion , fossil energy exhaustion , or famine as a result of non-equitable resource distribution , human overpopulation , crop failures and non-sustainable agriculture ) . Examples for non-anthropogenic risks are an asteroid impact event , a supervolcanic eruption , a lethal gamma-ray burst , a geomagnetic storm destroying all electronic equipment , natural long-term climate change , or extraterrestrial life impacting life on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_catastrophic_risk\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 89477\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bird extinction Content: Out of the approximately 10,400 known bird species , about 1,300 ( 13 % ) are classified as threatened with extinction , 9 % as near threatened and of the remaining 78 % many populations are declining . There is a general consensus among scientists who study these trends that if human impact on the environment continues as it has one-third of all bird species and an even greater proportion of bird populations will be gone by the end of this century . Since 1500 , 150 species of birds have become extinct Historically , the majority of bird extinctions have occurred on islands , particularly those in the pacific . These include countries such as Australia , Fiji , and Papua New Guinea .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Bird_extinction\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 89099\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Abrupt_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 89005\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plows, Plagues and Petroleum Content: Plows , Plagues and Petroleum : How Humans Took Control of Climate is a 2005 book published by Princeton University Press and written by William Ruddiman , a paleoclimatologist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Virginia . He has authored and co-authored several books and academic papers on the subject of climate change . Scientists often refer to this period as the `` Anthropocene '' and define it as the era in which humans first began to alter the earth 's climate and ecosystems . Ruddiman contends that human induced climate change began as a result of the advent of agriculture thousands of years ago and resulted in warmer temperatures that could have possibly averted another ice age ; this is the early anthropocene hypothesis .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Plows,_Plagues_and_Petroleum\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 88803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \\\"internal variability\\\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_(general_concept)\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 88778\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 88712\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Luff (campaigner) Content: Peter John Roussel Luff , Director Mass1 , Trustee , Mass Extinction Monitoringl Observatory ( MEMO ) , Vice Chair , World Federalist Movement - Institute for Global Policy , Trustee , China Dialogue , formerly CEO Action for a Global Climate Community ( 2003-2011 ) Director of the Royal Commonwealth Society ( 1997 -- 2001 ) ; formerly Director and Vice Chair of The European Movement UK , The International European Movement ( 1986 -- 1995 ) Funding and Marketing Director of the Social Democratic Party ( 1981 -- 1987 ) and Assistant Director of Amnesty International UK ( 1974 -- 1978 )\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Luff_(campaigner)\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 88540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Existential risk from artificial general intelligence Content: The existential risk from artificial general intelligence is the hypothetical threat that dramatic progress in artificial intelligence ( AI ) could someday result in human extinction ( or some other unrecoverable global catastrophe ) . The argument for the existence of the threat is that the human race currently dominates other species because the human brain has some distinctive capabilities that the brains of other animals lack . If AI surpasses humanity in general intelligence and becomes `` superintelligent '' , then this new superintelligence could become powerful and difficult to control . By way of example , just as the fate of the mountain gorilla depends on human goodwill , so might the fate of humanity depend on the actions of a future machine superintelligence . The severity of different AI risk scenarios is widely debated , and rests on a number of unresolved questions about future progress in computer science . Two sources of concern are that a sudden and unexpected `` intelligence explosion '' might take an unprepared human race by surprise , and that controlling a superintelligent machine ( or even instilling it with human-compatible values ) may be an even harder problem than naively supposed .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 88432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Campaign against Climate Change Content: The Campaign against Climate Change ( variously abbreviated to CCC or CaCC ) is a UK-based pressure group that aims to raise public awareness of anthropogenic climate change through mobilizing mass demonstrations . Founded in 2001 in response to President Bush 's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol , the organization saw a steady increase in attendance on marches before a sudden take-off in interest between October - December 2005 . An estimated 10,000 people attended a rally in London on December 3 , 2005 . The following year on November 4 , 2006 the Campaign organized a march from the US Embassy to the iCount event in Trafalgar Square . At least 25,000 people gathered in Trafalgar Square that day making it easily the biggest demonstration on climate change in the UK to date , until The Wave march in December 2009 . The December 3rd , 2005 protests were not confined to the UK , but formed part of the first Global Day of Action on Climate Change , in which CCC played a key role in co-ordinating . The demonstrations , in more than 30 countries around the world , were timed to coincide with the crucial Montreal Climate talks in Canada , at which preliminary agreements were made for a post-Kyoto treaty to take effect after 2012 . Outside Montreal itself , a crowd of between 25,000 - 40,000 gathered in a protest organized by the American-based Climate Crisis Coalition . The December 2006 protests again had an international flavour , with the London , UK protest attracting 10,000 participants . The Campaign against Climate Change has a network of local groups around the UK , which are currently in the process of being extended . On February 9 , 2008 the Campaign against Climate Change hosted a Trade Union conference on climate change . Over 300 delegates attended and heard speakers , including several Trade Union general secretaries or their deputies , from most of the major British unions . This conference was followed by two more Trade Union events in 2009 and 2010 . The campaign has also produced a report to a number of British Trade Union 's on `` One Million Climate Jobs '' . Arguing that direct government funding must be used to create jobs that can reduce Carbon emissions . CCC is an example of a growing number of climate-related environmental pressure groups that have developed during the last decade , including organizations like Rising Tide , Climaction and the coalition group Stop Climate Chaos , of which the Campaign against Climate Change is a member . CCC was heavily involved in the campaign against the closure of the Vestas Wind Turbine plant on the Isle of Wight and the occupation of the factory by the workers . The CCC was part of the mobilisations for the demonstrations that marked the United Nations talks on Climate Change in Copenhagen , in December 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Campaign_against_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 87957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 87847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 87385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Say Yes demonstrations Content: The `` Say Yes '' demonstrations were a series of simultaneous political demonstrations held in major cities across Australia on 5 June 2011 to coincide with World Environment Day . The gatherings were organised as demonstrations of some public support for political action on climate change in Australia , including support for mitigation , investment in renewable energy and decommissioning of fossil fuel power stations and polluting industry . The largest individual gatherings attracting 10,000 in Melbourne and 8,000 in Sydney . The `` Say Yes '' campaign was started with actors Cate Blanchett and Michael Caton appearing in a national television advertisement . The demonstrations were organised by Say Yes Australia , a coalition of community groups , environmental organisations , unions , associations and other groups and was apolitical . All demonstrations were peaceful with no injuries or arrests . The Federal Treasurer , Wayne Swan , attended the Brisbane rally . In Canberra , the ACT Chief Minister , Katy Gallagher , was in attendance .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Say_Yes_demonstrations\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 87094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 86989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Woods Hole Research Center Content: The Woods Hole Research Center ( WHRC ) is a scientific research organization that studies climate change , land use change , soils , wetlands , and forests . WHRC was named the world 's top climate change think tank for 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 by the International Center for Climate Governance . The Center conducts research throughout the Amazon , the Arctic , central Africa , and North America . WHRC collaborates with a wide variety of partners to understand the causes and impacts of climate change and to implement more science-based policies .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Woods_Hole_Research_Center\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 86952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 86749\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 86615\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Language preservation Content: Language preservation is the effort to prevent languages from becoming unknown . A language is at risk of being lost when it no longer is taught to younger generations , while fluent speakers of the language ( usually the elderly ) die . Language is an important part of any society , because it enables people to communicate and express themselves . When a language dies out , future generations lose a vital part of the culture that is necessary to completely understand it . This makes language a vulnerable aspect of cultural heritage , and it becomes especially important to preserve it . According to the United Nations Educational , Scientific , and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) , from facts published in their `` Atlas of Languages in Danger of Disappearing , '' there are an estimated 6,000 languages spoken worldwide today , and half of the world 's population speaks the eight most common . More than 3,000 languages are reportedly spoken by fewer than 10,000 people each . Ethnologue , a reference work published by SIL International , has cataloged the world 's known living languages , and it estimates that 417 languages are on the verge of extinction .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Language_preservation\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 86542\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eocene–Oligocene extinction event Content: The transition between the end of the Eocene and the beginning of the Oligocene is marked by large-scale extinction and floral and faunal turnover ( although minor in comparison to the largest mass extinctions ) . Most of the affected organisms were marine or aquatic in nature . They included the last of the ancient cetaceans , the Archaeoceti . This was a time of major climatic change , especially cooling , not obviously linked with any single major impact or any catastrophic volcanic event . One cause of the extinction event is speculated to be extended volcanic activity . Another speculation is that the extinctions are related to several large meteorite impacts that occurred about this time . One such event caused the Chesapeake Bay impact crater ( 40 km ) , and another at the Popigai crater ( 100 km ) of central Siberia , scattering debris perhaps as far as Europe . New dating of the Popigai meteor suggests it may be a cause of the mass extinction . A leading scientific theory on climate cooling at this time is decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which slowly declined in the mid to late Eocene and possibly reached some threshold approximately 34 million years ago . This boundary is closely linked with the Oligocene Oi-1 event , an oxygen isotope excursion that marks the beginning of ice sheet coverage on Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Eocene–Oligocene_extinction_event\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 86535\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Neanderthal extinction Content: Neanderthal extinction began around 40,000 years ago in Europe , after anatomically modern humans had reached the continent . This date , which is based on research published in Nature in 2014 , is much earlier than previous estimates , and it was established through improved radio carbon dating methods analysing 40 sites from Spain to Russia . The survey did not include sites in Asia , where Neanderthals may have survived longer . In October 2015 , studies suggest Neanderthals may have survived even longer , as recently as 24,000 years ago instead . Hypotheses on the fate of the Neanderthals include violence from encroaching anatomically modern humans , parasites and pathogens , competitive replacement , competitive exclusion , extinction by interbreeding with early modern human populations , and failure or inability to adapt to climate change . Interbreeding took place in western Asia about 50,000 to 60,000 years ago , as evidenced by 1 to 4 percent of genomic material carried by non-African people living today . It is unlikely that any one of these hypotheses is sufficient on its own ; rather , multiple factors probably contributed to the demise of an already widely dispersed population .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Neanderthal_extinction\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 86386\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 86342\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global change Content: Global change refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system . The system consists of the land , oceans , atmosphere , polar regions , life , the planet 's natural cycles and deep Earth processes . These constituent parts influence one another . The Earth system now includes human society , so global change also refers to large-scale changes in society . More completely , the term `` global change '' encompasses : population , climate , the economy , resource use , energy development , transport , communication , land use and land cover , urbanization , globalization , atmospheric circulation , ocean circulation , the carbon cycle , the nitrogen cycle , the water cycle and other cycles , sea ice loss , sea-level rise , food webs , biological diversity , pollution , health , over fishing , and more .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_change\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 86283\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 86258\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decline in amphibian populations Content: The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide . Since the 1980s , decreases in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world . These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity , and several causes are believed to be involved , including disease , habitat destruction and modification , exploitation , pollution , pesticide use , introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation ( UV-B ) . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research . Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000 -- 45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation . Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s , awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s . By 1993 , more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline . Today , the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction , with severe implications for global biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Decline_in_amphibian_populations\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 86172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Doomer Content: A doomer is a researcher of current and near future trends who believes that global problems of ecological exhaustion -- such as overpopulation , climate change , pollution , and especially peak oil -- will cause the collapse of industrial civilization , and a significant human population die-off . Many doomers are also survivalists or ` preppers ' , that is , they are actively preparing themselves for the doom they anticipate . Peak oil doomers are alarmed that humanity 's over-reliance on petroleum for agricultural and industrial productivity will cause severe problems on the downward slope of the peak . By contrast , a `` peakist '' would be one who takes a brighter view on the implications of peak oil , although this label has been dismissed from within the doomer 's movement as vacuous . The opposite of a doomer is represented by the cornucopian , who takes the optimistic position that Earth -- and outer space as well -- will provide an abundance of resources for mankind to thrive on forever . The middle ground between the doomer and the cornucopian is occupied by the environmental skeptic , who believes that claims made by environmentalists in general -- and by doomers in particular -- may be exaggerated or false .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Doomer\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 85975\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 85971\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Performance Index Content: The Climate Change Performance Index ( CCPI ) is an annual publication by Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe . It evaluates the climate protection performance of 58 countries , responsible for over 90 % of global energy-related emissions . CCPI 2013 publication covers emissions from the fossil fuels , except emissions from the shipping industry . Following CCPI 2013 publication may include emissions from deforestation , agriculture and waste . 50 % of the evaluation is based on emissions trend , 30 % on emissions level and 20 % on national and international climate policy assessments made by more than 200 experts . The most recent results ( published December 2014 ) illustrate that efforts are still insufficient to prevent dangerous climate change . Thus , no country received rankings one to three in the results for 2015 although Denmark which topped the list was praised for its efforts .\",\n \"qid\": \"138\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Performance_Index\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 85899\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":68,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"And in January, one out of five British children told pollsters they were having nightmares about climate change."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":1,"score":114829},{"content":"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .","qid":"139","docid":"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":2,"score":110274},{"content":"Title: Big Ask Campaign Content: The Big Ask was a campaign by Friends of the Earth calling for a new climate change law in the United Kingdom and 15 other EU member states . The United Kingdom Government announced the introduction of the Climate Change Bill in the Queen 's Speech on November 15 , 2006 . This was after 130,000 people across the country had asked their MP to support such a bill . Radiohead frontman Thom Yorke was a spokesperson for the campaign .","qid":"139","docid":"Big_Ask_Campaign","rank":3,"score":103452},{"content":"Title: Climate change opinion by country Content: Climate change opinion is the aggregate of public opinion held by the adult population . Cost constraints often restrict surveys to sample only one or two countries from each continent or focus on only one region . Because of differences among questions , wording , and methods -- it is difficult to reliably compare results or to generalize them to opinions held worldwide . In 2007 -- 2008 , the Gallup Poll surveyed individuals from 128 countries in the first comprehensive study of global opinions . The Gallup Organization aggregated opinion from the adult population fifteen years of age and older , either through the telephone or personal interviews , and in both rural and urban areas except in areas where the safety of interviewer was threatened and in scarcely populated islands . Personal interviews were stratified by population size or geography and cluster sampling was achieved through one or more stages . Although error bounds vary , they were all below ± 6 % with 95 % confidence . Weighting countries to a 2008 World Bank population estimate , sixty-one percent of individuals worldwide were aware of global warming , developed countries more aware than developing , with Africa the least aware . The median of people perceiving it as a threat was 47 % . Latin America and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change was a result of human activities , while Africa , parts of Asia and the Middle East , and countries from the Former Soviet Union led in the opposite . Awareness often translates to concern , although of those aware , individuals in Europe and developed countries in Asia perceived global warming as a greater threat than others .","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_change_opinion_by_country","rank":4,"score":102483},{"content":"Title: Campaign against Climate Change Content: The Campaign against Climate Change ( variously abbreviated to CCC or CaCC ) is a UK-based pressure group that aims to raise public awareness of anthropogenic climate change through mobilizing mass demonstrations . Founded in 2001 in response to President Bush 's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol , the organization saw a steady increase in attendance on marches before a sudden take-off in interest between October - December 2005 . An estimated 10,000 people attended a rally in London on December 3 , 2005 . The following year on November 4 , 2006 the Campaign organized a march from the US Embassy to the iCount event in Trafalgar Square . At least 25,000 people gathered in Trafalgar Square that day making it easily the biggest demonstration on climate change in the UK to date , until The Wave march in December 2009 . The December 3rd , 2005 protests were not confined to the UK , but formed part of the first Global Day of Action on Climate Change , in which CCC played a key role in co-ordinating . The demonstrations , in more than 30 countries around the world , were timed to coincide with the crucial Montreal Climate talks in Canada , at which preliminary agreements were made for a post-Kyoto treaty to take effect after 2012 . Outside Montreal itself , a crowd of between 25,000 - 40,000 gathered in a protest organized by the American-based Climate Crisis Coalition . The December 2006 protests again had an international flavour , with the London , UK protest attracting 10,000 participants . The Campaign against Climate Change has a network of local groups around the UK , which are currently in the process of being extended . On February 9 , 2008 the Campaign against Climate Change hosted a Trade Union conference on climate change . Over 300 delegates attended and heard speakers , including several Trade Union general secretaries or their deputies , from most of the major British unions . This conference was followed by two more Trade Union events in 2009 and 2010 . The campaign has also produced a report to a number of British Trade Union 's on `` One Million Climate Jobs '' . Arguing that direct government funding must be used to create jobs that can reduce Carbon emissions . CCC is an example of a growing number of climate-related environmental pressure groups that have developed during the last decade , including organizations like Rising Tide , Climaction and the coalition group Stop Climate Chaos , of which the Campaign against Climate Change is a member . CCC was heavily involved in the campaign against the closure of the Vestas Wind Turbine plant on the Isle of Wight and the occupation of the factory by the workers . The CCC was part of the mobilisations for the demonstrations that marked the United Nations talks on Climate Change in Copenhagen , in December 2009 .","qid":"139","docid":"Campaign_against_Climate_Change","rank":5,"score":100733},{"content":"Title: Climate Rush Content: Climate Rush is a UK organisation that campaigns on various environmental issues related to climate change . Their website states that , `` We are a diverse group of women and men who are determined to raise awareness of the biggest threat facing humanity today - that of Climate Change '' . The organisation was founded in October 2008 by a group of eleven women , including Tamsin Omond . They have organised various protests using direct action to highlight their cause . They model their actions on those of the suffragettes who campaigned a century ago to gain women the right to vote . Members of the Women 's Institute have campaigned alongside members of the organisation .","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_Rush","rank":6,"score":98042},{"content":"Title: Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 Content: The Climate Change ( Scotland ) Act 2009 is an Act of the Scottish Parliament . The Act includes an emissions target , set for the year 2050 , for a reduction of at least 80 % from the baseline year , 1990 . Annual targets for greenhouse gas emissions must also be set , after consultation the relevant advisory bodies . Provisions are included in the Act for the creation of a Scottish Committee on Climate Change , as at present the only advisory body is the UK-wide Committee on Climate Change . Ministers in parliament must now report on the progress of these targets . As of January 2011 , public sector bodies in Scotland must comply with new guidelines set out by the Scottish Government .","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_Change_(Scotland)_Act_2009","rank":7,"score":94455},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_Change_Act_2008","rank":8,"score":93748},{"content":"Title: Are We Changing Planet Earth? Content: Are We Changing Planet Earth ? and Can We Save Planet Earth ? are two programmes that form a documentary about global warming , presented by David Attenborough . They were first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 24 May and 1 June 2006 respectively . Part of a themed season by the BBC entitled `` Climate Chaos '' , the programmes were produced in conjunction with the Discovery Channel and the Open University . They were directed by Nicolas Brown and produced by Jeremy Bristow . The music was composed by Samuel Sim . Attenborough undertook the assignment in between his ` Life ' series Life in the Undergrowth and Life in Cold Blood . Around the same time , the naturalist also narrated Planet Earth .","qid":"139","docid":"Are_We_Changing_Planet_Earth?","rank":9,"score":93504},{"content":"Title: Nightmare (1981 film) Content: Nightmare ( also known as Nightmares in a Damaged Brain ) is a 1981 slasher film directed by Romano Scavolini . Nightmare gained instant notoriety among horror fans when it was banned in the UK as a video nasty and its distributor was sentenced to 18 months in prison for refusing to edit one second of violent footage . The film also garnered controversy for claiming in its press material that Tom Savini had provided the film 's special effects , which Savini vehemently denied .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmare_(1981_film)","rank":10,"score":93174},{"content":"Title: The Climate Coalition (UK) Content: The Climate Coalition is a group of UK based organisations who share environmental concerns . Individuals may also join . It claims it `` is the UK 's largest group of people dedicated to action on climate change and limiting its impact on the world 's poorest communities . '' Amongst its areas of focus are ending the use of coal and encourage better home insulation . Some of its members are WWF ( UK ) , Friends of the Earth , Christian Aid , RSPB , but there are many others . Its main campaigning website and theme are ` For The Love Of ' , where people are invited to defend features of the environment they love that are at threat from climate change .","qid":"139","docid":"The_Climate_Coalition_(UK)","rank":11,"score":92916},{"content":"Title: If You Love Your Children Content: If You Love Your Children is a 2014 Canadian short film - depicting climate change , directed and produced by Sanjay Patel . The film has received many awards and nominations since its release in August 2014 .","qid":"139","docid":"If_You_Love_Your_Children","rank":12,"score":92690},{"content":"Title: Nightmares! Content: Nightmares ! is a young adult children 's literature series co-authored by Jason Segel and Kirsten Miller . As of 5 November 2014 , the series has been on The New York Times Best Seller list for children 's book series . The series comprises three titles :","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmares!","rank":13,"score":92332},{"content":"Title: World People's Conference on Climate Change Content: The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth was a global gathering of civil society and governments hosted by the government of Bolivia in Tiquipaya , just outside the city of Cochabamba from April 19 -- 22 , 2010 . The event was attended by around 30,000 people from over 100 countries , and the proceedings were transmitted live online by OneClimate and the Global Campaign for Climate Action ( GCCA ) . The conference was viewed as a response to what some termed failed climate talks in Copenhagen during the 15th United Nations Conference of Parties ( COP15 ) climate meetings in December 2009 . There have been claims after the Conference ended that there were flaws in its organization and that the Venezuelan government funded it partially . One of the important objectives of the conference was to produce proposals for new commitments to the Kyoto Protocol and projects in the lead-up to the next UN climate negotiations scheduled during the COP16 meeting in Cancun , Mexico in December 2010 . Conference topics included a Universal Declaration on the Rights of Mother Earth ( see external links below ) , a World People 's Referendum on Climate Change , and the establishment of a Climate Justice Tribunal . The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of the Mother Earth resulted in a People 's Accord .","qid":"139","docid":"World_People's_Conference_on_Climate_Change","rank":14,"score":92001},{"content":"Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006","rank":15,"score":91991},{"content":"Title: 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference Content: The 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , subtitled Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , was held 28 -- 30 September 2009 at Oxford , United Kingdom . < ref name = `` 4DC '' > 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , University of Oxford , 28-29 Sept. 2009 . The three-day conference had about 140 science , government , NGO and private sector delegates , and included 35 oral presentations and 18 poster presentations . The conference website includes a page for downloading abstracts , presentations , audio recordings , and the programme . Links to a number of news stories are also provided . The conference was sponsored by the University of Oxford , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , and the Met Office Hadley Centre . Video podcasts of all oral presentations are posted on a University of Oxford website ; however , to find videos by presenter names the above cited program must first be consulted to find the presentation title . In January 2011 , eleven papers and three introductory articles resulting from the conference were published as a special issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , Four degrees and beyond : the potential for a global temperature increase of four degrees and its implications . Many of the papers are free downloads . The contents of the special issue are listed later in this article . In July 2011 , a follow-up conference , Four Degrees Or More ? Australia in a Hot World , was held at the University of Melbourne , Australia .","qid":"139","docid":"4_Degrees_and_Beyond_International_Climate_Conference","rank":16,"score":91287},{"content":"Title: Department of Energy and Climate Change Content: The Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) was a British government department created on 3 October 2008 , by then Prime Minister Gordon Brown to take over some of the functions related to energy of the Department for Business , Enterprise and Regulatory Reform , and those relating to climate change of the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs . It was led at time of closure by the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change , Amber Rudd MP . Following Theresa May 's appointment as Prime Minister in July 2016 , the department was disbanded and merged with the Department for Business , Innovation and Skills , to form the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy under Greg Clark MP . The Department released a major White Paper in July 2009 , setting out its purpose and plans . The majority of DECC 's budget was spent on managing the historic nuclear sites in the United Kingdom , in 2012/13 this being 69 % of its budget spent through the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority . The costs to the government of nuclear decommissioning are expected to increase when the last of the United Kingdom 's Magnox reactors are shut down and no longer produce an income .","qid":"139","docid":"Department_of_Energy_and_Climate_Change","rank":17,"score":90566},{"content":"Title: A Nightmare on Elm Street 5: The Dream Child Content: A Nightmare on Elm Street 5 : The Dream Child is a 1989 American slasher film and the fifth film in the Nightmare on Elm Street series . It was directed by Stephen Hopkins , stars Robert Englund , Lisa Wilcox and Danny Hassel . It is the sequel to A Nightmare on Elm Street 4 : The Dream Master and is followed by Freddy 's Dead : The Final Nightmare . The film 's general tone is much darker and the dream sequences are more Gothic than the previous films of the series , and a blue filter lighting technique is used in most of the scenes . The film 's main titles do not display the `` 5 '' that was used in all of the promotional material , TV spots , trailers , and merchandise . The main titles simply say `` A Nightmare on Elm Street : The Dream Child '' . Released on August 11 , 1989 , the film grossed over $ 22.2 million at domestic box office to a generally mixed critical reception .","qid":"139","docid":"A_Nightmare_on_Elm_Street_5:_The_Dream_Child","rank":18,"score":90323},{"content":"Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"139","docid":"Committee_on_Climate_Change","rank":19,"score":89693},{"content":"Title: BBC Climate Change Experiment Content: The BBC Climate Change Experiment was a BOINC project led by Oxford University with several partners including the UK Met Office , the BBC , the Open University and Reading University . It is the Transient coupled model of the Climateprediction.net project . Many participants joined the project with over 120,000 people signing up in teams . Results continued to be collected for some time with the follow-up television program being aired in January 2007 . On 8 March 2009 , Climateprediction.net officially declared that BBC Climate Change Experiment was finished , and then shut down this project .","qid":"139","docid":"BBC_Climate_Change_Experiment","rank":20,"score":89595},{"content":"Title: Stern Review Content: The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the Government of the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern , chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics ( LSE ) and also chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) at Leeds University and LSE . The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy . Although not the first economic report on climate change , it is significant as the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind . The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen , presenting a unique challenge for economics . The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions . The Stern Review 's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong , early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting . The Review points to the potential impacts of climate change on water resources , food production , health , and the environment . According to the Review , without action , the overall costs of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5 % of global gross domestic product ( GDP ) each year , now and forever . Including a wider range of risks and impacts could increase this to 20 % of GDP or more , also indefinitely . Stern believes that 5 -- 6 degrees of temperature increase is `` a real possibility . '' The Review proposes that one percent of global GDP per annum is required to be invested to avoid the worst effects of climate change . In June 2008 , Stern increased the estimate for the annual cost of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e to 2 % of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change . There has been a mixed reaction to the Stern Review from economists . Several economists have been critical of the Review , for example , a paper by Byatt et al. ( 2006 ) describes the Review as `` deeply flawed '' . Some economists ( such as Brad DeLong and John Quiggin ) have supported the Review . Others have criticised aspects of Review 's analysis , but argued that some of its conclusions might still be justified based on other grounds , e.g. , see papers by Martin Weitzman ( 2007 ) and Dieter Helm ( 2008 ) .","qid":"139","docid":"Stern_Review","rank":21,"score":89326},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"139","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":22,"score":89199},{"content":"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .","qid":"139","docid":"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform","rank":23,"score":88927},{"content":"Title: Nightmares (novel series) Content: Nightmares was a novel series of young adult horror fiction that began in 1992 and published until 1996 , running alongside other well-known young adult horror series such as Point Horror and Fear Street . The series was published by HarperCollins ( UK ) under their `` Lions '' imprint , and these books are often listed under either as publisher . Many of these books were published in other formats , either before or after their appearance in this series .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmares_(novel_series)","rank":24,"score":88921},{"content":"Title: G8 Climate Change Roundtable Content: The G8 Climate Change Roundtable was formed in January 2005 at the World Economic Forum in Davos , Switzerland . Its purpose was to address the global climate change issue facing governments , business and civil society . The first meeting was held in Gleneagles , Scotland , from 6 -- 8 July 2005 , to coincide with the 31st G8 summit . The roundtable was established by twenty-three leading international businesses with the assistance of G8 President and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair , to co-operatively engage in a global plan of action . The aim of the group was to ensure that a long-term policy framework was set up to enable consistent and transparent market-based solutions in mitigating climate change , while also addressing issues linked to climate change ; such as economic growth , poverty , and adequate energy supplies . Carbon trading is one of the most popular pricing mechanisms used to the reduce greenhouse emissions worldwide . The group devised a Framework for Action which called for technology incentive programs , the establishment of common metrics , for example in energy efficiency , and the expansion of emissions trading schemes . Some of the companies participating include Ford , British Airways , HSBC , EdF and BP . Now , the Climate Change Roundtable has a membership of 150 businesses spread across the globe . Environmentalists raised concerns that the body 's statement does not call for targets or include timetables . Friends of the Earth noted that the roundtable represented a major shift by the business community towards efforts to mitigate climate change .","qid":"139","docid":"G8_Climate_Change_Roundtable","rank":25,"score":88636},{"content":"Title: Energy and Climate Change Select Committee Content: The Energy and Climate Change Select Committee was a select committee of the House of Commons in the Parliament of the United Kingdom that came into existence on 1 January 2009 .","qid":"139","docid":"Energy_and_Climate_Change_Select_Committee","rank":26,"score":87936},{"content":"Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .","qid":"139","docid":"People's_Climate_March","rank":27,"score":87498},{"content":"Title: Global Climate March Content: The Global Climate March took place in various cities around the world on 29 November 2015 , the day before the opening of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The march was organized by a huge coalition of climate groups and global activists ( such as Avaaz and the international environmental organization 350 . org ) , and involved more than 2,000 events around the globe , in 175 different countries . An estimated number of 785,000 people took part at the marches . Follow-on marches scheduled in 2017 include the March for Science on 22 April 2017 ) and the People 's Climate Mobilization scheduled 29 April 2017 .","qid":"139","docid":"Global_Climate_March","rank":28,"score":87466},{"content":"Title: Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate Change Content: See Also : climate change mitigation , emissions trading . The Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate ( MEF ) was launched on March 28 , 2009 . The MEF is intended to facilitate a candid dialogue among major developed and developing economies , help generate the political leadership necessary to achieve a successful outcome at the December UN climate change conference in Copenhagen , and advance the exploration of concrete initiatives and joint ventures that increase the supply of clean energy while cutting greenhouse gas emissions . The 17 major economies are : Australia , Brazil , Canada , China , the European Union , France , Germany , India , Indonesia , Italy , Japan , South Korea , Mexico , Russia , South Africa , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Denmark , in its capacity as the President of the December 2009 Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change , and the United Nations have also participated in this dialogue along with Observers .","qid":"139","docid":"Major_Economies_Forum_on_Energy_and_Climate_Change","rank":29,"score":87283},{"content":"Title: Church of England border polls 1915–1916 Content: The Church of England border polls 1915 -- 1916 were a series of referendums held in January and February 1915 , with second polls being held in March 1916 , for residents of those living in nineteen Church of England parishes whose boundaries crossed the England -- Wales border . They were carried out to determine if the parish residents wished for their parish to remain part of the Church of England or to join the newly disestablished Church in Wales under the Welsh Church Act 1914 . The polls eventually resulted in all but one of the border parishes voting to remain with the Church of England .","qid":"139","docid":"Church_of_England_border_polls_1915–1916","rank":30,"score":87017},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"139","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":31,"score":86958},{"content":"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .","qid":"139","docid":"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":32,"score":86952},{"content":"Title: Nightmare (1964 film) Content: Nightmare is a 1964 British horror film directed by Freddie Francis and written by Jimmy Sangster who produced the film for Hammer Films . The film focuses on a young girl in a finishing school who is plagued by nightmares concerning her institutionalized mother .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmare_(1964_film)","rank":33,"score":86809},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":34,"score":86681},{"content":"Title: London Climate Change Agency Content: The London Climate Change Agency Limited ( LCCA ) , was a municipal company owned by the London Development Agency ( LDA ) that worked in partnership with private sector companies ( notably EDF Energy ) to design , finance , construct , own and operate decentralised low energy and zero-carbon projects for London , as well as providing services to others . It operated in the areas of energy , water , waste and transport . In 2009 it was integrated into the London Development Agency The Agency was launched on 20 June 2005 to implement a manifesto commitment by Ken Livingstone in the 2004 elections for the Mayor of London . Its budget for 2006-07 is # 815,000 , 63 % of which is funded directly by the LDA . The Chief Executive Officer is Allan Jones , who previously led the development of the pioneering sustainable community energy system in Woking . The London Climate Change Agency plans to create a similar system for London . As of 2006 , London produces 7 % of the UK 's carbon emissions . The LCCA is seen as one of the key vehicles for delivering the Mayor 's energy strategy , which targets cuts in these emissions of 20 % by 2010 and 60 % by 2050 ( although achieving the first of these targets is unlikely ) . The Agency is also expected to play a role in ensuring that the London Olympic games are the first to be powered by low carbon technology .","qid":"139","docid":"London_Climate_Change_Agency","rank":35,"score":86345},{"content":"Title: Nightmare as a Child Content: `` Nightmare as a Child '' is episode twenty-nine of the American television anthology series The Twilight Zone . It originally aired on April 29 , 1960 on CBS .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmare_as_a_Child","rank":36,"score":86172},{"content":"Title: Stop Climate Chaos Content: Stop Climate Chaos is a climate change coalition of primarily environmental and international development NGOs that was formed in September 2005 . The coalition ran the I Count campaign in 2006 -- 07 and organised The Wave , a campaign focused on the climatic impacts of energy production which took place on 5 December 2009 in the run-up to the UN talks in Copenhagen . The coalition encourages individuals to lobby the UK government for what they see as positive policies on climate change . From 2005 to 2010 the director of the coalition was Ashok Sinha . There is also a Scottish secretariat called Stop Climate Chaos Scotland .","qid":"139","docid":"Stop_Climate_Chaos","rank":37,"score":86093},{"content":"Title: Pleasant Dreams: Nightmares Content: Pleasant Dreams : Nightmares is a collection of fantasy and horror short stories by author Robert Bloch . It was released in 1960 and was the author 's second book published by Arkham House . It was released in an edition of 2,060 copies . The stories originally appeared in several magazines between 1946 and 1958 . The collection includes Bloch 's 1959 Hugo Award winning story , `` That Hell-Bound Train . ''","qid":"139","docid":"Pleasant_Dreams:_Nightmares","rank":38,"score":85634},{"content":"Title: The Power of Nightmares Content: The Power of Nightmares : The Rise of the Politics of Fear is a BBC television documentary series by Adam Curtis . It mainly consists of archive footage , with Curtis narrating . The series was originally broadcast in the United Kingdom in 2004 . It has subsequently been aired in multiple countries and shown at various film festivals , including the 2005 Cannes Film Festival . The film compares the rise of the neoconservative movement in the United States and the radical Islamist movement , drawing comparisons between their origins , and remarking on similarities between the two groups . More controversially , it argues that radical Islamism as a massive , sinister organisation , specifically in the form of al-Qaeda , is a myth , or noble lie , perpetuated by leaders of many countries -- and particularly neoconservatives in the U.S. -- in a renewed attempt to unite and inspire their people after the ultimate failure of utopian ideas . The Power of Nightmares was praised by film critics in Britain and the United States . Its message and content have also been the subject of various critiques and criticisms from conservatives and progressives .","qid":"139","docid":"The_Power_of_Nightmares","rank":39,"score":85587},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Agreement Content: When the Climate Change Levy was introduced in the United Kingdom , the position of energy-intensive industries was considered , given their energy usage , the requirements of the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control regime and their exposure to international competition . As a result , a 65 % discount from the levy was allowed for those sectors that agreed targets for improving their energy efficiency or reducing carbon emissions . The discount on electricity increased to 90 % in 2013 . An ` energy-intensive ' sector is one which either carries out activities which are listed as Part A ( 1 ) or A ( 2 ) activities in Part 2 of Schedule 1 to the Environmental Permitting ( England and Wales ) Regulations 2010 ( Statutory Instrument 2010 No. 675 ) ( as amended ) , or that satisfies energy intensity criteria provided by the Department of Energy and Climate Change . The regulations cover the ten main energy-intensive sectors of industry ( aluminium , cement , ceramics , chemicals , food and drink , foundries , glass , non-ferrous metals , paper , and steel ) and over thirty smaller sectors , and in agriculture , livestock units for the intensive rearing of pigs and poultry .","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_Change_Agreement","rank":40,"score":85586},{"content":"Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum Content: The referendum on EU membership took place on 23 June 2016 . Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum was ongoing in the months between the announcement of a referendum and the referendum polling day . Polls on the general principle of Britain 's membership of the European Union were carried out for a number of years prior to the referendum . Opinion polls of voters in general tended to show roughly equal proportions in favour of remaining and leaving . Polls of business leaders , scientists , and lawyers showed majorities in favour of remaining . Among non-British citizens in other EU member states , polling suggested that a majority were in favour of the UK remaining in the EU in principle , but that a similarly sized majority believed that if the UK were only able to remain in the EU on renegotiated terms then it should leave .","qid":"139","docid":"Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum","rank":41,"score":85477},{"content":"Title: United Kingdom general election, 2015 Content: The United Kingdom general election of 7 May 2015 elected 650 members to the British House of Commons . It was the first general election at the end of a fixed-term Parliament . Local elections took place in most of England on the same day . Polls and commentators had predicted the outcome would be too close to call and would result in a second hung parliament similar to the 2010 election . Opinion polls were eventually proven to have underestimated the Conservative vote as they won a surprise outright majority , which bore resemblance to their victory in the 1992 general election . Having governed in coalition with the Liberal Democrats since 2010 , the Conservatives won 330 seats and 36.9 % of the vote , this time winning a working majority of 12 . The British Polling Council began an inquiry into the substantial variance between opinion polls and the actual result . Forming the first Conservative majority government since 1992 , David Cameron became the first Prime Minister to continue in office immediately after a term of at least four years with a larger popular vote share since 1900 , and the only Prime Minister other than Margaret Thatcher to continue in office immediately after a term of at least four years with a greater number of seats . The Labour Party , led by Ed Miliband , saw a small increase in its vote share to 30.4 % , but incurred a net loss of seats to return 232 MPs . This was its lowest seat tally since the 1987 election . Senior Labour shadow cabinet members , notably Ed Balls , Douglas Alexander , and Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy , were defeated . The Scottish National Party , enjoying a surge in support since the 2014 Scottish independence referendum , recorded a number of huge swings of over 30 % ( including a record-breaking swing of 39.3 % achieved in Glasgow North East ) from Labour , as it won 56 of the 59 Scottish seats to become the third-largest party in the Commons . The Liberal Democrats , led by outgoing Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg , had their worst result since being formed in 1988 , holding just eight out of their previous 57 seats with cabinet ministers Vince Cable , Ed Davey and Danny Alexander losing their seats . The UK Independence Party ( UKIP ) came third in terms of votes with 12.6 % , but only won one seat , with party leader Nigel Farage failing to win the seat of South Thanet . The Green Party won its highest-ever share of the vote with 3.8 % , and held Brighton Pavilion with an increased majority , though did not win any additional seats . Labour 's Miliband ( as national leader ) and Murphy ( as Scottish leader ) resigned , as did Clegg . Farage claimed that his resignation was rejected by his party , and he remained in post . In Northern Ireland , the Ulster Unionist Party returned to the Commons with two MPs after a five-year absence , while the Alliance Party lost its only seat despite an increase in total vote share . The Conservative majority meant that Cameron was able to fulfil a manifesto commitment to renegotiate British membership of the European Union . That renegotiation was followed by a referendum in June 2016 , which resulted in the British people voting to leave the EU and led to the resignation of Cameron as Prime Minister . The new Prime Minister , Theresa May , called in April 2017 for a fresh general election with the stated aim of securing a majority for her Brexit negotiations ; it received parliamentary approval and was scheduled for 8 June 2017 .","qid":"139","docid":"United_Kingdom_general_election,_2015","rank":42,"score":85371},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"139","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":43,"score":84877},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Levy Content: The Climate Change Levy ( CCL ) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom . Its aim is to provide an incentive to increase energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions ; however , there have been ongoing calls to replace it with a proper carbon tax .","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_Change_Levy","rank":44,"score":84870},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .","qid":"139","docid":"Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge","rank":45,"score":84867},{"content":"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .","qid":"139","docid":"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":46,"score":84276},{"content":"Title: UK Youth Climate Coalition Content: The UK Youth Climate Coalition ( UKYCC ) is a non-profit youth organisation in the United Kingdom . The organisation is run entirely by unpaid volunteers , who are all under the ages of 25 . Formed in 2008 , the mission of the organisation is to inspire , empower and mobilise a coalition of UK youth organisations and young people to take positive action on climate change . To achieve their aims and objectives , the organisation provides training to young people on public narration whilst coordinating a series of projects , campaigns and events each year , including youth delegations to the United Nations Climate Negotiations . The organisation is supported by a coalition of non-governmental organisations .","qid":"139","docid":"UK_Youth_Climate_Coalition","rank":47,"score":84194},{"content":"Title: Captain Zed and the Zee Zone Content: Captain Zed and the Zee Zone was a short-lived CITV television series , airing in the United Kingdom . When children go to sleep it is Captain Zed 's and his partner PJ 's job to prevent children from having nightmares in the dreamzone . The 26-episode series was animated by the Collingwood O'Hare studio and co-produced by DIC Entertainment & Scottish Television ( now STV Central ) in association with HIT Entertainment . The programme was re-aired in 2009 on wknd@stv - a children 's television strand on Scottish television channel , STV .","qid":"139","docid":"Captain_Zed_and_the_Zee_Zone","rank":48,"score":83410},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"139","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":49,"score":83301},{"content":"Title: 2005 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2005 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place between November 28 and December 9 , 2005 , in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . The conference included the 11th Conference of the Parties ( COP11 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , and was the first Meeting of the Parties ( MOP1 ) to the Kyoto Protocol since their initial meeting in Kyoto in 1997 . It was one of the largest intergovernmental conferences on climate change ever . The event marked the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol on 16 February 2005 . Hosting more than 10,000 delegates , it was one of Canada 's largest international events ever and the largest gathering in Montreal since Expo 67 . The Montreal Action Plan was an agreement to `` extend the life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its 2012 expiration date and negotiate deeper cuts in greenhouse-gas emissions '' by starting negotiations , without delay on an extension of the protocol . Canada 's environment minister , at the time , Stéphane Dion , said the agreement provides a `` map for the future '' .","qid":"139","docid":"2005_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":50,"score":82807},{"content":"Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom general election, 2015 Content: In the run up to the general election on 7 May 2015 , various organisations carried out opinion polling to gauge voting intention . Results of such polls are displayed in this article . Most of the polling companies listed are members of the British Polling Council ( BPC ) and abide by its disclosure rules . The date range for these opinion polls is from 6 May 2010 ( the date of the previous general election ) to 7 May 2015 . Most opinion polls cover only Great Britain ( England , Scotland and Wales ) . Separate polls covering constituent countries of the UK and English regions are reported further below while polling of individual constituencies and groups of them ( such as groups of marginals ) is covered in a separate article . In the event , the actual results proved to be rather different from those indicated by the opinion polls . Opinion polls conducted in the last few months of the campaign , and even in the last few days , had indicated a very close result between the Conservatives and Labour in terms of numbers of votes , suggesting that one of the main parties would have to form a perhaps complex coalition with smaller parties in order to govern . However the actual results showed a stronger performance by the Conservatives , which gave them an overall majority , since Labour also had a weaker performance than the polls had suggested . When the exit poll was initially presented , some commentators and politicians doubted it , with Paddy Ashdown even declaring `` If this poll is correct I will publicly eat my hat on your programme '' in response to the apparently poor results for the Liberal Democrats . The exit poll was eventually proved to have in fact overestimated the Liberal Democrats ' performance . If the Survation telephone poll ( 6 May ) had been published it would have produced results within 1 % of the election results .","qid":"139","docid":"Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_general_election,_2015","rank":51,"score":82797},{"content":"Title: People's Climate March (2017) Content: The People 's Climate March ( also called People 's Climate Movement ) was a protest which took place on Washington , D.C. 's National Mall , and among 300 locations throughout the United States , and locations outside the U.S. , on April 29 , 2017 . Organizers announced the demonstration in January 2017 to protest the environmental policies of U.S. President Donald Trump and his administration . The protests were held at the end of his first 100 days as president , during stormy weather across the U.S. . There was an estimated 200,000 participating in the D.C. march .","qid":"139","docid":"People's_Climate_March_(2017)","rank":52,"score":82781},{"content":"Title: The Nightmares Content: The Nightmares is a post-punk/gothic rock bank from Jihlava , Czech Republic . The band became a publicly known group shortly after the Velvet Revolution in 1989 , whose original members were Roman Prochazka , Martin Turek , Petra Komarkova and Michal Neuhoffer . Their then mission was to formulate the post-communist expression of reminiscent darkness and liberal forward-looking optimism into a musical message . The Nightmares toured the Czech Republic , Germany , UK and other countries formerly inaccessible to them , played to radio audiences and released a compilation of tracks on CD . Category : Czech rock music groups","qid":"139","docid":"The_Nightmares","rank":53,"score":82681},{"content":"Title: Economists' Statement on Climate Change Content: The Economists ' Statement on Climate Change was published in 1997 , prior to the Kyoto Protocol negotiated that same year , to promote market-based solutions to climate change . It was signed by more than 2,600 economists , including 18 Nobel Prize laureates , and remains the largest public statement in the history of the economics profession . The statement was coordinated by Redefining Progress , an environmental economics think tank founded by Ted Halstead .","qid":"139","docid":"Economists'_Statement_on_Climate_Change","rank":54,"score":82557},{"content":"Title: Klimaforum09 Content: Klimaforum09 - People 's Climate Summit , an open and alternative climate conference in December 2009 , was attended by about 50,000 people . Environmental activists from regions of the world most affected by climate change convened in Copenhagen at Klimaforum09 with leaders such as Vandana Shiva , founder of Navdanya , Nnimmo Bassey , chair of Friends of the Earth International , and author Naomi Klein . A People 's Declaration from Klimaforum09 was formulated before and during the People 's Climate Summit calling for `` System change - not climate change '' and handed over to the 15th Conference of the Parties of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at 18 December . Klimaforum09 took place from 7 December to 18 December 2009 in the DGI-byen conference center , near the Copenhagen Central Station , as open and alternative event during UNFCCC COP15 . The summit with over 300 debates , exhibitions , films , concerts and plays was organised by the Klimaforum network , a broad network of civil society organisations , and realized with the help of hundreds of volunteers .","qid":"139","docid":"Klimaforum09","rank":55,"score":82483},{"content":"Title: Suffer the Little Children Content: `` Suffer the Little Children '' is a short story by Stephen King . It was first published by Cavalier in February , 1972 . The story was later published as part of the collection Nightmares & Dreamscapes in 1993 . In the `` Notes '' section of Nightmares & Dreamscapes , King wrote that it was originally supposed to be published in his 1978 collection Night Shift , but editor Bill Thompson opted to have it cut . King had wanted to cut `` Gray Matter '' , but deferred to Thompson 's choice . King has stated that the story reminds him of the works of Ray Bradbury , and similarities have been noted by other authors as well . King also wrote that the story had `` no redeeming social merit whatever . '' In The Complete Stephen King Universe , it is described as an `` effective chiller . ''","qid":"139","docid":"Suffer_the_Little_Children","rank":56,"score":82124},{"content":"Title: Nightmares (Buffy the Vampire Slayer) Content: `` Nightmares '' is the tenth episode of the first season of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer . The episode 's teleplay was written by David Greenwalt , with a story by Joss Whedon , and directed by Bruce Seth Green . The episode originally aired on May 12 , 1997 , attracting a Nielsen rating of 2.5 . The episode is about the students at Sunnydale High beginning to experience aspects of their worst nightmares while awake , leading the Scooby Gang 's investigation to a young boy with a secret . However , before they can get to the bottom of things , they must face their own nightmares , which are rapidly taking over reality .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmares_(Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer)","rank":57,"score":82027},{"content":"Title: The Climate Group Content: The Climate Group is a non-profit organization that works internationally with business and government to promote clean technologies and policies , with the aim of expanding clean technology markets and reducing global greenhouse gas emissions . After launching with the support of Tony Blair in 2004 , the organization now has offices in the UK ( headquarters ) , the United States , Europe , Australia , India , mainland China and Hong Kong . As of December 2010 , The Climate Group 's membership included 80 large companies and state/city-level governments from around the world , with members representing 15 % of global GDP . The Climate Group says it is one of the world 's first business and government alliances working to create solutions to climate change that are compatible with economic growth . Solutions pursued by the organization include its technology programs , such as the LED ` Lightsavers ' global trial taking place in cities such as New York City , Hong Kong and Kolkata ; the Climate Principles project , under which financial institutions ( including Credit Agricole , HSBC , Standard Chartered , Swiss Re , F&C Asset Management and BNP Paribas ) agree to consider climate change when structuring their service and product offerings ; the States and Regions Alliance , designed to encourage state , provincial and city government climate change initiatives ; and publications assessing and promoting the potential value of low carbon technologies and policies . The Climate Group also hosts a range of events such as Climate Week NYC in New York City , a week-long global forum examining clean technology policies and financing strategies . It has partnered a range of initiatives and reports with organisations including the Global e-Sustainability Initiative ( GeSi ) , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) , the Carbon Disclosure Project , the Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation , the New York Academy of Sciences , the United Nations Foundation , the German Marshall Fund , the Office of Tony Blair and the World Business Council on Sustainable Development ( WBSCD ) .","qid":"139","docid":"The_Climate_Group","rank":58,"score":81919},{"content":"Title: János Pásztor (diplomat) Content: János Pásztor ( born 1955 ) is a Hungarian diplomat , the Senior Adviser to the Secretary-General on Climate Change . He joined his current role in January 2016 at the request of United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon . Prior to his current role he was Assistant Secretary-General on Climate Change in the Executive Office of the Secretary-General of the United Nations in New York City . He was appointed Assistant Secretary-General in January 2015 after taking leave of absence from the World Wide Fund for Nature International where he was Policy and Science Director and acting Director for Conservation .","qid":"139","docid":"János_Pásztor_(diplomat)","rank":59,"score":81842},{"content":"Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom general election, 2017 Content: In the run-up to the general election on 8 June 2017 , various organisations are carrying out opinion polling to gauge voting intentions . Results of such polls are displayed in this article . Most of the polling companies listed are members of the British Polling Council ( BPC ) and abide by its disclosure rules . The date range for these opinion polls is from after the previous general election , held on 7 May 2015 , to the present day . Under fixed-term legislation , the next general election was scheduled to be held on 7 May 2020 . However , on 18 April 2017 , Prime Minister Theresa May said that she would seek to bring forward the general election to Thursday 8 June 2017 , which the House of Commons approved on 19 April . For an early election to be held , two-thirds of the total membership of the House had to support the resolution . Most opinion polls cover only Great Britain , as Northern Ireland seats are contested by a different set of political parties . Most YouGov polls include the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru as single options . The English and Welsh , Scottish , and Northern Irish Green Parties are also treated as a single option by most polls .","qid":"139","docid":"Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_general_election,_2017","rank":60,"score":81782},{"content":"Title: Waking Nightmares Content: Waking Nightmares is a collection of horror stories by Ramsey Campbell , first published in 1991 by Tor Books . The first British edition was published in 1992 by Little , Brown . It contains an introduction by the author . The collection includes the following stories : `` The Guide '' ( 1989 ) `` Next Time You 'll Know Me '' ( 1988 ) `` Second Sight '' ( 1987 ) `` The Trick '' ( 1980 ) `` In the Trees '' ( 1986 ) `` Another World '' ( 1987 ) `` Playing the Game '' ( 1988 ) `` Bedtime Story '' ( 1986 ) `` Watch the Birdie '' ( 1984 ) `` Old Clothes '' ( 1985 ) `` Beyond Words '' ( 1986 ) `` Jack in the Box '' ( 1983 ) `` Eye of Childhood '' ( 1982 ) `` The Other Side '' ( 1986 ) `` Where the Heart Is '' ( 1987 ) `` Being an Angel '' ( 1989 ) `` It Helps If You Sing '' ( 1989 ) `` The Old School '' ( 1989 ) `` Meeting the Author '' ( 1989 )","qid":"139","docid":"Waking_Nightmares","rank":61,"score":81772},{"content":"Title: I Dream Content: I Dream is a British children 's musical television comedy programme aimed at and mostly about teenagers , which aired in 2004 ( see 2004 in television ) . It was set at an esteemed performing arts college near Barcelona , Spain , and focuses on 13 teenagers who are invited to enrol at the college , Avalon Heights , over the summer . All eight members of the pop group S Club 8 star in the show alongside five other young actors and actresses and Hollywood film actor Christopher Lloyd . I Dream has the members of S Club 8 playing supposedly exaggerated versions of themselves , albeit with identical names to their real life counterparts . Each episode of the show includes several ( usually two or more ) songs and dance numbers involving both members and non-members of the band . Cast member George Wood called the show `` a modern day Fame '' . The lead production company was 19 Television , a subsidiary of the corporation 19 Management , which is owned by the show 's executive producer , Simon Fuller . The first episode of I Dream aired on Wednesday 22 September 2004 on BBC One . From the week of 23 November episodes were aired on Thursday instead of Wednesday , and the thirteenth and final episode aired on 16 December and featured Laila Rouass . Reruns of the show in the UK were broadcast on the CBBC Channel .","qid":"139","docid":"I_Dream","rank":62,"score":81733},{"content":"Title: Migration and global environmental change (Report) Content: Migration and Global Environmental Change was a report about the influence of climate change on patterns of human migration and displacement published in 2011 . The report was produced by the Foresight unit at the UK 's Government Office of Science . It became known colloquially as ` The Foresight Report ' among people working in the field of climate-linked migration . The report was led by Professor Richard Black of Sussex University . The report was one of the first assessments of all the existing evidence and research on the connections between climate change and migration . The report authors also commissioned a number of new peer reviewed articles on migration and climate change , significant adding to the evidence base of the topic . The report attracted significant media attention on its release . The report was critical of previous predictions of the number of people who could be forced to move by climate change . It argued that making such numerical predictions was impossible because attributing climate change as the sole cause of someone 's migration was difficult . The report popularized the idea of trapped populations . The report argued that as well as being forced to move by climate change impacts , people might also be forced to stay where they are . The report drew on evidence showing that as people become poorer as a result of a degraded environment , they become less able to migrate . The idea of trapped populations had been present in the academic literature for sometime , however the media attention results from the release of the report brought the idea to a wider public for the first time . The report also popularized the idea of migration as climate change adaptation . Again , the authors drew on existing academic literature on the topic . They made the case that migration should be seen as a legitimate and empowering way for some people to adapt to the impacts of climate change .","qid":"139","docid":"Migration_and_global_environmental_change_(Report)","rank":63,"score":81667},{"content":"Title: Nightmare disorder Content: Nightmare disorder , also known as ` dream anxiety disorder ' , is a sleep disorder characterized by frequent nightmares . The nightmares , which often portray the individual in a situation that jeopardizes their life or personal safety , usually occur during the REM stages of sleep . Though such nightmares occur within many people , those with nightmare disorder experience them with a greater frequency . The disorder 's DSM-IV number is 307.47 .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmare_disorder","rank":64,"score":81394},{"content":"Title: Nightmares (1980 film) Content: Nightmares is a 1980 Australian horror film , directed by John D. Lamond . It is also known as Stage Fright . It was Gary Sweet 's feature film debut .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmares_(1980_film)","rank":65,"score":81249},{"content":"Title: The Changes (TV series) Content: The Changes is a British children 's science fiction television serial filmed in 1973 and first broadcast in 1975 by the BBC . It was directed by John Prowse and is based on the trilogy written by Peter Dickinson : The Weathermonger ( 1968 ) , Heartsease ( 1969 ) , and The Devil 's Children ( 1970 ) ( the books were written in reverse order : the events of The Devil 's Children happen first , Heartsease second , and The Weathermonger third ) .","qid":"139","docid":"The_Changes_(TV_series)","rank":66,"score":81233},{"content":"Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_Summit","rank":67,"score":81049},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"139","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":68,"score":80937},{"content":"Title: Dreams and Nightmares Content: Dreams and Nightmares is the debut studio album by American hip hop recording artist Meek Mill . It was released on October 30 , 2012 , by Maybach Music Group and Warner Bros. . Records . The album features guest appearances from Nas , Rick Ross , Wale , Trey Songz , Drake , Big Sean , John Legend , Louie V , 2 Chainz , Kirko Bangz , Sam Sneak and Mary J. Blige . Mill said that it would be more cohesive than his mixtapes by having more connection in both vocal delivery and clearer beats . The album was supported by four singles in total including , `` Amen '' , `` Burn '' , `` Young & Gettin ' It '' and `` Believe It '' . Upon its release , Dreams and Nightmares received generally positive reviews from music critics . The album debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200 , selling 165,000 copies in its first week in the United States . As of June 2015 , the album has sold over 414,000 copies in the United States .","qid":"139","docid":"Dreams_and_Nightmares","rank":69,"score":80879},{"content":"Title: Dream Street (UK TV series) Content: Dream Street is a British children 's television series that ran from 6 May 1999 to 2002 on CITV . The show is narrated by British comedian Russ Abbot , and was aimed at children aged from 2 to 7 . The show featured talking toy vehicles , which were radio controlled in real time . The series aired back on CITV around 2008 . The show was set in a story book resting on the bedside table , and in later series with a child holding it , of a playroom during the night , whilst the child was asleep . The room also includes an element of Dream Street within it - the teddy bear clock . In later series , the title sequence revealed more of the things within the room , such as model Saturn bedposts . The official slogan was ; `` Stimulate your child 's imagination ! , because Dream Street is a world of magical fun ! '' . For Series 2 , the theme tune contained the lyric `` Get Streetwise '' , as part of the road safety campaign , which was repeated at the end of the show accompanying a short promo . CITV , the original broadcaster , repeated the series in 2008-09 , but it ended shortly after . There have been VHS releases of the series by Carlton Video . A revival of the series was announced in 2015 .","qid":"139","docid":"Dream_Street_(UK_TV_series)","rank":70,"score":80745},{"content":"Title: Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Content: The Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) is a climate change research centre in England . It is hosted jointly by the University of Leeds and the London School of Economics and Political Science ( LSE ) . CCCEP is part of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment , which is chaired by Lord Nicholas Stern of Brentford , former Chief Economist of the World Bank and author of the widely known Stern Review . CCCEP was established in 2008 , and is funded by the ESRC . Its mission is to advance public and private action on climate change through rigorous , innovative research . In pursuit of its mission , CCCEP has five research themes in its phase 2 programme : Understanding green growth and climate-compatible development Advancing climate finance and investment Evaluating the performance of climate policies Managing climate risks and uncertainties and strengthening climate services Enabling rapid transitions in mitigation and adaptation In October 2016 , The Daily mail reported allegations that CCCEP had fraudulently obtained millions of dollars from UK taxpayers by claiming credit for research they did not produce . The organization responded to the claims saying that the alleged fraud was an overreaction to a clerical error .","qid":"139","docid":"Centre_for_Climate_Change_Economics_and_Policy","rank":71,"score":80686},{"content":"Title: Northern Ireland border poll 1973 Content: The Northern Ireland border poll 1973 was a referendum held in Northern Ireland on 8 March 1973 on whether Northern Ireland should remain part of the United Kingdom or join with the Republic of Ireland to form a united Ireland . It was the first time that a major referendum had been held in any region of the United Kingdom .","qid":"139","docid":"Northern_Ireland_border_poll_1973","rank":72,"score":80607},{"content":"Title: Nightmare (French band) Content: Nightmare is a power metal band , native of Grenoble , France . The band was influenced by the new wave of British heavy metal phenomenon developing in the UK in the 1980s and started their career playing classic heavy metal , that later changed to power metal with death metal and thrash metal influences .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmare_(French_band)","rank":73,"score":80426},{"content":"Title: Nightmares (Omen album) Content: Nightmares is the first EP album of the American heavy metal band Omen . It was originally released in 1987 by Metal Blade . It was included as bonus tracks on the 1989 re-issue of Warning Of Danger and the 1996 re-issue of The Curse .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmares_(Omen_album)","rank":74,"score":80410},{"content":"Title: János Bencsik Content: János Bencsik ( born July 31 , 1965 ) is a Hungarian politician , who served as Mayor of Tatabánya from 1990 to 2010 . He was appointed State Secretary for Climate Change and Energy in the Ministry of National Development on December 12 , 2010 . He announced his resignation on December 2 , 2011 . He was replaced by Pál Kovács . He is a member of the National Assembly ( MP ) in 1998 and since 2006 . He represents Tatabánya ( Komárom-Esztergom County Constituency I ) since May 14 , 2010 . He was elected a member of the Economic and Information Technology Committee on December 30 , 2011 .","qid":"139","docid":"János_Bencsik","rank":75,"score":80382},{"content":"Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .","qid":"139","docid":"World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow","rank":76,"score":80344},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"139","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":77,"score":80246},{"content":"Title: Dream Children Content: Dream Children is a 1998 novel by A. N. Wilson . Owing to his own early encounters , Oliver Gold , a distinguished philosopher , has decided he can only be happy with a child . Oliver , however , moves in with a widow in North London . He makes all the ladies around him fall in love with him , from the aging matriarch to a pair of lesbian lovers to a little girl named Bobs . Bobs is aged three when Oliver moves in and is aged ten by the end of the book .","qid":"139","docid":"Dream_Children","rank":78,"score":80131},{"content":"Title: 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: __ NOTOC __ The 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place at the Bali International Conference Centre , Nusa Dua , in Bali , Indonesia , between December 3 and December 15 , 2007 ( though originally planned to end on 14 December ) . Representatives from over 180 countries attended , together with observers from intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations . The conference encompassed meetings of several bodies , including the 13th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( COP 13 ) , the 3rd Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol ( MOP 3 or CMP 3 ) , together with other subsidiary bodies and a meeting of ministers . Negotiations on a successor to the Kyoto Protocol dominated the conference . A meeting of environment ministers and experts held in June called on the conference to agree on a road-map , timetable and ` concrete steps for the negotiations ' with a view to reaching an agreement by 2009 . It has been debated whether this global meeting on climate change has achieved anything significant at all . Initial EU proposals called for global emissions to peak in 10 to 15 years and decline `` well below half '' of the 2000 level by 2050 for developing countries and for developed countries to achieve emissions levels 20-40 % below 1990 levels by 2020 . The United States strongly opposed these numbers , at times backed by Japan , Canada , Australia and Russia . The resulting compromise mandates `` deep cuts in global emissions '' with references to the IPCC 's Fourth Assessment Report .","qid":"139","docid":"2007_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":79,"score":80072},{"content":"Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .","qid":"139","docid":"2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":80,"score":80046},{"content":"Title: The Heretic (play) Content: The Heretic is a British black comedy play by Richard Bean about climate change and its sceptics . In 2011 it premiered at the Royal Court Theatre receiving positive reviews directed by Jeremy Herrin starring Juliet Stevenson , James Fleet , Lydia Wilson and Johnny Flynn . It made its Australian debut in 2012 at the Melbourne Theatre Company in a production directed by Matt Scholten and starring Noni Hazlehurst , Andrew McFarlane , Anna Samson , Shaun Goss , Lyall Brooks and Katy Warner . The play was published in 2011 , and was included in a collection of Bean 's plays published in 2013 .","qid":"139","docid":"The_Heretic_(play)","rank":81,"score":79997},{"content":"Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .","qid":"139","docid":"Paris_Agreement","rank":82,"score":79965},{"content":"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .","qid":"139","docid":"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle","rank":83,"score":79941},{"content":"Title: Opinion polling in United Kingdom constituencies, 2010–15 Content: Prior to the 2015 United Kingdom general election , various polling organisations conducted opinion polling in specific constituencies . The results of publicised opinion polling for individual constituencies are detailed in this article . However , most opinion polling covers Great Britain , where the results are published in this article here . Opinion polls were conducted gradually from the months after the previous general election held on 6 May 2010 , and increased in frequency before the general election which took place on 7 May 2015 . Though most opinion polls published are for general election voting intention , some polls shown are for voting intention in separate by-elections . Polls of individual constituencies are expensive compared to national polling and were previously an infrequent practice in the UK . However , a large number of individual constituency polls have been carried out in this period , most commissioned from independent polling providers by Lord Ashcroft , a Conservative peer and sponsor . In addition to polls listed in this article , other polling of constituencies has been carried out in private , often by political parties . Given the expense of polling individual constituencies , constituencies are usually only polled if they are of some particular interest , e.g. they are thought to be marginal or facing an impending by-election . The constituencies polled are not necessarily representative of a national average swing . Under the first-past-the-post electoral system the true marginal seats , by definition , will be decisive as to the outcome of the election .","qid":"139","docid":"Opinion_polling_in_United_Kingdom_constituencies,_2010–15","rank":84,"score":79893},{"content":"Title: Young Voices on Climate Change Content: Young Voices on Climate Change is a film series created by the non-profit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization of the same name . The films present youth solutions to the climate crisis , showing environmental initiatives planned and implemented by children in America , Europe , India , Africa and Siberia .","qid":"139","docid":"Young_Voices_on_Climate_Change","rank":85,"score":79847},{"content":"Title: John Ashton (diplomat) Content: John Ashton CBE ( born 7 November 1956 ) was the Special Representative for Climate Change at the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office ( FCO ) from 2006 until June 2012 , Director for Strategic Partnerships at LEAD International , and is the founder and CEO of Third Generation Environmentalism ( E3G ) .","qid":"139","docid":"John_Ashton_(diplomat)","rank":86,"score":79646},{"content":"Title: International Conference on Climate Change Content: The International Conference on Climate Change is a conference series organized and sponsored by The Heartland Institute which aims to bring together global warming skeptics who `` dispute that the science is settled on the causes , consequences , and policy implications of climate change . '' The first conference took place in 2008 . As at 2017 there have been twelve conferences . Most of the events have been held in the United States , but there has been one in Australia and two in Germany .","qid":"139","docid":"International_Conference_on_Climate_Change","rank":87,"score":79586},{"content":"Title: Nightmare Content: A nightmare , also called a bad dream , is an unpleasant dream that can cause a strong emotional response from the mind , typically fear but also despair , anxiety and great sadness . The dream may contain situations of discomfort , psychological or physical terror or panic . Sufferers often awaken in a state of distress and may be unable to return to sleep for a small period . Nightmares can have physical causes such as sleeping in an uncomfortable or awkward position , having a fever , or psychological causes such as stress , anxiety , and as a side effect of various drugs . Eating before going to sleep , which triggers an increase in the body 's metabolism and brain activity , is a potential stimulus for nightmares . Recurrent nightmares may require medical help , as they can interfere with sleeping patterns and cause insomnia .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmare","rank":88,"score":79576},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":89,"score":79472},{"content":"Title: 2008 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2008 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place at PIF Congress Centre , Poznań International Fair ( PIF ) , in Poznań , Poland , between December 1 and December 12 , 2008 . Representatives from over 180 countries attended along with observers from intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations . The conference encompassed meetings of several bodies , including the 14th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( COP 14 ) and the 4th Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol ( MOP 4 or CMP 4 ) . Subsidiaries of these bodies also met , including the fourth session of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA 4 ) , a resumed session of the Ad HocWorking Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP 6 ) , and the twenty-ninth sessions of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation ( SBI 29 ) , and the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice ( SBSTA 29 ) .","qid":"139","docid":"2008_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":90,"score":79448},{"content":"Title: 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference was an international meeting of political leaders and activists to discuss environmental issues . It was held in Marrakech , Morocco from November 7 to 18 . The conference incorporated the twenty-second Conference of the Parties ( COP22 ) , the twelfth meeting of the parties for the Kyoto Protocol ( CMP12 ) , and the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement ( CMA1 ) . The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combatting climate change and to '' -LSB- demonstrate -RSB- to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is underway '' . Participants work together to come up with global solutions to climate change . The conference was presided over by Salaheddine Mezouar , the Moroccan Minister for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation . Approximately 20,000 participants were expected to attend . On 2 May 2016 , events firm GL Events signed the service contract . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also lent its support to the preparation for COP 22 '' .","qid":"139","docid":"2016_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":91,"score":79385},{"content":"Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom general election, 2001 Content: In the run up to the general election of 2001 , several polling organisations carried out opinion polling in regards to voting intention in Great Britain ( i.e. the UK excluding Northern Ireland , which is usually excluded from such voting intention surveys ) . Results of such polls are displayed below . The election took place on 7 June 2001 . The previous general election was held on 1 May 1997 , and had seen Labour return to power with a landslide victory after 18 years , led by Tony Blair . Such was the scale of Labour 's victory that it was widely accepted - even within the Conservative Party - that the next election would produce another Labour victory , with the best realistic target for other parties being to reduce the Labour majority . The parliamentary term of 1997-2001 had seen the opinion polls led by the Labour Party , mostly with a lead in excess of 10 points , over the Conservatives ( who had replaced John Major with William Hague as their new leader ) , apart from a brief spell in the autumn of 2000 when fuel protests threatened to bring Britain to a standstill . However , the blockades which had caused the protests were quickly resolved and Labour support recovered to the extent that Blair felt able to call an election for 3 May 2001 , although the recent foot and mouth crisis meant that the election was delayed for five weeks until 7 June . Another rare success for the Conservatives during this parliamentary term came in June 1999 , when it enjoyed the largest share of the votes in the European parliament elections , with William Hague vowing to keep the pound at Britain 's currency , whereas Tony Blair was refusing to rule out eventually adopting the Euro . In the event , the election produced a low turnout ( with many voters perhaps feeling that another Labour victory was inevitable ) and Labour won a second successive landslide , with the British political scene remaining almost completely unchanged with only a few seats changing hands .","qid":"139","docid":"Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_general_election,_2001","rank":92,"score":79187},{"content":"Title: Nightmares (1983 film) Content: Nightmares is a 1983 American horror anthology film directed by Joseph Sargent , and starring Emilio Estevez , Lance Henriksen , Cristina Raines , Veronica Cartwright , and Richard Masur . The film is made up of four short films based on urban legends ; the first concerns a woman who encounters a killer in the backseat of her car ; the second concerns a video game-addicted teenager who is consumed by his game ; the third focuses on a fallen priest who is stalked by a pickup truck from hell ; and the last follows a suburban family battling a giant rat in their home .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmares_(1983_film)","rank":93,"score":79059},{"content":"Title: Winter of 2009–10 in Great Britain and Ireland Content: The winter of 2009 -- 10 in the United Kingdom ( also called The Big Freeze by British media ) was a meteorological event that started on 16 December 2009 , as part of the severe winter weather in Europe . January 2010 was provisionally the coldest January since 1987 across the country . A persistent pattern of cold northerly and easterly winds brought cold , moist air to the United Kingdom with many snow showers , fronts and polar lows bringing snowy weather with it . The first snowfall began on 17 December 2009 , before a respite over the Christmas period . The most severe snowy weather began on 5 January in North West England and west Scotland with temperatures hitting a low of -17.6 ° C in Greater Manchester , England . The snow spread to Southern England on 6 January and by 7 January the United Kingdom was blanketed in snow , which was captured by NASA 's Terra satellite . The thaw came a week later , as temperatures started to increase . The winter weather brought widespread transport disruption , school closures , power failures , the postponement of sporting events and 25 deaths . A low of -22.3 ° C was recorded in Altnaharra , Scotland on 8 January 2010 . Overall it was the coldest winter since 1978 -- 79 , with a mean temperature of 1.5 ° C.","qid":"139","docid":"Winter_of_2009–10_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland","rank":94,"score":78898},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .","qid":"139","docid":"Climate_Change_Science_Program","rank":95,"score":78836},{"content":"Title: A Dream of the Past: Sir Isumbras at the Ford Content: A Dream of the Past : Sir Isumbras at the Ford ( 1857 ) is a painting by John Everett Millais depicting a medieval knight helping two young peasant children over a swollen river . The children are carrying heavy burdens of wood for winter fuel . Though the title refers to the medieval poem Sir Isumbras , the painting does not illustrate a scene from the original text . However Millais 's friend , the writer Tom Taylor , wrote verse in a pastiche of the original poem , describing the event depicted . This was included in the original exhibition catalogue . The background of the painting is based closely on a ruined medieval bridge which stood in Bridge of Earn , Perthshire ( since demolished ) . Some of the village houses ( in Back Street ) can also be seen , though the tower house or castle to the left is imaginary . When first exhibited the painting was extremely controversial , and was attacked by many critics . Most notably , Millais 's former supporter John Ruskin declared it to be a `` catastrophe '' . The painting was also satirised in a print by Frederic Sandys , entitled `` A Nightmare '' , in which Millais himself was represented as the knight . His fellow Pre-Raphaelites Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Holman Hunt were caricatured as the children , and the horse -- transformed into a donkey -- was branded with the initials of Ruskin .","qid":"139","docid":"A_Dream_of_the_Past:_Sir_Isumbras_at_the_Ford","rank":96,"score":78773},{"content":"Title: Nightmares & Dreamscapes: From the Stories of Stephen King Content: Nightmares & Dreamscapes : From the Stories of Stephen King is an eight-episode anthology series on TNT based on short stories written by Stephen King . It debuted on July 12 , 2006 , and ended its run on August 2 , 2006 . Although most of them are from the collection of the same name , there are some stories from different collections by King . A trailer confirming a DVD release of the series was made available in October 2006 . The series was filmed entirely in Melbourne , Australia .","qid":"139","docid":"Nightmares_&_Dreamscapes:_From_the_Stories_of_Stephen_King","rank":97,"score":78768},{"content":"Title: 2015 United Kingdom general election Content: The 2015 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday, 7 May 2015 to elect 650 members to the House of Commons. It was the first general election at the end of a fixed-term Parliament. Local elections took place in most areas on the same day. Polls and commentators had predicted the outcome would be too close to call and would result in a second consecutive hung parliament that would be either similar or more complicated than the 2010 election. Opinion polls were eventually proven to have underestimated the Conservative vote as the party unexpectedly won an outright majority, which bore resemblance to its victory at the 1992 general election. Having governed in coalition with the Liberal Democrats since 2010, the Conservatives won 330 seats and 36.9% of the vote share, giving them a small overall majority of 12 seats and their first outright win for 23 years. The Labour Party, led by Ed Miliband, saw a small increase in its share of the vote to 30.4%, but incurred a net loss of seats to return 232 MPs. This was its lowest seat tally since the 1987 general election. Senior Labour Shadow Cabinet members, notably Ed Balls, Douglas Alexander, and Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy, were defeated. The Scottish National Party, enjoying a surge in support after the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, recorded a number of swings of over 30% from Labour, as it won 56 of the 59 Scottish seats to become the third-largest party in the Commons. The Liberal Democrats, led by outgoing Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg, had their worst result since their formation in 1988, holding just eight out of their previous 57 seats, with Cabinet ministers Vince Cable, Ed Davey and Danny Alexander losing their seats. UKIP came third in terms of votes with 12.6%, but won only one seat, with party leader Nigel Farage failing to win the seat of South Thanet. The Green Party won its highest-ever share of the vote with 3.8%, and retained its only seat. Labour's Miliband (as national leader) and Murphy (as Scottish leader) both resigned, as did Clegg. In Northern Ireland, the Ulster Unionist Party returned to the Commons with two MPs after a five-year absence, while the Alliance Party lost its only seat despite an increase in total vote share.","qid":"139","docid":"2015_United_Kingdom_general_election","rank":98,"score":78735},{"content":"Title: 2006 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2006 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place between November 6 and 17 , 2006 in Nairobi , Kenya . The conference included the 12th Conference of the Parties ( COP12 ) and the 2nd Meeting of the Parties ( MOP2 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . At the meeting , BBC reporter Richard Black coined the phrase `` climate tourists '' to describe some delegates who attended `` to see Africa , take snaps of the wildlife , the poor , dying African children and women '' . Black also noted that due to delegates concerns over economic costs and possible losses of competitiveness , the majority of the discussions avoided any mention of reducing emissions . Black concluded that was a disconnect between the political process and the scientific imperative . Despite such criticism , certain strides were made at COP12 , including in the areas of support for developing countries and clean development mechanism . The parties adopted a five-year plan of work to support climate change adaptation by developing countries , and agreed on the procedures and modalities for the Adaptation Fund . They also agreed to improve the projects for clean development mechanism .","qid":"139","docid":"2006_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":99,"score":78702},{"content":"Title: British Polling Council Content: The British Polling Council ( BPC ) is an association of market research companies whose opinion polls are regularly published or broadcast in media in the United Kingdom . The BPC was established in 2004 , twelve years after the perceived failure of opinion polls to come close to predicting the actual result of the United Kingdom general election , 1992 . BPC members use a range of fieldwork methods ( telephone , door-to-door , and internet ) and statistical tools . YouGov is a founder member of the British Polling Council","qid":"139","docid":"British_Polling_Council","rank":100,"score":78648}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 114829\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 110274\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Big Ask Campaign Content: The Big Ask was a campaign by Friends of the Earth calling for a new climate change law in the United Kingdom and 15 other EU member states . The United Kingdom Government announced the introduction of the Climate Change Bill in the Queen 's Speech on November 15 , 2006 . This was after 130,000 people across the country had asked their MP to support such a bill . Radiohead frontman Thom Yorke was a spokesperson for the campaign .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Big_Ask_Campaign\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 103452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change opinion by country Content: Climate change opinion is the aggregate of public opinion held by the adult population . Cost constraints often restrict surveys to sample only one or two countries from each continent or focus on only one region . Because of differences among questions , wording , and methods -- it is difficult to reliably compare results or to generalize them to opinions held worldwide . In 2007 -- 2008 , the Gallup Poll surveyed individuals from 128 countries in the first comprehensive study of global opinions . The Gallup Organization aggregated opinion from the adult population fifteen years of age and older , either through the telephone or personal interviews , and in both rural and urban areas except in areas where the safety of interviewer was threatened and in scarcely populated islands . Personal interviews were stratified by population size or geography and cluster sampling was achieved through one or more stages . Although error bounds vary , they were all below ± 6 % with 95 % confidence . Weighting countries to a 2008 World Bank population estimate , sixty-one percent of individuals worldwide were aware of global warming , developed countries more aware than developing , with Africa the least aware . The median of people perceiving it as a threat was 47 % . Latin America and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change was a result of human activities , while Africa , parts of Asia and the Middle East , and countries from the Former Soviet Union led in the opposite . Awareness often translates to concern , although of those aware , individuals in Europe and developed countries in Asia perceived global warming as a greater threat than others .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_opinion_by_country\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 102483\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Campaign against Climate Change Content: The Campaign against Climate Change ( variously abbreviated to CCC or CaCC ) is a UK-based pressure group that aims to raise public awareness of anthropogenic climate change through mobilizing mass demonstrations . Founded in 2001 in response to President Bush 's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol , the organization saw a steady increase in attendance on marches before a sudden take-off in interest between October - December 2005 . An estimated 10,000 people attended a rally in London on December 3 , 2005 . The following year on November 4 , 2006 the Campaign organized a march from the US Embassy to the iCount event in Trafalgar Square . At least 25,000 people gathered in Trafalgar Square that day making it easily the biggest demonstration on climate change in the UK to date , until The Wave march in December 2009 . The December 3rd , 2005 protests were not confined to the UK , but formed part of the first Global Day of Action on Climate Change , in which CCC played a key role in co-ordinating . The demonstrations , in more than 30 countries around the world , were timed to coincide with the crucial Montreal Climate talks in Canada , at which preliminary agreements were made for a post-Kyoto treaty to take effect after 2012 . Outside Montreal itself , a crowd of between 25,000 - 40,000 gathered in a protest organized by the American-based Climate Crisis Coalition . The December 2006 protests again had an international flavour , with the London , UK protest attracting 10,000 participants . The Campaign against Climate Change has a network of local groups around the UK , which are currently in the process of being extended . On February 9 , 2008 the Campaign against Climate Change hosted a Trade Union conference on climate change . Over 300 delegates attended and heard speakers , including several Trade Union general secretaries or their deputies , from most of the major British unions . This conference was followed by two more Trade Union events in 2009 and 2010 . The campaign has also produced a report to a number of British Trade Union 's on `` One Million Climate Jobs '' . Arguing that direct government funding must be used to create jobs that can reduce Carbon emissions . CCC is an example of a growing number of climate-related environmental pressure groups that have developed during the last decade , including organizations like Rising Tide , Climaction and the coalition group Stop Climate Chaos , of which the Campaign against Climate Change is a member . CCC was heavily involved in the campaign against the closure of the Vestas Wind Turbine plant on the Isle of Wight and the occupation of the factory by the workers . The CCC was part of the mobilisations for the demonstrations that marked the United Nations talks on Climate Change in Copenhagen , in December 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Campaign_against_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 100733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Rush Content: Climate Rush is a UK organisation that campaigns on various environmental issues related to climate change . Their website states that , `` We are a diverse group of women and men who are determined to raise awareness of the biggest threat facing humanity today - that of Climate Change '' . The organisation was founded in October 2008 by a group of eleven women , including Tamsin Omond . They have organised various protests using direct action to highlight their cause . They model their actions on those of the suffragettes who campaigned a century ago to gain women the right to vote . Members of the Women 's Institute have campaigned alongside members of the organisation .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Rush\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 98042\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 Content: The Climate Change ( Scotland ) Act 2009 is an Act of the Scottish Parliament . The Act includes an emissions target , set for the year 2050 , for a reduction of at least 80 % from the baseline year , 1990 . Annual targets for greenhouse gas emissions must also be set , after consultation the relevant advisory bodies . Provisions are included in the Act for the creation of a Scottish Committee on Climate Change , as at present the only advisory body is the UK-wide Committee on Climate Change . Ministers in parliament must now report on the progress of these targets . As of January 2011 , public sector bodies in Scotland must comply with new guidelines set out by the Scottish Government .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_(Scotland)_Act_2009\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 94455\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Act_2008\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 93748\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Are We Changing Planet Earth? Content: Are We Changing Planet Earth ? and Can We Save Planet Earth ? are two programmes that form a documentary about global warming , presented by David Attenborough . They were first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 24 May and 1 June 2006 respectively . Part of a themed season by the BBC entitled `` Climate Chaos '' , the programmes were produced in conjunction with the Discovery Channel and the Open University . They were directed by Nicolas Brown and produced by Jeremy Bristow . The music was composed by Samuel Sim . Attenborough undertook the assignment in between his ` Life ' series Life in the Undergrowth and Life in Cold Blood . Around the same time , the naturalist also narrated Planet Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Are_We_Changing_Planet_Earth?\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 93504\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmare (1981 film) Content: Nightmare ( also known as Nightmares in a Damaged Brain ) is a 1981 slasher film directed by Romano Scavolini . Nightmare gained instant notoriety among horror fans when it was banned in the UK as a video nasty and its distributor was sentenced to 18 months in prison for refusing to edit one second of violent footage . The film also garnered controversy for claiming in its press material that Tom Savini had provided the film 's special effects , which Savini vehemently denied .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmare_(1981_film)\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 93174\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Climate Coalition (UK) Content: The Climate Coalition is a group of UK based organisations who share environmental concerns . Individuals may also join . It claims it `` is the UK 's largest group of people dedicated to action on climate change and limiting its impact on the world 's poorest communities . '' Amongst its areas of focus are ending the use of coal and encourage better home insulation . Some of its members are WWF ( UK ) , Friends of the Earth , Christian Aid , RSPB , but there are many others . Its main campaigning website and theme are ` For The Love Of ' , where people are invited to defend features of the environment they love that are at threat from climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Climate_Coalition_(UK)\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 92916\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: If You Love Your Children Content: If You Love Your Children is a 2014 Canadian short film - depicting climate change , directed and produced by Sanjay Patel . The film has received many awards and nominations since its release in August 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"If_You_Love_Your_Children\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 92690\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmares! Content: Nightmares ! is a young adult children 's literature series co-authored by Jason Segel and Kirsten Miller . As of 5 November 2014 , the series has been on The New York Times Best Seller list for children 's book series . The series comprises three titles :\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmares!\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 92332\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World People's Conference on Climate Change Content: The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth was a global gathering of civil society and governments hosted by the government of Bolivia in Tiquipaya , just outside the city of Cochabamba from April 19 -- 22 , 2010 . The event was attended by around 30,000 people from over 100 countries , and the proceedings were transmitted live online by OneClimate and the Global Campaign for Climate Action ( GCCA ) . The conference was viewed as a response to what some termed failed climate talks in Copenhagen during the 15th United Nations Conference of Parties ( COP15 ) climate meetings in December 2009 . There have been claims after the Conference ended that there were flaws in its organization and that the Venezuelan government funded it partially . One of the important objectives of the conference was to produce proposals for new commitments to the Kyoto Protocol and projects in the lead-up to the next UN climate negotiations scheduled during the COP16 meeting in Cancun , Mexico in December 2010 . Conference topics included a Universal Declaration on the Rights of Mother Earth ( see external links below ) , a World People 's Referendum on Climate Change , and the establishment of a Climate Justice Tribunal . The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of the Mother Earth resulted in a People 's Accord .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"World_People's_Conference_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 92001\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 91991\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference Content: The 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , subtitled Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , was held 28 -- 30 September 2009 at Oxford , United Kingdom . < ref name = `` 4DC '' > 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , University of Oxford , 28-29 Sept. 2009 . The three-day conference had about 140 science , government , NGO and private sector delegates , and included 35 oral presentations and 18 poster presentations . The conference website includes a page for downloading abstracts , presentations , audio recordings , and the programme . Links to a number of news stories are also provided . The conference was sponsored by the University of Oxford , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , and the Met Office Hadley Centre . Video podcasts of all oral presentations are posted on a University of Oxford website ; however , to find videos by presenter names the above cited program must first be consulted to find the presentation title . In January 2011 , eleven papers and three introductory articles resulting from the conference were published as a special issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , Four degrees and beyond : the potential for a global temperature increase of four degrees and its implications . Many of the papers are free downloads . The contents of the special issue are listed later in this article . In July 2011 , a follow-up conference , Four Degrees Or More ? Australia in a Hot World , was held at the University of Melbourne , Australia .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"4_Degrees_and_Beyond_International_Climate_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 91287\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Department of Energy and Climate Change Content: The Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) was a British government department created on 3 October 2008 , by then Prime Minister Gordon Brown to take over some of the functions related to energy of the Department for Business , Enterprise and Regulatory Reform , and those relating to climate change of the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs . It was led at time of closure by the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change , Amber Rudd MP . Following Theresa May 's appointment as Prime Minister in July 2016 , the department was disbanded and merged with the Department for Business , Innovation and Skills , to form the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy under Greg Clark MP . The Department released a major White Paper in July 2009 , setting out its purpose and plans . The majority of DECC 's budget was spent on managing the historic nuclear sites in the United Kingdom , in 2012/13 this being 69 % of its budget spent through the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority . The costs to the government of nuclear decommissioning are expected to increase when the last of the United Kingdom 's Magnox reactors are shut down and no longer produce an income .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Department_of_Energy_and_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 90566\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Nightmare on Elm Street 5: The Dream Child Content: A Nightmare on Elm Street 5 : The Dream Child is a 1989 American slasher film and the fifth film in the Nightmare on Elm Street series . It was directed by Stephen Hopkins , stars Robert Englund , Lisa Wilcox and Danny Hassel . It is the sequel to A Nightmare on Elm Street 4 : The Dream Master and is followed by Freddy 's Dead : The Final Nightmare . The film 's general tone is much darker and the dream sequences are more Gothic than the previous films of the series , and a blue filter lighting technique is used in most of the scenes . The film 's main titles do not display the `` 5 '' that was used in all of the promotional material , TV spots , trailers , and merchandise . The main titles simply say `` A Nightmare on Elm Street : The Dream Child '' . Released on August 11 , 1989 , the film grossed over $ 22.2 million at domestic box office to a generally mixed critical reception .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Nightmare_on_Elm_Street_5:_The_Dream_Child\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 90323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Committee_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 89693\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: BBC Climate Change Experiment Content: The BBC Climate Change Experiment was a BOINC project led by Oxford University with several partners including the UK Met Office , the BBC , the Open University and Reading University . It is the Transient coupled model of the Climateprediction.net project . Many participants joined the project with over 120,000 people signing up in teams . Results continued to be collected for some time with the follow-up television program being aired in January 2007 . On 8 March 2009 , Climateprediction.net officially declared that BBC Climate Change Experiment was finished , and then shut down this project .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"BBC_Climate_Change_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 89595\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stern Review Content: The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the Government of the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern , chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics ( LSE ) and also chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) at Leeds University and LSE . The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy . Although not the first economic report on climate change , it is significant as the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind . The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen , presenting a unique challenge for economics . The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions . The Stern Review 's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong , early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting . The Review points to the potential impacts of climate change on water resources , food production , health , and the environment . According to the Review , without action , the overall costs of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5 % of global gross domestic product ( GDP ) each year , now and forever . Including a wider range of risks and impacts could increase this to 20 % of GDP or more , also indefinitely . Stern believes that 5 -- 6 degrees of temperature increase is `` a real possibility . '' The Review proposes that one percent of global GDP per annum is required to be invested to avoid the worst effects of climate change . In June 2008 , Stern increased the estimate for the annual cost of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e to 2 % of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change . There has been a mixed reaction to the Stern Review from economists . Several economists have been critical of the Review , for example , a paper by Byatt et al. ( 2006 ) describes the Review as `` deeply flawed '' . Some economists ( such as Brad DeLong and John Quiggin ) have supported the Review . Others have criticised aspects of Review 's analysis , but argued that some of its conclusions might still be justified based on other grounds , e.g. , see papers by Martin Weitzman ( 2007 ) and Dieter Helm ( 2008 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Stern_Review\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 89326\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 89199\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 88927\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmares (novel series) Content: Nightmares was a novel series of young adult horror fiction that began in 1992 and published until 1996 , running alongside other well-known young adult horror series such as Point Horror and Fear Street . The series was published by HarperCollins ( UK ) under their `` Lions '' imprint , and these books are often listed under either as publisher . Many of these books were published in other formats , either before or after their appearance in this series .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmares_(novel_series)\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 88921\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: G8 Climate Change Roundtable Content: The G8 Climate Change Roundtable was formed in January 2005 at the World Economic Forum in Davos , Switzerland . Its purpose was to address the global climate change issue facing governments , business and civil society . The first meeting was held in Gleneagles , Scotland , from 6 -- 8 July 2005 , to coincide with the 31st G8 summit . The roundtable was established by twenty-three leading international businesses with the assistance of G8 President and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair , to co-operatively engage in a global plan of action . The aim of the group was to ensure that a long-term policy framework was set up to enable consistent and transparent market-based solutions in mitigating climate change , while also addressing issues linked to climate change ; such as economic growth , poverty , and adequate energy supplies . Carbon trading is one of the most popular pricing mechanisms used to the reduce greenhouse emissions worldwide . The group devised a Framework for Action which called for technology incentive programs , the establishment of common metrics , for example in energy efficiency , and the expansion of emissions trading schemes . Some of the companies participating include Ford , British Airways , HSBC , EdF and BP . Now , the Climate Change Roundtable has a membership of 150 businesses spread across the globe . Environmentalists raised concerns that the body 's statement does not call for targets or include timetables . Friends of the Earth noted that the roundtable represented a major shift by the business community towards efforts to mitigate climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"G8_Climate_Change_Roundtable\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 88636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy and Climate Change Select Committee Content: The Energy and Climate Change Select Committee was a select committee of the House of Commons in the Parliament of the United Kingdom that came into existence on 1 January 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_and_Climate_Change_Select_Committee\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 87936\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"People's_Climate_March\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 87498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Climate March Content: The Global Climate March took place in various cities around the world on 29 November 2015 , the day before the opening of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The march was organized by a huge coalition of climate groups and global activists ( such as Avaaz and the international environmental organization 350 . org ) , and involved more than 2,000 events around the globe , in 175 different countries . An estimated number of 785,000 people took part at the marches . Follow-on marches scheduled in 2017 include the March for Science on 22 April 2017 ) and the People 's Climate Mobilization scheduled 29 April 2017 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Climate_March\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 87466\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate Change Content: See Also : climate change mitigation , emissions trading . The Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate ( MEF ) was launched on March 28 , 2009 . The MEF is intended to facilitate a candid dialogue among major developed and developing economies , help generate the political leadership necessary to achieve a successful outcome at the December UN climate change conference in Copenhagen , and advance the exploration of concrete initiatives and joint ventures that increase the supply of clean energy while cutting greenhouse gas emissions . The 17 major economies are : Australia , Brazil , Canada , China , the European Union , France , Germany , India , Indonesia , Italy , Japan , South Korea , Mexico , Russia , South Africa , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Denmark , in its capacity as the President of the December 2009 Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change , and the United Nations have also participated in this dialogue along with Observers .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Major_Economies_Forum_on_Energy_and_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 87283\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Church of England border polls 1915–1916 Content: The Church of England border polls 1915 -- 1916 were a series of referendums held in January and February 1915 , with second polls being held in March 1916 , for residents of those living in nineteen Church of England parishes whose boundaries crossed the England -- Wales border . They were carried out to determine if the parish residents wished for their parish to remain part of the Church of England or to join the newly disestablished Church in Wales under the Welsh Church Act 1914 . The polls eventually resulted in all but one of the border parishes voting to remain with the Church of England .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Church_of_England_border_polls_1915–1916\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 87017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 86958\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 86952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmare (1964 film) Content: Nightmare is a 1964 British horror film directed by Freddie Francis and written by Jimmy Sangster who produced the film for Hammer Films . The film focuses on a young girl in a finishing school who is plagued by nightmares concerning her institutionalized mother .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmare_(1964_film)\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 86809\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 86681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: London Climate Change Agency Content: The London Climate Change Agency Limited ( LCCA ) , was a municipal company owned by the London Development Agency ( LDA ) that worked in partnership with private sector companies ( notably EDF Energy ) to design , finance , construct , own and operate decentralised low energy and zero-carbon projects for London , as well as providing services to others . It operated in the areas of energy , water , waste and transport . In 2009 it was integrated into the London Development Agency The Agency was launched on 20 June 2005 to implement a manifesto commitment by Ken Livingstone in the 2004 elections for the Mayor of London . Its budget for 2006-07 is # 815,000 , 63 % of which is funded directly by the LDA . The Chief Executive Officer is Allan Jones , who previously led the development of the pioneering sustainable community energy system in Woking . The London Climate Change Agency plans to create a similar system for London . As of 2006 , London produces 7 % of the UK 's carbon emissions . The LCCA is seen as one of the key vehicles for delivering the Mayor 's energy strategy , which targets cuts in these emissions of 20 % by 2010 and 60 % by 2050 ( although achieving the first of these targets is unlikely ) . The Agency is also expected to play a role in ensuring that the London Olympic games are the first to be powered by low carbon technology .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"London_Climate_Change_Agency\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 86345\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmare as a Child Content: `` Nightmare as a Child '' is episode twenty-nine of the American television anthology series The Twilight Zone . It originally aired on April 29 , 1960 on CBS .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmare_as_a_Child\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 86172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stop Climate Chaos Content: Stop Climate Chaos is a climate change coalition of primarily environmental and international development NGOs that was formed in September 2005 . The coalition ran the I Count campaign in 2006 -- 07 and organised The Wave , a campaign focused on the climatic impacts of energy production which took place on 5 December 2009 in the run-up to the UN talks in Copenhagen . The coalition encourages individuals to lobby the UK government for what they see as positive policies on climate change . From 2005 to 2010 the director of the coalition was Ashok Sinha . There is also a Scottish secretariat called Stop Climate Chaos Scotland .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Stop_Climate_Chaos\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 86093\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pleasant Dreams: Nightmares Content: Pleasant Dreams : Nightmares is a collection of fantasy and horror short stories by author Robert Bloch . It was released in 1960 and was the author 's second book published by Arkham House . It was released in an edition of 2,060 copies . The stories originally appeared in several magazines between 1946 and 1958 . The collection includes Bloch 's 1959 Hugo Award winning story , `` That Hell-Bound Train . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Pleasant_Dreams:_Nightmares\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 85634\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Power of Nightmares Content: The Power of Nightmares : The Rise of the Politics of Fear is a BBC television documentary series by Adam Curtis . It mainly consists of archive footage , with Curtis narrating . The series was originally broadcast in the United Kingdom in 2004 . It has subsequently been aired in multiple countries and shown at various film festivals , including the 2005 Cannes Film Festival . The film compares the rise of the neoconservative movement in the United States and the radical Islamist movement , drawing comparisons between their origins , and remarking on similarities between the two groups . More controversially , it argues that radical Islamism as a massive , sinister organisation , specifically in the form of al-Qaeda , is a myth , or noble lie , perpetuated by leaders of many countries -- and particularly neoconservatives in the U.S. -- in a renewed attempt to unite and inspire their people after the ultimate failure of utopian ideas . The Power of Nightmares was praised by film critics in Britain and the United States . Its message and content have also been the subject of various critiques and criticisms from conservatives and progressives .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Power_of_Nightmares\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 85587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Agreement Content: When the Climate Change Levy was introduced in the United Kingdom , the position of energy-intensive industries was considered , given their energy usage , the requirements of the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control regime and their exposure to international competition . As a result , a 65 % discount from the levy was allowed for those sectors that agreed targets for improving their energy efficiency or reducing carbon emissions . The discount on electricity increased to 90 % in 2013 . An ` energy-intensive ' sector is one which either carries out activities which are listed as Part A ( 1 ) or A ( 2 ) activities in Part 2 of Schedule 1 to the Environmental Permitting ( England and Wales ) Regulations 2010 ( Statutory Instrument 2010 No. 675 ) ( as amended ) , or that satisfies energy intensity criteria provided by the Department of Energy and Climate Change . The regulations cover the ten main energy-intensive sectors of industry ( aluminium , cement , ceramics , chemicals , food and drink , foundries , glass , non-ferrous metals , paper , and steel ) and over thirty smaller sectors , and in agriculture , livestock units for the intensive rearing of pigs and poultry .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Agreement\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 85586\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum Content: The referendum on EU membership took place on 23 June 2016 . Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum was ongoing in the months between the announcement of a referendum and the referendum polling day . Polls on the general principle of Britain 's membership of the European Union were carried out for a number of years prior to the referendum . Opinion polls of voters in general tended to show roughly equal proportions in favour of remaining and leaving . Polls of business leaders , scientists , and lawyers showed majorities in favour of remaining . Among non-British citizens in other EU member states , polling suggested that a majority were in favour of the UK remaining in the EU in principle , but that a similarly sized majority believed that if the UK were only able to remain in the EU on renegotiated terms then it should leave .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 85477\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Kingdom general election, 2015 Content: The United Kingdom general election of 7 May 2015 elected 650 members to the British House of Commons . It was the first general election at the end of a fixed-term Parliament . Local elections took place in most of England on the same day . Polls and commentators had predicted the outcome would be too close to call and would result in a second hung parliament similar to the 2010 election . Opinion polls were eventually proven to have underestimated the Conservative vote as they won a surprise outright majority , which bore resemblance to their victory in the 1992 general election . Having governed in coalition with the Liberal Democrats since 2010 , the Conservatives won 330 seats and 36.9 % of the vote , this time winning a working majority of 12 . The British Polling Council began an inquiry into the substantial variance between opinion polls and the actual result . Forming the first Conservative majority government since 1992 , David Cameron became the first Prime Minister to continue in office immediately after a term of at least four years with a larger popular vote share since 1900 , and the only Prime Minister other than Margaret Thatcher to continue in office immediately after a term of at least four years with a greater number of seats . The Labour Party , led by Ed Miliband , saw a small increase in its vote share to 30.4 % , but incurred a net loss of seats to return 232 MPs . This was its lowest seat tally since the 1987 election . Senior Labour shadow cabinet members , notably Ed Balls , Douglas Alexander , and Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy , were defeated . The Scottish National Party , enjoying a surge in support since the 2014 Scottish independence referendum , recorded a number of huge swings of over 30 % ( including a record-breaking swing of 39.3 % achieved in Glasgow North East ) from Labour , as it won 56 of the 59 Scottish seats to become the third-largest party in the Commons . The Liberal Democrats , led by outgoing Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg , had their worst result since being formed in 1988 , holding just eight out of their previous 57 seats with cabinet ministers Vince Cable , Ed Davey and Danny Alexander losing their seats . The UK Independence Party ( UKIP ) came third in terms of votes with 12.6 % , but only won one seat , with party leader Nigel Farage failing to win the seat of South Thanet . The Green Party won its highest-ever share of the vote with 3.8 % , and held Brighton Pavilion with an increased majority , though did not win any additional seats . Labour 's Miliband ( as national leader ) and Murphy ( as Scottish leader ) resigned , as did Clegg . Farage claimed that his resignation was rejected by his party , and he remained in post . In Northern Ireland , the Ulster Unionist Party returned to the Commons with two MPs after a five-year absence , while the Alliance Party lost its only seat despite an increase in total vote share . The Conservative majority meant that Cameron was able to fulfil a manifesto commitment to renegotiate British membership of the European Union . That renegotiation was followed by a referendum in June 2016 , which resulted in the British people voting to leave the EU and led to the resignation of Cameron as Prime Minister . The new Prime Minister , Theresa May , called in April 2017 for a fresh general election with the stated aim of securing a majority for her Brexit negotiations ; it received parliamentary approval and was scheduled for 8 June 2017 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Kingdom_general_election,_2015\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 85371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 84877\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Levy Content: The Climate Change Levy ( CCL ) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom . Its aim is to provide an incentive to increase energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions ; however , there have been ongoing calls to replace it with a proper carbon tax .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Levy\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 84870\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 84867\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 84276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: UK Youth Climate Coalition Content: The UK Youth Climate Coalition ( UKYCC ) is a non-profit youth organisation in the United Kingdom . The organisation is run entirely by unpaid volunteers , who are all under the ages of 25 . Formed in 2008 , the mission of the organisation is to inspire , empower and mobilise a coalition of UK youth organisations and young people to take positive action on climate change . To achieve their aims and objectives , the organisation provides training to young people on public narration whilst coordinating a series of projects , campaigns and events each year , including youth delegations to the United Nations Climate Negotiations . The organisation is supported by a coalition of non-governmental organisations .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"UK_Youth_Climate_Coalition\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 84194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Captain Zed and the Zee Zone Content: Captain Zed and the Zee Zone was a short-lived CITV television series , airing in the United Kingdom . When children go to sleep it is Captain Zed 's and his partner PJ 's job to prevent children from having nightmares in the dreamzone . The 26-episode series was animated by the Collingwood O'Hare studio and co-produced by DIC Entertainment & Scottish Television ( now STV Central ) in association with HIT Entertainment . The programme was re-aired in 2009 on wknd@stv - a children 's television strand on Scottish television channel , STV .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Captain_Zed_and_the_Zee_Zone\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 83410\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 83301\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2005 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2005 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place between November 28 and December 9 , 2005 , in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . The conference included the 11th Conference of the Parties ( COP11 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , and was the first Meeting of the Parties ( MOP1 ) to the Kyoto Protocol since their initial meeting in Kyoto in 1997 . It was one of the largest intergovernmental conferences on climate change ever . The event marked the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol on 16 February 2005 . Hosting more than 10,000 delegates , it was one of Canada 's largest international events ever and the largest gathering in Montreal since Expo 67 . The Montreal Action Plan was an agreement to `` extend the life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its 2012 expiration date and negotiate deeper cuts in greenhouse-gas emissions '' by starting negotiations , without delay on an extension of the protocol . Canada 's environment minister , at the time , Stéphane Dion , said the agreement provides a `` map for the future '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"2005_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 82807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom general election, 2015 Content: In the run up to the general election on 7 May 2015 , various organisations carried out opinion polling to gauge voting intention . Results of such polls are displayed in this article . Most of the polling companies listed are members of the British Polling Council ( BPC ) and abide by its disclosure rules . The date range for these opinion polls is from 6 May 2010 ( the date of the previous general election ) to 7 May 2015 . Most opinion polls cover only Great Britain ( England , Scotland and Wales ) . Separate polls covering constituent countries of the UK and English regions are reported further below while polling of individual constituencies and groups of them ( such as groups of marginals ) is covered in a separate article . In the event , the actual results proved to be rather different from those indicated by the opinion polls . Opinion polls conducted in the last few months of the campaign , and even in the last few days , had indicated a very close result between the Conservatives and Labour in terms of numbers of votes , suggesting that one of the main parties would have to form a perhaps complex coalition with smaller parties in order to govern . However the actual results showed a stronger performance by the Conservatives , which gave them an overall majority , since Labour also had a weaker performance than the polls had suggested . When the exit poll was initially presented , some commentators and politicians doubted it , with Paddy Ashdown even declaring `` If this poll is correct I will publicly eat my hat on your programme '' in response to the apparently poor results for the Liberal Democrats . The exit poll was eventually proved to have in fact overestimated the Liberal Democrats ' performance . If the Survation telephone poll ( 6 May ) had been published it would have produced results within 1 % of the election results .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_general_election,_2015\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 82797\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: People's Climate March (2017) Content: The People 's Climate March ( also called People 's Climate Movement ) was a protest which took place on Washington , D.C. 's National Mall , and among 300 locations throughout the United States , and locations outside the U.S. , on April 29 , 2017 . Organizers announced the demonstration in January 2017 to protest the environmental policies of U.S. President Donald Trump and his administration . The protests were held at the end of his first 100 days as president , during stormy weather across the U.S. . There was an estimated 200,000 participating in the D.C. march .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"People's_Climate_March_(2017)\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 82781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Nightmares Content: The Nightmares is a post-punk/gothic rock bank from Jihlava , Czech Republic . The band became a publicly known group shortly after the Velvet Revolution in 1989 , whose original members were Roman Prochazka , Martin Turek , Petra Komarkova and Michal Neuhoffer . Their then mission was to formulate the post-communist expression of reminiscent darkness and liberal forward-looking optimism into a musical message . The Nightmares toured the Czech Republic , Germany , UK and other countries formerly inaccessible to them , played to radio audiences and released a compilation of tracks on CD . Category : Czech rock music groups\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Nightmares\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 82681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economists' Statement on Climate Change Content: The Economists ' Statement on Climate Change was published in 1997 , prior to the Kyoto Protocol negotiated that same year , to promote market-based solutions to climate change . It was signed by more than 2,600 economists , including 18 Nobel Prize laureates , and remains the largest public statement in the history of the economics profession . The statement was coordinated by Redefining Progress , an environmental economics think tank founded by Ted Halstead .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Economists'_Statement_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 82557\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Klimaforum09 Content: Klimaforum09 - People 's Climate Summit , an open and alternative climate conference in December 2009 , was attended by about 50,000 people . Environmental activists from regions of the world most affected by climate change convened in Copenhagen at Klimaforum09 with leaders such as Vandana Shiva , founder of Navdanya , Nnimmo Bassey , chair of Friends of the Earth International , and author Naomi Klein . A People 's Declaration from Klimaforum09 was formulated before and during the People 's Climate Summit calling for `` System change - not climate change '' and handed over to the 15th Conference of the Parties of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at 18 December . Klimaforum09 took place from 7 December to 18 December 2009 in the DGI-byen conference center , near the Copenhagen Central Station , as open and alternative event during UNFCCC COP15 . The summit with over 300 debates , exhibitions , films , concerts and plays was organised by the Klimaforum network , a broad network of civil society organisations , and realized with the help of hundreds of volunteers .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Klimaforum09\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 82483\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Suffer the Little Children Content: `` Suffer the Little Children '' is a short story by Stephen King . It was first published by Cavalier in February , 1972 . The story was later published as part of the collection Nightmares & Dreamscapes in 1993 . In the `` Notes '' section of Nightmares & Dreamscapes , King wrote that it was originally supposed to be published in his 1978 collection Night Shift , but editor Bill Thompson opted to have it cut . King had wanted to cut `` Gray Matter '' , but deferred to Thompson 's choice . King has stated that the story reminds him of the works of Ray Bradbury , and similarities have been noted by other authors as well . King also wrote that the story had `` no redeeming social merit whatever . '' In The Complete Stephen King Universe , it is described as an `` effective chiller . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Suffer_the_Little_Children\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 82124\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmares (Buffy the Vampire Slayer) Content: `` Nightmares '' is the tenth episode of the first season of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer . The episode 's teleplay was written by David Greenwalt , with a story by Joss Whedon , and directed by Bruce Seth Green . The episode originally aired on May 12 , 1997 , attracting a Nielsen rating of 2.5 . The episode is about the students at Sunnydale High beginning to experience aspects of their worst nightmares while awake , leading the Scooby Gang 's investigation to a young boy with a secret . However , before they can get to the bottom of things , they must face their own nightmares , which are rapidly taking over reality .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmares_(Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer)\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 82027\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Climate Group Content: The Climate Group is a non-profit organization that works internationally with business and government to promote clean technologies and policies , with the aim of expanding clean technology markets and reducing global greenhouse gas emissions . After launching with the support of Tony Blair in 2004 , the organization now has offices in the UK ( headquarters ) , the United States , Europe , Australia , India , mainland China and Hong Kong . As of December 2010 , The Climate Group 's membership included 80 large companies and state/city-level governments from around the world , with members representing 15 % of global GDP . The Climate Group says it is one of the world 's first business and government alliances working to create solutions to climate change that are compatible with economic growth . Solutions pursued by the organization include its technology programs , such as the LED ` Lightsavers ' global trial taking place in cities such as New York City , Hong Kong and Kolkata ; the Climate Principles project , under which financial institutions ( including Credit Agricole , HSBC , Standard Chartered , Swiss Re , F&C Asset Management and BNP Paribas ) agree to consider climate change when structuring their service and product offerings ; the States and Regions Alliance , designed to encourage state , provincial and city government climate change initiatives ; and publications assessing and promoting the potential value of low carbon technologies and policies . The Climate Group also hosts a range of events such as Climate Week NYC in New York City , a week-long global forum examining clean technology policies and financing strategies . It has partnered a range of initiatives and reports with organisations including the Global e-Sustainability Initiative ( GeSi ) , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) , the Carbon Disclosure Project , the Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation , the New York Academy of Sciences , the United Nations Foundation , the German Marshall Fund , the Office of Tony Blair and the World Business Council on Sustainable Development ( WBSCD ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Climate_Group\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 81919\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: János Pásztor (diplomat) Content: János Pásztor ( born 1955 ) is a Hungarian diplomat , the Senior Adviser to the Secretary-General on Climate Change . He joined his current role in January 2016 at the request of United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon . Prior to his current role he was Assistant Secretary-General on Climate Change in the Executive Office of the Secretary-General of the United Nations in New York City . He was appointed Assistant Secretary-General in January 2015 after taking leave of absence from the World Wide Fund for Nature International where he was Policy and Science Director and acting Director for Conservation .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"János_Pásztor_(diplomat)\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 81842\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom general election, 2017 Content: In the run-up to the general election on 8 June 2017 , various organisations are carrying out opinion polling to gauge voting intentions . Results of such polls are displayed in this article . Most of the polling companies listed are members of the British Polling Council ( BPC ) and abide by its disclosure rules . The date range for these opinion polls is from after the previous general election , held on 7 May 2015 , to the present day . Under fixed-term legislation , the next general election was scheduled to be held on 7 May 2020 . However , on 18 April 2017 , Prime Minister Theresa May said that she would seek to bring forward the general election to Thursday 8 June 2017 , which the House of Commons approved on 19 April . For an early election to be held , two-thirds of the total membership of the House had to support the resolution . Most opinion polls cover only Great Britain , as Northern Ireland seats are contested by a different set of political parties . Most YouGov polls include the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru as single options . The English and Welsh , Scottish , and Northern Irish Green Parties are also treated as a single option by most polls .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_general_election,_2017\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 81782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Waking Nightmares Content: Waking Nightmares is a collection of horror stories by Ramsey Campbell , first published in 1991 by Tor Books . The first British edition was published in 1992 by Little , Brown . It contains an introduction by the author . The collection includes the following stories : `` The Guide '' ( 1989 ) `` Next Time You 'll Know Me '' ( 1988 ) `` Second Sight '' ( 1987 ) `` The Trick '' ( 1980 ) `` In the Trees '' ( 1986 ) `` Another World '' ( 1987 ) `` Playing the Game '' ( 1988 ) `` Bedtime Story '' ( 1986 ) `` Watch the Birdie '' ( 1984 ) `` Old Clothes '' ( 1985 ) `` Beyond Words '' ( 1986 ) `` Jack in the Box '' ( 1983 ) `` Eye of Childhood '' ( 1982 ) `` The Other Side '' ( 1986 ) `` Where the Heart Is '' ( 1987 ) `` Being an Angel '' ( 1989 ) `` It Helps If You Sing '' ( 1989 ) `` The Old School '' ( 1989 ) `` Meeting the Author '' ( 1989 )\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Waking_Nightmares\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 81772\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: I Dream Content: I Dream is a British children 's musical television comedy programme aimed at and mostly about teenagers , which aired in 2004 ( see 2004 in television ) . It was set at an esteemed performing arts college near Barcelona , Spain , and focuses on 13 teenagers who are invited to enrol at the college , Avalon Heights , over the summer . All eight members of the pop group S Club 8 star in the show alongside five other young actors and actresses and Hollywood film actor Christopher Lloyd . I Dream has the members of S Club 8 playing supposedly exaggerated versions of themselves , albeit with identical names to their real life counterparts . Each episode of the show includes several ( usually two or more ) songs and dance numbers involving both members and non-members of the band . Cast member George Wood called the show `` a modern day Fame '' . The lead production company was 19 Television , a subsidiary of the corporation 19 Management , which is owned by the show 's executive producer , Simon Fuller . The first episode of I Dream aired on Wednesday 22 September 2004 on BBC One . From the week of 23 November episodes were aired on Thursday instead of Wednesday , and the thirteenth and final episode aired on 16 December and featured Laila Rouass . Reruns of the show in the UK were broadcast on the CBBC Channel .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"I_Dream\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 81733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration and global environmental change (Report) Content: Migration and Global Environmental Change was a report about the influence of climate change on patterns of human migration and displacement published in 2011 . The report was produced by the Foresight unit at the UK 's Government Office of Science . It became known colloquially as ` The Foresight Report ' among people working in the field of climate-linked migration . The report was led by Professor Richard Black of Sussex University . The report was one of the first assessments of all the existing evidence and research on the connections between climate change and migration . The report authors also commissioned a number of new peer reviewed articles on migration and climate change , significant adding to the evidence base of the topic . The report attracted significant media attention on its release . The report was critical of previous predictions of the number of people who could be forced to move by climate change . It argued that making such numerical predictions was impossible because attributing climate change as the sole cause of someone 's migration was difficult . The report popularized the idea of trapped populations . The report argued that as well as being forced to move by climate change impacts , people might also be forced to stay where they are . The report drew on evidence showing that as people become poorer as a result of a degraded environment , they become less able to migrate . The idea of trapped populations had been present in the academic literature for sometime , however the media attention results from the release of the report brought the idea to a wider public for the first time . The report also popularized the idea of migration as climate change adaptation . Again , the authors drew on existing academic literature on the topic . They made the case that migration should be seen as a legitimate and empowering way for some people to adapt to the impacts of climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_and_global_environmental_change_(Report)\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 81667\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmare disorder Content: Nightmare disorder , also known as ` dream anxiety disorder ' , is a sleep disorder characterized by frequent nightmares . The nightmares , which often portray the individual in a situation that jeopardizes their life or personal safety , usually occur during the REM stages of sleep . Though such nightmares occur within many people , those with nightmare disorder experience them with a greater frequency . The disorder 's DSM-IV number is 307.47 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmare_disorder\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 81394\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmares (1980 film) Content: Nightmares is a 1980 Australian horror film , directed by John D. Lamond . It is also known as Stage Fright . It was Gary Sweet 's feature film debut .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmares_(1980_film)\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 81249\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Changes (TV series) Content: The Changes is a British children 's science fiction television serial filmed in 1973 and first broadcast in 1975 by the BBC . It was directed by John Prowse and is based on the trilogy written by Peter Dickinson : The Weathermonger ( 1968 ) , Heartsease ( 1969 ) , and The Devil 's Children ( 1970 ) ( the books were written in reverse order : the events of The Devil 's Children happen first , Heartsease second , and The Weathermonger third ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Changes_(TV_series)\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 81233\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Summit\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 81049\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 80937\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dreams and Nightmares Content: Dreams and Nightmares is the debut studio album by American hip hop recording artist Meek Mill . It was released on October 30 , 2012 , by Maybach Music Group and Warner Bros. . Records . The album features guest appearances from Nas , Rick Ross , Wale , Trey Songz , Drake , Big Sean , John Legend , Louie V , 2 Chainz , Kirko Bangz , Sam Sneak and Mary J. Blige . Mill said that it would be more cohesive than his mixtapes by having more connection in both vocal delivery and clearer beats . The album was supported by four singles in total including , `` Amen '' , `` Burn '' , `` Young & Gettin ' It '' and `` Believe It '' . Upon its release , Dreams and Nightmares received generally positive reviews from music critics . The album debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200 , selling 165,000 copies in its first week in the United States . As of June 2015 , the album has sold over 414,000 copies in the United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Dreams_and_Nightmares\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 80879\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dream Street (UK TV series) Content: Dream Street is a British children 's television series that ran from 6 May 1999 to 2002 on CITV . The show is narrated by British comedian Russ Abbot , and was aimed at children aged from 2 to 7 . The show featured talking toy vehicles , which were radio controlled in real time . The series aired back on CITV around 2008 . The show was set in a story book resting on the bedside table , and in later series with a child holding it , of a playroom during the night , whilst the child was asleep . The room also includes an element of Dream Street within it - the teddy bear clock . In later series , the title sequence revealed more of the things within the room , such as model Saturn bedposts . The official slogan was ; `` Stimulate your child 's imagination ! , because Dream Street is a world of magical fun ! '' . For Series 2 , the theme tune contained the lyric `` Get Streetwise '' , as part of the road safety campaign , which was repeated at the end of the show accompanying a short promo . CITV , the original broadcaster , repeated the series in 2008-09 , but it ended shortly after . There have been VHS releases of the series by Carlton Video . A revival of the series was announced in 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Dream_Street_(UK_TV_series)\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 80745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Content: The Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) is a climate change research centre in England . It is hosted jointly by the University of Leeds and the London School of Economics and Political Science ( LSE ) . CCCEP is part of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment , which is chaired by Lord Nicholas Stern of Brentford , former Chief Economist of the World Bank and author of the widely known Stern Review . CCCEP was established in 2008 , and is funded by the ESRC . Its mission is to advance public and private action on climate change through rigorous , innovative research . In pursuit of its mission , CCCEP has five research themes in its phase 2 programme : Understanding green growth and climate-compatible development Advancing climate finance and investment Evaluating the performance of climate policies Managing climate risks and uncertainties and strengthening climate services Enabling rapid transitions in mitigation and adaptation In October 2016 , The Daily mail reported allegations that CCCEP had fraudulently obtained millions of dollars from UK taxpayers by claiming credit for research they did not produce . The organization responded to the claims saying that the alleged fraud was an overreaction to a clerical error .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Centre_for_Climate_Change_Economics_and_Policy\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 80686\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Northern Ireland border poll 1973 Content: The Northern Ireland border poll 1973 was a referendum held in Northern Ireland on 8 March 1973 on whether Northern Ireland should remain part of the United Kingdom or join with the Republic of Ireland to form a united Ireland . It was the first time that a major referendum had been held in any region of the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Northern_Ireland_border_poll_1973\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 80607\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmare (French band) Content: Nightmare is a power metal band , native of Grenoble , France . The band was influenced by the new wave of British heavy metal phenomenon developing in the UK in the 1980s and started their career playing classic heavy metal , that later changed to power metal with death metal and thrash metal influences .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmare_(French_band)\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 80426\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmares (Omen album) Content: Nightmares is the first EP album of the American heavy metal band Omen . It was originally released in 1987 by Metal Blade . It was included as bonus tracks on the 1989 re-issue of Warning Of Danger and the 1996 re-issue of The Curse .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmares_(Omen_album)\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 80410\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: János Bencsik Content: János Bencsik ( born July 31 , 1965 ) is a Hungarian politician , who served as Mayor of Tatabánya from 1990 to 2010 . He was appointed State Secretary for Climate Change and Energy in the Ministry of National Development on December 12 , 2010 . He announced his resignation on December 2 , 2011 . He was replaced by Pál Kovács . He is a member of the National Assembly ( MP ) in 1998 and since 2006 . He represents Tatabánya ( Komárom-Esztergom County Constituency I ) since May 14 , 2010 . He was elected a member of the Economic and Information Technology Committee on December 30 , 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"János_Bencsik\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 80382\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 80344\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 80246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dream Children Content: Dream Children is a 1998 novel by A. N. Wilson . Owing to his own early encounters , Oliver Gold , a distinguished philosopher , has decided he can only be happy with a child . Oliver , however , moves in with a widow in North London . He makes all the ladies around him fall in love with him , from the aging matriarch to a pair of lesbian lovers to a little girl named Bobs . Bobs is aged three when Oliver moves in and is aged ten by the end of the book .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Dream_Children\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 80131\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: __ NOTOC __ The 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place at the Bali International Conference Centre , Nusa Dua , in Bali , Indonesia , between December 3 and December 15 , 2007 ( though originally planned to end on 14 December ) . Representatives from over 180 countries attended , together with observers from intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations . The conference encompassed meetings of several bodies , including the 13th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( COP 13 ) , the 3rd Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol ( MOP 3 or CMP 3 ) , together with other subsidiary bodies and a meeting of ministers . Negotiations on a successor to the Kyoto Protocol dominated the conference . A meeting of environment ministers and experts held in June called on the conference to agree on a road-map , timetable and ` concrete steps for the negotiations ' with a view to reaching an agreement by 2009 . It has been debated whether this global meeting on climate change has achieved anything significant at all . Initial EU proposals called for global emissions to peak in 10 to 15 years and decline `` well below half '' of the 2000 level by 2050 for developing countries and for developed countries to achieve emissions levels 20-40 % below 1990 levels by 2020 . The United States strongly opposed these numbers , at times backed by Japan , Canada , Australia and Russia . The resulting compromise mandates `` deep cuts in global emissions '' with references to the IPCC 's Fourth Assessment Report .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"2007_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 80072\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 80046\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Heretic (play) Content: The Heretic is a British black comedy play by Richard Bean about climate change and its sceptics . In 2011 it premiered at the Royal Court Theatre receiving positive reviews directed by Jeremy Herrin starring Juliet Stevenson , James Fleet , Lydia Wilson and Johnny Flynn . It made its Australian debut in 2012 at the Melbourne Theatre Company in a production directed by Matt Scholten and starring Noni Hazlehurst , Andrew McFarlane , Anna Samson , Shaun Goss , Lyall Brooks and Katy Warner . The play was published in 2011 , and was included in a collection of Bean 's plays published in 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Heretic_(play)\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 79997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Paris_Agreement\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 79965\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 79941\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Opinion polling in United Kingdom constituencies, 2010–15 Content: Prior to the 2015 United Kingdom general election , various polling organisations conducted opinion polling in specific constituencies . The results of publicised opinion polling for individual constituencies are detailed in this article . However , most opinion polling covers Great Britain , where the results are published in this article here . Opinion polls were conducted gradually from the months after the previous general election held on 6 May 2010 , and increased in frequency before the general election which took place on 7 May 2015 . Though most opinion polls published are for general election voting intention , some polls shown are for voting intention in separate by-elections . Polls of individual constituencies are expensive compared to national polling and were previously an infrequent practice in the UK . However , a large number of individual constituency polls have been carried out in this period , most commissioned from independent polling providers by Lord Ashcroft , a Conservative peer and sponsor . In addition to polls listed in this article , other polling of constituencies has been carried out in private , often by political parties . Given the expense of polling individual constituencies , constituencies are usually only polled if they are of some particular interest , e.g. they are thought to be marginal or facing an impending by-election . The constituencies polled are not necessarily representative of a national average swing . Under the first-past-the-post electoral system the true marginal seats , by definition , will be decisive as to the outcome of the election .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Opinion_polling_in_United_Kingdom_constituencies,_2010–15\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 79893\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Young Voices on Climate Change Content: Young Voices on Climate Change is a film series created by the non-profit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization of the same name . The films present youth solutions to the climate crisis , showing environmental initiatives planned and implemented by children in America , Europe , India , Africa and Siberia .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Young_Voices_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 79847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Ashton (diplomat) Content: John Ashton CBE ( born 7 November 1956 ) was the Special Representative for Climate Change at the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office ( FCO ) from 2006 until June 2012 , Director for Strategic Partnerships at LEAD International , and is the founder and CEO of Third Generation Environmentalism ( E3G ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Ashton_(diplomat)\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 79646\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Conference on Climate Change Content: The International Conference on Climate Change is a conference series organized and sponsored by The Heartland Institute which aims to bring together global warming skeptics who `` dispute that the science is settled on the causes , consequences , and policy implications of climate change . '' The first conference took place in 2008 . As at 2017 there have been twelve conferences . Most of the events have been held in the United States , but there has been one in Australia and two in Germany .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Conference_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 79586\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmare Content: A nightmare , also called a bad dream , is an unpleasant dream that can cause a strong emotional response from the mind , typically fear but also despair , anxiety and great sadness . The dream may contain situations of discomfort , psychological or physical terror or panic . Sufferers often awaken in a state of distress and may be unable to return to sleep for a small period . Nightmares can have physical causes such as sleeping in an uncomfortable or awkward position , having a fever , or psychological causes such as stress , anxiety , and as a side effect of various drugs . Eating before going to sleep , which triggers an increase in the body 's metabolism and brain activity , is a potential stimulus for nightmares . Recurrent nightmares may require medical help , as they can interfere with sleeping patterns and cause insomnia .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmare\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 79576\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 79472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2008 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2008 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place at PIF Congress Centre , Poznań International Fair ( PIF ) , in Poznań , Poland , between December 1 and December 12 , 2008 . Representatives from over 180 countries attended along with observers from intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations . The conference encompassed meetings of several bodies , including the 14th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( COP 14 ) and the 4th Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol ( MOP 4 or CMP 4 ) . Subsidiaries of these bodies also met , including the fourth session of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA 4 ) , a resumed session of the Ad HocWorking Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP 6 ) , and the twenty-ninth sessions of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation ( SBI 29 ) , and the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice ( SBSTA 29 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"2008_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 79448\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference was an international meeting of political leaders and activists to discuss environmental issues . It was held in Marrakech , Morocco from November 7 to 18 . The conference incorporated the twenty-second Conference of the Parties ( COP22 ) , the twelfth meeting of the parties for the Kyoto Protocol ( CMP12 ) , and the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement ( CMA1 ) . The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combatting climate change and to '' -LSB- demonstrate -RSB- to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is underway '' . Participants work together to come up with global solutions to climate change . The conference was presided over by Salaheddine Mezouar , the Moroccan Minister for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation . Approximately 20,000 participants were expected to attend . On 2 May 2016 , events firm GL Events signed the service contract . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also lent its support to the preparation for COP 22 '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"2016_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 79385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom general election, 2001 Content: In the run up to the general election of 2001 , several polling organisations carried out opinion polling in regards to voting intention in Great Britain ( i.e. the UK excluding Northern Ireland , which is usually excluded from such voting intention surveys ) . Results of such polls are displayed below . The election took place on 7 June 2001 . The previous general election was held on 1 May 1997 , and had seen Labour return to power with a landslide victory after 18 years , led by Tony Blair . Such was the scale of Labour 's victory that it was widely accepted - even within the Conservative Party - that the next election would produce another Labour victory , with the best realistic target for other parties being to reduce the Labour majority . The parliamentary term of 1997-2001 had seen the opinion polls led by the Labour Party , mostly with a lead in excess of 10 points , over the Conservatives ( who had replaced John Major with William Hague as their new leader ) , apart from a brief spell in the autumn of 2000 when fuel protests threatened to bring Britain to a standstill . However , the blockades which had caused the protests were quickly resolved and Labour support recovered to the extent that Blair felt able to call an election for 3 May 2001 , although the recent foot and mouth crisis meant that the election was delayed for five weeks until 7 June . Another rare success for the Conservatives during this parliamentary term came in June 1999 , when it enjoyed the largest share of the votes in the European parliament elections , with William Hague vowing to keep the pound at Britain 's currency , whereas Tony Blair was refusing to rule out eventually adopting the Euro . In the event , the election produced a low turnout ( with many voters perhaps feeling that another Labour victory was inevitable ) and Labour won a second successive landslide , with the British political scene remaining almost completely unchanged with only a few seats changing hands .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_general_election,_2001\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 79187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmares (1983 film) Content: Nightmares is a 1983 American horror anthology film directed by Joseph Sargent , and starring Emilio Estevez , Lance Henriksen , Cristina Raines , Veronica Cartwright , and Richard Masur . The film is made up of four short films based on urban legends ; the first concerns a woman who encounters a killer in the backseat of her car ; the second concerns a video game-addicted teenager who is consumed by his game ; the third focuses on a fallen priest who is stalked by a pickup truck from hell ; and the last follows a suburban family battling a giant rat in their home .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmares_(1983_film)\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 79059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Winter of 2009–10 in Great Britain and Ireland Content: The winter of 2009 -- 10 in the United Kingdom ( also called The Big Freeze by British media ) was a meteorological event that started on 16 December 2009 , as part of the severe winter weather in Europe . January 2010 was provisionally the coldest January since 1987 across the country . A persistent pattern of cold northerly and easterly winds brought cold , moist air to the United Kingdom with many snow showers , fronts and polar lows bringing snowy weather with it . The first snowfall began on 17 December 2009 , before a respite over the Christmas period . The most severe snowy weather began on 5 January in North West England and west Scotland with temperatures hitting a low of -17.6 ° C in Greater Manchester , England . The snow spread to Southern England on 6 January and by 7 January the United Kingdom was blanketed in snow , which was captured by NASA 's Terra satellite . The thaw came a week later , as temperatures started to increase . The winter weather brought widespread transport disruption , school closures , power failures , the postponement of sporting events and 25 deaths . A low of -22.3 ° C was recorded in Altnaharra , Scotland on 8 January 2010 . Overall it was the coldest winter since 1978 -- 79 , with a mean temperature of 1.5 ° C.\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Winter_of_2009–10_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 78898\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Science_Program\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 78836\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Dream of the Past: Sir Isumbras at the Ford Content: A Dream of the Past : Sir Isumbras at the Ford ( 1857 ) is a painting by John Everett Millais depicting a medieval knight helping two young peasant children over a swollen river . The children are carrying heavy burdens of wood for winter fuel . Though the title refers to the medieval poem Sir Isumbras , the painting does not illustrate a scene from the original text . However Millais 's friend , the writer Tom Taylor , wrote verse in a pastiche of the original poem , describing the event depicted . This was included in the original exhibition catalogue . The background of the painting is based closely on a ruined medieval bridge which stood in Bridge of Earn , Perthshire ( since demolished ) . Some of the village houses ( in Back Street ) can also be seen , though the tower house or castle to the left is imaginary . When first exhibited the painting was extremely controversial , and was attacked by many critics . Most notably , Millais 's former supporter John Ruskin declared it to be a `` catastrophe '' . The painting was also satirised in a print by Frederic Sandys , entitled `` A Nightmare '' , in which Millais himself was represented as the knight . His fellow Pre-Raphaelites Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Holman Hunt were caricatured as the children , and the horse -- transformed into a donkey -- was branded with the initials of Ruskin .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Dream_of_the_Past:_Sir_Isumbras_at_the_Ford\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 78773\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nightmares & Dreamscapes: From the Stories of Stephen King Content: Nightmares & Dreamscapes : From the Stories of Stephen King is an eight-episode anthology series on TNT based on short stories written by Stephen King . It debuted on July 12 , 2006 , and ended its run on August 2 , 2006 . Although most of them are from the collection of the same name , there are some stories from different collections by King . A trailer confirming a DVD release of the series was made available in October 2006 . The series was filmed entirely in Melbourne , Australia .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"Nightmares_&_Dreamscapes:_From_the_Stories_of_Stephen_King\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 78768\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 United Kingdom general election Content: The 2015 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday, 7 May 2015 to elect 650 members to the House of Commons. It was the first general election at the end of a fixed-term Parliament. Local elections took place in most areas on the same day. Polls and commentators had predicted the outcome would be too close to call and would result in a second consecutive hung parliament that would be either similar or more complicated than the 2010 election. Opinion polls were eventually proven to have underestimated the Conservative vote as the party unexpectedly won an outright majority, which bore resemblance to its victory at the 1992 general election. Having governed in coalition with the Liberal Democrats since 2010, the Conservatives won 330 seats and 36.9% of the vote share, giving them a small overall majority of 12 seats and their first outright win for 23 years. The Labour Party, led by Ed Miliband, saw a small increase in its share of the vote to 30.4%, but incurred a net loss of seats to return 232 MPs. This was its lowest seat tally since the 1987 general election. Senior Labour Shadow Cabinet members, notably Ed Balls, Douglas Alexander, and Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy, were defeated. The Scottish National Party, enjoying a surge in support after the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, recorded a number of swings of over 30% from Labour, as it won 56 of the 59 Scottish seats to become the third-largest party in the Commons. The Liberal Democrats, led by outgoing Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg, had their worst result since their formation in 1988, holding just eight out of their previous 57 seats, with Cabinet ministers Vince Cable, Ed Davey and Danny Alexander losing their seats. UKIP came third in terms of votes with 12.6%, but won only one seat, with party leader Nigel Farage failing to win the seat of South Thanet. The Green Party won its highest-ever share of the vote with 3.8%, and retained its only seat. Labour's Miliband (as national leader) and Murphy (as Scottish leader) both resigned, as did Clegg. In Northern Ireland, the Ulster Unionist Party returned to the Commons with two MPs after a five-year absence, while the Alliance Party lost its only seat despite an increase in total vote share.\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_United_Kingdom_general_election\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 78735\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2006 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2006 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place between November 6 and 17 , 2006 in Nairobi , Kenya . The conference included the 12th Conference of the Parties ( COP12 ) and the 2nd Meeting of the Parties ( MOP2 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . At the meeting , BBC reporter Richard Black coined the phrase `` climate tourists '' to describe some delegates who attended `` to see Africa , take snaps of the wildlife , the poor , dying African children and women '' . Black also noted that due to delegates concerns over economic costs and possible losses of competitiveness , the majority of the discussions avoided any mention of reducing emissions . Black concluded that was a disconnect between the political process and the scientific imperative . Despite such criticism , certain strides were made at COP12 , including in the areas of support for developing countries and clean development mechanism . The parties adopted a five-year plan of work to support climate change adaptation by developing countries , and agreed on the procedures and modalities for the Adaptation Fund . They also agreed to improve the projects for clean development mechanism .\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"2006_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 78702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: British Polling Council Content: The British Polling Council ( BPC ) is an association of market research companies whose opinion polls are regularly published or broadcast in media in the United Kingdom . The BPC was established in 2004 , twelve years after the perceived failure of opinion polls to come close to predicting the actual result of the United Kingdom general election , 1992 . BPC members use a range of fieldwork methods ( telephone , door-to-door , and internet ) and statistical tools . YouGov is a founder member of the British Polling Council\",\n \"qid\": \"139\",\n \"docid\": \"British_Polling_Council\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 78648\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":69,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Greenpeace didn’t save the whales, switching from whale oil to petroleum and palm oil did"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Robert Hunter (journalist) Content: Robert ( Bob ) Lorne Hunter ( October 13 , 1941 -- May 2 , 2005 ) was a Canadian environmentalist , journalist , author and politician . He was a member of the Do n't Make a Wave Committee in 1969 , and a co-founder of Greenpeace in 1971 and its first president . He led the first on-sea anti-whaling campaigns in the world , against Russian and Australian whalers , which helped lead to the ban on commercial whaling . He campaigned against nuclear testing , the Canadian seal hunt and later , climate change with his book Thermageddon : Countdown to 2030 . He was named by Time as one of the `` Eco-Heroes '' of the 20th century and is charged with coining the terms `` mindbombs '' and `` eco-warrior '' ( a run-off from the Legend of the Rainbow Warriors , a popular hippie and environmentalist belief ) .","qid":"141","docid":"Robert_Hunter_(journalist)","rank":1,"score":121869},{"content":"Title: Toward the Sea Content: is a work by the Japanese composer Tōru Takemitsu , commissioned by Greenpeace for the Save the Whales campaign .","qid":"141","docid":"Toward_the_Sea","rank":2,"score":121273},{"content":"Title: Tokyo Two Content: The Tokyo Two are Greenpeace anti-whaling activists Junichi Sato and Toru Suzuki , who were arrested for stealing whale meat which they believed was embezzled , from a shipping depot in Aomori Prefecture , Japan in 2008 .","qid":"141","docid":"Tokyo_Two","rank":3,"score":118323},{"content":"Title: Will E. Jackson Content: William E. ( Will ) Jackson ( born February 13 , 1945 ) served with Greenpeace in its early years ( 1975 -- 77 ) , as crew member on the first anti-whaling expedition , and as cofounder of Greenpeace San Francisco ( the first GP chapter after Vancouver , BC ) . A pioneer synthesizer player ( Serge , Buchla , Moog ) , Jackson was aboard the Greenpeace V as part of the media campaign to demonstrate whale intelligence , and to disrupt Russian whaling . Jackson played a large modular synthesizer that had been brought onboard , broadcast through underwater speakers , with the intention of communicating with whales through synthesized whale song . He was one of six persons out of a rotating pool of 35 to remain aboard throughout the expedition . Bob Hunter , cofounder and first president of Greenpeace , credits Jackson with saving him from drowning at Triangle Island . Following on the success of that voyage , Jackson opened the San Francisco office of Greenpeace . With the assistance of Fund for Animals ( Cleveland Amory , Virginia Handley ) , and eco-filmmaker Stan Minasian , and commercial pilot Al Johnson . Jackson launched a grassroots media campaign , struggling from a South-of-Market condemned hotel to gain volunteers and donations , in preparation for the first anti-sealing expedition , and the follow-up whale expedition of 1976 . ( Three years after he left , the chapter was embroiled in a lawsuit with Vancouver over a million dollars and rights ; the outcome being the formation of today 's Greenpeace International ) . These accounts and others are referenced in Robert Hunter 's book , Rex Weyler 's Greenpeace ( Rodale 2004 ) , the Hunter-Weyler collaboration To Save A Whale ( Chronicle Books 1978 ) , and The Greenpeace Story ( Dorling Kindersley 1989 ) . Prefacing his Greenpeace years , in 1970 as a multimedia artist he won a scholarship to California Institute of the Arts , but then lost it when he offended his mentor Allen Kaprow . He moved on to Serge Tcherepnin 's CalArts synthesizer workshop , and co-founded electronic music groups Cellar M with Naut Humon , and ` TO ' with Z'EV . Later he performed with Ethership ( Willard Van De Bogart , Lemon DeGeorge ) . Notably , he played synthesizer `` whale music '' with saxist Paul Winter aboard the GP-5 , and at the `` Save The Seas International Music Benefit '' , International Trade Center , Tokyo 1977 , with Z'EV . In the 1980s Jackson became interviewer/program producer for Miss Wire Waist of KPFK 's Sounds of Jamaica ( L.A. ) ; and published Jah Guide reggae culture magazine . He recorded , published and broadcast speeches on apartheid by Jesse Jackson , Michael Manley , and Bishop Desmond Tutu ; and interviews with Steel Pulse , Burning Spear , Big Youth , Mutabaruka , Ras Michael and Peter Tosh . Meanwhile , he managed a 25-year career as a maritime seaman , union captain , and then fatherhood . In 2003 he authored the reggae novel Flight From Babylon ( Infinity ) . His second novel and Greenpeace memoirs are forthcoming .","qid":"141","docid":"Will_E._Jackson","rank":4,"score":117637},{"content":"Title: Save the Arctic Content: Save the Arctic is a Greenpeace campaign to protect the Arctic , principally by preventing oil drilling and unsustainable industrial fishing in the area completely , surrounded by an Arctic-Environmental economics-Zone . The campaign , begun in 2012 , calls for a sanctuary in the uninhabited high seas area around the North Pole , similar to the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty . The campaign aims to begin this process by prompting a United Nations resolution on protection for the Arctic .","qid":"141","docid":"Save_the_Arctic","rank":5,"score":113497},{"content":"Title: Paul Watson Content: Paul Franklin Watson ( born December 2 , 1950 ) is a Canadian marine wildlife conservation and environmental activist , who founded the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society , an anti-poaching and direct action group focused on marine conservation and marine conservation activism . He is a citizen of Canada and the United States . The Toronto native joined a Sierra Club protest against nuclear testing in 1969 . He was an early and influential member of Greenpeace , crewed and skippered for it , and a founding board member in 1972 . He has been credited by The New York Times , The New Yorker and other publications with being a founder of Greenpeace , but Greenpeace denies the claim . The documentary How to Change the World shows that Watson was indeed one of the original founding members of Greenpeace . Watson argued for a strategy of direct action that conflicted with the Greenpeace interpretation of nonviolence , was ousted from the board in 1977 , and subsequently left the organization . That same year , he formed Sea Shepherd Conservation Society . The group is the subject of a reality show named Whale Wars . He promotes veganism , and a biocentric , rather than anthropocentric , worldview . Watson 's activities have led to legal action from authorities in countries including the United States , Canada , Norway , Costa Rica , and Japan . He was detained in Germany on an extradition request by Costa Rica in May 2012 , The Interpol red notice was issued on September 14 , 2012 , at the request of Japan and Costa Rica . After staying at sea for 15 months he returned to Los Angeles late October 2013 , going through customs and `` was not arrested '' . He appeared before a U.S. appeals court on November 6 , 2013 stating that neither he nor Sea Shepherd violated a 2012 order requiring them to leave whaling vessels alone . Although the United States is a signatory member of Interpol , Watson has not been detained for extradition to Japan or Costa Rica . He was living in Vermont , writing books . He has resided in Paris since July 1 , 2014 .","qid":"141","docid":"Paul_Watson","rank":6,"score":112221},{"content":"Title: Paul Spong Content: Dr. Paul Spong is a neuroscientist and cetologist from New Zealand . He has spent more than 30 years researching orcas ( or Killer whales ) in British Columbia , and is credited with increasing public awareness of whaling , through his involvement with Greenpeace .","qid":"141","docid":"Paul_Spong","rank":7,"score":111645},{"content":"Title: Greenpeace Content: Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over 40 countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam , the Netherlands . Founded by Canadian and US ex-pat environmental activists in 1971 , Greenpeace states its goal is to `` ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity '' and focuses its campaigning on worldwide issues such as climate change , deforestation , overfishing , commercial whaling , genetic engineering , and anti-nuclear issues . It uses direct action , lobbying , research , and ecotage to achieve its goals . The global organization does not accept funding from governments , corporations , or political parties , relying on 2.9 million individual supporters and foundation grants . Greenpeace has a general consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council and is a founding member of the INGO Accountability Charter ; an international non-governmental organization that intends to foster accountability and transparency of non-governmental organizations . Greenpeace is known for its direct actions and has been described as the most visible environmental organization in the world . Greenpeace has raised environmental issues to public knowledge , and influenced both the private and the public sector . Greenpeace has also been a source of controversy ; its motives and methods ( some of the latter being illegal ) have received criticism , including an open letter from more than 100 Nobel laureates urging Greenpeace to end its campaign against genetically modified organisms ( GMOs ) . The organization 's direct actions have sparked legal actions against Greenpeace activists , such as fines and suspended sentences for destroying a test plot of genetically modified wheat and damaging the Nazca Lines , a UN World Heritage site in Peru .","qid":"141","docid":"Greenpeace","rank":8,"score":110620},{"content":"Title: Mister Splashy Pants Content: Mister Splashy Pants , or Mr. Splashypants , is a humpback whale in the South Pacific Ocean . It is being tracked with a satellite tag by Greenpeace as a part of its Great Whale Trail Expedition , which was working to raise awareness about whales threatened by the Japanese Fisheries Agency 's plan to hunt 50 humpback whales . The whale 's name was chosen in an online poll that garnered attention from several websites , including Boing Boing and Reddit , quickly becoming an internet meme . Mister Splashy Pants became the subject of a TED Talk by Reddit co-founder Alexis Ohanian , titled `` How to make a splash in social media . ''","qid":"141","docid":"Mister_Splashy_Pants","rank":9,"score":109779},{"content":"Title: MY Steve Irwin Content: The MY Steve Irwin is the 59 m flagship of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society , and is used in their direct action campaigns against whaling and against illegal fisheries activities . The vessel was built in 1975 and formerly served as a Scottish Fisheries Protection Agency conservation enforcement patrol boat , the FPV Westra , for 28 years . Sea Shepherd had originally christened the vessel the MV Robert Hunter after Canadian Robert Hunter , co-founder of Greenpeace , but it was renamed in honor of The Crocodile Hunter star Steve Irwin on December 5 , 2007 . Irwin had considered joining the vessel on a voyage to Antarctica shortly before his death , and the renaming was endorsed by his widow Terri . The ship and its crew , and their efforts for conservation , are the subject of the Animal Planet show Whale Wars .","qid":"141","docid":"MY_Steve_Irwin","rank":10,"score":105266},{"content":"Title: Cetyl palmitate Content: Cetyl palmitate is the ester derived from palmitic acid and cetyl alcohol . This white waxy solid is the primary constituent of spermaceti , the once highly prized wax found in the skull of sperm whales . Cetyl palmitate is a component of some solid lipid nanoparticles . Stony corals , which build the coral reefs , contain large amounts of cetyl palmitate wax in their tissues , which may function in part as an antifeedant .","qid":"141","docid":"Cetyl_palmitate","rank":11,"score":104730},{"content":"Title: Sea Shepherd Conservation Society Content: The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society ( SSCS ) is a non-profit , marine conservation organization based in Friday Harbor on San Juan Island , Washington , in the United States . Sea Shepherd uses direct action tactics to protect marine life . The organization was founded in 1977 under the name Earth Force Society by Paul Watson , a former member of Greenpeace , after a dispute with that organization over what Watson saw as its lack of more aggressive intervention . The group has a strong focus on public relations to spread its message via the media . In 2008 , Animal Planet began filming the weekly series Whale Wars based on the group 's encounters with the Japanese whaling fleet in the Southern Ocean , a development which brought the group much publicity . Sea Shepherd currently operates nine vessels ( see : Neptune 's Navy ) . Operations have included scuttling and disabling whaling vessels at harbor , intervening in Canadian and Namibian seal hunts , shining laser light into the eyes of whalers , throwing bottles of foul-smelling butyric acid onto vessels at sea , boarding of whaling vessels while at sea , and seizure and destruction of drift nets at sea . Sea Shepherd claims that their aggressive actions are necessary , as the international community has shown itself unwilling or unable to stop species-endangering whaling and fishing practices . Sea Shepherd has received support for its tactics against fishing , whaling , and seal hunting from many celebrities , such as musicians and TV personalities . The tactics of Sea Shepherd have been opposed , even by those who denounce whaling , such as Greenpeace and the governments of Australia and New Zealand . The Japanese government have called them eco-terrorists . However , in March 2014 the International Court of Justice ruled the Japanese whaling program in the Southern Ocean was not , as claimed , for scientific purposes , and ordered Japan to cease operations . Paul Watson and American members of Sea Shepherd are currently prohibited by US courts from approaching or harassing Japanese whalers .","qid":"141","docid":"Sea_Shepherd_Conservation_Society","rank":12,"score":104027},{"content":"Title: Astra Agro Lestari Content: Astra Agro Lestari ( AAL ) is an Indonesian palm oil company . It is a subsidiary of PT Astra International Tbk . At least in 2004 , it controlled extensive land banks . It has two concessions on peatlands in Riau , with an estimated total area of 20,000 hectares . According to Greenpeace , 2007 , it has seven concessions on peat in Central Kalimantan . Greenpeace also reported hotspots on five Astra Agro concessions in Riau , two of which were on peatlands . Joko Supriyono was or is a director at Astra Agro and secretary of a palm oil industry lobby group . He said companies had no choice , but to continue establishing plantations on restricted areas .","qid":"141","docid":"Astra_Agro_Lestari","rank":13,"score":103447},{"content":"Title: Whale oil Content: Whale oil is oil obtained from the blubber of whales . Whale oil was sometimes known as train oil , which comes from the Dutch word traan ( `` tear '' or `` drop '' ) . Sperm oil , a special kind of oil obtained from the head cavities of sperm whales , differs chemically from ordinary whale oil : it comprises mostly liquid wax . Its properties and applications differ from those of regular whale oil , and it sold at a higher cost when marketed . Early industrial societies used whale oil widely in oil lamps and to make soap and margarine . With the commercial development of substitutes such as kerosene and vegetable oils , the use of whale oils declined considerably in the 20th century . With most countries having banned whaling , the sale and use of whale oil has practically ceased .","qid":"141","docid":"Whale_oil","rank":14,"score":103427},{"content":"Title: High North Alliance Content: The High North Alliance ( Høge Nord Alliansen ) is an umbrella organisation of several fishing , whaling and Nordic municipal councils . The organisation objectives are , it says , `` to protect the rights of whalers , sealers and fishermen to harvest renewable resources in accordance with the principle of sustainable management . '' The alliance was founded in 1991 in response to calls from environmentalists to prohibit completely commercial whaling , and , from more radical groups , calls to prohibit the killing of marine mammals for any purpose . The alliance is organised by a governing committee of six members , three from Norway , and one each from the Faroe Islands , Greenland and Iceland . The alliance is funded by membership fees , and from grants from organisations such as the North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission ( founded by Norway , Iceland , Greenland , and the Faroe Islands in 1992 ) and the Regional Development Committee for Northern Norway . Activities of the Alliance include lobbying the largely sympathetic Norwegian government for increases in Norway 's whaling quota , promoting studies into methods of more humane whaling , lobbying the International Whaling Commission into relaxing the whaling moratorium , and responding to campaigns from anti-whaling groups such as the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society and Greenpeace .","qid":"141","docid":"High_North_Alliance","rank":15,"score":103154},{"content":"Title: Stop Esso campaign Content: The Stop Esso campaign was a campaign by Greenpeace , Friends of the Earth and People and Planet aimed at boycotting the oil company Esso , known as ExxonMobil in the United States , on the grounds that it is damaging the environment . The campaign alleges that Esso / ExxonMobil is : not investing in renewable energy sources denying the existence of global warming funding the creation of junk science which denies climate change , delaying urgently needed climate change action undermining the Kyoto Protocol .","qid":"141","docid":"Stop_Esso_campaign","rank":16,"score":102588},{"content":"Title: Save Each Other, the Whales Are Doing Fine Content: Save Each Other , the Whales Are Doing Fine is the debut studio album by American rock band Patent Pending . The original name of the CD was Save The Children , The Whales Are Doing Fine , but it was changed due to a threat to sue by the Save the Children Foundation . The title reflects the environmental concept of save the whales . Because the band did n't have the budget to fight their case in court , they were forced to change the name . Because of the changing of the name , and a few other minor legal and technical issues , the CD/DVD was pushed back one month . It came out on June 6 , instead of May 9 . The CD was released with a bonus DVD which was filmed on January 13 , 2006 at Alley Katz in Richmond , Virginia with some portions filmed on February 24 , 2006 at Calvary Lutheran Church in East Meadow , New York .","qid":"141","docid":"Save_Each_Other,_the_Whales_Are_Doing_Fine","rank":17,"score":101658},{"content":"Title: Whale Oil Row Content: Whale Oil Row refers to four nearly identical high quality Greek Revival houses , standing side-by-side at 105-119 Huntington Street in New London , Connecticut . All four were built between 1835 and 1845 by Charles Henry Beebe , and three were owned by men directly involved in whaling ; the fourth was owned by a dry goods merchant . All four are distinguished by their two-story gabled porticos supported by fluted columns , with a semicircular window in the gable pediment . The first one ( 105 Huntington ) is slightly wider than the others , extending on either side of the front portico . This assembly of Greek temple front houses may be unique in the United States . The group of houses was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 .","qid":"141","docid":"Whale_Oil_Row","rank":18,"score":100508},{"content":"Title: Dave Currey (environmentalist) Content: Dave Currey ( born 1953 ) is a British environmentalist , writer and photographer . A minister 's son , he was born in Sussex in the UK and brought up in London . He gained a BA in Photographic Arts in 1976 following a passion in communicating visually . In 1976 , following another passion , he walked 1,000 miles across Oregon , Idaho and Wyoming to help raise awareness of conservation issues for the World Wildlife Fund . On this journey his photographs , radio and television interviews were his introduction to a world of media co-operation that would steer his next thirty years in environmental activism . In 1979 he volunteered as a photographer on board the Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior during its Icelandic anti-whaling campaign where he first met Allan Thornton , Greenpeace 's director at the time . In 1983 , while he was working in public relations photography and teaching , Thornton persuaded him to join another anti-whaling ship , `` Balaenoptera '' . With Jennifer Lonsdale , another Greenpeace veteran , they carried out undercover work in the Norwegian port of Vado , posing as journalists to gain entry to whaling factories . They were able to truthfully insist they were not working for Greenpeace as the factory workers feared , but knew it was unwise to state they were on an independent environmental activist ship . The campaign was incredibly successful resulting in a two-thirds reduction in whaling quotas and huge embarrassment for the Norwegian government . From 1978 to 1986 he often contributed to Wildlife magazine and later when it became BBC Wildlife , for a while being their `` roving naturalist '' to places such as the Everglades National Park , Yellowstone National Park , and Baja California , Mexico . He also acted as a book and television reviewer for the magazine . His nature photography was widely used during this period and he was described as `` one of the new breed of naturalist photographers , with a commitment to conservation and the style of a photojournalist . ''","qid":"141","docid":"Dave_Currey_(environmentalist)","rank":19,"score":100476},{"content":"Title: Earthtrust Content: Earthtrust is a non-governmental organization ( NGO ) dedicated to wildlife protection . Located in Hawaii , Earthtrust has been involved in many high-profile activities , notably around using genetic analysis to demonstrate the prevalence of pirate whaling as well as public information campaigns around drift net fishing . Earthtrust serves as an official observer at the International Whaling Commission . Earthtrust was founded in 1976 , and continues to be directed by Don White who also was involved in the founding of a related NGO , Greenpeace .","qid":"141","docid":"Earthtrust","rank":20,"score":96245},{"content":"Title: Oriental Bluebird Content: The 8,725 ton Hiyo Maru was the largest member of the Japanese whaling fleet ; providing fuel , resources , and stock storage space for that fleet and its crew . In 1992 , it was renamed and re-flagged to Panama as the Oriental Bluebird . According to Greenpeace , after a dispute with the Panamanian Government in 2008 , it was de-flagged and re-registered to Japan . The Hiyo Maru served as the fuel tanker for Japan 's whaling fleet , and was alleged by Greenpeace to also transport whale meat . In August 2010 , the ship was sold to China to be scrapped .","qid":"141","docid":"Oriental_Bluebird","rank":21,"score":96206},{"content":"Title: Greenpeace, Salvemos Al Mediterráneo Content: Greenpeace , Salvemos al Mediterráneo ( English : Let 's save the Mediterranean Sea ) is a compilation album by various singers with benefits to the non-governmental organization Greenpeace . It was released in 1986 . It was edited only in Spain in LP format . The only unpublished song was the one by Mecano .","qid":"141","docid":"Greenpeace,_Salvemos_Al_Mediterráneo","rank":22,"score":95903},{"content":"Title: MV Gondwana Content: The MV Gondwana was a ship acquired by Greenpeace in 1988 , originally built in 1975 and called the Viking . Greenpeace updated the ship with a helipad and accommodation space was increased to sleep 33 people . The ship was used to supply the Greenpeace World Park Base in 1988/89 and was involved in direct action to protest against Japanese whaling in the Southern Ocean in the late 1980s .","qid":"141","docid":"MV_Gondwana","rank":23,"score":95653},{"content":"Title: Criticism of Greenpeace Content: Throughout its history , the policies and objectives of the non-governmental environmental protection and conservation organization Greenpeace have been criticized by a number of groups , including national governments , members of industry , former Greenpeace members , scientists , and political groups . The organization 's methods , such as the use of direct action , have also led to controversy and legal action .","qid":"141","docid":"Criticism_of_Greenpeace","rank":24,"score":95464},{"content":"Title: Frank Donald Robson Content: Frank Donald Robson ( 29 September 1912 -- 30 May 1993 ) was a New Zealand logging contractor , fisherman and marine conservationist . He was born in Greenmeadows , Hawke 's Bay , New Zealand in 1912 . Robson was the first New Zealander to study whale strandings and the first systematic investigation of pollutant levels in marine mammals in New Zealand . His volunteer group , Project Jonah has saved thousands of marine mammals , continuing even after the Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978 made the Department of Conservation technically responsible for this . In the 1989 New Year Honours Robson was appointed a Companion of the Queen 's Service Order for community service .","qid":"141","docid":"Frank_Donald_Robson","rank":25,"score":95096},{"content":"Title: Spermaceti organ Content: The spermaceti organ is an organ that commonly appears in the heads of toothed whales of the family Physeteroidea , in particular the sperm whale . This organ contains a waxy liquid called spermaceti and is involved in the generation of sound . The spermaceti organ in sperm whales is shaped like an elongated barrel and sits on top of the whale 's melon . Historically , the liquid from this organ was used to produce sperm oil , providing the economic basis for the sperm whaling industry .","qid":"141","docid":"Spermaceti_organ","rank":26,"score":94604},{"content":"Title: Brent Spar Content: Brent Spar , or Brent E , was a North Sea oil storage and tanker loading buoy in the Brent oilfield , operated by Shell UK . With the completion of a pipeline connection to the oil terminal at Sullom Voe in Shetland , the storage facility had continued in use , but by 1991 , was considered to be of no further value . Brent Spar became an issue of public concern in 1995 , when the British government announced its support for Shell 's application for its disposal in deep Atlantic waters at North Feni Ridge ( approximately 250 km from the west coast of Scotland , at a depth of around 2.5 km ) . Greenpeace organized a worldwide , high-profile media campaign against this plan occupying Brent Spar for more than three weeks . In the face of public and political opposition in northern Europe ( including a widespread boycott of Shell service stations , some physical attacks and an arson attack on a service station in Germany ) , Shell abandoned its plans to dispose of Brent Spar at sea -- whilst continuing to stand by its claim that this was the safest option , both from an environmental and an industrial health and safety perspective . Greenpeace 's own reputation also suffered during the campaign , when it had to acknowledge that its assessment of the oil remaining in Brent Spar 's storage tanks had been grossly overestimated . Following Shell 's decision to pursue only on-shore disposal options , as favoured by Greenpeace and its supporters , Brent Spar was given temporary moorings in a Norwegian fjord . In January 1998 , Shell announced its decision to re-use much of the main structure in the construction of new harbour facilities near Stavanger , Norway .","qid":"141","docid":"Brent_Spar","rank":27,"score":94323},{"content":"Title: Golden Agri-Resources Content: Golden-Agri Resources ( GAR ) is a Singaporean palm oil company . It is listed on the Singapore Stock Exchange since 1999 . In May 2015 , its market capitalization was $ 4.1 billion . Sheikh Roshini Begum is its CEO . Alnoor is a subsidiary of GAR . Lew Syn Pau used to serve as a member of the Singaporean Parliament for 13 years and is a member of the board of directors of the firm . According to Greenpeace , GAR has six concessions on peatlands in Riau , with an estimated total are of 20,000 hectares . GAR was reported to have 1,880 hectares of peat in Central Kalimantan and 1,330 hectares in West Kalimantan , while claiming a zero-deforestation footprint . Greenpeace also discovered 322 hotspots on five to GAR 's concessions in Central Kalimantan . GAR denied these accusations and said to have a zero-burning policy since 1997 . Interviews with senior officers revealed evidence to the contrary .","qid":"141","docid":"Golden_Agri-Resources","rank":28,"score":94230},{"content":"Title: Whaleman Foundation Content: The Whaleman Foundation is a non-profit , marine conservation organization based in Lahaina , Hawaii in the United States . It advocates for the protection of cetaceans ( whales , dolphins , and porpoises ) and their habitats . Whaleman was founded by Jeff Pantukhoff . Hayden Panettiere is the spokesperson for the foundation . She has promoted the Foundations ' Save the Whales Again ! campaign since 2008 .","qid":"141","docid":"Whaleman_Foundation","rank":29,"score":93889},{"content":"Title: Shores of Silence Content: Shores of Silence : Whale Sharks in India is a landmark film by Mike Pandey that brought about major legislative changes to protect whale sharks worldwide . This documentary depicts the needless killing and harvesting of whale sharks by poor Indian communities . In response to the film , the Indian government introduced legislature to ban fishing of whale sharks , declaring them endangered species and protecting them under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 . This gives whale sharks equal status to other endangered species such as tigers and rhinoceroses . Internationally , the film helped to bring the whale shark global protection under CITES . The film won 11 international awards including The Wildscreen Panda , also known as the Green Oscar . Recently , the film received four stars from the Hindustan Times .","qid":"141","docid":"Shores_of_Silence","rank":30,"score":93828},{"content":"Title: Astral Oil Works Content: Astral Oil Works was founded in the Greenpoint section of Brooklyn , New York , by Charles Pratt . Pratt was a pioneer of the petroleum industry who formed Charles Pratt and Company with Henry H. Rogers . The Pratt interests became part of John D. Rockefeller 's Standard Oil organization in 1874 . Specializing in illuminating oil , which had earlier been derived from whale oil , the products of the Astral Oil Works kerosene refinery became famous worldwide in the late 19th century . Company advertising used the slogan , `` The holy lamps of Tibet are primed with Astral Oil . '' Pratt founded and endowed the Pratt Institute with profits of the Astral Oil Works .","qid":"141","docid":"Astral_Oil_Works","rank":31,"score":93161},{"content":"Title: GreenPalm Content: GreenPalm is a certificate-trading program for `` sustainably produced '' palm oil . Established in Hull , England , in November 2006 , GreenPalm is a trading name of Book & Claim Ltd. , `` a wholly owned subsidiary of '' AarhusKarlshamn UK Ltd. .","qid":"141","docid":"GreenPalm","rank":32,"score":93035},{"content":"Title: Emily Hunter Content: Emily Hunter ( born May 20 , 1984 ) is a Canadian activist , author and filmmaker . She is the daughter of the late Robert Hunter , first president of Greenpeace and Bobbi Hunter , co-founder of Greenpeace . She has been a campaigner for nearly a decade on numerous environmental causes , from fighting whaling to climate change . She is known in Canada as a writer for THIS magazine and as environmental correspondent for MTV News .","qid":"141","docid":"Emily_Hunter","rank":33,"score":92635},{"content":"Title: And God Created Great Whales Content: And God Created Great Whales , Op. 229 , No. 1 , is a symphonic poem for orchestra and recorded whale sounds by the American composer Alan Hovhaness . The work was commissioned by Andre Kostelanetz and the New York Philharmonic , who premiered the piece June 11,1970 in New York City . The piece has been recorded numerous times and remains one of Hovhaness 's most popular compositions . It has also been credited as an early work in the movement to save whales from extinction , alongside John Tavener 's 1966 cantata The Whale . The title of the work comes from Genesis 1:21 in the King James Version of the Bible .","qid":"141","docid":"And_God_Created_Great_Whales","rank":34,"score":92608},{"content":"Title: Whale conservation Content: Whale conservation is the international environmental and ethical debate over whale hunting . The conservation and anti-whaling debate has focused on issues of sustainability as well as ownership and national sovereignty . Also raised in conservation efforts is the question of cetacean intelligence , the level of suffering which the animals undergo when caught and killed , and the importance that the mammals play in the ecosystem and a healthy marine environment . The International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) 1986 moratorium on commercial whaling , the value of lethal sampling of whales for scientific research in order to establish catch quotas has also been debated . The value of whaling to fisheries as a method of controlling whales ' perceived negative impact on fish stocks is another point of debate .","qid":"141","docid":"Whale_conservation","rank":35,"score":91748},{"content":"Title: A Whale Content: A Whale is a Liberian-flagged ore-oil carrier built in 2010 by Hyundai Heavy Industries , Ulsan , South Korea for TMT Co. Ltd. ( formerly Taiwan Maritime Transport Co. Ltd. ) from the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) . She has seven other sister ships in the fleet , built in 2010-2011 and named in succession : B Whale , C Whale etc. , to H Whale .","qid":"141","docid":"A_Whale","rank":36,"score":91498},{"content":"Title: Ben Metcalfe Content: Bennett Metcalfe ( October 31 , 1919 -- October 14 , 2003 ) was a Canadian journalist and first chairman of Greenpeace , founded 1971 . Ben Metcalfe was born in Winnipeg . Later he moved to the United Kingdom and at the age of 16 joined the Royal Air Force . He was posted in India and North Africa . After World War II he worked as journalist in France . He moved back to Canada in 1951 , living in Winnipeg , West Vancouver , and Shawnigan Lake . He worked as a journalist , editor , and freelance correspondent for Winnipeg Free Press , the Province in Vancouver and other publications . He also started a public relations company with his second wife Dorothy . In 1971 he joined the crew member of the Greenpeace boat sailing to protest against U.S. army nuclear bomb test near Amchitka island . When the Greenpeace Foundation was established , Metcalfe became its first chairman . He recognized the importance of a media campaign as a tool to gain support for environmental issues . He left his post when Greenpeace changed focus from nuclear weapons to fighting against whaling and seal hunting . He is the author of a biography of Roderick Langmere Haig-Brown : Metcalfe , E. Bennett ( 1985 ) . A man of some importance : the life of Roderick Langmere Haig-Brown Published by James W. Wood , Vancouver . ISBN 0-921063-01-6 , ISBN 0-921063-00-8 . Metcalfe died of a heart attack at age 83 . He had three daughters Michelle , Charlotte , and Sophie ; and sons Christopher ( 1958-1980 ) , and Michael ( 1956-2002 )","qid":"141","docid":"Ben_Metcalfe","rank":37,"score":90080},{"content":"Title: Spermaceti Content: Spermaceti ( from Latin sperma meaning `` semen '' , and ceti , the genitive form of `` whale '' ) is a waxy substance found in the head cavities of the sperm whale ( and , in smaller quantities , in the oils of other whales ) . Spermaceti is created in the spermaceti organ inside the whale 's head . Two theories for the spermaceti organ 's biological function suggest it either controls buoyancy , or acts as a focusing apparatus for the whale 's sense of echolocation . There has been concrete evidence to support both theories . The buoyancy theory holds that the sperm whale is capable of heating the spermaceti , lowering its density and thus allowing the whale to float ; in order for the whale to sink again , it must take water into its blowhole which cools the spermaceti into a denser solid . This claim has been called into question by recent research which indicates a lack of biological structures to support this heat exchange , as well as the fact that the change in density is too small to be meaningful until the organ grows to huge size . The proportion of wax esters in the spermaceti organ increases with the age of the whale : 38 -- 51 % in calves , 58 -- 87 % in adult females , and 71 -- 94 % in adult males . Spermaceti wax is extracted from sperm oil by crystallisation at 6 C , when treated by pressure and a chemical solution of caustic alkali . Spermaceti forms brilliant white crystals that are hard but oily to the touch , and are devoid of taste or smell , making it very useful as an ingredient in cosmetics , leatherworking , and lubricants . The substance was also used in making candles of a standard photometric value , in the dressing of fabrics , and as a pharmaceutical excipient , especially in cerates and ointments . Candlepower , a photometric unit defined in the United Kingdom Act of Parliament Metropolitan Gas Act 1860 and adopted at the International Electrotechnical Conference of 1883 , was based on the light produced by a pure spermaceti candle .","qid":"141","docid":"Spermaceti","rank":38,"score":90021},{"content":"Title: Whaling Content: Whaling is the hunting of whales for their usable products like meat , oil and blubber . Its earliest forms date to at least circa 3000 BC . Various coastal communities have long histories of subsistence whaling and harvesting beached whales . Industrial whaling emerged with organized fleets in the 17th century ; competitive national whaling industries in the 18th and 19th centuries ; and the introduction of factory ships along with the concept of whale harvesting in the first half of the 20th century . By the late 1930s , more than 50,000 whales were killed annually In 1986 , the International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) banned commercial whaling because of the extreme depletion of most of the whale stocks . Contemporary whaling is subject to intense debate . Pro-whaling countries , notably Japan , Norway , and Iceland , wish to lift the ban on certain whale stocks for hunting . Anti-whaling countries and environmental groups oppose lifting the ban .","qid":"141","docid":"Whaling","rank":39,"score":89600},{"content":"Title: Mary A. Whalen (tanker) Content: Mary A. Whalen , also known as the S.T. Kiddoo , is a historic oil tanker located in the Red Hook neighborhood of Brooklyn , Kings County , New York . She was built in 1938 by the John J. Mathis Company of Camden , New Jersey and measures 138 feet long . She is a rare example of a `` bell boat . '' The tanker shipped oil along East Coast and was at center of United States v. Reliable Transfer Co. , a seminal decision in maritime law after she ran aground in Rockaway Inlet in 1968 . She was in active service until 1994 . She was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2012 .","qid":"141","docid":"Mary_A._Whalen_(tanker)","rank":40,"score":89055},{"content":"Title: Rainbow Warrior (1955) Content: Rainbow Warrior was a former UK Ministry of Agriculture , Fisheries and Food ( MAFF ) trawler called the Sir William Hardy . She was purchased by the environmental organization Greenpeace UK -- an office established in May 1977 with Susi Newborn , Denise Bell , David McTaggart , Charlie Hutchison and Allan Thornton as directors . The ship was active in supporting a number of Greenpeace anti-whaling , - seal hunting , - nuclear testing and - nuclear waste dumping campaigns during the late 1970s and early 1980s . She was sunk whilst in Auckland harbour in New Zealand by operatives of the French intelligence service ( DGSE ) on 10 July 1985 , killing photographer Fernando Pereira .","qid":"141","docid":"Rainbow_Warrior_(1955)","rank":41,"score":89004},{"content":"Title: Greenpeace India Content: Greenpeace India is the Indian branch of the global environmental group Greenpeace , a non-profit NGO , with a presence in 40 countries across Europe , the Americas , Asia and the Pacific . The Indian operations run four broad campaigns namely , stop climate change , sustainable agriculture , preserving the oceans and preventing another nuclear catastrophe . Greenpeace India states that it receives 60 % of its funding from donors in India , 38 % from Netherlands-based Greenpeace International and less than 1 % from the US-based Climate Works Foundation . According to the organization , they do not accept money from governments , intergovernmental organizations , political parties or corporations in order to avoid their influence . In 2015 , several women employees made allegations of sexual harassment , bullying and rape at Greenpeace India .","qid":"141","docid":"Greenpeace_India","rank":42,"score":88581},{"content":"Title: London Greenpeace Content: London Greenpeace was an anarchist environmentalist activist collective that existed between 1972 and 2001 . They were based in London , and came to international prominence when two of their activists refused to capitulate to McDonald 's in the landmark libel case known as `` McLibel '' . It was not affiliated with Greenpeace International .","qid":"141","docid":"London_Greenpeace","rank":43,"score":88533},{"content":"Title: North Atlantic right whale Content: The North Atlantic right whale ( Eubalaena glacialis , which means `` good , or true , whale of the ice '' ) is a baleen whale , one of three right whale species belonging to the genus Eubalaena , all of which were formerly classified as a single species . Because of their docile nature , their slow surface-skimming feeding behaviors , their tendencies to stay close to the coast , and their high blubber content ( which makes them float when they are killed , and which produced high yields of whale oil ) , right whales were once a preferred target for whalers . At present , they are among the most endangered whales in the world , and they are protected under the U.S. Endangered Species Act and Marine Mammal Protection Act and Canada 's Species at Risk Act . There are about 400 individuals in existence in the western North Atlantic Ocean -- they migrate between feeding grounds in the Gulf of Maine and their winter calving areas off Georgia and Florida , an ocean area with heavy shipping traffic . In the eastern North Atlantic , on the other hand -- with a total population reaching into the low teens at best -- scientists believe that they may already be functionally extinct . Vessel strikes and entanglement in fixed fishing gear , which together account for nearly half of all North Atlantic right whale mortality since 1970 , are their two greatest threats to recovery .","qid":"141","docid":"North_Atlantic_right_whale","rank":44,"score":88511},{"content":"Title: Pacific Whale Foundation Content: The Pacific Whale Foundation ( PWF ) is a non-governmental organization founded in 1980 and based in Maui , Hawaii that conducts whale research and educates the public in an effort to save vulnerable species of whales from extinction . As of 2012 the organization had about 150 employees . Since its foundation the PWF has been working to prevent destruction of populations of Humpback whales , dolphins , turtles and coral reefs in Hawaii . Every year the PWF organizes a `` Great Whale Count '' where volunteers systematically gather data on whales that can be seen from ten observation points along the southern shore of Maui , giving a series of snapshots that indicate changes in whale populations . The Pacific Whale Foundation provided funding to the Alfaguara project on Isla de Chiloé in southern Chile for marine surveys of the local blue whale population in the 2012 season .","qid":"141","docid":"Pacific_Whale_Foundation","rank":45,"score":88381},{"content":"Title: Greenpeace Arctic Sunrise ship case Content: After Greenpeace activists attempted to scale the Prirazlomnaya drilling platform on 18 September 2013 , as part of a protest against Arctic oil production , Russian authorities seized the Greenpeace ship the Arctic Sunrise in international waters in the Russian Exclusive Economic Zone on 19 September 2013 , arrested the crew at gunpoint , towed the ship to Murmansk , and detained the crew of 28 activists and two freelance journalists . The Investigative Committee of Russia opened a criminal investigation , charging the activists initially with piracy and later with hooliganism . Since the Arctic Sunrise was flying the Dutch flag , the Netherlands filed a case at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea ( ITLOS case 22 ) which argued ( and obtained ruling ) the release of the crew and ship until both parties can resolve the conflict . Russia ignored the ITLOS ruling , but eventually released the crew as part of a general amnesty adopted by the State Duma after two months of detention . The Arctic Sunrise itself was released from Russian detainment in June 2014 .","qid":"141","docid":"Greenpeace_Arctic_Sunrise_ship_case","rank":46,"score":88316},{"content":"Title: Marine mammal observer Content: A marine mammal observer ( MMO ) is a professional in environmental consulting who specializes in whales and dolphins . In recent years there has been increased concern for the effect of man-made noise pollution in the ocean , particularly upon cetaceans - which are known to be sensitive to sound . As a result , environmental regulations have been introduced in an attempt to minimise negative impacts on marine wildlife . These guidelines have focused on the oil industry 's seismic exploration for offshore oil . They center on the practice of delaying or shutting down the use of air-guns if a whale or dolphin is sighted nearby . An MMO will implement these regulations in the field . When on board the seismic vessel , the MMO 's job is two-fold : To spot sensitive wildlife species To monitor adherence to the guidelines . Spotting , and identifying , animals involves long hours of visual surveys . Detecting cetaceans with hydrophones is known as Passive Acoustic Monitoring ( PAM ) , and this is an increasingly common technique used in addition to visual surveys . Ensuring adherence to guidelines requires a thorough knowledge of the regulations , understanding of the operations and the ability to communicate effectively with the crew . MMOs usually have a strong background in marine biology and conservation . Increasingly , the oil industry is employing a ` best practice ' attitude to environmental commitment and voluntarily taking on MMOs as independent observers in areas where no government regulations exist . In some circumstances guidelines may be open to interpretation or the environmental conditions unique and the MMO will be called upon to advise on a sensible mitigation protocol . As well as the seismic exploration industry , MMOs may also be required during ; oil rig decommissioning , where disused oil platform pilings on the seabed are removed by large amounts of explosives , marine construction projects and ; military trials of powerful new active sonar systems . Typically MMO duties are funded by the company surveying . Noise from human activity in the ocean environment is likely to increase - and become a bigger environmental issue . Discussion of how to minimize the negative effects of noise upon whales , dolphins and other marine-life will no doubt continue between industry , government agencies , military , environmental organizations and academics . It will be the MMO who puts this into practice in the field .","qid":"141","docid":"Marine_mammal_observer","rank":47,"score":87587},{"content":"Title: Green Hell (film) Content: Green Hell is a 1940 American jungle adventure film directed by James Whale , starring Douglas Fairbanks Jr. and Joan Bennett . Green Hell was given a lavish production by Universal Pictures , which built a massive indoor jungle set on a sound stage . An Inca temple 125 feet high , 225 feet wide , and 45,000 square feet in area were constructed . Having spent a great deal of money on a film that turned out to be a critical and financial disaster , Universal used the set again , recycling it into an Egyptian temple for The Mummy 's Hand ( 1940 ) . Whale made only one more completed film after this , the 1941 World War II romantic melodrama They Dare Not Love , starring George Brent , improbably cast as an exiled Austrian prince fighting the Nazis .","qid":"141","docid":"Green_Hell_(film)","rank":48,"score":87321},{"content":"Title: Willungacetus Content: Willungacetus is an extinct genus of primitive baleen whale of the family Aetiocetidae known from the Oligocene of Australia ( at Port Willunga , , paleocoordinates ) . It is the oldest-known whale from Australia , and the only aetiocetid whale currently known from the Southern Hemisphere . Neville S. Pledge first visited the type locality in 1983 and collected two boulders . These two rocks , however , were forgotten until 2001 when a partial vertebra were discovered within . The site was subsequently revisited and another specimen , a partial cranium , was discovered . Pledge referred a radius , collected from the same cliff in 1994 , to his newly named species . Pledge provisionally assigned Willungacetus to Aetiocetidae , but this assignment still needs to be confirmed .","qid":"141","docid":"Willungacetus","rank":49,"score":86906},{"content":"Title: The Voyage of the Odyssey Content: The Voyage of the Odyssey was a 5-year program conducted by oceanographic research and education non-profit Ocean Alliance , which collected the first baseline data set on contaminants in the world 's oceans . It was launched from San Diego in March 2000 , and ended five and a half years later in Boston , August 2005 . In a 1979 National Geographic magazine article Ocean Alliance founder and president Dr. Roger Payne predicted that toxic pollution would replace the harpoon as the next greatest threat to whales . Recognizing the stark lack of data on the subject , Roger set his organisation Ocean Alliance with the task of obtaining a global baseline data set on contaminants . After years of planning and fund-raising , the program was finally ready to launch in 2000 . In the executive summary of the project , Roger stated that , ` The Voyage of the Odyssey has proven irrefutably that ocean life is becoming polluted to unacceptable levels by metals and human-made contaminants . ' The focus of the program was on Sperm whales , a cosmopolitan species found in every major ocean . As long-lived apex predators , Sperm whales represent a useful bioindicator of health in the marine ecosystem in a toxicological context , owing to the effects of three key processes : bioaccumulation , biomagnification and the generation effect . Sadly , these three processes also make Sperm whales , and other apex predators , at great risk from toxic pollution . As mammalian apex predators that nurse their young with milk , they are also relatively similar to us , and thus are seen as the ` canaries in the coal mine ' regarding humanities relationship with the oceans . The program also had a robust educational and outreach component . In every country they visited , Odyssey crew members met with government leaders , students , teachers and journalists-many of whom kept promoting ocean health after the Odyssey departed for its next research location . The program was also the focus of a major online diary & educational webseries through American broadcaster PBS produced by Genevieve & Chris Johnson . Aside from collecting the first baseline data set on contaminants in the world 's oceans , the program was witness to a number of other successes , innovations and firsts . These include : uncovering illegal shark finning operations documenting the use of massive drift nets in the Mediterranean helping to create a 1.2 million square-mile marine mammal sanctuary in Papua New Guinea waters made incredibly rare sightings of a live Longman 's beaked whale","qid":"141","docid":"The_Voyage_of_the_Odyssey","rank":50,"score":86622},{"content":"Title: Sperm oil Content: Sperm oil is a waxy liquid obtained from sperm whales . It is a clear , yellowish liquid with a very faint odor . Sperm oil has a different composition from common whale oil . Although it is traditionally called an `` oil '' , it is technically a liquid wax . It is composed of wax esters with a small proportion of triglycerides , an ester of an unsaturated fatty acid and a branched-chain fatty alcohol . It is a natural antioxidant and heat-transfer agent . Through catalytic reaction , it carries phosphorus and sulfur derivatives providing anti-wear and friction modification . In the late 18th and early 19th centuries , sperm oil was prized as an illuminant for its bright , odorless flame and as a lubricant for its low viscosity and stability . It was supplanted in the late 19th century by less expensive alternatives such as kerosene and petroleum-based lubricants . With the 1987 international ban on whaling , sperm oil is no longer legally sold . The oil from bottlenose whales was sometimes called `` Arctic sperm oil '' . It was cheaper and inferior to true sperm oil .","qid":"141","docid":"Sperm_oil","rank":51,"score":86544},{"content":"Title: Ocean Alliance Content: Ocean Alliance , Inc. , a 501 ( c ) 3 organization , is dedicated to the conservation of whales and their marine environment through research and education . The organization is based in the iconic Tarr & Wonson Paint Manufactory in Gloucester , Massachusetts , United States . It was founded in 1971 by biologist Roger Payne . Led by Payne and Chief Executive Officer Iain Kerr , Ocean Alliance collects a broad spectrum of data on whales and ocean life relating particularly to toxicology , behavior , bioacoustics , and genetics . From those data , the alliance works with its scientific partners to advise educators and policy makers on wise stewardship of the oceans in order to : reduce pollution , prevent the collapse of marine mammal populations , maintain human access to fish and other sea life , and benefit ocean and human health .","qid":"141","docid":"Ocean_Alliance","rank":52,"score":86395},{"content":"Title: Krill oil Content: Krill oil is an extract prepared from a species of Antarctic krill , Euphausia superba . Two of the most important components in krill oil are omega-3 fatty acids similar to those in fish oil , and phospholipid-derived fatty acids ( PLFA ) , mainly phosphatidylcholine ( alternatively referred to as marine lecithin ) . Studies have shown toxic residues in Antarctic krill and fish ; however , the United States Food and Drug Administration has accepted notices from krill oil manufacturers declaring that krill oil and products derived from it meet the standards for Generally Recognized as Safe ( GRAS ) status , although the FDA itself has not tested the products . While not an endangered species , Antarctic krill are a mainstay of the diets of many ocean-based species including whales and there is some environmental and scientific concern that their population has decreased dramatically both due to climate change and human harvesting .","qid":"141","docid":"Krill_oil","rank":53,"score":85607},{"content":"Title: Big Miracle (book) Content: Big Miracle tells the true story of three gray whales trapped beneath Arctic ice in the fall of 1988 , and of Operation Breakthrough , the collaborative efforts to free them by oil company executives , activists , Inupiat people , the U.S. military , and Soviet ice-breakers . Written by journalist Tom Rose ( who covered the event for a Japanese news channel at the time ) , the book was originally published in 1989 , titled Freeing the Whales : How the Media Created the World 's Greatest Non-Event . It was re-released under its current title by St. Martin 's Press in 2011 . A film adaption of Big Miracle directed by Ken Kwapis , starring Drew Barrymore , Ted Danson , Kristen Bell , among other stars , was released in 2012 .","qid":"141","docid":"Big_Miracle_(book)","rank":54,"score":85521},{"content":"Title: Saghacetus Content: Saghacetus is an extinct genus of basilosaurid early whale , fossils of which have been found in the Upper Eocene ( middle Priabonian , ) Qasr el Sagha Formation , Egypt ( , paleocoordinates ) . In 1879 , German botanist Georg August Schweinfurth spent many years exploring Africa and eventually discovered the first archaeocete whale in Egypt . He visited Qasr el Sagha in 1884 and 1886 and missed the now famous `` Zeuglodon Valley '' with a few kilometres . German palaeontologist Wilhelm Barnim Dames described the material , including a well-preserved dentary which is the type specimen of Zeuglodon osiris . The generic name Saghacetus was established by to group the ancient species Dorudon osiris , D. zitteli , D. sensitivius and D. elliotsmithii on a single species , Saghacetus osiris . This species is distinguished from other members of the subfamily Dorudontinae by its smaller size and the slightly elongated proximal lumbar and caudal vertebrae.Saghacetus is smaller than its contemporary Stromerius , both of which are smaller than the older Dorudon '' .","qid":"141","docid":"Saghacetus","rank":55,"score":85281},{"content":"Title: Operation Breakthrough Content: Operation Breakthrough was an international effort to free three gray whales from pack ice in the Beaufort Sea near Point Barrow in the U.S. state of Alaska in 1988 . The whales ' plight generated media attention that led to the collaboration of multiple governments and organizations to free them . The youngest whale died during the effort and it is unknown if the remaining two whales ultimately survived .","qid":"141","docid":"Operation_Breakthrough","rank":56,"score":85265},{"content":"Title: Blue whale Content: The blue whale ( Balaenoptera musculus ) is a marine mammal belonging to the baleen whales ( Mysticeti ) . At up to 29.9 m in length and with a maximum recorded weight of 173 tonne and probably reaching over 181 tonnes ( 200 short tons ) , it is the largest animal known to have ever existed . Long and slender , the blue whale 's body can be various shades of bluish-grey dorsally and somewhat lighter underneath . There are at least three distinct subspecies : B. m. musculus of the North Atlantic and North Pacific , B. m. intermedia of the Southern Ocean and B. m. brevicauda ( also known as the pygmy blue whale ) found in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean . B. m. indica , found in the Indian Ocean , may be another subspecies . As with other baleen whales , its diet consists almost exclusively of small crustaceans known as krill . Blue whales were abundant in nearly all the oceans on Earth until the beginning of the twentieth century . For over a century , they were hunted almost to extinction by whalers until protected by the international community in 1966 . A 2002 report estimated there were 5,000 to 12,000 blue whales worldwide , in at least five groups . The IUCN estimates that there are probably between 10,000 and 25,000 blue whales worldwide today . Before whaling , the largest population was in the Antarctic , numbering approximately 239,000 ( range 202,000 to 311,000 ) . There remain only much smaller ( around 2,000 ) concentrations in each of the eastern North Pacific , Antarctic , and Indian Ocean groups . There are two more groups in the North Atlantic , and at least two in the Southern Hemisphere . As of 2014 , the Eastern North Pacific blue whale population had rebounded to nearly its pre-hunting population .","qid":"141","docid":"Blue_whale","rank":57,"score":84854},{"content":"Title: Save the World (George Harrison song) Content: `` Save the World '' is a song by English musician George Harrison , released as the final track of his 1981 album Somewhere in England . It was also the B-side of `` Teardrops '' , which was the second single off the album . An environmental protest song , `` Save the World '' was Harrison 's first composition to directly address topical issues such as the nuclear arms race , rainforest and wildlife devastation , and the ecologically irresponsible practices of corporate concerns . Musically , the song partly recalls the style of the comedy troupe Monty Python . Harrison recorded `` Save the World '' at his Friar Park studio in England in 1980 . The recording includes sound effects that support the song 's message of a world heading towards self-destruction , including bombs falling , a cash register , a street demonstration , and a nuclear explosion . In 1985 , Harrison contributed a version of the song with amended lyrics to Greenpeace 's self-titled fundraising album . `` Save the World '' also appeared on the home video Greenpeace : Non-Toxic Video Hits . Since its release , the song has been held in low regard by several music critics and biographers . Some of these reviewers highlight the disparity between the serious message and the quirky musical backing . In line with Harrison 's wishes , a demo of `` Save the World '' appeared as the sole bonus track on the posthumously reissued Somewhere in England in 2004 .","qid":"141","docid":"Save_the_World_(George_Harrison_song)","rank":58,"score":84644},{"content":"Title: Greenpeace Energy Content: Greenpeace Energy is a German electric utility in the form of a registered association . The stated goal of the cooperative is the provision of environmentally friendly energy to the electrical grid . As a founding member of the association , Greenpeace e.V. holds only five shares at $ 55 in the cooperative , otherwise the environmental group and the company are financially and legally independent . The name use is linked contract with the condition that Greenpeace Energy fulfils the conditions laid down by the Greenpeace e.V. quality criteria for `` clean energy '' .","qid":"141","docid":"Greenpeace_Energy","rank":59,"score":84625},{"content":"Title: Walkampf Content: `` Walkampf '' ( Whale struggle ) is a song by Die Toten Hosen . It 's the second single and the thirteenth track from the album Zurück zum Glück . The title is a pun on the word `` Wahlkampf '' , which means `` election campaign '' in German . The song is about a dream by the narrator , where he finds a whale on a beach and struggles to push it back to the water , but does n't have enough strength for that . All the time , he hears the waves , the sun shouting : `` Push the whale back in the sea '' , which pressures him . He hopes to get help from a Greenpeace ship he sees , but right before his eyes , it sinks . The next day he has sore muscles and gets under the shower but then his girlfriend urges him to `` push the whale back in the sea '' and on it goes . The song opens with a slow ukulele tune , progresses into a more aggressive punk style during the 2nd verse , with the bridge between the 2nd and third verse being overlaid with a background singer giving it a more surf rock style similar to a song by the Beach Boys , and the final verse and final chorus is accompanied by bagpipes , with the background singer returning at the very tail end of the song .","qid":"141","docid":"Walkampf","rank":60,"score":84564},{"content":"Title: Greenpeace (disambiguation) Content: Greenpeace or Greenpeace International is a non-governmental environmental organization founded in Vancouver in 1971 . Greenpeace may also refer to : Greenpeace Foundation , a USA based environmental organization founded in Honolulu in 1976 , not affiliated to Greenpeace International London Greenpeace , an anarchist environmentalist activist collective that existed between 1971 and 2001 , not affiliated to Greenpeace International MV Greenpeace , a ship used by Greenpeace International Greenpeace Energy , German energy company affiliated to Greenpeace International Greenpeace ( music group ) , 2005 New Zealand charity supergroup affiliated to Greenpeace International","qid":"141","docid":"Greenpeace_(disambiguation)","rank":61,"score":84506},{"content":"Title: Wen Bo Content: Wen Bo is a Chinese environmentalist based in Beijing . Born and raised in the coastal city of Dalian in Northeast China . Wen Bo became interested in environmental activism since watching anti-whaling actions by Greenpeace on TV . He later became a journalist with China Environment News and began reporting on China 's many environmental problems . Wen Bo helped found Green Peace 's Beijing office and went on to become the Beijing-based Co-Director of Pacific Environment 's China Program . He has studied , lived and worked in , besides China , South Korea and Japan , and thus has a comparative understanding of environmental problems , activism , and governance in these countries . He 's frequently interviewed and profiled by major international news medias such as Time magazine , Radio Free Asia , San Francisco Chronicle , the Financial Times , etc. .","qid":"141","docid":"Wen_Bo","rank":62,"score":84495},{"content":"Title: Whaling in Seychelles Content: Whaling in Seychelles was established in the early 19th century , coming largely to a close by 1915 due to declining prices for sperm whale oil , as well as the lack of materials and freight congestion due to the onset of World War I . The primary quarry , sperm whales , were generally caught near Bird and Denis Islands , and towed to a whaling station on Saint Anne .","qid":"141","docid":"Whaling_in_Seychelles","rank":63,"score":83257},{"content":"Title: Sigguk Block Content: Sigguk Block is an oil exploration block in Baffin Bay . It is located 175 km west of Disko Island , Greenland . The block consists of Alpha , T4 , and T8 prospects . The license to explore the block belongs to Cairn Energy 's subsidiary Capricorn Greenland Exploration Limited . In October 2009 Cairn Energy sold a 20 % stake of its rights to Petronas . The national oil company of Greenland NUNAOIL owns 12.5 % interest . The license expires on 31 December 2017 . Exploration wells at the Alpha prospect are drilled by semi-submersible drilling rig Stena Don and at the T8 prospect by the drillship Stena Forth . Drilling commenced on 1 July 2010 . On 24 August 2010 , Stena Forth discovered natural gas resource when it drilled the T8-1 exploration well . However , this resource occurred to be too small for commercial production . The well was plugged and abandoned . On 21 September 2010 it was announced that oil and gas resource was discovered when drilling the Alpha-1S1 well . Drilling at the Sigguk Block is opposed by Greenpeace . On 31 August 2010 , four Greenpeace activists invaded Stena Don which was drilling on the Alpha prospect . The Government of Greenland described this action as `` very serious and an illegal attack on the country 's constitutional rights '' . This action was ended on 1 September due to bad weather . All four activist were arrested and charged with breaking and entering , as well as trespass .","qid":"141","docid":"Sigguk_Block","rank":64,"score":83077},{"content":"Title: Greenpeace Southeast Asia Content: Greenpeace Southeast Asia is the regional office of the global environmental organization Greenpeace . Greenpeace has run successful campaigns in the Philippines , Taiwan , India , Indonesia and Thailand , often working with other local environmental groups . In late 1980s and early 1990s , Greenpeace has developed its presence , and first established an office in Japan in 1989 and then China in 1997 . Because of the region 's vital importance , initial investigations were also initiated focusing primarily on Philippines and Indonesia . Greenpeace has thoroughly campaigned in industrialized countries to reduce and eventually eliminate environmental pollution and degradation knowing that those efforts can easily be reversed as some multinational companies export dirty technologies resulting in environmental destruction in the region . In 1999 , Greenpeace led the campaign to push for the passage of Republic Act No. 8749 , otherwise known as `` The Philippine Clean Air Act '' which includes an unprecedented national ban against waste incineration . In recognition of the region 's vital importance , Greenpeace Southeast Asia was formally established on March 2000 with its head office in Bangkok , Thailand and branch offices in Manila , Philippines and Jakarta , Indonesia -- major cities in the region that are among the most polluted cities in the world today . Greenpeace Southeast Asia is firmly rooted within the local environmental communities around the countries where it operates . Licensed to use the name `` Greenpeace '' by Stichting Greenpeace Council , Greenpeace Southeast Asia contributes financially to Greenpeace International , campaign locally , participate in international campaigns , and help shape the international campaign program . Greenpeace Southeast Asia 's work in the region includes stopping hazardous waste imports , opposing radioactive shipments , campaigning against forest destruction , lobbying governments on sustainable energy issues and drawing attention to the dangers of waste incineration . It uses tactics of non-violent direct action to draw attention to what it considers significant threats to the environment , and then forces solutions . In 2005 the Rainbow Warrior II ran aground on and damaged the Tubbataha Reef in the Philippines while inspecting the reef for coral bleaching . Greenpeace was fined $ 7,000 USD for damaging the reef and agreed to pay the fine saying they felt responsible for the damage , although Greenpeace stated that the Philippines government had given it outdated charts . The park manager of Tubbatha appreciated the quick action Greenpeace took to assess the damage to the reef . As a regional organization , Greenpeace Southeast Asia focuses on bearing witness to the impacts brought by global warming , and increasing public awareness of the problems it poses . Campaigning to effect changes in the direction of the region 's energy policies for the future , the group encourages governments to turn away from fossil fuel dependency and embracing renewable , sustainable and clean sources of energy .","qid":"141","docid":"Greenpeace_Southeast_Asia","rank":65,"score":82546},{"content":"Title: Green Shadows, White Whale Content: Green Shadows , White Whale is a 1992 novel by Ray Bradbury . It gives a fictionalized account of his journey to Ireland in 1953-1954 to write a screen adaptation of the novel Moby-Dick with director John Huston . Bradbury has said he wrote it after reading actress Katharine Hepburn 's account of filming The African Queen with Huston in Africa . The title itself is a play on Peter Viertel 's novel White Hunter , Black Heart , which is also about Huston . Bradbury considers Green Shadows to be the culmination of thirty-five years of short stories , poems , and plays that were inspired by his stay in Ireland . As with most of his previous short-story collections , including The Illustrated Man and The Martian Chronicles , many of the short stories were originally published elsewhere and modified slightly for publication in the novel .","qid":"141","docid":"Green_Shadows,_White_Whale","rank":66,"score":82213},{"content":"Title: MV Greenpeace Content: The MV Greenpeace ( formerly ( 1959 -- 1977 ) and since 2002 known as the Elbe ) was a Greenpeace ship built in 1959 as an oceangoing tug/salvage vessel . She was purchased by Greenpeace in 1985 from the Maryland Pilotage Company , the vessel then being named MV Maryland , and transferred back to the Netherlands to be refitted with modern equipment before being recommissioned . ( She took over from the first Rainbow Warrior , which had been sunk in 1985 by French commandos . In 2001 she was replaced by the MV Esperanza .","qid":"141","docid":"MV_Greenpeace","rank":67,"score":81475},{"content":"Title: Nine oils Content: In the 19th century , the nine oils was a preparation , or liniment , which was rubbed into the skin to relieve aches , such as over bruises . The `` nine oils '' were apparently developed in veterinary medicine , for treating horses , but later was adopted for human medical use . According to one 19th-century druggists ' book , oils used in the preparation included : train oil ; that is , whale oil or the oil of the blubber of another marine mammal oil of turpentine oil of bricks , the oil obtained by the distillation of pieces of brick saturated with rapeseed oil or olive oil oil of amber spirit of camphor Barbados tar , a kind of greenish petroleum found in Barbados oil of vitriol ; that is , sulfuric acid However , it is certain that many `` nine oils '' preparations did not contain these ingredients , and in fact it is possible that the name `` nine oils '' never referred to any specific combination of compounds . The writer James Greenwood , in 1883 , put these words in the mouth of the street-doctor `` Dr. Quackinbosh '' , in his series of articles Toilers in London , by One of the Crowd , originally serialized in the Daily Telegraph : When I first started I worked Woolwich with my `` miraculous Nine Oils . '' Men who work at heavy lifting and hauling , and are likely to get strains and ricks of the back , have a superstitious belief in the `` Nine Oils . '' It is the same wherever you go . What are they ? what , the original Nine ? Blessed if I know , nor they do n't know either . But that do n't make any difference . I used to give 'em one -- sperm oil -- and call it the Nine .","qid":"141","docid":"Nine_oils","rank":68,"score":81403},{"content":"Title: Greenpeace Foundation Content: Greenpeace Foundation is an environmental organization based in Hawaii . It was officially founded in 1976 as an independent offshoot of the Canadian Greenpeace Foundation and was the first Greenpeace in the United States . When the original Vancouver-based Greenpeace Foundation later evolved to Greenpeace International the Hawaii-based Greenpeace Foundation declined to join them , and remains an unaffiliated organisation . The greenpeace movement grew out of the `` peace '' and `` environmental '' movements in the early 1970s . Back then , it looked likely that the planet was going to be subjected to a nuclear war . The Canadian `` Do n't Make a Wave '' committee formed to protest US tectonic nuclear testing at Amchitka in the Aleutian Islands and later the French atmospheric testing at Mururoa in French Polynesia . The phrase `` green peace '' was used as a slogan to describe the ideals of those activists , who envisioned a healthy ( green ) and peaceful ( peace ) planet as a good thing . By about 1973 , the phrase had been shortened to a word , Greenpeace , and an organization called `` Greenpeace Foundation '' was established in Vancouver , Canada . It was this ragtag group of idealists and visionaries who first did an at-sea protest of whaling in 1975 and conducted the high-profile campaign against the clubbing of baby harp seals off Newfoundland beginning in 1976 .","qid":"141","docid":"Greenpeace_Foundation","rank":69,"score":81308},{"content":"Title: Samuel Enderby Content: Samuel Enderby ( 17 January 171919 September 1797 ) was an English whale oil merchant . In the 18th century , he founded Samuel Enderby & Sons , a prominent shipping , whaling , and sealing company . The Enderby family had been tanners at Bermondsey , and supported Oliver Cromwell . Daniel Enderby I raised money for the army in the Long Parliament , as recorded in Hansard . The family was granted forfeited estates at Lismore , County Waterford , Ireland , which were sold in 1660 . After that time , the family was active in the ` oil and Russia trade ' and traded with the New England colonies . On 2 June 1752 , Samuel Enderby II married Mary Buxton , a daughter of his business partner , at St Paul 's Wharf in London . Enderby died in 1797 , leaving the company to his three sons Charles , Samuel III , and George . Samuel Enderby III ( 1756-1829 ) made the first successful whale catch in Australia ( 10 November 1791 ) , and was the grandfather of Major-General Charles George Gordon .","qid":"141","docid":"Samuel_Enderby","rank":70,"score":81241},{"content":"Title: How to Change the World (film) Content: How to Change the World is a documentary film , from writer-director Jerry Rothwell ( Deep Water ) , which chronicles the adventures of an eclectic group of young pioneers who set out to stop Richard Nixon 's nuclear bomb tests in Amchitka , Alaska , and end up creating the worldwide green movement with the birth of Greenpeace .","qid":"141","docid":"How_to_Change_the_World_(film)","rank":71,"score":81185},{"content":"Title: Tzeporah Berman Content: Tzeporah Berman ( born February 5 , 1969 ) is a Canadian environmental activist , campaigner and writer . She is known for her role as one of the organizers of the logging blockades in Clayoquot Sound , British Columbia in 1992 -- 93 . The protest against the logging of the temperate rainforest was , at the time , the largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian history . Working with Greenpeace , Berman has helped bring the clearcut logging of Canada 's rainforest to international prominence . She has worked on the Great Bear Rainforest campaign , and the Boreal campaign . She is a strategic advisor on clean energy , oilsands and pipelines for many environmental , First Nations and philanthropic organizations . She has been co-director of Greenpeace International 's Global Climate and Energy Program , Executive Director and Co-founder of PowerUp Canada and Co-founder and Campaign Director of ForestEthics . In 2009 , Berman served on British Columbia 's Green Energy Task Force . The task force , appointed by Premier Gordon Campbell , was charged with making recommendations on the development of renewable energy for the province . Berman was one of the experts in the environmental documentary The 11th Hour , produced by Leonardo DiCaprio . She was named as one of six Canadian nominees for the Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship social entrepreneur of the year award , one of `` 50 Visionaries Changing the World '' in Utne Reader and as `` Canada 's Queen of Green '' in a cover story by Readers Digest . She was included in the Royal British Columbia Museum permanent exhibit of `` 150 people who have changed the face of British Columbia . '' In 2015 Berman served on the British Columbia Governments Climate Leadership Team and was appointed in 2016 to serve on the Alberta Governments Oil Sands Advisory Group as Co-Chair . Berman was listed of one of the 35 Most Influential Women in British Columbia by BC Business Magazine and awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Law from University of British Columbia .","qid":"141","docid":"Tzeporah_Berman","rank":72,"score":80951},{"content":"Title: Greenpeace USA Content: Greenpeace USA is the United States affiliate of Greenpeace , an international environmental nonprofit organization .","qid":"141","docid":"Greenpeace_USA","rank":73,"score":80894},{"content":"Title: Don't Make a Wave Committee Content: The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was the name of the anti-nuclear organization which later evolved into Greenpeace , a global environmental organization . The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was founded in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada to protest and attempt to halt further underground nuclear testing by the United States in the National Wildlife refuge at Amchitka in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska . The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was first formed in October 1969 and officially established in early 1970 .","qid":"141","docid":"Don't_Make_a_Wave_Committee","rank":74,"score":80875},{"content":"Title: Tom Nevers, Nantucket Content: Tom Never was a Native American born on the island of Nantucket circa 1725 . His birth name was originally very long and was shortened to Tom Never by the British settlers who hired him to be in charge of a whale lookout station around 1745 . This lookout station was located in the southeast corner of the island which was subsequently known as Tom Never 's Head . In later years the apostrophe was dropped and that part of Nantucket is now known as Tom Nevers Head or simply Tom Nevers . When whale oil began to be sold in great quantity around 1870 , the law at the time gave great tax advantages to companies owned by Native Americans . A group of local businessmen added Tom Nevers to their company and named their whale oil after him . Tom Nevers Whale Oil then became the first product given a trademark by the newly formed U.S. Trademark and Patent Office in 1871 . Category :1725 births","qid":"141","docid":"Tom_Nevers,_Nantucket","rank":75,"score":80874},{"content":"Title: Easy Being Green Content: Easy Being Green is one of the largest energy efficiency operators in Australia . It was established in 2004 and have been responsible for organising mass consumer action on energy efficiency . As of 2013 the company had aided over 750,000 homes and businesses with energy efficiency . The company has managed to prevent more than 5 million tonnes of carbon pollution from entering the atmosphere through their various energy efficiency projects . Easy Being Green was founded in 2004 by Nic Frances to focus on residential energy efficiency in Australia . His work in the UK to provide assistance and employment opportunities to vulnerable people was acknowledged when he was awarded the MBE . In 1998 , he emigrated from the UK to Australia . There , he led the Brotherhood of St Laurence until 2004 . His work earned him an Australian Centenary Medal . From 2005 to 2007 Paul Gilding took over the running of Easy Being Green . Prior to this , Gilding served with Greenpeace between 1989 and 1994 as an Executive Director for Greenpeace International and Greenpeace Australia . Gilding helped build Easy Being Green to a successful business employing over 200 people . The company used carbon trading to drive mass consumer action on energy efficiency . In doing so it achieved 4,300,000 tonnes of CO2 reductions and established domestic energy efficiency as a mainstream consumer and policy priority opportunity in Australia . In 2008 Easy Being Green was acquired by Jackgreen Ltd , Australia 's only renewable energy retailer . The business continued as Jackgreen 's energy efficiency arm , offering free residential energy efficiency services and upgrades . Easy Being Green in 2009 launched a major campaign on Solar hot water in which it offered a free system with an interest free green loan on the installation . In 2010 , the founder of Jackgreen Ltd , Andrew Randall , purchased the Easy Being Green assets and has been running it ever since . The company today continues as a leading Australian energy efficiency organization , with large residential energy efficiency programs , energy efficiency audits , green loans , a strong commercial efficient lighting operation and solar sales and installation .","qid":"141","docid":"Easy_Being_Green","rank":76,"score":80810},{"content":"Title: Songs of the Humpback Whale (album) Content: Songs of the Humpback Whale is a 1970 album produced by bio-acoustician Roger Payne . It publicly demonstrated for the first time the elaborate whale vocalizations of Humpbacks , and became the bestselling environmental album in history , selling over 100,000 copies . By raising awareness of the intelligence and culture of whales the album helped spawn a worldwide '' Save The Whales '' movement , leading to the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 10-year global moratorium on commercial whaling ( observed by all but a few nations ) .","qid":"141","docid":"Songs_of_the_Humpback_Whale_(album)","rank":77,"score":80727},{"content":"Title: Project Jonah Content: Project Jonah is an environmental organisation that was established in 1974 in New Zealand . It specialises in the protection and conservation of marine mammals ( whales , dolphins and seals ) . The key areas in which they work is rescuing stranded marine mammals , advocacy for marine mammals , ensuring compliance with legislation . They are regularly involved in rescuing stranded whales around New Zealand . New Zealand has one of the highest rates of whale strandings with the beached whales , and marine mammals in general , being the responsibility of the Department of Conservation . Project Jonah gave a major impetus for the government to create the Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978 .","qid":"141","docid":"Project_Jonah","rank":78,"score":80314},{"content":"Title: Whaling in Western Australia Content: Whaling was one of the first viable industries established in the Swan River Colony following the 1829 arrival of British settlers to Western Australia . The industry had numerous ups and downs until the last whaling station closed in Albany in 1978 . There are two main species of whales ( order Cetacea ) which form aggregations along the Western Australian coastline : the southern right whale ( Eubalaena australis ) , and the humpback whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) . The southern rights are slow swimmers and their carcases tend to float due to the high concentration of oil in the blubber - hence the name `` right '' as it made the task of the whale chasers easier . Its conservation status is now listed as `` endangered '' as result of more than 150 years of hunting . Both species migrated along the north-south coastline stopping in bays such as Geographe Bay ( east of Cape Naturaliste ) and Flinders Bay ( east of Cape Leeuwin ) for mating and breeding . Other species occasionally caught were sperm whales and blue whales , although these tended to be seen mainly along the southern coast of Western Australia .","qid":"141","docid":"Whaling_in_Western_Australia","rank":79,"score":79929},{"content":"Title: Michael Bengwayan Content: Michael Bengwayan is a Filipino environmental activist best known for his advocacy of using the Petroleum nut ( Pittosporum resiniferum ) as an alternative bio-fuel in the Philippines , and his involvement with advocacies to save trees from being cut , notably the Save 182 Movement which petitioned to stop the earth-balling 182 trees at Luneta Hill , Baguio City , by mall developer SM , and the campaign to stop the cutting of 1,200 trees along the Manila North Road , in the towns of Binalonan and Pozorrubio , Pangasinan . Bengwayan is the director of the Cordillera Ecological Center , and is also the proprietor of The Habitat , a five hectare farm in Tublay , Benguet which partly serves as an ecotourism site , an ecological reserve containing indigenous trees of Philippine Cordillera , and a demonstration farm for the intercropping of Arabica coffee , pineapple , pine trees , and petroleum nut .","qid":"141","docid":"Michael_Bengwayan","rank":80,"score":79909},{"content":"Title: Waterfront Historic Area League Content: The Waterfront Historic Area LeaguE , also known as WHALE , is a non-profit historic preservation organization located in New Bedford , Massachusetts . Its mission is : `` to promote the value and reuse of greater New Bedford 's historic structures through preservation , education and advocacy '' . The organization often promotes its cause with the words of one of its founders , Sarah Delano ( President of WHALE , 1966-1982 ) . Delano said , `` if you bulldoze your heritage , you become just anywhere '' .","qid":"141","docid":"Waterfront_Historic_Area_League","rank":81,"score":79823},{"content":"Title: Whale louse Content: A whale louse is a commensal crustacean of the family Cyamidae . Despite the name , they are not true lice ( which are insects ) , but rather are related to the better-known skeleton shrimp , most species of which are found in shallower waters . Whale lice are external parasites , found in skin lesions , genital folds , nostrils and eyes of marine mammals of the order Cetacea . These include not only whales but also dolphins and porpoises .","qid":"141","docid":"Whale_louse","rank":82,"score":79682},{"content":"Title: Serge Dedina Content: Serge Dedina is the author of Wild Sea : Eco-Wars and Surf Stories from the Coast of the California ( Tucson : University of Arizona Press ) and Saving the Gray Whale ( Tucson : University of Arizona Press ) and a conservationist from Imperial Beach , California . He is currently the Mayor of Imperial Beach , California , since the November 2014 election . He is the co-founder and Executive Director of WiLDCOAST/COSTASALVAjE , an international organization that conserves coastal and marine ecosystems and wildlife . He is the former founding director of The Nature Conservancy 's Baja California and Sea of Cortez Program . Dedina was instrumental in the development of two national parks along Baja 's Sea of Cortez coastline and a research and educational center in Magdalena Bay . He also initiated an international campaign that successfully stopped the Mitsubishi Corporation from destroying San Ignacio Lagoon -- the world 's last undeveloped gray whale lagoon . Saving the Gray Whale , is based on the three years he lived in the gray whale lagoons of Baja California .","qid":"141","docid":"Serge_Dedina","rank":83,"score":79676},{"content":"Title: Green hand Content: A green hand may refer to : a term for an inexperienced crew member of a 19th-century whaler on his first voyage , and who would typically have the smallest `` lay '' , or share , in the profits . In J. R. R. Tolkien 's Middle-earth books , a family of hobbits . a first-year Future Farmers of America ( FFA ) member .","qid":"141","docid":"Green_hand","rank":84,"score":79658},{"content":"Title: James Whale Fund for Kidney Cancer Content: The James Whale Fund for Kidney Cancer changed its name to Kidney Cancer UK on February 7 , 2016 to become the UK 's leading specialist kidney cancer charity . http://www.kcuk.org.uk/ It seeks to help reduce the harm caused by kidney cancer by increasing knowledge and awareness , providing patient information , and by supporting research into the causes , prevention and treatment of the disease . The charity was founded in 2006 by the broadcaster James Whale whose experience of dealing with the disease in 2000 , when he lost a kidney in the process , spurred him on to set up a charity to help others in a similar position . The Fund depends primarily on voluntary donations and in its short history has published a definitive guide to kidney cancer , set up a Patient Support Network and Careline , established an online renal nurse training programme and campaigned for access to life extending drugs for NHS kidney cancer patients . The charity is governed by a board of Trustees and has its head office in Cambridge , UK .","qid":"141","docid":"James_Whale_Fund_for_Kidney_Cancer","rank":85,"score":79650},{"content":"Title: Samuel \"Fish Hook\" Mulford Content: Samuel `` Fish Hook '' Mulford ( 1644 -- 1725 ) got his nickname when he went to London in 1704 to protest the tax on whale oil , which he used in farming . Warned beforehand of the sly workings of pickpockets in the great foreign metropolis , the canny and cautious Mr. Mulford lined his pockets with fishhooks to foil the would-be thieves . The old Mulford farmhouse , which overlooks the Village Green of East Hampton , is one of the oldest in the county of Suffolk . It is one of the nation 's most significant , intact English colonial farmsteads . It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The Mulford farmhouse was built in 1680 by High Sheriff Josiah Hobart , an important early official of the first New York Royal Province government . Samuel `` Fish Hook '' Mulford bought the property in 1712 when Mr. Hobart died . It is owned and operated as a living museum by East Hampton Historical Society . The society bought the farm in 1957 . Villagers started a fund in 1948 to preserve the farm . Mulford was a legislator in all the governments of the colony of New York during his time . He was also a whale oil merchant . He had warehouses on Northwest Harbor , east side , along with other merchants in his village . Merchants Path is the name of the road to the warehouses .","qid":"141","docid":"Samuel_\"Fish_Hook\"_Mulford","rank":86,"score":79507},{"content":"Title: David McTaggart Content: David Fraser McTaggart ( June 24 , 1932 -- March 23 , 2001 ) was a Canadian-born environmentalist who played a central part in the foundation of Greenpeace International . An excellent all-around athlete , as a young man he won three consecutive Canadian National Badminton Championships in men 's singles ( 1956 -- 1958 ) and represented that country in badminton 's Thomas Cup ( men 's world team championship ) competition . Prior to his involvement in Greenpeace he had prospered as a builder and developer . In 1972 , responding to an ad in the newspapers , he used his personal boat to protest the testing of nuclear weapons in the Pacific by the French government . After getting his boat damaged and being physically hurt by the French Military , his protest succeeded in 1974 when the French announced the end of their atmospheric nuclear testing program . McTaggart spent the next several years pursuing legal action against the French government and assisting in the formation of Greenpeace affiliates across Western Europe . In 1979 he brokered an agreement that led to the formation of Greenpeace International , ending the leadership of the original founding group based in Vancouver , Canada . He became chairman and chief spokesman for Greenpeace in 1979 , retiring in 1991 to live on an olive farm in Paciano , Umbria , Italy . McTaggart continued to participate in Greenpeace forums after retirement for the rest of his life . He and singer Bryan Adams did a massive postcard campaign to help create the Southern Antarctic Whale Sanctuary . For nearly two years they toured the world asking thousands of concert goers to write to countries involved with whaling to support the sanctuary . The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary was established by the IWC in 1994 with 23 countries supporting the agreement and Japan opposing it . Te Vaka dedicated its song `` Sei Ma Le Losa '' to McTaggart , who was killed in a car accident on March 23 , 2001 , near his home in Italy . In 1987 McTaggart founded the Third Millennium Foundation , a US 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) dedicated to continuing his work for disarmament , peace , and a sustainable future . The foundation , headquartered in his former home in Paciano , Italy , continues today promoting local and global projects in his memory .","qid":"141","docid":"David_McTaggart","rank":87,"score":79262},{"content":"Title: Melbert Cary Content: Melbert Brinckerhoff Cary Jr. ( 1892 -- 1941 ) was a graphic artist who imported numerous typefaces from Europe . He married Mary Flagler Cary , an heiress of one of the founders of Standard Oil . Mr Cary founded the Press of the Woolly Whale , a private press dedicated to producing fine editions of works Cary believed to be of interest and overlooked -- a rejection of the private press tradition of producing only new editions of classic works . In his own words : Our intention -LSB- is -RSB- to publish only those text which appeal strongly to us , excluding those accepted classics , so completely accepted that they are never opened . Our interest lies only with those who read their books , cherishing them because of the enjoyment gained from using them . ( Preface , The Vision of Sir Launfal ( Press of the Woolly Whale , 1929 ) ) He was also director of Continental Type Founders Association , which imported typeface from Europe , including Kabel and Eve typefaces . In the 1930s , Mr. Cary was instrumental in assisting Fritz Kredel 's emigration from Germany to the United States . During the 1920s and 1930s , Mr. Cary assembled a library of over 2,300 volumes about printing. , Melbert Cary was also an avid collector of playing cards . The Woolly Whale press 's most renowned publication was The Devil 's Bible , which was a set of playing cards using caricatures of World War I figures . In 1967 , Cary 's widow , Mary Flagler Cary , donated the couple 's card collection to Yale University , where it currently resides in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library and is referred to as the Cary Collection of Playing Cards . Woolly Whale also published The Missing Gutenberg Woodblocks , which was a made-up story of missing woodblocks from the Gutenberg project . Friz Kredel did some illustrations for this book , and some scholars took the book seriously . His father , Melbert B. Cary , was the Democratic candidate for governor of Connecticut in 1902 , and was the Chairman of the Democratic Party in Connecticut . Cary , Jr. died of bone cancer in 1941 . The Cary Collection was presented to the Rochester Institute of Technology in 1969 by the Mary Flagler Cary Charitable Trust as a memorial to Melbert Cary . Its collection of 20,000 volumes is described as one of America 's premier libraries on the history and practice of printing .","qid":"141","docid":"Melbert_Cary","rank":88,"score":79169},{"content":"Title: Trywork Content: A trywork , located aft of the fore-mast , is the most distinguishing feature of a whaling ship . In two cast-iron trypots set into this furnace of brick , iron and wood , whale oil was rendered from the blubber of whales , much as lard is rendered from frying fatty pork . The furnace is temporarily affixed to the deck by `` iron knees '' , and a reservoir of water under the bricks keeps the heat from burning the wood of the deck . In the 18th and 19th century New England whaling industry , the use of tryworks ( two large try pots in a brick furnace ) on whaling ships allowed them to stay at sea longer . Since they could boil out their oil , they did not have to carry unprocessed blubber home . The slices of blubber were kept as thin as possible for the process , and on New England whaling ships , these slices were known as `` bible leaves '' by the sailors . The ability to use tryworks at sea thus enabled the Yankee whaling industry to flourish .","qid":"141","docid":"Trywork","rank":89,"score":79049},{"content":"Title: Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society Content: ( WDC ) Whale and Dolphin Conservation is a wildlife charity that is dedicated solely to the worldwide conservation and welfare of all whales , dolphins and porpoises ( cetaceans ) . WDC is a founding partner of the Convention on Migratory Species ( CMS , also known as Bonn Convention ) , which is part of the United Nations Environment Program . The organization also develops regional protection agreements and conventions and closely cooperates with the orca ( killer whale ) research station OrcaLab in British Columbia , Canada .","qid":"141","docid":"Whale_and_Dolphin_Conservation_Society","rank":90,"score":78772},{"content":"Title: Oil-lamp clock Content: Oil-lamp clocks are clocks consisting of a graduated glass reservoir to hold oil - usually whale oil , which burned cleanly and evenly - supplying the fuel for a built-in lamp . As the level in the reservoir dropped , it provided a rough measure of the passage of time . The principle behind such a time-keeping device is that it measure a quantity that either decreases or increases at a constant rate . Lamps or candles , burning fuel at a steady pace , fit this category , and as a bonus produce useful light . Hourglasses depend on the steady draining of fine sand through a small aperture . Water clocks or clepsydra measure a gain or loss of water by using drops of uniform size and frequency . The Persian fenjaan made use of the constant time it took for the sinking of a floating bowl with a hole in its underside . It is unknown when , where or in which way the oil-lamp clocks were first introduced . this clock was but mainly used in the mid of 18th century","qid":"141","docid":"Oil-lamp_clock","rank":91,"score":78304},{"content":"Title: Jarod Green Content: Jarod Green ( born 23 May 1981 ) is an Australian film director , screenwriter and animator most notable for his work on the short film Beached Whale and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation television series Beached Az. . Together with actor Nicholas Boshier , Green is also the creator of the online fictional character Trent from Punchy .","qid":"141","docid":"Jarod_Green","rank":92,"score":78209},{"content":"Title: Greenpeace Aotearoa New Zealand Content: Greenpeace Aotearoa New Zealand ( GPNZ ) is one of New Zealand 's largest environmental organisations , and is a national office of the global environmental organisation Greenpeace .","qid":"141","docid":"Greenpeace_Aotearoa_New_Zealand","rank":93,"score":78101},{"content":"Title: Douglas Whalen Content: Douglas H. Whalen is an American linguist . He received his Ph.D. in Linguistics from Yale University in 1982 . Since 2011 he has been a Distinguished Professor in the Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences program at the CUNY Graduate Center . He is a long-standing member of Haskins Laboratories in New Haven Connecticut , where he is a Senior Scientist and Vice President for Research . Whalen studies the relationship between speech production and speech perception from the perspective of the motor theory of speech perception . Whalen is the founder of the Endangered Language Fund , and served as its president until 2015 , when he became Chair of the Board of Directors . He is also a founding member of the Association for Laboratory Phonology and on the advisory board for Healing Through Language , an organization that researches the connection between indigenous language revitalization and physical well-being . From 2006 through 2008 , he served as a program officer at the National Science Foundation where he was affiliated with the Cognitive Neuroscience , Documenting Endangered Languages , and Linguistics programs .","qid":"141","docid":"Douglas_Whalen","rank":94,"score":78081},{"content":"Title: Charles Melville Scammon Content: Charles Melville Scammon ( 1825-1911 ) was a 19th-century whaleman , naturalist , and author . He was the first to hunt the gray whales of both Laguna Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio Lagoon , the former once being called `` Scammon 's Lagoon '' after him . In 1874 he wrote the book The Marine Mammals of the North-western Coast of North America , which was a financial failure . It is now considered a classic . Scammon was born in Pittston , Maine , on May 28 , 1825 . In 1850 he sailed for California . On April 1 , 1852 he left San Francisco in command of the brig Mary Helen ( 160 tons ) on a combined sealing and whaling voyage . He returned on August 26 with 350 barrels of oil obtained from elephant seals . During the winter of 1855-56 he was among the vessels hunting gray whales in Magdalena Bay , when he was commanding the ship Leonore . In December 1857 , commanding the brig Boston , with the schooner-tender Marin , he first hunted the gray whales of Laguna Ojo de Liebre , catching twenty . The following winter ( 1858 -- 59 ) , commanding the bark Ocean Bird and accompanied by the schooner tenders A.M. Simpson and Kate , he returned to the lagoon , catching forty-seven cows . In the winter of 1859-60 he first exploited another lagoon to the south , San Ignacio . Within a few seasons it had been swept clean of whales . In 1860-61 he returned to Laguna Ojo de Liebre in the bark Ocean Bird , taking a paltry 245 barrels of oil -- about seven whales . In the summer of 1862 he sailed to the Sea of Okhotsk in the San Francisco ship William C. Nye . He cruised around Iony Island and Shantar Bay until September , catching only three bowhead whales . In the winter of 1862-63 he hunted gray whales in Magdalena Bay , his last whaling cruise . He spent the following three decades in the Revenue Service , before retiring from disability in 1895 . In October 1870 , Scammon collected the 27-foot-long type specimen of the Davidson piked whale ( Balaenoptera davidsoni , Scammon , 1872 ) ; it had been found dead on the shores of Admiralty Inlet by Italian fishermen , who towed it to Port Townsend Bay , where they flensed it . He is the brother of J. Young Scammon and Eliakim P. Scammon .","qid":"141","docid":"Charles_Melville_Scammon","rank":95,"score":78063},{"content":"Title: WHALE (Safety Program) Content: The WHALE Program is a child safety program focused on rescue workers and automobile accidents . W.H.A.L.E. stands for `` We Have A Little Emergency . '' This car seat safety program was developed by Connie Day , a caregiver from Virginia . In the event of an automobile accident that incapacitates the adult driver and passengers , rescue personnel will have a difficult time identifying children riding in car safety seats . In some situations , these adults may not be related to the child passenger ; therefore , conventional means of obtaining information will be useless . In these cases , W.H.A.L.E. can make a significant difference .","qid":"141","docid":"WHALE_(Safety_Program)","rank":96,"score":77960},{"content":"Title: Phil Radford Content: Philip David `` Phil '' Radford ( born January 2 , 1976 ) is an American environmental , clean energy and democracy leader who served as the youngest executive director of Greenpeace USA . He is a co-founder of the Democracy Initiative , Membership Drive , was founder and executive director of Power Shift , and is a board member of Green Corps and the Mertz Gilmore Foundation . He has a background in grassroots organizing , corporate social responsibility , climate change , and clean energy . Radford lives in Washington , D.C. with his wife Eileen . Radford 's theory of change shifted from viewing governments as arbitrators between public and private interests on environmental issues , to finding that most governments are captured by industry . Rather than fighting first for new laws , which could be blocked by industries , he has focused on pressuring large companies to change their practices and enlisted them as allies in pushing for strong environmental protections . Examples include Greenpeace campaigns that convinced Apple , Inc. and similar companies to shift to 100 % clean energy and lobby utilities and regulators to make that possible , as well as work to protect both the Indonesian rainforest and the Bering Sea Canyons . Radford argues that the combination of creating industry champions and `` outside pressure '' focused on the government are the keys to passing new laws to protect the environment . However , Radford has also been a vocal leader calling for the United States to pass campaign finance reform and respect all Americans ' voting rights to shift power in politics from corporations towards people and fulfill `` the promise of American democracy . '' Radford is considered by many to be a modern-day transcendentalist , in that he is very focused on nature and the environment , and he is an advocate of democracy .","qid":"141","docid":"Phil_Radford","rank":97,"score":77740},{"content":"Title: Anton Barth von der Lippe Content: Anton Barth von der Lippe ( 8 October 1886 -- 1960 ) was a Norwegian whaler . He was born in Tjøme as a son of dean Johan Nordahl Brun von der Lippe ( 1838 -- 1915 ) and his third wife . His father 's second wife had the son Jakob von der Lippe , who was Anton 's half-brother . Anton was also a grandson of bishop Jacob von der Lippe , nephew of Conrad Fredrik von der Lippe and first cousin once removed of Frits von der Lippe , Just Lippe and Jens von der Lippe . He established his own shipping company in 1915 , and was particularly engaged in whaling . Between 1919 and 1945 he cooperated closely with Svend Foyn Bruun . Lippe , Bruun and Anders Jahre together founded the three whaling companies Antarctic , Globus and Kosmos in 1928 . He died in 1960 .","qid":"141","docid":"Anton_Barth_von_der_Lippe","rank":98,"score":77570},{"content":"Title: Von Hernandez Content: Von Hernandez is a leading environmental activist from the Philippines . He was Executive Director of Greenpeace Southeast Asia ( GPSEA ) from 2008-2014 , where he led the environmental group 's programs and operations in the Southeast Asian region . Prior to that , he served as Campaigns Director for the organization , and was responsible for driving the group 's campaigns in Thailand , Indonesia and the Philippines on a number of issues including climate change , forests , sustainable agriculture and toxics pollution . Currently , he serves as Development Director for Greenpeace International .","qid":"141","docid":"Von_Hernandez","rank":99,"score":77552},{"content":"Title: Vessel speed restrictions to reduce ship collisions with north atlantic right whales Content: The National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) established a rule to implement vessel speed restrictions of 10 knots or less on ships 65 ft or longer in various locations along the east coast of the U.S. Atlantic seaboard . The purpose of the regulations was to prevent the probability of deaths and injuries to endangered North Atlantic Right Whales due to collisions with ships . The rule was enacted December 9 , 2008 .","qid":"141","docid":"Vessel_speed_restrictions_to_reduce_ship_collisions_with_north_atlantic_right_whales","rank":100,"score":77534}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert Hunter (journalist) Content: Robert ( Bob ) Lorne Hunter ( October 13 , 1941 -- May 2 , 2005 ) was a Canadian environmentalist , journalist , author and politician . He was a member of the Do n't Make a Wave Committee in 1969 , and a co-founder of Greenpeace in 1971 and its first president . He led the first on-sea anti-whaling campaigns in the world , against Russian and Australian whalers , which helped lead to the ban on commercial whaling . He campaigned against nuclear testing , the Canadian seal hunt and later , climate change with his book Thermageddon : Countdown to 2030 . He was named by Time as one of the `` Eco-Heroes '' of the 20th century and is charged with coining the terms `` mindbombs '' and `` eco-warrior '' ( a run-off from the Legend of the Rainbow Warriors , a popular hippie and environmentalist belief ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_Hunter_(journalist)\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 121869\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Toward the Sea Content: is a work by the Japanese composer Tōru Takemitsu , commissioned by Greenpeace for the Save the Whales campaign .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Toward_the_Sea\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 121273\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tokyo Two Content: The Tokyo Two are Greenpeace anti-whaling activists Junichi Sato and Toru Suzuki , who were arrested for stealing whale meat which they believed was embezzled , from a shipping depot in Aomori Prefecture , Japan in 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Tokyo_Two\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 118323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Will E. Jackson Content: William E. ( Will ) Jackson ( born February 13 , 1945 ) served with Greenpeace in its early years ( 1975 -- 77 ) , as crew member on the first anti-whaling expedition , and as cofounder of Greenpeace San Francisco ( the first GP chapter after Vancouver , BC ) . A pioneer synthesizer player ( Serge , Buchla , Moog ) , Jackson was aboard the Greenpeace V as part of the media campaign to demonstrate whale intelligence , and to disrupt Russian whaling . Jackson played a large modular synthesizer that had been brought onboard , broadcast through underwater speakers , with the intention of communicating with whales through synthesized whale song . He was one of six persons out of a rotating pool of 35 to remain aboard throughout the expedition . Bob Hunter , cofounder and first president of Greenpeace , credits Jackson with saving him from drowning at Triangle Island . Following on the success of that voyage , Jackson opened the San Francisco office of Greenpeace . With the assistance of Fund for Animals ( Cleveland Amory , Virginia Handley ) , and eco-filmmaker Stan Minasian , and commercial pilot Al Johnson . Jackson launched a grassroots media campaign , struggling from a South-of-Market condemned hotel to gain volunteers and donations , in preparation for the first anti-sealing expedition , and the follow-up whale expedition of 1976 . ( Three years after he left , the chapter was embroiled in a lawsuit with Vancouver over a million dollars and rights ; the outcome being the formation of today 's Greenpeace International ) . These accounts and others are referenced in Robert Hunter 's book , Rex Weyler 's Greenpeace ( Rodale 2004 ) , the Hunter-Weyler collaboration To Save A Whale ( Chronicle Books 1978 ) , and The Greenpeace Story ( Dorling Kindersley 1989 ) . Prefacing his Greenpeace years , in 1970 as a multimedia artist he won a scholarship to California Institute of the Arts , but then lost it when he offended his mentor Allen Kaprow . He moved on to Serge Tcherepnin 's CalArts synthesizer workshop , and co-founded electronic music groups Cellar M with Naut Humon , and ` TO ' with Z'EV . Later he performed with Ethership ( Willard Van De Bogart , Lemon DeGeorge ) . Notably , he played synthesizer `` whale music '' with saxist Paul Winter aboard the GP-5 , and at the `` Save The Seas International Music Benefit '' , International Trade Center , Tokyo 1977 , with Z'EV . In the 1980s Jackson became interviewer/program producer for Miss Wire Waist of KPFK 's Sounds of Jamaica ( L.A. ) ; and published Jah Guide reggae culture magazine . He recorded , published and broadcast speeches on apartheid by Jesse Jackson , Michael Manley , and Bishop Desmond Tutu ; and interviews with Steel Pulse , Burning Spear , Big Youth , Mutabaruka , Ras Michael and Peter Tosh . Meanwhile , he managed a 25-year career as a maritime seaman , union captain , and then fatherhood . In 2003 he authored the reggae novel Flight From Babylon ( Infinity ) . His second novel and Greenpeace memoirs are forthcoming .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Will_E._Jackson\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 117637\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Save the Arctic Content: Save the Arctic is a Greenpeace campaign to protect the Arctic , principally by preventing oil drilling and unsustainable industrial fishing in the area completely , surrounded by an Arctic-Environmental economics-Zone . The campaign , begun in 2012 , calls for a sanctuary in the uninhabited high seas area around the North Pole , similar to the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty . The campaign aims to begin this process by prompting a United Nations resolution on protection for the Arctic .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Save_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 113497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paul Watson Content: Paul Franklin Watson ( born December 2 , 1950 ) is a Canadian marine wildlife conservation and environmental activist , who founded the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society , an anti-poaching and direct action group focused on marine conservation and marine conservation activism . He is a citizen of Canada and the United States . The Toronto native joined a Sierra Club protest against nuclear testing in 1969 . He was an early and influential member of Greenpeace , crewed and skippered for it , and a founding board member in 1972 . He has been credited by The New York Times , The New Yorker and other publications with being a founder of Greenpeace , but Greenpeace denies the claim . The documentary How to Change the World shows that Watson was indeed one of the original founding members of Greenpeace . Watson argued for a strategy of direct action that conflicted with the Greenpeace interpretation of nonviolence , was ousted from the board in 1977 , and subsequently left the organization . That same year , he formed Sea Shepherd Conservation Society . The group is the subject of a reality show named Whale Wars . He promotes veganism , and a biocentric , rather than anthropocentric , worldview . Watson 's activities have led to legal action from authorities in countries including the United States , Canada , Norway , Costa Rica , and Japan . He was detained in Germany on an extradition request by Costa Rica in May 2012 , The Interpol red notice was issued on September 14 , 2012 , at the request of Japan and Costa Rica . After staying at sea for 15 months he returned to Los Angeles late October 2013 , going through customs and `` was not arrested '' . He appeared before a U.S. appeals court on November 6 , 2013 stating that neither he nor Sea Shepherd violated a 2012 order requiring them to leave whaling vessels alone . Although the United States is a signatory member of Interpol , Watson has not been detained for extradition to Japan or Costa Rica . He was living in Vermont , writing books . He has resided in Paris since July 1 , 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Paul_Watson\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 112221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paul Spong Content: Dr. Paul Spong is a neuroscientist and cetologist from New Zealand . He has spent more than 30 years researching orcas ( or Killer whales ) in British Columbia , and is credited with increasing public awareness of whaling , through his involvement with Greenpeace .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Paul_Spong\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 111645\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenpeace Content: Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over 40 countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam , the Netherlands . Founded by Canadian and US ex-pat environmental activists in 1971 , Greenpeace states its goal is to `` ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity '' and focuses its campaigning on worldwide issues such as climate change , deforestation , overfishing , commercial whaling , genetic engineering , and anti-nuclear issues . It uses direct action , lobbying , research , and ecotage to achieve its goals . The global organization does not accept funding from governments , corporations , or political parties , relying on 2.9 million individual supporters and foundation grants . Greenpeace has a general consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council and is a founding member of the INGO Accountability Charter ; an international non-governmental organization that intends to foster accountability and transparency of non-governmental organizations . Greenpeace is known for its direct actions and has been described as the most visible environmental organization in the world . Greenpeace has raised environmental issues to public knowledge , and influenced both the private and the public sector . Greenpeace has also been a source of controversy ; its motives and methods ( some of the latter being illegal ) have received criticism , including an open letter from more than 100 Nobel laureates urging Greenpeace to end its campaign against genetically modified organisms ( GMOs ) . The organization 's direct actions have sparked legal actions against Greenpeace activists , such as fines and suspended sentences for destroying a test plot of genetically modified wheat and damaging the Nazca Lines , a UN World Heritage site in Peru .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenpeace\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 110620\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mister Splashy Pants Content: Mister Splashy Pants , or Mr. Splashypants , is a humpback whale in the South Pacific Ocean . It is being tracked with a satellite tag by Greenpeace as a part of its Great Whale Trail Expedition , which was working to raise awareness about whales threatened by the Japanese Fisheries Agency 's plan to hunt 50 humpback whales . The whale 's name was chosen in an online poll that garnered attention from several websites , including Boing Boing and Reddit , quickly becoming an internet meme . Mister Splashy Pants became the subject of a TED Talk by Reddit co-founder Alexis Ohanian , titled `` How to make a splash in social media . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Mister_Splashy_Pants\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 109779\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MY Steve Irwin Content: The MY Steve Irwin is the 59 m flagship of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society , and is used in their direct action campaigns against whaling and against illegal fisheries activities . The vessel was built in 1975 and formerly served as a Scottish Fisheries Protection Agency conservation enforcement patrol boat , the FPV Westra , for 28 years . Sea Shepherd had originally christened the vessel the MV Robert Hunter after Canadian Robert Hunter , co-founder of Greenpeace , but it was renamed in honor of The Crocodile Hunter star Steve Irwin on December 5 , 2007 . Irwin had considered joining the vessel on a voyage to Antarctica shortly before his death , and the renaming was endorsed by his widow Terri . The ship and its crew , and their efforts for conservation , are the subject of the Animal Planet show Whale Wars .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"MY_Steve_Irwin\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 105266\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cetyl palmitate Content: Cetyl palmitate is the ester derived from palmitic acid and cetyl alcohol . This white waxy solid is the primary constituent of spermaceti , the once highly prized wax found in the skull of sperm whales . Cetyl palmitate is a component of some solid lipid nanoparticles . Stony corals , which build the coral reefs , contain large amounts of cetyl palmitate wax in their tissues , which may function in part as an antifeedant .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Cetyl_palmitate\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 104730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Shepherd Conservation Society Content: The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society ( SSCS ) is a non-profit , marine conservation organization based in Friday Harbor on San Juan Island , Washington , in the United States . Sea Shepherd uses direct action tactics to protect marine life . The organization was founded in 1977 under the name Earth Force Society by Paul Watson , a former member of Greenpeace , after a dispute with that organization over what Watson saw as its lack of more aggressive intervention . The group has a strong focus on public relations to spread its message via the media . In 2008 , Animal Planet began filming the weekly series Whale Wars based on the group 's encounters with the Japanese whaling fleet in the Southern Ocean , a development which brought the group much publicity . Sea Shepherd currently operates nine vessels ( see : Neptune 's Navy ) . Operations have included scuttling and disabling whaling vessels at harbor , intervening in Canadian and Namibian seal hunts , shining laser light into the eyes of whalers , throwing bottles of foul-smelling butyric acid onto vessels at sea , boarding of whaling vessels while at sea , and seizure and destruction of drift nets at sea . Sea Shepherd claims that their aggressive actions are necessary , as the international community has shown itself unwilling or unable to stop species-endangering whaling and fishing practices . Sea Shepherd has received support for its tactics against fishing , whaling , and seal hunting from many celebrities , such as musicians and TV personalities . The tactics of Sea Shepherd have been opposed , even by those who denounce whaling , such as Greenpeace and the governments of Australia and New Zealand . The Japanese government have called them eco-terrorists . However , in March 2014 the International Court of Justice ruled the Japanese whaling program in the Southern Ocean was not , as claimed , for scientific purposes , and ordered Japan to cease operations . Paul Watson and American members of Sea Shepherd are currently prohibited by US courts from approaching or harassing Japanese whalers .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Shepherd_Conservation_Society\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 104027\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Astra Agro Lestari Content: Astra Agro Lestari ( AAL ) is an Indonesian palm oil company . It is a subsidiary of PT Astra International Tbk . At least in 2004 , it controlled extensive land banks . It has two concessions on peatlands in Riau , with an estimated total area of 20,000 hectares . According to Greenpeace , 2007 , it has seven concessions on peat in Central Kalimantan . Greenpeace also reported hotspots on five Astra Agro concessions in Riau , two of which were on peatlands . Joko Supriyono was or is a director at Astra Agro and secretary of a palm oil industry lobby group . He said companies had no choice , but to continue establishing plantations on restricted areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Astra_Agro_Lestari\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 103447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Whale oil Content: Whale oil is oil obtained from the blubber of whales . Whale oil was sometimes known as train oil , which comes from the Dutch word traan ( `` tear '' or `` drop '' ) . Sperm oil , a special kind of oil obtained from the head cavities of sperm whales , differs chemically from ordinary whale oil : it comprises mostly liquid wax . Its properties and applications differ from those of regular whale oil , and it sold at a higher cost when marketed . Early industrial societies used whale oil widely in oil lamps and to make soap and margarine . With the commercial development of substitutes such as kerosene and vegetable oils , the use of whale oils declined considerably in the 20th century . With most countries having banned whaling , the sale and use of whale oil has practically ceased .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Whale_oil\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 103427\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: High North Alliance Content: The High North Alliance ( Høge Nord Alliansen ) is an umbrella organisation of several fishing , whaling and Nordic municipal councils . The organisation objectives are , it says , `` to protect the rights of whalers , sealers and fishermen to harvest renewable resources in accordance with the principle of sustainable management . '' The alliance was founded in 1991 in response to calls from environmentalists to prohibit completely commercial whaling , and , from more radical groups , calls to prohibit the killing of marine mammals for any purpose . The alliance is organised by a governing committee of six members , three from Norway , and one each from the Faroe Islands , Greenland and Iceland . The alliance is funded by membership fees , and from grants from organisations such as the North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission ( founded by Norway , Iceland , Greenland , and the Faroe Islands in 1992 ) and the Regional Development Committee for Northern Norway . Activities of the Alliance include lobbying the largely sympathetic Norwegian government for increases in Norway 's whaling quota , promoting studies into methods of more humane whaling , lobbying the International Whaling Commission into relaxing the whaling moratorium , and responding to campaigns from anti-whaling groups such as the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society and Greenpeace .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"High_North_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 103154\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stop Esso campaign Content: The Stop Esso campaign was a campaign by Greenpeace , Friends of the Earth and People and Planet aimed at boycotting the oil company Esso , known as ExxonMobil in the United States , on the grounds that it is damaging the environment . The campaign alleges that Esso / ExxonMobil is : not investing in renewable energy sources denying the existence of global warming funding the creation of junk science which denies climate change , delaying urgently needed climate change action undermining the Kyoto Protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Stop_Esso_campaign\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 102588\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Save Each Other, the Whales Are Doing Fine Content: Save Each Other , the Whales Are Doing Fine is the debut studio album by American rock band Patent Pending . The original name of the CD was Save The Children , The Whales Are Doing Fine , but it was changed due to a threat to sue by the Save the Children Foundation . The title reflects the environmental concept of save the whales . Because the band did n't have the budget to fight their case in court , they were forced to change the name . Because of the changing of the name , and a few other minor legal and technical issues , the CD/DVD was pushed back one month . It came out on June 6 , instead of May 9 . The CD was released with a bonus DVD which was filmed on January 13 , 2006 at Alley Katz in Richmond , Virginia with some portions filmed on February 24 , 2006 at Calvary Lutheran Church in East Meadow , New York .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Save_Each_Other,_the_Whales_Are_Doing_Fine\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 101658\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Whale Oil Row Content: Whale Oil Row refers to four nearly identical high quality Greek Revival houses , standing side-by-side at 105-119 Huntington Street in New London , Connecticut . All four were built between 1835 and 1845 by Charles Henry Beebe , and three were owned by men directly involved in whaling ; the fourth was owned by a dry goods merchant . All four are distinguished by their two-story gabled porticos supported by fluted columns , with a semicircular window in the gable pediment . The first one ( 105 Huntington ) is slightly wider than the others , extending on either side of the front portico . This assembly of Greek temple front houses may be unique in the United States . The group of houses was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Whale_Oil_Row\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 100508\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dave Currey (environmentalist) Content: Dave Currey ( born 1953 ) is a British environmentalist , writer and photographer . A minister 's son , he was born in Sussex in the UK and brought up in London . He gained a BA in Photographic Arts in 1976 following a passion in communicating visually . In 1976 , following another passion , he walked 1,000 miles across Oregon , Idaho and Wyoming to help raise awareness of conservation issues for the World Wildlife Fund . On this journey his photographs , radio and television interviews were his introduction to a world of media co-operation that would steer his next thirty years in environmental activism . In 1979 he volunteered as a photographer on board the Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior during its Icelandic anti-whaling campaign where he first met Allan Thornton , Greenpeace 's director at the time . In 1983 , while he was working in public relations photography and teaching , Thornton persuaded him to join another anti-whaling ship , `` Balaenoptera '' . With Jennifer Lonsdale , another Greenpeace veteran , they carried out undercover work in the Norwegian port of Vado , posing as journalists to gain entry to whaling factories . They were able to truthfully insist they were not working for Greenpeace as the factory workers feared , but knew it was unwise to state they were on an independent environmental activist ship . The campaign was incredibly successful resulting in a two-thirds reduction in whaling quotas and huge embarrassment for the Norwegian government . From 1978 to 1986 he often contributed to Wildlife magazine and later when it became BBC Wildlife , for a while being their `` roving naturalist '' to places such as the Everglades National Park , Yellowstone National Park , and Baja California , Mexico . He also acted as a book and television reviewer for the magazine . His nature photography was widely used during this period and he was described as `` one of the new breed of naturalist photographers , with a commitment to conservation and the style of a photojournalist . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Dave_Currey_(environmentalist)\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 100476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earthtrust Content: Earthtrust is a non-governmental organization ( NGO ) dedicated to wildlife protection . Located in Hawaii , Earthtrust has been involved in many high-profile activities , notably around using genetic analysis to demonstrate the prevalence of pirate whaling as well as public information campaigns around drift net fishing . Earthtrust serves as an official observer at the International Whaling Commission . Earthtrust was founded in 1976 , and continues to be directed by Don White who also was involved in the founding of a related NGO , Greenpeace .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Earthtrust\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 96245\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oriental Bluebird Content: The 8,725 ton Hiyo Maru was the largest member of the Japanese whaling fleet ; providing fuel , resources , and stock storage space for that fleet and its crew . In 1992 , it was renamed and re-flagged to Panama as the Oriental Bluebird . According to Greenpeace , after a dispute with the Panamanian Government in 2008 , it was de-flagged and re-registered to Japan . The Hiyo Maru served as the fuel tanker for Japan 's whaling fleet , and was alleged by Greenpeace to also transport whale meat . In August 2010 , the ship was sold to China to be scrapped .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Oriental_Bluebird\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 96206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenpeace, Salvemos Al Mediterráneo Content: Greenpeace , Salvemos al Mediterráneo ( English : Let 's save the Mediterranean Sea ) is a compilation album by various singers with benefits to the non-governmental organization Greenpeace . It was released in 1986 . It was edited only in Spain in LP format . The only unpublished song was the one by Mecano .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenpeace,_Salvemos_Al_Mediterráneo\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 95903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MV Gondwana Content: The MV Gondwana was a ship acquired by Greenpeace in 1988 , originally built in 1975 and called the Viking . Greenpeace updated the ship with a helipad and accommodation space was increased to sleep 33 people . The ship was used to supply the Greenpeace World Park Base in 1988/89 and was involved in direct action to protest against Japanese whaling in the Southern Ocean in the late 1980s .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"MV_Gondwana\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 95653\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Criticism of Greenpeace Content: Throughout its history , the policies and objectives of the non-governmental environmental protection and conservation organization Greenpeace have been criticized by a number of groups , including national governments , members of industry , former Greenpeace members , scientists , and political groups . The organization 's methods , such as the use of direct action , have also led to controversy and legal action .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Criticism_of_Greenpeace\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 95464\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Frank Donald Robson Content: Frank Donald Robson ( 29 September 1912 -- 30 May 1993 ) was a New Zealand logging contractor , fisherman and marine conservationist . He was born in Greenmeadows , Hawke 's Bay , New Zealand in 1912 . Robson was the first New Zealander to study whale strandings and the first systematic investigation of pollutant levels in marine mammals in New Zealand . His volunteer group , Project Jonah has saved thousands of marine mammals , continuing even after the Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978 made the Department of Conservation technically responsible for this . In the 1989 New Year Honours Robson was appointed a Companion of the Queen 's Service Order for community service .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Frank_Donald_Robson\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 95096\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spermaceti organ Content: The spermaceti organ is an organ that commonly appears in the heads of toothed whales of the family Physeteroidea , in particular the sperm whale . This organ contains a waxy liquid called spermaceti and is involved in the generation of sound . The spermaceti organ in sperm whales is shaped like an elongated barrel and sits on top of the whale 's melon . Historically , the liquid from this organ was used to produce sperm oil , providing the economic basis for the sperm whaling industry .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Spermaceti_organ\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 94604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brent Spar Content: Brent Spar , or Brent E , was a North Sea oil storage and tanker loading buoy in the Brent oilfield , operated by Shell UK . With the completion of a pipeline connection to the oil terminal at Sullom Voe in Shetland , the storage facility had continued in use , but by 1991 , was considered to be of no further value . Brent Spar became an issue of public concern in 1995 , when the British government announced its support for Shell 's application for its disposal in deep Atlantic waters at North Feni Ridge ( approximately 250 km from the west coast of Scotland , at a depth of around 2.5 km ) . Greenpeace organized a worldwide , high-profile media campaign against this plan occupying Brent Spar for more than three weeks . In the face of public and political opposition in northern Europe ( including a widespread boycott of Shell service stations , some physical attacks and an arson attack on a service station in Germany ) , Shell abandoned its plans to dispose of Brent Spar at sea -- whilst continuing to stand by its claim that this was the safest option , both from an environmental and an industrial health and safety perspective . Greenpeace 's own reputation also suffered during the campaign , when it had to acknowledge that its assessment of the oil remaining in Brent Spar 's storage tanks had been grossly overestimated . Following Shell 's decision to pursue only on-shore disposal options , as favoured by Greenpeace and its supporters , Brent Spar was given temporary moorings in a Norwegian fjord . In January 1998 , Shell announced its decision to re-use much of the main structure in the construction of new harbour facilities near Stavanger , Norway .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Brent_Spar\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 94323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Golden Agri-Resources Content: Golden-Agri Resources ( GAR ) is a Singaporean palm oil company . It is listed on the Singapore Stock Exchange since 1999 . In May 2015 , its market capitalization was $ 4.1 billion . Sheikh Roshini Begum is its CEO . Alnoor is a subsidiary of GAR . Lew Syn Pau used to serve as a member of the Singaporean Parliament for 13 years and is a member of the board of directors of the firm . According to Greenpeace , GAR has six concessions on peatlands in Riau , with an estimated total are of 20,000 hectares . GAR was reported to have 1,880 hectares of peat in Central Kalimantan and 1,330 hectares in West Kalimantan , while claiming a zero-deforestation footprint . Greenpeace also discovered 322 hotspots on five to GAR 's concessions in Central Kalimantan . GAR denied these accusations and said to have a zero-burning policy since 1997 . Interviews with senior officers revealed evidence to the contrary .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Golden_Agri-Resources\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 94230\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Whaleman Foundation Content: The Whaleman Foundation is a non-profit , marine conservation organization based in Lahaina , Hawaii in the United States . It advocates for the protection of cetaceans ( whales , dolphins , and porpoises ) and their habitats . Whaleman was founded by Jeff Pantukhoff . Hayden Panettiere is the spokesperson for the foundation . She has promoted the Foundations ' Save the Whales Again ! campaign since 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Whaleman_Foundation\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 93889\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shores of Silence Content: Shores of Silence : Whale Sharks in India is a landmark film by Mike Pandey that brought about major legislative changes to protect whale sharks worldwide . This documentary depicts the needless killing and harvesting of whale sharks by poor Indian communities . In response to the film , the Indian government introduced legislature to ban fishing of whale sharks , declaring them endangered species and protecting them under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 . This gives whale sharks equal status to other endangered species such as tigers and rhinoceroses . Internationally , the film helped to bring the whale shark global protection under CITES . The film won 11 international awards including The Wildscreen Panda , also known as the Green Oscar . Recently , the film received four stars from the Hindustan Times .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Shores_of_Silence\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 93828\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Astral Oil Works Content: Astral Oil Works was founded in the Greenpoint section of Brooklyn , New York , by Charles Pratt . Pratt was a pioneer of the petroleum industry who formed Charles Pratt and Company with Henry H. Rogers . The Pratt interests became part of John D. Rockefeller 's Standard Oil organization in 1874 . Specializing in illuminating oil , which had earlier been derived from whale oil , the products of the Astral Oil Works kerosene refinery became famous worldwide in the late 19th century . Company advertising used the slogan , `` The holy lamps of Tibet are primed with Astral Oil . '' Pratt founded and endowed the Pratt Institute with profits of the Astral Oil Works .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Astral_Oil_Works\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 93161\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GreenPalm Content: GreenPalm is a certificate-trading program for `` sustainably produced '' palm oil . Established in Hull , England , in November 2006 , GreenPalm is a trading name of Book & Claim Ltd. , `` a wholly owned subsidiary of '' AarhusKarlshamn UK Ltd. .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"GreenPalm\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 93035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emily Hunter Content: Emily Hunter ( born May 20 , 1984 ) is a Canadian activist , author and filmmaker . She is the daughter of the late Robert Hunter , first president of Greenpeace and Bobbi Hunter , co-founder of Greenpeace . She has been a campaigner for nearly a decade on numerous environmental causes , from fighting whaling to climate change . She is known in Canada as a writer for THIS magazine and as environmental correspondent for MTV News .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Emily_Hunter\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 92635\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: And God Created Great Whales Content: And God Created Great Whales , Op. 229 , No. 1 , is a symphonic poem for orchestra and recorded whale sounds by the American composer Alan Hovhaness . The work was commissioned by Andre Kostelanetz and the New York Philharmonic , who premiered the piece June 11,1970 in New York City . The piece has been recorded numerous times and remains one of Hovhaness 's most popular compositions . It has also been credited as an early work in the movement to save whales from extinction , alongside John Tavener 's 1966 cantata The Whale . The title of the work comes from Genesis 1:21 in the King James Version of the Bible .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"And_God_Created_Great_Whales\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 92608\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Whale conservation Content: Whale conservation is the international environmental and ethical debate over whale hunting . The conservation and anti-whaling debate has focused on issues of sustainability as well as ownership and national sovereignty . Also raised in conservation efforts is the question of cetacean intelligence , the level of suffering which the animals undergo when caught and killed , and the importance that the mammals play in the ecosystem and a healthy marine environment . The International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) 1986 moratorium on commercial whaling , the value of lethal sampling of whales for scientific research in order to establish catch quotas has also been debated . The value of whaling to fisheries as a method of controlling whales ' perceived negative impact on fish stocks is another point of debate .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Whale_conservation\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 91748\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Whale Content: A Whale is a Liberian-flagged ore-oil carrier built in 2010 by Hyundai Heavy Industries , Ulsan , South Korea for TMT Co. Ltd. ( formerly Taiwan Maritime Transport Co. Ltd. ) from the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) . She has seven other sister ships in the fleet , built in 2010-2011 and named in succession : B Whale , C Whale etc. , to H Whale .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Whale\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 91498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ben Metcalfe Content: Bennett Metcalfe ( October 31 , 1919 -- October 14 , 2003 ) was a Canadian journalist and first chairman of Greenpeace , founded 1971 . Ben Metcalfe was born in Winnipeg . Later he moved to the United Kingdom and at the age of 16 joined the Royal Air Force . He was posted in India and North Africa . After World War II he worked as journalist in France . He moved back to Canada in 1951 , living in Winnipeg , West Vancouver , and Shawnigan Lake . He worked as a journalist , editor , and freelance correspondent for Winnipeg Free Press , the Province in Vancouver and other publications . He also started a public relations company with his second wife Dorothy . In 1971 he joined the crew member of the Greenpeace boat sailing to protest against U.S. army nuclear bomb test near Amchitka island . When the Greenpeace Foundation was established , Metcalfe became its first chairman . He recognized the importance of a media campaign as a tool to gain support for environmental issues . He left his post when Greenpeace changed focus from nuclear weapons to fighting against whaling and seal hunting . He is the author of a biography of Roderick Langmere Haig-Brown : Metcalfe , E. Bennett ( 1985 ) . A man of some importance : the life of Roderick Langmere Haig-Brown Published by James W. Wood , Vancouver . ISBN 0-921063-01-6 , ISBN 0-921063-00-8 . Metcalfe died of a heart attack at age 83 . He had three daughters Michelle , Charlotte , and Sophie ; and sons Christopher ( 1958-1980 ) , and Michael ( 1956-2002 )\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Ben_Metcalfe\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 90080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spermaceti Content: Spermaceti ( from Latin sperma meaning `` semen '' , and ceti , the genitive form of `` whale '' ) is a waxy substance found in the head cavities of the sperm whale ( and , in smaller quantities , in the oils of other whales ) . Spermaceti is created in the spermaceti organ inside the whale 's head . Two theories for the spermaceti organ 's biological function suggest it either controls buoyancy , or acts as a focusing apparatus for the whale 's sense of echolocation . There has been concrete evidence to support both theories . The buoyancy theory holds that the sperm whale is capable of heating the spermaceti , lowering its density and thus allowing the whale to float ; in order for the whale to sink again , it must take water into its blowhole which cools the spermaceti into a denser solid . This claim has been called into question by recent research which indicates a lack of biological structures to support this heat exchange , as well as the fact that the change in density is too small to be meaningful until the organ grows to huge size . The proportion of wax esters in the spermaceti organ increases with the age of the whale : 38 -- 51 % in calves , 58 -- 87 % in adult females , and 71 -- 94 % in adult males . Spermaceti wax is extracted from sperm oil by crystallisation at 6 C , when treated by pressure and a chemical solution of caustic alkali . Spermaceti forms brilliant white crystals that are hard but oily to the touch , and are devoid of taste or smell , making it very useful as an ingredient in cosmetics , leatherworking , and lubricants . The substance was also used in making candles of a standard photometric value , in the dressing of fabrics , and as a pharmaceutical excipient , especially in cerates and ointments . Candlepower , a photometric unit defined in the United Kingdom Act of Parliament Metropolitan Gas Act 1860 and adopted at the International Electrotechnical Conference of 1883 , was based on the light produced by a pure spermaceti candle .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Spermaceti\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 90021\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Whaling Content: Whaling is the hunting of whales for their usable products like meat , oil and blubber . Its earliest forms date to at least circa 3000 BC . Various coastal communities have long histories of subsistence whaling and harvesting beached whales . Industrial whaling emerged with organized fleets in the 17th century ; competitive national whaling industries in the 18th and 19th centuries ; and the introduction of factory ships along with the concept of whale harvesting in the first half of the 20th century . By the late 1930s , more than 50,000 whales were killed annually In 1986 , the International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) banned commercial whaling because of the extreme depletion of most of the whale stocks . Contemporary whaling is subject to intense debate . Pro-whaling countries , notably Japan , Norway , and Iceland , wish to lift the ban on certain whale stocks for hunting . Anti-whaling countries and environmental groups oppose lifting the ban .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Whaling\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 89600\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mary A. Whalen (tanker) Content: Mary A. Whalen , also known as the S.T. Kiddoo , is a historic oil tanker located in the Red Hook neighborhood of Brooklyn , Kings County , New York . She was built in 1938 by the John J. Mathis Company of Camden , New Jersey and measures 138 feet long . She is a rare example of a `` bell boat . '' The tanker shipped oil along East Coast and was at center of United States v. Reliable Transfer Co. , a seminal decision in maritime law after she ran aground in Rockaway Inlet in 1968 . She was in active service until 1994 . She was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Mary_A._Whalen_(tanker)\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 89055\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rainbow Warrior (1955) Content: Rainbow Warrior was a former UK Ministry of Agriculture , Fisheries and Food ( MAFF ) trawler called the Sir William Hardy . She was purchased by the environmental organization Greenpeace UK -- an office established in May 1977 with Susi Newborn , Denise Bell , David McTaggart , Charlie Hutchison and Allan Thornton as directors . The ship was active in supporting a number of Greenpeace anti-whaling , - seal hunting , - nuclear testing and - nuclear waste dumping campaigns during the late 1970s and early 1980s . She was sunk whilst in Auckland harbour in New Zealand by operatives of the French intelligence service ( DGSE ) on 10 July 1985 , killing photographer Fernando Pereira .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Rainbow_Warrior_(1955)\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 89004\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenpeace India Content: Greenpeace India is the Indian branch of the global environmental group Greenpeace , a non-profit NGO , with a presence in 40 countries across Europe , the Americas , Asia and the Pacific . The Indian operations run four broad campaigns namely , stop climate change , sustainable agriculture , preserving the oceans and preventing another nuclear catastrophe . Greenpeace India states that it receives 60 % of its funding from donors in India , 38 % from Netherlands-based Greenpeace International and less than 1 % from the US-based Climate Works Foundation . According to the organization , they do not accept money from governments , intergovernmental organizations , political parties or corporations in order to avoid their influence . In 2015 , several women employees made allegations of sexual harassment , bullying and rape at Greenpeace India .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenpeace_India\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 88581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: London Greenpeace Content: London Greenpeace was an anarchist environmentalist activist collective that existed between 1972 and 2001 . They were based in London , and came to international prominence when two of their activists refused to capitulate to McDonald 's in the landmark libel case known as `` McLibel '' . It was not affiliated with Greenpeace International .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"London_Greenpeace\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 88533\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Atlantic right whale Content: The North Atlantic right whale ( Eubalaena glacialis , which means `` good , or true , whale of the ice '' ) is a baleen whale , one of three right whale species belonging to the genus Eubalaena , all of which were formerly classified as a single species . Because of their docile nature , their slow surface-skimming feeding behaviors , their tendencies to stay close to the coast , and their high blubber content ( which makes them float when they are killed , and which produced high yields of whale oil ) , right whales were once a preferred target for whalers . At present , they are among the most endangered whales in the world , and they are protected under the U.S. Endangered Species Act and Marine Mammal Protection Act and Canada 's Species at Risk Act . There are about 400 individuals in existence in the western North Atlantic Ocean -- they migrate between feeding grounds in the Gulf of Maine and their winter calving areas off Georgia and Florida , an ocean area with heavy shipping traffic . In the eastern North Atlantic , on the other hand -- with a total population reaching into the low teens at best -- scientists believe that they may already be functionally extinct . Vessel strikes and entanglement in fixed fishing gear , which together account for nearly half of all North Atlantic right whale mortality since 1970 , are their two greatest threats to recovery .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Atlantic_right_whale\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 88511\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pacific Whale Foundation Content: The Pacific Whale Foundation ( PWF ) is a non-governmental organization founded in 1980 and based in Maui , Hawaii that conducts whale research and educates the public in an effort to save vulnerable species of whales from extinction . As of 2012 the organization had about 150 employees . Since its foundation the PWF has been working to prevent destruction of populations of Humpback whales , dolphins , turtles and coral reefs in Hawaii . Every year the PWF organizes a `` Great Whale Count '' where volunteers systematically gather data on whales that can be seen from ten observation points along the southern shore of Maui , giving a series of snapshots that indicate changes in whale populations . The Pacific Whale Foundation provided funding to the Alfaguara project on Isla de Chiloé in southern Chile for marine surveys of the local blue whale population in the 2012 season .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Pacific_Whale_Foundation\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 88381\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenpeace Arctic Sunrise ship case Content: After Greenpeace activists attempted to scale the Prirazlomnaya drilling platform on 18 September 2013 , as part of a protest against Arctic oil production , Russian authorities seized the Greenpeace ship the Arctic Sunrise in international waters in the Russian Exclusive Economic Zone on 19 September 2013 , arrested the crew at gunpoint , towed the ship to Murmansk , and detained the crew of 28 activists and two freelance journalists . The Investigative Committee of Russia opened a criminal investigation , charging the activists initially with piracy and later with hooliganism . Since the Arctic Sunrise was flying the Dutch flag , the Netherlands filed a case at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea ( ITLOS case 22 ) which argued ( and obtained ruling ) the release of the crew and ship until both parties can resolve the conflict . Russia ignored the ITLOS ruling , but eventually released the crew as part of a general amnesty adopted by the State Duma after two months of detention . The Arctic Sunrise itself was released from Russian detainment in June 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenpeace_Arctic_Sunrise_ship_case\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 88316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine mammal observer Content: A marine mammal observer ( MMO ) is a professional in environmental consulting who specializes in whales and dolphins . In recent years there has been increased concern for the effect of man-made noise pollution in the ocean , particularly upon cetaceans - which are known to be sensitive to sound . As a result , environmental regulations have been introduced in an attempt to minimise negative impacts on marine wildlife . These guidelines have focused on the oil industry 's seismic exploration for offshore oil . They center on the practice of delaying or shutting down the use of air-guns if a whale or dolphin is sighted nearby . An MMO will implement these regulations in the field . When on board the seismic vessel , the MMO 's job is two-fold : To spot sensitive wildlife species To monitor adherence to the guidelines . Spotting , and identifying , animals involves long hours of visual surveys . Detecting cetaceans with hydrophones is known as Passive Acoustic Monitoring ( PAM ) , and this is an increasingly common technique used in addition to visual surveys . Ensuring adherence to guidelines requires a thorough knowledge of the regulations , understanding of the operations and the ability to communicate effectively with the crew . MMOs usually have a strong background in marine biology and conservation . Increasingly , the oil industry is employing a ` best practice ' attitude to environmental commitment and voluntarily taking on MMOs as independent observers in areas where no government regulations exist . In some circumstances guidelines may be open to interpretation or the environmental conditions unique and the MMO will be called upon to advise on a sensible mitigation protocol . As well as the seismic exploration industry , MMOs may also be required during ; oil rig decommissioning , where disused oil platform pilings on the seabed are removed by large amounts of explosives , marine construction projects and ; military trials of powerful new active sonar systems . Typically MMO duties are funded by the company surveying . Noise from human activity in the ocean environment is likely to increase - and become a bigger environmental issue . Discussion of how to minimize the negative effects of noise upon whales , dolphins and other marine-life will no doubt continue between industry , government agencies , military , environmental organizations and academics . It will be the MMO who puts this into practice in the field .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_mammal_observer\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 87587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Green Hell (film) Content: Green Hell is a 1940 American jungle adventure film directed by James Whale , starring Douglas Fairbanks Jr. and Joan Bennett . Green Hell was given a lavish production by Universal Pictures , which built a massive indoor jungle set on a sound stage . An Inca temple 125 feet high , 225 feet wide , and 45,000 square feet in area were constructed . Having spent a great deal of money on a film that turned out to be a critical and financial disaster , Universal used the set again , recycling it into an Egyptian temple for The Mummy 's Hand ( 1940 ) . Whale made only one more completed film after this , the 1941 World War II romantic melodrama They Dare Not Love , starring George Brent , improbably cast as an exiled Austrian prince fighting the Nazis .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Green_Hell_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 87321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Willungacetus Content: Willungacetus is an extinct genus of primitive baleen whale of the family Aetiocetidae known from the Oligocene of Australia ( at Port Willunga , , paleocoordinates ) . It is the oldest-known whale from Australia , and the only aetiocetid whale currently known from the Southern Hemisphere . Neville S. Pledge first visited the type locality in 1983 and collected two boulders . These two rocks , however , were forgotten until 2001 when a partial vertebra were discovered within . The site was subsequently revisited and another specimen , a partial cranium , was discovered . Pledge referred a radius , collected from the same cliff in 1994 , to his newly named species . Pledge provisionally assigned Willungacetus to Aetiocetidae , but this assignment still needs to be confirmed .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Willungacetus\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 86906\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Voyage of the Odyssey Content: The Voyage of the Odyssey was a 5-year program conducted by oceanographic research and education non-profit Ocean Alliance , which collected the first baseline data set on contaminants in the world 's oceans . It was launched from San Diego in March 2000 , and ended five and a half years later in Boston , August 2005 . In a 1979 National Geographic magazine article Ocean Alliance founder and president Dr. Roger Payne predicted that toxic pollution would replace the harpoon as the next greatest threat to whales . Recognizing the stark lack of data on the subject , Roger set his organisation Ocean Alliance with the task of obtaining a global baseline data set on contaminants . After years of planning and fund-raising , the program was finally ready to launch in 2000 . In the executive summary of the project , Roger stated that , ` The Voyage of the Odyssey has proven irrefutably that ocean life is becoming polluted to unacceptable levels by metals and human-made contaminants . ' The focus of the program was on Sperm whales , a cosmopolitan species found in every major ocean . As long-lived apex predators , Sperm whales represent a useful bioindicator of health in the marine ecosystem in a toxicological context , owing to the effects of three key processes : bioaccumulation , biomagnification and the generation effect . Sadly , these three processes also make Sperm whales , and other apex predators , at great risk from toxic pollution . As mammalian apex predators that nurse their young with milk , they are also relatively similar to us , and thus are seen as the ` canaries in the coal mine ' regarding humanities relationship with the oceans . The program also had a robust educational and outreach component . In every country they visited , Odyssey crew members met with government leaders , students , teachers and journalists-many of whom kept promoting ocean health after the Odyssey departed for its next research location . The program was also the focus of a major online diary & educational webseries through American broadcaster PBS produced by Genevieve & Chris Johnson . Aside from collecting the first baseline data set on contaminants in the world 's oceans , the program was witness to a number of other successes , innovations and firsts . These include : uncovering illegal shark finning operations documenting the use of massive drift nets in the Mediterranean helping to create a 1.2 million square-mile marine mammal sanctuary in Papua New Guinea waters made incredibly rare sightings of a live Longman 's beaked whale\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Voyage_of_the_Odyssey\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 86622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sperm oil Content: Sperm oil is a waxy liquid obtained from sperm whales . It is a clear , yellowish liquid with a very faint odor . Sperm oil has a different composition from common whale oil . Although it is traditionally called an `` oil '' , it is technically a liquid wax . It is composed of wax esters with a small proportion of triglycerides , an ester of an unsaturated fatty acid and a branched-chain fatty alcohol . It is a natural antioxidant and heat-transfer agent . Through catalytic reaction , it carries phosphorus and sulfur derivatives providing anti-wear and friction modification . In the late 18th and early 19th centuries , sperm oil was prized as an illuminant for its bright , odorless flame and as a lubricant for its low viscosity and stability . It was supplanted in the late 19th century by less expensive alternatives such as kerosene and petroleum-based lubricants . With the 1987 international ban on whaling , sperm oil is no longer legally sold . The oil from bottlenose whales was sometimes called `` Arctic sperm oil '' . It was cheaper and inferior to true sperm oil .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Sperm_oil\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 86544\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ocean Alliance Content: Ocean Alliance , Inc. , a 501 ( c ) 3 organization , is dedicated to the conservation of whales and their marine environment through research and education . The organization is based in the iconic Tarr & Wonson Paint Manufactory in Gloucester , Massachusetts , United States . It was founded in 1971 by biologist Roger Payne . Led by Payne and Chief Executive Officer Iain Kerr , Ocean Alliance collects a broad spectrum of data on whales and ocean life relating particularly to toxicology , behavior , bioacoustics , and genetics . From those data , the alliance works with its scientific partners to advise educators and policy makers on wise stewardship of the oceans in order to : reduce pollution , prevent the collapse of marine mammal populations , maintain human access to fish and other sea life , and benefit ocean and human health .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Ocean_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 86395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Krill oil Content: Krill oil is an extract prepared from a species of Antarctic krill , Euphausia superba . Two of the most important components in krill oil are omega-3 fatty acids similar to those in fish oil , and phospholipid-derived fatty acids ( PLFA ) , mainly phosphatidylcholine ( alternatively referred to as marine lecithin ) . Studies have shown toxic residues in Antarctic krill and fish ; however , the United States Food and Drug Administration has accepted notices from krill oil manufacturers declaring that krill oil and products derived from it meet the standards for Generally Recognized as Safe ( GRAS ) status , although the FDA itself has not tested the products . While not an endangered species , Antarctic krill are a mainstay of the diets of many ocean-based species including whales and there is some environmental and scientific concern that their population has decreased dramatically both due to climate change and human harvesting .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Krill_oil\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 85607\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Big Miracle (book) Content: Big Miracle tells the true story of three gray whales trapped beneath Arctic ice in the fall of 1988 , and of Operation Breakthrough , the collaborative efforts to free them by oil company executives , activists , Inupiat people , the U.S. military , and Soviet ice-breakers . Written by journalist Tom Rose ( who covered the event for a Japanese news channel at the time ) , the book was originally published in 1989 , titled Freeing the Whales : How the Media Created the World 's Greatest Non-Event . It was re-released under its current title by St. Martin 's Press in 2011 . A film adaption of Big Miracle directed by Ken Kwapis , starring Drew Barrymore , Ted Danson , Kristen Bell , among other stars , was released in 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Big_Miracle_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 85521\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Saghacetus Content: Saghacetus is an extinct genus of basilosaurid early whale , fossils of which have been found in the Upper Eocene ( middle Priabonian , ) Qasr el Sagha Formation , Egypt ( , paleocoordinates ) . In 1879 , German botanist Georg August Schweinfurth spent many years exploring Africa and eventually discovered the first archaeocete whale in Egypt . He visited Qasr el Sagha in 1884 and 1886 and missed the now famous `` Zeuglodon Valley '' with a few kilometres . German palaeontologist Wilhelm Barnim Dames described the material , including a well-preserved dentary which is the type specimen of Zeuglodon osiris . The generic name Saghacetus was established by to group the ancient species Dorudon osiris , D. zitteli , D. sensitivius and D. elliotsmithii on a single species , Saghacetus osiris . This species is distinguished from other members of the subfamily Dorudontinae by its smaller size and the slightly elongated proximal lumbar and caudal vertebrae.Saghacetus is smaller than its contemporary Stromerius , both of which are smaller than the older Dorudon '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Saghacetus\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 85281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Operation Breakthrough Content: Operation Breakthrough was an international effort to free three gray whales from pack ice in the Beaufort Sea near Point Barrow in the U.S. state of Alaska in 1988 . The whales ' plight generated media attention that led to the collaboration of multiple governments and organizations to free them . The youngest whale died during the effort and it is unknown if the remaining two whales ultimately survived .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Operation_Breakthrough\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 85265\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blue whale Content: The blue whale ( Balaenoptera musculus ) is a marine mammal belonging to the baleen whales ( Mysticeti ) . At up to 29.9 m in length and with a maximum recorded weight of 173 tonne and probably reaching over 181 tonnes ( 200 short tons ) , it is the largest animal known to have ever existed . Long and slender , the blue whale 's body can be various shades of bluish-grey dorsally and somewhat lighter underneath . There are at least three distinct subspecies : B. m. musculus of the North Atlantic and North Pacific , B. m. intermedia of the Southern Ocean and B. m. brevicauda ( also known as the pygmy blue whale ) found in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean . B. m. indica , found in the Indian Ocean , may be another subspecies . As with other baleen whales , its diet consists almost exclusively of small crustaceans known as krill . Blue whales were abundant in nearly all the oceans on Earth until the beginning of the twentieth century . For over a century , they were hunted almost to extinction by whalers until protected by the international community in 1966 . A 2002 report estimated there were 5,000 to 12,000 blue whales worldwide , in at least five groups . The IUCN estimates that there are probably between 10,000 and 25,000 blue whales worldwide today . Before whaling , the largest population was in the Antarctic , numbering approximately 239,000 ( range 202,000 to 311,000 ) . There remain only much smaller ( around 2,000 ) concentrations in each of the eastern North Pacific , Antarctic , and Indian Ocean groups . There are two more groups in the North Atlantic , and at least two in the Southern Hemisphere . As of 2014 , the Eastern North Pacific blue whale population had rebounded to nearly its pre-hunting population .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Blue_whale\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 84854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Save the World (George Harrison song) Content: `` Save the World '' is a song by English musician George Harrison , released as the final track of his 1981 album Somewhere in England . It was also the B-side of `` Teardrops '' , which was the second single off the album . An environmental protest song , `` Save the World '' was Harrison 's first composition to directly address topical issues such as the nuclear arms race , rainforest and wildlife devastation , and the ecologically irresponsible practices of corporate concerns . Musically , the song partly recalls the style of the comedy troupe Monty Python . Harrison recorded `` Save the World '' at his Friar Park studio in England in 1980 . The recording includes sound effects that support the song 's message of a world heading towards self-destruction , including bombs falling , a cash register , a street demonstration , and a nuclear explosion . In 1985 , Harrison contributed a version of the song with amended lyrics to Greenpeace 's self-titled fundraising album . `` Save the World '' also appeared on the home video Greenpeace : Non-Toxic Video Hits . Since its release , the song has been held in low regard by several music critics and biographers . Some of these reviewers highlight the disparity between the serious message and the quirky musical backing . In line with Harrison 's wishes , a demo of `` Save the World '' appeared as the sole bonus track on the posthumously reissued Somewhere in England in 2004 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Save_the_World_(George_Harrison_song)\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 84644\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenpeace Energy Content: Greenpeace Energy is a German electric utility in the form of a registered association . The stated goal of the cooperative is the provision of environmentally friendly energy to the electrical grid . As a founding member of the association , Greenpeace e.V. holds only five shares at $ 55 in the cooperative , otherwise the environmental group and the company are financially and legally independent . The name use is linked contract with the condition that Greenpeace Energy fulfils the conditions laid down by the Greenpeace e.V. quality criteria for `` clean energy '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenpeace_Energy\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 84625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Walkampf Content: `` Walkampf '' ( Whale struggle ) is a song by Die Toten Hosen . It 's the second single and the thirteenth track from the album Zurück zum Glück . The title is a pun on the word `` Wahlkampf '' , which means `` election campaign '' in German . The song is about a dream by the narrator , where he finds a whale on a beach and struggles to push it back to the water , but does n't have enough strength for that . All the time , he hears the waves , the sun shouting : `` Push the whale back in the sea '' , which pressures him . He hopes to get help from a Greenpeace ship he sees , but right before his eyes , it sinks . The next day he has sore muscles and gets under the shower but then his girlfriend urges him to `` push the whale back in the sea '' and on it goes . The song opens with a slow ukulele tune , progresses into a more aggressive punk style during the 2nd verse , with the bridge between the 2nd and third verse being overlaid with a background singer giving it a more surf rock style similar to a song by the Beach Boys , and the final verse and final chorus is accompanied by bagpipes , with the background singer returning at the very tail end of the song .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Walkampf\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 84564\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenpeace (disambiguation) Content: Greenpeace or Greenpeace International is a non-governmental environmental organization founded in Vancouver in 1971 . Greenpeace may also refer to : Greenpeace Foundation , a USA based environmental organization founded in Honolulu in 1976 , not affiliated to Greenpeace International London Greenpeace , an anarchist environmentalist activist collective that existed between 1971 and 2001 , not affiliated to Greenpeace International MV Greenpeace , a ship used by Greenpeace International Greenpeace Energy , German energy company affiliated to Greenpeace International Greenpeace ( music group ) , 2005 New Zealand charity supergroup affiliated to Greenpeace International\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenpeace_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 84506\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wen Bo Content: Wen Bo is a Chinese environmentalist based in Beijing . Born and raised in the coastal city of Dalian in Northeast China . Wen Bo became interested in environmental activism since watching anti-whaling actions by Greenpeace on TV . He later became a journalist with China Environment News and began reporting on China 's many environmental problems . Wen Bo helped found Green Peace 's Beijing office and went on to become the Beijing-based Co-Director of Pacific Environment 's China Program . He has studied , lived and worked in , besides China , South Korea and Japan , and thus has a comparative understanding of environmental problems , activism , and governance in these countries . He 's frequently interviewed and profiled by major international news medias such as Time magazine , Radio Free Asia , San Francisco Chronicle , the Financial Times , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Wen_Bo\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 84495\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Whaling in Seychelles Content: Whaling in Seychelles was established in the early 19th century , coming largely to a close by 1915 due to declining prices for sperm whale oil , as well as the lack of materials and freight congestion due to the onset of World War I . The primary quarry , sperm whales , were generally caught near Bird and Denis Islands , and towed to a whaling station on Saint Anne .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Whaling_in_Seychelles\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 83257\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sigguk Block Content: Sigguk Block is an oil exploration block in Baffin Bay . It is located 175 km west of Disko Island , Greenland . The block consists of Alpha , T4 , and T8 prospects . The license to explore the block belongs to Cairn Energy 's subsidiary Capricorn Greenland Exploration Limited . In October 2009 Cairn Energy sold a 20 % stake of its rights to Petronas . The national oil company of Greenland NUNAOIL owns 12.5 % interest . The license expires on 31 December 2017 . Exploration wells at the Alpha prospect are drilled by semi-submersible drilling rig Stena Don and at the T8 prospect by the drillship Stena Forth . Drilling commenced on 1 July 2010 . On 24 August 2010 , Stena Forth discovered natural gas resource when it drilled the T8-1 exploration well . However , this resource occurred to be too small for commercial production . The well was plugged and abandoned . On 21 September 2010 it was announced that oil and gas resource was discovered when drilling the Alpha-1S1 well . Drilling at the Sigguk Block is opposed by Greenpeace . On 31 August 2010 , four Greenpeace activists invaded Stena Don which was drilling on the Alpha prospect . The Government of Greenland described this action as `` very serious and an illegal attack on the country 's constitutional rights '' . This action was ended on 1 September due to bad weather . All four activist were arrested and charged with breaking and entering , as well as trespass .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Sigguk_Block\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 83077\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenpeace Southeast Asia Content: Greenpeace Southeast Asia is the regional office of the global environmental organization Greenpeace . Greenpeace has run successful campaigns in the Philippines , Taiwan , India , Indonesia and Thailand , often working with other local environmental groups . In late 1980s and early 1990s , Greenpeace has developed its presence , and first established an office in Japan in 1989 and then China in 1997 . Because of the region 's vital importance , initial investigations were also initiated focusing primarily on Philippines and Indonesia . Greenpeace has thoroughly campaigned in industrialized countries to reduce and eventually eliminate environmental pollution and degradation knowing that those efforts can easily be reversed as some multinational companies export dirty technologies resulting in environmental destruction in the region . In 1999 , Greenpeace led the campaign to push for the passage of Republic Act No. 8749 , otherwise known as `` The Philippine Clean Air Act '' which includes an unprecedented national ban against waste incineration . In recognition of the region 's vital importance , Greenpeace Southeast Asia was formally established on March 2000 with its head office in Bangkok , Thailand and branch offices in Manila , Philippines and Jakarta , Indonesia -- major cities in the region that are among the most polluted cities in the world today . Greenpeace Southeast Asia is firmly rooted within the local environmental communities around the countries where it operates . Licensed to use the name `` Greenpeace '' by Stichting Greenpeace Council , Greenpeace Southeast Asia contributes financially to Greenpeace International , campaign locally , participate in international campaigns , and help shape the international campaign program . Greenpeace Southeast Asia 's work in the region includes stopping hazardous waste imports , opposing radioactive shipments , campaigning against forest destruction , lobbying governments on sustainable energy issues and drawing attention to the dangers of waste incineration . It uses tactics of non-violent direct action to draw attention to what it considers significant threats to the environment , and then forces solutions . In 2005 the Rainbow Warrior II ran aground on and damaged the Tubbataha Reef in the Philippines while inspecting the reef for coral bleaching . Greenpeace was fined $ 7,000 USD for damaging the reef and agreed to pay the fine saying they felt responsible for the damage , although Greenpeace stated that the Philippines government had given it outdated charts . The park manager of Tubbatha appreciated the quick action Greenpeace took to assess the damage to the reef . As a regional organization , Greenpeace Southeast Asia focuses on bearing witness to the impacts brought by global warming , and increasing public awareness of the problems it poses . Campaigning to effect changes in the direction of the region 's energy policies for the future , the group encourages governments to turn away from fossil fuel dependency and embracing renewable , sustainable and clean sources of energy .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenpeace_Southeast_Asia\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 82546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Green Shadows, White Whale Content: Green Shadows , White Whale is a 1992 novel by Ray Bradbury . It gives a fictionalized account of his journey to Ireland in 1953-1954 to write a screen adaptation of the novel Moby-Dick with director John Huston . Bradbury has said he wrote it after reading actress Katharine Hepburn 's account of filming The African Queen with Huston in Africa . The title itself is a play on Peter Viertel 's novel White Hunter , Black Heart , which is also about Huston . Bradbury considers Green Shadows to be the culmination of thirty-five years of short stories , poems , and plays that were inspired by his stay in Ireland . As with most of his previous short-story collections , including The Illustrated Man and The Martian Chronicles , many of the short stories were originally published elsewhere and modified slightly for publication in the novel .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Green_Shadows,_White_Whale\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 82213\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MV Greenpeace Content: The MV Greenpeace ( formerly ( 1959 -- 1977 ) and since 2002 known as the Elbe ) was a Greenpeace ship built in 1959 as an oceangoing tug/salvage vessel . She was purchased by Greenpeace in 1985 from the Maryland Pilotage Company , the vessel then being named MV Maryland , and transferred back to the Netherlands to be refitted with modern equipment before being recommissioned . ( She took over from the first Rainbow Warrior , which had been sunk in 1985 by French commandos . In 2001 she was replaced by the MV Esperanza .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"MV_Greenpeace\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 81475\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nine oils Content: In the 19th century , the nine oils was a preparation , or liniment , which was rubbed into the skin to relieve aches , such as over bruises . The `` nine oils '' were apparently developed in veterinary medicine , for treating horses , but later was adopted for human medical use . According to one 19th-century druggists ' book , oils used in the preparation included : train oil ; that is , whale oil or the oil of the blubber of another marine mammal oil of turpentine oil of bricks , the oil obtained by the distillation of pieces of brick saturated with rapeseed oil or olive oil oil of amber spirit of camphor Barbados tar , a kind of greenish petroleum found in Barbados oil of vitriol ; that is , sulfuric acid However , it is certain that many `` nine oils '' preparations did not contain these ingredients , and in fact it is possible that the name `` nine oils '' never referred to any specific combination of compounds . The writer James Greenwood , in 1883 , put these words in the mouth of the street-doctor `` Dr. Quackinbosh '' , in his series of articles Toilers in London , by One of the Crowd , originally serialized in the Daily Telegraph : When I first started I worked Woolwich with my `` miraculous Nine Oils . '' Men who work at heavy lifting and hauling , and are likely to get strains and ricks of the back , have a superstitious belief in the `` Nine Oils . '' It is the same wherever you go . What are they ? what , the original Nine ? Blessed if I know , nor they do n't know either . But that do n't make any difference . I used to give 'em one -- sperm oil -- and call it the Nine .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Nine_oils\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 81403\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenpeace Foundation Content: Greenpeace Foundation is an environmental organization based in Hawaii . It was officially founded in 1976 as an independent offshoot of the Canadian Greenpeace Foundation and was the first Greenpeace in the United States . When the original Vancouver-based Greenpeace Foundation later evolved to Greenpeace International the Hawaii-based Greenpeace Foundation declined to join them , and remains an unaffiliated organisation . The greenpeace movement grew out of the `` peace '' and `` environmental '' movements in the early 1970s . Back then , it looked likely that the planet was going to be subjected to a nuclear war . The Canadian `` Do n't Make a Wave '' committee formed to protest US tectonic nuclear testing at Amchitka in the Aleutian Islands and later the French atmospheric testing at Mururoa in French Polynesia . The phrase `` green peace '' was used as a slogan to describe the ideals of those activists , who envisioned a healthy ( green ) and peaceful ( peace ) planet as a good thing . By about 1973 , the phrase had been shortened to a word , Greenpeace , and an organization called `` Greenpeace Foundation '' was established in Vancouver , Canada . It was this ragtag group of idealists and visionaries who first did an at-sea protest of whaling in 1975 and conducted the high-profile campaign against the clubbing of baby harp seals off Newfoundland beginning in 1976 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenpeace_Foundation\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 81308\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Samuel Enderby Content: Samuel Enderby ( 17 January 171919 September 1797 ) was an English whale oil merchant . In the 18th century , he founded Samuel Enderby & Sons , a prominent shipping , whaling , and sealing company . The Enderby family had been tanners at Bermondsey , and supported Oliver Cromwell . Daniel Enderby I raised money for the army in the Long Parliament , as recorded in Hansard . The family was granted forfeited estates at Lismore , County Waterford , Ireland , which were sold in 1660 . After that time , the family was active in the ` oil and Russia trade ' and traded with the New England colonies . On 2 June 1752 , Samuel Enderby II married Mary Buxton , a daughter of his business partner , at St Paul 's Wharf in London . Enderby died in 1797 , leaving the company to his three sons Charles , Samuel III , and George . Samuel Enderby III ( 1756-1829 ) made the first successful whale catch in Australia ( 10 November 1791 ) , and was the grandfather of Major-General Charles George Gordon .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Samuel_Enderby\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 81241\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: How to Change the World (film) Content: How to Change the World is a documentary film , from writer-director Jerry Rothwell ( Deep Water ) , which chronicles the adventures of an eclectic group of young pioneers who set out to stop Richard Nixon 's nuclear bomb tests in Amchitka , Alaska , and end up creating the worldwide green movement with the birth of Greenpeace .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"How_to_Change_the_World_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 81185\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tzeporah Berman Content: Tzeporah Berman ( born February 5 , 1969 ) is a Canadian environmental activist , campaigner and writer . She is known for her role as one of the organizers of the logging blockades in Clayoquot Sound , British Columbia in 1992 -- 93 . The protest against the logging of the temperate rainforest was , at the time , the largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian history . Working with Greenpeace , Berman has helped bring the clearcut logging of Canada 's rainforest to international prominence . She has worked on the Great Bear Rainforest campaign , and the Boreal campaign . She is a strategic advisor on clean energy , oilsands and pipelines for many environmental , First Nations and philanthropic organizations . She has been co-director of Greenpeace International 's Global Climate and Energy Program , Executive Director and Co-founder of PowerUp Canada and Co-founder and Campaign Director of ForestEthics . In 2009 , Berman served on British Columbia 's Green Energy Task Force . The task force , appointed by Premier Gordon Campbell , was charged with making recommendations on the development of renewable energy for the province . Berman was one of the experts in the environmental documentary The 11th Hour , produced by Leonardo DiCaprio . She was named as one of six Canadian nominees for the Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship social entrepreneur of the year award , one of `` 50 Visionaries Changing the World '' in Utne Reader and as `` Canada 's Queen of Green '' in a cover story by Readers Digest . She was included in the Royal British Columbia Museum permanent exhibit of `` 150 people who have changed the face of British Columbia . '' In 2015 Berman served on the British Columbia Governments Climate Leadership Team and was appointed in 2016 to serve on the Alberta Governments Oil Sands Advisory Group as Co-Chair . Berman was listed of one of the 35 Most Influential Women in British Columbia by BC Business Magazine and awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Law from University of British Columbia .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Tzeporah_Berman\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 80951\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenpeace USA Content: Greenpeace USA is the United States affiliate of Greenpeace , an international environmental nonprofit organization .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenpeace_USA\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 80894\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Don't Make a Wave Committee Content: The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was the name of the anti-nuclear organization which later evolved into Greenpeace , a global environmental organization . The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was founded in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada to protest and attempt to halt further underground nuclear testing by the United States in the National Wildlife refuge at Amchitka in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska . The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was first formed in October 1969 and officially established in early 1970 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Don't_Make_a_Wave_Committee\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 80875\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tom Nevers, Nantucket Content: Tom Never was a Native American born on the island of Nantucket circa 1725 . His birth name was originally very long and was shortened to Tom Never by the British settlers who hired him to be in charge of a whale lookout station around 1745 . This lookout station was located in the southeast corner of the island which was subsequently known as Tom Never 's Head . In later years the apostrophe was dropped and that part of Nantucket is now known as Tom Nevers Head or simply Tom Nevers . When whale oil began to be sold in great quantity around 1870 , the law at the time gave great tax advantages to companies owned by Native Americans . A group of local businessmen added Tom Nevers to their company and named their whale oil after him . Tom Nevers Whale Oil then became the first product given a trademark by the newly formed U.S. Trademark and Patent Office in 1871 . Category :1725 births\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Tom_Nevers,_Nantucket\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 80874\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Easy Being Green Content: Easy Being Green is one of the largest energy efficiency operators in Australia . It was established in 2004 and have been responsible for organising mass consumer action on energy efficiency . As of 2013 the company had aided over 750,000 homes and businesses with energy efficiency . The company has managed to prevent more than 5 million tonnes of carbon pollution from entering the atmosphere through their various energy efficiency projects . Easy Being Green was founded in 2004 by Nic Frances to focus on residential energy efficiency in Australia . His work in the UK to provide assistance and employment opportunities to vulnerable people was acknowledged when he was awarded the MBE . In 1998 , he emigrated from the UK to Australia . There , he led the Brotherhood of St Laurence until 2004 . His work earned him an Australian Centenary Medal . From 2005 to 2007 Paul Gilding took over the running of Easy Being Green . Prior to this , Gilding served with Greenpeace between 1989 and 1994 as an Executive Director for Greenpeace International and Greenpeace Australia . Gilding helped build Easy Being Green to a successful business employing over 200 people . The company used carbon trading to drive mass consumer action on energy efficiency . In doing so it achieved 4,300,000 tonnes of CO2 reductions and established domestic energy efficiency as a mainstream consumer and policy priority opportunity in Australia . In 2008 Easy Being Green was acquired by Jackgreen Ltd , Australia 's only renewable energy retailer . The business continued as Jackgreen 's energy efficiency arm , offering free residential energy efficiency services and upgrades . Easy Being Green in 2009 launched a major campaign on Solar hot water in which it offered a free system with an interest free green loan on the installation . In 2010 , the founder of Jackgreen Ltd , Andrew Randall , purchased the Easy Being Green assets and has been running it ever since . The company today continues as a leading Australian energy efficiency organization , with large residential energy efficiency programs , energy efficiency audits , green loans , a strong commercial efficient lighting operation and solar sales and installation .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Easy_Being_Green\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 80810\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Songs of the Humpback Whale (album) Content: Songs of the Humpback Whale is a 1970 album produced by bio-acoustician Roger Payne . It publicly demonstrated for the first time the elaborate whale vocalizations of Humpbacks , and became the bestselling environmental album in history , selling over 100,000 copies . By raising awareness of the intelligence and culture of whales the album helped spawn a worldwide '' Save The Whales '' movement , leading to the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 10-year global moratorium on commercial whaling ( observed by all but a few nations ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Songs_of_the_Humpback_Whale_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 80727\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Project Jonah Content: Project Jonah is an environmental organisation that was established in 1974 in New Zealand . It specialises in the protection and conservation of marine mammals ( whales , dolphins and seals ) . The key areas in which they work is rescuing stranded marine mammals , advocacy for marine mammals , ensuring compliance with legislation . They are regularly involved in rescuing stranded whales around New Zealand . New Zealand has one of the highest rates of whale strandings with the beached whales , and marine mammals in general , being the responsibility of the Department of Conservation . Project Jonah gave a major impetus for the government to create the Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Project_Jonah\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 80314\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Whaling in Western Australia Content: Whaling was one of the first viable industries established in the Swan River Colony following the 1829 arrival of British settlers to Western Australia . The industry had numerous ups and downs until the last whaling station closed in Albany in 1978 . There are two main species of whales ( order Cetacea ) which form aggregations along the Western Australian coastline : the southern right whale ( Eubalaena australis ) , and the humpback whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) . The southern rights are slow swimmers and their carcases tend to float due to the high concentration of oil in the blubber - hence the name `` right '' as it made the task of the whale chasers easier . Its conservation status is now listed as `` endangered '' as result of more than 150 years of hunting . Both species migrated along the north-south coastline stopping in bays such as Geographe Bay ( east of Cape Naturaliste ) and Flinders Bay ( east of Cape Leeuwin ) for mating and breeding . Other species occasionally caught were sperm whales and blue whales , although these tended to be seen mainly along the southern coast of Western Australia .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Whaling_in_Western_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 79929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Bengwayan Content: Michael Bengwayan is a Filipino environmental activist best known for his advocacy of using the Petroleum nut ( Pittosporum resiniferum ) as an alternative bio-fuel in the Philippines , and his involvement with advocacies to save trees from being cut , notably the Save 182 Movement which petitioned to stop the earth-balling 182 trees at Luneta Hill , Baguio City , by mall developer SM , and the campaign to stop the cutting of 1,200 trees along the Manila North Road , in the towns of Binalonan and Pozorrubio , Pangasinan . Bengwayan is the director of the Cordillera Ecological Center , and is also the proprietor of The Habitat , a five hectare farm in Tublay , Benguet which partly serves as an ecotourism site , an ecological reserve containing indigenous trees of Philippine Cordillera , and a demonstration farm for the intercropping of Arabica coffee , pineapple , pine trees , and petroleum nut .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Bengwayan\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 79909\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Waterfront Historic Area League Content: The Waterfront Historic Area LeaguE , also known as WHALE , is a non-profit historic preservation organization located in New Bedford , Massachusetts . Its mission is : `` to promote the value and reuse of greater New Bedford 's historic structures through preservation , education and advocacy '' . The organization often promotes its cause with the words of one of its founders , Sarah Delano ( President of WHALE , 1966-1982 ) . Delano said , `` if you bulldoze your heritage , you become just anywhere '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Waterfront_Historic_Area_League\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 79823\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Whale louse Content: A whale louse is a commensal crustacean of the family Cyamidae . Despite the name , they are not true lice ( which are insects ) , but rather are related to the better-known skeleton shrimp , most species of which are found in shallower waters . Whale lice are external parasites , found in skin lesions , genital folds , nostrils and eyes of marine mammals of the order Cetacea . These include not only whales but also dolphins and porpoises .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Whale_louse\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 79682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Serge Dedina Content: Serge Dedina is the author of Wild Sea : Eco-Wars and Surf Stories from the Coast of the California ( Tucson : University of Arizona Press ) and Saving the Gray Whale ( Tucson : University of Arizona Press ) and a conservationist from Imperial Beach , California . He is currently the Mayor of Imperial Beach , California , since the November 2014 election . He is the co-founder and Executive Director of WiLDCOAST/COSTASALVAjE , an international organization that conserves coastal and marine ecosystems and wildlife . He is the former founding director of The Nature Conservancy 's Baja California and Sea of Cortez Program . Dedina was instrumental in the development of two national parks along Baja 's Sea of Cortez coastline and a research and educational center in Magdalena Bay . He also initiated an international campaign that successfully stopped the Mitsubishi Corporation from destroying San Ignacio Lagoon -- the world 's last undeveloped gray whale lagoon . Saving the Gray Whale , is based on the three years he lived in the gray whale lagoons of Baja California .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Serge_Dedina\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 79676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Green hand Content: A green hand may refer to : a term for an inexperienced crew member of a 19th-century whaler on his first voyage , and who would typically have the smallest `` lay '' , or share , in the profits . In J. R. R. Tolkien 's Middle-earth books , a family of hobbits . a first-year Future Farmers of America ( FFA ) member .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Green_hand\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 79658\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Whale Fund for Kidney Cancer Content: The James Whale Fund for Kidney Cancer changed its name to Kidney Cancer UK on February 7 , 2016 to become the UK 's leading specialist kidney cancer charity . http://www.kcuk.org.uk/ It seeks to help reduce the harm caused by kidney cancer by increasing knowledge and awareness , providing patient information , and by supporting research into the causes , prevention and treatment of the disease . The charity was founded in 2006 by the broadcaster James Whale whose experience of dealing with the disease in 2000 , when he lost a kidney in the process , spurred him on to set up a charity to help others in a similar position . The Fund depends primarily on voluntary donations and in its short history has published a definitive guide to kidney cancer , set up a Patient Support Network and Careline , established an online renal nurse training programme and campaigned for access to life extending drugs for NHS kidney cancer patients . The charity is governed by a board of Trustees and has its head office in Cambridge , UK .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Whale_Fund_for_Kidney_Cancer\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 79650\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Samuel \\\"Fish Hook\\\" Mulford Content: Samuel `` Fish Hook '' Mulford ( 1644 -- 1725 ) got his nickname when he went to London in 1704 to protest the tax on whale oil , which he used in farming . Warned beforehand of the sly workings of pickpockets in the great foreign metropolis , the canny and cautious Mr. Mulford lined his pockets with fishhooks to foil the would-be thieves . The old Mulford farmhouse , which overlooks the Village Green of East Hampton , is one of the oldest in the county of Suffolk . It is one of the nation 's most significant , intact English colonial farmsteads . It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The Mulford farmhouse was built in 1680 by High Sheriff Josiah Hobart , an important early official of the first New York Royal Province government . Samuel `` Fish Hook '' Mulford bought the property in 1712 when Mr. Hobart died . It is owned and operated as a living museum by East Hampton Historical Society . The society bought the farm in 1957 . Villagers started a fund in 1948 to preserve the farm . Mulford was a legislator in all the governments of the colony of New York during his time . He was also a whale oil merchant . He had warehouses on Northwest Harbor , east side , along with other merchants in his village . Merchants Path is the name of the road to the warehouses .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Samuel_\\\"Fish_Hook\\\"_Mulford\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 79507\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David McTaggart Content: David Fraser McTaggart ( June 24 , 1932 -- March 23 , 2001 ) was a Canadian-born environmentalist who played a central part in the foundation of Greenpeace International . An excellent all-around athlete , as a young man he won three consecutive Canadian National Badminton Championships in men 's singles ( 1956 -- 1958 ) and represented that country in badminton 's Thomas Cup ( men 's world team championship ) competition . Prior to his involvement in Greenpeace he had prospered as a builder and developer . In 1972 , responding to an ad in the newspapers , he used his personal boat to protest the testing of nuclear weapons in the Pacific by the French government . After getting his boat damaged and being physically hurt by the French Military , his protest succeeded in 1974 when the French announced the end of their atmospheric nuclear testing program . McTaggart spent the next several years pursuing legal action against the French government and assisting in the formation of Greenpeace affiliates across Western Europe . In 1979 he brokered an agreement that led to the formation of Greenpeace International , ending the leadership of the original founding group based in Vancouver , Canada . He became chairman and chief spokesman for Greenpeace in 1979 , retiring in 1991 to live on an olive farm in Paciano , Umbria , Italy . McTaggart continued to participate in Greenpeace forums after retirement for the rest of his life . He and singer Bryan Adams did a massive postcard campaign to help create the Southern Antarctic Whale Sanctuary . For nearly two years they toured the world asking thousands of concert goers to write to countries involved with whaling to support the sanctuary . The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary was established by the IWC in 1994 with 23 countries supporting the agreement and Japan opposing it . Te Vaka dedicated its song `` Sei Ma Le Losa '' to McTaggart , who was killed in a car accident on March 23 , 2001 , near his home in Italy . In 1987 McTaggart founded the Third Millennium Foundation , a US 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) dedicated to continuing his work for disarmament , peace , and a sustainable future . The foundation , headquartered in his former home in Paciano , Italy , continues today promoting local and global projects in his memory .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"David_McTaggart\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 79262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Melbert Cary Content: Melbert Brinckerhoff Cary Jr. ( 1892 -- 1941 ) was a graphic artist who imported numerous typefaces from Europe . He married Mary Flagler Cary , an heiress of one of the founders of Standard Oil . Mr Cary founded the Press of the Woolly Whale , a private press dedicated to producing fine editions of works Cary believed to be of interest and overlooked -- a rejection of the private press tradition of producing only new editions of classic works . In his own words : Our intention -LSB- is -RSB- to publish only those text which appeal strongly to us , excluding those accepted classics , so completely accepted that they are never opened . Our interest lies only with those who read their books , cherishing them because of the enjoyment gained from using them . ( Preface , The Vision of Sir Launfal ( Press of the Woolly Whale , 1929 ) ) He was also director of Continental Type Founders Association , which imported typeface from Europe , including Kabel and Eve typefaces . In the 1930s , Mr. Cary was instrumental in assisting Fritz Kredel 's emigration from Germany to the United States . During the 1920s and 1930s , Mr. Cary assembled a library of over 2,300 volumes about printing. , Melbert Cary was also an avid collector of playing cards . The Woolly Whale press 's most renowned publication was The Devil 's Bible , which was a set of playing cards using caricatures of World War I figures . In 1967 , Cary 's widow , Mary Flagler Cary , donated the couple 's card collection to Yale University , where it currently resides in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library and is referred to as the Cary Collection of Playing Cards . Woolly Whale also published The Missing Gutenberg Woodblocks , which was a made-up story of missing woodblocks from the Gutenberg project . Friz Kredel did some illustrations for this book , and some scholars took the book seriously . His father , Melbert B. Cary , was the Democratic candidate for governor of Connecticut in 1902 , and was the Chairman of the Democratic Party in Connecticut . Cary , Jr. died of bone cancer in 1941 . The Cary Collection was presented to the Rochester Institute of Technology in 1969 by the Mary Flagler Cary Charitable Trust as a memorial to Melbert Cary . Its collection of 20,000 volumes is described as one of America 's premier libraries on the history and practice of printing .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Melbert_Cary\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 79169\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Trywork Content: A trywork , located aft of the fore-mast , is the most distinguishing feature of a whaling ship . In two cast-iron trypots set into this furnace of brick , iron and wood , whale oil was rendered from the blubber of whales , much as lard is rendered from frying fatty pork . The furnace is temporarily affixed to the deck by `` iron knees '' , and a reservoir of water under the bricks keeps the heat from burning the wood of the deck . In the 18th and 19th century New England whaling industry , the use of tryworks ( two large try pots in a brick furnace ) on whaling ships allowed them to stay at sea longer . Since they could boil out their oil , they did not have to carry unprocessed blubber home . The slices of blubber were kept as thin as possible for the process , and on New England whaling ships , these slices were known as `` bible leaves '' by the sailors . The ability to use tryworks at sea thus enabled the Yankee whaling industry to flourish .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Trywork\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 79049\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society Content: ( WDC ) Whale and Dolphin Conservation is a wildlife charity that is dedicated solely to the worldwide conservation and welfare of all whales , dolphins and porpoises ( cetaceans ) . WDC is a founding partner of the Convention on Migratory Species ( CMS , also known as Bonn Convention ) , which is part of the United Nations Environment Program . The organization also develops regional protection agreements and conventions and closely cooperates with the orca ( killer whale ) research station OrcaLab in British Columbia , Canada .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Whale_and_Dolphin_Conservation_Society\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 78772\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oil-lamp clock Content: Oil-lamp clocks are clocks consisting of a graduated glass reservoir to hold oil - usually whale oil , which burned cleanly and evenly - supplying the fuel for a built-in lamp . As the level in the reservoir dropped , it provided a rough measure of the passage of time . The principle behind such a time-keeping device is that it measure a quantity that either decreases or increases at a constant rate . Lamps or candles , burning fuel at a steady pace , fit this category , and as a bonus produce useful light . Hourglasses depend on the steady draining of fine sand through a small aperture . Water clocks or clepsydra measure a gain or loss of water by using drops of uniform size and frequency . The Persian fenjaan made use of the constant time it took for the sinking of a floating bowl with a hole in its underside . It is unknown when , where or in which way the oil-lamp clocks were first introduced . this clock was but mainly used in the mid of 18th century\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Oil-lamp_clock\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 78304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jarod Green Content: Jarod Green ( born 23 May 1981 ) is an Australian film director , screenwriter and animator most notable for his work on the short film Beached Whale and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation television series Beached Az. . Together with actor Nicholas Boshier , Green is also the creator of the online fictional character Trent from Punchy .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Jarod_Green\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 78209\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenpeace Aotearoa New Zealand Content: Greenpeace Aotearoa New Zealand ( GPNZ ) is one of New Zealand 's largest environmental organisations , and is a national office of the global environmental organisation Greenpeace .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenpeace_Aotearoa_New_Zealand\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 78101\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Douglas Whalen Content: Douglas H. Whalen is an American linguist . He received his Ph.D. in Linguistics from Yale University in 1982 . Since 2011 he has been a Distinguished Professor in the Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences program at the CUNY Graduate Center . He is a long-standing member of Haskins Laboratories in New Haven Connecticut , where he is a Senior Scientist and Vice President for Research . Whalen studies the relationship between speech production and speech perception from the perspective of the motor theory of speech perception . Whalen is the founder of the Endangered Language Fund , and served as its president until 2015 , when he became Chair of the Board of Directors . He is also a founding member of the Association for Laboratory Phonology and on the advisory board for Healing Through Language , an organization that researches the connection between indigenous language revitalization and physical well-being . From 2006 through 2008 , he served as a program officer at the National Science Foundation where he was affiliated with the Cognitive Neuroscience , Documenting Endangered Languages , and Linguistics programs .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Douglas_Whalen\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 78081\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles Melville Scammon Content: Charles Melville Scammon ( 1825-1911 ) was a 19th-century whaleman , naturalist , and author . He was the first to hunt the gray whales of both Laguna Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio Lagoon , the former once being called `` Scammon 's Lagoon '' after him . In 1874 he wrote the book The Marine Mammals of the North-western Coast of North America , which was a financial failure . It is now considered a classic . Scammon was born in Pittston , Maine , on May 28 , 1825 . In 1850 he sailed for California . On April 1 , 1852 he left San Francisco in command of the brig Mary Helen ( 160 tons ) on a combined sealing and whaling voyage . He returned on August 26 with 350 barrels of oil obtained from elephant seals . During the winter of 1855-56 he was among the vessels hunting gray whales in Magdalena Bay , when he was commanding the ship Leonore . In December 1857 , commanding the brig Boston , with the schooner-tender Marin , he first hunted the gray whales of Laguna Ojo de Liebre , catching twenty . The following winter ( 1858 -- 59 ) , commanding the bark Ocean Bird and accompanied by the schooner tenders A.M. Simpson and Kate , he returned to the lagoon , catching forty-seven cows . In the winter of 1859-60 he first exploited another lagoon to the south , San Ignacio . Within a few seasons it had been swept clean of whales . In 1860-61 he returned to Laguna Ojo de Liebre in the bark Ocean Bird , taking a paltry 245 barrels of oil -- about seven whales . In the summer of 1862 he sailed to the Sea of Okhotsk in the San Francisco ship William C. Nye . He cruised around Iony Island and Shantar Bay until September , catching only three bowhead whales . In the winter of 1862-63 he hunted gray whales in Magdalena Bay , his last whaling cruise . He spent the following three decades in the Revenue Service , before retiring from disability in 1895 . In October 1870 , Scammon collected the 27-foot-long type specimen of the Davidson piked whale ( Balaenoptera davidsoni , Scammon , 1872 ) ; it had been found dead on the shores of Admiralty Inlet by Italian fishermen , who towed it to Port Townsend Bay , where they flensed it . He is the brother of J. Young Scammon and Eliakim P. Scammon .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_Melville_Scammon\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 78063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WHALE (Safety Program) Content: The WHALE Program is a child safety program focused on rescue workers and automobile accidents . W.H.A.L.E. stands for `` We Have A Little Emergency . '' This car seat safety program was developed by Connie Day , a caregiver from Virginia . In the event of an automobile accident that incapacitates the adult driver and passengers , rescue personnel will have a difficult time identifying children riding in car safety seats . In some situations , these adults may not be related to the child passenger ; therefore , conventional means of obtaining information will be useless . In these cases , W.H.A.L.E. can make a significant difference .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"WHALE_(Safety_Program)\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 77960\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Radford Content: Philip David `` Phil '' Radford ( born January 2 , 1976 ) is an American environmental , clean energy and democracy leader who served as the youngest executive director of Greenpeace USA . He is a co-founder of the Democracy Initiative , Membership Drive , was founder and executive director of Power Shift , and is a board member of Green Corps and the Mertz Gilmore Foundation . He has a background in grassroots organizing , corporate social responsibility , climate change , and clean energy . Radford lives in Washington , D.C. with his wife Eileen . Radford 's theory of change shifted from viewing governments as arbitrators between public and private interests on environmental issues , to finding that most governments are captured by industry . Rather than fighting first for new laws , which could be blocked by industries , he has focused on pressuring large companies to change their practices and enlisted them as allies in pushing for strong environmental protections . Examples include Greenpeace campaigns that convinced Apple , Inc. and similar companies to shift to 100 % clean energy and lobby utilities and regulators to make that possible , as well as work to protect both the Indonesian rainforest and the Bering Sea Canyons . Radford argues that the combination of creating industry champions and `` outside pressure '' focused on the government are the keys to passing new laws to protect the environment . However , Radford has also been a vocal leader calling for the United States to pass campaign finance reform and respect all Americans ' voting rights to shift power in politics from corporations towards people and fulfill `` the promise of American democracy . '' Radford is considered by many to be a modern-day transcendentalist , in that he is very focused on nature and the environment , and he is an advocate of democracy .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Radford\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 77740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anton Barth von der Lippe Content: Anton Barth von der Lippe ( 8 October 1886 -- 1960 ) was a Norwegian whaler . He was born in Tjøme as a son of dean Johan Nordahl Brun von der Lippe ( 1838 -- 1915 ) and his third wife . His father 's second wife had the son Jakob von der Lippe , who was Anton 's half-brother . Anton was also a grandson of bishop Jacob von der Lippe , nephew of Conrad Fredrik von der Lippe and first cousin once removed of Frits von der Lippe , Just Lippe and Jens von der Lippe . He established his own shipping company in 1915 , and was particularly engaged in whaling . Between 1919 and 1945 he cooperated closely with Svend Foyn Bruun . Lippe , Bruun and Anders Jahre together founded the three whaling companies Antarctic , Globus and Kosmos in 1928 . He died in 1960 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Anton_Barth_von_der_Lippe\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 77570\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Von Hernandez Content: Von Hernandez is a leading environmental activist from the Philippines . He was Executive Director of Greenpeace Southeast Asia ( GPSEA ) from 2008-2014 , where he led the environmental group 's programs and operations in the Southeast Asian region . Prior to that , he served as Campaigns Director for the organization , and was responsible for driving the group 's campaigns in Thailand , Indonesia and the Philippines on a number of issues including climate change , forests , sustainable agriculture and toxics pollution . Currently , he serves as Development Director for Greenpeace International .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Von_Hernandez\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 77552\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vessel speed restrictions to reduce ship collisions with north atlantic right whales Content: The National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) established a rule to implement vessel speed restrictions of 10 knots or less on ships 65 ft or longer in various locations along the east coast of the U.S. Atlantic seaboard . The purpose of the regulations was to prevent the probability of deaths and injuries to endangered North Atlantic Right Whales due to collisions with ships . The rule was enacted December 9 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"141\",\n \"docid\": \"Vessel_speed_restrictions_to_reduce_ship_collisions_with_north_atlantic_right_whales\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 77534\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":70,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Worst-case global heating scenarios may need to be revised upwards in light of a better understanding of the role of clouds, scientists have said."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"142","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":1,"score":126590},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"142","docid":"Global_warming","rank":2,"score":110563},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"142","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":3,"score":110436},{"content":"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .","qid":"142","docid":"Cloud_feedback","rank":4,"score":106262},{"content":"Title: Global Scenario Group Content: The Global Scenario Group ( GSG ) was an international , interdisciplinary body convened in 1995 by the Tellus Institute and the Stockholm Environment Institute to develop scenarios for world development in the twenty-first century . The GSG 's underlying scenario development work was rooted in the long-range integrated scenario analysis that Tellus Institute and Stockholm Environment Institute had undertaken through the PoleStar Project . Initially conceived in 1991 as a tool for integrated sustainability planning and long-range scenario analysis , PoleStar was inspired by the 1987 Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future , which first put the concept of `` sustainable development '' on the international agenda . The work of the Global Scenario Group was widely adopted in high-level intergovernmental settings . The scenarios informed numerous international assessments , including the World Water Council 's World Water Vision report in 1999 -- 2000 , the OECD Environmental Outlook in 2001 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's greenhouse gas emission mitigation assessment in 2001 , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Third GEO Report in 2002 , and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in 2005 . Several of the GSG participants who actively participated in the IPCC assessments have been recognized for contributing to the 2007 award of the Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .","qid":"142","docid":"Global_Scenario_Group","rank":5,"score":105617},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"142","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":6,"score":104611},{"content":"Title: Worst Case Scenario (album) Content: Worst Case Scenario is the debut studio album by Belgian rock band Deus released in 1994 . The cover art was designed by guitarist Rudy Trouvé . It contains the single `` Suds & Soda '' , which became an underground hit and a fans favorite . The album was first released in Belgium on the indie label Bang ! with a different track listing : `` Right as Rain '' and `` Great American Nude '' ( both tracks present on the Zea EP released in Belgium in 1993 ) are replaced by the song `` Let Go '' . It was then released in the UK and Europe through Island Records with the track listing as written below . The song `` W.C.S. ( First Draft ) '' contains a covered bit from Frank Zappa 's `` Little Umbrellas '' , from his 1969 album , Hot Rats.Worst Case Scenario received good reviews internationally despite the hard time that the British media had to categorize its music into a genre . They finally called it Art rock ( a definition which still bothers singer Tom Barman ) . Worst Case Scenario reached Gold in Belgium , selling 30,000 copies . By April 2008 , WCS '' had sold 270,000 copies worldwide .","qid":"142","docid":"Worst_Case_Scenario_(album)","rank":7,"score":104300},{"content":"Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .","qid":"142","docid":"The_Cloud_Mystery","rank":8,"score":104105},{"content":"Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .","qid":"142","docid":"IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992","rank":9,"score":103718},{"content":"Title: Worst-case scenario Content: A worst-case scenario is a concept in risk management wherein the planner , in planning for potential disasters , considers the most severe possible outcome that can reasonably be projected to occur in a given situation . Conceiving of worst-case scenarios is a common form of strategic planning , specifically scenario planning , to prepare for and minimize contingencies that could result in accidents , quality problems , or other issues .","qid":"142","docid":"Worst-case_scenario","rank":10,"score":103453},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"142","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":11,"score":103319},{"content":"Title: Worst-Case Scenario series Content: Worst-Case Scenario is the name of a series of merchandise based on a 1999 book written by Joshua Piven and David Borgenicht and published by Chronicle Books . The series first entry , The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook , sold over 10 million copies worldwide and prompted a series of related books , games , calendars , and two television series . Later works have been published via Quirk Books and has been credited with giving the company enough funding to expand .","qid":"142","docid":"Worst-Case_Scenario_series","rank":12,"score":102840},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"142","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":13,"score":101059},{"content":"Title: Cirrus cloud thinning Content: Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .","qid":"142","docid":"Cirrus_cloud_thinning","rank":14,"score":100938},{"content":"Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .","qid":"142","docid":"Cloud_formation_and_climate_change","rank":15,"score":98896},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"142","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":16,"score":97862},{"content":"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''","qid":"142","docid":"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents","rank":17,"score":97799},{"content":"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .","qid":"142","docid":"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know","rank":18,"score":95803},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"142","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":19,"score":94839},{"content":"Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .","qid":"142","docid":"Climate_change_scenario","rank":20,"score":94584},{"content":"Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .","qid":"142","docid":"The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming","rank":21,"score":94467},{"content":"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .","qid":"142","docid":"World_Climate_Research_Programme","rank":22,"score":93428},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"142","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":23,"score":92899},{"content":"Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .","qid":"142","docid":"The_Chilling_Stars","rank":24,"score":92645},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"142","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":25,"score":92578},{"content":"Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .","qid":"142","docid":"Fate_of_the_World","rank":26,"score":92510},{"content":"Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .","qid":"142","docid":"Ocean_heat_content","rank":27,"score":91935},{"content":"Title: International Cloud Experiment Content: International Cloud Experiment ( formally known as `` Tropical Warm Pool International Cloud Experiment '' - TWP-ICE ) was a scientific mission to gather information on tropical storm formation . It involved seven airplanes , a ship anchored off Darwin in Australia , RV Southern Surveyor , and over 250 scientists and researchers . The I.C.E. took place from 21 January to 23 February 2006 , and had been in the planning stages since September 2003 . The experiment was a collaboration between the US Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement ( ARM ) Program , the Bureau of Meteorology ( Australia ) , NASA the European Commission DG RTD-1 .2 and several United States , Australian , Canadian and European Universities . During the experiment , a record-breaking tropical typhoon arose , then spent seven days as a `` landphoon '' over the Australian desert . The Australian Broadcasting Corporation released in 2007 Thunderheads , a 47-minute program which has shown on the Smithsonian Channel .","qid":"142","docid":"International_Cloud_Experiment","rank":28,"score":91900},{"content":"Title: Worst Case Scenario (song) Content: `` Worst Case Scenario '' is the third single by the English indie band The Hoosiers from their 2007 # 1 album The Trick to Life . It has been admitted by lead man Irwin on the band 's website that it is one of the band 's favourite songs .","qid":"142","docid":"Worst_Case_Scenario_(song)","rank":29,"score":91639},{"content":"Title: The Best Worst-Case Scenario Content: The Best Worst-Case Scenario is the first album released by Tooth & Nail Records alternative rock band Fair , which features notable musician and record producer Aaron Sprinkle . The album was released on June 6 , 2006 . In 2007 , the album artwork , designed by Invisible Creature was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Recording Packaging .","qid":"142","docid":"The_Best_Worst-Case_Scenario","rank":30,"score":91109},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .","qid":"142","docid":"Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios","rank":31,"score":90994},{"content":"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .","qid":"142","docid":"Climate_Code_Red","rank":32,"score":90794},{"content":"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .","qid":"142","docid":"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics","rank":33,"score":90750},{"content":"Title: Worst Case Scenario (film) Content: Worst Case Scenario was a horror film to be directed by Dutch director Richard Raaphorst .","qid":"142","docid":"Worst_Case_Scenario_(film)","rank":34,"score":90621},{"content":"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .","qid":"142","docid":"Marine_cloud_brightening","rank":35,"score":90128},{"content":"Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .","qid":"142","docid":"Living_in_the_Hothouse","rank":36,"score":89674},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"142","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":37,"score":89316},{"content":"Title: Worst-case scenario (disambiguation) Content: Worst-case scenario may refer to : Worst Case Scenario ( album ) , by dEUS `` Worst Case Scenario '' ( song ) , by The Hoosiers Worst Case Scenario ( Star Trek : Voyager ) Worst-Case Scenario series , series of books inspired by The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook Worst Case Scenarios , a reality show aired on TBS in 2002 in the U.S. Worst Case Scenario ( film ) , a Dutch horror film Worst Case Scenario Records , a UK record label Worst-Case Scenario ( TV series ) , a survival show hosted by Bear Grylls aired on Discovery Channel in 2010","qid":"142","docid":"Worst-case_scenario_(disambiguation)","rank":38,"score":88936},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"142","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":39,"score":88591},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"142","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":40,"score":88327},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"142","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":41,"score":88233},{"content":"Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .","qid":"142","docid":"Ross_Gelbspan","rank":42,"score":86974},{"content":"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .","qid":"142","docid":"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)","rank":43,"score":86764},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"142","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":44,"score":86425},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"142","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":45,"score":85890},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"142","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":46,"score":85854},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"142","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":47,"score":85593},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"142","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":48,"score":85474},{"content":"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .","qid":"142","docid":"Simon_Tett","rank":49,"score":85396},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .","qid":"142","docid":"Climate_Change_Science_Program","rank":50,"score":85037},{"content":"Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .","qid":"142","docid":"CloudSat","rank":51,"score":84944},{"content":"Title: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Content: Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .","qid":"142","docid":"Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System","rank":52,"score":84708},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"142","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":53,"score":84307},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"142","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":54,"score":84284},{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"142","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":55,"score":83973},{"content":"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .","qid":"142","docid":"Seita_Emori","rank":56,"score":83796},{"content":"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .","qid":"142","docid":"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World","rank":57,"score":83414},{"content":"Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .","qid":"142","docid":"Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet","rank":58,"score":83174},{"content":"Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .","qid":"142","docid":"Drawdown_(climate)","rank":59,"score":83105},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .","qid":"142","docid":"Greenhouse_effect","rank":60,"score":82858},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"142","docid":"Climate_change","rank":61,"score":82840},{"content":"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''","qid":"142","docid":"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change","rank":62,"score":82772},{"content":"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .","qid":"142","docid":"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)","rank":63,"score":82412},{"content":"Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .","qid":"142","docid":"An_Appeal_to_Reason","rank":64,"score":82298},{"content":"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .","qid":"142","docid":"Global_warming_(disambiguation)","rank":65,"score":82274},{"content":"Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .","qid":"142","docid":"I'm_not_a_scientist","rank":66,"score":82101},{"content":"Title: Clouds of Smoke Content: Clouds of Smoke is a documentary directed and produced by Fatmir Terziu . It explores the recent phenomenon of global warming and asks several environmental questions . It mainly focuses on the environmental damage caused by Albania , especially its biggest industrial city , Elbasan . The documentary started as a collaboration with Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) , and it was created for the purpose of educating students at London South Bank University . It was chosen to be shown at Curzon , London , the first documentary directed by an Albanian director to be selected .","qid":"142","docid":"Clouds_of_Smoke","rank":67,"score":81979},{"content":"Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .","qid":"142","docid":"Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990","rank":68,"score":81865},{"content":"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"142","docid":"Climate_change_in_popular_culture","rank":69,"score":81828},{"content":"Title: Best, worst and average case Content: In computer science , best , worst , and average cases of a given algorithm express what the resource usage is at least , at most and on average , respectively . Usually the resource being considered is running time , i.e. time complexity , but it could also be memory or other resource . In real-time computing , the worst-case execution time is often of particular concern since it is important to know how much time might be needed in the worst case to guarantee that the algorithm will always finish on time . Average performance and worst-case performance are the most used in algorithm analysis . Less widely found is best-case performance , but it does have uses : for example , where the best cases of individual tasks are known , they can be used to improve the accuracy of an overall worst-case analysis . Computer scientists use probabilistic analysis techniques , especially expected value , to determine expected running times . The terms are used in other contexts ; for example the worst - and best-case outcome of a planned-for epidemic , worst-case temperature to which an electronic circuit element is exposed , etc. . Where components of specified tolerance are used , devices must be designed to work properly with the worst-case combination of tolerances and external conditions .","qid":"142","docid":"Best,_worst_and_average_case","rank":70,"score":81570},{"content":"Title: Cloud forcing Content: Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .","qid":"142","docid":"Cloud_forcing","rank":71,"score":81566},{"content":"Title: Climate stabilization wedge Content: The Climate stabilization Wedges is an approach produced by Princeton University researchers looking at Climate change mitigation scenarios . The project was funded by Ford Motor Company between 2000 and 2009 and has been receiving funding from BP since 2000 . The goal of the approach , Stephen Pacala and Robert H. Socolow , is to demonstrate that global warming is a problem which can be attacked using today 's commercially available technologies to reduce emissions . The objective is to stabilize concentrations under 500ppm for the next fifty years , using wedges from a variety of different strategies which fit into the stabilization triangle . A newer estimate by the original authors indicated that by 2011 , the number of necessary wedges had increased from seven to nine . This was due to the continuing increase in emissions since the original 2004 paper which determined the number of wedges that would have been necessary , if serious action to mitigate climate change had begun then .","qid":"142","docid":"Climate_stabilization_wedge","rank":72,"score":80837},{"content":"Title: Paul Raskin Content: Paul Raskin is the founding President of the Tellus Institute , which has conducted over 3,500 research and policy projects throughout the world on environmental issues , resource planning , scenario analysis , and sustainable development . His research and writing has centered on formulating and analyzing alternative global and regional scenarios , and the requirements for a transition to a sustainable , just , and livable future , called the Great Transition . Dr. Raskin has served as a lead author on a number of high profile international reports , including the U.S. National Academy of Science 's Board on Sustainability , the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Global Environment Outlook , the Earth Charter , and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report .","qid":"142","docid":"Paul_Raskin","rank":73,"score":80825},{"content":"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .","qid":"142","docid":"The_Weather_of_the_Future","rank":74,"score":80628},{"content":"Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .","qid":"142","docid":"Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean","rank":75,"score":80626},{"content":"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .","qid":"142","docid":"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle","rank":76,"score":79655},{"content":"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .","qid":"142","docid":"Earth's_energy_budget","rank":77,"score":79421},{"content":"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .","qid":"142","docid":"Hypercane","rank":78,"score":79081},{"content":"Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .","qid":"142","docid":"Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science","rank":79,"score":78927},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"142","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":80,"score":78404},{"content":"Title: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Content: The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes . GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future . GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .","qid":"142","docid":"Global_Energy_and_Water_Cycle_Experiment","rank":81,"score":78243},{"content":"Title: Scientists for Global Responsibility Content: Scientists for Global Responsibility ( SGR ) in the United Kingdom promotes the ethical practice and use of science and technology . SGR is affiliated to the International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility ( INES ) . SGR 's main areas of concern are arms and arms control , including military involvement in UK universities ; effect of excessive greenhouse gas emissions on climate ; the nature of war and reducing barbarity ; topsoil and water shortages resulting from modern agricultural methods ; depletion of species of fish due to over-fishing ; continual spread of nuclear weapons , and reduction of occurrence of serious nuclear accidents . SGR evaluates the risk of new science and new technological solutions to older science-based problems and threats , while recognizing the enormous contribution science , design and technology has made to civilisation and human well-being .","qid":"142","docid":"Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility","rank":82,"score":78020},{"content":"Title: Heat lightning Content: Heat lightning , sometimes known as silent lightning , is the name used for the faint flashes of lightning on the horizon or other clouds from distant thunderstorms that do not have accompanying sounds of thunder . This often occurs because of inter-cloud and intra-cloud lightning , where lightning charges travel from cloud-to-cloud or merely areas of differing electric potential within a single cloud , respectively . Because of this nature , heat lightning can often be seen from great distances , and thus can be an early warning sign that thunderstorms are approaching . The term could be considered a misnomer because it has nothing to do with the heat of the lightning itself . Heat lightning can also occur if cloud-to-ground lightning occurs very far away and the sound dissipates before it reaches the observer . At night , it is possible to see the flashes of lightning from very far distances , up to 100 miles , but the sound does not carry that far . In Florida , heat lightning is often seen over the water at night , the remnants of storms that formed during the day along a sea breeze front coming in from the opposite coast . Heat lightning also occurs where airborne matter muffles the thunder , such as heavy snow in winter storms ( thundersnow ) and dust and sand storms . In some instances , heavy falling snow has silenced thunder from cloud to ground lightning strikes as close as one to two miles ( 1.6 to 3.2 km ) from the observer and severe dust storms are even more effective in many cases . Heat lightning is not to be confused with electrically-induced luminosity actually generated at mesospheric altitudes above thunderstorm systems ( and likewise visible at exceedingly great ranges ) , a phenomenon known as `` sprites '' .","qid":"142","docid":"Heat_lightning","rank":83,"score":77951},{"content":"Title: Scenario (artwork) Content: Scenario is an Artificial Intelligence ( AI ) computer graphic interactive installation , directed by the artist Dennis Del Favero , and developed in collaboration with scriptwriter Stephen Sewell , AI scientist Maurice Pagnucco working with computer scientists Anuraag Sridhar , Arcot Sowmya and Paul Compton . It is a 360-degree 3D cinematic work whose narrative is interactively produced by the audience and humanoid characters . The title is a Commedia dell ` arte term ( ʃeˈnarjo ) referring to the way dramatic action is dependent on the way actors and audience interact . Scenario was developed at the iCinema Centre for Interactive Cinema Research at the University of New South Wales .","qid":"142","docid":"Scenario_(artwork)","rank":84,"score":77889},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"142","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":85,"score":77774},{"content":"Title: Cloud point Content: In the petroleum industry , cloud point refers to the temperature below which wax in diesel or biowax in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance . The presence of solidified waxes thickens the oil and clogs fuel filters and injectors in engines . The wax also accumulates on cold surfaces ( producing , for example , pipeline or heat exchanger fouling ) and forms an emulsion with water . Therefore , cloud point indicates the tendency of the oil to plug filters or small orifices at cold operating temperatures . An everyday example of cloud point can be seen in olive oil stored in cold weather . Olive oil begins to solidify at around 4 ° C , whereas winter temperatures in temperate countries can often be colder than 0 ° C . In these conditions , olive oil begins to develop white , waxy clumps of solidified oil that sink to the bottom of the container . In crude or heavy oils , cloud point is synonymous with wax appearance temperature ( WAT ) and wax precipitation temperature ( WPT ) . The cloud point of a nonionic surfactant or glycol solution is the temperature at which the mixture starts to phase-separate , and two phases appear , thus becoming cloudy . This behavior is characteristic of non-ionic surfactants containing polyoxyethylene chains , which exhibit reverse solubility versus temperature behavior in water and therefore `` cloud out '' at some point as the temperature is raised . Glycols demonstrating this behavior are known as `` cloud-point glycols '' and are used as shale inhibitors . The cloud point is affected by salinity , being generally lower in more saline fluids .","qid":"142","docid":"Cloud_point","rank":86,"score":77565},{"content":"Title: Anabatic wind Content: An anabatic wind , from the Greek anabasis , verbal of anabainein meaning moving upward , is a warm wind which blows up a steep slope or mountain side , driven by heating of the slope through insolation . It is also known as an upslope flow . These winds typically occur during the daytime in calm sunny weather . A hill or mountain top will be radiatively warmed by the Sun which in turn heats the air just above it . Air at a similar altitude over an adjacent valley or plain does not get warmed so much because of the greater distance to the ground below it . The effect may be enhanced if the lower lying ground is shaded by the mountain and so receives less heat . The air over the hill top is now warmer than the air at a similar altitude around it and will rise through convection . This creates a lower pressure region into which the air at the bottom of the slope flows , causing the wind . It is common for the air rising from the tops of large mountains to reach a height where it cools adiabatically to below its dew point and forms cumulus clouds . These can then produce rain or even thunderstorms . Anabatic winds are particularly useful to soaring glider pilots who can use them to increase the aircraft 's altitude . Anabatic winds can be detrimental to the maximum downhill speed of cyclists . Conversely , catabatic winds are down-slope winds , frequently produced at night by the opposite effect , the air near to the ground losing heat to it faster than air at a similar altitude over adjacent low-lying land . Monsoon winds are similarly generated , but on a continental scale and seasonal cycle .","qid":"142","docid":"Anabatic_wind","rank":87,"score":77436},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"142","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":88,"score":77424},{"content":"Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .","qid":"142","docid":"International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project","rank":89,"score":77411},{"content":"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''","qid":"142","docid":"Climate_change_feedback","rank":90,"score":77241},{"content":"Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''","qid":"142","docid":"Earth_2100","rank":91,"score":77017},{"content":"Title: Worst Case Scenario (Star Trek: Voyager) Content: __ NOTOC __ `` Worst Case Scenario '' is the 67th series and 25th and penultimate episode of the third season of Star Trek : Voyager .","qid":"142","docid":"Worst_Case_Scenario_(Star_Trek:_Voyager)","rank":92,"score":76992},{"content":"Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .","qid":"142","docid":"Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming","rank":93,"score":76511},{"content":"Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .","qid":"142","docid":"Taken_by_Storm","rank":94,"score":76497},{"content":"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .","qid":"142","docid":"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm","rank":95,"score":76320},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .","qid":"142","docid":"Climate_change_in_Argentina","rank":96,"score":76138},{"content":"Title: Nuclear holocaust Content: A nuclear holocaust or nuclear apocalypse is a theoretical scenario involving widespread destruction and radioactive fallout causing the collapse of civilization , through the use of nuclear weapons . Under such a scenario , some of the Earth is made uninhabitable by nuclear warfare in future world wars . Besides the obvious direct destruction of cities by nuclear blasts , the potential aftermath of a nuclear war could involve firestorms , a nuclear winter , widespread radiation sickness from fallout , and/or the temporary loss of much modern technology due to electromagnetic pulses . Some scientists , such as Alan Robock , have speculated that a thermonuclear war could result in the end of modern civilization on Earth , in part due to a long-lasting nuclear winter . In one model , temperatures following a full thermonuclear war fall for several years by 7 to 8 degrees Celsius on average . The accuracy of such models are often the subject of partisan dispute . Early Cold War-era studies suggested that billions of humans would nonetheless survive the immediate effects of nuclear blasts and radiation following a global thermonuclear war . Some scholars argue that nuclear war could indirectly contribute to human extinction via secondary effects , including environmental consequences , societal breakdown , and economic collapse . Additionally , it has been argued that even a relatively small-scale nuclear exchange between India and Pakistan involving 100 Hiroshima yield weapons , could cause a nuclear winter and kill more than a billion people . Since 1947 , the Doomsday Clock of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists has visualized how close the world is from a nuclear war . The threat of a nuclear holocaust plays an important role in the popular perception of nuclear weapons . It features in the security concept of mutually assured destruction ( MAD ) and is a common scenario in survivalism . Nuclear holocaust is a common feature in literature and film , especially in speculative genres such as science fiction , dystopian and post-apocalyptic fiction .","qid":"142","docid":"Nuclear_holocaust","rank":97,"score":75925},{"content":"Title: Anthropogenic cloud Content: An anthropogenic or artificial cloud , is a cloud induced by human activity . Although generally clouds covering the sky have only a natural origin , from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution , the use of fossil fuels and water vapor and other gases emitted by nuclear , thermal and geothermal power plants yield significant alterations of the local weather conditions . These new atmospheric conditions can thus enhance cloud formation . Homogenitus is the term used to designate the origin of clouds produced by human activities . Various methods have been proposed for creating and utilizing this weather phenomenon . Experiments have also been carried out for various studies . For example , Russian scientists have been studying artificial clouds for more than 50 years . But by far the greatest number of anthropogenic clouds are airplane contrails ( condensation trails ) and rocket trails .","qid":"142","docid":"Anthropogenic_cloud","rank":98,"score":75796},{"content":"Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .","qid":"142","docid":"Planetary_equilibrium_temperature","rank":99,"score":75734},{"content":"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .","qid":"142","docid":"Antarctica_cooling_controversy","rank":100,"score":75729}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 126590\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 110563\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 110436\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 106262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Scenario Group Content: The Global Scenario Group ( GSG ) was an international , interdisciplinary body convened in 1995 by the Tellus Institute and the Stockholm Environment Institute to develop scenarios for world development in the twenty-first century . The GSG 's underlying scenario development work was rooted in the long-range integrated scenario analysis that Tellus Institute and Stockholm Environment Institute had undertaken through the PoleStar Project . Initially conceived in 1991 as a tool for integrated sustainability planning and long-range scenario analysis , PoleStar was inspired by the 1987 Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future , which first put the concept of `` sustainable development '' on the international agenda . The work of the Global Scenario Group was widely adopted in high-level intergovernmental settings . The scenarios informed numerous international assessments , including the World Water Council 's World Water Vision report in 1999 -- 2000 , the OECD Environmental Outlook in 2001 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's greenhouse gas emission mitigation assessment in 2001 , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Third GEO Report in 2002 , and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in 2005 . Several of the GSG participants who actively participated in the IPCC assessments have been recognized for contributing to the 2007 award of the Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Scenario_Group\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 105617\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 104611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Worst Case Scenario (album) Content: Worst Case Scenario is the debut studio album by Belgian rock band Deus released in 1994 . The cover art was designed by guitarist Rudy Trouvé . It contains the single `` Suds & Soda '' , which became an underground hit and a fans favorite . The album was first released in Belgium on the indie label Bang ! with a different track listing : `` Right as Rain '' and `` Great American Nude '' ( both tracks present on the Zea EP released in Belgium in 1993 ) are replaced by the song `` Let Go '' . It was then released in the UK and Europe through Island Records with the track listing as written below . The song `` W.C.S. ( First Draft ) '' contains a covered bit from Frank Zappa 's `` Little Umbrellas '' , from his 1969 album , Hot Rats.Worst Case Scenario received good reviews internationally despite the hard time that the British media had to categorize its music into a genre . They finally called it Art rock ( a definition which still bothers singer Tom Barman ) . Worst Case Scenario reached Gold in Belgium , selling 30,000 copies . By April 2008 , WCS '' had sold 270,000 copies worldwide .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Worst_Case_Scenario_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 104300\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Cloud_Mystery\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 104105\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 103718\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Worst-case scenario Content: A worst-case scenario is a concept in risk management wherein the planner , in planning for potential disasters , considers the most severe possible outcome that can reasonably be projected to occur in a given situation . Conceiving of worst-case scenarios is a common form of strategic planning , specifically scenario planning , to prepare for and minimize contingencies that could result in accidents , quality problems , or other issues .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Worst-case_scenario\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 103453\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 103319\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Worst-Case Scenario series Content: Worst-Case Scenario is the name of a series of merchandise based on a 1999 book written by Joshua Piven and David Borgenicht and published by Chronicle Books . The series first entry , The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook , sold over 10 million copies worldwide and prompted a series of related books , games , calendars , and two television series . Later works have been published via Quirk Books and has been credited with giving the company enough funding to expand .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Worst-Case_Scenario_series\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 102840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 101059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cirrus cloud thinning Content: Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Cirrus_cloud_thinning\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 100938\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_formation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 98896\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 97862\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 97799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 95803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 94839\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_scenario\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 94584\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 94467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Research_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 93428\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 92899\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Chilling_Stars\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 92645\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 92578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Fate_of_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 92510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Ocean_heat_content\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 91935\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Cloud Experiment Content: International Cloud Experiment ( formally known as `` Tropical Warm Pool International Cloud Experiment '' - TWP-ICE ) was a scientific mission to gather information on tropical storm formation . It involved seven airplanes , a ship anchored off Darwin in Australia , RV Southern Surveyor , and over 250 scientists and researchers . The I.C.E. took place from 21 January to 23 February 2006 , and had been in the planning stages since September 2003 . The experiment was a collaboration between the US Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement ( ARM ) Program , the Bureau of Meteorology ( Australia ) , NASA the European Commission DG RTD-1 .2 and several United States , Australian , Canadian and European Universities . During the experiment , a record-breaking tropical typhoon arose , then spent seven days as a `` landphoon '' over the Australian desert . The Australian Broadcasting Corporation released in 2007 Thunderheads , a 47-minute program which has shown on the Smithsonian Channel .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Cloud_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 91900\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Worst Case Scenario (song) Content: `` Worst Case Scenario '' is the third single by the English indie band The Hoosiers from their 2007 # 1 album The Trick to Life . It has been admitted by lead man Irwin on the band 's website that it is one of the band 's favourite songs .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Worst_Case_Scenario_(song)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 91639\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Best Worst-Case Scenario Content: The Best Worst-Case Scenario is the first album released by Tooth & Nail Records alternative rock band Fair , which features notable musician and record producer Aaron Sprinkle . The album was released on June 6 , 2006 . In 2007 , the album artwork , designed by Invisible Creature was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Recording Packaging .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Best_Worst-Case_Scenario\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 91109\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 90994\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Code_Red\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 90794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 90750\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Worst Case Scenario (film) Content: Worst Case Scenario was a horror film to be directed by Dutch director Richard Raaphorst .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Worst_Case_Scenario_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 90621\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_cloud_brightening\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 90128\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Living_in_the_Hothouse\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 89674\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 89316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Worst-case scenario (disambiguation) Content: Worst-case scenario may refer to : Worst Case Scenario ( album ) , by dEUS `` Worst Case Scenario '' ( song ) , by The Hoosiers Worst Case Scenario ( Star Trek : Voyager ) Worst-Case Scenario series , series of books inspired by The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook Worst Case Scenarios , a reality show aired on TBS in 2002 in the U.S. Worst Case Scenario ( film ) , a Dutch horror film Worst Case Scenario Records , a UK record label Worst-Case Scenario ( TV series ) , a survival show hosted by Bear Grylls aired on Discovery Channel in 2010\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Worst-case_scenario_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 88936\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 88591\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 88327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 88233\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Ross_Gelbspan\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 86974\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 86764\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 86425\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 85890\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 85854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 85593\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 85474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Simon_Tett\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 85396\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Science_Program\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 85037\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"CloudSat\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 84944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Content: Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 84708\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 84307\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 84284\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 83973\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Seita_Emori\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 83796\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 83414\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 83174\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Drawdown_(climate)\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 83105\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 82858\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 82840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 82772\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 82412\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"An_Appeal_to_Reason\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 82298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 82274\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"I'm_not_a_scientist\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 82101\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clouds of Smoke Content: Clouds of Smoke is a documentary directed and produced by Fatmir Terziu . It explores the recent phenomenon of global warming and asks several environmental questions . It mainly focuses on the environmental damage caused by Albania , especially its biggest industrial city , Elbasan . The documentary started as a collaboration with Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) , and it was created for the purpose of educating students at London South Bank University . It was chosen to be shown at Curzon , London , the first documentary directed by an Albanian director to be selected .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Clouds_of_Smoke\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 81979\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 81865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_popular_culture\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 81828\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Best, worst and average case Content: In computer science , best , worst , and average cases of a given algorithm express what the resource usage is at least , at most and on average , respectively . Usually the resource being considered is running time , i.e. time complexity , but it could also be memory or other resource . In real-time computing , the worst-case execution time is often of particular concern since it is important to know how much time might be needed in the worst case to guarantee that the algorithm will always finish on time . Average performance and worst-case performance are the most used in algorithm analysis . Less widely found is best-case performance , but it does have uses : for example , where the best cases of individual tasks are known , they can be used to improve the accuracy of an overall worst-case analysis . Computer scientists use probabilistic analysis techniques , especially expected value , to determine expected running times . The terms are used in other contexts ; for example the worst - and best-case outcome of a planned-for epidemic , worst-case temperature to which an electronic circuit element is exposed , etc. . Where components of specified tolerance are used , devices must be designed to work properly with the worst-case combination of tolerances and external conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Best,_worst_and_average_case\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 81570\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud forcing Content: Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_forcing\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 81566\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate stabilization wedge Content: The Climate stabilization Wedges is an approach produced by Princeton University researchers looking at Climate change mitigation scenarios . The project was funded by Ford Motor Company between 2000 and 2009 and has been receiving funding from BP since 2000 . The goal of the approach , Stephen Pacala and Robert H. Socolow , is to demonstrate that global warming is a problem which can be attacked using today 's commercially available technologies to reduce emissions . The objective is to stabilize concentrations under 500ppm for the next fifty years , using wedges from a variety of different strategies which fit into the stabilization triangle . A newer estimate by the original authors indicated that by 2011 , the number of necessary wedges had increased from seven to nine . This was due to the continuing increase in emissions since the original 2004 paper which determined the number of wedges that would have been necessary , if serious action to mitigate climate change had begun then .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_stabilization_wedge\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 80837\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paul Raskin Content: Paul Raskin is the founding President of the Tellus Institute , which has conducted over 3,500 research and policy projects throughout the world on environmental issues , resource planning , scenario analysis , and sustainable development . His research and writing has centered on formulating and analyzing alternative global and regional scenarios , and the requirements for a transition to a sustainable , just , and livable future , called the Great Transition . Dr. Raskin has served as a lead author on a number of high profile international reports , including the U.S. National Academy of Science 's Board on Sustainability , the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Global Environment Outlook , the Earth Charter , and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Paul_Raskin\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 80825\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Weather_of_the_Future\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 80628\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 80626\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 79655\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth's_energy_budget\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 79421\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercane\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 79081\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 78927\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 78404\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Content: The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes . GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future . GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Energy_and_Water_Cycle_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 78243\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientists for Global Responsibility Content: Scientists for Global Responsibility ( SGR ) in the United Kingdom promotes the ethical practice and use of science and technology . SGR is affiliated to the International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility ( INES ) . SGR 's main areas of concern are arms and arms control , including military involvement in UK universities ; effect of excessive greenhouse gas emissions on climate ; the nature of war and reducing barbarity ; topsoil and water shortages resulting from modern agricultural methods ; depletion of species of fish due to over-fishing ; continual spread of nuclear weapons , and reduction of occurrence of serious nuclear accidents . SGR evaluates the risk of new science and new technological solutions to older science-based problems and threats , while recognizing the enormous contribution science , design and technology has made to civilisation and human well-being .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 78020\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat lightning Content: Heat lightning , sometimes known as silent lightning , is the name used for the faint flashes of lightning on the horizon or other clouds from distant thunderstorms that do not have accompanying sounds of thunder . This often occurs because of inter-cloud and intra-cloud lightning , where lightning charges travel from cloud-to-cloud or merely areas of differing electric potential within a single cloud , respectively . Because of this nature , heat lightning can often be seen from great distances , and thus can be an early warning sign that thunderstorms are approaching . The term could be considered a misnomer because it has nothing to do with the heat of the lightning itself . Heat lightning can also occur if cloud-to-ground lightning occurs very far away and the sound dissipates before it reaches the observer . At night , it is possible to see the flashes of lightning from very far distances , up to 100 miles , but the sound does not carry that far . In Florida , heat lightning is often seen over the water at night , the remnants of storms that formed during the day along a sea breeze front coming in from the opposite coast . Heat lightning also occurs where airborne matter muffles the thunder , such as heavy snow in winter storms ( thundersnow ) and dust and sand storms . In some instances , heavy falling snow has silenced thunder from cloud to ground lightning strikes as close as one to two miles ( 1.6 to 3.2 km ) from the observer and severe dust storms are even more effective in many cases . Heat lightning is not to be confused with electrically-induced luminosity actually generated at mesospheric altitudes above thunderstorm systems ( and likewise visible at exceedingly great ranges ) , a phenomenon known as `` sprites '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_lightning\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 77951\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scenario (artwork) Content: Scenario is an Artificial Intelligence ( AI ) computer graphic interactive installation , directed by the artist Dennis Del Favero , and developed in collaboration with scriptwriter Stephen Sewell , AI scientist Maurice Pagnucco working with computer scientists Anuraag Sridhar , Arcot Sowmya and Paul Compton . It is a 360-degree 3D cinematic work whose narrative is interactively produced by the audience and humanoid characters . The title is a Commedia dell ` arte term ( ʃeˈnarjo ) referring to the way dramatic action is dependent on the way actors and audience interact . Scenario was developed at the iCinema Centre for Interactive Cinema Research at the University of New South Wales .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Scenario_(artwork)\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 77889\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 77774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud point Content: In the petroleum industry , cloud point refers to the temperature below which wax in diesel or biowax in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance . The presence of solidified waxes thickens the oil and clogs fuel filters and injectors in engines . The wax also accumulates on cold surfaces ( producing , for example , pipeline or heat exchanger fouling ) and forms an emulsion with water . Therefore , cloud point indicates the tendency of the oil to plug filters or small orifices at cold operating temperatures . An everyday example of cloud point can be seen in olive oil stored in cold weather . Olive oil begins to solidify at around 4 ° C , whereas winter temperatures in temperate countries can often be colder than 0 ° C . In these conditions , olive oil begins to develop white , waxy clumps of solidified oil that sink to the bottom of the container . In crude or heavy oils , cloud point is synonymous with wax appearance temperature ( WAT ) and wax precipitation temperature ( WPT ) . The cloud point of a nonionic surfactant or glycol solution is the temperature at which the mixture starts to phase-separate , and two phases appear , thus becoming cloudy . This behavior is characteristic of non-ionic surfactants containing polyoxyethylene chains , which exhibit reverse solubility versus temperature behavior in water and therefore `` cloud out '' at some point as the temperature is raised . Glycols demonstrating this behavior are known as `` cloud-point glycols '' and are used as shale inhibitors . The cloud point is affected by salinity , being generally lower in more saline fluids .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_point\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 77565\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anabatic wind Content: An anabatic wind , from the Greek anabasis , verbal of anabainein meaning moving upward , is a warm wind which blows up a steep slope or mountain side , driven by heating of the slope through insolation . It is also known as an upslope flow . These winds typically occur during the daytime in calm sunny weather . A hill or mountain top will be radiatively warmed by the Sun which in turn heats the air just above it . Air at a similar altitude over an adjacent valley or plain does not get warmed so much because of the greater distance to the ground below it . The effect may be enhanced if the lower lying ground is shaded by the mountain and so receives less heat . The air over the hill top is now warmer than the air at a similar altitude around it and will rise through convection . This creates a lower pressure region into which the air at the bottom of the slope flows , causing the wind . It is common for the air rising from the tops of large mountains to reach a height where it cools adiabatically to below its dew point and forms cumulus clouds . These can then produce rain or even thunderstorms . Anabatic winds are particularly useful to soaring glider pilots who can use them to increase the aircraft 's altitude . Anabatic winds can be detrimental to the maximum downhill speed of cyclists . Conversely , catabatic winds are down-slope winds , frequently produced at night by the opposite effect , the air near to the ground losing heat to it faster than air at a similar altitude over adjacent low-lying land . Monsoon winds are similarly generated , but on a continental scale and seasonal cycle .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Anabatic_wind\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 77436\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 77424\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 77411\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 77241\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth_2100\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 77017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Worst Case Scenario (Star Trek: Voyager) Content: __ NOTOC __ `` Worst Case Scenario '' is the 67th series and 25th and penultimate episode of the third season of Star Trek : Voyager .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Worst_Case_Scenario_(Star_Trek:_Voyager)\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 76992\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 76511\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Taken_by_Storm\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 76497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 76320\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Argentina\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 76138\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nuclear holocaust Content: A nuclear holocaust or nuclear apocalypse is a theoretical scenario involving widespread destruction and radioactive fallout causing the collapse of civilization , through the use of nuclear weapons . Under such a scenario , some of the Earth is made uninhabitable by nuclear warfare in future world wars . Besides the obvious direct destruction of cities by nuclear blasts , the potential aftermath of a nuclear war could involve firestorms , a nuclear winter , widespread radiation sickness from fallout , and/or the temporary loss of much modern technology due to electromagnetic pulses . Some scientists , such as Alan Robock , have speculated that a thermonuclear war could result in the end of modern civilization on Earth , in part due to a long-lasting nuclear winter . In one model , temperatures following a full thermonuclear war fall for several years by 7 to 8 degrees Celsius on average . The accuracy of such models are often the subject of partisan dispute . Early Cold War-era studies suggested that billions of humans would nonetheless survive the immediate effects of nuclear blasts and radiation following a global thermonuclear war . Some scholars argue that nuclear war could indirectly contribute to human extinction via secondary effects , including environmental consequences , societal breakdown , and economic collapse . Additionally , it has been argued that even a relatively small-scale nuclear exchange between India and Pakistan involving 100 Hiroshima yield weapons , could cause a nuclear winter and kill more than a billion people . Since 1947 , the Doomsday Clock of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists has visualized how close the world is from a nuclear war . The threat of a nuclear holocaust plays an important role in the popular perception of nuclear weapons . It features in the security concept of mutually assured destruction ( MAD ) and is a common scenario in survivalism . Nuclear holocaust is a common feature in literature and film , especially in speculative genres such as science fiction , dystopian and post-apocalyptic fiction .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Nuclear_holocaust\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 75925\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anthropogenic cloud Content: An anthropogenic or artificial cloud , is a cloud induced by human activity . Although generally clouds covering the sky have only a natural origin , from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution , the use of fossil fuels and water vapor and other gases emitted by nuclear , thermal and geothermal power plants yield significant alterations of the local weather conditions . These new atmospheric conditions can thus enhance cloud formation . Homogenitus is the term used to designate the origin of clouds produced by human activities . Various methods have been proposed for creating and utilizing this weather phenomenon . Experiments have also been carried out for various studies . For example , Russian scientists have been studying artificial clouds for more than 50 years . But by far the greatest number of anthropogenic clouds are airplane contrails ( condensation trails ) and rocket trails .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Anthropogenic_cloud\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 75796\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Planetary_equilibrium_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 75734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .\",\n \"qid\": \"142\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctica_cooling_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 75729\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":71,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Recent modelling data suggests the climate is considerably more sensitive to carbon emissions than previously believed"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_sensitivity","rank":1,"score":153906},{"content":"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .","qid":"143","docid":"Mark_Z._Jacobson","rank":2,"score":144789},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":3,"score":136020},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"143","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":4,"score":133033},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":5,"score":128217},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"143","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":6,"score":128088},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"143","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":7,"score":126480},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"143","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":8,"score":126271},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":9,"score":126237},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"143","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":10,"score":126149},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":11,"score":125475},{"content":"Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_Disclosure_Project","rank":12,"score":125399},{"content":"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_finance","rank":13,"score":124997},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":14,"score":124576},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"143","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":15,"score":124167},{"content":"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .","qid":"143","docid":"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States","rank":16,"score":124049},{"content":"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .","qid":"143","docid":"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance","rank":17,"score":124020},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":18,"score":123819},{"content":"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .","qid":"143","docid":"North_American_Carbon_Program","rank":19,"score":123467},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"143","docid":"Global_warming","rank":20,"score":123276},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":21,"score":123153},{"content":"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme","rank":22,"score":122984},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"143","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":23,"score":122452},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"143","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":24,"score":121720},{"content":"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .","qid":"143","docid":"Kaya_identity","rank":25,"score":121666},{"content":"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :","qid":"143","docid":"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative","rank":26,"score":121247},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":27,"score":120903},{"content":"Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .","qid":"143","docid":"Vatican_Climate_Forest","rank":28,"score":119510},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"143","docid":"350.org","rank":29,"score":119091},{"content":"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_governance_in_England","rank":30,"score":118501},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":31,"score":117555},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"143","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":32,"score":116794},{"content":"Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''","qid":"143","docid":"Klaus_Lackner","rank":33,"score":116656},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"143","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":34,"score":116592},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":35,"score":116569},{"content":"Title: DayCent Content: Daycent is a daily time series biogeochemical model used in agroecosystems to simulates fluxes of carbon and nitrogen between the atmosphere , vegetation , and soil . It is a daily version of the CENTURY biogeochemical model . The United States Environmental Protection Agency , United States Department of Agriculture/ARS and the Colorado State University Natural Resource Ecology Lab are currently using the Daycent model to develop a national inventory of N2O emissions from U.S. agricultural soils . This inventory will be compared and contrasted with the existing Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) agricultural N2O emissions inventory for the United States . Having more accurate data to account for nutrient cycling could have significant implications for public policy associated with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and potential future mitigation efforts in the United States . Model inputs include daily maximum/minimum air temperature and precipitation , surface soil texture class , and land cover/use data . Model outputs include daily fluxes of various N-gas species ( e.g. , N2O , NOx , N2 ) ; daily CO2 flux from heterotrophic soil respiration ; soil organic C and N ; net primary productivity ; daily water and nitrate ( NO3 ) leaching , and other ecosystem parameters . Daycent has been tested with data from various native and managed systems . In similar studies , comparisons between Daycent simulated data and measured values for annual crop yields , N2O emissions , and NO3 leaching produced r2 values of 0.72 , 0.68 , and 0.61 respectively . Other models used for simulating carbon and nitrogen biogeochemistry in agricultural systems include DNDC EPIC","qid":"143","docid":"DayCent","rank":36,"score":116450},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":37,"score":116391},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"143","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":38,"score":116176},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"143","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":39,"score":115904},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":40,"score":115829},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"143","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":41,"score":115699},{"content":"Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_footprint","rank":42,"score":115376},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"143","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":43,"score":115294},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":44,"score":114832},{"content":"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .","qid":"143","docid":"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":45,"score":114688},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"143","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":46,"score":114632},{"content":"Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .","qid":"143","docid":"Chicago_Climate_Exchange","rank":47,"score":114611},{"content":"Title: EU Allowances Content: EU Allowances are Climate credits ( or Carbon credits ) used in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . EU Allowances are issued by the EU Member States into Member State Registry accounts . By April 30 of each year , operators of installations covered by the EU ETS must surrender an EU Allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted in the previous year . Category : Carbon emissions in the European Union","qid":"143","docid":"EU_Allowances","rank":48,"score":114204},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_in_Wyoming","rank":49,"score":113514},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":50,"score":113102},{"content":"Title: Verified Carbon Standard Content: The Verified Carbon Standard ( VCS ) is a voluntary greenhouse gas program . The organization was founded by a collection of business and environmental leaders . In 2005 , The Climate Group , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) and The World Economic Forum - convened a team of global carbon market experts to draft the first VCS requirements . The World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) joined the effort soon after . These experts soon formed the VCS Steering Committee , which worked to draft the first and subsequent versions of the VCS Standard . Many of the members of the original steering committee went on to be on the original Board of Directors , which now has evolved into a body of 12 members that offers input and guidance to the organization . By 2008 , with the VCS Standard becoming more widely adopted , the Board of Directors named David Antonioli the organization 's first Chief Executive Officer . Soon after in 2009 , VCS incorporated in Washington D.C as a non-profit NGO .","qid":"143","docid":"Verified_Carbon_Standard","rank":51,"score":112534},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":52,"score":112506},{"content":"Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .","qid":"143","docid":"2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":53,"score":112354},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":54,"score":112169},{"content":"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate-friendly_gardening","rank":55,"score":112116},{"content":"Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .","qid":"143","docid":"Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":56,"score":111911},{"content":"Title: DICE model Content: The Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy model , referred to as the DICE model or Dice model , is a computer-based integrated assessment model developed by William Nordhaus that `` integrates in an end-to-end fashion the economics , carbon cycle , climate science , and impacts in a highly aggregated model that allows a weighing of the costs and benefits of taking steps to slow greenhouse warming . '' Nordhaus also developed the RICE model ( Regional Integrated Climate-Economy model ) , a variant of the DICE model that was updated and developed alongside the DICE model . Others who collaborated with Nordhaus to develop the model include David Popp , Zili Yang , Joseph Boyer , and other colleagues . The DICE model is one of the three main integrated assessment models used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency , and it provides estimates intermediate between the other two models .","qid":"143","docid":"DICE_model","rank":57,"score":111819},{"content":"Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_Summit","rank":58,"score":111667},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"143","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":59,"score":111357},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"143","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":60,"score":111155},{"content":"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .","qid":"143","docid":"Individual_action_on_climate_change","rank":61,"score":111098},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .","qid":"143","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita","rank":62,"score":111003},{"content":"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_engineering","rank":63,"score":110874},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"143","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":64,"score":110066},{"content":"Title: UK Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The UK Emissions Trading Scheme was a voluntary emissions trading system created as a pilot prior to the mandatory European Union Emissions Trading Scheme which it now runs in parallel with . It ran from 2002 and it closed to new entrants in 2009 . Management of the scheme transferred to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2008 . At the time , the scheme was a novel economic approach , being the first multi-industry carbon trading system in the world . ( Denmark ran a pilot greenhouse gas trading scheme between 2001 and 2003 but this only involved eight electricity companies ) . It took note of the emerging international consensus on the benefits of carbon trading that were being proposed in the mandatory Kyoto Protocol , which had not been ratified at that time , and allowed government and corporate early movers and to gain experience in the auction process and the trading system that the later schemes have entailed . It ran in parallel to a tax on energy use , the Climate Change Levy , introduced in April 2001 , but companies could get a discount on the tax if they elected to make reductions through participation in the trading scheme . The voluntary trading scheme recruited 34 participants from UK industries and organisations who promised to make reductions in their carbon emissions , this has since expanded to 54 sectors of the UK economy . In return they received a share of a # 215 million `` incentive fund '' from the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) . Each agreed to hold sufficient allowances to cover its actual emissions for that year , and participate in a cap and trade system , with an annually reducing cap . Each participant could then decide to take action to manage its emissions to exactly meet its target , or reduce its actual emissions below its target ( thereby releasing allowances that it could sell on , or save for use in future years ) , or buy allowances from other participants to cover any excess . From March 2002 , DEFRA ran an auction of emission allowances to perform allocations to participants , after the start of the mandatory EU scheme .","qid":"143","docid":"UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme","rank":65,"score":109870},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"143","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":66,"score":109799},{"content":"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .","qid":"143","docid":"Michael_Raupach","rank":67,"score":109193},{"content":"Title: Carbon process management Content: Carbon Process Management ( CPM ) is a management process which promotes environmental effectiveness in organizations . It is designed to maximize efficiencies in the consumption of resources that contribute to climate change . When implemented effectively , CPM techniques can reduce operating costs , realizing gains in brand equity , competitive advantage and stakeholder value . Initially introduced by First Carbon Solutions , CPM uses Japanese kaizen philosophy which continuously improves workplace practices to reduce wastage , this is combined business process management ( BPM ) which increases efficiency . Governments who resorts to legal mechanisms and regulation to deal with the risks of climate change , techniques such as CPM are directed towards a corporate approach in helping reduce greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_process_management","rank":68,"score":109017},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation","rank":69,"score":108999},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"143","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":70,"score":108902},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":71,"score":108566},{"content":"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012","qid":"143","docid":"Emission_Reduction_Unit","rank":72,"score":108448},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"143","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":73,"score":108237},{"content":"Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_scenario","rank":74,"score":108124},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Mexico Content: Mexico highly depends on the burning of its fossil fuels , and for the same reason , it is in its interest to look into mitigation solutions for its corresponding emissions . In the General Law on Climate Change on 2012 , Mexico promised to reduce 20 % of its GHG emissions by 2020 and 50 % by 2050 , as well as in the Paris Agreement . 19 % of the this new mitigation plan will be dedicated to carbon capture and storage and specifically 10 % to the energetic industry .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Mexico","rank":75,"score":107926},{"content":"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .","qid":"143","docid":"Fugitive_emissions","rank":76,"score":107905},{"content":"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_inertia","rank":77,"score":107621},{"content":"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_in_South_Korea","rank":78,"score":107577},{"content":"Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"143","docid":"Committee_on_Climate_Change","rank":79,"score":107357},{"content":"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .","qid":"143","docid":"Cloud_feedback","rank":80,"score":107331},{"content":"Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_profiling","rank":81,"score":107206},{"content":"Title: Road-effect zone Content: The Road-effect zone is the area in which effects on the natural environment extend outward from a road . Such effects are substance emissions like carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , particulate matter , nitrogen oxide , volatile organic compounds , biological matter , rubber , or salt , intangible emissions like noise or light , and changes of the micro climate like alterations of wind , water flows , temperature or moisture .","qid":"143","docid":"Road-effect_zone","rank":82,"score":107121},{"content":"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .","qid":"143","docid":"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation","rank":83,"score":107025},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"143","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":84,"score":106932},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .","qid":"143","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia","rank":85,"score":106708},{"content":"Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .","qid":"143","docid":"Compact_of_Mayors","rank":86,"score":106597},{"content":"Title: Environmental model city (Japan) Content: An is a municipality designated by the Japanese government to be a model for making large cuts in greenhouse gas emissions towards the realization of a low-carbon society .","qid":"143","docid":"Environmental_model_city_(Japan)","rank":87,"score":106568},{"content":"Title: Flick Off Content: FLICK OFF ( flick off ) is a Canadian advertising campaign launched by Key Gordon Communications . It is a movement to fight climate change by getting Canadians to use less energy . Its sponsors include MuchMusic , Roots Canada , Environmental Defence Canada and the Government of Ontario . Some view this program as a continuation of the scrapped program One-Tonne Challenge in global perspective . The motivation for the campaign is both to reduce energy consumption for its own sake and also with the aim of reducing carbon emissions to ultimately combat global warming . The website associated with the campaign is aimed specifically at young Canadians . The website contains educational material about causes and consequences of global warming and strategies for reducing carbon emissions , and includes a `` carbon calculator '' called One Less Tonne to measure individual carbon dioxide emissions . The website was launched by British entrepreneur Richard Branson and Ontario Environment Minister Laurel Broten in Toronto on April 25 , 2007 . According to the official website , the campaign is now in `` hibernation '' .","qid":"143","docid":"Flick_Off","rank":88,"score":106556},{"content":"Title: Integrated Carbon Observation System Content: Integrated Carbon Observation System ( ICOS ) is a new strategic research infrastructure to quantify the greenhouse gas balance in Europe and adjacent regions . It consists of a harmonized network of ecosystem long-term observation sites , a network of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration sites and a network of ocean observations . The network will be coordinated through a set of central facilities , including an atmospheric and an ecosystem thematic center , a central data center , an analytical laboratory and an oceanic thematic center . ICOS will provide the essential long-term observations required to understand the present state and predict future behavior of the global carbon cycle and greenhouse gas emissions . It will monitor and assess the effectiveness of carbon sequestration and/or greenhouse gases emission reduction activities on global atmospheric composition levels , including attribution of sources and sinks by region and sector . Standardized network will improved access to data and enable the development of flux products for research and political application . ICOS will be a state-of-the-art facility for the European research community . It will contribute the European share to global greenhouse gas observations under GEO , WMO-GAW and GTOS programs .","qid":"143","docid":"Integrated_Carbon_Observation_System","rank":89,"score":106398},{"content":"Title: International Carbon Action Partnership Content: The International Carbon Action Partnership ( ICAP ) was founded in 2007 by more than 15 government representatives as an international cooperative forum , bringing together states and sub-national jurisdictions that have implemented or are planning to implement emissions trading systems ( ETS ) . Then governor of California , Arnold Schwarzenegger , stated at ICAP 's founding ceremony : `` This first of its kind partnership will provide more incentives for clean-tech investment and economic growth while not letting polluters off the hook . And it will help renew the health of our planet . '' José Sócrates , the Portuguese prime minister further added that ICAP was launched in order to join carbon markets all over the world and by that be more successful in combating climate change . ICAP includes members from the European Union Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) , Western Climate Initiative ( WCI ) , Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) , Australia , New Zealand , Norway , and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . Japan and Ukraine are observers.Member jurisdictions share best practices and discuss ETS design elements with a view to creating a well-functioning global carbon market . The rationale behind ICAP 's work is that linking carbon cap and trade systems would lead to economic , social and environmental benefits .","qid":"143","docid":"International_Carbon_Action_Partnership","rank":90,"score":106397},{"content":"Title: European Climate Exchange Content: The European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) manages the product development and marketing for ECX Carbon Financial Instruments ( ECX CFIs ) , listed and admitted for trading on the ICE Futures Europe electronic platform . It is no longer a subsidiary of the Chicago Climate Exchange but rather a sister company . Both companies are owned by Climate Exchange Plc a holding company listed on the London Stock Exchange 's AIM market . ECX / ICE Futures is the most liquid , pan-European platform for carbon emissions trading , with its futures contract based on the underlying EU Allowances ( EUAs ) and Certified Emissions Allowances ( CERs ) attracting over 80 % of the exchange-traded volume in the European market . ECX contracts ( EUA and CER Futures , options and spot contracts ) are standardised exchange-traded products and all trades are cleared by ICE Clear Europe ( LCH.Clearnet was the designated clearing house prior to November 2008 ) . More than 100 leading businesses , including global companies such as Barclays , BP , Newedge , E.ON UK , Endesa , Fortis , Goldman Sachs , Morgan Stanley and Shell have signed up for membership to trade ECX products . In addition , several hundred clients can access the market daily via banks and brokers in a process called ` order-routing ' without having to be a member themselves . ECX is a member of the Climate Exchange Plc group of companies , founded by Richard Sandor . Other member companies include the Chicago Climate Exchange ( `` CCX '' ) and IFEX . Climate Exchange Plc is listed on AIM on the London Stock Exchange , and was bought in April 2010 by IntercontinentalExchange ( ICE ) . The current Chief Executive is Patrick Birley , son of archaeologist Robin Birley .","qid":"143","docid":"European_Climate_Exchange","rank":91,"score":106222},{"content":"Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_state","rank":92,"score":106205},{"content":"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .","qid":"143","docid":"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry","rank":93,"score":106062},{"content":"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .","qid":"143","docid":"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform","rank":94,"score":106012},{"content":"Title: Clean Power Plan Content: The Clean Power Plan is an Obama administration policy aimed at combating anthropogenic climate change ( global warming ) that was first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency in June 2014 . It is widely expected to be eliminated under President Donald Trump , who signed an executive order on March 28 , 2017 mandating the EPA to review the plan . The final version of the plan was unveiled by President Obama on August 3 , 2015 . The 460-page rule ( RIN 2060 -- AR33 ) titled `` Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources : Electric Utility Generating Units '' was published in the Federal Register on October 23 , 2015 . The Obama administration designed the plan to lower the carbon dioxide emitted by power generators .","qid":"143","docid":"Clean_Power_Plan","rank":95,"score":106010},{"content":"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .","qid":"143","docid":"Christine_Wiedinmyer","rank":96,"score":105988},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .","qid":"143","docid":"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan","rank":97,"score":105863},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"143","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":98,"score":105650},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .","qid":"143","docid":"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia","rank":99,"score":105157},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"143","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":100,"score":105133}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 153906\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Z._Jacobson\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 144789\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 136020\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 133033\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 128217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 128088\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 126480\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 126271\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 126237\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 126149\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 125475\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Disclosure_Project\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 125399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_finance\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 124997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 124576\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 124167\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 124049\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 124020\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 123819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Carbon_Program\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 123467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 123276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 123153\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 122984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 122452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 121720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Kaya_identity\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 121666\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 121247\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 120903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Vatican_Climate_Forest\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 119510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 119091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_governance_in_England\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 118501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 117555\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 116794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Klaus_Lackner\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 116656\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 116592\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 116569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: DayCent Content: Daycent is a daily time series biogeochemical model used in agroecosystems to simulates fluxes of carbon and nitrogen between the atmosphere , vegetation , and soil . It is a daily version of the CENTURY biogeochemical model . The United States Environmental Protection Agency , United States Department of Agriculture/ARS and the Colorado State University Natural Resource Ecology Lab are currently using the Daycent model to develop a national inventory of N2O emissions from U.S. agricultural soils . This inventory will be compared and contrasted with the existing Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) agricultural N2O emissions inventory for the United States . Having more accurate data to account for nutrient cycling could have significant implications for public policy associated with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and potential future mitigation efforts in the United States . Model inputs include daily maximum/minimum air temperature and precipitation , surface soil texture class , and land cover/use data . Model outputs include daily fluxes of various N-gas species ( e.g. , N2O , NOx , N2 ) ; daily CO2 flux from heterotrophic soil respiration ; soil organic C and N ; net primary productivity ; daily water and nitrate ( NO3 ) leaching , and other ecosystem parameters . Daycent has been tested with data from various native and managed systems . In similar studies , comparisons between Daycent simulated data and measured values for annual crop yields , N2O emissions , and NO3 leaching produced r2 values of 0.72 , 0.68 , and 0.61 respectively . Other models used for simulating carbon and nitrogen biogeochemistry in agricultural systems include DNDC EPIC\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"DayCent\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 116450\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 116391\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 116176\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 115904\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 115829\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 115699\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_footprint\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 115376\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 115294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 114832\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 114688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 114632\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Chicago_Climate_Exchange\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 114611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: EU Allowances Content: EU Allowances are Climate credits ( or Carbon credits ) used in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . EU Allowances are issued by the EU Member States into Member State Registry accounts . By April 30 of each year , operators of installations covered by the EU ETS must surrender an EU Allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted in the previous year . Category : Carbon emissions in the European Union\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"EU_Allowances\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 114204\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 113514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 113102\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Verified Carbon Standard Content: The Verified Carbon Standard ( VCS ) is a voluntary greenhouse gas program . The organization was founded by a collection of business and environmental leaders . In 2005 , The Climate Group , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) and The World Economic Forum - convened a team of global carbon market experts to draft the first VCS requirements . The World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) joined the effort soon after . These experts soon formed the VCS Steering Committee , which worked to draft the first and subsequent versions of the VCS Standard . Many of the members of the original steering committee went on to be on the original Board of Directors , which now has evolved into a body of 12 members that offers input and guidance to the organization . By 2008 , with the VCS Standard becoming more widely adopted , the Board of Directors named David Antonioli the organization 's first Chief Executive Officer . Soon after in 2009 , VCS incorporated in Washington D.C as a non-profit NGO .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Verified_Carbon_Standard\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 112534\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 112506\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 112354\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 112169\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate-friendly_gardening\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 112116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 111911\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: DICE model Content: The Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy model , referred to as the DICE model or Dice model , is a computer-based integrated assessment model developed by William Nordhaus that `` integrates in an end-to-end fashion the economics , carbon cycle , climate science , and impacts in a highly aggregated model that allows a weighing of the costs and benefits of taking steps to slow greenhouse warming . '' Nordhaus also developed the RICE model ( Regional Integrated Climate-Economy model ) , a variant of the DICE model that was updated and developed alongside the DICE model . Others who collaborated with Nordhaus to develop the model include David Popp , Zili Yang , Joseph Boyer , and other colleagues . The DICE model is one of the three main integrated assessment models used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency , and it provides estimates intermediate between the other two models .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"DICE_model\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 111819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Summit\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 111667\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 111357\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 111155\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Individual_action_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 111098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 111003\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_engineering\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 110874\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 110066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: UK Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The UK Emissions Trading Scheme was a voluntary emissions trading system created as a pilot prior to the mandatory European Union Emissions Trading Scheme which it now runs in parallel with . It ran from 2002 and it closed to new entrants in 2009 . Management of the scheme transferred to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2008 . At the time , the scheme was a novel economic approach , being the first multi-industry carbon trading system in the world . ( Denmark ran a pilot greenhouse gas trading scheme between 2001 and 2003 but this only involved eight electricity companies ) . It took note of the emerging international consensus on the benefits of carbon trading that were being proposed in the mandatory Kyoto Protocol , which had not been ratified at that time , and allowed government and corporate early movers and to gain experience in the auction process and the trading system that the later schemes have entailed . It ran in parallel to a tax on energy use , the Climate Change Levy , introduced in April 2001 , but companies could get a discount on the tax if they elected to make reductions through participation in the trading scheme . The voluntary trading scheme recruited 34 participants from UK industries and organisations who promised to make reductions in their carbon emissions , this has since expanded to 54 sectors of the UK economy . In return they received a share of a # 215 million `` incentive fund '' from the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) . Each agreed to hold sufficient allowances to cover its actual emissions for that year , and participate in a cap and trade system , with an annually reducing cap . Each participant could then decide to take action to manage its emissions to exactly meet its target , or reduce its actual emissions below its target ( thereby releasing allowances that it could sell on , or save for use in future years ) , or buy allowances from other participants to cover any excess . From March 2002 , DEFRA ran an auction of emission allowances to perform allocations to participants , after the start of the mandatory EU scheme .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 109870\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 109799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Raupach\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 109193\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon process management Content: Carbon Process Management ( CPM ) is a management process which promotes environmental effectiveness in organizations . It is designed to maximize efficiencies in the consumption of resources that contribute to climate change . When implemented effectively , CPM techniques can reduce operating costs , realizing gains in brand equity , competitive advantage and stakeholder value . Initially introduced by First Carbon Solutions , CPM uses Japanese kaizen philosophy which continuously improves workplace practices to reduce wastage , this is combined business process management ( BPM ) which increases efficiency . Governments who resorts to legal mechanisms and regulation to deal with the risks of climate change , techniques such as CPM are directed towards a corporate approach in helping reduce greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_process_management\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 109017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 108999\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 108902\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 108566\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Emission_Reduction_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 108448\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 108237\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_scenario\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 108124\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Mexico Content: Mexico highly depends on the burning of its fossil fuels , and for the same reason , it is in its interest to look into mitigation solutions for its corresponding emissions . In the General Law on Climate Change on 2012 , Mexico promised to reduce 20 % of its GHG emissions by 2020 and 50 % by 2050 , as well as in the Paris Agreement . 19 % of the this new mitigation plan will be dedicated to carbon capture and storage and specifically 10 % to the energetic industry .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Mexico\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 107926\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Fugitive_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 107905\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_inertia\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 107621\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 107577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Committee_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 107357\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 107331\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_profiling\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 107206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Road-effect zone Content: The Road-effect zone is the area in which effects on the natural environment extend outward from a road . Such effects are substance emissions like carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , particulate matter , nitrogen oxide , volatile organic compounds , biological matter , rubber , or salt , intangible emissions like noise or light , and changes of the micro climate like alterations of wind , water flows , temperature or moisture .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Road-effect_zone\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 107121\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 107025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 106932\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 106708\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Compact_of_Mayors\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 106597\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental model city (Japan) Content: An is a municipality designated by the Japanese government to be a model for making large cuts in greenhouse gas emissions towards the realization of a low-carbon society .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_model_city_(Japan)\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 106568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flick Off Content: FLICK OFF ( flick off ) is a Canadian advertising campaign launched by Key Gordon Communications . It is a movement to fight climate change by getting Canadians to use less energy . Its sponsors include MuchMusic , Roots Canada , Environmental Defence Canada and the Government of Ontario . Some view this program as a continuation of the scrapped program One-Tonne Challenge in global perspective . The motivation for the campaign is both to reduce energy consumption for its own sake and also with the aim of reducing carbon emissions to ultimately combat global warming . The website associated with the campaign is aimed specifically at young Canadians . The website contains educational material about causes and consequences of global warming and strategies for reducing carbon emissions , and includes a `` carbon calculator '' called One Less Tonne to measure individual carbon dioxide emissions . The website was launched by British entrepreneur Richard Branson and Ontario Environment Minister Laurel Broten in Toronto on April 25 , 2007 . According to the official website , the campaign is now in `` hibernation '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Flick_Off\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 106556\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Integrated Carbon Observation System Content: Integrated Carbon Observation System ( ICOS ) is a new strategic research infrastructure to quantify the greenhouse gas balance in Europe and adjacent regions . It consists of a harmonized network of ecosystem long-term observation sites , a network of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration sites and a network of ocean observations . The network will be coordinated through a set of central facilities , including an atmospheric and an ecosystem thematic center , a central data center , an analytical laboratory and an oceanic thematic center . ICOS will provide the essential long-term observations required to understand the present state and predict future behavior of the global carbon cycle and greenhouse gas emissions . It will monitor and assess the effectiveness of carbon sequestration and/or greenhouse gases emission reduction activities on global atmospheric composition levels , including attribution of sources and sinks by region and sector . Standardized network will improved access to data and enable the development of flux products for research and political application . ICOS will be a state-of-the-art facility for the European research community . It will contribute the European share to global greenhouse gas observations under GEO , WMO-GAW and GTOS programs .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Integrated_Carbon_Observation_System\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 106398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Carbon Action Partnership Content: The International Carbon Action Partnership ( ICAP ) was founded in 2007 by more than 15 government representatives as an international cooperative forum , bringing together states and sub-national jurisdictions that have implemented or are planning to implement emissions trading systems ( ETS ) . Then governor of California , Arnold Schwarzenegger , stated at ICAP 's founding ceremony : `` This first of its kind partnership will provide more incentives for clean-tech investment and economic growth while not letting polluters off the hook . And it will help renew the health of our planet . '' José Sócrates , the Portuguese prime minister further added that ICAP was launched in order to join carbon markets all over the world and by that be more successful in combating climate change . ICAP includes members from the European Union Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) , Western Climate Initiative ( WCI ) , Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) , Australia , New Zealand , Norway , and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . Japan and Ukraine are observers.Member jurisdictions share best practices and discuss ETS design elements with a view to creating a well-functioning global carbon market . The rationale behind ICAP 's work is that linking carbon cap and trade systems would lead to economic , social and environmental benefits .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Carbon_Action_Partnership\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 106397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Climate Exchange Content: The European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) manages the product development and marketing for ECX Carbon Financial Instruments ( ECX CFIs ) , listed and admitted for trading on the ICE Futures Europe electronic platform . It is no longer a subsidiary of the Chicago Climate Exchange but rather a sister company . Both companies are owned by Climate Exchange Plc a holding company listed on the London Stock Exchange 's AIM market . ECX / ICE Futures is the most liquid , pan-European platform for carbon emissions trading , with its futures contract based on the underlying EU Allowances ( EUAs ) and Certified Emissions Allowances ( CERs ) attracting over 80 % of the exchange-traded volume in the European market . ECX contracts ( EUA and CER Futures , options and spot contracts ) are standardised exchange-traded products and all trades are cleared by ICE Clear Europe ( LCH.Clearnet was the designated clearing house prior to November 2008 ) . More than 100 leading businesses , including global companies such as Barclays , BP , Newedge , E.ON UK , Endesa , Fortis , Goldman Sachs , Morgan Stanley and Shell have signed up for membership to trade ECX products . In addition , several hundred clients can access the market daily via banks and brokers in a process called ` order-routing ' without having to be a member themselves . ECX is a member of the Climate Exchange Plc group of companies , founded by Richard Sandor . Other member companies include the Chicago Climate Exchange ( `` CCX '' ) and IFEX . Climate Exchange Plc is listed on AIM on the London Stock Exchange , and was bought in April 2010 by IntercontinentalExchange ( ICE ) . The current Chief Executive is Patrick Birley , son of archaeologist Robin Birley .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Climate_Exchange\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 106222\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_state\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 106205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 106062\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 106012\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Power Plan Content: The Clean Power Plan is an Obama administration policy aimed at combating anthropogenic climate change ( global warming ) that was first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency in June 2014 . It is widely expected to be eliminated under President Donald Trump , who signed an executive order on March 28 , 2017 mandating the EPA to review the plan . The final version of the plan was unveiled by President Obama on August 3 , 2015 . The 460-page rule ( RIN 2060 -- AR33 ) titled `` Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources : Electric Utility Generating Units '' was published in the Federal Register on October 23 , 2015 . The Obama administration designed the plan to lower the carbon dioxide emitted by power generators .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Power_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 106010\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Christine_Wiedinmyer\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 105988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 105863\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 105650\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 105157\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"143\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 105133\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":72,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Previous IPCC reports tended to assume that clouds would have a neutral impact because the warming and cooling feedbacks would cancel each other out."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .","qid":"148","docid":"Cloud_feedback","rank":1,"score":175111},{"content":"Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .","qid":"148","docid":"IPCC_First_Assessment_Report","rank":2,"score":143091},{"content":"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .","qid":"148","docid":"Runaway_greenhouse_effect","rank":3,"score":139478},{"content":"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .","qid":"148","docid":"Reasons_for_concern","rank":4,"score":136941},{"content":"Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .","qid":"148","docid":"Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change","rank":5,"score":135022},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"148","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":6,"score":133152},{"content":"Title: CLOUD experiment Content: Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or CLOUD is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) and aerosols under controlled conditions . The experiment began operation in November 2009 . The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) on aerosols and clouds , and their implications for climate . Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question , ( as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997 ) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions . Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models .","qid":"148","docid":"CLOUD_experiment","rank":7,"score":131163},{"content":"Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''","qid":"148","docid":"IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report","rank":8,"score":130778},{"content":"Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .","qid":"148","docid":"IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report","rank":9,"score":129050},{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"148","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":10,"score":125327},{"content":"Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .","qid":"148","docid":"IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report","rank":11,"score":124535},{"content":"Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .","qid":"148","docid":"Physical_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":12,"score":123152},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"148","docid":"Global_warming","rank":13,"score":121963},{"content":"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .","qid":"148","docid":"Albrecht_effect","rank":14,"score":120206},{"content":"Title: Cloud forcing Content: Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .","qid":"148","docid":"Cloud_forcing","rank":15,"score":119865},{"content":"Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .","qid":"148","docid":"IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report","rank":16,"score":118438},{"content":"Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .","qid":"148","docid":"IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992","rank":17,"score":118148},{"content":"Title: Cirrus cloud thinning Content: Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .","qid":"148","docid":"Cirrus_cloud_thinning","rank":18,"score":117417},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"148","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":19,"score":116273},{"content":"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .","qid":"148","docid":"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics","rank":20,"score":115637},{"content":"Title: Local Leo Cold Cloud Content: The Local Leo Cold Cloud is a relatively nearby cloud of interstellar gas . It ranges from 11.3 to 24.3 parsecs in distance . The cloud 's neutral gas temperature is around 20K , which is cold compared to the 1,000,000 K temperature of the Local Bubble in which it is embedded . The hydrogen atom density in this cloud is 3,000 atoms per cubic centimeter , which is dense for interstellar medium . Thermal infrared radiation from dust in the cloud can be detected at 0.1 mm .","qid":"148","docid":"Local_Leo_Cold_Cloud","rank":21,"score":115044},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"148","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":22,"score":114992},{"content":"Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .","qid":"148","docid":"Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report","rank":23,"score":114875},{"content":"Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .","qid":"148","docid":"Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation","rank":24,"score":113373},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"148","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":25,"score":112591},{"content":"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .","qid":"148","docid":"Ice-albedo_feedback","rank":26,"score":112009},{"content":"Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .","qid":"148","docid":"Climate_risk","rank":27,"score":110769},{"content":"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .","qid":"148","docid":"Marine_cloud_brightening","rank":28,"score":110194},{"content":"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''","qid":"148","docid":"Climate_change_feedback","rank":29,"score":109949},{"content":"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .","qid":"148","docid":"Twomey_effect","rank":30,"score":109925},{"content":"Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .","qid":"148","docid":"An_Appeal_to_Reason","rank":31,"score":109013},{"content":"Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .","qid":"148","docid":"Long-term_effects_of_global_warming","rank":32,"score":108850},{"content":"Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )","qid":"148","docid":"List_of_environmental_reports","rank":33,"score":107526},{"content":"Title: American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment Content: The American College & University Presidents ' Climate Commitment ( ACUPCC ) is a `` high-visibility effort '' to address global warming ( global climate disruption ) by creating a network of colleges and universities that have committed to neutralize their greenhouse gas emissions and accelerate the research and educational efforts of higher education to equip society to re-stabilize the earth 's climate . Second Nature is the main supporting organization of the ACUPCC .","qid":"148","docid":"American_College_&_University_Presidents'_Climate_Commitment","rank":34,"score":107249},{"content":"Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''","qid":"148","docid":"IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers","rank":35,"score":106058},{"content":"Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .","qid":"148","docid":"Richard_A._Betts","rank":36,"score":105726},{"content":"Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .","qid":"148","docid":"Roger_Pulwarty","rank":37,"score":104986},{"content":"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .","qid":"148","docid":"Equilibrium_level","rank":38,"score":104144},{"content":"Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .","qid":"148","docid":"Arctic_sea_ice_decline","rank":39,"score":103942},{"content":"Title: Music Tapes for Clouds and Tornadoes Content: Music Tapes for Clouds and Tornadoes is an album by The Music Tapes , a project consisting mainly of Neutral Milk Hotel 's Julian Koster , released in 2008 by Merge Records . Koster spent nine years recording the album using mainly antique hardware and such as a 1895 Edison wax cylinder recorder , a 1940 's wire recorder , a `` state of the art hard drive '' , and reel to reel tape recorders .","qid":"148","docid":"Music_Tapes_for_Clouds_and_Tornadoes","rank":40,"score":103903},{"content":"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .","qid":"148","docid":"Global_warming_hiatus","rank":41,"score":103617},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .","qid":"148","docid":"Climate_Change_Science_Program","rank":42,"score":102730},{"content":"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .","qid":"148","docid":"Campus_carbon_neutrality","rank":43,"score":102210},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of wind power Content: The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels , is relatively minor . Compared with other low carbon power sources , wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated . According to the IPCC , in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources , wind turbines have a median value of between 15 and 11 ( geq/kWh ) depending on whether off - or onshore turbines are being assessed . While wind turbine installations may cover a large area , they are compatible with many land uses such as farming and grazing , as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made unavailable for use . Wind turbines generate some noise . At a residential distance of 300 m this may be around 45 dB , which is slightly louder than a refrigerator . At 1.5 km distance most wind turbines become inaudible . From a fundamental biological point of view , it is known that loud noise increases stress and stress causes diseases . Peer-reviewed research has generally supported the view that when properly sited wind turbines do not affect human health from noise . However , when improperly sited , data from the monitoring of two groups of growing geese revealed substantially lower body weights and higher concentrations of a stress hormone in the blood of the first group of geese who were situated 50 meters away compared to a second group which was at a distance of 500 meters from the turbine . Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape can be significant . Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes . Siting restrictions ( such as setbacks ) have often been implemented to limit any intrusive environmental impacts . There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures . The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant , depending on specific circumstances . Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities , and protection of peat bogs , affect the siting and operation of wind turbines .","qid":"148","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_wind_power","rank":44,"score":101703},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"148","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":45,"score":100233},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"148","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":46,"score":100172},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"148","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":47,"score":100171},{"content":"Title: Subsidence (atmosphere) Content: Subsidence in the Earth 's atmosphere is most commonly caused by low temperatures : as air cools , it becomes denser and moves towards the ground , just as warm air becomes less dense and moves upwards . Cool subsiding air is subject to adiabatic warming which tends to cause the evaporation of any clouds that might be present . Subsidence generally causes high barometric pressure as more air moves into the same space : the polar highs are areas of almost constant subsidence , as are the horse latitudes , and these areas of subsidence are the sources of much of the world 's prevailing wind . Subsidence also causes many smaller-scale weather phenomena , such as morning fog . An extreme form of subsidence is a downburst , which can result in damage similar to that produced by a tornado . A milder form of subsidence is referred to as downdraft . Category : Atmosphere Category : Basic meteorological concepts and phenomena","qid":"148","docid":"Subsidence_(atmosphere)","rank":48,"score":99675},{"content":"Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .","qid":"148","docid":"International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project","rank":49,"score":99292},{"content":"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .","qid":"148","docid":"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry","rank":50,"score":98865},{"content":"Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa","qid":"148","docid":"Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal","rank":51,"score":98498},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"148","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":52,"score":98025},{"content":"Title: Cloud Content: In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .","qid":"148","docid":"Cloud","rank":53,"score":97381},{"content":"Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .","qid":"148","docid":"Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act","rank":54,"score":97006},{"content":"Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .","qid":"148","docid":"Bert_Bolin","rank":55,"score":96937},{"content":"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .","qid":"148","docid":"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":56,"score":96185},{"content":"Title: Interstellar cloud Content: An interstellar cloud is the generic name given to an accumulation of gas , plasma , and dust in our and other galaxies . Put differently , an interstellar cloud is a denser-than-average region of the interstellar medium . Depending on the density , size , and temperature of a given cloud , the hydrogen in it can be neutral ( H I regions ) , ionized ( H II regions ) ( i.e. a plasma ) , or molecular ( molecular clouds ) . Neutral and ionized clouds are sometimes also called diffuse clouds , while molecular clouds are sometimes also referred to as dense clouds .","qid":"148","docid":"Interstellar_cloud","rank":57,"score":96129},{"content":"Title: Condensation cloud Content: A transient condensation cloud , also called Wilson cloud , is observable at large explosions in humid air . When a nuclear weapon or a large amount of a conventional explosive is detonated in sufficiently humid air , the `` negative phase '' of the shock wave causes a rarefaction ( reduction in density ) of the air surrounding the explosion , but not contained within it . This rarefaction results in a temporary cooling of that air , which causes a condensation of some of the water vapor contained in it . When the pressure and the temperature return to normal , the Wilson cloud dissipates . Since heat does not leave the affected air mass , this change of pressure is adiabatic , with an associated change of temperature . In humid air , the drop in temperature in the most rarefied portion of the shock wave can bring the air temperature below its dew point , at which moisture condenses to form a visible cloud of microscopic water droplets . Since the pressure effect of the wave is reduced by its expansion ( the same pressure effect is spread over a larger radius ) , the vapor effect also has a limited radius . Such vapor can also be seen in low pressure regions during high -- g subsonic maneuvers of aircraft in humid conditions . Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 at Bikini Atoll named that transitory cloud a `` Wilson cloud '' because of its similarity to the appearance of the inside of a Wilson cloud chamber , an instrument they would have been familiar with . ( The cloud chamber effect is caused by a temporary reduction in pressure in a closed system and marks the tracks of electrically-charged sub-atomic particles . ) Analysts of later nuclear bomb tests used the more general term condensation cloud . The shape of the shock wave , influenced by different speed in different altitudes , and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds . During nuclear tests , condensation rings around or above the fireball are commonly observed . Rings around the fireball may become stable and form rings around the rising stem of the mushroom cloud . The lifetime of the Wilson cloud during nuclear air bursts can be shortened by the thermal radiation from the fireball , which heats the cloud above the dew point and evaporates the droplets . The same kind of condensation cloud is sometimes seen above the wings of aircraft in a moist atmosphere . The top of a wing has a reduction of air pressure as part of the process of generating lift . This reduction in air pressure causes a cooling , just as above , and the condensation of water vapor . Hence , the small , transient clouds that appear . The vapor cone of a transonic aircraft is another example of a condensation cloud .","qid":"148","docid":"Condensation_cloud","rank":58,"score":96070},{"content":"Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council","qid":"148","docid":"IPCC_(disambiguation)","rank":59,"score":96026},{"content":"Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .","qid":"148","docid":"John_T._Houghton","rank":60,"score":95982},{"content":"Title: Human impact on marine life Content: Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.According to the IPCC (2019), since 1950 \"many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats.\"It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as wilderness, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast.","qid":"148","docid":"Human_impact_on_marine_life","rank":61,"score":95902},{"content":"Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .","qid":"148","docid":"The_Cloud_Mystery","rank":62,"score":95838},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"148","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":63,"score":95133},{"content":"Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .","qid":"148","docid":"World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow","rank":64,"score":95119},{"content":"Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :","qid":"148","docid":"List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis","rank":65,"score":94255},{"content":"Title: Cloud suck Content: Cloud suck is a phenomenon commonly known in paragliding , hang gliding , and sailplane flying where pilots experience significant lift due to a thermal under the base of cumulus clouds , especially towering cumulus and cumulonimbus . The vertical extent of a cumulus cloud is a good indicator of the strength of lift beneath it , and the potential for cloud suck . Cloud suck most commonly occurs in low pressure weather and in humid conditions . Cloud suck is typically associated with an increase in thermal updraft velocity near cloud base . As a parcel of air lifted in a thermal rises , it also cools , and water vapour will eventually condense to form a cloud if the parcel rises above the lifted condensation level . As the water vapour condenses , it releases its latent heat of vaporization , thereby increasing the buoyancy of the parcel . The updraft is amplified by this latent heat release . Although the process that causes this amplification happens above cloud base height , the effect is often noticeable as much as 300 m ( 1,000 feet ) below cloud base . In fact , it is this effect below cloud base , not the effect within the cloud , that is generally referred to by pilots as cloud suck . The telltale signs for a pilot climbing in the thermal under a `` sucking '' cloud are ( 1 ) lift strengthening , ( 2 ) lift getting smoother , and ( 3 ) widening of the thermal . Paraglider pilots have reported being unable to descend in strong cloud suck , even after bringing their canopies into deep spiral , which would normally result in a rapid vertical descent . Cloud suck is especially dangerous for paraglider pilots , whose maximum speed is less than 30 knots , because storm clouds ( Cumulonimbus ) can expand and develop rapidly over a large area with accompanying large areas of strong lift . On 14 February 2007 while practising for a paragliding contest in Australia , Polish-born German team pilot Ewa Wiśnierska-Cieślewicz was sucked into a cumulonimbus cloud , climbing at up to 20 m per second ( 4,000 feet per minute ) to an altitude of 9,946 m ( 32,600 feet ) . She lost consciousness due to hypoxia , but regained consciousness after 30 minutes to an hour , and landed still covered in ice after a three and a half hour flight . Chinese paraglider pilot He Zhongpin died after he was sucked into the same storm system and struck by lightning at 5900 m ( 19,000 feet ) . His body was found the next day 15 km from his last known position prior to entering the cloud . In 2014 Italian paraglider Paolo Antoniazzi , 66 years old retired Army general , died after being sucked into a thunderstorm . Compared with hang-gliders and paragliders , sailplanes have much higher top speeds ( often over 250 km/h ) , and can more easily escape powerful cumulonimbus clouds by flying away quickly or by using very effective air brakes . A sailplane also has the added benefit of the pilot being able to put the sailplane into a spin to descend rapidly without over speeding . Cloud suck is also a concern for powered aircraft but is usually not a lethal hazard , except in extreme weather situations . The USS Shenandoah , the first rigid airship built in the United States , and the first in the world to be inflated with helium , was lost in a cloud suck accident associated with a squall line . At about 6:00 AM on 3 September 1925 , near Ava in northern Noble County , Ohio , the Shenandoah was suddenly caught in a violent updraft while at an altitude of 2,100 feet , rising at the rate of a meter per second . At about 6,200 feet the ascent was checked , but the ship began to descend . When halfway to the ground it was hit by another updraft and began to rise rapidly at an even faster rate . Ultimately the keel snapped , and the ship broke up while still more than a mile above the ground . Shenandoah 's commanding officer and 13 other officers and men were killed . Twenty-nine members of the crew survived the break-up , although some received serious injuries .","qid":"148","docid":"Cloud_suck","rank":66,"score":94024},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .","qid":"148","docid":"Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios","rank":67,"score":93604},{"content":"Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .","qid":"148","docid":"David_Karoly","rank":68,"score":93272},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"148","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":69,"score":92464},{"content":"Title: Cloud physics Content: Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation , growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds . These aerosols are found in the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere , which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere . Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water ( warm clouds ) , tiny crystals of ice ( cold clouds ) , or both ( mixed phase clouds ) . Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory . Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface . At small radii , the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large , that it does not happen naturally . Raoult 's Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution . At high concentrations , when the cloud droplets are small , the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus . In warm clouds , larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity ; because at a given velocity , the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets . The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops . When the drops become large enough that their downward velocity ( relative to the surrounding air ) is greater than the upward velocity ( relative to the earth ) of the surrounding air , the drops can fall to the earth as precipitation . The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the Bergeron process dominates . Other important processes that form precipitation are riming , when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake , and aggregation , when two solid snowflakes collide and combine . The precise mechanics of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood , but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets . Advances in weather radar and satellite technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale .","qid":"148","docid":"Cloud_physics","rank":70,"score":92441},{"content":"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .","qid":"148","docid":"North_Report","rank":71,"score":92265},{"content":"Title: Cloudburst Content: A cloudburst is an extreme amount of precipitation in a short period of time , sometimes accompanied by hail and thunder , that is capable of creating flood conditions . A cloudburst can suddenly dump large amounts of water e.g. 25 mm of precipitation corresponds to 25000 metric tons/km2 ( 1 inch corresponds to 72,300 short tons over one square mile ) . However , cloudbursts are infrequent as they occur only via orographic lift or occasionally when a warm air parcel mixes with cooler air , resulting in sudden condensation . At times , a large amount of runoff from higher elevations is mistakenly conflated with a cloudburst . The term `` cloudburst '' arose from the notion that clouds were akin to water balloons and could burst , resulting in rapid precipitation . Though this idea has since been disproven , the term remains in use .","qid":"148","docid":"Cloudburst","rank":72,"score":92221},{"content":"Title: Polar stratospheric cloud Content: Polar stratospheric clouds or PSCs , also known as nacreous clouds ( -LSB- ˈneɪkriː.əs -RSB- , from nacre , or mother of pearl , due to its iridescence ) , are clouds in the winter polar stratosphere at altitudes of 15000 - . They are best observed during civil twilight when the sun is between 1 and 6 degrees below the horizon as well as in winter and in more northerly latitudes . They are implicated in the formation of ozone holes . The effects on ozone depletion arise because they support chemical reactions that produce active chlorine which catalyzes ozone destruction , and also because they remove gaseous nitric acid , perturbing nitrogen and chlorine cycles in a way which increases ozone destruction .","qid":"148","docid":"Polar_stratospheric_cloud","rank":73,"score":92167},{"content":"Title: Manipulation of atoms by optical field Content: When a group of atoms is super-cooled to temperatures near absolute zero , they form a Bose -- Einstein condensate , a state of matter where quantum effects can be observed in the macroscopic system . In this state , the trajectories of the atoms can be manipulated using light . If a super-cooled atomic gas is placed in a standing light wave produced by two counter-propagating lasers of certain frequency , the atoms are diffracted in different order . A cold atom absorbs a photon from one of the laser beams and emits a photon in the other beam receiving a net momentum of in the direction of the absorbed photon . Here is the magnitude of the wave vector of the laser . This is called two-photon recoil process . In such situation , a BEC cloud sitting at the center of a trap is split into two identical clouds . The clouds then travel in opposite directions with a velocity , in the direction of the photon .","qid":"148","docid":"Manipulation_of_atoms_by_optical_field","rank":74,"score":91766},{"content":"Title: Cirrus uncinus cloud Content: Cirrus uncinus is a type of cirrus cloud . The name cirrus uncinus is derived from Latin , meaning `` curly hooks '' . Also known as mares ' tails , these clouds are generally sparse in the sky and very thin . The clouds occur at very high altitudes , at a temperature of about -50 to . They are generally seen when a warm or occluded front is approaching . They are very high in the troposphere and generally mean that precipitation , usually rain , is approaching .","qid":"148","docid":"Cirrus_uncinus_cloud","rank":75,"score":91642},{"content":"Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .","qid":"148","docid":"Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports","rank":76,"score":91563},{"content":"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .","qid":"148","docid":"Ice2sea","rank":77,"score":91341},{"content":"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .","qid":"148","docid":"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years","rank":78,"score":91327},{"content":"Title: Climate change acronyms Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .","qid":"148","docid":"Climate_change_acronyms","rank":79,"score":91287},{"content":"Title: HVC 127-41-330 Content: HVC 127-41-330 is a high-velocity cloud . The three numbers that compose its name indicate , respectively , the galactic longitude and latitude , and velocity towards Earth in km/s . It is 20,000 light years in diameter and is located 2.3 million light years from Earth , between M31 and M33 . This cloud of neutral hydrogen ( detectable via 21 cm H-I emissions ) , unlike other HVCs shows a rotational component and dark matter . 80 % of the mass of the cloud is dark matter . It is also the first HVC discovered not associated with the Milky Way galaxy or subgroup ( subcluster ) . Astronomer Josh Simon considers it a candidate for being a dark galaxy . With its rotation , it may be a very low density dwarf galaxy of unused hydrogen ( no stars ) , a remnant of the formation of the Local Group .","qid":"148","docid":"HVC_127-41-330","rank":80,"score":91164},{"content":"Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and","qid":"148","docid":"Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change","rank":81,"score":90986},{"content":"Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .","qid":"148","docid":"Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution","rank":82,"score":90927},{"content":"Title: Marine stratocumulus Content: Marine stratocumulus is a type of stratocumulus cloud that form in the stable air off the west coast of major land masses . The Earth spins on its axis , which results in the Coriolis force pushing the ocean surface water away from the coast in the mid-latitudes . This results in upwelling of cold water from below that creates a pool of cool water at the surface , which in turn cools the air directly above it . The surface cooling results in a large temperature inversion at the top of the marine layer . As the temperature is cooled to the dewpoint , water vapor condenses upon available cloud condensation nuclei , and forms a cloud . The stability of the marine layer prevents deep convection , and thus stratiform clouds are formed . Climate scientists are currently investigating the detailed structure of marine stratocumulus clouds in an attempt to understand their effect on the climate .","qid":"148","docid":"Marine_stratocumulus","rank":83,"score":90845},{"content":"Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .","qid":"148","docid":"Rajendra_K._Pachauri","rank":84,"score":90822},{"content":"Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .","qid":"148","docid":"The_Chilling_Stars","rank":85,"score":90650},{"content":"Title: Cloud condensation nuclei Content: Cloud condensation nuclei or CCNs ( also known as cloud seeds ) are small particles typically 0.2 µm , or 1/100th the size of a cloud droplet on which water vapor condenses . Water requires a non-gaseous surface to make the transition from a vapour to a liquid ; this process is called condensation . In the atmosphere , this surface presents itself as tiny solid or liquid particles called CCNs . When no CCNs are present , water vapour can be supercooled at about -13 ° C ( 8 ° F ) for 5-6 hours before droplets spontaneously form ( this is the basis of the cloud chamber for detecting subatomic particles ) . In above freezing temperatures the air would have to be supersaturated to around 400 % before the droplets could form . The concept of cloud condensation nuclei is used in cloud seeding , that tries to encourage rainfall by seeding the air with condensation nuclei . It has further been suggested that creating such nuclei could be used for marine cloud brightening , a climate engineering technique .","qid":"148","docid":"Cloud_condensation_nuclei","rank":86,"score":90501},{"content":"Title: Anthropogenic cloud Content: An anthropogenic or artificial cloud , is a cloud induced by human activity . Although generally clouds covering the sky have only a natural origin , from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution , the use of fossil fuels and water vapor and other gases emitted by nuclear , thermal and geothermal power plants yield significant alterations of the local weather conditions . These new atmospheric conditions can thus enhance cloud formation . Homogenitus is the term used to designate the origin of clouds produced by human activities . Various methods have been proposed for creating and utilizing this weather phenomenon . Experiments have also been carried out for various studies . For example , Russian scientists have been studying artificial clouds for more than 50 years . But by far the greatest number of anthropogenic clouds are airplane contrails ( condensation trails ) and rocket trails .","qid":"148","docid":"Anthropogenic_cloud","rank":87,"score":89722},{"content":"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .","qid":"148","docid":"Seita_Emori","rank":88,"score":89704},{"content":"Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .","qid":"148","docid":"Impact_winter","rank":89,"score":89253},{"content":"Title: Cooling-off period Content: Cooling-off period may refer to : Cooling-off period ( consumer rights ) , a period of time during which the purchaser may cancel a purchase Standstill period , the time to allow unsuccessful bidders to challenge the decision before a contract is signed Waiting period , the time which a company making an IPO must be silent about it , so as not to inflate the value of the stock artificially Period of time after the termination of a worker 's employment in which he or she is prohibited from establishing or obtaining employment with certain entities ( i.e. executing the terms of a non-compete clause or the legally mandated waiting period before a former government regulator may begin work within the industry he or she once regulated ) With respect to anger management , a period of time where two or more parties in disagreement do not communicate with each other with the understanding that it takes time for emotional connections to diminish In the nuclear power industry , the length of time that spent nuclear fuel must be stored in water before enough heat is dissipated so that the waste product can be safely reprocessed and/or transported to a more permanent storage facility","qid":"148","docid":"Cooling-off_period","rank":90,"score":89018},{"content":"Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link","qid":"148","docid":"Vicky_Pope","rank":91,"score":88885},{"content":"Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .","qid":"148","docid":"United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy","rank":92,"score":88850},{"content":"Title: Photodissociation region Content: Photodissociation regions ( or photon-dominated regions , or PDRs ) are predominantly neutral regions of the interstellar medium in which far ultraviolet photons strongly influence the gas chemistry and act as the most important source of heat . They occur in any region of interstellar gas that is dense and cold enough to remain neutral , but that has too low a column density to prevent the penetration of far-UV photons from distant , massive stars . A typical and well-studied example is the gas at the boundary of a giant molecular cloud . PDRs are also associated with HII regions , reflection nebulae , active galactic nuclei , and Planetary nebulae . All the atomic gas and most of the molecular gas in the galaxy is found in PDRs .","qid":"148","docid":"Photodissociation_region","rank":93,"score":88559},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"148","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":94,"score":88466},{"content":"Title: Korea Internet Neutral Exchange Content: Korea Internet Neutral Exchange ( KINX Inc. ) , the only carrier-neutral Internet exchange ( IX ) in South Korea , is a B2B company that specializes in Internet infrastructure . KINX provides Internet data center ( IDC ) , Content Delivery Network ( CDN ) , and Cloud computing services to customers . The headquarters is in Seoul , South Korea . As of October 2014 , KINX has 94 employees .","qid":"148","docid":"Korea_Internet_Neutral_Exchange","rank":95,"score":88419},{"content":"Title: Independent Police Complaints Commission Content: The Independent Police Complaints Commission ( IPCC ) is a non-departmental public body in England and Wales responsible for overseeing the system for handling complaints made against police forces in England and Wales .","qid":"148","docid":"Independent_Police_Complaints_Commission","rank":96,"score":88234},{"content":"Title: Ismail El Gizouli Content: Ismail Abdel Rahim El Gizouli is a Sudanese civil servant specializing in energy and environment and a member of the bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He has acted as interim chairman of the IPCC since 24 February 2015 , following the resignation of Rajendra Kumar Pachauri . This appointment will last until the next election for a chairman , which is due to take place at the 42nd session in October 2015 .","qid":"148","docid":"Ismail_El_Gizouli","rank":97,"score":88162},{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"148","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":98,"score":88106},{"content":"Title: Neutrality of money Content: Neutrality of money is the idea that a change in the stock of money affects only nominal variables in the economy such as prices , wages , and exchange rates , with no effect on real variables , like employment , real GDP , and real consumption . Neutrality of money is an important idea in classical economics and is related to the classical dichotomy . It implies that the central bank does not affect the real economy ( e.g. , the number of jobs , the size of real GDP , the amount of real investment ) by creating money . Instead , any increase in the supply of money would be offset by a proportional rise in prices and wages . This assumption underlies some mainstream macroeconomic models ( e.g. , real business cycle models ) . Others like monetarism view money as being neutral only in the long-run . When neutrality of money coincides with zero population growth , the economy is said to rest in steady-state equilibrium . Superneutrality of money is a stronger property than neutrality of money . It holds that not only is the real economy unaffected by the level of the money supply but also that the rate of money supply growth has no effect on real variables . In this case , nominal wages and prices remain proportional to the nominal money supply not only in response to one-time permanent changes in the nominal money supply but also in response to permanent changes in the growth rate of the nominal money supply . Typically superneutrality is addressed in the context of long-run models .","qid":"148","docid":"Neutrality_of_money","rank":99,"score":88029},{"content":"Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .","qid":"148","docid":"CloudSat","rank":100,"score":87842}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 175111\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_First_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 143091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 139478\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Reasons_for_concern\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 136941\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 135022\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 133152\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CLOUD experiment Content: Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or CLOUD is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) and aerosols under controlled conditions . The experiment began operation in November 2009 . The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) on aerosols and clouds , and their implications for climate . Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question , ( as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997 ) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions . Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"CLOUD_experiment\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 131163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 130778\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 129050\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 125327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 124535\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Physical_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 123152\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 121963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Albrecht_effect\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 120206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud forcing Content: Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_forcing\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 119865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 118438\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 118148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cirrus cloud thinning Content: Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Cirrus_cloud_thinning\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 117417\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 116273\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 115637\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Local Leo Cold Cloud Content: The Local Leo Cold Cloud is a relatively nearby cloud of interstellar gas . It ranges from 11.3 to 24.3 parsecs in distance . The cloud 's neutral gas temperature is around 20K , which is cold compared to the 1,000,000 K temperature of the Local Bubble in which it is embedded . The hydrogen atom density in this cloud is 3,000 atoms per cubic centimeter , which is dense for interstellar medium . Thermal infrared radiation from dust in the cloud can be detected at 0.1 mm .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Local_Leo_Cold_Cloud\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 115044\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 114992\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 114875\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 113373\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 112591\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice-albedo_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 112009\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_risk\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 110769\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_cloud_brightening\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 110194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 109949\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Twomey_effect\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 109925\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"An_Appeal_to_Reason\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 109013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Long-term_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 108850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_environmental_reports\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 107526\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment Content: The American College & University Presidents ' Climate Commitment ( ACUPCC ) is a `` high-visibility effort '' to address global warming ( global climate disruption ) by creating a network of colleges and universities that have committed to neutralize their greenhouse gas emissions and accelerate the research and educational efforts of higher education to equip society to re-stabilize the earth 's climate . Second Nature is the main supporting organization of the ACUPCC .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"American_College_&_University_Presidents'_Climate_Commitment\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 107249\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 106058\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Richard_A._Betts\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 105726\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Roger_Pulwarty\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 104986\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Equilibrium_level\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 104144\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_sea_ice_decline\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 103942\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Music Tapes for Clouds and Tornadoes Content: Music Tapes for Clouds and Tornadoes is an album by The Music Tapes , a project consisting mainly of Neutral Milk Hotel 's Julian Koster , released in 2008 by Merge Records . Koster spent nine years recording the album using mainly antique hardware and such as a 1895 Edison wax cylinder recorder , a 1940 's wire recorder , a `` state of the art hard drive '' , and reel to reel tape recorders .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Music_Tapes_for_Clouds_and_Tornadoes\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 103903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_hiatus\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 103617\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Science_Program\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 102730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Campus_carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 102210\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of wind power Content: The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels , is relatively minor . Compared with other low carbon power sources , wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated . According to the IPCC , in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources , wind turbines have a median value of between 15 and 11 ( geq/kWh ) depending on whether off - or onshore turbines are being assessed . While wind turbine installations may cover a large area , they are compatible with many land uses such as farming and grazing , as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made unavailable for use . Wind turbines generate some noise . At a residential distance of 300 m this may be around 45 dB , which is slightly louder than a refrigerator . At 1.5 km distance most wind turbines become inaudible . From a fundamental biological point of view , it is known that loud noise increases stress and stress causes diseases . Peer-reviewed research has generally supported the view that when properly sited wind turbines do not affect human health from noise . However , when improperly sited , data from the monitoring of two groups of growing geese revealed substantially lower body weights and higher concentrations of a stress hormone in the blood of the first group of geese who were situated 50 meters away compared to a second group which was at a distance of 500 meters from the turbine . Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape can be significant . Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes . Siting restrictions ( such as setbacks ) have often been implemented to limit any intrusive environmental impacts . There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures . The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant , depending on specific circumstances . Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities , and protection of peat bogs , affect the siting and operation of wind turbines .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_wind_power\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 101703\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 100233\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 100172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 100171\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Subsidence (atmosphere) Content: Subsidence in the Earth 's atmosphere is most commonly caused by low temperatures : as air cools , it becomes denser and moves towards the ground , just as warm air becomes less dense and moves upwards . Cool subsiding air is subject to adiabatic warming which tends to cause the evaporation of any clouds that might be present . Subsidence generally causes high barometric pressure as more air moves into the same space : the polar highs are areas of almost constant subsidence , as are the horse latitudes , and these areas of subsidence are the sources of much of the world 's prevailing wind . Subsidence also causes many smaller-scale weather phenomena , such as morning fog . An extreme form of subsidence is a downburst , which can result in damage similar to that produced by a tornado . A milder form of subsidence is referred to as downdraft . Category : Atmosphere Category : Basic meteorological concepts and phenomena\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Subsidence_(atmosphere)\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 99675\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 99292\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 98865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 98498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 98025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud Content: In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 97381\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 97006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Bert_Bolin\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 96937\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 96185\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Interstellar cloud Content: An interstellar cloud is the generic name given to an accumulation of gas , plasma , and dust in our and other galaxies . Put differently , an interstellar cloud is a denser-than-average region of the interstellar medium . Depending on the density , size , and temperature of a given cloud , the hydrogen in it can be neutral ( H I regions ) , ionized ( H II regions ) ( i.e. a plasma ) , or molecular ( molecular clouds ) . Neutral and ionized clouds are sometimes also called diffuse clouds , while molecular clouds are sometimes also referred to as dense clouds .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Interstellar_cloud\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 96129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Condensation cloud Content: A transient condensation cloud , also called Wilson cloud , is observable at large explosions in humid air . When a nuclear weapon or a large amount of a conventional explosive is detonated in sufficiently humid air , the `` negative phase '' of the shock wave causes a rarefaction ( reduction in density ) of the air surrounding the explosion , but not contained within it . This rarefaction results in a temporary cooling of that air , which causes a condensation of some of the water vapor contained in it . When the pressure and the temperature return to normal , the Wilson cloud dissipates . Since heat does not leave the affected air mass , this change of pressure is adiabatic , with an associated change of temperature . In humid air , the drop in temperature in the most rarefied portion of the shock wave can bring the air temperature below its dew point , at which moisture condenses to form a visible cloud of microscopic water droplets . Since the pressure effect of the wave is reduced by its expansion ( the same pressure effect is spread over a larger radius ) , the vapor effect also has a limited radius . Such vapor can also be seen in low pressure regions during high -- g subsonic maneuvers of aircraft in humid conditions . Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 at Bikini Atoll named that transitory cloud a `` Wilson cloud '' because of its similarity to the appearance of the inside of a Wilson cloud chamber , an instrument they would have been familiar with . ( The cloud chamber effect is caused by a temporary reduction in pressure in a closed system and marks the tracks of electrically-charged sub-atomic particles . ) Analysts of later nuclear bomb tests used the more general term condensation cloud . The shape of the shock wave , influenced by different speed in different altitudes , and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds . During nuclear tests , condensation rings around or above the fireball are commonly observed . Rings around the fireball may become stable and form rings around the rising stem of the mushroom cloud . The lifetime of the Wilson cloud during nuclear air bursts can be shortened by the thermal radiation from the fireball , which heats the cloud above the dew point and evaporates the droplets . The same kind of condensation cloud is sometimes seen above the wings of aircraft in a moist atmosphere . The top of a wing has a reduction of air pressure as part of the process of generating lift . This reduction in air pressure causes a cooling , just as above , and the condensation of water vapor . Hence , the small , transient clouds that appear . The vapor cone of a transonic aircraft is another example of a condensation cloud .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Condensation_cloud\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 96070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 96026\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"John_T._Houghton\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 95982\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human impact on marine life Content: Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.According to the IPCC (2019), since 1950 \\\"many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats.\\\"It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as wilderness, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast.\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_impact_on_marine_life\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 95902\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Cloud_Mystery\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 95838\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 95133\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 95119\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 94255\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud suck Content: Cloud suck is a phenomenon commonly known in paragliding , hang gliding , and sailplane flying where pilots experience significant lift due to a thermal under the base of cumulus clouds , especially towering cumulus and cumulonimbus . The vertical extent of a cumulus cloud is a good indicator of the strength of lift beneath it , and the potential for cloud suck . Cloud suck most commonly occurs in low pressure weather and in humid conditions . Cloud suck is typically associated with an increase in thermal updraft velocity near cloud base . As a parcel of air lifted in a thermal rises , it also cools , and water vapour will eventually condense to form a cloud if the parcel rises above the lifted condensation level . As the water vapour condenses , it releases its latent heat of vaporization , thereby increasing the buoyancy of the parcel . The updraft is amplified by this latent heat release . Although the process that causes this amplification happens above cloud base height , the effect is often noticeable as much as 300 m ( 1,000 feet ) below cloud base . In fact , it is this effect below cloud base , not the effect within the cloud , that is generally referred to by pilots as cloud suck . The telltale signs for a pilot climbing in the thermal under a `` sucking '' cloud are ( 1 ) lift strengthening , ( 2 ) lift getting smoother , and ( 3 ) widening of the thermal . Paraglider pilots have reported being unable to descend in strong cloud suck , even after bringing their canopies into deep spiral , which would normally result in a rapid vertical descent . Cloud suck is especially dangerous for paraglider pilots , whose maximum speed is less than 30 knots , because storm clouds ( Cumulonimbus ) can expand and develop rapidly over a large area with accompanying large areas of strong lift . On 14 February 2007 while practising for a paragliding contest in Australia , Polish-born German team pilot Ewa Wiśnierska-Cieślewicz was sucked into a cumulonimbus cloud , climbing at up to 20 m per second ( 4,000 feet per minute ) to an altitude of 9,946 m ( 32,600 feet ) . She lost consciousness due to hypoxia , but regained consciousness after 30 minutes to an hour , and landed still covered in ice after a three and a half hour flight . Chinese paraglider pilot He Zhongpin died after he was sucked into the same storm system and struck by lightning at 5900 m ( 19,000 feet ) . His body was found the next day 15 km from his last known position prior to entering the cloud . In 2014 Italian paraglider Paolo Antoniazzi , 66 years old retired Army general , died after being sucked into a thunderstorm . Compared with hang-gliders and paragliders , sailplanes have much higher top speeds ( often over 250 km/h ) , and can more easily escape powerful cumulonimbus clouds by flying away quickly or by using very effective air brakes . A sailplane also has the added benefit of the pilot being able to put the sailplane into a spin to descend rapidly without over speeding . Cloud suck is also a concern for powered aircraft but is usually not a lethal hazard , except in extreme weather situations . The USS Shenandoah , the first rigid airship built in the United States , and the first in the world to be inflated with helium , was lost in a cloud suck accident associated with a squall line . At about 6:00 AM on 3 September 1925 , near Ava in northern Noble County , Ohio , the Shenandoah was suddenly caught in a violent updraft while at an altitude of 2,100 feet , rising at the rate of a meter per second . At about 6,200 feet the ascent was checked , but the ship began to descend . When halfway to the ground it was hit by another updraft and began to rise rapidly at an even faster rate . Ultimately the keel snapped , and the ship broke up while still more than a mile above the ground . Shenandoah 's commanding officer and 13 other officers and men were killed . Twenty-nine members of the crew survived the break-up , although some received serious injuries .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_suck\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 94024\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 93604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Karoly\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 93272\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 92464\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud physics Content: Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation , growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds . These aerosols are found in the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere , which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere . Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water ( warm clouds ) , tiny crystals of ice ( cold clouds ) , or both ( mixed phase clouds ) . Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory . Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface . At small radii , the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large , that it does not happen naturally . Raoult 's Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution . At high concentrations , when the cloud droplets are small , the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus . In warm clouds , larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity ; because at a given velocity , the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets . The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops . When the drops become large enough that their downward velocity ( relative to the surrounding air ) is greater than the upward velocity ( relative to the earth ) of the surrounding air , the drops can fall to the earth as precipitation . The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the Bergeron process dominates . Other important processes that form precipitation are riming , when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake , and aggregation , when two solid snowflakes collide and combine . The precise mechanics of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood , but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets . Advances in weather radar and satellite technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_physics\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 92441\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Report\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 92265\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloudburst Content: A cloudburst is an extreme amount of precipitation in a short period of time , sometimes accompanied by hail and thunder , that is capable of creating flood conditions . A cloudburst can suddenly dump large amounts of water e.g. 25 mm of precipitation corresponds to 25000 metric tons/km2 ( 1 inch corresponds to 72,300 short tons over one square mile ) . However , cloudbursts are infrequent as they occur only via orographic lift or occasionally when a warm air parcel mixes with cooler air , resulting in sudden condensation . At times , a large amount of runoff from higher elevations is mistakenly conflated with a cloudburst . The term `` cloudburst '' arose from the notion that clouds were akin to water balloons and could burst , resulting in rapid precipitation . Though this idea has since been disproven , the term remains in use .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloudburst\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 92221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar stratospheric cloud Content: Polar stratospheric clouds or PSCs , also known as nacreous clouds ( -LSB- ˈneɪkriː.əs -RSB- , from nacre , or mother of pearl , due to its iridescence ) , are clouds in the winter polar stratosphere at altitudes of 15000 - . They are best observed during civil twilight when the sun is between 1 and 6 degrees below the horizon as well as in winter and in more northerly latitudes . They are implicated in the formation of ozone holes . The effects on ozone depletion arise because they support chemical reactions that produce active chlorine which catalyzes ozone destruction , and also because they remove gaseous nitric acid , perturbing nitrogen and chlorine cycles in a way which increases ozone destruction .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_stratospheric_cloud\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 92167\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Manipulation of atoms by optical field Content: When a group of atoms is super-cooled to temperatures near absolute zero , they form a Bose -- Einstein condensate , a state of matter where quantum effects can be observed in the macroscopic system . In this state , the trajectories of the atoms can be manipulated using light . If a super-cooled atomic gas is placed in a standing light wave produced by two counter-propagating lasers of certain frequency , the atoms are diffracted in different order . A cold atom absorbs a photon from one of the laser beams and emits a photon in the other beam receiving a net momentum of in the direction of the absorbed photon . Here is the magnitude of the wave vector of the laser . This is called two-photon recoil process . In such situation , a BEC cloud sitting at the center of a trap is split into two identical clouds . The clouds then travel in opposite directions with a velocity , in the direction of the photon .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Manipulation_of_atoms_by_optical_field\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 91766\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cirrus uncinus cloud Content: Cirrus uncinus is a type of cirrus cloud . The name cirrus uncinus is derived from Latin , meaning `` curly hooks '' . Also known as mares ' tails , these clouds are generally sparse in the sky and very thin . The clouds occur at very high altitudes , at a temperature of about -50 to . They are generally seen when a warm or occluded front is approaching . They are very high in the troposphere and generally mean that precipitation , usually rain , is approaching .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Cirrus_uncinus_cloud\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 91642\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 91563\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice2sea\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 91341\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 91327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change acronyms Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_acronyms\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 91287\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HVC 127-41-330 Content: HVC 127-41-330 is a high-velocity cloud . The three numbers that compose its name indicate , respectively , the galactic longitude and latitude , and velocity towards Earth in km/s . It is 20,000 light years in diameter and is located 2.3 million light years from Earth , between M31 and M33 . This cloud of neutral hydrogen ( detectable via 21 cm H-I emissions ) , unlike other HVCs shows a rotational component and dark matter . 80 % of the mass of the cloud is dark matter . It is also the first HVC discovered not associated with the Milky Way galaxy or subgroup ( subcluster ) . Astronomer Josh Simon considers it a candidate for being a dark galaxy . With its rotation , it may be a very low density dwarf galaxy of unused hydrogen ( no stars ) , a remnant of the formation of the Local Group .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"HVC_127-41-330\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 91164\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 90986\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 90927\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine stratocumulus Content: Marine stratocumulus is a type of stratocumulus cloud that form in the stable air off the west coast of major land masses . The Earth spins on its axis , which results in the Coriolis force pushing the ocean surface water away from the coast in the mid-latitudes . This results in upwelling of cold water from below that creates a pool of cool water at the surface , which in turn cools the air directly above it . The surface cooling results in a large temperature inversion at the top of the marine layer . As the temperature is cooled to the dewpoint , water vapor condenses upon available cloud condensation nuclei , and forms a cloud . The stability of the marine layer prevents deep convection , and thus stratiform clouds are formed . Climate scientists are currently investigating the detailed structure of marine stratocumulus clouds in an attempt to understand their effect on the climate .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_stratocumulus\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 90845\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Rajendra_K._Pachauri\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 90822\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Chilling_Stars\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 90650\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud condensation nuclei Content: Cloud condensation nuclei or CCNs ( also known as cloud seeds ) are small particles typically 0.2 µm , or 1/100th the size of a cloud droplet on which water vapor condenses . Water requires a non-gaseous surface to make the transition from a vapour to a liquid ; this process is called condensation . In the atmosphere , this surface presents itself as tiny solid or liquid particles called CCNs . When no CCNs are present , water vapour can be supercooled at about -13 ° C ( 8 ° F ) for 5-6 hours before droplets spontaneously form ( this is the basis of the cloud chamber for detecting subatomic particles ) . In above freezing temperatures the air would have to be supersaturated to around 400 % before the droplets could form . The concept of cloud condensation nuclei is used in cloud seeding , that tries to encourage rainfall by seeding the air with condensation nuclei . It has further been suggested that creating such nuclei could be used for marine cloud brightening , a climate engineering technique .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_condensation_nuclei\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 90501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anthropogenic cloud Content: An anthropogenic or artificial cloud , is a cloud induced by human activity . Although generally clouds covering the sky have only a natural origin , from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution , the use of fossil fuels and water vapor and other gases emitted by nuclear , thermal and geothermal power plants yield significant alterations of the local weather conditions . These new atmospheric conditions can thus enhance cloud formation . Homogenitus is the term used to designate the origin of clouds produced by human activities . Various methods have been proposed for creating and utilizing this weather phenomenon . Experiments have also been carried out for various studies . For example , Russian scientists have been studying artificial clouds for more than 50 years . But by far the greatest number of anthropogenic clouds are airplane contrails ( condensation trails ) and rocket trails .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Anthropogenic_cloud\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 89722\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Seita_Emori\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 89704\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Impact_winter\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 89253\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cooling-off period Content: Cooling-off period may refer to : Cooling-off period ( consumer rights ) , a period of time during which the purchaser may cancel a purchase Standstill period , the time to allow unsuccessful bidders to challenge the decision before a contract is signed Waiting period , the time which a company making an IPO must be silent about it , so as not to inflate the value of the stock artificially Period of time after the termination of a worker 's employment in which he or she is prohibited from establishing or obtaining employment with certain entities ( i.e. executing the terms of a non-compete clause or the legally mandated waiting period before a former government regulator may begin work within the industry he or she once regulated ) With respect to anger management , a period of time where two or more parties in disagreement do not communicate with each other with the understanding that it takes time for emotional connections to diminish In the nuclear power industry , the length of time that spent nuclear fuel must be stored in water before enough heat is dissipated so that the waste product can be safely reprocessed and/or transported to a more permanent storage facility\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Cooling-off_period\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 89018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Vicky_Pope\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 88885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 88850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photodissociation region Content: Photodissociation regions ( or photon-dominated regions , or PDRs ) are predominantly neutral regions of the interstellar medium in which far ultraviolet photons strongly influence the gas chemistry and act as the most important source of heat . They occur in any region of interstellar gas that is dense and cold enough to remain neutral , but that has too low a column density to prevent the penetration of far-UV photons from distant , massive stars . A typical and well-studied example is the gas at the boundary of a giant molecular cloud . PDRs are also associated with HII regions , reflection nebulae , active galactic nuclei , and Planetary nebulae . All the atomic gas and most of the molecular gas in the galaxy is found in PDRs .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Photodissociation_region\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 88559\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 88466\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Korea Internet Neutral Exchange Content: Korea Internet Neutral Exchange ( KINX Inc. ) , the only carrier-neutral Internet exchange ( IX ) in South Korea , is a B2B company that specializes in Internet infrastructure . KINX provides Internet data center ( IDC ) , Content Delivery Network ( CDN ) , and Cloud computing services to customers . The headquarters is in Seoul , South Korea . As of October 2014 , KINX has 94 employees .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Korea_Internet_Neutral_Exchange\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 88419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Independent Police Complaints Commission Content: The Independent Police Complaints Commission ( IPCC ) is a non-departmental public body in England and Wales responsible for overseeing the system for handling complaints made against police forces in England and Wales .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Independent_Police_Complaints_Commission\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 88234\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ismail El Gizouli Content: Ismail Abdel Rahim El Gizouli is a Sudanese civil servant specializing in energy and environment and a member of the bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He has acted as interim chairman of the IPCC since 24 February 2015 , following the resignation of Rajendra Kumar Pachauri . This appointment will last until the next election for a chairman , which is due to take place at the 42nd session in October 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Ismail_El_Gizouli\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 88162\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 88106\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Neutrality of money Content: Neutrality of money is the idea that a change in the stock of money affects only nominal variables in the economy such as prices , wages , and exchange rates , with no effect on real variables , like employment , real GDP , and real consumption . Neutrality of money is an important idea in classical economics and is related to the classical dichotomy . It implies that the central bank does not affect the real economy ( e.g. , the number of jobs , the size of real GDP , the amount of real investment ) by creating money . Instead , any increase in the supply of money would be offset by a proportional rise in prices and wages . This assumption underlies some mainstream macroeconomic models ( e.g. , real business cycle models ) . Others like monetarism view money as being neutral only in the long-run . When neutrality of money coincides with zero population growth , the economy is said to rest in steady-state equilibrium . Superneutrality of money is a stronger property than neutrality of money . It holds that not only is the real economy unaffected by the level of the money supply but also that the rate of money supply growth has no effect on real variables . In this case , nominal wages and prices remain proportional to the nominal money supply not only in response to one-time permanent changes in the nominal money supply but also in response to permanent changes in the growth rate of the nominal money supply . Typically superneutrality is addressed in the context of long-run models .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"Neutrality_of_money\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 88029\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .\",\n \"qid\": \"148\",\n \"docid\": \"CloudSat\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 87842\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":73,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"“Catherine Senior, head of understanding climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre, said more studies and more data were needed to fully understand the role of clouds and aerosols."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research Content: The Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Change -- named in honour of George Hadley -- is one of the United Kingdom 's leading centres for the study of scientific issues associated with climate change . It is part of , and based at the headquarters of the Met Office in Exeter .","qid":"152","docid":"Hadley_Centre_for_Climate_Prediction_and_Research","rank":1,"score":228589},{"content":"Title: United Kingdom Chemistry and Aerosols model Content: The United Kingdom Chemistry and Aerosols ( UKCA ) is a community Chemistry-Aerosol-Climate model which are research runs of the Met Office 's operational Unified Model . It runs within the Hadley Centre example with multiple flavours of varying horizontal resolutions and vertical layers . It is a collaboration of the Met Office with the University of Cambridge , University of Leeds , University of Oxford , University of Reading , University of East Anglia , and Lancaster University in the UK and the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research of New Zealand .","qid":"152","docid":"United_Kingdom_Chemistry_and_Aerosols_model","rank":2,"score":217926},{"content":"Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .","qid":"152","docid":"Richard_A._Betts","rank":3,"score":206256},{"content":"Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .","qid":"152","docid":"Peter_A._Stott","rank":4,"score":203538},{"content":"Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .","qid":"152","docid":"John_F._B._Mitchell","rank":5,"score":198252},{"content":"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .","qid":"152","docid":"Simon_Tett","rank":6,"score":197703},{"content":"Title: David Carson (climatologist) Content: David John Carson is a climatologist . He has been director of the Hadley Centre ( around 1990-1996 ) , director of Numerical Weather Prediction at the UKMO ( around 1999-2000 ) , and was director of the World Climate Research Programme from 2000-2005 . Carson joined the UK Meteorological Office in 1969 , following his Ph.D from the Department of Applied Mathematics , University of Liverpool , working on the structure and evolution of the atmospheric boundary layer . He did early research on the development of atmospheric general circulation models . In 1982 , he was appointed to Assistant Director within the Met Office , and led the Boundary Layer Research Branch and later the Dynamical Climatology Branch . For 1987 -- 1989 Carson was seconded to the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) as their first Programme Director for atmospheric sciences . He returned to the Met . Office in January 1990 and became Director of Climate Research and then first Director of the Hadley Centre .","qid":"152","docid":"David_Carson_(climatologist)","rank":7,"score":193416},{"content":"Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .","qid":"152","docid":"John_T._Houghton","rank":8,"score":190225},{"content":"Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link","qid":"152","docid":"Vicky_Pope","rank":9,"score":189542},{"content":"Title: HadGEM1 Content: HadGEM1 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model , version 1 ) is a coupled climate model developed at the Met Office 's Hadley Centre in 2006 and used in IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on climate change . It represents a significant scientific advance on its predecessor , HadCM3 . HadGEM1 also provides a basis for further development of models , particularly involving enhanced resolution and full Earth System modelling . The current version is HadGEM3 .","qid":"152","docid":"HadGEM1","rank":10,"score":187038},{"content":"Title: Richard Betts Content: Richard Betts may refer to : Richard A. Betts , climate scientist at the Met Office Hadley Centre Richard K. Betts ( born 1947 ) , Arnold A. Saltzman Professor of War and Peace Studies , Columbia University","qid":"152","docid":"Richard_Betts","rank":11,"score":185124},{"content":"Title: Geoff Jenkins (climatologist) Content: Geoffrey ( Geoff ) Jenkins is a climatologist and former head of climate change prediction at the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , part of the Met Office .","qid":"152","docid":"Geoff_Jenkins_(climatologist)","rank":12,"score":184893},{"content":"Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .","qid":"152","docid":"Jonathan_M._Gregory","rank":13,"score":176138},{"content":"Title: PRECIS Content: PRECIS ( Providing REgional Climates for Impacts Studies , pronounced pray-sea ) is developed at the Hadley Centre at the UK Met Office , PRECIS is a regional climate modelling system designed to run on a Linux based PC . PRECIS can be applied to any area of the globe to generate detailed climate change projections .","qid":"152","docid":"PRECIS","rank":14,"score":174095},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"152","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":15,"score":154789},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"152","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":16,"score":153674},{"content":"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .","qid":"152","docid":"David_Parker_(climatologist)","rank":17,"score":147387},{"content":"Title: Peter Thorne (climatologist) Content: Peter William Thorne is a climatologist and professor of physical geography in the Department of Geography , Maynooth University . He graduated with a BSc in Environmental Sciences from the University of East Anglia in 1998 , and a PhD from the School of Environmental Sciences in 2001 . He previously worked at the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research and the National Climatic Data Center , and he was a senior scientist at the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center , Bergen , Norway . He is the chair of the International Surface Temperature Initiative which consists of an interdisciplinary effort to create a suite of improved Land Surface Air Temperature products to meet science needs and societal expectations in the era of climate services . Thorne is co-chair of the GCOS Working Group on the Global Climate Observing System Reference Upper Air Network ( GRUAN ) , and he is also the project lead on the Horizon 2020 GAIA-CLIM project which aims to use such measurements to better characterise satellite measurements . He is a Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .","qid":"152","docid":"Peter_Thorne_(climatologist)","rank":18,"score":145161},{"content":"Title: Julia Slingo Content: Dame Julia Mary Slingo , ( née Walker ; born 13 December 1950 ) is a British meteorologist and climate scientist . She has been the Chief Scientist at the Met Office since 2009 . She is also a Visiting Professor in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading , where she held , prior to appointment to the Met Office , the positions of Director of Climate Research in the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) National Centre for Atmospheric Science and founding Director of the Walker Institute for Climate System Research . From 2015 to 2016 she was one of the members of the High Level Group of Scientific Advisors of the European Commission Scientific Advice Mechanism , part of its Directorate-General for Research and Innovation .","qid":"152","docid":"Julia_Slingo","rank":19,"score":144561},{"content":"Title: HadCRUT Content: HadCRUT is the dataset of monthly instrumental temperature records formed by combining the sea surface temperature records compiled by the Hadley Centre of the UK Met Office and the land surface air temperature records compiled by the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) of the University of East Anglia . The data is provided on a grid of boxes covering the globe , with values provided for only those boxes containing temperature observations in a particular month and year . Interpolation is not applied to infill missing values . The first version of HadCRUT initially spanned the period 1881 -- 1993 , and this was later extended to begin in 1850 and to be regularly updated to the current year/month in near real-time .","qid":"152","docid":"HadCRUT","rank":20,"score":141109},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .","qid":"152","docid":"Climate_change_in_Texas","rank":21,"score":139497},{"content":"Title: Met Office Content: The Met Office ( officially the Meteorological Office until 2000 ) is the United Kingdom 's national weather service . It is an executive agency and trading fund of the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy led by CEO , Rob Varley and chief scientist , Professor Stephen Belcher . The Met Office makes meteorological predictions across all timescales from weather forecasts to climate change .","qid":"152","docid":"Met_Office","rank":22,"score":136044},{"content":"Title: Catherine King (scientist) Content: Catherine K. King is an Australian ecotoxicologist who studies sub-Antarctic and Antarctic regions , with a focus on climate change and the impacts of contaminants and environmental stressors in terrestrial and marine ecosystems .","qid":"152","docid":"Catherine_King_(scientist)","rank":23,"score":135984},{"content":"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .","qid":"152","docid":"Mark_Z._Jacobson","rank":24,"score":134900},{"content":"Title: David Rogers (meteorologist) Content: David Peter Rogers ( born 20 March 1957 ) was Chief Executive of the Met Office from June 2004 to July 2005 . Since 2007 , he has been President and Chairman of the Health and Climate Foundation , a charity with headquarters in Washington , DC . He was educated at the University of East Anglia ( BSc ) and the University of Southampton ( PhD ) , where his thesis was on numerical modelling of the atmospheric boundary layer over the ocean .","qid":"152","docid":"David_Rogers_(meteorologist)","rank":25,"score":131690},{"content":"Title: 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference Content: The 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , subtitled Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , was held 28 -- 30 September 2009 at Oxford , United Kingdom . < ref name = `` 4DC '' > 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , University of Oxford , 28-29 Sept. 2009 . The three-day conference had about 140 science , government , NGO and private sector delegates , and included 35 oral presentations and 18 poster presentations . The conference website includes a page for downloading abstracts , presentations , audio recordings , and the programme . Links to a number of news stories are also provided . The conference was sponsored by the University of Oxford , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , and the Met Office Hadley Centre . Video podcasts of all oral presentations are posted on a University of Oxford website ; however , to find videos by presenter names the above cited program must first be consulted to find the presentation title . In January 2011 , eleven papers and three introductory articles resulting from the conference were published as a special issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , Four degrees and beyond : the potential for a global temperature increase of four degrees and its implications . Many of the papers are free downloads . The contents of the special issue are listed later in this article . In July 2011 , a follow-up conference , Four Degrees Or More ? Australia in a Hot World , was held at the University of Melbourne , Australia .","qid":"152","docid":"4_Degrees_and_Beyond_International_Climate_Conference","rank":26,"score":131262},{"content":"Title: Peter V. Hobbs Content: Peter Victor Hobbs ( 1936 -- 2005 ) was a British-born professor of Atmospheric Sciences and Director of the Cloud and Aerosol Research Group at the University of Washington . His research interests were in the physics and chemistry of the atmosphere , focusing on the roles played by aerosols , clouds , and precipitation . He authored over 250 peer-reviewed papers , authored four books , and edited three books . He is the coauthor with John Michael Wallace of what is generally considered the standard introductory textbook in the field : Atmospheric Science : An Introductory Survey .","qid":"152","docid":"Peter_V._Hobbs","rank":27,"score":130917},{"content":"Title: Catherine McKenna Content: Catherine Mary McKenna ( born August 5 , 1971 ) is a Canadian Liberal politician , who was elected to represent the riding of Ottawa Centre in the House of Commons of Canada in the 2015 federal election . She was appointed as Minister of Environment and Climate Change in the Cabinet , headed by Justin Trudeau , on November 4 , 2015 . She holds a master 's degree from the London School of Economics and a law degree from McGill University .","qid":"152","docid":"Catherine_McKenna","rank":28,"score":130834},{"content":"Title: Gerard Jennings Content: Gerard Jennings , also known as Professor S. Gerard Jennings , is an Irish Professor of Physics in NUI Galway , in Ireland . Jennings is the Director of the Environmental Change Institute ( ECI ) , which is a multidisciplinary research centre involving collaboration between researchers from various faculties of NUI , Galway and other research centres across Ireland . He also directs the Atmospheric Research Group , in the Department of Physics at NUI , Galway . In 2001 he was conferred with the degree of Doctor Honoris Causa ( Honorary Doctorate ) by the University of Gothenburg , Sweden . The degree was awarded in recognition of the world-recognised research achievements of Professor Jennings in the field of Atmospheric Science , which embraces aerosol and cloud physics , and climate and environmental change .","qid":"152","docid":"Gerard_Jennings","rank":29,"score":130299},{"content":"Title: Ellie Highwood Content: Ellie Highwood is Professor of Climate Physics at the University of Reading and was head of that department from 2012 until 2015 . She was previously a member of the RMetS Council and Education Committee . On 1 October 2016 she became the 81st President of the Royal Meteorological Society ( RMetS ) . Highwood studied physics at the University of Manchester and then studied for a PhD at the University of Reading . Her research focuses on atmospheric particulates in climate , particularly the impact of aerosol on climate change and climate model simulations . In 2015 she also took on the role of Dean for Diversity and Inclusion at the University of Reading , which is a job share with Professor Simon Chandler-Wilde . Her work has been discussed in notable publications , such as The Independent and the BBC . She has argued that cooling the planet artificially by `` injecting tiny reflective particles into the atmosphere '' ( as proposed by Paul Crutzen , for example ) could `` cause droughts and climate chaos '' in poor countries , albeit also stating that it would `` be prudent to explore alternatives that might help us in the decades ahead '' .","qid":"152","docid":"Ellie_Highwood","rank":30,"score":129022},{"content":"Title: CLOUD experiment Content: Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or CLOUD is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) and aerosols under controlled conditions . The experiment began operation in November 2009 . The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) on aerosols and clouds , and their implications for climate . Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question , ( as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997 ) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions . Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models .","qid":"152","docid":"CLOUD_experiment","rank":31,"score":128512},{"content":"Title: HadCM3 Content: HadCM3 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Coupled Model , version 3 ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom . It was one of the major models used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report in 2001 . Unlike earlier AOGCMs at the Hadley Centre and elsewhere ( including its predecessor HadCM2 ) , HadCM3 does not need flux adjustment ( additional `` artificial '' heat and freshwater fluxes at the ocean surface ) to produce a good simulation . The higher ocean resolution of HadCM3 is a major factor in this ; other factors include a good match between the atmospheric and oceanic components ; and an improved ocean mixing scheme ( Gent and McWilliams ) . HadCM3 has been run to produce simulations for periods of over a thousand years , showing little drift in its surface climate . HadCM3 is composed of two components : the atmospheric model HadAM3 and the ocean model HadOM3 ( which includes a sea ice model ) . Simulations use a 360-day calendar , where each month is 30 days .","qid":"152","docid":"HadCM3","rank":32,"score":126811},{"content":"Title: S. K. Satheesh Content: Sreedharan Krishnakumari Satheesh ( born 1970 ) is an Indian meteorologist and a professor at the Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences of the Indian Institute of Science ( IISc ) . He holds the chair of the Divecha Centre for Climate Change , a centre under the umbrella of the IISc for researches on climate variability , climate change and their impact on the environment . He is known for his studies on atmospheric aerosols and is an elected fellow of all the three major Indian science academies viz . Indian Academy of Sciences Indian National Science Academy and the National Academy of Sciences , India as well as The World Academy of Sciences . The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research , the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research , awarded him the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology , one of the highest Indian science awards for his contributions to Earth , Atmosphere , Ocean and Planetary Sciences in 2009 . He received the TWAS Prize of The World Academy of Sciences in 2011 .","qid":"152","docid":"S._K._Satheesh","rank":33,"score":126725},{"content":"Title: George Hadley Content: George Hadley ( February 12 , 1685 -- June 28 , 1768 ) was an English lawyer and amateur meteorologist who proposed the atmospheric mechanism by which the Trade Winds are sustained , which is now named in his honor as Hadley circulation . As a key factor in ensuring that European sailing vessels reached North American shores , understanding the Trade Winds was becoming a matter of great importance at the time . Hadley was intrigued by the fact that winds which should by all rights have blown straight north had a pronounced westerly flow , and it was this mystery he set out to solve .","qid":"152","docid":"George_Hadley","rank":34,"score":125407},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility Content: The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility ( ARM Climate Research Facility ) is a United States Department of Energy scientific user facility for the study of global climate change by the national and international research community . The ARM Climate Research Facility consists of global observation sites and research aircraft that measure radiative properties of the atmosphere , particularly cloud and aerosol formation processes . Continuous data from these sites , as well as supplemental data obtained through intensive field research campaigns , are available to scientists online through the ARM Data Archive . ARM is collaboratively managed by nine DOE national laboratories .","qid":"152","docid":"Atmospheric_Radiation_Measurement_Climate_Research_Facility","rank":35,"score":123216},{"content":"Title: John Hadley (philosopher) Content: John Hadley ( born 27 September 1966 ) is an Australian philosopher whose research concerns moral and political philosophy , including animal ethics , environmental ethics and metaethics . He is currently a senior lecturer in philosophy in the School of Humanities and Communication Arts at Western Sydney University . He has previously taught at Charles Sturt University and the University of Sydney , where he studied as an undergraduate and doctoral candidate . In addition to a variety of articles in peer-reviewed journals and edited collections , he is the author of the 2015 monograph Animal Property Rights ( Lexington Books ) and the co-editor , with Elisa Aaltola , of the 2015 collection Animal Ethics and Philosophy ( Rowman & Littlefield International ) . Hadley is known for his account of animal property rights theory . He proposes that wild animals be offered property rights over their territories , and that guardians be appointed to represent their interests in decision-making procedures . He suggests that this account could be justified directly , on the basis of the interests of the animals concerned , or indirectly , so that natural environments are protected . The theory has received discussion in popular and academic contexts , with critical responses from farming groups and mixed responses from moral and political theorists . Hadley has also conducted research on normative issues related to animal rights extremism , the aiding of others and utilitarianism .","qid":"152","docid":"John_Hadley_(philosopher)","rank":36,"score":123040},{"content":"Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .","qid":"152","docid":"Dennis_Tirpak","rank":37,"score":121839},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .","qid":"152","docid":"Climate_Change_Research_Centre","rank":38,"score":121141},{"content":"Title: Held-Hou Model Content: The Held-Hou Model is a model for the Hadley circulation of the atmosphere that would exist in the absence of atmospheric turbulence . The model was developed by Isaac Held and Arthur Hou in 1980 . The essence of the model is that air rising from the surface at the equator conserves its angular momentum as it moves poleward . This distribution of wind , in turn , determines the distribution of temperature , which determines the latitudinal extent of the circulation by requiring energy conservation . This stands in contrast to George Hadley 's original conception of the circulation , which he argued reached the poles . The Hadley circulation has a cooling effect at and near the equator and a warming effect at higher latitudes within the Hadley Cell . This energy transport can be converted into a mass transport , to determine the strength of the circulation , by normalizing by the appropriate vertical stability . The effects of moisture and seasons on the model have been studied . Earth 's atmosphere violates the underlying assumptions of the model : angular momentum is not conserved and the tropical atmosphere is not energetically closed . As such , the Held-Hou model is a conceptual model that does not make quantitatively accurate predictions of the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation to changes in atmospheric parameters .","qid":"152","docid":"Held-Hou_Model","rank":39,"score":120823},{"content":"Title: Adam Scaife Content: Adam Arthur Scaife B.A. M.A. MSc PhD FRMetS ( born 18 March 1970 ) is a British physicist , and head of long range prediction at the Met Office . He is an honorary visiting Professor at Exeter University . Scaife carries out research into long range weather forecasting and computer modelling of the climate . Scaife has published over 100 peer reviewed studies on atmospheric dynamics , computer modelling and climate predictability and change and recently published popular science and academic books on meteorology .","qid":"152","docid":"Adam_Scaife","rank":40,"score":120201},{"content":"Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .","qid":"152","docid":"IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992","rank":41,"score":120187},{"content":"Title: János Pásztor (diplomat) Content: János Pásztor ( born 1955 ) is a Hungarian diplomat , the Senior Adviser to the Secretary-General on Climate Change . He joined his current role in January 2016 at the request of United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon . Prior to his current role he was Assistant Secretary-General on Climate Change in the Executive Office of the Secretary-General of the United Nations in New York City . He was appointed Assistant Secretary-General in January 2015 after taking leave of absence from the World Wide Fund for Nature International where he was Policy and Science Director and acting Director for Conservation .","qid":"152","docid":"János_Pásztor_(diplomat)","rank":42,"score":117590},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"152","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":43,"score":117346},{"content":"Title: Stephen Schneider Content: Stephen Henry Schneider ( February 11 , 1945 -- July 19 , 2010 ) was Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University , a Co-Director at the Center for Environment Science and Policy of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Senior Fellow in the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment . Schneider served as a consultant to federal agencies and White House staff in the Richard Nixon , Jimmy Carter , Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations . Schneider 's research included modeling of the atmosphere , climate change , and the effect of global climate change on biological systems . Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal Climatic Change and authored or co-authored over 450 scientific papers and other publications . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) at the time of his death . During the 1980s , Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming . In 2006 Professor Schneider was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence advising the South Australian Government of Premier Mike Rann on climate change and renewable energy policies . In ten years South Australia went from zero to 31 % of its electricity generation coming from renewables . An annual award for outstanding climate science communication was created in Schneider 's honor after his death , by the Commonwealth Club of California .","qid":"152","docid":"Stephen_Schneider","rank":44,"score":117346},{"content":"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .","qid":"152","docid":"Albrecht_effect","rank":45,"score":117205},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"152","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":46,"score":116934},{"content":"Title: Maria Cristina Facchini Content: Maria Cristina Facchini is a geoscientist and research director based , since the 1980s , at the University of Bologna in Italy . Her research is directed at the process of change , natural and man-made , from aerosols in atmospheric composition , and at how that change is affecting many aspects of our lives , including climate , ultraviolet radiation levels , and regional air quality . These impact , as her group 's website puts it , `` the fundamental necessities of human existence '' , such as human health , food production , and water resources . She has published over 100 papers , many of which have been critically acclaimed . She is on multiple panels/boards , including , since 2011 , the Scientific Advisory Board of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz , Germany .","qid":"152","docid":"Maria_Cristina_Facchini","rank":47,"score":115798},{"content":"Title: Leila Hadley Content: Leila Hadley ( 22 September 1925 -- 10 February 2009 ) was an American travel writer and socialite . Her books include Give Me the World ( 1958 ) and A Journey With Elsa Cloud ( 1997 ) .","qid":"152","docid":"Leila_Hadley","rank":48,"score":115646},{"content":"Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''","qid":"152","docid":"Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)","rank":49,"score":115493},{"content":"Title: Thomas R. Karl Content: Thomas R. Karl ( Born 22 November 1951 , Evergreen Park , Illinois ) is the former director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Centers for Environmental Information ( NCEI ) . He joined the National Climate Centre in 1980 , and when that became the National Climatic Data Center , he continued as a researcher , becoming a Lab Chief , Senior Scientist and ultimately Director of the Center . When it merged with other centers to become NCEI in 2015 , he became its first director . He retired on 4 August 2016 .","qid":"152","docid":"Thomas_R._Karl","rank":50,"score":115161},{"content":"Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .","qid":"152","docid":"Petr_Chýlek","rank":51,"score":114725},{"content":"Title: Robert Jay Charlson Content: Robert Jay Charlson is an American atmospheric scientist , climate scientist , pioneer in the fields of climate forcing and climate change , and coauthor of the CLAW hypothesis . He is professor of Atmospheric Sciences , chemistry , and geophysics at the University of Washington in Seattle , Washington . Charlson earned his PhD from the University of Washington . He is a world expert in atmospheric chemistry , aerosol physics , aerosol/cloud/climate interaction , aerosol and cloud instrumentation .","qid":"152","docid":"Robert_Jay_Charlson","rank":52,"score":114609},{"content":"Title: Darin Toohey Content: Darin W. Toohey is an American atmospheric scientist . He is a professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences and of environmental studies at the University of Colorado Boulder since 1999 . Toohey 's research addresses the role of trace gases and aerosols on Earth 's climate , atmospheric oxidation , and air quality . He was a Jefferson Science Fellow at the United States Department of State , 2011-2012 .","qid":"152","docid":"Darin_Toohey","rank":53,"score":113967},{"content":"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible","qid":"152","docid":"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia","rank":54,"score":113378},{"content":"Title: Jean Palutikof Content: Jean Palutikof is founding Director of the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility ( NCCARF ) at Griffith University , Australia . She has held this position since 2008 . Prior to this , Professor Palutikof was based at the UK Met Office during which time she managed the production of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability ) . Professor Palutikof is among the foremost scholars of climate change adaptation and was lead author and review editor for several assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and was present in Oslo at the ceremony at which the IPCC received the Nobel Peace Prize .","qid":"152","docid":"Jean_Palutikof","rank":55,"score":113277},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"152","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":56,"score":113177},{"content":"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .","qid":"152","docid":"Marine_cloud_brightening","rank":57,"score":112966},{"content":"Title: Catherine McArdle Kelleher Content: Catherine McArdle Kelleher ( born January 19 , 1939 ) is an American political scientist involved in national and international security policy . Currently , she is Senior Fellow at the Watson Institute for International Studies at Brown University and College Park Professor of Public Policy at the University of Maryland . Kelleher was the Director of the Aspen Institute in Berlin from 1998 to 2001 when she was appointed Professor of Strategy at the Naval War College ( 2001 -- 2006 ) . In the 1990s she was appointed Honorarprofessor at the Free University of Berlin , and she has regularly taught at the Geneva Center for Security Policy in Switzerland for over a decade . Her public service career began with appointment to the National War College as a professor of military strategy in the 1980s ( only the second woman professor in their history ) and a series of consulting posts in Office of the Secretary of Defense , Arms Control and Disarmament Agency , and Department of State . She has served both in the White House on the National Security Council staff ( under President Jimmy Carter ) and at various levels in the Department of Defense . Her most recent assignments are as the Secretary of Defense 's Personal Representative and Defense Advisor to the US Mission to NATO , and as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Russia , Ukraine , and Eurasia ( OSD/RUE ) in the Clinton Administration . She is considered an expert on international security .","qid":"152","docid":"Catherine_McArdle_Kelleher","rank":58,"score":112812},{"content":"Title: Rick S. Piltz Content: Frederick Steven `` Rick '' Piltz ( July 29 , 1943 -- October 18 , 2014 ) was a former senior associate in the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . In March 2005 , he resigned over political interference in the program 's climate change reports . In June 2005 , the New York Times exposed the role of Philip Cooney in editing government documents on climate change to create scientific uncertainty . A former lobbyist with the American Petroleum Institute , Cooney resigned and days later took a job at Exxon Mobil . Piltz went on to found Climate Science Watch , a project to hold public officials accountable for using climate science with integrity in policy making . Climate Science Watch is a program of the Government Accountability Project , a whistleblower protection agency in Washington , D.C.","qid":"152","docid":"Rick_S._Piltz","rank":59,"score":112213},{"content":"Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .","qid":"152","docid":"The_Cloud_Mystery","rank":60,"score":111880},{"content":"Title: Hadley cell Content: The Hadley cell , named after George Hadley , is a global scale tropical atmospheric circulation that features air rising near the equator , flowing poleward at 10 -- 15 kilometers above the surface , descending in the subtropics , and then returning equatorward near the surface . This circulation creates the trade winds , tropical rain-belts and hurricanes , subtropical deserts and the jet streams . In each hemisphere , there is one primary circulation cell known as a Hadley cell and two secondary circulation cells at higher latitudes , between 30 ° and 60 ° latitude known as the Ferrel cell , and beyond 60 ° as the Polar cell . Each Hadley cell operates between zero and 30 to 40 degrees north and south and is mainly responsible for the weather in the equatorial regions of the world .","qid":"152","docid":"Hadley_cell","rank":61,"score":111820},{"content":"Title: Cloud physics Content: Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation , growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds . These aerosols are found in the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere , which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere . Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water ( warm clouds ) , tiny crystals of ice ( cold clouds ) , or both ( mixed phase clouds ) . Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory . Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface . At small radii , the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large , that it does not happen naturally . Raoult 's Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution . At high concentrations , when the cloud droplets are small , the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus . In warm clouds , larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity ; because at a given velocity , the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets . The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops . When the drops become large enough that their downward velocity ( relative to the surrounding air ) is greater than the upward velocity ( relative to the earth ) of the surrounding air , the drops can fall to the earth as precipitation . The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the Bergeron process dominates . Other important processes that form precipitation are riming , when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake , and aggregation , when two solid snowflakes collide and combine . The precise mechanics of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood , but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets . Advances in weather radar and satellite technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale .","qid":"152","docid":"Cloud_physics","rank":62,"score":110709},{"content":"Title: Cloud Aerosol Transport System Content: The Cloud Aerosol Transport System ( CATS ) is a light detection and ranging remote sensing instrument designed to measure the location , composition and distribution of pollution , dust , smoke , aerosols and other particulates in the atmosphere . CATS is to be installed on the Kibo module of the International Space Station and is expected to run for at least six months , and up to three years . It was launched in January 2015 aboard the SpaceX CRS-5 resupply mission . CATS will use a laser operating at three wavelengths ( 1064 , 532 , and 355 nm ) to determine cloud layer height , thickness , and depth . Some of the applications of the data gathered will be to develop and refine climate models as well as providing insight for future examinations of the atmospheres of Mars , Jupiter , and other extraterrestrial atmospheres .","qid":"152","docid":"Cloud_Aerosol_Transport_System","rank":63,"score":110497},{"content":"Title: Heidi Cullen Content: Heidi Cullen is the chief scientist for the non-profit environmental organization , Climate Central , located in Princeton , New Jersey . In addition , she is a guest lecturer at nearby Princeton University , and the author of the book , The Weather of the Future . An expert and commentator about issues related to climate change and the environment , she was an on-air personality at The Weather Channel , and is a senior research fellow at the University of Pennsylvania ( Penn ) .","qid":"152","docid":"Heidi_Cullen","rank":64,"score":110490},{"content":"Title: Catherine A. Novelli Content: Catherine Ann Novelli ( born 1957 ) is a U.S. diplomat who served as Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth , Energy , and the Environment at the U.S. Department of State from 2014 to 2017 . She is also the State Department 's Senior Coordinator for International Information Technology Diplomacy .","qid":"152","docid":"Catherine_A._Novelli","rank":65,"score":110468},{"content":"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .","qid":"152","docid":"Michael_Schlesinger","rank":66,"score":110323},{"content":"Title: Veerabhadran Ramanathan Content: Veerabhadran Ramanathan ( Tamil : வீரபத்ரன் இராமநாதன் ) is Victor Alderson Professor of Applied Ocean Sciences and director of the Center for Atmospheric Sciences at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography , University of California , San Diego . He has contributed to many areas of the atmospheric sciences including developments to general circulation models , atmospheric chemistry , and radiative transfer . He has been a part of major projects such as the Indian Ocean Experiment ( INDOEX ) and the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , and is known for his contributions to the area of atmospheric aerosol research . He has received numerous awards , and is a member of the US National Academy of Sciences . He has spoken about the topic of global warming , and written that `` the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming is , in my opinion , the most important environmental issue facing the world today . ''","qid":"152","docid":"Veerabhadran_Ramanathan","rank":67,"score":109713},{"content":"Title: Catherine Hakim Content: Catherine Hakim ( born 30 May 1948 ) is a British sociologist who specialises in women 's employment and women 's issues . She is currently a Professorial Research Fellow at the Institute for the Study of Civil Society ( Civitas ) , and has formerly worked in British central government and been a Senior Research Fellow at the London School of Economics and the Centre for Policy Studies . She has also been a Visiting Professor at the Social Science Research Center Berlin .","qid":"152","docid":"Catherine_Hakim","rank":68,"score":109535},{"content":"Title: Kevin Anderson (scientist) Content: Kevin Anderson is the Deputy Director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research ; holds a joint chair in Energy and Climate Change at the School of Mechanical , Aerospace and Civil Engineering at the University of Manchester and School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ; and is an honorary lecturer in Environmental Management at the Manchester Business School . He is an adviser to the British Government ( as of 2009 ) on climate change .","qid":"152","docid":"Kevin_Anderson_(scientist)","rank":69,"score":109342},{"content":"Title: David A. Jones Content: David Arfon Jones is a senior climatologist at the Australian Bureau of Meteorology . He initially studied mathematics and chemistry at university but changed to atmospheric studies . Jones obtained his PhD in Earth Science from the University of Melbourne , Australia in 1995 . He subsequently completed the postgraduate diploma in weather forecasting in 1995 at the Bureau of Meteorology . In 1995 Jones commenced work in the Climate Analysis Section of the Australian National Climate Centre , focusing on the automation of climate monitoring using objective analysis techniques . Subsequently he moved to the Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre in 1997 undertaking research on the variability and change of Australia 's climate . Jones became the supervisor of Climate Analysis at the Bureau of Meteorology in 2002 . In this role he has promoted the automation of analysis , monitoring and forecasting products and the introduction of a range of innovative climate monitoring activities , with a focus on encouraging the interpretation of climate variability in the context of a rapidly changing climate . Owing to the continued misrepresentation of climate change in the Australian media Jones has written a number of public pieces correcting or explaining climate change including in The Age , and in articles for the Australian Science Media Centre . In 2006 Jones was awarded the National Australia Day Council Achievement Medallion .","qid":"152","docid":"David_A._Jones","rank":70,"score":109043},{"content":"Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .","qid":"152","docid":"International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project","rank":71,"score":108418},{"content":"Title: Jasper Kirkby Content: Jasper Kirkby is a British experimental particle physicist currently with CERN . He originated the idea for the Tau-Charm Factory , an accelerator now under construction as BEPC II in Beijing . He has led several large particle accelerator experiments at SPEAR ; the Paul Scherrer Institute ; and most recently , the CLOUD experiment at CERN . The CLOUD experiment is investigating possible physical mechanisms for solar/cosmic ray forcing - a theory whereby cloud nucleation is affected by cosmic rays and the cosmic rays are affected by solar activity . The main purpose of the CLOUD experiment is to simulate the conditions under which clouds form in earth 's atmosphere -- specifically , the process by which cloud condensation nuclei form from aerosols in the atmosphere . Kirkby et al. published the results of CLOUD 's first experiment in the journal Nature in 2011 , reporting that cosmic rays `` seemed to enhance the production of nanometre-sized particles from the gaseous atmosphere by more than a factor of ten . '' He added , however , that the particles in question are far too small to serve as cloud condensation nuclei , adding , `` At the moment , it actually says nothing about a possible cosmic-ray effect on clouds and climate , but it 's a very important first step . ''","qid":"152","docid":"Jasper_Kirkby","rank":72,"score":108186},{"content":"Title: Cloud Content: In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .","qid":"152","docid":"Cloud","rank":73,"score":108100},{"content":"Title: Gerald Meehl Content: Gerald Allen `` Jerry '' Meehl is a climate scientist who has been a senior scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research since 2001 .","qid":"152","docid":"Gerald_Meehl","rank":74,"score":107644},{"content":"Title: Jeffrey Kiehl Content: Jeffrey Theodore Kiehl ( born June 10 , 1952 ) is an American climate scientist . He is head of the Climate Change Research Section in the National Center for Atmospheric Research located in Boulder , Colorado . He completed his atmospheric science doctoral studies at the State University of New York , Albany . He was awarded the 2012 Climate Communication Prize from the American Geophysical Union .","qid":"152","docid":"Jeffrey_Kiehl","rank":75,"score":107640},{"content":"Title: Sujatha Byravan Content: Sujatha Byravan is Principal Research Scientist at the Center for Study of Science , Technology and Policy ( CSTEP ) . Until 2012 , she was Senior Fellow at the Centre for Development Finance in IFMR where the focus of her work was primarily on adaptation to global warming . Her interests are in the broad areas of science , technology and development and are grounded in her technical background and education in the biological sciences . Her recent projects and publications have been on India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change , sea level rise , environmental migrants and exiles , including so-called ` climate refugees ' , biotechnology policy , innovation , and science for sustainable development . Between 2002 and 2007 , she was Executive Director and President of the Council for Responsible Genetics ( CRG ) , a non-profit/non-governmental organization devoted to fostering informed debate on the social , ethical and environmental implications of new genetic technologies . CRG carries out policy research , education and advocacy . Byravan received a PhD in molecular biology in 1989 from the University of South Carolina . She completed post-doctoral work from 1993 to 1995 at UCLA . She then worked in India as a science writer and freelance journalist . Topics she has written on include science policy , gender issues , and Indian environmental concerns and politics . During that time , Byravan also became a fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation 's LEAD ( Leadership for Environment and Development ) Program ( 1995 to 1997 ) . She later served as Director of the Fellows Program at LEAD International from 1999-2002 , and in that capacity was responsible for developing and executing the program for the graduates of LEAD , who number over 1,300 and work all over the world in various sectors . Byravan is also a fellow of the Salzburg Global Seminar on Biotechnology : Legal , Ethical and Social Issues . She received a Rockefeller Foundation Residential Fellowship at Bellagio in 2007 . She is on the board of LEAD ( India ) .","qid":"152","docid":"Sujatha_Byravan","rank":76,"score":107615},{"content":"Title: Giles Harrison Content: Giles Harrison is Professor of Atmospheric Physics at the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading , where he has served twice as Head of Department . His research work continues over 250 years of UK studies in atmospheric electricity , in its modern form an interdisciplinary topic at the intersection of aerosol physics , solar-climate interactions , scientific sensor development and the retrieval of quantitative data from historical sources . He has authored or co-authored over 250 papers , co-edited a conference volume on Planetary Atmospheric Electricity . and a postgraduate textbook on meteorological instruments . His research includes some of the first airborne measurements in UK airspace of Icelandic volcanic ash from Eyjafjallajökull , during the April 2010 flight ban . He was educated at Marling School Stroud , and St Catharine 's College Cambridge . He holds doctorates from Imperial College London ( PhD 1992 ) , and the University of Cambridge ( ScD 2014 ) . He is a member of the Academia Europea and a Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy . In 2011 he was the Bill Bright lecturer at the International Electrostatics Conference and in 2016 he was awarded the Appleton Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics .","qid":"152","docid":"Giles_Harrison","rank":77,"score":107360},{"content":"Title: Elizabeth Pattey Content: Elizabeth Pattey , Ph.D. , is a senior research scientist at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada ( AAFC ) and the leader of the micrometeorology laboratory at the Ottawa Research and Development Centre . Her research supports nation-wide improvement in the environmental performance of agriculture , in support of the United Nations ' Framework Convention on Climate Change and Canada 's Clean Air Act . She is the co-author for over 80 peer-reviewed scientific publications , and her areas of expertise include trace gas flux measurement techniques , process-based models , and remote-sensing applications .","qid":"152","docid":"Elizabeth_Pattey","rank":78,"score":107287},{"content":"Title: Tom Wigley Content: Tom Wigley is a climate scientist at the University of Adelaide . He is also affiliated with the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) . He was named a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) for his major contributions to climate and carbon cycle modeling and to climate data analysis , and because he is `` one of the world 's foremost experts on climate change and one of the most highly cited scientists in the discipline . '' His h-index ( August 2014 ) is 64 , one of the highest in the discipline . He contributed to many of the reports published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . Wigley was educated as a mathematical physicist and earned his doctorate at the University of Adelaide in Australia . He served as director of the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom from 1978 to 1993 . In 1993 he went on to the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder , Colorado , where he was appointed a senior scientist in 1994 . He subsequently moved to the University of Adelaide where he currently ( 2014 ) holds a Professorial Fellowship . His published papers include the first paper to demonstrate 20th century warming using both land and marine data , the first paper to include the effects of aerosol cooling on projections of future climate change , the first paper to provide realistic scenarios for the stabilization of atmospheric CO2 , and the first paper to use pattern-based methods to identify a significant human influence on the climate . Wigley has also published a number of highly cited papers in aqueous geochemistry , including a now-standard method for carbon dating of groundwater . Wigley has argued in the popular media that the IPCC has been too optimistic about the prospect of averting harmful climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions through the use of renewable technologies alone , and argued that any realistic portfolio must include significant contributions from nuclear energy . He has also pointed out that `` the human-induced changes that are expected over the next 100 years are much , much greater than any changes that societies experienced in the past . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''","qid":"152","docid":"Tom_Wigley","rank":79,"score":107223},{"content":"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .","qid":"152","docid":"World_Climate_Research_Programme","rank":80,"score":107126},{"content":"Title: Saleemul Huq Content: Saleemul Huq ( সালিমুল হক born 2 October 1952 ) is a Bangladeshi scientist based in London . He is a Senior Fellow in the Climate Change Group at the International Institute for Environment and Development ( IIED ) .","qid":"152","docid":"Saleemul_Huq","rank":81,"score":106865},{"content":"Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .","qid":"152","docid":"Cloud_formation_and_climate_change","rank":82,"score":106682},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"152","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":83,"score":106459},{"content":"Title: Eileen Claussen Content: Eileen B. Claussen ( born 1945 ) is an American climate and energy policy administrator , diplomat , and lobbyist . She held senior posts at the U.S. Department of State , National Security Council , and Environmental Protection Agency before founding the Pew Center on Global Climate Change in 1998 . She then launched the center 's successor organization , the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions ( C2ES ) , in 2011 , and retired as president of C2ES in 2014 .","qid":"152","docid":"Eileen_Claussen","rank":84,"score":106225},{"content":"Title: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model Content: GFDL CM2.X ( Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model , version 2 . X ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in the United States . It is one of the leading climate models used in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC , along with models developed at the Max Planck Institute for Climate Research , the Hadley Centre and the National Center for Atmospheric Research .","qid":"152","docid":"Geophysical_Fluid_Dynamics_Laboratory_Coupled_Model","rank":85,"score":106096},{"content":"Title: Jyoti Kirit Parikh Content: Jyoti Kirit Parikh -RSB- is the current Executive Director of Integrated Research and Action for Development IRADe . She was a Member of the Prime Minister 's Council on Climate Change -- India and is a recipient of Nobel Peace Prize awarded To IPCC authors in 2007 . She was a Senior Professor at Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research ( IGIDR ) , Mumbai . She also worked at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis ( IIASA ) , Austria and served as senior energy consultant at the Niti Aayog ( formally Planning Commission ) , New Delhi ( 1978 -- 80 ) . She was a visiting professor at the Institute of Advanced Studies ( IAS ) of UNU , Tokyo ( 1995 -- 96 ) . She was the Acting Director of IGIDR for 1997-98 . She has an experience for nearly thirty years on energy and environment problems of the developing countries .","qid":"152","docid":"Jyoti_Kirit_Parikh","rank":86,"score":106075},{"content":"Title: Hadley Wickham Content: Hadley Wickham is a statistician from New Zealand who is currently Chief Scientist at RStudio and an adjunct Assistant Professor of statistics at Rice University . He is best known for his development of open-source statistical analysis software packages for R ( programming language ) that implement logics of data visualisation and data transformation . Wickham received a Bachelors of Human Biology , and a B.Sc . and a M.Sc . in statistics at the University of Auckland in 1999 -- 2004 and his PhD at Iowa State University in 2008 under the supervision of Di Cook and Heike Hoffman . In 2006 he was awarded the John Chambers Award for Statistical Computing for his work developing tools for data reshaping and visualisation . He is a prominent and active member of the R user community and has developed several notable and widely used packages including ggplot2 , plyr , dplyr , and reshape2 . Wickham 's data analysis packages for R are collectively known as the ` tidyverse ' . Wickham 's packages and writing are known for advocating a ` tidy ' approach to data import , analysis and modelling methods . According to Wickham 's tidy approach , each variable should be a column , each observation should be a row , and each type of observational unit should be a table . He was named a Fellow by the American Statistical Association in 2015 for `` pivotal contributions to statistical practice through innovative and pioneering research in statistical graphics and computing '' .","qid":"152","docid":"Hadley_Wickham","rank":87,"score":106029},{"content":"Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .","qid":"152","docid":"CloudSat","rank":88,"score":105880},{"content":"Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .","qid":"152","docid":"Tyndall_Centre","rank":89,"score":105740},{"content":"Title: Pakistan Meteorological Department Content: The Pakistan Meteorological Department ( reporting name : PMD ; unofficially known as Pakistan Met Office ) , is an autonomous and independent institution tasked with providing forecasts , public warnings , and purposes of protection , safety , and general information . Apart from meteorology , it is also involved in monitoring as well as investigating weather phenomenons , astronomical events , hydrology , and research in astrophysics , climate changes , and studies on aeronautical engineering , renewable energy resources across various parts of the country . Headquartered in Islamabad , it has offices and research facilities in all over the four provinces of the country . As of current , Dr. Ghulam Rasul is the current Director-General of the Pakistan Meteorological Department .","qid":"152","docid":"Pakistan_Meteorological_Department","rank":90,"score":105668},{"content":"Title: Priday, Metford and Company Limited Content: Priday , Metford and Company Limited was a family-run company that produced flour at the City Flour Mills , Gloucester , England for over a century . They were closed down in 1994 and the premises converted to luxury apartments under the name of `` Priday 's Mill '' . The City Flour Mills were the location of the landmark case in contract law known as Hadley v. Baxendale .","qid":"152","docid":"Priday,_Metford_and_Company_Limited","rank":91,"score":105493},{"content":"Title: Driving the future Content: Driving the Future : Combating Climate Change with Cleaner , Smarter Cars is the first book by former Environmental Protection Agency senior director Margo T. Oge . The book covers climate science , politics , regulations , auto technology and proposes how to meet greenhouse gas reduction goals . It is organized into three sections .","qid":"152","docid":"Driving_the_future","rank":92,"score":105377},{"content":"Title: George Hadley (disambiguation) Content: George Hadley ( 1685 -- 1768 ) was an English meteorologist . George Hadley may also refer to : George Hadley ( footballer ) ( 1893 -- 1963 ) , Scottish footballer George Hadley ( orientalist ) ( died 1798 ) , East India Company officer","qid":"152","docid":"George_Hadley_(disambiguation)","rank":93,"score":104944},{"content":"Title: Catherine Morgan Content: Catherine Anne Morgan , ( born 1961 ) is a British academic specialising in the history and archaeology of Early Iron Age and Archaic Greece . Since 2015 , she has been a Senior Research Fellow at All Souls College , Oxford . She was Professor of Classical Archaeology at King 's College London from 2005 to 2015 , and Director of the British School at Athens from 2007 to 2015 .","qid":"152","docid":"Catherine_Morgan","rank":94,"score":104771},{"content":"Title: Meteocentre Content: Meteocentre ( also named UQAM Weather Centre ) is a website displaying real-time weather information for North America and Europe organized in three different portals , each adapted for a given area and named after a town part of the region of interest : 1 ) Montréal , for Québec , 2 ) Toulouse , for France and 3 ) Reading , for the United Kingdom . The website created in 1994 is maintained by its founder Christian Pagé , actually a research engineer at CERFACS , in collaboration since 2009 with Jean-François Caron , a research scientist at the Met Office , and hosted by the Atmospheric Sciences Group at the Université du Québec à Montréal ( UQAM ) . Its Quebec portal , the UQAM-Montreal Weather Centre , is deemed as being the most complete weather data website for Montreal and Quebec .","qid":"152","docid":"Meteocentre","rank":95,"score":104723},{"content":"Title: John Loughhead Content: Prof John Neil Loughhead OBE FREng FIMechE FIET ( born 24 September 1948 ) is a British businessman and Chief Scientific Adviser to Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) . He is also Executive Director of the UK Energy Research Centre and a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering . He was appointed an OBE for services to Technology in 2011 . In 2014 , he was voted as one of the Top 500 Most Influential People in Britain by Debrett 's and The Sunday Times .","qid":"152","docid":"John_Loughhead","rank":96,"score":104347},{"content":"Title: Stephen Hadley Content: Stephen John Hadley ( born February 13 , 1947 ) was the 21st U.S. Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs ( commonly referred as National Security Advisor ) , serving under President George W. Bush during the second term of his administration . Hadley was Deputy National Security Advisor during the Bush 's first term . Before that Hadley served in a variety of capacities in the defense and national security fields . He has also worked as a lawyer and consultant in private practice .","qid":"152","docid":"Stephen_Hadley","rank":97,"score":104251},{"content":"Title: Hadley Arkes Content: Hadley P. Arkes ( born 1940 ) is an American political scientist and the Edward N. Ney Professor of Jurisprudence and American Institutions emeritus at Amherst College , where he has taught since 1966 . He is currently the founder and director of the James Wilson Institute on Natural Rights & the American Founding in Washington , D.C. Arkes received a B.A. degree at the University of Illinois and a Ph.D. from the University of Chicago where he was a student of Leo Strauss . In a series of books and articles dating from the mid-1980s , Arkes has written on a priori moral principles and advocated for their impact on constitutional interpretation . He has also dealt with their relation to constitutional jurisprudence and natural law , and their challenge to moral relativism . His works draw on political philosophers from Aristotle through the U.S. Founding Fathers , Lincoln , and contemporary authors and jurists . John O. McGinnis , reviewing Arkes ' Constitutional Illusions & Anchoring Truths in The Wall Street Journal , writes that it tries to find a path between the extremes of originalism , where the meaning of the U. S.Constitution is fixed by its original text , and the idea of the living constitution , where its meaning is updated by evolving moral principles . Arkes is founder and a member of the Committee for the American Founding , a group of Amherst alumni and students seeking to preserve the doctrines of `` natural rights '' exposited by some American Founders and Lincoln through the Colloquium on the American Founding at Amherst and in Washington , D.C. In 2010 Arkes , born and raised a Jew , converted to Catholicism , which he described as a fulfillment of his Jewish faith . Arkes serves on the advisory board and writes for First Things , an ecumenical journal that focuses on encouraging a `` religiously informed public philosophy for the ordering of society . '' In September 2016 , Arkes was among 125 Conservatives for Trump who announced they supported Donald Trump 's candidacy to be president .","qid":"152","docid":"Hadley_Arkes","rank":98,"score":104183},{"content":"Title: Norwegian Meteorological Institute Content: The Norwegian Meteorological Institute ( Meteorologisk institutt ) , also known as MET Norway , is Norway 's national institute which provides weather forecasts . Its three main offices are located in Oslo , Bergen and Tromsø . MET Norway has around 500 employees and some 650 part-time observers around the country . It also operated the last remaining weather ship in the world , MS Polarfront , stationed in the North Atlantic , until it was discontinued due to budgetary issues on 1 January 2010 and replaced with satellite and buoy data . The institute was founded in 1866 with the help of Norwegian astronomer and meteorologist Henrik Mohn who served as its director until 1913 . He is credited with founding meteorological research in Norway . The institute represents Norway in international organizations like the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) , and EUMETSAT . The Institute is also partner to a number of international research and monitoring projects including EMEP , MyOcean , MyWave and the North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System ( NOOS ) .","qid":"152","docid":"Norwegian_Meteorological_Institute","rank":99,"score":104077},{"content":"Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"152","docid":"Lee_Hannah","rank":100,"score":103908}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research Content: The Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Change -- named in honour of George Hadley -- is one of the United Kingdom 's leading centres for the study of scientific issues associated with climate change . It is part of , and based at the headquarters of the Met Office in Exeter .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Hadley_Centre_for_Climate_Prediction_and_Research\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 228589\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Kingdom Chemistry and Aerosols model Content: The United Kingdom Chemistry and Aerosols ( UKCA ) is a community Chemistry-Aerosol-Climate model which are research runs of the Met Office 's operational Unified Model . It runs within the Hadley Centre example with multiple flavours of varying horizontal resolutions and vertical layers . It is a collaboration of the Met Office with the University of Cambridge , University of Leeds , University of Oxford , University of Reading , University of East Anglia , and Lancaster University in the UK and the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research of New Zealand .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Kingdom_Chemistry_and_Aerosols_model\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 217926\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Richard_A._Betts\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 206256\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_A._Stott\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 203538\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"John_F._B._Mitchell\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 198252\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Simon_Tett\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 197703\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Carson (climatologist) Content: David John Carson is a climatologist . He has been director of the Hadley Centre ( around 1990-1996 ) , director of Numerical Weather Prediction at the UKMO ( around 1999-2000 ) , and was director of the World Climate Research Programme from 2000-2005 . Carson joined the UK Meteorological Office in 1969 , following his Ph.D from the Department of Applied Mathematics , University of Liverpool , working on the structure and evolution of the atmospheric boundary layer . He did early research on the development of atmospheric general circulation models . In 1982 , he was appointed to Assistant Director within the Met Office , and led the Boundary Layer Research Branch and later the Dynamical Climatology Branch . For 1987 -- 1989 Carson was seconded to the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) as their first Programme Director for atmospheric sciences . He returned to the Met . Office in January 1990 and became Director of Climate Research and then first Director of the Hadley Centre .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Carson_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 193416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"John_T._Houghton\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 190225\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Vicky_Pope\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 189542\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HadGEM1 Content: HadGEM1 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model , version 1 ) is a coupled climate model developed at the Met Office 's Hadley Centre in 2006 and used in IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on climate change . It represents a significant scientific advance on its predecessor , HadCM3 . HadGEM1 also provides a basis for further development of models , particularly involving enhanced resolution and full Earth System modelling . The current version is HadGEM3 .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"HadGEM1\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 187038\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Richard Betts Content: Richard Betts may refer to : Richard A. Betts , climate scientist at the Met Office Hadley Centre Richard K. Betts ( born 1947 ) , Arnold A. Saltzman Professor of War and Peace Studies , Columbia University\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Richard_Betts\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 185124\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geoff Jenkins (climatologist) Content: Geoffrey ( Geoff ) Jenkins is a climatologist and former head of climate change prediction at the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , part of the Met Office .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Geoff_Jenkins_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 184893\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Jonathan_M._Gregory\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 176138\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: PRECIS Content: PRECIS ( Providing REgional Climates for Impacts Studies , pronounced pray-sea ) is developed at the Hadley Centre at the UK Met Office , PRECIS is a regional climate modelling system designed to run on a Linux based PC . PRECIS can be applied to any area of the globe to generate detailed climate change projections .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"PRECIS\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 174095\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 154789\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 153674\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Parker_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 147387\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Thorne (climatologist) Content: Peter William Thorne is a climatologist and professor of physical geography in the Department of Geography , Maynooth University . He graduated with a BSc in Environmental Sciences from the University of East Anglia in 1998 , and a PhD from the School of Environmental Sciences in 2001 . He previously worked at the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research and the National Climatic Data Center , and he was a senior scientist at the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center , Bergen , Norway . He is the chair of the International Surface Temperature Initiative which consists of an interdisciplinary effort to create a suite of improved Land Surface Air Temperature products to meet science needs and societal expectations in the era of climate services . Thorne is co-chair of the GCOS Working Group on the Global Climate Observing System Reference Upper Air Network ( GRUAN ) , and he is also the project lead on the Horizon 2020 GAIA-CLIM project which aims to use such measurements to better characterise satellite measurements . He is a Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Thorne_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 145161\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Julia Slingo Content: Dame Julia Mary Slingo , ( née Walker ; born 13 December 1950 ) is a British meteorologist and climate scientist . She has been the Chief Scientist at the Met Office since 2009 . She is also a Visiting Professor in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading , where she held , prior to appointment to the Met Office , the positions of Director of Climate Research in the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) National Centre for Atmospheric Science and founding Director of the Walker Institute for Climate System Research . From 2015 to 2016 she was one of the members of the High Level Group of Scientific Advisors of the European Commission Scientific Advice Mechanism , part of its Directorate-General for Research and Innovation .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Julia_Slingo\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 144561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HadCRUT Content: HadCRUT is the dataset of monthly instrumental temperature records formed by combining the sea surface temperature records compiled by the Hadley Centre of the UK Met Office and the land surface air temperature records compiled by the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) of the University of East Anglia . The data is provided on a grid of boxes covering the globe , with values provided for only those boxes containing temperature observations in a particular month and year . Interpolation is not applied to infill missing values . The first version of HadCRUT initially spanned the period 1881 -- 1993 , and this was later extended to begin in 1850 and to be regularly updated to the current year/month in near real-time .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"HadCRUT\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 141109\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Texas\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 139497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Met Office Content: The Met Office ( officially the Meteorological Office until 2000 ) is the United Kingdom 's national weather service . It is an executive agency and trading fund of the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy led by CEO , Rob Varley and chief scientist , Professor Stephen Belcher . The Met Office makes meteorological predictions across all timescales from weather forecasts to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Met_Office\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 136044\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Catherine King (scientist) Content: Catherine K. King is an Australian ecotoxicologist who studies sub-Antarctic and Antarctic regions , with a focus on climate change and the impacts of contaminants and environmental stressors in terrestrial and marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Catherine_King_(scientist)\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 135984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Z._Jacobson\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 134900\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Rogers (meteorologist) Content: David Peter Rogers ( born 20 March 1957 ) was Chief Executive of the Met Office from June 2004 to July 2005 . Since 2007 , he has been President and Chairman of the Health and Climate Foundation , a charity with headquarters in Washington , DC . He was educated at the University of East Anglia ( BSc ) and the University of Southampton ( PhD ) , where his thesis was on numerical modelling of the atmospheric boundary layer over the ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Rogers_(meteorologist)\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 131690\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference Content: The 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , subtitled Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , was held 28 -- 30 September 2009 at Oxford , United Kingdom . < ref name = `` 4DC '' > 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , University of Oxford , 28-29 Sept. 2009 . The three-day conference had about 140 science , government , NGO and private sector delegates , and included 35 oral presentations and 18 poster presentations . The conference website includes a page for downloading abstracts , presentations , audio recordings , and the programme . Links to a number of news stories are also provided . The conference was sponsored by the University of Oxford , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , and the Met Office Hadley Centre . Video podcasts of all oral presentations are posted on a University of Oxford website ; however , to find videos by presenter names the above cited program must first be consulted to find the presentation title . In January 2011 , eleven papers and three introductory articles resulting from the conference were published as a special issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , Four degrees and beyond : the potential for a global temperature increase of four degrees and its implications . Many of the papers are free downloads . The contents of the special issue are listed later in this article . In July 2011 , a follow-up conference , Four Degrees Or More ? Australia in a Hot World , was held at the University of Melbourne , Australia .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"4_Degrees_and_Beyond_International_Climate_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 131262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter V. Hobbs Content: Peter Victor Hobbs ( 1936 -- 2005 ) was a British-born professor of Atmospheric Sciences and Director of the Cloud and Aerosol Research Group at the University of Washington . His research interests were in the physics and chemistry of the atmosphere , focusing on the roles played by aerosols , clouds , and precipitation . He authored over 250 peer-reviewed papers , authored four books , and edited three books . He is the coauthor with John Michael Wallace of what is generally considered the standard introductory textbook in the field : Atmospheric Science : An Introductory Survey .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_V._Hobbs\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 130917\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Catherine McKenna Content: Catherine Mary McKenna ( born August 5 , 1971 ) is a Canadian Liberal politician , who was elected to represent the riding of Ottawa Centre in the House of Commons of Canada in the 2015 federal election . She was appointed as Minister of Environment and Climate Change in the Cabinet , headed by Justin Trudeau , on November 4 , 2015 . She holds a master 's degree from the London School of Economics and a law degree from McGill University .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Catherine_McKenna\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 130834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gerard Jennings Content: Gerard Jennings , also known as Professor S. Gerard Jennings , is an Irish Professor of Physics in NUI Galway , in Ireland . Jennings is the Director of the Environmental Change Institute ( ECI ) , which is a multidisciplinary research centre involving collaboration between researchers from various faculties of NUI , Galway and other research centres across Ireland . He also directs the Atmospheric Research Group , in the Department of Physics at NUI , Galway . In 2001 he was conferred with the degree of Doctor Honoris Causa ( Honorary Doctorate ) by the University of Gothenburg , Sweden . The degree was awarded in recognition of the world-recognised research achievements of Professor Jennings in the field of Atmospheric Science , which embraces aerosol and cloud physics , and climate and environmental change .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Gerard_Jennings\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 130299\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ellie Highwood Content: Ellie Highwood is Professor of Climate Physics at the University of Reading and was head of that department from 2012 until 2015 . She was previously a member of the RMetS Council and Education Committee . On 1 October 2016 she became the 81st President of the Royal Meteorological Society ( RMetS ) . Highwood studied physics at the University of Manchester and then studied for a PhD at the University of Reading . Her research focuses on atmospheric particulates in climate , particularly the impact of aerosol on climate change and climate model simulations . In 2015 she also took on the role of Dean for Diversity and Inclusion at the University of Reading , which is a job share with Professor Simon Chandler-Wilde . Her work has been discussed in notable publications , such as The Independent and the BBC . She has argued that cooling the planet artificially by `` injecting tiny reflective particles into the atmosphere '' ( as proposed by Paul Crutzen , for example ) could `` cause droughts and climate chaos '' in poor countries , albeit also stating that it would `` be prudent to explore alternatives that might help us in the decades ahead '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Ellie_Highwood\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 129022\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CLOUD experiment Content: Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or CLOUD is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) and aerosols under controlled conditions . The experiment began operation in November 2009 . The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) on aerosols and clouds , and their implications for climate . Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question , ( as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997 ) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions . Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"CLOUD_experiment\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 128512\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HadCM3 Content: HadCM3 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Coupled Model , version 3 ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom . It was one of the major models used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report in 2001 . Unlike earlier AOGCMs at the Hadley Centre and elsewhere ( including its predecessor HadCM2 ) , HadCM3 does not need flux adjustment ( additional `` artificial '' heat and freshwater fluxes at the ocean surface ) to produce a good simulation . The higher ocean resolution of HadCM3 is a major factor in this ; other factors include a good match between the atmospheric and oceanic components ; and an improved ocean mixing scheme ( Gent and McWilliams ) . HadCM3 has been run to produce simulations for periods of over a thousand years , showing little drift in its surface climate . HadCM3 is composed of two components : the atmospheric model HadAM3 and the ocean model HadOM3 ( which includes a sea ice model ) . Simulations use a 360-day calendar , where each month is 30 days .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"HadCM3\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 126811\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: S. K. Satheesh Content: Sreedharan Krishnakumari Satheesh ( born 1970 ) is an Indian meteorologist and a professor at the Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences of the Indian Institute of Science ( IISc ) . He holds the chair of the Divecha Centre for Climate Change , a centre under the umbrella of the IISc for researches on climate variability , climate change and their impact on the environment . He is known for his studies on atmospheric aerosols and is an elected fellow of all the three major Indian science academies viz . Indian Academy of Sciences Indian National Science Academy and the National Academy of Sciences , India as well as The World Academy of Sciences . The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research , the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research , awarded him the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology , one of the highest Indian science awards for his contributions to Earth , Atmosphere , Ocean and Planetary Sciences in 2009 . He received the TWAS Prize of The World Academy of Sciences in 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"S._K._Satheesh\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 126725\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George Hadley Content: George Hadley ( February 12 , 1685 -- June 28 , 1768 ) was an English lawyer and amateur meteorologist who proposed the atmospheric mechanism by which the Trade Winds are sustained , which is now named in his honor as Hadley circulation . As a key factor in ensuring that European sailing vessels reached North American shores , understanding the Trade Winds was becoming a matter of great importance at the time . Hadley was intrigued by the fact that winds which should by all rights have blown straight north had a pronounced westerly flow , and it was this mystery he set out to solve .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"George_Hadley\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 125407\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility Content: The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility ( ARM Climate Research Facility ) is a United States Department of Energy scientific user facility for the study of global climate change by the national and international research community . The ARM Climate Research Facility consists of global observation sites and research aircraft that measure radiative properties of the atmosphere , particularly cloud and aerosol formation processes . Continuous data from these sites , as well as supplemental data obtained through intensive field research campaigns , are available to scientists online through the ARM Data Archive . ARM is collaboratively managed by nine DOE national laboratories .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_Radiation_Measurement_Climate_Research_Facility\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 123216\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Hadley (philosopher) Content: John Hadley ( born 27 September 1966 ) is an Australian philosopher whose research concerns moral and political philosophy , including animal ethics , environmental ethics and metaethics . He is currently a senior lecturer in philosophy in the School of Humanities and Communication Arts at Western Sydney University . He has previously taught at Charles Sturt University and the University of Sydney , where he studied as an undergraduate and doctoral candidate . In addition to a variety of articles in peer-reviewed journals and edited collections , he is the author of the 2015 monograph Animal Property Rights ( Lexington Books ) and the co-editor , with Elisa Aaltola , of the 2015 collection Animal Ethics and Philosophy ( Rowman & Littlefield International ) . Hadley is known for his account of animal property rights theory . He proposes that wild animals be offered property rights over their territories , and that guardians be appointed to represent their interests in decision-making procedures . He suggests that this account could be justified directly , on the basis of the interests of the animals concerned , or indirectly , so that natural environments are protected . The theory has received discussion in popular and academic contexts , with critical responses from farming groups and mixed responses from moral and political theorists . Hadley has also conducted research on normative issues related to animal rights extremism , the aiding of others and utilitarianism .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Hadley_(philosopher)\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 123040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Dennis_Tirpak\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 121839\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Research_Centre\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 121141\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Held-Hou Model Content: The Held-Hou Model is a model for the Hadley circulation of the atmosphere that would exist in the absence of atmospheric turbulence . The model was developed by Isaac Held and Arthur Hou in 1980 . The essence of the model is that air rising from the surface at the equator conserves its angular momentum as it moves poleward . This distribution of wind , in turn , determines the distribution of temperature , which determines the latitudinal extent of the circulation by requiring energy conservation . This stands in contrast to George Hadley 's original conception of the circulation , which he argued reached the poles . The Hadley circulation has a cooling effect at and near the equator and a warming effect at higher latitudes within the Hadley Cell . This energy transport can be converted into a mass transport , to determine the strength of the circulation , by normalizing by the appropriate vertical stability . The effects of moisture and seasons on the model have been studied . Earth 's atmosphere violates the underlying assumptions of the model : angular momentum is not conserved and the tropical atmosphere is not energetically closed . As such , the Held-Hou model is a conceptual model that does not make quantitatively accurate predictions of the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation to changes in atmospheric parameters .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Held-Hou_Model\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 120823\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Adam Scaife Content: Adam Arthur Scaife B.A. M.A. MSc PhD FRMetS ( born 18 March 1970 ) is a British physicist , and head of long range prediction at the Met Office . He is an honorary visiting Professor at Exeter University . Scaife carries out research into long range weather forecasting and computer modelling of the climate . Scaife has published over 100 peer reviewed studies on atmospheric dynamics , computer modelling and climate predictability and change and recently published popular science and academic books on meteorology .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Adam_Scaife\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 120201\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 120187\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: János Pásztor (diplomat) Content: János Pásztor ( born 1955 ) is a Hungarian diplomat , the Senior Adviser to the Secretary-General on Climate Change . He joined his current role in January 2016 at the request of United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon . Prior to his current role he was Assistant Secretary-General on Climate Change in the Executive Office of the Secretary-General of the United Nations in New York City . He was appointed Assistant Secretary-General in January 2015 after taking leave of absence from the World Wide Fund for Nature International where he was Policy and Science Director and acting Director for Conservation .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"János_Pásztor_(diplomat)\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 117590\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 117346\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stephen Schneider Content: Stephen Henry Schneider ( February 11 , 1945 -- July 19 , 2010 ) was Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University , a Co-Director at the Center for Environment Science and Policy of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Senior Fellow in the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment . Schneider served as a consultant to federal agencies and White House staff in the Richard Nixon , Jimmy Carter , Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations . Schneider 's research included modeling of the atmosphere , climate change , and the effect of global climate change on biological systems . Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal Climatic Change and authored or co-authored over 450 scientific papers and other publications . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) at the time of his death . During the 1980s , Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming . In 2006 Professor Schneider was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence advising the South Australian Government of Premier Mike Rann on climate change and renewable energy policies . In ten years South Australia went from zero to 31 % of its electricity generation coming from renewables . An annual award for outstanding climate science communication was created in Schneider 's honor after his death , by the Commonwealth Club of California .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Stephen_Schneider\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 117346\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Albrecht_effect\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 117205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 116934\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Maria Cristina Facchini Content: Maria Cristina Facchini is a geoscientist and research director based , since the 1980s , at the University of Bologna in Italy . Her research is directed at the process of change , natural and man-made , from aerosols in atmospheric composition , and at how that change is affecting many aspects of our lives , including climate , ultraviolet radiation levels , and regional air quality . These impact , as her group 's website puts it , `` the fundamental necessities of human existence '' , such as human health , food production , and water resources . She has published over 100 papers , many of which have been critically acclaimed . She is on multiple panels/boards , including , since 2011 , the Scientific Advisory Board of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz , Germany .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Maria_Cristina_Facchini\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 115798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leila Hadley Content: Leila Hadley ( 22 September 1925 -- 10 February 2009 ) was an American travel writer and socialite . Her books include Give Me the World ( 1958 ) and A Journey With Elsa Cloud ( 1997 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Leila_Hadley\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 115646\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 115493\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thomas R. Karl Content: Thomas R. Karl ( Born 22 November 1951 , Evergreen Park , Illinois ) is the former director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Centers for Environmental Information ( NCEI ) . He joined the National Climate Centre in 1980 , and when that became the National Climatic Data Center , he continued as a researcher , becoming a Lab Chief , Senior Scientist and ultimately Director of the Center . When it merged with other centers to become NCEI in 2015 , he became its first director . He retired on 4 August 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Thomas_R._Karl\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 115161\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Petr_Chýlek\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 114725\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert Jay Charlson Content: Robert Jay Charlson is an American atmospheric scientist , climate scientist , pioneer in the fields of climate forcing and climate change , and coauthor of the CLAW hypothesis . He is professor of Atmospheric Sciences , chemistry , and geophysics at the University of Washington in Seattle , Washington . Charlson earned his PhD from the University of Washington . He is a world expert in atmospheric chemistry , aerosol physics , aerosol/cloud/climate interaction , aerosol and cloud instrumentation .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_Jay_Charlson\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 114609\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Darin Toohey Content: Darin W. Toohey is an American atmospheric scientist . He is a professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences and of environmental studies at the University of Colorado Boulder since 1999 . Toohey 's research addresses the role of trace gases and aerosols on Earth 's climate , atmospheric oxidation , and air quality . He was a Jefferson Science Fellow at the United States Department of State , 2011-2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Darin_Toohey\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 113967\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 113378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jean Palutikof Content: Jean Palutikof is founding Director of the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility ( NCCARF ) at Griffith University , Australia . She has held this position since 2008 . Prior to this , Professor Palutikof was based at the UK Met Office during which time she managed the production of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability ) . Professor Palutikof is among the foremost scholars of climate change adaptation and was lead author and review editor for several assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and was present in Oslo at the ceremony at which the IPCC received the Nobel Peace Prize .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Jean_Palutikof\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 113277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 113177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_cloud_brightening\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 112966\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Catherine McArdle Kelleher Content: Catherine McArdle Kelleher ( born January 19 , 1939 ) is an American political scientist involved in national and international security policy . Currently , she is Senior Fellow at the Watson Institute for International Studies at Brown University and College Park Professor of Public Policy at the University of Maryland . Kelleher was the Director of the Aspen Institute in Berlin from 1998 to 2001 when she was appointed Professor of Strategy at the Naval War College ( 2001 -- 2006 ) . In the 1990s she was appointed Honorarprofessor at the Free University of Berlin , and she has regularly taught at the Geneva Center for Security Policy in Switzerland for over a decade . Her public service career began with appointment to the National War College as a professor of military strategy in the 1980s ( only the second woman professor in their history ) and a series of consulting posts in Office of the Secretary of Defense , Arms Control and Disarmament Agency , and Department of State . She has served both in the White House on the National Security Council staff ( under President Jimmy Carter ) and at various levels in the Department of Defense . Her most recent assignments are as the Secretary of Defense 's Personal Representative and Defense Advisor to the US Mission to NATO , and as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Russia , Ukraine , and Eurasia ( OSD/RUE ) in the Clinton Administration . She is considered an expert on international security .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Catherine_McArdle_Kelleher\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 112812\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rick S. Piltz Content: Frederick Steven `` Rick '' Piltz ( July 29 , 1943 -- October 18 , 2014 ) was a former senior associate in the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . In March 2005 , he resigned over political interference in the program 's climate change reports . In June 2005 , the New York Times exposed the role of Philip Cooney in editing government documents on climate change to create scientific uncertainty . A former lobbyist with the American Petroleum Institute , Cooney resigned and days later took a job at Exxon Mobil . Piltz went on to found Climate Science Watch , a project to hold public officials accountable for using climate science with integrity in policy making . Climate Science Watch is a program of the Government Accountability Project , a whistleblower protection agency in Washington , D.C.\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Rick_S._Piltz\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 112213\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Cloud_Mystery\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 111880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hadley cell Content: The Hadley cell , named after George Hadley , is a global scale tropical atmospheric circulation that features air rising near the equator , flowing poleward at 10 -- 15 kilometers above the surface , descending in the subtropics , and then returning equatorward near the surface . This circulation creates the trade winds , tropical rain-belts and hurricanes , subtropical deserts and the jet streams . In each hemisphere , there is one primary circulation cell known as a Hadley cell and two secondary circulation cells at higher latitudes , between 30 ° and 60 ° latitude known as the Ferrel cell , and beyond 60 ° as the Polar cell . Each Hadley cell operates between zero and 30 to 40 degrees north and south and is mainly responsible for the weather in the equatorial regions of the world .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Hadley_cell\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 111820\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud physics Content: Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation , growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds . These aerosols are found in the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere , which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere . Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water ( warm clouds ) , tiny crystals of ice ( cold clouds ) , or both ( mixed phase clouds ) . Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory . Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface . At small radii , the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large , that it does not happen naturally . Raoult 's Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution . At high concentrations , when the cloud droplets are small , the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus . In warm clouds , larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity ; because at a given velocity , the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets . The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops . When the drops become large enough that their downward velocity ( relative to the surrounding air ) is greater than the upward velocity ( relative to the earth ) of the surrounding air , the drops can fall to the earth as precipitation . The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the Bergeron process dominates . Other important processes that form precipitation are riming , when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake , and aggregation , when two solid snowflakes collide and combine . The precise mechanics of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood , but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets . Advances in weather radar and satellite technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_physics\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 110709\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud Aerosol Transport System Content: The Cloud Aerosol Transport System ( CATS ) is a light detection and ranging remote sensing instrument designed to measure the location , composition and distribution of pollution , dust , smoke , aerosols and other particulates in the atmosphere . CATS is to be installed on the Kibo module of the International Space Station and is expected to run for at least six months , and up to three years . It was launched in January 2015 aboard the SpaceX CRS-5 resupply mission . CATS will use a laser operating at three wavelengths ( 1064 , 532 , and 355 nm ) to determine cloud layer height , thickness , and depth . Some of the applications of the data gathered will be to develop and refine climate models as well as providing insight for future examinations of the atmospheres of Mars , Jupiter , and other extraterrestrial atmospheres .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_Aerosol_Transport_System\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 110497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heidi Cullen Content: Heidi Cullen is the chief scientist for the non-profit environmental organization , Climate Central , located in Princeton , New Jersey . In addition , she is a guest lecturer at nearby Princeton University , and the author of the book , The Weather of the Future . An expert and commentator about issues related to climate change and the environment , she was an on-air personality at The Weather Channel , and is a senior research fellow at the University of Pennsylvania ( Penn ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Heidi_Cullen\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 110490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Catherine A. Novelli Content: Catherine Ann Novelli ( born 1957 ) is a U.S. diplomat who served as Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth , Energy , and the Environment at the U.S. Department of State from 2014 to 2017 . She is also the State Department 's Senior Coordinator for International Information Technology Diplomacy .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Catherine_A._Novelli\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 110468\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Schlesinger\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 110323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Veerabhadran Ramanathan Content: Veerabhadran Ramanathan ( Tamil : வீரபத்ரன் இராமநாதன் ) is Victor Alderson Professor of Applied Ocean Sciences and director of the Center for Atmospheric Sciences at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography , University of California , San Diego . He has contributed to many areas of the atmospheric sciences including developments to general circulation models , atmospheric chemistry , and radiative transfer . He has been a part of major projects such as the Indian Ocean Experiment ( INDOEX ) and the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , and is known for his contributions to the area of atmospheric aerosol research . He has received numerous awards , and is a member of the US National Academy of Sciences . He has spoken about the topic of global warming , and written that `` the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming is , in my opinion , the most important environmental issue facing the world today . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Veerabhadran_Ramanathan\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 109713\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Catherine Hakim Content: Catherine Hakim ( born 30 May 1948 ) is a British sociologist who specialises in women 's employment and women 's issues . She is currently a Professorial Research Fellow at the Institute for the Study of Civil Society ( Civitas ) , and has formerly worked in British central government and been a Senior Research Fellow at the London School of Economics and the Centre for Policy Studies . She has also been a Visiting Professor at the Social Science Research Center Berlin .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Catherine_Hakim\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 109535\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kevin Anderson (scientist) Content: Kevin Anderson is the Deputy Director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research ; holds a joint chair in Energy and Climate Change at the School of Mechanical , Aerospace and Civil Engineering at the University of Manchester and School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ; and is an honorary lecturer in Environmental Management at the Manchester Business School . He is an adviser to the British Government ( as of 2009 ) on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Kevin_Anderson_(scientist)\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 109342\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David A. Jones Content: David Arfon Jones is a senior climatologist at the Australian Bureau of Meteorology . He initially studied mathematics and chemistry at university but changed to atmospheric studies . Jones obtained his PhD in Earth Science from the University of Melbourne , Australia in 1995 . He subsequently completed the postgraduate diploma in weather forecasting in 1995 at the Bureau of Meteorology . In 1995 Jones commenced work in the Climate Analysis Section of the Australian National Climate Centre , focusing on the automation of climate monitoring using objective analysis techniques . Subsequently he moved to the Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre in 1997 undertaking research on the variability and change of Australia 's climate . Jones became the supervisor of Climate Analysis at the Bureau of Meteorology in 2002 . In this role he has promoted the automation of analysis , monitoring and forecasting products and the introduction of a range of innovative climate monitoring activities , with a focus on encouraging the interpretation of climate variability in the context of a rapidly changing climate . Owing to the continued misrepresentation of climate change in the Australian media Jones has written a number of public pieces correcting or explaining climate change including in The Age , and in articles for the Australian Science Media Centre . In 2006 Jones was awarded the National Australia Day Council Achievement Medallion .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"David_A._Jones\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 109043\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 108418\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jasper Kirkby Content: Jasper Kirkby is a British experimental particle physicist currently with CERN . He originated the idea for the Tau-Charm Factory , an accelerator now under construction as BEPC II in Beijing . He has led several large particle accelerator experiments at SPEAR ; the Paul Scherrer Institute ; and most recently , the CLOUD experiment at CERN . The CLOUD experiment is investigating possible physical mechanisms for solar/cosmic ray forcing - a theory whereby cloud nucleation is affected by cosmic rays and the cosmic rays are affected by solar activity . The main purpose of the CLOUD experiment is to simulate the conditions under which clouds form in earth 's atmosphere -- specifically , the process by which cloud condensation nuclei form from aerosols in the atmosphere . Kirkby et al. published the results of CLOUD 's first experiment in the journal Nature in 2011 , reporting that cosmic rays `` seemed to enhance the production of nanometre-sized particles from the gaseous atmosphere by more than a factor of ten . '' He added , however , that the particles in question are far too small to serve as cloud condensation nuclei , adding , `` At the moment , it actually says nothing about a possible cosmic-ray effect on clouds and climate , but it 's a very important first step . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Jasper_Kirkby\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 108186\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud Content: In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 108100\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gerald Meehl Content: Gerald Allen `` Jerry '' Meehl is a climate scientist who has been a senior scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research since 2001 .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Gerald_Meehl\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 107644\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jeffrey Kiehl Content: Jeffrey Theodore Kiehl ( born June 10 , 1952 ) is an American climate scientist . He is head of the Climate Change Research Section in the National Center for Atmospheric Research located in Boulder , Colorado . He completed his atmospheric science doctoral studies at the State University of New York , Albany . He was awarded the 2012 Climate Communication Prize from the American Geophysical Union .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Jeffrey_Kiehl\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 107640\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sujatha Byravan Content: Sujatha Byravan is Principal Research Scientist at the Center for Study of Science , Technology and Policy ( CSTEP ) . Until 2012 , she was Senior Fellow at the Centre for Development Finance in IFMR where the focus of her work was primarily on adaptation to global warming . Her interests are in the broad areas of science , technology and development and are grounded in her technical background and education in the biological sciences . Her recent projects and publications have been on India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change , sea level rise , environmental migrants and exiles , including so-called ` climate refugees ' , biotechnology policy , innovation , and science for sustainable development . Between 2002 and 2007 , she was Executive Director and President of the Council for Responsible Genetics ( CRG ) , a non-profit/non-governmental organization devoted to fostering informed debate on the social , ethical and environmental implications of new genetic technologies . CRG carries out policy research , education and advocacy . Byravan received a PhD in molecular biology in 1989 from the University of South Carolina . She completed post-doctoral work from 1993 to 1995 at UCLA . She then worked in India as a science writer and freelance journalist . Topics she has written on include science policy , gender issues , and Indian environmental concerns and politics . During that time , Byravan also became a fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation 's LEAD ( Leadership for Environment and Development ) Program ( 1995 to 1997 ) . She later served as Director of the Fellows Program at LEAD International from 1999-2002 , and in that capacity was responsible for developing and executing the program for the graduates of LEAD , who number over 1,300 and work all over the world in various sectors . Byravan is also a fellow of the Salzburg Global Seminar on Biotechnology : Legal , Ethical and Social Issues . She received a Rockefeller Foundation Residential Fellowship at Bellagio in 2007 . She is on the board of LEAD ( India ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Sujatha_Byravan\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 107615\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Giles Harrison Content: Giles Harrison is Professor of Atmospheric Physics at the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading , where he has served twice as Head of Department . His research work continues over 250 years of UK studies in atmospheric electricity , in its modern form an interdisciplinary topic at the intersection of aerosol physics , solar-climate interactions , scientific sensor development and the retrieval of quantitative data from historical sources . He has authored or co-authored over 250 papers , co-edited a conference volume on Planetary Atmospheric Electricity . and a postgraduate textbook on meteorological instruments . His research includes some of the first airborne measurements in UK airspace of Icelandic volcanic ash from Eyjafjallajökull , during the April 2010 flight ban . He was educated at Marling School Stroud , and St Catharine 's College Cambridge . He holds doctorates from Imperial College London ( PhD 1992 ) , and the University of Cambridge ( ScD 2014 ) . He is a member of the Academia Europea and a Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy . In 2011 he was the Bill Bright lecturer at the International Electrostatics Conference and in 2016 he was awarded the Appleton Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Giles_Harrison\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 107360\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Elizabeth Pattey Content: Elizabeth Pattey , Ph.D. , is a senior research scientist at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada ( AAFC ) and the leader of the micrometeorology laboratory at the Ottawa Research and Development Centre . Her research supports nation-wide improvement in the environmental performance of agriculture , in support of the United Nations ' Framework Convention on Climate Change and Canada 's Clean Air Act . She is the co-author for over 80 peer-reviewed scientific publications , and her areas of expertise include trace gas flux measurement techniques , process-based models , and remote-sensing applications .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Elizabeth_Pattey\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 107287\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tom Wigley Content: Tom Wigley is a climate scientist at the University of Adelaide . He is also affiliated with the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) . He was named a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) for his major contributions to climate and carbon cycle modeling and to climate data analysis , and because he is `` one of the world 's foremost experts on climate change and one of the most highly cited scientists in the discipline . '' His h-index ( August 2014 ) is 64 , one of the highest in the discipline . He contributed to many of the reports published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . Wigley was educated as a mathematical physicist and earned his doctorate at the University of Adelaide in Australia . He served as director of the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom from 1978 to 1993 . In 1993 he went on to the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder , Colorado , where he was appointed a senior scientist in 1994 . He subsequently moved to the University of Adelaide where he currently ( 2014 ) holds a Professorial Fellowship . His published papers include the first paper to demonstrate 20th century warming using both land and marine data , the first paper to include the effects of aerosol cooling on projections of future climate change , the first paper to provide realistic scenarios for the stabilization of atmospheric CO2 , and the first paper to use pattern-based methods to identify a significant human influence on the climate . Wigley has also published a number of highly cited papers in aqueous geochemistry , including a now-standard method for carbon dating of groundwater . Wigley has argued in the popular media that the IPCC has been too optimistic about the prospect of averting harmful climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions through the use of renewable technologies alone , and argued that any realistic portfolio must include significant contributions from nuclear energy . He has also pointed out that `` the human-induced changes that are expected over the next 100 years are much , much greater than any changes that societies experienced in the past . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Tom_Wigley\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 107223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Research_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 107126\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Saleemul Huq Content: Saleemul Huq ( সালিমুল হক born 2 October 1952 ) is a Bangladeshi scientist based in London . He is a Senior Fellow in the Climate Change Group at the International Institute for Environment and Development ( IIED ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Saleemul_Huq\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 106865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_formation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 106682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 106459\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eileen Claussen Content: Eileen B. Claussen ( born 1945 ) is an American climate and energy policy administrator , diplomat , and lobbyist . She held senior posts at the U.S. Department of State , National Security Council , and Environmental Protection Agency before founding the Pew Center on Global Climate Change in 1998 . She then launched the center 's successor organization , the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions ( C2ES ) , in 2011 , and retired as president of C2ES in 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Eileen_Claussen\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 106225\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model Content: GFDL CM2.X ( Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model , version 2 . X ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in the United States . It is one of the leading climate models used in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC , along with models developed at the Max Planck Institute for Climate Research , the Hadley Centre and the National Center for Atmospheric Research .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Geophysical_Fluid_Dynamics_Laboratory_Coupled_Model\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 106096\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jyoti Kirit Parikh Content: Jyoti Kirit Parikh -RSB- is the current Executive Director of Integrated Research and Action for Development IRADe . She was a Member of the Prime Minister 's Council on Climate Change -- India and is a recipient of Nobel Peace Prize awarded To IPCC authors in 2007 . She was a Senior Professor at Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research ( IGIDR ) , Mumbai . She also worked at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis ( IIASA ) , Austria and served as senior energy consultant at the Niti Aayog ( formally Planning Commission ) , New Delhi ( 1978 -- 80 ) . She was a visiting professor at the Institute of Advanced Studies ( IAS ) of UNU , Tokyo ( 1995 -- 96 ) . She was the Acting Director of IGIDR for 1997-98 . She has an experience for nearly thirty years on energy and environment problems of the developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Jyoti_Kirit_Parikh\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 106075\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hadley Wickham Content: Hadley Wickham is a statistician from New Zealand who is currently Chief Scientist at RStudio and an adjunct Assistant Professor of statistics at Rice University . He is best known for his development of open-source statistical analysis software packages for R ( programming language ) that implement logics of data visualisation and data transformation . Wickham received a Bachelors of Human Biology , and a B.Sc . and a M.Sc . in statistics at the University of Auckland in 1999 -- 2004 and his PhD at Iowa State University in 2008 under the supervision of Di Cook and Heike Hoffman . In 2006 he was awarded the John Chambers Award for Statistical Computing for his work developing tools for data reshaping and visualisation . He is a prominent and active member of the R user community and has developed several notable and widely used packages including ggplot2 , plyr , dplyr , and reshape2 . Wickham 's data analysis packages for R are collectively known as the ` tidyverse ' . Wickham 's packages and writing are known for advocating a ` tidy ' approach to data import , analysis and modelling methods . According to Wickham 's tidy approach , each variable should be a column , each observation should be a row , and each type of observational unit should be a table . He was named a Fellow by the American Statistical Association in 2015 for `` pivotal contributions to statistical practice through innovative and pioneering research in statistical graphics and computing '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Hadley_Wickham\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 106029\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"CloudSat\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 105880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Tyndall_Centre\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 105740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pakistan Meteorological Department Content: The Pakistan Meteorological Department ( reporting name : PMD ; unofficially known as Pakistan Met Office ) , is an autonomous and independent institution tasked with providing forecasts , public warnings , and purposes of protection , safety , and general information . Apart from meteorology , it is also involved in monitoring as well as investigating weather phenomenons , astronomical events , hydrology , and research in astrophysics , climate changes , and studies on aeronautical engineering , renewable energy resources across various parts of the country . Headquartered in Islamabad , it has offices and research facilities in all over the four provinces of the country . As of current , Dr. Ghulam Rasul is the current Director-General of the Pakistan Meteorological Department .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Pakistan_Meteorological_Department\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 105668\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Priday, Metford and Company Limited Content: Priday , Metford and Company Limited was a family-run company that produced flour at the City Flour Mills , Gloucester , England for over a century . They were closed down in 1994 and the premises converted to luxury apartments under the name of `` Priday 's Mill '' . The City Flour Mills were the location of the landmark case in contract law known as Hadley v. Baxendale .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Priday,_Metford_and_Company_Limited\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 105493\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Driving the future Content: Driving the Future : Combating Climate Change with Cleaner , Smarter Cars is the first book by former Environmental Protection Agency senior director Margo T. Oge . The book covers climate science , politics , regulations , auto technology and proposes how to meet greenhouse gas reduction goals . It is organized into three sections .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Driving_the_future\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 105377\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George Hadley (disambiguation) Content: George Hadley ( 1685 -- 1768 ) was an English meteorologist . George Hadley may also refer to : George Hadley ( footballer ) ( 1893 -- 1963 ) , Scottish footballer George Hadley ( orientalist ) ( died 1798 ) , East India Company officer\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"George_Hadley_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 104944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Catherine Morgan Content: Catherine Anne Morgan , ( born 1961 ) is a British academic specialising in the history and archaeology of Early Iron Age and Archaic Greece . Since 2015 , she has been a Senior Research Fellow at All Souls College , Oxford . She was Professor of Classical Archaeology at King 's College London from 2005 to 2015 , and Director of the British School at Athens from 2007 to 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Catherine_Morgan\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 104771\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meteocentre Content: Meteocentre ( also named UQAM Weather Centre ) is a website displaying real-time weather information for North America and Europe organized in three different portals , each adapted for a given area and named after a town part of the region of interest : 1 ) Montréal , for Québec , 2 ) Toulouse , for France and 3 ) Reading , for the United Kingdom . The website created in 1994 is maintained by its founder Christian Pagé , actually a research engineer at CERFACS , in collaboration since 2009 with Jean-François Caron , a research scientist at the Met Office , and hosted by the Atmospheric Sciences Group at the Université du Québec à Montréal ( UQAM ) . Its Quebec portal , the UQAM-Montreal Weather Centre , is deemed as being the most complete weather data website for Montreal and Quebec .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Meteocentre\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 104723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Loughhead Content: Prof John Neil Loughhead OBE FREng FIMechE FIET ( born 24 September 1948 ) is a British businessman and Chief Scientific Adviser to Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) . He is also Executive Director of the UK Energy Research Centre and a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering . He was appointed an OBE for services to Technology in 2011 . In 2014 , he was voted as one of the Top 500 Most Influential People in Britain by Debrett 's and The Sunday Times .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Loughhead\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 104347\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stephen Hadley Content: Stephen John Hadley ( born February 13 , 1947 ) was the 21st U.S. Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs ( commonly referred as National Security Advisor ) , serving under President George W. Bush during the second term of his administration . Hadley was Deputy National Security Advisor during the Bush 's first term . Before that Hadley served in a variety of capacities in the defense and national security fields . He has also worked as a lawyer and consultant in private practice .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Stephen_Hadley\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 104251\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hadley Arkes Content: Hadley P. Arkes ( born 1940 ) is an American political scientist and the Edward N. Ney Professor of Jurisprudence and American Institutions emeritus at Amherst College , where he has taught since 1966 . He is currently the founder and director of the James Wilson Institute on Natural Rights & the American Founding in Washington , D.C. Arkes received a B.A. degree at the University of Illinois and a Ph.D. from the University of Chicago where he was a student of Leo Strauss . In a series of books and articles dating from the mid-1980s , Arkes has written on a priori moral principles and advocated for their impact on constitutional interpretation . He has also dealt with their relation to constitutional jurisprudence and natural law , and their challenge to moral relativism . His works draw on political philosophers from Aristotle through the U.S. Founding Fathers , Lincoln , and contemporary authors and jurists . John O. McGinnis , reviewing Arkes ' Constitutional Illusions & Anchoring Truths in The Wall Street Journal , writes that it tries to find a path between the extremes of originalism , where the meaning of the U. S.Constitution is fixed by its original text , and the idea of the living constitution , where its meaning is updated by evolving moral principles . Arkes is founder and a member of the Committee for the American Founding , a group of Amherst alumni and students seeking to preserve the doctrines of `` natural rights '' exposited by some American Founders and Lincoln through the Colloquium on the American Founding at Amherst and in Washington , D.C. In 2010 Arkes , born and raised a Jew , converted to Catholicism , which he described as a fulfillment of his Jewish faith . Arkes serves on the advisory board and writes for First Things , an ecumenical journal that focuses on encouraging a `` religiously informed public philosophy for the ordering of society . '' In September 2016 , Arkes was among 125 Conservatives for Trump who announced they supported Donald Trump 's candidacy to be president .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Hadley_Arkes\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 104183\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Norwegian Meteorological Institute Content: The Norwegian Meteorological Institute ( Meteorologisk institutt ) , also known as MET Norway , is Norway 's national institute which provides weather forecasts . Its three main offices are located in Oslo , Bergen and Tromsø . MET Norway has around 500 employees and some 650 part-time observers around the country . It also operated the last remaining weather ship in the world , MS Polarfront , stationed in the North Atlantic , until it was discontinued due to budgetary issues on 1 January 2010 and replaced with satellite and buoy data . The institute was founded in 1866 with the help of Norwegian astronomer and meteorologist Henrik Mohn who served as its director until 1913 . He is credited with founding meteorological research in Norway . The institute represents Norway in international organizations like the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) , and EUMETSAT . The Institute is also partner to a number of international research and monitoring projects including EMEP , MyOcean , MyWave and the North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System ( NOOS ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Norwegian_Meteorological_Institute\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 104077\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"152\",\n \"docid\": \"Lee_Hannah\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 103908\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":74,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Contemporary Global Warming placed in geological context."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Global Volcanism Program Content: The Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program ( GVP ) documents Earth 's volcanoes and their eruptive history over the past 10,000 years . The GVP reports on current eruptions from around the world as well as maintaining a database repository on active volcanoes and their eruptions . In this way , a global context for the planet 's active volcanism is presented . Smithsonian reporting on current volcanic activity dates back to 1968 , with the Center for Short-Lived Phenomena ( CSLP ) . The GVP is housed in the Department of Mineral Sciences , part of the National Museum of Natural History , on the National Mall in Washington , D.C. During the early stages of an eruption , the GVP acts as a clearinghouse of reports , data , and imagery which are accumulated from a global network of contributors . The early flow of information is managed such that the right people are contacted as well as helping to sort out vague and contradictory aspects that typically arise during the early days of an eruption . The Weekly Volcanic Activity Report is a cooperative project between the Smithsonian 's Global Volcanism Program and the United States Geological Survey 's Volcano Hazards Program . Notices of volcanic activity posted on the Report website are preliminary and subject to change as events are studied in more detail . Detailed reports on various volcanoes are published monthly in the Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network The GVP also documents the last 10,000 years of Earth 's volcanism . The historic activity can guide perspectives on possible future events and on volcanoes showing activity . GVP 's volcano and eruption databases constitute a foundation for all statistical statements concerning locations , frequencies , and magnitudes of Earth 's volcanic eruptions during the last 10,000 years . Two editions of Volcanoes of the World , a regional directory ... ( 1981 ) and ( 1994 ) were published based on the GVP data and interpretations .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_Volcanism_Program","rank":1,"score":102315},{"content":"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_warming_(disambiguation)","rank":2,"score":93777},{"content":"Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .","qid":"157","docid":"Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2","rank":3,"score":93370},{"content":"Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency","qid":"157","docid":"Global_cooling_(disambiguation)","rank":4,"score":90281},{"content":"Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .","qid":"157","docid":"Stockholm_Memorandum","rank":5,"score":90051},{"content":"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .","qid":"157","docid":"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)","rank":6,"score":88910},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"157","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":7,"score":85388},{"content":"Title: Science for the contemporary world Content:","qid":"157","docid":"Science_for_the_contemporary_world","rank":8,"score":85304},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":9,"score":84959},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"157","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":10,"score":84935},{"content":"Title: Global warming taxes Content:","qid":"157","docid":"Global_warming_taxes","rank":11,"score":84414},{"content":"Title: The Ice People Content: The Ice People is a 1998 science fiction novel by Maggie Gee , set in a future world dominated by a new ice age . The novel examines different elements of contemporary society : the fundamental roles and relationships of men and women , sexuality , politics and the issue of global warming . Global warming is the initial context , where increases in temperature are then followed by the cyclic appearance of an ice age . The reaction of society and individuals to these dramatic extremes sites the novel within the genre of dystopian science fiction , but closer to the author 's heart seem to be the changes within such a scenario of issues we face today : the changes in racism as different parts of the planet change in their attractiveness ; the changes in social position as `` Insiders '' and `` Outsiders '' -- the `` haves '' and the `` have-nots '' -- live within differing conditions ; the value , status and interpretation of marriage ; parenthood -- the increasing difficulties in conception and the subsequent single-parenthood versus family issues ; the `` gang '' mentality of men and women ; the way politics is perceived , used and power abused . The Ice People has been compared to George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World .","qid":"157","docid":"The_Ice_People","rank":12,"score":83618},{"content":"Title: Holocene Content: The Holocene ( -LSB- pronˈhɒləˌsiːn , _ ˈhoʊ - -RSB- ) is the geological epoch that began after the Pleistocene at approximately 11,700 years before present . The term `` Recent '' ( usually capitalised ) has often been used as an exact synonym of `` Holocene '' , although this usage is discouraged in 21st-century science . The Holocene is part of the Quaternary period . Its name comes from the Ancient Greek words ὅλος ( holos , whole or entire ) and καινός ( kainos , new ) , meaning `` entirely recent '' . It has been identified with the current warm period , known as MIS 1 , and can be considered an interglacial in the current ice age based on that evidence . The Holocene also encompasses the growth and impacts of the human species worldwide , including all its written history , development of major civilizations , and overall significant transition toward urban living in the present . Human impacts on modern-era Earth and its ecosystems may be considered of global significance for future evolution of living species , including approximately synchronous lithospheric evidence , or more recently atmospheric evidence of human impacts . Given these , a new term , Anthropocene , is specifically proposed and used informally only for the very latest part of modern history involving significant human impact .","qid":"157","docid":"Holocene","rank":13,"score":82436},{"content":"Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .","qid":"157","docid":"The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming","rank":14,"score":81758},{"content":"Title: Geologic Calendar Content: The Geologic Calendar is a scale in which the geological lifetime of the earth is mapped onto a calendrical year ; that is to say , the day one of the earth took place on a geologic January 1 at precisely midnight , and today 's date and time is December 31 at midnight . On this calendar , the inferred appearance of the first living single-celled organisms , prokaryotes , occurred on a geologic February 25 around 12:30 pm to 1:07 pm , dinosaurs first appeared on December 13 , the first flower plants on December 22 and the first primates on December 28 at about 9:43 pm . The first Anatomically modern humans did not arrive until around 11:48 p.m. on New Year 's Eve , and all of human history since the end of the last ice-age occurred in the last 82.2 seconds before midnight of the new year .","qid":"157","docid":"Geologic_Calendar","rank":15,"score":81434},{"content":"Title: Langhian Content: The Langhian is , in the ICS geologic timescale , an age or stage in the middle Miocene epoch/series . It spans the time between 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma and 13.65 ± 0.05 Ma ( million years ago ) during the Middle Miocene . The Langhian was a continuing warming period defined by Lorenzo Pareto in 1865 , it was originally established in the Langhe area north of Ceva in northern Italy , hence the name . The Langhian is preceded by the Burdigalian and followed by the Serravallian stage .","qid":"157","docid":"Langhian","rank":16,"score":79487},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_warming","rank":17,"score":79004},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:","qid":"157","docid":"Global_warming_in_Turkey","rank":18,"score":78695},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":19,"score":78325},{"content":"Title: Adult Contemporary (radio network) Content: Adult Contemporary ( also known as AC ) is a 24-hour music format produced by Dial Global . It targets a general radio audience between the ages of 35-49 with soft rock music from the 1970s to right now . Artists featured on this network are Phil Collins , Maroon 5 , Billy Joel , Rod Stewart , Kelly Clarkson , and many more artists . Jones Radio Networks was recently purchased by Triton Media Group . Although `` AC '' was n't affected by it , the satellite feed was relocated into Dial Global 's portfolio .","qid":"157","docid":"Adult_Contemporary_(radio_network)","rank":20,"score":78305},{"content":"Title: Global and Planetary Change Content: Global and Planetary Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research into the earth sciences , particularly pertaining to changes in aspects thereof such as sea level and the chemical composition of the atmosphere . It has been published by Elsevier since it was established in 1989 . The editors-in-chief are S.A.P.L. Cloetingh ( Utrecht University ) , T.M. Cronin ( United States Geological Survey ) , K. McGuffie ( University of Technology Sydney ) , and H. Oberhänsli ( Museum für Naturkunde ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 3.155 , ranking it 9th out of 45 journals in the category `` Geography , Physical '' .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_and_Planetary_Change","rank":21,"score":78231},{"content":"Title: Ontario Geological Survey Content: The Ontario Geological Survey ( OGS ) is an administrative Branch of the Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines - MNDM . It is responsible for documenting and communicating the geology of Ontario , and manages the Assessment File Research Imaging database , as well as many other geological databases that describe the geology of Ontario . OGS helps people understand how to apply the geological knowledge about Ontario to address a range of public policy issues . The OGS is a public good organization . Its geological survey function is mandated by the Ontario Government . OGS has no regulatory responsibility . Ontario 's geology includes : a ) the rock ( bedrock ) ; b ) the deposits of sand , gravel , and till left by the glaciers ; c ) the mineral resources and potential ; d ) the energy resource potential within the rocks and soils ; and e ) the groundwater aquifers that contain groundwater resources . An understanding of what is at , and below , our feet is fundamental to human existence on the Earth , to understand the environment and habitats , and our ability to adapt to future changes , such as global warming . This geological knowledge is used to assess Earth resource potential , to attract investment , to ensure the health and safety of Ontario people from geo-hazards , and to plan the present and future use of the land . The OGS also collaborates with Ontario 's Aboriginal people to achieve a mutual understanding , mutual respect , and to achieve mutual interests . The OGS is a science-based organization that conducts field studies . To facilitate use of geological information by a range of technical and non-technical users , OGS provides many of Ontario 's key , regional , geological databases for easy viewing on Google Earth , but using the OGSEarth function . Themes include : bedrock geology , surficial geology , mineral resource data , groundwater aquifer data , geophysical and geochemical data , bedrock topography and overburden thickness , plus many more themes . OGS regularly shares information and fosters discussion about Ontario 's geology on its OGS Facebook page and via its OGS Twitter page .","qid":"157","docid":"Ontario_Geological_Survey","rank":22,"score":78153},{"content":"Title: Context Development Content: Context is a real estate development company focused on high-rise residential developments in downtown Toronto . Founded in 1997 by Stephen Gross and Howard Cohen , Context is known for urban design and contemporary architecture . They have worked with the Toronto architecture firm architectsAlliance on several condominium developments .","qid":"157","docid":"Context_Development","rank":23,"score":78066},{"content":"Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .","qid":"157","docid":"Interglacial","rank":24,"score":77557},{"content":"Title: Global Warming (Sonny Rollins album) Content: Global Warming is an album by jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins , released on the Milestone label in 1998 , featuring performances by Rollins with Stephen Scott , Bob Cranshaw , Idris Muhammad , Clifton Anderson , Victor See Yuen and Perry Wilson .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_Warming_(Sonny_Rollins_album)","rank":25,"score":76829},{"content":"Title: Burdigalian Content: The Burdigalian is , in the geologic timescale , an age or stage in the early Miocene . It spans the time between 20.43 ± 0.05 Ma and 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma ( million years ago ) . Preceded by the Aquitanian , the Burdigalian was the first and longest warming period of the Miocene and is succeeded by the Langhian .","qid":"157","docid":"Burdigalian","rank":26,"score":76681},{"content":"Title: Global Standard Stratigraphic Age Content: In the stratigraphy sub-discipline of geology , a Global Standard Stratigraphic Age , abbreviated GSSA , is a chronological reference point and criterion in the geologic record used to define the boundaries ( an internationally sanctioned benchmark point ) between different geological periods , epochs or ages on the overall geologic time scale in a chronostratigraphically useful rock layer . A worldwide multidisciplinary effort has been ongoing since 1974 to define such important metrics . The points and strata need be widespread and contain an identifiable sequence of layers or other unambiguous marker ( identifiable or quantifiable ) attributes . GSSAs , and the generally more recent and preferred benchmark GSSPs are defined by the International Commission on Stratigraphy ( ICS ) under the auspices of their parent organization , the International Union of Geological Sciences ( IUGS ) , and are used primarily for time dating of rock layers older than 630 million years ago , lacking a good fossil record . The ICS first attempts to meet the standards of the GSSPs ( see below ) and if those fail , usually have enough information to make a preliminary selection of several competing GSSA prospects or proposals . The geologic record becomes spotty prior to about 542 million years ago . This is because the Earth 's crust in geological time scales is constantly being recycled by tectonic and weathering forces , and older rocks and especially readily accessible exposed strata that can act as a time calibration are rare . For more recent periods , a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point ( GSSP ) , largely based on paleontology and improved methods of fossil dating , is used to define such boundaries . In contrast to GSSAs , GSSPs are based on important events and transitions within a particular stratigraphic section . In older sections , there is insufficient fossil record or well preserved sections to identify the key events necessary for a GSSP , so GSSAs are defined based on fixed dates and selected criteria .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_Standard_Stratigraphic_Age","rank":27,"score":76322},{"content":"Title: Contemporary art Content: Contemporary art is the art of today , produced by artists who are living in the twenty-first century . Contemporary art provides an opportunity to reflect on contemporary society and the issues relevant to ourselves , and the world around us . Contemporary artists work in a globally influenced , culturally diverse , and technologically advancing world . Their art is a dynamic combination of materials , methods , concepts , and subjects that challenge traditional boundaries and defy easy definition . Diverse and eclectic , contemporary art as a whole is distinguished by the very lack of a uniform , organizing principle , ideology , or ` ism . ' Contemporary art is part of a cultural dialogue that concerns larger contextual frameworks such as personal and cultural identity , family , community , and nationality . In vernacular English , `` modern '' and `` contemporary '' are synonyms , resulting in some conflation of the terms `` modern art '' and `` contemporary art '' by non-specialists .","qid":"157","docid":"Contemporary_art","rank":28,"score":76304},{"content":"Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)","rank":29,"score":76231},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"157","docid":"Climate_change","rank":30,"score":75937},{"content":"Title: Neogene Content: The Neogene ( -LSB- pronˈniːəˌdʒiːn -RSB- ) is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period Mya . The Neogene is sub-divided into two epochs , the earlier Miocene and the later Pliocene . Some geologists assert that the Neogene can not be clearly delineated from the modern geological period , the Quaternary . During this period , mammals and birds continued to evolve into roughly modern forms , while other groups of life remained relatively unchanged . Early hominids , the ancestors of humans , appeared in Africa near the end of the period . Some continental movement took place , the most significant event being the connection of North and South America at the Isthmus of Panama , late in the Pliocene . This cut off the warm ocean currents from the Pacific to the Atlantic ocean , leaving only the Gulf Stream to transfer heat to the Arctic Ocean . The global climate cooled considerably over the course of the Neogene , culminating in a series of continental glaciations in the Quaternary Period that follows .","qid":"157","docid":"Neogene","rank":31,"score":75815},{"content":"Title: Flandrian interglacial Content: The Flandrian interglacial or stage is the name given by geologists and archaeologists in the British Isles to the first , and so far only , stage of the Holocene epoch ( the present geological period ) , covering the period from around 12,000 years ago , at the end of the last glacial period to the present day . As such , it is in practice identical in span to the Holocene . Present climatological theory ( based on analysis of Milankovitch cycles ) forecasts that the present Flandrian climate should decline in temperature towards a global climate similar to that of the ice age . Less orbital eccentricity may have the effect of moderating this temperature downturn . The Flandrian began as the relatively short-lived Younger Dryas climate downturn came to an end . This formed the last gasp of the Devensian glaciation , the final stage of the Pleistocene epoch and is traditionally seen as the latest warm interglacial in a series that has been occurring throughout the Quaternary geological period . The first part of the Flandrian , known as the Younger Atlantic , was a period of fairly rapid sea level rise , known as the Flandrian transgression and associated with the melting of the Fenno-Scandian , Scottish , Laurentide and Cordilleran glaciers . Fjords were formed during the Flandrian transgression when U-shaped glaciated valleys were inundated with water .","qid":"157","docid":"Flandrian_interglacial","rank":32,"score":75664},{"content":"Title: Catastrophism Content: Catastrophism is the theory that the Earth has been affected in the past by sudden , short-lived , violent events , possibly worldwide in scope . This was in contrast to uniformitarianism ( sometimes described as gradualism ) , in which slow incremental changes , such as erosion , created all the Earth 's geological features . Uniformitarianism held that the present is the key to the past , and that all things continued as they were from the indefinite past . Since the early disputes , a more inclusive and integrated view of geologic events has developed , in which the scientific consensus accepts that there were some catastrophic events in the geologic past , but these were explicable as extreme examples of natural processes which can occur . Catastrophism held that geological epochs had ended with violent and sudden natural catastrophes such as great floods and the rapid formation of major mountain chains . Plants and animals living in the parts of the world where such events occurred were killed off , being replaced abruptly by the new forms whose fossils defined the geological strata . Some catastrophists attempted to relate at least one such change to the Biblical account of Noah 's flood . The concept was first popularised by the early 19th-century French scientist Georges Cuvier , who proposed that new life forms had moved in from other areas after local floods , and avoided religious or metaphysical speculation in his scientific writings .","qid":"157","docid":"Catastrophism","rank":33,"score":75374},{"content":"Title: Raymond A. Price Content: Raymond Alexander Price , ( born March 25 , 1933 ) is an award winning Canadian geologist . He has used his research on the structure and tectonics of North America 's lithosphere to produce extensive geological maps . He has also provided guidance for nuclear fuel waste disposal and reports on the human contribution to Global warming . Price was born in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada . He obtained his BSc in Geology from the University of Manitoba in 1955 . He completed two more degrees in geology at Princeton University ; an A.M. in 1957 and a PhD in 1958 .","qid":"157","docid":"Raymond_A._Price","rank":34,"score":75254},{"content":"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .","qid":"157","docid":"Future_of_Earth","rank":35,"score":74639},{"content":"Title: World Content: The world is the planet Earth and all life upon it , including human civilization . In a philosophical context , the world is the whole of the physical Universe , or an ontological world . In a theological context , the world is the material or the profane sphere , as opposed to the celestial , spiritual , transcendent or sacred . The `` end of the world '' refers to scenarios of the final end of human history , often in religious contexts . History of the world is commonly understood as spanning the major geopolitical developments of about five millennia , from the first civilizations to the present . In terms such as world religion , world language , world government , and world war , world suggests international or intercontinental scope without necessarily implying participation of the entire world . World population is the sum of all human populations at any time ; similarly , world economy is the sum of the economies of all societies or countries , especially in the context of globalization . Terms like world championship , gross world product , world flags imply the sum or combination of all current-day sovereign states .","qid":"157","docid":"World","rank":36,"score":74612},{"content":"Title: Post-contemporary Content: Post-contemporary ( PoCo ) is a forward-looking aesthetic philosophy distinguished by a re-constructive , global , human ethos which posits that the aesthetic experience is universal to humanity , and that this experience can inspire understanding and transformation . It has developed in tandem with new theories of Emergence in Complexity science , as well as advances in Biosemiotics . In art historical terms , `` modern '' and `` contemporary '' arts are limited to their era and are defined by stylistic and philosophical parameters - chief among them , a critique of the classical European tradition and constructive philosophy , and secondly , the Contemporary ethos is characterized by an emphasis on transient or exclusively contemporary issues which reflect the zeitgeist . Following the legacy of Modernism , Post-Modernism and Contemporary art follow the tradition of Deconstruction and questioning , while Post Contemporary emphasizes generating new , constructive hypotheses . However , modeled after the Scientific Method , both modes are inter-dependent as the question | answer can not exist without each other . Thus , Post-Contemporary views the history of the humanities as branching and pluralist , rather than a linear path of development . Consequently , PoCo has chosen a forking path , builds upon knowledge from all eras , and values quality , sublimnity , and empathy above novelty . PoCo emphasizes empathy for all , regardless of race , gender , sexual orientation , or creed . Post-Contemporary as a concept was first described by Italian Poet Primo Levi . ( See Philosophical Overview . ) Though as of yet , the first documented use of the specific term was in 2005 by Abbas Gharib in a conversation with Bahram Shirdel , two architects of Iranian origins , both proficient in western culture and participant in the current debate on . The conversation was published by Sharestan Magazine , 55 . 2007 . The discussion took this definition also to distinguish the third millennium epitomes of creative sectors , by their projection into coming avant-garde configurations , toward future . To day in its own progress , the Post-contemporary concepts , often known simply as Po-co is much better defined .","qid":"157","docid":"Post-contemporary","rank":37,"score":74526},{"content":"Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''","qid":"157","docid":"Ian_Clark_(geologist)","rank":38,"score":74407},{"content":"Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .","qid":"157","docid":"World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming","rank":39,"score":73921},{"content":"Title: Geologic record Content: The geologic record in stratigraphy , paleontology and other natural sciences refers to the entirety of the layers of rock strata -- deposits laid down by volcanism or by deposition of sediment derived from weathering detritus ( clays , sands etc. ) including all its fossil content and the information it yields about the history of the Earth : its past climate , geography , geology and the evolution of life on its surface . According to the law of superposition , sedimentary and volcanic rock layers are deposited on top of each other . They harden over time to become a solidified ( competent ) rock column , that may be intruded by igneous rocks and disrupted by tectonic events .","qid":"157","docid":"Geologic_record","rank":40,"score":73817},{"content":"Title: The Map that Changed the World Content: The Map that Changed the World is a book by Simon Winchester about English geologist William Smith and his great achievement , the first geological map of England and Wales . Smith 's was the first national-scale geological map , and by far the most accurate of its time . His pivotal insights were that each local sequence of rock strata was a subsequence of a single universal sequence of strata and that these rock strata could be distinguished and traced for great distances by means of embedded fossilized organisms . Winchester 's book narrates the intellectual context of the time , the development of Smith 's ideas and how they contributed to the theory of evolution and more generally to a dawning realisation of the true age of the earth . The book describes the social , economic or industrial context for Smith 's insights and work , such as the importance of coal mining and the transport of coal by means of canals , both of which were a stimulus to the study of geology and the means whereby Smith supported his research . Land owners wished to know if coal might be found on their holdings . Canal planning and construction depended on understanding the rock and soil along its route . Related topics , such as the founding of the Geological Society of London , are included . Smith 's map was published by John Cary , a leading map publisher . Winchester describes the practice of publishing at the time as well as the system of debtor 's prisons through his account of the sojourn of Smith in the King 's Bench Prison .","qid":"157","docid":"The_Map_that_Changed_the_World","rank":41,"score":73353},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"157","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":42,"score":73346},{"content":"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .","qid":"157","docid":"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle","rank":43,"score":73235},{"content":"Title: Contemporary society Content: Contemporary society , according to social and political scientists , is characterised by at least three fundamental directions : increasing human interconnection through a network of relationships that is progressively covering the whole planet ; the pace and depth of the evolution of human ways of life determined by technological innovation represent an absolute novelty in human history ; the scale of anthropological and ecological transformation due to the interaction between evolutionary factors ( social , cultural , economic , and technological ) has no historical precedent . These presentations are the result of a number of fundamental changes that are irreversibly transforming our daily lives , our way of thinking and perceiving the world and our way of living together . Among these fundamental changes are : improvements in life conditions , life expectancy , literacy and gender equality ; changes in domestic and international political institutions ; and the breakdown of natural equilibria .","qid":"157","docid":"Contemporary_society","rank":44,"score":72985},{"content":"Title: Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point Content: A Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point , abbreviated GSSP , is an internationally agreed upon reference point on a stratigraphic section which defines the lower boundary of a stage on the geologic time scale . The effort to define GSSPs is conducted by the International Commission on Stratigraphy , a part of the International Union of Geological Sciences . Most , but not all , GSSPs are based on paleontological changes . Hence GSSPs are usually described in terms of transitions between different faunal stages , though far more faunal stages have been described than GSSPs . The GSSP definition effort commenced in 1977 . As of 2012 , 64 of the 101 stages that need a GSSP have been formally defined .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Section_and_Point","rank":45,"score":72802},{"content":"Title: James L. Powell Content: James Lawrence Powell ( born July 17 , 1936 in Berea , Kentucky ) is an American geologist . He was the chairman of the geology department at Oberlin College from 1965 to 1973 , and served as its provost from 1975 to 1981 . From 1983 to 1988 , Powell was the president of Franklin and Marshall College . He served as the president of Reed College from 1988 to 1991 , after which he became the president of the Franklin Institute , and has also served on the National Science Board for 12 years . He was formerly the director of the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History , and is currently the executive director of the National Physical Science Consortium . The minor planet 9739 Powell , discovered by C. S. Shoemaker in 1987 , is named after him . In 2010 , Powell wrote a book entitled Dead Pool , which detailed the history of water supply shortages in the Western United States . In 2012 , Powell conducted a survey of scientific papers regarding the topic of anthropogenic global warming by searching Web of Science for scientific papers published from 1991 to 2012 . He identified 13,950 papers , but only 24 which argued that humans were not the primary cause of global warming . He updated his survey in 2014 to include 2,258 studies published from November 12 , 2012 , to December 21 , 2013 , and identified only one study published during this time that argued that global warming was not caused by human activity . In 2015 , Powell was elected a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry .","qid":"157","docid":"James_L._Powell","rank":46,"score":72792},{"content":"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.","qid":"157","docid":"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system","rank":47,"score":72618},{"content":"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .","qid":"157","docid":"Peter_Doran","rank":48,"score":72525},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":49,"score":72084},{"content":"Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_warming_conspiracy_theory","rank":50,"score":71975},{"content":"Title: Keesing's Contemporary Archives Content: Keesing 's Contemporary Archives was a long-running printed summary of world news published from 1931 to 1988 and more recently on the Internet as Keesing 's Record of World Events . Its purpose is to provide a detailed , factual and neutral account of events .","qid":"157","docid":"Keesing's_Contemporary_Archives","rank":51,"score":71821},{"content":"Title: Contemporary (disambiguation) Content: Contemporary is the historical period that is immediately relevant to the present and is a certain perspective of modern history . Contemporary may also refer to : Contemporary philosophy Contemporary art , post-World War II art Contemporary dance , a modern genre of concert dance Contemporary literature , post-World War II literature Contemporary music , post-World War II music Contemporary ( magazine ) , an art magazine Contemporary Records , a jazz record label","qid":"157","docid":"Contemporary_(disambiguation)","rank":52,"score":71708},{"content":"Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science","rank":53,"score":71643},{"content":"Title: Geological Museum Content: The Geological Museum ( originally The Museum of Practical Geology , started in 1835 ) is one of the oldest single science museums in the world and now part of the Natural History Museum in London . It transferred from Jermyn Street to Exhibition Road , South Kensington in 1935 in a building designed by Sir Richard Allison and John Hatton Markham of the Office of Works .","qid":"157","docid":"Geological_Museum","rank":54,"score":71448},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"157","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":55,"score":70963},{"content":"Title: Merchants of Doubt Content: Merchants of Doubt : How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming is a 2010 non-fiction book by American historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway . It identifies parallels between the global warming controversy and earlier controversies over tobacco smoking , acid rain , DDT , and the hole in the ozone layer . Oreskes and Conway write that in each case `` keeping the controversy alive '' by spreading doubt and confusion after a scientific consensus had been reached , was the basic strategy of those opposing action . In particular , they say that Fred Seitz , Fred Singer , and a few other contrarian scientists joined forces with conservative think tanks and private corporations to challenge the scientific consensus on many contemporary issues . The George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer , two of the subjects , have been critical of the book . Other reviewers have been more favorable . One reviewer said that Merchants of Doubt is exhaustively researched and documented , and may be one of the most important books of 2010 . Another reviewer saw the book as his choice for best science book of the year . It was made into a film , Merchants of Doubt , directed by Robert Kenner , released in 2014 .","qid":"157","docid":"Merchants_of_Doubt","rank":56,"score":70880},{"content":"Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .","qid":"157","docid":"Solar_activity_and_climate","rank":57,"score":70712},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":58,"score":70709},{"content":"Title: In Our Translated World Content: In Our Translated World : Contemporary Global Tamil Poetry is a bilingual ( Tamil and English ) anthology of Tamil poetry . This collection contains poems by 78 Tamils , of whom 21 are women . The authors are from many countries , including India , Sri Lanka , Malaysia , Singapore , Canada , Australia and Europe . Similarly , their backgrounds and experiences are diverse , described as being `` women and men , young and old , Hindu , Muslim and Christian '' . In a note about the importance of this work , Professor Sascha Ebeling of the Department of South Indian Studies , University of Chicago stated the following : `` Never before has an anthology of Tamil poetry in translation offered such a broad perspective , and no other book to date demonstrates so well the fact that over the past two decades Tamil literature has become a truly global affair . '' . In Our Translated World is the result of a project undertaken by Tamil Literary Garden with funding from Ontario government 's Trillium Foundation and others . It was edited by Chelva Kanaganayakam , professor in the Department of English and the Director for the Centre for South Asian Studies at the University of Toronto . This book was released on 9 March 2014 at the Scarborough Convention Centre .","qid":"157","docid":"In_Our_Translated_World","rank":59,"score":70568},{"content":"Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .","qid":"157","docid":"Younger_Dryas","rank":60,"score":70371},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Tour Content: The Global Warming Tour was a concert tour by American hard rock band Aerosmith that included 67 concert performances across North America , Oceania , Asia and Latin America . Prior to the first leg of the tour , the band played a private event for Walmart shareholders . The first leg of the tour included 23 performances and lasted from late May through early August 2012 . The second leg included 14 performances in November and December 2012 . Before the second leg of the tour , the band performed a brief set at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in mid September . Also prior to the second leg , to promote the release of their new album in early November , the band made three special nationally-televised performances in New York City and also did a special performance in front of their old Boston apartment . The performances on the first two legs of the tour were held primarily in indoor arenas , with a couple outdoor shows and a few festival dates on the first leg , including three festivals in eastern Canada and Milwaukee 's Summerfest . The third leg of the tour ran from late April to mid May 2013 and saw Aerosmith playing their first shows in Australia since 1990 , as well as their first-ever shows in New Zealand and the Philippines . On May 30 , the band performed as part of the `` Boston Strong '' charity concert for victims of the Boston Marathon bombings . In July 2013 , the band played at the Greenbrier Classic in West Virginia and at Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut . In August 2013 , the band performed four concerts in Japan , but their first-ever shows in China and Taiwan were cancelled due to poor ticket sales . The band also performed in August at the Harley-Davidson 110th anniversary concert series in Milwaukee . Concerts were planned for Latin America in September and October , including their first-ever shows in Uruguay , Guatemala and El Salvador . Cheap Trick was the opening act for all dates in the first two legs except for a few festival shows . The Dead Dasies , a supergroup featuring Jon Stevens and Richard Fortus , were the opening act for the Australia/New Zealand leg . The tour is in promotion of Aerosmith 's new album Music from Another Dimension ! , released on November 6 , 2012 . In addition to many of their biggest hits and a few choice album cuts , the band has so far performed four new songs from Music from Another Dimension on this tour , three of them regularly ( `` Oh Yeah '' , `` Legendary Child '' , and `` Lover Alot '' ) , with the potential for more songs to be played in the 2013 leg . During the South America leg , specifically in Argentina and Brazil , Aerosmith toured with Whitesnake , including performances at the Personal Fest in Buenos Aires and at the Monsters of Rock in São Paulo . On May 5 , 2013 , the band announced they had cancelled their first-ever show in Jakarta due to safety concerns . In 2014 , Aerosmith played 17 concerts across Europe from May 14 to July 2 . A new tour , the Let Rock Rule Tour , was scheduled to follow in July , August , and September 2014 that saw Aerosmith play several dates in North America . This tour featured Slash ( with Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators ) as the opening act . Full details of the tour were announced on April 8 , 2014 . On May 14 , 2014 , the band announced that they had cancelled their concert in Istanbul after Turkey declared a three-day mourning for the victims of Soma mine disaster . July 2 , 2014 concert in Kiev was cancelled due to civil unrest in Ukraine .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_Warming_Tour","rank":61,"score":70217},{"content":"Title: Paleoceanography Content: Paleoceanography is the study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past with regard to circulation , chemistry , biology , geology and patterns of sedimentation and biological productivity . Paleoceanographic studies using environment models and different proxies enable the scientific community to assess the role of the oceanic processes in the global climate by the re-construction of past climate at various intervals . Paleoceanographic research is also intimately tied to paleoclimatology .","qid":"157","docid":"Paleoceanography","rank":62,"score":70212},{"content":"Title: How Global Warming Works Content: How Global Warming Works is a website developed by Michael Ranney , a professor of cognitive psychology at the University of California , Berkeley in Berkeley , California , United States . The stated goal of the website is to educate the public on the mechanisms of global warming , which was motivated by research Ranney and colleagues conducted on attitudes towards and understanding of global warming .","qid":"157","docid":"How_Global_Warming_Works","rank":63,"score":70145},{"content":"Title: Barry R. Bickmore Content: Barry Robert Bickmore is a professor in the department of geological sciences at Brigham Young University ( BYU ) . He is also a devout Mormon , having written Restoring the Ancient Church : Joseph Smith and Early Christianity ( Ben Lomond : FAIR , 1999 ) as well as several articles that have been published in the FARMS Review . Bickmore was born in Redwood City , California , and raised in California and Utah . He served as a missionary for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( LDS Church ) in Iowa . He obtained a degree in geology with minors in philosophy and chemistry from BYU . He then received a Ph.D. in geochemistry from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University , where his advisor was Michael F. Hochella . He then was a postdoctoral research assistant at the University of Colorado for about a year and a half prior to joining the BYU faculty in August 2001 . Bickmore , a conservative Republican , is known for his activism in support of global warming , such as when he criticized a proposed bill in Utah that described climate change as a hoax . The bill passed in spite of Bickmore 's efforts to defeat it . Among other callings in the LDS Church , Bickmore has served as a seminary teacher . In geochemistry and related fields , Bickmore has focused on the study of low-temperature geochemical reactions and the development of geoscience curricula as part of the curriculum of elementary education majors .","qid":"157","docid":"Barry_R._Bickmore","rank":64,"score":70102},{"content":"Title: Geophysical global cooling Content: Before the concept of plate tectonics , global cooling was a geophysical theory by James Dwight Dana , also referred to as the contracting earth theory . It suggested that the Earth had been in a molten state , and features such as mountains formed as it cooled and shrank . As the interior of the Earth cooled and shrank , the rigid crust would have to shrink and crumple . The crumpling could produce features such as mountain ranges .","qid":"157","docid":"Geophysical_global_cooling","rank":65,"score":70073},{"content":"Title: Modern history Content: Modern history , the modern period or the modern era , is the global historiographical approach to the timeframe after the Post-classical history . Modern history can be further broken down into periods : The early modern period began approximately in the early 16th century ; notable historical milestones included the European Renaissance and the Age of Discovery . The late modern period began approximately in the mid-18th century ; notable historical milestones included the French Revolution , American Revolution , the Industrial Revolution , and the Great Divergence . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; the next billion came just over a century later , in 1927 . Contemporary history is the span of historic events from approximately 1945 that are immediately relevant to the present time .","qid":"157","docid":"Modern_history","rank":66,"score":69985},{"content":"Title: Geologic temperature record Content: The Geologic temperature record are changes in Earth 's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion ( 109 ) year time scales . The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a crucial component of the climate and oceanography of the time .","qid":"157","docid":"Geologic_temperature_record","rank":67,"score":69798},{"content":"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_warming_hiatus","rank":68,"score":69663},{"content":"Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_dimming","rank":69,"score":69595},{"content":"Title: Contemporary Latin Content: Contemporary Latin is the form of the Latin language used from the end of the 19th century through to the present . Various kinds of contemporary Latin can be distinguished . On the one hand there is its survival in areas such as taxonomy as the result of the widespread presence of the language in the New Latin era . This is usually found in the form of mere words or phrases used in the general context of other languages . On the other hand , there is the use of Latin as a language in its own right as a full-fledged means of expression . Living or Spoken Latin , being the most specific development of Latin in the contemporary context , is the primary subject of this article .","qid":"157","docid":"Contemporary_Latin","rank":70,"score":69514},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Policy Foundation Content: The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_Warming_Policy_Foundation","rank":71,"score":69465},{"content":"Title: Hong Kong Global Geopark Content: Hong Kong UNESCO Global Geopark , formerly Hong Kong National Geopark , was inaugurated on 3 November 2009 . It covers an area of 50 km2 across parts of the Eastern and Northeastern New Territories . It includes eight sites ( and combinations of sites ) . On 18 September 2011 , UNESCO listed the Geopark as part of its Global Geoparks Network . The Hong Kong Global Geopark consists of two geological regions : the widely distributed hexagonal rock columns in Sai Kung , which are of international geological significance , and the northeast New Territories region , which comprises sedimentary rocks formed in different geologic periods , showcasing the complete geological history of Hong Kong . The Geopark is made up of eight Geo-Areas distributed across the Sai Kung Volcanic Rock Region and Northeast New Territories Sedimentary Rock Region .","qid":"157","docid":"Hong_Kong_Global_Geopark","rank":72,"score":69384},{"content":"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .","qid":"157","docid":"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies","rank":73,"score":69137},{"content":"Title: Miocene Content: The Miocene ( -LSB- pronˈmaɪəˌsiːn -RSB- ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about ( Ma ) . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell . Its name comes from the Greek words μείων ( meiōn , `` less '' ) and καινός ( kainos , `` new '' ) and means `` less recent '' because it has 18 % fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene . The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch . The earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene , with the climate slowly cooling towards a series of ice ages . The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event but consist rather of regional boundaries between the warmer Oligocene and the cooler Pliocene Epoch . The apes arose and diversified during the Miocene , becoming widespread in the Old World . By the end of this epoch , the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path . As in the Oligocene before it , grasslands continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent . In the Miocene seas , kelp forests made their first appearance and soon became one of Earth 's most productive ecosystems . The plants and animals of the Miocene were fairly modern . Mammals and birds were well-established . Whales , seals , and kelp spread . The Miocene is of particular interest to geologists and palaeoclimatologists as major phases of the Himalayan orogeny had occurred during the Miocene , affecting monsoonal patterns in Asia , which were interlinked with glaciations in the northern hemisphere .","qid":"157","docid":"Miocene","rank":74,"score":69113},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"157","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":75,"score":69096},{"content":"Title: Current History Content: Current History is the oldest United States-based publication devoted exclusively to contemporary world affairs . The magazine was founded in 1914 by George Washington Ochs Oakes , brother of New York Times publisher Adolph Ochs , in order to provide detailed coverage of World War I. Current History was published by The New York Times Company from its founding until 1936 . Since 1942 it has been owned by members of the Redmond family ; its current publisher is Daniel Mark Redmond . Current History , based in Philadelphia , maintains no institutional , political , or governmental affiliation . It is published monthly , from September through May . Seven issues each year are devoted to world regions ( China and East Asia , Russia and Eurasia , the Middle East , Latin America , Europe , South Asia , and Africa ) ; one issue covers current global trends ; and one issue addresses a special theme such as climate change or global governance . The magazine has followed this practice of devoting each issue to a single region or theme since 1953 . Each issue includes a chronology of major international events , and most contain a book review section and an article devoted to commentary . Contributors to Current History in the publication 's early years included George Bernard Shaw , Winston Churchill , Charles A. Beard , Allan Nevins , and Henry Steele Commager . More recently , the journal has featured authors such as James Schlesinger , Francis Fukuyama , Jeffrey Sachs , Bruce Riedel , Leslie H. Gelb , Bruce Russett , Elizabeth Economy , Charles Kupchan , Ivo Daalder , Joseph Cirincione , Phebe Marr , Juan Cole , Bruce Gilley , and Marina Ottaway . Shortly after Current History began publishing in 1914 , its editor , Ochs Oakes , decided that a magazine recording `` history in the making '' should maintain as regular contributors a group of historians and social scientists . He enlisted the help of a Harvard historian , Albert Bushnell Hart , in organizing the journal 's initial group of contributing editors . Current Historys board of contributing editors today includes Catherine Boone ( The London School of Economics and Political Science ) ; Bruce Cumings ( University of Chicago ) ; Deborah Davis ( Yale University ) ; David B. H. Denoon ( New York University ) ; Larry Diamond ( Stanford University ) ; Michele Dunne ( Carnegie Endowment for International Peace ) ; Barry Eichengreen ( University of California , Berkeley ) ; C. Christine Fair ( Georgetown University ) ; Sumit Ganguly ( Indiana University ) ; Marshall Goldman ( Wellesley College ) ; G. John Ikenberry ( Princeton University ) ; Michael T. Klare ( Hampshire College ) ; Joshua Kurlantzick ( Council on Foreign Relations ) ; Michael McFaul ( Stanford University , currently on leave ) ; Rajan Menon ( Lehigh University ) ; Augustus Richard Norton ( Boston University ) ; Joseph Nye ( Harvard University ) ; Michael Shifter ( Inter-American Dialogue ) ; Arturo Valenzuela ( Georgetown University , currently on leave ) ; and Jeffrey Wasserstrom ( University of California , Irvine ) . The publication 's editor is Alan Sorensen . The magazine was linked to an international scandal in the run-up to World War II . The New York Times had sold Current History in 1936 to the editor Merle Tracy ; in 1939 it was sold again , to an ownership group that included Joseph Hilton Smyth , who also acquired such magazines as The Living Age and The North American Review . Smyth 's association with Current History ended the same year , but he and two associates , in connection with their publishing activities , were later convicted of acting as agents for the Japanese government without registering with the State Department . Current History addressed this episode in its October 1942 issue , maintaining that Smyth during the months that he held an ownership interest in the publication did not control editorial policies . '' According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 0.127 , ranking it 149th out of 161 journals in the category `` Political Science '' and 82nd out of 85 journals in the category `` International Relations '' .","qid":"157","docid":"Current_History","rank":76,"score":69085},{"content":"Title: Historical geology Content: Historical geology is a discipline that uses the principles and techniques of geology to reconstruct and understand the geological history of Earth . It focuses on geologic processes that change the Earth 's surface and subsurface ; and the use of stratigraphy , structural geology and paleontology to tell the sequence of these events . It also focuses on the evolution of plants and animals during different time periods in the geological timescale . The discovery of radioactivity and the development of several radiometric dating techniques in the first half of the 20th century provided a means of deriving absolute versus relative ages of geologic history . Economic geology , the search for and extraction of fuel and raw materials , is heavily dependent on an understanding of the geological history of an area . Environmental geology , including most importantly the geologic hazards of earthquakes and volcanism , must also include a detailed knowledge of geologic history .","qid":"157","docid":"Historical_geology","rank":77,"score":68948},{"content":"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.","qid":"157","docid":"Global_temperature_record","rank":78,"score":68942},{"content":"Title: Paleocene Content: The Paleocene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliəˌsiːn , _ ˈpæ - , _ - lioʊ - -RSB- ) or Palaeocene , the `` old recent '' , is a geologic epoch that lasted from about . It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era . As with many geologic periods , the strata that define the epoch 's beginning and end are well identified , but the exact ages remain uncertain . The Paleocene Epoch brackets two major events in Earth 's history . It started with the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous , known as the Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) boundary . This was a time marked by the demise of non-avian dinosaurs , giant marine reptiles and much other fauna and flora . The die-off of the dinosaurs left unfilled ecological niches worldwide . The Paleocene ended with the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , a geologically brief ( ~ 0.2 million year ) interval characterized by extreme changes in climate and carbon cycling . The name `` Paleocene '' comes from Ancient Greek and refers to the `` old ( er ) '' ( παλαιός , palaios ) `` new '' ( καινός , kainos ) fauna that arose during the epoch .","qid":"157","docid":"Paleocene","rank":79,"score":68923},{"content":"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .","qid":"157","docid":"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm","rank":80,"score":68850},{"content":"Title: International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences Content: The International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences ( INHIGEO ) promotes ongoing research into the history of the earth sciences , particularly the history of geology . It has 17 Honorary Senior Members and 265 Members and Associate Members worldwide . INHIGEO has been established by the International Union of Geological Sciences ( IUGS ) and is also affiliated with the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Sciences ( IUHPS ) . The suggestion for the establishment of INHIGEO in 1967 was chiefly due to the ideas and efforts of the distinguished Russian geologist Vladimir Tikhomirov ( 1915-1994 ) from the Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences .","qid":"157","docid":"International_Commission_on_the_History_of_Geological_Sciences","rank":81,"score":68830},{"content":"Title: John Phillips (geologist) Content: John Phillips FRS ( 25 December 1800 -- 24 April 1874 ) was an English geologist . In 1841 he published the first global geologic time scale based on the correlation of fossils in rock strata , thereby helping to standardize terminology including the term Mesozoic , which he invented .","qid":"157","docid":"John_Phillips_(geologist)","rank":82,"score":68771},{"content":"Title: Contemporary history Content: Contemporary history is a subset of modern history which describes the historical period from approximately 1945 to the present . The term `` contemporary history '' has been in use at least since the early 19th century . Contemporary history is politically dominated by the Cold War ( 1945 -- 91 ) between the United States and Soviet Union whose effects were felt across the world . The confrontation , which was mainly fought through proxy wars and through intervention in the internal politics of smaller nations , ultimately ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact in 1991 , following the Revolutions of 1989 . The latter stages and aftermath of the Cold War enabled the democratisation of much of Europe , Africa , and Latin America . In the Middle East , the period after 1945 was dominated by conflict involving the new state of Israel and the rise of petroleum politics , as well as the growth of Islamism after the 1980s . The first supranational organisations of government , such as the United Nations and European Union , emerged during the period after 1945 , while the European colonial empires in Africa and Asia collapsed , gone by 1975 . Countercultures rose and the sexual revolution transformed social relations in western countries between the 1960s and 1980s , epitomised by the Protests of 1968 . Living standards rose sharply across the developed world because of the post-war economic boom , whereby such major economies as Japan and West Germany emerged . The culture of the United States , especially consumerism , spread widely . By the 1960s , many western countries had begun deindustrializing ; in their place , globalization led to the emergence of new industrial centres , such as Japan , Taiwan and later China , which exported consumer goods to developed countries . Science began transforming after 1945 : spaceflight , nuclear technology , laser and semiconductor technology were developed alongside molecular biology and genetics , particle physics , and the Standard Model of quantum field theory . Meanwhile the first computers were created , followed by the Internet , beginning the Information Age .","qid":"157","docid":"Contemporary_history","rank":83,"score":68770},{"content":"Title: Contemporary archaeology Content: Contemporary Archaeology is a field of archaeological research that focuses on the most recent ( 20th and 21st century ) past , and also increasingly explores the application of archaeological thinking to the contemporary world . It has also been referred to as the archaeology of the ` contemporary past ' . The use of this term in the United Kingdom is particularly associated with the Contemporary and Historical Archaeology in Theory ( CHAT ) conference group . The field forms part of historical archaeology , or the archaeology of the modern period . Unlike ethnoarchaeology , contemporary archaeology studies the recent and contemporary past in its own right , rather than to develop models that can inform the study of the more distant past . Often informed by anthropological material culture studies , but characterised by putting traditional archaeological methods and practices to new uses , research in this field generally aims to make an archaeological contribution to broader social scientific studies of the contemporary world , focusing especially upon contributing methods of studying material things ( objects , landscapes , buildings , material heritage , etc. ) to sociological , geographical and political studies of the modern world . The field has developed especially in heritage management , for example through English Heritage 's `` Change and Creation '' programme on the landscapes of the later 20th century As such , Contemporary Archaeology aims to explore the characteristics of diverse and rapid change across micro and macro scales by using a range of conventional and experimental Archaeology investigative techniques . Like all archaeological scholarship and practice , Contemporary Archaeology uses both inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning approaches , which can include archaeological modelling . `` Quentin Lewis recognized , contemporary archaeology has a firmer footing in the UK and Europe than it does in North America , or at least it is not an especially recognizable scholarly niche quite yet in the US . The work of scholars in the UK and Europe has turned to some materiality that is admittedly distinctive if not unique , such as the extensive scholarship of the landscapes of 20th century warfare ( for instance , English Heritage 's ambitious Cold War Monuments project , Gabriel Moshenska 's work on British air raid shelters and children 's homefront experiences of World War II , Heinrich Natho 's study of Norwegian World War II coastal defenses , and Alfredo Gonzalez-Ruibal 's analysis of Spanish Civil War Monuments ) ; Laura McAtackney 's work on `` peace walls '' in northern Ireland ; Anna Badcock and Robert Johnston 's study of protest camp sites in Derbyshire ; and contemporary graffiti ( John Schofield has cleverly captivated many journalists and questioned what archaeologists value with his assessment of Sex Pistols graffiti ) . Yet for all these distinctive dimensions of British and European heritage we could certainly point to just as many equally interesting material experiences in every corner of North America . Some of the visibility of contemporary archaeology is inevitably linked to a British and European willingness to conduct material analysis that does not require excavation . Outside North America a vast number of scholars call themselves archaeologists while studying space , the built environment , and a broad range of material things without necessarily wielding a trowel . In the US historical archaeology has fashioned a particularly productive niche by focusing on field excavation and everyday materiality , and much of our training is devoted to field methods and analysis of a distinctive range of commodities like ceramics , glass , and faunal remains that are routinely recovered from excavation contexts on nearly any historic period site '' Despite a history reaching back as far , at least , as William Rathje 's ` garbology ' project , Contemporary Archaeology remains a new sub-discipline within the university . In remaining focused on archaeology 's ability to tell stories that reach beyond official or formal discourse , Contemporary Archaeology has the potential to offer significant political critique .","qid":"157","docid":"Contemporary_archaeology","rank":84,"score":68452},{"content":"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .","qid":"157","docid":"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)","rank":85,"score":68417},{"content":"Title: Paleogene Content: The Paleogene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliːədʒiːn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈpeɪliːədʒiːn -RSB- also spelled Palaeogene or Palæogene ; informally Lower Tertiary ) is a geologic period and system that spans 43 million years from the end of the Cretaceous Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Neogene Period Mya . It is the beginning of the Cenozoic Era of the present Phanerozoic Eon . The Paleogene is most notable for being the time during which mammals diversified from relatively small , simple forms into a large group of diverse animals in the wake of the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event that ended the preceding Cretaceous Period . This period consists of the Paleocene , Eocene and Oligocene epochs . The end of the Paleocene ( 55.5 / 54.8 Mya ) was marked by the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic , which upset oceanic and atmospheric circulation and led to the extinction of numerous deep-sea benthic foraminifera and on land , a major turnover in mammals . The terms ` Paleogene System ' ( formal ) and ` lower Tertiary System ' ( informal ) are applied to the rocks deposited during the ` Paleogene Period ' . The somewhat confusing terminology seems to be due to attempts to deal with the comparatively fine subdivisions of time possible in the relatively recent geologic past , for which more details are preserved . By dividing the Tertiary Period into two periods instead of directly into five epochs , the periods are more closely comparable to the duration of ` periods ' of the preceding Mesozoic and Paleozoic Eras .","qid":"157","docid":"Paleogene","rank":86,"score":68297},{"content":"Title: WARM (Foundation) Content: WARM is an international foundation working on the world 's contemporary conflicts , based in Sarajevo , Bosnia .","qid":"157","docid":"WARM_(Foundation)","rank":87,"score":68193},{"content":"Title: National Centre for Contemporary Arts Content: The National Center for Contemporary Art ( NCCA ) , Moscow , Russia , is a major museum , exhibition and research organization which primarily aims its efforts at the development of Contemporary Russian Art within the context of the global art process , at the creation and implementation of programs and projects in the sphere of contemporary art , architecture and design both in Russia and beyond its borders . The activity of the Center evolves in close cooperation with artists and independent experts in the sphere of contemporary art , art culture and various organizations , such as museums , research institutions , public organizations , both in Russia , and abroad . The activities of the National Center of Contemporary Art follow several basic lines : popularization and support of Contemporary Russian Art ; various forms of curator work helping realize exhibition and audiovisual projects , installations , performances , hold video and movie presentations , creative sessions ; analytical and information research activity in the sphere of contemporary art ; educational activities -- lectures , seminars , master classes ; work to form the collection of contemporary art , including Russian and foreign art . Today , when the efforts of the previous years are bringing fruit , the National Center for Contemporary Art continues its active work aimed at the development and popularization of the Russian contemporary art and its integration in the global art context . At present NCCA is a network institution with its branches in major cultural centers of Russia , such as St. Petersburg , Nizhny Novgorod , Yekaterinburg and Kaliningrad . The National Center for Contemporary Art works under the auspices and with the constant support of the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation and The Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography .","qid":"157","docid":"National_Centre_for_Contemporary_Arts","rank":88,"score":68146},{"content":"Title: Global Geoparks Network Content: The Global Geoparks Network ( GGN ) ( also known as the Global Network of National Geoparks ) is a UNESCO assisted network established in 1998 . Managed under the body 's Ecological and Earth Sciences Division , the GGN seeks the promotion and conservation of the planet 's geological heritage , as well as encourages the sustainable research and development by the concerned communities .","qid":"157","docid":"Global_Geoparks_Network","rank":89,"score":68124},{"content":"Title: Globalization Content: Globalization ( or globalisation ; see spelling differences ) refers to the free movement of goods , capital , services , people , technology and information . It is the action or procedure of international integration of countries arising from the conversion of world views , products , ideas , and other aspects of culture . Advances in transportation ( such as the steam locomotive , steamship , jet engine , and container ships ) and in telecommunications infrastructure ( including the rise of the telegraph and its modern offspring , the Internet and mobile phones ) have been major factors in globalization , generating further interdependence of economic and cultural activities . Though many scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times , others trace its history long before the European Age of Discovery and voyages to the New World , some even to the third millennium BC . Large-scale globalization began in the 1820s . In the late 19th century and early 20th century , the connectivity of the world 's economies and cultures grew very quickly . The term globalization is recent , only establishing its current meaning in the 1970s . In 2000 , the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) identified four basic aspects of globalization : trade and transactions , capital and investment movements , migration and movement of people , and the dissemination of knowledge . Further , environmental challenges such as global warming , cross-boundary water and air pollution , and overfishing of the ocean are linked with globalization . Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization , economics , socio-cultural resources , and the natural environment . Academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas : economic globalization , cultural globalization , and political globalization . This caused shifts in population for third world countries , it took away their healthy men and unmarried women leaving wives , children , and the elderly to struggle which in return , lowered their health dramatically . The people that had left these countries also soon found out that the factory owners they started working for cut corners and worked the people extra hard , and did not care about health or safety .","qid":"157","docid":"Globalization","rank":90,"score":67681},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on South Asia Content:","qid":"157","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia","rank":91,"score":67334},{"content":"Title: Members of the Global Geoparks Network Content: The UNESCO Global Geoparks Network was established in November 2015 replacing the earlier UNESCO-assisted Global Geoparks Network ( GGN ) which was established in 1998 . The network was set up to conserve earth 's geological heritage , as well as to promote the sustainable research and development by the concerned communities . The GGN membership is formed by national geological parks , or geoparks -- local areas focused on the protection of geological features and heritage . The first batch of members to the GGN were announced during the first International Conference on Geoparks in 2004 . By late 2015 , 120 geoparks from 33 countries had officially become part of the GGN family . There are now GGN member sites situated in 5 of 7 continents and there being none currently in either Antarctica or Australasia . Notably there are currently ( 2015 ) no global geoparks in either the United States or former Soviet Union territory as well as in South Asia , Central America and most parts of Africa ( except Morocco and Canarias ) and Middle East ( except Turkey ) . China is the country with the largest number of global geoparks .","qid":"157","docid":"Members_of_the_Global_Geoparks_Network","rank":92,"score":67313},{"content":"Title: Geologica Acta Content: Geologica Acta is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research in the Earth sciences . It was established in 2003 as a successor to Acta Geologica Hispanica ( 1966-2002 ) , which was a more locally oriented journal published in Spanish . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2011 impact factor of 1.672 , ranking it 12th out of 46 journals in the category `` Geology '' . The journal is funded by the University of Barcelona , the Institute of Earth Sciences Jaume Almera ( CSIC ) , the Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research ( CSIC ) , the Autonomous University of Barcelona , and the Institut Geològic de Catalunya . It receives additional financial support from the publications department of the Spanish National Research Council ( CSIC ) .","qid":"157","docid":"Geologica_Acta","rank":93,"score":67263},{"content":"Title: Heshigten Global Geopark Content: Heshigten Global Geopark ( , kè shí kè téng shì jiè dì zhì gōng yuán ) is a UNESCO Global Geopark in Hexigten Banner , Chifeng city , Inner Mongolia , China . Its 1,750 km2 area is contained in eight separate areas of scenic beauty and geologic significance , including volcanic , glacial , and desert features . The park was designated a National Geopark of China by the Ministry of Land and Resources on December 10 , 2001 , and as a World Geopark by UNESCO on February 11 , 2005 .","qid":"157","docid":"Heshigten_Global_Geopark","rank":94,"score":67221},{"content":"Title: Acrocercops geologica Content: Acrocercops geologica is a moth of the Gracillariidae family , known from Sri Lanka . It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1908 .","qid":"157","docid":"Acrocercops_geologica","rank":95,"score":66993},{"content":"Title: Contemporary architecture Content: Contemporary architecture is the architecture of the 21st century . No single style is dominant ; contemporary architects are working in a dozen different styles , from postmodernism and high-tech architecture to highly conceptual and expressive styles , resembling sculpture on an enormous scale . The different styles and approaches have in common the use of very advanced technology and modern building materials , such as Tube structure which allows construction of the buildings that are taller , lighter and stronger than those in the 20th century , and the use of new techniques of computer-aided design , which allow buildings to be designed and modeled on computers in three dimensions , and constructed with more precision and speed . Contemporary buildings are designed to be noticed and to astonish . Some feature concrete structures wrapped in glass or aluminum screens , very asymmetric facades , and cantilevered sections which hang over the street . Skyscrapers twist , or break into crystal-like facets . Facades are designed to shimmer or change color at different times of day . Whereas the major monuments of modern architecture in the 20th century were mostly concentrated in the United States and western Europe , contemporary architecture is global ; important new buildings have been built in China , Russia , Latin America , and particularly in the Gulf States of the Middle East ; the Burj Khalifa in Dubai was the tallest building in the world in 2016 , and the Shanghai Tower in China was the second-tallest . Most of the landmarks of contemporary architecture are the works of a small group of architects who work on an international scale . Many were designed by architects already famous in the late 20th century , including Mario Botta , Frank Gehry , Jean Nouvel , Norman Foster , Ieoh Ming Pei and Renzo Piano , while others are the work of a new generation born during or after World war II , including Zaha Hadid , Santiago Calatrava , Daniel Libeskind , Jacques Herzog , Pierre de Meuron , Rem Koolhaas , and Shigeru Ban . Other projects are the work of collectives of several architects , such as UNStudio and SANAA , or giant multinational agencies such as Skidmore , Owings & Merrill , with thirty associate architects and large teams of engineers and designers , and Gensler , with 5,000 employees in 16 countries .","qid":"157","docid":"Contemporary_architecture","rank":96,"score":66922},{"content":"Title: Geological history of Earth Content: The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth 's past based on the geologic time scale , a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet 's rock layers ( stratigraphy ) . Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula , a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun , which also created the rest of the Solar System . Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies . Eventually , the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere . The Moon formed soon afterwards , possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth . Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere . Condensing water vapor , augmented by ice delivered from comets , produced the oceans . As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years , continents formed and broke apart . They migrated across the surface , occasionally combining to form a supercontinent . Roughly , the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia , began to break apart . The continents later recombined to form Pannotia , , then finally Pangaea , which broke apart . The present pattern of ice ages began about , then intensified at the end of the Pliocene . The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw , repeating every 40,000 -- 100,000 years . The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago .","qid":"157","docid":"Geological_history_of_Earth","rank":97,"score":66824},{"content":"Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .","qid":"157","docid":"Taken_by_Storm","rank":98,"score":66627},{"content":"Title: Rhyacian Content: The Rhyacian Period ( -LSB- pronraɪˈeɪsiən -RSB- Ρυαξ ( rhyax ) , meaning `` stream of lava '' ) is the second geologic period in the Paleoproterozoic Era and lasted from Mya to Mya ( million years ago ) . Instead of being based on stratigraphy , these dates are defined chronometrically . The Bushveld Igneous Complex and other similar intrusions formed during this period . The Huronian ( Makganyene ) global glaciation began at the start of the Rhyacian lasted 100 million years . The first known eukaryotes began to evolve in the Rhyacian period . The multicellular Francevillian Group Fossils , at 2.1-Gyr are from the Rhyacian period . For the time period from 2250 Ma to 2060 Ma , an alternative period based on stratigraphy rather than chronometry , named either the Jatulian or the Eukaryian , was suggested in the geological timescale review 2012 edited by Gradstein et al. , but , this has not yet been officially adopted by the IUGS . The term Jatulian is , however , used in the regional stratigraphy of the Paleoproterozoic rocks of Fennoscandia .","qid":"157","docid":"Rhyacian","rank":99,"score":66609},{"content":"Title: Period (geology) Content: A geologic period is one of several subdivisions of geologic time enabling cross-referencing of rocks and geologic events from place to place . These periods form elements of a hierarchy of divisions into which geologists have split the Earth 's history . Eons and eras are larger subdivisions than periods while periods themselves may be divided into epochs and ages . The rocks formed during a period belong to a stratigraphic unit called a system .","qid":"157","docid":"Period_(geology)","rank":100,"score":66581}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Volcanism Program Content: The Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program ( GVP ) documents Earth 's volcanoes and their eruptive history over the past 10,000 years . The GVP reports on current eruptions from around the world as well as maintaining a database repository on active volcanoes and their eruptions . In this way , a global context for the planet 's active volcanism is presented . Smithsonian reporting on current volcanic activity dates back to 1968 , with the Center for Short-Lived Phenomena ( CSLP ) . The GVP is housed in the Department of Mineral Sciences , part of the National Museum of Natural History , on the National Mall in Washington , D.C. During the early stages of an eruption , the GVP acts as a clearinghouse of reports , data , and imagery which are accumulated from a global network of contributors . The early flow of information is managed such that the right people are contacted as well as helping to sort out vague and contradictory aspects that typically arise during the early days of an eruption . The Weekly Volcanic Activity Report is a cooperative project between the Smithsonian 's Global Volcanism Program and the United States Geological Survey 's Volcano Hazards Program . Notices of volcanic activity posted on the Report website are preliminary and subject to change as events are studied in more detail . Detailed reports on various volcanoes are published monthly in the Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network The GVP also documents the last 10,000 years of Earth 's volcanism . The historic activity can guide perspectives on possible future events and on volcanoes showing activity . GVP 's volcano and eruption databases constitute a foundation for all statistical statements concerning locations , frequencies , and magnitudes of Earth 's volcanic eruptions during the last 10,000 years . Two editions of Volcanoes of the World , a regional directory ... ( 1981 ) and ( 1994 ) were published based on the GVP data and interpretations .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Volcanism_Program\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 102315\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 93777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 93370\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 90281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Stockholm_Memorandum\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 90051\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 88910\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 85388\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Science for the contemporary world Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Science_for_the_contemporary_world\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 85304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 84959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 84935\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming taxes Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_taxes\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 84414\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Ice People Content: The Ice People is a 1998 science fiction novel by Maggie Gee , set in a future world dominated by a new ice age . The novel examines different elements of contemporary society : the fundamental roles and relationships of men and women , sexuality , politics and the issue of global warming . Global warming is the initial context , where increases in temperature are then followed by the cyclic appearance of an ice age . The reaction of society and individuals to these dramatic extremes sites the novel within the genre of dystopian science fiction , but closer to the author 's heart seem to be the changes within such a scenario of issues we face today : the changes in racism as different parts of the planet change in their attractiveness ; the changes in social position as `` Insiders '' and `` Outsiders '' -- the `` haves '' and the `` have-nots '' -- live within differing conditions ; the value , status and interpretation of marriage ; parenthood -- the increasing difficulties in conception and the subsequent single-parenthood versus family issues ; the `` gang '' mentality of men and women ; the way politics is perceived , used and power abused . The Ice People has been compared to George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Ice_People\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 83618\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Holocene Content: The Holocene ( -LSB- pronˈhɒləˌsiːn , _ ˈhoʊ - -RSB- ) is the geological epoch that began after the Pleistocene at approximately 11,700 years before present . The term `` Recent '' ( usually capitalised ) has often been used as an exact synonym of `` Holocene '' , although this usage is discouraged in 21st-century science . The Holocene is part of the Quaternary period . Its name comes from the Ancient Greek words ὅλος ( holos , whole or entire ) and καινός ( kainos , new ) , meaning `` entirely recent '' . It has been identified with the current warm period , known as MIS 1 , and can be considered an interglacial in the current ice age based on that evidence . The Holocene also encompasses the growth and impacts of the human species worldwide , including all its written history , development of major civilizations , and overall significant transition toward urban living in the present . Human impacts on modern-era Earth and its ecosystems may be considered of global significance for future evolution of living species , including approximately synchronous lithospheric evidence , or more recently atmospheric evidence of human impacts . Given these , a new term , Anthropocene , is specifically proposed and used informally only for the very latest part of modern history involving significant human impact .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Holocene\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 82436\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 81758\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geologic Calendar Content: The Geologic Calendar is a scale in which the geological lifetime of the earth is mapped onto a calendrical year ; that is to say , the day one of the earth took place on a geologic January 1 at precisely midnight , and today 's date and time is December 31 at midnight . On this calendar , the inferred appearance of the first living single-celled organisms , prokaryotes , occurred on a geologic February 25 around 12:30 pm to 1:07 pm , dinosaurs first appeared on December 13 , the first flower plants on December 22 and the first primates on December 28 at about 9:43 pm . The first Anatomically modern humans did not arrive until around 11:48 p.m. on New Year 's Eve , and all of human history since the end of the last ice-age occurred in the last 82.2 seconds before midnight of the new year .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Geologic_Calendar\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 81434\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Langhian Content: The Langhian is , in the ICS geologic timescale , an age or stage in the middle Miocene epoch/series . It spans the time between 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma and 13.65 ± 0.05 Ma ( million years ago ) during the Middle Miocene . The Langhian was a continuing warming period defined by Lorenzo Pareto in 1865 , it was originally established in the Langhe area north of Ceva in northern Italy , hence the name . The Langhian is preceded by the Burdigalian and followed by the Serravallian stage .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Langhian\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 79487\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 79004\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Turkey\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 78695\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 78325\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Adult Contemporary (radio network) Content: Adult Contemporary ( also known as AC ) is a 24-hour music format produced by Dial Global . It targets a general radio audience between the ages of 35-49 with soft rock music from the 1970s to right now . Artists featured on this network are Phil Collins , Maroon 5 , Billy Joel , Rod Stewart , Kelly Clarkson , and many more artists . Jones Radio Networks was recently purchased by Triton Media Group . Although `` AC '' was n't affected by it , the satellite feed was relocated into Dial Global 's portfolio .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Adult_Contemporary_(radio_network)\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 78305\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global and Planetary Change Content: Global and Planetary Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research into the earth sciences , particularly pertaining to changes in aspects thereof such as sea level and the chemical composition of the atmosphere . It has been published by Elsevier since it was established in 1989 . The editors-in-chief are S.A.P.L. Cloetingh ( Utrecht University ) , T.M. Cronin ( United States Geological Survey ) , K. McGuffie ( University of Technology Sydney ) , and H. Oberhänsli ( Museum für Naturkunde ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 3.155 , ranking it 9th out of 45 journals in the category `` Geography , Physical '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_and_Planetary_Change\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 78231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ontario Geological Survey Content: The Ontario Geological Survey ( OGS ) is an administrative Branch of the Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines - MNDM . It is responsible for documenting and communicating the geology of Ontario , and manages the Assessment File Research Imaging database , as well as many other geological databases that describe the geology of Ontario . OGS helps people understand how to apply the geological knowledge about Ontario to address a range of public policy issues . The OGS is a public good organization . Its geological survey function is mandated by the Ontario Government . OGS has no regulatory responsibility . Ontario 's geology includes : a ) the rock ( bedrock ) ; b ) the deposits of sand , gravel , and till left by the glaciers ; c ) the mineral resources and potential ; d ) the energy resource potential within the rocks and soils ; and e ) the groundwater aquifers that contain groundwater resources . An understanding of what is at , and below , our feet is fundamental to human existence on the Earth , to understand the environment and habitats , and our ability to adapt to future changes , such as global warming . This geological knowledge is used to assess Earth resource potential , to attract investment , to ensure the health and safety of Ontario people from geo-hazards , and to plan the present and future use of the land . The OGS also collaborates with Ontario 's Aboriginal people to achieve a mutual understanding , mutual respect , and to achieve mutual interests . The OGS is a science-based organization that conducts field studies . To facilitate use of geological information by a range of technical and non-technical users , OGS provides many of Ontario 's key , regional , geological databases for easy viewing on Google Earth , but using the OGSEarth function . Themes include : bedrock geology , surficial geology , mineral resource data , groundwater aquifer data , geophysical and geochemical data , bedrock topography and overburden thickness , plus many more themes . OGS regularly shares information and fosters discussion about Ontario 's geology on its OGS Facebook page and via its OGS Twitter page .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Ontario_Geological_Survey\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 78153\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Context Development Content: Context is a real estate development company focused on high-rise residential developments in downtown Toronto . Founded in 1997 by Stephen Gross and Howard Cohen , Context is known for urban design and contemporary architecture . They have worked with the Toronto architecture firm architectsAlliance on several condominium developments .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Context_Development\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 78066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Interglacial\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 77557\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming (Sonny Rollins album) Content: Global Warming is an album by jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins , released on the Milestone label in 1998 , featuring performances by Rollins with Stephen Scott , Bob Cranshaw , Idris Muhammad , Clifton Anderson , Victor See Yuen and Perry Wilson .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_(Sonny_Rollins_album)\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 76829\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Burdigalian Content: The Burdigalian is , in the geologic timescale , an age or stage in the early Miocene . It spans the time between 20.43 ± 0.05 Ma and 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma ( million years ago ) . Preceded by the Aquitanian , the Burdigalian was the first and longest warming period of the Miocene and is succeeded by the Langhian .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Burdigalian\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 76681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Standard Stratigraphic Age Content: In the stratigraphy sub-discipline of geology , a Global Standard Stratigraphic Age , abbreviated GSSA , is a chronological reference point and criterion in the geologic record used to define the boundaries ( an internationally sanctioned benchmark point ) between different geological periods , epochs or ages on the overall geologic time scale in a chronostratigraphically useful rock layer . A worldwide multidisciplinary effort has been ongoing since 1974 to define such important metrics . The points and strata need be widespread and contain an identifiable sequence of layers or other unambiguous marker ( identifiable or quantifiable ) attributes . GSSAs , and the generally more recent and preferred benchmark GSSPs are defined by the International Commission on Stratigraphy ( ICS ) under the auspices of their parent organization , the International Union of Geological Sciences ( IUGS ) , and are used primarily for time dating of rock layers older than 630 million years ago , lacking a good fossil record . The ICS first attempts to meet the standards of the GSSPs ( see below ) and if those fail , usually have enough information to make a preliminary selection of several competing GSSA prospects or proposals . The geologic record becomes spotty prior to about 542 million years ago . This is because the Earth 's crust in geological time scales is constantly being recycled by tectonic and weathering forces , and older rocks and especially readily accessible exposed strata that can act as a time calibration are rare . For more recent periods , a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point ( GSSP ) , largely based on paleontology and improved methods of fossil dating , is used to define such boundaries . In contrast to GSSAs , GSSPs are based on important events and transitions within a particular stratigraphic section . In older sections , there is insufficient fossil record or well preserved sections to identify the key events necessary for a GSSP , so GSSAs are defined based on fixed dates and selected criteria .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Standard_Stratigraphic_Age\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 76322\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contemporary art Content: Contemporary art is the art of today , produced by artists who are living in the twenty-first century . Contemporary art provides an opportunity to reflect on contemporary society and the issues relevant to ourselves , and the world around us . Contemporary artists work in a globally influenced , culturally diverse , and technologically advancing world . Their art is a dynamic combination of materials , methods , concepts , and subjects that challenge traditional boundaries and defy easy definition . Diverse and eclectic , contemporary art as a whole is distinguished by the very lack of a uniform , organizing principle , ideology , or ` ism . ' Contemporary art is part of a cultural dialogue that concerns larger contextual frameworks such as personal and cultural identity , family , community , and nationality . In vernacular English , `` modern '' and `` contemporary '' are synonyms , resulting in some conflation of the terms `` modern art '' and `` contemporary art '' by non-specialists .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Contemporary_art\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 76304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 76231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 75937\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Neogene Content: The Neogene ( -LSB- pronˈniːəˌdʒiːn -RSB- ) is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period Mya . The Neogene is sub-divided into two epochs , the earlier Miocene and the later Pliocene . Some geologists assert that the Neogene can not be clearly delineated from the modern geological period , the Quaternary . During this period , mammals and birds continued to evolve into roughly modern forms , while other groups of life remained relatively unchanged . Early hominids , the ancestors of humans , appeared in Africa near the end of the period . Some continental movement took place , the most significant event being the connection of North and South America at the Isthmus of Panama , late in the Pliocene . This cut off the warm ocean currents from the Pacific to the Atlantic ocean , leaving only the Gulf Stream to transfer heat to the Arctic Ocean . The global climate cooled considerably over the course of the Neogene , culminating in a series of continental glaciations in the Quaternary Period that follows .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Neogene\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 75815\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flandrian interglacial Content: The Flandrian interglacial or stage is the name given by geologists and archaeologists in the British Isles to the first , and so far only , stage of the Holocene epoch ( the present geological period ) , covering the period from around 12,000 years ago , at the end of the last glacial period to the present day . As such , it is in practice identical in span to the Holocene . Present climatological theory ( based on analysis of Milankovitch cycles ) forecasts that the present Flandrian climate should decline in temperature towards a global climate similar to that of the ice age . Less orbital eccentricity may have the effect of moderating this temperature downturn . The Flandrian began as the relatively short-lived Younger Dryas climate downturn came to an end . This formed the last gasp of the Devensian glaciation , the final stage of the Pleistocene epoch and is traditionally seen as the latest warm interglacial in a series that has been occurring throughout the Quaternary geological period . The first part of the Flandrian , known as the Younger Atlantic , was a period of fairly rapid sea level rise , known as the Flandrian transgression and associated with the melting of the Fenno-Scandian , Scottish , Laurentide and Cordilleran glaciers . Fjords were formed during the Flandrian transgression when U-shaped glaciated valleys were inundated with water .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Flandrian_interglacial\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 75664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Catastrophism Content: Catastrophism is the theory that the Earth has been affected in the past by sudden , short-lived , violent events , possibly worldwide in scope . This was in contrast to uniformitarianism ( sometimes described as gradualism ) , in which slow incremental changes , such as erosion , created all the Earth 's geological features . Uniformitarianism held that the present is the key to the past , and that all things continued as they were from the indefinite past . Since the early disputes , a more inclusive and integrated view of geologic events has developed , in which the scientific consensus accepts that there were some catastrophic events in the geologic past , but these were explicable as extreme examples of natural processes which can occur . Catastrophism held that geological epochs had ended with violent and sudden natural catastrophes such as great floods and the rapid formation of major mountain chains . Plants and animals living in the parts of the world where such events occurred were killed off , being replaced abruptly by the new forms whose fossils defined the geological strata . Some catastrophists attempted to relate at least one such change to the Biblical account of Noah 's flood . The concept was first popularised by the early 19th-century French scientist Georges Cuvier , who proposed that new life forms had moved in from other areas after local floods , and avoided religious or metaphysical speculation in his scientific writings .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Catastrophism\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 75374\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Raymond A. Price Content: Raymond Alexander Price , ( born March 25 , 1933 ) is an award winning Canadian geologist . He has used his research on the structure and tectonics of North America 's lithosphere to produce extensive geological maps . He has also provided guidance for nuclear fuel waste disposal and reports on the human contribution to Global warming . Price was born in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada . He obtained his BSc in Geology from the University of Manitoba in 1955 . He completed two more degrees in geology at Princeton University ; an A.M. in 1957 and a PhD in 1958 .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Raymond_A._Price\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 75254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 74639\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Content: The world is the planet Earth and all life upon it , including human civilization . In a philosophical context , the world is the whole of the physical Universe , or an ontological world . In a theological context , the world is the material or the profane sphere , as opposed to the celestial , spiritual , transcendent or sacred . The `` end of the world '' refers to scenarios of the final end of human history , often in religious contexts . History of the world is commonly understood as spanning the major geopolitical developments of about five millennia , from the first civilizations to the present . In terms such as world religion , world language , world government , and world war , world suggests international or intercontinental scope without necessarily implying participation of the entire world . World population is the sum of all human populations at any time ; similarly , world economy is the sum of the economies of all societies or countries , especially in the context of globalization . Terms like world championship , gross world product , world flags imply the sum or combination of all current-day sovereign states .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"World\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 74612\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Post-contemporary Content: Post-contemporary ( PoCo ) is a forward-looking aesthetic philosophy distinguished by a re-constructive , global , human ethos which posits that the aesthetic experience is universal to humanity , and that this experience can inspire understanding and transformation . It has developed in tandem with new theories of Emergence in Complexity science , as well as advances in Biosemiotics . In art historical terms , `` modern '' and `` contemporary '' arts are limited to their era and are defined by stylistic and philosophical parameters - chief among them , a critique of the classical European tradition and constructive philosophy , and secondly , the Contemporary ethos is characterized by an emphasis on transient or exclusively contemporary issues which reflect the zeitgeist . Following the legacy of Modernism , Post-Modernism and Contemporary art follow the tradition of Deconstruction and questioning , while Post Contemporary emphasizes generating new , constructive hypotheses . However , modeled after the Scientific Method , both modes are inter-dependent as the question | answer can not exist without each other . Thus , Post-Contemporary views the history of the humanities as branching and pluralist , rather than a linear path of development . Consequently , PoCo has chosen a forking path , builds upon knowledge from all eras , and values quality , sublimnity , and empathy above novelty . PoCo emphasizes empathy for all , regardless of race , gender , sexual orientation , or creed . Post-Contemporary as a concept was first described by Italian Poet Primo Levi . ( See Philosophical Overview . ) Though as of yet , the first documented use of the specific term was in 2005 by Abbas Gharib in a conversation with Bahram Shirdel , two architects of Iranian origins , both proficient in western culture and participant in the current debate on . The conversation was published by Sharestan Magazine , 55 . 2007 . The discussion took this definition also to distinguish the third millennium epitomes of creative sectors , by their projection into coming avant-garde configurations , toward future . To day in its own progress , the Post-contemporary concepts , often known simply as Po-co is much better defined .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Post-contemporary\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 74526\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Ian_Clark_(geologist)\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 74407\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 73921\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geologic record Content: The geologic record in stratigraphy , paleontology and other natural sciences refers to the entirety of the layers of rock strata -- deposits laid down by volcanism or by deposition of sediment derived from weathering detritus ( clays , sands etc. ) including all its fossil content and the information it yields about the history of the Earth : its past climate , geography , geology and the evolution of life on its surface . According to the law of superposition , sedimentary and volcanic rock layers are deposited on top of each other . They harden over time to become a solidified ( competent ) rock column , that may be intruded by igneous rocks and disrupted by tectonic events .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Geologic_record\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 73817\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Map that Changed the World Content: The Map that Changed the World is a book by Simon Winchester about English geologist William Smith and his great achievement , the first geological map of England and Wales . Smith 's was the first national-scale geological map , and by far the most accurate of its time . His pivotal insights were that each local sequence of rock strata was a subsequence of a single universal sequence of strata and that these rock strata could be distinguished and traced for great distances by means of embedded fossilized organisms . Winchester 's book narrates the intellectual context of the time , the development of Smith 's ideas and how they contributed to the theory of evolution and more generally to a dawning realisation of the true age of the earth . The book describes the social , economic or industrial context for Smith 's insights and work , such as the importance of coal mining and the transport of coal by means of canals , both of which were a stimulus to the study of geology and the means whereby Smith supported his research . Land owners wished to know if coal might be found on their holdings . Canal planning and construction depended on understanding the rock and soil along its route . Related topics , such as the founding of the Geological Society of London , are included . Smith 's map was published by John Cary , a leading map publisher . Winchester describes the practice of publishing at the time as well as the system of debtor 's prisons through his account of the sojourn of Smith in the King 's Bench Prison .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Map_that_Changed_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 73353\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 73346\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 73235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contemporary society Content: Contemporary society , according to social and political scientists , is characterised by at least three fundamental directions : increasing human interconnection through a network of relationships that is progressively covering the whole planet ; the pace and depth of the evolution of human ways of life determined by technological innovation represent an absolute novelty in human history ; the scale of anthropological and ecological transformation due to the interaction between evolutionary factors ( social , cultural , economic , and technological ) has no historical precedent . These presentations are the result of a number of fundamental changes that are irreversibly transforming our daily lives , our way of thinking and perceiving the world and our way of living together . Among these fundamental changes are : improvements in life conditions , life expectancy , literacy and gender equality ; changes in domestic and international political institutions ; and the breakdown of natural equilibria .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Contemporary_society\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 72985\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point Content: A Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point , abbreviated GSSP , is an internationally agreed upon reference point on a stratigraphic section which defines the lower boundary of a stage on the geologic time scale . The effort to define GSSPs is conducted by the International Commission on Stratigraphy , a part of the International Union of Geological Sciences . Most , but not all , GSSPs are based on paleontological changes . Hence GSSPs are usually described in terms of transitions between different faunal stages , though far more faunal stages have been described than GSSPs . The GSSP definition effort commenced in 1977 . As of 2012 , 64 of the 101 stages that need a GSSP have been formally defined .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Section_and_Point\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 72802\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James L. Powell Content: James Lawrence Powell ( born July 17 , 1936 in Berea , Kentucky ) is an American geologist . He was the chairman of the geology department at Oberlin College from 1965 to 1973 , and served as its provost from 1975 to 1981 . From 1983 to 1988 , Powell was the president of Franklin and Marshall College . He served as the president of Reed College from 1988 to 1991 , after which he became the president of the Franklin Institute , and has also served on the National Science Board for 12 years . He was formerly the director of the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History , and is currently the executive director of the National Physical Science Consortium . The minor planet 9739 Powell , discovered by C. S. Shoemaker in 1987 , is named after him . In 2010 , Powell wrote a book entitled Dead Pool , which detailed the history of water supply shortages in the Western United States . In 2012 , Powell conducted a survey of scientific papers regarding the topic of anthropogenic global warming by searching Web of Science for scientific papers published from 1991 to 2012 . He identified 13,950 papers , but only 24 which argued that humans were not the primary cause of global warming . He updated his survey in 2014 to include 2,258 studies published from November 12 , 2012 , to December 21 , 2013 , and identified only one study published during this time that argued that global warming was not caused by human activity . In 2015 , Powell was elected a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"James_L._Powell\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 72792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 72618\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Doran\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 72525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 72084\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_conspiracy_theory\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 71975\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keesing's Contemporary Archives Content: Keesing 's Contemporary Archives was a long-running printed summary of world news published from 1931 to 1988 and more recently on the Internet as Keesing 's Record of World Events . Its purpose is to provide a detailed , factual and neutral account of events .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Keesing's_Contemporary_Archives\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 71821\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contemporary (disambiguation) Content: Contemporary is the historical period that is immediately relevant to the present and is a certain perspective of modern history . Contemporary may also refer to : Contemporary philosophy Contemporary art , post-World War II art Contemporary dance , a modern genre of concert dance Contemporary literature , post-World War II literature Contemporary music , post-World War II music Contemporary ( magazine ) , an art magazine Contemporary Records , a jazz record label\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Contemporary_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 71708\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 71643\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geological Museum Content: The Geological Museum ( originally The Museum of Practical Geology , started in 1835 ) is one of the oldest single science museums in the world and now part of the Natural History Museum in London . It transferred from Jermyn Street to Exhibition Road , South Kensington in 1935 in a building designed by Sir Richard Allison and John Hatton Markham of the Office of Works .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Geological_Museum\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 71448\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 70963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Merchants of Doubt Content: Merchants of Doubt : How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming is a 2010 non-fiction book by American historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway . It identifies parallels between the global warming controversy and earlier controversies over tobacco smoking , acid rain , DDT , and the hole in the ozone layer . Oreskes and Conway write that in each case `` keeping the controversy alive '' by spreading doubt and confusion after a scientific consensus had been reached , was the basic strategy of those opposing action . In particular , they say that Fred Seitz , Fred Singer , and a few other contrarian scientists joined forces with conservative think tanks and private corporations to challenge the scientific consensus on many contemporary issues . The George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer , two of the subjects , have been critical of the book . Other reviewers have been more favorable . One reviewer said that Merchants of Doubt is exhaustively researched and documented , and may be one of the most important books of 2010 . Another reviewer saw the book as his choice for best science book of the year . It was made into a film , Merchants of Doubt , directed by Robert Kenner , released in 2014 .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Merchants_of_Doubt\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 70880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_activity_and_climate\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 70712\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 70709\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: In Our Translated World Content: In Our Translated World : Contemporary Global Tamil Poetry is a bilingual ( Tamil and English ) anthology of Tamil poetry . This collection contains poems by 78 Tamils , of whom 21 are women . The authors are from many countries , including India , Sri Lanka , Malaysia , Singapore , Canada , Australia and Europe . Similarly , their backgrounds and experiences are diverse , described as being `` women and men , young and old , Hindu , Muslim and Christian '' . In a note about the importance of this work , Professor Sascha Ebeling of the Department of South Indian Studies , University of Chicago stated the following : `` Never before has an anthology of Tamil poetry in translation offered such a broad perspective , and no other book to date demonstrates so well the fact that over the past two decades Tamil literature has become a truly global affair . '' . In Our Translated World is the result of a project undertaken by Tamil Literary Garden with funding from Ontario government 's Trillium Foundation and others . It was edited by Chelva Kanaganayakam , professor in the Department of English and the Director for the Centre for South Asian Studies at the University of Toronto . This book was released on 9 March 2014 at the Scarborough Convention Centre .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"In_Our_Translated_World\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 70568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Younger_Dryas\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 70371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Tour Content: The Global Warming Tour was a concert tour by American hard rock band Aerosmith that included 67 concert performances across North America , Oceania , Asia and Latin America . Prior to the first leg of the tour , the band played a private event for Walmart shareholders . The first leg of the tour included 23 performances and lasted from late May through early August 2012 . The second leg included 14 performances in November and December 2012 . Before the second leg of the tour , the band performed a brief set at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in mid September . Also prior to the second leg , to promote the release of their new album in early November , the band made three special nationally-televised performances in New York City and also did a special performance in front of their old Boston apartment . The performances on the first two legs of the tour were held primarily in indoor arenas , with a couple outdoor shows and a few festival dates on the first leg , including three festivals in eastern Canada and Milwaukee 's Summerfest . The third leg of the tour ran from late April to mid May 2013 and saw Aerosmith playing their first shows in Australia since 1990 , as well as their first-ever shows in New Zealand and the Philippines . On May 30 , the band performed as part of the `` Boston Strong '' charity concert for victims of the Boston Marathon bombings . In July 2013 , the band played at the Greenbrier Classic in West Virginia and at Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut . In August 2013 , the band performed four concerts in Japan , but their first-ever shows in China and Taiwan were cancelled due to poor ticket sales . The band also performed in August at the Harley-Davidson 110th anniversary concert series in Milwaukee . Concerts were planned for Latin America in September and October , including their first-ever shows in Uruguay , Guatemala and El Salvador . Cheap Trick was the opening act for all dates in the first two legs except for a few festival shows . The Dead Dasies , a supergroup featuring Jon Stevens and Richard Fortus , were the opening act for the Australia/New Zealand leg . The tour is in promotion of Aerosmith 's new album Music from Another Dimension ! , released on November 6 , 2012 . In addition to many of their biggest hits and a few choice album cuts , the band has so far performed four new songs from Music from Another Dimension on this tour , three of them regularly ( `` Oh Yeah '' , `` Legendary Child '' , and `` Lover Alot '' ) , with the potential for more songs to be played in the 2013 leg . During the South America leg , specifically in Argentina and Brazil , Aerosmith toured with Whitesnake , including performances at the Personal Fest in Buenos Aires and at the Monsters of Rock in São Paulo . On May 5 , 2013 , the band announced they had cancelled their first-ever show in Jakarta due to safety concerns . In 2014 , Aerosmith played 17 concerts across Europe from May 14 to July 2 . A new tour , the Let Rock Rule Tour , was scheduled to follow in July , August , and September 2014 that saw Aerosmith play several dates in North America . This tour featured Slash ( with Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators ) as the opening act . Full details of the tour were announced on April 8 , 2014 . On May 14 , 2014 , the band announced that they had cancelled their concert in Istanbul after Turkey declared a three-day mourning for the victims of Soma mine disaster . July 2 , 2014 concert in Kiev was cancelled due to civil unrest in Ukraine .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Tour\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 70217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoceanography Content: Paleoceanography is the study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past with regard to circulation , chemistry , biology , geology and patterns of sedimentation and biological productivity . Paleoceanographic studies using environment models and different proxies enable the scientific community to assess the role of the oceanic processes in the global climate by the re-construction of past climate at various intervals . Paleoceanographic research is also intimately tied to paleoclimatology .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoceanography\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 70212\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: How Global Warming Works Content: How Global Warming Works is a website developed by Michael Ranney , a professor of cognitive psychology at the University of California , Berkeley in Berkeley , California , United States . The stated goal of the website is to educate the public on the mechanisms of global warming , which was motivated by research Ranney and colleagues conducted on attitudes towards and understanding of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"How_Global_Warming_Works\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 70145\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Barry R. Bickmore Content: Barry Robert Bickmore is a professor in the department of geological sciences at Brigham Young University ( BYU ) . He is also a devout Mormon , having written Restoring the Ancient Church : Joseph Smith and Early Christianity ( Ben Lomond : FAIR , 1999 ) as well as several articles that have been published in the FARMS Review . Bickmore was born in Redwood City , California , and raised in California and Utah . He served as a missionary for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( LDS Church ) in Iowa . He obtained a degree in geology with minors in philosophy and chemistry from BYU . He then received a Ph.D. in geochemistry from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University , where his advisor was Michael F. Hochella . He then was a postdoctoral research assistant at the University of Colorado for about a year and a half prior to joining the BYU faculty in August 2001 . Bickmore , a conservative Republican , is known for his activism in support of global warming , such as when he criticized a proposed bill in Utah that described climate change as a hoax . The bill passed in spite of Bickmore 's efforts to defeat it . Among other callings in the LDS Church , Bickmore has served as a seminary teacher . In geochemistry and related fields , Bickmore has focused on the study of low-temperature geochemical reactions and the development of geoscience curricula as part of the curriculum of elementary education majors .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Barry_R._Bickmore\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 70102\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geophysical global cooling Content: Before the concept of plate tectonics , global cooling was a geophysical theory by James Dwight Dana , also referred to as the contracting earth theory . It suggested that the Earth had been in a molten state , and features such as mountains formed as it cooled and shrank . As the interior of the Earth cooled and shrank , the rigid crust would have to shrink and crumple . The crumpling could produce features such as mountain ranges .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Geophysical_global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 70073\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Modern history Content: Modern history , the modern period or the modern era , is the global historiographical approach to the timeframe after the Post-classical history . Modern history can be further broken down into periods : The early modern period began approximately in the early 16th century ; notable historical milestones included the European Renaissance and the Age of Discovery . The late modern period began approximately in the mid-18th century ; notable historical milestones included the French Revolution , American Revolution , the Industrial Revolution , and the Great Divergence . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; the next billion came just over a century later , in 1927 . Contemporary history is the span of historic events from approximately 1945 that are immediately relevant to the present time .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Modern_history\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 69985\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geologic temperature record Content: The Geologic temperature record are changes in Earth 's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion ( 109 ) year time scales . The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a crucial component of the climate and oceanography of the time .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Geologic_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 69798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_hiatus\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 69663\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_dimming\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 69595\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contemporary Latin Content: Contemporary Latin is the form of the Latin language used from the end of the 19th century through to the present . Various kinds of contemporary Latin can be distinguished . On the one hand there is its survival in areas such as taxonomy as the result of the widespread presence of the language in the New Latin era . This is usually found in the form of mere words or phrases used in the general context of other languages . On the other hand , there is the use of Latin as a language in its own right as a full-fledged means of expression . Living or Spoken Latin , being the most specific development of Latin in the contemporary context , is the primary subject of this article .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Contemporary_Latin\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 69514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Policy Foundation Content: The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Policy_Foundation\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 69465\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hong Kong Global Geopark Content: Hong Kong UNESCO Global Geopark , formerly Hong Kong National Geopark , was inaugurated on 3 November 2009 . It covers an area of 50 km2 across parts of the Eastern and Northeastern New Territories . It includes eight sites ( and combinations of sites ) . On 18 September 2011 , UNESCO listed the Geopark as part of its Global Geoparks Network . The Hong Kong Global Geopark consists of two geological regions : the widely distributed hexagonal rock columns in Sai Kung , which are of international geological significance , and the northeast New Territories region , which comprises sedimentary rocks formed in different geologic periods , showcasing the complete geological history of Hong Kong . The Geopark is made up of eight Geo-Areas distributed across the Sai Kung Volcanic Rock Region and Northeast New Territories Sedimentary Rock Region .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Hong_Kong_Global_Geopark\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 69384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 69137\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Miocene Content: The Miocene ( -LSB- pronˈmaɪəˌsiːn -RSB- ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about ( Ma ) . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell . Its name comes from the Greek words μείων ( meiōn , `` less '' ) and καινός ( kainos , `` new '' ) and means `` less recent '' because it has 18 % fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene . The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch . The earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene , with the climate slowly cooling towards a series of ice ages . The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event but consist rather of regional boundaries between the warmer Oligocene and the cooler Pliocene Epoch . The apes arose and diversified during the Miocene , becoming widespread in the Old World . By the end of this epoch , the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path . As in the Oligocene before it , grasslands continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent . In the Miocene seas , kelp forests made their first appearance and soon became one of Earth 's most productive ecosystems . The plants and animals of the Miocene were fairly modern . Mammals and birds were well-established . Whales , seals , and kelp spread . The Miocene is of particular interest to geologists and palaeoclimatologists as major phases of the Himalayan orogeny had occurred during the Miocene , affecting monsoonal patterns in Asia , which were interlinked with glaciations in the northern hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Miocene\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 69113\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 69096\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Current History Content: Current History is the oldest United States-based publication devoted exclusively to contemporary world affairs . The magazine was founded in 1914 by George Washington Ochs Oakes , brother of New York Times publisher Adolph Ochs , in order to provide detailed coverage of World War I. Current History was published by The New York Times Company from its founding until 1936 . Since 1942 it has been owned by members of the Redmond family ; its current publisher is Daniel Mark Redmond . Current History , based in Philadelphia , maintains no institutional , political , or governmental affiliation . It is published monthly , from September through May . Seven issues each year are devoted to world regions ( China and East Asia , Russia and Eurasia , the Middle East , Latin America , Europe , South Asia , and Africa ) ; one issue covers current global trends ; and one issue addresses a special theme such as climate change or global governance . The magazine has followed this practice of devoting each issue to a single region or theme since 1953 . Each issue includes a chronology of major international events , and most contain a book review section and an article devoted to commentary . Contributors to Current History in the publication 's early years included George Bernard Shaw , Winston Churchill , Charles A. Beard , Allan Nevins , and Henry Steele Commager . More recently , the journal has featured authors such as James Schlesinger , Francis Fukuyama , Jeffrey Sachs , Bruce Riedel , Leslie H. Gelb , Bruce Russett , Elizabeth Economy , Charles Kupchan , Ivo Daalder , Joseph Cirincione , Phebe Marr , Juan Cole , Bruce Gilley , and Marina Ottaway . Shortly after Current History began publishing in 1914 , its editor , Ochs Oakes , decided that a magazine recording `` history in the making '' should maintain as regular contributors a group of historians and social scientists . He enlisted the help of a Harvard historian , Albert Bushnell Hart , in organizing the journal 's initial group of contributing editors . Current Historys board of contributing editors today includes Catherine Boone ( The London School of Economics and Political Science ) ; Bruce Cumings ( University of Chicago ) ; Deborah Davis ( Yale University ) ; David B. H. Denoon ( New York University ) ; Larry Diamond ( Stanford University ) ; Michele Dunne ( Carnegie Endowment for International Peace ) ; Barry Eichengreen ( University of California , Berkeley ) ; C. Christine Fair ( Georgetown University ) ; Sumit Ganguly ( Indiana University ) ; Marshall Goldman ( Wellesley College ) ; G. John Ikenberry ( Princeton University ) ; Michael T. Klare ( Hampshire College ) ; Joshua Kurlantzick ( Council on Foreign Relations ) ; Michael McFaul ( Stanford University , currently on leave ) ; Rajan Menon ( Lehigh University ) ; Augustus Richard Norton ( Boston University ) ; Joseph Nye ( Harvard University ) ; Michael Shifter ( Inter-American Dialogue ) ; Arturo Valenzuela ( Georgetown University , currently on leave ) ; and Jeffrey Wasserstrom ( University of California , Irvine ) . The publication 's editor is Alan Sorensen . The magazine was linked to an international scandal in the run-up to World War II . The New York Times had sold Current History in 1936 to the editor Merle Tracy ; in 1939 it was sold again , to an ownership group that included Joseph Hilton Smyth , who also acquired such magazines as The Living Age and The North American Review . Smyth 's association with Current History ended the same year , but he and two associates , in connection with their publishing activities , were later convicted of acting as agents for the Japanese government without registering with the State Department . Current History addressed this episode in its October 1942 issue , maintaining that Smyth during the months that he held an ownership interest in the publication did not control editorial policies . '' According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 0.127 , ranking it 149th out of 161 journals in the category `` Political Science '' and 82nd out of 85 journals in the category `` International Relations '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Current_History\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 69085\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical geology Content: Historical geology is a discipline that uses the principles and techniques of geology to reconstruct and understand the geological history of Earth . It focuses on geologic processes that change the Earth 's surface and subsurface ; and the use of stratigraphy , structural geology and paleontology to tell the sequence of these events . It also focuses on the evolution of plants and animals during different time periods in the geological timescale . The discovery of radioactivity and the development of several radiometric dating techniques in the first half of the 20th century provided a means of deriving absolute versus relative ages of geologic history . Economic geology , the search for and extraction of fuel and raw materials , is heavily dependent on an understanding of the geological history of an area . Environmental geology , including most importantly the geologic hazards of earthquakes and volcanism , must also include a detailed knowledge of geologic history .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_geology\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 68948\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 68942\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene Content: The Paleocene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliəˌsiːn , _ ˈpæ - , _ - lioʊ - -RSB- ) or Palaeocene , the `` old recent '' , is a geologic epoch that lasted from about . It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era . As with many geologic periods , the strata that define the epoch 's beginning and end are well identified , but the exact ages remain uncertain . The Paleocene Epoch brackets two major events in Earth 's history . It started with the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous , known as the Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) boundary . This was a time marked by the demise of non-avian dinosaurs , giant marine reptiles and much other fauna and flora . The die-off of the dinosaurs left unfilled ecological niches worldwide . The Paleocene ended with the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , a geologically brief ( ~ 0.2 million year ) interval characterized by extreme changes in climate and carbon cycling . The name `` Paleocene '' comes from Ancient Greek and refers to the `` old ( er ) '' ( παλαιός , palaios ) `` new '' ( καινός , kainos ) fauna that arose during the epoch .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 68923\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 68850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences Content: The International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences ( INHIGEO ) promotes ongoing research into the history of the earth sciences , particularly the history of geology . It has 17 Honorary Senior Members and 265 Members and Associate Members worldwide . INHIGEO has been established by the International Union of Geological Sciences ( IUGS ) and is also affiliated with the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Sciences ( IUHPS ) . The suggestion for the establishment of INHIGEO in 1967 was chiefly due to the ideas and efforts of the distinguished Russian geologist Vladimir Tikhomirov ( 1915-1994 ) from the Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Commission_on_the_History_of_Geological_Sciences\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 68830\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Phillips (geologist) Content: John Phillips FRS ( 25 December 1800 -- 24 April 1874 ) was an English geologist . In 1841 he published the first global geologic time scale based on the correlation of fossils in rock strata , thereby helping to standardize terminology including the term Mesozoic , which he invented .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Phillips_(geologist)\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 68771\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contemporary history Content: Contemporary history is a subset of modern history which describes the historical period from approximately 1945 to the present . The term `` contemporary history '' has been in use at least since the early 19th century . Contemporary history is politically dominated by the Cold War ( 1945 -- 91 ) between the United States and Soviet Union whose effects were felt across the world . The confrontation , which was mainly fought through proxy wars and through intervention in the internal politics of smaller nations , ultimately ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact in 1991 , following the Revolutions of 1989 . The latter stages and aftermath of the Cold War enabled the democratisation of much of Europe , Africa , and Latin America . In the Middle East , the period after 1945 was dominated by conflict involving the new state of Israel and the rise of petroleum politics , as well as the growth of Islamism after the 1980s . The first supranational organisations of government , such as the United Nations and European Union , emerged during the period after 1945 , while the European colonial empires in Africa and Asia collapsed , gone by 1975 . Countercultures rose and the sexual revolution transformed social relations in western countries between the 1960s and 1980s , epitomised by the Protests of 1968 . Living standards rose sharply across the developed world because of the post-war economic boom , whereby such major economies as Japan and West Germany emerged . The culture of the United States , especially consumerism , spread widely . By the 1960s , many western countries had begun deindustrializing ; in their place , globalization led to the emergence of new industrial centres , such as Japan , Taiwan and later China , which exported consumer goods to developed countries . Science began transforming after 1945 : spaceflight , nuclear technology , laser and semiconductor technology were developed alongside molecular biology and genetics , particle physics , and the Standard Model of quantum field theory . Meanwhile the first computers were created , followed by the Internet , beginning the Information Age .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Contemporary_history\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 68770\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contemporary archaeology Content: Contemporary Archaeology is a field of archaeological research that focuses on the most recent ( 20th and 21st century ) past , and also increasingly explores the application of archaeological thinking to the contemporary world . It has also been referred to as the archaeology of the ` contemporary past ' . The use of this term in the United Kingdom is particularly associated with the Contemporary and Historical Archaeology in Theory ( CHAT ) conference group . The field forms part of historical archaeology , or the archaeology of the modern period . Unlike ethnoarchaeology , contemporary archaeology studies the recent and contemporary past in its own right , rather than to develop models that can inform the study of the more distant past . Often informed by anthropological material culture studies , but characterised by putting traditional archaeological methods and practices to new uses , research in this field generally aims to make an archaeological contribution to broader social scientific studies of the contemporary world , focusing especially upon contributing methods of studying material things ( objects , landscapes , buildings , material heritage , etc. ) to sociological , geographical and political studies of the modern world . The field has developed especially in heritage management , for example through English Heritage 's `` Change and Creation '' programme on the landscapes of the later 20th century As such , Contemporary Archaeology aims to explore the characteristics of diverse and rapid change across micro and macro scales by using a range of conventional and experimental Archaeology investigative techniques . Like all archaeological scholarship and practice , Contemporary Archaeology uses both inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning approaches , which can include archaeological modelling . `` Quentin Lewis recognized , contemporary archaeology has a firmer footing in the UK and Europe than it does in North America , or at least it is not an especially recognizable scholarly niche quite yet in the US . The work of scholars in the UK and Europe has turned to some materiality that is admittedly distinctive if not unique , such as the extensive scholarship of the landscapes of 20th century warfare ( for instance , English Heritage 's ambitious Cold War Monuments project , Gabriel Moshenska 's work on British air raid shelters and children 's homefront experiences of World War II , Heinrich Natho 's study of Norwegian World War II coastal defenses , and Alfredo Gonzalez-Ruibal 's analysis of Spanish Civil War Monuments ) ; Laura McAtackney 's work on `` peace walls '' in northern Ireland ; Anna Badcock and Robert Johnston 's study of protest camp sites in Derbyshire ; and contemporary graffiti ( John Schofield has cleverly captivated many journalists and questioned what archaeologists value with his assessment of Sex Pistols graffiti ) . Yet for all these distinctive dimensions of British and European heritage we could certainly point to just as many equally interesting material experiences in every corner of North America . Some of the visibility of contemporary archaeology is inevitably linked to a British and European willingness to conduct material analysis that does not require excavation . Outside North America a vast number of scholars call themselves archaeologists while studying space , the built environment , and a broad range of material things without necessarily wielding a trowel . In the US historical archaeology has fashioned a particularly productive niche by focusing on field excavation and everyday materiality , and much of our training is devoted to field methods and analysis of a distinctive range of commodities like ceramics , glass , and faunal remains that are routinely recovered from excavation contexts on nearly any historic period site '' Despite a history reaching back as far , at least , as William Rathje 's ` garbology ' project , Contemporary Archaeology remains a new sub-discipline within the university . In remaining focused on archaeology 's ability to tell stories that reach beyond official or formal discourse , Contemporary Archaeology has the potential to offer significant political critique .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Contemporary_archaeology\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 68452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 68417\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleogene Content: The Paleogene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliːədʒiːn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈpeɪliːədʒiːn -RSB- also spelled Palaeogene or Palæogene ; informally Lower Tertiary ) is a geologic period and system that spans 43 million years from the end of the Cretaceous Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Neogene Period Mya . It is the beginning of the Cenozoic Era of the present Phanerozoic Eon . The Paleogene is most notable for being the time during which mammals diversified from relatively small , simple forms into a large group of diverse animals in the wake of the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event that ended the preceding Cretaceous Period . This period consists of the Paleocene , Eocene and Oligocene epochs . The end of the Paleocene ( 55.5 / 54.8 Mya ) was marked by the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic , which upset oceanic and atmospheric circulation and led to the extinction of numerous deep-sea benthic foraminifera and on land , a major turnover in mammals . The terms ` Paleogene System ' ( formal ) and ` lower Tertiary System ' ( informal ) are applied to the rocks deposited during the ` Paleogene Period ' . The somewhat confusing terminology seems to be due to attempts to deal with the comparatively fine subdivisions of time possible in the relatively recent geologic past , for which more details are preserved . By dividing the Tertiary Period into two periods instead of directly into five epochs , the periods are more closely comparable to the duration of ` periods ' of the preceding Mesozoic and Paleozoic Eras .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleogene\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 68297\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WARM (Foundation) Content: WARM is an international foundation working on the world 's contemporary conflicts , based in Sarajevo , Bosnia .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"WARM_(Foundation)\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 68193\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Centre for Contemporary Arts Content: The National Center for Contemporary Art ( NCCA ) , Moscow , Russia , is a major museum , exhibition and research organization which primarily aims its efforts at the development of Contemporary Russian Art within the context of the global art process , at the creation and implementation of programs and projects in the sphere of contemporary art , architecture and design both in Russia and beyond its borders . The activity of the Center evolves in close cooperation with artists and independent experts in the sphere of contemporary art , art culture and various organizations , such as museums , research institutions , public organizations , both in Russia , and abroad . The activities of the National Center of Contemporary Art follow several basic lines : popularization and support of Contemporary Russian Art ; various forms of curator work helping realize exhibition and audiovisual projects , installations , performances , hold video and movie presentations , creative sessions ; analytical and information research activity in the sphere of contemporary art ; educational activities -- lectures , seminars , master classes ; work to form the collection of contemporary art , including Russian and foreign art . Today , when the efforts of the previous years are bringing fruit , the National Center for Contemporary Art continues its active work aimed at the development and popularization of the Russian contemporary art and its integration in the global art context . At present NCCA is a network institution with its branches in major cultural centers of Russia , such as St. Petersburg , Nizhny Novgorod , Yekaterinburg and Kaliningrad . The National Center for Contemporary Art works under the auspices and with the constant support of the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation and The Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Centre_for_Contemporary_Arts\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 68146\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Geoparks Network Content: The Global Geoparks Network ( GGN ) ( also known as the Global Network of National Geoparks ) is a UNESCO assisted network established in 1998 . Managed under the body 's Ecological and Earth Sciences Division , the GGN seeks the promotion and conservation of the planet 's geological heritage , as well as encourages the sustainable research and development by the concerned communities .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Geoparks_Network\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 68124\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Globalization Content: Globalization ( or globalisation ; see spelling differences ) refers to the free movement of goods , capital , services , people , technology and information . It is the action or procedure of international integration of countries arising from the conversion of world views , products , ideas , and other aspects of culture . Advances in transportation ( such as the steam locomotive , steamship , jet engine , and container ships ) and in telecommunications infrastructure ( including the rise of the telegraph and its modern offspring , the Internet and mobile phones ) have been major factors in globalization , generating further interdependence of economic and cultural activities . Though many scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times , others trace its history long before the European Age of Discovery and voyages to the New World , some even to the third millennium BC . Large-scale globalization began in the 1820s . In the late 19th century and early 20th century , the connectivity of the world 's economies and cultures grew very quickly . The term globalization is recent , only establishing its current meaning in the 1970s . In 2000 , the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) identified four basic aspects of globalization : trade and transactions , capital and investment movements , migration and movement of people , and the dissemination of knowledge . Further , environmental challenges such as global warming , cross-boundary water and air pollution , and overfishing of the ocean are linked with globalization . Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization , economics , socio-cultural resources , and the natural environment . Academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas : economic globalization , cultural globalization , and political globalization . This caused shifts in population for third world countries , it took away their healthy men and unmarried women leaving wives , children , and the elderly to struggle which in return , lowered their health dramatically . The people that had left these countries also soon found out that the factory owners they started working for cut corners and worked the people extra hard , and did not care about health or safety .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Globalization\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 67681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on South Asia Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 67334\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Members of the Global Geoparks Network Content: The UNESCO Global Geoparks Network was established in November 2015 replacing the earlier UNESCO-assisted Global Geoparks Network ( GGN ) which was established in 1998 . The network was set up to conserve earth 's geological heritage , as well as to promote the sustainable research and development by the concerned communities . The GGN membership is formed by national geological parks , or geoparks -- local areas focused on the protection of geological features and heritage . The first batch of members to the GGN were announced during the first International Conference on Geoparks in 2004 . By late 2015 , 120 geoparks from 33 countries had officially become part of the GGN family . There are now GGN member sites situated in 5 of 7 continents and there being none currently in either Antarctica or Australasia . Notably there are currently ( 2015 ) no global geoparks in either the United States or former Soviet Union territory as well as in South Asia , Central America and most parts of Africa ( except Morocco and Canarias ) and Middle East ( except Turkey ) . China is the country with the largest number of global geoparks .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Members_of_the_Global_Geoparks_Network\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 67313\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geologica Acta Content: Geologica Acta is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research in the Earth sciences . It was established in 2003 as a successor to Acta Geologica Hispanica ( 1966-2002 ) , which was a more locally oriented journal published in Spanish . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2011 impact factor of 1.672 , ranking it 12th out of 46 journals in the category `` Geology '' . The journal is funded by the University of Barcelona , the Institute of Earth Sciences Jaume Almera ( CSIC ) , the Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research ( CSIC ) , the Autonomous University of Barcelona , and the Institut Geològic de Catalunya . It receives additional financial support from the publications department of the Spanish National Research Council ( CSIC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Geologica_Acta\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 67263\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heshigten Global Geopark Content: Heshigten Global Geopark ( , kè shí kè téng shì jiè dì zhì gōng yuán ) is a UNESCO Global Geopark in Hexigten Banner , Chifeng city , Inner Mongolia , China . Its 1,750 km2 area is contained in eight separate areas of scenic beauty and geologic significance , including volcanic , glacial , and desert features . The park was designated a National Geopark of China by the Ministry of Land and Resources on December 10 , 2001 , and as a World Geopark by UNESCO on February 11 , 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Heshigten_Global_Geopark\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 67221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acrocercops geologica Content: Acrocercops geologica is a moth of the Gracillariidae family , known from Sri Lanka . It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1908 .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Acrocercops_geologica\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 66993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contemporary architecture Content: Contemporary architecture is the architecture of the 21st century . No single style is dominant ; contemporary architects are working in a dozen different styles , from postmodernism and high-tech architecture to highly conceptual and expressive styles , resembling sculpture on an enormous scale . The different styles and approaches have in common the use of very advanced technology and modern building materials , such as Tube structure which allows construction of the buildings that are taller , lighter and stronger than those in the 20th century , and the use of new techniques of computer-aided design , which allow buildings to be designed and modeled on computers in three dimensions , and constructed with more precision and speed . Contemporary buildings are designed to be noticed and to astonish . Some feature concrete structures wrapped in glass or aluminum screens , very asymmetric facades , and cantilevered sections which hang over the street . Skyscrapers twist , or break into crystal-like facets . Facades are designed to shimmer or change color at different times of day . Whereas the major monuments of modern architecture in the 20th century were mostly concentrated in the United States and western Europe , contemporary architecture is global ; important new buildings have been built in China , Russia , Latin America , and particularly in the Gulf States of the Middle East ; the Burj Khalifa in Dubai was the tallest building in the world in 2016 , and the Shanghai Tower in China was the second-tallest . Most of the landmarks of contemporary architecture are the works of a small group of architects who work on an international scale . Many were designed by architects already famous in the late 20th century , including Mario Botta , Frank Gehry , Jean Nouvel , Norman Foster , Ieoh Ming Pei and Renzo Piano , while others are the work of a new generation born during or after World war II , including Zaha Hadid , Santiago Calatrava , Daniel Libeskind , Jacques Herzog , Pierre de Meuron , Rem Koolhaas , and Shigeru Ban . Other projects are the work of collectives of several architects , such as UNStudio and SANAA , or giant multinational agencies such as Skidmore , Owings & Merrill , with thirty associate architects and large teams of engineers and designers , and Gensler , with 5,000 employees in 16 countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Contemporary_architecture\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 66922\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geological history of Earth Content: The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth 's past based on the geologic time scale , a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet 's rock layers ( stratigraphy ) . Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula , a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun , which also created the rest of the Solar System . Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies . Eventually , the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere . The Moon formed soon afterwards , possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth . Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere . Condensing water vapor , augmented by ice delivered from comets , produced the oceans . As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years , continents formed and broke apart . They migrated across the surface , occasionally combining to form a supercontinent . Roughly , the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia , began to break apart . The continents later recombined to form Pannotia , , then finally Pangaea , which broke apart . The present pattern of ice ages began about , then intensified at the end of the Pliocene . The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw , repeating every 40,000 -- 100,000 years . The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Geological_history_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 66824\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Taken_by_Storm\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 66627\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rhyacian Content: The Rhyacian Period ( -LSB- pronraɪˈeɪsiən -RSB- Ρυαξ ( rhyax ) , meaning `` stream of lava '' ) is the second geologic period in the Paleoproterozoic Era and lasted from Mya to Mya ( million years ago ) . Instead of being based on stratigraphy , these dates are defined chronometrically . The Bushveld Igneous Complex and other similar intrusions formed during this period . The Huronian ( Makganyene ) global glaciation began at the start of the Rhyacian lasted 100 million years . The first known eukaryotes began to evolve in the Rhyacian period . The multicellular Francevillian Group Fossils , at 2.1-Gyr are from the Rhyacian period . For the time period from 2250 Ma to 2060 Ma , an alternative period based on stratigraphy rather than chronometry , named either the Jatulian or the Eukaryian , was suggested in the geological timescale review 2012 edited by Gradstein et al. , but , this has not yet been officially adopted by the IUGS . The term Jatulian is , however , used in the regional stratigraphy of the Paleoproterozoic rocks of Fennoscandia .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Rhyacian\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 66609\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Period (geology) Content: A geologic period is one of several subdivisions of geologic time enabling cross-referencing of rocks and geologic events from place to place . These periods form elements of a hierarchy of divisions into which geologists have split the Earth 's history . Eons and eras are larger subdivisions than periods while periods themselves may be divided into epochs and ages . The rocks formed during a period belong to a stratigraphic unit called a system .\",\n \"qid\": \"157\",\n \"docid\": \"Period_(geology)\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 66581\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":75,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Extreme melting and changes to the climate like this has released pressure on to the continent, allowing the ground to rise up."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":1,"score":153138},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"161","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":2,"score":143840},{"content":"Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .","qid":"161","docid":"Arctic_dipole_anomaly","rank":3,"score":130511},{"content":"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_inertia","rank":4,"score":127787},{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"161","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":5,"score":126880},{"content":"Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology","qid":"161","docid":"LOWERN","rank":6,"score":125868},{"content":"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .","qid":"161","docid":"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment","rank":7,"score":123931},{"content":"Title: Pressure melting point Content: The pressure melting point is the temperature at which ice melts at a given pressure . The pressure melting point is a constant 0 ° C at pressures above the triple point at 611.7 Pa , where water can exist in only the solid or liquid phases , through atmospheric pressure ( 100 kPa ) until about 10 MPa . With increasing pressure above 10 MPa , the pressure melting point decreases to a minimum of − 21.9 ° C at 209.9 MPa . Thereafter , the pressure melting point rises rapidly with pressure , passing back through 0 ° C at 632.4 MPa .","qid":"161","docid":"Pressure_melting_point","rank":8,"score":120776},{"content":"Title: Simon–Glatzel equation Content: The Simon -- Glatzel equation is an empirical correlation describing the pressure dependence of the melting temperature of a solid . The pressure dependence of the melting temperature is small for small pressure changes because the volume change during fusion or melting is rather small . However , at very high pressures higher melting temperatures are generally observed as the liquid usually occupies a larger volume than the solid making melting more thermodynamically unfavorable at elevated pressure . If the liquid has a smaller volume than the solid ( as for ice and liquid water ) a higher pressure leads to a lower melting point .","qid":"161","docid":"Simon–Glatzel_equation","rank":9,"score":120622},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .","qid":"161","docid":"Global_warming_in_Antarctica","rank":10,"score":119199},{"content":"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska","rank":11,"score":118827},{"content":"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .","qid":"161","docid":"Ice-albedo_feedback","rank":12,"score":116797},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":13,"score":113787},{"content":"Title: Melting point Content: The melting point ( or , rarely , liquefaction point ) of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure . At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium . The melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure . When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid , it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point . Because of the ability of some substances to supercool , the freezing point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance . When the `` characteristic freezing point '' of a substance is determined , in fact the actual methodology is almost always `` the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice '' , that is , the melting point .","qid":"161","docid":"Melting_point","rank":14,"score":111540},{"content":"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .","qid":"161","docid":"Ice2sea","rank":15,"score":109081},{"content":"Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .","qid":"161","docid":"Zero-curtain_effect","rank":16,"score":108733},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"161","docid":"Global_warming","rank":17,"score":107151},{"content":"Title: Voeykov axis Content: Voeykov axis ( or Voeikov axis ) is the axial portion ( ridge ) of a high atmospheric pressure band stretching across Eurasia roughly along the 50th parallel . It was named in honor of Alexander Voeykov , a climatologist , who studied this phenomenon . The formation if the Voeykov axis is due to the continental climate in the hinterland of Eurasia . In winter , the territory of Mongolia and Siberia experience strong cooling . This leads to the formation of stable high atmospheric pressure , known as the Siberian anticyclone . The huge size of the continent , and also the relief of the earth 's surface contributes to the ride formation . In Tuva , Mongolia and to the north are vast basins and valleys , surrounded by high mountain ranges . In winter , they cool air and stagnation occurs , that favors the growth of atmospheric pressure . On the territory of Mongolia and southern Siberia the high-pressure region diverges in two spurs in two directions - to the north and west . To the north , extends the East Siberian anticyclone . It involves a clear , quiet and extreme freezing weather , which is set in the winter in the vast eastern Siberia . West departs Voeykov axis , which can be traced on the territory of Kazakhstan and in the south of the East European Plain . It extends approximately along the line Kyzyl - Uralsk - Saratov - Kharkiv - Chisinau . To the west of Moldova , it continues , gradually weakening , down to the South of France , where there is already an action of another center of high pressure - Azores anticyclone . Winter in Eurasia the Voeнkov axis plays an important climate role as a major winds separator . In winter , the north of the axis is dominated by western and south-westerly winds . In the north of the East European Plain effect Voeнkov axis emphasizes the Icelandic Low . Their proximity enhances here westerly transport carrying wet and relatively warm air masses . To the south of the axis Voeikov blow northeasterly and easterly winds . They are cold and dry continental air of temperate latitudes of the Siberian High . In summer , high pressure over the maximum Mongolia disappears . This Voeнkov axis is stored in a weakened state , but loses its value vetrorazdelnoe . During this period it is no longer supported by the Siberian anticyclone , and the Azores anticyclone , from which the east moving anticyclones .","qid":"161","docid":"Voeykov_axis","rank":18,"score":106820},{"content":"Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .","qid":"161","docid":"Antarctic_ice_sheet","rank":19,"score":106716},{"content":"Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .","qid":"161","docid":"Polar_High","rank":20,"score":106604},{"content":"Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_of_Antarctica","rank":21,"score":106542},{"content":"Title: Virga Content: __ NOTOC __ In meteorology , virga is an observable fall streaks or shaft of precipitation falling from a cloud but evaporates or sublimates before reaching the ground . A shaft of precipitation which does n't evaporate before reaching the ground is a precipitation shaft . At high altitudes the precipitation falls mainly as ice crystals before melting and finally evaporating ; this is often due to compressional heating , because the air pressure increases closer to the ground . It is very common in the desert and in temperate climates . In North America , it is commonly seen in the Western United States and the Canadian Prairies . It is also very common in the Middle East , Australia and North Africa . Virga can cause varying weather effects , because as rain is changed from liquid to vapor form , it removes heat from the air due to the high heat of vaporization of water . Precipitation falling into these cooling down drafts may eventually reach the ground . In some instances , these pockets of colder air can descend rapidly , creating a wet or dry microburst which can be extremely hazardous to aviation . Conversely , precipitation evaporating at high altitude can compressionally heat as it falls , and result in a gusty downburst which may substantially and rapidly warm the surface temperature . This fairly rare phenomenon , a heat burst , also tends to be of exceedingly dry air . Virga also has a role in seeding storm cells whereby small particles from one cloud are blown into neighboring supersaturated air and act as nucleation particles for the next thunderhead cloud to begin forming . The word is derived from Latin virga meaning `` twig '' or `` branch '' .","qid":"161","docid":"Virga","rank":22,"score":105194},{"content":"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .","qid":"161","docid":"Fisheries_and_climate_change","rank":23,"score":104810},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_change","rank":24,"score":104670},{"content":"Title: Cryoseism Content: A cryoseism , also known as an ice quake or a frost quake , is a seismic event that may be caused by a sudden cracking action in frozen soil or rock saturated with water or ice . As water drains into the ground , it may eventually freeze and expand under colder temperatures , putting stress on its surroundings . This stress builds up until relieved explosively in the form of a cryoseism . Another type of cryoseism is a non-tectonic seismic event caused by sudden glacial movements . This movement has been attributed to a veneer of water which may pool underneath a glacier sourced from surface ice melt . Hydraulic pressure of the liquid can act as a lubricant , allowing the glacier to suddenly shift position . This type of cryoseism can be very brief , or may last for several minutes . The requirements for a cryoseism to occur are numerous ; therefore , accurate predictions are not entirely possible and may constitute a factor in structural design and engineering when constructing in an area historically known for such events . Speculation has been made between global warming and the frequency of cryoseisms .","qid":"161","docid":"Cryoseism","rank":25,"score":103956},{"content":"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .","qid":"161","docid":"Cap_carbonate","rank":26,"score":103953},{"content":"Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .","qid":"161","docid":"2013_extreme_weather_events","rank":27,"score":103657},{"content":"Title: Subsidence (atmosphere) Content: Subsidence in the Earth 's atmosphere is most commonly caused by low temperatures : as air cools , it becomes denser and moves towards the ground , just as warm air becomes less dense and moves upwards . Cool subsiding air is subject to adiabatic warming which tends to cause the evaporation of any clouds that might be present . Subsidence generally causes high barometric pressure as more air moves into the same space : the polar highs are areas of almost constant subsidence , as are the horse latitudes , and these areas of subsidence are the sources of much of the world 's prevailing wind . Subsidence also causes many smaller-scale weather phenomena , such as morning fog . An extreme form of subsidence is a downburst , which can result in damage similar to that produced by a tornado . A milder form of subsidence is referred to as downdraft . Category : Atmosphere Category : Basic meteorological concepts and phenomena","qid":"161","docid":"Subsidence_(atmosphere)","rank":28,"score":103593},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":29,"score":103474},{"content":"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .","qid":"161","docid":"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm","rank":30,"score":102560},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"161","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":31,"score":102477},{"content":"Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .","qid":"161","docid":"Glacier_mass_balance","rank":32,"score":102199},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"161","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":33,"score":101845},{"content":"Title: Meltwater Content: Meltwater is water released by the melting of snow or ice , including glacial ice , tabular icebergs and ice shelves over oceans . Meltwater is often found in the ablation zone of glaciers , where the rate of snow cover is reducing . Meltwater can be produced during volcanic eruptions , in a similar way in which the more dangerous lahars form . When meltwater pools on the surface rather than flowing , it forms melt ponds . As the weather gets colder meltwater will often re-freeze . Meltwater can collect or melt under the ice 's surface . These pools of water , known as subglacial lakes can form due to geothermal heat and friction .","qid":"161","docid":"Meltwater","rank":34,"score":100687},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_York_City","rank":35,"score":100622},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"161","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":36,"score":100264},{"content":"Title: Melting Content: Melting , or fusion , is a physical process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a solid to a liquid . This occurs when the internal energy of the solid increases , typically by the application of heat or pressure , which increases the substance 's temperature to the melting point . At the melting point , the ordering of ions or molecules in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state , and the solid melts to become a liquid . Substances in the molten state generally have reduced viscosity as the temperature increases . An exception to this principle is the element sulfur , whose viscosity increases to a point due to polymerization and then decreases with higher temperatures in its molten state . Some organic compounds melt through mesophases , states of partial order between solid and liquid .","qid":"161","docid":"Melting","rank":37,"score":99886},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"161","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":38,"score":99842},{"content":"Title: Metamorphism Content: Metamorphism is the change of minerals or geologic texture ( distinct arrangement of minerals ) in pre-existing rocks ( protoliths ) , without the protolith melting into liquid magma ( a solid-state change ) . The change occurs primarily due to heat , pressure , and the introduction of chemically active fluids . The chemical components and crystal structures of the minerals making up the rock may change even though the rock remains a solid . Changes at or just beneath Earth 's surface due to weathering and/or diagenesis are not classified as metamorphism . Metamorphism typically occurs between diagenesis ( max . 200 ° C ) , and melting ( ~ 850 ° C ) . Three types of metamorphism exist : contact , dynamic , and regional . Metamorphism produced with increasing pressure and temperature conditions is known as prograde metamorphism . Conversely , decreasing temperatures and pressure characterize retrograde metamorphism .","qid":"161","docid":"Metamorphism","rank":39,"score":99722},{"content":"Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .","qid":"161","docid":"Meltwater_pulse_1A","rank":40,"score":99677},{"content":"Title: Cryosuction Content: Cryosuction is concept of negative pressure in freezing soil resulting from transformation of liquid water to ice in the soil pores whereby water migrates through soil pores to the freezing zone ( through capillary action ) . Fine-grained soils such as clays and silts enables greater negative pressures than more coarse-grained soils due to the smaller pore size . In periglacial environments , this mechanism is highly significant and it is the predominant process in ice lens formation in permafrost areas . Several models for ice-lens formation by cryosuction exist , among others the Hydrodynamic model and the Pre-melting model , many of them based on the Clausius -- Clapeyron relation with various assumptions , yielding cryosuction potentials of 11 to 12 atm per degree Celsius below zero depending on pore size .","qid":"161","docid":"Cryosuction","rank":41,"score":99227},{"content":"Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .","qid":"161","docid":"Paleoflooding","rank":42,"score":98737},{"content":"Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .","qid":"161","docid":"El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation","rank":43,"score":98495},{"content":"Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .","qid":"161","docid":"Thermal_low","rank":44,"score":98153},{"content":"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_system","rank":45,"score":97752},{"content":"Title: Retrogradation Content: Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common : during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets . with extremely low sediment input .","qid":"161","docid":"Retrogradation","rank":46,"score":97336},{"content":"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .","qid":"161","docid":"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis","rank":47,"score":97240},{"content":"Title: Extreme weather events of 535–536 Content: The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the most severe and protracted short-term episodes of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2000 years . The event is thought to have been caused by an extensive atmospheric dust veil , possibly resulting from a large volcanic eruption in the tropics , or debris from space impacting the Earth . Its effects were widespread , causing unseasonal weather , crop failures and famines worldwide .","qid":"161","docid":"Extreme_weather_events_of_535–536","rank":48,"score":97058},{"content":"Title: Freshet Content: The term freshet is most commonly used to describe a spring thaw resulting from snow and ice melt in rivers located in the northern latitudes of North America . A spring freshet can sometimes last several weeks on large river systems , resulting in significant inundation of flood plains as the snowpack melts in the river 's catchment area . Freshets occur with generally diminishing strength and duration depending upon the snowpacks having large accumulations and then the local average rates of warming temperatures ; late spring melts allowing faster flooding from the relatively longer days and higher solar angle against more southerly latitudes and elevations reaching average melting temperatures sooner where earlier and generally lesser seasonal snow piles melt more gradually spread over a longer melt period . Serious flooding from southern freshets are more often related to rain storms of large tropical weather systems rolling in from the South Atlantic or Gulf of Mexico , to add their powerful heating capacity to lesser snow packs . Tropically induced rainfall influenced quick melts can also affect snow cover to latitudes as far north as southern Canada , so long as the generally colder air mass is not blocking northward movement of low pressure systems . In the eastern part of the continent , annual freshets occur from the Canadian Taiga ranging along both sides of the Great Lakes then down through the heavily forested Appalachian mountain chain and St. Lawrence valley from Northern Maine into barrier ranges in North Carolina and Tennessee . In the western part of the continent , freshets occur throughout the generally much higher elevations of the various west coast mountain ranges that extend southward down from Alaska even into the northern parts of Arizona and New Mexico . The term can also refer to the following : A flood resulting from heavy rain or a spring thaw . Whereas heavy rain often causes a flash flood , a spring thaw event is generally a more incremental process , depending upon local climate and topography . A stream , river or flood of fresh water which empties into the ocean , usually flowing through an estuary . A small stream of fresh water , irrespective of its outflow . A pool of fresh water , according to Samuel Johnson and followed in Thomas Sheridan 's dictionary , but this might have been a misinterpretation on Johnson 's part , and it is at best not a common usage .","qid":"161","docid":"Freshet","rank":49,"score":96915},{"content":"Title: Enthalpy of fusion Content: The enthalpy of fusion of a substance , also known as ( latent ) heat of fusion , is the change in its enthalpy resulting from providing energy , typically heat , to a specific quantity of the substance to change its state from a solid to a liquid at constant pressure . This energy includes the contribution required to make room for any associated change in volume by displacing its environment against ambient pressure . The temperature at which the phase transition occurs is the melting point . By convention , the pressure is assumed to be 1 atm unless otherwise specified . The ` enthalpy ' of fusion is a latent heat , because during melting the introduction of heat can not be observed as a temperature change , as the temperature remains constant during the process . The latent heat of fusion is the enthalpy change of any amount of substance when it melts . When the heat of fusion is referenced to a unit of mass , it is usually called the specific heat of fusion , while the molar heat of fusion refers to the enthalpy change per amount of substance in moles . The liquid phase has a higher internal energy than the solid phase . This means energy must be supplied to a solid in order to melt it and energy is released from a liquid when it freezes , because the molecules in the liquid experience weaker intermolecular forces and so have a higher potential energy ( a kind of bond-dissociation energy for intermolecular forces ) . When liquid water is cooled , its temperature falls steadily until it drops just below the line of freezing point at 0 ° C . The temperature then remains constant at the freezing point while the water crystallizes . Once the water is completely frozen , its temperature continues to fall . The enthalpy of fusion is almost always a positive quantity ; helium is the only known exception . Helium-3 has a negative enthalpy of fusion at temperatures below 0.3 K. Helium-4 also has a very slightly negative enthalpy of fusion below 0.77 K . This means that , at appropriate constant pressures , these substances freeze with the addition of heat . In the case of 4He , this pressure range is between 24.992 and 25.00 atm . These values are mostly from the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics , 62nd edition . The conversion between cal/g and J/g in the above table uses the thermochemical calorie ( calth ) = 4.184 joules rather than the International Steam Table calorie ( calINT ) = 4.1868 joules .","qid":"161","docid":"Enthalpy_of_fusion","rank":50,"score":96883},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .","qid":"161","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia","rank":51,"score":96804},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .","qid":"161","docid":"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal","rank":52,"score":96683},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"161","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":53,"score":96452},{"content":"Title: Low-pressure area Content: A low-pressure area , low , or depression is a region where the topographic map is atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations . Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of meteorology , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas . The first area is on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere ) . A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which are of smaller wavelength . Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity . Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large-scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations . Low-pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well-hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during November . Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises , although the low-pressure area typically brings cloudy skies , which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure , the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Globally , low-pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( particularly in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low-pressure weather systems are typically known as `` depressions '' .","qid":"161","docid":"Low-pressure_area","rank":54,"score":96214},{"content":"Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .","qid":"161","docid":"Arctic_resources_race","rank":55,"score":95894},{"content":"Title: Underplating Content: Underplating is the accumulation of partial melts at the base of the crust where an ocean plate is subducting under continental crust . Underplating is the result of partial melts being produced in the mantle wedge above a subducting plate . The partial melting is induced by a lowering of the melting temperature , the solidus , by the input of water and other volatiles supplied by phase transitions in the subducting slab . When the buoyant partial melt rises upwards through the mantle , it will usually stall at the base of the crust and pond there . This is because the crust is usually less dense than the underplating magma , and this is the point at which the ascending magma reaches a level of neutral buoyancy . The evolving melt will remain here until it fractionates enough ( through MASH processes ) that the remaining melt is less dense than the surrounding rock ; the melt will then continue up into the crust , leaving behind the heavier mafic minerals which were crystallized during fractional crystallization . The assemblage of minerals remaining behind are typically mafic or ultramafic , and are responsible for the observed seismic anomaly which indicates underplated material .","qid":"161","docid":"Underplating","rank":56,"score":95697},{"content":"Title: Rear-inflow jet Content: The rear-inflow jet is a component of bow echoes in a mesoscale convective system that aids in creating a stronger cold pool and downdraft . The jet forms as a response to a convective circulation having upshear tilt and horizontal pressure gradients . The cold pool that comes from the outflow of a storm forms an area of high pressure at the surface . In response to the surface high and warmer temperatures aloft due to convection , a mid-level mesolow forms behind the leading edge of the storm . With a mid-level area of low pressure , air is drawn in under the trailing stratiform region of precipitation . As air is drawn in on the rear side of the storm , it begins to descend as it approaches the front line of the cells . Before the reaching the leading edge , the jet dives heads to the ground as a strong downdraft , creating straight-line winds . Any mature mesoscale convective system is capable of developing its own rear-inflow jet , but questions remain as to what influences the strength of the jet . While the diabatic effects of sublimation , melting and evaporation play a role in influencing jet strength , these effects do not account for cases with strong rear-inflow jets . However , the diabatic effects are responsible for the jet subsiding behind the leading edge of the MCS . The sinking of the jet first starts when the mid level inflow goes under the trailing stratiform cloud before descending to the melting layer . There are other factors that contribute to the strength of any rear inflow jet . The strength of a rear inflow jet can be greatly increased with induced vortices at the end of the line , called `` line-end vortices '' or `` book-end vortices . '' These vortices at either end of the line will help reinforce the rear inflow towards the center of the line . The other factor that can help strengthen the jet is an environment in which the large scale flow is feeding/forcing mid-level air into the rear end of the storm .","qid":"161","docid":"Rear-inflow_jet","rank":57,"score":95352},{"content":"Title: Late Imbrian Content: In the Lunar geologic timescale , the Late Imbrian epoch occurred between 3800 million years ago to about 3200 million years ago . It was the epoch during which the mantle below the lunar basins partially melted and filled them with basalt . The melting is thought to have occurred because the impacts of the Early Imbrian thinned the overlying rock - either causing the mantle to rise because of the reduced pressure on it , bringing molten material closer to the surface ; or the top melting as heat flowed upwards through the mantle because of reduced overlying thermal insulation . The majority of lunar samples returned to earth for study come from this epoch . The Earth equivalent consists of half of the Archean eon . Category : Lunar geologic periods","qid":"161","docid":"Late_Imbrian","rank":58,"score":94910},{"content":"Title: Regelation Content: Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing again when the pressure is reduced . Many sources state that regelation can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of ice , with a heavy weight attached to it . The pressure exerted on the ice slowly melts it locally , permitting the wire to pass through the entire block . The wire 's track will refill as soon as pressure is relieved , so the ice block will remain solid even after wire passes completely through . This experiment is possible for ice at − 10 ° C or cooler , and while essentially valid , the details of the process by which the wire passes through the ice are complex . The phenomenon works best with high thermal conductivity materials such as copper , since latent heat of fusion from the top side needs to be transferred to the lower side to supply latent heat of melting . If 1 mm diameter wire is used , over an ice cube 50 mm wide , the area the force is exerted on is 50 mm2 . This is 50 × 10 − 6 m2 . Force ( in newtons ) equals pressure ( in pascals ) multiplied by area ( in square metres ) . If at least 500 atm ( 50 MPa ) is required to melt the ice , a force of ( 50 × 106 Pa ) ( 50 × 10 − 6 m2 ) = 2500 N is required , a force roughly equal to the weight of 250 kg on Earth . Regelation was discovered by Michael Faraday . Regelation occurs only for substances , such as ice , that have the property of expanding upon freezing , for the melting points of those substances decrease with increasing external pressure . The melting point of ice falls by 0.0072 ° C for each additional atm of pressure applied . For example , a pressure of 500 atmospheres is needed for ice to melt at − 4 ° C.","qid":"161","docid":"Regelation","rank":59,"score":94894},{"content":"Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .","qid":"161","docid":"Arctic_sea_ice_decline","rank":60,"score":94817},{"content":"Title: Electromechanical disintegration Content: Electromechanical disintegration is a process in geomorphology in which lightning interacts in erosion and weathering . An excellent example of this phenomenon is fracturing in the quartz formations of the Espinaςo mountains of Brazil . For many years , itinerant miners in these mountains have reported the appearance of broken boulders and fissures along the ground after lightning storms . The Espinaςo Range represents a typical site for orographic thunderstorms , which develop from the ascent of air along mountain ranges . These storms have the highest rate of lightning occurrence and are therefore useful for studying the effects of such atmospheric discharges . These discharges have peculiar features : velocities of 160000 m/s and plasma temperatures of 30000 ° C are achieved in nanoseconds in lightning channels . Evidences of the effect of lightning on rock are the presence of beta-quartz ( T > 573 ° C , called `` flashstones '' by local diggers ) , melted barbed wires ( T > 1500 ° C ) ; furrows in soils and colluvium up to 120 m long with the presence of cristobalite , the high-temperature modification of quartz ( 1713 - ) . In permeable Precambrian quartzites , the instantaneous shock rise of temperature from 15 to , or higher , results in an extremely severe explosion-like expansion of water , leading to the formation of fissures and widening of other systems . The evidence points to lightning action , since quartz can change its modification from α to β and back again without cracking , as long as the temperature change is less than 1 C-change per minute . For this reason , cracks caused by solar radiation or fire can be ruled out . An enormous pressure of about 35.00 bar can be estimated by the presence of coesite relicts , the rare high-pressure polymorph of quartz . This lightning-induced weathering is one of the more important starting mechanisms for other weathering processes . Because of the increase in surface area , chemical weathering can attack each newly made fragment from all sides and can go deeper into bedrock as new cracks are formed or older ones extended . Thus , electromechanical disintegration is a new term for a type of weathering as old as the planet 's lithosphere , and it represents an important exogenic process for the beginning of erosion and the formation of soils .","qid":"161","docid":"Electromechanical_disintegration","rank":61,"score":94804},{"content":"Title: Permafrost Content: In geology , permafrost is ground , including rock or ( cryotic ) soil , at or below the freezing point of water 0 C for two or more years . Most permafrost is located in high latitudes ( in and around the Arctic and Antarctic regions ) , but alpine permafrost may exist at high altitudes in much lower latitudes . Ground ice is not always present , as may be in the case of nonporous bedrock , but it frequently occurs and it may be in amounts exceeding the potential hydraulic saturation of the ground material . Permafrost accounts for 0.022 % of total water on earth and exists in 24 % of exposed land in the Northern Hemisphere . It also occurs subsea on the continental shelves of the continents surrounding the Arctic Ocean , portions of which were exposed during the last glacial period , with global weather implications . A global temperature rise of 1.5 C-change above current levels would be enough to start the thawing of permafrost in Siberia , according to one group of scientists .","qid":"161","docid":"Permafrost","rank":62,"score":94749},{"content":"Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .","qid":"161","docid":"Meltwater_pulse_1B","rank":63,"score":94656},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .","qid":"161","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations","rank":64,"score":94416},{"content":"Title: Climate of Asia Content: The Climate of Asia is wet across southeast sections , and dry across much of the interior . Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia . The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections , due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer . Southwestern sections of the continent experience low relief as a result of the subtropical high pressure belt ; they are hot in the summer , warm to cool in winter , and may snow at higher altitudes . Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere , and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America . The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan , and the phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation modulates where in Asia landfall is more likely to occur ,","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_of_Asia","rank":65,"score":94052},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"161","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":66,"score":93402},{"content":"Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .","qid":"161","docid":"Marine_transgression","rank":67,"score":93132},{"content":"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .","qid":"161","docid":"Hypercane","rank":68,"score":92586},{"content":"Title: Chasing Ice Content: Chasing Ice is a 2012 documentary film about the efforts of nature photographer James Balog and his Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) to publicize the effects of climate change , directed by Jeff Orlowski . It was released in the United States on November 16 , 2012 . The documentary includes scenes from a glacier calving event that took place at Jakobshavn Glacier in Greenland , lasting 75 minutes , the longest such event ever captured on film . Two EIS videographers waited several weeks in a small tent overlooking the glacier , and were finally able to witness 7.4 km3 of ice crashing off the glacier . `` The calving of a massive glacier believed to have produced the ice that sank the Titanic is like watching a city break apart . ''","qid":"161","docid":"Chasing_Ice","rank":69,"score":92507},{"content":"Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .","qid":"161","docid":"Deglaciation","rank":70,"score":92441},{"content":"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .","qid":"161","docid":"Runaway_greenhouse_effect","rank":71,"score":92182},{"content":"Title: Stamukha Content: A stamukha ( plural : stamukhi ) is a grounded accumulation of sea ice rubble that typically develops along the boundary between fast ice and the drifting pack ice , or becomes incorporated into the fast ice . It is a pressure ridge . Wind , currents and tides contribute to this phenomenon . Stamukhi tend to occur in belts that are parallel to the shoreline , along coastal shoals , at water depths of about 20 m ( 65 ft ) , but that can reach 50 m ( 160 ft ) . They can build up to heights 10 m or more above the waterline . Although they remain pinned to the seabed , these features can be subject to small displacements , either due to thermal expansion or to the pressure exerted by the drifting pack ice onto the fast ice . Because stamukhi tend to be deeply grounded , they may occur as isolated ice features in the open sea during the summer season , after the surrounding ice has melted away . Since stamukhi extend downward into the seabed , they present a risk to submarine pipelines and telecommunications cables that cross the shoreline . Seabed penetration by the ice can reach a depth of 5 m.","qid":"161","docid":"Stamukha","rank":72,"score":92093},{"content":"Title: Vertical draft Content: An updraft is a small‐scale current of rising air , often within a cloud . Localized regions of warm or cool air will exhibit vertical movement . A mass of warm air will typically be less dense than the surrounding region , and so will rise until it reaches the air is either warmer or less dense than itself . The converse will occur for a mass of cool air , and is known as subsidence . This movement of large volumes of air , especially when regions of hot , wet air rise , can create large clouds , and is the central source of thunderstorms . Drafts can also be conceived by low or high pressure regions . A low pressure region will attract air from the surrounding area , which will move towards the center and then rise , creating an updraft . A high pressure region will then attract air from the surrounding area , which will move towards the center and sink , spawning a downdraft . Updrafts and downdrafts , along with wind shear in general , are a major contributor to airplane crashes during takeoff and landing in a thunderstorm . Extreme cases , known as downbursts and microbursts can be deadly and difficult to predict or observe . The crash of Delta Air Lines Flight 191 on its final approach before landing at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport in 1985 was presumably caused by a microburst , and prompted the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) to research and deploy new storm detection radar stations at some of the major airports , notably the ones in the South , Midwest , and Northeast United States where wind shear affects air safety . Downbursts can cause extensive localized damage , similar to that caused by tornadoes . Downburst damage can be differentiated from that of a tornado because the resulting destruction is circular and radiates away from the center . Tornado damage radiates inward , towards the center of the damage . The term downdraft can also refer to a type of backdraft which occurs through chimneys which have fireplaces on the lowermost levels ( such as basements ) of multi-level buildings . It involves cold air coming down the chimney due to low air pressure , and makes it hard to light fires , and can push soot and carbon monoxide into domiciles .","qid":"161","docid":"Vertical_draft","rank":73,"score":91933},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"161","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":74,"score":91837},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"161","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":75,"score":91745},{"content":"Title: Premelting Content: Premelting ( also surface melting ) describes the fact that , even below its melting point , quasi-liquid films can be observed on crystalline surfaces . The thickness of the film is temperature dependent . This effect is common for all crystalline materials . Premelting shows its effects in e.g. frost heave , the growth of snowflakes and , taking grain boundary interfaces into account , maybe even in the movement of glaciers . Considering a solid-vapour interface , complete and incomplete premelting can be distinguished . During a temperature rise from below to above , in the case of complete premelting , the solid melts homogeneously from the outside to the inside ; in the case of incomplete premelting , the liquid film stays very thin during the beginning of the melting process , but droplets start to form on the interface . In either case , the solid always melts from the outside inwards , never from the inside .","qid":"161","docid":"Premelting","rank":76,"score":91552},{"content":"Title: Pressure system Content: A pressure system is a relative peak or lull in the sea level pressure distribution . The surface pressure at sea level varies minimally , with the lowest value measured 87 kPa and the highest recorded 108.57 kPa . High - and low-pressure systems evolve due to interactions of temperature differentials in the atmosphere , temperature differences between the atmosphere and water within oceans and lakes , the influence of upper-level disturbances , as well as the amount of solar heating or radiationized cooling an area receives . Pressure systems cause weather to be experienced locally . Low-pressure systems are associated with clouds and precipitation that minimize temperature changes throughout the day , whereas high-pressure systems normally associate with dry weather and mostly clear skies with larger diurnal temperature changes due to greater radiation at night and greater sunshine during the day . Pressure systems are analyzed by those in the field of meteorology within surface weather maps .","qid":"161","docid":"Pressure_system","rank":77,"score":91071},{"content":"Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .","qid":"161","docid":"Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850","rank":78,"score":90920},{"content":"Title: Subglacial volcano Content: A subglacial volcano , also known as a glaciovolcano , is a volcanic form produced by subglacial eruptions or eruptions beneath the surface of a glacier or ice sheet which is then melted into a lake by the rising lava . Today they are most common in Iceland and Antarctica ; older formations of this type are found also in British Columbia and Yukon Territory , Canada . During the eruption , the heat of the lava from the subglacial volcano melts the overlying ice . The water quickly cools the lava , resulting in pillow lava shapes similar to those of underwater volcanoes . When the pillow lavas break off and roll down the volcano slopes , pillow breccia , tuff breccia , and hyaloclastite form . The meltwater may be released from below the ice as happened in Iceland in 1996 when the Grímsvötn caldera erupted , melting 3 km3 of ice and giving rise to a large glacial lake outburst flood . The shape of subglacial volcanoes tends to be quite characteristic and unusual , with a flattened top and steep sides supported against collapse by the pressure of the surrounding ice and meltwater . If the volcano eventually melts completely through the ice layer , then horizontal lava flows are deposited , and the top of the volcano assumes a nearly level form . However , if significant amounts of lava are later erupted subaerially , then the volcano may assume a more conventional shape . In Canada the volcanos have been known to form both conical and nearly level shapes . The more distinctly flat-topped , steep-sided subglacial volcanoes are called tuyas , named after Tuya Butte in northern British Columbia by Canadian geologist Bill Mathews in 1947 . In Iceland , such volcanoes are also known as table mountains .","qid":"161","docid":"Subglacial_volcano","rank":79,"score":90907},{"content":"Title: Melting (EP) Content: Melting is the second EP by South Korean singer Hyuna , released on October 21 , 2012 . It features the number one single , `` Ice Cream '' . The release date was originally scheduled for October 22 , 2012 but due to a leak it was digitally released a day earlier by Cube Entertainment .","qid":"161","docid":"Melting_(EP)","rank":80,"score":90746},{"content":"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .","qid":"161","docid":"John_H._Mercer","rank":81,"score":90737},{"content":"Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .","qid":"161","docid":"Heard_Island_glaciers","rank":82,"score":90622},{"content":"Title: Climate of the Alps Content: The climate of the Alps is the climate , or average weather conditions over a long period of time , of the exact middle Alpine region of Europe . As air rises from sea level to the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases . The effect of mountain topography on prevailing winds is to force warm air from the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat , often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow , rain or hail . The position of the Alps in the central European continent profoundly affects the climate of all the surrounding regions . The accumulation of vast masses of snow , which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers , maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges ; it cools breezes that waft to the plains on either side , but its most important function is to regulate the water supply of the large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps . Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during fall , winter , and spring is stored in the form of snow and gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer ; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams . Nor is this all ; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia , and afford an inexhaustible supply of water , which , from a remote period , has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility . Six regions or zones , which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation , are found in the Alps . It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above sea level . Local conditions of exposure to the Sun , protection from cold winds , or the reverse , are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation .","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_of_the_Alps","rank":83,"score":90141},{"content":"Title: Early 2012 European cold wave Content: The Early 2012 European cold wave was a deadly cold wave that started on January 27 , 2012 and brought snow and freezing temperatures to much of the European continent . There were more than 824 reported deaths . Particularly low temperatures hit several Eastern and Northern European countries , reaching as low as -42.7 C in Finland . The heaviest snow was recorded in the Balkan region . The cold weather was a result of an extensive area of very high pressure located in over the north east of the continent in northern Russia , which circulated cold air from the east .","qid":"161","docid":"Early_2012_European_cold_wave","rank":84,"score":90072},{"content":"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .","qid":"161","docid":"Abrupt_climate_change","rank":85,"score":89258},{"content":"Title: European windstorm Content: European windstorm is a name given to the strongest extratropical cyclones which occur across the continent of Europe . They form as cyclonic windstorms associated with areas of low atmospheric pressure . They are most common in the autumn and winter months . On average , the month when most windstorms form is January . The seasonal average is 4.6 windstorms . Deep low pressure areas are relatively common over the North Atlantic , sometimes starting as nor'easter s off the New England coast , and frequently track across the North Atlantic Ocean towards western Europe , past the north coast of Britain and Ireland and into the Norwegian Sea . However , when they track further south they can affect almost any country in Europe . Commonly affected countries include the United Kingdom , Ireland , the Netherlands , Norway , the Faroe Islands and Iceland , but any country in Central Europe , Northern Europe and especially Western Europe is occasionally struck by such a storm system . The strong wind phenomena intrinsic to European windstorms , that give rise to `` damage footprints '' at the surface , can be placed into three categories , namely the `` warm jet '' , the `` cold jet '' and the `` sting jet '' . These phenomena vary in terms of physical mechanisms , atmospheric structure , spatial extent , duration , severity level , predictability , and location relative to cyclone and fronts . On average these storms cause economic damage $ 1.9 billion per year , and insurance losses of $ 1.4 billion per year ( 1990 -- 1998 ) . They rank as the second highest cause of global natural catastrophe insurance loss ( after U.S. hurricanes ) .","qid":"161","docid":"European_windstorm","rank":86,"score":88835},{"content":"Title: Iron catastrophe Content: The iron catastrophe was a postulated major event early in the history of Earth . The original accretion of the Earth 's material into a spherical mass is thought to have resulted in a relatively uniform composition . While residual heat from the collision of the material that formed the Earth was significant , heating from radioactive materials in this mass gradually increased the temperature until a critical condition was reached . As material became molten enough to allow movement , the denser iron and nickel , evenly distributed throughout the mass , began to migrate to the center of the planet to form the core . The gravitational potential energy released by the sinking of the dense NiFe globules , along with any cooler , denser solid material , is thought to have been a runaway process , increasing the temperature of the protoplanet above the melting point of most components , resulting in the rapid formation of a molten iron core covered by a deep global silicate magma . This event , an important process of planetary differentiation , occurred at about 500 million years into the formation of the planet .","qid":"161","docid":"Iron_catastrophe","rank":87,"score":88472},{"content":"Title: Gulf of Maine Closed Areas Content: The Gulf of Maine has been fished since the 1700s , and has been a historic fishing area since . Climate change is having significant impacts on this ecosystem ; between 2004 and 2013 , the Gulf of Maine has warmed faster than 99.9 % of the global oceans , increasing average temperature by 2 ° C. Having seen the depletion of groundfish stocks starting in the early 1990s , managers took care to create five closure areas in the Gulf of Maine . These closed areas do not prohibit all fishing , rather they prevent the further degradation of benthic habitat and groundfish species . Closed areas are different than Marine Protected Areas ( MPA ) because they allow some forms of fishing and other activities to occur that would normally not be allowed in MPA .","qid":"161","docid":"Gulf_of_Maine_Closed_Areas","rank":88,"score":88421},{"content":"Title: Ground pressure Content: Ground pressure is the pressure exerted on the ground by the tires or tracks of a motorized vehicle , and is one measure of its potential mobility , especially over soft ground . It also applies to the feet of a walking person or machine . Ground pressure is measured in pascals ( Pa ) which corresponds to the United States customary units unit of pounds per square inch ( psi ) . Average ground pressure can be calculated using the standard formula for average pressure : P = F/A . In an idealized case , i.e. a static , uniform net force normal to level ground , this is simply the object 's weight divided by contact area . The ground pressure of motorized vehicles is often compared to the ground pressure of a human foot , which can be 60 - 80 kPa while walking or as much as 13 MPa for a person in spike heels . Increasing the size of the contact area on the ground ( the footprint ) in relation to the weight decreases the ground pressure . Ground pressure of 14 kPa ( 2 psi ) or less is recommended for fragile ecosystems like marshes . Decreasing the ground pressure increases the flotation , allowing easier passage of the body over soft terrain . This is often observed in activities like snowshoeing .","qid":"161","docid":"Ground_pressure","rank":89,"score":88123},{"content":"Title: Earth potential rise Content: In electrical engineering , earth potential rise ( EPR ) also called ground potential rise ( GPR ) occurs when a large current flows to earth through an earth grid impedance . The potential relative to a distant point on the Earth is highest at the point where current enters the ground , and declines with distance from the source . Ground potential rise is a concern in the design of electrical substations because the high potential may be a hazard to people or equipment . The change of voltage over distance ( potential gradient ) may be so high that a person could be injured due to the voltage developed between two feet , or between the ground on which the person is standing and a metal object . Any conducting object connected to the substation earth ground , such as telephone wires , rails , fences , or metallic piping , may also be energized at the ground potential in the substation . This transferred potential is a hazard to people and equipment outside the substation .","qid":"161","docid":"Earth_potential_rise","rank":90,"score":88005},{"content":"Title: February 1987 nor'easter Content: The February 1987 nor'easter was a significant winter storm in the US that impacted the Mid-Atlantic States around the end of the month . It delivered 8 -- 12 hours of heavy , wet snowfall to several states from West Virginia to New York between February 22 and February 24 . The storm was both preceded and followed by relatively warm temperatures , causing the snow to rapidly melt . The mild conditions were the result of a moderate anticyclone over the region that deteriorated as the nor'easter approached . Cold air damming likely took place prior to the storm 's formation . The nor'easter evolved from a complex series of low pressure areas . Eventually , the multiple center consolidated and a primary cyclone took hold along the Carolina coast . This low rapidly strengthened as it tracked northeastward . Upon reaching the Maryland coast , it turned more towards the east and intensified further to attain a minimum barometric pressure of 964 millibars by 1800 UTC on February 23 . The heaviest precipitation , occasionally accompanied by thunder and lightning , along with gusty winds , occurred between 0000 UTC and 1800 UTC . Snowfall accumulations exceeding 10 in were reported in eastern West Virginia , northern Virginia , north-central Maryland , northern Delaware , southern Pennsylvania , central and southern New Jersey , and Long Island . Most of the interior Northeast was spared a substantial impact from the storm . However , lighter totals extended as far north as central Massachusetts . The weight of the wet snow caused extensive damage to trees and power lines , and hundreds of thousands were reportedly left without power . At Washington , D.C. , 11 in of snow fell , having widespread effects . Limited states of emergency were declared in certain areas . MV Balsa 24 , a 345 ft long freighter , was lost February 25 , 1987 after it capsized in the storm . 18 sailors were killed and there was 1 survivor , who was rescued by the nuclear submarine USS Scamp ( SSN-588 ) . Fishing vessel Delores Marie was also lost , killing 3 .","qid":"161","docid":"February_1987_nor'easter","rank":91,"score":87841},{"content":"Title: Meteorological disasters Content: Meteorological disasters are caused by extreme weather , e.g. rain , drought , snow , extreme heat or cold , ice , or wind . Violent , sudden and destructive change to the environment related to , produced by , or affecting the earth 's atmosphere , especially the weather-forming processes . Examples of weather disasters include blizzard , cyclones , droughts , hailstorms , heat waves , hurricanes , floods ( caused by rain ) , and tornadoes .","qid":"161","docid":"Meteorological_disasters","rank":92,"score":87695},{"content":"Title: Melt pond Content: Melt ponds are pools of open water that form on sea ice in the warmer months of spring and summer . The ponds are also found on glacial ice and ice shelves . Ponds of melted water can also develop under the ice . Melt ponds are usually darker than the surrounding ice , and their distribution and size is highly variable . They absorb solar radiation rather than reflecting it as ice does and , thereby , have a significant influence on Earth 's radiation balance . This differential , which had not been scientifically investigated until recently , has a large effect on the rate of ice melting and the extent of ice cover . Melt ponds can melt through to the ocean 's surface . Seawater entering the pond increases the melt rate because the salty water of the ocean is warmer than the fresh water of the pond . The increase in salinity also depresses the water 's freezing point . Water from melt ponds over land surface can run into crevasses or moulins -- tubes leading under ice sheets or glaciers -- turning into meltwater . The water may reach the underlying rock . The effect is an increase in the rate of ice flow to the oceans , as the fluid behaves like a lubricant in the basal sliding of glaciers .","qid":"161","docid":"Melt_pond","rank":93,"score":87656},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"161","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":94,"score":87482},{"content":"Title: Extreme Ice Survey Content: The Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) , based in Boulder , Colorado , uses time-lapse photography , conventional photography and video to document the effects of global warming on glacial ice . It is the most wide-ranging glacier study ever conducted using ground-based , real-time photography . Starting in 2007 the EIS team installed as many as 43 time-lapse cameras at a time at 18 glaciers in Greenland , Iceland , Alaska , Canada , the Nepalese Himalaya ( where cameras were installed at Mount Everest in 2010 ) , and the Rocky Mountains of the U.S. . The cameras shoot year-round , every half hour of daylight . The team supplements the time-lapse record by occasionally repeating shots at fixed locations in Iceland , Bolivia , the Canadian province of British Columbia and the French and Swiss Alps . Collected images are being used for scientific evidence and as part of a global outreach campaign aimed at educating the public about the effects of climate change . EIS imagery has appeared in time-lapse videos displayed in the terminal at Denver International Airport ; in media productions such as the 2009 NOVA Extreme Ice documentary on PBS ; and is the focus of the feature-length film Chasing Ice , directed by Jeff Orlowski , which premiered at the Sundance film festival in Utah on January 23 , 2012 . Major findings were published in 2012 in Ice : Portraits of the World 's Vanishing Glaciers by James Balog ( Rizzoli Publishing ) .","qid":"161","docid":"Extreme_Ice_Survey","rank":95,"score":87076},{"content":"Title: Weathering Content: Weathering is the breaking down of rocks , soil , and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth 's atmosphere , waters , and biological organisms . Weathering occurs in situ ( on site ) , that is , in the same place , with little or no movement , and thus should not be confused with erosion , which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water , ice , snow , wind , waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations . Two important classifications of weathering processes exist -- physical and chemical weathering ; each sometimes involves a biological component . Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric conditions , such as heat , water , ice and pressure . The second classification , chemical weathering , involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known as biological weathering in the breakdown of rocks , soils and minerals . While physical weathering is accentuated in very cold or very dry environments , chemical reactions are most intense where the climate is wet and hot . However , both types of weathering occur together , and each tends to accelerate the other . For example , physical abrasion ( rubbing together ) decreases the size of particles and therefore increases their surface area , making them more susceptible to rapid chemical reactions . The various agents act in concert to convert primary minerals ( feldspars and micas ) to secondary minerals ( clays and carbonates ) and release plant nutrient elements in soluble forms . The materials left over after the rock breaks down combined with organic material creates soil . The mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent material ; thus , a soil derived from a single rock type can often be deficient in one or more minerals needed for good fertility , while a soil weathered from a mix of rock types ( as in glacial , aeolian or alluvial sediments ) often makes more fertile soil . In addition , many of Earth 's landforms and landscapes are the result of weathering processes combined with erosion and re-deposition .","qid":"161","docid":"Weathering","rank":96,"score":87017},{"content":"Title: Continental rise Content: The continental rise is an underwater feature found between the continental slope and the abyssal plain . This feature can be found all around the world , and it represents the final stage in the boundary between continents and the deepest part of the ocean . The environment in the continental rise is quite unique , and many oceanographers study it extensively in the hopes of learning more about the ocean and geologic history . At the bottom of the continental slope , one will find the continental rise , an underwater hill composed of tons of accumulated sediments . The general slope of the continental rise is between 0.5 degrees and 1.0 degrees . Deposition of sediments at the mouth of submarine canyons may form enormous fan-shaped accumulations called submarine fans . Submarine fans form part of the continental rise . Beyond the continental rise stretches the abyssal plain , an extremely deep and flat area of the sea floor . The abyssal plain hosts many unique life forms which are uniquely adapted to survival in its cold , high pressure , and dark conditions . The flatness of the abyssal plain is interrupted by massive underwater mountain chains near the tectonic boundaries of the Earth 's plates.The sediments are mostly sand and pieces of coral or rock . Category : Oceanography","qid":"161","docid":"Continental_rise","rank":97,"score":86734},{"content":"Title: Climate of the United States Content: The climate of the United States varies due to differences in latitude , and a range of geographic features , including mountains and deserts . West of the 100th meridian , much of the US is semi-arid to desert in the far southwestern US , and Mediterranean along the California coast . East of the 100th meridian , the climate is humid continental in the northern areas east through New England , to humid subtropical in the Gulf and South Atlantic regions . Southern Florida is tropical , as is Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands . Higher-elevation areas of the Rocky Mountains , the Wasatch , Sierra Nevada , and Cascade Range are alpine . The West Coast areas in coastal Oregon and Washington are oceanic climate . The state of Alaska , on the northwestern corner of the North American continent , is largely subarctic climate , but with a subpolar oceanic climate in the southeast ( Alaska Panhandle ) , southwestern peninsula and Aleutian Islands . The primary drivers of weather in the contiguous United States are the seasonal change in the solar angle , the migration north/south of the subtropical highs , and the seasonal change in the position of the polar jet stream . In the Northern Hemisphere summer the Subtropical high pressure systems move northward and closer to the United States mainland . In the Atlantic Ocean , the `` Bermuda High '' creates a south-southwest flow of warm , humid air over the eastern , southern and central United States - resulting in warm to hot temperatures , high humidity and occasional thunderstorm activity . In the Pacific Ocean high pressure builds toward the California coast resulting in a northwesterly airflow creating the typical sunny , dry , and stable weather conditions along the West Coast . In the Northern Hemisphere winter , the subtropical highs retreat southward . The polar jet stream ( and associated conflict zone between cold , dry air masses from Canada and warm , moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico ) drops further southward into the United States - bringing more precipitation and periods of disturbed weather , as well as colder or mild air masses . Areas in the southern US ( Florida , the Gulf Coast , the Desert Southwest , and southern California ) however , often have more stable weather , as the polar jet stream 's impact does not usually reach that far south . Weather systems , be they high-pressure systems ( anticyclones ) , low-pressure systems ( cyclones ) or fronts ( boundaries between air masses of differing temperature , humidity and most commonly , both ) are faster-moving and more intense in the winter/colder months than in the summer/warmer months , when the belt of lows and storms generally move into southern Canada . The Gulf of Alaska is the origination area of many storms that enter the United States . Such `` North Pacific lows '' enter the US through the Pacific Northwest , then move eastward across the northern Rocky Mountains , northern Great Plains , upper Midwest , Great Lakes and New England states . Across the central states from late fall to spring , `` Panhandle hook '' storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma/Texas panhandle areas , then northeast toward the Great Lakes . They generate unusually large temperature contrasts , and often bring heavy Gulf moisture northward , resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly-heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track , and warm conditions , heavy rains and potentially-severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously . Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward , `` Alberta clipper '' storms track east and bring light to moderate snowfalls from the Great Lakes to New England , and often , windy and severe Arctic outbreaks behind them . When winter-season Canadian cold air masses drop unusually far southward , `` Gulf lows '' can develop in or near the Gulf of Mexico , then track eastward or northeastward across the Southern states , or nearby Gulf or South Atlantic waters . They often bring rain , but on rare occasions can bring ice to areas of the interior southern states . In the cold season ( generally November to March ) , most precipitation occurs in conjunction with organized low-pressure systems and associated fronts . In the summer , storms are much more localized , with short-duration thunderstorms common in many areas east of the 100th meridian . In the warm season , storm systems affecting a large area are less frequent , and weather conditions are more solar -LCB- sun -RCB- controlled , with the greatest chance for thunderstorm and severe weather activity during peak heating hours , mostly between 3 PM and 9 PM local time . From May to August especially , often-overnight mesoscale-convective-system ( MCS ) thunderstorm complexes , usually associated with frontal activity , can deliver significant to flooding rainfall amounts from the Dakotas/Nebraska eastward across Iowa/Minnesota to the Great Lakes states . From late summer into fall ( mostly August to October ) , tropical cyclones sometimes approach or cross the Gulf and Atlantic states , bringing high winds , heavy rainfall , and storm surges ( often topped with battering waves ) to coastal areas .","qid":"161","docid":"Climate_of_the_United_States","rank":98,"score":86711},{"content":"Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate","qid":"161","docid":"Ice_cap_climate","rank":99,"score":86602},{"content":"Title: Melt-Freeze Crust Content: A Melt-Freeze Crust or Rain Crust is a discontinuity between snow layers which can lead to avalanches . The layer can be created in two ways : A temperature high enough to allow surface snow to melt , creating a layer of melt water which may later re-freeze . Rain falling and freezing on the surface of existing snow , also creating a frozen layer . This layer is brittle , smooth and slippery , and does not bond with snow layers above it , allowing the overlying slab of snow to move down the mountain under gravity when disturbed or if the accumulated snowfall exceeds a critical mass . The initial slab may be as large as 10,000 m ² and 10 metres thick .","qid":"161","docid":"Melt-Freeze_Crust","rank":100,"score":86420}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 153138\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 143840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_dipole_anomaly\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 130511\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_inertia\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 127787\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 126880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"LOWERN\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 125868\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 123931\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pressure melting point Content: The pressure melting point is the temperature at which ice melts at a given pressure . The pressure melting point is a constant 0 ° C at pressures above the triple point at 611.7 Pa , where water can exist in only the solid or liquid phases , through atmospheric pressure ( 100 kPa ) until about 10 MPa . With increasing pressure above 10 MPa , the pressure melting point decreases to a minimum of − 21.9 ° C at 209.9 MPa . Thereafter , the pressure melting point rises rapidly with pressure , passing back through 0 ° C at 632.4 MPa .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Pressure_melting_point\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 120776\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simon–Glatzel equation Content: The Simon -- Glatzel equation is an empirical correlation describing the pressure dependence of the melting temperature of a solid . The pressure dependence of the melting temperature is small for small pressure changes because the volume change during fusion or melting is rather small . However , at very high pressures higher melting temperatures are generally observed as the liquid usually occupies a larger volume than the solid making melting more thermodynamically unfavorable at elevated pressure . If the liquid has a smaller volume than the solid ( as for ice and liquid water ) a higher pressure leads to a lower melting point .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Simon–Glatzel_equation\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 120622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 119199\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 118827\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice-albedo_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 116797\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 113787\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Melting point Content: The melting point ( or , rarely , liquefaction point ) of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure . At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium . The melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure . When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid , it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point . Because of the ability of some substances to supercool , the freezing point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance . When the `` characteristic freezing point '' of a substance is determined , in fact the actual methodology is almost always `` the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice '' , that is , the melting point .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Melting_point\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 111540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice2sea\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 109081\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Zero-curtain_effect\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 108733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 107151\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Voeykov axis Content: Voeykov axis ( or Voeikov axis ) is the axial portion ( ridge ) of a high atmospheric pressure band stretching across Eurasia roughly along the 50th parallel . It was named in honor of Alexander Voeykov , a climatologist , who studied this phenomenon . The formation if the Voeykov axis is due to the continental climate in the hinterland of Eurasia . In winter , the territory of Mongolia and Siberia experience strong cooling . This leads to the formation of stable high atmospheric pressure , known as the Siberian anticyclone . The huge size of the continent , and also the relief of the earth 's surface contributes to the ride formation . In Tuva , Mongolia and to the north are vast basins and valleys , surrounded by high mountain ranges . In winter , they cool air and stagnation occurs , that favors the growth of atmospheric pressure . On the territory of Mongolia and southern Siberia the high-pressure region diverges in two spurs in two directions - to the north and west . To the north , extends the East Siberian anticyclone . It involves a clear , quiet and extreme freezing weather , which is set in the winter in the vast eastern Siberia . West departs Voeykov axis , which can be traced on the territory of Kazakhstan and in the south of the East European Plain . It extends approximately along the line Kyzyl - Uralsk - Saratov - Kharkiv - Chisinau . To the west of Moldova , it continues , gradually weakening , down to the South of France , where there is already an action of another center of high pressure - Azores anticyclone . Winter in Eurasia the Voeнkov axis plays an important climate role as a major winds separator . In winter , the north of the axis is dominated by western and south-westerly winds . In the north of the East European Plain effect Voeнkov axis emphasizes the Icelandic Low . Their proximity enhances here westerly transport carrying wet and relatively warm air masses . To the south of the axis Voeikov blow northeasterly and easterly winds . They are cold and dry continental air of temperate latitudes of the Siberian High . In summer , high pressure over the maximum Mongolia disappears . This Voeнkov axis is stored in a weakened state , but loses its value vetrorazdelnoe . During this period it is no longer supported by the Siberian anticyclone , and the Azores anticyclone , from which the east moving anticyclones .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Voeykov_axis\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 106820\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_ice_sheet\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 106716\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_High\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 106604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 106542\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Virga Content: __ NOTOC __ In meteorology , virga is an observable fall streaks or shaft of precipitation falling from a cloud but evaporates or sublimates before reaching the ground . A shaft of precipitation which does n't evaporate before reaching the ground is a precipitation shaft . At high altitudes the precipitation falls mainly as ice crystals before melting and finally evaporating ; this is often due to compressional heating , because the air pressure increases closer to the ground . It is very common in the desert and in temperate climates . In North America , it is commonly seen in the Western United States and the Canadian Prairies . It is also very common in the Middle East , Australia and North Africa . Virga can cause varying weather effects , because as rain is changed from liquid to vapor form , it removes heat from the air due to the high heat of vaporization of water . Precipitation falling into these cooling down drafts may eventually reach the ground . In some instances , these pockets of colder air can descend rapidly , creating a wet or dry microburst which can be extremely hazardous to aviation . Conversely , precipitation evaporating at high altitude can compressionally heat as it falls , and result in a gusty downburst which may substantially and rapidly warm the surface temperature . This fairly rare phenomenon , a heat burst , also tends to be of exceedingly dry air . Virga also has a role in seeding storm cells whereby small particles from one cloud are blown into neighboring supersaturated air and act as nucleation particles for the next thunderhead cloud to begin forming . The word is derived from Latin virga meaning `` twig '' or `` branch '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Virga\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 105194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Fisheries_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 104810\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 104670\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cryoseism Content: A cryoseism , also known as an ice quake or a frost quake , is a seismic event that may be caused by a sudden cracking action in frozen soil or rock saturated with water or ice . As water drains into the ground , it may eventually freeze and expand under colder temperatures , putting stress on its surroundings . This stress builds up until relieved explosively in the form of a cryoseism . Another type of cryoseism is a non-tectonic seismic event caused by sudden glacial movements . This movement has been attributed to a veneer of water which may pool underneath a glacier sourced from surface ice melt . Hydraulic pressure of the liquid can act as a lubricant , allowing the glacier to suddenly shift position . This type of cryoseism can be very brief , or may last for several minutes . The requirements for a cryoseism to occur are numerous ; therefore , accurate predictions are not entirely possible and may constitute a factor in structural design and engineering when constructing in an area historically known for such events . Speculation has been made between global warming and the frequency of cryoseisms .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Cryoseism\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 103956\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 103953\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"2013_extreme_weather_events\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 103657\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Subsidence (atmosphere) Content: Subsidence in the Earth 's atmosphere is most commonly caused by low temperatures : as air cools , it becomes denser and moves towards the ground , just as warm air becomes less dense and moves upwards . Cool subsiding air is subject to adiabatic warming which tends to cause the evaporation of any clouds that might be present . Subsidence generally causes high barometric pressure as more air moves into the same space : the polar highs are areas of almost constant subsidence , as are the horse latitudes , and these areas of subsidence are the sources of much of the world 's prevailing wind . Subsidence also causes many smaller-scale weather phenomena , such as morning fog . An extreme form of subsidence is a downburst , which can result in damage similar to that produced by a tornado . A milder form of subsidence is referred to as downdraft . Category : Atmosphere Category : Basic meteorological concepts and phenomena\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Subsidence_(atmosphere)\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 103593\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 103474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Coming_Global_Superstorm\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 102560\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 102477\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Glacier_mass_balance\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 102199\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 101845\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meltwater Content: Meltwater is water released by the melting of snow or ice , including glacial ice , tabular icebergs and ice shelves over oceans . Meltwater is often found in the ablation zone of glaciers , where the rate of snow cover is reducing . Meltwater can be produced during volcanic eruptions , in a similar way in which the more dangerous lahars form . When meltwater pools on the surface rather than flowing , it forms melt ponds . As the weather gets colder meltwater will often re-freeze . Meltwater can collect or melt under the ice 's surface . These pools of water , known as subglacial lakes can form due to geothermal heat and friction .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Meltwater\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 100687\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_York_City\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 100622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 100264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Melting Content: Melting , or fusion , is a physical process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a solid to a liquid . This occurs when the internal energy of the solid increases , typically by the application of heat or pressure , which increases the substance 's temperature to the melting point . At the melting point , the ordering of ions or molecules in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state , and the solid melts to become a liquid . Substances in the molten state generally have reduced viscosity as the temperature increases . An exception to this principle is the element sulfur , whose viscosity increases to a point due to polymerization and then decreases with higher temperatures in its molten state . Some organic compounds melt through mesophases , states of partial order between solid and liquid .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Melting\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 99886\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 99842\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Metamorphism Content: Metamorphism is the change of minerals or geologic texture ( distinct arrangement of minerals ) in pre-existing rocks ( protoliths ) , without the protolith melting into liquid magma ( a solid-state change ) . The change occurs primarily due to heat , pressure , and the introduction of chemically active fluids . The chemical components and crystal structures of the minerals making up the rock may change even though the rock remains a solid . Changes at or just beneath Earth 's surface due to weathering and/or diagenesis are not classified as metamorphism . Metamorphism typically occurs between diagenesis ( max . 200 ° C ) , and melting ( ~ 850 ° C ) . Three types of metamorphism exist : contact , dynamic , and regional . Metamorphism produced with increasing pressure and temperature conditions is known as prograde metamorphism . Conversely , decreasing temperatures and pressure characterize retrograde metamorphism .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Metamorphism\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 99722\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Meltwater_pulse_1A\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 99677\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cryosuction Content: Cryosuction is concept of negative pressure in freezing soil resulting from transformation of liquid water to ice in the soil pores whereby water migrates through soil pores to the freezing zone ( through capillary action ) . Fine-grained soils such as clays and silts enables greater negative pressures than more coarse-grained soils due to the smaller pore size . In periglacial environments , this mechanism is highly significant and it is the predominant process in ice lens formation in permafrost areas . Several models for ice-lens formation by cryosuction exist , among others the Hydrodynamic model and the Pre-melting model , many of them based on the Clausius -- Clapeyron relation with various assumptions , yielding cryosuction potentials of 11 to 12 atm per degree Celsius below zero depending on pore size .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Cryosuction\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 99227\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoflooding\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 98737\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 98495\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_low\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 98153\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 97752\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Retrogradation Content: Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common : during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets . with extremely low sediment input .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Retrogradation\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 97336\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Clathrate_gun_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 97240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extreme weather events of 535–536 Content: The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the most severe and protracted short-term episodes of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2000 years . The event is thought to have been caused by an extensive atmospheric dust veil , possibly resulting from a large volcanic eruption in the tropics , or debris from space impacting the Earth . Its effects were widespread , causing unseasonal weather , crop failures and famines worldwide .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Extreme_weather_events_of_535–536\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 97058\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Freshet Content: The term freshet is most commonly used to describe a spring thaw resulting from snow and ice melt in rivers located in the northern latitudes of North America . A spring freshet can sometimes last several weeks on large river systems , resulting in significant inundation of flood plains as the snowpack melts in the river 's catchment area . Freshets occur with generally diminishing strength and duration depending upon the snowpacks having large accumulations and then the local average rates of warming temperatures ; late spring melts allowing faster flooding from the relatively longer days and higher solar angle against more southerly latitudes and elevations reaching average melting temperatures sooner where earlier and generally lesser seasonal snow piles melt more gradually spread over a longer melt period . Serious flooding from southern freshets are more often related to rain storms of large tropical weather systems rolling in from the South Atlantic or Gulf of Mexico , to add their powerful heating capacity to lesser snow packs . Tropically induced rainfall influenced quick melts can also affect snow cover to latitudes as far north as southern Canada , so long as the generally colder air mass is not blocking northward movement of low pressure systems . In the eastern part of the continent , annual freshets occur from the Canadian Taiga ranging along both sides of the Great Lakes then down through the heavily forested Appalachian mountain chain and St. Lawrence valley from Northern Maine into barrier ranges in North Carolina and Tennessee . In the western part of the continent , freshets occur throughout the generally much higher elevations of the various west coast mountain ranges that extend southward down from Alaska even into the northern parts of Arizona and New Mexico . The term can also refer to the following : A flood resulting from heavy rain or a spring thaw . Whereas heavy rain often causes a flash flood , a spring thaw event is generally a more incremental process , depending upon local climate and topography . A stream , river or flood of fresh water which empties into the ocean , usually flowing through an estuary . A small stream of fresh water , irrespective of its outflow . A pool of fresh water , according to Samuel Johnson and followed in Thomas Sheridan 's dictionary , but this might have been a misinterpretation on Johnson 's part , and it is at best not a common usage .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Freshet\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 96915\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Enthalpy of fusion Content: The enthalpy of fusion of a substance , also known as ( latent ) heat of fusion , is the change in its enthalpy resulting from providing energy , typically heat , to a specific quantity of the substance to change its state from a solid to a liquid at constant pressure . This energy includes the contribution required to make room for any associated change in volume by displacing its environment against ambient pressure . The temperature at which the phase transition occurs is the melting point . By convention , the pressure is assumed to be 1 atm unless otherwise specified . The ` enthalpy ' of fusion is a latent heat , because during melting the introduction of heat can not be observed as a temperature change , as the temperature remains constant during the process . The latent heat of fusion is the enthalpy change of any amount of substance when it melts . When the heat of fusion is referenced to a unit of mass , it is usually called the specific heat of fusion , while the molar heat of fusion refers to the enthalpy change per amount of substance in moles . The liquid phase has a higher internal energy than the solid phase . This means energy must be supplied to a solid in order to melt it and energy is released from a liquid when it freezes , because the molecules in the liquid experience weaker intermolecular forces and so have a higher potential energy ( a kind of bond-dissociation energy for intermolecular forces ) . When liquid water is cooled , its temperature falls steadily until it drops just below the line of freezing point at 0 ° C . The temperature then remains constant at the freezing point while the water crystallizes . Once the water is completely frozen , its temperature continues to fall . The enthalpy of fusion is almost always a positive quantity ; helium is the only known exception . Helium-3 has a negative enthalpy of fusion at temperatures below 0.3 K. Helium-4 also has a very slightly negative enthalpy of fusion below 0.77 K . This means that , at appropriate constant pressures , these substances freeze with the addition of heat . In the case of 4He , this pressure range is between 24.992 and 25.00 atm . These values are mostly from the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics , 62nd edition . The conversion between cal/g and J/g in the above table uses the thermochemical calorie ( calth ) = 4.184 joules rather than the International Steam Table calorie ( calINT ) = 4.1868 joules .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Enthalpy_of_fusion\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 96883\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 96804\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 96683\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 96452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-pressure area Content: A low-pressure area , low , or depression is a region where the topographic map is atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations . Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of meteorology , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas . The first area is on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere ) . A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which are of smaller wavelength . Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity . Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large-scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations . Low-pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well-hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during November . Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises , although the low-pressure area typically brings cloudy skies , which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure , the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Globally , low-pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( particularly in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low-pressure weather systems are typically known as `` depressions '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-pressure_area\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 96214\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_resources_race\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 95894\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Underplating Content: Underplating is the accumulation of partial melts at the base of the crust where an ocean plate is subducting under continental crust . Underplating is the result of partial melts being produced in the mantle wedge above a subducting plate . The partial melting is induced by a lowering of the melting temperature , the solidus , by the input of water and other volatiles supplied by phase transitions in the subducting slab . When the buoyant partial melt rises upwards through the mantle , it will usually stall at the base of the crust and pond there . This is because the crust is usually less dense than the underplating magma , and this is the point at which the ascending magma reaches a level of neutral buoyancy . The evolving melt will remain here until it fractionates enough ( through MASH processes ) that the remaining melt is less dense than the surrounding rock ; the melt will then continue up into the crust , leaving behind the heavier mafic minerals which were crystallized during fractional crystallization . The assemblage of minerals remaining behind are typically mafic or ultramafic , and are responsible for the observed seismic anomaly which indicates underplated material .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Underplating\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 95697\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rear-inflow jet Content: The rear-inflow jet is a component of bow echoes in a mesoscale convective system that aids in creating a stronger cold pool and downdraft . The jet forms as a response to a convective circulation having upshear tilt and horizontal pressure gradients . The cold pool that comes from the outflow of a storm forms an area of high pressure at the surface . In response to the surface high and warmer temperatures aloft due to convection , a mid-level mesolow forms behind the leading edge of the storm . With a mid-level area of low pressure , air is drawn in under the trailing stratiform region of precipitation . As air is drawn in on the rear side of the storm , it begins to descend as it approaches the front line of the cells . Before the reaching the leading edge , the jet dives heads to the ground as a strong downdraft , creating straight-line winds . Any mature mesoscale convective system is capable of developing its own rear-inflow jet , but questions remain as to what influences the strength of the jet . While the diabatic effects of sublimation , melting and evaporation play a role in influencing jet strength , these effects do not account for cases with strong rear-inflow jets . However , the diabatic effects are responsible for the jet subsiding behind the leading edge of the MCS . The sinking of the jet first starts when the mid level inflow goes under the trailing stratiform cloud before descending to the melting layer . There are other factors that contribute to the strength of any rear inflow jet . The strength of a rear inflow jet can be greatly increased with induced vortices at the end of the line , called `` line-end vortices '' or `` book-end vortices . '' These vortices at either end of the line will help reinforce the rear inflow towards the center of the line . The other factor that can help strengthen the jet is an environment in which the large scale flow is feeding/forcing mid-level air into the rear end of the storm .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Rear-inflow_jet\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 95352\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Late Imbrian Content: In the Lunar geologic timescale , the Late Imbrian epoch occurred between 3800 million years ago to about 3200 million years ago . It was the epoch during which the mantle below the lunar basins partially melted and filled them with basalt . The melting is thought to have occurred because the impacts of the Early Imbrian thinned the overlying rock - either causing the mantle to rise because of the reduced pressure on it , bringing molten material closer to the surface ; or the top melting as heat flowed upwards through the mantle because of reduced overlying thermal insulation . The majority of lunar samples returned to earth for study come from this epoch . The Earth equivalent consists of half of the Archean eon . Category : Lunar geologic periods\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Late_Imbrian\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 94910\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regelation Content: Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing again when the pressure is reduced . Many sources state that regelation can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of ice , with a heavy weight attached to it . The pressure exerted on the ice slowly melts it locally , permitting the wire to pass through the entire block . The wire 's track will refill as soon as pressure is relieved , so the ice block will remain solid even after wire passes completely through . This experiment is possible for ice at − 10 ° C or cooler , and while essentially valid , the details of the process by which the wire passes through the ice are complex . The phenomenon works best with high thermal conductivity materials such as copper , since latent heat of fusion from the top side needs to be transferred to the lower side to supply latent heat of melting . If 1 mm diameter wire is used , over an ice cube 50 mm wide , the area the force is exerted on is 50 mm2 . This is 50 × 10 − 6 m2 . Force ( in newtons ) equals pressure ( in pascals ) multiplied by area ( in square metres ) . If at least 500 atm ( 50 MPa ) is required to melt the ice , a force of ( 50 × 106 Pa ) ( 50 × 10 − 6 m2 ) = 2500 N is required , a force roughly equal to the weight of 250 kg on Earth . Regelation was discovered by Michael Faraday . Regelation occurs only for substances , such as ice , that have the property of expanding upon freezing , for the melting points of those substances decrease with increasing external pressure . The melting point of ice falls by 0.0072 ° C for each additional atm of pressure applied . For example , a pressure of 500 atmospheres is needed for ice to melt at − 4 ° C.\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Regelation\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 94894\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_sea_ice_decline\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 94817\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electromechanical disintegration Content: Electromechanical disintegration is a process in geomorphology in which lightning interacts in erosion and weathering . An excellent example of this phenomenon is fracturing in the quartz formations of the Espinaςo mountains of Brazil . For many years , itinerant miners in these mountains have reported the appearance of broken boulders and fissures along the ground after lightning storms . The Espinaςo Range represents a typical site for orographic thunderstorms , which develop from the ascent of air along mountain ranges . These storms have the highest rate of lightning occurrence and are therefore useful for studying the effects of such atmospheric discharges . These discharges have peculiar features : velocities of 160000 m/s and plasma temperatures of 30000 ° C are achieved in nanoseconds in lightning channels . Evidences of the effect of lightning on rock are the presence of beta-quartz ( T > 573 ° C , called `` flashstones '' by local diggers ) , melted barbed wires ( T > 1500 ° C ) ; furrows in soils and colluvium up to 120 m long with the presence of cristobalite , the high-temperature modification of quartz ( 1713 - ) . In permeable Precambrian quartzites , the instantaneous shock rise of temperature from 15 to , or higher , results in an extremely severe explosion-like expansion of water , leading to the formation of fissures and widening of other systems . The evidence points to lightning action , since quartz can change its modification from α to β and back again without cracking , as long as the temperature change is less than 1 C-change per minute . For this reason , cracks caused by solar radiation or fire can be ruled out . An enormous pressure of about 35.00 bar can be estimated by the presence of coesite relicts , the rare high-pressure polymorph of quartz . This lightning-induced weathering is one of the more important starting mechanisms for other weathering processes . Because of the increase in surface area , chemical weathering can attack each newly made fragment from all sides and can go deeper into bedrock as new cracks are formed or older ones extended . Thus , electromechanical disintegration is a new term for a type of weathering as old as the planet 's lithosphere , and it represents an important exogenic process for the beginning of erosion and the formation of soils .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Electromechanical_disintegration\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 94804\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Permafrost Content: In geology , permafrost is ground , including rock or ( cryotic ) soil , at or below the freezing point of water 0 C for two or more years . Most permafrost is located in high latitudes ( in and around the Arctic and Antarctic regions ) , but alpine permafrost may exist at high altitudes in much lower latitudes . Ground ice is not always present , as may be in the case of nonporous bedrock , but it frequently occurs and it may be in amounts exceeding the potential hydraulic saturation of the ground material . Permafrost accounts for 0.022 % of total water on earth and exists in 24 % of exposed land in the Northern Hemisphere . It also occurs subsea on the continental shelves of the continents surrounding the Arctic Ocean , portions of which were exposed during the last glacial period , with global weather implications . A global temperature rise of 1.5 C-change above current levels would be enough to start the thawing of permafrost in Siberia , according to one group of scientists .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Permafrost\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 94749\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Meltwater_pulse_1B\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 94656\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 94416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of Asia Content: The Climate of Asia is wet across southeast sections , and dry across much of the interior . Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia . The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections , due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer . Southwestern sections of the continent experience low relief as a result of the subtropical high pressure belt ; they are hot in the summer , warm to cool in winter , and may snow at higher altitudes . Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere , and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America . The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan , and the phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation modulates where in Asia landfall is more likely to occur ,\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_Asia\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 94052\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 93402\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_transgression\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 93132\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercane\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 92586\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chasing Ice Content: Chasing Ice is a 2012 documentary film about the efforts of nature photographer James Balog and his Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) to publicize the effects of climate change , directed by Jeff Orlowski . It was released in the United States on November 16 , 2012 . The documentary includes scenes from a glacier calving event that took place at Jakobshavn Glacier in Greenland , lasting 75 minutes , the longest such event ever captured on film . Two EIS videographers waited several weeks in a small tent overlooking the glacier , and were finally able to witness 7.4 km3 of ice crashing off the glacier . `` The calving of a massive glacier believed to have produced the ice that sank the Titanic is like watching a city break apart . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Chasing_Ice\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 92507\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Deglaciation\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 92441\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 92182\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stamukha Content: A stamukha ( plural : stamukhi ) is a grounded accumulation of sea ice rubble that typically develops along the boundary between fast ice and the drifting pack ice , or becomes incorporated into the fast ice . It is a pressure ridge . Wind , currents and tides contribute to this phenomenon . Stamukhi tend to occur in belts that are parallel to the shoreline , along coastal shoals , at water depths of about 20 m ( 65 ft ) , but that can reach 50 m ( 160 ft ) . They can build up to heights 10 m or more above the waterline . Although they remain pinned to the seabed , these features can be subject to small displacements , either due to thermal expansion or to the pressure exerted by the drifting pack ice onto the fast ice . Because stamukhi tend to be deeply grounded , they may occur as isolated ice features in the open sea during the summer season , after the surrounding ice has melted away . Since stamukhi extend downward into the seabed , they present a risk to submarine pipelines and telecommunications cables that cross the shoreline . Seabed penetration by the ice can reach a depth of 5 m.\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Stamukha\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 92093\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vertical draft Content: An updraft is a small‐scale current of rising air , often within a cloud . Localized regions of warm or cool air will exhibit vertical movement . A mass of warm air will typically be less dense than the surrounding region , and so will rise until it reaches the air is either warmer or less dense than itself . The converse will occur for a mass of cool air , and is known as subsidence . This movement of large volumes of air , especially when regions of hot , wet air rise , can create large clouds , and is the central source of thunderstorms . Drafts can also be conceived by low or high pressure regions . A low pressure region will attract air from the surrounding area , which will move towards the center and then rise , creating an updraft . A high pressure region will then attract air from the surrounding area , which will move towards the center and sink , spawning a downdraft . Updrafts and downdrafts , along with wind shear in general , are a major contributor to airplane crashes during takeoff and landing in a thunderstorm . Extreme cases , known as downbursts and microbursts can be deadly and difficult to predict or observe . The crash of Delta Air Lines Flight 191 on its final approach before landing at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport in 1985 was presumably caused by a microburst , and prompted the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) to research and deploy new storm detection radar stations at some of the major airports , notably the ones in the South , Midwest , and Northeast United States where wind shear affects air safety . Downbursts can cause extensive localized damage , similar to that caused by tornadoes . Downburst damage can be differentiated from that of a tornado because the resulting destruction is circular and radiates away from the center . Tornado damage radiates inward , towards the center of the damage . The term downdraft can also refer to a type of backdraft which occurs through chimneys which have fireplaces on the lowermost levels ( such as basements ) of multi-level buildings . It involves cold air coming down the chimney due to low air pressure , and makes it hard to light fires , and can push soot and carbon monoxide into domiciles .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Vertical_draft\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 91933\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 91837\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 91745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Premelting Content: Premelting ( also surface melting ) describes the fact that , even below its melting point , quasi-liquid films can be observed on crystalline surfaces . The thickness of the film is temperature dependent . This effect is common for all crystalline materials . Premelting shows its effects in e.g. frost heave , the growth of snowflakes and , taking grain boundary interfaces into account , maybe even in the movement of glaciers . Considering a solid-vapour interface , complete and incomplete premelting can be distinguished . During a temperature rise from below to above , in the case of complete premelting , the solid melts homogeneously from the outside to the inside ; in the case of incomplete premelting , the liquid film stays very thin during the beginning of the melting process , but droplets start to form on the interface . In either case , the solid always melts from the outside inwards , never from the inside .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Premelting\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 91552\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pressure system Content: A pressure system is a relative peak or lull in the sea level pressure distribution . The surface pressure at sea level varies minimally , with the lowest value measured 87 kPa and the highest recorded 108.57 kPa . High - and low-pressure systems evolve due to interactions of temperature differentials in the atmosphere , temperature differences between the atmosphere and water within oceans and lakes , the influence of upper-level disturbances , as well as the amount of solar heating or radiationized cooling an area receives . Pressure systems cause weather to be experienced locally . Low-pressure systems are associated with clouds and precipitation that minimize temperature changes throughout the day , whereas high-pressure systems normally associate with dry weather and mostly clear skies with larger diurnal temperature changes due to greater radiation at night and greater sunshine during the day . Pressure systems are analyzed by those in the field of meteorology within surface weather maps .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Pressure_system\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 91071\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 90920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Subglacial volcano Content: A subglacial volcano , also known as a glaciovolcano , is a volcanic form produced by subglacial eruptions or eruptions beneath the surface of a glacier or ice sheet which is then melted into a lake by the rising lava . Today they are most common in Iceland and Antarctica ; older formations of this type are found also in British Columbia and Yukon Territory , Canada . During the eruption , the heat of the lava from the subglacial volcano melts the overlying ice . The water quickly cools the lava , resulting in pillow lava shapes similar to those of underwater volcanoes . When the pillow lavas break off and roll down the volcano slopes , pillow breccia , tuff breccia , and hyaloclastite form . The meltwater may be released from below the ice as happened in Iceland in 1996 when the Grímsvötn caldera erupted , melting 3 km3 of ice and giving rise to a large glacial lake outburst flood . The shape of subglacial volcanoes tends to be quite characteristic and unusual , with a flattened top and steep sides supported against collapse by the pressure of the surrounding ice and meltwater . If the volcano eventually melts completely through the ice layer , then horizontal lava flows are deposited , and the top of the volcano assumes a nearly level form . However , if significant amounts of lava are later erupted subaerially , then the volcano may assume a more conventional shape . In Canada the volcanos have been known to form both conical and nearly level shapes . The more distinctly flat-topped , steep-sided subglacial volcanoes are called tuyas , named after Tuya Butte in northern British Columbia by Canadian geologist Bill Mathews in 1947 . In Iceland , such volcanoes are also known as table mountains .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Subglacial_volcano\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 90907\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Melting (EP) Content: Melting is the second EP by South Korean singer Hyuna , released on October 21 , 2012 . It features the number one single , `` Ice Cream '' . The release date was originally scheduled for October 22 , 2012 but due to a leak it was digitally released a day earlier by Cube Entertainment .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Melting_(EP)\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 90746\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"John_H._Mercer\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 90737\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Heard_Island_glaciers\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 90622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of the Alps Content: The climate of the Alps is the climate , or average weather conditions over a long period of time , of the exact middle Alpine region of Europe . As air rises from sea level to the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases . The effect of mountain topography on prevailing winds is to force warm air from the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat , often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow , rain or hail . The position of the Alps in the central European continent profoundly affects the climate of all the surrounding regions . The accumulation of vast masses of snow , which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers , maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges ; it cools breezes that waft to the plains on either side , but its most important function is to regulate the water supply of the large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps . Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during fall , winter , and spring is stored in the form of snow and gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer ; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams . Nor is this all ; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia , and afford an inexhaustible supply of water , which , from a remote period , has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility . Six regions or zones , which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation , are found in the Alps . It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above sea level . Local conditions of exposure to the Sun , protection from cold winds , or the reverse , are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_the_Alps\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 90141\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Early 2012 European cold wave Content: The Early 2012 European cold wave was a deadly cold wave that started on January 27 , 2012 and brought snow and freezing temperatures to much of the European continent . There were more than 824 reported deaths . Particularly low temperatures hit several Eastern and Northern European countries , reaching as low as -42.7 C in Finland . The heaviest snow was recorded in the Balkan region . The cold weather was a result of an extensive area of very high pressure located in over the north east of the continent in northern Russia , which circulated cold air from the east .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Early_2012_European_cold_wave\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 90072\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Abrupt_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 89258\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European windstorm Content: European windstorm is a name given to the strongest extratropical cyclones which occur across the continent of Europe . They form as cyclonic windstorms associated with areas of low atmospheric pressure . They are most common in the autumn and winter months . On average , the month when most windstorms form is January . The seasonal average is 4.6 windstorms . Deep low pressure areas are relatively common over the North Atlantic , sometimes starting as nor'easter s off the New England coast , and frequently track across the North Atlantic Ocean towards western Europe , past the north coast of Britain and Ireland and into the Norwegian Sea . However , when they track further south they can affect almost any country in Europe . Commonly affected countries include the United Kingdom , Ireland , the Netherlands , Norway , the Faroe Islands and Iceland , but any country in Central Europe , Northern Europe and especially Western Europe is occasionally struck by such a storm system . The strong wind phenomena intrinsic to European windstorms , that give rise to `` damage footprints '' at the surface , can be placed into three categories , namely the `` warm jet '' , the `` cold jet '' and the `` sting jet '' . These phenomena vary in terms of physical mechanisms , atmospheric structure , spatial extent , duration , severity level , predictability , and location relative to cyclone and fronts . On average these storms cause economic damage $ 1.9 billion per year , and insurance losses of $ 1.4 billion per year ( 1990 -- 1998 ) . They rank as the second highest cause of global natural catastrophe insurance loss ( after U.S. hurricanes ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"European_windstorm\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 88835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iron catastrophe Content: The iron catastrophe was a postulated major event early in the history of Earth . The original accretion of the Earth 's material into a spherical mass is thought to have resulted in a relatively uniform composition . While residual heat from the collision of the material that formed the Earth was significant , heating from radioactive materials in this mass gradually increased the temperature until a critical condition was reached . As material became molten enough to allow movement , the denser iron and nickel , evenly distributed throughout the mass , began to migrate to the center of the planet to form the core . The gravitational potential energy released by the sinking of the dense NiFe globules , along with any cooler , denser solid material , is thought to have been a runaway process , increasing the temperature of the protoplanet above the melting point of most components , resulting in the rapid formation of a molten iron core covered by a deep global silicate magma . This event , an important process of planetary differentiation , occurred at about 500 million years into the formation of the planet .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Iron_catastrophe\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 88472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gulf of Maine Closed Areas Content: The Gulf of Maine has been fished since the 1700s , and has been a historic fishing area since . Climate change is having significant impacts on this ecosystem ; between 2004 and 2013 , the Gulf of Maine has warmed faster than 99.9 % of the global oceans , increasing average temperature by 2 ° C. Having seen the depletion of groundfish stocks starting in the early 1990s , managers took care to create five closure areas in the Gulf of Maine . These closed areas do not prohibit all fishing , rather they prevent the further degradation of benthic habitat and groundfish species . Closed areas are different than Marine Protected Areas ( MPA ) because they allow some forms of fishing and other activities to occur that would normally not be allowed in MPA .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Gulf_of_Maine_Closed_Areas\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 88421\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ground pressure Content: Ground pressure is the pressure exerted on the ground by the tires or tracks of a motorized vehicle , and is one measure of its potential mobility , especially over soft ground . It also applies to the feet of a walking person or machine . Ground pressure is measured in pascals ( Pa ) which corresponds to the United States customary units unit of pounds per square inch ( psi ) . Average ground pressure can be calculated using the standard formula for average pressure : P = F/A . In an idealized case , i.e. a static , uniform net force normal to level ground , this is simply the object 's weight divided by contact area . The ground pressure of motorized vehicles is often compared to the ground pressure of a human foot , which can be 60 - 80 kPa while walking or as much as 13 MPa for a person in spike heels . Increasing the size of the contact area on the ground ( the footprint ) in relation to the weight decreases the ground pressure . Ground pressure of 14 kPa ( 2 psi ) or less is recommended for fragile ecosystems like marshes . Decreasing the ground pressure increases the flotation , allowing easier passage of the body over soft terrain . This is often observed in activities like snowshoeing .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Ground_pressure\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 88123\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth potential rise Content: In electrical engineering , earth potential rise ( EPR ) also called ground potential rise ( GPR ) occurs when a large current flows to earth through an earth grid impedance . The potential relative to a distant point on the Earth is highest at the point where current enters the ground , and declines with distance from the source . Ground potential rise is a concern in the design of electrical substations because the high potential may be a hazard to people or equipment . The change of voltage over distance ( potential gradient ) may be so high that a person could be injured due to the voltage developed between two feet , or between the ground on which the person is standing and a metal object . Any conducting object connected to the substation earth ground , such as telephone wires , rails , fences , or metallic piping , may also be energized at the ground potential in the substation . This transferred potential is a hazard to people and equipment outside the substation .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth_potential_rise\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 88005\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: February 1987 nor'easter Content: The February 1987 nor'easter was a significant winter storm in the US that impacted the Mid-Atlantic States around the end of the month . It delivered 8 -- 12 hours of heavy , wet snowfall to several states from West Virginia to New York between February 22 and February 24 . The storm was both preceded and followed by relatively warm temperatures , causing the snow to rapidly melt . The mild conditions were the result of a moderate anticyclone over the region that deteriorated as the nor'easter approached . Cold air damming likely took place prior to the storm 's formation . The nor'easter evolved from a complex series of low pressure areas . Eventually , the multiple center consolidated and a primary cyclone took hold along the Carolina coast . This low rapidly strengthened as it tracked northeastward . Upon reaching the Maryland coast , it turned more towards the east and intensified further to attain a minimum barometric pressure of 964 millibars by 1800 UTC on February 23 . The heaviest precipitation , occasionally accompanied by thunder and lightning , along with gusty winds , occurred between 0000 UTC and 1800 UTC . Snowfall accumulations exceeding 10 in were reported in eastern West Virginia , northern Virginia , north-central Maryland , northern Delaware , southern Pennsylvania , central and southern New Jersey , and Long Island . Most of the interior Northeast was spared a substantial impact from the storm . However , lighter totals extended as far north as central Massachusetts . The weight of the wet snow caused extensive damage to trees and power lines , and hundreds of thousands were reportedly left without power . At Washington , D.C. , 11 in of snow fell , having widespread effects . Limited states of emergency were declared in certain areas . MV Balsa 24 , a 345 ft long freighter , was lost February 25 , 1987 after it capsized in the storm . 18 sailors were killed and there was 1 survivor , who was rescued by the nuclear submarine USS Scamp ( SSN-588 ) . Fishing vessel Delores Marie was also lost , killing 3 .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"February_1987_nor'easter\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 87841\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meteorological disasters Content: Meteorological disasters are caused by extreme weather , e.g. rain , drought , snow , extreme heat or cold , ice , or wind . Violent , sudden and destructive change to the environment related to , produced by , or affecting the earth 's atmosphere , especially the weather-forming processes . Examples of weather disasters include blizzard , cyclones , droughts , hailstorms , heat waves , hurricanes , floods ( caused by rain ) , and tornadoes .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Meteorological_disasters\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 87695\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Melt pond Content: Melt ponds are pools of open water that form on sea ice in the warmer months of spring and summer . The ponds are also found on glacial ice and ice shelves . Ponds of melted water can also develop under the ice . Melt ponds are usually darker than the surrounding ice , and their distribution and size is highly variable . They absorb solar radiation rather than reflecting it as ice does and , thereby , have a significant influence on Earth 's radiation balance . This differential , which had not been scientifically investigated until recently , has a large effect on the rate of ice melting and the extent of ice cover . Melt ponds can melt through to the ocean 's surface . Seawater entering the pond increases the melt rate because the salty water of the ocean is warmer than the fresh water of the pond . The increase in salinity also depresses the water 's freezing point . Water from melt ponds over land surface can run into crevasses or moulins -- tubes leading under ice sheets or glaciers -- turning into meltwater . The water may reach the underlying rock . The effect is an increase in the rate of ice flow to the oceans , as the fluid behaves like a lubricant in the basal sliding of glaciers .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Melt_pond\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 87656\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 87482\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extreme Ice Survey Content: The Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) , based in Boulder , Colorado , uses time-lapse photography , conventional photography and video to document the effects of global warming on glacial ice . It is the most wide-ranging glacier study ever conducted using ground-based , real-time photography . Starting in 2007 the EIS team installed as many as 43 time-lapse cameras at a time at 18 glaciers in Greenland , Iceland , Alaska , Canada , the Nepalese Himalaya ( where cameras were installed at Mount Everest in 2010 ) , and the Rocky Mountains of the U.S. . The cameras shoot year-round , every half hour of daylight . The team supplements the time-lapse record by occasionally repeating shots at fixed locations in Iceland , Bolivia , the Canadian province of British Columbia and the French and Swiss Alps . Collected images are being used for scientific evidence and as part of a global outreach campaign aimed at educating the public about the effects of climate change . EIS imagery has appeared in time-lapse videos displayed in the terminal at Denver International Airport ; in media productions such as the 2009 NOVA Extreme Ice documentary on PBS ; and is the focus of the feature-length film Chasing Ice , directed by Jeff Orlowski , which premiered at the Sundance film festival in Utah on January 23 , 2012 . Major findings were published in 2012 in Ice : Portraits of the World 's Vanishing Glaciers by James Balog ( Rizzoli Publishing ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Extreme_Ice_Survey\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 87076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weathering Content: Weathering is the breaking down of rocks , soil , and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth 's atmosphere , waters , and biological organisms . Weathering occurs in situ ( on site ) , that is , in the same place , with little or no movement , and thus should not be confused with erosion , which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water , ice , snow , wind , waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations . Two important classifications of weathering processes exist -- physical and chemical weathering ; each sometimes involves a biological component . Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric conditions , such as heat , water , ice and pressure . The second classification , chemical weathering , involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known as biological weathering in the breakdown of rocks , soils and minerals . While physical weathering is accentuated in very cold or very dry environments , chemical reactions are most intense where the climate is wet and hot . However , both types of weathering occur together , and each tends to accelerate the other . For example , physical abrasion ( rubbing together ) decreases the size of particles and therefore increases their surface area , making them more susceptible to rapid chemical reactions . The various agents act in concert to convert primary minerals ( feldspars and micas ) to secondary minerals ( clays and carbonates ) and release plant nutrient elements in soluble forms . The materials left over after the rock breaks down combined with organic material creates soil . The mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent material ; thus , a soil derived from a single rock type can often be deficient in one or more minerals needed for good fertility , while a soil weathered from a mix of rock types ( as in glacial , aeolian or alluvial sediments ) often makes more fertile soil . In addition , many of Earth 's landforms and landscapes are the result of weathering processes combined with erosion and re-deposition .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Weathering\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 87017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Continental rise Content: The continental rise is an underwater feature found between the continental slope and the abyssal plain . This feature can be found all around the world , and it represents the final stage in the boundary between continents and the deepest part of the ocean . The environment in the continental rise is quite unique , and many oceanographers study it extensively in the hopes of learning more about the ocean and geologic history . At the bottom of the continental slope , one will find the continental rise , an underwater hill composed of tons of accumulated sediments . The general slope of the continental rise is between 0.5 degrees and 1.0 degrees . Deposition of sediments at the mouth of submarine canyons may form enormous fan-shaped accumulations called submarine fans . Submarine fans form part of the continental rise . Beyond the continental rise stretches the abyssal plain , an extremely deep and flat area of the sea floor . The abyssal plain hosts many unique life forms which are uniquely adapted to survival in its cold , high pressure , and dark conditions . The flatness of the abyssal plain is interrupted by massive underwater mountain chains near the tectonic boundaries of the Earth 's plates.The sediments are mostly sand and pieces of coral or rock . Category : Oceanography\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Continental_rise\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 86734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of the United States Content: The climate of the United States varies due to differences in latitude , and a range of geographic features , including mountains and deserts . West of the 100th meridian , much of the US is semi-arid to desert in the far southwestern US , and Mediterranean along the California coast . East of the 100th meridian , the climate is humid continental in the northern areas east through New England , to humid subtropical in the Gulf and South Atlantic regions . Southern Florida is tropical , as is Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands . Higher-elevation areas of the Rocky Mountains , the Wasatch , Sierra Nevada , and Cascade Range are alpine . The West Coast areas in coastal Oregon and Washington are oceanic climate . The state of Alaska , on the northwestern corner of the North American continent , is largely subarctic climate , but with a subpolar oceanic climate in the southeast ( Alaska Panhandle ) , southwestern peninsula and Aleutian Islands . The primary drivers of weather in the contiguous United States are the seasonal change in the solar angle , the migration north/south of the subtropical highs , and the seasonal change in the position of the polar jet stream . In the Northern Hemisphere summer the Subtropical high pressure systems move northward and closer to the United States mainland . In the Atlantic Ocean , the `` Bermuda High '' creates a south-southwest flow of warm , humid air over the eastern , southern and central United States - resulting in warm to hot temperatures , high humidity and occasional thunderstorm activity . In the Pacific Ocean high pressure builds toward the California coast resulting in a northwesterly airflow creating the typical sunny , dry , and stable weather conditions along the West Coast . In the Northern Hemisphere winter , the subtropical highs retreat southward . The polar jet stream ( and associated conflict zone between cold , dry air masses from Canada and warm , moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico ) drops further southward into the United States - bringing more precipitation and periods of disturbed weather , as well as colder or mild air masses . Areas in the southern US ( Florida , the Gulf Coast , the Desert Southwest , and southern California ) however , often have more stable weather , as the polar jet stream 's impact does not usually reach that far south . Weather systems , be they high-pressure systems ( anticyclones ) , low-pressure systems ( cyclones ) or fronts ( boundaries between air masses of differing temperature , humidity and most commonly , both ) are faster-moving and more intense in the winter/colder months than in the summer/warmer months , when the belt of lows and storms generally move into southern Canada . The Gulf of Alaska is the origination area of many storms that enter the United States . Such `` North Pacific lows '' enter the US through the Pacific Northwest , then move eastward across the northern Rocky Mountains , northern Great Plains , upper Midwest , Great Lakes and New England states . Across the central states from late fall to spring , `` Panhandle hook '' storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma/Texas panhandle areas , then northeast toward the Great Lakes . They generate unusually large temperature contrasts , and often bring heavy Gulf moisture northward , resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly-heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track , and warm conditions , heavy rains and potentially-severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously . Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward , `` Alberta clipper '' storms track east and bring light to moderate snowfalls from the Great Lakes to New England , and often , windy and severe Arctic outbreaks behind them . When winter-season Canadian cold air masses drop unusually far southward , `` Gulf lows '' can develop in or near the Gulf of Mexico , then track eastward or northeastward across the Southern states , or nearby Gulf or South Atlantic waters . They often bring rain , but on rare occasions can bring ice to areas of the interior southern states . In the cold season ( generally November to March ) , most precipitation occurs in conjunction with organized low-pressure systems and associated fronts . In the summer , storms are much more localized , with short-duration thunderstorms common in many areas east of the 100th meridian . In the warm season , storm systems affecting a large area are less frequent , and weather conditions are more solar -LCB- sun -RCB- controlled , with the greatest chance for thunderstorm and severe weather activity during peak heating hours , mostly between 3 PM and 9 PM local time . From May to August especially , often-overnight mesoscale-convective-system ( MCS ) thunderstorm complexes , usually associated with frontal activity , can deliver significant to flooding rainfall amounts from the Dakotas/Nebraska eastward across Iowa/Minnesota to the Great Lakes states . From late summer into fall ( mostly August to October ) , tropical cyclones sometimes approach or cross the Gulf and Atlantic states , bringing high winds , heavy rainfall , and storm surges ( often topped with battering waves ) to coastal areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 86711\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_cap_climate\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 86602\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Melt-Freeze Crust Content: A Melt-Freeze Crust or Rain Crust is a discontinuity between snow layers which can lead to avalanches . The layer can be created in two ways : A temperature high enough to allow surface snow to melt , creating a layer of melt water which may later re-freeze . Rain falling and freezing on the surface of existing snow , also creating a frozen layer . This layer is brittle , smooth and slippery , and does not bond with snow layers above it , allowing the overlying slab of snow to move down the mountain under gravity when disturbed or if the accumulated snowfall exceeds a critical mass . The initial slab may be as large as 10,000 m ² and 10 metres thick .\",\n \"qid\": \"161\",\n \"docid\": \"Melt-Freeze_Crust\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 86420\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":76,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"We’ve contacted them to ask more details about the size of the Sif."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Source Input Format Content: Source Input Format ( SIF ) defined in MPEG-1 , is a video format that was developed to allow the storage and transmission of digital video . 625/50 SIF format ( PAL/SECAM ) has a resolution of ( 360 or ) 352 x 288 active pixels and a refresh rate of 25 frames per second . 525/59 .94 SIF Format ( NTSC ) has a resolution of ( 360 or ) 352 x 240 active pixels and a refresh rate of 29.97 frames per second . When compared to the CCIR 601 specifications , which defines the appropriate parameters for digital encoding of TV signals , SIF can be seen as being reduced by half in all of height , width , frame-rate , and chrominance . SIF video is known as a constrained parameters bitstream . The computer industry has defined square-pixel SIF to be 320 x 240 ( QVGA ) or 384 x 288 active pixels with a refresh rate of whatever the computer is capable of supporting .","qid":"163","docid":"Source_Input_Format","rank":1,"score":101210},{"content":"Title: Sif Mons Content: Sif Mons is a shield volcano in Eistla Regio on Venus . It has a diameter of 300 km and a height of 2.0 km . It is named after the Norse goddess Sif . Category : Volcanoes of Venus Category : Shield volcanoes","qid":"163","docid":"Sif_Mons","rank":2,"score":94048},{"content":"Title: Hard-clad silica optical fiber Content: Hard-clad silica ( HCS ) or polymer-clad fiber ( PCF ) is an optical fiber with a core of silica glass ( diameter : 200 µm ) and an optical cladding made of special plastic ( diameter : 230 µm ) . In contrast to all-silica fiber , the core and cladding can be separated from each other . Due to their medium bandwidths and transmission rates of less than 100 MBit/s , HCS fibers are suitable for distances of up to 2 km , e.g. in local networks in buildings and industry . Generally , the following applies : The higher the attenuation , the shorter the distance . For comparison , plastic optical fibers ( POF ) have low bandwidths and transmission rates ( typically 100 MBit/s ) . They also have a high attenuation and therefore , the maximum distance is around 100 meters . Glass fibers on the other hand have very high bandwidths and transmission rates of up to GBit/s . The attenuation in glass fibres is much lower , glass fibers can cover distances of more than 10 km . Regarding bandwidth and distances , HCS fibers are situated between POF and multimode or singlemode fibers .","qid":"163","docid":"Hard-clad_silica_optical_fiber","rank":3,"score":92557},{"content":"Title: Jabhatul Islamiya Content: Jabhatul Islamiya ( JABISO ) also known as the Somali Islamic Front ( SIF ) was an Islamist insurgent group in Somalia . The group participated in the 2006-2009 insurgency against Ethiopia and in January 2009 merged with the Asmara based wing of the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia , led by Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys , the Ras Kamboni Brigade , led by Sheikh Hassan Abdullah Hersi al-Turki and a smaller group Mu'askar Anole to form Hizbul Islam which became the second most powerful insurgent group ( after al-Shabaab ) in Somalia which continued fighting the TFG and AMISOM peacekeepers , after Ethiopian withdrawal . On 19 January 2009 , Jabhatul Islamiya fought a battle over the police headquarters of Mogadishu 's Dharkinley district with the Somali government which killed at least 2 people . Jabhatul Islamiya had seized the police station a week earlier but was overpowered and forced to withdraw . Later in the day however they received re-enforcements and managed to re-take control over the police station .","qid":"163","docid":"Jabhatul_Islamiya","rank":4,"score":89134},{"content":"Title: Central European Institute of Philosophy Content: The Central European Institute of Philosophy ( SIF ; Středoevropský Institut Filosofie Mitteleuropäisches Institut für Philosophie ) established in 2010 , is a joint institution of the Charles University Faculty of Humanities and the Czech Republic Academy of Sciences ' Institute of Philosophy . The SIF seeks to follow in the footsteps of Prague 's `` Cercle philosophique , '' which was established by Czech and German professors from the University of Prague in 1934 , but soon disbanded with the German occupation of Czechoslovakia . The Institute promotes philosophical research -- with an emphasis on the phenomenological as well as on trans / interdisciplinary . The Czech Republic , with its tradition of a rather unusual symbiotic alliance of Czech , Jewish , and German intellectuals is an ideal location for the SIF . The country has already birth to various influential movements : The Prague Circle literary school ( Franz Kafka , Max Brod , Felix Weltsch , Franz Werfel , Oscar Baum ) , in art Czech cubism and surrealism along with other disciplines such as empirical criticism ( Ernst Mach ) , phenomenology ( Edmund Husserl ) , and psychoanalysis ( Sigmund Freud ) . As one of its primary objectives , the SIF seeks to map the rich potential of the varied cultural and ethnic influences that shape the present day Czech state . This mapping enables a hypothesis as to the reciprocal influences of not only other European traditions but also non-European and the consequences these might hold for the present and the future . In keeping with this multi-cultural tradition , two directors guide the SIF : a Czech , Karel Novotny and a German , Hans Rainer Sepp . The Institute is composed of a staff of permanent and external members and is also supported by an international scholarly board of 36 professors or institutions representing twenty countries . All strive in close association so that SIF may bring together thinkers and scholars working in a wide range of disciplines concerned with the study of philosophical , historical , critical , and theoretical issues . In addition , SIF also is the home of the book series `` Orbis Phaenomenologicus , '' founded in 1993 and published by Königshausen & Neumann , Würzburg , Germany , as well as the newly established series `` libri nigri . Thinking Across Boundaries '' and `` libri virides . The Young Forum , '' published by Traugott Bautz , Nordhausen , Germany . A research project entitled `` Philosophical Investigations of Body Experiences : Trans-disciplinary Perspectives '' is currently underway at the SIF . In addition to its ongoing research projects , the SIF offers specialized advanced courses in conjunction with the EU Master Program `` German and French Philosophy in the European Context . '' The Institute also organizes and hosts international conferences and is very active in facilitating the publication of established and young scholars alike . To date the SIF has organized three international conferences and edited ten book publications . All of these activities attest to SIF 's commitment to providing a place of intellectual exchange , dialogue , and debate as scholars re-think the methodology and assumptions of their respective disciplines in light of the cultural perspectives and assumptions of others both past and present .","qid":"163","docid":"Central_European_Institute_of_Philosophy","rank":5,"score":88064},{"content":"Title: Schools Interoperability Framework Content: The Schools Interoperability Framework , Systems Interoperability Framework ( UK ) , or SIF , is a data sharing open specification for academic institutions from kindergarten through workforce . This specification is being used primarily in the United States , Canada , the UK , and Australia ; however , it is increasingly being implemented in India , and elsewhere . The specification is composed of two parts : an XML specification for modeling educational data which is specific to the educational locale ( such as North America , Australia or UK ) , and a service-oriented architecture ( SOA ) based on both direct and brokered RESTful-models for sharing that data between institutions , which is international and shared between the locales . SIF is not a product , but an industry initiative that enables diverse applications to interact and share data . By March 2007 , SIF was estimated to have been used in more than 48 US states and 6 countries , supporting five million students . The specification was started and maintained by its specification body , the Schools Interoperability Framework Association , renamed the Access For Learning Community ( A4L ) in 2015 .","qid":"163","docid":"Schools_Interoperability_Framework","rank":6,"score":87436},{"content":"Title: Sif (comics) Content: Sif is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The character is depicted commonly in association with the superhero Thor . Based on the Norse goddess Sif , she was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby and first appeared in Journey Into Mystery # 102 ( March 1964 ) . As an Asgardian warrior and lover of Thor , Sif often accompanies Thor into battle . She has also battled alongside Balder , who has developed an unrequited attraction to her , as she never shows affection for anyone but Thor and certain individuals who have proved worthy to wield his hammer , Mjolnir , such as the noble alien warrior Beta Ray Bill and the mortal Eric Masterson . Sif has appeared in various media adaptations of Thor , including the 2011 Marvel Cinematic Universe film Thor , its 2013 sequel Thor : The Dark World , and the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , in which she is portrayed by Jaimie Alexander .","qid":"163","docid":"Sif_(comics)","rank":7,"score":87276},{"content":"Title: Supreme Indoor Football Content: Supreme Indoor Football ( SIF ) is an indoor football league based in the Southeastern United States . The SIF was originally the creation of the Cape Fear Heroes ownership . During the league 's initial launch in 2015 , it was to be part of the Indoor Football Alliance , which would have also included a revived Continental Indoor Football League and begun play in 2016 . When the CIFL revival never materialized , and the league had difficulties in finding teams to join the league , the Heroes suspended operations , effectively suspending the league as well . The league launched on its second attempt in April 2017 .","qid":"163","docid":"Supreme_Indoor_Football","rank":8,"score":86907},{"content":"Title: Singapore International Foundation Content: The Singapore International Foundation ( SIF ) ( Abbreviation : SIF ; Chinese : 新加坡国际基金会 ; Malay : Yayasan Antarabangsa Singapura ) is a not-for-profit organisation established on August 1 , 1991 .","qid":"163","docid":"Singapore_International_Foundation","rank":9,"score":86801},{"content":"Title: Sif (disambiguation) Content: Sif is a Norse goddess and the wife of Thor . Sif or SIF may also refer to :","qid":"163","docid":"Sif_(disambiguation)","rank":10,"score":86781},{"content":"Title: Sif Content: In Norse mythology , Sif is a goddess associated with earth . Sif is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , and in the poetry of skalds . In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda , Sif is the wife of the thunder god Thor and is known for her golden hair . In the Prose Edda , Sif is named as the mother of the goddess Þrúðr by Thor and of Ullr with a father whose name is not recorded . The Prose Edda also recounts that Sif once had her hair shorn by Loki , and that Thor forced Loki to have a golden headpiece made for Sif , resulting in not only Sif 's golden tresses but also five other objects for other gods . Scholars have proposed that Sif 's hair may represent fields of golden wheat , that she may be associated with fertility , family , wedlock and/or that she is connected to rowan , and that there may be an allusion to her role or possibly her name in the Old English poem Beowulf .","qid":"163","docid":"Sif","rank":11,"score":86150},{"content":"Title: Society for Individual Freedom Content: The Society for Individual Freedom ( SIF ) is a United Kingdom-based association of libertarians , classical liberals , free-market conservatives and others promoting individual freedom . The website of the Society states that `` The Society of Individualists was founded in 1942 , with many of its leaders and supporters , including its first president Sir Ernest Benn , drawn from those associated with the remnant individualist wing of the Liberal Party . In 1944 the Society of Individualists merged with the National League for Freedom , which itself had been formed from those associated with the explicitly anti-socialist wing of the Conservative Party . The Society for Individual Freedom took on its present name in 1947 . '' George Kennedy Young became president sometime after his departure from MI6 in 1961 . Other notable officers include its chairman , Professor Peter Walter Campbell , founder of the Dept of Politics at Reading and founding chairman of the Conservative Group for Homosexual Equality ( CGHE - LBGT ) . Gerald Howarth MP served as the organisations General Secretary from 1969 to 1971 . In 1967 the Young Libertarians , the youth organisation of SIF , broke off to create the Libertarian Alliance . There continues to be an overlap of members and officers between the LA - headed by Dr Sean Gabb - and the SIF . The SIF is independent of all political parties and relies entirely on voluntary subscriptions and donations . The SIF advocates personal freedom and less state control generally ( e.g. it is opposed to censorship and identity cards ) , and a genuinely free enterprise economy including low taxation and no state subsidies to industry . Its membership tends to be strongly Eurosceptic . The SIF is perhaps most notable for its campaign for the institution of the UK 's Parliamentary Ombudsman , beginning in 1959 , and publication , in 1961 , of the first English language book on such institutions , Occasion for Ombudsman : Is a Grievance Man Necessary for Britain ? , by journalist T. E. Utley . The campaign for the Ombudsman system - for an unelected adjudicator to help prevent bureaucratic maladministration - eventually succeeded . In 1967 the Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration was instituted . In 1975 its chairman became John Monson , 11th Baron Monson , a position he kept for the next 35 years . Monson 's most controversial campaign was against compulsory use of seat belts which eventually failed but led to accusations of irresponsibility . In 1994 the SIF published The Power to Destroy , a study of the British tax system , by Professor D. R. Myddelton .","qid":"163","docid":"Society_for_Individual_Freedom","rank":12,"score":85770},{"content":"Title: Specialized investment fund Content: A specialized investment fund or SIF is a lightly regulated and tax-efficient regulatory regime aimed for a broader range of eligible investors . This type of investment fund is governed by the Luxembourg law of 13 February 2007 replacing the law of 1991 defining the legal framework for institutional funds and enlarging the distribution scope to `` well-informed investors '' . The SIF law significantly simplified the rules for setting up investment fund structures ranging from straightforward investment strategies investing in listed securities to hedge funds , real estate and private equity funds . On 12 July 2013 , the SIF regime was amended by the law on alternative investment fund managers ( AIFM law ) . Consequently , the SIF law has been divided into two parts : General provisions applicable to all SIFs ; Specific provisions applicable to SIFs which qualify as Alternative Investment Fund ( AIF ) and which require to be managed by an authorized Alternative Investment Fund Manager ( AIFM ) . Due to the broad definition of AIFs , most SIFs are qualified as SIF AIFs .","qid":"163","docid":"Specialized_investment_fund","rank":13,"score":85724},{"content":"Title: Italian Physical Society Content: The Società Italiana di Fisica ( SIF ) or Italian Physics Society was founded in 1897 and is a non-profit organization whose aim is to promote , encourage , protect the study and the progress of physics in Italy and in the world . It is associated with the journal series Nuovo Cimento . SIF also publishes the academic journals Quaderni di Storia della Fisica and Giornale di Fisica . Some of the Nuovo Cimento journals were merged with European Physical Journal in 1986 and with Europhysics Letters in 1999 . Il Bolletino della Società Italiana di Fisica was published from 1956 to 1984 . In 1984 , it became Il Nuovo Saggiatore ( `` The New Assayer '' ) . The SIF organizes an annual national congress of study at one of the Italian universities . Its other major initiatives are the management of the `` Enrico Fermi '' International School of Physics ( an annual summer school held in Varenna ) , and the organization of conferences on specific topics . There are two types of membership in SIF : regular members ( `` can be effective partners individuals and charities '' ) and honorary members ( `` may be honorary members persons who have attained an eminent position in the physical science '' ) . Franco Bassani ( Scuola Normale di Pisa ) was President of the SIF until 2007 . He is currently chairman . The current president is Luisa Cifarelli ( University of Bologna ) , formerly Vice President .","qid":"163","docid":"Italian_Physical_Society","rank":14,"score":85325},{"content":"Title: Standard Interchange Format Content: Standard Interchange Format , called SIF , is a geospatial data exchange format . A standard or neutral format used to move graphics files between DOD Project 2851 and is currently codified in Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata maintained by the Federal Geographic Data Committee . Unit 69 of the NCGIA Core Corriculum in GIS states that SIF is a `` popular data exchange format for many GIS packages '' and was `` developed to support exchange of data between Intergraph and other systems . '' Navteq uses Standard Interchange Format ( SIF ) Another example of data available in SIF format can be found online from the NASA 's BOREAS project that also claims that the SIF format is `` not well documented . '' Additional criticism of SIF , along with recognition of SIF 's ubiquity and utility for exchanging data , is acknowledged in the online journal article `` Is a Standard Terrain Data Format Necessary ? ''","qid":"163","docid":"Standard_Interchange_Format","rank":15,"score":85207},{"content":"Title: Sif, Yemen Content: Sif , Yemen is a village in eastern Yemen . It is located in the Hadhramaut Governorate .","qid":"163","docid":"Sif,_Yemen","rank":16,"score":85037},{"content":"Title: Syrian Islamic Front Content: The Syrian Islamic Front ( الجبهة الإسلامية السورية al-Jabhah al-Islāmiyya as-Sūriyyah ; abbreviated SIF ) was a Salafist umbrella organisation of Islamist rebel groups fighting the Bashar al-Assad government in Syria during the Syrian Civil War . Its largest group was the Salafist Ahrar ash-Sham , which reportedly `` led '' and `` dominated '' the Front . In November 2013 , the Syrian Islamic Front was dissolved , as the organization was replaced by the Islamic Front .","qid":"163","docid":"Syrian_Islamic_Front","rank":17,"score":85008},{"content":"Title: US SIF Content: US SIF : The Forum for Sustainable and Responsible Investment is a United States-based membership association located in Washington , DC . that promotes environmentally and socially sustainable investment practices . US SIF was formerly known as the Social Investment Forum . It changed its name on June 9 , 2011 .","qid":"163","docid":"US_SIF","rank":18,"score":83497},{"content":"Title: Stavanger IF Fotball Content: Stavanger IF Fotball , the football division of Stavanger Idrettsforening , is a football club from Stavanger , Norway . In Rogaland , they are simply known as Sif , and few people would refer to them as Stavanger . SIF reached the semi finals of the Norwegian Football Cup in 1912 , 1914 , 1929 and 1930 . Its latest stint in the First Division , the second tier of the Norwegian football league system , was in 2009 . The club is currently playing in the Third Division .","qid":"163","docid":"Stavanger_IF_Fotball","rank":19,"score":83277},{"content":"Title: Stavanger IF Content: Stavanger Idrettsforening ( SIF ) was founded in 1905 . SIF has both a football and a handball division .","qid":"163","docid":"Stavanger_IF","rank":20,"score":82941},{"content":"Title: State Secretariat for International Financial Matters Content: The State Secretariat for International Financial Matters ( SIF ; French : Secrétariat d'État aux questions financières internationales , German Staatssekretariat für internationale Finanzfragen , Italian Segreteria di Stato per le questioni finanziarie internazionali , Romansh Secretariat da stadi per dumondas finanzialas internaziunalas ) is an administrative unit of the Swiss Confederation . It is an office of the federal administration of Switzerland under the responsibility of the Federal Department of Finance , and was established on 1 March 2010 .","qid":"163","docid":"State_Secretariat_for_International_Financial_Matters","rank":21,"score":82688},{"content":"Title: 15 cm sIG 33 (Sf) auf Panzerkampfwagen I Ausf B Content: The 15 cm sIG 33 ( Sf ) auf Panzerkampfwagen I Ausf B ( sometimes referred to as the Sturmpanzer I Bison ) was a German self-propelled heavy infantry gun used during World War II .","qid":"163","docid":"15_cm_sIG_33_(Sf)_auf_Panzerkampfwagen_I_Ausf_B","rank":22,"score":81223},{"content":"Title: St. Ignatius Institute Content: The Saint Ignatius Institute ( SII ) is an undergraduate program at the University of San Francisco ( USF ) , a private university operated by the California Province of the Society of Jesus ( Jesuit Order ) in San Francisco , California . The SII offers a four-year , Great Books program as an alternative method for USF students to fulfill core cirriculum requirements for an undergraduate degree . In the twenty five years after its inception in 1976 , the SII granted its Certificate of Liberal Arts to approximately 1,000 students . During these years the SII generated both controversy and accolades due to its greater advocacy for Catholic doctrine within a diverse , more liberal Jesuit institution .","qid":"163","docid":"St._Ignatius_Institute","rank":23,"score":80643},{"content":"Title: Small intensely fluorescent cell Content: Small intensely fluorescent cells ( SIF cells ) are the interneurons of the sympathetic ganglia ( postganglionic neurons ) of the Sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system ( ANS ) . The neurotransmitter for these cells is dopamine . They are a neural crest derivative and share a common sympathoadrenal precursor cell with sympathetic neurons and chromaffin cells ( adrenal medulla ) . Category : Cell biology","qid":"163","docid":"Small_intensely_fluorescent_cell","rank":24,"score":80628},{"content":"Title: Silkeborg IF Content: Silkeborg IF ( Full name : Silkeborg Idrætsforening , or SIF in short ) is a professional Danish football club in Silkeborg , Denmark . The club was founded in 1917 , reached the highest level of Danish football in 1987 , and was during the 1990s one of the most successful football clubs in Denmark , finishing in first place in the league in 1993 -- 94 , third place in 1994 -- 95 , second place in 1997 -- 98 as well as a Danish Cup victory in 2001 . Silkeborg has participated in European games several times , and won the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 1996 .","qid":"163","docid":"Silkeborg_IF","rank":25,"score":79481},{"content":"Title: Short Interframe Space Content: Short Interframe Space ( SIFS ) , is the amount of time in microseconds required for a wireless interface to process a received frame and to respond with a response frame . It is the difference in time between the first symbol of the response frame in the air and the last symbol of the received frame in the air . A SIFS time consists of the delay in receiver RF , PLCP delay and the MAC processing delay , which depends on the physical layer used . In IEEE 802.11 networks , SIFS is the interframe spacing prior to transmission of an acknowledgment , a Clear To Send ( CTS ) frame , a block ack frame that is an immediate response to either a block ack request frame or an A-MPDU , the second or subsequent MPDU of a fragment burst , a station responding to any polling a by point coordination function and during contention free periods of point coordination function .","qid":"163","docid":"Short_Interframe_Space","rank":26,"score":79406},{"content":"Title: Shropshire Islamic Foundation Content: The Shropshire Islamic Foundation ( SIF ) is located in the English county of Shropshire . The Foundation owns , operates from , and manages the ` Telford Islamic Academy ' , at 88 -- 90 King Street , Wellington , Telford and the ` Telford Central Mosque ' at 41 Tan Bank , Wellington , Telford . The Mosque , as a majority , operates under the Hanafi school of law and is a Sunni mosque providing Islamic education to children of all ages . This is the main mosque in Shropshire and has a community consisting of Pakistanis , Afghans , Bangladeshis , Indians , Turks , Africans and Middle Easterners all praying together . The Foundation is a registered charity -- registration number 1112127 , with the trustees being Dr. Mohammed Mujahid Hussain Qureshi -- Chairman of trustees , Mr. Shah Sawar Bhatti and Dr. Shaukat Ali Shropshire has only one other far smaller Mosque , the Jamia Masjid Gousia , aka the ` Regent Street Mosque ' , a Sufi -- Barelvi themed Mosque in Wellington .","qid":"163","docid":"Shropshire_Islamic_Foundation","rank":27,"score":79093},{"content":"Title: Seychelles Islands Foundation Content: Seychelles Islands Foundation ( SIF ) manages and protects the World Heritage Sites of Aldabra and Vallee de Mai . The foundation was established as a public trust in 1979 , with the President of Seychelles as patron . The Board of trustees , appointed by the President , has 14 members , including not less than five representing organizations concerned with the conservation of wildlife and natural history or national academics of science . Aldabra and Vallee de Mai are both unique , and represent the rich natural heritage of Seychelles . At these sites SIF conserves : The world 's largest raised coral atoll . The world 's largest giant tortoise population . Some of the world 's most spectacular seabird colonies . The largest intact coco de mer forest and many other endemic trees , plants and animals . Unique birds , including the last surviving flightless bird of the Indian Ocean , the Aldabra rail , and the endangered Seychelles black parrot . Category : Conservation in Seychelles","qid":"163","docid":"Seychelles_Islands_Foundation","rank":28,"score":79000},{"content":"Title: Oculomotor apraxia Content: Oculomotor apraxia ( OMA ) , also known as Cogan ocular motor apraxia or saccadic initiation failure ( SIF ) is the absence or defect of controlled , voluntary , and purposeful eye movement . It was first described in 1952 by the American ophthalmologist David Glendenning Cogan . People with this condition have difficulty moving their eyes horizontally and moving them quickly . The main difficulty is in saccade initiation , but there is also impaired cancellation of the vestibulo-ocular reflex . Patients have to turn their head in order to compensate for the lack of eye movement initiation in order to follow an object or see objects in their peripheral vision , but they often exceed their target . There is controversy regarding whether OMA should be considered an apraxia , since apraxia is the inability to perform a learned or skilled motor action to command , and saccade initiation is neither a learned nor a skilled action .","qid":"163","docid":"Oculomotor_apraxia","rank":29,"score":78900},{"content":"Title: Swedish Union of Clerical and Technical Employees in Industry Content: The Swedish Union of Clerical and Technical Employees in Industry ( Sif , formerly Svenska Industritjänstemannaförbundet ) was the largest trade union for white-collar workers in Sweden . In 2008 , it merged with HTF to form Unionen . Founded in 1920 , it stated its primary goal as being `` to guarantee a good working life for its members '' . A main priority was taking part in the collective bargaining process . Workplace health and safety issues , competence and career issues were other major concerns . The organization also played an active part lobbying politicians in the interest of its members . The 350 000 members worked in the private sector , in companies that operated in areas including IT , telecom , construction , manufacturing and research and development . A small number was self-employed . Membership was also open to students . Around 40 percent of the members were women , as was the current President , Mari-Ann Krantz who after the fusion with HTF became the first President of Unionen . The organization was not only one of the largest labour unions in Sweden , it was also one of the wealthiest . It had funds worth several hundred million dollars , allowing the union to set aside substantial money for large ad campaigns with the object of recruiting new members . The organization had in the end of its existence 20 Regional Divisions with 23 local offices around Sweden and approximately 2.500 local union branches in the workplaces . About half the members did not belong to a local branch but could turn to a workplace representative acting as a point of contact and a channel for information . The highest decision-making body was the Congress , held every four years . It consisted of 180 elected representatives from the workplaces . The Congress elected the 11 representatives of the Sif Executive . The Swedish Union of Clerical and Technical Employees in Industry maintained independence from party politics . The organization was an affiliate of the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employees . It was also a member of several international industrial federations , such as Union Network International , a federation of unions in the IT , telecom , media & entertainment and graphics sector .","qid":"163","docid":"Swedish_Union_of_Clerical_and_Technical_Employees_in_Industry","rank":30,"score":78865},{"content":"Title: General number field sieve Content: In number theory , the general number field sieve ( GNFS ) is the most efficient classical algorithm known for factoring integers larger than . Heuristically , its complexity for factoring an integer ( consisting of bits ) is of the form ( in L-notation ) , where is the natural logarithm . It is a generalization of the special number field sieve : while the latter can only factor numbers of a certain special form , the general number field sieve can factor any number apart from prime powers ( which are trivial to factor by taking roots ) . When the term number field sieve ( NFS ) is used without qualification , it refers to the general number field sieve . The principle of the number field sieve ( both special and general ) can be understood as an improvement to the simpler rational sieve or quadratic sieve . When using such algorithms to factor a large number , it is necessary to search for smooth numbers ( i.e. numbers with small prime factors ) of order . The size of these values is exponential in the size of ( see below ) . The general number field sieve , on the other hand , manages to search for smooth numbers that are subexponential in the size of . Since these numbers are smaller , they are more likely to be smooth than the numbers inspected in previous algorithms . This is the key to the efficiency of the number field sieve . In order to achieve this speed-up , the number field sieve has to perform computations and factorizations in number fields . This results in many rather complicated aspects of the algorithm , as compared to the simpler rational sieve . Note that is the number of bits in the binary representation of , that is the size of the input to the algorithm , so any element of the order for a constant is exponential in . The running time of the number field sieve is super-polynomial but sub-exponential in the size of the input .","qid":"163","docid":"General_number_field_sieve","rank":31,"score":78588},{"content":"Title: SIASUN UAV Content: SIASUN UAV is a Chinese UAV developed by Shenyang SIASUN Robot & Automation Co. Ltd. ( SIASUN , 新松机器人自动化股份有限公司 ) . The development of SIASUN is the direct result of 2008 Chinese winter storms , which resulted in massive power outage in China . The weather conditions prevent the conventional manual inspection of powerlines carried out by foot because access was severely limited , and as a result , SIASUN developed an UAV specially designed to carry out aerial inspection of powerlines under severe conditions such as thunderstorm , heavy rain and heavy electro-magnetic interference . SIASUN UAV is an unmanned helicopter of conventional helicopter layout with Fenestron design . Specification : Length : 3.84 m Width : 0.96 m Height : 1.26 m Rotor diameter : 3.29 m Weight : 120 kg Payload : 30 kg Power plant : 32 hp petro engine Endurance : 1 1/2 hr Speed : 100 km/hr Ceiling : 3 km Max wind scale allowed for operation : 6","qid":"163","docid":"SIASUN_UAV","rank":32,"score":78481},{"content":"Title: Sikkim Democratic Front Content: Sikkim Democratic Front ( SDF ) is a regional political party in the North East Indian state of Sikkim .","qid":"163","docid":"Sikkim_Democratic_Front","rank":33,"score":78064},{"content":"Title: Sif Aradóttir Content: Sif Aradóttir ( born c. 1985 ) was Ungfrú Ísland or Miss Iceland in 2006 . She is from Keflavík . At the time of her crowning as Iceland 's national beauty queen , which was televised live on Icelandic Television , Sif was a student training to be an air traffic controller . Organizers of the national contest decided to send Sif to compete in Miss Universe 2006 ( to be held in Los Angeles , California on 23 July ) after a three-year unexplained absence . This also marked the first time in three years that the winner was not sent to Miss Universe 's rival pageant Miss World , which was won by Iceland 's own Unnur Birna Vilhjálmsdóttir in 2005 . Sif 's runner-up , Ásdís Svava , was Iceland 's representative at Miss World 2006 .","qid":"163","docid":"Sif_Aradóttir","rank":34,"score":77849},{"content":"Title: Sizing Content: Sizing or size is any one of numerous substances that is applied to , or incorporated into , other materials -- especially papers and textiles -- to act as a protective filler or glaze . Sizing is used in papermaking and textile manufacturing to change the absorption and wear characteristics of those materials . Sizing is used for oil-based surface preparation for gilding ( also known as mordant in this context ) . It is used by painters and artists to prepare paper and textile surfaces for some art techniques . The term `` sizing '' also refers to the process of including or applying the substance .","qid":"163","docid":"Sizing","rank":35,"score":77636},{"content":"Title: Sialkot Trading Floor Content: Sialkot Trading Floor ( STF ) is one of the two branch offices of Lahore Stock Exchange ( LSE ) in order expand its boundaries and make ease of its access in major cites of country . Acting as a part of LSE , STF is going forward day by day to achieve aims , goals and aspirations of its ancestor . It is located in the building of Sialkot Chamber of Commerce & Industry in Sialkot . All of the brokerage houses whether active or nonnative at STF are registered houses in LSE as well as these houses are governed by Security Exchange Commission of Pakistan ( SECP ) .","qid":"163","docid":"Sialkot_Trading_Floor","rank":36,"score":76756},{"content":"Title: Society for Individual Liberty Content: Society for Individual Liberty ( SIL ) was founded in1969 by Don Ernsberger and Dave Walter , who became its directors , after libertarian activists were expelled or later defected from Young Americans for Freedom ( YAF ) during and after their 1969 convention in St. Louis , Missouri . The founding of SIL is considered the defining moment that witnessed the `` birth of an autonomous libertarian movement . '' Purged or disillusioned YAF chapters and members withdrew from YAF and joined SIL which claimed to have 3,000 members that had grown to 103 campus chapters in the United States , `` two in Canada and one each in Sweden , India and Australia '' by 1970 . In 1989 SIL merged with Libertarian International under leadership of Vincent Miller , who assumed the position of president , changing the name of the organization to the International Society for Individual Liberty ( ISIL ) which had members in over 80 nations and hosted annual educational conference across the globe . ISIL acquired ownership of Laissez Faire Books ( LFB ) in November 2007 . In 2016 , ISIL was reorganized and renamed Liberty International with Jim Elwood serving as its executive director .","qid":"163","docid":"Society_for_Individual_Liberty","rank":37,"score":76197},{"content":"Title: SIF Stadion Content: SIF Stadion is a sports venue located in Stavanger , Norway . It is the home ground of Stavanger IF Fotball . Category : Football venues in Norway Category : Sports venues in Stavanger","qid":"163","docid":"SIF_Stadion","rank":38,"score":75688},{"content":"Title: Missile launch facility Content: A missile launch facility , also known as an underground missile silo , launch facility ( LF ) , or nuclear silo , is a vertical cylindrical structure constructed underground , for the storage and launching of intercontinental ballistic missiles ( ICBMs ) . The structures typically have the missile some distance below ground , protected by a large `` blast door '' on top . They are usually connected , physically and/or electronically , to a missile launch control center .","qid":"163","docid":"Missile_launch_facility","rank":39,"score":75260},{"content":"Title: SIG Sauer P239 Content: The SIG Sauer P239 is a semi-automatic pistol designed and manufactured by SIG Sauer , GMBH and SIG Sauer , Exeter , NH . It is offered in three calibers : 9 × 19mm Parabellum , .357 SIG and .40 S&W . With an overall length of 168 mm ( 6.6 in ) and height of 132 mm ( 5.2 in ) , and weighing approximately 710 -- 770 g ( 25 -- 27 oz ) empty ( depending on caliber ) , the P239 has become popular in the United States as a concealed carry pistol . Normal magazine capacity is 8 rounds ( 9 × 19mm ) or 7 rounds ( .357 SIG or .40 S&W ) .","qid":"163","docid":"SIG_Sauer_P239","rank":40,"score":75163},{"content":"Title: Sif Atladóttir Content: Sif Atladóttir ( born 15 July 1985 ) is an Icelandic footballer who plays for Damallsvenskan club Kristianstads DFF and the Iceland women 's national team .","qid":"163","docid":"Sif_Atladóttir","rank":41,"score":75111},{"content":"Title: 6.45×48mm XPL Swiss Content: 6.45 x48mm XPL Swiss ( or 6.45 x48 GP 80 ) is an experimental intermediate rifle cartridge that was developed in conjunction with the SIG SG 550 rifle as a potential successor to the 7.5 × 55mm Schmidt -- Rubin cartridge . The rimless cartridge has a base diameter of 11.82 mm ( similar to the 7.62 × 51mm NATO ) and a case length of 47.72 mm . The bullet is an unusual 6.65 mm diameter ( 6.45 mm refers to the bore diameter ) , fractionally smaller than the common 6.5 mm ( bore diameter ) bullet . The 6.3 g bullet was fired at a muzzle velocity of 900 m/s with 2,550 J of muzzle energy . The cartridge was not adopted , the SIG SG-550 went into production with the 5.6 × 45mm GP 90 round .","qid":"163","docid":"6.45×48mm_XPL_Swiss","rank":42,"score":74805},{"content":"Title: Poor Little Sif Content: Poor Little Sif ( German : Arme kleine Sif ) is a 1927 German silent comedy film directed by Arthur Bergen and starring Paul Wegener , Adele Sandrock and Jakob Tiedtke . It was made at the Emelka Studios in Munich . The film 's art direction was by Botho Hoefer and August Rinaldi .","qid":"163","docid":"Poor_Little_Sif","rank":43,"score":74540},{"content":"Title: Independent Socialists (France) Content: The Independent Socialists ( Socialistes indépendants , SI ) were a French political movement and , at times , parliamentary group in the Chamber of Deputies of France during the French Third Republic . The movement was strong from 1880 till the fall of the Republic in 1940 . At first , the Independent Socialists were a diverse set of socialists who refused to affiliate with an organized party . Indeed , before the creation of the French Section of the Workers ' International ( SFIO ) in 1905 , French socialism was divided between the French Socialist Party ( PSF ) , the Socialist Party of France ( PSdF ) and the French Workers ' Party ( POF ) . Later , the name was applied to parliamentarians and local politicians who believed they held their legitimacy from voters and thus refused to follow the instructions of party leaders . Indeed , the SFIO , the main socialist party , had a strong party organization , something relatively unique in the Third Republic . In the end , following the creation of the SFIO , the name was used to refer to those who did not wish to join the SFIO . A number of those people later joined the Republican-Socialist Party ( PRS ) .","qid":"163","docid":"Independent_Socialists_(France)","rank":44,"score":74513},{"content":"Title: Daniel Kelly (actor) Content: Daniel Kelly ( born May 25 , 1992 ) , also known by his stage names Deph Naught and Sif , is a Canadian actor and rapper , most commonly known for his role on the long-running TV series Degrassi : The Next Generation .","qid":"163","docid":"Daniel_Kelly_(actor)","rank":45,"score":74386},{"content":"Title: Siangham Content: A siangham ( or siangkam ) is an imaginary melee weapon in the Dungeons & Dragons and Pathfinder tabletop role-playing games . It is a narrow , cylindrical thrusting weapon , typically about 1.5 feet ( 46 cm ) long . Its appearance is similar to an arrow , but with a handle on the end . While normally used for thrusting attacks , it can be used to slash or parry . The siangham came from Malaysia , where it is used in a fighting style called Kuntao . It is similar to the emeici , a piercing Chinese weapon .","qid":"163","docid":"Siangham","rank":46,"score":74206},{"content":"Title: Sif Vaya, Arizona Content: Sif Vaya is a populated place situated in Pinal County , Arizona . Over the years it has also been known as Bitter Well , Bitter Wells , Bitters Well , and Sivvaxia . Sif Vaya , which means bitter well in O'odham , became the official name as a result of a decision by the Board on Geographic Names in 1941 . It has an estimated elevation of 1965 ft above sea level .","qid":"163","docid":"Sif_Vaya,_Arizona","rank":47,"score":74189},{"content":"Title: Borneo Cultural Festival Content: Borneo Cultural Festival or simplified as BCF is the annual festival of food and music which is held in Sibu , Sarawak on every July -- August every year since 2003 . The festival is organised by the Sibu Municipal Council . The main scope of BCF is to gather the community of Sarawak mainly in Sibu which is generally came from different ethnic and background , serving the society with a multicultural dance , music and traditional food . It 's one of the biggest traditional and yet prestiged festival event in Sibu , Sarawak .","qid":"163","docid":"Borneo_Cultural_Festival","rank":48,"score":74163},{"content":"Title: 1170 Siva Content: 1170 Siva , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and large Mars-crosser from the innermost regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 10 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 29 September 1930 , by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte at Uccle Observatory in Belgium , and later named after the Hindu deity Shiva .","qid":"163","docid":"1170_Siva","rank":49,"score":73994},{"content":"Title: Von der Decken's sifaka Content: Von der Decken 's sifaka ( Propithecus deckenii ) is a sifaka endemic to Madagascar . It has a length of 92 to 107 centimeters , of which 42-48 centimeters are tail . Von der Decken 's Sifaka lives in western Madagascar . It lives in dry deciduous forest . Its pelage is usually creamy white , with tinges of yellow-gold , silver grey or pale brown on the neck , shoulders , back and limbs . The face is entirely black . Group size is between 2 and 10 individuals , with groups of 3 to 6 most common .","qid":"163","docid":"Von_der_Decken's_sifaka","rank":50,"score":73789},{"content":"Title: SÍF Sandavágur Content: SÍF Sandavágur is a Faroese Football club based in Sandavágur on the island of Vágar .","qid":"163","docid":"SÍF_Sandavágur","rank":51,"score":73788},{"content":"Title: SIG SG 540 Content: The SG 540 is a 5.56 × 45mm NATO assault rifle developed in the early 1970s by Schweizerische Industrie Gesellschaft ( SIG , currently SAN Swiss Arms AG ) based out of Neuhausen , Switzerland as a private venture primarily destined for export markets and as a potential replacement for the 7.5 × 55mm Swiss SG 510 automatic rifle known as the Stgw 57 in Swiss service .","qid":"163","docid":"SIG_SG_540","rank":52,"score":73702},{"content":"Title: Hennef (Sieg) Content: Hennef ( Sieg ) is a town in the Rhein-Sieg district of North Rhine-Westphalia , Germany . It is situated on the river Sieg , approx . 7 km south-east of Siegburg and 15 km east of Bonn . Hennef is the fourth-biggest town in the Rhein-Sieg-Kreis ( i.e. district ) . It is the site of the 15th-century castle , Schloss Allner , next to the Allner See .","qid":"163","docid":"Hennef_(Sieg)","rank":53,"score":73593},{"content":"Title: Sif El Menadi Content: Sif El Menadi is a village in the commune of Reguiba , in Reguiba District , El Oued Province , Algeria . The village is located 7 km southwest of the N48 highway .","qid":"163","docid":"Sif_El_Menadi","rank":54,"score":73492},{"content":"Title: Crowned sifaka Content: The crowned sifaka ( Propithecus coronatus ) is a sifaka endemic to western Madagascar . It is of comparable size to the Golden-crowned sifaka and up to a meter in length , of which 47-57 centimeters are tail . The species is an arboreal vertical climber and leaper whose diet consists of leaves , fruits and flowers . It is threatened by habitat destruction and currently classified as Endangered by the IUCN .","qid":"163","docid":"Crowned_sifaka","rank":55,"score":73484},{"content":"Title: Common Power Format Content: The Si2 Common Power Format , or CPF is a file format for specifying power-saving techniques early in the design process . In the design of integrated circuits , saving power is a primary goal , and designers are forced to use sophisticated techniques such as clock gating , multi-voltage logic , and turning off the power entirely to inactive blocks . These techniques require a consistent implementation in the design steps of logic design , implementation , and verification . For example , if multiple different power supplies are used , then logic synthesis must insert level shifters , place and route must deal with them correctly , and other tools such as static timing analysis and formal verification must understand these components . As power became an increasingly pressing concern , each tool independently added the features needed . Although this made it possible to build low power flows , it was difficult and error prone since the same information needed to be specified several times , in several formats , to many different tools . CPF was created as a common format that many tools can use to specify power-specific data , so that power intent only need be entered once and can be used consistently by all tools . The aim of CPF is to support an automated , power-aware design infrastructure . Associated with CPF is the Power Forward Initiative ( PFI ) , a group of companies that collaborate to drive low-power design methodology and have contributed to the development of the CPF v1 .0 specification . PFI membership spans EDA , IP , library , foundry fabs , ASIC , IDM , and equipment companies . In March 2007 , CPF v1 .0 was contributed to the Silicon Integration Initiative ( Si2 ) where it was ratified by Si2 's Low Power Coalition ( LPC ) as a Si2 standard . The LPC controls the ongoing evolution of the CPF v1 .0 standard .","qid":"163","docid":"Common_Power_Format","rank":56,"score":73464},{"content":"Title: Safety integrity level Content: Safety integrity level ( SIL ) is defined as a relative level of risk-reduction provided by a safety function , or to specify a target level of risk reduction . In simple terms , SIL is a measurement of performance required for a safety instrumented function ( SIF ) . The requirements for a given SIL are not consistent among all of the functional safety standards . In the functional safety standards based on the IEC 61508 standard , four SILs are defined , with SIL 4 the most dependable and SIL 1 the least . A SIL is determined based on a number of quantitative factors in combination with qualitative factors such as development process and safety life cycle management .","qid":"163","docid":"Safety_integrity_level","rank":57,"score":72801},{"content":"Title: Sigraf Content: Sigraf ( also Sighraf , Sighrafr , fl . c. 1175 -- 1210 ) was a Romanesque stone sculptor , working on Gotland . He was mainly active as a sculptor of baptismal fonts , but also of reliquaries , carved pillars and reliefs . He was the most productive of several early medieval stone sculptors making baptismal fonts on Gotland .","qid":"163","docid":"Sigraf","rank":58,"score":72759},{"content":"Title: Supplemental instruction Content: Supplemental Instruction ( SI ) is an academic support model developed by Dr. Deanna Martin at the University of Missouri -- Kansas City ( UMKC ) in 1973 that uses peer-assisted study sessions to improve student retention and success within targeted historically difficult courses . The SI program provides peer support by having students who succeeded in traditionally difficult academic courses ( e.g. , Organic Chemistry , Biology 101 , Logic ) help other students complete these courses . SI is a non-remedial approach that provides regular review sessions outside of class in which students work collaboratively by discussing readings , comparing notes , working together to predict test items , and sharing ideas for improving class material . Courses selected for SI tend to be `` gatekeeper '' courses for first and second year students -- generally those classes that have a 30 % or higher proportion of students who receive a `` D '' , fail , or withdraw ( the DFW rate ) from the course . Out-of-class review sessions are led by `` SI leaders , '' students who took the class already and did well . SI leaders attend all class lectures , take notes , and act as models to those currently taking the course . The SI model is used for selected courses at the undergraduate , graduate , and professional school levels , and has been adopted by colleges and universities in the United States and internationally .","qid":"163","docid":"Supplemental_instruction","rank":59,"score":72555},{"content":"Title: Siyah Qalam Content: The Siyah Qalam or Siāh-Qalam ( سیاه قَلَم , Siyah Kalem , meaning `` Black Pen '' ) comprise around 80 extant late 14th and early 15th century miniature folios and ink drawings ( qalam-siāhi ) , paintings and calligraphies , on various material , often silk . Measuring up to 335 x 485 cm , they are generally attributed to several hands , probably Iranian , and bear the strong influence of Chinese art and techniques . In tone and theme , the images are a highpoint of Persian draughtsmanship and include works from the Mozaffarid , Jalāyerid and Turkmen periods . They are sometimes attributed to the notname Muhammad Siyah Qalam ; equivalent in English to the Master of the Black Pen . The figures span a variety of cultures : Iranian , Palestinian , Turkish , Chinese , Mongolian , and Indian , and date to the century after reign of the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur . Notable for their intrinsic quality , they contain depictions of diabolic imagery , everyday nomadic life , and contemporary culture 's relationship with the dead . They are held at the Topkapi Saray Library , Istanbul ; parts of the larger Diez Albums of the Berlin State Library are closely related .","qid":"163","docid":"Siyah_Qalam","rank":60,"score":72530},{"content":"Title: Hennef (Sieg) station Content: Hennef ( Sieg ) station is located on the Sieg Railway in the town of Hennef ( Sieg ) in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia . It was opened in 1859 for passenger and freight traffic by the Cologne-Minden Railway Company along with the Sieg Railway .","qid":"163","docid":"Hennef_(Sieg)_station","rank":61,"score":72442},{"content":"Title: Archaeological Museum of Sifnos Content: The Archaeological Museum of Sifnos is a museum , in the village of Kastro on Sifnos ( the capital of the island since the Archaic period until 1836 ) , in Greece . Its collections include exhibits dating from the early Bronze Age to the late Byzantine period . There are mostly local finds . The building of the museum belongs to the medieval nucleus of the Kastro . It was restored by the Greek Ministry of Culture and opened to the public in 1986 .","qid":"163","docid":"Archaeological_Museum_of_Sifnos","rank":62,"score":72360},{"content":"Title: Swiss Ice Hockey Federation Content: The Swiss Ice Hockey Federation ( SIHF ) ( Schweizerischer Eishockeyverband ( SEHV ) , Ligue Suisse de Hockey sur Glace ( LSHG ) , Federazione Svizzera di hockey su ghiaccio ) is the governing body of ice hockey in Switzerland , as recognized by the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) . It was founded in 1908 and is a founding member of the IIHF . It manages both the amateur and professional games in Switzerland , as well as the national teams on junior and senior levels .","qid":"163","docid":"Swiss_Ice_Hockey_Federation","rank":63,"score":72249},{"content":"Title: Stocksunds IF Content: Stocksunds Idrottsförening , Stocksunds IF , SIF , is a Swedish sportsclub in Stocksund , just north of Stockholm . The club was founded on 3 January 1935 and at present it has sections for ice hockey , association football , figure skating and floorball . The colours of the club are yellow and black and the team logo displays the Cedergren Tower , a well-known landmark in and around Stocksund . At present , Stocksunds IF does not compete in the elite leagues in any sport but has a broad activity for youths . Ice hockey player Tommy Albelin played for Stocksunds IF when he was in his teens . Category : Sports teams in Sweden Category : Ice hockey teams in Sweden","qid":"163","docid":"Stocksunds_IF","rank":64,"score":71964},{"content":"Title: Siva (rebreather) Content: Siva is a model series of frogman 's rebreather made by Carleton Life Support originally made by Fullerton Sherwood Engineering Ltd. . They are : Siva S10 oxygen rebreather , dive duration 4 hours . Worn on the front of the chest . Siva S24 , usable as oxygen rebreather , or as a semi-closed circuit mixed gas rebreather with maximum depth normally 24 metres , can be set to 55 metres . Worn on the front of the chest . SIVA-55 ( technical data , images ) and SIVA PLUS : superseded by the Carleton Viper . They are worn on the back . The Siva 55 is equipped with 2 200 bar ( Inconel ) spheres with a total volume of 5.6 litres . The Siva 55 ( 55 metres of depth ) also known as ( CCDA ) Canadian Clearance Diving Apparatus works with any one of 3 Nitrox mixes ( 32.5 , 40 and 60 % Oxygen ) or pure oxygen . The pure oxygen is used for closed circuit diving so the diver can work without bubbles . The other Nato standard B , C and D mix are standard nitrox mixes used in semiclosed-circuit mode .","qid":"163","docid":"Siva_(rebreather)","rank":65,"score":71944},{"content":"Title: Siarnaq Content: Siarnaq ( -LSB- ˈsiːɑrnɑːk -RSB- ) , or Saturn XXIX , is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn . It was discovered by Brett J. Gladman , et al. in 2000 , and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 3 . Named after the giant Siarnaq of Inuit mythology , it is the largest member of the Inuit group of irregular satellites . Siarnaq is thought to be about 40 kilometers in diameter . It orbits Saturn at an average distance of 17.5 Gm in 895 days . The rotation period was measured by the Cassini spacecraft to approximately 10 hours and 9 minutes ; this is the shortest rotation period of all prograde irregular moons of Saturn . It is light red in color , and the Siarnaupian ( Siarnaqan ) spectrum in the infrared is very similar to the Inuit-group satellites Paaliaq and Kiviuq , supporting the thesis of a possible common origin in the break-up of a larger body . Siarnaq has been found to be in a secular resonance with Saturn , involving the precession of its periapsis and that of the planet .1 The studies of these resonances are key to understand the capture mechanism for the irregular satellites and , assuming a common origin of a given dynamical group in the break-up of a single body , to explain today 's dispersion of the orbital elements . 1The ecliptic longitudes of the periapsis of the satellite and the planet are locked .","qid":"163","docid":"Siarnaq","rank":66,"score":71934},{"content":"Title: Silodosin Content: Silodosin ( trade names Rapaflo ( USA ) , Silodyx ( Europe and South Africa ) , Rapilif ( India ) , Silodal ( India ) , Urief ( Japan ) , Thrupas ( South Korea ) , Urorec ( Russia ) ) is a medication for the symptomatic treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia . It acts as an α1-adrenoceptor antagonist with high uroselectivity ( selectivity for the prostate ) .","qid":"163","docid":"Silodosin","rank":67,"score":71916},{"content":"Title: 11066 Sigurd Content: 11066 Sigurd , provisional designation , is a stony , rare-type asteroid and elongated contact binary , classified as near-Earth object of the Apollo group of asteroids , approximately 2.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 9 February 1992 , by American astronomer couple Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker at Palomar Observatory , California , and named after Sigurd , a hero from Norse mythology .","qid":"163","docid":"11066_Sigurd","rank":68,"score":71705},{"content":"Title: Sí se puede Content: Sí , se puede ( Spanish for `` Yes , it is possible '' or , roughly , `` Yes , one can '' ; -LSB- ˈsi se ˈpwe.ðe -RSB- ) is the motto of the United Farm Workers . In 1972 , during Cesar Chavez 's 25-day fast in Phoenix , Arizona , UFW 's co-founder , Dolores Huerta , came up with the slogan . The phrase has been widely adopted by other labor unions and civil rights organizations and drew widespread political and media attention as a rallying cry during the U.S. immigration reform protests , and was also used in the 2002 Disney film Got ta Kick It Up ! The saying Sí Se Puede has long been a UFW guiding principle that has served to inspire accomplishment of goals even in what at times may seem insurmountable situations . Sí Se Puede is a federally Registered Trademark of the UFW so the UFW can maintain the original meaning of this saying .","qid":"163","docid":"Sí_se_puede","rank":69,"score":71606},{"content":"Title: Sibu (crater) Content: Sibu crater is an impact crater lying situated within the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle ( MC-19 ) region on the surface of the planet Mars , located in the Valles Marineris hemisphere in an area southeast of the Jones crater . It is located at and is 17.63 kilometres in diameter . It was named after the town of Sibu in Sarawak , Malaysia in 1976 .","qid":"163","docid":"Sibu_(crater)","rank":70,"score":71587},{"content":"Title: Interamerican Society of Cardiology Content: The Interamerican Society of Cardiology ( SIAC for its Spanish acronym ) is a nongovernmental association formed by the National Societies of Cardiology of the American Continent . The Interamerican Society of Cardiology , together with the European Society of Cardiology , founded in 1950 , the Asian Pacific Society of Cardiology , founded in 1956 , and the African Society of Cardiology founded in 1981 are the four Intercontinental Professional Societies of Cardiology of the World Heart Federation ( WHF for its acronym in English ) .","qid":"163","docid":"Interamerican_Society_of_Cardiology","rank":71,"score":71538},{"content":"Title: Israel Sieff, Baron Sieff Content: Israel Moses Sieff , Baron Sieff ( 4 May 1889 , Prestwich , Lancashire -- 14 February 1972 , Marylebone , London ) was an English businessman and Zionist . He was born in Manchester , where his father , a migrant from Lithuania , founded a prosperous business . Sieff was the son of Ephraim Sieff . He was educated at Manchester Grammar School and Manchester University . One of the theatres at Manchester Grammar School is named in his honour . In 1918 , Sieff was a member of the Zionist Commission which visited Palestine under the leadership of Chaim Weizmann . Sieff was president of the Political and Economic Planning think-tank from its foundation in 1931 and its chairman until 1939 . He was chairman of the British retailer Marks & Spencer from 1964 to 1967 . On 18 January 1966 he was created a life peer as Baron Sieff , of Brimpton in the Royal County of Berkshire . Upon the death of his son Daniel -- and with the financial support of his business partners and relatives by marriage , the Marks and Sacher families -- Sieff endowed the 1934 creation , by Chaim Weizmann , of the Daniel Sieff Research Institute in Rehovot in present-day Israel . Renamed the Weizmann Institute of Science in 1949 with the Sieff family 's consent , it is Israel 's premier research university in the natural sciences . Sieff was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium and his ashes were placed next to those of Simon Marks . The second of Sieff 's three sons , Marcus , was also created a life peer , becoming Lord Sieff of Brimpton .","qid":"163","docid":"Israel_Sieff,_Baron_Sieff","rank":72,"score":71339},{"content":"Title: 1446 Sillanpää Content: 1446 Sillanpää , provisional designation , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 26 January 1938 , by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland . It was later named after writer Frans Eemil Sillanpää .","qid":"163","docid":"1446_Sillanpää","rank":73,"score":71297},{"content":"Title: A.D.F. Siquirres Content: ADF Siquirres is a Costa Rican sports club , mostly known for its football team which currently plays in the Segunda División de Costa Rica . The club is located in Siquirres , Limón Province , and play their home games at the Finca Siquirres .","qid":"163","docid":"A.D.F._Siquirres","rank":74,"score":71177},{"content":"Title: Bicolored foxface Content: The bicolored foxface , Siganus uspi , is a rabbitfish found at reefs off Fiji in the Pacific . It occasionally makes its way into the aquarium trade . It grows to a size of 24 cm in length . It was described by Michael J. Gawel after the University of the South Pacific .","qid":"163","docid":"Bicolored_foxface","rank":75,"score":71141},{"content":"Title: Set intersection oracle Content: A set intersection oracle ( SIO ) is a data structure which represents a collection of sets and can quickly answer queries about whether the set intersection of two given sets is non-empty . The input to the problem is n finite sets . The sum of the sizes of all sets is N ( which also means that there are at most N distinct elements ) . The SIO should quickly answer any query of the form : `` Does the set Si intersect the set Sk '' ?","qid":"163","docid":"Set_intersection_oracle","rank":76,"score":70784},{"content":"Title: SNF1LK Content: Serine/threonine-protein kinase SIK1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the SIK1 gene .","qid":"163","docid":"SNF1LK","rank":77,"score":70562},{"content":"Title: Sio nordenskjoldii Content: Sio nordenskjoldii , Nordenskjold 's bigscale , is a species of ridgehead found in the southern oceans at depths of from 200 to . This species grows to a length of 12.3 cm SL . This species is the only known member of its genus . This species is of minor importance to commercial fisheries .","qid":"163","docid":"Sio_nordenskjoldii","rank":78,"score":70435},{"content":"Title: Siyeh Glacier Content: Siyeh Glacier is in Glacier National Park in the U.S. state of Montana . The glacier lies in a deep cirque to the north of Mount Siyeh at an elevation between 7200 ft and 6800 ft above sea level . Siyeh Glacier covers an area of less than 10 acre and does not meet the threshold of 25 acre often cited as being the minimum size to qualify as an active glacier . Siyeh Glacier has experienced massive retreat , losing over 73 percent of its surface area between 1966 and 2005 .","qid":"163","docid":"Siyeh_Glacier","rank":79,"score":70417},{"content":"Title: Sigsbee (skipjack) Content: The Sigsbee is a Chesapeake Bay skipjack , built in 1901 at Deal Island , Maryland , United States . She is a 47 ft two-sail bateau , or `` V '' - bottomed deadrise type of centerboard sloop . She has a beam of 15.8 ft , a depth of 3.8 ft , and a gross registered tonnage of 8 tons . She is one of the 35 surviving traditional Chesapeake Bay skipjacks and a member of the last commercial sailing fleet in the United States . She is owned and operated by the Living Classrooms Foundation in Baltimore , Maryland . She was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985 .","qid":"163","docid":"Sigsbee_(skipjack)","rank":80,"score":70384},{"content":"Title: Sebsi Content: A sebsi or sibsi ( سبسي , plural : sbasa ) is a traditional Moroccan cannabis pipe with a narrow clay bowl called a skuff ( or shkaff ) , with a fine metal screen . To this a hardwood stem is attached , which may be up to 46 cm long . The sebsi may be used to smoke kief ( cannabis pollen ) or mixtures of cannabis with tobacco or other herbs . The sebsi provides a small , low-temperature serving of cannabis , compared with larger traditional smoking devices like the chillum of India and Jamaica .","qid":"163","docid":"Sebsi","rank":81,"score":70302},{"content":"Title: Sifnos Content: Sifnos ( Σίφνος the spelling Siphnos is obsolete in English but still by convention often used to refer to the island in ancient times ) is an island municipality in the Cyclades island group in Greece . The main town , near the center , known as Apollonia ( pop . 869 ) , is home of the island 's folklore museum and library . The town 's name is thought to come from an ancient temple of Apollo on the site of the church of Panayia Yeraniofora . The second-largest town is Artemonas ( 800 ) , thought to be named after an ancient temple of Apollo 's sister-goddess Artemis , located at the site of the church of Panayia Kokhi . The village of Kastro ( 118 ) , was the capital of the island during ancient times until 1836 . It is built on top of a high cliff on the island 's east shore and today has extensive medieval remains and is the location of the island 's archeological museum . The port settlement , on the west coast of the island is known as Kamares ( 245 ) .","qid":"163","docid":"Sifnos","rank":82,"score":69949},{"content":"Title: Shift Out and Shift In characters Content: Shift Out ( SO ) and Shift In ( SI ) are ASCII control characters 14 and 15 , respectively ( 0x0E and 0x0F . ) These are sometimes also called `` Control-N '' and `` Control-O '' . The original meaning of those characters provided a way to shift a coloured ribbon , split longitudinally usually with red and black , up and down to the other colour in an electro-mechanical typewriter or teleprinter , such as the Teletype Model 38 , to automate the same function of manual typewriters . Black was the conventional ambient default colour and so was shifted `` in '' or `` out '' with the other colour on the ribbon . Later advancements in technology instigated use of this function for switching to a different font or character set and back . This was used , for instance , in the Russian character set known as KOI7 , where SO starts printing Russian letters , and SI starts printing Latin letters again . SO/SI control characters also are used to display VT-100 pseudographics , and emoji ( Japanese picture icons ) on SoftBank Mobile . ISO/IEC 2022 standard specifies their generalized usage .","qid":"163","docid":"Shift_Out_and_Shift_In_characters","rank":83,"score":69887},{"content":"Title: Yezo sika deer Content: The Yezo sika deer ( Cervus nippon yesoensis ) is one of the many subspecies of the sika deer . The sika that inhabit the island of Hokkaido are indigenous , although it is not known whether they originated there or migrated from the main island of Japan . Is it thought they may have traveled across the strait between the islands . The indigenous Ainu people of Hokkaido have hunted them for centuries and relied on them as a major food source . The Hokkaido sika one is the largest of the sika species with large stags approaching and sometimes exceeding 200 kg in the fall . They also sport the largest antlers with lengths often over 35 inches with the longest recorded specimen being 44 inches . By SCI measurement the Hokkaido sika produces the highest scores , although very few have been listed .","qid":"163","docid":"Yezo_sika_deer","rank":84,"score":69841},{"content":"Title: Sibley tent Content: The Sibley tent was invented by the American military officer Henry Hopkins Sibley and patented in 1856 . Of conical design , it stands about 12 ft high and 18 ft in diameter . It can comfortably house about a dozen men . The Sibley design differed from other conical tents , or bell tents in a number of ways . Sibley 's design is supported by a central pole that telescopes down into the supporting tripod so that it takes less space to pack and store . The tripod could be erected over a firepit for cooking and heat . The Sibley design also required no guy ropes , being held down by twenty-four pegs around the base . Additionally , unlike earlier designs , the use of a cowl over the central pole allowed for ventilation and for the escape of smoke , regardless of wind direction .","qid":"163","docid":"Sibley_tent","rank":85,"score":69828},{"content":"Title: Social Finance (US non-profit organization) Content: Social Finance , Inc. is a nonprofit organization focusing on the emerging field of Pay for Success ( PFS ) financing ( also called a Social Impact Bond ( SIB ) ) in the United States . Social Finance provides advisory , social investment , and active performance management services to public - and private-sector partners seeking to drive more resources to social programs that deliver proven results to those in need . The organization has offices in Boston , MA and Austin , TX .","qid":"163","docid":"Social_Finance_(US_non-profit_organization)","rank":86,"score":69674},{"content":"Title: Steel and Industrial Forgings Ltd Content: Steel and Industrial Forgings Ltd ( SIFL ) is a public sector undertaking ( PSU ) fully owned by Government of Kerala situated in Athani in Thrissur , Kerala state of India . The company was incorporated in 1983 and started commercial production in 1986 . It is an AS 9100 C and ISO 9001:2008 certified company . The main products of SIFL are : Complex and high precision aerospace forgings , specialised forgings for defence , heavy forgings for commercial vehicles , Indian Railways and other components for automobiles etc. .","qid":"163","docid":"Steel_and_Industrial_Forgings_Ltd","rank":87,"score":69557},{"content":"Title: The Apple (1998 film) Content: The Apple ( سیب , translit . Sib ) is the 1998 directorial debut by Samira Makhmalbaf , daughter of Iranian director Mohsen Makhmalbaf . The film is based on a true story and features the real people that actually lived it . The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival .","qid":"163","docid":"The_Apple_(1998_film)","rank":88,"score":69391},{"content":"Title: Siglistorf Content: Siglistorf is a municipality in the district of Zurzach in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland .","qid":"163","docid":"Siglistorf","rank":89,"score":69364},{"content":"Title: SIG GL 5040 Content: The SIG GL 5040/5140 is a 40 mm grenade launcher , which can be mounted under all SIG SG 550/551 assault rifle models and is operated in single-shot mode . For compact SG 552/553 , the smaller GL 5340 grenade launcher can be used .","qid":"163","docid":"SIG_GL_5040","rank":90,"score":69333},{"content":"Title: Vignerons indépendants de France Content: The Vignerons indépendants de France ( VIF ) ( English : Independent winemakers of France ) is a viticultural trade association based in Paris that promotes and assists small and independent winemakers within France , similar to the British Society of Independent Brewers ( SIBA ) . Members may use the association 's logo on their products . In 1978 , it was set up as confédération nationale des caves particulières . ( CNCP ) , but changed their name and their charter in 2003 to try to unite and support independent winemakers and help them fight to keep their independence against powerful winemaking cooperatives . They currently have between 6000 and 10000 members throughout France ( as of 2009 ) . Each year , VIF arranges a number of wine fairs ( Salon des vins ) in different cities in France .","qid":"163","docid":"Vignerons_indépendants_de_France","rank":91,"score":69192},{"content":"Title: SANS Investigative Forensics Toolkit Content: The SANS Investigative Forensic Toolkit ( `` SIFT '' ) is a computer forensics VMware appliance that is pre-configured with all the necessary tools to perform a detailed digital forensic examination . It is compatible with expert witness format ( E01 ) , advanced forensic format ( AFF ) , and raw ( dd ) evidence formats . The new version has been completely rebuilt on an Ubuntu base with many additional tools and capabilities that can match any modern forensic tool suite .","qid":"163","docid":"SANS_Investigative_Forensics_Toolkit","rank":92,"score":69159},{"content":"Title: Systemically important financial institution Content: A systemically important financial institution ( SIFI ) is a bank , insurance company , or other financial institution whose failure might trigger a financial crisis . They are colloquially referred to as `` too big to fail '' .","qid":"163","docid":"Systemically_important_financial_institution","rank":93,"score":69020},{"content":"Title: Sieff Content: Sieff may refer to : Adam Sieff , Communications Director at Dune Music , and a former Sony Music Director of Jazz Israel Sieff , Baron Sieff ( 1889 -- 1972 ) , British businessman Jeanloup Sieff ( 1933 -- 2000 ) , fashion photographer Joseph Sieff ( 1906 -- 1982 ) , businessman and British Zionist Marcus Sieff , Baron Sieff of Brimpton OBE ( 1913 -- 2001 ) , Jewish British businessman , chairman of Marks & Spencer from 1972 to 1982","qid":"163","docid":"Sieff","rank":94,"score":68930},{"content":"Title: Sieber (river) Content: The Sieber is a 35-kilometre-long , right hand tributary of the Oder in the Harz mountains of Germany . It rises at 760 metres on the Bruchberg massif and flows through Herzberg before discharging at Hattorf into the Oder which , in turn , flows into the Rhume . Its tributaries include the Kulmke , Lonau and Goldenke . In February 1910 , as part of his hydrological research into the Rhumequelle , Karl Thürnau dyed the Sieber tributary of the Eichelbach ( Herzberg ) with six kilogrammes of fluorescein . Three days later , weakly dyed water appeared in the main source of the Rhumequelle . This was confirmed in 1980 by dye tracing carried out by the Geological Survey of Lower Saxony ( Niedersächsischen Landesamtes für Bodenforschung ) . This also indicated links between the Rhumequelle and the Sieber near Hörden and the Oder near Scharzfeld . The construction of a dam was planned but never realised . As a result the Sieber valley is the only unregulated river valley in the western Harz . The upper Sieber valley has been out-of-bounds to motor traffic since the 1980s from the Forsthaus Königshof and lies partly within the Harz National Park -- the road leads to the B 242 federal highway northwest of Sonnenberg . The river gives its name to the village of Sieber in the middle of the Sieber valley . 1Sieber Category : Rivers of Lower Saxony Category : Rivers of the Harz","qid":"163","docid":"Sieber_(river)","rank":95,"score":68799},{"content":"Title: Penobscot Experimental Forest Content: The Penobscot Experimental Forest ( PEF ) is an Experimental Forest managed by the US Forest Service ( USFS ) in the towns of Bradley and Eddington , in the state of Maine , USA . The mission of the PEF is to afford a setting for long-term research conducted cooperatively by USDA Forest Service scientists , university researchers , and professional forest managers in Maine ; to enhance forestry education of students and the public ; and to demonstrate how the timber needs of society are met from a working forest . The forests that encompasses the PEF today were originally purchased by nine pulp , paper , and land-holding companies in 1950 and was leased to the USFS Northeastern Forest Experiment Station as a site for long-term forest management and research . In 1994 , the PEF was donated to the University of Maine . Since then the PEF has been jointly managed by the University of Maine and the USFS . The primary research experiment at the PEF has been a long-term silviculture experiment , which contains a replicated treatments from a range of even-age and uneven-age silvicultural prescriptions , including clearcut , shelterwood , selection , diameter-limit , and unmanaged silvicultural treatments .","qid":"163","docid":"Penobscot_Experimental_Forest","rank":96,"score":68674},{"content":"Title: Wall of death Content: The Wall of Death , motordrome , silodrome or Well of Death ( aka `` Maut ka Kuaa '' , India ) is a carnival sideshow featuring a silo - or barrel-shaped wooden cylinder , typically ranging from 20 to in diameter and made of wooden planks , inside which motorcyclists , or the drivers of miniature automobiles , travel along the vertical wall and perform stunts , held in place by friction and centrifugal force .","qid":"163","docid":"Wall_of_death","rank":97,"score":68525},{"content":"Title: Silsbee effect Content: The Silsbee effect or Silsbee current refers to the effect by which , if the current exceeds a critical level , the superconducting state will be destroyed . The size of the critical current ( which can be as large as 100 amp in a 1-mm wire ) depends on the nature and geometry of the specimen and is related to whether the magnetic field produced by the current exceeds the critical field at the surface of the superconductor .","qid":"163","docid":"Silsbee_effect","rank":98,"score":68500},{"content":"Title: Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association Content: The Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association ( SIFMA ) is a United States industry trade group representing securities firms , banks , and asset management companies . SIFMA was formed on November 1 , 2006 , from the merger of the Bond Market Association and the Securities Industry Association . It has offices in New York City and Washington , D.C. In October 2008 , SIFMA reduced its staff by 25 % or more due to the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 which left its member firms in financial straits , and the loss of three of its primary member firms -- Lehman Brothers , Bear Stearns , and Merrill Lynch . The dismissals came at the same time as the United States Congress was considering changes in the country 's financial regulatory structure . SIFMA announced in May 2009 that it would also shed its London-based European operation . That operation was merged into the London Investment Banking Association ( LIBA ) . The 350-member American Securitization Forum ( ASF ) formerly operated as a forum of SIFMA . On January 14 , 2010 , ASF announced that it had chosen to terminate its affiliation with SIFMA as well .","qid":"163","docid":"Securities_Industry_and_Financial_Markets_Association","rank":99,"score":68494},{"content":"Title: Siemki Content: Siemki -LSB- ' śe1mki -RSB- ( German Scharfs ) is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Reszel , within Kętrzyn County , Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship , in northern Poland . It lies approximately 8 km north-east of Reszel , 9 km west of Kętrzyn , and 60 km north-east of the regional capital Olsztyn . Before 1945 the area was part of Germany ( East Prussia ) . The village has a population of 119 .","qid":"163","docid":"Siemki","rank":100,"score":68468}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Source Input Format Content: Source Input Format ( SIF ) defined in MPEG-1 , is a video format that was developed to allow the storage and transmission of digital video . 625/50 SIF format ( PAL/SECAM ) has a resolution of ( 360 or ) 352 x 288 active pixels and a refresh rate of 25 frames per second . 525/59 .94 SIF Format ( NTSC ) has a resolution of ( 360 or ) 352 x 240 active pixels and a refresh rate of 29.97 frames per second . When compared to the CCIR 601 specifications , which defines the appropriate parameters for digital encoding of TV signals , SIF can be seen as being reduced by half in all of height , width , frame-rate , and chrominance . SIF video is known as a constrained parameters bitstream . The computer industry has defined square-pixel SIF to be 320 x 240 ( QVGA ) or 384 x 288 active pixels with a refresh rate of whatever the computer is capable of supporting .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Source_Input_Format\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 101210\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sif Mons Content: Sif Mons is a shield volcano in Eistla Regio on Venus . It has a diameter of 300 km and a height of 2.0 km . It is named after the Norse goddess Sif . Category : Volcanoes of Venus Category : Shield volcanoes\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sif_Mons\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 94048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hard-clad silica optical fiber Content: Hard-clad silica ( HCS ) or polymer-clad fiber ( PCF ) is an optical fiber with a core of silica glass ( diameter : 200 µm ) and an optical cladding made of special plastic ( diameter : 230 µm ) . In contrast to all-silica fiber , the core and cladding can be separated from each other . Due to their medium bandwidths and transmission rates of less than 100 MBit/s , HCS fibers are suitable for distances of up to 2 km , e.g. in local networks in buildings and industry . Generally , the following applies : The higher the attenuation , the shorter the distance . For comparison , plastic optical fibers ( POF ) have low bandwidths and transmission rates ( typically 100 MBit/s ) . They also have a high attenuation and therefore , the maximum distance is around 100 meters . Glass fibers on the other hand have very high bandwidths and transmission rates of up to GBit/s . The attenuation in glass fibres is much lower , glass fibers can cover distances of more than 10 km . Regarding bandwidth and distances , HCS fibers are situated between POF and multimode or singlemode fibers .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Hard-clad_silica_optical_fiber\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 92557\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jabhatul Islamiya Content: Jabhatul Islamiya ( JABISO ) also known as the Somali Islamic Front ( SIF ) was an Islamist insurgent group in Somalia . The group participated in the 2006-2009 insurgency against Ethiopia and in January 2009 merged with the Asmara based wing of the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia , led by Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys , the Ras Kamboni Brigade , led by Sheikh Hassan Abdullah Hersi al-Turki and a smaller group Mu'askar Anole to form Hizbul Islam which became the second most powerful insurgent group ( after al-Shabaab ) in Somalia which continued fighting the TFG and AMISOM peacekeepers , after Ethiopian withdrawal . On 19 January 2009 , Jabhatul Islamiya fought a battle over the police headquarters of Mogadishu 's Dharkinley district with the Somali government which killed at least 2 people . Jabhatul Islamiya had seized the police station a week earlier but was overpowered and forced to withdraw . Later in the day however they received re-enforcements and managed to re-take control over the police station .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Jabhatul_Islamiya\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 89134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Central European Institute of Philosophy Content: The Central European Institute of Philosophy ( SIF ; Středoevropský Institut Filosofie Mitteleuropäisches Institut für Philosophie ) established in 2010 , is a joint institution of the Charles University Faculty of Humanities and the Czech Republic Academy of Sciences ' Institute of Philosophy . The SIF seeks to follow in the footsteps of Prague 's `` Cercle philosophique , '' which was established by Czech and German professors from the University of Prague in 1934 , but soon disbanded with the German occupation of Czechoslovakia . The Institute promotes philosophical research -- with an emphasis on the phenomenological as well as on trans / interdisciplinary . The Czech Republic , with its tradition of a rather unusual symbiotic alliance of Czech , Jewish , and German intellectuals is an ideal location for the SIF . The country has already birth to various influential movements : The Prague Circle literary school ( Franz Kafka , Max Brod , Felix Weltsch , Franz Werfel , Oscar Baum ) , in art Czech cubism and surrealism along with other disciplines such as empirical criticism ( Ernst Mach ) , phenomenology ( Edmund Husserl ) , and psychoanalysis ( Sigmund Freud ) . As one of its primary objectives , the SIF seeks to map the rich potential of the varied cultural and ethnic influences that shape the present day Czech state . This mapping enables a hypothesis as to the reciprocal influences of not only other European traditions but also non-European and the consequences these might hold for the present and the future . In keeping with this multi-cultural tradition , two directors guide the SIF : a Czech , Karel Novotny and a German , Hans Rainer Sepp . The Institute is composed of a staff of permanent and external members and is also supported by an international scholarly board of 36 professors or institutions representing twenty countries . All strive in close association so that SIF may bring together thinkers and scholars working in a wide range of disciplines concerned with the study of philosophical , historical , critical , and theoretical issues . In addition , SIF also is the home of the book series `` Orbis Phaenomenologicus , '' founded in 1993 and published by Königshausen & Neumann , Würzburg , Germany , as well as the newly established series `` libri nigri . Thinking Across Boundaries '' and `` libri virides . The Young Forum , '' published by Traugott Bautz , Nordhausen , Germany . A research project entitled `` Philosophical Investigations of Body Experiences : Trans-disciplinary Perspectives '' is currently underway at the SIF . In addition to its ongoing research projects , the SIF offers specialized advanced courses in conjunction with the EU Master Program `` German and French Philosophy in the European Context . '' The Institute also organizes and hosts international conferences and is very active in facilitating the publication of established and young scholars alike . To date the SIF has organized three international conferences and edited ten book publications . All of these activities attest to SIF 's commitment to providing a place of intellectual exchange , dialogue , and debate as scholars re-think the methodology and assumptions of their respective disciplines in light of the cultural perspectives and assumptions of others both past and present .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Central_European_Institute_of_Philosophy\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 88064\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Schools Interoperability Framework Content: The Schools Interoperability Framework , Systems Interoperability Framework ( UK ) , or SIF , is a data sharing open specification for academic institutions from kindergarten through workforce . This specification is being used primarily in the United States , Canada , the UK , and Australia ; however , it is increasingly being implemented in India , and elsewhere . The specification is composed of two parts : an XML specification for modeling educational data which is specific to the educational locale ( such as North America , Australia or UK ) , and a service-oriented architecture ( SOA ) based on both direct and brokered RESTful-models for sharing that data between institutions , which is international and shared between the locales . SIF is not a product , but an industry initiative that enables diverse applications to interact and share data . By March 2007 , SIF was estimated to have been used in more than 48 US states and 6 countries , supporting five million students . The specification was started and maintained by its specification body , the Schools Interoperability Framework Association , renamed the Access For Learning Community ( A4L ) in 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Schools_Interoperability_Framework\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 87436\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sif (comics) Content: Sif is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The character is depicted commonly in association with the superhero Thor . Based on the Norse goddess Sif , she was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby and first appeared in Journey Into Mystery # 102 ( March 1964 ) . As an Asgardian warrior and lover of Thor , Sif often accompanies Thor into battle . She has also battled alongside Balder , who has developed an unrequited attraction to her , as she never shows affection for anyone but Thor and certain individuals who have proved worthy to wield his hammer , Mjolnir , such as the noble alien warrior Beta Ray Bill and the mortal Eric Masterson . Sif has appeared in various media adaptations of Thor , including the 2011 Marvel Cinematic Universe film Thor , its 2013 sequel Thor : The Dark World , and the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , in which she is portrayed by Jaimie Alexander .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sif_(comics)\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 87276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Supreme Indoor Football Content: Supreme Indoor Football ( SIF ) is an indoor football league based in the Southeastern United States . The SIF was originally the creation of the Cape Fear Heroes ownership . During the league 's initial launch in 2015 , it was to be part of the Indoor Football Alliance , which would have also included a revived Continental Indoor Football League and begun play in 2016 . When the CIFL revival never materialized , and the league had difficulties in finding teams to join the league , the Heroes suspended operations , effectively suspending the league as well . The league launched on its second attempt in April 2017 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Supreme_Indoor_Football\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 86907\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Singapore International Foundation Content: The Singapore International Foundation ( SIF ) ( Abbreviation : SIF ; Chinese : 新加坡国际基金会 ; Malay : Yayasan Antarabangsa Singapura ) is a not-for-profit organisation established on August 1 , 1991 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Singapore_International_Foundation\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 86801\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sif (disambiguation) Content: Sif is a Norse goddess and the wife of Thor . Sif or SIF may also refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sif_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 86781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sif Content: In Norse mythology , Sif is a goddess associated with earth . Sif is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , and in the poetry of skalds . In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda , Sif is the wife of the thunder god Thor and is known for her golden hair . In the Prose Edda , Sif is named as the mother of the goddess Þrúðr by Thor and of Ullr with a father whose name is not recorded . The Prose Edda also recounts that Sif once had her hair shorn by Loki , and that Thor forced Loki to have a golden headpiece made for Sif , resulting in not only Sif 's golden tresses but also five other objects for other gods . Scholars have proposed that Sif 's hair may represent fields of golden wheat , that she may be associated with fertility , family , wedlock and/or that she is connected to rowan , and that there may be an allusion to her role or possibly her name in the Old English poem Beowulf .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sif\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 86150\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Society for Individual Freedom Content: The Society for Individual Freedom ( SIF ) is a United Kingdom-based association of libertarians , classical liberals , free-market conservatives and others promoting individual freedom . The website of the Society states that `` The Society of Individualists was founded in 1942 , with many of its leaders and supporters , including its first president Sir Ernest Benn , drawn from those associated with the remnant individualist wing of the Liberal Party . In 1944 the Society of Individualists merged with the National League for Freedom , which itself had been formed from those associated with the explicitly anti-socialist wing of the Conservative Party . The Society for Individual Freedom took on its present name in 1947 . '' George Kennedy Young became president sometime after his departure from MI6 in 1961 . Other notable officers include its chairman , Professor Peter Walter Campbell , founder of the Dept of Politics at Reading and founding chairman of the Conservative Group for Homosexual Equality ( CGHE - LBGT ) . Gerald Howarth MP served as the organisations General Secretary from 1969 to 1971 . In 1967 the Young Libertarians , the youth organisation of SIF , broke off to create the Libertarian Alliance . There continues to be an overlap of members and officers between the LA - headed by Dr Sean Gabb - and the SIF . The SIF is independent of all political parties and relies entirely on voluntary subscriptions and donations . The SIF advocates personal freedom and less state control generally ( e.g. it is opposed to censorship and identity cards ) , and a genuinely free enterprise economy including low taxation and no state subsidies to industry . Its membership tends to be strongly Eurosceptic . The SIF is perhaps most notable for its campaign for the institution of the UK 's Parliamentary Ombudsman , beginning in 1959 , and publication , in 1961 , of the first English language book on such institutions , Occasion for Ombudsman : Is a Grievance Man Necessary for Britain ? , by journalist T. E. Utley . The campaign for the Ombudsman system - for an unelected adjudicator to help prevent bureaucratic maladministration - eventually succeeded . In 1967 the Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration was instituted . In 1975 its chairman became John Monson , 11th Baron Monson , a position he kept for the next 35 years . Monson 's most controversial campaign was against compulsory use of seat belts which eventually failed but led to accusations of irresponsibility . In 1994 the SIF published The Power to Destroy , a study of the British tax system , by Professor D. R. Myddelton .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Society_for_Individual_Freedom\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 85770\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Specialized investment fund Content: A specialized investment fund or SIF is a lightly regulated and tax-efficient regulatory regime aimed for a broader range of eligible investors . This type of investment fund is governed by the Luxembourg law of 13 February 2007 replacing the law of 1991 defining the legal framework for institutional funds and enlarging the distribution scope to `` well-informed investors '' . The SIF law significantly simplified the rules for setting up investment fund structures ranging from straightforward investment strategies investing in listed securities to hedge funds , real estate and private equity funds . On 12 July 2013 , the SIF regime was amended by the law on alternative investment fund managers ( AIFM law ) . Consequently , the SIF law has been divided into two parts : General provisions applicable to all SIFs ; Specific provisions applicable to SIFs which qualify as Alternative Investment Fund ( AIF ) and which require to be managed by an authorized Alternative Investment Fund Manager ( AIFM ) . Due to the broad definition of AIFs , most SIFs are qualified as SIF AIFs .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Specialized_investment_fund\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 85724\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Italian Physical Society Content: The Società Italiana di Fisica ( SIF ) or Italian Physics Society was founded in 1897 and is a non-profit organization whose aim is to promote , encourage , protect the study and the progress of physics in Italy and in the world . It is associated with the journal series Nuovo Cimento . SIF also publishes the academic journals Quaderni di Storia della Fisica and Giornale di Fisica . Some of the Nuovo Cimento journals were merged with European Physical Journal in 1986 and with Europhysics Letters in 1999 . Il Bolletino della Società Italiana di Fisica was published from 1956 to 1984 . In 1984 , it became Il Nuovo Saggiatore ( `` The New Assayer '' ) . The SIF organizes an annual national congress of study at one of the Italian universities . Its other major initiatives are the management of the `` Enrico Fermi '' International School of Physics ( an annual summer school held in Varenna ) , and the organization of conferences on specific topics . There are two types of membership in SIF : regular members ( `` can be effective partners individuals and charities '' ) and honorary members ( `` may be honorary members persons who have attained an eminent position in the physical science '' ) . Franco Bassani ( Scuola Normale di Pisa ) was President of the SIF until 2007 . He is currently chairman . The current president is Luisa Cifarelli ( University of Bologna ) , formerly Vice President .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Italian_Physical_Society\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 85325\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Standard Interchange Format Content: Standard Interchange Format , called SIF , is a geospatial data exchange format . A standard or neutral format used to move graphics files between DOD Project 2851 and is currently codified in Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata maintained by the Federal Geographic Data Committee . Unit 69 of the NCGIA Core Corriculum in GIS states that SIF is a `` popular data exchange format for many GIS packages '' and was `` developed to support exchange of data between Intergraph and other systems . '' Navteq uses Standard Interchange Format ( SIF ) Another example of data available in SIF format can be found online from the NASA 's BOREAS project that also claims that the SIF format is `` not well documented . '' Additional criticism of SIF , along with recognition of SIF 's ubiquity and utility for exchanging data , is acknowledged in the online journal article `` Is a Standard Terrain Data Format Necessary ? ''\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Standard_Interchange_Format\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 85207\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sif, Yemen Content: Sif , Yemen is a village in eastern Yemen . It is located in the Hadhramaut Governorate .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sif,_Yemen\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 85037\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Syrian Islamic Front Content: The Syrian Islamic Front ( الجبهة الإسلامية السورية al-Jabhah al-Islāmiyya as-Sūriyyah ; abbreviated SIF ) was a Salafist umbrella organisation of Islamist rebel groups fighting the Bashar al-Assad government in Syria during the Syrian Civil War . Its largest group was the Salafist Ahrar ash-Sham , which reportedly `` led '' and `` dominated '' the Front . In November 2013 , the Syrian Islamic Front was dissolved , as the organization was replaced by the Islamic Front .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Syrian_Islamic_Front\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 85008\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: US SIF Content: US SIF : The Forum for Sustainable and Responsible Investment is a United States-based membership association located in Washington , DC . that promotes environmentally and socially sustainable investment practices . US SIF was formerly known as the Social Investment Forum . It changed its name on June 9 , 2011 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"US_SIF\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 83497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stavanger IF Fotball Content: Stavanger IF Fotball , the football division of Stavanger Idrettsforening , is a football club from Stavanger , Norway . In Rogaland , they are simply known as Sif , and few people would refer to them as Stavanger . SIF reached the semi finals of the Norwegian Football Cup in 1912 , 1914 , 1929 and 1930 . Its latest stint in the First Division , the second tier of the Norwegian football league system , was in 2009 . The club is currently playing in the Third Division .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Stavanger_IF_Fotball\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 83277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stavanger IF Content: Stavanger Idrettsforening ( SIF ) was founded in 1905 . SIF has both a football and a handball division .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Stavanger_IF\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 82941\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: State Secretariat for International Financial Matters Content: The State Secretariat for International Financial Matters ( SIF ; French : Secrétariat d'État aux questions financières internationales , German Staatssekretariat für internationale Finanzfragen , Italian Segreteria di Stato per le questioni finanziarie internazionali , Romansh Secretariat da stadi per dumondas finanzialas internaziunalas ) is an administrative unit of the Swiss Confederation . It is an office of the federal administration of Switzerland under the responsibility of the Federal Department of Finance , and was established on 1 March 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"State_Secretariat_for_International_Financial_Matters\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 82688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 15 cm sIG 33 (Sf) auf Panzerkampfwagen I Ausf B Content: The 15 cm sIG 33 ( Sf ) auf Panzerkampfwagen I Ausf B ( sometimes referred to as the Sturmpanzer I Bison ) was a German self-propelled heavy infantry gun used during World War II .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"15_cm_sIG_33_(Sf)_auf_Panzerkampfwagen_I_Ausf_B\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 81223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: St. Ignatius Institute Content: The Saint Ignatius Institute ( SII ) is an undergraduate program at the University of San Francisco ( USF ) , a private university operated by the California Province of the Society of Jesus ( Jesuit Order ) in San Francisco , California . The SII offers a four-year , Great Books program as an alternative method for USF students to fulfill core cirriculum requirements for an undergraduate degree . In the twenty five years after its inception in 1976 , the SII granted its Certificate of Liberal Arts to approximately 1,000 students . During these years the SII generated both controversy and accolades due to its greater advocacy for Catholic doctrine within a diverse , more liberal Jesuit institution .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"St._Ignatius_Institute\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 80643\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Small intensely fluorescent cell Content: Small intensely fluorescent cells ( SIF cells ) are the interneurons of the sympathetic ganglia ( postganglionic neurons ) of the Sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system ( ANS ) . The neurotransmitter for these cells is dopamine . They are a neural crest derivative and share a common sympathoadrenal precursor cell with sympathetic neurons and chromaffin cells ( adrenal medulla ) . Category : Cell biology\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Small_intensely_fluorescent_cell\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 80628\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Silkeborg IF Content: Silkeborg IF ( Full name : Silkeborg Idrætsforening , or SIF in short ) is a professional Danish football club in Silkeborg , Denmark . The club was founded in 1917 , reached the highest level of Danish football in 1987 , and was during the 1990s one of the most successful football clubs in Denmark , finishing in first place in the league in 1993 -- 94 , third place in 1994 -- 95 , second place in 1997 -- 98 as well as a Danish Cup victory in 2001 . Silkeborg has participated in European games several times , and won the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 1996 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Silkeborg_IF\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 79481\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Short Interframe Space Content: Short Interframe Space ( SIFS ) , is the amount of time in microseconds required for a wireless interface to process a received frame and to respond with a response frame . It is the difference in time between the first symbol of the response frame in the air and the last symbol of the received frame in the air . A SIFS time consists of the delay in receiver RF , PLCP delay and the MAC processing delay , which depends on the physical layer used . In IEEE 802.11 networks , SIFS is the interframe spacing prior to transmission of an acknowledgment , a Clear To Send ( CTS ) frame , a block ack frame that is an immediate response to either a block ack request frame or an A-MPDU , the second or subsequent MPDU of a fragment burst , a station responding to any polling a by point coordination function and during contention free periods of point coordination function .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Short_Interframe_Space\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 79406\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shropshire Islamic Foundation Content: The Shropshire Islamic Foundation ( SIF ) is located in the English county of Shropshire . The Foundation owns , operates from , and manages the ` Telford Islamic Academy ' , at 88 -- 90 King Street , Wellington , Telford and the ` Telford Central Mosque ' at 41 Tan Bank , Wellington , Telford . The Mosque , as a majority , operates under the Hanafi school of law and is a Sunni mosque providing Islamic education to children of all ages . This is the main mosque in Shropshire and has a community consisting of Pakistanis , Afghans , Bangladeshis , Indians , Turks , Africans and Middle Easterners all praying together . The Foundation is a registered charity -- registration number 1112127 , with the trustees being Dr. Mohammed Mujahid Hussain Qureshi -- Chairman of trustees , Mr. Shah Sawar Bhatti and Dr. Shaukat Ali Shropshire has only one other far smaller Mosque , the Jamia Masjid Gousia , aka the ` Regent Street Mosque ' , a Sufi -- Barelvi themed Mosque in Wellington .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Shropshire_Islamic_Foundation\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 79093\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seychelles Islands Foundation Content: Seychelles Islands Foundation ( SIF ) manages and protects the World Heritage Sites of Aldabra and Vallee de Mai . The foundation was established as a public trust in 1979 , with the President of Seychelles as patron . The Board of trustees , appointed by the President , has 14 members , including not less than five representing organizations concerned with the conservation of wildlife and natural history or national academics of science . Aldabra and Vallee de Mai are both unique , and represent the rich natural heritage of Seychelles . At these sites SIF conserves : The world 's largest raised coral atoll . The world 's largest giant tortoise population . Some of the world 's most spectacular seabird colonies . The largest intact coco de mer forest and many other endemic trees , plants and animals . Unique birds , including the last surviving flightless bird of the Indian Ocean , the Aldabra rail , and the endangered Seychelles black parrot . Category : Conservation in Seychelles\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Seychelles_Islands_Foundation\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 79000\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oculomotor apraxia Content: Oculomotor apraxia ( OMA ) , also known as Cogan ocular motor apraxia or saccadic initiation failure ( SIF ) is the absence or defect of controlled , voluntary , and purposeful eye movement . It was first described in 1952 by the American ophthalmologist David Glendenning Cogan . People with this condition have difficulty moving their eyes horizontally and moving them quickly . The main difficulty is in saccade initiation , but there is also impaired cancellation of the vestibulo-ocular reflex . Patients have to turn their head in order to compensate for the lack of eye movement initiation in order to follow an object or see objects in their peripheral vision , but they often exceed their target . There is controversy regarding whether OMA should be considered an apraxia , since apraxia is the inability to perform a learned or skilled motor action to command , and saccade initiation is neither a learned nor a skilled action .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Oculomotor_apraxia\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 78900\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Swedish Union of Clerical and Technical Employees in Industry Content: The Swedish Union of Clerical and Technical Employees in Industry ( Sif , formerly Svenska Industritjänstemannaförbundet ) was the largest trade union for white-collar workers in Sweden . In 2008 , it merged with HTF to form Unionen . Founded in 1920 , it stated its primary goal as being `` to guarantee a good working life for its members '' . A main priority was taking part in the collective bargaining process . Workplace health and safety issues , competence and career issues were other major concerns . The organization also played an active part lobbying politicians in the interest of its members . The 350 000 members worked in the private sector , in companies that operated in areas including IT , telecom , construction , manufacturing and research and development . A small number was self-employed . Membership was also open to students . Around 40 percent of the members were women , as was the current President , Mari-Ann Krantz who after the fusion with HTF became the first President of Unionen . The organization was not only one of the largest labour unions in Sweden , it was also one of the wealthiest . It had funds worth several hundred million dollars , allowing the union to set aside substantial money for large ad campaigns with the object of recruiting new members . The organization had in the end of its existence 20 Regional Divisions with 23 local offices around Sweden and approximately 2.500 local union branches in the workplaces . About half the members did not belong to a local branch but could turn to a workplace representative acting as a point of contact and a channel for information . The highest decision-making body was the Congress , held every four years . It consisted of 180 elected representatives from the workplaces . The Congress elected the 11 representatives of the Sif Executive . The Swedish Union of Clerical and Technical Employees in Industry maintained independence from party politics . The organization was an affiliate of the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employees . It was also a member of several international industrial federations , such as Union Network International , a federation of unions in the IT , telecom , media & entertainment and graphics sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Swedish_Union_of_Clerical_and_Technical_Employees_in_Industry\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 78865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: General number field sieve Content: In number theory , the general number field sieve ( GNFS ) is the most efficient classical algorithm known for factoring integers larger than . Heuristically , its complexity for factoring an integer ( consisting of bits ) is of the form ( in L-notation ) , where is the natural logarithm . It is a generalization of the special number field sieve : while the latter can only factor numbers of a certain special form , the general number field sieve can factor any number apart from prime powers ( which are trivial to factor by taking roots ) . When the term number field sieve ( NFS ) is used without qualification , it refers to the general number field sieve . The principle of the number field sieve ( both special and general ) can be understood as an improvement to the simpler rational sieve or quadratic sieve . When using such algorithms to factor a large number , it is necessary to search for smooth numbers ( i.e. numbers with small prime factors ) of order . The size of these values is exponential in the size of ( see below ) . The general number field sieve , on the other hand , manages to search for smooth numbers that are subexponential in the size of . Since these numbers are smaller , they are more likely to be smooth than the numbers inspected in previous algorithms . This is the key to the efficiency of the number field sieve . In order to achieve this speed-up , the number field sieve has to perform computations and factorizations in number fields . This results in many rather complicated aspects of the algorithm , as compared to the simpler rational sieve . Note that is the number of bits in the binary representation of , that is the size of the input to the algorithm , so any element of the order for a constant is exponential in . The running time of the number field sieve is super-polynomial but sub-exponential in the size of the input .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"General_number_field_sieve\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 78588\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SIASUN UAV Content: SIASUN UAV is a Chinese UAV developed by Shenyang SIASUN Robot & Automation Co. Ltd. ( SIASUN , 新松机器人自动化股份有限公司 ) . The development of SIASUN is the direct result of 2008 Chinese winter storms , which resulted in massive power outage in China . The weather conditions prevent the conventional manual inspection of powerlines carried out by foot because access was severely limited , and as a result , SIASUN developed an UAV specially designed to carry out aerial inspection of powerlines under severe conditions such as thunderstorm , heavy rain and heavy electro-magnetic interference . SIASUN UAV is an unmanned helicopter of conventional helicopter layout with Fenestron design . Specification : Length : 3.84 m Width : 0.96 m Height : 1.26 m Rotor diameter : 3.29 m Weight : 120 kg Payload : 30 kg Power plant : 32 hp petro engine Endurance : 1 1/2 hr Speed : 100 km/hr Ceiling : 3 km Max wind scale allowed for operation : 6\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"SIASUN_UAV\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 78481\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sikkim Democratic Front Content: Sikkim Democratic Front ( SDF ) is a regional political party in the North East Indian state of Sikkim .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sikkim_Democratic_Front\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 78064\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sif Aradóttir Content: Sif Aradóttir ( born c. 1985 ) was Ungfrú Ísland or Miss Iceland in 2006 . She is from Keflavík . At the time of her crowning as Iceland 's national beauty queen , which was televised live on Icelandic Television , Sif was a student training to be an air traffic controller . Organizers of the national contest decided to send Sif to compete in Miss Universe 2006 ( to be held in Los Angeles , California on 23 July ) after a three-year unexplained absence . This also marked the first time in three years that the winner was not sent to Miss Universe 's rival pageant Miss World , which was won by Iceland 's own Unnur Birna Vilhjálmsdóttir in 2005 . Sif 's runner-up , Ásdís Svava , was Iceland 's representative at Miss World 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sif_Aradóttir\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 77849\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sizing Content: Sizing or size is any one of numerous substances that is applied to , or incorporated into , other materials -- especially papers and textiles -- to act as a protective filler or glaze . Sizing is used in papermaking and textile manufacturing to change the absorption and wear characteristics of those materials . Sizing is used for oil-based surface preparation for gilding ( also known as mordant in this context ) . It is used by painters and artists to prepare paper and textile surfaces for some art techniques . The term `` sizing '' also refers to the process of including or applying the substance .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sizing\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 77636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sialkot Trading Floor Content: Sialkot Trading Floor ( STF ) is one of the two branch offices of Lahore Stock Exchange ( LSE ) in order expand its boundaries and make ease of its access in major cites of country . Acting as a part of LSE , STF is going forward day by day to achieve aims , goals and aspirations of its ancestor . It is located in the building of Sialkot Chamber of Commerce & Industry in Sialkot . All of the brokerage houses whether active or nonnative at STF are registered houses in LSE as well as these houses are governed by Security Exchange Commission of Pakistan ( SECP ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sialkot_Trading_Floor\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 76756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Society for Individual Liberty Content: Society for Individual Liberty ( SIL ) was founded in1969 by Don Ernsberger and Dave Walter , who became its directors , after libertarian activists were expelled or later defected from Young Americans for Freedom ( YAF ) during and after their 1969 convention in St. Louis , Missouri . The founding of SIL is considered the defining moment that witnessed the `` birth of an autonomous libertarian movement . '' Purged or disillusioned YAF chapters and members withdrew from YAF and joined SIL which claimed to have 3,000 members that had grown to 103 campus chapters in the United States , `` two in Canada and one each in Sweden , India and Australia '' by 1970 . In 1989 SIL merged with Libertarian International under leadership of Vincent Miller , who assumed the position of president , changing the name of the organization to the International Society for Individual Liberty ( ISIL ) which had members in over 80 nations and hosted annual educational conference across the globe . ISIL acquired ownership of Laissez Faire Books ( LFB ) in November 2007 . In 2016 , ISIL was reorganized and renamed Liberty International with Jim Elwood serving as its executive director .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Society_for_Individual_Liberty\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 76197\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SIF Stadion Content: SIF Stadion is a sports venue located in Stavanger , Norway . It is the home ground of Stavanger IF Fotball . Category : Football venues in Norway Category : Sports venues in Stavanger\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"SIF_Stadion\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 75688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Missile launch facility Content: A missile launch facility , also known as an underground missile silo , launch facility ( LF ) , or nuclear silo , is a vertical cylindrical structure constructed underground , for the storage and launching of intercontinental ballistic missiles ( ICBMs ) . The structures typically have the missile some distance below ground , protected by a large `` blast door '' on top . They are usually connected , physically and/or electronically , to a missile launch control center .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Missile_launch_facility\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 75260\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SIG Sauer P239 Content: The SIG Sauer P239 is a semi-automatic pistol designed and manufactured by SIG Sauer , GMBH and SIG Sauer , Exeter , NH . It is offered in three calibers : 9 × 19mm Parabellum , .357 SIG and .40 S&W . With an overall length of 168 mm ( 6.6 in ) and height of 132 mm ( 5.2 in ) , and weighing approximately 710 -- 770 g ( 25 -- 27 oz ) empty ( depending on caliber ) , the P239 has become popular in the United States as a concealed carry pistol . Normal magazine capacity is 8 rounds ( 9 × 19mm ) or 7 rounds ( .357 SIG or .40 S&W ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"SIG_Sauer_P239\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 75163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sif Atladóttir Content: Sif Atladóttir ( born 15 July 1985 ) is an Icelandic footballer who plays for Damallsvenskan club Kristianstads DFF and the Iceland women 's national team .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sif_Atladóttir\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 75111\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 6.45×48mm XPL Swiss Content: 6.45 x48mm XPL Swiss ( or 6.45 x48 GP 80 ) is an experimental intermediate rifle cartridge that was developed in conjunction with the SIG SG 550 rifle as a potential successor to the 7.5 × 55mm Schmidt -- Rubin cartridge . The rimless cartridge has a base diameter of 11.82 mm ( similar to the 7.62 × 51mm NATO ) and a case length of 47.72 mm . The bullet is an unusual 6.65 mm diameter ( 6.45 mm refers to the bore diameter ) , fractionally smaller than the common 6.5 mm ( bore diameter ) bullet . The 6.3 g bullet was fired at a muzzle velocity of 900 m/s with 2,550 J of muzzle energy . The cartridge was not adopted , the SIG SG-550 went into production with the 5.6 × 45mm GP 90 round .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"6.45×48mm_XPL_Swiss\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 74805\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Poor Little Sif Content: Poor Little Sif ( German : Arme kleine Sif ) is a 1927 German silent comedy film directed by Arthur Bergen and starring Paul Wegener , Adele Sandrock and Jakob Tiedtke . It was made at the Emelka Studios in Munich . The film 's art direction was by Botho Hoefer and August Rinaldi .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Poor_Little_Sif\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 74540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Independent Socialists (France) Content: The Independent Socialists ( Socialistes indépendants , SI ) were a French political movement and , at times , parliamentary group in the Chamber of Deputies of France during the French Third Republic . The movement was strong from 1880 till the fall of the Republic in 1940 . At first , the Independent Socialists were a diverse set of socialists who refused to affiliate with an organized party . Indeed , before the creation of the French Section of the Workers ' International ( SFIO ) in 1905 , French socialism was divided between the French Socialist Party ( PSF ) , the Socialist Party of France ( PSdF ) and the French Workers ' Party ( POF ) . Later , the name was applied to parliamentarians and local politicians who believed they held their legitimacy from voters and thus refused to follow the instructions of party leaders . Indeed , the SFIO , the main socialist party , had a strong party organization , something relatively unique in the Third Republic . In the end , following the creation of the SFIO , the name was used to refer to those who did not wish to join the SFIO . A number of those people later joined the Republican-Socialist Party ( PRS ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Independent_Socialists_(France)\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 74513\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Daniel Kelly (actor) Content: Daniel Kelly ( born May 25 , 1992 ) , also known by his stage names Deph Naught and Sif , is a Canadian actor and rapper , most commonly known for his role on the long-running TV series Degrassi : The Next Generation .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Daniel_Kelly_(actor)\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 74386\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Siangham Content: A siangham ( or siangkam ) is an imaginary melee weapon in the Dungeons & Dragons and Pathfinder tabletop role-playing games . It is a narrow , cylindrical thrusting weapon , typically about 1.5 feet ( 46 cm ) long . Its appearance is similar to an arrow , but with a handle on the end . While normally used for thrusting attacks , it can be used to slash or parry . The siangham came from Malaysia , where it is used in a fighting style called Kuntao . It is similar to the emeici , a piercing Chinese weapon .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Siangham\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 74206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sif Vaya, Arizona Content: Sif Vaya is a populated place situated in Pinal County , Arizona . Over the years it has also been known as Bitter Well , Bitter Wells , Bitters Well , and Sivvaxia . Sif Vaya , which means bitter well in O'odham , became the official name as a result of a decision by the Board on Geographic Names in 1941 . It has an estimated elevation of 1965 ft above sea level .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sif_Vaya,_Arizona\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 74189\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Borneo Cultural Festival Content: Borneo Cultural Festival or simplified as BCF is the annual festival of food and music which is held in Sibu , Sarawak on every July -- August every year since 2003 . The festival is organised by the Sibu Municipal Council . The main scope of BCF is to gather the community of Sarawak mainly in Sibu which is generally came from different ethnic and background , serving the society with a multicultural dance , music and traditional food . It 's one of the biggest traditional and yet prestiged festival event in Sibu , Sarawak .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Borneo_Cultural_Festival\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 74163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1170 Siva Content: 1170 Siva , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and large Mars-crosser from the innermost regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 10 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 29 September 1930 , by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte at Uccle Observatory in Belgium , and later named after the Hindu deity Shiva .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"1170_Siva\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 73994\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Von der Decken's sifaka Content: Von der Decken 's sifaka ( Propithecus deckenii ) is a sifaka endemic to Madagascar . It has a length of 92 to 107 centimeters , of which 42-48 centimeters are tail . Von der Decken 's Sifaka lives in western Madagascar . It lives in dry deciduous forest . Its pelage is usually creamy white , with tinges of yellow-gold , silver grey or pale brown on the neck , shoulders , back and limbs . The face is entirely black . Group size is between 2 and 10 individuals , with groups of 3 to 6 most common .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Von_der_Decken's_sifaka\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 73789\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SÍF Sandavágur Content: SÍF Sandavágur is a Faroese Football club based in Sandavágur on the island of Vágar .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"SÍF_Sandavágur\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 73788\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SIG SG 540 Content: The SG 540 is a 5.56 × 45mm NATO assault rifle developed in the early 1970s by Schweizerische Industrie Gesellschaft ( SIG , currently SAN Swiss Arms AG ) based out of Neuhausen , Switzerland as a private venture primarily destined for export markets and as a potential replacement for the 7.5 × 55mm Swiss SG 510 automatic rifle known as the Stgw 57 in Swiss service .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"SIG_SG_540\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 73702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hennef (Sieg) Content: Hennef ( Sieg ) is a town in the Rhein-Sieg district of North Rhine-Westphalia , Germany . It is situated on the river Sieg , approx . 7 km south-east of Siegburg and 15 km east of Bonn . Hennef is the fourth-biggest town in the Rhein-Sieg-Kreis ( i.e. district ) . It is the site of the 15th-century castle , Schloss Allner , next to the Allner See .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Hennef_(Sieg)\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 73593\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sif El Menadi Content: Sif El Menadi is a village in the commune of Reguiba , in Reguiba District , El Oued Province , Algeria . The village is located 7 km southwest of the N48 highway .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sif_El_Menadi\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 73492\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Crowned sifaka Content: The crowned sifaka ( Propithecus coronatus ) is a sifaka endemic to western Madagascar . It is of comparable size to the Golden-crowned sifaka and up to a meter in length , of which 47-57 centimeters are tail . The species is an arboreal vertical climber and leaper whose diet consists of leaves , fruits and flowers . It is threatened by habitat destruction and currently classified as Endangered by the IUCN .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Crowned_sifaka\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 73484\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Common Power Format Content: The Si2 Common Power Format , or CPF is a file format for specifying power-saving techniques early in the design process . In the design of integrated circuits , saving power is a primary goal , and designers are forced to use sophisticated techniques such as clock gating , multi-voltage logic , and turning off the power entirely to inactive blocks . These techniques require a consistent implementation in the design steps of logic design , implementation , and verification . For example , if multiple different power supplies are used , then logic synthesis must insert level shifters , place and route must deal with them correctly , and other tools such as static timing analysis and formal verification must understand these components . As power became an increasingly pressing concern , each tool independently added the features needed . Although this made it possible to build low power flows , it was difficult and error prone since the same information needed to be specified several times , in several formats , to many different tools . CPF was created as a common format that many tools can use to specify power-specific data , so that power intent only need be entered once and can be used consistently by all tools . The aim of CPF is to support an automated , power-aware design infrastructure . Associated with CPF is the Power Forward Initiative ( PFI ) , a group of companies that collaborate to drive low-power design methodology and have contributed to the development of the CPF v1 .0 specification . PFI membership spans EDA , IP , library , foundry fabs , ASIC , IDM , and equipment companies . In March 2007 , CPF v1 .0 was contributed to the Silicon Integration Initiative ( Si2 ) where it was ratified by Si2 's Low Power Coalition ( LPC ) as a Si2 standard . The LPC controls the ongoing evolution of the CPF v1 .0 standard .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Common_Power_Format\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 73464\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Safety integrity level Content: Safety integrity level ( SIL ) is defined as a relative level of risk-reduction provided by a safety function , or to specify a target level of risk reduction . In simple terms , SIL is a measurement of performance required for a safety instrumented function ( SIF ) . The requirements for a given SIL are not consistent among all of the functional safety standards . In the functional safety standards based on the IEC 61508 standard , four SILs are defined , with SIL 4 the most dependable and SIL 1 the least . A SIL is determined based on a number of quantitative factors in combination with qualitative factors such as development process and safety life cycle management .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Safety_integrity_level\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 72801\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sigraf Content: Sigraf ( also Sighraf , Sighrafr , fl . c. 1175 -- 1210 ) was a Romanesque stone sculptor , working on Gotland . He was mainly active as a sculptor of baptismal fonts , but also of reliquaries , carved pillars and reliefs . He was the most productive of several early medieval stone sculptors making baptismal fonts on Gotland .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sigraf\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 72759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Supplemental instruction Content: Supplemental Instruction ( SI ) is an academic support model developed by Dr. Deanna Martin at the University of Missouri -- Kansas City ( UMKC ) in 1973 that uses peer-assisted study sessions to improve student retention and success within targeted historically difficult courses . The SI program provides peer support by having students who succeeded in traditionally difficult academic courses ( e.g. , Organic Chemistry , Biology 101 , Logic ) help other students complete these courses . SI is a non-remedial approach that provides regular review sessions outside of class in which students work collaboratively by discussing readings , comparing notes , working together to predict test items , and sharing ideas for improving class material . Courses selected for SI tend to be `` gatekeeper '' courses for first and second year students -- generally those classes that have a 30 % or higher proportion of students who receive a `` D '' , fail , or withdraw ( the DFW rate ) from the course . Out-of-class review sessions are led by `` SI leaders , '' students who took the class already and did well . SI leaders attend all class lectures , take notes , and act as models to those currently taking the course . The SI model is used for selected courses at the undergraduate , graduate , and professional school levels , and has been adopted by colleges and universities in the United States and internationally .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Supplemental_instruction\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 72555\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Siyah Qalam Content: The Siyah Qalam or Siāh-Qalam ( سیاه قَلَم , Siyah Kalem , meaning `` Black Pen '' ) comprise around 80 extant late 14th and early 15th century miniature folios and ink drawings ( qalam-siāhi ) , paintings and calligraphies , on various material , often silk . Measuring up to 335 x 485 cm , they are generally attributed to several hands , probably Iranian , and bear the strong influence of Chinese art and techniques . In tone and theme , the images are a highpoint of Persian draughtsmanship and include works from the Mozaffarid , Jalāyerid and Turkmen periods . They are sometimes attributed to the notname Muhammad Siyah Qalam ; equivalent in English to the Master of the Black Pen . The figures span a variety of cultures : Iranian , Palestinian , Turkish , Chinese , Mongolian , and Indian , and date to the century after reign of the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur . Notable for their intrinsic quality , they contain depictions of diabolic imagery , everyday nomadic life , and contemporary culture 's relationship with the dead . They are held at the Topkapi Saray Library , Istanbul ; parts of the larger Diez Albums of the Berlin State Library are closely related .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Siyah_Qalam\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 72530\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hennef (Sieg) station Content: Hennef ( Sieg ) station is located on the Sieg Railway in the town of Hennef ( Sieg ) in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia . It was opened in 1859 for passenger and freight traffic by the Cologne-Minden Railway Company along with the Sieg Railway .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Hennef_(Sieg)_station\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 72442\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Archaeological Museum of Sifnos Content: The Archaeological Museum of Sifnos is a museum , in the village of Kastro on Sifnos ( the capital of the island since the Archaic period until 1836 ) , in Greece . Its collections include exhibits dating from the early Bronze Age to the late Byzantine period . There are mostly local finds . The building of the museum belongs to the medieval nucleus of the Kastro . It was restored by the Greek Ministry of Culture and opened to the public in 1986 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Archaeological_Museum_of_Sifnos\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 72360\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Swiss Ice Hockey Federation Content: The Swiss Ice Hockey Federation ( SIHF ) ( Schweizerischer Eishockeyverband ( SEHV ) , Ligue Suisse de Hockey sur Glace ( LSHG ) , Federazione Svizzera di hockey su ghiaccio ) is the governing body of ice hockey in Switzerland , as recognized by the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) . It was founded in 1908 and is a founding member of the IIHF . It manages both the amateur and professional games in Switzerland , as well as the national teams on junior and senior levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Swiss_Ice_Hockey_Federation\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 72249\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stocksunds IF Content: Stocksunds Idrottsförening , Stocksunds IF , SIF , is a Swedish sportsclub in Stocksund , just north of Stockholm . The club was founded on 3 January 1935 and at present it has sections for ice hockey , association football , figure skating and floorball . The colours of the club are yellow and black and the team logo displays the Cedergren Tower , a well-known landmark in and around Stocksund . At present , Stocksunds IF does not compete in the elite leagues in any sport but has a broad activity for youths . Ice hockey player Tommy Albelin played for Stocksunds IF when he was in his teens . Category : Sports teams in Sweden Category : Ice hockey teams in Sweden\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Stocksunds_IF\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 71964\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Siva (rebreather) Content: Siva is a model series of frogman 's rebreather made by Carleton Life Support originally made by Fullerton Sherwood Engineering Ltd. . They are : Siva S10 oxygen rebreather , dive duration 4 hours . Worn on the front of the chest . Siva S24 , usable as oxygen rebreather , or as a semi-closed circuit mixed gas rebreather with maximum depth normally 24 metres , can be set to 55 metres . Worn on the front of the chest . SIVA-55 ( technical data , images ) and SIVA PLUS : superseded by the Carleton Viper . They are worn on the back . The Siva 55 is equipped with 2 200 bar ( Inconel ) spheres with a total volume of 5.6 litres . The Siva 55 ( 55 metres of depth ) also known as ( CCDA ) Canadian Clearance Diving Apparatus works with any one of 3 Nitrox mixes ( 32.5 , 40 and 60 % Oxygen ) or pure oxygen . The pure oxygen is used for closed circuit diving so the diver can work without bubbles . The other Nato standard B , C and D mix are standard nitrox mixes used in semiclosed-circuit mode .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Siva_(rebreather)\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 71944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Siarnaq Content: Siarnaq ( -LSB- ˈsiːɑrnɑːk -RSB- ) , or Saturn XXIX , is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn . It was discovered by Brett J. Gladman , et al. in 2000 , and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 3 . Named after the giant Siarnaq of Inuit mythology , it is the largest member of the Inuit group of irregular satellites . Siarnaq is thought to be about 40 kilometers in diameter . It orbits Saturn at an average distance of 17.5 Gm in 895 days . The rotation period was measured by the Cassini spacecraft to approximately 10 hours and 9 minutes ; this is the shortest rotation period of all prograde irregular moons of Saturn . It is light red in color , and the Siarnaupian ( Siarnaqan ) spectrum in the infrared is very similar to the Inuit-group satellites Paaliaq and Kiviuq , supporting the thesis of a possible common origin in the break-up of a larger body . Siarnaq has been found to be in a secular resonance with Saturn , involving the precession of its periapsis and that of the planet .1 The studies of these resonances are key to understand the capture mechanism for the irregular satellites and , assuming a common origin of a given dynamical group in the break-up of a single body , to explain today 's dispersion of the orbital elements . 1The ecliptic longitudes of the periapsis of the satellite and the planet are locked .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Siarnaq\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 71934\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Silodosin Content: Silodosin ( trade names Rapaflo ( USA ) , Silodyx ( Europe and South Africa ) , Rapilif ( India ) , Silodal ( India ) , Urief ( Japan ) , Thrupas ( South Korea ) , Urorec ( Russia ) ) is a medication for the symptomatic treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia . It acts as an α1-adrenoceptor antagonist with high uroselectivity ( selectivity for the prostate ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Silodosin\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 71916\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 11066 Sigurd Content: 11066 Sigurd , provisional designation , is a stony , rare-type asteroid and elongated contact binary , classified as near-Earth object of the Apollo group of asteroids , approximately 2.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 9 February 1992 , by American astronomer couple Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker at Palomar Observatory , California , and named after Sigurd , a hero from Norse mythology .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"11066_Sigurd\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 71705\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sí se puede Content: Sí , se puede ( Spanish for `` Yes , it is possible '' or , roughly , `` Yes , one can '' ; -LSB- ˈsi se ˈpwe.ðe -RSB- ) is the motto of the United Farm Workers . In 1972 , during Cesar Chavez 's 25-day fast in Phoenix , Arizona , UFW 's co-founder , Dolores Huerta , came up with the slogan . The phrase has been widely adopted by other labor unions and civil rights organizations and drew widespread political and media attention as a rallying cry during the U.S. immigration reform protests , and was also used in the 2002 Disney film Got ta Kick It Up ! The saying Sí Se Puede has long been a UFW guiding principle that has served to inspire accomplishment of goals even in what at times may seem insurmountable situations . Sí Se Puede is a federally Registered Trademark of the UFW so the UFW can maintain the original meaning of this saying .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sí_se_puede\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 71606\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sibu (crater) Content: Sibu crater is an impact crater lying situated within the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle ( MC-19 ) region on the surface of the planet Mars , located in the Valles Marineris hemisphere in an area southeast of the Jones crater . It is located at and is 17.63 kilometres in diameter . It was named after the town of Sibu in Sarawak , Malaysia in 1976 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sibu_(crater)\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 71587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Interamerican Society of Cardiology Content: The Interamerican Society of Cardiology ( SIAC for its Spanish acronym ) is a nongovernmental association formed by the National Societies of Cardiology of the American Continent . The Interamerican Society of Cardiology , together with the European Society of Cardiology , founded in 1950 , the Asian Pacific Society of Cardiology , founded in 1956 , and the African Society of Cardiology founded in 1981 are the four Intercontinental Professional Societies of Cardiology of the World Heart Federation ( WHF for its acronym in English ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Interamerican_Society_of_Cardiology\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 71538\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Israel Sieff, Baron Sieff Content: Israel Moses Sieff , Baron Sieff ( 4 May 1889 , Prestwich , Lancashire -- 14 February 1972 , Marylebone , London ) was an English businessman and Zionist . He was born in Manchester , where his father , a migrant from Lithuania , founded a prosperous business . Sieff was the son of Ephraim Sieff . He was educated at Manchester Grammar School and Manchester University . One of the theatres at Manchester Grammar School is named in his honour . In 1918 , Sieff was a member of the Zionist Commission which visited Palestine under the leadership of Chaim Weizmann . Sieff was president of the Political and Economic Planning think-tank from its foundation in 1931 and its chairman until 1939 . He was chairman of the British retailer Marks & Spencer from 1964 to 1967 . On 18 January 1966 he was created a life peer as Baron Sieff , of Brimpton in the Royal County of Berkshire . Upon the death of his son Daniel -- and with the financial support of his business partners and relatives by marriage , the Marks and Sacher families -- Sieff endowed the 1934 creation , by Chaim Weizmann , of the Daniel Sieff Research Institute in Rehovot in present-day Israel . Renamed the Weizmann Institute of Science in 1949 with the Sieff family 's consent , it is Israel 's premier research university in the natural sciences . Sieff was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium and his ashes were placed next to those of Simon Marks . The second of Sieff 's three sons , Marcus , was also created a life peer , becoming Lord Sieff of Brimpton .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Israel_Sieff,_Baron_Sieff\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 71339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1446 Sillanpää Content: 1446 Sillanpää , provisional designation , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 26 January 1938 , by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland . It was later named after writer Frans Eemil Sillanpää .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"1446_Sillanpää\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 71297\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A.D.F. Siquirres Content: ADF Siquirres is a Costa Rican sports club , mostly known for its football team which currently plays in the Segunda División de Costa Rica . The club is located in Siquirres , Limón Province , and play their home games at the Finca Siquirres .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"A.D.F._Siquirres\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 71177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bicolored foxface Content: The bicolored foxface , Siganus uspi , is a rabbitfish found at reefs off Fiji in the Pacific . It occasionally makes its way into the aquarium trade . It grows to a size of 24 cm in length . It was described by Michael J. Gawel after the University of the South Pacific .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Bicolored_foxface\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 71141\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Set intersection oracle Content: A set intersection oracle ( SIO ) is a data structure which represents a collection of sets and can quickly answer queries about whether the set intersection of two given sets is non-empty . The input to the problem is n finite sets . The sum of the sizes of all sets is N ( which also means that there are at most N distinct elements ) . The SIO should quickly answer any query of the form : `` Does the set Si intersect the set Sk '' ?\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Set_intersection_oracle\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 70784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SNF1LK Content: Serine/threonine-protein kinase SIK1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the SIK1 gene .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"SNF1LK\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 70562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sio nordenskjoldii Content: Sio nordenskjoldii , Nordenskjold 's bigscale , is a species of ridgehead found in the southern oceans at depths of from 200 to . This species grows to a length of 12.3 cm SL . This species is the only known member of its genus . This species is of minor importance to commercial fisheries .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sio_nordenskjoldii\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 70435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Siyeh Glacier Content: Siyeh Glacier is in Glacier National Park in the U.S. state of Montana . The glacier lies in a deep cirque to the north of Mount Siyeh at an elevation between 7200 ft and 6800 ft above sea level . Siyeh Glacier covers an area of less than 10 acre and does not meet the threshold of 25 acre often cited as being the minimum size to qualify as an active glacier . Siyeh Glacier has experienced massive retreat , losing over 73 percent of its surface area between 1966 and 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Siyeh_Glacier\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 70417\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sigsbee (skipjack) Content: The Sigsbee is a Chesapeake Bay skipjack , built in 1901 at Deal Island , Maryland , United States . She is a 47 ft two-sail bateau , or `` V '' - bottomed deadrise type of centerboard sloop . She has a beam of 15.8 ft , a depth of 3.8 ft , and a gross registered tonnage of 8 tons . She is one of the 35 surviving traditional Chesapeake Bay skipjacks and a member of the last commercial sailing fleet in the United States . She is owned and operated by the Living Classrooms Foundation in Baltimore , Maryland . She was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sigsbee_(skipjack)\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 70384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sebsi Content: A sebsi or sibsi ( سبسي , plural : sbasa ) is a traditional Moroccan cannabis pipe with a narrow clay bowl called a skuff ( or shkaff ) , with a fine metal screen . To this a hardwood stem is attached , which may be up to 46 cm long . The sebsi may be used to smoke kief ( cannabis pollen ) or mixtures of cannabis with tobacco or other herbs . The sebsi provides a small , low-temperature serving of cannabis , compared with larger traditional smoking devices like the chillum of India and Jamaica .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sebsi\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 70302\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sifnos Content: Sifnos ( Σίφνος the spelling Siphnos is obsolete in English but still by convention often used to refer to the island in ancient times ) is an island municipality in the Cyclades island group in Greece . The main town , near the center , known as Apollonia ( pop . 869 ) , is home of the island 's folklore museum and library . The town 's name is thought to come from an ancient temple of Apollo on the site of the church of Panayia Yeraniofora . The second-largest town is Artemonas ( 800 ) , thought to be named after an ancient temple of Apollo 's sister-goddess Artemis , located at the site of the church of Panayia Kokhi . The village of Kastro ( 118 ) , was the capital of the island during ancient times until 1836 . It is built on top of a high cliff on the island 's east shore and today has extensive medieval remains and is the location of the island 's archeological museum . The port settlement , on the west coast of the island is known as Kamares ( 245 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sifnos\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 69949\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shift Out and Shift In characters Content: Shift Out ( SO ) and Shift In ( SI ) are ASCII control characters 14 and 15 , respectively ( 0x0E and 0x0F . ) These are sometimes also called `` Control-N '' and `` Control-O '' . The original meaning of those characters provided a way to shift a coloured ribbon , split longitudinally usually with red and black , up and down to the other colour in an electro-mechanical typewriter or teleprinter , such as the Teletype Model 38 , to automate the same function of manual typewriters . Black was the conventional ambient default colour and so was shifted `` in '' or `` out '' with the other colour on the ribbon . Later advancements in technology instigated use of this function for switching to a different font or character set and back . This was used , for instance , in the Russian character set known as KOI7 , where SO starts printing Russian letters , and SI starts printing Latin letters again . SO/SI control characters also are used to display VT-100 pseudographics , and emoji ( Japanese picture icons ) on SoftBank Mobile . ISO/IEC 2022 standard specifies their generalized usage .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Shift_Out_and_Shift_In_characters\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 69887\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Yezo sika deer Content: The Yezo sika deer ( Cervus nippon yesoensis ) is one of the many subspecies of the sika deer . The sika that inhabit the island of Hokkaido are indigenous , although it is not known whether they originated there or migrated from the main island of Japan . Is it thought they may have traveled across the strait between the islands . The indigenous Ainu people of Hokkaido have hunted them for centuries and relied on them as a major food source . The Hokkaido sika one is the largest of the sika species with large stags approaching and sometimes exceeding 200 kg in the fall . They also sport the largest antlers with lengths often over 35 inches with the longest recorded specimen being 44 inches . By SCI measurement the Hokkaido sika produces the highest scores , although very few have been listed .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Yezo_sika_deer\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 69841\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sibley tent Content: The Sibley tent was invented by the American military officer Henry Hopkins Sibley and patented in 1856 . Of conical design , it stands about 12 ft high and 18 ft in diameter . It can comfortably house about a dozen men . The Sibley design differed from other conical tents , or bell tents in a number of ways . Sibley 's design is supported by a central pole that telescopes down into the supporting tripod so that it takes less space to pack and store . The tripod could be erected over a firepit for cooking and heat . The Sibley design also required no guy ropes , being held down by twenty-four pegs around the base . Additionally , unlike earlier designs , the use of a cowl over the central pole allowed for ventilation and for the escape of smoke , regardless of wind direction .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sibley_tent\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 69828\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Social Finance (US non-profit organization) Content: Social Finance , Inc. is a nonprofit organization focusing on the emerging field of Pay for Success ( PFS ) financing ( also called a Social Impact Bond ( SIB ) ) in the United States . Social Finance provides advisory , social investment , and active performance management services to public - and private-sector partners seeking to drive more resources to social programs that deliver proven results to those in need . The organization has offices in Boston , MA and Austin , TX .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Social_Finance_(US_non-profit_organization)\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 69674\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steel and Industrial Forgings Ltd Content: Steel and Industrial Forgings Ltd ( SIFL ) is a public sector undertaking ( PSU ) fully owned by Government of Kerala situated in Athani in Thrissur , Kerala state of India . The company was incorporated in 1983 and started commercial production in 1986 . It is an AS 9100 C and ISO 9001:2008 certified company . The main products of SIFL are : Complex and high precision aerospace forgings , specialised forgings for defence , heavy forgings for commercial vehicles , Indian Railways and other components for automobiles etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Steel_and_Industrial_Forgings_Ltd\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 69557\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Apple (1998 film) Content: The Apple ( سیب , translit . Sib ) is the 1998 directorial debut by Samira Makhmalbaf , daughter of Iranian director Mohsen Makhmalbaf . The film is based on a true story and features the real people that actually lived it . The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Apple_(1998_film)\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 69391\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Siglistorf Content: Siglistorf is a municipality in the district of Zurzach in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Siglistorf\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 69364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SIG GL 5040 Content: The SIG GL 5040/5140 is a 40 mm grenade launcher , which can be mounted under all SIG SG 550/551 assault rifle models and is operated in single-shot mode . For compact SG 552/553 , the smaller GL 5340 grenade launcher can be used .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"SIG_GL_5040\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 69333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vignerons indépendants de France Content: The Vignerons indépendants de France ( VIF ) ( English : Independent winemakers of France ) is a viticultural trade association based in Paris that promotes and assists small and independent winemakers within France , similar to the British Society of Independent Brewers ( SIBA ) . Members may use the association 's logo on their products . In 1978 , it was set up as confédération nationale des caves particulières . ( CNCP ) , but changed their name and their charter in 2003 to try to unite and support independent winemakers and help them fight to keep their independence against powerful winemaking cooperatives . They currently have between 6000 and 10000 members throughout France ( as of 2009 ) . Each year , VIF arranges a number of wine fairs ( Salon des vins ) in different cities in France .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Vignerons_indépendants_de_France\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 69192\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SANS Investigative Forensics Toolkit Content: The SANS Investigative Forensic Toolkit ( `` SIFT '' ) is a computer forensics VMware appliance that is pre-configured with all the necessary tools to perform a detailed digital forensic examination . It is compatible with expert witness format ( E01 ) , advanced forensic format ( AFF ) , and raw ( dd ) evidence formats . The new version has been completely rebuilt on an Ubuntu base with many additional tools and capabilities that can match any modern forensic tool suite .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"SANS_Investigative_Forensics_Toolkit\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 69159\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Systemically important financial institution Content: A systemically important financial institution ( SIFI ) is a bank , insurance company , or other financial institution whose failure might trigger a financial crisis . They are colloquially referred to as `` too big to fail '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Systemically_important_financial_institution\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 69020\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sieff Content: Sieff may refer to : Adam Sieff , Communications Director at Dune Music , and a former Sony Music Director of Jazz Israel Sieff , Baron Sieff ( 1889 -- 1972 ) , British businessman Jeanloup Sieff ( 1933 -- 2000 ) , fashion photographer Joseph Sieff ( 1906 -- 1982 ) , businessman and British Zionist Marcus Sieff , Baron Sieff of Brimpton OBE ( 1913 -- 2001 ) , Jewish British businessman , chairman of Marks & Spencer from 1972 to 1982\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sieff\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 68930\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sieber (river) Content: The Sieber is a 35-kilometre-long , right hand tributary of the Oder in the Harz mountains of Germany . It rises at 760 metres on the Bruchberg massif and flows through Herzberg before discharging at Hattorf into the Oder which , in turn , flows into the Rhume . Its tributaries include the Kulmke , Lonau and Goldenke . In February 1910 , as part of his hydrological research into the Rhumequelle , Karl Thürnau dyed the Sieber tributary of the Eichelbach ( Herzberg ) with six kilogrammes of fluorescein . Three days later , weakly dyed water appeared in the main source of the Rhumequelle . This was confirmed in 1980 by dye tracing carried out by the Geological Survey of Lower Saxony ( Niedersächsischen Landesamtes für Bodenforschung ) . This also indicated links between the Rhumequelle and the Sieber near Hörden and the Oder near Scharzfeld . The construction of a dam was planned but never realised . As a result the Sieber valley is the only unregulated river valley in the western Harz . The upper Sieber valley has been out-of-bounds to motor traffic since the 1980s from the Forsthaus Königshof and lies partly within the Harz National Park -- the road leads to the B 242 federal highway northwest of Sonnenberg . The river gives its name to the village of Sieber in the middle of the Sieber valley . 1Sieber Category : Rivers of Lower Saxony Category : Rivers of the Harz\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Sieber_(river)\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 68799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Penobscot Experimental Forest Content: The Penobscot Experimental Forest ( PEF ) is an Experimental Forest managed by the US Forest Service ( USFS ) in the towns of Bradley and Eddington , in the state of Maine , USA . The mission of the PEF is to afford a setting for long-term research conducted cooperatively by USDA Forest Service scientists , university researchers , and professional forest managers in Maine ; to enhance forestry education of students and the public ; and to demonstrate how the timber needs of society are met from a working forest . The forests that encompasses the PEF today were originally purchased by nine pulp , paper , and land-holding companies in 1950 and was leased to the USFS Northeastern Forest Experiment Station as a site for long-term forest management and research . In 1994 , the PEF was donated to the University of Maine . Since then the PEF has been jointly managed by the University of Maine and the USFS . The primary research experiment at the PEF has been a long-term silviculture experiment , which contains a replicated treatments from a range of even-age and uneven-age silvicultural prescriptions , including clearcut , shelterwood , selection , diameter-limit , and unmanaged silvicultural treatments .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Penobscot_Experimental_Forest\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 68674\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wall of death Content: The Wall of Death , motordrome , silodrome or Well of Death ( aka `` Maut ka Kuaa '' , India ) is a carnival sideshow featuring a silo - or barrel-shaped wooden cylinder , typically ranging from 20 to in diameter and made of wooden planks , inside which motorcyclists , or the drivers of miniature automobiles , travel along the vertical wall and perform stunts , held in place by friction and centrifugal force .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Wall_of_death\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 68525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Silsbee effect Content: The Silsbee effect or Silsbee current refers to the effect by which , if the current exceeds a critical level , the superconducting state will be destroyed . The size of the critical current ( which can be as large as 100 amp in a 1-mm wire ) depends on the nature and geometry of the specimen and is related to whether the magnetic field produced by the current exceeds the critical field at the surface of the superconductor .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Silsbee_effect\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 68500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association Content: The Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association ( SIFMA ) is a United States industry trade group representing securities firms , banks , and asset management companies . SIFMA was formed on November 1 , 2006 , from the merger of the Bond Market Association and the Securities Industry Association . It has offices in New York City and Washington , D.C. In October 2008 , SIFMA reduced its staff by 25 % or more due to the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 which left its member firms in financial straits , and the loss of three of its primary member firms -- Lehman Brothers , Bear Stearns , and Merrill Lynch . The dismissals came at the same time as the United States Congress was considering changes in the country 's financial regulatory structure . SIFMA announced in May 2009 that it would also shed its London-based European operation . That operation was merged into the London Investment Banking Association ( LIBA ) . The 350-member American Securitization Forum ( ASF ) formerly operated as a forum of SIFMA . On January 14 , 2010 , ASF announced that it had chosen to terminate its affiliation with SIFMA as well .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Securities_Industry_and_Financial_Markets_Association\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 68494\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Siemki Content: Siemki -LSB- ' śe1mki -RSB- ( German Scharfs ) is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Reszel , within Kętrzyn County , Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship , in northern Poland . It lies approximately 8 km north-east of Reszel , 9 km west of Kętrzyn , and 60 km north-east of the regional capital Olsztyn . Before 1945 the area was part of Germany ( East Prussia ) . The village has a population of 119 .\",\n \"qid\": \"163\",\n \"docid\": \"Siemki\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 68468\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":77,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Small increases in average temperature translate to big increases in the number of extremely hot days, and those hot days have a big impact."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"164","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":1,"score":111369},{"content":"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia","rank":2,"score":99601},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_Australia","rank":3,"score":98293},{"content":"Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )","qid":"164","docid":"Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate","rank":4,"score":97830},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"164","docid":"Global_warming","rank":5,"score":97798},{"content":"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska","rank":6,"score":95201},{"content":"Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .","qid":"164","docid":"Impact_winter","rank":7,"score":93920},{"content":"Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology","qid":"164","docid":"LOWERN","rank":8,"score":91804},{"content":"Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .","qid":"164","docid":"Living_in_the_Hothouse","rank":9,"score":90508},{"content":"Title: Angry Summer Content: The Australian summer of 2012 -- 2013 , known as the Angry Summer or Extreme Summer , resulted in 123 weather records being broken over a 90-day period , including the hottest day ever recorded for Australia as a whole , the hottest January on record , the hottest summer average on record , and a record seven days in a row when the whole continent averaged above 39 ° C. Single-day temperature records were broken in dozens of towns and cities , as well as single-day rainfall records , and several rivers flooded to new record highs . In January 2013 , the Bureau of Meteorology altered its weather forecasting chart 's temperature scale to include a range , coloured purple , between 52 ° and 54 ° C . The reporting of the heatwave in the Australian media attracted controversy in the scientific community , as very few articles cited a correlation between the event and climate change , which it was correlated with according to studies conducted by the University of Melbourne .","qid":"164","docid":"Angry_Summer","rank":10,"score":90463},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":11,"score":90002},{"content":"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .","qid":"164","docid":"Hypercane","rank":12,"score":89963},{"content":"Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .","qid":"164","docid":"Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature","rank":13,"score":88751},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"164","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":14,"score":88716},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"164","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":15,"score":88424},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_Wyoming","rank":16,"score":88327},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_Argentina","rank":17,"score":87161},{"content":"Title: Brookings effect Content: The Brookings Effect is a meteorological phenomenon that affects the southern coast of Oregon , in which dry adiabatic heating increases the temperature of a mass of air as it travels down slope . It can occur at any time of the year producing temperatures near the Chetco River mouth which are up to 40 F-change higher than without the air movement . It is the same phenomenon as the Santa Ana winds . On July 8 , 2008 , Brookings recorded a high temperature of 108 ° F at the airport . This was not only the highest recorded temperature in the town 's history , but also the highest recorded in Oregon on that day . The Crescent City airport , approximately 30 miles south , recorded a high temperature of 68 ° F that day . Temperatures in inland Oregon throughout the Willamette Valley reached temperatures into the mid-nineties . The Brookings Effect remained very strong and localized until July 13 , 2008 , when high temperatures in Brookings dropped to 61 ° F , which is about seven degrees lower than average during the month . This report contradicts the common idea that the Brookings Effect is a Chinook wind , as moisture does not appear to play a role in the moist adiabatic cooling of air on the windward side of a mountain range , followed by dry adiabatic warming on the lee side . In contrast , the Brookings Effect resembles a Santa Ana Wind , common in Southern California in the autumn and winter . In nearly every event observed , the Brookings Effect occurs when there is a high pressure ridge off the Pacific Northwest coast or in the Great Basin , depending on the time of year , and often a cutoff low in southern to central California , causing a northerly to easterly wind in the Brookings area . Studies have shown that the north-to-south orientation of the Chetco River mouth and the town of Brookings plays a large role in the high temperatures recorded , and the reason the effect is localized . During most of the year , a sea breeze sets up along the coastline with prevailing surface winds from the northwest . The heart of Brookings , with its orientation , is protected from this maritime flow and the warm , dry , down-sloping winds that are funneled down the coastal range into the deep Chetco River gorge can reach the coast uninfluenced by the effects of the Pacific . During the Brookings Effect , there is a strong correlation between the observed temperature in Brookings and the 850 millibar temperature ( the temperature at approximately 5000 ft ) in Medford , Oregon , as is determined by the weather balloon sensing equipment launched twice a day . Medford , located inland of Brookings , is located in a valley , surrounded by the Oregon Coast Range , the Siskiyou Mountains , and the Cascade Mountains . The surface temperature in Medford is often influenced by the mountains , but the 850 millibar temperature , well off the surface , is about even with the mountain ridges in the area , and therefore unaffected . Mesoscale easterly flow at this level will cause the same air mass to move westward toward Brookings , and studies show that high pressure induced atmospheric subsidence causes the air mass to flow down the slopes of the coastal range . The Chetco River gorge , which is very deep in some places , works as a funnel to bring the parcel to the coast . Often in the winter , temperatures in Medford may peak near 40 ° F , while temperatures in Brookings will reach the upper 70s ( 25 + ° C ) due to the effect , causing Brookings to live up to its `` banana belt '' reputation .","qid":"164","docid":"Brookings_effect","rank":18,"score":86571},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"164","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":19,"score":86563},{"content":"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_South_Korea","rank":20,"score":86060},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":21,"score":85955},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_Texas","rank":22,"score":85388},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":23,"score":85351},{"content":"Title: 2013 heatwave in Ireland and the United Kingdom Content: The 2013 heat wave in the United Kingdom and Ireland was a period of unusually hot weather primarily in July 2013 , with isolated warm days in June and August . A prolonged high pressure system over Britain and Ireland caused higher than average temperatures for 19 consecutive days in July , reaching 33.5 ° C at Heathrow and Northolt . Following a brief period of cooler weather at the end of July , temperatures temporarily rose again , peaking at 34.1 ° C on 1 August in the United Kingdom , the warmest the country had seen since July 2006 , and 31.0 ° C in Ireland . At 19 days , the July heatwave was the longest continuous period of hot weather in the UK since August 1997 . However , in the general sense , Britain did not have an overall exceptional summer ; the country experienced cool low pressure systems brought by an unseasonably low latitude by the jet stream for the 6 summers previous , which made the summer of 2013 more `` welcome '' and feel warmer than other summers . The historical records suggests `` Using the CET record ( for June , July & August ) , the average temperature by that measure was 16.3 degC ( Provisional ) : neither June nor August was exceptionally warm , so this value does not ` rate ' too highly when set against other very warm summer seasons . '' With June being a cool month and August being an Average month , in terms of temperatures the English Central summer temperature ended up being on the average side set up against previous summers since the CET series began in 1659 .","qid":"164","docid":"2013_heatwave_in_Ireland_and_the_United_Kingdom","rank":24,"score":85304},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":25,"score":84862},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"164","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":26,"score":84470},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"164","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":27,"score":84232},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .","qid":"164","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka","rank":28,"score":83681},{"content":"Title: Massenerhebung effect Content: The Massenerhebung effect ( German for `` mountain mass elevation '' ) describes variation in the tree line based on mountain size and location . In general , mountains surrounded by large ranges will tend to have higher tree lines than more isolated mountains due to heat retention and wind shadowing . This effect is important for determining weather patterns in mountainous regions , as regions of similar altitude and latitude may nonetheless have much warmer or colder climates based on surrounding mountain ranges . For example , in Borneo , Gunung Palung , located on the coast , has moss forest at 900 m , while the montane forest on Gunung Mulu starts at 1200 m and at 1800 m on Mount Kinabalu .","qid":"164","docid":"Massenerhebung_effect","rank":29,"score":83275},{"content":"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .","qid":"164","docid":"Fisheries_and_climate_change","rank":30,"score":83025},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"164","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":31,"score":82521},{"content":"Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .","qid":"164","docid":"Global_warming_in_Antarctica","rank":32,"score":82399},{"content":"Title: Hot and high Content: In aviation , hot and high is a condition of low air density due to high ambient temperature and high airport elevation . Air density decreases with increasing temperature and altitude . At any given true airspeed , lower air density reduces the amount of lift generated by the wings or the rotors of an aircraft , which may hamper an aircraft 's performance and hence its ability to operate safely . The reduced density also reduces the performance of the aircraft 's engine , compounding the effect . Aviators gauge air density by calculating the density altitude . `` Hot '' and `` high '' do not have to be mutually inclusive of one another , though this tends to be the exception . If an airport is especially hot or high , the other condition need not be present . Temperatures can change from one hour to the next , while the elevation of an airport always remains constant . The fact that temperatures decrease at higher elevations mitigates the `` hot and high '' effect to a certain extent .","qid":"164","docid":"Hot_and_high","rank":33,"score":82061},{"content":"Title: Thermal fluctuations Content: In statistical mechanics , thermal fluctuations are random deviations of a system from its average state , that occur in a system at equilibrium . All thermal fluctuations become larger and more frequent as the temperature increases , and likewise they decrease as temperature approaches absolute zero . Thermal fluctuations are a basic manifestation of the temperature of systems : A system at nonzero temperature does not stay in its equilibrium microscopic state , but instead randomly samples all possible states , with probabilities given by the Boltzmann distribution . Thermal fluctuations generally affect all the degrees of freedom of a system : There can be random vibrations ( phonons ) , random rotations ( rotons ) , random electronic excitations , and so forth . Thermodynamic variables , such as pressure , temperature , or entropy , likewise undergo thermal fluctuations . For example , for a system that has an equilibrium pressure , the system pressure fluctuates to some extent about the equilibrium value . Only the ` control variables ' of statistical ensembles ( such as N , V and E in the microcanonical ensemble ) do not fluctuate . Thermal fluctuations are a source of noise in many systems . The random forces that give rise to thermal fluctuations are a source of both diffusion and dissipation ( including damping and viscosity ) . The competing effects of random drift and resistance to drift are related by the fluctuation-dissipation theorem . Thermal fluctuations play a major role in phase transitions and chemical kinetics .","qid":"164","docid":"Thermal_fluctuations","rank":34,"score":81800},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"164","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":35,"score":81415},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"164","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":36,"score":81254},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"164","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":37,"score":81223},{"content":"Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .","qid":"164","docid":"Excessive_heat_watch","rank":38,"score":81040},{"content":"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .","qid":"164","docid":"Reasons_for_concern","rank":39,"score":80390},{"content":"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .","qid":"164","docid":"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":40,"score":80313},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":41,"score":79857},{"content":"Title: 2006 European heat wave Content: The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries . The United Kingdom , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , Italy , Poland , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Germany and western parts of Russia were most affected . Several records were broken . In the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Ireland and the United Kingdom , July 2006 was the warmest month since official measurements began .","qid":"164","docid":"2006_European_heat_wave","rank":42,"score":79788},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"164","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":43,"score":79692},{"content":"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .","qid":"164","docid":"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves","rank":44,"score":79582},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"164","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":45,"score":79298},{"content":"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .","qid":"164","docid":"Sea_level_rise","rank":46,"score":79106},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"164","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":47,"score":78970},{"content":"Title: Hot Cities Content: Hot Cities is an environmental documentary series broadcast in Autumn 2009 by BBC World News . It highlighted the effects of global warming and climate change on the world 's most populous cities .","qid":"164","docid":"Hot_Cities","rank":48,"score":78823},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_York_City","rank":49,"score":78783},{"content":"Title: Urban heat island Content: An urban heat island ( UHI ) is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities . The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day , and is most apparent when winds are weak . UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter . The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces . Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor . As a population center grows , it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature . The less-used term heat island refers to any area , populated or not , which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area . Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities , partially due to the UHI . Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons , and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes . The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone , and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems . Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island . Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in urban areas , which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat . There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming . Research on China and India indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30 % . On the other hand , one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends . Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change .","qid":"164","docid":"Urban_heat_island","rank":50,"score":78461},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .","qid":"164","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans","rank":51,"score":78433},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":52,"score":78304},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .","qid":"164","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia","rank":53,"score":78213},{"content":"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .","qid":"164","docid":"Cloud_feedback","rank":54,"score":78004},{"content":"Title: 2001 Eastern North America heat wave Content: A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States ( with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions ) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July . It began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying . It waned in most areas by the middle of the month , and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves , it was very intense at its peak . The high humidity and high temperatures led to major heat wave that overtook the major Northeast Megalopolis . Temperatures in Central Park , New York City reached a peak of 103 F . The temperature reached 105 F in Newark , New Jersey . Meanwhile , in Ontario and Quebec , extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August . Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached 37 C on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit 38 C on the same day , the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping 35 C. Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave . Even in Nova Scotia , surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures still broke 35 C in some locations . Glace Bay , which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking 35.5 C on August 10 . At least four New Yorkers died of hyperthermia . Chicago had at least 21 deaths .","qid":"164","docid":"2001_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave","rank":55,"score":77930},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"164","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":56,"score":77912},{"content":"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_inertia","rank":57,"score":77706},{"content":"Title: Drought in the United Kingdom Content: Droughts are a relatively common feature of the weather in the United Kingdom , with one around every 5 -- 10 years on average . These droughts are usually during the summer , when a blocking high causes hot , dry weather for an extended period . However droughts can vary in their characteristics . All types of drought cause issues across all sectors , with impacts extending to the ecosystem , agriculture and the economy of the whole country in severe cases of drought . The south east of the country usually suffers most , as it has the highest population ( and therefore demand ) and the lowest average precipitation per year , which is even lower in a drought . Even in these areas in severe droughts , the definition , impacts , effects and management are all minimal in comparison to drought prone areas such as Australia and parts of the United States . In recent years however , the summers of 2007 , 2008 , 2009 and August 2010 were wetter than normal , 2007 being wettest on record .","qid":"164","docid":"Drought_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":58,"score":77488},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .","qid":"164","docid":"Greenhouse_effect","rank":59,"score":77206},{"content":"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.","qid":"164","docid":"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves","rank":60,"score":77178},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change","rank":61,"score":76879},{"content":"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .","qid":"164","docid":"Albrecht_effect","rank":62,"score":76805},{"content":"Title: Pan evaporation Content: Pan evaporation is a measurement that combines or integrates the effects of several climate elements : temperature , humidity , rain fall , drought dispersion , solar radiation , and wind . Evaporation is greatest on hot , windy , dry , sunny days ; and is greatly reduced when clouds block the sun and when air is cool , calm , and humid . Pan evaporation measurements enable farmers and ranchers to understand how much water their crops will need .","qid":"164","docid":"Pan_evaporation","rank":63,"score":76762},{"content":"Title: Apparent temperature Content: Apparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans , caused by the combined effects of air temperature , relative humidity and wind speed . The measures are most commonly applied to perceived outdoor temperatures , but also apply to indoors , especially to saunas or when homes or workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled or insulated to provide comfortable or healthy conditions . The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above 80 ° F ( 27 degrees C ) . In humid conditions , the air feels much hotter , because of the reduction in evaporation of perspiration . The wind chill factor measures the effect of wind speed on cooling of the human body below 50 ° F ( 10 degrees C ) . As airflow increases over the skin , more heat will be removed . Standard models and conditions are used . The wet-bulb globe temperature ( WBGT ) combines the effects of radiation , humidity , temperature and wind speed on the perception of temperature . It is not often used as the resulting figure is very location specific ( e.g. cloud cover and/or wind shielding ) .","qid":"164","docid":"Apparent_temperature","rank":64,"score":76667},{"content":"Title: Climate of Dhaka Content: Dhaka experiences a hot , wet and humid tropical climate . Under the Köppen climate classification , Dhaka has a tropical wet and dry climate . The city has a distinct monsoonal season , with an annual average temperature of 25 C and monthly means varying between 18 C in January and 29 C in August . Nearly 80 % of the annual average rainfall of 1854 mm occurs during the monsoon season which lasts from May until the end of September . Increasing air and water pollution emanating from traffic congestion and industrial waste are serious problems affecting public health and the quality of life in the city . Water bodies and wetlands around Dhaka are facing destruction as these are being filled up to construct multi-storied buildings and other real estate developments . Coupled with pollution , such erosion of natural habitats threatens to destroy much of the regional biodiversity . Cold weather is unusual in and around Dhaka . When temperatures decrease to 8 C or less , people without warm clothing and living in inadequate homes may die from the cold .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_of_Dhaka","rank":65,"score":76650},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on human health Content: The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .","qid":"164","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health","rank":66,"score":76447},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_Tuvalu","rank":67,"score":76440},{"content":"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .","qid":"164","docid":"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment","rank":68,"score":76370},{"content":"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .","qid":"164","docid":"Arctic_geoengineering","rank":69,"score":76246},{"content":"Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .","qid":"164","docid":"Solar_gain","rank":70,"score":76161},{"content":"Title: 1976 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1976 United Kingdom heat wave led to the hottest summer average temperature in the UK since records began . At the same time , the country suffered a severe drought . It was one of the driest , sunniest and warmest summers ( June/July/August ) in the 20th century , although 1995 is now regarded as the driest . Only a few places registered more than half their average summer rainfall . In the CET record , it was the warmest summer in that series . It was the warmest summer in the Aberdeen area since at least 1864 . It was the driest summer since 1868 in Glasgow .","qid":"164","docid":"1976_United_Kingdom_heat_wave","rank":71,"score":76134},{"content":"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .","qid":"164","docid":"Runaway_greenhouse_effect","rank":72,"score":76093},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":73,"score":76070},{"content":"Title: Sukhpur Dayodhi Content: Sukhpur Dayodhi is a village in North Bihar . Sukhpur Dayodhi is endowed with fertile alluvial soil as it lies in the plain of kosi . Climate of village is mild and monsoon type . Summer is not so hot as compared to northern India mainly due to its proximity to the eastern Himalayas but temperature goes down to as cold as 8 degree Celsius during winter . Rain is mainly concentrated from May to September . `` Sukhpur Dayodhi '' is well organized in the sense that the region residing for living & agriculture is separated from each other . Most of the villagers are engaged in cultivation and business . On an average three crops are taken per year from a same piece of land . Major crops include rice , wheat mung , and corn . Mango and Litchi are also major horticulture crops . Mango is major contribution to the farmer 's income . Three major land portions namely `` Lalbagh '' `` Kalibagh '' & `` Mamabagh '' are occupied by mango trees yielding large amounts of mangoes . Only , Ganwariya Royal Rajput ( Parmar Rajput ) lives in `` Sukhpur Dayodhi '' . The education system of Sukhpur Dayodhi is much contributing for many villages since it has 6 schools namely `` High School , Sukhpur '' , `` Chetmani Middle school , Sukhpur '' , `` Prathmic School , Sukhpur , `` Harijan School '' , `` Sanskrit Madhya Vidyalaya '' & `` Primary Girlsl School '' . ` Sukhpur high school ' founded by people of Sukhpur Dayodhi , has been the flag bearer for education in the region . `` Sukhpur Dayodhi '' is providing quality school education not only to Sukhpur but also its surrounding villages . Apart from the education the high school has got a very beautiful play ground , providing the villagers to engage in sports mainly Cricket , football , volleyball . Land for construction of all these schools is donated by family member of Sukhpur Dayodhi villagers and as Babu Chetmani Singh was elder son of that family the School name was given on his name i.e. High School , Chetmani Middle School , Primary School , Girls Primary School including playground of High school , Sukhpur . There are many old temples in this village such as Thalha ka Mandir , Thakurbari , Durga Mandir , Shih Dawar , Kali Mandir , Jivach ji mandir . There are few old historical buildings ; they are really beautiful and famous . Durgapuja is the most famous festival where grand mela is organised in the village .","qid":"164","docid":"Sukhpur_Dayodhi","rank":74,"score":76058},{"content":"Title: Temperature dependence of liquid viscosity Content: The temperature dependence of liquid viscosity is the phenomenon by which liquid viscosity tends to decrease ( or , alternatively , its fluidity tends to increase ) as its temperature increases . This can be observed , for example , by watching how cooking oil appears to move more fluidly upon a frying pan after being heated by a stove .","qid":"164","docid":"Temperature_dependence_of_liquid_viscosity","rank":75,"score":75797},{"content":"Title: Climate of the Alps Content: The climate of the Alps is the climate , or average weather conditions over a long period of time , of the exact middle Alpine region of Europe . As air rises from sea level to the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases . The effect of mountain topography on prevailing winds is to force warm air from the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat , often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow , rain or hail . The position of the Alps in the central European continent profoundly affects the climate of all the surrounding regions . The accumulation of vast masses of snow , which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers , maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges ; it cools breezes that waft to the plains on either side , but its most important function is to regulate the water supply of the large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps . Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during fall , winter , and spring is stored in the form of snow and gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer ; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams . Nor is this all ; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia , and afford an inexhaustible supply of water , which , from a remote period , has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility . Six regions or zones , which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation , are found in the Alps . It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above sea level . Local conditions of exposure to the Sun , protection from cold winds , or the reverse , are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_of_the_Alps","rank":76,"score":75504},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"164","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":77,"score":75504},{"content":"Title: Adaptation to climate change in Jordan Content: Adaptation to climate change in Jordan describes measures with the objective to prepare the country for the impacts of climate change . Water resources in Jordan are scarce . Besides the rapid population growth , the impacts of climate change are likely to further exacerbate the problem . Temperatures will increase and the total annual precipitation is likely to decrease , however with a fair share of uncertainty . Hence , existing and new activities with the objective to minimize the gap between water supply and demand contribute to adapt Jordan to tomorrow 's climate . This might be accompanied by activities improving Jordan 's capacity to monitor and project meteorological and hydrological data and assess its own vulnerability to climate change . This article focuses on the impacts of climate change on the Jordanian water sector .","qid":"164","docid":"Adaptation_to_climate_change_in_Jordan","rank":78,"score":75409},{"content":"Title: Gulf of Maine Closed Areas Content: The Gulf of Maine has been fished since the 1700s , and has been a historic fishing area since . Climate change is having significant impacts on this ecosystem ; between 2004 and 2013 , the Gulf of Maine has warmed faster than 99.9 % of the global oceans , increasing average temperature by 2 ° C. Having seen the depletion of groundfish stocks starting in the early 1990s , managers took care to create five closure areas in the Gulf of Maine . These closed areas do not prohibit all fishing , rather they prevent the further degradation of benthic habitat and groundfish species . Closed areas are different than Marine Protected Areas ( MPA ) because they allow some forms of fishing and other activities to occur that would normally not be allowed in MPA .","qid":"164","docid":"Gulf_of_Maine_Closed_Areas","rank":79,"score":75395},{"content":"Title: Heat wave Content: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather , which may be accompanied by high humidity , especially in oceanic climate countries . While definitions vary , a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season . Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area . The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century . Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures , thousands of deaths from hyperthermia , and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning . A heat wave is considered extreme weather , and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body .","qid":"164","docid":"Heat_wave","rank":80,"score":75260},{"content":"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .","qid":"164","docid":"Future_sea_level","rank":81,"score":75036},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"164","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":82,"score":75018},{"content":"Title: Climarice Content: Climarice is a research project , carried out by The Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research ( Bioforsk , Norway ) , Tamil Nadu Agricultural University ( TNAU , India ) , International Water Management Institute ( IWMI , India ) and International Pacific Research Center ( IPRC , United States ) ; which is trying to assess the impact of climate variability on water availability and rice production in the Cauvery river basin of Tamil Nadu , India . In particular , the impacts of climate change on extreme events such as droughts , floods , heat waves and on the spatial and temporal distribution of the monsoon rains will certainly impact rice production and food security in India . However , there is a significant level of uncertainty in the climate models ' projections that cascade into impact models and thereby influence policy decisions related to adaptation . For both scientific community and policy makers , reducing the uncertainties is a big challenge . On a positive note , examination of historical observed rice production data in India shows an overall increasing trend in many regions with annual fluctuations . Will this trend continue given the projected change in climate and population increase in India ? Climarice is funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , is currently assessing the impacts of climate change on rice production areas and rice productivity . Specifically , the project is assessing the behavior of the Indian monsoon in different climate scenarios , and examining its impact on the water availability , rice crop production and the resultant socio economic vulnerability and adaptation of farming communities in the Cauvery river basin , India . Since the project was started in January 2008 , relevant coping and adaptation mechanisms have been identified and techniques developed to address the issues of climate vulnerabilities in rice production .","qid":"164","docid":"Climarice","rank":83,"score":74924},{"content":"Title: Great Salt Lake effect Content: The Great Salt Lake effect is a small but detectable influence on the local climate and weather around the Great Salt Lake in Utah , United States . In particular , snowstorms are a common occurrence over the region and have major socio-economic impacts due to their significant precipitation amounts . The Great Salt lake never freezes and can warm rapidly which allows lake-effect precipitation to occur from September through May . Lake-enhanced snowstorms are often attributed to creating what is locally known as `` The Greatest Snow on Earth . ''","qid":"164","docid":"Great_Salt_Lake_effect","rank":84,"score":74920},{"content":"Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .","qid":"164","docid":"Excessive_heat_warning","rank":85,"score":74706},{"content":"Title: Dog days Content: The dog days or are the hot , sultry days of summer . They were historically the period following the heliacal rising of the star Sirius , which Greek and Roman astrology connected with heat , drought , sudden thunderstorms , lethargy , fever , mad dogs , and bad luck . They are now taken to be the hottest , most uncomfortable part of summer in the Northern Hemisphere .","qid":"164","docid":"Dog_days","rank":86,"score":74453},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan","rank":87,"score":74337},{"content":"Title: Heat generation in integrated circuits Content: The heat dissipation in integrated circuits problem has gained an increasing interest in recent years due to the miniaturization of semiconductor devices . The temperature increase becomes relevant for cases of relatively small-cross-sections wires , because such temperature increase may affect the normal behavior of semiconductor devices .","qid":"164","docid":"Heat_generation_in_integrated_circuits","rank":88,"score":74278},{"content":"Title: Hot hardness Content: In materials engineering and metallurgy , hot hardness or red hardness ( when a metal glows a dull red from the heat ) corresponds to hardness of a material at high temperatures . As the temperature of material increases , hardness decreases and at some point a drastic change in hardness occurs . The hardness at this point is termed the hot or red hardness of that material . Such changes can be seen in materials such as heat treated alloys .","qid":"164","docid":"Hot_hardness","rank":89,"score":74209},{"content":"Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .","qid":"164","docid":"Year_Without_a_Summer","rank":90,"score":74009},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Nevada Content: Climate change in Nevada has been measured over the last century , with the average temperature in Elko , Nevada increasing by 0.6 F-change , and precipitation increasing by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future .","qid":"164","docid":"Climate_change_in_Nevada","rank":91,"score":73954},{"content":"Title: Thermal expansion Content: Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape , area , and volume in response to a change in temperature . Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance . When a substance is heated , the kinetic energy of its molecules increases . Thus , the molecules begin vibrating/moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation . Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual ; this effect is limited in size , and only occurs within limited temperature ranges ( see examples below ) . The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the material 's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature .","qid":"164","docid":"Thermal_expansion","rank":92,"score":73786},{"content":"Title: 2013 Southwestern United States heat wave Content: The 2013 Southwestern United States heat wave occurred in late June to early July 2013 , lasting from around four days to a week locally . Daily highs were up to 15 ° C ( 26 ° F ) above average , with relative humidity below 15 % . Many locations experienced temperatures over 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . 46 monthly record high temperatures were reached or broken , and 21 records for the highest overnight temperatures were reached or broken .","qid":"164","docid":"2013_Southwestern_United_States_heat_wave","rank":93,"score":73741},{"content":"Title: Summer of 1976 (Europe) Content: The summer of 1976 was considered to be one of the hottest summers in Europe ( and especially the United Kingdom ) within recent memory . A large high-pressure area dominated most of Europe for all of the summer months . The pressure system moved into place in late May 1976 and remained until the first traces of rain were recorded on August 27 . Rainfall throughout the July -- August period was down by half the annual average . During this spell of hot weather temperatures exceeded 32 ° C ( 89.6 ° F ) at several weather stations within the United Kingdom every day and the town of Cheltenham had eleven , including seven successive days from the 1st of July - recording 35.9 ° C ( 96.6 ° F ) on the 3rd . For the entire period much of Europe was bathed in continual sunshine with the United Kingdom seeing an average of more than 14 hours of sunshine per day . 1976 was dubbed `` The year of the Ladybird '' in that country due to the rise in the mass numbers of ladybirds brought on by the long hot period . `` The long hot summer of 1976 which eventually ended in September of that year , was the culmination of a 16-week dry spell - the longest recorded over England and Wales since 1727 . `` Quote From Met Office The summer of 1976 is by now a firmly established reference point for discussion in the UK of contemporary hot spells .","qid":"164","docid":"Summer_of_1976_(Europe)","rank":94,"score":73572},{"content":"Title: 2012–13 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Australian bushfire season had above average fire potential for most of the southern half of the continent from the east coast to the west . This is despite having extensive fire in parts of the country over the last 12 months . The reason for this prediction is the abundant grass growth spurred by two La Niña events over the last two years . Most parts of the country experienced a heat wave at the start of 2013 , with a new national average maximum being set on 7 January 2013 . The new record of 40.33 C beat the old record of 40.17 C that had been set on 21 December 1972 . Another record also beaten in 2013 was Australia 's mean temperature climbing from 31.86 C set on 21 December 1972 to 32.23 C on 7 January 2013 . Additionally , six of the 20 hottest days in Australian records ( by average maximum ) have been in January 2013 . Australia also experienced its hottest summer on average following a particularly hot spell in January . Using average day and night temperatures the average was found to be 28.6 C beating the previous record set in the summer of 1997 -- 1988 . Fourteen of the weather bureau 's 112 long term weather stations recorded their hottest days on record including one in Sydney that recorded a daytime record of 46 C . The daytime maximum temperatures for 2012 -- 13 also beat the 1982 -- 83 record and January was the hottest month since records began in 1910 .","qid":"164","docid":"2012–13_Australian_bushfire_season","rank":95,"score":73475},{"content":"Title: List of life zones by region Content: The climate and ecology of different locations on the globe naturally separate into life zones , depending on elevation , location , and latitude . The generally strong dependency on elevation is known as altitudinal zonation : the average temperature of a location decreases as the elevation increases . The general effect of elevation depends on atmospheric physics . However , the specific climate and ecology of any particular location depends on specific features of that location . This article provides a list of life zones by region , in order to illustrate the features of life zones for regions around the globe .","qid":"164","docid":"List_of_life_zones_by_region","rank":96,"score":73379},{"content":"Title: Thermal simulations for integrated circuits Content: Miniaturizing components has always been a primary goal in the semiconductor industry because it cuts production cost and lets companies build smaller computers and other devices . Miniaturization , however , has increased dissipated power per unit area and made it a key limiting factor in integrated circuit performance . Temperature increase becomes relevant for relatively small-cross-sections wires , where it may affect normal semiconductor behavior . Besides , since the generation of heat is proportional to the frequency of operation for switching circuits , fast computers have larger heat generation than slow ones , an undesired effect for chips manufacturers . This article summaries physical concepts that describe the generation and conduction of heat in an integrated circuit , and presents numerical methods that model heat transfer from a macroscopic point of view .","qid":"164","docid":"Thermal_simulations_for_integrated_circuits","rank":97,"score":73255},{"content":"Title: Degree Day Unit Content: The Degree Day Unit is an inexact unit of measurement generally used by the pest control industry and lawn and landscape services regarding the amount of days , normally in the spring , of temperatures above 50 degrees Fahrenheit . For many years insects and weeds were simply assumed to emerge in the early spring based on only average temperatures of the different areas . If unseasonable temperatures occurred especially extended winter conditions and/or snow the emergence of either would vary considerably . Each weed or insect , is based on studies of how many warm days they need to emerge so each month a total of 50 degree days are totaled and compared to how many are needed for each . Temperature controls the developmental rate of many organisms . Plants and invertebrate animals , including insects and nematodes , require a certain amount of heat to develop from one point in their life cycles to another . This measure of accumulated heat is known as physiological time . Theoretically , physiological time provides a common reference for the development of organisms . The amount of heat required to complete a given organism 's development does not vary -- the combination of temperature ( between thresholds ) and time will always be the same . Physiological time is often expressed and approximated in units called degree-days ( ° D ) . Category : Pest control Category : Units of measurement","qid":"164","docid":"Degree_Day_Unit","rank":98,"score":73166},{"content":"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .","qid":"164","docid":"Global_warming_hiatus","rank":99,"score":73069},{"content":"Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .","qid":"164","docid":"Sea_surface_temperature","rank":100,"score":72972}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 111369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 99601\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 98293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 97830\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 97798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 95201\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Impact_winter\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 93920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"LOWERN\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 91804\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Living_in_the_Hothouse\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 90508\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Angry Summer Content: The Australian summer of 2012 -- 2013 , known as the Angry Summer or Extreme Summer , resulted in 123 weather records being broken over a 90-day period , including the hottest day ever recorded for Australia as a whole , the hottest January on record , the hottest summer average on record , and a record seven days in a row when the whole continent averaged above 39 ° C. Single-day temperature records were broken in dozens of towns and cities , as well as single-day rainfall records , and several rivers flooded to new record highs . In January 2013 , the Bureau of Meteorology altered its weather forecasting chart 's temperature scale to include a range , coloured purple , between 52 ° and 54 ° C . The reporting of the heatwave in the Australian media attracted controversy in the scientific community , as very few articles cited a correlation between the event and climate change , which it was correlated with according to studies conducted by the University of Melbourne .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Angry_Summer\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 90463\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 90002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercane\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 89963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 88751\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 88716\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 88424\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 88327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Argentina\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 87161\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brookings effect Content: The Brookings Effect is a meteorological phenomenon that affects the southern coast of Oregon , in which dry adiabatic heating increases the temperature of a mass of air as it travels down slope . It can occur at any time of the year producing temperatures near the Chetco River mouth which are up to 40 F-change higher than without the air movement . It is the same phenomenon as the Santa Ana winds . On July 8 , 2008 , Brookings recorded a high temperature of 108 ° F at the airport . This was not only the highest recorded temperature in the town 's history , but also the highest recorded in Oregon on that day . The Crescent City airport , approximately 30 miles south , recorded a high temperature of 68 ° F that day . Temperatures in inland Oregon throughout the Willamette Valley reached temperatures into the mid-nineties . The Brookings Effect remained very strong and localized until July 13 , 2008 , when high temperatures in Brookings dropped to 61 ° F , which is about seven degrees lower than average during the month . This report contradicts the common idea that the Brookings Effect is a Chinook wind , as moisture does not appear to play a role in the moist adiabatic cooling of air on the windward side of a mountain range , followed by dry adiabatic warming on the lee side . In contrast , the Brookings Effect resembles a Santa Ana Wind , common in Southern California in the autumn and winter . In nearly every event observed , the Brookings Effect occurs when there is a high pressure ridge off the Pacific Northwest coast or in the Great Basin , depending on the time of year , and often a cutoff low in southern to central California , causing a northerly to easterly wind in the Brookings area . Studies have shown that the north-to-south orientation of the Chetco River mouth and the town of Brookings plays a large role in the high temperatures recorded , and the reason the effect is localized . During most of the year , a sea breeze sets up along the coastline with prevailing surface winds from the northwest . The heart of Brookings , with its orientation , is protected from this maritime flow and the warm , dry , down-sloping winds that are funneled down the coastal range into the deep Chetco River gorge can reach the coast uninfluenced by the effects of the Pacific . During the Brookings Effect , there is a strong correlation between the observed temperature in Brookings and the 850 millibar temperature ( the temperature at approximately 5000 ft ) in Medford , Oregon , as is determined by the weather balloon sensing equipment launched twice a day . Medford , located inland of Brookings , is located in a valley , surrounded by the Oregon Coast Range , the Siskiyou Mountains , and the Cascade Mountains . The surface temperature in Medford is often influenced by the mountains , but the 850 millibar temperature , well off the surface , is about even with the mountain ridges in the area , and therefore unaffected . Mesoscale easterly flow at this level will cause the same air mass to move westward toward Brookings , and studies show that high pressure induced atmospheric subsidence causes the air mass to flow down the slopes of the coastal range . The Chetco River gorge , which is very deep in some places , works as a funnel to bring the parcel to the coast . Often in the winter , temperatures in Medford may peak near 40 ° F , while temperatures in Brookings will reach the upper 70s ( 25 + ° C ) due to the effect , causing Brookings to live up to its `` banana belt '' reputation .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Brookings_effect\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 86571\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 86563\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 86060\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 85955\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Texas\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 85388\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 85351\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2013 heatwave in Ireland and the United Kingdom Content: The 2013 heat wave in the United Kingdom and Ireland was a period of unusually hot weather primarily in July 2013 , with isolated warm days in June and August . A prolonged high pressure system over Britain and Ireland caused higher than average temperatures for 19 consecutive days in July , reaching 33.5 ° C at Heathrow and Northolt . Following a brief period of cooler weather at the end of July , temperatures temporarily rose again , peaking at 34.1 ° C on 1 August in the United Kingdom , the warmest the country had seen since July 2006 , and 31.0 ° C in Ireland . At 19 days , the July heatwave was the longest continuous period of hot weather in the UK since August 1997 . However , in the general sense , Britain did not have an overall exceptional summer ; the country experienced cool low pressure systems brought by an unseasonably low latitude by the jet stream for the 6 summers previous , which made the summer of 2013 more `` welcome '' and feel warmer than other summers . The historical records suggests `` Using the CET record ( for June , July & August ) , the average temperature by that measure was 16.3 degC ( Provisional ) : neither June nor August was exceptionally warm , so this value does not ` rate ' too highly when set against other very warm summer seasons . '' With June being a cool month and August being an Average month , in terms of temperatures the English Central summer temperature ended up being on the average side set up against previous summers since the CET series began in 1659 .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"2013_heatwave_in_Ireland_and_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 85304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 84862\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 84470\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 84232\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 83681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Massenerhebung effect Content: The Massenerhebung effect ( German for `` mountain mass elevation '' ) describes variation in the tree line based on mountain size and location . In general , mountains surrounded by large ranges will tend to have higher tree lines than more isolated mountains due to heat retention and wind shadowing . This effect is important for determining weather patterns in mountainous regions , as regions of similar altitude and latitude may nonetheless have much warmer or colder climates based on surrounding mountain ranges . For example , in Borneo , Gunung Palung , located on the coast , has moss forest at 900 m , while the montane forest on Gunung Mulu starts at 1200 m and at 1800 m on Mount Kinabalu .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Massenerhebung_effect\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 83275\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Fisheries_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 83025\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 82521\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_in_Antarctica\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 82399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hot and high Content: In aviation , hot and high is a condition of low air density due to high ambient temperature and high airport elevation . Air density decreases with increasing temperature and altitude . At any given true airspeed , lower air density reduces the amount of lift generated by the wings or the rotors of an aircraft , which may hamper an aircraft 's performance and hence its ability to operate safely . The reduced density also reduces the performance of the aircraft 's engine , compounding the effect . Aviators gauge air density by calculating the density altitude . `` Hot '' and `` high '' do not have to be mutually inclusive of one another , though this tends to be the exception . If an airport is especially hot or high , the other condition need not be present . Temperatures can change from one hour to the next , while the elevation of an airport always remains constant . The fact that temperatures decrease at higher elevations mitigates the `` hot and high '' effect to a certain extent .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Hot_and_high\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 82061\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal fluctuations Content: In statistical mechanics , thermal fluctuations are random deviations of a system from its average state , that occur in a system at equilibrium . All thermal fluctuations become larger and more frequent as the temperature increases , and likewise they decrease as temperature approaches absolute zero . Thermal fluctuations are a basic manifestation of the temperature of systems : A system at nonzero temperature does not stay in its equilibrium microscopic state , but instead randomly samples all possible states , with probabilities given by the Boltzmann distribution . Thermal fluctuations generally affect all the degrees of freedom of a system : There can be random vibrations ( phonons ) , random rotations ( rotons ) , random electronic excitations , and so forth . Thermodynamic variables , such as pressure , temperature , or entropy , likewise undergo thermal fluctuations . For example , for a system that has an equilibrium pressure , the system pressure fluctuates to some extent about the equilibrium value . Only the ` control variables ' of statistical ensembles ( such as N , V and E in the microcanonical ensemble ) do not fluctuate . Thermal fluctuations are a source of noise in many systems . The random forces that give rise to thermal fluctuations are a source of both diffusion and dissipation ( including damping and viscosity ) . The competing effects of random drift and resistance to drift are related by the fluctuation-dissipation theorem . Thermal fluctuations play a major role in phase transitions and chemical kinetics .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_fluctuations\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 81800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 81415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 81254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 81223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Excessive_heat_watch\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 81040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Reasons_for_concern\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 80390\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 80313\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 79857\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2006 European heat wave Content: The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries . The United Kingdom , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , Italy , Poland , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Germany and western parts of Russia were most affected . Several records were broken . In the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Ireland and the United Kingdom , July 2006 was the warmest month since official measurements began .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"2006_European_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 79788\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 79692\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 79582\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 79298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_level_rise\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 79106\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 78970\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hot Cities Content: Hot Cities is an environmental documentary series broadcast in Autumn 2009 by BBC World News . It highlighted the effects of global warming and climate change on the world 's most populous cities .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Hot_Cities\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 78823\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_York_City\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 78783\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Urban heat island Content: An urban heat island ( UHI ) is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities . The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day , and is most apparent when winds are weak . UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter . The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces . Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor . As a population center grows , it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature . The less-used term heat island refers to any area , populated or not , which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area . Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities , partially due to the UHI . Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons , and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes . The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone , and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems . Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island . Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in urban areas , which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat . There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming . Research on China and India indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30 % . On the other hand , one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends . Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Urban_heat_island\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 78461\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 78433\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 78304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 78213\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 78004\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2001 Eastern North America heat wave Content: A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States ( with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions ) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July . It began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying . It waned in most areas by the middle of the month , and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves , it was very intense at its peak . The high humidity and high temperatures led to major heat wave that overtook the major Northeast Megalopolis . Temperatures in Central Park , New York City reached a peak of 103 F . The temperature reached 105 F in Newark , New Jersey . Meanwhile , in Ontario and Quebec , extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August . Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached 37 C on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit 38 C on the same day , the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping 35 C. Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave . Even in Nova Scotia , surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures still broke 35 C in some locations . Glace Bay , which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking 35.5 C on August 10 . At least four New Yorkers died of hyperthermia . Chicago had at least 21 deaths .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"2001_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 77930\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 77912\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_inertia\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 77706\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Drought in the United Kingdom Content: Droughts are a relatively common feature of the weather in the United Kingdom , with one around every 5 -- 10 years on average . These droughts are usually during the summer , when a blocking high causes hot , dry weather for an extended period . However droughts can vary in their characteristics . All types of drought cause issues across all sectors , with impacts extending to the ecosystem , agriculture and the economy of the whole country in severe cases of drought . The south east of the country usually suffers most , as it has the highest population ( and therefore demand ) and the lowest average precipitation per year , which is even lower in a drought . Even in these areas in severe droughts , the definition , impacts , effects and management are all minimal in comparison to drought prone areas such as Australia and parts of the United States . In recent years however , the summers of 2007 , 2008 , 2009 and August 2010 were wetter than normal , 2007 being wettest on record .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Drought_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 77488\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 77206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 77178\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 76879\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Albrecht_effect\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 76805\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pan evaporation Content: Pan evaporation is a measurement that combines or integrates the effects of several climate elements : temperature , humidity , rain fall , drought dispersion , solar radiation , and wind . Evaporation is greatest on hot , windy , dry , sunny days ; and is greatly reduced when clouds block the sun and when air is cool , calm , and humid . Pan evaporation measurements enable farmers and ranchers to understand how much water their crops will need .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Pan_evaporation\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 76762\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Apparent temperature Content: Apparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans , caused by the combined effects of air temperature , relative humidity and wind speed . The measures are most commonly applied to perceived outdoor temperatures , but also apply to indoors , especially to saunas or when homes or workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled or insulated to provide comfortable or healthy conditions . The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above 80 ° F ( 27 degrees C ) . In humid conditions , the air feels much hotter , because of the reduction in evaporation of perspiration . The wind chill factor measures the effect of wind speed on cooling of the human body below 50 ° F ( 10 degrees C ) . As airflow increases over the skin , more heat will be removed . Standard models and conditions are used . The wet-bulb globe temperature ( WBGT ) combines the effects of radiation , humidity , temperature and wind speed on the perception of temperature . It is not often used as the resulting figure is very location specific ( e.g. cloud cover and/or wind shielding ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Apparent_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 76667\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of Dhaka Content: Dhaka experiences a hot , wet and humid tropical climate . Under the Köppen climate classification , Dhaka has a tropical wet and dry climate . The city has a distinct monsoonal season , with an annual average temperature of 25 C and monthly means varying between 18 C in January and 29 C in August . Nearly 80 % of the annual average rainfall of 1854 mm occurs during the monsoon season which lasts from May until the end of September . Increasing air and water pollution emanating from traffic congestion and industrial waste are serious problems affecting public health and the quality of life in the city . Water bodies and wetlands around Dhaka are facing destruction as these are being filled up to construct multi-storied buildings and other real estate developments . Coupled with pollution , such erosion of natural habitats threatens to destroy much of the regional biodiversity . Cold weather is unusual in and around Dhaka . When temperatures decrease to 8 C or less , people without warm clothing and living in inadequate homes may die from the cold .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_Dhaka\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 76650\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on human health Content: The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 76447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Tuvalu\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 76440\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 76370\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_geoengineering\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 76246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_gain\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 76161\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1976 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1976 United Kingdom heat wave led to the hottest summer average temperature in the UK since records began . At the same time , the country suffered a severe drought . It was one of the driest , sunniest and warmest summers ( June/July/August ) in the 20th century , although 1995 is now regarded as the driest . Only a few places registered more than half their average summer rainfall . In the CET record , it was the warmest summer in that series . It was the warmest summer in the Aberdeen area since at least 1864 . It was the driest summer since 1868 in Glasgow .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"1976_United_Kingdom_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 76134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 76093\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_potatoes\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 76070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sukhpur Dayodhi Content: Sukhpur Dayodhi is a village in North Bihar . Sukhpur Dayodhi is endowed with fertile alluvial soil as it lies in the plain of kosi . Climate of village is mild and monsoon type . Summer is not so hot as compared to northern India mainly due to its proximity to the eastern Himalayas but temperature goes down to as cold as 8 degree Celsius during winter . Rain is mainly concentrated from May to September . `` Sukhpur Dayodhi '' is well organized in the sense that the region residing for living & agriculture is separated from each other . Most of the villagers are engaged in cultivation and business . On an average three crops are taken per year from a same piece of land . Major crops include rice , wheat mung , and corn . Mango and Litchi are also major horticulture crops . Mango is major contribution to the farmer 's income . Three major land portions namely `` Lalbagh '' `` Kalibagh '' & `` Mamabagh '' are occupied by mango trees yielding large amounts of mangoes . Only , Ganwariya Royal Rajput ( Parmar Rajput ) lives in `` Sukhpur Dayodhi '' . The education system of Sukhpur Dayodhi is much contributing for many villages since it has 6 schools namely `` High School , Sukhpur '' , `` Chetmani Middle school , Sukhpur '' , `` Prathmic School , Sukhpur , `` Harijan School '' , `` Sanskrit Madhya Vidyalaya '' & `` Primary Girlsl School '' . ` Sukhpur high school ' founded by people of Sukhpur Dayodhi , has been the flag bearer for education in the region . `` Sukhpur Dayodhi '' is providing quality school education not only to Sukhpur but also its surrounding villages . Apart from the education the high school has got a very beautiful play ground , providing the villagers to engage in sports mainly Cricket , football , volleyball . Land for construction of all these schools is donated by family member of Sukhpur Dayodhi villagers and as Babu Chetmani Singh was elder son of that family the School name was given on his name i.e. High School , Chetmani Middle School , Primary School , Girls Primary School including playground of High school , Sukhpur . There are many old temples in this village such as Thalha ka Mandir , Thakurbari , Durga Mandir , Shih Dawar , Kali Mandir , Jivach ji mandir . There are few old historical buildings ; they are really beautiful and famous . Durgapuja is the most famous festival where grand mela is organised in the village .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Sukhpur_Dayodhi\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 76058\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature dependence of liquid viscosity Content: The temperature dependence of liquid viscosity is the phenomenon by which liquid viscosity tends to decrease ( or , alternatively , its fluidity tends to increase ) as its temperature increases . This can be observed , for example , by watching how cooking oil appears to move more fluidly upon a frying pan after being heated by a stove .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_dependence_of_liquid_viscosity\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 75797\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of the Alps Content: The climate of the Alps is the climate , or average weather conditions over a long period of time , of the exact middle Alpine region of Europe . As air rises from sea level to the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases . The effect of mountain topography on prevailing winds is to force warm air from the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat , often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow , rain or hail . The position of the Alps in the central European continent profoundly affects the climate of all the surrounding regions . The accumulation of vast masses of snow , which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers , maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges ; it cools breezes that waft to the plains on either side , but its most important function is to regulate the water supply of the large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps . Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during fall , winter , and spring is stored in the form of snow and gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer ; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams . Nor is this all ; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia , and afford an inexhaustible supply of water , which , from a remote period , has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility . Six regions or zones , which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation , are found in the Alps . It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above sea level . Local conditions of exposure to the Sun , protection from cold winds , or the reverse , are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_the_Alps\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 75504\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 75504\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Adaptation to climate change in Jordan Content: Adaptation to climate change in Jordan describes measures with the objective to prepare the country for the impacts of climate change . Water resources in Jordan are scarce . Besides the rapid population growth , the impacts of climate change are likely to further exacerbate the problem . Temperatures will increase and the total annual precipitation is likely to decrease , however with a fair share of uncertainty . Hence , existing and new activities with the objective to minimize the gap between water supply and demand contribute to adapt Jordan to tomorrow 's climate . This might be accompanied by activities improving Jordan 's capacity to monitor and project meteorological and hydrological data and assess its own vulnerability to climate change . This article focuses on the impacts of climate change on the Jordanian water sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Adaptation_to_climate_change_in_Jordan\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 75409\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gulf of Maine Closed Areas Content: The Gulf of Maine has been fished since the 1700s , and has been a historic fishing area since . Climate change is having significant impacts on this ecosystem ; between 2004 and 2013 , the Gulf of Maine has warmed faster than 99.9 % of the global oceans , increasing average temperature by 2 ° C. Having seen the depletion of groundfish stocks starting in the early 1990s , managers took care to create five closure areas in the Gulf of Maine . These closed areas do not prohibit all fishing , rather they prevent the further degradation of benthic habitat and groundfish species . Closed areas are different than Marine Protected Areas ( MPA ) because they allow some forms of fishing and other activities to occur that would normally not be allowed in MPA .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Gulf_of_Maine_Closed_Areas\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 75395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat wave Content: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather , which may be accompanied by high humidity , especially in oceanic climate countries . While definitions vary , a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season . Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area . The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century . Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures , thousands of deaths from hyperthermia , and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning . A heat wave is considered extreme weather , and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 75260\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_sea_level\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 75036\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 75018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climarice Content: Climarice is a research project , carried out by The Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research ( Bioforsk , Norway ) , Tamil Nadu Agricultural University ( TNAU , India ) , International Water Management Institute ( IWMI , India ) and International Pacific Research Center ( IPRC , United States ) ; which is trying to assess the impact of climate variability on water availability and rice production in the Cauvery river basin of Tamil Nadu , India . In particular , the impacts of climate change on extreme events such as droughts , floods , heat waves and on the spatial and temporal distribution of the monsoon rains will certainly impact rice production and food security in India . However , there is a significant level of uncertainty in the climate models ' projections that cascade into impact models and thereby influence policy decisions related to adaptation . For both scientific community and policy makers , reducing the uncertainties is a big challenge . On a positive note , examination of historical observed rice production data in India shows an overall increasing trend in many regions with annual fluctuations . Will this trend continue given the projected change in climate and population increase in India ? Climarice is funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , is currently assessing the impacts of climate change on rice production areas and rice productivity . Specifically , the project is assessing the behavior of the Indian monsoon in different climate scenarios , and examining its impact on the water availability , rice crop production and the resultant socio economic vulnerability and adaptation of farming communities in the Cauvery river basin , India . Since the project was started in January 2008 , relevant coping and adaptation mechanisms have been identified and techniques developed to address the issues of climate vulnerabilities in rice production .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climarice\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 74924\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Great Salt Lake effect Content: The Great Salt Lake effect is a small but detectable influence on the local climate and weather around the Great Salt Lake in Utah , United States . In particular , snowstorms are a common occurrence over the region and have major socio-economic impacts due to their significant precipitation amounts . The Great Salt lake never freezes and can warm rapidly which allows lake-effect precipitation to occur from September through May . Lake-enhanced snowstorms are often attributed to creating what is locally known as `` The Greatest Snow on Earth . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Great_Salt_Lake_effect\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 74920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Excessive_heat_warning\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 74706\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dog days Content: The dog days or are the hot , sultry days of summer . They were historically the period following the heliacal rising of the star Sirius , which Greek and Roman astrology connected with heat , drought , sudden thunderstorms , lethargy , fever , mad dogs , and bad luck . They are now taken to be the hottest , most uncomfortable part of summer in the Northern Hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Dog_days\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 74453\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 74337\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat generation in integrated circuits Content: The heat dissipation in integrated circuits problem has gained an increasing interest in recent years due to the miniaturization of semiconductor devices . The temperature increase becomes relevant for cases of relatively small-cross-sections wires , because such temperature increase may affect the normal behavior of semiconductor devices .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_generation_in_integrated_circuits\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 74278\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hot hardness Content: In materials engineering and metallurgy , hot hardness or red hardness ( when a metal glows a dull red from the heat ) corresponds to hardness of a material at high temperatures . As the temperature of material increases , hardness decreases and at some point a drastic change in hardness occurs . The hardness at this point is termed the hot or red hardness of that material . Such changes can be seen in materials such as heat treated alloys .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Hot_hardness\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 74209\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Year_Without_a_Summer\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 74009\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Nevada Content: Climate change in Nevada has been measured over the last century , with the average temperature in Elko , Nevada increasing by 0.6 F-change , and precipitation increasing by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Nevada\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 73954\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal expansion Content: Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape , area , and volume in response to a change in temperature . Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance . When a substance is heated , the kinetic energy of its molecules increases . Thus , the molecules begin vibrating/moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation . Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual ; this effect is limited in size , and only occurs within limited temperature ranges ( see examples below ) . The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the material 's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_expansion\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 73786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2013 Southwestern United States heat wave Content: The 2013 Southwestern United States heat wave occurred in late June to early July 2013 , lasting from around four days to a week locally . Daily highs were up to 15 ° C ( 26 ° F ) above average , with relative humidity below 15 % . Many locations experienced temperatures over 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . 46 monthly record high temperatures were reached or broken , and 21 records for the highest overnight temperatures were reached or broken .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"2013_Southwestern_United_States_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 73741\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Summer of 1976 (Europe) Content: The summer of 1976 was considered to be one of the hottest summers in Europe ( and especially the United Kingdom ) within recent memory . A large high-pressure area dominated most of Europe for all of the summer months . The pressure system moved into place in late May 1976 and remained until the first traces of rain were recorded on August 27 . Rainfall throughout the July -- August period was down by half the annual average . During this spell of hot weather temperatures exceeded 32 ° C ( 89.6 ° F ) at several weather stations within the United Kingdom every day and the town of Cheltenham had eleven , including seven successive days from the 1st of July - recording 35.9 ° C ( 96.6 ° F ) on the 3rd . For the entire period much of Europe was bathed in continual sunshine with the United Kingdom seeing an average of more than 14 hours of sunshine per day . 1976 was dubbed `` The year of the Ladybird '' in that country due to the rise in the mass numbers of ladybirds brought on by the long hot period . `` The long hot summer of 1976 which eventually ended in September of that year , was the culmination of a 16-week dry spell - the longest recorded over England and Wales since 1727 . `` Quote From Met Office The summer of 1976 is by now a firmly established reference point for discussion in the UK of contemporary hot spells .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Summer_of_1976_(Europe)\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 73572\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2012–13 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Australian bushfire season had above average fire potential for most of the southern half of the continent from the east coast to the west . This is despite having extensive fire in parts of the country over the last 12 months . The reason for this prediction is the abundant grass growth spurred by two La Niña events over the last two years . Most parts of the country experienced a heat wave at the start of 2013 , with a new national average maximum being set on 7 January 2013 . The new record of 40.33 C beat the old record of 40.17 C that had been set on 21 December 1972 . Another record also beaten in 2013 was Australia 's mean temperature climbing from 31.86 C set on 21 December 1972 to 32.23 C on 7 January 2013 . Additionally , six of the 20 hottest days in Australian records ( by average maximum ) have been in January 2013 . Australia also experienced its hottest summer on average following a particularly hot spell in January . Using average day and night temperatures the average was found to be 28.6 C beating the previous record set in the summer of 1997 -- 1988 . Fourteen of the weather bureau 's 112 long term weather stations recorded their hottest days on record including one in Sydney that recorded a daytime record of 46 C . The daytime maximum temperatures for 2012 -- 13 also beat the 1982 -- 83 record and January was the hottest month since records began in 1910 .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"2012–13_Australian_bushfire_season\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 73475\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of life zones by region Content: The climate and ecology of different locations on the globe naturally separate into life zones , depending on elevation , location , and latitude . The generally strong dependency on elevation is known as altitudinal zonation : the average temperature of a location decreases as the elevation increases . The general effect of elevation depends on atmospheric physics . However , the specific climate and ecology of any particular location depends on specific features of that location . This article provides a list of life zones by region , in order to illustrate the features of life zones for regions around the globe .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_life_zones_by_region\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 73379\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal simulations for integrated circuits Content: Miniaturizing components has always been a primary goal in the semiconductor industry because it cuts production cost and lets companies build smaller computers and other devices . Miniaturization , however , has increased dissipated power per unit area and made it a key limiting factor in integrated circuit performance . Temperature increase becomes relevant for relatively small-cross-sections wires , where it may affect normal semiconductor behavior . Besides , since the generation of heat is proportional to the frequency of operation for switching circuits , fast computers have larger heat generation than slow ones , an undesired effect for chips manufacturers . This article summaries physical concepts that describe the generation and conduction of heat in an integrated circuit , and presents numerical methods that model heat transfer from a macroscopic point of view .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_simulations_for_integrated_circuits\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 73255\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Degree Day Unit Content: The Degree Day Unit is an inexact unit of measurement generally used by the pest control industry and lawn and landscape services regarding the amount of days , normally in the spring , of temperatures above 50 degrees Fahrenheit . For many years insects and weeds were simply assumed to emerge in the early spring based on only average temperatures of the different areas . If unseasonable temperatures occurred especially extended winter conditions and/or snow the emergence of either would vary considerably . Each weed or insect , is based on studies of how many warm days they need to emerge so each month a total of 50 degree days are totaled and compared to how many are needed for each . Temperature controls the developmental rate of many organisms . Plants and invertebrate animals , including insects and nematodes , require a certain amount of heat to develop from one point in their life cycles to another . This measure of accumulated heat is known as physiological time . Theoretically , physiological time provides a common reference for the development of organisms . The amount of heat required to complete a given organism 's development does not vary -- the combination of temperature ( between thresholds ) and time will always be the same . Physiological time is often expressed and approximated in units called degree-days ( ° D ) . Category : Pest control Category : Units of measurement\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Degree_Day_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 73166\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_hiatus\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 73069\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .\",\n \"qid\": \"164\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_surface_temperature\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 72972\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":78,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"When the Emergency Leaders for Climate Action approached the Federal Government in April they were drawing on decades of data showing that fire conditions are getting worse."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .","qid":"165","docid":"Climate_Code_Red","rank":1,"score":138585},{"content":"Title: Phil Koperberg Content: Philip Christian Koperberg ( born 28 April 1943 ) , is the Chairman of the New South Wales Emergency Management Committee , responsible for advising the New South Wales government on emergency response strategies , since 2011 . Koperberg is a former Australian politician , was the New South Wales Minister for Climate Change , Environment and Water between 2007 and 2008 ; and was a member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly , representing the electorate of the Blue Mountains for the Australian Labor Party between 2007 -- 2011 . Prior to his political career , Koperberg was the Commissioner of the New South Wales Rural Fire Service ( RFS ) in Australia between 1997 -- 2007 . In September 1997 , Koperberg was appointed the RFS Commissioner when the Service was formed under the Rural Fires Act . Before this he had been Director-General of the New South Wales Bush Fire Service from May 1990 . In March 2007 he was elected to State parliament and appointed to the Ministry . However , in December he was forced to stand aside due to a police investigation regarding domestic violence allegations from 1987 . The NSW Director of Public Prosecutions declined to press charges and Koperberg was reinstated to the Ministry . He resigned from the Ministry on 22 February 2008 . Koperberg did not recontest the 2011 state election .","qid":"165","docid":"Phil_Koperberg","rank":2,"score":122310},{"content":"Title: German Climate Action Plan 2050 Content: The German Climate Action Plan 2050 ( Klimaschutzplan 2050 ) is a climate protection policy document approved by the German government on 14November 2016 . The plan outlines measures by which Germany can meet its various national greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals through to 2050 ( see table ) and service its international commitments under the 2016 Paris Climate Agreement . The Federal Ministry for the Environment , Nature Conservation , Building and Nuclear Safety ( BMUB ) , under minister Barbara Hendricks , led the development of the plan . The plan was progressively watered down since a draft was first leaked in 2016 . Projections from the environment ministry in September 2016 indicate that Germany will likely miss its 2020 climate target . The Climate Action Plan2050 should not be confused with an earlier document , the Climate Action Programme2020 ( Aktionsprogramm Klimaschutz ) , approved in December 2014 and which only covers the period until 2020 .","qid":"165","docid":"German_Climate_Action_Plan_2050","rank":3,"score":119989},{"content":"Title: U.S. Climate Action Partnership Content: The U.S. Climate Action Partnership ( USCAP ) , formed January 22 , 2007 is a co-operative group of businesses and leading environmental organizations . The group 's primary purpose is to call on the U.S. government to require significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"165","docid":"U.S._Climate_Action_Partnership","rank":4,"score":115117},{"content":"Title: 2010 Russian wildfires Content: The 2010 Russian wildfires were several hundred wildfires that broke out across Russia , primarily in the west in summer 2010 . They started burning in late July and lasted until early September 2010 . The fires were associated with record-high temperatures , which were attributed to climate change -- the summer had been the hottest recorded in Russian history -- and drought . Russian President Dmitry Medvedev declared a state of emergency in seven regions , and 28 other regions were under a state of emergency due to crop failures caused by the drought . The fires cost roughly $ 15 billion in damages . A combination of the smoke from the fires , producing heavy smog blanketing large urban regions and the record-breaking heat wave put stress on the Russian healthcare system . Munich Re estimated that in all , 56,000 people died from the effects of the smog and the heat wave . The 2010 wildfires were the worst on record to that time ; in 2012 , however , new wildfires broke out , and they proved even more extensive and damaging .","qid":"165","docid":"2010_Russian_wildfires","rank":5,"score":114962},{"content":"Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .","qid":"165","docid":"Climate_Summit","rank":6,"score":110922},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Canada Content: In Canada mitigation of anthropogenic climate change is being addressed more seriously by the provinces than by the federal government . The 2015 election signals greater federal leadership as noted in Canada 's National Statement at COP21 , making climate change a top priority , and pledging actions based on the best scientific evidence and advice .","qid":"165","docid":"Climate_change_in_Canada","rank":7,"score":110491},{"content":"Title: Action/2015 Content: action/2015 was a global coalition of more than 2200 organisations and networks from over 150 countries , united by the belief that 2015 was a critical year for progress in the fight against climate change , poverty and inequality . Throughout the year , this coalition engaged and mobilised the public at critical decision-making points to call on leaders to commit to strong goals and agreements at two crucial UN summits in 2015 - the UN General Assembly and the UN Climate Change Conference . Throughout the year millions of activists came together through action/2015 to ensure world leaders would feel the pressure to seize the opportunity to tackle poverty , inequality and climate change . With 31 million campaign actions taken in 157 countries , action/2015 was a massive global movement for change -- the biggest-ever of its kind .","qid":"165","docid":"Action/2015","rank":8,"score":110163},{"content":"Title: 2015 Washington wildfires Content: The 2015 wildfire season was the largest in Washington state history , with more than 1 e6acre burning across the state from June to September . As many as 3,000 firefighters including 800 Washington National Guard members were deployed to fight the fires . The 17th Field Artillery Brigade of the United States Army also deployed 200 soldiers from Joint Base Lewis -- McChord to help fight the fires . On August 21 , President Barack Obama declared the fires a federal emergency . Because of the enormous extent of the fire activity , for the first time in Washington state history , officials asked residents to volunteer to assist in fighting the wildfires . On August 24 , the Washington Department of Natural Resources announced the Okanogan Complex fire had become the largest fire complex in Washington State history . The Washington State Department of Natural Resources called the season the `` worst-ever '' in the state 's history .","qid":"165","docid":"2015_Washington_wildfires","rank":9,"score":108213},{"content":"Title: World People's Conference on Climate Change Content: The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth was a global gathering of civil society and governments hosted by the government of Bolivia in Tiquipaya , just outside the city of Cochabamba from April 19 -- 22 , 2010 . The event was attended by around 30,000 people from over 100 countries , and the proceedings were transmitted live online by OneClimate and the Global Campaign for Climate Action ( GCCA ) . The conference was viewed as a response to what some termed failed climate talks in Copenhagen during the 15th United Nations Conference of Parties ( COP15 ) climate meetings in December 2009 . There have been claims after the Conference ended that there were flaws in its organization and that the Venezuelan government funded it partially . One of the important objectives of the conference was to produce proposals for new commitments to the Kyoto Protocol and projects in the lead-up to the next UN climate negotiations scheduled during the COP16 meeting in Cancun , Mexico in December 2010 . Conference topics included a Universal Declaration on the Rights of Mother Earth ( see external links below ) , a World People 's Referendum on Climate Change , and the establishment of a Climate Justice Tribunal . The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of the Mother Earth resulted in a People 's Accord .","qid":"165","docid":"World_People's_Conference_on_Climate_Change","rank":10,"score":107178},{"content":"Title: National Emergency Training Center Content: The National Emergency Training Centers ( NETC ) serves as an interagency emergency management training body for the United States government . The college campus was purchased by the U.S. Government in 1979 for use as the National Emergency Training Center . NETC is home to the National Fire Academy , United States Fire Administration , Emergency Management Institute ( EMI ) , which is operated by the Directorate of Preparedness branch of the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) . The campus also includes the learning resource center ( LRC ) library , the National Fire Data Center , and the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial . Both independently and by means of cooperative research and development agreements with the military and cooperative agreements with the technology companies and academic institutions , NETC also conducts research to identify methods for offering more effective training .","qid":"165","docid":"National_Emergency_Training_Center","rank":11,"score":105275},{"content":"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :","qid":"165","docid":"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative","rank":12,"score":105073},{"content":"Title: Executive Order 13653 Content: Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise","qid":"165","docid":"Executive_Order_13653","rank":13,"score":103248},{"content":"Title: 2013 Tasmanian bushfires Content: The 2013 Tasmanian bushfires were a series of bushfires in south-eastern Tasmania in starting in November/December 2012 , with major fires in early January 2013 , right through until late April 2013 . It was predicted early on that the 2012-13 had the potential to be worse than usual . High fuel loads , coupled with a dry , warm and windy , providing potentially dangerous conditions . The Tasmania Fire Service implemented a new media campaign , with a view to increasing community preparedness and awareness of what to do if bushfires threatened . But nobody predicted that the fire season would last for almost 6 months , which is unprecedented in the recorded history of Tasmania .","qid":"165","docid":"2013_Tasmanian_bushfires","rank":14,"score":102446},{"content":"Title: R20 Regions of Climate Action Content: The R20 - Regions of Climate Action is a non-profit environmental organization founded in November 2010 , by former Governor of California , Arnold Schwarzenegger , with the support of the United Nations . R20 is a coalition of sub-national governments , private companies , international organizations , NGOs , and academic & financial institutions . Its mission is to help sub-national governments to implement low-carbon and climate-resilient projects , as well as to share best practices in renewable energy and energy efficiency in order to build a `` green economy '' . This NGO operates at the sub-national level as R20 believes sub-national governments constitute a powerful force for change and are best positioned to take action & implement green projects . Through this bottom-up approach , successful sub-national projects will be scaled-up to national and international levels to achieve a broader , global impact .","qid":"165","docid":"R20_Regions_of_Climate_Action","rank":15,"score":102302},{"content":"Title: Irish emergency budget, 2009 Content: The 2009 Irish emergency budget refers to the delivery of an emergency government budget by the Government of Ireland on 7 April 2009 , its second in six months . It was also the second overall budget to be delivered by Fianna Fáil 's Brian Lenihan as Minister for Finance . The emergency budget announcement involved significant tax rises and a decrease in public spending . Prior to its unveiling , it was predicted to be the most severe budget in decades , with The Independent suggesting in its aftermath that it was the most severe in the country 's history .","qid":"165","docid":"Irish_emergency_budget,_2009","rank":16,"score":101522},{"content":"Title: US Climate Symposium Content: The US Climate Symposium ( also known as USCAN ( US Climate Action Network ) ) was established in 1989 by groups and organizations working towards fight and threat of global warming . The need for a forum for a joint strategy development and advocacy to effect change in a coordinated way at the state and local level as well as at the United Nations and in Washington , D.C.","qid":"165","docid":"US_Climate_Symposium","rank":17,"score":100803},{"content":"Title: European Commissioner for Climate Action Content: The Commissioner for Climate Action is a new post in the European Commission . It was created in 2010 , being split from the environmental portfolio to focus on fighting climate change . The current Commissioner is Miguel Arias Cañete . The European Union has made a number of moves in regard to climate change . Most notably it signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 , set up its Emission Trading Scheme in 2005 and is currently agreeing to unilaterally cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % by 2020 .","qid":"165","docid":"European_Commissioner_for_Climate_Action","rank":18,"score":100448},{"content":"Title: C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group Content: The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) connects 90 of the world 's greatest cities , representing 650 + million people and one quarter of the global economy . Created and led by cities , C40 is focused on tackling climate change and driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks , while increasing the health , wellbeing and economic opportunities of urban citizens . The current chair of the C40 is Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo ; the President of the Board is the 108th Mayor of New York City Michael R. Bloomberg , with Mark Watts serving as C40 Executive Director . All three work closely with the 13-member Steering Committee , the Board of Directors and C40 professional staff . The rotating Steering Committee of C40 mayors provides strategic direction and governance . Current Steering Committee members include : Amman , Boston , Copenhagen , Durban , Hong Kong , Jakarta , London , Los Angeles , Mexico City , Milan , Paris , Seoul , and Tokyo . Working across multiple sectors and initiative areas , C40 convenes networks of cities providing a suite of services in support of their efforts , including : direct technical assistance ; facilitation of peer-to-peer exchange ; and research , knowledge management & communications . C40 is also positioning cities as a leading force for climate action around the world , defining and amplifying their call to national governments for greater support and autonomy in creating a sustainable future . C40 's work is made possible by three strategic funders : Bloomberg Philanthropies , The Children 's Investment Fund Foundation ( CIFF ) , and Realdania .","qid":"165","docid":"C40_Cities_Climate_Leadership_Group","rank":19,"score":100132},{"content":"Title: 2013 New South Wales bushfires Content: The 2013 New South Wales bushfires were a series of bushfires in Australia across the state of New South Wales primarily starting , or becoming notable , on 13 October 2013 ; followed by the worst of the fires beginning in the Greater Blue Mountains Area on 16 and 17 October 2013 . High fuel loads , coupled with warm , dry and windy weather , provided dangerous conditions which fuelled the fires . At the peak of the fires , on the morning of 18 October , over 100 fires were burning across the state . The Premier of New South Wales Barry O'Farrell declared a state of emergency on 20 October , empowering firefighters to evict residents and demolish fire-affected buildings . The fires are the worst in New South Wales since the 1960s . , 248 houses and other structures were destroyed across the state . Two fatalities were attributed to the fires . It was estimated that claims will exceed 94 million .","qid":"165","docid":"2013_New_South_Wales_bushfires","rank":20,"score":99971},{"content":"Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .","qid":"165","docid":"Compact_of_Mayors","rank":21,"score":99926},{"content":"Title: Great March for Climate Action Content: The Great March for Climate Action ( also known as the Climate March ) was launched on March 1 , 2013 by former Iowa lawmaker Ed Fallon , inspired after meeting with Bill McKibben . `` Since probably 2007 , I 've identified the climate crisis as the most serious challenge facing our planet , and I 've been pondering ways in which I could most effectively help address it . '' The non-profit organization planned to mobilize one thousand people to march across the continental United States in order to raise awareness and action on anthropogenic climate change . In the end , five people completed the entire march . The march began March 1 , 2014 in Wilmington neighborhood in South Los Angeles , California , and ended on November 1 , 2014 when marchers arrived in Washington , D.C. Along the route , participants engaged with the general public and elected officials in order to inspire society to address climate change . In a Des Moines Register interview Fallon said , `` We think it 's very important . We think this is a tool that will help mobilize people to understand the problem and to do more about it ... this needs to become the defining issue of this century . '' Fallon was inspired in part by another cross-country march , the 1986 Great Peace March for Global Nuclear Disarmament , for which he coordinated the Iowa logistics . Although this was a national campaign , it was intended to have an international audience and was desired to include participants from multiple nations , as climate change is a global phenomenon . The headquarters of the non-profit are located in Des Moines , Iowa . As of October 2013 they had six staff , had raised $ 120,000 , and earned endorsements from 350 . org , James Hansen , and U.S. Senator Tom Harkin and Congressman Bruce Braley among others .","qid":"165","docid":"Great_March_for_Climate_Action","rank":22,"score":99545},{"content":"Title: San Francisco Climate Action Plan Content: The San Francisco Climate Action Plan is a greenhouse gas reduction initiative adopted by the City and County of San Francisco , United States in 2002 . It aims to reduce the city 's greenhouse gas emissions to 20 % below 1990 levels by 2012 .","qid":"165","docid":"San_Francisco_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":23,"score":98346},{"content":"Title: Climate Action Network Content: Climate Action Network -- International ( CAN ) is an umbrella group of environmental non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) active on the issue of climate change . It is most active at meetings of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where it publishes a daily newsletter `` ECO '' , presenting the views of the Environmental NGO community . The Climate Action Network-International is a worldwide network of over 1100 non-governmental organizations in 120 countries working to promote government and individual action to limit human-induced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels . CAN members work to achieve this goal through the coordination of information exchange and NGO strategy on international , regional and national climate issues . CAN has formal regional networks which coordinate these efforts in Africa , Central and Eastern Europe , Europe , Latin America , North America , South Asia , Southeast Asia , and Japan . CAN also has members in China , the Pacific and the Middle East . CAN members place a high priority on both a healthy environment and development that `` meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs '' ( Brundtland Commission ) . Climate Action Network 's vision is to protect the atmosphere while allowing for sustainable and equitable development worldwide .","qid":"165","docid":"Climate_Action_Network","rank":24,"score":97857},{"content":"Title: California Climate Action Registry Content: The California Climate Action Registry was established by California statute as a non-profit voluntary registry for greenhouse gas emissions . The purpose of the Registry is to help companies and organizations with operations in the state to establish GHG emissions baselines against which any future GHG emission reduction requirements may be applied . The California Registry provides leadership on climate change by developing and promoting credible , accurate and consistent GHG reporting standards and tools for organizations to measure , monitor , third-party verify and reduce their GHG emissions consistently across industry sectors and geographical borders . In turn , the State of California offers its best efforts to ensure that California Registry members receive appropriate consideration for early action in light of future state , federal or international GHG regulatory programs . It was created on October 13 , 2001 when Gray Davis signed the legislation establishing it ( Senate Bills 1771 and 527 ) . The legislation was first introduced by Senator Byron Sher .","qid":"165","docid":"California_Climate_Action_Registry","rank":25,"score":97657},{"content":"Title: Forward Challenge Content: Forward Challenge 06 was an exercise in crisis operations and continuity of government operation conducted by the Federal Emergency Management Agency and other agencies in June 2006 . The exercise included activities at Mount Weather in Virginia .","qid":"165","docid":"Forward_Challenge","rank":26,"score":97402},{"content":"Title: Fire and Emergency New Zealand Content: Fire and Emergency New Zealand ( FENZ ) will be established on 1 July 2017 , when 40 urban and rural fire services ( including the New Zealand Fire Service and the National Rural Fire Authority ) will amalgamate to become one organisation . The creation of the FENZ is one of the largest public sector amalgamations ever undertaken in New Zealand . The Government of New Zealand is combining nearly all organisations with firefighting and fire control responsibilities into a single organisation and also giving them the legislative mandate to perform certain non-fire-related work . The result will be that more or less wherever a fire happens ( or indeed most emergencies ) , whether in remote Fiordland or downtown Auckland , personnel from one organisation , Fire and Emergency New Zealand , will respond . And the response will be consistent , coordinated and professional . The establishment of FENZ is being managed by the FENZ Transition Project on behalf of the New Zealand Fire Service Commission .","qid":"165","docid":"Fire_and_Emergency_New_Zealand","rank":27,"score":97196},{"content":"Title: Cities Climate Finance Leadership Alliance Content: The Cities Climate Finance Leadership Alliance ( CCFLA ) is a coalition of more than forty organizations actively working to accelerate investment into sustainable infrastructure . The Alliance brings together a wide range of public and private institutions . For example , the Swiss Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation ( GIB ) is a member of the CCFLA Steering Committee , and occupies the `` Research/NGO/Foundations '' seat . The Alliance was launched at the United Nations Secretary-General 's Climate Summit in September 2014 . In 2016 , R20 Regions of Climate Action was elected to lead the Secretariat of CCFLA , partnering with three other organizations : FMDV , UNDP , and UNEP .","qid":"165","docid":"Cities_Climate_Finance_Leadership_Alliance","rank":28,"score":97017},{"content":"Title: Global Day of Action Content: Global Day of Action is a direct action protest format . Environmentalism initiatives begun to use it in 2005 in connection with Global Climate Campaign . They aimed to focus world attention on the anthropogenic effect that humans are having on global warming . Its main objective is to spearhead demands that elected representatives of their respective governments honor commitments set forth by the Kyoto Protocol , by conducting in unison peaceful demonstrations around the world . The demonstration , or rallies , are intended to coincide with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , a meeting of world leaders from 189 nations , that meet annually to discuss climate change .","qid":"165","docid":"Global_Day_of_Action","rank":29,"score":96959},{"content":"Title: District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department Content: The District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department , ( also known as DC FEMS , FEMS , DCFD , DC Fire , or Fire & EMS ) , established July 1 , 1884 , provides fire protection and emergency medical service to the city of Washington , D.C. , the capital of the United States . An organ of the devolved district government , Fire & EMS is responsible for providing fire suppression , ambulance service and hazardous materials containment for the federal district .","qid":"165","docid":"District_of_Columbia_Fire_and_Emergency_Medical_Services_Department","rank":30,"score":96408},{"content":"Title: Environment Protection Authority (Victoria) Content: Environment Protection Authority Victoria ( EPA ) The EPA 's role is one of both prevention and response relevant to reducing the harmful effects caused to the environment by pollution . During emergency events EPA provides expert advice to emergency services . The EPA is called on regularly to respond to pollution incidents , such as industrial spills , and natural disasters , such as bush fires or floods . During bushfire season , the EPA provides advice and forecasting on the impacts of bushfire smoke . The EPA also monitors compliance with the Environment Protection Act . In line with current international regulatory practice , the EPA adopts a ` risk based ' regulatory approach . This means that it allocates resources where the greatest difference can be made regarding potential harm to the environment and the likelihood of non-compliance . EPA aspires to create a healthy environment that supports a liveable and prosperous Victoria . By effectively regulating pollution in Victoria , EPA is striving to deliver clean air , healthy waterways , safe land , and minimal disturbances from noise and odour for Victorians . The EPA is currently under review by the state government . The Ministerial Advisory Committee ( MAC ) for the independent Inquiry into the Environment Protection Authority delivered its report to the Minister for Environment , Climate Change and Water on 31 March 2016 . The Government 's response is expected mid 2016 . On Monday 16 May 2016 the Government released the MAC report which makes 48 recommendations to set the EPA up for the next generation . http://www.premier.vic.gov.au/first-step-towards-a-modern-epa/ On 17 January 2017 the Victorian State Government released its response to the Independent Inquiry into the Environment Protection Authority ( EPA ) . The government response commits to a once-in-a-generation transformation of the EPA to equip it for the future . A modernised environment protection framework with increased resourcing will ensure that the EPA can continue to protect the health of Victorians , our environment and our world-recognised liveability as Victoria 's population continues to grow . The government response supports in full 40 of the 48 recommendations , with seven supported in principle , and one supported in part . Legislative changes to modernise EPA 's governance and overhaul the Environment Protection Act 1970 will be introduced in 2017 and 2018 . These will strengthen the EPA 's independence and scientific expertise , and deliver certainty , and consistent and efficient regulation for industry . In particular , there will be a landmark shift of approach to preventing harm to the health of Victorians and our environment . The Victorian State Government 2017/18 Budget released on 2 May 2017 has committed over $ 162million to kick-start a five year reform program that will provide Victorians with a bigger , better equipped , and more effective EPA to address Victoria 's environment protection challenges now and into the future . An initial $ 45m over 18 months was announced in January 2017 includes : $ 4.8 million to expand the environmental public health capability in the EPA to better identify , manage and communicate environmental health risks in Victoria $ 6.5 million to better hold polluters to account $ 4.8 million to pilot a program of local government environment protection officers to respond more effectively to local issues affecting liveability and amenity $ 2.1 million to appoint a Chief Environmental Scientist and boost EPA 's intelligence-gathering on new and emerging risks $ 3.3 million for improved digital information management to support better regulation $ 1.5 million to strengthen EPA 's strategic role in land use planning . An interim advisory board has been appointed to support the EPA through this significant reform process and provide strategic advice to support its leadership . This will be led by current EPA Chairman , Cheryl Batagol , with interim board members : Dr John Stocker , Professor Rebekah Brown , Ross Pilling , Monique Conheady , Debra Russell , Robert Hogarth and Professor Arie Frieberg . The Independent Inquiry into the EPA was conducted over 10 months by a Ministerial Advisory Committee and the final report was publicly released on 16 May 2016 . The inquiry was the first comprehensive review of the EPA since it commenced operations in 1971 . You can find out more about the inquiry , and view the final report here . - See more at : http://delwp.vic.gov.au/environment-and-wildlife/epa-inquiry#sthash.vItBr7sq.dpuf Lily D'Ambrosio MP is the Minister for Energy , Environment and Climate Change . She was appointed to the role on 23 May 2016 and is the minister responsible for the EPA . EPA employs close to 600 staff ( expected to grow to about 750 over the next year up from about 340 in 2014 ) , based at seven locations across Victoria . Staff include scientists , engineers , lawyer , administrators , community engagement staff , Environment Protection Officers as well as specialist investigators and prosecutors . Offices are located across Victoria at Carlton ( head office ) , Macleod , Dandenong , Traralgon , Wangaratta , Bendigo , and Geelong . EPA will soon open an additional office in Exhibition Street , Melbourne . On 23 March 2017 EPA announced the appointment of Dr Andrea Hinwood as the state 's first Chief Environmental Scientist . http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/about-us/news-centre/news-and-updates/news/2017/march/23/victorias-inaugural-chief-environmental-scientist-announced","qid":"165","docid":"Environment_Protection_Authority_(Victoria)","rank":31,"score":96402},{"content":"Title: List of March for Science locations Content: The March for Science was a series of protests that occurred across the United States and around the World on April 22 , 2017 . The protests were organized due to the perceived hostility of the Trump administration , as well as proposed budget cuts to federal agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency and the National Institute of Health . A major goal of the march was convincing government officials to adopt policies in-line with the scientific understanding of issues such as climate change and vaccines . Listed below are several hundreds of the affiliated marches .","qid":"165","docid":"List_of_March_for_Science_locations","rank":32,"score":96228},{"content":"Title: Chicago Climate Action Plan Content: The Chicago Climate Action Plan ( CCAP ) is Chicago 's climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy that was adopted in September 2008 . The CCAP has an overarching goal of reducing Chicago 's greenhouse gas emissions by 80 percent below 1990 levels by 2050 , with an interim goal of 25 percent below 1990 levels by 2020 .","qid":"165","docid":"Chicago_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":33,"score":96137},{"content":"Title: Action for climate empowerment (ACE) Content: Action for Climate Empowerment ( ACE ) is a term adopted by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . It refers to Article 6 of the Convention 's original text ( 1992 ) , focusing on six priority areas : education , training , public awareness , public participation , public access to information , and international cooperation on these issues . The implementation of all six areas has been identified as the pivotal factor for everyone to understand and participate in solving the complex challenges presented by climate change . The importance of ACE is reflected in other international frameworks such as the Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs , 2015 ) ; the Global Action Programme for Education for Sustainable Development ( GAP on ESD , 2014 ) ; the Aarhus Convention ( 2011 ) ; and the Bali Guidelines ( 2010 ) . ACE calls on governments to develop and implement educational and public awareness programmes , train scientific , technical and managerial personnel , foster access to information , and promote public participation in addressing climate change and its effects . It also urges countries to cooperate in this process , by exchanging good practices and lessons learned , and strengthening national institutions . This wide scope of activities is guided by specific objectives that , together , are seen as crucial for effectively implementing climate adaptation and mitigation actions , and for achieving the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC .","qid":"165","docid":"Action_for_climate_empowerment_(ACE)","rank":34,"score":96064},{"content":"Title: Federal Emergency Management Agency Content: The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) is an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security , initially created by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 and implemented by two Executive Orders on April 1 , 1979 . The agency 's primary purpose is to coordinate the response to a disaster that has occurred in the United States and that overwhelms the resources of local and state authorities . The governor of the state in which the disaster occurs must declare a state of emergency and formally request from the president that FEMA and the federal government respond to the disaster . FEMA also provides these services for territories of the United States , such as Puerto Rico . The only exception to the state 's gubernatorial declaration requirement occurs when an emergency and/or disaster takes place on federal property or to a federal asset , for example ; the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , or the Space Shuttle Columbia in the 2003 return-flight disaster . While on-the-ground support of disaster recovery efforts is a major part of FEMA 's charter , the agency provides state and local governments with experts in specialized fields and funding for rebuilding efforts and relief funds for infrastructure by directing individuals to access low interest loans , in conjunction with the Small Business Administration . In addition to this , FEMA provides funds for training of response personnel throughout the United States and its territories as part of the agency 's preparedness effort .","qid":"165","docid":"Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency","rank":35,"score":95966},{"content":"Title: 2008–09 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season was the Australian bushfire season that ran from late December 2008 to April/May 2009 . Above average rainfalls in December , particularly in Victoria , delayed the start of the season , but by January 2009 , conditions throughout South eastern Australia worsened with the onset of one of the region 's worst heat waves . On 7 February , extreme bushfire conditions precipitated major bushfires throughout Victoria , involving several large fire complexes , which continued to burn across the state for around one month . 173 people lost their lives in these fires and 414 were injured . 3,500 + buildings were destroyed , including 2,029 houses , and 7,562 people displaced . Late 2008 had relatively few bushfires . Victoria in particular experienced higher than average rainfall in December , decreasing the fire danger in many regions of the state . Initial observations in October 2008 predicted an above average fire potential across Australia 's coastal regions and a below average potential in Central Australia , where drought has reduced the available fuel . In late January and early February , the effects of the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave increased temperatures across south-eastern Australia , particularly in Victoria and South Australia , where several locations broke all time temperature records . Various days of high wind speed , combined with the hot dry conditions , created extreme bushfire conditions between 25 January and 7 February 2009 .","qid":"165","docid":"2008–09_Australian_bushfire_season","rank":36,"score":95908},{"content":"Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .","qid":"165","docid":"Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":37,"score":95823},{"content":"Title: National Fire Academy Content: The National Fire Academy ( NFA ) is one of two schools in the United States operated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) at the National Emergency Training Center ( NETC ) in Emmitsburg , Maryland . Operated and governed by the United States Fire Administration ( USFA ) as part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) , the NFA is the country 's pre-eminent federal fire training and education institution . The original purpose of the NFA as detailed in a 1973 report to Congress was to `` function as the core of the Nation 's efforts in fire service education -- feeding out model programs , curricula , and information ... '' The NFA shares its 107 acre Emmitsburg campus with the Emergency Management Institute ( EMI ) operated by the Directorate of Preparedness branch of FEMA . The campus also includes the Learning Resource Center ( LRC ) library , the National Fire Data Center , and the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial . The campus was the original site of Saint Joseph 's Academy , a Catholic school for girls from 1809 until 1973 . It was purchased by the U.S. Government in 1979 for use as the NETC . In 2008 , the National Fire Academy trained over 122,000 first responders from all 50 States .","qid":"165","docid":"National_Fire_Academy","rank":38,"score":95585},{"content":"Title: National Emergency Management Agency Content: The National Emergency Management Agency ( NEMA ; Korean : 소방방재청 , 消防防災廳 ) was an agency of South Korea , initially created by Enactment of the `` Act on Promotion of Fire Fighting Industry '' of 2008 and ceased control on 19 November 2014 as the Ministry of Public Safety and Security was founded at the same day on the incident of the MV Sewol ferry disaster . The agency 's primary purpose is to coordinate the response to any disaster that has occurred in South Korea which overwhelms the resources of local government authorities . The disaster management system of Korea goes back to `` Buyeok '' ( compulsory service ) in the era of the Three Kingdoms , which was succeeded by the Hyangyak in the Joseon Dynasty and then by the ` Civil Defense Basic Law ' enacted in 1975 after independence . The NEMA , whose predecessor is the ` Headquarters of Civil Defense and Disaster Management ' under the control of the Ministry of Government Administration and Home Affairs , was opened on June 1 , 2004 for the purpose of protecting the lives and property of the people from the large-scale disasters that have occurred repeatedly every year since 1990s . The NEMA consists of 1 officer , 3 bureaus , 19 divisions and 4 affiliated organizations . A total of 435 people ( 267 for the main office and 168 for the affiliated organizations ) work for the NEMA . Through the execution of 12 laws including the Disaster and Safety Management Basic Law , it is taking the lead in the national disaster management work of protecting the lives and property of the people .","qid":"165","docid":"National_Emergency_Management_Agency","rank":39,"score":95236},{"content":"Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .","qid":"165","docid":"People's_Climate_March","rank":40,"score":95062},{"content":"Title: Black Christmas bushfires Content: The Black Christmas bushfires were bushfires that burnt for almost three weeks from 24 December 2001 to 7 January 2002 across New South Wales , Australia . It was the longest continuous bushfire emergency in NSW history . Low rainfall across winter and spring 2001 combined with a hot , dry December created ideal conditions for bushfires . On the day of Christmas Eve , firefighters from the Grose Vale Rural Fire Service ( RFS ) brigade attended a blaze in rugged terrain at the end of Cabbage Tree Rd , Grose Vale , believed to have been caused by power lines in the Grose Valley . On Christmas Day , strong westerly winds fuelled more than 100 bushfires across the state , creating a plume of smoke that extended across Sydney . This plume of smoke would not clear for some days as the bushfires continued to burn , creating some of the worst pollution that Sydney has ever experienced , with a regional pollution index reading of : 200 in North-West Sydney ; 120 in Central-East and South-West Sydney . The fires mainly burnt in Lane Cove National Park , the Royal National Park & Blue Mountains National Park . Overall approximately 3,000 square kilometres ( 740,000 acres ) were burnt . 121 homes were destroyed across the state and 36 damaged , mostly in the lower Blue Mountains and west of the Royal National Park around Helensburgh . Arsonists were believed to be responsible for starting many of the fires , leading to harsher penalties for those who start bushfires . The dry conditions that started the bushfires continued well into 2002 , resulting in the worst drought in 100 years . The drought was declared a `` one in 1000 year event '' . The drought finally broke with the La Nina event of 2010 -- 2011 . Significantly higher than average rainfall began in July 2010 , it was Australia 's second wettest year on record . An Erickson S-64 Aircrane helicopter became something of a celebrity during this time . Elvis ( N179AC ) was loaned to NSW by Victoria and proved instantly successful .","qid":"165","docid":"Black_Christmas_bushfires","rank":41,"score":94931},{"content":"Title: Emergency Alert System Content: The Emergency Alert System ( EAS ) is a national warning system in the United States put into place on January 1 , 1997 ( approved by Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) in November 1994 ) , when it replaced the Emergency Broadcast System ( EBS ) , which in turn replaced the CONELRAD System . The official EAS is designed to enable the President of the United States to speak to the United States within 10 minutes . In addition to this requirement , EAS is also designed to alert the public of local weather emergencies such as tornadoes and flash floods ( and in some cases severe thunderstorms depending on the severity of the storm ) . A national EAS test was conducted on November 9 , 2011 , at 2 p.m. Eastern Standard Time . The most recent National EAS Test was performed September 28 , 2016 , at 2:20 PM EDT ( 11:20 AM PDT ) . EAS is jointly coordinated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) and the National Weather Service ( NOAA/NWS ) . The EAS regulations and standards are governed by the Public Safety and Homeland Security Bureau of the FCC . EAS has become part of Integrated Public Alert and Warning System ( IPAWS ) , a program of FEMA . EAS messages are transmitted via AM , FM , broadcast television , cable television and Land Mobile Radio Service , as well as VHF , UHF , and FiOS ( wireline video providers ) . Digital television , satellite television , and digital cable providers , along with Sirius XM satellite radio , IBOC , DAB , smart phones and digital radio broadcasters , have been required to participate in the EAS since December 31 , 2006 . DirecTV , Dish Network , and all other DBS providers have been required to participate since May 31 , 2007 . In 2008 , the FCC began work on another system for public alerting designed and targeted at smartphones , meant to support the EAS . The Commercial Mobile Alert System ( now Wireless Emergency Alerts ) made its debut in about early 2013 in select states for select events . While this system functions independently from the Emergency Alert System , it may broadcast identical information .","qid":"165","docid":"Emergency_Alert_System","rank":42,"score":94877},{"content":"Title: Palestinian Authority Government of April 2003 Content: The Palestinian Authority Government of April 2003 was a government of the Palestinian National Authority ( PA ) from April to September 2003 . It was headed by Mahmoud Abbas , the very first Prime Minister . The Prime Minister and his government were inaugurated before the Parliament on 29 April . Abbas already resigned as Prime Minister on 6 September 2003 because of a struggle for power with President Yasser Arafat and the stagnated implementation of the Road map for Peace . After the discharge of the Government in September 2003 , Speaker of the Palestinian Legislative Council Ahmed Qurei was asked to become Prime Minister of an emergency government , but Arafat , on 5 October , appointed Qurei PM of a small emergency cabinet before a government could be presented to Parliament .","qid":"165","docid":"Palestinian_Authority_Government_of_April_2003","rank":43,"score":94676},{"content":"Title: ACTION (U.S. government agency) Content: ACTION was a United States government agency described as `` the federal domestic volunteer agency '' . It was formed July 1 , 1971 , during President Richard Nixon 's first term under the provisions of Reorganization Plan Number One , and Executive Order 11603 , June 30 , 1971 , to provide centralized coordination and administration of Government-sponsored domestic and international volunteer agencies . Among the programs transferred to the new agency were : domestic volunteer programs established in the Office of Economic Opportunity ( OEO ) pursuant to the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 ( 78 Stat . 508 ) , August 20 , 1964 : Volunteers in Service to America ( VISTA ) and the National Student Volunteer Program ( NSVP ) ; domestic volunteer programs established in the Department of Health , Education , and Welfare pursuant to the Older Americans Act of 1965 ( 79 Stat . 218 ) , July 14 , 1965 , and the Older Americans Act Amendments of 1969 ( 83 Stat . 111 ) , September 17 , 1969 : the Foster Grandparents program and the Retired Senior Volunteer Program ( RSVP ) ; the Peace Corps , the international volunteer programs represented established in the Department of State pursuant to EO 10924 , March 1 , 1961 ; the volunteer action clearinghouse functions vested in the Office of Voluntary Action at the Department of Housing and Urban Development , pursuant to EO 11470 , May 26 , 1969 . ACTION also assumed from OEO responsibility for providing logistical support to the volunteer programs of the Small Business Administration ( SBA ) : Service Corps of Retired Executives ( SCORE ) , established April 1964 ; Active Corps of Executives ( ACE ) , established August 1969 . ACTION 's responsibility for SCORE and ACE terminated in 1976 . In addition , the Senior Companions program was established in ACTION in 1973 . Foster Grandparents , RSVP , and Senior Companions were later merged into the Senior Corps . The Peace Corps was separated from ACTION in 1982 . The NSVP was redesignated National Center for Service Learning in 1980 , and terminated and superseded by Student Community Service Projects in 1987 . ACTION 's functions , and the Commission on National and Community Service , were ordered transferred to the newly established Corporation for National and Community Service ( CNCS ) no later than March 22 , 1995 , by Section 203 of the National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993 ( 107 Stat . 892 ) , September 21 , 1993 . AmeriCorps , which includes VISTA , and Senior Corps are programs of the CNCS . ACTION was abolished by Presidential Proclamation 6662 , April 4 , 1994 ( 3 CFR , 1994 ed. , 22 ) . See 362.1 .","qid":"165","docid":"ACTION_(U.S._government_agency)","rank":44,"score":94566},{"content":"Title: Directorate-General for Climate Action Content: The Directorate-General for Climate Action or DG CLIMA , established in February 2010 , is a department of the European Commission . The current Commissioner is Miguel Arias Cañete . The DG is headed by Jos Delbeke , Director General for Climate Action . Climate change was previously the responsibility of the Directorate-General for the Environment . DG Climate Change participates in international negotiations on climate , helps the European Union to deal with the consequences of climate change and encourages it to meet its targets for 2020 . It also develops and implements the EU Emissions Trading System .","qid":"165","docid":"Directorate-General_for_Climate_Action","rank":45,"score":94557},{"content":"Title: Etiwanda Fire Content: The Etiwanda Fire was a wildfire in the San Bernardino National Forest in the foothills north of Rancho Cucamonga . The fire started on April 30 , 2014 , during Santa Ana wind conditions of high temperatures and strong winds . On the first day , four schools and more than 1,500 homes were evacuated ; residential evacuation orders were canceled that evening . Nine schools were closed on May 1 , but they all were reopened on May 2 . Many nearby communities were warned of unhealthy air quality . It burned 2,143 acre and was fully contained on May 10 . The Etiwanda Fire was caused by an escaped illegal campfire .","qid":"165","docid":"Etiwanda_Fire","rank":46,"score":94541},{"content":"Title: Garnaut Climate Change Review Content: Professor Ross Garnaut led two climate change reviews , the first commencing in 2007 and the second in 2010 . The first Garnaut Climate Change Review was a study by Professor Ross Garnaut , commissioned by then Opposition Leader , Kevin Rudd and by the Australian State and Territory Governments on 30 April 2007 . After the election on 24 November 2007 , Prime Minister of Australia Kevin Rudd confirmed the participation of the Commonwealth Government in the Review . The Review examined the impacts of climate change on the Australian economy , and recommended medium to long-term policies and policy frameworks to improve the prospects for sustainable prosperity . Some observers have remarked that the Garnaut Review would be Australia 's version of the Stern Review . A number of forums were held around Australia to engage the public on various issues relating to the Review . The Secretariat to support the Review was based in the Victorian Department of Premier and Cabinet . The final report of the Garnaut Review was delivered on 30 September 2008 .","qid":"165","docid":"Garnaut_Climate_Change_Review","rank":47,"score":94204},{"content":"Title: Indian Armed Forces and the Jammu and Kashmir floods, 2014 Content: In the wake of heavy monsoon rain and flash floods in Jammu and Kashmir , which have allegedly killed over four hundred and rendered hundreds of thousand homeless , the Indian Armed Forces were deployed in increasing numbers starting September 2 , 2014 to conduct search , rescue , relief , relocation , humanitarian assistance and rehabilitation missions in Jammu and Kashmir . By September 18 , over 200,000 people were rescued from the various parts of Jammu and Kashmir by the Armed forces . The Jammu and Kashmir floods , the worst in a century according to Omar Abdullah , the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir , paralyzed the state government . Omar Abdullah , responding to public criticism , told the media `` I had no government '' in the first few days following the floods , as `` My secretariat , the police headquarters , the control room , fire services , hospitals , all the infrastructure was underwater . '' Adding `` I had no cell phone and no connectivity . I am now starting to track down ministers and officers . '' The Jammu and Kashmir floods of 2014 have been blamed on heavy rainfall , about 8 inches ( 200mm ) on 4 September alone , on climate change , unplanned and uncontrolled development , encroachment of river banks , lakes , ponds , and massive loss of wet lands , absence of local government flood forecasting system , and poor governance . The Armed Forces humanitarian assistance mission in response to the floods was named Mission Sahayata ( assistances ) . Northern Command 's humanitarian assistance to Civil authorities was named ` Operation MEGH RAHAT ' . The Indian Army , Air Force , and the Navy , committed large resources to the assistance mission including over 30,000 troops ( 21,000 in Srinagar , and 9000 in Jammu ) , 15 engineer task forces , 84 Indian Air Force and Army Aviation Corps fixed wing transport aircraft and helicopters , naval commandos and rescue specialists , and Base Hospital , four field hospitals , over 106 medical detachments . `` Operation Megh Rahat '' , ended on 19 September 2014 , but `` Operation Sadbhavna '' , the relief and medical assistance support , according to government press release , will continue in `` close synergy with the civil administration and the police '' .","qid":"165","docid":"Indian_Armed_Forces_and_the_Jammu_and_Kashmir_floods,_2014","rank":48,"score":94157},{"content":"Title: Climate One Content: Climate One is a branch of The Commonwealth Club of California based in San Francisco , California . It aims to bridge the gap between business leadership and sustainability through discussions about strong action and climate change . Founded in 2007 by Greg Dalton , it is a public affairs forum dedicated to the exclusive coverage of energy , environment and the economy .","qid":"165","docid":"Climate_One","rank":49,"score":94069},{"content":"Title: Environmental emergency Content: Environmental emergencies are defined as `` sudden-onset disasters or accidents resulting from natural , technological or human-induced factors , or a combination of these , that causes or threatens to cause severe environmental damage as well as loss of human lives and property . '' ( UNEP/GC .22 / INF/5 , 13 November 2002 . ) Following a disaster or conflict , an environmental emergency can occur when people 's health and livelihoods are at risk due to the release of hazardous and noxious substances , or because of significant damage to the ecosystem . Examples include fires , oil spills , chemical accidents , toxic-waste dumping and groundwater pollution . The environmental risks can be acute and life-threatening . According to the International Disaster Database ( EM-DAT ) , between 2003 and 2013 , there were 380 industrial accidents reported , affecting 207 668 people and resulting in over US$ 22 million in losses . Climate change is having an unprecedented effect on the occurrence of natural disasters and the associated risk of environmental emergencies . With climate change already stretching the disaster relief system , future climate-related emergency events will generate increased and more costly demands for assistance .","qid":"165","docid":"Environmental_emergency","rank":50,"score":93990},{"content":"Title: People's Climate March (2017) Content: The People 's Climate March ( also called People 's Climate Movement ) was a protest which took place on Washington , D.C. 's National Mall , and among 300 locations throughout the United States , and locations outside the U.S. , on April 29 , 2017 . Organizers announced the demonstration in January 2017 to protest the environmental policies of U.S. President Donald Trump and his administration . The protests were held at the end of his first 100 days as president , during stormy weather across the U.S. . There was an estimated 200,000 participating in the D.C. march .","qid":"165","docid":"People's_Climate_March_(2017)","rank":51,"score":93668},{"content":"Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .","qid":"165","docid":"Turning_the_Corner_Plan","rank":52,"score":93471},{"content":"Title: United States Fire Administration Content: The United States Fire Administration ( USFA ) is a division of the Federal Emergency Management Agency which in turn is managed by the Department of Homeland Security located in unincorporated Frederick County , Maryland , near Emmitsburg .","qid":"165","docid":"United_States_Fire_Administration","rank":53,"score":93292},{"content":"Title: Territorial Approach to Climate Change Content: The Territorial Approach to Climate Change ( TACC ) works with local level governments ( states , provinces , cities , municipalities ) in developing countries and countries in transition to increase resilience to climate change impact and reduce their carbon footprint . The TACC is a partnership of five agencies that includes UNEP , UNDP , UNITAR , UN-Habitat and UNCDF . TACC as a global action came into existence after the Saint Malo Declaration . Sub-national authorities recognised that urgent and collective action was needed to respond appropriately to climate change . The United Nations recognised that most investments to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions and adapt to climate change take place at the sub-national and local levels . Developing the capacity of sub-national governments in low income countries to create conditions that reduce the perceived investments risks and access new sources of environmental finance was seen as key to addressing climate change . Phase 1 of the programme - Awareness raising and training - was led by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) . Phase 2 - Analysis , assessment and action plan - was led by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . Phase 3 - Projects - was also led by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . Initial projects under TACC were conducted in : Uganda Uruguay ( the pilot project ) Albania Algeria Colombia Ethiopia Peru Senegal","qid":"165","docid":"Territorial_Approach_to_Climate_Change","rank":54,"score":93080},{"content":"Title: Ambo Declaration Content: The Ambo Declaration was adopted at the Tarawa Climate Change Conference on 10 November 2010 by Australia , Brazil , China , Cuba , Fiji , Japan , Kiribati , Maldives , Marshall Islands , New Zealand , Solomon Islands and Tonga . The declaration calls for more and immediate action to be undertaken to address the causes and adverse impacts of climate change . The Ambo Declaration , named after the village in Kiribati where parliament sits , was slated to be a non-legally-binding agreement between the nations to present at the larger international climate change summit , COP16 in Cancun , Mexico . The United States , the United Kingdom and Canada , who also attended the conference , chose not to be part of the declaration by taking Observer status . The purpose of the conference was to support the initiative of the President of Kiribati , Anote Tong , to hold a consultative forum between vulnerable states and their partners with a view of creating an enabling environment for multi-party negotiations under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . The conference was a successor event to the Climate Vulnerable Forum first held in November 2009 in the Maldives , when eleven climate vulnerable countries signed the Bandos Island declaration pledging to show moral leadership and commence greening their economies by voluntarily committing to achieving carbon neutrality . Based on the lessons learned in the COP process , the TCCC proposed a more inclusive format of consultations , involving key partners among major developed and developing nations . The ultimate objective of TCCC was to reduce the number and intensity of various fault lines between parties to the COP process , explore elements of agreement between the parties and thereby to support Kiribati 's and other parties ' contribution to COP16 to be held in Cancun , Mexico , from 29 November to 10 December 2010 .","qid":"165","docid":"Ambo_Declaration","rank":55,"score":93011},{"content":"Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .","qid":"165","docid":"New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001","rank":56,"score":92824},{"content":"Title: Preparing for Emergencies Content: Preparing for Emergencies was a public information scheme , produced by the Home Office , a department of the United Kingdom Government , advising British citizens on what to do in the event of a natural disaster , accident or terrorism . The scheme was started on 26 July 2004 in the wake of several major disasters including the 11 March 2004 Madrid train bombings , SARS and the 2001 UK foot and mouth crisis , in the form of a 22-page booklet which covered topics such as transport accidents , health , foot and mouth disease , terrorism and fire safety . The booklet was distributed to all UK households but received some criticism - comparing it to Protect and Survive , a 1980s Public Information Film that instructed people on how to remain safe from nuclear war . Some sections of the media also accused the Government of `` scaremongering '' , although information was provided on topics other than terrorism . Soon after the website accompanying the booklet was launched , a spoof website appeared , www.preparingforemergencies.co.uk , said to be from `` HM Department of Vague Paranoia '' ; it parodied the seemingly obvious advice given by the booklets , and gave such advice as : `` Alien Invasion : Negotiate using sign language , if possible . Failing that , and assuming they are n't armed with futuristic ray guns , run like hell . '' The Home Office initially objected to the website , stating that the URL was too similar to that of their own website , www.preparingforemergencies.gov.uk , and threatened to close the website down . However , after a link to the official website was added , the Home Office conceded the issue , and allowed the site to remain online . Following the original distribution , no more booklets have been produced , although the website was updated with advice on possible bird flu epidemics and the 7 July 2005 London bombings . In 2011/12 the website was permanently closed , and official emergency preparedness information for the UK was moved to the gov.uk website .","qid":"165","docid":"Preparing_for_Emergencies","rank":57,"score":92243},{"content":"Title: Climate Commission Content: The Climate Commission was an independent body established in 2011 by the Federal Government of Australia to communicate `` reliable and authoritative information '' about climate change in Australia . Abolished by a newly elected government in September 2013 , it was relaunched as an independent non-profit organisation called the Climate Council .","qid":"165","docid":"Climate_Commission","rank":58,"score":92237},{"content":"Title: Department of Fire and Emergency Services Content: The Department of Fire and Emergency Services ( DFES ) is a government department that is responsible for fire and emergency services in Western Australia . The department came into being in 2012 as a result of the Perth Hills Bush Fire review .","qid":"165","docid":"Department_of_Fire_and_Emergency_Services","rank":59,"score":92218},{"content":"Title: Fire Corps Content: Fire Corps is an American volunteer program which is designed to connect community members with their local fire/EMS departments to help with non-emergency tasks . On a national level , Fire Corps is managed by the National Volunteer Fire Council and supported by the Department of Homeland Security , Citizen Corps , and the United States Fire Administration . Launched in 2004 , Fire Corps is one of five partner programs under Citizen Corps , the Federal Emergency Management Agency 's grassroots strategy to bring together government and community leaders to involve citizens in all-hazards emergency preparedness and resilience . The Fire Corps web site located at www.firecorps.org serves as a gateway to information , resources , training , and networking opportunities for fire/EMS departments as well as community members interested in non-operational volunteer opportunities with their department . Departments can use this site to register their citizen volunteer program and community members can use the site to find a local Fire Corps program .","qid":"165","docid":"Fire_Corps","rank":60,"score":92043},{"content":"Title: Department of Communications, Climate Action and Environment Content: The Department of Communications , Climate Action and Environment ( An Roinn Cumarsáide , Gníomhaithe ar son na hAeráide agus Comhshaoil ) is a department of the Government of Ireland that is responsible for the telecommunications and broadcasting sectors and regulates , protects and develops the natural resources of Ireland . The head of the department is the Minister for Communications , Climate Change and Natural Resources who is assisted by one Minister of State .","qid":"165","docid":"Department_of_Communications,_Climate_Action_and_Environment","rank":61,"score":91985},{"content":"Title: Green Zone Community Climate Action Content: Green Zone Community Climate Action is a charitable unincorporated association formed in November 2016 . Based in Broomfield , Essex , this organisation delivers climate change awareness at a grass roots level to improve public understanding of Global warming and promote individual actions that can help to address this . The charity works with Marks & Spencer through the project Neighbourly among other retailers to reduce food waste and share unsold food within the community . The charity also supports climate education for primary school children through clubs . The charity took part in the worldwide 24 Hours of Reality campaign broadcast by The Climate Reality Project . Working alongside additional community charities Green Zone Community Climate Action is one of many new projects created to assist the UK in meeting the United Nations global Sustainable Development Goals","qid":"165","docid":"Green_Zone_Community_Climate_Action","rank":62,"score":91965},{"content":"Title: Climate Justice Action Content: Climate Justice Action ( CJA ) `` is a global network of groups and individuals committed to taking action to prevent catastrophic climate change '' . CJA formed as part of the alternative mobilisation around the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , and organised mass Direct actions during the conference .","qid":"165","docid":"Climate_Justice_Action","rank":63,"score":91760},{"content":"Title: R. David Paulison Content: Robert David Paulison ( born February 27 , 1947 ) is an American former fire chief who served as the director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) . Paulison was appointed by President George W. Bush on September 12 , 2005 to replace the embattled Michael D. Brown , who resigned amid controversy over his handling of disaster relief in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina . Prior to his appointment , Paulison was perhaps best known nationally for his 2003 advisory regarding household items ( including duct tape and plastic sheeting ) to have on hand in case of terrorist attack . At the 2009 National Hurricane Conference , he announced he would resign January 21 , 2009 .","qid":"165","docid":"R._David_Paulison","rank":64,"score":91717},{"content":"Title: Emergency Federal Register Content: The Emergency Federal Register is the planned replacement for the Federal Register , the official journal of the United States government , in the event publication of the Federal Register is suspended by presidential decree following the onset of a severe national calamity , such as a major nuclear attack or the mainland invasion of the United States . According to the Office of the Federal Register , the Emergency Federal Register `` can only be activated under extreme national security conditions '' . Publication in the Federal Register of newly enacted federal regulations is required prior to their effective date . The purpose of the Emergency Federal Register would be to permit the continuation of such required publication but from a location outside of Washington , DC , in the event that city were overrun or rendered uninhabitable , or by methods or means other than bound paper , possibly including broadcast transmission or a town crier system . The Office of the Federal Register maintains alternate work sites where the Emergency Federal Register can be managed , including one site in Laurel , Maryland , another site in Rocket Center , West Virginia , and at least one other `` classified location '' . Authority for activation of an alternative to the Federal Register is contained in Title 44 , Section 1505 of the United States Code , which specifies that : In the event of an attack or threatened attack upon the continental United States and a determination by the President that as a result of an attack or threatened attack publication of the Federal Register or filing of documents with the Office of the Federal Register is impracticable , or under existing conditions publication in the Federal Register would not serve to give appropriate notice to the public of the contents of documents , the President may , without regard to any other provision of law , suspend all or part of the requirements of law or regulation for filing with the Office or publication in the Federal Register of documents or classes of documents . Many new regulations required in a crisis situation , however , would not require advance publication . A contingency regulatory code , operating in parallel to the Code of Federal Regulations and known as the Emergency Code of Federal Regulations , can be immediately promulgated following the onset of an emergency .","qid":"165","docid":"Emergency_Federal_Register","rank":65,"score":91475},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Accountability Act (Bill C-224) Content: The Climate Change Accountability Act is a Private Member 's Bill that has been submitted in the 39th , 40th and 41st Canadian Parliament . It was originally tabled in October 2006 in the Canadian House of Commons as Bill C-377 of the 39th Parliament by Jack Layton , then the leader of the New Democratic Party of Canada ( NDP ) . It passed third reading by a vote of 148 to 116 with the support of caucuses of the Liberal Party of Canada , the Bloc Québécois and the NDP ( the Conservative Party of Canada , led by Prime Minister Stephen Harper , voted against it ) . However , Bill C-377 died as it was still before the Senate when Parliament was dissolved for the 2008 Canadian federal election . On February 10 , 2009 Bruce Hyer , then the New Democrat Deputy Environment Critic and MP for Thunder Bay-Superior North , seconded by Layton , reintroduced it in the 40th Parliament as Bill C-311 . It passed 2nd Reading on April 1 , 2009 by a vote of 141 to 128 , and was sent to the Standing Committee on the Environment and Sustainable Development . On October 21 , 2009 , the House voted 169 to 93 to allow the Committee more time to study the Bill , as the sixty sitting days permitted for its consideration under Standing Order 97.1 ( 1 ) of the House of Commons had expired . Passage of the Climate Change Accountability Act was therefore effectively delayed until 2010 , meaning it would not influence the government in negotiations at the UN COP15 global climate change treaty negotiations held in December 2009 in Copenhagen . On December 10 , 2009 , the committee report on Bill C-311 was presented to the House , without amendment to the Bill . The December 30 , 2009 prorogation of the House did not affect the Bill , as Private Member 's Bills are reinstated at the stage last completed , and Bill C-311 had not been considered at Report Stage at prorogation . When Parliament resumed , C-311 was concurred in at Report Stage on April 14 , 2010 by vote 155 to 137 . The bill was passed by the House of Commons at 3rd Reading on May 5 , 2010 with 149 votes for and 136 votes against . It received 1st Reading in the Senate on May 6 , 2010 before being defeated at 2nd Reading on November 16 , 2010 by a vote of 43 to 32 . The bill was re-introduced as Bill C-224 on June 15 , 2011 by current NDP Environment Critic and MP for Halifax , Megan Leslie . The bill was seconded by Deputy Environment Critic Laurin Liu .","qid":"165","docid":"Climate_Change_Accountability_Act_(Bill_C-224)","rank":66,"score":91335},{"content":"Title: National Fire Incident Reporting System Content: The National Fire Incident Reporting System ( NFIRS ) is a system established by the National Fire Data Center of the United States Fire Administration ( USFA ) , a division of the Federal Emergency Management Agency . The System was established after the 1973 National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control report , America Burning , led to passage of the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 ( P.L. 93-498 ) , which authorizes the USFA to gather and analyze information on the magnitude of the Nation 's fire problem , as well as its detailed characteristics and trends . The Act further authorizes the USFA to develop uniform data reporting methods , and to encourage and assist state agencies in developing and reporting data . The NFIRS has two objectives : to help state and local governments develop fire reporting and analysis capability for their own use , and to obtain data that can be used to more accurately assess and subsequently combat the fire problem at a national level . To meet these objectives , the USFA has developed a standard NFIRS package that includes incident and casualty forms , a coding structure for data processing purposes , manuals , computer software and procedures , documentation and a National Fire Academy training course for utilizing the system . The NFIRS reporting format is based on the National Fire Protection Association Standard 901 , `` Uniform Coding for Fire Protection '' ( 1976 version ) , the 1981 codes for Fire Service Casualty Reporting , and the 1990 codes for Hazardous Materials Reporting . The version of NFIRS current as of June , 2006 , version 5.0 , was released in January , 1999 . NFIRS 5.0 expands the collection of data beyond fires to include the full range of fire department activity on a national scale . It is a true all-incident reporting system . Within the NFIRS states , participating local fire departments fill out the Incident and Casualty reports as fires occur . They forward the completed incidents via paper forms , computer media or the Internet to their state office where the data is validated and consolidated into a single computerized database . Feedback reports are generated and forwarded to the participating fire departments . Periodically , computer media containing the aggregated statewide data is sent to the National Fire Data Center at the USFA to be included in the National Database . This database is used to answer questions about the nature and causes of injuries , deaths , and property loss resulting from fires . The information is disseminated through a variety of means to states and other organizations . The National Fire Incident Reporting System is a model of successful Federal , State and local partnership . The database constitutes the world 's largest , national , annual collection of incident information . The success of NFIRS is due in part to the unique cooperative effort between USFA and the National Fire Information Council ( NFIC ) . NFIC plays a vital role in the USFA 's efforts to achieve an accurate nationwide analysis of the fire problem through support to NFIRS and its participating member states and metropolitan fire departments . NFIC 's unique partnership of Federal , state and local participants has proven to be one of the most successful , productive and cost-beneficial programs ever attempted on a national level .","qid":"165","docid":"National_Fire_Incident_Reporting_System","rank":67,"score":91268},{"content":"Title: 2000–01 fires in the Western United States Content: The 2000-2001 Western United States wildfires were a series of unusually severe wildfires that caused more than $ 2 billion ( USD ) in damage and resulted in the deaths of four firefighters . Overall , 6,966,995 acres burned across the United States and 2.2 million of those acres were in Idaho and Montana alone . A declaration of a state of emergency brought six military battalions and fire fighting teams from as far away as Australian and New Zealand to the Western United States . Federal and state land management organizations recognize the fires as historic `` both in extent and duration . '' The ten year fire season average is 3.1 million acres . The fires in 2000 destroyed more than double that acreage . Nearly $ 900 million ( USD ) was spent fighting fires . Long lasting ecological damage , including flooding , top soil runoff , and air quality damage has continues to this day . The damage was particularly severe in the Bitterroot National Forest . One of the most stunning photos from these fires are two elk seeking shelter in the East Fork of the Bitterroot River . The photo became known as Elk Bath .","qid":"165","docid":"2000–01_fires_in_the_Western_United_States","rank":68,"score":91098},{"content":"Title: National Climate Assessment Content: The National Climate Assessment ( NCA ) is a United States government interagency ongoing effort on climate change science conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The NCA is a major product of the U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which coordinates a team of experts and receives input from a Federal Advisory Committee . The Fourth National Climate Assessment is being developed . For the Third National Climate Assessment , released in 2014 , USGCRP coordinated hundreds of experts and received advice from a sixty-member Federal Advisory Committee . NCA research is integrated and summarized in the mandatory ongoing National Climate Assessment Reports . The reports are `` extensively reviewed by the public and experts , including federal agencies and a panel of the National Academy of Sciences . The First National Climate Assessment was published in 2000 . The First National Climate Assessment Report was `` prepared by the National Assessment Synthesis Team ( NAST ) , an advisory committee chartered under the Federal Advisory Committee Act to help the US Global Change Research Program fulfill its mandate under the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The National Science and Technology Council forwarded the report to the President and Congress for their consideration as required by the Global Change Research Act . Administrative support for the US Global Change Research Program is provided by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research , which is sponsored by the National Science Foundation ( NCA 2000 ) . '' Between 2002 and 2009 , USGCRP previously known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) , produced twenty-one Synthesis and Assessment Products ( SAPs ) . The second NCA was published in 2009 and the third was released in 2014 . NCA 's overarching goal according to their May 20 , 2011 engagement strategy summary , `` is to enhance the ability of the U.S. to anticipate , mitigate , and adapt to changes in the global environment ( NCA 2011:2 ) . '' According to the USGCRP official website the NCA , In 2013 , the President 's Climate Action Plan released by the Executive Office of the President specifically noted the importance of the National Climate Assessments in achieving the goal of `` Using Sound Science to Manage Climate Impacts '' .","qid":"165","docid":"National_Climate_Assessment","rank":69,"score":91070},{"content":"Title: 2015–2017 Nepal humanitarian crisis Content: The 2015 -- 2017 Nepal humanitarian crisis developed out of lack of action following the April 2015 Nepal earthquake and its aftershocks and the compounding political factors of the 2015 Nepal blockade . As of July 7 , 2016 , the National Reconstruction Authority has not yet devised a plan for how to develop nor relocate the quake struck living in temporary and flimsy shelters . Therefore , the humanitarian crisis in ongoing and is likely to see a rerun into winter 2017 and beyond , especially in remote areas . In Sindhupalchok , the worst affected zone from the 2015 quake , the situation going into winter 2016-17 essentially the same as the prior year . Development indicators have dropped , Nepal was among the countries who had seen remarkable development gains pre-quake , post-quake reversal of gains has led to some 43 % of the urban population lacks access to a toilet . It has been reported that one of the primary reasons for dropout and irregularity of girls in school attendance is the lack of toilets .","qid":"165","docid":"2015–2017_Nepal_humanitarian_crisis","rank":70,"score":91027},{"content":"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .","qid":"165","docid":"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme","rank":71,"score":90700},{"content":"Title: Dorset and Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service Content: Dorset and Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service is an statutory emergency fire and rescue service covering the local authority areas of Bournemouth , Dorset , Poole , Swindon , and Wiltshire . The service was created on 1 April 2016 by the merger of the Dorset Fire and Rescue Service and the Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service . Its headquarters is at Salisbury , Wiltshire , some 10 mi from the Dorset county boundary . The former headquarters at Poundbury , Dorset , and Potterne , Wiltshire , are retained as area offices ; emergency calls for the combined area have been answered by a control centre at Potterne since August 2015 . Provision of the service is by the Dorset and Wiltshire Combined Fire Authority , created in April 2015 , which has thirty elected members from all five constituent councils and is chaired by Dorset county councillor Rebecca Knox . In September 2016 Ben Ansell was appointed as the service 's second Chief Fire Officer , succeeding Darran Gunter with effect from December 2016 .","qid":"165","docid":"Dorset_and_Wiltshire_Fire_and_Rescue_Service","rank":72,"score":90544},{"content":"Title: 2015 Russian wildfires Content: From 12 to 16 April 2015 , a series of wildfires spread across southern Siberia , Russia . In the Republic of Khakassia , 29 people were killed and 6,000 left homeless . Further east in Zabaykalsky Krai , four people died in wildfires near Chita . Damage was also reported in Inner Mongolia .","qid":"165","docid":"2015_Russian_wildfires","rank":73,"score":90409},{"content":"Title: Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 Content: The Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 was created in response to the 1973 National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control report , America Burning . The report 's authors estimated fires caused 12,000 deaths , 300,000 serious injuries and $ 11.4 billion in property damage annually in the United States , asserting that `` the richest and most technologically advanced nation in the world leads all the major industrialized countries in per capita deaths and property loss from fire . '' The report proposed that a federal agency be established to help combat the growing problem of fatal fires happening throughout the country . The S. 1769 legislation was passed by the 93rd Congressional session and enacted by the 38th President of the United States Gerald Ford on October 29 , 1974 .","qid":"165","docid":"Federal_Fire_Prevention_and_Control_Act_of_1974","rank":74,"score":90208},{"content":"Title: Pulletop Bushfire Content: The Pulletop Bushfire , officially referred to as the `` Wandoo fire '' , started on the 6 February 2006 in hot dry and windy weather conditions about 30 km southeast of Wagga Wagga , New South Wales . The fire was thought to have been started by sparks from a tractor on a property at Pulletop which quickly got out of control . New South Wales Rural Fire Service declared a bushfire emergency and the Hume Highway was closed late in the afternoon with fears that the fire would threaten the towns of Humula , Book Book , Livingstone and Kyeamba after 10 km ² of farmland was burnt . 7 February 2006 milder conditions help firefighters to control the fire burning in inaccessible country . Over 90 km ² of farmland burnt 2,500 sheep killed 6 cattle killed 3 vehicles destroyed 2 hay sheds destroyed 50km of fencing was burnt Pine plantation worth $ 5 million , a communications installation and 19 homes saved A Natural Disaster was declared","qid":"165","docid":"Pulletop_Bushfire","rank":75,"score":90137},{"content":"Title: Section 44 Content: A `` Section 44 '' refers to the New South Wales Rural Fires Act 1997 , specifically section 44 , Commissioner 's responsibility . Essentially it is used to describe when the RFS Commissioner declares a localised `` State of Emergency '' for a specific district suffering severe fire conditions that can not be managed without drawing in extensive resources from other areas . Once declared by the Commissioner the district has access to any and all fire-fighting personnel/equipment from across the State at no cost to the district or RFS , with the State Government footing the bill of all related Section 44 declared operations .","qid":"165","docid":"Section_44","rank":76,"score":90003},{"content":"Title: Business action on climate change Content: Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )","qid":"165","docid":"Business_action_on_climate_change","rank":77,"score":89932},{"content":"Title: 2019–20 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2019–20 Australian bushfire season, colloquially known as Black Summer, was a period of unusually intense bushfires in many parts of Australia. In June 2019, the Queensland Fire and Emergency Service acting director warned of the potential for an early start to the bushfire season which normally starts in August. The warning was based on the Northern Australia bushfire seasonal outlook noting exceptional dry conditions and a lack of soil moisture, combined with early fires in central Queensland. Throughout the summer, hundreds of fires burnt, mainly in the southeast of the country. The major fires peaked during December–January. As of 9 March 2020, the fires burnt an estimated 18.6 million hectares (46 million acres; 186,000 square kilometres; 72,000 square miles), destroyed over 5,900 buildings (including 2,779 homes) and killed at least 34 people. Nearly three billion terrestrial vertebrates alone – the vast majority being reptiles – were affected and some endangered species were believed to be driven to extinction. At its peak, air quality dropped to hazardous levels in all southern and eastern states. The cost of dealing with the bushfires is expected to exceed the A$4.4 billion of the 2009 Black Saturday fires, and tourism sector revenues fell by more than A$1 billion. However, economists estimated that the Australian bushfires may cost over A$103 billion in property damage and economic losses, making the bushfires Australia's costliest natural disaster to date. Nearly 80 percent of Australians were affected either directly or indirectly by the bushfires. By 7 January 2020, the smoke had moved approximately 11,000 kilometres (6,800 mi) across the South Pacific Ocean to Chile and Argentina. As of 2 January 2020, NASA estimated that 306 million tonnes (337 million short tons) of CO2 had been emitted.From September 2019 to March 2020, fires heavily impacted various regions of the state of New South Wales. In eastern and north-eastern Victoria large areas of forest burnt out of control for four weeks before the fires emerged from the forests in late December. Multiple states of emergency were declared across New South Wales, Victoria, and the Australian Capital Territory. Reinforcements from all over Australia were called in to assist fighting the fires and relieve exhausted local crews in New South Wales. The Australian Defence Force was mobilised to provide air support to the firefighting effort and to provide manpower and logistical support. Firefighters, supplies and equipment from Canada, New Zealand, Singapore and the United States, among others, helped fight the fires, especially in New South Wales.During the ensuing crisis, an air tanker and two helicopters crashed during firefighting operations, the air tanker crash resulting in the deaths of the three crew. Two fire trucks were caught in fatal incidents caused directly by fire conditions, killing three fire fighters.By 4 March 2020, all fires in New South Wales had been extinguished completely (to the point where there were no fires in the state for the first time since July 2019), and the Victoria fires had all been contained. The last fire of the season occurred in Lake Clifton, Western Australia, in early May.There has been considerable debate regarding the underlying cause of the intensity and scale of the fires, including the role of fire management practices and climate change, which during the peak of the crisis attracted significant international attention. Politicians visiting fire impacted areas received mixed responses, in particular Prime Minister Scott Morrison. An estimated A$500 million was donated by the public at large, international organisations, public figures and celebrities for victim relief and wildlife recovery. Convoys of donated food, clothing and livestock feed were sent to affected areas.","qid":"165","docid":"2019–20_Australian_bushfire_season","rank":78,"score":89926},{"content":"Title: Public Safety Act, 1953 Content: In 1953 , the Public Safety Act was enacted by the apartheid South African government ( coming into force 4 March ) . This Act empowered the government to declare stringent states of emergency and increased penalties for protesting against or supporting the repeal of a law . This act was passed in response to civil disobedience campaigns by the African National Congress ( ANC ) , in particular the Defiance Campaign of 1952 ( instigated by ANC leaders , including Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu ) . The Act included a provision that empowered the government to declare a state of emergency in any or every part of the country ( South West Africa included ) and to rule by proclamation . Under Section 3 , this power was granted to the Governor General ( and later , the State President ) , and it effectively put no limits on what measures might be taken , or for how long . Moreover , any law issued during a state of emergency could be made retrospective for four days to cover any emergency action taken by the police . The emergency regulations could suspend any act of Parliament , with a few exceptions . If the justice minister or administrator of South West Africa deemed it necessary , they could declare a state of emergency but the governor general had to approve their action within ten days . Under a state of emergency , the Minister of Law and Order , the Commissioner of the South African Police ( SAP ) , a magistrate , or a commissioned officer could detain any person for `` reasons of public safety '' . It further provided for detention without trial for any dissent .","qid":"165","docid":"Public_Safety_Act,_1953","rank":79,"score":89821},{"content":"Title: Burned area emergency response Content: Burned area emergency response ( BAER ) is an emergency risk management reaction to post wildfire conditions that pose risks to human life and property or could further destabilize or degrade the burned lands . Even though wildfires are natural events , the presence of people and man-made structures in and adjacent to the burned area frequently requires continued emergency risk management actions . High severity wildfires pose a continuing flood , debris flow and mudflow risk to people living within and downstream from a burned watershed as well as a potential loss of desirable watershed values . The burned area emergency response risk management process begins during or shortly after wildfire containment with risk assessments evaluating the effects of the wildfire against values needing protection . These risk assessments can range from simple to complex . An organized interdisciplinary team of subject matter experts ( e.g. , hydrologists , soil scientists , botanists , cultural resource specialists , engineers , etc. ) used among other assessment tools hydrological modeling and soil burn severity mapping to assess potential flooding and vegetation recovery after the Cerro Grande Fire in 2000 . A BAER plan is developed based on the risk assessments and burned area land management objectives . The BAER Plan identifies the most effective treatments to address the identified risks . Plan implementation timeframes are dictated primarily by anticipated future events ( e.g. , next significant rainstorm ) which also influence treatment options .","qid":"165","docid":"Burned_area_emergency_response","rank":80,"score":89594},{"content":"Title: Emergency Public Warning System Content: The Emergency Public Warning System was a system used in the province of Alberta , Canada until October 2011 , whereby local or provincial authorities could warn the public about impending or current emergencies affecting their area . The system was replaced by the Alberta Emergency Alert but is still in use by the provinces Ontario and British Columbia . The system was proposed by the provincial government after an F4 tornado ripped through Edmonton , Alberta on July 31 , 1987 , killing 27 and causing millions of dollars in damage . The EPWS could be activated by local police , fire , and environmental agencies ; by Environment Canada ; and by other provincial and local authorities as required . It could be activated for any of the following reasons : Severe weather Flood Wildfire Hazardous material release Terrorist threat Water contamination AMBER Alert Other threats to life , property and safety . The EPWS was originally operated by the CKUA Radio Network , but was later operated by a private company headquartered in Ottawa , Ontario.It was rebroadcast through various television and radio stations and cable systems provincewide .","qid":"165","docid":"Emergency_Public_Warning_System","rank":81,"score":89487},{"content":"Title: Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 Content: The Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 ( c 21 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It came into effect on 1 October 2004 . It only applies to Great Britain and most provisions apply only in England and Wales . Replacing the previous Fire Services Act 1947 in England and Wales , it clarifies the duties and powers of fire authorities to : - promote fire safety fight fires protect people and property from fires rescue people from road traffic incident deal with other specific emergencies , such as flooding or terrorist attack and do other things to respond to the particular needs of their communities and the risks they face .","qid":"165","docid":"Fire_and_Rescue_Services_Act_2004","rank":82,"score":89210},{"content":"Title: Boulder Climate Action Plan Content: The Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide community efforts for reducing greenhouse gas emissions . Those strategies have focused on improving energy efficiency and conservation in our homes and businesses -- the source of nearly three-fourths of local emissions . The plan also promotes strategies to reduce emissions from transportation , which account for over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources .","qid":"165","docid":"Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":83,"score":88848},{"content":"Title: Emergency Fire Service Content: The Emergency Fire Service ( EFS ) was the fire and emergency service that operated in rural areas of South Australia in the 20th century . In 1979 , with the passing of the Country Fires Act in the South Australian Parliament , the EFS was renamed the SA Country Fire Service .","qid":"165","docid":"Emergency_Fire_Service","rank":84,"score":88788},{"content":"Title: April 2016 United States storm complex Content: The April 2016 United States storm complex was a major storm system that resulted from an upper-level low in the United States stalling and producing a major snowstorm in the Rocky Mountains , and record-breaking rain in and around Houston , Texas , resulting in severe flooding . There were more than 17 inches of rain in one day in parts of the city , and up to 4 inches of rain per hour that morning at George Bush Intercontinental Airport . It is described as the wettest April in the city on record . As the most widespread flood event there since Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 , it caused a state of emergency to be declared in nine counties . __ TOC __","qid":"165","docid":"April_2016_United_States_storm_complex","rank":85,"score":88580},{"content":"Title: Northern Territory National Emergency Response Content: The Northern Territory National Emergency Response ( also referred to as `` the intervention '' ) was a package of changes to welfare provision , law enforcement , land tenure and other measures , introduced by the Australian federal government under John Howard in 2007 to address allegations of rampant child sexual abuse and neglect in Northern Territory Aboriginal communities . Operation Outreach , the intervention 's main logistical operation , conducted by a force of 600 soldiers and detachments from the ADF ( including NORFORCE ) , concluded on 21 October 2008 . In the seven years since the initiation of the Emergency Response there has not been one prosecution for child abuse come from the exercise . The package was the Federal government 's response to the Territory government 's publication of Little Children are Sacred , but implemented only two out of ninety-seven of the report 's recommendations . The response has been criticised , but also received bipartisan parliamentary support . The then Prime Minister Julia Gillard has supported the response , though her predecessor ( and successor ) Kevin Rudd did make some adjustments to its implementation . The Emergency Response has since been replaced by the very similar Stronger Futures Policy .","qid":"165","docid":"Northern_Territory_National_Emergency_Response","rank":86,"score":88569},{"content":"Title: Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center Content: The Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center is a civilian command facility in the U.S. Commonwealth of Virginia , used as the center of operations for the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) . Also known as the High Point Special Facility ( HPSF ) , its preferred designation since 1991 is `` SF '' . The facility is a major relocation site for the highest level of civilian and military officials in case of national disaster , playing a major role in continuity of government ( per the U.S. Continuity of Operations Plan ) . Mount Weather is the location of a control station for the FEMA National Radio System ( FNARS ) , a high frequency radio system connecting most federal public safety agencies and the U.S. military with most of the states . FNARS allows the president to access the Emergency Alert System . The site was brought into the public eye by The Washington Post , when the government facility was mentioned while reporting on the December 1 , 1974 , crash into Mount Weather of TWA Flight 514 , a Boeing 727 jetliner . The Mt. Weather facility is also featured in the early scenes of the movie `` The Sum of All Fears '' based on the Tom Clancy novel .","qid":"165","docid":"Mount_Weather_Emergency_Operations_Center","rank":87,"score":88543},{"content":"Title: National Fire Agency Content: The National Fire Agency of the Ministry of the Interior ( NFA ; ) is a statutory agency under the Ministry of the Interior of the Taiwan ( ROC ) . The agency provides emergency medical , fire prevention , firefighting and disaster rescue service as well as protecting civilian lives , property and safety . It was established in March 1995 . The agency is administered by the Director General which reports to the Minister for Interior . The current Director General is Chi-Tang Yeh .","qid":"165","docid":"National_Fire_Agency","rank":88,"score":88520},{"content":"Title: Federal Emergency Relief Administration Content: The Federal Emergency Relief Administration ( FERA ) was the new name given by the Roosevelt Administration to the Emergency Relief Administration ( ERA ) which President Franklin Delano Roosevelt had created in 1933 . FERA was established as a result of the Federal Emergency Relief Act and was replaced in 1935 by the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) . Under Roosevelt , the agency gave loans to the states to operate relief programs . One of these , the New York state program TERA ( Temporary Emergency Relief Administration ) , was set up in 1931 and headed by Harry Hopkins , a close adviser to Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt . Roosevelt asked Congress to set up FERA -- which gave grants to the states for the same purpose -- in May 1933 , and appointed Hopkins to head it . Along with the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) it was the first relief operation under the New Deal . Basically , it gave grants and loans to states . FERA 's main goal was to alleviate household unemployment by creating new unskilled jobs in local and state government . Jobs were more expensive than direct cash payments ( called `` the dole '' ) , but were psychologically more beneficial to the unemployed , who wanted any sort of job , for self-esteem , to play the role of male breadwinner . From May 1933 until it closed in December , 1935 , FERA gave states and localities $ 3.1 billion ( 5.54 billion in 2017 ) . FERA provided work for over 20 million people and developed facilities on public lands across the country . Faced with continued high unemployment and concerns for public welfare during the coming winter of 1933-34 , FERA instituted the Civil Works Administration ( CWA ) as a $ 400 million short-term measure to get people to work . The Federal Emergency Relief Administration was shut down in 1935 and its work taken over by two completely new federal agencies , the Works Progress Administration and the Social Security Administration .","qid":"165","docid":"Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration","rank":89,"score":88302},{"content":"Title: Muslim Seven Year Action Plan on Climate Change Content: The Muslim Seven Year Action Plan on Climate Change is a climate action plan for the global Islamic community , meant to run from 2010 to 2017 . It was developed by the British Earth Mates Dialogue Center and the Kuwaiti Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs . It is one of several multi-year climate action plans developed by major religious communities , developed in coordination with the Alliance of Religions and Conservation and the United Nations Development Programme . According to the Alliance of Religions and Conservation , the plan proposes `` investigating every level of Muslim activity from daily life to annual pilgrimages , from holy cities to the future training of Imams , '' `` developing the major Muslim cities as green city models for other Islamic urban areas , '' and `` developing an Islamic label for environmentally friendly goods and services . '' Proposals were to be managed by a group called the Muslim Association for Climate Change Action ( MACCA , an acronym meant to sound like `` Mecca '' ) .","qid":"165","docid":"Muslim_Seven_Year_Action_Plan_on_Climate_Change","rank":90,"score":87878},{"content":"Title: April 1992 Nepalese general strike Content: In 1992 , in a situation of economic crisis and chaos in Nepal , with spiralling prices as a result of implementation of changes in policy of the new Congress government , far-left groups stepped up their political agitation . A Joint People 's Agitation Committee was set up together by the Communist Party of Nepal ( Unity Centre ) , Samyukta Jana Morcha , Communist Party of Nepal ( Masal ) , the Nepal Communist League and the Communist Party of Nepal ( Marxist-Leninist-Maoist ) . The committee called for a general strike on April 6 . Violent incidents began to occur on the evening ahead of the strike . The Joint People 's Agitation Committee had called for a 30-minute ` lights out ' in the capital , and violence erupted outside Bir Hospital when activists tried to enforce the ` lights out ' . At dawn on April 6 , clashes between strike activists and police outside a police station in Pulchok ( Patan ) left two activists dead . Later in the day , a mass rally of the Agitation Committee at Tundikhel in the capital Kathmandu was attacked by police forces . As a result , riots broke out , and the Nepal Telecommunications building was set on fire . Police opened fire at the crowd , killing several people . The Human Rights Organisation of Nepal estimated that 14 people , including several on-lookers , had been killed . The violent incidents in connection with the strike spurred radical elements within the Nepalese communist movement to debate the usefulness of participation in legal politics . Two years later the Communist Party of Nepal ( Unity Centre ) was divided , with one section opting for armed struggle . This group would later rename itself as the Communist Party of Nepal ( Maoist ) and declare a `` People 's War '' in 1996 , which became the starting point for the decade-long civil war .","qid":"165","docid":"April_1992_Nepalese_general_strike","rank":91,"score":87637},{"content":"Title: Liberal Party of Australia leadership spill, 2009 Content: A leadership spill of the federal parliamentary leader of the Liberal Party of Australia was held on 1 December 2009 . The incumbent , Malcolm Turnbull , was defeated by Tony Abbott in a three-way vote of Liberal Party Members of Parliament ( MPs ) . Joe Hockey also stood as a candidate . Abbott thus became the Leader of the Opposition in the Parliament of Australia . The spill was the culmination of a dispute within the Liberal Party over its response to the Rudd Government 's proposed emissions trading scheme ( ETS ) . Turnbull supported the introduction of an ETS and sought to negotiate amendments to government 's proposed legislation . Abbott came to represent many Liberal members of Parliament who were climate change sceptics or otherwise opposed the ETS . After Turnbull survived a spill motion ( a motion to declare the leadership vacant ) against his leadership in late November 2009 , Abbott declared his candidacy and a subsequent spill was moved on 1 December . Hockey -- a moderate who had been a supporter of Turnbull 's position on the ETS -- also stood . While Hockey had been expected to win , he was knocked out in the first round of voting . Abbott subsequently defeated Turnbull in the second round , 42 -- 41 .","qid":"165","docid":"Liberal_Party_of_Australia_leadership_spill,_2009","rank":92,"score":87562},{"content":"Title: Great Fire of Valparaíso Content: The Great Fire of Valparaíso ( Gran Incendio de Valparaíso ) started on 12 April 2014 at 16:40 local time ( 19:40 UTC ) , in the hills of the city of Valparaíso , Chile . The fire destroyed at least 2,500 homes , leaving 11,000 people homeless . An additional 6,000 people were evacuated from the city , which was placed on red alert and declared a disaster zone . Fifteen people were confirmed killed and ten suffered serious injuries .","qid":"165","docid":"Great_Fire_of_Valparaíso","rank":93,"score":87478},{"content":"Title: Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (Victoria) Content: The Department of Environment , Land , Water and Planning ( DELWP ) is a state government department responsible for protecting the environment , management of natural resources , managing water resources , planning , local government , fire and emergency management and property and land titles in the state of Victoria , Australia . It was created on 1 January 2015 after the 2014 Victorian State Election when Premier Daniel Andrews announced that the previous Department of Environment and Primary Industries ( DEPI ) would be renamed , with the Agriculture portfolio moved to the Department of Economic Development , Jobs , Transport and Resources , and property and land titles , planning and local government support added from the previous Department of Transport , Planning and Local Infrastructure ( DTPLI ) . The Department secretary is Adam Fennessy . The Ministers responsible the Department of Environment , Land , Water and Planning are : Hon Lily D'Ambrosio , Minister for Energy , Environment , Climate Change and Suburban Development Hon Lisa Neville , Minister for Water Hon Richard Wynne , Minister for Planning Hon Natalie Hutchins , Minister for Local Government The ministers are supported by Anthony Carbines , the Parliamentary Secretary for the Environment .","qid":"165","docid":"Department_of_Environment,_Land,_Water_and_Planning_(Victoria)","rank":94,"score":87476},{"content":"Title: 2010 Bolivia forest fires Content: The 2010 Bolivia forest fires led the country 's government to declare a state of emergency , as wildfires spread across the country . More than 25,000 fires are burning across 15000 km2 . These raging fires have destroyed nearly sixty homes . Bolivia is unable to combat the fires properly as it does not have enough water bombing aircraft . There was a steep jump in fire hot-spots from 17,000 on Sunday August 15 to approximately 25,000 three days later . Some of the blazes were so strong that firefighters were unable to get close enough to contain them . The head of Bolivia 's forestry service , Weimar Becerra , described the fires as `` a total disaster , it is an environmental disaster . We have six forest fires which have a height of 50 m and are growing , and as a country we do not have the capacity to put them out '' .","qid":"165","docid":"2010_Bolivia_forest_fires","rank":95,"score":87380},{"content":"Title: 1Sky Content: 1Sky is a United States-based campaign in support of federal action to stem global warming and promote renewable energy . 1Sky was founded in the spring of 2007 when thirty climate campaigners were on a retreat in the Hudson Valley of New York state . Partners include Step It Up 2007 ( and its global successor 350 . org ) , the Clinton Global Initiative , Greenpeace , Oxfam , and the Energy Action Coalition .","qid":"165","docid":"1Sky","rank":96,"score":87120},{"content":"Title: Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act Content: The Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act of 1973 ( EPAA ) was a U.S. law that required the President to promulgate regulations to allocate and control price of petroleum products in response to the 1973 oil crisis . It was extended by the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 . The regulations were withdrawn by President Reagan in of January 28 , 1981 . In 1973 and again in 1979 the US Government took control of private stocks of oil under this law . ( Jaffe & Soligo , `` The role of inventories in oil market stability '' , Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 42 . 2002 . ) Category :1973 in law Category :93 rd United States Congress Category : United States federal energy legislation Category : Petroleum politics Category : Law articles needing an infobox","qid":"165","docid":"Emergency_Petroleum_Allocation_Act","rank":97,"score":87033},{"content":"Title: Emergency Powers Act 1939 Content: The Emergency Powers Act 1939 ( EPA ) was an Act of the Oireachtas ( Irish parliament ) enacted on 3 September 1939 , after an official state of emergency had been declared on 2 September 1939 in response to the outbreak of the Second World War . The Act empowered the government to :","qid":"165","docid":"Emergency_Powers_Act_1939","rank":98,"score":87026},{"content":"Title: 2015 California wildfires Content: The 2015 California wildfires were a series of wildfires that burned across the state of California during 2015 , in which 8,745 fires burned a total area of 893,362 acre . On September 11 , with the Butte Fire exploding from a size of 32,000 acres to 65,000 acres , in the Amador and Calaveras counties , Governor Jerry Brown declared a state of emergency .","qid":"165","docid":"2015_California_wildfires","rank":99,"score":86989},{"content":"Title: 2008 Southern African Development Community emergency meeting Content: Zambian President Levy Mwanawasa called an emergency meeting of SADC leaders for 12 April during the 2008 Zimbabwe presidential election to discuss the post-election impasse . According to Mwanawasa , Zimbabwe 's `` deepening problems '' meant that the issue needed to be `` dealt with at presidential level '' . Jacob Zuma , meanwhile , said that he thought results should have already been announced , and he described the failure to release them as `` unprecedented '' .","qid":"165","docid":"2008_Southern_African_Development_Community_emergency_meeting","rank":100,"score":86959}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Code_Red\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 138585\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Phil Koperberg Content: Philip Christian Koperberg ( born 28 April 1943 ) , is the Chairman of the New South Wales Emergency Management Committee , responsible for advising the New South Wales government on emergency response strategies , since 2011 . Koperberg is a former Australian politician , was the New South Wales Minister for Climate Change , Environment and Water between 2007 and 2008 ; and was a member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly , representing the electorate of the Blue Mountains for the Australian Labor Party between 2007 -- 2011 . Prior to his political career , Koperberg was the Commissioner of the New South Wales Rural Fire Service ( RFS ) in Australia between 1997 -- 2007 . In September 1997 , Koperberg was appointed the RFS Commissioner when the Service was formed under the Rural Fires Act . Before this he had been Director-General of the New South Wales Bush Fire Service from May 1990 . In March 2007 he was elected to State parliament and appointed to the Ministry . However , in December he was forced to stand aside due to a police investigation regarding domestic violence allegations from 1987 . The NSW Director of Public Prosecutions declined to press charges and Koperberg was reinstated to the Ministry . He resigned from the Ministry on 22 February 2008 . Koperberg did not recontest the 2011 state election .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Phil_Koperberg\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 122310\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: German Climate Action Plan 2050 Content: The German Climate Action Plan 2050 ( Klimaschutzplan 2050 ) is a climate protection policy document approved by the German government on 14November 2016 . The plan outlines measures by which Germany can meet its various national greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals through to 2050 ( see table ) and service its international commitments under the 2016 Paris Climate Agreement . The Federal Ministry for the Environment , Nature Conservation , Building and Nuclear Safety ( BMUB ) , under minister Barbara Hendricks , led the development of the plan . The plan was progressively watered down since a draft was first leaked in 2016 . Projections from the environment ministry in September 2016 indicate that Germany will likely miss its 2020 climate target . The Climate Action Plan2050 should not be confused with an earlier document , the Climate Action Programme2020 ( Aktionsprogramm Klimaschutz ) , approved in December 2014 and which only covers the period until 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"German_Climate_Action_Plan_2050\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 119989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: U.S. Climate Action Partnership Content: The U.S. Climate Action Partnership ( USCAP ) , formed January 22 , 2007 is a co-operative group of businesses and leading environmental organizations . The group 's primary purpose is to call on the U.S. government to require significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"U.S._Climate_Action_Partnership\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 115117\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Russian wildfires Content: The 2010 Russian wildfires were several hundred wildfires that broke out across Russia , primarily in the west in summer 2010 . They started burning in late July and lasted until early September 2010 . The fires were associated with record-high temperatures , which were attributed to climate change -- the summer had been the hottest recorded in Russian history -- and drought . Russian President Dmitry Medvedev declared a state of emergency in seven regions , and 28 other regions were under a state of emergency due to crop failures caused by the drought . The fires cost roughly $ 15 billion in damages . A combination of the smoke from the fires , producing heavy smog blanketing large urban regions and the record-breaking heat wave put stress on the Russian healthcare system . Munich Re estimated that in all , 56,000 people died from the effects of the smog and the heat wave . The 2010 wildfires were the worst on record to that time ; in 2012 , however , new wildfires broke out , and they proved even more extensive and damaging .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Russian_wildfires\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 114962\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Summit\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 110922\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Canada Content: In Canada mitigation of anthropogenic climate change is being addressed more seriously by the provinces than by the federal government . The 2015 election signals greater federal leadership as noted in Canada 's National Statement at COP21 , making climate change a top priority , and pledging actions based on the best scientific evidence and advice .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Canada\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 110491\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Action/2015 Content: action/2015 was a global coalition of more than 2200 organisations and networks from over 150 countries , united by the belief that 2015 was a critical year for progress in the fight against climate change , poverty and inequality . Throughout the year , this coalition engaged and mobilised the public at critical decision-making points to call on leaders to commit to strong goals and agreements at two crucial UN summits in 2015 - the UN General Assembly and the UN Climate Change Conference . Throughout the year millions of activists came together through action/2015 to ensure world leaders would feel the pressure to seize the opportunity to tackle poverty , inequality and climate change . With 31 million campaign actions taken in 157 countries , action/2015 was a massive global movement for change -- the biggest-ever of its kind .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Action/2015\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 110163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 Washington wildfires Content: The 2015 wildfire season was the largest in Washington state history , with more than 1 e6acre burning across the state from June to September . As many as 3,000 firefighters including 800 Washington National Guard members were deployed to fight the fires . The 17th Field Artillery Brigade of the United States Army also deployed 200 soldiers from Joint Base Lewis -- McChord to help fight the fires . On August 21 , President Barack Obama declared the fires a federal emergency . Because of the enormous extent of the fire activity , for the first time in Washington state history , officials asked residents to volunteer to assist in fighting the wildfires . On August 24 , the Washington Department of Natural Resources announced the Okanogan Complex fire had become the largest fire complex in Washington State history . The Washington State Department of Natural Resources called the season the `` worst-ever '' in the state 's history .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_Washington_wildfires\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 108213\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World People's Conference on Climate Change Content: The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth was a global gathering of civil society and governments hosted by the government of Bolivia in Tiquipaya , just outside the city of Cochabamba from April 19 -- 22 , 2010 . The event was attended by around 30,000 people from over 100 countries , and the proceedings were transmitted live online by OneClimate and the Global Campaign for Climate Action ( GCCA ) . The conference was viewed as a response to what some termed failed climate talks in Copenhagen during the 15th United Nations Conference of Parties ( COP15 ) climate meetings in December 2009 . There have been claims after the Conference ended that there were flaws in its organization and that the Venezuelan government funded it partially . One of the important objectives of the conference was to produce proposals for new commitments to the Kyoto Protocol and projects in the lead-up to the next UN climate negotiations scheduled during the COP16 meeting in Cancun , Mexico in December 2010 . Conference topics included a Universal Declaration on the Rights of Mother Earth ( see external links below ) , a World People 's Referendum on Climate Change , and the establishment of a Climate Justice Tribunal . The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of the Mother Earth resulted in a People 's Accord .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"World_People's_Conference_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 107178\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Emergency Training Center Content: The National Emergency Training Centers ( NETC ) serves as an interagency emergency management training body for the United States government . The college campus was purchased by the U.S. Government in 1979 for use as the National Emergency Training Center . NETC is home to the National Fire Academy , United States Fire Administration , Emergency Management Institute ( EMI ) , which is operated by the Directorate of Preparedness branch of the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) . The campus also includes the learning resource center ( LRC ) library , the National Fire Data Center , and the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial . Both independently and by means of cooperative research and development agreements with the military and cooperative agreements with the technology companies and academic institutions , NETC also conducts research to identify methods for offering more effective training .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Emergency_Training_Center\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 105275\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 105073\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Executive Order 13653 Content: Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Executive_Order_13653\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 103248\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2013 Tasmanian bushfires Content: The 2013 Tasmanian bushfires were a series of bushfires in south-eastern Tasmania in starting in November/December 2012 , with major fires in early January 2013 , right through until late April 2013 . It was predicted early on that the 2012-13 had the potential to be worse than usual . High fuel loads , coupled with a dry , warm and windy , providing potentially dangerous conditions . The Tasmania Fire Service implemented a new media campaign , with a view to increasing community preparedness and awareness of what to do if bushfires threatened . But nobody predicted that the fire season would last for almost 6 months , which is unprecedented in the recorded history of Tasmania .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2013_Tasmanian_bushfires\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 102446\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: R20 Regions of Climate Action Content: The R20 - Regions of Climate Action is a non-profit environmental organization founded in November 2010 , by former Governor of California , Arnold Schwarzenegger , with the support of the United Nations . R20 is a coalition of sub-national governments , private companies , international organizations , NGOs , and academic & financial institutions . Its mission is to help sub-national governments to implement low-carbon and climate-resilient projects , as well as to share best practices in renewable energy and energy efficiency in order to build a `` green economy '' . This NGO operates at the sub-national level as R20 believes sub-national governments constitute a powerful force for change and are best positioned to take action & implement green projects . Through this bottom-up approach , successful sub-national projects will be scaled-up to national and international levels to achieve a broader , global impact .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"R20_Regions_of_Climate_Action\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 102302\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Irish emergency budget, 2009 Content: The 2009 Irish emergency budget refers to the delivery of an emergency government budget by the Government of Ireland on 7 April 2009 , its second in six months . It was also the second overall budget to be delivered by Fianna Fáil 's Brian Lenihan as Minister for Finance . The emergency budget announcement involved significant tax rises and a decrease in public spending . Prior to its unveiling , it was predicted to be the most severe budget in decades , with The Independent suggesting in its aftermath that it was the most severe in the country 's history .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Irish_emergency_budget,_2009\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 101522\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: US Climate Symposium Content: The US Climate Symposium ( also known as USCAN ( US Climate Action Network ) ) was established in 1989 by groups and organizations working towards fight and threat of global warming . The need for a forum for a joint strategy development and advocacy to effect change in a coordinated way at the state and local level as well as at the United Nations and in Washington , D.C.\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"US_Climate_Symposium\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 100803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Commissioner for Climate Action Content: The Commissioner for Climate Action is a new post in the European Commission . It was created in 2010 , being split from the environmental portfolio to focus on fighting climate change . The current Commissioner is Miguel Arias Cañete . The European Union has made a number of moves in regard to climate change . Most notably it signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 , set up its Emission Trading Scheme in 2005 and is currently agreeing to unilaterally cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % by 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Commissioner_for_Climate_Action\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 100448\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group Content: The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) connects 90 of the world 's greatest cities , representing 650 + million people and one quarter of the global economy . Created and led by cities , C40 is focused on tackling climate change and driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks , while increasing the health , wellbeing and economic opportunities of urban citizens . The current chair of the C40 is Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo ; the President of the Board is the 108th Mayor of New York City Michael R. Bloomberg , with Mark Watts serving as C40 Executive Director . All three work closely with the 13-member Steering Committee , the Board of Directors and C40 professional staff . The rotating Steering Committee of C40 mayors provides strategic direction and governance . Current Steering Committee members include : Amman , Boston , Copenhagen , Durban , Hong Kong , Jakarta , London , Los Angeles , Mexico City , Milan , Paris , Seoul , and Tokyo . Working across multiple sectors and initiative areas , C40 convenes networks of cities providing a suite of services in support of their efforts , including : direct technical assistance ; facilitation of peer-to-peer exchange ; and research , knowledge management & communications . C40 is also positioning cities as a leading force for climate action around the world , defining and amplifying their call to national governments for greater support and autonomy in creating a sustainable future . C40 's work is made possible by three strategic funders : Bloomberg Philanthropies , The Children 's Investment Fund Foundation ( CIFF ) , and Realdania .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"C40_Cities_Climate_Leadership_Group\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 100132\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2013 New South Wales bushfires Content: The 2013 New South Wales bushfires were a series of bushfires in Australia across the state of New South Wales primarily starting , or becoming notable , on 13 October 2013 ; followed by the worst of the fires beginning in the Greater Blue Mountains Area on 16 and 17 October 2013 . High fuel loads , coupled with warm , dry and windy weather , provided dangerous conditions which fuelled the fires . At the peak of the fires , on the morning of 18 October , over 100 fires were burning across the state . The Premier of New South Wales Barry O'Farrell declared a state of emergency on 20 October , empowering firefighters to evict residents and demolish fire-affected buildings . The fires are the worst in New South Wales since the 1960s . , 248 houses and other structures were destroyed across the state . Two fatalities were attributed to the fires . It was estimated that claims will exceed 94 million .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2013_New_South_Wales_bushfires\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 99971\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Compact_of_Mayors\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 99926\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Great March for Climate Action Content: The Great March for Climate Action ( also known as the Climate March ) was launched on March 1 , 2013 by former Iowa lawmaker Ed Fallon , inspired after meeting with Bill McKibben . `` Since probably 2007 , I 've identified the climate crisis as the most serious challenge facing our planet , and I 've been pondering ways in which I could most effectively help address it . '' The non-profit organization planned to mobilize one thousand people to march across the continental United States in order to raise awareness and action on anthropogenic climate change . In the end , five people completed the entire march . The march began March 1 , 2014 in Wilmington neighborhood in South Los Angeles , California , and ended on November 1 , 2014 when marchers arrived in Washington , D.C. Along the route , participants engaged with the general public and elected officials in order to inspire society to address climate change . In a Des Moines Register interview Fallon said , `` We think it 's very important . We think this is a tool that will help mobilize people to understand the problem and to do more about it ... this needs to become the defining issue of this century . '' Fallon was inspired in part by another cross-country march , the 1986 Great Peace March for Global Nuclear Disarmament , for which he coordinated the Iowa logistics . Although this was a national campaign , it was intended to have an international audience and was desired to include participants from multiple nations , as climate change is a global phenomenon . The headquarters of the non-profit are located in Des Moines , Iowa . As of October 2013 they had six staff , had raised $ 120,000 , and earned endorsements from 350 . org , James Hansen , and U.S. Senator Tom Harkin and Congressman Bruce Braley among others .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Great_March_for_Climate_Action\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 99545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: San Francisco Climate Action Plan Content: The San Francisco Climate Action Plan is a greenhouse gas reduction initiative adopted by the City and County of San Francisco , United States in 2002 . It aims to reduce the city 's greenhouse gas emissions to 20 % below 1990 levels by 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"San_Francisco_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 98346\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Action Network Content: Climate Action Network -- International ( CAN ) is an umbrella group of environmental non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) active on the issue of climate change . It is most active at meetings of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where it publishes a daily newsletter `` ECO '' , presenting the views of the Environmental NGO community . The Climate Action Network-International is a worldwide network of over 1100 non-governmental organizations in 120 countries working to promote government and individual action to limit human-induced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels . CAN members work to achieve this goal through the coordination of information exchange and NGO strategy on international , regional and national climate issues . CAN has formal regional networks which coordinate these efforts in Africa , Central and Eastern Europe , Europe , Latin America , North America , South Asia , Southeast Asia , and Japan . CAN also has members in China , the Pacific and the Middle East . CAN members place a high priority on both a healthy environment and development that `` meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs '' ( Brundtland Commission ) . Climate Action Network 's vision is to protect the atmosphere while allowing for sustainable and equitable development worldwide .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Action_Network\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 97857\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Climate Action Registry Content: The California Climate Action Registry was established by California statute as a non-profit voluntary registry for greenhouse gas emissions . The purpose of the Registry is to help companies and organizations with operations in the state to establish GHG emissions baselines against which any future GHG emission reduction requirements may be applied . The California Registry provides leadership on climate change by developing and promoting credible , accurate and consistent GHG reporting standards and tools for organizations to measure , monitor , third-party verify and reduce their GHG emissions consistently across industry sectors and geographical borders . In turn , the State of California offers its best efforts to ensure that California Registry members receive appropriate consideration for early action in light of future state , federal or international GHG regulatory programs . It was created on October 13 , 2001 when Gray Davis signed the legislation establishing it ( Senate Bills 1771 and 527 ) . The legislation was first introduced by Senator Byron Sher .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Climate_Action_Registry\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 97657\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Forward Challenge Content: Forward Challenge 06 was an exercise in crisis operations and continuity of government operation conducted by the Federal Emergency Management Agency and other agencies in June 2006 . The exercise included activities at Mount Weather in Virginia .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Forward_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 97402\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fire and Emergency New Zealand Content: Fire and Emergency New Zealand ( FENZ ) will be established on 1 July 2017 , when 40 urban and rural fire services ( including the New Zealand Fire Service and the National Rural Fire Authority ) will amalgamate to become one organisation . The creation of the FENZ is one of the largest public sector amalgamations ever undertaken in New Zealand . The Government of New Zealand is combining nearly all organisations with firefighting and fire control responsibilities into a single organisation and also giving them the legislative mandate to perform certain non-fire-related work . The result will be that more or less wherever a fire happens ( or indeed most emergencies ) , whether in remote Fiordland or downtown Auckland , personnel from one organisation , Fire and Emergency New Zealand , will respond . And the response will be consistent , coordinated and professional . The establishment of FENZ is being managed by the FENZ Transition Project on behalf of the New Zealand Fire Service Commission .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Fire_and_Emergency_New_Zealand\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 97196\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cities Climate Finance Leadership Alliance Content: The Cities Climate Finance Leadership Alliance ( CCFLA ) is a coalition of more than forty organizations actively working to accelerate investment into sustainable infrastructure . The Alliance brings together a wide range of public and private institutions . For example , the Swiss Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation ( GIB ) is a member of the CCFLA Steering Committee , and occupies the `` Research/NGO/Foundations '' seat . The Alliance was launched at the United Nations Secretary-General 's Climate Summit in September 2014 . In 2016 , R20 Regions of Climate Action was elected to lead the Secretariat of CCFLA , partnering with three other organizations : FMDV , UNDP , and UNEP .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Cities_Climate_Finance_Leadership_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 97017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Day of Action Content: Global Day of Action is a direct action protest format . Environmentalism initiatives begun to use it in 2005 in connection with Global Climate Campaign . They aimed to focus world attention on the anthropogenic effect that humans are having on global warming . Its main objective is to spearhead demands that elected representatives of their respective governments honor commitments set forth by the Kyoto Protocol , by conducting in unison peaceful demonstrations around the world . The demonstration , or rallies , are intended to coincide with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , a meeting of world leaders from 189 nations , that meet annually to discuss climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Day_of_Action\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 96959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department Content: The District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department , ( also known as DC FEMS , FEMS , DCFD , DC Fire , or Fire & EMS ) , established July 1 , 1884 , provides fire protection and emergency medical service to the city of Washington , D.C. , the capital of the United States . An organ of the devolved district government , Fire & EMS is responsible for providing fire suppression , ambulance service and hazardous materials containment for the federal district .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"District_of_Columbia_Fire_and_Emergency_Medical_Services_Department\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 96408\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environment Protection Authority (Victoria) Content: Environment Protection Authority Victoria ( EPA ) The EPA 's role is one of both prevention and response relevant to reducing the harmful effects caused to the environment by pollution . During emergency events EPA provides expert advice to emergency services . The EPA is called on regularly to respond to pollution incidents , such as industrial spills , and natural disasters , such as bush fires or floods . During bushfire season , the EPA provides advice and forecasting on the impacts of bushfire smoke . The EPA also monitors compliance with the Environment Protection Act . In line with current international regulatory practice , the EPA adopts a ` risk based ' regulatory approach . This means that it allocates resources where the greatest difference can be made regarding potential harm to the environment and the likelihood of non-compliance . EPA aspires to create a healthy environment that supports a liveable and prosperous Victoria . By effectively regulating pollution in Victoria , EPA is striving to deliver clean air , healthy waterways , safe land , and minimal disturbances from noise and odour for Victorians . The EPA is currently under review by the state government . The Ministerial Advisory Committee ( MAC ) for the independent Inquiry into the Environment Protection Authority delivered its report to the Minister for Environment , Climate Change and Water on 31 March 2016 . The Government 's response is expected mid 2016 . On Monday 16 May 2016 the Government released the MAC report which makes 48 recommendations to set the EPA up for the next generation . http://www.premier.vic.gov.au/first-step-towards-a-modern-epa/ On 17 January 2017 the Victorian State Government released its response to the Independent Inquiry into the Environment Protection Authority ( EPA ) . The government response commits to a once-in-a-generation transformation of the EPA to equip it for the future . A modernised environment protection framework with increased resourcing will ensure that the EPA can continue to protect the health of Victorians , our environment and our world-recognised liveability as Victoria 's population continues to grow . The government response supports in full 40 of the 48 recommendations , with seven supported in principle , and one supported in part . Legislative changes to modernise EPA 's governance and overhaul the Environment Protection Act 1970 will be introduced in 2017 and 2018 . These will strengthen the EPA 's independence and scientific expertise , and deliver certainty , and consistent and efficient regulation for industry . In particular , there will be a landmark shift of approach to preventing harm to the health of Victorians and our environment . The Victorian State Government 2017/18 Budget released on 2 May 2017 has committed over $ 162million to kick-start a five year reform program that will provide Victorians with a bigger , better equipped , and more effective EPA to address Victoria 's environment protection challenges now and into the future . An initial $ 45m over 18 months was announced in January 2017 includes : $ 4.8 million to expand the environmental public health capability in the EPA to better identify , manage and communicate environmental health risks in Victoria $ 6.5 million to better hold polluters to account $ 4.8 million to pilot a program of local government environment protection officers to respond more effectively to local issues affecting liveability and amenity $ 2.1 million to appoint a Chief Environmental Scientist and boost EPA 's intelligence-gathering on new and emerging risks $ 3.3 million for improved digital information management to support better regulation $ 1.5 million to strengthen EPA 's strategic role in land use planning . An interim advisory board has been appointed to support the EPA through this significant reform process and provide strategic advice to support its leadership . This will be led by current EPA Chairman , Cheryl Batagol , with interim board members : Dr John Stocker , Professor Rebekah Brown , Ross Pilling , Monique Conheady , Debra Russell , Robert Hogarth and Professor Arie Frieberg . The Independent Inquiry into the EPA was conducted over 10 months by a Ministerial Advisory Committee and the final report was publicly released on 16 May 2016 . The inquiry was the first comprehensive review of the EPA since it commenced operations in 1971 . You can find out more about the inquiry , and view the final report here . - See more at : http://delwp.vic.gov.au/environment-and-wildlife/epa-inquiry#sthash.vItBr7sq.dpuf Lily D'Ambrosio MP is the Minister for Energy , Environment and Climate Change . She was appointed to the role on 23 May 2016 and is the minister responsible for the EPA . EPA employs close to 600 staff ( expected to grow to about 750 over the next year up from about 340 in 2014 ) , based at seven locations across Victoria . Staff include scientists , engineers , lawyer , administrators , community engagement staff , Environment Protection Officers as well as specialist investigators and prosecutors . Offices are located across Victoria at Carlton ( head office ) , Macleod , Dandenong , Traralgon , Wangaratta , Bendigo , and Geelong . EPA will soon open an additional office in Exhibition Street , Melbourne . On 23 March 2017 EPA announced the appointment of Dr Andrea Hinwood as the state 's first Chief Environmental Scientist . http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/about-us/news-centre/news-and-updates/news/2017/march/23/victorias-inaugural-chief-environmental-scientist-announced\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Environment_Protection_Authority_(Victoria)\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 96402\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of March for Science locations Content: The March for Science was a series of protests that occurred across the United States and around the World on April 22 , 2017 . The protests were organized due to the perceived hostility of the Trump administration , as well as proposed budget cuts to federal agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency and the National Institute of Health . A major goal of the march was convincing government officials to adopt policies in-line with the scientific understanding of issues such as climate change and vaccines . Listed below are several hundreds of the affiliated marches .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_March_for_Science_locations\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 96228\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chicago Climate Action Plan Content: The Chicago Climate Action Plan ( CCAP ) is Chicago 's climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy that was adopted in September 2008 . The CCAP has an overarching goal of reducing Chicago 's greenhouse gas emissions by 80 percent below 1990 levels by 2050 , with an interim goal of 25 percent below 1990 levels by 2020 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Chicago_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 96137\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Action for climate empowerment (ACE) Content: Action for Climate Empowerment ( ACE ) is a term adopted by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . It refers to Article 6 of the Convention 's original text ( 1992 ) , focusing on six priority areas : education , training , public awareness , public participation , public access to information , and international cooperation on these issues . The implementation of all six areas has been identified as the pivotal factor for everyone to understand and participate in solving the complex challenges presented by climate change . The importance of ACE is reflected in other international frameworks such as the Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs , 2015 ) ; the Global Action Programme for Education for Sustainable Development ( GAP on ESD , 2014 ) ; the Aarhus Convention ( 2011 ) ; and the Bali Guidelines ( 2010 ) . ACE calls on governments to develop and implement educational and public awareness programmes , train scientific , technical and managerial personnel , foster access to information , and promote public participation in addressing climate change and its effects . It also urges countries to cooperate in this process , by exchanging good practices and lessons learned , and strengthening national institutions . This wide scope of activities is guided by specific objectives that , together , are seen as crucial for effectively implementing climate adaptation and mitigation actions , and for achieving the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Action_for_climate_empowerment_(ACE)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 96064\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Federal Emergency Management Agency Content: The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) is an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security , initially created by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 and implemented by two Executive Orders on April 1 , 1979 . The agency 's primary purpose is to coordinate the response to a disaster that has occurred in the United States and that overwhelms the resources of local and state authorities . The governor of the state in which the disaster occurs must declare a state of emergency and formally request from the president that FEMA and the federal government respond to the disaster . FEMA also provides these services for territories of the United States , such as Puerto Rico . The only exception to the state 's gubernatorial declaration requirement occurs when an emergency and/or disaster takes place on federal property or to a federal asset , for example ; the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , or the Space Shuttle Columbia in the 2003 return-flight disaster . While on-the-ground support of disaster recovery efforts is a major part of FEMA 's charter , the agency provides state and local governments with experts in specialized fields and funding for rebuilding efforts and relief funds for infrastructure by directing individuals to access low interest loans , in conjunction with the Small Business Administration . In addition to this , FEMA provides funds for training of response personnel throughout the United States and its territories as part of the agency 's preparedness effort .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 95966\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2008–09 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season was the Australian bushfire season that ran from late December 2008 to April/May 2009 . Above average rainfalls in December , particularly in Victoria , delayed the start of the season , but by January 2009 , conditions throughout South eastern Australia worsened with the onset of one of the region 's worst heat waves . On 7 February , extreme bushfire conditions precipitated major bushfires throughout Victoria , involving several large fire complexes , which continued to burn across the state for around one month . 173 people lost their lives in these fires and 414 were injured . 3,500 + buildings were destroyed , including 2,029 houses , and 7,562 people displaced . Late 2008 had relatively few bushfires . Victoria in particular experienced higher than average rainfall in December , decreasing the fire danger in many regions of the state . Initial observations in October 2008 predicted an above average fire potential across Australia 's coastal regions and a below average potential in Central Australia , where drought has reduced the available fuel . In late January and early February , the effects of the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave increased temperatures across south-eastern Australia , particularly in Victoria and South Australia , where several locations broke all time temperature records . Various days of high wind speed , combined with the hot dry conditions , created extreme bushfire conditions between 25 January and 7 February 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2008–09_Australian_bushfire_season\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 95908\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 95823\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Fire Academy Content: The National Fire Academy ( NFA ) is one of two schools in the United States operated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) at the National Emergency Training Center ( NETC ) in Emmitsburg , Maryland . Operated and governed by the United States Fire Administration ( USFA ) as part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) , the NFA is the country 's pre-eminent federal fire training and education institution . The original purpose of the NFA as detailed in a 1973 report to Congress was to `` function as the core of the Nation 's efforts in fire service education -- feeding out model programs , curricula , and information ... '' The NFA shares its 107 acre Emmitsburg campus with the Emergency Management Institute ( EMI ) operated by the Directorate of Preparedness branch of FEMA . The campus also includes the Learning Resource Center ( LRC ) library , the National Fire Data Center , and the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial . The campus was the original site of Saint Joseph 's Academy , a Catholic school for girls from 1809 until 1973 . It was purchased by the U.S. Government in 1979 for use as the NETC . In 2008 , the National Fire Academy trained over 122,000 first responders from all 50 States .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Fire_Academy\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 95585\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Emergency Management Agency Content: The National Emergency Management Agency ( NEMA ; Korean : 소방방재청 , 消防防災廳 ) was an agency of South Korea , initially created by Enactment of the `` Act on Promotion of Fire Fighting Industry '' of 2008 and ceased control on 19 November 2014 as the Ministry of Public Safety and Security was founded at the same day on the incident of the MV Sewol ferry disaster . The agency 's primary purpose is to coordinate the response to any disaster that has occurred in South Korea which overwhelms the resources of local government authorities . The disaster management system of Korea goes back to `` Buyeok '' ( compulsory service ) in the era of the Three Kingdoms , which was succeeded by the Hyangyak in the Joseon Dynasty and then by the ` Civil Defense Basic Law ' enacted in 1975 after independence . The NEMA , whose predecessor is the ` Headquarters of Civil Defense and Disaster Management ' under the control of the Ministry of Government Administration and Home Affairs , was opened on June 1 , 2004 for the purpose of protecting the lives and property of the people from the large-scale disasters that have occurred repeatedly every year since 1990s . The NEMA consists of 1 officer , 3 bureaus , 19 divisions and 4 affiliated organizations . A total of 435 people ( 267 for the main office and 168 for the affiliated organizations ) work for the NEMA . Through the execution of 12 laws including the Disaster and Safety Management Basic Law , it is taking the lead in the national disaster management work of protecting the lives and property of the people .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Emergency_Management_Agency\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 95236\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"People's_Climate_March\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 95062\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Christmas bushfires Content: The Black Christmas bushfires were bushfires that burnt for almost three weeks from 24 December 2001 to 7 January 2002 across New South Wales , Australia . It was the longest continuous bushfire emergency in NSW history . Low rainfall across winter and spring 2001 combined with a hot , dry December created ideal conditions for bushfires . On the day of Christmas Eve , firefighters from the Grose Vale Rural Fire Service ( RFS ) brigade attended a blaze in rugged terrain at the end of Cabbage Tree Rd , Grose Vale , believed to have been caused by power lines in the Grose Valley . On Christmas Day , strong westerly winds fuelled more than 100 bushfires across the state , creating a plume of smoke that extended across Sydney . This plume of smoke would not clear for some days as the bushfires continued to burn , creating some of the worst pollution that Sydney has ever experienced , with a regional pollution index reading of : 200 in North-West Sydney ; 120 in Central-East and South-West Sydney . The fires mainly burnt in Lane Cove National Park , the Royal National Park & Blue Mountains National Park . Overall approximately 3,000 square kilometres ( 740,000 acres ) were burnt . 121 homes were destroyed across the state and 36 damaged , mostly in the lower Blue Mountains and west of the Royal National Park around Helensburgh . Arsonists were believed to be responsible for starting many of the fires , leading to harsher penalties for those who start bushfires . The dry conditions that started the bushfires continued well into 2002 , resulting in the worst drought in 100 years . The drought was declared a `` one in 1000 year event '' . The drought finally broke with the La Nina event of 2010 -- 2011 . Significantly higher than average rainfall began in July 2010 , it was Australia 's second wettest year on record . An Erickson S-64 Aircrane helicopter became something of a celebrity during this time . Elvis ( N179AC ) was loaned to NSW by Victoria and proved instantly successful .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Christmas_bushfires\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 94931\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emergency Alert System Content: The Emergency Alert System ( EAS ) is a national warning system in the United States put into place on January 1 , 1997 ( approved by Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) in November 1994 ) , when it replaced the Emergency Broadcast System ( EBS ) , which in turn replaced the CONELRAD System . The official EAS is designed to enable the President of the United States to speak to the United States within 10 minutes . In addition to this requirement , EAS is also designed to alert the public of local weather emergencies such as tornadoes and flash floods ( and in some cases severe thunderstorms depending on the severity of the storm ) . A national EAS test was conducted on November 9 , 2011 , at 2 p.m. Eastern Standard Time . The most recent National EAS Test was performed September 28 , 2016 , at 2:20 PM EDT ( 11:20 AM PDT ) . EAS is jointly coordinated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) and the National Weather Service ( NOAA/NWS ) . The EAS regulations and standards are governed by the Public Safety and Homeland Security Bureau of the FCC . EAS has become part of Integrated Public Alert and Warning System ( IPAWS ) , a program of FEMA . EAS messages are transmitted via AM , FM , broadcast television , cable television and Land Mobile Radio Service , as well as VHF , UHF , and FiOS ( wireline video providers ) . Digital television , satellite television , and digital cable providers , along with Sirius XM satellite radio , IBOC , DAB , smart phones and digital radio broadcasters , have been required to participate in the EAS since December 31 , 2006 . DirecTV , Dish Network , and all other DBS providers have been required to participate since May 31 , 2007 . In 2008 , the FCC began work on another system for public alerting designed and targeted at smartphones , meant to support the EAS . The Commercial Mobile Alert System ( now Wireless Emergency Alerts ) made its debut in about early 2013 in select states for select events . While this system functions independently from the Emergency Alert System , it may broadcast identical information .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Emergency_Alert_System\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 94877\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Palestinian Authority Government of April 2003 Content: The Palestinian Authority Government of April 2003 was a government of the Palestinian National Authority ( PA ) from April to September 2003 . It was headed by Mahmoud Abbas , the very first Prime Minister . The Prime Minister and his government were inaugurated before the Parliament on 29 April . Abbas already resigned as Prime Minister on 6 September 2003 because of a struggle for power with President Yasser Arafat and the stagnated implementation of the Road map for Peace . After the discharge of the Government in September 2003 , Speaker of the Palestinian Legislative Council Ahmed Qurei was asked to become Prime Minister of an emergency government , but Arafat , on 5 October , appointed Qurei PM of a small emergency cabinet before a government could be presented to Parliament .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Palestinian_Authority_Government_of_April_2003\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 94676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ACTION (U.S. government agency) Content: ACTION was a United States government agency described as `` the federal domestic volunteer agency '' . It was formed July 1 , 1971 , during President Richard Nixon 's first term under the provisions of Reorganization Plan Number One , and Executive Order 11603 , June 30 , 1971 , to provide centralized coordination and administration of Government-sponsored domestic and international volunteer agencies . Among the programs transferred to the new agency were : domestic volunteer programs established in the Office of Economic Opportunity ( OEO ) pursuant to the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 ( 78 Stat . 508 ) , August 20 , 1964 : Volunteers in Service to America ( VISTA ) and the National Student Volunteer Program ( NSVP ) ; domestic volunteer programs established in the Department of Health , Education , and Welfare pursuant to the Older Americans Act of 1965 ( 79 Stat . 218 ) , July 14 , 1965 , and the Older Americans Act Amendments of 1969 ( 83 Stat . 111 ) , September 17 , 1969 : the Foster Grandparents program and the Retired Senior Volunteer Program ( RSVP ) ; the Peace Corps , the international volunteer programs represented established in the Department of State pursuant to EO 10924 , March 1 , 1961 ; the volunteer action clearinghouse functions vested in the Office of Voluntary Action at the Department of Housing and Urban Development , pursuant to EO 11470 , May 26 , 1969 . ACTION also assumed from OEO responsibility for providing logistical support to the volunteer programs of the Small Business Administration ( SBA ) : Service Corps of Retired Executives ( SCORE ) , established April 1964 ; Active Corps of Executives ( ACE ) , established August 1969 . ACTION 's responsibility for SCORE and ACE terminated in 1976 . In addition , the Senior Companions program was established in ACTION in 1973 . Foster Grandparents , RSVP , and Senior Companions were later merged into the Senior Corps . The Peace Corps was separated from ACTION in 1982 . The NSVP was redesignated National Center for Service Learning in 1980 , and terminated and superseded by Student Community Service Projects in 1987 . ACTION 's functions , and the Commission on National and Community Service , were ordered transferred to the newly established Corporation for National and Community Service ( CNCS ) no later than March 22 , 1995 , by Section 203 of the National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993 ( 107 Stat . 892 ) , September 21 , 1993 . AmeriCorps , which includes VISTA , and Senior Corps are programs of the CNCS . ACTION was abolished by Presidential Proclamation 6662 , April 4 , 1994 ( 3 CFR , 1994 ed. , 22 ) . See 362.1 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"ACTION_(U.S._government_agency)\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 94566\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Directorate-General for Climate Action Content: The Directorate-General for Climate Action or DG CLIMA , established in February 2010 , is a department of the European Commission . The current Commissioner is Miguel Arias Cañete . The DG is headed by Jos Delbeke , Director General for Climate Action . Climate change was previously the responsibility of the Directorate-General for the Environment . DG Climate Change participates in international negotiations on climate , helps the European Union to deal with the consequences of climate change and encourages it to meet its targets for 2020 . It also develops and implements the EU Emissions Trading System .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Directorate-General_for_Climate_Action\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 94557\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Etiwanda Fire Content: The Etiwanda Fire was a wildfire in the San Bernardino National Forest in the foothills north of Rancho Cucamonga . The fire started on April 30 , 2014 , during Santa Ana wind conditions of high temperatures and strong winds . On the first day , four schools and more than 1,500 homes were evacuated ; residential evacuation orders were canceled that evening . Nine schools were closed on May 1 , but they all were reopened on May 2 . Many nearby communities were warned of unhealthy air quality . It burned 2,143 acre and was fully contained on May 10 . The Etiwanda Fire was caused by an escaped illegal campfire .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Etiwanda_Fire\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 94541\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Garnaut Climate Change Review Content: Professor Ross Garnaut led two climate change reviews , the first commencing in 2007 and the second in 2010 . The first Garnaut Climate Change Review was a study by Professor Ross Garnaut , commissioned by then Opposition Leader , Kevin Rudd and by the Australian State and Territory Governments on 30 April 2007 . After the election on 24 November 2007 , Prime Minister of Australia Kevin Rudd confirmed the participation of the Commonwealth Government in the Review . The Review examined the impacts of climate change on the Australian economy , and recommended medium to long-term policies and policy frameworks to improve the prospects for sustainable prosperity . Some observers have remarked that the Garnaut Review would be Australia 's version of the Stern Review . A number of forums were held around Australia to engage the public on various issues relating to the Review . The Secretariat to support the Review was based in the Victorian Department of Premier and Cabinet . The final report of the Garnaut Review was delivered on 30 September 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Garnaut_Climate_Change_Review\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 94204\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Indian Armed Forces and the Jammu and Kashmir floods, 2014 Content: In the wake of heavy monsoon rain and flash floods in Jammu and Kashmir , which have allegedly killed over four hundred and rendered hundreds of thousand homeless , the Indian Armed Forces were deployed in increasing numbers starting September 2 , 2014 to conduct search , rescue , relief , relocation , humanitarian assistance and rehabilitation missions in Jammu and Kashmir . By September 18 , over 200,000 people were rescued from the various parts of Jammu and Kashmir by the Armed forces . The Jammu and Kashmir floods , the worst in a century according to Omar Abdullah , the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir , paralyzed the state government . Omar Abdullah , responding to public criticism , told the media `` I had no government '' in the first few days following the floods , as `` My secretariat , the police headquarters , the control room , fire services , hospitals , all the infrastructure was underwater . '' Adding `` I had no cell phone and no connectivity . I am now starting to track down ministers and officers . '' The Jammu and Kashmir floods of 2014 have been blamed on heavy rainfall , about 8 inches ( 200mm ) on 4 September alone , on climate change , unplanned and uncontrolled development , encroachment of river banks , lakes , ponds , and massive loss of wet lands , absence of local government flood forecasting system , and poor governance . The Armed Forces humanitarian assistance mission in response to the floods was named Mission Sahayata ( assistances ) . Northern Command 's humanitarian assistance to Civil authorities was named ` Operation MEGH RAHAT ' . The Indian Army , Air Force , and the Navy , committed large resources to the assistance mission including over 30,000 troops ( 21,000 in Srinagar , and 9000 in Jammu ) , 15 engineer task forces , 84 Indian Air Force and Army Aviation Corps fixed wing transport aircraft and helicopters , naval commandos and rescue specialists , and Base Hospital , four field hospitals , over 106 medical detachments . `` Operation Megh Rahat '' , ended on 19 September 2014 , but `` Operation Sadbhavna '' , the relief and medical assistance support , according to government press release , will continue in `` close synergy with the civil administration and the police '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Indian_Armed_Forces_and_the_Jammu_and_Kashmir_floods,_2014\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 94157\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate One Content: Climate One is a branch of The Commonwealth Club of California based in San Francisco , California . It aims to bridge the gap between business leadership and sustainability through discussions about strong action and climate change . Founded in 2007 by Greg Dalton , it is a public affairs forum dedicated to the exclusive coverage of energy , environment and the economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_One\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 94069\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental emergency Content: Environmental emergencies are defined as `` sudden-onset disasters or accidents resulting from natural , technological or human-induced factors , or a combination of these , that causes or threatens to cause severe environmental damage as well as loss of human lives and property . '' ( UNEP/GC .22 / INF/5 , 13 November 2002 . ) Following a disaster or conflict , an environmental emergency can occur when people 's health and livelihoods are at risk due to the release of hazardous and noxious substances , or because of significant damage to the ecosystem . Examples include fires , oil spills , chemical accidents , toxic-waste dumping and groundwater pollution . The environmental risks can be acute and life-threatening . According to the International Disaster Database ( EM-DAT ) , between 2003 and 2013 , there were 380 industrial accidents reported , affecting 207 668 people and resulting in over US$ 22 million in losses . Climate change is having an unprecedented effect on the occurrence of natural disasters and the associated risk of environmental emergencies . With climate change already stretching the disaster relief system , future climate-related emergency events will generate increased and more costly demands for assistance .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_emergency\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 93990\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: People's Climate March (2017) Content: The People 's Climate March ( also called People 's Climate Movement ) was a protest which took place on Washington , D.C. 's National Mall , and among 300 locations throughout the United States , and locations outside the U.S. , on April 29 , 2017 . Organizers announced the demonstration in January 2017 to protest the environmental policies of U.S. President Donald Trump and his administration . The protests were held at the end of his first 100 days as president , during stormy weather across the U.S. . There was an estimated 200,000 participating in the D.C. march .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"People's_Climate_March_(2017)\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 93668\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Turning_the_Corner_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 93471\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States Fire Administration Content: The United States Fire Administration ( USFA ) is a division of the Federal Emergency Management Agency which in turn is managed by the Department of Homeland Security located in unincorporated Frederick County , Maryland , near Emmitsburg .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_Fire_Administration\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 93292\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Territorial Approach to Climate Change Content: The Territorial Approach to Climate Change ( TACC ) works with local level governments ( states , provinces , cities , municipalities ) in developing countries and countries in transition to increase resilience to climate change impact and reduce their carbon footprint . The TACC is a partnership of five agencies that includes UNEP , UNDP , UNITAR , UN-Habitat and UNCDF . TACC as a global action came into existence after the Saint Malo Declaration . Sub-national authorities recognised that urgent and collective action was needed to respond appropriately to climate change . The United Nations recognised that most investments to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions and adapt to climate change take place at the sub-national and local levels . Developing the capacity of sub-national governments in low income countries to create conditions that reduce the perceived investments risks and access new sources of environmental finance was seen as key to addressing climate change . Phase 1 of the programme - Awareness raising and training - was led by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) . Phase 2 - Analysis , assessment and action plan - was led by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . Phase 3 - Projects - was also led by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . Initial projects under TACC were conducted in : Uganda Uruguay ( the pilot project ) Albania Algeria Colombia Ethiopia Peru Senegal\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Territorial_Approach_to_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 93080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ambo Declaration Content: The Ambo Declaration was adopted at the Tarawa Climate Change Conference on 10 November 2010 by Australia , Brazil , China , Cuba , Fiji , Japan , Kiribati , Maldives , Marshall Islands , New Zealand , Solomon Islands and Tonga . The declaration calls for more and immediate action to be undertaken to address the causes and adverse impacts of climate change . The Ambo Declaration , named after the village in Kiribati where parliament sits , was slated to be a non-legally-binding agreement between the nations to present at the larger international climate change summit , COP16 in Cancun , Mexico . The United States , the United Kingdom and Canada , who also attended the conference , chose not to be part of the declaration by taking Observer status . The purpose of the conference was to support the initiative of the President of Kiribati , Anote Tong , to hold a consultative forum between vulnerable states and their partners with a view of creating an enabling environment for multi-party negotiations under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . The conference was a successor event to the Climate Vulnerable Forum first held in November 2009 in the Maldives , when eleven climate vulnerable countries signed the Bandos Island declaration pledging to show moral leadership and commence greening their economies by voluntarily committing to achieving carbon neutrality . Based on the lessons learned in the COP process , the TCCC proposed a more inclusive format of consultations , involving key partners among major developed and developing nations . The ultimate objective of TCCC was to reduce the number and intensity of various fault lines between parties to the COP process , explore elements of agreement between the parties and thereby to support Kiribati 's and other parties ' contribution to COP16 to be held in Cancun , Mexico , from 29 November to 10 December 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Ambo_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 93011\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 92824\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Preparing for Emergencies Content: Preparing for Emergencies was a public information scheme , produced by the Home Office , a department of the United Kingdom Government , advising British citizens on what to do in the event of a natural disaster , accident or terrorism . The scheme was started on 26 July 2004 in the wake of several major disasters including the 11 March 2004 Madrid train bombings , SARS and the 2001 UK foot and mouth crisis , in the form of a 22-page booklet which covered topics such as transport accidents , health , foot and mouth disease , terrorism and fire safety . The booklet was distributed to all UK households but received some criticism - comparing it to Protect and Survive , a 1980s Public Information Film that instructed people on how to remain safe from nuclear war . Some sections of the media also accused the Government of `` scaremongering '' , although information was provided on topics other than terrorism . Soon after the website accompanying the booklet was launched , a spoof website appeared , www.preparingforemergencies.co.uk , said to be from `` HM Department of Vague Paranoia '' ; it parodied the seemingly obvious advice given by the booklets , and gave such advice as : `` Alien Invasion : Negotiate using sign language , if possible . Failing that , and assuming they are n't armed with futuristic ray guns , run like hell . '' The Home Office initially objected to the website , stating that the URL was too similar to that of their own website , www.preparingforemergencies.gov.uk , and threatened to close the website down . However , after a link to the official website was added , the Home Office conceded the issue , and allowed the site to remain online . Following the original distribution , no more booklets have been produced , although the website was updated with advice on possible bird flu epidemics and the 7 July 2005 London bombings . In 2011/12 the website was permanently closed , and official emergency preparedness information for the UK was moved to the gov.uk website .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Preparing_for_Emergencies\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 92243\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Commission Content: The Climate Commission was an independent body established in 2011 by the Federal Government of Australia to communicate `` reliable and authoritative information '' about climate change in Australia . Abolished by a newly elected government in September 2013 , it was relaunched as an independent non-profit organisation called the Climate Council .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Commission\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 92237\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Department of Fire and Emergency Services Content: The Department of Fire and Emergency Services ( DFES ) is a government department that is responsible for fire and emergency services in Western Australia . The department came into being in 2012 as a result of the Perth Hills Bush Fire review .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Department_of_Fire_and_Emergency_Services\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 92218\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fire Corps Content: Fire Corps is an American volunteer program which is designed to connect community members with their local fire/EMS departments to help with non-emergency tasks . On a national level , Fire Corps is managed by the National Volunteer Fire Council and supported by the Department of Homeland Security , Citizen Corps , and the United States Fire Administration . Launched in 2004 , Fire Corps is one of five partner programs under Citizen Corps , the Federal Emergency Management Agency 's grassroots strategy to bring together government and community leaders to involve citizens in all-hazards emergency preparedness and resilience . The Fire Corps web site located at www.firecorps.org serves as a gateway to information , resources , training , and networking opportunities for fire/EMS departments as well as community members interested in non-operational volunteer opportunities with their department . Departments can use this site to register their citizen volunteer program and community members can use the site to find a local Fire Corps program .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Fire_Corps\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 92043\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Department of Communications, Climate Action and Environment Content: The Department of Communications , Climate Action and Environment ( An Roinn Cumarsáide , Gníomhaithe ar son na hAeráide agus Comhshaoil ) is a department of the Government of Ireland that is responsible for the telecommunications and broadcasting sectors and regulates , protects and develops the natural resources of Ireland . The head of the department is the Minister for Communications , Climate Change and Natural Resources who is assisted by one Minister of State .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Department_of_Communications,_Climate_Action_and_Environment\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 91985\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Green Zone Community Climate Action Content: Green Zone Community Climate Action is a charitable unincorporated association formed in November 2016 . Based in Broomfield , Essex , this organisation delivers climate change awareness at a grass roots level to improve public understanding of Global warming and promote individual actions that can help to address this . The charity works with Marks & Spencer through the project Neighbourly among other retailers to reduce food waste and share unsold food within the community . The charity also supports climate education for primary school children through clubs . The charity took part in the worldwide 24 Hours of Reality campaign broadcast by The Climate Reality Project . Working alongside additional community charities Green Zone Community Climate Action is one of many new projects created to assist the UK in meeting the United Nations global Sustainable Development Goals\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Green_Zone_Community_Climate_Action\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 91965\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Justice Action Content: Climate Justice Action ( CJA ) `` is a global network of groups and individuals committed to taking action to prevent catastrophic climate change '' . CJA formed as part of the alternative mobilisation around the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , and organised mass Direct actions during the conference .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Justice_Action\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 91760\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: R. David Paulison Content: Robert David Paulison ( born February 27 , 1947 ) is an American former fire chief who served as the director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) . Paulison was appointed by President George W. Bush on September 12 , 2005 to replace the embattled Michael D. Brown , who resigned amid controversy over his handling of disaster relief in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina . Prior to his appointment , Paulison was perhaps best known nationally for his 2003 advisory regarding household items ( including duct tape and plastic sheeting ) to have on hand in case of terrorist attack . At the 2009 National Hurricane Conference , he announced he would resign January 21 , 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"R._David_Paulison\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 91717\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emergency Federal Register Content: The Emergency Federal Register is the planned replacement for the Federal Register , the official journal of the United States government , in the event publication of the Federal Register is suspended by presidential decree following the onset of a severe national calamity , such as a major nuclear attack or the mainland invasion of the United States . According to the Office of the Federal Register , the Emergency Federal Register `` can only be activated under extreme national security conditions '' . Publication in the Federal Register of newly enacted federal regulations is required prior to their effective date . The purpose of the Emergency Federal Register would be to permit the continuation of such required publication but from a location outside of Washington , DC , in the event that city were overrun or rendered uninhabitable , or by methods or means other than bound paper , possibly including broadcast transmission or a town crier system . The Office of the Federal Register maintains alternate work sites where the Emergency Federal Register can be managed , including one site in Laurel , Maryland , another site in Rocket Center , West Virginia , and at least one other `` classified location '' . Authority for activation of an alternative to the Federal Register is contained in Title 44 , Section 1505 of the United States Code , which specifies that : In the event of an attack or threatened attack upon the continental United States and a determination by the President that as a result of an attack or threatened attack publication of the Federal Register or filing of documents with the Office of the Federal Register is impracticable , or under existing conditions publication in the Federal Register would not serve to give appropriate notice to the public of the contents of documents , the President may , without regard to any other provision of law , suspend all or part of the requirements of law or regulation for filing with the Office or publication in the Federal Register of documents or classes of documents . Many new regulations required in a crisis situation , however , would not require advance publication . A contingency regulatory code , operating in parallel to the Code of Federal Regulations and known as the Emergency Code of Federal Regulations , can be immediately promulgated following the onset of an emergency .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Emergency_Federal_Register\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 91475\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Accountability Act (Bill C-224) Content: The Climate Change Accountability Act is a Private Member 's Bill that has been submitted in the 39th , 40th and 41st Canadian Parliament . It was originally tabled in October 2006 in the Canadian House of Commons as Bill C-377 of the 39th Parliament by Jack Layton , then the leader of the New Democratic Party of Canada ( NDP ) . It passed third reading by a vote of 148 to 116 with the support of caucuses of the Liberal Party of Canada , the Bloc Québécois and the NDP ( the Conservative Party of Canada , led by Prime Minister Stephen Harper , voted against it ) . However , Bill C-377 died as it was still before the Senate when Parliament was dissolved for the 2008 Canadian federal election . On February 10 , 2009 Bruce Hyer , then the New Democrat Deputy Environment Critic and MP for Thunder Bay-Superior North , seconded by Layton , reintroduced it in the 40th Parliament as Bill C-311 . It passed 2nd Reading on April 1 , 2009 by a vote of 141 to 128 , and was sent to the Standing Committee on the Environment and Sustainable Development . On October 21 , 2009 , the House voted 169 to 93 to allow the Committee more time to study the Bill , as the sixty sitting days permitted for its consideration under Standing Order 97.1 ( 1 ) of the House of Commons had expired . Passage of the Climate Change Accountability Act was therefore effectively delayed until 2010 , meaning it would not influence the government in negotiations at the UN COP15 global climate change treaty negotiations held in December 2009 in Copenhagen . On December 10 , 2009 , the committee report on Bill C-311 was presented to the House , without amendment to the Bill . The December 30 , 2009 prorogation of the House did not affect the Bill , as Private Member 's Bills are reinstated at the stage last completed , and Bill C-311 had not been considered at Report Stage at prorogation . When Parliament resumed , C-311 was concurred in at Report Stage on April 14 , 2010 by vote 155 to 137 . The bill was passed by the House of Commons at 3rd Reading on May 5 , 2010 with 149 votes for and 136 votes against . It received 1st Reading in the Senate on May 6 , 2010 before being defeated at 2nd Reading on November 16 , 2010 by a vote of 43 to 32 . The bill was re-introduced as Bill C-224 on June 15 , 2011 by current NDP Environment Critic and MP for Halifax , Megan Leslie . The bill was seconded by Deputy Environment Critic Laurin Liu .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Accountability_Act_(Bill_C-224)\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 91335\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Fire Incident Reporting System Content: The National Fire Incident Reporting System ( NFIRS ) is a system established by the National Fire Data Center of the United States Fire Administration ( USFA ) , a division of the Federal Emergency Management Agency . The System was established after the 1973 National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control report , America Burning , led to passage of the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 ( P.L. 93-498 ) , which authorizes the USFA to gather and analyze information on the magnitude of the Nation 's fire problem , as well as its detailed characteristics and trends . The Act further authorizes the USFA to develop uniform data reporting methods , and to encourage and assist state agencies in developing and reporting data . The NFIRS has two objectives : to help state and local governments develop fire reporting and analysis capability for their own use , and to obtain data that can be used to more accurately assess and subsequently combat the fire problem at a national level . To meet these objectives , the USFA has developed a standard NFIRS package that includes incident and casualty forms , a coding structure for data processing purposes , manuals , computer software and procedures , documentation and a National Fire Academy training course for utilizing the system . The NFIRS reporting format is based on the National Fire Protection Association Standard 901 , `` Uniform Coding for Fire Protection '' ( 1976 version ) , the 1981 codes for Fire Service Casualty Reporting , and the 1990 codes for Hazardous Materials Reporting . The version of NFIRS current as of June , 2006 , version 5.0 , was released in January , 1999 . NFIRS 5.0 expands the collection of data beyond fires to include the full range of fire department activity on a national scale . It is a true all-incident reporting system . Within the NFIRS states , participating local fire departments fill out the Incident and Casualty reports as fires occur . They forward the completed incidents via paper forms , computer media or the Internet to their state office where the data is validated and consolidated into a single computerized database . Feedback reports are generated and forwarded to the participating fire departments . Periodically , computer media containing the aggregated statewide data is sent to the National Fire Data Center at the USFA to be included in the National Database . This database is used to answer questions about the nature and causes of injuries , deaths , and property loss resulting from fires . The information is disseminated through a variety of means to states and other organizations . The National Fire Incident Reporting System is a model of successful Federal , State and local partnership . The database constitutes the world 's largest , national , annual collection of incident information . The success of NFIRS is due in part to the unique cooperative effort between USFA and the National Fire Information Council ( NFIC ) . NFIC plays a vital role in the USFA 's efforts to achieve an accurate nationwide analysis of the fire problem through support to NFIRS and its participating member states and metropolitan fire departments . NFIC 's unique partnership of Federal , state and local participants has proven to be one of the most successful , productive and cost-beneficial programs ever attempted on a national level .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Fire_Incident_Reporting_System\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 91268\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2000–01 fires in the Western United States Content: The 2000-2001 Western United States wildfires were a series of unusually severe wildfires that caused more than $ 2 billion ( USD ) in damage and resulted in the deaths of four firefighters . Overall , 6,966,995 acres burned across the United States and 2.2 million of those acres were in Idaho and Montana alone . A declaration of a state of emergency brought six military battalions and fire fighting teams from as far away as Australian and New Zealand to the Western United States . Federal and state land management organizations recognize the fires as historic `` both in extent and duration . '' The ten year fire season average is 3.1 million acres . The fires in 2000 destroyed more than double that acreage . Nearly $ 900 million ( USD ) was spent fighting fires . Long lasting ecological damage , including flooding , top soil runoff , and air quality damage has continues to this day . The damage was particularly severe in the Bitterroot National Forest . One of the most stunning photos from these fires are two elk seeking shelter in the East Fork of the Bitterroot River . The photo became known as Elk Bath .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2000–01_fires_in_the_Western_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 91098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Climate Assessment Content: The National Climate Assessment ( NCA ) is a United States government interagency ongoing effort on climate change science conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The NCA is a major product of the U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which coordinates a team of experts and receives input from a Federal Advisory Committee . The Fourth National Climate Assessment is being developed . For the Third National Climate Assessment , released in 2014 , USGCRP coordinated hundreds of experts and received advice from a sixty-member Federal Advisory Committee . NCA research is integrated and summarized in the mandatory ongoing National Climate Assessment Reports . The reports are `` extensively reviewed by the public and experts , including federal agencies and a panel of the National Academy of Sciences . The First National Climate Assessment was published in 2000 . The First National Climate Assessment Report was `` prepared by the National Assessment Synthesis Team ( NAST ) , an advisory committee chartered under the Federal Advisory Committee Act to help the US Global Change Research Program fulfill its mandate under the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The National Science and Technology Council forwarded the report to the President and Congress for their consideration as required by the Global Change Research Act . Administrative support for the US Global Change Research Program is provided by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research , which is sponsored by the National Science Foundation ( NCA 2000 ) . '' Between 2002 and 2009 , USGCRP previously known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) , produced twenty-one Synthesis and Assessment Products ( SAPs ) . The second NCA was published in 2009 and the third was released in 2014 . NCA 's overarching goal according to their May 20 , 2011 engagement strategy summary , `` is to enhance the ability of the U.S. to anticipate , mitigate , and adapt to changes in the global environment ( NCA 2011:2 ) . '' According to the USGCRP official website the NCA , In 2013 , the President 's Climate Action Plan released by the Executive Office of the President specifically noted the importance of the National Climate Assessments in achieving the goal of `` Using Sound Science to Manage Climate Impacts '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Climate_Assessment\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 91070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015–2017 Nepal humanitarian crisis Content: The 2015 -- 2017 Nepal humanitarian crisis developed out of lack of action following the April 2015 Nepal earthquake and its aftershocks and the compounding political factors of the 2015 Nepal blockade . As of July 7 , 2016 , the National Reconstruction Authority has not yet devised a plan for how to develop nor relocate the quake struck living in temporary and flimsy shelters . Therefore , the humanitarian crisis in ongoing and is likely to see a rerun into winter 2017 and beyond , especially in remote areas . In Sindhupalchok , the worst affected zone from the 2015 quake , the situation going into winter 2016-17 essentially the same as the prior year . Development indicators have dropped , Nepal was among the countries who had seen remarkable development gains pre-quake , post-quake reversal of gains has led to some 43 % of the urban population lacks access to a toilet . It has been reported that one of the primary reasons for dropout and irregularity of girls in school attendance is the lack of toilets .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2015–2017_Nepal_humanitarian_crisis\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 91027\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 90700\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dorset and Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service Content: Dorset and Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service is an statutory emergency fire and rescue service covering the local authority areas of Bournemouth , Dorset , Poole , Swindon , and Wiltshire . The service was created on 1 April 2016 by the merger of the Dorset Fire and Rescue Service and the Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service . Its headquarters is at Salisbury , Wiltshire , some 10 mi from the Dorset county boundary . The former headquarters at Poundbury , Dorset , and Potterne , Wiltshire , are retained as area offices ; emergency calls for the combined area have been answered by a control centre at Potterne since August 2015 . Provision of the service is by the Dorset and Wiltshire Combined Fire Authority , created in April 2015 , which has thirty elected members from all five constituent councils and is chaired by Dorset county councillor Rebecca Knox . In September 2016 Ben Ansell was appointed as the service 's second Chief Fire Officer , succeeding Darran Gunter with effect from December 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Dorset_and_Wiltshire_Fire_and_Rescue_Service\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 90544\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 Russian wildfires Content: From 12 to 16 April 2015 , a series of wildfires spread across southern Siberia , Russia . In the Republic of Khakassia , 29 people were killed and 6,000 left homeless . Further east in Zabaykalsky Krai , four people died in wildfires near Chita . Damage was also reported in Inner Mongolia .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_Russian_wildfires\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 90409\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 Content: The Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 was created in response to the 1973 National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control report , America Burning . The report 's authors estimated fires caused 12,000 deaths , 300,000 serious injuries and $ 11.4 billion in property damage annually in the United States , asserting that `` the richest and most technologically advanced nation in the world leads all the major industrialized countries in per capita deaths and property loss from fire . '' The report proposed that a federal agency be established to help combat the growing problem of fatal fires happening throughout the country . The S. 1769 legislation was passed by the 93rd Congressional session and enacted by the 38th President of the United States Gerald Ford on October 29 , 1974 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Federal_Fire_Prevention_and_Control_Act_of_1974\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 90208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pulletop Bushfire Content: The Pulletop Bushfire , officially referred to as the `` Wandoo fire '' , started on the 6 February 2006 in hot dry and windy weather conditions about 30 km southeast of Wagga Wagga , New South Wales . The fire was thought to have been started by sparks from a tractor on a property at Pulletop which quickly got out of control . New South Wales Rural Fire Service declared a bushfire emergency and the Hume Highway was closed late in the afternoon with fears that the fire would threaten the towns of Humula , Book Book , Livingstone and Kyeamba after 10 km ² of farmland was burnt . 7 February 2006 milder conditions help firefighters to control the fire burning in inaccessible country . Over 90 km ² of farmland burnt 2,500 sheep killed 6 cattle killed 3 vehicles destroyed 2 hay sheds destroyed 50km of fencing was burnt Pine plantation worth $ 5 million , a communications installation and 19 homes saved A Natural Disaster was declared\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Pulletop_Bushfire\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 90137\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Section 44 Content: A `` Section 44 '' refers to the New South Wales Rural Fires Act 1997 , specifically section 44 , Commissioner 's responsibility . Essentially it is used to describe when the RFS Commissioner declares a localised `` State of Emergency '' for a specific district suffering severe fire conditions that can not be managed without drawing in extensive resources from other areas . Once declared by the Commissioner the district has access to any and all fire-fighting personnel/equipment from across the State at no cost to the district or RFS , with the State Government footing the bill of all related Section 44 declared operations .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Section_44\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 90003\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Business action on climate change Content: Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Business_action_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 89932\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2019–20 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2019–20 Australian bushfire season, colloquially known as Black Summer, was a period of unusually intense bushfires in many parts of Australia. In June 2019, the Queensland Fire and Emergency Service acting director warned of the potential for an early start to the bushfire season which normally starts in August. The warning was based on the Northern Australia bushfire seasonal outlook noting exceptional dry conditions and a lack of soil moisture, combined with early fires in central Queensland. Throughout the summer, hundreds of fires burnt, mainly in the southeast of the country. The major fires peaked during December–January. As of 9 March 2020, the fires burnt an estimated 18.6 million hectares (46 million acres; 186,000 square kilometres; 72,000 square miles), destroyed over 5,900 buildings (including 2,779 homes) and killed at least 34 people. Nearly three billion terrestrial vertebrates alone – the vast majority being reptiles – were affected and some endangered species were believed to be driven to extinction. At its peak, air quality dropped to hazardous levels in all southern and eastern states. The cost of dealing with the bushfires is expected to exceed the A$4.4 billion of the 2009 Black Saturday fires, and tourism sector revenues fell by more than A$1 billion. However, economists estimated that the Australian bushfires may cost over A$103 billion in property damage and economic losses, making the bushfires Australia's costliest natural disaster to date. Nearly 80 percent of Australians were affected either directly or indirectly by the bushfires. By 7 January 2020, the smoke had moved approximately 11,000 kilometres (6,800 mi) across the South Pacific Ocean to Chile and Argentina. As of 2 January 2020, NASA estimated that 306 million tonnes (337 million short tons) of CO2 had been emitted.From September 2019 to March 2020, fires heavily impacted various regions of the state of New South Wales. In eastern and north-eastern Victoria large areas of forest burnt out of control for four weeks before the fires emerged from the forests in late December. Multiple states of emergency were declared across New South Wales, Victoria, and the Australian Capital Territory. Reinforcements from all over Australia were called in to assist fighting the fires and relieve exhausted local crews in New South Wales. The Australian Defence Force was mobilised to provide air support to the firefighting effort and to provide manpower and logistical support. Firefighters, supplies and equipment from Canada, New Zealand, Singapore and the United States, among others, helped fight the fires, especially in New South Wales.During the ensuing crisis, an air tanker and two helicopters crashed during firefighting operations, the air tanker crash resulting in the deaths of the three crew. Two fire trucks were caught in fatal incidents caused directly by fire conditions, killing three fire fighters.By 4 March 2020, all fires in New South Wales had been extinguished completely (to the point where there were no fires in the state for the first time since July 2019), and the Victoria fires had all been contained. The last fire of the season occurred in Lake Clifton, Western Australia, in early May.There has been considerable debate regarding the underlying cause of the intensity and scale of the fires, including the role of fire management practices and climate change, which during the peak of the crisis attracted significant international attention. Politicians visiting fire impacted areas received mixed responses, in particular Prime Minister Scott Morrison. An estimated A$500 million was donated by the public at large, international organisations, public figures and celebrities for victim relief and wildlife recovery. Convoys of donated food, clothing and livestock feed were sent to affected areas.\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2019–20_Australian_bushfire_season\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 89926\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Public Safety Act, 1953 Content: In 1953 , the Public Safety Act was enacted by the apartheid South African government ( coming into force 4 March ) . This Act empowered the government to declare stringent states of emergency and increased penalties for protesting against or supporting the repeal of a law . This act was passed in response to civil disobedience campaigns by the African National Congress ( ANC ) , in particular the Defiance Campaign of 1952 ( instigated by ANC leaders , including Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu ) . The Act included a provision that empowered the government to declare a state of emergency in any or every part of the country ( South West Africa included ) and to rule by proclamation . Under Section 3 , this power was granted to the Governor General ( and later , the State President ) , and it effectively put no limits on what measures might be taken , or for how long . Moreover , any law issued during a state of emergency could be made retrospective for four days to cover any emergency action taken by the police . The emergency regulations could suspend any act of Parliament , with a few exceptions . If the justice minister or administrator of South West Africa deemed it necessary , they could declare a state of emergency but the governor general had to approve their action within ten days . Under a state of emergency , the Minister of Law and Order , the Commissioner of the South African Police ( SAP ) , a magistrate , or a commissioned officer could detain any person for `` reasons of public safety '' . It further provided for detention without trial for any dissent .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Public_Safety_Act,_1953\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 89821\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Burned area emergency response Content: Burned area emergency response ( BAER ) is an emergency risk management reaction to post wildfire conditions that pose risks to human life and property or could further destabilize or degrade the burned lands . Even though wildfires are natural events , the presence of people and man-made structures in and adjacent to the burned area frequently requires continued emergency risk management actions . High severity wildfires pose a continuing flood , debris flow and mudflow risk to people living within and downstream from a burned watershed as well as a potential loss of desirable watershed values . The burned area emergency response risk management process begins during or shortly after wildfire containment with risk assessments evaluating the effects of the wildfire against values needing protection . These risk assessments can range from simple to complex . An organized interdisciplinary team of subject matter experts ( e.g. , hydrologists , soil scientists , botanists , cultural resource specialists , engineers , etc. ) used among other assessment tools hydrological modeling and soil burn severity mapping to assess potential flooding and vegetation recovery after the Cerro Grande Fire in 2000 . A BAER plan is developed based on the risk assessments and burned area land management objectives . The BAER Plan identifies the most effective treatments to address the identified risks . Plan implementation timeframes are dictated primarily by anticipated future events ( e.g. , next significant rainstorm ) which also influence treatment options .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Burned_area_emergency_response\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 89594\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emergency Public Warning System Content: The Emergency Public Warning System was a system used in the province of Alberta , Canada until October 2011 , whereby local or provincial authorities could warn the public about impending or current emergencies affecting their area . The system was replaced by the Alberta Emergency Alert but is still in use by the provinces Ontario and British Columbia . The system was proposed by the provincial government after an F4 tornado ripped through Edmonton , Alberta on July 31 , 1987 , killing 27 and causing millions of dollars in damage . The EPWS could be activated by local police , fire , and environmental agencies ; by Environment Canada ; and by other provincial and local authorities as required . It could be activated for any of the following reasons : Severe weather Flood Wildfire Hazardous material release Terrorist threat Water contamination AMBER Alert Other threats to life , property and safety . The EPWS was originally operated by the CKUA Radio Network , but was later operated by a private company headquartered in Ottawa , Ontario.It was rebroadcast through various television and radio stations and cable systems provincewide .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Emergency_Public_Warning_System\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 89487\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 Content: The Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 ( c 21 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It came into effect on 1 October 2004 . It only applies to Great Britain and most provisions apply only in England and Wales . Replacing the previous Fire Services Act 1947 in England and Wales , it clarifies the duties and powers of fire authorities to : - promote fire safety fight fires protect people and property from fires rescue people from road traffic incident deal with other specific emergencies , such as flooding or terrorist attack and do other things to respond to the particular needs of their communities and the risks they face .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Fire_and_Rescue_Services_Act_2004\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 89210\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Boulder Climate Action Plan Content: The Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide community efforts for reducing greenhouse gas emissions . Those strategies have focused on improving energy efficiency and conservation in our homes and businesses -- the source of nearly three-fourths of local emissions . The plan also promotes strategies to reduce emissions from transportation , which account for over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 88848\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emergency Fire Service Content: The Emergency Fire Service ( EFS ) was the fire and emergency service that operated in rural areas of South Australia in the 20th century . In 1979 , with the passing of the Country Fires Act in the South Australian Parliament , the EFS was renamed the SA Country Fire Service .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Emergency_Fire_Service\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 88788\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: April 2016 United States storm complex Content: The April 2016 United States storm complex was a major storm system that resulted from an upper-level low in the United States stalling and producing a major snowstorm in the Rocky Mountains , and record-breaking rain in and around Houston , Texas , resulting in severe flooding . There were more than 17 inches of rain in one day in parts of the city , and up to 4 inches of rain per hour that morning at George Bush Intercontinental Airport . It is described as the wettest April in the city on record . As the most widespread flood event there since Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 , it caused a state of emergency to be declared in nine counties . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"April_2016_United_States_storm_complex\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 88580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Northern Territory National Emergency Response Content: The Northern Territory National Emergency Response ( also referred to as `` the intervention '' ) was a package of changes to welfare provision , law enforcement , land tenure and other measures , introduced by the Australian federal government under John Howard in 2007 to address allegations of rampant child sexual abuse and neglect in Northern Territory Aboriginal communities . Operation Outreach , the intervention 's main logistical operation , conducted by a force of 600 soldiers and detachments from the ADF ( including NORFORCE ) , concluded on 21 October 2008 . In the seven years since the initiation of the Emergency Response there has not been one prosecution for child abuse come from the exercise . The package was the Federal government 's response to the Territory government 's publication of Little Children are Sacred , but implemented only two out of ninety-seven of the report 's recommendations . The response has been criticised , but also received bipartisan parliamentary support . The then Prime Minister Julia Gillard has supported the response , though her predecessor ( and successor ) Kevin Rudd did make some adjustments to its implementation . The Emergency Response has since been replaced by the very similar Stronger Futures Policy .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Northern_Territory_National_Emergency_Response\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 88569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center Content: The Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center is a civilian command facility in the U.S. Commonwealth of Virginia , used as the center of operations for the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) . Also known as the High Point Special Facility ( HPSF ) , its preferred designation since 1991 is `` SF '' . The facility is a major relocation site for the highest level of civilian and military officials in case of national disaster , playing a major role in continuity of government ( per the U.S. Continuity of Operations Plan ) . Mount Weather is the location of a control station for the FEMA National Radio System ( FNARS ) , a high frequency radio system connecting most federal public safety agencies and the U.S. military with most of the states . FNARS allows the president to access the Emergency Alert System . The site was brought into the public eye by The Washington Post , when the government facility was mentioned while reporting on the December 1 , 1974 , crash into Mount Weather of TWA Flight 514 , a Boeing 727 jetliner . The Mt. Weather facility is also featured in the early scenes of the movie `` The Sum of All Fears '' based on the Tom Clancy novel .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Mount_Weather_Emergency_Operations_Center\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 88543\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Fire Agency Content: The National Fire Agency of the Ministry of the Interior ( NFA ; ) is a statutory agency under the Ministry of the Interior of the Taiwan ( ROC ) . The agency provides emergency medical , fire prevention , firefighting and disaster rescue service as well as protecting civilian lives , property and safety . It was established in March 1995 . The agency is administered by the Director General which reports to the Minister for Interior . The current Director General is Chi-Tang Yeh .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Fire_Agency\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 88520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Federal Emergency Relief Administration Content: The Federal Emergency Relief Administration ( FERA ) was the new name given by the Roosevelt Administration to the Emergency Relief Administration ( ERA ) which President Franklin Delano Roosevelt had created in 1933 . FERA was established as a result of the Federal Emergency Relief Act and was replaced in 1935 by the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) . Under Roosevelt , the agency gave loans to the states to operate relief programs . One of these , the New York state program TERA ( Temporary Emergency Relief Administration ) , was set up in 1931 and headed by Harry Hopkins , a close adviser to Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt . Roosevelt asked Congress to set up FERA -- which gave grants to the states for the same purpose -- in May 1933 , and appointed Hopkins to head it . Along with the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) it was the first relief operation under the New Deal . Basically , it gave grants and loans to states . FERA 's main goal was to alleviate household unemployment by creating new unskilled jobs in local and state government . Jobs were more expensive than direct cash payments ( called `` the dole '' ) , but were psychologically more beneficial to the unemployed , who wanted any sort of job , for self-esteem , to play the role of male breadwinner . From May 1933 until it closed in December , 1935 , FERA gave states and localities $ 3.1 billion ( 5.54 billion in 2017 ) . FERA provided work for over 20 million people and developed facilities on public lands across the country . Faced with continued high unemployment and concerns for public welfare during the coming winter of 1933-34 , FERA instituted the Civil Works Administration ( CWA ) as a $ 400 million short-term measure to get people to work . The Federal Emergency Relief Administration was shut down in 1935 and its work taken over by two completely new federal agencies , the Works Progress Administration and the Social Security Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 88302\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Muslim Seven Year Action Plan on Climate Change Content: The Muslim Seven Year Action Plan on Climate Change is a climate action plan for the global Islamic community , meant to run from 2010 to 2017 . It was developed by the British Earth Mates Dialogue Center and the Kuwaiti Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs . It is one of several multi-year climate action plans developed by major religious communities , developed in coordination with the Alliance of Religions and Conservation and the United Nations Development Programme . According to the Alliance of Religions and Conservation , the plan proposes `` investigating every level of Muslim activity from daily life to annual pilgrimages , from holy cities to the future training of Imams , '' `` developing the major Muslim cities as green city models for other Islamic urban areas , '' and `` developing an Islamic label for environmentally friendly goods and services . '' Proposals were to be managed by a group called the Muslim Association for Climate Change Action ( MACCA , an acronym meant to sound like `` Mecca '' ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Muslim_Seven_Year_Action_Plan_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 87878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: April 1992 Nepalese general strike Content: In 1992 , in a situation of economic crisis and chaos in Nepal , with spiralling prices as a result of implementation of changes in policy of the new Congress government , far-left groups stepped up their political agitation . A Joint People 's Agitation Committee was set up together by the Communist Party of Nepal ( Unity Centre ) , Samyukta Jana Morcha , Communist Party of Nepal ( Masal ) , the Nepal Communist League and the Communist Party of Nepal ( Marxist-Leninist-Maoist ) . The committee called for a general strike on April 6 . Violent incidents began to occur on the evening ahead of the strike . The Joint People 's Agitation Committee had called for a 30-minute ` lights out ' in the capital , and violence erupted outside Bir Hospital when activists tried to enforce the ` lights out ' . At dawn on April 6 , clashes between strike activists and police outside a police station in Pulchok ( Patan ) left two activists dead . Later in the day , a mass rally of the Agitation Committee at Tundikhel in the capital Kathmandu was attacked by police forces . As a result , riots broke out , and the Nepal Telecommunications building was set on fire . Police opened fire at the crowd , killing several people . The Human Rights Organisation of Nepal estimated that 14 people , including several on-lookers , had been killed . The violent incidents in connection with the strike spurred radical elements within the Nepalese communist movement to debate the usefulness of participation in legal politics . Two years later the Communist Party of Nepal ( Unity Centre ) was divided , with one section opting for armed struggle . This group would later rename itself as the Communist Party of Nepal ( Maoist ) and declare a `` People 's War '' in 1996 , which became the starting point for the decade-long civil war .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"April_1992_Nepalese_general_strike\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 87637\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Liberal Party of Australia leadership spill, 2009 Content: A leadership spill of the federal parliamentary leader of the Liberal Party of Australia was held on 1 December 2009 . The incumbent , Malcolm Turnbull , was defeated by Tony Abbott in a three-way vote of Liberal Party Members of Parliament ( MPs ) . Joe Hockey also stood as a candidate . Abbott thus became the Leader of the Opposition in the Parliament of Australia . The spill was the culmination of a dispute within the Liberal Party over its response to the Rudd Government 's proposed emissions trading scheme ( ETS ) . Turnbull supported the introduction of an ETS and sought to negotiate amendments to government 's proposed legislation . Abbott came to represent many Liberal members of Parliament who were climate change sceptics or otherwise opposed the ETS . After Turnbull survived a spill motion ( a motion to declare the leadership vacant ) against his leadership in late November 2009 , Abbott declared his candidacy and a subsequent spill was moved on 1 December . Hockey -- a moderate who had been a supporter of Turnbull 's position on the ETS -- also stood . While Hockey had been expected to win , he was knocked out in the first round of voting . Abbott subsequently defeated Turnbull in the second round , 42 -- 41 .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Liberal_Party_of_Australia_leadership_spill,_2009\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 87562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Great Fire of Valparaíso Content: The Great Fire of Valparaíso ( Gran Incendio de Valparaíso ) started on 12 April 2014 at 16:40 local time ( 19:40 UTC ) , in the hills of the city of Valparaíso , Chile . The fire destroyed at least 2,500 homes , leaving 11,000 people homeless . An additional 6,000 people were evacuated from the city , which was placed on red alert and declared a disaster zone . Fifteen people were confirmed killed and ten suffered serious injuries .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Great_Fire_of_Valparaíso\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 87478\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (Victoria) Content: The Department of Environment , Land , Water and Planning ( DELWP ) is a state government department responsible for protecting the environment , management of natural resources , managing water resources , planning , local government , fire and emergency management and property and land titles in the state of Victoria , Australia . It was created on 1 January 2015 after the 2014 Victorian State Election when Premier Daniel Andrews announced that the previous Department of Environment and Primary Industries ( DEPI ) would be renamed , with the Agriculture portfolio moved to the Department of Economic Development , Jobs , Transport and Resources , and property and land titles , planning and local government support added from the previous Department of Transport , Planning and Local Infrastructure ( DTPLI ) . The Department secretary is Adam Fennessy . The Ministers responsible the Department of Environment , Land , Water and Planning are : Hon Lily D'Ambrosio , Minister for Energy , Environment , Climate Change and Suburban Development Hon Lisa Neville , Minister for Water Hon Richard Wynne , Minister for Planning Hon Natalie Hutchins , Minister for Local Government The ministers are supported by Anthony Carbines , the Parliamentary Secretary for the Environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Department_of_Environment,_Land,_Water_and_Planning_(Victoria)\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 87476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2010 Bolivia forest fires Content: The 2010 Bolivia forest fires led the country 's government to declare a state of emergency , as wildfires spread across the country . More than 25,000 fires are burning across 15000 km2 . These raging fires have destroyed nearly sixty homes . Bolivia is unable to combat the fires properly as it does not have enough water bombing aircraft . There was a steep jump in fire hot-spots from 17,000 on Sunday August 15 to approximately 25,000 three days later . Some of the blazes were so strong that firefighters were unable to get close enough to contain them . The head of Bolivia 's forestry service , Weimar Becerra , described the fires as `` a total disaster , it is an environmental disaster . We have six forest fires which have a height of 50 m and are growing , and as a country we do not have the capacity to put them out '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2010_Bolivia_forest_fires\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 87380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1Sky Content: 1Sky is a United States-based campaign in support of federal action to stem global warming and promote renewable energy . 1Sky was founded in the spring of 2007 when thirty climate campaigners were on a retreat in the Hudson Valley of New York state . Partners include Step It Up 2007 ( and its global successor 350 . org ) , the Clinton Global Initiative , Greenpeace , Oxfam , and the Energy Action Coalition .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"1Sky\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 87120\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act Content: The Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act of 1973 ( EPAA ) was a U.S. law that required the President to promulgate regulations to allocate and control price of petroleum products in response to the 1973 oil crisis . It was extended by the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 . The regulations were withdrawn by President Reagan in of January 28 , 1981 . In 1973 and again in 1979 the US Government took control of private stocks of oil under this law . ( Jaffe & Soligo , `` The role of inventories in oil market stability '' , Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 42 . 2002 . ) Category :1973 in law Category :93 rd United States Congress Category : United States federal energy legislation Category : Petroleum politics Category : Law articles needing an infobox\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Emergency_Petroleum_Allocation_Act\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 87033\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emergency Powers Act 1939 Content: The Emergency Powers Act 1939 ( EPA ) was an Act of the Oireachtas ( Irish parliament ) enacted on 3 September 1939 , after an official state of emergency had been declared on 2 September 1939 in response to the outbreak of the Second World War . The Act empowered the government to :\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"Emergency_Powers_Act_1939\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 87026\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 California wildfires Content: The 2015 California wildfires were a series of wildfires that burned across the state of California during 2015 , in which 8,745 fires burned a total area of 893,362 acre . On September 11 , with the Butte Fire exploding from a size of 32,000 acres to 65,000 acres , in the Amador and Calaveras counties , Governor Jerry Brown declared a state of emergency .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_California_wildfires\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 86989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2008 Southern African Development Community emergency meeting Content: Zambian President Levy Mwanawasa called an emergency meeting of SADC leaders for 12 April during the 2008 Zimbabwe presidential election to discuss the post-election impasse . According to Mwanawasa , Zimbabwe 's `` deepening problems '' meant that the issue needed to be `` dealt with at presidential level '' . Jacob Zuma , meanwhile , said that he thought results should have already been announced , and he described the failure to release them as `` unprecedented '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"165\",\n \"docid\": \"2008_Southern_African_Development_Community_emergency_meeting\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 86959\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":79,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"As the temperature has increased, so has the ability of scientists to determine whether specific events are linked to climate change."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"168","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":1,"score":142705},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"168","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":2,"score":140611},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"168","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":3,"score":134779},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"168","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":4,"score":134327},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"168","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":5,"score":132540},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"168","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":6,"score":132124},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"168","docid":"Global_warming","rank":7,"score":128859},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"168","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":8,"score":126838},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change","rank":9,"score":125543},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"168","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":10,"score":123097},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_Change_Science_Program","rank":11,"score":121834},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"168","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":12,"score":121204},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"168","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":13,"score":120369},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_in_Argentina","rank":14,"score":117918},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"168","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":15,"score":117432},{"content":"Title: International Tundra Experiment Content: The International Tundra Experiment ( ITEX ) is a long-term international collaboration of researchers examining the responses of arctic and alpine plants and ecosystems to climate change . The ITEX network consists of more than 20 sites in polar and alpine locations around the world . Researchers measure plant responses to standardized , small-scale passive warming , snow manipulations , and nutrient additions . Researchers use small open-top chambers to passively increase mean air temperature by 1-2oC . The ITEX approach has been validated by tundra responses at the plot level . The network has published meta-analyses on plant phenology , growth , and reproduction , composition and abundance , and carbon flux .","qid":"168","docid":"International_Tundra_Experiment","rank":16,"score":117184},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"168","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":17,"score":115181},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":18,"score":114589},{"content":"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_in_popular_culture","rank":19,"score":114384},{"content":"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''","qid":"168","docid":"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change","rank":20,"score":114046},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"168","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":21,"score":113594},{"content":"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .","qid":"168","docid":"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment","rank":22,"score":112399},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"168","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":23,"score":111932},{"content":"Title: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement Content: The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .","qid":"168","docid":"Laboratoire_des_sciences_du_climat_et_de_l'environnement","rank":24,"score":111614},{"content":"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .","qid":"168","docid":"Reasons_for_concern","rank":25,"score":109812},{"content":"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .","qid":"168","docid":"Peter_Thejll","rank":26,"score":109147},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"168","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":27,"score":108901},{"content":"Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .","qid":"168","docid":"IPCC_First_Assessment_Report","rank":28,"score":108592},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"168","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":29,"score":108585},{"content":"Title: Climarice Content: Climarice is a research project , carried out by The Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research ( Bioforsk , Norway ) , Tamil Nadu Agricultural University ( TNAU , India ) , International Water Management Institute ( IWMI , India ) and International Pacific Research Center ( IPRC , United States ) ; which is trying to assess the impact of climate variability on water availability and rice production in the Cauvery river basin of Tamil Nadu , India . In particular , the impacts of climate change on extreme events such as droughts , floods , heat waves and on the spatial and temporal distribution of the monsoon rains will certainly impact rice production and food security in India . However , there is a significant level of uncertainty in the climate models ' projections that cascade into impact models and thereby influence policy decisions related to adaptation . For both scientific community and policy makers , reducing the uncertainties is a big challenge . On a positive note , examination of historical observed rice production data in India shows an overall increasing trend in many regions with annual fluctuations . Will this trend continue given the projected change in climate and population increase in India ? Climarice is funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , is currently assessing the impacts of climate change on rice production areas and rice productivity . Specifically , the project is assessing the behavior of the Indian monsoon in different climate scenarios , and examining its impact on the water availability , rice crop production and the resultant socio economic vulnerability and adaptation of farming communities in the Cauvery river basin , India . Since the project was started in January 2008 , relevant coping and adaptation mechanisms have been identified and techniques developed to address the issues of climate vulnerabilities in rice production .","qid":"168","docid":"Climarice","rank":30,"score":107910},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":31,"score":107744},{"content":"Title: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium Content: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium is an annual high level international event where top researchers and politicians , senior business executives , representatives of NGOs and other decision makers meet to share experiences and to discuss climate change solutions . The topics are related to the challenges of climate change , other environmental issues , and issues directly connected to the Arctic and the Northern areas which could have major global consequences . Participation is limited to 45 people , by invitation only . The Symposium takes place on Svalbard at 79 degrees north . It is the world 's northernmost permanent settlement and is only 1200 km from the North Pole . The Norwegian Government has transformed this former mining community into a major base for scientific research and environmental monitoring in the Arctic . The base hosts scientists from more than 20 nations and plays an important role in international climate change research . It is owned and operated by the governmental company Kings Bay AS , a coal mining company in earlier days . The scenery is exceptional , with a backdrop of unspoiled Arctic nature . The purpose of the Symposium is to exchange knowledge , improve the understanding and seek solutions of the challenging impacts these issues have both on the Arctic regions and internationally . The Symposium is organized by Kings Bay AS in cooperation with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research , the Ministry of the Environment -RSB- , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , the Ministry of Justice and the Police , and the -LSB- Research Council of Norway -RSB- . Statkraft AS is a co-organizer and sponsor of the Symposium . The secretariat is by CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo . His Royal Highness Crown Prince Haakon of Norway is patron of the Symposium . The first Symposium was arranged in March 2006 . The main themes for the symposia have been : 2006 - The changing Arctic - new opportunities and challenges 2007 - The changing Arctic - global climate change - the need for action 2008 - Global climate change and research challenges 2009 - Climate change : Understanding global politics towards Copenhagen and beyond 2010 - The Changing Arctic and Its Global Implications 2011 - cancelled due to volcanic ash cloud 2012 - Towards a green economy : the role of technology 2013 - The Changing Arctic - Opportunity or Threat 2014 - Breaking the Climate Stalemate","qid":"168","docid":"The_Ny-Ålesund_Symposium","rank":32,"score":107450},{"content":"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''","qid":"168","docid":"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents","rank":33,"score":107250},{"content":"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .","qid":"168","docid":"Ice2sea","rank":34,"score":107004},{"content":"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''","qid":"168","docid":"Duncan_Wingham","rank":35,"score":106880},{"content":"Title: Climatic Research Unit Content: The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .","qid":"168","docid":"Climatic_Research_Unit","rank":36,"score":106119},{"content":"Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .","qid":"168","docid":"Ecological_forecasting","rank":37,"score":105878},{"content":"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .","qid":"168","docid":"Seita_Emori","rank":38,"score":105533},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"168","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":39,"score":105281},{"content":"Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .","qid":"168","docid":"Christopher_Field","rank":40,"score":105237},{"content":"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .","qid":"168","docid":"World_Climate_Research_Programme","rank":41,"score":105197},{"content":"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .","qid":"168","docid":"Fisheries_and_climate_change","rank":42,"score":104858},{"content":"Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .","qid":"168","docid":"Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment","rank":43,"score":104730},{"content":"Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''","qid":"168","docid":"Ian_Clark_(geologist)","rank":44,"score":104702},{"content":"Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .","qid":"168","docid":"Paleoclimatology","rank":45,"score":104392},{"content":"Title: Science On a Sphere Content: Science On a Sphere ( SOS ) is a spherical projection system created by NOAA . It presents high-resolution video on a suspended globe rather than a flat screen , with the aim of better representing global phenomena . Animated images of atmospheric storms , climate change , and ocean temperature can be shown on the sphere to explain these complex environmental processes . SOS systems are most frequently installed in science museums , universities , zoos , and research institutions , although new and novel uses for these systems in a variety of presentation spaces and contexts are starting to emerge . The system has been installed in more than 130 locations worldwide .","qid":"168","docid":"Science_On_a_Sphere","rank":46,"score":104038},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_in_Australia","rank":47,"score":103888},{"content":"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .","qid":"168","docid":"Simon_Tett","rank":48,"score":103742},{"content":"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .","qid":"168","docid":"Peter_Doran","rank":49,"score":103481},{"content":"Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy","qid":"168","docid":"Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists","rank":50,"score":103307},{"content":"Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''","qid":"168","docid":"IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report","rank":51,"score":102823},{"content":"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_feedback","rank":52,"score":102820},{"content":"Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .","qid":"168","docid":"Cloud_formation_and_climate_change","rank":53,"score":102677},{"content":"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''","qid":"168","docid":"Iris_hypothesis","rank":54,"score":102510},{"content":"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .","qid":"168","docid":"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":55,"score":102253},{"content":"Title: James Annan Content: James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .","qid":"168","docid":"James_Annan","rank":56,"score":102253},{"content":"Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .","qid":"168","docid":"John_Christy","rank":57,"score":102218},{"content":"Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .","qid":"168","docid":"List_of_climate_research_satellites","rank":58,"score":101645},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"168","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":59,"score":101362},{"content":"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .","qid":"168","docid":"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)","rank":60,"score":101285},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":61,"score":101179},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_Change_Research_Centre","rank":62,"score":101047},{"content":"Title: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars Content: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines is a 2012 book about climate change by the American climatologist and geophysicist Michael E. Mann . In the book Mann describes how he became a researcher investigating the temperature record of the past 1000 years and was lead author , with Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , on the 1999 reconstruction that was the first to be dubbed the hockey stick graph . He concisely explains the basics of climate science including statistical methodology dealing with paleoclimate proxy data , and examines the tactics which opponents of action on climate change use to distort the science and attack the reputations of climate scientists . The book describes both the hockey stick controversy and the broader context of skepticism in science and contrarians rejecting evidence of human influence on climate . The book was picked by Physics Today books editor Jermey Matthews as one of the five top books of the 49 they had reviewed in 2012 .","qid":"168","docid":"The_Hockey_Stick_and_the_Climate_Wars","rank":63,"score":100655},{"content":"Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .","qid":"168","docid":"Peter_A._Stott","rank":64,"score":100623},{"content":"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .","qid":"168","docid":"Scott_Denning","rank":65,"score":100454},{"content":"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .","qid":"168","docid":"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe","rank":66,"score":100189},{"content":"Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .","qid":"168","docid":"Living_in_the_Hothouse","rank":67,"score":100098},{"content":"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia","rank":68,"score":100080},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"168","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":69,"score":99786},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"168","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":70,"score":99766},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":71,"score":99461},{"content":"Title: RheinBlick2050 Content: RheinBlick2050 is an environmental science research project on the impacts of regional climate change on discharge of the Rhine River and its major tributaries ( here : Moselle and Main rivers ) in Central Europe . The project runtime was from January 2008 until September 2010 , initiated by and coordinated on behalf of the International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin ( CHR ) .","qid":"168","docid":"RheinBlick2050","rank":72,"score":99374},{"content":"Title: Thomas Stocker Content: Thomas Stocker ( born 1959 ) is a Swiss climate scientist . Born in Zürich , Stocker obtained a degree in physics at the ETH Zurich . He was active in research at the University College London , at McGill University in Montreal and at Columbia University in New York . Since 1993 , he is professor and head of the department of Climate and Environmental Physics at the University of Bern . The focus of Stocker 's research is the development of models of climate change based on , among other , the analysis of ice cores from the polar regions . He significantly contributed to creating the `` hockey stick graph '' that shows a growing increase of global mean temperatures in recent times . Since 1998 , he contributes to the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and is co-chairman of the IPCC Working Group I ( assessing scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change ) from 2008 to 2015 . In 1993 , Stocker was awarded the Swiss National Science Foundation 's National Latsis Prize , and 2009 the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and a member of the Academia Europaea and the American Meteorological Society . Stocker is featured in the film Taking Earth 's Temperature : Delving into Climate 's Past . On February 18 , 2015 , the Swiss government announced it would nominate Dr. Stocker as a candidate for the next chair of the IPCC to succeed Dr. Pachauri .","qid":"168","docid":"Thomas_Stocker","rank":73,"score":99320},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"168","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":74,"score":98850},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":75,"score":98643},{"content":"Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .","qid":"168","docid":"Nature_Climate_Change","rank":76,"score":98638},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"168","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":77,"score":98591},{"content":"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .","qid":"168","docid":"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World","rank":78,"score":98502},{"content":"Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .","qid":"168","docid":"The_Chilling_Stars","rank":79,"score":98471},{"content":"Title: Billy Barr (naturalist) Content: Billy Barr is an American amateur scientist known for his collection of over 40 years of data on snow levels , temperatures and animal migration in the Colorado Rocky Mountains . Barr 's data collection is recognized as critical evidence of the effects of climate change .","qid":"168","docid":"Billy_Barr_(naturalist)","rank":80,"score":98266},{"content":"Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .","qid":"168","docid":"John_F._B._Mitchell","rank":81,"score":98001},{"content":"Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .","qid":"168","docid":"Tyndall_Centre","rank":82,"score":97997},{"content":"Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .","qid":"168","docid":"Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment","rank":83,"score":97946},{"content":"Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .","qid":"168","docid":"Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower","rank":84,"score":97927},{"content":"Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .","qid":"168","docid":"Friends_of_Science","rank":85,"score":97725},{"content":"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_in_South_Korea","rank":86,"score":97617},{"content":"Title: U.S. Global Change Research Program Content: The United States Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society . The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 ( P.L. 101-606 ) , which called for `` a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand , assess , predict , and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change . '' Thirteen departments and agencies participate in the USGCRP , which was known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program from 2002 through 2008 . The program is steered by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research under the Committee on Environment , Natural Resources and Sustainability , overseen by the Executive Office of the President , and facilitated by a National Coordination Office . During the past two decades , the United States , through the USGCRP , has made the world 's largest scientific investment in the areas of climate change and global change research . Since its inception , the USGCRP has supported research and observational activities in collaboration with several other national and international science programs . These activities led to major advances in several key areas including : Observing and understanding short - and long-term changes in climate , the ozone layer , and land cover ; Identifying the impacts of these changes on ecosystems and society ; Estimating future changes in the physical environment , and vulnerabilities and risks associated with those changes ; and Providing scientific information to enable effective decision making to address the threats and opportunities posed by climate and global change . These advances have been documented in numerous assessments commissioned by the program and have played prominent roles in international assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Program results and plans are documented in the program 's annual report , Our Changing Planet .","qid":"168","docid":"U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program","rank":87,"score":97595},{"content":"Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .","qid":"168","docid":"Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment","rank":88,"score":97510},{"content":"Title: Jeffrey Kiehl Content: Jeffrey Theodore Kiehl ( born June 10 , 1952 ) is an American climate scientist . He is head of the Climate Change Research Section in the National Center for Atmospheric Research located in Boulder , Colorado . He completed his atmospheric science doctoral studies at the State University of New York , Albany . He was awarded the 2012 Climate Communication Prize from the American Geophysical Union .","qid":"168","docid":"Jeffrey_Kiehl","rank":89,"score":97098},{"content":"Title: Helen Cleugh Content: Helen A. Cleugh is an atmospheric scientist . She is currently the Chief Research Scientist in Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) ( Oceans and Atmosphere ) where she leads the Earth Systems and Climate Change Hub . Cleugh 's research focuses on observing and predicting atmospheric , climate and marine systems and determining how they interact with human activities .","qid":"168","docid":"Helen_Cleugh","rank":90,"score":97077},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"168","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":91,"score":96748},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan","rank":92,"score":96710},{"content":"Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link","qid":"168","docid":"Vicky_Pope","rank":93,"score":96679},{"content":"Title: Kathleen Miller Content: Kathleen A. Miller is a climate scientist who specializes in the economics of climate change and its effects on institutions , management of risk and investment decisions . She has worked as the lead author on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change chapter on North America in the report Climate Change 2001 : Impacts , Adaptations and Vulnerability . She is based at the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado . Miller undertook her doctorate in Economics at the University of Washington in 1985 . Her dissertation was entitled The Right to Use vs. the Right to Sell : Water Rights in the Western United States . It explored the evolution of property institutions governing access to water in the arid western states and modelled the operation and effects of these institutions in the presence of both scarcity and inter-temporal variability in water supplies .","qid":"168","docid":"Kathleen_Miller","rank":94,"score":96660},{"content":"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_change_(general_concept)","rank":95,"score":96522},{"content":"Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .","qid":"168","docid":"Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy","rank":96,"score":96453},{"content":"Title: Thomas Knutson Content: Thomas Knutson is a climate modeller at the US Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory , a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research covers hurricane activity , the link between climate change and hurricane incidence and intensity , and climate change detection and attribution . He served as a contributing author on working group 1 of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He is an Associate Editor of the American Meteorological Society 's Journal of Climate . He has published in Science , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Journal of Geophysical Research , Journal of Climate , Tropical Cyclone Research and Review , Tellus A and the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . In 2004 , Knutson published a paper suggesting that increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide would lead to more intense hurricanes . This finding was subsequently supported by independent research . Knutson was invited to discuss his thesis on Ron Reagan 's MSNBC talk show , but the invitation was withdrawn after the White House intervened . Source : New Scientist Magazine 2007-02-03 , p. 5","qid":"168","docid":"Thomas_Knutson","rank":97,"score":96135},{"content":"Title: Anders Levermann Content: Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .","qid":"168","docid":"Anders_Levermann","rank":98,"score":95969},{"content":"Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .","qid":"168","docid":"I'm_not_a_scientist","rank":99,"score":95792},{"content":"Title: Climate Research (journal) Content: Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .","qid":"168","docid":"Climate_Research_(journal)","rank":100,"score":95750}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 142705\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 140611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 134779\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 134327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 132540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 132124\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 128859\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 126838\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 125543\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 123097\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Science_Program\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 121834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 121204\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 120369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Argentina\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 117918\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 117432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Tundra Experiment Content: The International Tundra Experiment ( ITEX ) is a long-term international collaboration of researchers examining the responses of arctic and alpine plants and ecosystems to climate change . The ITEX network consists of more than 20 sites in polar and alpine locations around the world . Researchers measure plant responses to standardized , small-scale passive warming , snow manipulations , and nutrient additions . Researchers use small open-top chambers to passively increase mean air temperature by 1-2oC . The ITEX approach has been validated by tundra responses at the plot level . The network has published meta-analyses on plant phenology , growth , and reproduction , composition and abundance , and carbon flux .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Tundra_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 117184\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 115181\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 114589\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_popular_culture\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 114384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 114046\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 113594\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 112399\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 111932\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement Content: The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Laboratoire_des_sciences_du_climat_et_de_l'environnement\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 111614\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Reasons_for_concern\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 109812\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Thejll\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 109147\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 108901\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_First_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 108592\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 108585\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climarice Content: Climarice is a research project , carried out by The Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research ( Bioforsk , Norway ) , Tamil Nadu Agricultural University ( TNAU , India ) , International Water Management Institute ( IWMI , India ) and International Pacific Research Center ( IPRC , United States ) ; which is trying to assess the impact of climate variability on water availability and rice production in the Cauvery river basin of Tamil Nadu , India . In particular , the impacts of climate change on extreme events such as droughts , floods , heat waves and on the spatial and temporal distribution of the monsoon rains will certainly impact rice production and food security in India . However , there is a significant level of uncertainty in the climate models ' projections that cascade into impact models and thereby influence policy decisions related to adaptation . For both scientific community and policy makers , reducing the uncertainties is a big challenge . On a positive note , examination of historical observed rice production data in India shows an overall increasing trend in many regions with annual fluctuations . Will this trend continue given the projected change in climate and population increase in India ? Climarice is funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , is currently assessing the impacts of climate change on rice production areas and rice productivity . Specifically , the project is assessing the behavior of the Indian monsoon in different climate scenarios , and examining its impact on the water availability , rice crop production and the resultant socio economic vulnerability and adaptation of farming communities in the Cauvery river basin , India . Since the project was started in January 2008 , relevant coping and adaptation mechanisms have been identified and techniques developed to address the issues of climate vulnerabilities in rice production .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climarice\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 107910\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 107744\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium Content: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium is an annual high level international event where top researchers and politicians , senior business executives , representatives of NGOs and other decision makers meet to share experiences and to discuss climate change solutions . The topics are related to the challenges of climate change , other environmental issues , and issues directly connected to the Arctic and the Northern areas which could have major global consequences . Participation is limited to 45 people , by invitation only . The Symposium takes place on Svalbard at 79 degrees north . It is the world 's northernmost permanent settlement and is only 1200 km from the North Pole . The Norwegian Government has transformed this former mining community into a major base for scientific research and environmental monitoring in the Arctic . The base hosts scientists from more than 20 nations and plays an important role in international climate change research . It is owned and operated by the governmental company Kings Bay AS , a coal mining company in earlier days . The scenery is exceptional , with a backdrop of unspoiled Arctic nature . The purpose of the Symposium is to exchange knowledge , improve the understanding and seek solutions of the challenging impacts these issues have both on the Arctic regions and internationally . The Symposium is organized by Kings Bay AS in cooperation with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research , the Ministry of the Environment -RSB- , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , the Ministry of Justice and the Police , and the -LSB- Research Council of Norway -RSB- . Statkraft AS is a co-organizer and sponsor of the Symposium . The secretariat is by CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo . His Royal Highness Crown Prince Haakon of Norway is patron of the Symposium . The first Symposium was arranged in March 2006 . The main themes for the symposia have been : 2006 - The changing Arctic - new opportunities and challenges 2007 - The changing Arctic - global climate change - the need for action 2008 - Global climate change and research challenges 2009 - Climate change : Understanding global politics towards Copenhagen and beyond 2010 - The Changing Arctic and Its Global Implications 2011 - cancelled due to volcanic ash cloud 2012 - Towards a green economy : the role of technology 2013 - The Changing Arctic - Opportunity or Threat 2014 - Breaking the Climate Stalemate\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Ny-Ålesund_Symposium\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 107450\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 107250\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice2sea\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 107004\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Duncan_Wingham\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 106880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Research Unit Content: The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Research_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 106119\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Ecological_forecasting\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 105878\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Seita_Emori\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 105533\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 105281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Christopher_Field\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 105237\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Research_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 105197\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Fisheries_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 104858\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 104730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Ian_Clark_(geologist)\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 104702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoclimatology\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 104392\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Science On a Sphere Content: Science On a Sphere ( SOS ) is a spherical projection system created by NOAA . It presents high-resolution video on a suspended globe rather than a flat screen , with the aim of better representing global phenomena . Animated images of atmospheric storms , climate change , and ocean temperature can be shown on the sphere to explain these complex environmental processes . SOS systems are most frequently installed in science museums , universities , zoos , and research institutions , although new and novel uses for these systems in a variety of presentation spaces and contexts are starting to emerge . The system has been installed in more than 130 locations worldwide .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Science_On_a_Sphere\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 104038\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 103888\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Simon_Tett\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 103742\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Doran\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 103481\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 103307\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 102823\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_feedback\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 102820\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Cloud_formation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 102677\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Iris_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 102510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 102253\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Annan Content: James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Annan\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 102253\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Christy\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 102218\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_climate_research_satellites\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 101645\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 101362\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 101285\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 101179\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Research_Centre\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 101047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars Content: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines is a 2012 book about climate change by the American climatologist and geophysicist Michael E. Mann . In the book Mann describes how he became a researcher investigating the temperature record of the past 1000 years and was lead author , with Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , on the 1999 reconstruction that was the first to be dubbed the hockey stick graph . He concisely explains the basics of climate science including statistical methodology dealing with paleoclimate proxy data , and examines the tactics which opponents of action on climate change use to distort the science and attack the reputations of climate scientists . The book describes both the hockey stick controversy and the broader context of skepticism in science and contrarians rejecting evidence of human influence on climate . The book was picked by Physics Today books editor Jermey Matthews as one of the five top books of the 49 they had reviewed in 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Hockey_Stick_and_the_Climate_Wars\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 100655\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_A._Stott\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 100623\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Scott_Denning\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 100454\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 100189\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Living_in_the_Hothouse\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 100098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 100080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 99786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 99766\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 99461\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: RheinBlick2050 Content: RheinBlick2050 is an environmental science research project on the impacts of regional climate change on discharge of the Rhine River and its major tributaries ( here : Moselle and Main rivers ) in Central Europe . The project runtime was from January 2008 until September 2010 , initiated by and coordinated on behalf of the International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin ( CHR ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"RheinBlick2050\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 99374\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thomas Stocker Content: Thomas Stocker ( born 1959 ) is a Swiss climate scientist . Born in Zürich , Stocker obtained a degree in physics at the ETH Zurich . He was active in research at the University College London , at McGill University in Montreal and at Columbia University in New York . Since 1993 , he is professor and head of the department of Climate and Environmental Physics at the University of Bern . The focus of Stocker 's research is the development of models of climate change based on , among other , the analysis of ice cores from the polar regions . He significantly contributed to creating the `` hockey stick graph '' that shows a growing increase of global mean temperatures in recent times . Since 1998 , he contributes to the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and is co-chairman of the IPCC Working Group I ( assessing scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change ) from 2008 to 2015 . In 1993 , Stocker was awarded the Swiss National Science Foundation 's National Latsis Prize , and 2009 the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and a member of the Academia Europaea and the American Meteorological Society . Stocker is featured in the film Taking Earth 's Temperature : Delving into Climate 's Past . On February 18 , 2015 , the Swiss government announced it would nominate Dr. Stocker as a candidate for the next chair of the IPCC to succeed Dr. Pachauri .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Thomas_Stocker\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 99320\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 98850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 98643\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Nature_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 98638\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 98591\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 98502\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Chilling_Stars\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 98471\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Billy Barr (naturalist) Content: Billy Barr is an American amateur scientist known for his collection of over 40 years of data on snow levels , temperatures and animal migration in the Colorado Rocky Mountains . Barr 's data collection is recognized as critical evidence of the effects of climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Billy_Barr_(naturalist)\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 98266\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"John_F._B._Mitchell\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 98001\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Tyndall_Centre\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 97997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 97946\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 97927\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Friends_of_Science\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 97725\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 97617\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: U.S. Global Change Research Program Content: The United States Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society . The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 ( P.L. 101-606 ) , which called for `` a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand , assess , predict , and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change . '' Thirteen departments and agencies participate in the USGCRP , which was known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program from 2002 through 2008 . The program is steered by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research under the Committee on Environment , Natural Resources and Sustainability , overseen by the Executive Office of the President , and facilitated by a National Coordination Office . During the past two decades , the United States , through the USGCRP , has made the world 's largest scientific investment in the areas of climate change and global change research . Since its inception , the USGCRP has supported research and observational activities in collaboration with several other national and international science programs . These activities led to major advances in several key areas including : Observing and understanding short - and long-term changes in climate , the ozone layer , and land cover ; Identifying the impacts of these changes on ecosystems and society ; Estimating future changes in the physical environment , and vulnerabilities and risks associated with those changes ; and Providing scientific information to enable effective decision making to address the threats and opportunities posed by climate and global change . These advances have been documented in numerous assessments commissioned by the program and have played prominent roles in international assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Program results and plans are documented in the program 's annual report , Our Changing Planet .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 97595\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 97510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jeffrey Kiehl Content: Jeffrey Theodore Kiehl ( born June 10 , 1952 ) is an American climate scientist . He is head of the Climate Change Research Section in the National Center for Atmospheric Research located in Boulder , Colorado . He completed his atmospheric science doctoral studies at the State University of New York , Albany . He was awarded the 2012 Climate Communication Prize from the American Geophysical Union .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Jeffrey_Kiehl\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 97098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Helen Cleugh Content: Helen A. Cleugh is an atmospheric scientist . She is currently the Chief Research Scientist in Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) ( Oceans and Atmosphere ) where she leads the Earth Systems and Climate Change Hub . Cleugh 's research focuses on observing and predicting atmospheric , climate and marine systems and determining how they interact with human activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Helen_Cleugh\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 97077\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 96748\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 96710\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Vicky_Pope\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 96679\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kathleen Miller Content: Kathleen A. Miller is a climate scientist who specializes in the economics of climate change and its effects on institutions , management of risk and investment decisions . She has worked as the lead author on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change chapter on North America in the report Climate Change 2001 : Impacts , Adaptations and Vulnerability . She is based at the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado . Miller undertook her doctorate in Economics at the University of Washington in 1985 . Her dissertation was entitled The Right to Use vs. the Right to Sell : Water Rights in the Western United States . It explored the evolution of property institutions governing access to water in the arid western states and modelled the operation and effects of these institutions in the presence of both scarcity and inter-temporal variability in water supplies .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Kathleen_Miller\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 96660\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \\\"internal variability\\\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_(general_concept)\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 96522\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 96453\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thomas Knutson Content: Thomas Knutson is a climate modeller at the US Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory , a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research covers hurricane activity , the link between climate change and hurricane incidence and intensity , and climate change detection and attribution . He served as a contributing author on working group 1 of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He is an Associate Editor of the American Meteorological Society 's Journal of Climate . He has published in Science , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Journal of Geophysical Research , Journal of Climate , Tropical Cyclone Research and Review , Tellus A and the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . In 2004 , Knutson published a paper suggesting that increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide would lead to more intense hurricanes . This finding was subsequently supported by independent research . Knutson was invited to discuss his thesis on Ron Reagan 's MSNBC talk show , but the invitation was withdrawn after the White House intervened . Source : New Scientist Magazine 2007-02-03 , p. 5\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Thomas_Knutson\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 96135\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anders Levermann Content: Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Anders_Levermann\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 95969\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"I'm_not_a_scientist\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 95792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Research (journal) Content: Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .\",\n \"qid\": \"168\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Research_(journal)\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 95750\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":80,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"They can now model how likely a specific event would be to occur under historical conditions, compared to the record temperatures we’re experiencing."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Geospatial predictive modeling Content: Geospatial predictive modeling is conceptually rooted in the principle that the occurrences of events being modeled are limited in distribution . Occurrences of events are neither uniform nor random in distribution -- there are spatial environment factors ( infrastructure , sociocultural , topographic , etc. ) that constrain and influence where the locations of events occur . Geospatial predictive modeling attempts to describe those constraints and influences by spatially correlating occurrences of historical geospatial locations with environmental factors that represent those constraints and influences . Geospatial predictive modeling is a process for analyzing events through a geographic filter in order to make statements of likelihood for event occurrence or emergence .","qid":"169","docid":"Geospatial_predictive_modeling","rank":1,"score":100734},{"content":"Title: Historical climatology Content: Historical climatology is the study of historical changes in climate and their effect on human history and development . This differs from paleoclimatology which encompasses climate change over the entire history of Earth . The study seeks to define periods in human history where temperature or precipitation varied from what is observed in the present day . The primary sources include written records such as sagas , chronicles , maps and local history literature as well as pictorial representations such as paintings , drawings and even rock art . The archaeological record is equally important in establishing evidence of settlement , water and land usage .","qid":"169","docid":"Historical_climatology","rank":2,"score":87548},{"content":"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .","qid":"169","docid":"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network","rank":3,"score":85728},{"content":"Title: Predictive modelling Content: Predictive modeling uses statistics to predict outcomes . Most often the event one wants to predict is in the future , but predictive modelling can be applied to any type of unknown event , regardless of when it occurred . For example , predictive models are often used to detect crimes and identify suspects , after the crime has taken place . In many cases the model is chosen on the basis of detection theory to try to guess the probability of an outcome given a set amount of input data , for example given an email determining how likely that it is spam . Models can use one or more classifiers in trying to determine the probability of a set of data belonging to another set , say spam or ` ham ' . Depending on definitional boundaries , predictive modelling is synonymous with , or largely overlapping with , the field of machine learning , as it is more commonly referred to in academic or research and development contexts . When deployed commercially , predictive modelling is often referred to as predictive analytics .","qid":"169","docid":"Predictive_modelling","rank":4,"score":85365},{"content":"Title: Thermal history modelling Content: Thermal history modelling is an exercise undertaken during basin modelling to evaluate the temperature history of stratigraphic layers in a sedimentary basin . The thermal history of a basin is usually calibrated using thermal indicator data , including vitrinite reflectance and fission tracks in the minerals apatite and zircon . The temperatures undergone by rocks in a sedimentary basin are crucial when attempting to evaluate the quantity , nature and volume of hydrocarbons ( fossil fuels ) produced by diagenesis of kerogens ( a group of chemicals formed from the decay of organic matter ) . Fourier 's Law provides a simplified one-dimensional description of the variation in heat flow Q as a function of thermal conductivity k and thermal gradient dT/dz : ( The minus sign indicates that heat flows in the opposite direction to increasing depth , that is , towards the Earth 's surface . ) If the assumptions used to justify this simplified approximation ( i.e. steady-state heat conduction , no convection or advection ) are accepted , we define the simple 1-dimensional heat diffusion equation where temperature T at a depth z and time t is given by the equation : where Tt0 is the surface temperature history , Qt is the heat flow history and k is thermal conductivity . The integral thus represents the integrated thermal conductivity history of a 1-dimensional column of rock . Thermal history modelling attempts to describe the temperature history Tz , t and therefore requires a knowledge of the burial history of the stratigraphic layers which is obtained through the process of back-stripping .","qid":"169","docid":"Thermal_history_modelling","rank":5,"score":83208},{"content":"Title: Debye model Content: In thermodynamics and solid state physics , the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contribution to the specific heat ( heat capacity ) in a solid . It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice ( heat ) as phonons in a box , in contrast to the Einstein model , which treats the solid as many individual , non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators . The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity , which is proportional to -- the Debye T3 law . Just like the Einstein model , it also recovers the Dulong -- Petit law at high temperatures . But due to simplifying assumptions , its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures . See M. Shubin and T. Sunada for a rigorous treatment of the Debye model .","qid":"169","docid":"Debye_model","rank":6,"score":82573},{"content":"Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .","qid":"169","docid":"Instrumental_temperature_record","rank":7,"score":79858},{"content":"Title: List of weather records Content: This is a list of weather records , a list of the most extreme occurrences of weather phenomena for various categories . Many weather records are measured under specific conditions -- such as surface temperature and wind speed -- to keep consistency among measurements around the Earth . Each of these records is understood to be the record value officially observed , as these records may have been exceeded before modern weather instrumentation was invented , or in remote areas without an official weather station . This list does not include remotely sensed observations such as satellite measurements , since those values are not considered official records .","qid":"169","docid":"List_of_weather_records","rank":8,"score":79833},{"content":"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .","qid":"169","docid":"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years","rank":9,"score":78954},{"content":"Title: Event (UML) Content: An event in the Unified Modeling Language ( UML ) is a notable occurrence at a particular point in time . Events can , but do not necessarily , cause state transitions from one state to another in state machines represented by state machine diagrams . A transition between states occurs only when any guard condition for that transition are satisfied . Category : Unified Modeling Language Category : Data modeling","qid":"169","docid":"Event_(UML)","rank":10,"score":77470},{"content":"Title: Predictive analytics Content: Predictive analytics encompasses a variety of statistical techniques from predictive modeling , machine learning , and data mining that analyze current and historical facts to make predictions about future or otherwise unknown events . In business , predictive models exploit patterns found in historical and transactional data to identify risks and opportunities . Models capture relationships among many factors to allow assessment of risk or potential associated with a particular set of conditions , guiding decision making for candidate transactions . The defining functional effect of these technical approaches is that predictive analytics provides a predictive score ( probability ) for each individual ( customer , employee , healthcare patient , product SKU , vehicle , component , machine , or other organizational unit ) in order to determine , inform , or influence organizational processes that pertain across large numbers of individuals , such as in marketing , credit risk assessment , fraud detection , manufacturing , healthcare , and government operations including law enforcement . Predictive analytics is used in actuarial science , marketing , financial services , insurance , telecommunications , retail , travel , mobility , healthcare , child protection , pharmaceuticals , capacity planning and other fields . One of the best-known applications is credit scoring , which is used throughout financial services . Scoring models process a customer 's credit history , loan application , customer data , etc. , in order to rank-order individuals by their likelihood of making future credit payments on time .","qid":"169","docid":"Predictive_analytics","rank":11,"score":76665},{"content":"Title: Event (probability theory) Content: In probability theory , an event is a set of outcomes of an experiment ( a subset of the sample space ) to which a probability is assigned . A single outcome may be an element of many different events , and different events in an experiment are usually not equally likely , since they may include very different groups of outcomes . An event defines a complementary event , namely the complementary set ( the event not occurring ) , and together these define a Bernoulli trial : did the event occur or not ? Typically , when the sample space is finite , any subset of the sample space is an event ( i.e. all elements of the power set of the sample space are defined as events ) . However , this approach does not work well in cases where the sample space is uncountably infinite , most notably when the outcome is a real number . So , when defining a probability space it is possible , and often necessary , to exclude certain subsets of the sample space from being events ( see Events in probability spaces , below ) .","qid":"169","docid":"Event_(probability_theory)","rank":12,"score":75584},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"169","docid":"Climate_change","rank":13,"score":75465},{"content":"Title: Comparative historical research Content: Comparative historical research is a method of social science that examines historical events in order to create explanations that are valid beyond a particular time and place , either by direct comparison to other historical events , theory building , or reference to the present day . Generally , it involves comparisons of social processes across times and places . It overlaps with historical sociology . While the disciplines of history and sociology have always been connected , they have connected in different ways at different times ( see ` Major researchers ' below ) . This form of research may use any of several theoretical orientations . It is distinguished by the types of questions it asks , not the theoretical framework it employs ( see ` Illustrations ' below ) .","qid":"169","docid":"Comparative_historical_research","rank":14,"score":75055},{"content":"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.","qid":"169","docid":"Global_temperature_record","rank":15,"score":74952},{"content":"Title: Bradley–Terry model Content: The Bradley -- Terry model is a probability model that can predict the outcome of a comparison . Given a pair of individuals and drawn from some population , it estimates the probability that the pairwise comparison turns out true , as where is a positive real-valued score assigned to individual . The comparison can be read as '' is preferred to '' , '' ranks higher than '' , or '' beats '' , depending on the application . For example , may represent the skill of a team in a sports tournament , estimated from the number of times has won a match . then represents the probability that will win a match against . Another example used to explain the model 's purpose is that of scoring products in a certain category by quality . While it 's hard for a person to draft a direct ranking of ( many ) brands of wine , it may be feasible to compare a sample of pairs of wines and say , for each pair , which one is better . The Bradley -- Terry model can then be used to derive a full ranking .","qid":"169","docid":"Bradley–Terry_model","rank":16,"score":74664},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"169","docid":"Hockey_stick_graph","rank":17,"score":74587},{"content":"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .","qid":"169","docid":"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years","rank":18,"score":74568},{"content":"Title: Proxy (climate) Content: In the study of past climates ( `` paleoclimatology '' ) , climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth 's history . Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s , and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began . Examples of proxies include ice cores , tree rings , sub-fossil pollen , boreholes , corals , lake and ocean sediments , and carbonate speleothems . The character of deposition or rate of growth of the proxies ' material has been influenced by the climatic conditions of the time in which they were laid down or grew . Chemical traces produced by climatic changes , such as quantities of particular isotopes , can be recovered from proxies . Some proxies , such as gas bubbles trapped in ice , enable traces of the ancient atmosphere to be recovered and measured directly to provide a history of fluctuations in the composition of the Earth 's atmosphere . To produce the most precise results , systematic cross-verification between proxy indicators is necessary for accuracy in readings and record-keeping . Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the instrumental temperature record and can inform discussions of global warming . The distribution of proxy records , just like the instrumental record , is not at all uniform , with more records in the northern hemisphere .","qid":"169","docid":"Proxy_(climate)","rank":19,"score":74196},{"content":"Title: Temperature record Content: For extreme records instead of records as a set of data , see List of weather records The temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time . The most detailed information exists since 1850 , when methodical thermometer-based records began . There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation , particularly during the current Holocene epoch . Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology .","qid":"169","docid":"Temperature_record","rank":20,"score":73743},{"content":"Title: Geologic temperature record Content: The Geologic temperature record are changes in Earth 's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion ( 109 ) year time scales . The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a crucial component of the climate and oceanography of the time .","qid":"169","docid":"Geologic_temperature_record","rank":21,"score":72553},{"content":"Title: Historical astronomy Content: Historical astronomy is the science of analysing historic astronomical data . The American Astronomical Society ( AAS ) , established 1899 , states that its Historical Astronomy Division '' ... shall exist for the purpose of advancing interest in topics relating to the historical nature of astronomy . By historical astronomy we include the history of astronomy ; what has come to be known as archaeoastronomy ; and the application of historical records to modern astrophysical problems . '' Historical and ancient observations are used to track theoretically long term trends , such as eclipse patterns and the velocity of nebular clouds . Conversely , utilizing known and well documented phenomenological activity , historical astronomers and apply computer models to verify the validity of ancient observations , as well as dating such observations and documents which would otherwise be unknown .","qid":"169","docid":"Historical_astronomy","rank":22,"score":72539},{"content":"Title: Predictive state representation Content: In computer science , a predictive state representation ( PSR ) is a way to model a state of controlled dynamical system from a history of actions taken and resulting observations . PSR captures the state of a system as a vector of predictions for future tests ( experiments ) that can be done on the system . A test is a sequence of action-observation pairs and its prediction is the probability of the test 's observation - sequence happening if the test 's action-sequence were to be executed on the system . One of the advantage of using PSR is that the predictions are directly related to observable quantities . This is in contrast to other models of dynamical systems , such as partially observable Markov decision processes ( POMDPs ) where the state of the system is represented as a probability distribution over unobserved nominal states .","qid":"169","docid":"Predictive_state_representation","rank":23,"score":71943},{"content":"Title: Extreme weather Content: Extreme weather includes unexpectable , unusual , unpredictable severe or unseasonal weather ; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution -- the range that has been seen in the past . Often , extreme events are based on a location 's recorded weather history and defined as lying in the most unusual ten percent . In recent years some extreme weather events have been attributed to human-induced global warming , with studies indicating an increasing threat from extreme weather in the future .","qid":"169","docid":"Extreme_weather","rank":24,"score":71255},{"content":"Title: Model output statistics Content: Model Output Statistics ( MOS ) is a multiple linear regression technique in which predicands , often near-surface quantities , such as 2-meter ( AGL ) air temperature , horizontal visibility , and wind direction , speed and gusts , are related statistically to one or more predictors . The predictors are typically forecasts from a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model , climatic data , and , if applicable , recent surface observations . Thus , output from NWP models can be transformed by the MOS technique into sensible weather parameters that are familiar to the `` person on the street '' .","qid":"169","docid":"Model_output_statistics","rank":25,"score":71109},{"content":"Title: ERA-40 Content: ERA-40 is an ECMWF re-analysis of the global atmosphere and surface conditions for 45-years , over the period from September 1957 through August 2002 by ECMWF . Many sources of the meteorological observations were used , including radiosondes , balloons , aircraft , buoyes , satellites , scatterometers . This data was run through the ECMWF computer model at a 125 km resolution . As the ECMWF 's computer model is one of the more highly regarded in the field of forecasting , many scientists take its reanalysis to have similar merit . The data is stored in GRIB format . The reanalysis was done in an effort to improve the accuracy of historical weather maps and aid in a more detailed analysis of various weather systems through a period that was severely lacking in computerized data . With the data from reanalyses such as this , many of the more modern computerized tools for analyzing storm systems can be utilized , at least in part , because of this access to a computerized simulation of the atmospheric state .","qid":"169","docid":"ERA-40","rank":26,"score":71015},{"content":"Title: History of numerical weather prediction Content: The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .","qid":"169","docid":"History_of_numerical_weather_prediction","rank":27,"score":70852},{"content":"Title: Equiprobability Content: Equiprobability is a philosophical concept in probability theory that allows one to assign equal probabilities to outcomes when they are judged to be equipossible or to be `` equally likely '' in some sense . The best-known formulation of the rule is Laplace 's principle of indifference ( or principle of insufficient reason ) , which states that , when `` we have no other information than '' that exactly N mutually exclusive events can occur , we are justified in assigning each the probability 1/N . This subjective assignment of probabilities is especially justified for situations such as rolling dice and lotteries since these experiments carry a symmetry structure , and one 's state of knowledge must clearly be invariant under this symmetry . A similar argument could lead to the seemingly absurd conclusion that the sun is as likely to rise as to not rise tomorrow morning . However , the conclusion that the sun is equally likely to rise as it is to not rise is only absurd when additional information is known , such as the laws of gravity and the sun 's history . Similar applications of the concept are effectively instances of circular reasoning , with `` equally likely '' events being assigned equal probabilities , which means in turn that they are equally likely . Despite this , the notion remains useful in probabilistic and statistical modeling . In Bayesian probability , one needs to establish prior probabilities for the various hypotheses before applying Bayes ' theorem . One procedure is to assume that these prior probabilities have some symmetry which is typical of the experiment , and then assign a prior which is proportional to the Haar measure for the symmetry group : this generalization of equiprobability is known as the principle of transformation groups and leads to misuse of equiprobability as a model for incertitude .","qid":"169","docid":"Equiprobability","rank":28,"score":70820},{"content":"Title: Conditional dependence Content: In probability theory , conditional dependence is a relationship between two or more events that are dependent when a third event occurs . For example , if A and B are two events that individually affect the happening of a third event C , and do not directly affect each other , then initially ( when the event C has not occurred ) ( A and B are independent ) Eventually the event C occurs , and now if event A occurs the probability of occurrence of the event B will decrease ( similarly event B occurring first will decrease the probability of occurrence of A in future ) . Hence , now the two events A and B become conditionally dependent because their probability of occurrence is dependent on either event 's occurrence . Intuitively we can say that since A and B both were probable causes of C , given C has occurred , occurrence of either of A or B alone could explain away the happening of C. In essence probability comes from a person 's information content about occurrence of an event . For example , let the event A be ' I have a new car ' ; event B be ' I have a new watch ' ; and event C be ' I am happy ' . Let us assume that the event C has occurred -- meaning ' I am happy ' . Now if a third person sees my new watch , he/she will attribute this reason to my happiness . Thus in his/her view the probability of the event A ( ' I have a new car ' ) to have been the cause of the event C ( ' I am happy ' ) will decrease as the event C has been explained away by the event B. Conditional dependence is different from conditional independence . In conditional independence two events ( which may be dependent or not ) become independent given the occurrence of a third event .","qid":"169","docid":"Conditional_dependence","rank":29,"score":70728},{"content":"Title: Prognostic chart Content: A prognostic chart is a map displaying the likely weather forecast for a future time . Such charts generated by atmospheric models as output from numerical weather prediction and contain a variety of information such as temperature , wind , precipitation and weather fronts . They can also indicate derived atmospheric fields such as vorticity , stability indices , or frontogenesis . Forecast errors need to be taken into account and can be determined either via absolute error , or by considering persistence and absolute error combined .","qid":"169","docid":"Prognostic_chart","rank":30,"score":70680},{"content":"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .","qid":"169","docid":"David_Parker_(climatologist)","rank":31,"score":70415},{"content":"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .","qid":"169","docid":"Climate_model","rank":32,"score":70066},{"content":"Title: List of historical earthquakes Content: Historical earthquakes is a list of significant earthquakes from before the 20th century . As the events listed here occurred before routine instrumental recordings , they rely mainly on the analysis of written sources . There is often significant uncertainty in location and magnitude and sometimes date for each earthquake . The number of fatalities is also often highly uncertain , particularly for the older events .","qid":"169","docid":"List_of_historical_earthquakes","rank":33,"score":69787},{"content":"Title: Weather Stress Index Content: The Weather Stress Index , or WSI , is a relative measure of the weather conditions , often used as a comfort indicator . The index , a number between 0 and 100 , represents the percentage of time in the past with temperatures below the current temperature , for a given location , day and time . This makes the index a local measure based in past weather conditions . For example , if for a given location , on the 25th of July at 13:00 UTC the WSI is 85 for a temperature of 42 C , this means that the temperature was inferior to 42 ° C in 85 % of the time in the past , on the same place , on the 25th of July at 13:00 UTC ( and superior to 42 ° C in 15 % of the time on the same place , day and hour ) . In other words , the WSI gives the probability of finding a smaller temperature in the local weather history , at a given day and time , than that of the present measurement . Therefore , high values of WSI predict a relative discomfort from excessive heat for local inhabitants .","qid":"169","docid":"Weather_Stress_Index","rank":34,"score":69526},{"content":"Title: Stochastic prediction procedure Content: In probability theory and statistics , a stochastic prediction procedure is based on a Bernoulli space and may be used to make predictions under specific conditions . In contrast to a prediction obtained in traditional science , predictions obtained by means of a stochastic predíction procedure meet a given reliability requirement and are optimal with respect to accuracy . A prediction procedure refers to a random variable X and predicts future events for X depending on the initial conditions or more precisely said on what is known about the initial conditions .","qid":"169","docid":"Stochastic_prediction_procedure","rank":35,"score":69395},{"content":"Title: Geospeedometry Content: Geospeedometry is the science of measuring the timescales and/or temperatures of thermal events in the history of a metamorphic or igneous rock using diffusion profiles of elements within individual minerals . `` Geospeedometry '' refers to the speed , or timescale , of thermal events in geologic materials . The term first appeared in the literature in 1983 ; prior thermochronometric studies focused on diffusion of iron and magnesium in olivine provided the foundation for the field . Geospeedometry has since developed rapidly as further studies have experimentally calibrated the diffusivity of elements in various minerals .","qid":"169","docid":"Geospeedometry","rank":36,"score":69170},{"content":"Title: Pseudoproxy Content: A pseudoproxy is a synthetic dataset used in paleoclimatology to test methods of reconstruction of global or hemispherical climate change from temperature records , developed for reconstructing the temperature record of the past 1000 years using proxies for periods before the instrumental temperature record . In May 2002 Michael E. Mann and Scott Rutherford published a paper introducing this method of adding artificial noise to actual temperature records or to climate model simulations to produce what they called `` pseudoproxies '' . When the reconstruction algorithms were used with these pseudoproxies , the result was then compared with the original record or simulation to see how closely it had been reconstructed . They discussed the issue that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation .","qid":"169","docid":"Pseudoproxy","rank":37,"score":69127},{"content":"Title: Upper and lower probabilities Content: Upper and lower probabilities are representations of imprecise probability . Whereas probability theory uses a single number , the probability , to describe how likely an event is to occur , this method uses two numbers : the upper probability of the event and the lower probability of the event . Because frequentist statistics disallows metaprobabilities , frequentists have had to propose new solutions . Cedric Smith and Arthur Dempster each developed a theory of upper and lower probabilities . Glenn Shafer developed Dempster 's theory further , and it is now known as Dempster -- Shafer theory : see also Choquet ( 1953 ) . More precisely , in the work of these authors one considers in a power set , , a mass function satisfying the conditions In turn , a mass is associated with two non-additive continuous measures called belief and plausibility defined as follows : In the case where is infinite there can be such that there is no associated mass function . See p. 36 of Halpern ( 2003 ) . Probability measures are a special case of belief functions in which the mass function assigns positive mass to singletons of the event space only . A different notion of upper and lower probabilities is obtained by the lower and upper envelopes obtained from a class C of probability distributions by setting The upper and lower probabilities are also related with probabilistic logic : see Gerla ( 1994 ) . Observe also that a necessity measure can be seen as a lower probability and a possibility measure can be seen as an upper probability .","qid":"169","docid":"Upper_and_lower_probabilities","rank":38,"score":69038},{"content":"Title: Schottky anomaly Content: The Schottky anomaly is an effect observed in solid-state physics where the specific heat capacity of a solid at low temperature has a peak . It is called anomalous because the heat capacity usually increases with temperature , or stays constant . It occurs in systems with a limited number of energy levels so that E ( T ) increases with sharp steps , one for each energy level that becomes available . Since Cv = ( dE/dT ) , it will experience a large peak as the temperature crosses over from one step to the next . This effect can be explained by looking at the change in entropy of the system . At zero temperature only the lowest energy level is occupied , entropy is zero , and there is very little probability of a transition to a higher energy level . As the temperature increases , there is an increase in entropy and thus the probability of a transition goes up . As the temperature approaches the difference between the energy levels there is a broad peak in the specific heat corresponding to a large change in entropy for a small change in temperature . At high temperatures all of the levels are populated evenly , so there is again little change in entropy for small changes in temperature , and thus a lower specific heat capacity . For a two level system the specific heat coming from the Schottky anomaly has the form : Where kBΔ is the energy between the two levels . This anomaly is usually seen in paramagnetic salts or even ordinary glass ( due to paramagnetic iron impurities ) at low temperature . At high temperature the paramagnetic spins have many spin states available , but at low temperatures some of the spin states are `` frozen out '' ( having too high energy due to crystal field splitting ) , and the entropy per impurity is lowered . It was named after Walter H. Schottky .","qid":"169","docid":"Schottky_anomaly","rank":39,"score":68937},{"content":"Title: Timeline of meteorology Content: The timeline of meteorology contains events of scientific and technological advancements in the area of atmospheric sciences . The most notable advancements in observational meteorology , weather forecasting , climatology , atmospheric chemistry , and atmospheric physics are listed chronologically . Some historical weather events are included that mark time periods where advancements were made , or even that sparked policy change","qid":"169","docid":"Timeline_of_meteorology","rank":40,"score":68800},{"content":"Title: Historical simulation (finance) Content: Historical simulation in finance 's value at risk ( VaR ) analysis is a procedure for predicting the value at risk by ` simulating ' or constructing the cumulative distribution function ( CDF ) of assets returns over time . Unlike parametric VaR models , historical simulation does not assume a particular distribution of the asset returns . Also , it is relatively easy to implement . However , there are a couple of shortcomings of historical simulation . Historical simulation applies equal weight to all returns of the whole period ; this is inconsistent with the diminishing predictability of data that are further away from the present .","qid":"169","docid":"Historical_simulation_(finance)","rank":41,"score":68779},{"content":"Title: One in ten rule Content: In statistics , the one in ten rule is a rule of thumb for how many predictors can be derived from data when doing regression analysis ( in particular proportional hazards models and logistic regression ) without risk of overfitting . The rule states that one predictive variable can be studied for every ten events . For example , if a sample of 200 patients are studied and 20 patients die during the study , only two pre-specified predictors can reliably be fitted to the total data . Similarly , if 120 patients die during the study ( so that 80 patients survive ) , eight pre-specified predictors ( based on the smallest of the two counts , being 80 ) can be fitted reliably . If more are fitted , overfitting is likely and the results will not predict well outside the training data . It is not uncommon to see the 1:10 rule violated in fields with many variables ( e.g. gene expression studies in cancer ) , decreasing the confidence in reported findings . The one in ten rule is a minimum ; a `` one in 20 rule '' has been suggested , indicating the need for shrinkage of regression coefficients , and a `` one in 50 rule '' for stepwise selection with the default p-value of 5 % . Recent studies , however suggest that the rule may be too conservative and that five to nine events per predictor can be enough , depending on the research question .","qid":"169","docid":"One_in_ten_rule","rank":42,"score":68505},{"content":"Title: Applied history Content: Applied history , also widely known as public history , is `` is the explicit attempt to illuminate current challenges and choices by analyzing historical precedents and analogues . Mainstream historians begin with an event or era and attempt to provide an account of what happened and why . Applied historians begin with a current choice or predicament and analyze the historical record to provide perspective , stimulate imagination , find clues about what is likely to happen , suggest possible interventions , and assess probable consequences . '' Applied history incorporates historical events in a hands-on environment encouraging historical analysis , investigation , museum studies , archival work , historic/heritage preservation , documentaries and firsthand experience . Applied history courses are meant to teach history in a way to engage the pupil . It is taught to have the students question , reason and connect with history . Analysis of every event and reflection is highly encouraged . Students investigate history and dig for a deeper level of meaning behind events in history . Such courses stress the idea of museology or museum studies and heritage . Students learn from museum exhibits and displays and material culture and built heritage in their environment . They often participate in the curatorial process and help in conducting research for the museum . Their own perspective on the historic event is then formed and broadens their ideas for the subject . Students gain hands on experience and may even possibly handle historical documents , enriching their experiences with history . Archival work is the direct source , very different from learning from a textbook because they are interpreting the documents itself . Applied history teaches students to immerse themselves in history . Applied History is a course that makes students take on their own approach to history and analyze history to uncover a deeper meaning . Programs of applied history can be found at universities and even some high schools . The course is meant to teach students and engage them in history . In some college programs that offer applied history , `` Coursework includes expository writing , public speaking , museum administration , archives and manuscript preservation , archival records technology , and related subjects . Graduates may become museum curators , lecturers , administrators of historical sites , popular writers , or enter other careers that keep the public aware of its heritage . ''","qid":"169","docid":"Applied_history","rank":43,"score":68493},{"content":"Title: Meteoropathy Content: Meteoropathy ( from Greek meteora , celestial phenomena , and pathos , feeling , pain , suffering ) is a physical condition , or symptom associated with weather conditions such as humidity , temperature or pressure . Someone subject to meteoropathy is called meteoropathic . Meteoropathy is different from historical conceptions of `` air '' causing diseases and strongly influencing people 's sense of well-being ( see Miasma theory of disease ) . There appear to be significant and measurable correlations between particular atmospherical events ( such as a sudden increase in humidity and temperature ) and the onset of disease ( such as stroke ) . A few researchers found significant effect on mood correlated with the weather , especially with regards to humidity ( a component of weather not always measured ) : `` Humidity , temperature , and hours of sunshine had the greatest effect on mood . High levels of humidity lowered scores on concentration while increasing reports of sleepiness . Rising temperatures lowered anxiety and skepticism mood scores . -LSB- ... -RSB- The number of hours of sunshine was found to predict optimism scores significantly . As the number of hours of sunshine increased , optimism scores also increased . -LSB- ... -RSB- Mood scores on the depression and anxiety scales were not predicted by any weather variable . `` Pleasant weather ( higher temperature or barometric pressure ) was related to higher mood , better memory , and `` broadened '' cognitive style during the spring as time spent outside increased . The same relationships between mood and weather were not observed during other times of year , and indeed hotter weather was associated with lower mood in the summer . ''","qid":"169","docid":"Meteoropathy","rank":44,"score":68474},{"content":"Title: Probability Content: Probability is the measure of the likelihood that an event will occur . Probability is quantified as a number between 0 and 1 , where , loosely speaking , 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty . The higher the probability of an event , the more certain that the event will occur . A simple example is the tossing of a fair ( unbiased ) coin . Since the coin is fair , the two outcomes ( `` heads '' and `` tails '' ) are both equally probable ; the probability of `` heads '' equals the probability of `` tails '' ; and since no other outcomes are possible , the probability of either `` heads '' or `` tails '' is 1/2 ( which could also be written as 0.5 or 50 % ) . These concepts have been given an axiomatic mathematical formalization in probability theory , which is used widely in such areas of study as mathematics , statistics , finance , gambling , science ( in particular physics ) , artificial intelligence/machine learning , computer science , game theory , and philosophy to , for example , draw inferences about the expected frequency of events . Probability theory is also used to describe the underlying mechanics and regularities of complex systems .","qid":"169","docid":"Probability","rank":45,"score":68264},{"content":"Title: Base conditions Content: Base conditions , also known as standard conditions , consist of a specified absolute pressure and temperature . To ensure accuracy , it is important to refer to base conditions when measuring the volume of a sample of liquid or gas . This applies to both static measurement and flow measurement .","qid":"169","docid":"Base_conditions","rank":46,"score":68217},{"content":"Title: List of periods and events in climate history Content: Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes further back in time . Some notable climate events known to paleoclimatology are listed here . The timeline of glaciation covers ice ages specifically , which tend to have their own names for phases , often with different names used for different parts of the world . The names for earlier periods and events come from geology and paleontology . The marine isotope stages ( MIS ) are often used to express dating within the Quaternary .","qid":"169","docid":"List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history","rank":47,"score":67825},{"content":"Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .","qid":"169","docid":"1997–98_El_Niño_event","rank":48,"score":67579},{"content":"Title: Markov model Content: In probability theory , a Markov model is a stochastic model used to model randomly changing systems where it is assumed that future states depend only on the current state not on the events that occurred before it ( that is , it assumes the Markov property ) . Generally , this assumption enables reasoning and computation with the model that would otherwise be intractable . For this reason , in the fields of predictive modelling and probabilistic forecasting , it is desirable for a given model to exhibit the Markov property .","qid":"169","docid":"Markov_model","rank":49,"score":67508},{"content":"Title: Empirical probability Content: The empirical probability , relative frequency , or experimental probability of an event is the ratio of the number of outcomes in which a specified event occurs to the total number of trials , not in a theoretical sample space but in an actual experiment . In a more general sense , empirical probability estimates probabilities from experience and observation . Given an event A in a sample space , the relative frequency of A is the ratio m/n , m being the number of outcomes in which the event A occurs , and n being the total number of outcomes of the experiment . In statistical terms , the empirical probability is an estimate or estimator of a probability . In simple cases , where the result of a trial only determines whether or not the specified event has occurred , modelling using a binomial distribution might be appropriate and then the empirical estimate is the maximum likelihood estimate . It is the Bayesian estimate for the same case if certain assumptions are made for the prior distribution of the probability . If a trial yields more information , the empirical probability can be improved on by adopting further assumptions in the form of a statistical model : if such a model is fitted , it can be used to derive an estimate of the probability of the specified event .","qid":"169","docid":"Empirical_probability","rank":50,"score":67341},{"content":"Title: Historical dynamics Content: Historical dynamics broadly includes the scientific modeling of history . This might also be termed computer modeling of history , historical simulation , or simulation of history - allowing for an extensive range of techniques in simulation and estimation . Historical dynamics does not exist as a separate science , but there are individual efforts such as long range planning , population modeling , economic forecasting , demographics , global modeling , country modeling , regional planning , urban planning and many others in the general categories of computer modeling , planning , forecasting , and simulations . Some examples of `` large '' history where historical dynamics simulations would be helpful include ; global history , large structures , histories of empires , long duration history , philosophy of history , Eurasian history , comparative history , long-range environmental history , world systems theory , non-Western political and economic development , and historical demography .","qid":"169","docid":"Historical_dynamics","rank":51,"score":67151},{"content":"Title: Probability space Content: In probability theory , a probability space or a probability triple is a mathematical construct that models a real-world process ( or `` experiment '' ) consisting of states that occur randomly . A probability space is constructed with a specific kind of situation or experiment in mind . One proposes that each time a situation of that kind arises , the set of possible outcomes is the same and the probabilities are also the same . A probability space consists of three parts : A sample space , , which is the set of all possible outcomes . A set of events , where each event is a set containing zero or more outcomes . The assignment of probabilities to the events ; that is , a function from events to probabilities . An outcome is the result of a single execution of the model . Since individual outcomes might be of little practical use , more complex events are used to characterize groups of outcomes . The collection of all such events is a σ-algebra . Finally , there is a need to specify each event 's likelihood of happening . This is done using the probability measure function , . Once the probability space is established , it is assumed that `` nature '' makes its move and selects a single outcome , , from the sample space . All the events in that contain the selected outcome ( recall that each event is a subset of ) are said to `` have occurred '' . The selection performed by nature is done in such a way that if the experiment were to be repeated an infinite number of times , the relative frequencies of occurrence of each of the events would coincide with the probabilities prescribed by the function . The Russian mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov introduced the notion of probability space , together with other axioms of probability , in the 1930s . Nowadays alternative approaches for axiomatization of probability theory exist ; see `` Algebra of random variables '' , for example . This article is concerned with the mathematics of manipulating probabilities . The article probability interpretations outlines several alternative views of what `` probability '' means and how it should be interpreted . In addition , there have been attempts to construct theories for quantities that are notionally similar to probabilities but do not obey all their rules ; see , for example , Free probability , Fuzzy logic , Possibility theory , Negative probability and Quantum probability .","qid":"169","docid":"Probability_space","rank":52,"score":66807},{"content":"Title: Tropical cyclone forecast model Content: A tropical cyclone forecast model is a computer program that uses meteorological data to forecast aspects of the future state of tropical cyclones . There are three types of models : statistical , dynamical , or combined statistical-dynamic . Dynamical models utilize powerful supercomputers with sophisticated mathematical modeling software and meteorological data to calculate future weather conditions . Statistical models forecast the evolution of a tropical cyclone in a simpler manner , by extrapolating from historical datasets , and thus can be run quickly on platforms such as personal computers . Statistical-dynamical models use aspects of both types of forecasting . Four primary types of forecasts exist for tropical cyclones : track , intensity , storm surge , and rainfall . Dynamical models were not developed until the 1970s and the 1980s , with earlier efforts focused on the storm surge problem . Track models did not show forecast skill when compared to statistical models until the 1980s . Statistical-dynamical models were used from the 1970s into the 1990s . Early models use data from previous model runs while late models produce output after the official hurricane forecast has been sent . The use of consensus , ensemble , and superensemble forecasts lowers errors more than any individual forecast model . Both consensus and superensemble forecasts can use the guidance of global and regional models runs to improve the performance more than any of their respective components . Techniques used at the Joint Typhoon Warning Center indicate that superensemble forecasts are a very powerful tool for track forecasting .","qid":"169","docid":"Tropical_cyclone_forecast_model","rank":53,"score":66759},{"content":"Title: Thermal history of the Earth Content: The thermal history of the Earth is the study of the cooling history of Earth 's interior . It is a sub-field of geophysics . Thermal histories are also computed for the internal cooling of other planetary and stellar bodies . The study of the thermal evolution of Earth 's interior is uncertain and controversial in all aspects , from the interpretation of petrologic observations used to infer the temperature of the interior , to the fluid dynamics responsible for heat loss , to material properties that determine the efficiency of heat transport .","qid":"169","docid":"Thermal_history_of_the_Earth","rank":54,"score":66757},{"content":"Title: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure Content: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure are standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements to be established to allow comparisons to be made between different sets of data . The most used standards are those of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) , although these are not universally accepted standards . Other organizations have established a variety of alternative definitions for their standard reference conditions . In chemistry , IUPAC has changed the definition of standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) in 1982 : Until 1982 , STP was defined as a temperature of 273.15 K ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of exactly 1 atm ( 1.01325 × 105 Pa ) . Since 1982 , STP is defined as a temperature of 273.15 K ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of exactly 105 Pa ( 101.3 kPa , 1 bar ) . STP should not be confused with the standard state commonly used in thermodynamic evaluations of the Gibbs energy of a reaction . NIST uses a temperature of 20 ° C ( 293.15 K , 68 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of 1 atm ( 14.696 psi , 101.325 kPa ) . This standard is also called normal temperature and pressure ( abbreviated as NTP ) . The International Standard Metric Conditions for natural gas and similar fluids are 288.15 K and 101.325 kPa . In industry and commerce , standard conditions for temperature and pressure are often necessary to define the standard reference conditions to express the volumes of gases and liquids and related quantities such as the rate of volumetric flow ( the volumes of gases vary significantly with temperature and pressure ) . However , many technical publications ( books , journals , advertisements for equipment and machinery ) simply state `` standard conditions '' without specifying them , often leading to confusion and errors . Good practice always incorporates the reference conditions of temperature and pressure .","qid":"169","docid":"Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure","rank":55,"score":66264},{"content":"Title: Backtesting Content: Backtesting is a term used in oceanography , meteorology and the financial industry to refer to testing a predictive model using existing historic data . Backtesting is a kind of retrodiction , and a special type of cross-validation applied to time series data .","qid":"169","docid":"Backtesting","rank":56,"score":66260},{"content":"Title: Survival analysis Content: Survival analysis is a branch of statistics for analyzing the expected duration of time until one or more events happen , such as death in biological organisms and failure in mechanical systems . This topic is called reliability theory or reliability analysis in engineering , duration analysis or duration modelling in economics , and event history analysis in sociology . Survival analysis attempts to answer questions such as : what is the proportion of a population which will survive past a certain time ? Of those that survive , at what rate will they die or fail ? Can multiple causes of death or failure be taken into account ? How do particular circumstances or characteristics increase or decrease the probability of survival ? To answer such questions , it is necessary to define `` lifetime '' . In the case of biological survival , death is unambiguous , but for mechanical reliability , failure may not be well-defined , for there may well be mechanical systems in which failure is partial , a matter of degree , or not otherwise localized in time . Even in biological problems , some events ( for example , heart attack or other organ failure ) may have the same ambiguity . The theory outlined below assumes well-defined events at specific times ; other cases may be better treated by models which explicitly account for ambiguous events . More generally , survival analysis involves the modelling of time to event data ; in this context , death or failure is considered an `` event '' in the survival analysis literature -- traditionally only a single event occurs for each subject , after which the organism or mechanism is dead or broken . Recurring event or repeated event models relax that assumption . The study of recurring events is relevant in systems reliability , and in many areas of social sciences and medical research .","qid":"169","docid":"Survival_analysis","rank":57,"score":66200},{"content":"Title: Sailing weather prediction Content: Sailing weather prediction or Sailing weather routing is the art of weather forecasting and routing for adventurers and competitive sailors . Weather forecasting for sailing involves several activities such as weather training and coaching , dissemination of data for use in navigation and route planning software , race modeling which involves historical weather and sea state analysis for yacht and sail design , trip and adventure planning for distance races and record attempts , monitoring for departure and trip weather windows . It involves several type of events such as day races , long-distance races , around-the-world-races , and record attempts . It is routinely used in races such as Volvo Ocean Race , America 's Cup campaigns , and olympic classes regattas .","qid":"169","docid":"Sailing_weather_prediction","rank":58,"score":66190},{"content":"Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .","qid":"169","docid":"Paleoclimatology","rank":59,"score":66152},{"content":"Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .","qid":"169","docid":"Michael_E._Mann","rank":60,"score":66147},{"content":"Title: Lovász local lemma Content: In probability theory , if a large number of events are all independent of one another and each has probability less than 1 , then there is a positive ( possibly small ) probability that none of the events will occur . The Lovász local lemma allows one to relax the independence condition slightly : As long as the events are `` mostly '' independent from one another and are n't individually too likely , then there will still be a positive probability that none of them occurs . It is most commonly used in the probabilistic method , in particular to give existence proofs . There are several different versions of the lemma . The simplest and most frequently used is the symmetric version given below . A weaker version was proved in 1975 by László Lovász and Paul Erdős in the article Problems and results on 3-chromatic hypergraphs and some related questions . For other versions , see .","qid":"169","docid":"Lovász_local_lemma","rank":61,"score":66023},{"content":"Title: Event (relativity) Content: In physics , and in particular relativity , an event is a point in spacetime ( that is , a specific place and time ) and the physical situation or occurrence associated with it . For example , a glass breaking on the floor is an event ; it occurs at a unique place and a unique time . Strictly speaking , the notion of an event is an idealization , in the sense that it specifies a definite time and place , whereas any actual event is bound to have a finite extent , both in time and in space . Upon choosing a frame of reference , one can assign coordinates to the event : three spatial coordinates to describe the location and one time coordinate to specify the moment at which the event occurs . These four coordinates together form a four-vector associated to the event . One of the goals of relativity is to specify the possibility of one event influencing another . This is done by means of the metric tensor , which allows for determining the causal structure of spacetime . The difference ( or interval ) between two events can be classified into spacelike , lightlike and timelike separations . Only if two events are separated by a lightlike or timelike interval can one influence the other .","qid":"169","docid":"Event_(relativity)","rank":62,"score":65834},{"content":"Title: Thermo-hygrograph Content: A thermo-hygrograph or hygrothermograph is a chart recorder that measures and records both temperature and humidity ( or dew point ) . Similar devices that record only one parameter are a thermograph for temperature and hygrograph for humidity . Thermographs where the variations are recorded using photography were described by several scientists as early as 1845 , including Francis Ronalds who was Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory . An updated model of the initial machine was deployed across the national observational network set up by the new UK Met Office in 1867 and coordinated by Kew Observatory . These instruments then saw extended use around the world . An alternative thermograph configuration has a pen that records temperature on a revolving cylinder . The pen is at the end of a lever that is controlled by a bi-metal strip of temperature-sensitive metal which bends as the temperature changes . A human hair bundle can be used for humidity in such machines .","qid":"169","docid":"Thermo-hygrograph","rank":63,"score":65819},{"content":"Title: NRLMSISE-00 Content: NRLMSISE-00 is an empirical , global model of the Earth 's atmosphere from ground to space . It models the temperatures and densities of the atmosphere 's components . A primary use of this model is to aid predictions of satellite orbital decay due to atmospheric drag . This model has also been used by astronomers to calculate the mass of air between telescopes and laser beams in order to assess the impact of laser guide stars on the non-lasing telescopes .","qid":"169","docid":"NRLMSISE-00","rank":64,"score":65655},{"content":"Title: 2007 Western North American heat wave Content: The 2007 western North American heat wave was a record-breaking event that began in late June 2007 . The heat stretched from Mexico to Alberta , Saskatchewan , Manitoba and into northwestern Ontario . The record heat has exacerbated already present record-breaking drought conditions in much of the Western U.S. , allowing fires to grow to record-breaking sizes . The combination of conditions forced major freeway closures , animal and human deaths , evacuations , and destruction of property . Much of eastern North America experienced more average conditions through July 2007 , with little in the way of prolonged heat waves . However , drought remained a problem in some areas of the east , particularly parts of the southeast .","qid":"169","docid":"2007_Western_North_American_heat_wave","rank":65,"score":65650},{"content":"Title: Simulation modeling Content: Simulation modeling is the process of creating and analyzing a digital prototype of a physical model to predict its performance in the real world . Simulation modeling is used to help designers and engineers understand whether , under what conditions , and in which ways a part could fail and what loads it can withstand . Simulation modeling can also help to predict fluid flow and heat transfer patterns . It analyses the approximate working conditions by applying the simulation softwares .","qid":"169","docid":"Simulation_modeling","rank":66,"score":65502},{"content":"Title: Black's equation Content: Black 's Equation is a mathematical model for the mean time to failure ( MTTF ) of a semiconductor circuit due to electromigration : a phenomenon of molecular rearrangement ( movement ) in the solid phase caused by an electromagnetic field . The equation is : is a constant is the current density is a model parameter is the activation energy is Boltzmann 's constant is the absolute temperature in K The model is abstract , not based on a specific physical model , but flexibly describes the failure rate dependence on the temperature , the electrical stress , and the specific technology and materials . More adequately described as descriptive than prescriptive , the values for A , n , and Q are found by fitting the model to experimental data . The model 's value is that it maps experimental data taken at elevated temperature and electrical stress levels in short periods of time to expected component failure rates under actual operating conditions . Experimental data is obtained by running a combination of high temperature operating life ( HTOL ) , electrical , and any other relevant operating environment variables . Predicted semiconductor failure rates of millions or billions of hours should be used with caution because experimental correlation is all but impossible due to the predominance of other failure modes .","qid":"169","docid":"Black's_equation","rank":67,"score":65416},{"content":"Title: Historical Records of Australian Science Content: Historical Records of Australian Science is a bi-annual peer-reviewed academic journal covering the history of science in Australia and the south-west Pacific and published by CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Australian Academy of Science . It was established in 1966 as an irregular publication with the title Records of the Australian Academy of Science , the present name being adopted in 1980 . Since then , the journal has appeared annually and , since 1991 , twice a year . The current Editors-in-Chief are Sara Maroske ( Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne ) and Ian Rae , an Honorary Professorial Fellow at the University of Melbourne .","qid":"169","docid":"Historical_Records_of_Australian_Science","rank":68,"score":65413},{"content":"Title: Cost-loss model Content: The cost-loss model , also called the cost/loss model or the cost-loss decision model , is a model used to understand how the predicted probability of adverse events affects the decision of whether to take a costly precautionary measure to protect oneself against losses from that event . The threshold probability above which it makes sense to take the precautionary measure equals the ratio of the cost of the preventative measure to the loss averted , and this threshold is termed the cost/loss ratio or cost-loss ratio . The model is typically used in the context of using prediction about weather conditions to decide whether to take a precautionary measure or not .","qid":"169","docid":"Cost-loss_model","rank":69,"score":65377},{"content":"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .","qid":"169","docid":"North_Report","rank":70,"score":65364},{"content":"Title: Historical Records Content: Historical Records was an American independent record label , set up in 1965 by Arnold S. Caplin . Historical Records re-issued rare blues , gospel , jazz and country recordings of the 1920s .","qid":"169","docid":"Historical_Records","rank":71,"score":65145},{"content":"Title: Predictive inference Content: Predictive inference is an approach to statistical inference that emphasizes the prediction of future observations based on past observations . Initially , predictive inference was based on observable parameters and it was the main purpose of studying probability , but it fell out of favor in the 20th century due to a new parametric approach pioneered by Bruno de Finetti . The approach modeled phenomena as a physical system observed with error ( e.g. , celestial mechanics ) . De Finetti 's idea of exchangeability -- that future observations should behave like past observations -- came to the attention of the English-speaking world with the 1974 translation from French of his 1937 paper , and has since been propounded by such statisticians as Seymour Geisser .","qid":"169","docid":"Predictive_inference","rank":72,"score":65016},{"content":"Title: 1990 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1990 heat wave in the United Kingdom was a particularly severe heat event with temperatures hitting record highs of 37.1 C on 3 August . The temperature was recorded at Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , and was a full degree Celsius above the previous record , set in 1911 . However , this record was subsequently broken in the 2003 heatwave .","qid":"169","docid":"1990_United_Kingdom_heat_wave","rank":73,"score":64951},{"content":"Title: Historical particularism Content: Historical particularism ( coined by Marvin Harris in 1968 ) is widely considered the first American anthropological school of thought . Closely associated with Franz Boas and the Boasian approach to anthropology , historical particularism rejected the cultural evolutionary model that had dominated anthropology until Boas . It argued that each society is a collective representation of its unique historical past . Boas rejected parallel evolutionism , the idea that all societies are on the same path and have reached their specific level of development the same way all other societies have . Instead , historical particularism showed that societies could reach the same level of cultural development through different paths . Boas suggested that diffusion , trade , corresponding environment , and historical accident may create similar cultural traits . Three traits , as suggested by Boas , are used to explain cultural customs : environmental conditions , psychological factors , and historical connections , history being the most important ( hence the school 's name ) . Critics of historical particularism argue that it is anti theoretical because it does n't seek to make universal theories , applicable to all the world 's cultures . According to the critics , Boas believed that theories would arise spontaneously once enough data was collected , but a more recent work complicates this view ( Lewis 2001 ) . This school of anthropological thought was the first to be uniquely American and Boas ( his school of thought included ) was , arguably , the most influential anthropological thinker in American history .","qid":"169","docid":"Historical_particularism","rank":74,"score":64721},{"content":"Title: Historical determinism Content: Historical determinism is the stance that events are historically predetermined or currently constrained by various forces . Historical determinism can be understood in contrast to its negation , i.e. the rejection of historical determinism . Some political philosophies ( e.g. Early and Stalinist Marxism ) assert a historical materialism of either predetermination or constraint , or both . Used as a pejorative , it is normally meant to designate an overdetermination of present possibilities by historical conditions .","qid":"169","docid":"Historical_determinism","rank":75,"score":64705},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"169","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":76,"score":64690},{"content":"Title: Past Content: The past is a term used to indicate the totality of events that occurred before a given point in time . The past is contrasted with and defined by the present and the future . The concept of the past is derived from the linear fashion in which human observers experience time , and is accessed through memory and recollection . In addition , human beings have recorded the past since the advent of written language . The past is the object of study within such fields as history , memory , flashback , recollection , archaeology , archaeoastronomy , chronology , geology , historical geology , historical linguistics , law , ontology , paleontology , paleobotany , paleoethnobotany , palaeogeography , paleoclimatology , terminology and cosmology .","qid":"169","docid":"Past","rank":77,"score":64613},{"content":"Title: Probabilistic forecasting Content: Probabilistic forecasting summarizes what is known about , or opinions about , future events . In contrast to single-valued forecasts ( such as forecasting that the maximum temperature at given site on a given day will be 23 degrees Celsius , or that the result in a given football match will be a no-score draw ) , probabilistic forecasts assign a probability to each of a number of different outcomes , and the complete set of probabilities represents a probability forecast . Thus , probabilistic forecasting is a type of probabilistic classification . Weather forecasting represents a service in which probability forecasts are sometimes published for public consumption , although it may also be used by weather forecasters as the basis of a simpler type of forecast . For example forecasters may combine their own experience together with computer-generated probability forecasts to construct a forecast of the type `` we expect heavy rainfall '' . Sports betting is another field of application where probabilistic forecasting can play a role . The pre-race odds published for a horse race can be considered to correspond to a summary of bettors ' opinions about the likely outcome of a race , although this needs to be tempered with caution as bookmakers ' profits needs to be taken into account . In sports betting , probability forecasts may not be published as such , but may underlie bookmakers ' activities in setting pay-off rates , etc. .","qid":"169","docid":"Probabilistic_forecasting","rank":78,"score":64456},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"169","docid":"Global_warming","rank":79,"score":64429},{"content":"Title: Prediction in language comprehension Content: Linguistic prediction is a phenomenon in psycholinguistics occurring whenever information about a word or other linguistic unit is activated before that unit is actually encountered . Evidence from eyetracking , event-related potentials , and other experimental methods indicates that in addition to integrating each subsequent word into the context formed by previously encountered words , language users may , under certain conditions , try to predict upcoming words . In particular , prediction seems to occur regularly when the context of a sentence greatly limits the possible words that have not yet been revealed . For instance , a person listening to a sentence like , `` In the summer it is hot , and in the winter it is ... '' would be highly likely to predict the sentence completion `` cold '' in advance of actually hearing it . A form of prediction is also thought to occur in some types of lexical priming , a phenomenon whereby a word becomes easier to process if it is preceded by a related word . Linguistic prediction is an active area of research in psycholinguistics and cognitive neuroscience .","qid":"169","docid":"Prediction_in_language_comprehension","rank":80,"score":64356},{"content":"Title: 1994 North American cold wave Content: The 1994 North American cold wave occurred over the midwestern United States , eastern United States , and southern Canada during January 1994 . Two notable cold air events occurred from January 18-19 and from January 21-22 . There were 67 minimum temperature records set on January 19 . Indiana and Kentucky both set state records on January 19 . The United States experienced its coldest temperature month since February 1934 , although much of the West experienced mild temperatures . Washington and Idaho experienced the second warmest January recorded in the previous 100 years . During the same period , the western United States experienced one of its most damaging earthquakes ever , and the eastern United States experienced a major snowfall that significantly delayed traffic . Over 100 deaths occurred in the United States as a result of the cold wave .","qid":"169","docid":"1994_North_American_cold_wave","rank":81,"score":64260},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"169","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":82,"score":64221},{"content":"Title: Climatology Content: Climatology ( from Greek κλίμα , klima , `` place , zone '' ; and - λογία , - logia ) or climate science is the study of climate , scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time . This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical geography , which is one of the Earth sciences . Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry . Basic knowledge of climate can be used within shorter term weather forecasting using analog techniques such as the El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) , the Madden -- Julian oscillation ( MJO ) , the North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) , the Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) which is also known as the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) , the Northern Pacific ( NP ) Index , the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation ( IPO ) . Climate models are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate . Weather is known as the condition of the atmosphere over a period of time . While Climate has to do with the atmospheric condition over an extended to indefinite period of time .","qid":"169","docid":"Climatology","rank":83,"score":63719},{"content":"Title: Early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave was a heat wave that commenced in late January and led to record-breaking prolonged high temperatures in the region . The heat wave is considered one of the , if not the , most extreme in the region 's history . During the heat wave , fifty separate locations set various records for consecutive , highest daytime and overnight temperatures . The highest temperature recorded during the heat wave was 48.8 ° C in Hopetoun , Victoria , a record for the state . Many locations through the region recorded all-time high temperatures including capital cities Adelaide , which reached its third-highest temperature , 45.7 ° C , and Melbourne , which recorded its highest-ever temperature on record , 46.4 ° C. Both cities broke records for the most consecutive days over 40 ° C , while Mildura , Victoria recorded an all-time record twelve consecutive days over 43 ° C. The exceptional heat wave was caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that settled over the Tasman Sea , with a combination of an intense tropical low located off the North West Australian coast and a monsoon trough over Northern Australia , which produced ideal conditions for hot tropical air to be directed down over southeastern Australia . The heat began in South Australia on 25 January but became more widespread over southeast Australia by 27 January . A weak cool change moved over the southern coastal areas bringing some relief on 30 January , including Melbourne , where the change arrived that evening , dropping temperatures to an average of 30.8 ° C. Higher temperatures returned on the following weekend with Melbourne recording its hottest day since records began in 1855 , 46.4 ° C , also the highest temperature ever recorded in an Australian capital city . The heat wave generated extreme fire conditions during the peak of the 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season , causing many bushfires in the affected region , contributing to the extreme bushfire conditions on 7 February , also known as the Black Saturday bushfires , which claimed 173 lives in Victoria . Ten months after this heat wave , a second struck the same region in November 2009 .","qid":"169","docid":"Early_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave","rank":84,"score":63634},{"content":"Title: First-hitting-time model Content: Events are often triggered when a stochastic or random process first encounters a threshold . The threshold can be a barrier , boundary or specified state of a system . The amount of time required for a stochastic process , starting from some initial state , to encounter a threshold for the first time is referred to variously as a first hitting time . In statistics , first-hitting-time models are a sub-class of survival models . The first hitting time , also called first passage time , of the barrier set with respect to an instance of a stochastic process is the time until the stochastic process first enters . More colloquially , a first passage time in a stochastic system , is the time taken for a state variable to reach a certain value . Understanding this metric allows one to further understand the physical system under observation , and as such has been the topic of research in very diverse fields , from Economics to Ecology . The idea that a first hitting time of a stochastic process might describe the time to occurrence of an event has a long history , starting with an interest in the first passage time of Wiener diffusion processes in economics and then in physics in the early 1900s . Modeling the probability of financial ruin as a first passage time was an early application in the field of insurance . An interest in the mathematical properties of first-hitting-times and statistical models and methods for analysis of survival data appeared steadily between the middle and end of the 20th century .","qid":"169","docid":"First-hitting-time_model","rank":85,"score":63542},{"content":"Title: False positive paradox Content: The false positive paradox is a statistical result where false positive tests are more probable than true positive tests , occurring when the overall population has a low incidence of a condition and the incidence rate is lower than the false positive rate . The probability of a positive test result is determined not only by the accuracy of the test but by the characteristics of the sampled population . When the incidence , the proportion of those who have a given condition , is lower than the test 's false positive rate , even tests that have a very low chance of giving a false positive in an individual case will give more false than true positives overall . So , in a society with very few infected people -- fewer proportionately than the test gives false positives -- there will actually be more who test positive for a disease incorrectly and do n't have it than those who test positive accurately and do . The paradox has surprised many . It is especially counter-intuitive when interpreting a positive result in a test on a low-incidence population after having dealt with positive results drawn from a high-incidence population . If the false positive rate of the test is higher than the proportion of the new population with the condition , then a test administrator whose experience has been drawn from testing in a high-incidence population may conclude from experience that a positive test result usually indicates a positive subject , when in fact a false positive is far more likely to have occurred . Not adjusting to the scarcity of the condition in the new population , and concluding that a positive test result probably indicates a positive subject , even though population incidence is below the false positive rate , is a `` base rate fallacy '' .","qid":"169","docid":"False_positive_paradox","rank":86,"score":63440},{"content":"Title: Bitemporal Modeling Content: Bitemporal Modeling is an information modeling technique designed to handle historical data along two different timelines . This makes it possible to rewind the information to `` as it actually was '' in combination with `` as it was recorded '' at some point in time . In order to be able to do so , information can not be discarded even if it is erroneous . Within , for example , financial reporting it is often desirable to be able to recreate an old report both as it actually looked at the time of creation and as it should have looked given corrections made to the data after its creation . Implementations of Bitemporal Modeling are mostly done using relational databases . As such , Bitemporal Modeling is considered different from Dimensional Modeling and complementary to database normalization . The SQL :2011 standard provides language constructs for working with bitemporal data . However , many of current solutions are still vendor-specific .","qid":"169","docid":"Bitemporal_Modeling","rank":87,"score":63320},{"content":"Title: History Content: History ( from Greek ἱστορία , historia , meaning `` inquiry , knowledge acquired by investigation '' ) is the study of the past as it is described in written documents . Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory . It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory , discovery , collection , organization , presentation , and interpretation of information about these events . Scholars who write about history are called historians . History can also refer to the academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and analyse a sequence of past events , and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them . Historians sometimes debate the nature of history and its usefulness by discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing `` perspective '' on the problems of the present . Stories common to a particular culture , but not supported by external sources ( such as the tales surrounding King Arthur ) , are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends , because they do not show the `` disinterested investigation '' required of the discipline of history . Herodotus , a 5th-century BC Greek historian is considered within the Western tradition to be the `` father of history '' , and , along with his contemporary Thucydides , helped form the foundations for the modern study of human history . Their works continue to be read today , and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing . In Asia , a state chronicle , the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-century BC texts survived . Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today . The modern study of history is wide-ranging , and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation . Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education , and the academic study of history is a major discipline in university studies .","qid":"169","docid":"History","rank":88,"score":63288},{"content":"Title: Anoxic event Content: Oceanic anoxic events or anoxic events ( anoxia conditions ) refer to intervals in the Earth 's past where portions of oceans become depleted in oxygen ( O2 ) at depths over a large geographic area . During some of these events , euxinia , waters that contained hydrogen sulfide , developed . Although anoxic events have not happened for millions of years , the geological record shows that they happened many times in the past . Anoxic events coincided with several mass extinctions and may have contributed to them . These mass extinctions include some that geobiologists use as time markers in biostratigraphic dating . Many geologists believe oceanic anoxic events are strongly linked to slowing of ocean circulation , climatic warming , and elevated levels of greenhouse gases . Researchers have proposed enhanced volcanism ( the release of CO2 ) as the `` central external trigger for euxinia '' .","qid":"169","docid":"Anoxic_event","rank":89,"score":63188},{"content":"Title: Likelihood principle Content: In statistics , the likelihood principle is that , given a statistical model , all of the evidence in a sample relevant to model parameters is contained in the likelihood function . A likelihood function arises from a conditional probability distribution considered as a function of its distributional parameterization argument , conditioned on the data argument . For example , consider a model which gives the probability density function of observable random variable X as a function of a parameter θ . Then for a specific value x of X , the function L ( θ | x ) = P ( X = x | θ ) is a likelihood function of θ : it gives a measure of how `` likely '' any particular value of θ is , if we know that X has the value x. Two likelihood functions are equivalent if one is a scalar multiple of the other . The likelihood principle states that all information from the data relevant to inferences about the value of θ is found in the equivalence class to which the likelihood function belongs . The strong likelihood principle applies this same criterion to cases such as sequential experiments where the sample of data that is available results from applying a stopping rule to the observations earlier in the experiment .","qid":"169","docid":"Likelihood_principle","rank":90,"score":63084},{"content":"Title: Basin modelling Content: Basin modelling is the term broadly applied to a group of geological disciplines that can be used to analyse the formation and evolution of sedimentary basins , often but not exclusively to aid evaluation of potential hydrocarbon reserves . At its most basic , a basin modelling exercise must assess : The burial history of the basin ( see back-stripping ) . The thermal history of the basin ( see thermal history modelling ) . The maturity history of the source rocks . The expulsion , migration and trapping of hydrocarbons . By doing so , valuable inferences can be made about such matters as hydrocarbon generation and timing , maturity of potential source rocks and migration paths of expelled hydrocarbons .","qid":"169","docid":"Basin_modelling","rank":91,"score":63083},{"content":"Title: Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory Content: The Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory , also known as Great Blue Hill Weather Observatory , Blue Hill Weather Observatory , or simply the Blue Hill Observatory , in Milton , Massachusetts is the foremost structure associated with the history of weather observations in the United States . Located atop Great Blue Hill at the junction of Interstate 93 and Route 138 about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Boston , Massachusetts , it is home to the oldest continuous weather record in North America , and was the location of the earliest kite soundings of the atmosphere in North America in the 1890s , as well as the development of the radiosonde in the 1930s . Founded by Abbott Lawrence Rotch in 1884 , the observatory took a leading role in the newly emerging science of meteorology and was the scene of many of the first scientific measurements of upper atmosphere weather conditions , using kites to carry weather instruments aloft . Knowledge of wind velocities , air temperature and relative humidity at various levels came into use as vital elements in weather prediction due to techniques developed at this site . By 1895 the observatory was the source of weather forecasts of remarkable accuracy . On October 8 , 1896 , a record of 8740 feet ( 2,665 m ) was achieved for a weather kite . During the Great New England Hurricane of 1938 , the observatory measured the strongest wind gust ever directly measured and recorded in a hurricane at 186 mph ( 299 km/h ) . The observatory remains active to this day , continuing to add to its data base of weather observations now more than one hundred years old , and stands as a monument to the science of meteorology in the United States . The observatory offers meteorological science programs and is open to the public on weekends .","qid":"169","docid":"Blue_Hill_Meteorological_Observatory","rank":92,"score":63033},{"content":"Title: Stochastic simulation Content: A stochastic simulation is a simulation that traces the evolution of variables that can change stochastically ( randomly ) with certain probabilities . With a stochastic model we create a projection which is based on a set of random values . Outputs are recorded and the projection is repeated with a new set of random values of the variables . These steps are repeated until a sufficient amount of data is gathered . In the end , the distribution of the outputs shows the most probable estimates as well as a frame of expectations regarding what ranges of values the variables are more or less likely to fall in .","qid":"169","docid":"Stochastic_simulation","rank":93,"score":62759},{"content":"Title: Adverse event prediction Content: Adverse event ( or Adverse effect ) prediction is the process of identifying potential adverse events of an investigational drug before they actually occur in a clinical trial . Predicting adverse events accurately represents a significant challenge to both the pharmaceutical industry and academia , the reason being that our existing knowledge of biology , disease mechanisms ( i.e. how a disease affects the healthy state of a human ) and drug design is incomplete and sometimes incorrect . On top of that , the biological complexity and differences between living organisms is such that even if a treatment appears to work in the laboratory it may not work in humans . The occurrence of an adverse event during a clinical trial is a significant event , not only because of the risk to humans but also from a financial point of view for the organization ( usually a pharmaceutical company ) sponsoring the development of the drug in question . As a result a lot of effort is continuously invested in this area and there are a number of approaches to predicting adverse events including cell line assays , animal models and computer based in silico models . In silico models are usually developed by extracting interactions and behaviors of biological systems either from the literature or from experimental data on a specific disease or biological system and integrating this information in some kind of a mathematical model that can be used to understand and predict the behavior of a drug in an organism . Another relatively recent method is based on mining the scientific literature and correlating evidence from seemingly unrelated drugs or medical conditions . If done correctly this type of analysis can offer quite good predictive accuracy and significant lead times which translates to lower cost and development times for new drugs . While in silico methods aim to capture in depth the current knowledge of a biological system or a disease mechanism , they are still subject to the accuracy of that knowledge and may miss information that while seemingly unrelated , could in a multiply interconnected complex biological system prove highly relevant . This gap is addressed by the literature-based discovery approach which does not capture details to the same extent but compensates by offering complete coverage of the available knowledge from all potentially related fields .","qid":"169","docid":"Adverse_event_prediction","rank":94,"score":62715},{"content":"Title: 2014 South-Eastern Australian heatwave Content: The 2014 South-Eastern Australian Heatwave was a prolonged period of time in which highly unseasonal weather was recorded across the south and south-eastern corridor of mainland Australia . The heatwave commenced during early May , and was the longest ever recorded in Australia 's modern history , lasting in some places up to 15 days . Sydney , Melbourne and Adelaide were most hard hit , with temperatures in these areas breaking late Autumn records and causing a distinct lack of precipitation , especially in Sydney , Australia 's most populous city . The cause of this phenomenon was a large blocking High pressure system situated over the Tasman sea , which pushed usual Autumn cold fronts far south of the mainland .","qid":"169","docid":"2014_South-Eastern_Australian_heatwave","rank":95,"score":62636},{"content":"Title: Environmental niche modelling Content: Environmental niche modelling , alternatively known as species distribution modelling , ( ecological ) niche modelling , predictive habitat distribution modelling , and climate envelope modelling refers to the process of using computer algorithms to predict the distribution of species in geographic space on the basis of a mathematical representation of their known distribution in environmental space ( = realized ecological niche ) . The environment is in most cases represented by climate data ( such as temperature , and precipitation ) , but other variables such as soil type , water depth , and land cover can also be used . These models allow for interpolating between a limited number of species occurrence and they are used in several research areas in conservation biology , ecology and evolution . The extent to which such modelled data reflect real-world species distributions will depend on a number of factors , including the nature , complexity , and accuracy of the models used and the quality of the available environmental data layers ; the availability of sufficient and reliable species distribution data as model input ; and the influence of various factors such as barriers to dispersal , geologic history , or biotic interactions , that increase the difference between the realized niche and the fundamental niche . Environmental niche modelling may be considered a part of the discipline of biodiversity informatics .","qid":"169","docid":"Environmental_niche_modelling","rank":96,"score":62598},{"content":"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .","qid":"169","docid":"8.2_kiloyear_event","rank":97,"score":62523},{"content":"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .","qid":"169","docid":"Hockey_stick_controversy","rank":98,"score":62514},{"content":"Title: Paleothermometer Content: A paleothermometer is a methodology for determining past temperatures using a proxy found in a natural record such as a sediment , ice core , tree rings or TEX86 .","qid":"169","docid":"Paleothermometer","rank":99,"score":62391},{"content":"Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .","qid":"169","docid":"General_circulation_model","rank":100,"score":62348}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geospatial predictive modeling Content: Geospatial predictive modeling is conceptually rooted in the principle that the occurrences of events being modeled are limited in distribution . Occurrences of events are neither uniform nor random in distribution -- there are spatial environment factors ( infrastructure , sociocultural , topographic , etc. ) that constrain and influence where the locations of events occur . Geospatial predictive modeling attempts to describe those constraints and influences by spatially correlating occurrences of historical geospatial locations with environmental factors that represent those constraints and influences . Geospatial predictive modeling is a process for analyzing events through a geographic filter in order to make statements of likelihood for event occurrence or emergence .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Geospatial_predictive_modeling\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 100734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical climatology Content: Historical climatology is the study of historical changes in climate and their effect on human history and development . This differs from paleoclimatology which encompasses climate change over the entire history of Earth . The study seeks to define periods in human history where temperature or precipitation varied from what is observed in the present day . The primary sources include written records such as sagas , chronicles , maps and local history literature as well as pictorial representations such as paintings , drawings and even rock art . The archaeological record is equally important in establishing evidence of settlement , water and land usage .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_climatology\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 87548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 85728\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Predictive modelling Content: Predictive modeling uses statistics to predict outcomes . Most often the event one wants to predict is in the future , but predictive modelling can be applied to any type of unknown event , regardless of when it occurred . For example , predictive models are often used to detect crimes and identify suspects , after the crime has taken place . In many cases the model is chosen on the basis of detection theory to try to guess the probability of an outcome given a set amount of input data , for example given an email determining how likely that it is spam . Models can use one or more classifiers in trying to determine the probability of a set of data belonging to another set , say spam or ` ham ' . Depending on definitional boundaries , predictive modelling is synonymous with , or largely overlapping with , the field of machine learning , as it is more commonly referred to in academic or research and development contexts . When deployed commercially , predictive modelling is often referred to as predictive analytics .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Predictive_modelling\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 85365\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal history modelling Content: Thermal history modelling is an exercise undertaken during basin modelling to evaluate the temperature history of stratigraphic layers in a sedimentary basin . The thermal history of a basin is usually calibrated using thermal indicator data , including vitrinite reflectance and fission tracks in the minerals apatite and zircon . The temperatures undergone by rocks in a sedimentary basin are crucial when attempting to evaluate the quantity , nature and volume of hydrocarbons ( fossil fuels ) produced by diagenesis of kerogens ( a group of chemicals formed from the decay of organic matter ) . Fourier 's Law provides a simplified one-dimensional description of the variation in heat flow Q as a function of thermal conductivity k and thermal gradient dT/dz : ( The minus sign indicates that heat flows in the opposite direction to increasing depth , that is , towards the Earth 's surface . ) If the assumptions used to justify this simplified approximation ( i.e. steady-state heat conduction , no convection or advection ) are accepted , we define the simple 1-dimensional heat diffusion equation where temperature T at a depth z and time t is given by the equation : where Tt0 is the surface temperature history , Qt is the heat flow history and k is thermal conductivity . The integral thus represents the integrated thermal conductivity history of a 1-dimensional column of rock . Thermal history modelling attempts to describe the temperature history Tz , t and therefore requires a knowledge of the burial history of the stratigraphic layers which is obtained through the process of back-stripping .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_history_modelling\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 83208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Debye model Content: In thermodynamics and solid state physics , the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contribution to the specific heat ( heat capacity ) in a solid . It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice ( heat ) as phonons in a box , in contrast to the Einstein model , which treats the solid as many individual , non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators . The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity , which is proportional to -- the Debye T3 law . Just like the Einstein model , it also recovers the Dulong -- Petit law at high temperatures . But due to simplifying assumptions , its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures . See M. Shubin and T. Sunada for a rigorous treatment of the Debye model .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Debye_model\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 82573\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Instrumental_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 79858\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of weather records Content: This is a list of weather records , a list of the most extreme occurrences of weather phenomena for various categories . Many weather records are measured under specific conditions -- such as surface temperature and wind speed -- to keep consistency among measurements around the Earth . Each of these records is understood to be the record value officially observed , as these records may have been exceeded before modern weather instrumentation was invented , or in remote areas without an official weather station . This list does not include remotely sensed observations such as satellite measurements , since those values are not considered official records .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_weather_records\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 79833\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 78954\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Event (UML) Content: An event in the Unified Modeling Language ( UML ) is a notable occurrence at a particular point in time . Events can , but do not necessarily , cause state transitions from one state to another in state machines represented by state machine diagrams . A transition between states occurs only when any guard condition for that transition are satisfied . Category : Unified Modeling Language Category : Data modeling\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Event_(UML)\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 77470\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Predictive analytics Content: Predictive analytics encompasses a variety of statistical techniques from predictive modeling , machine learning , and data mining that analyze current and historical facts to make predictions about future or otherwise unknown events . In business , predictive models exploit patterns found in historical and transactional data to identify risks and opportunities . Models capture relationships among many factors to allow assessment of risk or potential associated with a particular set of conditions , guiding decision making for candidate transactions . The defining functional effect of these technical approaches is that predictive analytics provides a predictive score ( probability ) for each individual ( customer , employee , healthcare patient , product SKU , vehicle , component , machine , or other organizational unit ) in order to determine , inform , or influence organizational processes that pertain across large numbers of individuals , such as in marketing , credit risk assessment , fraud detection , manufacturing , healthcare , and government operations including law enforcement . Predictive analytics is used in actuarial science , marketing , financial services , insurance , telecommunications , retail , travel , mobility , healthcare , child protection , pharmaceuticals , capacity planning and other fields . One of the best-known applications is credit scoring , which is used throughout financial services . Scoring models process a customer 's credit history , loan application , customer data , etc. , in order to rank-order individuals by their likelihood of making future credit payments on time .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Predictive_analytics\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 76665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Event (probability theory) Content: In probability theory , an event is a set of outcomes of an experiment ( a subset of the sample space ) to which a probability is assigned . A single outcome may be an element of many different events , and different events in an experiment are usually not equally likely , since they may include very different groups of outcomes . An event defines a complementary event , namely the complementary set ( the event not occurring ) , and together these define a Bernoulli trial : did the event occur or not ? Typically , when the sample space is finite , any subset of the sample space is an event ( i.e. all elements of the power set of the sample space are defined as events ) . However , this approach does not work well in cases where the sample space is uncountably infinite , most notably when the outcome is a real number . So , when defining a probability space it is possible , and often necessary , to exclude certain subsets of the sample space from being events ( see Events in probability spaces , below ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Event_(probability_theory)\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 75584\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 75465\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Comparative historical research Content: Comparative historical research is a method of social science that examines historical events in order to create explanations that are valid beyond a particular time and place , either by direct comparison to other historical events , theory building , or reference to the present day . Generally , it involves comparisons of social processes across times and places . It overlaps with historical sociology . While the disciplines of history and sociology have always been connected , they have connected in different ways at different times ( see ` Major researchers ' below ) . This form of research may use any of several theoretical orientations . It is distinguished by the types of questions it asks , not the theoretical framework it employs ( see ` Illustrations ' below ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Comparative_historical_research\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 75055\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 74952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bradley–Terry model Content: The Bradley -- Terry model is a probability model that can predict the outcome of a comparison . Given a pair of individuals and drawn from some population , it estimates the probability that the pairwise comparison turns out true , as where is a positive real-valued score assigned to individual . The comparison can be read as '' is preferred to '' , '' ranks higher than '' , or '' beats '' , depending on the application . For example , may represent the skill of a team in a sports tournament , estimated from the number of times has won a match . then represents the probability that will win a match against . Another example used to explain the model 's purpose is that of scoring products in a certain category by quality . While it 's hard for a person to draft a direct ranking of ( many ) brands of wine , it may be feasible to compare a sample of pairs of wines and say , for each pair , which one is better . The Bradley -- Terry model can then be used to derive a full ranking .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Bradley–Terry_model\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 74664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_graph\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 74587\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 74568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy (climate) Content: In the study of past climates ( `` paleoclimatology '' ) , climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth 's history . Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s , and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began . Examples of proxies include ice cores , tree rings , sub-fossil pollen , boreholes , corals , lake and ocean sediments , and carbonate speleothems . The character of deposition or rate of growth of the proxies ' material has been influenced by the climatic conditions of the time in which they were laid down or grew . Chemical traces produced by climatic changes , such as quantities of particular isotopes , can be recovered from proxies . Some proxies , such as gas bubbles trapped in ice , enable traces of the ancient atmosphere to be recovered and measured directly to provide a history of fluctuations in the composition of the Earth 's atmosphere . To produce the most precise results , systematic cross-verification between proxy indicators is necessary for accuracy in readings and record-keeping . Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the instrumental temperature record and can inform discussions of global warming . The distribution of proxy records , just like the instrumental record , is not at all uniform , with more records in the northern hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_(climate)\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 74196\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperature record Content: For extreme records instead of records as a set of data , see List of weather records The temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time . The most detailed information exists since 1850 , when methodical thermometer-based records began . There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation , particularly during the current Holocene epoch . Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 73743\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geologic temperature record Content: The Geologic temperature record are changes in Earth 's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion ( 109 ) year time scales . The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a crucial component of the climate and oceanography of the time .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Geologic_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 72553\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical astronomy Content: Historical astronomy is the science of analysing historic astronomical data . The American Astronomical Society ( AAS ) , established 1899 , states that its Historical Astronomy Division '' ... shall exist for the purpose of advancing interest in topics relating to the historical nature of astronomy . By historical astronomy we include the history of astronomy ; what has come to be known as archaeoastronomy ; and the application of historical records to modern astrophysical problems . '' Historical and ancient observations are used to track theoretically long term trends , such as eclipse patterns and the velocity of nebular clouds . Conversely , utilizing known and well documented phenomenological activity , historical astronomers and apply computer models to verify the validity of ancient observations , as well as dating such observations and documents which would otherwise be unknown .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_astronomy\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 72539\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Predictive state representation Content: In computer science , a predictive state representation ( PSR ) is a way to model a state of controlled dynamical system from a history of actions taken and resulting observations . PSR captures the state of a system as a vector of predictions for future tests ( experiments ) that can be done on the system . A test is a sequence of action-observation pairs and its prediction is the probability of the test 's observation - sequence happening if the test 's action-sequence were to be executed on the system . One of the advantage of using PSR is that the predictions are directly related to observable quantities . This is in contrast to other models of dynamical systems , such as partially observable Markov decision processes ( POMDPs ) where the state of the system is represented as a probability distribution over unobserved nominal states .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Predictive_state_representation\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 71943\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extreme weather Content: Extreme weather includes unexpectable , unusual , unpredictable severe or unseasonal weather ; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution -- the range that has been seen in the past . Often , extreme events are based on a location 's recorded weather history and defined as lying in the most unusual ten percent . In recent years some extreme weather events have been attributed to human-induced global warming , with studies indicating an increasing threat from extreme weather in the future .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Extreme_weather\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 71255\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Model output statistics Content: Model Output Statistics ( MOS ) is a multiple linear regression technique in which predicands , often near-surface quantities , such as 2-meter ( AGL ) air temperature , horizontal visibility , and wind direction , speed and gusts , are related statistically to one or more predictors . The predictors are typically forecasts from a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model , climatic data , and , if applicable , recent surface observations . Thus , output from NWP models can be transformed by the MOS technique into sensible weather parameters that are familiar to the `` person on the street '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Model_output_statistics\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 71109\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ERA-40 Content: ERA-40 is an ECMWF re-analysis of the global atmosphere and surface conditions for 45-years , over the period from September 1957 through August 2002 by ECMWF . Many sources of the meteorological observations were used , including radiosondes , balloons , aircraft , buoyes , satellites , scatterometers . This data was run through the ECMWF computer model at a 125 km resolution . As the ECMWF 's computer model is one of the more highly regarded in the field of forecasting , many scientists take its reanalysis to have similar merit . The data is stored in GRIB format . The reanalysis was done in an effort to improve the accuracy of historical weather maps and aid in a more detailed analysis of various weather systems through a period that was severely lacking in computerized data . With the data from reanalyses such as this , many of the more modern computerized tools for analyzing storm systems can be utilized , at least in part , because of this access to a computerized simulation of the atmospheric state .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"ERA-40\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 71015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of numerical weather prediction Content: The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_numerical_weather_prediction\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 70852\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Equiprobability Content: Equiprobability is a philosophical concept in probability theory that allows one to assign equal probabilities to outcomes when they are judged to be equipossible or to be `` equally likely '' in some sense . The best-known formulation of the rule is Laplace 's principle of indifference ( or principle of insufficient reason ) , which states that , when `` we have no other information than '' that exactly N mutually exclusive events can occur , we are justified in assigning each the probability 1/N . This subjective assignment of probabilities is especially justified for situations such as rolling dice and lotteries since these experiments carry a symmetry structure , and one 's state of knowledge must clearly be invariant under this symmetry . A similar argument could lead to the seemingly absurd conclusion that the sun is as likely to rise as to not rise tomorrow morning . However , the conclusion that the sun is equally likely to rise as it is to not rise is only absurd when additional information is known , such as the laws of gravity and the sun 's history . Similar applications of the concept are effectively instances of circular reasoning , with `` equally likely '' events being assigned equal probabilities , which means in turn that they are equally likely . Despite this , the notion remains useful in probabilistic and statistical modeling . In Bayesian probability , one needs to establish prior probabilities for the various hypotheses before applying Bayes ' theorem . One procedure is to assume that these prior probabilities have some symmetry which is typical of the experiment , and then assign a prior which is proportional to the Haar measure for the symmetry group : this generalization of equiprobability is known as the principle of transformation groups and leads to misuse of equiprobability as a model for incertitude .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Equiprobability\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 70820\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Conditional dependence Content: In probability theory , conditional dependence is a relationship between two or more events that are dependent when a third event occurs . For example , if A and B are two events that individually affect the happening of a third event C , and do not directly affect each other , then initially ( when the event C has not occurred ) ( A and B are independent ) Eventually the event C occurs , and now if event A occurs the probability of occurrence of the event B will decrease ( similarly event B occurring first will decrease the probability of occurrence of A in future ) . Hence , now the two events A and B become conditionally dependent because their probability of occurrence is dependent on either event 's occurrence . Intuitively we can say that since A and B both were probable causes of C , given C has occurred , occurrence of either of A or B alone could explain away the happening of C. In essence probability comes from a person 's information content about occurrence of an event . For example , let the event A be ' I have a new car ' ; event B be ' I have a new watch ' ; and event C be ' I am happy ' . Let us assume that the event C has occurred -- meaning ' I am happy ' . Now if a third person sees my new watch , he/she will attribute this reason to my happiness . Thus in his/her view the probability of the event A ( ' I have a new car ' ) to have been the cause of the event C ( ' I am happy ' ) will decrease as the event C has been explained away by the event B. Conditional dependence is different from conditional independence . In conditional independence two events ( which may be dependent or not ) become independent given the occurrence of a third event .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Conditional_dependence\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 70728\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Prognostic chart Content: A prognostic chart is a map displaying the likely weather forecast for a future time . Such charts generated by atmospheric models as output from numerical weather prediction and contain a variety of information such as temperature , wind , precipitation and weather fronts . They can also indicate derived atmospheric fields such as vorticity , stability indices , or frontogenesis . Forecast errors need to be taken into account and can be determined either via absolute error , or by considering persistence and absolute error combined .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Prognostic_chart\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 70680\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Parker_(climatologist)\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 70415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_model\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 70066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of historical earthquakes Content: Historical earthquakes is a list of significant earthquakes from before the 20th century . As the events listed here occurred before routine instrumental recordings , they rely mainly on the analysis of written sources . There is often significant uncertainty in location and magnitude and sometimes date for each earthquake . The number of fatalities is also often highly uncertain , particularly for the older events .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_historical_earthquakes\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 69787\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weather Stress Index Content: The Weather Stress Index , or WSI , is a relative measure of the weather conditions , often used as a comfort indicator . The index , a number between 0 and 100 , represents the percentage of time in the past with temperatures below the current temperature , for a given location , day and time . This makes the index a local measure based in past weather conditions . For example , if for a given location , on the 25th of July at 13:00 UTC the WSI is 85 for a temperature of 42 C , this means that the temperature was inferior to 42 ° C in 85 % of the time in the past , on the same place , on the 25th of July at 13:00 UTC ( and superior to 42 ° C in 15 % of the time on the same place , day and hour ) . In other words , the WSI gives the probability of finding a smaller temperature in the local weather history , at a given day and time , than that of the present measurement . Therefore , high values of WSI predict a relative discomfort from excessive heat for local inhabitants .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Weather_Stress_Index\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 69526\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stochastic prediction procedure Content: In probability theory and statistics , a stochastic prediction procedure is based on a Bernoulli space and may be used to make predictions under specific conditions . In contrast to a prediction obtained in traditional science , predictions obtained by means of a stochastic predíction procedure meet a given reliability requirement and are optimal with respect to accuracy . A prediction procedure refers to a random variable X and predicts future events for X depending on the initial conditions or more precisely said on what is known about the initial conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Stochastic_prediction_procedure\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 69395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geospeedometry Content: Geospeedometry is the science of measuring the timescales and/or temperatures of thermal events in the history of a metamorphic or igneous rock using diffusion profiles of elements within individual minerals . `` Geospeedometry '' refers to the speed , or timescale , of thermal events in geologic materials . The term first appeared in the literature in 1983 ; prior thermochronometric studies focused on diffusion of iron and magnesium in olivine provided the foundation for the field . Geospeedometry has since developed rapidly as further studies have experimentally calibrated the diffusivity of elements in various minerals .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Geospeedometry\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 69170\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pseudoproxy Content: A pseudoproxy is a synthetic dataset used in paleoclimatology to test methods of reconstruction of global or hemispherical climate change from temperature records , developed for reconstructing the temperature record of the past 1000 years using proxies for periods before the instrumental temperature record . In May 2002 Michael E. Mann and Scott Rutherford published a paper introducing this method of adding artificial noise to actual temperature records or to climate model simulations to produce what they called `` pseudoproxies '' . When the reconstruction algorithms were used with these pseudoproxies , the result was then compared with the original record or simulation to see how closely it had been reconstructed . They discussed the issue that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Pseudoproxy\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 69127\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Upper and lower probabilities Content: Upper and lower probabilities are representations of imprecise probability . Whereas probability theory uses a single number , the probability , to describe how likely an event is to occur , this method uses two numbers : the upper probability of the event and the lower probability of the event . Because frequentist statistics disallows metaprobabilities , frequentists have had to propose new solutions . Cedric Smith and Arthur Dempster each developed a theory of upper and lower probabilities . Glenn Shafer developed Dempster 's theory further , and it is now known as Dempster -- Shafer theory : see also Choquet ( 1953 ) . More precisely , in the work of these authors one considers in a power set , , a mass function satisfying the conditions In turn , a mass is associated with two non-additive continuous measures called belief and plausibility defined as follows : In the case where is infinite there can be such that there is no associated mass function . See p. 36 of Halpern ( 2003 ) . Probability measures are a special case of belief functions in which the mass function assigns positive mass to singletons of the event space only . A different notion of upper and lower probabilities is obtained by the lower and upper envelopes obtained from a class C of probability distributions by setting The upper and lower probabilities are also related with probabilistic logic : see Gerla ( 1994 ) . Observe also that a necessity measure can be seen as a lower probability and a possibility measure can be seen as an upper probability .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Upper_and_lower_probabilities\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 69038\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Schottky anomaly Content: The Schottky anomaly is an effect observed in solid-state physics where the specific heat capacity of a solid at low temperature has a peak . It is called anomalous because the heat capacity usually increases with temperature , or stays constant . It occurs in systems with a limited number of energy levels so that E ( T ) increases with sharp steps , one for each energy level that becomes available . Since Cv = ( dE/dT ) , it will experience a large peak as the temperature crosses over from one step to the next . This effect can be explained by looking at the change in entropy of the system . At zero temperature only the lowest energy level is occupied , entropy is zero , and there is very little probability of a transition to a higher energy level . As the temperature increases , there is an increase in entropy and thus the probability of a transition goes up . As the temperature approaches the difference between the energy levels there is a broad peak in the specific heat corresponding to a large change in entropy for a small change in temperature . At high temperatures all of the levels are populated evenly , so there is again little change in entropy for small changes in temperature , and thus a lower specific heat capacity . For a two level system the specific heat coming from the Schottky anomaly has the form : Where kBΔ is the energy between the two levels . This anomaly is usually seen in paramagnetic salts or even ordinary glass ( due to paramagnetic iron impurities ) at low temperature . At high temperature the paramagnetic spins have many spin states available , but at low temperatures some of the spin states are `` frozen out '' ( having too high energy due to crystal field splitting ) , and the entropy per impurity is lowered . It was named after Walter H. Schottky .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Schottky_anomaly\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 68937\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Timeline of meteorology Content: The timeline of meteorology contains events of scientific and technological advancements in the area of atmospheric sciences . The most notable advancements in observational meteorology , weather forecasting , climatology , atmospheric chemistry , and atmospheric physics are listed chronologically . Some historical weather events are included that mark time periods where advancements were made , or even that sparked policy change\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Timeline_of_meteorology\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 68800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical simulation (finance) Content: Historical simulation in finance 's value at risk ( VaR ) analysis is a procedure for predicting the value at risk by ` simulating ' or constructing the cumulative distribution function ( CDF ) of assets returns over time . Unlike parametric VaR models , historical simulation does not assume a particular distribution of the asset returns . Also , it is relatively easy to implement . However , there are a couple of shortcomings of historical simulation . Historical simulation applies equal weight to all returns of the whole period ; this is inconsistent with the diminishing predictability of data that are further away from the present .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_simulation_(finance)\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 68779\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: One in ten rule Content: In statistics , the one in ten rule is a rule of thumb for how many predictors can be derived from data when doing regression analysis ( in particular proportional hazards models and logistic regression ) without risk of overfitting . The rule states that one predictive variable can be studied for every ten events . For example , if a sample of 200 patients are studied and 20 patients die during the study , only two pre-specified predictors can reliably be fitted to the total data . Similarly , if 120 patients die during the study ( so that 80 patients survive ) , eight pre-specified predictors ( based on the smallest of the two counts , being 80 ) can be fitted reliably . If more are fitted , overfitting is likely and the results will not predict well outside the training data . It is not uncommon to see the 1:10 rule violated in fields with many variables ( e.g. gene expression studies in cancer ) , decreasing the confidence in reported findings . The one in ten rule is a minimum ; a `` one in 20 rule '' has been suggested , indicating the need for shrinkage of regression coefficients , and a `` one in 50 rule '' for stepwise selection with the default p-value of 5 % . Recent studies , however suggest that the rule may be too conservative and that five to nine events per predictor can be enough , depending on the research question .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"One_in_ten_rule\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 68505\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Applied history Content: Applied history , also widely known as public history , is `` is the explicit attempt to illuminate current challenges and choices by analyzing historical precedents and analogues . Mainstream historians begin with an event or era and attempt to provide an account of what happened and why . Applied historians begin with a current choice or predicament and analyze the historical record to provide perspective , stimulate imagination , find clues about what is likely to happen , suggest possible interventions , and assess probable consequences . '' Applied history incorporates historical events in a hands-on environment encouraging historical analysis , investigation , museum studies , archival work , historic/heritage preservation , documentaries and firsthand experience . Applied history courses are meant to teach history in a way to engage the pupil . It is taught to have the students question , reason and connect with history . Analysis of every event and reflection is highly encouraged . Students investigate history and dig for a deeper level of meaning behind events in history . Such courses stress the idea of museology or museum studies and heritage . Students learn from museum exhibits and displays and material culture and built heritage in their environment . They often participate in the curatorial process and help in conducting research for the museum . Their own perspective on the historic event is then formed and broadens their ideas for the subject . Students gain hands on experience and may even possibly handle historical documents , enriching their experiences with history . Archival work is the direct source , very different from learning from a textbook because they are interpreting the documents itself . Applied history teaches students to immerse themselves in history . Applied History is a course that makes students take on their own approach to history and analyze history to uncover a deeper meaning . Programs of applied history can be found at universities and even some high schools . The course is meant to teach students and engage them in history . In some college programs that offer applied history , `` Coursework includes expository writing , public speaking , museum administration , archives and manuscript preservation , archival records technology , and related subjects . Graduates may become museum curators , lecturers , administrators of historical sites , popular writers , or enter other careers that keep the public aware of its heritage . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Applied_history\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 68493\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Meteoropathy Content: Meteoropathy ( from Greek meteora , celestial phenomena , and pathos , feeling , pain , suffering ) is a physical condition , or symptom associated with weather conditions such as humidity , temperature or pressure . Someone subject to meteoropathy is called meteoropathic . Meteoropathy is different from historical conceptions of `` air '' causing diseases and strongly influencing people 's sense of well-being ( see Miasma theory of disease ) . There appear to be significant and measurable correlations between particular atmospherical events ( such as a sudden increase in humidity and temperature ) and the onset of disease ( such as stroke ) . A few researchers found significant effect on mood correlated with the weather , especially with regards to humidity ( a component of weather not always measured ) : `` Humidity , temperature , and hours of sunshine had the greatest effect on mood . High levels of humidity lowered scores on concentration while increasing reports of sleepiness . Rising temperatures lowered anxiety and skepticism mood scores . -LSB- ... -RSB- The number of hours of sunshine was found to predict optimism scores significantly . As the number of hours of sunshine increased , optimism scores also increased . -LSB- ... -RSB- Mood scores on the depression and anxiety scales were not predicted by any weather variable . `` Pleasant weather ( higher temperature or barometric pressure ) was related to higher mood , better memory , and `` broadened '' cognitive style during the spring as time spent outside increased . The same relationships between mood and weather were not observed during other times of year , and indeed hotter weather was associated with lower mood in the summer . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Meteoropathy\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 68474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Probability Content: Probability is the measure of the likelihood that an event will occur . Probability is quantified as a number between 0 and 1 , where , loosely speaking , 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty . The higher the probability of an event , the more certain that the event will occur . A simple example is the tossing of a fair ( unbiased ) coin . Since the coin is fair , the two outcomes ( `` heads '' and `` tails '' ) are both equally probable ; the probability of `` heads '' equals the probability of `` tails '' ; and since no other outcomes are possible , the probability of either `` heads '' or `` tails '' is 1/2 ( which could also be written as 0.5 or 50 % ) . These concepts have been given an axiomatic mathematical formalization in probability theory , which is used widely in such areas of study as mathematics , statistics , finance , gambling , science ( in particular physics ) , artificial intelligence/machine learning , computer science , game theory , and philosophy to , for example , draw inferences about the expected frequency of events . Probability theory is also used to describe the underlying mechanics and regularities of complex systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Probability\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 68264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Base conditions Content: Base conditions , also known as standard conditions , consist of a specified absolute pressure and temperature . To ensure accuracy , it is important to refer to base conditions when measuring the volume of a sample of liquid or gas . This applies to both static measurement and flow measurement .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Base_conditions\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 68217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of periods and events in climate history Content: Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes further back in time . Some notable climate events known to paleoclimatology are listed here . The timeline of glaciation covers ice ages specifically , which tend to have their own names for phases , often with different names used for different parts of the world . The names for earlier periods and events come from geology and paleontology . The marine isotope stages ( MIS ) are often used to express dating within the Quaternary .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 67825\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"1997–98_El_Niño_event\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 67579\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Markov model Content: In probability theory , a Markov model is a stochastic model used to model randomly changing systems where it is assumed that future states depend only on the current state not on the events that occurred before it ( that is , it assumes the Markov property ) . Generally , this assumption enables reasoning and computation with the model that would otherwise be intractable . For this reason , in the fields of predictive modelling and probabilistic forecasting , it is desirable for a given model to exhibit the Markov property .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Markov_model\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 67508\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Empirical probability Content: The empirical probability , relative frequency , or experimental probability of an event is the ratio of the number of outcomes in which a specified event occurs to the total number of trials , not in a theoretical sample space but in an actual experiment . In a more general sense , empirical probability estimates probabilities from experience and observation . Given an event A in a sample space , the relative frequency of A is the ratio m/n , m being the number of outcomes in which the event A occurs , and n being the total number of outcomes of the experiment . In statistical terms , the empirical probability is an estimate or estimator of a probability . In simple cases , where the result of a trial only determines whether or not the specified event has occurred , modelling using a binomial distribution might be appropriate and then the empirical estimate is the maximum likelihood estimate . It is the Bayesian estimate for the same case if certain assumptions are made for the prior distribution of the probability . If a trial yields more information , the empirical probability can be improved on by adopting further assumptions in the form of a statistical model : if such a model is fitted , it can be used to derive an estimate of the probability of the specified event .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Empirical_probability\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 67341\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical dynamics Content: Historical dynamics broadly includes the scientific modeling of history . This might also be termed computer modeling of history , historical simulation , or simulation of history - allowing for an extensive range of techniques in simulation and estimation . Historical dynamics does not exist as a separate science , but there are individual efforts such as long range planning , population modeling , economic forecasting , demographics , global modeling , country modeling , regional planning , urban planning and many others in the general categories of computer modeling , planning , forecasting , and simulations . Some examples of `` large '' history where historical dynamics simulations would be helpful include ; global history , large structures , histories of empires , long duration history , philosophy of history , Eurasian history , comparative history , long-range environmental history , world systems theory , non-Western political and economic development , and historical demography .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_dynamics\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 67151\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Probability space Content: In probability theory , a probability space or a probability triple is a mathematical construct that models a real-world process ( or `` experiment '' ) consisting of states that occur randomly . A probability space is constructed with a specific kind of situation or experiment in mind . One proposes that each time a situation of that kind arises , the set of possible outcomes is the same and the probabilities are also the same . A probability space consists of three parts : A sample space , , which is the set of all possible outcomes . A set of events , where each event is a set containing zero or more outcomes . The assignment of probabilities to the events ; that is , a function from events to probabilities . An outcome is the result of a single execution of the model . Since individual outcomes might be of little practical use , more complex events are used to characterize groups of outcomes . The collection of all such events is a σ-algebra . Finally , there is a need to specify each event 's likelihood of happening . This is done using the probability measure function , . Once the probability space is established , it is assumed that `` nature '' makes its move and selects a single outcome , , from the sample space . All the events in that contain the selected outcome ( recall that each event is a subset of ) are said to `` have occurred '' . The selection performed by nature is done in such a way that if the experiment were to be repeated an infinite number of times , the relative frequencies of occurrence of each of the events would coincide with the probabilities prescribed by the function . The Russian mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov introduced the notion of probability space , together with other axioms of probability , in the 1930s . Nowadays alternative approaches for axiomatization of probability theory exist ; see `` Algebra of random variables '' , for example . This article is concerned with the mathematics of manipulating probabilities . The article probability interpretations outlines several alternative views of what `` probability '' means and how it should be interpreted . In addition , there have been attempts to construct theories for quantities that are notionally similar to probabilities but do not obey all their rules ; see , for example , Free probability , Fuzzy logic , Possibility theory , Negative probability and Quantum probability .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Probability_space\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 66807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical cyclone forecast model Content: A tropical cyclone forecast model is a computer program that uses meteorological data to forecast aspects of the future state of tropical cyclones . There are three types of models : statistical , dynamical , or combined statistical-dynamic . Dynamical models utilize powerful supercomputers with sophisticated mathematical modeling software and meteorological data to calculate future weather conditions . Statistical models forecast the evolution of a tropical cyclone in a simpler manner , by extrapolating from historical datasets , and thus can be run quickly on platforms such as personal computers . Statistical-dynamical models use aspects of both types of forecasting . Four primary types of forecasts exist for tropical cyclones : track , intensity , storm surge , and rainfall . Dynamical models were not developed until the 1970s and the 1980s , with earlier efforts focused on the storm surge problem . Track models did not show forecast skill when compared to statistical models until the 1980s . Statistical-dynamical models were used from the 1970s into the 1990s . Early models use data from previous model runs while late models produce output after the official hurricane forecast has been sent . The use of consensus , ensemble , and superensemble forecasts lowers errors more than any individual forecast model . Both consensus and superensemble forecasts can use the guidance of global and regional models runs to improve the performance more than any of their respective components . Techniques used at the Joint Typhoon Warning Center indicate that superensemble forecasts are a very powerful tool for track forecasting .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_cyclone_forecast_model\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 66759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal history of the Earth Content: The thermal history of the Earth is the study of the cooling history of Earth 's interior . It is a sub-field of geophysics . Thermal histories are also computed for the internal cooling of other planetary and stellar bodies . The study of the thermal evolution of Earth 's interior is uncertain and controversial in all aspects , from the interpretation of petrologic observations used to infer the temperature of the interior , to the fluid dynamics responsible for heat loss , to material properties that determine the efficiency of heat transport .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_history_of_the_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 66757\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure Content: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure are standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements to be established to allow comparisons to be made between different sets of data . The most used standards are those of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) , although these are not universally accepted standards . Other organizations have established a variety of alternative definitions for their standard reference conditions . In chemistry , IUPAC has changed the definition of standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) in 1982 : Until 1982 , STP was defined as a temperature of 273.15 K ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of exactly 1 atm ( 1.01325 × 105 Pa ) . Since 1982 , STP is defined as a temperature of 273.15 K ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of exactly 105 Pa ( 101.3 kPa , 1 bar ) . STP should not be confused with the standard state commonly used in thermodynamic evaluations of the Gibbs energy of a reaction . NIST uses a temperature of 20 ° C ( 293.15 K , 68 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of 1 atm ( 14.696 psi , 101.325 kPa ) . This standard is also called normal temperature and pressure ( abbreviated as NTP ) . The International Standard Metric Conditions for natural gas and similar fluids are 288.15 K and 101.325 kPa . In industry and commerce , standard conditions for temperature and pressure are often necessary to define the standard reference conditions to express the volumes of gases and liquids and related quantities such as the rate of volumetric flow ( the volumes of gases vary significantly with temperature and pressure ) . However , many technical publications ( books , journals , advertisements for equipment and machinery ) simply state `` standard conditions '' without specifying them , often leading to confusion and errors . Good practice always incorporates the reference conditions of temperature and pressure .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 66264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Backtesting Content: Backtesting is a term used in oceanography , meteorology and the financial industry to refer to testing a predictive model using existing historic data . Backtesting is a kind of retrodiction , and a special type of cross-validation applied to time series data .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Backtesting\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 66260\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Survival analysis Content: Survival analysis is a branch of statistics for analyzing the expected duration of time until one or more events happen , such as death in biological organisms and failure in mechanical systems . This topic is called reliability theory or reliability analysis in engineering , duration analysis or duration modelling in economics , and event history analysis in sociology . Survival analysis attempts to answer questions such as : what is the proportion of a population which will survive past a certain time ? Of those that survive , at what rate will they die or fail ? Can multiple causes of death or failure be taken into account ? How do particular circumstances or characteristics increase or decrease the probability of survival ? To answer such questions , it is necessary to define `` lifetime '' . In the case of biological survival , death is unambiguous , but for mechanical reliability , failure may not be well-defined , for there may well be mechanical systems in which failure is partial , a matter of degree , or not otherwise localized in time . Even in biological problems , some events ( for example , heart attack or other organ failure ) may have the same ambiguity . The theory outlined below assumes well-defined events at specific times ; other cases may be better treated by models which explicitly account for ambiguous events . More generally , survival analysis involves the modelling of time to event data ; in this context , death or failure is considered an `` event '' in the survival analysis literature -- traditionally only a single event occurs for each subject , after which the organism or mechanism is dead or broken . Recurring event or repeated event models relax that assumption . The study of recurring events is relevant in systems reliability , and in many areas of social sciences and medical research .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Survival_analysis\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 66200\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sailing weather prediction Content: Sailing weather prediction or Sailing weather routing is the art of weather forecasting and routing for adventurers and competitive sailors . Weather forecasting for sailing involves several activities such as weather training and coaching , dissemination of data for use in navigation and route planning software , race modeling which involves historical weather and sea state analysis for yacht and sail design , trip and adventure planning for distance races and record attempts , monitoring for departure and trip weather windows . It involves several type of events such as day races , long-distance races , around-the-world-races , and record attempts . It is routinely used in races such as Volvo Ocean Race , America 's Cup campaigns , and olympic classes regattas .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Sailing_weather_prediction\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 66190\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoclimatology\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 66152\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_E._Mann\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 66147\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lovász local lemma Content: In probability theory , if a large number of events are all independent of one another and each has probability less than 1 , then there is a positive ( possibly small ) probability that none of the events will occur . The Lovász local lemma allows one to relax the independence condition slightly : As long as the events are `` mostly '' independent from one another and are n't individually too likely , then there will still be a positive probability that none of them occurs . It is most commonly used in the probabilistic method , in particular to give existence proofs . There are several different versions of the lemma . The simplest and most frequently used is the symmetric version given below . A weaker version was proved in 1975 by László Lovász and Paul Erdős in the article Problems and results on 3-chromatic hypergraphs and some related questions . For other versions , see .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Lovász_local_lemma\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 66023\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Event (relativity) Content: In physics , and in particular relativity , an event is a point in spacetime ( that is , a specific place and time ) and the physical situation or occurrence associated with it . For example , a glass breaking on the floor is an event ; it occurs at a unique place and a unique time . Strictly speaking , the notion of an event is an idealization , in the sense that it specifies a definite time and place , whereas any actual event is bound to have a finite extent , both in time and in space . Upon choosing a frame of reference , one can assign coordinates to the event : three spatial coordinates to describe the location and one time coordinate to specify the moment at which the event occurs . These four coordinates together form a four-vector associated to the event . One of the goals of relativity is to specify the possibility of one event influencing another . This is done by means of the metric tensor , which allows for determining the causal structure of spacetime . The difference ( or interval ) between two events can be classified into spacelike , lightlike and timelike separations . Only if two events are separated by a lightlike or timelike interval can one influence the other .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Event_(relativity)\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 65834\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermo-hygrograph Content: A thermo-hygrograph or hygrothermograph is a chart recorder that measures and records both temperature and humidity ( or dew point ) . Similar devices that record only one parameter are a thermograph for temperature and hygrograph for humidity . Thermographs where the variations are recorded using photography were described by several scientists as early as 1845 , including Francis Ronalds who was Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory . An updated model of the initial machine was deployed across the national observational network set up by the new UK Met Office in 1867 and coordinated by Kew Observatory . These instruments then saw extended use around the world . An alternative thermograph configuration has a pen that records temperature on a revolving cylinder . The pen is at the end of a lever that is controlled by a bi-metal strip of temperature-sensitive metal which bends as the temperature changes . A human hair bundle can be used for humidity in such machines .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermo-hygrograph\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 65819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NRLMSISE-00 Content: NRLMSISE-00 is an empirical , global model of the Earth 's atmosphere from ground to space . It models the temperatures and densities of the atmosphere 's components . A primary use of this model is to aid predictions of satellite orbital decay due to atmospheric drag . This model has also been used by astronomers to calculate the mass of air between telescopes and laser beams in order to assess the impact of laser guide stars on the non-lasing telescopes .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"NRLMSISE-00\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 65655\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2007 Western North American heat wave Content: The 2007 western North American heat wave was a record-breaking event that began in late June 2007 . The heat stretched from Mexico to Alberta , Saskatchewan , Manitoba and into northwestern Ontario . The record heat has exacerbated already present record-breaking drought conditions in much of the Western U.S. , allowing fires to grow to record-breaking sizes . The combination of conditions forced major freeway closures , animal and human deaths , evacuations , and destruction of property . Much of eastern North America experienced more average conditions through July 2007 , with little in the way of prolonged heat waves . However , drought remained a problem in some areas of the east , particularly parts of the southeast .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"2007_Western_North_American_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 65650\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simulation modeling Content: Simulation modeling is the process of creating and analyzing a digital prototype of a physical model to predict its performance in the real world . Simulation modeling is used to help designers and engineers understand whether , under what conditions , and in which ways a part could fail and what loads it can withstand . Simulation modeling can also help to predict fluid flow and heat transfer patterns . It analyses the approximate working conditions by applying the simulation softwares .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Simulation_modeling\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 65502\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black's equation Content: Black 's Equation is a mathematical model for the mean time to failure ( MTTF ) of a semiconductor circuit due to electromigration : a phenomenon of molecular rearrangement ( movement ) in the solid phase caused by an electromagnetic field . The equation is : is a constant is the current density is a model parameter is the activation energy is Boltzmann 's constant is the absolute temperature in K The model is abstract , not based on a specific physical model , but flexibly describes the failure rate dependence on the temperature , the electrical stress , and the specific technology and materials . More adequately described as descriptive than prescriptive , the values for A , n , and Q are found by fitting the model to experimental data . The model 's value is that it maps experimental data taken at elevated temperature and electrical stress levels in short periods of time to expected component failure rates under actual operating conditions . Experimental data is obtained by running a combination of high temperature operating life ( HTOL ) , electrical , and any other relevant operating environment variables . Predicted semiconductor failure rates of millions or billions of hours should be used with caution because experimental correlation is all but impossible due to the predominance of other failure modes .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Black's_equation\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 65416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical Records of Australian Science Content: Historical Records of Australian Science is a bi-annual peer-reviewed academic journal covering the history of science in Australia and the south-west Pacific and published by CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Australian Academy of Science . It was established in 1966 as an irregular publication with the title Records of the Australian Academy of Science , the present name being adopted in 1980 . Since then , the journal has appeared annually and , since 1991 , twice a year . The current Editors-in-Chief are Sara Maroske ( Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne ) and Ian Rae , an Honorary Professorial Fellow at the University of Melbourne .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_Records_of_Australian_Science\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 65413\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cost-loss model Content: The cost-loss model , also called the cost/loss model or the cost-loss decision model , is a model used to understand how the predicted probability of adverse events affects the decision of whether to take a costly precautionary measure to protect oneself against losses from that event . The threshold probability above which it makes sense to take the precautionary measure equals the ratio of the cost of the preventative measure to the loss averted , and this threshold is termed the cost/loss ratio or cost-loss ratio . The model is typically used in the context of using prediction about weather conditions to decide whether to take a precautionary measure or not .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Cost-loss_model\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 65377\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Report\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 65364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical Records Content: Historical Records was an American independent record label , set up in 1965 by Arnold S. Caplin . Historical Records re-issued rare blues , gospel , jazz and country recordings of the 1920s .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_Records\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 65145\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Predictive inference Content: Predictive inference is an approach to statistical inference that emphasizes the prediction of future observations based on past observations . Initially , predictive inference was based on observable parameters and it was the main purpose of studying probability , but it fell out of favor in the 20th century due to a new parametric approach pioneered by Bruno de Finetti . The approach modeled phenomena as a physical system observed with error ( e.g. , celestial mechanics ) . De Finetti 's idea of exchangeability -- that future observations should behave like past observations -- came to the attention of the English-speaking world with the 1974 translation from French of his 1937 paper , and has since been propounded by such statisticians as Seymour Geisser .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Predictive_inference\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 65016\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1990 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1990 heat wave in the United Kingdom was a particularly severe heat event with temperatures hitting record highs of 37.1 C on 3 August . The temperature was recorded at Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , and was a full degree Celsius above the previous record , set in 1911 . However , this record was subsequently broken in the 2003 heatwave .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"1990_United_Kingdom_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 64951\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical particularism Content: Historical particularism ( coined by Marvin Harris in 1968 ) is widely considered the first American anthropological school of thought . Closely associated with Franz Boas and the Boasian approach to anthropology , historical particularism rejected the cultural evolutionary model that had dominated anthropology until Boas . It argued that each society is a collective representation of its unique historical past . Boas rejected parallel evolutionism , the idea that all societies are on the same path and have reached their specific level of development the same way all other societies have . Instead , historical particularism showed that societies could reach the same level of cultural development through different paths . Boas suggested that diffusion , trade , corresponding environment , and historical accident may create similar cultural traits . Three traits , as suggested by Boas , are used to explain cultural customs : environmental conditions , psychological factors , and historical connections , history being the most important ( hence the school 's name ) . Critics of historical particularism argue that it is anti theoretical because it does n't seek to make universal theories , applicable to all the world 's cultures . According to the critics , Boas believed that theories would arise spontaneously once enough data was collected , but a more recent work complicates this view ( Lewis 2001 ) . This school of anthropological thought was the first to be uniquely American and Boas ( his school of thought included ) was , arguably , the most influential anthropological thinker in American history .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_particularism\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 64721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical determinism Content: Historical determinism is the stance that events are historically predetermined or currently constrained by various forces . Historical determinism can be understood in contrast to its negation , i.e. the rejection of historical determinism . Some political philosophies ( e.g. Early and Stalinist Marxism ) assert a historical materialism of either predetermination or constraint , or both . Used as a pejorative , it is normally meant to designate an overdetermination of present possibilities by historical conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_determinism\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 64705\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 64690\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Past Content: The past is a term used to indicate the totality of events that occurred before a given point in time . The past is contrasted with and defined by the present and the future . The concept of the past is derived from the linear fashion in which human observers experience time , and is accessed through memory and recollection . In addition , human beings have recorded the past since the advent of written language . The past is the object of study within such fields as history , memory , flashback , recollection , archaeology , archaeoastronomy , chronology , geology , historical geology , historical linguistics , law , ontology , paleontology , paleobotany , paleoethnobotany , palaeogeography , paleoclimatology , terminology and cosmology .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Past\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 64613\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Probabilistic forecasting Content: Probabilistic forecasting summarizes what is known about , or opinions about , future events . In contrast to single-valued forecasts ( such as forecasting that the maximum temperature at given site on a given day will be 23 degrees Celsius , or that the result in a given football match will be a no-score draw ) , probabilistic forecasts assign a probability to each of a number of different outcomes , and the complete set of probabilities represents a probability forecast . Thus , probabilistic forecasting is a type of probabilistic classification . Weather forecasting represents a service in which probability forecasts are sometimes published for public consumption , although it may also be used by weather forecasters as the basis of a simpler type of forecast . For example forecasters may combine their own experience together with computer-generated probability forecasts to construct a forecast of the type `` we expect heavy rainfall '' . Sports betting is another field of application where probabilistic forecasting can play a role . The pre-race odds published for a horse race can be considered to correspond to a summary of bettors ' opinions about the likely outcome of a race , although this needs to be tempered with caution as bookmakers ' profits needs to be taken into account . In sports betting , probability forecasts may not be published as such , but may underlie bookmakers ' activities in setting pay-off rates , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Probabilistic_forecasting\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 64456\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 64429\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Prediction in language comprehension Content: Linguistic prediction is a phenomenon in psycholinguistics occurring whenever information about a word or other linguistic unit is activated before that unit is actually encountered . Evidence from eyetracking , event-related potentials , and other experimental methods indicates that in addition to integrating each subsequent word into the context formed by previously encountered words , language users may , under certain conditions , try to predict upcoming words . In particular , prediction seems to occur regularly when the context of a sentence greatly limits the possible words that have not yet been revealed . For instance , a person listening to a sentence like , `` In the summer it is hot , and in the winter it is ... '' would be highly likely to predict the sentence completion `` cold '' in advance of actually hearing it . A form of prediction is also thought to occur in some types of lexical priming , a phenomenon whereby a word becomes easier to process if it is preceded by a related word . Linguistic prediction is an active area of research in psycholinguistics and cognitive neuroscience .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Prediction_in_language_comprehension\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 64356\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1994 North American cold wave Content: The 1994 North American cold wave occurred over the midwestern United States , eastern United States , and southern Canada during January 1994 . Two notable cold air events occurred from January 18-19 and from January 21-22 . There were 67 minimum temperature records set on January 19 . Indiana and Kentucky both set state records on January 19 . The United States experienced its coldest temperature month since February 1934 , although much of the West experienced mild temperatures . Washington and Idaho experienced the second warmest January recorded in the previous 100 years . During the same period , the western United States experienced one of its most damaging earthquakes ever , and the eastern United States experienced a major snowfall that significantly delayed traffic . Over 100 deaths occurred in the United States as a result of the cold wave .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"1994_North_American_cold_wave\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 64260\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 64221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatology Content: Climatology ( from Greek κλίμα , klima , `` place , zone '' ; and - λογία , - logia ) or climate science is the study of climate , scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time . This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical geography , which is one of the Earth sciences . Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry . Basic knowledge of climate can be used within shorter term weather forecasting using analog techniques such as the El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) , the Madden -- Julian oscillation ( MJO ) , the North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) , the Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) which is also known as the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) , the Northern Pacific ( NP ) Index , the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation ( IPO ) . Climate models are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate . Weather is known as the condition of the atmosphere over a period of time . While Climate has to do with the atmospheric condition over an extended to indefinite period of time .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatology\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 63719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave was a heat wave that commenced in late January and led to record-breaking prolonged high temperatures in the region . The heat wave is considered one of the , if not the , most extreme in the region 's history . During the heat wave , fifty separate locations set various records for consecutive , highest daytime and overnight temperatures . The highest temperature recorded during the heat wave was 48.8 ° C in Hopetoun , Victoria , a record for the state . Many locations through the region recorded all-time high temperatures including capital cities Adelaide , which reached its third-highest temperature , 45.7 ° C , and Melbourne , which recorded its highest-ever temperature on record , 46.4 ° C. Both cities broke records for the most consecutive days over 40 ° C , while Mildura , Victoria recorded an all-time record twelve consecutive days over 43 ° C. The exceptional heat wave was caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that settled over the Tasman Sea , with a combination of an intense tropical low located off the North West Australian coast and a monsoon trough over Northern Australia , which produced ideal conditions for hot tropical air to be directed down over southeastern Australia . The heat began in South Australia on 25 January but became more widespread over southeast Australia by 27 January . A weak cool change moved over the southern coastal areas bringing some relief on 30 January , including Melbourne , where the change arrived that evening , dropping temperatures to an average of 30.8 ° C. Higher temperatures returned on the following weekend with Melbourne recording its hottest day since records began in 1855 , 46.4 ° C , also the highest temperature ever recorded in an Australian capital city . The heat wave generated extreme fire conditions during the peak of the 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season , causing many bushfires in the affected region , contributing to the extreme bushfire conditions on 7 February , also known as the Black Saturday bushfires , which claimed 173 lives in Victoria . Ten months after this heat wave , a second struck the same region in November 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Early_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 63634\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: First-hitting-time model Content: Events are often triggered when a stochastic or random process first encounters a threshold . The threshold can be a barrier , boundary or specified state of a system . The amount of time required for a stochastic process , starting from some initial state , to encounter a threshold for the first time is referred to variously as a first hitting time . In statistics , first-hitting-time models are a sub-class of survival models . The first hitting time , also called first passage time , of the barrier set with respect to an instance of a stochastic process is the time until the stochastic process first enters . More colloquially , a first passage time in a stochastic system , is the time taken for a state variable to reach a certain value . Understanding this metric allows one to further understand the physical system under observation , and as such has been the topic of research in very diverse fields , from Economics to Ecology . The idea that a first hitting time of a stochastic process might describe the time to occurrence of an event has a long history , starting with an interest in the first passage time of Wiener diffusion processes in economics and then in physics in the early 1900s . Modeling the probability of financial ruin as a first passage time was an early application in the field of insurance . An interest in the mathematical properties of first-hitting-times and statistical models and methods for analysis of survival data appeared steadily between the middle and end of the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"First-hitting-time_model\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 63542\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: False positive paradox Content: The false positive paradox is a statistical result where false positive tests are more probable than true positive tests , occurring when the overall population has a low incidence of a condition and the incidence rate is lower than the false positive rate . The probability of a positive test result is determined not only by the accuracy of the test but by the characteristics of the sampled population . When the incidence , the proportion of those who have a given condition , is lower than the test 's false positive rate , even tests that have a very low chance of giving a false positive in an individual case will give more false than true positives overall . So , in a society with very few infected people -- fewer proportionately than the test gives false positives -- there will actually be more who test positive for a disease incorrectly and do n't have it than those who test positive accurately and do . The paradox has surprised many . It is especially counter-intuitive when interpreting a positive result in a test on a low-incidence population after having dealt with positive results drawn from a high-incidence population . If the false positive rate of the test is higher than the proportion of the new population with the condition , then a test administrator whose experience has been drawn from testing in a high-incidence population may conclude from experience that a positive test result usually indicates a positive subject , when in fact a false positive is far more likely to have occurred . Not adjusting to the scarcity of the condition in the new population , and concluding that a positive test result probably indicates a positive subject , even though population incidence is below the false positive rate , is a `` base rate fallacy '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"False_positive_paradox\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 63440\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bitemporal Modeling Content: Bitemporal Modeling is an information modeling technique designed to handle historical data along two different timelines . This makes it possible to rewind the information to `` as it actually was '' in combination with `` as it was recorded '' at some point in time . In order to be able to do so , information can not be discarded even if it is erroneous . Within , for example , financial reporting it is often desirable to be able to recreate an old report both as it actually looked at the time of creation and as it should have looked given corrections made to the data after its creation . Implementations of Bitemporal Modeling are mostly done using relational databases . As such , Bitemporal Modeling is considered different from Dimensional Modeling and complementary to database normalization . The SQL :2011 standard provides language constructs for working with bitemporal data . However , many of current solutions are still vendor-specific .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Bitemporal_Modeling\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 63320\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History Content: History ( from Greek ἱστορία , historia , meaning `` inquiry , knowledge acquired by investigation '' ) is the study of the past as it is described in written documents . Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory . It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory , discovery , collection , organization , presentation , and interpretation of information about these events . Scholars who write about history are called historians . History can also refer to the academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and analyse a sequence of past events , and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them . Historians sometimes debate the nature of history and its usefulness by discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing `` perspective '' on the problems of the present . Stories common to a particular culture , but not supported by external sources ( such as the tales surrounding King Arthur ) , are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends , because they do not show the `` disinterested investigation '' required of the discipline of history . Herodotus , a 5th-century BC Greek historian is considered within the Western tradition to be the `` father of history '' , and , along with his contemporary Thucydides , helped form the foundations for the modern study of human history . Their works continue to be read today , and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing . In Asia , a state chronicle , the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-century BC texts survived . Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today . The modern study of history is wide-ranging , and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation . Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education , and the academic study of history is a major discipline in university studies .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"History\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 63288\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anoxic event Content: Oceanic anoxic events or anoxic events ( anoxia conditions ) refer to intervals in the Earth 's past where portions of oceans become depleted in oxygen ( O2 ) at depths over a large geographic area . During some of these events , euxinia , waters that contained hydrogen sulfide , developed . Although anoxic events have not happened for millions of years , the geological record shows that they happened many times in the past . Anoxic events coincided with several mass extinctions and may have contributed to them . These mass extinctions include some that geobiologists use as time markers in biostratigraphic dating . Many geologists believe oceanic anoxic events are strongly linked to slowing of ocean circulation , climatic warming , and elevated levels of greenhouse gases . Researchers have proposed enhanced volcanism ( the release of CO2 ) as the `` central external trigger for euxinia '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Anoxic_event\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 63188\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Likelihood principle Content: In statistics , the likelihood principle is that , given a statistical model , all of the evidence in a sample relevant to model parameters is contained in the likelihood function . A likelihood function arises from a conditional probability distribution considered as a function of its distributional parameterization argument , conditioned on the data argument . For example , consider a model which gives the probability density function of observable random variable X as a function of a parameter θ . Then for a specific value x of X , the function L ( θ | x ) = P ( X = x | θ ) is a likelihood function of θ : it gives a measure of how `` likely '' any particular value of θ is , if we know that X has the value x. Two likelihood functions are equivalent if one is a scalar multiple of the other . The likelihood principle states that all information from the data relevant to inferences about the value of θ is found in the equivalence class to which the likelihood function belongs . The strong likelihood principle applies this same criterion to cases such as sequential experiments where the sample of data that is available results from applying a stopping rule to the observations earlier in the experiment .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Likelihood_principle\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 63084\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Basin modelling Content: Basin modelling is the term broadly applied to a group of geological disciplines that can be used to analyse the formation and evolution of sedimentary basins , often but not exclusively to aid evaluation of potential hydrocarbon reserves . At its most basic , a basin modelling exercise must assess : The burial history of the basin ( see back-stripping ) . The thermal history of the basin ( see thermal history modelling ) . The maturity history of the source rocks . The expulsion , migration and trapping of hydrocarbons . By doing so , valuable inferences can be made about such matters as hydrocarbon generation and timing , maturity of potential source rocks and migration paths of expelled hydrocarbons .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Basin_modelling\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 63083\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory Content: The Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory , also known as Great Blue Hill Weather Observatory , Blue Hill Weather Observatory , or simply the Blue Hill Observatory , in Milton , Massachusetts is the foremost structure associated with the history of weather observations in the United States . Located atop Great Blue Hill at the junction of Interstate 93 and Route 138 about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Boston , Massachusetts , it is home to the oldest continuous weather record in North America , and was the location of the earliest kite soundings of the atmosphere in North America in the 1890s , as well as the development of the radiosonde in the 1930s . Founded by Abbott Lawrence Rotch in 1884 , the observatory took a leading role in the newly emerging science of meteorology and was the scene of many of the first scientific measurements of upper atmosphere weather conditions , using kites to carry weather instruments aloft . Knowledge of wind velocities , air temperature and relative humidity at various levels came into use as vital elements in weather prediction due to techniques developed at this site . By 1895 the observatory was the source of weather forecasts of remarkable accuracy . On October 8 , 1896 , a record of 8740 feet ( 2,665 m ) was achieved for a weather kite . During the Great New England Hurricane of 1938 , the observatory measured the strongest wind gust ever directly measured and recorded in a hurricane at 186 mph ( 299 km/h ) . The observatory remains active to this day , continuing to add to its data base of weather observations now more than one hundred years old , and stands as a monument to the science of meteorology in the United States . The observatory offers meteorological science programs and is open to the public on weekends .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Blue_Hill_Meteorological_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 63033\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stochastic simulation Content: A stochastic simulation is a simulation that traces the evolution of variables that can change stochastically ( randomly ) with certain probabilities . With a stochastic model we create a projection which is based on a set of random values . Outputs are recorded and the projection is repeated with a new set of random values of the variables . These steps are repeated until a sufficient amount of data is gathered . In the end , the distribution of the outputs shows the most probable estimates as well as a frame of expectations regarding what ranges of values the variables are more or less likely to fall in .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Stochastic_simulation\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 62759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Adverse event prediction Content: Adverse event ( or Adverse effect ) prediction is the process of identifying potential adverse events of an investigational drug before they actually occur in a clinical trial . Predicting adverse events accurately represents a significant challenge to both the pharmaceutical industry and academia , the reason being that our existing knowledge of biology , disease mechanisms ( i.e. how a disease affects the healthy state of a human ) and drug design is incomplete and sometimes incorrect . On top of that , the biological complexity and differences between living organisms is such that even if a treatment appears to work in the laboratory it may not work in humans . The occurrence of an adverse event during a clinical trial is a significant event , not only because of the risk to humans but also from a financial point of view for the organization ( usually a pharmaceutical company ) sponsoring the development of the drug in question . As a result a lot of effort is continuously invested in this area and there are a number of approaches to predicting adverse events including cell line assays , animal models and computer based in silico models . In silico models are usually developed by extracting interactions and behaviors of biological systems either from the literature or from experimental data on a specific disease or biological system and integrating this information in some kind of a mathematical model that can be used to understand and predict the behavior of a drug in an organism . Another relatively recent method is based on mining the scientific literature and correlating evidence from seemingly unrelated drugs or medical conditions . If done correctly this type of analysis can offer quite good predictive accuracy and significant lead times which translates to lower cost and development times for new drugs . While in silico methods aim to capture in depth the current knowledge of a biological system or a disease mechanism , they are still subject to the accuracy of that knowledge and may miss information that while seemingly unrelated , could in a multiply interconnected complex biological system prove highly relevant . This gap is addressed by the literature-based discovery approach which does not capture details to the same extent but compensates by offering complete coverage of the available knowledge from all potentially related fields .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Adverse_event_prediction\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 62715\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2014 South-Eastern Australian heatwave Content: The 2014 South-Eastern Australian Heatwave was a prolonged period of time in which highly unseasonal weather was recorded across the south and south-eastern corridor of mainland Australia . The heatwave commenced during early May , and was the longest ever recorded in Australia 's modern history , lasting in some places up to 15 days . Sydney , Melbourne and Adelaide were most hard hit , with temperatures in these areas breaking late Autumn records and causing a distinct lack of precipitation , especially in Sydney , Australia 's most populous city . The cause of this phenomenon was a large blocking High pressure system situated over the Tasman sea , which pushed usual Autumn cold fronts far south of the mainland .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"2014_South-Eastern_Australian_heatwave\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 62636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental niche modelling Content: Environmental niche modelling , alternatively known as species distribution modelling , ( ecological ) niche modelling , predictive habitat distribution modelling , and climate envelope modelling refers to the process of using computer algorithms to predict the distribution of species in geographic space on the basis of a mathematical representation of their known distribution in environmental space ( = realized ecological niche ) . The environment is in most cases represented by climate data ( such as temperature , and precipitation ) , but other variables such as soil type , water depth , and land cover can also be used . These models allow for interpolating between a limited number of species occurrence and they are used in several research areas in conservation biology , ecology and evolution . The extent to which such modelled data reflect real-world species distributions will depend on a number of factors , including the nature , complexity , and accuracy of the models used and the quality of the available environmental data layers ; the availability of sufficient and reliable species distribution data as model input ; and the influence of various factors such as barriers to dispersal , geologic history , or biotic interactions , that increase the difference between the realized niche and the fundamental niche . Environmental niche modelling may be considered a part of the discipline of biodiversity informatics .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_niche_modelling\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 62598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"8.2_kiloyear_event\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 62523\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Hockey_stick_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 62514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleothermometer Content: A paleothermometer is a methodology for determining past temperatures using a proxy found in a natural record such as a sediment , ice core , tree rings or TEX86 .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleothermometer\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 62391\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .\",\n \"qid\": \"169\",\n \"docid\": \"General_circulation_model\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 62348\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":81,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"We’ll still be facing extreme heat, but at a far more manageable level than if we’d done nothing to halt climate change."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .","qid":"171","docid":"The_Weather_of_the_Future","rank":1,"score":99462},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"171","docid":"Global_warming","rank":2,"score":91622},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Australia","rank":3,"score":91122},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":4,"score":91051},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_York_City","rank":5,"score":90095},{"content":"Title: Heat wave Content: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather , which may be accompanied by high humidity , especially in oceanic climate countries . While definitions vary , a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season . Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area . The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century . Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures , thousands of deaths from hyperthermia , and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning . A heat wave is considered extreme weather , and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body .","qid":"171","docid":"Heat_wave","rank":6,"score":88854},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"171","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":7,"score":87965},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"171","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":8,"score":87192},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":9,"score":86385},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change","rank":10,"score":86162},{"content":"Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006","rank":11,"score":85308},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"171","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":12,"score":84637},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Texas","rank":13,"score":84497},{"content":"Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .","qid":"171","docid":"Excessive_heat_warning","rank":14,"score":84476},{"content":"Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .","qid":"171","docid":"Excessive_heat_watch","rank":15,"score":83407},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":16,"score":83108},{"content":"Title: Stop Climate Chaos Content: Stop Climate Chaos is a climate change coalition of primarily environmental and international development NGOs that was formed in September 2005 . The coalition ran the I Count campaign in 2006 -- 07 and organised The Wave , a campaign focused on the climatic impacts of energy production which took place on 5 December 2009 in the run-up to the UN talks in Copenhagen . The coalition encourages individuals to lobby the UK government for what they see as positive policies on climate change . From 2005 to 2010 the director of the coalition was Ashok Sinha . There is also a Scottish secretariat called Stop Climate Chaos Scotland .","qid":"171","docid":"Stop_Climate_Chaos","rank":17,"score":82542},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"171","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":18,"score":82060},{"content":"Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .","qid":"171","docid":"Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet","rank":19,"score":81938},{"content":"Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )","qid":"171","docid":"Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate","rank":20,"score":81680},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"171","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":21,"score":80702},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":22,"score":80629},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":23,"score":80386},{"content":"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_inertia","rank":24,"score":80378},{"content":"Title: Climate Challenge Content: Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_Challenge","rank":25,"score":80233},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"171","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":26,"score":79899},{"content":"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .","qid":"171","docid":"Global_warming_hiatus","rank":27,"score":79649},{"content":"Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .","qid":"171","docid":"Ross_Gelbspan","rank":28,"score":79611},{"content":"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_South_Korea","rank":29,"score":79413},{"content":"Title: Executive Order 13653 Content: Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise","qid":"171","docid":"Executive_Order_13653","rank":30,"score":79098},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"171","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":31,"score":78962},{"content":"Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .","qid":"171","docid":"Living_in_the_Hothouse","rank":32,"score":78829},{"content":"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .","qid":"171","docid":"Hypercane","rank":33,"score":78740},{"content":"Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_and_poverty","rank":34,"score":78682},{"content":"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .","qid":"171","docid":"Abrupt_climate_change","rank":35,"score":78628},{"content":"Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_risk","rank":36,"score":78590},{"content":"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .","qid":"171","docid":"Reasons_for_concern","rank":37,"score":78228},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Grenada","rank":38,"score":77755},{"content":"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .","qid":"171","docid":"Fisheries_and_climate_change","rank":39,"score":77744},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":40,"score":77181},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"171","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":41,"score":77078},{"content":"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States","rank":42,"score":76725},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_Zealand","rank":43,"score":76577},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Tuvalu","rank":44,"score":76501},{"content":"Title: Australian flying fox die-offs Content: In the last two decades tens of thousands of Australian flying foxes have died during extreme heat events . Flying fox die-offs feature arguably among the most dramatic mass mortality events witnessed in nature , but they can be indicators of heat stress in more cryptic fauna where impacts are more difficult to assess . The die-offs are important additional threats to Australian flying-foxes and the ecosystem services they provide , and highlight the complex implications of climate change for behaviour , demography , and species survival .","qid":"171","docid":"Australian_flying_fox_die-offs","rank":45,"score":76415},{"content":"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .","qid":"171","docid":"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change","rank":46,"score":75997},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .","qid":"171","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka","rank":47,"score":75979},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"171","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":48,"score":75773},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":49,"score":75557},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"171","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":50,"score":75334},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Argentina","rank":51,"score":75326},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"171","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":52,"score":75323},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"171","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":53,"score":75320},{"content":"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .","qid":"171","docid":"Runaway_climate_change","rank":54,"score":75223},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"171","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":55,"score":74835},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"171","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":56,"score":74777},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan","rank":57,"score":74717},{"content":"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska","rank":58,"score":74434},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .","qid":"171","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia","rank":59,"score":74372},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .","qid":"171","docid":"Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge","rank":60,"score":74334},{"content":"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia","rank":61,"score":74147},{"content":"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .","qid":"171","docid":"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":62,"score":74088},{"content":"Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .","qid":"171","docid":"European_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":63,"score":73960},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"171","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":64,"score":73790},{"content":"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_Code_Red","rank":65,"score":73787},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"171","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":66,"score":73744},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":67,"score":73708},{"content":"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .","qid":"171","docid":"Earth's_energy_budget","rank":68,"score":73656},{"content":"Title: Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array Content: The Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array ( RAPID/MOCHA ) program is a collaborative research project between the National Oceanography Centre ( Southampton , U.K. ) , the University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( RSMAS ) , and NOAA 's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ( AOML ) that measure the meridional overturning circulation ( MOC ) and ocean heat transport in the North Atlantic Ocean . This array was deployed in March 2004 to continuously monitor the MOC and ocean heat transport that are primarily associated with the Thermohaline Circulation across the basin at 26 ° N . The RAPID-MOCHA array is planned to be continued through 2014 to provide a decade or longer continuous time series . The continuous observations are measured by an array of instruments along 26 ° N . This monitoring array directly measures the transport of the Gulf Stream in the Florida Strait using an undersea cable and a moored array measures bottom pressure and water column density ( including temperature and salinity ) at the western and eastern boundary and on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( MAR ) . Absolute transports including barotropic circulation are monitored using precision bottom pressure gauges . `` Dynamic height '' moorings are used to estimate the spatially average geostropic velocity profile and associated transports over relatively wide mooring separations . The dynamic height moorings requires measurements on both sides of the current field only , rather both the horizontal and vertical structure of the current field to be sufficiently well resolved to estimate transports . The basin-wide MOC strength and vertical structure are estimated via Ekman transports by satellite scatterometer measurements and the geotrophic and direct current observations . RAPID-MOCHA is funded by the National Environmental Research Council ( NERC ) and the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .","qid":"171","docid":"Rapid_Climate_Change-Meridional_Overturning_Circulation_and_Heatflux_Array","rank":69,"score":73578},{"content":"Title: Requiem for a Species Content: Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non-fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications . It argues that climate change will bring about large-scale , harmful consequences for habitability for life on Earth including humans , which it is too late to prevent . Hamilton explores why politicians , corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality . He invokes a variety of explanations , including wishful thinking , ideology , consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry . The book builds on the author 's fifteen-year prior history of writing about these subjects , with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change . Requiem for a Species has been reviewed in Resurgence magazine , Socialist Review , Sydney Morning Herald , The Age , The Common Review , and Times Higher Education , which named it `` Book of the Week '' . Extracts of the book have appeared in The Guardian and Geographical magazine . The book won a 2010 Queensland Premier 's Literary Award .","qid":"171","docid":"Requiem_for_a_Species","rank":70,"score":73578},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"171","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":71,"score":73517},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"171","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":72,"score":73461},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .","qid":"171","docid":"Greenhouse_effect","rank":73,"score":73457},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"171","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":74,"score":73438},{"content":"Title: Thermal Credits Content: Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .","qid":"171","docid":"Thermal_Credits","rank":75,"score":73425},{"content":"Title: C change Content: C change is a waterproof and windproof temperature adaptive material developed and produced by Schoeller Textiles . The material contains a membrane layer which is set to a predetermined temperature range . Once the climate inside the garment warms ( due to physical exertion or higher ambient temperatures ) , the polymer membrane structure opens up to allow water vapour to escape through the membrane . As the temperature falls , the membrane closes to its original structure , preserving body heat . This can be regarded as an example of biomimicry . The fabric won the 2006 Frost & Sullivan Award for Product Innovation of the Year .","qid":"171","docid":"C_change","rank":76,"score":73373},{"content":"Title: Cold and heat adaptations in humans Content: Cold and heat adaptations in humans are a part of the broad adaptability of Homo sapiens . Adaptations in humans can be physiological , genetic , or cultural , which allow people to live in a wide variety of climates . There has been a great deal of research done on developmental adjustment , acclimatization , and cultural practices , but less research on genetic adaptations to cold and heat temperatures . The human body always works to remain in homeostasis . One form of homeostasis is thermoregulation . Body temperature varies in every individual , but the average internal temperature is 37.0 ° C ( 98.6 ° F ) . Stress from extreme external temperature can cause the human body to shut down . When the body becomes hypothermic , the core temperature drops to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) . Hyperthermia results when the core body temperature rises above 37.5-38 .3 ° C ( 99.5-100 .9 ° F ) . These temperatures commonly result in mortality . Humans have adapted to living in these extreme climates primarily through culture and technology , such as the use of clothing and shelter .","qid":"171","docid":"Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans","rank":77,"score":73302},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"171","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":78,"score":73276},{"content":"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .","qid":"171","docid":"Simon_Tett","rank":79,"score":72998},{"content":"Title: Mark Lynas Content: Mark Lynas ( born 1973 ) is a British author , journalist and environmental activist who focuses on climate change . He is a contributor to New Statesman , The Ecologist , Granta and Geographical magazines , and The Guardian and The Observer newspapers in the UK ; he also worked on the film The Age of Stupid . He was born in Fiji , grew up in Peru and the United Kingdom and holds a degree in history and politics from the University of Edinburgh . He lives in Oxford , England . He has published several books including Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 2007 ) and The God Species : Saving the Planet in the Age of Humans ( 2011 ) . He has stated `` I think there is a 50 -- 50 chance we can avoid a devastating rise in global temperature . ''","qid":"171","docid":"Mark_Lynas","rank":80,"score":72997},{"content":"Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_Summit","rank":81,"score":72982},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"171","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":82,"score":72940},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Wyoming","rank":83,"score":72831},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":84,"score":72775},{"content":"Title: Extreme weather Content: Extreme weather includes unexpectable , unusual , unpredictable severe or unseasonal weather ; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution -- the range that has been seen in the past . Often , extreme events are based on a location 's recorded weather history and defined as lying in the most unusual ten percent . In recent years some extreme weather events have been attributed to human-induced global warming , with studies indicating an increasing threat from extreme weather in the future .","qid":"171","docid":"Extreme_weather","rank":85,"score":72754},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .","qid":"171","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations","rank":86,"score":72727},{"content":"Title: Are We Changing Planet Earth? Content: Are We Changing Planet Earth ? and Can We Save Planet Earth ? are two programmes that form a documentary about global warming , presented by David Attenborough . They were first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 24 May and 1 June 2006 respectively . Part of a themed season by the BBC entitled `` Climate Chaos '' , the programmes were produced in conjunction with the Discovery Channel and the Open University . They were directed by Nicolas Brown and produced by Jeremy Bristow . The music was composed by Samuel Sim . Attenborough undertook the assignment in between his ` Life ' series Life in the Undergrowth and Life in Cold Blood . Around the same time , the naturalist also narrated Planet Earth .","qid":"171","docid":"Are_We_Changing_Planet_Earth?","rank":87,"score":72659},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":88,"score":72577},{"content":"Title: 2001 Eastern North America heat wave Content: A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States ( with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions ) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July . It began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying . It waned in most areas by the middle of the month , and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves , it was very intense at its peak . The high humidity and high temperatures led to major heat wave that overtook the major Northeast Megalopolis . Temperatures in Central Park , New York City reached a peak of 103 F . The temperature reached 105 F in Newark , New Jersey . Meanwhile , in Ontario and Quebec , extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August . Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached 37 C on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit 38 C on the same day , the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping 35 C. Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave . Even in Nova Scotia , surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures still broke 35 C in some locations . Glace Bay , which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking 35.5 C on August 10 . At least four New Yorkers died of hyperthermia . Chicago had at least 21 deaths .","qid":"171","docid":"2001_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave","rank":89,"score":72430},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_change_in_Massachusetts","rank":90,"score":72308},{"content":"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_system","rank":91,"score":72283},{"content":"Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_state","rank":92,"score":72129},{"content":"Title: Breeding for heat stress tolerance Content: Plant breeding is process of development of new cultivars . Plant breeding involves development of varieties for different environmental conditions -- some of them are not favorable . Among them , heat stress is one of such factor that reduces the production and quality significantly . So breeding against heat is a very important criterion for breeding for current as well as future environments produced by global climate change ( e.g. global warming ) .","qid":"171","docid":"Breeding_for_heat_stress_tolerance","rank":93,"score":71972},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"171","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":94,"score":71926},{"content":"Title: United States temperature extremes Content: For the United States , the extremes are 134 F in Death Valley , California in 1913 and -79.8 F recorded in Prospect Creek , Alaska in 1971 . The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15 , 1972 in Loma , Montana , when the temperature rose from -54 to . The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds . For example , the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 F-change occurred in Spearfish , South Dakota , a rise from -4 to .","qid":"171","docid":"United_States_temperature_extremes","rank":95,"score":71897},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"171","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":96,"score":71868},{"content":"Title: Australian Open extreme heat policy Content: The Extreme Heat Policy is a rule pertaining to the Australian Open ( tennis ) . It was introduced in 1998 after consultation with a number of tennis players .","qid":"171","docid":"Australian_Open_extreme_heat_policy","rank":97,"score":71776},{"content":"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .","qid":"171","docid":"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007","rank":98,"score":71667},{"content":"Title: Extreme cold warning Content: An extreme cold warning is issued by Environment Canada to inform the public about cold temperatures in their region that are expected to last for at least two hours . As of April 8 , 2014 , Environment Canada replaced the Wind Chill Warning with an Extreme Cold Warning . In the older system a wind chill warning for Southern Ontario and Atlantic Canada was issued when the wind chill dropped to -35 . Thus a temperature of -37 C with no winds would not require a warning be issued . Under the new system the extreme cold warning is issued based on either the temperature or the wind chill being a certain value for at least two hours . The values range from -30 C in the south to -55 C in parts of the Arctic .","qid":"171","docid":"Extreme_cold_warning","rank":99,"score":71570},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .","qid":"171","docid":"Climate_Change_Act_2008","rank":100,"score":71454}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Weather_of_the_Future\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 99462\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 91622\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 91122\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 91051\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_York_City\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 90095\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat wave Content: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather , which may be accompanied by high humidity , especially in oceanic climate countries . While definitions vary , a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season . Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area . The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century . Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures , thousands of deaths from hyperthermia , and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning . A heat wave is considered extreme weather , and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 88854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 87965\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 87192\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 86385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 86162\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 85308\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 84637\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Texas\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 84497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Excessive_heat_warning\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 84476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Excessive_heat_watch\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 83407\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 83108\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stop Climate Chaos Content: Stop Climate Chaos is a climate change coalition of primarily environmental and international development NGOs that was formed in September 2005 . The coalition ran the I Count campaign in 2006 -- 07 and organised The Wave , a campaign focused on the climatic impacts of energy production which took place on 5 December 2009 in the run-up to the UN talks in Copenhagen . The coalition encourages individuals to lobby the UK government for what they see as positive policies on climate change . From 2005 to 2010 the director of the coalition was Ashok Sinha . There is also a Scottish secretariat called Stop Climate Chaos Scotland .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Stop_Climate_Chaos\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 82542\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 82060\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 81938\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 81680\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 80702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 80629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 80386\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_inertia\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 80378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Challenge Content: Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 80233\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 79899\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_hiatus\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 79649\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Ross_Gelbspan\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 79611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 79413\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Executive Order 13653 Content: Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Executive_Order_13653\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 79098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 78962\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Living_in_the_Hothouse\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 78829\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercane\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 78740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_poverty\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 78682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Abrupt_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 78628\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_risk\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 78590\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Reasons_for_concern\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 78228\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Grenada\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 77755\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Fisheries_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 77744\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 77181\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 77078\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 76725\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_Zealand\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 76577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Tuvalu\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 76501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Australian flying fox die-offs Content: In the last two decades tens of thousands of Australian flying foxes have died during extreme heat events . Flying fox die-offs feature arguably among the most dramatic mass mortality events witnessed in nature , but they can be indicators of heat stress in more cryptic fauna where impacts are more difficult to assess . The die-offs are important additional threats to Australian flying-foxes and the ecosystem services they provide , and highlight the complex implications of climate change for behaviour , demography , and species survival .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Australian_flying_fox_die-offs\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 76415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 75997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 75979\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 75773\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 75557\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 75334\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Argentina\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 75326\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 75323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 75320\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 75223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 74835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 74777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 74717\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 74434\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 74372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 74334\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 74147\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Economic_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 74088\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 73960\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 73790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Code_Red\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 73787\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 73744\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 73708\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth's_energy_budget\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 73656\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array Content: The Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array ( RAPID/MOCHA ) program is a collaborative research project between the National Oceanography Centre ( Southampton , U.K. ) , the University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( RSMAS ) , and NOAA 's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ( AOML ) that measure the meridional overturning circulation ( MOC ) and ocean heat transport in the North Atlantic Ocean . This array was deployed in March 2004 to continuously monitor the MOC and ocean heat transport that are primarily associated with the Thermohaline Circulation across the basin at 26 ° N . The RAPID-MOCHA array is planned to be continued through 2014 to provide a decade or longer continuous time series . The continuous observations are measured by an array of instruments along 26 ° N . This monitoring array directly measures the transport of the Gulf Stream in the Florida Strait using an undersea cable and a moored array measures bottom pressure and water column density ( including temperature and salinity ) at the western and eastern boundary and on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( MAR ) . Absolute transports including barotropic circulation are monitored using precision bottom pressure gauges . `` Dynamic height '' moorings are used to estimate the spatially average geostropic velocity profile and associated transports over relatively wide mooring separations . The dynamic height moorings requires measurements on both sides of the current field only , rather both the horizontal and vertical structure of the current field to be sufficiently well resolved to estimate transports . The basin-wide MOC strength and vertical structure are estimated via Ekman transports by satellite scatterometer measurements and the geotrophic and direct current observations . RAPID-MOCHA is funded by the National Environmental Research Council ( NERC ) and the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Rapid_Climate_Change-Meridional_Overturning_Circulation_and_Heatflux_Array\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 73578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Requiem for a Species Content: Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non-fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications . It argues that climate change will bring about large-scale , harmful consequences for habitability for life on Earth including humans , which it is too late to prevent . Hamilton explores why politicians , corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality . He invokes a variety of explanations , including wishful thinking , ideology , consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry . The book builds on the author 's fifteen-year prior history of writing about these subjects , with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change . Requiem for a Species has been reviewed in Resurgence magazine , Socialist Review , Sydney Morning Herald , The Age , The Common Review , and Times Higher Education , which named it `` Book of the Week '' . Extracts of the book have appeared in The Guardian and Geographical magazine . The book won a 2010 Queensland Premier 's Literary Award .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Requiem_for_a_Species\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 73578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 73517\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 73461\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 73457\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 73438\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermal Credits Content: Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermal_Credits\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 73425\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C change Content: C change is a waterproof and windproof temperature adaptive material developed and produced by Schoeller Textiles . The material contains a membrane layer which is set to a predetermined temperature range . Once the climate inside the garment warms ( due to physical exertion or higher ambient temperatures ) , the polymer membrane structure opens up to allow water vapour to escape through the membrane . As the temperature falls , the membrane closes to its original structure , preserving body heat . This can be regarded as an example of biomimicry . The fabric won the 2006 Frost & Sullivan Award for Product Innovation of the Year .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"C_change\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 73373\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cold and heat adaptations in humans Content: Cold and heat adaptations in humans are a part of the broad adaptability of Homo sapiens . Adaptations in humans can be physiological , genetic , or cultural , which allow people to live in a wide variety of climates . There has been a great deal of research done on developmental adjustment , acclimatization , and cultural practices , but less research on genetic adaptations to cold and heat temperatures . The human body always works to remain in homeostasis . One form of homeostasis is thermoregulation . Body temperature varies in every individual , but the average internal temperature is 37.0 ° C ( 98.6 ° F ) . Stress from extreme external temperature can cause the human body to shut down . When the body becomes hypothermic , the core temperature drops to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) . Hyperthermia results when the core body temperature rises above 37.5-38 .3 ° C ( 99.5-100 .9 ° F ) . These temperatures commonly result in mortality . Humans have adapted to living in these extreme climates primarily through culture and technology , such as the use of clothing and shelter .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 73302\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 73276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Simon_Tett\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 72998\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Lynas Content: Mark Lynas ( born 1973 ) is a British author , journalist and environmental activist who focuses on climate change . He is a contributor to New Statesman , The Ecologist , Granta and Geographical magazines , and The Guardian and The Observer newspapers in the UK ; he also worked on the film The Age of Stupid . He was born in Fiji , grew up in Peru and the United Kingdom and holds a degree in history and politics from the University of Edinburgh . He lives in Oxford , England . He has published several books including Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 2007 ) and The God Species : Saving the Planet in the Age of Humans ( 2011 ) . He has stated `` I think there is a 50 -- 50 chance we can avoid a devastating rise in global temperature . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Lynas\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 72997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Summit\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 72982\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 72940\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 72831\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 72775\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extreme weather Content: Extreme weather includes unexpectable , unusual , unpredictable severe or unseasonal weather ; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution -- the range that has been seen in the past . Often , extreme events are based on a location 's recorded weather history and defined as lying in the most unusual ten percent . In recent years some extreme weather events have been attributed to human-induced global warming , with studies indicating an increasing threat from extreme weather in the future .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Extreme_weather\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 72754\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 72727\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Are We Changing Planet Earth? Content: Are We Changing Planet Earth ? and Can We Save Planet Earth ? are two programmes that form a documentary about global warming , presented by David Attenborough . They were first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 24 May and 1 June 2006 respectively . Part of a themed season by the BBC entitled `` Climate Chaos '' , the programmes were produced in conjunction with the Discovery Channel and the Open University . They were directed by Nicolas Brown and produced by Jeremy Bristow . The music was composed by Samuel Sim . Attenborough undertook the assignment in between his ` Life ' series Life in the Undergrowth and Life in Cold Blood . Around the same time , the naturalist also narrated Planet Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Are_We_Changing_Planet_Earth?\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 72659\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_potatoes\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 72577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2001 Eastern North America heat wave Content: A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States ( with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions ) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July . It began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying . It waned in most areas by the middle of the month , and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves , it was very intense at its peak . The high humidity and high temperatures led to major heat wave that overtook the major Northeast Megalopolis . Temperatures in Central Park , New York City reached a peak of 103 F . The temperature reached 105 F in Newark , New Jersey . Meanwhile , in Ontario and Quebec , extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August . Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached 37 C on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit 38 C on the same day , the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping 35 C. Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave . Even in Nova Scotia , surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures still broke 35 C in some locations . Glace Bay , which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking 35.5 C on August 10 . At least four New Yorkers died of hyperthermia . Chicago had at least 21 deaths .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"2001_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 72430\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Massachusetts\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 72308\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 72283\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_state\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 72129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Breeding for heat stress tolerance Content: Plant breeding is process of development of new cultivars . Plant breeding involves development of varieties for different environmental conditions -- some of them are not favorable . Among them , heat stress is one of such factor that reduces the production and quality significantly . So breeding against heat is a very important criterion for breeding for current as well as future environments produced by global climate change ( e.g. global warming ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Breeding_for_heat_stress_tolerance\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 71972\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 71926\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States temperature extremes Content: For the United States , the extremes are 134 F in Death Valley , California in 1913 and -79.8 F recorded in Prospect Creek , Alaska in 1971 . The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15 , 1972 in Loma , Montana , when the temperature rose from -54 to . The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds . For example , the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 F-change occurred in Spearfish , South Dakota , a rise from -4 to .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_temperature_extremes\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 71897\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 71868\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Australian Open extreme heat policy Content: The Extreme Heat Policy is a rule pertaining to the Australian Open ( tennis ) . It was introduced in 1998 after consultation with a number of tennis players .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Australian_Open_extreme_heat_policy\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 71776\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 71667\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extreme cold warning Content: An extreme cold warning is issued by Environment Canada to inform the public about cold temperatures in their region that are expected to last for at least two hours . As of April 8 , 2014 , Environment Canada replaced the Wind Chill Warning with an Extreme Cold Warning . In the older system a wind chill warning for Southern Ontario and Atlantic Canada was issued when the wind chill dropped to -35 . Thus a temperature of -37 C with no winds would not require a warning be issued . Under the new system the extreme cold warning is issued based on either the temperature or the wind chill being a certain value for at least two hours . The values range from -30 C in the south to -55 C in parts of the Arctic .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Extreme_cold_warning\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 71570\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .\",\n \"qid\": \"171\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Act_2008\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 71454\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":82,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"If there were [carbon emissions], we could not see because most carbon is black."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_carbon","rank":1,"score":135613},{"content":"Title: Carbon black Content: Carbon black ( subtypes are acetylene black , channel black , furnace black , lamp black and thermal black ) is a material produced by the incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products such as FCC tar , coal tar , ethylene cracking tar , and a small amount from vegetable oil . Carbon black is a form of paracrystalline carbon that has a high surface-area-to-volume ratio , albeit lower than that of activated carbon . It is dissimilar to soot in its much higher surface-area-to-volume ratio and significantly lower ( negligible and non-bioavailable ) PAH ( polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon ) content . However , carbon black is widely used as a model compound for diesel soot for diesel oxidation experiments . Carbon black is mainly used as a reinforcing filler in tires and other rubber products . In plastics , paints , and inks carbon black is used as a color pigment . The current International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC ) evaluation is that , `` Carbon black is possibly carcinogenic to humans ( Group 2B ) '' . Short-term exposure to high concentrations of carbon black dust may produce discomfort to the upper respiratory tract , through mechanical irritation .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_black","rank":2,"score":129415},{"content":"Title: Brown carbon Content: In chemistry , brown carbon ( Cbrown/BrC ) is brown smoke released by the combustion of organic matter . It coexists with black carbon when released in the atmosphere . Black carbon is primarily released by high-temperature combustion and brown carbon is emitted mainly by biomass combustion . These two are the two most important light absorbing substances in the atmosphere . The climate and radiative transfer are highly impacted by the absorptive properties of these substances .","qid":"173","docid":"Brown_carbon","rank":3,"score":128988},{"content":"Title: Carbon Black (company) Content: Carbon Black , Inc. ( formerly Bit9 , Inc ) is a security company based in Waltham , Massachusetts . Carbon Black develops endpoint security software that detects malicious behavior and prevents malicious files from attacking an organization . The company is an actor in the antivirus , endpoint detection and response and endpoint protection platform space . Carbon Black 's competitors in the endpoint security domain include Cylance , FireEye , McAfee , Symantec , and Tanium . To-date the firm has raised $ 190M from investors including Kleiner Perkins , Highland Capital , Sequoia , Accomplice , and Blackstone . According to Bloomberg , the company is currently preparing for an IPO and has hired JPMorgan and Morgan Stanley to lead the offering . In September 2016 , The Wall Street Journal reported the company filed their S-1 privately by using the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act which allows companies with less than $ 1 billion in revenues to file in a confidential manner with limited public disclosure .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_Black_(company)","rank":4,"score":118080},{"content":"Title: Carbonado Content: Carbonado , commonly known as the `` black diamond '' , is the toughest form of natural diamond . It is an impure form of polycrystalline diamond consisting of diamond , graphite , and amorphous carbon . It is found primarily in alluvial deposits in the Central African Republic and in Brazil . Its natural colour is black or dark grey , and it is more porous than other diamonds .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbonado","rank":5,"score":113839},{"content":"Title: Carbon flaw Content: A carbon flaw is a blemish present within a diamond crystalline form of carbon , usually seen as a black spot . The blemish may be microscopic or visible to the naked eye . These spots are undesirable imperfections since they can be seen easier than other flaws . It is worth noting that , while diamonds are composed of purely carbon , the black spot flaws could be other inclusions ( foreign matter ) such as olivine , garnet , pyrite , silica , calcite , and iron oxides .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_flaw","rank":6,"score":110725},{"content":"Title: Black Law Wind Farm Content: The 42-turbine Black Law Wind Farm has a total capacity of 97 megawatts ( MW ) , sufficient to meet the average electricity needs of 70,000 homes each year - or a town the size of Paisley - and is estimated to save around 200,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions a year . The # 90 million wind farm is located near Forth in Lanarkshire and has been built on an old opencast coalmine site which was completely restored to shallow wetlands during the construction programme . It employs seven permanent staff on site and created 200 jobs during construction . Scottish Power is expected to complete a second phase which will see the installation of a further 12 turbines . The project has received wide recognition for its contribution to environmental objectives , including praise from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds , who said that the scheme was not only improving the landscape in a derelict opencast mining site , but also benefiting a range of wildlife in the area , with an extensive habitat management projects covering over 14 square kilometres .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_Law_Wind_Farm","rank":7,"score":109360},{"content":"Title: Kværner-process Content: The Kværner process or the Kværner carbon black & hydrogen process ( CB&H ) is a method for the production of carbon black and hydrogen gas from hydrocarbons such as methane , natural gas and biogas . The process was developed in the 1980s by the Norwegian engineering firm Kværner , and was first commercially exploited in 1999 .","qid":"173","docid":"Kværner-process","rank":8,"score":101526},{"content":"Title: Black Planet Content: Black Planet may refer to multiple concepts : BlackPlanet , a social networking website geared towards African-Americans Black Planet , a song by The Sisters of Mercy a Carbon planet , a proposed planetary type that is actually black .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_Planet","rank":9,"score":99737},{"content":"Title: Zoe Karbonopsina Content: Zoe Karbonopsina , also Karvounopsina or Carbonopsina , i.e. , `` with the Coal-Black Eyes '' ( Ζωή Καρβωνοψίνα , Zōē Karbōnopsina ) , was an empress consort and regent of the Byzantine empire . She was the fourth wife of the Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise and the mother of Constantine VII .","qid":"173","docid":"Zoe_Karbonopsina","rank":10,"score":98956},{"content":"Title: Bituminous coal Content: Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike substance called bitumen . It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than anthracite . Formation is usually the result of high pressure being exerted on lignite . Its coloration can be black or sometimes dark brown ; often there are well-defined bands of bright and dull material within the seams . These distinctive sequences , which are classified according to either `` dull , bright-banded '' or `` bright , dull-banded '' , is how bituminous coals are stratigraphically identified . Bituminous coal is an organic sedimentary rock formed by diagenetic and sub metamorphic compression of peat bog material . Its primary constituents are macerals : vitrinite , and liptinite . The carbon content of bituminous coal is around 60-80 % ; the rest is composed of water , air , hydrogen , and sulfur , which have not been driven off from the macerals . Bank density is approximately 1346 kg/m ³ ( 84 lb/ft ³ ) . Bulk density typically runs to 833 kg/m ³ ( 52 lb/ft ³ ) . The heat content of bituminous coal ranges from 24 to 35 MJ/kg ( 21 million to 30 million BTU per short ton ) on a moist , mineral-matter-free basis . Within the coal mining industry , this type of coal is known for releasing the largest amounts of firedamp , a dangerous mixture of gases that can cause underground explosions . Extraction of bituminous coal demands the highest safety procedures involving attentive gas monitoring , good ventilation and vigilant site management .","qid":"173","docid":"Bituminous_coal","rank":11,"score":98370},{"content":"Title: Black sugar Content: Black sugar is a form of crystalline precipitate or a particulate pollution by-product unique from creosote caused by the burning of low grade coal in the 1940 -- 1960s . The outgas from burning coal would be a by-product ( burning coal was used in residential forced hot air furnaces ) for the heating of family housing . Black sugar was often found on porches and the cold ductwork and caused the high carbon , soot-loaded gas to precipitate on the floors and walls and crystallize . Outward appearance was that of very fine , shiny coal , but would not combust when exposed to flames . After a time , the crystalline material would become powdered , to the consistency of white cane sugar , but retain a fine , shiny , black texture , thus the name `` black sugar '' . The material would often be cleaned from duct work by chimney sweeps or cleaning staff on a regular basis in the Beaver-Ambridge-Monaca area of Pennsylvania along the Ohio River near Pittsburgh .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_sugar","rank":12,"score":97800},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"173","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":13,"score":97302},{"content":"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .","qid":"173","docid":"Mark_Z._Jacobson","rank":14,"score":97240},{"content":"Title: Black snake (firework) Content: Black snake and Pharaoh 's serpent are two similar types of firework . After being lit , both fireworks begin to smoke and spew out ash resembling a snake via an intumescent reaction . They stay on the ground and do not emit sparks , flares , any form of projectiles , or any sound , but may release smoke . Sodium bicarbonate which produces carbon dioxide gas , and sugar forming carbon containing ash , are common chemicals used for the black snake demonstration . Other sources report the contents as `` a nitrated mixture of linseed oil and naphthalenes '' . The traditional `` Pharaoh 's serpent '' version of this firework produces a more impressive snake , but its operation depends upon mercury ( II ) thiocyanate , which is no longer commonly used because of its toxicity .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_snake_(firework)","rank":15,"score":97034},{"content":"Title: Anarsia carbonaria Content: Anarsia carbonaria is a moth of the family Gelechiidae . It was described by Meyrick in 1913 . It is found in South Africa and Zimbabwe . The wingspan is 14 -- 15 mm . The forewings are dark grey irregularly irrorated with white , with scattered black scales . The basal half with several small scattered suffused blackish spots and there is an irregular transverse black blotch on the middle of the costa reaching two-thirds across the wing , followed by a patch of light grey suffusion with stronger white irroration extended to the tornus . There is also an oval black spot in the disc at three-fourths and an oblique black mark between this and the costa posteriorly , surrounded with dark suffusion . There are also several suffused black dots towards the costa posteriorly and the termen . The hindwings are grey , paler and thinly scaled anteriorly .","qid":"173","docid":"Anarsia_carbonaria","rank":16,"score":95934},{"content":"Title: Black Triangle (region) Content: The Black Triangle ( German Schwarzes Dreieck ) is a border region shared by Germany , Poland and the Czech Republic , long characterized by extremely high levels of pollution . The term was coined in the 1980s . For decades , industrially produced air pollutants ( chiefly sulfur dioxide ) , water pollution , acid rain and other effects took an enormous toll on the health of local residents and the surrounding environment . After the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe , the three nations acted to cut emissions . This has resulted in significant environmental improvement .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_Triangle_(region)","rank":17,"score":95172},{"content":"Title: Blackwater (coal) Content: Blackwater '' ' is a form of pollution produced in coal preparation . In its purification , coal is crushed in a coal preparation plant and then separated and transported as a coal slurry , From the slurry , incombustible materials are removed and the coal can be sized . After the recovery of the coal particles from this slurry , the remaining water is black , contains very fine particles of coal . This blackwater can not be processed in a water treatment plant .","qid":"173","docid":"Blackwater_(coal)","rank":18,"score":95165},{"content":"Title: White carbon Content: Chaoite , an allotrophe of carbon Precipitated silica , not carbon , also called ` white carbon black '","qid":"173","docid":"White_carbon","rank":19,"score":94736},{"content":"Title: Euchontha carboniptera Content: Euchontha carboniptera is a moth of the family Notodontidae . It is endemic to the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes . The length of the forewings is 13 -- 14 mm for males . The ground color of the forewings is dark charcoal gray to black . The ground color of the hindwings is dark gray to blackish charcoal gray .","qid":"173","docid":"Euchontha_carboniptera","rank":20,"score":94725},{"content":"Title: Carbon snake Content: Carbon snake is a demonstration of the dehydration reaction of sugar by concentrated sulfuric acid . With concentrated sulfuric acid , granulated table sugar ( sucrose ) performs degradation reaction which changes its form to black solid-liquid mixture . Carbon snake experiment can sometimes be misrecognized as Black snake , `` sugar snake , '' or `` burning sugar '' which involve the reaction with baking soda instead of sulfuric acid .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_snake","rank":21,"score":94676},{"content":"Title: Carbon (disambiguation) Content: Carbon is a chemical element with atomic number 6 . Carbon may also refer to : Chemistry Carbon black , a filler often used to improve the properties of rubber or plastic compounds Carbon chauvinism , a term meant to disparage the assumption that the molecules responsible for the mechanisms of life must be based on carbon Carbon dioxide equivalent , a greenhouse gas measurement Carbon ( fiber ) , can refer to carbon filament thread , or to felt or woven cloth made from those carbon filaments Carbon offset , a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide Computers and electronics Carbon ( API ) , a deprecated application programming interface for Mac OS X Need for Speed : Carbon , a computer racing game developed by Electronic Arts ThinkPad X1 Carbon , a notebook computer released by Lenovo Rio Carbon , a product line of digital audio players WSO2 Carbon , an open-source middleware platform Places Canada : Carbon , Alberta , a village in Kneehill County United States : Carbon , California , a former settlement in Mendocino County Carbon , Indiana , a town in Clay County Carbon , Iowa , a city in Adams County Carbon , Pennsylvania Carbon , Texas , a town in Eastland County Carbon County ( disambiguation ) , multiple places Other uses Carbon ( journal ) Carbon ( Halo team ) , also known as Team Carbon , a professional Halo team Carbon 15 , a family of firearms Carbon Motors Corporation , an American automotive corporation Corral del Carbón , a building in Granada , Andalusia , Spain","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_(disambiguation)","rank":22,"score":94525},{"content":"Title: Carbon print Content: A carbon print is a photographic print with an image consisting of pigmented gelatin , rather than of silver or other metallic particles suspended in a uniform layer of gelatin , as in typical black-and-white prints , or of chromogenic dyes , as in typical photographic color prints . In the original version of the printing process , carbon tissue ( a temporary support sheet coated with a layer of gelatin mixed with a pigment -- originally carbon black , from which the name derives ) is bathed in a potassium dichromate sensitizing solution , dried , then exposed to strong ultraviolet light through a photographic negative , hardening the gelatin in proportion to the amount of light reaching it . The tissue is then developed by treatment with warm water , which dissolves the unhardened gelatin . The resulting pigment image is physically transferred to a final support surface , either directly or indirectly . In an important early 20th century variation of the process , known as carbro ( carbon-bromine ) printing , contact with a conventional silver bromide paper print , rather than exposure to light , was used to selectively harden the gelatin . A wide variety of colored pigments can be used instead of carbon black . The process can produce images of very high quality which are exceptionally resistant to fading and other deterioration . It was developed in the mid-19th century in response to concerns about the fading of early types of silver-based black-and-white prints , which was already becoming apparent within a relatively few years of their introduction . The most recent development in the process was made by the American photographer Charles Berger in 1993 with the introduction of a non-toxic sensitizer that presented none of the health and safety hazards of the toxic ( now EU-restricted ) dichromate sensitizer .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_print","rank":23,"score":92576},{"content":"Title: Tihomir Novakov Content: Tihomir Novakov , Ph.D known also as Tica Novakov ( March 16 , 1929 -- January 2 , 2015 ) was a Serbian-born American physicist . As a scientist , Novakov is known for his black carbon , air quality , and climate change research . James Hansen dubbed him `` the godfather of black carbon . ''","qid":"173","docid":"Tihomir_Novakov","rank":24,"score":92463},{"content":"Title: Cheilosia carbonaria Content: Cheilosia carbonaria is a European species of hoverfly . Like most Cheilosia it is black , and because of this may often be overlooked as a hoverfly . It is little recorded , and is considered rare and scarce throughout most of its range .","qid":"173","docid":"Cheilosia_carbonaria","rank":25,"score":92422},{"content":"Title: Sarotherodon linnellii Content: Sarotherodon linnellii , sometimes known as the unga , blackfin tilapia or blackbelly tilapia , is a of cichlid endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo in western Cameroon . This species reaches a length of 18.5 cm SL . It is critically endangered because of pollution and sedimentation due to human activities . It is potentially also threatened by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although studies indicate that Barombo Mbo lacks excess amounts of this gas . Juveniles mainly feed on insects ( including their larvae ) and adults mainly on phytoplankton .","qid":"173","docid":"Sarotherodon_linnellii","rank":26,"score":92372},{"content":"Title: Little Cities of Black Diamonds Content: The Little Cities of Black Diamonds are the old coal-mining communities of southeast Ohio . Some communities include : Buchtel , Ohio Carbondale , Ohio Carbon Hill , Ohio Corning , Ohio The Diamond , Ohio Glouster , Ohio Hemlock , Ohio Murray City , Ohio Nelsonville , Ohio New Straitsville , Ohio Shawnee , Perry County , Ohio Trimble , Ohio Sunday Creek Associates , a nonprofit organization in this area is responsible for a community building experience named `` Little Cities of Black Diamonds . '' This experience includes organizing local history bus tours , Little Cities of the Forest , Little Cities Archives , Little Cities of Black Diamonds Day , Appalachian Spring Festival . The Little Cities Council is located in Shawnee , Ohio .","qid":"173","docid":"Little_Cities_of_Black_Diamonds","rank":27,"score":91846},{"content":"Title: Black-body radiation Content: Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment , or emitted by a black body ( an opaque and non-reflective body ) . It has a specific spectrum and intensity that depends only on the body 's temperature , which is assumed for the sake of calculations and theory to be uniform and constant . The thermal radiation spontaneously emitted by many ordinary objects can be approximated as black-body radiation . A perfectly insulated enclosure that is in thermal equilibrium internally contains black-body radiation and will emit it through a hole made in its wall , provided the hole is small enough to have negligible effect upon the equilibrium . A black-body at room temperature appears black , as most of the energy it radiates is infra-red and can not be perceived by the human eye . Because the human eye can not perceive color at very low light intensities , a black body , viewed in the dark at the lowest just faintly visible temperature , subjectively appears grey ( but only because the human eye is sensitive only to black and white at very low intensities - in reality , the frequency of the light in the visible range would still be red , although the intensity would be too low to discern as red ) , even though its objective physical spectrum peaks in the infrared range . When it becomes a little hotter , it appears dull red . As its temperature increases further it eventually becomes blue-white . Although planets and stars are neither in thermal equilibrium with their surroundings nor perfect black bodies , black-body radiation is used as a first approximation for the energy they emit . Black holes are near-perfect black bodies , in the sense that they absorb all the radiation that falls on them . It has been proposed that they emit black-body radiation ( called Hawking radiation ) , with a temperature that depends on the mass of the black hole . The term black body was introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860 . Black-body radiation is also called thermal radiation , cavity radiation , complete radiation or temperature radiation .","qid":"173","docid":"Black-body_radiation","rank":28,"score":91414},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"173","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":29,"score":91281},{"content":"Title: Cerconota carbonifer Content: Cerconota carbonifer is a moth in the Depressariidae family . It was described by August Busck in 1914 . It is found in Panama , Costa Rica and French Guiana . The wingspan is 19-23 mm . The forewings are light ochreous clouded with brown , with a large , dorsal , evenly rounded patch of black scales , at base of which some are more or less erect . Above and bordering this black space is a small patch of brown scales and there are three dark brown costal spots , one at the basal third , one on the middle , and one at the apical fourth , from the latter starts an indistinct , outwardly curved , row of small brown dots across the wing to the termen and there is a faint row of brown marginal dots along the terminal edge , as well as a small black dot at the end of the cell . The hindwings are light yellowish fuscous .","qid":"173","docid":"Cerconota_carbonifer","rank":30,"score":91053},{"content":"Title: Black Rock Formation Content: The Black Rock Formation is a geologic formation in England . It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_Rock_Formation","rank":31,"score":90993},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":32,"score":90520},{"content":"Title: Soot (disambiguation) Content: Soot is the black , impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon . Soot may also refer to : Engebret Soot ( 1786-1859 ) , Norwegian engineer Soot ( software ) , a language manipulation and optimization framework","qid":"173","docid":"Soot_(disambiguation)","rank":33,"score":90324},{"content":"Title: Blackdamp Content: Blackdamp ( also known as stythe or choke damp ) is an asphyxiant , reducing the available oxygen content of air to a level incapable of sustaining human or animal life . It is not a single gas but a mixture of unbreathable gases left after oxygen is removed from the air and typically consists of nitrogen , carbon dioxide and water vapour . The suffix damp is believed to derive from the German word for vapours ( `` Dampf '' ) . The word damp is used in similar mining terms such as white damp ( carbon monoxide ) , fire damp ( typically methane ) and stink damp ( hydrogen sulfide ) .","qid":"173","docid":"Blackdamp","rank":34,"score":90285},{"content":"Title: Plicaria carbonaria Content: Plicaria carbonaria is a species of apothecial fungus belonging to the family Pezizaceae . This is a common European fungus of burnt ground , appearing from spring to autumn as dark brown to black cups up to 3 cm in diameter .","qid":"173","docid":"Plicaria_carbonaria","rank":35,"score":90116},{"content":"Title: Carbon stain Content: Carbon stains are a skin condition characterized by a discoloration of the skin from embedded carbon , usually occurring in children from accidents with firearms or firecrackers , or from a puncture wound by a pencil , which may leave a permanent black mark of embedded graphite , easily mistaken for metastatic melanoma .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_stain","rank":36,"score":89992},{"content":"Title: William B. Wiegand Content: William B. Wiegand was a vice president of Columbian Carbon Co. , known for his pioneering work on carbon black technology . Wiegand studied carbon black 's reinforcing effect on rubber , and proposed that the effect arises due to forces acting at the interface between the carbon black and the surrounding elastomer matrix . He was a pioneer in developing the furnace method for producing carbon black . Wiegand was the 1923 ACS rubber division chair . He received the Charles Goodyear Medal in 1960 .","qid":"173","docid":"William_B._Wiegand","rank":37,"score":89747},{"content":"Title: Black dwarf Content: A black dwarf is a theoretical stellar remnant , specifically a white dwarf that has cooled sufficiently that it no longer emits significant heat or light . Because the time required for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe ( 13.8 billion years ) , no black dwarfs are expected to exist in the universe yet , and the temperature of the coolest white dwarfs is one observational limit on the age of the universe . The name `` black dwarf '' has also been applied to substellar objects that do not have sufficient mass , less than approximately 0.08 , to maintain hydrogen-burning nuclear fusion . These objects are now generally called brown dwarfs , a term coined in the 1970s . Black dwarfs should not be confused with black holes , black stars , or neutron stars .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_dwarf","rank":38,"score":88951},{"content":"Title: Samsung SGH-D900 Content: The Samsung SGH-D900 , also known as the Ultra Edition 12.9 or Black Carbon , is a slider-style mobile phone created by Samsung Electronics that was announced in Q3 2006 . It is marketed as the world 's thinnest slider phone . Since the end of 2006 , a Wine Red edition was added and 2007 marked the introduction of a chrome edition to the lineup . There is also an upgrade of this model , the Samsung D900i which can be used to access documents on your computer from your phone and added an FM radio as well as was made out of higher-quality materials .","qid":"173","docid":"Samsung_SGH-D900","rank":39,"score":88903},{"content":"Title: Band emission Content: Band emission , is the fraction of the total emission from a blackbody that is in a certain wavelength interval or band . For a prescribed temperature , T and the spectral interval from 0 to λ , is the ratio of the total emissive power of a black body from 0 to λ to the total emissive power over the entire spectrum .","qid":"173","docid":"Band_emission","rank":40,"score":88811},{"content":"Title: Vantablack Content: Vantablack is a substance made of vertically aligned carbon nanotube arrays and is the blackest artificial substance known , absorbing up to 99.965 % of radiation in the visible spectrum .","qid":"173","docid":"Vantablack","rank":41,"score":88474},{"content":"Title: Black Creek (Lehigh River) Content: Black Creek is a 4.4 mi brookU.S . Geological Survey , National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data . The National Map , accessed April 1 , 2011 tributary of the Lehigh River in Carbon County , Pennsylvania in the United States , . < ref name = `` gertler '' > Gertler , Edward . Keystone Canoeing , Seneca Press , 2004 . Its waters start at the very south edge of Weatherly , Pennsylvania at the confluence of Beaver and Quakake Creeks , then runs nearly due east to its mouth on the Lehigh River in Maple Hollow at the former railroad depot of Penn Haven Junction just east of Hinkles Valley . The confluence was a waypoint along the 19th-century Lehigh & Susquehanna Turnpike Black Creek has two major tributaries joining within Weatherly , the 7 mi long Beaver Creek ( Carbon County ) < ref name = GmapMeas > Measured using Google maps ruler tool from source to confluence with Quakake Creek -- which merge creates Black Creek and the network of streams combining as Quakake Creek . The tributary Quakake Creek , is the more dispersed and disorganized source waters , originating in over half-a-dozen small streams ; it is also listed by the Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS ) as a variant name for Black Creek . Black Creek was named because of the because of the dark background pigment in the water created by anthracite coal , but this was a later development as its confluence origin and main course easterly became far more important hosting Railroad trackage than the Turnpike ever hoped to become . Historically , Black Creek was also known as Hazel Creek , stemming from the hazlenut trees that grew alongside its banks , < ref name = mcall-88-04-18 > How Weatherly Got Its Name , And Other Historical Facts though that name in the present-day is given a tributary of Beaver Creek closer to Beaver Meadows , PA. . Black Creek , Beaver Creek and Weatherly are all historically related to the Beaver Meadow Railroad , an 1830 predecessor railway to ( purchased in 1855 by the newly formed ) Lehigh Valley Railroad corporation ( LV or LVRR ) , which grew to be a famous Class I railway . The banks-side footpath from the Lehigh River at the 19th century settlement of Lausanne Landing climbed the steep south slopes of Broad Mountain and followed a chain of watercourses to Nescopeck opposite Shickshinny , PA on the main Susquehanna branch . Initially , in 1830 , the Beaver Meadow mining operations sent coal out by pack mules , but then capitalized the railway , when the technology was emergent and untried . Consequently , the creek hosted the first operating steam locomotives employed as mobile traction engines in the United States . Black Creek joins the Lehigh River near the community of Rockport , the closest occupied place to Penn Haven Junction in the midst of the rough terrain of the Lehigh River Gorge .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_Creek_(Lehigh_River)","rank":42,"score":88465},{"content":"Title: Carbon subsulfide Content: Carbon subsulfide is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula C3S2 . This deep red liquid is immiscible with water but soluble in organic solvents . It readily polymerizes at room temperature to form a hard black solid .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_subsulfide","rank":43,"score":88378},{"content":"Title: George Oenslager Content: George Oenslager ( September 25 , 1873 -- February 5 , 1956 ) was a Goodrich chemist who discovered that a derivative of aniline accelerated the vulcanization of rubber with sulfur . He first introduced carbon black as a rubber reinforcing agent in 1912 .","qid":"173","docid":"George_Oenslager","rank":44,"score":88375},{"content":"Title: Coal Black Content: Coal Black may refer to : The color black `` Coal Black Rose '' , an American folk song Coal Black and de Sebben Dwarfs , a 1943 Warner Brothers cartoon infamous for its racial stereotypes","qid":"173","docid":"Coal_Black","rank":45,"score":87798},{"content":"Title: Coalworker's pneumoconiosis Content: Coal workers ' pneumoconiosis ( CWP ) , also known as black lung disease or black lung , is caused by long exposure to coal dust . It is common in coal miners and others who work with coal . It is similar to both silicosis from inhaling silica dust and to the long-term effects of tobacco smoking . Inhaled coal dust progressively builds up in the lungs and can not be removed by the body ; this leads to inflammation , fibrosis , and in worse cases , necrosis . Coal workers ' pneumoconiosis , severe state , develops after the initial , milder form of the disease known as anthracosis ( anthrac -- coal , carbon ) . This is often asymptomatic and is found to at least some extent in all urban dwellers due to air pollution . Prolonged exposure to large amounts of coal dust can result in more serious forms of the disease , simple coal workers ' pneumoconiosis and complicated coal workers ' pneumoconiosis ( or progressive massive fibrosis , or PMF ) . More commonly , workers exposed to coal dust develop industrial bronchitis , clinically defined as chronic bronchitis ( i.e. productive cough for 3 months per year for at least 2 years ) associated with workplace dust exposure . The incidence of industrial bronchitis varies with age , job , exposure , and smoking . In nonsmokers ( who are less prone to develop bronchitis than smokers ) , studies of coal miners have shown a 16 % to 17 % incidence of industrial bronchitis . In 2013 CWP resulted in 25,000 deaths down from 29,000 deaths in 1990 .","qid":"173","docid":"Coalworker's_pneumoconiosis","rank":46,"score":87728},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":47,"score":87465},{"content":"Title: Super black Content: Super black is a surface treatment developed at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom . It reflects much less light than the darkest conventional matte black paints available previously . Conventional black paint absorbs about 97.5 % of the incident light . Super black absorbs approximately 99.6 % of light at normal incidence . At other angles of incidence , super black is even more effective . At an angle of 45 ° , super black absorbs 99.9 % of light . The technique used for super black is based upon chemically etching a nickel -- phosphorus alloy . Applications for super black are in specialist optical instruments to reduce unwanted reflections . The disadvantage of this material is its low optical thickness , as it is a surface treatment . As a result , infrared light of a wavelength longer than a few micrometers penetrates through the dark layer and has much higher reflectivity . The reported spectral dependence increases from about 1 % at 3 µm to 50 % at 20 µm . In 2009 , a competitor to the super black material was developed based on carbon nanotubes called Vantablack , that has a relatively flat reflectance in a wide spectral range . In 2011 , NASA and the US Army began funding research in the use of nanotube based super black coatings in sensitive optics . Nanotube based superblack arrays and coatings have recently become commercially available .","qid":"173","docid":"Super_black","rank":48,"score":87276},{"content":"Title: Black coal equivalent Content: Black coal equivalent ( BCE ) is an export coal product derived from the Coldry Process , a patented coal upgrading technology operated by Environmental Clean Technologies Limited , in Victoria , Australia . The Coldry Process is applied to brown coal ( lignite ) with a typical moisture content of 60 per cent by weight and transforms the coal into a densified coal product of equal or better calorific value ( 5,800 kcal/kg ) to typical export quality black coal , with less ash and sulfur content . Black coal equivalent derived from brown coal is ostensibly a ` cleaner ' burning coal fuel than most black coals .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_coal_equivalent","rank":49,"score":86805},{"content":"Title: Charcoal Content: Charcoal is a lightweight , black residue , consisting of carbon and any remaining ash , obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances . Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis -- the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen ( see char and biochar ) .","qid":"173","docid":"Charcoal","rank":50,"score":86048},{"content":"Title: Nick Levay Content: Nick Levay , also known as Rattle , is an American computer security expert and hacker . He is Chief Security Officer at Carbon Black , a computer security company in the Boston area . From 2008 to 2013 he was Director of Technical Operations and Information Security at the Center for American Progress , a public policy research organization .","qid":"173","docid":"Nick_Levay","rank":51,"score":85783},{"content":"Title: Joseph Black Content: Joseph Black FRSE FRCPE FPSG ( 16 April 1728 -- 6 December 1799 ) was a Scottish physician and chemist , known for his discoveries of magnesium , latent heat , specific heat , and carbon dioxide . He was Professor of Anatomy and Chemistry at the University of Glasgow for 10 years from 1756 , and then Professor of Medicine and Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh from 1766 , teaching and lecturing there for more than 30 years . The chemistry buildings at both the University of Edinburgh and the University of Glasgow are named after Black .","qid":"173","docid":"Joseph_Black","rank":52,"score":85542},{"content":"Title: Black Content: Black is the darkest color , resulting from the absence or complete absorption of light . Like white and grey , it is an achromatic color , literally a color without hue . It is one of the four primary colors in the CMYK color model , along with cyan , yellow , and magenta , used in color printing to produce all the other colors . Black is often used to represent darkness ; it is the symbolic opposite of white ( or brightness ) . Black was one of the first colors used by artists in neolithic cave paintings . In the 14th century , it began to be worn by royalty , the clergy , judges and government officials in much of Europe . It became the color worn by English romantic poets , businessmen and statesmen in the 19th century , and a high fashion color in the 20th century . In the Roman Empire , it became the color of mourning , and over the centuries it was frequently associated with death , evil , witches and magic . According to surveys in Europe and North America , it is the color most commonly associated with mourning , the end , secrets , magic , force , violence , evil , and elegance .","qid":"173","docid":"Black","rank":53,"score":84603},{"content":"Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_retirement","rank":54,"score":84597},{"content":"Title: Hexadecacarbonylhexarhodium Content: Hexadecacarbonylhexarhodium is a metal carbonyl cluster with the formula Rh6 ( CO ) 16 . It exists as black crystals that are soluble in organic solvents .","qid":"173","docid":"Hexadecacarbonylhexarhodium","rank":55,"score":84067},{"content":"Title: Shungite Content: Shungite is a black , lustrous , non-crystalline mineraloid consisting of more than 98 weight percent of carbon . It was first described from a deposit near Shunga village , in Karelia , Russia , from where it gets its name . Shungite has been reported to contain fullerenes .","qid":"173","docid":"Shungite","rank":56,"score":83993},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_emission_label","rank":57,"score":83976},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":58,"score":83867},{"content":"Title: Black cocaine Content: Black cocaine , also known as Coca Negra , is a mixture of regular cocaine base or cocaine hydrochloride with various other substances . These other substances are added to camouflage the typical appearance ( pigments and dyes , e.g. charcoal ) , to interfere with color-based drug tests ( mixing thiocyanates and iron salts or cobalt salts forms deep red complexes in solution ) , to make the mixture undetectable by drug sniffing dogs ( activated carbon may sufficiently absorb trace odors ) . Since the result is usually black , it is generally smuggled as toner , fingerprint powder , fertilizer , pigment or metal moldings . The pure cocaine base can be recovered from the mixture by extraction ( freebase ) or acid-base extraction ( hydrochloride ) using common organic solvents such as acetone . It was reported that in the mid-1980s Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet ordered his army to build a clandestine cocaine laboratory in Chile where chemists mixed cocaine with other chemicals to produce what Pinochet 's former top aide for intelligence Manuel Contreras described as a `` black cocaine '' capable of being smuggled past drug agents in the US and Europe . Black cocaine was detected in Bogota , Colombia in May 1998 . In 2008 , a new type of black cocaine was discovered by police in Spain . It had been manufactured into rubber-like sheets and made into luggage .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_cocaine","rank":59,"score":83804},{"content":"Title: Blacklight Content: A blacklight ( or often black light ) , also referred to as a UV-A light , Wood 's lamp , or simply ultraviolet light , is a lamp that emits long-wave ( UV-A ) ultraviolet light and not much visible light . One type of lamp has a violet filter material , either on the bulb or in a separate glass filter in the lamp housing , which blocks most visible light and allows through UV , so the lamp has a dim violet glow when operating . Blacklight lamps which have this filter have a lighting industry designation that includes the letters `` BLB '' . This stands for `` blacklight blue '' , which is a contradiction in that they are the type that does not look blue . A second type of lamp produces ultraviolet but does not have the filter material , so it produces more visible light and has a blue color when operating . These tubes are made for use in `` bug zapper '' insect traps , and are identified by the industry designation `` BL '' . Blacklight sources may be specially designed fluorescent lamps , mercury-vapor lamps , light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) , lasers , or incandescent lamps ; although incandescents produce almost no blacklight ( except slightly more for halogen types ) , and so are not considered true blacklight sources . In medicine , forensics , and some other scientific fields , such a light source is referred to as a Wood 's lamp , named after Robert Williams Wood who invented the original Wood 's glass UV filters . Although many other types of lamp emit ultraviolet light with visible light , black lights are essential when UV-A light without visible light is needed , particularly in observing fluorescence , the colored glow that many substances emit when exposed to UV . Black lights are employed for decorative and artistic lighting effects , diagnostic and therapeutic uses in medicine , the detection of substances tagged with fluorescent dyes , rock-hunting , the detection of counterfeit money , the curing of plastic resins , and attracting insects . Strong sources of long-wave ultraviolet light are used in tanning beds . Although the low-power UV-A emitted by black lights is not a hazard to skin or eyes and can be viewed without protection , powerful ultraviolet sources present dangers and require personal protective equipment such as goggles and gloves .","qid":"173","docid":"Blacklight","rank":60,"score":83729},{"content":"Title: Black silicon Content: Black silicon is a semiconductor material , a surface modification of silicon with very low reflectivity and correspondingly high absorption of visible ( and infrared ) light . The modification was discovered in the 1980s as an unwanted side effect of reactive ion etching ( RIE ) . Other methods for forming a similar structure include electrochemical etching , stain etching , metal-assisted chemical etching , and laser treatment ( which is developed in Eric Mazur 's laboratory at Harvard University ) , and FFC Cambridge process ( an electrochemical reduction process ) .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_silicon","rank":61,"score":83681},{"content":"Title: Vanadium hexacarbonyl Content: Vanadium hexacarbonyl is the inorganic compound with the formula V ( CO ) 6 . It is a blue-black volatile solid . This highly reactive species is noteworthy from theoretical perspectives as a rare isolable homoleptic metal carbonyl that is paramagnetic . Most species with the formula Mx ( CO ) y follow the 18-electron rule , whereas V ( CO ) 6 has 17 valence electrons .","qid":"173","docid":"Vanadium_hexacarbonyl","rank":62,"score":83480},{"content":"Title: CO-0.40-0.22 Content: CO-0 .40 -0.22 is a high velocity compact gas cloud near the centre of the Milky Way . It is 200 light years away from the centre in the central molecular zone . The cloud is in the shape of ellipse . The differences in the velocity , termed velocity dispersion , of the gas is unusually high at 100 km/s . The velocity dispersion may be due to an intermediate-mass black hole with a mass of about 100,000 solar masses . If it exists , this black hole would be the second largest known in the Milky Way . The molecular cloud has a mass of 4,000 solar masses . It is located at -0.40 ° , -0.22 ° galactic longitude and latitude . The cloud is 0.2 ° away from Sgr C to the galactic southeast . The gas is moving away from Earth at speeds ranging from 20 to 120 km/s . The spectral lines of carbon monoxide reveal that the gas is dense , and warm and fairly opaque . The gas cloud includes carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide molecules . Other molecules detected via microwave spectroscopy include cyanoacetylene , cyclopropenylidene , methanol , silicon monoxide , sulfur monoxide , carbon monosulfide , Thioformaldehyde , Hydrogen isocyanide , Formamide , and ions H2N + and HCO + . The name followed the precedent set by CO-0 .02 -0.02 , which is another high velocity compact cloud in the central molecular zone . Another example of this naming convention is CO -- 0.30 -- 0.07 .","qid":"173","docid":"CO-0.40-0.22","rank":63,"score":83024},{"content":"Title: Blue carbon Content: Blue carbon is the carbon captured by the world 's oceans and coastal ecosystems . The carbon captured by living organisms in oceans is stored in the form of biomass and sediments from mangroves , salt marshes , seagrasses and potentially algae .","qid":"173","docid":"Blue_carbon","rank":64,"score":82564},{"content":"Title: Black body Content: A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation , regardless of frequency or angle of incidence . A white body is one with a `` rough surface -LSB- that -RSB- reflects all incident rays completely and uniformly in all directions . '' A black body in thermal equilibrium ( that is , at a constant temperature ) emits electromagnetic radiation called black-body radiation . The radiation is emitted according to Planck 's law , meaning that it has a spectrum that is determined by the temperature alone ( see figure at right ) , not by the body 's shape or composition . A black body in thermal equilibrium has two notable properties : It is an ideal emitter : at every frequency , it emits as much energy as -- or more energy than -- any other body at the same temperature . It is a diffuse emitter : the energy is radiated isotropically , independent of direction . An approximate realization of a black surface is a hole in the wall of a large enclosure . Any light entering the hole is reflected indefinitely or absorbed inside and is unlikely to re-emerge , making the hole a nearly perfect absorber . The radiation confined in such an enclosure may or may not be in thermal equilibrium , depending upon the nature of the walls and the other contents of the enclosure . Real materials emit energy at a fraction -- called the emissivity -- of black-body energy levels . By definition , a black body in thermal equilibrium has an emissivity of . A source with lower emissivity independent of frequency often is referred to as a gray body . Construction of black bodies with emissivity as close to one as possible remains a topic of current interest . In astronomy , the radiation from stars and planets is sometimes characterized in terms of an effective temperature , the temperature of a black body that would emit the same total flux of electromagnetic energy .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_body","rank":65,"score":82545},{"content":"Title: Carbon Content: Carbon ( from carbo `` coal '' ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent -- making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , C and C being stable , while C is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity . Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18.5 % ) after oxygen . The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb '' γράφειν '' which means `` to write '' ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen . The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4 , while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions . For this reason , carbon has often been referred to as the `` king of the elements '' .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon","rank":66,"score":82484},{"content":"Title: Red-short Content: Red-short , hot-short or sulfur embrittlement is the quality possessed by carbon steel that suffers from having too much sulfur as an impurity . Iron or steel , when heated to above 900 ° F ( 460 ° C ) , glows with a red color . The color of any heated object changes predictably ( due to black body radiation ) from dull red through orange and yellow to white , and can be a useful indicator of its temperature . Good quality iron or steel at and above this temperature becomes increasingly malleable and plastic . Iron or steel having too much sulfur , on the other hand , becomes crumbly and brittle . This is due to the sulfur forming iron sulfide/iron mixtures in the grain boundaries of the metal which have a lower melting point than the steel . When the steel is heated up and worked , the mechanical energy added to the workpiece increases the temperature further . The iron sulfide ( FeS ) or iron/iron sulfide alloy ( which has an even lower melting point ) begins to melt , and the steel starts to separate at the grain boundaries . Steelmakers add manganese ( Mn ) to the steel when it is produced , to form manganese sulfide ( MnS ) . Manganese sulfide inclusions have a higher melting point and do not concentrate at the grain boundaries . Thus , when the steel is later heated up and worked , the melting at the grain boundaries does not occur .","qid":"173","docid":"Red-short","rank":67,"score":82225},{"content":"Title: Hazelwood Power Station Content: The Hazelwood Power Station is a decommissioned brown coal-fuelled thermal power station located in the Latrobe Valley of Victoria , Australia . Built between 1964 and 1971 , the 1,600 megawatt capacity power station was made up of eight 200MW units , and supplied up to 25 % of Victoria 's base load electricity and more than 5 % of Australia 's total electricity demand . It was a ` subcritical ' pulverized coal-fired boiler . The station was listed as the least carbon efficient power station in the OECD in a 2005 report by WWF Australia , making it one of the most polluting power stations in the world . At 1.56 tonnes of CO2 for each megawatt hour of electricity , it was 50 percent more polluting than the average black coal power station in NSW or Queensland . Hazelwood emitted 14 % of Victoria 's annual greenhouse gas emissions and 3 % of Australia 's greenhouse gas emissions . International Power plc purchased Hazelwood Power Station and the adjoining mine from the Victorian Government in 1996 with an expected 40-year life . In 2005 the Bracks Labor Government approved an environmental effects statement ( EES ) that allowed Hazelwood to relocate a road and a section of the Morwell river to allow access to an additional 43 million tonnes of coal in addition to that allowed under the mining licence boundaries set at the time of privatisation . This was estimated to provide sufficient coal for the plant to operate to at least 2030 ( prior to decommissioning plans ) . The EES also capped its expected total greenhouse output at 445 million tonnes of carbon dioxide over its life , after which Hazelwood may have been made to cease operation . Hazelwood was jointly owned by Engie ( formerly GDF Suez ) , with a 72 % share and Mitsui & Co. with a 28 % share . , Hazelwood employed 495 staff directly and on average 300 contractors . On 3 November 2016 , Engie announced that the entire Hazelwood plant would be closed as of the end of March 2017 , giving the workers and local communities only five months notice of the closure .","qid":"173","docid":"Hazelwood_Power_Station","rank":68,"score":81670},{"content":"Title: Coleotechnites carbonaria Content: Coleotechnites carbonaria is a moth of the Gelechiidae family . It is found in North America , where it has been recorded from Ontario and Tennessee . The wingspan is 7.5 -- 10 mm . The forewings are black with white oblique fasciae and ochreous scales . The hindwings are fuscous . The larvae feed on Juniperus species . They mine the leaves and stems of their host plant . They initially mine the terminal leaves and stem . Overwintering takes place in either the stem or leaf mine . In spring , the larvae continues mining the stem , and hollows out leaves from the inside .","qid":"173","docid":"Coleotechnites_carbonaria","rank":69,"score":81370},{"content":"Title: Black Coal, Thin Ice Content: Black Coal , Thin Ice is a 2014 Chinese thriller film written and directed by Diao Yinan , and produced by Vivian Qu . The film won the Golden Bear award at the 64th Berlin International Film Festival .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_Coal,_Thin_Ice","rank":70,"score":81192},{"content":"Title: Carbon Trust Content: The Carbon Trust is a not-for-dividend company that helps organisations and companies reduce their carbon emissions and become more resource efficient . Its stated mission is to accelerate the move to a sustainable , low carbon economy . It reinvests surpluses from its group commercial activities into its mission . The Carbon Trust helps companies and organisations reduce carbon emissions and increase resource efficiency through providing specialist help , support and advice . As of December 2014 the Carbon Trust had saved its customers # 5.5 bn in costs and 60Mt . It operates globally and has offices in U.K. , China , Mexico , South Africa , Brazil and United States . It is also active in many other countries including South Korea , Malaysia , Singapore , India , Indonesia , Namibia , Peru , Chile and Panama .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_Trust","rank":71,"score":81126},{"content":"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_shifting","rank":72,"score":80901},{"content":"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_finance","rank":73,"score":80327},{"content":"Title: Black Pool Content: Black Pool is a hot spring in the West Thumb Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States . The pool was cool enough up until 1991 for dark orange-brown cyanobacteria to grow throughout the pool . When combined with the blue of the water , the pool appeared to be an exceptionally dark green to almost black , hence the name . An exchange of function took place in 1991 , shifting thermal energy to Black Pool and nearby Abyss Pool , causing them to heat up . Black Pool 's temperature became hot enough to kill all the cyanobacteria in the pool , turning the pool a rich teal blue color . The pool also had frequent boiling eruptions on August 15 , 1991 , doming the water to 3 feet and causing heavy runoff . Black Pool remains extremely hot , and is now one of Yellowstone 's most beautiful and intensely blue pools . The name of the pool remains `` Black Pool . ''","qid":"173","docid":"Black_Pool","rank":74,"score":80269},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"173","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":75,"score":80214},{"content":"Title: Black Country Content: The Black Country is an area of the Midlands in England , west of Birmingham , including Dudley , Walsall and Sandwell . In the Industrial Revolution , it became one of the most industrialised parts of Britain with coal mines , coking , iron foundries and steel mills producing a high level of air pollution . The 14 mi road between Wolverhampton and Birmingham was described as `` one continuous town '' in 1785 . The first trace of `` The Black Country '' as an expression dates from the 1840s . The name is believed to come from the soot from the heavy industries that covered the area , although the 30-foot-thick coal seam close to the surface is another possible origin .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_Country","rank":76,"score":80003},{"content":"Title: Tetracobalt dodecacarbonyl Content: Tetracobalt dodecacarbonyl is the chemical compound with the formula Co4 ( CO ) 12 . It is a black crystalline compound that is insoluble in water and easily oxidized by air . It is an example of a metal carbonyl cluster .","qid":"173","docid":"Tetracobalt_dodecacarbonyl","rank":77,"score":79913},{"content":"Title: The Black Family Content: The Black Family is a professional wrestling face / tecnico stable that has been working in AAA since 2000 . Originally a heel / rudo stable , The Black Family currently consists of original member Dark Cuervo as well as the later additions of Dark Ozz , and Dark Espíritu . The group is also referred to as the Dark Family , mainly became all members added the word `` Dark '' to their names in 2007 , the two names are used interchangeably . The Black Family is often part of a much larger stables such as Lucha Libre Latina ( LLL ) or La Secta De Mesias but act as a unit within the larger stable . Members of the group has held the AAA World Tag Team Championship once and the Mexican National Atómicos Championship three times in two different combinations . In October 2010 the stable turned tecnico for the first time . In 2015 Dark Ozz and Espiritu left AAA and Cuervo and Scoria reformed the Black Family","qid":"173","docid":"The_Black_Family","rank":78,"score":79852},{"content":"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_governance_in_England","rank":79,"score":79731},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"173","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":80,"score":79534},{"content":"Title: NGC 1999 Content: NGC 1999 is a dust-filled bright nebula with a vast hole of empty space represented by a black patch of sky , as can be seen in the photograph . It is a reflection nebula , and shines from the light of the variable star V380 Orionis . It was previously believed that the black patch was a dense cloud of dust and gas which blocked light that would normally pass through , called a dark nebula . Analysis of this patch by the infrared telescope Herschel ( October 9 , 2009 ) , which has the capability of penetrating such dense cloud material , resulted in continued black space . This led to the belief that either the cloud material was immensely dense or that an unexplained phenomenon had been detected . With support from ground-based observations done using the submillimeter bolometer cameras on the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment radio telescope ( November 29 , 2009 ) and the Mayall ( Kitt Peak ) and Magellan telescopes ( December 4 , 2009 ) , it was determined that the patch looks black not because it is an extremely dense pocket of gas , but because it is truly empty . The exact cause of this phenomenon is still being investigated , although it has been hypothesized that narrow jets of gas from some of the young stars in the region punctured the sheet of dust and gas , as well as , powerful radiation from a nearby mature star may have helped to create the hole . Researchers believe this discovery should lead to a better understanding of the entire star forming process . It is located 1,500 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Orion .","qid":"173","docid":"NGC_1999","rank":81,"score":79448},{"content":"Title: Black tar heroin Content: Black tar heroin is a form of heroin that is sticky like tar or hard like coal . Its dark color is the result of crude processing methods that leave behind impurities . Despite its name , black tar heroin can also be dark orange or dark brown in appearance . It is generally less expensive than other forms of heroin . Black tar heroin is heroin acetate . Other forms of heroin require additional steps of purification post acetylation . With Black Tar the product 's processing stops immediately after acetylation . Its unique consistency however is due to acetylation without a reflux apparatus . As in Homebake Heroin in Australia and New Zealand the crude acetylation results in a gooey mass . Black Tar as a type holds a variable admixture morphine derivatives -- predominantly 6-MAM ( 6-monoacetylmorphine ) which is another result of crude acetylation . The lack of proper reflux during acetylation fails to remove much of the moisture retained in the acetylating agent , glacial acetic acid . Black tar heroin is often produced in Latin America , and is most commonly found in the western and southern parts of the United States , while also being occasionally found in western Canada and Europe . It has a varying consistency depending on manufacturing methods , cutting agents , and moisture levels , ranging in quality from a black-brown , tarry goo in unrefined form to a uniform , light-brown powder when further processed and cut with lactose .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_tar_heroin","rank":82,"score":79436},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":83,"score":79397},{"content":"Title: Center for Negative Carbon Emissions Content: The Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) is led by Director Klaus S. Lackner , and was founded in the School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment ( SSEBE ) at Arizona State University in 2014 . CNCE is advancing carbon management technologies that can capture carbon dioxide directly from ambient air in an outdoor operating environment . CNCE aims to demonstrate systems that over time increase in scope , reliability and efficiency while lowering the cost of carbon dioxide capture from air .","qid":"173","docid":"Center_for_Negative_Carbon_Emissions","rank":84,"score":79311},{"content":"Title: Janthinobacterium lividum Content: Janthinobacterium lividum is an aerobic , Gram-negative , soil-dwelling bacterium that has a distinctive dark-violet ( almost black ) color . This color is due to a compound called violacein , which is produced when glycerol is metabolized as a carbon source . Violacein has anti-bacterial , anti-viral , and anti-fungal properties . Its anti-fungal properties are of particular interest since J. lividum is found on the skin of certain amphibians , including the red-backed salamander ( Plethodon cinereus ) , where it prevents infection by the devastating chytrid fungus ( Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ) .","qid":"173","docid":"Janthinobacterium_lividum","rank":85,"score":79273},{"content":"Title: Black hair Content: Black hair is the darkest and most common of all human hair colors globally , due to larger populations with this dominant trait . It is a dominant genetic trait , and it is found in people of all backgrounds and ethnicities . It has large amounts of eumelanin and is less dense than other hair colors . Sometimes very dark brown ( blackish-brown ) hair is mistaken for black . In English , black hair is sometimes described as soft-black , raven black , or jet-black . The range of skin colors associated with black hair is vast , ranging from the palest of light skin tones to dark skin . Black-haired humans can have dark or light eyes .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_hair","rank":86,"score":79233},{"content":"Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_profiling","rank":87,"score":79181},{"content":"Title: Australian Coal Association Content: The Australian Coal Association ( often abbreviated to ACA ) is the major Australian coal mining industry lobby group . It represents the black coal producers of New South Wales and Queensland and consists of a number of relatively small coal mining companies or subsidiaries of larger corporations in those two states . Australia is the world 's largest coal exporter , and black coal is Australia 's second largest commodity export , worth more than A$ 24 billion in the financial year ending June 2008 , and $ 46 billion , or nearly double this amount , for the corresponding calendar year ending December . Black coal provides around 57 per cent of Australia 's grid-connected electricity ( brown coal around 24 % ) and is vital for major industries such as steel making and cement manufacture . On 23 August 2013 , the Australian Coal Association released a statement that it will be subsumed into the Minerals Council of Australia .","qid":"173","docid":"Australian_Coal_Association","rank":88,"score":79140},{"content":"Title: Organic-rich sedimentary rocks Content: Organic-rich sedimentary rocks are a specific type of sedimentary rock that contains significant amounts ( > 3 % ) of organic carbon . The most common types include coal , lignite , oil shale , or black shale . The organic material may be disseminated throughout the rock giving it a uniform dark color , and/or may be present as discrete occurrences of tar , bitumen , asphalt , petroleum , coal or carbonaceous material . Organic-rich sedimentary rocks may act as source rocks which generate hydrocarbons that accumulate in other sedimentary `` reservoir '' rocks ( see oil sands and petroleum geology ) . Potential source rocks are any type of sedimentary rock that the ability to dispel available carbon from within it ( limestone is a classic example of a source rock ) . Good reservoir rocks are any sedimentary rock that has high pore-space availability . This allows the hydrocarbons to accumulate within the rock and be stored for long periods of time ( a sandstone commonly makes a good source rock ) . Highly permeable reservoir rocks are also of interest to industry professionals , as they allow for the easy extraction of the hydrocarbons within . The hydrocarbon reservoir system is not complete however without a cap rock . Cap rocks are rock units which have very low porosity and permeability , which trap the hydrocarbons within the units below as they try to migrate upwards .","qid":"173","docid":"Organic-rich_sedimentary_rocks","rank":89,"score":79121},{"content":"Title: Man in Black (Lost) Content: The entity referred to most frequently as The Man in Black ( referred to as The Smoke Monster by the main characters ) is a fictional character and the main antagonist on the American ABC television series Lost . He appeared primarily as a cloud of black smoke ( `` The Smoke Monster '' ) until the final episode of season five , where he appeared as a middle-aged man dressed in black . In season six , he primarily appeared in the physical form of John Locke . He exhibited the ability to `` scan '' the minds and memories of others , allowing him to confront characters such as Mr. Eko and Ben , with `` judgment '' ( a replay of their pasts ) , and to assume the forms and memories of the deceased , starting with the original Man in Black himself , being Jacob 's brother , or Christian , Yemi , Alex , and Locke . According to Jacob , who explains this to Richard Alpert ( Nestor Carbonell ) , it is the incarnation of evil , and its primary goal -- to escape from the island -- would be the `` end of everything good '' . Various other characters have implied that his escape would be catastrophic and could even cause the destruction of reality . A longtime resident of the island that serves as the main setting of Lost , the true nature of the Man in Black was long shrouded in mystery . It had been described by Lost producer Damon Lindelof as `` one of the biggest secrets '' of the mythology , and the producers have often hinted that the black cloud of smoke was not a monster in the traditional sense . TV Guide included him in their 2013 list of The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time .","qid":"173","docid":"Man_in_Black_(Lost)","rank":90,"score":78985},{"content":"Title: Calorescence Content: Calorescence is when matter absorbs infrared radiant energy and emits visible radiant energy in its place . For example , some kinds of flammable gas give off large amounts of radiant heat and very little visible light when burning , and if a piece of metal is placed into such a flame , the metal will become bright red-hot -- which is to say the metal absorbs invisible infrared and emits visible radiation . The word calorescence was coined in 1864 on the model of the word fluorescence which had been coined in 1852 . At that time , fluorescence was defined as absorption in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum followed by emission in the visible part of the spectrum . Calorescence was defined complementarily as absorption in the infrared followed by emission in the visible . The following is a laboratory demonstration of calorescence . An ordinary lightbulb emits lots of infrared light . Carbon disulfide is a colorless liquid transparent to both infrared and visible . Iodine readily dissolves in this liquid and causes the liquid to turn a black color and to become completely opaque to visible light , given enough iodine . At the same time , however , the iodine has essentially no effect on the transparency of the liquid with respect to infrared light . Hence when light from an ordinary lightbulb is passed through a body of this solution , lots of infrared and only infrared emerges out at the other side . This infrared light can be brought to a focus with a concave mirror ( or an optical lens made from rock-salt , but not a lens made from glass because glass is a poor transmitter of infrared ) . At the point of focus , with a good focusing tool , the infrared beam is strong enough to set paper on fire . If a little piece of non-combustible solid material is placed at the focus , it will glow visibly in the heat ; i.e. the material will absorb infrared and emit visible light . The following is another laboratory illustration of calorescence . In a flame of pure hydrogen burning in oxygen , the hydrogen chemically combines with the oxygen to form water ( H2O ) plus a lot of heat is produced . This heat is a radiant emission from the newly formed water molecules . That is , the heat is thermal radiation whose particular set of radiant frequencies is uniquely characteristic of water molecules , as determined by emission spectroscopy . Water molecules have very little emission in the visible portion of the spectrum at any temperature ( c.f. spectral absorption of water ) . The temperature of the hydrogen flame is more than 2000 degrees Celsius . If a piece of platinum is placed in the flame , the platinum will become `` white hot '' and give out a bright light . The platinum thus absorbs radiation having the spectral profile of water , and emits radiation having the spectral profile of platinum . ( The platinum also picks up heat from collisions with moving gas molecules ) . The term calorescence is rarely seen in use today , whereas the term fluorescence is common . One reason is that there is n't a physical explanation for calorescence that 's specific to calorescence . Relatedly , the physical explanations for some types of fluorescence behavior are also explanations for calorescence and the word fluorescence has been preferred and expanded in customary usage to include calorescence . Another reason is that there is n't a widely used practical application attached to the word calorescence , whereas there is for fluorescence . A related item of physics terminology today is the so-called `` Anti-Stokes Shift '' . A Stokes shift refers to molecular absorptions of radiant energy of higher frequencies followed by emissions of lower frequencies ; and an anti-Stokes shift refers to absorptions of lower frequencies followed by emissions of higher frequencies . With this terminology , practical applications are attached to the term `` anti-Stokes photoluminescence '' in materials science including semiconductors ( see examples ) . Equal terminology in use in laser science is `` infrared upconversion '' , `` upconversion luminescence '' , or simply `` upconversion '' ( see examples ) . This terminology is usually contemplating luminescence , as opposed to incandescence , whereas the word Calorescence belongs to the 19th century when the only known upconversion methods were of the incandescent kind .","qid":"173","docid":"Calorescence","rank":91,"score":78981},{"content":"Title: Black powder in gas pipelines Content: Black Powder is an industry name for the abrasive , reactive contamination particulate present in all gas and hydrocarbon fluid transmission lines . Black Powder will range from light brown to black and the mineral make up will vary per production field around the world . Black Powder forms throughout the pipeline process ; from producing formations , through well bores , into gathering lines , in reservoirs for fluid separation , and along transmission pipelines . After refinement , Black Powder continues to build in the gas plants and refineries , storage reservoirs and finally through to the end user . Black Powder is a composite of iron oxides , iron sulphides , varying dirt such as silica and calcium as well as chloride , sodium and other material particulate .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_powder_in_gas_pipelines","rank":92,"score":78971},{"content":"Title: Spark spread Content: The spark spread is the theoretical gross margin of a gas-fired power plant from selling a unit of electricity , having bought the fuel required to produce this unit of electricity . All other costs ( operation and maintenance , capital and other financial costs ) must be covered from the spark spread . The term was first coined by Tony West 's trading team on the trading floor of National Power Ltd in Swindon , UK during the late 1990s and quickly came into common usage as other traders realised the trading and hedging opportunities . The term dark spread and quark spread refers to the similarly defined difference between cash streams ( spread ) for coal-fired power plants and nuclear plants respectively . These indicators of power plant economics are useful for tracing energy markets . For operating or investment decisions published `` spread '' data are not applicable . Local market conditions , actual plant efficiencies and other plant costs have to be considered . The higher the dark spread the better , for the generator ; an IPP with a dark spread of $ 15/MWh will be more profitable than a competitor with a dark spread of only $ 10/MWh . Further definition of clean spread indicators include the price of carbon dioxide emission allowances ( see : Emission trading ) .","qid":"173","docid":"Spark_spread","rank":93,"score":78965},{"content":"Title: Black Creek (Nescopeck Creek) Content: Black Creek is a long source tributary of Nescopeck Creek so part of the Susquehanna River drainage basin . It is also the second & longer stream of the same name recognized by the USGS GNIS system in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , USGS GNIS system , search by name in Pennsylvania . Relative lengths from other data sources , but GNIS data puts the differences at over 20 miles . ( See GNIS details : Creek 1169695 , Black Creek vs. 1169696 , Black Creek . ) in the United States -- compared to the Black Creek beyond the ridgeline of the drainage divide , so in the Lehigh River valley and Carbon County . The headwaters of both Black Creeks in Luzerne county are only a few miles apart , and both valleys were traversed by the Lausanne-Nescopeck Turnpike ( Lehigh-Susquehanna Turnpike ) in the first half of the 19th-century . The J-on-its-long-side-shaped brook is approximately 22.6 mi long , and in the early 1800s the sides of its valley became the path of the Lausanne-Nescopeck Turnpike ( Lehigh-Susquehanna Turnpike ) -- connecting Philadelphia and the Delaware basin communities to the new settlements in the mid-Susquehanna and Wyoming valleys via paths along the banks of the Lehigh and the Susquehanna Rivers .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_Creek_(Nescopeck_Creek)","rank":94,"score":78890},{"content":"Title: Dark Black Content: Dark Black is the second album by Kristina Train , released on November 5 , 2012 in the UK .","qid":"173","docid":"Dark_Black","rank":95,"score":78865},{"content":"Title: Blacklead Content: Blacklead may refer to : Graphite , also known as `` black lead '' Blacklead , another name for the Plumbago drawing style and medium Blacklead Island , Nunavut , Canada","qid":"173","docid":"Blacklead","rank":96,"score":78784},{"content":"Title: Impsonite Content: Impsonite is a black , carbonaceous substance , with a specific gravity of 1.10 -- 1.25 and a carbon content of 50 -- 85 % . It is described as an asphaltic pyrobitumen . It is believed to be derived from a fluid bitumen which polymerized after filling a vein . The term was coined by George Homans Eldridge in 1901 , referring to the asphaltic material in the Impson Valley in southeastern Oklahoma , later known as the Jumbo mine . The asphaltic material in the Impson Valley was later reclassified as grahamite , based on solubility and chemical similarities with the type grahamite of West Virginia .","qid":"173","docid":"Impsonite","rank":97,"score":78628},{"content":"Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong","qid":"173","docid":"List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":98,"score":78602},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"173","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":99,"score":78537},{"content":"Title: Black Mountains (North Carolina) Content: The Black Mountains are a mountain range in western North Carolina , in the southeastern United States . They are part of the Blue Ridge Province of the Southern Appalachian Mountains . The Blacks are the highest mountains in the Eastern United States . The range takes its name from the dark appearance of the red spruce and Fraser fir trees that form a spruce-fir forest on the upper slopes which contrasts with the brown ( during winter ) or lighter green ( during the growing season ) appearance of the deciduous trees at lower elevations . The Eastern Continental Divide , which runs along the eastern Blue Ridge crest , intersects the southern tip of the Black Mountain range . The Black Mountains are home to Mount Mitchell State Park , which protects the range 's highest summit and adjacent summits in the north-central section of the range . Much of the range is also protected by the Pisgah National Forest . The Blue Ridge Parkway passes along the range 's southern section , and is connected to the summit of Mount Mitchell by North Carolina Highway 128 . The Black Mountains are mostly located in Yancey County , although the range 's southern and western extremes are part of Buncombe County .","qid":"173","docid":"Black_Mountains_(North_Carolina)","rank":100,"score":78403}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 135613\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon black Content: Carbon black ( subtypes are acetylene black , channel black , furnace black , lamp black and thermal black ) is a material produced by the incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products such as FCC tar , coal tar , ethylene cracking tar , and a small amount from vegetable oil . Carbon black is a form of paracrystalline carbon that has a high surface-area-to-volume ratio , albeit lower than that of activated carbon . It is dissimilar to soot in its much higher surface-area-to-volume ratio and significantly lower ( negligible and non-bioavailable ) PAH ( polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon ) content . However , carbon black is widely used as a model compound for diesel soot for diesel oxidation experiments . Carbon black is mainly used as a reinforcing filler in tires and other rubber products . In plastics , paints , and inks carbon black is used as a color pigment . The current International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC ) evaluation is that , `` Carbon black is possibly carcinogenic to humans ( Group 2B ) '' . Short-term exposure to high concentrations of carbon black dust may produce discomfort to the upper respiratory tract , through mechanical irritation .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_black\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 129415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brown carbon Content: In chemistry , brown carbon ( Cbrown/BrC ) is brown smoke released by the combustion of organic matter . It coexists with black carbon when released in the atmosphere . Black carbon is primarily released by high-temperature combustion and brown carbon is emitted mainly by biomass combustion . These two are the two most important light absorbing substances in the atmosphere . The climate and radiative transfer are highly impacted by the absorptive properties of these substances .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Brown_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 128988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Black (company) Content: Carbon Black , Inc. ( formerly Bit9 , Inc ) is a security company based in Waltham , Massachusetts . Carbon Black develops endpoint security software that detects malicious behavior and prevents malicious files from attacking an organization . The company is an actor in the antivirus , endpoint detection and response and endpoint protection platform space . Carbon Black 's competitors in the endpoint security domain include Cylance , FireEye , McAfee , Symantec , and Tanium . To-date the firm has raised $ 190M from investors including Kleiner Perkins , Highland Capital , Sequoia , Accomplice , and Blackstone . According to Bloomberg , the company is currently preparing for an IPO and has hired JPMorgan and Morgan Stanley to lead the offering . In September 2016 , The Wall Street Journal reported the company filed their S-1 privately by using the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act which allows companies with less than $ 1 billion in revenues to file in a confidential manner with limited public disclosure .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Black_(company)\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 118080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonado Content: Carbonado , commonly known as the `` black diamond '' , is the toughest form of natural diamond . It is an impure form of polycrystalline diamond consisting of diamond , graphite , and amorphous carbon . It is found primarily in alluvial deposits in the Central African Republic and in Brazil . Its natural colour is black or dark grey , and it is more porous than other diamonds .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonado\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 113839\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon flaw Content: A carbon flaw is a blemish present within a diamond crystalline form of carbon , usually seen as a black spot . The blemish may be microscopic or visible to the naked eye . These spots are undesirable imperfections since they can be seen easier than other flaws . It is worth noting that , while diamonds are composed of purely carbon , the black spot flaws could be other inclusions ( foreign matter ) such as olivine , garnet , pyrite , silica , calcite , and iron oxides .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_flaw\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 110725\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Law Wind Farm Content: The 42-turbine Black Law Wind Farm has a total capacity of 97 megawatts ( MW ) , sufficient to meet the average electricity needs of 70,000 homes each year - or a town the size of Paisley - and is estimated to save around 200,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions a year . The # 90 million wind farm is located near Forth in Lanarkshire and has been built on an old opencast coalmine site which was completely restored to shallow wetlands during the construction programme . It employs seven permanent staff on site and created 200 jobs during construction . Scottish Power is expected to complete a second phase which will see the installation of a further 12 turbines . The project has received wide recognition for its contribution to environmental objectives , including praise from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds , who said that the scheme was not only improving the landscape in a derelict opencast mining site , but also benefiting a range of wildlife in the area , with an extensive habitat management projects covering over 14 square kilometres .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Law_Wind_Farm\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 109360\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kværner-process Content: The Kværner process or the Kværner carbon black & hydrogen process ( CB&H ) is a method for the production of carbon black and hydrogen gas from hydrocarbons such as methane , natural gas and biogas . The process was developed in the 1980s by the Norwegian engineering firm Kværner , and was first commercially exploited in 1999 .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Kværner-process\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 101526\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Planet Content: Black Planet may refer to multiple concepts : BlackPlanet , a social networking website geared towards African-Americans Black Planet , a song by The Sisters of Mercy a Carbon planet , a proposed planetary type that is actually black .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Planet\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 99737\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zoe Karbonopsina Content: Zoe Karbonopsina , also Karvounopsina or Carbonopsina , i.e. , `` with the Coal-Black Eyes '' ( Ζωή Καρβωνοψίνα , Zōē Karbōnopsina ) , was an empress consort and regent of the Byzantine empire . She was the fourth wife of the Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise and the mother of Constantine VII .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Zoe_Karbonopsina\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 98956\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bituminous coal Content: Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike substance called bitumen . It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than anthracite . Formation is usually the result of high pressure being exerted on lignite . Its coloration can be black or sometimes dark brown ; often there are well-defined bands of bright and dull material within the seams . These distinctive sequences , which are classified according to either `` dull , bright-banded '' or `` bright , dull-banded '' , is how bituminous coals are stratigraphically identified . Bituminous coal is an organic sedimentary rock formed by diagenetic and sub metamorphic compression of peat bog material . Its primary constituents are macerals : vitrinite , and liptinite . The carbon content of bituminous coal is around 60-80 % ; the rest is composed of water , air , hydrogen , and sulfur , which have not been driven off from the macerals . Bank density is approximately 1346 kg/m ³ ( 84 lb/ft ³ ) . Bulk density typically runs to 833 kg/m ³ ( 52 lb/ft ³ ) . The heat content of bituminous coal ranges from 24 to 35 MJ/kg ( 21 million to 30 million BTU per short ton ) on a moist , mineral-matter-free basis . Within the coal mining industry , this type of coal is known for releasing the largest amounts of firedamp , a dangerous mixture of gases that can cause underground explosions . Extraction of bituminous coal demands the highest safety procedures involving attentive gas monitoring , good ventilation and vigilant site management .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Bituminous_coal\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 98370\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black sugar Content: Black sugar is a form of crystalline precipitate or a particulate pollution by-product unique from creosote caused by the burning of low grade coal in the 1940 -- 1960s . The outgas from burning coal would be a by-product ( burning coal was used in residential forced hot air furnaces ) for the heating of family housing . Black sugar was often found on porches and the cold ductwork and caused the high carbon , soot-loaded gas to precipitate on the floors and walls and crystallize . Outward appearance was that of very fine , shiny coal , but would not combust when exposed to flames . After a time , the crystalline material would become powdered , to the consistency of white cane sugar , but retain a fine , shiny , black texture , thus the name `` black sugar '' . The material would often be cleaned from duct work by chimney sweeps or cleaning staff on a regular basis in the Beaver-Ambridge-Monaca area of Pennsylvania along the Ohio River near Pittsburgh .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_sugar\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 97800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 97302\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Z._Jacobson\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 97240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black snake (firework) Content: Black snake and Pharaoh 's serpent are two similar types of firework . After being lit , both fireworks begin to smoke and spew out ash resembling a snake via an intumescent reaction . They stay on the ground and do not emit sparks , flares , any form of projectiles , or any sound , but may release smoke . Sodium bicarbonate which produces carbon dioxide gas , and sugar forming carbon containing ash , are common chemicals used for the black snake demonstration . Other sources report the contents as `` a nitrated mixture of linseed oil and naphthalenes '' . The traditional `` Pharaoh 's serpent '' version of this firework produces a more impressive snake , but its operation depends upon mercury ( II ) thiocyanate , which is no longer commonly used because of its toxicity .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_snake_(firework)\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 97034\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anarsia carbonaria Content: Anarsia carbonaria is a moth of the family Gelechiidae . It was described by Meyrick in 1913 . It is found in South Africa and Zimbabwe . The wingspan is 14 -- 15 mm . The forewings are dark grey irregularly irrorated with white , with scattered black scales . The basal half with several small scattered suffused blackish spots and there is an irregular transverse black blotch on the middle of the costa reaching two-thirds across the wing , followed by a patch of light grey suffusion with stronger white irroration extended to the tornus . There is also an oval black spot in the disc at three-fourths and an oblique black mark between this and the costa posteriorly , surrounded with dark suffusion . There are also several suffused black dots towards the costa posteriorly and the termen . The hindwings are grey , paler and thinly scaled anteriorly .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Anarsia_carbonaria\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 95934\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Triangle (region) Content: The Black Triangle ( German Schwarzes Dreieck ) is a border region shared by Germany , Poland and the Czech Republic , long characterized by extremely high levels of pollution . The term was coined in the 1980s . For decades , industrially produced air pollutants ( chiefly sulfur dioxide ) , water pollution , acid rain and other effects took an enormous toll on the health of local residents and the surrounding environment . After the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe , the three nations acted to cut emissions . This has resulted in significant environmental improvement .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Triangle_(region)\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 95172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blackwater (coal) Content: Blackwater '' ' is a form of pollution produced in coal preparation . In its purification , coal is crushed in a coal preparation plant and then separated and transported as a coal slurry , From the slurry , incombustible materials are removed and the coal can be sized . After the recovery of the coal particles from this slurry , the remaining water is black , contains very fine particles of coal . This blackwater can not be processed in a water treatment plant .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Blackwater_(coal)\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 95165\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: White carbon Content: Chaoite , an allotrophe of carbon Precipitated silica , not carbon , also called ` white carbon black '\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"White_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 94736\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Euchontha carboniptera Content: Euchontha carboniptera is a moth of the family Notodontidae . It is endemic to the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes . The length of the forewings is 13 -- 14 mm for males . The ground color of the forewings is dark charcoal gray to black . The ground color of the hindwings is dark gray to blackish charcoal gray .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Euchontha_carboniptera\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 94725\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon snake Content: Carbon snake is a demonstration of the dehydration reaction of sugar by concentrated sulfuric acid . With concentrated sulfuric acid , granulated table sugar ( sucrose ) performs degradation reaction which changes its form to black solid-liquid mixture . Carbon snake experiment can sometimes be misrecognized as Black snake , `` sugar snake , '' or `` burning sugar '' which involve the reaction with baking soda instead of sulfuric acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_snake\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 94676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon (disambiguation) Content: Carbon is a chemical element with atomic number 6 . Carbon may also refer to : Chemistry Carbon black , a filler often used to improve the properties of rubber or plastic compounds Carbon chauvinism , a term meant to disparage the assumption that the molecules responsible for the mechanisms of life must be based on carbon Carbon dioxide equivalent , a greenhouse gas measurement Carbon ( fiber ) , can refer to carbon filament thread , or to felt or woven cloth made from those carbon filaments Carbon offset , a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide Computers and electronics Carbon ( API ) , a deprecated application programming interface for Mac OS X Need for Speed : Carbon , a computer racing game developed by Electronic Arts ThinkPad X1 Carbon , a notebook computer released by Lenovo Rio Carbon , a product line of digital audio players WSO2 Carbon , an open-source middleware platform Places Canada : Carbon , Alberta , a village in Kneehill County United States : Carbon , California , a former settlement in Mendocino County Carbon , Indiana , a town in Clay County Carbon , Iowa , a city in Adams County Carbon , Pennsylvania Carbon , Texas , a town in Eastland County Carbon County ( disambiguation ) , multiple places Other uses Carbon ( journal ) Carbon ( Halo team ) , also known as Team Carbon , a professional Halo team Carbon 15 , a family of firearms Carbon Motors Corporation , an American automotive corporation Corral del Carbón , a building in Granada , Andalusia , Spain\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 94525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon print Content: A carbon print is a photographic print with an image consisting of pigmented gelatin , rather than of silver or other metallic particles suspended in a uniform layer of gelatin , as in typical black-and-white prints , or of chromogenic dyes , as in typical photographic color prints . In the original version of the printing process , carbon tissue ( a temporary support sheet coated with a layer of gelatin mixed with a pigment -- originally carbon black , from which the name derives ) is bathed in a potassium dichromate sensitizing solution , dried , then exposed to strong ultraviolet light through a photographic negative , hardening the gelatin in proportion to the amount of light reaching it . The tissue is then developed by treatment with warm water , which dissolves the unhardened gelatin . The resulting pigment image is physically transferred to a final support surface , either directly or indirectly . In an important early 20th century variation of the process , known as carbro ( carbon-bromine ) printing , contact with a conventional silver bromide paper print , rather than exposure to light , was used to selectively harden the gelatin . A wide variety of colored pigments can be used instead of carbon black . The process can produce images of very high quality which are exceptionally resistant to fading and other deterioration . It was developed in the mid-19th century in response to concerns about the fading of early types of silver-based black-and-white prints , which was already becoming apparent within a relatively few years of their introduction . The most recent development in the process was made by the American photographer Charles Berger in 1993 with the introduction of a non-toxic sensitizer that presented none of the health and safety hazards of the toxic ( now EU-restricted ) dichromate sensitizer .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_print\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 92576\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tihomir Novakov Content: Tihomir Novakov , Ph.D known also as Tica Novakov ( March 16 , 1929 -- January 2 , 2015 ) was a Serbian-born American physicist . As a scientist , Novakov is known for his black carbon , air quality , and climate change research . James Hansen dubbed him `` the godfather of black carbon . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Tihomir_Novakov\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 92463\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cheilosia carbonaria Content: Cheilosia carbonaria is a European species of hoverfly . Like most Cheilosia it is black , and because of this may often be overlooked as a hoverfly . It is little recorded , and is considered rare and scarce throughout most of its range .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Cheilosia_carbonaria\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 92422\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sarotherodon linnellii Content: Sarotherodon linnellii , sometimes known as the unga , blackfin tilapia or blackbelly tilapia , is a of cichlid endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo in western Cameroon . This species reaches a length of 18.5 cm SL . It is critically endangered because of pollution and sedimentation due to human activities . It is potentially also threatened by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although studies indicate that Barombo Mbo lacks excess amounts of this gas . Juveniles mainly feed on insects ( including their larvae ) and adults mainly on phytoplankton .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Sarotherodon_linnellii\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 92372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Little Cities of Black Diamonds Content: The Little Cities of Black Diamonds are the old coal-mining communities of southeast Ohio . Some communities include : Buchtel , Ohio Carbondale , Ohio Carbon Hill , Ohio Corning , Ohio The Diamond , Ohio Glouster , Ohio Hemlock , Ohio Murray City , Ohio Nelsonville , Ohio New Straitsville , Ohio Shawnee , Perry County , Ohio Trimble , Ohio Sunday Creek Associates , a nonprofit organization in this area is responsible for a community building experience named `` Little Cities of Black Diamonds . '' This experience includes organizing local history bus tours , Little Cities of the Forest , Little Cities Archives , Little Cities of Black Diamonds Day , Appalachian Spring Festival . The Little Cities Council is located in Shawnee , Ohio .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Little_Cities_of_Black_Diamonds\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 91846\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black-body radiation Content: Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment , or emitted by a black body ( an opaque and non-reflective body ) . It has a specific spectrum and intensity that depends only on the body 's temperature , which is assumed for the sake of calculations and theory to be uniform and constant . The thermal radiation spontaneously emitted by many ordinary objects can be approximated as black-body radiation . A perfectly insulated enclosure that is in thermal equilibrium internally contains black-body radiation and will emit it through a hole made in its wall , provided the hole is small enough to have negligible effect upon the equilibrium . A black-body at room temperature appears black , as most of the energy it radiates is infra-red and can not be perceived by the human eye . Because the human eye can not perceive color at very low light intensities , a black body , viewed in the dark at the lowest just faintly visible temperature , subjectively appears grey ( but only because the human eye is sensitive only to black and white at very low intensities - in reality , the frequency of the light in the visible range would still be red , although the intensity would be too low to discern as red ) , even though its objective physical spectrum peaks in the infrared range . When it becomes a little hotter , it appears dull red . As its temperature increases further it eventually becomes blue-white . Although planets and stars are neither in thermal equilibrium with their surroundings nor perfect black bodies , black-body radiation is used as a first approximation for the energy they emit . Black holes are near-perfect black bodies , in the sense that they absorb all the radiation that falls on them . It has been proposed that they emit black-body radiation ( called Hawking radiation ) , with a temperature that depends on the mass of the black hole . The term black body was introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860 . Black-body radiation is also called thermal radiation , cavity radiation , complete radiation or temperature radiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black-body_radiation\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 91414\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 91281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cerconota carbonifer Content: Cerconota carbonifer is a moth in the Depressariidae family . It was described by August Busck in 1914 . It is found in Panama , Costa Rica and French Guiana . The wingspan is 19-23 mm . The forewings are light ochreous clouded with brown , with a large , dorsal , evenly rounded patch of black scales , at base of which some are more or less erect . Above and bordering this black space is a small patch of brown scales and there are three dark brown costal spots , one at the basal third , one on the middle , and one at the apical fourth , from the latter starts an indistinct , outwardly curved , row of small brown dots across the wing to the termen and there is a faint row of brown marginal dots along the terminal edge , as well as a small black dot at the end of the cell . The hindwings are light yellowish fuscous .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Cerconota_carbonifer\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 91053\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Rock Formation Content: The Black Rock Formation is a geologic formation in England . It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Rock_Formation\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 90993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 90520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soot (disambiguation) Content: Soot is the black , impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon . Soot may also refer to : Engebret Soot ( 1786-1859 ) , Norwegian engineer Soot ( software ) , a language manipulation and optimization framework\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Soot_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 90324\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blackdamp Content: Blackdamp ( also known as stythe or choke damp ) is an asphyxiant , reducing the available oxygen content of air to a level incapable of sustaining human or animal life . It is not a single gas but a mixture of unbreathable gases left after oxygen is removed from the air and typically consists of nitrogen , carbon dioxide and water vapour . The suffix damp is believed to derive from the German word for vapours ( `` Dampf '' ) . The word damp is used in similar mining terms such as white damp ( carbon monoxide ) , fire damp ( typically methane ) and stink damp ( hydrogen sulfide ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Blackdamp\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 90285\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plicaria carbonaria Content: Plicaria carbonaria is a species of apothecial fungus belonging to the family Pezizaceae . This is a common European fungus of burnt ground , appearing from spring to autumn as dark brown to black cups up to 3 cm in diameter .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Plicaria_carbonaria\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 90116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon stain Content: Carbon stains are a skin condition characterized by a discoloration of the skin from embedded carbon , usually occurring in children from accidents with firearms or firecrackers , or from a puncture wound by a pencil , which may leave a permanent black mark of embedded graphite , easily mistaken for metastatic melanoma .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_stain\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 89992\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William B. Wiegand Content: William B. Wiegand was a vice president of Columbian Carbon Co. , known for his pioneering work on carbon black technology . Wiegand studied carbon black 's reinforcing effect on rubber , and proposed that the effect arises due to forces acting at the interface between the carbon black and the surrounding elastomer matrix . He was a pioneer in developing the furnace method for producing carbon black . Wiegand was the 1923 ACS rubber division chair . He received the Charles Goodyear Medal in 1960 .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"William_B._Wiegand\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 89747\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black dwarf Content: A black dwarf is a theoretical stellar remnant , specifically a white dwarf that has cooled sufficiently that it no longer emits significant heat or light . Because the time required for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe ( 13.8 billion years ) , no black dwarfs are expected to exist in the universe yet , and the temperature of the coolest white dwarfs is one observational limit on the age of the universe . The name `` black dwarf '' has also been applied to substellar objects that do not have sufficient mass , less than approximately 0.08 , to maintain hydrogen-burning nuclear fusion . These objects are now generally called brown dwarfs , a term coined in the 1970s . Black dwarfs should not be confused with black holes , black stars , or neutron stars .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_dwarf\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 88951\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Samsung SGH-D900 Content: The Samsung SGH-D900 , also known as the Ultra Edition 12.9 or Black Carbon , is a slider-style mobile phone created by Samsung Electronics that was announced in Q3 2006 . It is marketed as the world 's thinnest slider phone . Since the end of 2006 , a Wine Red edition was added and 2007 marked the introduction of a chrome edition to the lineup . There is also an upgrade of this model , the Samsung D900i which can be used to access documents on your computer from your phone and added an FM radio as well as was made out of higher-quality materials .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Samsung_SGH-D900\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 88903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Band emission Content: Band emission , is the fraction of the total emission from a blackbody that is in a certain wavelength interval or band . For a prescribed temperature , T and the spectral interval from 0 to λ , is the ratio of the total emissive power of a black body from 0 to λ to the total emissive power over the entire spectrum .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Band_emission\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 88811\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vantablack Content: Vantablack is a substance made of vertically aligned carbon nanotube arrays and is the blackest artificial substance known , absorbing up to 99.965 % of radiation in the visible spectrum .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Vantablack\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 88474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Creek (Lehigh River) Content: Black Creek is a 4.4 mi brookU.S . Geological Survey , National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data . The National Map , accessed April 1 , 2011 tributary of the Lehigh River in Carbon County , Pennsylvania in the United States , . < ref name = `` gertler '' > Gertler , Edward . Keystone Canoeing , Seneca Press , 2004 . Its waters start at the very south edge of Weatherly , Pennsylvania at the confluence of Beaver and Quakake Creeks , then runs nearly due east to its mouth on the Lehigh River in Maple Hollow at the former railroad depot of Penn Haven Junction just east of Hinkles Valley . The confluence was a waypoint along the 19th-century Lehigh & Susquehanna Turnpike Black Creek has two major tributaries joining within Weatherly , the 7 mi long Beaver Creek ( Carbon County ) < ref name = GmapMeas > Measured using Google maps ruler tool from source to confluence with Quakake Creek -- which merge creates Black Creek and the network of streams combining as Quakake Creek . The tributary Quakake Creek , is the more dispersed and disorganized source waters , originating in over half-a-dozen small streams ; it is also listed by the Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS ) as a variant name for Black Creek . Black Creek was named because of the because of the dark background pigment in the water created by anthracite coal , but this was a later development as its confluence origin and main course easterly became far more important hosting Railroad trackage than the Turnpike ever hoped to become . Historically , Black Creek was also known as Hazel Creek , stemming from the hazlenut trees that grew alongside its banks , < ref name = mcall-88-04-18 > How Weatherly Got Its Name , And Other Historical Facts though that name in the present-day is given a tributary of Beaver Creek closer to Beaver Meadows , PA. . Black Creek , Beaver Creek and Weatherly are all historically related to the Beaver Meadow Railroad , an 1830 predecessor railway to ( purchased in 1855 by the newly formed ) Lehigh Valley Railroad corporation ( LV or LVRR ) , which grew to be a famous Class I railway . The banks-side footpath from the Lehigh River at the 19th century settlement of Lausanne Landing climbed the steep south slopes of Broad Mountain and followed a chain of watercourses to Nescopeck opposite Shickshinny , PA on the main Susquehanna branch . Initially , in 1830 , the Beaver Meadow mining operations sent coal out by pack mules , but then capitalized the railway , when the technology was emergent and untried . Consequently , the creek hosted the first operating steam locomotives employed as mobile traction engines in the United States . Black Creek joins the Lehigh River near the community of Rockport , the closest occupied place to Penn Haven Junction in the midst of the rough terrain of the Lehigh River Gorge .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Creek_(Lehigh_River)\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 88465\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon subsulfide Content: Carbon subsulfide is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula C3S2 . This deep red liquid is immiscible with water but soluble in organic solvents . It readily polymerizes at room temperature to form a hard black solid .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_subsulfide\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 88378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George Oenslager Content: George Oenslager ( September 25 , 1873 -- February 5 , 1956 ) was a Goodrich chemist who discovered that a derivative of aniline accelerated the vulcanization of rubber with sulfur . He first introduced carbon black as a rubber reinforcing agent in 1912 .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"George_Oenslager\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 88375\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal Black Content: Coal Black may refer to : The color black `` Coal Black Rose '' , an American folk song Coal Black and de Sebben Dwarfs , a 1943 Warner Brothers cartoon infamous for its racial stereotypes\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_Black\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 87798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coalworker's pneumoconiosis Content: Coal workers ' pneumoconiosis ( CWP ) , also known as black lung disease or black lung , is caused by long exposure to coal dust . It is common in coal miners and others who work with coal . It is similar to both silicosis from inhaling silica dust and to the long-term effects of tobacco smoking . Inhaled coal dust progressively builds up in the lungs and can not be removed by the body ; this leads to inflammation , fibrosis , and in worse cases , necrosis . Coal workers ' pneumoconiosis , severe state , develops after the initial , milder form of the disease known as anthracosis ( anthrac -- coal , carbon ) . This is often asymptomatic and is found to at least some extent in all urban dwellers due to air pollution . Prolonged exposure to large amounts of coal dust can result in more serious forms of the disease , simple coal workers ' pneumoconiosis and complicated coal workers ' pneumoconiosis ( or progressive massive fibrosis , or PMF ) . More commonly , workers exposed to coal dust develop industrial bronchitis , clinically defined as chronic bronchitis ( i.e. productive cough for 3 months per year for at least 2 years ) associated with workplace dust exposure . The incidence of industrial bronchitis varies with age , job , exposure , and smoking . In nonsmokers ( who are less prone to develop bronchitis than smokers ) , studies of coal miners have shown a 16 % to 17 % incidence of industrial bronchitis . In 2013 CWP resulted in 25,000 deaths down from 29,000 deaths in 1990 .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Coalworker's_pneumoconiosis\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 87728\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 87465\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Super black Content: Super black is a surface treatment developed at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom . It reflects much less light than the darkest conventional matte black paints available previously . Conventional black paint absorbs about 97.5 % of the incident light . Super black absorbs approximately 99.6 % of light at normal incidence . At other angles of incidence , super black is even more effective . At an angle of 45 ° , super black absorbs 99.9 % of light . The technique used for super black is based upon chemically etching a nickel -- phosphorus alloy . Applications for super black are in specialist optical instruments to reduce unwanted reflections . The disadvantage of this material is its low optical thickness , as it is a surface treatment . As a result , infrared light of a wavelength longer than a few micrometers penetrates through the dark layer and has much higher reflectivity . The reported spectral dependence increases from about 1 % at 3 µm to 50 % at 20 µm . In 2009 , a competitor to the super black material was developed based on carbon nanotubes called Vantablack , that has a relatively flat reflectance in a wide spectral range . In 2011 , NASA and the US Army began funding research in the use of nanotube based super black coatings in sensitive optics . Nanotube based superblack arrays and coatings have recently become commercially available .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Super_black\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 87276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black coal equivalent Content: Black coal equivalent ( BCE ) is an export coal product derived from the Coldry Process , a patented coal upgrading technology operated by Environmental Clean Technologies Limited , in Victoria , Australia . The Coldry Process is applied to brown coal ( lignite ) with a typical moisture content of 60 per cent by weight and transforms the coal into a densified coal product of equal or better calorific value ( 5,800 kcal/kg ) to typical export quality black coal , with less ash and sulfur content . Black coal equivalent derived from brown coal is ostensibly a ` cleaner ' burning coal fuel than most black coals .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_coal_equivalent\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 86805\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charcoal Content: Charcoal is a lightweight , black residue , consisting of carbon and any remaining ash , obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances . Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis -- the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen ( see char and biochar ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Charcoal\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 86048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nick Levay Content: Nick Levay , also known as Rattle , is an American computer security expert and hacker . He is Chief Security Officer at Carbon Black , a computer security company in the Boston area . From 2008 to 2013 he was Director of Technical Operations and Information Security at the Center for American Progress , a public policy research organization .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Nick_Levay\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 85783\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Joseph Black Content: Joseph Black FRSE FRCPE FPSG ( 16 April 1728 -- 6 December 1799 ) was a Scottish physician and chemist , known for his discoveries of magnesium , latent heat , specific heat , and carbon dioxide . He was Professor of Anatomy and Chemistry at the University of Glasgow for 10 years from 1756 , and then Professor of Medicine and Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh from 1766 , teaching and lecturing there for more than 30 years . The chemistry buildings at both the University of Edinburgh and the University of Glasgow are named after Black .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Joseph_Black\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 85542\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Content: Black is the darkest color , resulting from the absence or complete absorption of light . Like white and grey , it is an achromatic color , literally a color without hue . It is one of the four primary colors in the CMYK color model , along with cyan , yellow , and magenta , used in color printing to produce all the other colors . Black is often used to represent darkness ; it is the symbolic opposite of white ( or brightness ) . Black was one of the first colors used by artists in neolithic cave paintings . In the 14th century , it began to be worn by royalty , the clergy , judges and government officials in much of Europe . It became the color worn by English romantic poets , businessmen and statesmen in the 19th century , and a high fashion color in the 20th century . In the Roman Empire , it became the color of mourning , and over the centuries it was frequently associated with death , evil , witches and magic . According to surveys in Europe and North America , it is the color most commonly associated with mourning , the end , secrets , magic , force , violence , evil , and elegance .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 84603\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_retirement\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 84597\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hexadecacarbonylhexarhodium Content: Hexadecacarbonylhexarhodium is a metal carbonyl cluster with the formula Rh6 ( CO ) 16 . It exists as black crystals that are soluble in organic solvents .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Hexadecacarbonylhexarhodium\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 84067\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shungite Content: Shungite is a black , lustrous , non-crystalline mineraloid consisting of more than 98 weight percent of carbon . It was first described from a deposit near Shunga village , in Karelia , Russia , from where it gets its name . Shungite has been reported to contain fullerenes .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Shungite\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 83993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_label\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 83976\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 83867\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black cocaine Content: Black cocaine , also known as Coca Negra , is a mixture of regular cocaine base or cocaine hydrochloride with various other substances . These other substances are added to camouflage the typical appearance ( pigments and dyes , e.g. charcoal ) , to interfere with color-based drug tests ( mixing thiocyanates and iron salts or cobalt salts forms deep red complexes in solution ) , to make the mixture undetectable by drug sniffing dogs ( activated carbon may sufficiently absorb trace odors ) . Since the result is usually black , it is generally smuggled as toner , fingerprint powder , fertilizer , pigment or metal moldings . The pure cocaine base can be recovered from the mixture by extraction ( freebase ) or acid-base extraction ( hydrochloride ) using common organic solvents such as acetone . It was reported that in the mid-1980s Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet ordered his army to build a clandestine cocaine laboratory in Chile where chemists mixed cocaine with other chemicals to produce what Pinochet 's former top aide for intelligence Manuel Contreras described as a `` black cocaine '' capable of being smuggled past drug agents in the US and Europe . Black cocaine was detected in Bogota , Colombia in May 1998 . In 2008 , a new type of black cocaine was discovered by police in Spain . It had been manufactured into rubber-like sheets and made into luggage .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_cocaine\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 83804\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blacklight Content: A blacklight ( or often black light ) , also referred to as a UV-A light , Wood 's lamp , or simply ultraviolet light , is a lamp that emits long-wave ( UV-A ) ultraviolet light and not much visible light . One type of lamp has a violet filter material , either on the bulb or in a separate glass filter in the lamp housing , which blocks most visible light and allows through UV , so the lamp has a dim violet glow when operating . Blacklight lamps which have this filter have a lighting industry designation that includes the letters `` BLB '' . This stands for `` blacklight blue '' , which is a contradiction in that they are the type that does not look blue . A second type of lamp produces ultraviolet but does not have the filter material , so it produces more visible light and has a blue color when operating . These tubes are made for use in `` bug zapper '' insect traps , and are identified by the industry designation `` BL '' . Blacklight sources may be specially designed fluorescent lamps , mercury-vapor lamps , light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) , lasers , or incandescent lamps ; although incandescents produce almost no blacklight ( except slightly more for halogen types ) , and so are not considered true blacklight sources . In medicine , forensics , and some other scientific fields , such a light source is referred to as a Wood 's lamp , named after Robert Williams Wood who invented the original Wood 's glass UV filters . Although many other types of lamp emit ultraviolet light with visible light , black lights are essential when UV-A light without visible light is needed , particularly in observing fluorescence , the colored glow that many substances emit when exposed to UV . Black lights are employed for decorative and artistic lighting effects , diagnostic and therapeutic uses in medicine , the detection of substances tagged with fluorescent dyes , rock-hunting , the detection of counterfeit money , the curing of plastic resins , and attracting insects . Strong sources of long-wave ultraviolet light are used in tanning beds . Although the low-power UV-A emitted by black lights is not a hazard to skin or eyes and can be viewed without protection , powerful ultraviolet sources present dangers and require personal protective equipment such as goggles and gloves .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Blacklight\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 83729\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black silicon Content: Black silicon is a semiconductor material , a surface modification of silicon with very low reflectivity and correspondingly high absorption of visible ( and infrared ) light . The modification was discovered in the 1980s as an unwanted side effect of reactive ion etching ( RIE ) . Other methods for forming a similar structure include electrochemical etching , stain etching , metal-assisted chemical etching , and laser treatment ( which is developed in Eric Mazur 's laboratory at Harvard University ) , and FFC Cambridge process ( an electrochemical reduction process ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_silicon\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 83681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vanadium hexacarbonyl Content: Vanadium hexacarbonyl is the inorganic compound with the formula V ( CO ) 6 . It is a blue-black volatile solid . This highly reactive species is noteworthy from theoretical perspectives as a rare isolable homoleptic metal carbonyl that is paramagnetic . Most species with the formula Mx ( CO ) y follow the 18-electron rule , whereas V ( CO ) 6 has 17 valence electrons .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Vanadium_hexacarbonyl\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 83480\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO-0.40-0.22 Content: CO-0 .40 -0.22 is a high velocity compact gas cloud near the centre of the Milky Way . It is 200 light years away from the centre in the central molecular zone . The cloud is in the shape of ellipse . The differences in the velocity , termed velocity dispersion , of the gas is unusually high at 100 km/s . The velocity dispersion may be due to an intermediate-mass black hole with a mass of about 100,000 solar masses . If it exists , this black hole would be the second largest known in the Milky Way . The molecular cloud has a mass of 4,000 solar masses . It is located at -0.40 ° , -0.22 ° galactic longitude and latitude . The cloud is 0.2 ° away from Sgr C to the galactic southeast . The gas is moving away from Earth at speeds ranging from 20 to 120 km/s . The spectral lines of carbon monoxide reveal that the gas is dense , and warm and fairly opaque . The gas cloud includes carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide molecules . Other molecules detected via microwave spectroscopy include cyanoacetylene , cyclopropenylidene , methanol , silicon monoxide , sulfur monoxide , carbon monosulfide , Thioformaldehyde , Hydrogen isocyanide , Formamide , and ions H2N + and HCO + . The name followed the precedent set by CO-0 .02 -0.02 , which is another high velocity compact cloud in the central molecular zone . Another example of this naming convention is CO -- 0.30 -- 0.07 .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"CO-0.40-0.22\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 83024\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blue carbon Content: Blue carbon is the carbon captured by the world 's oceans and coastal ecosystems . The carbon captured by living organisms in oceans is stored in the form of biomass and sediments from mangroves , salt marshes , seagrasses and potentially algae .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Blue_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 82564\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black body Content: A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation , regardless of frequency or angle of incidence . A white body is one with a `` rough surface -LSB- that -RSB- reflects all incident rays completely and uniformly in all directions . '' A black body in thermal equilibrium ( that is , at a constant temperature ) emits electromagnetic radiation called black-body radiation . The radiation is emitted according to Planck 's law , meaning that it has a spectrum that is determined by the temperature alone ( see figure at right ) , not by the body 's shape or composition . A black body in thermal equilibrium has two notable properties : It is an ideal emitter : at every frequency , it emits as much energy as -- or more energy than -- any other body at the same temperature . It is a diffuse emitter : the energy is radiated isotropically , independent of direction . An approximate realization of a black surface is a hole in the wall of a large enclosure . Any light entering the hole is reflected indefinitely or absorbed inside and is unlikely to re-emerge , making the hole a nearly perfect absorber . The radiation confined in such an enclosure may or may not be in thermal equilibrium , depending upon the nature of the walls and the other contents of the enclosure . Real materials emit energy at a fraction -- called the emissivity -- of black-body energy levels . By definition , a black body in thermal equilibrium has an emissivity of . A source with lower emissivity independent of frequency often is referred to as a gray body . Construction of black bodies with emissivity as close to one as possible remains a topic of current interest . In astronomy , the radiation from stars and planets is sometimes characterized in terms of an effective temperature , the temperature of a black body that would emit the same total flux of electromagnetic energy .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_body\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 82545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Content: Carbon ( from carbo `` coal '' ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent -- making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , C and C being stable , while C is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity . Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18.5 % ) after oxygen . The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb '' γράφειν '' which means `` to write '' ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen . The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4 , while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions . For this reason , carbon has often been referred to as the `` king of the elements '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 82484\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Red-short Content: Red-short , hot-short or sulfur embrittlement is the quality possessed by carbon steel that suffers from having too much sulfur as an impurity . Iron or steel , when heated to above 900 ° F ( 460 ° C ) , glows with a red color . The color of any heated object changes predictably ( due to black body radiation ) from dull red through orange and yellow to white , and can be a useful indicator of its temperature . Good quality iron or steel at and above this temperature becomes increasingly malleable and plastic . Iron or steel having too much sulfur , on the other hand , becomes crumbly and brittle . This is due to the sulfur forming iron sulfide/iron mixtures in the grain boundaries of the metal which have a lower melting point than the steel . When the steel is heated up and worked , the mechanical energy added to the workpiece increases the temperature further . The iron sulfide ( FeS ) or iron/iron sulfide alloy ( which has an even lower melting point ) begins to melt , and the steel starts to separate at the grain boundaries . Steelmakers add manganese ( Mn ) to the steel when it is produced , to form manganese sulfide ( MnS ) . Manganese sulfide inclusions have a higher melting point and do not concentrate at the grain boundaries . Thus , when the steel is later heated up and worked , the melting at the grain boundaries does not occur .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Red-short\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 82225\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hazelwood Power Station Content: The Hazelwood Power Station is a decommissioned brown coal-fuelled thermal power station located in the Latrobe Valley of Victoria , Australia . Built between 1964 and 1971 , the 1,600 megawatt capacity power station was made up of eight 200MW units , and supplied up to 25 % of Victoria 's base load electricity and more than 5 % of Australia 's total electricity demand . It was a ` subcritical ' pulverized coal-fired boiler . The station was listed as the least carbon efficient power station in the OECD in a 2005 report by WWF Australia , making it one of the most polluting power stations in the world . At 1.56 tonnes of CO2 for each megawatt hour of electricity , it was 50 percent more polluting than the average black coal power station in NSW or Queensland . Hazelwood emitted 14 % of Victoria 's annual greenhouse gas emissions and 3 % of Australia 's greenhouse gas emissions . International Power plc purchased Hazelwood Power Station and the adjoining mine from the Victorian Government in 1996 with an expected 40-year life . In 2005 the Bracks Labor Government approved an environmental effects statement ( EES ) that allowed Hazelwood to relocate a road and a section of the Morwell river to allow access to an additional 43 million tonnes of coal in addition to that allowed under the mining licence boundaries set at the time of privatisation . This was estimated to provide sufficient coal for the plant to operate to at least 2030 ( prior to decommissioning plans ) . The EES also capped its expected total greenhouse output at 445 million tonnes of carbon dioxide over its life , after which Hazelwood may have been made to cease operation . Hazelwood was jointly owned by Engie ( formerly GDF Suez ) , with a 72 % share and Mitsui & Co. with a 28 % share . , Hazelwood employed 495 staff directly and on average 300 contractors . On 3 November 2016 , Engie announced that the entire Hazelwood plant would be closed as of the end of March 2017 , giving the workers and local communities only five months notice of the closure .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Hazelwood_Power_Station\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 81670\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coleotechnites carbonaria Content: Coleotechnites carbonaria is a moth of the Gelechiidae family . It is found in North America , where it has been recorded from Ontario and Tennessee . The wingspan is 7.5 -- 10 mm . The forewings are black with white oblique fasciae and ochreous scales . The hindwings are fuscous . The larvae feed on Juniperus species . They mine the leaves and stems of their host plant . They initially mine the terminal leaves and stem . Overwintering takes place in either the stem or leaf mine . In spring , the larvae continues mining the stem , and hollows out leaves from the inside .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Coleotechnites_carbonaria\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 81370\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Coal, Thin Ice Content: Black Coal , Thin Ice is a 2014 Chinese thriller film written and directed by Diao Yinan , and produced by Vivian Qu . The film won the Golden Bear award at the 64th Berlin International Film Festival .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Coal,_Thin_Ice\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 81192\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Trust Content: The Carbon Trust is a not-for-dividend company that helps organisations and companies reduce their carbon emissions and become more resource efficient . Its stated mission is to accelerate the move to a sustainable , low carbon economy . It reinvests surpluses from its group commercial activities into its mission . The Carbon Trust helps companies and organisations reduce carbon emissions and increase resource efficiency through providing specialist help , support and advice . As of December 2014 the Carbon Trust had saved its customers # 5.5 bn in costs and 60Mt . It operates globally and has offices in U.K. , China , Mexico , South Africa , Brazil and United States . It is also active in many other countries including South Korea , Malaysia , Singapore , India , Indonesia , Namibia , Peru , Chile and Panama .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Trust\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 81126\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_shifting\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 80901\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_finance\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 80327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Pool Content: Black Pool is a hot spring in the West Thumb Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States . The pool was cool enough up until 1991 for dark orange-brown cyanobacteria to grow throughout the pool . When combined with the blue of the water , the pool appeared to be an exceptionally dark green to almost black , hence the name . An exchange of function took place in 1991 , shifting thermal energy to Black Pool and nearby Abyss Pool , causing them to heat up . Black Pool 's temperature became hot enough to kill all the cyanobacteria in the pool , turning the pool a rich teal blue color . The pool also had frequent boiling eruptions on August 15 , 1991 , doming the water to 3 feet and causing heavy runoff . Black Pool remains extremely hot , and is now one of Yellowstone 's most beautiful and intensely blue pools . The name of the pool remains `` Black Pool . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Pool\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 80269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 80214\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Country Content: The Black Country is an area of the Midlands in England , west of Birmingham , including Dudley , Walsall and Sandwell . In the Industrial Revolution , it became one of the most industrialised parts of Britain with coal mines , coking , iron foundries and steel mills producing a high level of air pollution . The 14 mi road between Wolverhampton and Birmingham was described as `` one continuous town '' in 1785 . The first trace of `` The Black Country '' as an expression dates from the 1840s . The name is believed to come from the soot from the heavy industries that covered the area , although the 30-foot-thick coal seam close to the surface is another possible origin .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Country\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 80003\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tetracobalt dodecacarbonyl Content: Tetracobalt dodecacarbonyl is the chemical compound with the formula Co4 ( CO ) 12 . It is a black crystalline compound that is insoluble in water and easily oxidized by air . It is an example of a metal carbonyl cluster .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Tetracobalt_dodecacarbonyl\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 79913\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Black Family Content: The Black Family is a professional wrestling face / tecnico stable that has been working in AAA since 2000 . Originally a heel / rudo stable , The Black Family currently consists of original member Dark Cuervo as well as the later additions of Dark Ozz , and Dark Espíritu . The group is also referred to as the Dark Family , mainly became all members added the word `` Dark '' to their names in 2007 , the two names are used interchangeably . The Black Family is often part of a much larger stables such as Lucha Libre Latina ( LLL ) or La Secta De Mesias but act as a unit within the larger stable . Members of the group has held the AAA World Tag Team Championship once and the Mexican National Atómicos Championship three times in two different combinations . In October 2010 the stable turned tecnico for the first time . In 2015 Dark Ozz and Espiritu left AAA and Cuervo and Scoria reformed the Black Family\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Black_Family\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 79852\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_governance_in_England\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 79731\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 79534\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NGC 1999 Content: NGC 1999 is a dust-filled bright nebula with a vast hole of empty space represented by a black patch of sky , as can be seen in the photograph . It is a reflection nebula , and shines from the light of the variable star V380 Orionis . It was previously believed that the black patch was a dense cloud of dust and gas which blocked light that would normally pass through , called a dark nebula . Analysis of this patch by the infrared telescope Herschel ( October 9 , 2009 ) , which has the capability of penetrating such dense cloud material , resulted in continued black space . This led to the belief that either the cloud material was immensely dense or that an unexplained phenomenon had been detected . With support from ground-based observations done using the submillimeter bolometer cameras on the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment radio telescope ( November 29 , 2009 ) and the Mayall ( Kitt Peak ) and Magellan telescopes ( December 4 , 2009 ) , it was determined that the patch looks black not because it is an extremely dense pocket of gas , but because it is truly empty . The exact cause of this phenomenon is still being investigated , although it has been hypothesized that narrow jets of gas from some of the young stars in the region punctured the sheet of dust and gas , as well as , powerful radiation from a nearby mature star may have helped to create the hole . Researchers believe this discovery should lead to a better understanding of the entire star forming process . It is located 1,500 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Orion .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"NGC_1999\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 79448\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black tar heroin Content: Black tar heroin is a form of heroin that is sticky like tar or hard like coal . Its dark color is the result of crude processing methods that leave behind impurities . Despite its name , black tar heroin can also be dark orange or dark brown in appearance . It is generally less expensive than other forms of heroin . Black tar heroin is heroin acetate . Other forms of heroin require additional steps of purification post acetylation . With Black Tar the product 's processing stops immediately after acetylation . Its unique consistency however is due to acetylation without a reflux apparatus . As in Homebake Heroin in Australia and New Zealand the crude acetylation results in a gooey mass . Black Tar as a type holds a variable admixture morphine derivatives -- predominantly 6-MAM ( 6-monoacetylmorphine ) which is another result of crude acetylation . The lack of proper reflux during acetylation fails to remove much of the moisture retained in the acetylating agent , glacial acetic acid . Black tar heroin is often produced in Latin America , and is most commonly found in the western and southern parts of the United States , while also being occasionally found in western Canada and Europe . It has a varying consistency depending on manufacturing methods , cutting agents , and moisture levels , ranging in quality from a black-brown , tarry goo in unrefined form to a uniform , light-brown powder when further processed and cut with lactose .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_tar_heroin\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 79436\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 79397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for Negative Carbon Emissions Content: The Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) is led by Director Klaus S. Lackner , and was founded in the School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment ( SSEBE ) at Arizona State University in 2014 . CNCE is advancing carbon management technologies that can capture carbon dioxide directly from ambient air in an outdoor operating environment . CNCE aims to demonstrate systems that over time increase in scope , reliability and efficiency while lowering the cost of carbon dioxide capture from air .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_Negative_Carbon_Emissions\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 79311\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Janthinobacterium lividum Content: Janthinobacterium lividum is an aerobic , Gram-negative , soil-dwelling bacterium that has a distinctive dark-violet ( almost black ) color . This color is due to a compound called violacein , which is produced when glycerol is metabolized as a carbon source . Violacein has anti-bacterial , anti-viral , and anti-fungal properties . Its anti-fungal properties are of particular interest since J. lividum is found on the skin of certain amphibians , including the red-backed salamander ( Plethodon cinereus ) , where it prevents infection by the devastating chytrid fungus ( Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Janthinobacterium_lividum\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 79273\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black hair Content: Black hair is the darkest and most common of all human hair colors globally , due to larger populations with this dominant trait . It is a dominant genetic trait , and it is found in people of all backgrounds and ethnicities . It has large amounts of eumelanin and is less dense than other hair colors . Sometimes very dark brown ( blackish-brown ) hair is mistaken for black . In English , black hair is sometimes described as soft-black , raven black , or jet-black . The range of skin colors associated with black hair is vast , ranging from the palest of light skin tones to dark skin . Black-haired humans can have dark or light eyes .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_hair\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 79233\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_profiling\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 79181\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Australian Coal Association Content: The Australian Coal Association ( often abbreviated to ACA ) is the major Australian coal mining industry lobby group . It represents the black coal producers of New South Wales and Queensland and consists of a number of relatively small coal mining companies or subsidiaries of larger corporations in those two states . Australia is the world 's largest coal exporter , and black coal is Australia 's second largest commodity export , worth more than A$ 24 billion in the financial year ending June 2008 , and $ 46 billion , or nearly double this amount , for the corresponding calendar year ending December . Black coal provides around 57 per cent of Australia 's grid-connected electricity ( brown coal around 24 % ) and is vital for major industries such as steel making and cement manufacture . On 23 August 2013 , the Australian Coal Association released a statement that it will be subsumed into the Minerals Council of Australia .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Australian_Coal_Association\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 79140\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Organic-rich sedimentary rocks Content: Organic-rich sedimentary rocks are a specific type of sedimentary rock that contains significant amounts ( > 3 % ) of organic carbon . The most common types include coal , lignite , oil shale , or black shale . The organic material may be disseminated throughout the rock giving it a uniform dark color , and/or may be present as discrete occurrences of tar , bitumen , asphalt , petroleum , coal or carbonaceous material . Organic-rich sedimentary rocks may act as source rocks which generate hydrocarbons that accumulate in other sedimentary `` reservoir '' rocks ( see oil sands and petroleum geology ) . Potential source rocks are any type of sedimentary rock that the ability to dispel available carbon from within it ( limestone is a classic example of a source rock ) . Good reservoir rocks are any sedimentary rock that has high pore-space availability . This allows the hydrocarbons to accumulate within the rock and be stored for long periods of time ( a sandstone commonly makes a good source rock ) . Highly permeable reservoir rocks are also of interest to industry professionals , as they allow for the easy extraction of the hydrocarbons within . The hydrocarbon reservoir system is not complete however without a cap rock . Cap rocks are rock units which have very low porosity and permeability , which trap the hydrocarbons within the units below as they try to migrate upwards .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Organic-rich_sedimentary_rocks\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 79121\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Man in Black (Lost) Content: The entity referred to most frequently as The Man in Black ( referred to as The Smoke Monster by the main characters ) is a fictional character and the main antagonist on the American ABC television series Lost . He appeared primarily as a cloud of black smoke ( `` The Smoke Monster '' ) until the final episode of season five , where he appeared as a middle-aged man dressed in black . In season six , he primarily appeared in the physical form of John Locke . He exhibited the ability to `` scan '' the minds and memories of others , allowing him to confront characters such as Mr. Eko and Ben , with `` judgment '' ( a replay of their pasts ) , and to assume the forms and memories of the deceased , starting with the original Man in Black himself , being Jacob 's brother , or Christian , Yemi , Alex , and Locke . According to Jacob , who explains this to Richard Alpert ( Nestor Carbonell ) , it is the incarnation of evil , and its primary goal -- to escape from the island -- would be the `` end of everything good '' . Various other characters have implied that his escape would be catastrophic and could even cause the destruction of reality . A longtime resident of the island that serves as the main setting of Lost , the true nature of the Man in Black was long shrouded in mystery . It had been described by Lost producer Damon Lindelof as `` one of the biggest secrets '' of the mythology , and the producers have often hinted that the black cloud of smoke was not a monster in the traditional sense . TV Guide included him in their 2013 list of The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Man_in_Black_(Lost)\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 78985\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calorescence Content: Calorescence is when matter absorbs infrared radiant energy and emits visible radiant energy in its place . For example , some kinds of flammable gas give off large amounts of radiant heat and very little visible light when burning , and if a piece of metal is placed into such a flame , the metal will become bright red-hot -- which is to say the metal absorbs invisible infrared and emits visible radiation . The word calorescence was coined in 1864 on the model of the word fluorescence which had been coined in 1852 . At that time , fluorescence was defined as absorption in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum followed by emission in the visible part of the spectrum . Calorescence was defined complementarily as absorption in the infrared followed by emission in the visible . The following is a laboratory demonstration of calorescence . An ordinary lightbulb emits lots of infrared light . Carbon disulfide is a colorless liquid transparent to both infrared and visible . Iodine readily dissolves in this liquid and causes the liquid to turn a black color and to become completely opaque to visible light , given enough iodine . At the same time , however , the iodine has essentially no effect on the transparency of the liquid with respect to infrared light . Hence when light from an ordinary lightbulb is passed through a body of this solution , lots of infrared and only infrared emerges out at the other side . This infrared light can be brought to a focus with a concave mirror ( or an optical lens made from rock-salt , but not a lens made from glass because glass is a poor transmitter of infrared ) . At the point of focus , with a good focusing tool , the infrared beam is strong enough to set paper on fire . If a little piece of non-combustible solid material is placed at the focus , it will glow visibly in the heat ; i.e. the material will absorb infrared and emit visible light . The following is another laboratory illustration of calorescence . In a flame of pure hydrogen burning in oxygen , the hydrogen chemically combines with the oxygen to form water ( H2O ) plus a lot of heat is produced . This heat is a radiant emission from the newly formed water molecules . That is , the heat is thermal radiation whose particular set of radiant frequencies is uniquely characteristic of water molecules , as determined by emission spectroscopy . Water molecules have very little emission in the visible portion of the spectrum at any temperature ( c.f. spectral absorption of water ) . The temperature of the hydrogen flame is more than 2000 degrees Celsius . If a piece of platinum is placed in the flame , the platinum will become `` white hot '' and give out a bright light . The platinum thus absorbs radiation having the spectral profile of water , and emits radiation having the spectral profile of platinum . ( The platinum also picks up heat from collisions with moving gas molecules ) . The term calorescence is rarely seen in use today , whereas the term fluorescence is common . One reason is that there is n't a physical explanation for calorescence that 's specific to calorescence . Relatedly , the physical explanations for some types of fluorescence behavior are also explanations for calorescence and the word fluorescence has been preferred and expanded in customary usage to include calorescence . Another reason is that there is n't a widely used practical application attached to the word calorescence , whereas there is for fluorescence . A related item of physics terminology today is the so-called `` Anti-Stokes Shift '' . A Stokes shift refers to molecular absorptions of radiant energy of higher frequencies followed by emissions of lower frequencies ; and an anti-Stokes shift refers to absorptions of lower frequencies followed by emissions of higher frequencies . With this terminology , practical applications are attached to the term `` anti-Stokes photoluminescence '' in materials science including semiconductors ( see examples ) . Equal terminology in use in laser science is `` infrared upconversion '' , `` upconversion luminescence '' , or simply `` upconversion '' ( see examples ) . This terminology is usually contemplating luminescence , as opposed to incandescence , whereas the word Calorescence belongs to the 19th century when the only known upconversion methods were of the incandescent kind .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Calorescence\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 78981\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black powder in gas pipelines Content: Black Powder is an industry name for the abrasive , reactive contamination particulate present in all gas and hydrocarbon fluid transmission lines . Black Powder will range from light brown to black and the mineral make up will vary per production field around the world . Black Powder forms throughout the pipeline process ; from producing formations , through well bores , into gathering lines , in reservoirs for fluid separation , and along transmission pipelines . After refinement , Black Powder continues to build in the gas plants and refineries , storage reservoirs and finally through to the end user . Black Powder is a composite of iron oxides , iron sulphides , varying dirt such as silica and calcium as well as chloride , sodium and other material particulate .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_powder_in_gas_pipelines\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 78971\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Spark spread Content: The spark spread is the theoretical gross margin of a gas-fired power plant from selling a unit of electricity , having bought the fuel required to produce this unit of electricity . All other costs ( operation and maintenance , capital and other financial costs ) must be covered from the spark spread . The term was first coined by Tony West 's trading team on the trading floor of National Power Ltd in Swindon , UK during the late 1990s and quickly came into common usage as other traders realised the trading and hedging opportunities . The term dark spread and quark spread refers to the similarly defined difference between cash streams ( spread ) for coal-fired power plants and nuclear plants respectively . These indicators of power plant economics are useful for tracing energy markets . For operating or investment decisions published `` spread '' data are not applicable . Local market conditions , actual plant efficiencies and other plant costs have to be considered . The higher the dark spread the better , for the generator ; an IPP with a dark spread of $ 15/MWh will be more profitable than a competitor with a dark spread of only $ 10/MWh . Further definition of clean spread indicators include the price of carbon dioxide emission allowances ( see : Emission trading ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Spark_spread\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 78965\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Creek (Nescopeck Creek) Content: Black Creek is a long source tributary of Nescopeck Creek so part of the Susquehanna River drainage basin . It is also the second & longer stream of the same name recognized by the USGS GNIS system in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , USGS GNIS system , search by name in Pennsylvania . Relative lengths from other data sources , but GNIS data puts the differences at over 20 miles . ( See GNIS details : Creek 1169695 , Black Creek vs. 1169696 , Black Creek . ) in the United States -- compared to the Black Creek beyond the ridgeline of the drainage divide , so in the Lehigh River valley and Carbon County . The headwaters of both Black Creeks in Luzerne county are only a few miles apart , and both valleys were traversed by the Lausanne-Nescopeck Turnpike ( Lehigh-Susquehanna Turnpike ) in the first half of the 19th-century . The J-on-its-long-side-shaped brook is approximately 22.6 mi long , and in the early 1800s the sides of its valley became the path of the Lausanne-Nescopeck Turnpike ( Lehigh-Susquehanna Turnpike ) -- connecting Philadelphia and the Delaware basin communities to the new settlements in the mid-Susquehanna and Wyoming valleys via paths along the banks of the Lehigh and the Susquehanna Rivers .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Creek_(Nescopeck_Creek)\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 78890\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dark Black Content: Dark Black is the second album by Kristina Train , released on November 5 , 2012 in the UK .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Dark_Black\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 78865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blacklead Content: Blacklead may refer to : Graphite , also known as `` black lead '' Blacklead , another name for the Plumbago drawing style and medium Blacklead Island , Nunavut , Canada\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Blacklead\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 78784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Impsonite Content: Impsonite is a black , carbonaceous substance , with a specific gravity of 1.10 -- 1.25 and a carbon content of 50 -- 85 % . It is described as an asphaltic pyrobitumen . It is believed to be derived from a fluid bitumen which polymerized after filling a vein . The term was coined by George Homans Eldridge in 1901 , referring to the asphaltic material in the Impson Valley in southeastern Oklahoma , later known as the Jumbo mine . The asphaltic material in the Impson Valley was later reclassified as grahamite , based on solubility and chemical similarities with the type grahamite of West Virginia .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Impsonite\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 78628\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 78602\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 78537\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black Mountains (North Carolina) Content: The Black Mountains are a mountain range in western North Carolina , in the southeastern United States . They are part of the Blue Ridge Province of the Southern Appalachian Mountains . The Blacks are the highest mountains in the Eastern United States . The range takes its name from the dark appearance of the red spruce and Fraser fir trees that form a spruce-fir forest on the upper slopes which contrasts with the brown ( during winter ) or lighter green ( during the growing season ) appearance of the deciduous trees at lower elevations . The Eastern Continental Divide , which runs along the eastern Blue Ridge crest , intersects the southern tip of the Black Mountain range . The Black Mountains are home to Mount Mitchell State Park , which protects the range 's highest summit and adjacent summits in the north-central section of the range . Much of the range is also protected by the Pisgah National Forest . The Blue Ridge Parkway passes along the range 's southern section , and is connected to the summit of Mount Mitchell by North Carolina Highway 128 . The Black Mountains are mostly located in Yancey County , although the range 's southern and western extremes are part of Buncombe County .\",\n \"qid\": \"173\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_Mountains_(North_Carolina)\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 78403\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":83,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Reef material is calcium carbonate, which contains 44 per cent carbon dioxide."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Carbonate Content: In chemistry , a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) , characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion , a polyatomic ion with the formula of . The name may also mean an ester of carbonic acid , an organic compound containing the carbonate group C ( =O ) ( O -- ) 2 . The term is also used as a verb , to describe carbonation : the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverageseither by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure , or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water . In geology and mineralogy , the term `` carbonate '' can refer both to carbonate minerals and carbonate rock ( which is made of chiefly carbonate minerals ) , and both are dominated by the carbonate ion , . Carbonate minerals are extremely varied and ubiquitous in chemically precipitated sedimentary rock . The most common are calcite or calcium carbonate , CaCO3 , the chief constituent of limestone ( as well as the main component of mollusc shells and coral skeletons ) ; dolomite , a calcium-magnesium carbonate CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 ; and siderite , or iron ( II ) carbonate , FeCO3 , an important iron ore . Sodium carbonate ( `` soda '' or `` natron '' ) and potassium carbonate ( `` potash '' ) have been used since antiquity for cleaning and preservation , as well as for the manufacture of glass . Carbonates are widely used in industry , e.g. in iron smelting , as a raw material for Portland cement and lime manufacture , in the composition of ceramic glazes , and more .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonate","rank":1,"score":180974},{"content":"Title: Coral reef Content: Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals . Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups . The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria , which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones , corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps . Most reefs grow best in warm , shallow , clear , sunny and agitated waters . Often called `` rainforests of the sea '' , shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth . They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface , about half the area of France , yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Paradoxically , coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients . They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters , but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas . Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism , fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$ 29.8-375 billion . However , coral reefs are fragile ecosystems , partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature . They are under threat from climate change , oceanic acidification , blast fishing , cyanide fishing for aquarium fish , sunscreen use , overuse of reef resources , and harmful land-use practices , including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution , which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth .","qid":"180","docid":"Coral_reef","rank":2,"score":165305},{"content":"Title: Coral calcium Content: Coral calcium is a salt of calcium derived from fossilized coral reefs ( primarily from limestone and coastal deposits ) . It has been promoted as an alternative , but unsubstantiated , treatment or cure for a number of health conditions .","qid":"180","docid":"Coral_calcium","rank":3,"score":164482},{"content":"Title: Calcium reactor Content: __ NOTOC __ In marine and reef aquariums , a calcium reactor creates a balance of alkalinity . An acidic solution is produced by injecting carbon dioxide into a chamber with salt water and calcium rich media . The carbon dioxide lowers the pH by producing a solution high in carbonic acid , and dissolves calcium . The effluent is returned to the reef aquarium where the calcium is consumed by organisms , primarily corals when building skeletons . A calcium reactor is an efficient method to supply calcium to a reef aquarium . Reactors may be used in elaborate freshwater and brackish aquariums where freshwater clams and other invertebrates need a constant supply of calcium . The reactor dissolves the calcium-laden media to provide bicarbonates HCO3 − ( alkalinity ) and calcium ( Ca + + ) ions at the sames rate as consumed during calcification . Effectively dissolving the media requires an acidic pH. Saltwater may have a pH of 7.8 or higher , so to reduce the pH carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) is used . The reaction formula is : CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 < -- -- > Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − Inside the reaction chamber , a calcium rich media ( aragonite ) , mainly CaCO3 , is forced into contact with water injected with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in order to create carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This increases the solubility of the calcium carbonate . The reaction frees the calcium and carbonate , supplying the aquarium with water rich in Ca2 + and CO32 − , important for maintaining alkalinity and calcium levels . The bubble counter measures carbon dioxide . The flow rate of carbon dioxide is monitored so that the dissolved gas goes into the solution , with a minimum unconsumed . A needle valve or solenoid valve regulates the CO2 bubble rate . Valves with precise adjustment abilities improve bubble control . The feed pump controls the volume of water exchange . This is important because a high rate of water flow into the reactor reduces its efficiency , thus resulting in underproduction and a waste of CO2 . Some reactors siphon water into the input of the reactor 's re-circulation pump . A potential complication is the medium in the reactor becoming compacted , increasing back pressure onto the pump and reducing water into the reactor . Placing a gate or needle valve on the reactor 's outlet side will improve flow characteristics compared to control from the inlet side . A peristaltic pumps are effective operating against pressure , capable of supplying an adjustable and continuous flow over flow rates with minimal maintenance . The pH control is connected to a probe in the reactor and adjusts the rate at which the calcium media dissolves . This probe monitors the pH level in the calcium reactor . The pH range for the typical calcium reactor is 6.5 - 6.8 . When the pH rises above a certain level , a valve opens , allowing carbon dioxide to enter the reactor . The control closes the valve as the pH falls below this level . Some pH controllers have an interface for an air pump . This air pump is connected to an airstone in the sump or main tank . If the probe detects a low pH level , the pump activates . The bubbles raise the pH by dissipating the CO2 gas .","qid":"180","docid":"Calcium_reactor","rank":4,"score":162182},{"content":"Title: Coenosteum Content: In corals , the coenosteum is the stony skeletal material secreted by the coenosarc , the layer of living material lying between the corallites ( the stony cups in which the polyps sit ) . The coenosteum is composed of aragonite , a crystalline form of calcium carbonate , and is generally a spongy , porous material . Sometimes the coenosteum has ornamentation such as ridges and beads , visible as raised areas of the coenosarc . The coenosteum and corallites together are known as the corallum .","qid":"180","docid":"Coenosteum","rank":5,"score":155408},{"content":"Title: Calcium bicarbonate Content: Calcium bicarbonate , also called calcium hydrogen carbonate , has a chemical formula Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 . The term does not refer to a known solid compound ; it exists only in aqueous solution containing the calcium ( Ca2 + ) , bicarbonate ( HCO3 − ) , and carbonate ( CO32 − ) ions , together with dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The relative concentrations of these carbon-containing species depend on the pH ; bicarbonate predominates within the range 6.36-10 .25 in fresh water . All waters in contact with the atmosphere absorb carbon dioxide , and as these waters come into contact with rocks and sediments they acquire metal ions , most commonly calcium and magnesium , so most natural waters that come from streams , lakes , and especially wells , can be regarded as dilute solutions of these bicarbonates . These hard waters tend to form carbonate scale in pipes and boilers and they react with soaps to form an undesirable scum . Attempts to prepare compounds such as calcium bicarbonate by evaporating its solution to dryness invariably yield the solid calcium carbonate , instead : Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ( aq ) → CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) + CaCO3 ( s ) . Very few solid bicarbonates other than those of the alkali metals and ammonium ion are known to exist . The above reaction is very important to the formation of stalactites , stalagmites , columns , and other speleothems within caves , and for that matter , in the formation of the caves themselves . As water containing carbon dioxide ( including extra CO2 acquired from soil organisms ) passes through limestone or other calcium carbonate-containing minerals , it dissolves part of the calcium carbonate , hence becomes richer in bicarbonate . As the groundwater enters the cave , the excess carbon dioxide is released from the solution of the bicarbonate , causing the much less soluble calcium carbonate to be deposited . In the reverse process , dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in rainwater ( H2O ) reacts with limestone calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) to form soluble calcium bicarbonate ( Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ) . This soluble compound is then washed away with the rainwater . This form of weathering is called carbonation . In medicine , calcium bicarbonate is sometimes administered intravenously to immediately correct the cardiac depressor effects of hypokalemia by increasing calcium concentration in serum , and at the same time , correcting the acid usually present .","qid":"180","docid":"Calcium_bicarbonate","rank":6,"score":154668},{"content":"Title: Alcyonacea Content: The Alcyonacea , or soft corals , are an order of corals which do not produce calcium carbonate skeletons . Soft corals contain minute , spiny skeletal elements called sclerites , useful in species identification . Sclerites give these corals some degree of support and give their flesh a spiky , grainy texture that deters predators . In the past soft corals were thought to be unable to lay new foundations for future corals , but recent findings suggest that colonies of the leather-coral genus Sinularia are able to cement sclerites and consolidate them at their base into alcyonarian spiculite , thus making them reef builders . Unlike stony corals , most soft corals thrive in nutrient-rich waters with less intense light . Almost all utilize symbiotic photosynthesizing zooxanthella as a major energy source . However , most will readily eat any free floating food , such as zooplankton , out of the water column . They are integral members of the reef ecosystem and provide habitat for fish , snails , algae and a diversity of other marine species . Many soft corals are easily collected in the wild for the reef aquarium hobby , as small cuttings are less prone to infection or damage during shipping than stony corals . Nevertheless , home-grown specimens tend to be more adaptable to aquarium life and help conserve wild reefs . Soft corals grow quickly in captivity and are easily divided into new individuals , and so those grown via aquaculture are often hardier and less expensive than imported corals from the wild . The most common examples of this are various species of Actinodiscus , especially common red mushroom coral .","qid":"180","docid":"Alcyonacea","rank":7,"score":148659},{"content":"Title: Coral stone Content: Coral stone may refer to : Calcium carbonate , secreted by corals `` Coral shaped stone '' or staghorn stone , a form of kidney stone","qid":"180","docid":"Coral_stone","rank":8,"score":143106},{"content":"Title: Calcium carbonate Content: Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3 . It is a common substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite and aragonite ( most notably as limestone , which contains both of those minerals ) and is the main component of pearls and the shells of marine organisms , snails , and eggs . Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime and is created when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions to create limescale . It is medicinally used as a calcium supplement or as an antacid , but excessive consumption can be hazardous .","qid":"180","docid":"Calcium_carbonate","rank":9,"score":142845},{"content":"Title: Calcium looping Content: Calcium looping ( CaL ) , or the regenerative calcium cycle ( RCC ) , is a second-generation carbon capture technology . It is the most developed form of carbonate looping , where a metal ( M ) is reversibly reacted between its carbonate form ( MCO3 ) and its oxide form ( MO ) to separate carbon dioxide from other gases coming from either power generation or an industrial plant . In the calcium looping process , the two species are calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) and calcium oxide ( CaO ) . The captured carbon dioxide can then be transported to a storage site , used in enhanced oil recovery or used as a chemical feedstock . Calcium oxide is often referred to as the sorbent . Calcium looping is being developed as it is a more efficient , less toxic alternative to current post-combustion capture processes such as amine scrubbing . It also has interesting potential for integration with the cement industry .","qid":"180","docid":"Calcium_looping","rank":10,"score":141362},{"content":"Title: Sand Content: Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles . It is defined by size , being finer than gravel and coarser than silt . Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type ; i.e. a soil containing more than 85 % sand-sized particles by mass . The composition of sand varies , depending on the local rock sources and conditions , but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica ( silicon dioxide , or SiO2 ) , usually in the form of quartz . The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate , for example aragonite , which has mostly been created , over the past half billion years , by various forms of life , like coral and shellfish . For example , it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean . Sand is a non renewable resource over human timescales , and sand suitable for making concrete is in high demand .","qid":"180","docid":"Sand","rank":11,"score":140616},{"content":"Title: Coralline rock Content: Coralline Rock is a type of rock formed by the death of layers of Coralline algae . It is visually quite bright like the algae , and is often desired as aquarium decoration . Since it is formed from the dead algae , it contains some nutrients and calcium carbonate , which has allowed it to be used in some building structures .","qid":"180","docid":"Coralline_rock","rank":12,"score":139563},{"content":"Title: Carbonatation Content: Carbonatation is a chemical reaction in which calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide and forms insoluble calcium carbonate : Ca ( OH ) 2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O The process of forming a carbonate is sometimes referred to as `` carbonation '' , although this term usually refers to the process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonatation","rank":13,"score":138508},{"content":"Title: Carbonate platform Content: A carbonate platform is a sedimentary body which possesses topographic relief , and is composed of autochthonous calcareous deposits ( Wilson , 1975 ) . Platform growth is mediated by sessile organisms whose skeletons build up the reef or by organisms ( usually microbes ) which induce carbonate precipitation through their metabolism . Therefore , carbonate platforms can not grow up everywhere : they are not present in places where limiting factors to the life of reef-building organisms exist . Such limiting factors are , among others : light , water temperature , transparency and pH-Value . For example , carbonate sedimentation along the Atlantic South American coasts takes place everywhere but at the mouth of the Amazon River , because of the intense turbidity of the water there ( Carannante et al. , 1988 ) . Spectacular examples of present-day carbonate platforms are the Bahama Banks under which the platform is roughly 8 km thick , the Yucatan Peninsula which is up to 2 km thick , the Florida platform , the platform on which the Great Barrier Reef is growing , and the Maldive atolls . All these carbonate platforms and their associated reefs are confined to tropical latitudes . Today 's reefs are built mainly by scleractinian corals , but in the distant past other organisms , like archaeocyatha ( during the Cambrian ) or extinct cnidaria ( tabulata and rugosa ) were important reef builders .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonate_platform","rank":14,"score":138358},{"content":"Title: Marl Content: __ NOTOC __ Marl or marlstone is a calcium carbonate or lime-rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and silt . The dominant carbonate mineral in most marls is calcite , but other carbonate minerals such as aragonite , dolomite , and siderite may be present . Marl was originally an old term loosely applied to a variety of materials , most of which occur as loose , earthy deposits consisting chiefly of an intimate mixture of clay and calcium carbonate , formed under freshwater conditions ; specifically an earthy substance containing 35 -- 65 % clay and 65 -- 35 % carbonate . It also describes a habit of coralline red alga . The term is today often used to describe indurated marine deposits and lacustrine ( lake ) sediments which more accurately should be named ` marlstone ' . Marlstone is an indurated ( resists crumbling or powdering ) rock of about the same composition as marl , more correctly called an earthy or impure argillaceous limestone . It has a blocky subconchoidal fracture , and is less fissile than shale . The term ` marl ' is widely used in English-language geology , while the terms Mergel and Seekreide ( German for `` lake chalk '' ) are used in European references . The lower stratigraphic units of the chalk cliffs of Dover consist of a sequence of glauconitic marls followed by rhythmically banded limestone and marl layers . Upper Cretaceous cyclic sequences in Germany and marl -- opal-rich Tortonian-Messinian strata in the Sorbas basin related to multiple sea drawdown have been correlated with Milankovitch orbital forcing . Marl as lacustrine sediment is common in post glacial lake-bed sediments , often found underlying peat bogs . It has been used as a soil conditioner and acid soil neutralizing agent .","qid":"180","docid":"Marl","rank":15,"score":138156},{"content":"Title: Reef Content: A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface . Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish .","qid":"180","docid":"Reef","rank":16,"score":136364},{"content":"Title: Holaxonia Content: Holaxonia is a suborder of soft corals , a member of the phylum Cnidaria . Members of this suborder are sometimes known as gorgonians and include the sea blades , the sea fans , the sea rods and the sea whips . These soft corals are colonial , sessile organisms and are generally tree-like in structure . They do not have a hard skeleton composed of calcium carbonate but have a firm but pliable , central axial skeleton composed of a fibrous protein called gorgonin embedded in a tissue matrix , the coenenchyme . In some genera this is permeated with a calcareous substance in the form of fused spicules . Members of this suborder are characterized by having an unspiculated axis and often a soft , chambered central core . The polyps have eight-fold symmetry and in many species , especially in the families Gorgoniidae and Plexauridae , contain symbiotic photosynthetic algae called zooxanthellae . These soft corals are popular in salt water aquaria .","qid":"180","docid":"Holaxonia","rank":17,"score":135625},{"content":"Title: Limescale Content: Limescale is the hard , off-white , chalky deposit found in kettles , hot-water boilers and the inside of inadequately maintained hot-water central heating systems . It is also often found as a similar deposit on the inner surface of old pipe and other surfaces where `` hard water '' has evaporated . In addition to being unsightly and hard to clean , limescale seriously impairs the operation or damages various components . The type found deposited on the heating elements of water heaters has a main component of calcium carbonate . Hard water contains calcium ( and often magnesium ) bicarbonate or similar ions . Calcium salts , such as calcium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate are both more soluble in hot water than cold water . Thus , heating water does not cause calcium carbonate to precipitate per se . However , there is an equilibrium between dissolved calcium bicarbonate and dissolved calcium carbonate : Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − ⇋ Ca2 + + CO32 − + CO2 + H2O where the equilibrium is driven by the carbonate/bicarbonate , not the calcium . Note that the CO2 is dissolved in the water . There is also an equilibrium of carbon dioxide between dissolved in water ( dis ) and the gaseous state ( g ) : CO2 ( dis ) ⇋ CO2 ( g ) The equilibrium of CO2 also moves to the right towards gaseous CO2 when the water temperature rises . When water that contains dissolved calcium carbonate is warmed , CO2 is removed from the water as gas causing the equilibrium of bicarbonate and carbonate to shift to the right , increasing the concentration of dissolved carbonate . As the concentration of carbonate increases , calcium carbonate precipitates as the salt : Ca2 + + CO32 − ⇋ CaCO3 . As new cold water with dissolved calcium carbonate/bicarbonate is added and heated , CO2 gas is removed , carbonate concentration increases , and more calcium carbonate precipitates . Descaling agents are used to remove scale . Prevention of scale build-up relies on the technologies of water softening .","qid":"180","docid":"Limescale","rank":18,"score":134814},{"content":"Title: Southeast Asian coral reefs Content: Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world 's marine ecosystems . They serve many functions , such as forming the livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials . Coral reefs are developed by the carbonate-based skeletons of a variety of animals and algae . Slowly and overtime , the reefs build up to the surface in oceans . Coral reefs are found in shallow , warm salt water . The sunlight filters through clear water and allows microscopic organisms to live and reproduce . The Indian Ocean holds 60 % of the world 's coastal reefs , 25 % are in the Pacific and 15 % are in the western Atlantic . There are coral reefs in the Persian Gulf , Madagascar , the Philippines , Hawaiian Islands and off Southeast Asia . Coral reefs have been preserved and identified in rocks over 400 million years old . Coral reefs are actually composed of tiny , fragile animals known as coral polyps . Coral reefs are significantly important because of the biodiversity . Although the number of fish are decreasing , the remaining coral reefs contain more unique sea creatures . The variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than anywhere else in the world . An estimation of 70-90 % of fish caught are dependent on coral reefs in Southeast Asia and reefs support over 25 % of all known marine species . However , those sensitive coral reefs are facing detrimental effects on them due to variety of factors : overfishing , sedimentation and pollution , bleaching , and even tourist-related damage .","qid":"180","docid":"Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs","rank":19,"score":133594},{"content":"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .","qid":"180","docid":"Cap_carbonate","rank":20,"score":132591},{"content":"Title: Listwanite Content: Listwanite ( also sometimes spelled listvenite , listvanite , or listwaenite ) is unusual rock type that forms when ultramafic rocks ( most commonly mantle peridotites ) are completely carbonated . The pyroxene and olivine minerals found in peridotite commonly alter to form carbonate and serpentine minerals . However , peridotites are usually not completely carbonated . Rather , they typically contain carbonate veins ( primarily magnesite ; also calcite , dolomite , and other carbonates ) . Complete carbonation of peridotite means that every single atom of magnesium and calcium as well as some of the iron atoms has combined with CO2 to form secondary carbonate minerals such a magnesite and calcite . The silica atoms in listwanite are found in quartz . Thus , liswanites consist of quartz ( a rusty red color ) and carbonate and also sometimes talc and Cr-muscovite ( a mineral known as mariposite/fuchsite ) .","qid":"180","docid":"Listwanite","rank":21,"score":131888},{"content":"Title: Bone char Content: Bone char ( carbo animalis ) is a porous , black , granular material produced by charring animal bones . Its composition varies depending on how it is made ; however , it consists mainly of tricalcium phosphate ( or hydroxylapatite ) 57 -- 80 % , calcium carbonate 6 -- 10 % and carbon 7 -- 10 % . It is primarily used for filtration and decolorization .","qid":"180","docid":"Bone_char","rank":22,"score":131597},{"content":"Title: Limestone Content: Limestone is a sedimentary rock , composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral , forams and molluscs . Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) . About 10 % of sedimentary rocks are limestones . The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes , in which water erodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years . Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock . Limestone has numerous uses : as a building material , an essential component of concrete ( Portland cement ) , as aggregate for the base of roads , as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paints , as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime , as a soil conditioner , or as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens . The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778 .","qid":"180","docid":"Limestone","rank":23,"score":129177},{"content":"Title: Organ pipe coral Content: The Organ pipe coral ( Tubipora musica ) is an alcyonarian coral native to the waters of the Indian Ocean and the central and western regions of the Pacific Ocean . It is the only known species of the genus Tubipora . This species is a soft coral but with a unique , hard skeleton of calcium carbonate that contains many organ pipe-like tubes . On each tube is a series of polyps which each have eight feather-like tentacles . These tentacles are usually extended during the day , but will swiftly withdraw with any sort of disturbance . The skeleton is a bright red color , but is typically obscured by the numerous polyps , which are green or gray in color . In size , colonies can reach up to a meter across , while the individual polyps are typically less than 3 mm wide and a few mm long . They are restricted to shallow waters and tend to live in sheltered areas . They eat plankton . They are close relatives to other soft coral and sea fans . This species is sometimes kept in aquariums , but is temperamental , and is difficult to maintain .","qid":"180","docid":"Organ_pipe_coral","rank":24,"score":128040},{"content":"Title: Chalk Content: Chalk ( -LSB- pronˈtʃɔːk -RSB- ) is a soft , white , porous , sedimentary carbonate rock , a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite . Calcite is an ionic salt called calcium carbonate or CaCO3 . It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite shells ( coccoliths ) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores . Flint ( a type of chert unique to chalk ) is very common as bands parallel to the bedding or as nodules embedded in chalk . It is probably derived from sponge spicules or other siliceous organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction . Flint is often deposited around larger fossils such as Echinoidea which may be silicified ( i.e. replaced molecule by molecule by flint ) . Chalk as seen in Cretaceous deposits of Western Europe is unusual among sedimentary limestones in the thickness of the beds . Most cliffs of chalk have very few obvious bedding planes unlike most thick sequences of limestone such as the Carboniferous Limestone or the Jurassic oolitic limestones . This presumably indicates very stable conditions over tens of millions of years . Chalk has greater resistance to weathering and slumping than the clays with which it is usually associated , thus forming tall steep cliffs where chalk ridges meet the sea . Chalk hills , known as chalk downland , usually form where bands of chalk reach the surface at an angle , so forming a scarp slope . Because chalk is well jointed it can hold a large volume of ground water , providing a natural reservoir that releases water slowly through dry seasons .","qid":"180","docid":"Chalk","rank":25,"score":127933},{"content":"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .","qid":"180","docid":"Carnian_Pluvial_Event","rank":26,"score":127868},{"content":"Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .","qid":"180","docid":"Oceanic_carbon_cycle","rank":27,"score":127797},{"content":"Title: Acropora Content: Acropora is a genus of small polyp stony coral in the phylum Cnidaria . Some of its species are known as table coral , elkhorn coral , and staghorn coral . Over 149 species are described . Acropora species are some of the major reef corals responsible for building the immense calcium carbonate substructure that supports the thin living skin of a reef .","qid":"180","docid":"Acropora","rank":28,"score":127594},{"content":"Title: Halimeda Content: Halimeda is a genus of green macroalgae . The algal body ( thallus ) is composed of calcified green segments . Calcium carbonate is deposited in its tissues , making it inedible to most herbivores . As in other members of the order Bryopsidales , individual organisms are made up of single multi-nucleate cells . Whole meadows may consist of a single individual alga connected by fine threads running through the substrate . Halimeda is responsible for distinctive circular deposits in various parts of the Great Barrier Reef on the north-east coast of Queensland , Australia . Halimeda beds form in the western or lee side of outer shield reefs where flow of nutrient-rich water from the open sea allows them to flourish , and are the most extensive , actively accumulating Halimeda beds in the world . The genus is one of the best studied examples of cryptic species pairs due to morphological convergence within the marine macroalgae .","qid":"180","docid":"Halimeda","rank":29,"score":127448},{"content":"Title: Eggshell Content: An eggshell is the outer covering of a hard-shelled egg and of some forms of eggs with soft outer coats . Bird eggshells contain calcium carbonate and dissolve in various acids , including the vinegar used in cooking . While dissolving , the calcium carbonate in an eggshell reacts with the acid to form carbon dioxide .","qid":"180","docid":"Eggshell","rank":30,"score":127328},{"content":"Title: Reef knoll Content: A reef knoll is an immense pile of calcareous material on land that accumulated on the ancient sea floor . At the time of its accumulation it may have had enough structure from organisms such as sponges to have been free-standing and to withstand the sea currents as material accumulated , and was likely an atoll . Another possibility is the remains of deep water coral . Such structures are thus often fossil-rich .","qid":"180","docid":"Reef_knoll","rank":31,"score":127093},{"content":"Title: Corallite Content: A corallite is the skeletal cup , formed by an individual stony coral polyp , in which the polyp sits and into which it can retract . The cup is composed of aragonite , a crystalline form of calcium carbonate , and is secreted by the polyp . Corallites vary in size , but in most colonial corals they are less than 3 mm in diameter . The inner surface of the corallite is known as the calyx . The vertical blades inside the calyx are known as septa and in some species , these ridges continue outside the corallite wall as costae . Where there is no corallite wall , the blades are known as septocostae . The septa , costae and septocostae may have ornamentation in the form of teeth and may be thick , thin or variable in size . Sometimes there are paliform lobes , in the form of rods or blades , rising from the inner margins of the septa . These may form a neat circle called the paliform crown . The septa do not usually unite in the centre of the corallite , instead they form a columella , a tangled mass of intertwined septa , or a dome-shaped or pillar-like projection . In the living coral , the lower part of the polyp is in intimate contact with the corallite , and has radial mesenteries between the septa which increase the surface area of the body cavity and aid digestion . The septa , palliform lobes and costae can often be seen through the coenosarc , the layer of living tissue that covers the coenosteum or skeleton of the coral . In colonial species , when the corallites each have a surrounding wall , the colony is said to be plocoid . When the walls are tall and tubular , the colony is phaceloid , and when several polyps share a common wall , the colony is cerioid . Sometimes the polyps are in valleys on the surface of solid corals , they are then known as meandroid . Branching corals have two forms of corallites , axial and radial . The axial corallites tend to be shallow and are found near the tips of the branches while the radial corallites are on the sides of the branches . Corallites can be rounded or polygonal and may be inclined ( tilted obliquely to one side ) . As long as the colony is alive , the polyps and coenosarc deposit further calcium carbonate under the coenosarc , thus deepening the corallites . Each polyp has a fixed adult size and , when it is beginning to get submerged in the corallite , it secretes a new floor ( tabula ) beneath itself . Over time , a series of floors builds up below the living polyps , resulting in a thickening and lateral expansion of the coral .","qid":"180","docid":"Corallite","rank":32,"score":126942},{"content":"Title: Coral Content: Corals are marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria . They typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps . The group includes the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton . A coral `` group '' is a colony of myriad genetically identical polyps . Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in length . A set of tentacles surround a central mouth opening . An exoskeleton is excreted near the base . Over many generations , the colony thus creates a large skeleton that is characteristic of the species . Individual heads grow by asexual reproduction of polyps . Corals also breed sexually by spawning : polyps of the same species release gametes simultaneously over a period of one to several nights around a full moon . Although some corals can catch small fish and plankton using stinging cells on their tentacles , most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium that live within their tissues . These are commonly known as zooxanthellae and the corals that contain them are zooxanthellate corals . Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear , shallow water , typically at depths shallower than 60 m. Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters , such as the enormous Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland , Australia . Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live in much deeper water , with the cold-water genus Lophelia surviving as deep as 3000 m . Some have been found on the Darwin Mounds , north-west of Cape Wrath , Scotland . Corals have also been found as far north as off the coast of Washington State and the Aleutian Islands .","qid":"180","docid":"Coral","rank":33,"score":126567},{"content":"Title: Ooid Content: Ooids are small ( ≤ 2 mm in diameter ) , spheroidal , `` coated '' ( layered ) sedimentary grains , usually composed of calcium carbonate , but sometimes made up of iron - or phosphate-based minerals . Ooids usually form on the sea floor , most commonly in shallow tropical seas ( around the Bahamas , for example , or in the Persian Gulf ) . After being buried under additional sediment , these ooid grains can be cemented together to form a sedimentary rock called an oolite . Oolites usually consist of calcium carbonate ; these belong to the limestone rock family . Pisoids are similar to ooids , but are larger than 2 mm in diameter , often considerably larger , as with the pisoids in the hot springs at Carlsbad ( Karlovy Vary ) in the Czech Republic .","qid":"180","docid":"Ooid","rank":34,"score":125750},{"content":"Title: Brain coral Content: Brain coral is a common name given to corals in the family Mussidae , so called due to their generally spheroid shape and grooved surface which resembles a brain . Each head of coral is formed by a colony of genetically identical polyps which secrete a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate ; this makes them important coral reef builders like other stony corals in the order Scleractinia . Brain corals are found in shallow warm-water coral reefs in all the world 's oceans . They are part of the phylum Cnidaria , in a class called Anthozoa or `` flower animals '' . The lifespan of the largest brain corals is 900 years . Colonies can grow as large as 1.8 m ( 6 ft ) or more in height . Brain corals extend their tentacles to catch food at night . During the day , they use their tentacles for protection by wrapping them over the grooves on their surface . The surface is hard and offers good protection against fish or hurricanes . Branching corals , such as staghorn corals , grow more rapidly , but are more vulnerable to storm damage . Like other genera of corals , brain corals feed on small drifting animals , and also receive nutrients provided by the algae which live within their tissues . The behavior of one of the most common genera , Favia , is semiaggressive ; it will sting other corals with its extended sweeper tentacles during the night . The genus and species have not been defined through the scientific classification segment .","qid":"180","docid":"Brain_coral","rank":35,"score":125483},{"content":"Title: Reef House Content: The Reef House is a historic house located at 411 S. Poplar St. in Carbondale , Illinois . William A. Reef built the house for his family circa 1892 . The Queen Anne-style cottage may have been designed by local carpenter A. M. Etherton , though records of its designer do not exist . The house features fishscale shingle siding on its second floor and clapboard siding on its first ; the clapboard siding is adorned with stickwork . A gable on the south side of the house features half-timbering at its top . The house 's front porch features turned posts , a typical Queen Anne feature . The house is one of the only Queen Anne homes in Carbondale which largely retains its original condition . The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 14 , 1985 .","qid":"180","docid":"Reef_House","rank":36,"score":125377},{"content":"Title: Carbon Sciences Content: Carbon Sciences '' ' is a public corporation based in Santa Barbara . The company was founded in 2006 and incorporated as Zingerang , Inc. . Originally , the company was involved in mobile communication , but has since switched to developing to fuel technology . Calcium Carbonate , CaCO3 , was briefly looked at as another end product of recycling . On April 2 , 2007 the name was changed to Carbon Sciences Inc. . Their process differs from other projects in that it does not utilize high pressure or high temperature . This would be a significant advantage when trying to scale the technology up to commercial production .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbon_Sciences","rank":37,"score":125246},{"content":"Title: Carbonated water Content: Carbonated water ( also known as club soda , soda water , sparkling water , seltzer water , or fizzy water ) is water into which carbon dioxide gas under pressure has been dissolved . Some of these have additives such as sodium chloride , sodium bicarbonate , magnesium and other minerals . This process , known as carbonation , is a process that causes the water to become effervescent . Most carbonated water is sold in ready to drink bottles as carbonated beverages such as soft drinks . However , it is rather easy to prepare at home with soda makers .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonated_water","rank":38,"score":125148},{"content":"Title: Baralyme Content: Baralyme is a mixture of 80 % calcium hydroxide and 20 % barium hydroxide compounds that is used to absorb the exhaled carbon dioxide in a closed circuit anesthetic system . The substance has been used for carbon dioxide scrubbing in diving bells and the U.S Navy 's engineered SEALAB 's I , II , and the failed SEALAB III .","qid":"180","docid":"Baralyme","rank":39,"score":124816},{"content":"Title: Gaylussite Content: Gaylussite is a carbonate mineral , a hydrated sodium calcium carbonate , formula Na2Ca ( CO3 ) 2 · 5H2O . It occurs as translucent , vitreous white to grey to yellow monoclinic prismatic crystals . It is an unstable mineral which dehydrates in dry air and decomposes in water .","qid":"180","docid":"Gaylussite","rank":40,"score":124768},{"content":"Title: Microbiologically induced calcite precipitation Content: Microbiologically induced calcium carbonate precipitation ( MICP ) is a bio-geochemical process that induces calcium carbonate precipitation within the soil matrix . Biomineralization in the form of calcium carbonate precipitation can be traced back to the Precambrian period . Calcium carbonate can be precipitated in three polymorphic forms , which in the order of their usual stabilities are calcite , aragonite and vaterite . The main groups of microorganisms that can induce the carbonate precipitation are photosynthetic microorganisms such as cyanobacteria and microalgae ; sulfate-reducing bacteria ; and some species of microorganisms involved in nitrogen cycle . Several mechanisms have been identified by which bacteria can induce the calcium carbonate precipitation , including urea hydrolysis , denitrification , sulphate production , and iron reduction . Two different pathways , or autotrophic and heterotrophic pathways , through which calcium carbonate is produced have been identified . There are three autotrophic pathways exist . However , all three pathways result in depletion of carbon dioxide and favouring calcium carbonate precipitation . In heterotrophic pathway , two metabolic cycles can be involved : the nitrogen cycle and the sulfur cycle . Several applications of this process have been proposed , such as remediation of cracks and corrosion prevention in concrete , biogrout , sequestration of radionuclides and heavy metals .","qid":"180","docid":"Microbiologically_induced_calcite_precipitation","rank":41,"score":124449},{"content":"Title: Sclerosponge Content: Sclerosponges are sponges with a soft body that covers a hard , often massive skeleton made of calcium carbonate , either aragonite or calcite . Because of their long life span ( 500-1 ,000 years ) it is thought that analysis of the aragonite skeletons of these sponges could extend data regarding ocean temperature , salinity , and other variables farther into the past than has been previously possible . Their dense skeletons are deposited in an organized chronological manner , in concentric layers or bands . The layered skeletons look similar to reef corals . Therefore , sclerosponges are also called coralline sponges . Sclerosponges were first proposed as a class of sponges , Sclerospongiae , in 1970 by Hartman and Goreau . However , it was later found by Vacelet that sclerosponges occur in different classes of Porifera . That means that sclerosponges are not a closely related ( taxonomic ) group of sponges . Like bats and birds that independently developed the ability to fly , different sponges developed the ability to build a calcareous skeleton independently and during different times in Earth history . Fossil sclerosponges are already known from the Cambrian period . Sclerosponges include the species Ceratoporella nicholsoni , Stromatospongia vermicola , Hispidopetra miniana , S. norae , Goreauiella auriculatra , and Merlia sp. , which were described in detail by Lang et al. in 1975 .","qid":"180","docid":"Sclerosponge","rank":42,"score":124409},{"content":"Title: Coral rag Content: Coral rag is a rubbly limestone composed of ancient coral reef material . The term also refers to the building blocks quarried from these strata , which are an important local building material in areas such as the coast of East Africa and the southeastern United States littoral ( e.g. Florida , Bermuda ) . It is also the name of a member -- the Coral Rag Member -- of the Upper Oxfordian Coralline Oolite Formation of North Yorkshire , England .","qid":"180","docid":"Coral_rag","rank":43,"score":123947},{"content":"Title: Talc carbonate Content: Talc carbonates are a suite of rock and mineral compositions found in metamorphic ultramafic rocks . The term refers to the two most common end-member minerals found within ultramafic rocks which have undergone talc-carbonation or carbonation reactions , talc and the carbonate mineral magnesite . Talc carbonate mineral assemblages are controlled by temperature and pressure of metamorphism and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within metamorphic fluids , as well as by the composition of the host rock .","qid":"180","docid":"Talc_carbonate","rank":44,"score":123740},{"content":"Title: Stereom Content: Stereom is a calcium carbonate material that makes up the internal skeletons found in sea urchins , and all other echinoderms , both living and fossilized forms . It is a sponge-like porous structure which , in a sea urchin may be 50 % by volume living cells , and the rest being a matrix of calcite crystals . The size of openings in stereom varies in different species and in different places within the same organism . When an echinoderm becomes a fossil , microscopic examination is used to reveal the structure and such examination is often an important tool to classify the fossil as an echinoderm or related creature .","qid":"180","docid":"Stereom","rank":45,"score":123221},{"content":"Title: Deep-water coral Content: The habitat of deep-water corals , also known as cold-water corals , extends to deeper , darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals , ranging from near the surface to the abyss , beyond 2000 m where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 C. Deep-water corals belong to the Phylum Cnidaria and are most often stony corals , but also include black and horny corals and soft corals including the Gorgonians ( sea fans ) . Like tropical corals , they provide habitat to other species , but deep-water corals do not require zooxanthellae to survive . While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species , only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs . Instead , they form aggregations called patches , banks , bioherms , massifs , thickets or groves . These aggregations are often referred to as `` reefs , '' but differ structurally and functionally . Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as `` mounds , '' which more accurately describes the large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off , rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates . Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs . Submarine communications cables and fishing methods such as bottom trawling tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs . The deep-water habitat is designated as a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan habitat .","qid":"180","docid":"Deep-water_coral","rank":46,"score":122887},{"content":"Title: Polypropylene carbonate Content: Polypropylene carbonate ( PPC ) , a copolymer of carbon dioxide and propylene oxide , is a thermoplastic material . Catalysts like zinc glutarate are used in polymerization .","qid":"180","docid":"Polypropylene_carbonate","rank":47,"score":122509},{"content":"Title: Coral sand Content: Coral sand is a collection of sand of particles originating in tropical and sub-tropical marine environments from bioerosion of limestone skeletal material of marine organisms . One example of this process is that of parrot fishes which bite off pieces of coral , digest the living tissue , and excrete the inorganic component as silt and sand . However , the term `` coral '' in coral sand is used loosely in this sense to mean limestone of recent biological origin ; corals are not the dominant contributors of sand particles to most such deposits . Rather , remnant skeletal fragments of foraminifera , calcareous algae , molluscs , and crustaceans can predominate . Because it is composed of limestone , coral sand is acid-soluble .","qid":"180","docid":"Coral_sand","rank":48,"score":122415},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":49,"score":122369},{"content":"Title: Lime (material) Content: Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material in which carbonates , oxides , and hydroxides predominate . In the strict sense of the term , lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide . It is also the name of the natural mineral ( native lime ) CaO which occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta . The word lime originates with its earliest use as building mortar and has the sense of sticking or adhering . These materials are still used in large quantities as building and engineering materials ( including limestone products , cement , concrete , and mortar ) , as chemical feedstocks , and for sugar refining , among other uses . Lime industries and the use of many of the resulting products date from prehistoric times in both the Old World and the New World . Lime is used extensively for wastewater treatment with ferrous sulfate . The rocks and minerals from which these materials are derived , typically limestone or chalk , are composed primarily of calcium carbonate . They may be cut , crushed , or pulverized and chemically altered . Burning ( calcination ) converts them into the highly caustic material quicklime ( calcium oxide , CaO ) and , through subsequent addition of water , into the less caustic ( but still strongly alkaline ) slaked lime or hydrated lime ( calcium hydroxide , Ca ( OH ) 2 ) , the process of which is called slaking of lime . Lime kilns are the kilns used for lime burning and slaking . When the term is encountered in an agricultural context , it usually refers to agricultural lime , which is crushed limestone , not a product of a lime kiln . Otherwise it most commonly means slaked lime , as the more dangerous form is usually described more specifically as quicklime or burnt lime .","qid":"180","docid":"Lime_(material)","rank":50,"score":121229},{"content":"Title: Corallina officinalis Content: Corallina officinalis is a calcareous red seaweed which grows in the lower and mid-littoral zones on rocky shores . It is primarily found growing around the rims of tide pools , but can be found in shallow crevices anywhere on the rocky shore that are regularly refreshed with sea water . It predominantly grows on the lower shore , especially where fucoid algae are absent , but is also found further up shore on exposed coasts . It forms calcium carbonate deposits within its cells which serve to strengthen the thallus . These white deposits cause the seaweed to appear pink in colour , with white patches where the calcium carbonate is particularly concentrated , such as at the growing tips . The calcium carbonate makes it unpalatable to most rocky shore grazers .","qid":"180","docid":"Corallina_officinalis","rank":51,"score":121036},{"content":"Title: Calcarenite Content: Calcarenite is a type of limestone that is composed predominantly , more than 50 percent , of detrital ( transported ) sand-size ( 0.0625 to 2 mm in diameter ) , carbonate grains . The grains consist of sand-size grains of either corals , shells , ooids , intraclasts , pellets , fragments of older limestones and dolomites , other carbonate grains , or some combination of these . Calcarenite is the carbonate equivalent of a sandstone . The term calcarenite was originally proposed in 1903 by Grabau as a part of his calcilutite , calcarenite and calcirudite carbonate classification system based upon the size of the detrital grains composing a limestone . Calcarenites can accumulate in a wide variety of marine and nonmarine environments . They can consist of grains of carbonate that have accumulated either as coastal sand dunes ( eolianites ) , beaches , offshore bars and shoals , turbidites , or other depositional settings .","qid":"180","docid":"Calcarenite","rank":52,"score":120315},{"content":"Title: Carbonated drink Content: Carbonated drinks are beverages that contain dissolved carbon dioxide . The dissolution of CO2 in a liquid , gives rise to fizz or effervescence . The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure . When the pressure is removed , the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles , which causes the solution to become effervescent , or fizzy . A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water , resulting in carbonated water . Carbon dioxide is only weakly soluble in water , therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released . Carbonated beverages are prepared by mixing flavored syrup with carbonated water , both chilled . Carbonation levels range up to 5 volumes of CO2 per liquid volume . Ginger ale , colas , and related drinks are carbonated with 3.5 volumes . Other drinks , often fruity ones , are carbonated less .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonated_drink","rank":53,"score":119837},{"content":"Title: Elemental calcium Content: Elemental calcium is a term used in dietary supplement ingredient lists to refer to the amount of calcium in a product . Calcium pills contain calcium in a variety of molecules , such as carbonate , citrate , citrate-maleate , orotate , etc. . Each pill supplies a different amount of elemental calcium when absorbed , and hence differs in its effectiveness . For example , calcium carbonate is 40 % elemental calcium by weight ; citrate is roughly 20 % calcium , etc. . Thus a 500 mg pill of calcium carbonate contains 200 mg of calcium and the container will indicate each pill has 200 mg of elemental calcium . This is the calcium that is actually available to the body and , as such , is the amount that one needs to consider towards his/her daily requirement . Hence , one should read the label carefully to determine the number of pills to be taken . Other factors may influence the choice of molecule prescribed . Calcium carbonate is by far the best , since it is cheap and allows more calcium intake per dose , but leads to indigestion , flatulence and other intestinal problems in quite a few patients . It also requires that the patient take the tablet after a full meal and avoid taking antacids concomitantly , which is difficult to achieve in patients taking multiple medications . Citrate or citrate-maleate is the molecule of choice in such cases ; these need to be taken before meals and have less/no interaction with antacids .","qid":"180","docid":"Elemental_calcium","rank":54,"score":119498},{"content":"Title: Scleractinia Content: Scleractinia , also called stony corals or hard corals , are marine animals in the phylum Cnidaria that live on the seabed and build themselves a hard skeleton . The individual animals are known as polyps and have a cylindrical body crowned by an oral disc with a mouth and a fringe of tentacles . Although some species are solitary , most are colonial . The founding polyp settles on the seabed and starts to secrete calcium carbonate to protect its soft body . Solitary corals can be as much as 25 cm across but in colonial species the polyps are usually only a few millimetres in diameter . These polyps reproduce by budding but remain attached to each other , forming a multi-polyp colony with a common skeleton , which may be up to several metres in diameter or height according to species . The shape and appearance of each coral colony depends not only on the species , but also on its location , depth , the amount of water movement and other factors . Many shallow-water corals contain symbiont unicellular organisms known as zooxanthellae within their tissues . These give their colour to the coral which thus may vary in hue depending on what species of symbiont it contains . Stony corals are closely related to sea anemones , and like them are armed with stinging cells known as cnidocytes . Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually . Most species release gametes into the sea where fertilisation takes place , and the planula larvae drift as part of the plankton , but a few species brood their eggs . Asexual reproduction is mostly by fragmentation , when part of a colony becomes detached and reattaches elsewhere . Stony corals occur in all the world 's oceans . Hermatypic corals are mostly colonial and form part of reef structures ; most of these are zooxanthellate and are found in the shallow waters into which sunlight penetrates . Other corals may be solitary or colonial and do not form reefs ; some of these occur at abyssal depths where no light reaches . Stony corals first appeared in the Middle Triassic , but their relationship to the tabulate and rugose corals of the Paleozoic is currently unresolved . Much of the framework of modern coral reefs is formed by scleractinians . Stony corals numbers are expected to decline due to the effects of global warming and ocean acidification .","qid":"180","docid":"Scleractinia","rank":55,"score":119403},{"content":"Title: Conchiolin Content: Conchiolins ( sometimes referred to as conchins ) are complex proteins which are secreted by a mollusc 's outer epithelium ( the mantle ) . These proteins are part of a matrix of organic macromolecules , mainly proteins and polysaccharides , that assembled together form the microenvironment where crystals nucleate and grow . This organic matrix also holds and binds to the crystals of aragonite which give such shells their stiffness . The ions necessary to form calcium carbonate are also secreted by the mantle , but it is the tailored environment created by the organic matrix which causes aragonite ( rather than calcite ) crystals to nucleate , in much the same way that collagen nucleates hydroxyapatite crystals . Conchiolin serves as a relatively flexible , crack-deflecting matrix for the mineral aggregate particles ; its strength and the strong bonding of perlucin can in some cases ( such as in the formation of nacre ) give the finished material an impressive level of toughness . As well as providing a matrix into which the hard calcium carbonate part of the shell is precipitated , many species of mollusks ( such as the land snail shown above ) also have an outer shell layer called the periostracum which is composed of the protein conchiolin . Some land snails ( especially the taxa that have become adapted to living on acidic soils ) have very thin , transparent , tan-colored shells , even as adults , and those shells are composed entirely of conchiolin .","qid":"180","docid":"Conchiolin","rank":56,"score":119381},{"content":"Title: Coccolith Content: Coccoliths are individual plates of calcium carbonate formed by coccolithophores ( single-celled algae such as Emiliania huxleyi ) which are arranged around them in a coccosphere .","qid":"180","docid":"Coccolith","rank":57,"score":119223},{"content":"Title: Shelly limestone Content: Shelly limestone is a highly fossiliferous limestone , composed of a number of fossilized organisms such as brachiopods , bryozoans , crinoids , sponges , corals and mollusks . It varies in color , texture and hardness . Coquina is a poorly indurated form of shelly limestone . Shelly limestone is a sedimentary rock because it is made up of fragments . To be shelly , it is full of broken shells which are `` glued '' together with calcite . Calcium carbonate often makes up around 10 % of the volume , whilst many varied sized shells from granular to very large pebbles . Its color is gray .","qid":"180","docid":"Shelly_limestone","rank":58,"score":118678},{"content":"Title: Carbonic acid Content: Not to be confused with Carbolic acid , an antiquated name for phenol . Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 ( equivalently OC ( OH ) 2 ) . It is also a name sometimes given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water ( carbonated water ) , because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3 . In physiology , carbonic acid is described as volatile acid or respiratory acid , because it is the only acid excreted as a gas by the lungs . It plays an important role in the bicarbonate buffer system to maintain acid -- base homeostasis . Carbonic acid , which is a weak acid , forms two kinds of salts , the carbonates and the bicarbonates . In geology , carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites . It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound . However , in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonic_acid","rank":59,"score":118522},{"content":"Title: Carbonate hardgrounds Content: Carbonate hardgrounds are surfaces of synsedimentarily cemented carbonate layers that have been exposed on the seafloor ( Wilson and Palmer , 1992 ) . A hardground is essentially , then , a lithified seafloor . Ancient hardgrounds are found in limestone sequences and distinguished from later-lithified sediments by evidence of exposure to normal marine waters . This evidence can consist of encrusting marine organisms ( especially bryozoans , oysters , barnacles , cornulitids , hederelloids , microconchids and crinoids ) , borings of organisms produced through bioerosion , early marine calcite cements , or extensive surfaces mineralized by iron oxides or calcium phosphates ( Palmer , 1982 ; Bodenbender et al. , 1989 ; Vinn and Wilson , 2010 ; Vinn and Toom , 2015 ) . Modern hardgrounds are usually detected by sounding in shallow water or through remote sensing techniques like side-scan radar . Carbonate hardgrounds often host a unique fauna and flora adapted to the hard surface . Organisms usually cement themselves to the substrate and live as sessile filter-feeders ( Brett and Liddell , 1982 ) . Some bore into the cemented carbonate to make protective domiciles ( borings ) for filter-feeding . Sometimes hardgrounds are undermined by currents which remove the soft sediment below them , producing shallow cavities and caves which host a cryptic fauna ( Palmer and Fürsich , 1974 ) . The evolution of hardground faunas can be traced through the Phanerozoic , from the Cambrian Period to today ( Taylor and Wilson , 2003 ) . Carbonate hardgrounds were most commonly formed during calcite sea intervals in Earth history , which were times of rapid precipitation of low-magnesium calcite and the dissolution of skeletal aragonite ( Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . The Ordovician-Silurian and the Jurassic-Cretaceous Systems have the most hardgrounds ( sometimes hundreds in a single section ) and the Permian-Triassic Systems have the least ( usually none ) . This cyclicity in hardground formation is reflected in the evolution of hardground-dwelling communities . There are distinct differences between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic hardground communities : the former are dominated by thick calcitic bryozoans and echinoderms , the latter by oysters and deep bivalve ( Gastrochaenolites ) and sponge ( Entobia ) borings ( Taylor and Wilson , 2003 ) . Stratigraphers and sedimentologists often use hardgrounds as marker horizons and as indicators of sedimentary hiatuses and flooding events ( Fürsich et al. , 1981 , 1992 ; Pope and Read , 1997 ) . Hardgrounds and their faunas can also represent very specific depositional environments such as tidal channels ( Wilson et al. , 2005 ) and shallow marine carbonate ramps ( Palmer and Palmer , 1977 ; Malpas et al. , 2004 )","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonate_hardgrounds","rank":60,"score":116669},{"content":"Title: Ankerite Content: Ankerite is a calcium , iron , magnesium , manganese carbonate mineral of the group of rhombohedral carbonates with formula : Ca ( Fe , Mg , Mn ) ( CO3 ) 2 . In composition it is closely related to dolomite , but differs from this in having magnesium replaced by varying amounts of iron ( II ) and manganese . It forms a series with dolomite and kutnohorite . The crystallographic and physical characters resemble those of dolomite and siderite . The angle between the perfect rhombohedral cleavages is 73 ° 48 ' , the hardness is 3.5 to 4 , and the specific gravity is 2.9 to 3.1 . The color is white , grey or reddish to yellowish brown . Ankerite occurs with siderite in metamorphosed ironstones and sedimentary banded iron formations . It also occurs in carbonatites . In sediments it occurs as authigenic , diagenetic minerals and as a product of hydrothermal deposition . It is one of the minerals of the dolomite-siderite series , to which the terms brown-spar , pearl-spar and bitter-spar have been historically loosely applied . It was first recognized as a distinct species by W. von Haidinger in 1825 , and named for Matthias Joseph Anker ( 1771 -- 1843 ) of Styria , an Austrian mineralogist . It has been found in Western Tasmania , in mines in Dundas , Tasmania","qid":"180","docid":"Ankerite","rank":61,"score":116143},{"content":"Title: Gerolsteiner Brunnen Content: Gerolsteiner Brunnen GmbH & Co. . KG ( Gerolsteiner ) is a leading German mineral water firm with its seat in Gerolstein in the Eifel mountains . It is well known for its Gerolsteiner Sprudel brand , a bottled , naturally carbonated mineral water . This water , in addition to hydrogen and oxygen ( H2O ) and carbon ( in the carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) carbonation ) , contains at least the following chemical elements in amounts of 100 or more micrograms per liter : bromine , calcium , chlorine , fluorine , lithium , magnesium , manganese , nitrogen , potassium , silicon , sodium , strontium , and sulfur . The strontium is naturally occurring , not the radioactive strontium-90 . Gerolsteiner was also the chief sponsor of a cycling team , Team Gerolsteiner .","qid":"180","docid":"Gerolsteiner_Brunnen","rank":62,"score":114442},{"content":"Title: Carbonatite Content: Carbonatite ( -LSB- pronkɑrˈbɒnətaɪt -RSB- ) is a type of intrusive or extrusive igneous rock defined by mineralogic composition consisting of greater than 50 percent carbonate minerals . Carbonatites may be confused with marble , and may require geochemical verification . Carbonatites usually occur as small plugs within zoned alkalic intrusive complexes , or as dikes , sills , breccias , and veins . They are , almost exclusively , associated with continental rift-related tectonic settings . It seems that there has been a steady increase in the carbonatitic igneous activity through the Earth 's history , from the Archean Eon to the present . Nearly all carbonatite occurrences are intrusives or subvolcanic intrusives . This is because carbonatite lava flows , being composed largely of soluble carbonates , are easily weathered and are therefore unlikely to be preserved in the geologic record . Carbonatite eruptions as lava may therefore not be as uncommon as thought , but they have been poorly preserved throughout the Earth 's history . Only one carbonatite volcano is known to have erupted in historical time , the active Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano in Tanzania . It erupts with the lowest temperature lava in the world , at 500-600 ° C . The lava is natrocarbonatite dominated by nyerereite and gregoryite .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonatite","rank":63,"score":114177},{"content":"Title: Znucalite Content: Znucalite or CaZn11 ( UO2 ) ( CO3 ) 3 ( OH ) 20 • 4 ( H2O ) is a rare , radioactive , white to pale cream colored uranium-containing carbonate mineral , hydrated calcium zinc uranyl carbonate hydroxide . Znucalite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system , often forming aggregates or crusts , and is found as a rare secondary species in carbonate-hosted ( meaning it is mined from carbonate containing formations such as limestone ) polymetallic veins , and nearby oxidizing uranium veins ; on dump material and coating mine walls , apparently of post-mine origin . It fluoresces yellow-green under UV light . It was first described in 1989 , after being discovered in Lill Mine , Černojamské deposit ( Black pits deposit ) in the Czech Republic . It was named in 1990 by Petr Ondruš , František Veselovský , and R. Rybka for its constituent elements .","qid":"180","docid":"Znucalite","rank":64,"score":114070},{"content":"Title: Uranyl carbonate Content: Uranyl carbonate , UO2 ( CO3 ) , is a carbonate of uranium that forms the backbone of several uranyl mineral species such as andersonite , mckelveyite - ( Y ) and wyartite and most importantly rutherfordine . It is also found in both the mineral and organic fractions of coal and its fly ash and is the main component of uranium in mine tailing seepage water . Uranium like other actinides readily forms a dioxide uranyl core ( UO2 ) . In the environment , this uranyl core readily complexes with carbonate to form charged complexes . Although uranium forms insoluble solids or adsorbs to mineral surfaces at alkaline pH it is these soluble carbonate complexes that increase its solubility , availability , and mobility with low affinities to soil . Uranium ( VI ) generally forms a pH-dependent suite of uranyl carbonate and various hydrated complexes in ground water solutions . UO2 ( OH ) 2 + UO2 ( CO3 ) 22 − UO2 ( CO3 ) 34 − UO2 ( CO3 ) ( OH ) 3 − A common method for concentrating uranium from a solution uses solutions of uranyl carbonates , which are passed through a resin bed where the complex ions are transferred to the resin by ion exchange with a negative ion like chloride . After build-up of the uranium complex on the resin , the uranium is eluted with a salt solution and the uranium is precipitated in another process .","qid":"180","docid":"Uranyl_carbonate","rank":65,"score":114047},{"content":"Title: Oolitic aragonite sand Content: Oolitic aragonite sand forms in tropical waters . Most of the topography of the Bahama Banks is composed of calcium carbonate oolitic aragonite sand material . The natural formation through precipitation and sedimentation of aragonite sand in the Bahamas surpasses anyplace else in the world . There are billions of tons of this type of sand material in reserve and millions of tons more created annually .","qid":"180","docid":"Oolitic_aragonite_sand","rank":66,"score":113271},{"content":"Title: Merensky Reef Content: The Merensky Reef is a layer of igneous rock in the Bushveld Igneous Complex ( BIC ) in the North West , Limpopo , Gauteng and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa which together with an underlying layer , the Upper Group 2 Reef ( UG2 ) , contains most of the world 's known reserves of platinum group metals ( PGMs ) or platinum group elements ( PGEs ) - platinum , palladium , rhodium , ruthenium , iridium and osmium . The UG2 Reef , the composition of which is relatively consistent throughout the BIC , is rich in chromite , but lacks the Merensky 's gold , copper and nickel by-products , though its reserves may be almost twice those of the Merensky Reef . Chromitite layers occur commonly in large mafic layered intrusions . A current theory is that chromitites form as a result of introduction and mixing of chemically primitive magma with a more evolved magma , which leads to supersaturation of chromite in the mixture , which in turn leads to the formation of a nearly monomineralic layer on the magma chamber floor . The initial recovery of platinum in South Africa took place on several of the large East Rand gold mines and the first separate platinum mine was a short lived venture near Naboomspruit that worked very patchy quartz reefs . The discovery of the Bushveld Igneous Complex deposits was made in 1924 by a Lydenburg district farmer , A F Lombaard . This was an alluvial deposit but its importance was recognised by Hans Merensky whose prospecting work discovered the primary source in the Bushveld Igneous Complex and traced it for several hundred kilometres by 1930 . Extensive mining of the Reef did not take place until an upsurge in the demand for platinum group metals used in exhaust pollution control in the 1950s , made exploitation economically feasible . Extraction of metals from the UG2 chromitite could only take place in the 1970s with major advances in metallurgy .","qid":"180","docid":"Merensky_Reef","rank":67,"score":112885},{"content":"Title: Carbonate rock Content: Carbonate rocks are a class of sedimentary rocks composed primarily of carbonate minerals . The two major types are limestone , which is composed of calcite or aragonite ( different crystal forms of CaCO3 ) and dolostone , which is composed of the mineral dolomite ( CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 ) . Calcite can be either dissolved by groundwater or precipitated by groundwater , depending on several factors including the water temperature , pH , and dissolved ion concentrations . Calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases . When conditions are right for precipitation , calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together or it can fill fractures . Karst topography and caves develop in carbonate rocks because of their solubility in dilute acidic groundwater . Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation . Marble is the metamorphic carbonate rock . Rare igneous carbonate rocks exist as intrusive carbonatites and even rarer volcanic carbonate lava .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonate_rock","rank":68,"score":112530},{"content":"Title: Aragonite sea Content: An aragonite sea contains aragonite and high-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic carbonate precipitates . Therefore , the chemical conditions of the seawater must be notably high in magnesium content for an aragonite sea to form . This is in contrast to a calcite sea in which low-magnesium calcite is the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate . The Early Paleozoic and the Middle to Late Mesozoic oceans were predominantly calcite seas , whereas the Middle Paleozoic through the Early Mesozoic and the Cenozoic ( including today ) are characterized by aragonite seas . Aragonite seas form due to several factors , the most obvious of these is a high magnesium content . However , the sea level and the temperature of the surrounding system also determine whether an aragonite sea will form . Calcite seas occurred at times of rapid seafloor spreading and global greenhouse climate conditions . Calcite is the predominant mineral in warm , shallow marine environments . Aragonite on the other hand , is the dominant mineral in cool marine water environments . This trend has been observed by looking at the chemistry of carbonates , dating them and analyzing the conditions under which they were formed . One study has examined the temporal and spatial distribution of limestone-marl alternations in Ordovician , Jurassic and Cretaceous ( times of calcite seas ) . This study concluded that the most abundant of the limestone-marl alternations occurred in settings similar to today 's seas which favor aragonite production .","qid":"180","docid":"Aragonite_sea","rank":69,"score":112475},{"content":"Title: Barytocalcite Content: Barytocalcite is an anhydrous barium calcium carbonate mineral with the chemical formula BaCa ( CO3 ) 2 . It is trimorphous with alstonite and paralstonite , that is to say the three minerals have the same formula but different structures . Baryte and quartz pseudomorphs after barytocalcite have been observed . Barytocalcite crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system , typically as massive to druzy accumulations of transparent white to yellow to grey aggregates of slender prismatic crystals . It has a Mohs hardness of 4 and a specific gravity of 3.64 to 3.71 . It was first described in 1824 for an occurrence in the Blagill Mine in North Pennines , Cumbria ( Cumberland ) , England , and named for its composition .","qid":"180","docid":"Barytocalcite","rank":70,"score":111736},{"content":"Title: Nyerereite Content: Nyerereite is a very rare sodium calcium carbonate mineral with formula Na2Ca ( CO3 ) 2 . It forms colorless , platey pseudohexagonal orthorhombic crystals that are typically twinned . It has a specific gravity of 2.54 and indices of refraction of nα = 1.511 , nβ = 1.533 and nγ = 1.535 . Nyerereite is not stable in contact with the atmosphere and rapidly breaks down . Collection specimens must be kept in a sealed argon environment . It has a Hermann -- Mauguin notation of mm2 and the respective space group is Cmc21 . In nature Nyerereite is naturally twinned and is pseudohexagonal with triad twinning ; meaning that this is a six sided crystal that apparently has a hexagonal shape but is not in the hexagonal system . Triad twinning is the intergrowth of three orthorhombic crystals that turn at their center and form hexagonally shaped crystals . Nyerereite is biaxial negative , and has a 2v of 29 degrees . It shows a center acute bisectrix and a birefringence of approximately 0.023 . At high temperatures or just erupted lava nyerereite is uniaxial and shows an interference color of second order blue when twinning is not present , and when twinning is there the interference color of nyerereite is first order grey .","qid":"180","docid":"Nyerereite","rank":71,"score":111583},{"content":"Title: Carbonic anhydrase Content: The carbonic anhydrases ( or carbonate dehydratases ) form a family of enzymes that catalyze the rapid interconversion of carbon dioxide and water to bicarbonate and protons ( or vice versa ) , a reversible reaction that occurs relatively slowly in the absence of a catalyst . The active site of most carbonic anhydrases contains a zinc ion ; they are therefore classified as metalloenzymes . One of the functions of the enzyme in animals is to interconvert carbon dioxide and bicarbonate to maintain acid-base balance in blood and other tissues , and to help transport carbon dioxide out of tissues .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonic_anhydrase","rank":72,"score":111468},{"content":"Title: Craniidae Content: The Craniidae are a family of brachiopods ( lamp shells ) . Although it belongs to a subdivision called the inarticulata which have shells where the mineral content consist of calcium phosphate , the Craniidae have shells that consist of calcium carbonate . Other special characteristics of this family are that no outgrowths are developed to form a hinge between both valves , nor is there any support for the lophophore . As adults , craniids either lived free on the ocean floor or , more commonly , were attached to a hard object with all or part of the ventral valve . All other brachiopods are supposed to have a stalk or pedicle , at least as an adolescent , but in craniids a pedicle is not known from any development stage . They are the only members of the order Craniida and the monotypic suborder Craniidina and superfamily Cranioidea ; consequently , the latter two taxa are presently redundant and not used very often . Valdiviathyris and Neoancistrocrania were sometimes separated in a family Valdiviathyrididae but this has turned out to be unjustified . Most Craniidae are long extinct forms known only from fossils like all other Craniforma . However , some 20 species of this 470-million-year-old lineage are surviving today . They include Valdiviathyris quenstedti which has remained essentially unchanged for the last 35 million years or so . Although some minimal evolution would obviously have taken place in the meantime , this was essentially silent mutations and marginal adaptations to cooler habitat . Present-day Valdiviathyris are all but inseparable from those of the Late Eocene and the genus can not even be divided into chronospecies . Thus , V. quenstedti is a true living fossil and one of the oldest and most long-lived species known to science .","qid":"180","docid":"Craniidae","rank":73,"score":111267},{"content":"Title: Calcimicrobe Content: Characteristic of the Neoproterozoic and Cambrian periods , the heterogeneous group called calcimicrobes are calcareous colonial microfossils , which include many morphologically dissimilar organisms , whose effect in massive aggregations , in association with shelly metazoans , was to lay down the earliest recognizable reef systems : compare Archaeocyathids . The earliest recognizable patch reefs date to the Tommotian . Individual calcimicrobes laid down calcium carbonate in tubules , threads , chambered structures and other forms . The term calcimicrobe is useful in recreating the paleoecology of these systems . The term was first applied by N.P. James and D.I. Gravestock in 1990 .","qid":"180","docid":"Calcimicrobe","rank":74,"score":111231},{"content":"Title: Carbonate–silicate cycle Content: The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere . The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) . The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature . The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonate–silicate_cycle","rank":75,"score":110959},{"content":"Title: Pelagosite Content: Pelagosite is a form of pisolitic aragonite ( CaCO3 ) whose type locality is the Croatian island group of Palagruža ( Italian Pelagosa , whence the name ) in the middle of the Adriatic . It was identified by R. Moser in Mineralogische und petrographische Mitteilungen , new series ( Vienna ) 1 ( 1878 ) , 174 . It has a higher content of magnesium carbonate , strontium carbonate , calcium sulfate ( gypsum ) and silicon dioxide ( silica ) than is found in typical limy sediments elsewhere . It occurs as a superficial calcareous crust no more than a few millimetres thick , which is generally white , grey , or brownish with a pearly lustre . It was believed to be formed in the intertidal zone by saltwater spray and evaporation , but an algal contribution has recently been suggested ( Montanari and others ( 2007 ) ) , following an overlooked earlier proposal by E. Onorato in 1926 .","qid":"180","docid":"Pelagosite","rank":76,"score":110792},{"content":"Title: Tommotiid Content: Tommotiids are Cambrian ( Terreneuvian ) shelly fossils thought to belong to the Brachiopod + Phoronid lineage ( Brachiozoa ) . The majority of tommotiids are mineralised with calcium phosphate rather than calcium carbonate . although silicified examples hint that some species bore carbonate or carbonaceous sclerites . Micrina and Paterimitra possess bivalved shells in their larval phases , which preserve characters that might position them in the Linguliformea and Rhynchonelliformea stem lineages respectively . This would indicate that the brachiopod shell represents the retention of a larval character . For a long part of their history , the tommotiids were only known from disarticulated shells - a complete organism had not been found . The 2008 discovery of Eccentrotheca offered the first insight into a complete organism , and permitted a reconstruction of the animal as a sessile , tube-like animal made up of a spiral of overlapping plates . Articulated specimens of Paterimitra , discovered a year later , suggest a similar form and lifestyle - it is possible that many tommotiids need redescribing as sessile tube-dwellers . These discoveries have produced an alternative model for the origin of the brachiopods ; it suggested that they evolved by the reduction of sessile tube-like organisms , until only two shells were left . This contrasts with the brachiopod fold hypothesis which suggests that they formed by the folding of a halkieriid-like organism .","qid":"180","docid":"Tommotiid","rank":77,"score":110685},{"content":"Title: Clumped isotopes Content: Clumped isotopes are heavy isotopes that are bonded to other heavy isotopes . The carbonate clumped-isotope thermometer , or `` 13C -- 18O order/disorder carbonate thermometer '' , is a new approach for paleoclimate reconstruction , basing on the temperature dependence of the clumping of 13C and 18O into bonds within the carbonate mineral lattice . This approach has the advantage that the 18O ratio in water is not necessary ( different from the δ18O approach ) , but for precise paleotemperature estimation , it also needs very large and uncontaminated samples , long analytical runs , and extensive replication . Commonly used sample sources for paleoclimatological work include corals , otoliths , bivalves , and foraminifera . Results are usually expressed as Δ47 ( said as `` cap 47 '' ) , which is the deviation of the ratio of isotopologues of CO2 with a molecular weight of 47 to those with a weight of 44 from the ratio expected if they were randomly distributed .","qid":"180","docid":"Clumped_isotopes","rank":78,"score":110681},{"content":"Title: Reef (company) Content: Reef is a brand of casual sandals , known as Thongs , created by two Argentine brothers , Fernando and Santiago Aguerre . In 1984 they moved from Argentina to the San Diego beach community of La Jolla , California , where they began Reef . Their product became popular amongst surfers and beach goers . Reef has subsequently grown into one of the world 's leading active sandal manufacturers . Reef has been owned by VF Corporation since 2005 .","qid":"180","docid":"Reef_(company)","rank":79,"score":110177},{"content":"Title: Calcium permanganate Content: Calcium permanganate is an oxidizing agent and chemical compound with the chemical formula Ca ( MnO4 ) 2 . It consists of the metal calcium and two permanganate ions . It is noncombustible , but , being a strong oxidizing agent , it will accelerate the burning of combustible material . If the combustible material is finely divided , the resulting mixture may be explosive . Contact with liquid combustible materials may result in spontaneous ignition . Contact with sulfuric acid may cause fires or explosions . Mixtures with acetic acid or acetic anhydride can explode if not kept cold . Explosions can occur when mixtures of calcium permanganate and sulfuric acid come into contact with benzene , carbon disulfide , diethyl ether , ethyl alcohol , petroleum , or other organic matter . It is prepared from the reaction of potassium permanganate with calcium chloride or from the reaction of aluminium permanganate with calcium oxide . It can be also prepared by reacting manganese dioxide with a solution of calcium hypochlorite and a little bit of calcium hydroxide to increase the pH level . If manganese dioxide is heated with calcium hydroxide with an oxidier such as Ca ( NO3 ) 2 , Ca ( ClO3 ) 2 , or Ca ( ClO4 ) 2 , it will produce calcium manganate or mangamite ( ` hypomanganate ' ) .","qid":"180","docid":"Calcium_permanganate","rank":80,"score":110004},{"content":"Title: Inorganic ions Content: Inorganic ions in animals and plants are ions necessary for vital cellular activity . In body tissues , ions are also known as electrolytes , essential for the electrical activity needed to support muscle contractions and neuron activation . They contribute to osmotic pressure of body fluids as well as performing a number of other important functions . Below is a list of some of the most important ions for living things as well as examples of their functions : Ca2 + calcium is a component of bones and teeth . It also functions as a biological messenger , as do most of the ions listed below . See hypocalcaemia K + potassium ions ' main function in animals is osmotic balance , particularly in the kidneys . See hypokalemia . Na + sodium ions have a similar role to potassium ions . See sodium deficiency . Mg2 + . Most importantly , magnesium ions are a component of chlorophyll . See magnesium deficiency Cl − . Inability to transport chloride ions in humans manifests itself as cystic fibrosis ( CP ) . The shells of sea creatures are calcium carbonate . In blood approximately 85 % of carbon dioxide , is converted into aqueous carbonate ions ( an acidic solution ) , allowing a greater rate of transportation . , adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) is a common molecule which stores energy in an accessible form . Bone is calcium phosphate . Fe2 + / Fe3 + haemoglobin , the main oxygen carrying molecule has a central iron ion . , source of nitrogen in plants for the synthesis of proteins . Category : Ions Category : Cell biology Category : Signal transduction","qid":"180","docid":"Inorganic_ions","rank":81,"score":109340},{"content":"Title: Kutnohorite Content: Kutnohorite is a rare calcium manganese carbonate mineral with magnesium and iron , that is a member of the dolomite group . It forms a series with dolomite , and with ankerite . The end member formula is CaMn2 + ( CO3 ) 2 , but Mg2 + and Fe2 + commonly substitute for Mn2 + , with the Mn content varying from 38 % to 84 % , so the formula Ca ( Mn2 + , Mg , Fe2 + ) ( CO3 ) 2 better represents the species . It was named by Professor Bukowsky in 1901 after the type locality of Kutná Hora , Bohemia , in the Czech Republic . It was originally spelt `` kutnahorite '' but `` kutnohorite '' is the current IMA-approved spelling .","qid":"180","docid":"Kutnohorite","rank":82,"score":109330},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .","qid":"180","docid":"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs","rank":83,"score":108851},{"content":"Title: Hermatypic coral Content: Hermatypic corals are those corals in the order Scleractinia which build reefs by depositing hard calcareous material for their skeletons , forming the stony framework of the reef . Corals that do not contribute to coral reef development are referred to as ahermatypic ( non-reef-building ) species . Many reef-forming corals contain symbiotic zooxanthellae which contribute to their nutritional needs . The term `` hermatypic '' is sometimes misused , being assumed to apply to all zooxanthellate corals . However , there are zooxanthellae in many non reef-forming corals ; and not all hermatypic corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae . Further , some hermatypic corals live at depths to which light can not penetrate ; they form deep-water reefs but do not harbour the symbionts .","qid":"180","docid":"Hermatypic_coral","rank":84,"score":108611},{"content":"Title: Andersonite Content: Andersonite , Na2Ca ( UO2 ) ( CO3 ) 3 · 6H2O , or hydrated sodium calcium uranyl carbonate is a rare uranium carbonate mineral that was first described in 1948 . Named after Charles Alfred Anderson ( 1902 -- 1990 ) of the United States Geological Survey , who first described the mineral species , it is found in sandstone-hosted uranium deposits . It has a high vitreous to pearly luster and is fluorescent . Andersonite specimens will usually glow a bright lemon yellow ( or green with blue hints depending on the deposit ) in ultraviolet light . It is commonly found as translucent small rhombohedral crystals that have angles close to 90 degrees although its crystal system is nominally trigonal . Its Mohs hardness is 2.5 , with an average specific gravity of 2.8 . It occurs in the oxidized zone of uranium-bearing polymetallic ore deposits . It also may occur as an efflorescent crust on the walls and timbers of uranium mines . As this mineral is water-soluble , samples must be stored in dry conditions . It occurs with schrockingerite , bayleyite , shwartzite , boltwoodite , liebigite and gypsum . It was first described in 1948 for an occurrence in the Hillside Mine near Bagdad , Eureka District , Yavapai County , Arizona .","qid":"180","docid":"Andersonite","rank":85,"score":108567},{"content":"Title: Lead carbonate Content: Lead ( II ) carbonate is the chemical compound PbCO3 . It is prepared industrially from lead ( II ) acetate and carbon dioxide . It occurs naturally as the mineral cerussite .","qid":"180","docid":"Lead_carbonate","rank":86,"score":108320},{"content":"Title: Calcium acetate/magnesium carbonate Content: Calcium acetate/magnesium carbonate is a fixed-dose combination drug that contains 110 mg calcium and 60 mg magnesium ions and is indicated as a phosphate binder for dialysis patients suffering from hyperphosphataemia ( abnormal high serum phosphorus levels ) . It is registered by Fresenius Medical Care under the trade names Renepho ( Belgium ) and OsvaRen ( a number of other European countries ) .","qid":"180","docid":"Calcium_acetate/magnesium_carbonate","rank":87,"score":108162},{"content":"Title: Crustose Content: Crustose is a habit of some types of algae and lichens in which the plant grows tightly appressed to a substrate forming a biological layer of the adhering organism . Crustose adheres very closely to the substrates at all points . Crustose is found on rocks and tree bark . -LSB- 5 -RSB- Some species of marine algae of the Rhodophyta , in particular members of the order Corallinales , family Corallinaceae , subfamily Melobesioideae with cell walls containing calcium carbonate grow to great depths in the intertidal zone , forming crusts on various substrates . The substrate can be rocks throughout the intertidal zone , or , as in the case of the Corallinales , reef-building corals , and other living organisms including plants , such as mangroves and animals such as shelled molluscs . The coralline red algae are major members of coral reef communities , cementing the corals together with their crusts . Among the brown algae , the order Ralfsiales comprises two families of crustose algae . Many lichens also grow close to the surface of rocks , tree trunks and other substrata , and are referred to as crustose lichens . Crustose organisms can be detrimental to engineered structures when found on buildings , coastal structures , and ships . There are a different types of Crustose Lichens including : endolithic , endophloidic and leprose . Endolithic is immersed in rocks with their bodies above the surface . Endophloidic is when they are in plant tissue . Leprose is crusts without a layered structure . . Crustose has learned to adapt to its environment . The environment it is currently adapting quite well to is the dry and drought resistant climates . It has seen to work well in deserts , ice free parts of Antarctica and in the Alpine and Arctic regions . . Crustose can come in a variety of colors such as yellow , orange , red , gray and green . These colors tend to be bright and vibrant . Crustose is similar to other lichens because they share a similar internal morphology . The lichen 's body is formed from filaments of the fungal partner . The density of these filaments determines the layers within the lichen .","qid":"180","docid":"Crustose","rank":88,"score":108056},{"content":"Title: Calcite sea Content: A calcite sea is one in which low-magnesium calcite is the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate . An aragonite sea is the alternate seawater chemistry in which aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are the primary inorganic carbonate precipitates . The Early Paleozoic and the Middle to Late Mesozoic oceans were predominantly calcite seas , whereas the Middle Paleozoic through the Early Mesozoic and the Cenozoic ( including today ) are characterized by aragonite seas ( Wilkinson et al. , 1985 ; Wilkinson and Given , 1986 ; Morse and Mackenzie , 1990 ; Lowenstein et al. , 2001 ; Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . The most significant geological and biological effects of calcite sea conditions include rapid and widespread formation of carbonate hardgrounds ( Palmer , 1982 ; Palmer et al. , 1988 ; Wilson and Palmer , 1992 ) , calcitic ooids ( Sandberg , 1983 ; Wilkinson et al. , 1985 ) , calcite cements ( Wilkinson and Given , 1986 ) , and the contemporaneous dissolution of aragonite shells in shallow warm seas ( Cherns and Wright , 2000 ; Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . Hardgrounds were very common , for example , in the calcite seas of the Ordovician and Jurassic , but virtually absent from the aragonite seas of the Permian ( Palmer , 1982 ) . Fossils of invertebrate organisms found in calcite sea deposits are usually dominated by either thick calcite shells and skeletons ( Wilkinson , 1979 ; Stanley and Hardie , 1998 , 1999 ; Porter , 2007 ) , were infaunal and/or had thick periostraca ( Pojeta , 1971 ) , or had an inner shell of aragonite and an outer shell of calcite ( Harper et al. , 1997 ) . This was apparently because aragonite dissolved quickly on the seafloor and had to be either avoided or protected as a biomineral ( Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . Calcite seas were coincident with times of rapid seafloor spreading and global greenhouse climate conditions ( Stanley and Hardie , 1999 ) . Seafloor spreading centers cycle seawater through hydrothermal vents , reducing the ratio of magnesium to calcium in the seawater through metamorphism of calcium-rich minerals in basalt to magnesium-rich clays ( Wilkinson and Given , 1986 ; Lowenstein et al. , 2001 ) . This reduction in the Mg/Ca ratio favors the precipitation of calcite over aragonite . Increased seafloor spreading also means increased volcanism and elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and oceans . This may also have an effect on which polymorph of calcium carbonate is precipitated ( Lowenstein et al. , 2001 ) . Further , high calcium concentrations of seawater favor the burial of CaCO3 , thereby removing alkalinity from the ocean , lowering seawater pH and reducing its acid/base buffering .","qid":"180","docid":"Calcite_sea","rank":89,"score":107927},{"content":"Title: Carbaminohemoglobin Content: Carbaminohemoglobin ( or carbaminohaemoglobin , also known as carbhaemoglobin and carbohaemoglobin ) is a compound of hemoglobin and carbon dioxide , and is one of the forms in which carbon dioxide exists in the blood . 30 % of carbon dioxide is carried in blood this way ( 60 % carried in blood as bicarbonate -LSB- hydrogen carbonate -RSB- , 10 % carried as free CO2 , in solution , or plasma ) .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbaminohemoglobin","rank":90,"score":107889},{"content":"Title: Dolostone Content: Dolostone or dolomite rock is a sedimentary carbonate rock that contains a high percentage of the mineral dolomite , CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 . In old USGS publications it was referred to as magnesian limestone , a term now reserved for magnesium-deficient dolostones or magnesium-rich limestones . Technically , dolostone has a stoichiometric ratio of nearly equal amounts of magnesium and calcium . Most dolostones formed as a magnesium replacement of limestone or lime mud prior to lithification . It is resistant to erosion and can either contain bedded layers or be unbedded . It is less soluble than limestone in weakly acidic groundwater , but it can still develop solution features over time . Dolostone can act as an oil and natural gas reservoir . The term dolostone was introduced to avoid confusion with the mineral dolomite . The usage of the term dolostone is controversial because the name dolomite was first applied to the rock during the late 18th century and thus has technical precedence . The use of the term dolostone is not recommended by the Glossary of Geology published by the American Geological Institute . It is , however , used in some geological publications . The geological process of conversion of calcite to dolomite is known as dolomitization and any intermediate product is known as `` dolomitic limestone . '' The `` dolomite problem '' refers to the vast worldwide depositions of dolostone in past geologic record eluding a unified explanation for their formation .","qid":"180","docid":"Dolostone","rank":91,"score":107606},{"content":"Title: Carbonate minerals Content: Carbonate minerals are those minerals containing the carbonate ion : CO32 − .","qid":"180","docid":"Carbonate_minerals","rank":92,"score":107449},{"content":"Title: Monohydrocalcite Content: Monohydrocalcite is a mineral that is a hydrous form of calcium carbonate , CaCO3 · H2O . It was formerly also known by the name hydrocalcite , which is now discredited by the IMA . It is a trigonal mineral which is white when pure . Monohydrocalcite is not a common rock-forming mineral , but is frequently associated with other calcium and magnesium carbonate minerals , such as calcite , aragonite , lansfordite , and nesquehonite . Monohydrocalcite has been observed in air conditioning systems , and in moonmilk deposits in caves , both probably formed from spray of carbonate rich fluids . It is well known in Robe on the Limestone Coast of South Australia as a component of beach sands of Lake Fellmongery and Lake Butler , where it is believed to be formed from algal spume . Other lacustrine deposits include Lake Issyk-Kul , Kyrgyzstan , Lake Kivu , Democratic Republic of the Congo , and Solar Lake , Sinai . It has been reported as a significant component of the decomposition of ikaite in the towers of the Ikka Fjord , West Greenland . It is also noted for its bizarre occurrences , which include inside the otoliths of the tiger shark , the bladder of a guinea pig , the calcareous corpuscles of a cestode parasite , and the final stages of decomposition of the putrefying flesh of the giant saguaro cactus . These occurrences suggest a biochemical origin is possible .","qid":"180","docid":"Monohydrocalcite","rank":93,"score":107360},{"content":"Title: Hydromagnesite Content: Hydromagnesite is a hydrated magnesium carbonate mineral with the formula Mg5 ( CO3 ) 4 ( OH ) 2 · 4H2O . It generally occurs associated with the weathering products of magnesium containing minerals such as serpentine or brucite . It occurs as incrustations and vein or fracture fillings in ultramafic rocks and serpentinites . It occurs in hydrothermally altered dolomite and marble . It commonly appears in caves as speleothems and `` moonmilk '' , deposited from water that has seeped through magnesium rich rocks . It is the most common cave carbonate after calcite and aragonite . It thermally decomposes , over a temperature range of approximately 220 ° C to 550 ° C , releasing water and carbon dioxide leaving a magnesium oxide residue . It was first described in 1836 for an occurrence in Hoboken , New Jersey . Stromatolites in an alkaline ( pH greater than 9 ) freshwater lake ( Salda Gölü ) in southern Turkey are made of hydromagnesite precipitated by diatoms and cyanobacteria . Microbial deposition of hydromagnesite is also reported from playas in British Columbia . The hydromagnesite-magnesite playas near Atlin , British Columbia are some of the most studied deposits of hydromagnesite . These deposits have been characterized in the context of a biogeochemical model for CO2 sequestration . One of the largest deposits of hydromagnesite exists in Greece . It consists of a natural mixture with huntite . Local people have used the white mineral as a source of material for whitewashing buildings for centuries . In the mid 20th century the minerals , ground to a fine powder , found use as a filler for rubber shoe soles . The locals used the granite mills designed for grinding wheat . Commercial exploitation of the minerals began in the late 70s and early 80s with the mineral being exported worldwide . The Greek deposit is still operated commercially , although the world 's largest commercially operated reserves are in Turkey .","qid":"180","docid":"Hydromagnesite","rank":94,"score":107104},{"content":"Title: Shark River Reef Content: Shark River Reef is an artificial reef located in the Atlantic Ocean , 15.6 miles southeast of Manasquan Inlet , off the coast of Ocean County , New Jersey . The site contains almost 4 million cubic yards of dredge rock material . Although 96 % of the total reef material is rock , the site also contains numerous subway cars . It is the deepest of all New Jersey 's artificial reefs , having an average bottom depth of approximately 125 ' . The site is located near Stolt Dagali wreck ( rammed and sunk in 1964 by the SS Shalom ) . The site contains at least nine vessels , including five tankers . The Shark River Reef was established as part of the New Jersey 's Artificial Reef Program . It is administered by the State of New Jersey 's Division of Fish and Wildlife .","qid":"180","docid":"Shark_River_Reef","rank":95,"score":106898},{"content":"Title: Aragonite Content: Aragonite is a carbonate mineral , one of the two most common , naturally occurring , crystal forms of calcium carbonate , CaCO3 ( the other forms being the minerals calcite and vaterite ) . It is formed by biological and physical processes , including precipitation from marine and freshwater environments . Aragonite 's crystal lattice differs from that of calcite , resulting in a different crystal shape , an orthorhombic crystal system with acicular crystal . Repeated twinning results in pseudo-hexagonal forms . Aragonite may be columnar or fibrous , occasionally in branching stalactitic forms called flos-ferri ( `` flowers of iron '' ) from their association with the ores at the Carinthian iron mines .","qid":"180","docid":"Aragonite","rank":96,"score":106729},{"content":"Title: Reef (band) Content: Reef are an English band from Glastonbury , England . The band members include Gary Stringer on vocals , Jesse Wood on guitar ( replacing original guitarist Kenwyn House in 2014 ) , Jack Bessant on bass and Dominic Greensmith on drums .","qid":"180","docid":"Reef_(band)","rank":97,"score":106642},{"content":"Title: Cholesteryl oleyl carbonate Content: Cholesteryl oleyl carbonate ( COC ) is an organic chemical , an carbonate ester of cholesterol and oleyl alcohol with carbonic acid . It is a liquid crystal material forming cholesteric liquid crystals with helical structure . It is a transparent liquid , or a soft crystalline material with melting point around 20 ° C . It can be used with cholesteryl nonanoate and cholesteryl benzoate in some thermochromic liquid crystals . It is used in some hair colors , make-ups , and some other cosmetic preparations . It can be also used as a component of the liquid crystals used for liquid crystal displays .","qid":"180","docid":"Cholesteryl_oleyl_carbonate","rank":98,"score":106537},{"content":"Title: Calcite Content: Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) . The Mohs scale of mineral hardness , based on scratch hardness comparison , defines value 3 as `` calcite '' . Other polymorphs of calcium carbonate are the minerals aragonite and vaterite . Aragonite will change to calcite at 380 -- 470 ° C , and vaterite is even less stable .","qid":"180","docid":"Calcite","rank":99,"score":106527},{"content":"Title: Ikaite Content: Ikaite is the mineral name for the hexahydrate of calcium carbonate , CaCO3 · 6H2O . Ikaite tends to form very steep or spiky pyramidal crystals , often radially arranged , of varied sizes from thumbnail size aggregates to gigantic salient spurs . It is only found in a metastable state , and decomposes rapidly by losing most of its water content once removed from near-freezing water . This ` melting mineral ' is more commonly known through its pseudomorphs .","qid":"180","docid":"Ikaite","rank":100,"score":106219}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonate Content: In chemistry , a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) , characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion , a polyatomic ion with the formula of . The name may also mean an ester of carbonic acid , an organic compound containing the carbonate group C ( =O ) ( O -- ) 2 . The term is also used as a verb , to describe carbonation : the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverageseither by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure , or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water . In geology and mineralogy , the term `` carbonate '' can refer both to carbonate minerals and carbonate rock ( which is made of chiefly carbonate minerals ) , and both are dominated by the carbonate ion , . Carbonate minerals are extremely varied and ubiquitous in chemically precipitated sedimentary rock . The most common are calcite or calcium carbonate , CaCO3 , the chief constituent of limestone ( as well as the main component of mollusc shells and coral skeletons ) ; dolomite , a calcium-magnesium carbonate CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 ; and siderite , or iron ( II ) carbonate , FeCO3 , an important iron ore . Sodium carbonate ( `` soda '' or `` natron '' ) and potassium carbonate ( `` potash '' ) have been used since antiquity for cleaning and preservation , as well as for the manufacture of glass . Carbonates are widely used in industry , e.g. in iron smelting , as a raw material for Portland cement and lime manufacture , in the composition of ceramic glazes , and more .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 180974\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral reef Content: Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals . Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups . The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria , which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones , corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps . Most reefs grow best in warm , shallow , clear , sunny and agitated waters . Often called `` rainforests of the sea '' , shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth . They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface , about half the area of France , yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Paradoxically , coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients . They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters , but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas . Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism , fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$ 29.8-375 billion . However , coral reefs are fragile ecosystems , partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature . They are under threat from climate change , oceanic acidification , blast fishing , cyanide fishing for aquarium fish , sunscreen use , overuse of reef resources , and harmful land-use practices , including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution , which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_reef\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 165305\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral calcium Content: Coral calcium is a salt of calcium derived from fossilized coral reefs ( primarily from limestone and coastal deposits ) . It has been promoted as an alternative , but unsubstantiated , treatment or cure for a number of health conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_calcium\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 164482\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calcium reactor Content: __ NOTOC __ In marine and reef aquariums , a calcium reactor creates a balance of alkalinity . An acidic solution is produced by injecting carbon dioxide into a chamber with salt water and calcium rich media . The carbon dioxide lowers the pH by producing a solution high in carbonic acid , and dissolves calcium . The effluent is returned to the reef aquarium where the calcium is consumed by organisms , primarily corals when building skeletons . A calcium reactor is an efficient method to supply calcium to a reef aquarium . Reactors may be used in elaborate freshwater and brackish aquariums where freshwater clams and other invertebrates need a constant supply of calcium . The reactor dissolves the calcium-laden media to provide bicarbonates HCO3 − ( alkalinity ) and calcium ( Ca + + ) ions at the sames rate as consumed during calcification . Effectively dissolving the media requires an acidic pH. Saltwater may have a pH of 7.8 or higher , so to reduce the pH carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) is used . The reaction formula is : CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 < -- -- > Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − Inside the reaction chamber , a calcium rich media ( aragonite ) , mainly CaCO3 , is forced into contact with water injected with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in order to create carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This increases the solubility of the calcium carbonate . The reaction frees the calcium and carbonate , supplying the aquarium with water rich in Ca2 + and CO32 − , important for maintaining alkalinity and calcium levels . The bubble counter measures carbon dioxide . The flow rate of carbon dioxide is monitored so that the dissolved gas goes into the solution , with a minimum unconsumed . A needle valve or solenoid valve regulates the CO2 bubble rate . Valves with precise adjustment abilities improve bubble control . The feed pump controls the volume of water exchange . This is important because a high rate of water flow into the reactor reduces its efficiency , thus resulting in underproduction and a waste of CO2 . Some reactors siphon water into the input of the reactor 's re-circulation pump . A potential complication is the medium in the reactor becoming compacted , increasing back pressure onto the pump and reducing water into the reactor . Placing a gate or needle valve on the reactor 's outlet side will improve flow characteristics compared to control from the inlet side . A peristaltic pumps are effective operating against pressure , capable of supplying an adjustable and continuous flow over flow rates with minimal maintenance . The pH control is connected to a probe in the reactor and adjusts the rate at which the calcium media dissolves . This probe monitors the pH level in the calcium reactor . The pH range for the typical calcium reactor is 6.5 - 6.8 . When the pH rises above a certain level , a valve opens , allowing carbon dioxide to enter the reactor . The control closes the valve as the pH falls below this level . Some pH controllers have an interface for an air pump . This air pump is connected to an airstone in the sump or main tank . If the probe detects a low pH level , the pump activates . The bubbles raise the pH by dissipating the CO2 gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Calcium_reactor\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 162182\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coenosteum Content: In corals , the coenosteum is the stony skeletal material secreted by the coenosarc , the layer of living material lying between the corallites ( the stony cups in which the polyps sit ) . The coenosteum is composed of aragonite , a crystalline form of calcium carbonate , and is generally a spongy , porous material . Sometimes the coenosteum has ornamentation such as ridges and beads , visible as raised areas of the coenosarc . The coenosteum and corallites together are known as the corallum .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Coenosteum\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 155408\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calcium bicarbonate Content: Calcium bicarbonate , also called calcium hydrogen carbonate , has a chemical formula Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 . The term does not refer to a known solid compound ; it exists only in aqueous solution containing the calcium ( Ca2 + ) , bicarbonate ( HCO3 − ) , and carbonate ( CO32 − ) ions , together with dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The relative concentrations of these carbon-containing species depend on the pH ; bicarbonate predominates within the range 6.36-10 .25 in fresh water . All waters in contact with the atmosphere absorb carbon dioxide , and as these waters come into contact with rocks and sediments they acquire metal ions , most commonly calcium and magnesium , so most natural waters that come from streams , lakes , and especially wells , can be regarded as dilute solutions of these bicarbonates . These hard waters tend to form carbonate scale in pipes and boilers and they react with soaps to form an undesirable scum . Attempts to prepare compounds such as calcium bicarbonate by evaporating its solution to dryness invariably yield the solid calcium carbonate , instead : Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ( aq ) → CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) + CaCO3 ( s ) . Very few solid bicarbonates other than those of the alkali metals and ammonium ion are known to exist . The above reaction is very important to the formation of stalactites , stalagmites , columns , and other speleothems within caves , and for that matter , in the formation of the caves themselves . As water containing carbon dioxide ( including extra CO2 acquired from soil organisms ) passes through limestone or other calcium carbonate-containing minerals , it dissolves part of the calcium carbonate , hence becomes richer in bicarbonate . As the groundwater enters the cave , the excess carbon dioxide is released from the solution of the bicarbonate , causing the much less soluble calcium carbonate to be deposited . In the reverse process , dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in rainwater ( H2O ) reacts with limestone calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) to form soluble calcium bicarbonate ( Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ) . This soluble compound is then washed away with the rainwater . This form of weathering is called carbonation . In medicine , calcium bicarbonate is sometimes administered intravenously to immediately correct the cardiac depressor effects of hypokalemia by increasing calcium concentration in serum , and at the same time , correcting the acid usually present .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Calcium_bicarbonate\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 154668\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alcyonacea Content: The Alcyonacea , or soft corals , are an order of corals which do not produce calcium carbonate skeletons . Soft corals contain minute , spiny skeletal elements called sclerites , useful in species identification . Sclerites give these corals some degree of support and give their flesh a spiky , grainy texture that deters predators . In the past soft corals were thought to be unable to lay new foundations for future corals , but recent findings suggest that colonies of the leather-coral genus Sinularia are able to cement sclerites and consolidate them at their base into alcyonarian spiculite , thus making them reef builders . Unlike stony corals , most soft corals thrive in nutrient-rich waters with less intense light . Almost all utilize symbiotic photosynthesizing zooxanthella as a major energy source . However , most will readily eat any free floating food , such as zooplankton , out of the water column . They are integral members of the reef ecosystem and provide habitat for fish , snails , algae and a diversity of other marine species . Many soft corals are easily collected in the wild for the reef aquarium hobby , as small cuttings are less prone to infection or damage during shipping than stony corals . Nevertheless , home-grown specimens tend to be more adaptable to aquarium life and help conserve wild reefs . Soft corals grow quickly in captivity and are easily divided into new individuals , and so those grown via aquaculture are often hardier and less expensive than imported corals from the wild . The most common examples of this are various species of Actinodiscus , especially common red mushroom coral .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Alcyonacea\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 148659\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral stone Content: Coral stone may refer to : Calcium carbonate , secreted by corals `` Coral shaped stone '' or staghorn stone , a form of kidney stone\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_stone\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 143106\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calcium carbonate Content: Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3 . It is a common substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite and aragonite ( most notably as limestone , which contains both of those minerals ) and is the main component of pearls and the shells of marine organisms , snails , and eggs . Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime and is created when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions to create limescale . It is medicinally used as a calcium supplement or as an antacid , but excessive consumption can be hazardous .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Calcium_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 142845\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calcium looping Content: Calcium looping ( CaL ) , or the regenerative calcium cycle ( RCC ) , is a second-generation carbon capture technology . It is the most developed form of carbonate looping , where a metal ( M ) is reversibly reacted between its carbonate form ( MCO3 ) and its oxide form ( MO ) to separate carbon dioxide from other gases coming from either power generation or an industrial plant . In the calcium looping process , the two species are calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) and calcium oxide ( CaO ) . The captured carbon dioxide can then be transported to a storage site , used in enhanced oil recovery or used as a chemical feedstock . Calcium oxide is often referred to as the sorbent . Calcium looping is being developed as it is a more efficient , less toxic alternative to current post-combustion capture processes such as amine scrubbing . It also has interesting potential for integration with the cement industry .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Calcium_looping\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 141362\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sand Content: Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles . It is defined by size , being finer than gravel and coarser than silt . Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type ; i.e. a soil containing more than 85 % sand-sized particles by mass . The composition of sand varies , depending on the local rock sources and conditions , but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica ( silicon dioxide , or SiO2 ) , usually in the form of quartz . The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate , for example aragonite , which has mostly been created , over the past half billion years , by various forms of life , like coral and shellfish . For example , it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean . Sand is a non renewable resource over human timescales , and sand suitable for making concrete is in high demand .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Sand\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 140616\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coralline rock Content: Coralline Rock is a type of rock formed by the death of layers of Coralline algae . It is visually quite bright like the algae , and is often desired as aquarium decoration . Since it is formed from the dead algae , it contains some nutrients and calcium carbonate , which has allowed it to be used in some building structures .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Coralline_rock\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 139563\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonatation Content: Carbonatation is a chemical reaction in which calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide and forms insoluble calcium carbonate : Ca ( OH ) 2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O The process of forming a carbonate is sometimes referred to as `` carbonation '' , although this term usually refers to the process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonatation\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 138508\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonate platform Content: A carbonate platform is a sedimentary body which possesses topographic relief , and is composed of autochthonous calcareous deposits ( Wilson , 1975 ) . Platform growth is mediated by sessile organisms whose skeletons build up the reef or by organisms ( usually microbes ) which induce carbonate precipitation through their metabolism . Therefore , carbonate platforms can not grow up everywhere : they are not present in places where limiting factors to the life of reef-building organisms exist . Such limiting factors are , among others : light , water temperature , transparency and pH-Value . For example , carbonate sedimentation along the Atlantic South American coasts takes place everywhere but at the mouth of the Amazon River , because of the intense turbidity of the water there ( Carannante et al. , 1988 ) . Spectacular examples of present-day carbonate platforms are the Bahama Banks under which the platform is roughly 8 km thick , the Yucatan Peninsula which is up to 2 km thick , the Florida platform , the platform on which the Great Barrier Reef is growing , and the Maldive atolls . All these carbonate platforms and their associated reefs are confined to tropical latitudes . Today 's reefs are built mainly by scleractinian corals , but in the distant past other organisms , like archaeocyatha ( during the Cambrian ) or extinct cnidaria ( tabulata and rugosa ) were important reef builders .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonate_platform\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 138358\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marl Content: __ NOTOC __ Marl or marlstone is a calcium carbonate or lime-rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and silt . The dominant carbonate mineral in most marls is calcite , but other carbonate minerals such as aragonite , dolomite , and siderite may be present . Marl was originally an old term loosely applied to a variety of materials , most of which occur as loose , earthy deposits consisting chiefly of an intimate mixture of clay and calcium carbonate , formed under freshwater conditions ; specifically an earthy substance containing 35 -- 65 % clay and 65 -- 35 % carbonate . It also describes a habit of coralline red alga . The term is today often used to describe indurated marine deposits and lacustrine ( lake ) sediments which more accurately should be named ` marlstone ' . Marlstone is an indurated ( resists crumbling or powdering ) rock of about the same composition as marl , more correctly called an earthy or impure argillaceous limestone . It has a blocky subconchoidal fracture , and is less fissile than shale . The term ` marl ' is widely used in English-language geology , while the terms Mergel and Seekreide ( German for `` lake chalk '' ) are used in European references . The lower stratigraphic units of the chalk cliffs of Dover consist of a sequence of glauconitic marls followed by rhythmically banded limestone and marl layers . Upper Cretaceous cyclic sequences in Germany and marl -- opal-rich Tortonian-Messinian strata in the Sorbas basin related to multiple sea drawdown have been correlated with Milankovitch orbital forcing . Marl as lacustrine sediment is common in post glacial lake-bed sediments , often found underlying peat bogs . It has been used as a soil conditioner and acid soil neutralizing agent .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Marl\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 138156\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef Content: A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface . Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 136364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Holaxonia Content: Holaxonia is a suborder of soft corals , a member of the phylum Cnidaria . Members of this suborder are sometimes known as gorgonians and include the sea blades , the sea fans , the sea rods and the sea whips . These soft corals are colonial , sessile organisms and are generally tree-like in structure . They do not have a hard skeleton composed of calcium carbonate but have a firm but pliable , central axial skeleton composed of a fibrous protein called gorgonin embedded in a tissue matrix , the coenenchyme . In some genera this is permeated with a calcareous substance in the form of fused spicules . Members of this suborder are characterized by having an unspiculated axis and often a soft , chambered central core . The polyps have eight-fold symmetry and in many species , especially in the families Gorgoniidae and Plexauridae , contain symbiotic photosynthetic algae called zooxanthellae . These soft corals are popular in salt water aquaria .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Holaxonia\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 135625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Limescale Content: Limescale is the hard , off-white , chalky deposit found in kettles , hot-water boilers and the inside of inadequately maintained hot-water central heating systems . It is also often found as a similar deposit on the inner surface of old pipe and other surfaces where `` hard water '' has evaporated . In addition to being unsightly and hard to clean , limescale seriously impairs the operation or damages various components . The type found deposited on the heating elements of water heaters has a main component of calcium carbonate . Hard water contains calcium ( and often magnesium ) bicarbonate or similar ions . Calcium salts , such as calcium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate are both more soluble in hot water than cold water . Thus , heating water does not cause calcium carbonate to precipitate per se . However , there is an equilibrium between dissolved calcium bicarbonate and dissolved calcium carbonate : Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − ⇋ Ca2 + + CO32 − + CO2 + H2O where the equilibrium is driven by the carbonate/bicarbonate , not the calcium . Note that the CO2 is dissolved in the water . There is also an equilibrium of carbon dioxide between dissolved in water ( dis ) and the gaseous state ( g ) : CO2 ( dis ) ⇋ CO2 ( g ) The equilibrium of CO2 also moves to the right towards gaseous CO2 when the water temperature rises . When water that contains dissolved calcium carbonate is warmed , CO2 is removed from the water as gas causing the equilibrium of bicarbonate and carbonate to shift to the right , increasing the concentration of dissolved carbonate . As the concentration of carbonate increases , calcium carbonate precipitates as the salt : Ca2 + + CO32 − ⇋ CaCO3 . As new cold water with dissolved calcium carbonate/bicarbonate is added and heated , CO2 gas is removed , carbonate concentration increases , and more calcium carbonate precipitates . Descaling agents are used to remove scale . Prevention of scale build-up relies on the technologies of water softening .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Limescale\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 134814\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Southeast Asian coral reefs Content: Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world 's marine ecosystems . They serve many functions , such as forming the livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials . Coral reefs are developed by the carbonate-based skeletons of a variety of animals and algae . Slowly and overtime , the reefs build up to the surface in oceans . Coral reefs are found in shallow , warm salt water . The sunlight filters through clear water and allows microscopic organisms to live and reproduce . The Indian Ocean holds 60 % of the world 's coastal reefs , 25 % are in the Pacific and 15 % are in the western Atlantic . There are coral reefs in the Persian Gulf , Madagascar , the Philippines , Hawaiian Islands and off Southeast Asia . Coral reefs have been preserved and identified in rocks over 400 million years old . Coral reefs are actually composed of tiny , fragile animals known as coral polyps . Coral reefs are significantly important because of the biodiversity . Although the number of fish are decreasing , the remaining coral reefs contain more unique sea creatures . The variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than anywhere else in the world . An estimation of 70-90 % of fish caught are dependent on coral reefs in Southeast Asia and reefs support over 25 % of all known marine species . However , those sensitive coral reefs are facing detrimental effects on them due to variety of factors : overfishing , sedimentation and pollution , bleaching , and even tourist-related damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 133594\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 132591\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Listwanite Content: Listwanite ( also sometimes spelled listvenite , listvanite , or listwaenite ) is unusual rock type that forms when ultramafic rocks ( most commonly mantle peridotites ) are completely carbonated . The pyroxene and olivine minerals found in peridotite commonly alter to form carbonate and serpentine minerals . However , peridotites are usually not completely carbonated . Rather , they typically contain carbonate veins ( primarily magnesite ; also calcite , dolomite , and other carbonates ) . Complete carbonation of peridotite means that every single atom of magnesium and calcium as well as some of the iron atoms has combined with CO2 to form secondary carbonate minerals such a magnesite and calcite . The silica atoms in listwanite are found in quartz . Thus , liswanites consist of quartz ( a rusty red color ) and carbonate and also sometimes talc and Cr-muscovite ( a mineral known as mariposite/fuchsite ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Listwanite\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 131888\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bone char Content: Bone char ( carbo animalis ) is a porous , black , granular material produced by charring animal bones . Its composition varies depending on how it is made ; however , it consists mainly of tricalcium phosphate ( or hydroxylapatite ) 57 -- 80 % , calcium carbonate 6 -- 10 % and carbon 7 -- 10 % . It is primarily used for filtration and decolorization .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Bone_char\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 131597\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Limestone Content: Limestone is a sedimentary rock , composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral , forams and molluscs . Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) . About 10 % of sedimentary rocks are limestones . The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes , in which water erodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years . Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock . Limestone has numerous uses : as a building material , an essential component of concrete ( Portland cement ) , as aggregate for the base of roads , as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paints , as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime , as a soil conditioner , or as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens . The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778 .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Limestone\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 129177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Organ pipe coral Content: The Organ pipe coral ( Tubipora musica ) is an alcyonarian coral native to the waters of the Indian Ocean and the central and western regions of the Pacific Ocean . It is the only known species of the genus Tubipora . This species is a soft coral but with a unique , hard skeleton of calcium carbonate that contains many organ pipe-like tubes . On each tube is a series of polyps which each have eight feather-like tentacles . These tentacles are usually extended during the day , but will swiftly withdraw with any sort of disturbance . The skeleton is a bright red color , but is typically obscured by the numerous polyps , which are green or gray in color . In size , colonies can reach up to a meter across , while the individual polyps are typically less than 3 mm wide and a few mm long . They are restricted to shallow waters and tend to live in sheltered areas . They eat plankton . They are close relatives to other soft coral and sea fans . This species is sometimes kept in aquariums , but is temperamental , and is difficult to maintain .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Organ_pipe_coral\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 128040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chalk Content: Chalk ( -LSB- pronˈtʃɔːk -RSB- ) is a soft , white , porous , sedimentary carbonate rock , a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite . Calcite is an ionic salt called calcium carbonate or CaCO3 . It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite shells ( coccoliths ) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores . Flint ( a type of chert unique to chalk ) is very common as bands parallel to the bedding or as nodules embedded in chalk . It is probably derived from sponge spicules or other siliceous organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction . Flint is often deposited around larger fossils such as Echinoidea which may be silicified ( i.e. replaced molecule by molecule by flint ) . Chalk as seen in Cretaceous deposits of Western Europe is unusual among sedimentary limestones in the thickness of the beds . Most cliffs of chalk have very few obvious bedding planes unlike most thick sequences of limestone such as the Carboniferous Limestone or the Jurassic oolitic limestones . This presumably indicates very stable conditions over tens of millions of years . Chalk has greater resistance to weathering and slumping than the clays with which it is usually associated , thus forming tall steep cliffs where chalk ridges meet the sea . Chalk hills , known as chalk downland , usually form where bands of chalk reach the surface at an angle , so forming a scarp slope . Because chalk is well jointed it can hold a large volume of ground water , providing a natural reservoir that releases water slowly through dry seasons .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Chalk\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 127933\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carnian_Pluvial_Event\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 127868\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Oceanic_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 127797\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acropora Content: Acropora is a genus of small polyp stony coral in the phylum Cnidaria . Some of its species are known as table coral , elkhorn coral , and staghorn coral . Over 149 species are described . Acropora species are some of the major reef corals responsible for building the immense calcium carbonate substructure that supports the thin living skin of a reef .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Acropora\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 127594\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Halimeda Content: Halimeda is a genus of green macroalgae . The algal body ( thallus ) is composed of calcified green segments . Calcium carbonate is deposited in its tissues , making it inedible to most herbivores . As in other members of the order Bryopsidales , individual organisms are made up of single multi-nucleate cells . Whole meadows may consist of a single individual alga connected by fine threads running through the substrate . Halimeda is responsible for distinctive circular deposits in various parts of the Great Barrier Reef on the north-east coast of Queensland , Australia . Halimeda beds form in the western or lee side of outer shield reefs where flow of nutrient-rich water from the open sea allows them to flourish , and are the most extensive , actively accumulating Halimeda beds in the world . The genus is one of the best studied examples of cryptic species pairs due to morphological convergence within the marine macroalgae .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Halimeda\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 127448\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eggshell Content: An eggshell is the outer covering of a hard-shelled egg and of some forms of eggs with soft outer coats . Bird eggshells contain calcium carbonate and dissolve in various acids , including the vinegar used in cooking . While dissolving , the calcium carbonate in an eggshell reacts with the acid to form carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Eggshell\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 127328\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef knoll Content: A reef knoll is an immense pile of calcareous material on land that accumulated on the ancient sea floor . At the time of its accumulation it may have had enough structure from organisms such as sponges to have been free-standing and to withstand the sea currents as material accumulated , and was likely an atoll . Another possibility is the remains of deep water coral . Such structures are thus often fossil-rich .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_knoll\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 127093\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Corallite Content: A corallite is the skeletal cup , formed by an individual stony coral polyp , in which the polyp sits and into which it can retract . The cup is composed of aragonite , a crystalline form of calcium carbonate , and is secreted by the polyp . Corallites vary in size , but in most colonial corals they are less than 3 mm in diameter . The inner surface of the corallite is known as the calyx . The vertical blades inside the calyx are known as septa and in some species , these ridges continue outside the corallite wall as costae . Where there is no corallite wall , the blades are known as septocostae . The septa , costae and septocostae may have ornamentation in the form of teeth and may be thick , thin or variable in size . Sometimes there are paliform lobes , in the form of rods or blades , rising from the inner margins of the septa . These may form a neat circle called the paliform crown . The septa do not usually unite in the centre of the corallite , instead they form a columella , a tangled mass of intertwined septa , or a dome-shaped or pillar-like projection . In the living coral , the lower part of the polyp is in intimate contact with the corallite , and has radial mesenteries between the septa which increase the surface area of the body cavity and aid digestion . The septa , palliform lobes and costae can often be seen through the coenosarc , the layer of living tissue that covers the coenosteum or skeleton of the coral . In colonial species , when the corallites each have a surrounding wall , the colony is said to be plocoid . When the walls are tall and tubular , the colony is phaceloid , and when several polyps share a common wall , the colony is cerioid . Sometimes the polyps are in valleys on the surface of solid corals , they are then known as meandroid . Branching corals have two forms of corallites , axial and radial . The axial corallites tend to be shallow and are found near the tips of the branches while the radial corallites are on the sides of the branches . Corallites can be rounded or polygonal and may be inclined ( tilted obliquely to one side ) . As long as the colony is alive , the polyps and coenosarc deposit further calcium carbonate under the coenosarc , thus deepening the corallites . Each polyp has a fixed adult size and , when it is beginning to get submerged in the corallite , it secretes a new floor ( tabula ) beneath itself . Over time , a series of floors builds up below the living polyps , resulting in a thickening and lateral expansion of the coral .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Corallite\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 126942\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Content: Corals are marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria . They typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps . The group includes the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton . A coral `` group '' is a colony of myriad genetically identical polyps . Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in length . A set of tentacles surround a central mouth opening . An exoskeleton is excreted near the base . Over many generations , the colony thus creates a large skeleton that is characteristic of the species . Individual heads grow by asexual reproduction of polyps . Corals also breed sexually by spawning : polyps of the same species release gametes simultaneously over a period of one to several nights around a full moon . Although some corals can catch small fish and plankton using stinging cells on their tentacles , most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium that live within their tissues . These are commonly known as zooxanthellae and the corals that contain them are zooxanthellate corals . Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear , shallow water , typically at depths shallower than 60 m. Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters , such as the enormous Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland , Australia . Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live in much deeper water , with the cold-water genus Lophelia surviving as deep as 3000 m . Some have been found on the Darwin Mounds , north-west of Cape Wrath , Scotland . Corals have also been found as far north as off the coast of Washington State and the Aleutian Islands .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 126567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ooid Content: Ooids are small ( ≤ 2 mm in diameter ) , spheroidal , `` coated '' ( layered ) sedimentary grains , usually composed of calcium carbonate , but sometimes made up of iron - or phosphate-based minerals . Ooids usually form on the sea floor , most commonly in shallow tropical seas ( around the Bahamas , for example , or in the Persian Gulf ) . After being buried under additional sediment , these ooid grains can be cemented together to form a sedimentary rock called an oolite . Oolites usually consist of calcium carbonate ; these belong to the limestone rock family . Pisoids are similar to ooids , but are larger than 2 mm in diameter , often considerably larger , as with the pisoids in the hot springs at Carlsbad ( Karlovy Vary ) in the Czech Republic .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Ooid\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 125750\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brain coral Content: Brain coral is a common name given to corals in the family Mussidae , so called due to their generally spheroid shape and grooved surface which resembles a brain . Each head of coral is formed by a colony of genetically identical polyps which secrete a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate ; this makes them important coral reef builders like other stony corals in the order Scleractinia . Brain corals are found in shallow warm-water coral reefs in all the world 's oceans . They are part of the phylum Cnidaria , in a class called Anthozoa or `` flower animals '' . The lifespan of the largest brain corals is 900 years . Colonies can grow as large as 1.8 m ( 6 ft ) or more in height . Brain corals extend their tentacles to catch food at night . During the day , they use their tentacles for protection by wrapping them over the grooves on their surface . The surface is hard and offers good protection against fish or hurricanes . Branching corals , such as staghorn corals , grow more rapidly , but are more vulnerable to storm damage . Like other genera of corals , brain corals feed on small drifting animals , and also receive nutrients provided by the algae which live within their tissues . The behavior of one of the most common genera , Favia , is semiaggressive ; it will sting other corals with its extended sweeper tentacles during the night . The genus and species have not been defined through the scientific classification segment .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Brain_coral\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 125483\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef House Content: The Reef House is a historic house located at 411 S. Poplar St. in Carbondale , Illinois . William A. Reef built the house for his family circa 1892 . The Queen Anne-style cottage may have been designed by local carpenter A. M. Etherton , though records of its designer do not exist . The house features fishscale shingle siding on its second floor and clapboard siding on its first ; the clapboard siding is adorned with stickwork . A gable on the south side of the house features half-timbering at its top . The house 's front porch features turned posts , a typical Queen Anne feature . The house is one of the only Queen Anne homes in Carbondale which largely retains its original condition . The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 14 , 1985 .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_House\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 125377\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Sciences Content: Carbon Sciences '' ' is a public corporation based in Santa Barbara . The company was founded in 2006 and incorporated as Zingerang , Inc. . Originally , the company was involved in mobile communication , but has since switched to developing to fuel technology . Calcium Carbonate , CaCO3 , was briefly looked at as another end product of recycling . On April 2 , 2007 the name was changed to Carbon Sciences Inc. . Their process differs from other projects in that it does not utilize high pressure or high temperature . This would be a significant advantage when trying to scale the technology up to commercial production .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Sciences\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 125246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonated water Content: Carbonated water ( also known as club soda , soda water , sparkling water , seltzer water , or fizzy water ) is water into which carbon dioxide gas under pressure has been dissolved . Some of these have additives such as sodium chloride , sodium bicarbonate , magnesium and other minerals . This process , known as carbonation , is a process that causes the water to become effervescent . Most carbonated water is sold in ready to drink bottles as carbonated beverages such as soft drinks . However , it is rather easy to prepare at home with soda makers .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonated_water\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 125148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Baralyme Content: Baralyme is a mixture of 80 % calcium hydroxide and 20 % barium hydroxide compounds that is used to absorb the exhaled carbon dioxide in a closed circuit anesthetic system . The substance has been used for carbon dioxide scrubbing in diving bells and the U.S Navy 's engineered SEALAB 's I , II , and the failed SEALAB III .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Baralyme\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 124816\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gaylussite Content: Gaylussite is a carbonate mineral , a hydrated sodium calcium carbonate , formula Na2Ca ( CO3 ) 2 · 5H2O . It occurs as translucent , vitreous white to grey to yellow monoclinic prismatic crystals . It is an unstable mineral which dehydrates in dry air and decomposes in water .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Gaylussite\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 124768\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Microbiologically induced calcite precipitation Content: Microbiologically induced calcium carbonate precipitation ( MICP ) is a bio-geochemical process that induces calcium carbonate precipitation within the soil matrix . Biomineralization in the form of calcium carbonate precipitation can be traced back to the Precambrian period . Calcium carbonate can be precipitated in three polymorphic forms , which in the order of their usual stabilities are calcite , aragonite and vaterite . The main groups of microorganisms that can induce the carbonate precipitation are photosynthetic microorganisms such as cyanobacteria and microalgae ; sulfate-reducing bacteria ; and some species of microorganisms involved in nitrogen cycle . Several mechanisms have been identified by which bacteria can induce the calcium carbonate precipitation , including urea hydrolysis , denitrification , sulphate production , and iron reduction . Two different pathways , or autotrophic and heterotrophic pathways , through which calcium carbonate is produced have been identified . There are three autotrophic pathways exist . However , all three pathways result in depletion of carbon dioxide and favouring calcium carbonate precipitation . In heterotrophic pathway , two metabolic cycles can be involved : the nitrogen cycle and the sulfur cycle . Several applications of this process have been proposed , such as remediation of cracks and corrosion prevention in concrete , biogrout , sequestration of radionuclides and heavy metals .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Microbiologically_induced_calcite_precipitation\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 124449\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sclerosponge Content: Sclerosponges are sponges with a soft body that covers a hard , often massive skeleton made of calcium carbonate , either aragonite or calcite . Because of their long life span ( 500-1 ,000 years ) it is thought that analysis of the aragonite skeletons of these sponges could extend data regarding ocean temperature , salinity , and other variables farther into the past than has been previously possible . Their dense skeletons are deposited in an organized chronological manner , in concentric layers or bands . The layered skeletons look similar to reef corals . Therefore , sclerosponges are also called coralline sponges . Sclerosponges were first proposed as a class of sponges , Sclerospongiae , in 1970 by Hartman and Goreau . However , it was later found by Vacelet that sclerosponges occur in different classes of Porifera . That means that sclerosponges are not a closely related ( taxonomic ) group of sponges . Like bats and birds that independently developed the ability to fly , different sponges developed the ability to build a calcareous skeleton independently and during different times in Earth history . Fossil sclerosponges are already known from the Cambrian period . Sclerosponges include the species Ceratoporella nicholsoni , Stromatospongia vermicola , Hispidopetra miniana , S. norae , Goreauiella auriculatra , and Merlia sp. , which were described in detail by Lang et al. in 1975 .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Sclerosponge\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 124409\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral rag Content: Coral rag is a rubbly limestone composed of ancient coral reef material . The term also refers to the building blocks quarried from these strata , which are an important local building material in areas such as the coast of East Africa and the southeastern United States littoral ( e.g. Florida , Bermuda ) . It is also the name of a member -- the Coral Rag Member -- of the Upper Oxfordian Coralline Oolite Formation of North Yorkshire , England .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_rag\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 123947\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Talc carbonate Content: Talc carbonates are a suite of rock and mineral compositions found in metamorphic ultramafic rocks . The term refers to the two most common end-member minerals found within ultramafic rocks which have undergone talc-carbonation or carbonation reactions , talc and the carbonate mineral magnesite . Talc carbonate mineral assemblages are controlled by temperature and pressure of metamorphism and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within metamorphic fluids , as well as by the composition of the host rock .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Talc_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 123740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stereom Content: Stereom is a calcium carbonate material that makes up the internal skeletons found in sea urchins , and all other echinoderms , both living and fossilized forms . It is a sponge-like porous structure which , in a sea urchin may be 50 % by volume living cells , and the rest being a matrix of calcite crystals . The size of openings in stereom varies in different species and in different places within the same organism . When an echinoderm becomes a fossil , microscopic examination is used to reveal the structure and such examination is often an important tool to classify the fossil as an echinoderm or related creature .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Stereom\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 123221\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deep-water coral Content: The habitat of deep-water corals , also known as cold-water corals , extends to deeper , darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals , ranging from near the surface to the abyss , beyond 2000 m where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 C. Deep-water corals belong to the Phylum Cnidaria and are most often stony corals , but also include black and horny corals and soft corals including the Gorgonians ( sea fans ) . Like tropical corals , they provide habitat to other species , but deep-water corals do not require zooxanthellae to survive . While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species , only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs . Instead , they form aggregations called patches , banks , bioherms , massifs , thickets or groves . These aggregations are often referred to as `` reefs , '' but differ structurally and functionally . Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as `` mounds , '' which more accurately describes the large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off , rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates . Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs . Submarine communications cables and fishing methods such as bottom trawling tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs . The deep-water habitat is designated as a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan habitat .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Deep-water_coral\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 122887\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polypropylene carbonate Content: Polypropylene carbonate ( PPC ) , a copolymer of carbon dioxide and propylene oxide , is a thermoplastic material . Catalysts like zinc glutarate are used in polymerization .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Polypropylene_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 122509\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral sand Content: Coral sand is a collection of sand of particles originating in tropical and sub-tropical marine environments from bioerosion of limestone skeletal material of marine organisms . One example of this process is that of parrot fishes which bite off pieces of coral , digest the living tissue , and excrete the inorganic component as silt and sand . However , the term `` coral '' in coral sand is used loosely in this sense to mean limestone of recent biological origin ; corals are not the dominant contributors of sand particles to most such deposits . Rather , remnant skeletal fragments of foraminifera , calcareous algae , molluscs , and crustaceans can predominate . Because it is composed of limestone , coral sand is acid-soluble .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_sand\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 122415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 122369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lime (material) Content: Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material in which carbonates , oxides , and hydroxides predominate . In the strict sense of the term , lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide . It is also the name of the natural mineral ( native lime ) CaO which occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta . The word lime originates with its earliest use as building mortar and has the sense of sticking or adhering . These materials are still used in large quantities as building and engineering materials ( including limestone products , cement , concrete , and mortar ) , as chemical feedstocks , and for sugar refining , among other uses . Lime industries and the use of many of the resulting products date from prehistoric times in both the Old World and the New World . Lime is used extensively for wastewater treatment with ferrous sulfate . The rocks and minerals from which these materials are derived , typically limestone or chalk , are composed primarily of calcium carbonate . They may be cut , crushed , or pulverized and chemically altered . Burning ( calcination ) converts them into the highly caustic material quicklime ( calcium oxide , CaO ) and , through subsequent addition of water , into the less caustic ( but still strongly alkaline ) slaked lime or hydrated lime ( calcium hydroxide , Ca ( OH ) 2 ) , the process of which is called slaking of lime . Lime kilns are the kilns used for lime burning and slaking . When the term is encountered in an agricultural context , it usually refers to agricultural lime , which is crushed limestone , not a product of a lime kiln . Otherwise it most commonly means slaked lime , as the more dangerous form is usually described more specifically as quicklime or burnt lime .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Lime_(material)\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 121229\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Corallina officinalis Content: Corallina officinalis is a calcareous red seaweed which grows in the lower and mid-littoral zones on rocky shores . It is primarily found growing around the rims of tide pools , but can be found in shallow crevices anywhere on the rocky shore that are regularly refreshed with sea water . It predominantly grows on the lower shore , especially where fucoid algae are absent , but is also found further up shore on exposed coasts . It forms calcium carbonate deposits within its cells which serve to strengthen the thallus . These white deposits cause the seaweed to appear pink in colour , with white patches where the calcium carbonate is particularly concentrated , such as at the growing tips . The calcium carbonate makes it unpalatable to most rocky shore grazers .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Corallina_officinalis\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 121036\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calcarenite Content: Calcarenite is a type of limestone that is composed predominantly , more than 50 percent , of detrital ( transported ) sand-size ( 0.0625 to 2 mm in diameter ) , carbonate grains . The grains consist of sand-size grains of either corals , shells , ooids , intraclasts , pellets , fragments of older limestones and dolomites , other carbonate grains , or some combination of these . Calcarenite is the carbonate equivalent of a sandstone . The term calcarenite was originally proposed in 1903 by Grabau as a part of his calcilutite , calcarenite and calcirudite carbonate classification system based upon the size of the detrital grains composing a limestone . Calcarenites can accumulate in a wide variety of marine and nonmarine environments . They can consist of grains of carbonate that have accumulated either as coastal sand dunes ( eolianites ) , beaches , offshore bars and shoals , turbidites , or other depositional settings .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Calcarenite\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 120315\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonated drink Content: Carbonated drinks are beverages that contain dissolved carbon dioxide . The dissolution of CO2 in a liquid , gives rise to fizz or effervescence . The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure . When the pressure is removed , the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles , which causes the solution to become effervescent , or fizzy . A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water , resulting in carbonated water . Carbon dioxide is only weakly soluble in water , therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released . Carbonated beverages are prepared by mixing flavored syrup with carbonated water , both chilled . Carbonation levels range up to 5 volumes of CO2 per liquid volume . Ginger ale , colas , and related drinks are carbonated with 3.5 volumes . Other drinks , often fruity ones , are carbonated less .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonated_drink\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 119837\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Elemental calcium Content: Elemental calcium is a term used in dietary supplement ingredient lists to refer to the amount of calcium in a product . Calcium pills contain calcium in a variety of molecules , such as carbonate , citrate , citrate-maleate , orotate , etc. . Each pill supplies a different amount of elemental calcium when absorbed , and hence differs in its effectiveness . For example , calcium carbonate is 40 % elemental calcium by weight ; citrate is roughly 20 % calcium , etc. . Thus a 500 mg pill of calcium carbonate contains 200 mg of calcium and the container will indicate each pill has 200 mg of elemental calcium . This is the calcium that is actually available to the body and , as such , is the amount that one needs to consider towards his/her daily requirement . Hence , one should read the label carefully to determine the number of pills to be taken . Other factors may influence the choice of molecule prescribed . Calcium carbonate is by far the best , since it is cheap and allows more calcium intake per dose , but leads to indigestion , flatulence and other intestinal problems in quite a few patients . It also requires that the patient take the tablet after a full meal and avoid taking antacids concomitantly , which is difficult to achieve in patients taking multiple medications . Citrate or citrate-maleate is the molecule of choice in such cases ; these need to be taken before meals and have less/no interaction with antacids .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Elemental_calcium\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 119498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scleractinia Content: Scleractinia , also called stony corals or hard corals , are marine animals in the phylum Cnidaria that live on the seabed and build themselves a hard skeleton . The individual animals are known as polyps and have a cylindrical body crowned by an oral disc with a mouth and a fringe of tentacles . Although some species are solitary , most are colonial . The founding polyp settles on the seabed and starts to secrete calcium carbonate to protect its soft body . Solitary corals can be as much as 25 cm across but in colonial species the polyps are usually only a few millimetres in diameter . These polyps reproduce by budding but remain attached to each other , forming a multi-polyp colony with a common skeleton , which may be up to several metres in diameter or height according to species . The shape and appearance of each coral colony depends not only on the species , but also on its location , depth , the amount of water movement and other factors . Many shallow-water corals contain symbiont unicellular organisms known as zooxanthellae within their tissues . These give their colour to the coral which thus may vary in hue depending on what species of symbiont it contains . Stony corals are closely related to sea anemones , and like them are armed with stinging cells known as cnidocytes . Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually . Most species release gametes into the sea where fertilisation takes place , and the planula larvae drift as part of the plankton , but a few species brood their eggs . Asexual reproduction is mostly by fragmentation , when part of a colony becomes detached and reattaches elsewhere . Stony corals occur in all the world 's oceans . Hermatypic corals are mostly colonial and form part of reef structures ; most of these are zooxanthellate and are found in the shallow waters into which sunlight penetrates . Other corals may be solitary or colonial and do not form reefs ; some of these occur at abyssal depths where no light reaches . Stony corals first appeared in the Middle Triassic , but their relationship to the tabulate and rugose corals of the Paleozoic is currently unresolved . Much of the framework of modern coral reefs is formed by scleractinians . Stony corals numbers are expected to decline due to the effects of global warming and ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Scleractinia\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 119403\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Conchiolin Content: Conchiolins ( sometimes referred to as conchins ) are complex proteins which are secreted by a mollusc 's outer epithelium ( the mantle ) . These proteins are part of a matrix of organic macromolecules , mainly proteins and polysaccharides , that assembled together form the microenvironment where crystals nucleate and grow . This organic matrix also holds and binds to the crystals of aragonite which give such shells their stiffness . The ions necessary to form calcium carbonate are also secreted by the mantle , but it is the tailored environment created by the organic matrix which causes aragonite ( rather than calcite ) crystals to nucleate , in much the same way that collagen nucleates hydroxyapatite crystals . Conchiolin serves as a relatively flexible , crack-deflecting matrix for the mineral aggregate particles ; its strength and the strong bonding of perlucin can in some cases ( such as in the formation of nacre ) give the finished material an impressive level of toughness . As well as providing a matrix into which the hard calcium carbonate part of the shell is precipitated , many species of mollusks ( such as the land snail shown above ) also have an outer shell layer called the periostracum which is composed of the protein conchiolin . Some land snails ( especially the taxa that have become adapted to living on acidic soils ) have very thin , transparent , tan-colored shells , even as adults , and those shells are composed entirely of conchiolin .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Conchiolin\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 119381\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coccolith Content: Coccoliths are individual plates of calcium carbonate formed by coccolithophores ( single-celled algae such as Emiliania huxleyi ) which are arranged around them in a coccosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Coccolith\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 119223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shelly limestone Content: Shelly limestone is a highly fossiliferous limestone , composed of a number of fossilized organisms such as brachiopods , bryozoans , crinoids , sponges , corals and mollusks . It varies in color , texture and hardness . Coquina is a poorly indurated form of shelly limestone . Shelly limestone is a sedimentary rock because it is made up of fragments . To be shelly , it is full of broken shells which are `` glued '' together with calcite . Calcium carbonate often makes up around 10 % of the volume , whilst many varied sized shells from granular to very large pebbles . Its color is gray .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Shelly_limestone\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 118678\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonic acid Content: Not to be confused with Carbolic acid , an antiquated name for phenol . Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 ( equivalently OC ( OH ) 2 ) . It is also a name sometimes given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water ( carbonated water ) , because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3 . In physiology , carbonic acid is described as volatile acid or respiratory acid , because it is the only acid excreted as a gas by the lungs . It plays an important role in the bicarbonate buffer system to maintain acid -- base homeostasis . Carbonic acid , which is a weak acid , forms two kinds of salts , the carbonates and the bicarbonates . In geology , carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites . It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound . However , in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonic_acid\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 118522\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonate hardgrounds Content: Carbonate hardgrounds are surfaces of synsedimentarily cemented carbonate layers that have been exposed on the seafloor ( Wilson and Palmer , 1992 ) . A hardground is essentially , then , a lithified seafloor . Ancient hardgrounds are found in limestone sequences and distinguished from later-lithified sediments by evidence of exposure to normal marine waters . This evidence can consist of encrusting marine organisms ( especially bryozoans , oysters , barnacles , cornulitids , hederelloids , microconchids and crinoids ) , borings of organisms produced through bioerosion , early marine calcite cements , or extensive surfaces mineralized by iron oxides or calcium phosphates ( Palmer , 1982 ; Bodenbender et al. , 1989 ; Vinn and Wilson , 2010 ; Vinn and Toom , 2015 ) . Modern hardgrounds are usually detected by sounding in shallow water or through remote sensing techniques like side-scan radar . Carbonate hardgrounds often host a unique fauna and flora adapted to the hard surface . Organisms usually cement themselves to the substrate and live as sessile filter-feeders ( Brett and Liddell , 1982 ) . Some bore into the cemented carbonate to make protective domiciles ( borings ) for filter-feeding . Sometimes hardgrounds are undermined by currents which remove the soft sediment below them , producing shallow cavities and caves which host a cryptic fauna ( Palmer and Fürsich , 1974 ) . The evolution of hardground faunas can be traced through the Phanerozoic , from the Cambrian Period to today ( Taylor and Wilson , 2003 ) . Carbonate hardgrounds were most commonly formed during calcite sea intervals in Earth history , which were times of rapid precipitation of low-magnesium calcite and the dissolution of skeletal aragonite ( Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . The Ordovician-Silurian and the Jurassic-Cretaceous Systems have the most hardgrounds ( sometimes hundreds in a single section ) and the Permian-Triassic Systems have the least ( usually none ) . This cyclicity in hardground formation is reflected in the evolution of hardground-dwelling communities . There are distinct differences between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic hardground communities : the former are dominated by thick calcitic bryozoans and echinoderms , the latter by oysters and deep bivalve ( Gastrochaenolites ) and sponge ( Entobia ) borings ( Taylor and Wilson , 2003 ) . Stratigraphers and sedimentologists often use hardgrounds as marker horizons and as indicators of sedimentary hiatuses and flooding events ( Fürsich et al. , 1981 , 1992 ; Pope and Read , 1997 ) . Hardgrounds and their faunas can also represent very specific depositional environments such as tidal channels ( Wilson et al. , 2005 ) and shallow marine carbonate ramps ( Palmer and Palmer , 1977 ; Malpas et al. , 2004 )\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonate_hardgrounds\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 116669\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ankerite Content: Ankerite is a calcium , iron , magnesium , manganese carbonate mineral of the group of rhombohedral carbonates with formula : Ca ( Fe , Mg , Mn ) ( CO3 ) 2 . In composition it is closely related to dolomite , but differs from this in having magnesium replaced by varying amounts of iron ( II ) and manganese . It forms a series with dolomite and kutnohorite . The crystallographic and physical characters resemble those of dolomite and siderite . The angle between the perfect rhombohedral cleavages is 73 ° 48 ' , the hardness is 3.5 to 4 , and the specific gravity is 2.9 to 3.1 . The color is white , grey or reddish to yellowish brown . Ankerite occurs with siderite in metamorphosed ironstones and sedimentary banded iron formations . It also occurs in carbonatites . In sediments it occurs as authigenic , diagenetic minerals and as a product of hydrothermal deposition . It is one of the minerals of the dolomite-siderite series , to which the terms brown-spar , pearl-spar and bitter-spar have been historically loosely applied . It was first recognized as a distinct species by W. von Haidinger in 1825 , and named for Matthias Joseph Anker ( 1771 -- 1843 ) of Styria , an Austrian mineralogist . It has been found in Western Tasmania , in mines in Dundas , Tasmania\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Ankerite\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 116143\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gerolsteiner Brunnen Content: Gerolsteiner Brunnen GmbH & Co. . KG ( Gerolsteiner ) is a leading German mineral water firm with its seat in Gerolstein in the Eifel mountains . It is well known for its Gerolsteiner Sprudel brand , a bottled , naturally carbonated mineral water . This water , in addition to hydrogen and oxygen ( H2O ) and carbon ( in the carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) carbonation ) , contains at least the following chemical elements in amounts of 100 or more micrograms per liter : bromine , calcium , chlorine , fluorine , lithium , magnesium , manganese , nitrogen , potassium , silicon , sodium , strontium , and sulfur . The strontium is naturally occurring , not the radioactive strontium-90 . Gerolsteiner was also the chief sponsor of a cycling team , Team Gerolsteiner .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Gerolsteiner_Brunnen\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 114442\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonatite Content: Carbonatite ( -LSB- pronkɑrˈbɒnətaɪt -RSB- ) is a type of intrusive or extrusive igneous rock defined by mineralogic composition consisting of greater than 50 percent carbonate minerals . Carbonatites may be confused with marble , and may require geochemical verification . Carbonatites usually occur as small plugs within zoned alkalic intrusive complexes , or as dikes , sills , breccias , and veins . They are , almost exclusively , associated with continental rift-related tectonic settings . It seems that there has been a steady increase in the carbonatitic igneous activity through the Earth 's history , from the Archean Eon to the present . Nearly all carbonatite occurrences are intrusives or subvolcanic intrusives . This is because carbonatite lava flows , being composed largely of soluble carbonates , are easily weathered and are therefore unlikely to be preserved in the geologic record . Carbonatite eruptions as lava may therefore not be as uncommon as thought , but they have been poorly preserved throughout the Earth 's history . Only one carbonatite volcano is known to have erupted in historical time , the active Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano in Tanzania . It erupts with the lowest temperature lava in the world , at 500-600 ° C . The lava is natrocarbonatite dominated by nyerereite and gregoryite .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonatite\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 114177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Znucalite Content: Znucalite or CaZn11 ( UO2 ) ( CO3 ) 3 ( OH ) 20 • 4 ( H2O ) is a rare , radioactive , white to pale cream colored uranium-containing carbonate mineral , hydrated calcium zinc uranyl carbonate hydroxide . Znucalite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system , often forming aggregates or crusts , and is found as a rare secondary species in carbonate-hosted ( meaning it is mined from carbonate containing formations such as limestone ) polymetallic veins , and nearby oxidizing uranium veins ; on dump material and coating mine walls , apparently of post-mine origin . It fluoresces yellow-green under UV light . It was first described in 1989 , after being discovered in Lill Mine , Černojamské deposit ( Black pits deposit ) in the Czech Republic . It was named in 1990 by Petr Ondruš , František Veselovský , and R. Rybka for its constituent elements .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Znucalite\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 114070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Uranyl carbonate Content: Uranyl carbonate , UO2 ( CO3 ) , is a carbonate of uranium that forms the backbone of several uranyl mineral species such as andersonite , mckelveyite - ( Y ) and wyartite and most importantly rutherfordine . It is also found in both the mineral and organic fractions of coal and its fly ash and is the main component of uranium in mine tailing seepage water . Uranium like other actinides readily forms a dioxide uranyl core ( UO2 ) . In the environment , this uranyl core readily complexes with carbonate to form charged complexes . Although uranium forms insoluble solids or adsorbs to mineral surfaces at alkaline pH it is these soluble carbonate complexes that increase its solubility , availability , and mobility with low affinities to soil . Uranium ( VI ) generally forms a pH-dependent suite of uranyl carbonate and various hydrated complexes in ground water solutions . UO2 ( OH ) 2 + UO2 ( CO3 ) 22 − UO2 ( CO3 ) 34 − UO2 ( CO3 ) ( OH ) 3 − A common method for concentrating uranium from a solution uses solutions of uranyl carbonates , which are passed through a resin bed where the complex ions are transferred to the resin by ion exchange with a negative ion like chloride . After build-up of the uranium complex on the resin , the uranium is eluted with a salt solution and the uranium is precipitated in another process .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Uranyl_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 114047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oolitic aragonite sand Content: Oolitic aragonite sand forms in tropical waters . Most of the topography of the Bahama Banks is composed of calcium carbonate oolitic aragonite sand material . The natural formation through precipitation and sedimentation of aragonite sand in the Bahamas surpasses anyplace else in the world . There are billions of tons of this type of sand material in reserve and millions of tons more created annually .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Oolitic_aragonite_sand\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 113271\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Merensky Reef Content: The Merensky Reef is a layer of igneous rock in the Bushveld Igneous Complex ( BIC ) in the North West , Limpopo , Gauteng and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa which together with an underlying layer , the Upper Group 2 Reef ( UG2 ) , contains most of the world 's known reserves of platinum group metals ( PGMs ) or platinum group elements ( PGEs ) - platinum , palladium , rhodium , ruthenium , iridium and osmium . The UG2 Reef , the composition of which is relatively consistent throughout the BIC , is rich in chromite , but lacks the Merensky 's gold , copper and nickel by-products , though its reserves may be almost twice those of the Merensky Reef . Chromitite layers occur commonly in large mafic layered intrusions . A current theory is that chromitites form as a result of introduction and mixing of chemically primitive magma with a more evolved magma , which leads to supersaturation of chromite in the mixture , which in turn leads to the formation of a nearly monomineralic layer on the magma chamber floor . The initial recovery of platinum in South Africa took place on several of the large East Rand gold mines and the first separate platinum mine was a short lived venture near Naboomspruit that worked very patchy quartz reefs . The discovery of the Bushveld Igneous Complex deposits was made in 1924 by a Lydenburg district farmer , A F Lombaard . This was an alluvial deposit but its importance was recognised by Hans Merensky whose prospecting work discovered the primary source in the Bushveld Igneous Complex and traced it for several hundred kilometres by 1930 . Extensive mining of the Reef did not take place until an upsurge in the demand for platinum group metals used in exhaust pollution control in the 1950s , made exploitation economically feasible . Extraction of metals from the UG2 chromitite could only take place in the 1970s with major advances in metallurgy .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Merensky_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 112885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonate rock Content: Carbonate rocks are a class of sedimentary rocks composed primarily of carbonate minerals . The two major types are limestone , which is composed of calcite or aragonite ( different crystal forms of CaCO3 ) and dolostone , which is composed of the mineral dolomite ( CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 ) . Calcite can be either dissolved by groundwater or precipitated by groundwater , depending on several factors including the water temperature , pH , and dissolved ion concentrations . Calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases . When conditions are right for precipitation , calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together or it can fill fractures . Karst topography and caves develop in carbonate rocks because of their solubility in dilute acidic groundwater . Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation . Marble is the metamorphic carbonate rock . Rare igneous carbonate rocks exist as intrusive carbonatites and even rarer volcanic carbonate lava .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonate_rock\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 112530\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aragonite sea Content: An aragonite sea contains aragonite and high-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic carbonate precipitates . Therefore , the chemical conditions of the seawater must be notably high in magnesium content for an aragonite sea to form . This is in contrast to a calcite sea in which low-magnesium calcite is the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate . The Early Paleozoic and the Middle to Late Mesozoic oceans were predominantly calcite seas , whereas the Middle Paleozoic through the Early Mesozoic and the Cenozoic ( including today ) are characterized by aragonite seas . Aragonite seas form due to several factors , the most obvious of these is a high magnesium content . However , the sea level and the temperature of the surrounding system also determine whether an aragonite sea will form . Calcite seas occurred at times of rapid seafloor spreading and global greenhouse climate conditions . Calcite is the predominant mineral in warm , shallow marine environments . Aragonite on the other hand , is the dominant mineral in cool marine water environments . This trend has been observed by looking at the chemistry of carbonates , dating them and analyzing the conditions under which they were formed . One study has examined the temporal and spatial distribution of limestone-marl alternations in Ordovician , Jurassic and Cretaceous ( times of calcite seas ) . This study concluded that the most abundant of the limestone-marl alternations occurred in settings similar to today 's seas which favor aragonite production .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Aragonite_sea\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 112475\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Barytocalcite Content: Barytocalcite is an anhydrous barium calcium carbonate mineral with the chemical formula BaCa ( CO3 ) 2 . It is trimorphous with alstonite and paralstonite , that is to say the three minerals have the same formula but different structures . Baryte and quartz pseudomorphs after barytocalcite have been observed . Barytocalcite crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system , typically as massive to druzy accumulations of transparent white to yellow to grey aggregates of slender prismatic crystals . It has a Mohs hardness of 4 and a specific gravity of 3.64 to 3.71 . It was first described in 1824 for an occurrence in the Blagill Mine in North Pennines , Cumbria ( Cumberland ) , England , and named for its composition .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Barytocalcite\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 111736\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nyerereite Content: Nyerereite is a very rare sodium calcium carbonate mineral with formula Na2Ca ( CO3 ) 2 . It forms colorless , platey pseudohexagonal orthorhombic crystals that are typically twinned . It has a specific gravity of 2.54 and indices of refraction of nα = 1.511 , nβ = 1.533 and nγ = 1.535 . Nyerereite is not stable in contact with the atmosphere and rapidly breaks down . Collection specimens must be kept in a sealed argon environment . It has a Hermann -- Mauguin notation of mm2 and the respective space group is Cmc21 . In nature Nyerereite is naturally twinned and is pseudohexagonal with triad twinning ; meaning that this is a six sided crystal that apparently has a hexagonal shape but is not in the hexagonal system . Triad twinning is the intergrowth of three orthorhombic crystals that turn at their center and form hexagonally shaped crystals . Nyerereite is biaxial negative , and has a 2v of 29 degrees . It shows a center acute bisectrix and a birefringence of approximately 0.023 . At high temperatures or just erupted lava nyerereite is uniaxial and shows an interference color of second order blue when twinning is not present , and when twinning is there the interference color of nyerereite is first order grey .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Nyerereite\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 111583\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonic anhydrase Content: The carbonic anhydrases ( or carbonate dehydratases ) form a family of enzymes that catalyze the rapid interconversion of carbon dioxide and water to bicarbonate and protons ( or vice versa ) , a reversible reaction that occurs relatively slowly in the absence of a catalyst . The active site of most carbonic anhydrases contains a zinc ion ; they are therefore classified as metalloenzymes . One of the functions of the enzyme in animals is to interconvert carbon dioxide and bicarbonate to maintain acid-base balance in blood and other tissues , and to help transport carbon dioxide out of tissues .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonic_anhydrase\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 111468\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Craniidae Content: The Craniidae are a family of brachiopods ( lamp shells ) . Although it belongs to a subdivision called the inarticulata which have shells where the mineral content consist of calcium phosphate , the Craniidae have shells that consist of calcium carbonate . Other special characteristics of this family are that no outgrowths are developed to form a hinge between both valves , nor is there any support for the lophophore . As adults , craniids either lived free on the ocean floor or , more commonly , were attached to a hard object with all or part of the ventral valve . All other brachiopods are supposed to have a stalk or pedicle , at least as an adolescent , but in craniids a pedicle is not known from any development stage . They are the only members of the order Craniida and the monotypic suborder Craniidina and superfamily Cranioidea ; consequently , the latter two taxa are presently redundant and not used very often . Valdiviathyris and Neoancistrocrania were sometimes separated in a family Valdiviathyrididae but this has turned out to be unjustified . Most Craniidae are long extinct forms known only from fossils like all other Craniforma . However , some 20 species of this 470-million-year-old lineage are surviving today . They include Valdiviathyris quenstedti which has remained essentially unchanged for the last 35 million years or so . Although some minimal evolution would obviously have taken place in the meantime , this was essentially silent mutations and marginal adaptations to cooler habitat . Present-day Valdiviathyris are all but inseparable from those of the Late Eocene and the genus can not even be divided into chronospecies . Thus , V. quenstedti is a true living fossil and one of the oldest and most long-lived species known to science .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Craniidae\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 111267\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calcimicrobe Content: Characteristic of the Neoproterozoic and Cambrian periods , the heterogeneous group called calcimicrobes are calcareous colonial microfossils , which include many morphologically dissimilar organisms , whose effect in massive aggregations , in association with shelly metazoans , was to lay down the earliest recognizable reef systems : compare Archaeocyathids . The earliest recognizable patch reefs date to the Tommotian . Individual calcimicrobes laid down calcium carbonate in tubules , threads , chambered structures and other forms . The term calcimicrobe is useful in recreating the paleoecology of these systems . The term was first applied by N.P. James and D.I. Gravestock in 1990 .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Calcimicrobe\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 111231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonate–silicate cycle Content: The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere . The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) . The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature . The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonate–silicate_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 110959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pelagosite Content: Pelagosite is a form of pisolitic aragonite ( CaCO3 ) whose type locality is the Croatian island group of Palagruža ( Italian Pelagosa , whence the name ) in the middle of the Adriatic . It was identified by R. Moser in Mineralogische und petrographische Mitteilungen , new series ( Vienna ) 1 ( 1878 ) , 174 . It has a higher content of magnesium carbonate , strontium carbonate , calcium sulfate ( gypsum ) and silicon dioxide ( silica ) than is found in typical limy sediments elsewhere . It occurs as a superficial calcareous crust no more than a few millimetres thick , which is generally white , grey , or brownish with a pearly lustre . It was believed to be formed in the intertidal zone by saltwater spray and evaporation , but an algal contribution has recently been suggested ( Montanari and others ( 2007 ) ) , following an overlooked earlier proposal by E. Onorato in 1926 .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Pelagosite\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 110792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tommotiid Content: Tommotiids are Cambrian ( Terreneuvian ) shelly fossils thought to belong to the Brachiopod + Phoronid lineage ( Brachiozoa ) . The majority of tommotiids are mineralised with calcium phosphate rather than calcium carbonate . although silicified examples hint that some species bore carbonate or carbonaceous sclerites . Micrina and Paterimitra possess bivalved shells in their larval phases , which preserve characters that might position them in the Linguliformea and Rhynchonelliformea stem lineages respectively . This would indicate that the brachiopod shell represents the retention of a larval character . For a long part of their history , the tommotiids were only known from disarticulated shells - a complete organism had not been found . The 2008 discovery of Eccentrotheca offered the first insight into a complete organism , and permitted a reconstruction of the animal as a sessile , tube-like animal made up of a spiral of overlapping plates . Articulated specimens of Paterimitra , discovered a year later , suggest a similar form and lifestyle - it is possible that many tommotiids need redescribing as sessile tube-dwellers . These discoveries have produced an alternative model for the origin of the brachiopods ; it suggested that they evolved by the reduction of sessile tube-like organisms , until only two shells were left . This contrasts with the brachiopod fold hypothesis which suggests that they formed by the folding of a halkieriid-like organism .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Tommotiid\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 110685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clumped isotopes Content: Clumped isotopes are heavy isotopes that are bonded to other heavy isotopes . The carbonate clumped-isotope thermometer , or `` 13C -- 18O order/disorder carbonate thermometer '' , is a new approach for paleoclimate reconstruction , basing on the temperature dependence of the clumping of 13C and 18O into bonds within the carbonate mineral lattice . This approach has the advantage that the 18O ratio in water is not necessary ( different from the δ18O approach ) , but for precise paleotemperature estimation , it also needs very large and uncontaminated samples , long analytical runs , and extensive replication . Commonly used sample sources for paleoclimatological work include corals , otoliths , bivalves , and foraminifera . Results are usually expressed as Δ47 ( said as `` cap 47 '' ) , which is the deviation of the ratio of isotopologues of CO2 with a molecular weight of 47 to those with a weight of 44 from the ratio expected if they were randomly distributed .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Clumped_isotopes\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 110681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef (company) Content: Reef is a brand of casual sandals , known as Thongs , created by two Argentine brothers , Fernando and Santiago Aguerre . In 1984 they moved from Argentina to the San Diego beach community of La Jolla , California , where they began Reef . Their product became popular amongst surfers and beach goers . Reef has subsequently grown into one of the world 's leading active sandal manufacturers . Reef has been owned by VF Corporation since 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_(company)\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 110177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calcium permanganate Content: Calcium permanganate is an oxidizing agent and chemical compound with the chemical formula Ca ( MnO4 ) 2 . It consists of the metal calcium and two permanganate ions . It is noncombustible , but , being a strong oxidizing agent , it will accelerate the burning of combustible material . If the combustible material is finely divided , the resulting mixture may be explosive . Contact with liquid combustible materials may result in spontaneous ignition . Contact with sulfuric acid may cause fires or explosions . Mixtures with acetic acid or acetic anhydride can explode if not kept cold . Explosions can occur when mixtures of calcium permanganate and sulfuric acid come into contact with benzene , carbon disulfide , diethyl ether , ethyl alcohol , petroleum , or other organic matter . It is prepared from the reaction of potassium permanganate with calcium chloride or from the reaction of aluminium permanganate with calcium oxide . It can be also prepared by reacting manganese dioxide with a solution of calcium hypochlorite and a little bit of calcium hydroxide to increase the pH level . If manganese dioxide is heated with calcium hydroxide with an oxidier such as Ca ( NO3 ) 2 , Ca ( ClO3 ) 2 , or Ca ( ClO4 ) 2 , it will produce calcium manganate or mangamite ( ` hypomanganate ' ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Calcium_permanganate\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 110004\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Inorganic ions Content: Inorganic ions in animals and plants are ions necessary for vital cellular activity . In body tissues , ions are also known as electrolytes , essential for the electrical activity needed to support muscle contractions and neuron activation . They contribute to osmotic pressure of body fluids as well as performing a number of other important functions . Below is a list of some of the most important ions for living things as well as examples of their functions : Ca2 + calcium is a component of bones and teeth . It also functions as a biological messenger , as do most of the ions listed below . See hypocalcaemia K + potassium ions ' main function in animals is osmotic balance , particularly in the kidneys . See hypokalemia . Na + sodium ions have a similar role to potassium ions . See sodium deficiency . Mg2 + . Most importantly , magnesium ions are a component of chlorophyll . See magnesium deficiency Cl − . Inability to transport chloride ions in humans manifests itself as cystic fibrosis ( CP ) . The shells of sea creatures are calcium carbonate . In blood approximately 85 % of carbon dioxide , is converted into aqueous carbonate ions ( an acidic solution ) , allowing a greater rate of transportation . , adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) is a common molecule which stores energy in an accessible form . Bone is calcium phosphate . Fe2 + / Fe3 + haemoglobin , the main oxygen carrying molecule has a central iron ion . , source of nitrogen in plants for the synthesis of proteins . Category : Ions Category : Cell biology Category : Signal transduction\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Inorganic_ions\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 109340\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kutnohorite Content: Kutnohorite is a rare calcium manganese carbonate mineral with magnesium and iron , that is a member of the dolomite group . It forms a series with dolomite , and with ankerite . The end member formula is CaMn2 + ( CO3 ) 2 , but Mg2 + and Fe2 + commonly substitute for Mn2 + , with the Mn content varying from 38 % to 84 % , so the formula Ca ( Mn2 + , Mg , Fe2 + ) ( CO3 ) 2 better represents the species . It was named by Professor Bukowsky in 1901 after the type locality of Kutná Hora , Bohemia , in the Czech Republic . It was originally spelt `` kutnahorite '' but `` kutnohorite '' is the current IMA-approved spelling .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Kutnohorite\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 109330\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 108851\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hermatypic coral Content: Hermatypic corals are those corals in the order Scleractinia which build reefs by depositing hard calcareous material for their skeletons , forming the stony framework of the reef . Corals that do not contribute to coral reef development are referred to as ahermatypic ( non-reef-building ) species . Many reef-forming corals contain symbiotic zooxanthellae which contribute to their nutritional needs . The term `` hermatypic '' is sometimes misused , being assumed to apply to all zooxanthellate corals . However , there are zooxanthellae in many non reef-forming corals ; and not all hermatypic corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae . Further , some hermatypic corals live at depths to which light can not penetrate ; they form deep-water reefs but do not harbour the symbionts .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Hermatypic_coral\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 108611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Andersonite Content: Andersonite , Na2Ca ( UO2 ) ( CO3 ) 3 · 6H2O , or hydrated sodium calcium uranyl carbonate is a rare uranium carbonate mineral that was first described in 1948 . Named after Charles Alfred Anderson ( 1902 -- 1990 ) of the United States Geological Survey , who first described the mineral species , it is found in sandstone-hosted uranium deposits . It has a high vitreous to pearly luster and is fluorescent . Andersonite specimens will usually glow a bright lemon yellow ( or green with blue hints depending on the deposit ) in ultraviolet light . It is commonly found as translucent small rhombohedral crystals that have angles close to 90 degrees although its crystal system is nominally trigonal . Its Mohs hardness is 2.5 , with an average specific gravity of 2.8 . It occurs in the oxidized zone of uranium-bearing polymetallic ore deposits . It also may occur as an efflorescent crust on the walls and timbers of uranium mines . As this mineral is water-soluble , samples must be stored in dry conditions . It occurs with schrockingerite , bayleyite , shwartzite , boltwoodite , liebigite and gypsum . It was first described in 1948 for an occurrence in the Hillside Mine near Bagdad , Eureka District , Yavapai County , Arizona .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Andersonite\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 108567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lead carbonate Content: Lead ( II ) carbonate is the chemical compound PbCO3 . It is prepared industrially from lead ( II ) acetate and carbon dioxide . It occurs naturally as the mineral cerussite .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Lead_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 108320\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calcium acetate/magnesium carbonate Content: Calcium acetate/magnesium carbonate is a fixed-dose combination drug that contains 110 mg calcium and 60 mg magnesium ions and is indicated as a phosphate binder for dialysis patients suffering from hyperphosphataemia ( abnormal high serum phosphorus levels ) . It is registered by Fresenius Medical Care under the trade names Renepho ( Belgium ) and OsvaRen ( a number of other European countries ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Calcium_acetate/magnesium_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 108162\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Crustose Content: Crustose is a habit of some types of algae and lichens in which the plant grows tightly appressed to a substrate forming a biological layer of the adhering organism . Crustose adheres very closely to the substrates at all points . Crustose is found on rocks and tree bark . -LSB- 5 -RSB- Some species of marine algae of the Rhodophyta , in particular members of the order Corallinales , family Corallinaceae , subfamily Melobesioideae with cell walls containing calcium carbonate grow to great depths in the intertidal zone , forming crusts on various substrates . The substrate can be rocks throughout the intertidal zone , or , as in the case of the Corallinales , reef-building corals , and other living organisms including plants , such as mangroves and animals such as shelled molluscs . The coralline red algae are major members of coral reef communities , cementing the corals together with their crusts . Among the brown algae , the order Ralfsiales comprises two families of crustose algae . Many lichens also grow close to the surface of rocks , tree trunks and other substrata , and are referred to as crustose lichens . Crustose organisms can be detrimental to engineered structures when found on buildings , coastal structures , and ships . There are a different types of Crustose Lichens including : endolithic , endophloidic and leprose . Endolithic is immersed in rocks with their bodies above the surface . Endophloidic is when they are in plant tissue . Leprose is crusts without a layered structure . . Crustose has learned to adapt to its environment . The environment it is currently adapting quite well to is the dry and drought resistant climates . It has seen to work well in deserts , ice free parts of Antarctica and in the Alpine and Arctic regions . . Crustose can come in a variety of colors such as yellow , orange , red , gray and green . These colors tend to be bright and vibrant . Crustose is similar to other lichens because they share a similar internal morphology . The lichen 's body is formed from filaments of the fungal partner . The density of these filaments determines the layers within the lichen .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Crustose\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 108056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calcite sea Content: A calcite sea is one in which low-magnesium calcite is the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate . An aragonite sea is the alternate seawater chemistry in which aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are the primary inorganic carbonate precipitates . The Early Paleozoic and the Middle to Late Mesozoic oceans were predominantly calcite seas , whereas the Middle Paleozoic through the Early Mesozoic and the Cenozoic ( including today ) are characterized by aragonite seas ( Wilkinson et al. , 1985 ; Wilkinson and Given , 1986 ; Morse and Mackenzie , 1990 ; Lowenstein et al. , 2001 ; Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . The most significant geological and biological effects of calcite sea conditions include rapid and widespread formation of carbonate hardgrounds ( Palmer , 1982 ; Palmer et al. , 1988 ; Wilson and Palmer , 1992 ) , calcitic ooids ( Sandberg , 1983 ; Wilkinson et al. , 1985 ) , calcite cements ( Wilkinson and Given , 1986 ) , and the contemporaneous dissolution of aragonite shells in shallow warm seas ( Cherns and Wright , 2000 ; Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . Hardgrounds were very common , for example , in the calcite seas of the Ordovician and Jurassic , but virtually absent from the aragonite seas of the Permian ( Palmer , 1982 ) . Fossils of invertebrate organisms found in calcite sea deposits are usually dominated by either thick calcite shells and skeletons ( Wilkinson , 1979 ; Stanley and Hardie , 1998 , 1999 ; Porter , 2007 ) , were infaunal and/or had thick periostraca ( Pojeta , 1971 ) , or had an inner shell of aragonite and an outer shell of calcite ( Harper et al. , 1997 ) . This was apparently because aragonite dissolved quickly on the seafloor and had to be either avoided or protected as a biomineral ( Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . Calcite seas were coincident with times of rapid seafloor spreading and global greenhouse climate conditions ( Stanley and Hardie , 1999 ) . Seafloor spreading centers cycle seawater through hydrothermal vents , reducing the ratio of magnesium to calcium in the seawater through metamorphism of calcium-rich minerals in basalt to magnesium-rich clays ( Wilkinson and Given , 1986 ; Lowenstein et al. , 2001 ) . This reduction in the Mg/Ca ratio favors the precipitation of calcite over aragonite . Increased seafloor spreading also means increased volcanism and elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and oceans . This may also have an effect on which polymorph of calcium carbonate is precipitated ( Lowenstein et al. , 2001 ) . Further , high calcium concentrations of seawater favor the burial of CaCO3 , thereby removing alkalinity from the ocean , lowering seawater pH and reducing its acid/base buffering .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Calcite_sea\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 107927\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbaminohemoglobin Content: Carbaminohemoglobin ( or carbaminohaemoglobin , also known as carbhaemoglobin and carbohaemoglobin ) is a compound of hemoglobin and carbon dioxide , and is one of the forms in which carbon dioxide exists in the blood . 30 % of carbon dioxide is carried in blood this way ( 60 % carried in blood as bicarbonate -LSB- hydrogen carbonate -RSB- , 10 % carried as free CO2 , in solution , or plasma ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbaminohemoglobin\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 107889\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dolostone Content: Dolostone or dolomite rock is a sedimentary carbonate rock that contains a high percentage of the mineral dolomite , CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 . In old USGS publications it was referred to as magnesian limestone , a term now reserved for magnesium-deficient dolostones or magnesium-rich limestones . Technically , dolostone has a stoichiometric ratio of nearly equal amounts of magnesium and calcium . Most dolostones formed as a magnesium replacement of limestone or lime mud prior to lithification . It is resistant to erosion and can either contain bedded layers or be unbedded . It is less soluble than limestone in weakly acidic groundwater , but it can still develop solution features over time . Dolostone can act as an oil and natural gas reservoir . The term dolostone was introduced to avoid confusion with the mineral dolomite . The usage of the term dolostone is controversial because the name dolomite was first applied to the rock during the late 18th century and thus has technical precedence . The use of the term dolostone is not recommended by the Glossary of Geology published by the American Geological Institute . It is , however , used in some geological publications . The geological process of conversion of calcite to dolomite is known as dolomitization and any intermediate product is known as `` dolomitic limestone . '' The `` dolomite problem '' refers to the vast worldwide depositions of dolostone in past geologic record eluding a unified explanation for their formation .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Dolostone\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 107606\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonate minerals Content: Carbonate minerals are those minerals containing the carbonate ion : CO32 − .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonate_minerals\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 107449\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Monohydrocalcite Content: Monohydrocalcite is a mineral that is a hydrous form of calcium carbonate , CaCO3 · H2O . It was formerly also known by the name hydrocalcite , which is now discredited by the IMA . It is a trigonal mineral which is white when pure . Monohydrocalcite is not a common rock-forming mineral , but is frequently associated with other calcium and magnesium carbonate minerals , such as calcite , aragonite , lansfordite , and nesquehonite . Monohydrocalcite has been observed in air conditioning systems , and in moonmilk deposits in caves , both probably formed from spray of carbonate rich fluids . It is well known in Robe on the Limestone Coast of South Australia as a component of beach sands of Lake Fellmongery and Lake Butler , where it is believed to be formed from algal spume . Other lacustrine deposits include Lake Issyk-Kul , Kyrgyzstan , Lake Kivu , Democratic Republic of the Congo , and Solar Lake , Sinai . It has been reported as a significant component of the decomposition of ikaite in the towers of the Ikka Fjord , West Greenland . It is also noted for its bizarre occurrences , which include inside the otoliths of the tiger shark , the bladder of a guinea pig , the calcareous corpuscles of a cestode parasite , and the final stages of decomposition of the putrefying flesh of the giant saguaro cactus . These occurrences suggest a biochemical origin is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Monohydrocalcite\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 107360\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hydromagnesite Content: Hydromagnesite is a hydrated magnesium carbonate mineral with the formula Mg5 ( CO3 ) 4 ( OH ) 2 · 4H2O . It generally occurs associated with the weathering products of magnesium containing minerals such as serpentine or brucite . It occurs as incrustations and vein or fracture fillings in ultramafic rocks and serpentinites . It occurs in hydrothermally altered dolomite and marble . It commonly appears in caves as speleothems and `` moonmilk '' , deposited from water that has seeped through magnesium rich rocks . It is the most common cave carbonate after calcite and aragonite . It thermally decomposes , over a temperature range of approximately 220 ° C to 550 ° C , releasing water and carbon dioxide leaving a magnesium oxide residue . It was first described in 1836 for an occurrence in Hoboken , New Jersey . Stromatolites in an alkaline ( pH greater than 9 ) freshwater lake ( Salda Gölü ) in southern Turkey are made of hydromagnesite precipitated by diatoms and cyanobacteria . Microbial deposition of hydromagnesite is also reported from playas in British Columbia . The hydromagnesite-magnesite playas near Atlin , British Columbia are some of the most studied deposits of hydromagnesite . These deposits have been characterized in the context of a biogeochemical model for CO2 sequestration . One of the largest deposits of hydromagnesite exists in Greece . It consists of a natural mixture with huntite . Local people have used the white mineral as a source of material for whitewashing buildings for centuries . In the mid 20th century the minerals , ground to a fine powder , found use as a filler for rubber shoe soles . The locals used the granite mills designed for grinding wheat . Commercial exploitation of the minerals began in the late 70s and early 80s with the mineral being exported worldwide . The Greek deposit is still operated commercially , although the world 's largest commercially operated reserves are in Turkey .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Hydromagnesite\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 107104\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shark River Reef Content: Shark River Reef is an artificial reef located in the Atlantic Ocean , 15.6 miles southeast of Manasquan Inlet , off the coast of Ocean County , New Jersey . The site contains almost 4 million cubic yards of dredge rock material . Although 96 % of the total reef material is rock , the site also contains numerous subway cars . It is the deepest of all New Jersey 's artificial reefs , having an average bottom depth of approximately 125 ' . The site is located near Stolt Dagali wreck ( rammed and sunk in 1964 by the SS Shalom ) . The site contains at least nine vessels , including five tankers . The Shark River Reef was established as part of the New Jersey 's Artificial Reef Program . It is administered by the State of New Jersey 's Division of Fish and Wildlife .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Shark_River_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 106898\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aragonite Content: Aragonite is a carbonate mineral , one of the two most common , naturally occurring , crystal forms of calcium carbonate , CaCO3 ( the other forms being the minerals calcite and vaterite ) . It is formed by biological and physical processes , including precipitation from marine and freshwater environments . Aragonite 's crystal lattice differs from that of calcite , resulting in a different crystal shape , an orthorhombic crystal system with acicular crystal . Repeated twinning results in pseudo-hexagonal forms . Aragonite may be columnar or fibrous , occasionally in branching stalactitic forms called flos-ferri ( `` flowers of iron '' ) from their association with the ores at the Carinthian iron mines .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Aragonite\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 106729\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef (band) Content: Reef are an English band from Glastonbury , England . The band members include Gary Stringer on vocals , Jesse Wood on guitar ( replacing original guitarist Kenwyn House in 2014 ) , Jack Bessant on bass and Dominic Greensmith on drums .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 106642\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cholesteryl oleyl carbonate Content: Cholesteryl oleyl carbonate ( COC ) is an organic chemical , an carbonate ester of cholesterol and oleyl alcohol with carbonic acid . It is a liquid crystal material forming cholesteric liquid crystals with helical structure . It is a transparent liquid , or a soft crystalline material with melting point around 20 ° C . It can be used with cholesteryl nonanoate and cholesteryl benzoate in some thermochromic liquid crystals . It is used in some hair colors , make-ups , and some other cosmetic preparations . It can be also used as a component of the liquid crystals used for liquid crystal displays .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Cholesteryl_oleyl_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 106537\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calcite Content: Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) . The Mohs scale of mineral hardness , based on scratch hardness comparison , defines value 3 as `` calcite '' . Other polymorphs of calcium carbonate are the minerals aragonite and vaterite . Aragonite will change to calcite at 380 -- 470 ° C , and vaterite is even less stable .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Calcite\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 106527\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ikaite Content: Ikaite is the mineral name for the hexahydrate of calcium carbonate , CaCO3 · 6H2O . Ikaite tends to form very steep or spiky pyramidal crystals , often radially arranged , of varied sizes from thumbnail size aggregates to gigantic salient spurs . It is only found in a metastable state , and decomposes rapidly by losing most of its water content once removed from near-freezing water . This ` melting mineral ' is more commonly known through its pseudomorphs .\",\n \"qid\": \"180\",\n \"docid\": \"Ikaite\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 106219\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":84,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Reefs need carbon dioxide; it’s their basic food."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Coral reef Content: Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals . Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups . The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria , which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones , corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps . Most reefs grow best in warm , shallow , clear , sunny and agitated waters . Often called `` rainforests of the sea '' , shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth . They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface , about half the area of France , yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Paradoxically , coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients . They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters , but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas . Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism , fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$ 29.8-375 billion . However , coral reefs are fragile ecosystems , partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature . They are under threat from climate change , oceanic acidification , blast fishing , cyanide fishing for aquarium fish , sunscreen use , overuse of reef resources , and harmful land-use practices , including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution , which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_reef","rank":1,"score":130988},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .","qid":"181","docid":"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs","rank":2,"score":121485},{"content":"Title: Calcium reactor Content: __ NOTOC __ In marine and reef aquariums , a calcium reactor creates a balance of alkalinity . An acidic solution is produced by injecting carbon dioxide into a chamber with salt water and calcium rich media . The carbon dioxide lowers the pH by producing a solution high in carbonic acid , and dissolves calcium . The effluent is returned to the reef aquarium where the calcium is consumed by organisms , primarily corals when building skeletons . A calcium reactor is an efficient method to supply calcium to a reef aquarium . Reactors may be used in elaborate freshwater and brackish aquariums where freshwater clams and other invertebrates need a constant supply of calcium . The reactor dissolves the calcium-laden media to provide bicarbonates HCO3 − ( alkalinity ) and calcium ( Ca + + ) ions at the sames rate as consumed during calcification . Effectively dissolving the media requires an acidic pH. Saltwater may have a pH of 7.8 or higher , so to reduce the pH carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) is used . The reaction formula is : CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 < -- -- > Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − Inside the reaction chamber , a calcium rich media ( aragonite ) , mainly CaCO3 , is forced into contact with water injected with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in order to create carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This increases the solubility of the calcium carbonate . The reaction frees the calcium and carbonate , supplying the aquarium with water rich in Ca2 + and CO32 − , important for maintaining alkalinity and calcium levels . The bubble counter measures carbon dioxide . The flow rate of carbon dioxide is monitored so that the dissolved gas goes into the solution , with a minimum unconsumed . A needle valve or solenoid valve regulates the CO2 bubble rate . Valves with precise adjustment abilities improve bubble control . The feed pump controls the volume of water exchange . This is important because a high rate of water flow into the reactor reduces its efficiency , thus resulting in underproduction and a waste of CO2 . Some reactors siphon water into the input of the reactor 's re-circulation pump . A potential complication is the medium in the reactor becoming compacted , increasing back pressure onto the pump and reducing water into the reactor . Placing a gate or needle valve on the reactor 's outlet side will improve flow characteristics compared to control from the inlet side . A peristaltic pumps are effective operating against pressure , capable of supplying an adjustable and continuous flow over flow rates with minimal maintenance . The pH control is connected to a probe in the reactor and adjusts the rate at which the calcium media dissolves . This probe monitors the pH level in the calcium reactor . The pH range for the typical calcium reactor is 6.5 - 6.8 . When the pH rises above a certain level , a valve opens , allowing carbon dioxide to enter the reactor . The control closes the valve as the pH falls below this level . Some pH controllers have an interface for an air pump . This air pump is connected to an airstone in the sump or main tank . If the probe detects a low pH level , the pump activates . The bubbles raise the pH by dissipating the CO2 gas .","qid":"181","docid":"Calcium_reactor","rank":3,"score":120234},{"content":"Title: Zooxanthellae Content: Zooxanthellae are single-celled dinoflagellates that are able to live in symbiosis with marine invertebrates such as corals , jellyfish , and sea anemones . Most known zooxanthellae are in the genus Symbiodinium but some are known from the genus Amphidinium , and other taxa , as yet unidentified , may have similar endosymbiont affinities . In freshwater habitats , similar endosymbionts are known as zoochlorellae . Zooxanthellae are photosynthetic organisms , which contain chlorophyll a and chlorophyll c , as well as the dinoflagellate pigments peridinin and diadinoxanthin . These provide the yellowish and brownish colours typical of many of the host species . During the day , they provide their host with the organic carbon products of photosynthesis , sometimes providing up to 90 % of their host 's energy needs for metabolism , growth and reproduction . In return , they receive nutrients , carbon dioxide , and an elevated position with access to sunshine . Dinoflagellates are microscopic single-celled planktonic organisms that used to be classified as algae but are now considered to be in a large and diverse group known as Chromalveolata . They can be free-living or can be present in large number in the tissues of a host . The motile , mastigote stage in the water column has two flagella and a characteristic method of swimming , while inside a host it metamorphoses into a spherical , non-motile , coccoid stage without any flagella . Zooxanthellae are particularly associated with reef-building corals but they also inhabit other invertebrates and protists ; their hosts include many sea anemones , jellyfish , nudibranchs , certain bivalve molluscs like the giant clam Tridacna , sponges and flatworms as well as some species of radiolarians and foraminiferans . Many different species of zooxanthellae are present in host organisms , each species with its own adaptive capabilities and degree of tolerance of varying environmental factors . A juvenile organism or newly established colony can acquire its zooxanthellae via sexual reproduction or directly from the environment . The egg from which the individual developed may have already been infected by zooxanthellae at the time of fertilisation , or cells of the symbiont may have been transferred from the mother in a period during which the larva was brooded by its parent . Alternatively , the new individual may acquire the zooxanthellae direct from sea water in which the dinoflagellates freely live at some stages of their life cycle . Some stony corals use chemotaxis , with infection occurring as a result of the emission by the coral of a chemical attractant . Infection may also occur after ingestion of infected faecal matter by the host , or of prey that already houses the symbionts . Such indirect acquisition can result in the new host being infected by a species of zooxanthella different from that present in its parent . Coral bleaching occurs when corals expel their zooxanthellae in reaction to environmental stress . This process is believed to be a defense mechanism to reduce the short-term metabolic burden on the coral . A coral that has expelled its zooxanthellae may be recolonised by another species that is better adapted to the stressors present in the environment . However there is a risk that the coral will die before that can occur .","qid":"181","docid":"Zooxanthellae","rank":4,"score":118014},{"content":"Title: Southeast Asian coral reefs Content: Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world 's marine ecosystems . They serve many functions , such as forming the livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials . Coral reefs are developed by the carbonate-based skeletons of a variety of animals and algae . Slowly and overtime , the reefs build up to the surface in oceans . Coral reefs are found in shallow , warm salt water . The sunlight filters through clear water and allows microscopic organisms to live and reproduce . The Indian Ocean holds 60 % of the world 's coastal reefs , 25 % are in the Pacific and 15 % are in the western Atlantic . There are coral reefs in the Persian Gulf , Madagascar , the Philippines , Hawaiian Islands and off Southeast Asia . Coral reefs have been preserved and identified in rocks over 400 million years old . Coral reefs are actually composed of tiny , fragile animals known as coral polyps . Coral reefs are significantly important because of the biodiversity . Although the number of fish are decreasing , the remaining coral reefs contain more unique sea creatures . The variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than anywhere else in the world . An estimation of 70-90 % of fish caught are dependent on coral reefs in Southeast Asia and reefs support over 25 % of all known marine species . However , those sensitive coral reefs are facing detrimental effects on them due to variety of factors : overfishing , sedimentation and pollution , bleaching , and even tourist-related damage .","qid":"181","docid":"Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs","rank":5,"score":116223},{"content":"Title: Impacts of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef Content: Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs . The Great Barrier Reef , considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot , is located in Australia . Similar to other coral reefs , it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification . Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which is taken up by the ocean . This process can increase sea surface temperature , decrease aragonite , and lower the pH of the ocean . Calcifying organisms are under risk , due to the resulting lack of aragonite in the water and the decreasing pH. This decreased health of coral reefs , particularly the Great Barrier Reef , can result in reduced biodiversity . Organisms can become stressed due to ocean acidification and the disappearance of healthy coral reefs , such as the Great Barrier Reef , is a loss of habitat for several taxa .","qid":"181","docid":"Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_on_the_Great_Barrier_Reef","rank":6,"score":115449},{"content":"Title: Alcyonacea Content: The Alcyonacea , or soft corals , are an order of corals which do not produce calcium carbonate skeletons . Soft corals contain minute , spiny skeletal elements called sclerites , useful in species identification . Sclerites give these corals some degree of support and give their flesh a spiky , grainy texture that deters predators . In the past soft corals were thought to be unable to lay new foundations for future corals , but recent findings suggest that colonies of the leather-coral genus Sinularia are able to cement sclerites and consolidate them at their base into alcyonarian spiculite , thus making them reef builders . Unlike stony corals , most soft corals thrive in nutrient-rich waters with less intense light . Almost all utilize symbiotic photosynthesizing zooxanthella as a major energy source . However , most will readily eat any free floating food , such as zooplankton , out of the water column . They are integral members of the reef ecosystem and provide habitat for fish , snails , algae and a diversity of other marine species . Many soft corals are easily collected in the wild for the reef aquarium hobby , as small cuttings are less prone to infection or damage during shipping than stony corals . Nevertheless , home-grown specimens tend to be more adaptable to aquarium life and help conserve wild reefs . Soft corals grow quickly in captivity and are easily divided into new individuals , and so those grown via aquaculture are often hardier and less expensive than imported corals from the wild . The most common examples of this are various species of Actinodiscus , especially common red mushroom coral .","qid":"181","docid":"Alcyonacea","rank":7,"score":113193},{"content":"Title: Reef House Content: The Reef House is a historic house located at 411 S. Poplar St. in Carbondale , Illinois . William A. Reef built the house for his family circa 1892 . The Queen Anne-style cottage may have been designed by local carpenter A. M. Etherton , though records of its designer do not exist . The house features fishscale shingle siding on its second floor and clapboard siding on its first ; the clapboard siding is adorned with stickwork . A gable on the south side of the house features half-timbering at its top . The house 's front porch features turned posts , a typical Queen Anne feature . The house is one of the only Queen Anne homes in Carbondale which largely retains its original condition . The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 14 , 1985 .","qid":"181","docid":"Reef_House","rank":8,"score":112293},{"content":"Title: Reef Content: A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface . Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish .","qid":"181","docid":"Reef","rank":9,"score":107626},{"content":"Title: Coral reef fish Content: Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs . Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity . Among the myriad inhabitants , the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch . Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef , many of them hidden or well camouflaged . Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs . Coral reefs occupy less than one percent of the surface area of the world oceans , but still they provide a home for 25 percent of all marine fish species . Reef habitats are a sharp contrast to the open water habitats that make up the other 99 % of the world oceans . However , loss and degradation of coral reef habitat , increasing pollution , and overfishing including the use of destructive fishing practices , are threatening the survival of the coral reefs and the associated reef fish .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_reef_fish","rank":10,"score":105562},{"content":"Title: Deep-water coral Content: The habitat of deep-water corals , also known as cold-water corals , extends to deeper , darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals , ranging from near the surface to the abyss , beyond 2000 m where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 C. Deep-water corals belong to the Phylum Cnidaria and are most often stony corals , but also include black and horny corals and soft corals including the Gorgonians ( sea fans ) . Like tropical corals , they provide habitat to other species , but deep-water corals do not require zooxanthellae to survive . While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species , only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs . Instead , they form aggregations called patches , banks , bioherms , massifs , thickets or groves . These aggregations are often referred to as `` reefs , '' but differ structurally and functionally . Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as `` mounds , '' which more accurately describes the large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off , rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates . Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs . Submarine communications cables and fishing methods such as bottom trawling tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs . The deep-water habitat is designated as a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan habitat .","qid":"181","docid":"Deep-water_coral","rank":11,"score":103542},{"content":"Title: Coral Triangle Initiative Content: The Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs , Fisheries , and Food Security ( CTI-CFF ) , also shortly known as the Coral Triangle Initiative ( CTI ) , is a multilateral partnership of six countries ( Indonesia , Malaysia , Philippines , Papua New Guinea , Solomon Islands , Timor-Leste ) working together to sustain extraordinary marine and coastal resources by addressing crucial issues such as food security , climate change , and marine biodiversity .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_Triangle_Initiative","rank":12,"score":102201},{"content":"Title: Artificial reef Content: An artificial reef is a human-made underwater structure , typically built to promote marine life in areas with a generally featureless bottom , to control erosion , block ship passage , or improve surfing . Many reefs are built using objects that were built for other purposes , for example by sinking oil rigs ( through the Rigs-to-Reefs program ) , scuttling ships , or by deploying rubble or construction debris . Other artificial reefs are purpose built ( e.g. the reef balls ) from PVC or concrete . Shipwrecks may become artificial reefs when preserved on the sea floor . Regardless of construction method , artificial reefs generally provide hard surfaces where algae and invertebrates such as barnacles , corals , and oysters attach ; the accumulation of attached marine life in turn provides intricate structure and food for assemblages of fish .","qid":"181","docid":"Artificial_reef","rank":13,"score":102112},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"181","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":14,"score":101713},{"content":"Title: Mesophotic coral reef Content: A Mesophotic coral reef , from meso meaning middle and photic meaning light , is characterised by the presence of both light dependent coral and algae , and organisms that can be found in water with low light penetration . They normally grow between 30-40 m , and up to 150 m in tropical and subtropical water . The most common species at the mesophotic level are corals , sponges and algae . The corals ranges can overlap with Deep-water coral but are distinguished by the presence of zooxanthellae and their requirement for light . They can also be thought of as part of shallow water coral ecosystems , and a crossover of coral species between the two is common . It is thought that these corals could be used as sources for reseeding shallow water coral species .","qid":"181","docid":"Mesophotic_coral_reef","rank":15,"score":100992},{"content":"Title: Brain coral Content: Brain coral is a common name given to corals in the family Mussidae , so called due to their generally spheroid shape and grooved surface which resembles a brain . Each head of coral is formed by a colony of genetically identical polyps which secrete a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate ; this makes them important coral reef builders like other stony corals in the order Scleractinia . Brain corals are found in shallow warm-water coral reefs in all the world 's oceans . They are part of the phylum Cnidaria , in a class called Anthozoa or `` flower animals '' . The lifespan of the largest brain corals is 900 years . Colonies can grow as large as 1.8 m ( 6 ft ) or more in height . Brain corals extend their tentacles to catch food at night . During the day , they use their tentacles for protection by wrapping them over the grooves on their surface . The surface is hard and offers good protection against fish or hurricanes . Branching corals , such as staghorn corals , grow more rapidly , but are more vulnerable to storm damage . Like other genera of corals , brain corals feed on small drifting animals , and also receive nutrients provided by the algae which live within their tissues . The behavior of one of the most common genera , Favia , is semiaggressive ; it will sting other corals with its extended sweeper tentacles during the night . The genus and species have not been defined through the scientific classification segment .","qid":"181","docid":"Brain_coral","rank":16,"score":100859},{"content":"Title: Coral Reefs (film) Content: Coral Reefs ( French title : Le Récif de corail ) is a 1938 French language motion picture adventure drama directed by Maurice Gleize . The screenplay was written by Charles Spaak , based on novel by Jean Martet . The film stars Jean Gabin , Michèle Morgan , Pierre Renoir and Gina Manès . It tells the story of a charged innocent Mexican sailor who escapes to a lagoon in the Pacific Ocean . He meets with a lonely girl in the woods , having an affair . However his current gunrunning operation is noticed by an earnest detective .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_Reefs_(film)","rank":17,"score":99882},{"content":"Title: Coral reef protection Content: Coral reef protection is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy coral reefs and to help damaged reefs recover . The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health . One management technique is to create Marine Protected Areas ( MPAs ) that directly limit human activities such as fishing . It takes approximately 10 thousand years for coral polyps to form a reef , and between 100,000 and 30 million years for a fully mature reef to form .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_reef_protection","rank":18,"score":99560},{"content":"Title: Coral Reef Alliance Content: The Coral Reef Alliance ( CORAL ) is a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco , California , that partners with local reef communities around the world to protect coral reefs . CORAL was founded in Berkeley , California , in 1994 by Stephen Colwell , and is currently headed by Dr. Michael Webster . With 19 % of the world 's coral reefs already destroyed and another 35 % at immediate risk or threatened due to human pressures , organizations like CORAL are addressing an urgent need .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_Reef_Alliance","rank":19,"score":99530},{"content":"Title: Sargocentron coruscum Content: Sargocentron coruscum , more commonly known as the reef squirrelfish , is a member of the family Holocentridae natve to the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida , USA to northern South America . It lives over sandy and rocky substrates , as well as coral reefs , generally between 1 and deep . It is a nocturnal predator , feeding primarily on shrimps , but will also eat crabs . It searches for food alone or in small schools . It can reach sizes of up to 15.0 cm TL . When alarmed , it will hide in crevices between corals .","qid":"181","docid":"Sargocentron_coruscum","rank":20,"score":97146},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"181","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":21,"score":96371},{"content":"Title: Electrolithoautotroph Content: An Electrolithoautotroph is an organism which feeds on electricity . These organisms use electricity to convert carbon dioxide to organic matters by using electrons directly taken from solid-inorganic electron donors . Electrolithoautotrophs are microorganisms which are found in the deep crevices of the ocean . The warm , mineral-rich environment provides a rich source of nutrients . The electron source for carbon assimilation from diffusible Fe ( 2 + ) ions to an electrode under the condition that electrical current is the only source of energy and electrons . Electrolithoautotrophs form a third metabolic pathway compared to photosynthesis ( plants converting light into sugar ) and chemosynthesis ( animals consuming food )","qid":"181","docid":"Electrolithoautotroph","rank":22,"score":96371},{"content":"Title: Artificial reefs in Japan Content: Artificial reefs are used to increase sustainable fishing activities on the coastline of Japan , which depends heavily on the sea for food .","qid":"181","docid":"Artificial_reefs_in_Japan","rank":23,"score":96289},{"content":"Title: Sponge reef Content: Sponge reefs serve an important ecological function as habitat , breeding and nursery areas for fish and invertebrates . The reefs are currently threatened by the fishery , offshore oil and gas industries . Attempts are being made to protect these unique ecosystems through fishery closures and potentially the establishment of Marine Protected Areas ( MAPs ) around the sponge reefs . Hexactinellid sponge reefs were common in the Late Jurassic period , and were believed to have gone extinct during or shortly after the Cretaceous period . Living sponge reefs were discovered in the Queen Charlotte Basin ( QCB ) in 1987 -- 1988 , and were reported in the Georgia Basin ( GB ) in 2005 . These sponge reefs are considered to be `` living fossils '' .","qid":"181","docid":"Sponge_reef","rank":24,"score":95532},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"181","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":25,"score":95430},{"content":"Title: Coral Reef Restaurant Content: The Coral Reef Restaurant is a themed seafood restaurant in The Seas with Nemo & Friends , which is located in Epcot 's Future World . One entire wall of the restaurant consists of a glass window that is eight inches thick and that provides a view into an aquarium . While they eat , restaurant guests are able to watch tarpons , sharks , sea turtles , stingrays , groupers , and sometimes scuba divers in the six-million-gallon aquarium . Artist Kim Minichiello painted the underwater scene that appears on the restaurant 's menu covers . Ron Douglas 's cookbook America 's Most Wanted Recipes : Just Desserts includes two dishes from the Coral Reef Restaurant : the Baileys and Jack Daniel 's Mousse and the Chocolate Wave Cake . One reviewer from The Guardian compares the Coral Reef Restaurant to the Sci-Fi Dine-In Theater Restaurant in Disney 's Hollywood Studios , writing that both restaurants `` are great settings '' where `` eating is awful . '' In The Unofficial Guide to Walt Disney World with Kids 2015 , Bob Sehlinger , Liliane Opsomer , and Len Testa call the Coral Reef Restaurant one of the two most overpriced restaurants in Epcot , the other being Monsieur Paul . In Pauline Frommer 's Walt Disney World and Orlando , Jason Cochran writes of his experience of the Coral Reef Restaurant , saying , `` I had some of the worst food in my life ... although the setting rocks . '' In Beyond the Attractions : A Guide to Walt Disney World with Preschoolers , Lisa Battista calls the aquarium view `` incredible '' .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_Reef_Restaurant","rank":26,"score":95139},{"content":"Title: Reef Check Content: Reef Check is an international non-governmental organization dedicated to the conservation of two reef ecosystems : tropical coral reefs and Californian rocky reefs . The Foundation is headquartered in Los Angeles , California , United States , but uses data from volunteer scuba diver teams in over 80 countries , ranging from Australia , Japan , to even Germany . It is the United Nations ' official coral reef monitoring program .","qid":"181","docid":"Reef_Check","rank":27,"score":94749},{"content":"Title: Hermatypic coral Content: Hermatypic corals are those corals in the order Scleractinia which build reefs by depositing hard calcareous material for their skeletons , forming the stony framework of the reef . Corals that do not contribute to coral reef development are referred to as ahermatypic ( non-reef-building ) species . Many reef-forming corals contain symbiotic zooxanthellae which contribute to their nutritional needs . The term `` hermatypic '' is sometimes misused , being assumed to apply to all zooxanthellate corals . However , there are zooxanthellae in many non reef-forming corals ; and not all hermatypic corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae . Further , some hermatypic corals live at depths to which light can not penetrate ; they form deep-water reefs but do not harbour the symbionts .","qid":"181","docid":"Hermatypic_coral","rank":28,"score":94485},{"content":"Title: Coral reefs in India Content: Coral reefs in India are one of the most ancient and dynamic ecosystems of India . The coral reefs not only provide a sanctuary to a myriad of marine life but also play a key role in protecting the coastline from erosion . India has about 7517 km of coastline including islands but mainland coast is 6100 km .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_reefs_in_India","rank":29,"score":93717},{"content":"Title: Reef aquarium Content: A reef aquarium or reef tank is a marine aquarium that prominently displays live corals and other marine invertebrates as well as fish that play a role in maintaining the tropical coral reef environment . A reef aquarium requires appropriately intense lighting , turbulent water movement , and more stable water chemistry than fish-only marine aquaria , and careful consideration is given to which reef animals are appropriate and compatible with each other .","qid":"181","docid":"Reef_aquarium","rank":30,"score":93347},{"content":"Title: Coral Content: Corals are marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria . They typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps . The group includes the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton . A coral `` group '' is a colony of myriad genetically identical polyps . Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in length . A set of tentacles surround a central mouth opening . An exoskeleton is excreted near the base . Over many generations , the colony thus creates a large skeleton that is characteristic of the species . Individual heads grow by asexual reproduction of polyps . Corals also breed sexually by spawning : polyps of the same species release gametes simultaneously over a period of one to several nights around a full moon . Although some corals can catch small fish and plankton using stinging cells on their tentacles , most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium that live within their tissues . These are commonly known as zooxanthellae and the corals that contain them are zooxanthellate corals . Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear , shallow water , typically at depths shallower than 60 m. Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters , such as the enormous Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland , Australia . Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live in much deeper water , with the cold-water genus Lophelia surviving as deep as 3000 m . Some have been found on the Darwin Mounds , north-west of Cape Wrath , Scotland . Corals have also been found as far north as off the coast of Washington State and the Aleutian Islands .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral","rank":31,"score":93316},{"content":"Title: Bar jack Content: The bar jack ( Caranx ruber ) ( also known as the carbonero , red jack , blue-striped cavalla and passing jack ) is a common species of inshore marine fish classified in the jack family , Carangidae . The bar jack is distributed through the western Atlantic Ocean from New Jersey and Bermuda in the north to Venezuela and possibly Brazil in the south , with the largest population in the Gulf of Mexico and West Indies . The bar jack is most simply distinguished from similar jacks by its dark horizontal bar which runs along the back and down the caudal fin , often accompanied by an electric blue stripe immediately below it . Other more detailed differences include dentition and soft ray counts . The bar jack is a moderately large species , growing to a recorded maximum of 65 cm and a weight of 6.8 kg . The species inhabits clear shallow waters , often over coral reefs where it lives either solitarily or in large schools , taking various fishes , crustaceans and cephalopods as prey . Studies in Cuba indicate spawning occurs between March and August , with sexual maturity reached at 26 cm . It is a relatively popular sport fish and can be caught on light tackle with a variety of lures and baits . It is considered to be a good food fish , however many recorded ciguatera cases are attributed to the species , with most cases reported on the island of St. Thomas traced to this single species .","qid":"181","docid":"Bar_jack","rank":32,"score":93266},{"content":"Title: Millepora alcicornis Content: Millepora alcicornis , or sea ginger , is a species of colonial fire coral with a calcareous skeleton . It is found on shallow water coral reefs in the tropical west Atlantic Ocean . It shows a variety of different morphologies depending on its location . It feeds on plankton and derives part of its energy requirements from microalgae found within its tissues . It is an important member of the reef building community and subject to the same threats as other corals . It can cause painful stings to unwary divers .","qid":"181","docid":"Millepora_alcicornis","rank":33,"score":91983},{"content":"Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_in_non-tropical_regions","rank":34,"score":91950},{"content":"Title: Coral Reef Adventure Content: Coral Reef Adventure is a 70mm American documentary film released in 2003 to IMAX theaters . It is narrated by actor Liam Neeson , and directed by Greg MacGillivray . Embarking on a 10-month expedition through the islands of the South Pacific , husband and wife underwater photography-duo Michele and Howard Hall explore the declining reefs and failing health of the world 's oceans . From Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , to a friend 's coral reef-sustained village in Fiji , the diving expeditions show a range of coral reefs , from flourishing ones filled with unusual and exotic inhabitants , to vast stretches of bleached coral decline which prompted the Hall 's activism . Along their journey , scientists working to understand and save the reefs meet with the Hall 's . Jean-Michel Cousteau , son of the famed oceanographer Jacques Cousteau , also makes an appearance , as do well-known dive guide and singer Rusi Vulakoro , brother of Vude singer Laisa Vulakoro , who guides the Halls in their dive adventure . This documentary film is the third oceanic , ecologically-themed IMAX production from director MacGillivray , after The Living Sea and Dolphins . Crosby Stills & Nash contribute to the film 's soundtrack . The Giant Screen Theater Association named it the best film achievement of 2003 .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_Reef_Adventure","rank":35,"score":91833},{"content":"Title: Coralline algae Content: Coralline algae are red algae in the order Corallinales . They are characterized by a thallus that is hard because of calcareous deposits contained within the cell walls . The colors of these algae are most typically pink , or some other shade of red , but other species can be purple , yellow , blue , white or gray-green . Coralline algae play an important role in the ecology of coral reefs . Sea urchins , parrot fish , limpets ( mollusks ) , and chitons ( mollusks ) , feed on coralline algae . In the temperate Mediterranean sea , coralline algae are the main builders of a typical algal reef , the Coralligène ( `` coralligenous '' ) . Many are typically encrusting and rock-like , found in marine waters all over the world . Only one species lives in freshwater . Unattached specimens ( maerl , rhodoliths ) may form relatively smooth compact balls to warty or fruticose thalli . A close look at almost any intertidal rocky shore or coral reef will reveal an abundance of pink to pinkish-grey patches , splashed as though by a mad painter over rock surfaces . These patches of pink `` paint '' are actually living algae : crustose coralline red algae . The red algae belong to the division Rhodophyta , within which the coralline algae form the order Corallinales . There are over 1600 described species of nongeniculate coralline algae . The corallines are presently grouped into two families on the basis of their reproductive structures .","qid":"181","docid":"Coralline_algae","rank":36,"score":91472},{"content":"Title: Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystems Program Content: The Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystems ( CCRE ) program began with a collaborative field project conceived by six National Museum of Natural History scientists during the early 1970s . The scientists interests included a range of disciplines central to reef ecology , including : invertebrate and vertebrate zoology , botany , carbonate geology , and paleobiology . The primary work site is the Carrie Bow Marine Field Station , a research station at Carrie Bow Cay on the Meso-American Barrier Reef in Belize . The program is an extended duration study of coral reefs , mangroves , sea grass meadows , and the sandy bottoms . It has been a functioning research program since the early 1970s when it was called the Investigations of Marine Shallow-Water Ecosystems ( IMSWE )","qid":"181","docid":"Caribbean_Coral_Reef_Ecosystems_Program","rank":37,"score":91293},{"content":"Title: Resilience of coral reefs Content: The resilience of coral reefs is the biological ability of coral reefs to recover from natural disturbances such as storms and bleaching episodes . Resilience refers to the ability of biological or social systems to overcome pressures and stresses by maintaining key functions through resisting or adapting to change . Reef resistance measures how well coral reefs tolerate changes in ocean chemistry , sea level , and sea surface temperature . Reef resistance and resilience are important factors in coral reef recovery from the effects of ocean acidification . Natural reef resilience can be used as a recovery model for coral reefs and an opportunity for management in marine protected areas ( MPAs ) . __ TOC __","qid":"181","docid":"Resilience_of_coral_reefs","rank":38,"score":91265},{"content":"Title: Alice Alldredge Content: Alice Alldredge is an American oceanographer and marine biologist who studies marine snow , carbon cycling , microbes and plankton in the ecology of the ocean . She has conducted research in the open sea , at her laboratory at the University of California , Santa Barbara as well as in collaboration with the Long Term Ecological Research Network ( LTER ) at the Mo'orea Coral Reef Long Term Ecological Research Site ( MCR LTER ) in Mo'orea , French Polynesia . According to the annual ISI Web of Knowledge list published by Thomson Reuters , she has been one of the most cited scientific researchers since 2003 .","qid":"181","docid":"Alice_Alldredge","rank":39,"score":91258},{"content":"Title: Census of Coral Reefs Content: The Census of Coral Reefs ( CReefs ) is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that surveys the biodiversity of coral reef ecosystems internationally . The project works to study what species live in coral reef ecosystems , to develop standardized protocols for studying coral reef ecosystems , and to increase access to and exchange of information about coral reefs scattered throughout the globe . The CReefs project uses the implementation of autonomous reef-monitoring structures ( ARMS ) to study the species that inhabit coral reefs . These structures are placed on the sea floor in areas where coral reefs exist , where they are left for one year . At the end of the year , the ARMS is pulled to the surface , along with the species which have inhabited it , for analysis . Coral reefs are thought to be the most organically different of all marine ecosystems . Major declines in key reef ecosystems suggest a decline in reef population throughout the world due to environmental stresses . The vulnerability of coral reef ecosystems is expected to increase significantly in response to climate change . The reefs are also being threatened by induced coral bleaching , ocean acidification , sea-level rise , and changing storm tracks . Reef biodiversity could be in danger of being lost before it is even documented , and researchers will be left with a limited and poor understanding of these complex ecosystems . In an attempt to enhance global understanding of reef biodiversity , the goals of the CReefs Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems were to conduct a diverse global census of coral reef ecosystems . And increase access to and exchange of coral reef data throughout the world . Because coral reefs are the most diverse and among the most threatened of all marine ecosystems , there is great justification to learn more about them .","qid":"181","docid":"Census_of_Coral_Reefs","rank":40,"score":90898},{"content":"Title: Thomas J. Goreau Content: Thomas J. Goreau ( Tom Goreau , * in Jamaica ) is a biogeochemist and marine biologist ; son of Thomas F. Goreau and Nora I. Goreau . After studying in Jamaican primary and secondary schools , he earned degrees in planetary physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , in planetary astronomy at the California Institute of Technology , and in biogeochemistry at Harvard University ( Ph.D. ) . With his parents he researched the coral reefs of Jamaica , and continues to conduct research on the impacts of global climate change , pollution , and new diseases in reefs all across the Caribbean , Indian Ocean , and Pacific . His current work focuses on coral reef restoration , fisheries restoration , shore line protection , renewable energy , community based coral reef management , mariculture , soil metabolism , and stabilization of global carbon dioxide . He was formerly Senior Scientific Affairs Officer at the United Nations Centre for Science and Technology for Development . He is currently President of the Global Coral Reef Alliance .","qid":"181","docid":"Thomas_J._Goreau","rank":41,"score":90559},{"content":"Title: Iron fertilization Content: Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron to the upper ocean to stimulate a phytoplankton bloom . This is intended to enhance biological productivity , which can benefit the marine food chain and is under investigation in hopes of increasing carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere . Iron is a trace element necessary for photosynthesis in all plants . It is highly insoluble in sea water and is often the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth . Large algal blooms can be created by supplying iron to iron-deficient ocean waters . A number of ocean labs , scientists and businesses are exploring fertilization as a means to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide in the deep ocean , and to increase marine biological productivity which is hypothesized by some to decline as a result of climate change . Since 1993 , thirteen international research teams have completed ocean trials demonstrating that phytoplankton blooms can be stimulated by iron addition . However , controversy remains over the effectiveness of atmospheric sequestration and ecological effects . The most recent open ocean trials of ocean iron fertilization were in 2009 ( January to March ) in the South Atlantic by project Lohafex , and in July 2012 in the North Pacific off the coast of British Columbia , Canada , by the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation ( HSRC ) . Fertilization also occurs naturally when upwellings bring nutrient-rich water to the surface , as occurs when ocean currents meet an ocean bank or a sea mount . This form of fertilization produces the world 's largest marine habitats . Fertilization can also occur when weather carries wind blown dust long distances over the ocean , or iron-rich minerals are carried into the ocean by glaciers , rivers and icebergs .","qid":"181","docid":"Iron_fertilization","rank":42,"score":90458},{"content":"Title: Acropora cerealis Content: Acropora cerealis is a species of acroporid coral found throughout the Indian and Pacific oceans , from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden to the Hawaiian Islands and the Johnston Atoll . It can be found on upper reef slopes in shallow tropical reefs , from depths of 3 -- 20 m. Crown-of-thorns starfish preferentially prey upon Acropora corals , and this species is also harvested for the aquarium trade .","qid":"181","docid":"Acropora_cerealis","rank":43,"score":90396},{"content":"Title: International Coral Reef Initiative Content: The International Coral Reef Initiative ( ICRI ) is an informal partnership among nations , international organisations and non-government organisations to help protect coral reefs globally . It aims to implement Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 , Aichi Target 10 of the Convention on Biological Diversity 's 10-year Strategic Plan , and other relevant internationally agreed objectives and targets . It does so by : raising global awareness on the plight of coral reefs around the world promoting the sharing of best practices in coral reef management and building capacity of coral reef managers around the world ensuring that coral reefs are included in relevant international deliberations . It is the `` only global entity solely devoted to coral reefs '' .","qid":"181","docid":"International_Coral_Reef_Initiative","rank":44,"score":90385},{"content":"Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .","qid":"181","docid":"Oceanic_carbon_cycle","rank":45,"score":90245},{"content":"Title: African coral reefs Content: African coral reefs are coral reefs mainly found along the south and east coasts of Africa . The east coast corals extend from the Red Sea to Madagascar in the south , and are an important resource for the fishersmen of Kenya , Tanzania and Madagascar . As with coral reefs elsewhere , African coral reefs are more biologically diverse than the surrounding ocean , and support species such as the mantis shrimp , potato grouper , humphead wrasse and maxima clam , as well as many seaweeds and corals . On the east coast , temperatures average about 26 C over the year . The average rainfall is highest between January to April , at about 300 mm , and lowest during August to November , at about 100 mm . There are multiple threats to the reefs , such a tourist diving and damaging the corals , or taking samples . Then there are industrial run-offs and pollutants , untreated sewage and the increasing sediment flows in rivers that threaten all of the coastal ecosystems . The reef is also threatened by climate change . Due to global warming , the sea surface temperature increases and in 1997/98 a particularly severe ` El Nino ' killed 90 percent of corals on the reef . The CORDIO ( COral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean ) NGO have set up an East African task force to monitor the reef 's management .","qid":"181","docid":"African_coral_reefs","rank":46,"score":90056},{"content":"Title: Reef (novel) Content: Reef is a historical fiction novel written by Sri Lankan-born British author Romesh Gunesekera , first published by Granta Books in 1994 . Written in English and set in Sri Lanka , it tells the story of a talented young chef named Triton who is so committed to pleasing his master , Mr. Salgado , a marine biologist obsessed with swamps and seafood , that he is oblivious to the political unrest threatening his country . It is Gunesekera 's debut novel and second book , following his 1992 collection of short stories , Monkfish Moon . It was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize in 1994 , but lost to How Late It Was , How Late by James Kelman amid much controversy ; and the Guardian Fiction Prize the same year .","qid":"181","docid":"Reef_(novel)","rank":47,"score":88922},{"content":"Title: Coral trout Content: The coral trout , leopard coral grouper , or leopard coral trout ( Plectropomus leopardus ) is a species of fish in the Serranidae family . Native to the western Pacific Ocean , its natural habitat includes open seas and coral reefs . Coral trout are piscivorous ; juveniles mostly eat crustaceans , especially prawns , and adults feed upon a variety of reef fish , particularly damselfish . Coral trout are the favourite target fish for all sectors of the fishery because they are a good food fish and command high market prices locally and overseas . The total commercial catch of coral trout was reported at over 1500 tonnes in 1998 .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_trout","rank":48,"score":88666},{"content":"Title: Supply Reef Content: Supply Reef is a submerged circular reef of volcanic origin in the Northern Mariana Islands chain , about 10 km NW of the Maug Islands . Presently this igneous seamount is roughly 8 m below the ocean 's surface and about 100 m in diameter .","qid":"181","docid":"Supply_Reef","rank":49,"score":88521},{"content":"Title: Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument Content: The Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument is a U.S. National Monument located off Saint John , Virgin Islands . The clear waters surrounding Saint John support a diverse and complex system of coral reefs . The health of these reefs is closely tied to its component plants and animals as well as adjacent non-coral marine environments such as sandy bottoms , seagrass beds , and mangrove forests . Seeking to provide greater protection to the sensitive coral reef resources , President Clinton established the Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument on January 17 , 2001 . The monument includes 12,708 acres ( 51 km2 ) of federal submerged lands within the 3 mile ( 5 km ) belt off Saint John , including Hurricane Hole and areas north and south of Saint John .","qid":"181","docid":"Virgin_Islands_Coral_Reef_National_Monument","rank":50,"score":88509},{"content":"Title: Caesar grunt Content: Haemulon carbonarium , the Caesar grunt , is a species of grunt native to the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida to Brazil and also in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico . It inhabits coral or rock reefs and mangrove swamps at depths of from 3 to . This species can reach a length of 36 cm TL though most do not exceed 20 cm . This species is of minor importance to local commercial fisheries and is also popular in public aquariums .","qid":"181","docid":"Caesar_grunt","rank":51,"score":88280},{"content":"Title: John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park Content: John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park is a Florida State Park located on Key Largo in Florida , and includes approximately 70 nautical square miles ( 240 km ² ) of adjacent Atlantic Ocean waters . It was the first underwater park in the United States . The park was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 14 , 1972 . The primary attractions of the park are the coral reefs ( such as Molasses Reef ) and their associated marine life . In Fiscal Year 2004 the park had more than a million visitors , making it the most popular park in the Florida State Parks system . The Florida Keys and the Flower Garden Banks in the Gulf of Mexico off the Texas coast are the only living coral reef formations in the continental United States .","qid":"181","docid":"John_Pennekamp_Coral_Reef_State_Park","rank":52,"score":88130},{"content":"Title: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific Content: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific ( CRISP ) is a French inter-ministerial project founded in 2002 . Its aims focus on developing a vision for the future for coral reef eco-systems and the communities that depend on them within the French overseas territories and Pacific Island developing countries . Programme coordination is provided by the CRISP Coordination Unit and a programme manager who is supported by scientific counselors . The programme is hosted by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community who is located in Nouméa , New-Caledonia . CRISP is under the institutional protection from the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme . It is a regional initiative that promotes the protection and sustainable management of the coral reefs of the Pacific island states .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_Reef_Initiative_for_the_South_Pacific","rank":53,"score":88029},{"content":"Title: Reef safe Content: Reef safe is a distinction used in the saltwater aquarium hobby to indicate that a fish or invertebrate is safe to add to a reef aquarium . There is no fish that is completely reef safe . Every fish that is commonly listed as reef safe are species that usually do not readily consume small fish or invertebrates . Fish listed as reef safe also do not bother fellow fish unless in some cases , for instance tangs , they do not get along with conspecifics and sometimes fish with similar color or body shape . Every fish has a personality , is different , and , in some cases , are opportunistic feeders . Tangs , which by most accounts are reef safe , may in adulthood eat some crustaceans shortly after they molt . Many larger predatory fish , for instance eels and pufferfish , will adapt very well to a reef tank and will be problem-free as long as they have sizable tank-mates and no crustaceans . Some aquarists have also had success in keeping smaller fish with predatory ones in reef tanks by adding the smaller fish at night , sometimes with newly rearranged rockwork .","qid":"181","docid":"Reef_safe","rank":54,"score":88016},{"content":"Title: Castle Reef Dolomite Content: The Castle Reef Dolomite is a geologic formation in Montana . It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period .","qid":"181","docid":"Castle_Reef_Dolomite","rank":55,"score":87912},{"content":"Title: Reef (band) Content: Reef are an English band from Glastonbury , England . The band members include Gary Stringer on vocals , Jesse Wood on guitar ( replacing original guitarist Kenwyn House in 2014 ) , Jack Bessant on bass and Dominic Greensmith on drums .","qid":"181","docid":"Reef_(band)","rank":56,"score":87870},{"content":"Title: Reef (disambiguation) Content: Reef may refer to : Reef , a shallow or underwater obstacle , such as a coral reef Coral reef , a type of reef that is formed by coral Reef knot , a kind of knot Reefing , an action performed on sails to reduce the area on which the wind can act Reef the Lost Cauze , an American rapper Reef ( band ) , a British band Reef ( company ) , an American apparel and shoe company Reef , a slang term for the drug Cannabis . Recife ( Portuguese for `` reef '' ) , capital of the Brazilian state of Pernambuco Gold reef , a synonym for a gold Vein ( geology ) Reef , a 1994 Booker-shortlisted novel written by Romesh Gunesekera","qid":"181","docid":"Reef_(disambiguation)","rank":57,"score":87815},{"content":"Title: Middleton Reef Content: Middleton Reef is a coral reef in the Tasman Sea . It is separated by a deep oceanic pass some 45 km wide from nearby Chan Reef , forming part of the Lord Howe Rise underwater plateau . It is around 220 km from Lord Howe Island and 555 km from the coast of New South Wales . In 1997 the Environment , Sport and Territories Legislation Amendment Bill 1996 included the reef in Australia 's Coral Sea Islands Territory . It is among the southernmost platform reefs in the world . Despite its relatively high latitude , there is a wide variety of flora and fauna on the reef and in the surrounding waters , due to converging tropical and temperate ocean currents . It is about 8.9 km long by 6.3 km wide . At low tide most of the reef flat is exposed , at high tide only one cay is visible , The Sound , 100 m by 70 m and one metre above sea level . The reefs form the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve managed by the Government of Australia under the Natural Heritage Trust . -RSB-","qid":"181","docid":"Middleton_Reef","rank":58,"score":87614},{"content":"Title: Miami Terrace Reef Content: The Miami Terrace Reef is a coral reef off the coast of Florida stretching from South Miami to Boca Raton , in the Atlantic Ocean . It lies in depths of 650 to on top of a geological formation known as the Miami Terrace , a 65 km long shelf about 15 mi off shore . Much of the platform remains unexplored , and new portions of the reef are still being discovered . University of Miami researchers discovered new reef sites there in December 2005 . The terrace consists of long and well-defined rocky ridges made of limestone that provide a habitat for many types of corals , sponges , and fish . Fish species observed there include wreckfish , barrelfish , and bright red alphonsinos . Recently observed intertebrate species have included Lophelia pertusa coral , stylasterine hydrocoral ( Stylasteridae ) , bamboo coral ( Isididae ) , and various sponges and octocorals . Motile invertebrates such as crabs and urchins have also been observed there , including Asteroporpa sp . ophiuroids , Stylocidaris sp . urchins , Mollusca , Actiniaria , and Decapoda crustaceans ( Chaceon fenneri and Galatheidae ) . Corals on the terrace are vulnerable to the effects of bottom trawling and dredging , and the Miami Terrace has been proposed for protection from these activities .","qid":"181","docid":"Miami_Terrace_Reef","rank":59,"score":87540},{"content":"Title: Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef is the world 's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2300 km over an area of approximately 344400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland , Australia . The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world 's biggest single structure made by living organisms . This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms , known as coral polyps . It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981 . CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world . The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which helps to limit the impact of human use , such as fishing and tourism . Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff , climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching , and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish . According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985 . The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples , and is an important part of local groups ' cultures and spirituality . The reef is a very popular destination for tourists , especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions . Tourism is an important economic activity for the region , generating over AUD$ 3 billion per year . In November 2014 , Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef . A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought , seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures . In October 2016 , Outside published an obituary for the reef ; the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef . In March 2017 , the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of a 800-kilometre ( 500 mi ) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures , an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change .","qid":"181","docid":"Great_Barrier_Reef","rank":60,"score":87401},{"content":"Title: Zhongzhou Reef Content: Zhongzhou Reef ( ; Bãi Bàn Than ) is a small coral reef within the Tizard Bank of the Spratly Islands . It lies 5 km east of ROC-occupied Taiping Island , 5 km west of Vietnamese-occupied Sand Cay , and has an exposed area of approximately 0.2 ha during high tide , and 0.6 ha during low tide . It consists of an accumulation of seashells , sand , coral reefs and debris which forms a circular coral reef plate , surrounding the reef under the water , with a diameter of approximately 1.3 km . The reef is currently controlled by Taiwan ( ROC ) , under the administration of Cijin District , Kaohsiung . It is also claimed by PRC , Vietnam and the Philippines . As many as 51 species of migratory birds inhabit the reef for short stays . The surrounding waters contain a rich marine ecosystem with plentiful staghorn coral . Shellfish species such as Harpago chiragra and Cassis cornuta can be found on the reef , and the surrounding waters contain various common tropical fish and coral reef fish . The reef geology is not suitable for plant growth . The reef has no groundwater source . Though currently uninhabited by humans , the ROC Coast Guard sends regular patrols via M8 speedboats from nearby Taiping Island . These patrols circle the reef , in addition to landing , making inspections and carrying out ecological surveys .","qid":"181","docid":"Zhongzhou_Reef","rank":61,"score":87367},{"content":"Title: Fringing reef Content: A fringing reef is one of the three main types of coral reefs recognized by most coral reef scientists . It is distinguished from the other two main types ( barrier reefs and atolls ) in that it has either an entirely shallow backreef zone ( lagoon ) or none at all . If a fringing reef grows directly from the shoreline ( see photo , right ) the reef flat extends right to the beach and there is no backreef . In other cases ( e.g. , most of the Bahamas ) , fringing reefs may grow hundreds of yards from shore and contain extensive backreef areas with numerous seagrass meadows and patch reefs . This type of coral reef is the most common type of reef found in the Caribbean and Red Sea . Darwin believed that fringing reefs are the first kind of reefs to form around a landmass in a long-term reef growth process .","qid":"181","docid":"Fringing_reef","rank":62,"score":87156},{"content":"Title: Carbonate Content: In chemistry , a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) , characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion , a polyatomic ion with the formula of . The name may also mean an ester of carbonic acid , an organic compound containing the carbonate group C ( =O ) ( O -- ) 2 . The term is also used as a verb , to describe carbonation : the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverageseither by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure , or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water . In geology and mineralogy , the term `` carbonate '' can refer both to carbonate minerals and carbonate rock ( which is made of chiefly carbonate minerals ) , and both are dominated by the carbonate ion , . Carbonate minerals are extremely varied and ubiquitous in chemically precipitated sedimentary rock . The most common are calcite or calcium carbonate , CaCO3 , the chief constituent of limestone ( as well as the main component of mollusc shells and coral skeletons ) ; dolomite , a calcium-magnesium carbonate CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 ; and siderite , or iron ( II ) carbonate , FeCO3 , an important iron ore . Sodium carbonate ( `` soda '' or `` natron '' ) and potassium carbonate ( `` potash '' ) have been used since antiquity for cleaning and preservation , as well as for the manufacture of glass . Carbonates are widely used in industry , e.g. in iron smelting , as a raw material for Portland cement and lime manufacture , in the composition of ceramic glazes , and more .","qid":"181","docid":"Carbonate","rank":63,"score":86940},{"content":"Title: Oyster reef Content: The term oyster reef refers to dense aggregations of oysters that form large colonial communities . Because oyster larvae need to settle on hard substrates , new oyster reefs may form on stone or other hard marine debris . Eventually the oyster reef will propagate by spat settling on the shells of older or nonliving oysters . The dense aggregations of oysters are often referred to as an oyster reef , oyster bed , oyster bank , oyster bottom , or oyster bar interchangeably . These terms are not well defined and often regionally restricted .","qid":"181","docid":"Oyster_reef","rank":64,"score":86929},{"content":"Title: The Reef Ball Foundation Content: The Reef Ball Foundation , Inc. is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) publicly supported non-profit organization that functions as an international environmental Non-governmental organization . The foundation uses Reef Ball artificial reef technology , combined with coral propagation , transplant technology , public education and community training to build , restore and protect coral reefs . The foundation has established `` Reef Ball reefs '' in 59 countries , and ongoing projects take the total countries reached to more than 70 . Over 550,000 Reef Balls have been deployed in more than 4,000 projects .","qid":"181","docid":"The_Reef_Ball_Foundation","rank":65,"score":86912},{"content":"Title: Carbonate platform Content: A carbonate platform is a sedimentary body which possesses topographic relief , and is composed of autochthonous calcareous deposits ( Wilson , 1975 ) . Platform growth is mediated by sessile organisms whose skeletons build up the reef or by organisms ( usually microbes ) which induce carbonate precipitation through their metabolism . Therefore , carbonate platforms can not grow up everywhere : they are not present in places where limiting factors to the life of reef-building organisms exist . Such limiting factors are , among others : light , water temperature , transparency and pH-Value . For example , carbonate sedimentation along the Atlantic South American coasts takes place everywhere but at the mouth of the Amazon River , because of the intense turbidity of the water there ( Carannante et al. , 1988 ) . Spectacular examples of present-day carbonate platforms are the Bahama Banks under which the platform is roughly 8 km thick , the Yucatan Peninsula which is up to 2 km thick , the Florida platform , the platform on which the Great Barrier Reef is growing , and the Maldive atolls . All these carbonate platforms and their associated reefs are confined to tropical latitudes . Today 's reefs are built mainly by scleractinian corals , but in the distant past other organisms , like archaeocyatha ( during the Cambrian ) or extinct cnidaria ( tabulata and rugosa ) were important reef builders .","qid":"181","docid":"Carbonate_platform","rank":66,"score":86840},{"content":"Title: Coral Reefer Band Content: The Coral Reefer Band is the touring and recording band of American singer-songwriter Jimmy Buffett . Originally it was a fictional band consisting of the imaginary members Marvin Gardens , Kay Pasa , Al Vacado and Kitty Litter . The name `` Coral Reefer '' alludes to both coral reefs ( in line with Buffett 's tropical-themed music ) and also `` reefer , '' which is slang for marijuana .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_Reefer_Band","rank":67,"score":86682},{"content":"Title: Favosites Content: Favosites is an extinct genus of tabulate coral characterized by polygonal closely packed corallites ( giving it the common name `` honeycomb coral '' ) . The walls between corallites are pierced by pores known as mural pores which allowed transfer of nutrients between polyps . Favosites , like all coral , thrived in warm sunlit seas , forming colorful reefs , feeding by filtering microscopic plankton with their stinging tentacles . The genus had a worldwide distribution from the Late Ordovician to Late Permian .","qid":"181","docid":"Favosites","rank":68,"score":86637},{"content":"Title: Aquaculture of coral Content: Coral aquaculture , also known as coral farming or coral gardening , is the cultivation of corals for commercial purposes or coral reef restoration . Aquaculture is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs , which have been declining around the world . The process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying . Small corals are propagated in nurseries then replanted on the reef . Coral is farmed by coral farmers who live locally to the reefs and farm for reef conservation or for income . It is also farmed by scientists for research , by businesses for the supply of the live and ornamental coral trade , and by private aquarium hobbyists . __ TOC __","qid":"181","docid":"Aquaculture_of_coral","rank":69,"score":86502},{"content":"Title: Coralliozetus springeri Content: Coralliozetus springeri is a species of chaenopsid blenny found in coral reefs from Costa Rica to Ecuador in the eastern central Pacific ocean . It can reach a maximum length of 2.5 cm TL . This species feeds primarily on zooplankton .","qid":"181","docid":"Coralliozetus_springeri","rank":70,"score":86417},{"content":"Title: Indispensable Reefs Content: The Indispensable Reefs are a chain of three large coral atolls in the Coral Sea . They are located about 50 km south of Rennell Island , separated from it by Rennel Trough . The chain stretches over a length of 114 km and its average width is 18 km . Administratively the Indispensable Reef belongs to the Rennell and Bellona Province of the Solomon Islands . The three atolls are steep-to and each encloses a large deep lagoon . They are separated by deep passages 2 - wide . of the Indispensable Reef are aligned in a NW-SE direction : North Reef is 18 km long , and up to 7 km wide . The rim of the atoll has two narrow openings in the north and northwest . The reef has a total area of 100 km2 , including lagoon and reef flat . There are no islets . Middle Reef is 51 km long . Little Nottingham Islet is a small islet located near the center of the reef . Besides its main lagoon , Middle Reef has a separate smaller northern lagoon . The total area is about 300 km2 . South Reef is 21 km long and up to 8 km wide . It encloses a lagoon 18 to deep . The total area exceeds 100 km2 .","qid":"181","docid":"Indispensable_Reefs","rank":71,"score":86358},{"content":"Title: The Reefs Hotel & Club Content: The Reefs Hotel & Club , commonly known as The Reefs , is a luxury four-star resort hotel in Southampton Parish , Bermuda , located next to the Sonesta Beach Resort and not far from Gibbs Hill Lighthouse . It is considered one of the top hotels in the Caribbean and Atlantic by prestigious publications such as Condé Nast Traveler and Travel + Leisure .","qid":"181","docid":"The_Reefs_Hotel_&_Club","rank":72,"score":86352},{"content":"Title: Coral calcium Content: Coral calcium is a salt of calcium derived from fossilized coral reefs ( primarily from limestone and coastal deposits ) . It has been promoted as an alternative , but unsubstantiated , treatment or cure for a number of health conditions .","qid":"181","docid":"Coral_calcium","rank":73,"score":86325},{"content":"Title: Corallimorpharia Content: Corallimorpharia is an order of marine cnidarians closely related to stony or reef building corals ( Scleractinia ) . They are mostly tropical , with a narrow column topped with a wide oral disc . The tentacles are usually short or very short , arranged in rows radiating from the mouth . Many species occur together in large groups . In many respects , they resemble the stony corals , except for the absence of a stony skeleton . Corallimorpharians occur in a wide range of marine habitats , and are associated with phase shifts in coral reef ecosystems that result in a change from a hard-coral dominated reef to a soft-coral dominated one . Many species are also common invertebrates kept in marine aquaria .","qid":"181","docid":"Corallimorpharia","rank":74,"score":86277},{"content":"Title: The Reef (2010 film) Content: The Reef is a 2010 Australian horror film . The film was written and directed by Andrew Traucki , his second feature film ( the first being Black Water ) , and is about a group of friends who capsize while sailing to Indonesia . The group decides that their best bet for survival is to swim to a nearby island but they find themselves stalked by a great white shark .","qid":"181","docid":"The_Reef_(2010_film)","rank":75,"score":86200},{"content":"Title: Reef (company) Content: Reef is a brand of casual sandals , known as Thongs , created by two Argentine brothers , Fernando and Santiago Aguerre . In 1984 they moved from Argentina to the San Diego beach community of La Jolla , California , where they began Reef . Their product became popular amongst surfers and beach goers . Reef has subsequently grown into one of the world 's leading active sandal manufacturers . Reef has been owned by VF Corporation since 2005 .","qid":"181","docid":"Reef_(company)","rank":76,"score":86091},{"content":"Title: The Reef (novel) Content: The Reef is a 1912 novel by American writer Edith Wharton . It was published by D. Appleton & Company . It concerns a romance between a widow and her former lover . The novel takes place in Paris and rural France , but primarily features American characters . While writing the novel , Edith Wharton visited England , Sicily , and Germany , among other locations . In a letter to Bernard Berenson in November 1912 , Wharton expressed regret regarding her novel , calling it a `` poor miserable lifeless lump '' . She wrote , `` Anyhow , remember it 's not me , though I thought it was when I was writing it -- & that next time I 'm going to do something worthwhile !! ''","qid":"181","docid":"The_Reef_(novel)","rank":77,"score":86042},{"content":"Title: Gaven Reefs Content: The Gaven Reefs ( Chinese : Nanxun Jiao 南薰礁 and Xinan Jiao 西南礁 , Vietnamese : Đá Ga Ven and '' Đá Lạc '' , Tagalog : Burgos ) is a group of two reefs in the Tizard Bank of the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea . They are controlled by China as part of Sansha , and claimed by Taiwan , the Philippines and Vietnam . They have a supply platform and a reef fortress . The north reef ( Nanxun Jiao ) comprises 86 ha and its highest point is 1.9 m above sea level . The south reef ( Xinan Jiao ) comprises 67 ha .","qid":"181","docid":"Gaven_Reefs","rank":78,"score":85854},{"content":"Title: Florida Reef Content: The Florida Reef ( also known as the Great Florida Reef , Florida reefs , Florida Reef Tract and Florida Keys Reef Tract ) is the only living coral barrier reef in the continental United States . It is the third largest coral barrier reef system in the world ( after the Great Barrier Reef and Belize Barrier Reef ) . It lies a few miles seaward of the Florida Keys , is about 4 miles ( 6 to 7 km ) wide and extends ( along the 20 meter depth contour ) 270 km from Fowey Rocks just east of Soldier Key to just south of the Marquesas Keys . The barrier reef tract forms a great arc , concentric with the Florida Keys , with the northern end , in Biscayne National Park , oriented north-south and the western end , south of the Marquesas Keys , oriented east-west . The rest of the reef outside Biscayne National Park lies within John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary . Isolated coral patch reefs occur northward from Biscayne National Park as far as Stuart , in Martin County . Coral reefs are also found in Dry Tortugas National Park west of the Marquesas Keys . There are more than 6,000 individual reefs in the system . The reefs are 5,000 to 7,000 years old , having developed since sea levels rose following the Wisconsinan glaciation . The densest and most spectacular reefs are found to the seaward of Key Largo ( in and beyond John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park ) and Elliott Key where the two long keys help protect the reefs from the effects of water exchange with Florida Bay , Biscayne Bay , Card Sound and Barnes Sound . The bays and sounds ( all between the Florida Keys and the mainland ) tend to have lower salinity , higher turbidity and wider temperature variations than the water in the open ocean . Channels between the Keys allow water from the bays to flow onto the reefs ( especially in the middle Keys ) , limiting their growth .","qid":"181","docid":"Florida_Reef","rank":79,"score":85682},{"content":"Title: Millepora dichotoma Content: Millepora dichotoma '' , the net fire coral , is a species of hydrozoan , consisting of a colony of polyps with a calcareous skeleton . Part of the metabolism of the fire coral relies on zooxanthellae included in their anatomy . They are found from the Red Sea to Samoa and South Africa . They form fan-shaped colonies up to 60 cm across , but clumps may be several metres across . Coloured mustard to olive-yellow , the fans form in a single plane . Feeding polyps snare plankton from the passing current along exposed portions of upper reef slopes up to 15 m depth , growing transverse to the prevailing current to ensure maximum exposure to passing foodstuff . The stinging nematocysts contain a toxin which causes painful burn-like wounds on contact . At worst , this may cause collapse in those with a severe allergic reaction . Skin irritation may continue for up to two weeks .","qid":"181","docid":"Millepora_dichotoma","rank":80,"score":85644},{"content":"Title: Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary Content: Gray 's Reef National Marine Sanctuary is one of the largest near shore live-bottom reefs in the southeastern United States . The sanctuary , designated in January 1981 , is located 17.5 nmi off Sapelo Island , Georgia , and is one of 13 marine sanctuaries that make up the U.S. National Marine Sanctuary System . Within the 17-square-nautical-mile ( 58 km2 ) sanctuary , there are both rocky ledges and sandy flat places . The reef 's dolomitic sandstone outcrops , submerged beneath 60 to 70 feet ( 18 to 21 m ) of water , can be as tall as 2 to 3 m and are highly complex . These nooks and crannies provide plenty of places for invertebrates to latch on to and for fish to hide in . Together these animals form a dense carpet of living creatures that in places completely hides the rock . That gives the habitat of Gray 's Reef its common name -- a `` live bottom '' . Researchers from NOAA and the University of Georgia have used the site to study invertebrate and vertebrate paleontology as well as the effects of erosion .","qid":"181","docid":"Gray's_Reef_National_Marine_Sanctuary","rank":81,"score":85496},{"content":"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .","qid":"181","docid":"Individual_action_on_climate_change","rank":82,"score":85414},{"content":"Title: Ekemblemaria myersi Content: Ekemblemaria myersi , the Reefsand blenny , is a species of chaenopsid blenny found from the Gulf of California to Colombia , in the eastern central Pacific ocean . It can reach a maximum length of 7 cm TL . This species feeds primarily on zoobenthos .","qid":"181","docid":"Ekemblemaria_myersi","rank":83,"score":85273},{"content":"Title: Branch coral Content: The branch coral ( Acropora florida ) is a species of acroporid coral found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan and the East China Sea , Cook Islands and the oceanic west Pacific Ocean . It can be found in shallow reefs on the reef tops , walls and slopes to depths of 30 m.","qid":"181","docid":"Branch_coral","rank":84,"score":84986},{"content":"Title: Platygyra lamellina Content: Platygyra lamellina , the hard brain coral , is a species of colonial stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow water in the Indo-Pacific region . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being `` near threatened '' .","qid":"181","docid":"Platygyra_lamellina","rank":85,"score":84872},{"content":"Title: Minerva Reefs Content: The Minerva Reefs ( Tongan : Ongo Teleki ) , briefly de facto independent in 1972 as the Republic of Minerva , are a group of two submerged atolls located in the Pacific Ocean south of Fiji and Tonga . The reefs were named after the whaleship Minerva , wrecked on what became known as South Minerva after setting out from Sydney in 1829 . Many other ships would follow , for example the Strathcona , which was sailing north soon after completion in Auckland in 1914 . In both cases most of the crew saved themselves in whaleboats or rafts and reached the Lau Islands in Fiji . Of some other ships , however , no survivors are known .","qid":"181","docid":"Minerva_Reefs","rank":86,"score":84845},{"content":"Title: Agariciidae Content: The Agariciidae are a family of reef-building stony corals . This family includes cactus corals , elephant skin corals , plate corals , and lettuce corals . Members of the family include symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae in their tissues which help provide their energy requirements .","qid":"181","docid":"Agariciidae","rank":87,"score":84745},{"content":"Title: International Society for Reef Studies Content: The International Society for Reef Studies ( ISRS ) is an international , not-for profit , scientific society dedicated to the conservation of coral reefs through science and understanding . Founded in 1980 , the primary objective of ISRS is the improvement of scientific knowledge and understanding of coral reefs , both living and fossil .","qid":"181","docid":"International_Society_for_Reef_Studies","rank":88,"score":84741},{"content":"Title: Platygyra daedalea Content: Platygyra daedalea , sometimes known as the lesser valley coral , is a colonial species of stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow water in the Indo-Pacific region . It is a common species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of `` least concern '' .","qid":"181","docid":"Platygyra_daedalea","rank":89,"score":84733},{"content":"Title: Acropora kirstyae Content: Acropora kirstyae is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by Jen Veron and C. C. Wallace in 1984 . Found in marine , tropical , shallow reefs in sheltered areas usually at depths of 10 to , and also occurs in sheltered lagoons . It is listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List , and it is thought to have a decreasing population . It is not common and found over a large area , and is listed on CITES Appendix II .","qid":"181","docid":"Acropora_kirstyae","rank":90,"score":84616},{"content":"Title: Colpophyllia natans Content: Colpophyllia natans , known as boulder brain coral and large-grooved brain coral , is a species of stony coral found primarily in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico . It inhabits the slopes and tops of reefs , to a maximum depth of fifty metres . It is characterised by large , domed colonies , which may be up to two metres across , and by the meandering network of ridges and valleys on its surface . The ridges are usually brown with a single groove , and the valleys may be tan , green , or white and are uniform in width , typically 2 centimetres . The polyps only extend their tentacles at night .","qid":"181","docid":"Colpophyllia_natans","rank":91,"score":84561},{"content":"Title: Reefing Content: Reefing is the means of reducing the area of a sail , usually by folding or rolling one edge of the canvas in on itself . The converse operation , removing the reef , is called `` shaking it out . '' Reefing improves the performance of sailing vessels in strong winds , and is the primary safety precaution in rough weather . Reefing sails improves vessel stability and minimizes the risk of damage to the sail or other gear . Proper skills in and equipment for reefing are crucial to averting the dangers of capsizing or broaching in heavy weather .","qid":"181","docid":"Reefing","rank":92,"score":84519},{"content":"Title: Lithostrotion Content: Lithostrotion is a genus of rugose coral which is commonly found as a fossil within Carboniferous Limestone . Lithostrotion is a member of the Lithostrotionidae family . The genus Lithostrotion , a common and readily recognised group of fossils , became extinct by the end of the Palaeozoic era .","qid":"181","docid":"Lithostrotion","rank":93,"score":84275},{"content":"Title: Les Kaufman Content: Les Kaufman is an evolutionary ecologist specializing in the biology and conservation of aquatic ecosystems . He has special expertise in coral reef biology , the evolution and ecology of tropical great lakes fishes , and ecosystem-based management of marine resources . Kaufman received his Bachelor of Science and Ph.D. degrees in evolutionary ecology from Johns Hopkins University , receiving his Ph.D. in 1980 . He is based in Boston as Professor of Biology in the Boston University Marine Program , and Faculty Fellow in the Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range Future , where he leads interdisciplinary work on Coupled Human and Natural Systems ( CHANS ) . He conducted post-doctoral research at the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology from 1980 to 1983 , where he remains an Associate in Ichthyology . Kaufman worked full-time with the New England Aquarium from 1983 through 1994 , serving in turn as Curator of Education , Curator of Exhibit Research and Development , and Chief Scientist . Since 2005 he has worked as a senior marine scientist and PI for the Marine Management Areas Science Program ( www.science2action.org ) , and since 2012 as Marine Conservation Fellow in the Betty and Gordon Moore Center for Ecosystem Science and Economics . Since 2010 , he has also served on the advisory board of Healthy Reefs for Healthy People . Kaufman is active in public education and outreach , occasionally involved in the production of popular articles , television , and radio for venues such as National Geographic , Ranger Rick , and the National Public Broadcasting system . He has taken part in four saturation diving missions at the Aquarius underwater laboratory , where he has also performed underwater surgery on fish to implant electronic acoustic tags inside them .","qid":"181","docid":"Les_Kaufman","rank":94,"score":84267},{"content":"Title: Miri-Sibuti Coral Reef National Park Content: The Miri-Sibuti Coral Reefs National Park is a protected area of coral reefs in Miri Division , Sarawak , Malaysia , off the island of Borneo . The park is a popular dive destination . The Miri-Sibuti Coral Reefs National Park , lying at depths ranging from 7 to at the seaward edge , has an average visibility of 10 to . The best time to dive is from late March through November each year . Popular diving sites includes Luconia Area , Anemone Garden , Grouper Patch Reef , Atago Maru Wreck and Seafan Garden . There are also some wreck dives . It is one of Malaysia 's most recently discovered diving locations and the largest offshore national park created in the state of Sarawak . The reefs house a wide diversity of marine creatures including soft corals like leather corals , sea whips , Bubble corals , staghorn corals , Dendronephthya and Gorgonia sea fans , as well as sponges including elephant ear spongees . Fish species include clown fish , yellow and blueback fusiliers , angelfish , butterfly fish , sea perch , lizardfish , batfish , jackfish , barracudas , Napoleon wrasse and sharks . Other creatures include feather stars , giant clams , nudibranches , anemones and sea horses .","qid":"181","docid":"Miri-Sibuti_Coral_Reef_National_Park","rank":95,"score":84250},{"content":"Title: Hydrophiinae Content: The Hydrophiinae , commonly known as sea snakes or coral reef snakes , are a subfamily of venomous elapid snakes that inhabit marine environments for most or all of their lives . Most are extensively adapted to a fully aquatic life and are unable to move on land , except for the genus Laticauda , which has limited land movement . They are found in warm coastal waters from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific and are closely related to venomous terrestrial snakes in Australia . All have paddle-like tails and many have laterally compressed bodies that give them an eel-like appearance . Unlike fish , they do not have gills and must surface regularly to breathe . Along with whales , they are among the most completely aquatic of all air-breathing vertebrates . Among this group are species with some of the most potent venoms of all snakes . Some have gentle dispositions and bite only when provoked , but others are much more aggressive . Currently , 17 genera are described as sea snakes , comprising 62 species .","qid":"181","docid":"Hydrophiinae","rank":96,"score":84210},{"content":"Title: The Reef Content: The Reef may refer to The Reef , an alternative name for the Witwatersrand in South Africa The Reef ( novel ) , a 1912 novel by Edith Wharton The Reef ( 1999 film ) , a film adaptation of the novel The Reef ( 2010 film ) , an Australian film Great Barrier Reef , the planet 's largest coral reef Shark Bait , a 2006 animated film released as The Reef in the United States , South Africa and Ireland ; and as Pi 's Story in South Korea Shark Bait 2 : High Tide , a sequel to that film released as The Reef 2 : High Tide in the United States , South Africa and Ireland and as Pi 's Story 2 : High Tide in South Korea","qid":"181","docid":"The_Reef","rank":97,"score":84194},{"content":"Title: Reef HQ Content: Reef HQ ( typeset as ReefHQ ) is the largest living coral reef aquarium . It is located in Townsville , Queensland , Australia . The aquarium was built as a Bicentennial Commemorative project and is a part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) . The Coral Reef Exhibit has 130 coral species and 120 fish species along with hundreds of species of sea stars , sea urchins , sea cucumbers , brittle stars , feather stars , snails , worms and sponges .","qid":"181","docid":"Reef_HQ","rank":98,"score":83932},{"content":"Title: Acropora loisetteae Content: Acropora loisetteae is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by C. C. Wallace in 1994 . Found in marine , tropical , shallow reefs in sheltered lagoons , it is found at depths between 1 and . It is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List , and it is thought to have a decreasing population . It is not common but found over a large area , and is listed under CITES Appendix II .","qid":"181","docid":"Acropora_loisetteae","rank":99,"score":83866},{"content":"Title: Green Flats Reef (New York) Content: Green Flats is a reef in City Island Harbor , between City Island and Rat Island . The reef is composed of mostly small round glacial alluvial rocks and a number of glacial erratics made of granite . It is covered in green seamoss and kelp . Like all true reefs , it is completely underwater ( and a hazard to navigation ) at high tide and visible at low tide . Seagulls take mussels from the shallows and fly about 30 feet above the reef and drop them and smash the shells on the rocks and then eat the broken up mussels there . Great blue herons may be seen there hunting at low tide . Local knowledge has it that the reef is getting smaller due to erosion .","qid":"181","docid":"Green_Flats_Reef_(New_York)","rank":100,"score":83826}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral reef Content: Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals . Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups . The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria , which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones , corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps . Most reefs grow best in warm , shallow , clear , sunny and agitated waters . Often called `` rainforests of the sea '' , shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth . They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface , about half the area of France , yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Paradoxically , coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients . They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters , but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas . Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism , fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$ 29.8-375 billion . However , coral reefs are fragile ecosystems , partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature . They are under threat from climate change , oceanic acidification , blast fishing , cyanide fishing for aquarium fish , sunscreen use , overuse of reef resources , and harmful land-use practices , including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution , which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_reef\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 130988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 121485\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Calcium reactor Content: __ NOTOC __ In marine and reef aquariums , a calcium reactor creates a balance of alkalinity . An acidic solution is produced by injecting carbon dioxide into a chamber with salt water and calcium rich media . The carbon dioxide lowers the pH by producing a solution high in carbonic acid , and dissolves calcium . The effluent is returned to the reef aquarium where the calcium is consumed by organisms , primarily corals when building skeletons . A calcium reactor is an efficient method to supply calcium to a reef aquarium . Reactors may be used in elaborate freshwater and brackish aquariums where freshwater clams and other invertebrates need a constant supply of calcium . The reactor dissolves the calcium-laden media to provide bicarbonates HCO3 − ( alkalinity ) and calcium ( Ca + + ) ions at the sames rate as consumed during calcification . Effectively dissolving the media requires an acidic pH. Saltwater may have a pH of 7.8 or higher , so to reduce the pH carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) is used . The reaction formula is : CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 < -- -- > Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − Inside the reaction chamber , a calcium rich media ( aragonite ) , mainly CaCO3 , is forced into contact with water injected with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in order to create carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This increases the solubility of the calcium carbonate . The reaction frees the calcium and carbonate , supplying the aquarium with water rich in Ca2 + and CO32 − , important for maintaining alkalinity and calcium levels . The bubble counter measures carbon dioxide . The flow rate of carbon dioxide is monitored so that the dissolved gas goes into the solution , with a minimum unconsumed . A needle valve or solenoid valve regulates the CO2 bubble rate . Valves with precise adjustment abilities improve bubble control . The feed pump controls the volume of water exchange . This is important because a high rate of water flow into the reactor reduces its efficiency , thus resulting in underproduction and a waste of CO2 . Some reactors siphon water into the input of the reactor 's re-circulation pump . A potential complication is the medium in the reactor becoming compacted , increasing back pressure onto the pump and reducing water into the reactor . Placing a gate or needle valve on the reactor 's outlet side will improve flow characteristics compared to control from the inlet side . A peristaltic pumps are effective operating against pressure , capable of supplying an adjustable and continuous flow over flow rates with minimal maintenance . The pH control is connected to a probe in the reactor and adjusts the rate at which the calcium media dissolves . This probe monitors the pH level in the calcium reactor . The pH range for the typical calcium reactor is 6.5 - 6.8 . When the pH rises above a certain level , a valve opens , allowing carbon dioxide to enter the reactor . The control closes the valve as the pH falls below this level . Some pH controllers have an interface for an air pump . This air pump is connected to an airstone in the sump or main tank . If the probe detects a low pH level , the pump activates . The bubbles raise the pH by dissipating the CO2 gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Calcium_reactor\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 120234\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zooxanthellae Content: Zooxanthellae are single-celled dinoflagellates that are able to live in symbiosis with marine invertebrates such as corals , jellyfish , and sea anemones . Most known zooxanthellae are in the genus Symbiodinium but some are known from the genus Amphidinium , and other taxa , as yet unidentified , may have similar endosymbiont affinities . In freshwater habitats , similar endosymbionts are known as zoochlorellae . Zooxanthellae are photosynthetic organisms , which contain chlorophyll a and chlorophyll c , as well as the dinoflagellate pigments peridinin and diadinoxanthin . These provide the yellowish and brownish colours typical of many of the host species . During the day , they provide their host with the organic carbon products of photosynthesis , sometimes providing up to 90 % of their host 's energy needs for metabolism , growth and reproduction . In return , they receive nutrients , carbon dioxide , and an elevated position with access to sunshine . Dinoflagellates are microscopic single-celled planktonic organisms that used to be classified as algae but are now considered to be in a large and diverse group known as Chromalveolata . They can be free-living or can be present in large number in the tissues of a host . The motile , mastigote stage in the water column has two flagella and a characteristic method of swimming , while inside a host it metamorphoses into a spherical , non-motile , coccoid stage without any flagella . Zooxanthellae are particularly associated with reef-building corals but they also inhabit other invertebrates and protists ; their hosts include many sea anemones , jellyfish , nudibranchs , certain bivalve molluscs like the giant clam Tridacna , sponges and flatworms as well as some species of radiolarians and foraminiferans . Many different species of zooxanthellae are present in host organisms , each species with its own adaptive capabilities and degree of tolerance of varying environmental factors . A juvenile organism or newly established colony can acquire its zooxanthellae via sexual reproduction or directly from the environment . The egg from which the individual developed may have already been infected by zooxanthellae at the time of fertilisation , or cells of the symbiont may have been transferred from the mother in a period during which the larva was brooded by its parent . Alternatively , the new individual may acquire the zooxanthellae direct from sea water in which the dinoflagellates freely live at some stages of their life cycle . Some stony corals use chemotaxis , with infection occurring as a result of the emission by the coral of a chemical attractant . Infection may also occur after ingestion of infected faecal matter by the host , or of prey that already houses the symbionts . Such indirect acquisition can result in the new host being infected by a species of zooxanthella different from that present in its parent . Coral bleaching occurs when corals expel their zooxanthellae in reaction to environmental stress . This process is believed to be a defense mechanism to reduce the short-term metabolic burden on the coral . A coral that has expelled its zooxanthellae may be recolonised by another species that is better adapted to the stressors present in the environment . However there is a risk that the coral will die before that can occur .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Zooxanthellae\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 118014\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Southeast Asian coral reefs Content: Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world 's marine ecosystems . They serve many functions , such as forming the livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials . Coral reefs are developed by the carbonate-based skeletons of a variety of animals and algae . Slowly and overtime , the reefs build up to the surface in oceans . Coral reefs are found in shallow , warm salt water . The sunlight filters through clear water and allows microscopic organisms to live and reproduce . The Indian Ocean holds 60 % of the world 's coastal reefs , 25 % are in the Pacific and 15 % are in the western Atlantic . There are coral reefs in the Persian Gulf , Madagascar , the Philippines , Hawaiian Islands and off Southeast Asia . Coral reefs have been preserved and identified in rocks over 400 million years old . Coral reefs are actually composed of tiny , fragile animals known as coral polyps . Coral reefs are significantly important because of the biodiversity . Although the number of fish are decreasing , the remaining coral reefs contain more unique sea creatures . The variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than anywhere else in the world . An estimation of 70-90 % of fish caught are dependent on coral reefs in Southeast Asia and reefs support over 25 % of all known marine species . However , those sensitive coral reefs are facing detrimental effects on them due to variety of factors : overfishing , sedimentation and pollution , bleaching , and even tourist-related damage .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 116223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Impacts of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef Content: Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs . The Great Barrier Reef , considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot , is located in Australia . Similar to other coral reefs , it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification . Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which is taken up by the ocean . This process can increase sea surface temperature , decrease aragonite , and lower the pH of the ocean . Calcifying organisms are under risk , due to the resulting lack of aragonite in the water and the decreasing pH. This decreased health of coral reefs , particularly the Great Barrier Reef , can result in reduced biodiversity . Organisms can become stressed due to ocean acidification and the disappearance of healthy coral reefs , such as the Great Barrier Reef , is a loss of habitat for several taxa .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_on_the_Great_Barrier_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 115449\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alcyonacea Content: The Alcyonacea , or soft corals , are an order of corals which do not produce calcium carbonate skeletons . Soft corals contain minute , spiny skeletal elements called sclerites , useful in species identification . Sclerites give these corals some degree of support and give their flesh a spiky , grainy texture that deters predators . In the past soft corals were thought to be unable to lay new foundations for future corals , but recent findings suggest that colonies of the leather-coral genus Sinularia are able to cement sclerites and consolidate them at their base into alcyonarian spiculite , thus making them reef builders . Unlike stony corals , most soft corals thrive in nutrient-rich waters with less intense light . Almost all utilize symbiotic photosynthesizing zooxanthella as a major energy source . However , most will readily eat any free floating food , such as zooplankton , out of the water column . They are integral members of the reef ecosystem and provide habitat for fish , snails , algae and a diversity of other marine species . Many soft corals are easily collected in the wild for the reef aquarium hobby , as small cuttings are less prone to infection or damage during shipping than stony corals . Nevertheless , home-grown specimens tend to be more adaptable to aquarium life and help conserve wild reefs . Soft corals grow quickly in captivity and are easily divided into new individuals , and so those grown via aquaculture are often hardier and less expensive than imported corals from the wild . The most common examples of this are various species of Actinodiscus , especially common red mushroom coral .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Alcyonacea\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 113193\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef House Content: The Reef House is a historic house located at 411 S. Poplar St. in Carbondale , Illinois . William A. Reef built the house for his family circa 1892 . The Queen Anne-style cottage may have been designed by local carpenter A. M. Etherton , though records of its designer do not exist . The house features fishscale shingle siding on its second floor and clapboard siding on its first ; the clapboard siding is adorned with stickwork . A gable on the south side of the house features half-timbering at its top . The house 's front porch features turned posts , a typical Queen Anne feature . The house is one of the only Queen Anne homes in Carbondale which largely retains its original condition . The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 14 , 1985 .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_House\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 112293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef Content: A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface . Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 107626\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral reef fish Content: Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs . Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity . Among the myriad inhabitants , the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch . Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef , many of them hidden or well camouflaged . Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs . Coral reefs occupy less than one percent of the surface area of the world oceans , but still they provide a home for 25 percent of all marine fish species . Reef habitats are a sharp contrast to the open water habitats that make up the other 99 % of the world oceans . However , loss and degradation of coral reef habitat , increasing pollution , and overfishing including the use of destructive fishing practices , are threatening the survival of the coral reefs and the associated reef fish .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_reef_fish\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 105562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deep-water coral Content: The habitat of deep-water corals , also known as cold-water corals , extends to deeper , darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals , ranging from near the surface to the abyss , beyond 2000 m where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 C. Deep-water corals belong to the Phylum Cnidaria and are most often stony corals , but also include black and horny corals and soft corals including the Gorgonians ( sea fans ) . Like tropical corals , they provide habitat to other species , but deep-water corals do not require zooxanthellae to survive . While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species , only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs . Instead , they form aggregations called patches , banks , bioherms , massifs , thickets or groves . These aggregations are often referred to as `` reefs , '' but differ structurally and functionally . Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as `` mounds , '' which more accurately describes the large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off , rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates . Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs . Submarine communications cables and fishing methods such as bottom trawling tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs . The deep-water habitat is designated as a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan habitat .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Deep-water_coral\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 103542\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Triangle Initiative Content: The Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs , Fisheries , and Food Security ( CTI-CFF ) , also shortly known as the Coral Triangle Initiative ( CTI ) , is a multilateral partnership of six countries ( Indonesia , Malaysia , Philippines , Papua New Guinea , Solomon Islands , Timor-Leste ) working together to sustain extraordinary marine and coastal resources by addressing crucial issues such as food security , climate change , and marine biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Triangle_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 102201\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Artificial reef Content: An artificial reef is a human-made underwater structure , typically built to promote marine life in areas with a generally featureless bottom , to control erosion , block ship passage , or improve surfing . Many reefs are built using objects that were built for other purposes , for example by sinking oil rigs ( through the Rigs-to-Reefs program ) , scuttling ships , or by deploying rubble or construction debris . Other artificial reefs are purpose built ( e.g. the reef balls ) from PVC or concrete . Shipwrecks may become artificial reefs when preserved on the sea floor . Regardless of construction method , artificial reefs generally provide hard surfaces where algae and invertebrates such as barnacles , corals , and oysters attach ; the accumulation of attached marine life in turn provides intricate structure and food for assemblages of fish .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Artificial_reef\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 102112\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 101713\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mesophotic coral reef Content: A Mesophotic coral reef , from meso meaning middle and photic meaning light , is characterised by the presence of both light dependent coral and algae , and organisms that can be found in water with low light penetration . They normally grow between 30-40 m , and up to 150 m in tropical and subtropical water . The most common species at the mesophotic level are corals , sponges and algae . The corals ranges can overlap with Deep-water coral but are distinguished by the presence of zooxanthellae and their requirement for light . They can also be thought of as part of shallow water coral ecosystems , and a crossover of coral species between the two is common . It is thought that these corals could be used as sources for reseeding shallow water coral species .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Mesophotic_coral_reef\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 100992\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Brain coral Content: Brain coral is a common name given to corals in the family Mussidae , so called due to their generally spheroid shape and grooved surface which resembles a brain . Each head of coral is formed by a colony of genetically identical polyps which secrete a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate ; this makes them important coral reef builders like other stony corals in the order Scleractinia . Brain corals are found in shallow warm-water coral reefs in all the world 's oceans . They are part of the phylum Cnidaria , in a class called Anthozoa or `` flower animals '' . The lifespan of the largest brain corals is 900 years . Colonies can grow as large as 1.8 m ( 6 ft ) or more in height . Brain corals extend their tentacles to catch food at night . During the day , they use their tentacles for protection by wrapping them over the grooves on their surface . The surface is hard and offers good protection against fish or hurricanes . Branching corals , such as staghorn corals , grow more rapidly , but are more vulnerable to storm damage . Like other genera of corals , brain corals feed on small drifting animals , and also receive nutrients provided by the algae which live within their tissues . The behavior of one of the most common genera , Favia , is semiaggressive ; it will sting other corals with its extended sweeper tentacles during the night . The genus and species have not been defined through the scientific classification segment .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Brain_coral\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 100859\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Reefs (film) Content: Coral Reefs ( French title : Le Récif de corail ) is a 1938 French language motion picture adventure drama directed by Maurice Gleize . The screenplay was written by Charles Spaak , based on novel by Jean Martet . The film stars Jean Gabin , Michèle Morgan , Pierre Renoir and Gina Manès . It tells the story of a charged innocent Mexican sailor who escapes to a lagoon in the Pacific Ocean . He meets with a lonely girl in the woods , having an affair . However his current gunrunning operation is noticed by an earnest detective .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Reefs_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 99882\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral reef protection Content: Coral reef protection is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy coral reefs and to help damaged reefs recover . The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health . One management technique is to create Marine Protected Areas ( MPAs ) that directly limit human activities such as fishing . It takes approximately 10 thousand years for coral polyps to form a reef , and between 100,000 and 30 million years for a fully mature reef to form .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_reef_protection\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 99560\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Reef Alliance Content: The Coral Reef Alliance ( CORAL ) is a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco , California , that partners with local reef communities around the world to protect coral reefs . CORAL was founded in Berkeley , California , in 1994 by Stephen Colwell , and is currently headed by Dr. Michael Webster . With 19 % of the world 's coral reefs already destroyed and another 35 % at immediate risk or threatened due to human pressures , organizations like CORAL are addressing an urgent need .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Reef_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 99530\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sargocentron coruscum Content: Sargocentron coruscum , more commonly known as the reef squirrelfish , is a member of the family Holocentridae natve to the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida , USA to northern South America . It lives over sandy and rocky substrates , as well as coral reefs , generally between 1 and deep . It is a nocturnal predator , feeding primarily on shrimps , but will also eat crabs . It searches for food alone or in small schools . It can reach sizes of up to 15.0 cm TL . When alarmed , it will hide in crevices between corals .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Sargocentron_coruscum\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 97146\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 96371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Electrolithoautotroph Content: An Electrolithoautotroph is an organism which feeds on electricity . These organisms use electricity to convert carbon dioxide to organic matters by using electrons directly taken from solid-inorganic electron donors . Electrolithoautotrophs are microorganisms which are found in the deep crevices of the ocean . The warm , mineral-rich environment provides a rich source of nutrients . The electron source for carbon assimilation from diffusible Fe ( 2 + ) ions to an electrode under the condition that electrical current is the only source of energy and electrons . Electrolithoautotrophs form a third metabolic pathway compared to photosynthesis ( plants converting light into sugar ) and chemosynthesis ( animals consuming food )\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Electrolithoautotroph\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 96371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Artificial reefs in Japan Content: Artificial reefs are used to increase sustainable fishing activities on the coastline of Japan , which depends heavily on the sea for food .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Artificial_reefs_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 96289\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sponge reef Content: Sponge reefs serve an important ecological function as habitat , breeding and nursery areas for fish and invertebrates . The reefs are currently threatened by the fishery , offshore oil and gas industries . Attempts are being made to protect these unique ecosystems through fishery closures and potentially the establishment of Marine Protected Areas ( MAPs ) around the sponge reefs . Hexactinellid sponge reefs were common in the Late Jurassic period , and were believed to have gone extinct during or shortly after the Cretaceous period . Living sponge reefs were discovered in the Queen Charlotte Basin ( QCB ) in 1987 -- 1988 , and were reported in the Georgia Basin ( GB ) in 2005 . These sponge reefs are considered to be `` living fossils '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Sponge_reef\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 95532\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 95430\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Reef Restaurant Content: The Coral Reef Restaurant is a themed seafood restaurant in The Seas with Nemo & Friends , which is located in Epcot 's Future World . One entire wall of the restaurant consists of a glass window that is eight inches thick and that provides a view into an aquarium . While they eat , restaurant guests are able to watch tarpons , sharks , sea turtles , stingrays , groupers , and sometimes scuba divers in the six-million-gallon aquarium . Artist Kim Minichiello painted the underwater scene that appears on the restaurant 's menu covers . Ron Douglas 's cookbook America 's Most Wanted Recipes : Just Desserts includes two dishes from the Coral Reef Restaurant : the Baileys and Jack Daniel 's Mousse and the Chocolate Wave Cake . One reviewer from The Guardian compares the Coral Reef Restaurant to the Sci-Fi Dine-In Theater Restaurant in Disney 's Hollywood Studios , writing that both restaurants `` are great settings '' where `` eating is awful . '' In The Unofficial Guide to Walt Disney World with Kids 2015 , Bob Sehlinger , Liliane Opsomer , and Len Testa call the Coral Reef Restaurant one of the two most overpriced restaurants in Epcot , the other being Monsieur Paul . In Pauline Frommer 's Walt Disney World and Orlando , Jason Cochran writes of his experience of the Coral Reef Restaurant , saying , `` I had some of the worst food in my life ... although the setting rocks . '' In Beyond the Attractions : A Guide to Walt Disney World with Preschoolers , Lisa Battista calls the aquarium view `` incredible '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Reef_Restaurant\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 95139\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef Check Content: Reef Check is an international non-governmental organization dedicated to the conservation of two reef ecosystems : tropical coral reefs and Californian rocky reefs . The Foundation is headquartered in Los Angeles , California , United States , but uses data from volunteer scuba diver teams in over 80 countries , ranging from Australia , Japan , to even Germany . It is the United Nations ' official coral reef monitoring program .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_Check\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 94749\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hermatypic coral Content: Hermatypic corals are those corals in the order Scleractinia which build reefs by depositing hard calcareous material for their skeletons , forming the stony framework of the reef . Corals that do not contribute to coral reef development are referred to as ahermatypic ( non-reef-building ) species . Many reef-forming corals contain symbiotic zooxanthellae which contribute to their nutritional needs . The term `` hermatypic '' is sometimes misused , being assumed to apply to all zooxanthellate corals . However , there are zooxanthellae in many non reef-forming corals ; and not all hermatypic corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae . Further , some hermatypic corals live at depths to which light can not penetrate ; they form deep-water reefs but do not harbour the symbionts .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Hermatypic_coral\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 94485\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral reefs in India Content: Coral reefs in India are one of the most ancient and dynamic ecosystems of India . The coral reefs not only provide a sanctuary to a myriad of marine life but also play a key role in protecting the coastline from erosion . India has about 7517 km of coastline including islands but mainland coast is 6100 km .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_reefs_in_India\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 93717\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef aquarium Content: A reef aquarium or reef tank is a marine aquarium that prominently displays live corals and other marine invertebrates as well as fish that play a role in maintaining the tropical coral reef environment . A reef aquarium requires appropriately intense lighting , turbulent water movement , and more stable water chemistry than fish-only marine aquaria , and careful consideration is given to which reef animals are appropriate and compatible with each other .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_aquarium\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 93347\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Content: Corals are marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria . They typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps . The group includes the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton . A coral `` group '' is a colony of myriad genetically identical polyps . Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in length . A set of tentacles surround a central mouth opening . An exoskeleton is excreted near the base . Over many generations , the colony thus creates a large skeleton that is characteristic of the species . Individual heads grow by asexual reproduction of polyps . Corals also breed sexually by spawning : polyps of the same species release gametes simultaneously over a period of one to several nights around a full moon . Although some corals can catch small fish and plankton using stinging cells on their tentacles , most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium that live within their tissues . These are commonly known as zooxanthellae and the corals that contain them are zooxanthellate corals . Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear , shallow water , typically at depths shallower than 60 m. Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters , such as the enormous Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland , Australia . Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live in much deeper water , with the cold-water genus Lophelia surviving as deep as 3000 m . Some have been found on the Darwin Mounds , north-west of Cape Wrath , Scotland . Corals have also been found as far north as off the coast of Washington State and the Aleutian Islands .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 93316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bar jack Content: The bar jack ( Caranx ruber ) ( also known as the carbonero , red jack , blue-striped cavalla and passing jack ) is a common species of inshore marine fish classified in the jack family , Carangidae . The bar jack is distributed through the western Atlantic Ocean from New Jersey and Bermuda in the north to Venezuela and possibly Brazil in the south , with the largest population in the Gulf of Mexico and West Indies . The bar jack is most simply distinguished from similar jacks by its dark horizontal bar which runs along the back and down the caudal fin , often accompanied by an electric blue stripe immediately below it . Other more detailed differences include dentition and soft ray counts . The bar jack is a moderately large species , growing to a recorded maximum of 65 cm and a weight of 6.8 kg . The species inhabits clear shallow waters , often over coral reefs where it lives either solitarily or in large schools , taking various fishes , crustaceans and cephalopods as prey . Studies in Cuba indicate spawning occurs between March and August , with sexual maturity reached at 26 cm . It is a relatively popular sport fish and can be caught on light tackle with a variety of lures and baits . It is considered to be a good food fish , however many recorded ciguatera cases are attributed to the species , with most cases reported on the island of St. Thomas traced to this single species .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Bar_jack\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 93266\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Millepora alcicornis Content: Millepora alcicornis , or sea ginger , is a species of colonial fire coral with a calcareous skeleton . It is found on shallow water coral reefs in the tropical west Atlantic Ocean . It shows a variety of different morphologies depending on its location . It feeds on plankton and derives part of its energy requirements from microalgae found within its tissues . It is an important member of the reef building community and subject to the same threats as other corals . It can cause painful stings to unwary divers .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Millepora_alcicornis\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 91983\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \\\"canaries in the coal mine,\\\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \\\"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\\\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_in_non-tropical_regions\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 91950\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Reef Adventure Content: Coral Reef Adventure is a 70mm American documentary film released in 2003 to IMAX theaters . It is narrated by actor Liam Neeson , and directed by Greg MacGillivray . Embarking on a 10-month expedition through the islands of the South Pacific , husband and wife underwater photography-duo Michele and Howard Hall explore the declining reefs and failing health of the world 's oceans . From Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , to a friend 's coral reef-sustained village in Fiji , the diving expeditions show a range of coral reefs , from flourishing ones filled with unusual and exotic inhabitants , to vast stretches of bleached coral decline which prompted the Hall 's activism . Along their journey , scientists working to understand and save the reefs meet with the Hall 's . Jean-Michel Cousteau , son of the famed oceanographer Jacques Cousteau , also makes an appearance , as do well-known dive guide and singer Rusi Vulakoro , brother of Vude singer Laisa Vulakoro , who guides the Halls in their dive adventure . This documentary film is the third oceanic , ecologically-themed IMAX production from director MacGillivray , after The Living Sea and Dolphins . Crosby Stills & Nash contribute to the film 's soundtrack . The Giant Screen Theater Association named it the best film achievement of 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Reef_Adventure\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 91833\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coralline algae Content: Coralline algae are red algae in the order Corallinales . They are characterized by a thallus that is hard because of calcareous deposits contained within the cell walls . The colors of these algae are most typically pink , or some other shade of red , but other species can be purple , yellow , blue , white or gray-green . Coralline algae play an important role in the ecology of coral reefs . Sea urchins , parrot fish , limpets ( mollusks ) , and chitons ( mollusks ) , feed on coralline algae . In the temperate Mediterranean sea , coralline algae are the main builders of a typical algal reef , the Coralligène ( `` coralligenous '' ) . Many are typically encrusting and rock-like , found in marine waters all over the world . Only one species lives in freshwater . Unattached specimens ( maerl , rhodoliths ) may form relatively smooth compact balls to warty or fruticose thalli . A close look at almost any intertidal rocky shore or coral reef will reveal an abundance of pink to pinkish-grey patches , splashed as though by a mad painter over rock surfaces . These patches of pink `` paint '' are actually living algae : crustose coralline red algae . The red algae belong to the division Rhodophyta , within which the coralline algae form the order Corallinales . There are over 1600 described species of nongeniculate coralline algae . The corallines are presently grouped into two families on the basis of their reproductive structures .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coralline_algae\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 91472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystems Program Content: The Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystems ( CCRE ) program began with a collaborative field project conceived by six National Museum of Natural History scientists during the early 1970s . The scientists interests included a range of disciplines central to reef ecology , including : invertebrate and vertebrate zoology , botany , carbonate geology , and paleobiology . The primary work site is the Carrie Bow Marine Field Station , a research station at Carrie Bow Cay on the Meso-American Barrier Reef in Belize . The program is an extended duration study of coral reefs , mangroves , sea grass meadows , and the sandy bottoms . It has been a functioning research program since the early 1970s when it was called the Investigations of Marine Shallow-Water Ecosystems ( IMSWE )\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Caribbean_Coral_Reef_Ecosystems_Program\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 91293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Resilience of coral reefs Content: The resilience of coral reefs is the biological ability of coral reefs to recover from natural disturbances such as storms and bleaching episodes . Resilience refers to the ability of biological or social systems to overcome pressures and stresses by maintaining key functions through resisting or adapting to change . Reef resistance measures how well coral reefs tolerate changes in ocean chemistry , sea level , and sea surface temperature . Reef resistance and resilience are important factors in coral reef recovery from the effects of ocean acidification . Natural reef resilience can be used as a recovery model for coral reefs and an opportunity for management in marine protected areas ( MPAs ) . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Resilience_of_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 91265\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alice Alldredge Content: Alice Alldredge is an American oceanographer and marine biologist who studies marine snow , carbon cycling , microbes and plankton in the ecology of the ocean . She has conducted research in the open sea , at her laboratory at the University of California , Santa Barbara as well as in collaboration with the Long Term Ecological Research Network ( LTER ) at the Mo'orea Coral Reef Long Term Ecological Research Site ( MCR LTER ) in Mo'orea , French Polynesia . According to the annual ISI Web of Knowledge list published by Thomson Reuters , she has been one of the most cited scientific researchers since 2003 .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Alice_Alldredge\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 91258\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Census of Coral Reefs Content: The Census of Coral Reefs ( CReefs ) is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that surveys the biodiversity of coral reef ecosystems internationally . The project works to study what species live in coral reef ecosystems , to develop standardized protocols for studying coral reef ecosystems , and to increase access to and exchange of information about coral reefs scattered throughout the globe . The CReefs project uses the implementation of autonomous reef-monitoring structures ( ARMS ) to study the species that inhabit coral reefs . These structures are placed on the sea floor in areas where coral reefs exist , where they are left for one year . At the end of the year , the ARMS is pulled to the surface , along with the species which have inhabited it , for analysis . Coral reefs are thought to be the most organically different of all marine ecosystems . Major declines in key reef ecosystems suggest a decline in reef population throughout the world due to environmental stresses . The vulnerability of coral reef ecosystems is expected to increase significantly in response to climate change . The reefs are also being threatened by induced coral bleaching , ocean acidification , sea-level rise , and changing storm tracks . Reef biodiversity could be in danger of being lost before it is even documented , and researchers will be left with a limited and poor understanding of these complex ecosystems . In an attempt to enhance global understanding of reef biodiversity , the goals of the CReefs Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems were to conduct a diverse global census of coral reef ecosystems . And increase access to and exchange of coral reef data throughout the world . Because coral reefs are the most diverse and among the most threatened of all marine ecosystems , there is great justification to learn more about them .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Census_of_Coral_Reefs\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 90898\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thomas J. Goreau Content: Thomas J. Goreau ( Tom Goreau , * in Jamaica ) is a biogeochemist and marine biologist ; son of Thomas F. Goreau and Nora I. Goreau . After studying in Jamaican primary and secondary schools , he earned degrees in planetary physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , in planetary astronomy at the California Institute of Technology , and in biogeochemistry at Harvard University ( Ph.D. ) . With his parents he researched the coral reefs of Jamaica , and continues to conduct research on the impacts of global climate change , pollution , and new diseases in reefs all across the Caribbean , Indian Ocean , and Pacific . His current work focuses on coral reef restoration , fisheries restoration , shore line protection , renewable energy , community based coral reef management , mariculture , soil metabolism , and stabilization of global carbon dioxide . He was formerly Senior Scientific Affairs Officer at the United Nations Centre for Science and Technology for Development . He is currently President of the Global Coral Reef Alliance .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Thomas_J._Goreau\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 90559\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iron fertilization Content: Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron to the upper ocean to stimulate a phytoplankton bloom . This is intended to enhance biological productivity , which can benefit the marine food chain and is under investigation in hopes of increasing carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere . Iron is a trace element necessary for photosynthesis in all plants . It is highly insoluble in sea water and is often the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth . Large algal blooms can be created by supplying iron to iron-deficient ocean waters . A number of ocean labs , scientists and businesses are exploring fertilization as a means to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide in the deep ocean , and to increase marine biological productivity which is hypothesized by some to decline as a result of climate change . Since 1993 , thirteen international research teams have completed ocean trials demonstrating that phytoplankton blooms can be stimulated by iron addition . However , controversy remains over the effectiveness of atmospheric sequestration and ecological effects . The most recent open ocean trials of ocean iron fertilization were in 2009 ( January to March ) in the South Atlantic by project Lohafex , and in July 2012 in the North Pacific off the coast of British Columbia , Canada , by the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation ( HSRC ) . Fertilization also occurs naturally when upwellings bring nutrient-rich water to the surface , as occurs when ocean currents meet an ocean bank or a sea mount . This form of fertilization produces the world 's largest marine habitats . Fertilization can also occur when weather carries wind blown dust long distances over the ocean , or iron-rich minerals are carried into the ocean by glaciers , rivers and icebergs .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Iron_fertilization\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 90458\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acropora cerealis Content: Acropora cerealis is a species of acroporid coral found throughout the Indian and Pacific oceans , from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden to the Hawaiian Islands and the Johnston Atoll . It can be found on upper reef slopes in shallow tropical reefs , from depths of 3 -- 20 m. Crown-of-thorns starfish preferentially prey upon Acropora corals , and this species is also harvested for the aquarium trade .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Acropora_cerealis\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 90396\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Coral Reef Initiative Content: The International Coral Reef Initiative ( ICRI ) is an informal partnership among nations , international organisations and non-government organisations to help protect coral reefs globally . It aims to implement Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 , Aichi Target 10 of the Convention on Biological Diversity 's 10-year Strategic Plan , and other relevant internationally agreed objectives and targets . It does so by : raising global awareness on the plight of coral reefs around the world promoting the sharing of best practices in coral reef management and building capacity of coral reef managers around the world ensuring that coral reefs are included in relevant international deliberations . It is the `` only global entity solely devoted to coral reefs '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Coral_Reef_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 90385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Oceanic_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 90245\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: African coral reefs Content: African coral reefs are coral reefs mainly found along the south and east coasts of Africa . The east coast corals extend from the Red Sea to Madagascar in the south , and are an important resource for the fishersmen of Kenya , Tanzania and Madagascar . As with coral reefs elsewhere , African coral reefs are more biologically diverse than the surrounding ocean , and support species such as the mantis shrimp , potato grouper , humphead wrasse and maxima clam , as well as many seaweeds and corals . On the east coast , temperatures average about 26 C over the year . The average rainfall is highest between January to April , at about 300 mm , and lowest during August to November , at about 100 mm . There are multiple threats to the reefs , such a tourist diving and damaging the corals , or taking samples . Then there are industrial run-offs and pollutants , untreated sewage and the increasing sediment flows in rivers that threaten all of the coastal ecosystems . The reef is also threatened by climate change . Due to global warming , the sea surface temperature increases and in 1997/98 a particularly severe ` El Nino ' killed 90 percent of corals on the reef . The CORDIO ( COral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean ) NGO have set up an East African task force to monitor the reef 's management .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"African_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 90056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef (novel) Content: Reef is a historical fiction novel written by Sri Lankan-born British author Romesh Gunesekera , first published by Granta Books in 1994 . Written in English and set in Sri Lanka , it tells the story of a talented young chef named Triton who is so committed to pleasing his master , Mr. Salgado , a marine biologist obsessed with swamps and seafood , that he is oblivious to the political unrest threatening his country . It is Gunesekera 's debut novel and second book , following his 1992 collection of short stories , Monkfish Moon . It was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize in 1994 , but lost to How Late It Was , How Late by James Kelman amid much controversy ; and the Guardian Fiction Prize the same year .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 88922\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral trout Content: The coral trout , leopard coral grouper , or leopard coral trout ( Plectropomus leopardus ) is a species of fish in the Serranidae family . Native to the western Pacific Ocean , its natural habitat includes open seas and coral reefs . Coral trout are piscivorous ; juveniles mostly eat crustaceans , especially prawns , and adults feed upon a variety of reef fish , particularly damselfish . Coral trout are the favourite target fish for all sectors of the fishery because they are a good food fish and command high market prices locally and overseas . The total commercial catch of coral trout was reported at over 1500 tonnes in 1998 .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_trout\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 88666\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Supply Reef Content: Supply Reef is a submerged circular reef of volcanic origin in the Northern Mariana Islands chain , about 10 km NW of the Maug Islands . Presently this igneous seamount is roughly 8 m below the ocean 's surface and about 100 m in diameter .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Supply_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 88521\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument Content: The Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument is a U.S. National Monument located off Saint John , Virgin Islands . The clear waters surrounding Saint John support a diverse and complex system of coral reefs . The health of these reefs is closely tied to its component plants and animals as well as adjacent non-coral marine environments such as sandy bottoms , seagrass beds , and mangrove forests . Seeking to provide greater protection to the sensitive coral reef resources , President Clinton established the Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument on January 17 , 2001 . The monument includes 12,708 acres ( 51 km2 ) of federal submerged lands within the 3 mile ( 5 km ) belt off Saint John , including Hurricane Hole and areas north and south of Saint John .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Virgin_Islands_Coral_Reef_National_Monument\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 88509\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Caesar grunt Content: Haemulon carbonarium , the Caesar grunt , is a species of grunt native to the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida to Brazil and also in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico . It inhabits coral or rock reefs and mangrove swamps at depths of from 3 to . This species can reach a length of 36 cm TL though most do not exceed 20 cm . This species is of minor importance to local commercial fisheries and is also popular in public aquariums .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Caesar_grunt\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 88280\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park Content: John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park is a Florida State Park located on Key Largo in Florida , and includes approximately 70 nautical square miles ( 240 km ² ) of adjacent Atlantic Ocean waters . It was the first underwater park in the United States . The park was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 14 , 1972 . The primary attractions of the park are the coral reefs ( such as Molasses Reef ) and their associated marine life . In Fiscal Year 2004 the park had more than a million visitors , making it the most popular park in the Florida State Parks system . The Florida Keys and the Flower Garden Banks in the Gulf of Mexico off the Texas coast are the only living coral reef formations in the continental United States .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Pennekamp_Coral_Reef_State_Park\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 88130\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific Content: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific ( CRISP ) is a French inter-ministerial project founded in 2002 . Its aims focus on developing a vision for the future for coral reef eco-systems and the communities that depend on them within the French overseas territories and Pacific Island developing countries . Programme coordination is provided by the CRISP Coordination Unit and a programme manager who is supported by scientific counselors . The programme is hosted by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community who is located in Nouméa , New-Caledonia . CRISP is under the institutional protection from the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme . It is a regional initiative that promotes the protection and sustainable management of the coral reefs of the Pacific island states .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Reef_Initiative_for_the_South_Pacific\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 88029\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef safe Content: Reef safe is a distinction used in the saltwater aquarium hobby to indicate that a fish or invertebrate is safe to add to a reef aquarium . There is no fish that is completely reef safe . Every fish that is commonly listed as reef safe are species that usually do not readily consume small fish or invertebrates . Fish listed as reef safe also do not bother fellow fish unless in some cases , for instance tangs , they do not get along with conspecifics and sometimes fish with similar color or body shape . Every fish has a personality , is different , and , in some cases , are opportunistic feeders . Tangs , which by most accounts are reef safe , may in adulthood eat some crustaceans shortly after they molt . Many larger predatory fish , for instance eels and pufferfish , will adapt very well to a reef tank and will be problem-free as long as they have sizable tank-mates and no crustaceans . Some aquarists have also had success in keeping smaller fish with predatory ones in reef tanks by adding the smaller fish at night , sometimes with newly rearranged rockwork .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_safe\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 88016\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Castle Reef Dolomite Content: The Castle Reef Dolomite is a geologic formation in Montana . It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Castle_Reef_Dolomite\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 87912\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef (band) Content: Reef are an English band from Glastonbury , England . The band members include Gary Stringer on vocals , Jesse Wood on guitar ( replacing original guitarist Kenwyn House in 2014 ) , Jack Bessant on bass and Dominic Greensmith on drums .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 87870\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef (disambiguation) Content: Reef may refer to : Reef , a shallow or underwater obstacle , such as a coral reef Coral reef , a type of reef that is formed by coral Reef knot , a kind of knot Reefing , an action performed on sails to reduce the area on which the wind can act Reef the Lost Cauze , an American rapper Reef ( band ) , a British band Reef ( company ) , an American apparel and shoe company Reef , a slang term for the drug Cannabis . Recife ( Portuguese for `` reef '' ) , capital of the Brazilian state of Pernambuco Gold reef , a synonym for a gold Vein ( geology ) Reef , a 1994 Booker-shortlisted novel written by Romesh Gunesekera\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 87815\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Middleton Reef Content: Middleton Reef is a coral reef in the Tasman Sea . It is separated by a deep oceanic pass some 45 km wide from nearby Chan Reef , forming part of the Lord Howe Rise underwater plateau . It is around 220 km from Lord Howe Island and 555 km from the coast of New South Wales . In 1997 the Environment , Sport and Territories Legislation Amendment Bill 1996 included the reef in Australia 's Coral Sea Islands Territory . It is among the southernmost platform reefs in the world . Despite its relatively high latitude , there is a wide variety of flora and fauna on the reef and in the surrounding waters , due to converging tropical and temperate ocean currents . It is about 8.9 km long by 6.3 km wide . At low tide most of the reef flat is exposed , at high tide only one cay is visible , The Sound , 100 m by 70 m and one metre above sea level . The reefs form the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve managed by the Government of Australia under the Natural Heritage Trust . -RSB-\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Middleton_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 87614\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Miami Terrace Reef Content: The Miami Terrace Reef is a coral reef off the coast of Florida stretching from South Miami to Boca Raton , in the Atlantic Ocean . It lies in depths of 650 to on top of a geological formation known as the Miami Terrace , a 65 km long shelf about 15 mi off shore . Much of the platform remains unexplored , and new portions of the reef are still being discovered . University of Miami researchers discovered new reef sites there in December 2005 . The terrace consists of long and well-defined rocky ridges made of limestone that provide a habitat for many types of corals , sponges , and fish . Fish species observed there include wreckfish , barrelfish , and bright red alphonsinos . Recently observed intertebrate species have included Lophelia pertusa coral , stylasterine hydrocoral ( Stylasteridae ) , bamboo coral ( Isididae ) , and various sponges and octocorals . Motile invertebrates such as crabs and urchins have also been observed there , including Asteroporpa sp . ophiuroids , Stylocidaris sp . urchins , Mollusca , Actiniaria , and Decapoda crustaceans ( Chaceon fenneri and Galatheidae ) . Corals on the terrace are vulnerable to the effects of bottom trawling and dredging , and the Miami Terrace has been proposed for protection from these activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Miami_Terrace_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 87540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef is the world 's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2300 km over an area of approximately 344400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland , Australia . The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world 's biggest single structure made by living organisms . This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms , known as coral polyps . It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981 . CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world . The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which helps to limit the impact of human use , such as fishing and tourism . Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff , climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching , and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish . According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985 . The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples , and is an important part of local groups ' cultures and spirituality . The reef is a very popular destination for tourists , especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions . Tourism is an important economic activity for the region , generating over AUD$ 3 billion per year . In November 2014 , Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef . A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought , seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures . In October 2016 , Outside published an obituary for the reef ; the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef . In March 2017 , the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of a 800-kilometre ( 500 mi ) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures , an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Great_Barrier_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 87401\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zhongzhou Reef Content: Zhongzhou Reef ( ; Bãi Bàn Than ) is a small coral reef within the Tizard Bank of the Spratly Islands . It lies 5 km east of ROC-occupied Taiping Island , 5 km west of Vietnamese-occupied Sand Cay , and has an exposed area of approximately 0.2 ha during high tide , and 0.6 ha during low tide . It consists of an accumulation of seashells , sand , coral reefs and debris which forms a circular coral reef plate , surrounding the reef under the water , with a diameter of approximately 1.3 km . The reef is currently controlled by Taiwan ( ROC ) , under the administration of Cijin District , Kaohsiung . It is also claimed by PRC , Vietnam and the Philippines . As many as 51 species of migratory birds inhabit the reef for short stays . The surrounding waters contain a rich marine ecosystem with plentiful staghorn coral . Shellfish species such as Harpago chiragra and Cassis cornuta can be found on the reef , and the surrounding waters contain various common tropical fish and coral reef fish . The reef geology is not suitable for plant growth . The reef has no groundwater source . Though currently uninhabited by humans , the ROC Coast Guard sends regular patrols via M8 speedboats from nearby Taiping Island . These patrols circle the reef , in addition to landing , making inspections and carrying out ecological surveys .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Zhongzhou_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 87367\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fringing reef Content: A fringing reef is one of the three main types of coral reefs recognized by most coral reef scientists . It is distinguished from the other two main types ( barrier reefs and atolls ) in that it has either an entirely shallow backreef zone ( lagoon ) or none at all . If a fringing reef grows directly from the shoreline ( see photo , right ) the reef flat extends right to the beach and there is no backreef . In other cases ( e.g. , most of the Bahamas ) , fringing reefs may grow hundreds of yards from shore and contain extensive backreef areas with numerous seagrass meadows and patch reefs . This type of coral reef is the most common type of reef found in the Caribbean and Red Sea . Darwin believed that fringing reefs are the first kind of reefs to form around a landmass in a long-term reef growth process .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Fringing_reef\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 87156\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonate Content: In chemistry , a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) , characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion , a polyatomic ion with the formula of . The name may also mean an ester of carbonic acid , an organic compound containing the carbonate group C ( =O ) ( O -- ) 2 . The term is also used as a verb , to describe carbonation : the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverageseither by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure , or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water . In geology and mineralogy , the term `` carbonate '' can refer both to carbonate minerals and carbonate rock ( which is made of chiefly carbonate minerals ) , and both are dominated by the carbonate ion , . Carbonate minerals are extremely varied and ubiquitous in chemically precipitated sedimentary rock . The most common are calcite or calcium carbonate , CaCO3 , the chief constituent of limestone ( as well as the main component of mollusc shells and coral skeletons ) ; dolomite , a calcium-magnesium carbonate CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 ; and siderite , or iron ( II ) carbonate , FeCO3 , an important iron ore . Sodium carbonate ( `` soda '' or `` natron '' ) and potassium carbonate ( `` potash '' ) have been used since antiquity for cleaning and preservation , as well as for the manufacture of glass . Carbonates are widely used in industry , e.g. in iron smelting , as a raw material for Portland cement and lime manufacture , in the composition of ceramic glazes , and more .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 86940\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oyster reef Content: The term oyster reef refers to dense aggregations of oysters that form large colonial communities . Because oyster larvae need to settle on hard substrates , new oyster reefs may form on stone or other hard marine debris . Eventually the oyster reef will propagate by spat settling on the shells of older or nonliving oysters . The dense aggregations of oysters are often referred to as an oyster reef , oyster bed , oyster bank , oyster bottom , or oyster bar interchangeably . These terms are not well defined and often regionally restricted .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Oyster_reef\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 86929\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Reef Ball Foundation Content: The Reef Ball Foundation , Inc. is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) publicly supported non-profit organization that functions as an international environmental Non-governmental organization . The foundation uses Reef Ball artificial reef technology , combined with coral propagation , transplant technology , public education and community training to build , restore and protect coral reefs . The foundation has established `` Reef Ball reefs '' in 59 countries , and ongoing projects take the total countries reached to more than 70 . Over 550,000 Reef Balls have been deployed in more than 4,000 projects .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Reef_Ball_Foundation\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 86912\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonate platform Content: A carbonate platform is a sedimentary body which possesses topographic relief , and is composed of autochthonous calcareous deposits ( Wilson , 1975 ) . Platform growth is mediated by sessile organisms whose skeletons build up the reef or by organisms ( usually microbes ) which induce carbonate precipitation through their metabolism . Therefore , carbonate platforms can not grow up everywhere : they are not present in places where limiting factors to the life of reef-building organisms exist . Such limiting factors are , among others : light , water temperature , transparency and pH-Value . For example , carbonate sedimentation along the Atlantic South American coasts takes place everywhere but at the mouth of the Amazon River , because of the intense turbidity of the water there ( Carannante et al. , 1988 ) . Spectacular examples of present-day carbonate platforms are the Bahama Banks under which the platform is roughly 8 km thick , the Yucatan Peninsula which is up to 2 km thick , the Florida platform , the platform on which the Great Barrier Reef is growing , and the Maldive atolls . All these carbonate platforms and their associated reefs are confined to tropical latitudes . Today 's reefs are built mainly by scleractinian corals , but in the distant past other organisms , like archaeocyatha ( during the Cambrian ) or extinct cnidaria ( tabulata and rugosa ) were important reef builders .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonate_platform\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 86840\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral Reefer Band Content: The Coral Reefer Band is the touring and recording band of American singer-songwriter Jimmy Buffett . Originally it was a fictional band consisting of the imaginary members Marvin Gardens , Kay Pasa , Al Vacado and Kitty Litter . The name `` Coral Reefer '' alludes to both coral reefs ( in line with Buffett 's tropical-themed music ) and also `` reefer , '' which is slang for marijuana .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_Reefer_Band\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 86682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Favosites Content: Favosites is an extinct genus of tabulate coral characterized by polygonal closely packed corallites ( giving it the common name `` honeycomb coral '' ) . The walls between corallites are pierced by pores known as mural pores which allowed transfer of nutrients between polyps . Favosites , like all coral , thrived in warm sunlit seas , forming colorful reefs , feeding by filtering microscopic plankton with their stinging tentacles . The genus had a worldwide distribution from the Late Ordovician to Late Permian .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Favosites\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 86637\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Aquaculture of coral Content: Coral aquaculture , also known as coral farming or coral gardening , is the cultivation of corals for commercial purposes or coral reef restoration . Aquaculture is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs , which have been declining around the world . The process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying . Small corals are propagated in nurseries then replanted on the reef . Coral is farmed by coral farmers who live locally to the reefs and farm for reef conservation or for income . It is also farmed by scientists for research , by businesses for the supply of the live and ornamental coral trade , and by private aquarium hobbyists . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Aquaculture_of_coral\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 86502\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coralliozetus springeri Content: Coralliozetus springeri is a species of chaenopsid blenny found in coral reefs from Costa Rica to Ecuador in the eastern central Pacific ocean . It can reach a maximum length of 2.5 cm TL . This species feeds primarily on zooplankton .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coralliozetus_springeri\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 86417\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Indispensable Reefs Content: The Indispensable Reefs are a chain of three large coral atolls in the Coral Sea . They are located about 50 km south of Rennell Island , separated from it by Rennel Trough . The chain stretches over a length of 114 km and its average width is 18 km . Administratively the Indispensable Reef belongs to the Rennell and Bellona Province of the Solomon Islands . The three atolls are steep-to and each encloses a large deep lagoon . They are separated by deep passages 2 - wide . of the Indispensable Reef are aligned in a NW-SE direction : North Reef is 18 km long , and up to 7 km wide . The rim of the atoll has two narrow openings in the north and northwest . The reef has a total area of 100 km2 , including lagoon and reef flat . There are no islets . Middle Reef is 51 km long . Little Nottingham Islet is a small islet located near the center of the reef . Besides its main lagoon , Middle Reef has a separate smaller northern lagoon . The total area is about 300 km2 . South Reef is 21 km long and up to 8 km wide . It encloses a lagoon 18 to deep . The total area exceeds 100 km2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Indispensable_Reefs\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 86358\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Reefs Hotel & Club Content: The Reefs Hotel & Club , commonly known as The Reefs , is a luxury four-star resort hotel in Southampton Parish , Bermuda , located next to the Sonesta Beach Resort and not far from Gibbs Hill Lighthouse . It is considered one of the top hotels in the Caribbean and Atlantic by prestigious publications such as Condé Nast Traveler and Travel + Leisure .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Reefs_Hotel_&_Club\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 86352\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coral calcium Content: Coral calcium is a salt of calcium derived from fossilized coral reefs ( primarily from limestone and coastal deposits ) . It has been promoted as an alternative , but unsubstantiated , treatment or cure for a number of health conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Coral_calcium\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 86325\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Corallimorpharia Content: Corallimorpharia is an order of marine cnidarians closely related to stony or reef building corals ( Scleractinia ) . They are mostly tropical , with a narrow column topped with a wide oral disc . The tentacles are usually short or very short , arranged in rows radiating from the mouth . Many species occur together in large groups . In many respects , they resemble the stony corals , except for the absence of a stony skeleton . Corallimorpharians occur in a wide range of marine habitats , and are associated with phase shifts in coral reef ecosystems that result in a change from a hard-coral dominated reef to a soft-coral dominated one . Many species are also common invertebrates kept in marine aquaria .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Corallimorpharia\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 86277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Reef (2010 film) Content: The Reef is a 2010 Australian horror film . The film was written and directed by Andrew Traucki , his second feature film ( the first being Black Water ) , and is about a group of friends who capsize while sailing to Indonesia . The group decides that their best bet for survival is to swim to a nearby island but they find themselves stalked by a great white shark .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Reef_(2010_film)\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 86200\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef (company) Content: Reef is a brand of casual sandals , known as Thongs , created by two Argentine brothers , Fernando and Santiago Aguerre . In 1984 they moved from Argentina to the San Diego beach community of La Jolla , California , where they began Reef . Their product became popular amongst surfers and beach goers . Reef has subsequently grown into one of the world 's leading active sandal manufacturers . Reef has been owned by VF Corporation since 2005 .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_(company)\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 86091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Reef (novel) Content: The Reef is a 1912 novel by American writer Edith Wharton . It was published by D. Appleton & Company . It concerns a romance between a widow and her former lover . The novel takes place in Paris and rural France , but primarily features American characters . While writing the novel , Edith Wharton visited England , Sicily , and Germany , among other locations . In a letter to Bernard Berenson in November 1912 , Wharton expressed regret regarding her novel , calling it a `` poor miserable lifeless lump '' . She wrote , `` Anyhow , remember it 's not me , though I thought it was when I was writing it -- & that next time I 'm going to do something worthwhile !! ''\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Reef_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 86042\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gaven Reefs Content: The Gaven Reefs ( Chinese : Nanxun Jiao 南薰礁 and Xinan Jiao 西南礁 , Vietnamese : Đá Ga Ven and '' Đá Lạc '' , Tagalog : Burgos ) is a group of two reefs in the Tizard Bank of the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea . They are controlled by China as part of Sansha , and claimed by Taiwan , the Philippines and Vietnam . They have a supply platform and a reef fortress . The north reef ( Nanxun Jiao ) comprises 86 ha and its highest point is 1.9 m above sea level . The south reef ( Xinan Jiao ) comprises 67 ha .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Gaven_Reefs\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 85854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Florida Reef Content: The Florida Reef ( also known as the Great Florida Reef , Florida reefs , Florida Reef Tract and Florida Keys Reef Tract ) is the only living coral barrier reef in the continental United States . It is the third largest coral barrier reef system in the world ( after the Great Barrier Reef and Belize Barrier Reef ) . It lies a few miles seaward of the Florida Keys , is about 4 miles ( 6 to 7 km ) wide and extends ( along the 20 meter depth contour ) 270 km from Fowey Rocks just east of Soldier Key to just south of the Marquesas Keys . The barrier reef tract forms a great arc , concentric with the Florida Keys , with the northern end , in Biscayne National Park , oriented north-south and the western end , south of the Marquesas Keys , oriented east-west . The rest of the reef outside Biscayne National Park lies within John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary . Isolated coral patch reefs occur northward from Biscayne National Park as far as Stuart , in Martin County . Coral reefs are also found in Dry Tortugas National Park west of the Marquesas Keys . There are more than 6,000 individual reefs in the system . The reefs are 5,000 to 7,000 years old , having developed since sea levels rose following the Wisconsinan glaciation . The densest and most spectacular reefs are found to the seaward of Key Largo ( in and beyond John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park ) and Elliott Key where the two long keys help protect the reefs from the effects of water exchange with Florida Bay , Biscayne Bay , Card Sound and Barnes Sound . The bays and sounds ( all between the Florida Keys and the mainland ) tend to have lower salinity , higher turbidity and wider temperature variations than the water in the open ocean . Channels between the Keys allow water from the bays to flow onto the reefs ( especially in the middle Keys ) , limiting their growth .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Florida_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 85682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Millepora dichotoma Content: Millepora dichotoma '' , the net fire coral , is a species of hydrozoan , consisting of a colony of polyps with a calcareous skeleton . Part of the metabolism of the fire coral relies on zooxanthellae included in their anatomy . They are found from the Red Sea to Samoa and South Africa . They form fan-shaped colonies up to 60 cm across , but clumps may be several metres across . Coloured mustard to olive-yellow , the fans form in a single plane . Feeding polyps snare plankton from the passing current along exposed portions of upper reef slopes up to 15 m depth , growing transverse to the prevailing current to ensure maximum exposure to passing foodstuff . The stinging nematocysts contain a toxin which causes painful burn-like wounds on contact . At worst , this may cause collapse in those with a severe allergic reaction . Skin irritation may continue for up to two weeks .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Millepora_dichotoma\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 85644\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary Content: Gray 's Reef National Marine Sanctuary is one of the largest near shore live-bottom reefs in the southeastern United States . The sanctuary , designated in January 1981 , is located 17.5 nmi off Sapelo Island , Georgia , and is one of 13 marine sanctuaries that make up the U.S. National Marine Sanctuary System . Within the 17-square-nautical-mile ( 58 km2 ) sanctuary , there are both rocky ledges and sandy flat places . The reef 's dolomitic sandstone outcrops , submerged beneath 60 to 70 feet ( 18 to 21 m ) of water , can be as tall as 2 to 3 m and are highly complex . These nooks and crannies provide plenty of places for invertebrates to latch on to and for fish to hide in . Together these animals form a dense carpet of living creatures that in places completely hides the rock . That gives the habitat of Gray 's Reef its common name -- a `` live bottom '' . Researchers from NOAA and the University of Georgia have used the site to study invertebrate and vertebrate paleontology as well as the effects of erosion .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Gray's_Reef_National_Marine_Sanctuary\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 85496\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Individual_action_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 85414\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ekemblemaria myersi Content: Ekemblemaria myersi , the Reefsand blenny , is a species of chaenopsid blenny found from the Gulf of California to Colombia , in the eastern central Pacific ocean . It can reach a maximum length of 7 cm TL . This species feeds primarily on zoobenthos .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Ekemblemaria_myersi\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 85273\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Branch coral Content: The branch coral ( Acropora florida ) is a species of acroporid coral found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan and the East China Sea , Cook Islands and the oceanic west Pacific Ocean . It can be found in shallow reefs on the reef tops , walls and slopes to depths of 30 m.\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Branch_coral\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 84986\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Platygyra lamellina Content: Platygyra lamellina , the hard brain coral , is a species of colonial stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow water in the Indo-Pacific region . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being `` near threatened '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Platygyra_lamellina\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 84872\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Minerva Reefs Content: The Minerva Reefs ( Tongan : Ongo Teleki ) , briefly de facto independent in 1972 as the Republic of Minerva , are a group of two submerged atolls located in the Pacific Ocean south of Fiji and Tonga . The reefs were named after the whaleship Minerva , wrecked on what became known as South Minerva after setting out from Sydney in 1829 . Many other ships would follow , for example the Strathcona , which was sailing north soon after completion in Auckland in 1914 . In both cases most of the crew saved themselves in whaleboats or rafts and reached the Lau Islands in Fiji . Of some other ships , however , no survivors are known .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Minerva_Reefs\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 84845\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Agariciidae Content: The Agariciidae are a family of reef-building stony corals . This family includes cactus corals , elephant skin corals , plate corals , and lettuce corals . Members of the family include symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae in their tissues which help provide their energy requirements .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Agariciidae\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 84745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Society for Reef Studies Content: The International Society for Reef Studies ( ISRS ) is an international , not-for profit , scientific society dedicated to the conservation of coral reefs through science and understanding . Founded in 1980 , the primary objective of ISRS is the improvement of scientific knowledge and understanding of coral reefs , both living and fossil .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Society_for_Reef_Studies\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 84741\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Platygyra daedalea Content: Platygyra daedalea , sometimes known as the lesser valley coral , is a colonial species of stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow water in the Indo-Pacific region . It is a common species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of `` least concern '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Platygyra_daedalea\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 84733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acropora kirstyae Content: Acropora kirstyae is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by Jen Veron and C. C. Wallace in 1984 . Found in marine , tropical , shallow reefs in sheltered areas usually at depths of 10 to , and also occurs in sheltered lagoons . It is listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List , and it is thought to have a decreasing population . It is not common and found over a large area , and is listed on CITES Appendix II .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Acropora_kirstyae\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 84616\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Colpophyllia natans Content: Colpophyllia natans , known as boulder brain coral and large-grooved brain coral , is a species of stony coral found primarily in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico . It inhabits the slopes and tops of reefs , to a maximum depth of fifty metres . It is characterised by large , domed colonies , which may be up to two metres across , and by the meandering network of ridges and valleys on its surface . The ridges are usually brown with a single groove , and the valleys may be tan , green , or white and are uniform in width , typically 2 centimetres . The polyps only extend their tentacles at night .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Colpophyllia_natans\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 84561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reefing Content: Reefing is the means of reducing the area of a sail , usually by folding or rolling one edge of the canvas in on itself . The converse operation , removing the reef , is called `` shaking it out . '' Reefing improves the performance of sailing vessels in strong winds , and is the primary safety precaution in rough weather . Reefing sails improves vessel stability and minimizes the risk of damage to the sail or other gear . Proper skills in and equipment for reefing are crucial to averting the dangers of capsizing or broaching in heavy weather .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Reefing\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 84519\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lithostrotion Content: Lithostrotion is a genus of rugose coral which is commonly found as a fossil within Carboniferous Limestone . Lithostrotion is a member of the Lithostrotionidae family . The genus Lithostrotion , a common and readily recognised group of fossils , became extinct by the end of the Palaeozoic era .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Lithostrotion\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 84275\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Les Kaufman Content: Les Kaufman is an evolutionary ecologist specializing in the biology and conservation of aquatic ecosystems . He has special expertise in coral reef biology , the evolution and ecology of tropical great lakes fishes , and ecosystem-based management of marine resources . Kaufman received his Bachelor of Science and Ph.D. degrees in evolutionary ecology from Johns Hopkins University , receiving his Ph.D. in 1980 . He is based in Boston as Professor of Biology in the Boston University Marine Program , and Faculty Fellow in the Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range Future , where he leads interdisciplinary work on Coupled Human and Natural Systems ( CHANS ) . He conducted post-doctoral research at the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology from 1980 to 1983 , where he remains an Associate in Ichthyology . Kaufman worked full-time with the New England Aquarium from 1983 through 1994 , serving in turn as Curator of Education , Curator of Exhibit Research and Development , and Chief Scientist . Since 2005 he has worked as a senior marine scientist and PI for the Marine Management Areas Science Program ( www.science2action.org ) , and since 2012 as Marine Conservation Fellow in the Betty and Gordon Moore Center for Ecosystem Science and Economics . Since 2010 , he has also served on the advisory board of Healthy Reefs for Healthy People . Kaufman is active in public education and outreach , occasionally involved in the production of popular articles , television , and radio for venues such as National Geographic , Ranger Rick , and the National Public Broadcasting system . He has taken part in four saturation diving missions at the Aquarius underwater laboratory , where he has also performed underwater surgery on fish to implant electronic acoustic tags inside them .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Les_Kaufman\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 84267\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Miri-Sibuti Coral Reef National Park Content: The Miri-Sibuti Coral Reefs National Park is a protected area of coral reefs in Miri Division , Sarawak , Malaysia , off the island of Borneo . The park is a popular dive destination . The Miri-Sibuti Coral Reefs National Park , lying at depths ranging from 7 to at the seaward edge , has an average visibility of 10 to . The best time to dive is from late March through November each year . Popular diving sites includes Luconia Area , Anemone Garden , Grouper Patch Reef , Atago Maru Wreck and Seafan Garden . There are also some wreck dives . It is one of Malaysia 's most recently discovered diving locations and the largest offshore national park created in the state of Sarawak . The reefs house a wide diversity of marine creatures including soft corals like leather corals , sea whips , Bubble corals , staghorn corals , Dendronephthya and Gorgonia sea fans , as well as sponges including elephant ear spongees . Fish species include clown fish , yellow and blueback fusiliers , angelfish , butterfly fish , sea perch , lizardfish , batfish , jackfish , barracudas , Napoleon wrasse and sharks . Other creatures include feather stars , giant clams , nudibranches , anemones and sea horses .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Miri-Sibuti_Coral_Reef_National_Park\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 84250\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hydrophiinae Content: The Hydrophiinae , commonly known as sea snakes or coral reef snakes , are a subfamily of venomous elapid snakes that inhabit marine environments for most or all of their lives . Most are extensively adapted to a fully aquatic life and are unable to move on land , except for the genus Laticauda , which has limited land movement . They are found in warm coastal waters from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific and are closely related to venomous terrestrial snakes in Australia . All have paddle-like tails and many have laterally compressed bodies that give them an eel-like appearance . Unlike fish , they do not have gills and must surface regularly to breathe . Along with whales , they are among the most completely aquatic of all air-breathing vertebrates . Among this group are species with some of the most potent venoms of all snakes . Some have gentle dispositions and bite only when provoked , but others are much more aggressive . Currently , 17 genera are described as sea snakes , comprising 62 species .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Hydrophiinae\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 84210\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Reef Content: The Reef may refer to The Reef , an alternative name for the Witwatersrand in South Africa The Reef ( novel ) , a 1912 novel by Edith Wharton The Reef ( 1999 film ) , a film adaptation of the novel The Reef ( 2010 film ) , an Australian film Great Barrier Reef , the planet 's largest coral reef Shark Bait , a 2006 animated film released as The Reef in the United States , South Africa and Ireland ; and as Pi 's Story in South Korea Shark Bait 2 : High Tide , a sequel to that film released as The Reef 2 : High Tide in the United States , South Africa and Ireland and as Pi 's Story 2 : High Tide in South Korea\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Reef\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 84194\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reef HQ Content: Reef HQ ( typeset as ReefHQ ) is the largest living coral reef aquarium . It is located in Townsville , Queensland , Australia . The aquarium was built as a Bicentennial Commemorative project and is a part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) . The Coral Reef Exhibit has 130 coral species and 120 fish species along with hundreds of species of sea stars , sea urchins , sea cucumbers , brittle stars , feather stars , snails , worms and sponges .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Reef_HQ\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 83932\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acropora loisetteae Content: Acropora loisetteae is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by C. C. Wallace in 1994 . Found in marine , tropical , shallow reefs in sheltered lagoons , it is found at depths between 1 and . It is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List , and it is thought to have a decreasing population . It is not common but found over a large area , and is listed under CITES Appendix II .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Acropora_loisetteae\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 83866\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Green Flats Reef (New York) Content: Green Flats is a reef in City Island Harbor , between City Island and Rat Island . The reef is composed of mostly small round glacial alluvial rocks and a number of glacial erratics made of granite . It is covered in green seamoss and kelp . Like all true reefs , it is completely underwater ( and a hazard to navigation ) at high tide and visible at low tide . Seagulls take mussels from the shallows and fly about 30 feet above the reef and drop them and smash the shells on the rocks and then eat the broken up mussels there . Great blue herons may be seen there hunting at low tide . Local knowledge has it that the reef is getting smaller due to erosion .\",\n \"qid\": \"181\",\n \"docid\": \"Green_Flats_Reef_(New_York)\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 83826\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":85,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"It has never been shown that human emissions of carbon dioxide drive global warming."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"184","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":1,"score":162318},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":2,"score":162284},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"184","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":3,"score":158800},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"184","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":4,"score":152778},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":5,"score":151328},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"184","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":6,"score":149562},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"184","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":7,"score":148835},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"184","docid":"Global_warming","rank":8,"score":146872},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"184","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":9,"score":145198},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"184","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":10,"score":145102},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"184","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":11,"score":143270},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":12,"score":142989},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"184","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":13,"score":142927},{"content":"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .","qid":"184","docid":"Kaya_identity","rank":14,"score":141909},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":15,"score":141415},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":16,"score":141223},{"content":"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .","qid":"184","docid":"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources","rank":17,"score":140856},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"184","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":18,"score":140148},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"184","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":19,"score":139737},{"content":"Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .","qid":"184","docid":"Politics_of_global_warming","rank":20,"score":139572},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"184","docid":"350.org","rank":21,"score":138870},{"content":"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .","qid":"184","docid":"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut","rank":22,"score":138293},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_emission_label","rank":23,"score":137491},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":24,"score":136063},{"content":"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .","qid":"184","docid":"California_Senate_Bill_32","rank":25,"score":134201},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"184","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":26,"score":133970},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"184","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":27,"score":133920},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"184","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":28,"score":133920},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":29,"score":133015},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia","rank":30,"score":132418},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .","qid":"184","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_shipping","rank":31,"score":131955},{"content":"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .","qid":"184","docid":"The_Green_Initiative","rank":32,"score":131865},{"content":"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )","qid":"184","docid":"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita","rank":33,"score":131759},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"184","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":34,"score":131730},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .","qid":"184","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita","rank":35,"score":131603},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":36,"score":131295},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"184","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":37,"score":131180},{"content":"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .","qid":"184","docid":"Fugitive_emissions","rank":38,"score":130624},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"184","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":39,"score":130446},{"content":"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .","qid":"184","docid":"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry","rank":40,"score":130128},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"184","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":41,"score":130076},{"content":"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .","qid":"184","docid":"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies","rank":42,"score":128385},{"content":"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_footprint","rank":43,"score":128018},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .","qid":"184","docid":"Kyoto_Protocol","rank":44,"score":127796},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"184","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":45,"score":127543},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .","qid":"184","docid":"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia","rank":46,"score":126498},{"content":"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .","qid":"184","docid":"Charles_David_Keeling","rank":47,"score":126267},{"content":"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .","qid":"184","docid":"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning","rank":48,"score":125906},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"184","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":49,"score":125411},{"content":"Title: Assigned amount units Content: An Assigned Amount Unit ( AAU ) is a tradable ` Kyoto unit ' or ` carbon credit ' representing an allowance to emit greenhouse gases comprising one metric tonne of carbon dioxide equivalents calculated using their Global Warming Potential . Assigned Amount Units are issued up to the level of initial `` assigned amount '' of an Annex 1 Party to the Kyoto Protocol . The `` assigned amounts '' are the Kyoto Protocol Annex B emission targets ( or `` quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives '' ) expressed as levels of allowed emissions over the 2008-2012 commitment period .","qid":"184","docid":"Assigned_amount_units","rank":50,"score":124447},{"content":"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_sequestration","rank":51,"score":124198},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"184","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":52,"score":123306},{"content":"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .","qid":"184","docid":"Environmental_issue","rank":53,"score":122463},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"184","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":54,"score":122100},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"184","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":55,"score":121918},{"content":"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :","qid":"184","docid":"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative","rank":56,"score":121581},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"184","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":57,"score":121448},{"content":"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012","qid":"184","docid":"Emission_Reduction_Unit","rank":58,"score":121200},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"184","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_inventory","rank":59,"score":121007},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"184","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":60,"score":120861},{"content":"Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''","qid":"184","docid":"Klaus_Lackner","rank":61,"score":120802},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"184","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":62,"score":119942},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":63,"score":119932},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"184","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":64,"score":119230},{"content":"Title: List of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions Content: This is a list of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity . The data presented below from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Energy Information Administration corresponds to emissions in 2014 . Interactive bar charts ( showing state rankings for total and per-capita emissions ) and interactive maps ( for both total emissions and per capita emissions ) for the 2014 data are available on Tableau Public . __ TOC __","qid":"184","docid":"List_of_U.S._states_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":65,"score":118907},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide equivalent Content: Carbon dioxide equivalent ( CDE ) and equivalent carbon dioxide ( e and eq ) are two related but distinct measures for describing how much global warming a given type and amount of greenhouse gas may cause , using the functionally equivalent amount or concentration of carbon dioxide as the reference .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_equivalent","rank":66,"score":118339},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"184","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":67,"score":117989},{"content":"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_governance_in_England","rank":68,"score":117827},{"content":"Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .","qid":"184","docid":"Wildland_fire_emission","rank":69,"score":117105},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"184","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":70,"score":116652},{"content":"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .","qid":"184","docid":"Christine_Wiedinmyer","rank":71,"score":116479},{"content":"Title: Environmentalism in motorsport Content: The issue of environmentalism in motorsport surrounds the whole of auto racing to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions contributing to global warming .","qid":"184","docid":"Environmentalism_in_motorsport","rank":72,"score":116122},{"content":"Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .","qid":"184","docid":"Clean_Energy_Act_2011","rank":73,"score":115792},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"184","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":74,"score":115772},{"content":"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_finance","rank":75,"score":115577},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_reforming","rank":76,"score":115469},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .","qid":"184","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation","rank":77,"score":115259},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"184","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":78,"score":114945},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"184","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":79,"score":114737},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"184","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":80,"score":114525},{"content":"Title: Clean Power Plan Content: The Clean Power Plan is an Obama administration policy aimed at combating anthropogenic climate change ( global warming ) that was first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency in June 2014 . It is widely expected to be eliminated under President Donald Trump , who signed an executive order on March 28 , 2017 mandating the EPA to review the plan . The final version of the plan was unveiled by President Obama on August 3 , 2015 . The 460-page rule ( RIN 2060 -- AR33 ) titled `` Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources : Electric Utility Generating Units '' was published in the Federal Register on October 23 , 2015 . The Obama administration designed the plan to lower the carbon dioxide emitted by power generators .","qid":"184","docid":"Clean_Power_Plan","rank":81,"score":114158},{"content":"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .","qid":"184","docid":"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions","rank":82,"score":113608},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":83,"score":113557},{"content":"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .","qid":"184","docid":"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme","rank":84,"score":113124},{"content":"Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .","qid":"184","docid":"Zero-carbon_city","rank":85,"score":112131},{"content":"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .","qid":"184","docid":"Campus_carbon_neutrality","rank":86,"score":111933},{"content":"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance","rank":87,"score":111932},{"content":"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .","qid":"184","docid":"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance","rank":88,"score":111491},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage","rank":89,"score":111451},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"184","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":90,"score":111443},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_emission_trading","rank":91,"score":111374},{"content":"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .","qid":"184","docid":"Stuart_Agnew","rank":92,"score":110841},{"content":"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .","qid":"184","docid":"Michael_Raupach","rank":93,"score":110708},{"content":"Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong","qid":"184","docid":"List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":94,"score":110654},{"content":"Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .","qid":"184","docid":"2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":95,"score":110524},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":96,"score":110350},{"content":"Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .","qid":"184","docid":"Zero-emissions_vehicle","rank":97,"score":109876},{"content":"Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .","qid":"184","docid":"Carbon_Disclosure_Project","rank":98,"score":109580},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences","qid":"184","docid":"Greenhouse_debt","rank":99,"score":109386},{"content":"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .","qid":"184","docid":"Climate-friendly_gardening","rank":100,"score":109027}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 162318\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 162284\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 158800\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 152778\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 151328\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 149562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 148835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 146872\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 145198\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 145102\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 143270\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 142989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 142927\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Kaya_identity\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 141909\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 141415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 141223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 140856\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 140148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 139737\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Politics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 139572\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 138870\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 138293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_label\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 137491\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 136063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Senate_Bill_32\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 134201\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 133970\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 133920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 133920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 133015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 132418\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_shipping\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 131955\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Green_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 131865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 131759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 131730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 131603\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 131295\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 131180\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Fugitive_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 130624\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 130446\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 130128\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 130076\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 128385\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_footprint\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 128018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Protocol\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 127796\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 127543\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 126498\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_David_Keeling\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 126267\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 125906\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 125411\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Assigned amount units Content: An Assigned Amount Unit ( AAU ) is a tradable ` Kyoto unit ' or ` carbon credit ' representing an allowance to emit greenhouse gases comprising one metric tonne of carbon dioxide equivalents calculated using their Global Warming Potential . Assigned Amount Units are issued up to the level of initial `` assigned amount '' of an Annex 1 Party to the Kyoto Protocol . The `` assigned amounts '' are the Kyoto Protocol Annex B emission targets ( or `` quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives '' ) expressed as levels of allowed emissions over the 2008-2012 commitment period .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Assigned_amount_units\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 124447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sequestration\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 124198\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 123306\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issue\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 122463\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 122100\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 121918\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 121581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 121448\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Emission_Reduction_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 121200\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_inventory\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 121007\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 120861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Klaus_Lackner\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 120802\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 119942\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 119932\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 119230\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions Content: This is a list of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity . The data presented below from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Energy Information Administration corresponds to emissions in 2014 . Interactive bar charts ( showing state rankings for total and per-capita emissions ) and interactive maps ( for both total emissions and per capita emissions ) for the 2014 data are available on Tableau Public . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_U.S._states_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 118907\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide equivalent Content: Carbon dioxide equivalent ( CDE ) and equivalent carbon dioxide ( e and eq ) are two related but distinct measures for describing how much global warming a given type and amount of greenhouse gas may cause , using the functionally equivalent amount or concentration of carbon dioxide as the reference .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_equivalent\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 118339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 117989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_governance_in_England\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 117827\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Wildland_fire_emission\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 117105\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 116652\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Christine_Wiedinmyer\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 116479\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmentalism in motorsport Content: The issue of environmentalism in motorsport surrounds the whole of auto racing to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions contributing to global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmentalism_in_motorsport\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 116122\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Energy_Act_2011\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 115792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 115772\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_finance\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 115577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_reforming\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 115469\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 115259\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 114945\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 114737\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 114525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Power Plan Content: The Clean Power Plan is an Obama administration policy aimed at combating anthropogenic climate change ( global warming ) that was first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency in June 2014 . It is widely expected to be eliminated under President Donald Trump , who signed an executive order on March 28 , 2017 mandating the EPA to review the plan . The final version of the plan was unveiled by President Obama on August 3 , 2015 . The 460-page rule ( RIN 2060 -- AR33 ) titled `` Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources : Electric Utility Generating Units '' was published in the Federal Register on October 23 , 2015 . The Obama administration designed the plan to lower the carbon dioxide emitted by power generators .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Power_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 114158\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 113608\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 113557\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 113124\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Zero-carbon_city\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 112131\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Campus_carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 111933\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 111932\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 111491\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 111451\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 111443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_trading\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 111374\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Stuart_Agnew\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 110841\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Raupach\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 110708\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 110654\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 110524\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 110350\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Zero-emissions_vehicle\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 109876\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Disclosure_Project\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 109580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_debt\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 109386\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"184\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate-friendly_gardening\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 109027\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":86,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Modellers assume carbon dioxide drives climate change"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":1,"score":140540},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"185","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":2,"score":135465},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"185","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":3,"score":132639},{"content":"Title: Thomas Knutson Content: Thomas Knutson is a climate modeller at the US Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory , a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research covers hurricane activity , the link between climate change and hurricane incidence and intensity , and climate change detection and attribution . He served as a contributing author on working group 1 of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He is an Associate Editor of the American Meteorological Society 's Journal of Climate . He has published in Science , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Journal of Geophysical Research , Journal of Climate , Tropical Cyclone Research and Review , Tellus A and the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . In 2004 , Knutson published a paper suggesting that increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide would lead to more intense hurricanes . This finding was subsequently supported by independent research . Knutson was invited to discuss his thesis on Ron Reagan 's MSNBC talk show , but the invitation was withdrawn after the White House intervened . Source : New Scientist Magazine 2007-02-03 , p. 5","qid":"185","docid":"Thomas_Knutson","rank":4,"score":130820},{"content":"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .","qid":"185","docid":"North_American_Carbon_Program","rank":5,"score":130499},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"185","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":6,"score":129035},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"185","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":7,"score":127331},{"content":"Title: DICE model Content: The Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy model , referred to as the DICE model or Dice model , is a computer-based integrated assessment model developed by William Nordhaus that `` integrates in an end-to-end fashion the economics , carbon cycle , climate science , and impacts in a highly aggregated model that allows a weighing of the costs and benefits of taking steps to slow greenhouse warming . '' Nordhaus also developed the RICE model ( Regional Integrated Climate-Economy model ) , a variant of the DICE model that was updated and developed alongside the DICE model . Others who collaborated with Nordhaus to develop the model include David Popp , Zili Yang , Joseph Boyer , and other colleagues . The DICE model is one of the three main integrated assessment models used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency , and it provides estimates intermediate between the other two models .","qid":"185","docid":"DICE_model","rank":8,"score":127012},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"185","docid":"350.org","rank":9,"score":126065},{"content":"Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_bubble","rank":10,"score":126017},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":11,"score":125540},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":12,"score":125069},{"content":"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .","qid":"185","docid":"Mark_Z._Jacobson","rank":13,"score":124946},{"content":"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_engineering","rank":14,"score":124847},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":15,"score":124444},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":16,"score":123913},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"185","docid":"Global_warming","rank":17,"score":123881},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"185","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":18,"score":123623},{"content":"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .","qid":"185","docid":"Individual_action_on_climate_change","rank":19,"score":122568},{"content":"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_sensitivity","rank":20,"score":122327},{"content":"Title: Ian G. Enting Content: Ian Enting ( born 25 September 1948 ) is a mathematical physicist and the AMSI/MASCOS Professorial Fellow at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Mathematics and Statistics of Complex Systems ( MASCOS ) based at The University of Melbourne . Enting is the author of Twisted , The Distorted Mathematics of Greenhouse Denial in which he analyses the presentation and use of data by climate change deniers . More recently he has been addressing the claims made in Ian Plimer 's book `` Heaven + Earth '' . He has published a critique , `` Ian Plimer 's ` Heaven + Earth ' -- Checking the Claims '' , listing what Enting claims are numerous misrepresentations of the sources cited in the book . From 1980 to 2004 he worked in CSIRO Atmospheric Research , primarily on modelling the global carbon cycle . He was one of the lead authors of the chapter and the Carbon Cycle in the 1994 IPCC report on Radiative Forcing of Climate . Enting has published scientific papers , on mathematical physics and carbon cycle modelling , and a monograph on mathematical techniques for interpreting observations of carbon dioxide and other trace gases .","qid":"185","docid":"Ian_G._Enting","rank":21,"score":119564},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":22,"score":119114},{"content":"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .","qid":"185","docid":"Simon_Tett","rank":23,"score":118955},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":24,"score":118875},{"content":"Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .","qid":"185","docid":"2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":25,"score":117875},{"content":"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :","qid":"185","docid":"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative","rank":26,"score":116933},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"185","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":27,"score":115231},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"185","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":28,"score":115179},{"content":"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_finance","rank":29,"score":115134},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_in_Wyoming","rank":30,"score":114335},{"content":"Title: Carbon literacy Content: Carbon Literacy is a term used to describe an awareness of climate change and the climate impacts of mankind 's everyday actions . The term has been used in a range of contexts in scientific literature and in casual usage ( see Research ) , but is most associated with The Carbon Literacy Project ( CLP ) .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_literacy","rank":31,"score":114035},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"185","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":32,"score":113623},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"185","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":33,"score":113542},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":34,"score":113540},{"content":"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .","qid":"185","docid":"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States","rank":35,"score":113435},{"content":"Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .","qid":"185","docid":"Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan","rank":36,"score":113324},{"content":"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .","qid":"185","docid":"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":37,"score":112916},{"content":"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_model","rank":38,"score":112499},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":39,"score":112329},{"content":"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .","qid":"185","docid":"Scott_Denning","rank":40,"score":112117},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":41,"score":111285},{"content":"Title: C4MIP Content: C4MIP ( more fully , Coupled Climate Carbon Cycle Model Intercomparison Project ) is a joint project between the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ( IGBP ) and the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) . It is a model intercomparison project along the lines of the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project , but for global climate models that include an interactive carbon cycle .","qid":"185","docid":"C4MIP","rank":42,"score":110985},{"content":"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .","qid":"185","docid":"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry","rank":43,"score":110807},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_Change_Act_2008","rank":44,"score":110592},{"content":"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_and_potatoes","rank":45,"score":110511},{"content":"Title: Climate Dress Content: The Climate Dress was designed in 2009 by Danish design company Diffus Design in collaboration with the Swiss embroidery company Forster-Rohner , Alexandra Institute and the Danish School of Design . The Climate Dress is laced with hundreds of light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) that responds to the level of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the nearby surroundings and are powered through the conductive embroidery by an Arduino Lily pad microprocessor and a carbon dioxide detector , resulting in patterns that range from slow pulses to rapid flashes depending on the concentration of the CO2 . The Climate Dress does not rely on wiring , soldering , or crimping , which is often the case with smart textile products . All functional elements are blended into the embroidery and exposed to the viewer . The Climate Dress was presented at the Cop 15 Climate Summit in Copenhagen in 2009 , at the `` Health Environment Climate '' exhibition . In 2011 the Climate Dress won first prize in the Design That Performs contest , hosted by Samsung .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_Dress","rank":46,"score":110351},{"content":"Title: The Carbon Principles Content: The Carbon Principles are a series of guidelines established by three leading Wall Street banks -- Citigroup Inc. , JP Morgan Chase , and Morgan Stanley -- to assess the risks in financing electric power projects in terms of climate change . These principles call for `` enhanced diligence '' in evaluating electric power industry borrowers in terms of their use of energy efficiency ; renewable and low-carbon distributed energy technologies ; and conventional and advanced generating technologies . The Climate Principles are a similar framework for climate change best practice for the financial sector . This is a comprehensive industry framework for a response to climate change and has been adopted by Crédit Agricole , Munich Re , Standard Chartered , Swiss Re and HSBC","qid":"185","docid":"The_Carbon_Principles","rank":47,"score":110056},{"content":"Title: 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 29 to November 10 , 2001 in Marrakech , Morocco . The conference included the 7th Conference of the Parties ( COP7 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The negotiators wrapped up the work on the Buenos Aires Plan of Action , finalizing most of the operational details and setting the stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol . The completed package of decisions is known as the Marrakech Accords . The United States delegation maintained its observer role , declining to participate actively in the negotiations . Other parties continued to express hope that the United States would re-engage in the process at some point and worked to achieve ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by the requisite number of countries to bring it into force ( 55 countries needed to ratify it , including those accounting for 55 % of developed country emissions of carbon dioxide in 1990 ) . The date of the World Summit on Sustainable Development ( August -- September 2002 ) was put forward as a target to bring the Kyoto Protocol into force . The World Summit on Sustainable Development ( WSSD ) was to be held in Johannesburg , South Africa . The main decisions at COP 7 included : Operational rules for international emissions trading among parties to the Protocol and for the CDM and joint implementation ; A compliance regime that outlined consequences for failure to meet emissions targets but deferred to the parties to the Protocol , once it came into force , the decision on whether those consequences would be legally binding ; Accounting procedures for the flexibility mechanisms ; A decision to consider at COP 8 how to achieve a review of the adequacy of commitments that might lead to discussions on future commitments by developing countries . Category :21 st-century diplomatic conferences Category : Diplomatic conferences in Morocco Category : Climate change conferences 2001 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference , 2001 Category :2001 in the environment Category : History of Marrakesh Category : October 2001 events Category : November 2001 events Category :2001 in Morocco","qid":"185","docid":"2001_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":48,"score":109112},{"content":"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .","qid":"185","docid":"Idealized_greenhouse_model","rank":49,"score":108822},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_Change_Research_Centre","rank":50,"score":108801},{"content":"Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .","qid":"185","docid":"2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":51,"score":108372},{"content":"Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .","qid":"185","docid":"William_D._Sellers","rank":52,"score":107970},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"185","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":53,"score":107776},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"185","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":54,"score":107298},{"content":"Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .","qid":"185","docid":"Kenneth_Hare","rank":55,"score":107292},{"content":"Title: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Content: The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum ( CSLF ) is an international initiative to advance carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) technology . The Forum is a Ministerial-level organization that includes 23 member countries and the European Commission . Membership is open to national governmental entities that are significant producers or users of fossil fuel and that have a commitment to invest resources in research , development and demonstration activities in carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies . CSLF also recognizes that stakeholders , those organizations that are affected by and can affect the goals of CSLF , form an essential component of CSLF activities . The CSLF Charter , signed in June 2003 , organized the CSLF by creating a Policy Group , which governs the overall framework and policies of the CSLF , a Technical Group , which reviews the progress of collaborative projects and makes recommendations to the Policy Group on any needed actions , and an administrative Secretariat , which organizes CSLF meetings , coordinates communications among CSLF Members , and acts as a clearinghouse of information . In July 2005 , the G8 Summit endorsed the CSLF in its Plan of Action on Climate Change , Clean Energy and Sustainable Development , and identified it as a medium of cooperation and collaboration with key developing countries in dealing with greenhouse gases . Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include : the joint statement of the U.S.-European Union Summit on Energy Security , Energy Efficiency , Renewables and Economic Development , and the Mainz Declaration of Germany and the United States on Cleaner and More Efficient Energy , Development and Climate Change . In 2006 and 2007 , the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage . Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders . The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO2 capture , transport and storage research and activities .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum","rank":56,"score":107166},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":57,"score":106904},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":58,"score":106889},{"content":"Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_scenario","rank":59,"score":106861},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"185","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":60,"score":106717},{"content":"Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"185","docid":"Committee_on_Climate_Change","rank":61,"score":106580},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_Change_Authority","rank":62,"score":106571},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change","rank":63,"score":106524},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":64,"score":106447},{"content":"Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.","qid":"185","docid":"Greening_Earth_Society","rank":65,"score":105938},{"content":"Title: Ziff–Gulari–Barshad model Content: The Ziff -- Gulari -- Barshad ( ZGB ) model is a simple Monte Carlo method for catalytic reactions of oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide on a surface using Monte-Carlo methods which captures correctly the essential dynamics : the phase transition between two poisoned states ( either CO2 - or O-poisoned ) and a steady-state in between . It is named after Robert M. Ziff , Erdogan Gulari , and Yoav Barshad , who published it in 1986 .","qid":"185","docid":"Ziff–Gulari–Barshad_model","rank":66,"score":105815},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Levy Content: The Climate Change Levy ( CCL ) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom . Its aim is to provide an incentive to increase energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions ; however , there have been ongoing calls to replace it with a proper carbon tax .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_Change_Levy","rank":67,"score":105716},{"content":"Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .","qid":"185","docid":"Jonathan_M._Gregory","rank":68,"score":105669},{"content":"Title: CBM-CFS3 Content: CBM-CFS3 ( Carbon Budget Model of the Canadian Forest Sector ) is a Windows-based software modelling framework for stand - and landscape-level forest ecosystem carbon accounting . It is used to calculate forest carbon stocks and stock changes for the past ( monitoring ) or into the future ( projection ) . It can be used to create , simulate and compare various forest management scenarios in order to assess impacts on carbon . It is compliant with requirements under the Kyoto Protocol and with the Good Practice Guidance for Land Use , Land-Use Change and Forestry ( 2003 ) report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . It is the central model of the Government of Canada 's National Forest Carbon Monitoring , Accounting and Reporting System ( NFCMARS ) . The CBM-CFS3 was developed through a collaboration between Natural Resources Canada 's Canadian Forest Service ( CFS ) and the Canadian Model Forest Network , and is currently supported by the CFS . The CBM-CFS3 is distributed at no charge by the Canadian Forest Service through Canada 's National Forest Information System web site . Technical support is available by contacting Stephen Kull , Carbon Model Extension Forester , at the CFS .","qid":"185","docid":"CBM-CFS3","rank":69,"score":105664},{"content":"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme","rank":70,"score":105646},{"content":"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .","qid":"185","docid":"Kaya_identity","rank":71,"score":105572},{"content":"Title: Vote Climate U.S. PAC Content: Vote Climate U.S. PAC is an American super PAC founded in 2013 and directed by American political activist Karyn Strickler . Its mission is `` to elect candidates to get off fossil fuels , transition to clean , renewable energy and put a price on carbon , in order to slow global warming and related weather extremes . '' Strickler has named the implementation of a carbon tax as a principal goal . As a super PAC ( a type of political action committee ) , the organization can not contribute to candidates but can make independent expenditures on their behalf .","qid":"185","docid":"Vote_Climate_U.S._PAC","rank":72,"score":105568},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":73,"score":105304},{"content":"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_governance_in_England","rank":74,"score":104813},{"content":"Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_footprint","rank":75,"score":104350},{"content":"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .","qid":"185","docid":"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance","rank":76,"score":104294},{"content":"Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .","qid":"185","docid":"Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases","rank":77,"score":104026},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"185","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":78,"score":103948},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":79,"score":103934},{"content":"Title: Fee and dividend Content: Fee and Dividend or Carbon Fee and Dividend ( CF&D ) is a market-based mechanism for reducing the carbon emissions that help to drive anthropogenic climate change . Carbon Fee and Dividend begins with levying imposing a progressively-rising fee on carbon-based fuels , then returning some or all of the fees collected to the public as a regular energy dividend . This is intended to incentivize a shift to low-carbon energy while protecting consumers from any increases in the costs of carbon-based fuels . Designed to maintain or improve economic vitality while speeding the transition to a sustainable energy economy , Carbon Fee and Dividend has been proposed as an alternative to emission reduction mechanisms such as cap and trade or a straightforward carbon tax .","qid":"185","docid":"Fee_and_dividend","rank":80,"score":103431},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":81,"score":102080},{"content":"Title: Low Carbon Communities Content: Low Carbon Communities ( LCC ) is one part of Marches Energy Agency ; a leading climate change and sustainable energy social enterprise and a registered charity , based in the West Midlands , England . LCC works with interested communities to find sustainable energy solutions for their community . This involves working with households , businesses , schools and community groups to raise awareness about climate change and help implement sustainable energy measures . This includes energy efficiency measures - both technical and behavioural - and renewable energy installations . Ultimately , LCC aims to help communities obtain the skills and knowledge required to achieve community ownership and enable informed decision-making on energy saving opportunities . A pilot Low Carbon Communities project from 2006-9 in three communities in Shropshire has now ended . The project , based in Ellesmere , Cleobury Mortimer and the `` Floodplain Community '' ( a collection of small villages and farmsteads near Oswestry ) , aimed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 5.88 % or 3868 tonnes within these communities . This acted as a pilot for similar ventures around the country and LCC is now working with a number of communities in the West Midlands and East Midlands .","qid":"185","docid":"Low_Carbon_Communities","rank":82,"score":101525},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":83,"score":101520},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"185","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":84,"score":101272},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":85,"score":101250},{"content":"Title: Dynamic global vegetation model Content: A Dynamic Global Vegetation Model ( DGVM ) is a computer program that simulates shifts in potential vegetation and its associated biogeochemical and hydrological cycles as a response to shifts in climate . DGVMs use time series of climate data and , given constraints of latitude , topography , and soil characteristics , simulate monthly or daily dynamics of ecosystem processes . DGVMs are used most often to simulate the effects of future climate change on natural vegetation and its carbon and water cycles . DGVMs generally combine biogeochemistry , biogeography , and disturbance submodels . Disturbance is often limited to wildfires , but in principle could include any of : forest/land management decisions , windthrow , insect damage , ozone damage etc. . DGVMs usually `` spin up '' their simulations from bare ground to `` equilibrium '' vegetation to establish realistic initial values for their various `` pools '' : carbon and nitrogen in live and dead vegetation , soil organic matter , etc. corresponding to a documented historical vegetation cover . DGVMs are usually run in a spatially distributed mode , with simulations carried out for thousands of `` cells '' , geographic points which are assumed to have homogeneous conditions within each cell . Simulations are carried out across a range of spatial scales , from global to landscape . Cells are usually arranged as lattice points ; the distance between adjacent lattice points may be as coarse as a few degrees of latitude or longitude , or as fine as 30 arc-seconds . Simulations of the conterminous United States in the first DGVM comparison exercise ( LPJ and MC1 ) called the VEMAP project in the 1990s used a lattice grain of one-half degree . Global simulations by the PIK group and collaborators using 6 different DGVMs ( HYBRID , IBIS , LPJ , SDGVM , TRIFFID , and VECODE ) used the same resolution as the general circulation model ( GCM ) that provided the climate data , 3.75 deg longitude x 2.5 deg latitude , a total of 1631 land grid cells . Sometimes lattice distances are specified in kilometers rather than angular measure , especially for finer grains , so a project like VEMAP is often referred to as 50 km grain . Several DGVMs appeared in the middle 1990s . The first was apparently IBIS ( Foley et al. , 1996 ) , VECODE ( Brovkin et al. , 1997 ) , followed by several others described below : Several DGVMs have been developed by various research groups around the world : LPJ - Germany , Sweden IBIS - Integrated Biosphere Simulator - U.S. MC1 - U.S. HYBRID - U.K. SDGVM - U.K. SEIB-DGVM - Japan TRIFFID - U.K. VECODE - Germany CLM-DVGM - U.S. Ecosystem Demography ( ED , ED2 ) The next generation of models - earth system models ( ex . CCSM , ORCHIDEE , JULES , CTEM ) - now includes the important feedbacks from the biosphere to the atmosphere so that vegetation shifts and changes in the carbon and hydrological cycles affect the climate . DGVMs commonly simulate a variety of plant and soil physiological processes . The processes simulated by various DGVMs are summarized in the table below . Abbreviations are : NPP , net primary production ; PFT , plant functional type ; SAW , soil available water ; LAI , leaf area index ; I , solar radiation ; T , air temperature ; Wr , root zone water supply ; PET , potential evapotranspiration ; vegc , total live vegetation carbon . References : Category : Scientific modeling","qid":"185","docid":"Dynamic_global_vegetation_model","rank":86,"score":101235},{"content":"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate-friendly_gardening","rank":87,"score":101191},{"content":"Title: Thermodynamic model of decompression Content: The thermodynamic model was one of the first decompression models in which decompression is controlled by the volume of gas bubbles coming out of solution . In this model , pain only DCS is modelled by a single tissue which is diffusion-limited for gas uptake and bubble-formation during decompression causes `` phase equilibration '' of partial pressures between dissolved and free gases . The driving mechanism for gas elimination in this tissue is inherent unsaturation , also called partial pressure vacancy or the oxygen window , where oxygen metabolised is replaced by more soluble carbon dioxide . This model was used to explain the effectiveness of the Torres Straits Island pearl divers empirically developed decompression schedules , which used deeper decompression stops and less overall decompression time than the current naval decompression schedules . This trend to deeper decompression stops has become a feature of more recent decompression models .","qid":"185","docid":"Thermodynamic_model_of_decompression","rank":88,"score":101103},{"content":"Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .","qid":"185","docid":"Christopher_Field","rank":89,"score":101089},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"185","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":90,"score":101041},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .","qid":"185","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita","rank":91,"score":100989},{"content":"Title: Robert Berner Content: Robert Arbuckle Berner ( November 25 , 1935 -- January 10 , 2015 ) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the modeling of the carbon cycle . He taught Geology and Geophysics from 1965 to 2007 at Yale University , where he latterly served as Professor Emeritus until his death . His work on sedimentary rocks led to the co-founding of the BLAG model of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which takes into account both geochemical and biological contributions to the carbon cycle .","qid":"185","docid":"Robert_Berner","rank":92,"score":100913},{"content":"Title: Carbon process management Content: Carbon Process Management ( CPM ) is a management process which promotes environmental effectiveness in organizations . It is designed to maximize efficiencies in the consumption of resources that contribute to climate change . When implemented effectively , CPM techniques can reduce operating costs , realizing gains in brand equity , competitive advantage and stakeholder value . Initially introduced by First Carbon Solutions , CPM uses Japanese kaizen philosophy which continuously improves workplace practices to reduce wastage , this is combined business process management ( BPM ) which increases efficiency . Governments who resorts to legal mechanisms and regulation to deal with the risks of climate change , techniques such as CPM are directed towards a corporate approach in helping reduce greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"185","docid":"Carbon_process_management","rank":93,"score":100764},{"content":"Title: Hypoxic drive Content: The hypoxic drive is a form of respiratory drive in which the body uses oxygen chemoreceptors instead of carbon dioxide receptors to regulate the respiratory cycle . Normal respiration is driven mostly by the levels of carbon dioxide in the arteries , which are detected indirectly by central chemoreceptors when carbon dioxide crosses the blood -- brain barrier , forming detectable hydrogen ions , and directly by peripheral chemoreceptors , and very little by the oxygen levels . An increase in carbon dioxide will cause chemoreceptor reflexes to trigger an increase in ventilation . Hypoxic drive normally accounts for 10 % of the total drive to breathe . This increases as the PaO2 drops to 70 torr and below , while hypoxic drive is no longer active when PaO2 exceeds 170 torr . The hypoxic drive is so weak that unconsciousness will develop before respiratory distress is noted and is therefore a risk for pilots flying at high altitudes . For this reason , supplemental oxygen is required by Federal Aviation Regulations for pilots flying above an altitude of about 12,500 feet in unpressurized airplanes . In the past , it was believed that in cases where there are chronically high carbon dioxide levels in the blood such as in COPD patients , the body will begin to rely more on the oxygen receptors and less on the carbon dioxide receptors . And that in this case , when there is an increase in oxygen levels the body will decrease the rate of respiration . Recent studies have proven that COPD patients who have chronically compensated elevated levels ( known as '' Retainers '' ) are not in fact dependent on hypoxic drive to breathe . However , when in respiratory failure and put on high inspired oxygen , the in their blood may increase via three mechanisms , namely the Haldane Effect , the ventilation/perfusion mismatch ( where the regional pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction is released ) and by the removal or reduction of the hypoxic drive itself .","qid":"185","docid":"Hypoxic_drive","rank":94,"score":100739},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"185","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":95,"score":100595},{"content":"Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''","qid":"185","docid":"Klaus_Lackner","rank":96,"score":100564},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation","rank":97,"score":100506},{"content":"Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .","qid":"185","docid":"Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006","rank":98,"score":100307},{"content":"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .","qid":"185","docid":"Suess_effect","rank":99,"score":100245},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"185","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":100,"score":100114}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 140540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 135465\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 132639\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thomas Knutson Content: Thomas Knutson is a climate modeller at the US Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory , a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research covers hurricane activity , the link between climate change and hurricane incidence and intensity , and climate change detection and attribution . He served as a contributing author on working group 1 of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He is an Associate Editor of the American Meteorological Society 's Journal of Climate . He has published in Science , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Journal of Geophysical Research , Journal of Climate , Tropical Cyclone Research and Review , Tellus A and the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . In 2004 , Knutson published a paper suggesting that increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide would lead to more intense hurricanes . This finding was subsequently supported by independent research . Knutson was invited to discuss his thesis on Ron Reagan 's MSNBC talk show , but the invitation was withdrawn after the White House intervened . Source : New Scientist Magazine 2007-02-03 , p. 5\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Thomas_Knutson\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 130820\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Carbon_Program\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 130499\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 129035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 127331\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: DICE model Content: The Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy model , referred to as the DICE model or Dice model , is a computer-based integrated assessment model developed by William Nordhaus that `` integrates in an end-to-end fashion the economics , carbon cycle , climate science , and impacts in a highly aggregated model that allows a weighing of the costs and benefits of taking steps to slow greenhouse warming . '' Nordhaus also developed the RICE model ( Regional Integrated Climate-Economy model ) , a variant of the DICE model that was updated and developed alongside the DICE model . Others who collaborated with Nordhaus to develop the model include David Popp , Zili Yang , Joseph Boyer , and other colleagues . The DICE model is one of the three main integrated assessment models used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency , and it provides estimates intermediate between the other two models .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"DICE_model\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 127012\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 126065\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_bubble\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 126017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 125540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 125069\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Z._Jacobson\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 124946\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_engineering\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 124847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 124444\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 123913\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 123881\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 123623\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Individual_action_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 122568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 122327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ian G. Enting Content: Ian Enting ( born 25 September 1948 ) is a mathematical physicist and the AMSI/MASCOS Professorial Fellow at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Mathematics and Statistics of Complex Systems ( MASCOS ) based at The University of Melbourne . Enting is the author of Twisted , The Distorted Mathematics of Greenhouse Denial in which he analyses the presentation and use of data by climate change deniers . More recently he has been addressing the claims made in Ian Plimer 's book `` Heaven + Earth '' . He has published a critique , `` Ian Plimer 's ` Heaven + Earth ' -- Checking the Claims '' , listing what Enting claims are numerous misrepresentations of the sources cited in the book . From 1980 to 2004 he worked in CSIRO Atmospheric Research , primarily on modelling the global carbon cycle . He was one of the lead authors of the chapter and the Carbon Cycle in the 1994 IPCC report on Radiative Forcing of Climate . Enting has published scientific papers , on mathematical physics and carbon cycle modelling , and a monograph on mathematical techniques for interpreting observations of carbon dioxide and other trace gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Ian_G._Enting\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 119564\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 119114\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Simon_Tett\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 118955\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 118875\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 117875\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 116933\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 115231\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 115179\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_finance\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 115134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 114335\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon literacy Content: Carbon Literacy is a term used to describe an awareness of climate change and the climate impacts of mankind 's everyday actions . The term has been used in a range of contexts in scientific literature and in casual usage ( see Research ) , but is most associated with The Carbon Literacy Project ( CLP ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_literacy\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 114035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 113623\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 113542\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 113540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 113435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 113324\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 112916\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_model\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 112499\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 112329\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Scott_Denning\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 112117\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 111285\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C4MIP Content: C4MIP ( more fully , Coupled Climate Carbon Cycle Model Intercomparison Project ) is a joint project between the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ( IGBP ) and the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) . It is a model intercomparison project along the lines of the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project , but for global climate models that include an interactive carbon cycle .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"C4MIP\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 110985\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 110807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Act_2008\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 110592\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_potatoes\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 110511\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Dress Content: The Climate Dress was designed in 2009 by Danish design company Diffus Design in collaboration with the Swiss embroidery company Forster-Rohner , Alexandra Institute and the Danish School of Design . The Climate Dress is laced with hundreds of light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) that responds to the level of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the nearby surroundings and are powered through the conductive embroidery by an Arduino Lily pad microprocessor and a carbon dioxide detector , resulting in patterns that range from slow pulses to rapid flashes depending on the concentration of the CO2 . The Climate Dress does not rely on wiring , soldering , or crimping , which is often the case with smart textile products . All functional elements are blended into the embroidery and exposed to the viewer . The Climate Dress was presented at the Cop 15 Climate Summit in Copenhagen in 2009 , at the `` Health Environment Climate '' exhibition . In 2011 the Climate Dress won first prize in the Design That Performs contest , hosted by Samsung .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Dress\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 110351\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Carbon Principles Content: The Carbon Principles are a series of guidelines established by three leading Wall Street banks -- Citigroup Inc. , JP Morgan Chase , and Morgan Stanley -- to assess the risks in financing electric power projects in terms of climate change . These principles call for `` enhanced diligence '' in evaluating electric power industry borrowers in terms of their use of energy efficiency ; renewable and low-carbon distributed energy technologies ; and conventional and advanced generating technologies . The Climate Principles are a similar framework for climate change best practice for the financial sector . This is a comprehensive industry framework for a response to climate change and has been adopted by Crédit Agricole , Munich Re , Standard Chartered , Swiss Re and HSBC\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Carbon_Principles\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 110056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 29 to November 10 , 2001 in Marrakech , Morocco . The conference included the 7th Conference of the Parties ( COP7 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The negotiators wrapped up the work on the Buenos Aires Plan of Action , finalizing most of the operational details and setting the stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol . The completed package of decisions is known as the Marrakech Accords . The United States delegation maintained its observer role , declining to participate actively in the negotiations . Other parties continued to express hope that the United States would re-engage in the process at some point and worked to achieve ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by the requisite number of countries to bring it into force ( 55 countries needed to ratify it , including those accounting for 55 % of developed country emissions of carbon dioxide in 1990 ) . The date of the World Summit on Sustainable Development ( August -- September 2002 ) was put forward as a target to bring the Kyoto Protocol into force . The World Summit on Sustainable Development ( WSSD ) was to be held in Johannesburg , South Africa . The main decisions at COP 7 included : Operational rules for international emissions trading among parties to the Protocol and for the CDM and joint implementation ; A compliance regime that outlined consequences for failure to meet emissions targets but deferred to the parties to the Protocol , once it came into force , the decision on whether those consequences would be legally binding ; Accounting procedures for the flexibility mechanisms ; A decision to consider at COP 8 how to achieve a review of the adequacy of commitments that might lead to discussions on future commitments by developing countries . Category :21 st-century diplomatic conferences Category : Diplomatic conferences in Morocco Category : Climate change conferences 2001 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference , 2001 Category :2001 in the environment Category : History of Marrakesh Category : October 2001 events Category : November 2001 events Category :2001 in Morocco\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"2001_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 109112\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Idealized_greenhouse_model\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 108822\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Research_Centre\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 108801\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 108372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"William_D._Sellers\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 107970\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 107776\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 107298\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Kenneth_Hare\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 107292\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Content: The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum ( CSLF ) is an international initiative to advance carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) technology . The Forum is a Ministerial-level organization that includes 23 member countries and the European Commission . Membership is open to national governmental entities that are significant producers or users of fossil fuel and that have a commitment to invest resources in research , development and demonstration activities in carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies . CSLF also recognizes that stakeholders , those organizations that are affected by and can affect the goals of CSLF , form an essential component of CSLF activities . The CSLF Charter , signed in June 2003 , organized the CSLF by creating a Policy Group , which governs the overall framework and policies of the CSLF , a Technical Group , which reviews the progress of collaborative projects and makes recommendations to the Policy Group on any needed actions , and an administrative Secretariat , which organizes CSLF meetings , coordinates communications among CSLF Members , and acts as a clearinghouse of information . In July 2005 , the G8 Summit endorsed the CSLF in its Plan of Action on Climate Change , Clean Energy and Sustainable Development , and identified it as a medium of cooperation and collaboration with key developing countries in dealing with greenhouse gases . Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include : the joint statement of the U.S.-European Union Summit on Energy Security , Energy Efficiency , Renewables and Economic Development , and the Mainz Declaration of Germany and the United States on Cleaner and More Efficient Energy , Development and Climate Change . In 2006 and 2007 , the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage . Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders . The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO2 capture , transport and storage research and activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 107166\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 106904\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 106889\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_scenario\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 106861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 106717\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Committee_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 106580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Authority\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 106571\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 106524\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 106447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Greening_Earth_Society\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 105938\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ziff–Gulari–Barshad model Content: The Ziff -- Gulari -- Barshad ( ZGB ) model is a simple Monte Carlo method for catalytic reactions of oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide on a surface using Monte-Carlo methods which captures correctly the essential dynamics : the phase transition between two poisoned states ( either CO2 - or O-poisoned ) and a steady-state in between . It is named after Robert M. Ziff , Erdogan Gulari , and Yoav Barshad , who published it in 1986 .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Ziff–Gulari–Barshad_model\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 105815\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Levy Content: The Climate Change Levy ( CCL ) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom . Its aim is to provide an incentive to increase energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions ; however , there have been ongoing calls to replace it with a proper carbon tax .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Levy\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 105716\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Jonathan_M._Gregory\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 105669\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CBM-CFS3 Content: CBM-CFS3 ( Carbon Budget Model of the Canadian Forest Sector ) is a Windows-based software modelling framework for stand - and landscape-level forest ecosystem carbon accounting . It is used to calculate forest carbon stocks and stock changes for the past ( monitoring ) or into the future ( projection ) . It can be used to create , simulate and compare various forest management scenarios in order to assess impacts on carbon . It is compliant with requirements under the Kyoto Protocol and with the Good Practice Guidance for Land Use , Land-Use Change and Forestry ( 2003 ) report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . It is the central model of the Government of Canada 's National Forest Carbon Monitoring , Accounting and Reporting System ( NFCMARS ) . The CBM-CFS3 was developed through a collaboration between Natural Resources Canada 's Canadian Forest Service ( CFS ) and the Canadian Model Forest Network , and is currently supported by the CFS . The CBM-CFS3 is distributed at no charge by the Canadian Forest Service through Canada 's National Forest Information System web site . Technical support is available by contacting Stephen Kull , Carbon Model Extension Forester , at the CFS .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"CBM-CFS3\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 105664\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 105646\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Kaya_identity\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 105572\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vote Climate U.S. PAC Content: Vote Climate U.S. PAC is an American super PAC founded in 2013 and directed by American political activist Karyn Strickler . Its mission is `` to elect candidates to get off fossil fuels , transition to clean , renewable energy and put a price on carbon , in order to slow global warming and related weather extremes . '' Strickler has named the implementation of a carbon tax as a principal goal . As a super PAC ( a type of political action committee ) , the organization can not contribute to candidates but can make independent expenditures on their behalf .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Vote_Climate_U.S._PAC\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 105568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 105304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_governance_in_England\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 104813\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_footprint\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 104350\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 104294\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 104026\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 103948\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 103934\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fee and dividend Content: Fee and Dividend or Carbon Fee and Dividend ( CF&D ) is a market-based mechanism for reducing the carbon emissions that help to drive anthropogenic climate change . Carbon Fee and Dividend begins with levying imposing a progressively-rising fee on carbon-based fuels , then returning some or all of the fees collected to the public as a regular energy dividend . This is intended to incentivize a shift to low-carbon energy while protecting consumers from any increases in the costs of carbon-based fuels . Designed to maintain or improve economic vitality while speeding the transition to a sustainable energy economy , Carbon Fee and Dividend has been proposed as an alternative to emission reduction mechanisms such as cap and trade or a straightforward carbon tax .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Fee_and_dividend\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 103431\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 102080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low Carbon Communities Content: Low Carbon Communities ( LCC ) is one part of Marches Energy Agency ; a leading climate change and sustainable energy social enterprise and a registered charity , based in the West Midlands , England . LCC works with interested communities to find sustainable energy solutions for their community . This involves working with households , businesses , schools and community groups to raise awareness about climate change and help implement sustainable energy measures . This includes energy efficiency measures - both technical and behavioural - and renewable energy installations . Ultimately , LCC aims to help communities obtain the skills and knowledge required to achieve community ownership and enable informed decision-making on energy saving opportunities . A pilot Low Carbon Communities project from 2006-9 in three communities in Shropshire has now ended . The project , based in Ellesmere , Cleobury Mortimer and the `` Floodplain Community '' ( a collection of small villages and farmsteads near Oswestry ) , aimed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 5.88 % or 3868 tonnes within these communities . This acted as a pilot for similar ventures around the country and LCC is now working with a number of communities in the West Midlands and East Midlands .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Low_Carbon_Communities\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 101525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 101520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 101272\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 101250\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dynamic global vegetation model Content: A Dynamic Global Vegetation Model ( DGVM ) is a computer program that simulates shifts in potential vegetation and its associated biogeochemical and hydrological cycles as a response to shifts in climate . DGVMs use time series of climate data and , given constraints of latitude , topography , and soil characteristics , simulate monthly or daily dynamics of ecosystem processes . DGVMs are used most often to simulate the effects of future climate change on natural vegetation and its carbon and water cycles . DGVMs generally combine biogeochemistry , biogeography , and disturbance submodels . Disturbance is often limited to wildfires , but in principle could include any of : forest/land management decisions , windthrow , insect damage , ozone damage etc. . DGVMs usually `` spin up '' their simulations from bare ground to `` equilibrium '' vegetation to establish realistic initial values for their various `` pools '' : carbon and nitrogen in live and dead vegetation , soil organic matter , etc. corresponding to a documented historical vegetation cover . DGVMs are usually run in a spatially distributed mode , with simulations carried out for thousands of `` cells '' , geographic points which are assumed to have homogeneous conditions within each cell . Simulations are carried out across a range of spatial scales , from global to landscape . Cells are usually arranged as lattice points ; the distance between adjacent lattice points may be as coarse as a few degrees of latitude or longitude , or as fine as 30 arc-seconds . Simulations of the conterminous United States in the first DGVM comparison exercise ( LPJ and MC1 ) called the VEMAP project in the 1990s used a lattice grain of one-half degree . Global simulations by the PIK group and collaborators using 6 different DGVMs ( HYBRID , IBIS , LPJ , SDGVM , TRIFFID , and VECODE ) used the same resolution as the general circulation model ( GCM ) that provided the climate data , 3.75 deg longitude x 2.5 deg latitude , a total of 1631 land grid cells . Sometimes lattice distances are specified in kilometers rather than angular measure , especially for finer grains , so a project like VEMAP is often referred to as 50 km grain . Several DGVMs appeared in the middle 1990s . The first was apparently IBIS ( Foley et al. , 1996 ) , VECODE ( Brovkin et al. , 1997 ) , followed by several others described below : Several DGVMs have been developed by various research groups around the world : LPJ - Germany , Sweden IBIS - Integrated Biosphere Simulator - U.S. MC1 - U.S. HYBRID - U.K. SDGVM - U.K. SEIB-DGVM - Japan TRIFFID - U.K. VECODE - Germany CLM-DVGM - U.S. Ecosystem Demography ( ED , ED2 ) The next generation of models - earth system models ( ex . CCSM , ORCHIDEE , JULES , CTEM ) - now includes the important feedbacks from the biosphere to the atmosphere so that vegetation shifts and changes in the carbon and hydrological cycles affect the climate . DGVMs commonly simulate a variety of plant and soil physiological processes . The processes simulated by various DGVMs are summarized in the table below . Abbreviations are : NPP , net primary production ; PFT , plant functional type ; SAW , soil available water ; LAI , leaf area index ; I , solar radiation ; T , air temperature ; Wr , root zone water supply ; PET , potential evapotranspiration ; vegc , total live vegetation carbon . References : Category : Scientific modeling\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Dynamic_global_vegetation_model\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 101235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate-friendly_gardening\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 101191\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thermodynamic model of decompression Content: The thermodynamic model was one of the first decompression models in which decompression is controlled by the volume of gas bubbles coming out of solution . In this model , pain only DCS is modelled by a single tissue which is diffusion-limited for gas uptake and bubble-formation during decompression causes `` phase equilibration '' of partial pressures between dissolved and free gases . The driving mechanism for gas elimination in this tissue is inherent unsaturation , also called partial pressure vacancy or the oxygen window , where oxygen metabolised is replaced by more soluble carbon dioxide . This model was used to explain the effectiveness of the Torres Straits Island pearl divers empirically developed decompression schedules , which used deeper decompression stops and less overall decompression time than the current naval decompression schedules . This trend to deeper decompression stops has become a feature of more recent decompression models .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Thermodynamic_model_of_decompression\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 101103\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Christopher_Field\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 101089\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 101041\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 100989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert Berner Content: Robert Arbuckle Berner ( November 25 , 1935 -- January 10 , 2015 ) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the modeling of the carbon cycle . He taught Geology and Geophysics from 1965 to 2007 at Yale University , where he latterly served as Professor Emeritus until his death . His work on sedimentary rocks led to the co-founding of the BLAG model of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which takes into account both geochemical and biological contributions to the carbon cycle .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_Berner\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 100913\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon process management Content: Carbon Process Management ( CPM ) is a management process which promotes environmental effectiveness in organizations . It is designed to maximize efficiencies in the consumption of resources that contribute to climate change . When implemented effectively , CPM techniques can reduce operating costs , realizing gains in brand equity , competitive advantage and stakeholder value . Initially introduced by First Carbon Solutions , CPM uses Japanese kaizen philosophy which continuously improves workplace practices to reduce wastage , this is combined business process management ( BPM ) which increases efficiency . Governments who resorts to legal mechanisms and regulation to deal with the risks of climate change , techniques such as CPM are directed towards a corporate approach in helping reduce greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_process_management\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 100764\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypoxic drive Content: The hypoxic drive is a form of respiratory drive in which the body uses oxygen chemoreceptors instead of carbon dioxide receptors to regulate the respiratory cycle . Normal respiration is driven mostly by the levels of carbon dioxide in the arteries , which are detected indirectly by central chemoreceptors when carbon dioxide crosses the blood -- brain barrier , forming detectable hydrogen ions , and directly by peripheral chemoreceptors , and very little by the oxygen levels . An increase in carbon dioxide will cause chemoreceptor reflexes to trigger an increase in ventilation . Hypoxic drive normally accounts for 10 % of the total drive to breathe . This increases as the PaO2 drops to 70 torr and below , while hypoxic drive is no longer active when PaO2 exceeds 170 torr . The hypoxic drive is so weak that unconsciousness will develop before respiratory distress is noted and is therefore a risk for pilots flying at high altitudes . For this reason , supplemental oxygen is required by Federal Aviation Regulations for pilots flying above an altitude of about 12,500 feet in unpressurized airplanes . In the past , it was believed that in cases where there are chronically high carbon dioxide levels in the blood such as in COPD patients , the body will begin to rely more on the oxygen receptors and less on the carbon dioxide receptors . And that in this case , when there is an increase in oxygen levels the body will decrease the rate of respiration . Recent studies have proven that COPD patients who have chronically compensated elevated levels ( known as '' Retainers '' ) are not in fact dependent on hypoxic drive to breathe . However , when in respiratory failure and put on high inspired oxygen , the in their blood may increase via three mechanisms , namely the Haldane Effect , the ventilation/perfusion mismatch ( where the regional pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction is released ) and by the removal or reduction of the hypoxic drive itself .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypoxic_drive\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 100739\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 100595\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Klaus_Lackner\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 100564\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 100506\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 100307\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Suess_effect\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 100245\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"185\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 100114\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":87,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The geological history of the planet shows major planetary climate changes have never been driven by a trace gas"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Geological history of Earth Content: The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth 's past based on the geologic time scale , a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet 's rock layers ( stratigraphy ) . Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula , a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun , which also created the rest of the Solar System . Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies . Eventually , the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere . The Moon formed soon afterwards , possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth . Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere . Condensing water vapor , augmented by ice delivered from comets , produced the oceans . As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years , continents formed and broke apart . They migrated across the surface , occasionally combining to form a supercontinent . Roughly , the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia , began to break apart . The continents later recombined to form Pannotia , , then finally Pangaea , which broke apart . The present pattern of ice ages began about , then intensified at the end of the Pliocene . The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw , repeating every 40,000 -- 100,000 years . The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago .","qid":"189","docid":"Geological_history_of_Earth","rank":1,"score":93997},{"content":"Title: Lakes on Mars Content: In summer 1965 , the first close-up pictures from Mars showed a cratered desert with no signs of water . However , over the decades , as more parts of the planet were imaged with better cameras on more sophisticated satellites , Mars showed evidence of past river valleys , lakes , and ice in glaciers and in the ground . It was discovered that the climate of Mars displays huge changes over geologic time because its axis is not stabilized by a large moon , as Earth 's is . Also , some researchers maintain that water could exist for periods of time due to geothermal effects or asteroid impacts . Besides seeing features that were signs of past water , researchers found other types of evidence for past water . Minerals detected in many locations needed water to form . An instrument in the Mars Odyssey , an orbiting spacecraft , mapped the distribution of water in the near surface . When the Phoenix spacecraft fired its rockets to land in the far north , ice was exposed . When water enters a large body of water , such as a lake , a delta may form . Many craters and other depressions on Mars show deltas that resemble those on Earth . In addition , if a lake lies in a depression , channels entering it will all stop at the same altitude . Such an arrangement is visible around places on Mars that are supposed to have contained large bodies of water -- including around a possible ocean in the North . Lake formation has been proposed by various researchers for quite some time . One study found 205 possible closed-basin lakes in craters on Mars . The basins have an inlet valley that cuts the crater rim and flows into the basin , but they have no visible outlet valley . The total volume of the basins is equivalent to a depth of 1.2 meters spread evenly over the Martian surface . However , this amount is a small fraction of the current water ice stores on Mars . Another study found 210 open-basin lakes . These were lakes with both an inlet and an outlet ; hence water must have entered the basin , and reached the height of the outlet . Some of these lakes had volumes similar to Earth 's Caspian Sea , Black Sea , and Lake Baikal . Moreover , some basins on Mars form part of long chains of lakes . The Naktong/Scamander/Mamers Valles lake-chain system is about 4500 km ( 2800 miles ) long , with a drainage area similar to that of the Missouri-Mississippi rivers . Another , the Samara/Himera Vallis system , is 1800 km long . Many of the long chains of lakes are found in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle . Some of the lakes appear to have had a high volume as compared to their drainage area ; hence , it is believed that some of the water was groundwater . Further evidence is the existence of knobby material on the basin floors . These knobs can be formed when large amounts of water left the ground . This article describes some of the places that could have held large lakes .","qid":"189","docid":"Lakes_on_Mars","rank":2,"score":93546},{"content":"Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .","qid":"189","docid":"Solar_activity_and_climate","rank":3,"score":92738},{"content":"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .","qid":"189","docid":"Future_of_Earth","rank":4,"score":87992},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"189","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":5,"score":87662},{"content":"Title: Noachian Content: The Noachian is a geologic system and early time period on the planet Mars characterized by high rates of meteorite and asteroid impacts and the possible presence of abundant surface water . The absolute age of the Noachian period is uncertain but probably corresponds to the lunar Pre-Nectarian to Early Imbrian periods of 4100 to 3700 million years ago , during the interval known as the Late Heavy Bombardment . Many of the large impact basins on the Moon and Mars formed at this time . The Noachian Period is roughly equivalent to the Earth 's Hadean and early Archean eons when the first life forms likely arose . Noachian-aged terrains on Mars are prime spacecraft landing sites to search for fossil evidence of life . During the Noachian , the atmosphere of Mars was denser than it is today , and the climate possibly warm enough to allow rainfall . Large lakes and rivers were present in the southern hemisphere , and an ocean may have covered the low-lying northern plains . Extensive volcanism occurred in the Tharsis region , building up enormous masses of volcanic material ( the Tharsis bulge ) and releasing large quantities of gases into the atmosphere . Weathering of surface rocks produced a diversity of clay minerals ( phyllosilicates ) that formed under chemical conditions conducive to microbial life .","qid":"189","docid":"Noachian","rank":6,"score":86968},{"content":"Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .","qid":"189","docid":"Landfill_gas","rank":7,"score":83889},{"content":"Title: Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary Content: The climate across the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg or formerly the K -- T boundary ) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid , volcanism , or sea level changes . While the mass extinction is well documented , there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event . The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known , which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact . Oxygen isotopes across the K -- T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself . Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K -- T boundary suggest rapid , repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction , and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary , indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction . The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate , direct consequences of the impact .","qid":"189","docid":"Climate_across_Cretaceous–Paleogene_boundary","rank":8,"score":83702},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .","qid":"189","docid":"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth","rank":9,"score":82733},{"content":"Title: Paul Werner Gast Content: Paul Werner Gast ( September 11 , 1930 -- May 16 , 1973 ) was an American geochemist and geologist . He was born in Chicago , and attended Wheaton College , Illinois , whence he graduated in 1952 . He earned a Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1957 . After graduation , he taught at the University of Minnesota until 1965 when he became professor of geology at Columbia . In 1969 Paul Gast assumed leadership of the geo-science management of the Manned Spacecraft Center in preparation for Apollo mission sample return from the Moon . He served as chief scientist of the Apollo Lunar Science Staff . He was one of the science consultant group known unofficially as the `` Four Horsemen '' , along with Jim Arnold , Bob Walker and Gerry Wasserburg . He died at the age of 43 , being survived by his wife , Joyce Rinehart , and two sons and a daughter . During his career he pioneered the study of rare earth elements in examining the crust , mantle , and interior of the planet . He led the development of the use of rubidium-strontium and uranium-lead radiometric dating methods for rocks , particularly for samples returned from the Moon . His examinations of trace elements resulted in new understands of how volcanic fluids originate .","qid":"189","docid":"Paul_Werner_Gast","rank":10,"score":82683},{"content":"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.","qid":"189","docid":"Climate_system","rank":11,"score":81427},{"content":"Title: Geological history of Mars Content: The geological history of Mars employs observations , indirect and direct measurements , and various inference techniques to estimate the physical evolution of Mars . Methods dating back to 17th century techniques developed by Nicholas Steno , including the so-called law of superposition and stratigraphy , used to estimate the geological histories of Earth and the Moon , are being actively applied to the data available from several Martian observational and measurement resources . These include the landers , orbiting platforms , Earth-based observations , and Martian meteorites . Observations of the surfaces of many Solar System bodies reveals important clues about their evolution . For example , a lava flow that spreads out and fills a large impact crater is likely to be younger than the crater . On the other hand , a small crater on top of the same lava flow is likely to be younger than both the lava and the larger crater since it can be surmised to have been the product of a later , unobserved , geological event . This principle , called the law of superposition , and other principles of stratigraphy , first formulated by Nicholas Steno in the 17th century , allowed geologists of the 19th century to divide the history of the Earth into the familiar eras of Paleozoic , Mesozoic , and Cenozoic . The same methodology was later applied to the Moon and then to Mars . Another stratigraphic principle used on planets where impact craters are well preserved is that of crater number density . The number of craters greater than a given size per unit surface area ( usually million km2 ) provides a relative age for that surface . Heavily cratered surfaces are old , and sparsely cratered surfaces are young . Old surfaces have a lot of big craters , and young surfaces have mostly small craters or none at all . These stratigraphic concepts form the basis for the Martian geologic timescale .","qid":"189","docid":"Geological_history_of_Mars","rank":12,"score":81375},{"content":"Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .","qid":"189","docid":"List_of_climate_research_satellites","rank":13,"score":81180},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"189","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":14,"score":81129},{"content":"Title: Eaarth Content: Eaarth : Making a Life on a Tough New Planet is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Henry Holt and Company in 2010 . In the opening chapter , McKibben presents an array of facts and statistics about climate change that are already visible , supported by extensive footnotes . In the second and third chapters , McKibben lays out his analysis of how we have arrived at the current situation , and conveys genuine sorrow as he explains how the drive for economic growth based on hydrocarbons since the 1970s has led the planet to the point of breakdown . In a review of the book , British economist Nicholas Stern suggests that there is no doubting McKibben 's sincerity and his ability to communicate the significant risks which humanity faces . According to Stern , his `` overall thesis that we are already seeing widespread effects of climate change is sound and supported by much robust scientific evidence '' . But Stern says McKibben is too pessimistic when it comes to the recent advances in avoiding even bigger changes to the climate by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases .","qid":"189","docid":"Eaarth","rank":15,"score":79457},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"189","docid":"Climate_change","rank":16,"score":79331},{"content":"Title: Climate of Uranus Content: The climate of Uranus is heavily influenced by both its lack of internal heat , which limits atmospheric activity , and by its extreme axial tilt , which induces intense seasonal variation . Uranus 's atmosphere is remarkably bland in comparison to the other gas giants which it otherwise closely resembles . When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986 , it observed a total of ten cloud features across the entire planet . Later observations from the ground or by the Hubble Space Telescope made in the 1990s and the 2000s revealed bright clouds in the northern ( winter ) hemisphere . In 2006 a dark spot similar to the Great Dark Spot on Neptune was detected .","qid":"189","docid":"Climate_of_Uranus","rank":17,"score":78591},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"189","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":18,"score":78219},{"content":"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .","qid":"189","docid":"Simon_Tett","rank":19,"score":78198},{"content":"Title: Milutin Milanković Content: Milutin Milanković ( Милутин Миланковић , pronounced -LSB- milǔtin milǎːnkɔʋitɕ -RSB- 28 May 1879 -- 12 December 1958 ) was a Serbian mathematician , astronomer , climatologist , geophysicist , civil engineer , doctor of technology , university professor and popularizer of science . Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science . The first contribution is the `` Canon of the Earth 's Insolation '' , which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the Solar system . The second contribution is the explanation of Earth 's long-term climate changes caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun , now known as Milankovitch cycles . This explained the ice ages occurring in the geological past of the Earth , as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future . He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth 's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system , Mercury , Venus , Mars , and the Moon , as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets . He demonstrated the interrelatedness of celestial mechanics and the Earth sciences , and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of descriptive sciences into exact ones .","qid":"189","docid":"Milutin_Milanković","rank":20,"score":77965},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"189","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":21,"score":77518},{"content":"Title: Hesperian Content: The Hesperian is a geologic system and time period on the planet Mars characterized by widespread volcanic activity and catastrophic flooding that carved immense outflow channels across the surface . The Hesperian is an intermediate and transitional period of Martian history . During the Hesperian , Mars changed from the wetter and perhaps warmer world of the Noachian to the dry , cold , and dusty planet seen today . The absolute age of the Hesperian Period is uncertain . The beginning of the period followed the end of the late heavy bombardment and probably corresponds to the start of the lunar Late Imbrian period , around 3700 million years ago ( Mya ) . The end of the Hesperian Period is much more uncertain and could range anywhere from 3200 to 2000 Mya , with 3000 Mya being frequently cited . The Hesperian Period is roughly coincident with the Earth 's early Archean Eon . With the decline of heavy impacts at the end of the Noachian , volcanism became the primary geologic process on Mars , producing vast plains of flood basalts and broad volcanic constructs ( highland paterae ) . By Hesperian times , all of the large shield volcanoes on Mars , including Olympus Mons , had begun to form . Volcanic outgassing released large amounts of sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) into the atmosphere , causing a transition in the style of weathering from dominantly phyllosilicate ( clay ) to sulfate mineralogy . Liquid water became more localized in extent and turned more acidic as it interacted with SO2 and H2S to form sulfuric acid . By the beginning of the Late Hesperian the atmosphere had probably thinned to its present density . As the planet cooled , groundwater stored in the upper crust ( megaregolith ) began to freeze , forming a thick cryosphere overlying a deeper zone of liquid water . Subsequent volcanic or tectonic activity occasionally fractured the cryosphere , releasing enormous quantities of deep groundwater to the surface and carving huge outflow channels . Much of this water flowed into the northern hemisphere where it probably pooled to form large transient lakes or an ice covered ocean .","qid":"189","docid":"Hesperian","rank":22,"score":77293},{"content":"Title: History of Earth Content: The history of Earth concerns the development of the planet Earth from its formation to the present day . Nearly all branches of natural science have contributed to the understanding of the main events of the Earth 's past . The age of Earth is approximately one-third of the age of the universe . An immense amount of geological change has occurred in that timespan , accompanied by the emergence of life and its subsequent evolution . Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula . Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere and then the ocean ; but the atmosphere contained almost no oxygen and so would have been toxic to most modern life including humans . Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism . A giant impact collision with a planet-sized body named Theia while Earth was in its earliest stage , also known as Early Earth , is thought to have been responsible for forming the Moon . Over time , the Earth cooled , causing the formation of a solid crust , and allowing liquid water to exist on the surface . The geological time scale ( GTS ) clock ( see graphic ) depicts the larger spans of time from the beginning of the Earth as well as a chronology of some definitive events of Earth history . The Hadean Eon represents time before the reliable ( fossil ) record of life beginning on Earth ; it began with the formation of the planet and ended at 4.0 billion years ago as defined by international convention . The Archean and Proterozoic eons follow ; they produced the abiogenesis of life on Earth and then the evolution of early life . The succeeding eon is the Phanerozoic , which is represented by its three component eras : the Palaeozoic ; the Mesozoic , which spanned the rise , reign , and climactic extinction of the huge dinosaurs ; and the Cenozoic , which presented the subsequent development of dominant mammals on Earth . Hominins , the earliest direct ancestors of the human clade , rose sometime during the latter part of the Miocene epoch ; the precise time marking the first hominins is broadly debated over a current range of 13 to 4 mya . The succeeding Quaternary period is the time of recognizable humans , i.e. , the genus Homo , but that period 's two million-year-plus term of the recent times is too small to be visible at the scale of the GTS graphic . ( Notes re the graphic : Ga means `` billion years '' ; Ma , `` million years '' . ) The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago , during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon . There are microbial mat fossils such as stromatolites found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia . Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland as well as `` remains of biotic life '' found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . According to one of the researchers , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe . '' Living forms derived from photosynthesis appeared between 3.2 and 2.4 billion years ago and began enriching the atmosphere with oxygen . Life remained mostly small and microscopic until about 580 million years ago , when complex multicellular life arose , developed over time , and culminated in the Cambrian Explosion about 541 million years ago . This event drove a rapid diversification of life forms on Earth that produced most of the major phyla known today ; and it marked the end of the Proterozoic Eon and the beginning of the Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era . More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . Geological change has been a constant of Earth 's crust since the time of its formation , and biological change since the first appearance of life . Species continue to evolve , taking on new forms , splitting into daughter species or going extinct in the process of adapting or dying in response to ever-changing physical environments . The process of plate tectonics continues to play a dominant role in the shaping of Earth 's oceans and continents and the living species they harbor . Changes in the biosphere -- now dominated by human activity -- continue , in turn , to produce significant effects on the atmosphere and other systems of the Earth 's surface , such as the integrity of the ozone layer , the proliferation of greenhouse gases , the conditions of productive soils and clean air and water , and others .","qid":"189","docid":"History_of_Earth","rank":23,"score":77215},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"189","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":24,"score":76654},{"content":"Title: Volcanology of Mars Content: Volcanic activity , or volcanism , has played a significant role in the geologic evolution of Mars . Scientists have known since the Mariner 9 mission in 1972 that volcanic features cover large portions of the Martian surface . These features include extensive lava flows , vast lava plains , and the largest known volcanoes in the Solar System . Martian volcanic features range in age from Noachian ( > 3.7 billion years ) to late Amazonian ( < 500 million years ) , indicating that the planet has been volcanically active throughout its history , and some speculate it probably still is so today . Both Earth and Mars are large , differentiated planets built from similar chondritic materials . Many of the same magmatic processes that occur on Earth also occurred on Mars , and both planets are similar enough compositionally that the same names can be applied to their igneous rocks and minerals . Volcanism is a process in which magma from a planet 's interior rises through the crust and erupts on the surface . The erupted materials consist of molten rock ( lava ) , hot fragmental debris ( tephra or ash ) , and gases . Volcanism is a principal way that planets release their internal heat . Volcanic eruptions produce distinctive landforms , rock types , and terrains that provide a window on the chemical composition , thermal state , and history of a planet 's interior . Magma is a complex , high-temperature mixture of molten silicates , suspended crystals , and dissolved gases . Magma on Mars likely ascends in a similar manner to that on Earth . It rises through the lower crust in diapiric bodies that are less dense than the surrounding material . As the magma rises , it eventually reaches regions of lower density . When the magma density matches that of the host rock , buoyancy is neutralized and the magma body stalls . At this point , it may form a magma chamber and spread out laterally into a network of dikes and sills . Subsequently , the magma may cool and solidify to form intrusive igneous bodies ( plutons ) . Geologists estimate that about 80 % of the magma generated on Earth stalls in the crust and never reaches the surface . As magma rises and cools , it undergoes many complex and dynamic compositional changes . Heavier minerals may crystallize and settle to the bottom of the magma chamber . The magma may also assimilate portions of host rock or mix with other batches of magma . These processes alter the composition of the remaining melt , so that any magma reaching the surface may be chemically quite different from its parent melt . Magmas that have been so altered are said to be `` evolved '' to distinguish them from `` primitive '' magmas that more closely resemble the composition of their mantle source . ( See igneous differentiation and fractional crystallization . ) More highly evolved magmas are usually felsic , that is enriched in silica , volatiles , and other light elements compared to iron - and magnesium-rich ( mafic ) primitive magmas . The degree and extent to which magmas evolve over time is an indication of a planet 's level of internal heat and tectonic activity . The Earth 's continental crust is made up of evolved granitic rocks that developed through many episodes of magmatic reprocessing . Evolved igneous rocks are much less common on cold , dead bodies such as the Moon . Mars , being intermediate in size between the Earth and the Moon , is thought to be intermediate in its level of magmatic activity . At shallower depths in the crust , the lithostatic pressure on the magma body decreases . The reduced pressure can cause gases ( volatiles ) , such as carbon dioxide and water vapor , to exsolve from the melt into a froth of gas bubbles . The nucleation of bubbles causes a rapid expansion and cooling of the surrounding melt , producing glassy shards that may erupt explosively as tephra ( also called pyroclastics ) . Fine-grained tephra is commonly referred to as volcanic ash . Whether a volcano erupts explosively or effusively as fluid lava depends on the composition of the melt . Felsic magmas of andesitic and rhyolitic composition tend to erupt explosively . They are very viscous ( thick and sticky ) and rich in dissolved gases . Mafic magmas , on the other hand , are low in volatiles and commonly erupt effusively as basaltic lava flows . However , these are only generalizations . For example , magma that comes into sudden contact with groundwater or surface water may erupt violently in steam explosions called hydromagmatic ( phreatomagmatic or phreatic ) eruptions . Also , erupting magmas may behave differently on planets with different interior compositions , atmospheres , and gravity fields .","qid":"189","docid":"Volcanology_of_Mars","rank":25,"score":75573},{"content":"Title: Trace gas Content: A trace gas is a gas which makes up less than 1 % by volume of the Earth 's atmosphere , and it includes all gases except nitrogen ( 78.1 % ) and oxygen ( 20.9 % ) . The most abundant trace gas at 0.934 % is argon . Water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance .","qid":"189","docid":"Trace_gas","rank":26,"score":75333},{"content":"Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .","qid":"189","docid":"Hirnantian","rank":27,"score":74333},{"content":"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .","qid":"189","docid":"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years","rank":28,"score":74236},{"content":"Title: Geologic temperature record Content: The Geologic temperature record are changes in Earth 's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion ( 109 ) year time scales . The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a crucial component of the climate and oceanography of the time .","qid":"189","docid":"Geologic_temperature_record","rank":29,"score":74216},{"content":"Title: Bond event Content: Bond events are North Atlantic ice rafting events that are tentatively linked to climate fluctuations in the Holocene . Eight such events have been identified . Bond events were previously believed to exhibit a quasi ~ 1,500-year cycle , but the primary period of variability is now put at ~ 1,000 years . Gerard C. Bond of the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University was the lead author of the 1997 paper that postulated the theory of 1470-year climate cycles in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic . However , more recent work has shown that these tracers provide little support for 1,500-year intervals of climate change , and the reported ~ 1,500 ± 500-year period was a statistical artifact . Furthermore , following publication of the Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 ( GICC05 ) for the North GRIP ice core , it became clear that Dansgaar-Oescher Events also show no such a pattern . The North Atlantic ice-rafting events happen to correlate with episodes of lowered lake levels in the Mid-Atlantic region , USA , the most weak events of the Asian monsoon for at least the past 9,000 years , and also correlate with most aridification events in the Middle East for the past 55,000 years ( both Heinrich and Bond events ) . For reasons that are unclear , the only Holocene Bond event that has a clear temperature signal in the Greenland ice cores is the 8.2 kyr event .","qid":"189","docid":"Bond_event","rank":30,"score":73675},{"content":"Title: ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter Content: The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter ( TGO ) is a collaborative project between the European Space Agency ( ESA ) and Roscosmos that sent an atmospheric research orbiter and the Schiaparelli demonstration lander to Mars in 2016 as part of the European-led ExoMars programme . The Trace Gas Orbiter delivered the Schiaparelli lander and will start atmospheric mapping in 2017 . A key goal is to gain a better understanding of methane and other trace gases present in the Martian atmosphere that could be evidence for possible biological activity . The programme will follow with the Surface Science Platform and the ExoMars rover in 2020 , which will search for biomolecules and biosignatures ; the TGO will operate as the communication link for the 2020 ExoMars rover and surface science platform and provide communication for other Mars surface probes with Earth . The lander 's radio signal was lost during the descent through the Mars atmosphere and later the lander was confirmed to have crashed .","qid":"189","docid":"ExoMars_Trace_Gas_Orbiter","rank":31,"score":73230},{"content":"Title: Planetary geology Content: Planetary geology , alternatively known as astrogeology or exogeology , is a planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons , asteroids , comets , and meteorites . Although the geo - prefix typically indicates topics of or relating to the Earth , planetary geology is named as such for historical and convenience reasons ; applying geological science to other planetary bodies . Due to the types of investigations involved , it is also closely linked with Earth-based geology . Planetary geology includes such topics as determining the internal structure of the terrestrial planets , and also looks at planetary volcanism and surface processes such as impact craters , fluvial and aeolian processes . The structures of the giant planets and their moons are also examined , as is the make-up of the minor bodies of the Solar System , such as asteroids , the Kuiper Belt , and comets .","qid":"189","docid":"Planetary_geology","rank":32,"score":72861},{"content":"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .","qid":"189","docid":"Runaway_greenhouse_effect","rank":33,"score":72833},{"content":"Title: History of paleontology Content: The history of paleontology traces the history of the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the fossil record left behind by living organisms . Since it is concerned with understanding living organisms of the past paleontology can be considered to be a field of biology , but its historical development has been closely tied to geology and the effort to understand the history of Earth itself . In ancient times Xenophanes ( 570-480 BC ) , Herodotus ( 484-425 BC ) , Eratosthenes ( 276-194 BC ) , and Strabo ( 64 BC-24 AD ) , wrote about fossils of marine organisms indicating that land was once under water . During the Middle Ages , fossils were discussed by the Persian naturalist , Ibn Sina ( known as Avicenna in Europe ) , in The Book of Healing ( 1027 ) , which proposed a theory of petrifying fluids that Albert of Saxony would elaborate on in the 14th century . The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo ( 1031 -- 1095 ) would propose a theory of climate change based on evidence from petrified bamboo . In early modern Europe , the systematic study of fossils emerged as an integral part of the changes in natural philosophy that occurred during the Age of Reason . The nature of fossils and their relationship to life in the past became better understood during the 17th and 18th centuries , and at the end of the 18th century the work of Georges Cuvier ended a long running debate about the reality of extinction and led to the emergence of paleontology , in association with comparative anatomy , as a scientific discipline . The expanding knowledge of the fossil record also played an increasing role in the development of geology , particularly stratigraphy . In 1822 the word `` paleontology '' was invented by the editor of a French scientific journal to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils , and the first half of the 19th century saw geological and paleontological activity become increasingly well organized with the growth of geologic societies and museums and an increasing number of professional geologists and fossil specialists . This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth , and progress towards definition of the geologic time scale largely based on fossil evidence . As knowledge of life 's history continued to improve , it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life . This would encourage early evolutionary theories on the transmutation of species . After Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859 , much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding evolutionary paths , including human evolution , and evolutionary theory . The last half of the 19th century saw a tremendous expansion in paleontological activity , especially in North America . The trend continued in the 20th century with additional regions of the Earth being opened to systematic fossil collection , as demonstrated by a series of important discoveries in China near the end of the 20th century . Many transitional fossils have been discovered , and there is now considered to be abundant evidence of how all classes of vertebrates are related , much of it in the form of transitional fossils . The last few decades of the 20th century saw a renewed interest in mass extinctions and their role in the evolution of life on Earth . There was also a renewed interest in the Cambrian explosion that saw the development of the body plans of most animal phyla . The discovery of fossils of the Ediacaran biota and developments in paleobiology extended knowledge about the history of life back far before the Cambrian .","qid":"189","docid":"History_of_paleontology","rank":34,"score":72702},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"189","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":35,"score":72609},{"content":"Title: Cool early Earth Content: The cool early Earth ( CEE ) theory posits that for part of the Hadean geological eon , at the beginning of the Earth 's history , it had a modest influx of bolides and a cool climate , allowing the presence of liquid water . This would have been after the extreme conditions of earth 's earliest history between 4.6 and 4.4 billion years ( Ga ) ago , but before the Late Heavy Bombardment of 4.1 to 3.8 Ga ago . In 2002 John Valley et al argued that detrital zircons found in Western Australia , dating to 4.0 -- 4.4 Ga ago , were formed at relatively low temperatures , that meteorite impacts may have been less frequent than previously thought , and that the earth may have gone through long periods when liquid oceans and life were possible . In 2016 Gavin Kenny et al replied to suggestions that zircons were formed by melting during tectonic subduction at plate boundaries , and argued that at least some of them were formed by meteorite impacts .","qid":"189","docid":"Cool_early_Earth","rank":36,"score":72179},{"content":"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .","qid":"189","docid":"Carnian_Pluvial_Event","rank":37,"score":72104},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"189","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":38,"score":72096},{"content":"Title: ExoMars Content: ExoMars ( Exobiology on Mars ) is a two-part Martian astrobiology project to search for evidence of life on Mars , a joint mission of the European Space Agency ( ESA ) and the Russian space agency Roscosmos . The first part , launched in 2016 , placed a trace gas research and communication satellite into Mars orbit and released a stationary experimental lander ( which crashed ) . The second part is planned to launch in 2020 , and to land a rover on the surface , supporting a science mission that is expected to last into 2022 or beyond . ExoMars goals are to search for signs of past and present life on Mars , investigate how the Martian water and geochemical environment varies , investigate atmospheric trace gases and their sources and by doing so demonstrate the technologies for a future Mars sample return mission . The mission will search for biosignatures of Martian life , past or present , employing several spacecraft elements to be sent to Mars on two launches . The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter ( TGO ) and a test stationary lander called Schiaparelli were launched on 14 March 2016 . TGO entered Mars orbit on 19 October 2016 and will proceed to map the sources of methane and other trace gases present in the Martian atmosphere that could be evidence for possible biological or geological activity . The Schiaparelli experimental lander separated from TGO on 16 October and was maneuvered to land in Meridiani Planum . , ESA had not received a signal that the landing was successful . On 21 October 2016 , NASA released a Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter image showing what appears to be the lander crash site . The landing was designed to test new key technologies to safely deliver the 2020 rover mission . The TGO features four instruments and will also act as a communications relay satellite . In 2020 , a Roscosmos-built lander ( ExoMars 2020 surface platform ) is to deliver the ESA-built ExoMars Rover to the Martian surface . The rover will also include some Roscosmos built instruments . The second mission operations and communications will be led by ALTEC 's Rover Control Centre in Italy .","qid":"189","docid":"ExoMars","rank":39,"score":71903},{"content":"Title: Geodynamics of Venus Content: NASA 's Magellan spacecraft mission discovered that Venus has a geologically young surface with a relatively uniform age of 500 ± 200 Ma ( million years ) . The age of Venus was revealed by the observation of over 900 impact craters on the surface of the planet . These impact craters are nearly uniformly distributed over the surface of Venus and less than 10 % have been modified by plains of volcanism or deformation . These observations indicate that a catastrophic resurfacing event took place on Venus around 500 Ma , and was followed by a dramatic decline in resurfacing rate . The radar images from the Magellan missions revealed that the terrestrial style of plate tectonics is not active on Venus and the surface appears to be immobile at the present time . Despite these surface observations , there are numerous surface features that indicate an actively convecting interior . The Soviet Venera landings revealed that the surface of Venus is essentially basaltic in composition based on geochemical measurements and morphology of volcanic flows . The surface of Venus is dominated by patterns of basaltic volcanism , and by compressional and extensional tectonic deformation , such as the highly deformed tesserae terrain and the pancake like volcano-tectonic features known as coronae . The planet 's surface can be broadly characterized by its low lying plains , which cover about 80 % of the surface , ` continental ' plateaus and volcanic swells . There is also an abundance of small and large shield volcanoes distributed over the planet 's surface . Based on its surface features , it appears that Venus is tectonically and convectively alive but has a lithosphere that is static .","qid":"189","docid":"Geodynamics_of_Venus","rank":40,"score":71689},{"content":"Title: Mars Tectonics Content: In the tectonic history of Mars , two primary tectonic events are usually considered . The first is the process that lowered and resurfaced the northern hemisphere , resulting in a planet whose crustal thickness is distinctly bimodal -- this is referred to as the hemispheric dichotomy ( Fig. 1 ) . The second tectonic event is the process that formed the Tharsis rise , which is a massive volcanic province that has had major tectonic influences both on a regional and global scale . These events largely pertain to the three major physiographic provinces of Mars ; the northern plains , the southern highlands , and the Tharsis plateau . The different geological and tectonic characteristics of these regions will be described in the following section . Hypotheses proposed to explain how the two primary tectonic events may have occurred are usually divided into endogenic and exogenic processes , both of which will be discussed in this article . Possible tectonic implications of magnetic anomalies detected on Mars will also be discussed . These magnetic anomalies are linear in shape and of alternating polarity , much like those found on Earth that have been a product of seafloor spreading . A process akin to seafloor spreading has also been proposed to explain the magnetic anomalies on Mars , and will be discussed below . Furthermore , recent research claims to have found the first strong evidence for plate tectonics on Mars . This discovery refers to a large-scale strike-slip fault zone in the Valles Marineris through system , which has been likened to transform faults on Earth such as the San Andreas and Dead Sea faults . This discovery could have major implications for our future understanding of Martian tectonics .","qid":"189","docid":"Mars_Tectonics","rank":41,"score":71505},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"189","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":42,"score":71470},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .","qid":"189","docid":"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal","rank":43,"score":71364},{"content":"Title: Gas dwarf Content: A gas dwarf is a gas planet with a rocky core that has accumulated a thick envelope of hydrogen , helium , and other volatiles , having as result a total radius between 1.7 and 3.9 Earth radii . The term is used in a three-tier , metallicity-based classification regime for short-period exoplanets , which also includes the rocky , terrestrial-like planets with less than and planets greater than , namely ice giants and gas giants . No gas dwarfs are known to exist in the Solar System , but they are common in other planetary systems . Smaller gas planets and planets closer to their star will lose atmospheric mass more quickly via hydrodynamic escape than larger planets and planets farther out . The smallest known extrasolar planet that might be a `` gas planet '' is Kepler-138d , which is less massive than Earth but has a 60 % larger volume and therefore has a density ( 2.1 ( +2.2 / -1.2 ) grams per cubic centimetre ) that indicates either a substantial water content or possibly a thick gas envelope . A low-mass gas planet can still have a radius resembling that of a gas giant if it has the right temperature .","qid":"189","docid":"Gas_dwarf","rank":44,"score":71167},{"content":"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .","qid":"189","docid":"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years","rank":45,"score":70441},{"content":"Title: Planetary migration Content: Planetary migration occurs when a planet or other stellar satellite interacts with a disk of gas or planetesimals , resulting in the alteration of the satellite 's orbital parameters , especially its semi-major axis . Planetary migration is the most likely explanation for hot Jupiters , extrasolar planets with jovian masses , but orbits of only a few days . The generally accepted theory of planet formation from a protoplanetary disk predicts such planets can not form so close to their stars , as there is insufficient mass at such small radii and the temperature is too high to allow the formation of rocky or icy planetesimals . It has also become clear that terrestrial-mass planets may be subject to rapid inward migration if they form while the gas disk is still present . This may affect the formation of the cores of the giant planets ( which have masses of the order of 10 Earth masses ) , if those planets form via the core accretion mechanism .","qid":"189","docid":"Planetary_migration","rank":46,"score":70253},{"content":"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .","qid":"189","docid":"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)","rank":47,"score":70157},{"content":"Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .","qid":"189","docid":"Climate_state","rank":48,"score":69950},{"content":"Title: Schiaparelli (Martian crater) Content: Schiaparelli is an impact crater on Mars named after Giovanni Schiaparelli located near Mars 's equator . It is 461 km in diameter and located at latitude 3 ° south and longitude 344 ° . A crater within Schiaparelli shows many layers that may have formed by the wind , volcanoes , or deposition under water . Layers can be a few meters thick or tens of meters thick . Recent research on these layers suggests that ancient climate change on Mars , caused by regular variation in the planet 's tilt , may have caused the patterns in layers . On Earth , similar changes ( astronomical forcing ) of climate results in ice-age cycles . The regular appearance of rock layers suggests that regular changes in climate may be the root cause . Regular changes in climate may be due to variations of a planet 's tilt ( called obliquity ) . The tilt of the Earth 's axis changes by only a little more than 2 degrees since our moon is relatively large . In contrast Mars 's tilt varies by tens of degrees . When the tilt is low ( current situation on Mars ) , the poles are the coldest places on the planet , while the equator is the warmest ( as on Earth ) . This could cause gases in the atmosphere , like water and carbon dioxide , to migrate poleward , where they would freeze . When the obliquity is higher , the poles receive more sunlight , causing those materials to migrate away . When carbon dioxide moves from the Martian poles , the atmospheric pressure increases , possibly causing a difference in the ability of winds to transport and deposit sand . Also , with more water in the atmosphere sand grains may stick and cement together to form layers .","qid":"189","docid":"Schiaparelli_(Martian_crater)","rank":49,"score":69844},{"content":"Title: Geology of West Virginia Content: West Virginia 's geologic history stretches back into the Precambrian , and includes several periods of mountain building and erosion . At times , much of what is now West Virginia was covered by swamps , marshlands , and shallow seas , accounting for the wide variety of sedimentary rocks found in the state , as well as its wealth of coal and natural gas deposits . West Virginia has had no active volcanism for hundreds of millions of years , and does not experience large earthquakes , although smaller tremors are associated with the Rome Trough , which passes through the western part of the state .","qid":"189","docid":"Geology_of_West_Virginia","rank":50,"score":69779},{"content":"Title: Historical climatology Content: Historical climatology is the study of historical changes in climate and their effect on human history and development . This differs from paleoclimatology which encompasses climate change over the entire history of Earth . The study seeks to define periods in human history where temperature or precipitation varied from what is observed in the present day . The primary sources include written records such as sagas , chronicles , maps and local history literature as well as pictorial representations such as paintings , drawings and even rock art . The archaeological record is equally important in establishing evidence of settlement , water and land usage .","qid":"189","docid":"Historical_climatology","rank":51,"score":69479},{"content":"Title: Geologic record Content: The geologic record in stratigraphy , paleontology and other natural sciences refers to the entirety of the layers of rock strata -- deposits laid down by volcanism or by deposition of sediment derived from weathering detritus ( clays , sands etc. ) including all its fossil content and the information it yields about the history of the Earth : its past climate , geography , geology and the evolution of life on its surface . According to the law of superposition , sedimentary and volcanic rock layers are deposited on top of each other . They harden over time to become a solidified ( competent ) rock column , that may be intruded by igneous rocks and disrupted by tectonic events .","qid":"189","docid":"Geologic_record","rank":52,"score":69243},{"content":"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.","qid":"189","docid":"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system","rank":53,"score":69146},{"content":"Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18","qid":"189","docid":"Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment","rank":54,"score":69037},{"content":"Title: Iron catastrophe Content: The iron catastrophe was a postulated major event early in the history of Earth . The original accretion of the Earth 's material into a spherical mass is thought to have resulted in a relatively uniform composition . While residual heat from the collision of the material that formed the Earth was significant , heating from radioactive materials in this mass gradually increased the temperature until a critical condition was reached . As material became molten enough to allow movement , the denser iron and nickel , evenly distributed throughout the mass , began to migrate to the center of the planet to form the core . The gravitational potential energy released by the sinking of the dense NiFe globules , along with any cooler , denser solid material , is thought to have been a runaway process , increasing the temperature of the protoplanet above the melting point of most components , resulting in the rapid formation of a molten iron core covered by a deep global silicate magma . This event , an important process of planetary differentiation , occurred at about 500 million years into the formation of the planet .","qid":"189","docid":"Iron_catastrophe","rank":55,"score":68994},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"189","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":56,"score":68980},{"content":"Title: Hadean Content: The Hadean ( -LSB- pronˈheɪdiən -RSB- ) is a geologic eon of the Earth predating the Archean . It began with the formation of the Earth about 4.6 billion years ago and ended , as defined by the ICS , 4 billion years ago . The geologist Preston Cloud coined the term in 1972 , originally to label the period before the earliest-known rocks on Earth . W. Brian Harland later coined an almost synonymous term : the `` Priscoan period '' . Other , older texts simply refer to the eon as the Pre-Archean . Nonetheless , in 2015 , traces of carbon minerals interpreted as `` remains of biotic life '' were found in 4.1-billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia .","qid":"189","docid":"Hadean","rank":57,"score":68567},{"content":"Title: Proxy (climate) Content: In the study of past climates ( `` paleoclimatology '' ) , climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth 's history . Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s , and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began . Examples of proxies include ice cores , tree rings , sub-fossil pollen , boreholes , corals , lake and ocean sediments , and carbonate speleothems . The character of deposition or rate of growth of the proxies ' material has been influenced by the climatic conditions of the time in which they were laid down or grew . Chemical traces produced by climatic changes , such as quantities of particular isotopes , can be recovered from proxies . Some proxies , such as gas bubbles trapped in ice , enable traces of the ancient atmosphere to be recovered and measured directly to provide a history of fluctuations in the composition of the Earth 's atmosphere . To produce the most precise results , systematic cross-verification between proxy indicators is necessary for accuracy in readings and record-keeping . Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the instrumental temperature record and can inform discussions of global warming . The distribution of proxy records , just like the instrumental record , is not at all uniform , with more records in the northern hemisphere .","qid":"189","docid":"Proxy_(climate)","rank":58,"score":68428},{"content":"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .","qid":"189","docid":"The_Weather_of_the_Future","rank":59,"score":68351},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"189","docid":"Global_warming","rank":60,"score":68207},{"content":"Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .","qid":"189","docid":"Stockholm_Memorandum","rank":61,"score":67997},{"content":"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .","qid":"189","docid":"Michael_Schlesinger","rank":62,"score":67855},{"content":"Title: Planetary phase of civilization Content: The planetary phase of civilization is a concept defined by the Global Scenario Group ( GSG ) , an environmental organization that specialized in scenario analysis and forecasting . Proponents state that increasing global interdependence and risks , such as climate change , are binding the world into a unitary socio-ecological system . This unprecedented condition signals a historic shift from the period of modernity , characterized by sovereign states , perennial growth of population and economies , abundant resources , and disregard for environmental impacts . The Planetary Phase has many manifestations : economic globalization , biospheric destabilization , mass migration , new global institutions ( like the United Nations and the World Trade Organization ) , the Internet , new forms of transboundary conflict , and shifts in culture and consciousness . Others consider each of these phenomena separately , but give little credence to the theory of a holistic shift in historical dynamics .","qid":"189","docid":"Planetary_phase_of_civilization","rank":63,"score":67794},{"content":"Title: Tidal heating of Io Content: Tidal heating ( also known as tidal working ) occurs through the tidal friction processes : orbital and rotational energy are dissipated as heat in the crust of the moons and planets involved . Io has a similar mass and size as the Moon , but Io is the most geologically active body in the Solar System . This is caused by the heating mechanism of Io . The major heating source of Earth and its moon is radioactive heating , but the heating source on Io is tidal heating . As Jupiter is very massive , the side of Io nearest to Jupiter has a slightly larger gravitational pull than the opposite side . This difference in gravitational forces cause distortion of Io 's shape . Differently from the Earth 's only moon , Jupiter has several moons ( i.e. Io , Europa , Ganymede and Callisto ) . As Io is the innermost moon of Jupiter , Jupiter pulls Io inward and other moons pull Io outward . This causes Io 's orbit to be elliptical and eccentric . The distance between Jupiter and Io changes all the time and the distortion of Io likewise changes all the time . The constant change in the shape of Io results in a large amount of friction in the moon and the friction-induced heating drives strong volcanic activities on the surface of Io . Although there is general agreement that the cause of the heat as manifested in Io 's many volcanoes is tidal heating from the pull of gravity from Jupiter and its moon Europa , the volcanoes are not in the positions predicted with tidal heating . They are shifted 30 to 60 degrees to the East . A study published in 2015 , explains the eastern shift by an ocean of molten rock under the surface . The movement of this magma would generate extra heat . Liquids especially if they are sticky ( or viscous ) can produce heat through friction . The team who wrote the paper , believe that the subsurface ocean is a mixture of molten and solid rock . When the molten rock flows , it may swirl and rub against the surrounding rock , thus generating heat . Other moons in the Solar System undergo tidal heating , and they too may have more heat generated by this process , including heat from the movement of water . This ability to generate heat in a subsurface ocean increases the chance of life on bodies like Europa and Enceladus .","qid":"189","docid":"Tidal_heating_of_Io","rank":64,"score":67501},{"content":"Title: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences Content: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences is an annual peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews , which broadly covers Earth and planetary sciences , including geology , atmospheric sciences , climate , geophysics , environmental science , geological hazards , geodynamics , planet formation , and solar system origins . The editors-in-chief are Katherine H. Freeman ( Pennsylvania State University ) and Raymond Jeanloz ( University of California , Berkeley ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 10.188 .","qid":"189","docid":"Annual_Review_of_Earth_and_Planetary_Sciences","rank":65,"score":67159},{"content":"Title: Global and Planetary Change Content: Global and Planetary Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research into the earth sciences , particularly pertaining to changes in aspects thereof such as sea level and the chemical composition of the atmosphere . It has been published by Elsevier since it was established in 1989 . The editors-in-chief are S.A.P.L. Cloetingh ( Utrecht University ) , T.M. Cronin ( United States Geological Survey ) , K. McGuffie ( University of Technology Sydney ) , and H. Oberhänsli ( Museum für Naturkunde ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 3.155 , ranking it 9th out of 45 journals in the category `` Geography , Physical '' .","qid":"189","docid":"Global_and_Planetary_Change","rank":66,"score":67110},{"content":"Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .","qid":"189","docid":"Paleoclimatology","rank":67,"score":66887},{"content":"Title: Geology Content: Geology ( from the Ancient Greek γῆ , gē , i.e. `` earth '' and - λoγία , - logia , i.e. `` study of , discourse '' ) is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth , the rocks of which it is composed , and the processes by which they change over time . Geology can also refer generally to the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet ( such as the geology of the Moon or Mars ) . Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the primary evidence for plate tectonics , the evolutionary history of life , and past climates . Geology is important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation , evaluating water resources , understanding of natural hazards , the remediation of environmental problems , and for providing insights into past climate change . Geology also plays a role in geotechnical engineering and is a major academic discipline .","qid":"189","docid":"Geology","rank":68,"score":66819},{"content":"Title: Pre-Tolstojan Content: Pre-Tolstojan , also Pretolstojan Period , refers to the oldest period of the history of Mercury , 4500 -- 3900 MYA . It is the `` first period of the Eomercurian Era and of the Mercurian Eon , as well as being the first period in Mercury 's geologic history '' , and refers to its formation and the 600 million or so years in its aftermath . Mercury was formed with a tiny crust , mantle , and a giant core and as it evolved it faced heavy bombardments that created most of the craters and intercrater plains seen on the planet 's surface today . Many of the smaller basins and multi-ring basins were created during this period . Considered a `` dead '' planet , its geology is highly diverse with craters forming the dominant terrain . The name Pre-Tolstojan refers to the Tolstoj crater on the surface of Mercury , which is believed to have been formed in an impact event circa 3900 MYA . The latter has been named after the Russian writer Leo Tolstoy .","qid":"189","docid":"Pre-Tolstojan","rank":69,"score":66734},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"189","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":70,"score":66616},{"content":"Title: NGC 40 Content: NGC 40 ( also known as the Bow-Tie Nebula and Caldwell 2 ) is a planetary nebula discovered by William Herschel on November 25 , 1788 , and is composed of hot gas around a dying star . The star has ejected its outer layer which has left behind a smaller , hot star with a temperature on the surface of about 50,000 degrees Celsius . Radiation from the star causes the shed outer layer to heat to about 10,000 degrees Celsius , and is about one light-year across . About 30,000 years from now , scientists theorize that NGC 40 will fade away , leaving only a white dwarf star approximately the size of Earth .","qid":"189","docid":"NGC_40","rank":71,"score":66522},{"content":"Title: Era (geology) Content: A geologic era is a subdivision of geologic time that divides an eon into smaller units of time . The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three such time frames : the Paleozoic , Mesozoic , and Cenozoic represent the major stages in the macroscopic fossil record . These eras are separated by catastrophic extinction boundaries , the P-T boundary between the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic and the K-Pg boundary between the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic . There is evidence that catastrophic meteorite impacts played a role in demarcating the differences between the eras . The Hadean , Archean and Proterozoic eons were as a whole formerly called the Precambrian . This covered the four billion years of Earth history prior to the appearance of hard-shelled animals . More recently , however , those eons have been subdivided into eras of their own .","qid":"189","docid":"Era_(geology)","rank":72,"score":66432},{"content":"Title: 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora Content: The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora was one of the most powerful eruptions in recorded history , with a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of 7 . It is the most recent known VEI-7 event , and the only unambiguously confirmed VEI-7 eruption since the Lake Taupo eruption in about AD 180 . ( The 946 eruption of Paektu Mountain might also have been VEI-7 . ) The eruption of the volcano , on the island of Sumbawa in the Dutch East Indies ( present-day Indonesia ) , reached a climax on 10 April 1815 and was followed by between six months and three years of increased steaming and small phreatic eruptions . The ash from the eruption column dispersed around the world and lowered global temperatures , leading to worldwide harvest failures in an event sometimes known as the Year Without a Summer in 1816 . The eruption resulted in a brief period of significant climate change that led to various cases of extreme weather . Several climate forcings coincided and interacted in a systematic manner that has not been observed since , despite other large eruptions that have occurred since the early Stone Age . Although the link between the post-eruption climate changes and the Tambora event has been established by various scientists , the understanding of the processes involved is incomplete .","qid":"189","docid":"1815_eruption_of_Mount_Tambora","rank":73,"score":66181},{"content":"Title: Henry E. Holt Content: Henry E. Holt ( born 1929 ) is an American astronomer and prolific discoverer of minor planets and comets , who has worked as a planetary geologist at the United States Geological Survey and Northern Arizona University . In the 1960s he studied the photometric properties of the surface of the moon as part of the Surveyor and Apollo programs . Between 1989 and 1993 , he has discovered a total of 683 minor planets , and ranks among the Top 30 discoverers in MPC 's list . His discoveries including the potentially hazardous asteroid 4581 Asclepius , the numbered asteroid that has made the closest approach to Earth at the time , as well as the near-Earth asteroid 4544 Xanthus , and the main-belt asteroid 6312 Robheinlein , which he named after famous science fiction author , Robert Heinlein . He is also a co-discoverer of periodic comets 121P/Shoemaker-Holt , 127P/Holt-Olmstead , and 128P/Shoemaker-Holt . The Mars-crossing asteroid 4435 Holt was named in his honor .","qid":"189","docid":"Henry_E._Holt","rank":74,"score":66094},{"content":"Title: Cyclostratigraphy Content: Cyclostratigraphy is the study of astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions . Astronomical cycles are variations of the Earth 's orbit around the sun due to the gravitational interaction with other masses within the solar system . Due to this cyclicity solar irradiation differs through time on different hemispheres and seasonality is affected . These insolation variations have influence on Earth 's climate and so on the deposition of sedimentary rocks . The main orbital cycles are precession with at present main periods of 19 and 23 kyr , obliquity with at present main periods of 41 kyr , and 1.2 Myr , and eccentricity with at present main periods of around 100 kyr , 405 kyr , and 2.4 Myr . Cyclostratigraphic studies of rock records can lead to accurate dating of events in the geological past , to increase understanding of cause and consequences of Earth 's ( climate ) history , and to more control on depositional mechanisms of sediments and the acting of sedimentary systems .","qid":"189","docid":"Cyclostratigraphy","rank":75,"score":65699},{"content":"Title: Planetary science Content: Planetary science or , more rarely , planetology , is the scientific study of planets ( including Earth ) , moons , and planetary systems ( in particular those of the Solar System ) and the processes that form them . It studies objects ranging in size from micrometeoroids to gas giants , aiming to determine their composition , dynamics , formation , interrelations and history . It is a strongly interdisciplinary field , originally growing from astronomy and earth science , but which now incorporates many disciplines , including planetary geology ( together with geochemistry and geophysics ) , cosmochemistry , atmospheric science , oceanography , hydrology , theoretical planetary science , glaciology , and exoplanetology . Allied disciplines include space physics , when concerned with the effects of the Sun on the bodies of the Solar System , and astrobiology . There are interrelated observational and theoretical branches of planetary science . Observational research can involve a combination of space exploration , predominantly with robotic spacecraft missions using remote sensing , and comparative , experimental work in Earth-based laboratories . The theoretical component involves considerable computer simulation and mathematical modelling . Planetary scientists are generally located in the astronomy and physics or Earth sciences departments of universities or research centres , though there are several purely planetary science institutes worldwide . There are several major conferences each year , and a wide range of peer-reviewed journals .","qid":"189","docid":"Planetary_science","rank":76,"score":65630},{"content":"Title: List of periods and events in climate history Content: Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes further back in time . Some notable climate events known to paleoclimatology are listed here . The timeline of glaciation covers ice ages specifically , which tend to have their own names for phases , often with different names used for different parts of the world . The names for earlier periods and events come from geology and paleontology . The marine isotope stages ( MIS ) are often used to express dating within the Quaternary .","qid":"189","docid":"List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history","rank":77,"score":65524},{"content":"Title: Darin Toohey Content: Darin W. Toohey is an American atmospheric scientist . He is a professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences and of environmental studies at the University of Colorado Boulder since 1999 . Toohey 's research addresses the role of trace gases and aerosols on Earth 's climate , atmospheric oxidation , and air quality . He was a Jefferson Science Fellow at the United States Department of State , 2011-2012 .","qid":"189","docid":"Darin_Toohey","rank":78,"score":65443},{"content":"Title: Timeline of the geologic history of the United States Content:","qid":"189","docid":"Timeline_of_the_geologic_history_of_the_United_States","rank":79,"score":65382},{"content":"Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .","qid":"189","docid":"Younger_Dryas","rank":80,"score":65293},{"content":"Title: Gastrochaenolites Content: Gastrochaenolites is a trace fossil formed as a clavate ( club-shaped ) boring in a hard substrate such as a shell , rock or carbonate hardground . The aperture of the boring is narrower than the main chamber and may be circular , oval , or dumb-bell shaped ( Kelly and Bromley , 1984 ) . Gastrochaenolites is most commonly attributed to bioeroding bivalves such as Lithophaga and Gastrochaena ( Kleeman , 1980 ) . The fossil ranges from the Ordovician to the Recent ( Taylor and Wilson , 2003 ; Vinn and Wilson , 2010 ) .","qid":"189","docid":"Gastrochaenolites","rank":81,"score":65278},{"content":"Title: 100,000-year problem Content: The 100,000-year problem ( `` 100 ky problem '' , `` 100 ka problem '' ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800,000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000 , 40,000 , 100,000 , and 400,000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations . While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100,000-year-problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid-Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800,000 years ago . The related `` 400,000-year-problem '' refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years .","qid":"189","docid":"100,000-year_problem","rank":82,"score":65098},{"content":"Title: Quaternary Content: Quaternary ( -LSB- pronkwəˈtɜrnəri -RSB- ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy ( ICS ) . It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.588 ± 0.005 million years ago to the present . The Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs : the Pleistocene ( 2.588 million years ago to 11.7 thousand years ago ) and the Holocene ( 11.7 thousand years ago to today ) . The informal term `` Late Quaternary '' refers to the past 0.5 -- 1.0 million years . The Quaternary Period is typically defined by the cyclic growth and decay of continental ice sheets driven by Milankovitch cycles and the associated climate and environmental changes that occurred .","qid":"189","docid":"Quaternary","rank":83,"score":65056},{"content":"Title: Mars ocean hypothesis Content: The Mars ocean hypothesis states that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was covered by an ocean of liquid water early in the planet 's geologic history . This primordial ocean , dubbed Paleo-Ocean and Oceanus Borealis , would have filled the basin Vastitas Borealis in the northern hemisphere , a region which lies 4 -- 5 km ( 2.5 -- 3 miles ) below the mean planetary elevation , at a time period of approximately 4.1 -- 3.8 billion years ago . Evidence for this ocean includes geographic features resembling ancient shorelines , and the chemical properties of the Martian soil and atmosphere . Early Mars would have required a denser atmosphere and warmer climate to allow liquid water to remain at the surface .","qid":"189","docid":"Mars_ocean_hypothesis","rank":84,"score":65042},{"content":"Title: Historical geology Content: Historical geology is a discipline that uses the principles and techniques of geology to reconstruct and understand the geological history of Earth . It focuses on geologic processes that change the Earth 's surface and subsurface ; and the use of stratigraphy , structural geology and paleontology to tell the sequence of these events . It also focuses on the evolution of plants and animals during different time periods in the geological timescale . The discovery of radioactivity and the development of several radiometric dating techniques in the first half of the 20th century provided a means of deriving absolute versus relative ages of geologic history . Economic geology , the search for and extraction of fuel and raw materials , is heavily dependent on an understanding of the geological history of an area . Environmental geology , including most importantly the geologic hazards of earthquakes and volcanism , must also include a detailed knowledge of geologic history .","qid":"189","docid":"Historical_geology","rank":85,"score":65023},{"content":"Title: Hartmut Heinrich Content: Hartmut Heinrich ( born March 5 , 1952 in Northeim , Lower Saxony ) is a German marine geologist and climatologist . Dr. Heinrich is Head of the Physics Department at the Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency ( BSH ) in Hamburg . He is actively involved in GOOS ( Global Ocean Observing System ) . In 1988 he described the suddenly occurring climate changes in the history of the earth , which have since been named after him , Heinrich events . Heinrich studied geology at the University of Göttingen and attained a doctorate at the University of Kiel in marine geology . The discovery which was named for him , Heinrich events -- periods of substantial ice output of the continental ice sheets , by which the global climate is strongly affected -- were subsequently confirmed by investigations of ice core samples from the Greenland ice sheet by the Greenland ice core project ( GRIP ) . Dr. Heinrich warns of the global warming consequences which could occur precipitously and of far larger effects on navigation and population .","qid":"189","docid":"Hartmut_Heinrich","rank":86,"score":64836},{"content":"Title: Table of historic and prehistoric climate indicators Content: This table is a reference tool for rapidly locating Wikipedia articles on Historic and Prehistoric climate indicators of all types . To Add : Alkenone analysis TEX-86 analysis Nile river flood levels Trace mineral ratios in deltaic sediment Wildlife distribution Pollen analysis Historic storm-related sinkings Sea temperature and atmospheric pressure ( ENSO ) Scientific meteorological measurements ( since 1800s ) air temperature air pressure wind speed and direction Ocean currents and marine productivity Flooding and drought observations on land Volcanic activity elevated charcoal in lake sediments sand dune activation records eolian ( wind-borne ) sediment deposition","qid":"189","docid":"Table_of_historic_and_prehistoric_climate_indicators","rank":87,"score":64817},{"content":"Title: HD 80606 b Content: HD 80606 b ( also Struve 1341 B b or HIP 45982 b ) is an eccentric and hot Jupiter 190 light-years from the Sun in the constellation of Ursa Major . HD 80606 b was discovered orbiting the star Struve 1341 B in April 2001 by a team led by Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz . With a mass 4 times that of Jupiter , it is a gas giant . Because the planet transits the host star its radius can be determined using the transit method and was found to be slightly smaller than Jupiter 's . Its density is slightly less than Earth 's . It has an extremely eccentric orbit like a comet , with its orbit taking it very close to its star and then back out very far away from it every 111 days .","qid":"189","docid":"HD_80606_b","rank":88,"score":64808},{"content":"Title: Climate Capitalism Content: Climate Capitalism : Capitalism in the Age of Climate Change is a 2011 book by L. Hunter Lovins and Boyd Cohen . It presents positive stories and examples of how profit-seeking companies are helping to save the planet , and says that `` the best way to rebuild America 's economy , cities and job markets is to invest in energy efficiency and renewable energy resources , whether climate change is happening or not '' . However , reviewer Gail Whiteman is unconvinced by the argument that naked greed and market forces will drive businesses to cut their greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"189","docid":"Climate_Capitalism","rank":89,"score":64801},{"content":"Title: Gasconadian Stage Content: The Gasconadian Stage is the first stage of the Ordovician geologic period in North America and of the Lower Ordovician Canadian Epoch , coming immediately after the Late Cambrian Trempealeauan and preceding the middle Canadian Demingian Stage . The Gasconadian is equivalent to the European Tremadocian and roughly to the Skullrockian of the Ibexian series . The Gasconadian is named for the Gasconade Formation of Missouri , named in turn for the Gasconade River , and is represented by the Tribes Hill Formation in New York state and by the upper Bliss Fm and the Sierrite Ls of the El Paso Group in southern New Mexico and west Texas . The Gasconadian is a common term in the paleontological and stratigraphic literature of the previous century , whether used simply for a span of time or for strata laid down during that time .","qid":"189","docid":"Gasconadian_Stage","rank":90,"score":64776},{"content":"Title: Evershed effect Content: The Evershed effect , named after the British astronomer John Evershed , is the radial flow of gas across the photospheric surface of the penumbra of sunspots from the inner border with the umbra towards the outer edge . The speed varies from around 1 km/s at the border between the umbra and the penumbra to a maximum of around double this in the middle of the penumbra and falls off to zero at the outer edge of the penumbra . Evershed first detected this phenomenon in January 1909 , whilst working at the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory in India , when he found that the spectral lines of sunspots showed doppler shift . Afterwards , measurements of the spectral emission lines emitted in the ultraviolet wavelengths have shown a systematic red-shift . The Evershed effect is common to every spectral line formed at a temperature below 105 K ; this fact would imply a constant downflow from the transition region towards the chromosphere . The observed velocity is about 5 km/s . Of course , this is impossible , since if it were true , the corona would disappear in a short time instead of being suspended over the Sun at temperatures of million degrees over distances much larger than a solar radius . Many theories have been proposed to explain this redshift in line profiles of the transition region , but the problem is still unsolved , since a coherent theory should take into account all the physical observations : UV line profiles are redshifted on average , but they show back and forth velocity oscillations at the same time . In synthesis , the proposed mechanisms are : siphon flows in coronal loops driven by a pressure difference , different cross-sections of the coronal loops footpoints , the return of spicules , multiple flows , nanoflares , and thermal instabilities during chromospheric condensation . The effect was commemorated in a postage stamp issued in India on 2 December 2008 .","qid":"189","docid":"Evershed_effect","rank":91,"score":64746},{"content":"Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .","qid":"189","docid":"European_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":92,"score":64711},{"content":"Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .","qid":"189","docid":"Year_Without_a_Summer","rank":93,"score":64619},{"content":"Title: Eruption column Content: An eruption column is a cloud of hot volcanic ash suspended in volcanic gas emitted during an explosive volcanic eruption . The ash forms a column that may rise many kilometres into the air above the vent of the volcano . In the most explosive eruptions , the eruption column may rise over 40 km , penetrating the stratosphere . Stratospheric injection of aerosols by volcanoes is a major cause of short-term climate change . A common occurrence in explosive eruptions is for column collapse to occur . In this case , the eruption column is too dense to be lifted high into the air by air convection , and instead falls down the flanks of the volcano to form a pyroclastic flow or surge . On some occasions , if ash is n't dense enough to fall , it may create pyrocumulonimbus .","qid":"189","docid":"Eruption_column","rank":94,"score":64520},{"content":"Title: Gas torus Content: A gas torus is a toroidal cloud of gas or plasma that encircles a planet . In the Solar System , gas tori tend to be produced by the interaction of a satellite 's atmosphere with the magnetic field of a planet . The most famous example of this is the Io plasma torus , which is produced by the ionization of roughly 1 ton per second of oxygen and sulfur from the tenuous atmosphere of Jupiter 's volcanic moon Io . Other examples include the largely neutral torus of oxygen and hydrogen produced by Saturn 's moon Enceladus , and the proposed ( though not observationally supported ) torus of nitrogen produced by Saturn 's moon Titan . A fictional gas torus is the setting for Larry Niven 's novels The Integral Trees and The Smoke Ring , in which a gas giant in orbit around a neutron star generates a gas torus of sufficient density and free oxygen to support life ( including humans ) .","qid":"189","docid":"Gas_torus","rank":95,"score":64515},{"content":"Title: Paleocene Content: The Paleocene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliəˌsiːn , _ ˈpæ - , _ - lioʊ - -RSB- ) or Palaeocene , the `` old recent '' , is a geologic epoch that lasted from about . It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era . As with many geologic periods , the strata that define the epoch 's beginning and end are well identified , but the exact ages remain uncertain . The Paleocene Epoch brackets two major events in Earth 's history . It started with the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous , known as the Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) boundary . This was a time marked by the demise of non-avian dinosaurs , giant marine reptiles and much other fauna and flora . The die-off of the dinosaurs left unfilled ecological niches worldwide . The Paleocene ended with the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , a geologically brief ( ~ 0.2 million year ) interval characterized by extreme changes in climate and carbon cycling . The name `` Paleocene '' comes from Ancient Greek and refers to the `` old ( er ) '' ( παλαιός , palaios ) `` new '' ( καινός , kainos ) fauna that arose during the epoch .","qid":"189","docid":"Paleocene","rank":96,"score":64471},{"content":"Title: Geological history of oxygen Content: Before photosynthesis evolved , Earth 's atmosphere had no free oxygen ( O2 ) . Photosynthetic prokaryotic organisms that produced O2 as a waste product lived long before the first build-up of free oxygen in the atmosphere , perhaps as early as 3.5 billion years ago . The oxygen they produced would have been rapidly removed from the atmosphere by weathering of reducing minerals , most notably iron . This `` mass rusting '' led to the deposition of iron oxide on the ocean floor , forming banded iron formations . Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the Great Oxygenation Event . This mass oxygenation of the atmosphere resulted in rapid buildup of free oxygen . At current rates of primary production , today 's concentration of oxygen could be produced by photosynthetic organisms in 2,000 years . In the absence of plants , the rate of oxygen production by photosynthesis was slower in the Precambrian , and the concentrations of O2 attained were less than 10 % of today 's and probably fluctuated greatly ; oxygen may even have disappeared from the atmosphere again around 1.9 billion years ago . These fluctuations in oxygen concentration had little direct effect on life , with mass extinctions not observed until the appearance of complex life around the start of the Cambrian period , . The presence of provided life with new opportunities . Aerobic metabolism is more efficient than anaerobic pathways , and the presence of oxygen undoubtedly created new possibilities for life to explore . Since the start of the Cambrian period , atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15 % and 35 % of atmospheric volume . The maximum of 35 % was reached towards the end of the Carboniferous period ( about 300 million years ago ) , a peak which may have contributed to the large size of insects and amphibians at that time . Whilst human activities , such as the burning of fossil fuels , affect relative carbon dioxide concentrations , their effect on the much larger concentration of oxygen is less significant .","qid":"189","docid":"Geological_history_of_oxygen","rank":97,"score":64308},{"content":"Title: WASP-4b Content: WASP-4b is an extrasolar planet approximately 1,000 light-years away in the constellation of Phoenix . The planet was discovered orbiting the star WASP-4 in October 2007 . The planet 's mass and radius indicate that it is a gas giant , similar to Jupiter . WASP-4b is close enough to its star to be classified as a hot Jupiter and has an atmospheric temperature of approximately 1650 K. The planet was the discovered by the SuperWASP project using cameras in South Africa . After its discovery , the mass of the WASP-4 b was determined by measuring the radial velocity of WASP-4 , which confirmed that the object that caused the transit was a planet .","qid":"189","docid":"WASP-4b","rank":98,"score":64255},{"content":"Title: Surface features of Venus Content: The surface of Venus is dominated by geologic features that include volcanoes , large impact craters , and aeolian erosion and sedimentation landforms . Venus has a topography reflecting its single , strong crustal plate , with a unimodal elevation distribution ( over 90 % of the surface lies within an elevation of -1.0 and 2.5 km ) that preserves geologic structures for long periods of time . Studies of the Venusian surface are based on imaging , radar , and altimetry data collected from several exploratory space probes , particularly Magellan , since 1961 ( see Venus Exploration ) . Despite its similarities to Earth in size , mass , density , and possibly composition , Venus has a unique geology that is unlike Earth 's . Although much older than Earth 's , the surface of Venus is relatively young compared to other terrestrial planets ( < 500 million years old ) , possibly due to a global-scale resurfacing event that buried much of the previous rock record . Venus is believed to have approximately the same bulk elemental composition as Earth , due to the physical similarities , but the exact composition is unknown . The surface conditions on Venus are more extreme than on Earth , with temperatures ranging from 453 to 473 ° C and pressures of 95 bar . Venus lacks water , which makes crustal rock stronger and helps preserve surface features . The features observed provide evidence for the geological processes at work . Twenty feature types have been categorized thus far . These classes include local features , such as craters , coronae , and undae , as well as regional-scale features , such as planitiae , plana , and tesserae .","qid":"189","docid":"Surface_features_of_Venus","rank":99,"score":64100},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"189","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":100,"score":64079}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geological history of Earth Content: The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth 's past based on the geologic time scale , a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet 's rock layers ( stratigraphy ) . Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula , a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun , which also created the rest of the Solar System . Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies . Eventually , the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere . The Moon formed soon afterwards , possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth . Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere . Condensing water vapor , augmented by ice delivered from comets , produced the oceans . As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years , continents formed and broke apart . They migrated across the surface , occasionally combining to form a supercontinent . Roughly , the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia , began to break apart . The continents later recombined to form Pannotia , , then finally Pangaea , which broke apart . The present pattern of ice ages began about , then intensified at the end of the Pliocene . The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw , repeating every 40,000 -- 100,000 years . The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Geological_history_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 93997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lakes on Mars Content: In summer 1965 , the first close-up pictures from Mars showed a cratered desert with no signs of water . However , over the decades , as more parts of the planet were imaged with better cameras on more sophisticated satellites , Mars showed evidence of past river valleys , lakes , and ice in glaciers and in the ground . It was discovered that the climate of Mars displays huge changes over geologic time because its axis is not stabilized by a large moon , as Earth 's is . Also , some researchers maintain that water could exist for periods of time due to geothermal effects or asteroid impacts . Besides seeing features that were signs of past water , researchers found other types of evidence for past water . Minerals detected in many locations needed water to form . An instrument in the Mars Odyssey , an orbiting spacecraft , mapped the distribution of water in the near surface . When the Phoenix spacecraft fired its rockets to land in the far north , ice was exposed . When water enters a large body of water , such as a lake , a delta may form . Many craters and other depressions on Mars show deltas that resemble those on Earth . In addition , if a lake lies in a depression , channels entering it will all stop at the same altitude . Such an arrangement is visible around places on Mars that are supposed to have contained large bodies of water -- including around a possible ocean in the North . Lake formation has been proposed by various researchers for quite some time . One study found 205 possible closed-basin lakes in craters on Mars . The basins have an inlet valley that cuts the crater rim and flows into the basin , but they have no visible outlet valley . The total volume of the basins is equivalent to a depth of 1.2 meters spread evenly over the Martian surface . However , this amount is a small fraction of the current water ice stores on Mars . Another study found 210 open-basin lakes . These were lakes with both an inlet and an outlet ; hence water must have entered the basin , and reached the height of the outlet . Some of these lakes had volumes similar to Earth 's Caspian Sea , Black Sea , and Lake Baikal . Moreover , some basins on Mars form part of long chains of lakes . The Naktong/Scamander/Mamers Valles lake-chain system is about 4500 km ( 2800 miles ) long , with a drainage area similar to that of the Missouri-Mississippi rivers . Another , the Samara/Himera Vallis system , is 1800 km long . Many of the long chains of lakes are found in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle . Some of the lakes appear to have had a high volume as compared to their drainage area ; hence , it is believed that some of the water was groundwater . Further evidence is the existence of knobby material on the basin floors . These knobs can be formed when large amounts of water left the ground . This article describes some of the places that could have held large lakes .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Lakes_on_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 93546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_activity_and_climate\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 92738\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 87992\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 87662\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Noachian Content: The Noachian is a geologic system and early time period on the planet Mars characterized by high rates of meteorite and asteroid impacts and the possible presence of abundant surface water . The absolute age of the Noachian period is uncertain but probably corresponds to the lunar Pre-Nectarian to Early Imbrian periods of 4100 to 3700 million years ago , during the interval known as the Late Heavy Bombardment . Many of the large impact basins on the Moon and Mars formed at this time . The Noachian Period is roughly equivalent to the Earth 's Hadean and early Archean eons when the first life forms likely arose . Noachian-aged terrains on Mars are prime spacecraft landing sites to search for fossil evidence of life . During the Noachian , the atmosphere of Mars was denser than it is today , and the climate possibly warm enough to allow rainfall . Large lakes and rivers were present in the southern hemisphere , and an ocean may have covered the low-lying northern plains . Extensive volcanism occurred in the Tharsis region , building up enormous masses of volcanic material ( the Tharsis bulge ) and releasing large quantities of gases into the atmosphere . Weathering of surface rocks produced a diversity of clay minerals ( phyllosilicates ) that formed under chemical conditions conducive to microbial life .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Noachian\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 86968\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Landfill_gas\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 83889\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary Content: The climate across the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg or formerly the K -- T boundary ) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid , volcanism , or sea level changes . While the mass extinction is well documented , there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event . The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known , which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact . Oxygen isotopes across the K -- T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself . Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K -- T boundary suggest rapid , repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction , and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary , indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction . The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate , direct consequences of the impact .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_across_Cretaceous–Paleogene_boundary\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 83702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 82733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paul Werner Gast Content: Paul Werner Gast ( September 11 , 1930 -- May 16 , 1973 ) was an American geochemist and geologist . He was born in Chicago , and attended Wheaton College , Illinois , whence he graduated in 1952 . He earned a Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1957 . After graduation , he taught at the University of Minnesota until 1965 when he became professor of geology at Columbia . In 1969 Paul Gast assumed leadership of the geo-science management of the Manned Spacecraft Center in preparation for Apollo mission sample return from the Moon . He served as chief scientist of the Apollo Lunar Science Staff . He was one of the science consultant group known unofficially as the `` Four Horsemen '' , along with Jim Arnold , Bob Walker and Gerry Wasserburg . He died at the age of 43 , being survived by his wife , Joyce Rinehart , and two sons and a daughter . During his career he pioneered the study of rare earth elements in examining the crust , mantle , and interior of the planet . He led the development of the use of rubidium-strontium and uranium-lead radiometric dating methods for rocks , particularly for samples returned from the Moon . His examinations of trace elements resulted in new understands of how volcanic fluids originate .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Paul_Werner_Gast\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 82683\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 81427\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geological history of Mars Content: The geological history of Mars employs observations , indirect and direct measurements , and various inference techniques to estimate the physical evolution of Mars . Methods dating back to 17th century techniques developed by Nicholas Steno , including the so-called law of superposition and stratigraphy , used to estimate the geological histories of Earth and the Moon , are being actively applied to the data available from several Martian observational and measurement resources . These include the landers , orbiting platforms , Earth-based observations , and Martian meteorites . Observations of the surfaces of many Solar System bodies reveals important clues about their evolution . For example , a lava flow that spreads out and fills a large impact crater is likely to be younger than the crater . On the other hand , a small crater on top of the same lava flow is likely to be younger than both the lava and the larger crater since it can be surmised to have been the product of a later , unobserved , geological event . This principle , called the law of superposition , and other principles of stratigraphy , first formulated by Nicholas Steno in the 17th century , allowed geologists of the 19th century to divide the history of the Earth into the familiar eras of Paleozoic , Mesozoic , and Cenozoic . The same methodology was later applied to the Moon and then to Mars . Another stratigraphic principle used on planets where impact craters are well preserved is that of crater number density . The number of craters greater than a given size per unit surface area ( usually million km2 ) provides a relative age for that surface . Heavily cratered surfaces are old , and sparsely cratered surfaces are young . Old surfaces have a lot of big craters , and young surfaces have mostly small craters or none at all . These stratigraphic concepts form the basis for the Martian geologic timescale .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Geological_history_of_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 81375\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_climate_research_satellites\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 81180\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 81129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eaarth Content: Eaarth : Making a Life on a Tough New Planet is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Henry Holt and Company in 2010 . In the opening chapter , McKibben presents an array of facts and statistics about climate change that are already visible , supported by extensive footnotes . In the second and third chapters , McKibben lays out his analysis of how we have arrived at the current situation , and conveys genuine sorrow as he explains how the drive for economic growth based on hydrocarbons since the 1970s has led the planet to the point of breakdown . In a review of the book , British economist Nicholas Stern suggests that there is no doubting McKibben 's sincerity and his ability to communicate the significant risks which humanity faces . According to Stern , his `` overall thesis that we are already seeing widespread effects of climate change is sound and supported by much robust scientific evidence '' . But Stern says McKibben is too pessimistic when it comes to the recent advances in avoiding even bigger changes to the climate by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Eaarth\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 79457\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 79331\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate of Uranus Content: The climate of Uranus is heavily influenced by both its lack of internal heat , which limits atmospheric activity , and by its extreme axial tilt , which induces intense seasonal variation . Uranus 's atmosphere is remarkably bland in comparison to the other gas giants which it otherwise closely resembles . When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986 , it observed a total of ten cloud features across the entire planet . Later observations from the ground or by the Hubble Space Telescope made in the 1990s and the 2000s revealed bright clouds in the northern ( winter ) hemisphere . In 2006 a dark spot similar to the Great Dark Spot on Neptune was detected .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_of_Uranus\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 78591\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 78219\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Simon_Tett\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 78198\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Milutin Milanković Content: Milutin Milanković ( Милутин Миланковић , pronounced -LSB- milǔtin milǎːnkɔʋitɕ -RSB- 28 May 1879 -- 12 December 1958 ) was a Serbian mathematician , astronomer , climatologist , geophysicist , civil engineer , doctor of technology , university professor and popularizer of science . Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science . The first contribution is the `` Canon of the Earth 's Insolation '' , which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the Solar system . The second contribution is the explanation of Earth 's long-term climate changes caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun , now known as Milankovitch cycles . This explained the ice ages occurring in the geological past of the Earth , as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future . He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth 's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system , Mercury , Venus , Mars , and the Moon , as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets . He demonstrated the interrelatedness of celestial mechanics and the Earth sciences , and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of descriptive sciences into exact ones .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Milutin_Milanković\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 77965\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 77518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hesperian Content: The Hesperian is a geologic system and time period on the planet Mars characterized by widespread volcanic activity and catastrophic flooding that carved immense outflow channels across the surface . The Hesperian is an intermediate and transitional period of Martian history . During the Hesperian , Mars changed from the wetter and perhaps warmer world of the Noachian to the dry , cold , and dusty planet seen today . The absolute age of the Hesperian Period is uncertain . The beginning of the period followed the end of the late heavy bombardment and probably corresponds to the start of the lunar Late Imbrian period , around 3700 million years ago ( Mya ) . The end of the Hesperian Period is much more uncertain and could range anywhere from 3200 to 2000 Mya , with 3000 Mya being frequently cited . The Hesperian Period is roughly coincident with the Earth 's early Archean Eon . With the decline of heavy impacts at the end of the Noachian , volcanism became the primary geologic process on Mars , producing vast plains of flood basalts and broad volcanic constructs ( highland paterae ) . By Hesperian times , all of the large shield volcanoes on Mars , including Olympus Mons , had begun to form . Volcanic outgassing released large amounts of sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) into the atmosphere , causing a transition in the style of weathering from dominantly phyllosilicate ( clay ) to sulfate mineralogy . Liquid water became more localized in extent and turned more acidic as it interacted with SO2 and H2S to form sulfuric acid . By the beginning of the Late Hesperian the atmosphere had probably thinned to its present density . As the planet cooled , groundwater stored in the upper crust ( megaregolith ) began to freeze , forming a thick cryosphere overlying a deeper zone of liquid water . Subsequent volcanic or tectonic activity occasionally fractured the cryosphere , releasing enormous quantities of deep groundwater to the surface and carving huge outflow channels . Much of this water flowed into the northern hemisphere where it probably pooled to form large transient lakes or an ice covered ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Hesperian\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 77293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of Earth Content: The history of Earth concerns the development of the planet Earth from its formation to the present day . Nearly all branches of natural science have contributed to the understanding of the main events of the Earth 's past . The age of Earth is approximately one-third of the age of the universe . An immense amount of geological change has occurred in that timespan , accompanied by the emergence of life and its subsequent evolution . Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula . Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere and then the ocean ; but the atmosphere contained almost no oxygen and so would have been toxic to most modern life including humans . Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism . A giant impact collision with a planet-sized body named Theia while Earth was in its earliest stage , also known as Early Earth , is thought to have been responsible for forming the Moon . Over time , the Earth cooled , causing the formation of a solid crust , and allowing liquid water to exist on the surface . The geological time scale ( GTS ) clock ( see graphic ) depicts the larger spans of time from the beginning of the Earth as well as a chronology of some definitive events of Earth history . The Hadean Eon represents time before the reliable ( fossil ) record of life beginning on Earth ; it began with the formation of the planet and ended at 4.0 billion years ago as defined by international convention . The Archean and Proterozoic eons follow ; they produced the abiogenesis of life on Earth and then the evolution of early life . The succeeding eon is the Phanerozoic , which is represented by its three component eras : the Palaeozoic ; the Mesozoic , which spanned the rise , reign , and climactic extinction of the huge dinosaurs ; and the Cenozoic , which presented the subsequent development of dominant mammals on Earth . Hominins , the earliest direct ancestors of the human clade , rose sometime during the latter part of the Miocene epoch ; the precise time marking the first hominins is broadly debated over a current range of 13 to 4 mya . The succeeding Quaternary period is the time of recognizable humans , i.e. , the genus Homo , but that period 's two million-year-plus term of the recent times is too small to be visible at the scale of the GTS graphic . ( Notes re the graphic : Ga means `` billion years '' ; Ma , `` million years '' . ) The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago , during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon . There are microbial mat fossils such as stromatolites found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia . Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland as well as `` remains of biotic life '' found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . According to one of the researchers , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe . '' Living forms derived from photosynthesis appeared between 3.2 and 2.4 billion years ago and began enriching the atmosphere with oxygen . Life remained mostly small and microscopic until about 580 million years ago , when complex multicellular life arose , developed over time , and culminated in the Cambrian Explosion about 541 million years ago . This event drove a rapid diversification of life forms on Earth that produced most of the major phyla known today ; and it marked the end of the Proterozoic Eon and the beginning of the Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era . More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . Geological change has been a constant of Earth 's crust since the time of its formation , and biological change since the first appearance of life . Species continue to evolve , taking on new forms , splitting into daughter species or going extinct in the process of adapting or dying in response to ever-changing physical environments . The process of plate tectonics continues to play a dominant role in the shaping of Earth 's oceans and continents and the living species they harbor . Changes in the biosphere -- now dominated by human activity -- continue , in turn , to produce significant effects on the atmosphere and other systems of the Earth 's surface , such as the integrity of the ozone layer , the proliferation of greenhouse gases , the conditions of productive soils and clean air and water , and others .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 77215\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 76654\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volcanology of Mars Content: Volcanic activity , or volcanism , has played a significant role in the geologic evolution of Mars . Scientists have known since the Mariner 9 mission in 1972 that volcanic features cover large portions of the Martian surface . These features include extensive lava flows , vast lava plains , and the largest known volcanoes in the Solar System . Martian volcanic features range in age from Noachian ( > 3.7 billion years ) to late Amazonian ( < 500 million years ) , indicating that the planet has been volcanically active throughout its history , and some speculate it probably still is so today . Both Earth and Mars are large , differentiated planets built from similar chondritic materials . Many of the same magmatic processes that occur on Earth also occurred on Mars , and both planets are similar enough compositionally that the same names can be applied to their igneous rocks and minerals . Volcanism is a process in which magma from a planet 's interior rises through the crust and erupts on the surface . The erupted materials consist of molten rock ( lava ) , hot fragmental debris ( tephra or ash ) , and gases . Volcanism is a principal way that planets release their internal heat . Volcanic eruptions produce distinctive landforms , rock types , and terrains that provide a window on the chemical composition , thermal state , and history of a planet 's interior . Magma is a complex , high-temperature mixture of molten silicates , suspended crystals , and dissolved gases . Magma on Mars likely ascends in a similar manner to that on Earth . It rises through the lower crust in diapiric bodies that are less dense than the surrounding material . As the magma rises , it eventually reaches regions of lower density . When the magma density matches that of the host rock , buoyancy is neutralized and the magma body stalls . At this point , it may form a magma chamber and spread out laterally into a network of dikes and sills . Subsequently , the magma may cool and solidify to form intrusive igneous bodies ( plutons ) . Geologists estimate that about 80 % of the magma generated on Earth stalls in the crust and never reaches the surface . As magma rises and cools , it undergoes many complex and dynamic compositional changes . Heavier minerals may crystallize and settle to the bottom of the magma chamber . The magma may also assimilate portions of host rock or mix with other batches of magma . These processes alter the composition of the remaining melt , so that any magma reaching the surface may be chemically quite different from its parent melt . Magmas that have been so altered are said to be `` evolved '' to distinguish them from `` primitive '' magmas that more closely resemble the composition of their mantle source . ( See igneous differentiation and fractional crystallization . ) More highly evolved magmas are usually felsic , that is enriched in silica , volatiles , and other light elements compared to iron - and magnesium-rich ( mafic ) primitive magmas . The degree and extent to which magmas evolve over time is an indication of a planet 's level of internal heat and tectonic activity . The Earth 's continental crust is made up of evolved granitic rocks that developed through many episodes of magmatic reprocessing . Evolved igneous rocks are much less common on cold , dead bodies such as the Moon . Mars , being intermediate in size between the Earth and the Moon , is thought to be intermediate in its level of magmatic activity . At shallower depths in the crust , the lithostatic pressure on the magma body decreases . The reduced pressure can cause gases ( volatiles ) , such as carbon dioxide and water vapor , to exsolve from the melt into a froth of gas bubbles . The nucleation of bubbles causes a rapid expansion and cooling of the surrounding melt , producing glassy shards that may erupt explosively as tephra ( also called pyroclastics ) . Fine-grained tephra is commonly referred to as volcanic ash . Whether a volcano erupts explosively or effusively as fluid lava depends on the composition of the melt . Felsic magmas of andesitic and rhyolitic composition tend to erupt explosively . They are very viscous ( thick and sticky ) and rich in dissolved gases . Mafic magmas , on the other hand , are low in volatiles and commonly erupt effusively as basaltic lava flows . However , these are only generalizations . For example , magma that comes into sudden contact with groundwater or surface water may erupt violently in steam explosions called hydromagmatic ( phreatomagmatic or phreatic ) eruptions . Also , erupting magmas may behave differently on planets with different interior compositions , atmospheres , and gravity fields .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Volcanology_of_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 75573\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Trace gas Content: A trace gas is a gas which makes up less than 1 % by volume of the Earth 's atmosphere , and it includes all gases except nitrogen ( 78.1 % ) and oxygen ( 20.9 % ) . The most abundant trace gas at 0.934 % is argon . Water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Trace_gas\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 75333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Hirnantian\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 74333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 74236\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geologic temperature record Content: The Geologic temperature record are changes in Earth 's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion ( 109 ) year time scales . The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a crucial component of the climate and oceanography of the time .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Geologic_temperature_record\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 74216\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bond event Content: Bond events are North Atlantic ice rafting events that are tentatively linked to climate fluctuations in the Holocene . Eight such events have been identified . Bond events were previously believed to exhibit a quasi ~ 1,500-year cycle , but the primary period of variability is now put at ~ 1,000 years . Gerard C. Bond of the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University was the lead author of the 1997 paper that postulated the theory of 1470-year climate cycles in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic . However , more recent work has shown that these tracers provide little support for 1,500-year intervals of climate change , and the reported ~ 1,500 ± 500-year period was a statistical artifact . Furthermore , following publication of the Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 ( GICC05 ) for the North GRIP ice core , it became clear that Dansgaar-Oescher Events also show no such a pattern . The North Atlantic ice-rafting events happen to correlate with episodes of lowered lake levels in the Mid-Atlantic region , USA , the most weak events of the Asian monsoon for at least the past 9,000 years , and also correlate with most aridification events in the Middle East for the past 55,000 years ( both Heinrich and Bond events ) . For reasons that are unclear , the only Holocene Bond event that has a clear temperature signal in the Greenland ice cores is the 8.2 kyr event .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Bond_event\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 73675\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter Content: The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter ( TGO ) is a collaborative project between the European Space Agency ( ESA ) and Roscosmos that sent an atmospheric research orbiter and the Schiaparelli demonstration lander to Mars in 2016 as part of the European-led ExoMars programme . The Trace Gas Orbiter delivered the Schiaparelli lander and will start atmospheric mapping in 2017 . A key goal is to gain a better understanding of methane and other trace gases present in the Martian atmosphere that could be evidence for possible biological activity . The programme will follow with the Surface Science Platform and the ExoMars rover in 2020 , which will search for biomolecules and biosignatures ; the TGO will operate as the communication link for the 2020 ExoMars rover and surface science platform and provide communication for other Mars surface probes with Earth . The lander 's radio signal was lost during the descent through the Mars atmosphere and later the lander was confirmed to have crashed .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"ExoMars_Trace_Gas_Orbiter\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 73230\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Planetary geology Content: Planetary geology , alternatively known as astrogeology or exogeology , is a planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons , asteroids , comets , and meteorites . Although the geo - prefix typically indicates topics of or relating to the Earth , planetary geology is named as such for historical and convenience reasons ; applying geological science to other planetary bodies . Due to the types of investigations involved , it is also closely linked with Earth-based geology . Planetary geology includes such topics as determining the internal structure of the terrestrial planets , and also looks at planetary volcanism and surface processes such as impact craters , fluvial and aeolian processes . The structures of the giant planets and their moons are also examined , as is the make-up of the minor bodies of the Solar System , such as asteroids , the Kuiper Belt , and comets .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Planetary_geology\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 72861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Runaway_greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 72833\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of paleontology Content: The history of paleontology traces the history of the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the fossil record left behind by living organisms . Since it is concerned with understanding living organisms of the past paleontology can be considered to be a field of biology , but its historical development has been closely tied to geology and the effort to understand the history of Earth itself . In ancient times Xenophanes ( 570-480 BC ) , Herodotus ( 484-425 BC ) , Eratosthenes ( 276-194 BC ) , and Strabo ( 64 BC-24 AD ) , wrote about fossils of marine organisms indicating that land was once under water . During the Middle Ages , fossils were discussed by the Persian naturalist , Ibn Sina ( known as Avicenna in Europe ) , in The Book of Healing ( 1027 ) , which proposed a theory of petrifying fluids that Albert of Saxony would elaborate on in the 14th century . The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo ( 1031 -- 1095 ) would propose a theory of climate change based on evidence from petrified bamboo . In early modern Europe , the systematic study of fossils emerged as an integral part of the changes in natural philosophy that occurred during the Age of Reason . The nature of fossils and their relationship to life in the past became better understood during the 17th and 18th centuries , and at the end of the 18th century the work of Georges Cuvier ended a long running debate about the reality of extinction and led to the emergence of paleontology , in association with comparative anatomy , as a scientific discipline . The expanding knowledge of the fossil record also played an increasing role in the development of geology , particularly stratigraphy . In 1822 the word `` paleontology '' was invented by the editor of a French scientific journal to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils , and the first half of the 19th century saw geological and paleontological activity become increasingly well organized with the growth of geologic societies and museums and an increasing number of professional geologists and fossil specialists . This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth , and progress towards definition of the geologic time scale largely based on fossil evidence . As knowledge of life 's history continued to improve , it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life . This would encourage early evolutionary theories on the transmutation of species . After Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859 , much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding evolutionary paths , including human evolution , and evolutionary theory . The last half of the 19th century saw a tremendous expansion in paleontological activity , especially in North America . The trend continued in the 20th century with additional regions of the Earth being opened to systematic fossil collection , as demonstrated by a series of important discoveries in China near the end of the 20th century . Many transitional fossils have been discovered , and there is now considered to be abundant evidence of how all classes of vertebrates are related , much of it in the form of transitional fossils . The last few decades of the 20th century saw a renewed interest in mass extinctions and their role in the evolution of life on Earth . There was also a renewed interest in the Cambrian explosion that saw the development of the body plans of most animal phyla . The discovery of fossils of the Ediacaran biota and developments in paleobiology extended knowledge about the history of life back far before the Cambrian .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_paleontology\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 72702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 72609\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cool early Earth Content: The cool early Earth ( CEE ) theory posits that for part of the Hadean geological eon , at the beginning of the Earth 's history , it had a modest influx of bolides and a cool climate , allowing the presence of liquid water . This would have been after the extreme conditions of earth 's earliest history between 4.6 and 4.4 billion years ( Ga ) ago , but before the Late Heavy Bombardment of 4.1 to 3.8 Ga ago . In 2002 John Valley et al argued that detrital zircons found in Western Australia , dating to 4.0 -- 4.4 Ga ago , were formed at relatively low temperatures , that meteorite impacts may have been less frequent than previously thought , and that the earth may have gone through long periods when liquid oceans and life were possible . In 2016 Gavin Kenny et al replied to suggestions that zircons were formed by melting during tectonic subduction at plate boundaries , and argued that at least some of them were formed by meteorite impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Cool_early_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 72179\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Carnian_Pluvial_Event\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 72104\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 72096\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ExoMars Content: ExoMars ( Exobiology on Mars ) is a two-part Martian astrobiology project to search for evidence of life on Mars , a joint mission of the European Space Agency ( ESA ) and the Russian space agency Roscosmos . The first part , launched in 2016 , placed a trace gas research and communication satellite into Mars orbit and released a stationary experimental lander ( which crashed ) . The second part is planned to launch in 2020 , and to land a rover on the surface , supporting a science mission that is expected to last into 2022 or beyond . ExoMars goals are to search for signs of past and present life on Mars , investigate how the Martian water and geochemical environment varies , investigate atmospheric trace gases and their sources and by doing so demonstrate the technologies for a future Mars sample return mission . The mission will search for biosignatures of Martian life , past or present , employing several spacecraft elements to be sent to Mars on two launches . The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter ( TGO ) and a test stationary lander called Schiaparelli were launched on 14 March 2016 . TGO entered Mars orbit on 19 October 2016 and will proceed to map the sources of methane and other trace gases present in the Martian atmosphere that could be evidence for possible biological or geological activity . The Schiaparelli experimental lander separated from TGO on 16 October and was maneuvered to land in Meridiani Planum . , ESA had not received a signal that the landing was successful . On 21 October 2016 , NASA released a Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter image showing what appears to be the lander crash site . The landing was designed to test new key technologies to safely deliver the 2020 rover mission . The TGO features four instruments and will also act as a communications relay satellite . In 2020 , a Roscosmos-built lander ( ExoMars 2020 surface platform ) is to deliver the ESA-built ExoMars Rover to the Martian surface . The rover will also include some Roscosmos built instruments . The second mission operations and communications will be led by ALTEC 's Rover Control Centre in Italy .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"ExoMars\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 71903\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geodynamics of Venus Content: NASA 's Magellan spacecraft mission discovered that Venus has a geologically young surface with a relatively uniform age of 500 ± 200 Ma ( million years ) . The age of Venus was revealed by the observation of over 900 impact craters on the surface of the planet . These impact craters are nearly uniformly distributed over the surface of Venus and less than 10 % have been modified by plains of volcanism or deformation . These observations indicate that a catastrophic resurfacing event took place on Venus around 500 Ma , and was followed by a dramatic decline in resurfacing rate . The radar images from the Magellan missions revealed that the terrestrial style of plate tectonics is not active on Venus and the surface appears to be immobile at the present time . Despite these surface observations , there are numerous surface features that indicate an actively convecting interior . The Soviet Venera landings revealed that the surface of Venus is essentially basaltic in composition based on geochemical measurements and morphology of volcanic flows . The surface of Venus is dominated by patterns of basaltic volcanism , and by compressional and extensional tectonic deformation , such as the highly deformed tesserae terrain and the pancake like volcano-tectonic features known as coronae . The planet 's surface can be broadly characterized by its low lying plains , which cover about 80 % of the surface , ` continental ' plateaus and volcanic swells . There is also an abundance of small and large shield volcanoes distributed over the planet 's surface . Based on its surface features , it appears that Venus is tectonically and convectively alive but has a lithosphere that is static .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Geodynamics_of_Venus\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 71689\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mars Tectonics Content: In the tectonic history of Mars , two primary tectonic events are usually considered . The first is the process that lowered and resurfaced the northern hemisphere , resulting in a planet whose crustal thickness is distinctly bimodal -- this is referred to as the hemispheric dichotomy ( Fig. 1 ) . The second tectonic event is the process that formed the Tharsis rise , which is a massive volcanic province that has had major tectonic influences both on a regional and global scale . These events largely pertain to the three major physiographic provinces of Mars ; the northern plains , the southern highlands , and the Tharsis plateau . The different geological and tectonic characteristics of these regions will be described in the following section . Hypotheses proposed to explain how the two primary tectonic events may have occurred are usually divided into endogenic and exogenic processes , both of which will be discussed in this article . Possible tectonic implications of magnetic anomalies detected on Mars will also be discussed . These magnetic anomalies are linear in shape and of alternating polarity , much like those found on Earth that have been a product of seafloor spreading . A process akin to seafloor spreading has also been proposed to explain the magnetic anomalies on Mars , and will be discussed below . Furthermore , recent research claims to have found the first strong evidence for plate tectonics on Mars . This discovery refers to a large-scale strike-slip fault zone in the Valles Marineris through system , which has been likened to transform faults on Earth such as the San Andreas and Dead Sea faults . This discovery could have major implications for our future understanding of Martian tectonics .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Mars_Tectonics\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 71505\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 71470\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 71364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gas dwarf Content: A gas dwarf is a gas planet with a rocky core that has accumulated a thick envelope of hydrogen , helium , and other volatiles , having as result a total radius between 1.7 and 3.9 Earth radii . The term is used in a three-tier , metallicity-based classification regime for short-period exoplanets , which also includes the rocky , terrestrial-like planets with less than and planets greater than , namely ice giants and gas giants . No gas dwarfs are known to exist in the Solar System , but they are common in other planetary systems . Smaller gas planets and planets closer to their star will lose atmospheric mass more quickly via hydrodynamic escape than larger planets and planets farther out . The smallest known extrasolar planet that might be a `` gas planet '' is Kepler-138d , which is less massive than Earth but has a 60 % larger volume and therefore has a density ( 2.1 ( +2.2 / -1.2 ) grams per cubic centimetre ) that indicates either a substantial water content or possibly a thick gas envelope . A low-mass gas planet can still have a radius resembling that of a gas giant if it has the right temperature .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Gas_dwarf\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 71167\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 70441\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Planetary migration Content: Planetary migration occurs when a planet or other stellar satellite interacts with a disk of gas or planetesimals , resulting in the alteration of the satellite 's orbital parameters , especially its semi-major axis . Planetary migration is the most likely explanation for hot Jupiters , extrasolar planets with jovian masses , but orbits of only a few days . The generally accepted theory of planet formation from a protoplanetary disk predicts such planets can not form so close to their stars , as there is insufficient mass at such small radii and the temperature is too high to allow the formation of rocky or icy planetesimals . It has also become clear that terrestrial-mass planets may be subject to rapid inward migration if they form while the gas disk is still present . This may affect the formation of the cores of the giant planets ( which have masses of the order of 10 Earth masses ) , if those planets form via the core accretion mechanism .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Planetary_migration\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 70253\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 70157\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_state\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 69950\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Schiaparelli (Martian crater) Content: Schiaparelli is an impact crater on Mars named after Giovanni Schiaparelli located near Mars 's equator . It is 461 km in diameter and located at latitude 3 ° south and longitude 344 ° . A crater within Schiaparelli shows many layers that may have formed by the wind , volcanoes , or deposition under water . Layers can be a few meters thick or tens of meters thick . Recent research on these layers suggests that ancient climate change on Mars , caused by regular variation in the planet 's tilt , may have caused the patterns in layers . On Earth , similar changes ( astronomical forcing ) of climate results in ice-age cycles . The regular appearance of rock layers suggests that regular changes in climate may be the root cause . Regular changes in climate may be due to variations of a planet 's tilt ( called obliquity ) . The tilt of the Earth 's axis changes by only a little more than 2 degrees since our moon is relatively large . In contrast Mars 's tilt varies by tens of degrees . When the tilt is low ( current situation on Mars ) , the poles are the coldest places on the planet , while the equator is the warmest ( as on Earth ) . This could cause gases in the atmosphere , like water and carbon dioxide , to migrate poleward , where they would freeze . When the obliquity is higher , the poles receive more sunlight , causing those materials to migrate away . When carbon dioxide moves from the Martian poles , the atmospheric pressure increases , possibly causing a difference in the ability of winds to transport and deposit sand . Also , with more water in the atmosphere sand grains may stick and cement together to form layers .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Schiaparelli_(Martian_crater)\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 69844\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geology of West Virginia Content: West Virginia 's geologic history stretches back into the Precambrian , and includes several periods of mountain building and erosion . At times , much of what is now West Virginia was covered by swamps , marshlands , and shallow seas , accounting for the wide variety of sedimentary rocks found in the state , as well as its wealth of coal and natural gas deposits . West Virginia has had no active volcanism for hundreds of millions of years , and does not experience large earthquakes , although smaller tremors are associated with the Rome Trough , which passes through the western part of the state .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Geology_of_West_Virginia\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 69779\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical climatology Content: Historical climatology is the study of historical changes in climate and their effect on human history and development . This differs from paleoclimatology which encompasses climate change over the entire history of Earth . The study seeks to define periods in human history where temperature or precipitation varied from what is observed in the present day . The primary sources include written records such as sagas , chronicles , maps and local history literature as well as pictorial representations such as paintings , drawings and even rock art . The archaeological record is equally important in establishing evidence of settlement , water and land usage .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_climatology\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 69479\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geologic record Content: The geologic record in stratigraphy , paleontology and other natural sciences refers to the entirety of the layers of rock strata -- deposits laid down by volcanism or by deposition of sediment derived from weathering detritus ( clays , sands etc. ) including all its fossil content and the information it yields about the history of the Earth : its past climate , geography , geology and the evolution of life on its surface . According to the law of superposition , sedimentary and volcanic rock layers are deposited on top of each other . They harden over time to become a solidified ( competent ) rock column , that may be intruded by igneous rocks and disrupted by tectonic events .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Geologic_record\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 69243\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 69146\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 69037\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iron catastrophe Content: The iron catastrophe was a postulated major event early in the history of Earth . The original accretion of the Earth 's material into a spherical mass is thought to have resulted in a relatively uniform composition . While residual heat from the collision of the material that formed the Earth was significant , heating from radioactive materials in this mass gradually increased the temperature until a critical condition was reached . As material became molten enough to allow movement , the denser iron and nickel , evenly distributed throughout the mass , began to migrate to the center of the planet to form the core . The gravitational potential energy released by the sinking of the dense NiFe globules , along with any cooler , denser solid material , is thought to have been a runaway process , increasing the temperature of the protoplanet above the melting point of most components , resulting in the rapid formation of a molten iron core covered by a deep global silicate magma . This event , an important process of planetary differentiation , occurred at about 500 million years into the formation of the planet .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Iron_catastrophe\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 68994\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 68980\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hadean Content: The Hadean ( -LSB- pronˈheɪdiən -RSB- ) is a geologic eon of the Earth predating the Archean . It began with the formation of the Earth about 4.6 billion years ago and ended , as defined by the ICS , 4 billion years ago . The geologist Preston Cloud coined the term in 1972 , originally to label the period before the earliest-known rocks on Earth . W. Brian Harland later coined an almost synonymous term : the `` Priscoan period '' . Other , older texts simply refer to the eon as the Pre-Archean . Nonetheless , in 2015 , traces of carbon minerals interpreted as `` remains of biotic life '' were found in 4.1-billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Hadean\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 68567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Proxy (climate) Content: In the study of past climates ( `` paleoclimatology '' ) , climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth 's history . Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s , and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began . Examples of proxies include ice cores , tree rings , sub-fossil pollen , boreholes , corals , lake and ocean sediments , and carbonate speleothems . The character of deposition or rate of growth of the proxies ' material has been influenced by the climatic conditions of the time in which they were laid down or grew . Chemical traces produced by climatic changes , such as quantities of particular isotopes , can be recovered from proxies . Some proxies , such as gas bubbles trapped in ice , enable traces of the ancient atmosphere to be recovered and measured directly to provide a history of fluctuations in the composition of the Earth 's atmosphere . To produce the most precise results , systematic cross-verification between proxy indicators is necessary for accuracy in readings and record-keeping . Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the instrumental temperature record and can inform discussions of global warming . The distribution of proxy records , just like the instrumental record , is not at all uniform , with more records in the northern hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Proxy_(climate)\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 68428\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Weather_of_the_Future\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 68351\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 68207\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Stockholm_Memorandum\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 67997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_Schlesinger\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 67855\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Planetary phase of civilization Content: The planetary phase of civilization is a concept defined by the Global Scenario Group ( GSG ) , an environmental organization that specialized in scenario analysis and forecasting . Proponents state that increasing global interdependence and risks , such as climate change , are binding the world into a unitary socio-ecological system . This unprecedented condition signals a historic shift from the period of modernity , characterized by sovereign states , perennial growth of population and economies , abundant resources , and disregard for environmental impacts . The Planetary Phase has many manifestations : economic globalization , biospheric destabilization , mass migration , new global institutions ( like the United Nations and the World Trade Organization ) , the Internet , new forms of transboundary conflict , and shifts in culture and consciousness . Others consider each of these phenomena separately , but give little credence to the theory of a holistic shift in historical dynamics .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Planetary_phase_of_civilization\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 67794\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tidal heating of Io Content: Tidal heating ( also known as tidal working ) occurs through the tidal friction processes : orbital and rotational energy are dissipated as heat in the crust of the moons and planets involved . Io has a similar mass and size as the Moon , but Io is the most geologically active body in the Solar System . This is caused by the heating mechanism of Io . The major heating source of Earth and its moon is radioactive heating , but the heating source on Io is tidal heating . As Jupiter is very massive , the side of Io nearest to Jupiter has a slightly larger gravitational pull than the opposite side . This difference in gravitational forces cause distortion of Io 's shape . Differently from the Earth 's only moon , Jupiter has several moons ( i.e. Io , Europa , Ganymede and Callisto ) . As Io is the innermost moon of Jupiter , Jupiter pulls Io inward and other moons pull Io outward . This causes Io 's orbit to be elliptical and eccentric . The distance between Jupiter and Io changes all the time and the distortion of Io likewise changes all the time . The constant change in the shape of Io results in a large amount of friction in the moon and the friction-induced heating drives strong volcanic activities on the surface of Io . Although there is general agreement that the cause of the heat as manifested in Io 's many volcanoes is tidal heating from the pull of gravity from Jupiter and its moon Europa , the volcanoes are not in the positions predicted with tidal heating . They are shifted 30 to 60 degrees to the East . A study published in 2015 , explains the eastern shift by an ocean of molten rock under the surface . The movement of this magma would generate extra heat . Liquids especially if they are sticky ( or viscous ) can produce heat through friction . The team who wrote the paper , believe that the subsurface ocean is a mixture of molten and solid rock . When the molten rock flows , it may swirl and rub against the surrounding rock , thus generating heat . Other moons in the Solar System undergo tidal heating , and they too may have more heat generated by this process , including heat from the movement of water . This ability to generate heat in a subsurface ocean increases the chance of life on bodies like Europa and Enceladus .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Tidal_heating_of_Io\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 67501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences Content: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences is an annual peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews , which broadly covers Earth and planetary sciences , including geology , atmospheric sciences , climate , geophysics , environmental science , geological hazards , geodynamics , planet formation , and solar system origins . The editors-in-chief are Katherine H. Freeman ( Pennsylvania State University ) and Raymond Jeanloz ( University of California , Berkeley ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 10.188 .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Annual_Review_of_Earth_and_Planetary_Sciences\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 67159\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global and Planetary Change Content: Global and Planetary Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research into the earth sciences , particularly pertaining to changes in aspects thereof such as sea level and the chemical composition of the atmosphere . It has been published by Elsevier since it was established in 1989 . The editors-in-chief are S.A.P.L. Cloetingh ( Utrecht University ) , T.M. Cronin ( United States Geological Survey ) , K. McGuffie ( University of Technology Sydney ) , and H. Oberhänsli ( Museum für Naturkunde ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 3.155 , ranking it 9th out of 45 journals in the category `` Geography , Physical '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_and_Planetary_Change\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 67110\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoclimatology\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 66887\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geology Content: Geology ( from the Ancient Greek γῆ , gē , i.e. `` earth '' and - λoγία , - logia , i.e. `` study of , discourse '' ) is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth , the rocks of which it is composed , and the processes by which they change over time . Geology can also refer generally to the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet ( such as the geology of the Moon or Mars ) . Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the primary evidence for plate tectonics , the evolutionary history of life , and past climates . Geology is important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation , evaluating water resources , understanding of natural hazards , the remediation of environmental problems , and for providing insights into past climate change . Geology also plays a role in geotechnical engineering and is a major academic discipline .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Geology\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 66819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pre-Tolstojan Content: Pre-Tolstojan , also Pretolstojan Period , refers to the oldest period of the history of Mercury , 4500 -- 3900 MYA . It is the `` first period of the Eomercurian Era and of the Mercurian Eon , as well as being the first period in Mercury 's geologic history '' , and refers to its formation and the 600 million or so years in its aftermath . Mercury was formed with a tiny crust , mantle , and a giant core and as it evolved it faced heavy bombardments that created most of the craters and intercrater plains seen on the planet 's surface today . Many of the smaller basins and multi-ring basins were created during this period . Considered a `` dead '' planet , its geology is highly diverse with craters forming the dominant terrain . The name Pre-Tolstojan refers to the Tolstoj crater on the surface of Mercury , which is believed to have been formed in an impact event circa 3900 MYA . The latter has been named after the Russian writer Leo Tolstoy .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Pre-Tolstojan\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 66734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 66616\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NGC 40 Content: NGC 40 ( also known as the Bow-Tie Nebula and Caldwell 2 ) is a planetary nebula discovered by William Herschel on November 25 , 1788 , and is composed of hot gas around a dying star . The star has ejected its outer layer which has left behind a smaller , hot star with a temperature on the surface of about 50,000 degrees Celsius . Radiation from the star causes the shed outer layer to heat to about 10,000 degrees Celsius , and is about one light-year across . About 30,000 years from now , scientists theorize that NGC 40 will fade away , leaving only a white dwarf star approximately the size of Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"NGC_40\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 66522\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Era (geology) Content: A geologic era is a subdivision of geologic time that divides an eon into smaller units of time . The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three such time frames : the Paleozoic , Mesozoic , and Cenozoic represent the major stages in the macroscopic fossil record . These eras are separated by catastrophic extinction boundaries , the P-T boundary between the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic and the K-Pg boundary between the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic . There is evidence that catastrophic meteorite impacts played a role in demarcating the differences between the eras . The Hadean , Archean and Proterozoic eons were as a whole formerly called the Precambrian . This covered the four billion years of Earth history prior to the appearance of hard-shelled animals . More recently , however , those eons have been subdivided into eras of their own .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Era_(geology)\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 66432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora Content: The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora was one of the most powerful eruptions in recorded history , with a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of 7 . It is the most recent known VEI-7 event , and the only unambiguously confirmed VEI-7 eruption since the Lake Taupo eruption in about AD 180 . ( The 946 eruption of Paektu Mountain might also have been VEI-7 . ) The eruption of the volcano , on the island of Sumbawa in the Dutch East Indies ( present-day Indonesia ) , reached a climax on 10 April 1815 and was followed by between six months and three years of increased steaming and small phreatic eruptions . The ash from the eruption column dispersed around the world and lowered global temperatures , leading to worldwide harvest failures in an event sometimes known as the Year Without a Summer in 1816 . The eruption resulted in a brief period of significant climate change that led to various cases of extreme weather . Several climate forcings coincided and interacted in a systematic manner that has not been observed since , despite other large eruptions that have occurred since the early Stone Age . Although the link between the post-eruption climate changes and the Tambora event has been established by various scientists , the understanding of the processes involved is incomplete .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"1815_eruption_of_Mount_Tambora\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 66181\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Henry E. Holt Content: Henry E. Holt ( born 1929 ) is an American astronomer and prolific discoverer of minor planets and comets , who has worked as a planetary geologist at the United States Geological Survey and Northern Arizona University . In the 1960s he studied the photometric properties of the surface of the moon as part of the Surveyor and Apollo programs . Between 1989 and 1993 , he has discovered a total of 683 minor planets , and ranks among the Top 30 discoverers in MPC 's list . His discoveries including the potentially hazardous asteroid 4581 Asclepius , the numbered asteroid that has made the closest approach to Earth at the time , as well as the near-Earth asteroid 4544 Xanthus , and the main-belt asteroid 6312 Robheinlein , which he named after famous science fiction author , Robert Heinlein . He is also a co-discoverer of periodic comets 121P/Shoemaker-Holt , 127P/Holt-Olmstead , and 128P/Shoemaker-Holt . The Mars-crossing asteroid 4435 Holt was named in his honor .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Henry_E._Holt\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 66094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cyclostratigraphy Content: Cyclostratigraphy is the study of astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions . Astronomical cycles are variations of the Earth 's orbit around the sun due to the gravitational interaction with other masses within the solar system . Due to this cyclicity solar irradiation differs through time on different hemispheres and seasonality is affected . These insolation variations have influence on Earth 's climate and so on the deposition of sedimentary rocks . The main orbital cycles are precession with at present main periods of 19 and 23 kyr , obliquity with at present main periods of 41 kyr , and 1.2 Myr , and eccentricity with at present main periods of around 100 kyr , 405 kyr , and 2.4 Myr . Cyclostratigraphic studies of rock records can lead to accurate dating of events in the geological past , to increase understanding of cause and consequences of Earth 's ( climate ) history , and to more control on depositional mechanisms of sediments and the acting of sedimentary systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Cyclostratigraphy\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 65699\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Planetary science Content: Planetary science or , more rarely , planetology , is the scientific study of planets ( including Earth ) , moons , and planetary systems ( in particular those of the Solar System ) and the processes that form them . It studies objects ranging in size from micrometeoroids to gas giants , aiming to determine their composition , dynamics , formation , interrelations and history . It is a strongly interdisciplinary field , originally growing from astronomy and earth science , but which now incorporates many disciplines , including planetary geology ( together with geochemistry and geophysics ) , cosmochemistry , atmospheric science , oceanography , hydrology , theoretical planetary science , glaciology , and exoplanetology . Allied disciplines include space physics , when concerned with the effects of the Sun on the bodies of the Solar System , and astrobiology . There are interrelated observational and theoretical branches of planetary science . Observational research can involve a combination of space exploration , predominantly with robotic spacecraft missions using remote sensing , and comparative , experimental work in Earth-based laboratories . The theoretical component involves considerable computer simulation and mathematical modelling . Planetary scientists are generally located in the astronomy and physics or Earth sciences departments of universities or research centres , though there are several purely planetary science institutes worldwide . There are several major conferences each year , and a wide range of peer-reviewed journals .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Planetary_science\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 65630\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of periods and events in climate history Content: Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes further back in time . Some notable climate events known to paleoclimatology are listed here . The timeline of glaciation covers ice ages specifically , which tend to have their own names for phases , often with different names used for different parts of the world . The names for earlier periods and events come from geology and paleontology . The marine isotope stages ( MIS ) are often used to express dating within the Quaternary .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 65524\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Darin Toohey Content: Darin W. Toohey is an American atmospheric scientist . He is a professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences and of environmental studies at the University of Colorado Boulder since 1999 . Toohey 's research addresses the role of trace gases and aerosols on Earth 's climate , atmospheric oxidation , and air quality . He was a Jefferson Science Fellow at the United States Department of State , 2011-2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Darin_Toohey\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 65443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Timeline of the geologic history of the United States Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Timeline_of_the_geologic_history_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 65382\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Younger_Dryas\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 65293\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gastrochaenolites Content: Gastrochaenolites is a trace fossil formed as a clavate ( club-shaped ) boring in a hard substrate such as a shell , rock or carbonate hardground . The aperture of the boring is narrower than the main chamber and may be circular , oval , or dumb-bell shaped ( Kelly and Bromley , 1984 ) . Gastrochaenolites is most commonly attributed to bioeroding bivalves such as Lithophaga and Gastrochaena ( Kleeman , 1980 ) . The fossil ranges from the Ordovician to the Recent ( Taylor and Wilson , 2003 ; Vinn and Wilson , 2010 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Gastrochaenolites\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 65278\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 100,000-year problem Content: The 100,000-year problem ( `` 100 ky problem '' , `` 100 ka problem '' ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800,000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000 , 40,000 , 100,000 , and 400,000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations . While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100,000-year-problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid-Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800,000 years ago . The related `` 400,000-year-problem '' refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"100,000-year_problem\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 65098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Quaternary Content: Quaternary ( -LSB- pronkwəˈtɜrnəri -RSB- ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy ( ICS ) . It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.588 ± 0.005 million years ago to the present . The Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs : the Pleistocene ( 2.588 million years ago to 11.7 thousand years ago ) and the Holocene ( 11.7 thousand years ago to today ) . The informal term `` Late Quaternary '' refers to the past 0.5 -- 1.0 million years . The Quaternary Period is typically defined by the cyclic growth and decay of continental ice sheets driven by Milankovitch cycles and the associated climate and environmental changes that occurred .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Quaternary\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 65056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mars ocean hypothesis Content: The Mars ocean hypothesis states that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was covered by an ocean of liquid water early in the planet 's geologic history . This primordial ocean , dubbed Paleo-Ocean and Oceanus Borealis , would have filled the basin Vastitas Borealis in the northern hemisphere , a region which lies 4 -- 5 km ( 2.5 -- 3 miles ) below the mean planetary elevation , at a time period of approximately 4.1 -- 3.8 billion years ago . Evidence for this ocean includes geographic features resembling ancient shorelines , and the chemical properties of the Martian soil and atmosphere . Early Mars would have required a denser atmosphere and warmer climate to allow liquid water to remain at the surface .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Mars_ocean_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 65042\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical geology Content: Historical geology is a discipline that uses the principles and techniques of geology to reconstruct and understand the geological history of Earth . It focuses on geologic processes that change the Earth 's surface and subsurface ; and the use of stratigraphy , structural geology and paleontology to tell the sequence of these events . It also focuses on the evolution of plants and animals during different time periods in the geological timescale . The discovery of radioactivity and the development of several radiometric dating techniques in the first half of the 20th century provided a means of deriving absolute versus relative ages of geologic history . Economic geology , the search for and extraction of fuel and raw materials , is heavily dependent on an understanding of the geological history of an area . Environmental geology , including most importantly the geologic hazards of earthquakes and volcanism , must also include a detailed knowledge of geologic history .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_geology\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 65023\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hartmut Heinrich Content: Hartmut Heinrich ( born March 5 , 1952 in Northeim , Lower Saxony ) is a German marine geologist and climatologist . Dr. Heinrich is Head of the Physics Department at the Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency ( BSH ) in Hamburg . He is actively involved in GOOS ( Global Ocean Observing System ) . In 1988 he described the suddenly occurring climate changes in the history of the earth , which have since been named after him , Heinrich events . Heinrich studied geology at the University of Göttingen and attained a doctorate at the University of Kiel in marine geology . The discovery which was named for him , Heinrich events -- periods of substantial ice output of the continental ice sheets , by which the global climate is strongly affected -- were subsequently confirmed by investigations of ice core samples from the Greenland ice sheet by the Greenland ice core project ( GRIP ) . Dr. Heinrich warns of the global warming consequences which could occur precipitously and of far larger effects on navigation and population .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Hartmut_Heinrich\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 64836\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Table of historic and prehistoric climate indicators Content: This table is a reference tool for rapidly locating Wikipedia articles on Historic and Prehistoric climate indicators of all types . To Add : Alkenone analysis TEX-86 analysis Nile river flood levels Trace mineral ratios in deltaic sediment Wildlife distribution Pollen analysis Historic storm-related sinkings Sea temperature and atmospheric pressure ( ENSO ) Scientific meteorological measurements ( since 1800s ) air temperature air pressure wind speed and direction Ocean currents and marine productivity Flooding and drought observations on land Volcanic activity elevated charcoal in lake sediments sand dune activation records eolian ( wind-borne ) sediment deposition\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Table_of_historic_and_prehistoric_climate_indicators\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 64817\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HD 80606 b Content: HD 80606 b ( also Struve 1341 B b or HIP 45982 b ) is an eccentric and hot Jupiter 190 light-years from the Sun in the constellation of Ursa Major . HD 80606 b was discovered orbiting the star Struve 1341 B in April 2001 by a team led by Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz . With a mass 4 times that of Jupiter , it is a gas giant . Because the planet transits the host star its radius can be determined using the transit method and was found to be slightly smaller than Jupiter 's . Its density is slightly less than Earth 's . It has an extremely eccentric orbit like a comet , with its orbit taking it very close to its star and then back out very far away from it every 111 days .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"HD_80606_b\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 64808\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Capitalism Content: Climate Capitalism : Capitalism in the Age of Climate Change is a 2011 book by L. Hunter Lovins and Boyd Cohen . It presents positive stories and examples of how profit-seeking companies are helping to save the planet , and says that `` the best way to rebuild America 's economy , cities and job markets is to invest in energy efficiency and renewable energy resources , whether climate change is happening or not '' . However , reviewer Gail Whiteman is unconvinced by the argument that naked greed and market forces will drive businesses to cut their greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Capitalism\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 64801\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gasconadian Stage Content: The Gasconadian Stage is the first stage of the Ordovician geologic period in North America and of the Lower Ordovician Canadian Epoch , coming immediately after the Late Cambrian Trempealeauan and preceding the middle Canadian Demingian Stage . The Gasconadian is equivalent to the European Tremadocian and roughly to the Skullrockian of the Ibexian series . The Gasconadian is named for the Gasconade Formation of Missouri , named in turn for the Gasconade River , and is represented by the Tribes Hill Formation in New York state and by the upper Bliss Fm and the Sierrite Ls of the El Paso Group in southern New Mexico and west Texas . The Gasconadian is a common term in the paleontological and stratigraphic literature of the previous century , whether used simply for a span of time or for strata laid down during that time .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Gasconadian_Stage\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 64776\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evershed effect Content: The Evershed effect , named after the British astronomer John Evershed , is the radial flow of gas across the photospheric surface of the penumbra of sunspots from the inner border with the umbra towards the outer edge . The speed varies from around 1 km/s at the border between the umbra and the penumbra to a maximum of around double this in the middle of the penumbra and falls off to zero at the outer edge of the penumbra . Evershed first detected this phenomenon in January 1909 , whilst working at the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory in India , when he found that the spectral lines of sunspots showed doppler shift . Afterwards , measurements of the spectral emission lines emitted in the ultraviolet wavelengths have shown a systematic red-shift . The Evershed effect is common to every spectral line formed at a temperature below 105 K ; this fact would imply a constant downflow from the transition region towards the chromosphere . The observed velocity is about 5 km/s . Of course , this is impossible , since if it were true , the corona would disappear in a short time instead of being suspended over the Sun at temperatures of million degrees over distances much larger than a solar radius . Many theories have been proposed to explain this redshift in line profiles of the transition region , but the problem is still unsolved , since a coherent theory should take into account all the physical observations : UV line profiles are redshifted on average , but they show back and forth velocity oscillations at the same time . In synthesis , the proposed mechanisms are : siphon flows in coronal loops driven by a pressure difference , different cross-sections of the coronal loops footpoints , the return of spicules , multiple flows , nanoflares , and thermal instabilities during chromospheric condensation . The effect was commemorated in a postage stamp issued in India on 2 December 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Evershed_effect\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 64746\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 64711\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Year_Without_a_Summer\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 64619\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eruption column Content: An eruption column is a cloud of hot volcanic ash suspended in volcanic gas emitted during an explosive volcanic eruption . The ash forms a column that may rise many kilometres into the air above the vent of the volcano . In the most explosive eruptions , the eruption column may rise over 40 km , penetrating the stratosphere . Stratospheric injection of aerosols by volcanoes is a major cause of short-term climate change . A common occurrence in explosive eruptions is for column collapse to occur . In this case , the eruption column is too dense to be lifted high into the air by air convection , and instead falls down the flanks of the volcano to form a pyroclastic flow or surge . On some occasions , if ash is n't dense enough to fall , it may create pyrocumulonimbus .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Eruption_column\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 64520\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gas torus Content: A gas torus is a toroidal cloud of gas or plasma that encircles a planet . In the Solar System , gas tori tend to be produced by the interaction of a satellite 's atmosphere with the magnetic field of a planet . The most famous example of this is the Io plasma torus , which is produced by the ionization of roughly 1 ton per second of oxygen and sulfur from the tenuous atmosphere of Jupiter 's volcanic moon Io . Other examples include the largely neutral torus of oxygen and hydrogen produced by Saturn 's moon Enceladus , and the proposed ( though not observationally supported ) torus of nitrogen produced by Saturn 's moon Titan . A fictional gas torus is the setting for Larry Niven 's novels The Integral Trees and The Smoke Ring , in which a gas giant in orbit around a neutron star generates a gas torus of sufficient density and free oxygen to support life ( including humans ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Gas_torus\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 64515\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene Content: The Paleocene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliəˌsiːn , _ ˈpæ - , _ - lioʊ - -RSB- ) or Palaeocene , the `` old recent '' , is a geologic epoch that lasted from about . It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era . As with many geologic periods , the strata that define the epoch 's beginning and end are well identified , but the exact ages remain uncertain . The Paleocene Epoch brackets two major events in Earth 's history . It started with the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous , known as the Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) boundary . This was a time marked by the demise of non-avian dinosaurs , giant marine reptiles and much other fauna and flora . The die-off of the dinosaurs left unfilled ecological niches worldwide . The Paleocene ended with the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , a geologically brief ( ~ 0.2 million year ) interval characterized by extreme changes in climate and carbon cycling . The name `` Paleocene '' comes from Ancient Greek and refers to the `` old ( er ) '' ( παλαιός , palaios ) `` new '' ( καινός , kainos ) fauna that arose during the epoch .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 64471\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Geological history of oxygen Content: Before photosynthesis evolved , Earth 's atmosphere had no free oxygen ( O2 ) . Photosynthetic prokaryotic organisms that produced O2 as a waste product lived long before the first build-up of free oxygen in the atmosphere , perhaps as early as 3.5 billion years ago . The oxygen they produced would have been rapidly removed from the atmosphere by weathering of reducing minerals , most notably iron . This `` mass rusting '' led to the deposition of iron oxide on the ocean floor , forming banded iron formations . Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the Great Oxygenation Event . This mass oxygenation of the atmosphere resulted in rapid buildup of free oxygen . At current rates of primary production , today 's concentration of oxygen could be produced by photosynthetic organisms in 2,000 years . In the absence of plants , the rate of oxygen production by photosynthesis was slower in the Precambrian , and the concentrations of O2 attained were less than 10 % of today 's and probably fluctuated greatly ; oxygen may even have disappeared from the atmosphere again around 1.9 billion years ago . These fluctuations in oxygen concentration had little direct effect on life , with mass extinctions not observed until the appearance of complex life around the start of the Cambrian period , . The presence of provided life with new opportunities . Aerobic metabolism is more efficient than anaerobic pathways , and the presence of oxygen undoubtedly created new possibilities for life to explore . Since the start of the Cambrian period , atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15 % and 35 % of atmospheric volume . The maximum of 35 % was reached towards the end of the Carboniferous period ( about 300 million years ago ) , a peak which may have contributed to the large size of insects and amphibians at that time . Whilst human activities , such as the burning of fossil fuels , affect relative carbon dioxide concentrations , their effect on the much larger concentration of oxygen is less significant .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Geological_history_of_oxygen\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 64308\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: WASP-4b Content: WASP-4b is an extrasolar planet approximately 1,000 light-years away in the constellation of Phoenix . The planet was discovered orbiting the star WASP-4 in October 2007 . The planet 's mass and radius indicate that it is a gas giant , similar to Jupiter . WASP-4b is close enough to its star to be classified as a hot Jupiter and has an atmospheric temperature of approximately 1650 K. The planet was the discovered by the SuperWASP project using cameras in South Africa . After its discovery , the mass of the WASP-4 b was determined by measuring the radial velocity of WASP-4 , which confirmed that the object that caused the transit was a planet .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"WASP-4b\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 64255\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surface features of Venus Content: The surface of Venus is dominated by geologic features that include volcanoes , large impact craters , and aeolian erosion and sedimentation landforms . Venus has a topography reflecting its single , strong crustal plate , with a unimodal elevation distribution ( over 90 % of the surface lies within an elevation of -1.0 and 2.5 km ) that preserves geologic structures for long periods of time . Studies of the Venusian surface are based on imaging , radar , and altimetry data collected from several exploratory space probes , particularly Magellan , since 1961 ( see Venus Exploration ) . Despite its similarities to Earth in size , mass , density , and possibly composition , Venus has a unique geology that is unlike Earth 's . Although much older than Earth 's , the surface of Venus is relatively young compared to other terrestrial planets ( < 500 million years old ) , possibly due to a global-scale resurfacing event that buried much of the previous rock record . Venus is believed to have approximately the same bulk elemental composition as Earth , due to the physical similarities , but the exact composition is unknown . The surface conditions on Venus are more extreme than on Earth , with temperatures ranging from 453 to 473 ° C and pressures of 95 bar . Venus lacks water , which makes crustal rock stronger and helps preserve surface features . The features observed provide evidence for the geological processes at work . Twenty feature types have been categorized thus far . These classes include local features , such as craters , coronae , and undae , as well as regional-scale features , such as planitiae , plana , and tesserae .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Surface_features_of_Venus\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 64100\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"189\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 64079\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":88,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Climate change is normal and continual."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change","rank":1,"score":140000},{"content":"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_(general_concept)","rank":2,"score":119113},{"content":"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States","rank":3,"score":115374},{"content":"Title: Climate pattern Content: A climate pattern is any recurring characteristic of the climate . Climate patterns can last tens of thousands of years , like the glacial and interglacial periods within ice ages , or repeat each year , like monsoons . A climate pattern may come in the form of a regular cycle , like the diurnal cycle or the seasonal cycle ; a quasi periodic event , like El Niño ; or a highly irregular event , such as a volcanic winter . The regular cycles are generally well understood and may be removed by normalization . For example , graphs which show trends of temperature change will usually have the effects of seasonal variation removed .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_pattern","rank":4,"score":110718},{"content":"Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_variability","rank":5,"score":109577},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"190","docid":"Global_warming","rank":6,"score":108925},{"content":"Title: Climatic Change (journal) Content: Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .","qid":"190","docid":"Climatic_Change_(journal)","rank":7,"score":107371},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"190","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":8,"score":106694},{"content":"Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .","qid":"190","docid":"Nature_Climate_Change","rank":9,"score":103518},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_Zealand","rank":10,"score":103116},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"190","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":11,"score":102428},{"content":"Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .","qid":"190","docid":"Physical_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":12,"score":102112},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":13,"score":101989},{"content":"Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_oscillation","rank":14,"score":101984},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Change_Science_Program","rank":15,"score":101912},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"190","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":16,"score":101333},{"content":"Title: Climate Change (album) Content: Climate Change is the tenth studio album by rapper and songwriter Pitbull . It was released on March 17 , 2017 . through RCA Records , Polo Grounds Music and Mr. 305 Inc. . It features Enrique Iglesias , Flo Rida , Jennifer Lopez and Jason Derulo .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Change_(album)","rank":17,"score":100984},{"content":"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .","qid":"190","docid":"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change","rank":18,"score":100915},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":19,"score":100549},{"content":"Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal","rank":20,"score":99688},{"content":"Title: A Change of Climate Content: A Change of Climate is a novel by English author Hilary Mantel , first published in 1994 by Viking Books . At the time The Observer described it as the best book she had written . It was published in the United States by Henry Holt in 1997 and was recognised by the New York Times Book Review as one of the notable books of that year . The novel has also been identified as one of the best of the 1990s .","qid":"190","docid":"A_Change_of_Climate","rank":21,"score":99629},{"content":"Title: Climate fiction Content: Climate fiction , or climate change fiction , popularly abbreviated as cli-fi ( modelled after the assonance of `` sci-fi '' ) is literature that deals with climate change and global warming . Not necessarily speculative in nature , works of cli-fi may take place in the world as we know it or in the near future . University courses on literature and environmental issues may include climate change fiction in their syllabi . This body of literature has been discussed by a variety of publications , including The New York Times , The Guardian , and Dissent magazine , among other international media outlets .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_fiction","rank":22,"score":99423},{"content":"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .","qid":"190","docid":"Abrupt_climate_change","rank":23,"score":99206},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"190","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":24,"score":98506},{"content":"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .","qid":"190","docid":"Global_warming_(disambiguation)","rank":25,"score":98045},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"190","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":26,"score":98020},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"190","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":27,"score":98018},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Change_Research_Centre","rank":28,"score":97981},{"content":"Title: Climatological normal Content: Climatological normal is a 30-year average of a weather variable . Climatological normals are used as an average or baseline to evaluate climate events and provide context for year-to-year variability . Normals can be calculated for a variety of weather variables including temperature and precipitation and rely on data from weather stations . Variability from the 30-year averages is typical and climate variability looks at the magnitude of extremes .","qid":"190","docid":"Climatological_normal","rank":29,"score":97292},{"content":"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_popular_culture","rank":30,"score":97235},{"content":"Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_ethics","rank":31,"score":96858},{"content":"Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .","qid":"190","docid":"Global_warming_game","rank":32,"score":96831},{"content":"Title: Climate commitment Content: Climate commitment describes the fact that climate reacts with a delay to influencing factors ( `` climate forcings '' ) such as the presence of greenhouse gases . Climate commitment studies attempt to assess the amount of future global warming that is `` committed '' under the assumption of some constant level of forcings . The constant level often used for illustrative purposes is doubling or quadrupling ; or the present level of forcing .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_commitment","rank":33,"score":96809},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .","qid":"190","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations","rank":34,"score":96412},{"content":"Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_adaptation","rank":35,"score":95972},{"content":"Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_and_gender","rank":36,"score":95819},{"content":"Title: Climatic adaptation Content: Climate adaptation refers to specific adaptations in a living organism that develop in response to changes in climate and habitat . Such adaptations could include physical changes , such as skin or fur color and composition changes , or the adaptations could be behavioral , such as burrowing into the ground or spending more time in water . These are not necessarily permanently expressed traits , instead encompassing the potential for the individual to adapt to certain environments . The change in the environment triggers a change in behavior which would not have been present had the organism not been exposed to that specific stimuli . Climate adaptation is constrained by the genetic variability of the species in question .","qid":"190","docid":"Climatic_adaptation","rank":37,"score":95665},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":38,"score":95655},{"content":"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .","qid":"190","docid":"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":39,"score":95623},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Change_Act_2008","rank":40,"score":95369},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom","rank":41,"score":95121},{"content":"Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .","qid":"190","docid":"United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change","rank":42,"score":95119},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Capital Content: Climate Change Capital is a private asset management and advisory group founded in 2003 to support efforts to develop solutions to climate change and resource depletion .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Change_Capital","rank":43,"score":94402},{"content":"Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_justice","rank":44,"score":94394},{"content":"Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_state","rank":45,"score":94147},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"190","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":46,"score":94085},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"190","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":47,"score":94067},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Change_Authority","rank":48,"score":93891},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"190","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":49,"score":93861},{"content":"Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .","qid":"190","docid":"Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower","rank":50,"score":93724},{"content":"Title: 4Change Content: 4Change , formerly known as the Climate Change Coalition ( CCC ) , was an Australian political party , which was formed in 2007 with a view to accelerate action by politicians from all parties on global warming and climate change . Its position on working towards addressing climate change , stresses cooperation with big business in order to achieve significant progress on the issue . The party therefore advocates a close working relationship between environmentalists and the business community . The CCC was registered as a political party with the Australian Electoral Commission ( AEC ) on 4 September 2007 and deregistered on 25 March 2010 .","qid":"190","docid":"4Change","rank":51,"score":93619},{"content":"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska","rank":52,"score":93388},{"content":"Title: Hard Choices (Coward book) Content: Hard Choices : Climate Change in Canada is a non-fiction compilation book about climate change in Canada , edited by Harold Coward and Andrew J. Weaver . It was published in paperback format by Wilfrid Laurier University Press in 2004 . Hard Choices received favorable reviews in academic journals including Great Plains Research : A Journal of Natural and Social Sciences , Environmental Reviews , Annals of the Association of American Geographers , and Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society .","qid":"190","docid":"Hard_Choices_(Coward_book)","rank":53,"score":93316},{"content":"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_New_York_City","rank":54,"score":93222},{"content":"Title: Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change Content: The Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change ( MOECC ) is a Ontario government ministry responsible for protecting and improving the quality of the environment in the Canadian province of Ontario , as well as coordinating Ontario 's actions on climate change . This includes administration of government programs , such as Ontario 's Drive Clean and Clean Water Act . The ministry headquarters are located inside the Ontario Government Buildings . The current Minister is Glen Murray .","qid":"190","docid":"Ministry_of_the_Environment_and_Climate_Change","rank":55,"score":92915},{"content":"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_system","rank":56,"score":92883},{"content":"Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .","qid":"190","docid":"Glacier_mass_balance","rank":57,"score":92784},{"content":"Title: Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 Content: The Climate Change ( Scotland ) Act 2009 is an Act of the Scottish Parliament . The Act includes an emissions target , set for the year 2050 , for a reduction of at least 80 % from the baseline year , 1990 . Annual targets for greenhouse gas emissions must also be set , after consultation the relevant advisory bodies . Provisions are included in the Act for the creation of a Scottish Committee on Climate Change , as at present the only advisory body is the UK-wide Committee on Climate Change . Ministers in parliament must now report on the progress of these targets . As of January 2011 , public sector bodies in Scotland must comply with new guidelines set out by the Scottish Government .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Change_(Scotland)_Act_2009","rank":58,"score":92779},{"content":"Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_denial","rank":59,"score":92677},{"content":"Title: The Weather Makers Content: The Weather Makers : The History and Future Impact of Climate Change is a 2005 book by Tim Flannery . The book received critical acclaim . It won the major prize at the 2006 New South Wales Premier 's Literary Awards , and was short-listed for the 2010 Jan Michalski Prize for Literature .","qid":"190","docid":"The_Weather_Makers","rank":60,"score":92525},{"content":"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .","qid":"190","docid":"Fisheries_and_climate_change","rank":61,"score":92508},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"190","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":62,"score":92476},{"content":"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .","qid":"190","docid":"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment","rank":63,"score":92453},{"content":"Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .","qid":"190","docid":"European_Climate_Change_Programme","rank":64,"score":92339},{"content":"Title: 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference was an international meeting of political leaders and activists to discuss environmental issues . It was held in Marrakech , Morocco from November 7 to 18 . The conference incorporated the twenty-second Conference of the Parties ( COP22 ) , the twelfth meeting of the parties for the Kyoto Protocol ( CMP12 ) , and the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement ( CMA1 ) . The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combatting climate change and to '' -LSB- demonstrate -RSB- to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is underway '' . Participants work together to come up with global solutions to climate change . The conference was presided over by Salaheddine Mezouar , the Moroccan Minister for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation . Approximately 20,000 participants were expected to attend . On 2 May 2016 , events firm GL Events signed the service contract . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also lent its support to the preparation for COP 22 '' .","qid":"190","docid":"2016_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":65,"score":92208},{"content":"Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .","qid":"190","docid":"List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change","rank":66,"score":91615},{"content":"Title: Ministry of Environment and Climate Change (Romania) Content: The Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change ( Ministerul Mediului și Schimbărilor climatice ) is one of the ministries of the Government of Romania . The institution was known as the Ministry of Environment and Waters Management ( Ministerul Mediului și Gospodăririi Apelor ) before April 2007 ; and then the Ministry of Environment and Forests .","qid":"190","docid":"Ministry_of_Environment_and_Climate_Change_(Romania)","rank":67,"score":91440},{"content":"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_South_Korea","rank":68,"score":91382},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic","rank":69,"score":91337},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Levy Content: The Climate Change Levy ( CCL ) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom . Its aim is to provide an incentive to increase energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions ; however , there have been ongoing calls to replace it with a proper carbon tax .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Change_Levy","rank":70,"score":91250},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"190","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":71,"score":91127},{"content":"Title: Climate Challenge Content: Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Challenge","rank":72,"score":91048},{"content":"Title: The Climate Monologues Content: The Climate Monologues is an episodic one-woman play , created and performed by Sharon Abreu . Inspired by The Vagina Monologues , The Climate Monologues consists of a series of monologues and original songs from the point of view of people affected by and working to prevent climate change . The play premiered at the Orcas Island Grange in Eastsound , WA , on May 16 , 2010 . On March 11 , 2011 , Abreu received The Spirit of Nature , Ecology and Society Environmental Justice Award . at The Culture of Climate Change colloquium at the City University of New York ( CUNY ) Graduate Center in New York City , for her presentation of The Climate Monologues . Abreu performed an updated version of the show on March 27 , 2016 , in the Los Angeles Women 's Theatre Festival . Orcas Issues said in a review of a September 8 , 2016 , performance at Random Howse in Eastsound , WA : `` Sharon Abreu is an inspired listener . She listens to the stories of West Virginian coal mining families , NW activists , Tribal leaders , Mississippi teachers , a Colorado cowgirl and Orcas ' own Lea Bossler and tells them back to us in compelling , non-scientific language about the world we live in . '' Theater reviewer Lexi Orphanos wrote , `` Abreu 's monologues bring a humanity to the statistics that plaster our newspapers and Facebook feeds . She does n't just give you the facts , she gives you a human life , bent and reshaped by environmental abuse . '' A September 24 , 2016 , performance at the United Solo Theatre Festival sold out , was listed as a bestseller and a repeat performance was added which took place on November 18 , 2016 . The play was featured in chapter 6 , Orcas Island 's Irthlingz : Community Art as Activism in the 2016 book , A Song to Save the Salish Sea : Musical Performance as Environmental Activism , by Mark Pedelty , published by Indiana University Press .","qid":"190","docid":"The_Climate_Monologues","rank":73,"score":90769},{"content":"Title: Regime shift Content: In ecology , regime shifts are large , abrupt , persistent changes in the structure and function of a system . A regime is a characteristic behaviour of a system which is maintained by mutually reinforced processes or feedbacks . Regimes are considered persistent relative to the time period over which the shift occurs . The change of regimes , or the shift , usually occurs when a smooth change in an internal process ( feedback ) or a single disturbance ( external shocks ) triggers a completely different system behavior . Although such non-linear changes have been widely studied in different disciplines ranging from atoms to climate dynamics , regime shifts have gained importance in ecology because they can substantially affect the flow of ecosystem services that societies rely upon , such as provision of food , clean water or climate regulation . Moreover , regime shift occurrence is expected to increase as human influence on the planet increases -- the Anthropocene -- including current trends on human induced climate change and biodiversity loss .","qid":"190","docid":"Regime_shift","rank":74,"score":90603},{"content":"Title: Grantham Institute - Climate Change and Environment Content: The Grantham Institute - Climate Change and Environment ( formerly Grantham Institute for Climate Change ) is one of five Global Institutes at Imperial College London and one of three Grantham sponsored centres in the UK . The Institute was founded in 2007 with a # 12m donation from the Grantham Foundation for the Protection of the Environment , an organisation set up by Hannelore and Jeremy Grantham . The Institute brings together climate and global environmental change expertise from across the College for climate change related research and translation into real world impact . Their aim is to improve the interaction between researchers and decision makers in business and governments , communicating research to help ensure that choices are based on the best understanding of the science and evidence available .","qid":"190","docid":"Grantham_Institute_-_Climate_Change_and_Environment","rank":75,"score":90572},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation","rank":76,"score":90374},{"content":"Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Summit","rank":77,"score":90242},{"content":"Title: National Climate Assessment Content: The National Climate Assessment ( NCA ) is a United States government interagency ongoing effort on climate change science conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The NCA is a major product of the U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which coordinates a team of experts and receives input from a Federal Advisory Committee . The Fourth National Climate Assessment is being developed . For the Third National Climate Assessment , released in 2014 , USGCRP coordinated hundreds of experts and received advice from a sixty-member Federal Advisory Committee . NCA research is integrated and summarized in the mandatory ongoing National Climate Assessment Reports . The reports are `` extensively reviewed by the public and experts , including federal agencies and a panel of the National Academy of Sciences . The First National Climate Assessment was published in 2000 . The First National Climate Assessment Report was `` prepared by the National Assessment Synthesis Team ( NAST ) , an advisory committee chartered under the Federal Advisory Committee Act to help the US Global Change Research Program fulfill its mandate under the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The National Science and Technology Council forwarded the report to the President and Congress for their consideration as required by the Global Change Research Act . Administrative support for the US Global Change Research Program is provided by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research , which is sponsored by the National Science Foundation ( NCA 2000 ) . '' Between 2002 and 2009 , USGCRP previously known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) , produced twenty-one Synthesis and Assessment Products ( SAPs ) . The second NCA was published in 2009 and the third was released in 2014 . NCA 's overarching goal according to their May 20 , 2011 engagement strategy summary , `` is to enhance the ability of the U.S. to anticipate , mitigate , and adapt to changes in the global environment ( NCA 2011:2 ) . '' According to the USGCRP official website the NCA , In 2013 , the President 's Climate Action Plan released by the Executive Office of the President specifically noted the importance of the National Climate Assessments in achieving the goal of `` Using Sound Science to Manage Climate Impacts '' .","qid":"190","docid":"National_Climate_Assessment","rank":78,"score":90235},{"content":"Title: Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Content: The Copernicus Climate Change Service ( C3S ) is one of the six thematic services provided by the European Union 's Copernicus Programme . The Copernicus Programme is managed by the European Commission and the C3S is implemented by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) and is expected to become operational in 2018 . The objective of the Copernicus Climate Change Service is to build an EU knowledge base in support of mitigation and adaptation policies for Climate Change and Global Warming . The goal of the operational Climate Change service is to provide reliable information about the current and past state of the climate , the forecasts on a seasonal time scale , and the more likely projections in the coming decades for various scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions and other Climate Change contributors .","qid":"190","docid":"Copernicus_Climate_Change_Service_(C3S)","rank":79,"score":90074},{"content":"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.","qid":"190","docid":"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C","rank":80,"score":89855},{"content":"Title: London Climate Change Agency Content: The London Climate Change Agency Limited ( LCCA ) , was a municipal company owned by the London Development Agency ( LDA ) that worked in partnership with private sector companies ( notably EDF Energy ) to design , finance , construct , own and operate decentralised low energy and zero-carbon projects for London , as well as providing services to others . It operated in the areas of energy , water , waste and transport . In 2009 it was integrated into the London Development Agency The Agency was launched on 20 June 2005 to implement a manifesto commitment by Ken Livingstone in the 2004 elections for the Mayor of London . Its budget for 2006-07 is # 815,000 , 63 % of which is funded directly by the LDA . The Chief Executive Officer is Allan Jones , who previously led the development of the pioneering sustainable community energy system in Woking . The London Climate Change Agency plans to create a similar system for London . As of 2006 , London produces 7 % of the UK 's carbon emissions . The LCCA is seen as one of the key vehicles for delivering the Mayor 's energy strategy , which targets cuts in these emissions of 20 % by 2010 and 60 % by 2050 ( although achieving the first of these targets is unlikely ) . The Agency is also expected to play a role in ensuring that the London Olympic games are the first to be powered by low carbon technology .","qid":"190","docid":"London_Climate_Change_Agency","rank":81,"score":89702},{"content":"Title: Environmental Change Institute Content: The Environmental Change Institute was founded in 1987 in Oxford University in England `` to organize and promote interdisciplinary research on the nature , causes and impact of environmental change and to contribute to the development of management strategies for coping with future environmental change . '' This statement still embodies the ECI 's ethos of purposeful environmental research and knowledge exchange . With an annual research income of # 4.7 million in 2013/14 , a portfolio of 50 active projects , 350 partners and 60 researchers working across 40 countries , the ECI is an active and influential player in environmental change science . The ECI 's research is interdisciplinary , both in outlook and approach . ECI has a well - established track record in relation to climate , energy and ecosystems and a growing expertise in relation to food and water . ECI is a leading player in number of large research activities , including : the UK Climate Impacts Programme ( UKCIP ) which develops new tools to link climate science with stakeholders in business and government in order to create innovative adaptations to the impacts of climate change ; Climateprediction.net the world 's largest citizen science climate ensemble with 350,000 individuals running climate simulations in order to better understand regional climate patterns ; leaders of major EU consortium programmes including one on the impacts and risks of extreme climate change ( Impressions ) ; and coordinators of GEM , a global ecological monitoring programme across remote forest locations in South America , Africa and Asia . The ECI 's full portfolio of projects has led to academic papers and citations totaling over 45,000 since 2000 . The ECI is also home to the MSc in Environmental Change and Management ( ECM ) , the School 's first taught postgraduate masters ' programme , and Oxford 's most popular graduate science course . The Institute is led by Professor Jim Hall .","qid":"190","docid":"Environmental_Change_Institute","rank":82,"score":89627},{"content":"Title: The Climate Mobilization Content: The Climate Mobilization ( TCM ) is a grassroots environmental advocacy group working toward large-scale political action against global warming , with the belief that the crisis of climate change requires a national economic effort on the scale of the American mobilization of the home front during World War II . It was founded by psychologist Margaret Klein Salamon to confront climate change denial and build the political will necessary to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions and 100 % clean energy within a decade in order to avoid crossing potentially catastrophic climate tipping points and begin restoring a safe climate .","qid":"190","docid":"The_Climate_Mobilization","rank":83,"score":89603},{"content":"Title: Climate Museum Content: The Climate Museum is a new museum proposed for New York City that will focus on climate change . The founding director is Miranda Massie . The Museum was given a 5-year Charter by the New York State Board of Regents in July , 2015 . As of July 2015 , the museum is in its initial fund-raising and planning phase and has not yet selected a location .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Museum","rank":84,"score":89534},{"content":"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia","rank":85,"score":89516},{"content":"Title: International Climate Change Partnership Content: The International Climate Change Partnership ( ICCP ) is an organization of companies and trade associations from around the world working to influence international climate change legislation .","qid":"190","docid":"International_Climate_Change_Partnership","rank":86,"score":89472},{"content":"Title: Tropical climate Content: A tropical climate in the Köppen climate classification is a non-arid climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures of at least 18 C . In tropical climates there are often only two seasons , a wet season and a dry season . Tropical climates are frost-free and changes in the solar angle are small . In tropical climates temperature remains relatively constant ( hot ) throughout the year .","qid":"190","docid":"Tropical_climate","rank":87,"score":89420},{"content":"Title: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Content: The Ministry of Environment , Forest and Climate Change ( MoEFCC ) is an Indian government ministry . The ministry portfolio is currently held by Dr. Harsh Vardhan , Union Minister of Environment , Forest and Climate Change . The ministry is responsible for planning , promoting , coordinating , and overseeing the implementation of environmental and forestry programmes in the country . The main activities undertaken by the ministry include conservation and survey of the flora of India and fauna of India , forests and other wilderness areas ; prevention and control of pollution ; afforestation , and land degradation mitigation . It is responsible for the administration of the national parks of India . One of the three All India Services , the Indian Forest Service ( IFoS ) is under the administration and supervision of the Ministry of Environment , Forest and Climate Change .","qid":"190","docid":"Ministry_of_Environment,_Forest_and_Climate_Change","rank":88,"score":89103},{"content":"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .","qid":"190","docid":"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe","rank":89,"score":89097},{"content":"Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006","rank":90,"score":89056},{"content":"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .","qid":"190","docid":"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference","rank":91,"score":88928},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"190","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":92,"score":88885},{"content":"Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_and_poverty","rank":93,"score":88864},{"content":"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .","qid":"190","docid":"Global_warming_hiatus","rank":94,"score":88780},{"content":"Title: U.S. Climate Change Technology Program Content: The United States Climate Change Technology Program or CCTP is a multi-agency planning and coordination entity . Its purpose is to accelerate the development and deployment of technologies that can reduce , avoid , or capture and store greenhouse gas emissions . CCTP was established administratively in 2002 , authorized by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , and appropriated funds in 2007 . Currently , the Department of Energy is designated as the lead agency .","qid":"190","docid":"U.S._Climate_Change_Technology_Program","rank":95,"score":88736},{"content":"Title: Premier's Climate Change Council Content: The Premier 's Climate Change Council was established by the Government of South Australia under the Climate Change and Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Act 2007 . The Council provides independent advice to the Minister responsible for Climate Change about matters related to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and climate change adaptation and was formed during the Rann Government . The Council 's membership represents the business community , the environment and conservation sector , the scientific community and state and local governments . It is chaired by prominent South Australian businessman Bruce Carter , who was appointed to the role in 2011 . In 2013 , Michelle Lensink MLC questioned the efficacy of the Premier 's Climate Change Council , and asked the Minister for the environment , Ian Hunter about the absence of the Council 's 2011-12 annual report from the Council 's website . In 2013 , the Council published South Australia 's Climate Change Vision : Pathways to 2050 to advise Premier Jay Weatherill and his government on future planning and policy directions for the state . In September 2015 , Bruce Carter said of the Council : '' `` We want to encourage a wide range of views around climate change measures that are dynamic and adaptive . ''","qid":"190","docid":"Premier's_Climate_Change_Council","rank":96,"score":88631},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Sweden Content: The issue of climate change in Sweden has received significant public and political attention and the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the three latest Governments of Sweden , the former Cabinet of Göran Persson ( -2006 ) , the previous Cabinet of Fredrik Reinfeldt ( 2006-2014 ) and the current Löfven cabinet ( 2014 - ) . Sweden aims for an energy supply system with zero net atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_Sweden","rank":97,"score":88619},{"content":"Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .","qid":"190","docid":"Solar_activity_and_climate","rank":98,"score":88466},{"content":"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .","qid":"190","docid":"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change","rank":99,"score":88405},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .","qid":"190","docid":"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan","rank":100,"score":88332}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 140000\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \\\"internal variability\\\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_(general_concept)\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 119113\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 115374\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate pattern Content: A climate pattern is any recurring characteristic of the climate . Climate patterns can last tens of thousands of years , like the glacial and interglacial periods within ice ages , or repeat each year , like monsoons . A climate pattern may come in the form of a regular cycle , like the diurnal cycle or the seasonal cycle ; a quasi periodic event , like El Niño ; or a highly irregular event , such as a volcanic winter . The regular cycles are generally well understood and may be removed by normalization . For example , graphs which show trends of temperature change will usually have the effects of seasonal variation removed .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_pattern\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 110718\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \\\"internal variability\\\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_variability\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 109577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 108925\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Change (journal) Content: Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Change_(journal)\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 107371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 106694\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Nature_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 103518\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_Zealand\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 103116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 102428\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Physical_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 102112\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 101989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_oscillation\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 101984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Science_Program\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 101912\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 101333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change (album) Content: Climate Change is the tenth studio album by rapper and songwriter Pitbull . It was released on March 17 , 2017 . through RCA Records , Polo Grounds Music and Mr. 305 Inc. . It features Enrique Iglesias , Flo Rida , Jennifer Lopez and Jason Derulo .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 100984\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 100915\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 100549\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 99688\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Change of Climate Content: A Change of Climate is a novel by English author Hilary Mantel , first published in 1994 by Viking Books . At the time The Observer described it as the best book she had written . It was published in the United States by Henry Holt in 1997 and was recognised by the New York Times Book Review as one of the notable books of that year . The novel has also been identified as one of the best of the 1990s .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Change_of_Climate\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 99629\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate fiction Content: Climate fiction , or climate change fiction , popularly abbreviated as cli-fi ( modelled after the assonance of `` sci-fi '' ) is literature that deals with climate change and global warming . Not necessarily speculative in nature , works of cli-fi may take place in the world as we know it or in the near future . University courses on literature and environmental issues may include climate change fiction in their syllabi . This body of literature has been discussed by a variety of publications , including The New York Times , The Guardian , and Dissent magazine , among other international media outlets .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_fiction\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 99423\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Abrupt_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 99206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 98506\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 98045\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 98020\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 98018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Research_Centre\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 97981\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatological normal Content: Climatological normal is a 30-year average of a weather variable . Climatological normals are used as an average or baseline to evaluate climate events and provide context for year-to-year variability . Normals can be calculated for a variety of weather variables including temperature and precipitation and rely on data from weather stations . Variability from the 30-year averages is typical and climate variability looks at the magnitude of extremes .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatological_normal\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 97292\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_popular_culture\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 97235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_ethics\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 96858\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_game\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 96831\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate commitment Content: Climate commitment describes the fact that climate reacts with a delay to influencing factors ( `` climate forcings '' ) such as the presence of greenhouse gases . Climate commitment studies attempt to assess the amount of future global warming that is `` committed '' under the assumption of some constant level of forcings . The constant level often used for illustrative purposes is doubling or quadrupling ; or the present level of forcing .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_commitment\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 96809\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 96412\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_adaptation\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 95972\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_gender\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 95819\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic adaptation Content: Climate adaptation refers to specific adaptations in a living organism that develop in response to changes in climate and habitat . Such adaptations could include physical changes , such as skin or fur color and composition changes , or the adaptations could be behavioral , such as burrowing into the ground or spending more time in water . These are not necessarily permanently expressed traits , instead encompassing the potential for the individual to adapt to certain environments . The change in the environment triggers a change in behavior which would not have been present had the organism not been exposed to that specific stimuli . Climate adaptation is constrained by the genetic variability of the species in question .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_adaptation\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 95665\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 95655\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 95623\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Act_2008\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 95369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 95121\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 95119\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Capital Content: Climate Change Capital is a private asset management and advisory group founded in 2003 to support efforts to develop solutions to climate change and resource depletion .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Capital\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 94402\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_justice\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 94394\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_state\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 94147\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 94085\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 94067\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Authority\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 93891\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 93861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 93724\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 4Change Content: 4Change , formerly known as the Climate Change Coalition ( CCC ) , was an Australian political party , which was formed in 2007 with a view to accelerate action by politicians from all parties on global warming and climate change . Its position on working towards addressing climate change , stresses cooperation with big business in order to achieve significant progress on the issue . The party therefore advocates a close working relationship between environmentalists and the business community . The CCC was registered as a political party with the Australian Electoral Commission ( AEC ) on 4 September 2007 and deregistered on 25 March 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"4Change\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 93619\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 93388\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hard Choices (Coward book) Content: Hard Choices : Climate Change in Canada is a non-fiction compilation book about climate change in Canada , edited by Harold Coward and Andrew J. Weaver . It was published in paperback format by Wilfrid Laurier University Press in 2004 . Hard Choices received favorable reviews in academic journals including Great Plains Research : A Journal of Natural and Social Sciences , Environmental Reviews , Annals of the Association of American Geographers , and Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Hard_Choices_(Coward_book)\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 93316\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_New_York_City\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 93222\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change Content: The Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change ( MOECC ) is a Ontario government ministry responsible for protecting and improving the quality of the environment in the Canadian province of Ontario , as well as coordinating Ontario 's actions on climate change . This includes administration of government programs , such as Ontario 's Drive Clean and Clean Water Act . The ministry headquarters are located inside the Ontario Government Buildings . The current Minister is Glen Murray .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Ministry_of_the_Environment_and_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 92915\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 92883\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Glacier_mass_balance\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 92784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 Content: The Climate Change ( Scotland ) Act 2009 is an Act of the Scottish Parliament . The Act includes an emissions target , set for the year 2050 , for a reduction of at least 80 % from the baseline year , 1990 . Annual targets for greenhouse gas emissions must also be set , after consultation the relevant advisory bodies . Provisions are included in the Act for the creation of a Scottish Committee on Climate Change , as at present the only advisory body is the UK-wide Committee on Climate Change . Ministers in parliament must now report on the progress of these targets . As of January 2011 , public sector bodies in Scotland must comply with new guidelines set out by the Scottish Government .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_(Scotland)_Act_2009\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 92779\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_denial\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 92677\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Weather Makers Content: The Weather Makers : The History and Future Impact of Climate Change is a 2005 book by Tim Flannery . The book received critical acclaim . It won the major prize at the 2006 New South Wales Premier 's Literary Awards , and was short-listed for the 2010 Jan Michalski Prize for Literature .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Weather_Makers\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 92525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Fisheries_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 92508\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 92476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 92453\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Climate_Change_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 92339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference was an international meeting of political leaders and activists to discuss environmental issues . It was held in Marrakech , Morocco from November 7 to 18 . The conference incorporated the twenty-second Conference of the Parties ( COP22 ) , the twelfth meeting of the parties for the Kyoto Protocol ( CMP12 ) , and the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement ( CMA1 ) . The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combatting climate change and to '' -LSB- demonstrate -RSB- to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is underway '' . Participants work together to come up with global solutions to climate change . The conference was presided over by Salaheddine Mezouar , the Moroccan Minister for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation . Approximately 20,000 participants were expected to attend . On 2 May 2016 , events firm GL Events signed the service contract . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also lent its support to the preparation for COP 22 '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"2016_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 92208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 91615\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ministry of Environment and Climate Change (Romania) Content: The Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change ( Ministerul Mediului și Schimbărilor climatice ) is one of the ministries of the Government of Romania . The institution was known as the Ministry of Environment and Waters Management ( Ministerul Mediului și Gospodăririi Apelor ) before April 2007 ; and then the Ministry of Environment and Forests .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Ministry_of_Environment_and_Climate_Change_(Romania)\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 91440\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_South_Korea\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 91382\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_Arctic\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 91337\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Levy Content: The Climate Change Levy ( CCL ) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom . Its aim is to provide an incentive to increase energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions ; however , there have been ongoing calls to replace it with a proper carbon tax .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Levy\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 91250\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 91127\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Challenge Content: Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 91048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Climate Monologues Content: The Climate Monologues is an episodic one-woman play , created and performed by Sharon Abreu . Inspired by The Vagina Monologues , The Climate Monologues consists of a series of monologues and original songs from the point of view of people affected by and working to prevent climate change . The play premiered at the Orcas Island Grange in Eastsound , WA , on May 16 , 2010 . On March 11 , 2011 , Abreu received The Spirit of Nature , Ecology and Society Environmental Justice Award . at The Culture of Climate Change colloquium at the City University of New York ( CUNY ) Graduate Center in New York City , for her presentation of The Climate Monologues . Abreu performed an updated version of the show on March 27 , 2016 , in the Los Angeles Women 's Theatre Festival . Orcas Issues said in a review of a September 8 , 2016 , performance at Random Howse in Eastsound , WA : `` Sharon Abreu is an inspired listener . She listens to the stories of West Virginian coal mining families , NW activists , Tribal leaders , Mississippi teachers , a Colorado cowgirl and Orcas ' own Lea Bossler and tells them back to us in compelling , non-scientific language about the world we live in . '' Theater reviewer Lexi Orphanos wrote , `` Abreu 's monologues bring a humanity to the statistics that plaster our newspapers and Facebook feeds . She does n't just give you the facts , she gives you a human life , bent and reshaped by environmental abuse . '' A September 24 , 2016 , performance at the United Solo Theatre Festival sold out , was listed as a bestseller and a repeat performance was added which took place on November 18 , 2016 . The play was featured in chapter 6 , Orcas Island 's Irthlingz : Community Art as Activism in the 2016 book , A Song to Save the Salish Sea : Musical Performance as Environmental Activism , by Mark Pedelty , published by Indiana University Press .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Climate_Monologues\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 90769\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regime shift Content: In ecology , regime shifts are large , abrupt , persistent changes in the structure and function of a system . A regime is a characteristic behaviour of a system which is maintained by mutually reinforced processes or feedbacks . Regimes are considered persistent relative to the time period over which the shift occurs . The change of regimes , or the shift , usually occurs when a smooth change in an internal process ( feedback ) or a single disturbance ( external shocks ) triggers a completely different system behavior . Although such non-linear changes have been widely studied in different disciplines ranging from atoms to climate dynamics , regime shifts have gained importance in ecology because they can substantially affect the flow of ecosystem services that societies rely upon , such as provision of food , clean water or climate regulation . Moreover , regime shift occurrence is expected to increase as human influence on the planet increases -- the Anthropocene -- including current trends on human induced climate change and biodiversity loss .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Regime_shift\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 90603\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Grantham Institute - Climate Change and Environment Content: The Grantham Institute - Climate Change and Environment ( formerly Grantham Institute for Climate Change ) is one of five Global Institutes at Imperial College London and one of three Grantham sponsored centres in the UK . The Institute was founded in 2007 with a # 12m donation from the Grantham Foundation for the Protection of the Environment , an organisation set up by Hannelore and Jeremy Grantham . The Institute brings together climate and global environmental change expertise from across the College for climate change related research and translation into real world impact . Their aim is to improve the interaction between researchers and decision makers in business and governments , communicating research to help ensure that choices are based on the best understanding of the science and evidence available .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Grantham_Institute_-_Climate_Change_and_Environment\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 90572\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 90374\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Summit\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 90242\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: National Climate Assessment Content: The National Climate Assessment ( NCA ) is a United States government interagency ongoing effort on climate change science conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The NCA is a major product of the U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which coordinates a team of experts and receives input from a Federal Advisory Committee . The Fourth National Climate Assessment is being developed . For the Third National Climate Assessment , released in 2014 , USGCRP coordinated hundreds of experts and received advice from a sixty-member Federal Advisory Committee . NCA research is integrated and summarized in the mandatory ongoing National Climate Assessment Reports . The reports are `` extensively reviewed by the public and experts , including federal agencies and a panel of the National Academy of Sciences . The First National Climate Assessment was published in 2000 . The First National Climate Assessment Report was `` prepared by the National Assessment Synthesis Team ( NAST ) , an advisory committee chartered under the Federal Advisory Committee Act to help the US Global Change Research Program fulfill its mandate under the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The National Science and Technology Council forwarded the report to the President and Congress for their consideration as required by the Global Change Research Act . Administrative support for the US Global Change Research Program is provided by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research , which is sponsored by the National Science Foundation ( NCA 2000 ) . '' Between 2002 and 2009 , USGCRP previously known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) , produced twenty-one Synthesis and Assessment Products ( SAPs ) . The second NCA was published in 2009 and the third was released in 2014 . NCA 's overarching goal according to their May 20 , 2011 engagement strategy summary , `` is to enhance the ability of the U.S. to anticipate , mitigate , and adapt to changes in the global environment ( NCA 2011:2 ) . '' According to the USGCRP official website the NCA , In 2013 , the President 's Climate Action Plan released by the Executive Office of the President specifically noted the importance of the National Climate Assessments in achieving the goal of `` Using Sound Science to Manage Climate Impacts '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"National_Climate_Assessment\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 90235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Content: The Copernicus Climate Change Service ( C3S ) is one of the six thematic services provided by the European Union 's Copernicus Programme . The Copernicus Programme is managed by the European Commission and the C3S is implemented by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) and is expected to become operational in 2018 . The objective of the Copernicus Climate Change Service is to build an EU knowledge base in support of mitigation and adaptation policies for Climate Change and Global Warming . The goal of the operational Climate Change service is to provide reliable information about the current and past state of the climate , the forecasts on a seasonal time scale , and the more likely projections in the coming decades for various scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions and other Climate Change contributors .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Copernicus_Climate_Change_Service_(C3S)\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 90074\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \\\"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\\\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \\\"deep emissions reductions\\\" and \\\"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\\\" Furthermore, the report finds that \\\"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\\\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \\\"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\\\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 89855\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: London Climate Change Agency Content: The London Climate Change Agency Limited ( LCCA ) , was a municipal company owned by the London Development Agency ( LDA ) that worked in partnership with private sector companies ( notably EDF Energy ) to design , finance , construct , own and operate decentralised low energy and zero-carbon projects for London , as well as providing services to others . It operated in the areas of energy , water , waste and transport . In 2009 it was integrated into the London Development Agency The Agency was launched on 20 June 2005 to implement a manifesto commitment by Ken Livingstone in the 2004 elections for the Mayor of London . Its budget for 2006-07 is # 815,000 , 63 % of which is funded directly by the LDA . The Chief Executive Officer is Allan Jones , who previously led the development of the pioneering sustainable community energy system in Woking . The London Climate Change Agency plans to create a similar system for London . As of 2006 , London produces 7 % of the UK 's carbon emissions . The LCCA is seen as one of the key vehicles for delivering the Mayor 's energy strategy , which targets cuts in these emissions of 20 % by 2010 and 60 % by 2050 ( although achieving the first of these targets is unlikely ) . The Agency is also expected to play a role in ensuring that the London Olympic games are the first to be powered by low carbon technology .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"London_Climate_Change_Agency\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 89702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental Change Institute Content: The Environmental Change Institute was founded in 1987 in Oxford University in England `` to organize and promote interdisciplinary research on the nature , causes and impact of environmental change and to contribute to the development of management strategies for coping with future environmental change . '' This statement still embodies the ECI 's ethos of purposeful environmental research and knowledge exchange . With an annual research income of # 4.7 million in 2013/14 , a portfolio of 50 active projects , 350 partners and 60 researchers working across 40 countries , the ECI is an active and influential player in environmental change science . The ECI 's research is interdisciplinary , both in outlook and approach . ECI has a well - established track record in relation to climate , energy and ecosystems and a growing expertise in relation to food and water . ECI is a leading player in number of large research activities , including : the UK Climate Impacts Programme ( UKCIP ) which develops new tools to link climate science with stakeholders in business and government in order to create innovative adaptations to the impacts of climate change ; Climateprediction.net the world 's largest citizen science climate ensemble with 350,000 individuals running climate simulations in order to better understand regional climate patterns ; leaders of major EU consortium programmes including one on the impacts and risks of extreme climate change ( Impressions ) ; and coordinators of GEM , a global ecological monitoring programme across remote forest locations in South America , Africa and Asia . The ECI 's full portfolio of projects has led to academic papers and citations totaling over 45,000 since 2000 . The ECI is also home to the MSc in Environmental Change and Management ( ECM ) , the School 's first taught postgraduate masters ' programme , and Oxford 's most popular graduate science course . The Institute is led by Professor Jim Hall .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_Change_Institute\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 89627\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Climate Mobilization Content: The Climate Mobilization ( TCM ) is a grassroots environmental advocacy group working toward large-scale political action against global warming , with the belief that the crisis of climate change requires a national economic effort on the scale of the American mobilization of the home front during World War II . It was founded by psychologist Margaret Klein Salamon to confront climate change denial and build the political will necessary to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions and 100 % clean energy within a decade in order to avoid crossing potentially catastrophic climate tipping points and begin restoring a safe climate .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Climate_Mobilization\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 89603\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Museum Content: The Climate Museum is a new museum proposed for New York City that will focus on climate change . The founding director is Miranda Massie . The Museum was given a 5-year Charter by the New York State Board of Regents in July , 2015 . As of July 2015 , the museum is in its initial fund-raising and planning phase and has not yet selected a location .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Museum\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 89534\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_West_Virginia\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 89516\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Climate Change Partnership Content: The International Climate Change Partnership ( ICCP ) is an organization of companies and trade associations from around the world working to influence international climate change legislation .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Climate_Change_Partnership\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 89472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical climate Content: A tropical climate in the Köppen climate classification is a non-arid climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures of at least 18 C . In tropical climates there are often only two seasons , a wet season and a dry season . Tropical climates are frost-free and changes in the solar angle are small . In tropical climates temperature remains relatively constant ( hot ) throughout the year .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_climate\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 89420\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Content: The Ministry of Environment , Forest and Climate Change ( MoEFCC ) is an Indian government ministry . The ministry portfolio is currently held by Dr. Harsh Vardhan , Union Minister of Environment , Forest and Climate Change . The ministry is responsible for planning , promoting , coordinating , and overseeing the implementation of environmental and forestry programmes in the country . The main activities undertaken by the ministry include conservation and survey of the flora of India and fauna of India , forests and other wilderness areas ; prevention and control of pollution ; afforestation , and land degradation mitigation . It is responsible for the administration of the national parks of India . One of the three All India Services , the Indian Forest Service ( IFoS ) is under the administration and supervision of the Ministry of Environment , Forest and Climate Change .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Ministry_of_Environment,_Forest_and_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 89103\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 89097\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 89056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 88928\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 88885\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_poverty\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 88864\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_hiatus\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 88780\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: U.S. Climate Change Technology Program Content: The United States Climate Change Technology Program or CCTP is a multi-agency planning and coordination entity . Its purpose is to accelerate the development and deployment of technologies that can reduce , avoid , or capture and store greenhouse gas emissions . CCTP was established administratively in 2002 , authorized by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , and appropriated funds in 2007 . Currently , the Department of Energy is designated as the lead agency .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"U.S._Climate_Change_Technology_Program\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 88736\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Premier's Climate Change Council Content: The Premier 's Climate Change Council was established by the Government of South Australia under the Climate Change and Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Act 2007 . The Council provides independent advice to the Minister responsible for Climate Change about matters related to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and climate change adaptation and was formed during the Rann Government . The Council 's membership represents the business community , the environment and conservation sector , the scientific community and state and local governments . It is chaired by prominent South Australian businessman Bruce Carter , who was appointed to the role in 2011 . In 2013 , Michelle Lensink MLC questioned the efficacy of the Premier 's Climate Change Council , and asked the Minister for the environment , Ian Hunter about the absence of the Council 's 2011-12 annual report from the Council 's website . In 2013 , the Council published South Australia 's Climate Change Vision : Pathways to 2050 to advise Premier Jay Weatherill and his government on future planning and policy directions for the state . In September 2015 , Bruce Carter said of the Council : '' `` We want to encourage a wide range of views around climate change measures that are dynamic and adaptive . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Premier's_Climate_Change_Council\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 88631\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Sweden Content: The issue of climate change in Sweden has received significant public and political attention and the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the three latest Governments of Sweden , the former Cabinet of Göran Persson ( -2006 ) , the previous Cabinet of Fredrik Reinfeldt ( 2006-2014 ) and the current Löfven cabinet ( 2014 - ) . Sweden aims for an energy supply system with zero net atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Sweden\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 88619\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_activity_and_climate\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 88466\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 88405\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"190\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 88332\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":89,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"The main greenhouse gas is water vapour[…]"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":1,"score":141886},{"content":"Title: Water vapor Content: Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds . Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution . Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects .","qid":"194","docid":"Water_vapor","rank":2,"score":138463},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"194","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":3,"score":128422},{"content":"Title: Vapour-pressure deficit Content: Vapour-pressure deficit , or VPD , is the difference ( deficit ) between the amount of moisture in the air and how much moisture the air can hold when it is saturated . Once air becomes saturated , water will condense out to form clouds , dew or films of water over leaves . It is this last instance that makes VPD important for greenhouse regulation . If a film of water forms on a plant leaf , it becomes far more susceptible to rot . On the other hand , as the VPD increases , the plant needs to draw more water from its roots . In the case of cuttings , the plant may dry out and die . For this reason the ideal range for VPD in a greenhouse is from 0.45 kPa to 1.25 kPa , ideally sitting at around 0.85 kPa . As a general rule , most plants grow well at VPDs of between 0.8 and 0.95 kPa . A series of membership functions for defining optimality degree of VPD at different light condition and growth stages of greenhouse tomato can be found in the work of Shamshiri . In ecology , it is the difference between the actual water vapour pressure and the saturation water vapour pressure at a particular temperature . Unlike relative humidity , vapour-pressure deficit has a simple nearly straight-line relationship to the rate of evapotranspiration and other measures of evaporation .","qid":"194","docid":"Vapour-pressure_deficit","rank":4,"score":115989},{"content":"Title: Vapor Content: In physics a vapor ( American ) or vapour ( British ) is a substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical temperature , which means that the vapor can be condensed to a liquid by increasing the pressure on it without reducing the temperature . A vapor is different from an aerosol . An aerosol is a suspension of tiny particles of liquid , solid , or both within a gas . For example , water has a critical temperature of 647 K , which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist . In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures , therefore , gaseous water ( known as water vapor ) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently . A vapor may co-exist with a liquid ( or a solid ) . When this is true , the two phases will be in equilibrium , and the gas-partial pressure will be equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid ( or solid ) .","qid":"194","docid":"Vapor","rank":5,"score":107340},{"content":"Title: SathyabamaSat Content: SathyabamaSat is a micro experimental satellite developed by students and faculty of Sathyabama University , Chennai to collect data on greenhouse gases ( Water vapor , Carbon monoxide , Carbon dioxide , Methane and Hydrogen fluoride ) . It was launched along with the Cartosat-2C satellite atop PSLV-C34 . It was launched on June 22nd , 2016 .","qid":"194","docid":"SathyabamaSat","rank":6,"score":105468},{"content":"Title: Physical properties of greenhouse gases Content:","qid":"194","docid":"Physical_properties_of_greenhouse_gases","rank":7,"score":101153},{"content":"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .","qid":"194","docid":"Fugitive_emissions","rank":8,"score":99792},{"content":"Title: Vapour pressure of water Content: The vapour pressure of water is the pressure at which water vapour is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed state . At higher pressures water would condense . The water vapour pressure is the partial pressure of water vapour in any gas mixture in equilibrium with solid or liquid water . As for other substances , water vapour pressure is a function of temperature and can be determined with Clausius -- Clapeyron relation .","qid":"194","docid":"Vapour_pressure_of_water","rank":9,"score":98356},{"content":"Title: Fluorinated gases Content: Fluorinated gases ( F-gases ) are man-made gases that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries and contribute to a global greenhouse effect . There are four types : hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) and nitrogen trifluoride ( NF3 ) .","qid":"194","docid":"Fluorinated_gases","rank":10,"score":95440},{"content":"Title: Methane Content: Methane ( -LSB- ˈmɛθeɪn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmiːθeɪn -RSB- ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ( one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen ) . It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane , and is the main constituent of natural gas . The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel , though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure . Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor . When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere , it is known as atmospheric methane . The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750 , and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases ( these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect ) .","qid":"194","docid":"Methane","rank":11,"score":94973},{"content":"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .","qid":"194","docid":"Idealized_greenhouse_model","rank":12,"score":94719},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_effect","rank":13,"score":91227},{"content":"Title: Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride Content: Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride , CF3SF5 , is a rare industrial greenhouse gas , first published in 2000 by a group of researchers from Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States . Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride is considered to be one of the several super greenhouse gases . On a per molecule basis , it is considered to be the most potent greenhouse gas present in Earth 's atmosphere . However , the current concentration of Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride remains at a level that is unlikely to measurably contribute to earth 's warming . The source of the gas is attributed to anthropogenic sources , possibly a by-product of the manufacture of fluorochemicals , originating from reactions of SF6 with fluoropolymers used in electronic devices and in microchips , or the formation can be associated with high voltage equipment created from SF6 ( a breakdown product of high voltage equipment ) reacting with CF3 to form the CF3SF5 molecule .","qid":"194","docid":"Trifluoromethyl_sulphur_pentafluoride","rank":14,"score":91164},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse Item Content: Greenhouse Item was an American nuclear test conducted on May 25 , 1951 , as part of Operation Greenhouse at the Pacific Proving Ground , specifically on the island of Engebi in the Eniwetok Atoll in the Central Pacific Ocean . This test explosion was the first test of a boosted fission weapon . In this test deuterium-tritium ( D-T ) gas was injected into the enriched uranium core of a nuclear fission bomb . The extreme heat of the fissioning bomb produced thermonuclear fusion reactions within the D-T gas , but not enough of them to be considered a full nuclear fusion bomb . This fusion reaction released a large number of free neutrons , which greatly increased the efficiency of the nuclear fission reaction . The explosive yield of this bomb was 45.5 kilotons , about twice the yield of the unboosted bomb . This bomb was known as the `` Booster '' in its development stages , a name for the mechanism coined by Edward Teller in September 1947 . Planning for it had begun in the late 1940s . According to the researcher Chuck Hansen , it was mentioned in official U.S. Atomic Energy Commission documents as early as 1947 . The main problems in development were making modifications to the fission core in order to accept the gas correctly without reducing its own efficiency . The 1951 test was primarily to test the nuclear principles involved , and to gain research data , and it was not considered a design for a weaponizable device . Even as late as 1954 , no boosted weapon had entered into the nuclear-weapons stockpile , and the only use for the Greenhouse Item nuclear test had been for its research results . The `` Booster '' device was detonated at 6:17 am on May 25 , 1951 from a 200 ft on the island of Engebi in the Enewetok Atoll , and its fusion fuel was injected by means of a cryogenic pump at the base of the tower .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_Item","rank":15,"score":90744},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"194","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":16,"score":90031},{"content":"Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .","qid":"194","docid":"Landfill_gas","rank":17,"score":88429},{"content":"Title: Vapor recovery Content: Vapor ( or vapour ) recovery is the process of recovery the vapors of gasoline or other fuels , so that they do not escape into the atmosphere . This is often done ( or required by law ) at filling stations , in order to reduce noxious and potentially explosive fumes and pollution . The negative pressure created in the ( underground ) tank by the withdrawal is usually used to pull in the vapors . They are drawn-in through holes in the side of the nozzle and travel through special hoses which have a return path .","qid":"194","docid":"Vapor_recovery","rank":18,"score":88212},{"content":"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .","qid":"194","docid":"The_Green_Initiative","rank":19,"score":88188},{"content":"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .","qid":"194","docid":"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)","rank":20,"score":88072},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite","rank":21,"score":86705},{"content":"Title: Gasera Content: Gasera Ltd. is a Finnish high-tech company focused on the analysis of gases , liquids and solid materials . The main focus of Gasera is measuring harmful air pollutants in order to protect humans and the environment . Other applications include e.g. greenhouse gas monitoring , automotive and ship emissions monitoring , dissolved gas analysis in transformer oil , CWA and TIC detection , material identification and food production and safety . __ TOC __","qid":"194","docid":"Gasera","rank":22,"score":86442},{"content":"Title: Water gas Content: Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen produced from synthesis gas . Synthesis gas is a useful product , but requires careful handling due to its flammability and the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning . The water-gas shift reaction can be used to reduce the carbon monoxide while producing additional hydrogen , resulting in water gas .","qid":"194","docid":"Water_gas","rank":23,"score":86300},{"content":"Title: Methane emissions Content: Global methane emissions are major part of the global greenhouse gas emissions . Methane in the atmosphere has a 100-year global warming potential of 34 .","qid":"194","docid":"Methane_emissions","rank":24,"score":86094},{"content":"Title: Water vapor windows Content: In the Earth 's atmosphere , water vapor absorbs many wavelengths of IR energy , while others are not absorbed . Those sections of the Electromagnetic spectrum that it does not absorb , are like windows in the atmosphere , allowing electromagnetic energy to flow freely in and out of the system . Like a window , that allows light to enter and leave . Originally discovered by John Tyndall , most of the infrared coming from the Universe is blocked , absorbed by water vapor ( and other greenhouse gases ) in the Earth 's atmosphere . Those wavelength ranges that can partially reach the surface , are coming through what is called ` water vapor windows ' . These windows are how Astronomers can view the Universe with IR telescopes , called Infrared astronomy . These windows also allow orbiting satellites to measure the IR energy leaving the planet , the SSTs and other important matters . See Electromagnetic_absorption_by_water #Atmospheric _ effects .","qid":"194","docid":"Water_vapor_windows","rank":25,"score":86074},{"content":"Title: Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act Content: The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) began regulating greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) under the Clean Air Act ( `` CAA '' or `` Act '' ) from mobile and stationary sources of air pollution for the first time on January 2 , 2011 . Standards for mobile sources have been established pursuant to Section 202 of the CAA , and GHGs from stationary sources are currently controlled under the authority of Part C of Title I of the Act . The basis for regulations was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia in June 2012 .","qid":"194","docid":"Regulation_of_greenhouse_gases_under_the_Clean_Air_Act","rank":26,"score":86002},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"194","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":27,"score":85988},{"content":"Title: Ventilation air methane thermal oxidizer Content: Ventilation air methane thermal oxidizers ( or VAMTOX ) are a type of processing equipment used for greenhouse gas abatement related to underground mining operations that destroys gaseous methane at a high temperature .","qid":"194","docid":"Ventilation_air_methane_thermal_oxidizer","rank":28,"score":85930},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas monitoring Content: Greenhouse gas monitoring is the direct measurement of greenhouse gas emissions and levels . Methods include satellite monitoring such as the Orbiting Carbon Observatory and networks of ground stations such as the Integrated Carbon Observation System . The individual units of ground stations often use an infrared detector to assess the concentration of a certain gas .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_monitoring","rank":29,"score":85367},{"content":"Title: United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions Content: The United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions is established by the United States Department of Energy under the Energy Policy Act 1992 . It is administered by the Energy Information Administration through the Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Program . Separately , the Environmental Protection Agency in 2009 commenced implementing a mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program , which applies to facilities that emit 25,000 metric tons or more per year .","qid":"194","docid":"United_States_federal_register_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions","rank":30,"score":85134},{"content":"Title: Seawater greenhouse Content: A seawater greenhouse is a greenhouse structure that enables the growth of crops in arid regions , using seawater and solar energy . The technique involves pumping seawater ( or allowing it to gravitate if below sea level ) to an arid location and then subjecting it to two processes : first , it is used to humidify and cool the air , and second , it is evaporated by solar heating and distilled to produce fresh water . Finally , the remaining humidified air is expelled from the greenhouse and used to improve growing conditions for outdoor plants . The technology was introduced by British inventor Charlie Paton in the early 1990s and is being developed by his UK company Seawater Greenhouse Ltd. . The more concentrated salt water may either be further evaporated for the production of salt and other elements , or discharged back to the sea . The seawater greenhouse is a response to the global water crisis and peak water .","qid":"194","docid":"Seawater_greenhouse","rank":31,"score":85116},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"194","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":32,"score":85017},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"194","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":33,"score":84995},{"content":"Title: Sulfur hexafluoride Content: Sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) is an inorganic , colorless , odorless , non-flammable , extremely potent greenhouse gas , which is an excellent electrical insulator . has an octahedral geometry , consisting of six fluorine atoms attached to a central sulfur atom . It is a hypervalent molecule . Typical for a nonpolar gas , it is poorly soluble in water but quite soluble in nonpolar organic solvents . It is generally transported as a liquefied compressed gas . It has a density of 6.12 g/L at sea level conditions , considerably higher than the density of air ( 1.225 g/L ) .","qid":"194","docid":"Sulfur_hexafluoride","rank":34,"score":84670},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":35,"score":84654},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"194","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":36,"score":84546},{"content":"Title: Octafluoropropane Content: Octafluoropropane ( C3F8 ) is a fluorocarbon non-flammable greenhouse gas that can be produced either by electrochemical fluorination or by the Fowler process using cobalt fluoride .","qid":"194","docid":"Octafluoropropane","rank":37,"score":84339},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_accounting","rank":38,"score":84089},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_inventory","rank":39,"score":83991},{"content":"Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .","qid":"194","docid":"Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases","rank":40,"score":83674},{"content":"Title: Photocatalytic water splitting Content: Photocatalytic water splitting is an artificial photosynthesis process with photocatalysis in a photoelectrochemical cell used for the dissociation of water into its constituent parts , hydrogen and oxygen , using either artificial or natural light . Theoretically , only solar energy ( photons ) , water , and a catalyst are needed . This topic is the focus of much research , but thus far no technology has been commercialized Hydrogen fuel production has gained increased attention as oil and other nonrenewable fuels become increasingly depleted and expensive . Methods such as photocatalytic water splitting are being investigated to produce hydrogen , a clean-burning fuel . Water splitting holds particular promise since it utilizes water , an inexpensive renewable resource . Photocatalytic water splitting has the simplicity of using a powder in solution and sunlight to produce and from water and can provide a clean , renewable energy , without producing greenhouse gases or having many adverse effects on the atmosphere .","qid":"194","docid":"Photocatalytic_water_splitting","rank":41,"score":83525},{"content":"Title: Vapor (disambiguation) Content: A vapor is a substance in the gas phase below its boiling point . Vapor or vapour may also refer to :","qid":"194","docid":"Vapor_(disambiguation)","rank":42,"score":83162},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_debt","rank":43,"score":82512},{"content":"Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .","qid":"194","docid":"ECOCITIES_(software)","rank":44,"score":82200},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas removal Content: Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_removal","rank":45,"score":82174},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":46,"score":81675},{"content":"Title: Trace gas Content: A trace gas is a gas which makes up less than 1 % by volume of the Earth 's atmosphere , and it includes all gases except nitrogen ( 78.1 % ) and oxygen ( 20.9 % ) . The most abundant trace gas at 0.934 % is argon . Water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance .","qid":"194","docid":"Trace_gas","rank":47,"score":80528},{"content":"Title: Lisa Gluskin Stonestreet Content: Lisa Gluskin Stonestreet ( born January 31 , 1968 ) is an award-winning American poet . Stonestreet 's second book , The Greenhouse , was awarded the 2014 Frost Place Chapbook Prize and published by Bull City Press in August 2014 . Her first book , Tulips , Water , Ash , was published by Northeastern University Press , and chosen by Jean Valentine as the last Morse Poetry Prize , before its suspension in 2009 .","qid":"194","docid":"Lisa_Gluskin_Stonestreet","rank":48,"score":79957},{"content":"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .","qid":"194","docid":"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions","rank":49,"score":79941},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse whitefly Content: Trialeurodes vaporariorum , commonly known as the glasshouse whitefly or greenhouse whitefly , is an insect that inhabits the world 's temperate regions . Like various other whiteflies , it is a primary insect pest of many fruit , vegetable and ornamental crops . It is frequently found in glasshouses ( greenhouses ) , polytunnels , and other protected horticultural environments . Adults are 1 -- 2 mm in length , with yellowish bodies and four wax-coated wings held near parallel to the leaf surface .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_whitefly","rank":50,"score":79865},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse (disambiguation) Content: Greenhouse may refer to : Greenhouse , an indoor covered place where plants are grown and cultivated Greenhouse effect , the effects on a planet when ` greenhouse gases ' cloud the atmosphere Greenhouse and icehouse Earth , periods when the greenhouse effect is dominant or absent Greenhouse effect ( United States Supreme Court ) , postulated effect whereby conservative Supreme Court Justices drift liberal for favorable press Greenhouse debt , the measure to which an entity exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_(disambiguation)","rank":51,"score":79747},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting Content: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is a method of calculating the amount of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) emitted by a region in a given time-scale . A National Emissions Inventory ( NEI ) measuring a country 's GHG emissions in a year is required by the UNFCCC to provide a benchmark for the country 's emission reductions , and subsequently to evaluate international climate policies such as the Kyoto protocol ( although the original has now expired , extensions have been agreed ) as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . There are two conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions : production-based ( sometimes referred to as territorial-based ) or consumption-based . Production-based emissions take place `` within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction '' . Consumption-based emissions encompass those emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports . This means the importing country takes responsibility for emissions related to production of the exporting country 's exports . By these definitions production-based emissions include exports but exclude imports and emissions embodied in international trade , whereas consumption-based emissions refer to the reverse ( Table 1 ) . Which technique is applied by policymakers is fundamental as each can generate a very different NEI . Different NEIs would result in a country 's choosing different optimal mitigation activities , the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging . The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms , although much of the literature favours consumption-based accounting . The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_accounting","rank":52,"score":79630},{"content":"Title: Hydrofluorocarbon Content: Hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , organic compounds that contain fluorine and hydrogen atoms , are the most common type of organofluorine compounds . They are commonly used in air conditioning and as refrigerants in place of the older chlorofluorocarbons such as R-12 and hydrochlorofluorocarbons such as R-21 . They do not harm the ozone layer as much as the compounds they replace ; however , they do contribute to global warming . Their atmospheric concentrations and contribution to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly increasing , causing international concern about their radiative forcing . Fluorocarbons with few C -- F bonds behave similarly to the parent hydrocarbons , but their reactivity can be altered significantly . For example , both uracil and 5-fluorouracil are colourless , high-melting crystalline solids , but the latter is a potent anti-cancer drug . The use of the C-F bond in pharmaceuticals is predicated on this altered reactivity . Several drugs and agrochemicals contain only one fluorine center or one trifluoromethyl group . Unlike other greenhouse gases in the Paris Agreement , hydrofluorocarbons have other international negotiations . In September 2016 , the so-called New York Declaration urged a global reduction in the use of HFCs . On 15 October 2016 , due to these chemicals ' contribution to climate change , negotiators from 197 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme in Kigali , Rwanda reached a legally-binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol .","qid":"194","docid":"Hydrofluorocarbon","rank":53,"score":79561},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"194","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":54,"score":79551},{"content":"Title: Gas leak Content: In common usage , a gas leak refers to a leak of natural gas or other gaseous product from a pipeline or other containment into a living area or any other area where the gas should not be present . Because flammable gases may explode when exposed to flame or sparks , this situation is very dangerous to the general public . In addition to causing fire and explosion hazards , leaks can kill vegetation , including large trees , and may release powerful greenhouse gases to the atmosphere .","qid":"194","docid":"Gas_leak","rank":55,"score":79449},{"content":"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )","qid":"194","docid":"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita","rank":56,"score":79448},{"content":"Title: Condensing boiler Content: Condensing boilers are water heaters fueled by gas or oil . They achieve high efficiency ( typically greater than 90 % on the higher heating value ) by condensing water vapour in the exhaust gases and so recovering its latent heat of vaporisation , which would otherwise have been wasted . This condensed vapour leaves the system in liquid form , via a drain . In many countries , the use of condensing boilers is compulsory or encouraged with financial incentives .","qid":"194","docid":"Condensing_boiler","rank":57,"score":79381},{"content":"Title: Vapors Content: Vapors ( or vapours ) may refer to : Vapor , a gaseous phase of matter Vapours ( disease ) , an archaic term for certain mental and/or physical illnesses The Vapors , an English new-wave/power pop band `` Vapors '' ( seaQuest DSV ) , a second-season episode of seaQuest DSV `` Vapors '' ( song ) , a 1988 hip-hop song by Biz Markie , covered by Snoop Dogg Vapours ( album ) , a 2009 album by Islands","qid":"194","docid":"Vapors","rank":58,"score":79359},{"content":"Title: Włocławek Reservoir Content: Włocławek Reservoir ( Zbiornik Włocławski ) is a water body in the Middle Vistula flow that appeared in 1970 after building of the dam in Włocławek . The length of the reservoir is 58 km from Włocławek to Płock , average width is 1.2 km . It is the biggest reservoir in Poland . Due to the significant amount of organic matter in the tank ( approx . 11.5 % of the dry weight of sediment ) , it emits approx . 400 mg of methane per area of 1 m ² ( which is approx . 27 % of the total amount of gases emitted from the sediment of average 3114 ml m − 2 d − 1 ) . For this reason , is considered an important source of greenhouse gases emission .","qid":"194","docid":"Włocławek_Reservoir","rank":59,"score":79050},{"content":"Title: Shale gas Content: Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas . Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves . The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low . A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) . Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' .","qid":"194","docid":"Shale_gas","rank":60,"score":78784},{"content":"Title: GHG footprint Content: The GHG footprint , or greenhouse gas footprint , refers to the amount of GHG that are emitted during the creation of products or services . It is more comprehensive than the commonly used carbon footprint , which measures only carbon dioxide , one of many greenhouse gases . The GHG footprint differs from the ecological footprint in that the former is expressed in units of GHG warming potential ( GGWP ) and is generated by products or services , whereas the latter is expressed in units of land area and is generated by whole societies .","qid":"194","docid":"GHG_footprint","rank":61,"score":78673},{"content":"Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .","qid":"194","docid":"Mootral","rank":62,"score":78578},{"content":"Title: Water-gas shift reaction Content: The water-gas shift reaction ( WGSR ) describes the reaction of carbon monoxide and water vapor to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen ( the mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is known as water gas ) : CO + H2O CO2 + H2 The water gas shift reaction was discovered by Italian physicist Felice Fontana in 1780 . It was not until much later that the industrial value of this reaction was realized . Before the early 20th century , hydrogen was obtained by reacting steam under high pressure with iron to produce iron , iron oxide and hydrogen . With the development of industrial processes that required hydrogen , such as the Haber -- Bosch ammonia synthesis , a less expensive and more efficient method of hydrogen production was needed . As a resolution to this problem , the WGSR was combined with the gasification of coal to produce a pure hydrogen product . As the idea of hydrogen economy gains popularity , the focus on hydrogen as a replacement fuel source for hydrocarbons is increasing .","qid":"194","docid":"Water-gas_shift_reaction","rank":63,"score":78281},{"content":"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .","qid":"194","docid":"Carbon-neutral_fuel","rank":64,"score":78240},{"content":"Title: Oscar Olivera Content: Oscar Olivera Foronda ( born 1955 ) was one of the main leaders of the protesters against the water privatization in Bolivia . The result of these protests was an event known as the Cochabamba Water War . Now he is one of the main leaders of the protests in the Bolivian gas conflict . Oscar Olivera was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2001 .","qid":"194","docid":"Oscar_Olivera","rank":65,"score":78123},{"content":"Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .","qid":"194","docid":"Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative","rank":66,"score":77937},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .","qid":"194","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_reforming","rank":67,"score":77617},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''","qid":"194","docid":"Climate_change_in_Grenada","rank":68,"score":77510},{"content":"Title: Solar hot water in Australia Content: Solar hot water is water heated using natural energy from the sun . Solar energy heats up large panels called thermal collectors . The energy is transferred through a fluid ( often water ) to a reservoir tank for storage and subsequent use . It is then used to heat water for commercial or domestic use and also as an energy input for heating and cooling devices and for industrial ` process heat ' applications . Solar hot water systems are motivated by the desire to reduce energy consumption more specifically , to reduce a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions . In the case of Victoria , for example , converting from electric to solar hot water could save 20 % of the state 's total greenhouse gas emissions . Despite an excellent solar resource , the penetration of solar water heaters in the Australian domestic market is only about 4 % or 5 % , with new dwellings accounting for most sales . During the 1950s , Australia 's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) carried out world leading research into flat plate solar water heaters . A solar water heater manufacturing industry was subsequently established in Australia and a large proportion of the manufactured product was exported . Four of the original companies are still in business and the manufacturing base has now expanded to 24 companies . Water heating is the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions from the average Australian home , accounting for around 28 per cent of home energy use ( excluding the family car ) . The Australian government estimates that installing a climate friendly hot water system can save a family $ 300 to $ 700 off electricity bills each year .","qid":"194","docid":"Solar_hot_water_in_Australia","rank":69,"score":77495},{"content":"Title: KDF Energy Content: KDF Energy is the leader greenhouse gases emissions trading on the Romanian market . The company was set up in 2002 , has subsidiaries in Bulgaria , Greece and Lithuania and is fully controlled by Romanian citizen George Brailoiu . KDF Energy is a member of Dutch-based environmental commodities exchange Climex and trades with foreign brokers on London 's European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) and Paris-based BlueNext .","qid":"194","docid":"KDF_Energy","rank":70,"score":77404},{"content":"Title: Arctic methane emissions Content: Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .","qid":"194","docid":"Arctic_methane_emissions","rank":71,"score":77355},{"content":"Title: Water Content: Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth 's streams , lakes , and oceans , and the fluids of most living organisms . Its chemical formula is H2O , meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms , that are connected by covalent bonds . Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance , that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure ; but it often refers also to its solid state ( ice ) or its gaseous state ( steam or water vapor ) . It also occurs in nature as snow , glaciers , ice packs and icebergs , clouds , fog , dew , aquifers , and atmospheric humidity . Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . It is vital for all known forms of life . On Earth , 96.5 % of the planet 's crust water is found in seas and oceans , 1.7 % in groundwater , 1.7 % in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland , a small fraction in other large water bodies , and 0.001 % in the air as vapor , clouds ( formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air ) , and precipitation . Only 2.5 % of this water is freshwater , and 98.8 % of that water is in ice ( excepting ice in clouds ) and groundwater . Less than 0.3 % of all freshwater is in rivers , lakes , and the atmosphere , and an even smaller amount of the Earth 's freshwater ( 0.003 % ) is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products . A greater quantity of water is found in the earth 's interior . Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation and transpiration ( evapotranspiration ) , condensation , precipitation , and runoff , usually reaching the sea . Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land . Large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals . Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients . Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world , but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation . There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita . However , some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability . A report , issued in November 2009 , suggests that by 2030 , in some developing regions of the world , water demand will exceed supply by 50 % . Water plays an important role in the world economy . Approximately 70 % of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture . Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world . Much of long-distance trade of commodities ( such as oil and natural gas ) and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas , rivers , lakes , and canals . Large quantities of water , ice , and steam are used for cooling and heating , in industry and homes . Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances ; as such it is widely used in industrial processes , and in cooking and washing . Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment , such as swimming , pleasure boating , boat racing , surfing , sport fishing , and diving .","qid":"194","docid":"Water","rank":72,"score":77312},{"content":"Title: Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization Content: The Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organisation ( TGO ) ( th : องค์การบริหารจัดการก๊าซเรือนกระจก ; RTGS : Ong Kan Borihan Chat Kan Kat Ruean Krachok ( Ong Kan Mahachon ) ; or th : อบก. ; RTGS : O-Bo-Ko . ) is an autonomous governmental organization under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment ( MNRE ) established by royal decree , Establishment of Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organisation ( Public Organisation ) BE 2550 ( 2007 ) , having chief duties and powers in connection with the reduction of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in Thailand . The royal decree came into force as of 7 July 2007 .","qid":"194","docid":"Thailand_Greenhouse_Gas_Management_Organization","rank":73,"score":77276},{"content":"Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .","qid":"194","docid":"Zero-emissions_vehicle","rank":74,"score":77217},{"content":"Title: Sulfuryl fluoride Content: Sulfuryl fluoride ( also spelled sulphuryl fluoride ) is the inorganic compound with the formula SO2F2 . This acute neurotoxin is an easily condensed gas and has properties more similar to sulfur hexafluoride than sulfuryl chloride , being resistant to hydrolysis even up to 150 ° C. Scientific studies , including 2009 MIT studies , proved that sulfuryl fluoride is a greenhouse gas `` about 4,800 times more potent a heat trapping gas than carbon dioxide '' , and repeated scientific animal studies ( dogs , rabbits , rats and mice ) have proven that sulfuryl fluoride primarily targets the brain , leaving laboratory animals exposed to sulfuryl fluoride with vacuolations ( holes ) in the brain and damage to the white matter , amongst other debilitating symptoms including death . Despite these facts , sulfuryl fluoride is still not only widely used as a structural insecticide fumigant to kill termites and other pests , in the State of Florida the Department of Agriculture reports that fumigations have increased from 10,535 in 2010 to 63,491 in 2014 , a stunning 600 % increase in only four years . Inhalation is hazardous and potentially fatal to humans and animals . And while the EPA has approved this neuro toxin for use in residential homes , the EPA does not require individual States to report to them on the numbers of poisonings . Exposure to sulfuryl fluoride is much farther reaching than just pest control applications as the EPA also approved the use of sulfuryl fluoride on much of the nation 's supply of non-organic foods , U.S. citizens consume the fluoride residues left behind from the sulfuryl fluoride gas .","qid":"194","docid":"Sulfuryl_fluoride","rank":75,"score":77119},{"content":"Title: Coal gasification commercialization Content: Coal gasification is a process whereby a hydrocarbon feedstock ( coal ) is converted into gaseous components by applying heat under pressure in the presence of steam . Rather than burning , most of the carbon-containing feedstock is broken apart by chemical reactions that produce `` syngas . '' Syngas is primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide , but the exact composition can vary . In Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle ( IGCC ) systems , the syngas is cleaned and burned as fuel in a combustion turbine which then drives an electric generator . Exhaust heat from the combustion turbine is recovered and used to create steam for a steam turbine-generator . The use of these two types of turbines in combination is one reason why gasification-based power systems can achieve high power generation efficiencies . Currently , commercially available gasification-based systems can operate at around 40 % efficiencies . Syngas , however , emits more greenhouse gases than natural gas , and almost twice as much carbon as a coal plant . Coal gasification is also water-intensive . According to the Gasification and Syngas Technologies Council , a trade association , there are globally 272 operating gasification plants with 686 gasifiers and 74 plants with 238 gasifiers under construction . Most of them use coal as feedstock . As of 2017 large scale expansion of the coal gasification industry was occurring only in China where local governments and energy companies promote the industry for the sake of jobs and a market for coal . The central government is aware of the conflict with environmental goals . For the most part the plants are located in remote coal rich areas . In addition to producing a great deal of carbon dioxide the plants use a great deal of water in areas where water is scarce .","qid":"194","docid":"Coal_gasification_commercialization","rank":76,"score":76924},{"content":"Title: Gascolator Content: A gascolator , also known as a main line strainer , sediment bowl or fuel strainer , acts primarily as a fuel drain for water and small particles of sediment and is usually found at the lowest point of an aircraft 's fuel system . The gascolator is located below the level of the aircraft 's carburetor and fuel tanks and on light aircraft is commonly located on the front of the firewall , as low as possible . There are two types of gascolators : those tapped for a primer port and those without . If equipped with a primer port the aircraft fuel primer will take its fuel supply from the gascolator , used for engine starting . Gascolators are susceptible to the effects of heat from the co-located engine and exhaust components , which can cause fuel vapourization in the gascolator and vapour lock problems . This usually manifests itself as a partial power loss in cruise flight . To combat this problem some installations use a gascolator heat shield or free air blast tubes to cool the gascolator . Some types of gascolators are equipped with a remote spring-loaded knob to drain them . Writer Tony Bingelis says of this type :","qid":"194","docid":"Gascolator","rank":77,"score":76914},{"content":"Title: Solar humidification Content: The solar humidification -- dehumidification method ( HDH ) is a thermal water desalination method . It is based on evaporation of sea water or brackish water and consecutive condensation of the generated humid air , mostly at ambient pressure . This process mimics the natural water cycle , but over a much shorter time frame . The simplest configuration is implemented in the solar still , evaporating the sea water inside a glass covered box and condensing the water vapor on the lower side of the glass cover . More sophisticated designs separate the solar heat gain section from the evaporation-condensation chamber . An optimized design comprises separated evaporation and condensation sections . A significant part of the heat consumed for evaporation can be regained during condensation . An example for such an optimized thermal desalination cycle is the multiple-effect humidification ( MEH ) method of desalination . Solar humidification takes place in every greenhouse . Water evaporates from the surfaces of soil , water and plants because of thermal input . In this way the humidification process is naturally integrated within the architecture of the greenhouse . Several companies like Seawater greenhouse utilize this inherent feature of a greenhouse in order to conduct desalination inside the atmosphere of the facility . The integrated biotectural system , or IBTS Greenhouse mimics the natural process of cloud formation respectively desalination exactly .","qid":"194","docid":"Solar_humidification","rank":78,"score":76836},{"content":"Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .","qid":"194","docid":"Anti-greenhouse_effect","rank":79,"score":76781},{"content":"Title: Hydrofluoroether Content: A Hydrofluoroether ( HFE ) is a complex organic solvent . As a non-ozone-depleting chemical , it was developed originally as a replacement for CFCs , HFCs , HCFCs , and PFCs HFE does not occur naturally . It is colorless , odorless , tasteless , low toxicity , low viscosity , and liquid at room temperature . It is visually indistinguishable from water at room temperature . The vapor-point of HFE varies by chemistry from 50C to nearly 100C . Due to its high molecular weight , it remains in the atmosphere for less than two weeks , being absorbed into the ground rather than remaining dissolved in the atmosphere . Although it is a greenhouse gas , the EPA does not regulate its use due to its short atmospheric lifetime and zero ozone depletion potential compared to alternative chemicals . Industrial uses are many and varied : Vapor de-greasing solvent Refrigerant and heat-transfer fluid Anhydrous fluid cleaner Although 3M first developed HFEs , other manufacturers have begun producing them .","qid":"194","docid":"Hydrofluoroether","rank":80,"score":76684},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse Mafia Content: Greenhouse Mafia is the title of a TV program aired by the ABC on the 13 February 2006 episode of its weekly current affairs program Four Corners . The program says the term greenhouse mafia is the `` in house '' name used by Australia 's carbon lobby for itself . The program featured former Liberal Party member Guy Pearse and Four Corners host Janine Cohen , while others concerned about the influence exerted by the fossil fuel lobby also participated . The report was based on a thesis Pearse wrote at the Australian National University between 1999 and 2005 regarding the response of Australian business to global warming . According to the program , lobby groups representing the coal , car , oil , and aluminium industries have wielded their power to prevent Australia from reducing its greenhouse gas emissions , which were already among the highest per capita in the world in 1990 .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_Mafia","rank":81,"score":76651},{"content":"Title: Optical properties of water and ice Content: The refractive index of water at 20 ° C is 1.332986 . The refractive index of normal ice is 1.31 . ( From List of refractive indices . ) In general , an index of refraction is a complex number with both a real and imaginary part , where the latter indicates the strength of absorption loss at a particular wavelength . In the visible part of electromagnetic spectrum the imaginary part of the refractive index is very small . However , water and ice absorb in infrared and close the atmospheric window thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect The absorption spectrum of pure water is used in numerous applications , including light scattering and absorption by ice crystals and cloud water droplets , theories of the rainbow , determination of the single scattering albedo , ocean color , and many others .","qid":"194","docid":"Optical_properties_of_water_and_ice","rank":82,"score":76579},{"content":"Title: 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane Content: 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane is an organic chemical , an organofluoride . It is a colorless gas , usually available in the form of a liquid gas . It is used as a fire suppression agent , a foaming agent , a highly effective refrigerant , a heat transfer medium , a dielectric gas , a sterilant carrier , a polymerization medium , a carrier fluid , a displacement drying agent , a thermodynamic power cycle working fluid , etc. . When used as a fire suppressant , hexafluoropropane carries the DuPont trade name , FE-36 . 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane is a greenhouse gas ; its global warming potential is 6300 . It is manufactured by reacting 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexachloropropane with hydrogen fluoride in gas phase at temperature between 250-400 ° C , in presence of a catalyst in the form of trivalent chromium ( e.g. chromium ( III ) chloride ) supported on carbon with low content of specific impurities .","qid":"194","docid":"1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane","rank":83,"score":76514},{"content":"Title: Vapour density Content: Vapour density is the density of a vapour in relation to that of hydrogen . It may be defined as mass of a certain volume of a substance divided by mass of same volume of hydrogen . vapour density = mass of n molecules of gas / mass of n molecules of hydrogen . Therefore : vapour density = molar mass of gas / molar mass of H2 vapour density = molar mass of gas / 2.016 vapour density = ~ 1/2 × molar mass ( and thus : molar mass = ~ 2 × vapour density ) For example , vapour density of mixture of NO2 and N2O4 is 38 . 3 . Vapour density is a unitless quantity .","qid":"194","docid":"Vapour_density","rank":84,"score":76445},{"content":"Title: Steam Content: Steam is water in the gas phase , which is formed when water boils . Steam is invisible ; however , `` steam '' often refers to wet steam , the visible mist or aerosol of water droplets formed as this water vapour condenses . At lower pressures , such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains , water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 ° C at standard pressure . If heated further it becomes superheated steam . The enthalpy of vaporization is the energy required to turn water into the gaseous form when it increases in volume by 1,700 times at standard temperature and pressure ; this change in volume can be converted into mechanical work by steam engines such as reciprocating piston type engines and steam turbines , which are a sub-group of steam engines . Piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80 % of the world 's electricity . If liquid water comes in contact with a very hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure , it can create a steam explosion . Steam explosions have been responsible for many foundry accidents , and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster .","qid":"194","docid":"Steam","rank":85,"score":76053},{"content":"Title: International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control Content: The International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on greenhouse gas control . It is published by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is John Gale . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 3.821 ,","qid":"194","docid":"International_Journal_of_Greenhouse_Gas_Control","rank":86,"score":75476},{"content":"Title: Vapours (disease) Content: In archaic usage , the vapours ( or vapors ) is a reference to the treatment of certain mental or physical states , such as hysteria , mania , clinical depression , bipolar disorder , lightheadedness , fainting , flush , withdrawal syndrome , mood swings , or PMS , where a sufferer lost mental focus . Ascribed primarily to women and thought to be caused by internal emanations , it was related to the concept of female hysteria . Vapours were used as a treatment for conditions considered to be the female equivalent to melancholy found in men . The word `` vapours '' , referencing the treatment , was subsequently used to describe a depressed or hysterical nervous condition . Today , the phrase `` a case of the vapors '' is most often used either melodramatically or for comedic effect .","qid":"194","docid":"Vapours_(disease)","rank":87,"score":75267},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"194","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":88,"score":75183},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse Content: A greenhouse ( also called a glasshouse , or , if with sufficient heating , a hothouse ) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material , such as glass , in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown . These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings . A miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame . The interior of a greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the external ambient temperature , protecting its contents in cold weather . Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers . The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations , heating , cooling , lighting , and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth . Different techniques are then used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate ( i.e. , air temperature , relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit ) in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse","rank":89,"score":75116},{"content":"Title: The Greenhouse Project Content: The Greenhouse Project is a non-profit organization which began as an art project by college students to raise awareness about the growing need for aid for Uganda 's orphans . The organization 's main goals are to provide impoverished , underfunded orphanages around the world with the means to become self-sustaining . The original project was named after the Greenhouse Orphanage of Mengo , Uganda , the orphanage which inspired the project 's beginning .","qid":"194","docid":"The_Greenhouse_Project","rank":90,"score":74931},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy Content: Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy is a 2007 book by Australian academic Mark Diesendorf . The book puts forward a set of policies and strategies for implementing the most promising clean energy technologies by all spheres of government , business and community organisations . Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy suggests that a mix of efficient energy use , renewable energy sources and natural gas ( as a transitional fuel ) offers a clean and feasible energy future for Australia .","qid":"194","docid":"Greenhouse_Solutions_with_Sustainable_Energy","rank":91,"score":74844},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"194","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":92,"score":74815},{"content":"Title: Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Content: The Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord ( Midwestern Accord ) is a regional agreement by six governors of states in the US Midwest who are members of the Midwestern Governors Association ( MGA ) , and the premier of one Canadian province , whose purpose is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . The accord has been inactive since March 2010 , when an advisory group presented a plan for action to the association with a scheduled implementation date of January 2012 . Signatories to the accord are the US states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Illinois , Iowa , Michigan , Kansas , and the Canadian Province of Manitoba . Observers of the accord are Indiana , Ohio , and South Dakota , as well as the Canadian Province of Ontario . While the Midwest has intensive manufacturing and agriculture sectors , making it the most coal-dependent region in North America , it also has significant renewable energy resources and is particularly vulnerable to the climate change caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels . The Midwestern Accord was the fourth tier of the MGA Energy Security and Climate Stewardship Summit Platform , signed on November 15 , 2007 . It established the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Program , which aimed to : establish greenhouse gas reduction targets and time frames consistent with signing states ' targets ; develop a market-based and multi-sector cap-and-trade mechanism to help achieve those reduction targets ; establish a system to enable tracking , management , and crediting for entities that reduce greenhouse gas emissions ; and develop and implement additional steps as needed to achieve the reduction targets , such as a low-carbon fuel standards and regional incentives and funding mechanisms . Through the Midwestern Accord , the governors agreed to establish a Midwestern greenhouse gas reduction program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in their states , as well as a working group to provide recommendations regarding the implementation of the accord . In June 2009 , the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Advisory Group finalized its draft recommendations . In March 2010 the advisory group presented a plan to the MGA that called for implementation beginning in January 2012 . No further action was taken , as leadership in several of the states switched positions on climate policy . In July 2014 , accord member Kansas and observers Indiana , South Dakota , and Ohio joined a lawsuit opposing the EPA Clean Power Plan , federal climate regulations which could be met by implementation of the accord .","qid":"194","docid":"Midwestern_Greenhouse_Gas_Reduction_Accord","rank":93,"score":74633},{"content":"Title: GWP Content: GWP can stand for : Global-warming potential , a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere Global Water Partnership , an international network offering practical advice for sustainably managing water resources Gross world product , the combined GNP of all countries in the world Gross Written Premiums , a measure of revenues for insurance businesses Guild Wars Prophecies , an MMORPG Guinea-Bissau peso , the currency code for Guinea-Bissau 's peso from 1975 to 1997 Gigawatt-peak , a measure in gigawatts of the nominal power of a photovoltaic solar energy device under laboratory illumination conditions","qid":"194","docid":"GWP","rank":94,"score":74620},{"content":"Title: Vapor quality Content: In thermodynamics , vapour quality is the mass fraction in a saturated mixture that is vapour ; i.e. saturated vapour has a `` quality '' of 100 % , and saturated liquid has a `` quality '' of 0 % . Vapour quality is an intensive property which can be used in conjunction with other independent intensive properties to specify the thermodynamic state of the working fluid of a thermodynamic system . It has no meaning for substances which are not saturated mixtures ( i.e. , compressed liquids or superheated fluids ) . Quality can be calculated by dividing the mass of the vapour by the mass of the total mixture : where indicates mass . Another definition used by chemical engineers defines quality ( q ) of a fluid as the fraction that is saturated liquid . By this definition , a saturated liquid has q = 1 . A saturated vapour has q = 0 . An alternative definition is the ` equilibrium thermodynamic quality ' . It can be used only for single-component mixtures ( e.g. water with steam ) , and can take values < 0 ( for sub-cooled fluids ) and > 1 ( for super-saturated vapours ) : ; where h is the mixture specific enthalpy , defined as : . Subscripts f and g refer to saturated liquid and saturated gas respectively , and fg refers to vaporisation .","qid":"194","docid":"Vapor_quality","rank":95,"score":74556},{"content":"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .","qid":"194","docid":"Polar_amplification","rank":96,"score":74537},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"194","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":97,"score":74157},{"content":"Title: EcoCute Content: The EcoCute is an energy efficient electric heat pump , water heating and supply system that uses heat extracted from the air to heat water for domestic , industrial and commercial use . Instead of the more conventional ammonia or haloalkane gases , EcoCute uses supercritical carbon dioxide as a refrigerant . The technology offers a means of energy conservation and reduces the emission of greenhouse gas .","qid":"194","docid":"EcoCute","rank":98,"score":74147},{"content":"Title: Weir Greenhouse Content: Weir Greenhouse is a historic greenhouse located across the street from the main entrance of Green-Wood Cemetery in Sunset Park , Brooklyn , New York , New York . It was designed by George Curtis Gillespie and built in 1895 by James Weir , Jr. , a Brooklyn florist who had been in business for 50 years when he built the greenhouse for the business he operated with his son and grandson . It is a rectangular , wood frame and galvanized iron building with projecting bays and domes in the Victorian commercial style . The main entrance is set at an angle to the street corner and is octagonal in form . The rooftop features an octaginal cupola with a ball finial . Attached to the greenhouse is a one-story brick office structure . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 . The Weirs continued to operate the business until 1971 , when they sold to the McGovern family . The building was designated a New York City Landmark in 1982 . On February 2 , 2012 , the Weir Greenhouse was purchased by the neighboring Green-Wood Cemetery , which plans to preserve the greenhouse and restore elements which have decayed in recent years . By spring , 2015 , structural stabilization of the vacant , decayed building was complete , and the project was scheduled to move toward restoration of the building to its 1895 appearance .","qid":"194","docid":"Weir_Greenhouse","rank":99,"score":74040},{"content":"Title: Integrated biotectural system Content: The Integrated Biotectural System or IBTS-Greenhouse is a holistic concept developed for hot arid deserts . It relies on a new quality of systems integration including architectural , technological and natural elements . In this case it means the combination of farming and living in one building , as well as desalination of sea water , or brackish groundwater . Neither the superstructure of the IBTS-Greenhouse , nor its technology resembles that of a common greenhouse . A group of companies called LivingDesert was established in 2011 to build the IBTS in Egypt . LD is no longer active . The IBTS was part of the national plan for large scale desert-reclamation with afforestation and for agricultural purposes . The new type of facility has its roots in construction engineering and construction physics in contrast to agriculture as it is for most novel greenhouses . Thus it is also fundamentally different from seawater greenhouses in existence . Without exception alternative desalination-technologies , air-to-water utilities and desalination-greenhouses in testing , require a multiple of the energy for fresh-water production compared to state of the art utilities . The IBTS requires less energy . The significance of the term IBTS lies within the efficiency that only systems integration can achieve . Particular importance lies on the imitation of natural systems , especially closed cycles . The establishment of closed watercycles being the most crucial of all , because of the increasing severeness of the Global Water crisis particularly in hot desert climates . The desalination feature is bound to hot climates because it requires high amounts of solar thermal power . It has turned out to be very suitable in mitigation of the sinking of water tables in agricultural areas of the MENA region and beyond .","qid":"194","docid":"Integrated_biotectural_system","rank":100,"score":73987}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 141886\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Water vapor Content: Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds . Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution . Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Water_vapor\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 138463\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 128422\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vapour-pressure deficit Content: Vapour-pressure deficit , or VPD , is the difference ( deficit ) between the amount of moisture in the air and how much moisture the air can hold when it is saturated . Once air becomes saturated , water will condense out to form clouds , dew or films of water over leaves . It is this last instance that makes VPD important for greenhouse regulation . If a film of water forms on a plant leaf , it becomes far more susceptible to rot . On the other hand , as the VPD increases , the plant needs to draw more water from its roots . In the case of cuttings , the plant may dry out and die . For this reason the ideal range for VPD in a greenhouse is from 0.45 kPa to 1.25 kPa , ideally sitting at around 0.85 kPa . As a general rule , most plants grow well at VPDs of between 0.8 and 0.95 kPa . A series of membership functions for defining optimality degree of VPD at different light condition and growth stages of greenhouse tomato can be found in the work of Shamshiri . In ecology , it is the difference between the actual water vapour pressure and the saturation water vapour pressure at a particular temperature . Unlike relative humidity , vapour-pressure deficit has a simple nearly straight-line relationship to the rate of evapotranspiration and other measures of evaporation .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Vapour-pressure_deficit\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 115989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vapor Content: In physics a vapor ( American ) or vapour ( British ) is a substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical temperature , which means that the vapor can be condensed to a liquid by increasing the pressure on it without reducing the temperature . A vapor is different from an aerosol . An aerosol is a suspension of tiny particles of liquid , solid , or both within a gas . For example , water has a critical temperature of 647 K , which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist . In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures , therefore , gaseous water ( known as water vapor ) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently . A vapor may co-exist with a liquid ( or a solid ) . When this is true , the two phases will be in equilibrium , and the gas-partial pressure will be equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid ( or solid ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Vapor\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 107340\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: SathyabamaSat Content: SathyabamaSat is a micro experimental satellite developed by students and faculty of Sathyabama University , Chennai to collect data on greenhouse gases ( Water vapor , Carbon monoxide , Carbon dioxide , Methane and Hydrogen fluoride ) . It was launched along with the Cartosat-2C satellite atop PSLV-C34 . It was launched on June 22nd , 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"SathyabamaSat\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 105468\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Physical properties of greenhouse gases Content:\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Physical_properties_of_greenhouse_gases\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 101153\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Fugitive_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 99792\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vapour pressure of water Content: The vapour pressure of water is the pressure at which water vapour is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed state . At higher pressures water would condense . The water vapour pressure is the partial pressure of water vapour in any gas mixture in equilibrium with solid or liquid water . As for other substances , water vapour pressure is a function of temperature and can be determined with Clausius -- Clapeyron relation .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Vapour_pressure_of_water\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 98356\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fluorinated gases Content: Fluorinated gases ( F-gases ) are man-made gases that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries and contribute to a global greenhouse effect . There are four types : hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) and nitrogen trifluoride ( NF3 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Fluorinated_gases\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 95440\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Methane Content: Methane ( -LSB- ˈmɛθeɪn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmiːθeɪn -RSB- ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ( one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen ) . It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane , and is the main constituent of natural gas . The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel , though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure . Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor . When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere , it is known as atmospheric methane . The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750 , and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases ( these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Methane\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 94973\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Idealized_greenhouse_model\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 94719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 91227\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride Content: Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride , CF3SF5 , is a rare industrial greenhouse gas , first published in 2000 by a group of researchers from Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States . Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride is considered to be one of the several super greenhouse gases . On a per molecule basis , it is considered to be the most potent greenhouse gas present in Earth 's atmosphere . However , the current concentration of Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride remains at a level that is unlikely to measurably contribute to earth 's warming . The source of the gas is attributed to anthropogenic sources , possibly a by-product of the manufacture of fluorochemicals , originating from reactions of SF6 with fluoropolymers used in electronic devices and in microchips , or the formation can be associated with high voltage equipment created from SF6 ( a breakdown product of high voltage equipment ) reacting with CF3 to form the CF3SF5 molecule .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Trifluoromethyl_sulphur_pentafluoride\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 91164\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse Item Content: Greenhouse Item was an American nuclear test conducted on May 25 , 1951 , as part of Operation Greenhouse at the Pacific Proving Ground , specifically on the island of Engebi in the Eniwetok Atoll in the Central Pacific Ocean . This test explosion was the first test of a boosted fission weapon . In this test deuterium-tritium ( D-T ) gas was injected into the enriched uranium core of a nuclear fission bomb . The extreme heat of the fissioning bomb produced thermonuclear fusion reactions within the D-T gas , but not enough of them to be considered a full nuclear fusion bomb . This fusion reaction released a large number of free neutrons , which greatly increased the efficiency of the nuclear fission reaction . The explosive yield of this bomb was 45.5 kilotons , about twice the yield of the unboosted bomb . This bomb was known as the `` Booster '' in its development stages , a name for the mechanism coined by Edward Teller in September 1947 . Planning for it had begun in the late 1940s . According to the researcher Chuck Hansen , it was mentioned in official U.S. Atomic Energy Commission documents as early as 1947 . The main problems in development were making modifications to the fission core in order to accept the gas correctly without reducing its own efficiency . The 1951 test was primarily to test the nuclear principles involved , and to gain research data , and it was not considered a design for a weaponizable device . Even as late as 1954 , no boosted weapon had entered into the nuclear-weapons stockpile , and the only use for the Greenhouse Item nuclear test had been for its research results . The `` Booster '' device was detonated at 6:17 am on May 25 , 1951 from a 200 ft on the island of Engebi in the Enewetok Atoll , and its fusion fuel was injected by means of a cryogenic pump at the base of the tower .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_Item\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 90744\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 90031\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Landfill_gas\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 88429\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vapor recovery Content: Vapor ( or vapour ) recovery is the process of recovery the vapors of gasoline or other fuels , so that they do not escape into the atmosphere . This is often done ( or required by law ) at filling stations , in order to reduce noxious and potentially explosive fumes and pollution . The negative pressure created in the ( underground ) tank by the withdrawal is usually used to pull in the vapors . They are drawn-in through holes in the side of the nozzle and travel through special hoses which have a return path .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Vapor_recovery\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 88212\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Green_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 88188\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Hell_and_High_Water_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 88072\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 86705\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gasera Content: Gasera Ltd. is a Finnish high-tech company focused on the analysis of gases , liquids and solid materials . The main focus of Gasera is measuring harmful air pollutants in order to protect humans and the environment . Other applications include e.g. greenhouse gas monitoring , automotive and ship emissions monitoring , dissolved gas analysis in transformer oil , CWA and TIC detection , material identification and food production and safety . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Gasera\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 86442\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Water gas Content: Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen produced from synthesis gas . Synthesis gas is a useful product , but requires careful handling due to its flammability and the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning . The water-gas shift reaction can be used to reduce the carbon monoxide while producing additional hydrogen , resulting in water gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Water_gas\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 86300\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Methane emissions Content: Global methane emissions are major part of the global greenhouse gas emissions . Methane in the atmosphere has a 100-year global warming potential of 34 .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Methane_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 86094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Water vapor windows Content: In the Earth 's atmosphere , water vapor absorbs many wavelengths of IR energy , while others are not absorbed . Those sections of the Electromagnetic spectrum that it does not absorb , are like windows in the atmosphere , allowing electromagnetic energy to flow freely in and out of the system . Like a window , that allows light to enter and leave . Originally discovered by John Tyndall , most of the infrared coming from the Universe is blocked , absorbed by water vapor ( and other greenhouse gases ) in the Earth 's atmosphere . Those wavelength ranges that can partially reach the surface , are coming through what is called ` water vapor windows ' . These windows are how Astronomers can view the Universe with IR telescopes , called Infrared astronomy . These windows also allow orbiting satellites to measure the IR energy leaving the planet , the SSTs and other important matters . See Electromagnetic_absorption_by_water #Atmospheric _ effects .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Water_vapor_windows\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 86074\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act Content: The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) began regulating greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) under the Clean Air Act ( `` CAA '' or `` Act '' ) from mobile and stationary sources of air pollution for the first time on January 2 , 2011 . Standards for mobile sources have been established pursuant to Section 202 of the CAA , and GHGs from stationary sources are currently controlled under the authority of Part C of Title I of the Act . The basis for regulations was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia in June 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Regulation_of_greenhouse_gases_under_the_Clean_Air_Act\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 86002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 85988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ventilation air methane thermal oxidizer Content: Ventilation air methane thermal oxidizers ( or VAMTOX ) are a type of processing equipment used for greenhouse gas abatement related to underground mining operations that destroys gaseous methane at a high temperature .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Ventilation_air_methane_thermal_oxidizer\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 85930\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas monitoring Content: Greenhouse gas monitoring is the direct measurement of greenhouse gas emissions and levels . Methods include satellite monitoring such as the Orbiting Carbon Observatory and networks of ground stations such as the Integrated Carbon Observation System . The individual units of ground stations often use an infrared detector to assess the concentration of a certain gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 85367\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions Content: The United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions is established by the United States Department of Energy under the Energy Policy Act 1992 . It is administered by the Energy Information Administration through the Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Program . Separately , the Environmental Protection Agency in 2009 commenced implementing a mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program , which applies to facilities that emit 25,000 metric tons or more per year .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"United_States_federal_register_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 85134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Seawater greenhouse Content: A seawater greenhouse is a greenhouse structure that enables the growth of crops in arid regions , using seawater and solar energy . The technique involves pumping seawater ( or allowing it to gravitate if below sea level ) to an arid location and then subjecting it to two processes : first , it is used to humidify and cool the air , and second , it is evaporated by solar heating and distilled to produce fresh water . Finally , the remaining humidified air is expelled from the greenhouse and used to improve growing conditions for outdoor plants . The technology was introduced by British inventor Charlie Paton in the early 1990s and is being developed by his UK company Seawater Greenhouse Ltd. . The more concentrated salt water may either be further evaporated for the production of salt and other elements , or discharged back to the sea . The seawater greenhouse is a response to the global water crisis and peak water .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Seawater_greenhouse\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 85116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 85017\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 84995\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sulfur hexafluoride Content: Sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) is an inorganic , colorless , odorless , non-flammable , extremely potent greenhouse gas , which is an excellent electrical insulator . has an octahedral geometry , consisting of six fluorine atoms attached to a central sulfur atom . It is a hypervalent molecule . Typical for a nonpolar gas , it is poorly soluble in water but quite soluble in nonpolar organic solvents . It is generally transported as a liquefied compressed gas . It has a density of 6.12 g/L at sea level conditions , considerably higher than the density of air ( 1.225 g/L ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Sulfur_hexafluoride\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 84670\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 84654\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 84546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Octafluoropropane Content: Octafluoropropane ( C3F8 ) is a fluorocarbon non-flammable greenhouse gas that can be produced either by electrochemical fluorination or by the Fowler process using cobalt fluoride .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Octafluoropropane\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 84339\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_accounting\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 84089\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_inventory\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 83991\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 83674\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photocatalytic water splitting Content: Photocatalytic water splitting is an artificial photosynthesis process with photocatalysis in a photoelectrochemical cell used for the dissociation of water into its constituent parts , hydrogen and oxygen , using either artificial or natural light . Theoretically , only solar energy ( photons ) , water , and a catalyst are needed . This topic is the focus of much research , but thus far no technology has been commercialized Hydrogen fuel production has gained increased attention as oil and other nonrenewable fuels become increasingly depleted and expensive . Methods such as photocatalytic water splitting are being investigated to produce hydrogen , a clean-burning fuel . Water splitting holds particular promise since it utilizes water , an inexpensive renewable resource . Photocatalytic water splitting has the simplicity of using a powder in solution and sunlight to produce and from water and can provide a clean , renewable energy , without producing greenhouse gases or having many adverse effects on the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Photocatalytic_water_splitting\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 83525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vapor (disambiguation) Content: A vapor is a substance in the gas phase below its boiling point . Vapor or vapour may also refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Vapor_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 83162\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_debt\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 82512\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"ECOCITIES_(software)\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 82200\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas removal Content: Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_removal\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 82174\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 81675\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Trace gas Content: A trace gas is a gas which makes up less than 1 % by volume of the Earth 's atmosphere , and it includes all gases except nitrogen ( 78.1 % ) and oxygen ( 20.9 % ) . The most abundant trace gas at 0.934 % is argon . Water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Trace_gas\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 80528\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lisa Gluskin Stonestreet Content: Lisa Gluskin Stonestreet ( born January 31 , 1968 ) is an award-winning American poet . Stonestreet 's second book , The Greenhouse , was awarded the 2014 Frost Place Chapbook Prize and published by Bull City Press in August 2014 . Her first book , Tulips , Water , Ash , was published by Northeastern University Press , and chosen by Jean Valentine as the last Morse Poetry Prize , before its suspension in 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Lisa_Gluskin_Stonestreet\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 79957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 79941\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse whitefly Content: Trialeurodes vaporariorum , commonly known as the glasshouse whitefly or greenhouse whitefly , is an insect that inhabits the world 's temperate regions . Like various other whiteflies , it is a primary insect pest of many fruit , vegetable and ornamental crops . It is frequently found in glasshouses ( greenhouses ) , polytunnels , and other protected horticultural environments . Adults are 1 -- 2 mm in length , with yellowish bodies and four wax-coated wings held near parallel to the leaf surface .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_whitefly\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 79865\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse (disambiguation) Content: Greenhouse may refer to : Greenhouse , an indoor covered place where plants are grown and cultivated Greenhouse effect , the effects on a planet when ` greenhouse gases ' cloud the atmosphere Greenhouse and icehouse Earth , periods when the greenhouse effect is dominant or absent Greenhouse effect ( United States Supreme Court ) , postulated effect whereby conservative Supreme Court Justices drift liberal for favorable press Greenhouse debt , the measure to which an entity exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 79747\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting Content: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is a method of calculating the amount of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) emitted by a region in a given time-scale . A National Emissions Inventory ( NEI ) measuring a country 's GHG emissions in a year is required by the UNFCCC to provide a benchmark for the country 's emission reductions , and subsequently to evaluate international climate policies such as the Kyoto protocol ( although the original has now expired , extensions have been agreed ) as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . There are two conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions : production-based ( sometimes referred to as territorial-based ) or consumption-based . Production-based emissions take place `` within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction '' . Consumption-based emissions encompass those emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports . This means the importing country takes responsibility for emissions related to production of the exporting country 's exports . By these definitions production-based emissions include exports but exclude imports and emissions embodied in international trade , whereas consumption-based emissions refer to the reverse ( Table 1 ) . Which technique is applied by policymakers is fundamental as each can generate a very different NEI . Different NEIs would result in a country 's choosing different optimal mitigation activities , the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging . The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms , although much of the literature favours consumption-based accounting . The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_accounting\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 79630\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hydrofluorocarbon Content: Hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , organic compounds that contain fluorine and hydrogen atoms , are the most common type of organofluorine compounds . They are commonly used in air conditioning and as refrigerants in place of the older chlorofluorocarbons such as R-12 and hydrochlorofluorocarbons such as R-21 . They do not harm the ozone layer as much as the compounds they replace ; however , they do contribute to global warming . Their atmospheric concentrations and contribution to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly increasing , causing international concern about their radiative forcing . Fluorocarbons with few C -- F bonds behave similarly to the parent hydrocarbons , but their reactivity can be altered significantly . For example , both uracil and 5-fluorouracil are colourless , high-melting crystalline solids , but the latter is a potent anti-cancer drug . The use of the C-F bond in pharmaceuticals is predicated on this altered reactivity . Several drugs and agrochemicals contain only one fluorine center or one trifluoromethyl group . Unlike other greenhouse gases in the Paris Agreement , hydrofluorocarbons have other international negotiations . In September 2016 , the so-called New York Declaration urged a global reduction in the use of HFCs . On 15 October 2016 , due to these chemicals ' contribution to climate change , negotiators from 197 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme in Kigali , Rwanda reached a legally-binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Hydrofluorocarbon\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 79561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 79551\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gas leak Content: In common usage , a gas leak refers to a leak of natural gas or other gaseous product from a pipeline or other containment into a living area or any other area where the gas should not be present . Because flammable gases may explode when exposed to flame or sparks , this situation is very dangerous to the general public . In addition to causing fire and explosion hazards , leaks can kill vegetation , including large trees , and may release powerful greenhouse gases to the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Gas_leak\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 79449\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 79448\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Condensing boiler Content: Condensing boilers are water heaters fueled by gas or oil . They achieve high efficiency ( typically greater than 90 % on the higher heating value ) by condensing water vapour in the exhaust gases and so recovering its latent heat of vaporisation , which would otherwise have been wasted . This condensed vapour leaves the system in liquid form , via a drain . In many countries , the use of condensing boilers is compulsory or encouraged with financial incentives .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Condensing_boiler\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 79381\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vapors Content: Vapors ( or vapours ) may refer to : Vapor , a gaseous phase of matter Vapours ( disease ) , an archaic term for certain mental and/or physical illnesses The Vapors , an English new-wave/power pop band `` Vapors '' ( seaQuest DSV ) , a second-season episode of seaQuest DSV `` Vapors '' ( song ) , a 1988 hip-hop song by Biz Markie , covered by Snoop Dogg Vapours ( album ) , a 2009 album by Islands\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Vapors\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 79359\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Włocławek Reservoir Content: Włocławek Reservoir ( Zbiornik Włocławski ) is a water body in the Middle Vistula flow that appeared in 1970 after building of the dam in Włocławek . The length of the reservoir is 58 km from Włocławek to Płock , average width is 1.2 km . It is the biggest reservoir in Poland . Due to the significant amount of organic matter in the tank ( approx . 11.5 % of the dry weight of sediment ) , it emits approx . 400 mg of methane per area of 1 m ² ( which is approx . 27 % of the total amount of gases emitted from the sediment of average 3114 ml m − 2 d − 1 ) . For this reason , is considered an important source of greenhouse gases emission .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Włocławek_Reservoir\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 79050\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shale gas Content: Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas . Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves . The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low . A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) . Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Shale_gas\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 78784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GHG footprint Content: The GHG footprint , or greenhouse gas footprint , refers to the amount of GHG that are emitted during the creation of products or services . It is more comprehensive than the commonly used carbon footprint , which measures only carbon dioxide , one of many greenhouse gases . The GHG footprint differs from the ecological footprint in that the former is expressed in units of GHG warming potential ( GGWP ) and is generated by products or services , whereas the latter is expressed in units of land area and is generated by whole societies .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"GHG_footprint\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 78673\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Mootral\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 78578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Water-gas shift reaction Content: The water-gas shift reaction ( WGSR ) describes the reaction of carbon monoxide and water vapor to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen ( the mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is known as water gas ) : CO + H2O CO2 + H2 The water gas shift reaction was discovered by Italian physicist Felice Fontana in 1780 . It was not until much later that the industrial value of this reaction was realized . Before the early 20th century , hydrogen was obtained by reacting steam under high pressure with iron to produce iron , iron oxide and hydrogen . With the development of industrial processes that required hydrogen , such as the Haber -- Bosch ammonia synthesis , a less expensive and more efficient method of hydrogen production was needed . As a resolution to this problem , the WGSR was combined with the gasification of coal to produce a pure hydrogen product . As the idea of hydrogen economy gains popularity , the focus on hydrogen as a replacement fuel source for hydrocarbons is increasing .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Water-gas_shift_reaction\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 78281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-neutral_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 78240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oscar Olivera Content: Oscar Olivera Foronda ( born 1955 ) was one of the main leaders of the protesters against the water privatization in Bolivia . The result of these protests was an event known as the Cochabamba Water War . Now he is one of the main leaders of the protests in the Bolivian gas conflict . Oscar Olivera was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2001 .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Oscar_Olivera\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 78123\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 77937\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_reforming\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 77617\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Grenada\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 77510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar hot water in Australia Content: Solar hot water is water heated using natural energy from the sun . Solar energy heats up large panels called thermal collectors . The energy is transferred through a fluid ( often water ) to a reservoir tank for storage and subsequent use . It is then used to heat water for commercial or domestic use and also as an energy input for heating and cooling devices and for industrial ` process heat ' applications . Solar hot water systems are motivated by the desire to reduce energy consumption more specifically , to reduce a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions . In the case of Victoria , for example , converting from electric to solar hot water could save 20 % of the state 's total greenhouse gas emissions . Despite an excellent solar resource , the penetration of solar water heaters in the Australian domestic market is only about 4 % or 5 % , with new dwellings accounting for most sales . During the 1950s , Australia 's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) carried out world leading research into flat plate solar water heaters . A solar water heater manufacturing industry was subsequently established in Australia and a large proportion of the manufactured product was exported . Four of the original companies are still in business and the manufacturing base has now expanded to 24 companies . Water heating is the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions from the average Australian home , accounting for around 28 per cent of home energy use ( excluding the family car ) . The Australian government estimates that installing a climate friendly hot water system can save a family $ 300 to $ 700 off electricity bills each year .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_hot_water_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 77495\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: KDF Energy Content: KDF Energy is the leader greenhouse gases emissions trading on the Romanian market . The company was set up in 2002 , has subsidiaries in Bulgaria , Greece and Lithuania and is fully controlled by Romanian citizen George Brailoiu . KDF Energy is a member of Dutch-based environmental commodities exchange Climex and trades with foreign brokers on London 's European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) and Paris-based BlueNext .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"KDF_Energy\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 77404\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic methane emissions Content: Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_methane_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 77355\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Water Content: Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth 's streams , lakes , and oceans , and the fluids of most living organisms . Its chemical formula is H2O , meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms , that are connected by covalent bonds . Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance , that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure ; but it often refers also to its solid state ( ice ) or its gaseous state ( steam or water vapor ) . It also occurs in nature as snow , glaciers , ice packs and icebergs , clouds , fog , dew , aquifers , and atmospheric humidity . Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . It is vital for all known forms of life . On Earth , 96.5 % of the planet 's crust water is found in seas and oceans , 1.7 % in groundwater , 1.7 % in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland , a small fraction in other large water bodies , and 0.001 % in the air as vapor , clouds ( formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air ) , and precipitation . Only 2.5 % of this water is freshwater , and 98.8 % of that water is in ice ( excepting ice in clouds ) and groundwater . Less than 0.3 % of all freshwater is in rivers , lakes , and the atmosphere , and an even smaller amount of the Earth 's freshwater ( 0.003 % ) is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products . A greater quantity of water is found in the earth 's interior . Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation and transpiration ( evapotranspiration ) , condensation , precipitation , and runoff , usually reaching the sea . Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land . Large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals . Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients . Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world , but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation . There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita . However , some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability . A report , issued in November 2009 , suggests that by 2030 , in some developing regions of the world , water demand will exceed supply by 50 % . Water plays an important role in the world economy . Approximately 70 % of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture . Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world . Much of long-distance trade of commodities ( such as oil and natural gas ) and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas , rivers , lakes , and canals . Large quantities of water , ice , and steam are used for cooling and heating , in industry and homes . Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances ; as such it is widely used in industrial processes , and in cooking and washing . Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment , such as swimming , pleasure boating , boat racing , surfing , sport fishing , and diving .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Water\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 77312\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization Content: The Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organisation ( TGO ) ( th : องค์การบริหารจัดการก๊าซเรือนกระจก ; RTGS : Ong Kan Borihan Chat Kan Kat Ruean Krachok ( Ong Kan Mahachon ) ; or th : อบก. ; RTGS : O-Bo-Ko . ) is an autonomous governmental organization under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment ( MNRE ) established by royal decree , Establishment of Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organisation ( Public Organisation ) BE 2550 ( 2007 ) , having chief duties and powers in connection with the reduction of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in Thailand . The royal decree came into force as of 7 July 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Thailand_Greenhouse_Gas_Management_Organization\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 77276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Zero-emissions_vehicle\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 77217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sulfuryl fluoride Content: Sulfuryl fluoride ( also spelled sulphuryl fluoride ) is the inorganic compound with the formula SO2F2 . This acute neurotoxin is an easily condensed gas and has properties more similar to sulfur hexafluoride than sulfuryl chloride , being resistant to hydrolysis even up to 150 ° C. Scientific studies , including 2009 MIT studies , proved that sulfuryl fluoride is a greenhouse gas `` about 4,800 times more potent a heat trapping gas than carbon dioxide '' , and repeated scientific animal studies ( dogs , rabbits , rats and mice ) have proven that sulfuryl fluoride primarily targets the brain , leaving laboratory animals exposed to sulfuryl fluoride with vacuolations ( holes ) in the brain and damage to the white matter , amongst other debilitating symptoms including death . Despite these facts , sulfuryl fluoride is still not only widely used as a structural insecticide fumigant to kill termites and other pests , in the State of Florida the Department of Agriculture reports that fumigations have increased from 10,535 in 2010 to 63,491 in 2014 , a stunning 600 % increase in only four years . Inhalation is hazardous and potentially fatal to humans and animals . And while the EPA has approved this neuro toxin for use in residential homes , the EPA does not require individual States to report to them on the numbers of poisonings . Exposure to sulfuryl fluoride is much farther reaching than just pest control applications as the EPA also approved the use of sulfuryl fluoride on much of the nation 's supply of non-organic foods , U.S. citizens consume the fluoride residues left behind from the sulfuryl fluoride gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Sulfuryl_fluoride\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 77119\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal gasification commercialization Content: Coal gasification is a process whereby a hydrocarbon feedstock ( coal ) is converted into gaseous components by applying heat under pressure in the presence of steam . Rather than burning , most of the carbon-containing feedstock is broken apart by chemical reactions that produce `` syngas . '' Syngas is primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide , but the exact composition can vary . In Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle ( IGCC ) systems , the syngas is cleaned and burned as fuel in a combustion turbine which then drives an electric generator . Exhaust heat from the combustion turbine is recovered and used to create steam for a steam turbine-generator . The use of these two types of turbines in combination is one reason why gasification-based power systems can achieve high power generation efficiencies . Currently , commercially available gasification-based systems can operate at around 40 % efficiencies . Syngas , however , emits more greenhouse gases than natural gas , and almost twice as much carbon as a coal plant . Coal gasification is also water-intensive . According to the Gasification and Syngas Technologies Council , a trade association , there are globally 272 operating gasification plants with 686 gasifiers and 74 plants with 238 gasifiers under construction . Most of them use coal as feedstock . As of 2017 large scale expansion of the coal gasification industry was occurring only in China where local governments and energy companies promote the industry for the sake of jobs and a market for coal . The central government is aware of the conflict with environmental goals . For the most part the plants are located in remote coal rich areas . In addition to producing a great deal of carbon dioxide the plants use a great deal of water in areas where water is scarce .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_gasification_commercialization\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 76924\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gascolator Content: A gascolator , also known as a main line strainer , sediment bowl or fuel strainer , acts primarily as a fuel drain for water and small particles of sediment and is usually found at the lowest point of an aircraft 's fuel system . The gascolator is located below the level of the aircraft 's carburetor and fuel tanks and on light aircraft is commonly located on the front of the firewall , as low as possible . There are two types of gascolators : those tapped for a primer port and those without . If equipped with a primer port the aircraft fuel primer will take its fuel supply from the gascolator , used for engine starting . Gascolators are susceptible to the effects of heat from the co-located engine and exhaust components , which can cause fuel vapourization in the gascolator and vapour lock problems . This usually manifests itself as a partial power loss in cruise flight . To combat this problem some installations use a gascolator heat shield or free air blast tubes to cool the gascolator . Some types of gascolators are equipped with a remote spring-loaded knob to drain them . Writer Tony Bingelis says of this type :\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Gascolator\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 76914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Solar humidification Content: The solar humidification -- dehumidification method ( HDH ) is a thermal water desalination method . It is based on evaporation of sea water or brackish water and consecutive condensation of the generated humid air , mostly at ambient pressure . This process mimics the natural water cycle , but over a much shorter time frame . The simplest configuration is implemented in the solar still , evaporating the sea water inside a glass covered box and condensing the water vapor on the lower side of the glass cover . More sophisticated designs separate the solar heat gain section from the evaporation-condensation chamber . An optimized design comprises separated evaporation and condensation sections . A significant part of the heat consumed for evaporation can be regained during condensation . An example for such an optimized thermal desalination cycle is the multiple-effect humidification ( MEH ) method of desalination . Solar humidification takes place in every greenhouse . Water evaporates from the surfaces of soil , water and plants because of thermal input . In this way the humidification process is naturally integrated within the architecture of the greenhouse . Several companies like Seawater greenhouse utilize this inherent feature of a greenhouse in order to conduct desalination inside the atmosphere of the facility . The integrated biotectural system , or IBTS Greenhouse mimics the natural process of cloud formation respectively desalination exactly .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Solar_humidification\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 76836\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Anti-greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 76781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hydrofluoroether Content: A Hydrofluoroether ( HFE ) is a complex organic solvent . As a non-ozone-depleting chemical , it was developed originally as a replacement for CFCs , HFCs , HCFCs , and PFCs HFE does not occur naturally . It is colorless , odorless , tasteless , low toxicity , low viscosity , and liquid at room temperature . It is visually indistinguishable from water at room temperature . The vapor-point of HFE varies by chemistry from 50C to nearly 100C . Due to its high molecular weight , it remains in the atmosphere for less than two weeks , being absorbed into the ground rather than remaining dissolved in the atmosphere . Although it is a greenhouse gas , the EPA does not regulate its use due to its short atmospheric lifetime and zero ozone depletion potential compared to alternative chemicals . Industrial uses are many and varied : Vapor de-greasing solvent Refrigerant and heat-transfer fluid Anhydrous fluid cleaner Although 3M first developed HFEs , other manufacturers have begun producing them .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Hydrofluoroether\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 76684\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse Mafia Content: Greenhouse Mafia is the title of a TV program aired by the ABC on the 13 February 2006 episode of its weekly current affairs program Four Corners . The program says the term greenhouse mafia is the `` in house '' name used by Australia 's carbon lobby for itself . The program featured former Liberal Party member Guy Pearse and Four Corners host Janine Cohen , while others concerned about the influence exerted by the fossil fuel lobby also participated . The report was based on a thesis Pearse wrote at the Australian National University between 1999 and 2005 regarding the response of Australian business to global warming . According to the program , lobby groups representing the coal , car , oil , and aluminium industries have wielded their power to prevent Australia from reducing its greenhouse gas emissions , which were already among the highest per capita in the world in 1990 .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_Mafia\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 76651\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Optical properties of water and ice Content: The refractive index of water at 20 ° C is 1.332986 . The refractive index of normal ice is 1.31 . ( From List of refractive indices . ) In general , an index of refraction is a complex number with both a real and imaginary part , where the latter indicates the strength of absorption loss at a particular wavelength . In the visible part of electromagnetic spectrum the imaginary part of the refractive index is very small . However , water and ice absorb in infrared and close the atmospheric window thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect The absorption spectrum of pure water is used in numerous applications , including light scattering and absorption by ice crystals and cloud water droplets , theories of the rainbow , determination of the single scattering albedo , ocean color , and many others .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Optical_properties_of_water_and_ice\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 76579\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane Content: 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane is an organic chemical , an organofluoride . It is a colorless gas , usually available in the form of a liquid gas . It is used as a fire suppression agent , a foaming agent , a highly effective refrigerant , a heat transfer medium , a dielectric gas , a sterilant carrier , a polymerization medium , a carrier fluid , a displacement drying agent , a thermodynamic power cycle working fluid , etc. . When used as a fire suppressant , hexafluoropropane carries the DuPont trade name , FE-36 . 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane is a greenhouse gas ; its global warming potential is 6300 . It is manufactured by reacting 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexachloropropane with hydrogen fluoride in gas phase at temperature between 250-400 ° C , in presence of a catalyst in the form of trivalent chromium ( e.g. chromium ( III ) chloride ) supported on carbon with low content of specific impurities .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 76514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vapour density Content: Vapour density is the density of a vapour in relation to that of hydrogen . It may be defined as mass of a certain volume of a substance divided by mass of same volume of hydrogen . vapour density = mass of n molecules of gas / mass of n molecules of hydrogen . Therefore : vapour density = molar mass of gas / molar mass of H2 vapour density = molar mass of gas / 2.016 vapour density = ~ 1/2 × molar mass ( and thus : molar mass = ~ 2 × vapour density ) For example , vapour density of mixture of NO2 and N2O4 is 38 . 3 . Vapour density is a unitless quantity .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Vapour_density\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 76445\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steam Content: Steam is water in the gas phase , which is formed when water boils . Steam is invisible ; however , `` steam '' often refers to wet steam , the visible mist or aerosol of water droplets formed as this water vapour condenses . At lower pressures , such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains , water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 ° C at standard pressure . If heated further it becomes superheated steam . The enthalpy of vaporization is the energy required to turn water into the gaseous form when it increases in volume by 1,700 times at standard temperature and pressure ; this change in volume can be converted into mechanical work by steam engines such as reciprocating piston type engines and steam turbines , which are a sub-group of steam engines . Piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80 % of the world 's electricity . If liquid water comes in contact with a very hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure , it can create a steam explosion . Steam explosions have been responsible for many foundry accidents , and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Steam\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 76053\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control Content: The International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on greenhouse gas control . It is published by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is John Gale . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 3.821 ,\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Journal_of_Greenhouse_Gas_Control\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 75476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vapours (disease) Content: In archaic usage , the vapours ( or vapors ) is a reference to the treatment of certain mental or physical states , such as hysteria , mania , clinical depression , bipolar disorder , lightheadedness , fainting , flush , withdrawal syndrome , mood swings , or PMS , where a sufferer lost mental focus . Ascribed primarily to women and thought to be caused by internal emanations , it was related to the concept of female hysteria . Vapours were used as a treatment for conditions considered to be the female equivalent to melancholy found in men . The word `` vapours '' , referencing the treatment , was subsequently used to describe a depressed or hysterical nervous condition . Today , the phrase `` a case of the vapors '' is most often used either melodramatically or for comedic effect .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Vapours_(disease)\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 75267\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 75183\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse Content: A greenhouse ( also called a glasshouse , or , if with sufficient heating , a hothouse ) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material , such as glass , in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown . These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings . A miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame . The interior of a greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the external ambient temperature , protecting its contents in cold weather . Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers . The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations , heating , cooling , lighting , and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth . Different techniques are then used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate ( i.e. , air temperature , relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit ) in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 75116\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Greenhouse Project Content: The Greenhouse Project is a non-profit organization which began as an art project by college students to raise awareness about the growing need for aid for Uganda 's orphans . The organization 's main goals are to provide impoverished , underfunded orphanages around the world with the means to become self-sustaining . The original project was named after the Greenhouse Orphanage of Mengo , Uganda , the orphanage which inspired the project 's beginning .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Greenhouse_Project\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 74931\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy Content: Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy is a 2007 book by Australian academic Mark Diesendorf . The book puts forward a set of policies and strategies for implementing the most promising clean energy technologies by all spheres of government , business and community organisations . Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy suggests that a mix of efficient energy use , renewable energy sources and natural gas ( as a transitional fuel ) offers a clean and feasible energy future for Australia .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_Solutions_with_Sustainable_Energy\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 74844\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 74815\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Content: The Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord ( Midwestern Accord ) is a regional agreement by six governors of states in the US Midwest who are members of the Midwestern Governors Association ( MGA ) , and the premier of one Canadian province , whose purpose is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . The accord has been inactive since March 2010 , when an advisory group presented a plan for action to the association with a scheduled implementation date of January 2012 . Signatories to the accord are the US states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Illinois , Iowa , Michigan , Kansas , and the Canadian Province of Manitoba . Observers of the accord are Indiana , Ohio , and South Dakota , as well as the Canadian Province of Ontario . While the Midwest has intensive manufacturing and agriculture sectors , making it the most coal-dependent region in North America , it also has significant renewable energy resources and is particularly vulnerable to the climate change caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels . The Midwestern Accord was the fourth tier of the MGA Energy Security and Climate Stewardship Summit Platform , signed on November 15 , 2007 . It established the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Program , which aimed to : establish greenhouse gas reduction targets and time frames consistent with signing states ' targets ; develop a market-based and multi-sector cap-and-trade mechanism to help achieve those reduction targets ; establish a system to enable tracking , management , and crediting for entities that reduce greenhouse gas emissions ; and develop and implement additional steps as needed to achieve the reduction targets , such as a low-carbon fuel standards and regional incentives and funding mechanisms . Through the Midwestern Accord , the governors agreed to establish a Midwestern greenhouse gas reduction program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in their states , as well as a working group to provide recommendations regarding the implementation of the accord . In June 2009 , the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Advisory Group finalized its draft recommendations . In March 2010 the advisory group presented a plan to the MGA that called for implementation beginning in January 2012 . No further action was taken , as leadership in several of the states switched positions on climate policy . In July 2014 , accord member Kansas and observers Indiana , South Dakota , and Ohio joined a lawsuit opposing the EPA Clean Power Plan , federal climate regulations which could be met by implementation of the accord .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Midwestern_Greenhouse_Gas_Reduction_Accord\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 74633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GWP Content: GWP can stand for : Global-warming potential , a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere Global Water Partnership , an international network offering practical advice for sustainably managing water resources Gross world product , the combined GNP of all countries in the world Gross Written Premiums , a measure of revenues for insurance businesses Guild Wars Prophecies , an MMORPG Guinea-Bissau peso , the currency code for Guinea-Bissau 's peso from 1975 to 1997 Gigawatt-peak , a measure in gigawatts of the nominal power of a photovoltaic solar energy device under laboratory illumination conditions\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"GWP\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 74620\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vapor quality Content: In thermodynamics , vapour quality is the mass fraction in a saturated mixture that is vapour ; i.e. saturated vapour has a `` quality '' of 100 % , and saturated liquid has a `` quality '' of 0 % . Vapour quality is an intensive property which can be used in conjunction with other independent intensive properties to specify the thermodynamic state of the working fluid of a thermodynamic system . It has no meaning for substances which are not saturated mixtures ( i.e. , compressed liquids or superheated fluids ) . Quality can be calculated by dividing the mass of the vapour by the mass of the total mixture : where indicates mass . Another definition used by chemical engineers defines quality ( q ) of a fluid as the fraction that is saturated liquid . By this definition , a saturated liquid has q = 1 . A saturated vapour has q = 0 . An alternative definition is the ` equilibrium thermodynamic quality ' . It can be used only for single-component mixtures ( e.g. water with steam ) , and can take values < 0 ( for sub-cooled fluids ) and > 1 ( for super-saturated vapours ) : ; where h is the mixture specific enthalpy , defined as : . Subscripts f and g refer to saturated liquid and saturated gas respectively , and fg refers to vaporisation .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Vapor_quality\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 74556\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_amplification\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 74537\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 74157\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: EcoCute Content: The EcoCute is an energy efficient electric heat pump , water heating and supply system that uses heat extracted from the air to heat water for domestic , industrial and commercial use . Instead of the more conventional ammonia or haloalkane gases , EcoCute uses supercritical carbon dioxide as a refrigerant . The technology offers a means of energy conservation and reduces the emission of greenhouse gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"EcoCute\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 74147\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Weir Greenhouse Content: Weir Greenhouse is a historic greenhouse located across the street from the main entrance of Green-Wood Cemetery in Sunset Park , Brooklyn , New York , New York . It was designed by George Curtis Gillespie and built in 1895 by James Weir , Jr. , a Brooklyn florist who had been in business for 50 years when he built the greenhouse for the business he operated with his son and grandson . It is a rectangular , wood frame and galvanized iron building with projecting bays and domes in the Victorian commercial style . The main entrance is set at an angle to the street corner and is octagonal in form . The rooftop features an octaginal cupola with a ball finial . Attached to the greenhouse is a one-story brick office structure . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 . The Weirs continued to operate the business until 1971 , when they sold to the McGovern family . The building was designated a New York City Landmark in 1982 . On February 2 , 2012 , the Weir Greenhouse was purchased by the neighboring Green-Wood Cemetery , which plans to preserve the greenhouse and restore elements which have decayed in recent years . By spring , 2015 , structural stabilization of the vacant , decayed building was complete , and the project was scheduled to move toward restoration of the building to its 1895 appearance .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Weir_Greenhouse\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 74040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Integrated biotectural system Content: The Integrated Biotectural System or IBTS-Greenhouse is a holistic concept developed for hot arid deserts . It relies on a new quality of systems integration including architectural , technological and natural elements . In this case it means the combination of farming and living in one building , as well as desalination of sea water , or brackish groundwater . Neither the superstructure of the IBTS-Greenhouse , nor its technology resembles that of a common greenhouse . A group of companies called LivingDesert was established in 2011 to build the IBTS in Egypt . LD is no longer active . The IBTS was part of the national plan for large scale desert-reclamation with afforestation and for agricultural purposes . The new type of facility has its roots in construction engineering and construction physics in contrast to agriculture as it is for most novel greenhouses . Thus it is also fundamentally different from seawater greenhouses in existence . Without exception alternative desalination-technologies , air-to-water utilities and desalination-greenhouses in testing , require a multiple of the energy for fresh-water production compared to state of the art utilities . The IBTS requires less energy . The significance of the term IBTS lies within the efficiency that only systems integration can achieve . Particular importance lies on the imitation of natural systems , especially closed cycles . The establishment of closed watercycles being the most crucial of all , because of the increasing severeness of the Global Water crisis particularly in hot desert climates . The desalination feature is bound to hot climates because it requires high amounts of solar thermal power . It has turned out to be very suitable in mitigation of the sinking of water tables in agricultural areas of the MENA region and beyond .\",\n \"qid\": \"194\",\n \"docid\": \"Integrated_biotectural_system\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 73987\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":90,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Carbon dioxide is a non-condensable atmospheric gas like nitrogen and oxygen"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":1,"score":162435},{"content":"Title: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Content: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels . Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air ( as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen ) . Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen ( N2 ) , which is essentially non-combustible , the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen . Carbon dioxide , the next largest part of flue gas , can be as much as 10 − 25 volume percent or more of the flue gas . This is closely followed in volume by water vapor ( H2O ) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen . Much of the ` smoke ' seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air . A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and particulate matter . The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel . The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels . The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases their smoky appearance . The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries , petrochemical and chemical plants , and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere . The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas , fuel oil and coal . The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations . It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion . Note : m ³ are standard cubic meters at 0 ° C and 101.325 kPa , and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 ° F and 14.696 psia .","qid":"195","docid":"Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion","rank":2,"score":157158},{"content":"Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .","qid":"195","docid":"Asphyxiant_gas","rank":3,"score":155997},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .","qid":"195","docid":"Atmosphere","rank":4,"score":152329},{"content":"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_monoxide","rank":5,"score":146707},{"content":"Title: NOx Content: In atmospheric chemistry , is a generic term for the nitrogen oxides that are most relevant for air pollution , namely nitric oxide ( NO ) and nitrogen dioxide . These gases contribute to the formation of smog and acid rain , as well as tropospheric ozone . gases are usually produced from the reaction among nitrogen and oxygen during combustion of fuels , such as hydrocarbons , in air ; especially at high temperatures , such as occur in car engines . In areas of high motor vehicle traffic , such as in large cities , the nitrogen oxides emitted can be a significant source of air pollution . gases are also produced naturally by lightning . The term is chemistry shorthand for molecules containing one nitrogen and one or more oxygen atom . It is generally not meant to include nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , a fairly inert oxide of nitrogen that has many uses as an oxidizer for rockets and car engines , an anesthetic , and a propellant for aerosol sprays and whipped cream . Nitrous oxide plays hardly any role in air pollution , although it may have a significant impact on the ozone layer . ( reactive , odd nitrogen ) is defined as the sum of plus the compounds produced from the oxidation of which include nitric acid .","qid":"195","docid":"NOx","rank":6,"score":145918},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":7,"score":141905},{"content":"Title: Soil gas Content: Soil gases are the gases found in the air space between soil components . The primary natural soil gases include nitrogen , carbon dioxide and oxygen . The oxygen is critical because it allows for respiration of both plant roots and soil organisms . Other natural soil gases are atmospheric methane and radon . Some environmental contaminants below ground produce gas which diffuses through the soil such as from landfill wastes , mining activities , and contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons which produce volatile organic compounds . Soil gases can diffuse into buildings , the chief concerns among these pollutants are radon which is radioactive and causes cancer and methane which can be flammable at only 4.4 % concentration . Gases fill soil pores in the soil structure as water drains or is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root absorption . The network of pores within the soil aerates , or ventilates , the soil . This aeration network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores . Not only are both soil air and soil water very dynamic parts of soil , but both are often inversely related . Composition of air in soil and atmosphere : Nitrogen : Soil Air : 79.2 % Atmosphere : 79.0 % Oxygen : Soil Air : 20.6 % Atmosphere : 20.9 % Carbon Dioxide : Soil Air : 0.25 % Atmosphere : 0.04 % Gas molecules in soil are in continuous thermal motion according to the kinetic theory of gases , there is also collision between molecules - a random walk . In soil , a concentration gradient causes net movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration , this gives the movement of gas by diffusion . Numerically , it is explained by Fick 's law of diffusion .","qid":"195","docid":"Soil_gas","rank":8,"score":138723},{"content":"Title: Octet rule Content: The octet rule is a chemical rule of thumb that reflects observation that atoms of main-group elements tend to combine in such a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell , giving it the same electronic configuration as a noble gas . The rule is especially applicable to carbon , nitrogen , oxygen , and the halogens , but also to metals such as sodium or magnesium . The valence electrons can be counted using a Lewis electron dot diagram as shown at the right for carbon dioxide . The electrons shared by the two atoms in a covalent bond are counted twice , once for each atom . In carbon dioxide each oxygen shares four electrons with the central carbon , two ( shown in red ) from the oxygen itself and two ( shown in black ) from the carbon . All four of these electrons are counted in both the carbon octet and the oxygen octet .","qid":"195","docid":"Octet_rule","rank":9,"score":138391},{"content":"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .","qid":"195","docid":"Modified_atmosphere","rank":10,"score":137064},{"content":"Title: Henry's law Content: In chemistry , Henry 's law is one of the gas laws formulated by the English chemist William Henry , who studied the topic in the early 19th century . In his publication about the quantity of gases absorbed by water , he described the results of his experiments : ... `` water takes up , of gas condensed by one , two , or more additional atmospheres , a quantity which , ordinarily compressed , would be equal to twice , thrice , & c. the volume absorbed under the common pressure of the atmosphere . '' In other words , the amount of dissolved gas is proportional to its partial pressure in the gas phase . The proportionality factor is called the Henry 's law constant . An example where Henry 's law is at play is in the depth-dependent dissolution of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood of underwater divers that changes during decompression , leading to decompression sickness . An everyday example is given by one 's experience with carbonated soft drinks , which contain dissolved carbon dioxide . Before opening , the gas above the drink in its container is almost pure carbon dioxide , at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure . After the bottle is opened , this gas escapes , moving the partial pressure of carbon dioxide above the liquid to be much lower , resulting in degassing as the dissolved carbon dioxide comes out of solution .","qid":"195","docid":"Henry's_law","rank":11,"score":135108},{"content":"Title: Oxide Content: An oxide -LSB- ˈɒksaɪd -RSB- is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula . `` Oxide '' itself is the dianion of oxygen , an O2 -- atom . Metal oxides thus typically contain an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state of − 2 . Most of the Earth 's crust consists of solid oxides , the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water . Hydrocarbon combustion affords the two principal carbon oxides : carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide . Even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating . For example , aluminium foil develops a thin skin of Al2O3 ( called a passivation layer ) that protects the foil from further corrosion . Individual elements can often form multiple oxides , each containing different amounts of the element and oxygen . In some cases these are distinguished by specifying the number of atoms as in carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide , and in other cases by specifying the element 's oxidation number , as in iron ( II ) oxide and iron ( III ) oxide . Certain elements can form many different oxides , such those of nitrogen .","qid":"195","docid":"Oxide","rank":12,"score":130281},{"content":"Title: Tetracarbon dioxide Content: Tetracarbon dioxide is an oxide of carbon , a chemical compound of carbon and oxygen , with chemical formula C4O2 or O = C = C = C = C =O . It can be regarded as butatriene dione , the double ketone of butatriene -- more precisely 1,2,3-butatriene-1 ,4 - dione . Butatriene dione is the fourth member of the family of linear carbon dioxides O ( = C ) n =O , that includes carbon dioxide CO2 or O = C =O , ethylene dione C2O2 or O = C = C =O , carbon suboxide C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O , pentacarbon dioxide C5O2 or O = C = C = C = C = C =O , and so on . The compound was obtained in 1990 by Maier and others , by flash vacuum pyrolysis of cyclic azaketones in a frozen argon matrix . It was also obtained in the same year by Sülzle and Schwartz through impact ionization of ( ( CH3 - ) 2 ( C4O2 ) ( =O ) 2 = ) 2 in the gas phase . Although theoretical studies indicated that the even-numbered members of the O ( = C ) n =O family should be inherently unstable , C4O2 is indefinitely stable in the matrix , but is decomposed by light into tricarbon monoxide C3O and carbon monoxide CO. . It has a triplet ground state .","qid":"195","docid":"Tetracarbon_dioxide","rank":13,"score":130223},{"content":"Title: Blackdamp Content: Blackdamp ( also known as stythe or choke damp ) is an asphyxiant , reducing the available oxygen content of air to a level incapable of sustaining human or animal life . It is not a single gas but a mixture of unbreathable gases left after oxygen is removed from the air and typically consists of nitrogen , carbon dioxide and water vapour . The suffix damp is believed to derive from the German word for vapours ( `` Dampf '' ) . The word damp is used in similar mining terms such as white damp ( carbon monoxide ) , fire damp ( typically methane ) and stink damp ( hydrogen sulfide ) .","qid":"195","docid":"Blackdamp","rank":14,"score":129576},{"content":"Title: Nonmetal Content: In chemistry , a nonmetal ( or non-metal ) is a chemical element that mostly lacks metallic attributes . Physically , nonmetals tend to be highly volatile ( easily vaporized ) , have low elasticity , and are good insulators of heat and electricity ; chemically , they tend to have high ionization energy and electronegativity values , and gain or share electrons when they react with other elements or compounds . Seventeen elements are generally classified as nonmetals ; most are gases ( hydrogen , helium , nitrogen , oxygen , fluorine , neon , chlorine , argon , krypton , xenon and radon ) ; one is a liquid ( bromine ) , and a few are solids ( carbon , phosphorus , sulfur , selenium , and iodine ) . Moving rightward across the standard form of the periodic table , nonmetals adopt structures that have progressively fewer nearest neighbours . Polyatomic nonmetals have structures with either three nearest neighbours , as is the case ( for example ) with carbon ( in its standard state of graphite ) , or two nearest neighbours ( for example ) in the case of sulfur . Diatomic nonmetals , such as hydrogen , have one nearest neighbour , and the monatomic noble gases , such as helium , have none . This gradual fall in the number of nearest neighbours is associated with a reduction in metallic character and an increase in nonmetallic character . The distinction between the three categories of nonmetals , in terms of receding metallicity is not absolute . Boundary overlaps occur as outlying elements in each category show ( or begin to show ) less-distinct , hybrid-like or atypical properties . Although five times more elements are metals than nonmetals , two of the nonmetals -- hydrogen and helium -- make up over 99 per cent of the observable Universe , and one -- oxygen -- makes up close to half of the Earth 's crust , oceans and atmosphere . Living organisms are also composed almost entirely of nonmetals , and nonmetals form many more compounds than metals .","qid":"195","docid":"Nonmetal","rank":15,"score":128411},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"195","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":16,"score":126068},{"content":"Title: Afterdamp Content: Afterdamp is the toxic mixture of gases left in a mine following an explosion caused by firedamp , which itself can initiate a much larger explosion of coal dust . It consists of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen . Hydrogen sulfide , another highly toxic gas , may also be present . However , it is the high content of carbon monoxide which kills by depriving victims of oxygen by combining preferentially with haemoglobin in the blood . Afterdamp was the deadly gas which caused the majority of casualties in the many pit disasters of the British coalfields , such as the Senghenydd colliery disaster and elsewhere in the world . Such disasters continue to afflict working mines , especially in mainland China .","qid":"195","docid":"Afterdamp","rank":17,"score":126009},{"content":"Title: Controlled atmosphere Content: A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen , as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated . Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres .","qid":"195","docid":"Controlled_atmosphere","rank":18,"score":125311},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate","rank":19,"score":123818},{"content":"Title: Air sensitivity Content: Air sensitivity is a term used , particularly in chemistry , to denote the reactivity of chemical compounds with some constituent of air . Most often , reactions occur with atmospheric oxygen ( O2 ) or water vapor ( H2O ) , although reactions with the other constituents of air such as carbon monoxide ( CO ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and nitrogen ( N2 ) are also possible . The range of methods used to work with air-sensitive compounds are known as air-free techniques . Two main methods exist -- gloveboxes and Schlenk lines . Gloveboxes are sealed cabinets filled with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen . Normal laboratory equipment can be set up and manipulated through the use of the gloves . A Schlenk line is a vacuum and inert-gas dual-manifold that allows glassware to be evacuated and refilled with inert gas .","qid":"195","docid":"Air_sensitivity","rank":20,"score":123565},{"content":"Title: Nitryl Content: Nitryl is the nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) moiety when it occurs in a larger compound . Examples include nitryl fluoride ( NO2F ) and nitryl chloride ( NO2Cl ) . Like nitrogen dioxide , the nitryl moiety contains a nitrogen atom with two bonds to the two oxygen atoms , and a third bond shared equally between the nitrogen and the two oxygen atoms . The nitrogen-centred radical is then free to condense with another radical ( X ) to produce an N-X bond , where X can be F , Cl , OH , etc. .","qid":"195","docid":"Nitryl","rank":21,"score":123427},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":22,"score":123212},{"content":"Title: Industrial gas Content: Industrial gases are gaseous materials that are manufactured for use in Industry . The principal gases provided are nitrogen , oxygen , carbon dioxide , argon , hydrogen , helium and acetylene ; although a huge variety of gases and mixtures are available in gas cylinders . The industry producing these gases is known as the industrial gases industry , which is seen as also encompassing the supply of equipment and technology to produce and use the gases . Their production is a part of the wider chemical Industry ( where industrial gases are often seen as `` speciality chemicals '' ) . Industrial gases are used in a wide range of industries , which include oil and gas , petrochemicals , chemicals , power , mining , steelmaking , metals , environmental protection , medicine , pharmaceuticals , biotechnology , food , water , fertilizers , nuclear power , electronics and aerospace . Industrial gas is sold to other industrial enterprises ; typically comprising large orders to corporate industrial clients , covering a size range from building a process facility or pipeline down to cylinder gas supply . Some trade scale business is done , typically through tied local agents who are supplied wholesale . This business covers the sale or hire of gas cylinders and associated equipment to tradesmen and occasionally the general public . This includes products such as balloon helium , dispensing gases for beer kegs , welding gases and welding equipment , LPG and medical oxygen . Retail sales of small scale gas supply are not confined to just the industrial gas companies or their agents . A wide variety of hand-carried small gas containers , which may be called cylinders , bottles , cartridges , capsules or canisters are available to supply LPG , butane , propane , carbon dioxide or nitrous oxide . Examples are whippets , powerlets , campingaz and sodastream .","qid":"195","docid":"Industrial_gas","rank":23,"score":123202},{"content":"Title: Volatiles Content: In planetary science , volatiles are the group of chemical elements and chemical compounds with low boiling points that are associated with a planet 's or moon 's crust or atmosphere . Examples include nitrogen , water , carbon dioxide , ammonia , hydrogen , methane and sulfur dioxide . In astrogeology , these compounds , in their solid state , often comprise large proportions of the crusts of moons and dwarf planets . In contrast with volatiles , elements and compounds with high boiling points are known as refractory substances . Planetary scientists often classify volatiles with exceptionally low melting points , such as hydrogen and helium , as gases ( as in gas giant ) , whereas those volatiles with melting points above about 100 K are referred to as ices . The terms `` gas '' and `` ice '' in this context can apply to compounds that may be solids , liquids or gases . Thus , Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants , and Uranus and Neptune are ice giants , even though the vast majority of the `` gas '' and `` ice '' in their interiors is a hot , highly dense fluid that gets denser as the center of the planet is approached . The Moon is very low in volatiles : its crust contains oxygen chemically bound into the rocks ( in , for example , silicates ) , but negligible amounts of hydrogen , nitrogen , or carbon .","qid":"195","docid":"Volatiles","rank":24,"score":122273},{"content":"Title: Limiting oxygen concentration Content: Limiting oxygen concentration , ( LOC ) , also known as the Minimum oxygen concentration , ( MOC ) , is defined as the limiting concentration of oxygen below which combustion is not possible , independent of the concentration of fuel . It is expressed in units of volume percent of oxygen . The LOC varies with pressure and temperature . It is also dependent on the type of inert ( non-flammable ) gas . The effect of increasing the concentration of inert gas can be understood by viewing the inert as thermal ballast that quenches the flame temperature to a level below which the flame can not exist . Carbon dioxide is therefore more effective than nitrogen due to its higher molar heat capacity The concept has important practical use in fire safety engineering . For instance , to safely fill a new container or a pressure vessel with flammable gasses , the atmosphere of normal air ( containing about 21 volume percent of oxygen ) in the vessel would first be flushed ( purged ) with nitrogen or another non-flammable inert gas , thereby reducing the oxygen concentration inside the container . When the oxygen concentration is below the LOC , flammable gas can be safely admitted to the vessel because the possibility of internal explosion has been eliminated . The limiting oxygen concentration is a necessary parameter when designing hypoxic air fire prevention systems .","qid":"195","docid":"Limiting_oxygen_concentration","rank":25,"score":122172},{"content":"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .","qid":"195","docid":"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide","rank":26,"score":122070},{"content":"Title: Flue gas Content: Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue , which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace , oven , furnace , boiler or steam generator . Quite often , the flue gas refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants . Its composition depends on what is being burned , but it will usually consist of mostly nitrogen ( typically more than two-thirds ) derived from the combustion of air , carbon dioxide , and water vapor as well as excess oxygen ( also derived from the combustion air ) . It further contains a small percentage of a number of pollutants , such as particulate matter ( like soot ) , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , and sulfur oxides .","qid":"195","docid":"Flue_gas","rank":27,"score":121175},{"content":"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .","qid":"195","docid":"Hypercapnia","rank":28,"score":120674},{"content":"Title: Arterial blood gas Content: An arterial blood gas ( ABG ) test is a blood gas test of blood from an artery ; it is thus a blood test that measures the amounts of certain gases ( such as oxygen and carbon dioxide ) dissolved in arterial blood . An ABG test involves puncturing an artery with a thin needle and syringe and drawing a small volume of blood . The most common puncture site is the radial artery at the wrist , but sometimes the femoral artery in the groin or other sites are used . The blood can also be drawn from an arterial catheter . An ABG test measures the blood gas tension values of arterial oxygen tension ( PaO2 ) , arterial carbon dioxide tension ( PaCO2 ) , and acidity ( pH ) . In addition , arterial oxygen saturation ( SaO2 ) can be determined . Such information is vital when caring for patients with critical illness or respiratory disease . Therefore , the ABG test is one of the most common tests performed on patients in intensive care units ( ICUs ) . In other levels of care , pulse oximetry plus transcutaneous carbon dioxide measurement is an alternative method of obtaining similar information less invasively . The test is used to determine the pH of the blood , the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and oxygen , and the bicarbonate level . Many blood gas analyzers will also report concentrations of lactate , hemoglobin , several electrolytes , oxyhemoglobin , carboxyhemoglobin and methemoglobin . ABG testing is mainly used in pulmonology and critical care medicine to determine gas exchange which reflect gas exchange across the alveolar-capillary membrane . ABG testing also has a variety of applications in other areas of medicine . Combinations of disorders can be complex and difficult to interpret , so calculators , nomograms , and rules of thumb are commonly used . ABG specimens originally were sent from the clinic to the medical laboratory for analysis . Today the analysis can be done either in the laboratory or as point-of-care testing , depending on the equipment available in each clinic .","qid":"195","docid":"Arterial_blood_gas","rank":29,"score":120338},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"195","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":30,"score":120157},{"content":"Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .","qid":"195","docid":"Paleoatmosphere","rank":31,"score":120041},{"content":"Title: Oxocarbon Content: An oxocarbon or oxide of carbon is a chemical compound consisting only of carbon and oxygen . The simplest and most common oxocarbons are carbon monoxide ( CO ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Many other stable ( practically if not thermodynamically ) or metastable oxides of carbon are known , but they are rarely encountered , such as carbon suboxide ( C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O ) and mellitic anhydride ( C12O9 ) . While textbooks will often list only the first three , and rarely the fourth , a large number of other oxides are known today , most of them synthesized since the 1960s . Some of these new oxides are stable at room temperature . Some are metastable or stable only at very low temperatures , but decompose to simpler oxocarbons when warmed . Many are inherently unstable and can be observed only momentarily as intermediates in chemical reactions or are so reactive that they can exist only in the gas phase or under matrix isolation conditions . The inventory of oxocarbons appears to be steadily growing . The existence of graphene oxide and of other stable polymeric carbon oxides with unbounded molecular structures suggests that many more remain to be discovered .","qid":"195","docid":"Oxocarbon","rank":32,"score":119636},{"content":"Title: Carbon tetroxide Content: Carbon tetroxide is a highly unstable oxide of carbon with formula . It was proposed as an intermediate in the O-atom exchange between carbon dioxide and oxygen at high temperatures .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_tetroxide","rank":33,"score":119287},{"content":"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon-neutral_fuel","rank":34,"score":118895},{"content":"Title: Selective non-catalytic reduction Content: Selective non-catalytic reduction ( SNCR ) is a method to lessen nitrogen oxide emissions in conventional power plants that burn biomass , waste and coal . The process involves injecting either ammonia or urea into the firebox of the boiler at a location where the flue gas is between 1400 and to react with the nitrogen oxides formed in the combustion process . The resulting product of the chemical redox reaction is molecular nitrogen ( N2 ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and water ( H2O ) . Urea ( NH2CONH2 ) is easier to handle and store than the more dangerous ammonia ( NH3 ) . In the process it reacts like ammonia : NH2CONH2 + H2O - > 2NH3 + CO2 The reduction happens according to ( simplified ) 4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2 - > 4 N2 + 6 H2O The reaction mechanism itself involves NH2 radicals that attach to NO and then decompose . The reaction requires a sufficient reaction time within a certain temperature range , typically 1400 and , to be effective . At lower temperatures the NO and the ammonia do not react . Ammonia that has not reacted is called ammonia slip and is undesirable , as the ammonia can react with other combustion species , such as sulfur trioxide ( SO3 ) , to form ammonium salts . At temperatures above 1093 ° C ammonia decomposes : 4 NH3 + 5 O2 - > 4 NO + 6 H2O In that case NO is created instead of removed . A further complication is mixing . In general , more NO will form in the center and less near the walls , as the walls are cooler than the center . Thus , more ammonia must find its way to the center and less near the walls , otherwise NO in the center meets insufficient ammonia for reduction and excess ammonia near the walls slips through . Though in theory selective non-catalytic reduction can achieve the same efficiency of about 90 % as selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , these practical constraints of temperature , time , and mixing often lead to worse results in practice . However , selective non-catalytic reduction has an economical advantage over selective catalytic reduction , as the cost of the catalyst is not there .","qid":"195","docid":"Selective_non-catalytic_reduction","rank":35,"score":118712},{"content":"Title: Buffer gas Content: A buffer gas is an inert or nonflammable gas . In the Earth 's atmosphere , nitrogen acts as a buffer gas . A buffer gas adds pressure to a system and controls the speed of combustion with any oxygen present . Any inert gas such as helium , neon , or argon will serve as a buffer gas .","qid":"195","docid":"Buffer_gas","rank":36,"score":117616},{"content":"Title: Carbon Content: Carbon ( from carbo `` coal '' ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent -- making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , C and C being stable , while C is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity . Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18.5 % ) after oxygen . The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb '' γράφειν '' which means `` to write '' ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen . The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4 , while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions . For this reason , carbon has often been referred to as the `` king of the elements '' .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon","rank":37,"score":117236},{"content":"Title: Traité Élémentaire de Chimie Content: Traité élémentaire de chimie ( Elementary Treatise of Chemistry ) is an influential textbook written by Antoine Lavoisier published in 1789 and translated into English by Robert Kerr in 1790 under the title Elements of Chemistry in a New Systematic Order containing All the Modern Discoveries . This book is considered to be the first modern chemical textbook . The book defines an element as a single substance that ca n't be broken down by chemical analysis and from which all chemical compounds are formed , publishing his discovery that fermentation produces carbon dioxide ( carbonic gas ) and spirit of wine , saying that it is `` more appropriately called by the Arabic word alcohol since it is formed from cider or fermented sugar as well as wine '' , and publishing the first chemical equation `` grape must = carbonic acid + alcohol '' , calling this reaction `` one of the most extraordinary in chemistry '' , noting `` In these experiments , we have to assume that there is a true balance or equation between the elements of the compounds with which we start and those obtained at the end of the reaction . '' The book contains a list of elements , which included oxygen , nitrogen , hydrogen , phosphorus , mercury , zinc , and sulfur , forming the basis for the modern list of elements . His list , however , also included light and caloric , which he believed to be material substances but are not elements .","qid":"195","docid":"Traité_Élémentaire_de_Chimie","rank":38,"score":116974},{"content":"Title: Gasification Content: Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil fuel based carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide , hydrogen and carbon dioxide . This is achieved by reacting the material at high temperatures ( > 700 ° C ) , without combustion , with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam . The resulting gas mixture is called syngas ( from synthesis gas ) or producer gas and is itself a fuel . The power derived from gasification and combustion of the resultant gas is considered to be a source of renewable energy if the gasified compounds were obtained from biomass . ( dead links ) The advantage of gasification is that using the syngas is potentially more efficient than direct combustion of the original fuel because it can be combusted at higher temperatures or even in fuel cells , so that the thermodynamic upper limit to the efficiency defined by Carnot 's rule is higher or ( in case of fuel cells ) not applicable . Syngas may be burned directly in gas engines , used to produce methanol and hydrogen , or converted via the Fischer -- Tropsch process into synthetic fuel . Gasification can also begin with material which would otherwise have been disposed of such as biodegradable waste . In addition , the high-temperature process refines out corrosive ash elements such as chloride and potassium , allowing clean gas production from otherwise problematic fuels . Gasification of fossil fuels is currently widely used on industrial scales to generate electricity .","qid":"195","docid":"Gasification","rank":39,"score":116890},{"content":"Title: Carbogen Content: Carbogen , also called Meduna 's Mixture after its inventor Ladislas Meduna , is a mixture of carbon dioxide and oxygen gas . Meduna 's original formula was 30 % CO2 and 70 % oxygen , but the term carbogen can refer to any mixture of these two gases , from 1.5 % to 50 % CO2 .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbogen","rank":40,"score":116683},{"content":"Title: Carbon hexoxide Content: Carbon hexoxide or carbon hexaoxide is an oxide of carbon with an unusually large quantity of oxygen . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule consists of a six membered ring with five oxygen and one carbon atom , and one oxygen with a double bond with the carbon .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_hexoxide","rank":41,"score":116391},{"content":"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .","qid":"195","docid":"Amorphous_carbonia","rank":42,"score":116140},{"content":"Title: Carbon trioxide Content: Carbon trioxide ( CO3 ) is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) . Three possible isomers of carbon trioxide , with molecular symmetry point groups Cs , D3h , and C2v , have been most studied by theoretical methods , and the C2v state has been shown to be the ground state of the molecule . Carbon trioxide should not be confused with the stable carbonate ion ( CO32 − ) . Carbon trioxide can be produced , for example , in the drift zone of a negative corona discharge by reactions between carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and the atomic oxygen ( O ) created from molecular oxygen by free electrons in the plasma . Another reported method is photolysis of ozone O3 dissolved in liquid CO2 , or in CO2/SF6 mixtures at -45 ° C , irradiated with light of 2537 Å . The formation of CO3 is inferred but it appears to decay spontaneously by the route 2CO3 → 2CO2 + O2 with a lifetime much shorter than 1 minute . Carbon trioxide can be made by blowing ozone at dry ice ( solid CO2 ) , and it has also been detected in reactions between carbon monoxide ( CO ) and molecular oxygen ( O2 ) .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_trioxide","rank":43,"score":115940},{"content":"Title: Gaseous signaling molecules Content: Gaseous signaling molecules are gaseous molecules that are either synthesised internally ( endogenously ) in the organism , tissue or cell or are received by the organism , tissue or cell from outside ( say , from the atmosphere or hydrosphere , as in the case of oxygen ) and that are used to transmit chemical signals which induce certain physiological or biochemical changes in the organism , tissue or cell . The term is applied to , for example , oxygen , carbon dioxide , nitric oxide , carbon monoxide , hydrogen sulfide , sulfur dioxide , nitrous oxide , hydrogen cyanide , ammonia , methane , hydrogen , ethylene , etc. . Many , but not all , gaseous signaling molecules are called gasotransmitters . The biological roles of each of the gaseous signaling molecules are in short outlined below .","qid":"195","docid":"Gaseous_signaling_molecules","rank":44,"score":115607},{"content":"Title: Carbonyl sulfide Content: Carbonyl sulfide is the organic compound with the linear formula OCS . Normally written as COS , it is a colourless flammable gas with an unpleasant odor . It is a linear molecule consisting of a carbonyl group double bonded to a sulfur atom . Carbonyl sulfide can be considered to be intermediate between carbon dioxide and carbon disulfide , both of which are valence isoelectronic with it . Carbonyl sulfide decomposes in the presence of humidity and bases to carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide . This compound is found to catalyze the formation of peptides from amino acids . This finding is an extension of the Miller -- Urey experiment and it is suggested that carbonyl sulfide played a significant role in the origin of life .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbonyl_sulfide","rank":45,"score":115582},{"content":"Title: Noble gas Content: The noble gases ( historically also the inert gases ) make a group of chemical elements with similar properties ; under standard conditions , they are all odorless , colorless , monatomic gases with very low chemical reactivity . The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium ( He ) , neon ( Ne ) , argon ( Ar ) , krypton ( Kr ) , xenon ( Xe ) , and the radioactive radon ( Rn ) . Oganesson ( Og ) is predicted to be a noble gas as well , but its chemistry has not yet been investigated . For the first six periods of the periodic table , the noble gases are exactly the members of group 18 of the periodic table . Noble gases are typically highly unreactive except when under particular extreme conditions . The inertness of noble gases makes them very suitable in applications where reactions are not wanted . For example , argon is used in light bulbs to prevent the hot tungsten filament from oxidizing ; also , helium is used in breathing gas by deep-sea divers to prevent oxygen , nitrogen and carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) toxicity . The properties of the noble gases can be well explained by modern theories of atomic structure : their outer shell of valence electrons is considered to be `` full '' , giving them little tendency to participate in chemical reactions , and it has been possible to prepare only a few hundred noble gas compounds . The melting and boiling points for a given noble gas are close together , differing by less than 10 C-change ; that is , they are liquids over only a small temperature range . Neon , argon , krypton , and xenon are obtained from air in an air separation unit using the methods of liquefaction of gases and fractional distillation . Helium is sourced from natural gas fields which have high concentrations of helium in the natural gas , using cryogenic gas separation techniques , and radon is usually isolated from the radioactive decay of dissolved radium , thorium , or uranium compounds ( since those compounds give off alpha particles ) . Noble gases have several important applications in industries such as lighting , welding , and space exploration . A helium-oxygen breathing gas is often used by deep-sea divers at depths of seawater over 55 m to keep the diver from experiencing oxygen toxemia , the lethal effect of high-pressure oxygen , nitrogen narcosis , the distracting narcotic effect of the nitrogen in air beyond this partial-pressure threshold , and carbon dioxide poisoning ( hypercapnia ) , the panic-inducing effect of excessive carbon dioxide in the bloodstream . After the risks caused by the flammability of hydrogen became apparent , it was replaced with helium in blimps and balloons .","qid":"195","docid":"Noble_gas","rank":46,"score":114943},{"content":"Title: Ideal gas Content: An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of many randomly moving point particles whose only interaction is perfectly elastic collision . The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law , a simplified equation of state , and is amenable to analysis under statistical mechanics . One mole of an ideal gas has a volume of 22.710947 ( 13 ) litres at STP ( a temperature of 273.15 K and an absolute pressure of exactly 105 Pa ) as defined by IUPAC since 1982 . ( Until 1982 , STP was defined as a temperature of 273.15 K and an absolute pressure of exactly 1 atm . The volume of one mole of an ideal gas at this temperature and pressure is 22.413962 ( 13 ) litres . IUPAC recommends that the former use of this definition should be discontinued ; however , some textbooks still use these old values . ) At normal conditions such as standard temperature and pressure , most real gases behave qualitatively like an ideal gas . Many gases such as nitrogen , oxygen , hydrogen , noble gases , and some heavier gases like carbon dioxide can be treated like ideal gases within reasonable tolerances . Generally , a gas behaves more like an ideal gas at higher temperature and lower pressure , as the potential energy due to intermolecular forces becomes less significant compared with the particles ' kinetic energy , and the size of the molecules becomes less significant compared to the empty space between them . The ideal gas model tends to fail at lower temperatures or higher pressures , when intermolecular forces and molecular size become important . It also fails for most heavy gases , such as many refrigerants , and for gases with strong intermolecular forces , notably water vapor . At high pressures , the volume of a real gas is often considerably greater than that of an ideal gas . At low temperatures , the pressure of a real gas is often considerably less than that of an ideal gas . At some point of low temperature and high pressure , real gases undergo a phase transition , such as to a liquid or a solid . The model of an ideal gas , however , does not describe or allow phase transitions . These must be modeled by more complex equations of state . The deviation from the ideal gas behaviour can be described by a dimensionless quantity , the compressibility factor , . The ideal gas model has been explored in both the Newtonian dynamics ( as in `` kinetic theory '' ) and in quantum mechanics ( as a `` gas in a box '' ) . The ideal gas model has also been used to model the behavior of electrons in a metal ( in the Drude model and the free electron model ) , and it is one of the most important models in statistical mechanics .","qid":"195","docid":"Ideal_gas","rank":47,"score":114866},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_sensor","rank":48,"score":114692},{"content":"Title: Sewer gas Content: Sewer gas is a complex mixture of toxic and nontoxic gases produced and collected in sewage systems by the decomposition of organic household or industrial wastes , typical components of sewage . Sewer gases may include hydrogen sulfide , ammonia , methane , esters , carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides . Improper disposal of petroleum products such as gasoline and mineral spirits contribute to sewer gas hazards . Sewer gases are of concern due to their odor , health effects , and potential for creating fire or explosions .","qid":"195","docid":"Sewer_gas","rank":49,"score":114593},{"content":"Title: Dicyanoacetylene Content: Dicyanoacetylene , also called carbon subnitride or but-2-ynedinitrile '' ' ( IUPAC ) , is a compound of carbon and nitrogen with chemical formula C4N2 . It has a linear molecular structure , N ≡ C − C ≡ C − C ≡ N ( often abbreviated as NC4N ) , with alternating triple and single covalent bonds . It can be viewed as acetylene with the two hydrogen atoms replaced by cyanide groups . At room temperature , dicyanoacetylene is a clear liquid . Because of its high endothermic heat of formation , it can explode to carbon powder and nitrogen gas , and it burns in oxygen with a bright blue-white flame at a temperature of 5260 K ( 4990 ° C , 9010 ° F ) , which is the hottest flame of any known chemical reaction .","qid":"195","docid":"Dicyanoacetylene","rank":50,"score":114592},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_reforming","rank":51,"score":114580},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"195","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":52,"score":113647},{"content":"Title: Natural gas Content: Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane , but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes , and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide , nitrogen , hydrogen sulfide , or helium . It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years . The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in the gas . Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating , cooking , and electricity generation . It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals . Fossil fuel based natural gas is a non-renewable resource . Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds and as methane clathrates . Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in close proximity to and with natural gas . Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms : biogenic and thermogenic . Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes , bogs , landfills , and shallow sediments . Deeper in the earth , at greater temperature and pressure , thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material . In petroleum production gas is often burnt as flare gas . The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of natural gas are flared or vented annually . Before natural gas can be used as a fuel , most , but not all , must be processed to remove impurities , including water , to meet the specifications of marketable natural gas . The by-products of this processing include : ethane , propane , butanes , pentanes , and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons , hydrogen sulfide ( which may be converted into pure sulfur ) , carbon dioxide , water vapor , and sometimes helium and nitrogen . Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as `` gas '' , especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal . However , it is not to be confused with gasoline , especially in North America , where the term gasoline is often shortened in colloquial usage to gas . Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE ( possibly even 1000 BCE ) . They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt , in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan . The world 's first industrial extraction of natural gas started at Fredonia , New York , United States in 1825 . By 2009 , 66 000 km ³ ( or 8 % ) had been used out of the total 850 000 km ³ of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas . Based on an estimated 2015 world consumption rate of about 3400 km ³ of gas per year , the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of natural gas would last 250 years at current consumption rates . An annual increase in usage of 2 -- 3 % could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less , perhaps as few as 80 to 100 years .","qid":"195","docid":"Natural_gas","rank":53,"score":113621},{"content":"Title: Carbon pentoxide Content: Carbon pentaoxide or carbon pentoxide is an unstable molecular oxide of carbon . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule has a C2 symmetry . It consists of a five membered ring with one carbon and four oxygen atoms . A fifth oxygen atom has a double bond to the carbon . Calculation has resulted in a theoretical structure . The pentagon is not regular , but varies in the length of its sides and angles . The distance between the oxygen atoms that are not attached to carbon is 1.406 Å , whereas the distance between one of these atoms and an oxygen attached to carbon is 1.457 Å . The carbon oxygen bond length is 1.376 Å . The double carbon to oxygen bond is the shortest at 1.180 Å . There is no carbon-to-carbon bond as there is only one carbon atom . The OOO bond angle is 100.2 ° and the OOC angle is 109.1 ° . The OCO bond angle is 125.4 ° .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_pentoxide","rank":54,"score":112692},{"content":"Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_suboxide","rank":55,"score":112460},{"content":"Title: Indirect calorimetry Content: Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste ( frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms , or urea in terrestrial ones ) , or from their consumption of oxygen . Indirect calorimetry is the method by which the type and rate of substrate utilization , and energy metabolism are estimated in vivo starting from gas exchange measurements ( carbon dioxide production and oxygen consumption during rest and steady-state exercise ) . This technique provides unique information , is noninvasive , and can be advantageously combined with other experimental methods to investigate numerous aspects of nutrient assimilation , thermogenesis , the energetics of physical exercise , and the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases .","qid":"195","docid":"Indirect_calorimetry","rank":56,"score":111574},{"content":"Title: Octanitrocubane Content: Octanitrocubane ( molecular formula : C8 ( NO2 ) 8 ) is a high explosive that , like TNT , is shock-insensitive ( not readily detonated by shock ) . The octanitrocubane molecule has the same chemical structure as cubane ( C8H8 ) except that each of the eight hydrogen atoms is replaced by a nitro group ( NO2 ) . It is however not as powerful as once thought , as the high density theoretical crystal structure has not been achieved . For this reason heptanitrocubane , the slightly less nitrated form , is believed to have marginally better performance despite having a worse oxygen balance . Octanitrocubane is thought to have 20 -- 25 % greater performance than HMX ( octogen ) . This increase in power is due to its highly expansive breakdown into CO2 and N2 , as well as to the presence of strained chemical bonds in the molecule which have stored potential energy . In addition , octanitrocubane produces no water vapor making it less visible , and both the chemical itself and its decomposition products ( nitrogen and carbon dioxide ) are considered to be non-toxic . Octanitrocubane has a detonation velocity of 10,100 m/s , making it the fastest known explosive . Small amounts have been synthesized in the laboratory , but not enough for performance testing as an explosive . Octanitrocubane was first synthesized by Philip Eaton ( who was also the first to synthesize cubane in 1964 ) and Mao-Xi Zhang at the University of Chicago in 1999 , with the structure proven by crystallographer Richard Gilardi of the United States Naval Research Laboratory . The R.E. factor of octanitrocubane is 2.38 , making it the most effective chemical explosive known .","qid":"195","docid":"Octanitrocubane","rank":57,"score":111344},{"content":"Title: RuBisCO Content: Ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase , commonly known by the abbreviations RuBisCO , RuBPCase , or RuBPco , is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation , a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose . In chemical terms , it catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ( also known as RuBP ) . It is probably the most abundant enzyme on Earth .","qid":"195","docid":"RuBisCO","rank":58,"score":111232},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"195","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":59,"score":111203},{"content":"Title: Marsh gas Content: Marsh gas , swamp gas and bog gas are common names for biogas which forms in wetlands , whose principal component is methane with hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide as minor compositions , produced naturally within some geographical marshes , swamps , and bogs . The surface of marshes , swamps and bogs is initially porous vegetation that rots to form a crust that prevents oxygen from reaching the organic material trapped below . That is the condition that allows anaerobic digestion and fermentation of any plant or animal material which incidentally also produces methane . In some cases there is sufficient heat , fuel and oxygen to allow spontaneous combustion and underground fires to smolder for some considerable time as occurred at a natural reserve in Spain . Such fires can cause surface subsidence presenting an unpredictable physical hazard and as well as environmental changes or damage to the local environment and the ecosystem it supports .","qid":"195","docid":"Marsh_gas","rank":60,"score":111018},{"content":"Title: Clean agent FS 49 C2 Content: Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an environmentally engineered , human safe , fast extinguishing Clean Agent fire extinguishing gas for gaseous fire suppression installed in a suited fire suppression system . The Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an extinguishing gas mixture that suppresses fire while maintaining breathable concentrations of oxygen in the air . This makes it possible to extinguish a fire with less danger to people in the room at extinguishing concentrations in contrast to pure Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) based fire suppression system which is deadly to humans when released . In the beginning the gas was called Halotron II B/FS49C2 but later only the name FS 49 C2 is used . It is a gaseous solution of 60-80 % tetrafluoroethane ( R-134a ) , 10-30 % pentafluoroethane ( R-125 ) and 10-30 % carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Former fire chief Einar Gjessing made an article about the product to inform firemen how this gas works in case they need to enter a fire site with FS 49 C2 .","qid":"195","docid":"Clean_agent_FS_49_C2","rank":61,"score":110814},{"content":"Title: Direct carbon fuel cell Content: A Direct Carbon Fuel Cell ( DCFC ) is a fuel cell that uses a carbon rich material as a fuel such as bio-mass or coal . The cell produces energy by combining carbon and oxygen , which releases carbon dioxide as a by-product . It also called coal fuel cells ( CFCs ) , carbon-air fuel cells ( CAFCs ) , direct carbon/coal fuel cells ( DCFCs ) , and DC-SOFC . The total reaction of the cell is C + O2 → CO2 . The process in half cell notation : Anode : C + 2 O2 − → CO2 + 4 e − Cathode : O2 + 4 e − → 2 O2 − Despite this release of carbon dioxide , the direct carbon fuel cell is more environmentally friendly than traditional carbon burning techniques . Due to its higher efficiency , it requires less carbon to produce the same amount of energy . Also , because pure carbon dioxide is emitted , carbon capture techniques are much cheaper than for conventional power stations . Utilized carbon can be in the form of coal , coke , char , or a non-fossilized source of carbon . At least four types of DCFC exist : The first one is based on the Solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) concept . Overall reaction in the solid oxide electrolyte based DCFC C + O2 → CO2 . Anode reaction C + 2O2 − → CO2 + 4e − C + O2 − → CO + 2e − CO + O2 − → CO2 + 2e − C + CO2 → 2CO Cathode reaction O2 + 4e − → 2O2 − The second one is molten hydroxides fuel cell . William W. Jacques obtained an US Patent 555,511 in this type of fuel cell in 1896 . Prototypes have been demonstrated by the research group , SARA , Inc. . The third one is based on the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell ( MCFC ) concept . William W. Jacques obtained a Canadian patent in this type of fuel cell in 1897 . It has been developed further at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory . The fourth is a molten tin anode solid oxide fuel cell design , which utilizes molten tin and tin oxide as an inter stage reaction between oxidation of the carbon dissolving in the anode and reduction of oxygen at the solid oxide cathode .","qid":"195","docid":"Direct_carbon_fuel_cell","rank":62,"score":110737},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .","qid":"195","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Mars","rank":63,"score":110680},{"content":"Title: Carbon-based life Content: Carbon is a key component of all known life on Earth . Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements , especially oxygen , hydrogen and nitrogen , and carbon can bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons . Carbon is abundant on Earth . It is also lightweight and relatively small in size , making it easier for enzymes to manipulate carbon molecules . It is often assumed in astrobiology that if life exists somewhere else in the universe , it will also be carbon-based . Critics refer to this assumption as carbon chauvinism .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon-based_life","rank":64,"score":110310},{"content":"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_sequestration","rank":65,"score":110059},{"content":"Title: NAV-CO2 system Content: Non-flammable Alcohol Vapor in Carbon Dioxide systems ( NAV-CO2 System ) were developed in Japan in the 1990s to sanitize hospitals and ambulances .","qid":"195","docid":"NAV-CO2_system","rank":66,"score":109546},{"content":"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .","qid":"195","docid":"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory","rank":67,"score":109445},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_laser","rank":68,"score":109416},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide transmission rate Content: Carbon dioxide transmission rate ( COTR ) is the measurement of the amount of carbon dioxide gas that passes through a substance over a given period . It is mostly carried out on non-porous materials , where the mode of transport is diffusion , but there are a growing number of applications where the transmission rate also depends on flow through apertures of some description .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_transmission_rate","rank":69,"score":109397},{"content":"Title: Total organic carbon Content: Total organic carbon ( TOC ) is the amount of carbon found in an organic compound and is often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality or cleanliness of pharmaceutical manufacturing equipment . TOC may also refer to the amount of organic carbon in soil , or in a geological formation , particularly the source rock for a petroleum play ; 2 % is a rough minimum . For marine surface sediments , average TOC content is 0.5 % in the deep ocean , and 2 % along the eastern margins . A typical analysis for TOC measures both the total carbon present and the so-called `` inorganic carbon '' ( IC ) , the latter representing the content of dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid salts . Subtracting the inorganic carbon from the total carbon yields TOC . Another common variant of TOC analysis involves removing the IC portion first and then measuring the leftover carbon . This method involves purging an acidified sample with carbon-free air or nitrogen prior to measurement , and so is more accurately called non-purgeable organic carbon ( NPOC ) .","qid":"195","docid":"Total_organic_carbon","rank":70,"score":109340},{"content":"Title: Air-free technique Content: Air-free techniques refer to a range of manipulations in the chemistry laboratory for the handling of compounds that are air-sensitive . These techniques prevent the compounds from reacting with components of air , usually water and oxygen ; less commonly carbon dioxide and nitrogen . A common theme among these techniques is the use of a fine ( 100-10 − 3 Torr ) or high ( 10 − 3-10 − 6 Torr ) vacuum to remove air , and the use of an inert gas : preferably argon , but often nitrogen . The two most common types of air-free technique involve the use of a glovebox and a Schlenk line , although some rigorous applications use a high-vacuum line . In both methods , glassware ( often Schlenk tubes ) are pre-dried in ovens prior to use . They may be flame-dried to remove adsorbed water . Prior to coming into an inert atmosphere , vessels are further dried by purge-and-refill -- the vessel is subjected to a vacuum to remove gases and water , and then refilled with inert gas . This cycle is usually repeated three times or the vacuum is applied for an extended period of time . One of the differences between the use of a glovebox and a Schlenk line is where the purge-and-refill cycle is applied . When using a glovebox the purge-and-refill is applied to an airlock attached to the glovebox , commonly called the `` port '' or `` ante-chamber '' . In contrast when using a Schlenk line the purge-and-refill is applied directly to the reaction vessel through a hose or ground glass joint that is connected to the manifold .","qid":"195","docid":"Air-free_technique","rank":71,"score":109337},{"content":"Title: Gas carbon Content: Gas carbon is a carbon deposit that forms on the upper parts of the retort of a gasworks .","qid":"195","docid":"Gas_carbon","rank":72,"score":109058},{"content":"Title: Coal gas Content: Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system . Town gas is a more general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers and municipalities . Coal gas contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen , carbon monoxide , methane and volatile hydrocarbons together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen . Prior to the development of natural gas supply and transmissionduring the 1940s and 1950s in the United States and during the late 1960s and 1970s in Great Britainvirtually all gas for fuel and lighting was manufactured from coal . Town gas was supplied to households via municipally-owned piped distribution systems . Originally created as a by-product of the coking process , its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the industrial revolution and urbanization . By-products from the production process included coal tars and ammonia , which were important chemical feedstock for the dye and chemical industry with a wide range of artificial dyes being made from coal gas and coal tar . Facilities where the gas was produced were often known as a manufactured gas plant ( MGP ) or a gasworks . The discovery of large reserves of natural gas in the North Sea off the Scottish coast during the early 1960s led to the expensive conversion or replacement of most of the UK 's gas cookers and gas heaters , except in Northern Ireland , from the late 1960s onwards . The production process is distinct , both physically and chemically , from that used to create a range of gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas , syngas , hygas , Dowson gas , and producer gas . These gases are made by partial combustion of a wide variety of feed stocks in some mixture of air , oxygen , or steam , to reduce the latter to hydrogen and carbon dioxide although some destructive distillation may also occur .","qid":"195","docid":"Coal_gas","rank":73,"score":108861},{"content":"Title: Flue-gas stack Content: A flue-gas stack is a type of chimney , a vertical pipe , channel or similar structure through which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air . Flue gases are produced when coal , oil , natural gas , wood or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial furnace , a power plant 's steam-generating boiler , or other large combustion device . Flue gas is usually composed of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor as well as nitrogen and excess oxygen remaining from the intake combustion air . It also contains a small percentage of pollutants such as particulate matter , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides . The flue gas stacks are often quite tall , up to 400 metres ( 1300 feet ) or more , so as to disperse the exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby reduce the concentration of the pollutants to the levels required by governmental environmental policy and environmental regulation . When the flue gases are exhausted from stoves , ovens , fireplaces , or other small sources within residential abodes , restaurants , hotels , or other public buildings and small commercial enterprises , their flue gas stacks are referred to as chimneys .","qid":"195","docid":"Flue-gas_stack","rank":74,"score":108611},{"content":"Title: Endothermic gas Content: Endothermic gas is a gas that inhibits or reverses oxidation on the surfaces it is in contact with . This gas is the product of incomplete combustion in a controlled environment . An example is hydrogen gas ( H2 ) , nitrogen gas ( N2 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) . The hydrogen and carbon monoxide are reducing agents , so they work together to shield surfaces from oxidation .","qid":"195","docid":"Endothermic_gas","rank":75,"score":108590},{"content":"Title: NOTT-202 Content: NOTT-202 is a two-part chemical compound , capable of selectively absorbing carbon dioxide . It is like a `` framework of organic metal '' that functions like a sponge , absorbing selected gases at high pressures . Its creation was announced by scientists in 2011 . This structure is an entirely new class of porous material , as so the researchers claim .","qid":"195","docid":"NOTT-202","rank":76,"score":108568},{"content":"Title: Nitrous oxide Content: Nitrous oxide , commonly known as laughing gas or nitrous , is a chemical compound , an oxide of nitrogen with the formula . At room temperature , it is a colorless , odorless non-flammable gas , with a slightly metallic scent and taste . At elevated temperatures , nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidizer similar to molecular oxygen . Nitrous oxide has significant medical uses , especially in surgery and dentistry , for its anaesthetic and analgesic effects . Its name `` laughing gas '' is due to the euphoric effects of inhaling it , a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaesthetic . It is also used as an oxidizer in rocket propellants , and in motor racing to increase the power output of engines . Nitrous oxide occurs in small amounts in the atmosphere , but has been found recently to be a major scavenger of stratospheric ozone , with impact comparable to that of CFCs . It is estimated that 30 % of the in the atmosphere is the result of human activity , chiefly agriculture .","qid":"195","docid":"Nitrous_oxide","rank":77,"score":108556},{"content":"Title: Headspace Gas Chromatography for Dissolved Gas Measurement Content: Headspace Gas Chromatography uses headspace gas injected directly onto a gas chromatographic column . Chemists often use the phrase `` standard temperature and pressure or STP '' to convey that they are working at a temperature of 25 ° C and one atmosphere of pressure . There are three states of matter under these conditions : solids , liquids and gases . Although all three are distinct states both solids and gases can dissolve ( or disperse ) in liquids . The most commonly occurring liquid in the biosphere is water . All components of the atmosphere are capable of dissolving in water to some degree . The bulk of the stable natural components of the atmosphere are nitrogen , oxygen , carbon dioxide , gaseous water , argon and other trace gases . Materials that exist primarily in the gas phase at STP are referred to as `` volatile . '' Many natural and man-made ( anthropogenic ) materials are stable in two states at STP , earning them the title `` semi-volatile . '' A naturally occurring volatile that is sometimes found in aqueous solution is methane , water itself is semi-volatile . Man-made or anthropogenic chemicals also occur in these classes . Examples of volatile anthropogenic chemicals include the refrigerants chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and hydrofluorocarbons ( HCFCs ) . Semivolatile anthropogenics can exist as mixtures , such as petroleum distillates or as pure chemicals like trichloroethylene ( TCE ) . There is a need to analyze the dissolved gas content of aqueous solutions . Dissolved gases can directly interact with aquatic organisms or can volatilize from solution ( the latter described by Henry 's Law ) . These processes can result in exposure that , depending on the nature of the dissolved material , can have negative health effects . There is natural occurrence of various dissolved gases in groundwater and can be a measure of health for lakes , streams and rivers . Dissolved gases also occur as a result of human contamination from fuel and chlorinated spill sites . This method can be used to determine if there is natural biodegradation processes occurring in contaminated aquifers . For example , fuel hydrocarbons will break down into methane . Chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethylene , break down into ethene and chloride . Detecting these compounds can determine if biodegradation processes are occurring and possibly at what rate . Natural gas extracted from the earth also contains many low molecular weight hydrocarbon compounds such as methane , ethane , propane and butane . For example , methane has been found in many water wells in West Virginia . Chromatographic techniques are often useful when mixtures of analytes are present because they are capable of measuring multiple analytes during a single application . They require isolation of the analyte from the matrix they come in ( the body of the sample ) . One of the simpler techniques is to simply trap the analytes in a bubble of air above the sample ( headspace ) and inject part of that bubble directly into the instrument . This procedure is called headspace analysis . One of the most widely used methods for headspace analysis is described by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( USEPA ) and is called RSKSOP-175 . This method is described below .","qid":"195","docid":"Headspace_Gas_Chromatography_for_Dissolved_Gas_Measurement","rank":78,"score":108376},{"content":"Title: Bicarbonate indicator Content: A bicarbonate indicator ( hydrogencarbonate indicator ) is a type of pH indicator that is sensitive enough to show a color change as the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in an aqueous solution increases . The indicator is used in photosynthesis and respiration experiments to find out whether carbon dioxide is being liberated . It is also used to test the carbon dioxide content during gaseous exchange of organisms . When the carbon dioxide content is higher than 0.04 % , the initial red color changes to yellow as the pH becomes more acidic . If the carbon dioxide content is lower than 0.04 % , it changes from red to magenta and , in relatively very low carbon dioxide concentrations , to purple . Carbon dioxide , even in the concentrations found in exhaled air , will dissolve in the indicator to form carbonic acid , a weak acid , which will lower the pH and give the characteristic colour change . A colour change to purple during photosynthesis shows a reduction in the percentage of carbon dioxide and is sometimes inferred as production of oxygen , but there is not actually any direct evidence for it . Great care must be taken to avoid acidic or alkaline contamination of the apparatus in such experiments , since the test is not directly specific to carbon dioxide .","qid":"195","docid":"Bicarbonate_indicator","rank":79,"score":108314},{"content":"Title: The Nitrogen Fix Content: The Nitrogen Fix is a 1980 science fiction novel by Hal Clement . The plot revolves around a nomadic family in a future where all oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere has combined with nitrogen , so the atmosphere is mostly nitrogen with traces of water , nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide , and the seas are very dilute nitric acid .","qid":"195","docid":"The_Nitrogen_Fix","rank":80,"score":107992},{"content":"Title: CO2 (disambiguation) Content: CO2 is the molecular formula for carbon dioxide . CO2 , Co2 or C02 may refer to :","qid":"195","docid":"CO2_(disambiguation)","rank":81,"score":107934},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":82,"score":107798},{"content":"Title: Gas Content: Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter ( the others being solid , liquid , and plasma ) . A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms ( e.g. a noble gas like neon ) , elemental molecules made from one type of atom ( e.g. oxygen ) , or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms ( e.g. carbon dioxide ) . A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air . What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles . This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer . The interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image . One type of commonly known gas is steam . The gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states , the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases . Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention . High-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas . For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter see list of states of matter .","qid":"195","docid":"Gas","rank":83,"score":107707},{"content":"Title: Wood gas Content: Wood gas is a syngas fuel which can be used as a fuel for furnaces , stoves and vehicles in place of gasoline , diesel or other fuels . During the production process biomass or other carbon-containing materials are gasified within the oxygen-limited environment of a wood gas generator to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide . These gases can then be burnt as a fuel within an oxygen rich environment to produce carbon dioxide , water and heat . In some gasifiers this process is preceded by pyrolysis , where the biomass or coal is first converted to char , releasing methane and tar rich in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons .","qid":"195","docid":"Wood_gas","rank":84,"score":107691},{"content":"Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .","qid":"195","docid":"Capnophile","rank":85,"score":107545},{"content":"Title: Acid gas Content: Acid gas is a particular typology of natural gas or any other gas mixture containing significant quantities of hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , or similar acidic gases . The terms acid gas and sour gas are often incorrectly treated as synonyms . Strictly speaking , a sour gas is any gas that specifically contains hydrogen sulfide in significant amounts ; an acid gas is any gas that contains significant amounts of acidic gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or hydrogen sulfide . Thus , carbon dioxide by itself is an acid gas but not a sour gas .","qid":"195","docid":"Acid_gas","rank":86,"score":107431},{"content":"Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .","qid":"195","docid":"CO2_is_Green","rank":87,"score":107425},{"content":"Title: Carbon–oxygen bond Content: A carbon -- oxygen bond is a covalent bond between carbon and oxygen . Oxygen has 6 valence electrons and prefers to either share two electrons in bonding with carbon , leaving the 4 nonbonding electrons in 2 lone pairs :O : or to share two pairs of electrons to form the carbonyl functional group . =O : Simple representatives of these two bond types are the _ OH in alcohols such as the ethanol in beverages and fuels and the C =O in ketones ( as well as many other related carbonyl compounds ) .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon–oxygen_bond","rank":88,"score":107359},{"content":"Title: Carbonic acid Content: Not to be confused with Carbolic acid , an antiquated name for phenol . Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 ( equivalently OC ( OH ) 2 ) . It is also a name sometimes given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water ( carbonated water ) , because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3 . In physiology , carbonic acid is described as volatile acid or respiratory acid , because it is the only acid excreted as a gas by the lungs . It plays an important role in the bicarbonate buffer system to maintain acid -- base homeostasis . Carbonic acid , which is a weak acid , forms two kinds of salts , the carbonates and the bicarbonates . In geology , carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites . It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound . However , in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbonic_acid","rank":89,"score":107338},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":90,"score":107193},{"content":"Title: The Chemical History of a Candle Content: The Chemical History of a Candle was the title of a series of six lectures on the chemistry and physics of flames given by Michael Faraday at the Royal Institution in 1848 , as part of the series of Christmas lectures for young people founded by Faraday in 1825 and still given there every year . The lectures described the different zones of combustion in the candle flame and the presence of carbon particles in the luminescent zone . Demonstrations included the production and examination of the properties of hydrogen , oxygen , nitrogen and carbon dioxide gases . An electrolysis cell is demonstrated , first in the electroplating of platinum conductors by dissolved copper , then the production of hydrogen and oxygen gases and their recombination to form water . The properties of water itself are studied , including its expansion while freezing ( iron vessels are burst by this expansion ) , and the relative volume of steam produced when water is vaporized . Techniques for weighing gases on a balance are demonstrated . Atmospheric pressure is described and its effects demonstrated . Faraday emphasizes that several of the demonstrations and experiments performed in the lectures may be performed by children `` at home '' and makes several comments regarding proper attention to safety . The lectures were first printed as a book in 1861 . In 2016 , Bill Hammack published a video series of the lectures supplemented by commentary and a companion book .","qid":"195","docid":"The_Chemical_History_of_a_Candle","rank":91,"score":107125},{"content":"Title: Oxygen balance Content: Oxygen balance ( OB , or OB % ) is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized . If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to form carbon dioxide from carbon , water from hydrogen molecules , all of its sulfur dioxide from sulfur , and all metal oxides from metals with no excess , the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance . The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than is needed ; the combustion will then be incomplete , and large amount of toxic gases like carbon monoxide will be present . The sensitivity , strength , and brisance of an explosive are all somewhat dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to approach their maxima as oxygen balance approaches zero . The oxygen balance is calculated from the empirical formula of a compound in percentage of oxygen required for complete conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide , hydrogen to water , and metal to metal oxide . The procedure for calculating oxygen balance in terms of 100 grams of the explosive material is to determine the number of moles of oxygen that are excess or deficient for 100 grams of a compound . where X = number of atoms of carbon , Y = number of atoms of hydrogen , Z = number of atoms of oxygen , and M = number of atoms of metal ( metallic oxide produced ) . In the case of TNT ( C6H2 ( NO2 ) 3CH3 ) , Molecular weight = 227.1 X = 7 ( number of carbon atoms ) Y = 5 ( number of hydrogen atoms ) Z = 6 ( number of oxygen atoms ) Therefore OB % = − 74 % for TNT Because sensitivity , brisance , and strength are properties resulting from a complex explosive chemical reaction , a simple relationship such as oxygen balance can not be depended upon to yield universally consistent results . When using oxygen balance to predict properties of one explosive relative to another , it is to be expected that one with an oxygen balance closer to zero will be the more brisant , powerful , and sensitive ; however , many exceptions to this rule do exist . More complicated predictive calculations , such as those discussed in the next section of the explosive materials article , result in more accurate predictions . One area in which oxygen balance can be applied is in the processing of mixtures of explosives . The family of explosives called amatols are mixtures of ammonium nitrate and TNT . Ammonium nitrate has an oxygen balance of +20 % and TNT has an oxygen balance of − 74 % , so it would appear that the mixture yielding an oxygen balance of zero would also result in the best explosive properties . In actual practice a mixture of 80 % ammonium nitrate and 20 % TNT by weight yields an oxygen balance of +1 % , the best properties of all mixtures , and an increase in strength of 30 % over TNT . Examples of materials with negative oxygen balance are e.g. trinitrotoluene ( − 74 % ) , aluminium powder ( − 89 % ) , sulfur ( − 100 % ) , or carbon ( − 266.7 % ) . Examples of materials with positive oxygen balance are e.g. ammonium nitrate ( +20 % ) , ammonium perchlorate ( +34 % ) , potassium chlorate ( +39.2 % ) , sodium chlorate ( +45 % ) , potassium nitrate ( +47.5 % ) , tetranitromethane ( +49 % ) , lithium perchlorate ( +60 % ) , or nitroglycerine ( +3.5 % ) . The theoretical compound trinitrotriazine has an oxygen balance of zero . Commercial explosive materials should have oxygen balance close to zero , in order to minimize the production of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide ; the gaseous products of incomplete combustion are especially dangerous in confined spaces , e.g. coal mines . Category : Explosives engineering","qid":"195","docid":"Oxygen_balance","rank":92,"score":107056},{"content":"Title: Carbonation Content: In chemistry , carbonation refers to two chemical processes involving the binding of carbon dioxide to substrates . Various applications or manifestations of this reaction are listed in order of their relative scale . In biochemistry . Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO . So important is this carbonation process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme . The production of urea , a widely used fertilizer , involves the combination of carbon dioxide and ammonia : 2 NH3 + CO2 → ( H2N ) 2CO + H2O In inorganic chemistry , carbonation occurs widely . Metal oxides and metal hydroxides react with CO2 to give complexes of carbonate and bicarbonate . In reinforced concrete construction , the chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete is known as neutralisation . Low valent metal complexes react with CO2 to give metal carbon dioxide complexes . In organometallic chemistry , carbonation involves the insertion of CO2 into metal-carbon bonds . The topic has attracted great interest for organic synthesis and even as a means of utilizing CO2 as a feedstock .","qid":"195","docid":"Carbonation","rank":93,"score":106589},{"content":"Title: Control of ventilation Content: Control of ventilation refers to the physiological mechanisms involved in the control of physiologic ventilation , which refers to the movement of air into and out of the lungs . Ventilation facilitates respiration . Respiration refers to the utilization of oxygen and production of carbon dioxide by the body as a whole , or by individual cells . The most important function of breathing is blood gas homeostasis , i.e. the regulation of the partial pressures of oxygen , , and carbon dioxide , , in the arterial blood ) . The effector of this homeostat is centered primarily on the manner in which the lungs are ventilated . Under most conditions , the partial pressure of carbon dioxide controls the rate of pulmonary ventilation . The sensors for the arterial blood gas regulator are situated in the aortic and carotid bodies , which are primarily sensitive to the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood , and the anterior and lateral surfaces of the medulla oblongata in the brain stem which measures the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and pH of the cerebrospinal fluid and consequently the arterial blood . Information from these sensors is conveyed along nerves to the respiratory center in the brain stem . The respiratory center is situated in the reticular formation and other parts of the brainstem , and consists of 4 interconnected and interacting components : Inspiratory center - reticular formation , medulla oblongata Expiratory center - reticular formation , medulla oblongata Pneumotaxic center - various nuclei of the pons Apneustic center - nucleus of the pons From the respiratory center the skeletal muscles of ventilation , in particular the diaphragm , are alternately activated to cause air to move in and out of the lungs .","qid":"195","docid":"Control_of_ventilation","rank":94,"score":106467},{"content":"Title: Reducing atmosphere Content: A reducing atmosphere is an atmospheric condition in which oxidation is prevented by removal of oxygen and other oxidizing gases or vapours , and which may contain actively reducing gases such as hydrogen , carbon monoxide , and gases such as hydrogen sulfide that would be oxidized by any present oxygen .","qid":"195","docid":"Reducing_atmosphere","rank":95,"score":106226},{"content":"Title: Orsat gas analyser Content: An Orsat gas analyser is a piece of laboratory equipment used to analyse a gas sample ( typically fossil fuel flue gas ) for its oxygen , carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide content . Although largely replaced by instrumental techniques , the Orsat remains a reliable method of measurement and is relatively simple to use . It was patented before 1873 by Mr. H Orsat .","qid":"195","docid":"Orsat_gas_analyser","rank":96,"score":106163},{"content":"Title: Shielding gas Content: Shielding gases are inert or semi-inert gases that are commonly used in several welding processes , most notably gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding ( GMAW and GTAW , more popularly known as MIG and TIG , respectively ) . Their purpose is to protect the weld area from oxygen , and water vapour . Depending on the materials being welded , these atmospheric gases can reduce the quality of the weld or make the welding more difficult . Other arc welding processes use other methods of protecting the weld from the atmosphere as well -- shielded metal arc welding , for example , uses an electrode covered in a flux that produces carbon dioxide when consumed , a semi-inert gas that is an acceptable shielding gas for welding steel . Improper choice of a welding gas can lead to a porous and weak weld , or to excessive spatter ; the latter , while not affecting the weld itself , causes loss of productivity due to the labor needed to remove the scattered drops .","qid":"195","docid":"Shielding_gas","rank":97,"score":105976},{"content":"Title: Nitrogen dioxide Content: Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula . It is one of several nitrogen oxides . is an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of nitric acid , millions of tons of which are produced each year . At higher temperatures it is a reddish-brown gas that has a characteristic sharp , biting odor and is a prominent air pollutant . Nitrogen dioxide is a paramagnetic , bent molecule with C2v point group symmetry .","qid":"195","docid":"Nitrogen_dioxide","rank":98,"score":105835},{"content":"Title: List of highly toxic gases Content: Many gases have toxic properties , which are often assessed using the LC50 ( median lethal dose ) measure . In the United States many of these gases have been assigned an NFPA 704 health rating of 4 ( may be lethal ) or 3 ( may cause serious or permanent injury ) , and/or exposure limits ( TLV , TWA or STEL ) determined by the ACGIH professional association . Some , but by no means all , toxic gases are detectable by odor which can serve as a warning . Among the best known toxic gases are carbon monoxide , chlorine , nitrogen dioxide and phosgene .","qid":"195","docid":"List_of_highly_toxic_gases","rank":99,"score":105831},{"content":"Title: Medical gas supply Content: Medical gas supply systems in hospitals , and most other healthcare facilities , are essential for supplying piped oxygen , nitrous oxide , nitrogen/surgical air , carbon dioxide , oxygen/nitrous oxide 50/50 , medical vacuum , anaesthetic gas scavenge/waste anesthetic gas disposal and medical air to various parts of the facility . Source equipment systems are monitored by central/source alarm systems , at the point of supply with multiplexed repeater alarms throughout the facility and for monitoring high and low gas pressure in particular areas such as general ward , operating theatres , ICU/ITU/CCU / NICU , recovery , major treatment rooms , etc. . Equipment is connected to the medical gas supply system via station outlets . For emergency gas control area zone service valves are installed in order to prevent contaminated gas going to patient or to stop gas flowing to an area in the event of fire . Valves are positioned at the entrance to all departments and can be accessed via emergency pull out windows .","qid":"195","docid":"Medical_gas_supply","rank":100,"score":105817}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 162435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Content: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels . Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air ( as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen ) . Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen ( N2 ) , which is essentially non-combustible , the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen . Carbon dioxide , the next largest part of flue gas , can be as much as 10 − 25 volume percent or more of the flue gas . This is closely followed in volume by water vapor ( H2O ) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen . Much of the ` smoke ' seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air . A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and particulate matter . The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel . The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels . The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases their smoky appearance . The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries , petrochemical and chemical plants , and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere . The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas , fuel oil and coal . The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations . It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion . Note : m ³ are standard cubic meters at 0 ° C and 101.325 kPa , and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 ° F and 14.696 psia .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 157158\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Asphyxiant_gas\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 155997\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 152329\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monoxide\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 146707\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NOx Content: In atmospheric chemistry , is a generic term for the nitrogen oxides that are most relevant for air pollution , namely nitric oxide ( NO ) and nitrogen dioxide . These gases contribute to the formation of smog and acid rain , as well as tropospheric ozone . gases are usually produced from the reaction among nitrogen and oxygen during combustion of fuels , such as hydrocarbons , in air ; especially at high temperatures , such as occur in car engines . In areas of high motor vehicle traffic , such as in large cities , the nitrogen oxides emitted can be a significant source of air pollution . gases are also produced naturally by lightning . The term is chemistry shorthand for molecules containing one nitrogen and one or more oxygen atom . It is generally not meant to include nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , a fairly inert oxide of nitrogen that has many uses as an oxidizer for rockets and car engines , an anesthetic , and a propellant for aerosol sprays and whipped cream . Nitrous oxide plays hardly any role in air pollution , although it may have a significant impact on the ozone layer . ( reactive , odd nitrogen ) is defined as the sum of plus the compounds produced from the oxidation of which include nitric acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"NOx\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 145918\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 141905\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soil gas Content: Soil gases are the gases found in the air space between soil components . The primary natural soil gases include nitrogen , carbon dioxide and oxygen . The oxygen is critical because it allows for respiration of both plant roots and soil organisms . Other natural soil gases are atmospheric methane and radon . Some environmental contaminants below ground produce gas which diffuses through the soil such as from landfill wastes , mining activities , and contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons which produce volatile organic compounds . Soil gases can diffuse into buildings , the chief concerns among these pollutants are radon which is radioactive and causes cancer and methane which can be flammable at only 4.4 % concentration . Gases fill soil pores in the soil structure as water drains or is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root absorption . The network of pores within the soil aerates , or ventilates , the soil . This aeration network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores . Not only are both soil air and soil water very dynamic parts of soil , but both are often inversely related . Composition of air in soil and atmosphere : Nitrogen : Soil Air : 79.2 % Atmosphere : 79.0 % Oxygen : Soil Air : 20.6 % Atmosphere : 20.9 % Carbon Dioxide : Soil Air : 0.25 % Atmosphere : 0.04 % Gas molecules in soil are in continuous thermal motion according to the kinetic theory of gases , there is also collision between molecules - a random walk . In soil , a concentration gradient causes net movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration , this gives the movement of gas by diffusion . Numerically , it is explained by Fick 's law of diffusion .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Soil_gas\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 138723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Octet rule Content: The octet rule is a chemical rule of thumb that reflects observation that atoms of main-group elements tend to combine in such a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell , giving it the same electronic configuration as a noble gas . The rule is especially applicable to carbon , nitrogen , oxygen , and the halogens , but also to metals such as sodium or magnesium . The valence electrons can be counted using a Lewis electron dot diagram as shown at the right for carbon dioxide . The electrons shared by the two atoms in a covalent bond are counted twice , once for each atom . In carbon dioxide each oxygen shares four electrons with the central carbon , two ( shown in red ) from the oxygen itself and two ( shown in black ) from the carbon . All four of these electrons are counted in both the carbon octet and the oxygen octet .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Octet_rule\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 138391\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Modified_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 137064\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Henry's law Content: In chemistry , Henry 's law is one of the gas laws formulated by the English chemist William Henry , who studied the topic in the early 19th century . In his publication about the quantity of gases absorbed by water , he described the results of his experiments : ... `` water takes up , of gas condensed by one , two , or more additional atmospheres , a quantity which , ordinarily compressed , would be equal to twice , thrice , & c. the volume absorbed under the common pressure of the atmosphere . '' In other words , the amount of dissolved gas is proportional to its partial pressure in the gas phase . The proportionality factor is called the Henry 's law constant . An example where Henry 's law is at play is in the depth-dependent dissolution of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood of underwater divers that changes during decompression , leading to decompression sickness . An everyday example is given by one 's experience with carbonated soft drinks , which contain dissolved carbon dioxide . Before opening , the gas above the drink in its container is almost pure carbon dioxide , at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure . After the bottle is opened , this gas escapes , moving the partial pressure of carbon dioxide above the liquid to be much lower , resulting in degassing as the dissolved carbon dioxide comes out of solution .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Henry's_law\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 135108\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oxide Content: An oxide -LSB- ˈɒksaɪd -RSB- is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula . `` Oxide '' itself is the dianion of oxygen , an O2 -- atom . Metal oxides thus typically contain an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state of − 2 . Most of the Earth 's crust consists of solid oxides , the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water . Hydrocarbon combustion affords the two principal carbon oxides : carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide . Even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating . For example , aluminium foil develops a thin skin of Al2O3 ( called a passivation layer ) that protects the foil from further corrosion . Individual elements can often form multiple oxides , each containing different amounts of the element and oxygen . In some cases these are distinguished by specifying the number of atoms as in carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide , and in other cases by specifying the element 's oxidation number , as in iron ( II ) oxide and iron ( III ) oxide . Certain elements can form many different oxides , such those of nitrogen .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Oxide\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 130281\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tetracarbon dioxide Content: Tetracarbon dioxide is an oxide of carbon , a chemical compound of carbon and oxygen , with chemical formula C4O2 or O = C = C = C = C =O . It can be regarded as butatriene dione , the double ketone of butatriene -- more precisely 1,2,3-butatriene-1 ,4 - dione . Butatriene dione is the fourth member of the family of linear carbon dioxides O ( = C ) n =O , that includes carbon dioxide CO2 or O = C =O , ethylene dione C2O2 or O = C = C =O , carbon suboxide C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O , pentacarbon dioxide C5O2 or O = C = C = C = C = C =O , and so on . The compound was obtained in 1990 by Maier and others , by flash vacuum pyrolysis of cyclic azaketones in a frozen argon matrix . It was also obtained in the same year by Sülzle and Schwartz through impact ionization of ( ( CH3 - ) 2 ( C4O2 ) ( =O ) 2 = ) 2 in the gas phase . Although theoretical studies indicated that the even-numbered members of the O ( = C ) n =O family should be inherently unstable , C4O2 is indefinitely stable in the matrix , but is decomposed by light into tricarbon monoxide C3O and carbon monoxide CO. . It has a triplet ground state .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Tetracarbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 130223\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Blackdamp Content: Blackdamp ( also known as stythe or choke damp ) is an asphyxiant , reducing the available oxygen content of air to a level incapable of sustaining human or animal life . It is not a single gas but a mixture of unbreathable gases left after oxygen is removed from the air and typically consists of nitrogen , carbon dioxide and water vapour . The suffix damp is believed to derive from the German word for vapours ( `` Dampf '' ) . The word damp is used in similar mining terms such as white damp ( carbon monoxide ) , fire damp ( typically methane ) and stink damp ( hydrogen sulfide ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Blackdamp\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 129576\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nonmetal Content: In chemistry , a nonmetal ( or non-metal ) is a chemical element that mostly lacks metallic attributes . Physically , nonmetals tend to be highly volatile ( easily vaporized ) , have low elasticity , and are good insulators of heat and electricity ; chemically , they tend to have high ionization energy and electronegativity values , and gain or share electrons when they react with other elements or compounds . Seventeen elements are generally classified as nonmetals ; most are gases ( hydrogen , helium , nitrogen , oxygen , fluorine , neon , chlorine , argon , krypton , xenon and radon ) ; one is a liquid ( bromine ) , and a few are solids ( carbon , phosphorus , sulfur , selenium , and iodine ) . Moving rightward across the standard form of the periodic table , nonmetals adopt structures that have progressively fewer nearest neighbours . Polyatomic nonmetals have structures with either three nearest neighbours , as is the case ( for example ) with carbon ( in its standard state of graphite ) , or two nearest neighbours ( for example ) in the case of sulfur . Diatomic nonmetals , such as hydrogen , have one nearest neighbour , and the monatomic noble gases , such as helium , have none . This gradual fall in the number of nearest neighbours is associated with a reduction in metallic character and an increase in nonmetallic character . The distinction between the three categories of nonmetals , in terms of receding metallicity is not absolute . Boundary overlaps occur as outlying elements in each category show ( or begin to show ) less-distinct , hybrid-like or atypical properties . Although five times more elements are metals than nonmetals , two of the nonmetals -- hydrogen and helium -- make up over 99 per cent of the observable Universe , and one -- oxygen -- makes up close to half of the Earth 's crust , oceans and atmosphere . Living organisms are also composed almost entirely of nonmetals , and nonmetals form many more compounds than metals .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Nonmetal\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 128411\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 126068\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Afterdamp Content: Afterdamp is the toxic mixture of gases left in a mine following an explosion caused by firedamp , which itself can initiate a much larger explosion of coal dust . It consists of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen . Hydrogen sulfide , another highly toxic gas , may also be present . However , it is the high content of carbon monoxide which kills by depriving victims of oxygen by combining preferentially with haemoglobin in the blood . Afterdamp was the deadly gas which caused the majority of casualties in the many pit disasters of the British coalfields , such as the Senghenydd colliery disaster and elsewhere in the world . Such disasters continue to afflict working mines , especially in mainland China .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Afterdamp\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 126009\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Controlled atmosphere Content: A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen , as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated . Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Controlled_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 125311\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 123818\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air sensitivity Content: Air sensitivity is a term used , particularly in chemistry , to denote the reactivity of chemical compounds with some constituent of air . Most often , reactions occur with atmospheric oxygen ( O2 ) or water vapor ( H2O ) , although reactions with the other constituents of air such as carbon monoxide ( CO ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and nitrogen ( N2 ) are also possible . The range of methods used to work with air-sensitive compounds are known as air-free techniques . Two main methods exist -- gloveboxes and Schlenk lines . Gloveboxes are sealed cabinets filled with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen . Normal laboratory equipment can be set up and manipulated through the use of the gloves . A Schlenk line is a vacuum and inert-gas dual-manifold that allows glassware to be evacuated and refilled with inert gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Air_sensitivity\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 123565\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nitryl Content: Nitryl is the nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) moiety when it occurs in a larger compound . Examples include nitryl fluoride ( NO2F ) and nitryl chloride ( NO2Cl ) . Like nitrogen dioxide , the nitryl moiety contains a nitrogen atom with two bonds to the two oxygen atoms , and a third bond shared equally between the nitrogen and the two oxygen atoms . The nitrogen-centred radical is then free to condense with another radical ( X ) to produce an N-X bond , where X can be F , Cl , OH , etc. .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Nitryl\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 123427\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 123212\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Industrial gas Content: Industrial gases are gaseous materials that are manufactured for use in Industry . The principal gases provided are nitrogen , oxygen , carbon dioxide , argon , hydrogen , helium and acetylene ; although a huge variety of gases and mixtures are available in gas cylinders . The industry producing these gases is known as the industrial gases industry , which is seen as also encompassing the supply of equipment and technology to produce and use the gases . Their production is a part of the wider chemical Industry ( where industrial gases are often seen as `` speciality chemicals '' ) . Industrial gases are used in a wide range of industries , which include oil and gas , petrochemicals , chemicals , power , mining , steelmaking , metals , environmental protection , medicine , pharmaceuticals , biotechnology , food , water , fertilizers , nuclear power , electronics and aerospace . Industrial gas is sold to other industrial enterprises ; typically comprising large orders to corporate industrial clients , covering a size range from building a process facility or pipeline down to cylinder gas supply . Some trade scale business is done , typically through tied local agents who are supplied wholesale . This business covers the sale or hire of gas cylinders and associated equipment to tradesmen and occasionally the general public . This includes products such as balloon helium , dispensing gases for beer kegs , welding gases and welding equipment , LPG and medical oxygen . Retail sales of small scale gas supply are not confined to just the industrial gas companies or their agents . A wide variety of hand-carried small gas containers , which may be called cylinders , bottles , cartridges , capsules or canisters are available to supply LPG , butane , propane , carbon dioxide or nitrous oxide . Examples are whippets , powerlets , campingaz and sodastream .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Industrial_gas\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 123202\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Volatiles Content: In planetary science , volatiles are the group of chemical elements and chemical compounds with low boiling points that are associated with a planet 's or moon 's crust or atmosphere . Examples include nitrogen , water , carbon dioxide , ammonia , hydrogen , methane and sulfur dioxide . In astrogeology , these compounds , in their solid state , often comprise large proportions of the crusts of moons and dwarf planets . In contrast with volatiles , elements and compounds with high boiling points are known as refractory substances . Planetary scientists often classify volatiles with exceptionally low melting points , such as hydrogen and helium , as gases ( as in gas giant ) , whereas those volatiles with melting points above about 100 K are referred to as ices . The terms `` gas '' and `` ice '' in this context can apply to compounds that may be solids , liquids or gases . Thus , Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants , and Uranus and Neptune are ice giants , even though the vast majority of the `` gas '' and `` ice '' in their interiors is a hot , highly dense fluid that gets denser as the center of the planet is approached . The Moon is very low in volatiles : its crust contains oxygen chemically bound into the rocks ( in , for example , silicates ) , but negligible amounts of hydrogen , nitrogen , or carbon .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Volatiles\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 122273\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Limiting oxygen concentration Content: Limiting oxygen concentration , ( LOC ) , also known as the Minimum oxygen concentration , ( MOC ) , is defined as the limiting concentration of oxygen below which combustion is not possible , independent of the concentration of fuel . It is expressed in units of volume percent of oxygen . The LOC varies with pressure and temperature . It is also dependent on the type of inert ( non-flammable ) gas . The effect of increasing the concentration of inert gas can be understood by viewing the inert as thermal ballast that quenches the flame temperature to a level below which the flame can not exist . Carbon dioxide is therefore more effective than nitrogen due to its higher molar heat capacity The concept has important practical use in fire safety engineering . For instance , to safely fill a new container or a pressure vessel with flammable gasses , the atmosphere of normal air ( containing about 21 volume percent of oxygen ) in the vessel would first be flushed ( purged ) with nitrogen or another non-flammable inert gas , thereby reducing the oxygen concentration inside the container . When the oxygen concentration is below the LOC , flammable gas can be safely admitted to the vessel because the possibility of internal explosion has been eliminated . The limiting oxygen concentration is a necessary parameter when designing hypoxic air fire prevention systems .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Limiting_oxygen_concentration\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 122172\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 122070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flue gas Content: Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue , which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace , oven , furnace , boiler or steam generator . Quite often , the flue gas refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants . Its composition depends on what is being burned , but it will usually consist of mostly nitrogen ( typically more than two-thirds ) derived from the combustion of air , carbon dioxide , and water vapor as well as excess oxygen ( also derived from the combustion air ) . It further contains a small percentage of a number of pollutants , such as particulate matter ( like soot ) , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , and sulfur oxides .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Flue_gas\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 121175\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercapnia\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 120674\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arterial blood gas Content: An arterial blood gas ( ABG ) test is a blood gas test of blood from an artery ; it is thus a blood test that measures the amounts of certain gases ( such as oxygen and carbon dioxide ) dissolved in arterial blood . An ABG test involves puncturing an artery with a thin needle and syringe and drawing a small volume of blood . The most common puncture site is the radial artery at the wrist , but sometimes the femoral artery in the groin or other sites are used . The blood can also be drawn from an arterial catheter . An ABG test measures the blood gas tension values of arterial oxygen tension ( PaO2 ) , arterial carbon dioxide tension ( PaCO2 ) , and acidity ( pH ) . In addition , arterial oxygen saturation ( SaO2 ) can be determined . Such information is vital when caring for patients with critical illness or respiratory disease . Therefore , the ABG test is one of the most common tests performed on patients in intensive care units ( ICUs ) . In other levels of care , pulse oximetry plus transcutaneous carbon dioxide measurement is an alternative method of obtaining similar information less invasively . The test is used to determine the pH of the blood , the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and oxygen , and the bicarbonate level . Many blood gas analyzers will also report concentrations of lactate , hemoglobin , several electrolytes , oxyhemoglobin , carboxyhemoglobin and methemoglobin . ABG testing is mainly used in pulmonology and critical care medicine to determine gas exchange which reflect gas exchange across the alveolar-capillary membrane . ABG testing also has a variety of applications in other areas of medicine . Combinations of disorders can be complex and difficult to interpret , so calculators , nomograms , and rules of thumb are commonly used . ABG specimens originally were sent from the clinic to the medical laboratory for analysis . Today the analysis can be done either in the laboratory or as point-of-care testing , depending on the equipment available in each clinic .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Arterial_blood_gas\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 120338\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 120157\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoatmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 120041\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oxocarbon Content: An oxocarbon or oxide of carbon is a chemical compound consisting only of carbon and oxygen . The simplest and most common oxocarbons are carbon monoxide ( CO ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Many other stable ( practically if not thermodynamically ) or metastable oxides of carbon are known , but they are rarely encountered , such as carbon suboxide ( C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O ) and mellitic anhydride ( C12O9 ) . While textbooks will often list only the first three , and rarely the fourth , a large number of other oxides are known today , most of them synthesized since the 1960s . Some of these new oxides are stable at room temperature . Some are metastable or stable only at very low temperatures , but decompose to simpler oxocarbons when warmed . Many are inherently unstable and can be observed only momentarily as intermediates in chemical reactions or are so reactive that they can exist only in the gas phase or under matrix isolation conditions . The inventory of oxocarbons appears to be steadily growing . The existence of graphene oxide and of other stable polymeric carbon oxides with unbounded molecular structures suggests that many more remain to be discovered .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Oxocarbon\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 119636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tetroxide Content: Carbon tetroxide is a highly unstable oxide of carbon with formula . It was proposed as an intermediate in the O-atom exchange between carbon dioxide and oxygen at high temperatures .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tetroxide\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 119287\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-neutral_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 118895\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Selective non-catalytic reduction Content: Selective non-catalytic reduction ( SNCR ) is a method to lessen nitrogen oxide emissions in conventional power plants that burn biomass , waste and coal . The process involves injecting either ammonia or urea into the firebox of the boiler at a location where the flue gas is between 1400 and to react with the nitrogen oxides formed in the combustion process . The resulting product of the chemical redox reaction is molecular nitrogen ( N2 ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and water ( H2O ) . Urea ( NH2CONH2 ) is easier to handle and store than the more dangerous ammonia ( NH3 ) . In the process it reacts like ammonia : NH2CONH2 + H2O - > 2NH3 + CO2 The reduction happens according to ( simplified ) 4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2 - > 4 N2 + 6 H2O The reaction mechanism itself involves NH2 radicals that attach to NO and then decompose . The reaction requires a sufficient reaction time within a certain temperature range , typically 1400 and , to be effective . At lower temperatures the NO and the ammonia do not react . Ammonia that has not reacted is called ammonia slip and is undesirable , as the ammonia can react with other combustion species , such as sulfur trioxide ( SO3 ) , to form ammonium salts . At temperatures above 1093 ° C ammonia decomposes : 4 NH3 + 5 O2 - > 4 NO + 6 H2O In that case NO is created instead of removed . A further complication is mixing . In general , more NO will form in the center and less near the walls , as the walls are cooler than the center . Thus , more ammonia must find its way to the center and less near the walls , otherwise NO in the center meets insufficient ammonia for reduction and excess ammonia near the walls slips through . Though in theory selective non-catalytic reduction can achieve the same efficiency of about 90 % as selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , these practical constraints of temperature , time , and mixing often lead to worse results in practice . However , selective non-catalytic reduction has an economical advantage over selective catalytic reduction , as the cost of the catalyst is not there .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Selective_non-catalytic_reduction\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 118712\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Buffer gas Content: A buffer gas is an inert or nonflammable gas . In the Earth 's atmosphere , nitrogen acts as a buffer gas . A buffer gas adds pressure to a system and controls the speed of combustion with any oxygen present . Any inert gas such as helium , neon , or argon will serve as a buffer gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Buffer_gas\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 117616\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Content: Carbon ( from carbo `` coal '' ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent -- making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , C and C being stable , while C is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity . Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18.5 % ) after oxygen . The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb '' γράφειν '' which means `` to write '' ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen . The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4 , while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions . For this reason , carbon has often been referred to as the `` king of the elements '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 117236\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Traité Élémentaire de Chimie Content: Traité élémentaire de chimie ( Elementary Treatise of Chemistry ) is an influential textbook written by Antoine Lavoisier published in 1789 and translated into English by Robert Kerr in 1790 under the title Elements of Chemistry in a New Systematic Order containing All the Modern Discoveries . This book is considered to be the first modern chemical textbook . The book defines an element as a single substance that ca n't be broken down by chemical analysis and from which all chemical compounds are formed , publishing his discovery that fermentation produces carbon dioxide ( carbonic gas ) and spirit of wine , saying that it is `` more appropriately called by the Arabic word alcohol since it is formed from cider or fermented sugar as well as wine '' , and publishing the first chemical equation `` grape must = carbonic acid + alcohol '' , calling this reaction `` one of the most extraordinary in chemistry '' , noting `` In these experiments , we have to assume that there is a true balance or equation between the elements of the compounds with which we start and those obtained at the end of the reaction . '' The book contains a list of elements , which included oxygen , nitrogen , hydrogen , phosphorus , mercury , zinc , and sulfur , forming the basis for the modern list of elements . His list , however , also included light and caloric , which he believed to be material substances but are not elements .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Traité_Élémentaire_de_Chimie\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 116974\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gasification Content: Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil fuel based carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide , hydrogen and carbon dioxide . This is achieved by reacting the material at high temperatures ( > 700 ° C ) , without combustion , with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam . The resulting gas mixture is called syngas ( from synthesis gas ) or producer gas and is itself a fuel . The power derived from gasification and combustion of the resultant gas is considered to be a source of renewable energy if the gasified compounds were obtained from biomass . ( dead links ) The advantage of gasification is that using the syngas is potentially more efficient than direct combustion of the original fuel because it can be combusted at higher temperatures or even in fuel cells , so that the thermodynamic upper limit to the efficiency defined by Carnot 's rule is higher or ( in case of fuel cells ) not applicable . Syngas may be burned directly in gas engines , used to produce methanol and hydrogen , or converted via the Fischer -- Tropsch process into synthetic fuel . Gasification can also begin with material which would otherwise have been disposed of such as biodegradable waste . In addition , the high-temperature process refines out corrosive ash elements such as chloride and potassium , allowing clean gas production from otherwise problematic fuels . Gasification of fossil fuels is currently widely used on industrial scales to generate electricity .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Gasification\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 116890\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbogen Content: Carbogen , also called Meduna 's Mixture after its inventor Ladislas Meduna , is a mixture of carbon dioxide and oxygen gas . Meduna 's original formula was 30 % CO2 and 70 % oxygen , but the term carbogen can refer to any mixture of these two gases , from 1.5 % to 50 % CO2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbogen\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 116683\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon hexoxide Content: Carbon hexoxide or carbon hexaoxide is an oxide of carbon with an unusually large quantity of oxygen . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule consists of a six membered ring with five oxygen and one carbon atom , and one oxygen with a double bond with the carbon .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_hexoxide\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 116391\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Amorphous_carbonia\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 116140\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon trioxide Content: Carbon trioxide ( CO3 ) is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) . Three possible isomers of carbon trioxide , with molecular symmetry point groups Cs , D3h , and C2v , have been most studied by theoretical methods , and the C2v state has been shown to be the ground state of the molecule . Carbon trioxide should not be confused with the stable carbonate ion ( CO32 − ) . Carbon trioxide can be produced , for example , in the drift zone of a negative corona discharge by reactions between carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and the atomic oxygen ( O ) created from molecular oxygen by free electrons in the plasma . Another reported method is photolysis of ozone O3 dissolved in liquid CO2 , or in CO2/SF6 mixtures at -45 ° C , irradiated with light of 2537 Å . The formation of CO3 is inferred but it appears to decay spontaneously by the route 2CO3 → 2CO2 + O2 with a lifetime much shorter than 1 minute . Carbon trioxide can be made by blowing ozone at dry ice ( solid CO2 ) , and it has also been detected in reactions between carbon monoxide ( CO ) and molecular oxygen ( O2 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_trioxide\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 115940\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gaseous signaling molecules Content: Gaseous signaling molecules are gaseous molecules that are either synthesised internally ( endogenously ) in the organism , tissue or cell or are received by the organism , tissue or cell from outside ( say , from the atmosphere or hydrosphere , as in the case of oxygen ) and that are used to transmit chemical signals which induce certain physiological or biochemical changes in the organism , tissue or cell . The term is applied to , for example , oxygen , carbon dioxide , nitric oxide , carbon monoxide , hydrogen sulfide , sulfur dioxide , nitrous oxide , hydrogen cyanide , ammonia , methane , hydrogen , ethylene , etc. . Many , but not all , gaseous signaling molecules are called gasotransmitters . The biological roles of each of the gaseous signaling molecules are in short outlined below .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Gaseous_signaling_molecules\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 115607\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonyl sulfide Content: Carbonyl sulfide is the organic compound with the linear formula OCS . Normally written as COS , it is a colourless flammable gas with an unpleasant odor . It is a linear molecule consisting of a carbonyl group double bonded to a sulfur atom . Carbonyl sulfide can be considered to be intermediate between carbon dioxide and carbon disulfide , both of which are valence isoelectronic with it . Carbonyl sulfide decomposes in the presence of humidity and bases to carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide . This compound is found to catalyze the formation of peptides from amino acids . This finding is an extension of the Miller -- Urey experiment and it is suggested that carbonyl sulfide played a significant role in the origin of life .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonyl_sulfide\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 115582\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Noble gas Content: The noble gases ( historically also the inert gases ) make a group of chemical elements with similar properties ; under standard conditions , they are all odorless , colorless , monatomic gases with very low chemical reactivity . The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium ( He ) , neon ( Ne ) , argon ( Ar ) , krypton ( Kr ) , xenon ( Xe ) , and the radioactive radon ( Rn ) . Oganesson ( Og ) is predicted to be a noble gas as well , but its chemistry has not yet been investigated . For the first six periods of the periodic table , the noble gases are exactly the members of group 18 of the periodic table . Noble gases are typically highly unreactive except when under particular extreme conditions . The inertness of noble gases makes them very suitable in applications where reactions are not wanted . For example , argon is used in light bulbs to prevent the hot tungsten filament from oxidizing ; also , helium is used in breathing gas by deep-sea divers to prevent oxygen , nitrogen and carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) toxicity . The properties of the noble gases can be well explained by modern theories of atomic structure : their outer shell of valence electrons is considered to be `` full '' , giving them little tendency to participate in chemical reactions , and it has been possible to prepare only a few hundred noble gas compounds . The melting and boiling points for a given noble gas are close together , differing by less than 10 C-change ; that is , they are liquids over only a small temperature range . Neon , argon , krypton , and xenon are obtained from air in an air separation unit using the methods of liquefaction of gases and fractional distillation . Helium is sourced from natural gas fields which have high concentrations of helium in the natural gas , using cryogenic gas separation techniques , and radon is usually isolated from the radioactive decay of dissolved radium , thorium , or uranium compounds ( since those compounds give off alpha particles ) . Noble gases have several important applications in industries such as lighting , welding , and space exploration . A helium-oxygen breathing gas is often used by deep-sea divers at depths of seawater over 55 m to keep the diver from experiencing oxygen toxemia , the lethal effect of high-pressure oxygen , nitrogen narcosis , the distracting narcotic effect of the nitrogen in air beyond this partial-pressure threshold , and carbon dioxide poisoning ( hypercapnia ) , the panic-inducing effect of excessive carbon dioxide in the bloodstream . After the risks caused by the flammability of hydrogen became apparent , it was replaced with helium in blimps and balloons .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Noble_gas\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 114943\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ideal gas Content: An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of many randomly moving point particles whose only interaction is perfectly elastic collision . The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law , a simplified equation of state , and is amenable to analysis under statistical mechanics . One mole of an ideal gas has a volume of 22.710947 ( 13 ) litres at STP ( a temperature of 273.15 K and an absolute pressure of exactly 105 Pa ) as defined by IUPAC since 1982 . ( Until 1982 , STP was defined as a temperature of 273.15 K and an absolute pressure of exactly 1 atm . The volume of one mole of an ideal gas at this temperature and pressure is 22.413962 ( 13 ) litres . IUPAC recommends that the former use of this definition should be discontinued ; however , some textbooks still use these old values . ) At normal conditions such as standard temperature and pressure , most real gases behave qualitatively like an ideal gas . Many gases such as nitrogen , oxygen , hydrogen , noble gases , and some heavier gases like carbon dioxide can be treated like ideal gases within reasonable tolerances . Generally , a gas behaves more like an ideal gas at higher temperature and lower pressure , as the potential energy due to intermolecular forces becomes less significant compared with the particles ' kinetic energy , and the size of the molecules becomes less significant compared to the empty space between them . The ideal gas model tends to fail at lower temperatures or higher pressures , when intermolecular forces and molecular size become important . It also fails for most heavy gases , such as many refrigerants , and for gases with strong intermolecular forces , notably water vapor . At high pressures , the volume of a real gas is often considerably greater than that of an ideal gas . At low temperatures , the pressure of a real gas is often considerably less than that of an ideal gas . At some point of low temperature and high pressure , real gases undergo a phase transition , such as to a liquid or a solid . The model of an ideal gas , however , does not describe or allow phase transitions . These must be modeled by more complex equations of state . The deviation from the ideal gas behaviour can be described by a dimensionless quantity , the compressibility factor , . The ideal gas model has been explored in both the Newtonian dynamics ( as in `` kinetic theory '' ) and in quantum mechanics ( as a `` gas in a box '' ) . The ideal gas model has also been used to model the behavior of electrons in a metal ( in the Drude model and the free electron model ) , and it is one of the most important models in statistical mechanics .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Ideal_gas\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 114866\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_sensor\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 114692\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sewer gas Content: Sewer gas is a complex mixture of toxic and nontoxic gases produced and collected in sewage systems by the decomposition of organic household or industrial wastes , typical components of sewage . Sewer gases may include hydrogen sulfide , ammonia , methane , esters , carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides . Improper disposal of petroleum products such as gasoline and mineral spirits contribute to sewer gas hazards . Sewer gases are of concern due to their odor , health effects , and potential for creating fire or explosions .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Sewer_gas\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 114593\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dicyanoacetylene Content: Dicyanoacetylene , also called carbon subnitride or but-2-ynedinitrile '' ' ( IUPAC ) , is a compound of carbon and nitrogen with chemical formula C4N2 . It has a linear molecular structure , N ≡ C − C ≡ C − C ≡ N ( often abbreviated as NC4N ) , with alternating triple and single covalent bonds . It can be viewed as acetylene with the two hydrogen atoms replaced by cyanide groups . At room temperature , dicyanoacetylene is a clear liquid . Because of its high endothermic heat of formation , it can explode to carbon powder and nitrogen gas , and it burns in oxygen with a bright blue-white flame at a temperature of 5260 K ( 4990 ° C , 9010 ° F ) , which is the hottest flame of any known chemical reaction .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Dicyanoacetylene\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 114592\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_reforming\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 114580\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 113647\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Natural gas Content: Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane , but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes , and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide , nitrogen , hydrogen sulfide , or helium . It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years . The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in the gas . Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating , cooking , and electricity generation . It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals . Fossil fuel based natural gas is a non-renewable resource . Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds and as methane clathrates . Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in close proximity to and with natural gas . Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms : biogenic and thermogenic . Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes , bogs , landfills , and shallow sediments . Deeper in the earth , at greater temperature and pressure , thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material . In petroleum production gas is often burnt as flare gas . The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of natural gas are flared or vented annually . Before natural gas can be used as a fuel , most , but not all , must be processed to remove impurities , including water , to meet the specifications of marketable natural gas . The by-products of this processing include : ethane , propane , butanes , pentanes , and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons , hydrogen sulfide ( which may be converted into pure sulfur ) , carbon dioxide , water vapor , and sometimes helium and nitrogen . Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as `` gas '' , especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal . However , it is not to be confused with gasoline , especially in North America , where the term gasoline is often shortened in colloquial usage to gas . Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE ( possibly even 1000 BCE ) . They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt , in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan . The world 's first industrial extraction of natural gas started at Fredonia , New York , United States in 1825 . By 2009 , 66 000 km ³ ( or 8 % ) had been used out of the total 850 000 km ³ of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas . Based on an estimated 2015 world consumption rate of about 3400 km ³ of gas per year , the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of natural gas would last 250 years at current consumption rates . An annual increase in usage of 2 -- 3 % could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less , perhaps as few as 80 to 100 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Natural_gas\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 113621\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon pentoxide Content: Carbon pentaoxide or carbon pentoxide is an unstable molecular oxide of carbon . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule has a C2 symmetry . It consists of a five membered ring with one carbon and four oxygen atoms . A fifth oxygen atom has a double bond to the carbon . Calculation has resulted in a theoretical structure . The pentagon is not regular , but varies in the length of its sides and angles . The distance between the oxygen atoms that are not attached to carbon is 1.406 Å , whereas the distance between one of these atoms and an oxygen attached to carbon is 1.457 Å . The carbon oxygen bond length is 1.376 Å . The double carbon to oxygen bond is the shortest at 1.180 Å . There is no carbon-to-carbon bond as there is only one carbon atom . The OOO bond angle is 100.2 ° and the OOC angle is 109.1 ° . The OCO bond angle is 125.4 ° .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_pentoxide\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 112692\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_suboxide\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 112460\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Indirect calorimetry Content: Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste ( frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms , or urea in terrestrial ones ) , or from their consumption of oxygen . Indirect calorimetry is the method by which the type and rate of substrate utilization , and energy metabolism are estimated in vivo starting from gas exchange measurements ( carbon dioxide production and oxygen consumption during rest and steady-state exercise ) . This technique provides unique information , is noninvasive , and can be advantageously combined with other experimental methods to investigate numerous aspects of nutrient assimilation , thermogenesis , the energetics of physical exercise , and the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Indirect_calorimetry\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 111574\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Octanitrocubane Content: Octanitrocubane ( molecular formula : C8 ( NO2 ) 8 ) is a high explosive that , like TNT , is shock-insensitive ( not readily detonated by shock ) . The octanitrocubane molecule has the same chemical structure as cubane ( C8H8 ) except that each of the eight hydrogen atoms is replaced by a nitro group ( NO2 ) . It is however not as powerful as once thought , as the high density theoretical crystal structure has not been achieved . For this reason heptanitrocubane , the slightly less nitrated form , is believed to have marginally better performance despite having a worse oxygen balance . Octanitrocubane is thought to have 20 -- 25 % greater performance than HMX ( octogen ) . This increase in power is due to its highly expansive breakdown into CO2 and N2 , as well as to the presence of strained chemical bonds in the molecule which have stored potential energy . In addition , octanitrocubane produces no water vapor making it less visible , and both the chemical itself and its decomposition products ( nitrogen and carbon dioxide ) are considered to be non-toxic . Octanitrocubane has a detonation velocity of 10,100 m/s , making it the fastest known explosive . Small amounts have been synthesized in the laboratory , but not enough for performance testing as an explosive . Octanitrocubane was first synthesized by Philip Eaton ( who was also the first to synthesize cubane in 1964 ) and Mao-Xi Zhang at the University of Chicago in 1999 , with the structure proven by crystallographer Richard Gilardi of the United States Naval Research Laboratory . The R.E. factor of octanitrocubane is 2.38 , making it the most effective chemical explosive known .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Octanitrocubane\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 111344\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: RuBisCO Content: Ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase , commonly known by the abbreviations RuBisCO , RuBPCase , or RuBPco , is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation , a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose . In chemical terms , it catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ( also known as RuBP ) . It is probably the most abundant enzyme on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"RuBisCO\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 111232\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 111203\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marsh gas Content: Marsh gas , swamp gas and bog gas are common names for biogas which forms in wetlands , whose principal component is methane with hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide as minor compositions , produced naturally within some geographical marshes , swamps , and bogs . The surface of marshes , swamps and bogs is initially porous vegetation that rots to form a crust that prevents oxygen from reaching the organic material trapped below . That is the condition that allows anaerobic digestion and fermentation of any plant or animal material which incidentally also produces methane . In some cases there is sufficient heat , fuel and oxygen to allow spontaneous combustion and underground fires to smolder for some considerable time as occurred at a natural reserve in Spain . Such fires can cause surface subsidence presenting an unpredictable physical hazard and as well as environmental changes or damage to the local environment and the ecosystem it supports .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Marsh_gas\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 111018\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean agent FS 49 C2 Content: Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an environmentally engineered , human safe , fast extinguishing Clean Agent fire extinguishing gas for gaseous fire suppression installed in a suited fire suppression system . The Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an extinguishing gas mixture that suppresses fire while maintaining breathable concentrations of oxygen in the air . This makes it possible to extinguish a fire with less danger to people in the room at extinguishing concentrations in contrast to pure Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) based fire suppression system which is deadly to humans when released . In the beginning the gas was called Halotron II B/FS49C2 but later only the name FS 49 C2 is used . It is a gaseous solution of 60-80 % tetrafluoroethane ( R-134a ) , 10-30 % pentafluoroethane ( R-125 ) and 10-30 % carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Former fire chief Einar Gjessing made an article about the product to inform firemen how this gas works in case they need to enter a fire site with FS 49 C2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_agent_FS_49_C2\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 110814\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Direct carbon fuel cell Content: A Direct Carbon Fuel Cell ( DCFC ) is a fuel cell that uses a carbon rich material as a fuel such as bio-mass or coal . The cell produces energy by combining carbon and oxygen , which releases carbon dioxide as a by-product . It also called coal fuel cells ( CFCs ) , carbon-air fuel cells ( CAFCs ) , direct carbon/coal fuel cells ( DCFCs ) , and DC-SOFC . The total reaction of the cell is C + O2 → CO2 . The process in half cell notation : Anode : C + 2 O2 − → CO2 + 4 e − Cathode : O2 + 4 e − → 2 O2 − Despite this release of carbon dioxide , the direct carbon fuel cell is more environmentally friendly than traditional carbon burning techniques . Due to its higher efficiency , it requires less carbon to produce the same amount of energy . Also , because pure carbon dioxide is emitted , carbon capture techniques are much cheaper than for conventional power stations . Utilized carbon can be in the form of coal , coke , char , or a non-fossilized source of carbon . At least four types of DCFC exist : The first one is based on the Solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) concept . Overall reaction in the solid oxide electrolyte based DCFC C + O2 → CO2 . Anode reaction C + 2O2 − → CO2 + 4e − C + O2 − → CO + 2e − CO + O2 − → CO2 + 2e − C + CO2 → 2CO Cathode reaction O2 + 4e − → 2O2 − The second one is molten hydroxides fuel cell . William W. Jacques obtained an US Patent 555,511 in this type of fuel cell in 1896 . Prototypes have been demonstrated by the research group , SARA , Inc. . The third one is based on the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell ( MCFC ) concept . William W. Jacques obtained a Canadian patent in this type of fuel cell in 1897 . It has been developed further at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory . The fourth is a molten tin anode solid oxide fuel cell design , which utilizes molten tin and tin oxide as an inter stage reaction between oxidation of the carbon dissolving in the anode and reduction of oxygen at the solid oxide cathode .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Direct_carbon_fuel_cell\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 110737\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 110680\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-based life Content: Carbon is a key component of all known life on Earth . Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements , especially oxygen , hydrogen and nitrogen , and carbon can bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons . Carbon is abundant on Earth . It is also lightweight and relatively small in size , making it easier for enzymes to manipulate carbon molecules . It is often assumed in astrobiology that if life exists somewhere else in the universe , it will also be carbon-based . Critics refer to this assumption as carbon chauvinism .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-based_life\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 110310\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sequestration\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 110059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NAV-CO2 system Content: Non-flammable Alcohol Vapor in Carbon Dioxide systems ( NAV-CO2 System ) were developed in Japan in the 1990s to sanitize hospitals and ambulances .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"NAV-CO2_system\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 109546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 109445\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_laser\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 109416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide transmission rate Content: Carbon dioxide transmission rate ( COTR ) is the measurement of the amount of carbon dioxide gas that passes through a substance over a given period . It is mostly carried out on non-porous materials , where the mode of transport is diffusion , but there are a growing number of applications where the transmission rate also depends on flow through apertures of some description .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_transmission_rate\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 109397\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Total organic carbon Content: Total organic carbon ( TOC ) is the amount of carbon found in an organic compound and is often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality or cleanliness of pharmaceutical manufacturing equipment . TOC may also refer to the amount of organic carbon in soil , or in a geological formation , particularly the source rock for a petroleum play ; 2 % is a rough minimum . For marine surface sediments , average TOC content is 0.5 % in the deep ocean , and 2 % along the eastern margins . A typical analysis for TOC measures both the total carbon present and the so-called `` inorganic carbon '' ( IC ) , the latter representing the content of dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid salts . Subtracting the inorganic carbon from the total carbon yields TOC . Another common variant of TOC analysis involves removing the IC portion first and then measuring the leftover carbon . This method involves purging an acidified sample with carbon-free air or nitrogen prior to measurement , and so is more accurately called non-purgeable organic carbon ( NPOC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Total_organic_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 109340\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Air-free technique Content: Air-free techniques refer to a range of manipulations in the chemistry laboratory for the handling of compounds that are air-sensitive . These techniques prevent the compounds from reacting with components of air , usually water and oxygen ; less commonly carbon dioxide and nitrogen . A common theme among these techniques is the use of a fine ( 100-10 − 3 Torr ) or high ( 10 − 3-10 − 6 Torr ) vacuum to remove air , and the use of an inert gas : preferably argon , but often nitrogen . The two most common types of air-free technique involve the use of a glovebox and a Schlenk line , although some rigorous applications use a high-vacuum line . In both methods , glassware ( often Schlenk tubes ) are pre-dried in ovens prior to use . They may be flame-dried to remove adsorbed water . Prior to coming into an inert atmosphere , vessels are further dried by purge-and-refill -- the vessel is subjected to a vacuum to remove gases and water , and then refilled with inert gas . This cycle is usually repeated three times or the vacuum is applied for an extended period of time . One of the differences between the use of a glovebox and a Schlenk line is where the purge-and-refill cycle is applied . When using a glovebox the purge-and-refill is applied to an airlock attached to the glovebox , commonly called the `` port '' or `` ante-chamber '' . In contrast when using a Schlenk line the purge-and-refill is applied directly to the reaction vessel through a hose or ground glass joint that is connected to the manifold .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Air-free_technique\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 109337\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gas carbon Content: Gas carbon is a carbon deposit that forms on the upper parts of the retort of a gasworks .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Gas_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 109058\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Coal gas Content: Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system . Town gas is a more general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers and municipalities . Coal gas contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen , carbon monoxide , methane and volatile hydrocarbons together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen . Prior to the development of natural gas supply and transmissionduring the 1940s and 1950s in the United States and during the late 1960s and 1970s in Great Britainvirtually all gas for fuel and lighting was manufactured from coal . Town gas was supplied to households via municipally-owned piped distribution systems . Originally created as a by-product of the coking process , its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the industrial revolution and urbanization . By-products from the production process included coal tars and ammonia , which were important chemical feedstock for the dye and chemical industry with a wide range of artificial dyes being made from coal gas and coal tar . Facilities where the gas was produced were often known as a manufactured gas plant ( MGP ) or a gasworks . The discovery of large reserves of natural gas in the North Sea off the Scottish coast during the early 1960s led to the expensive conversion or replacement of most of the UK 's gas cookers and gas heaters , except in Northern Ireland , from the late 1960s onwards . The production process is distinct , both physically and chemically , from that used to create a range of gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas , syngas , hygas , Dowson gas , and producer gas . These gases are made by partial combustion of a wide variety of feed stocks in some mixture of air , oxygen , or steam , to reduce the latter to hydrogen and carbon dioxide although some destructive distillation may also occur .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Coal_gas\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 108861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flue-gas stack Content: A flue-gas stack is a type of chimney , a vertical pipe , channel or similar structure through which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air . Flue gases are produced when coal , oil , natural gas , wood or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial furnace , a power plant 's steam-generating boiler , or other large combustion device . Flue gas is usually composed of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor as well as nitrogen and excess oxygen remaining from the intake combustion air . It also contains a small percentage of pollutants such as particulate matter , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides . The flue gas stacks are often quite tall , up to 400 metres ( 1300 feet ) or more , so as to disperse the exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby reduce the concentration of the pollutants to the levels required by governmental environmental policy and environmental regulation . When the flue gases are exhausted from stoves , ovens , fireplaces , or other small sources within residential abodes , restaurants , hotels , or other public buildings and small commercial enterprises , their flue gas stacks are referred to as chimneys .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Flue-gas_stack\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 108611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Endothermic gas Content: Endothermic gas is a gas that inhibits or reverses oxidation on the surfaces it is in contact with . This gas is the product of incomplete combustion in a controlled environment . An example is hydrogen gas ( H2 ) , nitrogen gas ( N2 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) . The hydrogen and carbon monoxide are reducing agents , so they work together to shield surfaces from oxidation .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Endothermic_gas\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 108590\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NOTT-202 Content: NOTT-202 is a two-part chemical compound , capable of selectively absorbing carbon dioxide . It is like a `` framework of organic metal '' that functions like a sponge , absorbing selected gases at high pressures . Its creation was announced by scientists in 2011 . This structure is an entirely new class of porous material , as so the researchers claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"NOTT-202\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 108568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nitrous oxide Content: Nitrous oxide , commonly known as laughing gas or nitrous , is a chemical compound , an oxide of nitrogen with the formula . At room temperature , it is a colorless , odorless non-flammable gas , with a slightly metallic scent and taste . At elevated temperatures , nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidizer similar to molecular oxygen . Nitrous oxide has significant medical uses , especially in surgery and dentistry , for its anaesthetic and analgesic effects . Its name `` laughing gas '' is due to the euphoric effects of inhaling it , a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaesthetic . It is also used as an oxidizer in rocket propellants , and in motor racing to increase the power output of engines . Nitrous oxide occurs in small amounts in the atmosphere , but has been found recently to be a major scavenger of stratospheric ozone , with impact comparable to that of CFCs . It is estimated that 30 % of the in the atmosphere is the result of human activity , chiefly agriculture .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Nitrous_oxide\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 108556\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Headspace Gas Chromatography for Dissolved Gas Measurement Content: Headspace Gas Chromatography uses headspace gas injected directly onto a gas chromatographic column . Chemists often use the phrase `` standard temperature and pressure or STP '' to convey that they are working at a temperature of 25 ° C and one atmosphere of pressure . There are three states of matter under these conditions : solids , liquids and gases . Although all three are distinct states both solids and gases can dissolve ( or disperse ) in liquids . The most commonly occurring liquid in the biosphere is water . All components of the atmosphere are capable of dissolving in water to some degree . The bulk of the stable natural components of the atmosphere are nitrogen , oxygen , carbon dioxide , gaseous water , argon and other trace gases . Materials that exist primarily in the gas phase at STP are referred to as `` volatile . '' Many natural and man-made ( anthropogenic ) materials are stable in two states at STP , earning them the title `` semi-volatile . '' A naturally occurring volatile that is sometimes found in aqueous solution is methane , water itself is semi-volatile . Man-made or anthropogenic chemicals also occur in these classes . Examples of volatile anthropogenic chemicals include the refrigerants chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and hydrofluorocarbons ( HCFCs ) . Semivolatile anthropogenics can exist as mixtures , such as petroleum distillates or as pure chemicals like trichloroethylene ( TCE ) . There is a need to analyze the dissolved gas content of aqueous solutions . Dissolved gases can directly interact with aquatic organisms or can volatilize from solution ( the latter described by Henry 's Law ) . These processes can result in exposure that , depending on the nature of the dissolved material , can have negative health effects . There is natural occurrence of various dissolved gases in groundwater and can be a measure of health for lakes , streams and rivers . Dissolved gases also occur as a result of human contamination from fuel and chlorinated spill sites . This method can be used to determine if there is natural biodegradation processes occurring in contaminated aquifers . For example , fuel hydrocarbons will break down into methane . Chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethylene , break down into ethene and chloride . Detecting these compounds can determine if biodegradation processes are occurring and possibly at what rate . Natural gas extracted from the earth also contains many low molecular weight hydrocarbon compounds such as methane , ethane , propane and butane . For example , methane has been found in many water wells in West Virginia . Chromatographic techniques are often useful when mixtures of analytes are present because they are capable of measuring multiple analytes during a single application . They require isolation of the analyte from the matrix they come in ( the body of the sample ) . One of the simpler techniques is to simply trap the analytes in a bubble of air above the sample ( headspace ) and inject part of that bubble directly into the instrument . This procedure is called headspace analysis . One of the most widely used methods for headspace analysis is described by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( USEPA ) and is called RSKSOP-175 . This method is described below .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Headspace_Gas_Chromatography_for_Dissolved_Gas_Measurement\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 108376\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bicarbonate indicator Content: A bicarbonate indicator ( hydrogencarbonate indicator ) is a type of pH indicator that is sensitive enough to show a color change as the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in an aqueous solution increases . The indicator is used in photosynthesis and respiration experiments to find out whether carbon dioxide is being liberated . It is also used to test the carbon dioxide content during gaseous exchange of organisms . When the carbon dioxide content is higher than 0.04 % , the initial red color changes to yellow as the pH becomes more acidic . If the carbon dioxide content is lower than 0.04 % , it changes from red to magenta and , in relatively very low carbon dioxide concentrations , to purple . Carbon dioxide , even in the concentrations found in exhaled air , will dissolve in the indicator to form carbonic acid , a weak acid , which will lower the pH and give the characteristic colour change . A colour change to purple during photosynthesis shows a reduction in the percentage of carbon dioxide and is sometimes inferred as production of oxygen , but there is not actually any direct evidence for it . Great care must be taken to avoid acidic or alkaline contamination of the apparatus in such experiments , since the test is not directly specific to carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Bicarbonate_indicator\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 108314\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Nitrogen Fix Content: The Nitrogen Fix is a 1980 science fiction novel by Hal Clement . The plot revolves around a nomadic family in a future where all oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere has combined with nitrogen , so the atmosphere is mostly nitrogen with traces of water , nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide , and the seas are very dilute nitric acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Nitrogen_Fix\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 107992\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 (disambiguation) Content: CO2 is the molecular formula for carbon dioxide . CO2 , Co2 or C02 may refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 107934\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 107798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gas Content: Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter ( the others being solid , liquid , and plasma ) . A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms ( e.g. a noble gas like neon ) , elemental molecules made from one type of atom ( e.g. oxygen ) , or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms ( e.g. carbon dioxide ) . A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air . What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles . This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer . The interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image . One type of commonly known gas is steam . The gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states , the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases . Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention . High-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas . For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter see list of states of matter .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Gas\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 107707\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wood gas Content: Wood gas is a syngas fuel which can be used as a fuel for furnaces , stoves and vehicles in place of gasoline , diesel or other fuels . During the production process biomass or other carbon-containing materials are gasified within the oxygen-limited environment of a wood gas generator to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide . These gases can then be burnt as a fuel within an oxygen rich environment to produce carbon dioxide , water and heat . In some gasifiers this process is preceded by pyrolysis , where the biomass or coal is first converted to char , releasing methane and tar rich in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Wood_gas\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 107691\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Capnophile\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 107545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Acid gas Content: Acid gas is a particular typology of natural gas or any other gas mixture containing significant quantities of hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , or similar acidic gases . The terms acid gas and sour gas are often incorrectly treated as synonyms . Strictly speaking , a sour gas is any gas that specifically contains hydrogen sulfide in significant amounts ; an acid gas is any gas that contains significant amounts of acidic gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or hydrogen sulfide . Thus , carbon dioxide by itself is an acid gas but not a sour gas .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Acid_gas\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 107431\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_is_Green\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 107425\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon–oxygen bond Content: A carbon -- oxygen bond is a covalent bond between carbon and oxygen . Oxygen has 6 valence electrons and prefers to either share two electrons in bonding with carbon , leaving the 4 nonbonding electrons in 2 lone pairs :O : or to share two pairs of electrons to form the carbonyl functional group . =O : Simple representatives of these two bond types are the _ OH in alcohols such as the ethanol in beverages and fuels and the C =O in ketones ( as well as many other related carbonyl compounds ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon–oxygen_bond\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 107359\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonic acid Content: Not to be confused with Carbolic acid , an antiquated name for phenol . Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 ( equivalently OC ( OH ) 2 ) . It is also a name sometimes given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water ( carbonated water ) , because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3 . In physiology , carbonic acid is described as volatile acid or respiratory acid , because it is the only acid excreted as a gas by the lungs . It plays an important role in the bicarbonate buffer system to maintain acid -- base homeostasis . Carbonic acid , which is a weak acid , forms two kinds of salts , the carbonates and the bicarbonates . In geology , carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites . It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound . However , in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonic_acid\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 107338\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 107193\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Chemical History of a Candle Content: The Chemical History of a Candle was the title of a series of six lectures on the chemistry and physics of flames given by Michael Faraday at the Royal Institution in 1848 , as part of the series of Christmas lectures for young people founded by Faraday in 1825 and still given there every year . The lectures described the different zones of combustion in the candle flame and the presence of carbon particles in the luminescent zone . Demonstrations included the production and examination of the properties of hydrogen , oxygen , nitrogen and carbon dioxide gases . An electrolysis cell is demonstrated , first in the electroplating of platinum conductors by dissolved copper , then the production of hydrogen and oxygen gases and their recombination to form water . The properties of water itself are studied , including its expansion while freezing ( iron vessels are burst by this expansion ) , and the relative volume of steam produced when water is vaporized . Techniques for weighing gases on a balance are demonstrated . Atmospheric pressure is described and its effects demonstrated . Faraday emphasizes that several of the demonstrations and experiments performed in the lectures may be performed by children `` at home '' and makes several comments regarding proper attention to safety . The lectures were first printed as a book in 1861 . In 2016 , Bill Hammack published a video series of the lectures supplemented by commentary and a companion book .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Chemical_History_of_a_Candle\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 107125\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Oxygen balance Content: Oxygen balance ( OB , or OB % ) is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized . If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to form carbon dioxide from carbon , water from hydrogen molecules , all of its sulfur dioxide from sulfur , and all metal oxides from metals with no excess , the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance . The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than is needed ; the combustion will then be incomplete , and large amount of toxic gases like carbon monoxide will be present . The sensitivity , strength , and brisance of an explosive are all somewhat dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to approach their maxima as oxygen balance approaches zero . The oxygen balance is calculated from the empirical formula of a compound in percentage of oxygen required for complete conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide , hydrogen to water , and metal to metal oxide . The procedure for calculating oxygen balance in terms of 100 grams of the explosive material is to determine the number of moles of oxygen that are excess or deficient for 100 grams of a compound . where X = number of atoms of carbon , Y = number of atoms of hydrogen , Z = number of atoms of oxygen , and M = number of atoms of metal ( metallic oxide produced ) . In the case of TNT ( C6H2 ( NO2 ) 3CH3 ) , Molecular weight = 227.1 X = 7 ( number of carbon atoms ) Y = 5 ( number of hydrogen atoms ) Z = 6 ( number of oxygen atoms ) Therefore OB % = − 74 % for TNT Because sensitivity , brisance , and strength are properties resulting from a complex explosive chemical reaction , a simple relationship such as oxygen balance can not be depended upon to yield universally consistent results . When using oxygen balance to predict properties of one explosive relative to another , it is to be expected that one with an oxygen balance closer to zero will be the more brisant , powerful , and sensitive ; however , many exceptions to this rule do exist . More complicated predictive calculations , such as those discussed in the next section of the explosive materials article , result in more accurate predictions . One area in which oxygen balance can be applied is in the processing of mixtures of explosives . The family of explosives called amatols are mixtures of ammonium nitrate and TNT . Ammonium nitrate has an oxygen balance of +20 % and TNT has an oxygen balance of − 74 % , so it would appear that the mixture yielding an oxygen balance of zero would also result in the best explosive properties . In actual practice a mixture of 80 % ammonium nitrate and 20 % TNT by weight yields an oxygen balance of +1 % , the best properties of all mixtures , and an increase in strength of 30 % over TNT . Examples of materials with negative oxygen balance are e.g. trinitrotoluene ( − 74 % ) , aluminium powder ( − 89 % ) , sulfur ( − 100 % ) , or carbon ( − 266.7 % ) . Examples of materials with positive oxygen balance are e.g. ammonium nitrate ( +20 % ) , ammonium perchlorate ( +34 % ) , potassium chlorate ( +39.2 % ) , sodium chlorate ( +45 % ) , potassium nitrate ( +47.5 % ) , tetranitromethane ( +49 % ) , lithium perchlorate ( +60 % ) , or nitroglycerine ( +3.5 % ) . The theoretical compound trinitrotriazine has an oxygen balance of zero . Commercial explosive materials should have oxygen balance close to zero , in order to minimize the production of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide ; the gaseous products of incomplete combustion are especially dangerous in confined spaces , e.g. coal mines . Category : Explosives engineering\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Oxygen_balance\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 107056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonation Content: In chemistry , carbonation refers to two chemical processes involving the binding of carbon dioxide to substrates . Various applications or manifestations of this reaction are listed in order of their relative scale . In biochemistry . Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO . So important is this carbonation process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme . The production of urea , a widely used fertilizer , involves the combination of carbon dioxide and ammonia : 2 NH3 + CO2 → ( H2N ) 2CO + H2O In inorganic chemistry , carbonation occurs widely . Metal oxides and metal hydroxides react with CO2 to give complexes of carbonate and bicarbonate . In reinforced concrete construction , the chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete is known as neutralisation . Low valent metal complexes react with CO2 to give metal carbon dioxide complexes . In organometallic chemistry , carbonation involves the insertion of CO2 into metal-carbon bonds . The topic has attracted great interest for organic synthesis and even as a means of utilizing CO2 as a feedstock .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonation\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 106589\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Control of ventilation Content: Control of ventilation refers to the physiological mechanisms involved in the control of physiologic ventilation , which refers to the movement of air into and out of the lungs . Ventilation facilitates respiration . Respiration refers to the utilization of oxygen and production of carbon dioxide by the body as a whole , or by individual cells . The most important function of breathing is blood gas homeostasis , i.e. the regulation of the partial pressures of oxygen , , and carbon dioxide , , in the arterial blood ) . The effector of this homeostat is centered primarily on the manner in which the lungs are ventilated . Under most conditions , the partial pressure of carbon dioxide controls the rate of pulmonary ventilation . The sensors for the arterial blood gas regulator are situated in the aortic and carotid bodies , which are primarily sensitive to the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood , and the anterior and lateral surfaces of the medulla oblongata in the brain stem which measures the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and pH of the cerebrospinal fluid and consequently the arterial blood . Information from these sensors is conveyed along nerves to the respiratory center in the brain stem . The respiratory center is situated in the reticular formation and other parts of the brainstem , and consists of 4 interconnected and interacting components : Inspiratory center - reticular formation , medulla oblongata Expiratory center - reticular formation , medulla oblongata Pneumotaxic center - various nuclei of the pons Apneustic center - nucleus of the pons From the respiratory center the skeletal muscles of ventilation , in particular the diaphragm , are alternately activated to cause air to move in and out of the lungs .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Control_of_ventilation\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 106467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reducing atmosphere Content: A reducing atmosphere is an atmospheric condition in which oxidation is prevented by removal of oxygen and other oxidizing gases or vapours , and which may contain actively reducing gases such as hydrogen , carbon monoxide , and gases such as hydrogen sulfide that would be oxidized by any present oxygen .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Reducing_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 106226\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orsat gas analyser Content: An Orsat gas analyser is a piece of laboratory equipment used to analyse a gas sample ( typically fossil fuel flue gas ) for its oxygen , carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide content . Although largely replaced by instrumental techniques , the Orsat remains a reliable method of measurement and is relatively simple to use . It was patented before 1873 by Mr. H Orsat .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Orsat_gas_analyser\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 106163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Shielding gas Content: Shielding gases are inert or semi-inert gases that are commonly used in several welding processes , most notably gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding ( GMAW and GTAW , more popularly known as MIG and TIG , respectively ) . Their purpose is to protect the weld area from oxygen , and water vapour . Depending on the materials being welded , these atmospheric gases can reduce the quality of the weld or make the welding more difficult . Other arc welding processes use other methods of protecting the weld from the atmosphere as well -- shielded metal arc welding , for example , uses an electrode covered in a flux that produces carbon dioxide when consumed , a semi-inert gas that is an acceptable shielding gas for welding steel . Improper choice of a welding gas can lead to a porous and weak weld , or to excessive spatter ; the latter , while not affecting the weld itself , causes loss of productivity due to the labor needed to remove the scattered drops .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Shielding_gas\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 105976\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nitrogen dioxide Content: Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula . It is one of several nitrogen oxides . is an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of nitric acid , millions of tons of which are produced each year . At higher temperatures it is a reddish-brown gas that has a characteristic sharp , biting odor and is a prominent air pollutant . Nitrogen dioxide is a paramagnetic , bent molecule with C2v point group symmetry .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Nitrogen_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 105835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of highly toxic gases Content: Many gases have toxic properties , which are often assessed using the LC50 ( median lethal dose ) measure . In the United States many of these gases have been assigned an NFPA 704 health rating of 4 ( may be lethal ) or 3 ( may cause serious or permanent injury ) , and/or exposure limits ( TLV , TWA or STEL ) determined by the ACGIH professional association . Some , but by no means all , toxic gases are detectable by odor which can serve as a warning . Among the best known toxic gases are carbon monoxide , chlorine , nitrogen dioxide and phosgene .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_highly_toxic_gases\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 105831\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Medical gas supply Content: Medical gas supply systems in hospitals , and most other healthcare facilities , are essential for supplying piped oxygen , nitrous oxide , nitrogen/surgical air , carbon dioxide , oxygen/nitrous oxide 50/50 , medical vacuum , anaesthetic gas scavenge/waste anesthetic gas disposal and medical air to various parts of the facility . Source equipment systems are monitored by central/source alarm systems , at the point of supply with multiplexed repeater alarms throughout the facility and for monitoring high and low gas pressure in particular areas such as general ward , operating theatres , ICU/ITU/CCU / NICU , recovery , major treatment rooms , etc. . Equipment is connected to the medical gas supply system via station outlets . For emergency gas control area zone service valves are installed in order to prevent contaminated gas going to patient or to stop gas flowing to an area in the event of fire . Valves are positioned at the entrance to all departments and can be accessed via emergency pull out windows .\",\n \"qid\": \"195\",\n \"docid\": \"Medical_gas_supply\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 105817\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":91,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Without carbon dioxide, all life on Earth would die"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":1,"score":110811},{"content":"Title: Carbon-based life Content: Carbon is a key component of all known life on Earth . Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements , especially oxygen , hydrogen and nitrogen , and carbon can bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons . Carbon is abundant on Earth . It is also lightweight and relatively small in size , making it easier for enzymes to manipulate carbon molecules . It is often assumed in astrobiology that if life exists somewhere else in the universe , it will also be carbon-based . Critics refer to this assumption as carbon chauvinism .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon-based_life","rank":2,"score":109443},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":3,"score":105670},{"content":"Title: Melissa Trainer Content: Melissa G. Trainer ( April 22 , 1978 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) is an American astrobiologist who in 2004 demonstrated empirically that life could have formed on Earth through the interaction of methane , carbon dioxide and ultraviolet light ( sunlight ) . She is currently Assistant Chief for Science , Operations , and Strategic Planning in the Planetary Environments Laboratory at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center .","qid":"196","docid":"Melissa_Trainer","rank":4,"score":99428},{"content":"Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .","qid":"196","docid":"Capnophile","rank":5,"score":98923},{"content":"Title: The Good Life (Railroad Earth album) Content: The Good Life is the third studio album by the bluegrass/jam band Railroad Earth , released on June 8 , 2004 . So many jam bands seem to forget the importance of good song writing with meaningful lyrics . Railroad Earth 's songs are well-crafted stories , and are delivered with outstanding musicianship and strong vocals . The musical duties are distributed in pretty much the same way here as on their previous two releases : Todd Sheaffer handles vocals and guitar and does the bulk of the songwriting ; John Skehan , Tim Carbone , and Andy Goessling provide the band 's trademark swirling-and-skirling texture ; new bassist Johnny Grubb ( replacing Dave Von Dollen ) and percussionist Carey Harmon provide the solid ground they take off from and land on . Multi-instrumentalist Andy Goessling is credited on banjo , dobro , and sax ( to name a few ) , Tim Carbone on fiddle , accordion , piano and electric guitar , and John Skehan on mandolin , piano , and Hammond organ . Shaeffer often writes tunes about love , being positive , and living a simpler life paired with catchy refrains and memorable melodies , and this effort is not different in that regard . Re-occurring themes of examining one 's destiny , living a good life , and staying true to one 's self resound . The opening track , `` Storms '' uses the metaphor to `` ride out the storm '' in a relationship and stick together through hard times . Perhaps an ode to marriage ? `` Way of the Buffalo '' is an environmental allegory and the title track , `` The Good Life , '' is about living free and `` going back to the country '' evoking images of a simpler time . One of the strongest songs is `` Goat '' which in the live setting extends into a long jammed out vehicle for the band . The somber lyrics , however , paint a picture of how to rid one 's life of negativity .","qid":"196","docid":"The_Good_Life_(Railroad_Earth_album)","rank":6,"score":96829},{"content":"Title: Terrestrial biological carbon cycle Content: Carbon is an essential part of life on Earth . About half the dry weight of most living organisms is carbon . It plays an important role in the structure , biochemistry , and nutrition of all living cells . Living biomass holds between 600 and 1,000 gigatons of carbon , most of which is wood , while some 1,200 gigatons of carbon are stored in the terrestrial biosphere as dead biomass . Carbon is cycled through the terrestrial biosphere with varying speeds , depending on what form it is stored in and under which circumstances . It is exchanged most quickly with the atmosphere , although small amounts of carbon leave the terrestrial biosphere and enter the oceans as dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) .","qid":"196","docid":"Terrestrial_biological_carbon_cycle","rank":7,"score":96795},{"content":"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .","qid":"196","docid":"Hypercapnia","rank":8,"score":90752},{"content":"Title: Carbon cycle Content: The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere , pedosphere , geosphere , hydrosphere , and atmosphere of the Earth . Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone . Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle , the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life . It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere , as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks . The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges ( incomes and losses ) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop ( e.g. , atmosphere and biosphere ) of the carbon cycle . An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide . The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier , and popularized by Humphry Davy .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_cycle","rank":9,"score":90566},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"196","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":10,"score":90344},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_scrubber","rank":11,"score":90279},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"196","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":12,"score":90047},{"content":"Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .","qid":"196","docid":"TanSat","rank":13,"score":90019},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"196","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":14,"score":89476},{"content":"Title: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life Content: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life : The Individual 's Guide to Stopping Climate Change is a 2007 book by Chris Goodall , published by Earthscan/Routledge . According to New Scientist , this book provides `` the definitive guide to reducing your carbon footprint '' . Goodall explains how consumers can cut carbon usage by 75 percent without making drastic lifestyle changes . How to Live a Low-Carbon Life has been reviewed in the Journal of Environmental Health Research , The Guardian , and The Times . How to Live a Low-carbon Life won the 2007 Clarion award for non-fiction . A second edition was published in 2010 .","qid":"196","docid":"How_to_Live_a_Low-Carbon_Life","rank":15,"score":87247},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":16,"score":87141},{"content":"Title: Carbon Content: Carbon ( from carbo `` coal '' ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent -- making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , C and C being stable , while C is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity . Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18.5 % ) after oxygen . The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb '' γράφειν '' which means `` to write '' ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen . The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4 , while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions . For this reason , carbon has often been referred to as the `` king of the elements '' .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon","rank":17,"score":87066},{"content":"Title: Carbonation Content: In chemistry , carbonation refers to two chemical processes involving the binding of carbon dioxide to substrates . Various applications or manifestations of this reaction are listed in order of their relative scale . In biochemistry . Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO . So important is this carbonation process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme . The production of urea , a widely used fertilizer , involves the combination of carbon dioxide and ammonia : 2 NH3 + CO2 → ( H2N ) 2CO + H2O In inorganic chemistry , carbonation occurs widely . Metal oxides and metal hydroxides react with CO2 to give complexes of carbonate and bicarbonate . In reinforced concrete construction , the chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete is known as neutralisation . Low valent metal complexes react with CO2 to give metal carbon dioxide complexes . In organometallic chemistry , carbonation involves the insertion of CO2 into metal-carbon bonds . The topic has attracted great interest for organic synthesis and even as a means of utilizing CO2 as a feedstock .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbonation","rank":18,"score":86987},{"content":"Title: Gastric tonometry Content: Gastric tonometry describes the measurement of the carbon dioxide level inside the stomach in order to assess the degree of blood flow to the stomach and bowel . The measurement of gut mucosal carbon dioxide has been used to detect decreased blood flow . Accumulation of carbon dioxide is predominantly a result of hypoperfusion and not hypoxia . Because the introduction of a nasogastric tube is almost routine in critically ill patients , the measurement of gastric carbon dioxide can be an easy method to monitor tissue perfusion . The gastric mucosal pH is measured according to an equation that assumes that arterial bicarbonate is equal to intramucosal bicarbonate , an argument that is not always valid . Given that the gastric mucosal carbon dioxide is the directly measured value , whereas the gastric mucosal pH is the derived and possibly inaccurate value , studies that used gastric pH to monitor perfusion may be inherently flawed . Most studies have failed to effectively affect gastric pH and for this reason failed to produce improvements in outcome . One study , by Gutierrez and colleagues , has shown that therapeutic interventions guided by gastric tonometry improved survival in critically ill patients . In a direct comparison of splanchnic-oriented therapy as guided by gastric tonometry with conventional shock management of trauma patients , there was no difference in mortality rates , organ dysfunction rates , or length of stay . After a surge in popularity , the use of gastric tonometry waned and it is currently found with less frequency in surgical ICUs .","qid":"196","docid":"Gastric_tonometry","rank":19,"score":86568},{"content":"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .","qid":"196","docid":"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide","rank":20,"score":86178},{"content":"Title: 1953 Menzengraben mining accident Content: The Menzengraben mining accident was the explosion of a large pocket of carbon dioxide in a salt mine in Menzengraben , East Germany , July 7 , 1953 . During a planned , nightly explosives detonation in the mine , an unusually large pocket of pressurized carbon dioxide was suddenly released , resulting in the ejection of large blocks of salt through the mine shaft at very high velocities . The expanding gas as well as the blocks of salt demolished the building above the mine shaft , resulting in blocks of concrete being ejected as well . Three died as a consequence , one from being hit by debris , two from asphyxiation .","qid":"196","docid":"1953_Menzengraben_mining_accident","rank":21,"score":86012},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"196","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":22,"score":85850},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"196","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":23,"score":85833},{"content":"Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''","qid":"196","docid":"Klaus_Lackner","rank":24,"score":85507},{"content":"Title: CarbFix Content: CarbFix is a project in Iceland intended to lock away carbon dioxide by reacting it with basaltic rocks . Work on the project began in 2007 . The CarbFix team involves American and Icelandic researchers including Iceland geologist Sigurdur Reynir Gislason serving as chief scientist , project technical manager Bergur Sigfusson , manager Juerg Matter who works with Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and scientific overseer , Wallace S. Broecker ( also with Columbia ) . Reykjavik Energy has supplied almost half the $ 10 million spent thus far on CarbFix . Other sponsors include U.S. and Icelandic universities . In addition to finding a new method for permanent carbon dioxide storage , another objective of the project is to train scientists for years of work to come .","qid":"196","docid":"CarbFix","rank":25,"score":85476},{"content":"Title: Sherwood B. Idso Content: Sherwood B. Idso ( born June 12 , 1942 ) is the president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization . Prior to that time he was a Research Physicist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Agricultural Research Service at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix , Arizona , where he worked since June 1967 . He was also closely associated with Arizona State University over most of this period , serving as an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Geology , Geography , and Botany and Microbiology . His two sons , Craig and Keith , are , respectively , the founder and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Idso is the author or co-author of over 500 publications including the books Carbon Dioxide : Friend or Foe ? ( 1982 ) and Carbon Dioxide and Global Change : Earth in Transition ( 1989 ) . He served on the editorial board of the international journal Agricultural and Forest Meteorology from 1973 to 1993 and since 1993 has served on the editorial board of Environmental and Experimental Botany . Over the course of his career , he has been an invited reviewer of manuscripts for 56 different scientific journals and 17 different funding agencies , representing an unusually large array of disciplines . He is an ISI highly cited researcher .","qid":"196","docid":"Sherwood_B._Idso","rank":26,"score":85191},{"content":"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .","qid":"196","docid":"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources","rank":27,"score":84977},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"196","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":28,"score":84685},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"196","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":29,"score":84574},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":30,"score":84476},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_flooding","rank":31,"score":84416},{"content":"Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.","qid":"196","docid":"Greening_Earth_Society","rank":32,"score":83952},{"content":"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_shifting","rank":33,"score":83711},{"content":"Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_Engineering","rank":34,"score":82991},{"content":"Title: Stafford rail crash (1996) Content: On 8 March 1996 , a Transrail freight train travelling from Mossend in Glasgow to Willesden in London , derailed after an axle on a wagon carrying liquid carbon dioxide failed due to fatigue at Rickerscote 2.2 km south of Stafford . Almost immediately after the derailment , a Travelling Post Office mail train hauled by a Rail Express Systems British Rail Class 86 electric locomotive ( no 86239 ) collided with a section of the derailed freight train on the adjacent line and fouled the path of the TPO mail train . One person , a mail sorter , was killed in the crash and twenty others including the driver of the mail train were injured . The cause of the collision was the failure of an axle on one of the tanker wagons of the freight train . It caused the wagon and adjacent ones to derail , into the path of the closely approaching mail train , which was travelling at 60 mph . The driver of the mail train had no time to brake and the force of the collision spun the locomotive around and catapulted it up the embankment , where it came to rest against the end wall of a house . The liquid carbon dioxide formed into a gas as it was no longer under pressure and interfered with the rescue effort . One bystander who had gone to help was later found unconscious after suffering the inhalation effects of carbon dioxide . The rescue services were on the scene within four minutes of being notified , despite the signaller at Stafford having to relay the emergency information via another office because the crash had cut his external phone lines , but he was able to phone his supervisor at Crewe . The fire service on site were given the wrong staffing list for the mail train - they had been given a manifest for the amount of mail workers who would have been on the train northbound after leaving Crewe . However , the ambulance service were given a correct head count list from the Royal Mail workers at the lineside . During the investigation , it was discovered that the wagon had travelled 69,000 mi since its last inspection . The recommendation at the time was that wagons were tested every 24,000 mi .","qid":"196","docid":"Stafford_rail_crash_(1996)","rank":35,"score":82969},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":36,"score":82440},{"content":"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .","qid":"196","docid":"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide","rank":37,"score":82368},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":38,"score":82309},{"content":"Title: Life without Death Content: Life without Death is a cellular automaton , similar to Conway 's Game of Life and other cellular automaton rules . In this cellular automaton , an initial seed pattern grows according to the same rule as in Conway 's Game of Life ; however , unlike Life , patterns never shrink . The rule was originally considered by , who called it `` Inkspot '' ; it has also been called `` Flakes '' . In contrast to the more complex patterns that exist within Conway 's Game of Life , Life without Death commonly features still life patterns , in which no change occurs , and ladder patterns , that grow in a straight line .","qid":"196","docid":"Life_without_Death","rank":39,"score":82104},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"196","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":40,"score":81904},{"content":"Title: Carbon Monoxide All Fuels Action Forum Content: The Carbon Monoxide All Fuels Action Forum ( COAFAF ) is an industry-led forum and campaign group comprising various individuals , organisations , charities and policy makers working to reduce death by carbon monoxide poisoning in the UK . The group acts as a sister group to the All-Party Parliamentary Carbon Monoxide Group ( APPCOG ) , an official all-party parliamentary group of the UK Parliament . The Carbon Monoxide All Fuels Action Forum is chaired by Steve Miller , President of the London region at the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health . Its secretariat services are provided by Policy Connect , an independent , not-for-profit think tank based in London .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_Monoxide_All_Fuels_Action_Forum","rank":41,"score":81730},{"content":"Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .","qid":"196","docid":"Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":42,"score":81681},{"content":"Title: Alkaline hydrolysis (death custom) Content: Alkaline hydrolysis ( also called biocremation and/or resomation ) is a process for the disposal of human remains which produces less carbon dioxide and pollutants than cremation . The process is being marketed as an alternative to the traditional options of burial or cremation .","qid":"196","docid":"Alkaline_hydrolysis_(death_custom)","rank":43,"score":81648},{"content":"Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .","qid":"196","docid":"C3_carbon_fixation","rank":44,"score":81535},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide cleaning Content: Carbon dioxide cleaning ( CO2 cleaning ) comprises a family of methods for parts cleaning and sterilization , using carbon dioxide in its various phases . It is often preferred for use on delicate surfaces . CO2 cleaning has found application in the aerospace , automotive , electronics , medical , and other industries . Carbon dioxide snow cleaning has been used to remove particles and organic residues from metals , polymers , ceramics , glasses , hard drives , optics , and other surfaces .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_cleaning","rank":45,"score":81535},{"content":"Title: Effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Content: In some individuals , the effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is to cause increased carbon dioxide retention , which may cause drowsiness , headaches , and in severe cases lack of respiration , which may lead to death . People with lung ailments or with central respiratory depression , who receive supplemental oxygen , require careful monitoring .","qid":"196","docid":"Effect_of_oxygen_on_chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease","rank":46,"score":81406},{"content":"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .","qid":"196","docid":"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory","rank":47,"score":81349},{"content":"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_sequestration","rank":48,"score":81342},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_laser","rank":49,"score":81198},{"content":"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_finance","rank":50,"score":81099},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"196","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":51,"score":80853},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":52,"score":80552},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_generator","rank":53,"score":80501},{"content":"Title: Mazuku Content: In geology , a mazuku ( Swahili : evil wind ) is a pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside . Mazuku are created when carbon dioxide accumulates in pockets low to the ground . CO2 is heavier than air , which causes it to stay close to the ground , and is also undetectable by human olfactory or visual senses in most conditions . Mazuku can be related to volcanic activity or to a natural disaster known as a limnic eruption . In the first case , noxious gases are released from the Earth 's crust into the atmosphere , whereas in the second case the gases originate deep in a lake and boil rapidly to the surface . Because of their nature as sporadic and subtle events , few mazuku have been recorded , but there is a growing understanding of them based on historical and fossil evidence .","qid":"196","docid":"Mazuku","rank":54,"score":80477},{"content":"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .","qid":"196","docid":"Black_carbon","rank":55,"score":80435},{"content":"Title: Lake Monoun Content: Lake Monoun is a lake in West Province , Cameroon , that lies in the Oku Volcanic Field . On August 15 , 1984 , the lake exploded in a limnic eruption , which resulted in the release of a large amount of carbon dioxide that killed 37 people . At first , the cause of the deaths was a mystery , and causes such as terrorism were suspected . Further investigation and a similar event two years later at Lake Nyos led to the currently accepted explanation .","qid":"196","docid":"Lake_Monoun","rank":56,"score":80141},{"content":"Title: Carbon-14 Content: Carbon-14 , 14C , or radiocarbon , is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons . Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and colleagues ( 1949 ) to date archaeological , geological and hydrogeological samples . Carbon-14 was discovered on 27 February 1940 , by Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California . Its existence had been suggested by Franz Kurie in 1934 . There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon on Earth : 99 % of the carbon is carbon-12 , 1 % is carbon-13 , and carbon-14 occurs in trace amounts , i.e. , making up about 1 or 1.5 atoms per 1012 atoms of the carbon in the atmosphere . Carbon-12 and carbon-13 are both stable , while the half-life of carbon-14 is 5,730 ± 40 years . Carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14 through beta decay . A gram of carbon containing 1 atom of carbon-14 per 1012 atoms will emit 0.40 beta particles per second . The primary natural source of carbon-14 on Earth is cosmic ray action on nitrogen in the atmosphere , and it is therefore a cosmogenic nuclide . However , open-air nuclear testing between 1955 -- 1980 contributed to this pool . The different isotopes of carbon do not differ appreciably in their chemical properties . This resemblance is used in chemical and biological research , in a technique called carbon labeling : carbon-14 atoms can be used to replace nonradioactive carbon , in order to trace chemical and biochemical reactions involving carbon atoms from any given organic compound .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon-14","rank":57,"score":80092},{"content":"Title: Carbon monoxide poisoning Content: Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs after breathing in too much carbon monoxide ( CO ) . Symptoms of mild acute poisoning include lightheadedness , confusion , headache , feeling like the world is spinning , and flu-like effects . Larger exposures can lead to toxicity of the central nervous system and heart , and death . After acute poisoning , long-term problems may occur . Carbon monoxide can also have negative effects on a baby if exposed during pregnancy . Chronic exposure to low levels of carbon monoxide can lead to depression , confusion , and memory loss . Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas , but , being colorless , odorless , tasteless , and initially non-irritating , it is difficult for people to detect . Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete combustion of organic matter . It is often produced by motor vehicles that run on gasoline , diesel , methane , or other carbon-based fuels and from tools , gas heaters , and cooking equipment that are powered by carbon-based fuels such as propane , butane and charcoal . Exposure at 100 ppm or greater can be dangerous to human health . Carbon monoxide mainly causes adverse effects by combining with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin ( HbCO ) in the blood . This prevents hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the tissues . Additionally , myoglobin and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase are thought to be adversely affected . Carboxyhemoglobin can revert to hemoglobin , but the recovery takes time as the HbCO complex is fairly stable . Treatment of poisoning largely consists of giving 100 % oxygen or providing hyperbaric oxygen therapy , although the optimum treatment remains controversial . Oxygen works as an antidote as it increases the removal of carbon monoxide from hemoglobin , in turn providing the body with normal levels of oxygen . The prevention of poisoning is a significant public health issue . Domestic carbon monoxide poisoning can be prevented by early detection with the use of household carbon monoxide detectors . Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries . It has also commonly been used as a method to commit suicide , usually by deliberately inhaling the exhaust fumes of a running vehicle . Modern automobiles still produce levels of carbon monoxide which will kill in an enclosed space or if the exhaust path is obstructed .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_monoxide_poisoning","rank":58,"score":80081},{"content":"Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .","qid":"196","docid":"Asphyxiant_gas","rank":59,"score":79791},{"content":"Title: Carbonic anhydrase Content: The carbonic anhydrases ( or carbonate dehydratases ) form a family of enzymes that catalyze the rapid interconversion of carbon dioxide and water to bicarbonate and protons ( or vice versa ) , a reversible reaction that occurs relatively slowly in the absence of a catalyst . The active site of most carbonic anhydrases contains a zinc ion ; they are therefore classified as metalloenzymes . One of the functions of the enzyme in animals is to interconvert carbon dioxide and bicarbonate to maintain acid-base balance in blood and other tissues , and to help transport carbon dioxide out of tissues .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbonic_anhydrase","rank":60,"score":79623},{"content":"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .","qid":"196","docid":"Charles_David_Keeling","rank":61,"score":79615},{"content":"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .","qid":"196","docid":"Amorphous_carbonia","rank":62,"score":79470},{"content":"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .","qid":"196","docid":"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies","rank":63,"score":79341},{"content":"Title: Berry L. Cannon Content: Berry Louis Cannon ( March 22 , 1935 -- February 17 , 1969 ) was an American aquanaut who served on the SEALAB II and III projects of the U.S. Navy . Cannon died of carbon dioxide poisoning while attempting to repair SEALAB III . It was later found that his diving rig 's baralyme canister , which should have absorbed the carbon dioxide Cannon exhaled , was empty .","qid":"196","docid":"Berry_L._Cannon","rank":64,"score":79203},{"content":"Title: The Day The Earth Nearly Died Content: The Day The Earth Nearly Died is a British documentary produced by BBC to the science and philosophy series Horizon in 2002 . The program focuses on the mystery of the Permian extinction , which scientists believe killed over 90 % of all life on earth at the end of the Permian , some 250 million years ago . The program features scientists like Adrian Jones , Vincent Courtillot , Gregory Retallack , Peter Ward , Michael Benton , Michael Rampino and others .","qid":"196","docid":"The_Day_The_Earth_Nearly_Died","rank":65,"score":79091},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"196","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":66,"score":78895},{"content":"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .","qid":"196","docid":"Christine_Wiedinmyer","rank":67,"score":78752},{"content":"Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_suboxide","rank":68,"score":78745},{"content":"Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_bubble","rank":69,"score":78497},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_sensor","rank":70,"score":78394},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere Content: The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_accumulation_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":71,"score":78310},{"content":"Title: Permissive hypercapnia Content: Permissive hypercapnia is hypercapnia , ( i.e. high concentration of carbon dioxide in blood ) , in respiratory insufficient patients in which oxygenation has become so difficult that the optimal mode of mechanical ventilation ( with oxygenation in mind ) is not capable of exchanging enough carbon dioxide . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . In acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ) , decreasing the tidal volume on the ventilator ( usually 8-12 mL/kg ) to 4-6 mL/kg may decrease barotrauma by decreasing ventilatory peak airway pressures and leads to improved respiratory recovery . Hypercapnia ( increased pCO2 ) sometimes needs to be tolerated in order to achieve these lower tidal volumes . The permissive hypercapnia leads to respiratory acidosis which might have negative side effects , but given that the patient is in ARDS , improving ventilatory function is more important . Since hypoxemia is a major life-threatening condition and hypercapnia is not , one might choose to accept the latter . Hence the term , `` permissive hypercapnia . '' Altogether , the negative side effects of permissive hypercapnia may outweigh the benefits . For that reason , the implementation of extracorporeal CO2 removal ( iLA Membrane Ventilator , Novalung ) at an early stage of ARDS , has become a well established standard to allow for protective ventilation and avoid respiratory acidosis .","qid":"196","docid":"Permissive_hypercapnia","rank":72,"score":78175},{"content":"Title: Carbon Nation Content: Carbon Nation is a 2010 documentary film by Peter Byck about technological - and community-based energy solutions to the growing worldwide carbon footprint . The film is narrated by Bill Kurtis . ASIN : B0055T46LA ( Rental ) and B0055T46G0 ( Purchase ) . Rather than highlighting the problems with use of fossil fuels , Carbon Nation presents a series of ways in which the 16 terawatts of energy the world consumes can be met while reducing or eliminating carbon-based sources . It contains optimistic interviews with experts in various fields , business CEOs , and sustainable energy supporters to present a compelling case for change while having a neutral , matter-of-fact explanation . Among those interviewed are Richard Branson , former CIA Director R. James Woolsey , Earth Day founder Denis Hayes and environmental advocate Van Jones . Much of the content of the film consists of interviews , some are listed above . The list of interviewees also includes Lester R. Brown President , Earth Policy Institute Sean Casten President & CEO , Recycled Energy Development Ralph Cavanagh Lead Attorney , NRDC Bob Fox , Partner Cook + Fox Architects Thomas Friedman , Author & NY Times Columnist Eban Goodstein Economic Professor , Lewis and Clark College Gary Hirshberg Chairman , President , and CEO of Stonyfield Farm Sadhu Aufochs Johnston Chief Environmental Officer , City of Chicago Amory B. Lovins Chairman & Chief Scientist , Rocky Mountain Institute Joel Makower Executive Director , GreenBiz.com Edward Mazria Executive Director , Solar Richmond Arthur H. Rosenfeld Commissioner , California Energy Commission John Rowe ( CEO ) Exelon Chairman & CEO , Exelon Corporation","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_Nation","rank":73,"score":77946},{"content":"Title: RuBisCO Content: Ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase , commonly known by the abbreviations RuBisCO , RuBPCase , or RuBPco , is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation , a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose . In chemical terms , it catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ( also known as RuBP ) . It is probably the most abundant enzyme on Earth .","qid":"196","docid":"RuBisCO","rank":74,"score":77884},{"content":"Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .","qid":"196","docid":"Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network","rank":75,"score":77625},{"content":"Title: Hyperventilation Content: Hyperventilation ( also called overbreathing ) occurs when the rate and quantity of alveolar ventilation of carbon dioxide exceeds the body 's production of carbon dioxide . A person may regularly hyperventilate , a condition called hyperventilation syndrome . When alveolar ventilation is excessive , more carbon dioxide will be removed from the blood stream than the body can produce . This causes the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood stream to fall and produces a state known as hypocapnia . The body normally attempts to compensate for this metabolically . If excess ventilation can not be compensated metabolically , it will lead to a rise in blood pH. This rise in blood pH is known as respiratory alkalosis . When hyperventilation leads to respiratory alkalosis , it may cause a number of physical symptoms : dizziness , tingling in the lips , hands or feet , headache , weakness , fainting and seizures . In extreme cases it can cause carpopedal spasms ( flapping and contraction of the hands and feet ) . There are factors that initiate hyperventilation and others can sustain it ; for example , physiological stress or a feeling of anxiety can initiate it ; anxiety may also sustain it . Other factors that initiate or sustain hyperventilation include reduced air pressure at high altitudes , head injury , stroke , respiratory disorders such as asthma and pneumonia , cardiovascular problems such as pulmonary embolisms , anemia , and adverse reactions to certain drugs . Hyperventilation can also be mechanically produced in people on respirators and can also be brought about voluntarily , by taking many deep breaths in rapid succession .","qid":"196","docid":"Hyperventilation","rank":76,"score":77259},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_emission_label","rank":77,"score":77243},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"196","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":78,"score":77192},{"content":"Title: Metal carbon dioxide complex Content: Metal carbon dioxide complexes are coordination complexes that contain carbon dioxide ligands . Aside from the fundamental interest in the coordination chemistry of simple molecules , studies in this field are motivated by the possibility that transition metals might catalyze useful transformations of CO2 . This research is relevant both to organic synthesis and to the production of `` solar fuels '' that would avoid the use of petroleum-based fuels .","qid":"196","docid":"Metal_carbon_dioxide_complex","rank":79,"score":77146},{"content":"Title: Lake Nyos disaster Content: The Lake Nyos disaster occurred on 21 August 1986 , when a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos , in northwestern Cameroon , produced a large cloud of carbon dioxide , which descended onto nearby villages , killing 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock . The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000 -- 300,000 tons ( some sources state as much as 1.6 million tons ) of CO2 . This gas cloud rose at nearly 100 km/h and spilled over the northern lip of the lake . It then rushed down two valleys , branching off to the north , displacing all the air and suffocating people and livestock within 25 km of the lake . A degassing system has since been installed at the lake , with the aim of reducing the concentration of in deep waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions .","qid":"196","docid":"Lake_Nyos_disaster","rank":80,"score":77107},{"content":"Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .","qid":"196","docid":"C._Kumar_N._Patel","rank":81,"score":77070},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":82,"score":77043},{"content":"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .","qid":"196","docid":"Individual_action_on_climate_change","rank":83,"score":76859},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_reforming","rank":84,"score":76847},{"content":"Title: Hypocapnia Content: Hypocapnia or hypocapnea ( from the Greek words υπό and καπνός kapnós ) , also known as hypocarbia , sometimes incorrectly called acapnia , is a state of reduced carbon dioxide in the blood . Hypocapnia usually results from deep or rapid breathing , known as hyperventilation . Hypocapnia is the opposite of hypercapnia .","qid":"196","docid":"Hypocapnia","rank":85,"score":76838},{"content":"Title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry Content: Hypothetical types of biochemistry are forms of biochemistry speculated to be scientifically viable but not proven to exist at this time . The kinds of living organisms currently known on Earth all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions , water as a solvent , and DNA or RNA to define and control their form . If life exists on other planets or moons , it may be chemically similar ; it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries -- for instance involving other classes of carbon compounds , compounds of another element , or another solvent in place of water . The possibility of life-forms being based on `` alternative '' biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion , informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds . It is also a common subject in science fiction . The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon . Silicon is in the same group as carbon on the periodic table and , like carbon , it is tetravalent , although the silicon analogs of organic compounds are generally less stable . Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia , which , like water , is a polar molecule , and cosmically abundant ; and non-polar hydrocarbon solvents such as methane and ethane , which are known to exist in liquid form on the surface of Titan .","qid":"196","docid":"Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry","rank":86,"score":76777},{"content":"Title: Carbonic maceration Content: Carbonic maceration is a winemaking technique , often associated with the French wine region of Beaujolais , in which whole grapes are fermented in a carbon dioxide rich environment prior to crushing . Conventional alcoholic fermentation involves crushing the grapes to free the juice and pulp from the skin with yeast serving to convert sugar into ethanol . Carbonic maceration ferments most of the juice while it is still inside the grape , although grapes at the bottom of the vessel are crushed by gravity and undergo conventional fermentation . The resulting wine is fruity with very low tannins . It is ready to drink quickly but lacks the structure for long-term aging . In the most extreme case , such as with Beaujolais nouveau , the period between picking and bottling can be less than six weeks . During carbonic maceration , an anaerobic environment is created by pumping carbon dioxide into a sealed container filled with whole grape clusters . The carbon dioxide gas permeates through the grape skins and begins to stimulate fermentation at an intracellular level . The entire process takes place inside each single , intact berry . Ethanol is produced as a by-product of this process but studies have shown that other unique chemical reactions take place that have a distinctive effect on the wine .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbonic_maceration","rank":87,"score":76695},{"content":"Title: Heather Willauer Content: Heather D. Willauer ( born 1974 ) is an American analytical chemist and inventor working in Washington , D.C. , at the United States Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) . Leading a research team , Willauer has patented a method for removing carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from seawater , in tandem with hydrogen ( H2 ) removed simultaneously . Willauer is researching catalysts to enable a continuous Fischer -- Tropsch process to recombine carbon monoxide ( CO ) and hydrogen gases into complex hydrocarbon liquids to synthesize jet fuel for Navy and Marine aviation , and fuel for the U.S. Navy 's ships at sea . The work of Willauer 's team of researchers , once the technology is incorporated into the U.S. Navy 's warships in the 2020s , is expected to release such ships from their reliance on vulnerable replenishment oilers to give them indefinite time on station , if they are sailing in mildly acidic seawater . Especially significant is the ability to maintain naval air operations without regular deliveries of jet fuel . A side benefit of the technology is that it will decrease harmful ocean acidification , by removing CO2 from seawater .","qid":"196","docid":"Heather_Willauer","rank":88,"score":76596},{"content":"Title: Johnson Sea Link accident Content: The Johnson Sea Link accident was a June 1973 incident that claimed the lives of two divers . During a seemingly routine dive off Key West , the submersible Johnson Sea Link was trapped for over 24 hours in the wreckage of the destroyer , which had been sunk to create an artificial reef . Although the submersible was eventually recovered by the rescue vessel A.B. Wood II , two of the four occupants died of carbon dioxide poisoning : 31-year-old Edwin Clayton Link ( son of Edwin Albert Link , the submersible 's designer ) and 51-year-old diver Albert Dennison Stover . The submersible 's pilot , Archibald `` Jock '' Menzies , and ichthyologist Robert Meek survived . Over the next two years , Edwin Link designed an unmanned Cabled Observation and Rescue Device ( CORD ) that could free a trapped submersible .","qid":"196","docid":"Johnson_Sea_Link_accident","rank":89,"score":76583},{"content":"Title: CA1 (gene) Content: Carbonic anhydrase 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CA1 gene . Carbonic anhydrases ( CAs ) are a large family of zinc metalloenzymes that catalyze the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide . They participate in a variety of biological processes , including cellular respiration , calcification , acid-base balance , bone resorption , and the formation of aqueous humor , cerebrospinal fluid , saliva , and gastric acid . They show extensive diversity in tissue distribution and in their subcellular localization . CA1 is closely linked to CA2 and CA3 genes on chromosome 8 , and it encodes a cytosolic protein which is found at the highest level in erythrocytes . Transcript variants of CA1 utilizing alternative polyA_sites have been described in literature .","qid":"196","docid":"CA1_(gene)","rank":90,"score":76572},{"content":"Title: Robert Berner Content: Robert Arbuckle Berner ( November 25 , 1935 -- January 10 , 2015 ) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the modeling of the carbon cycle . He taught Geology and Geophysics from 1965 to 2007 at Yale University , where he latterly served as Professor Emeritus until his death . His work on sedimentary rocks led to the co-founding of the BLAG model of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which takes into account both geochemical and biological contributions to the carbon cycle .","qid":"196","docid":"Robert_Berner","rank":91,"score":76537},{"content":"Title: Alberta Carbon Trunk Line Content: The Alberta Carbon Trunk Line ( ACTL ) is a 240 km pipeline in its construction stages that will collect excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the province of Alberta and transport it to various oil reservoirs around the province for enhanced oil recovery applications . Pioneered by Enhance Energy , the ACTL will source its CO2 from a fertilizer manufacturing plant in Redwater , and the North West Redwater Partnership bitumen upgrading plant using gasification . It will initially funnel the collected CO2 to Clive , a field discovered in the 1950s and currently produces about 300 barrels per day .","qid":"196","docid":"Alberta_Carbon_Trunk_Line","rank":92,"score":76278},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .","qid":"196","docid":"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth","rank":93,"score":76193},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate","rank":94,"score":76047},{"content":"Title: Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project Content: The Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project is part of the Gorgon Project , the world 's largest natural gas project . The Gorgon Project , located on Barrow Island in Western Australia , includes a liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) plant , a domestic gas plant , and a Carbon Dioxide Injection Project . The initial carbon dioxide injections are planned to take place by the end of 2017 . Once launched , the Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project will be the world 's largest CO2 injection plant , with an ability to store up to 4 million tons of CO2 per year -- approximately 120 million tons over the project 's lifetime , and 40 percent of total Gorgon Project emissions .","qid":"196","docid":"Gorgon_Carbon_Dioxide_Injection_Project","rank":95,"score":76024},{"content":"Title: Carbon fixation Content: Carbon fixation or сarbon assimilation is the conversion process of inorganic carbon ( carbon dioxide ) to organic compounds by living organisms . The most prominent example is photosynthesis , although chemosynthesis is another form of carbon fixation that can take place in the absence of sunlight . Organisms that grow by fixing carbon are called autotrophs . Autotrophs include photoautotrophs , which synthesize organic compounds using the energy of sunlight , and lithoautotrophs , which synthesize organic compounds using the energy of inorganic oxidation . Heterotrophs are organisms that grow using the carbon fixed by autotrophs . The organic compounds are used by heterotrophs to produce energy and to build body structures . `` Fixed carbon '' , `` reduced carbon '' , and `` organic carbon '' are equivalent terms for various organic compounds .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_fixation","rank":96,"score":75986},{"content":"Title: Extreme environment Content: An extreme environment contains conditions that are hard to survive for most known life forms . These conditions may be extremely high or low temperature or pressure ; high or low content of oxygen or carbon dioxide in the atmosphere ; high levels of radiation , acidity , or alkalinity ; absence of water ; water containing a high concentration of salt or sugar ; presence of sulphur , petroleum , and other toxic substances . Examples of extreme environments include the geographical poles , very dry deserts , volcanoes , deep ocean trenches , upper atmosphere , Mt Everest , outer space , and the environments of every planet in the Solar System except the Earth . Any organisms living in these conditions are often very well adapted to their living circumstances , which is usually a result of long-term evolution . Physiologists have long known that organisms living in extreme environments are especially likely to exhibit clear examples of evolutionary adaptation because of the presumably intense past natural selection they have experienced .","qid":"196","docid":"Extreme_environment","rank":97,"score":75906},{"content":"Title: The World Without Us Content: The World Without Us is a non-fiction book about what would happen to the natural and built environment if humans suddenly disappeared , written by American journalist Alan Weisman and published by St. Martin 's Thomas Dunne Books . It is a book-length expansion of Weisman 's own February 2005 Discover article `` Earth Without People '' . Written largely as a thought experiment , it outlines , for example , how cities and houses would deteriorate , how long man-made artifacts would last , and how remaining lifeforms would evolve . Weisman concludes that residential neighborhoods would become forests within 500 years , and that radioactive waste , bronze statues , plastics , and Mount Rushmore would be among the longest-lasting evidence of human presence on Earth . The author of four previous books and numerous articles for magazines , Weisman traveled to interview academics , scientists and other authorities . He used quotations from these interviews to explain the effects of the natural environment and to substantiate predictions . The book has been translated and published in many countries . It was successful in the U.S. , reaching # 6 on the New York Times Best Seller list and # 1 on the San Francisco Chronicle Best-Sellers list in September 2007 . It ranked # 1 on Time and Entertainment Weekly 's of 2007 . 20th Century Fox has purchased the rights to the book with the intent of creating a motion picture .","qid":"196","docid":"The_World_Without_Us","rank":98,"score":75866},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":99,"score":75847},{"content":"Title: Carbon Based Lifeforms Content: Carbon Based Lifeforms ( also known as CBL ) is a Swedish ambient music duo formed in 1996 in Gothenburg , Sweden by Johannes Hedberg and Daniel Segerstad ( né Ringström ) .","qid":"196","docid":"Carbon_Based_Lifeforms","rank":100,"score":75805}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 110811\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-based life Content: Carbon is a key component of all known life on Earth . Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements , especially oxygen , hydrogen and nitrogen , and carbon can bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons . Carbon is abundant on Earth . It is also lightweight and relatively small in size , making it easier for enzymes to manipulate carbon molecules . It is often assumed in astrobiology that if life exists somewhere else in the universe , it will also be carbon-based . Critics refer to this assumption as carbon chauvinism .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-based_life\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 109443\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 105670\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Melissa Trainer Content: Melissa G. Trainer ( April 22 , 1978 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) is an American astrobiologist who in 2004 demonstrated empirically that life could have formed on Earth through the interaction of methane , carbon dioxide and ultraviolet light ( sunlight ) . She is currently Assistant Chief for Science , Operations , and Strategic Planning in the Planetary Environments Laboratory at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Melissa_Trainer\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 99428\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Capnophile\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 98923\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Good Life (Railroad Earth album) Content: The Good Life is the third studio album by the bluegrass/jam band Railroad Earth , released on June 8 , 2004 . So many jam bands seem to forget the importance of good song writing with meaningful lyrics . Railroad Earth 's songs are well-crafted stories , and are delivered with outstanding musicianship and strong vocals . The musical duties are distributed in pretty much the same way here as on their previous two releases : Todd Sheaffer handles vocals and guitar and does the bulk of the songwriting ; John Skehan , Tim Carbone , and Andy Goessling provide the band 's trademark swirling-and-skirling texture ; new bassist Johnny Grubb ( replacing Dave Von Dollen ) and percussionist Carey Harmon provide the solid ground they take off from and land on . Multi-instrumentalist Andy Goessling is credited on banjo , dobro , and sax ( to name a few ) , Tim Carbone on fiddle , accordion , piano and electric guitar , and John Skehan on mandolin , piano , and Hammond organ . Shaeffer often writes tunes about love , being positive , and living a simpler life paired with catchy refrains and memorable melodies , and this effort is not different in that regard . Re-occurring themes of examining one 's destiny , living a good life , and staying true to one 's self resound . The opening track , `` Storms '' uses the metaphor to `` ride out the storm '' in a relationship and stick together through hard times . Perhaps an ode to marriage ? `` Way of the Buffalo '' is an environmental allegory and the title track , `` The Good Life , '' is about living free and `` going back to the country '' evoking images of a simpler time . One of the strongest songs is `` Goat '' which in the live setting extends into a long jammed out vehicle for the band . The somber lyrics , however , paint a picture of how to rid one 's life of negativity .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Good_Life_(Railroad_Earth_album)\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 96829\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Terrestrial biological carbon cycle Content: Carbon is an essential part of life on Earth . About half the dry weight of most living organisms is carbon . It plays an important role in the structure , biochemistry , and nutrition of all living cells . Living biomass holds between 600 and 1,000 gigatons of carbon , most of which is wood , while some 1,200 gigatons of carbon are stored in the terrestrial biosphere as dead biomass . Carbon is cycled through the terrestrial biosphere with varying speeds , depending on what form it is stored in and under which circumstances . It is exchanged most quickly with the atmosphere , although small amounts of carbon leave the terrestrial biosphere and enter the oceans as dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Terrestrial_biological_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 96795\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercapnia\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 90752\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon cycle Content: The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere , pedosphere , geosphere , hydrosphere , and atmosphere of the Earth . Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone . Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle , the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life . It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere , as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks . The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges ( incomes and losses ) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop ( e.g. , atmosphere and biosphere ) of the carbon cycle . An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide . The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier , and popularized by Humphry Davy .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 90566\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 90344\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_scrubber\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 90279\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 90047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"TanSat\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 90019\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 89476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life Content: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life : The Individual 's Guide to Stopping Climate Change is a 2007 book by Chris Goodall , published by Earthscan/Routledge . According to New Scientist , this book provides `` the definitive guide to reducing your carbon footprint '' . Goodall explains how consumers can cut carbon usage by 75 percent without making drastic lifestyle changes . How to Live a Low-Carbon Life has been reviewed in the Journal of Environmental Health Research , The Guardian , and The Times . How to Live a Low-carbon Life won the 2007 Clarion award for non-fiction . A second edition was published in 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"How_to_Live_a_Low-Carbon_Life\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 87247\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 87141\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Content: Carbon ( from carbo `` coal '' ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent -- making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , C and C being stable , while C is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity . Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18.5 % ) after oxygen . The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb '' γράφειν '' which means `` to write '' ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen . The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4 , while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions . For this reason , carbon has often been referred to as the `` king of the elements '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 87066\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonation Content: In chemistry , carbonation refers to two chemical processes involving the binding of carbon dioxide to substrates . Various applications or manifestations of this reaction are listed in order of their relative scale . In biochemistry . Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO . So important is this carbonation process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme . The production of urea , a widely used fertilizer , involves the combination of carbon dioxide and ammonia : 2 NH3 + CO2 → ( H2N ) 2CO + H2O In inorganic chemistry , carbonation occurs widely . Metal oxides and metal hydroxides react with CO2 to give complexes of carbonate and bicarbonate . In reinforced concrete construction , the chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete is known as neutralisation . Low valent metal complexes react with CO2 to give metal carbon dioxide complexes . In organometallic chemistry , carbonation involves the insertion of CO2 into metal-carbon bonds . The topic has attracted great interest for organic synthesis and even as a means of utilizing CO2 as a feedstock .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonation\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 86987\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gastric tonometry Content: Gastric tonometry describes the measurement of the carbon dioxide level inside the stomach in order to assess the degree of blood flow to the stomach and bowel . The measurement of gut mucosal carbon dioxide has been used to detect decreased blood flow . Accumulation of carbon dioxide is predominantly a result of hypoperfusion and not hypoxia . Because the introduction of a nasogastric tube is almost routine in critically ill patients , the measurement of gastric carbon dioxide can be an easy method to monitor tissue perfusion . The gastric mucosal pH is measured according to an equation that assumes that arterial bicarbonate is equal to intramucosal bicarbonate , an argument that is not always valid . Given that the gastric mucosal carbon dioxide is the directly measured value , whereas the gastric mucosal pH is the derived and possibly inaccurate value , studies that used gastric pH to monitor perfusion may be inherently flawed . Most studies have failed to effectively affect gastric pH and for this reason failed to produce improvements in outcome . One study , by Gutierrez and colleagues , has shown that therapeutic interventions guided by gastric tonometry improved survival in critically ill patients . In a direct comparison of splanchnic-oriented therapy as guided by gastric tonometry with conventional shock management of trauma patients , there was no difference in mortality rates , organ dysfunction rates , or length of stay . After a surge in popularity , the use of gastric tonometry waned and it is currently found with less frequency in surgical ICUs .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Gastric_tonometry\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 86568\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 86178\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1953 Menzengraben mining accident Content: The Menzengraben mining accident was the explosion of a large pocket of carbon dioxide in a salt mine in Menzengraben , East Germany , July 7 , 1953 . During a planned , nightly explosives detonation in the mine , an unusually large pocket of pressurized carbon dioxide was suddenly released , resulting in the ejection of large blocks of salt through the mine shaft at very high velocities . The expanding gas as well as the blocks of salt demolished the building above the mine shaft , resulting in blocks of concrete being ejected as well . Three died as a consequence , one from being hit by debris , two from asphyxiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"1953_Menzengraben_mining_accident\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 86012\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 85850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 85833\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Klaus_Lackner\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 85507\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CarbFix Content: CarbFix is a project in Iceland intended to lock away carbon dioxide by reacting it with basaltic rocks . Work on the project began in 2007 . The CarbFix team involves American and Icelandic researchers including Iceland geologist Sigurdur Reynir Gislason serving as chief scientist , project technical manager Bergur Sigfusson , manager Juerg Matter who works with Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and scientific overseer , Wallace S. Broecker ( also with Columbia ) . Reykjavik Energy has supplied almost half the $ 10 million spent thus far on CarbFix . Other sponsors include U.S. and Icelandic universities . In addition to finding a new method for permanent carbon dioxide storage , another objective of the project is to train scientists for years of work to come .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"CarbFix\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 85476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sherwood B. Idso Content: Sherwood B. Idso ( born June 12 , 1942 ) is the president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization . Prior to that time he was a Research Physicist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Agricultural Research Service at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix , Arizona , where he worked since June 1967 . He was also closely associated with Arizona State University over most of this period , serving as an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Geology , Geography , and Botany and Microbiology . His two sons , Craig and Keith , are , respectively , the founder and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Idso is the author or co-author of over 500 publications including the books Carbon Dioxide : Friend or Foe ? ( 1982 ) and Carbon Dioxide and Global Change : Earth in Transition ( 1989 ) . He served on the editorial board of the international journal Agricultural and Forest Meteorology from 1973 to 1993 and since 1993 has served on the editorial board of Environmental and Experimental Botany . Over the course of his career , he has been an invited reviewer of manuscripts for 56 different scientific journals and 17 different funding agencies , representing an unusually large array of disciplines . He is an ISI highly cited researcher .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Sherwood_B._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 85191\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 84977\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 84685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 84574\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 84476\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_flooding\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 84416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Greening_Earth_Society\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 83952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_shifting\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 83711\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Engineering\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 82991\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stafford rail crash (1996) Content: On 8 March 1996 , a Transrail freight train travelling from Mossend in Glasgow to Willesden in London , derailed after an axle on a wagon carrying liquid carbon dioxide failed due to fatigue at Rickerscote 2.2 km south of Stafford . Almost immediately after the derailment , a Travelling Post Office mail train hauled by a Rail Express Systems British Rail Class 86 electric locomotive ( no 86239 ) collided with a section of the derailed freight train on the adjacent line and fouled the path of the TPO mail train . One person , a mail sorter , was killed in the crash and twenty others including the driver of the mail train were injured . The cause of the collision was the failure of an axle on one of the tanker wagons of the freight train . It caused the wagon and adjacent ones to derail , into the path of the closely approaching mail train , which was travelling at 60 mph . The driver of the mail train had no time to brake and the force of the collision spun the locomotive around and catapulted it up the embankment , where it came to rest against the end wall of a house . The liquid carbon dioxide formed into a gas as it was no longer under pressure and interfered with the rescue effort . One bystander who had gone to help was later found unconscious after suffering the inhalation effects of carbon dioxide . The rescue services were on the scene within four minutes of being notified , despite the signaller at Stafford having to relay the emergency information via another office because the crash had cut his external phone lines , but he was able to phone his supervisor at Crewe . The fire service on site were given the wrong staffing list for the mail train - they had been given a manifest for the amount of mail workers who would have been on the train northbound after leaving Crewe . However , the ambulance service were given a correct head count list from the Royal Mail workers at the lineside . During the investigation , it was discovered that the wagon had travelled 69,000 mi since its last inspection . The recommendation at the time was that wagons were tested every 24,000 mi .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Stafford_rail_crash_(1996)\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 82969\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 82440\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 82368\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 82309\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life without Death Content: Life without Death is a cellular automaton , similar to Conway 's Game of Life and other cellular automaton rules . In this cellular automaton , an initial seed pattern grows according to the same rule as in Conway 's Game of Life ; however , unlike Life , patterns never shrink . The rule was originally considered by , who called it `` Inkspot '' ; it has also been called `` Flakes '' . In contrast to the more complex patterns that exist within Conway 's Game of Life , Life without Death commonly features still life patterns , in which no change occurs , and ladder patterns , that grow in a straight line .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Life_without_Death\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 82104\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 81904\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Monoxide All Fuels Action Forum Content: The Carbon Monoxide All Fuels Action Forum ( COAFAF ) is an industry-led forum and campaign group comprising various individuals , organisations , charities and policy makers working to reduce death by carbon monoxide poisoning in the UK . The group acts as a sister group to the All-Party Parliamentary Carbon Monoxide Group ( APPCOG ) , an official all-party parliamentary group of the UK Parliament . The Carbon Monoxide All Fuels Action Forum is chaired by Steve Miller , President of the London region at the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health . Its secretariat services are provided by Policy Connect , an independent , not-for-profit think tank based in London .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Monoxide_All_Fuels_Action_Forum\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 81730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 81681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alkaline hydrolysis (death custom) Content: Alkaline hydrolysis ( also called biocremation and/or resomation ) is a process for the disposal of human remains which produces less carbon dioxide and pollutants than cremation . The process is being marketed as an alternative to the traditional options of burial or cremation .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Alkaline_hydrolysis_(death_custom)\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 81648\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"C3_carbon_fixation\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 81535\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide cleaning Content: Carbon dioxide cleaning ( CO2 cleaning ) comprises a family of methods for parts cleaning and sterilization , using carbon dioxide in its various phases . It is often preferred for use on delicate surfaces . CO2 cleaning has found application in the aerospace , automotive , electronics , medical , and other industries . Carbon dioxide snow cleaning has been used to remove particles and organic residues from metals , polymers , ceramics , glasses , hard drives , optics , and other surfaces .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_cleaning\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 81535\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Content: In some individuals , the effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is to cause increased carbon dioxide retention , which may cause drowsiness , headaches , and in severe cases lack of respiration , which may lead to death . People with lung ailments or with central respiratory depression , who receive supplemental oxygen , require careful monitoring .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Effect_of_oxygen_on_chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 81406\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 81349\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sequestration\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 81342\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_laser\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 81198\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_finance\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 81099\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 80853\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 80552\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_generator\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 80501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mazuku Content: In geology , a mazuku ( Swahili : evil wind ) is a pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside . Mazuku are created when carbon dioxide accumulates in pockets low to the ground . CO2 is heavier than air , which causes it to stay close to the ground , and is also undetectable by human olfactory or visual senses in most conditions . Mazuku can be related to volcanic activity or to a natural disaster known as a limnic eruption . In the first case , noxious gases are released from the Earth 's crust into the atmosphere , whereas in the second case the gases originate deep in a lake and boil rapidly to the surface . Because of their nature as sporadic and subtle events , few mazuku have been recorded , but there is a growing understanding of them based on historical and fossil evidence .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Mazuku\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 80477\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 80435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lake Monoun Content: Lake Monoun is a lake in West Province , Cameroon , that lies in the Oku Volcanic Field . On August 15 , 1984 , the lake exploded in a limnic eruption , which resulted in the release of a large amount of carbon dioxide that killed 37 people . At first , the cause of the deaths was a mystery , and causes such as terrorism were suspected . Further investigation and a similar event two years later at Lake Nyos led to the currently accepted explanation .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Lake_Monoun\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 80141\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-14 Content: Carbon-14 , 14C , or radiocarbon , is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons . Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and colleagues ( 1949 ) to date archaeological , geological and hydrogeological samples . Carbon-14 was discovered on 27 February 1940 , by Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California . Its existence had been suggested by Franz Kurie in 1934 . There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon on Earth : 99 % of the carbon is carbon-12 , 1 % is carbon-13 , and carbon-14 occurs in trace amounts , i.e. , making up about 1 or 1.5 atoms per 1012 atoms of the carbon in the atmosphere . Carbon-12 and carbon-13 are both stable , while the half-life of carbon-14 is 5,730 ± 40 years . Carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14 through beta decay . A gram of carbon containing 1 atom of carbon-14 per 1012 atoms will emit 0.40 beta particles per second . The primary natural source of carbon-14 on Earth is cosmic ray action on nitrogen in the atmosphere , and it is therefore a cosmogenic nuclide . However , open-air nuclear testing between 1955 -- 1980 contributed to this pool . The different isotopes of carbon do not differ appreciably in their chemical properties . This resemblance is used in chemical and biological research , in a technique called carbon labeling : carbon-14 atoms can be used to replace nonradioactive carbon , in order to trace chemical and biochemical reactions involving carbon atoms from any given organic compound .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-14\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 80092\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monoxide poisoning Content: Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs after breathing in too much carbon monoxide ( CO ) . Symptoms of mild acute poisoning include lightheadedness , confusion , headache , feeling like the world is spinning , and flu-like effects . Larger exposures can lead to toxicity of the central nervous system and heart , and death . After acute poisoning , long-term problems may occur . Carbon monoxide can also have negative effects on a baby if exposed during pregnancy . Chronic exposure to low levels of carbon monoxide can lead to depression , confusion , and memory loss . Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas , but , being colorless , odorless , tasteless , and initially non-irritating , it is difficult for people to detect . Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete combustion of organic matter . It is often produced by motor vehicles that run on gasoline , diesel , methane , or other carbon-based fuels and from tools , gas heaters , and cooking equipment that are powered by carbon-based fuels such as propane , butane and charcoal . Exposure at 100 ppm or greater can be dangerous to human health . Carbon monoxide mainly causes adverse effects by combining with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin ( HbCO ) in the blood . This prevents hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the tissues . Additionally , myoglobin and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase are thought to be adversely affected . Carboxyhemoglobin can revert to hemoglobin , but the recovery takes time as the HbCO complex is fairly stable . Treatment of poisoning largely consists of giving 100 % oxygen or providing hyperbaric oxygen therapy , although the optimum treatment remains controversial . Oxygen works as an antidote as it increases the removal of carbon monoxide from hemoglobin , in turn providing the body with normal levels of oxygen . The prevention of poisoning is a significant public health issue . Domestic carbon monoxide poisoning can be prevented by early detection with the use of household carbon monoxide detectors . Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries . It has also commonly been used as a method to commit suicide , usually by deliberately inhaling the exhaust fumes of a running vehicle . Modern automobiles still produce levels of carbon monoxide which will kill in an enclosed space or if the exhaust path is obstructed .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monoxide_poisoning\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 80081\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Asphyxiant_gas\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 79791\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonic anhydrase Content: The carbonic anhydrases ( or carbonate dehydratases ) form a family of enzymes that catalyze the rapid interconversion of carbon dioxide and water to bicarbonate and protons ( or vice versa ) , a reversible reaction that occurs relatively slowly in the absence of a catalyst . The active site of most carbonic anhydrases contains a zinc ion ; they are therefore classified as metalloenzymes . One of the functions of the enzyme in animals is to interconvert carbon dioxide and bicarbonate to maintain acid-base balance in blood and other tissues , and to help transport carbon dioxide out of tissues .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonic_anhydrase\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 79623\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_David_Keeling\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 79615\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Amorphous_carbonia\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 79470\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 79341\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Berry L. Cannon Content: Berry Louis Cannon ( March 22 , 1935 -- February 17 , 1969 ) was an American aquanaut who served on the SEALAB II and III projects of the U.S. Navy . Cannon died of carbon dioxide poisoning while attempting to repair SEALAB III . It was later found that his diving rig 's baralyme canister , which should have absorbed the carbon dioxide Cannon exhaled , was empty .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Berry_L._Cannon\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 79203\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Day The Earth Nearly Died Content: The Day The Earth Nearly Died is a British documentary produced by BBC to the science and philosophy series Horizon in 2002 . The program focuses on the mystery of the Permian extinction , which scientists believe killed over 90 % of all life on earth at the end of the Permian , some 250 million years ago . The program features scientists like Adrian Jones , Vincent Courtillot , Gregory Retallack , Peter Ward , Michael Benton , Michael Rampino and others .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Day_The_Earth_Nearly_Died\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 79091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 78895\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Christine_Wiedinmyer\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 78752\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_suboxide\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 78745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_bubble\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 78497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_sensor\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 78394\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere Content: The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_accumulation_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 78310\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Permissive hypercapnia Content: Permissive hypercapnia is hypercapnia , ( i.e. high concentration of carbon dioxide in blood ) , in respiratory insufficient patients in which oxygenation has become so difficult that the optimal mode of mechanical ventilation ( with oxygenation in mind ) is not capable of exchanging enough carbon dioxide . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . In acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ) , decreasing the tidal volume on the ventilator ( usually 8-12 mL/kg ) to 4-6 mL/kg may decrease barotrauma by decreasing ventilatory peak airway pressures and leads to improved respiratory recovery . Hypercapnia ( increased pCO2 ) sometimes needs to be tolerated in order to achieve these lower tidal volumes . The permissive hypercapnia leads to respiratory acidosis which might have negative side effects , but given that the patient is in ARDS , improving ventilatory function is more important . Since hypoxemia is a major life-threatening condition and hypercapnia is not , one might choose to accept the latter . Hence the term , `` permissive hypercapnia . '' Altogether , the negative side effects of permissive hypercapnia may outweigh the benefits . For that reason , the implementation of extracorporeal CO2 removal ( iLA Membrane Ventilator , Novalung ) at an early stage of ARDS , has become a well established standard to allow for protective ventilation and avoid respiratory acidosis .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Permissive_hypercapnia\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 78175\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Nation Content: Carbon Nation is a 2010 documentary film by Peter Byck about technological - and community-based energy solutions to the growing worldwide carbon footprint . The film is narrated by Bill Kurtis . ASIN : B0055T46LA ( Rental ) and B0055T46G0 ( Purchase ) . Rather than highlighting the problems with use of fossil fuels , Carbon Nation presents a series of ways in which the 16 terawatts of energy the world consumes can be met while reducing or eliminating carbon-based sources . It contains optimistic interviews with experts in various fields , business CEOs , and sustainable energy supporters to present a compelling case for change while having a neutral , matter-of-fact explanation . Among those interviewed are Richard Branson , former CIA Director R. James Woolsey , Earth Day founder Denis Hayes and environmental advocate Van Jones . Much of the content of the film consists of interviews , some are listed above . The list of interviewees also includes Lester R. Brown President , Earth Policy Institute Sean Casten President & CEO , Recycled Energy Development Ralph Cavanagh Lead Attorney , NRDC Bob Fox , Partner Cook + Fox Architects Thomas Friedman , Author & NY Times Columnist Eban Goodstein Economic Professor , Lewis and Clark College Gary Hirshberg Chairman , President , and CEO of Stonyfield Farm Sadhu Aufochs Johnston Chief Environmental Officer , City of Chicago Amory B. Lovins Chairman & Chief Scientist , Rocky Mountain Institute Joel Makower Executive Director , GreenBiz.com Edward Mazria Executive Director , Solar Richmond Arthur H. Rosenfeld Commissioner , California Energy Commission John Rowe ( CEO ) Exelon Chairman & CEO , Exelon Corporation\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Nation\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 77946\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: RuBisCO Content: Ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase , commonly known by the abbreviations RuBisCO , RuBPCase , or RuBPco , is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation , a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose . In chemical terms , it catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ( also known as RuBP ) . It is probably the most abundant enzyme on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"RuBisCO\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 77884\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 77625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hyperventilation Content: Hyperventilation ( also called overbreathing ) occurs when the rate and quantity of alveolar ventilation of carbon dioxide exceeds the body 's production of carbon dioxide . A person may regularly hyperventilate , a condition called hyperventilation syndrome . When alveolar ventilation is excessive , more carbon dioxide will be removed from the blood stream than the body can produce . This causes the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood stream to fall and produces a state known as hypocapnia . The body normally attempts to compensate for this metabolically . If excess ventilation can not be compensated metabolically , it will lead to a rise in blood pH. This rise in blood pH is known as respiratory alkalosis . When hyperventilation leads to respiratory alkalosis , it may cause a number of physical symptoms : dizziness , tingling in the lips , hands or feet , headache , weakness , fainting and seizures . In extreme cases it can cause carpopedal spasms ( flapping and contraction of the hands and feet ) . There are factors that initiate hyperventilation and others can sustain it ; for example , physiological stress or a feeling of anxiety can initiate it ; anxiety may also sustain it . Other factors that initiate or sustain hyperventilation include reduced air pressure at high altitudes , head injury , stroke , respiratory disorders such as asthma and pneumonia , cardiovascular problems such as pulmonary embolisms , anemia , and adverse reactions to certain drugs . Hyperventilation can also be mechanically produced in people on respirators and can also be brought about voluntarily , by taking many deep breaths in rapid succession .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Hyperventilation\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 77259\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_label\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 77243\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 77192\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Metal carbon dioxide complex Content: Metal carbon dioxide complexes are coordination complexes that contain carbon dioxide ligands . Aside from the fundamental interest in the coordination chemistry of simple molecules , studies in this field are motivated by the possibility that transition metals might catalyze useful transformations of CO2 . This research is relevant both to organic synthesis and to the production of `` solar fuels '' that would avoid the use of petroleum-based fuels .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Metal_carbon_dioxide_complex\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 77146\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lake Nyos disaster Content: The Lake Nyos disaster occurred on 21 August 1986 , when a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos , in northwestern Cameroon , produced a large cloud of carbon dioxide , which descended onto nearby villages , killing 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock . The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000 -- 300,000 tons ( some sources state as much as 1.6 million tons ) of CO2 . This gas cloud rose at nearly 100 km/h and spilled over the northern lip of the lake . It then rushed down two valleys , branching off to the north , displacing all the air and suffocating people and livestock within 25 km of the lake . A degassing system has since been installed at the lake , with the aim of reducing the concentration of in deep waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Lake_Nyos_disaster\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 77107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"C._Kumar_N._Patel\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 77070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 77043\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Individual_action_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 76859\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_reforming\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 76847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypocapnia Content: Hypocapnia or hypocapnea ( from the Greek words υπό and καπνός kapnós ) , also known as hypocarbia , sometimes incorrectly called acapnia , is a state of reduced carbon dioxide in the blood . Hypocapnia usually results from deep or rapid breathing , known as hyperventilation . Hypocapnia is the opposite of hypercapnia .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypocapnia\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 76838\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry Content: Hypothetical types of biochemistry are forms of biochemistry speculated to be scientifically viable but not proven to exist at this time . The kinds of living organisms currently known on Earth all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions , water as a solvent , and DNA or RNA to define and control their form . If life exists on other planets or moons , it may be chemically similar ; it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries -- for instance involving other classes of carbon compounds , compounds of another element , or another solvent in place of water . The possibility of life-forms being based on `` alternative '' biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion , informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds . It is also a common subject in science fiction . The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon . Silicon is in the same group as carbon on the periodic table and , like carbon , it is tetravalent , although the silicon analogs of organic compounds are generally less stable . Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia , which , like water , is a polar molecule , and cosmically abundant ; and non-polar hydrocarbon solvents such as methane and ethane , which are known to exist in liquid form on the surface of Titan .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 76777\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonic maceration Content: Carbonic maceration is a winemaking technique , often associated with the French wine region of Beaujolais , in which whole grapes are fermented in a carbon dioxide rich environment prior to crushing . Conventional alcoholic fermentation involves crushing the grapes to free the juice and pulp from the skin with yeast serving to convert sugar into ethanol . Carbonic maceration ferments most of the juice while it is still inside the grape , although grapes at the bottom of the vessel are crushed by gravity and undergo conventional fermentation . The resulting wine is fruity with very low tannins . It is ready to drink quickly but lacks the structure for long-term aging . In the most extreme case , such as with Beaujolais nouveau , the period between picking and bottling can be less than six weeks . During carbonic maceration , an anaerobic environment is created by pumping carbon dioxide into a sealed container filled with whole grape clusters . The carbon dioxide gas permeates through the grape skins and begins to stimulate fermentation at an intracellular level . The entire process takes place inside each single , intact berry . Ethanol is produced as a by-product of this process but studies have shown that other unique chemical reactions take place that have a distinctive effect on the wine .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonic_maceration\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 76695\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heather Willauer Content: Heather D. Willauer ( born 1974 ) is an American analytical chemist and inventor working in Washington , D.C. , at the United States Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) . Leading a research team , Willauer has patented a method for removing carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from seawater , in tandem with hydrogen ( H2 ) removed simultaneously . Willauer is researching catalysts to enable a continuous Fischer -- Tropsch process to recombine carbon monoxide ( CO ) and hydrogen gases into complex hydrocarbon liquids to synthesize jet fuel for Navy and Marine aviation , and fuel for the U.S. Navy 's ships at sea . The work of Willauer 's team of researchers , once the technology is incorporated into the U.S. Navy 's warships in the 2020s , is expected to release such ships from their reliance on vulnerable replenishment oilers to give them indefinite time on station , if they are sailing in mildly acidic seawater . Especially significant is the ability to maintain naval air operations without regular deliveries of jet fuel . A side benefit of the technology is that it will decrease harmful ocean acidification , by removing CO2 from seawater .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Heather_Willauer\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 76596\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Johnson Sea Link accident Content: The Johnson Sea Link accident was a June 1973 incident that claimed the lives of two divers . During a seemingly routine dive off Key West , the submersible Johnson Sea Link was trapped for over 24 hours in the wreckage of the destroyer , which had been sunk to create an artificial reef . Although the submersible was eventually recovered by the rescue vessel A.B. Wood II , two of the four occupants died of carbon dioxide poisoning : 31-year-old Edwin Clayton Link ( son of Edwin Albert Link , the submersible 's designer ) and 51-year-old diver Albert Dennison Stover . The submersible 's pilot , Archibald `` Jock '' Menzies , and ichthyologist Robert Meek survived . Over the next two years , Edwin Link designed an unmanned Cabled Observation and Rescue Device ( CORD ) that could free a trapped submersible .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Johnson_Sea_Link_accident\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 76583\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CA1 (gene) Content: Carbonic anhydrase 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CA1 gene . Carbonic anhydrases ( CAs ) are a large family of zinc metalloenzymes that catalyze the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide . They participate in a variety of biological processes , including cellular respiration , calcification , acid-base balance , bone resorption , and the formation of aqueous humor , cerebrospinal fluid , saliva , and gastric acid . They show extensive diversity in tissue distribution and in their subcellular localization . CA1 is closely linked to CA2 and CA3 genes on chromosome 8 , and it encodes a cytosolic protein which is found at the highest level in erythrocytes . Transcript variants of CA1 utilizing alternative polyA_sites have been described in literature .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"CA1_(gene)\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 76572\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert Berner Content: Robert Arbuckle Berner ( November 25 , 1935 -- January 10 , 2015 ) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the modeling of the carbon cycle . He taught Geology and Geophysics from 1965 to 2007 at Yale University , where he latterly served as Professor Emeritus until his death . His work on sedimentary rocks led to the co-founding of the BLAG model of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which takes into account both geochemical and biological contributions to the carbon cycle .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_Berner\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 76537\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alberta Carbon Trunk Line Content: The Alberta Carbon Trunk Line ( ACTL ) is a 240 km pipeline in its construction stages that will collect excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the province of Alberta and transport it to various oil reservoirs around the province for enhanced oil recovery applications . Pioneered by Enhance Energy , the ACTL will source its CO2 from a fertilizer manufacturing plant in Redwater , and the North West Redwater Partnership bitumen upgrading plant using gasification . It will initially funnel the collected CO2 to Clive , a field discovered in the 1950s and currently produces about 300 barrels per day .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Alberta_Carbon_Trunk_Line\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 76278\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 76193\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 76047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project Content: The Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project is part of the Gorgon Project , the world 's largest natural gas project . The Gorgon Project , located on Barrow Island in Western Australia , includes a liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) plant , a domestic gas plant , and a Carbon Dioxide Injection Project . The initial carbon dioxide injections are planned to take place by the end of 2017 . Once launched , the Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project will be the world 's largest CO2 injection plant , with an ability to store up to 4 million tons of CO2 per year -- approximately 120 million tons over the project 's lifetime , and 40 percent of total Gorgon Project emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Gorgon_Carbon_Dioxide_Injection_Project\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 76024\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon fixation Content: Carbon fixation or сarbon assimilation is the conversion process of inorganic carbon ( carbon dioxide ) to organic compounds by living organisms . The most prominent example is photosynthesis , although chemosynthesis is another form of carbon fixation that can take place in the absence of sunlight . Organisms that grow by fixing carbon are called autotrophs . Autotrophs include photoautotrophs , which synthesize organic compounds using the energy of sunlight , and lithoautotrophs , which synthesize organic compounds using the energy of inorganic oxidation . Heterotrophs are organisms that grow using the carbon fixed by autotrophs . The organic compounds are used by heterotrophs to produce energy and to build body structures . `` Fixed carbon '' , `` reduced carbon '' , and `` organic carbon '' are equivalent terms for various organic compounds .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_fixation\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 75986\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extreme environment Content: An extreme environment contains conditions that are hard to survive for most known life forms . These conditions may be extremely high or low temperature or pressure ; high or low content of oxygen or carbon dioxide in the atmosphere ; high levels of radiation , acidity , or alkalinity ; absence of water ; water containing a high concentration of salt or sugar ; presence of sulphur , petroleum , and other toxic substances . Examples of extreme environments include the geographical poles , very dry deserts , volcanoes , deep ocean trenches , upper atmosphere , Mt Everest , outer space , and the environments of every planet in the Solar System except the Earth . Any organisms living in these conditions are often very well adapted to their living circumstances , which is usually a result of long-term evolution . Physiologists have long known that organisms living in extreme environments are especially likely to exhibit clear examples of evolutionary adaptation because of the presumably intense past natural selection they have experienced .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Extreme_environment\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 75906\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The World Without Us Content: The World Without Us is a non-fiction book about what would happen to the natural and built environment if humans suddenly disappeared , written by American journalist Alan Weisman and published by St. Martin 's Thomas Dunne Books . It is a book-length expansion of Weisman 's own February 2005 Discover article `` Earth Without People '' . Written largely as a thought experiment , it outlines , for example , how cities and houses would deteriorate , how long man-made artifacts would last , and how remaining lifeforms would evolve . Weisman concludes that residential neighborhoods would become forests within 500 years , and that radioactive waste , bronze statues , plastics , and Mount Rushmore would be among the longest-lasting evidence of human presence on Earth . The author of four previous books and numerous articles for magazines , Weisman traveled to interview academics , scientists and other authorities . He used quotations from these interviews to explain the effects of the natural environment and to substantiate predictions . The book has been translated and published in many countries . It was successful in the U.S. , reaching # 6 on the New York Times Best Seller list and # 1 on the San Francisco Chronicle Best-Sellers list in September 2007 . It ranked # 1 on Time and Entertainment Weekly 's of 2007 . 20th Century Fox has purchased the rights to the book with the intent of creating a motion picture .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"The_World_Without_Us\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 75866\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 75847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Based Lifeforms Content: Carbon Based Lifeforms ( also known as CBL ) is a Swedish ambient music duo formed in 1996 in Gothenburg , Sweden by Johannes Hedberg and Daniel Segerstad ( né Ringström ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"196\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Based_Lifeforms\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 75805\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":92,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Plants need almost three times today’s carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere to thrive."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":1,"score":138764},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"197","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":2,"score":136145},{"content":"Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .","qid":"197","docid":"C3_carbon_fixation","rank":3,"score":124403},{"content":"Title: Free-air concentration enrichment Content: Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment ( FACE ) is a method used by ecologists and plant biologists that raises the concentration of in a specified area and allows the response of plant growth to be measured . Experiments using FACE are required because most studies looking at the effect of elevated concentrations have been conducted in labs and where there are many missing factors including plant competition . Measuring the effect of elevated using FACE is a better way of estimating how plant growth will change in the future as the concentration rises in the atmosphere . FACE also allows the effect of elevated on plants that can not be grown in small spaces ( trees for example ) to be measured .","qid":"197","docid":"Free-air_concentration_enrichment","rank":4,"score":119938},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_generator","rank":5,"score":118735},{"content":"Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .","qid":"197","docid":"Capnophile","rank":6,"score":118151},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":7,"score":117372},{"content":"Title: Soil respiration Content: Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna . Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration . The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures . Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth . Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .","qid":"197","docid":"Soil_respiration","rank":8,"score":116254},{"content":"Title: Plants in space Content: Plants in space are plants grown in outer space typically in a weightless but pressurized controlled environment in specific space gardens . In the context of human spaceflight , they can be consumed as food and/or provide a refreshing atmosphere . Plants can metabolize carbon dioxide in the air to produce valuable oxygen , and can help control cabin humidity . Growing plants in space may provide a psychological benefit to human spaceflight crews . The first challenge in growing plants in space is how to get plants to grow without gravity . This runs into difficulties regarding the effects of gravity on root development , providing appropriate types of lighting , and other challenges . In particular , the nutrient supply to root as well as the nutrient biogeochemical cycles , and the microbiological interactions in soil-based substrates are particularly complex , but have been shown to make possible space farming in hypo - and micro-gravity . NASA plans to grow plants in space to help feed astronauts , and to provide psychological benefits for long-term space flight .","qid":"197","docid":"Plants_in_space","rank":9,"score":113370},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .","qid":"197","docid":"Atmosphere","rank":10,"score":113171},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"197","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":11,"score":112491},{"content":"Title: Nitrogen deficiency Content: All plants require sufficient supplies of macronutrients for healthy growth , and nitrogen ( N ) is a nutrient that is commonly in limited supply . Nitrogen deficiency in plants can occur when organic matter with high carbon content , such as sawdust , is added to soil . Soil organisms use any nitrogen to break down carbon sources , making N unavailable to plants . This is known as `` robbing '' the soil of nitrogen . All vegetables apart from nitrogen fixing legumes are prone to this disorder . Nitrogen deficiency can be prevented in the short term by using grass mowings as a mulch , or foliar feeding with manure , and in the longer term by building up levels of organic matter in the soil . Sowing green manure crops such as grazing rye to cover soil over the winter will help to prevent nitrogen leaching , while leguminous green manures such as winter tares will fix additional nitrogen from the atmosphere .","qid":"197","docid":"Nitrogen_deficiency","rank":12,"score":110676},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"197","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":13,"score":109836},{"content":"Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .","qid":"197","docid":"Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage","rank":14,"score":109200},{"content":"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .","qid":"197","docid":"Individual_action_on_climate_change","rank":15,"score":106460},{"content":"Title: Soil gas Content: Soil gases are the gases found in the air space between soil components . The primary natural soil gases include nitrogen , carbon dioxide and oxygen . The oxygen is critical because it allows for respiration of both plant roots and soil organisms . Other natural soil gases are atmospheric methane and radon . Some environmental contaminants below ground produce gas which diffuses through the soil such as from landfill wastes , mining activities , and contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons which produce volatile organic compounds . Soil gases can diffuse into buildings , the chief concerns among these pollutants are radon which is radioactive and causes cancer and methane which can be flammable at only 4.4 % concentration . Gases fill soil pores in the soil structure as water drains or is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root absorption . The network of pores within the soil aerates , or ventilates , the soil . This aeration network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores . Not only are both soil air and soil water very dynamic parts of soil , but both are often inversely related . Composition of air in soil and atmosphere : Nitrogen : Soil Air : 79.2 % Atmosphere : 79.0 % Oxygen : Soil Air : 20.6 % Atmosphere : 20.9 % Carbon Dioxide : Soil Air : 0.25 % Atmosphere : 0.04 % Gas molecules in soil are in continuous thermal motion according to the kinetic theory of gases , there is also collision between molecules - a random walk . In soil , a concentration gradient causes net movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration , this gives the movement of gas by diffusion . Numerically , it is explained by Fick 's law of diffusion .","qid":"197","docid":"Soil_gas","rank":16,"score":106140},{"content":"Title: Microaerophile Content: A microaerophile is a microorganism that requires oxygen to survive , but requires environments containing lower levels of oxygen than are present in the atmosphere ( i.e. < 21 % O2 ; typically 2 -- 10 % O2 ) . Many microaerophiles are also capnophiles , requiring an elevated concentration of carbon dioxide ( e.g. 10 % CO2 in the case of Campylobacter species ) .","qid":"197","docid":"Microaerophile","rank":17,"score":105060},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"197","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":18,"score":104861},{"content":"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .","qid":"197","docid":"Keith_E._Idso","rank":19,"score":104484},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"197","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":20,"score":103734},{"content":"Title: Homoiohydry Content: Homoiohydry is the capacity of plants to regulate , or achieve homeostasis of , cell and tissue water content . Homoiohydry evolved in land plants to a lesser or greater degree during their transition to land more than 500 million years ago , and is most highly developed in the vascular plants . It is the consequence of a suite of morphological innovations and strategies that enable plant shoots exploring aerial environments to conserve water by internalising the gas exchange surfaces , enclosing them in a waterproof membrane and providing a variable aperture control mechanism , the stomatal guard cells , which regulate the rates of water transpiration and CO2 exchange . In vascular plants , water is acquired from the soil by roots and transported via the xylem to aerial portions of the plant . Water evaporation from the aerial surfaces of the plant is controlled by a waterproof covering of cuticle . Gas exchange with the atmosphere is controlled by stomata , which can open and close to control water loss , and diffusion of carbon dioxide to the chloroplasts takes place in intercellular spaces between chlorenchyma cells in the stem or in the mesophyll tissue of the leaf . The antonym of homoiohydry is poikilohydry , a condition in which plant water content is passively reduced or increased in equilibrium with environmental water status .","qid":"197","docid":"Homoiohydry","rank":21,"score":101522},{"content":"Title: Ludwigia glandulosa Content: Ludwigia glandulosa '' ( cylindricfruit primrose-willow ) is an amphibious plant from southeast United States . It can grow partially or fully submerged . It grows very slowly and needs carbon dioxide in order to grow well . The leaves of this plant will turn greener if not enough light is provided .","qid":"197","docid":"Ludwigia_glandulosa","rank":22,"score":99167},{"content":"Title: Plant nutrition Content: Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant growth , plant metabolism and their external supply . In 1972 , Emanuel Epstein defined two criteria for an element to be essential for plant growth : in its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle . or that the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite . This is in accordance with Justus von Liebig 's law of the minimum . The essential plant nutrients include carbon , oxygen and hydrogen which are absorbed from the air , whereas other nutrients including nitrogen are typically obtained from the soil ( exceptions include some parasitic or carnivorous plants ) . Plants must obtain the following mineral nutrients from their growing medium : the macronutrients : nitrogen ( N ) , phosphorus ( P ) , potassium ( K ) , calcium ( Ca ) , sulfur ( S ) , magnesium ( Mg ) , sodium ( Na ) the micronutrients ( or trace minerals ) : boron ( B ) , chlorine ( Cl ) , manganese ( Mn ) , iron ( Fe ) , zinc ( Zn ) , copper ( Cu ) , molybdenum ( Mo ) , nickel ( Ni ) . and cobalt ( Co ) The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities ; hydrogen , oxygen , nitrogen and carbon contribute to over 95 % of a plants ' entire biomass on a dry matter weight basis . Micronutrients are present in plant tissue in quantities measured in parts per million , ranging from 0.1 to 200 ppm , or less than 0.02 % dry weight . Most soil conditions across the world can provide plants adapted to that climate and soil with sufficient nutrition for a complete life cycle , without the addition of nutrients as fertilizer . However , if the soil is cropped it is necessary to artificially modify soil fertility through the addition of fertilizer to promote vigorous growth and increase or sustain yield . This is done because , even with adequate water and light , nutrient deficiency can limit growth and crop yield .","qid":"197","docid":"Plant_nutrition","rank":23,"score":98511},{"content":"Title: RuBisCO Content: Ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase , commonly known by the abbreviations RuBisCO , RuBPCase , or RuBPco , is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation , a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose . In chemical terms , it catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ( also known as RuBP ) . It is probably the most abundant enzyme on Earth .","qid":"197","docid":"RuBisCO","rank":24,"score":97610},{"content":"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon-neutral_fuel","rank":25,"score":97122},{"content":"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .","qid":"197","docid":"Biosequestration","rank":26,"score":96968},{"content":"Title: Controlled atmosphere Content: A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen , as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated . Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres .","qid":"197","docid":"Controlled_atmosphere","rank":27,"score":96916},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia","rank":28,"score":96633},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":29,"score":96577},{"content":"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .","qid":"197","docid":"Modified_atmosphere","rank":30,"score":96233},{"content":"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .","qid":"197","docid":"The_Green_Initiative","rank":31,"score":96059},{"content":"Title: Thomas D. Sharkey (plant biochemist) Content: Thomas D. Sharkey is a plant biochemist who studies gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere . His research has covered ( 1 ) carbon metabolism of photosynthesis from carbon dioxide uptake to carbon export from the Calvin-Benson Cycle , ( 2 ) isoprene emission from plants , and ( 3 ) abiotic stress tolerance . Four guiding questions are : ( 1 ) how leaf photosynthesis affects plant yield , ( 2 ) does some carbon fixation follow an oxidative pathway that reduces sugar output but stabilizes photosynthesis , ( 3 ) why plants make isoprene , and ( 4 ) how plants cope with high temperature .","qid":"197","docid":"Thomas_D._Sharkey_(plant_biochemist)","rank":32,"score":95953},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"197","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":33,"score":95013},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage","rank":34,"score":93831},{"content":"Title: Controlled-environment agriculture Content: Controlled-environment agriculture ( CEA ) is a technology-based approach toward food production . The aim of CEA is to provide protection and maintain optimal growing conditions throughout the development of the crop . Production takes place within an enclosed growing structure such as a greenhouse or building . Plants are often grown using hydroponic methods in order to supply the proper amounts of water and nutrients to the root zone . CEA optimizes the use of resources such as water , energy , space , capital and labor . CEA technologies include hydroponics , aquaculture , and aquaponics . Controllable variables : Temperature ( air , nutrient solution , root-zone ) Humidity ( % RH ) Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) Light ( intensity , spectrum , interval ) Nutrient concentration ( PPM , EC ) Nutrient pH ( acidity ) CEA facilities can range from fully automated glasshouses with computer controls for watering , lighting and ventilation , to low-tech solutions such as cloches or plastic film on field grown crops and plastic-covered tunnels . CEA is used in research so that a specific aspect of production can be isolated while all other variables remain the same . Tinted glass could be compared to plain glass in this way during an investigation into photosynthesis . Another possibility would be an investigation into the use of supplementary lighting for growing lettuce under a hydroponic system . A February 2011 article in the magazine Science Illustrated states , `` In commercial agriculture , CEA can increase efficiency , reduce pests and diseases , and save resources . ... Replicating a conventional farm with computers and LED lights is expensive but proves cost-efficient in the long run by producing up to 20 times as much high-end , pesticidee-free produce as a similar-size plot of soil . Fourteen thousand square feet of closely monitored plants produce 15 million seedlings annually at the solar-powered factory . Such factories will be necessary to meet urban China 's rising demand for quality fruits and vegetables . ''","qid":"197","docid":"Controlled-environment_agriculture","rank":35,"score":93459},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"197","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":36,"score":93315},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":37,"score":92880},{"content":"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .","qid":"197","docid":"Climate-friendly_gardening","rank":38,"score":92856},{"content":"Title: Plant factory Content: A plant factory is a closed growing system which enables a farmer ( agrotechnician ) to achieve constant production of vegetables all year around . The facility utilizes artificial control of light , temperature , moisture , and carbon dioxide concentrations .","qid":"197","docid":"Plant_factory","rank":39,"score":92462},{"content":"Title: Nitrosomonas Content: Nitrosomonas is a genus of rod-shaped chemoautotrophic bacteria . This organism oxidizes ammonia into nitrite as a metabolic process . Nitrosomonas are useful in bioremediation . They are important in the nitrogen cycle by increasing the availability of nitrogen to plants while limiting carbon dioxide fixation . The genus is found in soil , freshwater , and on building surfaces , especially in areas that contains high levels of nitrogen compounds . Nitrosomonas prefers an optimum pH of 6.0-9 .0 and a temperature range of 20 to 30 ° C. Most species are motile with a flagellum located in the polar regions . The organism has power generating membranes , which form long , thin tubes inside the cell . These use electrons from the oxidation of ammonia to produce energy . It obtains the carbon it requires from the atmosphere via carbon fixation , which converts carbon in a gaseous form into carbon bound in organic molecules . Unlike plants , which fix carbon into sugar through energy gained through the process of photosynthesis , Nitrosomonas use energy gained through the oxidation of ammonia to fix gaseous carbon dioxide into organic molecules . Nitrosomonas must consume large amounts of ammonia before cell division can occur , and the process of cell division may take up to several days . This microbe is photophobic , and will generate a biofilm matrix or form clumps with other microbes to avoid light . The species Nitrosomonas europaea has been identified as also being able to degrade a variety of halogenated compounds including trichloroethylene , benzene , and vinyl chloride . Some Nitrosomonas species possess the enzyme urease , which catalyzes the conversion of the urea molecule to two ammonia molecules and one carbon dioxide molecule . Nitrosomonas europaea , as well as populations of soil-dwelling ammonia-oxidizing bacteria ( AOB ) , have been shown to assimilate the carbon dioxide released by the reaction to make biomass via the Calvin Cycle , and harvest energy by oxidizing ammonia ( the other product of urease ) to nitrite . This feature may explain enhanced growth of AOB in the presence of urea in acidic environments . Some sources regard Nitrobacteraceae to be the family of the genus Nicosomonas .","qid":"197","docid":"Nitrosomonas","rank":40,"score":92261},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":41,"score":91883},{"content":"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_sequestration","rank":42,"score":91824},{"content":"Title: Methanotroph Content: Methanotrophs ( sometimes called methanophiles ) are prokaryotes that metabolize methane as their only source of carbon and energy . They can grow aerobically or anaerobically and require single-carbon compounds to survive . These Methanotrophs are currently being modified to absorb methane from the atmosphere , because methane released into the atmosphere contributes to greenhouse gasses , which heat up the earth and cause global warming .","qid":"197","docid":"Methanotroph","rank":43,"score":91505},{"content":"Title: Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project Content: The Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project is part of the Gorgon Project , the world 's largest natural gas project . The Gorgon Project , located on Barrow Island in Western Australia , includes a liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) plant , a domestic gas plant , and a Carbon Dioxide Injection Project . The initial carbon dioxide injections are planned to take place by the end of 2017 . Once launched , the Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project will be the world 's largest CO2 injection plant , with an ability to store up to 4 million tons of CO2 per year -- approximately 120 million tons over the project 's lifetime , and 40 percent of total Gorgon Project emissions .","qid":"197","docid":"Gorgon_Carbon_Dioxide_Injection_Project","rank":44,"score":91114},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":45,"score":91023},{"content":"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .","qid":"197","docid":"Black_carbon","rank":46,"score":90930},{"content":"Title: Iron fertilization Content: Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron to the upper ocean to stimulate a phytoplankton bloom . This is intended to enhance biological productivity , which can benefit the marine food chain and is under investigation in hopes of increasing carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere . Iron is a trace element necessary for photosynthesis in all plants . It is highly insoluble in sea water and is often the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth . Large algal blooms can be created by supplying iron to iron-deficient ocean waters . A number of ocean labs , scientists and businesses are exploring fertilization as a means to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide in the deep ocean , and to increase marine biological productivity which is hypothesized by some to decline as a result of climate change . Since 1993 , thirteen international research teams have completed ocean trials demonstrating that phytoplankton blooms can be stimulated by iron addition . However , controversy remains over the effectiveness of atmospheric sequestration and ecological effects . The most recent open ocean trials of ocean iron fertilization were in 2009 ( January to March ) in the South Atlantic by project Lohafex , and in July 2012 in the North Pacific off the coast of British Columbia , Canada , by the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation ( HSRC ) . Fertilization also occurs naturally when upwellings bring nutrient-rich water to the surface , as occurs when ocean currents meet an ocean bank or a sea mount . This form of fertilization produces the world 's largest marine habitats . Fertilization can also occur when weather carries wind blown dust long distances over the ocean , or iron-rich minerals are carried into the ocean by glaciers , rivers and icebergs .","qid":"197","docid":"Iron_fertilization","rank":47,"score":90894},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":48,"score":90743},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_scrubber","rank":49,"score":90538},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"197","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":50,"score":90039},{"content":"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .","qid":"197","docid":"Stuart_Agnew","rank":51,"score":88976},{"content":"Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .","qid":"197","docid":"Paleoatmosphere","rank":52,"score":88757},{"content":"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .","qid":"197","docid":"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide","rank":53,"score":88704},{"content":"Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .","qid":"197","docid":"CO2_content","rank":54,"score":88065},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":55,"score":87943},{"content":"Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .","qid":"197","docid":"The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth","rank":56,"score":87859},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"197","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":57,"score":87243},{"content":"Title: List of carbon ranches Content: This is a working list of Carbon Ranches a term referring to regenerative agriculture practices that specifically accomplish carbon sequestration in the soil . `` The world 's cultivated soils have lost between 50 and 70 percent of their original carbon stock . '' ( Lal ) `` A mere two percent increase in the carbon content of the planet 's soils could offset 100 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions going into the atmosphere . '' ( Lal ) Grasslands cover 350 billion hectares , comprising 70 % of global agricultural land making carbon ranching an especially climate beneficial alternative to meat produced as part of a Concentrated animal feeding operation . Carbon ranching may include , but is not limited to Managed intensive rotational grazing , Compost application , Holistic management ( agriculture ) and Tree planting . There are many research groups and NGO 's studying and advancing this field including Arizona State University , The Carbon Cycle Institute , Holistic Management International , The Ohio State University , The Quivira Coalition , The Savory Institute , The Soil Carbon Coalition , Texas A&M University . This list does not necessarily reflect scientific or academic endorsements insofar as best practices and results vary across ranches , climates , time periods , and sources of funding and are therefore challenging to quantify and/or compare . Currently , confirmation of the carbon ranching designation is confirmed through either third party citation or Soil Organic Matter test result .","qid":"197","docid":"List_of_carbon_ranches","rank":58,"score":87133},{"content":"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .","qid":"197","docid":"Environmental_issue","rank":59,"score":87108},{"content":"Title: Heliophyte Content: Sunstroke plants or heliophytes are adapted to a habitat with a very intensive insolation , because of the construction of its own structure and maintenance ( metabolism ) . Solar plants , for example , are mullein , ling , thyme and soft velcro , white clover , and most roses . They are common in open terrain , rocks , meadows , as well as at the mountain pastures and grasslands and other long sunny exposures . Special features of the plant include coarse tiny leaves with hairy and waxy protection against excessive light radiation and water loss . In structure , the leaves vary in frequent double palisade layers . Chloroplasts have a protective element such as carotenoid and the enzymes , and accumulation of ROS to avoid toxic effects . In addition , there are also stoma tal apparatus on the leaves and green shoots , in order to allow a better exchange of gases . At same time , this increases possibilities for photosynthesis . Unlike the shadow-preferring plants , heliophytes have a high light compensation point , and for this they need a higher illumination intensity for effective adoption of carbon dioxide . Sunstroke leaves , in this respect , has a very high capacity , to . However , they have a higher basal metabolism comparing to the other leaves .","qid":"197","docid":"Heliophyte","rank":60,"score":87074},{"content":"Title: Theoretical production ecology Content: Theoretical production ecology tries to quantitatively study the growth of crops . The plant is treated as a kind of biological factory , which processes light , carbon dioxide , water , and nutrients into harvestable parts . Main parameters kept into consideration are temperature , sunlight , standing crop biomass , plant production distribution , nutrient and water supply .","qid":"197","docid":"Theoretical_production_ecology","rank":61,"score":86988},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"197","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":62,"score":86562},{"content":"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .","qid":"197","docid":"Kaya_identity","rank":63,"score":86479},{"content":"Title: Photosynthesis Content: Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms ' activities ( energy transformation ) . This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules , such as sugars , which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water -- hence the name photosynthesis , from the Greek φῶς , phōs , `` light '' , and σύνθεσις , synthesis , `` putting together '' . In most cases , oxygen is also released as a waste product . Most plants , most algae , and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis ; such organisms are called photoautotrophs . Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth 's atmosphere , and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth . Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species , the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments . In plants , these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts , which are most abundant in leaf cells , while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane . In these light-dependent reactions , some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances , such as water , producing oxygen gas . The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that act as an immediate energy storage means : reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate ( NADPH ) and adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , the `` energy currency '' of cells . In plants , algae and cyanobacteria , long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of reactions called the Calvin cycle ; some bacteria use different mechanisms , such as the reverse Krebs cycle , to achieve the same end . In the Calvin cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds , such as ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP ) . Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions , the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates , such as glucose . The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide , rather than water , as sources of electrons . Cyanobacteria appeared later ; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth , which rendered the evolution of complex life possible . Today , the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts , which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization . Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100 -- 115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year .","qid":"197","docid":"Photosynthesis","rank":64,"score":86461},{"content":"Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .","qid":"197","docid":"Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network","rank":65,"score":86211},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"197","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":66,"score":85677},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":67,"score":85534},{"content":"Title: Flue gas Content: Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue , which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace , oven , furnace , boiler or steam generator . Quite often , the flue gas refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants . Its composition depends on what is being burned , but it will usually consist of mostly nitrogen ( typically more than two-thirds ) derived from the combustion of air , carbon dioxide , and water vapor as well as excess oxygen ( also derived from the combustion air ) . It further contains a small percentage of a number of pollutants , such as particulate matter ( like soot ) , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , and sulfur oxides .","qid":"197","docid":"Flue_gas","rank":68,"score":85305},{"content":"Title: C4 carbon fixation Content: C4 carbon fixation or the Hatch-Slack pathway is a photosynthetic process in some plants . It is the first step in extracting carbon from carbon dioxide to be able to use it in sugar and other biomolecules . It is one of three known processes for carbon fixation . The C4 in one of the names refers to the 4-carbon molecule that is the first product of this type of carbon fixation . fixation is an elaboration of the more common carbon fixation and is believed to have evolved more recently . overcomes the tendency of the enzyme RuBisCO to wastefully fix oxygen rather than carbon dioxide in the process of photorespiration . This is achieved by ensuring that RuBisCo works in an environment where there is a lot of carbon dioxide and very little oxygen . is shuttled via malate or aspartate from mesophyll cells to bundle-sheath cells . In these bundle-sheath cells is released by decarboxylation of the malate . C4 plants use PEP carboxylase to capture more in the mesophyll cells . PEP Carboxylase ( 3 carbons ) binds to to make oxaloacetic acid ( OAA ) . The OAA then makes malate ( 4 carbons ) . Malate enters bundle sheath cells and releases the . These additional steps , however , require more energy in the form of ATP . Using this extra energy , plants are able to more efficiently fix carbon in drought , high temperatures , and limitations of nitrogen or . Since the more common pathway does not require this extra energy , it is more efficient in the other conditions . The naming Hatch-Slack pathway is in honor of Marshall Davidson Hatch and C. R. Slack , who elucidated it in Australia in 1966 .","qid":"197","docid":"C4_carbon_fixation","rank":69,"score":85297},{"content":"Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .","qid":"197","docid":"Tropical_peat","rank":70,"score":85177},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"197","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":71,"score":85061},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"197","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":72,"score":84993},{"content":"Title: Plant perception (physiology) Content: Plant perception is the ability of plants to sense and respond to the environment to adjust their morphology , physiology , and phenotype accordingly . Other disciplines such as plant physiology , ecology and molecular biology are used to assess this ability . Plants react to chemicals , gravity , light , moisture , infections , temperature , oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations , parasite infestation , disease , physical disruption , sound , and touch .","qid":"197","docid":"Plant_perception_(physiology)","rank":73,"score":84788},{"content":"Title: Substomatal cavity Content: In plants , the substomatal cavity is the cavity located immediately proximal to the stoma . It acts as a diffusion chamber connected with intercellular air spaces and allows rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide and other gases ( such as plant pheromones ) in and out of plant cells .","qid":"197","docid":"Substomatal_cavity","rank":74,"score":84757},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"197","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":75,"score":84728},{"content":"Title: Andrei Famintsyn Content: Andrei Sergeyevich Famintsyn ( June 17 ( O.S. June 29 ) , 1835 , Moscow -- December 8 , 1918 , Petrograd ) was a Russian botanist , public figure , and academician of the Petersburg Academy of Sciences ( 1884 ) . Famintsyn attended Saint Petersburg State University and studied under Russian fungal expert Lev Semionovich Tsenkovsky . In 1861 , he continued his scientific career as a teacher at his alma mater and became a professor ( 1867-1889 ) . In 1890 , Famintsyn founded and headed the Laboratory of Plant Anatomy and Physiology of the Academy of Sciences ( today 's Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences ) . Famintsyn is considered the founding father of the Petersburg school of plant physiologists ( Ivan Borodin , Alexander Batalin , Dmitry Ivanovsky and others ) . In 1887 , he authored the first Russian textbook on plant physiology . His major works were dedicated to photosynthesis and plant metabolism . He was the first to use artificial light for plant growing and research ( 1868 ) . Famintsyn showed that carbon dioxide conversion by plants and formation of starch may occur under artificial lighting . Together with O. Baranetsky , he was the first to separate the green algae cells from lichens . Famintsyn discovered the symbiosis of algae with radiolarias and developed a theory of symbiogenesis . In 1906-1909 , he was the president of the Free Economic Society . In 1915 , Famintsyn was elected honorary president of the Russian Botanic Society .","qid":"197","docid":"Andrei_Famintsyn","rank":76,"score":84674},{"content":"Title: Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage Content: Soil carbon storage is an important function of terrestrial ecosystems . Soil contains more carbon than plants and the atmosphere combined . Understanding what maintains the soil carbon pool is important to understand the current distribution of carbon on Earth , and how it will respond to environmental change . While much research has been done on how plants , free-living microbial decomposers , and soil minerals affect this pool of carbon , it is recently coming to light that mycorrhizal fungi -- symbiotic fungi that associate with roots of almost all living plants -- may play an important role in maintaining this pool as well . Measurements of plant carbon allocation to mycorrhizal fungi have been estimated to be 5-20 % of total plant carbon uptake , and in some ecosystems the biomass of mycorrhizal fungi can be comparable to the biomass of fine roots . Recent research has shown that mycorrhizal fungi hold 50 to 70 percent of the total carbon stored in leaf litter and soil on forested islands in Sweden . Turnover of mycorrhizal biomass into the soil carbon pool is thought to be rapid and has been shown in some ecosystems to be the dominant pathway by which living carbon enters the soil carbon pool . Outlined below are the leading lines of evidence on how different aspects of mycorrhizal fungi may alter soil carbon decomposition and storage . Evidence is presented for arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal fungi separately as they are phylogenetically distinct and often function in very different ways .","qid":"197","docid":"Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_soil_carbon_storage","rank":77,"score":84529},{"content":"Title: NASA Clean Air Study Content: The NASA Clean Air Study has been led by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) in association with the Associated Landscape Contractors of America ( ALCA ) . Its results suggest that certain common indoor plants may provide a natural way of removing toxic agents such as benzene , formaldehyde and trichloroethylene from the air , helping neutralize the effects of sick building syndrome . The first list of air-filtering plants was compiled by NASA as part of a clean air study published in 1989 , which researched ways to clean air in space stations . As well as absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen , as all plants do , these plants also eliminate significant amounts of benzene , formaldehyde and trichloroethylene . The second and third lists are from B. C. Wolverton 's book and paper and focus on removal of specific chemicals . NASA researchers suggest efficient air cleaning is accomplished with at least one plant per 100 square feet of home or office space . While the original study only considered plants grown hydroponically ( ie without soil ) , more recent research has shown that micro-organisms in the potting mix ( soil ) of a potted plant remove benzene from the air , and that some plant species also contribute to removing benzene .","qid":"197","docid":"NASA_Clean_Air_Study","rank":78,"score":84356},{"content":"Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .","qid":"197","docid":"Yedoma","rank":79,"score":83970},{"content":"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_monoxide","rank":80,"score":83696},{"content":"Title: Total organic carbon Content: Total organic carbon ( TOC ) is the amount of carbon found in an organic compound and is often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality or cleanliness of pharmaceutical manufacturing equipment . TOC may also refer to the amount of organic carbon in soil , or in a geological formation , particularly the source rock for a petroleum play ; 2 % is a rough minimum . For marine surface sediments , average TOC content is 0.5 % in the deep ocean , and 2 % along the eastern margins . A typical analysis for TOC measures both the total carbon present and the so-called `` inorganic carbon '' ( IC ) , the latter representing the content of dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid salts . Subtracting the inorganic carbon from the total carbon yields TOC . Another common variant of TOC analysis involves removing the IC portion first and then measuring the leftover carbon . This method involves purging an acidified sample with carbon-free air or nitrogen prior to measurement , and so is more accurately called non-purgeable organic carbon ( NPOC ) .","qid":"197","docid":"Total_organic_carbon","rank":81,"score":83428},{"content":"Title: Toyota flower Content: The Toyota flower comprises two different species of genetically engineered flower by the Japanese automaker Toyota . The flowers , derivatives of the gardenia and the cherry sage plant , respectively ; have been developed for gardens of the Toyota Prius Tsutsumi , Japan plant . The `` Toyota '' sage 's leaves have unique attributes that absorb nitrogen oxides , while the gardenia 's leaves create water vapour in the air to extract atmospheric heat . This in turn reduces the temperature of the areas surrounding the factory , thus reducing the carbon dioxide-emitting energy needed for cooling .","qid":"197","docid":"Toyota_flower","rank":82,"score":83327},{"content":"Title: Petra Nova Content: The Petra Nova project is a billion dollar endeavor taken upon by NRG Energy and JP Nippon to retrofit their jointly owned W.A Parish coal-fired power plant with post-combustion carbon capture . The plant , which is located in Thompsons , Texas ( just outside of Houston ) , entered commercial service in 1977 , and carbon capture began operation on January 10 , 2017 . The plant generates 240 MW and 90 % of the CO2 ( or 1.4 million tonnes ) is captured per year . The carbon dioxide captured ( 99 % purity ) from the power plant is compressed and piped about 82 miles to West Ranch Oil Field , Texas , where it will be used for enhanced oil recovery . The field has a capacity of 60 million barrels of oil and is expected to increase oil production by a factor of 50 . This project is expected to run for at least another 20 years . To satisfy the Clean Coal Power Initiative requirements , the Texas Bureau of Economic Geology has put in place a monitoring plan to keep track of the injection and movement of the CO2 beneath the surface and in the rock structures at West Ranch .","qid":"197","docid":"Petra_Nova","rank":83,"score":82751},{"content":"Title: Alberta Carbon Trunk Line Content: The Alberta Carbon Trunk Line ( ACTL ) is a 240 km pipeline in its construction stages that will collect excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the province of Alberta and transport it to various oil reservoirs around the province for enhanced oil recovery applications . Pioneered by Enhance Energy , the ACTL will source its CO2 from a fertilizer manufacturing plant in Redwater , and the North West Redwater Partnership bitumen upgrading plant using gasification . It will initially funnel the collected CO2 to Clive , a field discovered in the 1950s and currently produces about 300 barrels per day .","qid":"197","docid":"Alberta_Carbon_Trunk_Line","rank":84,"score":82699},{"content":"Title: Friends of the Urban Forest Content: Friends of the Urban Forest is a non-profit organization based in San Francisco that plants and maintains trees within the city . Organized as a response to the city 's lack of trees , the group 's first tree planted was a glossy privet on arbor day , 1981 , in Noe Valley . As of 2006 it had planted 40,000 trees . San Francisco was originally mostly sand dunes and has few native trees . Fog , wind , cold , and salty air made it difficult for native and planted trees to survive . Only buckeye and Pacific willow were common . Most of the 90,000 trees in the city were planted in the 1880s through 1920s as part of large parks and properties . Monterey Pines and Eucalyptus trees were planted in the San Francisco Presidio , Stern Grove , and Golden Gate Park . However , these Monterey Pines have been affected by pitch pine canker and have been dying . At 12 % , San Francisco 's tree canopy cover remains considerably under the 22 % national average . Benefits to planting more trees include aesthetics , improved property values ( mature trees are said to increase surrounding property values by approximately 1 % ) , helping with global warming by absorbing carbon dioxide and providing oxygen , and energy savings due to increased tree canopy . Even at more than 5,000 trees per year as of 2006 , San Francisco 's tree-planting efforts were modest compared to other cities in California and throughout the world . That year Los Angeles announced plans to plant one million trees , and the United Nations had raised funds to plant 121 million trees towards a goal of one billion trees . Friends of the Urban Forest was mentioned in an episode of the Sci Fi Channel reality show Who Wants to Be a Superhero ? .","qid":"197","docid":"Friends_of_the_Urban_Forest","rank":85,"score":82691},{"content":"Title: Taichung Power Plant Content: The Taichung Power Plant is a coal-fired power plant in Longjing , Taichung , Taiwan . With an installed coal-fired generation capacity of 5,500 MW , it is the largest coal-fired power station in the world , and also the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide with approximately 40 million tons annually ( or about as much as the country of Switzerland as a whole ) . Together with its gas-fired and wind generation units , the total installed capacity of the plant is 5,824 MW .","qid":"197","docid":"Taichung_Power_Plant","rank":86,"score":82549},{"content":"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O","qid":"197","docid":"Wetland_methane_emissions","rank":87,"score":82053},{"content":"Title: Transpiration Content: Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts , such as leaves , stems and flowers . Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism . The remaining 97 -- 99.5 % is lost by transpiration and guttation . Leaf surfaces are dotted with pores called stomata , and in most plants they are more numerous on the undersides of the foliage . The stomata are bordered by guard cells and their stomatal accessory cells ( together known as stomatal complex ) that open and close the pore . Transpiration occurs through the stomatal apertures , and can be thought of as a necessary `` cost '' associated with the opening of the stomata to allow the diffusion of carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis . Transpiration also cools plants , changes osmotic pressure of cells , and enables mass flow of mineral nutrients and water from roots to shoots . Two major factors influence the rate of water flow from the soil to the roots : the hydraulic conductivity of the soil and the magnitude of the pressure gradient through the soil . Both of these factors influence the rate of bulk flow of water moving from the roots to the stomatal pores in the leaves via the xylem . Mass flow of liquid water from the roots to the leaves is driven in part by capillary action , but primarily driven by water potential differences . If the water potential in the ambient air is lower than the water potential in the leaf airspace of the stomatal pore , water vapor will travel down the gradient and move from the leaf airspace to the atmosphere . This movement lowers the water potential in the leaf airspace and causes evaporation of liquid water from the mesophyll cell walls . This evaporation increases the tension on the water menisci in the cell walls and decrease their radius and thus the tension that is exerted on the water in the cells . Because of the cohesive properties of water , the tension travels through the leaf cells to the leaf and stem xylem where a momentary negative pressure is created as water is pulled up the xylem from the roots . In taller plants and trees , the force of gravity can only be overcome by the decrease in hydrostatic ( water ) pressure in the upper parts of the plants due to the diffusion of water out of stomata into the atmosphere . Water is absorbed at the roots by osmosis , and any dissolved mineral nutrients travel with it through the xylem . The Cohesion-tension theory explains how leaves pull water through the xylem . Water molecules stick together , or exhibit cohesion . As a water molecule evaporates from the surface of the leaf , it pulls on the adjacent water molecule , creating a continuous flow of water through the plant .","qid":"197","docid":"Transpiration","rank":88,"score":82047},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"197","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":89,"score":82023},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"197","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":90,"score":81768},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon power Content: Low-carbon power comes from processes or technologies that , produce power with substantially lower amounts of carbon dioxide emissions than is emitted from conventional fossil fuel power generation . It includes low carbon power generation sources such as wind power , solar power , hydropower and , including fuel preparation and decommissioning , nuclear power . The term largely excludes conventional fossil fuel plant sources , and is only used to describe a particular subset of operating fossil fuel power systems , specifically , those that are successfully coupled with a flue gas carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) system .","qid":"197","docid":"Low-carbon_power","rank":91,"score":81720},{"content":"Title: Anastasios Melis Content: Anastasios Melis is an American biologist at the University of California , Berkeley who is researching the possibility of creating hydrogen from algae . He is currently Professor of Plant & Microbial Biology in the institution and Editor-in-Chief of the Planta journal . Hydrogen power is considered one of the key ways of producing electricity without continuing to use up fossil fuels . The added bonus of using algae in this way is that they could consume carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In 1998 Professor Anastasios Melis discovered , after following Hans Gaffron 's work , that the deprivation of sulfur will cause Chlamydomonas reinhardtii algae to switch from producing oxygen to producing hydrogen . The enzyme , hydrogenase , he found was responsible for the reaction , which is normally a temporary emergency survival mechanism used in an oxygen-deprived environment . The enzyme stops functioning when oxygen is produced , however the deprivation of sulphur ensures continuous hydrogen production . Scientists since the 1940s have been trying to get the algae to produce hydrogen in significant quantities ; he told media his breakthrough was like `` striking oil '' . He currently leads and international effort to improve the efficiency of photosynthesis by 300 % for increased hydrogen production . However , he believes that the only way for cost-competitiveness is to genetically modify the organisms to increase output . In 2001 he co-founded a company , Melis Energy , in order to exploit his discovery , hoping to get it on the market by 2005 . In the autumn of 2001 , the company built a bio-reactor containing 500 litres of water and algae that produced up to 1 litre of hydrogen per hour . A siphoning system extracted the hydrogen , which is stored in its gaseous state . The company attempted to refine the process and improve its reliability , while also searching for investors so that it can increase production volume.It has since been dissolved .","qid":"197","docid":"Anastasios_Melis","rank":92,"score":81585},{"content":"Title: Soil plant atmosphere continuum Content: The soil-plant-atmosphere continuum ( SPAC ) is the pathway for water moving from soil through plants to the atmosphere . Continuum in the description highlights the continuous nature of water connection through the pathway . The low water potential of the atmosphere , and relatively higher ( i.e. less negative ) water potential inside leaves , leads to a diffusion gradient across the stomatal pores of leaves , drawing water out of the leaves as vapour . As water vapour transpires out of the leaf , further water molecules evaporate off the surface of mesophyll cells to replace the lost molecules since water in the air inside leaves is maintained at saturation vapour pressure . Water lost at the surface of cells is replaced by water from the xylem , which due to the cohesion-tension properties of water in the xylem of plants pulls additional water molecules through the xylem from the roots toward the leaf .","qid":"197","docid":"Soil_plant_atmosphere_continuum","rank":93,"score":81090},{"content":"Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .","qid":"197","docid":"Carbon_Engineering","rank":94,"score":81052},{"content":"Title: Photorespiration Content: Photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) refers to a process in plant metabolism where the enzyme RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP , causing some of the energy produced by photosynthesis to be wasted . The desired reaction is the addition of carbon dioxide to RuBP ( carboxylation ) , a key step in the Calvin -- Benson cycle , however approximately 25 % of reactions by RuBisCO instead add oxygen to RuBP ( oxygenation ) , creating a product that can not be used within the Calvin -- Benson cycle . This process reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis , potentially reducing photosynthetic output by 25 % in plants . Photorespiration involves a complex network of enzyme reactions that exchange metabolites between chloroplasts , leaf peroxisomes and mitochondria . The oxygenation reaction of RuBisCO is a wasteful process because 3-phosphoglycerate is created at a reduced rate and higher metabolic cost compared with RuBP carboxylase activity . While photorespiratory carbon cycling results in the formation of G3P eventually , there is still a net loss of carbon ( around 25 % of carbon fixed by photosynthesis is re-released as ) and nitrogen , as ammonia . Ammonia must be detoxified at a substantial cost to the cell . Photorespiration also incurs a direct cost of one ATP and one NAD ( P ) H. While it is common to refer to the entire process as photorespiration , technically the term refers only to the metabolic network which acts to rescue the products of the oxygenation reaction ( phosphoglycolate ) .","qid":"197","docid":"Photorespiration","rank":95,"score":80993},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .","qid":"197","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Mars","rank":96,"score":80990},{"content":"Title: Bicarbonate indicator Content: A bicarbonate indicator ( hydrogencarbonate indicator ) is a type of pH indicator that is sensitive enough to show a color change as the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in an aqueous solution increases . The indicator is used in photosynthesis and respiration experiments to find out whether carbon dioxide is being liberated . It is also used to test the carbon dioxide content during gaseous exchange of organisms . When the carbon dioxide content is higher than 0.04 % , the initial red color changes to yellow as the pH becomes more acidic . If the carbon dioxide content is lower than 0.04 % , it changes from red to magenta and , in relatively very low carbon dioxide concentrations , to purple . Carbon dioxide , even in the concentrations found in exhaled air , will dissolve in the indicator to form carbonic acid , a weak acid , which will lower the pH and give the characteristic colour change . A colour change to purple during photosynthesis shows a reduction in the percentage of carbon dioxide and is sometimes inferred as production of oxygen , but there is not actually any direct evidence for it . Great care must be taken to avoid acidic or alkaline contamination of the apparatus in such experiments , since the test is not directly specific to carbon dioxide .","qid":"197","docid":"Bicarbonate_indicator","rank":97,"score":80942},{"content":"Title: Integrated gasification fuel cell cycle Content: Lower-temperature fuel cell types such as the proton exchange membrane fuel cell , phosphoric acid fuel cell , and alkaline fuel cell require pure hydrogen as fuel , typically produced from external reforming of natural gas . However , fuels cells operating at high temperature such as the solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) are not poisoned by carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide , and in fact can accept hydrogen , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , steam , and methane mixtures as fuel directly , because of their internal shift and reforming capabilities . This opens up the possibility of efficient fuel cell-based power cycles consuming solid fuels such as coal and biomass , the gasification of which results in syngas containing mostly hydrogen , carbon monoxide and methane which can be cleaned and fed directly to the SOFCs without the added cost and complexity of methane reforming , water gas shifting and hydrogen separation operations which would otherwise be needed to isolate pure hydrogen as fuel . A power cycle based on gasification of solid fuel and SOFCs is called an Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell ( IGFC ) cycle ; the IGFC power plant is analogous to an integrated gasification combined cycle power plant , but with the gas turbine power generation unit replaced with a fuel cell ( high temperature type such as SOFC ) power generation unit . By taking advantage of intrinsically high energy efficiency of SOFCs and process integration , exceptionally high power plant efficiencies are possible . Furthermore , SOFCs in the IGFC cycle can be operated so as to isolate a carbon dioxide-rich anodic exhaust stream , allowing efficient carbon capture to address greenhouse gas emissions concerns of coal-based power generation .","qid":"197","docid":"Integrated_gasification_fuel_cell_cycle","rank":98,"score":80879},{"content":"Title: Frederick Blackman Content: Frederick Frost Blackman FRS ( 25 July 1866 -- 30 January 1947 ) was a British plant physiologist . Frederick Blackman was born in Lambeth , London to a doctor . He studied medicine at St. Bartholomew 's Hospital , graduating MA . In the subsequent years , he studied natural sciences at the University of Cambridge and was awarded DSc . He conducted research on plant physiology , in particular photosynthesis , in Cambridge until his retirement in 1936 . Gabrielle Matthaei was his assistant until 1905 . He was elected in May 1906 a Fellow of the Royal Society , his candidature citation reading `` Fellow of St John 's College , Cambridge . Ex-Lecturer and now Reader in Botany in the University . He has made distinguished investigations in physiology of plants , of which the following may be mentioned : Experimental Researches on Vegetable Assimilation and Respiration , viz : - On a New Method for investigating the Carbonic Acid Exchanges of Plants ( Phil Trans , 1895 ) ; On the Paths of Gaseous Exchange between Aerial Leaves and the Atmosphere ( ibid , 1895 ) ; by his pupil , Miss Mattaei , On the Effect of Temperature on Carbon-Dioxide Assimilation ( ibid ) ; A Quantitative Study of Carbon-Dioxide Assimilation and Leaf-Temperature in Natural Illumination ( Proc Roy Soc , 1905 , with Miss Matthaei ) ; Optima and Limiting Factors ( Ann of Bot , 1905 ) ; On the Reaction of Leaves to Traumatic Stimulation ( ibid , 1901 ) ; and other papers . In 1921 he was awarded their Royal Medal and in 1923 delivered their Croonian lecture . He was buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge , with his wife Elsie ( 1882 - 1967 ) .","qid":"197","docid":"Frederick_Blackman","rank":99,"score":80697},{"content":"Title: Crown (botany) Content: The crown of a plant refers to the totality of an individual plant 's aboveground parts , including stems , leaves , and reproductive structures . A plant community canopy consists of one or more plant crowns growing in a given area . The crown of a woody plant ( tree , shrub , liana ) is the branches , leaves , and reproductive structures extending from the trunk or main stems . Shapes of crowns are highly variable . The major types for trees are the excurrent branching habit resulting in conoid shapes and decurrent ( deliquescent ) branching habit , resulting in round shapes . Crowns are also characterized by their width , depth , surface area , volume , and density . Measurements of crowns are important in quantifying and qualifying plant health , growth stage , and efficiency . Major functions of the crown include light energy assimilation , carbon dioxide absorption and release of oxygen via photosynthesis , energy release by respiration , and movement of water to the atmosphere by transpiration . These functions are performed by the leaves . Branches of the crown provide mechanical support to distribute the leaves efficiently and serve as conduits for resources ( water , nutrients , photosynthates ) to perform these functions .","qid":"197","docid":"Crown_(botany)","rank":100,"score":80397}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 138764\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 136145\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"C3_carbon_fixation\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 124403\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Free-air concentration enrichment Content: Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment ( FACE ) is a method used by ecologists and plant biologists that raises the concentration of in a specified area and allows the response of plant growth to be measured . Experiments using FACE are required because most studies looking at the effect of elevated concentrations have been conducted in labs and where there are many missing factors including plant competition . Measuring the effect of elevated using FACE is a better way of estimating how plant growth will change in the future as the concentration rises in the atmosphere . FACE also allows the effect of elevated on plants that can not be grown in small spaces ( trees for example ) to be measured .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Free-air_concentration_enrichment\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 119938\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_generator\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 118735\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Capnophile\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 118151\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 117372\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soil respiration Content: Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna . Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration . The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures . Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth . Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Soil_respiration\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 116254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plants in space Content: Plants in space are plants grown in outer space typically in a weightless but pressurized controlled environment in specific space gardens . In the context of human spaceflight , they can be consumed as food and/or provide a refreshing atmosphere . Plants can metabolize carbon dioxide in the air to produce valuable oxygen , and can help control cabin humidity . Growing plants in space may provide a psychological benefit to human spaceflight crews . The first challenge in growing plants in space is how to get plants to grow without gravity . This runs into difficulties regarding the effects of gravity on root development , providing appropriate types of lighting , and other challenges . In particular , the nutrient supply to root as well as the nutrient biogeochemical cycles , and the microbiological interactions in soil-based substrates are particularly complex , but have been shown to make possible space farming in hypo - and micro-gravity . NASA plans to grow plants in space to help feed astronauts , and to provide psychological benefits for long-term space flight .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Plants_in_space\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 113370\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 113171\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 112491\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nitrogen deficiency Content: All plants require sufficient supplies of macronutrients for healthy growth , and nitrogen ( N ) is a nutrient that is commonly in limited supply . Nitrogen deficiency in plants can occur when organic matter with high carbon content , such as sawdust , is added to soil . Soil organisms use any nitrogen to break down carbon sources , making N unavailable to plants . This is known as `` robbing '' the soil of nitrogen . All vegetables apart from nitrogen fixing legumes are prone to this disorder . Nitrogen deficiency can be prevented in the short term by using grass mowings as a mulch , or foliar feeding with manure , and in the longer term by building up levels of organic matter in the soil . Sowing green manure crops such as grazing rye to cover soil over the winter will help to prevent nitrogen leaching , while leguminous green manures such as winter tares will fix additional nitrogen from the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Nitrogen_deficiency\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 110676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 109836\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 109200\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Individual_action_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 106460\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soil gas Content: Soil gases are the gases found in the air space between soil components . The primary natural soil gases include nitrogen , carbon dioxide and oxygen . The oxygen is critical because it allows for respiration of both plant roots and soil organisms . Other natural soil gases are atmospheric methane and radon . Some environmental contaminants below ground produce gas which diffuses through the soil such as from landfill wastes , mining activities , and contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons which produce volatile organic compounds . Soil gases can diffuse into buildings , the chief concerns among these pollutants are radon which is radioactive and causes cancer and methane which can be flammable at only 4.4 % concentration . Gases fill soil pores in the soil structure as water drains or is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root absorption . The network of pores within the soil aerates , or ventilates , the soil . This aeration network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores . Not only are both soil air and soil water very dynamic parts of soil , but both are often inversely related . Composition of air in soil and atmosphere : Nitrogen : Soil Air : 79.2 % Atmosphere : 79.0 % Oxygen : Soil Air : 20.6 % Atmosphere : 20.9 % Carbon Dioxide : Soil Air : 0.25 % Atmosphere : 0.04 % Gas molecules in soil are in continuous thermal motion according to the kinetic theory of gases , there is also collision between molecules - a random walk . In soil , a concentration gradient causes net movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration , this gives the movement of gas by diffusion . Numerically , it is explained by Fick 's law of diffusion .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Soil_gas\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 106140\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Microaerophile Content: A microaerophile is a microorganism that requires oxygen to survive , but requires environments containing lower levels of oxygen than are present in the atmosphere ( i.e. < 21 % O2 ; typically 2 -- 10 % O2 ) . Many microaerophiles are also capnophiles , requiring an elevated concentration of carbon dioxide ( e.g. 10 % CO2 in the case of Campylobacter species ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Microaerophile\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 105060\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 104861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Keith_E._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 104484\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 103734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Homoiohydry Content: Homoiohydry is the capacity of plants to regulate , or achieve homeostasis of , cell and tissue water content . Homoiohydry evolved in land plants to a lesser or greater degree during their transition to land more than 500 million years ago , and is most highly developed in the vascular plants . It is the consequence of a suite of morphological innovations and strategies that enable plant shoots exploring aerial environments to conserve water by internalising the gas exchange surfaces , enclosing them in a waterproof membrane and providing a variable aperture control mechanism , the stomatal guard cells , which regulate the rates of water transpiration and CO2 exchange . In vascular plants , water is acquired from the soil by roots and transported via the xylem to aerial portions of the plant . Water evaporation from the aerial surfaces of the plant is controlled by a waterproof covering of cuticle . Gas exchange with the atmosphere is controlled by stomata , which can open and close to control water loss , and diffusion of carbon dioxide to the chloroplasts takes place in intercellular spaces between chlorenchyma cells in the stem or in the mesophyll tissue of the leaf . The antonym of homoiohydry is poikilohydry , a condition in which plant water content is passively reduced or increased in equilibrium with environmental water status .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Homoiohydry\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 101522\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ludwigia glandulosa Content: Ludwigia glandulosa '' ( cylindricfruit primrose-willow ) is an amphibious plant from southeast United States . It can grow partially or fully submerged . It grows very slowly and needs carbon dioxide in order to grow well . The leaves of this plant will turn greener if not enough light is provided .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Ludwigia_glandulosa\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 99167\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plant nutrition Content: Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant growth , plant metabolism and their external supply . In 1972 , Emanuel Epstein defined two criteria for an element to be essential for plant growth : in its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle . or that the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite . This is in accordance with Justus von Liebig 's law of the minimum . The essential plant nutrients include carbon , oxygen and hydrogen which are absorbed from the air , whereas other nutrients including nitrogen are typically obtained from the soil ( exceptions include some parasitic or carnivorous plants ) . Plants must obtain the following mineral nutrients from their growing medium : the macronutrients : nitrogen ( N ) , phosphorus ( P ) , potassium ( K ) , calcium ( Ca ) , sulfur ( S ) , magnesium ( Mg ) , sodium ( Na ) the micronutrients ( or trace minerals ) : boron ( B ) , chlorine ( Cl ) , manganese ( Mn ) , iron ( Fe ) , zinc ( Zn ) , copper ( Cu ) , molybdenum ( Mo ) , nickel ( Ni ) . and cobalt ( Co ) The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities ; hydrogen , oxygen , nitrogen and carbon contribute to over 95 % of a plants ' entire biomass on a dry matter weight basis . Micronutrients are present in plant tissue in quantities measured in parts per million , ranging from 0.1 to 200 ppm , or less than 0.02 % dry weight . Most soil conditions across the world can provide plants adapted to that climate and soil with sufficient nutrition for a complete life cycle , without the addition of nutrients as fertilizer . However , if the soil is cropped it is necessary to artificially modify soil fertility through the addition of fertilizer to promote vigorous growth and increase or sustain yield . This is done because , even with adequate water and light , nutrient deficiency can limit growth and crop yield .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Plant_nutrition\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 98511\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: RuBisCO Content: Ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase , commonly known by the abbreviations RuBisCO , RuBPCase , or RuBPco , is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation , a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose . In chemical terms , it catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ( also known as RuBP ) . It is probably the most abundant enzyme on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"RuBisCO\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 97610\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-neutral_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 97122\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Biosequestration\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 96968\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Controlled atmosphere Content: A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen , as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated . Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Controlled_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 96916\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 96633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 96577\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Modified_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 96233\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Green_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 96059\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thomas D. Sharkey (plant biochemist) Content: Thomas D. Sharkey is a plant biochemist who studies gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere . His research has covered ( 1 ) carbon metabolism of photosynthesis from carbon dioxide uptake to carbon export from the Calvin-Benson Cycle , ( 2 ) isoprene emission from plants , and ( 3 ) abiotic stress tolerance . Four guiding questions are : ( 1 ) how leaf photosynthesis affects plant yield , ( 2 ) does some carbon fixation follow an oxidative pathway that reduces sugar output but stabilizes photosynthesis , ( 3 ) why plants make isoprene , and ( 4 ) how plants cope with high temperature .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Thomas_D._Sharkey_(plant_biochemist)\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 95953\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 95013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 93831\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Controlled-environment agriculture Content: Controlled-environment agriculture ( CEA ) is a technology-based approach toward food production . The aim of CEA is to provide protection and maintain optimal growing conditions throughout the development of the crop . Production takes place within an enclosed growing structure such as a greenhouse or building . Plants are often grown using hydroponic methods in order to supply the proper amounts of water and nutrients to the root zone . CEA optimizes the use of resources such as water , energy , space , capital and labor . CEA technologies include hydroponics , aquaculture , and aquaponics . Controllable variables : Temperature ( air , nutrient solution , root-zone ) Humidity ( % RH ) Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) Light ( intensity , spectrum , interval ) Nutrient concentration ( PPM , EC ) Nutrient pH ( acidity ) CEA facilities can range from fully automated glasshouses with computer controls for watering , lighting and ventilation , to low-tech solutions such as cloches or plastic film on field grown crops and plastic-covered tunnels . CEA is used in research so that a specific aspect of production can be isolated while all other variables remain the same . Tinted glass could be compared to plain glass in this way during an investigation into photosynthesis . Another possibility would be an investigation into the use of supplementary lighting for growing lettuce under a hydroponic system . A February 2011 article in the magazine Science Illustrated states , `` In commercial agriculture , CEA can increase efficiency , reduce pests and diseases , and save resources . ... Replicating a conventional farm with computers and LED lights is expensive but proves cost-efficient in the long run by producing up to 20 times as much high-end , pesticidee-free produce as a similar-size plot of soil . Fourteen thousand square feet of closely monitored plants produce 15 million seedlings annually at the solar-powered factory . Such factories will be necessary to meet urban China 's rising demand for quality fruits and vegetables . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Controlled-environment_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 93459\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 93315\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 92880\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate-friendly_gardening\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 92856\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plant factory Content: A plant factory is a closed growing system which enables a farmer ( agrotechnician ) to achieve constant production of vegetables all year around . The facility utilizes artificial control of light , temperature , moisture , and carbon dioxide concentrations .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Plant_factory\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 92462\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nitrosomonas Content: Nitrosomonas is a genus of rod-shaped chemoautotrophic bacteria . This organism oxidizes ammonia into nitrite as a metabolic process . Nitrosomonas are useful in bioremediation . They are important in the nitrogen cycle by increasing the availability of nitrogen to plants while limiting carbon dioxide fixation . The genus is found in soil , freshwater , and on building surfaces , especially in areas that contains high levels of nitrogen compounds . Nitrosomonas prefers an optimum pH of 6.0-9 .0 and a temperature range of 20 to 30 ° C. Most species are motile with a flagellum located in the polar regions . The organism has power generating membranes , which form long , thin tubes inside the cell . These use electrons from the oxidation of ammonia to produce energy . It obtains the carbon it requires from the atmosphere via carbon fixation , which converts carbon in a gaseous form into carbon bound in organic molecules . Unlike plants , which fix carbon into sugar through energy gained through the process of photosynthesis , Nitrosomonas use energy gained through the oxidation of ammonia to fix gaseous carbon dioxide into organic molecules . Nitrosomonas must consume large amounts of ammonia before cell division can occur , and the process of cell division may take up to several days . This microbe is photophobic , and will generate a biofilm matrix or form clumps with other microbes to avoid light . The species Nitrosomonas europaea has been identified as also being able to degrade a variety of halogenated compounds including trichloroethylene , benzene , and vinyl chloride . Some Nitrosomonas species possess the enzyme urease , which catalyzes the conversion of the urea molecule to two ammonia molecules and one carbon dioxide molecule . Nitrosomonas europaea , as well as populations of soil-dwelling ammonia-oxidizing bacteria ( AOB ) , have been shown to assimilate the carbon dioxide released by the reaction to make biomass via the Calvin Cycle , and harvest energy by oxidizing ammonia ( the other product of urease ) to nitrite . This feature may explain enhanced growth of AOB in the presence of urea in acidic environments . Some sources regard Nitrobacteraceae to be the family of the genus Nicosomonas .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Nitrosomonas\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 92261\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 91883\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sequestration\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 91824\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Methanotroph Content: Methanotrophs ( sometimes called methanophiles ) are prokaryotes that metabolize methane as their only source of carbon and energy . They can grow aerobically or anaerobically and require single-carbon compounds to survive . These Methanotrophs are currently being modified to absorb methane from the atmosphere , because methane released into the atmosphere contributes to greenhouse gasses , which heat up the earth and cause global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Methanotroph\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 91505\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project Content: The Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project is part of the Gorgon Project , the world 's largest natural gas project . The Gorgon Project , located on Barrow Island in Western Australia , includes a liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) plant , a domestic gas plant , and a Carbon Dioxide Injection Project . The initial carbon dioxide injections are planned to take place by the end of 2017 . Once launched , the Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project will be the world 's largest CO2 injection plant , with an ability to store up to 4 million tons of CO2 per year -- approximately 120 million tons over the project 's lifetime , and 40 percent of total Gorgon Project emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Gorgon_Carbon_Dioxide_Injection_Project\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 91114\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 91023\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 90930\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Iron fertilization Content: Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron to the upper ocean to stimulate a phytoplankton bloom . This is intended to enhance biological productivity , which can benefit the marine food chain and is under investigation in hopes of increasing carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere . Iron is a trace element necessary for photosynthesis in all plants . It is highly insoluble in sea water and is often the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth . Large algal blooms can be created by supplying iron to iron-deficient ocean waters . A number of ocean labs , scientists and businesses are exploring fertilization as a means to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide in the deep ocean , and to increase marine biological productivity which is hypothesized by some to decline as a result of climate change . Since 1993 , thirteen international research teams have completed ocean trials demonstrating that phytoplankton blooms can be stimulated by iron addition . However , controversy remains over the effectiveness of atmospheric sequestration and ecological effects . The most recent open ocean trials of ocean iron fertilization were in 2009 ( January to March ) in the South Atlantic by project Lohafex , and in July 2012 in the North Pacific off the coast of British Columbia , Canada , by the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation ( HSRC ) . Fertilization also occurs naturally when upwellings bring nutrient-rich water to the surface , as occurs when ocean currents meet an ocean bank or a sea mount . This form of fertilization produces the world 's largest marine habitats . Fertilization can also occur when weather carries wind blown dust long distances over the ocean , or iron-rich minerals are carried into the ocean by glaciers , rivers and icebergs .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Iron_fertilization\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 90894\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 90743\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_scrubber\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 90538\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 90039\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Stuart_Agnew\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 88976\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoatmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 88757\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 88704\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_content\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 88065\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 87943\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 87859\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 87243\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of carbon ranches Content: This is a working list of Carbon Ranches a term referring to regenerative agriculture practices that specifically accomplish carbon sequestration in the soil . `` The world 's cultivated soils have lost between 50 and 70 percent of their original carbon stock . '' ( Lal ) `` A mere two percent increase in the carbon content of the planet 's soils could offset 100 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions going into the atmosphere . '' ( Lal ) Grasslands cover 350 billion hectares , comprising 70 % of global agricultural land making carbon ranching an especially climate beneficial alternative to meat produced as part of a Concentrated animal feeding operation . Carbon ranching may include , but is not limited to Managed intensive rotational grazing , Compost application , Holistic management ( agriculture ) and Tree planting . There are many research groups and NGO 's studying and advancing this field including Arizona State University , The Carbon Cycle Institute , Holistic Management International , The Ohio State University , The Quivira Coalition , The Savory Institute , The Soil Carbon Coalition , Texas A&M University . This list does not necessarily reflect scientific or academic endorsements insofar as best practices and results vary across ranches , climates , time periods , and sources of funding and are therefore challenging to quantify and/or compare . Currently , confirmation of the carbon ranching designation is confirmed through either third party citation or Soil Organic Matter test result .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_carbon_ranches\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 87133\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issue\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 87108\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heliophyte Content: Sunstroke plants or heliophytes are adapted to a habitat with a very intensive insolation , because of the construction of its own structure and maintenance ( metabolism ) . Solar plants , for example , are mullein , ling , thyme and soft velcro , white clover , and most roses . They are common in open terrain , rocks , meadows , as well as at the mountain pastures and grasslands and other long sunny exposures . Special features of the plant include coarse tiny leaves with hairy and waxy protection against excessive light radiation and water loss . In structure , the leaves vary in frequent double palisade layers . Chloroplasts have a protective element such as carotenoid and the enzymes , and accumulation of ROS to avoid toxic effects . In addition , there are also stoma tal apparatus on the leaves and green shoots , in order to allow a better exchange of gases . At same time , this increases possibilities for photosynthesis . Unlike the shadow-preferring plants , heliophytes have a high light compensation point , and for this they need a higher illumination intensity for effective adoption of carbon dioxide . Sunstroke leaves , in this respect , has a very high capacity , to . However , they have a higher basal metabolism comparing to the other leaves .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Heliophyte\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 87074\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Theoretical production ecology Content: Theoretical production ecology tries to quantitatively study the growth of crops . The plant is treated as a kind of biological factory , which processes light , carbon dioxide , water , and nutrients into harvestable parts . Main parameters kept into consideration are temperature , sunlight , standing crop biomass , plant production distribution , nutrient and water supply .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Theoretical_production_ecology\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 86988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 86562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Kaya_identity\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 86479\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photosynthesis Content: Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms ' activities ( energy transformation ) . This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules , such as sugars , which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water -- hence the name photosynthesis , from the Greek φῶς , phōs , `` light '' , and σύνθεσις , synthesis , `` putting together '' . In most cases , oxygen is also released as a waste product . Most plants , most algae , and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis ; such organisms are called photoautotrophs . Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth 's atmosphere , and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth . Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species , the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments . In plants , these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts , which are most abundant in leaf cells , while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane . In these light-dependent reactions , some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances , such as water , producing oxygen gas . The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that act as an immediate energy storage means : reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate ( NADPH ) and adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , the `` energy currency '' of cells . In plants , algae and cyanobacteria , long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of reactions called the Calvin cycle ; some bacteria use different mechanisms , such as the reverse Krebs cycle , to achieve the same end . In the Calvin cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds , such as ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP ) . Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions , the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates , such as glucose . The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide , rather than water , as sources of electrons . Cyanobacteria appeared later ; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth , which rendered the evolution of complex life possible . Today , the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts , which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization . Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100 -- 115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Photosynthesis\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 86461\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 86211\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 85677\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 85534\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Flue gas Content: Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue , which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace , oven , furnace , boiler or steam generator . Quite often , the flue gas refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants . Its composition depends on what is being burned , but it will usually consist of mostly nitrogen ( typically more than two-thirds ) derived from the combustion of air , carbon dioxide , and water vapor as well as excess oxygen ( also derived from the combustion air ) . It further contains a small percentage of a number of pollutants , such as particulate matter ( like soot ) , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , and sulfur oxides .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Flue_gas\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 85305\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C4 carbon fixation Content: C4 carbon fixation or the Hatch-Slack pathway is a photosynthetic process in some plants . It is the first step in extracting carbon from carbon dioxide to be able to use it in sugar and other biomolecules . It is one of three known processes for carbon fixation . The C4 in one of the names refers to the 4-carbon molecule that is the first product of this type of carbon fixation . fixation is an elaboration of the more common carbon fixation and is believed to have evolved more recently . overcomes the tendency of the enzyme RuBisCO to wastefully fix oxygen rather than carbon dioxide in the process of photorespiration . This is achieved by ensuring that RuBisCo works in an environment where there is a lot of carbon dioxide and very little oxygen . is shuttled via malate or aspartate from mesophyll cells to bundle-sheath cells . In these bundle-sheath cells is released by decarboxylation of the malate . C4 plants use PEP carboxylase to capture more in the mesophyll cells . PEP Carboxylase ( 3 carbons ) binds to to make oxaloacetic acid ( OAA ) . The OAA then makes malate ( 4 carbons ) . Malate enters bundle sheath cells and releases the . These additional steps , however , require more energy in the form of ATP . Using this extra energy , plants are able to more efficiently fix carbon in drought , high temperatures , and limitations of nitrogen or . Since the more common pathway does not require this extra energy , it is more efficient in the other conditions . The naming Hatch-Slack pathway is in honor of Marshall Davidson Hatch and C. R. Slack , who elucidated it in Australia in 1966 .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"C4_carbon_fixation\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 85297\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_peat\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 85177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 85061\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 84993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plant perception (physiology) Content: Plant perception is the ability of plants to sense and respond to the environment to adjust their morphology , physiology , and phenotype accordingly . Other disciplines such as plant physiology , ecology and molecular biology are used to assess this ability . Plants react to chemicals , gravity , light , moisture , infections , temperature , oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations , parasite infestation , disease , physical disruption , sound , and touch .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Plant_perception_(physiology)\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 84788\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Substomatal cavity Content: In plants , the substomatal cavity is the cavity located immediately proximal to the stoma . It acts as a diffusion chamber connected with intercellular air spaces and allows rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide and other gases ( such as plant pheromones ) in and out of plant cells .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Substomatal_cavity\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 84757\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 84728\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Andrei Famintsyn Content: Andrei Sergeyevich Famintsyn ( June 17 ( O.S. June 29 ) , 1835 , Moscow -- December 8 , 1918 , Petrograd ) was a Russian botanist , public figure , and academician of the Petersburg Academy of Sciences ( 1884 ) . Famintsyn attended Saint Petersburg State University and studied under Russian fungal expert Lev Semionovich Tsenkovsky . In 1861 , he continued his scientific career as a teacher at his alma mater and became a professor ( 1867-1889 ) . In 1890 , Famintsyn founded and headed the Laboratory of Plant Anatomy and Physiology of the Academy of Sciences ( today 's Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences ) . Famintsyn is considered the founding father of the Petersburg school of plant physiologists ( Ivan Borodin , Alexander Batalin , Dmitry Ivanovsky and others ) . In 1887 , he authored the first Russian textbook on plant physiology . His major works were dedicated to photosynthesis and plant metabolism . He was the first to use artificial light for plant growing and research ( 1868 ) . Famintsyn showed that carbon dioxide conversion by plants and formation of starch may occur under artificial lighting . Together with O. Baranetsky , he was the first to separate the green algae cells from lichens . Famintsyn discovered the symbiosis of algae with radiolarias and developed a theory of symbiogenesis . In 1906-1909 , he was the president of the Free Economic Society . In 1915 , Famintsyn was elected honorary president of the Russian Botanic Society .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Andrei_Famintsyn\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 84674\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage Content: Soil carbon storage is an important function of terrestrial ecosystems . Soil contains more carbon than plants and the atmosphere combined . Understanding what maintains the soil carbon pool is important to understand the current distribution of carbon on Earth , and how it will respond to environmental change . While much research has been done on how plants , free-living microbial decomposers , and soil minerals affect this pool of carbon , it is recently coming to light that mycorrhizal fungi -- symbiotic fungi that associate with roots of almost all living plants -- may play an important role in maintaining this pool as well . Measurements of plant carbon allocation to mycorrhizal fungi have been estimated to be 5-20 % of total plant carbon uptake , and in some ecosystems the biomass of mycorrhizal fungi can be comparable to the biomass of fine roots . Recent research has shown that mycorrhizal fungi hold 50 to 70 percent of the total carbon stored in leaf litter and soil on forested islands in Sweden . Turnover of mycorrhizal biomass into the soil carbon pool is thought to be rapid and has been shown in some ecosystems to be the dominant pathway by which living carbon enters the soil carbon pool . Outlined below are the leading lines of evidence on how different aspects of mycorrhizal fungi may alter soil carbon decomposition and storage . Evidence is presented for arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal fungi separately as they are phylogenetically distinct and often function in very different ways .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_soil_carbon_storage\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 84529\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: NASA Clean Air Study Content: The NASA Clean Air Study has been led by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) in association with the Associated Landscape Contractors of America ( ALCA ) . Its results suggest that certain common indoor plants may provide a natural way of removing toxic agents such as benzene , formaldehyde and trichloroethylene from the air , helping neutralize the effects of sick building syndrome . The first list of air-filtering plants was compiled by NASA as part of a clean air study published in 1989 , which researched ways to clean air in space stations . As well as absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen , as all plants do , these plants also eliminate significant amounts of benzene , formaldehyde and trichloroethylene . The second and third lists are from B. C. Wolverton 's book and paper and focus on removal of specific chemicals . NASA researchers suggest efficient air cleaning is accomplished with at least one plant per 100 square feet of home or office space . While the original study only considered plants grown hydroponically ( ie without soil ) , more recent research has shown that micro-organisms in the potting mix ( soil ) of a potted plant remove benzene from the air , and that some plant species also contribute to removing benzene .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"NASA_Clean_Air_Study\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 84356\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Yedoma\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 83970\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monoxide\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 83696\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Total organic carbon Content: Total organic carbon ( TOC ) is the amount of carbon found in an organic compound and is often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality or cleanliness of pharmaceutical manufacturing equipment . TOC may also refer to the amount of organic carbon in soil , or in a geological formation , particularly the source rock for a petroleum play ; 2 % is a rough minimum . For marine surface sediments , average TOC content is 0.5 % in the deep ocean , and 2 % along the eastern margins . A typical analysis for TOC measures both the total carbon present and the so-called `` inorganic carbon '' ( IC ) , the latter representing the content of dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid salts . Subtracting the inorganic carbon from the total carbon yields TOC . Another common variant of TOC analysis involves removing the IC portion first and then measuring the leftover carbon . This method involves purging an acidified sample with carbon-free air or nitrogen prior to measurement , and so is more accurately called non-purgeable organic carbon ( NPOC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Total_organic_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 83428\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Toyota flower Content: The Toyota flower comprises two different species of genetically engineered flower by the Japanese automaker Toyota . The flowers , derivatives of the gardenia and the cherry sage plant , respectively ; have been developed for gardens of the Toyota Prius Tsutsumi , Japan plant . The `` Toyota '' sage 's leaves have unique attributes that absorb nitrogen oxides , while the gardenia 's leaves create water vapour in the air to extract atmospheric heat . This in turn reduces the temperature of the areas surrounding the factory , thus reducing the carbon dioxide-emitting energy needed for cooling .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Toyota_flower\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 83327\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Petra Nova Content: The Petra Nova project is a billion dollar endeavor taken upon by NRG Energy and JP Nippon to retrofit their jointly owned W.A Parish coal-fired power plant with post-combustion carbon capture . The plant , which is located in Thompsons , Texas ( just outside of Houston ) , entered commercial service in 1977 , and carbon capture began operation on January 10 , 2017 . The plant generates 240 MW and 90 % of the CO2 ( or 1.4 million tonnes ) is captured per year . The carbon dioxide captured ( 99 % purity ) from the power plant is compressed and piped about 82 miles to West Ranch Oil Field , Texas , where it will be used for enhanced oil recovery . The field has a capacity of 60 million barrels of oil and is expected to increase oil production by a factor of 50 . This project is expected to run for at least another 20 years . To satisfy the Clean Coal Power Initiative requirements , the Texas Bureau of Economic Geology has put in place a monitoring plan to keep track of the injection and movement of the CO2 beneath the surface and in the rock structures at West Ranch .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Petra_Nova\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 82751\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alberta Carbon Trunk Line Content: The Alberta Carbon Trunk Line ( ACTL ) is a 240 km pipeline in its construction stages that will collect excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the province of Alberta and transport it to various oil reservoirs around the province for enhanced oil recovery applications . Pioneered by Enhance Energy , the ACTL will source its CO2 from a fertilizer manufacturing plant in Redwater , and the North West Redwater Partnership bitumen upgrading plant using gasification . It will initially funnel the collected CO2 to Clive , a field discovered in the 1950s and currently produces about 300 barrels per day .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Alberta_Carbon_Trunk_Line\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 82699\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Friends of the Urban Forest Content: Friends of the Urban Forest is a non-profit organization based in San Francisco that plants and maintains trees within the city . Organized as a response to the city 's lack of trees , the group 's first tree planted was a glossy privet on arbor day , 1981 , in Noe Valley . As of 2006 it had planted 40,000 trees . San Francisco was originally mostly sand dunes and has few native trees . Fog , wind , cold , and salty air made it difficult for native and planted trees to survive . Only buckeye and Pacific willow were common . Most of the 90,000 trees in the city were planted in the 1880s through 1920s as part of large parks and properties . Monterey Pines and Eucalyptus trees were planted in the San Francisco Presidio , Stern Grove , and Golden Gate Park . However , these Monterey Pines have been affected by pitch pine canker and have been dying . At 12 % , San Francisco 's tree canopy cover remains considerably under the 22 % national average . Benefits to planting more trees include aesthetics , improved property values ( mature trees are said to increase surrounding property values by approximately 1 % ) , helping with global warming by absorbing carbon dioxide and providing oxygen , and energy savings due to increased tree canopy . Even at more than 5,000 trees per year as of 2006 , San Francisco 's tree-planting efforts were modest compared to other cities in California and throughout the world . That year Los Angeles announced plans to plant one million trees , and the United Nations had raised funds to plant 121 million trees towards a goal of one billion trees . Friends of the Urban Forest was mentioned in an episode of the Sci Fi Channel reality show Who Wants to Be a Superhero ? .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Friends_of_the_Urban_Forest\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 82691\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Taichung Power Plant Content: The Taichung Power Plant is a coal-fired power plant in Longjing , Taichung , Taiwan . With an installed coal-fired generation capacity of 5,500 MW , it is the largest coal-fired power station in the world , and also the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide with approximately 40 million tons annually ( or about as much as the country of Switzerland as a whole ) . Together with its gas-fired and wind generation units , the total installed capacity of the plant is 5,824 MW .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Taichung_Power_Plant\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 82549\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Wetland_methane_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 82053\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Transpiration Content: Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts , such as leaves , stems and flowers . Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism . The remaining 97 -- 99.5 % is lost by transpiration and guttation . Leaf surfaces are dotted with pores called stomata , and in most plants they are more numerous on the undersides of the foliage . The stomata are bordered by guard cells and their stomatal accessory cells ( together known as stomatal complex ) that open and close the pore . Transpiration occurs through the stomatal apertures , and can be thought of as a necessary `` cost '' associated with the opening of the stomata to allow the diffusion of carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis . Transpiration also cools plants , changes osmotic pressure of cells , and enables mass flow of mineral nutrients and water from roots to shoots . Two major factors influence the rate of water flow from the soil to the roots : the hydraulic conductivity of the soil and the magnitude of the pressure gradient through the soil . Both of these factors influence the rate of bulk flow of water moving from the roots to the stomatal pores in the leaves via the xylem . Mass flow of liquid water from the roots to the leaves is driven in part by capillary action , but primarily driven by water potential differences . If the water potential in the ambient air is lower than the water potential in the leaf airspace of the stomatal pore , water vapor will travel down the gradient and move from the leaf airspace to the atmosphere . This movement lowers the water potential in the leaf airspace and causes evaporation of liquid water from the mesophyll cell walls . This evaporation increases the tension on the water menisci in the cell walls and decrease their radius and thus the tension that is exerted on the water in the cells . Because of the cohesive properties of water , the tension travels through the leaf cells to the leaf and stem xylem where a momentary negative pressure is created as water is pulled up the xylem from the roots . In taller plants and trees , the force of gravity can only be overcome by the decrease in hydrostatic ( water ) pressure in the upper parts of the plants due to the diffusion of water out of stomata into the atmosphere . Water is absorbed at the roots by osmosis , and any dissolved mineral nutrients travel with it through the xylem . The Cohesion-tension theory explains how leaves pull water through the xylem . Water molecules stick together , or exhibit cohesion . As a water molecule evaporates from the surface of the leaf , it pulls on the adjacent water molecule , creating a continuous flow of water through the plant .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Transpiration\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 82047\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 82023\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 81768\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon power Content: Low-carbon power comes from processes or technologies that , produce power with substantially lower amounts of carbon dioxide emissions than is emitted from conventional fossil fuel power generation . It includes low carbon power generation sources such as wind power , solar power , hydropower and , including fuel preparation and decommissioning , nuclear power . The term largely excludes conventional fossil fuel plant sources , and is only used to describe a particular subset of operating fossil fuel power systems , specifically , those that are successfully coupled with a flue gas carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) system .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_power\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 81720\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anastasios Melis Content: Anastasios Melis is an American biologist at the University of California , Berkeley who is researching the possibility of creating hydrogen from algae . He is currently Professor of Plant & Microbial Biology in the institution and Editor-in-Chief of the Planta journal . Hydrogen power is considered one of the key ways of producing electricity without continuing to use up fossil fuels . The added bonus of using algae in this way is that they could consume carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In 1998 Professor Anastasios Melis discovered , after following Hans Gaffron 's work , that the deprivation of sulfur will cause Chlamydomonas reinhardtii algae to switch from producing oxygen to producing hydrogen . The enzyme , hydrogenase , he found was responsible for the reaction , which is normally a temporary emergency survival mechanism used in an oxygen-deprived environment . The enzyme stops functioning when oxygen is produced , however the deprivation of sulphur ensures continuous hydrogen production . Scientists since the 1940s have been trying to get the algae to produce hydrogen in significant quantities ; he told media his breakthrough was like `` striking oil '' . He currently leads and international effort to improve the efficiency of photosynthesis by 300 % for increased hydrogen production . However , he believes that the only way for cost-competitiveness is to genetically modify the organisms to increase output . In 2001 he co-founded a company , Melis Energy , in order to exploit his discovery , hoping to get it on the market by 2005 . In the autumn of 2001 , the company built a bio-reactor containing 500 litres of water and algae that produced up to 1 litre of hydrogen per hour . A siphoning system extracted the hydrogen , which is stored in its gaseous state . The company attempted to refine the process and improve its reliability , while also searching for investors so that it can increase production volume.It has since been dissolved .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Anastasios_Melis\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 81585\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Soil plant atmosphere continuum Content: The soil-plant-atmosphere continuum ( SPAC ) is the pathway for water moving from soil through plants to the atmosphere . Continuum in the description highlights the continuous nature of water connection through the pathway . The low water potential of the atmosphere , and relatively higher ( i.e. less negative ) water potential inside leaves , leads to a diffusion gradient across the stomatal pores of leaves , drawing water out of the leaves as vapour . As water vapour transpires out of the leaf , further water molecules evaporate off the surface of mesophyll cells to replace the lost molecules since water in the air inside leaves is maintained at saturation vapour pressure . Water lost at the surface of cells is replaced by water from the xylem , which due to the cohesion-tension properties of water in the xylem of plants pulls additional water molecules through the xylem from the roots toward the leaf .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Soil_plant_atmosphere_continuum\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 81090\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Engineering\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 81052\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photorespiration Content: Photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) refers to a process in plant metabolism where the enzyme RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP , causing some of the energy produced by photosynthesis to be wasted . The desired reaction is the addition of carbon dioxide to RuBP ( carboxylation ) , a key step in the Calvin -- Benson cycle , however approximately 25 % of reactions by RuBisCO instead add oxygen to RuBP ( oxygenation ) , creating a product that can not be used within the Calvin -- Benson cycle . This process reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis , potentially reducing photosynthetic output by 25 % in plants . Photorespiration involves a complex network of enzyme reactions that exchange metabolites between chloroplasts , leaf peroxisomes and mitochondria . The oxygenation reaction of RuBisCO is a wasteful process because 3-phosphoglycerate is created at a reduced rate and higher metabolic cost compared with RuBP carboxylase activity . While photorespiratory carbon cycling results in the formation of G3P eventually , there is still a net loss of carbon ( around 25 % of carbon fixed by photosynthesis is re-released as ) and nitrogen , as ammonia . Ammonia must be detoxified at a substantial cost to the cell . Photorespiration also incurs a direct cost of one ATP and one NAD ( P ) H. While it is common to refer to the entire process as photorespiration , technically the term refers only to the metabolic network which acts to rescue the products of the oxygenation reaction ( phosphoglycolate ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Photorespiration\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 80993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 80990\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bicarbonate indicator Content: A bicarbonate indicator ( hydrogencarbonate indicator ) is a type of pH indicator that is sensitive enough to show a color change as the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in an aqueous solution increases . The indicator is used in photosynthesis and respiration experiments to find out whether carbon dioxide is being liberated . It is also used to test the carbon dioxide content during gaseous exchange of organisms . When the carbon dioxide content is higher than 0.04 % , the initial red color changes to yellow as the pH becomes more acidic . If the carbon dioxide content is lower than 0.04 % , it changes from red to magenta and , in relatively very low carbon dioxide concentrations , to purple . Carbon dioxide , even in the concentrations found in exhaled air , will dissolve in the indicator to form carbonic acid , a weak acid , which will lower the pH and give the characteristic colour change . A colour change to purple during photosynthesis shows a reduction in the percentage of carbon dioxide and is sometimes inferred as production of oxygen , but there is not actually any direct evidence for it . Great care must be taken to avoid acidic or alkaline contamination of the apparatus in such experiments , since the test is not directly specific to carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Bicarbonate_indicator\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 80942\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Integrated gasification fuel cell cycle Content: Lower-temperature fuel cell types such as the proton exchange membrane fuel cell , phosphoric acid fuel cell , and alkaline fuel cell require pure hydrogen as fuel , typically produced from external reforming of natural gas . However , fuels cells operating at high temperature such as the solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) are not poisoned by carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide , and in fact can accept hydrogen , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , steam , and methane mixtures as fuel directly , because of their internal shift and reforming capabilities . This opens up the possibility of efficient fuel cell-based power cycles consuming solid fuels such as coal and biomass , the gasification of which results in syngas containing mostly hydrogen , carbon monoxide and methane which can be cleaned and fed directly to the SOFCs without the added cost and complexity of methane reforming , water gas shifting and hydrogen separation operations which would otherwise be needed to isolate pure hydrogen as fuel . A power cycle based on gasification of solid fuel and SOFCs is called an Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell ( IGFC ) cycle ; the IGFC power plant is analogous to an integrated gasification combined cycle power plant , but with the gas turbine power generation unit replaced with a fuel cell ( high temperature type such as SOFC ) power generation unit . By taking advantage of intrinsically high energy efficiency of SOFCs and process integration , exceptionally high power plant efficiencies are possible . Furthermore , SOFCs in the IGFC cycle can be operated so as to isolate a carbon dioxide-rich anodic exhaust stream , allowing efficient carbon capture to address greenhouse gas emissions concerns of coal-based power generation .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Integrated_gasification_fuel_cell_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 80879\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Frederick Blackman Content: Frederick Frost Blackman FRS ( 25 July 1866 -- 30 January 1947 ) was a British plant physiologist . Frederick Blackman was born in Lambeth , London to a doctor . He studied medicine at St. Bartholomew 's Hospital , graduating MA . In the subsequent years , he studied natural sciences at the University of Cambridge and was awarded DSc . He conducted research on plant physiology , in particular photosynthesis , in Cambridge until his retirement in 1936 . Gabrielle Matthaei was his assistant until 1905 . He was elected in May 1906 a Fellow of the Royal Society , his candidature citation reading `` Fellow of St John 's College , Cambridge . Ex-Lecturer and now Reader in Botany in the University . He has made distinguished investigations in physiology of plants , of which the following may be mentioned : Experimental Researches on Vegetable Assimilation and Respiration , viz : - On a New Method for investigating the Carbonic Acid Exchanges of Plants ( Phil Trans , 1895 ) ; On the Paths of Gaseous Exchange between Aerial Leaves and the Atmosphere ( ibid , 1895 ) ; by his pupil , Miss Mattaei , On the Effect of Temperature on Carbon-Dioxide Assimilation ( ibid ) ; A Quantitative Study of Carbon-Dioxide Assimilation and Leaf-Temperature in Natural Illumination ( Proc Roy Soc , 1905 , with Miss Matthaei ) ; Optima and Limiting Factors ( Ann of Bot , 1905 ) ; On the Reaction of Leaves to Traumatic Stimulation ( ibid , 1901 ) ; and other papers . In 1921 he was awarded their Royal Medal and in 1923 delivered their Croonian lecture . He was buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge , with his wife Elsie ( 1882 - 1967 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Frederick_Blackman\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 80697\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Crown (botany) Content: The crown of a plant refers to the totality of an individual plant 's aboveground parts , including stems , leaves , and reproductive structures . A plant community canopy consists of one or more plant crowns growing in a given area . The crown of a woody plant ( tree , shrub , liana ) is the branches , leaves , and reproductive structures extending from the trunk or main stems . Shapes of crowns are highly variable . The major types for trees are the excurrent branching habit resulting in conoid shapes and decurrent ( deliquescent ) branching habit , resulting in round shapes . Crowns are also characterized by their width , depth , surface area , volume , and density . Measurements of crowns are important in quantifying and qualifying plant health , growth stage , and efficiency . Major functions of the crown include light energy assimilation , carbon dioxide absorption and release of oxygen via photosynthesis , energy release by respiration , and movement of water to the atmosphere by transpiration . These functions are performed by the leaves . Branches of the crown provide mechanical support to distribute the leaves efficiently and serve as conduits for resources ( water , nutrients , photosynthates ) to perform these functions .\",\n \"qid\": \"197\",\n \"docid\": \"Crown_(botany)\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 80397\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":93,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"For decades horticulturalists have pumped carbon dioxide into glasshouses to increase yields."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Greenhouse Content: A greenhouse ( also called a glasshouse , or , if with sufficient heating , a hothouse ) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material , such as glass , in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown . These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings . A miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame . The interior of a greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the external ambient temperature , protecting its contents in cold weather . Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers . The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations , heating , cooling , lighting , and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth . Different techniques are then used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate ( i.e. , air temperature , relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit ) in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop .","qid":"198","docid":"Greenhouse","rank":1,"score":143697},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse whitefly Content: Trialeurodes vaporariorum , commonly known as the glasshouse whitefly or greenhouse whitefly , is an insect that inhabits the world 's temperate regions . Like various other whiteflies , it is a primary insect pest of many fruit , vegetable and ornamental crops . It is frequently found in glasshouses ( greenhouses ) , polytunnels , and other protected horticultural environments . Adults are 1 -- 2 mm in length , with yellowish bodies and four wax-coated wings held near parallel to the leaf surface .","qid":"198","docid":"Greenhouse_whitefly","rank":2,"score":143161},{"content":"Title: Controlled-environment agriculture Content: Controlled-environment agriculture ( CEA ) is a technology-based approach toward food production . The aim of CEA is to provide protection and maintain optimal growing conditions throughout the development of the crop . Production takes place within an enclosed growing structure such as a greenhouse or building . Plants are often grown using hydroponic methods in order to supply the proper amounts of water and nutrients to the root zone . CEA optimizes the use of resources such as water , energy , space , capital and labor . CEA technologies include hydroponics , aquaculture , and aquaponics . Controllable variables : Temperature ( air , nutrient solution , root-zone ) Humidity ( % RH ) Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) Light ( intensity , spectrum , interval ) Nutrient concentration ( PPM , EC ) Nutrient pH ( acidity ) CEA facilities can range from fully automated glasshouses with computer controls for watering , lighting and ventilation , to low-tech solutions such as cloches or plastic film on field grown crops and plastic-covered tunnels . CEA is used in research so that a specific aspect of production can be isolated while all other variables remain the same . Tinted glass could be compared to plain glass in this way during an investigation into photosynthesis . Another possibility would be an investigation into the use of supplementary lighting for growing lettuce under a hydroponic system . A February 2011 article in the magazine Science Illustrated states , `` In commercial agriculture , CEA can increase efficiency , reduce pests and diseases , and save resources . ... Replicating a conventional farm with computers and LED lights is expensive but proves cost-efficient in the long run by producing up to 20 times as much high-end , pesticidee-free produce as a similar-size plot of soil . Fourteen thousand square feet of closely monitored plants produce 15 million seedlings annually at the solar-powered factory . Such factories will be necessary to meet urban China 's rising demand for quality fruits and vegetables . ''","qid":"198","docid":"Controlled-environment_agriculture","rank":3,"score":137171},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_generator","rank":4,"score":127268},{"content":"Title: Thanet Earth Content: Thanet Earth is a large industrial agriculture / plant factory project consortium in the United Kingdom . Located on the Isle of Thanet , in Kent it is the largest greenhouse complex in the UK , covering 90 hectares , or 220 acre of land . The glasshouses produce approximately 225 million tomatoes , 16 million peppers and 13 million cucumbers a year , equal to roughly 12 , 11 and 8 per cent respectively of Britain 's entire annual production of those salad ingredients . Thanet Earth 's main customers are Asda , Sainsbury 's , Tesco , M&S and agency HRGO","qid":"198","docid":"Thanet_Earth","rank":5,"score":122974},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"198","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":6,"score":116297},{"content":"Title: Severinghaus electrode Content: The Severinghaus electrode is an electrode that measures carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It was developed by Dr. John W. Severinghaus and his technician A. Freeman Bradley in 1958 . It utilizes a CO2-sensitive glass electrode in a surrounding film of bicarbonate solution covered by a thin plastic carbon dioxide permeable membrane , but impermeable to water and electrolytic solutes . The carbon dioxide pressure of a sample gas or liquid equilibrates through the membrane and the glass electrode measures the resulting pH of the bicarbonate solution .","qid":"198","docid":"Severinghaus_electrode","rank":7,"score":112118},{"content":"Title: Azolla event Content: The Azolla event occurred in the middle Eocene epoch , around , when blooms of the freshwater fern Azolla are thought to have happened in the Arctic Ocean . As they sank to the stagnant sea floor , they were incorporated into the sediment ; the resulting draw-down of carbon dioxide has been speculated to have helped transform the planet from a `` greenhouse Earth '' state , hot enough for turtles and palm trees to prosper at the poles , to the icehouse Earth it has been since .","qid":"198","docid":"Azolla_event","rank":8,"score":108290},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse (car) Content: The greenhouse ( or glasshouse ) of a car comprises the windshield , rear and side windows , the pillars separating them ( designated A-pillar , B-pillar and so on , starting from the car 's front ) , and the car 's roof . The shape and position of the greenhouse have a defining influence on the looks of the car and are a prime factor in differentiating between body styles such as saloon/sedan , coupé , estate/wagon and hatchback . In the 2000s and 2010s , greenhouses have become narrower because of design trends and crash regulations . Some manufacturers incorporate trademark design features in the greenhouse that are present across several model series , one example being the BMW Hofmeister kink .","qid":"198","docid":"Greenhouse_(car)","rank":9,"score":108226},{"content":"Title: George Tod Content: George Tod was a British surveyor and hothouse builder who provided colour illustrations and descriptions of 26 `` glass houses , '' chiefly of his own design , in an 1807 publication . The text presents plans , elevations and sections of hothouses , greenhouses , conservatories , and an aquarium built in different parts of England for various noblemen and gentlemen , including a hothouse and greenhouse in the gardens at Frogmore . In a review in The Literary Panorama of 1807 , Tod 's book is priced at # 2 . 12s . 6d. , and is praised for giving greenhouse examples that could be reproduced `` by any ingenious workman '' .","qid":"198","docid":"George_Tod","rank":10,"score":107163},{"content":"Title: Huff and puff apparatus Content: The huff and puff apparatus is used in school biology labs to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is a product of respiration . A pupil breathes in and out of the middle tube . The glass tubing is arranged in such a way that one flask bubbles as the pupils breathes in , the other as the pupil breathes out . A suitable carbon dioxide indicator , such as limewater or bicarbonate indicator shows the increased presence of carbon dioxide in the outgoing breath.This turns the bicarbonate into milky white substance .","qid":"198","docid":"Huff_and_puff_apparatus","rank":11,"score":107091},{"content":"Title: Free-air concentration enrichment Content: Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment ( FACE ) is a method used by ecologists and plant biologists that raises the concentration of in a specified area and allows the response of plant growth to be measured . Experiments using FACE are required because most studies looking at the effect of elevated concentrations have been conducted in labs and where there are many missing factors including plant competition . Measuring the effect of elevated using FACE is a better way of estimating how plant growth will change in the future as the concentration rises in the atmosphere . FACE also allows the effect of elevated on plants that can not be grown in small spaces ( trees for example ) to be measured .","qid":"198","docid":"Free-air_concentration_enrichment","rank":12,"score":106782},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":13,"score":106239},{"content":"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .","qid":"198","docid":"Climate-friendly_gardening","rank":14,"score":105977},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia","rank":15,"score":105893},{"content":"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .","qid":"198","docid":"Biosequestration","rank":16,"score":103712},{"content":"Title: Ecological yield Content: Ecological yield is the harvestable population growth of an ecosystem . It is most commonly measured in forestry : sustainable forestry is defined as that which does not harvest more wood in a year than has grown in that year , within a given patch of forest . However , the concept is also applicable to water , soil , and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed -- called renewable resources . The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is `` renewed '' ( refreshed or regrown or rebuilt ) is consumed . Ecosystem services analysis calculates the global yield of the Earth 's biosphere to humans as a whole . This is said to be greater in size than the entire human economy . However , it is more than just yield , but also the natural processes that increase biodiversity and conserve habitat which result in the total value of these services . `` Yield '' of ecological commodities like wood or water , useful to humans , is only a part of it . Very often an ecological yield in one place offsets an ecological load in another . Greenhouse gas released in one place , for instance , is fairly evenly distributed in the atmosphere , and so greenhouse gas control can be achieved by creating a carbon sink literally anywhere else . Ecocide is thought by some green economists to be accelerated by debt instruments which demand a yield greater than the ecological capacity to renew . This is a major question in monetary reform .","qid":"198","docid":"Ecological_yield","rank":17,"score":103459},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_flooding","rank":18,"score":102581},{"content":"Title: Glasshouses Content: Glasshouses is a small village in Nidderdale , North Yorkshire , England . It lies about 1 mile south-east of Pateley Bridge on the east side of Nidderdale and has a recently rebuilt river bridge across the river Nidd . The old twine mill , on the banks of the Nidd , now houses a number of small businesses . There is a public house , The Birch Tree Inn , on the main Harrogate to Pateley Bridge road just outside the village . May day is celebrated every year with traditional May Pole dancing and the crowning of the ` May Queen ' on the village green .","qid":"198","docid":"Glasshouses","rank":19,"score":102235},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":20,"score":101913},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide cleaning Content: Carbon dioxide cleaning ( CO2 cleaning ) comprises a family of methods for parts cleaning and sterilization , using carbon dioxide in its various phases . It is often preferred for use on delicate surfaces . CO2 cleaning has found application in the aerospace , automotive , electronics , medical , and other industries . Carbon dioxide snow cleaning has been used to remove particles and organic residues from metals , polymers , ceramics , glasses , hard drives , optics , and other surfaces .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_cleaning","rank":21,"score":101395},{"content":"Title: Glasshouse (The Temptations song) Content: `` Glasshouse '' is a 1975 R&B single by The Temptations . It was written by Motown songwriting team Charlemagne , which consisted of James Carmichael , Ronald Miller and Kathy Wakefield . The song appeared on the album A Song for You . All five Temptations alternate lead vocals , singing about how people who live in glasshouses `` should n't throw no stones '' . It was the last top forty hit for The Temptations , going to number thirty-seven pop and number nine on the R&B charts .","qid":"198","docid":"Glasshouse_(The_Temptations_song)","rank":22,"score":100958},{"content":"Title: Glasshouse (British Army) Content: Glasshouse , or the Glasshouse , is the term for a military prison in the United Kingdom . The first military prisons were established in 1844 . The term Glasshouse originated from the military prison at Aldershot , which had a glazed roof . Over time , the word Glasshouse came to be applied to all military prisons . Aldershot prison , which was also called the Detention Barracks , had begun as several barracks in 1856 , before being replaced by a single , large building , modelled on the then civilian prison system in 1870 . This building was destroyed by fire in a riot of 1946 when the prisoners ( labeled as ` mutineers ' in the press ) were protesting about their rations and conditions given that the Second World War was over . Glasshouses gained a reputation for brutality , as depicted in Allan Campbell McLean 's novel , The Glass House and the Sean Connery film , The Hill . Today , the British Army has only one remaining correction facility , the Military Corrective Training Centre at Colchester . Whilst the MCTC is not a prison , it is inspected by the Justice Inspectorate and any serviceperson convicted of a crime that warrants prison time , will be sent to the MCTC for processing , before being sent to a civilian prison . The MCTC at Colchester was featured in a Channel 4 documentary in 1994 ( The Glasshouse ) which prompted an Early day motion in the House of Commons over the inmates having access to ammunition and weapons ( as part of normal military drill . ) This was because the government at the time , were seeking to use the MCTC as a model for youth custody in civilian prisons . ITV Anglia also produced a TV-documentary series , The Real Red Caps , ( 2003 ) .","qid":"198","docid":"Glasshouse_(British_Army)","rank":23,"score":100682},{"content":"Title: Sheffield Winter Garden Content: Sheffield Winter Garden in the city of Sheffield in South Yorkshire is one of the largest temperate glasshouses to be built in the UK during the last hundred years , and the largest urban glasshouse anywhere in Europe . It is home to more than 2,000 plants from all around the world . It was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 22 May 2003 . Part of the # 120 million Heart of the City regeneration project that has created the Peace Gardens and the # 15 million Millennium Galleries , the Winter Garden was designed by Pringle Richards Sharratt Architects and Buro Happold and is some 70 m long and 21 m high . The building has background frost protection to minimum of 4 degrees Celsius and it is one of the largest Glued Laminated Timber or `` Glulam '' buildings in the UK ( Glulam is made by forming and gluing strips of timber into specific shapes ) . The wood used is Larch , a durable timber which will , over time , turn a light silvery grey colour . The larch , derived from sustainable forests , requires no preservatives or coatings . This reduces the use of solvents and also avoids the use of chemicals that could kill the plants . It has an intelligent Building Management System which controls fans and vents to make sure the plants are cooled in summer and kept warm in winter . The system will `` learn '' year-on-year . The bedding plants are changed five times a year , to give a seasonal change , and all the plants are watered by hose or by watering can , as it is the only way to ensure that all the plants get the correct amount of water .","qid":"198","docid":"Sheffield_Winter_Garden","rank":24,"score":100669},{"content":"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .","qid":"198","docid":"Keith_E._Idso","rank":25,"score":100358},{"content":"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_sequestration","rank":26,"score":99991},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .","qid":"198","docid":"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth","rank":27,"score":99599},{"content":"Title: Season extension Content: In agriculture , season extension refers to anything that allows a crop to be grown and harvested beyond its normal outdoor growing season and harvesting window . For colder climates , the fully heated and artificially lit greenhouse is the ultimate season extension device , allowing some crops to be grown year-round , through sub-zero winters . An energy-expensive approach . There are many other ways to beat the cold , for earlier spring planting and growing into the fall and winter : Row covers : Light fabric placed over plants retains heat and can offer up to several degrees of frost protection . In smaller gardens almost any type of cover , including newspaper cones , miscellaneous bits of plastic , etc. , can serve the same purpose . Hoop houses : Plastic sheeting is placed over a frame ( usually in an arced shape ) , to create a type of greenhouse . Hoophouses can be large or small , simple or nearly as functional as greenhouses . Cold frames : Transparent-roofed enclosure , built low to the ground , used to protect plants from cold weather . Cold frames are found in home gardens and in vegetable farming . They are most often used for growing seedlings that are later transplanted into open ground . Hotbeds : A mass of hot compost is used for the heat it gives off to warm a nearby plant . Typically a few centimeters of soil are placed on top of the compost mass , and the plant grows there , above the rising heat . Mulches : Any material placed on the soil around plants will help retain heat . Organic mulches include straw , compost , etc. . Synthetic mulches , typically , plastic sheeting with slits through which plants grow , is used extensively in large-scale vegetable growing . Raised beds : Beds where the soil has been loosened and piled a few inches to over a foot above the surrounding ground heat up more quickly in spring , allowing earlier planting . Season extension techniques are most effective when combined with crop varieties selected for the extended growing conditions . Many approaches are used in large-scale agriculture , as well as in small-scale organic farming , and home gardening . Using unheated , unlit methods , depending on the crop , up to several weeks of productivity can be added , where shortened period of sunlight and cold weather end the growing season . Season extension can apply to other climates , where conditions other than cold and shortened period of sunlight end the growing year ( e.g. a rainy season ) .","qid":"198","docid":"Season_extension","rank":28,"score":98883},{"content":"Title: Richard Turner (iron-founder) Content: Richard Turner ( 1798 -- 1881 ) was an Irish iron founder and manufacturer of glasshouses , born in Dublin . His works included the Palm House at Kew Gardens ( with Decimus Burton ) , the glasshouse in the Winter Gardens at Regent 's Park in London , the Palm House at Belfast Botanic Gardens and the Curvilinear Range at the Irish National Botanic Gardens , Glasnevin , Ireland . He was a pioneer in the structural use of wrought iron . The glasshouses which he designed were sophisticated and innovative , as the use of wrought and cast iron was at the leading edge of building technology at the time . He used standardised components and prefabricated elements manufactured off-site for later assembly , together with curved glass in long lengths . Turner designed and constructed the railway sheds at Westland Row and at the Broadstone in Dublin , and Lime Street in Liverpool , but also turned his hand to the design and manufacture of railings , boilers , cisterns and bedsteads . His entry in Thom 's directory for 1849 describes him as ` manufacturer of wrought-iron gates , railway conservatories , hothouses etc. , and hot water engineer ' , indicating the broad range of activities which the firm undertook . Turner entered the initial competition for designs for the London International Exhibition of 1851 and out of 233 entries was jointly awarded the second prize along with an entry by Hector Horeau . The final built design was `` The Crystal Palace '' by Joseph Paxton .","qid":"198","docid":"Richard_Turner_(iron-founder)","rank":29,"score":98436},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"198","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":30,"score":98152},{"content":"Title: Walter Nicol Content: Walter Nicol ( 20 April 1769 - 5 March 1811 ) was a Scottish garden and hothouse designer , who wrote several books on practical horticulture . Nicol was born in Niddrie . He was employed at a number of estates in Scotland and improved the design and layout of gardens and glasshouses . Nicol is in particular responsible for the walled garden layout at Dalhousie Castle in Midlothian .","qid":"198","docid":"Walter_Nicol","rank":31,"score":97983},{"content":"Title: Sylvan Wittwer Content: Sylvan Harold Wittwer ( January 17 , 1917 -- January 20 , 2012 ) was an American agronomist who served as director of the agricultural experiment station at Michigan State University . Wittwer was born in 1917 in Hurricane , Utah . He received his bachelor 's degree at Utah State University and his doctors degree from the University of Missouri . Wittwer developed a chemical known as Gibberellins . He wrote Feeding a Billion ( 1987 ) and Food , Climate , and Carbon Dioxide : The Global Environment and World Food Production ( 1995 ) . Another book he wrote was Greenhouse Tomatoes , Lettuce and Cucumber ( 1979 ) . Wittwer served as the first president of the Lansing Michigan Stake of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( LDS Church ) beginning in 1962 . Wittwer had also served as the first bishop of the church 's Lansing Ward beginning in 1952 . Wittwer was a member of the board of the Greening Earth Society and the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Wittwer authored `` Feeding a Billion '' in 1987 published by Michigan State University Press with cover design by Lynne Brown Wittwer was on the board of directors of Deseret Valley Academy , an anticipated independent LDS liberal arts college .","qid":"198","docid":"Sylvan_Wittwer","rank":32,"score":97864},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":33,"score":97419},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"198","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":34,"score":97312},{"content":"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .","qid":"198","docid":"Amorphous_carbonia","rank":35,"score":96380},{"content":"Title: Forsyth Barr Stadium Content: The Forsyth Barr Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in Dunedin , New Zealand . At various stages of development it was also known as Dunedin Stadium or Awatea Street Stadium , or its non-commercial official name during the 2011 Rugby World Cup and 2015 FIFA U-20 World Cup , Otago Stadium . It is also known colloquially as ` the glasshouse ' due to its resemblance to a horticultural hothouse . The stadium was opened by New Zealand Prime Minister John Key on 5 August 2011 , replacing Carisbrook as the home stadium of the Highlanders team in Super Rugby and the Otago in the domestic ITM Cup . The stadium hosted four matches of the 2011 Rugby World Cup , and after hosting Elton John in November 2011 hosted more major music events in April 2013 , when Aerosmith and Paul Simon performed in New Zealand for the first time .","qid":"198","docid":"Forsyth_Barr_Stadium","rank":36,"score":95472},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_laser","rank":37,"score":95040},{"content":"Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .","qid":"198","docid":"C3_carbon_fixation","rank":38,"score":94956},{"content":"Title: Carl David Bouché Content: Carl David Bouché ( 4 June 1809 -- 27 September 1881 ) was a German botanist and gardener . He served as Inspector ( technical director ) of the Royal Botanic Garden in Berlin from 1843 to 1881 . Bouché described 107 plant species . Bouché was a member of a prominent family of botanists and gardeners . His grandfather , Jean David Bouché ( 1747 -- 1819 ) , a Berlin nurseryman of French origin , installed glasshouses which became popular with the Prussian nobility . His uncle , Peter Friedrich Bouché ( 1785 -- 1856 ) , and father Peter Karl Bouché ( 1783 -- 1856 ) continued the business . Peter Karl was also a student of Carl Ludwig Willdenow .","qid":"198","docid":"Carl_David_Bouché","rank":39,"score":94850},{"content":"Title: Thomas D. Sharkey (plant biochemist) Content: Thomas D. Sharkey is a plant biochemist who studies gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere . His research has covered ( 1 ) carbon metabolism of photosynthesis from carbon dioxide uptake to carbon export from the Calvin-Benson Cycle , ( 2 ) isoprene emission from plants , and ( 3 ) abiotic stress tolerance . Four guiding questions are : ( 1 ) how leaf photosynthesis affects plant yield , ( 2 ) does some carbon fixation follow an oxidative pathway that reduces sugar output but stabilizes photosynthesis , ( 3 ) why plants make isoprene , and ( 4 ) how plants cope with high temperature .","qid":"198","docid":"Thomas_D._Sharkey_(plant_biochemist)","rank":40,"score":94211},{"content":"Title: Wavertree Botanic Gardens Content: Wavertree Botanic Gardens ( formerly Wavertree Botanic Garden and Park ) is an example of a mid 19th century public park . It incorporates an earlier walled botanic garden , founded by William Roscoe as Liverpool Botanic Garden and relocated from land near Mount Pleasant in the 1830s . The gardens include the Grade II curator 's lodge built between 1836-1837 . On 20 November 1940 a stray German bomb caused all the glass in the botanic glasshouse to be broken , the plants inside were shredded . As it was winter , everyone helped remove the surviving plants into nearby private glasshouses until the war ended . The Orchids were located at Sudley House . The botanic glasshouse was never reinstated after the war , but due to the major efforts by Percy Conn , the new Superintendent of Liverpool Parks , who had the vision to revive the work of William Roscoe & John Shepherd ( horticulturalist ) in the Mount Pleasant days , the Liverpool Botanic Garden arose anew in the Harthill Estate grounds at Calderstones Park . On 22 August 2013 the botanic park and gardens were listed at Grade II * in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . In 1886 the International Exhibition of Navigation , Commerce and Industry was held here .","qid":"198","docid":"Wavertree_Botanic_Gardens","rank":41,"score":94115},{"content":"Title: Repressuring Content: Repressuring is the method by which the pressure inside a crude oil well is increased so as to increase the output of the well . Pumping crude oil from a reservoir causes its pressure to drop , which further reduces pumpability . Returning the natural gas or other inert gases to the oil well increases the pumpability of the crude present inside the well by decreasing its viscosity and density . In one instance , slower rate of oil production and recycling of natural gas at 9.6 MPa enabled a net recovery of 70 % of the oil originally present . Although recovery can be increased even by repressuring with air , air is seldom used because it causes an inferior quality of product . Instead carbon dioxide or natural gas itself is used so as to not only increase the recovery from the oil well but also to maintain the high quality of the product .","qid":"198","docid":"Repressuring","rank":42,"score":93850},{"content":"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .","qid":"198","docid":"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning","rank":43,"score":93548},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"198","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":44,"score":93490},{"content":"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .","qid":"198","docid":"Individual_action_on_climate_change","rank":45,"score":93222},{"content":"Title: Temperate House Content: The Temperate House , opened in 1862 , is a Grade I-listed showhouse for Kew 's largest plants . Rectangular , with pitched roofs , its pillars support wrought-iron ribs . Decimus Burton , the designer , gave the House a mix of decorative motifs , finials , pediments , acanthus leaf capitals , Coade stone urns and statues . According to Greg Redwood , Kew 's head of glasshouses , `` The effect is similar to the contemporary iron pier pavilions of Eugenius Birch . '' It was positioned to be the first feature visitors saw as they entered the gates with the anticipated coming of the first railway station at Kew expected to be at the end of the adjacent avenue . However , Kew Gardens station ( London ) , was built 500 yards to the north - leaving the glasshouse `` somewhat stranded in the landscape '' . In 2011 Kew had to launch a # 15m public appeal to address needed repairs to the Temperate House . An early exercise in cast - and wrought-iron and glass construction , the building is structurally sound but the Victorians hid utilitarian features liked drainpipes inside the stone columns . Water round the edge of the building leads to rust on the iron to push against the masonry which is falling away . Decorative features made of wood are rotting . It last underwent a major restoration in the late 1970s .","qid":"198","docid":"Temperate_House","rank":46,"score":92936},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_reforming","rank":47,"score":92921},{"content":"Title: Kaliapparat Content: A kaliapparat is a laboratory device invented in 1831 by Justus von Liebig ( 1803 -- 1873 ) for the analysis of carbon in organic compounds . The device , made of glass , consists of a series of five bulbs connected and arranged in a triangular shape . To determine the carbon in an organic compound with a kaliapparat , the substance is first burned , converting any carbon present into carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The vaporous products are passed through the kaliapparat , which is filled with potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) solution . The potassium hydroxide reacts with the CO2 to make potassium carbonate . The reaction , ignoring ionic dissociation , can be written as follows : 2 KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O . Subtracting the mass of the kaliapparat before the combustion from that found after the combustion gives the amount of CO2 absorbed . From the mass of CO2 thus found , standard stoichiometric calculations then give the mass of carbon in the original sample . A stylized symbol of a kaliapparat is used in the American Chemical Society logo , originally designed in the early 20th century by Tiffany 's Jewelers .","qid":"198","docid":"Kaliapparat","rank":48,"score":92845},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"198","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":49,"score":92838},{"content":"Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .","qid":"198","docid":"Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage","rank":50,"score":92655},{"content":"Title: Enid A. Haupt Glass Garden Content: The Enid A. Haupt Glass Garden was built in 1958 as part of the Rusk Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine at New York University Medical Center . It provides horticultural therapy for patients , but is also open to the public . It is contained in a 17000 sqft greenhouse at 34th Street and First Avenue in New York City . The garden was gift from Enid A. Haupt .","qid":"198","docid":"Enid_A._Haupt_Glass_Garden","rank":51,"score":92427},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"198","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":52,"score":92370},{"content":"Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .","qid":"198","docid":"Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":53,"score":92277},{"content":"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .","qid":"198","docid":"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide","rank":54,"score":91472},{"content":"Title: Biological pump Content: The biological pump , in its simplest form , is the ocean 's biologically driven sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere to deep sea water and sediment . It is the part of the oceanic carbon cycle responsible for the cycling of organic matter formed mainly by phytoplankton during photosynthesis ( soft-tissue pump ) , as well as the cycling of calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) formed into shells by certain organisms such as plankton and mollusks ( carbonate pump ) .","qid":"198","docid":"Biological_pump","rank":55,"score":91430},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage","rank":56,"score":91430},{"content":"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .","qid":"198","docid":"Charles_David_Keeling","rank":57,"score":91304},{"content":"Title: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Content: The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum ( CSLF ) is an international initiative to advance carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) technology . The Forum is a Ministerial-level organization that includes 23 member countries and the European Commission . Membership is open to national governmental entities that are significant producers or users of fossil fuel and that have a commitment to invest resources in research , development and demonstration activities in carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies . CSLF also recognizes that stakeholders , those organizations that are affected by and can affect the goals of CSLF , form an essential component of CSLF activities . The CSLF Charter , signed in June 2003 , organized the CSLF by creating a Policy Group , which governs the overall framework and policies of the CSLF , a Technical Group , which reviews the progress of collaborative projects and makes recommendations to the Policy Group on any needed actions , and an administrative Secretariat , which organizes CSLF meetings , coordinates communications among CSLF Members , and acts as a clearinghouse of information . In July 2005 , the G8 Summit endorsed the CSLF in its Plan of Action on Climate Change , Clean Energy and Sustainable Development , and identified it as a medium of cooperation and collaboration with key developing countries in dealing with greenhouse gases . Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include : the joint statement of the U.S.-European Union Summit on Energy Security , Energy Efficiency , Renewables and Economic Development , and the Mainz Declaration of Germany and the United States on Cleaner and More Efficient Energy , Development and Climate Change . In 2006 and 2007 , the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage . Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders . The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO2 capture , transport and storage research and activities .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum","rank":58,"score":90947},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"198","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":59,"score":90846},{"content":"Title: Ecohouse Content: An Eco-house ( or eco-home ) is an environmentally low-impact home designed and built using materials and technology that reduces its carbon footprint and lowers its energy needs . This includes : Glass that has two or three layers with a vacuum in between to prevent heat loss ; Solar panels or wind turbines ; Geothermal heating and growing plants on the roof to regulate temperature , quieten the house , and to produce oxygen ; A Vegetable patch outside the house for some food The concept of an eco-house means a dwelling that has a low impact on the environment .","qid":"198","docid":"Ecohouse","rank":60,"score":90784},{"content":"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .","qid":"198","docid":"The_Green_Initiative","rank":61,"score":90567},{"content":"Title: Alberta Carbon Trunk Line Content: The Alberta Carbon Trunk Line ( ACTL ) is a 240 km pipeline in its construction stages that will collect excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the province of Alberta and transport it to various oil reservoirs around the province for enhanced oil recovery applications . Pioneered by Enhance Energy , the ACTL will source its CO2 from a fertilizer manufacturing plant in Redwater , and the North West Redwater Partnership bitumen upgrading plant using gasification . It will initially funnel the collected CO2 to Clive , a field discovered in the 1950s and currently produces about 300 barrels per day .","qid":"198","docid":"Alberta_Carbon_Trunk_Line","rank":62,"score":90510},{"content":"Title: Glassy carbon Content: Glass-like carbon , often called glassy carbon or vitreous carbon , is a non-graphitizing , or nongraphitizable , carbon which combines glassy and ceramic properties with those of graphite . The most important properties are high temperature resistance , hardness ( 7 Mohs ) , low density , low electrical resistance , low friction , low thermal resistance , extreme resistance to chemical attack and impermeability to gases and liquids . Glassy carbon is widely used as an electrode material in electrochemistry , as well as for high temperature crucibles and as a component of some prosthetic devices , and can be fabricated as different shapes , sizes and sections . The names glassy carbon and vitreous carbon have been introduced as trademarks ; therefore , IUPAC does not recommend their use as technical terms . Vitreous carbon can also be produced as a foam . It is then called reticulated vitreous carbon ( RVC ) . This foam was first developed in the mid to late 1960s as a thermally insulating , microporous glassy carbon electrode material . RVC foam is a strong , inert , electrically and thermally conductive , and corrosion resistant porous form of carbon with a low resistance to gas and fluid flow . Due to these characteristics , the most widespread scientific use of RVC is in electrochemistry ( Sumita , 1985 ; Friedrich et al. , 2004 ; Rogulski et al. , 2004 ) . Additionally , RVC foams are characterized by an exceptionally high void volume , high surface area , and very high thermal resistance in non-oxidising environments , which allows for heat sterilization and facilitates manipulation in biological applications .","qid":"198","docid":"Glassy_carbon","rank":63,"score":90416},{"content":"Title: Glasshouse (novel) Content: Glasshouse is a science fiction novel by British author Charles Stross , first published in 2006 . The novel is set in the twenty seventh century aboard a spacecraft adrift in interstellar space . Robin , the protagonist , has recently had his memory erased . He agrees to take part in an experiment , during which he is placed inside a model of a late twentieth/early twenty-first century Euroamerican society . Robin is given a new identity and body , specifically that of a woman named `` Reeve '' . Major themes of this novel are identity , gender determinism , self-image - and conformity . Contrary to popular belief , it is not a sequel to his 2005 novel Accelerando , although Stross has stated that the two novels are not obviously incompatible . Glasshouse won the Prometheus Award for 2007 , and was nominated for the Hugo , Campbell , and Locus Awards in 2007 .","qid":"198","docid":"Glasshouse_(novel)","rank":64,"score":90408},{"content":"Title: Glass House Mountains, Queensland Content: Glass House Mountains ( also spelled Glasshouse Mountains ) is a hinterland town and locality of the Sunshine Coast Region , Queensland , Australia , named after the famous Glass House Mountains of the area . Colloquially it is often known simply as `` Glasshouse '' . At the 2011 census , Glass House Mountains had a population of 4,791 .","qid":"198","docid":"Glass_House_Mountains,_Queensland","rank":65,"score":90192},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":66,"score":88675},{"content":"Title: Gasogene Content: The gasogene ( or gazogene or seltzogene ) is a late Victorian device for producing carbonated water . It consists of two linked glass globes : the lower contained water or other drink to be made sparkling , the upper a mixture of tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate that reacts to produce carbon dioxide . The produced gas pushes the liquid in the lower container up a tube and out of the device . The globes are surrounded by a wicker or wire protective mesh , as they have a tendency to explode . The earliest occurrence of the word noted in the Oxford English Dictionary dates from 1853 , quoting a reference in Practical Mechanic 's Journal on `` Gaillard and Dubois ' ` Gazogene ' or Aerated Water apparatus '' . A gasogene is mentioned as a residential fixture at 221B Baker Street in Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes story A Scandal in Bohemia : `` With hardly a word spoken , but with a kindly eye , he waved me to an armchair , threw across his case of cigars , and indicated a spirit case and a gasogene in the corner . '' The device plays a key role in Bernard Shaw 's 1905 comic play Passion , Poison , and Petrifaction , Or The Fatal Gazogene .","qid":"198","docid":"Gasogene","rank":67,"score":88557},{"content":"Title: Head gardener Content: The head gardener ( also known as a curator ) or as a Master Gardener is an individual who manages the staff of a large garden , landscape or park , such as a residential garden , botanical garden , theme park , public park , museum or roadside embankments and islands . A head gardener 's responsibility may therefore cross over into the managing of or communicating with individuals from other disciplines , such as landscaping , construction and cooking and not be limited to gardening , the activity of growing and maintaining the garden . A large or stately property may include several different types of garden , such as the formal garden ( also English garden ) , lawns , white garden , Japanese garden , miniature or bonsai garden , tropical garden , cold climate garden , rockery , fernery , water garden , herb garden , orchard , and the management of related buildings and setups such as greenhouses ( hothouses , glasshouses and shadehouses ) , water features and aquaria . A head gardener may also be the directing gardener on a lifestyle television show ; compare celebrity gardener .","qid":"198","docid":"Head_gardener","rank":68,"score":88422},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":69,"score":88220},{"content":"Title: Enhanced coal bed methane recovery Content: Enhanced coal bed methane recovery is a method of producing additional coalbed methane from a source rock , similar to enhanced oil recovery applied to oil fields . Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) injected into a bituminous coal bed would occupy pore space and also adsorb onto the carbon in the coal at approximately twice the rate of methane ( CH4 ) , allowing for potential enhanced gas recovery . This technique may be used in conjunction with carbon capture and storage in mitigation of global warming where the carbon dioxide that is sequestered is captured from the output of fossil fuel power plants . A research project at ETH Zurich is studying the process of pumping carbon dioxide into unminable coal seams and recovering the methane that is subsequently displaced . An extensive experimental investigation about the process of desorbing methane by adsorbing carbon dioxide in real coal samples was performed . The proof of principle and the technical feasibility of the method could be verified with these measurements . These research results indicate that CBM can become an alternative to conventional natural gas . ECBM provides additional to CBM the advantage of long-term CO2 storage in the underground coal seams . However , without other incentives , enhanced coal bed methane recovery is not economical as the commercial value of the released methane does not completely offset the cost of pumping . Penetration of CO2 into coal is simulated using a stress-enhanced diffusion model .","qid":"198","docid":"Enhanced_coal_bed_methane_recovery","rank":70,"score":88206},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":71,"score":88085},{"content":"Title: Crop yield Content: In agriculture , crop yield ( also known as `` agricultural output '' ) refers to both the measure of the yield of a crop per unit area of land cultivation , and the seed generation of the plant itself ( e.g. if three grains are harvested for each grain seeded , the resulting yield is 1:3 ) . The figure , 1:3 is considered by agronomists as the minimum required to sustain human life . One of the three seeds must be set aside for the next planting season , the remaining two either consumed by the grower , or one for human consumption and the other for livestock feed . The higher the surplus , the more livestock can be established and maintained , thereby increasing the physical and economic well-being of the farmer and his family . This , in turn , resulted in better stamina , better over-all health , and better , more efficient work . In addition , the more the surplus the more draft animals -- horse and oxen -- could be supported and harnessed to work , and manure , the soil thereby easing the farmer 's burden . Increased crop yields meant few hands were needed on farm , freeing them for industry and commerce . This , in turn , led to the formation and growth of cities . Formation and growth of cities meant an increased demand for food stuffs by non-farmers , and their willingness to pay for it . This , in turn , led the farmer to ( further ) innovation , more intensive farming , the demand/creation of new and/or improved farming implements , and a quest for improved seed which improved crop yield . Thus allowing the farmer to raise his income by bringing more food to non-farming ( city ) markets .","qid":"198","docid":"Crop_yield","rank":72,"score":88072},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"198","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":73,"score":88049},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_scrubber","rank":74,"score":88012},{"content":"Title: Sherwood B. Idso Content: Sherwood B. Idso ( born June 12 , 1942 ) is the president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization . Prior to that time he was a Research Physicist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Agricultural Research Service at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix , Arizona , where he worked since June 1967 . He was also closely associated with Arizona State University over most of this period , serving as an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Geology , Geography , and Botany and Microbiology . His two sons , Craig and Keith , are , respectively , the founder and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Idso is the author or co-author of over 500 publications including the books Carbon Dioxide : Friend or Foe ? ( 1982 ) and Carbon Dioxide and Global Change : Earth in Transition ( 1989 ) . He served on the editorial board of the international journal Agricultural and Forest Meteorology from 1973 to 1993 and since 1993 has served on the editorial board of Environmental and Experimental Botany . Over the course of his career , he has been an invited reviewer of manuscripts for 56 different scientific journals and 17 different funding agencies , representing an unusually large array of disciplines . He is an ISI highly cited researcher .","qid":"198","docid":"Sherwood_B._Idso","rank":75,"score":87933},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"198","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":76,"score":87854},{"content":"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon-neutral_fuel","rank":77,"score":87822},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":78,"score":87714},{"content":"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_shifting","rank":79,"score":87642},{"content":"Title: Gas reinjection Content: Gas reinjection is the reinjection of natural gas into an underground reservoir , typically one already containing both natural gas and crude oil , in order to increase the pressure within the reservoir and thus induce the flow of crude oil or else sequester gas that can not be exported . This is not to be confused with gas lift , where gas is injected into the annulus of the well rather than the reservoir . After the crude has been pumped out , the natural gas is once again recovered . Since many of the wells found around the world contain heavy crude , this process increases their production . The basic difference between light crude and heavy crude is its viscosity and pumpability - the lighter the crude the easier it is to pump . Recovery of hydrocarbons in a well is generally limited to 50 % ( heavy crudes ) and 75-80 % ( light crudes ) . Recycling of natural gas or other inert gases causes the pressure to rise in the well , thus causing more gas molecules to dissolve in the oil lowering its viscosity and thereby increasing the well 's output . Air is not suitable for repressuring wells because it tends to cause deterioration of the oil , thus carbon dioxide or natural gas is used to repressure the well . The term ` gas-reinjection ' is also sometimes referred to as repressuring -- the term being used only to imply that the pressure inside the well is being increased to aid recovery . Injection or reinjection of carbon dioxide also takes place in order to reduce the emission of CO2 into the atmosphere , a form of carbon sequestration . This has been proposed as a method to combat climate change , allowing mass storage of CO2 over a geological timescale . Reinjection of carbon dioxide in the Norwegian Sleipner gas field saves the operators 1 million Norwegian Kroners per day in national carbon taxes .","qid":"198","docid":"Gas_reinjection","rank":80,"score":87611},{"content":"Title: Glass enclosure Content: A glass enclosure is an enclosure made mostly out of glass and may more specifically refer to : A container or cage such as a fish tank , terrarium , etc. . A building , such as a greenhouse ( or glasshouse ) , that may or may not have a curtain wall Display case Casing around an object , such as a light bulb , LED , fuse ( electrical ) , vacuum tube , glass case in electronic packaging , etc. ( and at the top of a lighthouse , a lantern , the Popemobile , etc. . )","qid":"198","docid":"Glass_enclosure","rank":81,"score":87591},{"content":"Title: Plant factory Content: A plant factory is a closed growing system which enables a farmer ( agrotechnician ) to achieve constant production of vegetables all year around . The facility utilizes artificial control of light , temperature , moisture , and carbon dioxide concentrations .","qid":"198","docid":"Plant_factory","rank":82,"score":87502},{"content":"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .","qid":"198","docid":"Cap_carbonate","rank":83,"score":87178},{"content":"Title: List of carbon ranches Content: This is a working list of Carbon Ranches a term referring to regenerative agriculture practices that specifically accomplish carbon sequestration in the soil . `` The world 's cultivated soils have lost between 50 and 70 percent of their original carbon stock . '' ( Lal ) `` A mere two percent increase in the carbon content of the planet 's soils could offset 100 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions going into the atmosphere . '' ( Lal ) Grasslands cover 350 billion hectares , comprising 70 % of global agricultural land making carbon ranching an especially climate beneficial alternative to meat produced as part of a Concentrated animal feeding operation . Carbon ranching may include , but is not limited to Managed intensive rotational grazing , Compost application , Holistic management ( agriculture ) and Tree planting . There are many research groups and NGO 's studying and advancing this field including Arizona State University , The Carbon Cycle Institute , Holistic Management International , The Ohio State University , The Quivira Coalition , The Savory Institute , The Soil Carbon Coalition , Texas A&M University . This list does not necessarily reflect scientific or academic endorsements insofar as best practices and results vary across ranches , climates , time periods , and sources of funding and are therefore challenging to quantify and/or compare . Currently , confirmation of the carbon ranching designation is confirmed through either third party citation or Soil Organic Matter test result .","qid":"198","docid":"List_of_carbon_ranches","rank":84,"score":87058},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"198","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":85,"score":86842},{"content":"Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''","qid":"198","docid":"Maximilian_Auffhammer","rank":86,"score":86698},{"content":"Title: Planktology Content: Planktology is the study of plankton , various small drifting plants , animals and microorganisms that inhabit bodies of water . Planktology topics include primary production , energy flow and the carbon cycle . Plankton drive the `` biological pump '' , a process by which the ocean ecosystem transports carbon from the surface euphotic zone to the ocean 's depths . Such processes are vital to carbon dioxide sinks , one of several possibilities for countering global warming . Modern planktology includes behavioral aspects of drifting organisms , engaging modern in situ imaging devices . Some planktology projects allow the public to participate online , such as the Longterm Ecological Observatory .","qid":"198","docid":"Planktology","rank":87,"score":86561},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"198","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":88,"score":86517},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"198","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":89,"score":86323},{"content":"Title: Glass House (Budapest) Content: The Glass House ( Üvegház ) was a building used by the Swiss diplomat Carl Lutz to help Jews in Budapest during the Holocaust .","qid":"198","docid":"Glass_House_(Budapest)","rank":90,"score":86128},{"content":"Title: Charles Thilorier Content: Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier was a student at the École polytechnique in the class / year of 1815 , who was mistakenly believed to have been the first person to create solid carbon dioxide ( `` dry ice '' ) . Actually , a French inventor , Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier ( 1790 -- 1844 ) , discovered dry ice . Unfortunately , in almost all of his technical articles , Adrien Thilorier gave his name simply as `` Thilorier '' ; similarly , whenever others referred to him in technical articles , his name was also given only as `` Thilorier '' . This impeded efforts by scholars to identify him subsequently . The confusion was compounded when Paul Thénard wrote a biography of his father , Louis Thénard , a French chemist : In 1835 , Adrien Thilorier had created dry ice by spraying liquid carbon dioxide into a glass vessel . He had thought that the dry ice was merely snow ; that is , water vapor from the atmosphere which had condensed as a result of the cold that the evaporation of the liquid carbon dioxide had produced . Louis Thénard had explained to Thilorier that his `` snow '' was actually solidified carbon dioxide . In a footnote of Louis Thénard 's biography , Paul Thénard identified the `` Thilorier '' who discovered dry ice as `` Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier '' , a student at the École polytechnique in the class of 1815 . This ( mistaken ) identification was mentioned by Duane H. D. Roller , a graduate student at Harvard University , in a paper that was published in 1952 . Consequently , many sources claim that Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier discovered dry ice . Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier was an employee of the French Post Office in Paris who invented , among other things , an oil lamp , a gas compressor , and an apparatus for producing liquid carbon dioxide . It was a French scholar who revealed that he had discovered dry ice . During the 1960s , Madeleine Ambrière-Fargeaud , a scholar in France , was trying to identify the person who served as the model for a `` mad scientist '' character , Balthazar Claës , in Honoré de Balzac 's novel La Recherche de l'absolu ( The Quest of the Absolute ) . Her research suggested that Claës was inspired ( in part ) by Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier . By 2003 , Joost Mertens , a Dutch historian of science , had verified many of the findings that Ms. Ambrière-Fargeaud had made about Thilorier . That `` Thilorier '' is actually Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier is proved by French government documents , especially patents . In 1826 , he was granted a patent for a `` hydrostatic lamp '' ; the patent lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' of Paris . His 1831 patent for a gas compressor also lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and describes him as an employee of the `` Administration des postes '' ( i.e. , the Post Office ) in Paris . In 1832 , the Bulletin of the laws of the kingdom of France also lists him as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and as an employee of the Post Office , who resided at number 21 on the Place Vendôme in Paris , and as the inventor of a gas compressor .","qid":"198","docid":"Charles_Thilorier","rank":91,"score":85973},{"content":"Title: Glass House Point Content: Glass House Point in James City County , Virginia is the northern terminus of the Jamestown Ferry , which was relocated there as part of the development of Jamestown for the celebration the 350th anniversary in 1957 . The state-operated ferry service crosses the James River to Scotland in Surry County . It is named for the Jamestown Glasshouse , a popular exhibit at Jamestown operated by the National Park Service . Category : Geography of James City County , Virginia","qid":"198","docid":"Glass_House_Point","rank":92,"score":85703},{"content":"Title: Glass recycling Content: Glass recycling is the processing of waste glass into usable products . Glass waste should be separated by chemical composition , and then , depending on the end use and local processing capabilities , might also have to be separated into different colors . Many recyclers collect different colors of glass separately since glass retains its color after recycling . The most common types used for consumer containers are colorless glass , green glass , and brown/amber glass . Glass is ideal for recycling since none of the material is degraded by normal use . Glass makes up a large component of household and industrial waste due to its weight and density . The glass component in municipal waste is usually made up of bottles , broken glassware , light bulbs and other items . Adding to this waste is the fact that many manual methods of creating glass objects have a defect rate of around forty percent . Glass recycling uses less energy than manufacturing glass from sand , lime and soda . Every metric ton ( 1,000 kg ) of waste glass recycled into new items saves 315 kg of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere during the creation of new glass . Glass that is crushed and ready to be remelted is called cullet . Many collection points have separate bins for clear , green and amber . Glass reprocessors that intend to make glass containers require separation by color , because glass tends to retain its color after recycling . If the recycled glass is intended for other products , or if the glass reprocessor uses newer optical sorting equipment , separation by color at the collection point may not be required . Heat-resistant glass like Pyrex or borosilicate glass should not be disposed of in the glass container as even a single piece of such material will alter the viscosity of the fluid in the furnace at remelt .","qid":"198","docid":"Glass_recycling","rank":93,"score":85695},{"content":"Title: University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden Content: The University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden ( Botanisk have ) , usually referred to simply as Copenhagen Botanical Garden , is a botanical garden located in the centre of Copenhagen , Denmark . It covers an area of 10 hectares and is particularly noted for its extensive complex of historical glasshouses dating from 1874 . The garden is part of the Natural History Museum of Denmark , which is itself part of the University of Copenhagen Faculty of Science . It serves both research , educational and recreational purposes .","qid":"198","docid":"University_of_Copenhagen_Botanical_Garden","rank":94,"score":85662},{"content":"Title: Forest glass Content: Forest glass ( Waldglas in German ) is late Medieval glass produced in northwestern and central Europe from approximately 1000 -- 1700 AD using wood ash and sand as the main raw materials and made in factories known as glasshouses in forest areas . It is characterized by a variety of greenish-yellow colors , the earlier products often being of crude design and poor quality , and was used mainly for everyday vessels and increasingly for ecclesiastical stained glass windows . Its composition and manufacture contrast sharply with Roman and pre-Roman glassmaking centered on the Mediterranean and contemporaneous Islamic glass making to the east .","qid":"198","docid":"Forest_glass","rank":95,"score":85575},{"content":"Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .","qid":"198","docid":"Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction","rank":96,"score":85537},{"content":"Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .","qid":"198","docid":"C._Kumar_N._Patel","rank":97,"score":85513},{"content":"Title: The Glass House (band) Content: The Glass House was an American R&B / soul group from Detroit , Michigan . The Glass House was an assembly of house musicians put together by Holland-Dozier-Holland for their Invictus Records label in 1969 . The group was led by Ty Hunter and included Scherrie Payne , sister of soul singer Freda Payne . The group released two full-length albums and had a string of chart hits through 1972 , but once their popularity had dried up , Invictus dissolved the group . Shortly thereafter , Ty Hunter and Scherrie Payne joined the Motown roster . Ty joined the singing group The Originals . Scherrie Payne joined The Supremes .","qid":"198","docid":"The_Glass_House_(band)","rank":98,"score":85365},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"198","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":99,"score":85262},{"content":"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .","qid":"198","docid":"Stuart_Agnew","rank":100,"score":85234}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse Content: A greenhouse ( also called a glasshouse , or , if with sufficient heating , a hothouse ) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material , such as glass , in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown . These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings . A miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame . The interior of a greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the external ambient temperature , protecting its contents in cold weather . Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers . The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations , heating , cooling , lighting , and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth . Different techniques are then used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate ( i.e. , air temperature , relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit ) in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 143697\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse whitefly Content: Trialeurodes vaporariorum , commonly known as the glasshouse whitefly or greenhouse whitefly , is an insect that inhabits the world 's temperate regions . Like various other whiteflies , it is a primary insect pest of many fruit , vegetable and ornamental crops . It is frequently found in glasshouses ( greenhouses ) , polytunnels , and other protected horticultural environments . Adults are 1 -- 2 mm in length , with yellowish bodies and four wax-coated wings held near parallel to the leaf surface .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_whitefly\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 143161\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Controlled-environment agriculture Content: Controlled-environment agriculture ( CEA ) is a technology-based approach toward food production . The aim of CEA is to provide protection and maintain optimal growing conditions throughout the development of the crop . Production takes place within an enclosed growing structure such as a greenhouse or building . Plants are often grown using hydroponic methods in order to supply the proper amounts of water and nutrients to the root zone . CEA optimizes the use of resources such as water , energy , space , capital and labor . CEA technologies include hydroponics , aquaculture , and aquaponics . Controllable variables : Temperature ( air , nutrient solution , root-zone ) Humidity ( % RH ) Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) Light ( intensity , spectrum , interval ) Nutrient concentration ( PPM , EC ) Nutrient pH ( acidity ) CEA facilities can range from fully automated glasshouses with computer controls for watering , lighting and ventilation , to low-tech solutions such as cloches or plastic film on field grown crops and plastic-covered tunnels . CEA is used in research so that a specific aspect of production can be isolated while all other variables remain the same . Tinted glass could be compared to plain glass in this way during an investigation into photosynthesis . Another possibility would be an investigation into the use of supplementary lighting for growing lettuce under a hydroponic system . A February 2011 article in the magazine Science Illustrated states , `` In commercial agriculture , CEA can increase efficiency , reduce pests and diseases , and save resources . ... Replicating a conventional farm with computers and LED lights is expensive but proves cost-efficient in the long run by producing up to 20 times as much high-end , pesticidee-free produce as a similar-size plot of soil . Fourteen thousand square feet of closely monitored plants produce 15 million seedlings annually at the solar-powered factory . Such factories will be necessary to meet urban China 's rising demand for quality fruits and vegetables . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Controlled-environment_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 137171\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_generator\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 127268\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thanet Earth Content: Thanet Earth is a large industrial agriculture / plant factory project consortium in the United Kingdom . Located on the Isle of Thanet , in Kent it is the largest greenhouse complex in the UK , covering 90 hectares , or 220 acre of land . The glasshouses produce approximately 225 million tomatoes , 16 million peppers and 13 million cucumbers a year , equal to roughly 12 , 11 and 8 per cent respectively of Britain 's entire annual production of those salad ingredients . Thanet Earth 's main customers are Asda , Sainsbury 's , Tesco , M&S and agency HRGO\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Thanet_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 122974\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 116297\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Severinghaus electrode Content: The Severinghaus electrode is an electrode that measures carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It was developed by Dr. John W. Severinghaus and his technician A. Freeman Bradley in 1958 . It utilizes a CO2-sensitive glass electrode in a surrounding film of bicarbonate solution covered by a thin plastic carbon dioxide permeable membrane , but impermeable to water and electrolytic solutes . The carbon dioxide pressure of a sample gas or liquid equilibrates through the membrane and the glass electrode measures the resulting pH of the bicarbonate solution .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Severinghaus_electrode\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 112118\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Azolla event Content: The Azolla event occurred in the middle Eocene epoch , around , when blooms of the freshwater fern Azolla are thought to have happened in the Arctic Ocean . As they sank to the stagnant sea floor , they were incorporated into the sediment ; the resulting draw-down of carbon dioxide has been speculated to have helped transform the planet from a `` greenhouse Earth '' state , hot enough for turtles and palm trees to prosper at the poles , to the icehouse Earth it has been since .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Azolla_event\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 108290\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse (car) Content: The greenhouse ( or glasshouse ) of a car comprises the windshield , rear and side windows , the pillars separating them ( designated A-pillar , B-pillar and so on , starting from the car 's front ) , and the car 's roof . The shape and position of the greenhouse have a defining influence on the looks of the car and are a prime factor in differentiating between body styles such as saloon/sedan , coupé , estate/wagon and hatchback . In the 2000s and 2010s , greenhouses have become narrower because of design trends and crash regulations . Some manufacturers incorporate trademark design features in the greenhouse that are present across several model series , one example being the BMW Hofmeister kink .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_(car)\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 108226\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George Tod Content: George Tod was a British surveyor and hothouse builder who provided colour illustrations and descriptions of 26 `` glass houses , '' chiefly of his own design , in an 1807 publication . The text presents plans , elevations and sections of hothouses , greenhouses , conservatories , and an aquarium built in different parts of England for various noblemen and gentlemen , including a hothouse and greenhouse in the gardens at Frogmore . In a review in The Literary Panorama of 1807 , Tod 's book is priced at # 2 . 12s . 6d. , and is praised for giving greenhouse examples that could be reproduced `` by any ingenious workman '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"George_Tod\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 107163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Huff and puff apparatus Content: The huff and puff apparatus is used in school biology labs to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is a product of respiration . A pupil breathes in and out of the middle tube . The glass tubing is arranged in such a way that one flask bubbles as the pupils breathes in , the other as the pupil breathes out . A suitable carbon dioxide indicator , such as limewater or bicarbonate indicator shows the increased presence of carbon dioxide in the outgoing breath.This turns the bicarbonate into milky white substance .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Huff_and_puff_apparatus\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 107091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Free-air concentration enrichment Content: Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment ( FACE ) is a method used by ecologists and plant biologists that raises the concentration of in a specified area and allows the response of plant growth to be measured . Experiments using FACE are required because most studies looking at the effect of elevated concentrations have been conducted in labs and where there are many missing factors including plant competition . Measuring the effect of elevated using FACE is a better way of estimating how plant growth will change in the future as the concentration rises in the atmosphere . FACE also allows the effect of elevated on plants that can not be grown in small spaces ( trees for example ) to be measured .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Free-air_concentration_enrichment\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 106782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 106239\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate-friendly_gardening\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 105977\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 105893\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Biosequestration\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 103712\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ecological yield Content: Ecological yield is the harvestable population growth of an ecosystem . It is most commonly measured in forestry : sustainable forestry is defined as that which does not harvest more wood in a year than has grown in that year , within a given patch of forest . However , the concept is also applicable to water , soil , and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed -- called renewable resources . The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is `` renewed '' ( refreshed or regrown or rebuilt ) is consumed . Ecosystem services analysis calculates the global yield of the Earth 's biosphere to humans as a whole . This is said to be greater in size than the entire human economy . However , it is more than just yield , but also the natural processes that increase biodiversity and conserve habitat which result in the total value of these services . `` Yield '' of ecological commodities like wood or water , useful to humans , is only a part of it . Very often an ecological yield in one place offsets an ecological load in another . Greenhouse gas released in one place , for instance , is fairly evenly distributed in the atmosphere , and so greenhouse gas control can be achieved by creating a carbon sink literally anywhere else . Ecocide is thought by some green economists to be accelerated by debt instruments which demand a yield greater than the ecological capacity to renew . This is a major question in monetary reform .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Ecological_yield\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 103459\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_flooding\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 102581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glasshouses Content: Glasshouses is a small village in Nidderdale , North Yorkshire , England . It lies about 1 mile south-east of Pateley Bridge on the east side of Nidderdale and has a recently rebuilt river bridge across the river Nidd . The old twine mill , on the banks of the Nidd , now houses a number of small businesses . There is a public house , The Birch Tree Inn , on the main Harrogate to Pateley Bridge road just outside the village . May day is celebrated every year with traditional May Pole dancing and the crowning of the ` May Queen ' on the village green .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Glasshouses\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 102235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 101913\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide cleaning Content: Carbon dioxide cleaning ( CO2 cleaning ) comprises a family of methods for parts cleaning and sterilization , using carbon dioxide in its various phases . It is often preferred for use on delicate surfaces . CO2 cleaning has found application in the aerospace , automotive , electronics , medical , and other industries . Carbon dioxide snow cleaning has been used to remove particles and organic residues from metals , polymers , ceramics , glasses , hard drives , optics , and other surfaces .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_cleaning\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 101395\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glasshouse (The Temptations song) Content: `` Glasshouse '' is a 1975 R&B single by The Temptations . It was written by Motown songwriting team Charlemagne , which consisted of James Carmichael , Ronald Miller and Kathy Wakefield . The song appeared on the album A Song for You . All five Temptations alternate lead vocals , singing about how people who live in glasshouses `` should n't throw no stones '' . It was the last top forty hit for The Temptations , going to number thirty-seven pop and number nine on the R&B charts .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Glasshouse_(The_Temptations_song)\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 100958\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glasshouse (British Army) Content: Glasshouse , or the Glasshouse , is the term for a military prison in the United Kingdom . The first military prisons were established in 1844 . The term Glasshouse originated from the military prison at Aldershot , which had a glazed roof . Over time , the word Glasshouse came to be applied to all military prisons . Aldershot prison , which was also called the Detention Barracks , had begun as several barracks in 1856 , before being replaced by a single , large building , modelled on the then civilian prison system in 1870 . This building was destroyed by fire in a riot of 1946 when the prisoners ( labeled as ` mutineers ' in the press ) were protesting about their rations and conditions given that the Second World War was over . Glasshouses gained a reputation for brutality , as depicted in Allan Campbell McLean 's novel , The Glass House and the Sean Connery film , The Hill . Today , the British Army has only one remaining correction facility , the Military Corrective Training Centre at Colchester . Whilst the MCTC is not a prison , it is inspected by the Justice Inspectorate and any serviceperson convicted of a crime that warrants prison time , will be sent to the MCTC for processing , before being sent to a civilian prison . The MCTC at Colchester was featured in a Channel 4 documentary in 1994 ( The Glasshouse ) which prompted an Early day motion in the House of Commons over the inmates having access to ammunition and weapons ( as part of normal military drill . ) This was because the government at the time , were seeking to use the MCTC as a model for youth custody in civilian prisons . ITV Anglia also produced a TV-documentary series , The Real Red Caps , ( 2003 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Glasshouse_(British_Army)\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 100682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sheffield Winter Garden Content: Sheffield Winter Garden in the city of Sheffield in South Yorkshire is one of the largest temperate glasshouses to be built in the UK during the last hundred years , and the largest urban glasshouse anywhere in Europe . It is home to more than 2,000 plants from all around the world . It was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 22 May 2003 . Part of the # 120 million Heart of the City regeneration project that has created the Peace Gardens and the # 15 million Millennium Galleries , the Winter Garden was designed by Pringle Richards Sharratt Architects and Buro Happold and is some 70 m long and 21 m high . The building has background frost protection to minimum of 4 degrees Celsius and it is one of the largest Glued Laminated Timber or `` Glulam '' buildings in the UK ( Glulam is made by forming and gluing strips of timber into specific shapes ) . The wood used is Larch , a durable timber which will , over time , turn a light silvery grey colour . The larch , derived from sustainable forests , requires no preservatives or coatings . This reduces the use of solvents and also avoids the use of chemicals that could kill the plants . It has an intelligent Building Management System which controls fans and vents to make sure the plants are cooled in summer and kept warm in winter . The system will `` learn '' year-on-year . The bedding plants are changed five times a year , to give a seasonal change , and all the plants are watered by hose or by watering can , as it is the only way to ensure that all the plants get the correct amount of water .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Sheffield_Winter_Garden\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 100669\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Keith_E._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 100358\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sequestration\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 99991\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 99599\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Season extension Content: In agriculture , season extension refers to anything that allows a crop to be grown and harvested beyond its normal outdoor growing season and harvesting window . For colder climates , the fully heated and artificially lit greenhouse is the ultimate season extension device , allowing some crops to be grown year-round , through sub-zero winters . An energy-expensive approach . There are many other ways to beat the cold , for earlier spring planting and growing into the fall and winter : Row covers : Light fabric placed over plants retains heat and can offer up to several degrees of frost protection . In smaller gardens almost any type of cover , including newspaper cones , miscellaneous bits of plastic , etc. , can serve the same purpose . Hoop houses : Plastic sheeting is placed over a frame ( usually in an arced shape ) , to create a type of greenhouse . Hoophouses can be large or small , simple or nearly as functional as greenhouses . Cold frames : Transparent-roofed enclosure , built low to the ground , used to protect plants from cold weather . Cold frames are found in home gardens and in vegetable farming . They are most often used for growing seedlings that are later transplanted into open ground . Hotbeds : A mass of hot compost is used for the heat it gives off to warm a nearby plant . Typically a few centimeters of soil are placed on top of the compost mass , and the plant grows there , above the rising heat . Mulches : Any material placed on the soil around plants will help retain heat . Organic mulches include straw , compost , etc. . Synthetic mulches , typically , plastic sheeting with slits through which plants grow , is used extensively in large-scale vegetable growing . Raised beds : Beds where the soil has been loosened and piled a few inches to over a foot above the surrounding ground heat up more quickly in spring , allowing earlier planting . Season extension techniques are most effective when combined with crop varieties selected for the extended growing conditions . Many approaches are used in large-scale agriculture , as well as in small-scale organic farming , and home gardening . Using unheated , unlit methods , depending on the crop , up to several weeks of productivity can be added , where shortened period of sunlight and cold weather end the growing season . Season extension can apply to other climates , where conditions other than cold and shortened period of sunlight end the growing year ( e.g. a rainy season ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Season_extension\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 98883\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Richard Turner (iron-founder) Content: Richard Turner ( 1798 -- 1881 ) was an Irish iron founder and manufacturer of glasshouses , born in Dublin . His works included the Palm House at Kew Gardens ( with Decimus Burton ) , the glasshouse in the Winter Gardens at Regent 's Park in London , the Palm House at Belfast Botanic Gardens and the Curvilinear Range at the Irish National Botanic Gardens , Glasnevin , Ireland . He was a pioneer in the structural use of wrought iron . The glasshouses which he designed were sophisticated and innovative , as the use of wrought and cast iron was at the leading edge of building technology at the time . He used standardised components and prefabricated elements manufactured off-site for later assembly , together with curved glass in long lengths . Turner designed and constructed the railway sheds at Westland Row and at the Broadstone in Dublin , and Lime Street in Liverpool , but also turned his hand to the design and manufacture of railings , boilers , cisterns and bedsteads . His entry in Thom 's directory for 1849 describes him as ` manufacturer of wrought-iron gates , railway conservatories , hothouses etc. , and hot water engineer ' , indicating the broad range of activities which the firm undertook . Turner entered the initial competition for designs for the London International Exhibition of 1851 and out of 233 entries was jointly awarded the second prize along with an entry by Hector Horeau . The final built design was `` The Crystal Palace '' by Joseph Paxton .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Richard_Turner_(iron-founder)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 98436\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 98152\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Walter Nicol Content: Walter Nicol ( 20 April 1769 - 5 March 1811 ) was a Scottish garden and hothouse designer , who wrote several books on practical horticulture . Nicol was born in Niddrie . He was employed at a number of estates in Scotland and improved the design and layout of gardens and glasshouses . Nicol is in particular responsible for the walled garden layout at Dalhousie Castle in Midlothian .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Walter_Nicol\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 97983\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sylvan Wittwer Content: Sylvan Harold Wittwer ( January 17 , 1917 -- January 20 , 2012 ) was an American agronomist who served as director of the agricultural experiment station at Michigan State University . Wittwer was born in 1917 in Hurricane , Utah . He received his bachelor 's degree at Utah State University and his doctors degree from the University of Missouri . Wittwer developed a chemical known as Gibberellins . He wrote Feeding a Billion ( 1987 ) and Food , Climate , and Carbon Dioxide : The Global Environment and World Food Production ( 1995 ) . Another book he wrote was Greenhouse Tomatoes , Lettuce and Cucumber ( 1979 ) . Wittwer served as the first president of the Lansing Michigan Stake of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( LDS Church ) beginning in 1962 . Wittwer had also served as the first bishop of the church 's Lansing Ward beginning in 1952 . Wittwer was a member of the board of the Greening Earth Society and the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Wittwer authored `` Feeding a Billion '' in 1987 published by Michigan State University Press with cover design by Lynne Brown Wittwer was on the board of directors of Deseret Valley Academy , an anticipated independent LDS liberal arts college .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Sylvan_Wittwer\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 97864\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 97419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 97312\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Amorphous_carbonia\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 96380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Forsyth Barr Stadium Content: The Forsyth Barr Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in Dunedin , New Zealand . At various stages of development it was also known as Dunedin Stadium or Awatea Street Stadium , or its non-commercial official name during the 2011 Rugby World Cup and 2015 FIFA U-20 World Cup , Otago Stadium . It is also known colloquially as ` the glasshouse ' due to its resemblance to a horticultural hothouse . The stadium was opened by New Zealand Prime Minister John Key on 5 August 2011 , replacing Carisbrook as the home stadium of the Highlanders team in Super Rugby and the Otago in the domestic ITM Cup . The stadium hosted four matches of the 2011 Rugby World Cup , and after hosting Elton John in November 2011 hosted more major music events in April 2013 , when Aerosmith and Paul Simon performed in New Zealand for the first time .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Forsyth_Barr_Stadium\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 95472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_laser\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 95040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"C3_carbon_fixation\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 94956\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carl David Bouché Content: Carl David Bouché ( 4 June 1809 -- 27 September 1881 ) was a German botanist and gardener . He served as Inspector ( technical director ) of the Royal Botanic Garden in Berlin from 1843 to 1881 . Bouché described 107 plant species . Bouché was a member of a prominent family of botanists and gardeners . His grandfather , Jean David Bouché ( 1747 -- 1819 ) , a Berlin nurseryman of French origin , installed glasshouses which became popular with the Prussian nobility . His uncle , Peter Friedrich Bouché ( 1785 -- 1856 ) , and father Peter Karl Bouché ( 1783 -- 1856 ) continued the business . Peter Karl was also a student of Carl Ludwig Willdenow .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carl_David_Bouché\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 94850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thomas D. Sharkey (plant biochemist) Content: Thomas D. Sharkey is a plant biochemist who studies gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere . His research has covered ( 1 ) carbon metabolism of photosynthesis from carbon dioxide uptake to carbon export from the Calvin-Benson Cycle , ( 2 ) isoprene emission from plants , and ( 3 ) abiotic stress tolerance . Four guiding questions are : ( 1 ) how leaf photosynthesis affects plant yield , ( 2 ) does some carbon fixation follow an oxidative pathway that reduces sugar output but stabilizes photosynthesis , ( 3 ) why plants make isoprene , and ( 4 ) how plants cope with high temperature .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Thomas_D._Sharkey_(plant_biochemist)\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 94211\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wavertree Botanic Gardens Content: Wavertree Botanic Gardens ( formerly Wavertree Botanic Garden and Park ) is an example of a mid 19th century public park . It incorporates an earlier walled botanic garden , founded by William Roscoe as Liverpool Botanic Garden and relocated from land near Mount Pleasant in the 1830s . The gardens include the Grade II curator 's lodge built between 1836-1837 . On 20 November 1940 a stray German bomb caused all the glass in the botanic glasshouse to be broken , the plants inside were shredded . As it was winter , everyone helped remove the surviving plants into nearby private glasshouses until the war ended . The Orchids were located at Sudley House . The botanic glasshouse was never reinstated after the war , but due to the major efforts by Percy Conn , the new Superintendent of Liverpool Parks , who had the vision to revive the work of William Roscoe & John Shepherd ( horticulturalist ) in the Mount Pleasant days , the Liverpool Botanic Garden arose anew in the Harthill Estate grounds at Calderstones Park . On 22 August 2013 the botanic park and gardens were listed at Grade II * in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . In 1886 the International Exhibition of Navigation , Commerce and Industry was held here .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Wavertree_Botanic_Gardens\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 94115\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Repressuring Content: Repressuring is the method by which the pressure inside a crude oil well is increased so as to increase the output of the well . Pumping crude oil from a reservoir causes its pressure to drop , which further reduces pumpability . Returning the natural gas or other inert gases to the oil well increases the pumpability of the crude present inside the well by decreasing its viscosity and density . In one instance , slower rate of oil production and recycling of natural gas at 9.6 MPa enabled a net recovery of 70 % of the oil originally present . Although recovery can be increased even by repressuring with air , air is seldom used because it causes an inferior quality of product . Instead carbon dioxide or natural gas itself is used so as to not only increase the recovery from the oil well but also to maintain the high quality of the product .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Repressuring\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 93850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 93548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 93490\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Individual_action_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 93222\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Temperate House Content: The Temperate House , opened in 1862 , is a Grade I-listed showhouse for Kew 's largest plants . Rectangular , with pitched roofs , its pillars support wrought-iron ribs . Decimus Burton , the designer , gave the House a mix of decorative motifs , finials , pediments , acanthus leaf capitals , Coade stone urns and statues . According to Greg Redwood , Kew 's head of glasshouses , `` The effect is similar to the contemporary iron pier pavilions of Eugenius Birch . '' It was positioned to be the first feature visitors saw as they entered the gates with the anticipated coming of the first railway station at Kew expected to be at the end of the adjacent avenue . However , Kew Gardens station ( London ) , was built 500 yards to the north - leaving the glasshouse `` somewhat stranded in the landscape '' . In 2011 Kew had to launch a # 15m public appeal to address needed repairs to the Temperate House . An early exercise in cast - and wrought-iron and glass construction , the building is structurally sound but the Victorians hid utilitarian features liked drainpipes inside the stone columns . Water round the edge of the building leads to rust on the iron to push against the masonry which is falling away . Decorative features made of wood are rotting . It last underwent a major restoration in the late 1970s .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Temperate_House\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 92936\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_reforming\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 92921\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kaliapparat Content: A kaliapparat is a laboratory device invented in 1831 by Justus von Liebig ( 1803 -- 1873 ) for the analysis of carbon in organic compounds . The device , made of glass , consists of a series of five bulbs connected and arranged in a triangular shape . To determine the carbon in an organic compound with a kaliapparat , the substance is first burned , converting any carbon present into carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The vaporous products are passed through the kaliapparat , which is filled with potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) solution . The potassium hydroxide reacts with the CO2 to make potassium carbonate . The reaction , ignoring ionic dissociation , can be written as follows : 2 KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O . Subtracting the mass of the kaliapparat before the combustion from that found after the combustion gives the amount of CO2 absorbed . From the mass of CO2 thus found , standard stoichiometric calculations then give the mass of carbon in the original sample . A stylized symbol of a kaliapparat is used in the American Chemical Society logo , originally designed in the early 20th century by Tiffany 's Jewelers .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Kaliapparat\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 92845\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 92838\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 92655\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Enid A. Haupt Glass Garden Content: The Enid A. Haupt Glass Garden was built in 1958 as part of the Rusk Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine at New York University Medical Center . It provides horticultural therapy for patients , but is also open to the public . It is contained in a 17000 sqft greenhouse at 34th Street and First Avenue in New York City . The garden was gift from Enid A. Haupt .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Enid_A._Haupt_Glass_Garden\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 92427\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 92370\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 92277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 91472\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Biological pump Content: The biological pump , in its simplest form , is the ocean 's biologically driven sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere to deep sea water and sediment . It is the part of the oceanic carbon cycle responsible for the cycling of organic matter formed mainly by phytoplankton during photosynthesis ( soft-tissue pump ) , as well as the cycling of calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) formed into shells by certain organisms such as plankton and mollusks ( carbonate pump ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Biological_pump\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 91430\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 91430\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_David_Keeling\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 91304\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Content: The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum ( CSLF ) is an international initiative to advance carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) technology . The Forum is a Ministerial-level organization that includes 23 member countries and the European Commission . Membership is open to national governmental entities that are significant producers or users of fossil fuel and that have a commitment to invest resources in research , development and demonstration activities in carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies . CSLF also recognizes that stakeholders , those organizations that are affected by and can affect the goals of CSLF , form an essential component of CSLF activities . The CSLF Charter , signed in June 2003 , organized the CSLF by creating a Policy Group , which governs the overall framework and policies of the CSLF , a Technical Group , which reviews the progress of collaborative projects and makes recommendations to the Policy Group on any needed actions , and an administrative Secretariat , which organizes CSLF meetings , coordinates communications among CSLF Members , and acts as a clearinghouse of information . In July 2005 , the G8 Summit endorsed the CSLF in its Plan of Action on Climate Change , Clean Energy and Sustainable Development , and identified it as a medium of cooperation and collaboration with key developing countries in dealing with greenhouse gases . Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include : the joint statement of the U.S.-European Union Summit on Energy Security , Energy Efficiency , Renewables and Economic Development , and the Mainz Declaration of Germany and the United States on Cleaner and More Efficient Energy , Development and Climate Change . In 2006 and 2007 , the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage . Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders . The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO2 capture , transport and storage research and activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 90947\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 90846\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ecohouse Content: An Eco-house ( or eco-home ) is an environmentally low-impact home designed and built using materials and technology that reduces its carbon footprint and lowers its energy needs . This includes : Glass that has two or three layers with a vacuum in between to prevent heat loss ; Solar panels or wind turbines ; Geothermal heating and growing plants on the roof to regulate temperature , quieten the house , and to produce oxygen ; A Vegetable patch outside the house for some food The concept of an eco-house means a dwelling that has a low impact on the environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Ecohouse\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 90784\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Green_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 90567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Alberta Carbon Trunk Line Content: The Alberta Carbon Trunk Line ( ACTL ) is a 240 km pipeline in its construction stages that will collect excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the province of Alberta and transport it to various oil reservoirs around the province for enhanced oil recovery applications . Pioneered by Enhance Energy , the ACTL will source its CO2 from a fertilizer manufacturing plant in Redwater , and the North West Redwater Partnership bitumen upgrading plant using gasification . It will initially funnel the collected CO2 to Clive , a field discovered in the 1950s and currently produces about 300 barrels per day .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Alberta_Carbon_Trunk_Line\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 90510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glassy carbon Content: Glass-like carbon , often called glassy carbon or vitreous carbon , is a non-graphitizing , or nongraphitizable , carbon which combines glassy and ceramic properties with those of graphite . The most important properties are high temperature resistance , hardness ( 7 Mohs ) , low density , low electrical resistance , low friction , low thermal resistance , extreme resistance to chemical attack and impermeability to gases and liquids . Glassy carbon is widely used as an electrode material in electrochemistry , as well as for high temperature crucibles and as a component of some prosthetic devices , and can be fabricated as different shapes , sizes and sections . The names glassy carbon and vitreous carbon have been introduced as trademarks ; therefore , IUPAC does not recommend their use as technical terms . Vitreous carbon can also be produced as a foam . It is then called reticulated vitreous carbon ( RVC ) . This foam was first developed in the mid to late 1960s as a thermally insulating , microporous glassy carbon electrode material . RVC foam is a strong , inert , electrically and thermally conductive , and corrosion resistant porous form of carbon with a low resistance to gas and fluid flow . Due to these characteristics , the most widespread scientific use of RVC is in electrochemistry ( Sumita , 1985 ; Friedrich et al. , 2004 ; Rogulski et al. , 2004 ) . Additionally , RVC foams are characterized by an exceptionally high void volume , high surface area , and very high thermal resistance in non-oxidising environments , which allows for heat sterilization and facilitates manipulation in biological applications .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Glassy_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 90416\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glasshouse (novel) Content: Glasshouse is a science fiction novel by British author Charles Stross , first published in 2006 . The novel is set in the twenty seventh century aboard a spacecraft adrift in interstellar space . Robin , the protagonist , has recently had his memory erased . He agrees to take part in an experiment , during which he is placed inside a model of a late twentieth/early twenty-first century Euroamerican society . Robin is given a new identity and body , specifically that of a woman named `` Reeve '' . Major themes of this novel are identity , gender determinism , self-image - and conformity . Contrary to popular belief , it is not a sequel to his 2005 novel Accelerando , although Stross has stated that the two novels are not obviously incompatible . Glasshouse won the Prometheus Award for 2007 , and was nominated for the Hugo , Campbell , and Locus Awards in 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Glasshouse_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 90408\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glass House Mountains, Queensland Content: Glass House Mountains ( also spelled Glasshouse Mountains ) is a hinterland town and locality of the Sunshine Coast Region , Queensland , Australia , named after the famous Glass House Mountains of the area . Colloquially it is often known simply as `` Glasshouse '' . At the 2011 census , Glass House Mountains had a population of 4,791 .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Glass_House_Mountains,_Queensland\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 90192\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 88675\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gasogene Content: The gasogene ( or gazogene or seltzogene ) is a late Victorian device for producing carbonated water . It consists of two linked glass globes : the lower contained water or other drink to be made sparkling , the upper a mixture of tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate that reacts to produce carbon dioxide . The produced gas pushes the liquid in the lower container up a tube and out of the device . The globes are surrounded by a wicker or wire protective mesh , as they have a tendency to explode . The earliest occurrence of the word noted in the Oxford English Dictionary dates from 1853 , quoting a reference in Practical Mechanic 's Journal on `` Gaillard and Dubois ' ` Gazogene ' or Aerated Water apparatus '' . A gasogene is mentioned as a residential fixture at 221B Baker Street in Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes story A Scandal in Bohemia : `` With hardly a word spoken , but with a kindly eye , he waved me to an armchair , threw across his case of cigars , and indicated a spirit case and a gasogene in the corner . '' The device plays a key role in Bernard Shaw 's 1905 comic play Passion , Poison , and Petrifaction , Or The Fatal Gazogene .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Gasogene\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 88557\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Head gardener Content: The head gardener ( also known as a curator ) or as a Master Gardener is an individual who manages the staff of a large garden , landscape or park , such as a residential garden , botanical garden , theme park , public park , museum or roadside embankments and islands . A head gardener 's responsibility may therefore cross over into the managing of or communicating with individuals from other disciplines , such as landscaping , construction and cooking and not be limited to gardening , the activity of growing and maintaining the garden . A large or stately property may include several different types of garden , such as the formal garden ( also English garden ) , lawns , white garden , Japanese garden , miniature or bonsai garden , tropical garden , cold climate garden , rockery , fernery , water garden , herb garden , orchard , and the management of related buildings and setups such as greenhouses ( hothouses , glasshouses and shadehouses ) , water features and aquaria . A head gardener may also be the directing gardener on a lifestyle television show ; compare celebrity gardener .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Head_gardener\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 88422\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 88220\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Enhanced coal bed methane recovery Content: Enhanced coal bed methane recovery is a method of producing additional coalbed methane from a source rock , similar to enhanced oil recovery applied to oil fields . Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) injected into a bituminous coal bed would occupy pore space and also adsorb onto the carbon in the coal at approximately twice the rate of methane ( CH4 ) , allowing for potential enhanced gas recovery . This technique may be used in conjunction with carbon capture and storage in mitigation of global warming where the carbon dioxide that is sequestered is captured from the output of fossil fuel power plants . A research project at ETH Zurich is studying the process of pumping carbon dioxide into unminable coal seams and recovering the methane that is subsequently displaced . An extensive experimental investigation about the process of desorbing methane by adsorbing carbon dioxide in real coal samples was performed . The proof of principle and the technical feasibility of the method could be verified with these measurements . These research results indicate that CBM can become an alternative to conventional natural gas . ECBM provides additional to CBM the advantage of long-term CO2 storage in the underground coal seams . However , without other incentives , enhanced coal bed methane recovery is not economical as the commercial value of the released methane does not completely offset the cost of pumping . Penetration of CO2 into coal is simulated using a stress-enhanced diffusion model .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Enhanced_coal_bed_methane_recovery\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 88206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 88085\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Crop yield Content: In agriculture , crop yield ( also known as `` agricultural output '' ) refers to both the measure of the yield of a crop per unit area of land cultivation , and the seed generation of the plant itself ( e.g. if three grains are harvested for each grain seeded , the resulting yield is 1:3 ) . The figure , 1:3 is considered by agronomists as the minimum required to sustain human life . One of the three seeds must be set aside for the next planting season , the remaining two either consumed by the grower , or one for human consumption and the other for livestock feed . The higher the surplus , the more livestock can be established and maintained , thereby increasing the physical and economic well-being of the farmer and his family . This , in turn , resulted in better stamina , better over-all health , and better , more efficient work . In addition , the more the surplus the more draft animals -- horse and oxen -- could be supported and harnessed to work , and manure , the soil thereby easing the farmer 's burden . Increased crop yields meant few hands were needed on farm , freeing them for industry and commerce . This , in turn , led to the formation and growth of cities . Formation and growth of cities meant an increased demand for food stuffs by non-farmers , and their willingness to pay for it . This , in turn , led the farmer to ( further ) innovation , more intensive farming , the demand/creation of new and/or improved farming implements , and a quest for improved seed which improved crop yield . Thus allowing the farmer to raise his income by bringing more food to non-farming ( city ) markets .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Crop_yield\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 88072\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 88049\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_scrubber\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 88012\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sherwood B. Idso Content: Sherwood B. Idso ( born June 12 , 1942 ) is the president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization . Prior to that time he was a Research Physicist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Agricultural Research Service at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix , Arizona , where he worked since June 1967 . He was also closely associated with Arizona State University over most of this period , serving as an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Geology , Geography , and Botany and Microbiology . His two sons , Craig and Keith , are , respectively , the founder and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Idso is the author or co-author of over 500 publications including the books Carbon Dioxide : Friend or Foe ? ( 1982 ) and Carbon Dioxide and Global Change : Earth in Transition ( 1989 ) . He served on the editorial board of the international journal Agricultural and Forest Meteorology from 1973 to 1993 and since 1993 has served on the editorial board of Environmental and Experimental Botany . Over the course of his career , he has been an invited reviewer of manuscripts for 56 different scientific journals and 17 different funding agencies , representing an unusually large array of disciplines . He is an ISI highly cited researcher .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Sherwood_B._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 87933\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 87854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-neutral_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 87822\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 87714\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_shifting\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 87642\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gas reinjection Content: Gas reinjection is the reinjection of natural gas into an underground reservoir , typically one already containing both natural gas and crude oil , in order to increase the pressure within the reservoir and thus induce the flow of crude oil or else sequester gas that can not be exported . This is not to be confused with gas lift , where gas is injected into the annulus of the well rather than the reservoir . After the crude has been pumped out , the natural gas is once again recovered . Since many of the wells found around the world contain heavy crude , this process increases their production . The basic difference between light crude and heavy crude is its viscosity and pumpability - the lighter the crude the easier it is to pump . Recovery of hydrocarbons in a well is generally limited to 50 % ( heavy crudes ) and 75-80 % ( light crudes ) . Recycling of natural gas or other inert gases causes the pressure to rise in the well , thus causing more gas molecules to dissolve in the oil lowering its viscosity and thereby increasing the well 's output . Air is not suitable for repressuring wells because it tends to cause deterioration of the oil , thus carbon dioxide or natural gas is used to repressure the well . The term ` gas-reinjection ' is also sometimes referred to as repressuring -- the term being used only to imply that the pressure inside the well is being increased to aid recovery . Injection or reinjection of carbon dioxide also takes place in order to reduce the emission of CO2 into the atmosphere , a form of carbon sequestration . This has been proposed as a method to combat climate change , allowing mass storage of CO2 over a geological timescale . Reinjection of carbon dioxide in the Norwegian Sleipner gas field saves the operators 1 million Norwegian Kroners per day in national carbon taxes .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Gas_reinjection\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 87611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glass enclosure Content: A glass enclosure is an enclosure made mostly out of glass and may more specifically refer to : A container or cage such as a fish tank , terrarium , etc. . A building , such as a greenhouse ( or glasshouse ) , that may or may not have a curtain wall Display case Casing around an object , such as a light bulb , LED , fuse ( electrical ) , vacuum tube , glass case in electronic packaging , etc. ( and at the top of a lighthouse , a lantern , the Popemobile , etc. . )\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Glass_enclosure\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 87591\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Plant factory Content: A plant factory is a closed growing system which enables a farmer ( agrotechnician ) to achieve constant production of vegetables all year around . The facility utilizes artificial control of light , temperature , moisture , and carbon dioxide concentrations .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Plant_factory\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 87502\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 87178\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of carbon ranches Content: This is a working list of Carbon Ranches a term referring to regenerative agriculture practices that specifically accomplish carbon sequestration in the soil . `` The world 's cultivated soils have lost between 50 and 70 percent of their original carbon stock . '' ( Lal ) `` A mere two percent increase in the carbon content of the planet 's soils could offset 100 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions going into the atmosphere . '' ( Lal ) Grasslands cover 350 billion hectares , comprising 70 % of global agricultural land making carbon ranching an especially climate beneficial alternative to meat produced as part of a Concentrated animal feeding operation . Carbon ranching may include , but is not limited to Managed intensive rotational grazing , Compost application , Holistic management ( agriculture ) and Tree planting . There are many research groups and NGO 's studying and advancing this field including Arizona State University , The Carbon Cycle Institute , Holistic Management International , The Ohio State University , The Quivira Coalition , The Savory Institute , The Soil Carbon Coalition , Texas A&M University . This list does not necessarily reflect scientific or academic endorsements insofar as best practices and results vary across ranches , climates , time periods , and sources of funding and are therefore challenging to quantify and/or compare . Currently , confirmation of the carbon ranching designation is confirmed through either third party citation or Soil Organic Matter test result .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_carbon_ranches\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 87058\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 86842\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Maximilian_Auffhammer\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 86698\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Planktology Content: Planktology is the study of plankton , various small drifting plants , animals and microorganisms that inhabit bodies of water . Planktology topics include primary production , energy flow and the carbon cycle . Plankton drive the `` biological pump '' , a process by which the ocean ecosystem transports carbon from the surface euphotic zone to the ocean 's depths . Such processes are vital to carbon dioxide sinks , one of several possibilities for countering global warming . Modern planktology includes behavioral aspects of drifting organisms , engaging modern in situ imaging devices . Some planktology projects allow the public to participate online , such as the Longterm Ecological Observatory .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Planktology\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 86561\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 86517\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 86323\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glass House (Budapest) Content: The Glass House ( Üvegház ) was a building used by the Swiss diplomat Carl Lutz to help Jews in Budapest during the Holocaust .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Glass_House_(Budapest)\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 86128\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles Thilorier Content: Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier was a student at the École polytechnique in the class / year of 1815 , who was mistakenly believed to have been the first person to create solid carbon dioxide ( `` dry ice '' ) . Actually , a French inventor , Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier ( 1790 -- 1844 ) , discovered dry ice . Unfortunately , in almost all of his technical articles , Adrien Thilorier gave his name simply as `` Thilorier '' ; similarly , whenever others referred to him in technical articles , his name was also given only as `` Thilorier '' . This impeded efforts by scholars to identify him subsequently . The confusion was compounded when Paul Thénard wrote a biography of his father , Louis Thénard , a French chemist : In 1835 , Adrien Thilorier had created dry ice by spraying liquid carbon dioxide into a glass vessel . He had thought that the dry ice was merely snow ; that is , water vapor from the atmosphere which had condensed as a result of the cold that the evaporation of the liquid carbon dioxide had produced . Louis Thénard had explained to Thilorier that his `` snow '' was actually solidified carbon dioxide . In a footnote of Louis Thénard 's biography , Paul Thénard identified the `` Thilorier '' who discovered dry ice as `` Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier '' , a student at the École polytechnique in the class of 1815 . This ( mistaken ) identification was mentioned by Duane H. D. Roller , a graduate student at Harvard University , in a paper that was published in 1952 . Consequently , many sources claim that Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier discovered dry ice . Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier was an employee of the French Post Office in Paris who invented , among other things , an oil lamp , a gas compressor , and an apparatus for producing liquid carbon dioxide . It was a French scholar who revealed that he had discovered dry ice . During the 1960s , Madeleine Ambrière-Fargeaud , a scholar in France , was trying to identify the person who served as the model for a `` mad scientist '' character , Balthazar Claës , in Honoré de Balzac 's novel La Recherche de l'absolu ( The Quest of the Absolute ) . Her research suggested that Claës was inspired ( in part ) by Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier . By 2003 , Joost Mertens , a Dutch historian of science , had verified many of the findings that Ms. Ambrière-Fargeaud had made about Thilorier . That `` Thilorier '' is actually Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier is proved by French government documents , especially patents . In 1826 , he was granted a patent for a `` hydrostatic lamp '' ; the patent lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' of Paris . His 1831 patent for a gas compressor also lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and describes him as an employee of the `` Administration des postes '' ( i.e. , the Post Office ) in Paris . In 1832 , the Bulletin of the laws of the kingdom of France also lists him as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and as an employee of the Post Office , who resided at number 21 on the Place Vendôme in Paris , and as the inventor of a gas compressor .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_Thilorier\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 85973\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glass House Point Content: Glass House Point in James City County , Virginia is the northern terminus of the Jamestown Ferry , which was relocated there as part of the development of Jamestown for the celebration the 350th anniversary in 1957 . The state-operated ferry service crosses the James River to Scotland in Surry County . It is named for the Jamestown Glasshouse , a popular exhibit at Jamestown operated by the National Park Service . Category : Geography of James City County , Virginia\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Glass_House_Point\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 85703\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Glass recycling Content: Glass recycling is the processing of waste glass into usable products . Glass waste should be separated by chemical composition , and then , depending on the end use and local processing capabilities , might also have to be separated into different colors . Many recyclers collect different colors of glass separately since glass retains its color after recycling . The most common types used for consumer containers are colorless glass , green glass , and brown/amber glass . Glass is ideal for recycling since none of the material is degraded by normal use . Glass makes up a large component of household and industrial waste due to its weight and density . The glass component in municipal waste is usually made up of bottles , broken glassware , light bulbs and other items . Adding to this waste is the fact that many manual methods of creating glass objects have a defect rate of around forty percent . Glass recycling uses less energy than manufacturing glass from sand , lime and soda . Every metric ton ( 1,000 kg ) of waste glass recycled into new items saves 315 kg of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere during the creation of new glass . Glass that is crushed and ready to be remelted is called cullet . Many collection points have separate bins for clear , green and amber . Glass reprocessors that intend to make glass containers require separation by color , because glass tends to retain its color after recycling . If the recycled glass is intended for other products , or if the glass reprocessor uses newer optical sorting equipment , separation by color at the collection point may not be required . Heat-resistant glass like Pyrex or borosilicate glass should not be disposed of in the glass container as even a single piece of such material will alter the viscosity of the fluid in the furnace at remelt .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Glass_recycling\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 85695\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden Content: The University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden ( Botanisk have ) , usually referred to simply as Copenhagen Botanical Garden , is a botanical garden located in the centre of Copenhagen , Denmark . It covers an area of 10 hectares and is particularly noted for its extensive complex of historical glasshouses dating from 1874 . The garden is part of the Natural History Museum of Denmark , which is itself part of the University of Copenhagen Faculty of Science . It serves both research , educational and recreational purposes .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"University_of_Copenhagen_Botanical_Garden\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 85662\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Forest glass Content: Forest glass ( Waldglas in German ) is late Medieval glass produced in northwestern and central Europe from approximately 1000 -- 1700 AD using wood ash and sand as the main raw materials and made in factories known as glasshouses in forest areas . It is characterized by a variety of greenish-yellow colors , the earlier products often being of crude design and poor quality , and was used mainly for everyday vessels and increasingly for ecclesiastical stained glass windows . Its composition and manufacture contrast sharply with Roman and pre-Roman glassmaking centered on the Mediterranean and contemporaneous Islamic glass making to the east .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Forest_glass\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 85575\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 85537\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"C._Kumar_N._Patel\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 85513\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Glass House (band) Content: The Glass House was an American R&B / soul group from Detroit , Michigan . The Glass House was an assembly of house musicians put together by Holland-Dozier-Holland for their Invictus Records label in 1969 . The group was led by Ty Hunter and included Scherrie Payne , sister of soul singer Freda Payne . The group released two full-length albums and had a string of chart hits through 1972 , but once their popularity had dried up , Invictus dissolved the group . Shortly thereafter , Ty Hunter and Scherrie Payne joined the Motown roster . Ty joined the singing group The Originals . Scherrie Payne joined The Supremes .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Glass_House_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 85365\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 85262\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .\",\n \"qid\": \"198\",\n \"docid\": \"Stuart_Agnew\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 85234\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":94,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"In the past, warming has never been a threat to life on Earth."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.","qid":"199","docid":"United_Nations_Ocean_Conference","rank":1,"score":99149},{"content":"Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''","qid":"199","docid":"Earth_2100","rank":2,"score":89952},{"content":"Title: Life on Mars Content: The possibility of life on Mars is a subject of significant interest to astrobiology due to the planet 's proximity and similarities to Earth . To date no proof has been found of past or present life on Mars . However , cumulative evidence is now building that the ancient surface environment of Mars had liquid water and may have been habitable for microorganisms . The existence of habitable conditions does not necessarily indicate the presence of life . Scientific searches for evidence of life began in the 19th century , and they continue today via telescopic investigations and landed missions . While early work focused on phenomenology and bordered on fantasy , modern scientific inquiry has emphasized the search for water , chemical biosignatures in the soil and rocks at the planet 's surface , and biomarker gases in the atmosphere . On November 22 , 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars . The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior . Mars is of particular interest for the study of the origins of life because of its similarity to the early Earth . This is especially so since Mars has a cold climate , and lacks plate tectonics or continental drift , so it has remained almost unchanged since the end of the Hesperian period . At least two thirds of Mars 's surface is more than 3.5 billion years old , and Mars may thus hold the best record of the prebiotic conditions leading to abiogenesis , even if life does not or has never existed there . In May 2017 , evidence of the earliest known life on land on Earth may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old geyserite and other related mineral deposits ( often found around hot springs and geysers ) uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia . These findings may be helpful in deciding where best to search for early signs of life on the planet Mars . On January 24 , 2014 , NASA reported that the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers started searching for evidence of past life , including a biosphere based on autotrophic , chemotrophic , or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms , as well as ancient water , including fluvio-lacustrine environments ( plains related to ancient rivers or lakes ) that may have been habitable . The search for evidence of habitability , taphonomy ( related to fossils ) , and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective .","qid":"199","docid":"Life_on_Mars","rank":3,"score":87821},{"content":"Title: Earth immune system Content: The Earth immune system is a controversial proposal , claimed to be a consequence of the Gaia hypothesis . The Gaia hypothesis holds that the entire earth may be considered a single organism ( Gaia ) . As a self-maintaining organism , Earth would have an immune system of some sort in order to maintain its health . Some proponents of this speculative concept , for example , hold that humankind can be considered an `` infection '' of Gaia , and that AIDS is an attempt by this immune system to reject the infection . `` Cancer '' might be a more accurate term , as humans evolved within Gaia , and are not external invaders . An opposite view is that humankind is Gaia 's immune system itself , perhaps evolved to avert future catastrophes such as the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions of species . James Lovelock 's book `` The Revenge of Gaia '' suggests that Gaia has many mechanisms for eliminating civilizations that do harm through greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , but suggests that with increasing heat being received from the sun , Gaia 's ability to `` bounce back '' as it did after the Permian and Cretaceous extinction events , may be increasingly compromised . Paul Hawken suggests in Blessed Unrest that when Earth is considered a living system then Earth 's immune system is made up of the million or so organizations all around the globe that are working for social justice , the environment , and indigenous people 's rights . Many of these groups are linked through the Internet and other means so there is a vast network of interconnected people and groups working to protect the planet , its people , and all beings . For example , one organization that serves to link groups working on sustainable energy is Inforse in Denmark .","qid":"199","docid":"Earth_immune_system","rank":4,"score":84195},{"content":"Title: Are We Changing Planet Earth? Content: Are We Changing Planet Earth ? and Can We Save Planet Earth ? are two programmes that form a documentary about global warming , presented by David Attenborough . They were first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 24 May and 1 June 2006 respectively . Part of a themed season by the BBC entitled `` Climate Chaos '' , the programmes were produced in conjunction with the Discovery Channel and the Open University . They were directed by Nicolas Brown and produced by Jeremy Bristow . The music was composed by Samuel Sim . Attenborough undertook the assignment in between his ` Life ' series Life in the Undergrowth and Life in Cold Blood . Around the same time , the naturalist also narrated Planet Earth .","qid":"199","docid":"Are_We_Changing_Planet_Earth?","rank":5,"score":84168},{"content":"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .","qid":"199","docid":"Reasons_for_concern","rank":6,"score":84013},{"content":"Title: A Friend of the Earth Content: T. Coraghessan Boyle 's novel A Friend of the Earth ( 2000 ) is a story of environmental destruction . The novel is set in 2025 ; as a result of global warming and the greenhouse effect , the climate has drastically changed , and , accordingly , biodiversity is a thing of the past .","qid":"199","docid":"A_Friend_of_the_Earth","rank":7,"score":83010},{"content":"Title: Our Angry Earth Content: Our Angry Earth : A Ticking Ecological Bomb ( 1991 ) is a non-fiction book and polemic against the effects humankind is having on the environment by the science fiction writers Isaac Asimov and Frederik Pohl . In his last non-fiction book , Asimov co-writes with his long-time friend science fiction author Frederik Pohl , and deals with elements of the environmental crisis such as overpopulation , oil dependence , war , global warming and the destruction of the ozone layer . It suggests monumental disasters are threatening to destroy humankind and argues that `` it is too late to save our planet from harm '' . The book has four sections : `` The Background '' , `` The Problems '' , `` The Technocures '' and `` The Way to Go '' . It was first published by Tor Books in 1991 , ISBN 0-312-85252-5 .","qid":"199","docid":"Our_Angry_Earth","rank":8,"score":81581},{"content":"Title: Modern Mars habitability Content: One of the central questions of modern Astrobiology is whether there is , or ever has been life on Mars . Mars probably had oceans in the past , and it definitely had lakes and a thicker atmosphere . Modern Mars has become cold , dry , and almost uninhabitable , yet , if life did ever arise on Mars , some hardy microbes and perhaps even multicellular life might survive there right through to the present . The only missions to search for life on Mars , the two Viking missions , returned results that were inconclusive . However the instruments were not designed to cope with the unusual conditions which Viking discovered on Mars , which may have confused the results of the experiments . Also , they did n't know enough about Mars at that time to target the regions we now think are most likely to have present day life . Life would meet many challenges on present day Mars . Liquid water boils at 0 ° C , over much of its surface . Even at the depths of the Hellas basin , any water is close to its boiling point of 10 ° C and will dry out quickly . Ice also evaporates into the atmosphere over geological timescales - and most of the equatorial regions are thought to be dry to depths of tens of meters . As its axial tilt varies , Mars atmosphere is sometimes thicker , and liquid water may then form on the surface - but any dormant life in the top few meters of soil would be destroyed over periods of millions of years by cosmic radiation . However , in 2008 , droplets were observed on the landing legs of Phoenix . Sadly , there was no way to analyse them , but the leading hypothesis is that they were droplets of salty water . Phoenix also made isotopic measurements which show that the Mars atmosphere has exchanged oxygen molecules with liquid on the surface in the recent geological past . This could indicate either recent episodic occurrences of liquid water ( for instance after a meteorite strike ) or water present every year , in contact with the atmosphere . We now know of many seasonal changes in the surface of Mars which are only visible in high resolution photographs . Most of these are now thought to be caused by dry ice or wind effects . However , the `` Recurrent slope lineae '' , and some of the `` flow like features '' form in conditions that suggest the occasional presence of small quantities of water on Mars . The evidence of flowing brines in the RSLs is strong , though it 's not known if they are habitable . Curiosity has also found indirect evidence of a brine layer 15 cm below the sands that it drives over , though most scientists think that this layer is not habitable for Earth life . Recent Mars surface simulations by Nilton Renno and his team have shown that small droplets of water can form on salt / ice interfaces for a few hours per day almost anywhere on the surface of Mars , and this may explain the Phoenix leg droplets observations . In a separate development , research by the German aerospace company DLR in Mars simulation chambers and on the ISS show that some Earth life can survive simulated Mars surface conditions without any water at all , and photosynthesize and metabolize , slowly . It can do this using the high relative humidity of the Mars atmosphere at night . All of this work was done after the Phoenix discoveries in 2008 . Other potential habitats include lakes formed in the higher latitudes after cometary or meteorite impacts , or as a result of volcanism . Covered by ice , these may remain liquid for centuries , or up to a few thousand years for the largest impacts . The planet may also have underground trapped layers of water heated by geothermal hotspots . Also there are suggestions that Mars may have a deep hydrosphere , a liquid layer below its cryosphere , a few kilometers below the surface . Deep rock habitats on Earth are inhabited by life so if this layer exists , it may also be habitable on Mars . The main questions are Do these potential habitats exist ? Are they habitable ? For instance , liquid water , if present , could be too cold , or too salty for Earth life Are they in fact inhabited by any forms of life ? As Mars is so inhospitable , life might not be able to spread to new habitats easily . So there might be life in some of the habitats and not in others . Or life on Mars may have gone extinct , or never evolved at all , in which case none of the habitats would be inhabited . These discoveries have renewed interest in this topic , with many astrobiologists saying that they think present day Mars may be more habitable than previously thought . The first conference on the Present Day Habitability of Mars was held in 2013 in UCLA . The 2017 conference session on Modern Mars Habitability will run from April 24 -- 28 in Mesa , Arizona","qid":"199","docid":"Modern_Mars_habitability","rank":9,"score":80730},{"content":"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .","qid":"199","docid":"The_Weather_of_the_Future","rank":10,"score":80637},{"content":"Title: What a Way to Go: Life at the End of Empire Content: What A Way To Go : Life at the End of Empire is a 2007 documentary film about the current situation facing humanity and the world . It discusses issues such as peak oil , climate change and the effects of global warming , population overshoot and species extinction , as well as how this situation has developed . The documentary features supporting data and interviews of Daniel Quinn , environmental activist Derrick Jensen and academics such as Richard Heinberg and many others . The tagline of the documentary is , `` A middle-class white guy comes to grips with Peak Oil , Climate Change , Mass Extinction , Population Overshoot and the demise of the American lifestyle . ''","qid":"199","docid":"What_a_Way_to_Go:_Life_at_the_End_of_Empire","rank":11,"score":79576},{"content":"Title: Eaarth Content: Eaarth : Making a Life on a Tough New Planet is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Henry Holt and Company in 2010 . In the opening chapter , McKibben presents an array of facts and statistics about climate change that are already visible , supported by extensive footnotes . In the second and third chapters , McKibben lays out his analysis of how we have arrived at the current situation , and conveys genuine sorrow as he explains how the drive for economic growth based on hydrocarbons since the 1970s has led the planet to the point of breakdown . In a review of the book , British economist Nicholas Stern suggests that there is no doubting McKibben 's sincerity and his ability to communicate the significant risks which humanity faces . According to Stern , his `` overall thesis that we are already seeing widespread effects of climate change is sound and supported by much robust scientific evidence '' . But Stern says McKibben is too pessimistic when it comes to the recent advances in avoiding even bigger changes to the climate by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases .","qid":"199","docid":"Eaarth","rank":12,"score":77474},{"content":"Title: Extinction risk from global warming Content: The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .","qid":"199","docid":"Extinction_risk_from_global_warming","rank":13,"score":77463},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .","qid":"199","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans","rank":14,"score":77417},{"content":"Title: Life on Earth (TV series) Content: Life on Earth : A Natural History by David Attenborough is a television natural history series made by the BBC in association with Warner Bros. and Reiner Moritz Productions . It was transmitted in the UK from 16 January 1979 . During the course of the series presenter David Attenborough , following the format established by Kenneth Clark 's Civilisation and Jacob Bronowski 's The Ascent of Man ( both series which he designed and produced as director of BBC2 ) , travels the globe in order to trace the story of the evolution of life on the planet . Like the earlier series , it was divided into 13 programmes ( each of around 55 minutes ' duration ) . The executive producer was Christopher Parsons and the music was composed by Edward Williams . Highly acclaimed , it is the first in Attenborough 's ` Life ' series of programmes and was followed by The Living Planet ( 1984 ) . It established Attenborough as not only the foremost television naturalist , but also an iconic figure in British cultural life .","qid":"199","docid":"Life_on_Earth_(TV_series)","rank":15,"score":77106},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"199","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":16,"score":76229},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"199","docid":"Global_warming","rank":17,"score":75961},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .","qid":"199","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations","rank":18,"score":75685},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .","qid":"199","docid":"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs","rank":19,"score":75579},{"content":"Title: Life on Venus Content: The speculation of life currently existing on Venus decreased significantly since the early 1960s , when spacecraft began studying Venus and it became clear that the conditions on Venus are extreme compared to those on Earth . The fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth , raising temperatures on the surface to nearly 735 K , the atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth , and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect , make water-based life as we know it unlikely on the surface of the planet . However , a few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature , acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere .","qid":"199","docid":"Life_on_Venus","rank":20,"score":75398},{"content":"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .","qid":"199","docid":"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean","rank":21,"score":74975},{"content":"Title: Evolutionary history of life Content: The evolutionary history of life on Earth traces the processes by which living and fossil organisms have evolved since life appeared on the planet , until the present day . Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ( Ga ) ago and there is evidence that life appeared as early as 4.1 Ga. . The similarities between all present-day organisms indicate the presence of a common ancestor from which all known species have diverged through the process of evolution . More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . The earliest evidence for life on Earth is graphite found to be a biogenic substance in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia . More recently , in 2015 , `` remains of biotic life '' were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . In March 2017 , researchers reported evidence of possibly the oldest forms of life on Earth . Putative fossilized microorganisms were discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec , Canada , that may have lived as early as 4.280 billion years ago , not long after the oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago , and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago . According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe . '' Microbial mats of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early Archean and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place within them . The evolution of photosynthesis , around 3.5 Ga , eventually led to a buildup of its waste product , oxygen , in the atmosphere , leading to the great oxygenation event , beginning around 2.4 Ga. . The earliest evidence of eukaryotes ( complex cells with organelles ) dates from 1.85 Ga , and while they may have been present earlier , their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their metabolism . Later , around 1.7 Ga , multicellular organisms began to appear , with differentiated cells performing specialised functions . Sexual reproduction , which involves the fusion of male and female reproductive cells ( gametes ) to create a zygote in a process called fertilization is , in contrast to asexual reproduction , the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of macroscopic organisms , including almost all eukaryotes ( which includes animals and plants ) . However the origin and evolution of sexual reproduction remain a puzzle for biologists though it did evolve from a common ancestor that was a single celled eukaryotic species . Bilateria , animals with a front and a back , appeared by 555 Ma ( million years ago ) . The earliest land plants date back to around 450 Ma , although evidence suggests that microorganisms formed the earliest terrestrial ecosystems , at least 2.9 Ga. . Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the Phanerozoic . Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event . Ediacara biota appear during the Ediacaran period , while vertebrates , along with most other modern phyla originated about during the Cambrian explosion . During the Permian period , synapsids , including the ancestors of mammals , dominated the land , but most of this group became extinct in the Permian -- Triassic extinction event . During the recovery from this catastrophe , archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates ; one archosaur group , the dinosaurs , dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods . After the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event killed off the non-avian dinosaurs , mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity . Such mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify .","qid":"199","docid":"Evolutionary_history_of_life","rank":22,"score":74807},{"content":"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .","qid":"199","docid":"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)","rank":23,"score":74740},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .","qid":"199","docid":"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth","rank":24,"score":74598},{"content":"Title: Years of Living Dangerously Content: Years of Living Dangerously is an American documentary television series focusing on global warming . The first season , of nine weekly episodes , premiered in the US on April 13 , 2014 , on Showtime . It won an Emmy Award as Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series . The second season , consisting of eight episodes , aired on the National Geographic Channel , beginning on October 30 , 2016 , with broader international distribution than the first season . Executive producers included James Cameron , Arnold Schwarzenegger , Robert Palumbo , and series creators Joel Bach and David Gelber ( formerly of 60 Minutes ) . Joseph Romm and Heidi Cullen were the chief science advisors . The weekly episodes featured celebrity hosts with a history of environmental activism and well-known journalists with a background in environmental reportage . These `` correspondents '' traveled the world and throughout the U.S. to interview experts and ordinary people affected by , and seeking solutions to , the effects of global warming . They acted as reporters and proxies for the audience , asking questions to find out people 's opinions and to discover the scientific evidence . The final episode of season one featured an interview of President Barack Obama . Executive producers for season one were Cameron , Schwarzenegger , clean energy investor and environmental activist Daniel Abbasi , Jerry Weintraub , Bach and Gelber . Episodes explored the effects of rising sea levels , historic droughts and flooding , water scarcity , ocean acidification , deforestation and the rapidly increasing extinction rate of species , but also focused on `` solutions that individuals , communities , companies and even governments can use to address worldwide climate change '' , including cheaper solar and wind energy , advancing battery technology and electric cars . Hosts included Cameron , Schwarzenegger , Harrison Ford , Ian Somerhalder , America Ferrera , David Letterman , Gisele Bündchen , Jack Black , Matt Damon , Jessica Alba , Sigourney Weaver , and various other actors and journalists . Schwarzenegger reflected on how the series tries to make the issue of climate change resonate with the public : `` I think the environmental movement only can be successful if we are simple and clear and make it a human story . We will tell human stories in this project . The scientists would never get the kind of attention that someone in show business gets . '' Cameron elaborated : `` We did n't use our celebrities as talking head experts , because they 're not climate experts . They were concerned , intelligent , curious citizens who were out to find answers . They were functioning as journalists . '' Newsweek said that the celebrity hosts `` lend sparks to an issue that sends most viewers for the exits '' .","qid":"199","docid":"Years_of_Living_Dangerously","rank":25,"score":74588},{"content":"Title: Virgin Earth Challenge Content: The Virgin Earth Challenge is a competition offering a $ 25 million prize for whoever can demonstrate a commercially viable design which results in the permanent removal of greenhouse gases out of the Earth 's atmosphere to contribute materially in global warming avoidance . The prize was conceived and financed by Sir Richard Branson , a successful British entrepreneur , and was announced in London on 9 February 2007 by Branson and former US Vice President and 2007 Nobel Prize winner Al Gore , creator of the 2006 film An Inconvenient Truth on climate change . Among more than 2600 applications , 11 finalists were announced on 2 November 2011 . These are Biochar Solutions , from the US ; Biorecro , Sweden ; Black Carbon , Denmark ; Carbon Engineering , Canada ; Climeworks , Switzerland ; COAWAY , US ; Full Circle Biochar , US ; Global Thermostat , US ; Kilimanjaro Energy , US ; Smartstones -- Olivine Foundation , Netherlands , and The Savory Institute , US .","qid":"199","docid":"Virgin_Earth_Challenge","rank":26,"score":73751},{"content":"Title: List of World Heritage in Danger Content: The List of World Heritage in Danger is compiled by the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) through the World Heritage Committee according to Article 11.4 of the World Heritage Convention , Full title : Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage which was established in 1972 to designate and manage World Heritage Sites . Entries in the list are threatened World Heritage Sites for the conservation of which major operations are required and for which `` assistance has been requested '' . The list is intended to increase international awareness of the threats and to encourage counteractive measures . Threats to a site can be either proven imminent threats or potential dangers that could have adverse effects on a site . In the case of natural sites , ascertained dangers include the serious decline in the population of an endangered or other valuable species or the deterioration of natural beauty or scientific value of a property caused by human activities such as logging , pollution , settlement , mining , agriculture and major public works . Ascertained dangers for cultural properties include serious deterioration of materials , structure , ornaments or architectural coherence and the loss of historical authenticity or cultural significance . Potential dangers for both cultural and natural sites include development projects , armed conflicts , insufficient management systems or changes in the legal protective status of the properties . In the case of cultural sites , gradual changes due to geology , climate or environment can also be potential dangers . Before a property is inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger , its condition is assessed and a potential programme for corrective measures is developed in cooperation with the State Party involved . The final decision about inscription is made by the committee . Financial support from the World Heritage Fund may be allocated by the committee for listed properties . The state of conservation is reviewed on a yearly basis , after which the committee may request additional measures , delete the property from the list if the threats have ceased or consider deletion from both the List of World Heritage in Danger and the World Heritage List . Of the two Former UNESCO World Heritage Sites , the Dresden Elbe Valley was delisted after placement on the List of World Heritage in Danger while the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary was directly delisted . As of 2016 , there are 55 entries ( 18 natural , 38 cultural ) on the List of World Heritage in Danger . Some sites have been designated as World Heritage Sites and World Heritage in Danger in the same year , such as the Church of the Nativity , traditionally considered to be the birthplace of Jesus . Arranged by the UNESCO regions 21 of the listed sites are located in the Arab States ( of which 7 are located in Syria and 5 in Libya ) , 17 in Africa ( of which 5 are in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ) , 7 in Latin America and the Caribbean , 6 in Asia and the Pacific , and 4 in Europe and North America ( all by 2016 ) . Includes two sites in Georgia The majority of the endangered natural sites ( 13 ) are located in Africa . In some cases , danger listing has sparked conservation efforts and prompted the release of funds , resulting in a positive development for sites such as the Galápagos Islands and Yellowstone National Park , both of which have subsequently been removed from the List of World Heritage in Danger . Despite this , the list itself and UNESCO 's implementation of it have been the focus of criticism . In particular , States Parties and other stakeholders of World Heritage Sites have questioned the authority of the Committee to declare a site in danger without their consent . Until 1992 , when UNESCO set a precedent by placing several sites on the danger list against their wishes , States Parties would have submitted a programme of corrective measures before a site could be listed . Instead of being used as intended , the List of World Heritage in Danger is perceived by some states as a black list and according to Christina Cameron , Professor at the School of Architecture , Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage , University of Montreal , has been used as political tool to get the attention of States Parties . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) notes that UNESCO has referenced the List of World Heritage in Danger ( without actually listing the site ) in a number of cases where the threat could be easily addressed by the State Party . The Union also argues that keeping a site listed as endangered over a long period is questionable and that other mechanisms for conservation should be sought in these cases .","qid":"199","docid":"List_of_World_Heritage_in_Danger","rank":27,"score":72788},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.","qid":"199","docid":"Climate_change_in_Tuvalu","rank":28,"score":72723},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .","qid":"199","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka","rank":29,"score":71907},{"content":"Title: Rare Earth (book) Content: Rare Earth : Why Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe is a 2000 popular science book about xenobiology by Peter Ward , a geologist and paleontologist , and Donald E. Brownlee , an astronomer and astrobiologist , both faculty members at the University of Washington . The book is the origin of the term ` Rare Earth Hypothesis ' which , like the book , asserts the concept that complex life is rare in the universe . The book was eventually succeeded by a follow-up book called The Life and Death of Planet Earth , also by Ward and Brownlee , which talks about the Earth 's long term future and eventual demise under a warming and expanding Sun , showing readers the concept that planets like Earth have finite lifespans , and complex life is not just rare in space , but also rare in time , and is more likely to die out within a short time on geological timescales , while microbes dominate most of the planet 's history .","qid":"199","docid":"Rare_Earth_(book)","rank":30,"score":71592},{"content":"Title: John Lawrence Daly Content: John L. Daly ( 31 March 1943 -- 29 January 2004 ) was an Australian teacher and self-declared `` Greenhouse skeptic . '' He was known for speaking out publicly against what he called the `` Global Warming scare , '' and authored the book The greenhouse trap : Why the greenhouse effect will not end life on earth , published in 1989 by Bantam Books . Since his death his website , Still Waiting for Greenhouse is maintained by Jerry Brennan , though updates slowed considerably after Daly 's death and stopped completely in 2008 . Daly investigated various studies by scientists which appear to support global warming scenarios and raised objections to them . For example , he denied that the average sea level is rising , on the basis the ` Isle of the Dead ' mean ocean level benchmark .","qid":"199","docid":"John_Lawrence_Daly","rank":31,"score":71401},{"content":"Title: Live Earth (2007 concert) Content: Live Earth was a one off event developed to combat climate change . The first series of benefit concerts were held on July 7 , 2007 . The concerts brought together more than 150 musical acts in eleven locations around the world which were broadcast to a mass global audience through televisions , radio , and streamed via the Internet .","qid":"199","docid":"Live_Earth_(2007_concert)","rank":32,"score":71334},{"content":"Title: Silence of the Songbirds Content: Silence of the Songbirds ( ISBN 978-0-8027-1609-5 ) is a book by bird lover and scientist Bridget Stutchbury about the rapid decline and loss of many species of songbirds . Some major threats covered include pesticides , sun-grown coffee , city lights , cowbirds , and global warming . The book was published by HarperCollins in 2007 , and has 243 pages . Kirkus Reviews published a review of the book on June 1 , 2007 , and compared it to Silent Spring by Rachel Carson . Stutchbury describes the link between Latin American deforestation and the loss of food for migratory birds , and the impact of large amounts of pesticides . However , deforestation is minimal for shade-grown coffee . She mentions additional threats to songbirds : light pollution , tall buildings , and wind farms . Despite the diminishing populations of songbirds in recent decades , she provides advice for their survival .","qid":"199","docid":"Silence_of_the_Songbirds","rank":33,"score":71241},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"199","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":34,"score":71063},{"content":"Title: Life Time (Rollins Band album) Content: Life Time is the first full-length studio album by Rollins Band , fronted by ex-Black Flag singer , Henry Rollins . The album was produced by Ian MacKaye , well known in the genre of hardcore punk for his work with Minor Threat and as co-owner of the Dischord record label . MacKaye was also a childhood friend of Rollins , who acted as a roadie for MacKaye 's band The Teen Idles . It was originally released in 1987 and included four live tracks recorded in Kortrijk , Belgium in October 1987 . It was subsequently re-mastered and re-released in 1999 without the live tracks , but with the addition of three session tracks from the Do It album of 1987 . The 2014 reissue on Dischord includes the live tracks but not the bonus tracks included on the 1999 reissue .","qid":"199","docid":"Life_Time_(Rollins_Band_album)","rank":35,"score":71056},{"content":"Title: Last Days on Earth Content: The Last Days on Earth is a 20/20 science special which aired on ABC in August 2006 and has been aired on The History Channel . The show counts down the seven most likely ways in which human life could end , including gamma ray bursts , black holes , machine rule , asteroids , super volcanoes , nuclear war , pandemic flu , and climate change . It includes input from a number of scientists including Michio Kaku , Neil deGrasse Tyson , Stephen Hawking and Kevin Warwick . In 2007 it received an Emmy nomination for its graphic and artistic design .","qid":"199","docid":"Last_Days_on_Earth","rank":36,"score":70905},{"content":"Title: The Living Planet Content: The Living Planet : A Portrait of the Earth is a BBC nature documentary series written and presented by David Attenborough , first transmitted in the UK from 19 January 1984 . The sequel to his pioneering Life on Earth , it is a study of the ways in which living organisms , including humans , adapt to their surroundings . Each of the twelve 55-minute episodes ( one fewer than his previous series ) featured a different environment . The executive producer was Richard Brock and the music was composed by Elizabeth Parker of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop . Part of David Attenborough 's ` Life ' series , it was followed by The Trials of Life ( 1990 ) . However , before the latter , Attenborough wrote and presented two shorter series : The First Eden ( 1987 ) , about man 's relationship with the natural habitats of the Mediterranean , and Lost Worlds , Vanished Lives ( 1989 ) , concerning the discovery of fossils .","qid":"199","docid":"The_Living_Planet","rank":37,"score":70849},{"content":"Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .","qid":"199","docid":"Storms_of_My_Grandchildren","rank":38,"score":70457},{"content":"Title: Living Earth Simulator Project Content: The living Earth simulator is a proposed massive computer simulation system intended to simulate the interactions of all aspects of life , human economic activity , climate , and other physical processes on the planet Earth as part of the FuturICT project , in response to the European FP7 `` Future and Emerging Technologies Flagship '' initiative . There are over 300 international teams seeking ~ $ 1 billion for the 10-year Future and Emerging Technologies ` flagship ' competition . The Earth Simulator was not selected since the two winners have been announced as of March 2013 . The winners were Graphene and Human Brain .","qid":"199","docid":"Living_Earth_Simulator_Project","rank":39,"score":70379},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"199","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":40,"score":70107},{"content":"Title: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow Content: The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .","qid":"199","docid":"Committee_for_a_Constructive_Tomorrow","rank":41,"score":69545},{"content":"Title: Living on Earth Content: Living on Earth is a weekly , hour-long and award-winning environmental news program distributed by Public Radio International . Hosted by Steve Curwood , the program features interviews and commentary on a broad range of ecological issues , exploring how humans interact with their landscape . The show airs on over 300 public radio stations nationwide and reaches 80 % of the United States . It is produced and recorded in Somerville , Massachusetts . As an independent media program , Living on Earth ( LOE ) relies entirely on contributions from listeners and institutions supporting public service including PRI affiliates and PRI . In previous years , the program had been distributed by National Public Radio . Living on Earth is currently based at the University of Massachusetts Boston . The program has received numerous awards including : The 2005 Science Journalism Award from the American Association for the Advancement of Science , the Radio and Television News Directors Association 's Edward R. Murrow Award , Society of Environmental Journalists ' The 2002 First Place Award for Reporting on the Environment , and Gracie Allen Awards from the Foundation of American Women in Radio and Television .","qid":"199","docid":"Living_on_Earth","rank":42,"score":69463},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"199","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":43,"score":69438},{"content":"Title: The Amazonia Conference Content: The Amazonia Conference is a global warming activist organization with a particular focus on education of the public . The Conference was established in April 1990 , when governments of the world were discussing the dangers of global warming at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 . The Conference is an educational organisation with the aim of educating people about the realities of the endangered environment and the inevitable catastrophic consequences if no proactive and preventive steps are taken . The project has reached many institutions and organisations all over the world , spreading the message Education for Preservation . The organisation has given birth to other initiatives , such as The Amazonia Society , the Amazonia Seminar , the Amazonia Experience , and the Amazonia Files . The Amazonia Conference is an educational organisation which , unlike other environmental organisations , focuses in education instead of radical campaigning . This does not mean that the organisation does not campaign . The organisation believes that it is effectively easier to ` form the minds of the young instead of attempting to amend adult ones . ' Therefore , by educating the young , next generations will be equipped with environmentally aware citizens . The project also has a special division which visits companies and other organisations to educate their employees or members , on the current environmental issues which our planet is suffering due to human activities . The Amazonia Conference is considered to be the biggest educational project in Portugal ( Diario de Noticias , 2000 ) , and has recently received the British Airways Best Environmental Project Award 2004 .","qid":"199","docid":"The_Amazonia_Conference","rank":44,"score":69306},{"content":"Title: Australian flying fox die-offs Content: In the last two decades tens of thousands of Australian flying foxes have died during extreme heat events . Flying fox die-offs feature arguably among the most dramatic mass mortality events witnessed in nature , but they can be indicators of heat stress in more cryptic fauna where impacts are more difficult to assess . The die-offs are important additional threats to Australian flying-foxes and the ecosystem services they provide , and highlight the complex implications of climate change for behaviour , demography , and species survival .","qid":"199","docid":"Australian_flying_fox_die-offs","rank":45,"score":69120},{"content":"Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .","qid":"199","docid":"Living_in_the_Hothouse","rank":46,"score":68968},{"content":"Title: Always Has Been Content: Always Has Been is the first EP released by indie hip hop artist J-Live , released in 2003 on the label Triple Threat Productions . It is an EP and consists of six songs recorded early in J-Live 's career , prior to the release of his first album The Best Part . It was released simultaneously as Always Will Be , another EP by J-Live , which is made up of eight new tracks . The tracks `` Braggin Writes '' and `` Schools In '' were rerecorded for The Best Part , but here they appear in their original form . The tracks `` Longevity '' , `` Can I Get It '' , and `` Hush the Crowd '' had not been released on either of J-Live 's previous albums .","qid":"199","docid":"Always_Has_Been","rank":47,"score":68737},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .","qid":"199","docid":"Greenhouse_effect","rank":48,"score":68687},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"199","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":49,"score":68521},{"content":"Title: Lifemapper Content: Lifemapper is building a species diversity map of the world . It is similar to the SETI@Home client , in that it uses a distributed computing client running primarily on home user 's computers to correlate georeferenced biological samples with environmental models of the Earth . It is an experimental GIS , or Geographic Information System , that uses a special genetic algorithm to see if predicted rules about where a species lives match up with the species ' observed natural settings . It is hoped that this technique will be able to both represent a current `` map '' of all organisms habitats on Earth as well as predict where organisms may possibly thrive or face extinction due to climate change and other ecological transformations .","qid":"199","docid":"Lifemapper","rank":50,"score":68467},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences","qid":"199","docid":"Greenhouse_debt","rank":51,"score":68256},{"content":"Title: Saving Our Vanishing Heritage Content: Saving Our Vanishing Heritage : Safeguarding Endangered Cultural Heritage Sites in the Developing World was a report released by Global Heritage Fund on October 17 , 2010 . It illuminated five accelerating man-made threats facing global heritage sites in developing countries : development pressures , unsustainable tourism , insufficient management , looting , and war and conflict . Based on these threats , the report surveyed 500 major archaeological and heritage sites in developing countries to evaluate current loss and destruction , conservation and development . It identified nearly 200 of these sites as `` At Risk '' or `` Under Threat , '' and the following 12 as `` On the Verge '' of irreparable loss and destruction : Bangladesh 's Mahasthangarh Guatemala 's Mirador Haiti 's Sans-Souci Palace India 's Maluti Temples Iraq 's Nineveh Kenya 's Lamu Cyprus ' Famagusta Pakistan 's Taxila Palestine 's Hisham 's Palace Philippines ' Intramuros and Fort Santiago Turkey 's Ani Ukraine 's Chersonesos The report 's editorial committee was composed of 24 experts in global heritage conservation and sustainable development from leading universities , institutions and international agencies , including the World Archaeological Congress , Archaeological Institute of America , ICOMOS ( International Council on Monuments and Sites ) , Stanford University , the University of Pennsylvania , University College of London , and others . The report has garnered much attention from major media , including National Geographic , CNN , Wall Street Journal , Reuters , Huffington Post , MSNBC , USA Today , and more .","qid":"199","docid":"Saving_Our_Vanishing_Heritage","rank":52,"score":68151},{"content":"Title: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life Content: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life : The Individual 's Guide to Stopping Climate Change is a 2007 book by Chris Goodall , published by Earthscan/Routledge . According to New Scientist , this book provides `` the definitive guide to reducing your carbon footprint '' . Goodall explains how consumers can cut carbon usage by 75 percent without making drastic lifestyle changes . How to Live a Low-Carbon Life has been reviewed in the Journal of Environmental Health Research , The Guardian , and The Times . How to Live a Low-carbon Life won the 2007 Clarion award for non-fiction . A second edition was published in 2010 .","qid":"199","docid":"How_to_Live_a_Low-Carbon_Life","rank":53,"score":68109},{"content":"Title: The Fate of the Earth Content: The Fate of the Earth is a 1982 book by Jonathan Schell . This `` seminal '' description of the consequences of nuclear war `` forces even the most reluctant person to confront the unthinkable : the destruction of humanity and possibly most life on Earth '' . The book is regarded as a key document in the nuclear disarmament movement . The book is composed of three essays . The third and final , `` The Choice , '' is an argument that the source of the nuclear threat is the nation-state system , and that the choice is between survival and national sovereignty .","qid":"199","docid":"The_Fate_of_the_Earth","rank":54,"score":67852},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"199","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":55,"score":67755},{"content":"Title: Heat advisory Content: A Heat Advisory is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States . . Local offices often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .","qid":"199","docid":"Heat_advisory","rank":56,"score":67701},{"content":"Title: Earth to America (film) Content: Earth to America was a 2-hour television special that aired on TBS on June 30 , 2005 . Hosted by Tom Hanks , the show used a comic approach to raise awareness of issues concerning the environment , mostly global warming . It was taped at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas . The performers scheduled to appear were : Jack Black Cedric `` The Entertainer '' Rob Corddry Larry David Will Ferrell Tom Hanks Julia Louis-Dreyfus Bill Maher Steve Martin Kevin Nealon ( Subliminal Man ) Ray Romano Martin Short Ben Stiller Wanda Sykes Robin Williams The Cast Of Avenue Q Robert F Kennedy Jr. . Triumph The Insult Comic Dog The Blue Man Group","qid":"199","docid":"Earth_to_America_(film)","rank":57,"score":67611},{"content":"Title: GEO-2000 Content: GEO-2000 is the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Global Environment Outlook 2000 . The UNEP launched the Global Environment Outlook in 1995 to assess environmental issues and to have them published . The first report was published in 1999 . As well as some of the more well known issues the report identified new threats such as : nitrogen 's harmful impact on ecosystems increased severity of natural disasters species invasion as a result of globalization increased environmental pressures caused by urbanization decline in the quality of governance in some countries new wars which impact on both the immediate environment and neighbouring states the impact of refugees on the natural environment","qid":"199","docid":"GEO-2000","rank":58,"score":67384},{"content":"Title: Surviving the Century Content: Surviving the Century : Facing Climate Chaos and Other Global Challenges , edited by Herbert Girardet , is the first major book from the World Future Council , published by Earthscan in 2007 . Eight main issues relating to the politics of climate change are covered in the book : countering climate chaos , renewable energy policy , creating sustainable cities , local farming systems , rainforests and climate change , cradle to cradle production systems , an alternative vision for trade and creating a living democracy .","qid":"199","docid":"Surviving_the_Century","rank":59,"score":67189},{"content":"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .","qid":"199","docid":"Global_warming_(disambiguation)","rank":60,"score":67140},{"content":"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .","qid":"199","docid":"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources","rank":61,"score":67054},{"content":"Title: Conservation of fungi Content: Fungi are considered to be in urgent need of conservation by the British Mycological Society on the grounds that it is a traditionally neglected taxon which has legal protection in few countries . Current threats to fungi include destruction of forests worldwide , fragmentation of habitat , changes in land use , pollution , anthropogenic climate change and over-exploitation of commercially attractive species . The Species Survival Commission of the IUCN has five specialist groups dealing with the conservation of fungi : Chytrid , Zygomycete , Downy Mildew and Slime Mold Specialist Group Cup-fungus , Truffle and Ally Specialist Group Lichen Specialist Group Mushroom , Bracket and Puffball Specialist Group Rust and Smut Specialist Group Lack of knowledge is considered a major concern with a general paucity of comprehensive checklists , even for developed nations . In addition , the criteria for `` red-listing '' is not specifically designed for fungi and the kinds of data required , viz . population size , lifespan , spatial distribution and population dynamics are poorly known for most fungi . As a result in practice , indicator species are identified as target foci for the conservation of threatened fungi .","qid":"199","docid":"Conservation_of_fungi","rank":62,"score":66702},{"content":"Title: Our Final Hour Content: Our Final Hour is a 2003 book by the British Astronomer Royal Sir Martin Rees . The full title of the book is Our Final Hour : A Scientist 's Warning : How Terror , Error , and Environmental Disaster Threaten Humankind 's Future In This Century - On Earth and Beyond . It was published in the United Kingdom under the more prosaic title Our Final Century : Will the Human Race Survive the Twenty-first Century ? . The premise of the book is that the Earth and human survival are in far greater danger from the potential effects of modern technology than is commonly realised , and that the 21st century may be a critical moment in history when humanity 's fate is decided . Rees discusses a range of existential risks confronting humanity , and controversially estimates that the probability of extinction before 2100 CE is around 50 percent , based on the possibility of malign or accidental release of destructive technology .","qid":"199","docid":"Our_Final_Hour","rank":63,"score":66205},{"content":"Title: All Through a Life Content: All Through a Life is an EP by Rites of Spring , released in 1987 ( after the band had broken up ) . It is regarded as the release that bridged the early DC sound of Minor Threat and Scream and the later DC sound of Embrace and One Last Wish .","qid":"199","docid":"All_Through_a_Life","rank":64,"score":65970},{"content":"Title: Life on Earth (album) Content: Life on Earth is the second full-length album released by Tiny Vipers on Sub Pop Records on July 7 , 2009 . In a June 2009 track review , Pitchfork Media awarded `` Dreamer '' their Best New Music accolade . Luckyhorse Industries released a 180 gram double vinyl edition on November 16 , 2009 . It was limited to 500 copies with numbered handmade covers , the first 30 of which were printed on green marble vinyl . `` Audrey 's Well '' is included as a bonus track .","qid":"199","docid":"Life_on_Earth_(album)","rank":65,"score":65967},{"content":"Title: Survival with Ray Mears Content: Survival with Ray Mears is a 3 part television series hosted by Ray Mears , as he tracks predators in their natural habitats . The series was broadcast by ITV , and was billed as the return of the Survival brand . It was followed by Wild Britain with Ray Mears . Survival consists of three , hour-long , programmes , focusing on Mears ' tracking of the world 's top predators . He follows the leopard in Namibia , the bear in British Columbia , and the wolf in Central Idaho . An underpinning theme is the threats faced by each species : in Idaho the crew arrives with only days to countdown before the wolf 's status as a protected species is lifted , and local farmers indicate their intention to begin hunting them ; in British Columbia the impact of global warming on the salmon population is felt by the bear ; and in Namibia the uneasy co-existence between leopards and local farmers is highlighted .","qid":"199","docid":"Survival_with_Ray_Mears","rank":66,"score":65786},{"content":"Title: Life on Earth (Musiq Soulchild album) Content: Life on Earth is the seventh studio album by American R&B singer-songwriter Musiq Soulchild . It was released on April 15 , 2016 , by eOne Music . It is the first album to be released on an independent label , after previously recording several albums on Def Jam Recordings and Atlantic Records . The album entered the US Billboard 200 at number 27 .","qid":"199","docid":"Life_on_Earth_(Musiq_Soulchild_album)","rank":67,"score":65760},{"content":"Title: Marine Connection Content: Marine Connection is a London , UK-based animal welfare charity working both nationally and internationally for the welfare , protection , and conservation of cetaceans : dolphins , whales and porpoises . The charity aims to achieve its objectives via various campaigns , educational and research programmes ; events and press coverage . It also encourages the general public , private companies and celebrities to become involved . Threats to cetaceans has never been greater than they are today . These threats include such factors as bycatch , which is the painful , often drawn-out suffocation of marine mammals after having been accidentally caught in large fishing nets and pair trawlers ; environmental and noise pollution of the marine environment ; loss of natural habitat and food supplies often due to such modern-day problems as exploring and expanding new underwater petroleum supplies , navigation , over-fishing , climate change and global warming . By raising public awareness to these issues concerning threats to marine life and their underwater environment , Marine Connection hopes to promote a better understanding of these problems through educational and public outreach programmes . Also , by conducting ongoing research and examining these issues now , the charity hopes to identify upcoming problems before they happen so changes can be made before it 's too late to stop the destruction of the marine habitat that 's already occurring at such a rapid pace . Another example of Marine Connection 's ongoing commitment to cetaceans is examining the effectiveness of current legislation and calling for stronger laws to protect the marine environment . Marine Connection seeks to actively secure a safer and therefore healthier future for all dolphins and whales as well as the oceans in which they live .","qid":"199","docid":"Marine_Connection","rank":68,"score":65572},{"content":"Title: Outline of life forms Content: A life form or lifeform is an entity or being that is living . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . More than 99 % of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct .","qid":"199","docid":"Outline_of_life_forms","rank":69,"score":65230},{"content":"Title: Conservation in Brazil Content: Even though progress has been made in conserving Brazil 's landscapes , the country still faces serious threats due to its historical land use . Amazonian forests substantially influence regional and global climates and deforesting this region is both a regional and global driver of climate change due to the high amounts of deforestation and habitat fragmentation that have occurred this region . Brazil has established an extensive network of protected areas which covers more than 2 million km2 ( 25 % of Brazil 's national territory ) and is divided almost equally between protected natural areas or conservation units and indigenous land ( `` Terras Indígenas '' ) . Despite these measures , environmental protection is still a concern as indigenous tribes and Brazilian environmental activists contend with ranchers , illegal loggers , gold and oil prospectors and drug traffickers who continue to illegally clear forests .","qid":"199","docid":"Conservation_in_Brazil","rank":70,"score":65225},{"content":"Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .","qid":"199","docid":"Human_extinction","rank":71,"score":64993},{"content":"Title: Historical impacts of climate change Content: Climate has affected human life and civilization from the emergence of hominins to the present day . These historical impacts of climate change can improve human life and cause societies to flourish , or can be instrumental in civilization 's societal collapse .","qid":"199","docid":"Historical_impacts_of_climate_change","rank":72,"score":64919},{"content":"Title: Life on Earth Content: Life on Earth may refer to : Life Life on Earth ( TV series ) , a 1979 nature documentary series Life on Earth ( film ) ( La Vie Sur Terre ) , a 1998 Malian film Life on Earth ( album ) , an album by Tiny Vipers Life on Earth ( Musiq Soulchild album ) , 2016","qid":"199","docid":"Life_on_Earth","rank":73,"score":64891},{"content":"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .","qid":"199","docid":"Earth's_energy_budget","rank":74,"score":64839},{"content":"Title: Life on Titan Content: Whether there is life on Titan , the largest moon of Saturn , is at present an open question and a topic of scientific assessment and research . Titan is far colder than Earth , and its surface lacks stable liquid water , factors which have led some scientists to consider life there unlikely . On the other hand , its thick atmosphere is chemically active and rich in carbon compounds . On the surface there are bodies of liquid methane and ethane ; some scientists speculate that these liquids might take the place of water in living cells different from those on Earth . In June 2010 , scientists analysing data from the Cassini -- Huygens mission reported anomalies in the atmosphere near the surface which could be consistent with the presence of methane-producing organisms , but may alternatively be due to non-living chemical or meteorological processes . The Cassini -- Huygens mission was not equipped to look directly for micro-organisms or to provide a thorough inventory of complex organic compounds .","qid":"199","docid":"Life_on_Titan","rank":75,"score":64822},{"content":"Title: Human impact on marine life Content: Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.According to the IPCC (2019), since 1950 \"many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats.\"It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as wilderness, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast.","qid":"199","docid":"Human_impact_on_marine_life","rank":76,"score":64790},{"content":"Title: Earth (2007 film) Content: Earth is a 2007 nature documentary film which depicts the diversity of wild habitats and creatures across the planet . The film begins in the Arctic in January of one year and moves southward , concluding in Antarctica in the December of the same year . Along the way , it features the journeys made by three particular species -- the polar bear , African bush elephant and humpback whale -- to highlight the threats to their survival in the face of rapid environmental change . A companion piece to the 2006 BBC/Discovery television series Planet Earth , the film uses many of the same sequences , though most are edited differently , and features previously unseen footage . Earth was co-directed by Alastair Fothergill , the executive producer of the television series , and Mark Linfield , the producer of Planet Earth '' 's `` From Pole to Pole '' and `` Seasonal Forests '' episodes . It was co-produced by BBC Natural History Unit and Greenlight Media , with Discovery providing some of the funding . It was also the first film released under the Disneynature label . The same organisations collaborated on Fothergill 's previous film , Deep Blue ( 2003 ) , itself a companion to his 2001 television series on the natural history of the world 's oceans , The Blue Planet . The British version of Earth was narrated by Patrick Stewart and the US version was narrated by James Earl Jones.Earth was released in cinemas internationally during the final quarter of 2007 and throughout 2008 . With total worldwide box office revenue exceeding $ 100 million , Earth is the second-highest grossing nature documentary of all time . A sequel , titled Earth : One Amazing Day '' , is scheduled for release in 2017 .","qid":"199","docid":"Earth_(2007_film)","rank":77,"score":64735},{"content":"Title: The Good Life (Railroad Earth album) Content: The Good Life is the third studio album by the bluegrass/jam band Railroad Earth , released on June 8 , 2004 . So many jam bands seem to forget the importance of good song writing with meaningful lyrics . Railroad Earth 's songs are well-crafted stories , and are delivered with outstanding musicianship and strong vocals . The musical duties are distributed in pretty much the same way here as on their previous two releases : Todd Sheaffer handles vocals and guitar and does the bulk of the songwriting ; John Skehan , Tim Carbone , and Andy Goessling provide the band 's trademark swirling-and-skirling texture ; new bassist Johnny Grubb ( replacing Dave Von Dollen ) and percussionist Carey Harmon provide the solid ground they take off from and land on . Multi-instrumentalist Andy Goessling is credited on banjo , dobro , and sax ( to name a few ) , Tim Carbone on fiddle , accordion , piano and electric guitar , and John Skehan on mandolin , piano , and Hammond organ . Shaeffer often writes tunes about love , being positive , and living a simpler life paired with catchy refrains and memorable melodies , and this effort is not different in that regard . Re-occurring themes of examining one 's destiny , living a good life , and staying true to one 's self resound . The opening track , `` Storms '' uses the metaphor to `` ride out the storm '' in a relationship and stick together through hard times . Perhaps an ode to marriage ? `` Way of the Buffalo '' is an environmental allegory and the title track , `` The Good Life , '' is about living free and `` going back to the country '' evoking images of a simpler time . One of the strongest songs is `` Goat '' which in the live setting extends into a long jammed out vehicle for the band . The somber lyrics , however , paint a picture of how to rid one 's life of negativity .","qid":"199","docid":"The_Good_Life_(Railroad_Earth_album)","rank":78,"score":64514},{"content":"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .","qid":"199","docid":"Future_of_Earth","rank":79,"score":64408},{"content":"Title: The Threats Content: The Threats are a punk band from Dalkeith and Edinburgh , Scotland . Originally formed in 1979 as the Reflectors , the band soon renamed themselves Threats .","qid":"199","docid":"The_Threats","rank":80,"score":64342},{"content":"Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate","qid":"199","docid":"Ice_cap_climate","rank":81,"score":64321},{"content":"Title: Threat (computer) Content: In computer security a threat is a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach security and therefore cause possible harm . A threat can be either `` intentional '' ( i.e. hacking : an individual cracker or a criminal organization ) or `` accidental '' ( e.g. the possibility of a computer malfunctioning , or the possibility of a natural disaster such as an earthquake , a fire , or a tornado ) or otherwise a circumstance , capability , action , or event .","qid":"199","docid":"Threat_(computer)","rank":82,"score":64193},{"content":"Title: Threat Content: A threat is a communicated intent to inflict harm or loss on another person . A threat is considered an act of coercion . Threats ( intimidation ) are widely observed in animal behavior , particularly in a ritualized form , chiefly in order to avoid the unnecessary physical violence that can lead to physical damage or the death of both conflicting parties . Some of the more common types of threats forbidden by law are those made with an intent to obtain a monetary advantage or to compel a person to act against his or her will . In all US states , it is an offense to threaten to ( 1 ) use a deadly weapon on another person ; ( 2 ) injure another 's person or property ; or ( 3 ) injure another 's reputation .","qid":"199","docid":"Threat","rank":83,"score":64037},{"content":"Title: Live Earth Content: Live Earth is an event developed to increase environmental awareness through entertainment .","qid":"199","docid":"Live_Earth","rank":84,"score":63908},{"content":"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.","qid":"199","docid":"Climate_system","rank":85,"score":63850},{"content":"Title: The Sacred Balance Content: The Sacred Balance is a book by environmentalist David Suzuki , which is in its second edition as of 2007 . The book explores human society 's impact on the natural world , both for the planet and the people living on it . Suzuki reveals how dependent humankind is upon the planet 's water , soil , sunlight , and the breath of its vegetation . Threats to the planet 's balance , ranging from toxic pollution to global warming are also discussed . A series of documentary films , also called The Sacred Balance , is based on the book produced by Kensington Communications , Inc. . Producer Robert Lang was the producer of the series .","qid":"199","docid":"The_Sacred_Balance","rank":86,"score":63682},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"199","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":87,"score":63501},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"199","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":88,"score":63358},{"content":"Title: Threat (film) Content: Threat ( 2006 ) is an independent film about a straightedge `` hardcore kid '' and a hip hop revolutionary whose friendship is doomed by the intolerance of their respective street tribes . It is an ensemble film of kids living in New York City in the aftermath of 9-11 , each of them suffering from a sense of doom brought on by dealing with HIV , racism , sexism , class struggle , and general nihilism . The intellectual issues are played out amid an aesthetic of raw ultraviolence that has earned director Matt Pizzolo both accolades and condemnations ( such as Film Threat 's rave review stating `` great art should assail the status quo , and that is what Pizzolo and Nisa 's film has skillfully accomplished '' in contrast to Montreal Film Journal 's scathing review saying the film `` openly glorifies murderous revolt , literally telling the audience to go out and beat up random people , just because '' ) . Unlike past urban dramas , the film does not outright condemn its characters ' violent outbursts . Although it does show harsh consequences for acts of violence , numerous critics have pointed out that it is unclear whether or not the film intends to glorify violence and/or class conflict .","qid":"199","docid":"Threat_(film)","rank":89,"score":63356},{"content":"Title: My Life's Been a Country Song Content: My Life 's Been a Country Song is the fourth studio album by American country music artist Chris Cagle . It was released in February 2008 on Capitol Records Nashville . The album 's lead-off single was `` What Kinda Gone '' , which peaked at No. 3 on the country music charts in April 2008 , the second single , `` No Love Songs '' , peaked at No. 53 , while the third single , `` Never Ever Gone '' , failed to chart . The album debuted at number eight on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , selling about 37,000 copies in its first week . It also debuted at number one on Billboard 's Top Country Albums chart . It is also Cagle 's final album for Capitol . The song `` I Do n't Wan na Live '' was also recorded by Josh Gracin on his 2008 album We Were n't Crazy as `` I Do n't Want to Live '' . `` Keep Me From Loving You '' was also recorded by Clay Walker on his 2010 album , She Wo n't Be Lonely Long .","qid":"199","docid":"My_Life's_Been_a_Country_Song","rank":90,"score":63347},{"content":"Title: Ringed seals and climate change Content: Ringed seals are the smallest and most abundant member of the seal family that live in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions . The average life span of a ringed seal is 40 years , with a diet based mainly on Arctic cod and planktonic crustaceans . Typically about 5 ft long , the ringed seal is known to be solitary with their main predator being polar bears . Recently , however , the biggest predator to ringed seals has been the changing temperature in the Arctic and the detrimental changes to sea ice that follow . With declines in snowpack and sea ice due to warming ocean and atmospheric temperatures , survival has become tougher for ringed seals in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions . Yet ringed seals are also potentially projected to thrive due to warming , considering the early extinction of their predators . Climate change is sure to change the fate of all ringed seals in the coming years for better or worse .","qid":"199","docid":"Ringed_seals_and_climate_change","rank":91,"score":63326},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"199","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":92,"score":63310},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"199","docid":"Climate_change","rank":93,"score":63177},{"content":"Title: Threat (disambiguation) Content: A threat is an act of coercion . Threat may also refer to : Threat ( computer ) , a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach security Threat display , a behaviour aiming at intimidation of a potential enemy Threat of force ( public international law ) , an act of coercion between nations In art and entertainment : The Threat ( film ) , a 1949 American film noir directed by Felix E. Feist Threat ( film ) , a 2006 American film by Matt Pizzolo The Threat ( Animorphs ) , a novel by K.A. Applegate `` The Threat '' ( Dynasty ) , an episode of the TV series Dynasty it : Minaccia","qid":"199","docid":"Threat_(disambiguation)","rank":94,"score":63080},{"content":"Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .","qid":"199","docid":"Paleoclimatology","rank":95,"score":63072},{"content":"Title: Why The Future Doesn't Need Us Content: `` Why The Future Does n't Need Us '' is an article written by Bill Joy ( then Chief Scientist at Sun Microsystems ) in the April 2000 issue of Wired magazine . In the article , he argues ( quoting the sub title ) that `` Our most powerful 21st-century technologies -- robotics , genetic engineering , and nanotech -- are threatening to make humans an endangered species . '' Joy warns : While some critics have characterized Joy 's stance as obscurantism or neo-Luddism , others share his concerns about the consequences of rapidly expanding technology .","qid":"199","docid":"Why_The_Future_Doesn't_Need_Us","rank":96,"score":63048},{"content":"Title: Warming center Content: A warming center is a short-term emergency shelter that operates when temperatures or a combination of precipitation , wind chill , wind and temperature become dangerously inclement . Their paramount purpose is the prevention of death and injury from exposure to the elements . This may include acute trauma from falling objects such as trees , or injury to extremities due to frostbite . A more prevalent emergency which warming centers seek to prevent is hypothermia , the risk for which is aggravated by factors such as age , alcohol consumption , and homelessness .","qid":"199","docid":"Warming_center","rank":97,"score":62872},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .","qid":"199","docid":"Climate_change_in_Europe","rank":98,"score":62857},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"199","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":99,"score":62815},{"content":"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .","qid":"199","docid":"Effects_of_global_warming","rank":100,"score":62805}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \\\"under threat as never before\\\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \\\"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\\\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \\\"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\\\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"United_Nations_Ocean_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 99149\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth_2100\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 89952\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life on Mars Content: The possibility of life on Mars is a subject of significant interest to astrobiology due to the planet 's proximity and similarities to Earth . To date no proof has been found of past or present life on Mars . However , cumulative evidence is now building that the ancient surface environment of Mars had liquid water and may have been habitable for microorganisms . The existence of habitable conditions does not necessarily indicate the presence of life . Scientific searches for evidence of life began in the 19th century , and they continue today via telescopic investigations and landed missions . While early work focused on phenomenology and bordered on fantasy , modern scientific inquiry has emphasized the search for water , chemical biosignatures in the soil and rocks at the planet 's surface , and biomarker gases in the atmosphere . On November 22 , 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars . The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior . Mars is of particular interest for the study of the origins of life because of its similarity to the early Earth . This is especially so since Mars has a cold climate , and lacks plate tectonics or continental drift , so it has remained almost unchanged since the end of the Hesperian period . At least two thirds of Mars 's surface is more than 3.5 billion years old , and Mars may thus hold the best record of the prebiotic conditions leading to abiogenesis , even if life does not or has never existed there . In May 2017 , evidence of the earliest known life on land on Earth may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old geyserite and other related mineral deposits ( often found around hot springs and geysers ) uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia . These findings may be helpful in deciding where best to search for early signs of life on the planet Mars . On January 24 , 2014 , NASA reported that the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers started searching for evidence of past life , including a biosphere based on autotrophic , chemotrophic , or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms , as well as ancient water , including fluvio-lacustrine environments ( plains related to ancient rivers or lakes ) that may have been habitable . The search for evidence of habitability , taphonomy ( related to fossils ) , and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Life_on_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 87821\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth immune system Content: The Earth immune system is a controversial proposal , claimed to be a consequence of the Gaia hypothesis . The Gaia hypothesis holds that the entire earth may be considered a single organism ( Gaia ) . As a self-maintaining organism , Earth would have an immune system of some sort in order to maintain its health . Some proponents of this speculative concept , for example , hold that humankind can be considered an `` infection '' of Gaia , and that AIDS is an attempt by this immune system to reject the infection . `` Cancer '' might be a more accurate term , as humans evolved within Gaia , and are not external invaders . An opposite view is that humankind is Gaia 's immune system itself , perhaps evolved to avert future catastrophes such as the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions of species . James Lovelock 's book `` The Revenge of Gaia '' suggests that Gaia has many mechanisms for eliminating civilizations that do harm through greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , but suggests that with increasing heat being received from the sun , Gaia 's ability to `` bounce back '' as it did after the Permian and Cretaceous extinction events , may be increasingly compromised . Paul Hawken suggests in Blessed Unrest that when Earth is considered a living system then Earth 's immune system is made up of the million or so organizations all around the globe that are working for social justice , the environment , and indigenous people 's rights . Many of these groups are linked through the Internet and other means so there is a vast network of interconnected people and groups working to protect the planet , its people , and all beings . For example , one organization that serves to link groups working on sustainable energy is Inforse in Denmark .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth_immune_system\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 84195\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Are We Changing Planet Earth? Content: Are We Changing Planet Earth ? and Can We Save Planet Earth ? are two programmes that form a documentary about global warming , presented by David Attenborough . They were first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 24 May and 1 June 2006 respectively . Part of a themed season by the BBC entitled `` Climate Chaos '' , the programmes were produced in conjunction with the Discovery Channel and the Open University . They were directed by Nicolas Brown and produced by Jeremy Bristow . The music was composed by Samuel Sim . Attenborough undertook the assignment in between his ` Life ' series Life in the Undergrowth and Life in Cold Blood . Around the same time , the naturalist also narrated Planet Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Are_We_Changing_Planet_Earth?\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 84168\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Reasons_for_concern\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 84013\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: A Friend of the Earth Content: T. Coraghessan Boyle 's novel A Friend of the Earth ( 2000 ) is a story of environmental destruction . The novel is set in 2025 ; as a result of global warming and the greenhouse effect , the climate has drastically changed , and , accordingly , biodiversity is a thing of the past .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"A_Friend_of_the_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 83010\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Our Angry Earth Content: Our Angry Earth : A Ticking Ecological Bomb ( 1991 ) is a non-fiction book and polemic against the effects humankind is having on the environment by the science fiction writers Isaac Asimov and Frederik Pohl . In his last non-fiction book , Asimov co-writes with his long-time friend science fiction author Frederik Pohl , and deals with elements of the environmental crisis such as overpopulation , oil dependence , war , global warming and the destruction of the ozone layer . It suggests monumental disasters are threatening to destroy humankind and argues that `` it is too late to save our planet from harm '' . The book has four sections : `` The Background '' , `` The Problems '' , `` The Technocures '' and `` The Way to Go '' . It was first published by Tor Books in 1991 , ISBN 0-312-85252-5 .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Our_Angry_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 81581\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Modern Mars habitability Content: One of the central questions of modern Astrobiology is whether there is , or ever has been life on Mars . Mars probably had oceans in the past , and it definitely had lakes and a thicker atmosphere . Modern Mars has become cold , dry , and almost uninhabitable , yet , if life did ever arise on Mars , some hardy microbes and perhaps even multicellular life might survive there right through to the present . The only missions to search for life on Mars , the two Viking missions , returned results that were inconclusive . However the instruments were not designed to cope with the unusual conditions which Viking discovered on Mars , which may have confused the results of the experiments . Also , they did n't know enough about Mars at that time to target the regions we now think are most likely to have present day life . Life would meet many challenges on present day Mars . Liquid water boils at 0 ° C , over much of its surface . Even at the depths of the Hellas basin , any water is close to its boiling point of 10 ° C and will dry out quickly . Ice also evaporates into the atmosphere over geological timescales - and most of the equatorial regions are thought to be dry to depths of tens of meters . As its axial tilt varies , Mars atmosphere is sometimes thicker , and liquid water may then form on the surface - but any dormant life in the top few meters of soil would be destroyed over periods of millions of years by cosmic radiation . However , in 2008 , droplets were observed on the landing legs of Phoenix . Sadly , there was no way to analyse them , but the leading hypothesis is that they were droplets of salty water . Phoenix also made isotopic measurements which show that the Mars atmosphere has exchanged oxygen molecules with liquid on the surface in the recent geological past . This could indicate either recent episodic occurrences of liquid water ( for instance after a meteorite strike ) or water present every year , in contact with the atmosphere . We now know of many seasonal changes in the surface of Mars which are only visible in high resolution photographs . Most of these are now thought to be caused by dry ice or wind effects . However , the `` Recurrent slope lineae '' , and some of the `` flow like features '' form in conditions that suggest the occasional presence of small quantities of water on Mars . The evidence of flowing brines in the RSLs is strong , though it 's not known if they are habitable . Curiosity has also found indirect evidence of a brine layer 15 cm below the sands that it drives over , though most scientists think that this layer is not habitable for Earth life . Recent Mars surface simulations by Nilton Renno and his team have shown that small droplets of water can form on salt / ice interfaces for a few hours per day almost anywhere on the surface of Mars , and this may explain the Phoenix leg droplets observations . In a separate development , research by the German aerospace company DLR in Mars simulation chambers and on the ISS show that some Earth life can survive simulated Mars surface conditions without any water at all , and photosynthesize and metabolize , slowly . It can do this using the high relative humidity of the Mars atmosphere at night . All of this work was done after the Phoenix discoveries in 2008 . Other potential habitats include lakes formed in the higher latitudes after cometary or meteorite impacts , or as a result of volcanism . Covered by ice , these may remain liquid for centuries , or up to a few thousand years for the largest impacts . The planet may also have underground trapped layers of water heated by geothermal hotspots . Also there are suggestions that Mars may have a deep hydrosphere , a liquid layer below its cryosphere , a few kilometers below the surface . Deep rock habitats on Earth are inhabited by life so if this layer exists , it may also be habitable on Mars . The main questions are Do these potential habitats exist ? Are they habitable ? For instance , liquid water , if present , could be too cold , or too salty for Earth life Are they in fact inhabited by any forms of life ? As Mars is so inhospitable , life might not be able to spread to new habitats easily . So there might be life in some of the habitats and not in others . Or life on Mars may have gone extinct , or never evolved at all , in which case none of the habitats would be inhabited . These discoveries have renewed interest in this topic , with many astrobiologists saying that they think present day Mars may be more habitable than previously thought . The first conference on the Present Day Habitability of Mars was held in 2013 in UCLA . The 2017 conference session on Modern Mars Habitability will run from April 24 -- 28 in Mesa , Arizona\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Modern_Mars_habitability\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 80730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Weather_of_the_Future\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 80637\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: What a Way to Go: Life at the End of Empire Content: What A Way To Go : Life at the End of Empire is a 2007 documentary film about the current situation facing humanity and the world . It discusses issues such as peak oil , climate change and the effects of global warming , population overshoot and species extinction , as well as how this situation has developed . The documentary features supporting data and interviews of Daniel Quinn , environmental activist Derrick Jensen and academics such as Richard Heinberg and many others . The tagline of the documentary is , `` A middle-class white guy comes to grips with Peak Oil , Climate Change , Mass Extinction , Population Overshoot and the demise of the American lifestyle . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"What_a_Way_to_Go:_Life_at_the_End_of_Empire\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 79576\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eaarth Content: Eaarth : Making a Life on a Tough New Planet is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Henry Holt and Company in 2010 . In the opening chapter , McKibben presents an array of facts and statistics about climate change that are already visible , supported by extensive footnotes . In the second and third chapters , McKibben lays out his analysis of how we have arrived at the current situation , and conveys genuine sorrow as he explains how the drive for economic growth based on hydrocarbons since the 1970s has led the planet to the point of breakdown . In a review of the book , British economist Nicholas Stern suggests that there is no doubting McKibben 's sincerity and his ability to communicate the significant risks which humanity faces . According to Stern , his `` overall thesis that we are already seeing widespread effects of climate change is sound and supported by much robust scientific evidence '' . But Stern says McKibben is too pessimistic when it comes to the recent advances in avoiding even bigger changes to the climate by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Eaarth\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 77474\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Extinction risk from global warming Content: The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Extinction_risk_from_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 77463\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 77417\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life on Earth (TV series) Content: Life on Earth : A Natural History by David Attenborough is a television natural history series made by the BBC in association with Warner Bros. and Reiner Moritz Productions . It was transmitted in the UK from 16 January 1979 . During the course of the series presenter David Attenborough , following the format established by Kenneth Clark 's Civilisation and Jacob Bronowski 's The Ascent of Man ( both series which he designed and produced as director of BBC2 ) , travels the globe in order to trace the story of the evolution of life on the planet . Like the earlier series , it was divided into 13 programmes ( each of around 55 minutes ' duration ) . The executive producer was Christopher Parsons and the music was composed by Edward Williams . Highly acclaimed , it is the first in Attenborough 's ` Life ' series of programmes and was followed by The Living Planet ( 1984 ) . It established Attenborough as not only the foremost television naturalist , but also an iconic figure in British cultural life .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Life_on_Earth_(TV_series)\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 77106\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 76229\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 75961\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 75685\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 75579\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life on Venus Content: The speculation of life currently existing on Venus decreased significantly since the early 1960s , when spacecraft began studying Venus and it became clear that the conditions on Venus are extreme compared to those on Earth . The fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth , raising temperatures on the surface to nearly 735 K , the atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth , and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect , make water-based life as we know it unlikely on the surface of the planet . However , a few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature , acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Life_on_Venus\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 75398\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 74975\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evolutionary history of life Content: The evolutionary history of life on Earth traces the processes by which living and fossil organisms have evolved since life appeared on the planet , until the present day . Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ( Ga ) ago and there is evidence that life appeared as early as 4.1 Ga. . The similarities between all present-day organisms indicate the presence of a common ancestor from which all known species have diverged through the process of evolution . More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . The earliest evidence for life on Earth is graphite found to be a biogenic substance in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia . More recently , in 2015 , `` remains of biotic life '' were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . In March 2017 , researchers reported evidence of possibly the oldest forms of life on Earth . Putative fossilized microorganisms were discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec , Canada , that may have lived as early as 4.280 billion years ago , not long after the oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago , and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago . According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe . '' Microbial mats of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early Archean and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place within them . The evolution of photosynthesis , around 3.5 Ga , eventually led to a buildup of its waste product , oxygen , in the atmosphere , leading to the great oxygenation event , beginning around 2.4 Ga. . The earliest evidence of eukaryotes ( complex cells with organelles ) dates from 1.85 Ga , and while they may have been present earlier , their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their metabolism . Later , around 1.7 Ga , multicellular organisms began to appear , with differentiated cells performing specialised functions . Sexual reproduction , which involves the fusion of male and female reproductive cells ( gametes ) to create a zygote in a process called fertilization is , in contrast to asexual reproduction , the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of macroscopic organisms , including almost all eukaryotes ( which includes animals and plants ) . However the origin and evolution of sexual reproduction remain a puzzle for biologists though it did evolve from a common ancestor that was a single celled eukaryotic species . Bilateria , animals with a front and a back , appeared by 555 Ma ( million years ago ) . The earliest land plants date back to around 450 Ma , although evidence suggests that microorganisms formed the earliest terrestrial ecosystems , at least 2.9 Ga. . Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the Phanerozoic . Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event . Ediacara biota appear during the Ediacaran period , while vertebrates , along with most other modern phyla originated about during the Cambrian explosion . During the Permian period , synapsids , including the ancestors of mammals , dominated the land , but most of this group became extinct in the Permian -- Triassic extinction event . During the recovery from this catastrophe , archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates ; one archosaur group , the dinosaurs , dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods . After the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event killed off the non-avian dinosaurs , mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity . Such mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Evolutionary_history_of_life\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 74807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 74740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 74598\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Years of Living Dangerously Content: Years of Living Dangerously is an American documentary television series focusing on global warming . The first season , of nine weekly episodes , premiered in the US on April 13 , 2014 , on Showtime . It won an Emmy Award as Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series . The second season , consisting of eight episodes , aired on the National Geographic Channel , beginning on October 30 , 2016 , with broader international distribution than the first season . Executive producers included James Cameron , Arnold Schwarzenegger , Robert Palumbo , and series creators Joel Bach and David Gelber ( formerly of 60 Minutes ) . Joseph Romm and Heidi Cullen were the chief science advisors . The weekly episodes featured celebrity hosts with a history of environmental activism and well-known journalists with a background in environmental reportage . These `` correspondents '' traveled the world and throughout the U.S. to interview experts and ordinary people affected by , and seeking solutions to , the effects of global warming . They acted as reporters and proxies for the audience , asking questions to find out people 's opinions and to discover the scientific evidence . The final episode of season one featured an interview of President Barack Obama . Executive producers for season one were Cameron , Schwarzenegger , clean energy investor and environmental activist Daniel Abbasi , Jerry Weintraub , Bach and Gelber . Episodes explored the effects of rising sea levels , historic droughts and flooding , water scarcity , ocean acidification , deforestation and the rapidly increasing extinction rate of species , but also focused on `` solutions that individuals , communities , companies and even governments can use to address worldwide climate change '' , including cheaper solar and wind energy , advancing battery technology and electric cars . Hosts included Cameron , Schwarzenegger , Harrison Ford , Ian Somerhalder , America Ferrera , David Letterman , Gisele Bündchen , Jack Black , Matt Damon , Jessica Alba , Sigourney Weaver , and various other actors and journalists . Schwarzenegger reflected on how the series tries to make the issue of climate change resonate with the public : `` I think the environmental movement only can be successful if we are simple and clear and make it a human story . We will tell human stories in this project . The scientists would never get the kind of attention that someone in show business gets . '' Cameron elaborated : `` We did n't use our celebrities as talking head experts , because they 're not climate experts . They were concerned , intelligent , curious citizens who were out to find answers . They were functioning as journalists . '' Newsweek said that the celebrity hosts `` lend sparks to an issue that sends most viewers for the exits '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Years_of_Living_Dangerously\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 74588\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Virgin Earth Challenge Content: The Virgin Earth Challenge is a competition offering a $ 25 million prize for whoever can demonstrate a commercially viable design which results in the permanent removal of greenhouse gases out of the Earth 's atmosphere to contribute materially in global warming avoidance . The prize was conceived and financed by Sir Richard Branson , a successful British entrepreneur , and was announced in London on 9 February 2007 by Branson and former US Vice President and 2007 Nobel Prize winner Al Gore , creator of the 2006 film An Inconvenient Truth on climate change . Among more than 2600 applications , 11 finalists were announced on 2 November 2011 . These are Biochar Solutions , from the US ; Biorecro , Sweden ; Black Carbon , Denmark ; Carbon Engineering , Canada ; Climeworks , Switzerland ; COAWAY , US ; Full Circle Biochar , US ; Global Thermostat , US ; Kilimanjaro Energy , US ; Smartstones -- Olivine Foundation , Netherlands , and The Savory Institute , US .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Virgin_Earth_Challenge\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 73751\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of World Heritage in Danger Content: The List of World Heritage in Danger is compiled by the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) through the World Heritage Committee according to Article 11.4 of the World Heritage Convention , Full title : Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage which was established in 1972 to designate and manage World Heritage Sites . Entries in the list are threatened World Heritage Sites for the conservation of which major operations are required and for which `` assistance has been requested '' . The list is intended to increase international awareness of the threats and to encourage counteractive measures . Threats to a site can be either proven imminent threats or potential dangers that could have adverse effects on a site . In the case of natural sites , ascertained dangers include the serious decline in the population of an endangered or other valuable species or the deterioration of natural beauty or scientific value of a property caused by human activities such as logging , pollution , settlement , mining , agriculture and major public works . Ascertained dangers for cultural properties include serious deterioration of materials , structure , ornaments or architectural coherence and the loss of historical authenticity or cultural significance . Potential dangers for both cultural and natural sites include development projects , armed conflicts , insufficient management systems or changes in the legal protective status of the properties . In the case of cultural sites , gradual changes due to geology , climate or environment can also be potential dangers . Before a property is inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger , its condition is assessed and a potential programme for corrective measures is developed in cooperation with the State Party involved . The final decision about inscription is made by the committee . Financial support from the World Heritage Fund may be allocated by the committee for listed properties . The state of conservation is reviewed on a yearly basis , after which the committee may request additional measures , delete the property from the list if the threats have ceased or consider deletion from both the List of World Heritage in Danger and the World Heritage List . Of the two Former UNESCO World Heritage Sites , the Dresden Elbe Valley was delisted after placement on the List of World Heritage in Danger while the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary was directly delisted . As of 2016 , there are 55 entries ( 18 natural , 38 cultural ) on the List of World Heritage in Danger . Some sites have been designated as World Heritage Sites and World Heritage in Danger in the same year , such as the Church of the Nativity , traditionally considered to be the birthplace of Jesus . Arranged by the UNESCO regions 21 of the listed sites are located in the Arab States ( of which 7 are located in Syria and 5 in Libya ) , 17 in Africa ( of which 5 are in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ) , 7 in Latin America and the Caribbean , 6 in Asia and the Pacific , and 4 in Europe and North America ( all by 2016 ) . Includes two sites in Georgia The majority of the endangered natural sites ( 13 ) are located in Africa . In some cases , danger listing has sparked conservation efforts and prompted the release of funds , resulting in a positive development for sites such as the Galápagos Islands and Yellowstone National Park , both of which have subsequently been removed from the List of World Heritage in Danger . Despite this , the list itself and UNESCO 's implementation of it have been the focus of criticism . In particular , States Parties and other stakeholders of World Heritage Sites have questioned the authority of the Committee to declare a site in danger without their consent . Until 1992 , when UNESCO set a precedent by placing several sites on the danger list against their wishes , States Parties would have submitted a programme of corrective measures before a site could be listed . Instead of being used as intended , the List of World Heritage in Danger is perceived by some states as a black list and according to Christina Cameron , Professor at the School of Architecture , Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage , University of Montreal , has been used as political tool to get the attention of States Parties . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) notes that UNESCO has referenced the List of World Heritage in Danger ( without actually listing the site ) in a number of cases where the threat could be easily addressed by the State Party . The Union also argues that keeping a site listed as endangered over a long period is questionable and that other mechanisms for conservation should be sought in these cases .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_World_Heritage_in_Danger\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 72788\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Tuvalu\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 72723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 71907\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rare Earth (book) Content: Rare Earth : Why Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe is a 2000 popular science book about xenobiology by Peter Ward , a geologist and paleontologist , and Donald E. Brownlee , an astronomer and astrobiologist , both faculty members at the University of Washington . The book is the origin of the term ` Rare Earth Hypothesis ' which , like the book , asserts the concept that complex life is rare in the universe . The book was eventually succeeded by a follow-up book called The Life and Death of Planet Earth , also by Ward and Brownlee , which talks about the Earth 's long term future and eventual demise under a warming and expanding Sun , showing readers the concept that planets like Earth have finite lifespans , and complex life is not just rare in space , but also rare in time , and is more likely to die out within a short time on geological timescales , while microbes dominate most of the planet 's history .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Rare_Earth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 71592\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Lawrence Daly Content: John L. Daly ( 31 March 1943 -- 29 January 2004 ) was an Australian teacher and self-declared `` Greenhouse skeptic . '' He was known for speaking out publicly against what he called the `` Global Warming scare , '' and authored the book The greenhouse trap : Why the greenhouse effect will not end life on earth , published in 1989 by Bantam Books . Since his death his website , Still Waiting for Greenhouse is maintained by Jerry Brennan , though updates slowed considerably after Daly 's death and stopped completely in 2008 . Daly investigated various studies by scientists which appear to support global warming scenarios and raised objections to them . For example , he denied that the average sea level is rising , on the basis the ` Isle of the Dead ' mean ocean level benchmark .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Lawrence_Daly\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 71401\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Live Earth (2007 concert) Content: Live Earth was a one off event developed to combat climate change . The first series of benefit concerts were held on July 7 , 2007 . The concerts brought together more than 150 musical acts in eleven locations around the world which were broadcast to a mass global audience through televisions , radio , and streamed via the Internet .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Live_Earth_(2007_concert)\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 71334\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Silence of the Songbirds Content: Silence of the Songbirds ( ISBN 978-0-8027-1609-5 ) is a book by bird lover and scientist Bridget Stutchbury about the rapid decline and loss of many species of songbirds . Some major threats covered include pesticides , sun-grown coffee , city lights , cowbirds , and global warming . The book was published by HarperCollins in 2007 , and has 243 pages . Kirkus Reviews published a review of the book on June 1 , 2007 , and compared it to Silent Spring by Rachel Carson . Stutchbury describes the link between Latin American deforestation and the loss of food for migratory birds , and the impact of large amounts of pesticides . However , deforestation is minimal for shade-grown coffee . She mentions additional threats to songbirds : light pollution , tall buildings , and wind farms . Despite the diminishing populations of songbirds in recent decades , she provides advice for their survival .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Silence_of_the_Songbirds\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 71241\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 71063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life Time (Rollins Band album) Content: Life Time is the first full-length studio album by Rollins Band , fronted by ex-Black Flag singer , Henry Rollins . The album was produced by Ian MacKaye , well known in the genre of hardcore punk for his work with Minor Threat and as co-owner of the Dischord record label . MacKaye was also a childhood friend of Rollins , who acted as a roadie for MacKaye 's band The Teen Idles . It was originally released in 1987 and included four live tracks recorded in Kortrijk , Belgium in October 1987 . It was subsequently re-mastered and re-released in 1999 without the live tracks , but with the addition of three session tracks from the Do It album of 1987 . The 2014 reissue on Dischord includes the live tracks but not the bonus tracks included on the 1999 reissue .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Life_Time_(Rollins_Band_album)\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 71056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Last Days on Earth Content: The Last Days on Earth is a 20/20 science special which aired on ABC in August 2006 and has been aired on The History Channel . The show counts down the seven most likely ways in which human life could end , including gamma ray bursts , black holes , machine rule , asteroids , super volcanoes , nuclear war , pandemic flu , and climate change . It includes input from a number of scientists including Michio Kaku , Neil deGrasse Tyson , Stephen Hawking and Kevin Warwick . In 2007 it received an Emmy nomination for its graphic and artistic design .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Last_Days_on_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 70905\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Living Planet Content: The Living Planet : A Portrait of the Earth is a BBC nature documentary series written and presented by David Attenborough , first transmitted in the UK from 19 January 1984 . The sequel to his pioneering Life on Earth , it is a study of the ways in which living organisms , including humans , adapt to their surroundings . Each of the twelve 55-minute episodes ( one fewer than his previous series ) featured a different environment . The executive producer was Richard Brock and the music was composed by Elizabeth Parker of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop . Part of David Attenborough 's ` Life ' series , it was followed by The Trials of Life ( 1990 ) . However , before the latter , Attenborough wrote and presented two shorter series : The First Eden ( 1987 ) , about man 's relationship with the natural habitats of the Mediterranean , and Lost Worlds , Vanished Lives ( 1989 ) , concerning the discovery of fossils .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Living_Planet\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 70849\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Storms_of_My_Grandchildren\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 70457\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Living Earth Simulator Project Content: The living Earth simulator is a proposed massive computer simulation system intended to simulate the interactions of all aspects of life , human economic activity , climate , and other physical processes on the planet Earth as part of the FuturICT project , in response to the European FP7 `` Future and Emerging Technologies Flagship '' initiative . There are over 300 international teams seeking ~ $ 1 billion for the 10-year Future and Emerging Technologies ` flagship ' competition . The Earth Simulator was not selected since the two winners have been announced as of March 2013 . The winners were Graphene and Human Brain .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Living_Earth_Simulator_Project\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 70379\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 70107\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow Content: The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Committee_for_a_Constructive_Tomorrow\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 69545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Living on Earth Content: Living on Earth is a weekly , hour-long and award-winning environmental news program distributed by Public Radio International . Hosted by Steve Curwood , the program features interviews and commentary on a broad range of ecological issues , exploring how humans interact with their landscape . The show airs on over 300 public radio stations nationwide and reaches 80 % of the United States . It is produced and recorded in Somerville , Massachusetts . As an independent media program , Living on Earth ( LOE ) relies entirely on contributions from listeners and institutions supporting public service including PRI affiliates and PRI . In previous years , the program had been distributed by National Public Radio . Living on Earth is currently based at the University of Massachusetts Boston . The program has received numerous awards including : The 2005 Science Journalism Award from the American Association for the Advancement of Science , the Radio and Television News Directors Association 's Edward R. Murrow Award , Society of Environmental Journalists ' The 2002 First Place Award for Reporting on the Environment , and Gracie Allen Awards from the Foundation of American Women in Radio and Television .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Living_on_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 69463\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 69438\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Amazonia Conference Content: The Amazonia Conference is a global warming activist organization with a particular focus on education of the public . The Conference was established in April 1990 , when governments of the world were discussing the dangers of global warming at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 . The Conference is an educational organisation with the aim of educating people about the realities of the endangered environment and the inevitable catastrophic consequences if no proactive and preventive steps are taken . The project has reached many institutions and organisations all over the world , spreading the message Education for Preservation . The organisation has given birth to other initiatives , such as The Amazonia Society , the Amazonia Seminar , the Amazonia Experience , and the Amazonia Files . The Amazonia Conference is an educational organisation which , unlike other environmental organisations , focuses in education instead of radical campaigning . This does not mean that the organisation does not campaign . The organisation believes that it is effectively easier to ` form the minds of the young instead of attempting to amend adult ones . ' Therefore , by educating the young , next generations will be equipped with environmentally aware citizens . The project also has a special division which visits companies and other organisations to educate their employees or members , on the current environmental issues which our planet is suffering due to human activities . The Amazonia Conference is considered to be the biggest educational project in Portugal ( Diario de Noticias , 2000 ) , and has recently received the British Airways Best Environmental Project Award 2004 .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Amazonia_Conference\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 69306\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Australian flying fox die-offs Content: In the last two decades tens of thousands of Australian flying foxes have died during extreme heat events . Flying fox die-offs feature arguably among the most dramatic mass mortality events witnessed in nature , but they can be indicators of heat stress in more cryptic fauna where impacts are more difficult to assess . The die-offs are important additional threats to Australian flying-foxes and the ecosystem services they provide , and highlight the complex implications of climate change for behaviour , demography , and species survival .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Australian_flying_fox_die-offs\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 69120\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Living_in_the_Hothouse\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 68968\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Always Has Been Content: Always Has Been is the first EP released by indie hip hop artist J-Live , released in 2003 on the label Triple Threat Productions . It is an EP and consists of six songs recorded early in J-Live 's career , prior to the release of his first album The Best Part . It was released simultaneously as Always Will Be , another EP by J-Live , which is made up of eight new tracks . The tracks `` Braggin Writes '' and `` Schools In '' were rerecorded for The Best Part , but here they appear in their original form . The tracks `` Longevity '' , `` Can I Get It '' , and `` Hush the Crowd '' had not been released on either of J-Live 's previous albums .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Always_Has_Been\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 68737\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_effect\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 68687\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 68521\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lifemapper Content: Lifemapper is building a species diversity map of the world . It is similar to the SETI@Home client , in that it uses a distributed computing client running primarily on home user 's computers to correlate georeferenced biological samples with environmental models of the Earth . It is an experimental GIS , or Geographic Information System , that uses a special genetic algorithm to see if predicted rules about where a species lives match up with the species ' observed natural settings . It is hoped that this technique will be able to both represent a current `` map '' of all organisms habitats on Earth as well as predict where organisms may possibly thrive or face extinction due to climate change and other ecological transformations .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Lifemapper\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 68467\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_debt\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 68256\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Saving Our Vanishing Heritage Content: Saving Our Vanishing Heritage : Safeguarding Endangered Cultural Heritage Sites in the Developing World was a report released by Global Heritage Fund on October 17 , 2010 . It illuminated five accelerating man-made threats facing global heritage sites in developing countries : development pressures , unsustainable tourism , insufficient management , looting , and war and conflict . Based on these threats , the report surveyed 500 major archaeological and heritage sites in developing countries to evaluate current loss and destruction , conservation and development . It identified nearly 200 of these sites as `` At Risk '' or `` Under Threat , '' and the following 12 as `` On the Verge '' of irreparable loss and destruction : Bangladesh 's Mahasthangarh Guatemala 's Mirador Haiti 's Sans-Souci Palace India 's Maluti Temples Iraq 's Nineveh Kenya 's Lamu Cyprus ' Famagusta Pakistan 's Taxila Palestine 's Hisham 's Palace Philippines ' Intramuros and Fort Santiago Turkey 's Ani Ukraine 's Chersonesos The report 's editorial committee was composed of 24 experts in global heritage conservation and sustainable development from leading universities , institutions and international agencies , including the World Archaeological Congress , Archaeological Institute of America , ICOMOS ( International Council on Monuments and Sites ) , Stanford University , the University of Pennsylvania , University College of London , and others . The report has garnered much attention from major media , including National Geographic , CNN , Wall Street Journal , Reuters , Huffington Post , MSNBC , USA Today , and more .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Saving_Our_Vanishing_Heritage\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 68151\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life Content: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life : The Individual 's Guide to Stopping Climate Change is a 2007 book by Chris Goodall , published by Earthscan/Routledge . According to New Scientist , this book provides `` the definitive guide to reducing your carbon footprint '' . Goodall explains how consumers can cut carbon usage by 75 percent without making drastic lifestyle changes . How to Live a Low-Carbon Life has been reviewed in the Journal of Environmental Health Research , The Guardian , and The Times . How to Live a Low-carbon Life won the 2007 Clarion award for non-fiction . A second edition was published in 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"How_to_Live_a_Low-Carbon_Life\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 68109\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Fate of the Earth Content: The Fate of the Earth is a 1982 book by Jonathan Schell . This `` seminal '' description of the consequences of nuclear war `` forces even the most reluctant person to confront the unthinkable : the destruction of humanity and possibly most life on Earth '' . The book is regarded as a key document in the nuclear disarmament movement . The book is composed of three essays . The third and final , `` The Choice , '' is an argument that the source of the nuclear threat is the nation-state system , and that the choice is between survival and national sovereignty .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Fate_of_the_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 67852\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 67755\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heat advisory Content: A Heat Advisory is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States . . Local offices often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Heat_advisory\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 67701\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth to America (film) Content: Earth to America was a 2-hour television special that aired on TBS on June 30 , 2005 . Hosted by Tom Hanks , the show used a comic approach to raise awareness of issues concerning the environment , mostly global warming . It was taped at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas . The performers scheduled to appear were : Jack Black Cedric `` The Entertainer '' Rob Corddry Larry David Will Ferrell Tom Hanks Julia Louis-Dreyfus Bill Maher Steve Martin Kevin Nealon ( Subliminal Man ) Ray Romano Martin Short Ben Stiller Wanda Sykes Robin Williams The Cast Of Avenue Q Robert F Kennedy Jr. . Triumph The Insult Comic Dog The Blue Man Group\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth_to_America_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 67611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: GEO-2000 Content: GEO-2000 is the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Global Environment Outlook 2000 . The UNEP launched the Global Environment Outlook in 1995 to assess environmental issues and to have them published . The first report was published in 1999 . As well as some of the more well known issues the report identified new threats such as : nitrogen 's harmful impact on ecosystems increased severity of natural disasters species invasion as a result of globalization increased environmental pressures caused by urbanization decline in the quality of governance in some countries new wars which impact on both the immediate environment and neighbouring states the impact of refugees on the natural environment\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"GEO-2000\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 67384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surviving the Century Content: Surviving the Century : Facing Climate Chaos and Other Global Challenges , edited by Herbert Girardet , is the first major book from the World Future Council , published by Earthscan in 2007 . Eight main issues relating to the politics of climate change are covered in the book : countering climate chaos , renewable energy policy , creating sustainable cities , local farming systems , rainforests and climate change , cradle to cradle production systems , an alternative vision for trade and creating a living democracy .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Surviving_the_Century\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 67189\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 67140\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 67054\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Conservation of fungi Content: Fungi are considered to be in urgent need of conservation by the British Mycological Society on the grounds that it is a traditionally neglected taxon which has legal protection in few countries . Current threats to fungi include destruction of forests worldwide , fragmentation of habitat , changes in land use , pollution , anthropogenic climate change and over-exploitation of commercially attractive species . The Species Survival Commission of the IUCN has five specialist groups dealing with the conservation of fungi : Chytrid , Zygomycete , Downy Mildew and Slime Mold Specialist Group Cup-fungus , Truffle and Ally Specialist Group Lichen Specialist Group Mushroom , Bracket and Puffball Specialist Group Rust and Smut Specialist Group Lack of knowledge is considered a major concern with a general paucity of comprehensive checklists , even for developed nations . In addition , the criteria for `` red-listing '' is not specifically designed for fungi and the kinds of data required , viz . population size , lifespan , spatial distribution and population dynamics are poorly known for most fungi . As a result in practice , indicator species are identified as target foci for the conservation of threatened fungi .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Conservation_of_fungi\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 66702\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Our Final Hour Content: Our Final Hour is a 2003 book by the British Astronomer Royal Sir Martin Rees . The full title of the book is Our Final Hour : A Scientist 's Warning : How Terror , Error , and Environmental Disaster Threaten Humankind 's Future In This Century - On Earth and Beyond . It was published in the United Kingdom under the more prosaic title Our Final Century : Will the Human Race Survive the Twenty-first Century ? . The premise of the book is that the Earth and human survival are in far greater danger from the potential effects of modern technology than is commonly realised , and that the 21st century may be a critical moment in history when humanity 's fate is decided . Rees discusses a range of existential risks confronting humanity , and controversially estimates that the probability of extinction before 2100 CE is around 50 percent , based on the possibility of malign or accidental release of destructive technology .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Our_Final_Hour\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 66205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: All Through a Life Content: All Through a Life is an EP by Rites of Spring , released in 1987 ( after the band had broken up ) . It is regarded as the release that bridged the early DC sound of Minor Threat and Scream and the later DC sound of Embrace and One Last Wish .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"All_Through_a_Life\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 65970\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life on Earth (album) Content: Life on Earth is the second full-length album released by Tiny Vipers on Sub Pop Records on July 7 , 2009 . In a June 2009 track review , Pitchfork Media awarded `` Dreamer '' their Best New Music accolade . Luckyhorse Industries released a 180 gram double vinyl edition on November 16 , 2009 . It was limited to 500 copies with numbered handmade covers , the first 30 of which were printed on green marble vinyl . `` Audrey 's Well '' is included as a bonus track .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Life_on_Earth_(album)\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 65967\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Survival with Ray Mears Content: Survival with Ray Mears is a 3 part television series hosted by Ray Mears , as he tracks predators in their natural habitats . The series was broadcast by ITV , and was billed as the return of the Survival brand . It was followed by Wild Britain with Ray Mears . Survival consists of three , hour-long , programmes , focusing on Mears ' tracking of the world 's top predators . He follows the leopard in Namibia , the bear in British Columbia , and the wolf in Central Idaho . An underpinning theme is the threats faced by each species : in Idaho the crew arrives with only days to countdown before the wolf 's status as a protected species is lifted , and local farmers indicate their intention to begin hunting them ; in British Columbia the impact of global warming on the salmon population is felt by the bear ; and in Namibia the uneasy co-existence between leopards and local farmers is highlighted .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Survival_with_Ray_Mears\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 65786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life on Earth (Musiq Soulchild album) Content: Life on Earth is the seventh studio album by American R&B singer-songwriter Musiq Soulchild . It was released on April 15 , 2016 , by eOne Music . It is the first album to be released on an independent label , after previously recording several albums on Def Jam Recordings and Atlantic Records . The album entered the US Billboard 200 at number 27 .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Life_on_Earth_(Musiq_Soulchild_album)\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 65760\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Marine Connection Content: Marine Connection is a London , UK-based animal welfare charity working both nationally and internationally for the welfare , protection , and conservation of cetaceans : dolphins , whales and porpoises . The charity aims to achieve its objectives via various campaigns , educational and research programmes ; events and press coverage . It also encourages the general public , private companies and celebrities to become involved . Threats to cetaceans has never been greater than they are today . These threats include such factors as bycatch , which is the painful , often drawn-out suffocation of marine mammals after having been accidentally caught in large fishing nets and pair trawlers ; environmental and noise pollution of the marine environment ; loss of natural habitat and food supplies often due to such modern-day problems as exploring and expanding new underwater petroleum supplies , navigation , over-fishing , climate change and global warming . By raising public awareness to these issues concerning threats to marine life and their underwater environment , Marine Connection hopes to promote a better understanding of these problems through educational and public outreach programmes . Also , by conducting ongoing research and examining these issues now , the charity hopes to identify upcoming problems before they happen so changes can be made before it 's too late to stop the destruction of the marine habitat that 's already occurring at such a rapid pace . Another example of Marine Connection 's ongoing commitment to cetaceans is examining the effectiveness of current legislation and calling for stronger laws to protect the marine environment . Marine Connection seeks to actively secure a safer and therefore healthier future for all dolphins and whales as well as the oceans in which they live .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Marine_Connection\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 65572\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Outline of life forms Content: A life form or lifeform is an entity or being that is living . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . More than 99 % of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Outline_of_life_forms\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 65230\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Conservation in Brazil Content: Even though progress has been made in conserving Brazil 's landscapes , the country still faces serious threats due to its historical land use . Amazonian forests substantially influence regional and global climates and deforesting this region is both a regional and global driver of climate change due to the high amounts of deforestation and habitat fragmentation that have occurred this region . Brazil has established an extensive network of protected areas which covers more than 2 million km2 ( 25 % of Brazil 's national territory ) and is divided almost equally between protected natural areas or conservation units and indigenous land ( `` Terras Indígenas '' ) . Despite these measures , environmental protection is still a concern as indigenous tribes and Brazilian environmental activists contend with ranchers , illegal loggers , gold and oil prospectors and drug traffickers who continue to illegally clear forests .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Conservation_in_Brazil\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 65225\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_extinction\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 64993\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Historical impacts of climate change Content: Climate has affected human life and civilization from the emergence of hominins to the present day . These historical impacts of climate change can improve human life and cause societies to flourish , or can be instrumental in civilization 's societal collapse .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Historical_impacts_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 64919\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life on Earth Content: Life on Earth may refer to : Life Life on Earth ( TV series ) , a 1979 nature documentary series Life on Earth ( film ) ( La Vie Sur Terre ) , a 1998 Malian film Life on Earth ( album ) , an album by Tiny Vipers Life on Earth ( Musiq Soulchild album ) , 2016\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Life_on_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 64891\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth's_energy_budget\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 64839\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life on Titan Content: Whether there is life on Titan , the largest moon of Saturn , is at present an open question and a topic of scientific assessment and research . Titan is far colder than Earth , and its surface lacks stable liquid water , factors which have led some scientists to consider life there unlikely . On the other hand , its thick atmosphere is chemically active and rich in carbon compounds . On the surface there are bodies of liquid methane and ethane ; some scientists speculate that these liquids might take the place of water in living cells different from those on Earth . In June 2010 , scientists analysing data from the Cassini -- Huygens mission reported anomalies in the atmosphere near the surface which could be consistent with the presence of methane-producing organisms , but may alternatively be due to non-living chemical or meteorological processes . The Cassini -- Huygens mission was not equipped to look directly for micro-organisms or to provide a thorough inventory of complex organic compounds .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Life_on_Titan\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 64822\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Human impact on marine life Content: Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.According to the IPCC (2019), since 1950 \\\"many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats.\\\"It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as wilderness, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast.\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Human_impact_on_marine_life\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 64790\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Earth (2007 film) Content: Earth is a 2007 nature documentary film which depicts the diversity of wild habitats and creatures across the planet . The film begins in the Arctic in January of one year and moves southward , concluding in Antarctica in the December of the same year . Along the way , it features the journeys made by three particular species -- the polar bear , African bush elephant and humpback whale -- to highlight the threats to their survival in the face of rapid environmental change . A companion piece to the 2006 BBC/Discovery television series Planet Earth , the film uses many of the same sequences , though most are edited differently , and features previously unseen footage . Earth was co-directed by Alastair Fothergill , the executive producer of the television series , and Mark Linfield , the producer of Planet Earth '' 's `` From Pole to Pole '' and `` Seasonal Forests '' episodes . It was co-produced by BBC Natural History Unit and Greenlight Media , with Discovery providing some of the funding . It was also the first film released under the Disneynature label . The same organisations collaborated on Fothergill 's previous film , Deep Blue ( 2003 ) , itself a companion to his 2001 television series on the natural history of the world 's oceans , The Blue Planet . The British version of Earth was narrated by Patrick Stewart and the US version was narrated by James Earl Jones.Earth was released in cinemas internationally during the final quarter of 2007 and throughout 2008 . With total worldwide box office revenue exceeding $ 100 million , Earth is the second-highest grossing nature documentary of all time . A sequel , titled Earth : One Amazing Day '' , is scheduled for release in 2017 .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Earth_(2007_film)\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 64735\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Good Life (Railroad Earth album) Content: The Good Life is the third studio album by the bluegrass/jam band Railroad Earth , released on June 8 , 2004 . So many jam bands seem to forget the importance of good song writing with meaningful lyrics . Railroad Earth 's songs are well-crafted stories , and are delivered with outstanding musicianship and strong vocals . The musical duties are distributed in pretty much the same way here as on their previous two releases : Todd Sheaffer handles vocals and guitar and does the bulk of the songwriting ; John Skehan , Tim Carbone , and Andy Goessling provide the band 's trademark swirling-and-skirling texture ; new bassist Johnny Grubb ( replacing Dave Von Dollen ) and percussionist Carey Harmon provide the solid ground they take off from and land on . Multi-instrumentalist Andy Goessling is credited on banjo , dobro , and sax ( to name a few ) , Tim Carbone on fiddle , accordion , piano and electric guitar , and John Skehan on mandolin , piano , and Hammond organ . Shaeffer often writes tunes about love , being positive , and living a simpler life paired with catchy refrains and memorable melodies , and this effort is not different in that regard . Re-occurring themes of examining one 's destiny , living a good life , and staying true to one 's self resound . The opening track , `` Storms '' uses the metaphor to `` ride out the storm '' in a relationship and stick together through hard times . Perhaps an ode to marriage ? `` Way of the Buffalo '' is an environmental allegory and the title track , `` The Good Life , '' is about living free and `` going back to the country '' evoking images of a simpler time . One of the strongest songs is `` Goat '' which in the live setting extends into a long jammed out vehicle for the band . The somber lyrics , however , paint a picture of how to rid one 's life of negativity .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Good_Life_(Railroad_Earth_album)\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 64514\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Future_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 64408\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Threats Content: The Threats are a punk band from Dalkeith and Edinburgh , Scotland . Originally formed in 1979 as the Reflectors , the band soon renamed themselves Threats .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Threats\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 64342\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_cap_climate\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 64321\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Threat (computer) Content: In computer security a threat is a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach security and therefore cause possible harm . A threat can be either `` intentional '' ( i.e. hacking : an individual cracker or a criminal organization ) or `` accidental '' ( e.g. the possibility of a computer malfunctioning , or the possibility of a natural disaster such as an earthquake , a fire , or a tornado ) or otherwise a circumstance , capability , action , or event .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Threat_(computer)\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 64193\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Threat Content: A threat is a communicated intent to inflict harm or loss on another person . A threat is considered an act of coercion . Threats ( intimidation ) are widely observed in animal behavior , particularly in a ritualized form , chiefly in order to avoid the unnecessary physical violence that can lead to physical damage or the death of both conflicting parties . Some of the more common types of threats forbidden by law are those made with an intent to obtain a monetary advantage or to compel a person to act against his or her will . In all US states , it is an offense to threaten to ( 1 ) use a deadly weapon on another person ; ( 2 ) injure another 's person or property ; or ( 3 ) injure another 's reputation .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Threat\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 64037\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Live Earth Content: Live Earth is an event developed to increase environmental awareness through entertainment .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Live_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 63908\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_system\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 63850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Sacred Balance Content: The Sacred Balance is a book by environmentalist David Suzuki , which is in its second edition as of 2007 . The book explores human society 's impact on the natural world , both for the planet and the people living on it . Suzuki reveals how dependent humankind is upon the planet 's water , soil , sunlight , and the breath of its vegetation . Threats to the planet 's balance , ranging from toxic pollution to global warming are also discussed . A series of documentary films , also called The Sacred Balance , is based on the book produced by Kensington Communications , Inc. . Producer Robert Lang was the producer of the series .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Sacred_Balance\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 63682\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 63501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 63358\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Threat (film) Content: Threat ( 2006 ) is an independent film about a straightedge `` hardcore kid '' and a hip hop revolutionary whose friendship is doomed by the intolerance of their respective street tribes . It is an ensemble film of kids living in New York City in the aftermath of 9-11 , each of them suffering from a sense of doom brought on by dealing with HIV , racism , sexism , class struggle , and general nihilism . The intellectual issues are played out amid an aesthetic of raw ultraviolence that has earned director Matt Pizzolo both accolades and condemnations ( such as Film Threat 's rave review stating `` great art should assail the status quo , and that is what Pizzolo and Nisa 's film has skillfully accomplished '' in contrast to Montreal Film Journal 's scathing review saying the film `` openly glorifies murderous revolt , literally telling the audience to go out and beat up random people , just because '' ) . Unlike past urban dramas , the film does not outright condemn its characters ' violent outbursts . Although it does show harsh consequences for acts of violence , numerous critics have pointed out that it is unclear whether or not the film intends to glorify violence and/or class conflict .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Threat_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 63356\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: My Life's Been a Country Song Content: My Life 's Been a Country Song is the fourth studio album by American country music artist Chris Cagle . It was released in February 2008 on Capitol Records Nashville . The album 's lead-off single was `` What Kinda Gone '' , which peaked at No. 3 on the country music charts in April 2008 , the second single , `` No Love Songs '' , peaked at No. 53 , while the third single , `` Never Ever Gone '' , failed to chart . The album debuted at number eight on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , selling about 37,000 copies in its first week . It also debuted at number one on Billboard 's Top Country Albums chart . It is also Cagle 's final album for Capitol . The song `` I Do n't Wan na Live '' was also recorded by Josh Gracin on his 2008 album We Were n't Crazy as `` I Do n't Want to Live '' . `` Keep Me From Loving You '' was also recorded by Clay Walker on his 2010 album , She Wo n't Be Lonely Long .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"My_Life's_Been_a_Country_Song\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 63347\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ringed seals and climate change Content: Ringed seals are the smallest and most abundant member of the seal family that live in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions . The average life span of a ringed seal is 40 years , with a diet based mainly on Arctic cod and planktonic crustaceans . Typically about 5 ft long , the ringed seal is known to be solitary with their main predator being polar bears . Recently , however , the biggest predator to ringed seals has been the changing temperature in the Arctic and the detrimental changes to sea ice that follow . With declines in snowpack and sea ice due to warming ocean and atmospheric temperatures , survival has become tougher for ringed seals in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions . Yet ringed seals are also potentially projected to thrive due to warming , considering the early extinction of their predators . Climate change is sure to change the fate of all ringed seals in the coming years for better or worse .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Ringed_seals_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 63326\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 63310\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 63177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Threat (disambiguation) Content: A threat is an act of coercion . Threat may also refer to : Threat ( computer ) , a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach security Threat display , a behaviour aiming at intimidation of a potential enemy Threat of force ( public international law ) , an act of coercion between nations In art and entertainment : The Threat ( film ) , a 1949 American film noir directed by Felix E. Feist Threat ( film ) , a 2006 American film by Matt Pizzolo The Threat ( Animorphs ) , a novel by K.A. Applegate `` The Threat '' ( Dynasty ) , an episode of the TV series Dynasty it : Minaccia\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Threat_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 63080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoclimatology\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 63072\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Why The Future Doesn't Need Us Content: `` Why The Future Does n't Need Us '' is an article written by Bill Joy ( then Chief Scientist at Sun Microsystems ) in the April 2000 issue of Wired magazine . In the article , he argues ( quoting the sub title ) that `` Our most powerful 21st-century technologies -- robotics , genetic engineering , and nanotech -- are threatening to make humans an endangered species . '' Joy warns : While some critics have characterized Joy 's stance as obscurantism or neo-Luddism , others share his concerns about the consequences of rapidly expanding technology .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Why_The_Future_Doesn't_Need_Us\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 63048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Warming center Content: A warming center is a short-term emergency shelter that operates when temperatures or a combination of precipitation , wind chill , wind and temperature become dangerously inclement . Their paramount purpose is the prevention of death and injury from exposure to the elements . This may include acute trauma from falling objects such as trees , or injury to extremities due to frostbite . A more prevalent emergency which warming centers seek to prevent is hypothermia , the risk for which is aggravated by factors such as age , alcohol consumption , and homelessness .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Warming_center\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 62872\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Europe\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 62857\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 62815\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"199\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 62805\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":95,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"if we halved today’s atmospheric carbon dioxide content, all life would die."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":1,"score":125015},{"content":"Title: Haldane effect Content: The Haldane effect is a property of hemoglobin first described by John Scott Haldane . Oxygenation of blood in the lungs displaces carbon dioxide from hemoglobin which increases the removal of carbon dioxide . This property is the Haldane effect . Conversely , oxygenated blood has a reduced affinity for carbon dioxide .","qid":"200","docid":"Haldane_effect","rank":2,"score":111825},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":3,"score":111001},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"200","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":4,"score":108425},{"content":"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_sequestration","rank":5,"score":107963},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"200","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":6,"score":107427},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"200","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":7,"score":106034},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"200","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":8,"score":104694},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"200","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":9,"score":103988},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":10,"score":102557},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":11,"score":100036},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":12,"score":98942},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":13,"score":98661},{"content":"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .","qid":"200","docid":"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources","rank":14,"score":98384},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"200","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":15,"score":98091},{"content":"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .","qid":"200","docid":"Charles_David_Keeling","rank":16,"score":98085},{"content":"Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .","qid":"200","docid":"Asphyxiant_gas","rank":17,"score":97285},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":18,"score":97057},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Now! Content: Kyoto Now ! ( stylized as KyotoNOW ! ) is a student-led movement at colleges and universities across the United States , through which students hope to make American universities commit to reducing carbon dioxide emissions . The name of the movement reflects the Kyoto Protocol , which the USA currently is not considering ratifying . Cornell University 's Kyoto Now ! was the first of such groups formed , after a sit-in protest in then President Rawlings ' office . The group demanded that the University commit `` to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 7 percent below the 1990 levels of emissions by 2007 . These reductions are not on a square foot basis , but based on the total campus emissions . '' Hal Craft , VP at the time , signed the Protocol , committing the University to emissions reductions , and the school is now on track to meet that commitment through construction of a combined heat and power plant that will take waste heat produced by the cogen plant and use it to heat the campus buildings . Punk band Bad Religion wrote a song called `` Kyoto Now ! '' for their 2002 album , The Process of Belief , which spoke about the Kyoto Protocol and their opinions on it . It can be considered an anthem for the Kyoto Now ! movement . The writer of `` Kyoto Now ! '' , Greg Graffin , is , in fact , an alumnus of Cornell University . Category : Student political organizations","qid":"200","docid":"Kyoto_Now!","rank":19,"score":96691},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"200","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":20,"score":96063},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"200","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":21,"score":94413},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":22,"score":93930},{"content":"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .","qid":"200","docid":"Modified_atmosphere","rank":23,"score":93741},{"content":"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .","qid":"200","docid":"Biosequestration","rank":24,"score":93427},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"200","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":25,"score":93336},{"content":"Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .","qid":"200","docid":"Paleoatmosphere","rank":26,"score":92782},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"200","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":27,"score":92234},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"200","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":28,"score":92033},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":29,"score":91961},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_scrubber","rank":30,"score":91786},{"content":"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .","qid":"200","docid":"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory","rank":31,"score":91670},{"content":"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .","qid":"200","docid":"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide","rank":32,"score":91525},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage","rank":33,"score":90927},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .","qid":"200","docid":"Atmosphere","rank":34,"score":90148},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"200","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":35,"score":89914},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere Content: The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_accumulation_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":36,"score":89697},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"200","docid":"350.org","rank":37,"score":89625},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"200","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":38,"score":89612},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia","rank":39,"score":89597},{"content":"Title: Primordial soup Content: `` Primordial soup '' is a term introduced by Soviet biologist Alexander Oparin and English scientist John Burdon Sanderson Haldane . In 1924 , he proposed a theory of the origin of life on Earth through the transformation , during the gradual chemical evolution of particles that contain carbon in the primordial soup . Biochemist Robert Shapiro has summarized the `` primordial soup '' theory of Oparin and Haldane in its `` mature form '' as follows : Early Earth had a chemically reducing atmosphere . This atmosphere , exposed to energy in various forms , produced simple organic compounds ( `` monomers '' ) . These compounds accumulated in a `` soup '' , which may have been concentrated at various locations ( shorelines , oceanic vents etc. ) . By further transformation , more complex organic polymers -- and ultimately life -- developed in the soup .","qid":"200","docid":"Primordial_soup","rank":40,"score":89595},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":41,"score":89420},{"content":"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_shifting","rank":42,"score":88850},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"200","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":43,"score":88749},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"200","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":44,"score":88449},{"content":"Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .","qid":"200","docid":"CO2_content","rank":45,"score":87733},{"content":"Title: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Content: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 is a chemical process whereby carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons by the energy of incident light . This process needs to be catalyzed either homogeneously or heterogeneously in order to proceed , and current research is aimed at developing these catalysts , most of which are semiconducting materials . Semiconducting catalysts provide favourable electron transfer kinetics . Motivation for research in this area is strong due to the current attention to atmospheric carbon dioxide as the reduction of carbon dioxide would be one route for removal and sequestration . Furthermore , the reduced species may prove to be a valuable feedstock for other processes . If the incident light utilized is solar in nature then this process also potentially represents energy routes which combine renewable energy with CO2 reduction .","qid":"200","docid":"Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_CO2","rank":46,"score":87696},{"content":"Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .","qid":"200","docid":"Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution","rank":47,"score":87661},{"content":"Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_retirement","rank":48,"score":86871},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"200","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":49,"score":86793},{"content":"Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_Engineering","rank":50,"score":86780},{"content":"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .","qid":"200","docid":"Environmental_issue","rank":51,"score":86745},{"content":"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .","qid":"200","docid":"Hypercapnia","rank":52,"score":86541},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"200","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":53,"score":86530},{"content":"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_finance","rank":54,"score":86109},{"content":"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .","qid":"200","docid":"Kaya_identity","rank":55,"score":85988},{"content":"Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_offset","rank":56,"score":85978},{"content":"Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .","qid":"200","docid":"Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction","rank":57,"score":85891},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"200","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":58,"score":85808},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .","qid":"200","docid":"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs","rank":59,"score":85760},{"content":"Title: Reducing atmosphere Content: A reducing atmosphere is an atmospheric condition in which oxidation is prevented by removal of oxygen and other oxidizing gases or vapours , and which may contain actively reducing gases such as hydrogen , carbon monoxide , and gases such as hydrogen sulfide that would be oxidized by any present oxygen .","qid":"200","docid":"Reducing_atmosphere","rank":60,"score":85574},{"content":"Title: The Nitrogen Fix Content: The Nitrogen Fix is a 1980 science fiction novel by Hal Clement . The plot revolves around a nomadic family in a future where all oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere has combined with nitrogen , so the atmosphere is mostly nitrogen with traces of water , nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide , and the seas are very dilute nitric acid .","qid":"200","docid":"The_Nitrogen_Fix","rank":61,"score":85560},{"content":"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .","qid":"200","docid":"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies","rank":62,"score":85546},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"200","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":63,"score":85434},{"content":"Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .","qid":"200","docid":"TanSat","rank":64,"score":85357},{"content":"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .","qid":"200","docid":"Scott_Denning","rank":65,"score":85335},{"content":"Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .","qid":"200","docid":"Tropical_peat","rank":66,"score":85289},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_reforming","rank":67,"score":85217},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":68,"score":84943},{"content":"Title: ISS ECLSS Content: The International Space Station Environmental Control and Life Support System ( ECLSS ) is a life support system that provides or controls atmospheric pressure , fire detection and suppression , oxygen levels , waste management and water supply . The highest priority for the ECLSS is the ISS atmosphere , but the system also collects , processes , and stores waste and water produced and used by the crew -- a process that recycles fluid from the sink , shower , toilet , and condensation from the air . The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station . The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation ( SFOG ) canisters . Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Russian Vozdukh system in Zvezda , one Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly ( CDRA ) located in the U.S. Lab module , and one CDRA in the U.S. Node 3 module . Other by-products of human metabolism , such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat , are removed by activated charcoal filters or by the Trace Contaminant Control System ( TCCS ) .","qid":"200","docid":"ISS_ECLSS","rank":69,"score":84867},{"content":"Title: Bicarbonate indicator Content: A bicarbonate indicator ( hydrogencarbonate indicator ) is a type of pH indicator that is sensitive enough to show a color change as the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in an aqueous solution increases . The indicator is used in photosynthesis and respiration experiments to find out whether carbon dioxide is being liberated . It is also used to test the carbon dioxide content during gaseous exchange of organisms . When the carbon dioxide content is higher than 0.04 % , the initial red color changes to yellow as the pH becomes more acidic . If the carbon dioxide content is lower than 0.04 % , it changes from red to magenta and , in relatively very low carbon dioxide concentrations , to purple . Carbon dioxide , even in the concentrations found in exhaled air , will dissolve in the indicator to form carbonic acid , a weak acid , which will lower the pH and give the characteristic colour change . A colour change to purple during photosynthesis shows a reduction in the percentage of carbon dioxide and is sometimes inferred as production of oxygen , but there is not actually any direct evidence for it . Great care must be taken to avoid acidic or alkaline contamination of the apparatus in such experiments , since the test is not directly specific to carbon dioxide .","qid":"200","docid":"Bicarbonate_indicator","rank":70,"score":84849},{"content":"Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_sink","rank":71,"score":84707},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"200","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":72,"score":84707},{"content":"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .","qid":"200","docid":"Individual_action_on_climate_change","rank":73,"score":84432},{"content":"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_monoxide","rank":74,"score":84118},{"content":"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .","qid":"200","docid":"Mark_Z._Jacobson","rank":75,"score":84067},{"content":"Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .","qid":"200","docid":"Capnophile","rank":76,"score":84015},{"content":"Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .","qid":"200","docid":"Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network","rank":77,"score":83559},{"content":"Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .","qid":"200","docid":"Kenneth_Hare","rank":78,"score":83408},{"content":"Title: Terrestrial biological carbon cycle Content: Carbon is an essential part of life on Earth . About half the dry weight of most living organisms is carbon . It plays an important role in the structure , biochemistry , and nutrition of all living cells . Living biomass holds between 600 and 1,000 gigatons of carbon , most of which is wood , while some 1,200 gigatons of carbon are stored in the terrestrial biosphere as dead biomass . Carbon is cycled through the terrestrial biosphere with varying speeds , depending on what form it is stored in and under which circumstances . It is exchanged most quickly with the atmosphere , although small amounts of carbon leave the terrestrial biosphere and enter the oceans as dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) .","qid":"200","docid":"Terrestrial_biological_carbon_cycle","rank":79,"score":83369},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"200","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":80,"score":82756},{"content":"Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .","qid":"200","docid":"Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage","rank":81,"score":82589},{"content":"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .","qid":"200","docid":"Keith_E._Idso","rank":82,"score":82352},{"content":"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_governance_in_England","rank":83,"score":82308},{"content":"Title: Robert Berner Content: Robert Arbuckle Berner ( November 25 , 1935 -- January 10 , 2015 ) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the modeling of the carbon cycle . He taught Geology and Geophysics from 1965 to 2007 at Yale University , where he latterly served as Professor Emeritus until his death . His work on sedimentary rocks led to the co-founding of the BLAG model of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which takes into account both geochemical and biological contributions to the carbon cycle .","qid":"200","docid":"Robert_Berner","rank":84,"score":81951},{"content":"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .","qid":"200","docid":"Revelle_factor","rank":85,"score":81798},{"content":"Title: Melissa Trainer Content: Melissa G. Trainer ( April 22 , 1978 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) is an American astrobiologist who in 2004 demonstrated empirically that life could have formed on Earth through the interaction of methane , carbon dioxide and ultraviolet light ( sunlight ) . She is currently Assistant Chief for Science , Operations , and Strategic Planning in the Planetary Environments Laboratory at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center .","qid":"200","docid":"Melissa_Trainer","rank":86,"score":81721},{"content":"Title: Carbonyl reduction Content: In organic chemistry , carbonyl reduction is the organic reduction of any carbonyl group by a reducing agent . Typical carbonyl compounds are ketones , aldehydes , carboxylic acids , esters , and acid halides . Carboxylic acids , esters , and acid halides can be reduced to either aldehydes or a step further to primary alcohols , depending on the strength of the reducing agent ; aldehydes and ketones can be reduced respectively to primary and secondary alcohols . In deoxygenation , the alcohol can be further reduced and removed altogether . Metal hydrides based on boron and aluminum are common reducing agents ; catalytic hydrogenation is also an important method of reducing carbonyls . Before the discovery of soluble hydride reagents , esters were reduced by the Bouveault -- Blanc reduction , employing a mixture of sodium metal in the presence of alcohols .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbonyl_reduction","rank":87,"score":81714},{"content":"Title: Paul Wennberg Content: Paul O. Wennberg is the R. Stanton Avery Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry and Environmental Science and Engineering at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) . He is the director of the Ronald and Maxine Linde Center for Global Environmental Science . He is chair of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network and a founding member of the Orbiting Carbon Observatory project , which created NASA 's first spacecraft for analysis of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . He is also the principal investigator for the Mars Atmospheric Trace Molecule Occultation Spectrometer ( MATMOS ) to investigate trace gases in Mars 's atmosphere . Wennberg 's research focuses on the atmospheric chemistry of planets , including air quality , photochemistry , and the carbon cycle . He designs and builds remote-sensing and in-situ scientific instruments which are used in field investigations supported by the National Science Foundation and NASA . His scientific instruments have made it possible to measure radicals in the atmosphere at concentrations that could not previously be detected . He measures atmospheric trace gases , making it possible to accurately describe the exchange of carbon dioxide and other gases between the atmosphere and the land and ocean . His research has substantially advanced understanding of the atmospheric chemistry of the troposphere and the stratosphere .","qid":"200","docid":"Paul_Wennberg","rank":88,"score":81618},{"content":"Title: Gastric tonometry Content: Gastric tonometry describes the measurement of the carbon dioxide level inside the stomach in order to assess the degree of blood flow to the stomach and bowel . The measurement of gut mucosal carbon dioxide has been used to detect decreased blood flow . Accumulation of carbon dioxide is predominantly a result of hypoperfusion and not hypoxia . Because the introduction of a nasogastric tube is almost routine in critically ill patients , the measurement of gastric carbon dioxide can be an easy method to monitor tissue perfusion . The gastric mucosal pH is measured according to an equation that assumes that arterial bicarbonate is equal to intramucosal bicarbonate , an argument that is not always valid . Given that the gastric mucosal carbon dioxide is the directly measured value , whereas the gastric mucosal pH is the derived and possibly inaccurate value , studies that used gastric pH to monitor perfusion may be inherently flawed . Most studies have failed to effectively affect gastric pH and for this reason failed to produce improvements in outcome . One study , by Gutierrez and colleagues , has shown that therapeutic interventions guided by gastric tonometry improved survival in critically ill patients . In a direct comparison of splanchnic-oriented therapy as guided by gastric tonometry with conventional shock management of trauma patients , there was no difference in mortality rates , organ dysfunction rates , or length of stay . After a surge in popularity , the use of gastric tonometry waned and it is currently found with less frequency in surgical ICUs .","qid":"200","docid":"Gastric_tonometry","rank":89,"score":81611},{"content":"Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_profiling","rank":90,"score":81438},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"200","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":91,"score":81428},{"content":"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .","qid":"200","docid":"Gilbert_Plass","rank":92,"score":81360},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .","qid":"200","docid":"Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite","rank":93,"score":81322},{"content":"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .","qid":"200","docid":"Suess_effect","rank":94,"score":81296},{"content":"Title: 1953 Menzengraben mining accident Content: The Menzengraben mining accident was the explosion of a large pocket of carbon dioxide in a salt mine in Menzengraben , East Germany , July 7 , 1953 . During a planned , nightly explosives detonation in the mine , an unusually large pocket of pressurized carbon dioxide was suddenly released , resulting in the ejection of large blocks of salt through the mine shaft at very high velocities . The expanding gas as well as the blocks of salt demolished the building above the mine shaft , resulting in blocks of concrete being ejected as well . Three died as a consequence , one from being hit by debris , two from asphyxiation .","qid":"200","docid":"1953_Menzengraben_mining_accident","rank":95,"score":81252},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .","qid":"200","docid":"Carbon_emission_label","rank":96,"score":81250},{"content":"Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .","qid":"200","docid":"New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme","rank":97,"score":81225},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .","qid":"200","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_shipping","rank":98,"score":81094},{"content":"Title: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life Content: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life : The Individual 's Guide to Stopping Climate Change is a 2007 book by Chris Goodall , published by Earthscan/Routledge . According to New Scientist , this book provides `` the definitive guide to reducing your carbon footprint '' . Goodall explains how consumers can cut carbon usage by 75 percent without making drastic lifestyle changes . How to Live a Low-Carbon Life has been reviewed in the Journal of Environmental Health Research , The Guardian , and The Times . How to Live a Low-carbon Life won the 2007 Clarion award for non-fiction . A second edition was published in 2010 .","qid":"200","docid":"How_to_Live_a_Low-Carbon_Life","rank":99,"score":81074},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"200","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":100,"score":81058}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 125015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Haldane effect Content: The Haldane effect is a property of hemoglobin first described by John Scott Haldane . Oxygenation of blood in the lungs displaces carbon dioxide from hemoglobin which increases the removal of carbon dioxide . This property is the Haldane effect . Conversely , oxygenated blood has a reduced affinity for carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Haldane_effect\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 111825\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 111001\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 108425\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sequestration\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 107963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 107427\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 106034\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 104694\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 103988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 102557\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 100036\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 98942\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 98661\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 98384\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 98091\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_David_Keeling\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 98085\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Asphyxiant_gas\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 97285\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 97057\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Now! Content: Kyoto Now ! ( stylized as KyotoNOW ! ) is a student-led movement at colleges and universities across the United States , through which students hope to make American universities commit to reducing carbon dioxide emissions . The name of the movement reflects the Kyoto Protocol , which the USA currently is not considering ratifying . Cornell University 's Kyoto Now ! was the first of such groups formed , after a sit-in protest in then President Rawlings ' office . The group demanded that the University commit `` to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 7 percent below the 1990 levels of emissions by 2007 . These reductions are not on a square foot basis , but based on the total campus emissions . '' Hal Craft , VP at the time , signed the Protocol , committing the University to emissions reductions , and the school is now on track to meet that commitment through construction of a combined heat and power plant that will take waste heat produced by the cogen plant and use it to heat the campus buildings . Punk band Bad Religion wrote a song called `` Kyoto Now ! '' for their 2002 album , The Process of Belief , which spoke about the Kyoto Protocol and their opinions on it . It can be considered an anthem for the Kyoto Now ! movement . The writer of `` Kyoto Now ! '' , Greg Graffin , is , in fact , an alumnus of Cornell University . Category : Student political organizations\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Now!\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 96691\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 96063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 94413\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 93930\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Modified_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 93741\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Biosequestration\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 93427\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 93336\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoatmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 92782\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 92234\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 92033\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 91961\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_scrubber\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 91786\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 91670\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 91525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 90927\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 90148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 89914\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere Content: The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_accumulation_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 89697\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 89625\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 89612\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 89597\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Primordial soup Content: `` Primordial soup '' is a term introduced by Soviet biologist Alexander Oparin and English scientist John Burdon Sanderson Haldane . In 1924 , he proposed a theory of the origin of life on Earth through the transformation , during the gradual chemical evolution of particles that contain carbon in the primordial soup . Biochemist Robert Shapiro has summarized the `` primordial soup '' theory of Oparin and Haldane in its `` mature form '' as follows : Early Earth had a chemically reducing atmosphere . This atmosphere , exposed to energy in various forms , produced simple organic compounds ( `` monomers '' ) . These compounds accumulated in a `` soup '' , which may have been concentrated at various locations ( shorelines , oceanic vents etc. ) . By further transformation , more complex organic polymers -- and ultimately life -- developed in the soup .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Primordial_soup\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 89595\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 89420\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_shifting\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 88850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 88749\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 88449\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_content\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 87733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Content: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 is a chemical process whereby carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons by the energy of incident light . This process needs to be catalyzed either homogeneously or heterogeneously in order to proceed , and current research is aimed at developing these catalysts , most of which are semiconducting materials . Semiconducting catalysts provide favourable electron transfer kinetics . Motivation for research in this area is strong due to the current attention to atmospheric carbon dioxide as the reduction of carbon dioxide would be one route for removal and sequestration . Furthermore , the reduced species may prove to be a valuable feedstock for other processes . If the incident light utilized is solar in nature then this process also potentially represents energy routes which combine renewable energy with CO2 reduction .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_CO2\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 87696\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 87661\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_retirement\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 86871\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 86793\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Engineering\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 86780\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issue\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 86745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercapnia\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 86541\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 86530\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_finance\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 86109\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Kaya_identity\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 85988\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_offset\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 85978\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 85891\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 85808\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 85760\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Reducing atmosphere Content: A reducing atmosphere is an atmospheric condition in which oxidation is prevented by removal of oxygen and other oxidizing gases or vapours , and which may contain actively reducing gases such as hydrogen , carbon monoxide , and gases such as hydrogen sulfide that would be oxidized by any present oxygen .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Reducing_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 85574\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Nitrogen Fix Content: The Nitrogen Fix is a 1980 science fiction novel by Hal Clement . The plot revolves around a nomadic family in a future where all oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere has combined with nitrogen , so the atmosphere is mostly nitrogen with traces of water , nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide , and the seas are very dilute nitric acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Nitrogen_Fix\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 85560\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 85546\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 85434\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"TanSat\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 85357\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Scott_Denning\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 85335\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Tropical_peat\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 85289\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_reforming\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 85217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 84943\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: ISS ECLSS Content: The International Space Station Environmental Control and Life Support System ( ECLSS ) is a life support system that provides or controls atmospheric pressure , fire detection and suppression , oxygen levels , waste management and water supply . The highest priority for the ECLSS is the ISS atmosphere , but the system also collects , processes , and stores waste and water produced and used by the crew -- a process that recycles fluid from the sink , shower , toilet , and condensation from the air . The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station . The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation ( SFOG ) canisters . Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Russian Vozdukh system in Zvezda , one Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly ( CDRA ) located in the U.S. Lab module , and one CDRA in the U.S. Node 3 module . Other by-products of human metabolism , such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat , are removed by activated charcoal filters or by the Trace Contaminant Control System ( TCCS ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"ISS_ECLSS\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 84867\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bicarbonate indicator Content: A bicarbonate indicator ( hydrogencarbonate indicator ) is a type of pH indicator that is sensitive enough to show a color change as the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in an aqueous solution increases . The indicator is used in photosynthesis and respiration experiments to find out whether carbon dioxide is being liberated . It is also used to test the carbon dioxide content during gaseous exchange of organisms . When the carbon dioxide content is higher than 0.04 % , the initial red color changes to yellow as the pH becomes more acidic . If the carbon dioxide content is lower than 0.04 % , it changes from red to magenta and , in relatively very low carbon dioxide concentrations , to purple . Carbon dioxide , even in the concentrations found in exhaled air , will dissolve in the indicator to form carbonic acid , a weak acid , which will lower the pH and give the characteristic colour change . A colour change to purple during photosynthesis shows a reduction in the percentage of carbon dioxide and is sometimes inferred as production of oxygen , but there is not actually any direct evidence for it . Great care must be taken to avoid acidic or alkaline contamination of the apparatus in such experiments , since the test is not directly specific to carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Bicarbonate_indicator\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 84849\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sink\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 84707\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 84707\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Individual_action_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 84432\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monoxide\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 84118\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Mark_Z._Jacobson\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 84067\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Capnophile\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 84015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 83559\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Kenneth_Hare\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 83408\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Terrestrial biological carbon cycle Content: Carbon is an essential part of life on Earth . About half the dry weight of most living organisms is carbon . It plays an important role in the structure , biochemistry , and nutrition of all living cells . Living biomass holds between 600 and 1,000 gigatons of carbon , most of which is wood , while some 1,200 gigatons of carbon are stored in the terrestrial biosphere as dead biomass . Carbon is cycled through the terrestrial biosphere with varying speeds , depending on what form it is stored in and under which circumstances . It is exchanged most quickly with the atmosphere , although small amounts of carbon leave the terrestrial biosphere and enter the oceans as dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Terrestrial_biological_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 83369\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 82756\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 82589\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Keith_E._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 82352\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_governance_in_England\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 82308\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Robert Berner Content: Robert Arbuckle Berner ( November 25 , 1935 -- January 10 , 2015 ) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the modeling of the carbon cycle . He taught Geology and Geophysics from 1965 to 2007 at Yale University , where he latterly served as Professor Emeritus until his death . His work on sedimentary rocks led to the co-founding of the BLAG model of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which takes into account both geochemical and biological contributions to the carbon cycle .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Robert_Berner\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 81951\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Revelle_factor\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 81798\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Melissa Trainer Content: Melissa G. Trainer ( April 22 , 1978 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) is an American astrobiologist who in 2004 demonstrated empirically that life could have formed on Earth through the interaction of methane , carbon dioxide and ultraviolet light ( sunlight ) . She is currently Assistant Chief for Science , Operations , and Strategic Planning in the Planetary Environments Laboratory at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Melissa_Trainer\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 81721\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbonyl reduction Content: In organic chemistry , carbonyl reduction is the organic reduction of any carbonyl group by a reducing agent . Typical carbonyl compounds are ketones , aldehydes , carboxylic acids , esters , and acid halides . Carboxylic acids , esters , and acid halides can be reduced to either aldehydes or a step further to primary alcohols , depending on the strength of the reducing agent ; aldehydes and ketones can be reduced respectively to primary and secondary alcohols . In deoxygenation , the alcohol can be further reduced and removed altogether . Metal hydrides based on boron and aluminum are common reducing agents ; catalytic hydrogenation is also an important method of reducing carbonyls . Before the discovery of soluble hydride reagents , esters were reduced by the Bouveault -- Blanc reduction , employing a mixture of sodium metal in the presence of alcohols .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbonyl_reduction\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 81714\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paul Wennberg Content: Paul O. Wennberg is the R. Stanton Avery Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry and Environmental Science and Engineering at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) . He is the director of the Ronald and Maxine Linde Center for Global Environmental Science . He is chair of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network and a founding member of the Orbiting Carbon Observatory project , which created NASA 's first spacecraft for analysis of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . He is also the principal investigator for the Mars Atmospheric Trace Molecule Occultation Spectrometer ( MATMOS ) to investigate trace gases in Mars 's atmosphere . Wennberg 's research focuses on the atmospheric chemistry of planets , including air quality , photochemistry , and the carbon cycle . He designs and builds remote-sensing and in-situ scientific instruments which are used in field investigations supported by the National Science Foundation and NASA . His scientific instruments have made it possible to measure radicals in the atmosphere at concentrations that could not previously be detected . He measures atmospheric trace gases , making it possible to accurately describe the exchange of carbon dioxide and other gases between the atmosphere and the land and ocean . His research has substantially advanced understanding of the atmospheric chemistry of the troposphere and the stratosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Paul_Wennberg\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 81618\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gastric tonometry Content: Gastric tonometry describes the measurement of the carbon dioxide level inside the stomach in order to assess the degree of blood flow to the stomach and bowel . The measurement of gut mucosal carbon dioxide has been used to detect decreased blood flow . Accumulation of carbon dioxide is predominantly a result of hypoperfusion and not hypoxia . Because the introduction of a nasogastric tube is almost routine in critically ill patients , the measurement of gastric carbon dioxide can be an easy method to monitor tissue perfusion . The gastric mucosal pH is measured according to an equation that assumes that arterial bicarbonate is equal to intramucosal bicarbonate , an argument that is not always valid . Given that the gastric mucosal carbon dioxide is the directly measured value , whereas the gastric mucosal pH is the derived and possibly inaccurate value , studies that used gastric pH to monitor perfusion may be inherently flawed . Most studies have failed to effectively affect gastric pH and for this reason failed to produce improvements in outcome . One study , by Gutierrez and colleagues , has shown that therapeutic interventions guided by gastric tonometry improved survival in critically ill patients . In a direct comparison of splanchnic-oriented therapy as guided by gastric tonometry with conventional shock management of trauma patients , there was no difference in mortality rates , organ dysfunction rates , or length of stay . After a surge in popularity , the use of gastric tonometry waned and it is currently found with less frequency in surgical ICUs .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Gastric_tonometry\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 81611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_profiling\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 81438\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 81428\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Gilbert_Plass\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 81360\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 81322\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Suess_effect\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 81296\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 1953 Menzengraben mining accident Content: The Menzengraben mining accident was the explosion of a large pocket of carbon dioxide in a salt mine in Menzengraben , East Germany , July 7 , 1953 . During a planned , nightly explosives detonation in the mine , an unusually large pocket of pressurized carbon dioxide was suddenly released , resulting in the ejection of large blocks of salt through the mine shaft at very high velocities . The expanding gas as well as the blocks of salt demolished the building above the mine shaft , resulting in blocks of concrete being ejected as well . Three died as a consequence , one from being hit by debris , two from asphyxiation .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"1953_Menzengraben_mining_accident\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 81252\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_label\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 81250\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 81225\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_shipping\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 81094\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life Content: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life : The Individual 's Guide to Stopping Climate Change is a 2007 book by Chris Goodall , published by Earthscan/Routledge . According to New Scientist , this book provides `` the definitive guide to reducing your carbon footprint '' . Goodall explains how consumers can cut carbon usage by 75 percent without making drastic lifestyle changes . How to Live a Low-Carbon Life has been reviewed in the Journal of Environmental Health Research , The Guardian , and The Times . How to Live a Low-carbon Life won the 2007 Clarion award for non-fiction . A second edition was published in 2010 .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"How_to_Live_a_Low-Carbon_Life\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 81074\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"200\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 81058\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":96,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"In our lifetime, there has been no correlation between carbon dioxide emissions and temperature"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"203","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":1,"score":126129},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":2,"score":124428},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"203","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":3,"score":122129},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"203","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":4,"score":118435},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":5,"score":116290},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"203","docid":"Climate_change_in_Wyoming","rank":6,"score":115532},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"203","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":7,"score":113942},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"203","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":8,"score":113378},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"203","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":9,"score":110869},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"203","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":10,"score":110745},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":11,"score":110611},{"content":"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_shifting","rank":12,"score":110505},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"203","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":13,"score":109510},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"203","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":14,"score":108656},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":15,"score":108430},{"content":"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .","qid":"203","docid":"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources","rank":16,"score":107152},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":17,"score":106700},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_emission_label","rank":18,"score":106507},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"203","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":19,"score":106144},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"203","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":20,"score":106080},{"content":"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .","qid":"203","docid":"Kaya_identity","rank":21,"score":105240},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"203","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":22,"score":105118},{"content":"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .","qid":"203","docid":"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007","rank":23,"score":104871},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"203","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":24,"score":104483},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":25,"score":103479},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"203","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":26,"score":103292},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .","qid":"203","docid":"Low-carbon_economy","rank":27,"score":103265},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"203","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":28,"score":103163},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"203","docid":"Global_warming","rank":29,"score":102970},{"content":"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .","qid":"203","docid":"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide","rank":30,"score":102675},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .","qid":"203","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":31,"score":102663},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"203","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":32,"score":101457},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"203","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":33,"score":101279},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":34,"score":101190},{"content":"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :","qid":"203","docid":"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative","rank":35,"score":101084},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .","qid":"203","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita","rank":36,"score":100827},{"content":"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .","qid":"203","docid":"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut","rank":37,"score":100485},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"203","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":38,"score":99684},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"203","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":39,"score":99624},{"content":"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_neutrality","rank":40,"score":99522},{"content":"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_finance","rank":41,"score":99284},{"content":"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .","qid":"203","docid":"California_Senate_Bill_32","rank":42,"score":98920},{"content":"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_monitoring","rank":43,"score":98620},{"content":"Title: Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy Content: In the United States about 10 % of the population , 35 million people , live within 100 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day , which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants . Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma , lung and heart disease , and cancer among others . Car pollutants include carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , particulate matter ( fine dusts and soot ) , and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations , they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses . The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the unborn babies .","qid":"203","docid":"Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy","rank":44,"score":98540},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"203","docid":"350.org","rank":45,"score":97621},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .","qid":"203","docid":"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact","rank":46,"score":97578},{"content":"Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .","qid":"203","docid":"Vatican_Climate_Forest","rank":47,"score":97383},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"203","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":48,"score":97315},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .","qid":"203","docid":"Climate_change_in_Pakistan","rank":49,"score":96743},{"content":"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .","qid":"203","docid":"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia","rank":50,"score":96633},{"content":"Title: Paser Content: A PASER ( from the acronym of Particle Acceleration by Stimulated Emission of Radiation ) is a device that accelerates a coherent beam of electrons . This process was demonstrated for the first time in 2006 at the Brookhaven National Lab by a team of physicists from the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology . Relativistic electrons from a conventional particle accelerator pass through a vibrationally excited carbon dioxide medium in which the electrons undergo millions of collisions with excited carbon dioxide molecules and are accelerated in a coherent fashion . No heat is generated in this quantum energy transfer , thus all the energy transferred to the electrons is used in accelerating the electrons . The electron beam created from this process may result in electrons that are highly collimated in velocity in comparison to other acceleration methods . The vibrationally excited carbon dioxide is the same medium used in a carbon dioxide laser . This medium resonantly amplifies light with a wavelength near 10.6 or 9.4 micrometers , corresponding to a frequency of approximately 30 terahertz . In order to be accelerated , incident electrons must be microbunched at this frequency . An appropriately bunched electron beam strikes excited carbon dioxide molecules resonantly in order to efficiently stimulate energy emission .","qid":"203","docid":"Paser","rank":51,"score":96614},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"203","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":52,"score":96597},{"content":"Title: Road-effect zone Content: The Road-effect zone is the area in which effects on the natural environment extend outward from a road . Such effects are substance emissions like carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , particulate matter , nitrogen oxide , volatile organic compounds , biological matter , rubber , or salt , intangible emissions like noise or light , and changes of the micro climate like alterations of wind , water flows , temperature or moisture .","qid":"203","docid":"Road-effect_zone","rank":53,"score":96489},{"content":"Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_retirement","rank":54,"score":96451},{"content":"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .","qid":"203","docid":"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme","rank":55,"score":96021},{"content":"Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''","qid":"203","docid":"Klaus_Lackner","rank":56,"score":95904},{"content":"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .","qid":"203","docid":"North_American_Carbon_Program","rank":57,"score":95653},{"content":"Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong","qid":"203","docid":"List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":58,"score":95334},{"content":"Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_profiling","rank":59,"score":95274},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":60,"score":95270},{"content":"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )","qid":"203","docid":"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita","rank":61,"score":95249},{"content":"Title: Thin filament pyrometry Content: Thin Filament Pyrometry ( TFP ) is an optical method used to measure temperatures . It involves the placement of a thin filament in a hot gas stream . Radiative emissions from the filament can be correlated with filament temperature . Filaments are typically Silicon carbide ( SiC ) fibers with a diameter of 15 micrometres . Temperatures of about 800 - 2500 K can be measured .","qid":"203","docid":"Thin_filament_pyrometry","rank":62,"score":95247},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"203","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":63,"score":95166},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia","rank":64,"score":94938},{"content":"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_footprint","rank":65,"score":94895},{"content":"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .","qid":"203","docid":"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning","rank":66,"score":94866},{"content":"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .","qid":"203","docid":"Climate_change_in_China","rank":67,"score":94837},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions in Kentucky Content: The report `` Kentucky Greenhouse Gas Inventory '' provides a detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and sinks for Kentucky in 1990 . Emissions were estimated using methods from EPA 's 1995 guidance document State Workbook : Methodologies for Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions . In 1990 , Kentucky emitted 35.4 million metric tons of carbon equivalent ( MMTCE ) . In addition , Kentucky estimated emissions of 0.4 MMTCE from biofuels . Emissions from biofuels are not included . The principal greenhouse gases were carbon dioxide , comprising 87.9 million metric tons ( 24.0 MMTCE ) , and methane , with 1.1 million metric tons ( 6.4 MMTCE ) . Other emissions included 0.0016 million metric tons of perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) ( 4.8 MMTCE ) , and 0.003 million metric tons of nitrous oxide ( 0.2 MMTCE ) The major source of carbon dioxide emissions was fossil fuel combustion ( 96 % ) , the majority of which is utility coal . Minor emissions came from cement and lime production and forest/grassland conversion . Carbon dioxide sinks ( i.e. , an increase in forest carbon storage ) offset about 26 % of the total carbon dioxide emissions . Sources of methane emissions were coal mining ( 73 % ) , domesticated animals ( 12 % ) , landfills ( 10 % ) , manure management ( 3 % ) , and natural gas/oil extraction ( 2 % ) . Nitrous oxide emissions were from fertilizer use . Sources of perfluorocarbons were HCFC-22 production ( 91 % ) and aluminum production ( 9 % ) . Kentucky 's emissions in 1990 were 9.6 MTCE per capita , compared to 1990 U.S. emissions of 6.4 MTCE per capita . Kentucky 's per capita emissions are high due to the large volume of coal-related activities in the state .","qid":"203","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_in_Kentucky","rank":68,"score":94797},{"content":"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .","qid":"203","docid":"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States","rank":69,"score":94768},{"content":"Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_emission_trading","rank":70,"score":94272},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate","rank":71,"score":94114},{"content":"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_governance_in_England","rank":72,"score":94098},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .","qid":"203","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_transport","rank":73,"score":94040},{"content":"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .","qid":"203","docid":"Fugitive_emissions","rank":74,"score":93401},{"content":"Title: Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project Content: The Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project is part of the Gorgon Project , the world 's largest natural gas project . The Gorgon Project , located on Barrow Island in Western Australia , includes a liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) plant , a domestic gas plant , and a Carbon Dioxide Injection Project . The initial carbon dioxide injections are planned to take place by the end of 2017 . Once launched , the Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project will be the world 's largest CO2 injection plant , with an ability to store up to 4 million tons of CO2 per year -- approximately 120 million tons over the project 's lifetime , and 40 percent of total Gorgon Project emissions .","qid":"203","docid":"Gorgon_Carbon_Dioxide_Injection_Project","rank":75,"score":93180},{"content":"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .","qid":"203","docid":"Black_carbon","rank":76,"score":93087},{"content":"Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''","qid":"203","docid":"Maximilian_Auffhammer","rank":77,"score":92853},{"content":"Title: Emission intensity Content: An emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity ; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced , or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted , the number of animals in animal husbandry , on industrial production levels , distances traveled or similar activity data . Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities . The related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are often used interchangeably , but `` factors '' exclude aggregate activities such as GDP , and `` carbon '' excludes other pollutants . One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour , or CIPK , which is used to compare different sources of electrical power .","qid":"203","docid":"Emission_intensity","rank":78,"score":92748},{"content":"Title: List of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions Content: This is a list of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity . The data presented below from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Energy Information Administration corresponds to emissions in 2014 . Interactive bar charts ( showing state rankings for total and per-capita emissions ) and interactive maps ( for both total emissions and per capita emissions ) for the 2014 data are available on Tableau Public . __ TOC __","qid":"203","docid":"List_of_U.S._states_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions","rank":79,"score":92719},{"content":"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon-neutral_fuel","rank":80,"score":92718},{"content":"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_emissions_reporting","rank":81,"score":92553},{"content":"Title: Eddy covariance Content: The eddy covariance ( also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux ) technique is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers . The method analyzes high-frequency wind and scalar atmospheric data series , and yields values of fluxes of these properties . It is a statistical method used in meteorology and other applications ( micrometeorology , oceanography , hydrology , agricultural sciences , industrial and regulatory applications , etc. ) to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields , and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas . It is frequently used to estimate momentum , heat , water vapour , carbon dioxide and methane fluxes The technique is also used extensively for verification and tuning of global climate models , mesoscale and weather models , complex biogeochemical and ecological models , and remote sensing estimates from satellites and aircraft . The technique is mathematically complex , and requires significant care in setting up and processing data . To date , there is no uniform terminology or a single methodology for the Eddy Covariance technique , but much effort is being made by flux measurement networks ( e.g. , FluxNet , Ameriflux , ICOS , CarboEurope , Fluxnet Canada , OzFlux , NEON , and iLEAPS ) to unify the various approaches . The technique has additionally proven applicable under water to the benthic zone for measuring oxygen fluxes between seafloor and overlying water . In these environments , the technique is generally known as the eddy correlation technique , or just eddy correlation . Oxygen fluxes are extracted from raw measurements largely following the same principles as used in the atmosphere , and they are typically used as a proxy for carbon exchange , which is important for local and global carbon budgets . For most benthic ecosystems , eddy correlation is the most accurate technique for measuring in-situ fluxes . The technique 's development and its applications under water remains a fruitful area of research .","qid":"203","docid":"Eddy_covariance","rank":82,"score":92349},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"203","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":83,"score":92072},{"content":"Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_offset","rank":84,"score":91846},{"content":"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .","qid":"203","docid":"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme","rank":85,"score":91528},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"203","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":86,"score":91445},{"content":"Title: List of countries by carbon intensity Content: This article lists countries by their carbon intensity . Carbon intensity is defined as a country 's annual carbon dioxide emissions divided by the country 's gross domestic product . National incomes are calculated using market exchange rates ( MER ) and purchasing power parities ( PPP ) . Units are metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars .","qid":"203","docid":"List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity","rank":87,"score":91208},{"content":"Title: Energy efficiency in British housing Content: Domestic housing in the United Kingdom presents a possible opportunity for achieving the 20 % overall cut in UK carbon dioxide emissions targeted by the Government for 2010 . However , the process of achieving that drop is proving problematic given the very wide range of age and condition of the UK housing stock .","qid":"203","docid":"Energy_efficiency_in_British_housing","rank":88,"score":91162},{"content":"Title: Clean coal technology Content: Clean coal technology is a collection of technologies being developed to attempt to mitigate the environmental impact of coal energy generation and to mitigate climate change . When coal is used as a fuel source , the gaseous emissions generated by the thermal decomposition of the coal include sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , mercury , and other chemical byproducts that vary depending on the type of the coal being used . These emissions have been established to have a negative impact on the environment and human health , contributing to acid rain , lung cancer and cardiovascular disease . As a result , clean coal technologies are being developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions to the atmosphere . Some of the techniques that would be used to accomplish this include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal , gasification ( see also IGCC ) , improved technology for treating flue gases to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and at higher efficiency , carbon capture and storage technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and dewatering lower rank coals ( brown coals ) to improve the calorific value , and thus the efficiency of the conversion into electricity . Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal . Historically , the primary focus was on SO2 and NOx , the most important gases in causation of acid rain , and particulates which cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on human health . Concerns exist regarding the economic viability of these technologies and the timeframe of delivery , potentially high hidden economic costs in terms of social and environmental damage , and the costs and viability of disposing of removed carbon and other toxic matter .","qid":"203","docid":"Clean_coal_technology","rank":89,"score":90694},{"content":"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme","rank":90,"score":90254},{"content":"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012","qid":"203","docid":"Emission_Reduction_Unit","rank":91,"score":90019},{"content":"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .","qid":"203","docid":"Contraction_and_Convergence","rank":92,"score":89999},{"content":"Title: Center for Negative Carbon Emissions Content: The Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) is led by Director Klaus S. Lackner , and was founded in the School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment ( SSEBE ) at Arizona State University in 2014 . CNCE is advancing carbon management technologies that can capture carbon dioxide directly from ambient air in an outdoor operating environment . CNCE aims to demonstrate systems that over time increase in scope , reliability and efficiency while lowering the cost of carbon dioxide capture from air .","qid":"203","docid":"Center_for_Negative_Carbon_Emissions","rank":93,"score":89994},{"content":"Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .","qid":"203","docid":"Clean_Energy_Act_2011","rank":94,"score":89709},{"content":"Title: Kyoto Now! Content: Kyoto Now ! ( stylized as KyotoNOW ! ) is a student-led movement at colleges and universities across the United States , through which students hope to make American universities commit to reducing carbon dioxide emissions . The name of the movement reflects the Kyoto Protocol , which the USA currently is not considering ratifying . Cornell University 's Kyoto Now ! was the first of such groups formed , after a sit-in protest in then President Rawlings ' office . The group demanded that the University commit `` to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 7 percent below the 1990 levels of emissions by 2007 . These reductions are not on a square foot basis , but based on the total campus emissions . '' Hal Craft , VP at the time , signed the Protocol , committing the University to emissions reductions , and the school is now on track to meet that commitment through construction of a combined heat and power plant that will take waste heat produced by the cogen plant and use it to heat the campus buildings . Punk band Bad Religion wrote a song called `` Kyoto Now ! '' for their 2002 album , The Process of Belief , which spoke about the Kyoto Protocol and their opinions on it . It can be considered an anthem for the Kyoto Now ! movement . The writer of `` Kyoto Now ! '' , Greg Graffin , is , in fact , an alumnus of Cornell University . Category : Student political organizations","qid":"203","docid":"Kyoto_Now!","rank":95,"score":89704},{"content":"Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .","qid":"203","docid":"New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme","rank":96,"score":89694},{"content":"Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .","qid":"203","docid":"Politics_of_global_warming","rank":97,"score":89676},{"content":"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .","qid":"203","docid":"Climate_change_and_agriculture","rank":98,"score":89506},{"content":"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .","qid":"203","docid":"Biosequestration","rank":99,"score":89486},{"content":"Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .","qid":"203","docid":"Carbon_Disclosure_Project","rank":100,"score":89428}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 126129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 124428\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 122129\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 118435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 116290\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 115532\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 113942\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 113378\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 110869\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 110745\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 110611\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_shifting\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 110505\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 109510\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 108656\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 108430\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 107152\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 106700\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_label\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 106507\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 106144\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 106080\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Kaya_identity\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 105240\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 105118\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 104871\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 104483\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 103479\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 103292\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_economy\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 103265\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 103163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 102970\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 102675\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 102663\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 101457\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 101279\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 101190\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Evangelical_Climate_Initiative\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 101084\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 100827\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 100485\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 99684\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 99624\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_neutrality\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 99522\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_finance\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 99284\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"California_Senate_Bill_32\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 98920\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_monitoring\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 98620\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy Content: In the United States about 10 % of the population , 35 million people , live within 100 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day , which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants . Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma , lung and heart disease , and cancer among others . Car pollutants include carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , particulate matter ( fine dusts and soot ) , and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations , they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses . The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the unborn babies .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 98540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 97621\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 97578\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Vatican_Climate_Forest\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 97383\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 97315\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Pakistan\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 96743\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 96633\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paser Content: A PASER ( from the acronym of Particle Acceleration by Stimulated Emission of Radiation ) is a device that accelerates a coherent beam of electrons . This process was demonstrated for the first time in 2006 at the Brookhaven National Lab by a team of physicists from the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology . Relativistic electrons from a conventional particle accelerator pass through a vibrationally excited carbon dioxide medium in which the electrons undergo millions of collisions with excited carbon dioxide molecules and are accelerated in a coherent fashion . No heat is generated in this quantum energy transfer , thus all the energy transferred to the electrons is used in accelerating the electrons . The electron beam created from this process may result in electrons that are highly collimated in velocity in comparison to other acceleration methods . The vibrationally excited carbon dioxide is the same medium used in a carbon dioxide laser . This medium resonantly amplifies light with a wavelength near 10.6 or 9.4 micrometers , corresponding to a frequency of approximately 30 terahertz . In order to be accelerated , incident electrons must be microbunched at this frequency . An appropriately bunched electron beam strikes excited carbon dioxide molecules resonantly in order to efficiently stimulate energy emission .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Paser\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 96614\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 96597\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Road-effect zone Content: The Road-effect zone is the area in which effects on the natural environment extend outward from a road . Such effects are substance emissions like carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , particulate matter , nitrogen oxide , volatile organic compounds , biological matter , rubber , or salt , intangible emissions like noise or light , and changes of the micro climate like alterations of wind , water flows , temperature or moisture .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Road-effect_zone\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 96489\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_retirement\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 96451\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 96021\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Klaus_Lackner\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 95904\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"North_American_Carbon_Program\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 95653\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 95334\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_profiling\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 95274\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 95270\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 95249\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thin filament pyrometry Content: Thin Filament Pyrometry ( TFP ) is an optical method used to measure temperatures . It involves the placement of a thin filament in a hot gas stream . Radiative emissions from the filament can be correlated with filament temperature . Filaments are typically Silicon carbide ( SiC ) fibers with a diameter of 15 micrometres . Temperatures of about 800 - 2500 K can be measured .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Thin_filament_pyrometry\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 95247\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 95166\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 94938\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_footprint\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 94895\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 94866\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_China\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 94837\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions in Kentucky Content: The report `` Kentucky Greenhouse Gas Inventory '' provides a detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and sinks for Kentucky in 1990 . Emissions were estimated using methods from EPA 's 1995 guidance document State Workbook : Methodologies for Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions . In 1990 , Kentucky emitted 35.4 million metric tons of carbon equivalent ( MMTCE ) . In addition , Kentucky estimated emissions of 0.4 MMTCE from biofuels . Emissions from biofuels are not included . The principal greenhouse gases were carbon dioxide , comprising 87.9 million metric tons ( 24.0 MMTCE ) , and methane , with 1.1 million metric tons ( 6.4 MMTCE ) . Other emissions included 0.0016 million metric tons of perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) ( 4.8 MMTCE ) , and 0.003 million metric tons of nitrous oxide ( 0.2 MMTCE ) The major source of carbon dioxide emissions was fossil fuel combustion ( 96 % ) , the majority of which is utility coal . Minor emissions came from cement and lime production and forest/grassland conversion . Carbon dioxide sinks ( i.e. , an increase in forest carbon storage ) offset about 26 % of the total carbon dioxide emissions . Sources of methane emissions were coal mining ( 73 % ) , domesticated animals ( 12 % ) , landfills ( 10 % ) , manure management ( 3 % ) , and natural gas/oil extraction ( 2 % ) . Nitrous oxide emissions were from fertilizer use . Sources of perfluorocarbons were HCFC-22 production ( 91 % ) and aluminum production ( 9 % ) . Kentucky 's emissions in 1990 were 9.6 MTCE per capita , compared to 1990 U.S. emissions of 6.4 MTCE per capita . Kentucky 's per capita emissions are high due to the large volume of coal-related activities in the state .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_in_Kentucky\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 94797\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 94768\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emission_trading\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 94272\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 94114\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_governance_in_England\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 94098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_transport\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 94040\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Fugitive_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 93401\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project Content: The Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project is part of the Gorgon Project , the world 's largest natural gas project . The Gorgon Project , located on Barrow Island in Western Australia , includes a liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) plant , a domestic gas plant , and a Carbon Dioxide Injection Project . The initial carbon dioxide injections are planned to take place by the end of 2017 . Once launched , the Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project will be the world 's largest CO2 injection plant , with an ability to store up to 4 million tons of CO2 per year -- approximately 120 million tons over the project 's lifetime , and 40 percent of total Gorgon Project emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Gorgon_Carbon_Dioxide_Injection_Project\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 93180\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 93087\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Maximilian_Auffhammer\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 92853\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emission intensity Content: An emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity ; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced , or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted , the number of animals in animal husbandry , on industrial production levels , distances traveled or similar activity data . Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities . The related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are often used interchangeably , but `` factors '' exclude aggregate activities such as GDP , and `` carbon '' excludes other pollutants . One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour , or CIPK , which is used to compare different sources of electrical power .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Emission_intensity\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 92748\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions Content: This is a list of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity . The data presented below from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Energy Information Administration corresponds to emissions in 2014 . Interactive bar charts ( showing state rankings for total and per-capita emissions ) and interactive maps ( for both total emissions and per capita emissions ) for the 2014 data are available on Tableau Public . __ TOC __\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_U.S._states_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 92719\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon-neutral_fuel\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 92718\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_emissions_reporting\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 92553\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eddy covariance Content: The eddy covariance ( also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux ) technique is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers . The method analyzes high-frequency wind and scalar atmospheric data series , and yields values of fluxes of these properties . It is a statistical method used in meteorology and other applications ( micrometeorology , oceanography , hydrology , agricultural sciences , industrial and regulatory applications , etc. ) to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields , and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas . It is frequently used to estimate momentum , heat , water vapour , carbon dioxide and methane fluxes The technique is also used extensively for verification and tuning of global climate models , mesoscale and weather models , complex biogeochemical and ecological models , and remote sensing estimates from satellites and aircraft . The technique is mathematically complex , and requires significant care in setting up and processing data . To date , there is no uniform terminology or a single methodology for the Eddy Covariance technique , but much effort is being made by flux measurement networks ( e.g. , FluxNet , Ameriflux , ICOS , CarboEurope , Fluxnet Canada , OzFlux , NEON , and iLEAPS ) to unify the various approaches . The technique has additionally proven applicable under water to the benthic zone for measuring oxygen fluxes between seafloor and overlying water . In these environments , the technique is generally known as the eddy correlation technique , or just eddy correlation . Oxygen fluxes are extracted from raw measurements largely following the same principles as used in the atmosphere , and they are typically used as a proxy for carbon exchange , which is important for local and global carbon budgets . For most benthic ecosystems , eddy correlation is the most accurate technique for measuring in-situ fluxes . The technique 's development and its applications under water remains a fruitful area of research .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Eddy_covariance\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 92349\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 92072\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_offset\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 91846\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 91528\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 91445\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of countries by carbon intensity Content: This article lists countries by their carbon intensity . Carbon intensity is defined as a country 's annual carbon dioxide emissions divided by the country 's gross domestic product . National incomes are calculated using market exchange rates ( MER ) and purchasing power parities ( PPP ) . Units are metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 91208\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Energy efficiency in British housing Content: Domestic housing in the United Kingdom presents a possible opportunity for achieving the 20 % overall cut in UK carbon dioxide emissions targeted by the Government for 2010 . However , the process of achieving that drop is proving problematic given the very wide range of age and condition of the UK housing stock .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Energy_efficiency_in_British_housing\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 91162\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean coal technology Content: Clean coal technology is a collection of technologies being developed to attempt to mitigate the environmental impact of coal energy generation and to mitigate climate change . When coal is used as a fuel source , the gaseous emissions generated by the thermal decomposition of the coal include sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , mercury , and other chemical byproducts that vary depending on the type of the coal being used . These emissions have been established to have a negative impact on the environment and human health , contributing to acid rain , lung cancer and cardiovascular disease . As a result , clean coal technologies are being developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions to the atmosphere . Some of the techniques that would be used to accomplish this include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal , gasification ( see also IGCC ) , improved technology for treating flue gases to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and at higher efficiency , carbon capture and storage technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and dewatering lower rank coals ( brown coals ) to improve the calorific value , and thus the efficiency of the conversion into electricity . Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal . Historically , the primary focus was on SO2 and NOx , the most important gases in causation of acid rain , and particulates which cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on human health . Concerns exist regarding the economic viability of these technologies and the timeframe of delivery , potentially high hidden economic costs in terms of social and environmental damage , and the costs and viability of disposing of removed carbon and other toxic matter .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_coal_technology\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 90694\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 90254\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Emission_Reduction_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 90019\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Contraction_and_Convergence\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 89999\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for Negative Carbon Emissions Content: The Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) is led by Director Klaus S. Lackner , and was founded in the School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment ( SSEBE ) at Arizona State University in 2014 . CNCE is advancing carbon management technologies that can capture carbon dioxide directly from ambient air in an outdoor operating environment . CNCE aims to demonstrate systems that over time increase in scope , reliability and efficiency while lowering the cost of carbon dioxide capture from air .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_Negative_Carbon_Emissions\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 89994\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Clean_Energy_Act_2011\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 89709\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kyoto Now! Content: Kyoto Now ! ( stylized as KyotoNOW ! ) is a student-led movement at colleges and universities across the United States , through which students hope to make American universities commit to reducing carbon dioxide emissions . The name of the movement reflects the Kyoto Protocol , which the USA currently is not considering ratifying . Cornell University 's Kyoto Now ! was the first of such groups formed , after a sit-in protest in then President Rawlings ' office . The group demanded that the University commit `` to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 7 percent below the 1990 levels of emissions by 2007 . These reductions are not on a square foot basis , but based on the total campus emissions . '' Hal Craft , VP at the time , signed the Protocol , committing the University to emissions reductions , and the school is now on track to meet that commitment through construction of a combined heat and power plant that will take waste heat produced by the cogen plant and use it to heat the campus buildings . Punk band Bad Religion wrote a song called `` Kyoto Now ! '' for their 2002 album , The Process of Belief , which spoke about the Kyoto Protocol and their opinions on it . It can be considered an anthem for the Kyoto Now ! movement . The writer of `` Kyoto Now ! '' , Greg Graffin , is , in fact , an alumnus of Cornell University . Category : Student political organizations\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Kyoto_Now!\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 89704\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 89694\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Politics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 89676\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_agriculture\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 89506\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Biosequestration\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 89486\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .\",\n \"qid\": \"203\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Disclosure_Project\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 89428\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":97,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"after a natural orbitally driven warming, atmospheric carbon dioxide content increases 800 years later"},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":1,"score":131148},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"204","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":2,"score":131082},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"204","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":3,"score":124699},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"204","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":4,"score":116034},{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"204","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":5,"score":114990},{"content":"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .","qid":"204","docid":"Global_warming_potential","rank":6,"score":112963},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"204","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":7,"score":112939},{"content":"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .","qid":"204","docid":"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory","rank":8,"score":111192},{"content":"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .","qid":"204","docid":"350.org","rank":9,"score":109681},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"204","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":10,"score":108333},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .","qid":"204","docid":"Greenhouse_gas","rank":11,"score":107081},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"204","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":12,"score":106781},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"204","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":13,"score":106425},{"content":"Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .","qid":"204","docid":"993–994_carbon-14_spike","rank":14,"score":105801},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .","qid":"204","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom","rank":15,"score":105613},{"content":"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .","qid":"204","docid":"Deforestation_and_climate_change","rank":16,"score":104604},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .","qid":"204","docid":"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States","rank":17,"score":103375},{"content":"Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .","qid":"204","docid":"774–775_carbon-14_spike","rank":18,"score":103328},{"content":"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_tax","rank":19,"score":103204},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":20,"score":102733},{"content":"Title: Keeling (disambiguation) Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that depicts the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the twentieth century . It is named after Charles David Keeling who discovered the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations and plotted the graph . Keeling may also refer to : Keeling , Virginia North Keeling Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Surname Charles Keeling , climatologist Edward Keeling Harold Keeling John Keeling , MP Ralph Keeling , son of Charles , also climatologist William Keeling , English sea captain","qid":"204","docid":"Keeling_(disambiguation)","rank":21,"score":102454},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":22,"score":101417},{"content":"Title: Steptoean positive carbon isotope excursion Content: The Steptoean Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion ( SPICE ) was a geological event which occurred about 500 million years ago at the end of the Cambrian Period . The SPICE event was a sudden reversal of the anoxia ( lack of oxygen ) that had steadily spread throughout the oceans during the Cambrian which also affected the atmosphere . After the SPICE event , oxygen levels recovered and levels in the atmosphere may have risen as high as 30 % , higher than the 21 % of the atmosphere that prevails today . The sudden increase in oxygen led to an explosion of life across the globe .","qid":"204","docid":"Steptoean_positive_carbon_isotope_excursion","rank":23,"score":101069},{"content":"Title: 100,000-year problem Content: The 100,000-year problem ( `` 100 ky problem '' , `` 100 ka problem '' ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800,000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000 , 40,000 , 100,000 , and 400,000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations . While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100,000-year-problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid-Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800,000 years ago . The related `` 400,000-year-problem '' refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years .","qid":"204","docid":"100,000-year_problem","rank":24,"score":100694},{"content":"Title: Huronian glaciation Content: The Huronian glaciation ( or Makganyene glaciation ) was a glaciation that extended from 2.4 billion years ago ( Ga ) to 2.1 Ga , during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era . The Huronian glaciation followed after the Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE ) , a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane . The oxygen combined with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water , which does not retain heat as well as methane does . It is the oldest and longest ice age , occurring at a time when , in a biological sense , only simple , unicellular life existed on Earth . This ice age led to a mass-extinction on Earth .","qid":"204","docid":"Huronian_glaciation","rank":25,"score":100567},{"content":"Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .","qid":"204","docid":"CO2_content","rank":26,"score":99944},{"content":"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_sequestration","rank":27,"score":99886},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"204","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":28,"score":99755},{"content":"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .","qid":"204","docid":"8.2_kiloyear_event","rank":29,"score":98983},{"content":"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .","qid":"204","docid":"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals","rank":30,"score":98135},{"content":"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .","qid":"204","docid":"Charles_David_Keeling","rank":31,"score":98006},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"204","docid":"Climate_change_in_Wyoming","rank":32,"score":97707},{"content":"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .","qid":"204","docid":"Gilbert_Plass","rank":33,"score":97540},{"content":"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_diet","rank":34,"score":97393},{"content":"Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .","qid":"204","docid":"Bomb_pulse","rank":35,"score":96619},{"content":"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .","qid":"204","docid":"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years","rank":36,"score":95370},{"content":"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .","qid":"204","docid":"Cap_carbonate","rank":37,"score":95048},{"content":"Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .","qid":"204","docid":"Kenneth_Hare","rank":38,"score":94556},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .","qid":"204","docid":"Climate_change_in_Japan","rank":39,"score":94211},{"content":"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .","qid":"204","docid":"Biosequestration","rank":40,"score":93569},{"content":"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .","qid":"204","docid":"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change","rank":41,"score":93539},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .","qid":"204","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Earth","rank":42,"score":93093},{"content":"Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .","qid":"204","docid":"Yedoma","rank":43,"score":92939},{"content":"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_rift","rank":44,"score":92740},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .","qid":"204","docid":"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth","rank":45,"score":91732},{"content":"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .","qid":"204","docid":"Revelle_factor","rank":46,"score":91371},{"content":"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .","qid":"204","docid":"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios","rank":47,"score":91358},{"content":"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .","qid":"204","docid":"Global_Carbon_Project","rank":48,"score":91002},{"content":"Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .","qid":"204","docid":"Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2","rank":49,"score":90447},{"content":"Title: Hypoxic drive Content: The hypoxic drive is a form of respiratory drive in which the body uses oxygen chemoreceptors instead of carbon dioxide receptors to regulate the respiratory cycle . Normal respiration is driven mostly by the levels of carbon dioxide in the arteries , which are detected indirectly by central chemoreceptors when carbon dioxide crosses the blood -- brain barrier , forming detectable hydrogen ions , and directly by peripheral chemoreceptors , and very little by the oxygen levels . An increase in carbon dioxide will cause chemoreceptor reflexes to trigger an increase in ventilation . Hypoxic drive normally accounts for 10 % of the total drive to breathe . This increases as the PaO2 drops to 70 torr and below , while hypoxic drive is no longer active when PaO2 exceeds 170 torr . The hypoxic drive is so weak that unconsciousness will develop before respiratory distress is noted and is therefore a risk for pilots flying at high altitudes . For this reason , supplemental oxygen is required by Federal Aviation Regulations for pilots flying above an altitude of about 12,500 feet in unpressurized airplanes . In the past , it was believed that in cases where there are chronically high carbon dioxide levels in the blood such as in COPD patients , the body will begin to rely more on the oxygen receptors and less on the carbon dioxide receptors . And that in this case , when there is an increase in oxygen levels the body will decrease the rate of respiration . Recent studies have proven that COPD patients who have chronically compensated elevated levels ( known as '' Retainers '' ) are not in fact dependent on hypoxic drive to breathe . However , when in respiratory failure and put on high inspired oxygen , the in their blood may increase via three mechanisms , namely the Haldane Effect , the ventilation/perfusion mismatch ( where the regional pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction is released ) and by the removal or reduction of the hypoxic drive itself .","qid":"204","docid":"Hypoxic_drive","rank":50,"score":90235},{"content":"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .","qid":"204","docid":"Scott_Denning","rank":51,"score":90058},{"content":"Title: HD 189733 b Content: HD 189733 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 63 light-years away from the Solar System in the constellation of Vulpecula . The planet was discovered orbiting the star HD 189733 A on October 5 , 2005 , when astronomers in France observed the planet transiting across the face of the star . With a mass 13 % higher than that of Jupiter , HD 189733 b orbits its host star once every 2.2 days at an orbital speed of 152.5 km/s , making it a hot Jupiter with poor prospects for extraterrestrial life . Being the closest transiting hot Jupiter to Earth , HD 189733 b is a subject for extensive atmospheric examination . HD 189733 b was the first extrasolar planet for which a thermal map was constructed , to be detected through polarimetry , to have its overall color determined ( deep blue ) , to have a transit detected in X-ray spectrum and to have carbon dioxide detected in its atmosphere . In July , 2014 , NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on three exoplanets ( HD 189733b , HD 209458b , WASP-12b ) orbiting Sun-like stars .","qid":"204","docid":"HD_189733_b","rank":52,"score":89909},{"content":"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .","qid":"204","docid":"Low-carbon_emission","rank":53,"score":89883},{"content":"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .","qid":"204","docid":"Black_carbon","rank":54,"score":88922},{"content":"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .","qid":"204","docid":"Keith_E._Idso","rank":55,"score":88759},{"content":"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia","rank":56,"score":88730},{"content":"Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .","qid":"204","docid":"Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network","rank":57,"score":88309},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .","qid":"204","docid":"Atmosphere","rank":58,"score":87925},{"content":"Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .","qid":"204","docid":"Ocean_acidification","rank":59,"score":87895},{"content":"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .","qid":"204","docid":"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network","rank":60,"score":87435},{"content":"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .","qid":"204","docid":"Economics_of_global_warming","rank":61,"score":87277},{"content":"Title: Svante Arrhenius Content: Svante August Arrhenius ( 19 February 1859 -- 2 October 1927 ) was a Nobel-Prize winning Swedish scientist , originally a physicist , but often referred to as a chemist , and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry . He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903 , becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate , and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death . His lasting contributions to science are exemplified and memorialized by the Arrhenius equation , Arrhenius definition of an acid , lunar crater Arrhenius , the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University , all named after him . He was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide increase Earth 's surface temperature through the Arrhenius effect , leading Keeling to conclude that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are large enough to cause global warming .","qid":"204","docid":"Svante_Arrhenius","rank":62,"score":87205},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"204","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":63,"score":87052},{"content":"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .","qid":"204","docid":"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide","rank":64,"score":86847},{"content":"Title: Venus Content: Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellites . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows at night and , though rare , occasionally be visible in broad daylight . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its maximum angular distance from the Sun ( elongation ) is 47.8 ° . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism . As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the `` morning star '' and `` evening star '' . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC . As the closest planet to Earth , Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 in 1962 ) , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 in 1970 ) . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions .","qid":"204","docid":"Venus","rank":65,"score":86847},{"content":"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .","qid":"204","docid":"Regional_effects_of_global_warming","rank":66,"score":86494},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_removal","rank":67,"score":86468},{"content":"Title: Paul Wennberg Content: Paul O. Wennberg is the R. Stanton Avery Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry and Environmental Science and Engineering at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) . He is the director of the Ronald and Maxine Linde Center for Global Environmental Science . He is chair of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network and a founding member of the Orbiting Carbon Observatory project , which created NASA 's first spacecraft for analysis of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . He is also the principal investigator for the Mars Atmospheric Trace Molecule Occultation Spectrometer ( MATMOS ) to investigate trace gases in Mars 's atmosphere . Wennberg 's research focuses on the atmospheric chemistry of planets , including air quality , photochemistry , and the carbon cycle . He designs and builds remote-sensing and in-situ scientific instruments which are used in field investigations supported by the National Science Foundation and NASA . His scientific instruments have made it possible to measure radicals in the atmosphere at concentrations that could not previously be detected . He measures atmospheric trace gases , making it possible to accurately describe the exchange of carbon dioxide and other gases between the atmosphere and the land and ocean . His research has substantially advanced understanding of the atmospheric chemistry of the troposphere and the stratosphere .","qid":"204","docid":"Paul_Wennberg","rank":68,"score":86144},{"content":"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .","qid":"204","docid":"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia","rank":69,"score":86064},{"content":"Title: Crystal Geyser Content: Crystal Geyser is located on the east bank of the Green River approximately 4.5 mi downstream from Green River , Utah , United States . It is a rare example of a cold-water carbon dioxide driven geyser ; geothermal activity does not play a role in the activity of the geyser . The ground water near the geyser has significant quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide , along with substantial underground gas accumulations in the surrounding area . Saturation of the aquifer with creates enough pressure to force groundwater through the geyser and out on to the surface . The geyser erupts sometimes to a height of 130 ft or more . During 2005 , a study of the timing of the eruptions found them to be bimodal . About 66 % of eruptions in the study occurred about 8 hours after the previous eruption , and the rest about 22 hours after . The geyser erupts for an average of one hundred minutes a day , with eruptions either lasting 7 -- 32 minutes , or 98 -- 113 minutes . The bimodal distribution of eruptions is not a well-understood pattern , but is found in other geysers , both cold-water and otherwise . Between eruption events , the water level is approximately seventeen feet below the surface of the geyser -- at the level of the water table . In the preface to an eruption , water surfaces , fills the pond around the geyser , and begins to bubble . Bubbling events occur with increasing frequency in the time leading up to an eruption , but are not constant ; bubbling events last for a few minutes , with a few minutes of calm in between . Bubbling events at the main geyser also frequently alternate with bubbling events at natural side-pools . The current form of the geyser was created by an exploration well drilled in 1935 in attempt to locate oil . The well was originally 2600 ft deep , but an earlier owner of the land partially filled it in , meaning that the well is now only a couple hundred metres deep . The area surrounding the modern geyser is covered in a thick layer of orange travertine . Near the river , adjacent to the modern orange travertine , are substantial deposits of white travertine , perhaps reflecting the original depositional environment of the geyser ( before the exploratory well was drilled . ) The first written record of Crystal Geyser comes from the report of the Powell Geographic Expedition of 1869 , July 13 , 1869 : We stop to examine some interesting rocks , deposited by mineral springs that at one time must have existed here , but which are no longer flowing ...","qid":"204","docid":"Crystal_Geyser","rank":70,"score":85748},{"content":"Title: Outline of Venus Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Venus : Venus -- second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellite . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth .","qid":"204","docid":"Outline_of_Venus","rank":71,"score":85705},{"content":"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .","qid":"204","docid":"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates","rank":72,"score":85636},{"content":"Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .","qid":"204","docid":"TanSat","rank":73,"score":85627},{"content":"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .","qid":"204","docid":"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies","rank":74,"score":85584},{"content":"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_price","rank":75,"score":85051},{"content":"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_shifting","rank":76,"score":84661},{"content":"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .","qid":"204","docid":"Mesopause","rank":77,"score":84658},{"content":"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .","qid":"204","docid":"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World","rank":78,"score":84571},{"content":"Title: MAVEN Content: Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN Mission ( MAVEN ) is a space probe developed by NASA designed to study the Martian atmosphere while orbiting Mars . Mission goals include determining how the planet 's atmosphere and water , presumed to have once been substantial , were lost over time . MAVEN was successfully launched aboard an Atlas V launch vehicle at the beginning of the first launch window on November 18 , 2013 . Following the first engine burn of the Centaur second stage , the vehicle coasted in low Earth orbit for 27 minutes before a second Centaur burn of five minutes to insert it into a heliocentric Mars transit orbit . On September 22 , 2014 , MAVEN reached Mars and was inserted into an areocentric elliptic orbit 6200 km by 150 km above the planet 's surface . The principal investigator for the spacecraft is Bruce Jakosky of the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder . On 5 November 2015 , NASA announced that data from MAVEN shows that the deterioration of Mars ' atmosphere increases significantly during solar storms . That loss of atmosphere to space likely played a key role in Mars ' gradual shift from its carbon dioxide-dominated atmosphere - which had kept Mars relatively warm and allowed the planet to support liquid surface water - to the cold , arid planet seen today . This shift took place between about 4.2 to 3.7 billion years ago .","qid":"204","docid":"MAVEN","rank":79,"score":84419},{"content":"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .","qid":"204","docid":"Hypercapnia","rank":80,"score":84299},{"content":"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .","qid":"204","docid":"Suess_effect","rank":81,"score":84161},{"content":"Title: Orbital forcing Content: Orbital forcing is the effect on climate of slow changes in the tilt of the Earth 's axis and shape of the orbit ( see Milankovitch cycles ) . These orbital changes change the total amount of sunlight reaching the Earth by up to 25 % at mid-latitudes ( from 400 to 500 Wm − 2 at latitudes of 60 degrees ) . In this context , the term `` forcing '' signifies a physical process that affects the Earth 's climate . This mechanism is believed to be responsible for the timing of the ice age cycles . A strict application of the Milankovitch theory does not allow the prediction of a `` sudden '' ice age ( rapid being anything under a century or two ) , since the fastest orbital period is about 20,000 years . The timing of past glacial periods coincides very well with the predictions of the Milankovitch theory , and these effects can be calculated into the future .","qid":"204","docid":"Orbital_forcing","rank":82,"score":84089},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''","qid":"204","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Venus","rank":83,"score":83759},{"content":"Title: Criegee intermediate Content: A Criegee intermediate ( also called a Criegee zwitterion or Criegee biradical ) is a carbonyl oxide with two charge centers . These molecules help to break down sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere , and may help offset global warming . The formation of this sort of structure was first postulated in the 1950s by Rudolf Criegee , for whom it is named , but it was n't until 2013 that direct detection of such chemicals was reported . Infrared spectroscopy suggests the electronic structure is a zwitterion rather than a biradical as some had proposed .","qid":"204","docid":"Criegee_intermediate","rank":84,"score":83500},{"content":"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .","qid":"204","docid":"Stuart_Agnew","rank":85,"score":83499},{"content":"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_leakage","rank":86,"score":83206},{"content":"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .","qid":"204","docid":"Carnian_Pluvial_Event","rank":87,"score":83077},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate","rank":88,"score":83070},{"content":"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .","qid":"204","docid":"Amorphous_carbonia","rank":89,"score":82772},{"content":"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O","qid":"204","docid":"Wetland_methane_emissions","rank":90,"score":82551},{"content":"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .","qid":"204","docid":"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide","rank":91,"score":82485},{"content":"Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .","qid":"204","docid":"Atmosphere_of_Mars","rank":92,"score":82286},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere Content: The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_accumulation_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":93,"score":82276},{"content":"Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .","qid":"204","docid":"Carbon_sink","rank":94,"score":82084},{"content":"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .","qid":"204","docid":"Environmental_impact_of_aviation","rank":95,"score":82054},{"content":"Title: Afterdamp Content: Afterdamp is the toxic mixture of gases left in a mine following an explosion caused by firedamp , which itself can initiate a much larger explosion of coal dust . It consists of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen . Hydrogen sulfide , another highly toxic gas , may also be present . However , it is the high content of carbon monoxide which kills by depriving victims of oxygen by combining preferentially with haemoglobin in the blood . Afterdamp was the deadly gas which caused the majority of casualties in the many pit disasters of the British coalfields , such as the Senghenydd colliery disaster and elsewhere in the world . Such disasters continue to afflict working mines , especially in mainland China .","qid":"204","docid":"Afterdamp","rank":96,"score":81919},{"content":"Title: Respiratory acidosis Content: Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.","qid":"204","docid":"Respiratory_acidosis","rank":97,"score":81905},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .","qid":"204","docid":"Climate_change_in_Idaho","rank":98,"score":81779},{"content":"Title: HD 209458 b Content: HD 209458 b ( sometimes unofficially called Osiris ) is an exoplanet that orbits the solar analog HD 209458 in the constellation Pegasus , some 150 light-years from the Solar System . The radius of the planet 's orbit is 7 million kilometres , about 0.047 astronomical units , or one eighth the radius of Mercury 's orbit . This small radius results in a year that is 3.5 Earth days long and an estimated surface temperature of about 1,000 ° C ( about 1,800 ° F ) . Its mass is 220 times that of Earth ( 0.69 Jupiter masses ) and its volume is some 2.5 times greater than that of Jupiter . The high mass and volume of HD 209458 b indicate that it is a gas giant . HD 209458 b represents a number of milestones in extraplanetary research . It was the first of many categories : a transiting extrasolar planet the first planet detected through more than one method an extrasolar planet known to have an atmosphere an extrasolar planet observed to have an evaporating hydrogen atmosphere an extrasolar planet found to have an atmosphere containing oxygen and carbon one of the first two extrasolar planets to be directly observed spectroscopically the first extrasolar gas giant to have its superstorm measured the first planet to have its orbital speed measured , determining its mass directly . Based on the application of new , theoretical models , as of April 2007 , it is alleged to be the first extrasolar planet found to have water vapor in its atmosphere . In July , 2014 , NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on HD 209458 b and two other exoplanets ( HD 189733 b and WASP-12b ) orbiting Sun-like stars .","qid":"204","docid":"HD_209458_b","rank":99,"score":81657},{"content":"Title: Total inorganic carbon Content: The total inorganic carbon ( CT , or TIC ) or dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) is the sum of inorganic carbon species in a solution . The inorganic carbon species include carbon dioxide , carbonic acid , bicarbonate anion , and carbonate . It is customary to express carbon dioxide and carbonic acid simultaneously as CO2 * . CT is a key parameter when making measurements related to the pH of natural aqueous systems , and carbon dioxide flux estimates . CT = -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- + -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- + -LSB- CO32 − -RSB- where , CT is the total inorganic carbon -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- is the sum of carbon dioxide and carbonic acid concentrations ( -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- = -LSB- CO2 -RSB- + -LSB- H2CO3 -RSB- ) -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- is the bicarbonate concentration -LSB- CO32 − -RSB- is the carbonate concentration Each of these species are related by the following pH-driven chemical equilibria : CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H + + HCO3 − 2H + + CO32 − The concentrations of the different species of DIC ( and which species is dominant ) depends on the pH of the solution , as shown by a Bjerrum plot . Total inorganic carbon is typically measured by the acidification of the sample which drives the equilibria to CO2 . This gas is then sparged from solution and trapped , and the quantity trapped is then measured , usually by infrared spectroscopy .","qid":"204","docid":"Total_inorganic_carbon","rank":100,"score":81536}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 131148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 131082\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 124699\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 116034\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 114990\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_potential\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 112963\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 112939\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 111192\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"350.org\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 109681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 108333\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 107081\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 106781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 106425\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"993–994_carbon-14_spike\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 105801\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 105613\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Deforestation_and_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 104604\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 103375\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"774–775_carbon-14_spike\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 103328\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_tax\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 103204\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 102733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling (disambiguation) Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that depicts the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the twentieth century . It is named after Charles David Keeling who discovered the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations and plotted the graph . Keeling may also refer to : Keeling , Virginia North Keeling Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Surname Charles Keeling , climatologist Edward Keeling Harold Keeling John Keeling , MP Ralph Keeling , son of Charles , also climatologist William Keeling , English sea captain\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 102454\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 101417\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Steptoean positive carbon isotope excursion Content: The Steptoean Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion ( SPICE ) was a geological event which occurred about 500 million years ago at the end of the Cambrian Period . The SPICE event was a sudden reversal of the anoxia ( lack of oxygen ) that had steadily spread throughout the oceans during the Cambrian which also affected the atmosphere . After the SPICE event , oxygen levels recovered and levels in the atmosphere may have risen as high as 30 % , higher than the 21 % of the atmosphere that prevails today . The sudden increase in oxygen led to an explosion of life across the globe .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Steptoean_positive_carbon_isotope_excursion\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 101069\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 100,000-year problem Content: The 100,000-year problem ( `` 100 ky problem '' , `` 100 ka problem '' ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800,000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000 , 40,000 , 100,000 , and 400,000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations . While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100,000-year-problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid-Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800,000 years ago . The related `` 400,000-year-problem '' refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"100,000-year_problem\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 100694\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Huronian glaciation Content: The Huronian glaciation ( or Makganyene glaciation ) was a glaciation that extended from 2.4 billion years ago ( Ga ) to 2.1 Ga , during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era . The Huronian glaciation followed after the Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE ) , a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane . The oxygen combined with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water , which does not retain heat as well as methane does . It is the oldest and longest ice age , occurring at a time when , in a biological sense , only simple , unicellular life existed on Earth . This ice age led to a mass-extinction on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Huronian_glaciation\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 100567\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_content\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 99944\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sequestration\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 99886\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 99755\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"8.2_kiloyear_event\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 98983\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 98135\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_David_Keeling\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 98006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Wyoming\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 97707\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Gilbert_Plass\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 97540\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_diet\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 97393\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Bomb_pulse\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 96619\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 95370\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 95048\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Kenneth_Hare\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 94556\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Japan\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 94211\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Biosequestration\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 93569\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 93539\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 93093\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Yedoma\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 92939\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_rift\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 92740\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 91732\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Revelle_factor\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 91371\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 91358\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Carbon_Project\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 91002\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 90447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypoxic drive Content: The hypoxic drive is a form of respiratory drive in which the body uses oxygen chemoreceptors instead of carbon dioxide receptors to regulate the respiratory cycle . Normal respiration is driven mostly by the levels of carbon dioxide in the arteries , which are detected indirectly by central chemoreceptors when carbon dioxide crosses the blood -- brain barrier , forming detectable hydrogen ions , and directly by peripheral chemoreceptors , and very little by the oxygen levels . An increase in carbon dioxide will cause chemoreceptor reflexes to trigger an increase in ventilation . Hypoxic drive normally accounts for 10 % of the total drive to breathe . This increases as the PaO2 drops to 70 torr and below , while hypoxic drive is no longer active when PaO2 exceeds 170 torr . The hypoxic drive is so weak that unconsciousness will develop before respiratory distress is noted and is therefore a risk for pilots flying at high altitudes . For this reason , supplemental oxygen is required by Federal Aviation Regulations for pilots flying above an altitude of about 12,500 feet in unpressurized airplanes . In the past , it was believed that in cases where there are chronically high carbon dioxide levels in the blood such as in COPD patients , the body will begin to rely more on the oxygen receptors and less on the carbon dioxide receptors . And that in this case , when there is an increase in oxygen levels the body will decrease the rate of respiration . Recent studies have proven that COPD patients who have chronically compensated elevated levels ( known as '' Retainers '' ) are not in fact dependent on hypoxic drive to breathe . However , when in respiratory failure and put on high inspired oxygen , the in their blood may increase via three mechanisms , namely the Haldane Effect , the ventilation/perfusion mismatch ( where the regional pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction is released ) and by the removal or reduction of the hypoxic drive itself .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypoxic_drive\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 90235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Scott_Denning\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 90058\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HD 189733 b Content: HD 189733 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 63 light-years away from the Solar System in the constellation of Vulpecula . The planet was discovered orbiting the star HD 189733 A on October 5 , 2005 , when astronomers in France observed the planet transiting across the face of the star . With a mass 13 % higher than that of Jupiter , HD 189733 b orbits its host star once every 2.2 days at an orbital speed of 152.5 km/s , making it a hot Jupiter with poor prospects for extraterrestrial life . Being the closest transiting hot Jupiter to Earth , HD 189733 b is a subject for extensive atmospheric examination . HD 189733 b was the first extrasolar planet for which a thermal map was constructed , to be detected through polarimetry , to have its overall color determined ( deep blue ) , to have a transit detected in X-ray spectrum and to have carbon dioxide detected in its atmosphere . In July , 2014 , NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on three exoplanets ( HD 189733b , HD 209458b , WASP-12b ) orbiting Sun-like stars .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"HD_189733_b\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 89909\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Low-carbon_emission\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 89883\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Black_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 88922\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Keith_E._Idso\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 88759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 88730\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 88309\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 87925\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Ocean_acidification\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 87895\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Historical_Climatology_Network\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 87435\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Economics_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 87277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Svante Arrhenius Content: Svante August Arrhenius ( 19 February 1859 -- 2 October 1927 ) was a Nobel-Prize winning Swedish scientist , originally a physicist , but often referred to as a chemist , and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry . He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903 , becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate , and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death . His lasting contributions to science are exemplified and memorialized by the Arrhenius equation , Arrhenius definition of an acid , lunar crater Arrhenius , the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University , all named after him . He was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide increase Earth 's surface temperature through the Arrhenius effect , leading Keeling to conclude that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are large enough to cause global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Svante_Arrhenius\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 87205\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 87052\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 86847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Venus Content: Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellites . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows at night and , though rare , occasionally be visible in broad daylight . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its maximum angular distance from the Sun ( elongation ) is 47.8 ° . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism . As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the `` morning star '' and `` evening star '' . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC . As the closest planet to Earth , Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 in 1962 ) , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 in 1970 ) . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Venus\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 86847\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Regional_effects_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 86494\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_removal\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 86468\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paul Wennberg Content: Paul O. Wennberg is the R. Stanton Avery Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry and Environmental Science and Engineering at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) . He is the director of the Ronald and Maxine Linde Center for Global Environmental Science . He is chair of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network and a founding member of the Orbiting Carbon Observatory project , which created NASA 's first spacecraft for analysis of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . He is also the principal investigator for the Mars Atmospheric Trace Molecule Occultation Spectrometer ( MATMOS ) to investigate trace gases in Mars 's atmosphere . Wennberg 's research focuses on the atmospheric chemistry of planets , including air quality , photochemistry , and the carbon cycle . He designs and builds remote-sensing and in-situ scientific instruments which are used in field investigations supported by the National Science Foundation and NASA . His scientific instruments have made it possible to measure radicals in the atmosphere at concentrations that could not previously be detected . He measures atmospheric trace gases , making it possible to accurately describe the exchange of carbon dioxide and other gases between the atmosphere and the land and ocean . His research has substantially advanced understanding of the atmospheric chemistry of the troposphere and the stratosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Paul_Wennberg\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 86144\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 86064\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Crystal Geyser Content: Crystal Geyser is located on the east bank of the Green River approximately 4.5 mi downstream from Green River , Utah , United States . It is a rare example of a cold-water carbon dioxide driven geyser ; geothermal activity does not play a role in the activity of the geyser . The ground water near the geyser has significant quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide , along with substantial underground gas accumulations in the surrounding area . Saturation of the aquifer with creates enough pressure to force groundwater through the geyser and out on to the surface . The geyser erupts sometimes to a height of 130 ft or more . During 2005 , a study of the timing of the eruptions found them to be bimodal . About 66 % of eruptions in the study occurred about 8 hours after the previous eruption , and the rest about 22 hours after . The geyser erupts for an average of one hundred minutes a day , with eruptions either lasting 7 -- 32 minutes , or 98 -- 113 minutes . The bimodal distribution of eruptions is not a well-understood pattern , but is found in other geysers , both cold-water and otherwise . Between eruption events , the water level is approximately seventeen feet below the surface of the geyser -- at the level of the water table . In the preface to an eruption , water surfaces , fills the pond around the geyser , and begins to bubble . Bubbling events occur with increasing frequency in the time leading up to an eruption , but are not constant ; bubbling events last for a few minutes , with a few minutes of calm in between . Bubbling events at the main geyser also frequently alternate with bubbling events at natural side-pools . The current form of the geyser was created by an exploration well drilled in 1935 in attempt to locate oil . The well was originally 2600 ft deep , but an earlier owner of the land partially filled it in , meaning that the well is now only a couple hundred metres deep . The area surrounding the modern geyser is covered in a thick layer of orange travertine . Near the river , adjacent to the modern orange travertine , are substantial deposits of white travertine , perhaps reflecting the original depositional environment of the geyser ( before the exploratory well was drilled . ) The first written record of Crystal Geyser comes from the report of the Powell Geographic Expedition of 1869 , July 13 , 1869 : We stop to examine some interesting rocks , deposited by mineral springs that at one time must have existed here , but which are no longer flowing ...\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Crystal_Geyser\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 85748\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Outline of Venus Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Venus : Venus -- second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellite . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Outline_of_Venus\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 85705\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 85636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"TanSat\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 85627\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 85584\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_price\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 85051\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_shifting\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 84661\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Mesopause\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 84658\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 84571\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: MAVEN Content: Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN Mission ( MAVEN ) is a space probe developed by NASA designed to study the Martian atmosphere while orbiting Mars . Mission goals include determining how the planet 's atmosphere and water , presumed to have once been substantial , were lost over time . MAVEN was successfully launched aboard an Atlas V launch vehicle at the beginning of the first launch window on November 18 , 2013 . Following the first engine burn of the Centaur second stage , the vehicle coasted in low Earth orbit for 27 minutes before a second Centaur burn of five minutes to insert it into a heliocentric Mars transit orbit . On September 22 , 2014 , MAVEN reached Mars and was inserted into an areocentric elliptic orbit 6200 km by 150 km above the planet 's surface . The principal investigator for the spacecraft is Bruce Jakosky of the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder . On 5 November 2015 , NASA announced that data from MAVEN shows that the deterioration of Mars ' atmosphere increases significantly during solar storms . That loss of atmosphere to space likely played a key role in Mars ' gradual shift from its carbon dioxide-dominated atmosphere - which had kept Mars relatively warm and allowed the planet to support liquid surface water - to the cold , arid planet seen today . This shift took place between about 4.2 to 3.7 billion years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"MAVEN\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 84419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Hypercapnia\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 84299\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Suess_effect\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 84161\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Orbital forcing Content: Orbital forcing is the effect on climate of slow changes in the tilt of the Earth 's axis and shape of the orbit ( see Milankovitch cycles ) . These orbital changes change the total amount of sunlight reaching the Earth by up to 25 % at mid-latitudes ( from 400 to 500 Wm − 2 at latitudes of 60 degrees ) . In this context , the term `` forcing '' signifies a physical process that affects the Earth 's climate . This mechanism is believed to be responsible for the timing of the ice age cycles . A strict application of the Milankovitch theory does not allow the prediction of a `` sudden '' ice age ( rapid being anything under a century or two ) , since the fastest orbital period is about 20,000 years . The timing of past glacial periods coincides very well with the predictions of the Milankovitch theory , and these effects can be calculated into the future .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Orbital_forcing\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 84089\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Venus\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 83759\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Criegee intermediate Content: A Criegee intermediate ( also called a Criegee zwitterion or Criegee biradical ) is a carbonyl oxide with two charge centers . These molecules help to break down sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere , and may help offset global warming . The formation of this sort of structure was first postulated in the 1950s by Rudolf Criegee , for whom it is named , but it was n't until 2013 that direct detection of such chemicals was reported . Infrared spectroscopy suggests the electronic structure is a zwitterion rather than a biradical as some had proposed .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Criegee_intermediate\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 83500\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Stuart_Agnew\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 83499\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_leakage\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 83206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carnian_Pluvial_Event\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 83077\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 83070\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Amorphous_carbonia\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 82772\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Wetland_methane_emissions\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 82551\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 82485\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmosphere_of_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 82286\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere Content: The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_accumulation_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 82276\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_sink\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 82084\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_impact_of_aviation\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 82054\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Afterdamp Content: Afterdamp is the toxic mixture of gases left in a mine following an explosion caused by firedamp , which itself can initiate a much larger explosion of coal dust . It consists of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen . Hydrogen sulfide , another highly toxic gas , may also be present . However , it is the high content of carbon monoxide which kills by depriving victims of oxygen by combining preferentially with haemoglobin in the blood . Afterdamp was the deadly gas which caused the majority of casualties in the many pit disasters of the British coalfields , such as the Senghenydd colliery disaster and elsewhere in the world . Such disasters continue to afflict working mines , especially in mainland China .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Afterdamp\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 81919\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Respiratory acidosis Content: Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Respiratory_acidosis\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 81905\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Idaho\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 81779\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: HD 209458 b Content: HD 209458 b ( sometimes unofficially called Osiris ) is an exoplanet that orbits the solar analog HD 209458 in the constellation Pegasus , some 150 light-years from the Solar System . The radius of the planet 's orbit is 7 million kilometres , about 0.047 astronomical units , or one eighth the radius of Mercury 's orbit . This small radius results in a year that is 3.5 Earth days long and an estimated surface temperature of about 1,000 ° C ( about 1,800 ° F ) . Its mass is 220 times that of Earth ( 0.69 Jupiter masses ) and its volume is some 2.5 times greater than that of Jupiter . The high mass and volume of HD 209458 b indicate that it is a gas giant . HD 209458 b represents a number of milestones in extraplanetary research . It was the first of many categories : a transiting extrasolar planet the first planet detected through more than one method an extrasolar planet known to have an atmosphere an extrasolar planet observed to have an evaporating hydrogen atmosphere an extrasolar planet found to have an atmosphere containing oxygen and carbon one of the first two extrasolar planets to be directly observed spectroscopically the first extrasolar gas giant to have its superstorm measured the first planet to have its orbital speed measured , determining its mass directly . Based on the application of new , theoretical models , as of April 2007 , it is alleged to be the first extrasolar planet found to have water vapor in its atmosphere . In July , 2014 , NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on HD 209458 b and two other exoplanets ( HD 189733 b and WASP-12b ) orbiting Sun-like stars .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"HD_209458_b\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 81657\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Total inorganic carbon Content: The total inorganic carbon ( CT , or TIC ) or dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) is the sum of inorganic carbon species in a solution . The inorganic carbon species include carbon dioxide , carbonic acid , bicarbonate anion , and carbonate . It is customary to express carbon dioxide and carbonic acid simultaneously as CO2 * . CT is a key parameter when making measurements related to the pH of natural aqueous systems , and carbon dioxide flux estimates . CT = -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- + -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- + -LSB- CO32 − -RSB- where , CT is the total inorganic carbon -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- is the sum of carbon dioxide and carbonic acid concentrations ( -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- = -LSB- CO2 -RSB- + -LSB- H2CO3 -RSB- ) -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- is the bicarbonate concentration -LSB- CO32 − -RSB- is the carbonate concentration Each of these species are related by the following pH-driven chemical equilibria : CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H + + HCO3 − 2H + + CO32 − The concentrations of the different species of DIC ( and which species is dominant ) depends on the pH of the solution , as shown by a Bjerrum plot . Total inorganic carbon is typically measured by the acidification of the sample which drives the equilibria to CO2 . This gas is then sparged from solution and trapped , and the quantity trapped is then measured , usually by infrared spectroscopy .\",\n \"qid\": \"204\",\n \"docid\": \"Total_inorganic_carbon\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 81536\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":98,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"Each of the six major past ice ages began when the atmospheric carbon dioxide content was far higher than at present."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .","qid":"207","docid":"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous","rank":1,"score":139279},{"content":"Title: Huronian glaciation Content: The Huronian glaciation ( or Makganyene glaciation ) was a glaciation that extended from 2.4 billion years ago ( Ga ) to 2.1 Ga , during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era . The Huronian glaciation followed after the Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE ) , a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane . The oxygen combined with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water , which does not retain heat as well as methane does . It is the oldest and longest ice age , occurring at a time when , in a biological sense , only simple , unicellular life existed on Earth . This ice age led to a mass-extinction on Earth .","qid":"207","docid":"Huronian_glaciation","rank":2,"score":137652},{"content":"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .","qid":"207","docid":"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum","rank":3,"score":132870},{"content":"Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_age","rank":4,"score":132177},{"content":"Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .","qid":"207","docid":"Yedoma","rank":5,"score":131134},{"content":"Title: Timeline of glaciation Content: There have been five known ice ages in the Earth 's history , with the Earth experiencing the Quaternary Ice Age during the present time . Within ice ages , there exist periods of more severe glacial conditions and more temperate referred to as glacial periods and interglacial periods , respectively . The Earth is currently in such an interglacial period of the Quaternary Ice Age , with the last glacial period of the Quaternary having ended approximately 11,700 years ago with the start of the Holocene epoch . Based on climate proxies , paleoclimatologists study the different climate states originating from glaciation .","qid":"207","docid":"Timeline_of_glaciation","rank":6,"score":128074},{"content":"Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .","qid":"207","docid":"Quaternary_glaciation","rank":7,"score":127969},{"content":"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .","qid":"207","docid":"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth","rank":8,"score":122453},{"content":"Title: Charles Thilorier Content: Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier was a student at the École polytechnique in the class / year of 1815 , who was mistakenly believed to have been the first person to create solid carbon dioxide ( `` dry ice '' ) . Actually , a French inventor , Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier ( 1790 -- 1844 ) , discovered dry ice . Unfortunately , in almost all of his technical articles , Adrien Thilorier gave his name simply as `` Thilorier '' ; similarly , whenever others referred to him in technical articles , his name was also given only as `` Thilorier '' . This impeded efforts by scholars to identify him subsequently . The confusion was compounded when Paul Thénard wrote a biography of his father , Louis Thénard , a French chemist : In 1835 , Adrien Thilorier had created dry ice by spraying liquid carbon dioxide into a glass vessel . He had thought that the dry ice was merely snow ; that is , water vapor from the atmosphere which had condensed as a result of the cold that the evaporation of the liquid carbon dioxide had produced . Louis Thénard had explained to Thilorier that his `` snow '' was actually solidified carbon dioxide . In a footnote of Louis Thénard 's biography , Paul Thénard identified the `` Thilorier '' who discovered dry ice as `` Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier '' , a student at the École polytechnique in the class of 1815 . This ( mistaken ) identification was mentioned by Duane H. D. Roller , a graduate student at Harvard University , in a paper that was published in 1952 . Consequently , many sources claim that Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier discovered dry ice . Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier was an employee of the French Post Office in Paris who invented , among other things , an oil lamp , a gas compressor , and an apparatus for producing liquid carbon dioxide . It was a French scholar who revealed that he had discovered dry ice . During the 1960s , Madeleine Ambrière-Fargeaud , a scholar in France , was trying to identify the person who served as the model for a `` mad scientist '' character , Balthazar Claës , in Honoré de Balzac 's novel La Recherche de l'absolu ( The Quest of the Absolute ) . Her research suggested that Claës was inspired ( in part ) by Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier . By 2003 , Joost Mertens , a Dutch historian of science , had verified many of the findings that Ms. Ambrière-Fargeaud had made about Thilorier . That `` Thilorier '' is actually Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier is proved by French government documents , especially patents . In 1826 , he was granted a patent for a `` hydrostatic lamp '' ; the patent lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' of Paris . His 1831 patent for a gas compressor also lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and describes him as an employee of the `` Administration des postes '' ( i.e. , the Post Office ) in Paris . In 1832 , the Bulletin of the laws of the kingdom of France also lists him as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and as an employee of the Post Office , who resided at number 21 on the Place Vendôme in Paris , and as the inventor of a gas compressor .","qid":"207","docid":"Charles_Thilorier","rank":9,"score":118233},{"content":"Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .","qid":"207","docid":"Little_Ice_Age","rank":10,"score":117535},{"content":"Title: Dry ice Content: Dry ice , sometimes referred to as `` cardice '' ( chiefly by British chemists ) , is the solid form of carbon dioxide . It is used primarily as a cooling agent . Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue ( other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere ) . It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable . Dry ice sublimates at − 78.5 ° C ( − 109.3 ° F ) at Earth atmospheric pressures . This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing ( frostbite ) . While generally not very toxic , the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia ( abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood ) due to buildup in confined locations .","qid":"207","docid":"Dry_ice","rank":11,"score":116462},{"content":"Title: The Ice Age Content: The Ice Age may refer to : The Last glacial period , which occurred from c. 110,000 -- c. 11,700 years ago The Pleistocene , a geological epoch lasting from c. 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago and spanning the world 's most recent period of repeated glaciations . The Plio-Pleistocene , a geological pseudo-period which begins about 5 million years ago and combines the time ranges of the formally defined Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events lasting from the Quaternary period to the present . For the general period of temperature reduction , see Ice age .","qid":"207","docid":"The_Ice_Age","rank":12,"score":115594},{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"207","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":13,"score":115071},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .","qid":"207","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere","rank":14,"score":112555},{"content":"Title: Ice age (disambiguation) Content: __ NOTOC __ An ice age is a geologic period characterized by the presence of polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Periods of major glaciation ( commonly also referred to as ice ages ) are scientifically termed glacial periods . Ice Age may also refer to :","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_age_(disambiguation)","rank":15,"score":112021},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .","qid":"207","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate","rank":16,"score":110835},{"content":"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .","qid":"207","docid":"Cap_carbonate","rank":17,"score":110216},{"content":"Title: Karoo Ice Age Content: The Karoo Ice Age from 360 -- 260 million years ago ( Mya ) was the second major ice age of the Phanerozoic Eon . It is named after the tillite ( Dwyka Group ) found in the Karoo region of South Africa ( and adjacent areas ) , where evidence for this ice age was first clearly identified in the 19th century . The tectonic assembly of the continents of Euramerica ( later with the Uralian orogeny , into Laurasia ) and Gondwana into Pangaea , in the Hercynian-Alleghany Orogeny , made a major continental land mass within the Antarctic region , and the closure of the Rheic Ocean and Iapetus Ocean saw disruption of warm-water currents in the Panthalassa Ocean and Paleotethys Sea , which led to progressive cooling of summers , and the snowfields accumulating in winters , causing mountainous alpine glaciers to grow , and then spread out of highland areas , making continental glaciers which spread to cover much of Gondwana . At least two major periods of glaciation have been discovered : The first glacial period was associated with the Mississippian subperiod ( 359.2 -- 318.1 Mya ) : ice sheets expanded from a core in southern Africa and South America . The second glacial period was associated with the Pennsylvanian subperiod ( 318.1 -- 299 Mya ) ; ice sheets expanded from a core in Australia and India . The extent of ancient glaciations in Antarctica is not well known , because the present ice sheet hides the evidence .","qid":"207","docid":"Karoo_Ice_Age","rank":18,"score":110146},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .","qid":"207","docid":"Carbon_dioxide","rank":19,"score":109807},{"content":"Title: Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier Content: Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier ( 16 February 1790 -- 2 December 1844 ) was a French inventor who was the first person to produce solid carbon dioxide ( `` dry ice '' ) .","qid":"207","docid":"Adrien-Jean-Pierre_Thilorier","rank":20,"score":108525},{"content":"Title: Azolla event Content: The Azolla event occurred in the middle Eocene epoch , around , when blooms of the freshwater fern Azolla are thought to have happened in the Arctic Ocean . As they sank to the stagnant sea floor , they were incorporated into the sediment ; the resulting draw-down of carbon dioxide has been speculated to have helped transform the planet from a `` greenhouse Earth '' state , hot enough for turtles and palm trees to prosper at the poles , to the icehouse Earth it has been since .","qid":"207","docid":"Azolla_event","rank":21,"score":107548},{"content":"Title: Interstellar ice Content: Interstellar ice consists of grains of volatiles in the ice phase that form in the interstellar medium . Ice and dust grains form the primary material out of which the Solar System was formed . Grains of ice are found in the dense regions of molecular clouds , where new stars are formed . Temperatures in these regions can be as low as 10 K , allowing molecules that collide with grains to form an icy mantle . Thereafter , atoms undergo thermal motion across the surface , eventually forming bonds with other atoms . This results in the formation of water and methanol . Indeed , the ices are dominated by water and methanol , as well as ammonia , carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide . Frozen formaldehyde and molecular hydrogen may also be present . Found in lower abundances are nitriles , ketones , esters and carbonyl sulfide . The mantles of interstellar ice grains are generally amorphous , only becoming crystalline in the presence of a star . The composition of interstellar ice can be determined through its infrared spectrum . As starlight passes through a molecular cloud containing ice , molecules in the cloud absorb energy . This adsorption occurs at the characteristic frequencies of vibration of the gas and dust . Ice features in the cloud are relatively prominently in this spectra , and the composition of the ice can be determined by comparison with samples of ice materials on Earth . In the sites directly observable from Earth , around 60 -- 70 % of the interstellar ice consists of water , which displays a strong emission at 3.05 μm from stretching of the O -- H bond . In September 2012 , NASA scientists reported that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) , subjected to interstellar medium ( ISM ) conditions , are transformed , through hydrogenation , oxygenation and hydroxylation , to more complex organics - `` a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides , the raw materials of proteins and DNA , respectively '' . Further , as a result of these transformations , the PAHs lose their spectroscopic signature which could be one of the reasons `` for the lack of PAH detection in interstellar ice grains , particularly the outer regions of cold , dense clouds or the upper molecular layers of protoplanetary disks . ''","qid":"207","docid":"Interstellar_ice","rank":22,"score":107528},{"content":"Title: Ice Age (Magic: The Gathering) Content: Ice Age is a block of three sets in Magic : The Gathering , consisting of the Ice Age , Alliances and Coldsnap sets . It is also the titular first set in the block . The Ice Age set is the eleventh set and the sixth expansion set , released in June 1995 . Set in the years from 450 to 2934 AR , the set describes a world set in perpetual winter due to the events in Antiquities . Ice Age was followed up June 1996 with Alliances , the fourteenth Magic : The Gathering set and eighth expansion set. ; and on July 21 , 2006 with Coldsnap . The time period between Alliances and Coldsnap was the longest period of time between the beginning and the completion of a full block in Magic . Originally , the set Homelands , released in October 1995 , was the second set in the Ice Age block ( with Alliances being the third set ) , but following the release of Coldsnap , Homelands was removed from the block in favor of Coldsnap .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_Age_(Magic:_The_Gathering)","rank":23,"score":106363},{"content":"Title: Pleistocene Content: The Pleistocene ( -LSB- pronˈplaɪstəˌsiːn , _ - toʊ - -RSB- , often colloquially referred to as the Ice Age ) is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago , spanning the world 's most recent period of repeated glaciations . The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period and also with the end of the Paleolithic age used in archaeology . The Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era . In the ICS timescale , the Pleistocene is divided into four stages or ages , the Gelasian , Calabrian , Ionian and Tarantian . All of these stages were defined in southern Europe . In addition to this international subdivision , various regional subdivisions are often used . Before a change finally confirmed in 2009 by the International Union of Geological Sciences , the time boundary between the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene was regarded as being at 1.806 million years Before Present ( BP ) , as opposed to the currently accepted 2.588 million years BP : publications from the preceding years may use either definition of the period .","qid":"207","docid":"Pleistocene","rank":24,"score":105035},{"content":"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .","qid":"207","docid":"Amorphous_carbonia","rank":25,"score":104803},{"content":"Title: Ice Age (band) Content: Ice Age was a progressive band from New York City , USA . Founded by guitarist Jimmy Pappas , vocalist/keyboardist Josh Pincus , drummer Hal Aponte and bassist Arron DiCesare , the band released their debut album in 1999 , titled The Great Divide . Liberation followed in 2001 , both on Magna Carta Records . Ice Age are influenced by pop/progressive bands such as Yes , Kansas and Rush , but also by more modern progressive metal bands like Queensrÿche , and Dream Theater . In 2006 , the band officially changed their name to Soulfractured . This was accompanied by an announced shift in the band 's music - less overt progressive experimentation , with closer attention paid to melodic structure and songcraft . In this incarnation the band released the Soulfractured EP , made available through the band 's websites . They had previously released the Little Bird EP as Ice Age . Shortly after the second EP 's release , the group disbanded .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_Age_(band)","rank":26,"score":104063},{"content":"Title: Dry ice color show Content: Dry ice color show is the formation of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) by the reaction of dry ice , the solid form of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and water , which lower the pH to the acidic solution . By applying Universal Indicator to the solution , the changing of pH can be indicated as the color of the solution changes into the contrast color . This experiment is usually conducted as a classroom demonstration of pH and properties of carbon dioxide since the materials required are handful and prepared easily .","qid":"207","docid":"Dry_ice_color_show","rank":27,"score":103219},{"content":"Title: Ice Age (franchise) Content: Ice Age is an American media franchise centering on a group of mammals surviving the Paleolithic ice age . It is produced by Blue Sky Studios , a division of 20th Century Fox , and featuring the voices of Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary , and Chris Wedge . Five films have been released in the series thus far with Ice Age in 2002 , Ice Age : The Meltdown in 2006 , Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 , and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 . It has received some criticism for making no attempt to be scientifically accurate . As of April 2016 , the franchise had generated $ 6 billion in revenue , making it one of the highest-grossing media franchises of all time .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_Age_(franchise)","rank":28,"score":101911},{"content":"Title: The Ice Age (novel) Content: The Ice Age is a 1977 novel by British Novelist Margaret Drabble . The novel follows the experiences of former BBC producer Anthony Keating as he experiences the ups and downs of life during the 1960s and 1970s . Depicting the property crisis in Britain during that period , novel diverges from her earlier psychological studies of individuals , focusing more on the `` state of England '' .","qid":"207","docid":"The_Ice_Age_(novel)","rank":29,"score":101861},{"content":"Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .","qid":"207","docid":"774–775_carbon-14_spike","rank":30,"score":101805},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .","qid":"207","docid":"Atmospheric_methane","rank":31,"score":101781},{"content":"Title: Ice Age (1975 film) Content: Ice Age ( Eiszeit ) is a 1975 West German drama film directed by Peter Zadek . It was entered into the 25th Berlin International Film Festival . Eiszeit began as a theatre play by Tankred Dorst ( 1973 ) about Knut Hamsun , a Nobel Prize-winning author but unrepentant admirer of Nazi Germany .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_Age_(1975_film)","rank":32,"score":101673},{"content":"Title: Vashon Glaciation Content: The Vashon Glaciation or Vashon Stade was the most recent period of very cold climate in which glaciers existed at elevations at and near sea level in the western part of present-day Washington state . It occurred during a colder than present part of the current ice age . The Vashon Glaciation lasted from about 19,000 - 16,000 BP ( Before Present - present defined as January 1 , 1950 for this scale ) . The Cordilleran Ice Sheet was an ice sheet that covered present-day southern Alaska and parts of western Canada . During the Vashon Glaciation , the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced into the Puget Sound region .","qid":"207","docid":"Vashon_Glaciation","rank":33,"score":100787},{"content":"Title: Ice Ages (band) Content: Ice Ages is an Austrian dark electro/industrial band signed to Napalm Records . The band is a one-man band consisting of Richard Lederer from Summoning and Die Verbannten Kinder Evas .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_Ages_(band)","rank":34,"score":100723},{"content":"Title: Martian polar ice caps Content: The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice .","qid":"207","docid":"Martian_polar_ice_caps","rank":35,"score":100487},{"content":"Title: Jacques Beaulieu Content: For the Canadian ice hockey coach , seeJacques Beaulieu ( ice hockey ) Jacques A. Beaulieu , ( born April 15 , 1932 ) is a Canadian physicist who invented the first transversely excited atmospheric carbon dioxide laser or TEA laser in 1968 . In 1978 , he was awarded the Royal Society of Canada 's Thomas W. Eadie Medal . In 2002 , he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada in recognition of his `` major influence on the development of lasers and their application in the fields of defence and medicine '' . In 1999 , he was made a Grand Officer of the National Order of Quebec . In 1980 , he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada .","qid":"207","docid":"Jacques_Beaulieu","rank":36,"score":100364},{"content":"Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .","qid":"207","docid":"Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850","rank":37,"score":100125},{"content":"Title: Ice cloud Content: An ice cloud is a colloid of ice particles dispersed in air . The term has been used to refer to clouds of both water ice and carbon dioxide ice on Mars . Such clouds can be sufficiently large and dense to cast shadows on the Martian surface .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_cloud","rank":38,"score":99961},{"content":"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .","qid":"207","docid":"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide","rank":39,"score":99242},{"content":"Title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis Content: The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis or Clovis comet hypothesis originally proposed that a large air burst or earth impact of one or more comets initiated the Younger Dryas cold period about 12,900 BP calibrated ( 10,900 14C uncalibrated ) years ago . The hypothesis has been contested by research showing that most of the conclusions can not be repeated by other scientists , and criticized because of misinterpretation of data and the lack of confirmatory evidence . The current impact hypothesis states that the air burst ( s ) or impact ( s ) of a swarm of carbonaceous chondrites or comet fragments set areas of the North American continent on fire , causing the extinction of most of the megafauna in North America and the demise of the North American Clovis culture after the last glacial period . The Younger Dryas ice age lasted for about 1,200 years before the climate warmed again . This swarm is hypothesized to have exploded above or possibly on the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the region of the Great Lakes , though no impact crater has yet been identified and no physical model by which such a swarm could form or explode in the air has been proposed . Nevertheless , the proponents suggest that it would be physically possible for such an air burst to have been similar to , but orders of magnitude larger than , the Tunguska event of 1908 . The hypothesis proposed that animal and human life in North America not directly killed by the blast or the resulting coast-to-coast wildfires would have likely starved on the burned surface of the continent .","qid":"207","docid":"Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis","rank":40,"score":98799},{"content":"Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .","qid":"207","docid":"Deglaciation","rank":41,"score":98545},{"content":"Title: Carbon dioxide snow Content: Carbon dioxide snow may refer to : Dry ice , a solid form of carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide cleaning , an industrial cleaning method","qid":"207","docid":"Carbon_dioxide_snow","rank":42,"score":98507},{"content":"Title: Last glacial period Content: The last glacial period , popularly known as the Ice Age , was the most recent glacial period , which occurred from years ago . This most recent glacial period is part of a larger pattern of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation ( years ago to present ) . From this point of view , scientists consider this `` ice age '' to be merely the latest glaciation event in a much larger ice age , one that dates back over two million years and is still ongoing . During this last glacial period , there were several changes between glacier advance and retreat . The Last Glacial Maximum , the maximum extent of glaciation within the last glacial period , was approximately 22,000 years ago . While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar , local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent ( see picture of ice core data below for differences ) . Approximately 13,000 years ago , the Late Glacial Maximum began . Around 11,700 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch , which includes the Holocene glacial retreat . From the point of view of human archaeology , it falls in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods . When the glaciation event started , Homo sapiens were confined to Africa and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Homo erectus in Asia . Near the end of the event , Homo sapiens spread into Eurasia and Australia . Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover . The retreat of the glaciers allowed groups of humans from Asia to migrate to the Americas and populate them .","qid":"207","docid":"Last_glacial_period","rank":43,"score":98462},{"content":"Title: True polar wander on Mars Content: For some time , scientists have thought that the location of the poles of Mars have shifted due to the great mass of volcanic material in the Tharsis dome which includes Olympus Mons , the highest volcano in the solar system . A study published in Nature supports this idea . For a period early in the history of Mars , the poles were about 20 degrees away from their present positions . At that time ice was deposited in a region called Dorsa Argentea Formation . Also , the Martian dichotomy was aligned along the equator . A band of rivers formed at around 25 degrees south carried water from the southern highlands to the northern lowlands . After the polar shift , the location of the dichotomy boundary and the band of river valleys shifted . Dorsa Argentea was no longer at the pole . To produce the change in the pole location , the tilt of the planet remained unchanged , rather the crust and mantle moved . They rotated around the core . This new study suggests that the volcanoes and the movement of the poles occurred at about the same time . Volcanoes were erupting when the rivers were flowing with water . Perhaps the volcanoes supplied much water to the atmosphere , as well as carbon dioxide to warm the atmosphere ; these effects would provide water for the rivers . Tharsis is found in the Amazonis quadrangle and the Tharsis quadrangle .","qid":"207","docid":"True_polar_wander_on_Mars","rank":44,"score":97362},{"content":"Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .","qid":"207","docid":"Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age","rank":45,"score":97148},{"content":"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''","qid":"207","docid":"Guy_Stewart_Callendar","rank":46,"score":96871},{"content":"Title: Ice Age (video game) Content: Ice Age is a 2002 platform game based on the film of the same name , developed by Artificial Mind and Movement , published by Ubi Soft Entertainment and released for the Game Boy Advance .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_Age_(video_game)","rank":47,"score":96497},{"content":"Title: Frost line (astrophysics) Content: In astronomy or planetary science , the frost line , also known as the snow line or ice line , is the particular distance in the solar nebula from the central protostar where it is cold enough for volatile compounds such as water , ammonia , methane , carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide to condense into solid ice grains . This condensation temperature depends on the volatile substance and the partial pressure of vapor in the protostar nebula . The actual temperature and distance for the snow line of water ice depend on the physical model used to calculate it and on the theoretical solar nebula model : 170 K at 2.7 AU ( Hayashi , 1981 ) 143 K at 3.2 AU to 150 K at 3 AU ( Podolak and Zucker , 2010 ) 3.1 AU ( Martin and Livio , 2012 ) ≈ 150 K for μm-size grains and ≈ 200 K for km-size bodies ( D'Angelo and Podolak , 2015 ) The radial position of the condensation/evaporation front varies over time , as the nebula evolves . Occasionally , the term snow line is also used to represent the present distance at which water ice can be stable ( even under direct sunlight ) . This current snow line distance is different from the formation snow line distance during the formation of Solar System , and approximately equals 5 AU . The reason for the difference is that during the formation of Solar System , the solar nebula was an opaque cloud where temperature were lower close to the Sun , and the Sun itself was less energetic . After formation , the ice got buried by infalling dust and it has remained stable a few meters below the surface . If ice within 5 AU is exposed , e.g. by a crater , then it sublimates on short timescales . However , out of direct sunlight ice can remain stable on the surface of asteroids ( and the Moon ) if it is located in permanently shadowed craters , where temperature may remain very low over the age of the Solar System ( e.g. 30 -- 40 K on the Moon ) . Observations of the asteroid belt , located between Mars and Jupiter , suggest that the water snow line during formation of Solar System was located within this region . The outer asteroids are icy C-class objects ( e.g. Abe et al. 2000 ; Morbidelli et al. 2000 ) whereas the inner asteroid belt is largely devoid of water . This implies that when planetesimal formation occurred the snow line was located at around 2.7 AU from the Sun . For example , the dwarf planet Ceres with semi-major axis of 2.77 AU lies almost exactly on the lower estimation for water snow line during the formation of the Solar System . Ceres appears to have an icy mantle and may even have a water ocean below the surface . Each volatile substance has its own snow line , e.g. carbon monoxide and nitrogen , so it is important to always specify which material 's snow line is meant . The lower temperature in the nebula beyond the frost line makes many more solid grains available for accretion into planetesimals and eventually planets . The frost line therefore separates terrestrial planets from giant planets in the Solar System . However , giant planets have been found inside the frost line around several other stars ( so-called hot Jupiters ) . They are thought to have formed outside the frost line , and later migrated inwards to their current positions . Earth , which lies less than a quarter of the distance to the frost line but is not a giant planet , has adequate gravitation for keeping methane , ammonia , and water vapor from escaping it . Methane and ammonia are rare in the Earth 's atmosphere only because of their instability in an oxygen-rich atmosphere that results from life forms ( largely green plants ) whose biochemistry suggests plentiful methane and ammonia at one time , but of course liquid water and ice , which are chemically stable in such an atmosphere , form much of the surface of Earth . Researchers Rebecca Martin and Mario Livio have proposed that asteroid belts may tend to form in the vicinity of the frost line , due to nearby giant planets disrupting planet formation inside their orbit . By analysing the temperature of warm dust found around some 90 stars , they concluded that the dust ( and therefore possible asteroid belts ) was typically found close to the frost line . The term is borrowed from the notion of `` frost line '' in soil science .","qid":"207","docid":"Frost_line_(astrophysics)","rank":48,"score":96447},{"content":"Title: Ice Ic Content: Ice Ic ( pronounced `` ice one c '' or `` ice icy '' ) is a metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice . H. König was the first to identify and deduce the structure of ice Ic . The oxygen atoms in ice Ic are arranged in a diamond structure and is extremely similar to ice Ih having nearly identical densities and the same lattice constant along the hexagonal puckered-planes . It forms at temperatures between 130 and 220 K ( − 140 and − 50 ° C ) upon cooling , and can exist up to 240 K upon warming , when it transforms into ice Ih . Apart from forming from supercooled water , ice Ic has also been reported to form from amorphous ice as well as from the high pressure ices II , III and V . It can form in and is occasionally present in the upper atmosphere and is believed to be responsible for the observation of Scheiner 's halo , a rare ring that occurs near 28 degrees from the Sun or the Moon . Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_Ic","rank":49,"score":96242},{"content":"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .","qid":"207","docid":"Keeling_Curve","rank":50,"score":96217},{"content":"Title: International Petroleum Exchange Content: The International Petroleum Exchange , now ICE Futures ( since 2005-04-7 ) , based in London , was one of the world 's largest energy futures and options exchanges . Its flagship commodity , Brent Crude was a world benchmark for oil prices , but the exchange also handled futures contracts and options on fuel oil , natural gas , electricity ( baseload and peakload ) , coal contracts and , as of 22 April 2005 , carbon emission allowances with the European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) . The IPE was acquired by the Intercontinental Exchange in 2001 . The IPE was an open outcry exchange until 7 April 2005 , when its name was changed to ICE Futures and all trading was shifted onto an electronic trading platform .","qid":"207","docid":"International_Petroleum_Exchange","rank":51,"score":95946},{"content":"Title: Water on Mars Content: Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice , though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere and occasionally as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil . The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap . Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate latitudes . More than five million cubic kilometers of ice have been identified at or near the surface of modern Mars , enough to cover the whole planet to a depth of 35 meters . Even more ice is likely to be locked away in the deep subsurface . Some liquid water may occur transiently on the Martian surface today , but only under certain conditions . No large standing bodies of liquid water exist , because the atmospheric pressure at the surface averages just 600 Pa -- about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure -- and because the global average temperature is far too low ( 210 K ) , leading to either rapid evaporation ( sublimation ) or rapid freezing . Before about 3.8 billion years ago , Mars may have had a denser atmosphere and higher surface temperatures , allowing vast amounts of liquid water on the surface , possibly including a large ocean that may have covered one-third of the planet . Water has also apparently flowed across the surface for short periods at various intervals more recently in Mars ' history . On December 9 , 2013 , NASA reported that , based on evidence from the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus , Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life . Many lines of evidence indicate that water is abundant on Mars and has played a significant role in the planet 's geologic history . The present-day inventory of water on Mars can be estimated from spacecraft imagery , remote sensing techniques ( spectroscopic measurements , radar , etc. ) , and surface investigations from landers and rovers . Geologic evidence of past water includes enormous outflow channels carved by floods , ancient river valley networks , deltas , and lakebeds ; and the detection of rocks and minerals on the surface that could only have formed in liquid water . Numerous geomorphic features suggest the presence of ground ice ( permafrost ) and the movement of ice in glaciers , both in the recent past and present . Gullies and slope lineae along cliffs and crater walls suggest that flowing water continues to shape the surface of Mars , although to a far lesser degree than in the ancient past . Although the surface of Mars was periodically wet and could have been hospitable to microbial life billions of years ago , the current environment at the surface is dry and subfreezing , probably presenting an insurmountable obstacle for living organisms . In addition , Mars lacks a thick atmosphere , ozone layer , and magnetic field , allowing solar and cosmic radiation to strike the surface unimpeded . The damaging effects of ionizing radiation on cellular structure is another one of the prime limiting factors on the survival of life on the surface . Therefore , the best potential locations for discovering life on Mars may be in subsurface environments . On November 22 , 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice on the planet Mars -- the volume of water detected is equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior . Understanding water on Mars is vital to assess the planet 's potential for harboring life and for providing usable resources for future human exploration . For this reason , ` Follow the Water ' was the science theme of NASA 's Mars Exploration Program ( MEP ) in the first decade of the 21st century . Discoveries by the 2001 Mars Odyssey , Mars Exploration Rovers ( MERs ) , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ( MRO ) , and Mars Phoenix lander have been instrumental in answering key questions about water 's abundance and distribution on Mars . The ESA 's Mars Express orbiter has also provided essential data in this quest . The Mars Odyssey , Mars Express , MER Opportunity rover , MRO , and Mars Science Lander Curiosity rover are still sending back data from Mars , and discoveries continue to be made .","qid":"207","docid":"Water_on_Mars","rank":52,"score":95666},{"content":"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .","qid":"207","docid":"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal","rank":53,"score":95285},{"content":"Title: Carbon hexoxide Content: Carbon hexoxide or carbon hexaoxide is an oxide of carbon with an unusually large quantity of oxygen . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule consists of a six membered ring with five oxygen and one carbon atom , and one oxygen with a double bond with the carbon .","qid":"207","docid":"Carbon_hexoxide","rank":54,"score":94877},{"content":"Title: Ice Age (2002 film) Content: Ice Age is a 2002 American computer-animated buddy comedy road film directed by Chris Wedge and co-directed by Carlos Saldanha from a story by Michael J. Wilson . Produced by Blue Sky Studios as its first feature film , it was released by 20th Century Fox on March 15 , 2002 . The film features the voices of Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Chris Wedge . The film is set during the days of the ice age ; animals begin migrating south to escape the winters . Once Manny , a no-nonsense mammoth meets Sid , a loudmouthed ground sloth and the two find a human baby , they set out to return the baby . Joining them is a saber-tooth tiger named Diego , who is commanded by his pack leader to bring the baby to him to enact revenge against the humans . This film was met with mostly positive reviews and was nominated at the 75th Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature . It was a box office success by grossing over $ 383 million , starting the Ice Age franchise . It was followed by four sequels , Ice Age : The Meltdown in 2006 , Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 , and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_Age_(2002_film)","rank":55,"score":94778},{"content":"Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .","qid":"207","docid":"Last_Glacial_Maximum","rank":56,"score":94764},{"content":"Title: Dry-ice blasting Content: Dry ice-blasting is a form of carbon dioxide cleaning , where dry ice , the solid form of carbon dioxide , is accelerated in a pressurized air stream and directed at a surface in order to clean it . An alternative media for non-abrasive blasting is water-ice , known as ice blasting . The method is similar to other forms of abrasive blasting such as sand blasting , plastic bead blasting , or sodablasting substituted for dry ice as the blasting medium . Dry-ice blasting leaves no chemical residue as dry ice sublimates at room temperature .","qid":"207","docid":"Dry-ice_blasting","rank":57,"score":94509},{"content":"Title: North Carolina ice storm of 2002 Content: The North Carolina ice storm of 2002 caused up to an inch of freezing rain from December 4 -- 5 in central North Carolina . A total of 24 people were killed , and as many as 1.8 million people were left without electricity on December 6 . Power outages began December 4 , and power was not completely restored to until December 14 . Raleigh received the most freezing rain from a single storm since 1948 , and Bristol , Tennessee received the most ice it had seen in 28 years . The storm also produced heavy rain in both the mountains and coastal plain of North Carolina . Much of the Southern Plains and the Northeast received snow with this system . During the power outages many residents used propane and kerosene powered generators and heaters to combat the cold , with some resorting to moving charcoal grills indoors to heat their households . The increased usage of these heating methods , particularly grills led to a substantial number of cases of carbon monoxide poisoning . Varying reports allege 48 to 200 cases of poisoning . Hispanic residents were disproportionally affected by the impacts of the ice storm , sustaining 23 % of total injuries and 65 % of carbon monoxide poisonings during the storm period .","qid":"207","docid":"North_Carolina_ice_storm_of_2002","rank":58,"score":94322},{"content":"Title: Ice (anime) Content: is a 2007 three-episode original video animation created by Yasushi Akimoto and directed by Makoto Kobayashi . It is set in the ruins of Tokyo in the near future , after an unspecified catastrophe has led to the death of all human males and many females . The small groups of women who survive face the impending extinction of humanity . There are suggestions that the disaster was caused by human interference with nature , possibly biological warfare experiments or genetic engineering . Many of the survivors blame men 's warlike nature and scientific arrogance for the catastrophe . However , even though men have perished , the women who remain are forced to use violence in the face of bioterrorism and other threats . While some accept their fate as the last generation of humans , others see biological engineering as a final hope for the survival of the species .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_(anime)","rank":59,"score":94098},{"content":"Title: Ice core Content: An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition . Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable . An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_core","rank":60,"score":94035},{"content":"Title: Last Glacial Period Content: The Last Glacial Period (LGP) occurred from the end of the Eemian to the end of the Younger Dryas, encompassing the period c. 115,000 – c. 11,700 years ago. The LGP is part of a larger sequence of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation which started around 2,588,000 years ago and is ongoing. The definition of the Quaternary as beginning 2.58 million years ago is based on the formation of the Arctic ice cap. The Antarctic ice sheet began to form earlier, at about 34 Ma, in the mid-Cenozoic (Eocene–Oligocene extinction event). The term Late Cenozoic Ice Age is used to include this early phase.During this last glacial period there were alternating episodes of glacier advance and retreat. Within the last glacial period the Last Glacial Maximum was approximately 22,000 years ago. While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar, local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent (see picture of ice core data below for differences). Approximately 12,800 years ago, the Younger Dryas, the most recent glacial epoch, began, a coda to the preceding 100,000 year glacial period. Its end about 11,550 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene, the current geological epoch. From the point of view of human archaeology, the last glacial period falls in the Paleolithic and early Mesolithic periods. When the glaciation event started, Homo sapiens were confined to lower latitudes and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Denisovans and Homo erectus in Asia. Near the end of the event, Homo sapiens migrated into Eurasia and Australia. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover.","qid":"207","docid":"Last_Glacial_Period","rank":61,"score":93930},{"content":"Title: The Ice People Content: The Ice People is a 1998 science fiction novel by Maggie Gee , set in a future world dominated by a new ice age . The novel examines different elements of contemporary society : the fundamental roles and relationships of men and women , sexuality , politics and the issue of global warming . Global warming is the initial context , where increases in temperature are then followed by the cyclic appearance of an ice age . The reaction of society and individuals to these dramatic extremes sites the novel within the genre of dystopian science fiction , but closer to the author 's heart seem to be the changes within such a scenario of issues we face today : the changes in racism as different parts of the planet change in their attractiveness ; the changes in social position as `` Insiders '' and `` Outsiders '' -- the `` haves '' and the `` have-nots '' -- live within differing conditions ; the value , status and interpretation of marriage ; parenthood -- the increasing difficulties in conception and the subsequent single-parenthood versus family issues ; the `` gang '' mentality of men and women ; the way politics is perceived , used and power abused . The Ice People has been compared to George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World .","qid":"207","docid":"The_Ice_People","rank":62,"score":93881},{"content":"Title: Ice giant Content: An ice giant is a giant planet composed mainly of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium , such as oxygen , carbon , nitrogen , and sulfur . There are two known ice giants in the Solar System , Uranus and Neptune . Ice giants consist of only about 20 % hydrogen and helium in mass , as opposed to the Solar System 's gas giants ( Jupiter and Saturn ) , which are both more than 90 % hydrogen and helium in mass . In the 1990s , it was realized that Uranus and Neptune are a distinct class of giant planet , separate from the other giant planets . They have become known as ice giants because their constituent compounds were ices when they were primarily incorporated into the planets during their formation , either directly in the form of ices or trapped in water ice . The amount of solid volatiles within the ice giants today is , however , very small .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_giant","rank":63,"score":93762},{"content":"Title: Heinrich event Content: A Heinrich event is a natural phenomenon in which large armadas of icebergs break off from glaciers and traverse the North Atlantic . First described by marine geologist Hartmut Heinrich ( Heinrich , H. , 1988 ) , they occurred during five of the last seven glacial periods or `` ice ages '' over the past 640,000 years ( Hodell , et al. , 2008 ) . Heinrich events are particularly well documented for the last glacial period but notably absent from the penultimate glaciation ( Obrochta et al. , 2014 ) . The icebergs contained rock mass , which has been eroded by the glaciers , and as they melted , this matter was dropped onto the sea floor as ice rafted debris ( abbreviated to `` IRD '' ) . The icebergs ' melting caused extensive amounts of fresh water to be added to the North Atlantic . Such inputs of cold and fresh water may well have altered the density-driven , thermohaline circulation patterns of the ocean , and often coincide with indications of global climate fluctuations . Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the cause of Heinrich events , most of which imply instability of the massive Laurentide ice sheet , a continental glacier covering North America during the last glacial period . Other northern hemisphere ice sheets were potentially involved as well ( Scandinavia , Iceland , Greenland ) . However , the initial cause of this instability is still debated .","qid":"207","docid":"Heinrich_event","rank":64,"score":93668},{"content":"Title: Elster glaciation Content: The Elster glaciation ( Elster-Kaltzeit , Elster-Glazial or Elster-Zeit ) or , less commonly , the Elsterian glaciation -- in the older and popular scientific literature also called the Elster Ice Age ( Elster-Eiszeit ) -- is the oldest known ice age that resulted in the large-scale glaciation of North Germany . It is temporally identified with the south German Mindel glaciation . The Elster glaciation is currently dated to about 400,000 to 320,000 years ago . It succeeded a long period of rather warmer average temperatures , the Cromerian Complex . Two ice advances were very extensive . The Elster was followed by the Holstein interglacial . The glacial period is named after the White Elster , a right tributary of the Saale .","qid":"207","docid":"Elster_glaciation","rank":65,"score":93421},{"content":"Title: January 2009 North American ice storm Content: The January 2009 North American ice storm was a major ice storm that impacted parts of Oklahoma , Arkansas , Missouri , Illinois , Indiana , West Virginia , and Kentucky . The storm produced widespread power outages for over 2 million people due to heavy ice accumulation . The hardest hit areas were in Western Kentucky with over 500,000 residences without power during the height of the storm , including 100,000 without power for over one week , and northern Arkansas , with 300,000 residences without power . This ice storm killed 65 people nationwide , 35 in Kentucky . Most deaths were attributed to carbon monoxide poisoning due to power generators or kerosene heaters being used indoors without proper ventilation . Kentucky Governor Steve Beshear called up the entire Kentucky Army National Guard to deal with the after effects of this storm , the largest National Guard call up in that state 's history . Emergency response teams from NRWA state affiliates , including the Arkansas , Kentucky , Oklahoma , Missouri and Florida rural water associations provided portable generators and technical assistance to maintain the water supply in the impacted areas .","qid":"207","docid":"January_2009_North_American_ice_storm","rank":66,"score":93420},{"content":"Title: Ice Age Entertainment Content: Ice Age Entertainment is a record label created and owned by southern rapper Mike Jones and business partner Ray `` Mello '' Moore . The record label was created around late 2001 . Mike Jones has re-signed with Swishahouse , and has come to terms with them . Swishahouse will now distribute albums released under Ice Age Entertainment . The record label is based in two cities , Houston and Atlanta .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_Age_Entertainment","rank":67,"score":93277},{"content":"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .","qid":"207","docid":"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle","rank":68,"score":93071},{"content":"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .","qid":"207","docid":"8.2_kiloyear_event","rank":69,"score":92916},{"content":"Title: Information and Content Exchange Content: Information and Content Exchange ( ICE ) is an XML-based protocol used for content syndication via the Internet . By using XML both sender and receiver have an agreed-upon language in which to communicate . Using a client -- server architecture , ICE defines a syndicate/subscribe model that is comparable to the binary publish/subscribe protocol standards used in CORBA and DCOM . However , in ICE messages are delivered through XML , typically over an HTTP connection , rather than through a lower-level binary protocol .","qid":"207","docid":"Information_and_Content_Exchange","rank":70,"score":92774},{"content":"Title: Ice-type model Content: In statistical mechanics , the ice-type models or six-vertex models are a family of vertex models for crystal lattices with hydrogen bonds . The first such model was introduced by Linus Pauling in 1935 to account for the residual entropy of water ice . Variants have been proposed as models of certain ferroelectric and antiferroelectric crystals . In 1967 , Elliott H. Lieb found the exact solution to a two-dimensional ice model known as `` square ice '' . The exact solution in three dimensions is only known for a special `` frozen '' state .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice-type_model","rank":71,"score":92420},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"207","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":72,"score":92415},{"content":"Title: Early Palaeozoic Icehouse Content: The Early Palaeozoic Icehouse was a cool period that interrupted the greenhouse temperatures of the Ordovician and Silurian periods , culminating in the Hirnantian glaciation and the Ordovician extinction event . The icehouse was formerly thought only to consist of the Hirnantian glaciation itself , but has now been recognized as a longer , more gradual event .","qid":"207","docid":"Early_Palaeozoic_Icehouse","rank":73,"score":92269},{"content":"Title: Six Ages of the World Content: The Six Ages of the World ( Latin : sex aetates mundi ) , also rarely Seven Ages of the World ( Latin : septem aetates mundi ) , is a Christian historical periodization first written about by Saint Augustine circa 400 AD . It is based upon Christian religious events , from the creation of Adam to the events of Revelation . The six ages of history , with each age ( Latin : aetas ) lasting approximately 1,000 years , were widely believed and in use throughout the Middle Ages , and until the Enlightenment , the writing of history was mostly the filling out of all or some part of this outline . The outline accounts for Seven Ages , just as there are seven days of the week , with the Seventh Age being eternal rest after the Final Judgement and End Times , just as the seventh day of the week is reserved for rest . It was normally called the Six Ages of the World because in Augustine 's schema they were the ages of the world , of history , while the Seventh Age was not of this world but , as Bede later elaborated , ran parallel to the six ages of the world . Augustine 's presentation deliberately counters chiliastic and millennial ideas that the Seventh Age , World to Come , would come after the sixth .","qid":"207","docid":"Six_Ages_of_the_World","rank":74,"score":92246},{"content":"Title: Carbon pentoxide Content: Carbon pentaoxide or carbon pentoxide is an unstable molecular oxide of carbon . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule has a C2 symmetry . It consists of a five membered ring with one carbon and four oxygen atoms . A fifth oxygen atom has a double bond to the carbon . Calculation has resulted in a theoretical structure . The pentagon is not regular , but varies in the length of its sides and angles . The distance between the oxygen atoms that are not attached to carbon is 1.406 Å , whereas the distance between one of these atoms and an oxygen attached to carbon is 1.457 Å . The carbon oxygen bond length is 1.376 Å . The double carbon to oxygen bond is the shortest at 1.180 Å . There is no carbon-to-carbon bond as there is only one carbon atom . The OOO bond angle is 100.2 ° and the OOC angle is 109.1 ° . The OCO bond angle is 125.4 ° .","qid":"207","docid":"Carbon_pentoxide","rank":75,"score":91854},{"content":"Title: Middle Miocene disruption Content: The term Middle Miocene disruption , alternatively the Middle Miocene extinction or Middle Miocene extinction peak , refers to a wave of extinctions of terrestrial and aquatic life forms that occurred around the middle of the Miocene , roughly , during the Langhian stage of the Miocene . This period was preceded by the Miocene Climatic Optimum , a period of relative warmth from 18 to 14 Ma . Cooling that led to the Middle Miocene disruption has been attributed to CO2 being pulled out of the atmosphere by organic material before becoming caught in different locations like the Monterey Formation . Madelaine Bohme observed the occurrence of Varanidae , Chameleonidae , Cordylidae , Tomistominae , Alligatoridae , and giant turtles which indicate survival through the Miocene Climatic Optimum ( 18 to 16 Ma ) in Central Europe ( 45-42 ° N palaeolatitude ) . A major and permanent cooling step occurred between 14.8 and 14.1 Ma , associated with increased production of cold Antarctic deep waters and a major growth of the East Antarctic ice sheet . Two crocodilians of the genera Gavialosuchus and Diplocynodon were noted to have been extant in these northern latitudes prior to the permanent cooling step then became extinct 13.5 to 14 Ma . A Middle Miocene delta18O increase , that is a relative increase in the heavier isotope of oxygen , has been noted in the Pacific , the Southern Ocean and the South Atlantic .","qid":"207","docid":"Middle_Miocene_disruption","rank":76,"score":91686},{"content":"Title: Ice World (film) Content: Ice World is a 2002 television documentary on the Discovery Channel about humans during the last ice age . The program follows their struggle to survive in the cold and harsh environment of the Europe of 24,000 years ago .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_World_(film)","rank":77,"score":91528},{"content":"Title: 2012: Ice Age Content: 2012 : Ice Age is a 2011 disaster film produced by the independent film group The Asylum . It is the third and final film in The Asylum 's 2012 trilogy , which are mockbusters of the Roland Emmerich film 2012 .","qid":"207","docid":"2012:_Ice_Age","rank":78,"score":91412},{"content":"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .","qid":"207","docid":"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center","rank":79,"score":91330},{"content":"Title: The Ice Organisation Content: The Ice Organisation is a UK Loyalty programme . Ice promotes brands , goods and services that are more sustainable , with the aim of mitigating climate change through mass consumer purchase power . Like other loyalty schemes , customers are rewarded with Ice points which they earn when shopping with a retailer who is part of the programme . Customers can spend their points at Ice retailers for money off their purchases or get it for free . Depending on the retailer , customers can collect and spend Ice points either online , via the telephone or in-store . The Ice Organisation is run by Jude Thorne ( CEO , former CEO of Airmiles ) , Michael Baulk ( Chairman , former Chairman and Chief Executive of AMV plc from Jan 1997 to 2006 ) and Tessa Tennant ( President , Co-founder of the UK Social Investment Forum , and the Carbon Disclosure Project ) and the scheme tries to make people think about the environmental impacts of their shopping baskets and rewards them for making more environmentally friendly purchases .","qid":"207","docid":"The_Ice_Organisation","rank":80,"score":91285},{"content":"Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .","qid":"207","docid":"Interglacial","rank":81,"score":90891},{"content":"Title: Laschamp event Content: The Laschamp event was a short reversal of the Earth 's magnetic field . It occurred 41,400 ( ± 2,000 ) years ago during the last ice age and was first recognised in the late 1960s as a geomagnetic reversal recorded in the Laschamp lava flows in the Clermont-Ferrand district of France . The magnetic excursion has since been demonstrated in geological archives from many parts of the world . The period of reversed magnetic field was approximately 440 years , with the transition from the normal field lasting approximately 250 years . The reversed field was 75 % weaker whereas the strength dropped to only 5 % of the current strength during the transition . This reduction in geomagnetic field strength resulted in more cosmic rays reaching the Earth , causing greater production of the cosmogenic isotopes beryllium 10 and carbon 14 .","qid":"207","docid":"Laschamp_event","rank":82,"score":90480},{"content":"Title: European Climate Exchange Content: The European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) manages the product development and marketing for ECX Carbon Financial Instruments ( ECX CFIs ) , listed and admitted for trading on the ICE Futures Europe electronic platform . It is no longer a subsidiary of the Chicago Climate Exchange but rather a sister company . Both companies are owned by Climate Exchange Plc a holding company listed on the London Stock Exchange 's AIM market . ECX / ICE Futures is the most liquid , pan-European platform for carbon emissions trading , with its futures contract based on the underlying EU Allowances ( EUAs ) and Certified Emissions Allowances ( CERs ) attracting over 80 % of the exchange-traded volume in the European market . ECX contracts ( EUA and CER Futures , options and spot contracts ) are standardised exchange-traded products and all trades are cleared by ICE Clear Europe ( LCH.Clearnet was the designated clearing house prior to November 2008 ) . More than 100 leading businesses , including global companies such as Barclays , BP , Newedge , E.ON UK , Endesa , Fortis , Goldman Sachs , Morgan Stanley and Shell have signed up for membership to trade ECX products . In addition , several hundred clients can access the market daily via banks and brokers in a process called ` order-routing ' without having to be a member themselves . ECX is a member of the Climate Exchange Plc group of companies , founded by Richard Sandor . Other member companies include the Chicago Climate Exchange ( `` CCX '' ) and IFEX . Climate Exchange Plc is listed on AIM on the London Stock Exchange , and was bought in April 2010 by IntercontinentalExchange ( ICE ) . The current Chief Executive is Patrick Birley , son of archaeologist Robin Birley .","qid":"207","docid":"European_Climate_Exchange","rank":83,"score":90217},{"content":"Title: Crisis of the Late Middle Ages Content: The crisis of the Late Middle Ages refers to a series of events in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that brought centuries of European prosperity and growth to a halt . Three major crises led to radical changes in all areas of society : demographic collapse , political instabilities and religious upheavals . A series of famines and plagues , beginning with the Great Famine of 1315 -- 17 and especially the Black Death of 1348 , reduced the population perhaps by half or more as the Medieval Warm Period came to a close and the first century of the Little Ice Age began . Popular revolts in late medieval Europe and civil wars between nobles within countries such as the Wars of the Roses were common -- with France fighting internally nine times -- and there were international conflicts between kings such as France and England in the Hundred Years ' War . The unity of the Roman Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism . The Holy Roman Empire was also in decline ; in the aftermath of the Great Interregnum ( 1247 -- 1273 ) , the Empire lost cohesion and politically the separate dynasties of the various German states became more important than their common empire .","qid":"207","docid":"Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages","rank":84,"score":89765},{"content":"Title: Ice VII Content: Ice VII is a cubic crystalline form of ice . It can be formed from liquid water above 3 GPa ( 30,000 atmospheres ) by lowering its temperature to room temperature , or by decompressing heavy water ( D2O ) ice VI below 95 K. Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih , ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures . Ice VII is metastable over a wide range of temperatures and pressures and transforms into low-density amorphous ice ( LDA ) above 120K . Ice VII has a triple point with liquid water and ice VI at 355 K and 2.216 GPa , with the melt line extending to at least 715 K and 10 GPa . It can also be created by increasing the pressure on ice VI at ambient temperature . Like the majority of ice phases ( including ice Ih ) , the hydrogen atom positions are disordered . In addition , the oxygen atoms are disordered over multiple sites . The structure of ice VII comprises a hydrogen bond framework in the form of two interpenetrating ( but non-bonded ) sublattices . Hydrogen pass through the center of the water hexamers and thus do not connect the two lattices . Ice VII has a density of about 1.65 g cm − 3 ( at 2.5 GPa and 25 ° C ) , which is less than twice the cubic ice density as the intra-network O -- O distances are 8 % longer ( at 0.1 MPa ) to allow for interpenetration . The cubic unit cell has a side length of 3.3501 Å ( for D2O , at 2.6 GPa and 22 ° C ) and contains two water molecules . Ice VII is the only disordered phase of ice that can be ordered by simple cooling , and it forms ( ordered ) ice VIII below 273 K up to ~ 8 GPa . Above this pressure , the VII -- VIII transition temperature drops rapidly , reaching 0 K at ~ 60 GPa . Thus , ice VII has the largest stability field of all of the molecular phases of ice . The cubic oxygen sub-lattices that form the backbone of the ice VII structure persist to pressures of at least 128 GPa ; this pressure is substantially higher than that at which water loses its molecular character entirely , forming ice X . In high pressure ices , protonic diffusion ( movement of protons around the oxygen lattice ) dominates molecular diffusion , an effect which has been measured directly . Scientists hypothesize that ice VII may comprise the ocean floor of Titan as well as extrasolar planets ( such as Gliese 436 b and GJ 1214 b ) that are largely made of water .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_VII","rank":85,"score":89747},{"content":"Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .","qid":"207","docid":"Paleoatmosphere","rank":86,"score":89608},{"content":"Title: Topographical areas of Yorkshire Content: In Yorkshire there is a very close relationship between the major topographical areas and the geological period in which they were formed . The Pennine chain of Hills in the west is of Carboniferous origin . The central vale is Permo-Triassic . The North York Moors in the north-east of the county are Jurassic in age while the Yorkshire Wolds to the south east are Cretaceous chalk uplands . The plain of Holderness and the Humberhead levels both owe their present form to the Quaternary ice ages . Much of Yorkshire presents heavily glaciated scenery as few places escaped the great ice sheets as they advanced during the last ice age .","qid":"207","docid":"Topographical_areas_of_Yorkshire","rank":87,"score":89480},{"content":"Title: Radiocarbon dating Content: Radiocarbon dating ( also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating ) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon , a radioactive isotope of carbon . The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists . Libby received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in 1960 . The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen . The resulting radiocarbon combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide , which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis ; animals then acquire by eating the plants . When the animal or plant dies , it stops exchanging carbon with its environment , and from that point onwards the amount of it contains begins to decrease as the undergoes radioactive decay . Measuring the amount of in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died . The older a sample is , the less there is to be detected , and because the half-life of ( the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed ) is about 5,730 years , the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to around 50,000 years ago , although special preparation methods occasionally permit accurate analysis of older samples . The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward , but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained . Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years . The resulting data , in the form of a calibration curve , is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample 's calendar age . Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of in different types of organisms ( fractionation ) , and the varying levels of throughout the biosphere ( reservoir effects ) . Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil , and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s . Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its to decay below detectable levels , fossil fuels contain almost no , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century . Conversely , nuclear testing increased the amount of in the atmosphere , which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began . Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices , which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying atoms in a sample . More recently , accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice ; it counts all the atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements ; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples ( as small as individual plant seeds ) , and gives results much more quickly . The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology . In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods , it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances . Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the `` radiocarbon revolution '' . Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated , such as the end of the last ice age , and the beginning of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in different regions .","qid":"207","docid":"Radiocarbon_dating","rank":88,"score":89241},{"content":"Title: Ice Age: The Meltdown Content: Ice Age : The Meltdown is a 2006 American computer-animated comedy adventure film produced by Blue Sky Studios and released by 20th Century Fox . As the first sequel to the 2002 film Ice Age , it focuses on the herd escaping an upcoming flood , during which Manny finds love . It was directed by Carlos Saldanha , co-director of the first film , with the music composed by John Powell . The original voice cast -- Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Chris Wedge -- is joined by Queen Latifah , Seann William Scott and Josh Peck . The film premiered in Belgium on March 1 , 2006 . It was eventually released in 70 countries , with the last release being in China , on June 9 , 2006 . The Meltdown received mixed critical reaction but was a box office success by earning over $ 660 million . Three more sequels were released -- Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_Age:_The_Meltdown","rank":89,"score":89044},{"content":"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.","qid":"207","docid":"Climate_change_in_the_United_States","rank":90,"score":88989},{"content":"Title: Information Council on the Environment Content: The Information Council on the Environment ( ICE ) , was a U.S. organization created by the National Coal Association , the Western Fuels Association , and Edison Electrical Institute .","qid":"207","docid":"Information_Council_on_the_Environment","rank":91,"score":88791},{"content":"Title: Eocene Content: The Eocene ( -LSB- pronˈiːəˌsiːn , _ ˈiːoʊ - -RSB- ) Epoch , lasting from , is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era . The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Paleocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch . The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C . The end is set at a major extinction event called the Grande Coupure ( the `` Great Break '' in continuity ) or the Eocene -- Oligocene extinction event , which may be related to the impact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake Bay . As with other geologic periods , the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified , though their exact dates are slightly uncertain . The name Eocene comes from the Ancient Greek ἠώς ( ēṓs , `` dawn '' ) and καινός ( kainós , `` new '' ) and refers to the `` dawn '' of modern ( ` new ' ) fauna that appeared during the epoch .","qid":"207","docid":"Eocene","rank":92,"score":88734},{"content":"Title: Rock & Ice Content: Rock & Ice is a magazine published by Big Stone Publishing focusing on rock and ice climbing . The magazine got its start in early 1984 and the first issue was in late 1985 . The first publisher was Neal Kaptain , and it was bought out within the first year by George Bracksieck , who remained editor until 1997 . His company , North-South Publications , sold it to Primedia , a company led by Dougald MacDonald and others . The magazine is published eight times a year . It was headquartered in Boulder , Colorado until 2002 when it moved to Carbondale , Colorado . The cover of the first issue featured Alex Lowe climbing the first ascent of The Fang in Vail , Colorado .","qid":"207","docid":"Rock_&_Ice","rank":93,"score":88722},{"content":"Title: Late Ordovician glaciation Content: The Late Ordovician Glaciation is a period at the end of the Ordovician that started at the border between the Katian and Hirnantian about 440-460 Ma ( million years ago ) . The major glaciation during this period is widely considered to be the leading cause of the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event . Evidence of this glaciation can be seen in places such as Morocco , Libya , and Wyoming . More evidence derived from isotopic data is that during the Late Ordovician , Tropical ocean temperatures were about 5 ° C cooler than present day , this would have been a major factor that aided in the glaciation process . The Late Ordovician is the only glacial episode that appears to have coincided with a major mass extinction of nearly 61 % of marine life . Estimates of peak ice sheet volume range from 50 to 250 million cubic kilometers , and its duration from 35 million to less than 1 million years . There were also two peaks of glaciation . Also , glaciation of the Northern Hemisphere was minimal because a large amount of the land was in the southern hemisphere .","qid":"207","docid":"Late_Ordovician_glaciation","rank":94,"score":88565},{"content":"Title: Carbacid Investments Content: Carbacid Investments Limited ( CIL ) , is a manufacturing and investment company in Kenya , the largest economy in the East African Community . The company manufactures and markets carbon dioxide gas for industrial and medical use as well as dry ice . It also tests and validates gas cylinders . Carbacid is a monopoly and currently has a market share of more than 95 % in the regional carbon dioxide market . The shares of the company 's stock are listed on the Nairobi Securities Exchange ( NSE ) , where they trade under the symbol CARB .","qid":"207","docid":"Carbacid_Investments","rank":95,"score":88235},{"content":"Title: Ice nucleus Content: An ice nucleus is a particle which acts as the nucleus for the formation of an ice crystal in the atmosphere .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_nucleus","rank":96,"score":88089},{"content":"Title: Riss glaciation Content: The Riss glaciation , Riss Glaciation , Riss ice age , Riss Ice Age , Riss glacial or Riss Glacial ( Riß-Kaltzeit , Riß-Glazial , Riß-Komplex or ( obsolete ) Riß-Eiszeit ) is the second youngest glaciation of the Pleistocene epoch in the traditional , quadripartite glacial classification of the Alps . The literature variously dates it to between about 300,000 to 130,000 years ago and 347,000 to 128,000 years ago . It coincides with the nocat = y glaciation of North Germany . The name goes back to Albrecht Penck and Eduard Brückner who named this cold period after the river Riss in Upper Swabia in their 3 volume work Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter ( `` The Alps in the Ice Age '' ) published between 1901 and 1909 .","qid":"207","docid":"Riss_glaciation","rank":97,"score":87989},{"content":"Title: Ice Age Giants Content: Ice Age Giants is a British television documentary series created and produced by the BBC Natural History Unit , first shown in the UK on BBC Two and BBC Two HD on 19 May 2013 . The series steps back to 20,000 years in time and follows the trail of the prehistoric mammals in the ice age on North America and European region that lived through it to life by using the latest scientific knowledge and a little graphic wizardry . The series was presented by Dr. Alice Roberts and composed by David Mitcham .","qid":"207","docid":"Ice_Age_Giants","rank":98,"score":87857},{"content":"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"207","docid":"CO2_fertilization_effect","rank":99,"score":87854},{"content":"Title: Last ice age Content: Last ice age may refer to : Quaternary glaciation , the period of the last few million years Last glacial period , the most recent glacial period of the current ice age Little Ice Age , a hundred years of relative cold in the Middle Ages after what historians term the Medieval Warm Period","qid":"207","docid":"Last_ice_age","rank":100,"score":87752}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 139279\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Huronian glaciation Content: The Huronian glaciation ( or Makganyene glaciation ) was a glaciation that extended from 2.4 billion years ago ( Ga ) to 2.1 Ga , during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era . The Huronian glaciation followed after the Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE ) , a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane . The oxygen combined with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water , which does not retain heat as well as methane does . It is the oldest and longest ice age , occurring at a time when , in a biological sense , only simple , unicellular life existed on Earth . This ice age led to a mass-extinction on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Huronian_glaciation\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 137652\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 132870\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_age\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 132177\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Yedoma\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 131134\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Timeline of glaciation Content: There have been five known ice ages in the Earth 's history , with the Earth experiencing the Quaternary Ice Age during the present time . Within ice ages , there exist periods of more severe glacial conditions and more temperate referred to as glacial periods and interglacial periods , respectively . The Earth is currently in such an interglacial period of the Quaternary Ice Age , with the last glacial period of the Quaternary having ended approximately 11,700 years ago with the start of the Holocene epoch . Based on climate proxies , paleoclimatologists study the different climate states originating from glaciation .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Timeline_of_glaciation\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 128074\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Quaternary_glaciation\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 127969\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 122453\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Charles Thilorier Content: Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier was a student at the École polytechnique in the class / year of 1815 , who was mistakenly believed to have been the first person to create solid carbon dioxide ( `` dry ice '' ) . Actually , a French inventor , Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier ( 1790 -- 1844 ) , discovered dry ice . Unfortunately , in almost all of his technical articles , Adrien Thilorier gave his name simply as `` Thilorier '' ; similarly , whenever others referred to him in technical articles , his name was also given only as `` Thilorier '' . This impeded efforts by scholars to identify him subsequently . The confusion was compounded when Paul Thénard wrote a biography of his father , Louis Thénard , a French chemist : In 1835 , Adrien Thilorier had created dry ice by spraying liquid carbon dioxide into a glass vessel . He had thought that the dry ice was merely snow ; that is , water vapor from the atmosphere which had condensed as a result of the cold that the evaporation of the liquid carbon dioxide had produced . Louis Thénard had explained to Thilorier that his `` snow '' was actually solidified carbon dioxide . In a footnote of Louis Thénard 's biography , Paul Thénard identified the `` Thilorier '' who discovered dry ice as `` Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier '' , a student at the École polytechnique in the class of 1815 . This ( mistaken ) identification was mentioned by Duane H. D. Roller , a graduate student at Harvard University , in a paper that was published in 1952 . Consequently , many sources claim that Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier discovered dry ice . Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier was an employee of the French Post Office in Paris who invented , among other things , an oil lamp , a gas compressor , and an apparatus for producing liquid carbon dioxide . It was a French scholar who revealed that he had discovered dry ice . During the 1960s , Madeleine Ambrière-Fargeaud , a scholar in France , was trying to identify the person who served as the model for a `` mad scientist '' character , Balthazar Claës , in Honoré de Balzac 's novel La Recherche de l'absolu ( The Quest of the Absolute ) . Her research suggested that Claës was inspired ( in part ) by Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier . By 2003 , Joost Mertens , a Dutch historian of science , had verified many of the findings that Ms. Ambrière-Fargeaud had made about Thilorier . That `` Thilorier '' is actually Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier is proved by French government documents , especially patents . In 1826 , he was granted a patent for a `` hydrostatic lamp '' ; the patent lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' of Paris . His 1831 patent for a gas compressor also lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and describes him as an employee of the `` Administration des postes '' ( i.e. , the Post Office ) in Paris . In 1832 , the Bulletin of the laws of the kingdom of France also lists him as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and as an employee of the Post Office , who resided at number 21 on the Place Vendôme in Paris , and as the inventor of a gas compressor .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Charles_Thilorier\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 118233\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Little_Ice_Age\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 117535\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dry ice Content: Dry ice , sometimes referred to as `` cardice '' ( chiefly by British chemists ) , is the solid form of carbon dioxide . It is used primarily as a cooling agent . Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue ( other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere ) . It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable . Dry ice sublimates at − 78.5 ° C ( − 109.3 ° F ) at Earth atmospheric pressures . This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing ( frostbite ) . While generally not very toxic , the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia ( abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood ) due to buildup in confined locations .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Dry_ice\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 116462\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Ice Age Content: The Ice Age may refer to : The Last glacial period , which occurred from c. 110,000 -- c. 11,700 years ago The Pleistocene , a geological epoch lasting from c. 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago and spanning the world 's most recent period of repeated glaciations . The Plio-Pleistocene , a geological pseudo-period which begins about 5 million years ago and combines the time ranges of the formally defined Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events lasting from the Quaternary period to the present . For the general period of temperature reduction , see Ice age .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Ice_Age\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 115594\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 115071\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 112555\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice age (disambiguation) Content: __ NOTOC __ An ice age is a geologic period characterized by the presence of polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Periods of major glaciation ( commonly also referred to as ice ages ) are scientifically termed glacial periods . Ice Age may also refer to :\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_age_(disambiguation)\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 112021\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_clathrate\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 110835\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Cap_carbonate\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 110216\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Karoo Ice Age Content: The Karoo Ice Age from 360 -- 260 million years ago ( Mya ) was the second major ice age of the Phanerozoic Eon . It is named after the tillite ( Dwyka Group ) found in the Karoo region of South Africa ( and adjacent areas ) , where evidence for this ice age was first clearly identified in the 19th century . The tectonic assembly of the continents of Euramerica ( later with the Uralian orogeny , into Laurasia ) and Gondwana into Pangaea , in the Hercynian-Alleghany Orogeny , made a major continental land mass within the Antarctic region , and the closure of the Rheic Ocean and Iapetus Ocean saw disruption of warm-water currents in the Panthalassa Ocean and Paleotethys Sea , which led to progressive cooling of summers , and the snowfields accumulating in winters , causing mountainous alpine glaciers to grow , and then spread out of highland areas , making continental glaciers which spread to cover much of Gondwana . At least two major periods of glaciation have been discovered : The first glacial period was associated with the Mississippian subperiod ( 359.2 -- 318.1 Mya ) : ice sheets expanded from a core in southern Africa and South America . The second glacial period was associated with the Pennsylvanian subperiod ( 318.1 -- 299 Mya ) ; ice sheets expanded from a core in Australia and India . The extent of ancient glaciations in Antarctica is not well known , because the present ice sheet hides the evidence .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Karoo_Ice_Age\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 110146\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 109807\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier Content: Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier ( 16 February 1790 -- 2 December 1844 ) was a French inventor who was the first person to produce solid carbon dioxide ( `` dry ice '' ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Adrien-Jean-Pierre_Thilorier\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 108525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Azolla event Content: The Azolla event occurred in the middle Eocene epoch , around , when blooms of the freshwater fern Azolla are thought to have happened in the Arctic Ocean . As they sank to the stagnant sea floor , they were incorporated into the sediment ; the resulting draw-down of carbon dioxide has been speculated to have helped transform the planet from a `` greenhouse Earth '' state , hot enough for turtles and palm trees to prosper at the poles , to the icehouse Earth it has been since .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Azolla_event\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 107548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Interstellar ice Content: Interstellar ice consists of grains of volatiles in the ice phase that form in the interstellar medium . Ice and dust grains form the primary material out of which the Solar System was formed . Grains of ice are found in the dense regions of molecular clouds , where new stars are formed . Temperatures in these regions can be as low as 10 K , allowing molecules that collide with grains to form an icy mantle . Thereafter , atoms undergo thermal motion across the surface , eventually forming bonds with other atoms . This results in the formation of water and methanol . Indeed , the ices are dominated by water and methanol , as well as ammonia , carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide . Frozen formaldehyde and molecular hydrogen may also be present . Found in lower abundances are nitriles , ketones , esters and carbonyl sulfide . The mantles of interstellar ice grains are generally amorphous , only becoming crystalline in the presence of a star . The composition of interstellar ice can be determined through its infrared spectrum . As starlight passes through a molecular cloud containing ice , molecules in the cloud absorb energy . This adsorption occurs at the characteristic frequencies of vibration of the gas and dust . Ice features in the cloud are relatively prominently in this spectra , and the composition of the ice can be determined by comparison with samples of ice materials on Earth . In the sites directly observable from Earth , around 60 -- 70 % of the interstellar ice consists of water , which displays a strong emission at 3.05 μm from stretching of the O -- H bond . In September 2012 , NASA scientists reported that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) , subjected to interstellar medium ( ISM ) conditions , are transformed , through hydrogenation , oxygenation and hydroxylation , to more complex organics - `` a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides , the raw materials of proteins and DNA , respectively '' . Further , as a result of these transformations , the PAHs lose their spectroscopic signature which could be one of the reasons `` for the lack of PAH detection in interstellar ice grains , particularly the outer regions of cold , dense clouds or the upper molecular layers of protoplanetary disks . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Interstellar_ice\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 107528\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Age (Magic: The Gathering) Content: Ice Age is a block of three sets in Magic : The Gathering , consisting of the Ice Age , Alliances and Coldsnap sets . It is also the titular first set in the block . The Ice Age set is the eleventh set and the sixth expansion set , released in June 1995 . Set in the years from 450 to 2934 AR , the set describes a world set in perpetual winter due to the events in Antiquities . Ice Age was followed up June 1996 with Alliances , the fourteenth Magic : The Gathering set and eighth expansion set. ; and on July 21 , 2006 with Coldsnap . The time period between Alliances and Coldsnap was the longest period of time between the beginning and the completion of a full block in Magic . Originally , the set Homelands , released in October 1995 , was the second set in the Ice Age block ( with Alliances being the third set ) , but following the release of Coldsnap , Homelands was removed from the block in favor of Coldsnap .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Age_(Magic:_The_Gathering)\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 106363\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Pleistocene Content: The Pleistocene ( -LSB- pronˈplaɪstəˌsiːn , _ - toʊ - -RSB- , often colloquially referred to as the Ice Age ) is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago , spanning the world 's most recent period of repeated glaciations . The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period and also with the end of the Paleolithic age used in archaeology . The Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era . In the ICS timescale , the Pleistocene is divided into four stages or ages , the Gelasian , Calabrian , Ionian and Tarantian . All of these stages were defined in southern Europe . In addition to this international subdivision , various regional subdivisions are often used . Before a change finally confirmed in 2009 by the International Union of Geological Sciences , the time boundary between the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene was regarded as being at 1.806 million years Before Present ( BP ) , as opposed to the currently accepted 2.588 million years BP : publications from the preceding years may use either definition of the period .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Pleistocene\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 105035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Amorphous_carbonia\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 104803\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Age (band) Content: Ice Age was a progressive band from New York City , USA . Founded by guitarist Jimmy Pappas , vocalist/keyboardist Josh Pincus , drummer Hal Aponte and bassist Arron DiCesare , the band released their debut album in 1999 , titled The Great Divide . Liberation followed in 2001 , both on Magna Carta Records . Ice Age are influenced by pop/progressive bands such as Yes , Kansas and Rush , but also by more modern progressive metal bands like Queensrÿche , and Dream Theater . In 2006 , the band officially changed their name to Soulfractured . This was accompanied by an announced shift in the band 's music - less overt progressive experimentation , with closer attention paid to melodic structure and songcraft . In this incarnation the band released the Soulfractured EP , made available through the band 's websites . They had previously released the Little Bird EP as Ice Age . Shortly after the second EP 's release , the group disbanded .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Age_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 104063\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dry ice color show Content: Dry ice color show is the formation of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) by the reaction of dry ice , the solid form of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and water , which lower the pH to the acidic solution . By applying Universal Indicator to the solution , the changing of pH can be indicated as the color of the solution changes into the contrast color . This experiment is usually conducted as a classroom demonstration of pH and properties of carbon dioxide since the materials required are handful and prepared easily .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Dry_ice_color_show\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 103219\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Age (franchise) Content: Ice Age is an American media franchise centering on a group of mammals surviving the Paleolithic ice age . It is produced by Blue Sky Studios , a division of 20th Century Fox , and featuring the voices of Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary , and Chris Wedge . Five films have been released in the series thus far with Ice Age in 2002 , Ice Age : The Meltdown in 2006 , Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 , and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 . It has received some criticism for making no attempt to be scientifically accurate . As of April 2016 , the franchise had generated $ 6 billion in revenue , making it one of the highest-grossing media franchises of all time .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Age_(franchise)\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 101911\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Ice Age (novel) Content: The Ice Age is a 1977 novel by British Novelist Margaret Drabble . The novel follows the experiences of former BBC producer Anthony Keating as he experiences the ups and downs of life during the 1960s and 1970s . Depicting the property crisis in Britain during that period , novel diverges from her earlier psychological studies of individuals , focusing more on the `` state of England '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Ice_Age_(novel)\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 101861\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"774–775_carbon-14_spike\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 101805\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_methane\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 101781\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Age (1975 film) Content: Ice Age ( Eiszeit ) is a 1975 West German drama film directed by Peter Zadek . It was entered into the 25th Berlin International Film Festival . Eiszeit began as a theatre play by Tankred Dorst ( 1973 ) about Knut Hamsun , a Nobel Prize-winning author but unrepentant admirer of Nazi Germany .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Age_(1975_film)\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 101673\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vashon Glaciation Content: The Vashon Glaciation or Vashon Stade was the most recent period of very cold climate in which glaciers existed at elevations at and near sea level in the western part of present-day Washington state . It occurred during a colder than present part of the current ice age . The Vashon Glaciation lasted from about 19,000 - 16,000 BP ( Before Present - present defined as January 1 , 1950 for this scale ) . The Cordilleran Ice Sheet was an ice sheet that covered present-day southern Alaska and parts of western Canada . During the Vashon Glaciation , the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced into the Puget Sound region .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Vashon_Glaciation\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 100787\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Ages (band) Content: Ice Ages is an Austrian dark electro/industrial band signed to Napalm Records . The band is a one-man band consisting of Richard Lederer from Summoning and Die Verbannten Kinder Evas .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Ages_(band)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 100723\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Martian polar ice caps Content: The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Martian_polar_ice_caps\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 100487\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jacques Beaulieu Content: For the Canadian ice hockey coach , seeJacques Beaulieu ( ice hockey ) Jacques A. Beaulieu , ( born April 15 , 1932 ) is a Canadian physicist who invented the first transversely excited atmospheric carbon dioxide laser or TEA laser in 1968 . In 1978 , he was awarded the Royal Society of Canada 's Thomas W. Eadie Medal . In 2002 , he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada in recognition of his `` major influence on the development of lasers and their application in the fields of defence and medicine '' . In 1999 , he was made a Grand Officer of the National Order of Quebec . In 1980 , he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Jacques_Beaulieu\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 100364\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 100125\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice cloud Content: An ice cloud is a colloid of ice particles dispersed in air . The term has been used to refer to clouds of both water ice and carbon dioxide ice on Mars . Such clouds can be sufficiently large and dense to cast shadows on the Martian surface .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_cloud\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 99961\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Supercritical_carbon_dioxide\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 99242\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis Content: The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis or Clovis comet hypothesis originally proposed that a large air burst or earth impact of one or more comets initiated the Younger Dryas cold period about 12,900 BP calibrated ( 10,900 14C uncalibrated ) years ago . The hypothesis has been contested by research showing that most of the conclusions can not be repeated by other scientists , and criticized because of misinterpretation of data and the lack of confirmatory evidence . The current impact hypothesis states that the air burst ( s ) or impact ( s ) of a swarm of carbonaceous chondrites or comet fragments set areas of the North American continent on fire , causing the extinction of most of the megafauna in North America and the demise of the North American Clovis culture after the last glacial period . The Younger Dryas ice age lasted for about 1,200 years before the climate warmed again . This swarm is hypothesized to have exploded above or possibly on the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the region of the Great Lakes , though no impact crater has yet been identified and no physical model by which such a swarm could form or explode in the air has been proposed . Nevertheless , the proponents suggest that it would be physically possible for such an air burst to have been similar to , but orders of magnitude larger than , the Tunguska event of 1908 . The hypothesis proposed that animal and human life in North America not directly killed by the blast or the resulting coast-to-coast wildfires would have likely starved on the burned surface of the continent .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 98799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Deglaciation\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 98545\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon dioxide snow Content: Carbon dioxide snow may refer to : Dry ice , a solid form of carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide cleaning , an industrial cleaning method\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_dioxide_snow\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 98507\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Last glacial period Content: The last glacial period , popularly known as the Ice Age , was the most recent glacial period , which occurred from years ago . This most recent glacial period is part of a larger pattern of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation ( years ago to present ) . From this point of view , scientists consider this `` ice age '' to be merely the latest glaciation event in a much larger ice age , one that dates back over two million years and is still ongoing . During this last glacial period , there were several changes between glacier advance and retreat . The Last Glacial Maximum , the maximum extent of glaciation within the last glacial period , was approximately 22,000 years ago . While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar , local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent ( see picture of ice core data below for differences ) . Approximately 13,000 years ago , the Late Glacial Maximum began . Around 11,700 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch , which includes the Holocene glacial retreat . From the point of view of human archaeology , it falls in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods . When the glaciation event started , Homo sapiens were confined to Africa and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Homo erectus in Asia . Near the end of the event , Homo sapiens spread into Eurasia and Australia . Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover . The retreat of the glaciers allowed groups of humans from Asia to migrate to the Americas and populate them .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Last_glacial_period\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 98462\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: True polar wander on Mars Content: For some time , scientists have thought that the location of the poles of Mars have shifted due to the great mass of volcanic material in the Tharsis dome which includes Olympus Mons , the highest volcano in the solar system . A study published in Nature supports this idea . For a period early in the history of Mars , the poles were about 20 degrees away from their present positions . At that time ice was deposited in a region called Dorsa Argentea Formation . Also , the Martian dichotomy was aligned along the equator . A band of rivers formed at around 25 degrees south carried water from the southern highlands to the northern lowlands . After the polar shift , the location of the dichotomy boundary and the band of river valleys shifted . Dorsa Argentea was no longer at the pole . To produce the change in the pole location , the tilt of the planet remained unchanged , rather the crust and mantle moved . They rotated around the core . This new study suggests that the volcanoes and the movement of the poles occurred at about the same time . Volcanoes were erupting when the rivers were flowing with water . Perhaps the volcanoes supplied much water to the atmosphere , as well as carbon dioxide to warm the atmosphere ; these effects would provide water for the rivers . Tharsis is found in the Amazonis quadrangle and the Tharsis quadrangle .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"True_polar_wander_on_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 97362\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 97148\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Guy_Stewart_Callendar\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 96871\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Age (video game) Content: Ice Age is a 2002 platform game based on the film of the same name , developed by Artificial Mind and Movement , published by Ubi Soft Entertainment and released for the Game Boy Advance .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Age_(video_game)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 96497\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Frost line (astrophysics) Content: In astronomy or planetary science , the frost line , also known as the snow line or ice line , is the particular distance in the solar nebula from the central protostar where it is cold enough for volatile compounds such as water , ammonia , methane , carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide to condense into solid ice grains . This condensation temperature depends on the volatile substance and the partial pressure of vapor in the protostar nebula . The actual temperature and distance for the snow line of water ice depend on the physical model used to calculate it and on the theoretical solar nebula model : 170 K at 2.7 AU ( Hayashi , 1981 ) 143 K at 3.2 AU to 150 K at 3 AU ( Podolak and Zucker , 2010 ) 3.1 AU ( Martin and Livio , 2012 ) ≈ 150 K for μm-size grains and ≈ 200 K for km-size bodies ( D'Angelo and Podolak , 2015 ) The radial position of the condensation/evaporation front varies over time , as the nebula evolves . Occasionally , the term snow line is also used to represent the present distance at which water ice can be stable ( even under direct sunlight ) . This current snow line distance is different from the formation snow line distance during the formation of Solar System , and approximately equals 5 AU . The reason for the difference is that during the formation of Solar System , the solar nebula was an opaque cloud where temperature were lower close to the Sun , and the Sun itself was less energetic . After formation , the ice got buried by infalling dust and it has remained stable a few meters below the surface . If ice within 5 AU is exposed , e.g. by a crater , then it sublimates on short timescales . However , out of direct sunlight ice can remain stable on the surface of asteroids ( and the Moon ) if it is located in permanently shadowed craters , where temperature may remain very low over the age of the Solar System ( e.g. 30 -- 40 K on the Moon ) . Observations of the asteroid belt , located between Mars and Jupiter , suggest that the water snow line during formation of Solar System was located within this region . The outer asteroids are icy C-class objects ( e.g. Abe et al. 2000 ; Morbidelli et al. 2000 ) whereas the inner asteroid belt is largely devoid of water . This implies that when planetesimal formation occurred the snow line was located at around 2.7 AU from the Sun . For example , the dwarf planet Ceres with semi-major axis of 2.77 AU lies almost exactly on the lower estimation for water snow line during the formation of the Solar System . Ceres appears to have an icy mantle and may even have a water ocean below the surface . Each volatile substance has its own snow line , e.g. carbon monoxide and nitrogen , so it is important to always specify which material 's snow line is meant . The lower temperature in the nebula beyond the frost line makes many more solid grains available for accretion into planetesimals and eventually planets . The frost line therefore separates terrestrial planets from giant planets in the Solar System . However , giant planets have been found inside the frost line around several other stars ( so-called hot Jupiters ) . They are thought to have formed outside the frost line , and later migrated inwards to their current positions . Earth , which lies less than a quarter of the distance to the frost line but is not a giant planet , has adequate gravitation for keeping methane , ammonia , and water vapor from escaping it . Methane and ammonia are rare in the Earth 's atmosphere only because of their instability in an oxygen-rich atmosphere that results from life forms ( largely green plants ) whose biochemistry suggests plentiful methane and ammonia at one time , but of course liquid water and ice , which are chemically stable in such an atmosphere , form much of the surface of Earth . Researchers Rebecca Martin and Mario Livio have proposed that asteroid belts may tend to form in the vicinity of the frost line , due to nearby giant planets disrupting planet formation inside their orbit . By analysing the temperature of warm dust found around some 90 stars , they concluded that the dust ( and therefore possible asteroid belts ) was typically found close to the frost line . The term is borrowed from the notion of `` frost line '' in soil science .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Frost_line_(astrophysics)\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 96447\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Ic Content: Ice Ic ( pronounced `` ice one c '' or `` ice icy '' ) is a metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice . H. König was the first to identify and deduce the structure of ice Ic . The oxygen atoms in ice Ic are arranged in a diamond structure and is extremely similar to ice Ih having nearly identical densities and the same lattice constant along the hexagonal puckered-planes . It forms at temperatures between 130 and 220 K ( − 140 and − 50 ° C ) upon cooling , and can exist up to 240 K upon warming , when it transforms into ice Ih . Apart from forming from supercooled water , ice Ic has also been reported to form from amorphous ice as well as from the high pressure ices II , III and V . It can form in and is occasionally present in the upper atmosphere and is believed to be responsible for the observation of Scheiner 's halo , a rare ring that occurs near 28 degrees from the Sun or the Moon . Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Ic\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 96242\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Keeling_Curve\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 96217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: International Petroleum Exchange Content: The International Petroleum Exchange , now ICE Futures ( since 2005-04-7 ) , based in London , was one of the world 's largest energy futures and options exchanges . Its flagship commodity , Brent Crude was a world benchmark for oil prices , but the exchange also handled futures contracts and options on fuel oil , natural gas , electricity ( baseload and peakload ) , coal contracts and , as of 22 April 2005 , carbon emission allowances with the European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) . The IPE was acquired by the Intercontinental Exchange in 2001 . The IPE was an open outcry exchange until 7 April 2005 , when its name was changed to ICE Futures and all trading was shifted onto an electronic trading platform .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"International_Petroleum_Exchange\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 95946\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Water on Mars Content: Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice , though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere and occasionally as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil . The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap . Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate latitudes . More than five million cubic kilometers of ice have been identified at or near the surface of modern Mars , enough to cover the whole planet to a depth of 35 meters . Even more ice is likely to be locked away in the deep subsurface . Some liquid water may occur transiently on the Martian surface today , but only under certain conditions . No large standing bodies of liquid water exist , because the atmospheric pressure at the surface averages just 600 Pa -- about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure -- and because the global average temperature is far too low ( 210 K ) , leading to either rapid evaporation ( sublimation ) or rapid freezing . Before about 3.8 billion years ago , Mars may have had a denser atmosphere and higher surface temperatures , allowing vast amounts of liquid water on the surface , possibly including a large ocean that may have covered one-third of the planet . Water has also apparently flowed across the surface for short periods at various intervals more recently in Mars ' history . On December 9 , 2013 , NASA reported that , based on evidence from the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus , Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life . Many lines of evidence indicate that water is abundant on Mars and has played a significant role in the planet 's geologic history . The present-day inventory of water on Mars can be estimated from spacecraft imagery , remote sensing techniques ( spectroscopic measurements , radar , etc. ) , and surface investigations from landers and rovers . Geologic evidence of past water includes enormous outflow channels carved by floods , ancient river valley networks , deltas , and lakebeds ; and the detection of rocks and minerals on the surface that could only have formed in liquid water . Numerous geomorphic features suggest the presence of ground ice ( permafrost ) and the movement of ice in glaciers , both in the recent past and present . Gullies and slope lineae along cliffs and crater walls suggest that flowing water continues to shape the surface of Mars , although to a far lesser degree than in the ancient past . Although the surface of Mars was periodically wet and could have been hospitable to microbial life billions of years ago , the current environment at the surface is dry and subfreezing , probably presenting an insurmountable obstacle for living organisms . In addition , Mars lacks a thick atmosphere , ozone layer , and magnetic field , allowing solar and cosmic radiation to strike the surface unimpeded . The damaging effects of ionizing radiation on cellular structure is another one of the prime limiting factors on the survival of life on the surface . Therefore , the best potential locations for discovering life on Mars may be in subsurface environments . On November 22 , 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice on the planet Mars -- the volume of water detected is equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior . Understanding water on Mars is vital to assess the planet 's potential for harboring life and for providing usable resources for future human exploration . For this reason , ` Follow the Water ' was the science theme of NASA 's Mars Exploration Program ( MEP ) in the first decade of the 21st century . Discoveries by the 2001 Mars Odyssey , Mars Exploration Rovers ( MERs ) , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ( MRO ) , and Mars Phoenix lander have been instrumental in answering key questions about water 's abundance and distribution on Mars . The ESA 's Mars Express orbiter has also provided essential data in this quest . The Mars Odyssey , Mars Express , MER Opportunity rover , MRO , and Mars Science Lander Curiosity rover are still sending back data from Mars , and discoveries continue to be made .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Water_on_Mars\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 95666\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Antarctic_Cold_Reversal\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 95285\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon hexoxide Content: Carbon hexoxide or carbon hexaoxide is an oxide of carbon with an unusually large quantity of oxygen . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule consists of a six membered ring with five oxygen and one carbon atom , and one oxygen with a double bond with the carbon .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_hexoxide\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 94877\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Age (2002 film) Content: Ice Age is a 2002 American computer-animated buddy comedy road film directed by Chris Wedge and co-directed by Carlos Saldanha from a story by Michael J. Wilson . Produced by Blue Sky Studios as its first feature film , it was released by 20th Century Fox on March 15 , 2002 . The film features the voices of Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Chris Wedge . The film is set during the days of the ice age ; animals begin migrating south to escape the winters . Once Manny , a no-nonsense mammoth meets Sid , a loudmouthed ground sloth and the two find a human baby , they set out to return the baby . Joining them is a saber-tooth tiger named Diego , who is commanded by his pack leader to bring the baby to him to enact revenge against the humans . This film was met with mostly positive reviews and was nominated at the 75th Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature . It was a box office success by grossing over $ 383 million , starting the Ice Age franchise . It was followed by four sequels , Ice Age : The Meltdown in 2006 , Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 , and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Age_(2002_film)\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 94778\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Last_Glacial_Maximum\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 94764\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Dry-ice blasting Content: Dry ice-blasting is a form of carbon dioxide cleaning , where dry ice , the solid form of carbon dioxide , is accelerated in a pressurized air stream and directed at a surface in order to clean it . An alternative media for non-abrasive blasting is water-ice , known as ice blasting . The method is similar to other forms of abrasive blasting such as sand blasting , plastic bead blasting , or sodablasting substituted for dry ice as the blasting medium . Dry-ice blasting leaves no chemical residue as dry ice sublimates at room temperature .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Dry-ice_blasting\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 94509\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: North Carolina ice storm of 2002 Content: The North Carolina ice storm of 2002 caused up to an inch of freezing rain from December 4 -- 5 in central North Carolina . A total of 24 people were killed , and as many as 1.8 million people were left without electricity on December 6 . Power outages began December 4 , and power was not completely restored to until December 14 . Raleigh received the most freezing rain from a single storm since 1948 , and Bristol , Tennessee received the most ice it had seen in 28 years . The storm also produced heavy rain in both the mountains and coastal plain of North Carolina . Much of the Southern Plains and the Northeast received snow with this system . During the power outages many residents used propane and kerosene powered generators and heaters to combat the cold , with some resorting to moving charcoal grills indoors to heat their households . The increased usage of these heating methods , particularly grills led to a substantial number of cases of carbon monoxide poisoning . Varying reports allege 48 to 200 cases of poisoning . Hispanic residents were disproportionally affected by the impacts of the ice storm , sustaining 23 % of total injuries and 65 % of carbon monoxide poisonings during the storm period .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"North_Carolina_ice_storm_of_2002\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 94322\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice (anime) Content: is a 2007 three-episode original video animation created by Yasushi Akimoto and directed by Makoto Kobayashi . It is set in the ruins of Tokyo in the near future , after an unspecified catastrophe has led to the death of all human males and many females . The small groups of women who survive face the impending extinction of humanity . There are suggestions that the disaster was caused by human interference with nature , possibly biological warfare experiments or genetic engineering . Many of the survivors blame men 's warlike nature and scientific arrogance for the catastrophe . However , even though men have perished , the women who remain are forced to use violence in the face of bioterrorism and other threats . While some accept their fate as the last generation of humans , others see biological engineering as a final hope for the survival of the species .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_(anime)\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 94098\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice core Content: An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition . Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable . An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_core\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 94035\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Last Glacial Period Content: The Last Glacial Period (LGP) occurred from the end of the Eemian to the end of the Younger Dryas, encompassing the period c. 115,000 – c. 11,700 years ago. The LGP is part of a larger sequence of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation which started around 2,588,000 years ago and is ongoing. The definition of the Quaternary as beginning 2.58 million years ago is based on the formation of the Arctic ice cap. The Antarctic ice sheet began to form earlier, at about 34 Ma, in the mid-Cenozoic (Eocene–Oligocene extinction event). The term Late Cenozoic Ice Age is used to include this early phase.During this last glacial period there were alternating episodes of glacier advance and retreat. Within the last glacial period the Last Glacial Maximum was approximately 22,000 years ago. While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar, local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent (see picture of ice core data below for differences). Approximately 12,800 years ago, the Younger Dryas, the most recent glacial epoch, began, a coda to the preceding 100,000 year glacial period. Its end about 11,550 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene, the current geological epoch. From the point of view of human archaeology, the last glacial period falls in the Paleolithic and early Mesolithic periods. When the glaciation event started, Homo sapiens were confined to lower latitudes and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Denisovans and Homo erectus in Asia. Near the end of the event, Homo sapiens migrated into Eurasia and Australia. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover.\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Last_Glacial_Period\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 93930\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Ice People Content: The Ice People is a 1998 science fiction novel by Maggie Gee , set in a future world dominated by a new ice age . The novel examines different elements of contemporary society : the fundamental roles and relationships of men and women , sexuality , politics and the issue of global warming . Global warming is the initial context , where increases in temperature are then followed by the cyclic appearance of an ice age . The reaction of society and individuals to these dramatic extremes sites the novel within the genre of dystopian science fiction , but closer to the author 's heart seem to be the changes within such a scenario of issues we face today : the changes in racism as different parts of the planet change in their attractiveness ; the changes in social position as `` Insiders '' and `` Outsiders '' -- the `` haves '' and the `` have-nots '' -- live within differing conditions ; the value , status and interpretation of marriage ; parenthood -- the increasing difficulties in conception and the subsequent single-parenthood versus family issues ; the `` gang '' mentality of men and women ; the way politics is perceived , used and power abused . The Ice People has been compared to George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Ice_People\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 93881\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice giant Content: An ice giant is a giant planet composed mainly of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium , such as oxygen , carbon , nitrogen , and sulfur . There are two known ice giants in the Solar System , Uranus and Neptune . Ice giants consist of only about 20 % hydrogen and helium in mass , as opposed to the Solar System 's gas giants ( Jupiter and Saturn ) , which are both more than 90 % hydrogen and helium in mass . In the 1990s , it was realized that Uranus and Neptune are a distinct class of giant planet , separate from the other giant planets . They have become known as ice giants because their constituent compounds were ices when they were primarily incorporated into the planets during their formation , either directly in the form of ices or trapped in water ice . The amount of solid volatiles within the ice giants today is , however , very small .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_giant\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 93762\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heinrich event Content: A Heinrich event is a natural phenomenon in which large armadas of icebergs break off from glaciers and traverse the North Atlantic . First described by marine geologist Hartmut Heinrich ( Heinrich , H. , 1988 ) , they occurred during five of the last seven glacial periods or `` ice ages '' over the past 640,000 years ( Hodell , et al. , 2008 ) . Heinrich events are particularly well documented for the last glacial period but notably absent from the penultimate glaciation ( Obrochta et al. , 2014 ) . The icebergs contained rock mass , which has been eroded by the glaciers , and as they melted , this matter was dropped onto the sea floor as ice rafted debris ( abbreviated to `` IRD '' ) . The icebergs ' melting caused extensive amounts of fresh water to be added to the North Atlantic . Such inputs of cold and fresh water may well have altered the density-driven , thermohaline circulation patterns of the ocean , and often coincide with indications of global climate fluctuations . Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the cause of Heinrich events , most of which imply instability of the massive Laurentide ice sheet , a continental glacier covering North America during the last glacial period . Other northern hemisphere ice sheets were potentially involved as well ( Scandinavia , Iceland , Greenland ) . However , the initial cause of this instability is still debated .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Heinrich_event\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 93668\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Elster glaciation Content: The Elster glaciation ( Elster-Kaltzeit , Elster-Glazial or Elster-Zeit ) or , less commonly , the Elsterian glaciation -- in the older and popular scientific literature also called the Elster Ice Age ( Elster-Eiszeit ) -- is the oldest known ice age that resulted in the large-scale glaciation of North Germany . It is temporally identified with the south German Mindel glaciation . The Elster glaciation is currently dated to about 400,000 to 320,000 years ago . It succeeded a long period of rather warmer average temperatures , the Cromerian Complex . Two ice advances were very extensive . The Elster was followed by the Holstein interglacial . The glacial period is named after the White Elster , a right tributary of the Saale .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Elster_glaciation\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 93421\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: January 2009 North American ice storm Content: The January 2009 North American ice storm was a major ice storm that impacted parts of Oklahoma , Arkansas , Missouri , Illinois , Indiana , West Virginia , and Kentucky . The storm produced widespread power outages for over 2 million people due to heavy ice accumulation . The hardest hit areas were in Western Kentucky with over 500,000 residences without power during the height of the storm , including 100,000 without power for over one week , and northern Arkansas , with 300,000 residences without power . This ice storm killed 65 people nationwide , 35 in Kentucky . Most deaths were attributed to carbon monoxide poisoning due to power generators or kerosene heaters being used indoors without proper ventilation . Kentucky Governor Steve Beshear called up the entire Kentucky Army National Guard to deal with the after effects of this storm , the largest National Guard call up in that state 's history . Emergency response teams from NRWA state affiliates , including the Arkansas , Kentucky , Oklahoma , Missouri and Florida rural water associations provided portable generators and technical assistance to maintain the water supply in the impacted areas .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"January_2009_North_American_ice_storm\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 93420\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Age Entertainment Content: Ice Age Entertainment is a record label created and owned by southern rapper Mike Jones and business partner Ray `` Mello '' Moore . The record label was created around late 2001 . Mike Jones has re-signed with Swishahouse , and has come to terms with them . Swishahouse will now distribute albums released under Ice Age Entertainment . The record label is based in two cities , Houston and Atlanta .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Age_Entertainment\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 93277\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Atmospheric_carbon_cycle\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 93071\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"8.2_kiloyear_event\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 92916\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Information and Content Exchange Content: Information and Content Exchange ( ICE ) is an XML-based protocol used for content syndication via the Internet . By using XML both sender and receiver have an agreed-upon language in which to communicate . Using a client -- server architecture , ICE defines a syndicate/subscribe model that is comparable to the binary publish/subscribe protocol standards used in CORBA and DCOM . However , in ICE messages are delivered through XML , typically over an HTTP connection , rather than through a lower-level binary protocol .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Information_and_Content_Exchange\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 92774\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice-type model Content: In statistical mechanics , the ice-type models or six-vertex models are a family of vertex models for crystal lattices with hydrogen bonds . The first such model was introduced by Linus Pauling in 1935 to account for the residual entropy of water ice . Variants have been proposed as models of certain ferroelectric and antiferroelectric crystals . In 1967 , Elliott H. Lieb found the exact solution to a two-dimensional ice model known as `` square ice '' . The exact solution in three dimensions is only known for a special `` frozen '' state .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice-type_model\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 92420\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 92415\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Early Palaeozoic Icehouse Content: The Early Palaeozoic Icehouse was a cool period that interrupted the greenhouse temperatures of the Ordovician and Silurian periods , culminating in the Hirnantian glaciation and the Ordovician extinction event . The icehouse was formerly thought only to consist of the Hirnantian glaciation itself , but has now been recognized as a longer , more gradual event .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Early_Palaeozoic_Icehouse\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 92269\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Six Ages of the World Content: The Six Ages of the World ( Latin : sex aetates mundi ) , also rarely Seven Ages of the World ( Latin : septem aetates mundi ) , is a Christian historical periodization first written about by Saint Augustine circa 400 AD . It is based upon Christian religious events , from the creation of Adam to the events of Revelation . The six ages of history , with each age ( Latin : aetas ) lasting approximately 1,000 years , were widely believed and in use throughout the Middle Ages , and until the Enlightenment , the writing of history was mostly the filling out of all or some part of this outline . The outline accounts for Seven Ages , just as there are seven days of the week , with the Seventh Age being eternal rest after the Final Judgement and End Times , just as the seventh day of the week is reserved for rest . It was normally called the Six Ages of the World because in Augustine 's schema they were the ages of the world , of history , while the Seventh Age was not of this world but , as Bede later elaborated , ran parallel to the six ages of the world . Augustine 's presentation deliberately counters chiliastic and millennial ideas that the Seventh Age , World to Come , would come after the sixth .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Six_Ages_of_the_World\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 92246\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon pentoxide Content: Carbon pentaoxide or carbon pentoxide is an unstable molecular oxide of carbon . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule has a C2 symmetry . It consists of a five membered ring with one carbon and four oxygen atoms . A fifth oxygen atom has a double bond to the carbon . Calculation has resulted in a theoretical structure . The pentagon is not regular , but varies in the length of its sides and angles . The distance between the oxygen atoms that are not attached to carbon is 1.406 Å , whereas the distance between one of these atoms and an oxygen attached to carbon is 1.457 Å . The carbon oxygen bond length is 1.376 Å . The double carbon to oxygen bond is the shortest at 1.180 Å . There is no carbon-to-carbon bond as there is only one carbon atom . The OOO bond angle is 100.2 ° and the OOC angle is 109.1 ° . The OCO bond angle is 125.4 ° .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_pentoxide\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 91854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Middle Miocene disruption Content: The term Middle Miocene disruption , alternatively the Middle Miocene extinction or Middle Miocene extinction peak , refers to a wave of extinctions of terrestrial and aquatic life forms that occurred around the middle of the Miocene , roughly , during the Langhian stage of the Miocene . This period was preceded by the Miocene Climatic Optimum , a period of relative warmth from 18 to 14 Ma . Cooling that led to the Middle Miocene disruption has been attributed to CO2 being pulled out of the atmosphere by organic material before becoming caught in different locations like the Monterey Formation . Madelaine Bohme observed the occurrence of Varanidae , Chameleonidae , Cordylidae , Tomistominae , Alligatoridae , and giant turtles which indicate survival through the Miocene Climatic Optimum ( 18 to 16 Ma ) in Central Europe ( 45-42 ° N palaeolatitude ) . A major and permanent cooling step occurred between 14.8 and 14.1 Ma , associated with increased production of cold Antarctic deep waters and a major growth of the East Antarctic ice sheet . Two crocodilians of the genera Gavialosuchus and Diplocynodon were noted to have been extant in these northern latitudes prior to the permanent cooling step then became extinct 13.5 to 14 Ma . A Middle Miocene delta18O increase , that is a relative increase in the heavier isotope of oxygen , has been noted in the Pacific , the Southern Ocean and the South Atlantic .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Middle_Miocene_disruption\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 91686\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice World (film) Content: Ice World is a 2002 television documentary on the Discovery Channel about humans during the last ice age . The program follows their struggle to survive in the cold and harsh environment of the Europe of 24,000 years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_World_(film)\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 91528\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: 2012: Ice Age Content: 2012 : Ice Age is a 2011 disaster film produced by the independent film group The Asylum . It is the third and final film in The Asylum 's 2012 trilogy , which are mockbusters of the Roland Emmerich film 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"2012:_Ice_Age\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 91412\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 91330\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Ice Organisation Content: The Ice Organisation is a UK Loyalty programme . Ice promotes brands , goods and services that are more sustainable , with the aim of mitigating climate change through mass consumer purchase power . Like other loyalty schemes , customers are rewarded with Ice points which they earn when shopping with a retailer who is part of the programme . Customers can spend their points at Ice retailers for money off their purchases or get it for free . Depending on the retailer , customers can collect and spend Ice points either online , via the telephone or in-store . The Ice Organisation is run by Jude Thorne ( CEO , former CEO of Airmiles ) , Michael Baulk ( Chairman , former Chairman and Chief Executive of AMV plc from Jan 1997 to 2006 ) and Tessa Tennant ( President , Co-founder of the UK Social Investment Forum , and the Carbon Disclosure Project ) and the scheme tries to make people think about the environmental impacts of their shopping baskets and rewards them for making more environmentally friendly purchases .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Ice_Organisation\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 91285\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Interglacial\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 90891\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Laschamp event Content: The Laschamp event was a short reversal of the Earth 's magnetic field . It occurred 41,400 ( ± 2,000 ) years ago during the last ice age and was first recognised in the late 1960s as a geomagnetic reversal recorded in the Laschamp lava flows in the Clermont-Ferrand district of France . The magnetic excursion has since been demonstrated in geological archives from many parts of the world . The period of reversed magnetic field was approximately 440 years , with the transition from the normal field lasting approximately 250 years . The reversed field was 75 % weaker whereas the strength dropped to only 5 % of the current strength during the transition . This reduction in geomagnetic field strength resulted in more cosmic rays reaching the Earth , causing greater production of the cosmogenic isotopes beryllium 10 and carbon 14 .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Laschamp_event\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 90480\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: European Climate Exchange Content: The European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) manages the product development and marketing for ECX Carbon Financial Instruments ( ECX CFIs ) , listed and admitted for trading on the ICE Futures Europe electronic platform . It is no longer a subsidiary of the Chicago Climate Exchange but rather a sister company . Both companies are owned by Climate Exchange Plc a holding company listed on the London Stock Exchange 's AIM market . ECX / ICE Futures is the most liquid , pan-European platform for carbon emissions trading , with its futures contract based on the underlying EU Allowances ( EUAs ) and Certified Emissions Allowances ( CERs ) attracting over 80 % of the exchange-traded volume in the European market . ECX contracts ( EUA and CER Futures , options and spot contracts ) are standardised exchange-traded products and all trades are cleared by ICE Clear Europe ( LCH.Clearnet was the designated clearing house prior to November 2008 ) . More than 100 leading businesses , including global companies such as Barclays , BP , Newedge , E.ON UK , Endesa , Fortis , Goldman Sachs , Morgan Stanley and Shell have signed up for membership to trade ECX products . In addition , several hundred clients can access the market daily via banks and brokers in a process called ` order-routing ' without having to be a member themselves . ECX is a member of the Climate Exchange Plc group of companies , founded by Richard Sandor . Other member companies include the Chicago Climate Exchange ( `` CCX '' ) and IFEX . Climate Exchange Plc is listed on AIM on the London Stock Exchange , and was bought in April 2010 by IntercontinentalExchange ( ICE ) . The current Chief Executive is Patrick Birley , son of archaeologist Robin Birley .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"European_Climate_Exchange\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 90217\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Crisis of the Late Middle Ages Content: The crisis of the Late Middle Ages refers to a series of events in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that brought centuries of European prosperity and growth to a halt . Three major crises led to radical changes in all areas of society : demographic collapse , political instabilities and religious upheavals . A series of famines and plagues , beginning with the Great Famine of 1315 -- 17 and especially the Black Death of 1348 , reduced the population perhaps by half or more as the Medieval Warm Period came to a close and the first century of the Little Ice Age began . Popular revolts in late medieval Europe and civil wars between nobles within countries such as the Wars of the Roses were common -- with France fighting internally nine times -- and there were international conflicts between kings such as France and England in the Hundred Years ' War . The unity of the Roman Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism . The Holy Roman Empire was also in decline ; in the aftermath of the Great Interregnum ( 1247 -- 1273 ) , the Empire lost cohesion and politically the separate dynasties of the various German states became more important than their common empire .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 89765\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice VII Content: Ice VII is a cubic crystalline form of ice . It can be formed from liquid water above 3 GPa ( 30,000 atmospheres ) by lowering its temperature to room temperature , or by decompressing heavy water ( D2O ) ice VI below 95 K. Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih , ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures . Ice VII is metastable over a wide range of temperatures and pressures and transforms into low-density amorphous ice ( LDA ) above 120K . Ice VII has a triple point with liquid water and ice VI at 355 K and 2.216 GPa , with the melt line extending to at least 715 K and 10 GPa . It can also be created by increasing the pressure on ice VI at ambient temperature . Like the majority of ice phases ( including ice Ih ) , the hydrogen atom positions are disordered . In addition , the oxygen atoms are disordered over multiple sites . The structure of ice VII comprises a hydrogen bond framework in the form of two interpenetrating ( but non-bonded ) sublattices . Hydrogen pass through the center of the water hexamers and thus do not connect the two lattices . Ice VII has a density of about 1.65 g cm − 3 ( at 2.5 GPa and 25 ° C ) , which is less than twice the cubic ice density as the intra-network O -- O distances are 8 % longer ( at 0.1 MPa ) to allow for interpenetration . The cubic unit cell has a side length of 3.3501 Å ( for D2O , at 2.6 GPa and 22 ° C ) and contains two water molecules . Ice VII is the only disordered phase of ice that can be ordered by simple cooling , and it forms ( ordered ) ice VIII below 273 K up to ~ 8 GPa . Above this pressure , the VII -- VIII transition temperature drops rapidly , reaching 0 K at ~ 60 GPa . Thus , ice VII has the largest stability field of all of the molecular phases of ice . The cubic oxygen sub-lattices that form the backbone of the ice VII structure persist to pressures of at least 128 GPa ; this pressure is substantially higher than that at which water loses its molecular character entirely , forming ice X . In high pressure ices , protonic diffusion ( movement of protons around the oxygen lattice ) dominates molecular diffusion , an effect which has been measured directly . Scientists hypothesize that ice VII may comprise the ocean floor of Titan as well as extrasolar planets ( such as Gliese 436 b and GJ 1214 b ) that are largely made of water .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_VII\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 89747\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoatmosphere\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 89608\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Topographical areas of Yorkshire Content: In Yorkshire there is a very close relationship between the major topographical areas and the geological period in which they were formed . The Pennine chain of Hills in the west is of Carboniferous origin . The central vale is Permo-Triassic . The North York Moors in the north-east of the county are Jurassic in age while the Yorkshire Wolds to the south east are Cretaceous chalk uplands . The plain of Holderness and the Humberhead levels both owe their present form to the Quaternary ice ages . Much of Yorkshire presents heavily glaciated scenery as few places escaped the great ice sheets as they advanced during the last ice age .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Topographical_areas_of_Yorkshire\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 89480\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Radiocarbon dating Content: Radiocarbon dating ( also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating ) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon , a radioactive isotope of carbon . The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists . Libby received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in 1960 . The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen . The resulting radiocarbon combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide , which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis ; animals then acquire by eating the plants . When the animal or plant dies , it stops exchanging carbon with its environment , and from that point onwards the amount of it contains begins to decrease as the undergoes radioactive decay . Measuring the amount of in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died . The older a sample is , the less there is to be detected , and because the half-life of ( the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed ) is about 5,730 years , the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to around 50,000 years ago , although special preparation methods occasionally permit accurate analysis of older samples . The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward , but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained . Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years . The resulting data , in the form of a calibration curve , is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample 's calendar age . Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of in different types of organisms ( fractionation ) , and the varying levels of throughout the biosphere ( reservoir effects ) . Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil , and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s . Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its to decay below detectable levels , fossil fuels contain almost no , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century . Conversely , nuclear testing increased the amount of in the atmosphere , which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began . Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices , which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying atoms in a sample . More recently , accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice ; it counts all the atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements ; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples ( as small as individual plant seeds ) , and gives results much more quickly . The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology . In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods , it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances . Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the `` radiocarbon revolution '' . Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated , such as the end of the last ice age , and the beginning of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in different regions .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Radiocarbon_dating\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 89241\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Age: The Meltdown Content: Ice Age : The Meltdown is a 2006 American computer-animated comedy adventure film produced by Blue Sky Studios and released by 20th Century Fox . As the first sequel to the 2002 film Ice Age , it focuses on the herd escaping an upcoming flood , during which Manny finds love . It was directed by Carlos Saldanha , co-director of the first film , with the music composed by John Powell . The original voice cast -- Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Chris Wedge -- is joined by Queen Latifah , Seann William Scott and Josh Peck . The film premiered in Belgium on March 1 , 2006 . It was eventually released in 70 countries , with the last release being in China , on June 9 , 2006 . The Meltdown received mixed critical reaction but was a box office success by earning over $ 660 million . Three more sequels were released -- Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Age:_The_Meltdown\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 89044\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 88989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Information Council on the Environment Content: The Information Council on the Environment ( ICE ) , was a U.S. organization created by the National Coal Association , the Western Fuels Association , and Edison Electrical Institute .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Information_Council_on_the_Environment\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 88791\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Eocene Content: The Eocene ( -LSB- pronˈiːəˌsiːn , _ ˈiːoʊ - -RSB- ) Epoch , lasting from , is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era . The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Paleocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch . The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C . The end is set at a major extinction event called the Grande Coupure ( the `` Great Break '' in continuity ) or the Eocene -- Oligocene extinction event , which may be related to the impact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake Bay . As with other geologic periods , the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified , though their exact dates are slightly uncertain . The name Eocene comes from the Ancient Greek ἠώς ( ēṓs , `` dawn '' ) and καινός ( kainós , `` new '' ) and refers to the `` dawn '' of modern ( ` new ' ) fauna that appeared during the epoch .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Eocene\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 88734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Rock & Ice Content: Rock & Ice is a magazine published by Big Stone Publishing focusing on rock and ice climbing . The magazine got its start in early 1984 and the first issue was in late 1985 . The first publisher was Neal Kaptain , and it was bought out within the first year by George Bracksieck , who remained editor until 1997 . His company , North-South Publications , sold it to Primedia , a company led by Dougald MacDonald and others . The magazine is published eight times a year . It was headquartered in Boulder , Colorado until 2002 when it moved to Carbondale , Colorado . The cover of the first issue featured Alex Lowe climbing the first ascent of The Fang in Vail , Colorado .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Rock_&_Ice\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 88722\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Late Ordovician glaciation Content: The Late Ordovician Glaciation is a period at the end of the Ordovician that started at the border between the Katian and Hirnantian about 440-460 Ma ( million years ago ) . The major glaciation during this period is widely considered to be the leading cause of the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event . Evidence of this glaciation can be seen in places such as Morocco , Libya , and Wyoming . More evidence derived from isotopic data is that during the Late Ordovician , Tropical ocean temperatures were about 5 ° C cooler than present day , this would have been a major factor that aided in the glaciation process . The Late Ordovician is the only glacial episode that appears to have coincided with a major mass extinction of nearly 61 % of marine life . Estimates of peak ice sheet volume range from 50 to 250 million cubic kilometers , and its duration from 35 million to less than 1 million years . There were also two peaks of glaciation . Also , glaciation of the Northern Hemisphere was minimal because a large amount of the land was in the southern hemisphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Late_Ordovician_glaciation\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 88565\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Carbacid Investments Content: Carbacid Investments Limited ( CIL ) , is a manufacturing and investment company in Kenya , the largest economy in the East African Community . The company manufactures and markets carbon dioxide gas for industrial and medical use as well as dry ice . It also tests and validates gas cylinders . Carbacid is a monopoly and currently has a market share of more than 95 % in the regional carbon dioxide market . The shares of the company 's stock are listed on the Nairobi Securities Exchange ( NSE ) , where they trade under the symbol CARB .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Carbacid_Investments\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 88235\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice nucleus Content: An ice nucleus is a particle which acts as the nucleus for the formation of an ice crystal in the atmosphere .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_nucleus\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 88089\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Riss glaciation Content: The Riss glaciation , Riss Glaciation , Riss ice age , Riss Ice Age , Riss glacial or Riss Glacial ( Riß-Kaltzeit , Riß-Glazial , Riß-Komplex or ( obsolete ) Riß-Eiszeit ) is the second youngest glaciation of the Pleistocene epoch in the traditional , quadripartite glacial classification of the Alps . The literature variously dates it to between about 300,000 to 130,000 years ago and 347,000 to 128,000 years ago . It coincides with the nocat = y glaciation of North Germany . The name goes back to Albrecht Penck and Eduard Brückner who named this cold period after the river Riss in Upper Swabia in their 3 volume work Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter ( `` The Alps in the Ice Age '' ) published between 1901 and 1909 .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Riss_glaciation\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 87989\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice Age Giants Content: Ice Age Giants is a British television documentary series created and produced by the BBC Natural History Unit , first shown in the UK on BBC Two and BBC Two HD on 19 May 2013 . The series steps back to 20,000 years in time and follows the trail of the prehistoric mammals in the ice age on North America and European region that lived through it to life by using the latest scientific knowledge and a little graphic wizardry . The series was presented by Dr. Alice Roberts and composed by David Mitcham .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice_Age_Giants\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 87857\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"CO2_fertilization_effect\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 87854\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Last ice age Content: Last ice age may refer to : Quaternary glaciation , the period of the last few million years Last glacial period , the most recent glacial period of the current ice age Little Ice Age , a hundred years of relative cold in the Middle Ages after what historians term the Medieval Warm Period\",\n \"qid\": \"207\",\n \"docid\": \"Last_ice_age\",\n \"rank\": 100,\n \"score\": 87752\n }\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":99,"cells":{"query":{"kind":"string","value":"For decades, most scientists saw climate change as a distant prospect."},"hits":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"content":"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .","qid":"211","docid":"History_of_climate_change_science","rank":1,"score":127888},{"content":"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .","qid":"211","docid":"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming","rank":2,"score":123996},{"content":"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .","qid":"211","docid":"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change","rank":3,"score":121638},{"content":"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''","qid":"211","docid":"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change","rank":4,"score":120218},{"content":"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.","qid":"211","docid":"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change","rank":5,"score":119136},{"content":"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"211","docid":"Climate_change_in_popular_culture","rank":6,"score":118009},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .","qid":"211","docid":"Climate_Change_Science_Program","rank":7,"score":116919},{"content":"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .","qid":"211","docid":"Climate_change","rank":8,"score":114636},{"content":"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .","qid":"211","docid":"Leipzig_Declaration","rank":9,"score":111636},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .","qid":"211","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change","rank":10,"score":107489},{"content":"Title: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement Content: The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .","qid":"211","docid":"Laboratoire_des_sciences_du_climat_et_de_l'environnement","rank":11,"score":106419},{"content":"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''","qid":"211","docid":"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents","rank":12,"score":104279},{"content":"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .","qid":"211","docid":"Global_warming","rank":13,"score":103696},{"content":"Title: James Croll Content: James Croll , FRS , ( 2 January 1821 -- 15 December 1890 ) was a 19th-century Scottish scientist who developed a theory of climate change based on changes in the Earth 's orbit .","qid":"211","docid":"James_Croll","rank":14,"score":103562},{"content":"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.","qid":"211","docid":"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)","rank":15,"score":103450},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.","qid":"211","docid":"Media_coverage_of_global_warming","rank":16,"score":103015},{"content":"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .","qid":"211","docid":"Ice2sea","rank":17,"score":102255},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .","qid":"211","docid":"Climate_Change_Research_Centre","rank":18,"score":101156},{"content":"Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .","qid":"211","docid":"Christopher_Field","rank":19,"score":100263},{"content":"Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .","qid":"211","docid":"List_of_climate_research_satellites","rank":20,"score":100140},{"content":"Title: Michael MacCracken Content: Michael Calvin MacCracken ( born 1942 ) , has been Chief Scientist for Climate Change Programs with the Climate Institute in Washington DC since 2002 ; he was also elected to its Board of Directors in 2006 .","qid":"211","docid":"Michael_MacCracken","rank":21,"score":99958},{"content":"Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .","qid":"211","docid":"I'm_not_a_scientist","rank":22,"score":99501},{"content":"Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .","qid":"211","docid":"Tyndall_Centre","rank":23,"score":98623},{"content":"Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .","qid":"211","docid":"Peter_A._Stott","rank":24,"score":98355},{"content":"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .","qid":"211","docid":"Media_coverage_of_climate_change","rank":25,"score":98344},{"content":"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .","qid":"211","docid":"Copenhagen_Diagnosis","rank":26,"score":98077},{"content":"Title: Climatic Change (journal) Content: Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .","qid":"211","docid":"Climatic_Change_(journal)","rank":27,"score":98006},{"content":"Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy","qid":"211","docid":"Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists","rank":28,"score":97163},{"content":"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .","qid":"211","docid":"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment","rank":29,"score":97069},{"content":"Title: Jeffrey Kiehl Content: Jeffrey Theodore Kiehl ( born June 10 , 1952 ) is an American climate scientist . He is head of the Climate Change Research Section in the National Center for Atmospheric Research located in Boulder , Colorado . He completed his atmospheric science doctoral studies at the State University of New York , Albany . He was awarded the 2012 Climate Communication Prize from the American Geophysical Union .","qid":"211","docid":"Jeffrey_Kiehl","rank":30,"score":96977},{"content":"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .","qid":"211","docid":"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster","rank":31,"score":96973},{"content":"Title: James Annan Content: James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .","qid":"211","docid":"James_Annan","rank":32,"score":96802},{"content":"Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .","qid":"211","docid":"Climate_change_denial","rank":33,"score":96582},{"content":"Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''","qid":"211","docid":"Ian_Clark_(geologist)","rank":34,"score":96541},{"content":"Title: Climate Research (journal) Content: Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .","qid":"211","docid":"Climate_Research_(journal)","rank":35,"score":96452},{"content":"Title: Climatic Research Unit Content: The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .","qid":"211","docid":"Climatic_Research_Unit","rank":36,"score":96437},{"content":"Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .","qid":"211","docid":"Nature_Climate_Change","rank":37,"score":96056},{"content":"Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .","qid":"211","docid":"Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report","rank":38,"score":95733},{"content":"Title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy Content: The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .","qid":"211","docid":"Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy","rank":39,"score":95681},{"content":"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .","qid":"211","docid":"Wibjörn_Karlén","rank":40,"score":95525},{"content":"Title: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration Content: The Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration was created as part of the Clear Skies Initiative in February 2002 by George W. Bush , as a Cabinet-level effort to coordinate climate change science and technology research . The White House says : `` The Secretary of Commerce and Secretary of Energy will lead the effort , in close coordination with the President 's Science Advisor . The research effort will continue to be coordinated through the National Science and Technology Council in accordance with the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . ''","qid":"211","docid":"Committee_on_Climate_Change_Science_and_Technology_Integration","rank":41,"score":95264},{"content":"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .","qid":"211","docid":"Global_warming_controversy","rank":42,"score":95218},{"content":"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .","qid":"211","docid":"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)","rank":43,"score":95200},{"content":"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .","qid":"211","docid":"Scott_Denning","rank":44,"score":95185},{"content":"Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .","qid":"211","docid":"John_F._B._Mitchell","rank":45,"score":95117},{"content":"Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .","qid":"211","docid":"Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment","rank":46,"score":94977},{"content":"Title: Kevin Anderson (scientist) Content: Kevin Anderson is the Deputy Director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research ; holds a joint chair in Energy and Climate Change at the School of Mechanical , Aerospace and Civil Engineering at the University of Manchester and School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ; and is an honorary lecturer in Environmental Management at the Manchester Business School . He is an adviser to the British Government ( as of 2009 ) on climate change .","qid":"211","docid":"Kevin_Anderson_(scientist)","rank":47,"score":94816},{"content":"Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .","qid":"211","docid":"Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy","rank":48,"score":94796},{"content":"Title: U.S. Global Change Research Program Content: The United States Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society . The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 ( P.L. 101-606 ) , which called for `` a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand , assess , predict , and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change . '' Thirteen departments and agencies participate in the USGCRP , which was known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program from 2002 through 2008 . The program is steered by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research under the Committee on Environment , Natural Resources and Sustainability , overseen by the Executive Office of the President , and facilitated by a National Coordination Office . During the past two decades , the United States , through the USGCRP , has made the world 's largest scientific investment in the areas of climate change and global change research . Since its inception , the USGCRP has supported research and observational activities in collaboration with several other national and international science programs . These activities led to major advances in several key areas including : Observing and understanding short - and long-term changes in climate , the ozone layer , and land cover ; Identifying the impacts of these changes on ecosystems and society ; Estimating future changes in the physical environment , and vulnerabilities and risks associated with those changes ; and Providing scientific information to enable effective decision making to address the threats and opportunities posed by climate and global change . These advances have been documented in numerous assessments commissioned by the program and have played prominent roles in international assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Program results and plans are documented in the program 's annual report , Our Changing Planet .","qid":"211","docid":"U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program","rank":49,"score":94722},{"content":"Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .","qid":"211","docid":"Climate_ethics","rank":50,"score":94425},{"content":"Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .","qid":"211","docid":"John_Christy","rank":51,"score":94257},{"content":"Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .","qid":"211","docid":"World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow","rank":52,"score":94193},{"content":"Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .","qid":"211","docid":"Paleoclimatology","rank":53,"score":93869},{"content":"Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .","qid":"211","docid":"Petar_Gburčik","rank":54,"score":93863},{"content":"Title: Tom Wigley Content: Tom Wigley is a climate scientist at the University of Adelaide . He is also affiliated with the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) . He was named a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) for his major contributions to climate and carbon cycle modeling and to climate data analysis , and because he is `` one of the world 's foremost experts on climate change and one of the most highly cited scientists in the discipline . '' His h-index ( August 2014 ) is 64 , one of the highest in the discipline . He contributed to many of the reports published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . Wigley was educated as a mathematical physicist and earned his doctorate at the University of Adelaide in Australia . He served as director of the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom from 1978 to 1993 . In 1993 he went on to the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder , Colorado , where he was appointed a senior scientist in 1994 . He subsequently moved to the University of Adelaide where he currently ( 2014 ) holds a Professorial Fellowship . His published papers include the first paper to demonstrate 20th century warming using both land and marine data , the first paper to include the effects of aerosol cooling on projections of future climate change , the first paper to provide realistic scenarios for the stabilization of atmospheric CO2 , and the first paper to use pattern-based methods to identify a significant human influence on the climate . Wigley has also published a number of highly cited papers in aqueous geochemistry , including a now-standard method for carbon dating of groundwater . Wigley has argued in the popular media that the IPCC has been too optimistic about the prospect of averting harmful climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions through the use of renewable technologies alone , and argued that any realistic portfolio must include significant contributions from nuclear energy . He has also pointed out that `` the human-induced changes that are expected over the next 100 years are much , much greater than any changes that societies experienced in the past . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''","qid":"211","docid":"Tom_Wigley","rank":55,"score":93693},{"content":"Title: Woods Hole Research Center Content: The Woods Hole Research Center ( WHRC ) is a scientific research organization that studies climate change , land use change , soils , wetlands , and forests . WHRC was named the world 's top climate change think tank for 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 by the International Center for Climate Governance . The Center conducts research throughout the Amazon , the Arctic , central Africa , and North America . WHRC collaborates with a wide variety of partners to understand the causes and impacts of climate change and to implement more science-based policies .","qid":"211","docid":"Woods_Hole_Research_Center","rank":56,"score":93689},{"content":"Title: Jimmy Adegoke Content: James O. Adegoke ( born 1963 ) is an award-winning climate scientist and professor at the University of Missouri-Kansas City ( UMKC ) where he served as Chair of the Department of Geosciences ( 2008-2010 ) . He also served as an appointee of the Mayor of Kansas City Missouri on the city 's Environmental Management Commission ( EMC ) and has testified before the South Africa Parliament 's Portfolio Committee on Science and Technology and the Climate Change Committee of the Nigerian House of Representatives . In the United States , he has testified at the United States House of Representatives for the United States House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming . He also serves on the Technical Advisory Board of several United Nations ( UN ) applied science programs , including the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) project on the application of remote sensing for water resources and ecosystem management in Africa .","qid":"211","docid":"Jimmy_Adegoke","rank":57,"score":93609},{"content":"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .","qid":"211","docid":"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change","rank":58,"score":93376},{"content":"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .","qid":"211","docid":"Global_cooling","rank":59,"score":93198},{"content":"Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .","qid":"211","docid":"Friends_of_Science","rank":60,"score":93082},{"content":"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .","qid":"211","docid":"World_Climate_Research_Programme","rank":61,"score":92978},{"content":"Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link","qid":"211","docid":"Vicky_Pope","rank":62,"score":92850},{"content":"Title: Kathleen Miller Content: Kathleen A. Miller is a climate scientist who specializes in the economics of climate change and its effects on institutions , management of risk and investment decisions . She has worked as the lead author on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change chapter on North America in the report Climate Change 2001 : Impacts , Adaptations and Vulnerability . She is based at the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado . Miller undertook her doctorate in Economics at the University of Washington in 1985 . Her dissertation was entitled The Right to Use vs. the Right to Sell : Water Rights in the Western United States . It explored the evolution of property institutions governing access to water in the arid western states and modelled the operation and effects of these institutions in the presence of both scarcity and inter-temporal variability in water supplies .","qid":"211","docid":"Kathleen_Miller","rank":63,"score":92799},{"content":"Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .","qid":"211","docid":"Jonathan_M._Gregory","rank":64,"score":92771},{"content":"Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .","qid":"211","docid":"David_Karoly","rank":65,"score":92691},{"content":"Title: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars Content: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines is a 2012 book about climate change by the American climatologist and geophysicist Michael E. Mann . In the book Mann describes how he became a researcher investigating the temperature record of the past 1000 years and was lead author , with Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , on the 1999 reconstruction that was the first to be dubbed the hockey stick graph . He concisely explains the basics of climate science including statistical methodology dealing with paleoclimate proxy data , and examines the tactics which opponents of action on climate change use to distort the science and attack the reputations of climate scientists . The book describes both the hockey stick controversy and the broader context of skepticism in science and contrarians rejecting evidence of human influence on climate . The book was picked by Physics Today books editor Jermey Matthews as one of the five top books of the 49 they had reviewed in 2012 .","qid":"211","docid":"The_Hockey_Stick_and_the_Climate_Wars","rank":66,"score":92615},{"content":"Title: Helen Cleugh Content: Helen A. Cleugh is an atmospheric scientist . She is currently the Chief Research Scientist in Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) ( Oceans and Atmosphere ) where she leads the Earth Systems and Climate Change Hub . Cleugh 's research focuses on observing and predicting atmospheric , climate and marine systems and determining how they interact with human activities .","qid":"211","docid":"Helen_Cleugh","rank":67,"score":92446},{"content":"Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .","qid":"211","docid":"Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera","rank":68,"score":92375},{"content":"Title: Thomas Stocker Content: Thomas Stocker ( born 1959 ) is a Swiss climate scientist . Born in Zürich , Stocker obtained a degree in physics at the ETH Zurich . He was active in research at the University College London , at McGill University in Montreal and at Columbia University in New York . Since 1993 , he is professor and head of the department of Climate and Environmental Physics at the University of Bern . The focus of Stocker 's research is the development of models of climate change based on , among other , the analysis of ice cores from the polar regions . He significantly contributed to creating the `` hockey stick graph '' that shows a growing increase of global mean temperatures in recent times . Since 1998 , he contributes to the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and is co-chairman of the IPCC Working Group I ( assessing scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change ) from 2008 to 2015 . In 1993 , Stocker was awarded the Swiss National Science Foundation 's National Latsis Prize , and 2009 the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and a member of the Academia Europaea and the American Meteorological Society . Stocker is featured in the film Taking Earth 's Temperature : Delving into Climate 's Past . On February 18 , 2015 , the Swiss government announced it would nominate Dr. Stocker as a candidate for the next chair of the IPCC to succeed Dr. Pachauri .","qid":"211","docid":"Thomas_Stocker","rank":69,"score":91959},{"content":"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .","qid":"211","docid":"Peter_Thejll","rank":70,"score":91916},{"content":"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .","qid":"211","docid":"Climate_change_in_Argentina","rank":71,"score":91876},{"content":"Title: George Kukla Content: George Kukla ( born Jiří Kukla ; 14 March 1930 -- 31 May 2014 ) was a senior research scientist at the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University . Kukla was a member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences , prior to emigrating to the US , and a pioneer in the field of astronomical climate forcing . In 1972 he became a central figure in convincing the United States government to take the dangers of climate change seriously . Kukla and geologist , Robert Matthews of Brown University , convened a historic conference , themed : `` The Present Interglacial : How and When will it End ? '' Kukla and Matthews then highlighted the dangers of global cooling in Science magazine and , to President Richard Nixon . The Nixon administration reacted swiftly to their letter , which described calamities such as killer frosts , lower food production and floods , to come . By February 1973 , the State Department had established a Panel on the Present Interglacial , which advised Drs. Kukla and Matthews that it `` was seized of the matter '' and numerous other government agencies were soon included . Kukla was co-author of a chapter in the book `` Natural Climate Variability on Decade to Century Time Scales '' published by the National Research Council . Kukla believed all glacial periods in Earth 's history began with global warming ( understood as an increase of area-weighted average global mean temperature ) . He believed Earth 's recent warming is mostly natural and will ultimately lead to a new ice age .","qid":"211","docid":"George_Kukla","rank":72,"score":91836},{"content":"Title: Jim Salinger Content: Michael Jim Salinger is an Auckland-based climate change scientist who formerly worked for the Crown Research Institute National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . From 2006 to 2010 , Salinger was President of the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology at the World Meteorological Organization . On 23 April 2009 , Salinger was dismissed by NIWA , ostensibly for breaching NIWA 's media policy . Salinger had represented NIWA to the public and media for many years and the dismissal caused a ` wide public outcry ' according to Television New Zealand . The Institute of Agricultural and Horticultural Science described the incident as a ` national embarrassment ' . In late May 2009 , Salinger stated that mediation with NIWA over the dismissal had failed and that he would be lodging a claim with the Employment Relations Authority . On 19 October 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority in Auckland began a hearing into Salinger 's dismissal ; during the hearing it emerged the Salinger has suffered from depression . In December 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority upheld Salinger 's dismissal . In 2012 , Salinger was Lorry Lokey Visiting Professor at Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment .","qid":"211","docid":"Jim_Salinger","rank":73,"score":91731},{"content":"Title: Attorney General of Virginia's climate science investigation Content: The Attorney General of Virginia 's climate science investigation was a `` Civil Investigative Demand '' initiated in April 2010 by Virginia Attorney General Ken Cuccinelli for a wide range of records held by the University of Virginia related to five grant applications for research work by a leading climate scientist Michael E. Mann , who was an assistant professor at the university from 1999 to 2005 . The demand was issued under the Virginia Fraud Against Taxpayers Act in connection with claims by Cuccinnelli that Mann had possibly violated state fraud laws in relation to five research grants , by allegedly manipulating data . No evidence of wrongdoing was presented to support the claim . Mann 's earlier work had been targeted by climate change skeptics in the hockey stick controversy , and allegations against him were renewed in late 2009 in the Climatic Research Unit email controversy but found to be groundless in a series of investigations . Widespread concerns were raised by University of Virginia 's faculty and numerous scientists and science organizations that Cuccinelli 's actions posed a threat to academic freedom , and would have a chilling effect on research in the state . The university filed a court petition and the judge dismissed Cuccinelli 's demand on the grounds that no justification had been shown for the investigation . Cuccinelli tried to re-open his case by issuing a revised subpoena , and appealed the case to the Virginia Supreme Court . The case was defended by the university , and the court ruled that Cuccinelli did not have the authority to make these demands . The outcome was hailed as a victory for academic freedom .","qid":"211","docid":"Attorney_General_of_Virginia's_climate_science_investigation","rank":74,"score":91722},{"content":"Title: Anders Levermann Content: Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .","qid":"211","docid":"Anders_Levermann","rank":75,"score":91493},{"content":"Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .","qid":"211","docid":"Climate_Change_Authority","rank":76,"score":91480},{"content":"Title: Environmental Change Institute Content: The Environmental Change Institute was founded in 1987 in Oxford University in England `` to organize and promote interdisciplinary research on the nature , causes and impact of environmental change and to contribute to the development of management strategies for coping with future environmental change . '' This statement still embodies the ECI 's ethos of purposeful environmental research and knowledge exchange . With an annual research income of # 4.7 million in 2013/14 , a portfolio of 50 active projects , 350 partners and 60 researchers working across 40 countries , the ECI is an active and influential player in environmental change science . The ECI 's research is interdisciplinary , both in outlook and approach . ECI has a well - established track record in relation to climate , energy and ecosystems and a growing expertise in relation to food and water . ECI is a leading player in number of large research activities , including : the UK Climate Impacts Programme ( UKCIP ) which develops new tools to link climate science with stakeholders in business and government in order to create innovative adaptations to the impacts of climate change ; Climateprediction.net the world 's largest citizen science climate ensemble with 350,000 individuals running climate simulations in order to better understand regional climate patterns ; leaders of major EU consortium programmes including one on the impacts and risks of extreme climate change ( Impressions ) ; and coordinators of GEM , a global ecological monitoring programme across remote forest locations in South America , Africa and Asia . The ECI 's full portfolio of projects has led to academic papers and citations totaling over 45,000 since 2000 . The ECI is also home to the MSc in Environmental Change and Management ( ECM ) , the School 's first taught postgraduate masters ' programme , and Oxford 's most popular graduate science course . The Institute is led by Professor Jim Hall .","qid":"211","docid":"Environmental_Change_Institute","rank":77,"score":91411},{"content":"Title: List of climate scientists Content: This list of climate scientists contains famous or otherwise notable persons who have contributed to the study of climate science . The list is compiled manually so will not be complete or up to date . See also : Category : Climatologists and List of authors of Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis . The list includes scientists from several specialities or disciplines .","qid":"211","docid":"List_of_climate_scientists","rank":78,"score":91149},{"content":"Title: Corinne Le Quéré Content: Corinne Le Quéré FRS ( born July 1966 ) is a Franco-Canadian scientist . She is Professor of Climate Change Science and Policy at the University of East Anglia and Director of Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research .","qid":"211","docid":"Corinne_Le_Quéré","rank":79,"score":90961},{"content":"Title: Murry Salby Content: Murry Lewis Salby is an atmospheric scientist who focused on upper atmospheric wave propagation for most of his early career , and who more recently has argued against aspects of the scientific consensus that human activity contributes to climate change . From the mid 1980s , Salby conducted research out of University of Colorado Boulder . In 2005 , the National Science Foundation opened an investigation into Salby 's federal funding arrangements and found that he had displayed `` a pattern of deception -LSB- and -RSB- a lack of integrity '' in his handling of federal grant money . He resigned his position in Colorado in 2008 and became professor of climate risk at Macquarie University in Macquarie Park , New South Wales . In 2013 he was dismissed by the university on grounds of refusal to teach and misuse of university resources . He has written two textbooks , Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics ( 1996 ) , and Physics of the Atmosphere and Climate ( 2011 ) . The latter textbook , building on his first book , offers an overview of the processes controlling the atmosphere of Earth , weather , energetics , and climate physics .","qid":"211","docid":"Murry_Salby","rank":80,"score":90957},{"content":"Title: Skeptical Science Content: Skeptical Science ( occasionally abbreviated SkS ) is a climate science blog and information resource created in 2007 by Australian cognitive scientist John Cook . In addition to publishing articles on current events relating to climate science and climate policy , the site maintains a large database of articles analyzing the merit of arguments commonly put forth by those who oppose the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change .","qid":"211","docid":"Skeptical_Science","rank":81,"score":90909},{"content":"Title: Climate change and indigenous persons Content: Indigenous actors have a myriad experiences because of the wildly different areas they inhabit across the globe and they bring a wide variety of experiences that Western science is beginning to include in its research of climate change and its solutions .","qid":"211","docid":"Climate_change_and_indigenous_persons","rank":82,"score":90734},{"content":"Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .","qid":"211","docid":"Ecological_forecasting","rank":83,"score":90662},{"content":"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .","qid":"211","docid":"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States","rank":84,"score":90548},{"content":"Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .","qid":"211","docid":"Roger_Pulwarty","rank":85,"score":90380},{"content":"Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .","qid":"211","docid":"Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower","rank":86,"score":90218},{"content":"Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .","qid":"211","docid":"Arturo_Villavicencio","rank":87,"score":90142},{"content":"Title: Heidi Cullen Content: Heidi Cullen is the chief scientist for the non-profit environmental organization , Climate Central , located in Princeton , New Jersey . In addition , she is a guest lecturer at nearby Princeton University , and the author of the book , The Weather of the Future . An expert and commentator about issues related to climate change and the environment , she was an on-air personality at The Weather Channel , and is a senior research fellow at the University of Pennsylvania ( Penn ) .","qid":"211","docid":"Heidi_Cullen","rank":88,"score":90141},{"content":"Title: Sharon Robinson (scientist) Content: Sharon Anita Robinson is an Antarctic researcher known for her work on climate change and bryophytes . She is the Co-Director of the Centre for Sustainable Ecosystem Solutions , ( CSES ) at the University of Wollongong .","qid":"211","docid":"Sharon_Robinson_(scientist)","rank":89,"score":90055},{"content":"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''","qid":"211","docid":"James_Hansen","rank":90,"score":89972},{"content":"Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .","qid":"211","docid":"Lee_Hannah","rank":91,"score":89938},{"content":"Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .","qid":"211","docid":"Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990","rank":92,"score":89908},{"content":"Title: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium Content: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium is an annual high level international event where top researchers and politicians , senior business executives , representatives of NGOs and other decision makers meet to share experiences and to discuss climate change solutions . The topics are related to the challenges of climate change , other environmental issues , and issues directly connected to the Arctic and the Northern areas which could have major global consequences . Participation is limited to 45 people , by invitation only . The Symposium takes place on Svalbard at 79 degrees north . It is the world 's northernmost permanent settlement and is only 1200 km from the North Pole . The Norwegian Government has transformed this former mining community into a major base for scientific research and environmental monitoring in the Arctic . The base hosts scientists from more than 20 nations and plays an important role in international climate change research . It is owned and operated by the governmental company Kings Bay AS , a coal mining company in earlier days . The scenery is exceptional , with a backdrop of unspoiled Arctic nature . The purpose of the Symposium is to exchange knowledge , improve the understanding and seek solutions of the challenging impacts these issues have both on the Arctic regions and internationally . The Symposium is organized by Kings Bay AS in cooperation with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research , the Ministry of the Environment -RSB- , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , the Ministry of Justice and the Police , and the -LSB- Research Council of Norway -RSB- . Statkraft AS is a co-organizer and sponsor of the Symposium . The secretariat is by CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo . His Royal Highness Crown Prince Haakon of Norway is patron of the Symposium . The first Symposium was arranged in March 2006 . The main themes for the symposia have been : 2006 - The changing Arctic - new opportunities and challenges 2007 - The changing Arctic - global climate change - the need for action 2008 - Global climate change and research challenges 2009 - Climate change : Understanding global politics towards Copenhagen and beyond 2010 - The Changing Arctic and Its Global Implications 2011 - cancelled due to volcanic ash cloud 2012 - Towards a green economy : the role of technology 2013 - The Changing Arctic - Opportunity or Threat 2014 - Breaking the Climate Stalemate","qid":"211","docid":"The_Ny-Ålesund_Symposium","rank":93,"score":89863},{"content":"Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .","qid":"211","docid":"Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change","rank":94,"score":89830},{"content":"Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :","qid":"211","docid":"List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis","rank":95,"score":89691},{"content":"Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .","qid":"211","docid":"IPCC_First_Assessment_Report","rank":96,"score":89602},{"content":"Title: David Wratt Content: David Stuart Wratt QSO is the Chief Scientist ( Climate ) at the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) and is responsible for NIWA 's National Climate Centre . He has a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury . He has worked in the USA and Australia as well as New Zealand . His expertise includes climate and meteorology , climate change science and impacts , mountain meteorology , and air quality . He is a Companion of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He chairs the Climate Committee of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He is a member of the Bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and he is a Vice-Chair of IPCC Working Group 1 , which assesses the physical science of climate change . He was a Coordinating Lead Author of the `` Australia and New Zealand '' chapter of the IPCC Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . After gaining a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury and a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Illinois , he worked for the New Zealand Meteorological Service . In 1992 he and other climate researchers transferred to NIWA . Wratt has stated : `` There 's a strong scientific case for significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions . We need a combination of reducing our emissions in New Zealand and being part of international negotiations to reduce emissions globally in order to forestall the worst effects . '' Wratt was made a Companion of the Queen 's Service Order in the 2012 New Year Honours , for services to science .","qid":"211","docid":"David_Wratt","rank":97,"score":89352},{"content":"Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .","qid":"211","docid":"IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report","rank":98,"score":89309},{"content":"Title: Saleemul Huq Content: Saleemul Huq ( সালিমুল হক born 2 October 1952 ) is a Bangladeshi scientist based in London . He is a Senior Fellow in the Climate Change Group at the International Institute for Environment and Development ( IIED ) .","qid":"211","docid":"Saleemul_Huq","rank":99,"score":89206},{"content":"Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .","qid":"211","docid":"Petr_Chýlek","rank":100,"score":89148}],"string":"[\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"History_of_climate_change_science\",\n \"rank\": 1,\n \"score\": 127888\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 2,\n \"score\": 123996\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 3,\n \"score\": 121638\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 4,\n \"score\": 120218\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 5,\n \"score\": 119136\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_popular_culture\",\n \"rank\": 6,\n \"score\": 118009\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Science_Program\",\n \"rank\": 7,\n \"score\": 116919\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 8,\n \"score\": 114636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Leipzig_Declaration\",\n \"rank\": 9,\n \"score\": 111636\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 10,\n \"score\": 107489\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement Content: The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Laboratoire_des_sciences_du_climat_et_de_l'environnement\",\n \"rank\": 11,\n \"score\": 106419\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Research_Unit_documents\",\n \"rank\": 12,\n \"score\": 104279\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 13,\n \"score\": 103696\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Croll Content: James Croll , FRS , ( 2 January 1821 -- 15 December 1890 ) was a 19th-century Scottish scientist who developed a theory of climate change based on changes in the Earth 's orbit .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Croll\",\n \"rank\": 14,\n \"score\": 103562\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \\\"internationally renowned\\\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)\",\n \"rank\": 15,\n \"score\": 103450\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_global_warming\",\n \"rank\": 16,\n \"score\": 103015\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Ice2sea\",\n \"rank\": 17,\n \"score\": 102255\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Research_Centre\",\n \"rank\": 18,\n \"score\": 101156\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Christopher_Field\",\n \"rank\": 19,\n \"score\": 100263\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_climate_research_satellites\",\n \"rank\": 20,\n \"score\": 100140\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Michael MacCracken Content: Michael Calvin MacCracken ( born 1942 ) , has been Chief Scientist for Climate Change Programs with the Climate Institute in Washington DC since 2002 ; he was also elected to its Board of Directors in 2006 .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Michael_MacCracken\",\n \"rank\": 21,\n \"score\": 99958\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"I'm_not_a_scientist\",\n \"rank\": 22,\n \"score\": 99501\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Tyndall_Centre\",\n \"rank\": 23,\n \"score\": 98623\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_A._Stott\",\n \"rank\": 24,\n \"score\": 98355\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Media_coverage_of_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 25,\n \"score\": 98344\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Copenhagen_Diagnosis\",\n \"rank\": 26,\n \"score\": 98077\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Change (journal) Content: Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Change_(journal)\",\n \"rank\": 27,\n \"score\": 98006\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists\",\n \"rank\": 28,\n \"score\": 97163\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment\",\n \"rank\": 29,\n \"score\": 97069\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jeffrey Kiehl Content: Jeffrey Theodore Kiehl ( born June 10 , 1952 ) is an American climate scientist . He is head of the Climate Change Research Section in the National Center for Atmospheric Research located in Boulder , Colorado . He completed his atmospheric science doctoral studies at the State University of New York , Albany . He was awarded the 2012 Climate Communication Prize from the American Geophysical Union .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Jeffrey_Kiehl\",\n \"rank\": 30,\n \"score\": 96977\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster\",\n \"rank\": 31,\n \"score\": 96973\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Annan Content: James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Annan\",\n \"rank\": 32,\n \"score\": 96802\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_denial\",\n \"rank\": 33,\n \"score\": 96582\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Ian_Clark_(geologist)\",\n \"rank\": 34,\n \"score\": 96541\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Research (journal) Content: Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Research_(journal)\",\n \"rank\": 35,\n \"score\": 96452\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Research Unit Content: The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Research_Unit\",\n \"rank\": 36,\n \"score\": 96437\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Nature_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 37,\n \"score\": 96056\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 38,\n \"score\": 95733\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy Content: The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 39,\n \"score\": 95681\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Wibjörn_Karlén\",\n \"rank\": 40,\n \"score\": 95525\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration Content: The Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration was created as part of the Clear Skies Initiative in February 2002 by George W. Bush , as a Cabinet-level effort to coordinate climate change science and technology research . The White House says : `` The Secretary of Commerce and Secretary of Energy will lead the effort , in close coordination with the President 's Science Advisor . The research effort will continue to be coordinated through the National Science and Technology Council in accordance with the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Committee_on_Climate_Change_Science_and_Technology_Integration\",\n \"rank\": 41,\n \"score\": 95264\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_warming_controversy\",\n \"rank\": 42,\n \"score\": 95218\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Heaven_and_Earth_(book)\",\n \"rank\": 43,\n \"score\": 95200\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Scott_Denning\",\n \"rank\": 44,\n \"score\": 95185\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"John_F._B._Mitchell\",\n \"rank\": 45,\n \"score\": 95117\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment\",\n \"rank\": 46,\n \"score\": 94977\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kevin Anderson (scientist) Content: Kevin Anderson is the Deputy Director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research ; holds a joint chair in Energy and Climate Change at the School of Mechanical , Aerospace and Civil Engineering at the University of Manchester and School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ; and is an honorary lecturer in Environmental Management at the Manchester Business School . He is an adviser to the British Government ( as of 2009 ) on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Kevin_Anderson_(scientist)\",\n \"rank\": 47,\n \"score\": 94816\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy\",\n \"rank\": 48,\n \"score\": 94796\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: U.S. Global Change Research Program Content: The United States Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society . The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 ( P.L. 101-606 ) , which called for `` a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand , assess , predict , and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change . '' Thirteen departments and agencies participate in the USGCRP , which was known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program from 2002 through 2008 . The program is steered by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research under the Committee on Environment , Natural Resources and Sustainability , overseen by the Executive Office of the President , and facilitated by a National Coordination Office . During the past two decades , the United States , through the USGCRP , has made the world 's largest scientific investment in the areas of climate change and global change research . Since its inception , the USGCRP has supported research and observational activities in collaboration with several other national and international science programs . These activities led to major advances in several key areas including : Observing and understanding short - and long-term changes in climate , the ozone layer , and land cover ; Identifying the impacts of these changes on ecosystems and society ; Estimating future changes in the physical environment , and vulnerabilities and risks associated with those changes ; and Providing scientific information to enable effective decision making to address the threats and opportunities posed by climate and global change . These advances have been documented in numerous assessments commissioned by the program and have played prominent roles in international assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Program results and plans are documented in the program 's annual report , Our Changing Planet .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program\",\n \"rank\": 49,\n \"score\": 94722\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_ethics\",\n \"rank\": 50,\n \"score\": 94425\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"John_Christy\",\n \"rank\": 51,\n \"score\": 94257\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow\",\n \"rank\": 52,\n \"score\": 94193\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Paleoclimatology\",\n \"rank\": 53,\n \"score\": 93869\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Petar_Gburčik\",\n \"rank\": 54,\n \"score\": 93863\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Tom Wigley Content: Tom Wigley is a climate scientist at the University of Adelaide . He is also affiliated with the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) . He was named a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) for his major contributions to climate and carbon cycle modeling and to climate data analysis , and because he is `` one of the world 's foremost experts on climate change and one of the most highly cited scientists in the discipline . '' His h-index ( August 2014 ) is 64 , one of the highest in the discipline . He contributed to many of the reports published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . Wigley was educated as a mathematical physicist and earned his doctorate at the University of Adelaide in Australia . He served as director of the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom from 1978 to 1993 . In 1993 he went on to the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder , Colorado , where he was appointed a senior scientist in 1994 . He subsequently moved to the University of Adelaide where he currently ( 2014 ) holds a Professorial Fellowship . His published papers include the first paper to demonstrate 20th century warming using both land and marine data , the first paper to include the effects of aerosol cooling on projections of future climate change , the first paper to provide realistic scenarios for the stabilization of atmospheric CO2 , and the first paper to use pattern-based methods to identify a significant human influence on the climate . Wigley has also published a number of highly cited papers in aqueous geochemistry , including a now-standard method for carbon dating of groundwater . Wigley has argued in the popular media that the IPCC has been too optimistic about the prospect of averting harmful climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions through the use of renewable technologies alone , and argued that any realistic portfolio must include significant contributions from nuclear energy . He has also pointed out that `` the human-induced changes that are expected over the next 100 years are much , much greater than any changes that societies experienced in the past . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Tom_Wigley\",\n \"rank\": 55,\n \"score\": 93693\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Woods Hole Research Center Content: The Woods Hole Research Center ( WHRC ) is a scientific research organization that studies climate change , land use change , soils , wetlands , and forests . WHRC was named the world 's top climate change think tank for 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 by the International Center for Climate Governance . The Center conducts research throughout the Amazon , the Arctic , central Africa , and North America . WHRC collaborates with a wide variety of partners to understand the causes and impacts of climate change and to implement more science-based policies .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Woods_Hole_Research_Center\",\n \"rank\": 56,\n \"score\": 93689\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jimmy Adegoke Content: James O. Adegoke ( born 1963 ) is an award-winning climate scientist and professor at the University of Missouri-Kansas City ( UMKC ) where he served as Chair of the Department of Geosciences ( 2008-2010 ) . He also served as an appointee of the Mayor of Kansas City Missouri on the city 's Environmental Management Commission ( EMC ) and has testified before the South Africa Parliament 's Portfolio Committee on Science and Technology and the Climate Change Committee of the Nigerian House of Representatives . In the United States , he has testified at the United States House of Representatives for the United States House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming . He also serves on the Technical Advisory Board of several United Nations ( UN ) applied science programs , including the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) project on the application of remote sensing for water resources and ecosystem management in Africa .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Jimmy_Adegoke\",\n \"rank\": 57,\n \"score\": 93609\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Attribution_of_recent_climate_change\",\n \"rank\": 58,\n \"score\": 93376\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_cooling\",\n \"rank\": 59,\n \"score\": 93198\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Friends_of_Science\",\n \"rank\": 60,\n \"score\": 93082\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"World_Climate_Research_Programme\",\n \"rank\": 61,\n \"score\": 92978\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Vicky_Pope\",\n \"rank\": 62,\n \"score\": 92850\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Kathleen Miller Content: Kathleen A. Miller is a climate scientist who specializes in the economics of climate change and its effects on institutions , management of risk and investment decisions . She has worked as the lead author on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change chapter on North America in the report Climate Change 2001 : Impacts , Adaptations and Vulnerability . She is based at the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado . Miller undertook her doctorate in Economics at the University of Washington in 1985 . Her dissertation was entitled The Right to Use vs. the Right to Sell : Water Rights in the Western United States . It explored the evolution of property institutions governing access to water in the arid western states and modelled the operation and effects of these institutions in the presence of both scarcity and inter-temporal variability in water supplies .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Kathleen_Miller\",\n \"rank\": 63,\n \"score\": 92799\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Jonathan_M._Gregory\",\n \"rank\": 64,\n \"score\": 92771\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Karoly\",\n \"rank\": 65,\n \"score\": 92691\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars Content: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines is a 2012 book about climate change by the American climatologist and geophysicist Michael E. Mann . In the book Mann describes how he became a researcher investigating the temperature record of the past 1000 years and was lead author , with Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , on the 1999 reconstruction that was the first to be dubbed the hockey stick graph . He concisely explains the basics of climate science including statistical methodology dealing with paleoclimate proxy data , and examines the tactics which opponents of action on climate change use to distort the science and attack the reputations of climate scientists . The book describes both the hockey stick controversy and the broader context of skepticism in science and contrarians rejecting evidence of human influence on climate . The book was picked by Physics Today books editor Jermey Matthews as one of the five top books of the 49 they had reviewed in 2012 .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Hockey_Stick_and_the_Climate_Wars\",\n \"rank\": 66,\n \"score\": 92615\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Helen Cleugh Content: Helen A. Cleugh is an atmospheric scientist . She is currently the Chief Research Scientist in Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) ( Oceans and Atmosphere ) where she leads the Earth Systems and Climate Change Hub . Cleugh 's research focuses on observing and predicting atmospheric , climate and marine systems and determining how they interact with human activities .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Helen_Cleugh\",\n \"rank\": 67,\n \"score\": 92446\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera\",\n \"rank\": 68,\n \"score\": 92375\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Thomas Stocker Content: Thomas Stocker ( born 1959 ) is a Swiss climate scientist . Born in Zürich , Stocker obtained a degree in physics at the ETH Zurich . He was active in research at the University College London , at McGill University in Montreal and at Columbia University in New York . Since 1993 , he is professor and head of the department of Climate and Environmental Physics at the University of Bern . The focus of Stocker 's research is the development of models of climate change based on , among other , the analysis of ice cores from the polar regions . He significantly contributed to creating the `` hockey stick graph '' that shows a growing increase of global mean temperatures in recent times . Since 1998 , he contributes to the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and is co-chairman of the IPCC Working Group I ( assessing scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change ) from 2008 to 2015 . In 1993 , Stocker was awarded the Swiss National Science Foundation 's National Latsis Prize , and 2009 the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and a member of the Academia Europaea and the American Meteorological Society . Stocker is featured in the film Taking Earth 's Temperature : Delving into Climate 's Past . On February 18 , 2015 , the Swiss government announced it would nominate Dr. Stocker as a candidate for the next chair of the IPCC to succeed Dr. Pachauri .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Thomas_Stocker\",\n \"rank\": 69,\n \"score\": 91959\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Peter_Thejll\",\n \"rank\": 70,\n \"score\": 91916\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_in_Argentina\",\n \"rank\": 71,\n \"score\": 91876\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: George Kukla Content: George Kukla ( born Jiří Kukla ; 14 March 1930 -- 31 May 2014 ) was a senior research scientist at the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University . Kukla was a member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences , prior to emigrating to the US , and a pioneer in the field of astronomical climate forcing . In 1972 he became a central figure in convincing the United States government to take the dangers of climate change seriously . Kukla and geologist , Robert Matthews of Brown University , convened a historic conference , themed : `` The Present Interglacial : How and When will it End ? '' Kukla and Matthews then highlighted the dangers of global cooling in Science magazine and , to President Richard Nixon . The Nixon administration reacted swiftly to their letter , which described calamities such as killer frosts , lower food production and floods , to come . By February 1973 , the State Department had established a Panel on the Present Interglacial , which advised Drs. Kukla and Matthews that it `` was seized of the matter '' and numerous other government agencies were soon included . Kukla was co-author of a chapter in the book `` Natural Climate Variability on Decade to Century Time Scales '' published by the National Research Council . Kukla believed all glacial periods in Earth 's history began with global warming ( understood as an increase of area-weighted average global mean temperature ) . He believed Earth 's recent warming is mostly natural and will ultimately lead to a new ice age .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"George_Kukla\",\n \"rank\": 72,\n \"score\": 91836\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Jim Salinger Content: Michael Jim Salinger is an Auckland-based climate change scientist who formerly worked for the Crown Research Institute National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . From 2006 to 2010 , Salinger was President of the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology at the World Meteorological Organization . On 23 April 2009 , Salinger was dismissed by NIWA , ostensibly for breaching NIWA 's media policy . Salinger had represented NIWA to the public and media for many years and the dismissal caused a ` wide public outcry ' according to Television New Zealand . The Institute of Agricultural and Horticultural Science described the incident as a ` national embarrassment ' . In late May 2009 , Salinger stated that mediation with NIWA over the dismissal had failed and that he would be lodging a claim with the Employment Relations Authority . On 19 October 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority in Auckland began a hearing into Salinger 's dismissal ; during the hearing it emerged the Salinger has suffered from depression . In December 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority upheld Salinger 's dismissal . In 2012 , Salinger was Lorry Lokey Visiting Professor at Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Jim_Salinger\",\n \"rank\": 73,\n \"score\": 91731\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Attorney General of Virginia's climate science investigation Content: The Attorney General of Virginia 's climate science investigation was a `` Civil Investigative Demand '' initiated in April 2010 by Virginia Attorney General Ken Cuccinelli for a wide range of records held by the University of Virginia related to five grant applications for research work by a leading climate scientist Michael E. Mann , who was an assistant professor at the university from 1999 to 2005 . The demand was issued under the Virginia Fraud Against Taxpayers Act in connection with claims by Cuccinnelli that Mann had possibly violated state fraud laws in relation to five research grants , by allegedly manipulating data . No evidence of wrongdoing was presented to support the claim . Mann 's earlier work had been targeted by climate change skeptics in the hockey stick controversy , and allegations against him were renewed in late 2009 in the Climatic Research Unit email controversy but found to be groundless in a series of investigations . Widespread concerns were raised by University of Virginia 's faculty and numerous scientists and science organizations that Cuccinelli 's actions posed a threat to academic freedom , and would have a chilling effect on research in the state . The university filed a court petition and the judge dismissed Cuccinelli 's demand on the grounds that no justification had been shown for the investigation . Cuccinelli tried to re-open his case by issuing a revised subpoena , and appealed the case to the Virginia Supreme Court . The case was defended by the university , and the court ruled that Cuccinelli did not have the authority to make these demands . The outcome was hailed as a victory for academic freedom .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Attorney_General_of_Virginia's_climate_science_investigation\",\n \"rank\": 74,\n \"score\": 91722\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Anders Levermann Content: Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Anders_Levermann\",\n \"rank\": 75,\n \"score\": 91493\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_Change_Authority\",\n \"rank\": 76,\n \"score\": 91480\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Environmental Change Institute Content: The Environmental Change Institute was founded in 1987 in Oxford University in England `` to organize and promote interdisciplinary research on the nature , causes and impact of environmental change and to contribute to the development of management strategies for coping with future environmental change . '' This statement still embodies the ECI 's ethos of purposeful environmental research and knowledge exchange . With an annual research income of # 4.7 million in 2013/14 , a portfolio of 50 active projects , 350 partners and 60 researchers working across 40 countries , the ECI is an active and influential player in environmental change science . The ECI 's research is interdisciplinary , both in outlook and approach . ECI has a well - established track record in relation to climate , energy and ecosystems and a growing expertise in relation to food and water . ECI is a leading player in number of large research activities , including : the UK Climate Impacts Programme ( UKCIP ) which develops new tools to link climate science with stakeholders in business and government in order to create innovative adaptations to the impacts of climate change ; Climateprediction.net the world 's largest citizen science climate ensemble with 350,000 individuals running climate simulations in order to better understand regional climate patterns ; leaders of major EU consortium programmes including one on the impacts and risks of extreme climate change ( Impressions ) ; and coordinators of GEM , a global ecological monitoring programme across remote forest locations in South America , Africa and Asia . The ECI 's full portfolio of projects has led to academic papers and citations totaling over 45,000 since 2000 . The ECI is also home to the MSc in Environmental Change and Management ( ECM ) , the School 's first taught postgraduate masters ' programme , and Oxford 's most popular graduate science course . The Institute is led by Professor Jim Hall .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Environmental_Change_Institute\",\n \"rank\": 77,\n \"score\": 91411\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of climate scientists Content: This list of climate scientists contains famous or otherwise notable persons who have contributed to the study of climate science . The list is compiled manually so will not be complete or up to date . See also : Category : Climatologists and List of authors of Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis . The list includes scientists from several specialities or disciplines .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_climate_scientists\",\n \"rank\": 78,\n \"score\": 91149\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Corinne Le Quéré Content: Corinne Le Quéré FRS ( born July 1966 ) is a Franco-Canadian scientist . She is Professor of Climate Change Science and Policy at the University of East Anglia and Director of Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Corinne_Le_Quéré\",\n \"rank\": 79,\n \"score\": 90961\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Murry Salby Content: Murry Lewis Salby is an atmospheric scientist who focused on upper atmospheric wave propagation for most of his early career , and who more recently has argued against aspects of the scientific consensus that human activity contributes to climate change . From the mid 1980s , Salby conducted research out of University of Colorado Boulder . In 2005 , the National Science Foundation opened an investigation into Salby 's federal funding arrangements and found that he had displayed `` a pattern of deception -LSB- and -RSB- a lack of integrity '' in his handling of federal grant money . He resigned his position in Colorado in 2008 and became professor of climate risk at Macquarie University in Macquarie Park , New South Wales . In 2013 he was dismissed by the university on grounds of refusal to teach and misuse of university resources . He has written two textbooks , Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics ( 1996 ) , and Physics of the Atmosphere and Climate ( 2011 ) . The latter textbook , building on his first book , offers an overview of the processes controlling the atmosphere of Earth , weather , energetics , and climate physics .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Murry_Salby\",\n \"rank\": 80,\n \"score\": 90957\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Skeptical Science Content: Skeptical Science ( occasionally abbreviated SkS ) is a climate science blog and information resource created in 2007 by Australian cognitive scientist John Cook . In addition to publishing articles on current events relating to climate science and climate policy , the site maintains a large database of articles analyzing the merit of arguments commonly put forth by those who oppose the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Skeptical_Science\",\n \"rank\": 81,\n \"score\": 90909\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change and indigenous persons Content: Indigenous actors have a myriad experiences because of the wildly different areas they inhabit across the globe and they bring a wide variety of experiences that Western science is beginning to include in its research of climate change and its solutions .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_and_indigenous_persons\",\n \"rank\": 82,\n \"score\": 90734\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Ecological_forecasting\",\n \"rank\": 83,\n \"score\": 90662\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States\",\n \"rank\": 84,\n \"score\": 90548\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Roger_Pulwarty\",\n \"rank\": 85,\n \"score\": 90380\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower\",\n \"rank\": 86,\n \"score\": 90218\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Arturo_Villavicencio\",\n \"rank\": 87,\n \"score\": 90142\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Heidi Cullen Content: Heidi Cullen is the chief scientist for the non-profit environmental organization , Climate Central , located in Princeton , New Jersey . In addition , she is a guest lecturer at nearby Princeton University , and the author of the book , The Weather of the Future . An expert and commentator about issues related to climate change and the environment , she was an on-air personality at The Weather Channel , and is a senior research fellow at the University of Pennsylvania ( Penn ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Heidi_Cullen\",\n \"rank\": 88,\n \"score\": 90141\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Sharon Robinson (scientist) Content: Sharon Anita Robinson is an Antarctic researcher known for her work on climate change and bryophytes . She is the Co-Director of the Centre for Sustainable Ecosystem Solutions , ( CSES ) at the University of Wollongong .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Sharon_Robinson_(scientist)\",\n \"rank\": 89,\n \"score\": 90055\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"James_Hansen\",\n \"rank\": 90,\n \"score\": 89972\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Lee_Hannah\",\n \"rank\": 91,\n \"score\": 89938\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990\",\n \"rank\": 92,\n \"score\": 89908\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium Content: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium is an annual high level international event where top researchers and politicians , senior business executives , representatives of NGOs and other decision makers meet to share experiences and to discuss climate change solutions . The topics are related to the challenges of climate change , other environmental issues , and issues directly connected to the Arctic and the Northern areas which could have major global consequences . Participation is limited to 45 people , by invitation only . The Symposium takes place on Svalbard at 79 degrees north . It is the world 's northernmost permanent settlement and is only 1200 km from the North Pole . The Norwegian Government has transformed this former mining community into a major base for scientific research and environmental monitoring in the Arctic . The base hosts scientists from more than 20 nations and plays an important role in international climate change research . It is owned and operated by the governmental company Kings Bay AS , a coal mining company in earlier days . The scenery is exceptional , with a backdrop of unspoiled Arctic nature . The purpose of the Symposium is to exchange knowledge , improve the understanding and seek solutions of the challenging impacts these issues have both on the Arctic regions and internationally . The Symposium is organized by Kings Bay AS in cooperation with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research , the Ministry of the Environment -RSB- , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , the Ministry of Justice and the Police , and the -LSB- Research Council of Norway -RSB- . Statkraft AS is a co-organizer and sponsor of the Symposium . The secretariat is by CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo . His Royal Highness Crown Prince Haakon of Norway is patron of the Symposium . The first Symposium was arranged in March 2006 . The main themes for the symposia have been : 2006 - The changing Arctic - new opportunities and challenges 2007 - The changing Arctic - global climate change - the need for action 2008 - Global climate change and research challenges 2009 - Climate change : Understanding global politics towards Copenhagen and beyond 2010 - The Changing Arctic and Its Global Implications 2011 - cancelled due to volcanic ash cloud 2012 - Towards a green economy : the role of technology 2013 - The Changing Arctic - Opportunity or Threat 2014 - Breaking the Climate Stalemate\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"The_Ny-Ålesund_Symposium\",\n \"rank\": 93,\n \"score\": 89863\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change\",\n \"rank\": 94,\n \"score\": 89830\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis\",\n \"rank\": 95,\n \"score\": 89691\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_First_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 96,\n \"score\": 89602\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: David Wratt Content: David Stuart Wratt QSO is the Chief Scientist ( Climate ) at the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) and is responsible for NIWA 's National Climate Centre . He has a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury . He has worked in the USA and Australia as well as New Zealand . His expertise includes climate and meteorology , climate change science and impacts , mountain meteorology , and air quality . He is a Companion of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He chairs the Climate Committee of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He is a member of the Bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and he is a Vice-Chair of IPCC Working Group 1 , which assesses the physical science of climate change . He was a Coordinating Lead Author of the `` Australia and New Zealand '' chapter of the IPCC Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . After gaining a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury and a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Illinois , he worked for the New Zealand Meteorological Service . In 1992 he and other climate researchers transferred to NIWA . Wratt has stated : `` There 's a strong scientific case for significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions . We need a combination of reducing our emissions in New Zealand and being part of international negotiations to reduce emissions globally in order to forestall the worst effects . '' Wratt was made a Companion of the Queen 's Service Order in the 2012 New Year Honours , for services to science .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"David_Wratt\",\n \"rank\": 97,\n \"score\": 89352\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report\",\n \"rank\": 98,\n \"score\": 89309\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Saleemul Huq Content: Saleemul Huq ( সালিমুল হক born 2 October 1952 ) is a Bangladeshi scientist based in London . He is a Senior Fellow in the Climate Change Group at the International Institute for Environment and Development ( IIED ) .\",\n \"qid\": \"211\",\n \"docid\": \"Saleemul_Huq\",\n \"rank\": 99,\n \"score\": 89206\n },\n {\n \"content\": \"Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . 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Global warming is driving polar bears toward extinction | [
{
"content": "Title: Mitchell Taylor Content: Mitchell Taylor , Ph.D. , is a Canadian biologist specializing in polar bears who claims that Canada 's polar bear population is higher now than it was 30 years ago and that polar bears are not currently threatened by climate change . He is currently a contract adjunct professor at Lakehead University , and he is affiliated with the Heartland Institute . Taylor has been involved in research and management of polar bears for the Northwest Territories and Nunavut Territory since 1987 . Dr. Taylor was a member of the Canada 's Federal -- Provincial -- Territorial Polar Bear Technical Committee until his retirement from the Nunavut government in 2008 . Dr. Taylor has published over 50 scientific papers on polar-bear-related topics , and he has worked in the field on most of the world 's polar bear populations . Most recently , he and colleagues completed the Davis Strait population inventory ( one of the most southern of all polar bear populations ) , and he is a coauthor of the 2008 Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada ( COSEWIC ) Assessment and Update Status Report for polar bears . From 2004 to 2008 , he was also manager of the decentralized and relocated Wildlife Research Section .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Mitchell_Taylor",
"rank": 1,
"score": 129710
},
{
"content": "Title: Ursus maritimus tyrannus Content: Ursus maritimus tyrannus ( meaning tyrant polar bear ) is an extinct subspecies of polar bear , known from a single fragmentary ulna found in the gravels of the Thames at Kew Bridge , London . It was named by the Finnish paleontologist Björn Kurtén in 1964 and is interpreted to represent a relatively large subadult individual : the ulna is estimated to have been 48.5 cm long when complete . For comparison , modern subadult polar bear ulnae are 36 - long . An unpublished reinvestigation of the fossil suggests that the fossil is actually a brown bear .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Ursus_maritimus_tyrannus",
"rank": 2,
"score": 128836
},
{
"content": "Title: Extinction risk from global warming Content: The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Extinction_risk_from_global_warming",
"rank": 3,
"score": 127070
},
{
"content": "Title: Ian Stirling (biologist) Content: Ian Stirling ( born September 26 , 1941 ) is a research scientist emeritus with Environment and Climate Change Canada and an adjunct professor in the University of Alberta Department of Biological Sciences . His research has focused mostly on Arctic and Antarctic zoology and ecology , and he is one of the world 's top authorities on polar bears . Stirling has written five books and more than 150 articles published in peer-reviewed scientific journals . He has written and spoken extensively about the danger posed to polar bears by global warming .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Ian_Stirling_(biologist)",
"rank": 4,
"score": 126417
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on marine mammals Content: The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_marine_mammals",
"rank": 5,
"score": 124473
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bears International Content: Polar Bears International ( PBI ) is the world 's leading polar bear conservation organization . Their research , education , and action programs address the issues that are endangering polar bears . Polar Bears International is a non-profit organization that works closely with Frontiers North Adventures , a commercial tour company that operates a fleet of tundra buggies in Churchill , Manitoba , Canada . Other major sponsors include Canada Goose and Natural Exposures Photography . Their Chief Scientist is Steven Amstrup .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bears_International",
"rank": 6,
"score": 122564
},
{
"content": "Title: Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears Content: The Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears is a multilateral treaty signed in Oslo , November 15 , 1973 by the five nations with the largest polar bear populations : Canada , Denmark ( Greenland ) , Norway ( Svalbard ) , the United States , and the Soviet Union . This treaty was brought about due to increased hunting of polar bears during the 1960s and 1970s which led to polar bears being under severe survival pressure from hunters . The agreement prohibits random , unregulated sport hunting of polar bears and outlaws hunting of polar bears from aircraft and icebreakers which have been the most detrimental to the polar bear population . Additionally , the agreement holds member states accountable for taking appropriate actions to protect the ecosystems of which the polar bears dwell , paying special attention to places where polar bears create dens , do a majority of their feeding , and where they migrate . States also must manage polar bear populations in accordance with proper conservation practices based on the best available scientific data . According to the agreement the killing of polar bears is only warranted for bona fide scientific purposes , to prevent serious disturbances of other living resources such as human populations , and by local people using traditional methods in the realm of their traditional rights in accordance with the laws of that party . Yet the skins or any other items of value that are taken as a result of the killing of a polar bear can not be used for commercial purposes . Also important to this agreement is that member states must prohibit the exportation , importation , and trafficking of polar bears within their states . These nations share their polar bear research findings and meet every three to four years to coordinate their research on polar bears throughout the Arctic . This agreement was one of the first of its kind and continues to be successful today in the international conservation of polar bears .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Agreement_on_the_Conservation_of_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 7,
"score": 122076
},
{
"content": "Title: MacFarlane's bear Content: MacFarlane 's bear is a proposed extinct species of bear that was found in Canada 's Northwest Territories . In 1864 , Inuit hunters shot and killed an enormous yellow-furred bear and gave the skin and skull to the Fort Anderson post manager and amateur naturalist Roderick MacFarlane ( sometimes given as Robert MacFarlane ) of the Hudson 's Bay Company . MacFarlane shipped the skin and skull to the Smithsonian Institution where they were placed in storage and soon forgotten . Eventually , Dr. Clinton Hart Merriam uncovered the remains , which he thought had been shot very far outside the brown bear 's normal range , and concluded that it was n't a brown bear at all . In 1918 , he described the specimen as a new species and genus , Vetularctos inopinatus , calling it the `` ancient unexpected bear . '' With the exception of unconfirmed sightings , MacFarlane 's bear is sometimes thought to have become extinct since the specimen was obtained in 1864 . There have been many theories concerning the origin of MacFarlane 's bear , which include suggestions that it may have been a grizzly -- polar bear hybrid , or even a surviving representative of a Pleistocene species . The recent discovery of demonstrable grizzly-polar bear hybrids that match the specimen 's description very well , notably the pale tan fur and oddly shaped skull that led Merriam to propose his new genus , places the validity of the proposed species and its associated scientific names into question . In episode # 215 of the History Channel program Monster Quest , `` Giant Bear Attack '' , paleontologist Dr. Blaine W. Schubert ( of East Tennessee State University ) was allowed to examine the skull ( although the Institute did not allow the examination to be filmed ) . Schubert stated that he was `` 100 % sure '' that it was the skull of a young , female brown bear and `` actually , not a particularly large individual . '' In a 1984 publication intended to correct Merriam 's 1929 taxonomy proposing 96 distinct species names for varieties of brown bear , E. Raymond Hall synonymized all 96 of Merriam 's names with merely nine subspecies of U. arctos . Hall synonymized Velarctos inopinatus with U. arctos horribilis , the normal grizzly bear .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "MacFarlane's_bear",
"rank": 8,
"score": 121817
},
{
"content": "Title: Nanuqsaurus Content: Nanuqsaurus ( meaning `` polar bear lizard '' ) is an extinct genus of carnivorous tyrannosaurid theropod known from the Late Cretaceous ( early Late Maastrichtian stage ) Prince Creek Formation of the North Slope of Alaska , USA . It contains a single species , Nanuqsaurus hoglundi , known only from a partial skull .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Nanuqsaurus",
"rank": 9,
"score": 121697
},
{
"content": "Title: Brown bear Content: The brown bear ( Ursus arctos ) is a large bear with the widest distribution of any living ursid . The species is distributed across much of northern Eurasia and North America . It is one of the two largest terrestrial carnivorans alive today , rivaled in body size only by its close cousin , the polar bear ( Ursus maritimus ) , which is much less variable in size and averages larger due to this . There are several recognized subspecies , many of which are quite well-known within their native ranges , found in the brown bear species . The brown bear 's principal range includes parts of Russia , Central Asia , China , Canada , the United States ( mostly Alaska ) , Scandinavia and the Carpathian region ( especially Romania ) , Anatolia , and Caucasus . The brown bear is recognized as a national and state animal in several European countries . While the brown bear 's range has shrunk and it has faced local extinctions , it remains listed as a least concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) with a total population of approximately 200,000 . As of 2012 , this and the American black bear are the only bear species not classified as threatened by the IUCN . However , the Californian , North African ( Atlas bear ) , and Mexican subspecies were hunted to extinction in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , and many of the southern Asian subspecies are highly endangered . One of the smaller-bodied subspecies , the Himalayan brown bear , is critically endangered , occupying only 2 % of its former range and threatened by uncontrolled poaching for its parts . The Marsican brown bear , one of several currently isolated populations of the main Eurasian brown bear race , in central Italy is believed to have a population of just 30 to 40 bears .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Brown_bear",
"rank": 10,
"score": 116327
},
{
"content": "Title: Coney Island Polar Bear Club Content: The Coney Island Polar Bear Club is the oldest winter bathing organization in the United States , whose members regularly take polar bear plunges in the winters . The club was founded by famed health advocate Bernarr McFadden in 1903 . The club began using the event to raise funds for Special Olympics starting in 2005 , and Camp Sunshine in 2007 . Members swim in the Atlantic Ocean at Coney Island , New York , United States every Sunday from November through April . Every New Year 's Day , the Club is joined by participants from around the country , who partake in an annual swim . The 2005 event had 300 participants and 6000 onlookers . The Chief Polar Bear blows a conch shell to gather the swimmers before they run into the water . The club was mentioned in popular culture . It is mentioned on the season three episode of Seinfeld , `` The Pez Dispenser '' . In the episode Kramer informs Jerry that he has joined the club , claiming it to be ` invigorating ' . It was also publicized on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , in a taped segment by Dan Bakkedahl about the effects of global warming on the club in faux-nature documentary style .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Coney_Island_Polar_Bear_Club",
"rank": 11,
"score": 113749
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (locomotive) Content: Polar Bear is a Bagnall steam locomotive built in 1905 for the Groudle Glen Railway , to supplement the similar but slightly smaller Sea Lion . The two Bagnalls were temporarily taken out of service in the 1920s when they were replaced by a pair of battery locomotives . These proved unsatisfactory , and Polar Bear and Sea Lion were returned to traffic . The railway was closed for the duration of World War II , and when the line reopened in the late 1940s only Polar Bear was returned to traffic . Following the 1962 closure of the GGR , Polar Bear was sold to the Brockham Museum Trust in 1967 . In 1982 it passed , with the rest of the Brockham collection , to the Amberley Museum Railway , where it was returned to traffic in the early 1980s . Polar Bear '' 's boiler was condemned around 1988 , returning to service with a new boiler in 1993 . Its boiler certificate expired at the end of 2010 ; with a retube and work on the firebox being required before a return to service . Since being based at Amberley , Polar Bear has returned to the Groudle Glen on three occasions ( 1993 , 1996 and 2005 ) to visit.Polar Bear was stripped down for overhaul in early 2011 . The boiler was moved to Chatham for overhaul , with mechanical work being undertaken in-house at Amberley . The boiler was returned to Amberley in January 2012 . Polar Bear was relaunched on 13 July 2013 by BBC newsreader and railway enthusiast Nicholas Owen , and is now in service sharing steam passenger duties at Amberley with the museum 's 1917 Bagnall 0-4-0ST Peter . '' Polar Bear made its fourth visit home to the Groudle Glen Railway since it was preserved in late July 2016 . After its two week stay there , it returned home to Amberley museum .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(locomotive)",
"rank": 12,
"score": 112354
},
{
"content": "Title: Unbearable - sculpture Content: Unbearable is a bronze sculpture by the Danish artist Jens Galschiot . It consists of a graph showing the global fossil fuel carbon emissions , and an impaled polar bear . The sculpture was finished in 2015 and exhibited in Paris during COP21 . The sculpture is made in cooperation with WWF Denmark .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Unbearable_-_sculpture",
"rank": 13,
"score": 109892
},
{
"content": "Title: Undulose extinction Content: Undulose extinction or undulatory extinction is a geological term referring to the type of extinction that occurs in certain minerals when examined in thin section under cross polarized light . As the microscope stage is rotated , individual mineral grains appear black when the polarization due to the mineral prevents any light from passing through . If a mineral is deformed plastically by dislocation processes without recovery , strain builds up within the crystal lattice causing it to warp . This means that different parts of a crystal reach extinction at slightly different angles , giving the crystal an irregular , mottled look . Undulose extinction is very common in quartz , so much so that it is often used as a diagnostic feature of that mineral , and feldspar of various sorts , but is possible in almost any mineral . The presence of undulose extinction may help to infer that a crystal grew before a deformation event . However , some minerals acquire undulose extinction easily and even under the effect of minor or local deformations .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Undulose_extinction",
"rank": 14,
"score": 109524
},
{
"content": "Title: Extinction cross Content: The extinction cross is an optical phenomenon that is seen when trying to extinguish a laser beam or non-planar white light using crossed polarizers . Ideally , crossed ( 90 ° rotated ) polarizers block all light , since light which is polarized along the polarization axis of the first polarizer is perpendicular to the polarization axis of the second . When the beam is not perfectly collimated , however , a characteristic fringing pattern is produced .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Extinction_cross",
"rank": 15,
"score": 109479
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar bear Content: The polar bear ( ursus #Latin maritimus #Latin ) is a carnivorous bear whose native range lies largely within the Arctic Circle , encompassing the Arctic Ocean , its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses . It is a large bear , approximately the same size as the omnivorous Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ) . A boar ( adult male ) weighs around 350 -- , while a sow ( adult female ) is about half that size . Although it is the sister species of the brown bear , it has evolved to occupy a narrower ecological niche , with many body characteristics adapted for cold temperatures , for moving across snow , ice and open water , and for hunting seals , which make up most of its diet . Although most polar bears are born on land , they spend most of their time on the sea ice . Their scientific name means `` maritime bear '' and derives from this fact . Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice , often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present . Because of their dependence on the sea ice , polar bears are classified as marine mammals ; an alternative basis for classification as marine mammals is that they depend on the ocean as their main food source . Because of expected habitat loss caused by climate change , the polar bear is classified as a vulnerable species , and at least three of the nineteen polar bear subpopulations are currently in decline . For decades , large-scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species , but populations rebounded after controls and quotas began to take effect . For thousands of years , the polar bear has been a key figure in the material , spiritual , and cultural life of circumpolar peoples , and polar bears remain important in their cultures .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_bear",
"rank": 16,
"score": 108329
},
{
"content": "Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Human_extinction",
"rank": 17,
"score": 108326
},
{
"content": "Title: Arturo (polar bear) Content: Arturo ( 1985 July 3 , 2016 ) was a polar bear living in Mendoza Zoological Park in Mendoza , Argentina , the only polar bear living in the country . He was born in the United States and transferred to Argentina in 1993 . His companion , a female named Pelusa , died of cancer in 2012 . The living conditions of the cage Arturo resided in were controversial , as temperatures reach up to 40 ° C in Argentina , and the pool in Arturo 's cage was only 20 inches deep . Animal rights activists had , in response , dubbed Arturo the `` world 's saddest animal '' and promoted a petition to have him moved to Assiniboine Park Zoo , a zoo in Winnipeg , Canada . The petition was created by Laura Morales of Hamilton , Ontario . It gained considerable attention after the hashtag #Freearturo began trending on Twitter . Supporters of the petition also noted that a polar bear died in Buenos Aires in December 2012 due to excessive heat , and argued that Arturo exhibited symptoms of depression and other mental health problems . As of July 19 , 2014 , the petition had over 400,000 signatures , and had been endorsed by Newt Gingrich and Cher . Assiniboine Park Zoo responded that while they would 've gladly accepted Arturo there , they did not have the authority to do so unless Argentina agreed to transfer him there , and that the Mendoza zoo could not supply the necessary medical records to make such a trip possible . On July 24 , 2014 , the director of the Mendoza Zoo , Gustavo Pronotto , told the Associated Press that Arturo was too old to be moved to Canada . In social media , people also advocated for Arturo to be moved to Canada . and Twitter hashtag #FreeArturo . On July 3 , 2016 , Arturo died .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Arturo_(polar_bear)",
"rank": 18,
"score": 108317
},
{
"content": "Title: Bear conservation Content: Bear conservation refers to the management of bears and their habitat with a view to preventing their extinction . Bears face serious threats on many fronts , most of which are due to human activity . Whether indirect , as in human encroachment on their natural habitats due to crop cultivation , deforestation or timber harvest , or directly from their killing for protection of property or for unregulated or sport hunting , or for their use in primitive medicines and aphrodisiacs .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Bear_conservation",
"rank": 19,
"score": 107877
},
{
"content": "Title: International Polar Bear Day Content: International Polar Bear Day is an annual event celebrated every February 27 to raise awareness about the conservation status of the polar bear .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "International_Polar_Bear_Day",
"rank": 20,
"score": 106303
},
{
"content": "Title: Short-faced bear Content: The short-faced bear ( Arctodus spp . ) is an extinct bear that inhabited North America during the Pleistocene epoch from about 1.8 Mya until 11,000 years ago . It was the most common early North American bear and was most abundant in California . There are two recognized species : Arctodus pristinus and Arctodus simus , with the latter considered to be one of the largest known terrestrial mammalian carnivores that has ever existed . It has been hypothesized that their extinction coincides with the Younger Dryas period of global cooling commencing around 10,900 BC .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Short-faced_bear",
"rank": 21,
"score": 106046
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 22,
"score": 106035
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (EP) Content: Polar Bear is the debut release from Polar Bear , led by Jane 's Addiction bassist Eric Avery . This clear blue 12 '' vinyl , MR-054 , was self-produced and released on Man 's Ruin Records , limited to 2,000 copies . It includes instrumental versions of songs the band would later release on their records , reworked with vocal tracks . Intended for spinning and mixing by DJs , these versions have more of a club edge to them .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(EP)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 105639
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (British band) Content: Polar Bear is a British experimental jazz band led by drummer Seb Rochford with Pete Wareham and Mark Lockheart on tenor saxophone , Tom Herbert on double bass and Leafcutter John on electronics and occasionally guitar or mandolin . Polar Bear were nominated for the Best Band award at the BBC Jazz Awards 2004 , while Rochford was nominated for the ` Rising Star ' award . Their first album Dim Lit was released in the same year and was a small scale success . Their second record , Held on the Tips of Fingers merged elements of cool jazz , funk , dance music , free jazz , electronica and drum and bass and was , by comparison , a crossover hit , earning Polar Bear a nomination for the Mercury Music Prize in 2005 . The success was all the more unusual for an almost purely instrumental album . The album was nominated for a BBC Jazz Award 2006 . It was selected as one of `` The 100 Jazz Albums That Shook The World '' by Jazzwise magazine . and featured in The Guardian 's list of `` 1000 Albums To Hear Before You Die '' . They have been involved with F-IRE Collective . They released their self-titled third album , Polar Bear , in July 2008 with Tin Angel Records . In 2010 , the band released Peepers and mini-album Common Ground , a collaboration with Portuguese-born , London-based rapper Jyager , on The Leaf Label . Their 2014 album In Each And Every One was shortlisted for the Mercury Music Prize and in the same year they released the single `` Cuckoo '' in collaboration with singer and songwriter Jin Jin . In March 2015 Polar Bear released their sixth album Same as You , including the single `` Do n't Let The Feeling Go '' . This track features frequent collaborator Shabaka Hutchings ( Sons of Kemet and The Comet Is Coming ) on tenor saxophone and Rochford and Hannah Darling on vocals . In 2015 , Polar Bear were nominated for Best Jazz Act in the MOBO Awards and Urban Music Awards .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(British_band)",
"rank": 24,
"score": 105485
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar seas Content: Polar seas is a collective term for the Arctic Ocean ( about 4-5 percent of Earth 's oceans ) and the southern part of the Southern Ocean ( south of Antarctic Convergence , about 10 percent of Earth 's oceans ) . In the coldest years , sea ice can cover around 13 percent of the Earth 's total surface at its maximum , but out of phase in the two hemispheres . The polar seas contain a huge biome with many organisms . Among the species that inhabit various polar seas and surrounding land areas are polar bear , penguin , reindeer ( caribou ) , muskox , wolverine , ermine , lemming , Arctic hare , Arctic ground squirrel , whale , harp seal , and walrus . These species have unique adaptations to the extreme conditions . Many might be endangered if they can not adapt to changing conditions . Contrary to popular opinion , the World Wildlife Fund studies for polar bears show that this species has prospered since 1950 , attaining five times the numbers found in 1950 . In general , Arctic ecosystems are relatively fragile and slow to recover from serious damage .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_seas",
"rank": 25,
"score": 105158
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Provincial Park Content: Polar Bear Provincial Park is an isolated wilderness park in the far north of Ontario , Canada . It lies on the western shore where James Bay joins Hudson Bay . The terrain is part of the Hudson Bay Lowlands and features unspoiled low-lying tundra in the Hudson Plains ecozone . Administered by Ontario Parks , the 23552 km2 Polar Bear Provincial Park is the largest park in Ontario . It has no visitor facilities , is reachable only by air , and special permission is required before visiting it . Its primary purpose is the preservation of habitat for wildlife , especially the several hundred polar bears that migrate through the area . Visitors to Polar Bear should be prepared for any eventuality . They should bring at least one week 's extra supplies in case their departure is delayed due to bad weather . Tents should not rise any higher than necessary , due to the possibility of strong winds . Polar Bear Provincial Park has been designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention since May 1987 .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Provincial_Park",
"rank": 26,
"score": 104730
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (American band) Content: Polarbear was a Los Angeles-based band led by former Jane 's Addiction bassist , Eric Avery , who formed the band with Biff Sanders , formerly of Ethyl Meatplow , as a side project . They recorded most of their music in downtown Los Angeles , at Motiv studios . Many Jane 's Addiction fans consider Why Something Instead of Nothing ? to be the best post-Jane 's Addiction work done by any of the four original members . It was re-released in 2004 .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(American_band)",
"rank": 27,
"score": 104408
},
{
"content": "Title: Extinction (optical mineralogy) Content: Extinction is a term used in optical mineralogy and petrology , which describes when cross-polarized light dims , as viewed through a thin section of a mineral in a petrographic microscope . Isotropic minerals , opaque ( metallic ) minerals , or amorphous materials ( glass ) show no light ( i.e. constant extinction ) . Anisotropic minerals will show one extinction for each 90 degrees of stage rotation . The extinction angle is the measure between the cleavage direction or habit of a mineral and the extinction . To find this , simply line up the cleavage lines/long direction with one of the crosshairs in the microscope , and turn the mineral until the extinction occurs . The number of degrees the stage was rotated is the extinction angle , between 0-89 degrees . 90 degrees would be considered zero degrees , and is known as parallel extinction . Inclined extinction is a measured angle between 1-89 degrees . Minerals with two cleavages can have two extinction angles , with symmetrical extinction occurring when minerals have multiple angles that are the same . Minerals that have no cleavage or elongation can not have an extinction angle . Minerals with undulose extinction , solid solution/zonation , or other factors ( e.g. bird 's eye extinction in mica ) that may inhibit this measure and may be more difficult to use .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Extinction_(optical_mineralogy)",
"rank": 28,
"score": 104399
},
{
"content": "Title: Debby (polar bear) Content: Debby ( 1966 -- November 17 , 2008 ) was the world 's oldest polar bear . She lived in the Assiniboine Park Zoo in Winnipeg . In August 2008 , the Guinness World Records certified her as not only the oldest polar bear , but one of the three oldest individuals ever recorded of all bear species . Debby was born in the Soviet Arctic in 1966 , and subsequently orphaned ; she arrived in Winnipeg when she was a year old . In November 2008 , she was found to be suffering from multiple organ failure , and was subsequently euthanized . She was 42 years old .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Debby_(polar_bear)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 103734
},
{
"content": "Title: Sondra Content: Sondra is a feminine Greek given name meaning protector of man . By 2013 , the name reached the verge of extinction in the United States ; it had reached a peak of usage in 1939 . The name may refer to : People : Sondra Wiederkehr ( born 1998 ) , American icon , model for polar bear seal Polar Bear Seal Sondra Bradley ( born 1969 ) , American Entrepreneur Sondra Erickson ( born 1942 ) , American Republican politician Sondra Gotlieb ( born 1936 ) , Canadian journalist and novelist Sondra Locke ( born 1947 ) , American actress Sondra Peterson ( born 1935 ) , model in the 1950s and 1960s Sondra Radvanovsky ( born 1969 ) , American operatic soprano Sondra Theodore ( born 1956 ) , American model and actress , Playboy Playmate of the Month for July 1977 Fictional characters : Sondra Tibideaux , eldest daughter of Cliff and Clair Huxtable in The Cosby Show Sondra Pransky , lead character of Woody Allen 's 2006 film Scoop Sondra Bizet , love interest of Ronald Colman 's character in Lost Horizon ( 1937 film ) Sondra Finchley , from Theodore Dreiser 's novel An American Tragedy Sondra Fuller , the fourth Clayface , a DC Comics enemy of Batman",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Sondra",
"rank": 30,
"score": 103632
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 Svalbard polar bear attack Content: On 5 August 2011 , a starving polar bear in the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard attacked a party of school children , organised by the British Schools Exploring Society ( BSES ) , who had camped near the Von Post glacier , some 25 miles ( 40 km ) from the settlement of Longyearbyen . The bear was reported as being starving and emaciated . The BSES party of eighty members had planned their trip to run from 23 July to 28 August -- the trip was cut short after the incident . BSES , a youth charity , was founded in 1932 by Surgeon Commander George Murray Levick , a member of Captain Scott 's expedition of 1910 -- 13 . Seventeen-year-old Horatio Chapple , a pupil of Eton College , was with a party of twelve at the time of the attack , and would die of injuries sustained . Four others were hurt , two seriously , and all were flown to Tromsø on mainland Norway for treatment . Chapple 's grandfather , Sir John Lyon Chapple , was formerly the president of BSES . The bear was shot dead by one of the expedition 's leaders , Spike Reid , who himself suffered severe head and face injuries .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "2011_Svalbard_polar_bear_attack",
"rank": 31,
"score": 103614
},
{
"content": "Title: Grizzly–polar bear hybrid Content: A grizzly -- polar bear hybrid ( also named grolar bear , pizzly bear ) is a rare ursid hybrid that has occurred both in captivity and in the wild . In 2006 , the occurrence of this hybrid in nature was confirmed by testing the DNA of a unique-looking bear that had been shot near Sachs Harbour , Northwest Territories on Banks Island in the Canadian Arctic . Possible wild-bred polar bear-grizzly bear hybrids have been reported and shot in the past , but DNA tests were not available to verify the bears ' ancestry . Analyses of DNA sequences of bears have recovered multiple instances of introgressive hybridization between various bear species , including introgression of polar bear DNA into brown bears during the Pleistocene .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Grizzly–polar_bear_hybrid",
"rank": 32,
"score": 103554
},
{
"content": "Title: Ringed seals and climate change Content: Ringed seals are the smallest and most abundant member of the seal family that live in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions . The average life span of a ringed seal is 40 years , with a diet based mainly on Arctic cod and planktonic crustaceans . Typically about 5 ft long , the ringed seal is known to be solitary with their main predator being polar bears . Recently , however , the biggest predator to ringed seals has been the changing temperature in the Arctic and the detrimental changes to sea ice that follow . With declines in snowpack and sea ice due to warming ocean and atmospheric temperatures , survival has become tougher for ringed seals in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions . Yet ringed seals are also potentially projected to thrive due to warming , considering the early extinction of their predators . Climate change is sure to change the fate of all ringed seals in the coming years for better or worse .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Ringed_seals_and_climate_change",
"rank": 33,
"score": 103312
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (cipher) Content: In cryptography , Polar Bear is a stream cypher algorithm designed by Johan Håstad and Mats Näslund . It has been submitted to the eSTREAM Project of the eCRYPT network .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(cipher)",
"rank": 34,
"score": 103171
},
{
"content": "Title: Decline in amphibian populations Content: The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide . Since the 1980s , decreases in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world . These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity , and several causes are believed to be involved , including disease , habitat destruction and modification , exploitation , pollution , pesticide use , introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation ( UV-B ) . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research . Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000 -- 45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation . Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s , awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s . By 1993 , more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline . Today , the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction , with severe implications for global biodiversity .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Decline_in_amphibian_populations",
"rank": 35,
"score": 102975
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Marathon Content: Polar Bear Marathon is an extreme marathon race held since 2012 at Churchill , Manitoba , Canada . The race is held in the last decade of November along Hudson Bay shore in extremely cold weather . The organizer of the Polar Bear Marathon is Albert Martens , a native of Steinbach , Manitoba , which is situated some 1000 km south of Churchill . Martens is a seasoned marathon runner who himself has participated in around 60 marathon and ultramarathon races , including Badwater Ultramarathon in Death Valley , California . Martens came to the idea of marathon race in particularly challenging cold weather after running a marathon race at -32 ° C in 2011 . The challenge of the selected race route is related not only to tough weather ( during 2013 race the temperatures dropped to -20 ° C , or -41 ° with wind chill , while the runners in 2012 were `` disappointed '' by milder temperatures between -10 ° and -20 ° ) , but also to the abundance of polar bears in its vicinity . Churchill is considered `` the Polar Bear capital of the world '' , and during late fall they board fresh sea ice to hunt for seals . Not long before the date of the first race , November 20 , 2012 , news have spread about bear attacks in Churchill . Although race organizers consider a bear attack on runners unlikely , the participants run in pairs , to which they are assigned according to their pace running times , and each pair is escorted by a truck carrying food , extra clothing and emergency equipment including rifles . While the winners of the Polar Bear Marathon are awarded only symbolic prizes such as medals , stuffed polar bears and soapstone figurines by a local sculptor , the participation in the race costs them significant money . For the flights from Winnipeg to Churchill and back , three nights ' hotel stay and sightseeing trip in the day following the race , the participants are expected to pay around $ 2,500 . The number of competitors in the Polar Bear Marathon was initially restricted by the organizers to 20 , but for first three events even this proved to be a high estimate . In the 2012 race 14 runners from 3 countries ( Canada , U.S. and Germany ) took part while only 13 athletes ran the 2013 race ( only in 2015 the number of participants exceeded 20 , reaching 24 ) . The first marathon was won by an international pair Eric Alexander ( U.S. ) - Gary Koop ( Canada ) who finished it in just over four hours , while a German runner Sven Henkes won the second race with a time of 4:12 .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Marathon",
"rank": 36,
"score": 102311
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (battery-electric locomotive) Content: Polar Bear was a gauge battery-electric locomotive built by Wingrove & Rogers in 1921 as works no. 314 for the Groudle Glen Railway on the Isle of Man . Together with its sister , Sea Lion , they were intended to replace two Bagnall steam locos of the same names . The locos were not a success and , despite Polar Bear being rebuilt with bogies and a battery truck , the steam locos were reboilered and returned to traffic . Polar Bear was eventually scrapped acround 1926 .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(battery-electric_locomotive)",
"rank": 37,
"score": 102223
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bears (play) Content: Polar Bears is a play by British writer Mark Haddon first produced by the Donmar Warehouse in London . Following previews from 1 April 2010 , the play opened on 6 April 2010 where it ran until 22 May . The world premier production was directed by Jamie Lloyd . The German Oldenburgisches Staatstheater staged the play in 2012 under direction of K.D. Schmidt",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bears_(play)",
"rank": 38,
"score": 101723
},
{
"content": "Title: DVTK Jegesmedvék Content: DVTK Jegesmedvék ( DVTK Polar Bears ) is a Hungarian ice hockey team that currently plays in the OB I bajnokság and in the MOL Liga . They play their home games at Miskolc Ice Hall , located in Miskolc .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "DVTK_Jegesmedvék",
"rank": 39,
"score": 101697
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bears (film) Content: Polar Bears is a 2008 Nickelodeon television movie written and directed by Polly Draper which stars her musical prodigious sons Nat Wolff and Alex Wolff , real life brothers who portray themselves . It tells of the siblings ' who , along with their bandmates , take a ride on their tour bus to New Orleans , Louisiana . The plot chronicles around Alex 's obsession to save the polar bears by preserving the environment , as well as a conflict in which Rosalina is suspicious of Nat when he becomes very close to his childhood friend , `` Little '' Grace . The TV movie is presented in the style of a mockumentary -- a parody shot in documentary format -- and was part of a three-part episode that concluded the second season of The Naked Brothers Band TV series , airing on June 6 , 2008 to 1.7 million viewers who were aged 6 -- 11 ; it was the second most watched show for the week in that age group . It also earned Draper a Writers Guild Award for Children 's Script : Long Form or Special .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bears_(film)",
"rank": 40,
"score": 101443
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 41,
"score": 101136
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar the Titanic Bear Content: Polar the Titanic Bear is a children 's book written by Margaretta `` Daisy '' Corning Spedden ( née Stone ) ( 19 November 1872 -- 10 February 1950 ) . Spedden was an American heiress who survived the sinking of the Titanic , and her account of her family 's trip and the eventual disaster , written as a tale to amuse her seven-year-old son , was published about 45 years after her death . The story is told from the point of view of a stuffed bear .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_the_Titanic_Bear",
"rank": 42,
"score": 101113
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bears (band) Content:",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bears_(band)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 100614
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 44,
"score": 100565
},
{
"content": "Title: Paraspecies Content: A paraspecies ( a paraphyletic species ) is a species , living or fossil , that gave rise to one or more daughter species without itself becoming extinct . Geographically widespread species that have given rise to one or more daughter species as peripheral isolates without themselves becoming extinct ( i.e. through peripatric speciation ) are examples of paraspecies . Paraspecies are expected from evolutionary theory ( Crisp and Chandler , 1996 ) , and are empirical realities in many terrestrial and aquatic taxa . The evolution of the polar bear from the brown bear is a well-documented example of a living species that gave rise to another living species . Another example of a living paraspecies is New Zealand 's North Island tuatara Sphenodon punctatus , which gave rise to the Brothers Island tuatara Sphenodon guntheri .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Paraspecies",
"rank": 45,
"score": 100349
},
{
"content": "Title: American black bear Content: The American black bear ( Ursus americanus ) is a medium-sized bear native to North America . It is the continent 's smallest and most widely distributed bear species . Black bears are omnivores , with their diets varying greatly depending on season and location . They typically live in largely forested areas , but do leave forests in search of food . Sometimes they become attracted to human communities because of the immediate availability of food . The American black bear is the world 's most common bear species . It is listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) as a least-concern species , due to its widespread distribution and a large global population estimated to be twice that of all other bear species combined . Along with the brown bear , it is one of only two of the eight modern bear species not considered globally threatened with extinction by the IUCN . American black bears often mark trees using their teeth and claws as a form of communication with other bears , a behavior common to many species of bears .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "American_black_bear",
"rank": 46,
"score": 100235
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Pass National Wildlife Area Content: Polar Bear Pass National Wildlife Area is a National Wildlife Area on Bathurst Island within Qikiqtaaluk , Nunavut , Canada . It is on federal Crown land , and is administered by the Canadian Wildlife Service , a division of Environment Canada , with respect to the Canada Wildlife Act 's National Wildlife Area Regulations . Land use is also subject to the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement . To the north is an area under consideration as a future national park . The NWA received the federally designated conservation status on 1 January 1985 . Of its 2675 km2 in overall size , 214 km2 is a marine area with marine , intertidal , and subtidal components .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Pass_National_Wildlife_Area",
"rank": 47,
"score": 100106
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (cocktail) Content: A Polar Bear , After Eight or Peppermint Paddy ( a play on Peppermint Pattie ) is a mint chocolate cocktail that tastes like a York Peppermint Pattie or an After Eight wafer . It is usually made from crème de cacao and peppermint schnapps , although crème de menthe is a popular substitute .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(cocktail)",
"rank": 48,
"score": 99587
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Club Content: Polar Bear Club was an American post-hardcore band from Rochester and Syracuse , upstate New York . Formed in 2005 , the band currently consists of vocalist Jimmy Stadt , lead guitarist Chris Browne , Patrick Benson , Tyler Smith , and drummer Steve Port .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Club",
"rank": 49,
"score": 98965
},
{
"content": "Title: Chelyabinsk Polar Bears Content: The Chelyabinsk Polar Bears ( Белые Медведи Polar Bears ) is a junior ice hockey team from Chelyabinsk , which contains players from the Traktor Chelyabinsk school . They are members of the Minor Hockey League ( MHL ) , the top tier of junior hockey in the country .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Chelyabinsk_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 50,
"score": 98421
},
{
"content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm",
"rank": 51,
"score": 98290
},
{
"content": "Title: Extinction ratio Content: In telecommunications , extinction ratio ( re ) is the ratio of two optical power levels of a digital signal generated by an optical source , e.g. , a laser diode . The extinction ratio may be expressed as a fraction , in dB , or as a percentage . It may be given by , where P1 is the optical power level generated when the light source is on , and P0 is the power level generated when the light source is off . The polarization extinction ratio ( PER ) is the ratio of optical powers of perpendicular polarizations , usually called TE ( transverse electrical ) and TM ( transverse magnetic ) . In telecommunications , the PER is used to characterize the degree of polarization in a polarization maintaining device or fiber . For coherent transmitter and receiver , the PER is a key parameter since X-polarization and Y-polarization are coded with different signals .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Extinction_ratio",
"rank": 52,
"score": 98034
},
{
"content": "Title: Knut (polar bear) Content: Knut ( -LSB- ˈknuːt -RSB- ; 5 December 2006 -- 19 March 2011 ) was an orphaned polar bear born in captivity at the Berlin Zoological Garden . Rejected by his mother at birth , he was raised by zookeepers . He was the first polar bear cub to survive past infancy at the Berlin Zoo in more than 30 years . At one time the subject of international controversy , he became a tourist attraction and commercial success . After the German tabloid newspaper Bild ran a quote from an animal rights activist that decried keeping the cub in captivity , fans worldwide rallied in support of his being hand-raised by humans . Children protested outside the zoo , and e-mails and letters expressing sympathy for the cub 's life were sent from around the world . Knut became the center of a mass media phenomenon dubbed `` Knutmania '' that spanned the globe and spawned toys , media specials , DVDs , and books . Because of this , the cub was largely responsible for a significant increase in revenue , estimated at about five million euros , at the Berlin Zoo in 2007 . Attendance figures for the year increased by an estimated 30 percent , making it the most profitable year in its 163-year history . On 19 March 2011 , Knut unexpectedly died at the age of four . His death was caused by drowning after he collapsed into his enclosure 's pool while suffering from Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Knut_(polar_bear)",
"rank": 53,
"score": 97590
},
{
"content": "Title: The Polar Bears Content: The Polar Bears is a 2012 3D computer animated short film presented by The Coca-Cola Company , produced by Ridley Scott , written by David Reynolds , and directed by John Stevenson . The film is based on Coca-Cola 's iconic polar bears and was released on the company 's website and YouTube channel on December 31 , 2012 .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "The_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 54,
"score": 97452
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary Content: The climate across the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg or formerly the K -- T boundary ) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid , volcanism , or sea level changes . While the mass extinction is well documented , there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event . The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known , which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact . Oxygen isotopes across the K -- T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself . Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K -- T boundary suggest rapid , repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction , and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary , indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction . The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate , direct consequences of the impact .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Climate_across_Cretaceous–Paleogene_boundary",
"rank": 55,
"score": 97447
},
{
"content": "Title: Bird's eye maple (mineral property) Content: Bird 's eye maple , or bird 's eye extinction , is a specific type of extinction exhibited by minerals of the mica group under cross polarized light of the petrographic microscope . It gives the mineral a pebbly appearance as it passes into extinction . This is caused when the grinding tools used to create petrographic thin sections of precise thickness alter the alignment of the previously perfect basal cleavage planes which split micas up into its characteristic thin sheets . The resulting , slightly roughened surface alters the extinction angle of various parts of the crystal lattice , leading to this type of extinction . Since it is not a natural feature of the mineral , bird 's eye maple is not observed in all mica crystals , nor from all angles , but it is quite common , and is used as a diagnostic feature for micas . Common micas which exhibit this include biotite ( and the magnesium end-member phlogopite ) and muscovite .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Bird's_eye_maple_(mineral_property)",
"rank": 56,
"score": 97371
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Expedition Content: The Polar Bear Expedition ( also known as the Northern Russian Expedition , the American North Russia Expeditionary Force - ANREF or the American Expeditionary Force North Russia - AEFNR ) was a contingent of about 5,000 United States Army troops that landed in Arkhangelsk , Russia as part of the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War and fought the Red Army in the surrounding region during the period of September 1918 through to July 1919 .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Expedition",
"rank": 57,
"score": 96960
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 58,
"score": 96676
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Trophy Content: The Polar Bear Trophy is an award given out by the Norwegian Ice Hockey Federation to Norwegian ice hockey players who have played a minimum of 50 official games for the Norwegian national ice hockey team . Counting as official games are games played at the IIHF World Championships , the Winter Olympics and qualification games to the two aforementioned tournaments . Friendly games are not counted . Referees who have officiated a minimum of 30 games at the Winter Olympics or IIHF World Championship ( Elite and Division 1 ) at either the senior or the junior level are also eligible for reception . The NIHF board may also award the trophy to builders who have shown an extra ordinary dedication to Norwegian ice hockey .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Trophy",
"rank": 59,
"score": 96524
},
{
"content": "Title: The Polar Bear Family & Me Content: The Polar Bear Family & Me was a three-part nature documentary series produced by the BBC Natural History Unit . It follows wildlife cameraman Gordon Buchanan as he spends a year with a family of wild , but frosty polar bears , under the guidance of his biologist Jason Roberts , the polar expertise of the Antarctic region and Svalbard near Norwegian archipelago of the Arctic Ocean .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "The_Polar_Bear_Family_&_Me",
"rank": 60,
"score": 96522
},
{
"content": "Title: Infinitely Polar Bear Content: Infinitely Polar Bear is a 2014 American comedy-drama film written and directed by Maya Forbes , and starring Mark Ruffalo , Zoe Saldana , Imogene Wolodarsky , and Ashley Aufderheide . The film premiered in competition at the 30th Sundance Film Festival on January 18 , 2014 . The film was released on June 19 , 2015 , by Sony Pictures Classics .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Infinitely_Polar_Bear",
"rank": 61,
"score": 96440
},
{
"content": "Title: The Polar Bear Group Content: The Polar Bear Group is a life-size , bronze animal sculpture in the Aqua Park of the Zoo in the city of Nuremberg . The Group consists of a mother polar bear with her young cubs in a playful pose , and is based on a flat plate from bright granite , which is reminiscent of an ice floe . The Group was created by the sculptor Josef Tabachnyk and was installed in the zoo in 2007 . The measurements of the Polar Bear Group are 120x240x90 cm . Since November 2010 , another bronze bear sculpture created by the same artist was installed in the entrance area of the zoo . It depicts a brown bear lying on its back , playing with a slug .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "The_Polar_Bear_Group",
"rank": 62,
"score": 96275
},
{
"content": "Title: Phoenix Polar Bears Content: The Phoenix Polar Bears was a USA Hockey-sanctioned Junior A Tier III ice hockey team based out of Phoenix , Arizona . Their host facility was the Desert Schools Coytotes Center in Chandler , Arizona . The Polar Bears was a member of the Western States Hockey League but vacated their membership in the league when the WSHL moved away from USA Hockey sanctioning in 2011 .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Phoenix_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 63,
"score": 95889
},
{
"content": "Title: Global catastrophic risk Content: A global catastrophic risk is a hypothetical future event that has the potential to damage human well-being on a global scale . Some events could cripple or destroy modern civilization . Any event that could cause human extinction is known as an existential risk . Potential global catastrophic risks include anthropogenic risks ( technology risks , governance risks ) and natural or external risks . Examples of technology risks are hostile artificial intelligence , biotechnology risks , or nanotechnology weapons . Insufficient global governance creates risks in the social and political domain ( potentially leading to a global war with or without a nuclear holocaust , bioterrorism using genetically modified organisms , cyberterrorism destroying critical infrastructures like the electrical grid , or the failure to manage a natural pandemic ) as well as problems and risks in the domain of earth system governance ( with risks resulting from global warming , environmental degradation , mineral resource exhaustion , fossil energy exhaustion , or famine as a result of non-equitable resource distribution , human overpopulation , crop failures and non-sustainable agriculture ) . Examples for non-anthropogenic risks are an asteroid impact event , a supervolcanic eruption , a lethal gamma-ray burst , a geomagnetic storm destroying all electronic equipment , natural long-term climate change , or extraterrestrial life impacting life on Earth .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Global_catastrophic_risk",
"rank": 64,
"score": 95718
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Point Content: Polar Bear Point is an ice-covered point 1.2 nautical miles ( 2.2 km ) southeast of Castle Rock on the east side of Hut Point Peninsula , Ross Island . A breached crater stands 0.7 nautical miles ( 1.3 km ) north-northwest , but no rock is exposed on the point which is well defined and elevated at the juncture with McMurdo Ice Shelf . The name is allusive ; when viewed from the west , the appearance of the point is suggestive of the head , neck , and fore part of an Arctic polar bear . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) , 2000 . Category : Headlands of Ross Island",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Point",
"rank": 65,
"score": 95427
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar bear plunge Content: A polar bear plunge is an event held during the winter where participants enter a body of water despite the low temperature . In the United States polar bear plunges are usually held to raise money for a charitable organization . In Canada polar bear swims are usually held on New Year 's Day to celebrate the new year .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_bear_plunge",
"rank": 66,
"score": 95392
},
{
"content": "Title: Futuristic Polar Bears Content: Futuristic Polar Bears is a British DJ and production trio from London , formed in 2010 . Since then , the trio has released many singles , and has been signed to labels Spinnin ' , Revealed and Harem Records , the label of the Canadian duo Sultan & Shepard .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Futuristic_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 67,
"score": 95261
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Peak Content: Polar Bear Peak is a 6614 ft mountain in the U.S. state of Alaska , located in Chugach State Park . Situated in the Chugach Mountains , it lies at the head of South Fork Eagle River , 5 mi ESE of Eagle Lake , and 22 mi ESE of downtown Anchorage . The peak was named in 1963 by members of the Mountaineering Club of Alaska because a snow patch on its north face resembles a Polar bear skin .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Peak",
"rank": 68,
"score": 95221
},
{
"content": "Title: Bergman's bear Content: The Bergman 's bear ( Ursus arctos piscator ) is an alleged and probably extinct subspecies of the brown bear that lived in the Kamchatka Peninsula . The bear was identified and named by Swedish zoologist Sten Bergman in 1920 . Bergman determined that the bear was a separate subspecies after examining a hide ( which had fur very different from other local bears ) and series of footprints , measuring 14.5 x 10 inches , which he judged to be much larger than other bears on Kamchatka . Some think that the Cold War may have helped the population to recover because the Soviet Military blocked access to the area in that time . Interest in the bear was revitalized in the 1960s . Professional hunter Rodion Sivolobov reported claims by Kamchatka natives of an unusually large bear they called either the Irkuiem ( roughly meaning `` trousers pulled down '' due to the appearance of the bear 's hind legs ) , or the `` God bear '' due to its large size . Based on Sivobolov 's description , biologist N.K. Vereshchagin suggested that the God bear might be a relict Arctodus simus , a massive extinct bear . This idea was coolly received by the scientific community ; Arctodus has never been found outside the Americas , and more importantly , it belonged to the Tremarctinae which differ considerably in appearance from the `` typical '' bears ( Ursinae ) . In particular , Arctodus had relatively long and slender legs which does not agree with the `` trousers pulled down '' moniker .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Bergman's_bear",
"rank": 69,
"score": 95099
},
{
"content": "Title: Kodiak bear Content: The Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ) , also known as the Kodiak brown bear , sometimes the Alaskan brown bear , inhabits the islands of the Kodiak Archipelago in southwest Alaska . Its Alutiiq name is taquka-aq . It is the largest recognized subspecies of brown bear , and one of the two largest bears alive today , the other being the polar bear . Physiologically , the Kodiak bear is very similar to the other brown bear subspecies , such as the mainland grizzly bear ( Ursus arctos horribilis ) and the now-extinct California grizzly bear ( U. a. californicus † ) , with the main difference being in size . While there is generally much variation in size between brown bears in different areas , most usually weigh between 115 and 360 kg ( 254 and 794 lb ) . The Kodiak bear , on the other hand , commonly reaches sizes of 300 to , and has even been known to exceed weights of 680 kg on occasion . Despite this large variation in size , the diet and lifestyle of the Kodiak bear does not differ greatly from that of other brown bears . Ever since the first humans arrived in Alaska over the Bering land bridge , encounters between people and Kodiak bears have occurred . Today , these encounters have become relatively more common as a result of the increase in the human population in the region . Such encounters have included the hunting of bears by humans for their fur or meat , and , less commonly , attacks by bears upon humans . More recently , as conservation efforts have become more commonplace , concerns over the sustenance and stability of the Kodiak bear population have arisen . The IUCN classifies Ursus arctos , the species to which the Kodiak belongs , as being of `` least concern '' in terms of endangerment or extinction . However , the IUCN does not differentiate between subspecies ; therefore , it is unknown whether the Kodiak bear population is as healthy as is stated . As a result , the Alaska Department of Fish and Game , along with , to a lesser extent , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service , closely monitors the number of bears hunted in the state .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Kodiak_bear",
"rank": 70,
"score": 95038
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Express Content: The Polar Bear Express is a Canadian passenger train operated by the Ontario Northland Railway in Northern Ontario . Service was introduced in 1964 . While designated as a passenger train , the Polar Bear Express also carries specialized equipment including boxcars for canoes , snowmobiles and all terrain vehicles , chain cars ( flat cars with tie downs ) for carrying cars and light trucks ( there are no roads to Moosonee so vehicles come in and out by train ) and baggage and express cars . In the past a special car for canoes was included but these are now carried in boxcars . It operates 5 days per week year-round and connects Cochrane with Moosonee . During the summer months there is an additional train on Sundays and the train often includes a full length dome car . Prior to 2012 , the train carried a full dining car during the summer . The Polar Bear Express service was expanded on June 5 , 2007 after increased funding from the Government of Ontario to ONR was announced in March 2007 . It resulted in the discontinuation of the Little Bear mixed freight-passenger service which had operated 3 days per week , year-round , resulting in dedicated separate freight and passenger rail service to Moosonee . In summer 2008 , track conditions resulted the train running very late much of the time ( 2.5 hours by railway announcement ) . By late 2008 , running times had improved somewhat and timings of five and a half to six hours for the 186 mile ( 300 kilometre - all distances are shown in miles along the tracks ) trip were becoming typical . Service deteriorated significantly in 2009 mainly due to bad track conditions and mechanical failures -- on one occasion the train , scheduled to arrive in Cochrane at 9:42 in the evening did not arrive until 4:00 in the morning . Before the 2007 service expansion , the Polar Bear Express operated 6 days per week during the summer months . It left Cochrane in the morning , stayed for a few hours in Moosonee , and returned to Cochrane in the evening . It was primarily used by tourists , although it was used by an increasing number of local residents . The name of the train is misleading -- polar bears are rarely seen anywhere near Moosonee . The Polar Bear Express today mostly services the residents of Moosonee and Moose Factory when they travel south from their communities that lack road connections to the rest of Ontario . During the winter , many passengers are from communities further north who travel to Moosonee by winter road before taking the train . Prior to 2012 the summer train included special programs for children and an entertainment car .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Express",
"rank": 71,
"score": 94841
},
{
"content": "Title: Eisbären Berlin Content: ( English : Berlin Polar Bears ) are a professional ice hockey team based in Berlin , Germany . The team competes in the Deutsche Eishockey Liga ( DEL ) , the highest level of play in professional German ice hockey , and is also one of the league 's founding members . The Eisbären have won the DEL championship more often than any other team . The club captured national 7 DEL titles . They won the German ice hockey cup in 2007 as well as the European Trophy in 2010 . Before reunification the team won the East German ice hockey championship 15 times . The club 's origins go back to 1954 . Following incorporation into the West German 1 . Bundesliga in 1990 , the team was renamed EHC Dynamo Berlin and again in 1992 to EHC Eisbären Berlin . The home games are played at the Mercedes-Benz Arena . The Eisbären Berlin are owned by the Anschutz Entertainment Group . The official logo of the team is the polar bear , a reference to the bear appearing on Berlin 's coat of arms .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Eisbären_Berlin",
"rank": 72,
"score": 94771
},
{
"content": "Title: Permian–Triassic extinction event Content: The Permian -- Triassic ( P -- Tr or P -- T ) extinction event , colloquially known as the Great Dying , the End-Permian Extinction or the Great Permian Extinction , occurred about 252 Ma ( million years ) ago , forming the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geologic periods , as well as the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras . It is the Earth 's most severe known extinction event , with up to 96 % of all marine species and 70 % of terrestrial vertebrate species becoming extinct . It is the only known mass extinction of insects . Some 57 % of all families and 83 % of all genera became extinct . Because so much biodiversity was lost , the recovery of life on Earth took significantly longer than after any other extinction event , possibly up to 10 million years . Studies in Bear Lake County near the Idaho city of Paris showed a quick and dynamic rebound in a marine ecosystem , illustrating the remarkable resiliency of life . There is evidence for one to three distinct pulses , or phases , of extinction . Suggested mechanisms for the latter include one or more large meteor impact events , massive volcanism such as that of the Siberian Traps , and the ensuing coal or gas fires and explosions , and a runaway greenhouse effect triggered by sudden release of methane from the sea floor due to methane clathrate dissociation or methane-producing microbes known as methanogens ; possible contributing gradual changes include sea-level change , increasing anoxia , increasing aridity , and a shift in ocean circulation driven by climate change .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Permian–Triassic_extinction_event",
"rank": 73,
"score": 94625
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (album) Content: Polar Bear is the eponymous third album by Sebastian Rochford 's British jazz band Polar Bear .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(album)",
"rank": 74,
"score": 94617
},
{
"content": "Title: The Little Polar Bear Content: The Little Polar Bear ( Der kleine Eisbär ) is a franchise about a polar bear cub named Lars who first starred in a number of books written by Dutch author , Hans de Beer . It later became an animated TV series for BBC TV , Lars , der Kleine Eisbär , in the 1990s . The show proved to be popular in Germany , but its English-dubbed version ( titled The Little Polar Bear ) had also gained a cult following with UK viewers . The show was later revived between 2001 and 2003 . For its first film , subtitled Der Kinofilm , Warner Bros. and animation studio Rothkirch Cartoon Film bought the rights to adapt the children 's books into a feature-length film , released in 2001 . Following the success of the feature , several direct-to-video features were released , one of the new characters included was a tiger cub . In 2005 , another film , The Little Polar Bear 2 -- The Mysterious Island ( Der Kleine Eisbär 2 : Die geheimnisvolle Insel ) was released and also proved successful . The score to The Little Polar Bear ( 1 ) was composed by Nigel Clarke & Michael Csanyi-Wills and recorded by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra in London and was nominated for several awards .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "The_Little_Polar_Bear",
"rank": 75,
"score": 94550
},
{
"content": "Title: Siku (polar bear) Content: Siku ( born 22 November 2011 in Skandinavisk Dyrepark ) is a male polar bear cub , he has several siblings such as Sné . After his mother failed to produce enough milk to feed him , he was taken into care in the Scandinavian Wildlife Park in Denmark . In terms of popular appeal , he is by some considered to be a possible successor to the polar bear Knut , who attracted worldwide attention at Berlin Zoo from 2006 until his death in 2011 . A YouTube video showing Siku at the age of one month attracted hundreds of thousands of hits in just twenty-four hours and he was hailed internationally as an online sensation , especially after appearing on the official BBC website .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Siku_(polar_bear)",
"rank": 76,
"score": 94467
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Shores Content: Polar Bear Shores is a polar bear exhibit at the Sea World theme park on the Gold Coast , Australia . As of 2013 , the exhibit features four polar bears ( Lia , Hudson , Nelson , and Henry ) .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Shores",
"rank": 77,
"score": 94198
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar city Content: A polar city is a proposed sustainable polar retreat designed to house human beings in the future , in the event that global warming causes the equatorial and middle latitudes of the Earth to become uninhabitable for a long period of time . Although they have not been built yet , some futurists have been giving considerable thought to the concepts involved . High-population-density cities , to be built near the Arctic Rim and in Antarctica , New Zealand , Tasmania , and Patagonia , with sustainable energy and transportation infrastructure , will require substantial nearby agriculture . Boreal soils are largely poor in key nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus , but nitrogen-fixing plants ( such as the various alders ) with the proper symbiotic microbes and mycorrhizal fungi can likely remedy such poverty without the need for petroleum-derived fertilizers . Regional probiotic soil improvement should perhaps rank high on any polar cities priority list . James Lovelock 's notion of a widely distributed almanac of science knowledge and post-industrial survival skills also appears to have value .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_city",
"rank": 78,
"score": 94116
},
{
"content": "Title: The White Planet Content: The White Planet or in French , La Planète Blanche , is a 2006 documentary about the wildlife of the Arctic . It shows interactions between marine animals , birds and land animals , especially the polar bear , over a one-year period . The fragility of the Arctic is hinted at as a reason to prevent climate change . It was nominated for the Documentary category in the 27th Genie Awards in 2007 .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "The_White_Planet",
"rank": 79,
"score": 93955
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Pass Content: Polar Bear Pass is a 262,400 hectare wetland and mountain pass on Bathurst Island within the Qikiqtaaluk Region , Nunavut , Canada . The pass is on federal Crown land .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Pass",
"rank": 80,
"score": 93895
},
{
"content": "Title: The Path to Degrowth in Overdeveloped Countries Content: The Path to Degrowth in Overdeveloped Countries is the second chapter of the Worldwatch Institute 's State of the World ( book series ) 2012 : Moving Toward Sustainable Prosperity ( ISBN 978-1-61091-037-8 ) by Erik Assadourian . It is available for free online , along with these other chapters from the report : Making the Green Economy Work for Everybody by Michael Renner Nine Population Strategies to Stop Short of 9 Billion by Robert Engelman Biodiversity : Combating the Sixth Mass Extinction by Bo Normander In his chapter of the report , Assadourian defines degrowth as an `` essential and urgent '' economic strategy to pursue in countries entrenched in overdevelopment ( such as the United States ) in order for those countries to be truly sustainable and adapt to `` The rapidly warming Earth and the collapse of ecosystem services '' . Furthermore , he hopes to dispel `` the myth that perpetual pursuit of growth is good for economies or the societies of which they are a part '' for the well-being of the planet , of underdeveloped populations , and of the sick , stressed , and overweight populations of overdeveloped countries . Assadourian argues via the principle of plenitude that degrowth will inevitably occur whether we want it to or not because -- on a planet of finite resources -- economies and populations can not grow infinitely , and overdeveloped countries are still pursuing more economic growth and overconsuming resources . Assadourian outlines four policies overdeveloped nations could employ to sufficiently facilitate a planned and controlled contraction of the economy so as to get back in line with planetary boundaries . Each of these , in unison , will eventually foster the creation of a steady-state economy that is in balance with Earth 's limits : Reduce Overall Consumption by Overconsumers Distribute Tax Burdens More Equitably Share Work Hours Better Cultivate a Plenitude Economy : `` informalize '' certain sectors of the economy Assadourian also wrote a 2-page policy brief on the chapter highlighting the key messages of , the problem regarding , and points to keep in mind moving forward on our path to degrowth .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "The_Path_to_Degrowth_in_Overdeveloped_Countries",
"rank": 81,
"score": 93862
},
{
"content": "Title: Flocke Content: Flocke ( -LSB- ˈflɔkə -RSB- ) is a female polar bear who was born in captivity at the Nuremberg Zoo in Nuremberg , Germany on 11 December 2007 . A few weeks after her birth , she was removed from her mother 's care after concerns were raised for her safety . Although the zoo had established a strict non-interference policy with its animals , officials chose to raise the cub by hand . This decision came at a time when the zoo was receiving negative attention from the media after another female polar bear reportedly ate her newly born cubs . Like Knut , a captive-born and handraised polar bear at the Berlin Zoo , Flocke ( `` flake '' in German ) quickly became a media sensation . After she made her debut to the public on 8 April 2008 , her name was trademarked by the zoo and her image appeared on toys and in advertisements throughout the city . The zoo announced in May 2008 that United Nations Environment Program chief Achim Steiner would be Flocke 's official patron with the hope of using the bear as an ambassador to encourage awareness of climate change . In late 2008 , a Russian-born male polar bear named Rasputin was introduced to Flocke 's enclosure in the hopes that she would gain valuable socializing skills with a member of her own species . In April 2010 , both bears were relocated to Marineland in southern France .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Flocke",
"rank": 82,
"score": 93806
},
{
"content": "Title: Agriotherium Content: Agriotherium is an extinct genus of bear whose fossils are found Miocene through Pleistocene-aged strata of North America , Europe , Africa , and Asia , living from ~ 13.6 -- 2.5 Ma , existing for approximately . Materials of the late surviving A. africanum from Africa has suggested that A. africanum died out soon during the early Gelasian .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Agriotherium",
"rank": 83,
"score": 93742
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecological extinction Content: Ecological extinction is defined as `` the reduction of a species to such low abundance that , although it is still present in the community , it no longer interacts significantly with other species . '' Ecological extinction stands out because it is the interaction ecology of a species that is important for conservation work . They state that `` unless the species interacts significantly with other species in the community ( e.g. it is an important predator , competitor , symbiont , mutualist , or prey ) its loss may result in little to no adjustment to the abundance and population structure of other species . '' This view stems from the neutral model of communities that assumes there is little to no interaction within species unless otherwise proven . Estes , Duggins , and Rathburn ( 1989 ) recognize two other distinct types of extinction : Global extinction is defined as `` the ubiquitous disappearance of a species . '' Local extinction is characterized by `` the disappearance of a species from part of its natural range . ''",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Ecological_extinction",
"rank": 84,
"score": 93245
},
{
"content": "Title: Eisbär Content: `` Eisbär '' ( German for polar bear ) is a 1980 `` cult '' song composed by the Swiss Neue Deutsche Welle band Grauzone . It first appeared on the 1980 compilation album Swiss Wave - The Album . The shorter single version was later collected on the Grauzone album Die Sunrise Tapes ( 1998 ) . The song features a man singing he wants to be `` a polar bear in the cold polar '' , because by being one he `` would n't have to cry any longer and everything would be fine . '' The instrumental arrangement also evokes an Arctic atmosphere . Grauzone recorded in 1982 an English-language version ( Polar Bear ) of the song , which was first released in 2010 on the double CD Grauzone 1980-1982 Remastered . The song is post-punk performed with guitar , drums and synthesizers .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Eisbär",
"rank": 85,
"score": 93136
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Peter_Doran",
"rank": 86,
"score": 93124
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (disambiguation) Content: A polar bear is a giant bear species . Polar Bear may also refer to :",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 87,
"score": 92794
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Mayhew (biologist) Content: Peter Mayhew is a British biologist at the University of York in the United Kingdom . He is the lead author of a study showing a long-term association between global temperature and biodiversity , origination , and extinction in the fossil record . This study demonstrated that biodiversity tends to be relatively low during greenhouse phases in Earth history and that extinction rates ( including mass extinctions ) tend to be higher . On the basis of this work he was nominated as one of the `` Great Britons of 2007 '' . He is also author of a textbook on evolutionary ecology .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Peter_Mayhew_(biologist)",
"rank": 88,
"score": 92666
},
{
"content": "Title: Berenkuil (traffic) Content: A berenkuil ( a Dutch word meaning a bear pit ) is a type of traffic circle found in the Netherlands . In this construction , automotive traffic is directed around a raised outer circle . This leaves a sunken open space in the center of the circle which is used for bicycle paths . Perhaps the first berenkuil , and the one that gives its name to this type of circle , is the one in Utrecht , built in 1944 . There are several theories for the origin of its name , including the possibility that an actual bear pit was located there , or that it was named in honor of the British 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division , nicknamed the polar bears , who liberated Utrecht from the Nazis .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Berenkuil_(traffic)",
"rank": 89,
"score": 92603
},
{
"content": "Title: Éric Fortier Content: Éric Fortier , M.B. , of Gatineau , Quebec , Canada , is a recipient of the Medal of Bravery , a Canadian honour for acts of heroism , for fighting off an attack by a polar bear that mauled two other people . The citation reads : On July 27 , 2001 , Éric Fortier confronted a polar bear that was attacking two of his camping companions at the Soper River , in Katannilik Territorial Park Reserve , Nunavut . In the early morning hours , the bear ripped open the tent where Mr. Fortier and his partner were sleeping . Their screams drove the bear away but the animal turned on their friends , savagely mauling them as they tried to exit their own tent and escape . Ignoring the danger , Mr. Fortier threw rocks at the animal while yelling at it in an attempt to scare it off . Seeing that his efforts were in vain , he confronted the bear and stabbed it repeatedly in the throat with a pocketknife until the wounded animal retreated into the woods . Mr. Fortier and his partner then helped their injured friends into a canoe and paddled eight kilometres across the river to find help . The victims recovered from their injuries .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Éric_Fortier",
"rank": 90,
"score": 92586
},
{
"content": "Title: Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event Content: The Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event , or the Cenomanian-Turonian extinction event , the Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event ( OAE 2 ) , and referred to in Europe as the Bonarelli Event , was one of two anoxic extinction events in the Cretaceous period . ( The other being the earlier Selli Event , or OAE 1a , in the Aptian . ) The OAE 2 occurred approximately 91.5 ± 8.6 Ma , though other estimates are given as 93-94 Ma . The event brought about the extinction of the Spinosauridae , Pliosauridae , and possibly Ichthyosauria ; although coracoids of Maastrichtian age may belong to ichthyosaurs , indicating the survival of the group until the latest Cretaceous . Other animals lost some diversity as well . Although the cause is still uncertain , the result starved the Earth 's oceans of oxygen for nearly half a million years , causing the extinction of approximately 27 percent of marine invertebrates . This global environmental disturbance increased atmospheric and oceanic temperatures . Boundary sediments show an enrichment of trace elements , and contain elevated δ13C values . One possible cause was sub-oceanic volcanism , possibly the Caribbean large igneous province , with increased activity approximately 500,000 years earlier . During that period , the rate of crustal production reached its highest level for 100 million years . This was largely caused by the widespread melting of hot mantle plumes under the oceans at the base of the lithosphere . This resulted in the thickening of the oceanic crust in the Pacific and Indian Oceans . This volcanism would have sent large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Within the oceans , the emission of SO2 , H2S , CO2 , and halogens would have increased the acidity of the water , causing the dissolution of carbonate , and a further release of carbon dioxide . When the volcanic activity declined , this run-away greenhouse effect would have likely been put into reverse . The increased CO2 content of the oceans could have increased organic productivity in the ocean surface waters . The consumption of this newly abundant organic life by aerobic bacteria would produce anoxia and mass extinction . The resulting elevated levels of carbon burial would account for the black shale deposition in the ocean basins .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Cenomanian-Turonian_boundary_event",
"rank": 91,
"score": 91930
},
{
"content": "Title: Extinction (neurology) Content: Extinction is a neurological disorder that impairs the ability to perceive multiple stimuli of the same type simultaneously . Extinction is usually caused by damage resulting in lesions on one side of the brain . Those who are affected by extinction have a lack of awareness in the contralesional side of space ( towards the left side space following a right lesion ) and a loss of exploratory search and other actions normally directed toward that side .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Extinction_(neurology)",
"rank": 92,
"score": 91883
},
{
"content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Future_of_Earth",
"rank": 93,
"score": 91794
},
{
"content": "Title: Jim McNeill Content: Jim McNeill is a British polar explorer , presenter and keynote speaker , with over 30 years of experience travelling in the polar regions . He founded the Ice Warrior project in 2001 . He has trained and guided many groups to the Arctic , including BBC film crews . His expeditions , travelling thousands of miles across the Arctic , give him regular opportunities to monitor polar bear populations for the Norwegian Polar Institute , as well as putting together a yearly scientific program for scientists to monitor the effects of climate change . He is an ambassador for Hauser Bears , a charitable organization committed to the conservation of bears worldwide . He is Vice president - Arctic Expeditions for Sea Research Society .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Jim_McNeill",
"rank": 94,
"score": 91610
},
{
"content": "Title: Mexican grizzly bear Content: The Mexican grizzly bear ( Ursus arctos ; formerly Ursus arctos nelsoni ) is an extinct population of the grizzly bear . The holotype was shot by H. A. Cluff at Colonia Garcia , Chihuahua in 1899 . The extinct California grizzly extended slightly south into Baja California . The bears in Durango , Chihuahua , and Sonora and central Mexico were likely more related to the bears of Arizona , New Mexico , and Texas than to those of California .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Mexican_grizzly_bear",
"rank": 95,
"score": 91305
},
{
"content": "Title: Local extinction Content: Local extinction , or extirpation , is the condition of a species ( or other taxon ) that ceases to exist in the chosen geographic area of study , though it still exists elsewhere . Local extinctions are contrasted with global extinctions . Local extinctions may be followed by a replacement of the species taken from other locations ; wolf reintroduction is an example of this .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Local_extinction",
"rank": 96,
"score": 91180
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear, Polar Bear, What Do You Hear? Content: Polar Bear , Polar Bear , What Do You Hear ? is a children 's picture book , published in 1991 , written and illustrated by Bill Martin , Jr. and Eric Carle . The book is designed to help toddlers identify zoo animals and the noises they make . It features a polar bear , a lion , a hippopotamus , a flamingo , a zebra , a boa constrictor , an elephant , a leopard , a peacock , a walrus , a zoo keeper and some children . This is a companion book to Brown Bear , Brown Bear , What Do You See ? , published by Carle and Martin in 1967 , replacing the earlier text 's colours and common animals with sounds and less common creatures .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Polar_Bear,_Polar_Bear,_What_Do_You_Hear?",
"rank": 97,
"score": 91107
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Bear (train) Content: The Little Bear is the name for a mixed freight-passenger train operated by the Ontario Northland Railway in Northern Ontario , Canada . The Little Bear transports passengers as well as supplies to locations between Cochrane and Moosonee and is particularly popular with canoeists and hunters ; the train has a dedicated freight car for carrying canoes . It operates Monday to Friday and connects Cochrane with Moosonee . During the summer months , the Polar Bear Express dedicated passenger train operates over the same route six days per week with no flag stops , whereas the Little Bear is a flag stop train . The Polar Bear Express was expanded to a year-round service on June 5 , 2007 after increased funding from the Government of Ontario to ONR was announced in March 2007 . It resulted in the discontinuation of the Little Bear mixed freight-passenger service for a time but it was restared . Some of the numerous stops for the Little Bear mixed freight and passenger train include : Cochrane Fraserdale Otter Rapids Moose River Moosonee",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Little_Bear_(train)",
"rank": 98,
"score": 91022
},
{
"content": "Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Future_Evolution",
"rank": 99,
"score": 90996
},
{
"content": "Title: Ursus minimus Content: Ursus minimus ( Auvergne bear ) is an extinct species of bear , endemic to Europe during the Pliocene and Pleistocene , living from 5.3 -- 1.8 Mya , existing for about . U. minimus appears to have given rise to Ursus etruscus . The range of U. minimus was continental Europe and as far east as the Black Sea in Russia . Its southern range was Italy . The skeleton of U. minimus was very similar to that of the larger Asian black bear . With the exception of the age of the bones , it is often difficult to distinguish the remains of U. minimus from those of modern Asian black bears .",
"qid": "0",
"docid": "Ursus_minimus",
"rank": 100,
"score": 90896
}
] |
The sun has gone into ‘lockdown’ which could cause freezing weather, earthquakes and famine, say scientists | [
{
"content": "Title: Great Tenmei famine Content: The Great Tenmei famine ( 天明の大飢饉 , Tenmei no daikikin ) was a famine which affected Japan during the Edo period . It is considered to have begun in 1782 , and lasted until 1788 . It was named after the Tenmei era ( 1781 -- 1789 ) , during the reign of Emperor Kōkaku . The ruling shoguns during the famine were Tokugawa Ieharu and Tokugawa Ienari . The famine was the deadliest one during the early modern period in Japan . In Tōhoku , which is the north-eastern region of Honshū , starting in the 1770s there was a sharp decline in crop yield due to poor and cold weather , so rural areas were already exhausted . The situation was exacerbated further by natural disasters . Mount Iwaki erupted on April 13 , 1783 ( March 12 , Tenmei 3 in the Lunisolar calendar ) , and Mount Asama on July 6 ( August 3 in the Lunisolar calendar ) , so volcanic ash was sent down around Japan . Aside from the direct damage caused by the eruptions , it led to a decrease in the amount of solar radiation , resulting in cold weather trends that caused catastrophic damage to crops . Another cause of the famine was the government 's economic policies . During this period a mercantilist policy was implemented by Tanuma Okitsugu , a minister of the Tokugawa shogunate cabinet . This was intended to commercialise agriculture and thus increase tax income , which was paid in rice . This caused economic difficulties for many Hans and led to excessive encouragement of rice production ( which was vulnerable to cold weather ) in order to pay higher taxes . It also resulted in local emergency stores of food becoming depleted . These factors combined to result in poor harvests and a lack of emergency stores , which led to skyrocketing rice prices , so serious famine expanded to a national scale as a result . According to Nochi-mi-gusa , written by Genpaku Sugita , approximately twenty thousand people starved to death across the country , mainly in rural areas of the Tōhoku region . However , many local authorities , afraid of being accused of economic mismanagement , did not report the full extent of the damage , so the actual death toll may have been far higher , perhaps even ten times Sugita 's estimate . The damage was particularly severe in Mutsu Province , where it was reported that over a hundred thousand people died Including people who fled the area , Hirosaki ( Tsugaru ) Han lost almost half of its population . The combined impact of famine and outbreaks of disease resulted in a population decline of more than 920,000 people across Japan between 1780 and 1786 .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Great_Tenmei_famine",
"rank": 1,
"score": 119833
},
{
"content": "Title: Starvation (computer science) Content: In computer science , starvation is a problem encountered in concurrent computing where a process is perpetually denied necessary resources to process its work . Starvation may be caused by errors in a scheduling or mutual exclusion algorithm , but can also be caused by resource leaks , and can be intentionally caused via a denial-of-service attack such as a fork bomb . The impossibility of starvation in a concurrent algorithm is called starvation-freedom , lockout-freedom or finite bypass , is an instance of liveness , and is one of the two requirements for any mutual exclusion algorithm ( the other being correctness ) . The name `` finite bypass '' means that any process ( concurrent part ) of the algorithm is bypassed at most a finite number times before being allowed access to the shared resource .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Starvation_(computer_science)",
"rank": 2,
"score": 113700
},
{
"content": "Title: Starvation (glaciology) Content: In glaciology , starvation occurs when a glacier retreats , not because of temperature increases , but due to precipitation so low that the ice flow downward into the zone of ablation exceeds the replenishment from snowfall . Eventually , the ice will move so far down that it either calves into the ocean or melts . When starvation does occur , however , it can almost always be reversed by slight changes in precipitation , such as are brought about by mountain ranges . Thus , even if glaciers do not cover a lowland due to low precipitation , glaciation is almost certain to occur at higher elevations .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Starvation_(glaciology)",
"rank": 3,
"score": 113160
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar phenomena Content: Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots . These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations . The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth . Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Solar_phenomena",
"rank": 4,
"score": 112803
},
{
"content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm",
"rank": 5,
"score": 107274
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice famine Content: An ice famine was a scarcity of commercial ice , usually during the hot summer months , common before the widespread use of the refrigerator . It often resulted in the widespread spoilage of food and medicines , and in some instances in death from heat stroke .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Ice_famine",
"rank": 6,
"score": 103993
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback",
"rank": 7,
"score": 102380
},
{
"content": "Title: Lockdown (Stargate SG-1) Content: `` Lockdown '' is the third episode for season eight of the Canadian-American military science fiction television series Stargate SG-1 . The episode was written by Joseph Mallozzi and Paul Mullie , and directed by Will Waring . This was the only episode in the eighth season to receive a syndication rating , but was also one of the lowest rated of the season on the Nielsen household ratings . The episode got strong reviews from major media publishers worldwide . `` Lockdown '' is about the discovery of an outbreak of disease which first occurred in the Russian Federation , but later on infects personnel of Stargate Command . The outbreak is later revealed to be the ethereal remains of Anubis . At the same time , Jack O'Neill stops the recruiting process for SG-1 leaving Samantha Carter as the new leader of SG-1 throughout season 8 . Anubis tries to take new hosts but is eventually defeated and forced to a destination chosen by Carter , a frozen , barren planet .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Lockdown_(Stargate_SG-1)",
"rank": 8,
"score": 101244
},
{
"content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Impact_winter",
"rank": 9,
"score": 101117
},
{
"content": "Title: Cryoseism Content: A cryoseism , also known as an ice quake or a frost quake , is a seismic event that may be caused by a sudden cracking action in frozen soil or rock saturated with water or ice . As water drains into the ground , it may eventually freeze and expand under colder temperatures , putting stress on its surroundings . This stress builds up until relieved explosively in the form of a cryoseism . Another type of cryoseism is a non-tectonic seismic event caused by sudden glacial movements . This movement has been attributed to a veneer of water which may pool underneath a glacier sourced from surface ice melt . Hydraulic pressure of the liquid can act as a lubricant , allowing the glacier to suddenly shift position . This type of cryoseism can be very brief , or may last for several minutes . The requirements for a cryoseism to occur are numerous ; therefore , accurate predictions are not entirely possible and may constitute a factor in structural design and engineering when constructing in an area historically known for such events . Speculation has been made between global warming and the frequency of cryoseisms .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Cryoseism",
"rank": 10,
"score": 100974
},
{
"content": "Title: Sun scald Content: Sun scald is the freezing of bark following high temperatures in the winter season , resulting in permanent visible damage to bark . Fruits may also be damaged . In the northern hemisphere , it is also called southwest injury .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Sun_scald",
"rank": 11,
"score": 100234
},
{
"content": "Title: Flash freezing Content: In physics and chemistry , flash freezing is a phenomenon occurring naturally in nature , but also used by people in everyday life in the food industry and forecasting in the field of meteorology . The results are also of importance in atmospheric science , as they may improve the climate model of the formation of ice clouds in upper troposphere , which effectively scatter incoming solar radiation and prevent earth from becoming overheated by the sun . Flash freezing is closely related to classical nucleation theory , which gives good results for many materials , phenomena and theories .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Flash_freezing",
"rank": 12,
"score": 99506
},
{
"content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate",
"rank": 13,
"score": 98866
},
{
"content": "Title: Sundowner winds Content: A sundowner is a northerly offshore wind in Santa Barbara , California . It occurs when a region of high pressure is directly north of the area , the coast of which trends east -- west . This contrasts with the more typical onshore flow . The winds blow with greatest force when the pressure gradient is perpendicular to the axis of the Santa Ynez Mountains , which rise directly behind Santa Barbara . These winds often precede Santa Ana events by a day or two , as it is normal for high-pressure areas to migrate east , causing the pressure gradients to shift to the northeast . Sundowners are particularly dangerous during wildfire season because the air heats and dries as it descends from the mountains to the sea . Gale force hot , dry winds can make firefighting impossible . A sundowner quickly burned a swath from the mountains through populated areas and across Highway 101 into Hope Ranch during the 1990 Painted Cave Fire . The most intense periods of the Jesusita Fire 's destruction have also been blamed on sundowner winds . The Sherpa Fire grew to 4,000 acres overnight due to the sundowner winds , destroying the water system for El Capitán State Beach at the beginning of the 2016 fire season . The etymology of the word sundowner is uncertain , but it may derive from the Spanish term zonda , or from the Arabic simoom , which are both similar wind phenomena .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Sundowner_winds",
"rank": 14,
"score": 97833
},
{
"content": "Title: Halloween solar storms, 2003 Content: The Halloween solar storms were a series of solar flares and coronal mass ejections that occurred from mid-October to early November 2003 , peaking around October 28 -- 29 . Satellite-based systems and communications were affected , aircraft were advised to avoid high altitudes near the polar regions , and a one-hour-long power outage occurred in Sweden as a result of the solar activity . Aurorae were observed at latitudes as far south as Texas and the Mediterranean countries of Europe . The SOHO satellite failed temporarily , and the Advanced Composition Explorer ( ACE ) was damaged by the solar activity . Numerous other spacecraft were damaged or experienced downtime due to various issues . Some of them were intentionally put into safe mode in order to protect sensitive equipment . Astronauts aboard the International Space Station ( ISS ) had to stay inside the more shielded parts of the Russian Orbital Segment to protect themselves against the increased radiation levels . Both the Ulysses spacecraft which was near Jupiter at the time , and Cassini , approaching Saturn , were able to detect the emissions . In April 2004 , Voyager 2 was also able to detect them as they reached the spacecraft . One of the solar storms was compared by some scientists in its intensity to the Carrington Event of 1859 . These events occurred during solar cycle 23 , approximately three years after its peak in 2000 , which was marked by another occurrence of solar activity known as the Bastille Day Flare .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Halloween_solar_storms,_2003",
"rank": 15,
"score": 96354
},
{
"content": "Title: Winter of 1946–47 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1946 -- 1947 was a harsh European winter noted for its effects in the United Kingdom . It caused severe hardships in economic terms and living conditions . There were massive disruptions of energy supply for homes , offices and factories . Animal herds froze or starved to death . No one could keep warm , and many businesses shut down temporarily . When warm weather returned , the ice thawed and flooding was severe in most low-lying areas . Beginning on 21 January 1947 , the UK experienced several cold spells that brought large drifts of snow to the country , blocking roads and railways . It was harder to bring coal to the electric power stations . Many had to shut down , forcing severe restrictions to cut power consumption , including restricting domestic electricity to 19 hours per day and cutting industrial supplies completely . In addition , radio broadcasts were limited , television services were suspended , some magazines were ordered to stop being published and newspapers were cut in size . These measures badly affected public morale and turned the Minister of Fuel and Power , Emanuel Shinwell , into a scapegoat ; he received death threats and had to be placed under police guard . Towards the end of February there were also fears of a food shortage as supplies were cut off and vegetables were frozen into the ground . Mid-March brought warmer air to the country which thawed the snow lying on the ground . This snowmelt ran off the frozen ground straight into rivers and caused widespread flooding . More than 100,000 properties were affected and the British Army and foreign aid agencies were forced to provide humanitarian aid . With the cold spell over and the ground thawing , there were no further weather problems . The winter had severe effects on British industries , causing the loss of around 10 per cent of the year 's industrial production , 10 to 20 per cent of cereal and potato crops and a quarter of sheep stocks . The ruling Labour Party began to lose popularity , which led to them losing many seats to the Conservative Party in the 1950 election . That winter is also cited as a factor in the devaluation of the pound from $ 4.03 to $ 2.80 , Britain 's decline from being a superpower and the introduction of the Marshall Plan to aid war-torn Europe . The effects on the rest of Europe were also severe , with 150 deaths from cold and famine in Berlin , civil disorder in the Netherlands and business closures in the Republic of Ireland .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Winter_of_1946–47_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 16,
"score": 95539
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Famine of Estonia (1695–97) Content: The Great Famine of Estonia ( also The great starvation ) killed about a fifth of Estonian and Livonian population ( 70,000 -- 75,000 people ) in two years . The climate was unfavorable for crops in 1694 and the summer of 1695 was cold and rainy , followed by an early autumn frost that destroyed the summer crops . Cold conditions continued during 1696 , and rain fell throughout the summer . Peasants , orphans and the elderly began to die en masse of starvation and the spring snow-melt of 1697 revealed many corpses . Meanwhile , landlords and merchants exported grain to Finland and Sweden , where crops also had failed . About a fifth of Estonian population ( 70,000 to 75,000 people ) died during the famine in Swedish Estonia , which did not end until 1698 .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Great_Famine_of_Estonia_(1695–97)",
"rank": 17,
"score": 93937
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme weather events of 535–536 Content: The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the most severe and protracted short-term episodes of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2000 years . The event is thought to have been caused by an extensive atmospheric dust veil , possibly resulting from a large volcanic eruption in the tropics , or debris from space impacting the Earth . Its effects were widespread , causing unseasonal weather , crop failures and famines worldwide .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Extreme_weather_events_of_535–536",
"rank": 18,
"score": 92966
},
{
"content": "Title: North Carolina ice storm of 2002 Content: The North Carolina ice storm of 2002 caused up to an inch of freezing rain from December 4 -- 5 in central North Carolina . A total of 24 people were killed , and as many as 1.8 million people were left without electricity on December 6 . Power outages began December 4 , and power was not completely restored to until December 14 . Raleigh received the most freezing rain from a single storm since 1948 , and Bristol , Tennessee received the most ice it had seen in 28 years . The storm also produced heavy rain in both the mountains and coastal plain of North Carolina . Much of the Southern Plains and the Northeast received snow with this system . During the power outages many residents used propane and kerosene powered generators and heaters to combat the cold , with some resorting to moving charcoal grills indoors to heat their households . The increased usage of these heating methods , particularly grills led to a substantial number of cases of carbon monoxide poisoning . Varying reports allege 48 to 200 cases of poisoning . Hispanic residents were disproportionally affected by the impacts of the ice storm , sustaining 23 % of total injuries and 65 % of carbon monoxide poisonings during the storm period .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "North_Carolina_ice_storm_of_2002",
"rank": 19,
"score": 92925
},
{
"content": "Title: Nuclear famine Content: Nuclear famine is a hypothesized famine considered a potential threat following global or regional nuclear exchange . It is thought that even subtle cooling effects resulting from a regional nuclear exchange could have a substantial impact on agriculture production , triggering a food crisis amongst the world 's survivors . While belief in the `` nuclear winter '' hypothesis is popular , despite issues such as the defection of a major previous supporter and active climate modeler of it , revealing that it was `` politically motivated from the beginning '' . The uncontroversial issue of potential food supply disruption from blast and fallout effects following a nuclear war has together resulted in the following books being penned , beginning approximately with , Fallout Protection , Nuclear War Survival Skills , Would the Insects Inherit the Earth and Other Subjects of Concern to Those Who Worry About Nuclear War and most recently the extreme `` nuclear winter/comet impact '' countermeasuring Feeding Everyone No Matter What . Together with these largely introductory texts , more official tomes with a focus on organization , agriculture and radioecology include Nutrition in the postattack environment by the RAND Corporation , the continuity of government plans for preventing a famine in , On Reorganizing After Nuclear Attack , and Survival of the relocated population of the U.S. after a nuclear attack by Nobel Prize winner , Eugene Wigner . While those focused solely on radioecology and agriculture include , Effects of fallout radiation on crop production , Behavior of Radioactive Fallout in Soils and Plants , and practical countermeasures that were intended to be taken on the individual level in Defense against radioactive fallout on the farm .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Nuclear_famine",
"rank": 20,
"score": 92238
},
{
"content": "Title: 2007 Western United States freeze Content: The Western United States freeze of 2007 was a weather event affecting California , Oregon , and Washington from January 12 to January 18 , 2007 . An Arctic low pressure system dipped extremely far west , resulting in record cold temperatures in the western states , damaged citrus crops in California , and extremely unusual snow accumulation occurring in areas of Southern California .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "2007_Western_United_States_freeze",
"rank": 21,
"score": 92039
},
{
"content": "Title: Famine Content: A famine is a widespread scarcity of food , caused by several factors including crop failure , population imbalance , or government policies . This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition , starvation , epidemic , and increased mortality . Every inhabited continent in the world has experienced a period of famine throughout history . In the 19th and 20th century , it was generally Eastern Europe and Asia that suffered the most deaths from famine . The numbers dying from famine began to fall sharply from the 1970s . Some countries , particularly in sub-Saharan Africa , continue to have extreme cases of famine . Since 2010 , Africa has been the most affected continent in the world . As of 2017 , the United Nations has warned some 20 million are at risk in South Sudan , Somalia , Nigeria and Yemen . Agricultural conditions have been fluctuating more and more due to variations in weather , and the distribution of food has been affected by conflict . Most programmes now direct their aid towards Africa .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Famine",
"rank": 22,
"score": 92014
},
{
"content": "Title: Novaya Zemlya effect Content: The Novaya Zemlya effect is a polar mirage caused by high refraction of sunlight between atmospheric thermoclines . The Novaya Zemlya effect will give the impression that the sun is rising earlier than it actually should ( astronomically speaking ) , and depending on the meteorological situation , the effect will present the sun as a line or a square ( which is sometimes referred to as the `` rectangular sun '' ) , made up of flattened hourglass shapes . The mirage requires rays of sunlight to have an inversion layer for hundreds of kilometres ( at least 400 km ) , and depends on the inversion layer 's temperature gradient . The sunlight must bend to the Earth 's curvature at least 400 km to allow an elevation rise of 5 degrees for sight of the sun disk . The first person to record the phenomenon was Gerrit de Veer , a member of Willem Barentsz 's ill-fated third expedition into the north polar region in 1596 -- 1597 . Trapped by the ice , the party was forced to stay for the winter in a makeshift lodge on the archipelago of Novaya Zemlya and endure the polar night . On January 24 , 1597 , De Veer and another crew member claimed to have seen the Sun appear above the horizon , two full weeks prior to its calculated return . They were met with disbelief by the rest of the crew ( who accused De Veer of having used the old Julian calendar instead of the Gregorian calendar introduced several years earlier ) , but on January 27 the Sun was seen by all `` in his full roundnesse '' . For centuries the account was the source of skepticism , until in the 20th century the phenomenon was finally proven to be genuine .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Novaya_Zemlya_effect",
"rank": 23,
"score": 91861
},
{
"content": "Title: Sunset Content: Sunset or sundown is the daily disappearance of the Sun below the horizon as a result of Earth 's rotation . The Sun will set exactly due west at the equator on the spring and fall equinoxes , each of which occurs only once a year . The time of sunset is defined in astronomy as the moment when the trailing edge of the Sun 's disk disappears below the horizon . Near to the horizon , atmospheric refraction causes the ray path of light from the Sun to be distorted to such an extent that geometrically the Sun 's disk is already about one diameter below the horizon when sunset is observed . Sunset is distinct from twilight , which has three phases , the first being civil twilight , which begins once the Sun has disappeared below the horizon , and continues until it descends to 6 degrees below the horizon ; the second phase is nautical twilight , between 6 and 12 degrees below the horizon ; and the third is astronomical twilight , which is the period when the Sun is between 12 and 18 degrees below the horizon . Dusk is at the very end of astronomical twilight , and is the darkest moment of twilight just before night . Night occurs when the Sun reaches 18 degrees below the horizon and no longer illuminates the sky . Locations north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle experience no sunset or sunrise on at least one day of the year , when the polar day or the polar night persists continuously for 24 hours . Sunset creates unique atmospheric conditions such as the often intense orange and red colors of the Sun and the surrounding sky .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Sunset",
"rank": 24,
"score": 91695
},
{
"content": "Title: Comet nucleus Content: The nucleus is the solid , central part of a comet , popularly termed a dirty snowball or an icy dirtball . A cometary nucleus is composed of rock , dust , and frozen gases . When heated by the Sun , the gases sublimate and produce an atmosphere surrounding the nucleus known as the coma . The force exerted on the coma by the Sun 's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous tail to form , which points away from the Sun . A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04 . This is blacker than coal , and may be caused by a covering of dust . Results from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov -- Gerasimenko has no magnetic field , which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals . Further , the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons ( within 1 km above the comet nucleus ) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation , and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier , are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma . On 30 July 2015 , scientists reported that the Philae spacecraft , that landed on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in November 2014 , detected at least 16 organic compounds , of which four ( including acetamide , acetone , methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde ) were detected for the first time on a comet .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Comet_nucleus",
"rank": 25,
"score": 91523
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar storm of 1859 Content: The Solar storm of 1859 -- known as the Carrington Event -- was a powerful geomagnetic solar storm during solar cycle 10 ( 1855 -- 1867 ) . A solar coronal mass ejection hit Earth 's magnetosphere and induced one of the largest geomagnetic storms on record , September 1 -- 2 , 1859 . The associated `` white light flare '' in the solar photosphere was observed and recorded by English astronomers Richard C. Carrington ( 1826 -- 1875 ) and Richard Hodgson ( 1804 -- 1872 ) . Studies have shown that a solar storm of this magnitude occurring today would likely cause more widespread problems for a modern and technology-dependent society . The solar storm of 2012 was of similar magnitude , but it passed Earth 's orbit without striking the planet .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Solar_storm_of_1859",
"rank": 26,
"score": 91520
},
{
"content": "Title: Freezing rain Content: Freezing rain is the name given to rain that falls when surface temperatures are below freezing . Unlike sleet , a mixture of rain and snow , ice pellets , or hail , freezing rain is made entirely of liquid droplets . The raindrops become supercooled while passing through a sub-freezing layer of air hundreds of meters above the ground , and then freeze upon impact with any surface they encounter , including the ground , trees , electrical wires , and automobiles . The resulting ice , called glaze , can accumulate to a thickness of several centimeters and cover all exposed surfaces . The METAR code for freezing rain is FZRA . A storm that produces a significant thickness of glaze ice from freezing rain is often referred to as an ice storm . Although these storms are not particularly violent , freezing rain is notorious for causing travel problems on roadways , breaking tree limbs , and downing power lines from the weight of accumulating ice . Downed power lines cause power outages in affected areas while accumulated ice can also pose significant overhead hazards . It is also known for being extremely dangerous to aircraft since the ice can effectively ` remould ' the shape of the airfoil and flight control surfaces . ( See atmospheric icing . )",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Freezing_rain",
"rank": 27,
"score": 91122
},
{
"content": "Title: Tenpō famine Content: The Tenpō famine ( 天保の飢饉 , Tenpō no kikin ) , also known as the Great Tenpō famineō ( 天保の大飢饉 , Tenpō no daikikin ) was a famine which affected Japan during the Edo period . It is considered to have begun in 1833 , and lasted until 1837 . It was named after the Tenpō era ( 1830 -- 1844 ) , during the reign of Emperor Ninkō . The ruling shogun during the famine was Tokugawa Ienari . The famine was most severe in northern Honshū and was caused by flooding and cold weather . The famine was one of a series of calamities that shook the faith of the people in the ruling bakufu . During the same period as the famine , there was also the Kōgo Fire of Edo ( 1834 ) and a 7.6 magnitude earthquake in the Sanriku region ( 1835 ) . In 1837 , the last year of the famine , Ōshio Heihachirō led a revolt in Osaka against corrupt officials who refused to help feed the impoverished residents of the city . Another revolt sprung up in Chōshū Domain . Also in 1837 , the American merchant vessel Morrison appeared off the coast of Shikoku , and was driven away by coastal artillery . The sum of these incidents made the Tokugawa bakufu look weak and powerless , and exposed the corruption of officials who profited while commoners suffered .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Tenpō_famine",
"rank": 28,
"score": 90812
},
{
"content": "Title: List of solar storms Content: Solar storms are caused by disturbances on the Sun , most often coronal clouds associated with coronal mass ejections ( CMEs ) produced by solar flares emanating from active sunspot regions , or , less often , from coronal holes .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "List_of_solar_storms",
"rank": 29,
"score": 90129
},
{
"content": "Title: Air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption Content: In response to concerns that volcanic ash ejected during the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland would damage aircraft engines , the controlled airspace of many European countries was closed to instrument flight rules traffic , resulting in the largest air-traffic shut-down since World War II . The closures caused millions of passengers to be strand #Verb not only in Europe , but across the world . With large parts of European airspace closed to air traffic , many more countries were affected as flights to and from Europe were cancelled . After an initial uninterrupted shutdown over much of northern Europe from 15 to 23 April , airspace was closed intermittently in different parts of Europe in the following weeks , as the path of the ash cloud was tracked . The ash cloud caused further disruptions to air travel operations in Ireland , Northern Ireland and Scotland on 4 and 5 May and in Spain , Portugal , northern Italy , Austria and southern Germany on 9 May . Irish and UK airspace closed again on 16 May and reopened on 17 May . The eruption occurred beneath glacial ice . The cold water from the melting ice chilled the lava quickly , causing it to fragment into very small particles of glass ( silica ) and ash , which were carried into the eruption plume . The extremely fine ash particles and the large volume of steam from the glacial meltwater sent an ash plume hazardous to aircraft rapidly high into the upper atmosphere . The presence and location of the plume depended upon the state of the eruption and the winds . The large amount of glacial meltwater flowing into the eruption vent made this eruption so explosive that it injected its ash plume directly into the jet stream , which was unusually stable and south-easterly . The ash was then carried over Europe into one of the busiest airspace in the world . The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) estimated that the airline industry worldwide would lose a day during the disruption . IATA stated that the total loss for the airline industry was around US$ 1.7 billion ( # 1.1 billion , $ 1.3 billion ) . The Airport Operators Association ( AOA ) estimated that airports lost # 80 million over the six-and-a-half days . Over 95,000 flights had been cancelled all across Europe during the six-day travel ban , with later figures suggesting 107,000 flights cancelled during an 8-day period , accounting for 48 % of total air traffic and roughly 10 million passengers .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Air_travel_disruption_after_the_2010_Eyjafjallajökull_eruption",
"rank": 30,
"score": 90030
},
{
"content": "Title: Sun outage Content: A Sun outage , Sun transit or Sun fade is an interruption in or distortion of geostationary satellite signals caused by interference from solar radiation . The effect is due to the Sun 's radiation overwhelming the satellite signal . In the northern hemisphere , sun outages occur before the March equinox ( February , March ) and after the September equinox ( September and October ) , and in the southern hemisphere the outages occur after the March equinox and before the September equinox . At these times , the apparent path of the Sun across the sky takes it directly behind the line of sight between an earth station and a satellite . The Sun radiates strongly across the entire spectrum , including the microwave frequencies used to communicate with satellites ( C band , Ku band , and Ka band ) , so the Sun swamps the signal from the satellite . The effects of a Sun outage range from partial degradation ( increase in the error rate ) to total destruction of the signal . The effect sweeps from north to south from approximately 20 February to 20 April , and from south to north from approximately 20 August to 20 October , affecting any specific location for less than 12 minutes a day for a few consecutive days .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Sun_outage",
"rank": 31,
"score": 89612
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar storm of 2012 Content: The solar storm of 2012 was an unusually large and strong coronal mass ejection ( CME ) event that occurred on July 23 that year . It missed the Earth with a margin of approximately nine days , as the Sun rotates around its own axis with a period of about 25 days . The region that produced the outburst was thus not pointed directly towards the Earth at that time . The strength of the eruption was comparable to the 1859 Carrington event that caused damage to electric equipment worldwide , which at that time consisted mostly of telegraph stations . The eruption tore through Earth 's orbit , hitting the STEREO-A spacecraft . The spacecraft is a solar observatory equipped to measure such activity , and because it was far away from the Earth and thus not exposed to the strong electrical currents that can be induced when a CME hits the Earth 's magnetosphere , it survived the encounter and provided researchers with valuable data . Based on the collected data , the eruption consisted of two separate ejections which were able to reach exceptionally high strength as the interplanetary medium around the Sun had been cleared by a smaller CME four days earlier . Had the CME hit the Earth , it is likely that it would have inflicted serious damage to electronic systems on a global scale . A 2013 study estimated that the economic cost to the United States would have been between $ 0.6 and 2.6 trillion USD . Ying D. Liu , professor at China 's State Key Laboratory of Space Weather , estimated that the recovery time from such a disaster would have been about four to ten years . The event occurred at a time of high sunspot activity during Solar cycle 24 .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Solar_storm_of_2012",
"rank": 32,
"score": 89159
},
{
"content": "Title: Famines in Czech lands Content: This article discusses historical famines that have occurred in the area of today 's Czech Republic . Various known famines occurred throughout Czech lands between 1272 and 1847 . Excessive rain , cold temperatures , hail , warfare , and disease are the main causes of famines in Czech lands .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Famines_in_Czech_lands",
"rank": 33,
"score": 88922
},
{
"content": "Title: May 1921 geomagnetic storm Content: __ NOTOC __ The May 1921 geomagnetic storm was a significant event caused by the impact of an extraordinarily powerful coronal mass ejection on Earth 's magnetosphere . It took place on 13 through 15 May , and was part of solar cycle 15 . This event occurred before extensive interconnectivity of electrical systems and the general electrical dependency across infrastructures in the developed world , so the effect was restricted to certain sectors , even though resulting ground currents were up to an order of magnitude greater than those of the March 1989 geomagnetic storm that blacked out large parts of northeastern North America . At the time , scientists gave the size of the sunspot that began on May 10th and caused the storm as 94,000 by 21,000 miles ( 131,000 km by 33,800 km ) in size . Northern lights appeared in much of the eastern United States , creating brightly lit night skies . Telegraph service in the United States was slowed and then virtually eliminated around midnight of the 14th due to blown fuses , and damaged equipment . On the other hand , radio waves were strengthened during the storm due to ionosphere activation , allowing for some strong intercontinental reception . Electric lights did not seem to have been noticeably affected . Undersea cables also suffered from the storm . Damage to telegraph systems were also reported in Europe and the southern hemisphere .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "May_1921_geomagnetic_storm",
"rank": 34,
"score": 88903
},
{
"content": "Title: Tidal triggering of earthquakes Content: Tidal triggering of earthquakes is the idea that tidal forces may induce seismicity . In connection with earthquakes , syzygy refers to the idea that the combined tidal effects of the sun and moon -- either directly as earth tides in the crust itself , or indirectly by hydrostatic loading due to ocean tides -- should be able to trigger earthquakes in rock that is already stressed to the point of fracturing , and therefore more earthquakes should occur at times of maximal tidal stress , such as at the new and full moons . Indeed , recent work has concluded that `` large earthquakes are more probable during periods of high tidal stress '' . Previously , scientists have searched for such a correlation for over a century , but with the exception of volcanic areas ( including mid-ocean spreading ridges ) the results have been mixed . It has been suggested that some negative results are due to failure to account for tidal phase and fault orientation ( dip ) , while `` many studies reporting positive correlations suffer from a lack of statistical rigor . '' One systematic investigation found `` no evidence for an increase in seismicity during intervals of large tidal range but there is clear evidence for small but significant increase in earthquake rates near low tide '' ; it did not find an increase of earthquakes near peak spring tides . Seismicity is favored at low tides , particularly for reverse faults , because unloading unclamps the fault , reducing friction . Ocean loading has no effect at all on strike-slip faults . Research work has shown a robust correlation between small tidally induced forces and non-volcanic tremor activity . Volcanologists use the regular , predictable Earth tide movements to calibrate and test sensitive volcano deformation monitoring instruments . The tides may also trigger volcanic events .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Tidal_triggering_of_earthquakes",
"rank": 35,
"score": 88869
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 36,
"score": 88151
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate",
"rank": 37,
"score": 86739
},
{
"content": "Title: Shyam Sundar Rai Content: Shyam Sundar Rai ( born 1954 ) is an Indian seismologist and a former chair professor at the department of Earth and Climate Science of the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research , Pune . He is known for his researches on the seismic structure of Indian continental lithosphere and is an elected fellow of all the three major Indian science academies viz . Indian National Science Academy , Indian Academy of Sciences , and the National Academy of Sciences , India as well as of the Indian Geophysical Union . The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research , the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research , awarded him the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology , one of the highest Indian science awards for his contributions to Earth , Atmosphere , Ocean and Planetary Sciences in 1996 .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Shyam_Sundar_Rai",
"rank": 38,
"score": 86623
},
{
"content": "Title: Frostbite Content: Frostbite is when exposure to cold temperatures causes freezing to the skin or other tissues . It most commonly affects the hand , feet , and face . The longer areas are exposed to cold , typically the worse the frostbite . Frostbite is classified by degrees of severity , with first degree being superficial damage to surface skin and fourth degree involving bone , muscle and tendon . This causes irreversible damage and often requires amputation . People who are exposed to cold temperatures for prolonged periods are at greatest risk of frostbite , such as winter sports enthusiasts , military personnel , and homeless individuals . People with conditions that impair circulation of blood or ability to seek shelter are also at increased risk . These groups include people with diabetes and those who drink excessive alcohol . Cold temperatures cause blood vessels to narrow , slowing the flow of warm blood from the core of the body to the extremities . With prolonged exposure to cold , ice crystals form in tissues . These ice crystals , in turn , damage cells and blood vessels . Specific tests are not typically required for diagnosis ; the person 's history and physical exam are sufficient . Frostnip , chilblains ( pernio ) , and trench foot can look similar to frostbite . Frostbite is preventable . The Wilderness Medical Society recommends avoiding temperatures below -- 15 ° C , covering the body properly , and avoiding situations that increase heat loss such as exhaustion , intoxication , and starvation . Treatment by rewarming , though necessary , also causes damage to tissues . Non-freezing cold injury causes inflammation of tissues without the formation of ice crystals . Treatment consists of rewarming , when refreezing is not a concern . Increasing the core temperature to above 35C is of critical importance as hypothermia is life-threatening . Aspirin and ibuprofen may prevent damaging inflammation . Wound care , antibiotics , tetanus toxoid , and pain management are often needed . Surgical debridement or amputation are sometimes necessary for severe frostbite , however , these should be delayed for several weeks until the extent of the permanent damage is known .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Frostbite",
"rank": 39,
"score": 86233
},
{
"content": "Title: Geomagnetic storm Content: A geomagnetic storm is a temporary disturbance of the Earth 's magnetosphere caused by a solar wind shock wave and/or cloud of magnetic field that interacts with the Earth 's magnetic field . The increase in the solar wind pressure initially compresses the magnetosphere . The solar wind 's magnetic field interacts with the Earth 's magnetic field and transfers an increased energy into the magnetosphere . Both interactions cause an increase in plasma movement through the magnetosphere ( driven by increased electric fields inside the magnetosphere ) and an increase in electric current in the magnetosphere and ionosphere . During the main phase of a geomagnetic storm , electric current in the magnetosphere creates a magnetic force that pushes out the boundary between the magnetosphere and the solar wind . The disturbance in the interplanetary medium that drives the storm may be due to a solar coronal mass ejection ( CME ) or a high speed stream ( co-rotating interaction region or CIR ) of the solar wind originating from a region of weak magnetic field on the Sun 's surface . The frequency of geomagnetic storms increases and decreases with the sunspot cycle . CME driven storms are more common during the maximum of the solar cycle , while CIR driven storms are more common during the minimum of the solar cycle . Several space weather phenomena tend to be associated with or are caused by a geomagnetic storm . These include : solar energetic Particle ( SEP ) events , geomagnetically induced currents ( GIC ) , ionospheric disturbances that cause radio and radar scintillation , disruption of navigation by magnetic compass and auroral displays at much lower latitudes than normal . In 1989 , a geomagnetic storm energized ground induced currents that disrupted electric power distribution throughout most of the province of Quebec and caused aurorae as far south as Texas .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Geomagnetic_storm",
"rank": 40,
"score": 86223
},
{
"content": "Title: Irish Famine (1740–41) Content: The Irish Famine of 1740 -- 1741 ( Bliain an Áir , meaning the Year of Slaughter ) in the Kingdom of Ireland , was estimated to have killed at least 38 % of the 1740 population of 2.4 million people , a proportionately greater loss than during the worst years of the Great Famine of 1845 -- 1852 . The famine of 1740 -- 41 was due to extremely cold and then rainy weather in successive years , resulting in food losses in three categories : a series of poor grain harvests , a shortage of milk , and frost damage to potatoes . At this time , grains , particularly oats , were more important than potatoes as staples in the diet of most workers . Deaths from mass starvation in 1740 -- 41 were compounded by an outbreak of fatal diseases . The cold and its effects extended across Europe , but mortality was higher in Ireland because both grain and potatoes failed . This is now considered by scholars to be the last serious cold period at the end of the Little Ice Age of about 1400 -- 1800 . By the mid-19th century 's better-known Great Famine of 1845 -- 1852 , potatoes made up a greater portion of the Irish diets , with adverse consequences when the crops failed . This famine differed by `` cause , scale and timing : '' it was caused by an oomycete infection which destroyed much of the potato crop for several years running . The crisis was exacerbated by insufficient relief and extreme government regulations .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Irish_Famine_(1740–41)",
"rank": 41,
"score": 84908
},
{
"content": "Title: The Jupiter Effect Content: The Jupiter Effect is a 1974 book by John Gribbin and Stephen Plagemann , in which Gribbin and Plagemann predicted that an alignment of the planets of the Solar System would create a number of catastrophes , including a great earthquake on the San Andreas Fault , on March 10 , 1982 . The book became a best-seller . The predicted catastrophes did not occur .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "The_Jupiter_Effect",
"rank": 42,
"score": 84785
},
{
"content": "Title: Freezing rain advisory Content: A Freezing Rain Advisory is an advisory issued by the National Weather Service in the United States when freezing rain or freezing drizzle is expected to cause significant inconveniences , but does not meet warning criteria ( typically greater than 1/4 in of ice accumulation ) .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Freezing_rain_advisory",
"rank": 43,
"score": 84263
},
{
"content": "Title: Smith Dharmasaroja Content: Smith Dharmasaroja ( สมิทธ ธรรมสโรช ; 6 November 1937 ) is a Thai government official . In 1998 , while serving as a meteorologist , he predicted that an earthquake and tsunami `` is going to occur for sure . '' He advocated tsunami warning systems , but was not taken seriously . After the tsunami of December 2004 , which killed over 200,000 people , he was recalled from retirement and charged with development of Thai and regional warning systems . As chief of the National Disaster Warning Centre in Thailand , Dharmasaroja publicly stated that a solar eclipse could trigger natural disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis in Thailand , depending on `` the time that the sun unleashed its energy . '' he was a very smart person",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Smith_Dharmasaroja",
"rank": 44,
"score": 84039
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Famine of 1315–17 Content: The Great Famine of 1315 -- 1317 ( occasionally dated 1315 -- 1322 ) was the first of a series of large-scale crises that struck Europe early in the fourteenth century . Most of Europe ( extending east to Russia and south to Italy ) was affected . The famine caused millions of deaths over an extended number of years and marked a clear end to the period of growth and prosperity from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries . The Great Famine started with bad weather in spring 1315 . Crop failures lasted through 1316 until the summer harvest in 1317 , and Europe did not fully recover until 1322 . The period was marked by extreme levels of crime , disease , mass death and even cannibalism and infanticide . The crisis had consequences for the Church , state , European society , and for future calamities to follow in the fourteenth century .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Great_Famine_of_1315–17",
"rank": 45,
"score": 83885
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar weather Content: Solar weather is branch of meteorology , which studies behavior of sun and what type of predictions can be done . Solar weather research includes for instance doing simulations of possible behavior of sun . Uses are for instance giving warnings to satellites about possible solar storms . Due to enormous size and mass of sun and complicated feedback systems solar weather predictions are n't as good as normal -- earth - weather predictions . ( Exceptions with sun spots ) Solar weather is closely related to space weather and often included in same category .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Solar_weather",
"rank": 46,
"score": 83706
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 47,
"score": 83698
},
{
"content": "Title: Lock Yue Chew Content: Lock Yue Chew is an associate professor in the School of Physical & Mathematical Sciences , Nanyang Technological University . He works in Complex Systems , General Relativity , Quantum Chaos , Statistical and Nonlinear Physics , and has published several scientific papers . In 2004 he got his PhD in Physics from the National University of Singapore ( N.U.S ) . He also hold a Master of Science Degree from the University of Southern California . During 1991 -- 1992 period , he had worked as a communications engineer in Singapore Airlines Limited . After that , he became the senior member of the technical staff at DSO National Laboratories and later he became and adjunct assistant professor there . Then in 2005 he moved to Nanyang Technological University as an assistant professor . He is collaborating with many international research groups , he had coauthored some of the articles with M.I.T professor Kerson Huang . He has co-authored several articles together with M. A. F. Sanjuán of the Rey Juan Carlos University . He has also co-authored an article in Nature : Scientific Reports on the topic of the short-term forecasting of Taiwanese earthquakes , using a Fusion-Fission processes model .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Lock_Yue_Chew",
"rank": 48,
"score": 83664
},
{
"content": "Title: Electric Sun Content: Electric Sun was a music group formed by Uli Jon Roth after his departure from the Scorpions in 1978 . They recorded three albums between 1979 and 1985 . The first album , Earthquake , was released in 1979 and features guitarist/vocalist Roth , bassist Ule Ritgen and drummer Clive Edwards . Edwards departed quickly after recording the first album . Fire Wind came next in 1981 , featuring new drummer Sidhatta Gautama . The band toured for a few years afterwards . While the first two albums were a trio format , the third album was more of an ensemble project . Veteran drummer Clive Bunker , formerly of Jethro Tull , appeared , as did Ritgen , vocalist Michael Flexig ( have a look below ) and guest vocalist Nicky Moore , as well as an array of additional various singers and orchestral musicians . Another feature of the album was the invention of Roth 's Sky Guitar . In 1983 drummer and percussionist , Simon Fox worked alongside Clive Bunker The name Electric Sun was retired in 1986 , and Uli Jon Roth continued to pursue his classical-inspired rock under his own name , as well as focus on other artistic areas .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Electric_Sun",
"rank": 49,
"score": 83205
},
{
"content": "Title: 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake Content: The 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake ( also known as the Bantul earthquake ) occurred at with a moment magnitude of 6.4 and a maximum MSK intensity of VIII ( Damaging ) . Several factors led to a disproportionate amount of damage and number of casualties for the size of the shock , with more than 5,700 dead , tens of thousands injured , and financial losses of Rp 29.1 trillion ( $ 3.1 billion ) . With limited effects to public infrastructure and lifelines , housing and private businesses bore the majority of damage ( the 9th-century Prambanan Hindu temple compound was also affected ) , and the United States ' National Geophysical Data Center classified the total damage from the event as extreme . Although Indonesia experiences very large , great , and giant thrust earthquakes offshore at the Sunda Trench , this was a large strike-slip event that occurred on the southern coast of Java near the city of Yogyakarta . Mount Merapi lies nearby , and during its many previous historical eruptions , large volume lahars and volcanic debris flowed down its slopes where settlements were later built . This unconsolidated material from the stratovolcano amplified the intensity of the shaking and created the conditions for soil liquefaction to occur . Inadequate construction techniques and poor quality materials contributed to major failures with unreinforced masonry buildings , the most prevalent type of home construction , though other styles fared better .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "2006_Yogyakarta_earthquake",
"rank": 50,
"score": 82968
},
{
"content": "Title: Theories of famines Content: The conventional explanation until 1951 for the cause of famines was the decline of food availability ( abbreviated as FAD for food availability decline ) . The assumption was that the central cause of all famines was a decline in food availability . However this does not explain why only a certain section of the population such as the agricultural laborer was affected by famines while others were insulated from them .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Theories_of_famines",
"rank": 51,
"score": 82940
},
{
"content": "Title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis Content: The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis or Clovis comet hypothesis originally proposed that a large air burst or earth impact of one or more comets initiated the Younger Dryas cold period about 12,900 BP calibrated ( 10,900 14C uncalibrated ) years ago . The hypothesis has been contested by research showing that most of the conclusions can not be repeated by other scientists , and criticized because of misinterpretation of data and the lack of confirmatory evidence . The current impact hypothesis states that the air burst ( s ) or impact ( s ) of a swarm of carbonaceous chondrites or comet fragments set areas of the North American continent on fire , causing the extinction of most of the megafauna in North America and the demise of the North American Clovis culture after the last glacial period . The Younger Dryas ice age lasted for about 1,200 years before the climate warmed again . This swarm is hypothesized to have exploded above or possibly on the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the region of the Great Lakes , though no impact crater has yet been identified and no physical model by which such a swarm could form or explode in the air has been proposed . Nevertheless , the proponents suggest that it would be physically possible for such an air burst to have been similar to , but orders of magnitude larger than , the Tunguska event of 1908 . The hypothesis proposed that animal and human life in North America not directly killed by the blast or the resulting coast-to-coast wildfires would have likely starved on the burned surface of the continent .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis",
"rank": 52,
"score": 82892
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian famine of 1899–1900 Content: The Indian famine of 1899 -- 1900 began with the failure of the summer monsoons in 1899 over west and Central India and , during the next year , affected an area of 476000 sqmi and a population of 59.5 million . The famine was acute in the Central Provinces and Berar , the Bombay Presidency , the minor province of Ajmer-Merwara , and the Hissar District of the Punjab ; it also caused great distress in the princely states of the Rajputana Agency , the Central India Agency , Hyderabad and the Kathiawar Agency . In addition , small areas of the Bengal Presidency , the Madras Presidency and the North-Western Provinces were acutely afflicted by the famine . The population in many areas had barely recovered from the famine of 1896 -- 1897 . As in that famine , this one too was preceded by a drought . The Meteorological Office of India in its report of 1900 , stated , `` The mean average rainfall of India is 45 in . In no previous famine year has it been in greater defect than 5 in . But in 1899 the defect exceeded 11 inches . '' There were also large crop failures in the rest of India and , as a result , inter-regional trade could not be relied upon to stabilise food prices . The resulting mortality was high . In the Deccan , an estimated 166,000 people died , and in the entire Bombay Presidency a total of 462,000 . In the Presidency , the famine of 1899 -- 1900 had the highest mortality -- at 37.9 deaths per 1000 -- among all famines and scarcities there between 1876 -- 77 and 1918 -- 19 . According to a 1908 estimate of the Imperial Gazetteer , in the British administered districts alone , approximately 1,000,000 individuals died of starvation or accompanying disease ; in addition , as a result of acute shortage of fodder , cattle in the millions perished . Other estimates vary between 1 million and 4.5 million deaths .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Indian_famine_of_1899–1900",
"rank": 53,
"score": 82879
},
{
"content": "Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Zero-curtain_effect",
"rank": 54,
"score": 82588
},
{
"content": "Title: Green famine Content: Green famine is the term used for a condition in which a country or area is suffering famine even though the fields are green in the absence of drought -- it was described as `` suffering amongst the plenty '' . The famine is caused by such problems as `` high food prices , coupled with high birth rates and poor land management '' , flooding , and sometimes man-made ecological problems such as water shortages and deforestation . It is sometimes caused by a poor harvest in the prior year that causes a depletion of food stores during the winter months , thus a lack of food in the spring and summer even when the coming harvest looks `` green '' and potentially bountiful . The phenomenon was noted in Sidamo Province , Ethiopia , as early as the 1980s , when bacterial disease and poor rains caused the destruction of much of the ensete crop after farmers had to sell their crops rather than eat them in order to pay heavy taxes ; in the 1990s , when after a dry spell the sorghum was growing but carried no seed ; and again in the 2000s , when `` recent rains -LSB- in 2003 -RSB- created a lush landscape which masks severe hunger '' . In the 1990s North Korea suffered from a period of famine caused by poor weather and inefficient transport . This period became known as the `` Arduous March '' ; political changes in countries which formerly supported the North Korean economy reduced or eliminated sources of external support .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Green_famine",
"rank": 55,
"score": 82583
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment",
"rank": 56,
"score": 82493
},
{
"content": "Title: Willie Soon Content: Wei-Hock `` Willie '' Soon ( born 1966 ) is an externally-funded part-time researcher of the Smithsonian at the Solar and Stellar Physics ( SSP ) Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . Soon co-authored The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun -- Earth Connection with Steven H. Yaskell . The book treats historical and proxy records of climate change coinciding with the Maunder Minimum , a period from 1645 to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare . Soon disputes the current scientific understanding of climate change , and contends that most global warming is caused by solar variation rather than by human activity . He gained visibility in part due to strong scientific criticism of the methodology of a paper which he co-wrote . Climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies have strongly refuted Soon 's arguments , and the Smithsonian does not support his conclusions . He is nonetheless frequently cited by politicians opposed to climate-change legislation .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Willie_Soon",
"rank": 57,
"score": 82279
},
{
"content": "Title: Sun dog (disambiguation) Content: A sun dog ( scientific name : parhelion ) , is an atmospheric phenomenon that creates bright spots of light in the sky , often on a luminous ring or halo on either side of the sun . Sun dog may also refer to : `` The Sun Dog '' , a short story by Stephen King SunDog : Frozen Legacy , a computer game originally developed in 1984 for the Apple II Sun Dogs , a 2006 film directed by Andrea Stewart , distributed by Palm Pictures Sundog ( company ) , an advertising agency in Fargo , North Dakota , United States",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Sun_dog_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 58,
"score": 82089
},
{
"content": "Title: Earthquake (album) Content: Earthquake is the first album by Electric Sun . It was released in 1979 by Metronome GmbH .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Earthquake_(album)",
"rank": 59,
"score": 81772
},
{
"content": "Title: Ken Ring (writer) Content: Ken Ring is a writer from Auckland , New Zealand , who asserts that he can use lunar cycles to predict weather and earthquakes . He terms his predictions `` alternative weather '' and has authored books about the weather and climate . Ring publishes almanacs each year for New Zealand , Australia and Ireland in which he provides weather predictions for the entire year . His New Zealand almanac covers 64 towns . Ring 's methods are unscientific and have been widely criticised as fake and pseudoscience by many scientists in the fields of meteorology and geology . Ring says he predicted the 4 September 2010 Christchurch earthquake and the deadly 22 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake . He also said there would probably be an earthquake in Marlborough or north Canterbury `` just before noon '' on 20 March 2011 . This caused some residents to leave Christchurch and led to criticism from scientists and sceptics . Further research into his predictions showed that his forecasting record did not hold up under scrutiny .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Ken_Ring_(writer)",
"rank": 60,
"score": 81760
},
{
"content": "Title: Doji bara famine Content: The Doji bara famine ( also , Skull famine ) of 1791-92 in South Asia was brought on by a major El Niño event lasting from 1789 CE to 1795 CE and producing prolonged droughts . Recorded by William Roxburgh , a surgeon with the British East India Company , in a series of pioneering meteorological observations , the El Niño event caused the failure of the South Asian monsoon for four consecutive years starting in 1789 . The resulting famine , which was severe , caused widespread mortality in Hyderabad , Southern Maratha Kingdom , Deccan , Gujarat , and Marwar ( then all ruled by Indian rulers ) . In regions like the Madras Presidency ( governed by the East India Company ) , where the famine was less severe , and where records were kept , half the population perished in some districts , such as in the Northern Circars . In other areas , such as Bijapur , although no records were kept , both the famine and the year 1791 came to be known in folklore as the Doji bara ( also Doĝi Bar ) or the `` skull famine , '' on account , it was said , of the `` bones of the victims which lay unburied whitening the roads and the fields . '' As in the Chalisa famine of a decade earlier , many areas were depopulated from death or migration . According to one study , a total of 11 million people may have died during the years 1789 -- 1792 as a result of starvation or accompanying epidemics of disease .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Doji_bara_famine",
"rank": 61,
"score": 81751
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 62,
"score": 81636
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Solar_maximum",
"rank": 63,
"score": 81541
},
{
"content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera",
"rank": 64,
"score": 81320
},
{
"content": "Title: Sundiver (space mission) Content: Sundiver is a proposed space mission to crash a probe into the Sun , sending back data to Earth before burning up . It has been proposed as a design study by the Australian Academy of Science 's National Committee for Space Science as a Flagship mission to kick-start an Australian space program . The design study is proposed as a five-year study from 2011-2015 with a complement of 10 PhDs , budgeted at a cost of $ 10 M ( Australian ) , leading to a Go/NoGo Decision in 2015 . The mission would be comparable in its close approach to the Sun to the NASA Solar Probe Plus mission , although it would only make a single pass into the solar corona .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Sundiver_(space_mission)",
"rank": 65,
"score": 81244
},
{
"content": "Title: Credit freeze Content: A credit freeze , also known as a credit report freeze , a credit report lock down , a credit lock down , a credit lock or a security freeze , allows an individual to control how a U.S. consumer reporting agency ( also known as credit bureau : Equifax , Experian , TransUnion , Innovis ) is able to sell his or her data . The credit freeze locks the data at the consumer reporting agency until an individual gives permission for the release of the data . Today , credit freezes are made possible by state laws as well as industry-initiated rules . Laws have been passed by nearly all the US states ( see partial list below ) . The first state to pass a credit freeze law was California , with SB 1386 sponsored by Debra Bowen in 2003 . In late 2007 , all three of the major credit bureaus ( following TransUnion 's lead ) announced that they would let consumers freeze their credit reports , regardless of the state of residency . State laws still apply , however , in instances where the cost or other details of the freeze are more favorable than they are under the industry-sponsored alternative . Credit freezes are frequently viewed as the most effective way to prevent financial identity theft . Each year in the United States , approximately 15 percent of all cases of identity theft are cases of new account origination identity theft , according to the Federal Trade Commission . This form of identity theft occurs when a criminal opens credit in another individual 's name . In the credit origination process , access to a credit report is critical for a lender to make a risk assessment . Because a credit freeze effectively stops any access to the credit report , it places a block in the process of issuing credit . Individuals who freeze their credit reports must therefore unfreeze their reports before they wish to apply for credit themselves . Lenders typically require access to the borrower 's credit report before issuing a loan in the borrower 's name . If lenders can not see the borrower 's credit report , it is unlikely the lender will issue a loan in the borrower 's name . Hence , credit freezing should reduce the risk that loans or credit cards will be issued fraudulently . Credit freezes do have some disadvantages , however , such as creating potential difficulties or delays applying for a loan . In order to thoroughly freeze access to one 's credit report , it is necessary to contact each of the three major credit reporting agencies . The associated fees also differ from state to state . In states where laws do not dictate more favorable pricing , the cost of freezing a credit report is $ 10.00 and unfreezing is similarly $ 10.00 . In some states , credit freezing fees are waived for victims of identity theft . In late 2007 , the credit bureaus started to introduce `` online '' credit freeze capabilities , for customers of their credit monitoring services . Federal laws being considered by the House of Representatives and the Senate may preempt state laws and provide a national standard . These laws are generally supported by consumer advocacy organizations and opposed by financial services companies . Bills include HR 3997 .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Credit_freeze",
"rank": 66,
"score": 81089
},
{
"content": "Title: Tidal acceleration Content: Tidal acceleration is an effect of the tidal forces between an orbiting natural satellite ( e.g. the Moon ) , and the primary planet that it orbits ( e.g. Earth ) . The acceleration causes a gradual recession of a satellite in a prograde orbit away from the primary , and a corresponding slowdown of the primary 's rotation . The process eventually leads to tidal locking , usually of the smaller first , and later the larger body . The Earth -- Moon system is the best studied case . The similar process of tidal deceleration occurs for satellites that have an orbital period that is shorter than the primary 's rotational period , or that orbit in a retrograde direction . The naming is somewhat confusing , because the speed of the satellite relative to the body it orbits is decreased as a result of tidal acceleration , and increased as a result of tidal deceleration .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Tidal_acceleration",
"rank": 67,
"score": 80996
},
{
"content": "Title: Coronal rain Content: Coronal rain is a phenomenon that occurs in the sun 's corona . It occurs when hot plasma in the corona cools and condenses in strong magnetic fields , usually associated with regions that produce solar flares . The plasma is attracted to the magnetic fields where it condenses and slowly falls back to the solar surface .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Coronal_rain",
"rank": 68,
"score": 80928
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 69,
"score": 80809
},
{
"content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2008 Content: Global storm activity of 2008 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2008 to December 31 , 2008 . A winter storm is an event in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Major dust storms , Hurricanes , cyclones , tornados , gales , flooding and rainstorms are also caused by such phenomena to a lesser or greater existent . A storm ( from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz `` noise , tumult '' ) is any disturbed state of an astronomical body 's atmosphere , especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Storms are created when a centre of low pressure develops , with a system of high pressure surrounding it . This combination of opposing forces can create winds and result in the formation of storm clouds , such as the cumulonimbus . Small , localized areas of low pressure can form from hot air rising off hot ground , resulting in smaller meteorological disturbances such as dust devils and whirlwinds .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2008",
"rank": 70,
"score": 80736
},
{
"content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2006 Content: Global storm activity of 2006 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2006 to December 31 , 2006 . Winter storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Other major non winter events such as large dust storms , Hurricanes , cyclones , tornados , gales , flooding and rainstorms are also caused by such phenomena to a lesser or greater existent . Very rarely , well-defined winter storms may form during the summer , though it would usually have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the Summer of 1816 in the Northeastern United States . In many locations in the Northern Hemisphere , the most powerful winter storms usually occur in March and , in regions where temperatures are cold enough , April .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2006",
"rank": 71,
"score": 80672
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 72,
"score": 80613
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Solar_gain",
"rank": 73,
"score": 80610
},
{
"content": "Title: List of nuclear close calls Content: A nuclear close call is an incident that could lead to , or could have led to , at least one unintended nuclear detonation/explosion . These incidents typically involve a perceived imminent threat to a nuclear-armed country which could lead to retaliatory strikes against the perceived aggressor . The damage caused by international nuclear exchange is not necessarily limited to the participating countries , as the hypothesized rapid climate change associated with even small-scale regional nuclear war could threaten food production worldwide -- a scenario known as nuclear famine . Despite a reduction in global nuclear tensions after the end of the Cold War , estimated nuclear warhead stockpiles total roughly 15,000 worldwide , with the United States and Russia holding 90 % of the total . Although exact details on many of these nuclear close calls are hard to come by , the analysis of particular cases has highlighted the importance of a variety of factors in preventing accidents . At an international level , this includes the importance of context and outside mediation ; at the national level , effectiveness in government communications , and involvement of key decision-makers ; and , at the individual level , the decisive role of individuals in following intuition and prudent decision-making , often in violation of protocol .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "List_of_nuclear_close_calls",
"rank": 74,
"score": 80594
},
{
"content": "Title: Coronal hole Content: Coronal holes are areas where the Sun 's corona is colder , hence darker , and has lower-density plasma than average because there is lower energy and gas levels . Coronal holes are part of the Sun 's corona and are constantly changing and reshaping because the corona is not uniform . The Sun contains magnetic fields that arch away from areas in the corona that are very thin due to the lower levels of energy and gas , which cause coronal holes to appear when they do not fall back . Thus , solar particles escape at a rate great enough to create a lower density and lower temperature in that area .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Coronal_hole",
"rank": 75,
"score": 80198
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold weather rule Content: A cold weather rule or cold weather law is a law or regulation that prohibits public utility companies from disconnecting customers who are unable to pay for the energy used to heat their homes during the winter . Such regulations may also require utility companies to reconnect customers during those periods . Several U.S. states have such rules , including Kansas , Minnesota , and Missouri . The protection provided by a cold weather rule may not be automatic , and poor customers may have to register with their service provider to indicate either a complete inability to pay or to set up a special payment plan . In Minnesota , the rule is in effect between October 15 and April 15 of the next year , and requires reconnection of electricity and/or natural gas depending on which energy sources are necessary for heat . The state 's Public Utilities Commission does n't regulate liquefied petroleum gas or oil , so those services may not be provided . However , if an LP - or oil-fired heater requires electricity in order to function , the rule requires electrical service to be reconnected . In addition to providing warmth for residents , cold weather rules help prevent damage to homes . Wintertime temperatures can freeze Water pipes , potentially causing bursts in the lines as the water inside expands as it turns into ice . Cleaning up after this can lay heavy burdens upon people who are already of limited financial means . Category : Kansas law Category : Minnesota law Category : Missouri law",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Cold_weather_rule",
"rank": 76,
"score": 80104
},
{
"content": "Title: Frost weathering Content: Frost weathering is a collective term for several mechanical weathering processes induced by stresses created by the freezing of water into ice . The term serves as an umbrella term for a variety of processes such as frost shattering , frost wedging and cryofracturing . The process may act on a wide range of spatial and temporal scales , from minutes to years and from dislodging mineral grains to fracturing boulders . Frost weathering is mainly driven by the frequency and intensity of freeze-thaw cycles and the properties of the materials subject to weathering . It is most pronounced in high altitude and latitude areas and is especially associated with alpine , periglacial , subpolar maritime and polar climates but occurs wherever freeze-thaw cycles are present .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Frost_weathering",
"rank": 77,
"score": 80084
},
{
"content": "Title: 1797 Sumatra earthquake Content: The 1797 Sumatra earthquake was the first in a series of great earthquakes that ruptured part of the Sumatran segment of the Sunda megathrust . It caused a damaging tsunami that was particularly severe near Padang , where a 150 -- 200 ton English ship was driven 1 km inland up the Arau River .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "1797_Sumatra_earthquake",
"rank": 78,
"score": 80071
},
{
"content": "Title: 2008 Central Asia energy crisis Content: The 2008 Central Asia energy crisis was an energy shortage in Central Asia , which , combined with the severe weather of the 2007-08 winter ( the coldest since 1969 ) and high prices for food and fuel , caused considerable hardship for many . The abnormally cold weather has pushed demand up for electricity , exacerbating the crisis . The situation is most dire in Tajikistan . An international appeal was made by the United Nations , NGOs , and the Red Cross and Red Crescent for around US$ 25 million to assist the government . At the time , The UN warned that millions face starvation during the 2008-09 winter .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "2008_Central_Asia_energy_crisis",
"rank": 79,
"score": 80063
},
{
"content": "Title: Meteorological disasters Content: Meteorological disasters are caused by extreme weather , e.g. rain , drought , snow , extreme heat or cold , ice , or wind . Violent , sudden and destructive change to the environment related to , produced by , or affecting the earth 's atmosphere , especially the weather-forming processes . Examples of weather disasters include blizzard , cyclones , droughts , hailstorms , heat waves , hurricanes , floods ( caused by rain ) , and tornadoes .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Meteorological_disasters",
"rank": 80,
"score": 80016
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 81,
"score": 79934
},
{
"content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2007 Content: Global storm activity of 2007 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2007 to December 31 , 2007 . Winter storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Other major non winter events such as large dust storms , Hurricanes , cyclones , tornados , gales , flooding and rainstorms are also caused by such phenomena to a lesser or greater existent . Very rarely , they may form in summer , though it would have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the summer of 1816 in the Northeast United States of America . In many locations in the Northern Hemisphere , the most powerful winter storms usually occur in March and , in regions where temperatures are cold enough , April .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2007",
"rank": 82,
"score": 79901
},
{
"content": "Title: The Dying Sun Content: The Dying Sun is a science fiction novel by Gary Blackwood , published in 1989 . Set in the mid-21st century , the book depicts a world where the sun 's light is actually diminishing over time , cooling the Earth ( as opposed to global warming ) , which causes a mass migration from the U.S. to Mexico . The large influx from the north causes overpopulation and a wave of violence in the south , and James and Robert , two friends , decide to go north to escape the crime-ridden south . The novel is a 1990 Friends of American Writers Best Young Adult Novel .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "The_Dying_Sun",
"rank": 83,
"score": 79882
},
{
"content": "Title: Winter Content: Winter is the coldest season of the year in polar and temperate climates , between autumn and spring . Winter is caused by the axis of the Earth in that hemisphere being oriented away from the Sun . Different cultures define different dates as the start of winter , and some use a definition based on weather . When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere , it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere , and vice versa . In many regions , winter is associated with snow and freezing temperatures . The moment of winter solstice is when the sun 's elevation with respect to the North or South Pole is at its most negative value ( that is , the sun is at its farthest below the horizon as measured from the pole ) , meaning this day will have the shortest day and the longest night . The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates outside the polar regions differ from the date of the winter solstice , however , and these depend on latitude , due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth 's elliptical orbit ( see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset ) .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Winter",
"rank": 84,
"score": 79861
},
{
"content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Future_of_Earth",
"rank": 85,
"score": 79851
},
{
"content": "Title: Frost damage (construction) Content: Frost damage is caused by moisture freezing in the construction . Frost damage can occur as cracks , stone splinters and swelling of the material . When water freezes , the volume of water increases by 9 % . When the volumetric moisture content exceeds 91 % , than the volume increase of water in the pores of the material caused by freezing can not be absorbed by sufficient empty pores . This causes an increase in the internal pressure . If this pressure exceeds the tensile strength of the material , than micro cracks occur . Visible frost damage occurs after an accumulation of micro cracks as a result of several freeze-thaw-cycles . Frost damage can be prevented by the use of frost proof materials , i.e. a material which has sufficient closed pores , by which the volume increase caused by the freezing of water in capillary pores can be absorbed by the ice-free closed pores .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Frost_damage_(construction)",
"rank": 86,
"score": 79848
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural disasters in India Content: Natural disasters in India , many of them related to the climate of India , cause massive losses of life and property . Droughts , flash floods , cyclones , avalanches , landslides brought on by torrential rains , and snowstorms pose the greatest threats . A natural disaster might be caused by earthquakes , flooding , volcanic eruption , landslides , hurricanes etc. . In order to be classified as a disaster it will have profound environmental effect and/or human loss and frequently incurs financial loss . Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms , which usually track from north to south ; they cause extensive property damage in North India and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions . Hail is also common in parts of India , causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Natural_disasters_in_India",
"rank": 87,
"score": 79773
},
{
"content": "Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Friends_of_Science",
"rank": 88,
"score": 79594
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar particle event Content: A solar proton event ( SPE ) , or `` proton storm '' , occurs when particles ( mostly protons ) emitted by the Sun become accelerated either close to the Sun during a flare or in interplanetary space by CME shocks . The events can include other nuclei such as helium ions and HZE ions . These particles cause multiple effects . They can penetrate the Earth 's magnetic field and cause ionization in the ionosphere . The effect is similar to auroral events , except that protons rather than electrons are involved . Energetic protons are a significant radiation hazard to spacecraft and astronauts .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Solar_particle_event",
"rank": 89,
"score": 79508
},
{
"content": "Title: Faint young Sun paradox Content: The faint young Sun paradox describes the apparent contradiction between observations of liquid water early in Earth 's history and the astrophysical expectation that the Sun 's output would be only 70 percent as intense during that epoch as it is during the modern epoch . The issue was raised by astronomers Carl Sagan and George Mullen in 1972 . Explanations of this paradox have taken into account greenhouse effects , astrophysical influences , or a combination of the two . The unresolved question is how a climate suitable for life was maintained on Earth over the long timescale despite the variable solar output and wide range of terrestrial conditions .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Faint_young_Sun_paradox",
"rank": 90,
"score": 79336
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 East Africa drought Content: Between July 2011 and mid-2012 , a severe drought affected the entire East Africa region . Said to be `` the worst in 60 years '' , the drought caused a severe food crisis across Somalia , Djibouti , Ethiopia and Kenya that threatened the livelihood of 9.5 million people . Many refugees from southern Somalia fled to neighboring Kenya and Ethiopia , where crowded , unsanitary conditions together with severe malnutrition led to a large number of deaths . Other countries in East Africa , including Sudan , South Sudan and parts of Uganda , were also affected by a food crisis . According to FAO-Somalia , the food crisis in Somalia primarily affected farmers in the south rather than the northern pastoralists . Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) consequently noted that most of the displaced persons belonged to the agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan and the agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group . On 20 July , the United Nations officially declared famine in two regions in the southern part of the country ( IPC Phase 5 ) , the first time a famine had been declared in the region by the UN in nearly thirty years . Tens of thousands of people are believed to have died in southern Somalia before famine was declared . This was mainly a result of Western governments preventing aid from reaching affected areas in an attempt to weaken the Al-Shabaab militant group , against whom they were engaged . Although fighting disrupted aid delivery in some areas , a scaling up of relief operations in mid-November had unexpectedly significantly reduced malnutrition and mortality rates in southern Somalia , prompting the UN to downgrade the humanitarian situation in the Bay , Bakool and Lower Shabele regions from famine to emergency levels . According to the Lutheran World Federation , military activities in the country 's southern conflict zones had also by early December 2011 greatly reduced the movement of migrants . By February 2012 , several thousand people had also begun returning to their homes and farms . In addition , humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas had improved and rainfall had surpassed expectations , improving the prospects of a good harvest in early 2012 . By January 2012 , the food crisis in southern Somalia was no longer at emergency levels according to the International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC ) . Although security restrictions precluded the collection of updated information in December/January for a few regions in southern Somalia , the UN indicated in February 2012 that indirect data from health and relief centers pointed to improved general conditions from August 2011 . The UN also announced that the famine in southern Somalia was over . However , FEWS NET indicated that Emergency ( IPC Phase 4 ) levels of food insecurity persisted through March in the southern riverine parts of the Juba and Gedo regions , the south-central agropastoral zones of Hiran and Middle Shebele , the southeast pastoral sections of Shebele and Juba , and the north-central Coastal Deeh on account of crop flooding and ongoing military operations in these areas , which restricted humanitarian access , trade and movement . The UN also warned that , in a worst-case scenario of poor rains and price instability , conditions would remain at crisis level for about 31 % of the population in limited-access areas until the August harvest season . In the most-likely scenario , the FSNAU and FEWS NET expected the April -- June rains to be average . Ameliorated food security outcomes were also expected on account of the start of the Deyr harvest , which reached 200 % of the post-war mean and was predicted to be significantly higher than usual . With the exception of some coastal areas , the abundant rainfall in most parts of central and northern Somalia replenished pastureland and also further boosted the purchasing power of local herders . With the benefit of the current harvest expected to ebb in May , the UN stressed that continued multi-sectoral response was necessary to secure the gains made , and that general humanitarian needs requiring international assistance would persist until at least September 2012 . Aid agencies subsequently shifted their emphasis to recovery efforts , including digging irrigation canals and distributing plant seeds . Long-term strategies by national governments in conjunction with development agencies were said to offer the most sustainable results .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "2011_East_Africa_drought",
"rank": 91,
"score": 79317
},
{
"content": "Title: Mid-December 2007 North American winter storms Content: The Mid-December 2007 North American winter storms were a series of winter storms that affected much of central and eastern North America , from December 8 to December 18 , 2007 . The systems affected areas from Oklahoma to Newfoundland and Labrador with freezing rain , thunderstorms , sleet , snow , damaging winds , and blizzard-like conditions in various areas . The first two storms produced copious amounts of ice across the Midwestern United States and Great Plains from December 8 to December 11 , knocking out power to approximately 1.5 million customers from Oklahoma north to Iowa . The second storm moved northeast , producing heavy snow across New York and New England . A third storm was responsible for a major winter storm from Kansas to the Canadian Maritimes , bringing locally record-breaking snowfalls to Ontario , an icestorm across the Appalachians , and thunderstorms and tornadoes to the Southeastern United States . The ice storms were responsible for at least 22 deaths across three states . At least 25 additional deaths were blamed on the December 15 -- 16 Midwest and Eastern snowstorm , and its aftermath across six US States and three Canadian provinces ; 1 additional death was caused by the severe weather outbreak in the Southeast .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Mid-December_2007_North_American_winter_storms",
"rank": 92,
"score": 79315
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Famine of Mount Lebanon Content: The Great Famine of Mount Lebanon ( 1915 -- 1918 ) was a period of mass starvation during World War I . The famine was caused by a convergence of political and environmental factors that lead to the death of half of the population of Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate , a semi-autonomous subdivision of the Ottoman Empire and the precursor of modern day Lebanon .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon",
"rank": 93,
"score": 79104
},
{
"content": "Title: Severe weather Content: Severe weather refers to any dangerous meteorological phenomena with the potential to cause damage , serious social disruption , or loss of human life . Types of severe weather phenomena vary , depending on the latitude , altitude , topography , and atmospheric conditions . High winds , hail , excessive precipitation , and wildfires are forms and effects of severe weather , as are thunderstorms , downbursts , lightning , tornadoes , waterspouts , tropical cyclones , and extratropical cyclones . Regional and seasonal severe weather phenomena include blizzards , snowstorms , ice storms , and duststorms .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Severe_weather",
"rank": 94,
"score": 79084
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Freeze Content: The Great Freeze refers to the back-to-back freezes of 1894 -- 1895 in Florida where the brutally cold weather destroyed much of the citrus crop . It also may have been responsible for wiping out natural stands of Royal Palm ( Roystonea regia ) trees from the lower St. Johns River Valley northeast of Orlando . Entire communities like Earnestville faded after the citrus crops and trees were lost to the two unusually cold weather patterns of the winter season .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Great_Freeze",
"rank": 95,
"score": 79040
},
{
"content": "Title: March 1989 geomagnetic storm Content: A severe geomagnetic storm struck Earth on March 13 , 1989 . It occurred during solar cycle 22 and caused a nine-hour outage of Hydro-Québec 's electricity transmission system .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "March_1989_geomagnetic_storm",
"rank": 96,
"score": 79030
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar eclipse of August 30, 1905 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on August 30 , 1905 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Scientists came from all over the world to Alcalà de Xivert in Spain to watch the eclipse on August 30 , 1905 .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_August_30,_1905",
"rank": 97,
"score": 78996
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 98,
"score": 78791
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice storm Content: An ice storm is a type of winter storm characterized by freezing rain , also known as a glaze event or , in some parts of the United States , as a silver thaw . The U.S. National Weather Service defines an ice storm as a storm which results in the accumulation of at least 0.25 in of ice on exposed surfaces . From 1982 to 1994 , ice storms were more common than blizzards and averaged 16 per year . They are generally not violent storms but instead are commonly perceived as gentle rains occurring at temperatures just below freezing .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Ice_storm",
"rank": 99,
"score": 78616
},
{
"content": "Title: Milankovitch cycles Content: Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth . The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer . Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important . Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain .",
"qid": "5",
"docid": "Milankovitch_cycles",
"rank": 100,
"score": 78579
}
] |
The polar bear population has been growing. | [
{
"content": "Title: Mitchell Taylor Content: Mitchell Taylor , Ph.D. , is a Canadian biologist specializing in polar bears who claims that Canada 's polar bear population is higher now than it was 30 years ago and that polar bears are not currently threatened by climate change . He is currently a contract adjunct professor at Lakehead University , and he is affiliated with the Heartland Institute . Taylor has been involved in research and management of polar bears for the Northwest Territories and Nunavut Territory since 1987 . Dr. Taylor was a member of the Canada 's Federal -- Provincial -- Territorial Polar Bear Technical Committee until his retirement from the Nunavut government in 2008 . Dr. Taylor has published over 50 scientific papers on polar-bear-related topics , and he has worked in the field on most of the world 's polar bear populations . Most recently , he and colleagues completed the Davis Strait population inventory ( one of the most southern of all polar bear populations ) , and he is a coauthor of the 2008 Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada ( COSEWIC ) Assessment and Update Status Report for polar bears . From 2004 to 2008 , he was also manager of the decentralized and relocated Wildlife Research Section .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Mitchell_Taylor",
"rank": 1,
"score": 158807
},
{
"content": "Title: Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears Content: The Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears is a multilateral treaty signed in Oslo , November 15 , 1973 by the five nations with the largest polar bear populations : Canada , Denmark ( Greenland ) , Norway ( Svalbard ) , the United States , and the Soviet Union . This treaty was brought about due to increased hunting of polar bears during the 1960s and 1970s which led to polar bears being under severe survival pressure from hunters . The agreement prohibits random , unregulated sport hunting of polar bears and outlaws hunting of polar bears from aircraft and icebreakers which have been the most detrimental to the polar bear population . Additionally , the agreement holds member states accountable for taking appropriate actions to protect the ecosystems of which the polar bears dwell , paying special attention to places where polar bears create dens , do a majority of their feeding , and where they migrate . States also must manage polar bear populations in accordance with proper conservation practices based on the best available scientific data . According to the agreement the killing of polar bears is only warranted for bona fide scientific purposes , to prevent serious disturbances of other living resources such as human populations , and by local people using traditional methods in the realm of their traditional rights in accordance with the laws of that party . Yet the skins or any other items of value that are taken as a result of the killing of a polar bear can not be used for commercial purposes . Also important to this agreement is that member states must prohibit the exportation , importation , and trafficking of polar bears within their states . These nations share their polar bear research findings and meet every three to four years to coordinate their research on polar bears throughout the Arctic . This agreement was one of the first of its kind and continues to be successful today in the international conservation of polar bears .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Agreement_on_the_Conservation_of_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 2,
"score": 151750
},
{
"content": "Title: Brown bear Content: The brown bear ( Ursus arctos ) is a large bear with the widest distribution of any living ursid . The species is distributed across much of northern Eurasia and North America . It is one of the two largest terrestrial carnivorans alive today , rivaled in body size only by its close cousin , the polar bear ( Ursus maritimus ) , which is much less variable in size and averages larger due to this . There are several recognized subspecies , many of which are quite well-known within their native ranges , found in the brown bear species . The brown bear 's principal range includes parts of Russia , Central Asia , China , Canada , the United States ( mostly Alaska ) , Scandinavia and the Carpathian region ( especially Romania ) , Anatolia , and Caucasus . The brown bear is recognized as a national and state animal in several European countries . While the brown bear 's range has shrunk and it has faced local extinctions , it remains listed as a least concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) with a total population of approximately 200,000 . As of 2012 , this and the American black bear are the only bear species not classified as threatened by the IUCN . However , the Californian , North African ( Atlas bear ) , and Mexican subspecies were hunted to extinction in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , and many of the southern Asian subspecies are highly endangered . One of the smaller-bodied subspecies , the Himalayan brown bear , is critically endangered , occupying only 2 % of its former range and threatened by uncontrolled poaching for its parts . The Marsican brown bear , one of several currently isolated populations of the main Eurasian brown bear race , in central Italy is believed to have a population of just 30 to 40 bears .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Brown_bear",
"rank": 3,
"score": 141850
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar bear Content: The polar bear ( ursus #Latin maritimus #Latin ) is a carnivorous bear whose native range lies largely within the Arctic Circle , encompassing the Arctic Ocean , its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses . It is a large bear , approximately the same size as the omnivorous Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ) . A boar ( adult male ) weighs around 350 -- , while a sow ( adult female ) is about half that size . Although it is the sister species of the brown bear , it has evolved to occupy a narrower ecological niche , with many body characteristics adapted for cold temperatures , for moving across snow , ice and open water , and for hunting seals , which make up most of its diet . Although most polar bears are born on land , they spend most of their time on the sea ice . Their scientific name means `` maritime bear '' and derives from this fact . Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice , often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present . Because of their dependence on the sea ice , polar bears are classified as marine mammals ; an alternative basis for classification as marine mammals is that they depend on the ocean as their main food source . Because of expected habitat loss caused by climate change , the polar bear is classified as a vulnerable species , and at least three of the nineteen polar bear subpopulations are currently in decline . For decades , large-scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species , but populations rebounded after controls and quotas began to take effect . For thousands of years , the polar bear has been a key figure in the material , spiritual , and cultural life of circumpolar peoples , and polar bears remain important in their cultures .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_bear",
"rank": 4,
"score": 133885
},
{
"content": "Title: Ursus maritimus tyrannus Content: Ursus maritimus tyrannus ( meaning tyrant polar bear ) is an extinct subspecies of polar bear , known from a single fragmentary ulna found in the gravels of the Thames at Kew Bridge , London . It was named by the Finnish paleontologist Björn Kurtén in 1964 and is interpreted to represent a relatively large subadult individual : the ulna is estimated to have been 48.5 cm long when complete . For comparison , modern subadult polar bear ulnae are 36 - long . An unpublished reinvestigation of the fossil suggests that the fossil is actually a brown bear .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Ursus_maritimus_tyrannus",
"rank": 5,
"score": 131599
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (British band) Content: Polar Bear is a British experimental jazz band led by drummer Seb Rochford with Pete Wareham and Mark Lockheart on tenor saxophone , Tom Herbert on double bass and Leafcutter John on electronics and occasionally guitar or mandolin . Polar Bear were nominated for the Best Band award at the BBC Jazz Awards 2004 , while Rochford was nominated for the ` Rising Star ' award . Their first album Dim Lit was released in the same year and was a small scale success . Their second record , Held on the Tips of Fingers merged elements of cool jazz , funk , dance music , free jazz , electronica and drum and bass and was , by comparison , a crossover hit , earning Polar Bear a nomination for the Mercury Music Prize in 2005 . The success was all the more unusual for an almost purely instrumental album . The album was nominated for a BBC Jazz Award 2006 . It was selected as one of `` The 100 Jazz Albums That Shook The World '' by Jazzwise magazine . and featured in The Guardian 's list of `` 1000 Albums To Hear Before You Die '' . They have been involved with F-IRE Collective . They released their self-titled third album , Polar Bear , in July 2008 with Tin Angel Records . In 2010 , the band released Peepers and mini-album Common Ground , a collaboration with Portuguese-born , London-based rapper Jyager , on The Leaf Label . Their 2014 album In Each And Every One was shortlisted for the Mercury Music Prize and in the same year they released the single `` Cuckoo '' in collaboration with singer and songwriter Jin Jin . In March 2015 Polar Bear released their sixth album Same as You , including the single `` Do n't Let The Feeling Go '' . This track features frequent collaborator Shabaka Hutchings ( Sons of Kemet and The Comet Is Coming ) on tenor saxophone and Rochford and Hannah Darling on vocals . In 2015 , Polar Bear were nominated for Best Jazz Act in the MOBO Awards and Urban Music Awards .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(British_band)",
"rank": 6,
"score": 130973
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (locomotive) Content: Polar Bear is a Bagnall steam locomotive built in 1905 for the Groudle Glen Railway , to supplement the similar but slightly smaller Sea Lion . The two Bagnalls were temporarily taken out of service in the 1920s when they were replaced by a pair of battery locomotives . These proved unsatisfactory , and Polar Bear and Sea Lion were returned to traffic . The railway was closed for the duration of World War II , and when the line reopened in the late 1940s only Polar Bear was returned to traffic . Following the 1962 closure of the GGR , Polar Bear was sold to the Brockham Museum Trust in 1967 . In 1982 it passed , with the rest of the Brockham collection , to the Amberley Museum Railway , where it was returned to traffic in the early 1980s . Polar Bear '' 's boiler was condemned around 1988 , returning to service with a new boiler in 1993 . Its boiler certificate expired at the end of 2010 ; with a retube and work on the firebox being required before a return to service . Since being based at Amberley , Polar Bear has returned to the Groudle Glen on three occasions ( 1993 , 1996 and 2005 ) to visit.Polar Bear was stripped down for overhaul in early 2011 . The boiler was moved to Chatham for overhaul , with mechanical work being undertaken in-house at Amberley . The boiler was returned to Amberley in January 2012 . Polar Bear was relaunched on 13 July 2013 by BBC newsreader and railway enthusiast Nicholas Owen , and is now in service sharing steam passenger duties at Amberley with the museum 's 1917 Bagnall 0-4-0ST Peter . '' Polar Bear made its fourth visit home to the Groudle Glen Railway since it was preserved in late July 2016 . After its two week stay there , it returned home to Amberley museum .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(locomotive)",
"rank": 7,
"score": 130921
},
{
"content": "Title: Nanortalik Content: Nanortalik , formerly Nennortalik , is a town in Nanortalik Island , Kujalleq municipality , southern Greenland . With 1,337 inhabitants as of 2013 , it is the tenth-largest town in the country . The name Nanortalik means `` Place of Polar Bears '' or `` Place Where the Polar Bears Go '' ( from nanoq ) . It is the southernmost town in Greenland , with a population of over 1,000 .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Nanortalik",
"rank": 8,
"score": 130913
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bears International Content: Polar Bears International ( PBI ) is the world 's leading polar bear conservation organization . Their research , education , and action programs address the issues that are endangering polar bears . Polar Bears International is a non-profit organization that works closely with Frontiers North Adventures , a commercial tour company that operates a fleet of tundra buggies in Churchill , Manitoba , Canada . Other major sponsors include Canada Goose and Natural Exposures Photography . Their Chief Scientist is Steven Amstrup .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bears_International",
"rank": 9,
"score": 130143
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Provincial Park Content: Polar Bear Provincial Park is an isolated wilderness park in the far north of Ontario , Canada . It lies on the western shore where James Bay joins Hudson Bay . The terrain is part of the Hudson Bay Lowlands and features unspoiled low-lying tundra in the Hudson Plains ecozone . Administered by Ontario Parks , the 23552 km2 Polar Bear Provincial Park is the largest park in Ontario . It has no visitor facilities , is reachable only by air , and special permission is required before visiting it . Its primary purpose is the preservation of habitat for wildlife , especially the several hundred polar bears that migrate through the area . Visitors to Polar Bear should be prepared for any eventuality . They should bring at least one week 's extra supplies in case their departure is delayed due to bad weather . Tents should not rise any higher than necessary , due to the possibility of strong winds . Polar Bear Provincial Park has been designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention since May 1987 .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Provincial_Park",
"rank": 10,
"score": 128659
},
{
"content": "Title: The Polar Bear Group Content: The Polar Bear Group is a life-size , bronze animal sculpture in the Aqua Park of the Zoo in the city of Nuremberg . The Group consists of a mother polar bear with her young cubs in a playful pose , and is based on a flat plate from bright granite , which is reminiscent of an ice floe . The Group was created by the sculptor Josef Tabachnyk and was installed in the zoo in 2007 . The measurements of the Polar Bear Group are 120x240x90 cm . Since November 2010 , another bronze bear sculpture created by the same artist was installed in the entrance area of the zoo . It depicts a brown bear lying on its back , playing with a slug .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "The_Polar_Bear_Group",
"rank": 11,
"score": 128589
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (battery-electric locomotive) Content: Polar Bear was a gauge battery-electric locomotive built by Wingrove & Rogers in 1921 as works no. 314 for the Groudle Glen Railway on the Isle of Man . Together with its sister , Sea Lion , they were intended to replace two Bagnall steam locos of the same names . The locos were not a success and , despite Polar Bear being rebuilt with bogies and a battery truck , the steam locos were reboilered and returned to traffic . Polar Bear was eventually scrapped acround 1926 .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(battery-electric_locomotive)",
"rank": 12,
"score": 126520
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (American band) Content: Polarbear was a Los Angeles-based band led by former Jane 's Addiction bassist , Eric Avery , who formed the band with Biff Sanders , formerly of Ethyl Meatplow , as a side project . They recorded most of their music in downtown Los Angeles , at Motiv studios . Many Jane 's Addiction fans consider Why Something Instead of Nothing ? to be the best post-Jane 's Addiction work done by any of the four original members . It was re-released in 2004 .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(American_band)",
"rank": 13,
"score": 125406
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Pass National Wildlife Area Content: Polar Bear Pass National Wildlife Area is a National Wildlife Area on Bathurst Island within Qikiqtaaluk , Nunavut , Canada . It is on federal Crown land , and is administered by the Canadian Wildlife Service , a division of Environment Canada , with respect to the Canada Wildlife Act 's National Wildlife Area Regulations . Land use is also subject to the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement . To the north is an area under consideration as a future national park . The NWA received the federally designated conservation status on 1 January 1985 . Of its 2675 km2 in overall size , 214 km2 is a marine area with marine , intertidal , and subtidal components .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Pass_National_Wildlife_Area",
"rank": 14,
"score": 124862
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (cipher) Content: In cryptography , Polar Bear is a stream cypher algorithm designed by Johan Håstad and Mats Näslund . It has been submitted to the eSTREAM Project of the eCRYPT network .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(cipher)",
"rank": 15,
"score": 123925
},
{
"content": "Title: Debby (polar bear) Content: Debby ( 1966 -- November 17 , 2008 ) was the world 's oldest polar bear . She lived in the Assiniboine Park Zoo in Winnipeg . In August 2008 , the Guinness World Records certified her as not only the oldest polar bear , but one of the three oldest individuals ever recorded of all bear species . Debby was born in the Soviet Arctic in 1966 , and subsequently orphaned ; she arrived in Winnipeg when she was a year old . In November 2008 , she was found to be suffering from multiple organ failure , and was subsequently euthanized . She was 42 years old .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Debby_(polar_bear)",
"rank": 16,
"score": 122749
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bears (play) Content: Polar Bears is a play by British writer Mark Haddon first produced by the Donmar Warehouse in London . Following previews from 1 April 2010 , the play opened on 6 April 2010 where it ran until 22 May . The world premier production was directed by Jamie Lloyd . The German Oldenburgisches Staatstheater staged the play in 2012 under direction of K.D. Schmidt",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bears_(play)",
"rank": 17,
"score": 122673
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Bears Content: The Real Bears is an anti-soft-drink advertising campaign by the Center for Science in the Public Interest , which debuted in October 2012 . It is a parody of the Coca-Cola Company 's ad campaigns depicting polar bears , in particular the `` Open Happiness '' ads , and was produced with the help of Alex Bogusky . Michael Jacobson said that the ad was '' ... our attempt to reposition soft drinks from a source of happiness to a major cause of disease . '' CSPI chose Bogusky to direct the ad because , they said , they had long admired his work in creating anti-tobacco ads through his agency , Crispin Porter + Bogusky . The song playing throughout the CSPI ad is by Jason Mraz and is entitled `` Sugar . '' The ad depicts polar bears suffering from a wide variety of health problems as a result of soda consumption , such as type II diabetes and erectile dysfunction . In response to the ad , Coca-Cola spokeswoman Susan Stribling stated that the ad was `` irresponsible and the usual grandstanding from CSPI , '' and Karen Hanretty , a spokeswoman for the American Beverage Association , noted that soda consumption has decreased over the last decade or so , whereas obesity rates have still risen over the same time period , saying , `` CSPI is better at producing videos than they are doing math . '' The video has over 2 million views on YouTube .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "The_Real_Bears",
"rank": 18,
"score": 122041
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bears (band) Content:",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bears_(band)",
"rank": 19,
"score": 121958
},
{
"content": "Title: DVTK Jegesmedvék Content: DVTK Jegesmedvék ( DVTK Polar Bears ) is a Hungarian ice hockey team that currently plays in the OB I bajnokság and in the MOL Liga . They play their home games at Miskolc Ice Hall , located in Miskolc .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "DVTK_Jegesmedvék",
"rank": 20,
"score": 121102
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar the Titanic Bear Content: Polar the Titanic Bear is a children 's book written by Margaretta `` Daisy '' Corning Spedden ( née Stone ) ( 19 November 1872 -- 10 February 1950 ) . Spedden was an American heiress who survived the sinking of the Titanic , and her account of her family 's trip and the eventual disaster , written as a tale to amuse her seven-year-old son , was published about 45 years after her death . The story is told from the point of view of a stuffed bear .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_the_Titanic_Bear",
"rank": 21,
"score": 120599
},
{
"content": "Title: Nanuqsaurus Content: Nanuqsaurus ( meaning `` polar bear lizard '' ) is an extinct genus of carnivorous tyrannosaurid theropod known from the Late Cretaceous ( early Late Maastrichtian stage ) Prince Creek Formation of the North Slope of Alaska , USA . It contains a single species , Nanuqsaurus hoglundi , known only from a partial skull .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Nanuqsaurus",
"rank": 22,
"score": 120421
},
{
"content": "Title: Grizzly–polar bear hybrid Content: A grizzly -- polar bear hybrid ( also named grolar bear , pizzly bear ) is a rare ursid hybrid that has occurred both in captivity and in the wild . In 2006 , the occurrence of this hybrid in nature was confirmed by testing the DNA of a unique-looking bear that had been shot near Sachs Harbour , Northwest Territories on Banks Island in the Canadian Arctic . Possible wild-bred polar bear-grizzly bear hybrids have been reported and shot in the past , but DNA tests were not available to verify the bears ' ancestry . Analyses of DNA sequences of bears have recovered multiple instances of introgressive hybridization between various bear species , including introgression of polar bear DNA into brown bears during the Pleistocene .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Grizzly–polar_bear_hybrid",
"rank": 23,
"score": 120413
},
{
"content": "Title: MacFarlane's bear Content: MacFarlane 's bear is a proposed extinct species of bear that was found in Canada 's Northwest Territories . In 1864 , Inuit hunters shot and killed an enormous yellow-furred bear and gave the skin and skull to the Fort Anderson post manager and amateur naturalist Roderick MacFarlane ( sometimes given as Robert MacFarlane ) of the Hudson 's Bay Company . MacFarlane shipped the skin and skull to the Smithsonian Institution where they were placed in storage and soon forgotten . Eventually , Dr. Clinton Hart Merriam uncovered the remains , which he thought had been shot very far outside the brown bear 's normal range , and concluded that it was n't a brown bear at all . In 1918 , he described the specimen as a new species and genus , Vetularctos inopinatus , calling it the `` ancient unexpected bear . '' With the exception of unconfirmed sightings , MacFarlane 's bear is sometimes thought to have become extinct since the specimen was obtained in 1864 . There have been many theories concerning the origin of MacFarlane 's bear , which include suggestions that it may have been a grizzly -- polar bear hybrid , or even a surviving representative of a Pleistocene species . The recent discovery of demonstrable grizzly-polar bear hybrids that match the specimen 's description very well , notably the pale tan fur and oddly shaped skull that led Merriam to propose his new genus , places the validity of the proposed species and its associated scientific names into question . In episode # 215 of the History Channel program Monster Quest , `` Giant Bear Attack '' , paleontologist Dr. Blaine W. Schubert ( of East Tennessee State University ) was allowed to examine the skull ( although the Institute did not allow the examination to be filmed ) . Schubert stated that he was `` 100 % sure '' that it was the skull of a young , female brown bear and `` actually , not a particularly large individual . '' In a 1984 publication intended to correct Merriam 's 1929 taxonomy proposing 96 distinct species names for varieties of brown bear , E. Raymond Hall synonymized all 96 of Merriam 's names with merely nine subspecies of U. arctos . Hall synonymized Velarctos inopinatus with U. arctos horribilis , the normal grizzly bear .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "MacFarlane's_bear",
"rank": 24,
"score": 119855
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (EP) Content: Polar Bear is the debut release from Polar Bear , led by Jane 's Addiction bassist Eric Avery . This clear blue 12 '' vinyl , MR-054 , was self-produced and released on Man 's Ruin Records , limited to 2,000 copies . It includes instrumental versions of songs the band would later release on their records , reworked with vocal tracks . Intended for spinning and mixing by DJs , these versions have more of a club edge to them .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(EP)",
"rank": 25,
"score": 119830
},
{
"content": "Title: Arturo (polar bear) Content: Arturo ( 1985 July 3 , 2016 ) was a polar bear living in Mendoza Zoological Park in Mendoza , Argentina , the only polar bear living in the country . He was born in the United States and transferred to Argentina in 1993 . His companion , a female named Pelusa , died of cancer in 2012 . The living conditions of the cage Arturo resided in were controversial , as temperatures reach up to 40 ° C in Argentina , and the pool in Arturo 's cage was only 20 inches deep . Animal rights activists had , in response , dubbed Arturo the `` world 's saddest animal '' and promoted a petition to have him moved to Assiniboine Park Zoo , a zoo in Winnipeg , Canada . The petition was created by Laura Morales of Hamilton , Ontario . It gained considerable attention after the hashtag #Freearturo began trending on Twitter . Supporters of the petition also noted that a polar bear died in Buenos Aires in December 2012 due to excessive heat , and argued that Arturo exhibited symptoms of depression and other mental health problems . As of July 19 , 2014 , the petition had over 400,000 signatures , and had been endorsed by Newt Gingrich and Cher . Assiniboine Park Zoo responded that while they would 've gladly accepted Arturo there , they did not have the authority to do so unless Argentina agreed to transfer him there , and that the Mendoza zoo could not supply the necessary medical records to make such a trip possible . On July 24 , 2014 , the director of the Mendoza Zoo , Gustavo Pronotto , told the Associated Press that Arturo was too old to be moved to Canada . In social media , people also advocated for Arturo to be moved to Canada . and Twitter hashtag #FreeArturo . On July 3 , 2016 , Arturo died .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Arturo_(polar_bear)",
"rank": 26,
"score": 119684
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (cocktail) Content: A Polar Bear , After Eight or Peppermint Paddy ( a play on Peppermint Pattie ) is a mint chocolate cocktail that tastes like a York Peppermint Pattie or an After Eight wafer . It is usually made from crème de cacao and peppermint schnapps , although crème de menthe is a popular substitute .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(cocktail)",
"rank": 27,
"score": 119635
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bears (film) Content: Polar Bears is a 2008 Nickelodeon television movie written and directed by Polly Draper which stars her musical prodigious sons Nat Wolff and Alex Wolff , real life brothers who portray themselves . It tells of the siblings ' who , along with their bandmates , take a ride on their tour bus to New Orleans , Louisiana . The plot chronicles around Alex 's obsession to save the polar bears by preserving the environment , as well as a conflict in which Rosalina is suspicious of Nat when he becomes very close to his childhood friend , `` Little '' Grace . The TV movie is presented in the style of a mockumentary -- a parody shot in documentary format -- and was part of a three-part episode that concluded the second season of The Naked Brothers Band TV series , airing on June 6 , 2008 to 1.7 million viewers who were aged 6 -- 11 ; it was the second most watched show for the week in that age group . It also earned Draper a Writers Guild Award for Children 's Script : Long Form or Special .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bears_(film)",
"rank": 28,
"score": 119430
},
{
"content": "Title: Chelyabinsk Polar Bears Content: The Chelyabinsk Polar Bears ( Белые Медведи Polar Bears ) is a junior ice hockey team from Chelyabinsk , which contains players from the Traktor Chelyabinsk school . They are members of the Minor Hockey League ( MHL ) , the top tier of junior hockey in the country .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Chelyabinsk_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 29,
"score": 119351
},
{
"content": "Title: Knut (polar bear) Content: Knut ( -LSB- ˈknuːt -RSB- ; 5 December 2006 -- 19 March 2011 ) was an orphaned polar bear born in captivity at the Berlin Zoological Garden . Rejected by his mother at birth , he was raised by zookeepers . He was the first polar bear cub to survive past infancy at the Berlin Zoo in more than 30 years . At one time the subject of international controversy , he became a tourist attraction and commercial success . After the German tabloid newspaper Bild ran a quote from an animal rights activist that decried keeping the cub in captivity , fans worldwide rallied in support of his being hand-raised by humans . Children protested outside the zoo , and e-mails and letters expressing sympathy for the cub 's life were sent from around the world . Knut became the center of a mass media phenomenon dubbed `` Knutmania '' that spanned the globe and spawned toys , media specials , DVDs , and books . Because of this , the cub was largely responsible for a significant increase in revenue , estimated at about five million euros , at the Berlin Zoo in 2007 . Attendance figures for the year increased by an estimated 30 percent , making it the most profitable year in its 163-year history . On 19 March 2011 , Knut unexpectedly died at the age of four . His death was caused by drowning after he collapsed into his enclosure 's pool while suffering from Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Knut_(polar_bear)",
"rank": 30,
"score": 119122
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Expedition Content: The Polar Bear Expedition ( also known as the Northern Russian Expedition , the American North Russia Expeditionary Force - ANREF or the American Expeditionary Force North Russia - AEFNR ) was a contingent of about 5,000 United States Army troops that landed in Arkhangelsk , Russia as part of the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War and fought the Red Army in the surrounding region during the period of September 1918 through to July 1919 .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Expedition",
"rank": 31,
"score": 118881
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Club Content: Polar Bear Club was an American post-hardcore band from Rochester and Syracuse , upstate New York . Formed in 2005 , the band currently consists of vocalist Jimmy Stadt , lead guitarist Chris Browne , Patrick Benson , Tyler Smith , and drummer Steve Port .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Club",
"rank": 32,
"score": 118294
},
{
"content": "Title: Siku (polar bear) Content: Siku ( born 22 November 2011 in Skandinavisk Dyrepark ) is a male polar bear cub , he has several siblings such as Sné . After his mother failed to produce enough milk to feed him , he was taken into care in the Scandinavian Wildlife Park in Denmark . In terms of popular appeal , he is by some considered to be a possible successor to the polar bear Knut , who attracted worldwide attention at Berlin Zoo from 2006 until his death in 2011 . A YouTube video showing Siku at the age of one month attracted hundreds of thousands of hits in just twenty-four hours and he was hailed internationally as an online sensation , especially after appearing on the official BBC website .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Siku_(polar_bear)",
"rank": 33,
"score": 117780
},
{
"content": "Title: The Polar Bear Family & Me Content: The Polar Bear Family & Me was a three-part nature documentary series produced by the BBC Natural History Unit . It follows wildlife cameraman Gordon Buchanan as he spends a year with a family of wild , but frosty polar bears , under the guidance of his biologist Jason Roberts , the polar expertise of the Antarctic region and Svalbard near Norwegian archipelago of the Arctic Ocean .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "The_Polar_Bear_Family_&_Me",
"rank": 34,
"score": 117750
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear, Polar Bear, What Do You Hear? Content: Polar Bear , Polar Bear , What Do You Hear ? is a children 's picture book , published in 1991 , written and illustrated by Bill Martin , Jr. and Eric Carle . The book is designed to help toddlers identify zoo animals and the noises they make . It features a polar bear , a lion , a hippopotamus , a flamingo , a zebra , a boa constrictor , an elephant , a leopard , a peacock , a walrus , a zoo keeper and some children . This is a companion book to Brown Bear , Brown Bear , What Do You See ? , published by Carle and Martin in 1967 , replacing the earlier text 's colours and common animals with sounds and less common creatures .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear,_Polar_Bear,_What_Do_You_Hear?",
"rank": 35,
"score": 117312
},
{
"content": "Title: The Little Polar Bear Content: The Little Polar Bear ( Der kleine Eisbär ) is a franchise about a polar bear cub named Lars who first starred in a number of books written by Dutch author , Hans de Beer . It later became an animated TV series for BBC TV , Lars , der Kleine Eisbär , in the 1990s . The show proved to be popular in Germany , but its English-dubbed version ( titled The Little Polar Bear ) had also gained a cult following with UK viewers . The show was later revived between 2001 and 2003 . For its first film , subtitled Der Kinofilm , Warner Bros. and animation studio Rothkirch Cartoon Film bought the rights to adapt the children 's books into a feature-length film , released in 2001 . Following the success of the feature , several direct-to-video features were released , one of the new characters included was a tiger cub . In 2005 , another film , The Little Polar Bear 2 -- The Mysterious Island ( Der Kleine Eisbär 2 : Die geheimnisvolle Insel ) was released and also proved successful . The score to The Little Polar Bear ( 1 ) was composed by Nigel Clarke & Michael Csanyi-Wills and recorded by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra in London and was nominated for several awards .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "The_Little_Polar_Bear",
"rank": 36,
"score": 117264
},
{
"content": "Title: The Polar Bears Content: The Polar Bears is a 2012 3D computer animated short film presented by The Coca-Cola Company , produced by Ridley Scott , written by David Reynolds , and directed by John Stevenson . The film is based on Coca-Cola 's iconic polar bears and was released on the company 's website and YouTube channel on December 31 , 2012 .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "The_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 37,
"score": 117146
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Express Content: The Polar Bear Express is a Canadian passenger train operated by the Ontario Northland Railway in Northern Ontario . Service was introduced in 1964 . While designated as a passenger train , the Polar Bear Express also carries specialized equipment including boxcars for canoes , snowmobiles and all terrain vehicles , chain cars ( flat cars with tie downs ) for carrying cars and light trucks ( there are no roads to Moosonee so vehicles come in and out by train ) and baggage and express cars . In the past a special car for canoes was included but these are now carried in boxcars . It operates 5 days per week year-round and connects Cochrane with Moosonee . During the summer months there is an additional train on Sundays and the train often includes a full length dome car . Prior to 2012 , the train carried a full dining car during the summer . The Polar Bear Express service was expanded on June 5 , 2007 after increased funding from the Government of Ontario to ONR was announced in March 2007 . It resulted in the discontinuation of the Little Bear mixed freight-passenger service which had operated 3 days per week , year-round , resulting in dedicated separate freight and passenger rail service to Moosonee . In summer 2008 , track conditions resulted the train running very late much of the time ( 2.5 hours by railway announcement ) . By late 2008 , running times had improved somewhat and timings of five and a half to six hours for the 186 mile ( 300 kilometre - all distances are shown in miles along the tracks ) trip were becoming typical . Service deteriorated significantly in 2009 mainly due to bad track conditions and mechanical failures -- on one occasion the train , scheduled to arrive in Cochrane at 9:42 in the evening did not arrive until 4:00 in the morning . Before the 2007 service expansion , the Polar Bear Express operated 6 days per week during the summer months . It left Cochrane in the morning , stayed for a few hours in Moosonee , and returned to Cochrane in the evening . It was primarily used by tourists , although it was used by an increasing number of local residents . The name of the train is misleading -- polar bears are rarely seen anywhere near Moosonee . The Polar Bear Express today mostly services the residents of Moosonee and Moose Factory when they travel south from their communities that lack road connections to the rest of Ontario . During the winter , many passengers are from communities further north who travel to Moosonee by winter road before taking the train . Prior to 2012 the summer train included special programs for children and an entertainment car .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Express",
"rank": 38,
"score": 116876
},
{
"content": "Title: Bear, Delaware Content: Bear is a census-designated place ( CDP ) in New Castle County , Delaware , United States . The population was 17,593 at the 2000 census . Originally a small crossroads in a rural area , about 14 mi south of Wilmington , the area supported small farms growing mainly corn and cattle . In the late 1980s and 1990s Bear became a popular location for the construction of sprawling housing developments and shopping centers along U.S. Route 40 . Much of Bear runs along the highway , and extends to approximately Delaware Route 896 . Bear is not an incorporated municipality or strictly delineated area in the county , but instead a general reference to the collection of communities in the US ZIP Codes 19701-19702 .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Bear,_Delaware",
"rank": 39,
"score": 116430
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 Svalbard polar bear attack Content: On 5 August 2011 , a starving polar bear in the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard attacked a party of school children , organised by the British Schools Exploring Society ( BSES ) , who had camped near the Von Post glacier , some 25 miles ( 40 km ) from the settlement of Longyearbyen . The bear was reported as being starving and emaciated . The BSES party of eighty members had planned their trip to run from 23 July to 28 August -- the trip was cut short after the incident . BSES , a youth charity , was founded in 1932 by Surgeon Commander George Murray Levick , a member of Captain Scott 's expedition of 1910 -- 13 . Seventeen-year-old Horatio Chapple , a pupil of Eton College , was with a party of twelve at the time of the attack , and would die of injuries sustained . Four others were hurt , two seriously , and all were flown to Tromsø on mainland Norway for treatment . Chapple 's grandfather , Sir John Lyon Chapple , was formerly the president of BSES . The bear was shot dead by one of the expedition 's leaders , Spike Reid , who himself suffered severe head and face injuries .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "2011_Svalbard_polar_bear_attack",
"rank": 40,
"score": 116330
},
{
"content": "Title: Miseryfjellet Content: Miseryfjellet , at 536 m , is the tallest peak on Bear Island ( Bjørnøya ) , a Norwegian island in the Barents Sea . Miseryfjellet is on the eastern side of Bear Island and contains three distinct component peaks . The name Bear Island is derived from the seasonal presence of polar bears , Ursus maritimus , whose population in the Barents Sea region is a genetically distinct sub-population of this species .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Miseryfjellet",
"rank": 41,
"score": 115803
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Peak Content: Polar Bear Peak is a 6614 ft mountain in the U.S. state of Alaska , located in Chugach State Park . Situated in the Chugach Mountains , it lies at the head of South Fork Eagle River , 5 mi ESE of Eagle Lake , and 22 mi ESE of downtown Anchorage . The peak was named in 1963 by members of the Mountaineering Club of Alaska because a snow patch on its north face resembles a Polar bear skin .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Peak",
"rank": 42,
"score": 115657
},
{
"content": "Title: Eisbären Berlin Content: ( English : Berlin Polar Bears ) are a professional ice hockey team based in Berlin , Germany . The team competes in the Deutsche Eishockey Liga ( DEL ) , the highest level of play in professional German ice hockey , and is also one of the league 's founding members . The Eisbären have won the DEL championship more often than any other team . The club captured national 7 DEL titles . They won the German ice hockey cup in 2007 as well as the European Trophy in 2010 . Before reunification the team won the East German ice hockey championship 15 times . The club 's origins go back to 1954 . Following incorporation into the West German 1 . Bundesliga in 1990 , the team was renamed EHC Dynamo Berlin and again in 1992 to EHC Eisbären Berlin . The home games are played at the Mercedes-Benz Arena . The Eisbären Berlin are owned by the Anschutz Entertainment Group . The official logo of the team is the polar bear , a reference to the bear appearing on Berlin 's coat of arms .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Eisbären_Berlin",
"rank": 43,
"score": 115567
},
{
"content": "Title: Phoenix Polar Bears Content: The Phoenix Polar Bears was a USA Hockey-sanctioned Junior A Tier III ice hockey team based out of Phoenix , Arizona . Their host facility was the Desert Schools Coytotes Center in Chandler , Arizona . The Polar Bears was a member of the Western States Hockey League but vacated their membership in the league when the WSHL moved away from USA Hockey sanctioning in 2011 .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Phoenix_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 44,
"score": 115503
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (disambiguation) Content: A polar bear is a giant bear species . Polar Bear may also refer to :",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 45,
"score": 115498
},
{
"content": "Title: Infinitely Polar Bear Content: Infinitely Polar Bear is a 2014 American comedy-drama film written and directed by Maya Forbes , and starring Mark Ruffalo , Zoe Saldana , Imogene Wolodarsky , and Ashley Aufderheide . The film premiered in competition at the 30th Sundance Film Festival on January 18 , 2014 . The film was released on June 19 , 2015 , by Sony Pictures Classics .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Infinitely_Polar_Bear",
"rank": 46,
"score": 115489
},
{
"content": "Title: Novaya Zemlya Content: Novaya Zemlya ( -LSB- Но́вая Земля́ , p = ˈnovəjə zʲɪmˈlʲa -RSB- , lit . new land ) , also known , especially in Dutch , as Nova Zembla , is an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean in northern Russia and the extreme northeast of Europe , the easternmost point of Europe lying at Cape Flissingsky on the Northern island . Administratively , it is incorporated as Novaya Zemlya District , one of the twenty-one in Arkhangelsk Oblast , Russia . Municipally , it is incorporated as Novaya Zemlya Urban Okrug . Its population as of the 2010 Census was 2,429 , of which 1,972 resided in Belushya Guba , an urban-type settlement that is the administrative center of Novaya Zemlya District . The population in 2002 was The indigenous population ( from 1872 to the 1950s when it was resettled to the mainland ) consisted of about 50 -- 300 Nenetses who subsisted mainly on fishing , trapping , reindeer herding , polar bear hunting and seal hunting . Natural resources include copper , lead , and zinc . Novaya Zemlya was a sensitive military area during the Cold War years and it is still used today . The Soviet Air Force maintained a presence at Rogachevo on the southern part of the island , on the westernmost peninsula . It was used primarily for interceptor aircraft operations but also provided logistical support for the nearby nuclear test area . Novaya Zemlya was the site of one of the two major nuclear test sites managed by the USSR , used for air drops and underground testing the largest of the Soviet nuclear bombs , in particular the October 30 , 1961 air burst explosion of Tsar Bomba , the largest , most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Novaya_Zemlya",
"rank": 47,
"score": 115399
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Point Content: Polar Bear Point is an ice-covered point 1.2 nautical miles ( 2.2 km ) southeast of Castle Rock on the east side of Hut Point Peninsula , Ross Island . A breached crater stands 0.7 nautical miles ( 1.3 km ) north-northwest , but no rock is exposed on the point which is well defined and elevated at the juncture with McMurdo Ice Shelf . The name is allusive ; when viewed from the west , the appearance of the point is suggestive of the head , neck , and fore part of an Arctic polar bear . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) , 2000 . Category : Headlands of Ross Island",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Point",
"rank": 48,
"score": 115346
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Pass Content: Polar Bear Pass is a 262,400 hectare wetland and mountain pass on Bathurst Island within the Qikiqtaaluk Region , Nunavut , Canada . The pass is on federal Crown land .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Pass",
"rank": 49,
"score": 115343
},
{
"content": "Title: Gus (polar bear) Content: Gus ( 1985 -- 2013 ) was a 700 lb polar bear and icon of the Central Park Zoo in New York City . His exhibit was visited by over 20 million people during his lifetime . He came to public notice in the 1990s , when he began swimming obsessively in his pool for up to 12 hours a day . Reporters dubbed him `` neurotic '' , `` depressed '' , `` flaky '' , and `` bipolar '' , turning him into a `` symbol of the stress of living in New York City '' . As part of his therapy and treatment , Gus was the first zoo animal in history to be treated with Prozac .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Gus_(polar_bear)",
"rank": 50,
"score": 114854
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear (album) Content: Polar Bear is the eponymous third album by Sebastian Rochford 's British jazz band Polar Bear .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_(album)",
"rank": 51,
"score": 114816
},
{
"content": "Title: Binky (polar bear) Content: Binky ( 1975 -- July 20 , 1995 ) was a polar bear who lived at the Alaska Zoo in Anchorage . He was originally orphaned near Cape Beaufort , close to the Chukchi Sea , but was found by a driller in Northwest Alaska named David Bergsrud . The area where Binky was located is known to those living outside of Alaska as the North Slope . Alaska Fish and Game was contacted shortly after Binky 's discovery , and arrangements were being made to find a zoo in the Lower 48 . Anchorage had a small zoo at the time , with an elephant that a lady had won and a few other animals . When word got around that a polar bear cub had been found , folks started hunting for ways to stall the effort of sending Binky outside of Alaska . Time was needed to find a sponsor to fund an enclosure at the Alaska Children 's Zoo for Binky . Alaska Fish and Game employees came up with the idea of flying Binky to a number of the inland North Slope villages . School was let out in these villages so all the children could come to the airstrips to see Binky . These received major news coverage . Finally things fell into place to allow the Anchorage zoo to take Binky . Binky quickly became one of its most popular attractions . He became a local hero and received international news coverage after mauling two zoo visitors in separate incidents in 1994 . Binky died in 1995 from sarcocystosis , a parasitic disease .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Binky_(polar_bear)",
"rank": 52,
"score": 114389
},
{
"content": "Title: Kermode bear Content: The Kermode bear ( Ursus americanus kermodei ) , also known as the `` spirit bear '' ( particularly in British Columbia ) , is a rare subspecies of the American black bear living in the Central and North Coast regions of British Columbia , Canada . It is the official provincial mammal of British Columbia . It is noted for about one-tenth of its population having white or cream-coloured coats like polar bears . This colour is due to a double recessive gene unique in the subspecies . They are not albinos and not any more related to polar bears or the `` blonde '' brown bears of Alaska 's `` ABC Islands '' than other members of their species . Sometimes , a mother black bear can have a white cub .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Kermode_bear",
"rank": 53,
"score": 113523
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Marathon Content: Polar Bear Marathon is an extreme marathon race held since 2012 at Churchill , Manitoba , Canada . The race is held in the last decade of November along Hudson Bay shore in extremely cold weather . The organizer of the Polar Bear Marathon is Albert Martens , a native of Steinbach , Manitoba , which is situated some 1000 km south of Churchill . Martens is a seasoned marathon runner who himself has participated in around 60 marathon and ultramarathon races , including Badwater Ultramarathon in Death Valley , California . Martens came to the idea of marathon race in particularly challenging cold weather after running a marathon race at -32 ° C in 2011 . The challenge of the selected race route is related not only to tough weather ( during 2013 race the temperatures dropped to -20 ° C , or -41 ° with wind chill , while the runners in 2012 were `` disappointed '' by milder temperatures between -10 ° and -20 ° ) , but also to the abundance of polar bears in its vicinity . Churchill is considered `` the Polar Bear capital of the world '' , and during late fall they board fresh sea ice to hunt for seals . Not long before the date of the first race , November 20 , 2012 , news have spread about bear attacks in Churchill . Although race organizers consider a bear attack on runners unlikely , the participants run in pairs , to which they are assigned according to their pace running times , and each pair is escorted by a truck carrying food , extra clothing and emergency equipment including rifles . While the winners of the Polar Bear Marathon are awarded only symbolic prizes such as medals , stuffed polar bears and soapstone figurines by a local sculptor , the participation in the race costs them significant money . For the flights from Winnipeg to Churchill and back , three nights ' hotel stay and sightseeing trip in the day following the race , the participants are expected to pay around $ 2,500 . The number of competitors in the Polar Bear Marathon was initially restricted by the organizers to 20 , but for first three events even this proved to be a high estimate . In the 2012 race 14 runners from 3 countries ( Canada , U.S. and Germany ) took part while only 13 athletes ran the 2013 race ( only in 2015 the number of participants exceeded 20 , reaching 24 ) . The first marathon was won by an international pair Eric Alexander ( U.S. ) - Gary Koop ( Canada ) who finished it in just over four hours , while a German runner Sven Henkes won the second race with a time of 4:12 .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Marathon",
"rank": 54,
"score": 113194
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Shores Content: Polar Bear Shores is a polar bear exhibit at the Sea World theme park on the Gold Coast , Australia . As of 2013 , the exhibit features four polar bears ( Lia , Hudson , Nelson , and Henry ) .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Shores",
"rank": 55,
"score": 112973
},
{
"content": "Title: Task Force Faith Content: Task Force Faith , also known as Task Force Maclean ( and by its official designation , Regimental Combat Team 31 ( RCT-31 ) ) or the Polar Bear Regiment , was a United States Army unit destroyed in fighting at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir during the Korean War between 27 November -- 2 December 1950 . It comprised primarily infantry , artillery , and tank units from the 7th Infantry Division , numbering approximately 3,000 soldiers . Of these , about 600 were KATUSAs ( Korean Augmentee To the U.S. Army ) . The name Task Force Faith was originally coined by a U.S. Army historian , however the unit was never known by this name . RCT-31 , which consisted of the 31st Infantry Regiment and supporting units , had the 1/31 Infantry detached and the 1/32 Infantry ( from the RCT-32 ) added , and the designation RCT-31 was never changed .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Task_Force_Faith",
"rank": 56,
"score": 112486
},
{
"content": "Title: Eisbär Content: `` Eisbär '' ( German for polar bear ) is a 1980 `` cult '' song composed by the Swiss Neue Deutsche Welle band Grauzone . It first appeared on the 1980 compilation album Swiss Wave - The Album . The shorter single version was later collected on the Grauzone album Die Sunrise Tapes ( 1998 ) . The song features a man singing he wants to be `` a polar bear in the cold polar '' , because by being one he `` would n't have to cry any longer and everything would be fine . '' The instrumental arrangement also evokes an Arctic atmosphere . Grauzone recorded in 1982 an English-language version ( Polar Bear ) of the song , which was first released in 2010 on the double CD Grauzone 1980-1982 Remastered . The song is post-punk performed with guitar , drums and synthesizers .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Eisbär",
"rank": 57,
"score": 112444
},
{
"content": "Title: Royal and Ancient Polar Bear Society Content: The Royal and Ancient Polar Bear Society locates a small exhibition in the town of Hammerfest , Norway . The significance of the polar bear is that this animal is the town 's mascot and heraldic crest . For all its remoteness , Hammerfest has a long history as a trading port , and Isbjørnklubben as it is called in Norwegian - meaning simply Polar Bear Club - sets out to commemorate this . In the museum 's single room are a variety of mementos of the early life of Hammerfest , including a profusion of stuffed animals , early Arctic hunting , traveling and camping equipment , and a gallery of photographs , paintings , drawings and writings of and from the town 's history . The depict the town as it was in previous centuries , showing that as far back as the seventeenth century CE , this tiny town was a nexus for travelers and traders in the far north and a meeting point for the isolated people of North Norway , traders sailing up from southern Europe and hunters and traders coming west from the Arctic Ocean and Russia . Founded in 1963 by two local businessmen , the Polar Bear Club is not particularly ancient . Primarily , it is a somewhat jokey amenity for tourists . Although entrance to the actual exhibition is for a nominal charge , visitors are encouraged to join the Society , which is rewarded with a membership pack , the contents of which include a certificate signed by the actual mayor , a sticker , a membership card and a lapel pin made of silver and enamel . Since the only way to join is in person at the Polar Bear Society , this pin signifies as proof of visiting this remote place .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Royal_and_Ancient_Polar_Bear_Society",
"rank": 58,
"score": 112151
},
{
"content": "Title: Nanoq Content: Nanoq ( Inuit for polar bear ) is a museum in Jakobstad , Finland , specializing in arctic culture and Greenland in particular . The museum hosts exhibitions about famous polar expeditions and displays many items , e.g. a replica of the balloon gondola from S.A. Andrée 's fateful expedition and material from the John Phipps expedition to Svalbard around 1770 , as well as several artifacts related to the Norwegian explorers Fridtjof Nansen and Roald Amundsen .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Nanoq",
"rank": 59,
"score": 112046
},
{
"content": "Title: International Polar Bear Day Content: International Polar Bear Day is an annual event celebrated every February 27 to raise awareness about the conservation status of the polar bear .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "International_Polar_Bear_Day",
"rank": 60,
"score": 112005
},
{
"content": "Title: Futuristic Polar Bears Content: Futuristic Polar Bears is a British DJ and production trio from London , formed in 2010 . Since then , the trio has released many singles , and has been signed to labels Spinnin ' , Revealed and Harem Records , the label of the Canadian duo Sultan & Shepard .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Futuristic_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 61,
"score": 111726
},
{
"content": "Title: Edese Zwem- & Poloclub Polar Bears Content: Edese Zwem - & Poloclub Polar Bears or simply Polar Bears Ede is a swimming and water polo club based in the city of Ede , Netherlands .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Edese_Zwem-_&_Poloclub_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 62,
"score": 111572
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Bear (train) Content: The Little Bear is the name for a mixed freight-passenger train operated by the Ontario Northland Railway in Northern Ontario , Canada . The Little Bear transports passengers as well as supplies to locations between Cochrane and Moosonee and is particularly popular with canoeists and hunters ; the train has a dedicated freight car for carrying canoes . It operates Monday to Friday and connects Cochrane with Moosonee . During the summer months , the Polar Bear Express dedicated passenger train operates over the same route six days per week with no flag stops , whereas the Little Bear is a flag stop train . The Polar Bear Express was expanded to a year-round service on June 5 , 2007 after increased funding from the Government of Ontario to ONR was announced in March 2007 . It resulted in the discontinuation of the Little Bear mixed freight-passenger service for a time but it was restared . Some of the numerous stops for the Little Bear mixed freight and passenger train include : Cochrane Fraserdale Otter Rapids Moose River Moosonee",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Little_Bear_(train)",
"rank": 63,
"score": 111516
},
{
"content": "Title: ABC Islands bears Content: The ABC Islands bears ( Ursus arctos sitkensis ) is a subspecies of brown bear that resides in Southeast Alaska and is found on Admiralty Island , Baranof Island , and Chichagof Island of Alaska . These islands have the colloquial name of the ABC Islands ( Alaska ) and are a part of the Alexander Archipelago . This brown bear population has a unique genetic structure , which not only relates them to brown bears but to polar bears as well . Ursus arctos sitkensis habitat exists within the Tongass National Forest , which is part of the perhumid rainforest zone .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "ABC_Islands_bears",
"rank": 64,
"score": 111077
},
{
"content": "Title: Flocke Content: Flocke ( -LSB- ˈflɔkə -RSB- ) is a female polar bear who was born in captivity at the Nuremberg Zoo in Nuremberg , Germany on 11 December 2007 . A few weeks after her birth , she was removed from her mother 's care after concerns were raised for her safety . Although the zoo had established a strict non-interference policy with its animals , officials chose to raise the cub by hand . This decision came at a time when the zoo was receiving negative attention from the media after another female polar bear reportedly ate her newly born cubs . Like Knut , a captive-born and handraised polar bear at the Berlin Zoo , Flocke ( `` flake '' in German ) quickly became a media sensation . After she made her debut to the public on 8 April 2008 , her name was trademarked by the zoo and her image appeared on toys and in advertisements throughout the city . The zoo announced in May 2008 that United Nations Environment Program chief Achim Steiner would be Flocke 's official patron with the hope of using the bear as an ambassador to encourage awareness of climate change . In late 2008 , a Russian-born male polar bear named Rasputin was introduced to Flocke 's enclosure in the hopes that she would gain valuable socializing skills with a member of her own species . In April 2010 , both bears were relocated to Marineland in southern France .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Flocke",
"rank": 65,
"score": 110429
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Zoo Content: The Polar Zoo is a zoo in the municipality of Bardu in Troms county , Norway . The park opened on 18 June 1994 , displaying animals in their natural habitat . With only 12 enclosures on 114 acre , the park has the worlds biggest area per animal ratio . The park specializes in Nordic fauna , including most of the big predators of the arctic : Brown bear , lynx , wolf , and wolverine . There are also moose , red deer , reindeer , musk ox , and polar fox .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Zoo",
"rank": 66,
"score": 110301
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Bear Trophy Content: The Polar Bear Trophy is an award given out by the Norwegian Ice Hockey Federation to Norwegian ice hockey players who have played a minimum of 50 official games for the Norwegian national ice hockey team . Counting as official games are games played at the IIHF World Championships , the Winter Olympics and qualification games to the two aforementioned tournaments . Friendly games are not counted . Referees who have officiated a minimum of 30 games at the Winter Olympics or IIHF World Championship ( Elite and Division 1 ) at either the senior or the junior level are also eligible for reception . The NIHF board may also award the trophy to builders who have shown an extra ordinary dedication to Norwegian ice hockey .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_Bear_Trophy",
"rank": 67,
"score": 110183
},
{
"content": "Title: Binturong Content: The binturong ( -LSB- bɪn ` tu : rɒŋ -RSB- ) ( Arctictis binturong ) , also known as bearcat , is a viverrid native to South and Southeast Asia . It is uncommon in much of its range , and has been assessed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List because of a declining population trend that is estimated at more than 30 % over the last three decades . Although called ` bearcat ' , this omnivorous mammal is neither related to bears nor cats but to the palm civets of Asia . It is a monotypic genus . Its genus name Arctictis means ` bear-weasel ' , from Greek arkt - ` bear ' + iktis ` weasel ' . In 1822 , Thomas Stamford Raffles first described a specimen from Malacca . In Riau , Indonesia it was known as tenturun .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Binturong",
"rank": 68,
"score": 109740
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar seas Content: Polar seas is a collective term for the Arctic Ocean ( about 4-5 percent of Earth 's oceans ) and the southern part of the Southern Ocean ( south of Antarctic Convergence , about 10 percent of Earth 's oceans ) . In the coldest years , sea ice can cover around 13 percent of the Earth 's total surface at its maximum , but out of phase in the two hemispheres . The polar seas contain a huge biome with many organisms . Among the species that inhabit various polar seas and surrounding land areas are polar bear , penguin , reindeer ( caribou ) , muskox , wolverine , ermine , lemming , Arctic hare , Arctic ground squirrel , whale , harp seal , and walrus . These species have unique adaptations to the extreme conditions . Many might be endangered if they can not adapt to changing conditions . Contrary to popular opinion , the World Wildlife Fund studies for polar bears show that this species has prospered since 1950 , attaining five times the numbers found in 1950 . In general , Arctic ecosystems are relatively fragile and slow to recover from serious damage .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar_seas",
"rank": 69,
"score": 109516
},
{
"content": "Title: Japanese black bear Content: The Japanese black bear ( Ursus thibetanus japonicus ) is a subspecies of the Asian black bear that lives on three main islands of Japan : Honshu , Shikoku and Kyushu . There are said to be 10,000 black bears on Japan . The population of black bears on Shikoku and Kyushu may be endangered or extinct . There is a high price on bear parts in the black market , which threatens all bear populations in Japan . This particular species of bear are typically smaller with males only reaching 60-120 Kg and females only weighing about 40-100 Kg . Their body length is about 120 -- 140 cm long .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Japanese_black_bear",
"rank": 70,
"score": 109187
},
{
"content": "Title: Steven Amstrup Content: Steven C. Amstrup ( born February 4 , 1950 ) is an American zoologist who studies bears , especially polar bears . He is the 2012 recipient of the Indianapolis Prize .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Steven_Amstrup",
"rank": 71,
"score": 108691
},
{
"content": "Title: Ísbjarnarblús Content: Ísbjarnarblús ( English : `` Polar Bear Blues '' ) was the debut solo record released by Icelandic songwriter Bubbi Morthens . The album was released on June 17 , 1980 in co-operation with Bókaútgáfan Iðunn . Within three days , the record went to second place on DV best-sellers list and it was on Iceland 's top 10 best-selling records list for 5 weeks .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Ísbjarnarblús",
"rank": 72,
"score": 108676
},
{
"content": "Title: Kodiak bear Content: The Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ) , also known as the Kodiak brown bear , sometimes the Alaskan brown bear , inhabits the islands of the Kodiak Archipelago in southwest Alaska . Its Alutiiq name is taquka-aq . It is the largest recognized subspecies of brown bear , and one of the two largest bears alive today , the other being the polar bear . Physiologically , the Kodiak bear is very similar to the other brown bear subspecies , such as the mainland grizzly bear ( Ursus arctos horribilis ) and the now-extinct California grizzly bear ( U. a. californicus † ) , with the main difference being in size . While there is generally much variation in size between brown bears in different areas , most usually weigh between 115 and 360 kg ( 254 and 794 lb ) . The Kodiak bear , on the other hand , commonly reaches sizes of 300 to , and has even been known to exceed weights of 680 kg on occasion . Despite this large variation in size , the diet and lifestyle of the Kodiak bear does not differ greatly from that of other brown bears . Ever since the first humans arrived in Alaska over the Bering land bridge , encounters between people and Kodiak bears have occurred . Today , these encounters have become relatively more common as a result of the increase in the human population in the region . Such encounters have included the hunting of bears by humans for their fur or meat , and , less commonly , attacks by bears upon humans . More recently , as conservation efforts have become more commonplace , concerns over the sustenance and stability of the Kodiak bear population have arisen . The IUCN classifies Ursus arctos , the species to which the Kodiak belongs , as being of `` least concern '' in terms of endangerment or extinction . However , the IUCN does not differentiate between subspecies ; therefore , it is unknown whether the Kodiak bear population is as healthy as is stated . As a result , the Alaska Department of Fish and Game , along with , to a lesser extent , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service , closely monitors the number of bears hunted in the state .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Kodiak_bear",
"rank": 73,
"score": 108333
},
{
"content": "Title: Bear Content: Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae . Bears are classified as caniforms , or doglike carnivorans . Although only eight species of bears are extant , they are widespread , appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the Northern Hemisphere and partially in the Southern Hemisphere . Bears are found on the continents of North America , South America , Europe , and Asia . Common characteristics of modern bears include large bodies with stocky legs , long snouts , small rounded ears , shaggy hair , plantigrade paws with five nonretractile claws , and short tails . While the polar bear is mostly carnivorous , and the giant panda feeds almost entirely on bamboo , the remaining six species are omnivorous with varied diets . With the exception of courting individuals and mothers with their young , bears are typically solitary animals . They may be diurnal or nocturnal and have an excellent sense of smell . Despite their heavy build and awkward gait , they are adept runners , climbers , and swimmers . Bears use shelters , such as caves and logs , as their dens ; most species occupy their dens during the winter for a long period of hibernation , up to 100 days . Bears have been hunted since prehistoric times for their meat and fur ; they have been used for bear-baiting and other forms of entertainment , such as being made to dance . With their powerful physical presence , they play a prominent role in the arts , mythology , and other cultural aspects of various human societies . In modern times , bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts , including the Asian bile bear market . The IUCN lists six bear species as vulnerable or endangered , and even least concern species , such as the brown bear , are at risk of extirpation in certain countries . The poaching and international trade of these most threatened populations are prohibited , but still ongoing .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Bear",
"rank": 74,
"score": 107860
},
{
"content": "Title: Wilbär Content: Wilbär is a polar bear who was born in captivity at the Wilhelma Zoo in Stuttgart , Germany on 10 December 2007 . Wilbär made his first public appearance on 16 April 2008 , swimming alongside his mother . His name comes from combining the name of the zoo with the German word for bear ( Bär ) . Zoo officials have registered the name as a trademark .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Wilbär",
"rank": 75,
"score": 107780
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar, Wisconsin Content: Polar is a town in Langlade County , Wisconsin , United States . The population was 995 at the 2000 census . The unincorporated community of Polar is located in the town .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Polar,_Wisconsin",
"rank": 76,
"score": 107647
},
{
"content": "Title: HDMS Hvidbjørnen (F360) Content: HDMS Hvidbjørnen ( Hvidbjørnen is older Danish for polar bear ) is a belonging to the Royal Danish Navy .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "HDMS_Hvidbjørnen_(F360)",
"rank": 77,
"score": 107496
},
{
"content": "Title: Brumas Content: `` Brumas '' may refer to one of the following : Mists ( Brumas ) , 2003 , is a Portuguese feature-length film by Ricardo Costa ( filmmaker ) . Brumas ( 1949-1958 ) was the first polar bear cub to be born in captivity ( at London_Zoo ) .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Brumas",
"rank": 78,
"score": 106941
},
{
"content": "Title: Nanok East Greenland Fishing Company Content: Nanok East Greenland Fishing Company Østgrønlandsk Fangstkompagni Nanok A/S ( ØFNAS ) ) , generally known as ` Nanok ' -- meaning `` polar bear '' in Greenlandic , was a Danish company in Greenland . A cultural organization with the objective of propagating knowledge about Northeast Greenland was founded in 1992 under the same name .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Nanok_East_Greenland_Fishing_Company",
"rank": 79,
"score": 106925
},
{
"content": "Title: Wolfpack Eisbär Content: Eisbär ( English : Polar Bear ) was a wolfpack of German U-boats that operated from 23 to 29 August 1942 in World War II . This pack was assembled to operate in the South Atlantic off Cape Town which was considered to be virgin waters . Some of the most experienced U-boat commanders available such as Harald Gelhaus , Werner Hartenstein and Carl Emmermann were included . They shadowed the Freetown , Sierra Leone to Liverpool Convoy SL-119 , and sank only one ship for a total of .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Wolfpack_Eisbär",
"rank": 80,
"score": 106806
},
{
"content": "Title: Dim Lit Content: Dim Lit is the debut album by British jazz band Polar Bear , formed and led by drummer Sebastian Rochford .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Dim_Lit",
"rank": 81,
"score": 106656
},
{
"content": "Title: Chaleh Polarz Content: Chaleh Polarz ( چاله پلرز , also Romanized as Chāleh Polarz ) is a village in Daland Rural District , in the Central District of Ramian County , Golestan Province , Iran . At the 2006 census , its population was 222 , in 56 families .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Chaleh_Polarz",
"rank": 82,
"score": 106369
},
{
"content": "Title: Ittoqqortoormiit Content: Ittoqqortoormiit ( East Greenlandic ) or Illoqqortoormiut ( West Greenlandic ) ( -LSB- itːoqːɔʁtɔːʁmiːt -RSB- ) , formerly known as Scoresbysund , is a settlement in the Sermersooq municipality in eastern Greenland . Its population is 452 . The former name Scoresbysund derives from the Arctic explorer and whaler William Scoresby , who was the first to map the area in 1822 . The name `` Ittoqqortoormiit '' means `` Big-House Dwellers '' in the Eastern Greenlandic dialect . The region is known for its wildlife , including polar bears , muskoxen , and seals .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Ittoqqortoormiit",
"rank": 83,
"score": 106364
},
{
"content": "Title: Ian Stirling (biologist) Content: Ian Stirling ( born September 26 , 1941 ) is a research scientist emeritus with Environment and Climate Change Canada and an adjunct professor in the University of Alberta Department of Biological Sciences . His research has focused mostly on Arctic and Antarctic zoology and ecology , and he is one of the world 's top authorities on polar bears . Stirling has written five books and more than 150 articles published in peer-reviewed scientific journals . He has written and spoken extensively about the danger posed to polar bears by global warming .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Ian_Stirling_(biologist)",
"rank": 84,
"score": 106265
},
{
"content": "Title: 31st Infantry Regiment (United States) Content: The 31st Infantry Regiment ( `` Polar Bears '' ) of the United States Army was formed on 13 August 1916 , and was part of USAFFE 's Philippine Division during World War II . The unit is rare in that it was formed and has spent most of its life on non-American soil . The regiment is the second to bear the designation , the first being formed out of the 3rd Battalion of the 13th Infantry on 28 July 1866 , in the reorganization of the U.S. Army following the American Civil War . However that unit 's existence was short-lived , being consolidated with its sister regiment the 22nd Infantry ( also formed out of the 13th ) in the 1869 reorganization . The current 31st Infantry has no relation by lineage to the first regiment .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "31st_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)",
"rank": 85,
"score": 106190
},
{
"content": "Title: The Polar Bear Suit Content: `` The Polar Bear Suit '' is the second episode of the first season in the Swift and Shift Couriers Series . It originally aired on 3 November 2008 in Australia on the SBS The episode is rated MA 15 + .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "The_Polar_Bear_Suit",
"rank": 86,
"score": 105759
},
{
"content": "Title: Inuka Content: Inuka ( Inuit for `` Silent Stalker '' ) ( born 26 December 1990 ) is a male polar bear and one of the mascots of the Singapore Zoo .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Inuka",
"rank": 87,
"score": 105083
},
{
"content": "Title: Bears, Friesland Content: Bears or Beers is a small village in the Dutch province of Friesland . It is located in the municipality Littenseradiel , about 8 km southwest of Leeuwarden . Bears has a population of about 120 . The official name of the village is in Frisian ( `` Bears '' ) , like all villages in Littenseradiel . `` Beers '' is the Dutch name .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Bears,_Friesland",
"rank": 88,
"score": 105080
},
{
"content": "Title: Dance of the Polar Bears Content: Dance of the Polar Bears ( Lad isbjørnene danse ) is a 1990 Danish drama film directed by Birger Larsen . The film was selected as the Danish entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 63rd Academy Awards , but was not accepted as a nominee .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Dance_of_the_Polar_Bears",
"rank": 89,
"score": 104552
},
{
"content": "Title: Coney Island Polar Bear Club Content: The Coney Island Polar Bear Club is the oldest winter bathing organization in the United States , whose members regularly take polar bear plunges in the winters . The club was founded by famed health advocate Bernarr McFadden in 1903 . The club began using the event to raise funds for Special Olympics starting in 2005 , and Camp Sunshine in 2007 . Members swim in the Atlantic Ocean at Coney Island , New York , United States every Sunday from November through April . Every New Year 's Day , the Club is joined by participants from around the country , who partake in an annual swim . The 2005 event had 300 participants and 6000 onlookers . The Chief Polar Bear blows a conch shell to gather the swimmers before they run into the water . The club was mentioned in popular culture . It is mentioned on the season three episode of Seinfeld , `` The Pez Dispenser '' . In the episode Kramer informs Jerry that he has joined the club , claiming it to be ` invigorating ' . It was also publicized on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , in a taped segment by Dan Bakkedahl about the effects of global warming on the club in faux-nature documentary style .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Coney_Island_Polar_Bear_Club",
"rank": 90,
"score": 104262
},
{
"content": "Title: Berenkuil (traffic) Content: A berenkuil ( a Dutch word meaning a bear pit ) is a type of traffic circle found in the Netherlands . In this construction , automotive traffic is directed around a raised outer circle . This leaves a sunken open space in the center of the circle which is used for bicycle paths . Perhaps the first berenkuil , and the one that gives its name to this type of circle , is the one in Utrecht , built in 1944 . There are several theories for the origin of its name , including the possibility that an actual bear pit was located there , or that it was named in honor of the British 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division , nicknamed the polar bears , who liberated Utrecht from the Nazis .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Berenkuil_(traffic)",
"rank": 91,
"score": 104238
},
{
"content": "Title: List of fatal bear attacks in North America Content: Fatal bear attacks in North America have occurred in a variety of settings . There have been several in the bears ' wilderness habitats involving hikers , hunters , and campers . Brown bear incidents have occurred in their native range spanning Alaska , Northern and Western Canada , and portions of the Rocky Mountains in the United States . The locations of black bear wilderness fatal attacks reflect their wider range : all Canadian Provinces except the Atlantic Provinces and several major mountainous areas in the United States . Bears held captive by animal trainers , in zoos , carnivals , or kept as pets have been responsible for several attacks . There have also been unusual cases in which a person entered a bear 's cage and was then mauled . Bear attacks are extremely rare . Attacks are for predatory , territorial , or protective reasons . Most wilderness attacks have occurred when there was only one to two persons in the vicinity . In this list , three species of bear are recognized : the brown bear ( Ursus arctos ) , the American black bear ( Ursus americanus ) , and the polar bear ( Ursus maritimus ) .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "List_of_fatal_bear_attacks_in_North_America",
"rank": 92,
"score": 103867
},
{
"content": "Title: Seward Polar Bear Jump-Off Content: Started in 1986 , the Polar Bear Jump-Off is an annual event held in Seward , Alaska to raise money for the American Cancer Society . Money is raised by participants who collect pledges and jump into the frigid waters of Seward 's small boat harbor just off of Resurrection Bay . Jumpers often dress in entertaining costumes . The event has grown larger over the years and now includes a silent auction , turkey bowling , a carnival , and parade . Category : Tourist attractions in Seward , Alaska Category : American Cancer Society Category : Cancer fundraisers Category : Annual events in Alaska",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Seward_Polar_Bear_Jump-Off",
"rank": 93,
"score": 103693
},
{
"content": "Title: Trunko Content: Trunko is the nickname for a globster reportedly sighted in Margate , South Africa , on 25 October 1924 , according to an article entitled `` Fish Like A Polar Bear '' published in the 27 December 1924 , edition of London 's Daily Mail . The animal was reputedly first seen off the coast battling two killer whales , which fought the unusual creature for three hours . It used its tail to attack the whales and reportedly lifted itself out of the water by about 20 feet . One of the witnesses , South African farmer Hugh Ballance , described the animal as looking like a `` giant polar bear '' due to what was thought to be dense-white fur . The creature reputedly washed up on Margate Beach but despite being there for 10 days , no scientist ever investigated the carcass while it was beached , so no reliable description has been published , and until September 2010 it was assumed that no photographs of it had ever been published . Some people who have never been identified were reported to have described the animal as possessing snowy-white fur , an elephantine trunk , a lobster-like tail , and a carcass devoid of blood . Commenting on the photos , paleontologist Darren Naish wrote :",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Trunko",
"rank": 94,
"score": 103483
},
{
"content": "Title: Pleasant Lake, Minnesota Content: Pleasant Lake is a neighborhood of the city of Rockville in Stearns County , Minnesota , United States . The population was 504 at the 2000 census . Pleasant Lake was settled about 1890 and incorporated on July 11 , 1938 . On 1 June 2002 , the city of Pleasant Lake and Rockville Township were merged into the city of Rockville . At the center of the community , lies the 400 Supper Club which lines the lakefront of Pleasant Lake . Most notable for its venue in weddings , conferences , and banquets , the 400 Supper Club also hosts the annual Polar bear plunge to raise money for the Special Olympics .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Pleasant_Lake,_Minnesota",
"rank": 95,
"score": 103447
},
{
"content": "Title: Ursa Minor Content: Ursa Minor ( Latin : `` Lesser Bear '' , contrasting with Ursa Major ) , also known as the Little Bear , is a constellation in the Northern Sky . Like the Great Bear , the tail of the Little Bear may also be seen as the handle of a ladle , hence the North American name , Little Dipper : seven stars with four in its bowl like its partner the Big Dipper . It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy , and remains one of the 88 modern constellations . Ursa Minor has traditionally been important for navigation , particularly by mariners , because of Polaris being the North Star . Polaris , the brightest star in the constellation , is a yellow-white supergiant and the brightest Cepheid variable star in the night sky , ranging from an apparent magnitude of 1.97 to 2.00 . Beta Ursae Minoris , also known as Kochab , is an aging star that has swollen and cooled to become an orange giant with an apparent magnitude of 2.08 , only slightly fainter than Polaris . Kochab and magnitude 3 Gamma Ursae Minoris have been called the `` guardians of the pole star '' . Planets have been detected orbiting four of the stars , including Kochab . The constellation also contains an isolated neutron star -- Calvera -- and H1504 +65 , the hottest white dwarf yet discovered , with a surface temperature of 200,000 K.",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Ursa_Minor",
"rank": 96,
"score": 103113
},
{
"content": "Title: Henry Rudi Content: Henry Rudi ( 1889 -- 1970 ) was a Norwegian huntsman and polar bear hunter . His father had come from Gudbrandsdalen , to settle in Troms . Rudi went on a total of 40 hunting trips to the Arctic regions , and wintered there for 25 of them . The animals that were usually hunted in these regions include Arctic fox , walrus and seal , but Rudi is most known for having killed 713 polar bears through his years in the Arctic . Areas in which Henry Rudi spent several winters , include Svalbard , Jan Mayen and Greenland . The winter of 1947 , was the last time Rudi went hunting in the Arctic .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Henry_Rudi",
"rank": 97,
"score": 103067
},
{
"content": "Title: Bear Lake Township, Manistee County, Michigan Content: Bear Lake Township is a civil township of Manistee County in the U.S. state of Michigan . As of the 2000 census , the township population was 1,587 . The village of Bear Lake is located within the township .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Bear_Lake_Township,_Manistee_County,_Michigan",
"rank": 98,
"score": 102943
},
{
"content": "Title: Seb Rochford Content: Sebastian `` Seb '' Rochford is a Scottish drummer and bandleader who spans many musical genres . Rochford leads British band Polar Bear . He was born in Aberdeen and has a large family of two brothers and seven sisters . His father , Gerard Rochford , is an accomplished poet in the north east of Scotland . He is married to Matana Roberts . Rochford has played drums for Polar Bear , Acoustic Ladyland , Basquiat Strings , Oriole , Menlo Park , Ingrid Laubrock Quintet , Bojan Zulfikarpasic 's Tetraband , and Sons of Kemet . He worked extensively with Joanna MacGregor and Andy Sheppard and leads the band Fulborn Teversham and has an improvising duo with Leafcutter John . He also has a solo project called Room of Katinas . He has drummed for Pete Doherty , with his band Babyshambles , in the early days of the band , and has continued to make guest appearances with them . He drummed on the first Babyshambles release , a limited edition single `` Babyshambles '' , released on the High Society label . In 2008 , he drummed on the David Byrne and Brian Eno album Everything That Happens Will Happen Today . He has worked with Corrine Bailey Rae and Herbie Hancock . He drummed on five songs on Carl Barat 's solo album released on 4 October 2010 . In 2011 , he drummed on Brian Eno and Rick Holland 's album Drums Between the Bells . Rochford produced and co-wrote a four-track EP with UK hip hop MC Mikill Pane , The Guinness & Blackcurrant EP , which was released independently on 24 October 2011 . Rochford has collaborated with American theremin player Pamelia Kurstin . He played live with Brett Anderson on Later Live ... With Jools Holland on 1 November 2011 . In 2014 , he played on Paolo Nutini 's album Caustic Love . In 2016 , he toured with Patti Smith . In 2006 , he collaborated with Gwyneth Herbert in a production role for her album Between Me and the Wardrobe . Held on the Tips of Fingers and In Each and Every One were nominated for the Mercury Prize in 2005 and 2014 respectively .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Seb_Rochford",
"rank": 99,
"score": 102780
},
{
"content": "Title: Bob Deitrick Content: Bob Deitrick is an American author and the principal owner of Polaris Financial Partners , LLC in Westerville , Ohio . He has appeared on numerous local and national television networks discussing various financial and political topics and he has appeared on the Fox Business Network discussing the results of his book Bulls Bears and the Ballot Box co-written with Lew Goldfarb .",
"qid": "6",
"docid": "Bob_Deitrick",
"rank": 100,
"score": 102696
}
] |
Ironic' study finds more CO2 has slightly cooled the planet | [
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 1,
"score": 112183
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 2,
"score": 109762
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon planet Content: A carbon planet is a theoretical type of planet that contains more carbon than oxygen . Marc Kuchner and Sara Seager coined the term `` carbon planet '' in 2005 and investigated such planets following the suggestion of Katharina Lodders that Jupiter formed from a carbon-rich core . Prior investigations of planets with high carbon-to-oxygen ratios include Fegley & Cameron 1987 . Carbon planets could form if protoplanetary discs are carbon-rich and oxygen-poor . They would develop differently from Earth , Mars , and Venus , which are composed mostly of silicon -- oxygen compounds . The theory is now built on reasonable scientific ideas and has gained support . Different planetary systems have different carbon-to-oxygen ratios , with the Solar System 's terrestrial planets closer to being `` oxygen planets '' . The exoplanet PSR J1719-1438 b , discovered on August 25 , 2011 , as well as the planet 55 Cancri e , could be such planets .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Carbon_planet",
"rank": 3,
"score": 101772
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning",
"rank": 4,
"score": 100579
},
{
"content": "Title: Gustav Lorentzen (scientist) Content: Gustav Fredrik Lorentzen ( 13 January 1915 -- 7 August 1995 ) was a thermodynamic scientist from Norway . Gustav Lorentzen was a professor at Norwegian Institute of Technology , and Norwegian University of Science and Technology . In the late 1980s , Gustav Lorentzen rediscovered how CO2 could be used as a refrigerant in heating and cooling applications . He developed the modern thermodynamic transcritical cycle in 1988-1991 . In 1988 Lorentzen designed a concept for a new , but simple and efficient way of regulating CO2 systems . This idea became the turning point in the re-invention of CO2 cooling technology . Meanwhile , the Japanese corporation Denso had familiarized itself with Lorentzen 's dissertation in 1993 , and was evaluating the concept as a basis for a new air-condition application in cars . A series of communications between Lorentzen and Denso followed and the result of the collaboration between Lorentzen and Denso was a fundamental step in the innovation of EcoCute which was commercialized in 2000s .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Gustav_Lorentzen_(scientist)",
"rank": 5,
"score": 95237
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth",
"rank": 6,
"score": 94118
},
{
"content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Iris_hypothesis",
"rank": 7,
"score": 92951
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 8,
"score": 91195
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Cool_Earth_50",
"rank": 9,
"score": 90769
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies",
"rank": 10,
"score": 89803
},
{
"content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Amorphous_carbonia",
"rank": 11,
"score": 87598
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 12,
"score": 87398
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 13,
"score": 86876
},
{
"content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Suess_effect",
"rank": 14,
"score": 86260
},
{
"content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model",
"rank": 15,
"score": 84714
},
{
"content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Revelle_factor",
"rank": 16,
"score": 83879
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 17,
"score": 83720
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Charles_David_Keeling",
"rank": 18,
"score": 82810
},
{
"content": "Title: (7352) 1994 CO Content: is an exceptionally slow rotating carbonaceous Jupiter trojan from the Trojan camp , approximately 48 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 February 1994 , by Japanese astronomers Seiji Ueda and Hiroshi Kaneda at Kushiro Observatory in Kushiro , Japan .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "(7352)_1994_CO",
"rank": 19,
"score": 82673
},
{
"content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Keith_E._Idso",
"rank": 20,
"score": 82152
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool the Earth Content: Cool the Earth Inc. is a non-profit educational organization based in Northern California . The mission of Cool the Earth is to educate kids and their families about climate change and motivate them to take simple measurable actions at home to reduce their carbon emissions . Currently , the organization offers programming to over 100 elementary schools .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Cool_the_Earth",
"rank": 21,
"score": 81683
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 22,
"score": 81644
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 23,
"score": 81631
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Globes: Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet Content: Cool Globes : Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet is a public art project dedicated to increasing awareness of global warming . A nonprofit corporation , `` Cool Globes : Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet '' sponsored a Chicago public art exhibit of 125 5 ft globes decorated with solutions to global warming , placed in Grant Park near the Field Museum of Natural History , the Shedd Aquarium , and along the lakefront bike path during the summer of 2007 . The project is similar to the popular `` Cows on Parade '' exhibit of 1999 , but with a social conscience . The Cool Globes adopts the idea of Berlin 's town mascot ; the entailing United Buddy Bears exhibitions are very different from all other urban events . The bears were created by the German artists Klaus and Eva Herlitz . The idea and the philosophy behind the United Buddy Bears exhibitions are unique : with its international approach and its symbolism , this synthesis of the arts globally promotes tolerance , international understanding and a peaceful coexistence .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Cool_Globes:_Hot_Ideas_for_a_Cooler_Planet",
"rank": 24,
"score": 81494
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding",
"rank": 25,
"score": 81392
},
{
"content": "Title: Cortical cooling Content: Neuroscientists generate various studies to help explain many of the complex connections and functions of the brain . Most studies utilize animal models that have varying degrees of comparison to the human brain ; for example , small rodents are less comparable than non-human primates . One of the most definitive ways of determining which sections of the brain contribute to certain behavior or function is to deactivate a section of the brain and observe what behavior is altered . Investigators have a wide range of options for deactivating neural tissue , and one of the more recently developed methods being used is deactivation through cooling . Cortical cooling refers to the cooling methods restricted to the cerebral cortex , where most higher brain processes occur . Below is a list of current cooling methods , their advantages and limitations , and some studies that have used cooling to elucidate neural functions .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Cortical_cooling",
"rank": 26,
"score": 81162
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 189733 b Content: HD 189733 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 63 light-years away from the Solar System in the constellation of Vulpecula . The planet was discovered orbiting the star HD 189733 A on October 5 , 2005 , when astronomers in France observed the planet transiting across the face of the star . With a mass 13 % higher than that of Jupiter , HD 189733 b orbits its host star once every 2.2 days at an orbital speed of 152.5 km/s , making it a hot Jupiter with poor prospects for extraterrestrial life . Being the closest transiting hot Jupiter to Earth , HD 189733 b is a subject for extensive atmospheric examination . HD 189733 b was the first extrasolar planet for which a thermal map was constructed , to be detected through polarimetry , to have its overall color determined ( deep blue ) , to have a transit detected in X-ray spectrum and to have carbon dioxide detected in its atmosphere . In July , 2014 , NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on three exoplanets ( HD 189733b , HD 209458b , WASP-12b ) orbiting Sun-like stars .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "HD_189733_b",
"rank": 27,
"score": 80908
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 28,
"score": 80893
},
{
"content": "Title: Travis Barman Content: Travis Barman is an astronomer at the Lowell Observatory in Arizona , in the United States . While studying a combination of the previously published Hubble Space Telescope measurements and new theoretical models , Barman found strong evidence for water absorption in the atmosphere of HD 209458 b. A planet about 150 light years away from earth , HD 209458 b was known previously to contain an evaporating hydrogen atmosphere , along with oxygen and carbon . Though the planet is only 7 million kilometers away from its star , the planet is not hot enough to break the water molecules . HD 209458 b , a transiting planet , passes in front of its star , where it can be viewed from earth every three and a half days . When this happens , water vapor in the planet 's atmosphere causes the planet to appear slightly larger in the infrared part of the starlight than in the visible portion . Barman found the water signature after applying new theoretical models he developed to visible and infrared Hubble data collected by then-Harvard graduate student Heather Knutson in 2007 , which measured the perceived size of the planet over a broad range of wavelengths .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Travis_Barman",
"rank": 29,
"score": 80675
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Aid Content: Cool Aid ( Full name Cool Aid : The National Carbon Test ) was a special that aired in Australia on Network 10 . The show was designed for families to take a ` carbon test ' to see how much they are contributing to the greenhouse effect . Australian celebrities such as Erin McNaught and ` Occhi ' were asked to be monitored throughout one day to see their emmitance . The day was played out through the course of the special . The show was hosted by Sandra Sully and had live guests such as Toni Collette and her band The Finnish and Australian of the Year Tim Flannery . It was a ratings bomb for Channel 10 . Category : Network Ten shows",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Cool_Aid",
"rank": 30,
"score": 80595
},
{
"content": "Title: Gliese 1132 b Content: Gliese 1132 b ( often shortened to GJ 1132 b ) is an exoplanet orbiting a red dwarf star ( Gliese 1132 ) 39 light years ( 12 parsecs ) from Earth , in the constellation Vela . The planet is considered uninhabitable but cool enough to possess an atmosphere . Gliese 1132 b was discovered by the MEarth-South array in Chile . It has been called `` one of the most important planets ever discovered beyond the Solar System '' : Due to its relative proximity to Earth , telescopes should be able to determine the composition of its atmosphere , the speed of its winds and the color of its sunsets . This is due in part to the small diameter of its parent star ( 21 % that of the Sun ) , which increases the effect on the star 's light of its transits . The planet 's diameter is approximately 20 % larger than that of the Earth and its mass is estimated at 1.6 times that of Earth , implying that it has an Earth-like rocky composition . Gliese 1132 b orbits its star every 1.6 days at a distance of 1.4 million miles . The planet receives 19 times more stellar radiation than Earth . The temperature of the top of its atmosphere is estimated at 500 F . The planet is estimated to be hotter than Venus , as higher temperatures may prevail near the surface . ( cf. Atmosphere of Venus , Colonization of Venus ) It is possible that one side of the planet is cooler , because it is presumed to be tidally locked due to its proximity to its star ; however , under most circumstances where an atmosphere is thick , it would be able to transfer heat to the far side . In April 2017 , an atmosphere was confirmed around Gliese 1132 b . It is the most Earth-like exoplanet to date that is known to have an atmosphere .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Gliese_1132_b",
"rank": 31,
"score": 80201
},
{
"content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike",
"rank": 32,
"score": 79804
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Effect Content: Cool Effect is a crowdfunding platform that provides individuals the opportunity to support carbon emissions reductions by funding carbon-reducing projects around the world . Cool Effect is a registered 501 ( c ) 3 nonprofit organization headquartered in Kentfield , California .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Cool_Effect",
"rank": 33,
"score": 79692
},
{
"content": "Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Gilbert_Plass",
"rank": 34,
"score": 79160
},
{
"content": "Title: COROT-13b Content: CoRoT-13b is a transiting exoplanet found by the CoRoT space telescope on 12 July 2010 . It is an extremely hot Jupiter-like planet with an orbital period of 4.04 earth days , that is around 4257.5 light years away . Its mass is equivalent to 1.308 Jupiter masses , 0.9 Jupiter radii , and has a density of 2.34 g cm 3 . CoRoT-13b orbits a G0V star with Te = 5 945K , M = 1.09 M , R = 1.01 R , solar metallicity . It has a lithium content of +1.45 dex , and an estimated age between 0.12 and 3.15 Gyr . The lithium abundance of the star is consistent with its effective temperature , activity level , and age range derived from the stellar analysis . The planet 's density is extreme for its amount of mass . It implies the existence of an amount of heavy elements with a mass between about 140 and 300M .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "COROT-13b",
"rank": 35,
"score": 79151
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 36,
"score": 78936
},
{
"content": "Title: OGLE2-TR-L9b Content: OGLE2-TR-L9b is an extrasolar planet discovered by three undergraduate students from Leiden University , Netherlands . The planet is about 4.5 times as massive as Jupiter and is the first discovered planet orbiting a fast rotating hot star . Initially discovered while testing a method for investigating light fluctuations in the OGLE database , the planet 's existence was later confirmed by follow up observations from the ESO 's Very Large Telescope in Chile .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "OGLE2-TR-L9b",
"rank": 37,
"score": 78936
},
{
"content": "Title: 972 Cohnia Content: 972 Cohnia is a minor planet orbiting the Sun , one of several such in the asteroid belt . It was discovered on 18 January 1908 by a team in Heidelberg led by Max Wolf . In 2007 , lightcurve data showed that Cohnia rotates every 18.472 ± 0.004 hours .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "972_Cohnia",
"rank": 38,
"score": 78899
},
{
"content": "Title: Project Vulcan Content: Project Vulcan is a NASA/DOE funded effort under the North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions at space/time scales much finer than has been achieved in the past . The initial purpose of the Vulcan Project was to aid in quantification of the North American carbon budget , to support inverse estimation of carbon sources and sinks , and to support the demands posed by higher resolution CO2 observations . The detail and scope of the Vulcan CO2 inventory has now made it a valuable tool for policymakers , demographers , social scientists and the public at large . Project Vulcan has achieved U.S. fossil fuel CO2 emissions at < 10 km spatial scales and an hourly time scale , based on datasets such as air quality emissions reporting , census data , highway statistics , energy statistics , and econometric data . Furthermore , Vulcan includes significant process-level detail , dividing the emissions into economic sectors and sub-sectors in addition to 23 fuel types . It has been produced for the year 2002 , and an annual product spanning 1980-2006 will be available by late-2009 . The first Vulcan inventory ( v1 .0 ) was released to the public in early April 2008 . Version 1.1 was released in February 2009 and Version 1.2 is due out in early August 2009 . In addition to the data release , establishment of the Vulcan website and a press release , a video of various aspects of atmospheric transport was released on Purdue University 's YouTube website and portions of the Vulcan inventory are available on Google Earth . As of 2015 , version 2.2 has been published on a site hosted by Arizona State University .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Project_Vulcan",
"rank": 39,
"score": 78381
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming",
"rank": 40,
"score": 78062
},
{
"content": "Title: K2-3 Content: K2-3 , also known as EPIC 201367065 , is a red dwarf with three known planets . All are Super-Earths , and the outermost is in the habitable zone . It is on the borderline of being a late orange dwarf/K-type star , but because of its temperature , it is classified as a red dwarf ( 4,000 K is typically the division line between spectral class M and K ) . At a distance of about 140 light-years , the star ranks among the top 10 nearest stars known to have transiting planets . The star 's proximity means it is bright enough to make it feasible for astronomers to study the planets ' atmospheres to determine whether they are like Earth 's atmosphere and possibly conducive to life . `` A paper describing the find by astronomers at the University of Arizona , UC Berkeley , University of Hawaii , Manoa , and other institutions has been submitted to Astrophysical Journal and is freely available on the arXiv website . `` The three planets are 2.1 , 1.7 and 1.5 times the size of Earth . The outermost planet , at 1.5 Earth radii , is the smallest of the bunch and orbits far enough from its host star that it receives levels of light from its star similar to those received by Earth from the sun , said UC Berkeley graduate student Erik Petigura , who discovered the planets Jan. 6 while conducting a computer analysis of the Kepler data NASA has made available to astronomers . He calculated that the three planets receive 10.5 , 3.2 , and 1.4 times the light intensity of Earth . '' ` Most planets we have found to date are scorched . This system is the closest star with lukewarm transiting planets , ' Petigura said . ` There is a very real possibility that the outermost planet is rocky like Earth , which means this planet could have the right temperature to support liquid water oceans . ' ''",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "K2-3",
"rank": 41,
"score": 77981
},
{
"content": "Title: Martian polar ice caps Content: The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Martian_polar_ice_caps",
"rank": 42,
"score": 77729
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory",
"rank": 43,
"score": 77691
},
{
"content": "Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Oceanic_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 44,
"score": 77590
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 45,
"score": 77420
},
{
"content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 46,
"score": 77365
},
{
"content": "Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "ECOCITIES_(software)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 77079
},
{
"content": "Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "C._Kumar_N._Patel",
"rank": 48,
"score": 76825
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 49,
"score": 76812
},
{
"content": "Title: (11474) 1982 SM2 Content: is a carbonaceous Baptistina asteroid and potentially slow rotator from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 6 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 18 September 1982 , by Belgian astronomer Henri Debehogne at ESO La Silla Observatory in northern Chile .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "(11474)_1982_SM2",
"rank": 50,
"score": 76671
},
{
"content": "Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Katsuko_Saruhashi",
"rank": 51,
"score": 76446
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 52,
"score": 76387
},
{
"content": "Title: K2-22b Content: K2-22b ( also known as EPIC 201637175 b ) is an exoplanet 734 ly from Earth , rapidly orbiting the red dwarf K2-22 with an orbital period of 9.145872 hours . It has a mass below 445 Me and a radius below 2.5 Re . The planet was not detected in the K2 photometry . K2 photometry reveals the presence of an anomalous light curve consistent with evaporation of dust from the planet . This dust forms a tail both ahead and behind the planet , similar to some comets in the Solar System . The evaporation of this dust requires a low surface gravity from the host planet , implying it is a low mass , `` Mars , Mercury , or even lunar sized bodies with surface gravities of 1/6 to 1/3 that of Earth are to be preferred . '' The exoplanet is a hot Jupiter , and it orbits its host star very closely . Its semi-major axis is among the smallest for hot Jupiters .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "K2-22b",
"rank": 53,
"score": 76353
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Mesopause",
"rank": 54,
"score": 76157
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 154672 b Content: HD 154672 b is an extrasolar planet located approximately 210 light-years away in the constellation of Ara , orbiting the metal-rich and aged star HD 154672 . This planet has a minimum mass five times that of Jupiter and orbits at about 60 % the distance between the Earth to the Sun . Its orbit is very elliptical , which causes temperatures on the planet to vary significantly as it proceeds along its orbit . This planet was discovered in Las Campanas Observatory on September 5 , 2008 using the radial velocity method ( Doppler spectroscopy ) . Along with HD 205739 b , the planets were the first to be discovered by the N2K Consortium using the Magellan Telescopes .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "HD_154672_b",
"rank": 55,
"score": 75931
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal history of the Earth Content: The thermal history of the Earth is the study of the cooling history of Earth 's interior . It is a sub-field of geophysics . Thermal histories are also computed for the internal cooling of other planetary and stellar bodies . The study of the thermal evolution of Earth 's interior is uncertain and controversial in all aspects , from the interpretation of petrologic observations used to infer the temperature of the interior , to the fluid dynamics responsible for heat loss , to material properties that determine the efficiency of heat transport .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Thermal_history_of_the_Earth",
"rank": 56,
"score": 75700
},
{
"content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "James_Hansen",
"rank": 57,
"score": 75657
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 58,
"score": 75357
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Peter_Doran",
"rank": 59,
"score": 75272
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 60,
"score": 74806
},
{
"content": "Title: Angelo Battelli Content: Angelo Battelli ( 28 March 1862 -- 11 December 1916 ) was an Italian scientist , notable for having measured temperatures and heats of fusion of non-metallic substances , metallic conductivities and thermoelectric effects in magnetic metals , and the Thomson effect . He investigated osmotic pressures , surface tensions , and physical properties of carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) , water ( H2O ) , and alcohols , especially their vapor pressures , critical points , and densities . He studied X-rays and cathode rays . He investigated the resistance of solenoids to high-frequency alternating currents .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Angelo_Battelli",
"rank": 61,
"score": 74760
},
{
"content": "Title: Dale Cruikshank Content: Dr. Dale P. Cruikshank is an astronomer and planetary scientist in the Astrophysics Branch at NASA Ames Research Center . His research specialties are spectroscopy and radiometry of planets and small bodies in the Solar System . These small bodies include comets , asteroids , planetary satellites , dwarf planets ( e.g. , Pluto ) , and objects in the region beyond Neptune ( Kuiper belt objects and trans-Neptunian bodies ) . He uses spectroscopic observations made with ground-based and space-based telescopes , as well as interplanetary spacecraft , to identify and study the ices , minerals , and organic materials that compose the surfaces of planets and small bodies . Together with several colleagues , Cruikshank has found many kinds of ice on several small planetary bodies . These include frozen CH4 , N2 , CO , CO2 , and H2O on Neptune 's satellite Triton , CH4 , N2 , and CO on Pluto , H2O on Pluto 's satellite Charon , H2O ice on many of the moons of Saturn and Uranus , H2O and CH3OH on the Centaur object 5145 Pholus . In studies with the Cassini spacecraft , he and his colleagues have found hydrocarbons on several of Saturn 's satellites .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Dale_Cruikshank",
"rank": 62,
"score": 74756
},
{
"content": "Title: PSR J1719-1438 b Content: PSR J1719-1438 b is an extrasolar planet that was discovered on August 25 , 2011 in orbit around PSR J1719-1438 , a millisecond pulsar . The pulsar planet is most likely composed largely of crystalline carbon , but with a density far greater than diamond . PSR J1719-1438 b orbits so closely to its host star , the planet 's orbit would fit inside the Sun . The existence of such carbon planets had been theoretically postulated .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "PSR_J1719-1438_b",
"rank": 63,
"score": 74280
},
{
"content": "Title: Ironic process theory Content: Ironic process theory or the white bear problem refers to the psychological process whereby deliberate attempts to suppress certain thoughts make them more likely to surface . An example is how when someone is actively trying not to think of a white bear they may actually be more likely to imagine one . `` Try to pose for yourself this task : not to think of a polar bear , and you will see that the cursed thing will come to mind every minute . '' -- Fyodor Dostoevsky , Winter Notes on Summer Impressions , 1863 The phenomenon was identified through thought suppression studies in experimental psychology . Social psychologist Daniel Wegner first studied ironic process theory in a laboratory setting in 1987 . Ironic mental processes have been shown in a variety of situations , where they are usually created or worsened by stress . In extreme cases , ironic mental processes result in intrusive thoughts about doing something immoral or out of character , which can be troubling to the individual . These findings have since guided clinical practice . For example , they show why it would be unproductive to try to suppress anxiety-producing or depressing thoughts .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Ironic_process_theory",
"rank": 64,
"score": 73857
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 65,
"score": 73751
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Carbon_suboxide",
"rank": 66,
"score": 73567
},
{
"content": "Title: Middle Miocene disruption Content: The term Middle Miocene disruption , alternatively the Middle Miocene extinction or Middle Miocene extinction peak , refers to a wave of extinctions of terrestrial and aquatic life forms that occurred around the middle of the Miocene , roughly , during the Langhian stage of the Miocene . This period was preceded by the Miocene Climatic Optimum , a period of relative warmth from 18 to 14 Ma . Cooling that led to the Middle Miocene disruption has been attributed to CO2 being pulled out of the atmosphere by organic material before becoming caught in different locations like the Monterey Formation . Madelaine Bohme observed the occurrence of Varanidae , Chameleonidae , Cordylidae , Tomistominae , Alligatoridae , and giant turtles which indicate survival through the Miocene Climatic Optimum ( 18 to 16 Ma ) in Central Europe ( 45-42 ° N palaeolatitude ) . A major and permanent cooling step occurred between 14.8 and 14.1 Ma , associated with increased production of cold Antarctic deep waters and a major growth of the East Antarctic ice sheet . Two crocodilians of the genera Gavialosuchus and Diplocynodon were noted to have been extant in these northern latitudes prior to the permanent cooling step then became extinct 13.5 to 14 Ma . A Middle Miocene delta18O increase , that is a relative increase in the heavier isotope of oxygen , has been noted in the Pacific , the Southern Ocean and the South Atlantic .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Middle_Miocene_disruption",
"rank": 67,
"score": 73489
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 68,
"score": 73402
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 69,
"score": 73254
},
{
"content": "Title: Bosch reaction Content: The Bosch reaction is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon ( graphite ) , water , and a 10 % return of invested heat . It is named after the German chemist Carl Bosch . This reaction requires the introduction of iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees Celsius . The overall reaction is as follows : CO2 ( g ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → C ( s ) + 2 H2O ( g ) The above reaction is actually the result of two reactions . The first reaction , the reverse water gas shift reaction , is a fast one : CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O The second reaction controls the reaction rate : CO + H2 → C + H2O The overall reaction produces 2.3 × 103 joules for every gram of carbon dioxide reacted at 650 ° C. Reaction temperatures are in the range of 450 to 600 ° C. The reaction can be accelerated in the presence of an iron , cobalt or nickel catalyst . Ruthenium also serves to speed up the reaction . Together with the Sabatier reaction , the Bosch reaction is studied as a way to remove carbon dioxide and to generate clean water aboard a space station . The reaction is also used to produce graphite for radiocarbon dating with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . The Bosch reaction is being investigated for use in maintaining space station life support . Though the Bosch reaction would present a completely closed hydrogen and oxygen cycle which only produces atomic carbon as waste , difficulties in maintaining its higher required temperature and properly handling carbon deposits mean that significantly more research will be required before a Bosch reactor can become a reality . One problem is that the production of elemental carbon tends to foul the catalyst 's surface , which is detrimental to the reaction 's efficiency .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Bosch_reaction",
"rank": 70,
"score": 73146
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool School Challenge Content: The Cool School Challenge is a program part of the Puget Sound Clean Air Agency , designed to spread climate education and engage students and teachers in reducing the greenhouse gas emissions of their schools . The program also aims to encourage student leadership and empowerment in the process . Most of the schools that have taken on the program are located in the Puget Sound area , however there are various schools from around the United States ( and one international school , the American School of Dubai ) that have done so as well . The program has reports on their website to have reduced a total of over 2.2 million pounds of carbon .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Cool_School_Challenge",
"rank": 71,
"score": 73059
},
{
"content": "Title: Sergei Petrovskii Content: Sergei Petrovskii is a Russian-born British mathematician who researches the modeling of natural phenomena . He is a professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Leicester . In 2015 , he led a study that found that if the ocean temperature were to increase by about six degrees Celsius due to global warming , phytoplankton might stop producing oxygen . This would lead to shortages of oxygen in the atmosphere , which could be very harmful to humans . Petrovskii said , `` About two thirds of the planet 's total atmospheric oxygen is produced by ocean phytoplankton - and therefore cessation would result in the depletion of atmospheric oxygen on a global scale . This would likely result in the mass mortality of animals and humans . '' Petrovskii 's study appeared in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biology . Another stream of his research is modelling of biological invasions where he discovered a new phenomenon called `` patchy invasion '' . Contrary to a commonly used paradigm of alien species spread by a travelling population front , in the patchy invasion the invasive species spreads into new areas by creating individual patches not preceded by a front propagation . Patchy invasion has been observed in several invasions of insects and birds and has been studied theoretically using a variety of growth-dispersal models .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Sergei_Petrovskii",
"rank": 72,
"score": 72849
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles Bernard Desormes Content: Charles Bernard Desormes ( -LSB- dezɔʁm -RSB- ; 3 June 1777 -- 30 August 1838 ) was a French physicist and chemist . He determined the ratio of the specific heats of gases in 1819 . He did this and almost all his scientific work in collaboration with his son-in-law Nicolas Clément ( 1779 -- 1841 ) . Clément and Desormes correctly determined the composition of carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in 1801 -- 02 . In 1806 they elucidated all the chemical reactions that take place during the production of sulfuric acid by the lead chamber method , as used in industrial chemistry . In 1813 they made a study of iodine and its compounds . Désormes was born in Dijon , Côte-d'Or . He was a student at the École Polytechnique in Paris from 1794 , when it opened , and subsequently worked there as a demonstrator . Désormes met Clément at the Ecole Polytechnique 1801 , beginning a scientific collaboration that lasted until 1824 . He left the Ecole 1804 to establish an alum refinery at Verberie , Oise , with Clément and Joseph Montgolfier , who had earlier pioneered balloon flight . Desormes was elected counsellor for Oise 1830 and in 1848 to the national assembly , in which he sat with the Republicans .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Charles_Bernard_Desormes",
"rank": 73,
"score": 72777
},
{
"content": "Title: CoRoT-2b Content: COROT-2b ( formerly known as COROT-Exo-2b ) is the second extrasolar planet to be detected by the French-led COROT mission , and orbits the star COROT-2 at a distance of 930 light years from Earth towards the constellation Aquila . Its discovery was announced on 20 December 2007 . After its discovery via the transit method , its mass was confirmed via the radial velocity method .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "CoRoT-2b",
"rank": 74,
"score": 72731
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Mars Content: The climate of Mars has been an issue of scientific curiosity for centuries , in part because Mars is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope . Although Mars is smaller than the Earth , at 11 % of Earth 's mass , and 50 % farther from the Sun than the Earth , its climate has important similarities , such as the polar ice caps , seasonal changes and the observable presence of weather patterns . It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists . While Mars 's climate has similarities to Earth 's , including periodic ice ages , there are also important differences , such as much lower thermal inertia . Mars ' atmosphere has a scale height of approximately 11 km , 60 % greater than that on Earth . The climate is of considerable relevance to the question of whether life is or was present on the planet . The climate briefly received more interest in the news due to NASA measurements indicating increased sublimation of the south polar icecap leading to some popular press speculation that Mars was undergoing a parallel bout of global warming , although Mars ' average temperature has actually cooled in recent decades . Mars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible . Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above , while direct measurements of atmospheric conditions have been provided by a number of landers and rovers . Advanced Earth orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful `` big picture '' observations of relatively large weather phenomena . The first Martian flyby mission was Mariner 4 which arrived in 1965 . That quick two-day pass ( July 14 -- 15 , 1965 ) was limited and crude in terms of its contribution to the state of knowledge of Martian climate . Later Mariner missions ( Mariner 6 , and Mariner 7 ) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information . Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program in 1975 and continues with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . This observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model . Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Climate_of_Mars",
"rank": 75,
"score": 72516
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Michael_Raupach",
"rank": 76,
"score": 72438
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 77,
"score": 72402
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator",
"rank": 78,
"score": 72139
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 79,
"score": 72125
},
{
"content": "Title: Geophysical global cooling Content: Before the concept of plate tectonics , global cooling was a geophysical theory by James Dwight Dana , also referred to as the contracting earth theory . It suggested that the Earth had been in a molten state , and features such as mountains formed as it cooled and shrank . As the interior of the Earth cooled and shrank , the rigid crust would have to shrink and crumple . The crumpling could produce features such as mountain ranges .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Geophysical_global_cooling",
"rank": 80,
"score": 72040
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 81,
"score": 71881
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 82,
"score": 71789
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 83,
"score": 71677
},
{
"content": "Title: 1082 Pirola Content: 1082 Pirola is a minor planet orbiting the Sun . Initially it received the designation 1927 UC . The numerical designation indicates this was the 1082nd asteroid discovered . Measurements of the lightcurve made in 2010 and 2011 give a rotation period of 15.85 ± 0.01 hours . It has a diameter of 43 km and a Tholen classification of C , which means it is carbonaceous .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "1082_Pirola",
"rank": 84,
"score": 71538
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 179949 b Content: HD 179949 b is an extrasolar planet discovered by the Anglo-Australian Planet Search at the Anglo-Australian Observatory , which orbits the star HD 179949 . The planet is a so-called `` hot Jupiter '' , a Jupiter-mass planet orbiting very close to its parent star . In this case , orbital distance is almost one-tenth that of Mercury from the Sun . One orbital revolution lasts only about 3 days . Its magnetic field induces a bright spot on its star at 30 degrees latitude , which rotates at 87 degrees inclination . If the planet orbited at 83-97 degrees , then its transit would be visible from Earth . The angle of inclination is therefore 83 degrees or less , but not much less ; and its mass is constrained to not much more than 0.923 ± 0.077 . The star is not tidally locked to the planet . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be 1533 K . This is , like Tau Boötis b , hotter than the predicted temperature of HD 209458 b ( 1392K ) , and close to that of HD 149026 b , before they were measured . Searches for water in the planet 's atmosphere have been inconclusive , as have attempts to determine whether titanium and vanadium oxides are present . HD 179949 b is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation ... . with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "HD_179949_b",
"rank": 85,
"score": 71529
},
{
"content": "Title: K2-3d Content: K2-3d , also known as EPIC 201367065 d , is a confirmed massive solid exoplanet orbiting the red dwarf star K2-3 , and the outermost of three such planets discovered in the system . It is located 137 ly away from Earth in the constellation of Leo . The exoplanet was found by using the transit method , in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured . It was the first planet in the Kepler `` Second Light '' mission to receive the letter `` d '' designation for a planet . Its discovery was announced in January 2015 .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "K2-3d",
"rank": 86,
"score": 71522
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 87,
"score": 71444
},
{
"content": "Title: Kepler-452b Content: Kepler-452b ( sometimes nicknamed Earth 2.0 or Earth 's Cousin based on its characteristics ; known sometimes as Coruscant by NASA , also known by its Kepler Object of Interest designation KOI-7016 .01 ) is an exoplanet orbiting the Sun-like star Kepler-452 about 1400 ly from Earth in the constellation Cygnus . It was identified by the Kepler space telescope , and its discovery was announced by NASA on 23 July 2015 . It is the first potentially rocky super-Earth planet discovered orbiting within the habitable zone of a star very similar to the Sun . The planet is about 1,400 light-years away from the Solar System . At the speed of the New Horizons spacecraft , about 59,000 km/h , it would take approximately 26 million years to get there .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Kepler-452b",
"rank": 88,
"score": 71358
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 89,
"score": 71356
},
{
"content": "Title: JoBea Way Holt Content: JoBea Way Holt ( born 1954 ) is an American planetary scientist who has worked for NASA . Holt studied the carbon cycle in Earth 's atmosphere . She is also a member of the Climate Project , and is the author of several books and research papers .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "JoBea_Way_Holt",
"rank": 90,
"score": 70958
},
{
"content": "Title: Oph-IRS 48 Content: Oph-IRS 48 is a star surrounded by an extraordinary protoplanetary disk , 390 to 400 light years from Earth in the constellation of Ophiuchus . The disk has revolutionized the view of planet formation in astronomy . Studies have shown that the millimeter dust particles are gathered in a crescent shape , while the gas ( traced by CO molecules ) and small dust grains follow a full disk ring structure . The centimeter grains are even more concentrated inside the crescent . This structure is consistent with theoretical predictions of dust trapping . Also the chemical composition has been studied , with molecules like H2CO being present . The dust trap is thought to be conducting the process of planet formation in this young system .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Oph-IRS_48",
"rank": 91,
"score": 70935
},
{
"content": "Title: H2Ceramic cooling Content: H2Ceramic cooling ( also called H2C or Hot-to-Cold ) is a computer cooling product offered as an option in Dell 's XPS gaming systems , advertised specifically as facilitating CPU overclocking . H2C is a two-stage Liquid/Thermoelectric ( TEC ) hybrid cooling system that combines a liquid-to-air heat exchanger ( much like a liquid radiator ) , a thermoelectric fluid chiller , and control circuitry to optimize CPU cooling with minimal power . The components are delivered as a single unit designed to last a minimum of 5 years without service or liquid refilling . The XPS 710 H2C and Dell XPS 720 H2C featured a design where all components were mounted in a single plastic chassis and which only cooled the CPU . This design only matched motherboards with a very specific CPU socket location and was later replaced by a new and more flexible design featuring a separate pump unit which made it much easier to fit a broader range of motherboards with different CPU socket locations . The new design allowed the unit to cool the motherboard chipset as well .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "H2Ceramic_cooling",
"rank": 92,
"score": 70856
},
{
"content": "Title: W Canis Majoris Content: W Canis Majoris is a carbon star in the constellation Canis Major . A cool star , it has a surface temperature of around 2,900 K and a radius 234 times that of the sun , with a bolometric absolute magnitude of − 4.13 and distance estimated at 443 or 445 parsecs ( 1444-1450 ) light-years based on bolometric magnitude or radius . W CMa is classified as an irregular star . Detailed analyses have found only very weak and probably spurious periods of approximately a month . It is a carbon star , an asymptotic giant branch star where carbon and s-process elements have been dreged up to the surface during thermal pulses of the helium burning shell .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "W_Canis_Majoris",
"rank": 93,
"score": 70773
},
{
"content": "Title: XO-2Nb Content: XO-2Nb ( or rarely XO-2Bb ) is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star XO-2N , the fainter component of XO-2 wide binary star in the constellation Lynx . This planet was found by transit method in 2007 by Burke et al. . This was the second such planet found by the XO telescope . Like most planets found by the transit method , it is a roughly Jupiter sized planet that orbits very close to its host star ; in this case , it has a surface temperature of about 1200 K , so it belongs to a group of exoplanets known as hot Jupiters . The planet takes 2.6 days to orbit the star at the average distance of 0.0369 AU . The planet has mass of 57 % of Jupiter and radius of 97 % of Jupiter . The radius is relatively large for its mass , probably due to its intense heating from its nearby star that bloats the planet 's atmosphere . The large radius for its mass gives a low density of 820 kg/m3 .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "XO-2Nb",
"rank": 94,
"score": 70674
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 95,
"score": 70561
},
{
"content": "Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "William_D._Sellers",
"rank": 96,
"score": 70503
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Hypercapnia",
"rank": 97,
"score": 70375
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 (opera) Content: CO2 is an Italian opera by Giorgio Battistelli which premiered at La Scala on May 16 , 2015 . It is based on Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth , and Gore was initially a character in the opera . The libretto , primarily in English but containing passages in other languages , was written by Robert Carsen , who directed the production , and Ian Burton .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "CO2_(opera)",
"rank": 98,
"score": 70230
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-14 Content: Carbon-14 , 14C , or radiocarbon , is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons . Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and colleagues ( 1949 ) to date archaeological , geological and hydrogeological samples . Carbon-14 was discovered on 27 February 1940 , by Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California . Its existence had been suggested by Franz Kurie in 1934 . There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon on Earth : 99 % of the carbon is carbon-12 , 1 % is carbon-13 , and carbon-14 occurs in trace amounts , i.e. , making up about 1 or 1.5 atoms per 1012 atoms of the carbon in the atmosphere . Carbon-12 and carbon-13 are both stable , while the half-life of carbon-14 is 5,730 ± 40 years . Carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14 through beta decay . A gram of carbon containing 1 atom of carbon-14 per 1012 atoms will emit 0.40 beta particles per second . The primary natural source of carbon-14 on Earth is cosmic ray action on nitrogen in the atmosphere , and it is therefore a cosmogenic nuclide . However , open-air nuclear testing between 1955 -- 1980 contributed to this pool . The different isotopes of carbon do not differ appreciably in their chemical properties . This resemblance is used in chemical and biological research , in a technique called carbon labeling : carbon-14 atoms can be used to replace nonradioactive carbon , in order to trace chemical and biochemical reactions involving carbon atoms from any given organic compound .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "Carbon-14",
"rank": 99,
"score": 70189
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 17156 b Content: HD 17156 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 240 light-years away in the constellation of Cassiopeia . The planet was discovered orbiting the yellow subgiant star HD 17156 in April 2007 . The planet is classified as a relatively cool hot Jupiter planet slightly smaller than Jupiter but slightly larger than Saturn in a so-called `` torched orbit '' . This highly-eccentric three-week orbit takes it approximately 0.0523 AU of the star at periastron before swinging out to approximately 0.2665 AU at apastron . Its eccentricity is about the same as 16 Cygni Bb , a so-called `` eccentric Jupiter '' . Until 2009 , HD 17156 b was the transiting planet with the longest orbital period . The planet was discovered on April 14 , 2007 by a team using the radial velocity method on the Keck and Subaru telescopes . The team made an initial , negative , transit search , but they were only able to cover 25 % of the search space . This left the possibility of a transit open . After the possibility of a transit was discussed on oklo.org , various groups performed a follow-on search . These searches confirmed a three-hour transit on October 2 , 2007 and a paper was published two days later . Careful radial velocity measurements have made it possible to detect the Rossiter -- McLaughlin effect , the shifting in photospheric spectral lines caused by the planet occulting a part of the rotating stellar surface . This effect allows the measurement of the angle between the planet 's orbital plane and the equatorial plane of the star . This planet 's spin-orbit angle was initially measured by Narita in 2007 as +62 ± 25 but has been remeasured by Cochran +9.4 ± 9.3 degrees . By analogy with HD 149026 b , a low angle would imply the formation of the planet was peaceful and probably involved interactions with the protoplanetary disc . A much larger angle suggests a violent interplay with other protoplanets . Given its eccentricity the latter is equally probable until the discrepancy of the Rossiter results is resolved . It is so distant from its star and eccentric , that it will never enter a secondary eclipse relative to Earth , of the planet behind the star . The star 's true temperature , and so the planet 's surface temperature , can not be measured with accuracy . Due to the high eccentricity the atmosphere of the planet undergoes a factor of 27 variation in stellar flux during each orbit .",
"qid": "9",
"docid": "HD_17156_b",
"rank": 100,
"score": 70182
}
] |
Human additions of CO2 are in the margin of error of current measurements and the gradual increase in CO2 is mainly from oceans degassing as the planet slowly emerges from the last ice age. | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 1,
"score": 159352
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 2,
"score": 158039
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 3,
"score": 149658
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 4,
"score": 148601
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 5,
"score": 148471
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 6,
"score": 147269
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 7,
"score": 143133
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 8,
"score": 142125
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 9,
"score": 139170
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 10,
"score": 137200
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 11,
"score": 136463
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 12,
"score": 134413
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 13,
"score": 133706
},
{
"content": "Title: Estuarine acidification Content: Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Estuarine_acidification",
"rank": 14,
"score": 130718
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Ocean_acidification",
"rank": 15,
"score": 130633
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 16,
"score": 127493
},
{
"content": "Title: Airborne fraction Content: The airborne fraction is a scaling factor defined as the ratio of the annual increase in atmospheric to the emissions from anthropogenic sources . It represents the proportion of human emitted that remains in the atmosphere . The fraction averages about 45 % , meaning that approximately half the human-emitted is absorbed by ocean and land surfaces . There is some evidence for a recent increase in airborne fraction , which would imply a faster increase in atmospheric for a given rate of human fossil-fuel burning . However , other sources suggest that the `` fraction of carbon dioxide has not increased either during the past 150 years or during the most recent five decades '' . Changes in carbon sinks can affect the airborne fraction .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Airborne_fraction",
"rank": 17,
"score": 127374
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 18,
"score": 125789
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 19,
"score": 125649
},
{
"content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Revelle_factor",
"rank": 20,
"score": 125397
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project Content: Deep Earth Carbon Degassing ( DECADE ) project is an initiative to unite scientists around the world to make tangible advances towards quantifying the amount of carbon outgassed from the Earth 's deep interior ( core , mantle , crust ) into the surface environment ( e.g. biosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , atmosphere ) through naturally occurring processes . DECADE is an initiative within the Deep Carbon Observatory ( DCO ) . Volcanoes are the main pathway in which deeply-sourced volatiles , including carbon , are transferred from the Earth 's interior to the surface environment . An additional , though less well understood pathway includes along faults and fractures within the Earth 's crust , often referred to as tectonic degassing . When the DCO was first formed in 2009 estimates of global carbon flux from volcanic regions ranged from 65 to 540 Mt/yr , and constraints on global tectonic degassing were virtually unknown . The order of magnitude uncertainty in current volcanic/tectonic carbon outgassing makes answering fundamental questions about the global carbon budget virtually impossible . In particular , one fundamental unknown is if carbon transferred to the Earth 's interior via subduction is efficiently recycled back to the Earth 's mantle lithosphere , crust and surface environment through volcanic and tectonic degassing , or if significant quantities of carbon are being subducted into the deep mantle . Because significant quantities of mantle carbon are also released through Mid-Ocean Ridge volcanism , if carbon inputs and outputs at subduction zone settings are in balance , then the net effect will be an imbalance in the global carbon budget , with carbon being preferentially removed from the Earth 's deep interior and redistributed to more shallow reservoirs including the mantle lithosphere , crust , hydrosphere and atmosphere . The implications of this may mean that carbon concentrations in the surface environment are increasing over Earth 's history , which has significant implications for climate change . Findings from the DECADE project will increase our understanding of the way carbon cycles through deep Earth , and patterns in volcanic emissions data could potentially alert scientists to an impending eruption .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Deep_Earth_Carbon_Degassing_Project",
"rank": 21,
"score": 124524
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 22,
"score": 123723
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 23,
"score": 123715
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 24,
"score": 123452
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 25,
"score": 123398
},
{
"content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Amorphous_carbonia",
"rank": 26,
"score": 123342
},
{
"content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Suess_effect",
"rank": 27,
"score": 123244
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_footprint",
"rank": 28,
"score": 123230
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 29,
"score": 122986
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 30,
"score": 122746
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 31,
"score": 122521
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 32,
"score": 121872
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 33,
"score": 120700
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 34,
"score": 120680
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 35,
"score": 120513
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 36,
"score": 120306
},
{
"content": "Title: PCO2 Content: The PCO2 is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , normally used in reference to blood , but also used in Oceanography to describe the partial pressure of CO2 in the Ocean . Usually the arterial blood is the relevant context ; the symbol for PCO2 in arterial blood is PaCO2 . Measurement of PaCO2 in the systemic circulation indicates the effectiveness of ventilation at the lungs ' alveoli , given the diffusing capacity of the gas . It is a good indicator of respiratory function and the closely related factor of acid -- base homeostasis , reflecting the amount of acid in the blood ( without lactic acid ) .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "PCO2",
"rank": 37,
"score": 119674
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 38,
"score": 119489
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory",
"rank": 39,
"score": 119463
},
{
"content": "Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Yedoma",
"rank": 40,
"score": 119051
},
{
"content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction",
"rank": 41,
"score": 119023
},
{
"content": "Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Oceanic_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 42,
"score": 118703
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Climate_sensitivity",
"rank": 43,
"score": 118659
},
{
"content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Biosequestration",
"rank": 44,
"score": 117467
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 45,
"score": 117384
},
{
"content": "Title: Dry ice Content: Dry ice , sometimes referred to as `` cardice '' ( chiefly by British chemists ) , is the solid form of carbon dioxide . It is used primarily as a cooling agent . Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue ( other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere ) . It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable . Dry ice sublimates at − 78.5 ° C ( − 109.3 ° F ) at Earth atmospheric pressures . This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing ( frostbite ) . While generally not very toxic , the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia ( abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood ) due to buildup in confined locations .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Dry_ice",
"rank": 46,
"score": 117156
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Kaya_identity",
"rank": 47,
"score": 116763
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding",
"rank": 48,
"score": 116178
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 49,
"score": 116008
},
{
"content": "Title: Radiocarbon dating considerations Content: The variation in the / ratio in different parts of the carbon exchange reservoir means that a straightforward calculation of the age of a sample based on the amount of it contains will often give an incorrect result . There are several other possible sources of error that need to be considered . The errors are of four general types : Variations in the / ratio in the atmosphere , both geographically and over time Isotopic fractionation Variations in the / ratio in different parts of the reservoir Contamination",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Radiocarbon_dating_considerations",
"rank": 50,
"score": 115916
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-based fuel Content: Carbon-based fuel is any fuel principally from the oxidation or burning of carbon . Carbon-based fuels are of two main kinds , biofuels and fossil fuels . Whereas biofuels are derived from recent-growth organic matter and are typically harvested , as with logging of forests and cutting of corn , fossil fuels are of prehistoric origin and are extracted from the ground , the principal fossil fuels being oil , coal , and natural gas . From an economic policy perspective , an important distinction between biofuels and fossil fuels is that only the former is sustainable or renewable . Whereas we can continue to obtain energy from biofuels indefinitely in principle , the Earth 's reserves of fossil fuels was determined millions of years ago and is therefore fixed as far as our foreseeable future is concerned . The great variability in the ease of extraction of fossil fuels however makes its endgame scenario one of increasing prices over one or more centuries rather than of abrupt exhaustion . From the perspective of climate and ecology , biofuels and fossil fuels have in common that they contribute to the production of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which has emerged in recent decades as the fastest-changing greenhouse gas , whose principal impacts are global warming and ocean acidification . However biofuels actively participate in the carbon cycle today by photosynthesizing carbon dioxide , unlike fossil fuels whose participation was long ago , and can therefore in principle bring atmospheric CO2 into an equilibrium not possible with the continued use of fossil fuel . But in practice photosynthesis is a slow process , and the additional fuel produced by artificial methods of accelerating it such as application of fertilizer tends to be offset by the energy consumed by the accelerating processes , to a degree currently under active debate . In contrast the speed of photosynthesis is immaterial for fossil fuels because they had millions of years in which to accumulate . Burning of both fossil fuels and biofuels usually also produces carbon monoxide , which is toxic and can kill a person after mixing with the haemoglobin of the blood , increasing its concentration in the body . Biofuels and fossil fuels may also produce many other air pollutants depending on the contents of the fuel .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon-based_fuel",
"rank": 51,
"score": 115835
},
{
"content": "Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Katsuko_Saruhashi",
"rank": 52,
"score": 115558
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 53,
"score": 115365
},
{
"content": "Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme",
"rank": 54,
"score": 114917
},
{
"content": "Title: David Archer (scientist) Content: David Archer is a computational ocean chemist , and has been a professor at the Geophysical Sciences department at the University of Chicago since 1993 . He has published research on the carbon cycle of the ocean and the sea floor . He has worked on the history of atmospheric CO2 concentration , the expectation of fossil fuel CO2 over geologic time scales in the future , and the impact of CO2 on future ice age cycles , ocean methane hydrate decomposition , and coral reefs . He is a contributor to the RealClimate blog .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "David_Archer_(scientist)",
"rank": 55,
"score": 114521
},
{
"content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Recycled_fuel",
"rank": 56,
"score": 114360
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 57,
"score": 113990
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 58,
"score": 113845
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 59,
"score": 113629
},
{
"content": "Title: Project Vulcan Content: Project Vulcan is a NASA/DOE funded effort under the North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions at space/time scales much finer than has been achieved in the past . The initial purpose of the Vulcan Project was to aid in quantification of the North American carbon budget , to support inverse estimation of carbon sources and sinks , and to support the demands posed by higher resolution CO2 observations . The detail and scope of the Vulcan CO2 inventory has now made it a valuable tool for policymakers , demographers , social scientists and the public at large . Project Vulcan has achieved U.S. fossil fuel CO2 emissions at < 10 km spatial scales and an hourly time scale , based on datasets such as air quality emissions reporting , census data , highway statistics , energy statistics , and econometric data . Furthermore , Vulcan includes significant process-level detail , dividing the emissions into economic sectors and sub-sectors in addition to 23 fuel types . It has been produced for the year 2002 , and an annual product spanning 1980-2006 will be available by late-2009 . The first Vulcan inventory ( v1 .0 ) was released to the public in early April 2008 . Version 1.1 was released in February 2009 and Version 1.2 is due out in early August 2009 . In addition to the data release , establishment of the Vulcan website and a press release , a video of various aspects of atmospheric transport was released on Purdue University 's YouTube website and portions of the Vulcan inventory are available on Google Earth . As of 2015 , version 2.2 has been published on a site hosted by Arizona State University .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Project_Vulcan",
"rank": 60,
"score": 113528
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 61,
"score": 113384
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 62,
"score": 112959
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 63,
"score": 112778
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Hypercapnia",
"rank": 64,
"score": 112611
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming",
"rank": 65,
"score": 112526
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 66,
"score": 112260
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_offset",
"rank": 67,
"score": 112225
},
{
"content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike",
"rank": 68,
"score": 112015
},
{
"content": "Title: Martian polar ice caps Content: The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Martian_polar_ice_caps",
"rank": 69,
"score": 111920
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_shifting",
"rank": 70,
"score": 111800
},
{
"content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions",
"rank": 71,
"score": 111541
},
{
"content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Black_carbon",
"rank": 72,
"score": 110943
},
{
"content": "Title: Respiratory exchange ratio Content: The respiratory exchange ratio ( RER ) is the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) produced in metabolism and oxygen ( O2 ) used . Humans typically inhale more molecules of oxygen than they exhale of carbon dioxide because air contains much more oxygen by volume . The ratio is determined by comparing exhaled gases to room air . Measuring this ratio can be used for estimating the respiratory quotient ( RQ ) , an indicator of which fuel ( carbohydrate or fat ) is being metabolized to supply the body with energy . This estimation is only valid if metabolism is in a steady state . RER is about 0.8 at rest with a modern diet . This value however , can exceed 1 during intense exercise , as CO2 production by the working muscles becomes greater and more of the inhaled O2 gets used rather than being expelled . During moderate or higher intensity aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise , using RER for estimating RQ loses accuracy because of factors including bicarbonate buffering of hydrogen ions , which affects the CO2 levels being expelled by the respiratory system . Calculation of RER is commonly done in conjunction with exercise tests such as the VO2 Max Test and can be used as an indicator that the participants are nearing exhaustion and the limits of their cardio-respiratory system . An RER greater than or equal to 1.15 is often used as a secondary endpoint criterion of a VO2 Max Test . An RER of 0.70 indicates that fat is the predominant fuel source , RER of 0.85 suggests a mix of fat and carbohydrates , and a value of 1.00 or above is indicative of carbohydrate being the predominant fuel source . Oxidation of a molecule of Carbohydrate 6 O2 + C6H12O6 = > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 6 CO2/6 O2 = 1.0 Oxidation of a molecule of Fatty Acid 23 O2 + C16H32O2 = > 16 CO2 + 16 H2O + 129 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 16 CO2/23 O2 = 0.7",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Respiratory_exchange_ratio",
"rank": 73,
"score": 110906
},
{
"content": "Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Quaternary_glaciation",
"rank": 74,
"score": 110747
},
{
"content": "Title: Azolla event Content: The Azolla event occurred in the middle Eocene epoch , around , when blooms of the freshwater fern Azolla are thought to have happened in the Arctic Ocean . As they sank to the stagnant sea floor , they were incorporated into the sediment ; the resulting draw-down of carbon dioxide has been speculated to have helped transform the planet from a `` greenhouse Earth '' state , hot enough for turtles and palm trees to prosper at the poles , to the icehouse Earth it has been since .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Azolla_event",
"rank": 75,
"score": 110706
},
{
"content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 76,
"score": 110310
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 77,
"score": 109785
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator",
"rank": 78,
"score": 109576
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 79,
"score": 109403
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 80,
"score": 109061
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 81,
"score": 109040
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth",
"rank": 82,
"score": 109022
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 83,
"score": 108825
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 84,
"score": 108690
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 85,
"score": 108353
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping",
"rank": 86,
"score": 108148
},
{
"content": "Title: Margin of error Content: The margin of error is a statistic expressing the amount of random sampling error in a survey 's results . It asserts a likelihood ( not a certainty ) that the result from a sample is close to the number one would get if the whole population had been queried . The likelihood of a result being `` within the margin of error '' is itself a probability , commonly 95 % , though other values are sometimes used . The larger the margin of error , the less confidence one should have that the poll 's reported results are close to the true figures ; that is , the figures for the whole population . Margin of error applies whenever a population is incompletely sampled . Margin of error is often used in non-survey contexts to indicate observational error in reporting measured quantities . In astronomy , for example , the convention is to report the margin of error as , for example , 4.2421 ( 16 ) light-years ( the distance to Proxima Centauri ) , with the number in parentheses indicating the expected range of values in the matching digits preceding ; in this case , 4.2421 ( 16 ) is equivalent to 4.2421 ± 0.0016 . The latter notation , with the '' ± '' , is more commonly seen in most other science and engineering fields .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Margin_of_error",
"rank": 87,
"score": 108125
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_sensor",
"rank": 88,
"score": 108052
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 89,
"score": 107796
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean deoxygenation Content: Ocean deoxygenation is a term that has been suggested to describe the expansion of oxygen minimum zones in the world 's oceans as a consequence of anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide . Oceanographers and others have discussed what phrase best describes the phenomenon to non-specialists . Among the options considered have been ` ocean suffocation ' ( which was used in a news report from May 2008 ) , ` ocean oxygen deprivation ' , ` decline in ocean oxygen ' , ` marine deoxygenation ' , ` ocean oxygen depletion ' and ` ocean hypoxia ' .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Ocean_deoxygenation",
"rank": 90,
"score": 107640
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel",
"rank": 91,
"score": 107533
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 92,
"score": 107511
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_monoxide",
"rank": 93,
"score": 107243
},
{
"content": "Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "TanSat",
"rank": 94,
"score": 106991
},
{
"content": "Title: D. James Baker Content: D. James Baker ( born March 23 , 1937 ) is an American scientist who was trained as a physicist , practiced as an oceanographer , and has held science and management positions in academia , non-profit institutions , and government agencies . He a former Under Secretary of Commerce for Atmosphere and Oceans and Administrator of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , and currently Director , Global Carbon Measurement Program , William J. Clinton Foundation working with forestry programs in developing countries with the aim of reducing carbon dioxide emissions and at the same time helping alleviate poverty .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "D._James_Baker",
"rank": 95,
"score": 106464
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Tropical_peat",
"rank": 96,
"score": 106258
},
{
"content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Politics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 97,
"score": 106251
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 98,
"score": 106188
},
{
"content": "Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 99,
"score": 106080
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon trioxide Content: Carbon trioxide ( CO3 ) is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) . Three possible isomers of carbon trioxide , with molecular symmetry point groups Cs , D3h , and C2v , have been most studied by theoretical methods , and the C2v state has been shown to be the ground state of the molecule . Carbon trioxide should not be confused with the stable carbonate ion ( CO32 − ) . Carbon trioxide can be produced , for example , in the drift zone of a negative corona discharge by reactions between carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and the atomic oxygen ( O ) created from molecular oxygen by free electrons in the plasma . Another reported method is photolysis of ozone O3 dissolved in liquid CO2 , or in CO2/SF6 mixtures at -45 ° C , irradiated with light of 2537 Å . The formation of CO3 is inferred but it appears to decay spontaneously by the route 2CO3 → 2CO2 + O2 with a lifetime much shorter than 1 minute . Carbon trioxide can be made by blowing ozone at dry ice ( solid CO2 ) , and it has also been detected in reactions between carbon monoxide ( CO ) and molecular oxygen ( O2 ) .",
"qid": "10",
"docid": "Carbon_trioxide",
"rank": 100,
"score": 105953
}
] |
They tell us that we are the primary forces controlling earth temperatures by the burning of fossil fuels and releasing their carbon dioxide. | [
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 1,
"score": 163043
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 2,
"score": 155354
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 3,
"score": 152635
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 4,
"score": 151618
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 5,
"score": 144295
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-based fuel Content: Carbon-based fuel is any fuel principally from the oxidation or burning of carbon . Carbon-based fuels are of two main kinds , biofuels and fossil fuels . Whereas biofuels are derived from recent-growth organic matter and are typically harvested , as with logging of forests and cutting of corn , fossil fuels are of prehistoric origin and are extracted from the ground , the principal fossil fuels being oil , coal , and natural gas . From an economic policy perspective , an important distinction between biofuels and fossil fuels is that only the former is sustainable or renewable . Whereas we can continue to obtain energy from biofuels indefinitely in principle , the Earth 's reserves of fossil fuels was determined millions of years ago and is therefore fixed as far as our foreseeable future is concerned . The great variability in the ease of extraction of fossil fuels however makes its endgame scenario one of increasing prices over one or more centuries rather than of abrupt exhaustion . From the perspective of climate and ecology , biofuels and fossil fuels have in common that they contribute to the production of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which has emerged in recent decades as the fastest-changing greenhouse gas , whose principal impacts are global warming and ocean acidification . However biofuels actively participate in the carbon cycle today by photosynthesizing carbon dioxide , unlike fossil fuels whose participation was long ago , and can therefore in principle bring atmospheric CO2 into an equilibrium not possible with the continued use of fossil fuel . But in practice photosynthesis is a slow process , and the additional fuel produced by artificial methods of accelerating it such as application of fertilizer tends to be offset by the energy consumed by the accelerating processes , to a degree currently under active debate . In contrast the speed of photosynthesis is immaterial for fossil fuels because they had millions of years in which to accumulate . Burning of both fossil fuels and biofuels usually also produces carbon monoxide , which is toxic and can kill a person after mixing with the haemoglobin of the blood , increasing its concentration in the body . Biofuels and fossil fuels may also produce many other air pollutants depending on the contents of the fuel .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon-based_fuel",
"rank": 6,
"score": 144040
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap and Share Content: Cap and Share was originally developed by Feasta ( the Foundation for the Economics of Sustainability ) and is a regulatory and economic framework for controlling the use of fossil fuels in relation to climate stabilisation . Accepting that climate change is a global problem and that there is a need to cap and reduce greenhouse gas emissions globally , the philosophy of Cap and Share maintains that the earth 's atmosphere is a fundamental common resource . Consequently , it is argued , each individual should get an equal share of the benefits from the limited amount of fossil fuels that will have to be burned and their emissions released into the atmosphere in the period until the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases has been stabilised at a safe level .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Cap_and_Share",
"rank": 7,
"score": 139465
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 8,
"score": 136744
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 9,
"score": 136532
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 10,
"score": 131220
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 11,
"score": 129753
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-burning process Content: The carbon-burning process or carbon fusion is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in the cores of massive stars ( at least 8 at birth ) that combines carbon into other elements . It requires high temperatures ( > 5 × 108 K or 50 keV ) and densities ( > 3 × 109 kg/m3 ) . These figures for temperature and density are only a guide . More massive stars burn their nuclear fuel more quickly , since they have to offset greater gravitational forces to stay in ( approximate ) hydrostatic equilibrium . That generally means higher temperatures , although lower densities , than for less massive stars . To get the right figures for a particular mass , and a particular stage of evolution , it is necessary to use a numerical stellar model computed with computer algorithms . Such models are continually being refined based on nuclear physics experiments ( which measure nuclear reaction rates ) and astronomical observations ( which include direct observation of mass loss , detection of nuclear products from spectrum observations after convection zones develop from the surface to fusion-burning regions -- known as ` dredge-up ' events -- and so bring nuclear products to the surface , and many other observations relevant to models ) .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon-burning_process",
"rank": 12,
"score": 128986
},
{
"content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Black_carbon",
"rank": 13,
"score": 125530
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_bubble",
"rank": 14,
"score": 125370
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 15,
"score": 124851
},
{
"content": "Title: Gasification Content: Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil fuel based carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide , hydrogen and carbon dioxide . This is achieved by reacting the material at high temperatures ( > 700 ° C ) , without combustion , with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam . The resulting gas mixture is called syngas ( from synthesis gas ) or producer gas and is itself a fuel . The power derived from gasification and combustion of the resultant gas is considered to be a source of renewable energy if the gasified compounds were obtained from biomass . ( dead links ) The advantage of gasification is that using the syngas is potentially more efficient than direct combustion of the original fuel because it can be combusted at higher temperatures or even in fuel cells , so that the thermodynamic upper limit to the efficiency defined by Carnot 's rule is higher or ( in case of fuel cells ) not applicable . Syngas may be burned directly in gas engines , used to produce methanol and hydrogen , or converted via the Fischer -- Tropsch process into synthetic fuel . Gasification can also begin with material which would otherwise have been disposed of such as biodegradable waste . In addition , the high-temperature process refines out corrosive ash elements such as chloride and potassium , allowing clean gas production from otherwise problematic fuels . Gasification of fossil fuels is currently widely used on industrial scales to generate electricity .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Gasification",
"rank": 16,
"score": 123947
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Climate_system",
"rank": 17,
"score": 122901
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 18,
"score": 122521
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel",
"rank": 19,
"score": 122379
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 20,
"score": 121589
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 21,
"score": 121476
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 22,
"score": 121156
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 23,
"score": 118436
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 24,
"score": 118290
},
{
"content": "Title: Fossil fuel Content: Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms , containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis . The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years , and sometimes exceeds 650 million years . Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum , coal , and natural gas . Other commonly used derivatives include kerosene and propane . Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon to hydrogen ratios like methane , to liquids like petroleum , to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon , like anthracite coal . Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone , associated with oil , or in the form of methane clathrates . The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth 's crust over millions of years was first introduced by Georgius Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century . The Energy Information Administration estimates that in 2007 the primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0 % , coal 27.4 % , natural gas 23.0 % , amounting to an 86.4 % share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world . Non-fossil sources in 2006 included nuclear 8.5 % , hydroelectric 6.3 % , and others ( geothermal , solar , tidal , wind , wood , waste ) amounting to 0.9 % . World energy consumption was growing about 2.3 % per year . Although fossil fuels are continually being formed via natural processes , they are generally considered to be non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form and the known viable reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made . The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns . The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes ( 21.3 gigatonnes ) of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) per year . It is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount , so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year . Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming . A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is underway to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Fossil_fuel",
"rank": 25,
"score": 118067
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 26,
"score": 117273
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 27,
"score": 117217
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 28,
"score": 117024
},
{
"content": "Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Greening_Earth_Society",
"rank": 29,
"score": 116042
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 30,
"score": 115904
},
{
"content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Recycled_fuel",
"rank": 31,
"score": 115416
},
{
"content": "Title: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Content: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels . Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air ( as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen ) . Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen ( N2 ) , which is essentially non-combustible , the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen . Carbon dioxide , the next largest part of flue gas , can be as much as 10 − 25 volume percent or more of the flue gas . This is closely followed in volume by water vapor ( H2O ) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen . Much of the ` smoke ' seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air . A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and particulate matter . The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel . The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels . The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases their smoky appearance . The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries , petrochemical and chemical plants , and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere . The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas , fuel oil and coal . The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations . It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion . Note : m ³ are standard cubic meters at 0 ° C and 101.325 kPa , and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 ° F and 14.696 psia .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion",
"rank": 32,
"score": 115318
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 33,
"score": 115205
},
{
"content": "Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Christine_Wiedinmyer",
"rank": 34,
"score": 114751
},
{
"content": "Title: Oxy-fuel combustion process Content: Oxy-fuel combustion is the process of burning a fuel using pure oxygen instead of air as the primary oxidant . Since the nitrogen component of air is not heated , fuel consumption is reduced , and higher flame temperatures are possible . Historically , the primary use of oxy-fuel combustion has been in welding and cutting of metals , especially steel , since oxy-fuel allows for higher flame temperatures than can be achieved with an air-fuel flame . There is currently research being done in firing fossil-fueled power plants with an oxygen-enriched gas mix instead of air . Almost all of the nitrogen is removed from input air , yielding a stream that is approximately 95 % oxygen . Firing with pure oxygen would result in too high a flame temperature , so the mixture is diluted by mixing with recycled flue gas , or staged combustion . The recycled flue gas can also be used to carry fuel into the boiler and ensure adequate convective heat transfer to all boiler areas . Oxy-fuel combustion produces approximately 75 % less flue gas than air fueled combustion and produces exhaust consisting primarily of CO2 and H2O ( see figure ) . The justification for using oxy-fuel is to produce a CO2 rich flue gas ready for sequestration . Oxy-fuel combustion has significant advantages over traditional air-fired plants . Among these are : The mass and volume of the flue gas are reduced by approximately 75 % . Because the flue gas volume is reduced , less heat is lost in the flue gas . The size of the flue gas treatment equipment can be reduced by 75 % . The flue gas is primarily CO2 , suitable for sequestration . The concentration of pollutants in the flue gas is higher , making separation easier . Most of the flue gases are condensable ; this makes compression separation possible . Heat of condensation can be captured and reused rather than lost in the flue gas . Because nitrogen from air is absent , nitrogen oxide production is greatly reduced . Economically speaking this method costs more than a traditional air-fired plant . The main problem has been separating oxygen from the air . This process needs lots of energy , nearly 15 % of production by a coal-fired power station can be consumed for this process . However , a new technology which is not yet practical called chemical looping combustion can be used to reduce this cost . In chemical looping combustion , the oxygen required to burn the coal is produced internally by oxidation and reduction reactions , as opposed to using more expensive methods of generating oxygen by separating it from air . At present in the absence of any need to reduce CO2 emissions , oxy-fuel is not competitive . However , oxy-fuel is a viable alternative to removing CO2 from the flue gas from a conventional air-fired fossil fuel plant . However , an oxygen concentrator might be able to help , as it simply removes nitrogen . In industries other than power generation , oxy-fuel combustion can be competitive due to higher sensible heat availability . Oxy-fuel combustion is common in various aspects of metal production . The glass industry has been converting to oxy-fuel since the early 1990s because glass furnaces require a temperature of approximately 2800 degrees F , which is not attainable at adiabatic flame temperatures for air-fuel combustion unless heat is regenerated between the flue stream and the incoming air stream . Historically , glass furnace regenerators were large and expensive high temperature brick ducts filled with brick arranged in a checkerboard pattern to capture heat as flue gas exits the furnace . When the flue duct is thoroughly heated , air flow is reversed and the flue duct becomes the air inlet , releasing its heat into the incoming air , and allowing for higher furnace temperatures than can be attained with air-fuel only . Two sets of regenerative flue ducts allowed for the air flow to be reversed at regular intervals , and thus maintain a high temperature in the incoming air . By allowing new furnaces to be built without the expense of regenerators , and especially with the added benefit of nitrogen oxide reduction , which allows glass plants to meet emission restrictions , oxy-fuel is cost effective without the need to reduce CO2 emissions . Oxy-fuel combustion also reduces CO2 release at the glass plant location , although this may be offset by CO2 production due to electric power generation which is necessary to produce oxygen for the combustion process . Oxy-fuel combustion may also be cost effective in the incineration of low BTU value hazardous waste fuels . Oxy-fuel combustion is often combined with staged combustion for nitrogen oxide reduction , since pure oxygen can stabilize combustion characteristics of a flame .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Oxy-fuel_combustion_process",
"rank": 35,
"score": 114591
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 36,
"score": 114369
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Mexico Content: Mexico highly depends on the burning of its fossil fuels , and for the same reason , it is in its interest to look into mitigation solutions for its corresponding emissions . In the General Law on Climate Change on 2012 , Mexico promised to reduce 20 % of its GHG emissions by 2020 and 50 % by 2050 , as well as in the Paris Agreement . 19 % of the this new mitigation plan will be dedicated to carbon capture and storage and specifically 10 % to the energetic industry .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Mexico",
"rank": 37,
"score": 114164
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 38,
"score": 113429
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 39,
"score": 113019
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 40,
"score": 112265
},
{
"content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model",
"rank": 41,
"score": 112249
},
{
"content": "Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Zero-carbon_city",
"rank": 42,
"score": 111590
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 43,
"score": 111471
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat of combustion Content: The calorific value is the total energy released as heat when a substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions . The chemical reaction is typically a hydrocarbon or other organic molecule reacting with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water and release heat . It may be expressed with the quantities : energy/mole of fuel ( kJ/mol ) energy/mass of fuel energy/volume of the fuel The calorific value is conventionally measured with a bomb calorimeter . It may also be calculated as the difference between the heat of formation ΔH of the products and reactants ( though this approach is purely empirical since most heats of formation are calculated from measured heats of combustion ) . For a fuel of composition CcHhOoNn , the magnitude of the heat of combustion is to a good approximation ( ± 3 % ) . The calorific value of all organic compounds has the sign corresponding to an exothermic reaction ( negative in the standard chemical convention ) because the double bond in molecular oxygen is much weaker than other double bonds or pairs of single bonds , particularly those in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water ; conversion of the weak bonds in O2 to the stronger bonds in CO2 and H2O releases energy as heat . The heating value ( or energy value or calorific value ) of a substance , usually a fuel or food ( see food energy ) , is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it . The energy value is a characteristic for each substance . It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance , usually mass , such as : kJ/kg , kJ/mol , kcal/kg , Btu/lb . Heating value is commonly determined by use of a bomb calorimeter . Heating value unit conversions : MJ/kg = kcal/kg × 238.846 Btu/lb = kJ/kg × 2.326 Btu/lb = kcals/kg x0 .5556 The heat of combustion for fuels is expressed as the HHV , LHV , or GHV .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Heat_of_combustion",
"rank": 44,
"score": 111426
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 45,
"score": 111377
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Content: The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum ( CSLF ) is an international initiative to advance carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) technology . The Forum is a Ministerial-level organization that includes 23 member countries and the European Commission . Membership is open to national governmental entities that are significant producers or users of fossil fuel and that have a commitment to invest resources in research , development and demonstration activities in carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies . CSLF also recognizes that stakeholders , those organizations that are affected by and can affect the goals of CSLF , form an essential component of CSLF activities . The CSLF Charter , signed in June 2003 , organized the CSLF by creating a Policy Group , which governs the overall framework and policies of the CSLF , a Technical Group , which reviews the progress of collaborative projects and makes recommendations to the Policy Group on any needed actions , and an administrative Secretariat , which organizes CSLF meetings , coordinates communications among CSLF Members , and acts as a clearinghouse of information . In July 2005 , the G8 Summit endorsed the CSLF in its Plan of Action on Climate Change , Clean Energy and Sustainable Development , and identified it as a medium of cooperation and collaboration with key developing countries in dealing with greenhouse gases . Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include : the joint statement of the U.S.-European Union Summit on Energy Security , Energy Efficiency , Renewables and Economic Development , and the Mainz Declaration of Germany and the United States on Cleaner and More Efficient Energy , Development and Climate Change . In 2006 and 2007 , the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage . Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders . The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO2 capture , transport and storage research and activities .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum",
"rank": 46,
"score": 111228
},
{
"content": "Title: Energy mix Content: The energy mix is the group of different primary energy sources from which secondary energy for direct use - usually electricity - is produced . Primary energy in the form of fossil fuels is nowadays still mostly used directly for motor-driven vehicles , i.e. transport . Further energy conversion of the co-produced waste heat after burning is not possible . In 2009 , the global primary energy use corresponded to 12.5 e6t oil equivalent corresponding to 145,375 GWh ) . According to the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) 13,6 % of that was used by the EU . Within the EU , 75.9 % came from fossil fuels , 14.1 % from nuclear energy , 7 % from biofuels , 2.9 from renewable energy resources . Overall primary energy consumption in the U.S. in 2015 relied most on petroleum ( 35 e15BTU ) , natural gas ( 29 e15BTU ) and coal ( 16 e15BTU ) . Renewables contributed 9 e15BTU and nuclear power 8 e15BTU . In the same year , about 4 million GWh of electricity were generated in the U.S. , 67 % of which was generated from fossil fuels ( coal , natural gas , and < 1 % petroleum ) , 20 % from nuclear power , 6 % hydropower and 7 % other renewables . While the rise of global energy consumption with the global population growth can not immediately be counteracted , the sustainability of growth can partially be improved by changing the energy mix towards renewables . The main forces in this process are national and transnational energy policy and the energy industry together with their lobbyists .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Energy_mix",
"rank": 47,
"score": 110939
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 48,
"score": 109714
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 49,
"score": 109324
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 50,
"score": 108994
},
{
"content": "Title: Direct carbon fuel cell Content: A Direct Carbon Fuel Cell ( DCFC ) is a fuel cell that uses a carbon rich material as a fuel such as bio-mass or coal . The cell produces energy by combining carbon and oxygen , which releases carbon dioxide as a by-product . It also called coal fuel cells ( CFCs ) , carbon-air fuel cells ( CAFCs ) , direct carbon/coal fuel cells ( DCFCs ) , and DC-SOFC . The total reaction of the cell is C + O2 → CO2 . The process in half cell notation : Anode : C + 2 O2 − → CO2 + 4 e − Cathode : O2 + 4 e − → 2 O2 − Despite this release of carbon dioxide , the direct carbon fuel cell is more environmentally friendly than traditional carbon burning techniques . Due to its higher efficiency , it requires less carbon to produce the same amount of energy . Also , because pure carbon dioxide is emitted , carbon capture techniques are much cheaper than for conventional power stations . Utilized carbon can be in the form of coal , coke , char , or a non-fossilized source of carbon . At least four types of DCFC exist : The first one is based on the Solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) concept . Overall reaction in the solid oxide electrolyte based DCFC C + O2 → CO2 . Anode reaction <Direct electrochemical oxidation path> C + 2O2 − → CO2 + 4e − C + O2 − → CO + 2e − <Indirect electrochemical oxidation path> CO + O2 − → CO2 + 2e − <Boudouard reaction:indirect chemical reaction path> C + CO2 → 2CO Cathode reaction O2 + 4e − → 2O2 − The second one is molten hydroxides fuel cell . William W. Jacques obtained an US Patent 555,511 in this type of fuel cell in 1896 . Prototypes have been demonstrated by the research group , SARA , Inc. . The third one is based on the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell ( MCFC ) concept . William W. Jacques obtained a Canadian patent in this type of fuel cell in 1897 . It has been developed further at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory . The fourth is a molten tin anode solid oxide fuel cell design , which utilizes molten tin and tin oxide as an inter stage reaction between oxidation of the carbon dissolving in the anode and reduction of oxygen at the solid oxide cathode .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Direct_carbon_fuel_cell",
"rank": 51,
"score": 108434
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 52,
"score": 108019
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 53,
"score": 107717
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool flame Content: Cool flame is a flame having maximal temperature below about 400 C . It is usually produced in a chemical reaction of a certain fuel-air mixture . Contrary to conventional flame , the reaction is not vigorous and releases very little heat , light and carbon dioxide . Cool flames are difficult to observe and are uncommon in everyday life , but they are responsible for engine knock -- the undesirable , erratic , and noisy combustion of low-octane fuels in internal combustion engines .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Cool_flame",
"rank": 54,
"score": 107644
},
{
"content": "Title: British Columbia carbon tax Content: British Columbia 's carbon tax and accompanying tax shift has been in place since 2008 . It is a British Columbia policy which adds additional carbon taxes to fossil fuels burned for transportation , home heating , and electricity , and reduces personal income taxes and corporate taxes by a roughly equal amount . The carbon tax is collected at the point of retail consumption ( for example , at the pump for gasoline and diesel ) . British Columbia 's policy is unique in North America ; only Quebec has a similar retail tax but it is set at a much lower rate and does not include a matching tax shift .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "British_Columbia_carbon_tax",
"rank": 55,
"score": 107451
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing",
"rank": 56,
"score": 107394
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 57,
"score": 107004
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 58,
"score": 106591
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 59,
"score": 106467
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 60,
"score": 106118
},
{
"content": "Title: Fossil fuel phase-out Content: Fossil fuel phase out refers to the discontinuation of the use of fossil fuels , through the decommissioning of operating fossil fuel-fired power plants , the prevention of the construction of new ones , and the use of Alternative energy to replace the role of fossil fuels . The purpose of fossil fuel phase-out is to reduce the negative externalities that use of fossil fuels cause . Negative externalities refer to the costs a certain activity has over people who did not choose to incur in them . A direct negative externality from fossil fuels ' use is air pollution , and an indirect negative externality are mining accidents , that happen as a consequence of the extraction of fossil fuels . Fossil fuel burning contributes to climate change , as it releases greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Fossil_fuel_phase-out",
"rank": 61,
"score": 105530
},
{
"content": "Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 62,
"score": 105408
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 63,
"score": 104980
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Nation Content: Carbon Nation is a 2010 documentary film by Peter Byck about technological - and community-based energy solutions to the growing worldwide carbon footprint . The film is narrated by Bill Kurtis . ASIN : B0055T46LA ( Rental ) and B0055T46G0 ( Purchase ) . Rather than highlighting the problems with use of fossil fuels , Carbon Nation presents a series of ways in which the 16 terawatts of energy the world consumes can be met while reducing or eliminating carbon-based sources . It contains optimistic interviews with experts in various fields , business CEOs , and sustainable energy supporters to present a compelling case for change while having a neutral , matter-of-fact explanation . Among those interviewed are Richard Branson , former CIA Director R. James Woolsey , Earth Day founder Denis Hayes and environmental advocate Van Jones . Much of the content of the film consists of interviews , some are listed above . The list of interviewees also includes Lester R. Brown President , Earth Policy Institute Sean Casten President & CEO , Recycled Energy Development Ralph Cavanagh Lead Attorney , NRDC Bob Fox , Partner Cook + Fox Architects Thomas Friedman , Author & NY Times Columnist Eban Goodstein Economic Professor , Lewis and Clark College Gary Hirshberg Chairman , President , and CEO of Stonyfield Farm Sadhu Aufochs Johnston Chief Environmental Officer , City of Chicago Amory B. Lovins Chairman & Chief Scientist , Rocky Mountain Institute Joel Makower Executive Director , GreenBiz.com Edward Mazria Executive Director , Solar Richmond Arthur H. Rosenfeld Commissioner , California Energy Commission John Rowe ( CEO ) Exelon Chairman & CEO , Exelon Corporation",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_Nation",
"rank": 64,
"score": 104421
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 65,
"score": 104071
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 66,
"score": 104008
},
{
"content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Suess_effect",
"rank": 67,
"score": 103461
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 68,
"score": 103396
},
{
"content": "Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Yedoma",
"rank": 69,
"score": 103358
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Earth's_energy_budget",
"rank": 70,
"score": 102098
},
{
"content": "Title: Controlled atmosphere Content: A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen , as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated . Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Controlled_atmosphere",
"rank": 71,
"score": 102000
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 72,
"score": 101681
},
{
"content": "Title: Project Vulcan Content: Project Vulcan is a NASA/DOE funded effort under the North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions at space/time scales much finer than has been achieved in the past . The initial purpose of the Vulcan Project was to aid in quantification of the North American carbon budget , to support inverse estimation of carbon sources and sinks , and to support the demands posed by higher resolution CO2 observations . The detail and scope of the Vulcan CO2 inventory has now made it a valuable tool for policymakers , demographers , social scientists and the public at large . Project Vulcan has achieved U.S. fossil fuel CO2 emissions at < 10 km spatial scales and an hourly time scale , based on datasets such as air quality emissions reporting , census data , highway statistics , energy statistics , and econometric data . Furthermore , Vulcan includes significant process-level detail , dividing the emissions into economic sectors and sub-sectors in addition to 23 fuel types . It has been produced for the year 2002 , and an annual product spanning 1980-2006 will be available by late-2009 . The first Vulcan inventory ( v1 .0 ) was released to the public in early April 2008 . Version 1.1 was released in February 2009 and Version 1.2 is due out in early August 2009 . In addition to the data release , establishment of the Vulcan website and a press release , a video of various aspects of atmospheric transport was released on Purdue University 's YouTube website and portions of the Vulcan inventory are available on Google Earth . As of 2015 , version 2.2 has been published on a site hosted by Arizona State University .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Project_Vulcan",
"rank": 73,
"score": 101265
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 74,
"score": 100832
},
{
"content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Biosequestration",
"rank": 75,
"score": 100297
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 76,
"score": 99939
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 77,
"score": 99639
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 78,
"score": 99522
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 79,
"score": 99276
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Atmosphere",
"rank": 80,
"score": 99267
},
{
"content": "Title: Vote Climate U.S. PAC Content: Vote Climate U.S. PAC is an American super PAC founded in 2013 and directed by American political activist Karyn Strickler . Its mission is `` to elect candidates to get off fossil fuels , transition to clean , renewable energy and put a price on carbon , in order to slow global warming and related weather extremes . '' Strickler has named the implementation of a carbon tax as a principal goal . As a super PAC ( a type of political action committee ) , the organization can not contribute to candidates but can make independent expenditures on their behalf .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Vote_Climate_U.S._PAC",
"rank": 81,
"score": 98706
},
{
"content": "Title: Fuel viscosity control Content: Fuel viscosity control is a technique to control viscosity and temperature of fuel oil ( FO ) for efficient combustion in diesel engines of motor vessels and generators of oil-fired power plants . Fuel oil 's viscosity strongly depends on the temperature , the higher is the temperature the lower is the viscosity . For optimal combustion the viscosity of the fuel should be in the range of 10-20 cSt . To maintain this value a combination of viscometer , PID controller and heater is used . Viscometer measures the actual viscosity of the fuel , this value is compared with the set point in the controller and the command is sent to the heater to adjust the temperature of the fuel .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Fuel_viscosity_control",
"rank": 82,
"score": 98679
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Mesopause",
"rank": 83,
"score": 98522
},
{
"content": "Title: Neon-burning process Content: The neon-burning process is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in massive stars ( at least 8 Solar masses ) . Neon burning requires high temperatures and densities ( around 1.2 × 109 K or 100 KeV and 4 × 109 kg/m3 ) . At such high temperatures photodisintegration becomes a significant effect , so some neon nuclei decompose , releasing alpha particles : Alternatively : where the neutron consumed in the first step is regenerated in the second . Neon burning takes place after carbon burning has consumed all carbon in the core and built up a new oxygen-neon-magnesium core . The core ceases producing fusion energy and contracts . This contraction increases density and temperature up to the ignition point of neon burning . The increased temperature around the core allows carbon to burn in a shell , and there will be shells burning helium and hydrogen outside . During neon burning , oxygen and magnesium accumulate in the central core while neon is consumed . After a few years the star consumes all its neon and the core ceases producing fusion energy and contracts . Again , gravitational pressure takes over and compresses the central core , increasing its density and temperature until the oxygen-burning process can start .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Neon-burning_process",
"rank": 84,
"score": 98049
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 85,
"score": 98020
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 86,
"score": 97972
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon lock-in Content: Carbon lock-in refers to the self-perpetuating inertia created by large fossil fuel-based energy systems that inhibits public and private efforts to introduce alternative energy technologies . Related to the concept of technological lock-in , the concept is most used in relation to the challenge of altering the current energy infrastructure to respond to global climate change . The concept and term was first coined by Gregory C. Unruh in a 1999 Fletcher School , Tufts University doctoral thesis entitled `` Escaping Carbon Lock-In . '' It has since gained popularity in climate change policy discussions , especially those focused on preventing the globalization of carbon lock-in to rapidly industrializing countries like China and India . The source of carbon lock-in inertia in energy systems arises from the co-evolution of large interdependent technological networks and the social institutions and cultural practices that support and benefit from system growth . The growth of the system is fostered by increasing returns to scale .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_lock-in",
"rank": 87,
"score": 97724
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 88,
"score": 97629
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon power Content: Low-carbon power comes from processes or technologies that , produce power with substantially lower amounts of carbon dioxide emissions than is emitted from conventional fossil fuel power generation . It includes low carbon power generation sources such as wind power , solar power , hydropower and , including fuel preparation and decommissioning , nuclear power . The term largely excludes conventional fossil fuel plant sources , and is only used to describe a particular subset of operating fossil fuel power systems , specifically , those that are successfully coupled with a flue gas carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) system .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Low-carbon_power",
"rank": 89,
"score": 97594
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding",
"rank": 90,
"score": 97562
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon fuel standard Content: A low-carbon fuel standard ( LCFS ) is a rule enacted to reduce carbon intensity in transportation fuels as compared to conventional petroleum fuels , such as gasoline and diesel . The most common low-carbon fuels are alternative fuels and cleaner fossil fuels , such as natural gas ( CNG and LPG ) . The main purpose of a low-carbon fuel standard is to decrease carbon dioxide emissions associated with vehicles powered by various types of internal combustion engines while also considering the entire life cycle ( `` well to wheels '' ) , in order to reduce the carbon footprint of transportation . The first low-carbon fuel standard mandate in the world was enacted by California in 2007 , with specific eligibility criteria defined by the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) in April 2009 but taking effect in January 2011 . Similar legislation was approved in British Columbia in April 2008 , and by European Union which proposed its legislation in January 2007 and which was adopted in December 2008 . The United Kingdom is implementing its Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation Program , which also applies the concept of low-carbon fuels . Several bills have been proposed in the United States for similar low-carbon fuel regulation at a national level but with less stringent standards than California . As of early 2010 none have been approved . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued its final rule regarding the expanded Renewable Fuel Standard ( RFS2 ) for 2010 and beyond on February 3 , 2010 . This ruling , as mandated by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ( EISA ) , included direct emissions and significant indirect emissions from land use changes .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Low-carbon_fuel_standard",
"rank": 91,
"score": 97527
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth",
"rank": 92,
"score": 96929
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature control Content: Temperature control is a process in which change of temperature of a space ( and objects collectively there within ) is measured or otherwise detected , and the passage of heat energy into or out of the space is adjusted to achieve a desired average temperature .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Temperature_control",
"rank": 93,
"score": 96801
},
{
"content": "Title: Fire Content: Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion , releasing heat , light , and various reaction products . Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition . Fire is hot because conversion of the weak double bond in molecular oxygen , O2 , to the stronger bonds in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water releases energy ( 418 kJ per 32 g of O2 ) ; the bond energies of the fuel play only a minor role here . At a certain point in the combustion reaction , called the ignition point , flames are produced . The flame is the visible portion of the fire . Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide , water vapor , oxygen and nitrogen . If hot enough , the gases may become ionized to produce plasma . Depending on the substances alight , and any impurities outside , the color of the flame and the fire 's intensity will be different . Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration , which has the potential to cause physical damage through burning . Fire is an important process that affects ecological systems around the globe . The positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems . The negative effects of fire include hazard to life and property , atmospheric pollution , and water contamination . If fire removes protective vegetation , heavy rainfall may lead to an increase in soil erosion by water . Also , when vegetation is burned , the nitrogen it contains is released into the atmosphere , unlike elements such as potassium and phosphorus which remain in the ash and are quickly recycled into the soil . This loss of nitrogen caused by a fire produces a long-term reduction in the fertility of the soil , which only slowly recovers as nitrogen is `` fixed '' from the atmosphere by lightning and by leguminous plants such as clover . Fire has been used by humans in rituals , in agriculture for clearing land , for cooking , generating heat and light , for signaling , propulsion purposes , smelting , forging , incineration of waste , cremation , and as a weapon or mode of destruction .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Fire",
"rank": 94,
"score": 96722
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson",
"rank": 95,
"score": 96711
},
{
"content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Politics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 96,
"score": 96700
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 97,
"score": 96551
},
{
"content": "Title: Cofiring Content: Co-firing is the combustion of two different types of materials at the same time . One of the advantages of co-firing is that an existing plant can be used to burn a new fuel , which may be cheaper or more environmentally friendly . For example , biomass is sometimes co-fired in existing coal plants instead of new biomass plants . Co-firing can also be used to improve the combustion of fuels with low energy content . For example , landfill gas contains a large amount of carbon dioxide , which is non-combustible . If the landfill gas is burned without removing the carbon dioxide , the equipment may not perform properly or emissions of pollutants may increase . Co-firing it with natural gas increases the heat content of the fuel and improves combustion and equipment performance . As long as the electricity or heat produced with the biomass and landfill gas was otherwise going to be produced with non-renewable fuels , the benefits are essentially equivalent whether they are cofired or combusted alone . Also , co-firing can be used to lower the emission of some pollutants . For example , co-firing biomass with coal results in less sulfur emissions than burning coal by itself .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Cofiring",
"rank": 98,
"score": 95668
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Climate_sensitivity",
"rank": 99,
"score": 95038
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "11",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 100,
"score": 94938
}
] |
The Great Barrier Reef is experiencing the most widespread bleaching ever recorded | [
{
"content": "Title: The Great Barrier Reef: Biology, Environment and Management Content: The Great Barrier Reef : Biology , Environment and Management is a 2007 book by Pat Hutchings , Mike Kingsford and Ove Hoegh-Guldberg . It describes the organisms and ecosystems of Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , and the biological , chemical and physical processes that influence them . Issues discussed include climate change , coral bleaching , coral disease and coral reef fishing . The book includes a field guide to help people identify the common animals and plants on the reef . The book has illustrations and contributions from 33 international experts . Pat Hutchings is a Senior Principal Research Scientist at the Australian Museum . Michael Kingsford is the Head of School of Marine Biology and Aquaculture at James Cook University . Ove Hoegh-Guldberg is the Director of the Centre for Marine Studies at the University of Queensland .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "The_Great_Barrier_Reef:_Biology,_Environment_and_Management",
"rank": 1,
"score": 135290
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest reef system , stretching along the East coast of Australia from the northern tip down to the town of Bundaberg , is composed of roughly 2,900 individual reefs and 940 islands and cays that stretch for 2,300 kilometres ( 1,616 mi ) and cover an area of approximately 344,400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland in northeast Australia . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . According to the 2014 report of the Australian Government 's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) , says that climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef , while the other major environmental pressures are listed as decreased water quality from land-based runoff , impacts from coastal development and some persistent impacts from fishing activities . The reef is also threatened by storms , coral bleaching and ocean acidification . The 2014 report also shows that , while numerous marine life species have recovered after previous declines , the strength of the dugong population is continuing to decline . Terry Hughes , Federation Fellow , ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University , wrote in a 14 August 2014 Conversation piece that harmful government policies and ongoing conflicts of interest over mining royalties are risks of an equivalent magnitude . The GBRMPA consider climate change , poor water quality , coastal development , and some impacts from fishing to be the area 's major threats , but reef scientists Jon Day , Bob Pressey , Jon Brodie and Hughes stated that the `` cumulative effects of many combined impacts '' is the real issue . In a Conversation Article , Mathieu Mongin , a biogeochemical modeller at CSIRO and colleagues mapped parts of the Great Barrier Reef that are most exposed to ocean acidification . This map of pH on the Great Barrier Reef presents the exposure to ocean acidification on each of the 3,581 reefs , providing managers with the information they need to tailor management to individual reefs . The Great Barrier Reef is not a singular reef nor a physical barrier that prevents exchange between reefs ; it is a mixture of thousands of productive reefs and shallow areas lying on a continental shelf with complex oceanic circulation .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Environmental_threats_to_the_Great_Barrier_Reef",
"rank": 2,
"score": 134618
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef is the world 's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2300 km over an area of approximately 344400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland , Australia . The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world 's biggest single structure made by living organisms . This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms , known as coral polyps . It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981 . CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world . The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which helps to limit the impact of human use , such as fishing and tourism . Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff , climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching , and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish . According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985 . The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples , and is an important part of local groups ' cultures and spirituality . The reef is a very popular destination for tourists , especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions . Tourism is an important economic activity for the region , generating over AUD$ 3 billion per year . In November 2014 , Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef . A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought , seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures . In October 2016 , Outside published an obituary for the reef ; the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef . In March 2017 , the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of a 800-kilometre ( 500 mi ) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures , an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef",
"rank": 3,
"score": 134202
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral bleaching Content: Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel algae that lives inside their tissues . Normally , coral polyps live in an endosymbiotic relationship with the algae and that relationship is crucial for the coral and hence for the health of the whole reef . Bleached corals continue to live . But as the algae provide the coral with 90 % of its energy , after expelling the algae the coral begins to starve . Above-average sea water temperatures caused by global warming have been identified as a leading cause for coral bleaching worldwide . Between 2014 and 2016 , the longest global bleaching events ever were recorded . According to the United Nations Environment Programme , these bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale . In 2016 , bleaching hit 90 percent of coral on the Great Barrier Reef and killed 29 percent of the reef 's coral . In 2017 , the bleaching further expanded to areas of the park that were previously spared , such as the central one . __ TOC __",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Coral_bleaching",
"rank": 4,
"score": 129332
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Coral_in_non-tropical_regions",
"rank": 5,
"score": 120716
},
{
"content": "Title: Maclear Island Content: Maclear Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at the tip of Cape Melville , Queensland in Bathurst Bay . It is north of Denham Island in the Flinders Group National Park and south of Flinders Island , at Latitude -14.210 and Longitude 144.250 . It is named after John Maclear .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Maclear_Island",
"rank": 6,
"score": 108538
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecsenius stictus Content: Ecsenius stictus , known commonly as the Great Barrier Reef blenny , is a species of combtooth blenny in the genus Ecsenius . It is found in the Great Barrier Reef , and around the Chesterfield Islands . It can reach a maximum length of 5.8 centimetres . Blennies in this species feed primarily off of plants , including benthic algae and weeds .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Ecsenius_stictus",
"rank": 7,
"score": 108245
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Great Barrier Reef oil spill Content: The 2010 Great Barrier Reef oil spill occurred on 3 April 2010 , when the Chinese bulk coal carrier , ran aground east of Rockhampton in Central Queensland , Australia . The vessel is owned by Shenzhen Energy Transport Co. Ltd. . The ship was more than 10 km outside the shipping lane . It struck the reef late in the afternoon of 3 April , scraping along the reef for a considerable distance and creating the longest known grounding scar on the Great Barrier Reef . Tugs were sent to remove the ship which was feared would break apart in rough seas . Eventually the vessel was refloated and taken to Hervey Bay . After unloading about a third of its cargo Shen Neng 1 was towed to Singapore . The ship 's captain and officer-on-watch were both charged . The maximum fine for shipping companies that cause damage to the reef was increased after the incident .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "2010_Great_Barrier_Reef_oil_spill",
"rank": 8,
"score": 107455
},
{
"content": "Title: Cakaulevu Reef Content: Cakaulevu Reef ( also called the Great Sea Reef ) is a coral reef located off the Fijian island of Vanua Levu 's northern shore . It is the third longest continuous barrier reef in the world , behind the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and the Mesoamerica Reef off Central America . When combined with the nearby Pascoe Reef , Cakaulevu Reef is about 200 kilometres long . On its own , the Cakaulevu Reef covers 202,700 square kilometres . The marine ecosystem of the reef contributes to its national significance as outlined in Fiji 's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Cakaulevu_Reef",
"rank": 9,
"score": 104188
},
{
"content": "Title: Seriatopora aculeata Content: Seriatopora aculeata is a species of colonial stony coral in the family Pocilloporidae . It forms a bushy clump . It is native to the Central Indo-Pacific and the Oceanic West Pacific . Its range includes the Philippines , the Great Barrier Reef , Fiji , Indonesia , the Coral Sea , southern Madagascar and Vanuatu . It grows in shallow reef environments , at depths down to about 40 m . It is an uncommon species and subject to coral diseases and bleaching . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the conservation status of this species as being `` vulnerable '' .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Seriatopora_aculeata",
"rank": 10,
"score": 102696
},
{
"content": "Title: Impacts of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef Content: Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs . The Great Barrier Reef , considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot , is located in Australia . Similar to other coral reefs , it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification . Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which is taken up by the ocean . This process can increase sea surface temperature , decrease aragonite , and lower the pH of the ocean . Calcifying organisms are under risk , due to the resulting lack of aragonite in the water and the decreasing pH. This decreased health of coral reefs , particularly the Great Barrier Reef , can result in reduced biodiversity . Organisms can become stressed due to ocean acidification and the disappearance of healthy coral reefs , such as the Great Barrier Reef , is a loss of habitat for several taxa .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_on_the_Great_Barrier_Reef",
"rank": 11,
"score": 98661
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System Content: The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System ( MBRS ) , also popularly known as the Great Mayan Reef or Great Maya Reef , is a marine region that stretches over 1000 km from Isla Contoy at the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula down to Belize , Guatemala and the Bay Islands of Honduras . The reef system includes various protected areas and parks including the Belize Barrier Reef , Arrecifes de Cozumel National Park , Hol Chan Marine Reserve ( Belize ) , Sian Ka'an biosphere reserve , and the Cayos Cochinos Marine Park . Belize 's coastline , comprising the Belize Barrier Reef , is home to approximately 80 % of MBRS . The Belize Barrier Reef is the largest barrier reef in the northern hemisphere and the second largest barrier reef in the world . The Belize Barrier Reef and Belize 's three offshore atolls , several hundred sand cays , mangrove forests , coastal lagoons and estuaries -- collectively termed , the Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System -- has been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO ( 1996 ) .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Mesoamerican_Barrier_Reef_System",
"rank": 12,
"score": 98516
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Content: The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park protects a large part of Australia 's Great Barrier Reef from damaging activities . It is a vast multiple-use Marine Park which supports a wide range of uses , including commercial marine tourism , fishing , ports and shipping , recreation , scientific research and Indigenous traditional use . Fishing and the removal of artefacts or wildlife ( fish , coral , seashells , etc. ) is strictly regulated , and commercial shipping traffic must stick to certain specific defined shipping routes that avoid the most sensitive areas of the park . The Great Barrier Reef is the largest and best known coral reef ecosystem in the world . Its reefs , almost 3000 in total , represent about 10 per cent of all the coral reef areas in the world . It supports an amazing variety of biodiversity , providing a home to thousands of coral and other invertebrate species , bony fish , sharks , rays , marine mammals , marine turtles , sea snakes , as well as algae and other marine plants . The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) is responsible for the care and protection of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . It uses a range of tools to manage the marine park including Acts and Regulations , zoning plan , plans of management , Traditional Owner agreements , partnerships , stewardship and best practice , education , research and monitoring and reporting . It issues permits for various forms of use of the marine park , and monitors usage in the park to ensure compliance with rules and regulations associated with the park . GBRMPA is funded by Commonwealth Government appropriations and an environmental management charge levied on the permit-holders ' passengers . Currently this is A$ 6.00 per day per passenger ( to a maximum of $ 16.50 per trip ) .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef_Marine_Park",
"rank": 13,
"score": 98129
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef (TV series) Content: Not to be confused with the 2015 series Great Barrier Reef ( 2015 TV series ) Great Barrier Reef is a nature documentary series exploring the wildlife of the eponymous coral reef off Australia 's coast . It was presented by Monty Halls and co-produced by the BBC Natural History Unit and Animal Planet . The series was broadcast in three parts in the United Kingdom , where it premiered in January 2012 on BBC Two and the BBC HD channel . In the US it aired as a two-hour special on Animal Planet on 9 September 2012 . Great Barrier Reef documents the ecosystem and marine life of the coral reef itself , along with the plants and animals on islands and the Australian mainland which owe their existence to the presence of the reef .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef_(TV_series)",
"rank": 14,
"score": 95832
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reef Adventure Content: Coral Reef Adventure is a 70mm American documentary film released in 2003 to IMAX theaters . It is narrated by actor Liam Neeson , and directed by Greg MacGillivray . Embarking on a 10-month expedition through the islands of the South Pacific , husband and wife underwater photography-duo Michele and Howard Hall explore the declining reefs and failing health of the world 's oceans . From Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , to a friend 's coral reef-sustained village in Fiji , the diving expeditions show a range of coral reefs , from flourishing ones filled with unusual and exotic inhabitants , to vast stretches of bleached coral decline which prompted the Hall 's activism . Along their journey , scientists working to understand and save the reefs meet with the Hall 's . Jean-Michel Cousteau , son of the famed oceanographer Jacques Cousteau , also makes an appearance , as do well-known dive guide and singer Rusi Vulakoro , brother of Vude singer Laisa Vulakoro , who guides the Halls in their dive adventure . This documentary film is the third oceanic , ecologically-themed IMAX production from director MacGillivray , after The Living Sea and Dolphins . Crosby Stills & Nash contribute to the film 's soundtrack . The Giant Screen Theater Association named it the best film achievement of 2003 .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Coral_Reef_Adventure",
"rank": 15,
"score": 95755
},
{
"content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event",
"rank": 16,
"score": 94970
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef HQ Content: Reef HQ ( typeset as ReefHQ ) is the largest living coral reef aquarium . It is located in Townsville , Queensland , Australia . The aquarium was built as a Bicentennial Commemorative project and is a part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) . The Coral Reef Exhibit has 130 coral species and 120 fish species along with hundreds of species of sea stars , sea urchins , sea cucumbers , brittle stars , feather stars , snails , worms and sponges .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Reef_HQ",
"rank": 17,
"score": 94156
},
{
"content": "Title: Flinders Island (Queensland) Content: Flinders Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at the tip of Cape Melville , Queensland in Bathurst Bay . It is north of Denham Island in the Flinders Group National Park . It is separated from Stanley Island by Owen Channel and Maclear Island by Fly Channel . In the nineteenth century it was one of the earliest centres recruiting lugger crews for the pearling trade . There is a major residential site on the sandspit . The island is a popular tourist destination with an anchorage point for yachts . Flinders Island is an integral part of the mythological complex of the Flinders Group .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Flinders_Island_(Queensland)",
"rank": 18,
"score": 93604
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Astrolabe Reef Content: The Great Astrolabe Reef is in Fiji and surrounds the fourth largest island , Kadavu Island , which is approximately 65 km in length . Kadavu Island is approximately 100 km south of Viti Levu , the main island of Fiji . The Great Astrolabe Reef is one of the largest barrier reefs in the world and encompasses Kadavu Island , Ono Island and other small islands within a natural protective lagoon . The reef is predominantly located along the southern coast of Kadavu Island and arks north around Ono Island and further north to Buliya . The reef is a breeding ground for many large billfish ( marlin ) species , sharks , tuna , giant trevally , mahi-mahi ( dolphinfish ) and snapper , due to it having many channels leading from extremely deep water into shallow lagoons . Parts of the reef , such as Naiqoro Passage , one of the main passages , are protected from fishing and require entry fees . This is because Naiqoro Passage is one of the main thoroughfares for large fish . The marine lagoon ecosystem of the reef contributes to its national significance as outlined in Fiji 's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Great_Astrolabe_Reef",
"rank": 19,
"score": 93517
},
{
"content": "Title: Meiacanthus lineatus Content: Meiacanthus lineatus , the lined fangblenny , is a venomous species of combtooth blenny found in the Great Barrier Reef in the western Pacific ocean . This species grows to a length of 9.5 cm TL .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Meiacanthus_lineatus",
"rank": 20,
"score": 93220
},
{
"content": "Title: The Reef Content: The Reef may refer to The Reef , an alternative name for the Witwatersrand in South Africa The Reef ( novel ) , a 1912 novel by Edith Wharton The Reef ( 1999 film ) , a film adaptation of the novel The Reef ( 2010 film ) , an Australian film Great Barrier Reef , the planet 's largest coral reef Shark Bait , a 2006 animated film released as The Reef in the United States , South Africa and Ireland ; and as Pi 's Story in South Korea Shark Bait 2 : High Tide , a sequel to that film released as The Reef 2 : High Tide in the United States , South Africa and Ireland and as Pi 's Story 2 : High Tide in South Korea",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "The_Reef",
"rank": 21,
"score": 92178
},
{
"content": "Title: Wilson Reef Content: Wilson Reef is a small ( 4.5 ha ) coral reef within the Great Barrier Reef complex of Queensland , Australia . It lies about 30 km north of Cape Melville on the Cape York Peninsula in the habitat protection zone of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . It has some unnamed sand cays which are used by seabirds but no significant islands . It is named after Peter Wilson , a New Zealander whose ship crashed on the reef in 1927 .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Wilson_Reef",
"rank": 22,
"score": 91576
},
{
"content": "Title: The Best Job in the World (advertising) Content: In 2009 , Tourism Queensland promoted the Great Barrier Reef as a global tourism destination with a website encouraging people worldwide to apply for The Best Job In The World , to be a `` Caretaker of the Islands '' to `` house-sit '' the islands of the Great Barrier Reef for half a year , based on Hamilton Island .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "The_Best_Job_in_the_World_(advertising)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 91490
},
{
"content": "Title: SS Wairarapa Content: The SS Wairarapa was a New Zealand ship of the late 19th century plying the route between the Auckland , New Zealand and Australia . It came to tragic fame when it hit a reef at the northern edge of Great Barrier Island , about 100 km out from Auckland , and sank . The death toll of around 140 people remains one of the largest such losses in the country 's history . The ship was named for the Wairarapa region .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "SS_Wairarapa",
"rank": 24,
"score": 91144
},
{
"content": "Title: Threatened species known to occur in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area Content: Threatened species known to occur in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area and listed under the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ( Bonn Convention ) , CITES ( CITES ) Agreement , China -- Australia Migratory Bird Agreement ( CAMBA ) , Japan -- Australia Migratory Bird Agreement and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List ( IUCN Red List ) status for the species .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Threatened_species_known_to_occur_in_the_Great_Barrier_Reef_World_Heritage_Area",
"rank": 25,
"score": 90232
},
{
"content": "Title: Acanthastrea hillae Content: Acanthastrea hillae is a species of coral that can be found throughout Indo-Pacific waters . This species is moderately common , but is susceptible to coral bleaching and the global decline in coral reef habitat .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Acanthastrea_hillae",
"rank": 26,
"score": 89694
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecsenius mandibularis Content: Ecsenius mandibularis , known commonly as the Queensland blenny in Australia , is a species of combtooth blenny in the genus Ecsenius . It is found in coral reefs in the western Pacific ocean , including the southern edge of the Great Barrier Reef . It can reach a maximum length of 7.5 centimetres . Blennies in this species feed primarily off of plants , including benthic algae and weeds .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Ecsenius_mandibularis",
"rank": 27,
"score": 89654
},
{
"content": "Title: Florida Reef Content: The Florida Reef ( also known as the Great Florida Reef , Florida reefs , Florida Reef Tract and Florida Keys Reef Tract ) is the only living coral barrier reef in the continental United States . It is the third largest coral barrier reef system in the world ( after the Great Barrier Reef and Belize Barrier Reef ) . It lies a few miles seaward of the Florida Keys , is about 4 miles ( 6 to 7 km ) wide and extends ( along the 20 meter depth contour ) 270 km from Fowey Rocks just east of Soldier Key to just south of the Marquesas Keys . The barrier reef tract forms a great arc , concentric with the Florida Keys , with the northern end , in Biscayne National Park , oriented north-south and the western end , south of the Marquesas Keys , oriented east-west . The rest of the reef outside Biscayne National Park lies within John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary . Isolated coral patch reefs occur northward from Biscayne National Park as far as Stuart , in Martin County . Coral reefs are also found in Dry Tortugas National Park west of the Marquesas Keys . There are more than 6,000 individual reefs in the system . The reefs are 5,000 to 7,000 years old , having developed since sea levels rose following the Wisconsinan glaciation . The densest and most spectacular reefs are found to the seaward of Key Largo ( in and beyond John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park ) and Elliott Key where the two long keys help protect the reefs from the effects of water exchange with Florida Bay , Biscayne Bay , Card Sound and Barnes Sound . The bays and sounds ( all between the Florida Keys and the mainland ) tend to have lower salinity , higher turbidity and wider temperature variations than the water in the open ocean . Channels between the Keys allow water from the bays to flow onto the reefs ( especially in the middle Keys ) , limiting their growth .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Florida_Reef",
"rank": 28,
"score": 88996
},
{
"content": "Title: Belize Barrier Reef Content: The Belize Barrier Reef is a series of coral reefs straddling the coast of Belize , roughly 300 m offshore in the north and 40 km in the south within the country limits . The Belize Barrier Reef is a 300 km long section of the 900 km Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System , which is continuous from Cancún on the north-eastern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula through the Riviera Maya and up to Honduras , making it the second largest coral reef system in the world after the Great Barrier Reef in Australia . It is Belize 's top tourist destination , popular for scuba diving and snorkeling and attracting almost half of its 260,000 visitors . It is also vital to the country 's fishing industry . Charles Darwin described it as `` the most remarkable reef in the West Indies '' in 1842 . In addition to its barrier reef , it also boasts three distinct Caribbean atolls : Turneffe Atoll , Glover 's Reef and Lighthouse Reef . Lighthouse Reef is the most easterly diving area in Belize , it is home to the Great Blue Hole , made famous by Jacques Cousteau in 1970 ; Turneffe Atoll lies directly to the east of Belize City and is the nearest of the atolls to the capital . These different reefs provide diverse scuba diving opportunities that include walls , pinnacles and reef flats that are located throughout an enormous area of sea .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Belize_Barrier_Reef",
"rank": 29,
"score": 88978
},
{
"content": "Title: St. Crispin's Reef Content: St. Crispin 's Reef is an elongate outer-shelf coral reef in the Great Barrier Reef , Australia .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "St._Crispin's_Reef",
"rank": 30,
"score": 88929
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef (2015 TV series) Content: For a 2012 series of the same name see Great Barrier Reef ( TV series ) Great Barrier Reef is a three-part documentary series . Narrated by David Attenborough its first episode aired over December 2015 and January 2016 . The series was released on DVD and Blu-ray in January 2016 . The MV Alucia was used as a base for the series .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef_(2015_TV_series)",
"rank": 31,
"score": 88827
},
{
"content": "Title: William Graham Henderson Maxwell Content: William Graham Henderson Maxwell ( 1929-18 July 1999 ) was an Australian geologist and academic who did important research on the Great Barrier Reef . William Graham Henderson Maxwell ( known as Graham Maxwell ) was born in Atherton , Queensland in 1929 . He attended Gordonvale State School and Thornburgh College in Charters Towers . He enrolled in the University of Queensland and took his B.Sc . with Honours degree in 1950 . He was awarded a CSIRO scholarship to continue his studies . Maxwell was the first person to be awarded a PhD at the University of Queensland , in 1952 , under the supervision of Dorothy Hill . He was awarded the Beit Fellowship for Scientific Research to Imperial College London in 1952 .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "William_Graham_Henderson_Maxwell",
"rank": 32,
"score": 88431
},
{
"content": "Title: Barrier Reef (TV series) Content: Barrier Reef was an Australian television series that was first screened in 1971 . Barrier Reef was about a group of marine biologists on board a sailing ship called the New Endeavour , researching around the Great Barrier Reef , off Queensland , Australia . `` It was the first series in the world to feature extensive colour underwater filming on location '' . It was also a unique location for a TV show .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Barrier_Reef_(TV_series)",
"rank": 33,
"score": 87910
},
{
"content": "Title: Acanthastrea ishigakiensis Content: Acanthastrea ishigakiensis is a species of coral found in Indo-Pacific waters . It is widespread but uncommon throughout its range . It has a narrow depth range , and is susceptible to coral bleaching and disease . It is also threatened by the global loss of coral reef habitats .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Acanthastrea_ishigakiensis",
"rank": 34,
"score": 87825
},
{
"content": "Title: Batt Reef Content: Batt Reef is a coral reef off Port Douglas in Queensland , Australia . It is centred at and is part of the Great Barrier Reef . The reef is about 18 km long by 5 km ( 11 miles by 3 miles ) wide , lying northwest to southeast , at the northern side of Trinity Passage that leads from the inner Reef channel from Trinity Bay to the Pacific Ocean . The north-west tip of the reef lies 15 km east of the Low Islets ( Low and Woody Islands ) which are in turn 16 km east of Newell Beach and 11 km northeast of Port Douglas . The area received a high level of media attention following the death of The Crocodile Hunter star Steve Irwin on 4 September 2006 while filming an underwater documentary entitled Ocean 's Deadliest .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Batt_Reef",
"rank": 35,
"score": 87022
},
{
"content": "Title: John Brazier Content: John William Brazier ( 1842 -- 1930 ) was a malacologist from Australia . In 1865 he accompanied Julius Brenchley on the voyage of H.M.S. Curacoa to Norfolk Island , Samoa , Tonga , Fiji , the New Hebrides , the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia . After several other shell collecting expeditions in Australasia he joined William John Macleay 's 1875 expedition in the Chevert to New Guinea via the Great Barrier Reef . In the early 1880s Brazier curated the shell collections at the Australian Museum and at first also the ethnological , historical and numismatic collections . By 1891 the shell collections had grown so large that Brazier curated only marine shells .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "John_Brazier",
"rank": 36,
"score": 86941
},
{
"content": "Title: Maclear Content: Maclear may refer to : People Sir Thomas Maclear ( 1794 -- 1879 ) , Irish-born South African astronomer Michael Maclear ( born 1929 ) , Canadian journalist , documentary filmmaker , and former correspondent John Maclear ( 1838 - 1907 ) , commander of the HMS Challenger from 1872 to 1876 Places Maclear , Eastern Cape , a town in the Eastern Cape province , South Africa Maclear Island ( Queensland ) , an island in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Maclear ( crater ) , a lunar crater Other Maclear 's Rat , an extinct species of rat formerly found on Christmas Island",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Maclear",
"rank": 37,
"score": 86633
},
{
"content": "Title: Cod Hole Content: Cod Hole is one of the best known dive sites in the world and is located on the northern end of the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland , Australia on ribbon reef number 10 . It is notable for and is named after the dozen or so potato cod that live there . The sanctioned feeding of these fish and number of visitors to the site has also made it a focal point in the debate over reef management .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Cod_Hole",
"rank": 38,
"score": 86479
},
{
"content": "Title: Cyclone Hamish Content: Severe Tropical Cyclone Hamish was a very powerful tropical cyclone that caused extensive damage to the Great Barrier Reef and coastal Queensland , Australia , in March 2009 . The eighth named storm of the 2008 -- 09 Australian region cyclone season , Hamish developed out of an area of low pressure on 4 March near the Cape York Peninsula . The storm rapidly developed into a Category 1 cyclone on the Australian intensity scale the next day . On 6 March , an eye developed and Hamish strengthened into a Category 3 cyclone . Deep convection formed around the eye , fuelling further intensification which allowed the storm to become a Category 5 tropical cyclone late on 7 March .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Cyclone_Hamish",
"rank": 39,
"score": 86073
},
{
"content": "Title: Barrier reef Content: Barrier reef may refer to : a kind of coral reef the Great Barrier Reef in Australia the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System the Belize Barrier Reef the New Caledonia Barrier Reef Barrier Reef ( TV series ) , an Australian television series",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Barrier_reef",
"rank": 40,
"score": 86055
},
{
"content": "Title: Acanthastrea regularis Content: Acanthastrea regularis is a species of coral found in Indo-Pacific waters from Australia to the western Pacific Ocean . It is usually uncommon throughout its range , but can be more common locally . It has a narrow depth range , and so is susceptible to coral bleaching and disease . It is also threatened by the global decline in coral reef habitats .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Acanthastrea_regularis",
"rank": 41,
"score": 85924
},
{
"content": "Title: Tom and Eileen Lonergan Content: Thomas Joseph Lonergan and Eileen Cassidy ( née Hains ) Lonergan , born 1964 and 1969 , respectively , were a married couple from Baton Rouge , Louisiana , United States , who were mistakenly stranded in the Coral Sea on January 25 , 1998 . The Lonergans were scuba diving with a group at St. Crispin 's Reef in Australia 's Great Barrier Reef . The boat that had transported the group to the dive site departed before the Lonergans returned from the water . None of the vessel 's crew or passengers noticed that the two had not come back aboard . At the time of the incident , the couple had recently completed a two-year tour of duty with the Peace Corps at Funafuti atoll in the small South Pacific island nation of Tuvalu and were repeating that work in Fiji .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Tom_and_Eileen_Lonergan",
"rank": 42,
"score": 85914
},
{
"content": "Title: Shrewsbury Rock Content: This article is about the Great Barrier Marine Park feature , not to be confused with Shrewsbury Rocks , New Jersey . Shrewsbury Rock , or sometimes `` Shrewsbury Reef '' , is a rocky feature off the Queensland coast . It is located between Hotspur Island and Pine Peak Island , within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . The nearest major coastal town is Mackay .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Shrewsbury_Rock",
"rank": 43,
"score": 85503
},
{
"content": "Title: Alveopora allingi Content: Alveopora allingi is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean . It has also been found in Palau and the Mariana Islands . It is susceptible to coral bleaching and is rated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as a `` vulnerable species '' .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Alveopora_allingi",
"rank": 44,
"score": 85469
},
{
"content": "Title: Endeavour Reef Content: Endeavour Reef is a coral reef within the Great Barrier Reef . It is within the Shire of Cook , Queensland , Australia . The reef is about 7 km long and runs in an east-west direction . The center of the reef is located at . It is about 6 km south-east of the Hope Islands in the Hope Islands National Park and 12 km off the mainland . It was encountered by Lieutenant James Cook when HM Bark Endeavour ran aground there on 11 June 1770 . In his journals , Cook described striking the south-eastern end of the reef at 11pm after having passed just north of Pickersgill Reef about one hour before . Philip Parker King described the region in his Voyages for the Survey of the Intertropical coasts of Australia Volume 2 following his expeditions between 1818 and 1820 . King described the reef as being '' ... nine miles long ; it lies in a North-West direction ; the north end , in 15 degrees 39 minutes South , bears due from the North-east Hope . '' and stated that there was a dry rock on the western edge '' ... in latitude 15 degrees 39 minutes 55 seconds . '' It is probable that he was referring to Cairns Reef which is further to the north . In 1969 an underwater search discovered the six abandoned cannons , ballast and an anchor which had been discarded by the Endeavour crew in 1770 whilst attempting to refloat the ship . A replica cannon is on display at the Australian National Maritime Museum in Darling Harbour , Sydney , while the six original cannons are on display at Botany Bay , Cooktown , Canberra , Philadelphia ( USA ) , Wellington ( NZ ) . and London ( UK ) .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Endeavour_Reef",
"rank": 45,
"score": 85294
},
{
"content": "Title: Amphiprion akindynos Content: Amphiprion akindynos , the Barrier Reef anemonefish is a species of anemonefish that is principally found in the Great Barrier Reef of Australia , but also in nearby locations in the Western Pacific . The species name ` akindynos ' is Greek , meaning ` safe ' or ` without danger ' in reference to the safety afforded amongst the tentacles of its host anemone . Like all anemonefishes it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone . It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict sized based dominance hierarchy : the female is largest , the breeding male is second largest , and the male non-breeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends . They exhibit protandry , meaning the breeding male will change to female if the sole breeding female dies , with the largest non-breeder becomes the breeding male . The fish 's natural diet includes zooplankton .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Amphiprion_akindynos",
"rank": 46,
"score": 85267
},
{
"content": "Title: Alveopora fenestrata Content: Alveopora fenestrata is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia and the oceanic west Pacific Ocean . It can be found in shallow coral reefs , to a depth of 30 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Alveopora_fenestrata",
"rank": 47,
"score": 85249
},
{
"content": "Title: OceanWorld 3D Content: OceanWorld 3D is a 2009 stereoscopic 3D documentary by Jean-Jacques Mantello about the variety of animal life in the ocean . It features Californian kelp forests , the Great Barrier Reef in Australia , and the Roca Partida island off the coast of Mexico , which is home to thousands of sharks and other marine animals . Among the featured species are the manta ray , the hammerhead shark , the lionfish , the Spanish dancer , the dolphin , and a few of the largest cetaceans on the planet .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "OceanWorld_3D",
"rank": 48,
"score": 85130
},
{
"content": "Title: Capricorn and Bunker Group Content: The islands and reefs of the Capricorn and Bunker Group are situated astride the Tropic of Capricorn at the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef , approximately 80 kilometres east of Gladstone , which is situated on the central coast of Queensland . Many of these islands form part of the Capricornia Cays National Park and are part of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Capricorn_and_Bunker_Group",
"rank": 49,
"score": 84701
},
{
"content": "Title: New Caledonian barrier reef Content: The New Caledonian barrier reef is located in New Caledonia in the South Pacific , and is the second-longest double-barrier coral reef in the world , after the Belize Barrier Reef . The New Caledonian barrier reef surrounds Grande Terre , New Caledonia 's largest island , as well as the Ile des Pins and several smaller islands , reaching a length of 1500 km . The reef encloses a lagoon of 24000 km2 , which has an average depth of 25 m . The reefs lie up to 30 km from the shore , but extend almost 200 km to the Entrecasteaux reefs in the northwest . This northwestern extension encloses the Belep Islands and other sand cays . Several natural passages open out to the ocean . The Boulari passage , which leads to Noumea , the capital and chief port of New Caledonia , is marked by the Amédée lighthouse .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "New_Caledonian_barrier_reef",
"rank": 50,
"score": 84673
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef Airport Content: Great Barrier Reef Airport or Hamilton Island Airport is the primary airport of the Whitsunday Islands Group , and the airport of Hamilton Island . The airport is settled on mostly reclaimed land and due the island 's tourism status , is occupied mostly and favoured by Australia 's leading low-cost airlines ( Jetstar Airways and Virgin Australia ) and Qantas . Hamilton Island Airport handles direct flights from Sydney , Melbourne , Brisbane and Cairns and is also the airport launch pad for scenic flights to the Great Barrier Reef and Whitehaven Beach . Private flights and charters also fly into Great Barrier Reef Airport , along with locally operated helicopters , light planes and seaplanes . The airport suffered heavily in September 2001 with the demise of Ansett Australia , which operated more heavily out of the airport than any other airline with flights to Cairns , Townsville , Brisbane , the Gold Coast , Queensland , Sydney , Melbourne and Adelaide . In the year ending 30 June 2011 the airport handled 457,641 passengers making it the 19th busiest airport in Australia .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef_Airport",
"rank": 51,
"score": 84661
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora acuminata Content: Acropora acuminata is a species of acroporid coral found in Australia , the Red Sea , the central Indo-Pacific , Japan , the northern Indian Ocean , the East China Sea , southeast Asia , and the western Pacific Ocean . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , the crown-of-thorns sea star ( Acanthaster planci ) , and harvesting for the aquarium trade . It is found on shallow coral reefs from depths of 5 -- 20 m . It was described by Verrill in 1864 .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Acropora_acuminata",
"rank": 52,
"score": 84602
},
{
"content": "Title: SS Gothenburg Content: The SS Gothenburg was a steamship that operated along the British and then later the Australian and New Zealand coastlines . In February 1875 , she left Darwin , Australia en route to Adelaide when she encountered a cyclone-strength storm off the north Queensland coast . The ship was wrecked on the Great Barrier Reef north-west of Holbourne Island on 24 February 1875 . Survivors in one of the lifeboats were rescued two days later by Leichhardt , while the occupants of two other lifeboats that managed to reach Holbourne Island were rescued several days later . Twenty-two men survived , while between 98 and 112 others died , including a number of high-profile civil servants and dignitaries .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "SS_Gothenburg",
"rank": 53,
"score": 84118
},
{
"content": "Title: Lady Elliot Island Content: Lady Elliot Island is the southernmost coral cay of the Great Barrier Reef , Australia . The island lies 46 nmi north-east of Bundaberg and covers an area of approximately 45 ha . It is part of the Capricorn and Bunker Group of islands and is owned by the Commonwealth of Australia . The island is home to a small eco resort and an airstrip , which is serviced daily by flights from Bundaberg , Hervey Bay , Brisbane and the Gold Coast . Lady Elliot Island is located within the ` Green Zone ' of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which is the highest possible classification designated by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority . Marine National Park Green Zones protect the biodiversity within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park by protecting important breeding and nursery areas such as seagrass beds , mangrove communities , deepwater shoals and reefs . The island is particularly renowned for its scuba diving and snorkelling , as its location far offshore at the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef results in excellent water clarity .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Lady_Elliot_Island",
"rank": 54,
"score": 83579
},
{
"content": "Title: Alveopora viridis Content: Alveopora viridis is a species of stony coral that has a highly disjunct range , and can be found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the northern Indian Ocean and in Palau and the Mariana Islands . It is found on lower coral reef slopes to depths of 50 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and is harvested for the aquarium trade .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Alveopora_viridis",
"rank": 55,
"score": 83120
},
{
"content": "Title: Sudbury Reef Content: Sudbury Reef is a small coral reef , with a few unnamed cays but no substantial islands , lying about 20 km off the east coast of Far North Queensland , Australia . It is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at about the same latitude as Cairns .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Sudbury_Reef",
"rank": 56,
"score": 83040
},
{
"content": "Title: Hydrographers Passage Content: Hydrographers Passage is a deep-water shipping channel through the Great Barrier Reef , that reduced the previous route by 250 miles . It was discovered by James Bond , commander of the Royal Australian Navy survey ship HMAS Flinders in 1981 .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Hydrographers_Passage",
"rank": 57,
"score": 83010
},
{
"content": "Title: MV Reef Endeavour Content: MV Reef Endeavour built in Suva Fiji and was the first ship to contact the Great Barrier Reef as an attraction , in 1996 , an important milestone for tourism in Australia . She is today one of many ships that operate around the Fiji Islands exploring the Mamanuca and Yasawa Islands every week and Vanua Levu once a month . What makes the Reef Endeavour exceptional , is her small size allows her to reach remote reefs , islands and shallow bays , where bigger ships can not proceed . Her design allows for big ship qualities , whilst maintaining a small ship feel . These features include , a pool , spa , and an embarkation platform allowing access and storage for smaller boats .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "MV_Reef_Endeavour",
"rank": 58,
"score": 82627
},
{
"content": "Title: Bushy Island Content: Bushy Island is a vegetated coral cay in Queensland , Australia in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Queensland , Australia . It is about 70 km east of Mackay . There are no other vegetated cays in the more than 600 km stretch between Bushy Island and Green Island . The coral species Acropora bushyensis , one of many species in the Acropora genus , is most heavily concentrated in Bushy Island lagoon , existing only rarely elsewhere in the eastern portion of the Great Barrier Reef and not at all in the western portion . The island is an accumulation of biogenic sediment similar to Heron Island , and it has been sufficiently stable to accumulate vegetation . A major component of the mobile sands of Bushy Island is Foraminifera , a type of amoeboid protist . Foraminiferan sands are more easily eroded off of the cay . Bushy Island is located inside the zero isobase on an elevated reef flat , onto which the cay often erodes .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Bushy_Island",
"rank": 59,
"score": 82533
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandora Reef Content: Pandora Reef is a low-lying island in addition to being an adjacent fringing reef . It is in Halifax Bay in Queensland , Australia . It is 13 km from the Greater Palm group . The name Pandora Reef dates back to at least 1889 . The surrounding waters are in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in the Coral Sea . The GBRMPA designation is 18-051 . Zoned as a Marine National Park , fishing is not permitted , although diving and photography are allowed .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Pandora_Reef",
"rank": 60,
"score": 82465
},
{
"content": "Title: Goniastrea stelligera Content: Goniastrea stelligera , commonly known as knob coral , is a species of stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs in shallow water on the coast of East Africa and in the Indo-Pacific region . This is a common species of coral but it seems to be decreasing in abundance . The main threat it faces is from the destruction of its coral reef habitat , and it is also moderately susceptible to coral bleaching , so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being `` near threatened '' .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Goniastrea_stelligera",
"rank": 61,
"score": 82176
},
{
"content": "Title: Acanthastrea brevis Content: Acanthastrea brevis is a vulnerable species of stony coral found in reef habitats at depths of 1 -- 20 m . It is threatened by habitat loss and crown-of-thorns starfish predation . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and ocean acidification .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Acanthastrea_brevis",
"rank": 62,
"score": 82131
},
{
"content": "Title: Alveopora spongiosa Content: Alveopora spongiosa is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean . It can be found on protected upper coral reef slopes , generally from depth of 9 -- 20 m , but can grow at depths of up to 50 m . It is moderately susceptible to coral bleaching , and is harvested for the aquarium trade .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Alveopora_spongiosa",
"rank": 63,
"score": 82053
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora globiceps Content: Acropora globiceps is a species of acroporid coral found in the oceanic central and western Pacific Ocean and central Indo-Pacific . It can also be found in the Great Barrier Reef , the Philippines , the Andaman Islands , Polynesia , Micronesia and the Pitcairn Islands . It occurs on the slopes of reefs , the flats of reefs , in tropical shallow reefs , and at depths of around 8 m . It was described by Dana in 1846 .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Acropora_globiceps",
"rank": 64,
"score": 81957
},
{
"content": "Title: North West Island Content: North West Island is a coral cay in the southern Great Barrier Reef , located 75 kilometres northeast of Gladstone , Queensland . North West Island forms part of Capricornia Cays National Park and with an area of 1.05 km2 , the island is the second largest coral cay in the Great Barrier Reef . It is part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "North_West_Island",
"rank": 65,
"score": 81867
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Sea Content: The Coral Sea is a marginal sea of the South Pacific off the northeast coast of Australia , and classified as an interim Australian bioregion . The Coral Sea extends 2,000 km down the Australian northeast coast . It is bounded in the west by the east coast of Queensland , thereby including the Great Barrier Reef , in the east by Vanuatu ( formerly the New Hebrides ) and by New Caledonia , and in the northeast approximately by the southern extremity of the Solomon Islands . In the northwest , it reaches to the south coast of eastern New Guinea , thereby including the Gulf of Papua . It merges with the Tasman Sea in the south , with the Solomon Sea in the north and with the Pacific Ocean in the east . On the west , it is bounded by the mainland coast of Queensland , and in the northwest , it connects with the Arafura Sea through the Torres Strait . The sea is characterised by its warm and stable climate , with frequent rains and tropical cyclones . It contains numerous islands and reefs , as well as the world 's largest reef system , the Great Barrier Reef ( GBR ) , which was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1981 . All previous oil exploration projects were terminated at the GBR in 1975 , and fishing is restricted in many areas . The reefs and islands of the Coral Sea are particularly rich in birds and aquatic life and are a popular tourist destination , both nationally and internationally .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Coral_Sea",
"rank": 66,
"score": 81761
},
{
"content": "Title: Barney's Barrier Reef Content: Barney 's Barrier Reef is a British documentary program launched by the CBBC in 2009 , presented by Barney Harwood and Gemma Hunt . The structure of the program shows the links between animals from the Great Barrier Reef . It involves at least 10 to 12 animals each episode . Barney used an animal as a ` little cheat ' as described by Gemma , because it was Humans . Barney 's Barrier Reef mostly involves fish since the Great Barrier Reef is in an ocean . Land animals are hardly used in this series , but then they are mostly used in the proceeding series : Barney 's Latin America , although some fish , like the blind sea shrimp , are featured . Barney 's Barrier Reef featured 20 episodes . Category : British children 's television programmes",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Barney's_Barrier_Reef",
"rank": 67,
"score": 81599
},
{
"content": "Title: Alveopora verrilliana Content: Alveopora verrilliana is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan , the East China Sea , the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean and the Johnston Atoll . It can also be found in Palau and the southern Mariana Islands . It grows on shallow coral reefs to a depth of 30 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and is harvested for the aquarium trade .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Alveopora_verrilliana",
"rank": 68,
"score": 81399
},
{
"content": "Title: Chaetodon rainfordi Content: Chaetodon rainfordi is a species of marine angelfish with a range restricted to Papua New Guinea , the Great Barrier Reef and Lord Howe Island . Greater than 50 % of its distribution is within the protected waters of Australia 's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . There has been a significant population decline of C. rainfordi in the Great Barrier Reef due to extensive coral loss , its primary food source . It inhabits coastal and offshore reefs at depths of 5-20 m.",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Chaetodon_rainfordi",
"rank": 69,
"score": 81196
},
{
"content": "Title: Leggatt Island Content: Leggatt Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the easternmost island in the Cole Islands group and National Park and is about 100 km south-east of Cape Melville , Queensland . Leggatt Island is a vegetated sand cay located 15 km from the coast , well established with coconut palms and sisal that provide a habitat for a number of roosting birds and Green Turtles and Hawksbill Turtles . This island is used by a number of tour operators . Category : Islands on the Great Barrier Reef Category : Uninhabited islands of Australia Category : Islands of Far North Queensland Category : Great Barrier Reef Marine Park",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Leggatt_Island",
"rank": 70,
"score": 81034
},
{
"content": "Title: Porites nodifera Content: Porites nodifera , also known as Dome Coral , is a species of stony coral in the Poritidae family . In the Persian Gulf , Porites spp. , including Porites nodifera are the dominant corals present . This may be as a result of coral bleaching affecting Acropora spp . to a greater extent , and Porites filling in resulting gaps in the reef .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Porites_nodifera",
"rank": 71,
"score": 80969
},
{
"content": "Title: Inanidrilus wasseri Content: Inanidrilus wasseri is a species of annelid worm . It is known from subtidal sands near the Lizard Island in the northern part of the Great Barrier Reef . Preserved specimens measure 14.1 - in length . The specific name wasseri honours Mr Robert Wasser , a maintenance officer at the Lizard Island Research Station .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Inanidrilus_wasseri",
"rank": 72,
"score": 80877
},
{
"content": "Title: 1960 Valdivia earthquake Content: The 1960 Valdivia earthquake ( Terremoto de Valdivia ) or Great Chilean earthquake ( Gran terremoto de Chile ) of 22 May is the most powerful earthquake ever recorded . Various studies have placed it at 9.4 -- 9.6 on the moment magnitude scale . It occurred in the afternoon ( 19:11 GMT , 15:11 local time ) , and lasted approximately 10 minutes . The resulting tsunami affected southern Chile , Hawaii , Japan , the Philippines , eastern New Zealand , southeast Australia and the Aleutian Islands . The epicenter of this megathrust earthquake was near Lumaco ( see map ) , approximately 570 km south of Santiago , with Valdivia being the most affected city . The tremor caused localised tsunamis that severely battered the Chilean coast , with waves up to 25 m . The main tsunami raced across the Pacific Ocean and devastated Hilo , Hawaii . Waves as high as 10.7 m were recorded 10000 km from the epicenter , and as far away as Japan and the Philippines . The death toll and monetary losses arising from this widespread disaster are not certain . Various estimates of the total number of fatalities from the earthquake and tsunamis have been published , ranging between 1,000 and 6,000 killed . Different sources have estimated the monetary cost ranged from 400 million to 800 million ( or $ to $ today , adjusted for inflation ) .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "1960_Valdivia_earthquake",
"rank": 73,
"score": 80614
},
{
"content": "Title: Devonian Reef Content: Devonian Reef is located in the Kimberley region in an area once covered by tropical sea . It is now a protected area of Western Australia and includes three National Parks , the Geikie Gorge National Park , the Tunnel Creek National Park and the Windjana Gorge National Park . All the parks originated as the Western Australia reef , around 350 million years ago , during the Devonian Period , and now feature rocky landscapes and formation , rich gorges , and plenty of wildlife . . The three ranges cut through the Devonian `` Great Barrier Reef '' and is now exposed to reveal some of the most spectacular landforms in the Kimberley Region .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Devonian_Reef",
"rank": 74,
"score": 80441
},
{
"content": "Title: Alice Pruvot-Fol Content: Alice Pruvot-Fol ( 4 August 1873 -- 28 March 1972 ) was a French opisthobranch malacologist . She was the author of many new species , mostly described on the basis of preserved animals . She even described a new species ( Nembrotha rutilans , Pruvot-Fol , 1931 ) on the basis of a painted illustration in a book by William Saville-Kent , ( 1893 ) entitled The Great Barrier Reef of Australia . She continued working and naming new species until late in her life . Even in 1962 , when she was 89 years old , she named Phyllidia pulitzeri . Some of the species described by her : Aldisa banyulensis Pruvot-Fol , 1951 Aplysiopsis formosa Pruvot-Fol Atagema gibba Pruvot-Fol Atagema rugosa Pruvot-Fol , 1951 Chelidonura africana Pruvot-Fol Chromodoris kuniei Pruvot-Fol , 1930 Cumanotus cuenoti Pruvot-Fol , 1948 Doriopsilla rarispinosa Pruvot-Fol , 1951 Elysia babai Pruvot-Fol , 1945 Elysia mercieri Pruvot-Fol , 1930 Facelina dubia Pruvot-Fol , 1949 Glossodoris hikuerensis ( Pruvot-Fol , 1954 ) Goniodoridella savignyi Pruvot-Fol , 1933 Hermaea paucicirra Pruvot-Fol , 1953 Hypselodoris dollfusi ( Pruvot-Fol , 1933 Hypselodoris fontandraui Pruvot-Fol , 1951 . Marianina rosea ( Pruvot-Fol , 1930 ) Nembrotha rutilans ( Pruvot-Fol , 1931 ) is a synonym for Nembrotha purpureolineata O'Donoghue , 1924 Phyllidia bataviae Pruvot-Fol , 1957 Phyllidia pulitzeri Pruvot-Fol , 1962 Phyllidiopsis krempfi Pruvot-Fol , 1957 Trapania Pruvot-Fol , 1931 Thecacera darwini , Pruvot-Fol , 1950 Thordisa filix Pruvot-Fol , 1951 Several genera and species were named in her honor : Aegires pruvotfolae Fahey & Gosliner , 2004 Elysia pruvotfolae Ernst Marcus , 1957 Hallaxa apefae Marcus & Marcus , ( using just the initials APF ) Pruvotaplysia Engel , 1936 Pruvotfolia Tardy , 1970 Pruvotfolia pselliotes Pruvotfolia longicirrha n.comb .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Alice_Pruvot-Fol",
"rank": 75,
"score": 80301
},
{
"content": "Title: Hoskyn Islands Content: Hoskyn Islands is a pair of small coral cays . They are located near the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern Great Barrier Reef , 107 km due east of Gladstone , Queensland , Australia , and 412 km north of the state capital Brisbane . The island is the fourth island in the Great Barrier Reef chain of islands ( with the first being Lady Elliot Island ) , and is part of the Capricorn and Bunker Group of islands , forming part of the Capricornia Cays National Park as well as part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area . Most people only see the island by the more easily reached Lady Musgrave Island , which can be readily reached by fast catamaran from the town of 1770 , Queensland , or from Gladstone , both of which are located approximately five hours ' drive north of Brisbane . The pair of Hoskyn cays are East Hoskyn West Hoskyn",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Hoskyn_Islands",
"rank": 76,
"score": 80001
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora aculeus Content: Acropora aculeus is a species of acroporid corals found throughout the Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , southeast Asia , Japan and the East China Sea . It is also present in the western Pacific Ocean . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease , and crown-of-thorns starfish predation . It is also harvested for aquaria .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Acropora_aculeus",
"rank": 77,
"score": 79719
},
{
"content": "Title: Tryon Island Content: Tryon Island is a coral cay located in the southern Great Barrier Reef , 86 km northeast of Gladstone , Queensland , Australia , and 465 km north of the state capital Brisbane . The island is a protected area and forms part of Capricornia Cays National Park . It is part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area . The cay covers an area of 0.21 km2 and is surrounded by a coral reef that is partially exposed at low-tide .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Tryon_Island",
"rank": 78,
"score": 79414
},
{
"content": "Title: Australian blenny Content: The Australian blenny ( Ecsenius australianus ) are small marine blennioid fish of the genus Ecsenius . They are small and reddish brown with a white ventral side . Australian blennies inhabit the shallow marine waters of the tropics . They are often found along the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea of Australia .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Australian_blenny",
"rank": 79,
"score": 79209
},
{
"content": "Title: Anacropora puertogalerae Content: Anacropora puertogalerae is a species of briar coral that can be found in the central Indo-Pacific , Japan , the East China Sea , eastern Australia , the oceanic west Pacific Ocean , the Philippines and the Maldives . It is also found in the Andaman Islands , Rodrigues , Fiji and Vanuatu . It occurs in shallow reefs , from depths of 5 -- 20 m . It is very fragile , and is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease and habitat loss .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Anacropora_puertogalerae",
"rank": 80,
"score": 79103
},
{
"content": "Title: Cymbiolacca pulchra wisemani Content: Cymbiolacca pulchra wisemani is a subspecies of large sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family volutidae , the volutes . This species occurs in shallow water on top of the Great Barrier Reef , Queensland , Australia from at least as far north as Saint Crispins Reef Reef east of Cape Tribulation to at least as far south as Stanley Reef north east of Bowen . This subspecies is closely related to , and may be conspecific with , Cymbiolacca pulchra peristicta from the Swain Reefs region at the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef . The shell shape and colour pattern vary from population to population , with many endemic colour forms known .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Cymbiolacca_pulchra_wisemani",
"rank": 81,
"score": 78995
},
{
"content": "Title: Raine Island Content: Raine Island is a vegetated coral cay that is 32 hectares in total area and is situated on the outer edges of the Great Barrier Reef , approximately 620 km north-north-west of Cairns in Queensland , Australia , about 120 km east-north-east of Cape Grenville , Cape York Peninsula . Raine Island is the site of the oldest European structure in tropical Australia , a stone beacon built in 1844 , and harbours the world 's largest remaining population of green turtles ( Chelonia mydas ) . An important environmental icon , the island is totally protected from public access . It got its name from being shaped like a rain drop .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Raine_Island",
"rank": 82,
"score": 78942
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora abrotanoides Content: Acropora abrotanoides is a species of acroporid coral found in Indo-Pacific waters from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden east to the East China Sea , the central Pacific Ocean and Australia . It is found in shallow coral reefs to a maximum depth of 10 -- 15 m . It is vulnerable to coral bleaching , disease and crown-of-thorns starfish . It is resistant to predation as it has well-developed radial corallite lips . It was described by Lamarck in 1816 .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Acropora_abrotanoides",
"rank": 83,
"score": 78888
},
{
"content": "Title: Inanidrilus carterensis Content: Inanidrilus carterensis is a species of annelid worm . It is known from subtidal coral sands from the Carter Reef , near the Lizard Island in the northern part of the Great Barrier Reef . It is a very small species : the holotype measures 2.7 mm .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Inanidrilus_carterensis",
"rank": 84,
"score": 78623
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Blue Hole Content: The Great Blue Hole is a giant submarine sinkhole off the coast of Belize . It lies near the center of Lighthouse Reef , a small atoll 70 km from the mainland and Belize City . The hole is circular in shape , over 300 m across and 108 m deep . It was formed during several episodes of quaternary glaciation when sea levels were much lower . Analysis of stalactites found in the Great Blue Hole shows that formation took place 153,000 ; 66,000 ; 60,000 ; and 15,000 years ago . As the ocean began to rise again , the cave was flooded . The Great Blue Hole is a part of the larger Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System , a World Heritage Site of the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Great_Blue_Hole",
"rank": 85,
"score": 78592
},
{
"content": "Title: Hales Island (Queensland) Content: Hales Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 5 km east of Cape Melville , Queensland . It is around 1 hectares or 0.01 square km in size . There is a significant population of Torresian imperial pigeons in the area .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Hales_Island_(Queensland)",
"rank": 86,
"score": 78510
},
{
"content": "Title: Nautilus stenomphalus Content: Nautilus stenomphalus , also known as the white-patch nautilus , is a species of nautilus native to the Great Barrier Reef . N. stenomphalus is very similar to N. pompilius and may in fact represent a subspecies . It is separated by the absence of a thickened callus and the presence of white patches in the umbilical and shoulder regions of the shell . The sheaths of this species have scalloped edges compared with the smooth sheaths of N. pompilius . N. stenomphalus also differs slightly in hood ornamentation . The shell is usually up to around 180 mm in diameter , although the largest specimen ever recorded measured 201 mm .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Nautilus_stenomphalus",
"rank": 87,
"score": 78081
},
{
"content": "Title: Barrier Reef Hotel Content: Barrier Reef Hotel is a heritage-listed hotel at Abbott Street , Cairns , Cairns Region , Queensland , Australia . It was designed by Lawrence and Lordan in conjunction with Richard Hill built in 1926 by Carl Peter Jorgensen . It was also known as Empire Hotel . It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 29 July 1997 .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Barrier_Reef_Hotel",
"rank": 88,
"score": 77976
},
{
"content": "Title: Pumpkin Island Content: Pumpkin Island is a privately owned island on Keppel Bay on the southern Great Barrier Reef in Australia . It is 13.8 km off the coast from Yeppoon and has an area of 18 acres . In 2012 it was the world 's sixth most expensive island . The island is owned by Wayne Rumble : it was given to him by his South African-born parents , who bought it in 2003 . Between 2012 and 2015 the island was leased by Queensland brewer Castlemaine Perkins and , for the duration , renamed XXXX Island as a promotional campaign for their beer , Castlemaine XXXX . Over the course of the 3 years , 3000 visitors enjoyed trips to XXXX Island .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Pumpkin_Island",
"rank": 89,
"score": 77805
},
{
"content": "Title: Wreck Island Content: Wreck Island is a small coral cay . It is located near the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern Great Barrier Reef , 93 km due north east of Gladstone , Queensland , Australia , and 460 km north of the state capital Brisbane . The island is part of the Great Barrier Reef chain of islands , and is part of the Capricorn and Bunker Group of island and forms part of the Capricornia Cays National Park . It is also part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Wreck_Island",
"rank": 90,
"score": 77687
},
{
"content": "Title: Sherrard Island Content: Sherrard Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park north-west of Cape Melville , Queensland and north-east of Coen between the first 3 mi opening and the second 3 mi opening of the Barrier Reef about 100 km south-east of Lockhart River in the Osborn Channel . The island is 10 km east of Old Lockhart River and 30 km south of Cape Direction .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Sherrard_Island",
"rank": 91,
"score": 77641
},
{
"content": "Title: Hippolyte bifidirostris Content: Hippolyte bifidirostris is a chameleon shrimp of the family Hippolytidae , found around New Zealand at depths of 18 - . It may also occur on Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , but that record may need to be confirmed .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Hippolyte_bifidirostris",
"rank": 92,
"score": 77494
},
{
"content": "Title: Fairfax Islands Content: Fairfax Islands is a pair of small coral cays , both of which have been used as a bombing range . They are located near the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern Great Barrier Reef , 113 km due east of Gladstone , Queensland , Australia , and 405 km north of the state capital Brisbane . The island is the third island in the Great Barrier Reef chain of islands ( with the first being Lady Elliot Island ) , and is part of the Capricorn and Bunker Group of islands and forms part of the Capricornia Cays National Park as well as of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area . Most people only see the island by the more easily reached Lady Musgrave Island , which can be readily reached by fast catamaran from the town of 1770 , Queensland , or from Gladstone , both of which are located approximately five hours drive north of Brisbane . Fairfax Islands East Fairfax West Fairfax",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Fairfax_Islands",
"rank": 93,
"score": 77482
},
{
"content": "Title: Alphie the Alpha Turtle Content: Alphie the Alpha Turtle is a large inflatable floating public artwork . It is shaped like a sea turtle and is covered with an abstract black and white pattern inspired by the forms of the Great Barrier Reef . It was created by Queensland artist BJ Price and has been exhibited on the water at various locations in Australia , including Sydney Harbor in 2014 and Currumbin in 2016 . Alphie is 15 metres in length , weighs 375 kilograms and sits 5 metres above the water line when inflated . A smaller version known as `` Wee Alphie '' has also been displayed and photographed in far north Queensland .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Alphie_the_Alpha_Turtle",
"rank": 94,
"score": 77228
},
{
"content": "Title: Resilience of coral reefs Content: The resilience of coral reefs is the biological ability of coral reefs to recover from natural disturbances such as storms and bleaching episodes . Resilience refers to the ability of biological or social systems to overcome pressures and stresses by maintaining key functions through resisting or adapting to change . Reef resistance measures how well coral reefs tolerate changes in ocean chemistry , sea level , and sea surface temperature . Reef resistance and resilience are important factors in coral reef recovery from the effects of ocean acidification . Natural reef resilience can be used as a recovery model for coral reefs and an opportunity for management in marine protected areas ( MPAs ) . __ TOC __",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Resilience_of_coral_reefs",
"rank": 95,
"score": 76989
},
{
"content": "Title: Masthead Island Content: Masthead Island is a coral cay located in the southern Great Barrier Reef , 60 kilometres northeast of Gladstone , Queensland . The island is a protected area and forms part of Capricornia Cays National Park . Masthead Island is one of the most undisturbed cays in the national park because human and feral animal impacts have been rare . The cay covers an area of 0.45 km2 and is surrounded by a coral reef that is partially exposed at low-tide . It is part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area . The island is closed to the public from mid-October to Easter to protect nesting seabirds and turtle hatchlings . At other times the island is open for camping , however there are no facilities provided . Masthead Island was the shooting location for the 2010 film Uninhabited .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Masthead_Island",
"rank": 96,
"score": 76944
},
{
"content": "Title: Hay Island (Queensland) Content: Hay Island is a 10 ha coral cay that is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park west of Cape Melville , Queensland , Australia . It lies east of Coen in the Claremont Isles . It is part of the Islands North of Port Stewart Important Bird Area . It is around 42 hectares or 0.42 square km in size .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Hay_Island_(Queensland)",
"rank": 97,
"score": 76913
},
{
"content": "Title: Anacropora spinosa Content: Anacropora spinosa is a species of briar coral that can be found in the central Indo-Pacific , Southeast Asia , the Solomon Islands , Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west Pacific Ocean . It is also found in Rodrigues and the Andaman Islands . It occurs in shallow reefs , from depths of 5 -- 15 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease and reduction of coral reef habitats .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Anacropora_spinosa",
"rank": 98,
"score": 76676
},
{
"content": "Title: Yellow-band disease Content: Yellow-band disease ( similar to Yellow Blotch disease ) is a disease that attacks colonies of coral at a time when coral is already under stress from pollution , overfishing , and climate change . It is characterized by large blotches or patches of bleached , yellowed tissue on Caribbean scleractinian corals . Yellow-band disease is a bacterial infection that spreads over coral , causing the discolored bands of pale-yellow or white lesions along the surface of an infected coral colony . The lesions are the locations where the bacteria have killed the coral 's symbiotic photosynthetic algae , called zooxanthellae which are a major energy source for the coral . This cellular damage and the loss of its major energy source cause the coral to starve , and usually cause coral death . There is evidence that climate change could be worsening the disease .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Yellow-band_disease",
"rank": 99,
"score": 76296
},
{
"content": "Title: Wonky hole Content: A Wonky hole is the Australian term for submarine freshwater springs on the seabed in the Great Barrier Reef and the Gulf of Carpentaria of Queensland . Wonky holes can be found in the coral reef up to 60 km offshore . Wonky holes are located along riverbeds which existed in the last glacial period ending about 11,000 years ago . At that time of the last glacial maximum much of northern Europe and North America was covered by ice sheets up to 3 km thick ; the water tied up in the glacial ice lowered the sea level more than 120 m . The sediment in the submerged river beds from that period has been covered with coral in many places . Since the sediment is more permeable than the surrounding materials , it channels fresh water to thin spots in the coral , creating the fresh water springs called wonky holes . The nutrients carried by the fresh water attract fish and fishermen . Coral does not grow well in the fresh water , resulting in irregular growth around wonky holes . The rough bottoms around the outlet tend to capture fishing nets .",
"qid": "14",
"docid": "Wonky_hole",
"rank": 100,
"score": 76283
}
] |
it’s not a pollutant that threatens human civilization. | [
{
"content": "Title: Pollutant Content: A pollutant is a substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired effects , or adversely affects the usefulness of a resource . A pollutant may cause long - or short-term damage by changing the growth rate of plant or animal species , or by interfering with human amenities , comfort , health , or property values . Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the environment in the long term . However , the degradation products of some pollutants are themselves polluting such as the products DDE and DDD produced from degradation of DDT .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollutant",
"rank": 1,
"score": 109332
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental hazard Content: An environmental hazard is a substance , state or event which has the potential to threaten the surrounding natural environment and / or adversely affect people 's health . This term incorporates topics like pollution and natural disasters such as storms and earthquakes . Human-made hazards while not immediately health-threatening may turn out detrimental to man 's well-being eventually , because deterioration in the environment can produce secondary , unwanted negative effects on the human ecosphere . The effects of water pollution may not be immediately visible because of a sewage system that helps drain off toxic substances . If those substances turn out to be persistent ( e.g. persistent organic pollutant ) , however , they will literally be fed back to their producers via the food chain : plankton - > edible fish - > humans . In that respect , a considerable number of environmental hazards listed below are man-made ( anthropogenic ) hazards . Hazards can be categorized in four types : Chemical Physical ( mechanical , etc. . ) Biological Psychosocial .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_hazard",
"rank": 2,
"score": 105676
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs",
"rank": 3,
"score": 94022
},
{
"content": "Title: Persistent organic pollutant Content: Persistent organic pollutants ( POPs ) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical , biological , and photolytic processes . Because of their persistence , POPs bioaccumulate with potential significant impacts on human health and the environment . The effect of POPs on human and environmental health was discussed , with intention to eliminate or severely restrict their production , by the international community at the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2001 . Many POPs are currently or were in the past used as pesticides , solvents , pharmaceuticals , and industrial chemicals . Although some POPs arise naturally , for example volcanoes and various biosynthetic pathways , most are man-made via total synthesis .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Persistent_organic_pollutant",
"rank": 4,
"score": 92349
},
{
"content": "Title: Agricultural pollution Content: Agricultural pollution refers to biotic and abiotic byproducts of farming practices that result in contamination or degradation of the environment and surrounding ecosystems , and/or cause injury to humans and their economic interests . The pollution may come from a variety of sources , ranging from point source pollution ( from a single discharge point ) to more diffuse , landscape-level causes , also known as non-point source pollution . Management practices play a crucial role in the amount and impact of these pollutants . Management techniques range from animal management and housing to the spread of pesticides and fertilizers in global agricultural practices .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Agricultural_pollution",
"rank": 5,
"score": 88751
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution of the Ganges Content: Pollution of the Ganges ( or Ganga ) , the largest river in India , poses significant threats to human health and the larger environment . Severely polluted with human waste and industrial contaminants , the river provides water to about 40 % of India 's population across 11 states , serving an estimated population of 500 million people or more , more than any other river in the world . Today , Ganges is considered to be the fifth most polluted river in the world . Raghubir Singh has noted that no one in India spoke of the Ganges as polluted until the late 1970s . However , pollution has been an old and continuous process in the river as by the time people were finally speaking of the Ganges as polluted , stretches of over six hundred kilometers were essentially ecologically dead zones . A number of initiatives have been undertaken to clean the river but failed to deliver desired results . After getting elected , India 's Prime minister Narendra Modi affirmed to work in cleaning the river and controlling pollution . Subsequently , the Namami Ganga project was announced by the government in the July 2014 budget . An estimated Rs 2,958 Crores have been spent till July 2016 in various efforts in cleaning up of the river .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollution_of_the_Ganges",
"rank": 6,
"score": 87655
},
{
"content": "Title: Air pollution in the United States Content: Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals , particulate matter , or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms , or damages the natural environment into the atmosphere . Ever since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the United States , America has had much trouble with environmental issues , air pollution in particular . According to a 2009 report , around `` 60 percent of Americans live in areas where air pollution has reached unhealthy levels that can make people sick '' . Pollution in the United States has plummeted in the recent decade , with pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide decreasing despite the fact the number of vehicles on the road is n't . This is due to better regulations , economic shifts , and technological innovations . With respect to nitrogen dioxide , NASA reported a 32 % decrease in New York City and a 42 % decrease in Atlanta between the periods of 2005-2007 and 2009-2011 . Air pollution can cause a variety of health problems including , but not limited to infections , behavioral changes , cancer , organ failure , and even premature death . These health effects are not equally distributed in terms of race , ethnicity , socioeconomic status , education , and more in the United States . California has the worst air quality of any state , and in most surveys the cities in California rank in the top 5 or top 10 of most polluted air in the United States .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Air_pollution_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 7,
"score": 85404
},
{
"content": "Title: Plastic pollution Content: Plastic pollution involves the accumulation of plastic products in the environment that adversely affects wildlife , wildlife habitat , or humans . Plastics that act as pollutants are categorized into micro - , meso - , or macrodebris , based on size . The prominence of plastic pollution is correlated with plastics being inexpensive and durable , which lends to high levels of plastics used by humans . However , it is slow to degrade . Plastic pollution can unfavorably affect lands , waterways and oceans . Living organisms , particularly marine animals , can also be affected through entanglement , direct ingestion of plastic waste , or through exposure to chemicals within plastics that cause interruptions in biological functions . Humans are also affected by plastic pollution , such as through the disruption of the thyroid hormone axis or hormone levels . In the UK alone , more than 5 million tonnes of plastic are consumed each year , of which an estimated mere 24 % makes it into recycling systems . That leaves a remaining 3.8 million tonnes of waste , destined for landfills . Plastic reduction efforts have occurred in some areas in attempts to reduce plastic consumption and pollution and promote plastic recycling .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Plastic_pollution",
"rank": 8,
"score": 84958
},
{
"content": "Title: Biological pollution Content: Biological pollution ( impacts or biopollution ) is a term thaton quality of aquatic and terrestrial environment . Biopollution may cause adverse effects at several levels of biological organization : an individual organism ( internal biological pollution by parasites or pathogens ) , a population ( by genetic change , i.e. hybridization of IAS with a native species ) , a community or biocoenosis ( by structural shifts , i.e. dominance of IAS , replacement or elimination of native species ) , a habitat ( by modification of physical-chemical conditions ) , an ecosystem ( by alteration of energy and organic material flow ) . Biopollution may also cause decline in naturalness of nature conservation areas , adverse economic consequences and impacts on human health . The notion of `` biological pollution '' and `` biological pollutants '' described by Elliott ( 2003 ) is generally accepted in invasion biology ; it was used to develop the concept of biopollution level assessment ( Olenin et al. , 2007 ) and criteria for a Good Ecological Status descriptor in the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive ( Olenin et al. , 2010 ) The magnitude of the bioinvasion impact or biopollution level ( Olenin et al. , 2007 ) may be quantified using a free online service BINPAS .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Biological_pollution",
"rank": 9,
"score": 84372
},
{
"content": "Title: Nonpoint source pollution Content: Nonpoint source ( NPS ) pollution is a term used to describe pollution resulting from many diffuse sources , in direct contrast to point source pollution which results from a single source . Nonpoint source pollution generally results from land runoff , precipitation , atmospheric deposition , drainage , seepage , or hydrological modification ( rainfall or snowmelt ) where tracing the pollution back to a single source is difficult . Non-point source water pollution affects a water body from sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river , or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea . Non-point source air pollution affects air quality from sources such as smokestacks or car tailpipes . Although these pollutants have originated from a point source , the long-range transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant make it a non-point source of pollution . Non-point source pollution can be contrasted with point source pollution , where discharges occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at a single location . NPS may derive from many different sources with no specific solution may change to rectify the problem , making it difficult to regulate . Non point source water pollution is difficult to control because it comes from the everyday activities of many different people , such as fertilizing a lawn , using a pesticide , or constructing a road or building . It is the leading cause of water pollution in the United States today , with polluted runoff from agriculture the primary cause . Other significant sources of runoff include hydrological and habitat modification , and silviculture ( forestry ) . Contaminated stormwater washed off parking lots , roads and highways , and lawns ( often containing fertilizers and pesticides ) is called urban runoff . This runoff is often classified as a type of NPS pollution . Some people may also consider it a point source because many times it is channeled into municipal storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to nearby surface waters . However , not all urban runoff flows through storm drain systems before entering water bodies . Some may flow directly into water bodies , especially in developing and suburban areas . Also , unlike other types of point sources , such as industrial discharges , sewage treatment plants and other operations , pollution in urban runoff can not be attributed to one activity or even group of activities . Therefore , because it is not caused by an easily identified and regulated activity , urban runoff pollution sources are also often treated as true non-point sources as municipalities work to abate them .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Nonpoint_source_pollution",
"rank": 10,
"score": 84038
},
{
"content": "Title: Air pollution Content: Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth 's atmosphere . It may cause diseases , allergies or death in humans ; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops , and may damage the natural or built environment . Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution . Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world 's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World 's Worst Polluted Places report . According to the 2014 WHO report , air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide , an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Air_pollution",
"rank": 11,
"score": 83722
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution Content: Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change . Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy , such as noise , heat or light . Pollutants , the components of pollution , can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants . Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollution",
"rank": 12,
"score": 83494
},
{
"content": "Title: Dutch pollutant standards Content: Dutch Standards are environmental pollutant reference values ( i.e. , concentrations in environmental medium ) used in environmental remediation , investigation and cleanup . Barring a few exceptions , the target values are underpinned by an environmental risk analysis wherever possible and apply to individual substances . In most cases , target values for the various substances are related to a national background concentration that was determined for the Netherlands . Groundwater target values provide an indication of the benchmark for environmental quality in the long term , assuming that there are negligible risks for the ecosystem . For metals a distinction is made between deep and shallow groundwater . This is because deep and shallow groundwater contain different background concentrations . An arbitrary limit of 10 metres has been adopted . The target values shown below are for ` shallow ' groundwater , 0 -- 10 m depth . The soil remediation intervention values indicate when the functional properties of the soil for humans , plants and animals is seriously impaired or threatened . They are representative of the level of contamination above which a serious case of soil contamination is deemed to exist . The target values for soil are adjusted for the organic matter ( humus ) content and soil fraction < 0.2 µm ( lutum - Latin , meaning `` mud '' or `` clay '' ) . The values below are calculated for a ` Standard Soil ' with 10 % organic matter and 25 % lutum . A case of environmental contamination is defined as ` serious ' if > 25 m ³ soil or > 100 m ³ groundwater is contaminated above the intervention value . The values presented below are from Annex 1 , Table 1 , `` Groundwater target values and soil and groundwater intervention values '' . In previous versions of the Dutch Standards , target values for soil were also present . However , in the 2009 version , target values for soils have been deleted for all compounds except metals .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Dutch_pollutant_standards",
"rank": 13,
"score": 81616
},
{
"content": "Title: Water pollution Content: Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies ( e.g. lakes , rivers , oceans , aquifers and groundwater ) . This form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds . Water pollution affects the entire biosphere -- plants and organisms living in these bodies of water . In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and population , but also to the natural biological communities .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Water_pollution",
"rank": 14,
"score": 81225
},
{
"content": "Title: Safe Planet Content: Safe Planet : the United Nations Campaign for Responsibility on Hazardous Chemicals and Wastes is the UN Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and UN Food and Agricultural Organization-led global public awareness and outreach campaign for ensuring the safety of human health and the environment against hazardous chemicals and wastes . The Secretariats of the Basel Convention , the Rotterdam Convention and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants , the three leading global chemicals and waste management instruments , provide the measures , new initiatives and solutions to deal with the growing problems of hazardous chemicals and wastes . Basel , Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions encompass the management of hazardous chemicals , especially the persistent organic pollutants ( POPs ) , which are covered by all three treaties . The Conventions target chemical pollutants like dioxins and furans , hazardous pesticides and DDT , polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) , polybrominated diphenyl ethers ( PBDEs ) , PFOS , and the heavy metals : arsenic , cadmium , mercury and lead .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Safe_Planet",
"rank": 15,
"score": 80282
},
{
"content": "Title: Measures of pollutant concentration Content: Measures of pollutant concentration are used to determine risk assessment in public health . Industry is continually synthesizing new chemicals , the regulation of which requires evaluation of the potential danger for human health and the environment . Risk assessment is nowadays considered essential for making these decisions on a scientifically sound basis . Measures or defined limits include : No effect concentration ( NEC ) , No Observed Effect Concentration ( NOEC ) , No-observed-adverse-effect level ( NOAEL ) Lowest-observed-adverse-effect level ( LOAEL ) Acceptable Operator Exposure Level ( AOEL ) ECx ( in percent )",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Measures_of_pollutant_concentration",
"rank": 16,
"score": 80098
},
{
"content": "Title: Sex effects of water pollution Content: Sex is influenced by water pollutants that are encountered in everyday life . These sources of water can range from the simplicity of a water fountain to the entirety of the oceans . The pollutants within the water range from Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals ( EDCs ) in birth control to Bisphenol-A ( BPA ) . Foreign substances such as chemical pollutants that cause an alteration of sex have been found in growing prevalence in the circulating waters of the world . These pollutants have affected not only humans , but also animals in contact with the pollutants .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Sex_effects_of_water_pollution",
"rank": 17,
"score": 78942
},
{
"content": "Title: Mobile source air pollution Content: Mobile source air pollution includes any air pollution emitted by motor vehicles , airplanes , locomotives , and other engines and equipment that can be moved from one location to another . Many of these pollutants contribute to environmental degradation and have negative effects on human health . To prevent unnecessary damage to human health and the environment , environmental regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency have established policies to minimize air pollution from mobile sources . Similar agencies exist at the state level . Due to the large number of mobile sources of air pollution , and their ability to move from one location to another , mobile sources are regulated differently from stationary sources , such as power plants . Instead of monitoring individual emitters , such as an individual vehicle , mobile sources are often regulated more broadly through design and fuel standards . Examples of this include corporate average fuel economy standards and laws that ban leaded gasoline in the United States . The increase in the number of motor vehicles driven in the U.S. has made efforts to limit mobile source pollution challenging . As a result , there have been a number of different regulatory instruments implemented to reach the desired emissions goals .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Mobile_source_air_pollution",
"rank": 18,
"score": 78919
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutant Content: The term Environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants ( EPPP ) was first suggested in the nomination in 2010 of pharmaceuticals and environment as an emerging issue in a Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management ( SAICM ) by the International Society of Doctors for the Environment ( ISDE ) . The occurring problems from EPPPs are in parallel explained under environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products ( PPCP ) . The European Union summarizes pharmaceutical residues with the potential of contamination of water and soil together with other micropollutants under `` priority substances '' .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_persistent_pharmaceutical_pollutant",
"rank": 19,
"score": 77718
},
{
"content": "Title: Groundwater pollution Content: Groundwater pollution ( also called groundwater contamination ) occurs when pollutants are released to the ground and make their way down into groundwater . It can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent , contaminant or impurity in the groundwater , in which case it is more likely referred to as contamination rather than pollution . The pollutant creates a contaminant plume within an aquifer . Movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the pollutant over a wider area . Its advancing boundary , often called a plume edge , can intersect with groundwater wells or daylight into surface water such as seeps and spring , making the water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife . The movement of the plume , called a plume front , may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model . Analysis of groundwater pollution may focus on soil characteristics and site geology , hydrogeology , hydrology , and the nature of the contaminants . Pollution can occur from on-site sanitation systems , landfills , effluent from wastewater treatment plants , leaking sewers , petrol filling stations or from over application of fertilizers in agriculture . Pollution ( or contamination ) can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants , such as arsenic or fluoride . Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to public health through poisoning or the spread of disease . Different mechanisms have influence on the transport of pollutants , e.g. diffusion , adsorption , precipitation , decay , in the groundwater . The interaction of groundwater contamination with surface waters is analyzed by use of hydrology transport models .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Groundwater_pollution",
"rank": 20,
"score": 77106
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Delhi Content: Environmental problems in Delhi , India , are a threat to the well-being of the city 's and area 's inhabitants as well as the flora and fauna . Delhi , the sixth-most populated metropolis in the world ( second largest if the entire NCR is included ) , is one of the most heavily polluted cities in India , having for instance one of the country 's highest volumes of particulate matter pollution . In May 2014 the World Health Organisation announced New Delhi as the most polluted city in the world . Overpopulation and the ensuing overuse of scarce resources such as water put heavy pressure on the environment . The city suffers from air pollution caused by road dust and industry , with comparatively smaller contributions from unclean engines in transportation , especially diesel-powered city buses and trucks , and 2-wheelers and 3-wheelers with two-stroke engines . Noise pollution comes mainly from motorcycle and automobile traffic . Water pollution and a lack of solid waste treatment facilities have caused serious damage to the river on whose banks Delhi grew , the Yamuna . Besides human and environmental damage , pollution has caused economic damage as well ; Delhi may have lost the competition to host the 2014 Asian Games because of its poor environment .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Delhi",
"rank": 21,
"score": 76880
},
{
"content": "Title: Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy Content: In the United States about 10 % of the population , 35 million people , live within 100 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day , which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants . Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma , lung and heart disease , and cancer among others . Car pollutants include carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , particulate matter ( fine dusts and soot ) , and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations , they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses . The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the unborn babies .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy",
"rank": 22,
"score": 76442
},
{
"content": "Title: Information pollution Content: Information pollution ( also referred to as `` info pollution '' ) is the contamination of information supply with irrelevant , redundant , unsolicited and low-value information . The spread of useless and undesirable information can have a detrimental effect on human activities . It is considered one of the adverse effects of the information revolution .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Information_pollution",
"rank": 23,
"score": 76256
},
{
"content": "Title: The Voyage of the Odyssey Content: The Voyage of the Odyssey was a 5-year program conducted by oceanographic research and education non-profit Ocean Alliance , which collected the first baseline data set on contaminants in the world 's oceans . It was launched from San Diego in March 2000 , and ended five and a half years later in Boston , August 2005 . In a 1979 National Geographic magazine article Ocean Alliance founder and president Dr. Roger Payne predicted that toxic pollution would replace the harpoon as the next greatest threat to whales . Recognizing the stark lack of data on the subject , Roger set his organisation Ocean Alliance with the task of obtaining a global baseline data set on contaminants . After years of planning and fund-raising , the program was finally ready to launch in 2000 . In the executive summary of the project , Roger stated that , ` The Voyage of the Odyssey has proven irrefutably that ocean life is becoming polluted to unacceptable levels by metals and human-made contaminants . ' The focus of the program was on Sperm whales , a cosmopolitan species found in every major ocean . As long-lived apex predators , Sperm whales represent a useful bioindicator of health in the marine ecosystem in a toxicological context , owing to the effects of three key processes : bioaccumulation , biomagnification and the generation effect . Sadly , these three processes also make Sperm whales , and other apex predators , at great risk from toxic pollution . As mammalian apex predators that nurse their young with milk , they are also relatively similar to us , and thus are seen as the ` canaries in the coal mine ' regarding humanities relationship with the oceans . The program also had a robust educational and outreach component . In every country they visited , Odyssey crew members met with government leaders , students , teachers and journalists-many of whom kept promoting ocean health after the Odyssey departed for its next research location . The program was also the focus of a major online diary & educational webseries through American broadcaster PBS produced by Genevieve & Chris Johnson . Aside from collecting the first baseline data set on contaminants in the world 's oceans , the program was witness to a number of other successes , innovations and firsts . These include : uncovering illegal shark finning operations documenting the use of massive drift nets in the Mediterranean helping to create a 1.2 million square-mile marine mammal sanctuary in Papua New Guinea waters made incredibly rare sightings of a live Longman 's beaked whale",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "The_Voyage_of_the_Odyssey",
"rank": 24,
"score": 75766
},
{
"content": "Title: Nonpoint source water pollution regulations in the United States Content: Nonpoint source ( NPS ) water pollution regulations are environmental regulations that restrict or limit water pollution from diffuse or nonpoint effluent sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas in a river catchments or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea . In the United States , governments have taken a number of legal and regulatory approaches to controlling NPS effluent . Nonpoint water pollution sources include , for example , leakage from underground storage tanks , storm water runoff , atmospheric deposition of contaminants , and golf course , agricultural , and forestry runoff . Nonpoint sources are the most significant single source of water pollution in the United States , accounting for almost half of all water pollution , and agricultural runoff is the single largest source of nonpoint source water pollution . This water pollution has a number of detrimental effects on human health and the environment . Unlike point source pollution , nonpoint source pollution arises from numerous and diverse sources , making identification , monitoring , and regulation more complex .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Nonpoint_source_water_pollution_regulations_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 25,
"score": 74754
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecological light pollution Content: Ecological light pollution is the effect of artificial light on individual organisms and on the structure of ecosystems as a whole . The effect that artificial light has upon organisms is highly variable , and ranges from beneficial ( e.g. increased ability for predator species to observe prey ) to immediately fatal ( e.g. moths that are attracted to incandescent lanterns and are killed by the heat ) . It is also possible for light at night to be both beneficial and damaging for a species . As an example , humans benefit from using indoor artificial light to extend the time available for work and play , but the light disrupts the human circadian rhythm , and the resulting stress is damaging to health . Through the various effects that light pollution has on individual species , the ecology of regions is affected . In the case where two species occupy an identical niche , the population frequency of each species may be changed by the introduction of artificial light if they are not equally affected by light at night . For example , some species of spiders avoid lit areas , while other species are happy to build their spider web directly on a lamp post . Since lamp posts attract many flying insects , the spiders that do n't mind light gain an advantage over the spiders that avoid it , and consequently become more common . Changes in these species frequencies can then have knock-on effects , as the interactions between these species and others in the ecosystem are affected and food webs are altered . These ripple effects can eventually affect even diurnal plants and animals . As an example , changes in the activity of night active insects can change the survival rates of night blooming plants , which may provide food or shelter for diurnal animals . The introduction of artificial light at night is one of the most drastic anthropogenic changes to the Earth , comparable to toxic pollution , land use change , and climate change due to increases in the concentration of green house gases .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Ecological_light_pollution",
"rank": 26,
"score": 74711
},
{
"content": "Title: Conventional pollutant Content: A conventional pollutant is a term used in the USA to describe a water pollutant that is amenable to treatment by a municipal sewage treatment plant . A basic list of conventional pollutants is defined in the U.S. Clean Water Act . The list has been amended in regulations issued by the Environmental Protection Agency : biochemical oxygen demand ( BOD ) fecal coliform bacteria oil and grease pH ( exceeding regulatory limits ) total suspended solids ( TSS ) . The Secondary Treatment Regulation contains national discharge standards for BOD , pH and TSS , applicable to sewage treatment plants in the U.S.",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Conventional_pollutant",
"rank": 27,
"score": 74388
},
{
"content": "Title: Neuroplastic effects of pollution Content: Research indicates that living in areas of high pollution has serious long term health effects . Living in these areas during childhood and adolescence can lead to diminished mental capacity and an increased risk of brain damage . People of all ages who live in high pollution areas for extended periods place themselves at increased risk of various neurological disorders . Both air pollution and heavy metal pollution have been implicated as having negative effects on central nervous system ( CNS ) functionality . The ability of pollutants to affect the neurophysiology of individuals after the structure of the CNS has become mostly stabilized is an example of negative neuroplasticity .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Neuroplastic_effects_of_pollution",
"rank": 28,
"score": 74317
},
{
"content": "Title: National Environmental Education Act Content: The National Environmental Education Act of 1990 is an act of Congress of the United States of America to promote environmental education . In this act , Congress found that `` threats to human health and environmental quality are increasingly complex , involving a wide range of conventional and toxic contaminants in the air and water and on the land '' and that `` there is growing evidence of international environmental problems , such as global warming , ocean pollution , and declines in species diversity , and that these problems pose serious threats to human health and the environment on a global scale '' and declared several other problems that need to be fixed or addressed by improving environmental education .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "National_Environmental_Education_Act",
"rank": 29,
"score": 74280
},
{
"content": "Title: Critical load Content: In the study of air pollution , a critical load is defined as `` a quantitative estimate of an exposure to one or more pollutants below which significant harmful effects on specified sensitive elements of the environment do not occur according to present knowledge '' . Air pollution research in relation to critical loads has focused on nitrogen and sulfur pollutants . After these pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere , they are subsequently deposited into ecosystems . Both sulfur and nitrogen deposition can acidify surface waters and soils . As added acidity lowers the pH of water , fish and invertebrate health are negatively impacted . Sulfur and nitrogen , as acidifying agents , may change soil nutrient content by removing calcium and releasing toxic aluminum , further impacting plants and animals . Nitrogen deposition can also act as a fertilizer in the environment and alter the competitive interactions of plants , thereby favoring the growth of some plant species and inhibiting others , potentially leading to changes in species composition and abundance . The deposition of nitrogen contributes to nutrient enrichment in freshwater , coastal , and estuarine ecosystems , which may cause toxic algal blooms , fish kills , and loss of biodiversity . Air pollutants impact essential ecosystem services such as air and water purification , decomposition and detoxification of waste materials , and climate regulation . When deposition is greater than the critical load of a pollutant for a particular location , it is considered a critical load exceedance , meaning the biota are at increased risk of ecological harm . Some components of an ecosystem are more sensitive to deposition than others ; therefore , critical loads can be developed for a variety of ecosystem components and responses , including ( but not limited to ) shifts in diatoms , increases in invasive grass species , changes in soil chemistry , decreased forest health , altered and reduced biodiversity , and lake and stream acidification . The history , terminology , and approach used to calculate critical loads differ by region and country . The differences between approaches used by European countries and in the U.S. are discussed below .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Critical_load",
"rank": 30,
"score": 73989
},
{
"content": "Title: Soil contamination Content: Soil contamination or soil pollution as part of land degradation is caused by the presence of XenoBionis ( human-made ) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment . It is typically caused by industrial activity , agricultural chemicals , or improper disposal of waste . The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons , polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons ( such as naphthalene and benzo ( a ) pyrene ) , solvents , pesticides , lead , and other heavy metals . Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical usage . The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks , from direct contact with the contaminated soil , vapors from the contaminants , and from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil . Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanups are time consuming and expensive tasks , requiring extensive amounts of geology , hydrology , chemistry , computer modeling skills , and GIS in Environmental Contamination , as well as an appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry . In North America and Western Europe the extent of contaminated land is best known , with many of countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem . Developing countries tend to be less tightly regulated despite some of them having undergone significant industrialization .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Soil_contamination",
"rank": 31,
"score": 73504
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Toronto Content: Environmental issues in Toronto refer to the harmful effects , such as the pollution of air and water , which impact the city of Toronto , Canada , and its inhabitants . They are affected by urban infrastructures such as highways and public transportation services in addition to the release of toxic chemicals which can lead to pollution . As a result of the city 's large population , substantial waste is produced annually in addition to these pollutants . Air pollution can be found throughout the city with noticeable hot spots including the Scarborough Town Centre , Highway 427 intersecting Highway 401 , and the downtown area . This leaves inhabitants of these areas at greater risk for the development of respiratory issues and other health conditions . Water pollution from the city impacts the nearby environment as well . Sewage and harmful emissions have led to the presence of contaminants such as mercury , lead , and flame retardants within the waters of Lake Ontario . Recent reports indicate that harmful emissions from the city have lessened over the years as a result of local and Ontario based initiatives . In 2014 , the city of Toronto celebrated going a year without a smog alert for the first time in 20 years . Improvements to air quality have been linked to the closure of coal-fired power plants and the lessened demand for electricity in the city . Initiatives such as the Toronto Environmental Alliance and Greening Greater Toronto continue to address environmental issues in the city .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Toronto",
"rank": 32,
"score": 73338
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "United_Nations_Ocean_Conference",
"rank": 33,
"score": 72918
},
{
"content": "Title: Water quality law Content: Water quality laws govern the release of pollutants into water resources , including surface water , ground water , and stored drinking water . Some water quality laws , such as drinking water regulations , may be designed solely with reference to human health . Many others , including restrictions on the alteration of the chemical , physical , radiological , and biological characteristics of water resources , may also reflect efforts to protect aquatic ecosystems more broadly . Regulatory efforts may include identifying and categorizing water pollutants , dictating acceptable pollutant concentrations in water resources , and limiting pollutant discharges from effluent sources . Regulatory areas include sewage treatment and disposal , industrial and agricultural waste water management , and control of surface runoff from construction sites and urban environments .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Water_quality_law",
"rank": 34,
"score": 72914
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Monitoring Plan Content: The Global Monitoring Plan ( GMP ) under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is a programme that enables collection of comparable monitoring data from all regions of the world to assess the effectiveness of the Stockholm Convention in minimizing human and environmental exposure to persistent organic pollutants ( POPs ) . To know whether the levels of POPs are increasing or decreasing over time , information on environmental and human exposure levels of these chemicals should enable detection of trends . GMP looks at background levels of POPs at locations not influenced by local sources , such as ` hot spots ' . For human sampling , the focus is on the general population rather than on individuals who may have suffered high exposure to POPs .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Global_Monitoring_Plan",
"rank": 35,
"score": 72894
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental toxicant Content: Environmental toxicant may refer to : Pollutant , causing pollution Biologically created toxins in the environment Any toxicant/toxic substance in the environment , whether biologically or artificially made",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_toxicant",
"rank": 36,
"score": 72718
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing Content: Hydraulic fracturing has the potential to cause fugitive methane emissions , air emissions , water contamination , and noise pollution . Water and air pollution are the biggest risks to human health from hydraulic fracturing . Research is underway to determine if human health has been affected , and adherence to regulation and safety procedures is required to avoid negative impacts . Hydraulic fracturing fluids include proppants and other substances , which may include toxic chemicals . In the United States , such additives may be treated as trade secrets by companies who use them . Lack of knowledge about specific chemicals has complicated efforts to develop risk management policies and to study health effects . In other jurisdictions , such as the United Kingdom , these chemicals must be made public and their applications are required to be nonhazardous . Water usage by hydraulic fracturing can be a problem in areas that experience water shortage . Surface water may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits , in jurisdictions where these are permitted . Further , ground water can be contaminated if fluid is able to escape during fracking . Produced water , the water that returns to the surface after fracking , is managed by underground injection , municipal and commercial wastewater treatment , and reuse in future wells . There is potential for methane to leak into ground water and the air , though escape of methane is a bigger problem in older wells than in those built under more recent legislation . Hydraulic fracturing causes induced seismicity called microseismic events or microearthquakes . The magnitude of these events is too small to be detected at the surface , being of magnitude M-3 to M-1 usually . However , fluid disposal wells ( which are often used in the US to dispose of polluted waste from several industries ) have been responsible for earthquakes up to 5.6 M in Oklahoma and other states . Governments worldwide are developing regulatory frameworks to assess and manage environmental and associated health risks , working under pressure from industry on the one hand , and from anti-fracking groups on the other . In some countries like France a precautionary approach has been favored and hydraulic fracturing has been banned . Some countries such as the United States have adopted the approach of identifying risks before regulating . The United Kingdom 's regulatory framework is based on the conclusion that the risks associated with hydraulic fracturing are manageable if carried out under effective regulation and if operational best practices are implemented .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_hydraulic_fracturing",
"rank": 37,
"score": 72508
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollutant release and transfer register Content: Pollutant release and transfer registers ( PRTRs ) are systems to collect and disseminate information on environmental releases and transfers of toxic chemicals from industrial and other facilities . They were established in several countries after the 1984 Bhopal Disaster , and the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro , which affirmed the `` right-to-know '' of communities and workers about toxics chemicals and other substances of concern .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollutant_release_and_transfer_register",
"rank": 38,
"score": 72302
},
{
"content": "Title: Mercury pollution in the ocean Content: Mercury is a toxic heavy metal which cycles through atmosphere , water , and soil in various forms to different parts of the world . Due to this natural cycle , irrespective of which part of the world releases mercury it could affect an entirely different part of the world making mercury pollution a global concern . Mercury pollution is now identified as a global problem and awareness has been raised on an international action plan to minimize anthropogenic mercury emissions and clean up mercury pollution . In Global Mercury Assessment - 2002 concluded that , International actions to address the global mercury problem should not be delayed '' . Among many environments that are under the impact of mercury pollution , the ocean is one which can not be neglected as it has the ability to act as a `` storage closet '' for mercury . According to a recent model study the total anthropogenic mercury released into the ocean is estimated to be around 80,000 to 45,000 metric tons and two thirds of this enormous amount is estimated to be found in waters shallower than 1000m level where many consumable fish live . Mercury can get bio-accumulated in marine food chains in the form of highly toxic methyl mercury which can cause health risks to human seafood consumers . According to statistics , about 66 % of the global fish consumption comes from ocean . Therefore , it is important to monitor and regulate oceanic mercury levels to prevent more and more mercury reaching human population through seafood consumption .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Mercury_pollution_in_the_ocean",
"rank": 39,
"score": 72041
},
{
"content": "Title: Red Sea species hazardous to humans Content: Although most species in the Red Sea pose no threat to humans , there are a few notable exceptions .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Red_Sea_species_hazardous_to_humans",
"rank": 40,
"score": 72015
},
{
"content": "Title: Why The Future Doesn't Need Us Content: `` Why The Future Does n't Need Us '' is an article written by Bill Joy ( then Chief Scientist at Sun Microsystems ) in the April 2000 issue of Wired magazine . In the article , he argues ( quoting the sub title ) that `` Our most powerful 21st-century technologies -- robotics , genetic engineering , and nanotech -- are threatening to make humans an endangered species . '' Joy warns : While some critics have characterized Joy 's stance as obscurantism or neo-Luddism , others share his concerns about the consequences of rapidly expanding technology .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Why_The_Future_Doesn't_Need_Us",
"rank": 41,
"score": 71975
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution in California Content: Pollution in California relates to the degree of pollution of air , water and land in the state of California . Studies show that some pollutants may be linked to increases in the rate of occurrence of cancers and birth complications . In 2008 , Bakersfield , California recorded the highest level of airborne pollutants of any state in the United States . Water pollution is defined by the Federal Clean Water Act as `` dredge spoil , solid waste , incinerator residue , sewage , garbage , sewage sludge , munitions , chemical wastes , biological materials , heat , wrecked or discarded equipment , rock , sand , cellar dirt , and industrial , municipal , and agricultural waste discharged into water . '' More generally , pollution is defined as the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollution_in_California",
"rank": 42,
"score": 71755
},
{
"content": "Title: Rick Smith (environmentalist) Content: Rick Smith ( born 1968 ) is a Canadian author and environmentalist . He is Executive Director of the Broadbent Institute and co-author , with Bruce Lourie , of Slow Death by Rubber Duck : How the Toxic Chemistry of Everyday Life Affects Our Health , a look at everyday pollutants and the ease with which they accumulate in the human body . To illustrate this issue Smith and Lourie experimented on their own bodies , raising and lowering levels of toxic chemicals in their blood and urine through the performance of common activities . The book was a bestseller in Canada and Australia and translated into 6 other languages . Their follow-up book Toxin Toxout : Getting Harmful Chemicals Out of Our Bodies and Our World was published by St. Martin 's Press in 2013 .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Rick_Smith_(environmentalist)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 71663
},
{
"content": "Title: Smog Content: Smog is a type of air pollutant . The word `` smog '' was coined in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog , its opacity , and odour . The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog , a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid 20th century . This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , ozone , smoke or particulates among others ( less visible pollutants include carbon monoxide , CFCs and radioactive sources ) . Human-made smog is derived from coal emissions , vehicular emissions , industrial emissions , forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions . Modern smog , as found for example in Los Angeles , is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog . In certain other cities , such as Delhi , smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas . The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles , Beijing , Delhi , Mexico City , Tehran and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to the ground . It is usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness , shortened life or death .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Smog",
"rank": 44,
"score": 71314
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products Content: The environmental effect of pharmaceuticals and personal care products ( PPCPs ) is largely speculative . PPCPs are substances used by individuals for personal health or cosmetic reasons and the products used by agribusiness to boost growth or health of livestock . PPCPs have been detected in water bodies throughout the world . The effects of these chemicals on humans and the environment are not yet known , but to date there is no scientific evidence that they affect human health . The term PPCPs contains as well environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants ( EPPPs ) . The European Union summarizes pharmaceutical residues with the potential of contamination of water and soil together with other micropollutants under `` priority substances '' .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products",
"rank": 45,
"score": 70655
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution prevention Content: Pollution prevention reduces the amount of pollution generated by a process , whether by industry , agriculture , or consumers . In contrast to most pollution control strategies , which seek to manage a pollutant after it is emitted and reduce its impact upon the environment , the pollution prevention approach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process , the reducing the amount of pollution generated at its source . Although there is wide agreement that source reduction is the preferred strategy , some professionals also use the term pollution prevention to include pollution reduction . With increasing human population , pollution has become a great concern . Pollution from human activities is a problem that does not have to be inevitable . With a comprehensive pollution prevention program , most pollution can be reduced , reused , or prevented . The US Environmental Protection Agency works to introduce pollution prevention programs to reduce and manage waste . Reducing and managing pollution may decrease the number of deaths and illnesses from pollution-related diseases .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollution_prevention",
"rank": 46,
"score": 70219
},
{
"content": "Title: Biodilution Content: Biodilution is the decrease in concentration of an element or pollutant with an increase in trophic level . This effect is primarily caused by the observed trend that an increase in algal biomass will reduce the overall concentration of a pollutant per cell , which ultimately contributes to a lower dietary input to grazers ( and higher-level aquatic organisms ) . The primary elements and pollutants of concern are heavy metals such as mercury , cadmium , and lead . These toxins have been shown to bioaccumulate up a food web . In some cases , metals , such as mercury , can biomagnify . This is a major concern since methylmercury , the most toxic mercury species , can be found in high concentrations in human-consumed fish and other aquatic organisms . Persistent organic pollutants , such as carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and alkylphenols , have also shown to biodilute in the marine environment . Numerous studies have linked lower mercury concentrations in zooplankton found in eutrophic ( nutrient-rich and highly productive ) as compared to oligotrophic ( low nutrient ) aquatic environments . Nutrient enrichment ( mainly phosphorus and nitrogen ) reduce the input of mercury , and other heavy metals , into aquatic food webs through this biodilution effect . Primary producers , such as phytoplankton , uptake these heavy metals and accumulate them into their cells . The higher the population of phytoplankton , the less concentrated these pollutants will be in their cells . Once consumed by primary consumers , such as zooplankton , these phytoplankton-bound pollutants are incorporated into the consumer 's cells . Higher phytoplankton biomass means a lower concentration of pollutants accumulated by the zooplankton , and so on up the food web . This effect causes an overall dilution of the original concentration up the food web . That is , the concentration of a pollutant will be lower in the zooplankton than the phytoplankton in a high bloom condition . Although most biodilution studies have been on freshwater environments , biodilution has been shown to occur in the marine environment as well . The Northwater Polynya , located in Baffin Bay , was found to have a negative correlation of cadmium , lead , and nickel with an increase in trophic level Cadmium and lead are both non-essential metals that will compete for calcium within an organism , which is detrimental for organism growth . Most studies measure bioaccumulation and biodilution using the δ15N isotope of nitrogen . The δ15N isotopic signature is enriched up the food web . A predator will have a higher δ15N as compared to its prey . This trend allows the tropic position of an organism to be derived . Coupled to the concentration of a specific pollutant , such as mercury , the concentration verses trophic position can be accessed . While most heavy metals bioaccumulate , under certain conditions , heavy metals and organic pollutants have the potential to biodilute , making a higher organism less exposed to the toxin .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Biodilution",
"rank": 47,
"score": 70157
},
{
"content": "Title: POP Air Pollution Protocol Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an agreement to provide for the control and reduction of emissions of persistent organic pollutants ( POPs ) in order to reduce their transboundary fluxes so as to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects . The Executive Body adopted the Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants on 24 June 1998 in Aarhus ( Denmark ) . It focuses on a list of 16 substances that have been singled out according to agreed risk criteria . The substances comprise eleven pesticides , two industrial chemicals and three by-products/contaminants . It opened for signature on 1998-06-24 and entered into force on 2003-10-23 . As of May 2013 , 32 states and the European Union have ratified the treaty ; six have signed but not yet ratified .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "POP_Air_Pollution_Protocol",
"rank": 48,
"score": 70083
},
{
"content": "Title: Interprovincial Cooperatives Ltd v R Content: Interprovincial Cooperatives Ltd v R ( 1975 ) , -LSB- 1976 -RSB- 1 SCR 477 ( also called Interprovincial Co-Operatives Ltd. v. Dryden Chemicals Ltd. ) is a leading decision of the Supreme Court of Canada on the constitutional limits of provincial powers . Manitoba had enacted a law that granted individuals resident in the province who were harmed by river pollution originating from Saskatchewan and Ontario a right of action to sue the polluting companies based outside of the province . Justice Ritchie , writing for the Court , held that such a statutory right of action was outside of their constitutional power to enact legislation related to property and civil rights within the province under section 92 ( 16 ) of the Constitution Act , 1867 . The pollutant companies were properly licensed by the provincial governments of Ontario and Saskatchewan and could not be disrupted by Manitoba . In a concurring reason by Justice Pigeon , he argued that the licence was not relevant but rather the fact that the polluting act occurred outside of Manitoba is enough to be outside the province 's authority . Chief Justice Laskin , in dissent , argued that the legislation was valid on the basis that it was intended to redress harm done within the province and that the extraterritorial effect was only ancillary to the main purpose .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Interprovincial_Cooperatives_Ltd_v_R",
"rank": 49,
"score": 69868
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_issue",
"rank": 50,
"score": 69682
},
{
"content": "Title: Startups, shutdowns, and malfunctions Content: Startups , shutdowns , and malfunctions ( SSM ) are periods of non-continuous operation in refineries , chemical plants or similar industrial facilities . During such temporary periods , these plants might emit larger amounts of pollution , and therefore the pollution abatement equipment may be unable to effectively control it . Recognizing this problem , beginning in 1994 the American Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) allowed such facilities to release large amounts of otherwise prohibited air pollution during SSM . However , in 2002 and again in 2003 the EPA made regulatory revisions which seemed to increase the allowable periods of such non-compliance periods , which motivated a coalition of environmental groups to challenge the changes , by suing the EPA . These groups argued that these changes effectively neutralized the United States Clean Air Act . The U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia issued a ruling on the lawsuit ( 19 December 2008 ) , finding that allowing such SSM exemptions does violate requirements of the Clean Air Act , in that the CAA requires that some reasonable limit on a facility 's emissions of hazardous air pollutants must always be in effect . The American Chemistry Council , a trade association of industrial and chemical manufacturing companies , joined the EPA in the court 's defense actions . An EPA spokesman said in late December 2008 that the agency is studying the decision to determine an appropriate course of action .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Startups,_shutdowns,_and_malfunctions",
"rank": 51,
"score": 69634
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution (disambiguation) Content: Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change . Pollution may also refer to : `` Pollution '' ( The Goodies ) , a 1971 episode of the TV series The Goodies Pollution ( album ) , a 1972 album by Franco Battiato , or its title track `` Pollution '' , a song by The Chambers Brothers from their 1971 album New Generation `` Pollution '' , a song by Neurosis from their 1989 EP Aberration `` Pollution '' , a song by Limp Bizkit from their 1997 album Three Dollar Bill , Y' all `` Pollution '' , a song by Caliban from their 1999 album A Small Boy and a Grey Heaven `` Pollution '' , a song by Reset from their 1999 album No Limits `` Pollution '' , a song by Fun-Da-Mental from their 2001 album There Shall Be Love ! `` Pollution '' , a song by Baby Bash from his 2003 album Tha Smokin ' Nephew `` Pollution '' , a song by Tom Lehrer",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollution_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 52,
"score": 69388
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution in Canada Content: Pollution is an environmental issue in Canada . It has posed health risks to the Canadian population and is an area of concern for Canadian lawmakers . Air , water and soil pollution as well as the health effects associated with these three types of pollution , are prominent points of contention in modern Canadian society .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollution_in_Canada",
"rank": 53,
"score": 69337
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution in the Arctic Ocean Content: Pollution in the Arctic Ocean is primarily the result of economic activities carried out on land -- such as industrial development in the Arctic region , northern rivers , and the effects of military activities , particularly nuclear activity -- as well as the influx of pollutants from other regions of the world . However , the Arctic Ocean remains relatively clean compared to other marine regions of the world . Economic activity in the Arctic seas is not the only source of pollution . The growing presence of military weapons systems in the region raises concerns of increased pollution . Management of specific risks of marine pollution in the Arctic is governed primarily by national legislation in coastal states , although these take existing international standards into account . Bilateral agreements exist between Arctic states on cooperation in the prevention of marine pollution in the Arctic seas and immediate responses in case of oil spills . Nevertheless , there is no legal framework relating to weapons and other military presence . The first steps in this direction have already been made . After signing the 2010 Treaty on Maritime Delimitation of the continental shelf in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean , Russia and Norway began bilateral consultations on the harmonization of national environmental standards used for the exploration and development of the mineral resources of the shelf . The parties came to an agreement to make a comparative analysis of national legislation and to identify differences concerning measures for preventing the pollution of the environment . A recent report published by the International Council on Clean Transportation ( ICCT ) suggested that the reduction of the polar ice caps and the projected increase in shipping activity in the region could have a severe impact on the levels of pollution experienced across the entire Arctic region but notes that a shift to cleaner sulphur-based fuel could resolve the issue .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollution_in_the_Arctic_Ocean",
"rank": 54,
"score": 69330
},
{
"content": "Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Zero-emissions_vehicle",
"rank": 55,
"score": 69186
},
{
"content": "Title: Genetic pollution Content: Genetic pollution is a controversial term for uncontrolled gene flow into wild populations . This gene flow is undesirable according to some environmentalists and conservationists , including groups such as Greenpeace , TRAFFIC , and GeneWatch UK .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Genetic_pollution",
"rank": 56,
"score": 68998
},
{
"content": "Title: Intake fraction Content: Intake fraction is a measurement of pollution and it can be used in the determination of the environmental health impact of a pollutant source . Intake fraction is the ratio of the mass of a pollutant inhaled or ingested to the mass of the pollutant emitted . Traditionally , scientists and policy makers have used a source-oriented approach to reduce health impacts from pollution . That is , they identified the largest producers of various pollutants and worked to reduce the amount of pollutants emitted . Exposure assessment , also referred to as exposure analysis , is a receptor-oriented science , and practitioners in this field focus on the sources of pollutants that result in the largest human exposure . The same principles can be used to assess pollutant impact on non-human organisms , but most exposure analysts focus on humans .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Intake_fraction",
"rank": 57,
"score": 68947
},
{
"content": "Title: Toxic hotspot Content: Toxic hotspots are locations where emissions from specific sources such as water or air pollution may expose local populations to elevated health risks , such as cancer . These emissions contribute to cumulative health risks of emissions from other sources nearby . Urban , highly populated areas around pollutant emitters such as old factories and waste storage sites are often toxic hotspots .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Toxic_hotspot",
"rank": 58,
"score": 68692
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 Voluntary non-work day Content: In Singapore , rumours that the Ministry of Manpower had declared a voluntary non-work day appeared on the evening of Thursday , September 24 . 2015 as the Pollutant Standards Index ( PSI ) was 313-341 in the Hazardous range after 7pm-5am . The Ministry of Manpower lodged a police report over a hoax post on social media ( WhatsApp or Facebook ) that claimed it had declared a `` voluntary non-work day '' on Friday , September 25 , 2015 as a result of the haze . - this Hoax is part of the Hoaxes in Singapore .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "2015_Voluntary_non-work_day",
"rank": 59,
"score": 68651
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Bačka Canal Content: Great Bačka Canal ( Serbian : Велики бачки канал / Veliki bački kanal ) is a canal in Serbia which runs from Bezdan ( on the Danube ) to Bečej ( on the Tisa ) . The canal is 118 km long and part of the Danube-Tisa-Danube Canal system . The excavation works of Great Bačka Canal began in 1794 and went on until 1801 . The Bed of the canal is 17 m wide and 25 m wide at the top . The average depth is 3 m . The water of the canal is very polluted because it runs through industrial towns , such as Vrbas , Kula and Crvenka . Because of the long-lasting pollution problem , the canal not only is too small for navigation , but is also dangerous to bathe in . The ministry of protection of environment of Serbia included it in the list of the country 's `` three black points '' . The pollution of the canal began in the second half of the 20th century with plumes of waste in its waters . According to a number of researchers , the canal is considered one of the most polluted reservoirs in Europe and poses a threat to human health among the people living in nearby settlements . At the bottom of the canal there is up to 400,000 tons of silt which contains heavy metals and oil waste which also reach the rivers connected by the channel -- the Danube and the Tisa . In 2008 the minister of environmental protection signed the Memorandum of canal cleaning .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Great_Bačka_Canal",
"rank": 60,
"score": 68604
},
{
"content": "Title: Outline of air pollution dispersion Content: The following outline is presented as an overview and topical guide to air pollution dispersion : Air pollution dispersion -- distribution of air pollution into the atmosphere . Air pollution is the introduction of particulates , biological molecules , or other harmful materials into Earth 's atmosphere , causing disease , death to humans , damage to other living organisms such as food crops , or the natural or built environment . Air pollution may come from anthropogenic or natural sources . Dispersion refers to what happens to the pollution during and after its introduction ; understanding this may help in identifying and controlling it . Air pollution dispersion has become the focus of environmental conservationists and governmental environmental protection agencies ( local , state , province and national ) of many countries ( which have adopted and used much of the terminology of this field in their laws and regulations ) regarding air pollution control .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Outline_of_air_pollution_dispersion",
"rank": 61,
"score": 68250
},
{
"content": "Title: Summer smog Content: Summer smog , which is common in major cities such as London , Birmingham , New York City and Los Angeles , is caused by pollutants , mainly ozone , which collect in large cities , especially during the summer . It is formed when radiation from the sun causes ozone to build up in the lower atmosphere ( troposphere ) , by combining nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds . At this point , ozone , which is protective in the upper atmosphere , can become harmful to humans , crops , other living creatures and buildings . In the Northern hemisphere , summer smog builds up mainly between April and October . It causes reduced visibility in cities and a visible layer , similar to fog . It also causes a health hazard to people and pollutes the troposphere 's air .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Summer_smog",
"rank": 62,
"score": 67897
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Nepal Content: Environmental issues in Nepal are numerous . Non-timber forests are threatened by deforestation , habitat degradation and unsustainable harvesting . Major threats to some protected areas are grazing all year around , poaching for high value products , illegal timber harvesting and unsustainable tourism . Rangelands are suffering from an enormous grazing pressure and wetland biodiversity is threatened by encroachment of wetland habitat , unsustainable harvesting of wetland resources , industrial pollution , agricultural runoff , the introduction of exotic and invasive species into wetland ecosystems , and siltation . Mountain biodiversity is suffering due to ecological fragility and instability of high mountain environments , deforestation , poor management of natural resources , and inappropriate farming practices ( MFSC , 2000 ) . Agrobiodiversity is under threat due to use of high yielding varieties , destruction of natural habitat , overgrazing , land fragmentation , commercialisation of agriculture and the extension of modern highyielding varieties , indiscriminate use of pesticides , population growth and urbanisation , and changes in farmer 's priorities ( MFSC , 2000 ) . More factors for loss of biodiversity include landslide and soil erosion , pollution , fire , overgrazing , illegal trade , hunting and smuggling .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Nepal",
"rank": 63,
"score": 67768
},
{
"content": "Title: Selenium pollution Content: In high concentrations , selenium acts as an environmental contaminant . Sources of pollution include waste materials from certain mining , agricultural , petrochemical , and industrial manufacturing operations . In Belews Lake North Carolina , 19 species of fish were eliminated from the lake due to 150-200 μg Se/L wastewater discharged from 1974 to 1986 from a Duke Energy coal-fired power plant . At the Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge in California , thousands of fish and waterbirds were poisoned by selenium in agricultural irrigation drainage . Substantial physiological changes may occur in fish with high tissue concentrations of selenium . Fish affected by selenium may experience swelling of the gill lamellae , which impedes oxygen diffusion across the gills and blood flow within the gills . Respiratory capacity is further reduced due to selenium binding to hemoglobin . Other problems include degeneration of liver tissue , swelling around the heart , damaged egg follicles in ovaries , cataracts , and accumulation of fluid in the body cavity and head . Selenium often causes a malformed fish fetus which may have problems feeding or respirating , distortion of the fins or spine is also common . Adult fish may appear healthy despite their inability to produce viable offspring . Selenium is bioaccumulated in aquatic habitats , this results in higher concentrations in organisms than the surrounding water . Organoselenium compounds can be concentrated over 200,000 times by zooplankton when water concentrations are in the 0.5 to 0.8 μg Se/L range . Inorganic selenium bioaccumulates more readily in phytoplankton than zooplankton . Phytoplankton can concentrate inorganic selenium by a factor of 3000 . Further concentration through bioaccumulation occurs along the food chain , as predators consume selenium rich prey . It is recommended that a water concentration of 2 μg Se/L be considered highly hazardous to sensitive fish and aquatic birds . Selenium poisoning can be passed from parents to offspring through the egg , and selenium poisoning may persist for many generations.Reproduction of mallard ducks is impaired at dietary concentrations of 7 ug Se/L . Many benthic invertebrates can tolerate selenium concentrations up to 300 μg Se/L in their diet .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Selenium_pollution",
"rank": 64,
"score": 67616
},
{
"content": "Title: Dark-sky movement Content: The dark-sky movement is a campaign to reduce light pollution . The advantages of reducing light pollution include an increased number of stars visible at night , reducing the effects of electric lighting on the environment , and cutting down on energy usage . Earth Hour and National Dark-Sky Week are two examples of such efforts . The movement started with professional and amateur astronomers alarmed that nocturnal skyglow from urban areas was blotting out the sight of stars . For example , the world-famous Palomar Observatory in California is threatened by sky-glow from the nearby city of Escondido and local businesses . For similar reasons , astronomers in Arizona helped push the governor there to veto a bill in 2012 which would have lifted a ban on illuminated billboards . Nocturnal animals can be harmed by light pollution because they are biologically evolved to be dependent on an environment with a certain amount of hours of uninterrupted daytime and nighttime . The over-illumination of the night sky is affecting these organisms ( especially birds ) . This biological study of darkness is called scotobiology . Light pollution has also been found to affect human circadian rhythms . The dark-sky movement encourages the use of full-cutoff fixtures that cast little or no light upward in public areas and generally to encourage communities to adopt lighting regulations . A 2011 project is to establish `` dark sky oasis '' in suburban areas .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Dark-sky_movement",
"rank": 65,
"score": 67388
},
{
"content": "Title: Noise pollution Content: Noise pollution or noise disturbance is the disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activity or balance of human or animal life . The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines and transportation systems , motor vehicles engines , aircraft , and trains . Outdoor noise is summarized by the word environmental noise . Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution , since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas . Documented problems associated with urban noise go back as far as Ancient Rome . Outdoor noise can be caused by machines , construction activities , and music performances , especially in some workplaces . Noise-induced hearing loss can be caused by outside ( e.g. trains ) or inside ( e.g. music ) noise . High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans and an increased incidence of coronary artery disease . In animals , noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator or prey detection and avoidance , interfere with reproduction and navigation , and contribute to permanent hearing loss .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Noise_pollution",
"rank": 66,
"score": 67234
},
{
"content": "Title: Groundwater remediation Content: Groundwater remediation is the process that is used to treat polluted groundwater by removing the pollutants or converting them into harmless products . Groundwater is water present below the ground surface that saturates the pore space in the subsurface . Globally , between 25 per cent and 40 per cent of the world 's drinking water is drawn from boreholes and dug wells . Groundwater is also used by farmers to irrigate crops and by industries to produce everyday goods . Most groundwater is clean , but groundwater can become polluted , or contaminated as a result of human activities or as a result of natural conditions . The many and diverse activities of humans produce innumerable waste materials and by-products . Historically , the disposal of such waste have not been subject to many regulatory controls . Consequently , waste materials have often been disposed of or stored on land surfaces where they percolate into the underlying groundwater . As a result , the contaminated groundwater is unsuitable for use . Current practices can still impact groundwater , such as the over application of fertilizer or pesticides , spills from industrial operations , infiltration from urban runoff , and leaking from landfills . Using contaminated groundwater causes hazards to public health through poisoning or the spread of disease , and the practice of groundwater remediation has been developed to address these issues . Contaminants found in groundwater cover a broad range of physical , inorganic chemical , organic chemical , bacteriological , and radioactive parameters . Pollutants and contaminants can be removed from groundwater by applying various techniques , thereby bringing the water to a standard that is commensurate with various intended uses .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Groundwater_remediation",
"rank": 67,
"score": 67208
},
{
"content": "Title: Inhalation exposure Content: Inhalation is a major route of exposure that occurs when an individual breathes in polluted air which enters the respiratory tract . Identification of the pollutant uptake by the respiratory system can determine how the resulting exposure contributes to the dose . In this way , the mechanism of pollutant uptake by the respiratory system can be used to predict potential health impacts within the human population .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Inhalation_exposure",
"rank": 68,
"score": 66903
},
{
"content": "Title: National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants Content: The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants , also using the acronym NESHAP , are emissions standards set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency -- EPA . The standards are for air pollutants not covered by National Ambient Air Quality Standards -- NAAQS , that may cause an increase in fatalities or in serious , irreversible , or incapacitating illness .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "National_Emissions_Standards_for_Hazardous_Air_Pollutants",
"rank": 69,
"score": 66848
},
{
"content": "Title: Criteria air contaminants Content: Criteria air contaminants ( CAC ) , or criteria pollutants , are a set of air pollutants that cause smog , acid rain , and other health hazards . CACs are typically emitted from many sources in industry , mining , transportation , electricity generation and agriculture . In most cases they are the products of the combustion of fossil fuels or industrial processes . The history of each criteria air pollutant is listed below :",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Criteria_air_contaminants",
"rank": 70,
"score": 66763
},
{
"content": "Title: Mercury in fish Content: Fish and shellfish concentrate mercury in their bodies , often in the form of methylmercury , a highly toxic organic compound of mercury . Fish products have been shown to contain varying amounts of heavy metals , particularly mercury and fat-soluble pollutants from water pollution . Species of fish that are long-lived and high on the food chain , such as marlin , tuna , shark , swordfish , king mackerel , tilefish ( Gulf of Mexico ) , and northern pike , contain higher concentrations of mercury than others . Mercury is known to bioaccumulate in humans , so bioaccumulation in seafood carries over into human populations , where it can result in mercury poisoning . Mercury is dangerous to both natural ecosystems and humans because it is a metal known to be highly toxic , especially due to its ability to damage the central nervous system . In human-controlled ecosystems of fish , usually done for market production of wanted seafood species , mercury clearly rises through the food chain via fish consuming small plankton , as well as through non-food sources such as underwater sediment . This mercury grows in concentration within the bodies of fish and can be measured in the tissues of selected species . The presence of mercury in fish can be a particular health concern for women who are or may become pregnant , nursing mothers , and young children .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Mercury_in_fish",
"rank": 71,
"score": 66637
},
{
"content": "Title: Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea Content: Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea is a regional convention signed by the official representatives of the five littoral Caspian states : Azerbaijan , Iran , Kazakhstan , Russian Federation and Turkmenistan in Tehran ( Iran ) on 4 November 2003 . The Framework Convention , also called Tehran Convention , entered into force on 12 August 2006 . The objective of this convention is `` the protection of the Caspian environment from all sources of pollution including the protection , preservation , restoration and sustainable and rational use of the biological resources of the Caspian Sea '' . In accordance with Articles 7 - 11 of the Convention the Parties undertake an obligation to take measures to prevent , reduce and control pollution from the land-based sources , seabed activities , vessels , as well as pollution from other human activities including land reclamation and associated coastal dredging and construction of dams . Convention also provides for appropriate measures to prevent the introduction into the Caspian Sea and to control and combat invasive alien species , which threaten ecosystems , habitats or species . The Parties also take preventive , preparedness and response measures to protect the environment and human beings from consequences of natural and man-made environmental emergencies , cooperate in setting up early warning systems and ensure the availability of adequate equipment and qualified personnel for combatting environmental emergencies . The Parties also agree to carry out environmental impact assessments of hazardous activities capable of causing environmental emergencies or adverse effects on environment within their jurisdiction , . The Parties also undertake to ensure the protection , preservation , restoration and rational use of marine biological resources in the Caspian Sea ; strive to maintain or restore populations of marine species at levels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield ; prevent over-exploitation of marine resources and protect endemic , rare and endangered marine species and vulnerable ecosystems . The 2003 Convention also provides for cooperation of the Parties in environmental monitoring , developing harmonised discharge and emission standards , conducting environmental research and development and exchanging environmental information . A regularly convened Conference of the Parties and Secretariat were established by the Tehran Convention . To date , the following four Protocols to the Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea were drafted by Secretariat and discussed at the meetings of the Conference of the Parties : Protocol on Land-Based Sources of Pollution Protocol Concerning Regional Cooperation in Case of Emergency Protocol on EIA in a Transboundary Context Protocol on Protection of the Caspian Biodiversity . The Protocol Concerning Regional Preparedness , Response and Co-operation in Combating Oil Pollution Incidents was adopted in Aktau , Kazakhstan on August 12 , 2011 . The Protocol for the Protection of the Caspian Sea against Pollution from Land-based Sources and Activities was signed in Moscow , Russian Federation , on December 12 , 2012 at the 4th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Tehran Convention .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Framework_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_the_Marine_Environment_of_the_Caspian_Sea",
"rank": 72,
"score": 66462
},
{
"content": "Title: National Ambient Air Quality Objectives Content: The first Canadian National Ambient Air Quality Objectives were developed in the mid-1970s . These objectives were set for various air pollutants . The NAAQO had three levels indicating severity ( maximum desirable , acceptable and tolerable levels ) and also evaluated effect levels ( maximum desirable , acceptable and tolerable levels ) . In 1992 , a review of the NAAQOs suggested that many air pollutants had no effect thresholds ( e.g. tropospheric ozone or very low effect thresholds ) . As such , scientifically defensible effect levels could not be identified . In 2000 , the revised NAAQOs framework specifies a Reference Level , above which there are demonstrated effects on human health and/or the environment , and an Air Quality Objective ( AQO ) , which is meant to be protective for the general public and environment and which also considers aspects of technical feasibility . This approach is different from how the National Ambient Air Quality Standards are set in the US , where cost is explicitly not considered in the proposal to strengthen the air quality standards to protect human health and the environment . In addition , the US NAAQS are periodically reviewed , frequently strengthened , commonly enforced and allow serious legal penalties if the standards are not met . In contrast , the Canadian NAAQOs are infrequently reviewed , rarely strengthened , not enforced , and the only penalty for not meeting the Canadian NAAQOs is shame . The original NAAQOs have not been formally revised to the new two-level system . As an interim approach , data are compared with the existing desirable and acceptable NAAQOs for sulphur dioxide , carbon monoxide , nitrogen dioxide and ozone . The air quality objectives must be consistent with the Canadian Environmental Protection Act ( CEPA ) 1999 . They must also be based on scientific principles , such as risk assessment and risk management . The NAAQOs are set by the federal government based on recommendations from a National Advisory Committee and Working Group on Air Quality Objectives and Guidelines . Provincial governments have the option of adopting these either as objectives or as enforceable standards according to their legislation .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Objectives",
"rank": 73,
"score": 66460
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Alliance on Health and Pollution Content: The GAHP ( Global Alliance on Health and Pollution ) is an international collaborative body working to help low - and middle-income countries deal with toxic hotspots and solve environmental health problems . These toxic locations suffer greatly from pollution-related diseases . `` The group will work with governments to clean-up toxic hotspots where children , especially , are being poisoned . It could also respond to emergencies such as a recent lead poisoning outbreak in Nigeria that killed hundreds of children . '' `` This is a larger problem than most people are aware of . Some of the research coming out now finds that the amount of health damage caused by chemicals in toxic hotspots is as significant as that of malaria or tuberculosis . '' -- Richard Fuller , President , Blacksmith Institute , Secretariat for the GAHP . The GAHP is the first international alliance of its kind to respond to the threat of toxic pollution on a worldwide scale . The executive committee of the GAHP is based at the World Bank . The Blacksmith Institute , an NGO that works on cleaning up some of the world 's worst polluted sites , serves as Secretariat for the GAHP . The GAHP is made up of an international alliance of members that include the World Bank , the Asian Development Bank , and UNIDO , among other agencies . All GAHP members have an interest in fighting pollution . By banding together , GAHP members offer access to multiple lines of support and resources like a one-stop shop for pollution solutions .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Global_Alliance_on_Health_and_Pollution",
"rank": 74,
"score": 66107
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Tajikistan Content: The major environmental issues in Tajikistan are concentrations of agricultural chemicals and salts in the soil and groundwater , pockets of high air pollution caused by industry and motor vehicles , water pollution from agricultural runoff and disposal of untreated industrial waste and sewage , poor management of water resources , and soil erosion . Soil erosion affects an estimated 70 percent of irrigated cropland . Overgrazing also contributes to soil erosion . Air pollution is a particular problem during times of the year when atmospheric conditions hold industrial and vehicle emissions close to the surface in urban areas . In summer , dust and sand from the deserts of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan cause air pollution across the entire southwestern lowland region . Forest degradation also is a serious problem as trees are cut to expand pasture land on collective farms . A large Soviet-era uranium mining operation left poorly constructed repositories of radioactive waste in northwestern Tajikistan . Other operations in Tajikistan extracted and processed gold , antimony , tungsten , mercury , and molybdenum , each of which is known to leave toxic waste . The Kofarnihon , Zarafshon , and Vakhsh rivers pass through heavily polluting industrial regions of the country , carrying pollutants into the Amu Darya and thence to the Aral Sea . The expansion of aluminium processing at Tursunzade , proposed in 2005 , would increase industrial pollution in the Dushanbe region . Tajikistan 's withdrawal of water for irrigation from the Syr Darya and tributaries of the Amu Darya also influences the quantity of water downstream . Therefore , Tajikistan 's water management policies are a regional concern . The resolution of these problems has been delayed by the overall poverty of the country and the civil war of 1992 -- 97 . Although the civil war reduced industrial and agricultural activity substantially , it also interrupted environmental monitoring and maintenance activities put in place by the Soviet Union 's Committee on Nature Protection , leaving Tajikistan with a severely reduced infrastructure for both economic and environmental activity . Issues Tajikistan",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Tajikistan",
"rank": 75,
"score": 66061
},
{
"content": "Title: Our Angry Earth Content: Our Angry Earth : A Ticking Ecological Bomb ( 1991 ) is a non-fiction book and polemic against the effects humankind is having on the environment by the science fiction writers Isaac Asimov and Frederik Pohl . In his last non-fiction book , Asimov co-writes with his long-time friend science fiction author Frederik Pohl , and deals with elements of the environmental crisis such as overpopulation , oil dependence , war , global warming and the destruction of the ozone layer . It suggests monumental disasters are threatening to destroy humankind and argues that `` it is too late to save our planet from harm '' . The book has four sections : `` The Background '' , `` The Problems '' , `` The Technocures '' and `` The Way to Go '' . It was first published by Tor Books in 1991 , ISBN 0-312-85252-5 .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Our_Angry_Earth",
"rank": 76,
"score": 65940
},
{
"content": "Title: Air Pollution in Canada Content: Air pollution in Canada arises from the increasing airborne chemicals , matter and biological materials in the air . These factors cause harm to human health , the environment and to the economy . In the Canadian context , the main contributor of air pollution stems from burning fossil fuels for power and energy . Fossil fuels continue to be the main source of fuel for Canadians , even though the government is aware of the negative effects that it has on the environment and human health . Air pollution in Canada continues to be an issue due to the pressures with climate change , increased urbanization and continued reliance on vehicles as the primary source of transportation . A major contributor to the problem of Canadian air pollution are the Alberta Oil Sands . Though they are not closely related to major Canadian Metropolitan Areas , the quality of mostly rural Northern Alberta is poorer than areas of similar population densities in Canada . Toronto and other Canadian municipalities face environmental problems associated with air pollution due to industrial chemicals . Air pollution is Canada continues to negatively affect the environment , leading to an increase in health problems for Canadians , especially regarding leukemia . Air pollution has increased the rate of hospital visits per year and is currently causing premature deaths . There are current policy responses to combat the increasing rate of air pollution in Canada . The agreement is a response to Canada 's transportation and energy production infrastructure as they contribute to the problem of Air Pollution . The Canadian and United States federal governments have required each other to reduce air pollution by specific amounts annually through detailed reporting .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Air_Pollution_in_Canada",
"rank": 77,
"score": 65801
},
{
"content": "Title: Organic pollution Content: Organic pollution may refer to : concentration of organic compounds in water including : dissolved and suspended biogenic substances from aquatic and terrestrial species persistent organic pollutants nutrients from fertilizers or other sources of soluble nitrogen or phosphorus air pollution through volatile organic compounds",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Organic_pollution",
"rank": 78,
"score": 65357
},
{
"content": "Title: Volume source (pollution) Content: A Volume source of pollution is a three-dimensional source of pollutant emissions . Essentially , it is an area source with a third dimension . Examples of a volume source of pollution are : Dust emissions from the wind erosion of uncovered gravel piles , sand piles , limestone piles , coal piles , etc. . Fugitive gaseous emissions from pipe flanges , packed valve seals , gas compressor seals , control valve seals , piping and vessel seals within industrial facilities such as oil refineries and petrochemical plants . Buildings , containing air pollutant emission sources , with no singular emission vent ( i.e. , buildings with multiple roof vents or multiple open windows ) .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Volume_source_(pollution)",
"rank": 79,
"score": 65342
},
{
"content": "Title: National Pollutant Inventory Content: The National Pollutant Inventory or NPI is a database of Australian pollution emissions managed by the Australian Commonwealth , State and Territory Governments . A condensed version of the information collected is available to the public via the NPI website www.npi.gov.au .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "National_Pollutant_Inventory",
"rank": 80,
"score": 65241
},
{
"content": "Title: Air pollution on vegetation Content: The effects of air pollution on our general life have been well documented , but a specific interest group focusing on gardens and wildlife have been researched by local organisations . Other national and international organisations monitor air pollution also research its effects on people and vegetation .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Air_pollution_on_vegetation",
"rank": 81,
"score": 65225
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Iran Content: Environmental issues in Iran include , especially in urban areas , vehicle emissions , refinery operations , and industrial effluents which contribute to poor air quality . Most cars use leaded gas and lack emissions control equipment . Tehran is rated as one of the world 's most polluted cities . However , buses and cars running on natural gas are planned to replace the existing public transportation fleet in the future . Also , energy prices are kept artificially low in Iran through heavy state subsidies , resulting in highly inefficient and polluting consumption patterns . Traffic management , vehicle inspection , general use of electric bicycles and electronic government are also part of the solution . A rising incidence of respiratory illnesses prompted the city governments of Tehran and Arak , southwest of the capital , to institute air pollution control programs . These programs aim to reduce gradually the amount of harmful chemicals released into the atmosphere . Much of Iran 's territory suffers from overgrazing , desertification and/or deforestation . Industrial and urban wastewater runoff has contaminated rivers , coastal and underground waters . Wetlands and bodies of fresh water increasingly are being destroyed as industry and agriculture expand , and oil and chemical spills have harmed aquatic life in the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea . Iran contends that the international rush to develop oil and gas reserves in the Caspian Sea presents that region with a new set of environmental threats . Although a Department of Environment has existed since 1971 , Iran has not yet developed a policy of sustainable development because short term economic goals have taken precedence . The World Bank estimates losses inflicted on Iran 's economy as a result of deaths caused by air pollution at $ 640 million , which is equal to 5.1 trillion rials or 0.57 percent of GDP . Diseases resulting from air pollution are inflicting losses estimated at $ 260 million per year or 2.1 trillion rials or 0.23 percent of the GDP on Iran 's economy . A report by the United Nations Environment Programme ranked Iran at 117th place among 133 countries in terms of environmental indexes . Major Environmental Agreements Party to : Biodiversity , Climate Change , Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol , Desertification , Endangered Species , Hazardous Wastes , Marine Dumping , Ozone Layer Protection , Wetlands and Paris Agreement . Signed , but not ratified : Environmental Modification , Law of the Sea , Marine Life Conservation . Natural hazards : periodic droughts , floods ; dust storms , sandstorms ; earthquakes along western border and in the northeast . Environment - current issues : air pollution , especially in urban areas , from vehicle emissions , refinery operations , and industrial effluents ; deforestation ; overgrazing ; desertification ; oil pollution in the Persian Gulf ; wetland losses from drought ; soil degradation ( salination ) ; inadequate supplies of potable water ; water pollution from raw sewage and industrial waste ; urbanization . Iran ranked worst in the world for soil erosion in 2011 . Garbage/waste disposal : An estimated 50,000 tons of trash is produced in the country every day of which something between 70 and 80 percent is disposed of hygienically but the rest is not . Iran produces over 8 million tons of hazardous waste annually ( 2016 ) .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Iran",
"rank": 82,
"score": 64762
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental noise Content: Environmental noise is the summary of noise pollution from outside , caused by transport , industrial and recreational activities . Noise is frequently described as ` unwanted sound ' , and , within this context , environmental noise is generally present in some form in all areas of human activity . The effects in humans of exposure to environmental noise may vary from emotional to physiological and psychological . Noise at low levels is not necessarily harmful ; environmental noise can also convey a sense of liveliness in an area , and is not then always considered ` unwanted ' . However , the adverse effects of noise exposure ( i.e. noise pollution ) could include : interference with speech or other ` desired ' sounds , annoyance , sleep disturbance , anxiety , hearing damage and stress-related cardiovascular health problems . As a result , environmental noise is studied , regulated and monitored by many governments and institutions . This creates a number of different occupations . The basis of all decisions is supported by the objective and accurate measurement of noise . Noise is measured in decibels ( dB ) using a pattern-approved sound level meter . The measurements are typically taken over a period of weeks , in all weather conditions .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_noise",
"rank": 83,
"score": 64753
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of pig farming Content: The environmental impact of pig farming refers to the threats posed to the natural environment by large-scale pig farming . Industrial pig farming , a subset of concentrated animal feeding operations , poses numerous threats to the environment . CAFOs house thousands of swine and other farm animals in confined areas , where feces and waste often spread to surrounding neighborhoods , polluting air and water with toxic waste particles . Waste from these farms have the potential to carry pathogens , bacteria ( often antibiotic resistant ) , and heavy metals that can be toxic when ingested . Pig waste also contributes to groundwater pollution in the forms of groundwater seepage and waste spray , which is essentially the usage of a sprinkler to spray vats of pig waste into neighboring areas . The contents in the spray and waste drift have been shown to cause mucosal irritation , respiratory ailment , increased stress , decreased quality of life , and higher blood pressure . This improper way to get rid of waste is an attempt for CAFOs to be cost efficient . This presents an environmental injustice problem , since the communities do not receive any benefit from the operations , and instead , suffer negative externalities , such as pollution and health problems . The Agriculture and Consumer Health Department has stated explicitly that the `` main direct environmental impact of pig production is related to the manure produced .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_pig_farming",
"rank": 84,
"score": 64565
},
{
"content": "Title: Non Polluting Vehicle mark Content: The Non Polluting Vehicle mark is a mandatory certification mark required on all new motor vehicles sold in India . The mark certifies that the motor vehicle conforms to the relevant version of the Bharat Stage emission standards . This certification for a brand new vehicle has a limited validity of 60 months from the date of sale of the vehicle . After this , the vehicle has to be tested afresh . The vehicle is tested in the car companies garage during the years maintenance and a renewed certificate has to be obtained . The certificate thus issued on a used vehicle is the Pollution Under Control certificate . This process has to be repeated at a predecided frequency . The frequency varies for different class of vehicles . The emission standards applicable in this eventual testing is not the latest in effect , but the one valid for the respective year of manufacture of the vehicle .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Non_Polluting_Vehicle_mark",
"rank": 85,
"score": 64518
},
{
"content": "Title: Visual pollution Content: Visual pollution is an aesthetic issue and refers to the impacts of pollution that impair one 's ability to enjoy a vista or view . Visual pollution disturbs the visual areas of people by creating harmful changes in the natural environment . Billboards , open storage of trash , antennas , electric wires , buildings and automobiles are often considered visual pollution . An overcrowding of an area causes visual pollution . Visual pollution is defined as the whole of irregular formations , which are mostly found in natural and built environments . Effects of exposure to visual pollution include : distraction , eye fatigue , decreases in opinion diversity , and loss of identity .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Visual_pollution",
"rank": 86,
"score": 64253
},
{
"content": "Title: Berlin's Environmental Zone Content: Berlin 's Environmental Zone , also known as Berlin 's Umweltzone , refers to a region within the city of Berlin and has been deemed a low-emissions zone . This zone permits only vehicles that have an environmental badge , or a green sticker , to enter . The policy was put into place in January 2008 due to the high density of Berlin 's inner city being affected by pollutants such as fine dust ( PM 10 ) and nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) threatening human health .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Berlin's_Environmental_Zone",
"rank": 87,
"score": 64004
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Indonesia Content: Environmental issues in Indonesia are associated with the country 's high population density and rapid industrialisation , and they are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels , and an under-resourced governance . Issues include large-scale deforestation ( much of it illegal ) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia , Malaysia and Singapore ; over-exploitation of marine resources ; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanisation and economic development , including air pollution , traffic congestion , garbage management , and reliable water and waste water services . Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world 's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases . Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species , including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union ( IUCN ) as threatened , and 15 identified as critically endangered , including the Sumatran orangutan .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Indonesia",
"rank": 88,
"score": 63967
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution of the Hudson River Content: Between 1947 and 1977 , General Electric polluted the Hudson River by dispensing polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) , causing a range of harmful effects to wildlife and people who eat fish from the river or drink the water . In response to this contamination , activists protested in various ways ; for instance , musician Pete Seeger founded the Hudson River Sloop Clearwater and the Clearwater Festival to draw attention to the problem . The activism led to the site being designated as one of the Superfund sites . Other kinds of pollution , including mercury contamination and sewage dumping , have also caused problems .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollution_of_the_Hudson_River",
"rank": 89,
"score": 63916
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental emergency Content: Environmental emergencies are defined as `` sudden-onset disasters or accidents resulting from natural , technological or human-induced factors , or a combination of these , that causes or threatens to cause severe environmental damage as well as loss of human lives and property . '' ( UNEP/GC .22 / INF/5 , 13 November 2002 . ) Following a disaster or conflict , an environmental emergency can occur when people 's health and livelihoods are at risk due to the release of hazardous and noxious substances , or because of significant damage to the ecosystem . Examples include fires , oil spills , chemical accidents , toxic-waste dumping and groundwater pollution . The environmental risks can be acute and life-threatening . According to the International Disaster Database ( EM-DAT ) , between 2003 and 2013 , there were 380 industrial accidents reported , affecting 207 668 people and resulting in over US$ 22 million in losses . Climate change is having an unprecedented effect on the occurrence of natural disasters and the associated risk of environmental emergencies . With climate change already stretching the disaster relief system , future climate-related emergency events will generate increased and more costly demands for assistance .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Environmental_emergency",
"rank": 90,
"score": 63845
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecotoxicity Content: Ecotoxicity , the subject of study of the field of ecotoxicology ( a portmanteau of Ecology and Toxicology ) refers to the potential for biological , chemical or physical stressors to affect ecosystems . Such stressors might occur in the natural environment at densities , concentrations or levels high enough to disrupt the natural biochemistry , physiology , behavior and interactions of the living organisms that comprise the ecosystem . Ecotoxicology has been defined as , `` the branch of toxicology concerned with the study of toxic effects , caused by natural or synthetic pollutants , to the constituents of ecosystems , animal ( including human ) , vegetable and microbial , in an integral context '' .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Ecotoxicity",
"rank": 91,
"score": 63819
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution in the United States Content: As with many countries pollution in the United States is a concern for environmental organizations , government agencies and individuals .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollution_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 92,
"score": 63704
},
{
"content": "Title: Nutrient pollution Content: Nutrient pollution , a form of water pollution , refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients . It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters , in which excess nutrients , usually nitrogen or phosphorus , stimulate algal growth . Sources of nutrient pollution include surface runoff from farm fields and pastures , discharges from septic tanks and feedlots , and emissions from combustion . Excess nutrients have been summarized as potentially leading to : Population effects : excess growth of algae ( blooms ) ; Community effects : species composition shifts ( dominant taxa ) ; Ecological effects : food web changes , light limitation ; Biogeochemical effects : excess organic carbon ( eutrophication ) ; dissolved oxygen deficits ( environmental hypoxia ) ; toxin production ; Human health effects : excess nitrate in drinking water ( blue baby syndrome ) ; disinfection by-products in drinking water . In a 2011 United States Environmental Protection Agency report , the agency 's Science Advisory Board succinctly stated : `` Excess reactive nitrogen compounds in the environment are associated with many large-scale environmental concerns , including eutrophication of surface waters , toxic algae blooms , hypoxia , acid rain , nitrogen saturation in forests , and global warming . ''",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Nutrient_pollution",
"rank": 93,
"score": 63669
},
{
"content": "Title: List of World Heritage in Danger Content: The List of World Heritage in Danger is compiled by the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) through the World Heritage Committee according to Article 11.4 of the World Heritage Convention , Full title : Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage which was established in 1972 to designate and manage World Heritage Sites . Entries in the list are threatened World Heritage Sites for the conservation of which major operations are required and for which `` assistance has been requested '' . The list is intended to increase international awareness of the threats and to encourage counteractive measures . Threats to a site can be either proven imminent threats or potential dangers that could have adverse effects on a site . In the case of natural sites , ascertained dangers include the serious decline in the population of an endangered or other valuable species or the deterioration of natural beauty or scientific value of a property caused by human activities such as logging , pollution , settlement , mining , agriculture and major public works . Ascertained dangers for cultural properties include serious deterioration of materials , structure , ornaments or architectural coherence and the loss of historical authenticity or cultural significance . Potential dangers for both cultural and natural sites include development projects , armed conflicts , insufficient management systems or changes in the legal protective status of the properties . In the case of cultural sites , gradual changes due to geology , climate or environment can also be potential dangers . Before a property is inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger , its condition is assessed and a potential programme for corrective measures is developed in cooperation with the State Party involved . The final decision about inscription is made by the committee . Financial support from the World Heritage Fund may be allocated by the committee for listed properties . The state of conservation is reviewed on a yearly basis , after which the committee may request additional measures , delete the property from the list if the threats have ceased or consider deletion from both the List of World Heritage in Danger and the World Heritage List . Of the two Former UNESCO World Heritage Sites , the Dresden Elbe Valley was delisted after placement on the List of World Heritage in Danger while the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary was directly delisted . As of 2016 , there are 55 entries ( 18 natural , 38 cultural ) on the List of World Heritage in Danger . Some sites have been designated as World Heritage Sites and World Heritage in Danger in the same year , such as the Church of the Nativity , traditionally considered to be the birthplace of Jesus . Arranged by the UNESCO regions 21 of the listed sites are located in the Arab States ( of which 7 are located in Syria and 5 in Libya ) , 17 in Africa ( of which 5 are in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ) , 7 in Latin America and the Caribbean , 6 in Asia and the Pacific , and 4 in Europe and North America ( all by 2016 ) . Includes two sites in Georgia The majority of the endangered natural sites ( 13 ) are located in Africa . In some cases , danger listing has sparked conservation efforts and prompted the release of funds , resulting in a positive development for sites such as the Galápagos Islands and Yellowstone National Park , both of which have subsequently been removed from the List of World Heritage in Danger . Despite this , the list itself and UNESCO 's implementation of it have been the focus of criticism . In particular , States Parties and other stakeholders of World Heritage Sites have questioned the authority of the Committee to declare a site in danger without their consent . Until 1992 , when UNESCO set a precedent by placing several sites on the danger list against their wishes , States Parties would have submitted a programme of corrective measures before a site could be listed . Instead of being used as intended , the List of World Heritage in Danger is perceived by some states as a black list and according to Christina Cameron , Professor at the School of Architecture , Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage , University of Montreal , has been used as political tool to get the attention of States Parties . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) notes that UNESCO has referenced the List of World Heritage in Danger ( without actually listing the site ) in a number of cases where the threat could be easily addressed by the State Party . The Union also argues that keeping a site listed as endangered over a long period is questionable and that other mechanisms for conservation should be sought in these cases .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "List_of_World_Heritage_in_Danger",
"rank": 94,
"score": 63615
},
{
"content": "Title: Olga Speranskaya Content: Olga Speranskaya has been Director of the Chemical Safety Program at the Eco-Accord Center for Environment and Sustainable Development since 1997 . Speranskaya has led many campaigns against the use of organic pollutants , fought to ban the burial and transport of hazardous chemicals , and provided information to government decision-makers for policy changes , in many different countries . When the hammer and sickle finally fell in the Soviet Union nearly two decades ago , hundreds of thousands of tons of obsolete pesticides and other chemicals were left behind , scattered about the 15 newly independent republics . Stored in torn bags and collapsing sheds , the chemical cocktail was allowed to seep into groundwater and from there it passed into the surrounding animal and human populations . The problem had grown so bad , says Russian activist Olga Speranskaya , that a new type of hammer had to be forged , something with which to bang away at the government , `` to push the authorities to clean up these sites . '' The 46-year-old physicist has been pounding Moscow for more than a decade now , demanding it secure stockpiles of chemicals such as DDT -- long banned in the West -- and help clean up the enormous mess left by the Soviets . But Speranskaya has n't just been on the attack . Through her work as the head of the chemical safety program at Moscow 's Eco-Accord Center for the Environment and Sustainable Development , an independent environmental watchdog , she has also educated thousands of people about the dangers chemicals pose , and has brought dozens of activist groups together to make their voices louder . `` The people in a town or village did n't understand the link between birth defects or health problems and the chemical landfill just in their backyard , '' says Speranskaya , who this year won a Goldman Environmental Prize for her work . `` There was no information out there . We started with information dissemination because we understood that we needed to build this information bridge to the people . The biggest result was that people started ... demanding action . '' Yet huge problems remain . Russian companies are still apathetic about the environment , and government regulation is weak . From her cramped Moscow office with its teetering stacks of notebooks , reports and documents , Speranskaya stays hopeful . `` The environment is beyond any political issues , '' she says . `` We need to continue working -- to fight this legacy and to not allow the authorities to make it even bigger . ''",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Olga_Speranskaya",
"rank": 95,
"score": 63374
},
{
"content": "Title: International POPs Elimination Network Content: The International POPs Elimination Network ( IPEN ) is a global network of NGOs dedicated to the common aim of eliminating persistent organic pollutants . IPEN is composed of public interest non-governmental organizations who support a common platform for the global elimination of POPs . The Participating Organizations ( POs ) of IPEN are those NGOs which have endorsed the POPs Elimination Platform and/or the Stockholm Declaration . Because the network is primarily engaged in facilitating information exchange and in supporting activities of its constituents , and because the purpose of the network does not include developing network-wide-policy statements , strategies , or action plans , a formal decision-making process for the network can be simple , flexible , and largely administrative in nature . ( IPEN 2005 ) The International POPs Elimination Network ( IPEN ) is a global network of more than 600 public interest non-governmental organizations working together for the elimination of persistent organic pollutants , on an expedited yet socially equitable basis . This mission includes achieving a world in which all chemicals are produced and used in ways that eliminate significant adverse effects on human health and the environment , and where persistent organic pollutants ( POPs ) and chemicals of equivalent concern no longer pollute our local and global environments , and no longer contaminate our communities , our food , our bodies , or the bodies of our children and future generations .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "International_POPs_Elimination_Network",
"rank": 96,
"score": 63265
},
{
"content": "Title: Health effects of pesticides Content: Health effects of pesticides may be acute or delayed in those who are exposed . A 2007 systematic review found that `` most studies on non-Hodgkin lymphoma and leukemia showed positive associations with pesticide exposure '' and thus concluded that cosmetic use of pesticides should be decreased . Strong evidence also exists for other negative outcomes from pesticide exposure including neurological problems , birth defects , fetal death , and neurodevelopmental disorder . According to The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants , 9 of the 12 most dangerous and persistent chemicals are pesticides .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Health_effects_of_pesticides",
"rank": 97,
"score": 63186
},
{
"content": "Title: Isobenzan Content: Isobenzan ( telodrin ) is a highly toxic organochloride insecticide . It was produced only in the period from 1958 to 1965 and its use has been since discontinued . It is a persistent organic pollutant that can remain in soil for 2 to 7 years , and the biological half-life of isobenzan in human blood is estimated to be about 2.8 years . It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act ( 42 U.S.C. 11002 ) , and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce , store , or use it in significant quantities .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Isobenzan",
"rank": 98,
"score": 63035
},
{
"content": "Title: National Pollutant Release Inventory Content: The National Pollutant Release Inventory ( NPRI ) , established in 1992 , is the national Pollutant Release and Transfer Register of Canada . The publicly accessible inventory is used to track and catalogue the release of pollutants , their disposal , or their transfer to recycling and other facilities across the country . All pollutants released to air , water , or land are tracked and reported annually . Facilities which meet reporting requirements are required to report to the NPRI under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act , 1999 ( CEPA 1999 ) . Over 300 substances are listed on the NPRI , and over 8,000 facilities annually report information on their pollutant releases and transfers to Environment Canada . NPRI data is available through an on-line Query search , downloadable Microsoft Access ( mdb ) format datasets , and downloadable map layers for use with Google Earth ( which were the first Google Earth map layers to be published by the Government of Canada ) .",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "National_Pollutant_Release_Inventory",
"rank": 99,
"score": 63002
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution in China Content:",
"qid": "18",
"docid": "Pollution_in_China",
"rank": 100,
"score": 62938
}
] |
If CO2 was so terrible for the planet, then installing a CO2 generator in a greenhouse would kill the plants. | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator",
"rank": 1,
"score": 174001
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 2,
"score": 145097
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 3,
"score": 124503
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 4,
"score": 122535
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning",
"rank": 5,
"score": 119596
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 6,
"score": 116225
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth",
"rank": 7,
"score": 113992
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 8,
"score": 113815
},
{
"content": "Title: Sulfuryl fluoride Content: Sulfuryl fluoride ( also spelled sulphuryl fluoride ) is the inorganic compound with the formula SO2F2 . This acute neurotoxin is an easily condensed gas and has properties more similar to sulfur hexafluoride than sulfuryl chloride , being resistant to hydrolysis even up to 150 ° C. Scientific studies , including 2009 MIT studies , proved that sulfuryl fluoride is a greenhouse gas `` about 4,800 times more potent a heat trapping gas than carbon dioxide '' , and repeated scientific animal studies ( dogs , rabbits , rats and mice ) have proven that sulfuryl fluoride primarily targets the brain , leaving laboratory animals exposed to sulfuryl fluoride with vacuolations ( holes ) in the brain and damage to the white matter , amongst other debilitating symptoms including death . Despite these facts , sulfuryl fluoride is still not only widely used as a structural insecticide fumigant to kill termites and other pests , in the State of Florida the Department of Agriculture reports that fumigations have increased from 10,535 in 2010 to 63,491 in 2014 , a stunning 600 % increase in only four years . Inhalation is hazardous and potentially fatal to humans and animals . And while the EPA has approved this neuro toxin for use in residential homes , the EPA does not require individual States to report to them on the numbers of poisonings . Exposure to sulfuryl fluoride is much farther reaching than just pest control applications as the EPA also approved the use of sulfuryl fluoride on much of the nation 's supply of non-organic foods , U.S. citizens consume the fluoride residues left behind from the sulfuryl fluoride gas .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Sulfuryl_fluoride",
"rank": 9,
"score": 112021
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative",
"rank": 10,
"score": 110769
},
{
"content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction",
"rank": 11,
"score": 109867
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 12,
"score": 108702
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 13,
"score": 108483
},
{
"content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 14,
"score": 108088
},
{
"content": "Title: Electricity Security and Affordability Act Content: The Electricity Security and Affordability Act is a bill that would repeal a pending rule published by the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) on January 8 , 2014 . The proposed rule would establish uniform national limits on greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from new electricity-generating facilities that use coal or natural gas . The rule also sets new standards of performance for those power plants , including the requirement to install carbon capture and sequestration technology . The bill passed in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Electricity_Security_and_Affordability_Act",
"rank": 15,
"score": 106640
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel",
"rank": 16,
"score": 105858
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming",
"rank": 17,
"score": 104118
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 18,
"score": 102845
},
{
"content": "Title: Hydrogen Energy California Content: Hydrogen Energy California ( HECA ) was an alternative energy , hydrogen power project in development with support from the U.S. Department of Energy in Kern County , California . The facility proposed to convert coal and refinery waste into an impure hydrogen fuel that would be used to generate electricity and fertilizer . HECA was supposed to capture ninety percent of its carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions to theoretically minimize greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and inject it , ironically , for enhanced oil recovery . If it had become fully operational , HECA would have generated nearly 300MW of clean electricity and will produce one million tons of locally manufactured , low-carbon fertilizer . But , most of the electricity produced by HECA would have been consumed by the different processes at the plant . On March 4 , 2016 , the California Energy Commission ordered the HECA application to be terminated . HECA would have produced over 500 tons of criteria air pollutants . This air pollution would have been added to an area that already has the worst air pollution in the entire United States . The facility was to be located on 542 acres of prime farmland in western Kern County , about 7 mi west of Bakersfield and 1.5 mi northwest of the unincorporated community of Tupman . The site is near the Elk Hills Oil Field where the captured CO2 was to be used for enhanced oil recovery by Occidental of Elk Hills , Inc. . HECA would have employed an expected 2,000 union workers to construct the facility and would have created approximately 200 permanent jobs . HECA was a project of SCS Energy LLC , an independent developer of clean power . HECA was cofunded by the U.S. Department of Energy 's Office of Fossil Energy and administered by the National Energy Technology Laboratory . The HECA project was awarded a $ 408 million grant by the U.S. Department of Energy under Clean Coal Power Initiative Round 3 .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Hydrogen_Energy_California",
"rank": 19,
"score": 102468
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Greenhouse_debt",
"rank": 20,
"score": 101688
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 21,
"score": 101296
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 22,
"score": 100823
},
{
"content": "Title: Collinsville Power Station Content: Collinsville Power Station is located south of Townsville , Queensland , Australia . It has five coal powered steam turbines with a combined generation capacity of 190 MW of electricity . The coal for Collinsville comes from local open-cut mines . Collinsville was commissioned in 1968 with four 30 MW steam turbines . A 60 MW machine was later commissioned in 1976 . These were refurbished in 1999 , and upgraded to 66 MW and 31 MW respectively . Carbon Monitoring for Action estimates this power station emitted 1.34 million tonnes of greenhouse gases each year as a result of burning coal . The Australian Government has announced the introduction of a Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme commencing in 2010 to help combat climate change . It is expected to impact on emissions from power stations . The National Pollutant Inventory provides details of other pollutant emissions , but , as at 23 November 2008 , not . RATCH-Australia , the operator of the plant , is in the process of decommissioning and putting under care and maintenance the Collinsville coal-fired power station . It is investigating options to redevelop the site with one or more new forms of electricity generation . As of 20 February 2013 , RATCH is partnering with the University of Queensland to investigate replacing all the coal-fired power generators with solar thermal generators . On the 10 of July 2014 it was announced that the solar thermal plans for Collinsville would not be proceeding . On the 8th of May 2017 it was announced that it will be replaced by a 42MW solar farm .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Collinsville_Power_Station",
"rank": 23,
"score": 100451
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 24,
"score": 100260
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Environmental_issue",
"rank": 25,
"score": 99133
},
{
"content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Keith_E._Idso",
"rank": 26,
"score": 98778
},
{
"content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model",
"rank": 27,
"score": 98686
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 28,
"score": 98537
},
{
"content": "Title: The long tailpipe Content: The long tailpipe is a reference to greenhouse gases that are emitted in the production of electricity used to charge electric vehicles . Plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode have no emissions ( greenhouse gases or otherwise ) from the onboard source of power . The long tailpipe claims these emissions are shifted from the vehicle tailpipe to the location of the electrical generation plants . From the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment , the extent of the actual carbon footprint depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "The_long_tailpipe",
"rank": 29,
"score": 98115
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 30,
"score": 98045
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 31,
"score": 97801
},
{
"content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut",
"rank": 32,
"score": 97514
},
{
"content": "Title: Coal gasification commercialization Content: Coal gasification is a process whereby a hydrocarbon feedstock ( coal ) is converted into gaseous components by applying heat under pressure in the presence of steam . Rather than burning , most of the carbon-containing feedstock is broken apart by chemical reactions that produce `` syngas . '' Syngas is primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide , but the exact composition can vary . In Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle ( IGCC ) systems , the syngas is cleaned and burned as fuel in a combustion turbine which then drives an electric generator . Exhaust heat from the combustion turbine is recovered and used to create steam for a steam turbine-generator . The use of these two types of turbines in combination is one reason why gasification-based power systems can achieve high power generation efficiencies . Currently , commercially available gasification-based systems can operate at around 40 % efficiencies . Syngas , however , emits more greenhouse gases than natural gas , and almost twice as much carbon as a coal plant . Coal gasification is also water-intensive . According to the Gasification and Syngas Technologies Council , a trade association , there are globally 272 operating gasification plants with 686 gasifiers and 74 plants with 238 gasifiers under construction . Most of them use coal as feedstock . As of 2017 large scale expansion of the coal gasification industry was occurring only in China where local governments and energy companies promote the industry for the sake of jobs and a market for coal . The central government is aware of the conflict with environmental goals . For the most part the plants are located in remote coal rich areas . In addition to producing a great deal of carbon dioxide the plants use a great deal of water in areas where water is scarce .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Coal_gasification_commercialization",
"rank": 33,
"score": 97508
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 34,
"score": 97322
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_offset",
"rank": 35,
"score": 97150
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 36,
"score": 96701
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 37,
"score": 96421
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite",
"rank": 38,
"score": 95530
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 39,
"score": 95065
},
{
"content": "Title: Aire valley power stations Content: Aire valley power station may refer to one or all of : Ferrybridge power station Eggborough power station Drax power station By the 1990s the collection of three power stations generated 20 % of Britain 's electricity , and contributed 56 % of the Yorkshire and Humber regions greenhouse gas emissions , which was primarily CO2 ( ~ 2010 ) . In 2006 the generating capacity was approximately 8 GW total ( Ferrybridge C , 2 GW ; Eggborough , 2 GW , Drax 4 GW ) . The power stations were built during the post-Beeching era , close to the Selby Coalfield which supplied them via Gascoigne Wood until the field 's closure at the beginning of the 21st century . After the Selby field closure coal was imported to fuel the power stations , much of it through the Humber ports ( primarily Immingham Port , also Port of Hull ) and other east coast ports ( Redcar , Tyne , Blyth ) , additionally coal was supplied from open cast coal mines in Ayrshire , Scotland , as well as being imported via Scotland ( Hunterston Terminal ) . Ferrybridge and Eggborough power stations were scheduled to close in March 2016 . Ferrybridge closed according to schedule on 31 March 2016 , while Eggborough will continue to operate at least until March 2017 .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Aire_valley_power_stations",
"rank": 40,
"score": 95014
},
{
"content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Biosequestration",
"rank": 41,
"score": 94712
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 42,
"score": 94706
},
{
"content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Fugitive_emissions",
"rank": 43,
"score": 94417
},
{
"content": "Title: Mongstad Power Station Content: Mongstad Power Station is a natural gas-fired thermal power plant under construction at the industrial site of Mongstad in Norway . The station is owned by a consortium of Statoil and DONG Energy , and will be operated by the latter . Construction costs are estimated at NOK 4 billion . The power station will have an installed effect of 280 MW in electricity production and 350 MW in heat . The energy will be used to operate the Mongstad Refinery as well to supply the Troll Gas Field with power . The plant will use 0.7 billion normal cubic meter ( BCM ) of gas per year . Emissions of carbon dioxide will be 1.2 million tonnes . The power station has been subject to controversy in Norway , based upon the potential increase in emission of greenhouse gases . Statoil has entered into an implementation agreement in cooperation with Gassnova which representing the Norwegian government in matters relating to Carbon capture and storage , to develop solutions for carbon dioxide capture at Mongstad . Early in 2009 , Statoil delivered a master plan for full scale CO2 capture at Mongstad .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Mongstad_Power_Station",
"rank": 44,
"score": 94365
},
{
"content": "Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "ECOCITIES_(software)",
"rank": 45,
"score": 94359
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 46,
"score": 94310
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 47,
"score": 94299
},
{
"content": "Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "The_Green_Initiative",
"rank": 48,
"score": 93979
},
{
"content": "Title: Cogeneration Content: Cogeneration or combined heat and power ( CHP ) is the use of a heat engine or power station to generate electricity and useful heat at the same time . Trigeneration or combined cooling , heat and power ( CCHP ) refers to the simultaneous generation of electricity and useful heating and cooling from the combustion of a fuel or a solar heat collector . Cogeneration is more thermally efficient use of fuel than electricity generation alone . In separate production of electricity some energy must be rejected as waste heat , but in cogeneration this thermal energy is put to good use . Combined heat and power ( CHP ) plants recover otherwise wasted thermal energy for heating . This is also called combined heat and power district heating ( CHPDH ) . Small CHP plants are an example of decentralized energy . By-product heat at moderate temperatures ( 100 -- 180 ° C , 212 -- 356 ° F ) can also be used in absorption refrigerators for cooling . The supply of high-temperature heat first drives a gas or steam turbine-powered generator . The resulting low-temperature waste heat is then used for water or space heating . At smaller scales ( typically below 1 MW ) a gas engine or diesel engine may be used . Trigeneration differs from cogeneration in that the waste heat is used for both heating and cooling , typically in an absorption refrigerator . CCHP systems can attain higher overall efficiencies than cogeneration or traditional power plants . In the United States , the application of trigeneration in buildings is called building cooling , heating and power ( BCHP ) . Heating and cooling output may operate concurrently or alternately depending on need and system construction . Cogeneration was practiced in some of the earliest installations of electrical generation . Before central stations distributed power , industries generating their own power used exhaust steam for process heating . Large office and apartment buildings , hotels and stores commonly generated their own power and used waste steam for building heat . Due to the high cost of early purchased power , these CHP operations continued for many years after utility electricity became available .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Cogeneration",
"rank": 49,
"score": 93956
},
{
"content": "Title: Cofiring Content: Co-firing is the combustion of two different types of materials at the same time . One of the advantages of co-firing is that an existing plant can be used to burn a new fuel , which may be cheaper or more environmentally friendly . For example , biomass is sometimes co-fired in existing coal plants instead of new biomass plants . Co-firing can also be used to improve the combustion of fuels with low energy content . For example , landfill gas contains a large amount of carbon dioxide , which is non-combustible . If the landfill gas is burned without removing the carbon dioxide , the equipment may not perform properly or emissions of pollutants may increase . Co-firing it with natural gas increases the heat content of the fuel and improves combustion and equipment performance . As long as the electricity or heat produced with the biomass and landfill gas was otherwise going to be produced with non-renewable fuels , the benefits are essentially equivalent whether they are cofired or combusted alone . Also , co-firing can be used to lower the emission of some pollutants . For example , co-firing biomass with coal results in less sulfur emissions than burning coal by itself .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Cofiring",
"rank": 50,
"score": 93513
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 51,
"score": 93432
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_footprint",
"rank": 52,
"score": 93420
},
{
"content": "Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases",
"rank": 53,
"score": 93346
},
{
"content": "Title: Coal pollution mitigation Content: Coal pollution mitigation , often referred to by the public relations term clean coal , is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning ( though not the mining or processing ) of coal , which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation . The preferred industry term `` clean coal '' has been described as `` Orwellian '' , an oxymoron , and a myth . Approaches attempt to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and other greenhouse gases , and radioactive materials , that arise from the use of coal , mainly for electrical power generation , using various technologies . Historical efforts to reduce coal pollution focused on flue-gas desulfurization starting in the 1850s and clean burn technologies . More recent developments include carbon capture and storage , which pumps and stores CO2 emissions underground , and integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) involve coal gasification , which provides a basis for increased efficiency and lower cost in capturing CO2 emissions . There are seven technologies deployed or proposed for deployment in the United States : carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) , flue-gas desulfurization , fluidized-bed combustion , integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) , low nitrogen oxide burners , selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , and electrostatic precipitators . Of the 22 demonstration projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy since 2003 , none are in operation as of February 2017 , having been abandoned or delayed due to capital budget overruns or discontinued because of excessive operating expenses .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Coal_pollution_mitigation",
"rank": 54,
"score": 93147
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 55,
"score": 93090
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Charles_David_Keeling",
"rank": 56,
"score": 92722
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 57,
"score": 92681
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 58,
"score": 92608
},
{
"content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme",
"rank": 59,
"score": 92468
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 60,
"score": 92036
},
{
"content": "Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Timothy_Ball",
"rank": 61,
"score": 91994
},
{
"content": "Title: Controlled-environment agriculture Content: Controlled-environment agriculture ( CEA ) is a technology-based approach toward food production . The aim of CEA is to provide protection and maintain optimal growing conditions throughout the development of the crop . Production takes place within an enclosed growing structure such as a greenhouse or building . Plants are often grown using hydroponic methods in order to supply the proper amounts of water and nutrients to the root zone . CEA optimizes the use of resources such as water , energy , space , capital and labor . CEA technologies include hydroponics , aquaculture , and aquaponics . Controllable variables : Temperature ( air , nutrient solution , root-zone ) Humidity ( % RH ) Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) Light ( intensity , spectrum , interval ) Nutrient concentration ( PPM , EC ) Nutrient pH ( acidity ) CEA facilities can range from fully automated glasshouses with computer controls for watering , lighting and ventilation , to low-tech solutions such as cloches or plastic film on field grown crops and plastic-covered tunnels . CEA is used in research so that a specific aspect of production can be isolated while all other variables remain the same . Tinted glass could be compared to plain glass in this way during an investigation into photosynthesis . Another possibility would be an investigation into the use of supplementary lighting for growing lettuce under a hydroponic system . A February 2011 article in the magazine Science Illustrated states , `` In commercial agriculture , CEA can increase efficiency , reduce pests and diseases , and save resources . ... Replicating a conventional farm with computers and LED lights is expensive but proves cost-efficient in the long run by producing up to 20 times as much high-end , pesticidee-free produce as a similar-size plot of soil . Fourteen thousand square feet of closely monitored plants produce 15 million seedlings annually at the solar-powered factory . Such factories will be necessary to meet urban China 's rising demand for quality fruits and vegetables . ''",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Controlled-environment_agriculture",
"rank": 62,
"score": 91914
},
{
"content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 63,
"score": 91772
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 64,
"score": 91631
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Climate-friendly_gardening",
"rank": 65,
"score": 91393
},
{
"content": "Title: Sumas 2 Content: Sumas 2 was a proposal for an additional cogeneration electric power plant in the town of Sumas , Washington near the Canada -- United States border . The excess heat from this generator was to be used by a wood products processing company . The original proposal came in 1999 , and was revised twice in 2000 and 2001 . It was approved in 2004 by the governor of Washington state . A power transmission line was to be constructed to a sub-station in Abbotsford , British Columbia but the Canadian National Energy Board in 2004 and the Supreme Court of Canada in 2006 denied permission to construct the transmission line . Sumas Energy 2 . inc , the company behind the proposal , requested that the Washington 's Energy Facility Site Evaluation Council terminate their Site Certification Agreement . This occurred in April 2006 . There is already a cogeneration plant in Sumas -LSB- SE1 -RSB- . This proposal would have added a second plant -LSB- SE2 -RSB- . This proposal was considered controversial because it burns natural gas to generate power and the resulting pollutants would have drifted up the valley , adding to pollution already generated by the populous Lower Mainland of British Columbia , which includes Vancouver . The proposed second plant would be five times larger than the existing plant . The proposed site was over an active earthquake fault , placing the proposed 16 inch high pressure natural gas line and tanks containing hazardous fuels and chemicals in danger . A high pressure natural gas line had just recently exploded in the foothills near the proposed site due to shifting soils . An aquifer serving much of Whatcom County and Abbotsford , British Columbia is located directly beneath the site . The site is in a floodplain that has experienced recent floods strong enough to sweep vehicles off roadways . The proposed fill for the plant would displace floodwaters onto neighboring farms and homes , increasing flood depths by up to a foot . Air emissions from the plant were predicted to be up to 3 tons per day of criteria pollutants . The Washington State Energy Facility Site Evaluation Council initially denied the project , but NESCO resubmitted their application for reconsideration without the diesel component that was contained in their initial application . The National Energy Board received approximately 25,000 letters regarding the project , mostly in opposition .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Sumas_2",
"rank": 66,
"score": 91359
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 67,
"score": 91249
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 68,
"score": 91136
},
{
"content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme",
"rank": 69,
"score": 91060
},
{
"content": "Title: Seawater greenhouse Content: A seawater greenhouse is a greenhouse structure that enables the growth of crops in arid regions , using seawater and solar energy . The technique involves pumping seawater ( or allowing it to gravitate if below sea level ) to an arid location and then subjecting it to two processes : first , it is used to humidify and cool the air , and second , it is evaporated by solar heating and distilled to produce fresh water . Finally , the remaining humidified air is expelled from the greenhouse and used to improve growing conditions for outdoor plants . The technology was introduced by British inventor Charlie Paton in the early 1990s and is being developed by his UK company Seawater Greenhouse Ltd. . The more concentrated salt water may either be further evaporated for the production of salt and other elements , or discharged back to the sea . The seawater greenhouse is a response to the global water crisis and peak water .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Seawater_greenhouse",
"rank": 70,
"score": 90988
},
{
"content": "Title: Co-benefits of climate change mitigation Content: Co-benefits of climate change mitigation as defined in the 4th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change are the positive benefits related to the reduction of greenhouse gases . Examples of such climate mitigation policies include improved energy efficiency of plants , renewable energy uptake and fuel switching which might enable a range of co-benefits such as air-pollution impacts , technological innovation , energy-supply security through increased energy diversity , reduced fuel cost and employment possibilities .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 71,
"score": 90717
},
{
"content": "Title: Redbank Power Station Content: Redbank Power Station is located near Singleton , in the Hunter Region , New South Wales , Australia . It was coal powered with one steam driven turbo generator with a capacity of 151 MW of electricity . Originally Redbank Power Station was promoted as being at the cutting edge of environmental technology , but has been criticised by environmentalists for producing more than other types of coal-fired power station . The first stage of the Redbank project was taken to the Land and Environment Court in 1994 over claims by environmentalists that it did not meet its own standards . The claim was dismissed by the court . Redbank pumped its cooling water from the Hunter River . Redbank was fuelled by beneficiated , dewatered tailings from the Mount Thorley Warkworth mine at Warkworth , delivered by conveyor . In lay terms this is the part of the coal waste which would otherwise not be utilised , and simply buried as the mines progress . According to Carbon Monitoring for Action ( CARMA ) , in 2007 Redbank emitted more climate change and global warming causing greenhouse gases per unit of electricity generated than any other power station in Australia . However no data from the actual plant , operator or Australian Government is actually used to base these approximate assumptions on . CARMA uses a statistical model that predicts emissions given the size , age , fuel type , estimated capacity utilization , and engineering specifications of individual plants . Carbon Monitoring for Action estimates this power station emits 1.06 million tonnes of greenhouse gases each year as a result of burning coal . The Australian Government has announced the introduction of a Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme commencing in 2010 to help combat climate change . It is expected to impact on emissions from power stations . The National Pollutant Inventory provides details of other pollutant emissions , but , as at 23 November 2008 , not . On 5 October 2013 , Redbank Energy 's wholly owned subsidiary Redbank Project Pty Ltd ( Redbank Project ) was notified by its secured lenders of the appointment of receivers to Redbank Project , Redbank Construction Pty Ltd and the shares in Redbank Project held by Redbank Project Holdco Pty Ltd , with debts of $ 192 million . In Oct 2014 , receivers KordaMentha announced immediate closure of the Plant with its remaining assets including the turbine , generator and plant and equipment to be sold . On 17 September 2015 Redbank Energy ( REL ) announced that its wholly owned subsidiary , Biogreen Energy Pty Limited ( Biogreen ) , had purchased the land , plant and equipment and water rights owned by Redbank Project for $ 5 million , but that it intended `` to commence the work to raise the funds necessary to recommence the operation of the Redbank Power Station '' . On 25 August 2016 Redbank Energy issued the following statement to shareholders via the ASX . `` In response to shareholder enquiries , Redbank Energy Limited ( ASX : AEJ ) ( REL ) wishes to provide the following market update . Unfortunately , REL will be removed from the ASX official list on 29 August 2016 . The immediate catalyst for delisting will be the non-payment of the 2016/17 ASX annual listing fee , which falls due on 27 August 2016 . The reason for REL not paying the 2016/17 ASX listing fee is because REL will automatically be suspended on 9 October 2016 due to continual suspension . '' Redbank was subsequently delisted from the close of trading on Monday , 29 August 2016 pursuant to Listing rule 17.15 .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Redbank_Power_Station",
"rank": 72,
"score": 90552
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_scrubber",
"rank": 73,
"score": 90504
},
{
"content": "Title: Hazelwood Power Station Content: The Hazelwood Power Station is a decommissioned brown coal-fuelled thermal power station located in the Latrobe Valley of Victoria , Australia . Built between 1964 and 1971 , the 1,600 megawatt capacity power station was made up of eight 200MW units , and supplied up to 25 % of Victoria 's base load electricity and more than 5 % of Australia 's total electricity demand . It was a ` subcritical ' pulverized coal-fired boiler . The station was listed as the least carbon efficient power station in the OECD in a 2005 report by WWF Australia , making it one of the most polluting power stations in the world . At 1.56 tonnes of CO2 for each megawatt hour of electricity , it was 50 percent more polluting than the average black coal power station in NSW or Queensland . Hazelwood emitted 14 % of Victoria 's annual greenhouse gas emissions and 3 % of Australia 's greenhouse gas emissions . International Power plc purchased Hazelwood Power Station and the adjoining mine from the Victorian Government in 1996 with an expected 40-year life . In 2005 the Bracks Labor Government approved an environmental effects statement ( EES ) that allowed Hazelwood to relocate a road and a section of the Morwell river to allow access to an additional 43 million tonnes of coal in addition to that allowed under the mining licence boundaries set at the time of privatisation . This was estimated to provide sufficient coal for the plant to operate to at least 2030 ( prior to decommissioning plans ) . The EES also capped its expected total greenhouse output at 445 million tonnes of carbon dioxide over its life , after which Hazelwood may have been made to cease operation . Hazelwood was jointly owned by Engie ( formerly GDF Suez ) , with a 72 % share and Mitsui & Co. with a 28 % share . , Hazelwood employed 495 staff directly and on average 300 contractors . On 3 November 2016 , Engie announced that the entire Hazelwood plant would be closed as of the end of March 2017 , giving the workers and local communities only five months notice of the closure .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Hazelwood_Power_Station",
"rank": 74,
"score": 90404
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 75,
"score": 90308
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 76,
"score": 90246
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping",
"rank": 77,
"score": 90131
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "CO2_is_Green",
"rank": 78,
"score": 89909
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 79,
"score": 89901
},
{
"content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Recycled_fuel",
"rank": 80,
"score": 89798
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon credit Content: A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent ( tCO2e ) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide . Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide , or in some markets , carbon dioxide equivalent gases . Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach . Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources . The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere . Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits , this approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world . There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis . These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects . Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade , which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits . The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project . This is reflected in their price ; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_credit",
"rank": 81,
"score": 89523
},
{
"content": "Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme",
"rank": 82,
"score": 89109
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Mafia Content: Greenhouse Mafia is the title of a TV program aired by the ABC on the 13 February 2006 episode of its weekly current affairs program Four Corners . The program says the term greenhouse mafia is the `` in house '' name used by Australia 's carbon lobby for itself . The program featured former Liberal Party member Guy Pearse and Four Corners host Janine Cohen , while others concerned about the influence exerted by the fossil fuel lobby also participated . The report was based on a thesis Pearse wrote at the Australian National University between 1999 and 2005 regarding the response of Australian business to global warming . According to the program , lobby groups representing the coal , car , oil , and aluminium industries have wielded their power to prevent Australia from reducing its greenhouse gas emissions , which were already among the highest per capita in the world in 1990 .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Greenhouse_Mafia",
"rank": 83,
"score": 88972
},
{
"content": "Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 84,
"score": 88808
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of concrete Content: The environmental impact of concrete , its manufacture and applications , is complex . Some effects are harmful ; others welcome . Many depend on circumstances . A major component of concrete is cement , which has its own environmental and social impacts and contributes largely to those of concrete . The cement industry is one of the primary producers of carbon dioxide , a major greenhouse gas . Concrete causes damage to the most fertile layer of the earth , the topsoil . Concrete is used to create hard surfaces which contribute to surface runoff that may cause soil erosion , water pollution and flooding . Conversely , concrete is one of the most powerful tools for proper flood control , by means of damming , diversion , and deflection of flood waters , mud flows , and the like . Light-colored concrete can reduce the urban heat island effect , due to its higher albedo . Concrete dust released by building demolition and natural disasters can be a major source of dangerous air pollution . The presence of some substances in concrete , including useful and unwanted additives , can cause health concerns due to toxicity and radioactivity . Wet concrete is highly alkaline and should always be handled with proper protective equipment . Concrete recycling is increasing in response to improved environmental awareness , legislation , and economic considerations .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_concrete",
"rank": 85,
"score": 88507
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 86,
"score": 88479
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding",
"rank": 87,
"score": 88469
},
{
"content": "Title: GHG footprint Content: The GHG footprint , or greenhouse gas footprint , refers to the amount of GHG that are emitted during the creation of products or services . It is more comprehensive than the commonly used carbon footprint , which measures only carbon dioxide , one of many greenhouse gases . The GHG footprint differs from the ecological footprint in that the former is expressed in units of GHG warming potential ( GGWP ) and is generated by products or services , whereas the latter is expressed in units of land area and is generated by whole societies .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "GHG_footprint",
"rank": 88,
"score": 88444
},
{
"content": "Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "C3_carbon_fixation",
"rank": 89,
"score": 88339
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Low-carbon_diet",
"rank": 90,
"score": 88286
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Kaya_identity",
"rank": 91,
"score": 88208
},
{
"content": "Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Zero-carbon_city",
"rank": 92,
"score": 88100
},
{
"content": "Title: Kiseki No Hoshi Greenhouse Content: The , also known as the Miracle Planet Museum of Plants , is a botanical garden within a greenhouse located at Yumebutai 4 Banchi , Higashiura-cho , Tsuna , Awaji , Hyōgo , Japan . It is open most days ; an admission fee is charged . The greenhouse opened in 2000 , and contains a fern room , an atrium with small gardens , and five additional rooms as follows : Plants Gallery - succulent plants with art objects Tropical Garden New Lifestyle with Plants - various styles of Japanese gardens Healing Garden - nature and art Flower Show Space - space for floral exhibits ( 1,000 m ² )",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Kiseki_No_Hoshi_Greenhouse",
"rank": 93,
"score": 88058
},
{
"content": "Title: Power to gas Content: Power to gas ( also power-to-gas ) ( often abbreviated P2G ) is a technology that converts electrical power to a gas fuel . When using surplus power from wind generation , the concept is sometimes called windgas . There are currently three methods in use ; all use electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen by means of electrolysis . In the first method , the resulting hydrogen is injected into the natural gas grid or is used in transport or industry . The second method is to combine the hydrogen with carbon dioxide and convert the two gases to methane ( see natural gas ) using a methanation reaction such as the Sabatier reaction , or biological methanation resulting in an extra energy conversion loss of 8 % . The methane may then be fed into the natural gas grid . The third method uses the output gas of a wood gas generator or a biogas plant , after the biogas upgrader is mixed with the produced hydrogen from the electrolyzer , to upgrade the quality of the biogas . Impurities , such as carbon dioxide , water , hydrogen sulfide , and particulates , must be removed from the biogas if the gas is used for pipeline storage to prevent damage .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Power_to_gas",
"rank": 94,
"score": 87569
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 95,
"score": 87178
},
{
"content": "Title: Azolla event Content: The Azolla event occurred in the middle Eocene epoch , around , when blooms of the freshwater fern Azolla are thought to have happened in the Arctic Ocean . As they sank to the stagnant sea floor , they were incorporated into the sediment ; the resulting draw-down of carbon dioxide has been speculated to have helped transform the planet from a `` greenhouse Earth '' state , hot enough for turtles and palm trees to prosper at the poles , to the icehouse Earth it has been since .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Azolla_event",
"rank": 96,
"score": 86967
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_accounting",
"rank": 97,
"score": 86960
},
{
"content": "Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Airport_Carbon_Accreditation",
"rank": 98,
"score": 86734
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 99,
"score": 86705
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse (disambiguation) Content: Greenhouse may refer to : Greenhouse , an indoor covered place where plants are grown and cultivated Greenhouse effect , the effects on a planet when ` greenhouse gases ' cloud the atmosphere Greenhouse and icehouse Earth , periods when the greenhouse effect is dominant or absent Greenhouse effect ( United States Supreme Court ) , postulated effect whereby conservative Supreme Court Justices drift liberal for favorable press Greenhouse debt , the measure to which an entity exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint",
"qid": "19",
"docid": "Greenhouse_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 86451
}
] |
Sea level rise has been slow and a constant, pre-dating industrialization | [
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 1,
"score": 115757
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis",
"rank": 2,
"score": 92951
},
{
"content": "Title: A Constant Sea Content: A Constant Sea is the debut album by American psychedelic/alternative rock band Heliotropes . It was released 18 June 2013 on Manimal Vinyl . The album 's musical style ranges from alternative rock to a more melodic folk rock sound . The album follows on from various singles that they released and their tour with Esben and the Witch .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "A_Constant_Sea",
"rank": 3,
"score": 87484
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 4,
"score": 87182
},
{
"content": "Title: Urban Creep Content: Urban Creep were a seminal South African rock band . The band was formed in 1994 and recorded two critically acclaimed albums , ` Sea Level ` and ` Tightroper ` . ` Sea Level ` was nominated for Rock album of the year 1995 at the South African Music Industry awards . ` Sea Level ` and ` Slow Thighs ` both got to number 1 on the 5fm top 40 in 1995 and 1997 respectively . According to well known musician and critic Dave Marks : `` Chris Letcher 's finger-picking acoustic & electric guitar style , unique vocals & song writing abilities combined with the classical & maskanda strains of Brendan Jury 's violin , keyboards & rock vocals , made the Creeps the urban legend & sensation they were '' . The band members were Brendan Jury ( viola , keyboard and vocals ) , Chris Letcher ( guitar and vocals ) , Ross Campbell ( drums ) and Didier Noblia ( bass ) . Ross Campbell originally drummed for the Durban band , Celtic Rumours ( Slow Rain ) and with Nibs van der Spuy in Plagal Cadence .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Urban_Creep",
"rank": 5,
"score": 85928
},
{
"content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 6,
"score": 85843
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "The_Sea_Has_Risen",
"rank": 7,
"score": 82512
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Sea_level",
"rank": 8,
"score": 82199
},
{
"content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Past_sea_level",
"rank": 9,
"score": 80641
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial warfare Content: Industrial warfare is a period in the history of warfare ranging roughly from the early 19th century and the start of the Industrial Revolution to the beginning of the Atomic Age , which saw the rise of nation-states , capable of creating and equipping large armies , navies , and air forces , through the process of industrialization . The era featured mass-conscripted armies , rapid transportation ( first on railroads , then by sea and air ) , telegraph and wireless communications , and the concept of total war . In terms of technology , this era saw the rise of rifled breech-loading infantry weapons capable of high rates of fire , high-velocity breech-loading artillery , chemical weapons , armoured warfare , metal warships , submarines , and aircraft .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Industrial_warfare",
"rank": 10,
"score": 79407
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Sea_level_equation",
"rank": 11,
"score": 79099
},
{
"content": "Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Tidal_range",
"rank": 12,
"score": 78940
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrialisation Content: Industrialisation or industrialization is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial one , involving the extensive re-organisation of an economy for the purpose of manufacturing . As industrial workers ' incomes rise , markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds tend to expand and provide a further stimulus to industrial investment and economic growth .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Industrialisation",
"rank": 13,
"score": 78712
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "The_Sea_is_Rising",
"rank": 14,
"score": 78339
},
{
"content": "Title: Second Industrial Revolution Content: The Second Industrial Revolution , also known as the Technological Revolution , was a phase of rapid industrialization in the final third of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th . The First Industrial Revolution , which ended in the early to mid 1800s , was punctuated by a slowdown in macroinventions before the Second Industrial Revolution in 1870 . Though a number of its characteristic events can be traced to earlier innovations in manufacturing , such as the establishment of a machine tool industry , the development of methods for manufacturing interchangeable parts and the invention of the Bessemer Process , the Second Industrial Revolution is generally dated between 1870 and 1914 up to the start of World War I. Advancements in manufacturing and production technology enabled the widespread adoption of preexisting technological systems such as telegraph and railroad networks , gas and water supply , and sewage systems , which had earlier been concentrated to a few select cities . The enormous expansion of rail and telegraph lines after 1870 allowed unprecedented movement of people and ideas , which culminated in a new wave of globalization . In the same time period , new technological systems were introduced , most significantly electrical power and telephones . The Second Industrial Revolution continued into the 20th century with early factory electrification and the production line , and ended at the start of World War I.",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Second_Industrial_Revolution",
"rank": 15,
"score": 76899
},
{
"content": "Title: Diplocidaridae Content: Diplocidaridae is an extinct family of sea urchins . These slow-moving low-level epifaunal grazer-omnivores lived in the Jurassic period , from 161.2 to 150.8 Ma .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Diplocidaridae",
"rank": 16,
"score": 76088
},
{
"content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Josh_Willis",
"rank": 17,
"score": 73906
},
{
"content": "Title: Echinopsis (sea urchin) Content: Echinopsis is an extinct genus of sea urchins in the class Echinoidea . These slow-moving low-level epifaunal grazers lived from the Cretaceous to the Paleogene periods ( 125.45 - 5.332 Ma ) . Fossils of this genus have been found in the sediments of Madagascar , Pakistan , Senegal , Sudan , United States and Switzerland .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Echinopsis_(sea_urchin)",
"rank": 18,
"score": 73229
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations",
"rank": 19,
"score": 73014
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Rising_from_the_Sea",
"rank": 20,
"score": 72198
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 21,
"score": 71924
},
{
"content": "Title: Glyphocyphidae Content: Glyphocyphidae is an extinct family of sea urchins in the class Echinoidea . These slow-moving low-level epifaunal grazers lived from the Cretaceous to the Paleogene periods ( 136.4 to 48.6 Ma ) .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Glyphocyphidae",
"rank": 22,
"score": 71840
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Tide",
"rank": 23,
"score": 71624
},
{
"content": "Title: Seaford Rise, South Australia Content: Seaford Rise is a metropolitan suburb of Adelaide , South Australia . It lies within the City of Onkaparinga . Its boundaries are formed by Griffiths Drive in the north , Commercial Road in the west , Main South Road in the east , and by an arbitrary border with Maslin Beach in the south .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Seaford_Rise,_South_Australia",
"rank": 24,
"score": 71301
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Sea_Level_(band)",
"rank": 25,
"score": 70711
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Tide_gauge",
"rank": 26,
"score": 70285
},
{
"content": "Title: High-level equilibrium trap Content: The high-level equilibrium trap is a concept developed by environmental historian Mark Elvin to explain why China never underwent an indigenous Industrial Revolution , despite its wealth , stability , and high level of scientific achievement . Essentially , he claims that the Chinese pre-industrial economy had reached an equilibrium point where supply and demand were well balanced . Late imperial production methods and trade networks were so efficient and labor was so cheap that investment in capital to improve efficiency would not be profitable . At the same time , an intellectual paradigm shift from Taoism to Confucianism among the intelligentsia moved the focus of academic inquiry from natural science and mathematics , which were conceived of under Taoism as investigations into the mystical nature of the universe , to studies of social philosophy and morality under Confucianism . According to Elvin , this produced an intellectual climate that was not conducive to technical innovation . By comparison , the economy of Great Britain at the time of the Industrial Revolution was vastly smaller and less efficient than the late imperial Chinese economy . Labor was comparatively more expensive , and internal trade far less efficient than in China . This produced large imbalances in the forces of supply and demand , leading to economic problems which provided a large financial incentive for the creation of scientific and engineering advances designed to address them . At the same time , the Enlightenment had shifted the focus of academic inquiry towards natural sciences , providing the basis for many technical innovations .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "High-level_equilibrium_trap",
"rank": 27,
"score": 70230
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine riser tensioner Content: A marine riser tensioner is a device used on an offshore drilling vessel which provides a near constant upward force on the drilling riser independent of the movement of the floating drill vessel . The marine riser is connected to the wellhead on the sea bed and therefore the tensioner must manage the differential movements between the riser and the rig . If there were no tensioner and the rig moves downward , the riser would buckle ; if the rig rises then high forces would be transmitted to the riser and it would stretch and be damaged . Tensioners have historically been composed of hydraulic actuated cylinders with wire sheaves . More recently , active electrical motors have been used for compensation purposes .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Marine_riser_tensioner",
"rank": 28,
"score": 70191
},
{
"content": "Title: Ionium-thorium dating Content: Ionium-thorium dating is a technique for determining the age of marine sediments based upon the quantities present of nearly stable thorium-232 and more radioactive thorium-230 . ( 230Th was once known as ionium , before it was realised it was the same element as 232Th . ) The radioactive element uranium-238 is soluble in water . However , when it decays into thorium , the latter element is insoluble and so precipitates out to become part of the sediment . Thorium-232 has a halflife of 14.5 billion years , but thorium-230 has a halflife of only 75,200 years , so the ratio is useful for dating sediments up to 400,000 years old . Conversely , this technique can be used to determine the rate of ocean sedimentation over time . The ionium/thorium method of dating assumes that the proportion of thorium-230 to thorium-232 is a constant during the time period that the sediment layer was formed . Likewise , both thorium-230 and thorium-232 are assumed to precipitate out in a constant ratio ; no chemical process favors one form over the other . It must also be assumed that the sediment does not contain any pre-existing particles of eroded rock , known as detritus , that already contain thorium isotopes . Finally , there must not be a process that causes the thorium to shift its position within the sediment . If these assumptions are correct , this dating technique can produce accurate results .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Ionium-thorium_dating",
"rank": 29,
"score": 69336
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 30,
"score": 69146
},
{
"content": "Title: Risella Content: Risella is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Risella",
"rank": 31,
"score": 68976
},
{
"content": "Title: When the Sea Rises Content: When the Sea Rises ( Quand la mer monte ... ) is a 2004 French-Belgian romantic comedy film directed by Yolande Moreau and Gilles Porte . It was Moreau 's directorial debut .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "When_the_Sea_Rises",
"rank": 32,
"score": 68871
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Marine_transgression",
"rank": 33,
"score": 68825
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A",
"rank": 34,
"score": 68805
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea",
"rank": 35,
"score": 68636
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Sea-level_curve",
"rank": 36,
"score": 68461
},
{
"content": "Title: Slowdown Content: A slowdown ( UK : go-slow ) is an industrial action in which employees perform their duties but seek to reduce productivity or efficiency in their performance of these duties . A slowdown may be used as either a prelude or an alternative to a strike , as it is seen as less disruptive as well as less risky and costly for workers and their union . Striking workers usually go unpaid and risk being replaced , so a slowdown is seen as a way to put pressure on management while avoiding these outcomes . Other times slowdowns are accompanied by intentional sabotage on the part of workers to provide further disruption . Nonetheless , workers participating in a slowdown are often punished , sometimes by firing and other times by law .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Slowdown",
"rank": 37,
"score": 67914
},
{
"content": "Title: Pay Any Price: Greed, Power, and Endless War Content: Pay Any Price : Greed , Power , and Endless War is a 2014 non-fiction book by the American journalist James Risen . The book examines what Risen calls the `` homeland security industrial complex '' , the effects of the War on Terror and the resulting financial malfeasance during the American occupation of Iraq . Risen alleges that almost 12 billion dollars sent from the U.S. to Iraq `` is either unaccounted for or has simply disappeared '' . The book also investigates the use of torture and the cooperative role of the American Psychological Association in the enhanced interrogation program , as well as the threat to the right to privacy posed by NSA warrantless surveillance .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Pay_Any_Price:_Greed,_Power,_and_Endless_War",
"rank": 38,
"score": 67676
},
{
"content": "Title: Diplocidaris Content: Diplocidaris is an extinct genus of sea urchins belonging to the family Diplocidaridae . The type species of this genus is Cidaris gigantea Agassiz , 1840 . These slow-moving low-level epifaunal grazer-omnivores lived in the Jurassic period , from 161.2 to 150.8 Ma . Fossils of this genus have been found in the sediments of Europe , North Africa , Madagascar .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Diplocidaris",
"rank": 39,
"score": 67543
},
{
"content": "Title: Chinese industrialization Content: In the 1960s , about 60 % of the Chinese Labor Force were employed in agriculture . The figure remained more or less constant throughout the early phase of industrialization between the 1960s and 1990s , but in view of the rapid population growth this amounted to a rapid growth of the industrial sector in absolute terms , of up to 8 % per year during the 1970s . By 1990 , the fraction of the labor force employed in agriculture had fallen to about 30 % , and by 2000 still further .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Chinese_industrialization",
"rank": 40,
"score": 67500
},
{
"content": "Title: Disinflation Content: Disinflation is a decrease in the rate of inflation -- a slowdown in the rate of increase of the general price level of goods and services in a nation 's gross domestic product over time . It is the opposite of reflation . Disinflation occurs when the increase in the `` consumer price level '' slows down from the previous period when the prices were rising . If the inflation rate is not very high to start with , disinflation can lead to deflation -- decreases in the general price level of goods and services . For example , if the annual inflation rate for the month of January is 5 % and it is 4 % in the month of February , the prices disinflated by 1 % but are still increasing at a 4 % annual rate . Again if the current rate is 1 % and it is -- 2 % for the following month , prices disinflated by 3 % i.e. -LSB- 1 % -- ( -2 ) % -RSB- and are decreasing at a 2 % annual rate .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Disinflation",
"rank": 41,
"score": 67454
},
{
"content": "Title: Yoldia Sea Content: Yoldia Sea is a name given by geologists to a variable brackish-water stage in the Baltic Sea basin that prevailed after the Baltic ice lake was drained to sea level during the Weichsel glaciation . Dates for the Yoldia sea are obtained mainly by radiocarbon dating material from ancient sediments and shore lines and from clay-varve chronology . They tend to vary by as much as a thousand years , but a good estimate is 10,300 -- 9500 radiocarbon years BP , equivalent to ca 11,700-10 ,700 calendar years BP . The sea ended gradually when isostatic rise of Scandinavia closed or nearly closed its effluents , altering the balance between saline and fresh water . The Yoldia Sea became Ancylus Lake . The Yoldia Sea stage had three phases of which only the middle phase had brackish water . The name of the sea is adapted from the obsolete name of the bivalve , Portlandia arctica ( previously known as Yoldia arctica ) , found around Stockholm . This bivalve requires cold saline water . It characterizes the middle phase of the Yoldia Sea , during which saline water poured into the Baltic , before the acceleration of glacial melting .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Yoldia_Sea",
"rank": 42,
"score": 67449
},
{
"content": "Title: Brandywine Village Content: Brandywine Village was an early center of U.S. industrialization located on the Brandywine River in what is now Wilmington , Delaware . The Brandywine crosses the fall line just north of Wilmington , and descends from about 160 ft above sea level in Chadds Ford to just a few feet above sea level in Wilmington . The river 's descent allowed manufacturers -- notably , of flour and gunpowder -- to use high-powered machinery in the days before the steam engine , while its navigable channel to the Delaware River and Delaware Bay allowed them to load oceangoing ships .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Brandywine_Village",
"rank": 43,
"score": 67326
},
{
"content": "Title: Dunkirk transgression Content: The three Dunkirk transgressions are events of marine transgression ( rising seas ) around the shores of the Low Countries in the late Roman period . Soil survey geological evidences and lack of human occupation artefacts led scientists to formulate the claim that the Netherlands was largely underwater between the 3rd century and 1050 . This is the so-called third Dunkirk Transgression . The reality of the events , hypothetically determined by cyclical phases of strong sea level rises in historical times , is debated . The low-lying continental coast of Europe was lightly populated until c. 200 BC , when the climate and environment became more amenable to human habitation . Conditions remained favourable from 200 BC to 250 AD , and the region became densely populated . However the region had been undergoing a series of marine transgressions ( called Dunkirk 0 through Dunkirk IIIb ) characterised by a rising water table and floods that left layers of clay on the land . The heaviest blow came with the `` Dunkirk II transgression '' that began in the 3rd century and continually worsened , leaving large areas of the coast uninhabitable from c. 350 -- c. 700 . People were forced to abandon their homes and emigrate . Archaeologists conducting research along the historically flood-prone coast tell this same story for The Rhine/Meuse delta ( Zeeland , Brabant , parts of South Holland and Limburg ) ; Friesland ; Groningen ; Ostfriesland , German Friesland and the Weser/Jade estuary ; and Dithmarschen , Eiderstedt and Nordfriesland . In the Rhine/Meuse delta , the population became scanty . Between the 5th and 7th centuries there were few centers of occupation in the delta region , and in the estuarine and peat areas no settlements at all have been found . The area would not be repopulated until the Carolingian Era . The areas with river clay were so covered with sedimentation that habitation was almost impossible between 250 -- 650 .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Dunkirk_transgression",
"rank": 44,
"score": 67312
},
{
"content": "Title: Pre-industrial society Content: Pre-industrial society refers to social attributes and forms of political and cultural organization that were prevalent before the advent of the Industrial Revolution , which occurred from 1750 to 1850 . Pre-industrial is a time before there were machines and tools to help perform tasks en masse . Pre-industrial civilization dates back to centuries ago , but the main era known as the Pre-Industrial Society occurred right before the industrial society . Pre-Industrial societies vary from region to region depending on the culture of a given area or history of social and political life . Europe is known for its feudal system and Medieval era .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Pre-industrial_society",
"rank": 45,
"score": 67095
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Sea_Level_(album)",
"rank": 46,
"score": 66766
},
{
"content": "Title: Pulsus tardus et parvus Content: In medicine , pulsus tardus et parvus , also pulsus parvus et tardus , slow-rising pulse and anacrotic pulse , is a sign where , upon palpation , the pulse is weak/small ( parvus ) , and late ( tardus ) relative to its expected characteristics . It is seen in aortic valve stenosis . Typical findings in aortic stenosis include a narrow pulse pressure , left ventricular hypertrophy , a harsh late-peaking crescendo-decrescendo ejection systolic murmur heard best at the right second intercostal space with radiation to the carotid arteries , and a delayed slow-rising carotid upstroke ( pulsus parvus et tardus ) . A weak S2 and/or an S4 may also be noted .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Pulsus_tardus_et_parvus",
"rank": 47,
"score": 66414
},
{
"content": "Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "A_Sea_So_Far",
"rank": 48,
"score": 65638
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Tide_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 49,
"score": 65562
},
{
"content": "Title: Slow cinema Content: Slow cinema is a genre of art cinema film-making that emphasizes long takes , and is often minimalist , observational , and with little or no narrative . It is sometimes called `` contemplative cinema '' . Progenitors of the genre include Andrei Tarkovsky , Ingmar Bergman , Michelangelo Antonioni , Aleksandr Sokurov , Béla Tarr , Chantal Akerman and Theo Angelopoulos . Tarkovsky argued that `` I think that what a person normally goes to cinema for is time '' . Greek director Theo Angelopoulos has been described as an `` icon of the so-called Slow Cinema movement '' . Contemporary Contemplative Cinema directors are Pedro Costa , Lav Diaz , Tsai Ming-liang , Sharunas Bartas , Apichatpong Weerasethakul and Carlos Reygadas . Examples include Ben Rivers ' Two Years at Sea , Michelangelo Frammartino 's Le Quattro Volte , and Shaun Wilson 's film 51 Paintings .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Slow_cinema",
"rank": 50,
"score": 65401
},
{
"content": "Title: Risellopsis Content: Risellopsis is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Risellopsis",
"rank": 51,
"score": 65354
},
{
"content": "Title: Foodflation Content: Foodflation ( also known as Food price bubble ) is the continuous rise in the food prices which is higher than the general inflation level . According to Reuters food prices have gone up by 11.7 % in the first 11 months of 2010 whereas the general price level ( inflation ) has risen only by 1.9 % . This indicates a serious mismatch and requires precautionary measures to avoid food crisis creating starving nations . Majority of people from developing nations spend more than 80 % of their income on food and what will happen if the food prices rise at 15 % -20 % rate ? Should n't this issue be given more priority in the agendas of world economists ? World leaders fear of food crisis . They expect for a world without food , starvation , hunger and may be a world war III to not divide/acquire countries but to for survival and reduce the hunger of the nations . Certain countries have already started missions to get rid of food crisis . Indonesian President have requested his people to start a vegetable farm in their gardens in a smaller scale which will help them to reduce effects of food crisis . Indian and Chinese governments have taken precautionary measures but they seem to have failed and the food prices in those countries are rising . Meanwhile , Sri Lanka is warned of food crisis at the beginning of the year 2011 and it is the time for us to think about foodflation at a local level .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Foodflation",
"rank": 52,
"score": 65244
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Ocean_heat_content",
"rank": 53,
"score": 65225
},
{
"content": "Title: Slow Surrender Content: Slow Surrender ( Polagana predaja ) is a 2001 Croatian film directed by Bruno Gamulin , starring Filip Šovagović , Sven Medvešek and Lucija Šerbedžija . It is based on a novel of the same name by Goran Tribuson .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Slow_Surrender",
"rank": 54,
"score": 65172
},
{
"content": "Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level",
"rank": 55,
"score": 65109
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)",
"rank": 56,
"score": 65020
},
{
"content": "Title: Risella tantillus Content: Risella tantillus is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Risella_tantillus",
"rank": 57,
"score": 64988
},
{
"content": "Title: Benham Plateau Content: The Benham Rise , officially known as the Philippine Rise , is a seismically active undersea region and extinct volcanic ridge located in the Philippine Sea approximately 250 km east of the northern coastline of Dinapigue , Isabela . Under the Philippine Sea lie a number of basins including the West Philippine Sea Basin , inside of which is located the Central Basin Fault ( CBF ) . The Benham Plateau is located in the CBF and its basement probably is a micro-continent . Several scientific surveys have been made on the feature to study its nature and its impact on tectonic subduction , including one about its effects on the 1990 Luzon earthquake . The Philippines claimed this feature as part of its continental shelf in a claim lodged with the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on 8 April 2009 , and which was approved under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) in 2012 . It is designated as a `` protected food supply exclusive zone '' by the Philippine government in May 2017 . Mining and oil exploration is banned in the Benham Plateau as a protected area . On May 16 , 2017 , Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 25 renaming the region to Philippine Rise .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Benham_Plateau",
"rank": 58,
"score": 64779
},
{
"content": "Title: Slow strain rate testing Content: Slow strain rate testing ( SSRT ) , also called constant extension rate tensile testing ( CERT ) , is a popular test used by research scientists to study stress corrosion cracking . It involves a slow ( compared to conventional tensile tests ) dynamic strain applied at a constant extension rate in the environment of interest . These test results are compared to those for similar tests in a , known to be inert , environment . A 50-year history of the SSRT has recently been published by its creator . The test has also been standardized and two ASTM symposia devoted to it .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Slow_strain_rate_testing",
"rank": 59,
"score": 64769
},
{
"content": "Title: Proto-industrialization Content: Proto-industrialization ( also spelled proto-industrialisation ) was a possible phase in the development of modern industrial economies that preceded , and created conditions for , the establishment of fully industrial societies . Proto-industrialisation is generally referred to the phase before industrialisation . Proto-industrialization was marked by the increasing involvement of agrarian families in market-oriented craft production , mainly through the putting-out system organized by merchant capitalists . It was an effective method of production which was controlled by merchants and had links to developing European consumerism . However , the phase was not observed across Europe , and nor did it always smoothly transition into the Industrial Revolution proper . The term was coined by F. F. Mendels in 1972 , though a UNESCO colloquium on the 10th anniversary of the deaths of Einstein and Teilhard de Chardin and published in 1971 discusses `` the basis for proto-industrialization '' . The applicability of proto-industrialization in Europe has since been challenged . M.J. Daunton , for example , argues that proto-industrialisation `` excludes too much '' to fully explain the expansion of industry : not only do proponents of proto-industrialisation ignore the vital town-based industries in pre-industrial economies , but also ignores `` rural and urban industry based upon non-domestic organisation , '' referring to how mines , mills , forges and furnaces fit into the agrarian economy . Initially using surplus labor available during slow periods of the agricultural seasons , proto-industrialization led to specialization - not only in industrial production but also in commercial agricultural production . This allowed reciprocal trade favored by regional economies of scale . It resulted in accumulation of capital and in the acquisition of entrepreneurial skills by merchant capitalists , which facilitated the development of large-scale , and capital-intensive production methods in the full industrialization phase that followed . Proto-industrialization sparked social changes in traditional agrarian societies that would become more marked during full industrialization , such as greater independence of women and children , who gained a means of income separate from the family subsistence farm . During this phase of industrialisation , machines were not used . They were not even invented at that time . People could only use their hands or any hand-made material to produce required goods .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Proto-industrialization",
"rank": 60,
"score": 64601
},
{
"content": "Title: Travels in Constants (Vol. 9): The Exit Papers Content: The Exit Papers is an EP by Duluth , Minnesota , slowcore group Low , released in 2000 . Recorded at 20 Below , Duluth . Mastered at Third Ear . Known as `` a soundtrack to an imaginary film '' , the band sent their copies to movie makers and executives in hopes of getting work writing soundtrack music .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Travels_in_Constants_(Vol._9):_The_Exit_Papers",
"rank": 61,
"score": 64522
},
{
"content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis",
"rank": 62,
"score": 64382
},
{
"content": "Title: Young Detective Dee: Rise of the Sea Dragon Content: Young Detective Dee : Rise of the Sea Dragon is a 2013 Chinese action-adventure fantasy mystery film directed , produced , and co-written by Tsui Hark . It is a prequel to Hark 's 2010 film Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame , which starred Andy Lau . Taiwanese-Canadian actor Mark Chao takes over from him as a young Detective Dee , while Feng Shaofeng , Lin Gengxin , Kim Bum ( in his Chinese debut ) , and Angelababy co-star alongside a returning Carina Lau from Mystery of the Phantom Flame , rounding up the ensemble cast . A sequel of the film and the third installment of the Detective Dee series , titled Detective Dee : The Four Heavenly Kings will be released in 2018 . Filming will begin in March 2017 .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Young_Detective_Dee:_Rise_of_the_Sea_Dragon",
"rank": 63,
"score": 64250
},
{
"content": "Title: Continual power system Content: A continual power system is a large-scale system for reliably supplying large amounts of uninterrupted power . Examples of a continual power system include uninterruptible power supply and an emergency power system . The need for a continual power system has risen over the last few decades because energy resources in the market are getting less and at a higher price as the industrial revolution progresses . This is due to several reasons such as the growth in global economy , depletion of energy resources , and the environmental impacts of energy production . The continual power system is one of many power systems that are being funded and used at this time because there is still no standard that exists that clearly defines the roles and responsibilities of the energy provider . As the modern world continues to progress , high-tech users are expected to demand a power supply that is high in security , quality , reliability , and availability . For businesses , reliability and quality is important because they rely on electrical services to provide lighting , general power , computer hardware and communications hardware . The key in reliable power systems is to avoid power disturbances , which are concerned with deviations of the voltage or current from the ideal single-frequency sine wave of constant amplitude and frequency The desire for continuous and reliable power supply is not just within the business community . On a 2011 study done on Flemish households , the researchers found that only a relatively small share of them would be willing to switch to a lower reliability level if they would be compensated by a not too large bill discount . Computer power supplies have the AC/DC converter in which energy is lost when converted . By relying on a highly efficient dc only converter , instead of AC/DC , to store energy directly from a fuel cell the efficiency can be increased by up to 50 %",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Continual_power_system",
"rank": 64,
"score": 64228
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level, North Carolina Content: Sea Level is an unincorporated community in northeastern Carteret County , North Carolina . It rests on the banks of the Core Sound and has a population of roughly 450 . It is located in what was known to early settlers as Hunting Quarters . Sea Level has one of the lowest elevations in North Carolina ; it is estimated that approximately 75 % of the community floods when hurricanes pass through . US 70 is the major thoroughfare through the community . The community is the location of NC 12 's southern terminus .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Sea_Level,_North_Carolina",
"rank": 65,
"score": 63976
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1B",
"rank": 66,
"score": 63887
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide (Forgotten Realms novel) Content: Rising Tide is a fantasy novel by Mel Odom , set in the world of the Forgotten Realms , and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game . It is the first novel in `` The Threat from the Sea '' trilogy . It was published in paperback in January 1999 .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_(Forgotten_Realms_novel)",
"rank": 67,
"score": 63578
},
{
"content": "Title: Toxasteridae Content: Toxasteridae is an extinct family of sea urchins . These slow-moving shallow infaunal deposit feeder-detritivores lived during the Cretaceous period , from 145.5 to 61.7 Ma .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Toxasteridae",
"rank": 68,
"score": 63571
},
{
"content": "Title: Constantia elegans Content: Constantia elegans is a species of sea snails in the family Vanikoridae . It is the type species of its genus . It is found in Japan .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Constantia_elegans",
"rank": 69,
"score": 63455
},
{
"content": "Title: CryoSat Content: CryoSat is an ESA programme to monitor variations in the extent and thickness of polar ice through use of a satellite in low Earth orbit . The information provided about the behaviour of coastal glaciers that drain thinning ice sheets will be key to better predictions of future sea level rise . The CryoSat-1 spacecraft was lost in a launch failure in 2005 , however the programme was resumed with the successful launch of a replacement , CryoSat-2 , launched on 8 April 2010 . CryoSat is operated from the European Space Operations Centre ( ESOC ) in Darmstadt , Germany .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "CryoSat",
"rank": 70,
"score": 63195
},
{
"content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Equilibrium_level",
"rank": 71,
"score": 63166
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial Building (Detroit) Content: The Industrial Building is a high-rise building located at 1410 Washington Boulevard in downtown Detroit , Michigan , within the Washington Boulevard Historic District . It occupies the northeast corner on Grand River Avenue and Washington Boulevard . The building stands 22 storeys tall , with 21 above-ground floors , and one basement level . It was completed in 1928 , and is one of the many structures built by architect Louis Kamper on Washington Boulevard in the 1910s and 1920s . Kamper designed the Industrial Building with a mixture of Art Deco , Gothic Revival and Beaux-Arts architectural designs . The upper stories feature several setbacks and piers , and the roof boasts a very intricate design of limestone cornices . Built as an office building , the tower was later converted to residential use and renamed the Park Place Apartments . A fire struck the building in February 2003 , temporarily displacing over 100 residents .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Industrial_Building_(Detroit)",
"rank": 72,
"score": 63150
},
{
"content": "Title: Slow Down Content: Slow Down or slowdown may refer to : Slowdown , an industrial action Slow Down ( unidentified sound ) , a sound recorded in the Pacific Ocean West End Slowdown , an annual charity Australian rules football game in Adelaide , South Australia",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Slow_Down",
"rank": 73,
"score": 62911
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial production in Shōwa Japan Content: This article covers the development of the industry in the Empire of Japan , during the rise of statism in the first part of the Shōwa era . In its first 75 years , following the Meiji Restoration , factory production in Japan was all but non-existent , but by the first years of the Shōwa era , Japan was at a level comparable to many industrialized European countries . Industry in Japan grew both qualitatively and quantitatively . In 1920 , the textile industry was the most important and Japan was known mainly as a manufacturer of wool and silk products , fabrics , fans , toys and similar goods . By 1939 , however , industrial production in the areas of metallurgy and chemical products had grown by more than 100 % . Industrial output grew significantly during the period 1929-1942 , while the total value of heavy industry in Japan , valued at approximately US$ 700 million in 1931 , had risen to US$ 3.7 billion by 1940 . Taking the effects of inflation into consideration , this growth indicates a rise in profits of 400 % in heavy industry between 1937 and 1940 . At the same time as the extraordinary growth of heavy industry , and a 26 % decline in consumption articles during the period 1937-1940 , the textile industry maintained its principal place as the primary occupation for Japanese workers . At its relative height during this period , textile production employed approximately one million workers , or roughly 1/3 of the industrial workforce . The rapid growth of pre-war and wartime Japanese industry is reminiscent of the Industrial Revolution in 18th century England . The growth of profits during both periods was astonishing , in terms of both percentages and totals . These developments would never have arisen , however , without an abundant source of low priced and docile manpower and convenient access to raw materials , the latter -- though vital -- were ( and still are ) exceedingly rare in Japan . Access to both were important factors in Japan 's rapid industrial development . The average Japanese industrial worker worked long hours for a low salary . Before 1940 , more than 90 % of workers received less than US$ 7 per week . In later years , average pay rose by 50 % , but the cost of living -- the articles and services for which one needs salary -- rose as well . In peacetime , the Japanese work week averaged 56 hours , compared with 35 hours in the United States and 39 hours in France . Furthermore , the war effort exposed a marked scarcity of specialized workers . One final important element of Japanese industry was small-scale , subsistence industry . Prior to 1941 , most of the middle class was employed in handcrafts in cottage industries and small workshops , which normally employed fewer than five workers . Women often worked in this type of industry , and large-scale industry often obtained materials from the small-scale outfits , particularly rayon and cotton .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Industrial_production_in_Shōwa_Japan",
"rank": 74,
"score": 62789
},
{
"content": "Title: Pitting resistance equivalent number Content: Pitting resistance equivalent number ( PREN ) is a predictive measurement of the corrosion resistance of various types of stainless steel . In general : the higher PREN-value , the more corrosion resistant the steel . Steels with PREN-values above 32 are considered seawater ( corrosion ) resistant . Furthermore a PREN-value ≥ 40 for duplex steels is called for in the DIN EN ISO 15156 as well as the American NACE -- a standard for use in hydrogen sulfide environments known in the oil and gas extraction industries . Steels with PREN less than 32 are not sea water corrosion resistant . It depends on type : Ferritic stainless steels require a minimum PREN of 35 Duplex stainless a minimum PREN of 40 Super austenitic stainless a minimum PREN of 45 These alloys also need to be manufactured and heat treated correctly to be sea water corrosion resistant to the expected level . PREN alone is not an indicator of corrosion resistance . The value should be calculated for each heat to ensure compliance with minimum requirements , this is due to the chemistry variation within the same alloy compositional limits .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Pitting_resistance_equivalent_number",
"rank": 75,
"score": 62755
},
{
"content": "Title: Constantia (gastropod) Content: Constantia is a genus of extremely small sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks or micromollusks in the family Vanikoridae .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Constantia_(gastropod)",
"rank": 76,
"score": 62658
},
{
"content": "Title: Thiel Trough Content: Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Thiel_Trough",
"rank": 77,
"score": 62586
},
{
"content": "Title: Port of Midia Content: The Port of Midia is located on the Black Sea coastline , approx 13.5 NM north of Constanţa . It is one of the satellite ports of Constanța and was designed and built to serve the adjacent industrial and petrochemical facilities . The north and south breakwaters have a total length of 6,97 km . The port covers 834 ha of which 234 ha is land and 600 ha is water . There are 14 berths ( 11 operational berths , 3 berths belong to the Constanța Shipyard ) with a total length of 2,24 km . Further to dredging operations performed the port depths are increased to 9 m at crude oil discharging berths 1-4 , allowing access to tankers having an 8.5 m maximum draught and . The Port of Midia is mainly used for the supply of crude oil for the nearby Petromidia Refinery .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Port_of_Midia",
"rank": 78,
"score": 62584
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice rise Content: An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Ice_rise",
"rank": 79,
"score": 62418
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Sea_level_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 80,
"score": 62223
},
{
"content": "Title: Risellopsis varia Content: Risellopsis varia is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Risellopsis_varia",
"rank": 81,
"score": 62178
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929",
"rank": 82,
"score": 62080
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial society Content: In sociology , industrial society refers to a society driven by the use of technology to enable mass production , supporting a large population with a high capacity for division of labour . Such a structure developed in the west in the period of time following the Industrial Revolution , and replaced the agrarian societies of the Pre-modern , Pre-industrial age . Industrial societies are generally mass societies , and may be succeeded by an Information society . They are often contrasted to with the traditional societies . Industrial society is characterized by the use of external energy sources , such as fossil fuels , to increase the rate and scale of production . The production of food is shifted to large commercial farms where the products of industry , such as combine harvesters and fossil fuel based fertilizers , are used to decrease required human labor while increasing production . No longer needed for the production of food , excess labor is moved into these factories where mechanization is utilized to further increase efficiency . As populations grow , and mechanization is further refined , often to the level of automation , many workers shift to expanding service industries . Industrial society makes urbanization desirable , in part so that workers can be closer to centers of production , and the service industry can provide labor to workers and those that benefit financially from them , in exchange for a piece of production profits with which they can buy goods . This leads to the rise of very large cities and surrounding suburban areas with a high rate of economic activity . These urban centers require the input of external energy sources in order to overcome the diminishing returns of agricultural consolidation , due partially to the lack of nearby arable land , associated transportation and storage costs , and are otherwise unsustainable . This makes the reliable availability of the needed energy resources high priority in industrial government policies . Some theoreticians -- namely Ulrich Beck , Anthony Giddens and Manuel Castells -- argue that we are located in the middle of a transformation or transition from industrial societies to post-modern societies . The triggering technology for the change from an agricultural to an industrial organisation was steam power , allowing mass production and reducing the agricultural work necessary . Thus many industrial cities are built around rivers . Identified as catalyst or trigger for the transition to post-modern or informational society is global information technology .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Industrial_society",
"rank": 83,
"score": 61976
},
{
"content": "Title: Prestcold Content: Prestcold was a British refrigerator manufacturer , established by the Pressed Steel Co. Ltd of Oxford in 1934 . Prestcold operated several manufacturing plants in the UK including Theale ( near Reading ) and Crymlyn Burrows in Wales . Prestcold household refrigerators were often known for their good design and durability . The company opened a brand new # 5M factory at Crymlyn Burrows , Swansea in 1961 . In the early 1960s , John Bloom 's Rolls Razor company sub-contracted Prestcold to manufacture his low price Rolls Rapide washing machines . This initially boomed , but later closed down after orders reached saturation point . Prestcold , along with other parts of Pressed Steel , was absorbed into BMC in 1966 which became part of British Leyland in 1969 . Prestcold passed into Leyland Special Products after the Ryder Report . Prestcold ended household refrigerator production and focused on commercial and industrial refrigeration equipment . The Crymlyn Burrows factory was sold to the Ford Motor Company in the mid 1960s and used to manufacture car parts . In 1976 , Prestcold bought the Searle company and in 1981 Prestcold was acquired by Suter plc , a diverse engineering and chemicals company based in Grantham , Lincolnshire . The Prestcold brandname was also used for household refrigerators by McAlpine Prestcold Limited in New Zealand .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Prestcold",
"rank": 84,
"score": 61883
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 85,
"score": 61842
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial civilization Content: Industrial civilization refers to the state of civilization following the Industrial Revolution , characterised by widespread use of powered machines . The transition of an individual region from pre-industrial society into an industrial society is referred to as the process of industrialisation , which may occur in different regions of the world at different times . Individual regions may specialise further as the civilisation continues to advance , resulting in some regions transitioning to a service economy , or information society , or post-industrial society ( these are still dependant on industry , but allows individuals to move out of manufacturing jobs ) . The present era is sometimes referred to as information age . De-industrialization of a region may occur for a range of reasons . Industrial civilization has allowed a significant both in world population thanks to mechanised agriculture and advances in modern medicine , and in the standard of living . Such a civilization is mostly dependant on fossil fuel , with efforts underway to find alternatives for energy production . Some areas have exhibited de-industrialization as certain industries go into decline , or are superseded .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Industrial_civilization",
"rank": 86,
"score": 61774
},
{
"content": "Title: Ingression coast Content: An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level . Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral ( tidal ) processes , because the sea level , which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period , did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago . Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform -- e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief -- various types of ingression coast emerge , such as rias , skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Ingression_coast",
"rank": 87,
"score": 61680
},
{
"content": "Title: Unicorn Skeleton Mask Content: Unicorn Skeleton Mask is the twenty-fifth studio album by Omar Rodríguez-López as a solo artist . It was given a `` surprise '' digital release on January 2 , 2013 , just a day after the release of Equinox and Woman Gives Birth To Tomato ! . Three of the album 's songs , `` Sea Is Rising , '' `` Maria Te Canta , '' and `` Bored To Burns '' were previously debuted live as instrumental pieces during Omar Rodriguez Lopez Group 2010 tour . These tracks resurfaced in the 2016 Ipecac series with `` Sea Is Rising '' appearing on the album Corazones , half of the songs present as alternate versions on Zapopan , and with most of the rest surfacing in 2017 as alternate recordings on Zen Thrills . Since 2014 the album is no longer available to purchase officially , as Rodriguez-Lopez 's Bandcamp page has been taken down after a split with Sargent House label . Parts of a couple of these songs were also used on the following record , ¿ Sólo Extraño ? as well as its proper release in 2016 of Nom de Guerre Cabal . `` Right Of Way '' appears reworked in `` House in the Sand '' / `` Life Proves Its Worth '' and the drum track for `` Tennessee '' is present on `` Invisible Laziness '' / `` Bitter Sunsets '' before reappearing as `` With You If You Give A Damn '' on Zen Thrills . As of January 2017 , `` Names '' remains the only track to not be re-released in the Ipecac Series .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Unicorn_Skeleton_Mask",
"rank": 88,
"score": 61578
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 89,
"score": 61520
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth Rising Content: Earth Rising is an indie band from Las Vegas . `` Coming Home '' , from Earth Rising 's debut EP made it to KOMP 92.3 's Homegrown Show in 2012 . `` By Your Side '' , from their 2nd EP `` Constant Movement '' , debuted on X-Effect Local Effect on X107 .5 Las Vegas in February 2013 . They were chosen by Sam Ash Las Vegas as their official entry at the Indie Music Fest 2012 and received # 3 Best Overall Artist . Past shows include 91.5 KUNV 's Lyons Den Stage , the Neon Reverb Music Festival , Hard Rock Live Las Vegas , and the Gibson Artist Showcase . Their single `` Better Apart '' was released on December 21 , 2014 and they have released several songs in 2015 .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Earth_Rising",
"rank": 90,
"score": 61454
},
{
"content": "Title: The Constant Princess Content: The Constant Princess is a historical fiction novel by Philippa Gregory , published in 2005 . The novel depicts a highly fictionalized version of the life of Catherine of Aragon and her rise to power in England .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "The_Constant_Princess",
"rank": 91,
"score": 61421
},
{
"content": "Title: Seabrook Floodgate Content: The Inner Harbor Navigation Canal ( IHNC ) Seabrook Floodgate Structure is a flood barrier in the Industrial Canal in New Orleans , Louisiana . The floodgate is designed to protect the Industrial Canal and the surrounding areas from a storm surge from Lake Ponchartrain . It consists of two 50 ft wide vertical lift gates and a 95 ft wide sector gate . The building of the floodgate was authorized by Congress in 2006 and will operate in tandem with the Lake Borgne Surge Reduction Barrier to reduce the risk of storm surge damage to some of the New Orleans region 's most vulnerable areas -- New Orleans East , metro New Orleans , the Ninth Ward , Gentilly , and St. Bernard Parish .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Seabrook_Floodgate",
"rank": 92,
"score": 61328
},
{
"content": "Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "East_Pacific_Rise",
"rank": 93,
"score": 61306
},
{
"content": "Title: Wagner's law Content: Wagner 's law , known as the law of increasing state spending , is a principle named after the German economist Adolph Wagner ( 1835 -- 1917 ) . He first observed it for his own country and then for other countries . The theory holds that for any country , the public expenditure rises constantly and income grow expands . The law predicts that the development of an industrial economy will be accompanied by an increased share of public expenditure in gross national product : Wagner 's law suggests that a welfare state evolves from free market capitalism due to the population voting for ever-increasing social services as general income levels grow across broad spectrums of the economy . In spite of some ambiguity , Wagner 's statement in formal terms has been interpreted by Richard Musgrave as follows :",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Wagner's_law",
"rank": 94,
"score": 61299
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial action Content: Industrial action ( Europe , India , South Africa and Australia ) or job action ( Canada and US ) refers collectively to any measure taken by trade unions or other organised labour , most times when they are forced out of work due to contract termination and no agreement being reached , meant to reduce productivity in a workplace . Quite often it is used and interpreted as a euphemism for strike or mass strike , but the scope is much wider . Industrial action may take place in the context of a labour dispute or may be meant to effect political or social change . This form of communication tends to be a workers only means to voice their concerns for safety and benefits . Specifically industrial action may include one or more of the following : strike is commonly used . Strike Occupation of factories Work-to-rule General strike ( mass strike ) Slowdown ( or Go-slow ) Overtime ban Blue flu",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Industrial_action",
"rank": 95,
"score": 61294
},
{
"content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Duncan_Wingham",
"rank": 96,
"score": 61292
},
{
"content": "Title: Rsl testing Content: Rising Step Load Testing ( or RSL testing ) is a testing system that can apply loads in tension or bending . It was specifically designed to conduct the accelerated ASTM F1624 step-modified , slow strain rate tests on a variety of test coupons or structural components . It can also function to conduct conventional ASTM E8 tensile tests ; ASTM F519 200-hr Sustained Load Tests with subsequent programmable step loads to rupture for increased reliability ; and ASTM G129 Slow Strain Rate Tensile tests .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Rsl_testing",
"rank": 97,
"score": 61176
},
{
"content": "Title: Heteraster Content: Heteraster is an extinct genus of sea urchins belonging to the family Toxasteridae . These slow-moving shallow infaunal deposit feeder-detritivores lived during the Cretaceous period . Fossils of this family have been found in the sediments of Algeria , Egypt , France , Hungary , Mexico , Peru , Portugal , Serbia and Montenegro , Spain , Switzerland and Yemen .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Heteraster",
"rank": 98,
"score": 61131
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrialised Building System (IBS) Content: Industrialised Building System ( IBS ) is a term used in Malaysia for a technique of construction where by components are manufactured in a controlled environment , either at site or off site , placed and assembled into construction works . Worldwide , IBS is also known as Pre-fabricated/Pre-fab Construction , Modern Method of Construction ( MMC ) and Off-site Construction . CIDB Malaysia , through IBS Centre is promoting the usage of IBS to increase productivity and quality at construction sites through various promotion programmes , training and incentives . The content of IBS ( IBS Score ) is determined based on the Construction Industry Standard 18 ( CIS 18 : 2010 ) ; either manually , web application or fully automated CAD-based IBS Score calculator .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Industrialised_Building_System_(IBS)",
"rank": 99,
"score": 61122
},
{
"content": "Title: Research Institutes of Sweden (RISE) Content: RISE Research Institutes of Sweden is a network of Research and Technology Organisations ( RTOs ) , wholly or partly owned by the Swedish state . The RTOs within RISE perform industrial research and innovation . Some of the RTOs also perform testing and certification . In 2012 , the RISE RTOs had altogether 2195 employees and a total turnover of 2.63 billion Swedish kronor .",
"qid": "21",
"docid": "Research_Institutes_of_Sweden_(RISE)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 60897
}
] |
Earth about to enter 30-YEAR ‘Mini Ice Age’ | [
{
"content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_age",
"rank": 1,
"score": 109341
},
{
"content": "Title: Timeline of glaciation Content: There have been five known ice ages in the Earth 's history , with the Earth experiencing the Quaternary Ice Age during the present time . Within ice ages , there exist periods of more severe glacial conditions and more temperate referred to as glacial periods and interglacial periods , respectively . The Earth is currently in such an interglacial period of the Quaternary Ice Age , with the last glacial period of the Quaternary having ended approximately 11,700 years ago with the start of the Holocene epoch . Based on climate proxies , paleoclimatologists study the different climate states originating from glaciation .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Timeline_of_glaciation",
"rank": 2,
"score": 104998
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 3,
"score": 102557
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ice Age Content: The Ice Age may refer to : The Last glacial period , which occurred from c. 110,000 -- c. 11,700 years ago The Pleistocene , a geological epoch lasting from c. 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago and spanning the world 's most recent period of repeated glaciations . The Plio-Pleistocene , a geological pseudo-period which begins about 5 million years ago and combines the time ranges of the formally defined Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events lasting from the Quaternary period to the present . For the general period of temperature reduction , see Ice age .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "The_Ice_Age",
"rank": 4,
"score": 101396
},
{
"content": "Title: Thirty-year rule Content: The `` thirty-year rule '' is the informal name given to laws in the United Kingdom , the Republic of Ireland , and Australia that provide that certain government documents will be released publicly thirty years after they were created .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Thirty-year_rule",
"rank": 5,
"score": 99213
},
{
"content": "Title: Discoverer 30 Content: Discoverer 30 , also known as Corona 9022 , was an American optical reconnaissance satellite which was launched in 1961 . It was a KH-3 Corona '' ' satellite , based on an Agena-B rocket . The launch of Discoverer 30 occurred at 19:59 UTC on 12 September 1961 . A Thor DM-21 Agena-B rocket was used , flying from Launch Complex 75-3-5 at the Vandenberg Air Force Base . Upon successfully reaching orbit , it was assigned the Harvard designation 1961 Omega 1 . Discoverer 30 was operated in a low Earth orbit , with a perigee of 231 km , an apogee of 484 km , 82.6 degrees of inclination , and a period of 91.7 minutes . The satellite had a mass of 1150 kg , and was equipped with a panoramic camera with a focal length of 61 cm , which had a maximum resolution of 7.6 m. Images were recorded onto 70 mm film , and returned in a Satellite Recovery Vehicle two days after launch however , like the previous mission , all of the images returned were found to be out of focus . The Satellite Recovery Vehicle used by Discoverer 30 was SRV-551 . Once its images had been returned , Discoverer 30 's mission was complete , and it remained in orbit until its decay on 11 December 1961 .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Discoverer_30",
"rank": 6,
"score": 98885
},
{
"content": "Title: Now That's What I Call 30 Years Content: Now That 's What I Call 30 Years or Now 30 Years is a triple-disc compilation album which was released in the United Kingdom on 27 May 2013 . It was released to coincide with the 30th Anniversary of the Now That 's What I Call Music franchise .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Now_That's_What_I_Call_30_Years",
"rank": 7,
"score": 96840
},
{
"content": "Title: Joseph Adhémar Content: Joseph Alphonse Adhémar ( 1797 -- 1862 ) was a French mathematician . He was the first to suggest that ice ages were controlled by astronomical forces in his 1842 book Revolutions of the Sea . The Earth 's orbit is elliptical , with the Sun at one focus ; lines drawn through the summer and winter solstice ; and the spring and autumn equinox ; intersect with the sun at right angles . The Earth is closest to the Sun ( perihelion ) near the northern hemisphere winter solstice . The earth moves faster through its orbit when closer to the sun . Hence , the period from the northern hemisphere 's autumn equinox to winter and spring is shorter by around seven days than the period from spring to summer to autumn ; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere . Hence , northern hemisphere winter is shorter . Because of this , Adhemar reasoned that because the southern hemisphere had more hours of darkness in winter , it must be cooling , and attributed the Antarctic ice sheet to this . Adhemar knew of the 22,000 year cycle of precession of the equinoxes , and theorised that the ice ages occurred in this cycle . One immediate objection to the theory was that the total insolation during a year does not vary at all during the precessional cycle , only its seasonal distribution . Another was that the timing was wrong ; however this could not be tested by observations available at the time . Adhemar 's theory was further developed , first by James Croll and later by Milutin Milanković . Adhemar predicted the Antarctic ice sheet and theorised about its thickness by comparing the depths of the Arctic and circum-Antarctic oceans . Finding the Antarctic oceans deeper ( the measurements he used may not have been fully representative ) and attributing this to the gravitational attraction of the Antarctic ice sheet , he postulated a truly enormous ice sheet approximately 90 km thick .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Joseph_Adhémar",
"rank": 8,
"score": 96551
},
{
"content": "Title: Pleistocene Content: The Pleistocene ( -LSB- pronˈplaɪstəˌsiːn , _ - toʊ - -RSB- , often colloquially referred to as the Ice Age ) is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago , spanning the world 's most recent period of repeated glaciations . The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period and also with the end of the Paleolithic age used in archaeology . The Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era . In the ICS timescale , the Pleistocene is divided into four stages or ages , the Gelasian , Calabrian , Ionian and Tarantian . All of these stages were defined in southern Europe . In addition to this international subdivision , various regional subdivisions are often used . Before a change finally confirmed in 2009 by the International Union of Geological Sciences , the time boundary between the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene was regarded as being at 1.806 million years Before Present ( BP ) , as opposed to the currently accepted 2.588 million years BP : publications from the preceding years may use either definition of the period .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Pleistocene",
"rank": 9,
"score": 95967
},
{
"content": "Title: Huronian glaciation Content: The Huronian glaciation ( or Makganyene glaciation ) was a glaciation that extended from 2.4 billion years ago ( Ga ) to 2.1 Ga , during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era . The Huronian glaciation followed after the Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE ) , a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane . The oxygen combined with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water , which does not retain heat as well as methane does . It is the oldest and longest ice age , occurring at a time when , in a biological sense , only simple , unicellular life existed on Earth . This ice age led to a mass-extinction on Earth .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Huronian_glaciation",
"rank": 10,
"score": 95449
},
{
"content": "Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Quaternary_glaciation",
"rank": 11,
"score": 94893
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (Magic: The Gathering) Content: Ice Age is a block of three sets in Magic : The Gathering , consisting of the Ice Age , Alliances and Coldsnap sets . It is also the titular first set in the block . The Ice Age set is the eleventh set and the sixth expansion set , released in June 1995 . Set in the years from 450 to 2934 AR , the set describes a world set in perpetual winter due to the events in Antiquities . Ice Age was followed up June 1996 with Alliances , the fourteenth Magic : The Gathering set and eighth expansion set. ; and on July 21 , 2006 with Coldsnap . The time period between Alliances and Coldsnap was the longest period of time between the beginning and the completion of a full block in Magic . Originally , the set Homelands , released in October 1995 , was the second set in the Ice Age block ( with Alliances being the third set ) , but following the release of Coldsnap , Homelands was removed from the block in favor of Coldsnap .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(Magic:_The_Gathering)",
"rank": 12,
"score": 94587
},
{
"content": "Title: 100,000-year problem Content: The 100,000-year problem ( `` 100 ky problem '' , `` 100 ka problem '' ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800,000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000 , 40,000 , 100,000 , and 400,000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations . While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100,000-year-problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid-Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800,000 years ago . The related `` 400,000-year-problem '' refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "100,000-year_problem",
"rank": 13,
"score": 94019
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 14,
"score": 92158
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice World (film) Content: Ice World is a 2002 television documentary on the Discovery Channel about humans during the last ice age . The program follows their struggle to survive in the cold and harsh environment of the Europe of 24,000 years ago .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_World_(film)",
"rank": 15,
"score": 91911
},
{
"content": "Title: Iron Crown Enterprises Content: Iron Crown Enterprises ( ICE ) has produced role playing , board , miniature , and collectible card games since 1980 . Many of ICE 's better-known products were related to J. R. R. Tolkien 's world of Middle-earth , but the Rolemaster rules system , and its science-fiction equivalent , Spacemaster , have been the foundation of ICE 's business .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Iron_Crown_Enterprises",
"rank": 16,
"score": 91880
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (1975 film) Content: Ice Age ( Eiszeit ) is a 1975 West German drama film directed by Peter Zadek . It was entered into the 25th Berlin International Film Festival . Eiszeit began as a theatre play by Tankred Dorst ( 1973 ) about Knut Hamsun , a Nobel Prize-winning author but unrepentant admirer of Nazi Germany .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(1975_film)",
"rank": 17,
"score": 90301
},
{
"content": "Title: AD 30 Content: AD 30 ( XXX ) was a common year starting on Sunday ( link will display the full calendar ) of the Julian calendar . At the time , it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Vinicius and Longinus ( or , less frequently , year 783 Ab urbe condita ) . The denomination AD 30 for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "AD_30",
"rank": 18,
"score": 90260
},
{
"content": "Title: Over 30s v Under 30s Content: The Over 30s v Under 30s was a first-class cricket fixture played sporadically between 1851 and 1949 . The teams were , as the name of the fixture suggests , made up of players over thirty years of age and under thirty years of age . The first match was held in 1851 at Lord 's with the Over 30s winning the match by 7 wickets . The fixture was next held in 1879 , with the fixture played in the following three seasons . The fixture was revived in 1901 , before the final two matches of the fixture were played in 1937 and 1949 . Of the eight fixtures played , the Over 30s won six and the Under 30s won two .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Over_30s_v_Under_30s",
"rank": 19,
"score": 89853
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 Arietis Content: 30 Arietis ( abbreviated 30 Ari ) is a 6th-apparent-magnitude quadruple star in the constellation of Aries . 30 Arietis is the Flamsteed designation . 30 Arietis A and B are separated by 38.1 '' or about 1500 AU at a distance of 130 light years away . The main components of both systems are F-type main-sequence stars , meaning they are fusing hydrogen in their cores . 30 Arietis A is itself a spectroscopic binary with an orbital period of 1.1 days . The 30 Arietis system is 910 million years old , one fifth the age of the Sun .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_Arietis",
"rank": 20,
"score": 89842
},
{
"content": "Title: Laschamp event Content: The Laschamp event was a short reversal of the Earth 's magnetic field . It occurred 41,400 ( ± 2,000 ) years ago during the last ice age and was first recognised in the late 1960s as a geomagnetic reversal recorded in the Laschamp lava flows in the Clermont-Ferrand district of France . The magnetic excursion has since been demonstrated in geological archives from many parts of the world . The period of reversed magnetic field was approximately 440 years , with the transition from the normal field lasting approximately 250 years . The reversed field was 75 % weaker whereas the strength dropped to only 5 % of the current strength during the transition . This reduction in geomagnetic field strength resulted in more cosmic rays reaching the Earth , causing greater production of the cosmogenic isotopes beryllium 10 and carbon 14 .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Laschamp_event",
"rank": 21,
"score": 89716
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (franchise) Content: Ice Age is an American media franchise centering on a group of mammals surviving the Paleolithic ice age . It is produced by Blue Sky Studios , a division of 20th Century Fox , and featuring the voices of Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary , and Chris Wedge . Five films have been released in the series thus far with Ice Age in 2002 , Ice Age : The Meltdown in 2006 , Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 , and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 . It has received some criticism for making no attempt to be scientifically accurate . As of April 2016 , the franchise had generated $ 6 billion in revenue , making it one of the highest-grossing media franchises of all time .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(franchise)",
"rank": 22,
"score": 89117
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 AL30 Content: is a near-Earth asteroid that was discovered on 10 January 2010 . Italian scientists Ernesto Guido and Giovanni Sostero told RIA Novosti that it had an orbital period of almost exactly one year and might be a spent rocket booster . However , it was determined that it is a near-Earth asteroid . On January 13 , 2010 at 1246 UT it passed Earth at 0.0008624 AU , about 1/3 of the distance from the Earth to the Moon ( or 0.33 LD ) . Based an estimated diameter of 10 - , if 2010 AL30 had entered the Earth 's atmosphere , it would have created an air burst equivalent to between 50 kT and 100 kT ( kilotons of TNT ) . The Nagasaki `` Fat Man '' atom bomb had a yield between 13 -- 18 kT . It has an uncertainty parameter of 2 and has been observed by radar . Radar observations show the asteroid is elongated and is about 30 meters in diameter . It may be a contact binary .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "2010_AL30",
"rank": 23,
"score": 88847
},
{
"content": "Title: 30s BC Content:",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30s_BC",
"rank": 24,
"score": 88700
},
{
"content": "Title: Age of the Earth Content: The age of the Earth is 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years This dating is based on evidence from radiometric age-dating of meteorite material and is consistent with the radiometric ages of the oldest-known terrestrial and lunar samples . Following the development of radiometric age-dating in the early 20th century , measurements of lead in uranium-rich minerals showed that some were in excess of a billion years old . The oldest such minerals analyzed to date -- small crystals of zircon from the Jack Hills of Western Australia -- are at least 4.404 billion years old . Comparing the mass and luminosity of the Sun to those of other stars , it appears that the Solar System can not be much older than those rocks . Calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions -- the oldest known solid constituents within meteorites that are formed within the Solar System -- are 4.567 billion years old , giving an age for the Solar System and an upper limit for the age of Earth . It is hypothesised that the accretion of Earth began soon after the formation of the calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions and the meteorites . Because the exact amount of time this accretion process took is not yet known , and the predictions from different accretion models range from a few million up to about 100 million years , the exact age of Earth is difficult to determine . It is also difficult to determine the exact age of the oldest rocks on Earth , exposed at the surface , as they are aggregates of minerals of possibly different ages .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Age_of_the_Earth",
"rank": 25,
"score": 88572
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ice Age (novel) Content: The Ice Age is a 1977 novel by British Novelist Margaret Drabble . The novel follows the experiences of former BBC producer Anthony Keating as he experiences the ups and downs of life during the 1960s and 1970s . Depicting the property crisis in Britain during that period , novel diverges from her earlier psychological studies of individuals , focusing more on the `` state of England '' .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "The_Ice_Age_(novel)",
"rank": 26,
"score": 88374
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (band) Content: Ice Age was a progressive band from New York City , USA . Founded by guitarist Jimmy Pappas , vocalist/keyboardist Josh Pincus , drummer Hal Aponte and bassist Arron DiCesare , the band released their debut album in 1999 , titled The Great Divide . Liberation followed in 2001 , both on Magna Carta Records . Ice Age are influenced by pop/progressive bands such as Yes , Kansas and Rush , but also by more modern progressive metal bands like Queensrÿche , and Dream Theater . In 2006 , the band officially changed their name to Soulfractured . This was accompanied by an announced shift in the band 's music - less overt progressive experimentation , with closer attention paid to melodic structure and songcraft . In this incarnation the band released the Soulfractured EP , made available through the band 's websites . They had previously released the Little Bird EP as Ice Age . Shortly after the second EP 's release , the group disbanded .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(band)",
"rank": 27,
"score": 88320
},
{
"content": "Title: White Heat: 30 Hits Content: White Heat : 30 Hits is a two-disc compilation album released by Australian band Icehouse on 26 August 2011 in Australia . While it is technically their third best-of compilation , following 1989 's Great Southern Land and 1992 's Masterfile ( not counting a singles box set released in the mid-1990s that was not widely distributed ) , it is the first such compilation spanning the band 's entire career , including both their early - to mid-1980s hits and material from their most commercially successful period , beginning with the Man of Colours album . The album presents the band 's complete singles catalogue , all in chronological order , with 15 tracks on each disc . There is also a 3-disc edition which includes a DVD featuring all 32 of the band 's music videos , also in chronological order . The DVD contains a 5.1 mix in Dolby Digital AC-3 . The compilation was announced on 7 July 2011 , in a press release by Universal Music . Following the release of the Flowers Icehouse 30th Anniversary edition earlier this year , I was overwhelmed by the incredible amount of support and enthusiasm there was out there for the entire Icehouse catalogue . Many of the requests for what to put out next focused around some of the compilations we had released in the past . I looked at the past sets and realised that there had never been a collection of every single we 'd ever released throughout the history of the band nor a DVD compilation of every clip so that 's what we decided to do . Our criteria for the inclusion of tracks was that they had to have been released somewhere in the world as a single AND have had a clip made for them ( in a couple of cases , two clips ! ) . ( Iva Davies , speaking in the press release ) . The album artwork was designed by Sydney design studio Debaser , and features the laser cage in which Iva Davies performed in during the band 's time as Flowers . This can be seen in the `` Flowers Folio '' section of the band 's website . The tracks were remastered by Steve Smart at Studios 301 Mastering . The album was certified platinum in Australia in 2014 .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "White_Heat:_30_Hits",
"rank": 28,
"score": 87843
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice age (disambiguation) Content: __ NOTOC __ An ice age is a geologic period characterized by the presence of polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Periods of major glaciation ( commonly also referred to as ice ages ) are scientifically termed glacial periods . Ice Age may also refer to :",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_age_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 86934
},
{
"content": "Title: CVSO 30 Content: CVSO 30 ( PTFO 8-8695 ) is a star , located in constellation Orion at 1200 light years from Earth away with two candidate planets ( CVSO 30 b and CVSO 30 c ) . Both candidate planets are gas giants . It is the first star around which potential planets have been found both by the transit method and by direct imaging . CVSO 30 b is calculated to have a period of 10.76 hours ( 0.008 AU ) and CVSO 30 c a period of 27,000 years ( 660 AU ) . B is a Hot Jupiter candidate planet orbiting the T Tauri star , with 6.2 Jupiter masses . Direct imaging of CVSO 30 c , with 4.7 Jupiter masses , has been achieved through photometric and spectroscopic high contrast observations carried out with the Very Large Telescope located in Chile , the Keck Observatory in Hawaii and the Calar Alto Observatory in Spain .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "CVSO_30",
"rank": 30,
"score": 86850
},
{
"content": "Title: Super-Earth Content: A super-Earth is an extrasolar planet with a mass higher than Earth 's , but substantially below the masses of the Solar System 's ice giants , Uranus and Neptune , which contain 15 and 17 Earth masses respectively . The term super-Earth refers only to the mass of the planet , and so does not imply anything about the surface conditions or habitability . The alternative term gas dwarfs may be more accurate for those at the higher end of the mass scale , as suggested by MIT professor Sara Seager , although mini-Neptunes is a more common term .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Super-Earth",
"rank": 31,
"score": 86370
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightworld: 30 Years to Life Content: 30 Years to Life ( also known as Nightworld : 30 Years to Life ) is a 1998 American made-for-television science fiction film directed by Michael Tuchner and starring Robert Hays , Hugh O'Conor and Amy Robbins .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Nightworld:_30_Years_to_Life",
"rank": 32,
"score": 86219
},
{
"content": "Title: Minicephalus Content: Minicephalus is an extinct genus from a well-known class of fossil marine arthropods , the trilobites . It lived from 501 to 490 million years ago during the Dresbachian faunal stage of the late Cambrian Period .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Minicephalus",
"rank": 33,
"score": 86046
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 Years of Adventure Content: 30 Years of Adventure : A Celebration of Dungeons & Dragons is a 2004 publisher 's retrospective written by Harold Johnson , Steve Winter , Peter Adkison , Ed Stark , and Peter Archer . It is an illustrated , behind-the-scenes history of the Dungeons & Dragons ( D&D ) fantasy tabletop role-playing game , issued by the game 's publisher ( Wizards of the Coast ) to commemorate the game 's 30th anniversary .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_Years_of_Adventure",
"rank": 34,
"score": 85715
},
{
"content": "Title: 30Minutes Night Flight Content: 30Minutes Night Flight is Maaya Sakamoto 's second mini-album . It was released in Japan on March 21 , 2007 as a normal album version and a Limited Edition containing a DVD . The limited edition DVD came with a short film created by Production I.G. . The album is also available is a collectibles box set , commemorating her tenth anniversary as a singer . The set , called `` 30Minutes Night Flight Hatsubai Kinen Special Box '' contains a sheet of stamps ( with Maaya Sakamoto designs ) , a scarf/towel , and a letter set . This special box does not , however , contain the album CD or the DVD .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30Minutes_Night_Flight",
"rank": 35,
"score": 85703
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (video game) Content: Ice Age is a 2002 platform game based on the film of the same name , developed by Artificial Mind and Movement , published by Ubi Soft Entertainment and released for the Game Boy Advance .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(video_game)",
"rank": 36,
"score": 85326
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 37,
"score": 84989
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 Content: 30 may refer to : 30 ( number ) one of the years 30 BC , AD 30 , 1930 , 2030 -30 - ( film ) ( 1959 ) , also released as Deadline Midnight Renault 30 , a car model 30 ( Harry Connick Jr. album ) , a 2001 album 30 ( Jerusalem album ) , a 2006 album also called Tretti",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30",
"rank": 38,
"score": 84966
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (2002 film) Content: Ice Age is a 2002 American computer-animated buddy comedy road film directed by Chris Wedge and co-directed by Carlos Saldanha from a story by Michael J. Wilson . Produced by Blue Sky Studios as its first feature film , it was released by 20th Century Fox on March 15 , 2002 . The film features the voices of Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Chris Wedge . The film is set during the days of the ice age ; animals begin migrating south to escape the winters . Once Manny , a no-nonsense mammoth meets Sid , a loudmouthed ground sloth and the two find a human baby , they set out to return the baby . Joining them is a saber-tooth tiger named Diego , who is commanded by his pack leader to bring the baby to him to enact revenge against the humans . This film was met with mostly positive reviews and was nominated at the 75th Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature . It was a box office success by grossing over $ 383 million , starting the Ice Age franchise . It was followed by four sequels , Ice Age : The Meltdown in 2006 , Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 , and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(2002_film)",
"rank": 39,
"score": 84828
},
{
"content": "Title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis Content: The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis or Clovis comet hypothesis originally proposed that a large air burst or earth impact of one or more comets initiated the Younger Dryas cold period about 12,900 BP calibrated ( 10,900 14C uncalibrated ) years ago . The hypothesis has been contested by research showing that most of the conclusions can not be repeated by other scientists , and criticized because of misinterpretation of data and the lack of confirmatory evidence . The current impact hypothesis states that the air burst ( s ) or impact ( s ) of a swarm of carbonaceous chondrites or comet fragments set areas of the North American continent on fire , causing the extinction of most of the megafauna in North America and the demise of the North American Clovis culture after the last glacial period . The Younger Dryas ice age lasted for about 1,200 years before the climate warmed again . This swarm is hypothesized to have exploded above or possibly on the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the region of the Great Lakes , though no impact crater has yet been identified and no physical model by which such a swarm could form or explode in the air has been proposed . Nevertheless , the proponents suggest that it would be physically possible for such an air burst to have been similar to , but orders of magnitude larger than , the Tunguska event of 1908 . The hypothesis proposed that animal and human life in North America not directly killed by the blast or the resulting coast-to-coast wildfires would have likely starved on the burned surface of the continent .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis",
"rank": 40,
"score": 84771
},
{
"content": "Title: V830 Tauri b Content: V830 Tauri b is an exoplanet orbiting around the young T Tauri star V830 Tauri , about 427 ly away from Earth in the constellation of Taurus . The exoplanet has a young age of only about 2 million years .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "V830_Tauri_b",
"rank": 41,
"score": 84440
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 BC Content: __ NOTOC __ Year 30 BC was either a common year starting on Wednesday , Thursday or Friday or a leap year starting on Thursday ( link will display the full calendar ) of the Julian calendar ( the sources differ , see leap year error for further information ) and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Proleptic Julian calendar . At the time , it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Octavian and Crassus ( or , less frequently , year 724 Ab urbe condita ) . The denomination 30 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_BC",
"rank": 42,
"score": 84377
},
{
"content": "Title: IEEE Committee on Earth Observation Content: The IEEE Committee on Earth Observation ( ICEO ) is an international committee of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) that , according to its website , is focused on improving `` living conditions , particularly in developing countries , through the development of -LSB- Global Earth Observation System of Systems -RSB- GEOSS . '' The IEEE member base , such as systems of systems ( SoS ) engineers , communications specialists , and standards and information applications developers , embody GEOSS to shape a `` global resource for decision makers at all levels . '' The ICEO states it is `` an applications-oriented effort that spans the totality of engineering concepts that are the lifeblood of practicing engineers . The design , development and implementation of -LSB- GEOSS -RSB- will bring to play a wide cross section of talent from many of IEEE Societies e.g. systems , remote sensing , computers , communications , standards , renewable energy , etc. . '' The Intergovernmental Group on Earth Observations ( GEO ) is a major participant of the IEEE ICEO . Its vision for GEOSS , supported by ICEO , is `` to realize a future wherein decisions and actions for the benefit of humankind are informed via coordinated , comprehensive and sustained Earth observations and information . '' The ICEO was one of several organizations that hosted more than twenty workshops held in Korea , South Africa , China , France , USA , India , Costa Rica , and Chile for GEOSS international professionals involved in IEEE technology development .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "IEEE_Committee_on_Earth_Observation",
"rank": 43,
"score": 83838
},
{
"content": "Title: Messier 30 Content: Messier 30 ( also known as M30 or NGC 7099 ) is a globular cluster of stars in the southern constellation of Capricornus . It was discovered by the French astronomer Charles Messier in 1764 , who described it as a circular nebula without a star . In the New General Catalogue , compiled during the 1880s , it was described as a `` remarkable globular , bright , large , slightly oval . '' This cluster can be easily viewed with a pair of 10 × 50 binoculars , forming a patch of hazy light some 4 arcminutes wide that is slightly elongated along the east -- west axis . With a larger instrument , individual stars can be resolved and the cluster will cover an angle of up to 12 arcminutes across with a compressed core one arcminute wide . It is best observed around August . M30 is located at a distance of about 27,100 light-years from Earth , and is about 93 light-years across . The estimated age is roughly 12.93 billion years and it has a combined mass of about 160,000 times the mass of the Sun . The cluster is following a retrograde orbit through the inner galactic halo , suggesting that it was acquired from a satellite galaxy rather than forming within the Milky Way . It is currently located at a distance of about 22.2 kly from the center of the galaxy , compared to an estimated 26 kly for the Sun . The M30 cluster has passed through a dynamic process called core collapse and now has a concentration of mass at its core of about a million times the Sun 's mass per cubic parsec . This makes it one of the highest density regions in the Milky Way galaxy . Stars in such close proximity will experience a high rate of interactions that can create binary star systems , as well as a type of star called a blue straggler that is formed by mass transfer . A process of mass segregation may have caused the central region to gain a greater proportion of higher mass stars , creating a color gradient with increasing blueness toward the middle of the cluster .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Messier_30",
"rank": 44,
"score": 83748
},
{
"content": "Title: Last glacial period Content: The last glacial period , popularly known as the Ice Age , was the most recent glacial period , which occurred from years ago . This most recent glacial period is part of a larger pattern of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation ( years ago to present ) . From this point of view , scientists consider this `` ice age '' to be merely the latest glaciation event in a much larger ice age , one that dates back over two million years and is still ongoing . During this last glacial period , there were several changes between glacier advance and retreat . The Last Glacial Maximum , the maximum extent of glaciation within the last glacial period , was approximately 22,000 years ago . While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar , local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent ( see picture of ice core data below for differences ) . Approximately 13,000 years ago , the Late Glacial Maximum began . Around 11,700 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch , which includes the Holocene glacial retreat . From the point of view of human archaeology , it falls in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods . When the glaciation event started , Homo sapiens were confined to Africa and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Homo erectus in Asia . Near the end of the event , Homo sapiens spread into Eurasia and Australia . Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover . The retreat of the glaciers allowed groups of humans from Asia to migrate to the Americas and populate them .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Last_glacial_period",
"rank": 45,
"score": 83637
},
{
"content": "Title: 30P/Reinmuth Content: Comet 30P/Reinmuth , also known as Comet Reinmuth 1 , is a periodic comet in the solar system , first discovered by Karl Reinmuth ( Landessternwarte Heidelberg-Königstuhl , Germany ) on February 22 , 1928 . First calculations of orbit concluded a period of 25 years , but this was revised down to seven years and speculation this was the same comet as Comet Taylor , which had been lost since 1915 . Further calculations by George van Biesbroeck concluded they were different comets . The 1935 approach was observed though not as favourable , in 1937 the comet passed close to Jupiter which increased the perihelion distance and orbital period . Due to miscalculations , the 1942 appearance was missed , but it has been observed on every subsequent appearance since . The comet nucleus is estimated to be 7.8 kilometers in diameter .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30P/Reinmuth",
"rank": 46,
"score": 83295
},
{
"content": "Title: Inc. 30 under 30 Content: Inc. 's 30 under 30 is a featured annual list of 30 entrepreneurs under the age of 30 put together by Inc. magazine . Applicants are reviewed by a panel of judges and winners are featured in the magazine or its website . In 2014 , Inc. extended the age limit to 35 in honor of the magazine 's 35th anniversary .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Inc._30_under_30",
"rank": 47,
"score": 83138
},
{
"content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Interglacial",
"rank": 48,
"score": 83081
},
{
"content": "Title: Karoo Ice Age Content: The Karoo Ice Age from 360 -- 260 million years ago ( Mya ) was the second major ice age of the Phanerozoic Eon . It is named after the tillite ( Dwyka Group ) found in the Karoo region of South Africa ( and adjacent areas ) , where evidence for this ice age was first clearly identified in the 19th century . The tectonic assembly of the continents of Euramerica ( later with the Uralian orogeny , into Laurasia ) and Gondwana into Pangaea , in the Hercynian-Alleghany Orogeny , made a major continental land mass within the Antarctic region , and the closure of the Rheic Ocean and Iapetus Ocean saw disruption of warm-water currents in the Panthalassa Ocean and Paleotethys Sea , which led to progressive cooling of summers , and the snowfields accumulating in winters , causing mountainous alpine glaciers to grow , and then spread out of highland areas , making continental glaciers which spread to cover much of Gondwana . At least two major periods of glaciation have been discovered : The first glacial period was associated with the Mississippian subperiod ( 359.2 -- 318.1 Mya ) : ice sheets expanded from a core in southern Africa and South America . The second glacial period was associated with the Pennsylvanian subperiod ( 318.1 -- 299 Mya ) ; ice sheets expanded from a core in Australia and India . The extent of ancient glaciations in Antarctica is not well known , because the present ice sheet hides the evidence .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Karoo_Ice_Age",
"rank": 49,
"score": 83037
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 (Harry Connick Jr. album) Content: 30 is an album by American singer Harry Connick Jr. . The album was recorded in 1998 , when Connick was 30 years old , but it was not released until 4 years later , on the same date as his album Songs I Heard . The album includes both vocal and instrumental tracks .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_(Harry_Connick_Jr._album)",
"rank": 50,
"score": 82828
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 Years to Life Content: 30 Years to Life is a 2001 American comedy film , written and directed by Vanessa Middleton . The film marks Middleton 's directorial debut , and stars Allen Payne , Paula Jai Parker , and Tracy Morgan .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_Years_to_Life",
"rank": 51,
"score": 82687
},
{
"content": "Title: Live at the 9:30 Club (EP) Content: Live at The 9:30 Club is an EP album by Josh Ritter , released on April 19 , 2008 . It was recorded by National Public Radio . Ritter describes it as a `` live mini-album '' . The EP is eight songs Josh Ritter performed at a sold-out show in Washington DC in October 2007 at the 9:30 Club . It was released on a national Record Store Day , and at first was only for sale in indie record stores . However , it is now widely available .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Live_at_the_9:30_Club_(EP)",
"rank": 52,
"score": 82475
},
{
"content": "Title: Iced Earth discography Content: The discography of Iced Earth , an American heavy metal band , consists of eleven studio releases , two live albums , three compilations , five singles , three videos , and ten music videos . Originally formed as Purgatory by guitarist Jon Schaffer on January 20 , 1985 , the band spent five years playing live locally and went through several line-up changes . After changing their name to Iced Earth , the band recorded the demo Enter the Realm ( 1989 ) , which landed them a deal with the German label , Century Media Records . One year later , the band recorded their self-titled album Iced Earth , followed by 1991 's Night of the Stormrider , which peaked at number 60 on the Japanese Oricon charts . Three years later , Iced Earth released Burnt Offerings , featuring new vocalist Matthew Barlow , followed by The Dark Saga ( 1996 ) . In 1997 , the band re-recorded the best of their early material , and released it as a compilation titled Days of Purgatory . Released in 1998 , Something Wicked This Way Comes reached number 19 on the German Media Control Charts . They followed up with the live album Alive in Athens ( 1999 ) . In 2001 , the band released their sixth full-length Horror Show -- which reached the top 30 on the Austrian Ö3 Top 40 and German charts -- and later that year , the five-disc box set Dark Genesis , which contained remastered versions of their first three studio albums , the demo Enter the Realm , and a studio album only of cover versions , titled Tribute to the Gods . The latter disc was released separately in 2002 . Two years later , Iced Earth signed a deal with SPV , and hired singer Tim `` Ripper '' Owens to record vocals for The Glorious Burden . The album reached the top 30 in Austria , Finland and Germany . For the first time , the band charted on the American Billboard 200 , at number 145 . Between 2007 and 2008 , the band released two concept albums for the conclusion of the Something Wicked saga . The first part , titled Framing Armageddon ( 2007 ) , reached the top 30 on the German and Swedish Sverigetopplistan charts . The following year , they released the second part The Crucible of Man , which reached the top 40 on the Austrian , Finnish , German , and Swiss charts . On March 3 , 2011 , Iced Earth vocalist Matt Barlow issued a statement on the band 's official website , stating that he was retiring from the band ( for a second time ) in order to spend more time with his family . Shortly after announcing Barlow 's departure from the band , Iced Earth announced that Into Eternity frontman Stu Block had been chosen as the band 's new lead vocalist . The following album , Dystopia , had commercial and critical success with many praising Stu Block as the new vocalist . The band 's latest album , Plagues of Babylon , was released in January 2014 .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Iced_Earth_discography",
"rank": 53,
"score": 82465
},
{
"content": "Title: Custom Made 10.30 Content: is a 2005 Japanese film about an 18-year-old high school student in Hiroshima , and the film is collaborated with a concert of Tamio Okuda on October 30 , 2004 , at Hiroshima Municipal Stadium for the 10th anniversary of his solo performance .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Custom_Made_10.30",
"rank": 54,
"score": 82327
},
{
"content": "Title: M2K Mini Tour Content: The M2K Tour was a mini tour by American heavy metal band Metallica . The tour ran from late December 1999 to early January 2000 . During the tour , `` Trapped Under Ice '' was requested to be played when they were in Chicago by a fan . The song was only played two other times : on November 17 , 1984 in Belgium , and on November 18 , 1984 in Paris . Metallica also played the New Year 's Eve show in Pontiac , Michigan at the Silverdome in front of 50,000 people . At the show , Metallica broadcast the Times Square Ball Drop , ushering in the year 2000 , and played the classic Kiss track `` Detroit Rock City '' alongside Ted Nugent , Kid Rock , and Sevendust . The setlists for these tour dates , like their Sick of the Studio '07 tour , consisted of old songs and songs that they have not played in many years .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "M2K_Mini_Tour",
"rank": 55,
"score": 82298
},
{
"content": "Title: 30th century Content: The 30th century of the anno Domini ( common ) era will span from January 1 , 2901 to December 31 , 3000 of the Gregorian calendar . It will be the last century of the 3rd millennium .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30th_century",
"rank": 56,
"score": 82188
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 Years from Here Content: 30 Years From Here is an American made-for-television documentary about the 30 years war on the HIV and AIDS pandemic . The documentary was directed by Josh Rosenzweig for the LGBT cable network here ! . The documentary debuted on November 25 , 2011 . In 2012 30 Years From Here was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award by the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_Years_from_Here",
"rank": 57,
"score": 82142
},
{
"content": "Title: 2012: Ice Age Content: 2012 : Ice Age is a 2011 disaster film produced by the independent film group The Asylum . It is the third and final film in The Asylum 's 2012 trilogy , which are mockbusters of the Roland Emmerich film 2012 .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "2012:_Ice_Age",
"rank": 58,
"score": 82122
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (song) Content: `` Ice Age '' is a song by American post-industrial group How to Destroy Angels from their second release , An Omen EP . It is also one of four songs from the extended play to be featured on their first full-length release , Welcome Oblivion .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(song)",
"rank": 59,
"score": 82042
},
{
"content": "Title: Ruger Mini-14 Content: The Mini-14 is a lightweight .223 caliber ( 5.56 mm ) semi-automatic rifle manufactured by Sturm , Ruger & Co. that is popular with law enforcement , security personnel , hunters , ranchers and target shooters . It is made in a number of variants including the Ranch Rifle with an integral scope base on the receiver , the Mini Thirty which is chambered for 7.62 × 39mm , and the AC-556 , a select-fire assault rifle .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ruger_Mini-14",
"rank": 60,
"score": 81988
},
{
"content": "Title: Mini-Neptune Content: A mini-Neptune ( sometimes known as a gas dwarf or transitional planet ) is a planet of up to 10 Earth masses , less massive than Uranus and Neptune , which have about 14.5 and 17 , respectively . Mini-Neptunes have thick hydrogen -- helium atmospheres , probably with deep layers of ice , rock or liquid oceans ( made of water , ammonia , a mixture of both , or heavier volatiles ) . These planets have small cores made of low-density volatiles . Theoretical studies of such planets are loosely based on knowledge about Uranus and Neptune . Without a thick atmosphere , it would be classified as an ocean planet instead . An estimated dividing line between a rocky planet and a gaseous planet is around two Earth radii . In fact , empirical observations are showing that planets larger than approximately 1.6 Earth-radius ( more massive than approximately 6 Earth-masses ) contain significant amounts of volatiles or H -- He gas ( such planets appear to have a diversity of compositions that is not well-explained by a single mass -- radius relation as that found in rocky planets ) . Similar results are confirmed by other studies . As for mass , the lower limit can vary widely for different planets depending on their compositions ; the dividing mass can vary from as low as one to as high as 20 . Several exoplanets have been discovered that are possibly gas dwarfs , based on known masses and densities . For example , Kepler-11f has a mass of 2.3 , yet its density is the same as that of Saturn , implying that it is a gas dwarf with a hydrogen -- helium ( or water vapor ) atmosphere and only a small rocky core . The even smaller Kepler-138d , having only roughly Earth 's mass , is also suspected to be a gas planet due to its relatively large diameter ( ~ 20,500 km ) and therefore low density . Such planets are not found orbiting too close to their parent stars , where their thick atmospheres would be evaporated by heat or blown away by stellar winds . It is demonstrated that the inner planets of the Kepler-11 system have higher densities than planets farther away .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Mini-Neptune",
"rank": 61,
"score": 81501
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Ages (band) Content: Ice Ages is an Austrian dark electro/industrial band signed to Napalm Records . The band is a one-man band consisting of Richard Lederer from Summoning and Die Verbannten Kinder Evas .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Ages_(band)",
"rank": 62,
"score": 81225
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ice People Content: The Ice People is a 1998 science fiction novel by Maggie Gee , set in a future world dominated by a new ice age . The novel examines different elements of contemporary society : the fundamental roles and relationships of men and women , sexuality , politics and the issue of global warming . Global warming is the initial context , where increases in temperature are then followed by the cyclic appearance of an ice age . The reaction of society and individuals to these dramatic extremes sites the novel within the genre of dystopian science fiction , but closer to the author 's heart seem to be the changes within such a scenario of issues we face today : the changes in racism as different parts of the planet change in their attractiveness ; the changes in social position as `` Insiders '' and `` Outsiders '' -- the `` haves '' and the `` have-nots '' -- live within differing conditions ; the value , status and interpretation of marriage ; parenthood -- the increasing difficulties in conception and the subsequent single-parenthood versus family issues ; the `` gang '' mentality of men and women ; the way politics is perceived , used and power abused . The Ice People has been compared to George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "The_Ice_People",
"rank": 63,
"score": 80532
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth (1998 film) Content: Earth ( released in India as 1947 : Earth ) is a 1998 Indian period drama film directed by Deepa Mehta . It is based upon Bapsi Sidhwa 's novel , Cracking India , ( 1991 , U.S. ; 1992 , India ; originally published as Ice Candy Man , 1988 , U.K. ) . Earth is the second installment of Mehta 's Elements trilogy , preceded by Fire ( 1996 ) and followed by Water ( 2005 ) . It was India 's entry for the 1999 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Earth_(1998_film)",
"rank": 64,
"score": 80348
},
{
"content": "Title: Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi Content: Kwäday Dän Ts ' ìnchi ( meaning Long Ago Person Found in Southern Tutchone ) , or Canadian Ice Man , is a naturally mummified body found in Tatshenshini-Alsek Park in British Columbia , Canada , by a group of hunters in 1999 . Radiocarbon dating of artifacts found with the body placed the age of the body at between 300 and 550 years . The find was comparable in condition and scientific value to Ötzi the Iceman , remains dating to 3300 BC that were found in the Ötztal Alps in 1991 . DNA testing of more than 240 volunteers from the local Champagne and Aishihik First Nations revealed 17 persons who are related to the ice man through their direct maternal line . They were excited to have their deep connections to the area affirmed .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Kwäday_Dän_Ts'ìnchi",
"rank": 65,
"score": 80024
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 Days of Night (disambiguation) Content: 30 Days of Night may refer to : 30 Days of Night , a horror comic book mini-series . 30 Days of Night ( film ) , a 2007 horror film based on the comic book 30 Days of Night ( novelization ) , the novelization of the 2007 film 30 Days of Night : Blood Trails , a 2007 miniseries ( prequel of the 2007 film ) 30 Days of Night : Dust to Dust , a 2008 miniseries ( sequel of the 2007 film ) 30 Days of Night : Dark Days , a 2010 horror film based on the comic book ( sequel of the 2007 film ) Thirty Days of Night Records , a record label",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_Days_of_Night_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 66,
"score": 79891
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age Giants Content: Ice Age Giants is a British television documentary series created and produced by the BBC Natural History Unit , first shown in the UK on BBC Two and BBC Two HD on 19 May 2013 . The series steps back to 20,000 years in time and follows the trail of the prehistoric mammals in the ice age on North America and European region that lived through it to life by using the latest scientific knowledge and a little graphic wizardry . The series was presented by Dr. Alice Roberts and composed by David Mitcham .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Age_Giants",
"rank": 67,
"score": 79607
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth to Luna! Content: Earth to Luna ! ( in O Show da Luna ) is a Brazilian animated TV series , created and directed by Celia Catunda and Kiko Mistrorigo and produced by TV PinGuim , which premiered on the American channel Sprout , on August 16 , 2014 . In Brazil , it debuted on October 13 , 2014 , on Discovery Kids . It was also aired on the NBC Kids block on April 4 , 2015 until January 30 , 2016 . It premiered on Minika Çocuk on February 1 , 2016 . The series shows the adventures of Luna ( voiced by Angelina Carballo and singing voice by Hannah Strawn ) , a 12-year-old girl in love with science , her little brother Jupiter ( who 's named after the planet Jupiter ) ( voiced by Raul-Gomez Pina ) and their pet ferret Clyde ( Cláudio voiced by Eric Anderson and vocals by Frank Welker ) . The first season had 52 episodes of 15 minutes each . The target audience is children between the ages of 3 and 5 years old .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Earth_to_Luna!",
"rank": 68,
"score": 79569
},
{
"content": "Title: Elster glaciation Content: The Elster glaciation ( Elster-Kaltzeit , Elster-Glazial or Elster-Zeit ) or , less commonly , the Elsterian glaciation -- in the older and popular scientific literature also called the Elster Ice Age ( Elster-Eiszeit ) -- is the oldest known ice age that resulted in the large-scale glaciation of North Germany . It is temporally identified with the south German Mindel glaciation . The Elster glaciation is currently dated to about 400,000 to 320,000 years ago . It succeeded a long period of rather warmer average temperatures , the Cromerian Complex . Two ice advances were very extensive . The Elster was followed by the Holstein interglacial . The glacial period is named after the White Elster , a right tributary of the Saale .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Elster_glaciation",
"rank": 69,
"score": 79551
},
{
"content": "Title: The Golden Age (comics) Content: The Golden Age is a 1993 four-issue Elseworlds comic book mini-series by writer James Robinson and artist Paul Smith . It concerns the Golden Age DC Comics superheroes entering the 1950s and facing the advent of McCarthyism .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "The_Golden_Age_(comics)",
"rank": 70,
"score": 79542
},
{
"content": "Title: Mini–Mental State Examination Content: The Mini -- Mental State Examination ( MMSE ) or Folstein test is a 30-point questionnaire that is used extensively in clinical and research settings to measure cognitive impairment . It is commonly used in medicine and allied health to screen for dementia . It is also used to estimate the severity and progression of cognitive impairment and to follow the course of cognitive changes in an individual over time ; thus making it an effective way to document an individual 's response to treatment . The MMSE 's purpose has been not , on its own , to provide a diagnosis for any particular nosological entity . Administration of the test takes between 5 and 10 minutes and examines functions including registration , attention and calculation , recall , language , ability to follow simple commands and orientation . It was originally introduced by Folstein et al. in 1975 , in order to differentiate organic from functional psychiatric patients but is very similar to , or even directly incorporates , tests which were in use previous to its publication . This test is not a mental status examination . The standard MMSE form which is currently published by Psychological Assessment Resources is based on its original 1975 conceptualization , with minor subsequent modifications by the authors . Advantages to the MMSE include requiring no specialized equipment or training for administration , and has both validity and reliability for the diagnosis and longitudinal assessment of Alzheimer 's Disease . Due to its short administration period and ease of use , it is useful for cognitive assessment in the clinician 's office space or at the bedside . Disadvantages to the utilization of the MMSE is that it is affected by demographic factors ; age and education exert the greatest effect . The most frequently noted disadvantage of the MMSE relates to its lack of sensitivity to mild cognitive impairment and its failure to adequately discriminate patients with mild Alzheimer 's Disease from normal patients . The MMSE has also received criticism regarding its insensitivity to progressive changes occurring with severe Alzheimer 's Disease . As the content of the MMSE is highly verbal , lacking sufficient items to adequately measure visuospatial and/or constructional praxis . Hence , its utility in detecting impairment caused by focal lesions , is uncertain . Other tests are also used , such as the Hodkinson abbreviated mental test score ( 1972 , geriatrics , or the General Practitioner Assessment of Cognition , computerised tests such as CoPs and Mental Attributes Profiling System , as well as longer formal tests for deeper analysis of specific deficits .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Mini–Mental_State_Examination",
"rank": 71,
"score": 79364
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age Entertainment Content: Ice Age Entertainment is a record label created and owned by southern rapper Mike Jones and business partner Ray `` Mello '' Moore . The record label was created around late 2001 . Mike Jones has re-signed with Swishahouse , and has come to terms with them . Swishahouse will now distribute albums released under Ice Age Entertainment . The record label is based in two cities , Houston and Atlanta .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Age_Entertainment",
"rank": 72,
"score": 79217
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 Years to the Day Content: 30 Years To The Day is an album by hip hop group Rock Steady Crew and J.Period . The album is a 30-year commemorative compilation for the history of the group . It features various songs from old school artists such as Grandmaster Flash , Afrika Bambaataa , James Brown and Sugarhill Gang .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_Years_to_the_Day",
"rank": 73,
"score": 79135
},
{
"content": "Title: Club 18-30 Content: Club 18-30 is a holiday company working from its head office in Peterborough , that provides holidays for people aged 17 -- 35 in typical party island destinations . The original Club 18.30 logo ( sunset and sea ) and subsequent logos and holiday brochures were designed by Graphic Designers Nick Ewart and Mike Williams . Club 18-30 company was sold on to Thomas Cook and now takes around 110,000 guests each year with turnover of around # 50m a year . The average age of guests is 19 , and one third of customers are travelling on holiday without their parents for the first time .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Club_18-30",
"rank": 74,
"score": 79072
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs Content: Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs is a 2009 American computer animated comedy adventure film produced by Blue Sky Studios . It is the third installment in the Ice Age series and the sequel to Ice Age : The Meltdown ( 2006 ) . It was directed by Carlos Saldanha and co-directed by Mike Thurmeier . Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Queen Latifah reprise their roles from the first two films , with Simon Pegg joining them in the role of a weasel named Buck . The story has Sid being taken by a female Tyrannosaurus after stealing her eggs , leading the rest of the herd to rescue him in a tropical lost world inhabited by dinosaurs beneath the ice . The film was released on July 1 , 2009 by 20th Century Fox . It was the first Ice Age film and the first 20th Century Fox 's film to be released in 3D . Despite receiving mixed reviews from critics , it ranked at the time as the second-highest-grossing animated film of all time , earning $ 886.7 million worldwide . A sequel , titled Ice Age : Continental Drift , was released in 2012 , and another film , titled Ice Age : Collision Course , was released in 2016 .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Age:_Dawn_of_the_Dinosaurs",
"rank": 75,
"score": 79057
},
{
"content": "Title: Thirty-something (disambiguation) Content: Thirty-something or 30-something is a term of approximation denoting one who is , or who is believed to be , in one 's thirties . It may also refer to : Thirty Something ( TV series ) , a Taiwanese television series Thirtysomething , the U.S. television series 30 Something , the album by Carter the Unstoppable Sex Machine",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Thirty-something_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 76,
"score": 78918
},
{
"content": "Title: Cryogenian Content: The Cryogenian ( -LSB- pronkraɪoʊˈdʒɛniən -RSB- , from Greek cryos `` cold '' and genesis `` birth '' ) is a geologic period that lasted from . It forms the second geologic period of the Neoproterozoic Era , preceded by the Tonian Period and followed by the Ediacaran . The Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations during the Cryogenian period , which are the greatest ice ages known to have occurred on Earth , occurred during this period . These events are the subject of much scientific controversy . The main debate contests whether these glaciations covered the entire planet ( the so-called ` Snowball Earth ' ) or if a band of open sea survived near the equator ( termed ` slushball Earth ' ) .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Cryogenian",
"rank": 77,
"score": 78879
},
{
"content": "Title: And You Don't Stop: 30 Years of Hip-Hop Content: And You Do n't Stop : 30 Years of Hip-Hop is a 2004 film directed by Richard Lowe and Dana Heinz Perry and written by Bill Adler . The film documents the development of hip hop culture since its inception in the 1970s . It was nominated for an IDA award in 2005 .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "And_You_Don't_Stop:_30_Years_of_Hip-Hop",
"rank": 78,
"score": 78565
},
{
"content": "Title: Edge of the Earth Content: `` Edge of the Earth '' is a song by American rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars . The song was released through Immortal and Virgin on March 3 , 2003 , as the second single from the band 's self-titled debut album . The song was written by Jared Leto and was produced by Bob Ezrin , Brian Virtue and 30 Seconds to Mars .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Edge_of_the_Earth",
"rank": 79,
"score": 78469
},
{
"content": "Title: Hugh Auchincloss Brown Content: Hugh Auchincloss Brown ( 23 December 1879 -- 19 November 1975 ) was an electrical engineer best known for advancing a theory of catastrophic pole shift . Brown claimed that massive accumulation of ice at the poles caused recurring tipping of the axis in cycles of approximately 4000 -- 7500 years . Brown argued that because the earth wobbles on the axis and the crust slides on the mantle , a shift was demonstrably imminent , and suggested the use of nuclear explosions to break up the ice to forestall catastrophe .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Hugh_Auchincloss_Brown",
"rank": 80,
"score": 78433
},
{
"content": "Title: Geologic Calendar Content: The Geologic Calendar is a scale in which the geological lifetime of the earth is mapped onto a calendrical year ; that is to say , the day one of the earth took place on a geologic January 1 at precisely midnight , and today 's date and time is December 31 at midnight . On this calendar , the inferred appearance of the first living single-celled organisms , prokaryotes , occurred on a geologic February 25 around 12:30 pm to 1:07 pm , dinosaurs first appeared on December 13 , the first flower plants on December 22 and the first primates on December 28 at about 9:43 pm . The first Anatomically modern humans did not arrive until around 11:48 p.m. on New Year 's Eve , and all of human history since the end of the last ice-age occurred in the last 82.2 seconds before midnight of the new year .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Geologic_Calendar",
"rank": 81,
"score": 78170
},
{
"content": "Title: This Is the Ice Age Content: This Is the Ice Age was Martha and the Muffins ' third album , released on LP and cassette in 1981 . The track `` Women Around the World at Work '' was released as a single in the UK and Canada . The album was a debut for Daniel Lanois as a rock music producer ; he would later ( often in partnership with Brian Eno ) produce for artists as diverse as U2 , Bob Dylan , and Dashboard Confessional . Daniel 's sister Jocelyne was a member of the band , playing bass and singing backing vocals on this album . The cover image was taken by Muffins ' guitarist Mark Gane from an apartment he was living in on Bloor Street in Toronto . It depicts the Bank of Montreal 's headquarters , First Canadian Place over a building in poor repair . After being unavailable for over 20 years , this much sought-after album was finally re-released on CD in 2005 by EMI Canada and includes two bonus tracks that were not on the original release . The CD has been released with copy protection technology which may make it difficult to play in some players or rip for use on MP3 players . The working title for this album was The Big Merge .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "This_Is_the_Ice_Age",
"rank": 82,
"score": 78158
},
{
"content": "Title: Last ice age Content: Last ice age may refer to : Quaternary glaciation , the period of the last few million years Last glacial period , the most recent glacial period of the current ice age Little Ice Age , a hundred years of relative cold in the Middle Ages after what historians term the Medieval Warm Period",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Last_ice_age",
"rank": 83,
"score": 77667
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 Years A-Greying Content: 30 Years A-Greying is a double album by The Dubliners , again produced by Eamonn Campbell . 30 Years A-Greying is similar to 25 Years Celebration in that it also features a number of special guests . The Pogues featured again , this time on a version of `` Whiskey In The Jar '' . Other special guests are Billy Connolly , De Dannan , Rory Gallagher and the Hothouse Flowers .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_Years_A-Greying",
"rank": 84,
"score": 77650
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 Years of The Ex Content: 30 Years of The Ex is a compilation album by the Dutch band The Ex released in 2009 , marking the group 30-year anniversary and the departure of original singer G.W. Sok from the band . The album features songs from all The Ex 's albums released between 1980 and 2006 , as well as tracks from various singles and EPs . 30 Years of The Ex was released on double LP and double CD with the CDs containing seven extra tracks .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_Years_of_The_Ex",
"rank": 85,
"score": 77519
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 Years of Hearsay Tour Content: 30 Years of Hearsay Tour is a United Kingdom based tour starting in Watford Colosseum on February 3 and finishing in Exeter Great Hall on April 29 . The tour supports Alexander O'Neal 's album Hearsay , the show features many of O'Neal 's songs from Hearsay and many of his other hits .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_Years_of_Hearsay_Tour",
"rank": 86,
"score": 77448
},
{
"content": "Title: The Violent Earth Content: The Violent Earth is a 1998 French-Australian mini series set in New Caledonia from 1888 to 1977 .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "The_Violent_Earth",
"rank": 87,
"score": 77352
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbital forcing Content: Orbital forcing is the effect on climate of slow changes in the tilt of the Earth 's axis and shape of the orbit ( see Milankovitch cycles ) . These orbital changes change the total amount of sunlight reaching the Earth by up to 25 % at mid-latitudes ( from 400 to 500 Wm − 2 at latitudes of 60 degrees ) . In this context , the term `` forcing '' signifies a physical process that affects the Earth 's climate . This mechanism is believed to be responsible for the timing of the ice age cycles . A strict application of the Milankovitch theory does not allow the prediction of a `` sudden '' ice age ( rapid being anything under a century or two ) , since the fastest orbital period is about 20,000 years . The timing of past glacial periods coincides very well with the predictions of the Milankovitch theory , and these effects can be calculated into the future .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Orbital_forcing",
"rank": 88,
"score": 77272
},
{
"content": "Title: SMSS J031300.36-670839.3 Content: SMSS J031300.36-670839 .3 ( shortened as SMSS J0313-6708 ; informally abbreviated to SM0313 ) is a star in the Milky Way at a distance of 6,000 light years from Earth . With an age of approximately 13.6 billion years , it is one of the oldest stars known . Another star , HD 140283 , is considered to be older , but there is uncertainty in values of its age . This makes SM0313 the oldest known star with an accurate determination of its age . The star formed only about 100 million years after the Big Bang , and has been shining for 13.6 billion years . The star 's very low upper limit of iron of less than one ten millionth the iron level of the Sun , suggests that it is one of the first Population II stars , formed from a gas cloud enriched by some of the very first ( Population III ) stars . SMSS J031300.36-670839 .3 also has a much higher carbon supply compared to iron , more than a thousand times greater . Apart from hydrogen , which appeared in the Big Bang , the star also contains carbon , magnesium , and calcium which could have been formed in a low energy supernova . Methylidyne ( CH ) is also detected by its absorption line . No oxygen or nitrogen have been detected . The star is a K class dwarf . The star was discovered by a team led by Australian National University astronomers . The discovery was reported in Nature on 9 February 2014 and indicates that the supernovae of the first generation of stars may not have been as powerful as previously thought . The discovery was made possible by the SkyMapper , a fully automated optical telescope at Siding Spring Observatory near Coonabarabran , New South Wales , Australia . SkyMapper was built to replace the Great Melbourne Telescope at Mount Stromlo after that telescope was burnt in the 2003 Canberra bushfires . Its purpose was to do whole sky surveys .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "SMSS_J031300.36-670839.3",
"rank": 89,
"score": 77221
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age: The Meltdown Content: Ice Age : The Meltdown is a 2006 American computer-animated comedy adventure film produced by Blue Sky Studios and released by 20th Century Fox . As the first sequel to the 2002 film Ice Age , it focuses on the herd escaping an upcoming flood , during which Manny finds love . It was directed by Carlos Saldanha , co-director of the first film , with the music composed by John Powell . The original voice cast -- Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Chris Wedge -- is joined by Queen Latifah , Seann William Scott and Josh Peck . The film premiered in Belgium on March 1 , 2006 . It was eventually released in 70 countries , with the last release being in China , on June 9 , 2006 . The Meltdown received mixed critical reaction but was a box office success by earning over $ 660 million . Three more sequels were released -- Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Ice_Age:_The_Meltdown",
"rank": 90,
"score": 76936
},
{
"content": "Title: Arnold Federbush Content: Arnold Federbush ( 1935 -- 1993 ) was the author of two 1970s science fiction novels : The Man who Lived in Inner Space ( 1973 ) , ISBN 0-395-14074-9 . It concerns a marine biologist who is transformed into a new species of amphibious humanity , which can live in the ocean depths , Earth 's `` inner space '' . Ice ! ( 1978 ) , ISBN 0-553-12151-0 . It describes a return of the Ice Age in months , rather than centuries . It tells of the realization that an Ice Age is rapidly approaching , yet only a few people know this . And in effect , major weather changes begin to kill out large parts of Earth 's population before the glaciers even hit the higher latitudes . Many details of the plot , characters , and locale are similar to the 2004 film The Day After Tomorrow . Federbush was born in New York , the son of a clothing manufacturer who had been a colleague in Palestine of Zeev Jabotinsky . He attended UCLA 's film school , where his classmates included Francis Ford Coppola and Noel Black . His ambition was to be a screenwriter . After some years working as a film editor for Black and others , and finding that pitches for screenplays were better received if they were based on already published books , he wrote his two novels , both of which were successful enough to be translated into many European languages . Federbush was a lifelong fitness enthusiast , and a non-smoking member of the original Muscle Beach crowd . However , he was diagnosed with lung cancer after it had already spread to his liver . He died with his third novel , concerning spontaneous human combustion , unfinished .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Arnold_Federbush",
"rank": 91,
"score": 76674
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 92,
"score": 76555
},
{
"content": "Title: Tollmann's hypothetical bolide Content: Alexander Tollmann 's bolide , proposed by Kristan-Tollmann and Tollmann in 1994 , is a hypothesis presented by Austrian geologist Alexander Tollmann , suggesting that one or several bolides ( asteroids or comets ) struck the Earth at 7640 BCE ( ± 200 ) , with a much smaller one at 3150 BCE ( ± 200 ) . If true , this hypothesis explains early Holocene extinctions and possibly legends of the Universal Deluge . The claimed evidence for the event includes stratigraphic studies of tektites , dendrochronology , and ice cores ( from Camp Century , Greenland ) containing hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid ( indicating an energetic ocean strike ) as well as nitric acids ( caused by extreme heating of air ) . Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas in their book , Uriel 's Machine , argue that the 7640 BCE evidence is consistent with the dates of formation of a number of extant salt flats and lakes in dry areas of North America and Asia . They argue that these lakes are the result remains of multiple-kilometer-high waves that penetrated deeply into continents as the result of oceanic strikes that they proposed occurred .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Tollmann's_hypothetical_bolide",
"rank": 93,
"score": 76544
},
{
"content": "Title: Austin Seven Content: There were four Austin cars to use the Seven name : The 1909 -- 1911 Austin 7 hp The 1922-1939 Austin 7 The launch title of the Austin A30 The original Mini The name Austin Seven was also used to refer to the LMS Class 7F 0-8-0 engines . The name Seven will be brought back by Mini for a visual package on the existing 3-door and 5-door Mini Cooper and Cooper S worldwide from July 2016 . Seven",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Austin_Seven",
"rank": 94,
"score": 76458
},
{
"content": "Title: Lora Johnson Content: Lora Johnson is an American author best known for the novel Ice under her former name of Shane Johnson . Her works include numerous original novels and Star Trek reference books including Mr. Scott 's Guide to the Enterprise , the Star Trek : The Next Generation Technical Journal and Worlds of the Federation . She also authored the Star Wars Technical Journal and contributed to the canon of the Star Wars universe . She is an historian of US spaceflights and was a design consultant on HBO 's From the Earth to the Moon mini-series . More recently , she created the Virtual Alamo interactive online exhibit for the University of Texas at Arlington .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "Lora_Johnson",
"rank": 95,
"score": 76438
},
{
"content": "Title: 30 Years of Bananarama Content: 30 Years of Bananarama is a CD/DVD retrospective of British girl group Bananarama 's musical career from 1981 through 2009 . This compilation album was issued by Rhino Records on 9 July 2012 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the group . The album entered the UK album chart on 16 July at number 62 . The CD features Bananarama 's 22 best-known singles , spanning from their 1981 debut , `` Aie a Mwana '' , to the girls ' 2009 effort , `` Love Do n't Live Here '' , all presented in chronological order . The digital version includes three extra tracks `` Rough Justice '' , `` Long Train Running '' and `` A Trick of the Night '' , adding up to a total of 25 tracks . The DVD showcases 35 music videos and marks the first time where the group 's videos have been officially made available on this format .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "30_Years_of_Bananarama",
"rank": 96,
"score": 76180
},
{
"content": "Title: MinID Content: MinID is an electronic login system used to secure a range of internet services in the Norwegian public sector . The communication done with MinID is encrypted to secure information from unauthorized usage . Everyone registered in the Norwegian Population Register over the age of 13 years can create a public ID with MinID . As of April 2010 , more than 2 million people living in Norway had created user accounts with MinID . To create a public ID , PIN-codes from the Norwegian Tax Administration are needed .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "MinID",
"rank": 97,
"score": 76169
},
{
"content": "Title: List of star systems within 30–35 light-years Content: This is a list of star systems within 30-35 light years of Earth .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "List_of_star_systems_within_30–35_light-years",
"rank": 98,
"score": 76160
},
{
"content": "Title: The Muppets: A Celebration of 30 Years Content: The Muppets : A Celebration of 30 Years is a one-hour special starring Jim Henson 's Muppets . It was shot in Toronto , Ontario in 1985 and aired January 21 , 1986 on CBS .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "The_Muppets:_A_Celebration_of_30_Years",
"rank": 99,
"score": 75948
},
{
"content": "Title: The Age of the Earth Content: The Age of the Earth ( A Idade da Terra ) is an 1980 avant-garde film directed by Glauber Rocha .",
"qid": "27",
"docid": "The_Age_of_the_Earth",
"rank": 100,
"score": 75769
}
] |
Volcanoes Melting West Antarctic Glaciers, Not Global Warming | [
{
"content": "Title: Subglacial volcano Content: A subglacial volcano , also known as a glaciovolcano , is a volcanic form produced by subglacial eruptions or eruptions beneath the surface of a glacier or ice sheet which is then melted into a lake by the rising lava . Today they are most common in Iceland and Antarctica ; older formations of this type are found also in British Columbia and Yukon Territory , Canada . During the eruption , the heat of the lava from the subglacial volcano melts the overlying ice . The water quickly cools the lava , resulting in pillow lava shapes similar to those of underwater volcanoes . When the pillow lavas break off and roll down the volcano slopes , pillow breccia , tuff breccia , and hyaloclastite form . The meltwater may be released from below the ice as happened in Iceland in 1996 when the Grímsvötn caldera erupted , melting 3 km3 of ice and giving rise to a large glacial lake outburst flood . The shape of subglacial volcanoes tends to be quite characteristic and unusual , with a flattened top and steep sides supported against collapse by the pressure of the surrounding ice and meltwater . If the volcano eventually melts completely through the ice layer , then horizontal lava flows are deposited , and the top of the volcano assumes a nearly level form . However , if significant amounts of lava are later erupted subaerially , then the volcano may assume a more conventional shape . In Canada the volcanos have been known to form both conical and nearly level shapes . The more distinctly flat-topped , steep-sided subglacial volcanoes are called tuyas , named after Tuya Butte in northern British Columbia by Canadian geologist Bill Mathews in 1947 . In Iceland , such volcanoes are also known as table mountains .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Subglacial_volcano",
"rank": 1,
"score": 149093
},
{
"content": "Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Heard_Island_glaciers",
"rank": 2,
"score": 136051
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 3,
"score": 135433
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica",
"rank": 4,
"score": 133480
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet",
"rank": 5,
"score": 131328
},
{
"content": "Title: Dakshin Gangotri Glacier Content: The Dakshin Gangotri Glacier is a small tongue of the polar continental ice sheet impinging on the Schirmacher Oasis of central Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was discovered by the Second Indian Expedition to Antarctica in 1983 , and named for India 's first Antarctic research station . Since then its snout , and the area around it , has been regularly monitored and it has become a valuable site for tracking the impact of global warming through changes in the movement of the Antarctic ice sheet . The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA ) No. 163 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Dakshin_Gangotri_Glacier",
"rank": 6,
"score": 130561
},
{
"content": "Title: Subglacial mound Content: A subglacial mound ( SUGM ) is a type of subglacial volcano . This type of volcano forms when lava erupts beneath a thick glacier or ice sheet . The magma forming these volcanoes was not hot enough to melt a vertical pipe right through the overlying glacial ice , instead forming hyaloclastite and pillow lava deep beneath the glacial ice field . Once the glaciers had retreated , the subglacial volcano would be revealed , with a unique shape as a result of their confinement within glacial ice . They are somewhat rare worldwide , being confined to regions which were formerly covered by continental ice sheets and also had active volcanism during the same period . They are found throughout Iceland , Antarctica and the Canadian province of British Columbia . Subglacial mounds can be mistaken for cinder cones because they may have a similar shape . An example of this confusion is Pyramid Mountain in the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field of east-central British Columbia , Canada .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Subglacial_mound",
"rank": 7,
"score": 127276
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Peter_Doran",
"rank": 8,
"score": 127213
},
{
"content": "Title: Pine Island Glacier Content: Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay . The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream . The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Pine_Island_Glacier",
"rank": 9,
"score": 126798
},
{
"content": "Title: Konrad Steffen Content: Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Konrad_Steffen",
"rank": 10,
"score": 121294
},
{
"content": "Title: Cryovolcano Content: A cryovolcano ( colloquially known as an ice volcano ) is a theoretical type of volcano that erupts volatiles such as water , ammonia or methane , instead of molten rock . Collectively referred to as cryomagma or ice-volcanic melt , these substances are usually liquids and can form plumes , but can also be in vapour form . After eruption , cryomagma is expected to condense to a solid form when exposed to the very low surrounding temperature . Cryovolcanoes may potentially form on icy moons and other objects with abundant water past the Solar System 's snow line ( such as Pluto ) . A number of features have been identified as possible cryovolcanoes on Pluto , Titan and Ceres . In addition , although they are not known to form volcanoes , ice geysers have been observed on Enceladus and potentially Triton . One potential energy source on some solar system bodies for melting ices and producing cryovolcanoes is tidal friction . It has also been suggested that translucent deposits of frozen materials could create a subsurface greenhouse effect that would accumulate the required heat . Signs of past warming of the Kuiper belt object Quaoar have led scientists to speculate that it exhibited cryovolcanism in the past . Radioactive decay could provide the energy necessary for such activity , as cryovolcanoes can emit water mixed with ammonia , which would melt at − 95 ° C and create an extremely cold liquid that would flow out of the volcano .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Cryovolcano",
"rank": 11,
"score": 120821
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice",
"rank": 12,
"score": 117531
},
{
"content": "Title: Subglacial eruption Content: Subglacial eruptions , those of ice-covered volcanoes , result in the interaction of magma with ice and snow , leading to meltwater formation , jökulhlaups , and lahars . Flooding associated with meltwater is a significant hazard in some volcanic areas , including Iceland , Alaska , and parts of the Andes . Jökulhlaups , glacial outburst floods , have been identified as the most frequently occurring volcanic hazard in Iceland , with major events where peak discharges can reach 10 000 -- 100 000 m3/s occurring when there are large eruptions beneath glaciers . It is important to explore volcano-ice interactions to improve our ability to effectively monitor these events and to undertake hazard assessments . This is particularly relevant given that subglacial eruptions have recently demonstrated their ability to cause widespread impact , with the ash cloud associated with Iceland 's Eyjafjallajökull eruption resulting in significant impacts to aviation across Europe .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Subglacial_eruption",
"rank": 13,
"score": 117112
},
{
"content": "Title: Julie Palais Content: Julie Michelle Palais ( * September 2 , 1956 in Massachusetts ) is an award-winning polar glaciologist who has made great contributions to climate change research studying volcanic fallout in ice cores from both Greenland and Antarctica . Since 1990 , she has played a pivotal role working at the National Science Foundation as Program Director of the Antarctic Glaciology Program in the Division of Polar Programs . Both the Palais Glacier and Palais Bluff in Antarctica were named in her honor . She has made twenty-eight trips to Antarctica and three trips to Greenland , and was the co-recipient of the Explorer Club 's Lowell Thomas Award .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Julie_Palais",
"rank": 14,
"score": 116522
},
{
"content": "Title: ANDRILL Content: ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "ANDRILL",
"rank": 15,
"score": 116454
},
{
"content": "Title: Amphitheatre Lake (Antarctica) Content: Amphitheatre Lake is a smooth-surfaced meltwater lake 1.5 nmi long in the western part of the Amphitheatre Peaks , in the Nye Mountains of Antarctica . The lake is almost completely enclosed by rock and ice cliffs , forming an amphitheatre , with an outlet into Rayner Glacier at the west end . It was photographed in 1956 from Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions ( ANARE ) aircraft and visited by an ANARE airborne field party in 1958 . The descriptive name was applied by the Antarctic Names Committee of Australia .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Amphitheatre_Lake_(Antarctica)",
"rank": 16,
"score": 115019
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 17,
"score": 114731
},
{
"content": "Title: Gamble Glacier Content: Gamble Glacier is a glacier flowing northwest from Chapman Snowfield , and located between Green Nunatak at the southwest and Keating Massif at the northeast , in the Churchill Mountains of Antarctica . It was named in honor of John A. Gamble , a geological scientist at the Victoria University of Wellington . He spent five field seasons ( during 1984 -- 93 ) in Antarctica working on mantle and crustal xenolith studies to understand the nature of the West Antarctic lithosphere . He has worked in Marie Byrd Land , including the West Antarctica Volcano Expedition ( 1989 -- 92 ) , and on the volcanoes in McMurdo Sound .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Gamble_Glacier",
"rank": 18,
"score": 114603
},
{
"content": "Title: West Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West ( or Lesser ) Antarctica , the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere . The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea . It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 ( 6.1 million cu mi ) , and the WAIS contains just under 10 % of this , or 2.2 million km3 ( 530,000 cu mi ) . The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres ( 0.31 -- 0.62 mi ) in a process known as isostatic depression . Under the force of its own weight , the ice sheet deforms and flows . The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock . In some circumstances , ice can flow faster in ice streams , separated by slow-flowing ice ridges . The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments . Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region , when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean . The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood ; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons . When ice reaches the coast , it either calves or continues to flow outward onto the water . The result is a large , floating ice shelf affixed to the continent .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet",
"rank": 19,
"score": 113685
},
{
"content": "Title: Glacial earthquake Content: Glacial earthquakes are earthquakes as large as magnitude 5.1 that occur in glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one kilometer per year . The number of glacial earthquakes in Greenland shows a peak every year in July , August and September , and the number is increasing over time . In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005 , more events were detected every year since 2002 , and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year . This increase in the numbers of glacial earthquakes in Greenland may be a response to global warming . Seismic waves are also generated by the Whillans Ice Stream , a large , fast-moving river of ice pouring from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet into the Ross Ice Shelf . Two bursts of seismic waves are released every day , each one equivalent to a magnitude 7 earthquake , and are seemingly related to the tidal action of the Ross Sea . During each event a 96 by 193 kilometer ( 60 by 120 mile ) region of the glacier moves as much as .67 meters ( 2.2 feet ) over about 25 minutes , remains still for 12 hours , then moves another half-meter . The seismic waves are recorded at seismographs around Antarctica , and even as far away as Australia , a distance of more than 6,400 kilometers . Because the motion takes place of such a long period of time 10 to 25 minutes , it can not be felt by scientists standing on the moving glacier . It is not known if these events are related to global warming .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Glacial_earthquake",
"rank": 20,
"score": 113551
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Climate_of_Antarctica",
"rank": 21,
"score": 112942
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice sheet Content: An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America . Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery . Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams . The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Ice_sheet",
"rank": 22,
"score": 112406
},
{
"content": "Title: Dyngjujökull Content: Dyngjujökull ( -LSB- ˈtiɲcʏˌjœːkʏtl̥ -RSB- , shield volcano glacier ) is an outlet glacier of the Vatnajökull glacier in Suður-Þingeyjarsýsla , Northeastern Region , Iceland . The glacier is in the Icelandic Highlands and is situated between Bárðarbunga , Holuhraun and Kverkfjöll . Meltwater from the glacier flows into Jökulsá á Fjöllum , the second longest river in Iceland . Depressions discovered by scientists , on 6 September 2014 , have prompted speculation that eruptions may be occurring below the surface of the glacier . This is associated with seismic activity at the Bardarbunga caldera , a large volcanic structure located beneath the glacier .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Dyngjujökull",
"rank": 23,
"score": 111934
},
{
"content": "Title: Aster Glacier Content: Aster Glacier is an Antarctic glacier ascending the east slope of Craddock Massif and flowing between Elfring Peak and Willis Ridge from Thomas Glacier in the Sentinel Range , Ellsworth Mountains in Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2006 , after Richard C. Aster , Professor of Geophysics and Department Head of Geosciences at Colorado State University , whose research has included volcanological studies at the Mount Erebus volcano observatory on Ross Island , glaciological , ocean , and tectonic seismic source research , and seismological , tectonic , and structural studies of Antarctica .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Aster_Glacier",
"rank": 24,
"score": 111897
},
{
"content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850",
"rank": 25,
"score": 111745
},
{
"content": "Title: West Antarctica Content: West Antarctica , or Lesser Antarctica , one of the two major regions of Antarctica , is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere , and includes the Antarctic Peninsula . It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains and is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It lies between the Ross Sea ( partly covered by the Ross Ice Shelf ) , and the Weddell Sea ( largely covered by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ) . It may be considered a giant peninsula stretching from the South Pole towards the tip of South America . West Antarctica is largely covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , but there have been signs that climate change is having some effect and that this ice sheet may have started to shrink slightly . The coasts of the Antarctic Peninsula are the only parts of West Antarctica that become ( in summer ) ice-free . These constitute the Marielandia Antarctic tundra and have the warmest climate in Antarctica . The rocks are clad in mosses and lichens that can cope with the intense cold of winter and the short growing-season .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "West_Antarctica",
"rank": 26,
"score": 111290
},
{
"content": "Title: Mingyong Glacier Content: Mingyong Glacier is located in the Yunnan Province , People 's Republic of China , The glacier retreated 200 meters ( 656 feet ) in four years . The region has also seen a rising tree line and these events are believed to be associated with global warming . The glacier is sacred to the local peoples . The glacier is fed by snows which fall on 6,740 m ( 22,107 ft ) Mount Meili , also known as the Meili Snow Mountain . Glaciers in China 's Tibetan region are melting at 7 percent annually . At 28.5 degrees north and an elevation of 2,700 meters ( 8,858 ft ) , the glacier is located at the lowest latitude and elevation of any glacier in China .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Mingyong_Glacier",
"rank": 27,
"score": 111046
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 28,
"score": 111038
},
{
"content": "Title: Bindschadler Glacier Content: Bindschadler Glacier is a glacier in the northwest part of Royal Society Range , Victoria Land , flowing north between Table Mountain and Platform Spur to join Emmanuel Glacier . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1992 after glaciologist Robert A. Bindschadler of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center ; from 1983 a principal investigator for United States Antarctic Research Program studies of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet including dynamics of ice streams in the Siple Coast area , their interaction with the Ross Ice Shelf , and the role of polar ice sheets in global climate change .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Bindschadler_Glacier",
"rank": 29,
"score": 110132
},
{
"content": "Title: Alcyone Cone Content: Alcyone Cone is an extinct volcanic cone near the center of The Pleiades , at the west side of the head of Mariner Glacier in Victoria Land , Antarctica . Named by a Victoria University of Wellington Antarctic Expedition field party to Evans Neve , 1971 -- 72 , after Alcyone , the brightest star in the Pleiades constellation . The geographical landform is situated on the Pennell Coast , a portion of Antarctica lying between Cape Williams and Cape Adare .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Alcyone_Cone",
"rank": 30,
"score": 109818
},
{
"content": "Title: Lyons Creek (Antarctica) Content: Lyons Creek is a meltwater stream , 1,500 m long , flowing northeast along the south side of Taylor Glacier into the west end of Lake Bonney in Taylor Valley , Victoria Land , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1996 after geologist William Berry Lyons , of the University of Alabama , who studied the geochemistry and paleolimnology of the streams and lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys from 1985 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Lyons_Creek_(Antarctica)",
"rank": 31,
"score": 109778
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater Content: Meltwater is water released by the melting of snow or ice , including glacial ice , tabular icebergs and ice shelves over oceans . Meltwater is often found in the ablation zone of glaciers , where the rate of snow cover is reducing . Meltwater can be produced during volcanic eruptions , in a similar way in which the more dangerous lahars form . When meltwater pools on the surface rather than flowing , it forms melt ponds . As the weather gets colder meltwater will often re-freeze . Meltwater can collect or melt under the ice 's surface . These pools of water , known as subglacial lakes can form due to geothermal heat and friction .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Meltwater",
"rank": 32,
"score": 109444
},
{
"content": "Title: Gaussberg Content: Gaussberg ( or Mount Gauss ) is an extinct volcanic cone , 370 m high , fronting on Davis Sea immediately west of the Posadowsky Glacier in Kaiser Wilhelm II Land in Antarctica . Discovered in February 1902 by the German Antarctic Expedition under Erich von Drygalski , who named it after his expedition ship , which was in turn named in honour of Carl Friedrich Gauss .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Gaussberg",
"rank": 33,
"score": 109378
},
{
"content": "Title: Lake Thomas Content: Lake Thomas is a meltwater lake that is circumscribed on the northwest and northeast sides by Robertson Ridge and Clark Glacier , in Victoria Land , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Robert H. Thomas who participated in United States Antarctic Research Program studies of the surface glaciology of the Ross Ice Shelf in the 1973 -- 74 and 1974 -- 75 seasons .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Lake_Thomas",
"rank": 34,
"score": 109369
},
{
"content": "Title: Ferrigno Ice Stream Content: Ferrigno Ice Stream is an ice Stream more than 15 nmi long flowing into Eltanin Bay southwest of Wirth Peninsula , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Jane G. Ferrigno of the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . Ferrigno has been a specialist for some decades from the 1970s in the use of satellite imagery for glacier studies and map compilation , co-leader of the USGS team that compiled the 1:5,000,000 - scale radiometer maps of Antarctica , and task leader of the team that is compiling 25 glaciological and coastal-change maps of Antarctica . Beneath the glacier lies the Ferrigno Rift , a rift valley some 1.5 km deep , 10 km wide , and at least 100 km long . The rift valley was discovered using ice-penetrating radar during a survey of the glacier in 2010 by a team from the British Antarctic Survey and the University of Aberdeen investigating ice-melt on the glacier that had been measured using satellites . The ice-filled rift valley is connected to the ocean and is believed to impact ice loss on the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Ferrigno_Ice_Stream",
"rank": 35,
"score": 109289
},
{
"content": "Title: Bentley Subglacial Trench Content: Bentley Subglacial Trench is a vast topographic trench in Marie Byrd Land , West Antarctica , 80 ° S , 115 ° W . At 2,555 meters ( 8,382 ft ) below sea level , it is the lowest point on the surface of the earth not covered by ocean , although it is covered by ice . Normally , it is not counted as the lowest point on land , since the overlying ice sheet makes it essentially subterranean . ( See Extremes on Earth and Vestfold Hills ) Also , if the ice melted , the area would be under water . The trench was named in 1961 after Charles R. Bentley who was the geophysicist in charge of the scientific expeditions in West Antarctica in 1957 -- 59 that led to its discovery .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Bentley_Subglacial_Trench",
"rank": 36,
"score": 108623
},
{
"content": "Title: Kite Stream Content: Kite Stream is a meltwater stream in the Victoria Valley , Victoria Land , Antarctica , that flows west from Victoria Lower Glacier into Lake Vida . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after James Steven Kite of the University of Maine , who was a geological field assistant with the Victoria Valley party , 1977 -- 78 . Kite was conducting research in the glacial geology of Victoria Valley , when , not as a part of his research , he found a 43 lb iron meteorite in a moraine 0.3 nmi inland from Victoria Lower Glacier .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Kite_Stream",
"rank": 37,
"score": 108621
},
{
"content": "Title: Canada Glacier Content: Canada Glacier is a small glacier flowing south-east into the northern side of Taylor Valley in Victoria Land , Antarctica . It is in the Ross Dependency . Its melting season is in the summer .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Canada_Glacier",
"rank": 38,
"score": 108414
},
{
"content": "Title: Nottarp Glacier Content: Nottarp Glacier is a small glacier draining eastward into Lowery Glacier just south of Mount Damm in the Queen Elizabeth Range . Mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from tellurometer surveys and Navy air photos , 1960-62 . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Klemens J. Nottarp , United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) glaciologist on the Ross Ice Shelf , 1962 -- 63 and 1965-66 . Category : Glaciers of the Ross Dependency Category : Shackleton Coast",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Nottarp_Glacier",
"rank": 39,
"score": 108325
},
{
"content": "Title: Krebs Glacier Content: Krebs Glacier is a glacier flowing west into the head of Charlotte Bay on the west coast of Graham Land , Antarctica . It was charted by the Belgian Antarctic Expedition under Gerlache , 1897 -- 99 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1960 for Arthur Constantin Krebs , who , with Charles Renard , constructed and flew the first dirigible airship capable of steady flight under control , in 1884 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Krebs_Glacier",
"rank": 40,
"score": 108140
},
{
"content": "Title: Russell West Glacier Content: Russell West Glacier is a glacier , 11 nautical miles ( 20 km ) long and 4 nautical miles ( 7 km ) wide , which lies immediately north of Detroit Plateau and flows from Mount Canicula , Verdikal Gap and Trajan Gate westward into Bone Bay on the north side of Trinity Peninsula . This glacier together with Russell East Glacier , which flows eastward into Prince Gustav Channel on the south side of Trinity Peninsula , form a through glacier across the north part of Antarctic Peninsula . It was first surveyed in 1946 by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) . Named by the United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) for V.I. Russell , surveyor and leader of the FIDS base at Hope Bay in 1946 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Russell_West_Glacier",
"rank": 41,
"score": 107962
},
{
"content": "Title: Bagshawe Glacier Content: Bagshawe Glacier is a glacier which drains the northeast slopes of Mount Theodore and discharges into Lester Cove , Andvord Bay west of Mount Tsotsorkov , on the west coast of Graham Land , Antarctica . The mouth of the glacier was first seen and sketched by the Belgian Antarctic Expedition in February 1898 , and the glacier was first roughly surveyed by Kenneth V. Blaiklock of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey from the ship in April 1955 . It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Thomas W. Bagshawe who , with Maxime C. Lester , wintered at Waterboat Point near Andvord Bay in 1921 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Bagshawe_Glacier",
"rank": 42,
"score": 107331
},
{
"content": "Title: Marchant Glacier Content: Marchant Glacier is a glacier , about 7 nmi long , which drains the slopes of Rampart Ridge between Mount Bishop and Mount Potter and flows northwest to the vicinity of Mount Bockheim , in the Royal Society Range , Victoria Land , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1994 after David R. Marchant , a glacial geologist at the University of Maine ( and from 1995 at Boston University ) . In connection with Antarctic field work since 1985 , Marchant discovered and used volcanic ashes to infer paleoclimate change and geologic stability in the McMurdo Dry Valleys and map the glacial history of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Marchant_Glacier",
"rank": 43,
"score": 106995
},
{
"content": "Title: West Antarctic Rift Content: The West Antarctic Rift is a major , active rift valley lying between East and West Antarctica . It encompasses the Ross Sea , the area under the Ross Ice Shelf and a part of West Antarctica . Its evolution is due to lithospheric thinning of the non-cratonic area of West Antarctica . Exploration of the geology of the West Antarctic Rift is difficult , because , apart from peaks of the Transantarctic Mountains that protrude above the ice , the region is covered by the vast West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Thus , the rift is less well known than other major rift valleys . It is known , however , that like the East African Rift , the West Antarctic Rift is actually a number of much shorter rifts that cross Antarctica . There is also a sharp division between older , broader Paleogene rifts including the Ross Sea Basin and the younger , narrower Terror Rift . There are also a large number of failed rifts extending as far as Berkner Island . Although many rifts within the West Antarctic Rift system are no longer active , it is now known that West Antarctica is moving away from the East Antarctic Craton in a north/northeasterly direction ( approximately in the direction of the South Georgia Islands ) at a rate of about 2 mm per year or 500,000 years per kilometre . The West Antarctic Rift is the source of all the recently active volcanoes within Antarctica , and of most of the major Antarctic mountain systems outside the Antarctic Peninsula . It is also believed to have a major influence on ice flows in West Antarctica , because fast moving ice streams are believed to be influenced by the lubrication provided by water-saturated till , which some argue could help cause breakup of the ice sheet if global warming accelerates .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "West_Antarctic_Rift",
"rank": 44,
"score": 106678
},
{
"content": "Title: Robert Bindschadler Content: Dr. Robert Bindschadler is a senior fellow at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center and has been an active field researcher in the Antarctic for over 25 years . He is a past president of the International Glaciological Society , chairs the West Antarctic Ice Sheet Initiative , is an editor for the Journal of Glaciology and has led 14 expeditions to Antarctica and has participated in numerous other expeditions around the world including Greenland . He has also testified before Congress and has briefed the U.S. vice president concerning ice-sheet stability and is often quoted or featured in the media . He was born in Pittsburgh and received a B.S. in astronomy and physics in 1971 from the University of Michigan and earned his Ph.D in Geophysics from the University of Washington in 1978 and did post doctoral work in Switzerland prior to working at NASA . His work revolves around the dynamics of glaciers and ice sheets using remote sensing technology . He has developed applications used to measure ice velocity and elevation using radar imagery which monitors the melting of ice sheets and detects changes in the volume of ice-sheets using radar altimetry . He has received numerous awards including Exceptional scientific achievement by NASA in 1994 as well as the Goddard Senior fellow in 2000 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Robert_Bindschadler",
"rank": 45,
"score": 106647
},
{
"content": "Title: Onyx River Content: The Onyx River is an Antarctic meltwater stream which flows westward through the Wright Valley from Wright Lower Glacier and Lake Brownworth at the foot of the glacier to Lake Vanda , during the few months of the Antarctic summer . Despite being only 32 km in length it is the longest river in Antarctica .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Onyx_River",
"rank": 46,
"score": 106631
},
{
"content": "Title: Villarrica (volcano) Content: Villarrica ( -LSB- pron,vee@'reek@ -RSB- ) ( Volcán Villarrica , Ruka Pillañ ) is one of Chile 's most active volcanoes , rising above the lake and town of the same name , 750 km south of Santiago . It is also known as Rucapillán , a Mapuche word meaning `` Pillan 's house '' . It is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes that trend NW-SW obliquely perpendicular to the Andean chain along the Mocha-Villarrica Fault Zone , along with Quetrupillán and the Chilean portion of Lanín , are protected within Villarrica National Park . Guided ascents are popular during summer months . Villarrica , with its lava of basaltic-andesitic composition , is one of a small number worldwide known to have an active ( but in this case intermittent ) lava lake within its crater . The volcano usually generates strombolian eruptions with ejection of incandescent pyroclasts and lava flows . Rainfall plus melted snow and glacier ice can cause massive lahars ( mud and debris flows ) , such as during the eruptions of 1964 and 1971 . Villarrica is one of 9 volcanoes currently monitored by the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project . The project is collecting data on the carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide emission rates from subaerial volcanoes .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Villarrica_(volcano)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 106239
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Berlin Content: Mount Berlin is the sixth highest volcano in Antarctica , located 16 km west of Mount Moulton in Marie Byrd Land near the eastern coast of the Ross Sea . It is composed of two coalesced shield volcanoes : Merrem Peak ( 3,000 m ) and Berlin Crater ( 3,478 m ) . The volcanic structure is considered active , as steaming fumaroles have been observed near the rim of the northern and western calderas , producing fumarolic ice towers .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Mount_Berlin",
"rank": 48,
"score": 106209
},
{
"content": "Title: Hotine Glacier Content: Hotine Glacier is a glacier 10 nmi long which is divided at its mouth by Mount Cloos , flowing west into both Deloncle Bay and Girard Bay on Kiev Peninsula , on the west coast of Graham Land , Antarctica . It was first charted by the Belgian Antarctic Expedition under Gerlache , 1897 -- 99 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1959 for Brigadier Martin Hotine , Director of Overseas Surveys .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Hotine_Glacier",
"rank": 49,
"score": 106064
},
{
"content": "Title: McMurdo Dry Valleys Content: The McMurdo Dry Valleys are a row of snow-free valleys in Antarctica located within Victoria Land west of McMurdo Sound . The Dry Valleys experience extremely low humidity and surrounding mountains prevent the flow of ice from nearby glaciers . The rocks here are granites and gneisses , and glacial tills dot this bedrock landscape , with loose gravel covering the ground . The region is one of the world 's most extreme deserts , and includes many features including Lake Vida , a saline lake , and the Onyx River , a meltwater stream and Antarctica 's longest river . Although no living organisms have been found in the permafrost here , endolithic photosynthetic bacteria have been found living in the relatively moist interior of rocks and anaerobic bacteria , with a metabolism based on iron and sulfur , live under the Taylor Glacier .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "McMurdo_Dry_Valleys",
"rank": 50,
"score": 105982
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount West Content: Mount West is a somewhat isolated mountain 9 nautical miles ( 17 km ) southeast of Mount Woodward , surmounting the ice-covered ridge between Hammond and Swope Glaciers , in the Ford Ranges of Marie Byrd Land . Mapped by the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) , 1939-41 . The name was applied by Paul Siple , commander of the West Base of the USAS , for James E. West , the first Chief Scout Executive of the Boy Scouts of America . Siple 's first visit to Antarctica was as a member of the Byrd Antarctic Expedition ( 1928 -- 30 ) , having been selected as an Eagle Scout for that venture . Category : Mountains of Marie Byrd Land",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Mount_West",
"rank": 51,
"score": 105841
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Bird Content: Mount Bird is a 1765 m high shield volcano standing about 7 mi south of Cape Bird , the northern extremity of Ross Island . It was mapped by the British National Antarctic Expedition , 1901 -- 04 , under Robert Falcon Scott , and apparently named by them after Cape Bird . Shell Glacier and Endeavour Piedmont Glacier lie on its slopes .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Mount_Bird",
"rank": 52,
"score": 105699
},
{
"content": "Title: Lind Glacier Content: Lind Glacier is a glacier flowing west from Alencar Peak into the southern part of Collins Bay , on the west coast of Kiev Peninsula in Graham Land , Antarctica . It was first charted by the Fourth French Antarctic Expedition under Jean-Baptiste Charcot , 1908 -- 10 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1959 for James Lind , the Scottish `` founder of modern naval hygiene , '' who was the first to publish a convincing account of experimental work establishing the dietary cause and cure of scurvy , in 1755 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Lind_Glacier",
"rank": 53,
"score": 105611
},
{
"content": "Title: Upper Victoria Glacier Content: Upper Victoria Glacier The Upper Victoria Glacier ( 77 ° 20 'S 161 ° 30 ` E ) is a retreating glacier at the head of the Victoria Valley , the northernmost of the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica . Melt water from the glacier feeds the Victoria River and on from there to Lake Vida . Category : Glaciers of Victoria Land Category : McMurdo Dry Valleys",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Upper_Victoria_Glacier",
"rank": 54,
"score": 105604
},
{
"content": "Title: Holoviak Glacier Content: Holoviak Glacier is a glacier flowing west into the head of Mendelssohn Inlet , facing towards the Wilkins Ice Shelf on the north side of the Beethoven Peninsula , lying in the southwestern portion of Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1967 -- 68 and from Landsat imagery taken 1972 -- 73 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Judy C. Holoviak , technical editor , 1964 -- 77 , of the Antarctic Research Series , published by the American Geophysical Union , and director of publications for the Union from 1978 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Holoviak_Glacier",
"rank": 55,
"score": 105602
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy",
"rank": 56,
"score": 105371
},
{
"content": "Title: List of glaciers in the Antarctic Content: There are many glaciers in the Antarctic . This set of lists does not include ice sheets , ice caps or ice fields , such as the Antarctic ice sheet , but includes glacial features that are defined by their flow , rather than general bodies of ice . The lists include outlet glaciers , valley glaciers , cirque glaciers , tidewater glaciers and ice streams . Ice streams are a type of glacier and many of them have `` glacier '' in their name , e.g. Pine Island Glacier . Ice shelves are listed separately in the List of Antarctic ice shelves . For the purposes of these lists , the Antarctic is defined as any latitude further south than 60 ° ( the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty System ) .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "List_of_glaciers_in_the_Antarctic",
"rank": 57,
"score": 105294
},
{
"content": "Title: Totten Glacier Content: Totten Glacier is a large glacier draining a major portion of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet , through the Budd Coast of Wilkes Land in the Australian Antarctic Territory . The catchment drained by the glacier is estimated at 538,000 km2 , extending approximately 1100 km into the interior and 750 km across . Totten drains northeastward from the continental ice but turns northwestward at the coast where it terminates in a prominent tongue close east of Cape Waldron . It was first delineated from aerial photographs taken by USN Operation Highjump ( 1946 -- 47 ) , and named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for George M. Totten , midshipman on the USS Vincennes of the United States Exploring Expedition ( 1838 -- 42 ) , who assisted Lt. Charles Wilkes with correction of the survey data obtained by the expedition . Totten Glacier Tongue is a prominent glacier tongue extending seaward from Totten Glacier . Delineated from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump ( 1946 -- 47 ) and named by US-ACAN in association with Totten Glacier . Airborne geophysical surveys of the Glacier between 2008 and 2012 showed that deep warm water can access , melt and thin the underside of the ice tongue , potentially accelerating the glacier .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Totten_Glacier",
"rank": 58,
"score": 105226
},
{
"content": "Title: Freimanis Glacier Content: Freimanis Glacier is a tributary glacier that flows west-northwest for 25 nmi and enters Tucker Glacier between Mount Greene and Novasio Ridge , in the Admiralty Mountains of Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos , 1960 -- 62 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Harry Freimanis , an aurora scientist and station scientific leader at Hallett Station , 1962 -- 63 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Freimanis_Glacier",
"rank": 59,
"score": 105101
},
{
"content": "Title: Tuya Content: A tuya is a type of distinctive , flat-topped , steep-sided volcano formed when lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet . They are somewhat rare worldwide , being confined to regions which were covered by glaciers and had active volcanism during the same period . Lava that erupts under a glacier cools very quickly and can not travel far , so it piles up into a steep-sided hill . If the eruption continues long enough , it either melts all the ice or emerges through the top of the ice and then creates normal-looking lava flows that make a flat cap on top of the hill . Discovering and dating the lava flows in a tuya has proven useful in reconstructing past glacial ice extents and thicknesses .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Tuya",
"rank": 60,
"score": 105078
},
{
"content": "Title: Lilienthal Glacier Content: Lilienthal Glacier is a glacier flowing west into Cayley Glacier between Pilcher Peak and Baldwin Peak , on the west coast of Graham Land , Antarctica . It was photographed by the Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition in 1956 -- 57 , and mapped from these photos by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey . It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1960 for Otto Lilienthal , a German pioneer of flight in gliders .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Lilienthal_Glacier",
"rank": 61,
"score": 105031
},
{
"content": "Title: Glaciovolcanism Content: Glaciovolcanism is volcanism and related phenomena associated with glacial ice . The ice commonly constrains the erupted material and melts to create meltwater . Considerable melting of glacial ice can create massive lahars and glacial outburst floods known as jökulhlaups . Three forms of glaciovolcanism are known . Subglacial eruptions occur when a volcano erupts under ice . Such activity can produce landforms such as tuyas and subglacial mounds . Ice-marginal volcanism takes place when material from a subaerial eruption makes lateral contact with ice . Ice-marginal lava flows are a product of this phenomenon . Supraglacial eruptions deposit ejecta onto the surface of an ice sheet .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Glaciovolcanism",
"rank": 62,
"score": 105027
},
{
"content": "Title: Saedinenie Snowfield Content: Saedinenie Snowfield ( Lednik Saedinenie \\ ` led-nik s & - e-di - ` ne-ni-e \\ ) on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica is situated southwest of Rose Valley Glacier , west of Panega Glacier , northwest of Kaliakra Glacier , north of lower Perunika Glacier and east-northeast of Tundzha Glacier . It is bounded by Teres Ridge to the west , the glacial divide between the Drake Passage and Bransfield Strait to the south , Gleaner Heights , Elhovo Gap and Leslie Hill to the southeast , and Leslie Gap and Vidin Heights to the east . The snowfield extends 4.7 km inland and 15.5 km in southwest-northeast direction , and drains into Hero Bay between Melta Point and Slab Point . A survey bivouac in eastern Saedinenie Snowfield near Leslie Hill was occupied 24 -- 28 December 2004 . The feature was named after the Bulgarian town of Saedinenie ( ` Reunification ' ) , in association with the 120th anniversary of the Reunification of the Principality of Bulgaria and the province of Eastern Rumelia in 1885 . This is one of the Bulgarian names bestowed on hitherto nameless geographical features by the Tangra 2004/05 Expedition .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Saedinenie_Snowfield",
"rank": 63,
"score": 105023
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Morning Content: Mount Morning is a dome-shaped shield volcano standing WSW of Mount Discovery and east of Koettlitz Glacier in Victoria Land . Discovered by the British National Antarctic Expedition ( 1901 -- 04 ) which named it for the Morning , relief ship to the expedition . Morning Glacier is a glacier named in association with Mount Morning .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Mount_Morning",
"rank": 64,
"score": 104757
},
{
"content": "Title: Hill Glacier Content: Hill Glacier is a broad glacier that drains the west-central part of Spaatz Island , Antarctica , at the south side of Ronne Entrance . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and U.S. Navy aerial photographs , 1961 -- 66 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Lennie J. Hill , a USGS topographic engineer who was a member of the Marie Byrd Land Survey Party , 1967 -- 68 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Hill_Glacier",
"rank": 65,
"score": 104662
},
{
"content": "Title: Donnellan Glacier Content: Donnellan Glacier is a steep valley glacier fed by highland ice adjacent to Opalchenie Peak and Fukushima Peak on Vinson Plateau , the summit plateau of Vinson Massif , in the Sentinel Range of the Ellsworth Mountains , Antarctica . The glacier flows west-southwestward from Opalchenie Peak along the northwest side of Mount Slaughter into Nimitz Glacier . The glacier was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2006 after Andrea Donnellan of the Satellite Geodesy and Geodynamics Systems Group at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , California Institute of Technology , who was involved from the mid-1990s in research projects involving the use of GPS in studies of earth crustal deformation in Southern California and also in Antarctica .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Donnellan_Glacier",
"rank": 66,
"score": 104661
},
{
"content": "Title: Posadowsky Glacier (Antarctica) Content: Posadowsky Glacier ( Posadowskygletscher , ) is a glacier about 9 nmi long , flowing north to Posadowsky Bay immediately east of Gaussberg . Posadowsky Bay is an open embayment , located just east of the West Ice Shelf and fronting on the Davis Sea in Kaiser Wilhelm II Land . Kaiser Wilhelm II Land is the part of East Antarctica lying between Cape Penck , at 87 ° 43 ` E , and Cape Filchner , at 91 ° 54 ' E and is part of the Australian Antarctic Territory . Other notable geographic features in this area include Drygalski Island , located 45 mi NNE of Cape Filchner in the Davis Sea , and Mirny Station , a Russian scientific research station .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Posadowsky_Glacier_(Antarctica)",
"rank": 67,
"score": 104658
},
{
"content": "Title: Assender Glacier Content: Assender Glacier is a glacier flowing west into Spooner Bay in Enderby Land , Antarctica . It was plotted from air photos taken from Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions aircraft in 1956 , and named by the Antarctic Names Committee of Australia for Pilot Officer Ken J. Assender , RAAF , pilot at Mawson Station in 1959 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Assender_Glacier",
"rank": 68,
"score": 104650
},
{
"content": "Title: Fleming Glacier Content: Fleming Glacier is a broad glacier 25 nmi long on the west side of the Antarctic Peninsula , flowing west-northwest and terminating in Forster Ice Piedmont to the east of the Wordie Ice Shelf . The glacier was charted by the British Graham Land Expedition ( BGLE ) under John Rymill , 1934 -- 37 , and was photographed from the air by the United States Antarctic Service on September 29 , 1940 . This hitherto unnamed feature was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1947 for Reverend W.L.S. Fleming , Dean of Trinity Hall , Cambridge University ; also , chaplain , chief scientist , and geologist of the BGLE .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Fleming_Glacier",
"rank": 69,
"score": 104554
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 70,
"score": 104546
},
{
"content": "Title: Comberiate Glacier Content: Comberiate Glacier is a glacier flowing west from the Royal Society Range between Berry Spur and Utz Spur . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( 1994 ) after Michael A. Comberiate , who was instrumental in developing a system for satellite communications to and within Antarctica , the South Pole Satellite Data Link .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Comberiate_Glacier",
"rank": 71,
"score": 104536
},
{
"content": "Title: Volcano Disaster Assistance Program Content: The `' ' Volcano Disaster Assistance Program '' ' ( VDAP ) was developed by the U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance after the eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in 1985 . The volcanic eruption melted a glacier triggering a lahar that killed 23,000 people . It was determined that increased monitoring would make evacuating local populations much easier , saving lives . Today the program responds to volcanic crises around the world . The aim of the program is to assist in saving lives and property , to reduce economic losses , and to prevent a natural hazard becoming a natural disaster . VDAP are based in the Cascades Volcano Observatory , Washington State . VDAP channels its energy into four main activities ; response to natural disaster , capacity building , training and research . Volocanology is increasingly being studied due to the severe impact it has around the world .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Volcano_Disaster_Assistance_Program",
"rank": 72,
"score": 104491
},
{
"content": "Title: Howchin Glacier Content: Howchin Glacier is a glacier between Ward Glacier and Walcott Glacier , on the east side of the Royal Society Range in Victoria Land , Antarctica . Brandau Crater is an ice-free volcanic crater lying to the south of the snout of Howchin Glacier on Chancellor Ridge , Royal Society Range It was discovered by a party led by Thomas Griffith Taylor of the British Antarctic Expedition , 1910 -- 13 , and named for Professor W. Howchin , a geologist of Adelaide .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Howchin_Glacier",
"rank": 73,
"score": 104423
},
{
"content": "Title: Huey Gully Content: Huey Gully is a high , deeply incised gully between Mount Keohane and Mount Falconer in the north wall of Taylor Valley , Victoria Land , Antarctica . Containing some glacial ice from Commonwealth Glacier , the gully provides meltwater to Huey Creek , which descends south to Lake Fryxell . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1997 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Huey_Gully",
"rank": 74,
"score": 104333
},
{
"content": "Title: Whirlwind Glaciers Content: Whirlwind Glaciers is a set of four prominent converging glaciers which flow into the west side of Whirlwind Inlet on the east coast of the Antarctic Peninsula . Discovered by Sir Hubert Wilkins on his flight of December 20 , 1928 , the glaciers were so named because their relative position was suggestive of the radial cylinders of his Wright Whirlwind engine . The Whirlwind Glaciers , comprising Flint , Demorest , Matthes , and Chamberlin Glaciers , were photographed from the air by the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) in 1940 ; charted by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) in 1948 . Category : Glaciers of Graham Land Category : Bowman Coast",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Whirlwind_Glaciers",
"rank": 75,
"score": 104317
},
{
"content": "Title: Helios Ridge Content: Helios Ridge is a broad rock ridge , 4.5 nmi long , that extends in an east-northeast direction from Mount Helios in the Olympus Range , to the vicinity of Lake Brownworth in Wright Valley , Victoria Land , Antarctica . The ridge rises between the east snout of Clark Glacier and Wright Valley , causing meltwater streams to flow east around it to reach Onyx River . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1997 in association with Mount Helios and other features in this area that are named from Greek mythology .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Helios_Ridge",
"rank": 76,
"score": 104263
},
{
"content": "Title: Erebus Ice Tongue Content: The Erebus Ice Tongue is a mountain outlet glacier and the seaward extension of Erebus Glacier from Ross Island . It projects 11 km into McMurdo Sound from the Ross Island coastline near Cape Evans , Antarctica . The glacier tongue varies in thickness from 50 m at the snout to 300 m at the point where it is grounded on the shoreline . Explorers from Robert F. Scott 's Discovery Expedition ( 1901 -- 1904 ) named and charted the ice tongue . Erebus Ice Tongue is about 10 m high and is centred upon 77.6 degrees south latitude , 166.75 degrees east longitude . The portion of the ice tongue extending beyond the shoreline or grounding line floats upon the water . Ice tongues emerge when a glacier ice stream flows rapidly ( relative to surrounding ice ) into the sea or a lake , usually in a protected area . For instance , Capes Evans and Royds extending from Ross Island protect the Erebus Ice Tongue from the open waters of the Ross Sea . Hut Point Peninsula to the south helps deflect icebergs propelled by prevailing southerly winds . The long , narrow Erebus ice stream drains from the western slope of Mount Erebus , an active volcano rising 3794 m in elevation . The mountain constantly replenishes the glacial ice stream , as annual snow fall exceeds annual snow melt . The Erebus Ice Tongue is a dynamic structure subject to a host of internal and external stresses which affect its shape , size , and durability .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Erebus_Ice_Tongue",
"rank": 77,
"score": 104255
},
{
"content": "Title: Philippi Glacier, Antarctica Content: Philippi Glacier ( Philippigletscher ) is coastal glacier about 15 mi long , flowing N to the E end of the West Ice Shelf , 15 mi W of Gaussberg . Delineated from aerial photographs taken by U.S. Navy ( USN ) OpHjp , 1946-47 . Named by the ANCA for Emil Philippi , geologist with the German Antarctic Expedition ( GerAE ) under Erich von Drygalski , 1901 -- 03 , who made scientific observations in the vicinity of Gaussberg . Category : Ice streams of Antarctica Category : Glaciers of Kaiser Wilhelm II Land",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Philippi_Glacier,_Antarctica",
"rank": 78,
"score": 104253
},
{
"content": "Title: Warpasgiljo Glacier Content: Warpasgiljo Glacier is a Valley glacier about 25 mi long , flowing West to Sulzberger Ice Shelf between the Swanson Mountains on the North and Mounts Rea and Cooper on the South , in the Edsel Ford Ranges of Marie Byrd Land . This glacier was discovered by and named for the four Geological Party Expedition members of the West Base of the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) , in aerial flights and from ground surveys in November -- December 1940 , as part of the Antarctic Expedition of 1939-1941 led by Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd . This glacier was later renamed `` Arthur Davis Glacier '' by US-SCAN for Rear Admiral Arthur C. Davis , an early leader in aviation in the United States Navy . West Base Geological Party Expedition In February 1940 , shortly after West Base was set up in Little America III , Dr. Paul Siple directed an airplane flight from the West Base to the Edsel Ford Ranges to determine where exploration and geological work was to be done during the next summer season , and numerous aerial photographs were taken . During the long winter months that followed , fairly accurate maps were made of the Southern Edsel Ford Ranges . This is an area of approximately 7000 sqmi of mountainous coastland in the northwestern region of Marie Byrd Land . During the 1940 winter night , a Geological Party Expedition of four men was organized and they prepared for the extremely long trek on two dog sleds to the Edsel Ford Ranges . The four-man party was composed of Lawrence A. Warner , leader and geologist , Charles F. Passel , geologist and radio operator , Harold P. Gilmour `` Gil '' , recorder and collector of biological specimens and Loran Wells `` Joe '' , photographer and observer . The Geological Party 's Expedition objective was to map and geologically survey as much of the southern portion of the Edsel Ford Range as possible , and additionally investigate the natural resources of the area and triangulate accurately for improved maps of the region . The four-man Geological Party Expedition left the West Base on October 17 , 1940 and returned 82 days later on January 7 , 1941 traveling a total of 691 nmi on board their two dog sleds . In the nearly three-month expedition , they had to be supported by airplanes that deposited supplies at 100 mi intervals along their charted route . The Geological Party Expedition explorers discovered and visited for the first time some 50 peaks , valleys and glaciers in this region and some 300 geological specimens were collected . Warpasgiljo Glacier was one of those features discovered . All four explorers of the West Base Geological Party Expedition were awarded a Congressional Gold Medal , the highest civilian award of the United States that can be bestowed by Congress . This medal , designated the `` United States Antarctic Expedition Medal '' was awarded by a Special Act of Congress , authorized on September 24 , 1945 ( Public Law 185 , 79th Congress ) , for their contribution to the success of the 1939-1941 Polar Exploration to Antarctica . Meaning of `` Warpasgiljo '' The extensive Warpasgiljo Glacier was discovered and named for the four members of the West Base Geological Party Expedition : WARner + PASsel + GILmour + JOe = WARPASGILJO . It is believed that members of US-SCAN were unaware of the origin of this name . Expedition Dog Sleds used in Little America III During the 1939-1941 Expedition , dog sleds were the most reliable form of ground exploration in Antarctica . A dog sled team capable of transporting two men contained nine dogs . They could haul around 100 lb per dog , for a total of 900 lb . For a 30-day expedition , some 550 lb of food were needed for the two men and the dogs . The other 350 lb were used for fuel and camping equipment . With good weather in the Antarctic summer , they could travel 10 kn per day , or a total of 300 kn .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Warpasgiljo_Glacier",
"rank": 79,
"score": 104188
},
{
"content": "Title: List of glaciers in the Antarctic: A–H Content: This is a list of glaciers in the Antarctic with a name starting with the letters A -- H . This list does not include ice sheets , ice caps or ice fields , such as the Antarctic ice sheet , but includes glacial features that are defined by their flow , rather than general bodies of ice . This list includes outlet glaciers , valley glaciers , cirque glaciers , tidewater glaciers and ice streams . Ice streams are a type of glacier and many of them have `` glacier '' in their name , e.g. Pine Island Glacier . Ice shelves are listed separately in the List of Antarctic ice shelves . For the purposes of this list , the Antarctic is defined as any latitude further south than 60 ° ( the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty System ) .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "List_of_glaciers_in_the_Antarctic:_A–H",
"rank": 80,
"score": 104157
},
{
"content": "Title: Goodwin Glacier Content: Goodwin Glacier is a glacier flowing west into Flandres Bay southward of Pelletan Point on the west coast of Graham Land , Antarctica . It was charted by the Belgian Antarctic Expedition under Gerlache , 1897 -- 99 . It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1960 for Hannibal Goodwin , an American pastor who invented the first transparent nitrocellulose flexible photographic roll-film in 1887 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Goodwin_Glacier",
"rank": 81,
"score": 104131
},
{
"content": "Title: Balchen Glacier Content: Balchen Glacier is a crevassed glacier in Antarctica , flowing west to Block Bay between the Phillips Mountains and the Fosdick Mountains in Marie Byrd Land . It was discovered on December 5 , 1929 , by the Byrd Antarctic Expedition and named by Richard E. Byrd for Bernt Balchen , chief pilot of the expedition .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Balchen_Glacier",
"rank": 82,
"score": 104051
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Terror (Antarctica) Content: Mount Terror is a large shield volcano that forms the eastern part of Ross Island , Antarctica . It has numerous cinder cones and domes on the flanks of the shield and is mostly under snow and ice . It is the second largest of the four volcanoes which make up Ross Island and is somewhat overshadowed by its neighbor , Mount Erebus , 30 km to the west . Mt. Terror was named in 1841 by Sir James Clark Ross for his second ship , HMS Terror . The captain of Terror was Captain Francis Crozier who was a close friend of Ross .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Mount_Terror_(Antarctica)",
"rank": 83,
"score": 104006
},
{
"content": "Title: Leay Glacier Content: Leay Glacier is a glacier flowing northwest into Girard Bay to the west of Hotine Glacier , on Kiev Peninsula , on the west coast of Graham Land , Antarctica . It was first charted by the French Antarctic Expedition , 1908 -- 10 , under Jean-Baptiste Charcot , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee for Petra Searle ( nee Leay ) of the Directorate of Overseas Surveys , who has contributed to the work of mapping the Antarctic Peninsula area .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Leay_Glacier",
"rank": 84,
"score": 103980
},
{
"content": "Title: Ferrigno Glacier Content: Ferrigno Glacier is a broad glacier on the north side of Rampart Ridge , Victoria Land , Antarctica , flowing west-northwest from Mount Lynch and Bishop Peak to the vicinity of The Spire . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1994 after Jane G. Ferrigno , a United States Geological Survey geologist , a specialist in the use of satellite imagery to study and map Antarctica , and other ice and snow areas throughout the world . She was co-editor ( with Richard S. Williams , Jr. ) of the Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Ferrigno_Glacier",
"rank": 85,
"score": 103949
},
{
"content": "Title: List of glaciers in the Antarctic: I–Z Content: This is a list of glaciers in the Antarctic with a name starting with the letters I -- Z . This list does not include ice sheets , ice caps or ice fields , such as the Antarctic ice sheet , but includes glacial features that are defined by their flow , rather than general bodies of ice . This list includes outlet glaciers , valley glaciers , cirque glaciers , tidewater glaciers and ice streams . Ice streams are a type of glacier and many of them have `` glacier '' in their name , e.g. Pine Island Glacier . Ice shelves are listed separately in the List of Antarctic ice shelves . For the purposes of this list , the Antarctic is defined as any latitude further south than 60 ° ( the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty System ) .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "List_of_glaciers_in_the_Antarctic:_I–Z",
"rank": 86,
"score": 103934
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Murphy Content: Mount Murphy is a massive , snow-covered and highly eroded shield volcano with steep , rocky slopes . It is directly south of Bear Peninsula , Marie Byrd Land , Antarctica . The mountain is bounded by the Smith , Pope and Haynes Glaciers . Delineated from aerial photographs taken by US Navy Operation Highjump in January 1947 . Named by US-ACAN for Robert Cushman Murphy of the American Museum of Natural History , noted authority on Antarctic and sub-Antarctic bird life . While serving on the whaler , he charted the Bay of Isles region of South Georgia .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Mount_Murphy",
"rank": 87,
"score": 103923
},
{
"content": "Title: Lizotte Creek Content: Lizotte Creek is a meltwater stream , 2,000 m long , flowing southeastwards from the extreme southwestern tip of Matterhorn Glacier to the northeast end of Lake Bonney in Taylor Valley , Victoria Land , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1996 after Michael P. Lizotte , a biologist at the University of Wisconsin -- Oshkosh , who studied algal physiology and ecology in perennially ice-covered lakes in the McMurdo Dry Valleys area from 1985 to 2008 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Lizotte_Creek",
"rank": 88,
"score": 103816
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic oscillation Content: The Antarctic oscillation ( AAO , to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO ) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere . It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode ( SAM ) . It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability . In its positive phase , the westerly wind belt contracts towards Antarctica , while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator . In 2014 , Dr Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode . This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years , and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Antarctic_oscillation",
"rank": 89,
"score": 103813
},
{
"content": "Title: McMorrin Glacier Content: McMorrin Glacier is a glacier flowing west from Mount Metcalfe to Marguerite Bay in Graham Land , Antarctica . it was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee for Ian McMorrin , a British Antarctic Survey general assistant at Stonington Island , 1961 -- 63 , who helped survey this area in 1962 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "McMorrin_Glacier",
"rank": 90,
"score": 103803
},
{
"content": "Title: Nobile Glacier Content: Nobile Glacier is a glacier flowing into the southeast part of Recess Cove , Charlotte Bay , on the west coast of Graham Land . Charted by the Belgian Antarctic Expedition under Gerlache , 1897-99 . Named by the United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) in 1960 for Umberto Nobile , Italian designer of the rigid airships Norge and respectively . Glacier is located in the closest part of Antarctica to South America .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Nobile_Glacier",
"rank": 91,
"score": 103765
},
{
"content": "Title: McCance Glacier Content: McCance Glacier is the 30-km long and 5 km wide glacier draining the Hutchison Hill area on the west slopes of Avery Plateau on Loubet Coast in Graham Land , Antarctica . It flows north-northwestwards along the west side of Osikovo Ridge , Kladnitsa Peak and Rubner Peak and enters Darbel Bay . The glacier was photographed by Hunting Aerosurveys Ltd in 1955 -- 57 , and mapped from these photos by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey . It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee for Robert A. McCance of the Department of Experimental Medicine , Cambridge University , who gave great help in the calculation of concentrated sledging rations for British polar expeditions during the period 1938 -- 58 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "McCance_Glacier",
"rank": 92,
"score": 103761
},
{
"content": "Title: Nils Larsen Glacier Content: Nils Larsen Glacier is a glacier descending to the west coast of Peter I Island close northward of Norvegia Bay . In February 1929 the crew of the Norvegia carried out a series of investigations of this island , landing on February 2 . Named for Nils Larsen , captain of the Norvegia . Category : Glaciers of Antarctica Category : Peter I Island",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Nils_Larsen_Glacier",
"rank": 93,
"score": 103695
},
{
"content": "Title: McDermott Glacier Content: McDermott Glacier is a glacier flowing west from the Royal Society Range , Antarctica , between Dot Cliff and Berry Spur . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( 1994 ) after United States Geological Survey cartographer Cathleen McDermott , a member of the satellite surveying team at South Pole Station , winter party 1993 .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "McDermott_Glacier",
"rank": 94,
"score": 103627
},
{
"content": "Title: Gerasimou Glacier Content: Gerasimou Glacier is a steep-walled tributary glacier , 5 nmi long , entering the west side of Shackleton Glacier opposite the Gemini Nunataks , in the Queen Maud Mountains of Antarctica . It was named by the Texas Tech Shackleton Glacier Expedition , 1964 -- 65 , for Helen Gerasimou , a polar personnel specialist with the Office of Antarctic Programs , National Science Foundation .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Gerasimou_Glacier",
"rank": 95,
"score": 103621
},
{
"content": "Title: Funk Glacier Content: Funk Glacier is a glacier flowing into the head of Nevsha Cove in Beascochea Bay to the south of Frölich Peak , on the west coast of Graham Land , Antarctica . It was first charted by the French Antarctic Expedition , 1908 -- 10 , under Jean-Baptiste Charcot . It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1959 for Casimir Funk , an American ( formerly Polish ) biochemist who , while working at the Lister Institute in London in 1912 , originated the theory of vitamins .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Funk_Glacier",
"rank": 96,
"score": 103522
},
{
"content": "Title: Berry Glacier Content: Berry Glacier is an Antarctic glacier , about 25 mi long and 5 mi wide , draining north between Perry Range and Demas Range into the Getz Ice Shelf on the coast of Marie Byrd Land . This vicinity was first photographed and rudely charted from aircraft of the U.S. Antarctic Service in December 1940 , and the glacier was mapped in detail by the U.S. Geological Survey from ground surveys and from U.S. Navy air photos , 1959 -- 66 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Commander William H. Berry , U.S. Navy , Air Operations Officer for Task Force 43 during Operation Deep Freeze 1969 -- 72 ; Operations Officer , 1973 . There are seven volcanic nunataks along the east side of the glacier .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Berry_Glacier",
"rank": 97,
"score": 103455
},
{
"content": "Title: Solomon Glacier Content: Solomon Glacier is a glacier on the south side of Fisher Bastion which flows west from Solomon Saddle to enter Potter Glacier in the Royal Society Range , Victoria Land . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in 1994 after Susan Solomon , NOAA , atmospheric chemist who has been a leader in the study of upper atmospheric physics in Antarctica . At the time of naming , Chairman of the Office of Polar Programs Advisory Committee , National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Solomon_Glacier",
"rank": 98,
"score": 103372
},
{
"content": "Title: Sirma Glacier Content: Sirma Glacier ( ледник Сирма , ` Lednik Sirma ' \\ ` led-nik ` sir-ma \\ ) is the 7 km long and 4 km wide glacier on the west side of Owen Ridge in southern Sentinel Range , Ellsworth Mountains in Antarctica , situated south of Bolgrad Glacier , and flowing west-southwestwards from Mount Southwick , Mount Milton and Mount Inderbitzen to leave the range and join Nimitz Glacier northwest of Modren Peak . The glacier is named after the Bulgarian woman rebel leader Sirma Voyvoda ( 1773-1858 ) .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Sirma_Glacier",
"rank": 99,
"score": 103271
},
{
"content": "Title: Lawrie Glacier Content: Lawrie Glacier is a glacier flowing between Mount Genecand and Mezzo Buttress , and entering the head of Barilari Bay between Cherkovna Point and Prestoy Point on the west coast of Graham Land , Antarctica . It was charted by the British Graham Land Expedition under Rymill , 1934 -- 37 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1959 for Robert Lawrie , an English alpine and polar equipment specialist .",
"qid": "28",
"docid": "Lawrie_Glacier",
"rank": 100,
"score": 103266
}
] |
the bushfires [in Australia] were caused by arsonists and a series of lightning strikes, not 'climate change' | [
{
"content": "Title: 2007 Kangaroo Island bushfires Content: The 2007 Kangaroo Island bushfires were a series of bushfires caused by lightning strikes on 6 December 2007 on Kangaroo Island, South Australia, resulting in the destruction of 95,000 hectares (230,000 acres) of national park and wilderness protection area. The fires occurred mainly across the western side of the island near Flinders Chase National Park, Vivonne Bay, D'Estrees Bay, Western River and Riverleas.",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2007_Kangaroo_Island_bushfires",
"rank": 1,
"score": 205652
},
{
"content": "Title: Kangaroo Island bushfires Content: The Kangaroo Island bushfires were a series of bushfires caused by lightning strikes on 6 December 2007 on Kangaroo Island , South Australia , resulting in 95,000 ha of land being destroyed . The fires occurred mainly across the western side of the island near Flinders Chase National Park , Vivonne Bay , D'Estrees Bay , Western River and Riverleas . The D'Estrees Bay fire in Cape Gantheaume Conservation Park was contained by 12 December 2007 , while intense fires in the west , which included the protected areas of Flinders Chase National Park and Ravine des Casoars Wilderness Protection Area , were more difficult to extinguish . On 14 December 2007 , the Country Fire Service officially announced that all fires were contained . The event was South Australia 's largest bush fire operation to date with over 800 personnel , 7 fixed wing water bombers and an Elvis Skycrane Helitanker all assisting in firefighting efforts , together with units from Victoria 's Country Fire Authority and the Rural Fire Service of New South Wales .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Kangaroo_Island_bushfires",
"rank": 2,
"score": 202161
},
{
"content": "Title: Bushfires in Australia Content: Bushfires in Australia are frequent events during the warmer months of the year , due to Australia 's mostly hot , dry climate . Each year , such fires impact extensive areas . On one hand , they can cause property damage and loss of human life . On the other hand , certain native flora in Australia have evolved to rely on bushfires as a means of reproduction , and fire events are an interwoven and an essential part of the ecology of the continent . For thousands of years , Indigenous Australians have used fire to foster grasslands for hunting and to clear tracks through dense vegetation . Major firestorms that result in severe loss of life are often named based on the day on which they occur , such as Ash Wednesday and Black Saturday . Some of the most intense , extensive and deadly bushfires commonly occur during droughts and heat waves , such as the 2009 Southern Australia heat wave , which precipitated the conditions during the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in which 173 people lost their lives . Other major conflagrations include the 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfires , the 2003 Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires and the 2006 December Bushfires . Global warming is increasing the frequency and severity of bushfires .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Bushfires_in_Australia",
"rank": 3,
"score": 201845
},
{
"content": "Title: 2007–08 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2007 -- 08 Australian bushfire season was the Australian bushfire season over the summer of 2007 -- 2008 . Fire occurrence was below average for the season as some regions experienced increased rainfall and reduced fuel as a result of extensive fires during the previous 2006 -- 07 season , particularly in Victoria where the fires in the 2006 -- 07 season burnt over 1.1 million hectares of land . Fires in Victoria during the 2007 -- 08 season burnt less than a fifth of the land area usually burnt during an average bushfire season . An analysis of bushfires in Victoria on public land by the Department of Sustainability and Environment revealed that the 2007 -- 08 fires burnt 32,368 hectares , or 18.7 % of the long-term average of 173,152 hectares . It was also estimated that 26 % of these fires were caused by lightning strikes and 25 % by arson .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2007–08_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 4,
"score": 196577
},
{
"content": "Title: 2006–07 Eastern Victoria Great Divide bushfires Content: The Eastern Victoria Great Divide bushfires , also known as the Great Divide Complex , were a series of bushfires that commenced in the Victorian Alps in Australia on 1 December 2006 due to lightning strikes and continued for 69 days . They were the longest running bushfires in the state 's history . Between 1.2 and 1.3 million hectares were burnt , most of it public land . Victorian fire personnel were assisted by others from all states and territories of Australia , as well as teams from New Zealand , the United States and Canada .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2006–07_Eastern_Victoria_Great_Divide_bushfires",
"rank": 5,
"score": 196252
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Sunday bushfires Content: The Black Sunday bushfires were a series of bushfires that broke out across South Australia on 2 January 1955 . Extreme morning temperatures coupled with strong north-westerly winds contributed to the breakout of numerous fires in the Adelaide Hills , Jamestown , Waterloo , Kingston and Millicent . Most were caused by sparks from powerlines downed by the wind . Around 1,000 Emergency Fire Service volunteers from 60 brigades were tasked to the fires , but were overwhelmed . At 10am , the EFS head office requested urgent public assistance . Around 2,500 citizens volunteered . The fires were contained by 9:30 pm , thanks largely to a fortuitous change in the weather and widespread public assistance . The fires resulted in two deaths , destroyed 40 homes and numerous other buildings , and caused more than four million dollars ' worth of property damage , most notably the destruction of the Governor 's summer residence at Marble Hill . Governor Robert George , his family and staff were lucky to escape with their lives . The Premier , Sir Thomas Playford , also narrowly escaped death , sheltering with five other men in a patch of hoed earth near Cherryville . The burnt area was estimated at as much as 600 sqmi stretching from One Tree Hill to Strathalbyn ; however , other sources put the area at closer to 150 sqmi .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Black_Sunday_bushfires",
"rank": 6,
"score": 187663
},
{
"content": "Title: 1961 Western Australian bushfires Content: In early 1961 , a series of bushfires burned in the south-west region of Western Australia . The devastating fires burned large areas of forest in and around Dwellingup from 20 to 24 January , at Pemberton and in the Shannon River region between 11 and 15 February , and in the Augusta-Margaret River area in early March . There were also major fires which burned in the Darling Scarp around Kalamunda . The towns of Dwellingup and Karridale were largely destroyed by the fires , as were a number of smaller railway and mill settlements . There was no loss of human life . Whilst the 1960 rainy season over the affected region had not been excessively dry , rainfall had been below average over the region affected by the fires ever since August of that year - thus the forests were perhaps even drier than they would normally be by January . However , the underlying cause of the Dwellingup fires lay far to the north in the Pilbara , where a tropical cyclone had formed on 15 January northeast of Darwin had followed a trajectory along the north west Western Australian coast and intensified north east of Onslow and then moved steadily southwards , hitting that town on 24 -- 25 January while having a central pressure of 920 hPa . Hurricane-force winds demolished several buildings and storm surge inundated the town with 1.8 metres water . With a strong high pressure system to the east of the cyclone remaining almost stationary for some days , hot north-easterly winds developed and became so intense that by the 20th maximum temperatures throughout the south west were uniformly above 40 C and remained at that level for the following five days . During this period , as the cyclone moved slowly along the coast it drenched Onslow and the neighbouring district , but only dry thunderstorms occurred in the south-west , which started fires that spread extremely rapidly in the hot , windy conditions . The first fires were reported from Dwellingup , 110 km south of Perth , Western Australia on 19 January and the following day fires erupted in the timbered country of the Darling Scarp around Mundaring and Mount Helena . Although as the cyclone tracked down the west coast some rain came around 25 January to ease the fires , not all were fully extinguished . Moreover , as the normal dry summer weather evaporated further moisture from the forests , when another severe cyclone hit Onslow on 12 February it caused even stronger winds ( sustained at up to 60 km/h with much stronger gusts ) and as this cyclone moved inland , lost intensity and produced no rain in fire-affected areas , decaying bushfires were re-ignited . The fire from Dwellingup consequently moved downslope toward the major town of Pinjarra where it burned a significant portion of the town 's buildings -- 123 people were left homeless . As the forests surrounding began re-igniting , the entire population of a number of other mill towns was relocated to Dwellingup in the following days . The fires continued to burn owing to the strong winds , and many tiny timber towns were completely burnt out - Holyoake , Nanga Brook , Marrinup and Banksiadale ; and were never re-built . The 2nd March saw Onslow 's third cyclone in five weeks , which like the second did not produce any rain in the affected areas and led to temperatures reaching in Perth 100 F on the first two days of March for the first time . Fires spread southward to Augusta-Margaret River Shire , though some in that area were thought to have been deliberately lit , and continued to rage within 25 kilometres of Perth city . Although rain was predicted , it did not eventuate . Despite the dryness of the cool change , an easing of the winds allowed fire fighters to finally bring the flames under control . However , in all it is estimated that the fires burned a total of 4400 km2 of bushland , and property damage far exceeded this . Following the fires , a Royal Commission was conducted to investigate causes and in following years many recommendations were made to improve controlled burning in the tall eucalypt forests of the south-west .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "1961_Western_Australian_bushfires",
"rank": 7,
"score": 184427
},
{
"content": "Title: Eyre Peninsula bushfire Content: The Eyre Peninsula bushfire an event also known locally as Black Tuesday , was a bushfire which occurred during January 2005 on the lower part of the Eyre Peninsula in the Australian state of South Australia . The fire resulted in 820 km2 of land being burnt , the loss of nine lives and injury to another 110 persons . It was one of Australia 's worst bushfires since the Ash Wednesday fires of 1983 . The bushfire began in farmland north of the town of Wangary and spread to the east . Investigation confirmed that the cause was a faulty muffler on a vehicle parked in grass on a roadside by a man checking the suitability of an area for prospecting with a metal detector . investigations confirmed that it was not arson . It burnt more than 820 km2 of farm and scrubland in and around the small townships of Wangary , Wanilla , North Shields , Poonindie , Louth Bay , Greenpatch , and Yallunda Flat to the north of the city of Port Lincoln . More than $ 100 million in losses included 79 houses completely destroyed , 26 houses suffering extensive damage , 139 vehicles destroyed , 324 sheds destroyed or severely damaged , 138 farm implements destroyed , 6.300 km of fencing destroyed , 46,500 head of stock killed , one aircraft ( $ 100,000 ) destroyed , tools and equipment of 46 small businesses/contractors lost . This does not include the human impact of loss , injury and dislocation , or the loss of possessions , clothing , even school books before the new school year about to resume . 1,290 people suffered loss of property because of the fire . The fire began on 10 January , and was initially contained by emergency services . However , severe weather conditions on 11 January , with wind speeds of 70 km/h and temperatures exceeding 40 degrees , then caused the fire to break through containment lines and spread to the east . More than 400 South Australian Country Fire Service ( CFS ) fire fighters and 80 fire appliances combated the bushfire , with assistance from local property owners . The Port Lincoln Airport was temporarily closed , preventing additional fire fighters from being flown in from Adelaide . A major emergency was declared for the Eyre Peninsula from noon on 12 January until 16 January . As the bushfire tore through North Shields , a small settlement north of Port Lincoln , residents were ordered to leave their homes and head to the beaches to the east . The bushfire raged through the caravan park at North Shields , destroying cabins and caravans . Residents at Louth Bay were forced to evacuate and seek refuge on nearby beaches . Some residents had to be rescued from the sea by emergency services after taking refuge in the water . Six people , including four children , died in their cars as they tried to flee the firestorm . Two others died when the vehicle from which they were fighting the fire was engulfed by flame . A local schoolteacher also died when flames engulfed the Shell Museum at North Shields north of Port Lincoln . 113 were reported injured , including five who suffered serious burns and were flown to Adelaide for treatment . Several people were treated at Port Lincoln Hospital for burns and smoke inhalation . The fire was contained on 12 January after burning for two days . Property damage included 15 caravans , two buses , three cabins , one shop , three vans and four boats . There was also extensive damage to rural infrastructure , including water mains , power lines and telephone infrastructure .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Eyre_Peninsula_bushfire",
"rank": 8,
"score": 183299
},
{
"content": "Title: 2001 Warragamba bushfires Content: The 2001 Warragamba bushfires occurred Christmas Day , 25 December 2001 in the small New South Wales town of Warragamba , leaving 30 homes and businesses destroyed . The bushfires in Warragamba were part of the longest official continuous bushfire emergency in NSW taking place between 21 December 2001 and 13 January 2002 and spreading across the state . Most of these fires were caused by lightning or arsonists . The fire behaviour was unusual in many areas due to extreme dryness of fuel and variable winds . The initial destruction in Warragamba and the Hawkesbury River area prompted a natural disaster declaration by the State Government . On Christmas Day of 2001 over four thousand firefighters were battling over one hundred blazes across the state . A band of fire running from Campbelltown , New South Wales east to the coast was the firefighters main concern . This was the firefront that caused the damage to Warragamba and neighbouring town Silverdale , New South Wales as the fire sped sixty kilometres in six hours from the Lower Blue Mountains to the coast around Helensburgh , New South Wales . Areas further south , such as the area around St. George 's Basin and Jervis Bay were heavily affected by fires caused by stray embers from the main front , with many homes in the area being destroyed . Many local residents of the townships under threat battled the fires with garden hoses , as there were not enough fire-fighters . One resident , Father John Evans battled to save the local parish church , only to see his own house burn down . Hundreds of people were forced into an emergency evacuation from Warragamba . The initial loss of electricity affected 4,500 homes in Warragamba and surrounding areas . The local electricity supplier , Integral Energy estimated the cost in the Warragamba and surrounding areas at 3 million dollars . On 26 December 2001 , the day after the fires swept through the town , Prime Minister John Howard visited the town and praised the work of volunteer firefighters .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2001_Warragamba_bushfires",
"rank": 9,
"score": 183039
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Lubra bushfire Content: The Mount Lubra bushfire was started by a lightning strike late on 19 January 2006 near The Grampians in Australia . By the time it was extinguished it had burned for approximately two weeks and covered approximately 130,000 hectares of land . The fire burned , in difficult terrain , throughout 20 -- 21 January without any serious impact . On 22 January , hot and dry conditions that had persisted for several days worsened . The fire spread rapidly in a southerly direction towards Dunkeld , south of Grampians National Park . The fire front reached the outskirts of Willaura ( south-west of Ararat ) , before a strong but dry wind change took the fire back in the opposite direction . Winds of up to 120 km/h sent the fire northward extremely quickly , impacting a number of small communities along the eastern side of The Grampians , including Mafeking , Moyston , Barton , Jallukar and Pomonal . A man and his son died between Moyston and Pomonal when they were caught up in the fire . The fire was eventually controlled approximately two weeks later , having burned nearly 47 % of the Grampians National Park , as well as a significant amount of private property , a total of 184,000 hectares . Approximately 25 homes were destroyed , mostly to the west of Moyston and around Pomonal . Over 50 sheds and outbuildings , 1500 kilometres of fencing , as well as 62,000 head of sheep and 500 head of cattle were lost to the blaze . ( p26 )",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Mount_Lubra_bushfire",
"rank": 10,
"score": 182145
},
{
"content": "Title: 2002–03 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2002 -- 03 Australian bushfire season was a particularly extensive bushfire season in Australia . It ran predominantly from December 2002 to March 2003 and involved over 3,000 separate fires in Victoria alone . The 2003 Canberra bushfires were also particularly severe . The developing drought in Australia and well below-average rainfall through winter and spring of 2002 established conditions conducive to above-average bushfire potential . During the 2002 -- 03 season , there were 5,999 bushfires attended by the relevant agency Australia-wide and 7 fatalities , 4 of those from the January Canberra fires . Perhaps the most well known fire of the season was the Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires that burnt in north-eastern Victoria , the Victorian Alps and Gippsland . This fire was ignited in several locations by multiple lightning strikes and burnt 1.12 million hectares of land over the course of 2 months . Over 15,000 personnel were directly engaged with this fire complex .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2002–03_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 11,
"score": 181935
},
{
"content": "Title: 2006–07 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2006 -- 07 Australian bushfire season was one of the most extensive bushfire seasons in Australia 's history . Victoria experienced the longest continuously burning bushfire complex in Australia 's history , with fires in the Victorian Alps and Gippsland burning over 1 million hectares of land over the course of 69 days . See Bushfires in Australia for an explanation of regional seasons . The 2006 -- 07 season included the Victorian Alpine Fire Complex which was the longest running collection of bushfires in Victoria 's history . On 1 December 2006 , more than 70 fires were caused by lightning strikes in the Victorian Alps , many of which eventually merged to become the Great Divide Complex , which burned for 69 days across about a million hectares . Despite the length of the season and amount of land burnt , the fires were contained to mostly unoccupied regions such as the Victorian Alps , national parks and remnant bushland . Evacuation plans were implemented in many small towns in these areas , a combination of these factors resulted in only one fatality as a result of the fires .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2006–07_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 12,
"score": 181648
},
{
"content": "Title: Ash Wednesday bushfires Content: The Ash Wednesday bushfires , known in South Australia as Ash Wednesday II , were a series of bushfires that occurred in south-eastern Australia on 16 February 1983 , which was Ash Wednesday in the Christian calendar . Within twelve hours , more than 180 fires fanned by winds of up to 110 km/h ( 68 mph ) caused widespread destruction across the states of Victoria and South Australia . Years of severe drought and extreme weather combined to create one of Australia 's worst fire days in a century . The fires became the deadliest bushfire in Australian history until the Black Saturday bushfires in 2009 . In Victoria 47 people died . There were 28 deaths in South Australia . This included 14 CFA and 3 CFS volunteer fire-fighters who died across both states that day . Many fatalities were as a result of firestorm conditions caused by a sudden and violent wind change in the evening which rapidly changed the direction and size of the fire front . The speed and ferocity of the flames , aided by abundant fuels and a landscape immersed in smoke , made fire suppression and containment impossible . In many cases , residents fended for themselves as fires broke communications , cut off escape routes and severed electricity and water supplies . Up to 8,000 people were evacuated in Victoria at the height of the crisis and a state of disaster was declared for the first time in South Australia 's history . Ash Wednesday was one of Australia 's costliest natural disasters . Over 3,700 buildings were destroyed or damaged and 2,545 individuals and families lost their homes . Livestock losses were very high , with over 340,000 sheep , 18,000 cattle and numerous native animals either dead or later destroyed . A total of 4,540 insurance claims were paid totalling A$ 176 million with a total estimated cost of well over $ 400 million ( 1983 values ) for both states or $ 1.3 billion in adjusted terms ( 2007 ) . The emergency saw the largest number of volunteers called to duty from across Australia at the same time -- an estimated 130,000 firefighters , defence force personnel , relief workers and support crews .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Ash_Wednesday_bushfires",
"rank": 13,
"score": 179370
},
{
"content": "Title: 2003 Canberra bushfires Content: The 2003 Canberra bushfires involved several deaths , over 490 injured , and caused severe damage to the suburbs and outer areas of Canberra , the capital city of Australia , during 18 -- 22 January 2003 . Almost 70 % of the Australian Capital Territory 's ( ACT ) pastures , forests ( pine plantations ) , and nature parks were severely damaged , and most of the renowned Mount Stromlo Observatory was destroyed . After burning for a week around the edges of the ACT , the fires entered the suburbs of Canberra on 18 January 2003 . Over the next ten hours , four people died and more than 500 homes were destroyed or severely damaged , requiring a significant relief and reconstruction effort .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2003_Canberra_bushfires",
"rank": 14,
"score": 171854
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Saturday bushfires Content: The Black Saturday bushfires were a series of bushfires that ignited or were burning across the Australian state of Victoria on and around Saturday , 7 February 2009 and were Australia 's all-time worst bushfire disasters . The fires occurred during extreme bushfire-weather conditions and resulted in Australia 's highest ever loss of life from a bushfire ; 173 people died and 414 were injured as a result of the fires . As many as 400 individual fires were recorded on 7 February . Following the events of 7 February 2009 and its aftermath , that day has become widely referred to in Australia as Black Saturday .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Black_Saturday_bushfires",
"rank": 15,
"score": 170544
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Christmas bushfires Content: The Black Christmas bushfires were bushfires that burnt for almost three weeks from 24 December 2001 to 7 January 2002 across New South Wales , Australia . It was the longest continuous bushfire emergency in NSW history . Low rainfall across winter and spring 2001 combined with a hot , dry December created ideal conditions for bushfires . On the day of Christmas Eve , firefighters from the Grose Vale Rural Fire Service ( RFS ) brigade attended a blaze in rugged terrain at the end of Cabbage Tree Rd , Grose Vale , believed to have been caused by power lines in the Grose Valley . On Christmas Day , strong westerly winds fuelled more than 100 bushfires across the state , creating a plume of smoke that extended across Sydney . This plume of smoke would not clear for some days as the bushfires continued to burn , creating some of the worst pollution that Sydney has ever experienced , with a regional pollution index reading of : 200 in North-West Sydney ; 120 in Central-East and South-West Sydney . The fires mainly burnt in Lane Cove National Park , the Royal National Park & Blue Mountains National Park . Overall approximately 3,000 square kilometres ( 740,000 acres ) were burnt . 121 homes were destroyed across the state and 36 damaged , mostly in the lower Blue Mountains and west of the Royal National Park around Helensburgh . Arsonists were believed to be responsible for starting many of the fires , leading to harsher penalties for those who start bushfires . The dry conditions that started the bushfires continued well into 2002 , resulting in the worst drought in 100 years . The drought was declared a `` one in 1000 year event '' . The drought finally broke with the La Nina event of 2010 -- 2011 . Significantly higher than average rainfall began in July 2010 , it was Australia 's second wettest year on record . An Erickson S-64 Aircrane helicopter became something of a celebrity during this time . Elvis ( N179AC ) was loaned to NSW by Victoria and proved instantly successful .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Black_Christmas_bushfires",
"rank": 16,
"score": 169946
},
{
"content": "Title: 2003 Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires Content: The Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires , started with eighty seven fires that were started by lightning in the north east of Victoria on 8 January 2003 . Eight of these fires were unable to be contained and joined together to form the largest fire in Victoria since the 1939 `` Black Friday '' bushfires . The main fire burnt over 13,000 km ² over 59 days before it was contained on 7 March 2003 . 41 homes were destroyed and over 9,000 livestock killed . Thousands of kilometres of fencing was also destroyed . This was the longest running fire until the 2006-07 Great Divide fires . In early February , at the peak of the fires , around 3,760 people were involved in the fire effort , excluding local CFA brigades . This figure includes 160 Defence Force staff , over 300 interstate firefighters , 33 alpine firefighting specialists from New Zealand and 35 personnel from the United States . In total , 15,725 personnel were directly engaged on fighting these bushfires . The areas affected included , Mount Buffalo , Mount Bogong , Mount Feathertop , Bright , Dinner Plain , Benambra , Omeo , Cobungra , Shannonvale , Bundara , Anglers Rest , Sunnyside , Glen Wills , and Dargo .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2003_Eastern_Victorian_alpine_bushfires",
"rank": 17,
"score": 168536
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010–11 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2010 -- 11 Australian bushfire season was notable for a relative lack of bushfires along Eastern Australia due to a very strong La Niña effect , which instead contributed to severe flooding , in particular the 2010 -- 2011 Queensland floods and the 2011 Victorian floods . As a result of these weather patterns , most major fire events took place in Western Australia and South Australia . Some later significant fire activity occurred in Gippsland in eastern Victoria , an area which largely missed the rainfall that lead to the flooding in other parts of the state .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2010–11_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 18,
"score": 167708
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Thursday bushfires Content: The Black Thursday bushfires were a devastating series of fires that swept the state of Victoria , Australia , on 6 February 1851 . They are considered the largest Australian bushfires in a populous region in recorded history , with approximately 5000000 ha , or a quarter of Victoria , being burnt . Twelve human lives were lost , along with one million sheep , thousands of cattle and countless native animals . `` The temperature became torrid , and on the morning of the 6th of February 1851 , the air which blew down from the north resembled the breath of a furnace . A fierce wind arose , gathering strength and velocity from hour to hour , until about noon it blew with the violence of a tornado . By some inexplicable means it wrapped the whole country in a sheet of flame -- fierce , awful , and irresistible . ''",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Black_Thursday_bushfires",
"rank": 19,
"score": 167509
},
{
"content": "Title: 1994 Eastern seaboard fires Content: The 1994 Eastern seaboard fires were bushfires in New South Wales , Australia between August 1993 and 16 January 1994 were widespread along the NSW coast from Bega to the Queensland border and inland as far as Bathurst . Also Over 80 separate fires encouraged by extreme hot dry and windy conditions threatened many areas including the major cities of Newcastle and Sydney . The fires killed four people and burnt out over 800,000 ha . The fires across the state destroyed 225 homes in total - 101 of which were in the southern Sydney suburbs of Jannali and Como West where Como West Public School was also destroyed . 13 houses were destroyed in suburbs around Lane Cove National Park and 42 were destroyed around Kuringai National Park , Garigal National Park and the Royal National Park , 9 houses including a Youth hostel were destroyed in Hawkesbury Heights in the Blue Mountains . These fires generated a large amount of media coverage internationally . Unlike earlier fires -- several of which caused much more damage -- the 1994 bushfires entered a major city , as the later Black Christmas and 2003 Canberra bushfires would . Additionally , this was the only occasion in which a major city , Sydney , had been threatened with total isolation due to fire . At the peak of the fires only the Hume Highway to the southwest remained open . All other road and rail routes out of Sydney were closed . Residents of the entire metropolitan area of Sydney had to contend with ash raining down on them , and the sky remained a blazing orange colour for days afterwards .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "1994_Eastern_seaboard_fires",
"rank": 20,
"score": 165853
},
{
"content": "Title: Reactions to the Black Saturday bushfire crisis Content: The Black Saturday bushfires were a series of fires that ignited across the Australian state of Victoria during extreme weather conditions on 7 February 2009 . Burning around 450,000 ha for over a month , the fires destroyed over 2,100 homes , destroyed several regional towns and were fought by over 5,000 firefighting personnel . The Fires devastated many . Responses to the Black Saturday bushfires included immediate community response , donations and later , international aid efforts , Government inquiries including a Royal Commission and recommendations and discussions from a wide variety of bodies , organisations , authorities and communities . Several of these responses are currently ongoing as of September 2009 .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Reactions_to_the_Black_Saturday_bushfire_crisis",
"rank": 21,
"score": 165154
},
{
"content": "Title: 1925–26 Victorian bushfire season Content: During the 1925 -- 26 Victorian bushfire season a series of major bushfires occurred between 26 January and 10 March 1926 in the state of Victoria in Australia . A total of 60 people were killed , 700 injured , and 1000 buildings were destroyed across the south-east of the state . On Sunday 14 February , later referred to as Black Sunday , bushfires swept across Gippsland , the Yarra Valley , the Dandenong Ranges and the Kinglake area . The fires had originated in forest areas on 26 January , but wind gusts of up to 97 km per hour led to the joining of the fire fronts on 14 February . In the Warburton area alone , 31 deaths were recorded including 14 at Wooley 's Mill in Gilderoy , 6 at Big Pats Creek and 2 at Powelltown . Other affected settlements included Noojee , Erica and Kinglake , where St Mary 's Church and Thompson 's Hotel were amongst the buildings destroyed .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "1925–26_Victorian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 22,
"score": 165148
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 New South Wales bushfires Content: The 2013 New South Wales bushfires were a series of bushfires in Australia across the state of New South Wales primarily starting , or becoming notable , on 13 October 2013 ; followed by the worst of the fires beginning in the Greater Blue Mountains Area on 16 and 17 October 2013 . High fuel loads , coupled with warm , dry and windy weather , provided dangerous conditions which fuelled the fires . At the peak of the fires , on the morning of 18 October , over 100 fires were burning across the state . The Premier of New South Wales Barry O'Farrell declared a state of emergency on 20 October , empowering firefighters to evict residents and demolish fire-affected buildings . The fires are the worst in New South Wales since the 1960s . , 248 houses and other structures were destroyed across the state . Two fatalities were attributed to the fires . It was estimated that claims will exceed 94 million .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2013_New_South_Wales_bushfires",
"rank": 23,
"score": 164492
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011–12 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2011 -- 12 Australian bushfire season was mostly active between September 2011 to March 2012 and caused most damage in the state of Western Australia , particularly in the South West . The state had been prepared and had expected an increased risk of bushfire following heavy spring rains as a result of a La Nina weather pattern .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2011–12_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 24,
"score": 164402
},
{
"content": "Title: Adelaide Hills bushfires Content: The Adelaide Hills bushfires of 1939 were a series of bushfires in the Adelaide Hills , South Australia , which burned from 10 -- 14 January . There had been ample rain during the winter of 1938 resulting in heavy understorey , but drought set in toward the end of the year . A heatwave in early January 1939 ensured the fuel load was very dry and particularly susceptible to fire . The fires were finally extinguished when thunderstorms arrived during the evening of the 14th . Damage was assessed at ₤ 650,000 , including the destruction of ninety houses . No lives were lost , but the fire highlighted the inadequacy of South Australia 's fire-fighting capability . Six thousand city volunteers had helped to combat the fires , using mainly branches and wet bags . As a result , the Emergency Fire Service was set up , the precursor to the modern Country Fire Service .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Adelaide_Hills_bushfires",
"rank": 25,
"score": 164173
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 Sampson Flat bushfires Content: The 2015 Sampson Flat bushfires were a series of bushfires in Australia in the state of South Australia , that primarily affected the Adelaide region , predominantly the Adelaide Hills and the outer Adelaide metropolitan area . The fires began on 2 January 2015 during a day of extreme heat and lasted until 9 January 2015 . The fires began in the outer northern area of the city , in the suburb of Sampson Flat . It later travelled southeast towards the Kersbrook township and across the Mount Lofty Ranges toward the Adelaide Hills . , at least 26 houses were destroyed with 37 families in temporary accommodation . This count had increased to 38 houses , 125 outbuildings and 134 injuries by the evening of 6 January . The town of Kersbrook was worst hit , with twelve houses destroyed . On 7 January , the number of houses destroyed throughout the affected area was revised down from 38 to 32 and again down to 27 a few days later . There were no fatalities as a result of the bushfires ; and the total cost was estimated to be more than 13 million . At the same time , a smaller fire threat was posed near and in the Limestone Coast region on 2 January 2015 .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2015_Sampson_Flat_bushfires",
"rank": 26,
"score": 161985
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014 Perth Hills Bushfire Content: The 2014 Perth Hills Bushfire , sometimes referred to as the `` Parkerville fire '' , was a bushfire that burned from 12 January to 1 February and affected the Mundaring municipality of the Perth Hills in the Australian state of Western Australia . During a major run of the fire on the afternoon and evening of 12 January , fifty-seven houses and numerous non-residential buildings were completely destroyed , and a further six houses were damaged in the suburbs of Mt. Helena , Stoneville , and Parkerville . Approximately 386 ha of uncleared land and pasture -- the majority on private property -- were burned during the 21-day duration of the fire . None of the residential subdivisions impacted had been formally declared as being within a bushfire prone area . The cause of the fire was recorded as accidental by the Department of Fire and Emergency Services ( DFES ) . The source of ignition was determined by both the DFES and Energy Safety to have been a fallen power pole , which ignited extremely dry vegetation at approximately 11:00 AWST ( UTC +8 ) during a period of easterly winds gusting up to moderate gale force and temperatures in excess of 40 C . A considerable quantity of property in Stoneville was destroyed following a wind change that brought fresh breezes from the south west to the fire ground , just prior to 15:00 AWST .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2014_Perth_Hills_Bushfire",
"rank": 27,
"score": 160939
},
{
"content": "Title: 2009–10 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2009 -- 10 Australian bushfire season was the bushfire season which occurred predominantly from June 2009 to May 2010 . Increased attention has been given to this season as authorities and government attempt to preempt any future loss of life after the Black Saturday bushfires during the previous season , 2008 -- 09 . Long range weather observations predict very hot , dry and windy weather conditions during the summer months , leading to a high risk of bushfire occurrence . In late September , several bushfires affected southeastern and northern Queensland . In October , bushfires affected much of the central latitudes of Australia , across Western Australia , Queensland and New South Wales . In early November , a heat wave across southeastern Australia and high bushfire risk weather , precipitated a series of bushfires in those states , particularly South Australia , where 6 people were injured in separate incidents . In December , a further 5 people were injured and a helicopter pilot killed , whilst fighting bushfires in NSW . Later that month , a 60-year-old man and three other men suffered burns whilst fighting fires in Southern NSW , while major fires burnt in the Riverina , far east Gippsland and Port Lincoln . Between Christmas and New Years 2009 , bushfires affected the northern and central Wheatbelt of Western Australia , destroying 37 homes and about 3,000 hectares ( 7,410 acres ) of bushland . In early January 2010 , Victoria and South Australia experienced `` Catastrophic '' category fire conditions , and on 10 January , a CFA volunteer was killed and 2 others injured after a fire truck rolled en route to a fire near Mansfield , in Victoria 's north east .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2009–10_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 28,
"score": 160285
},
{
"content": "Title: 2019–20 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2019–20 Australian bushfire season, colloquially known as Black Summer, was a period of unusually intense bushfires in many parts of Australia. In June 2019, the Queensland Fire and Emergency Service acting director warned of the potential for an early start to the bushfire season which normally starts in August. The warning was based on the Northern Australia bushfire seasonal outlook noting exceptional dry conditions and a lack of soil moisture, combined with early fires in central Queensland. Throughout the summer, hundreds of fires burnt, mainly in the southeast of the country. The major fires peaked during December–January. As of 9 March 2020, the fires burnt an estimated 18.6 million hectares (46 million acres; 186,000 square kilometres; 72,000 square miles), destroyed over 5,900 buildings (including 2,779 homes) and killed at least 34 people. Nearly three billion terrestrial vertebrates alone – the vast majority being reptiles – were affected and some endangered species were believed to be driven to extinction. At its peak, air quality dropped to hazardous levels in all southern and eastern states. The cost of dealing with the bushfires is expected to exceed the A$4.4 billion of the 2009 Black Saturday fires, and tourism sector revenues fell by more than A$1 billion. However, economists estimated that the Australian bushfires may cost over A$103 billion in property damage and economic losses, making the bushfires Australia's costliest natural disaster to date. Nearly 80 percent of Australians were affected either directly or indirectly by the bushfires. By 7 January 2020, the smoke had moved approximately 11,000 kilometres (6,800 mi) across the South Pacific Ocean to Chile and Argentina. As of 2 January 2020, NASA estimated that 306 million tonnes (337 million short tons) of CO2 had been emitted.From September 2019 to March 2020, fires heavily impacted various regions of the state of New South Wales. In eastern and north-eastern Victoria large areas of forest burnt out of control for four weeks before the fires emerged from the forests in late December. Multiple states of emergency were declared across New South Wales, Victoria, and the Australian Capital Territory. Reinforcements from all over Australia were called in to assist fighting the fires and relieve exhausted local crews in New South Wales. The Australian Defence Force was mobilised to provide air support to the firefighting effort and to provide manpower and logistical support. Firefighters, supplies and equipment from Canada, New Zealand, Singapore and the United States, among others, helped fight the fires, especially in New South Wales.During the ensuing crisis, an air tanker and two helicopters crashed during firefighting operations, the air tanker crash resulting in the deaths of the three crew. Two fire trucks were caught in fatal incidents caused directly by fire conditions, killing three fire fighters.By 4 March 2020, all fires in New South Wales had been extinguished completely (to the point where there were no fires in the state for the first time since July 2019), and the Victoria fires had all been contained. The last fire of the season occurred in Lake Clifton, Western Australia, in early May.There has been considerable debate regarding the underlying cause of the intensity and scale of the fires, including the role of fire management practices and climate change, which during the peak of the crisis attracted significant international attention. Politicians visiting fire impacted areas received mixed responses, in particular Prime Minister Scott Morrison. An estimated A$500 million was donated by the public at large, international organisations, public figures and celebrities for victim relief and wildlife recovery. Convoys of donated food, clothing and livestock feed were sent to affected areas.",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2019–20_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 29,
"score": 159340
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Friday bushfires Content: The Black Friday bushfires of 13 January 1939 , in Victoria , Australia , were among the worst natural bushfires ( wildfires ) in the world . Almost 20,000 km ² ( 4,942,000 acres , 2,000,000 ha ) of land was burned , 71 people died , several towns were entirely destroyed and the Royal Commission that resulted from it led to major changes in forest management . Over 1,300 homes and 69 sawmills were burned , and 3,700 buildings were destroyed . It was calculated that three-quarters of the State of Victoria was directly or indirectly affected by the disaster . The Royal Commission noted that `` it appeared the whole State was alight on Friday , 13 January 1939 '' .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Black_Friday_bushfires",
"rank": 30,
"score": 157993
},
{
"content": "Title: 1980 Ash Wednesday bushfires Content: The first Ash Wednesday fires were a series of bushfires that began in the Adelaide Hills , South Australia , on Ash Wednesday , 20 February 1980 . 51 homes and 25 other buildings were destroyed , and 75 farms were affected . 40 people were injured , with 150 left homeless . The fire burnt an area of 3770 ha , and caused an estimated $ 34,000,000 damage . In 1983 , after the Ash Wednesday fires in February that year , the 1980 fire became known in South Australia as the `` first '' Ash Wednesday , or Ash Wednesday I.",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "1980_Ash_Wednesday_bushfires",
"rank": 31,
"score": 157705
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 Pinery Bushfire Content: The 2015 Pinery Bushfire was a catastrophic bushfire that burned from 25 November to 2 December 2015 , and primarily affected the Lower Mid North and west Barossa Valley regions immediately north of Gawler in the Australian state of South Australia . At least 86000 ha of scrub and farmland in the municipalities of Clare and Gilbert Valleys , Light , Mallala & Wakefield were burned during its duration . On 25 November , during the major run of the Pinery fire , two fatalities occurred ; Janet Hughes , 56 , perished while fleeing in a vehicle outside Hamley Bridge ; Allan Tiller , 69 , perished while fighting the fire on a neighbour 's property in Pinery itself . A further 90 people were hospitalized as a result of the fire , with 5 of the victims suffering critical injuries . The Pinery fire destroyed or rendered uninhabitable 91 houses , and completely destroyed 388 non-residential structures , 93 pieces of farm machinery and 98 other vehicles . It also caused significant damage to rural produce ; 53,000 poultry and 17,500 head of livestock perished and up to A$ 40 million worth of fodder and unharvested grains were destroyed . Communities affected by the fire included Daveyston , Barabba , Freeling , Greenock , Hamley Bridge , Kapunda , Magdala , Mallala , Nain , Nuriootpa , Owen , Pinery , Pinkerton Plains , Redbanks , Roseworthy , Stockport , Tarlee , Templers , Wasleys and Woolsheds .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2015_Pinery_Bushfire",
"rank": 32,
"score": 157420
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 Esperance bushfires Content: The 2015 Esperance bushfires were a series of catastrophic bushfires that burned from 15 to 26 November and affected the Goldfields-Esperance region in the Australian state of Western Australia . During the fires , the Shire of Esperance experienced two significant fires and a complex of fires ; 128000 ha were burnt by the Cascades fire , 18000 ha were burnt by the Merivale fire , and 164000 ha were burnt by the Cape Arid complex of fires . On 17 November , during the major run of the Cascades fire , four civilian fatalities occurred in vehicles traveling on Griggs Road in Scaddan . , the Cascades fire was equally the worst bushfire in Western Australia in terms of human fatalities along with the Willow Springs/Nannup fire of January 1958 . The Cascades fire destroyed Scaddan town hall , one house , 16 non-residential structures and dozens of vehicles in the communities of Grass Patch , Salmon Gums and Scaddan . There was also significant damage to rural produce ; approximately 4,500 head of livestock died and 30000 ha of crop -- constituting about 500,000 tonnes of grain -- were burnt . In addition , the Merivale fire destroyed 2 houses in Stockyard Creek , and the Cape Arid complex destroyed significant areas of Western Ground Parrot habitat -- reportedly up to 90 % -- prompting discussion that the critically endangered parrot could '' ... become the first bird in at least 200 years to become extinct in Western Australia '' .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2015_Esperance_bushfires",
"rank": 33,
"score": 157348
},
{
"content": "Title: 1943–44 Victorian bushfire season Content: The 1943 -- 44 Victorian bushfire season was marked by a series of major bushfires following severe drought conditions in the state of Victoria in Australia . The summer of 1943 -- 44 was the driest summer ever recorded in Melbourne with just 46 mm falling , a third of the average for the period . Between 22 December and 15 February , 51 people were killed , 700 injured , and 650 buildings were destroyed across the state . Many personnel who would have been normally available for fire fighting duties had been posted overseas and to remote areas of Australia during World War II . The first major fire was a grassfire at Wangaratta on 22 December which burnt hundreds of hectares and resulted in the deaths of 10 volunteer firefighters near Tarrawingee . On 14 January and the following day , fires broke out across the state . To the west of Melbourne , a series of bushfires broke out between South Australian border and the outskirts of Geelong including areas near the towns of Hamilton , Skipton , Dunkeld , Birregurra and Goroke . Many smaller towns were substantially damaged . In Derrinallum , the only buildings left standing were the Mechanics ' Institute , two churches and several business premises . In central Victoria , fires occurred near Daylesford , Woodend , Gisborne and Bendigo . In the Melbourne area , 63 homes were destroyed at Beaumaris and another 5 in the Glenroy - Pascoe Vale area . On 14 February a fire broke out near Yallourn . In Hernes Oak , 16 houses and the post office were destroyed while 80 houses were destroyed and 6 lives lost in the Morwell district and 40 houses destroyed and 3 deaths occurred in the Traralgon area . A Royal Commission was held into the Yallourn fires in 1944 . A major outcome following the fires was the establishment of the Country Fire Authority in 1945 to co-ordinate rural fire brigades .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "1943–44_Victorian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 34,
"score": 155921
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015–16 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2015 -- 16 Australian bushfire season was the most destructive bushfire season in terms of property loss since the 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season , with the loss of 408 houses and at least 500 non-residential buildings as a result of wild fires between 1 June 2015 and 31 May 2016 . The season also suffered the most human fatalities since the 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season ; 6 died in Western Australia , 2 in South Australia and 1 in New South Wales . 8 deaths were as a direct result of fire , and a volunteer firefighter died due to unrelated health complications while on duty . The season witnessed four notable fires ; the Cascades fire in Western Australia , the Pinery fire in South Australia , the Great Ocean Road fire in Victoria , and the Harvey-Waroona fire in Western Australia .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2015–16_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 35,
"score": 155192
},
{
"content": "Title: 1943–44 Australian bushfire season Content: The 1943 -- 44 Australian bushfire season was marked by a series of major bushfires following severe drought conditions in the state of Victoria in Australia . The summer of 1943 -- 44 was the driest summer ever recorded in Melbourne until 2002 with just 46 mm falling , a third of the long-term average . Between 22 December 1943 and 15 February 1944 , 51 people were killed , 700 injured , and 650 buildings were destroyed across the state . Many personnel who would have been normally available for fire fighting duties had been posted overseas and to remote areas of Australia during World War II .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "1943–44_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 36,
"score": 154604
},
{
"content": "Title: 2006 Junee Bushfire Content: The 2006 Junee bushfire , officially referred to as the `` Jail Break Inn fire '' , was a bushfire that burned from 1 -- 6 January and primarily affected the Riverina region in the Australian state of New South Wales . At least 25,200 ha of farmland and forest reserve in the municipality of Junee Shire were burned during the 6 day duration of the fire . Ten houses , four shearing sheds and numerous other vehicles and non-residential buildings were destroyed , and damage was also caused to the Junee Round House . Rural industry in the Junee area was also significantly affected by the fire ; over 20,000 head of livestock perished or were put down due to fire related injuries , 20 ha of unharvested crops were burned and 1500 km of fencing was damaged . The fire affected 200 properties in and around the communities of Bethungra , Eurongilly , Illabo , Junee and Old Junee . The Jail Break Inn fire is suspected to have been ignited at approximately 13:00 AEDT ( UTC +11 ) by a cigarette butt discarded on the roadside near the Jail Break Inn , 8 km west of the Junee township . During the major run of the fire that afternoon , John Heffernan , a local farmer and second cousin of Liberal senator Bill Heffernan , received third-degree burns to 60 -- 80 % of his body while trying to fight the fire .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2006_Junee_Bushfire",
"rank": 37,
"score": 153587
},
{
"content": "Title: 2008–09 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season was the Australian bushfire season that ran from late December 2008 to April/May 2009 . Above average rainfalls in December , particularly in Victoria , delayed the start of the season , but by January 2009 , conditions throughout South eastern Australia worsened with the onset of one of the region 's worst heat waves . On 7 February , extreme bushfire conditions precipitated major bushfires throughout Victoria , involving several large fire complexes , which continued to burn across the state for around one month . 173 people lost their lives in these fires and 414 were injured . 3,500 + buildings were destroyed , including 2,029 houses , and 7,562 people displaced . Late 2008 had relatively few bushfires . Victoria in particular experienced higher than average rainfall in December , decreasing the fire danger in many regions of the state . Initial observations in October 2008 predicted an above average fire potential across Australia 's coastal regions and a below average potential in Central Australia , where drought has reduced the available fuel . In late January and early February , the effects of the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave increased temperatures across south-eastern Australia , particularly in Victoria and South Australia , where several locations broke all time temperature records . Various days of high wind speed , combined with the hot dry conditions , created extreme bushfire conditions between 25 January and 7 February 2009 .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2008–09_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 38,
"score": 152836
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013–14 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2013 -- 14 Australian bushfire season was , at the time , the most destructive bushfire season in terms of property loss since the 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season , with the loss of 371 houses and several hundred non-residential buildings as a result of wild fires between 1 June 2015 and 31 May 2016 . The season also suffered 4 fatalities ; 2 died in New South Wales , 1 in Western Australia and 1 in Victoria . One death was as a direct result of fire , 2 died due to unrelated health complications while fighting fires on their property , and a pilot contracted by the NSW Rural Fire Service died during an accident .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2013–14_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 39,
"score": 152031
},
{
"content": "Title: Bushfire CRC Content: The Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre was an Australian-based organisation which conducts research into the social , environmental and economic impacts of bushfires . Although the CRC has completed operations , a legacy of a decade of research content is still online and accessible ( See catalog ) . After an initial grant through the Australian Government 's CRC program in 2003 combined with substantial partner resources , the Bushfire CRC was funded to 2014 to address key issues raised by recent major fires . The Bushfire CRC was made up of all the fire and land management agencies in Australia and New Zealand , CSIRO , the Bureau of Meteorology , the Attorney General 's Department and several other fire related organisations . A small executive office was maintained in East Melbourne . The organisation participated in the Cooperative Research Centres Association ( CRCA ) The fire and land management and emergency services industries are currently building on the outcomes of the Bushfire CRC for the longer term with a broader new research program to include changes in climate , demographics , technology , policy and industry , as well as the lessons of the February 2009 bushfires in Victoria . Bushfire research is carried forward within the expanded research portfolio of the Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC , established 2013 . ` Partnering with industry , the CRC has a strong focus on collaboration , education and knowledge transfer . '",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Bushfire_CRC",
"rank": 40,
"score": 150108
},
{
"content": "Title: List of Australian bushfire seasons Content: This is a list of specific seasons of bushfires in Australia including some significant bushfire events from each season . Events are listed if they cause fatalities , destroy houses , or burn more than 100000 ha of land . Each season begins in June ( the beginning of the Australian winter ) and runs through the following May ( the end of the Australian autumn ) .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "List_of_Australian_bushfire_seasons",
"rank": 41,
"score": 150000
},
{
"content": "Title: Wandilo Bushfire Content: The Wandilo Bushfire took place on 5 April 1958 at Wandilo , South Australia . The bushfires claimed 8 lives at a pine plantation near Wandilo in the South East of South Australia after a dry autumn . The eight fatalities were all employees of a state government department involved in fighting the fire with three others surviving . Fire trucks had been sent to fight the fire in the morning but were trapped following a sudden and dramatic change in wind direction . Two of the trucks became bogged leaving their crews unable to escape . Vaporising of fuel lines and the absence of two way radios also hindered the attempt of the men to fight the fire highlighting the need for improved equipment . An inquiry by the state coroner did not make a finding as to the cause of the fire .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Wandilo_Bushfire",
"rank": 42,
"score": 149769
},
{
"content": "Title: Bushfires in Victoria Content: The state of Victoria in Australia has had a long history of catastrophic bushfires , the most recent of these , the Black Saturday bushfires of 2009 claiming 173 lives . Legislation , planning , management and suppression are the responsibilities of the Victorian State Government through its departments and agencies including the Country Fire Authority ( CFA ) and the Department of Environment , Land , Water and Planning ( DELWP ) .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Bushfires_in_Victoria",
"rank": 43,
"score": 148976
},
{
"content": "Title: 1996–97 Australian bushfire season Content: The 1996 -- 97 Australian bushfire season was the season for bushfires in Australia over the summer of 1996 -- 1997 . The most prominent fires during the season were in the Dandenong Ranges and the Mornington Peninsula in the state of Victoria .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "1996–97_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 44,
"score": 148366
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014–15 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2014 -- 15 Australian bushfire season was expected to have the potential for many fires in eastern Australia after lower than expected rainfall was received in many areas . Authorities released warnings in the early spring that the season could be particularly bad . Warmer and drier weather conditions were experienced during winter and extended into 2015 , due to a developing El Niño event . Sydney was on track to record its hottest autumn on record and only had one fifth of the average rainfall in May . Adelaide recorded sixteen consecutive days of 20 C in May 2014 . Queensland sweltered through a heatwave , with record October temperatures being set in many towns through the state . New October records included Toowoomba with 36.4 C , St George with 42.6 C , Amberley with 41.3 C and Roma with 41.6 C. Throughout 2014 and the first 6 months of 2015 , 18 fires were declared `` national disasters '' affecting a total of 68 local government areas across New South Wales , South Australia , Victoria and the Northern Territory .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2014–15_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 45,
"score": 147972
},
{
"content": "Title: Linton Bushfire Content: The Linton Bushfire was a wildfire that burned through private land and state forests near the township of Linton , Victoria , Australia on 2 December 1998 . Firefighters from the Victorian state government 's Department of Natural Resources and Environment and Country Fire Authority ( CFA ) were deployed to put out the fire . At approximately 8.45 pm , two firefighting appliances and their crews were entrapped and engulfed in fire following an unexpected wind change . The Linton bushfire covered a maximum land of 660 hectares of private and public land .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Linton_Bushfire",
"rank": 46,
"score": 147526
},
{
"content": "Title: 1967 Tasmanian fires Content: The 1967 Tasmanian fires were an Australian natural disaster which occurred on 7 February 1967 , an event which came to be known as the Black Tuesday bushfires . They were the most deadly bushfires that Tasmania has ever experienced , leaving 62 people dead , 900 injured and over seven thousand homeless .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "1967_Tasmanian_fires",
"rank": 47,
"score": 145771
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 Cherryville Bushfire Content: The 2013 Cherryville Bushfire occurred on May 9 -- 11 near the Adelaide Hills townships of Cherryville , Marble Hill and Basket Range , South Australia . More than 250 Country Fire Service volunteers and four aerial water bombers were deployed to fight the fire . One house was destroyed , and the area burnt exceeded 650 ha . It began at about 2:30 p.m. on Thursday May 9 amid unseasonably warm weather when a private burn-off north of Cherryville became out of control and began to burn east into inaccessible country . Warm temperatures , high winds , and heavy fuel loads contributed to the spread of the fire . Firefighters were initially unable to fight the fire directly , due to the inaccessibility of the terrain . Firefighters eventually managed to contain the fire around 5p . m. on 11 May , assisted by a change in the weather which brought approximately 10mm of rain . The fire was notable in that it began over a week after the official fire-ban season ended . This prompted calls for the season to be extended into May ; the Government announced on May 12 that a review of the policy would be conducted . However , concerns were raised that this would limit the ability of residents and the CFS to conduct fuel-reduction burns .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2013_Cherryville_Bushfire",
"rank": 48,
"score": 144883
},
{
"content": "Title: Red Tuesday bushfires Content: The Red Tuesday bushfires took place on 1 February 1898 in South Gippsland , Victoria . The bushfires claimed 12 lives , destroyed over 2,000 buildings and affected about 15,000 people , leaving 2,500 homeless . A total area of 2600 km2 of bushland and farmland was destroyed by the fires .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Red_Tuesday_bushfires",
"rank": 49,
"score": 142454
},
{
"content": "Title: 2016 Tasmanian bushfires Content: The 2016 Tasmanian Bushfires were a large series of bushfires in Tasmania which started in January 2016 throughout the state , and continued into February 2016 , with considerable damage to fire sensitive areas in the Central Highlands , West Coast and South West regions . By autumn 2016 , no bushfires were reported within the state .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2016_Tasmanian_bushfires",
"rank": 50,
"score": 141653
},
{
"content": "Title: 2016–17 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2016-17 Australian Bushfire Season saw a very wet start with the 5th wettest December on record being 76 % above the average rainfall for the month.across much of the country . This caused a significant surge in vegetation growth leading into the fire danger period .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2016–17_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 51,
"score": 140827
},
{
"content": "Title: 2012–13 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Australian bushfire season had above average fire potential for most of the southern half of the continent from the east coast to the west . This is despite having extensive fire in parts of the country over the last 12 months . The reason for this prediction is the abundant grass growth spurred by two La Niña events over the last two years . Most parts of the country experienced a heat wave at the start of 2013 , with a new national average maximum being set on 7 January 2013 . The new record of 40.33 C beat the old record of 40.17 C that had been set on 21 December 1972 . Another record also beaten in 2013 was Australia 's mean temperature climbing from 31.86 C set on 21 December 1972 to 32.23 C on 7 January 2013 . Additionally , six of the 20 hottest days in Australian records ( by average maximum ) have been in January 2013 . Australia also experienced its hottest summer on average following a particularly hot spell in January . Using average day and night temperatures the average was found to be 28.6 C beating the previous record set in the summer of 1997 -- 1988 . Fourteen of the weather bureau 's 112 long term weather stations recorded their hottest days on record including one in Sydney that recorded a daytime record of 46 C . The daytime maximum temperatures for 2012 -- 13 also beat the 1982 -- 83 record and January was the hottest month since records began in 1910 .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2012–13_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 52,
"score": 140654
},
{
"content": "Title: AS3959 Content: AS3959 is an Australian Standard for construction of homes in bushfire prone zones . The latest version AS3959 :2009 was hurried into release after the devastation of `` Black Saturday '' bushfires , which killed 173 people and destroyed over 2,000 homes . The latest release of AS3959 has significant changes , bringing major changes to construction of homes to be built in the future . Under this new standard all proposed building requires the builder or landowner to undergo a BAL ( Bushfire Attack Level ) Assessment . This requires a report tabled to establish the threat of bushfire on this future proposed dwelling . The report takes in matters such as the area FDI ( Fire Danger Index ) , the blocks ground slope , vegetation type and density to determine the intensity of fire attack , split into 6 levels . The six levels relate to the intensity of Radiant Heat exposure , with the levels being BAL-LOW ( no threat or construction changes needed ) , BAL-12 .5 ( Radiant Heat levels would calculate 12.5 kW/m ² ) , BAL-19 ( 19 kW/m ² ) , BAL-29 ( 29 kW/m ² ) , BAL-40 ( 40 kW/m ² ) and BAL-FZ ( Flame Zone , which can be as high as 100 kW/m ² ) . AS3959 :2009 therefore instructs what changes and test methods are required for construction to comply to the BAL Assessed levels . AS3959 :2009 from 1 May 2010 has been adopted as part of the BCA ( Building Code Of Australia ) . Copies of Australian Standards such as AS3959 are available from SAI Global , or see organisations such as the Victorian Building Authority , Victorian Country Fire Authority or the NSW Rural Fire Service for further information and guidelines on this subject .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "AS3959",
"rank": 53,
"score": 140433
},
{
"content": "Title: Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC Content: The Bushfire and Natural Hazards Cooperative Research Centre , commonly abbreviated to Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC , draws together all of Australia and New Zealand 's fire and emergency service authorities , land management agencies , as well as non-government organisations and leading experts across a range of scientific fields to explore the causes , consequences and mitigation of natural disasters . The CRC has special focus on the human , infrastructure , and governance aspects of natural hazards including : earthquake , tsunami , flood , cyclone , and bushfire .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Bushfire_and_Natural_Hazards_CRC",
"rank": 54,
"score": 139937
},
{
"content": "Title: 2009 Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission Content: The 2009 Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission is an Australian Royal Commission that concluded on 31 July 2010 . It investigated the nature of circumstances surrounding the Black Saturday bushfires .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2009_Victorian_Bushfires_Royal_Commission",
"rank": 55,
"score": 139685
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 Tasmanian bushfires Content: The 2013 Tasmanian bushfires were a series of bushfires in south-eastern Tasmania in starting in November/December 2012 , with major fires in early January 2013 , right through until late April 2013 . It was predicted early on that the 2012-13 had the potential to be worse than usual . High fuel loads , coupled with a dry , warm and windy , providing potentially dangerous conditions . The Tasmania Fire Service implemented a new media campaign , with a view to increasing community preparedness and awareness of what to do if bushfires threatened . But nobody predicted that the fire season would last for almost 6 months , which is unprecedented in the recorded history of Tasmania .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2013_Tasmanian_bushfires",
"rank": 56,
"score": 139611
},
{
"content": "Title: Pulletop Bushfire Content: The Pulletop Bushfire , officially referred to as the `` Wandoo fire '' , started on the 6 February 2006 in hot dry and windy weather conditions about 30 km southeast of Wagga Wagga , New South Wales . The fire was thought to have been started by sparks from a tractor on a property at Pulletop which quickly got out of control . New South Wales Rural Fire Service declared a bushfire emergency and the Hume Highway was closed late in the afternoon with fears that the fire would threaten the towns of Humula , Book Book , Livingstone and Kyeamba after 10 km ² of farmland was burnt . 7 February 2006 milder conditions help firefighters to control the fire burning in inaccessible country . Over 90 km ² of farmland burnt 2,500 sheep killed 6 cattle killed 3 vehicles destroyed 2 hay sheds destroyed 50km of fencing was burnt Pine plantation worth $ 5 million , a communications installation and 19 homes saved A Natural Disaster was declared",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Pulletop_Bushfire",
"rank": 57,
"score": 138864
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia",
"rank": 58,
"score": 137188
},
{
"content": "Title: Chatsbury bushfires Content: The Chatsbury/Bungonia bushfires of 1965 was a series of bushfires that burned from March 5 to March 14 , 1965 . The fires destroyed the Southern Highlands , New South Wales villages of Tallong , Wingello , and most of the surrounding orchards . The fire is thought to be ignited by a spark from a Chatsbury Station angle grinder . It quickly spread and covered 620,000 acres and destroyed the areas ' livestock . It is thought to be the greatest disaster in the area . Three people were killed . 28 homes were destroyed in Tallong , 31 in Wingello . The fire was eventually stopped ( or burnt out ) near Nowra on the South Coast .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Chatsbury_bushfires",
"rank": 59,
"score": 137122
},
{
"content": "Title: Blackwater Fire of 1937 Content: On August 18 , 1937 , a lightning strike started the Blackwater Fire in Shoshone National Forest , approximately 35 mi west of Cody , Wyoming , United States . Fifteen firefighters were killed by the forest fire when a dry weather front caused the winds to suddenly increase and change direction . The fire quickly spread into dense forest , creating spot fires that trapped some of the firefighters in a firestorm . Nine firefighters died during the fire and six more died shortly thereafter from severe burns and respiratory complications and another 38 firefighters were injured . More wildland firefighters were killed in the Blackwater fire than in any other in a United States National Forest in the 103 year interval between the Great Fire of 1910 and the Yarnell Hill Fire of 2013 . The Blackwater fire consumed 1700 acre of old-growth forest dominated by Douglas fir trees on the west slopes of Clayton Mountain . At the time the firestorm occurred , the temperatures were about 90 F and the relative humidity was only 6 percent . Though most of the firefighters consisted of Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) employees , they were led by more experienced United States Forest Service ( USFS ) fire managers . Firefighters in the first half of the 20th century used mostly hand tools to suppress wildfires , and all gear was carried by the firefighters or by pack animals . Weather forecasting and radio communication were generally poor or nonexistent . Investigations and analysis of the event led the USFS to develop better ways to provide a more immediate response to combat fires ; one of them was the development of the smokejumper program in 1939 . Additionally , the Ten Standard Firefighting Orders , a standardized set of wildland firefighting principles , were developed in 1957 . A year after the tragedy , survivors and their fellow employees constructed several memorials at the scene of the incident .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Blackwater_Fire_of_1937",
"rank": 60,
"score": 136082
},
{
"content": "Title: 2005–06 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2005 -- 06 Australian bushfire season was a moderately extensive bushfire season , particularly in western Victoria where they were most prominent in mid-late January 2006 as conditions permitted across the state .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2005–06_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 61,
"score": 135625
},
{
"content": "Title: Wildfire Content: A wildfire or wildland fire is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or rural area . Depending on the type of vegetation where it occurs , a wildfire can also be classified more specifically as a brush fire , bush fire , desert fire , forest fire , grass fire , hill fire , peat fire , vegetation fire , or veld fire . Fossil charcoal indicates that wildfires began soon after the appearance of terrestrial plants 420 million years ago . Wildfire 's occurrence throughout the history of terrestrial life invites conjecture that fire must have had pronounced evolutionary effects on most ecosystems ' flora and fauna . Earth is an intrinsically flammable planet owing to its cover of carbon-rich vegetation , seasonally dry climates , atmospheric oxygen , and widespread lightning and volcano ignitions . Wildfires can be characterized in terms of the cause of ignition , their physical properties , the combustible material present , and the effect of weather on the fire . Wildfires can cause damage to property and human life , but they have many beneficial effects on native vegetation , animals , and ecosystems that have evolved with fire . Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction . However , wildfire in ecosystems where wildfire is uncommon or where non-native vegetation has encroached may have negative ecological effects . Wildfire behaviour and severity result from the combination of factors such as available fuels , physical setting , and weather . Analyses of historical meteorological data and national fire records in western North America show the primacy of climate in driving large regional fires via wet periods that create substantial fuels or drought and warming that extend conducive fire weather . Strategies of wildfire prevention , detection , and suppression have varied over the years . One common and inexpensive technique is controlled burning : permitting or even igniting smaller fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire . Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain high species diversity and frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation . Wildland fire use is the cheapest and most ecologically appropriate policy for many forests . Fuels may also be removed by logging , but fuels treatments and thinning have no effect on severe fire behavior . Wildfire itself is reportedly `` the most effective treatment for reducing a fire 's rate of spread , fireline intensity , flame length , and heat per unit of area '' according to Jan Van Wagtendonk , a biologist at the Yellowstone Field Station . Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-resistant materials and a defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Wildfire",
"rank": 62,
"score": 134933
},
{
"content": "Title: Operation Vic Fire Assist Content: Operation Vic Fire Assist was the Australian Defence Force contribution to the relief effort following the Black Saturday bushfires . The Defence contribution peaked at around 850 personnel in mid February ; with the majority of Defence assets concluding operations on Saturday 14 March 2009 . The ADF assistance provided a temporary logistic framework until more appropriate , long-term options became available . Defence provided emergency sleeping arrangements for fire affected families and emergency workers in Yea , Warragul , Marysville and Kinglake . Troops searched approximately 120 square kilometres of fire damaged areas , which included around 1300 houses . This included the townships of Kinglake , Flowerdale , Hazeldene , Marysville , St Andrews , Yarra Glen and Traralgon . As part of the reasonable search phase , teams conducted thorough and methodical searches of 817 premises in Marysville , Strathewen , Castella , Toolangi , Chum Creek , Dixon 's Creek and Steeles Creek .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Operation_Vic_Fire_Assist",
"rank": 63,
"score": 134682
},
{
"content": "Title: National Arboretum Canberra Content: The National Arboretum Canberra is a 250-hectare ( 618 acre ) arboretum in Canberra , the national capital of Australia , created after the area was burned out as a result of the Christmas 2001 and 2003 Canberra bushfires : The Himalayan Cedar forest lost about one third of its trees , and the commercial Radiata Pine plantation was burned out , allowing the arboretum to be created . In 2004 , the Government of the Australian Capital Territory held a nationwide competition for an arboretum , which was to be part of the recovery from the 2003 bushfires . The winning design by landscape architects Taylor Cullity Lethlean and architects Tonkin Zulaikha Greer proposed 100 forests and 100 gardens focussing on threatened , rare , and symbolic trees from around the world . The site has been planted since 2005 , and includes ceremonial trees planted by visiting heads of government and ambassadors . It was officially opened in February 2013 .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "National_Arboretum_Canberra",
"rank": 64,
"score": 133785
},
{
"content": "Title: 2009 Mediterranean wildfires Content: The 2009 Mediterranean wildfires were a series of wildfires that broke out across France , Greece , Italy , Spain , and Turkey in July 2009 . Strong winds spread the fire during a hot , dry period of weather killing at least eight people , six of whom were in Spain . Some of the wildfires were caused by lightning , along with arson and military training .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2009_Mediterranean_wildfires",
"rank": 65,
"score": 132468
},
{
"content": "Title: High Park fire Content: The High Park fire was a wildfire in the mountains west of Fort Collins in Larimer County , Colorado , United States . It was caused by a lightning strike and was first detected on the morning of June 9 , 2012 . It was declared 100 percent contained on June 30 , 2012 , and all associated evacuation orders were lifted . A 62-year-old woman was killed in the fire . The High Park fire burned over 87284 acre , becoming the second-largest fire in recorded Colorado history by area burned . It destroyed at least 259 homes , compared to the Black Forest Fire with a number of 511 homes , surpassing the number consumed by the 2010 Fourmile Canyon fire . The High Park fire became the third most destructive fire in Colorado history , in terms of the number of houses burned , but was surpassed about a week later by the Waldo Canyon fire .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "High_Park_fire",
"rank": 66,
"score": 129975
},
{
"content": "Title: 2004–05 Australian bushfire season Content:",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2004–05_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 67,
"score": 127634
},
{
"content": "Title: 1993–94 Australian bushfire season Content:",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "1993–94_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 68,
"score": 127010
},
{
"content": "Title: Pagami Creek Fire Content: The Pagami Creek Fire was a wildfire in Northern Minnesota , United States , that began with a lightning strike on August 18 , 2011 . After weeks of slow growth , the wildfire quickly spread to over 92000 acre during several days of hot , dry , windy weather in mid-September . The fire spread beyond the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness to threaten homes and businesses . Smoke from the fires drifted east and south as far as the Upper Peninsula of Michigan , Ontario , Chicago , Poland , Ukraine , and Russia .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Pagami_Creek_Fire",
"rank": 69,
"score": 126094
},
{
"content": "Title: Okanogan Complex Fire Content: The Okanogan Complex Fire was a wildfire affecting Okanogan County in north-central Washington state . It was composed of five fires that were caused by lightning strikes on August 15 , 2015 , with two of the fires near Conconully merging days later on August 19 . At its peak , it burned over 304,782 acre of land and forced the evacuations of numerous towns , including Conconully , Twisp and Winthrop . Over 1,250 firefighters were deployed to the Okanogan Complex . Three United States Forest Service firefighters were killed in an accident near Twisp on August 19 . Traditional methods of containing such wildfires , such as creating bulldozer lines , are not readily available due to the irregular terrain and because an inversion layer trapped smoke in the valley , making it difficult to fly in water by helicopter . On August 24 , some media outlets reported that it had become the largest wildfire in Washington state history , surpassing the Carlton Complex fire of 2014 . The Okanogan Complex fire has not merged into a single fire , and so the Carlton Complex remains the state 's largest single fire . By August 25 more help was arriving and no more structures had burned . However , nearly all the fires had continued `` to grow with little containment gained '' and higher winds were predicted by the end of the week that would feed the flames . On August 25 , 2015 there were 1,345 firefighters and 15 percent of the fire had been contained . By September 19 , the fire was 95 % contained and management was turned over to local firefighters .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Okanogan_Complex_Fire",
"rank": 70,
"score": 125903
},
{
"content": "Title: Shanta Creek Wildfire Content: The Shanta Creek Wildfire was a lightning caused a forest fire that started on June 29 , 2009 in the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge on the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska . More than 13000 acre were burned and over 400 personnel were involved in the firefighting effort .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Shanta_Creek_Wildfire",
"rank": 71,
"score": 125354
},
{
"content": "Title: Strawberry Fire Content: The Strawberry Fire was a wildfire , that burned in the northern Great Basin National Park in White Pine County , Nevada in August 2016 . The wildfire was caused by a lightning strike , and was reported a few days later on August 8 . The Strawberry Fire was contained eleven days later . It burned 4714 acres of land , of which sixty percent is part of Great Basin National Park . An additional 38 % of the land is located in the Ely District of the Bureau of Land Management . It was the first major wildfire in the national park since 2013 . One fireman died , while helping to put out the wildfire . Besides , the fire damaged a campground and the habitat of the Bonneville cutthroat trout . Baker , located approximately 7 miles southeast of the Strawberry Fire , was the inhabited place closest to the fire .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Strawberry_Fire",
"rank": 72,
"score": 125164
},
{
"content": "Title: 2012 Washington wildfires Content: The 2012 Washington wildfires were a series of 1,342 wildfires that burned 259,526 acre over the course of 2012 . The fires primarily occurred in the Okanogan and Wenatchee National Forests during September and October 2012 . A severe lightning storm on September 8 caused hundreds of fires across the east side of Cascade Range . Smoke caused hazardous air quality conditions in the cities of Ellensburg and Wenatchee , and was noticeable in Seattle . The cost of fighting the largest four fires was estimated to be $ 67.5 million .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2012_Washington_wildfires",
"rank": 73,
"score": 125128
},
{
"content": "Title: Long Draw Fire Content: The Long Draw Fire was a wildfire started by a lightning strike on July 8 , 2012 at 6:04 pm that burned 557,989 acres in southeastern Oregon , in the Western United States . It is Oregon 's largest wildfire since the 1865 Silverton Fire which burned over 1 million acres .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Long_Draw_Fire",
"rank": 74,
"score": 124707
},
{
"content": "Title: 1936 Bundaberg distillery fire Content: In the early evening of 21 November 1936 the Bundaberg Rum Distillery was struck by lightning . The resulting explosion caused a raging inferno within minutes , as the contents of the rum vats fed the flames . There were 63 vats of rum and spirits each containing 10,000 gallons . This spectacular fire drew a large crowd of spectators and police cordoned off the area due to the intense heat . The glow from the flames could be seen as far away as Childers and Gin Gin . By midnight the flames were brought under control but the building itself was in ruins . The damage was estimated to have been approximately # 200,000 . No deaths or injuries were reported . The fire also had a devastating effect on the wildlife in the adjacent Burnett River with thousands of dead fish washed up on the river bank including sharks , cod , salmon and barramundi . The general manager of the distillery , which was owned by the Millaquin Sugar Company stated it was `` one of the biggest fires in the history of the State '' . Although it took three years the distillery was rebuilt and is currently operating on the same site today . The State Library of Queensland holds some of the original correspondence and financial records for the Bundaberg Distilling Co. Ltd relating to the 1936 fire .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "1936_Bundaberg_distillery_fire",
"rank": 75,
"score": 124029
},
{
"content": "Title: Lava Fire Content: The Lava Fire was a wildfire that burned over 21500 acre of Oregon rangeland during the summer of 2012 . The fire began on 23 July 2012 , the result of a lightning strike . The fire consumed rangeland vegetation and scrub forest located in and around lava beds in northern Lake County . The burned area was on public land administered by the Bureau of Land Management including a large area within a wilderness study area . Firefighters battled the blaze for over three weeks . At the peak of the firefighting effort , there were over 275 personnel working on the fire .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Lava_Fire",
"rank": 76,
"score": 123769
},
{
"content": "Title: Department of Sustainability and Environment Content: The Department of Sustainability and Environment ( DSE ) was a state government department that managed water resources , climate change , bushfires , public land , forests and eco systems in the state of Victoria , Australia . It was created in 2002 when the Department of Natural Resources and Environment was divided into the Department of Primary Industries and the Department of Sustainability and Environment . The department supported and advised two Victorian ministers , the Minister for Environment and Climate Change , Ryan Smith , and the Minister for Water , Peter Walsh , and helped with the management and administration of their portfolios . The Department secretary was Greg Wilson . It had 2700 staff working at 90 locations across the state . The Department of Sustainability and Environment was merged with the Department of Primary Industries to form the Department of Environment and Primary Industries ( Victoria ) in April 2013 .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Department_of_Sustainability_and_Environment",
"rank": 77,
"score": 122576
},
{
"content": "Title: Emergency Alert Australia Content: Emergency Alert Australia is an emergency communications scheme set up by the Australian Commonwealth Government in response to the Black Saturday bushfires of 2009 , utilizing telecommunications systems as another form of alert for citizens . The system sends both SMS messages and pre-recorded sound messages with information regarding the alert which can be statewide , or reduced to a small location .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Emergency_Alert_Australia",
"rank": 78,
"score": 121969
},
{
"content": "Title: Bushfire Moon Content: Bushfire Moon is a 1987 Australian film about a young boy , Ned , who thinks a swagman is Santa Claus .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Bushfire_Moon",
"rank": 79,
"score": 121469
},
{
"content": "Title: 1983 Melbourne dust storm Content: The 1983 Melbourne dust storm was a meteorological phenomenon that occurred during the afternoon of 8 February 1983 , throughout much of Victoria , Australia and affected the capital , Melbourne . Red soil , dust and sand from Central and Southeastern Australia was swept up in high winds and carried southeast through Victoria . The dust storm was one of the most dramatic consequences of the 1982/83 drought , at the time the worst in Australian history and is , in hindsight , viewed as a precursor to the Ash Wednesday bushfires which were to occur eight days later .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "1983_Melbourne_dust_storm",
"rank": 80,
"score": 121226
},
{
"content": "Title: Australian Capital Territory Rural Fire Service Content: The ACT Rural Fire Service is a branch of the Australian Capital Territory Emergency Services Agency . It is responsible for the prevention , detection and extinguishment of all bushfires within the ACT , as well as assisting the other branches of ESA .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Australian_Capital_Territory_Rural_Fire_Service",
"rank": 81,
"score": 120581
},
{
"content": "Title: Murphy Complex Fire Content: The Murphy Complex Fire was a 2007 wildfire that included acreage upon the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) Bruneau and Jarbidge Field Offices of Idaho , BLM Elko Field Office of Nevada , and Forest Service Mountain City and Jarbidge Districts of Nevada . It burned an estimated 652016 acre of land . By acreage , it was the third largest wildfire in the United States between 1997 and 2009 . The fire affected Owyhee and Twin Falls counties in Idaho , and Elko County , Nevada . Nearly three times as much acreage burned in the two Idaho counties as burned in Nevada . Aerial crews were primarily responsible for fighting the fire in Castleford , Idaho . About 560 wildfire firefighters were involved including a Type 1 team that specializes in fighting large wildfires . This was the third large fire in as many years on land managed by the Jarbidge Field Office in Idaho 's Twin Falls District . Because of this , the BLM held a workshop on large wildfires in the district on May 12 -- 14 , 2009 . The fire was a combination of six wildfires caused by lightning in south-central Idaho and north-central Nevada that started on July 16 -- 17 , 2007 . The four largest fires were called the Rowland , Elk Mountain , Smith Crossing and Buck Flat fires . They merged over the weekend of July 21 , 2007 , and the wildfire was renamed the Murphy Complex Fire . It spread quickly due to the hot and dry conditions and threatened or damaged a wide variety of natural resources , plants , animals , people and property . By the time it was contained on August 2 , 2007 an estimated 483000 acre in Idaho and 170000 acre in Nevada had burned . It was the largest Idaho wildfire since 1910 . Afterward , the BLM undertook a large scale reclamation effort , which included fencing , seedling planting , shrub planting , drill seeding , aerial seeding , cultural inventory , weed treatment and monitoring . Monitoring is planned for 425815 acre . Total reclamation costs are estimated at over $ 11 million during fiscal years 2007 -- 2010 , with full recovery of the natural systems taking several additional years .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Murphy_Complex_Fire",
"rank": 82,
"score": 120447
},
{
"content": "Title: Australasian Inter-Service Incident Management System Content: In Australia , the Australasian Inter-Service Incident Management System ( AIIMS ) is the nationally recognised system of incident management for the nation 's fire and emergency service agencies . organizational principles and structure used to manage bushfires and other large emergencies ( e.g. floods , storms , cyclones etc. ) utilizing the all agencies approach . AIIMS was first developed in the 1980s as a derivative of the United States ' NIIMS , and is based on the principles of management by objectives , functional management and span of control . AIIMS is a trademark of AFAC and the material in the AIIMS manual and training materials is copyright of AFAC .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Australasian_Inter-Service_Incident_Management_System",
"rank": 83,
"score": 120336
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 Canadian wildfires Content: 2015 Canadian wildfires were a series of wildfires across Canada and Alaska in July 2015 which spread smoke across most of North America . Over two hundred fires were ablaze across British Columbia , Saskatchewan , and Alberta . Tens of thousand of people had been evacuated and more than 1900000 hectare of forest had burned . Fire-fighters from Mexico , Western Australia , and New Zealand were sent to assist . The Canadian military also fought the fires . Since the smoke was so dense , warnings had been given across central and Western Canada ; additionally , parts of the western United States were also issued air advisories because of the amount of smoke . Wildfires have burned one million hectares ( 2.4 million acres ) in Saskatchewan in the past year according to statistics posted on the Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre . The words people have used to describe this natural disaster is `` extreme , unprecedented , and historic . A majority of the ecosystem where the fire had been burning consists of boreal forests . Circumstances for catastrophic fires were created as a result of the fuel buildup starting in the 1950s caused fire inhibition . This outcome created a change in the landscape-age mosaic . Initially , this fuel buildup was created for closed canopy ecosystems such as the Pinus ponderosa located in the western United States .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2015_Canadian_wildfires",
"rank": 84,
"score": 119966
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Russian wildfires Content: The 2010 Russian wildfires were several hundred wildfires that broke out across Russia , primarily in the west in summer 2010 . They started burning in late July and lasted until early September 2010 . The fires were associated with record-high temperatures , which were attributed to climate change -- the summer had been the hottest recorded in Russian history -- and drought . Russian President Dmitry Medvedev declared a state of emergency in seven regions , and 28 other regions were under a state of emergency due to crop failures caused by the drought . The fires cost roughly $ 15 billion in damages . A combination of the smoke from the fires , producing heavy smog blanketing large urban regions and the record-breaking heat wave put stress on the Russian healthcare system . Munich Re estimated that in all , 56,000 people died from the effects of the smog and the heat wave . The 2010 wildfires were the worst on record to that time ; in 2012 , however , new wildfires broke out , and they proved even more extensive and damaging .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2010_Russian_wildfires",
"rank": 85,
"score": 119957
},
{
"content": "Title: Firestorm Content: A firestorm is a conflagration which attains such intensity that it creates and sustains its own wind system . It is most commonly a natural phenomenon , created during some of the largest bushfires and wildfires . Although the word has been used to describe certain large fires , the phenomenon 's determining characteristic is a fire with its own storm-force winds from every point of the compass . The Black Saturday bushfires and the Great Peshtigo Fire are possible examples of forest fires with some portion of combustion due to a firestorm , as is the Great Hinckley Fire . Firestorms can also occur in cities , usually as a deliberate effect of targeted explosives such as occurred as a result of the aerial firebombings of Hamburg , Dresden , and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Firestorm",
"rank": 86,
"score": 119852
},
{
"content": "Title: Happy Camp Complex Fire Content: The Happy Camp Complex was a wildfire that broke out on August 12 , at 1:00 AM PDT , as a result of a lightning strikes in the Klamath National Forest in Northern California . The fire , which would eventually consume 134,056 acre of land , was the largest fire of the 2014 California wildfire season and ranks 17th on the list of largest fires in state history .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Happy_Camp_Complex_Fire",
"rank": 87,
"score": 119041
},
{
"content": "Title: Lion Fire Content: The Lion Fire was the 3rd largest fire of the 2011 California wildfire season . The fire , which was the result of a lightning strike , burned 20,674 acre of land in the Sequoia National Forest . As the fire grew it forced the evacuations of many popular campgrounds in Sequoia National Park .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Lion_Fire",
"rank": 88,
"score": 118572
},
{
"content": "Title: Northern Territory Fire and Rescue Service Content: Northern Territory Fire and Rescue Service , or NTFRS , ( in conjunction with Bushfires NT ) is the primary provider of fire and rescue services throughout the 1.35 million square km Northern Territory of Australia . It is made up of 27 fire stations , 16 being staffed by volunteer brigade units , 5 being manned 24 hours by career fire fighters , and the remainder by a mix of career and auxiliary fire fighters . The NTFRS is made up approximately 180 permanent staff working in the regional centres of Darwin , Alice Springs , Tennant Creek , Katherine , Nhulunbuy , Yulara and Jabiru , as well as 54 part-time auxiliaries and approximately 250 volunteers . The NTFRS is part of the NT Government `` Tri-Service '' , Northern Territory Police , Fire and Emergency Services , or NTPFES . The CEO of the NTPFES and Commissioner of Northern Territory Police is Mr John McRoberts , APM . The NTPFES falls under the portfolio of the Minister for Police , Fire and Emergency Services , and Chief Minister The Honourable Adam Giles .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Northern_Territory_Fire_and_Rescue_Service",
"rank": 89,
"score": 118226
},
{
"content": "Title: North wind Content: A north wind is a wind that originates in the north and blows south . The north wind has had historical and literal significance , since it often signals cold weather and seasonal change in the Northern hemisphere . In the Southern Hemisphere , especially in southern Australia , the north wind is a hot wind , often leading to bushfires .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "North_wind",
"rank": 90,
"score": 118069
},
{
"content": "Title: Minto Flats South Fire Content: The Minto Flats South Fire was a large lightning-caused wildfire in Interior Alaska south of Fairbanks that ignited in late June 2009 . It was by far the largest in what was termed the `` Railbelt complex '' of fires , so named because they were all near the main route of the Alaska Railroad . By July 16 it had burned more than 156469 acre . Alaska was experiencing an unusually hot and dry start to the summer season , which in turn led to a very active wildfire season . By the time the Minto Flats fire had become the largest fire in Alaska , over seventy other blazes were active throughout the state , stretching resources to their limits . The main body of the fire was deemed too large to actually try to extinguish , and firefighting efforts were focused from the beginning on protecting lives and property . In mid July it had grown to over 20000 acres , and was rapidly expanding along its souther edge ; smokejumpers were deployed to protect cabins along the Teklanika River near Nenana . There is also an oil drilling rig in this area , and firefighters cleared the area surrounding it of fuel and instructed the drilling crew on the use of firefighting equipment . By the end of July , over 350 persons were involved in the firefighting effort , and continued hot , dry weather had helped the fire grow to over 300000 acres . The fire was not declared under control until late August .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Minto_Flats_South_Fire",
"rank": 91,
"score": 118057
},
{
"content": "Title: Phil Koperberg Content: Philip Christian Koperberg ( born 28 April 1943 ) , is the Chairman of the New South Wales Emergency Management Committee , responsible for advising the New South Wales government on emergency response strategies , since 2011 . Koperberg is a former Australian politician , was the New South Wales Minister for Climate Change , Environment and Water between 2007 and 2008 ; and was a member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly , representing the electorate of the Blue Mountains for the Australian Labor Party between 2007 -- 2011 . Prior to his political career , Koperberg was the Commissioner of the New South Wales Rural Fire Service ( RFS ) in Australia between 1997 -- 2007 . In September 1997 , Koperberg was appointed the RFS Commissioner when the Service was formed under the Rural Fires Act . Before this he had been Director-General of the New South Wales Bush Fire Service from May 1990 . In March 2007 he was elected to State parliament and appointed to the Ministry . However , in December he was forced to stand aside due to a police investigation regarding domestic violence allegations from 1987 . The NSW Director of Public Prosecutions declined to press charges and Koperberg was reinstated to the Ministry . He resigned from the Ministry on 22 February 2008 . Koperberg did not recontest the 2011 state election .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Phil_Koperberg",
"rank": 92,
"score": 117142
},
{
"content": "Title: Cyclone Alby Content: Severe Tropical Cyclone Alby was regarded as the most devastating tropical cyclone to impact southwestern Western Australia on record . Forming out of an area of low pressure on 27 March 1978 , Alby steadily developed as it tracked southwestward , parallel to Western Australia . Between 1 and 2 April , the storm quickly intensified and attained its peak intensity as a Category 5 cyclone on the Australian cyclone intensity scale . After turning to the southeast , the storm underwent an extratropical transition as it neared Cape Leeuwin . The storm brushed the cape on 4 April , bringing hurricane-force winds , before rapidly losing its identity the following day . In Western Australia , the combination of Alby 's fast movement and hurricane-force winds caused widespread damage . Along the coast , large swells flooded low-lying areas and numerous homes lost their roofs from high winds . Further inland , bushfires were worsened by the storm as it brought little rain , generally less than 20 mm along the coast . These fires burned roughly 114,000 hectares ( 281,700 acres ) and destroyed two towns . Five fatalities are directly attributed to Alby while two more resulted from the fires . The resulting damage was extensive , with monetary losses reaching A$ 50 million ( $ 45 million USD ) .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Cyclone_Alby",
"rank": 93,
"score": 116950
},
{
"content": "Title: Milford Flat Fire Content: The Milford Flat Fire was the largest wildfire in Utah history . It was started by lightning on Friday , July 6 , 2007 at 3:45 pm near Milford , Utah . The fire burned 363,052 acres ( 567 square miles ) and caused large stretches of I-15 to be temporarily closed . Many veteran firefighters had stated this was the fastest-moving fire they had ever seen . On Saturday , July 7 , smoke caused numerous wrecks on I-15 , including a 5-car pile-up , and a fatal hit-and-run that killed 2 motorcyclists from California . The fire also caused 10 truckers to abandon their cargo trailers on the side of the road . A 93 mi stretch of I-15 was later closed . The fire crossed the freeway around Cove Fort that afternoon , causing it to be evacuated . The fire narrowly missed the local Chevron gas station , but claimed 2 garage-like structures near it , including the Dog Valley Trading Post , as well as a crew cab pickup truck left in a Park-and-Ride lot . By that evening the fire had amassed to 160000 acre . On Sunday , July 8 , the fire slowed down somewhat , reaching the 283000 acre mark by evening . The freeway was reopened , but later a 60 mi stretch was closed for 5 hours . Also , FEMA announced the appropriation of federal funds to help fight the fire . Some evacuated residents of Cove Fort returned to view the damage . On July 9 , Firefighters were going to backburn parts of I-15 , but the winds changed , and the plans were canceled . More crews arrived , bringing the total personnel from 200 to about 300 firefighters . By the end of the day , the fire had grown to 311000 acre , but was 10 % contained . On July 15 the fire was contained at 363052 acres .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Milford_Flat_Fire",
"rank": 94,
"score": 116711
},
{
"content": "Title: Beaver Creek Fire Content: The Beaver Creek Fire was a forest fire that began on August 7 , 2013 after a lightning strike in an area twelve miles northeast of Fairfield , Idaho and northwest of Hailey , Idaho in Sawtooth National Forest . The fire burned through pine trees , sagebrush , timber in the understory , grass , and various riparian areas . The fire coated the resort areas of Hailey , Ketchum , and Sun Valley , in a layer of thick soot and ash . By the time the fire was fully contained on August 31 , 114,900 acres of the Ketchum Ranger District of Sawtooth National Forest has been burned . Of the 114,900 acres burned , 57,000 acres were moderately damaged and 9,500 acres were severely damaged .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Beaver_Creek_Fire",
"rank": 95,
"score": 116703
},
{
"content": "Title: Evans Road Wildfire Content: The Evans Road Wildfire was a smoldering peat fire in Eastern North Carolina that started on June 1 , 2008 by lightning strike during North Carolina 's drought - the worst on record . It burned 41534 acre inside the Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge and burned for three months . The wildlife refuge is located in the Albemarle-Pamlico Peninsula , where many forest fires are prone to start because of several ecological factors . The area is densely populated by trees , which makes it easy for fires to spread quickly ; a layer of shrubs and dead plant material on the ground serve as fuel for fires . Under this layer , the pocosin soil is high in organic material , which acts as a charcoal-like substance that helps fires start . 450 firefighters battled it . 71 high capacity pumps moved billions of gallons of water .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Evans_Road_Wildfire",
"rank": 96,
"score": 116601
},
{
"content": "Title: Barry Point Fire Content: The Barry Point Fire was a wildfire that burned over 92,977 acre of Oregon and California forest land during the summer of 2012 . The fire began on 5 August 2012 , the result of a lightning strike . The fire consumed public forest and rangeland as well as private forest and grazing land located in Lake County , Oregon and Modoc County , California . The public lands effected by the fire are administered by the United States Forest Service and the Oregon Department of Forestry . The largest part of the private land was owned by the Collins Timber Company . At the peak of the firefighting effort , there were 1,423 personnel working on the fire . It took 22 days to fully contain the fire and then an additional three weeks to mop it up .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Barry_Point_Fire",
"rank": 97,
"score": 116433
},
{
"content": "Title: 2003 Okanagan Mountain Park Fire Content: On August 16 , 2003 , at about 4 a.m. , a wildfire was started by a lightning strike near Rattlesnake Island in Okanagan Mountain Provincial Park in British Columbia , Canada . The wildfire was fuelled by a constant wind and one of the driest summers in the past decade . Within a few days it had grown into a true firestorm . The fire grew northward and eastward , initially threatening a small number of lakeshore homes , but quickly became an interface zone fire and forced the evacuation of 27,000 residents and consumed 239 homes . The final size of the firestorm was over 250 square kilometers ( 25,912 ha ) . Most of the trees in Okanagan Mountain Park were burned , and the park was closed . 60 fire departments , 1,400 armed forces troops and 1,000 forest fire fighters took part in controlling the fire , but were largely helpless in stopping the disaster . There were also at least three private Canadair CL-215s , four Government of Alberta owned Canadair CL-215s , four private Lockheed L188 Electra airtankers and at least one Martin Mars air tanker attempting to put out the fire . One air tanker and one helicopter crashed , killing three firefighters . Amateur radio operators helped pass emergency traffic during this emergency . That cost was estimated at CAD $ 33.8 million .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "2003_Okanagan_Mountain_Park_Fire",
"rank": 98,
"score": 115703
},
{
"content": "Title: Big Desert Wilderness Park Content: The Big Desert Wilderness Park is a protected area in the Australian state of Victoria , Australia located in the state 's west adjoining the border with South Australia . It is the oldest of Victoria 's three wilderness parks . The wilderness park consists of an area of 1417.49 km2 , with no vehicular access , and no defined walking tracks . It includes part of the Big Desert and also adjoins Ninety Mile Desert across the border in South Australia . As it is a dedicated wilderness area , there are no facilities of any kind , including toilets or campsites . However , hiking and small fuel stoves are permitted . The wilderness park is overlapped by the Wyperfeld , Big Desert and Ngarkat Important Bird Area which identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance for the conservation of malleefowl and other species of mallee birds . A large bushfire was ignited by lightning in the park in 2002 then spread rapidly due to strong winds and dry fuel . The fire soon joined another in the adjoining Wyperfield National Park and an area of 1814 km2 was burned out . The fire burned for two weeks resulting in the loss of an abandoned house and 400 ha of private property .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Big_Desert_Wilderness_Park",
"rank": 99,
"score": 115427
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Bear Fire Content: The Little Bear Fire was a wildfire in New Mexico that burned 44,330 acres and 254 buildings , making it the most destructive of human structures wildfire in the state 's history . The previously most destructive fire was the Cerro Grande Fire . The fire began on June 4 , 2012 from a lightning strike and quickly grew out of control due to dry windy conditions . The Little Bear Fire was 90 percent contained as of June 26 , 2012 . Ultimately there was no loss of human life as all but one couple in the evacuation zone said they received at least one call to evacuate the area . The New Mexico government was very proactive in notifying the general public about the fire and it mitigated damages .",
"qid": "30",
"docid": "Little_Bear_Fire",
"rank": 100,
"score": 115079
}
] |
Discovery Of Massive Volcanic CO2 Emissions Discredits Global Warming Theory | [
{
"content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies",
"rank": 1,
"score": 112365
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 2,
"score": 102411
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 3,
"score": 102266
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Charles_David_Keeling",
"rank": 4,
"score": 101580
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 5,
"score": 98517
},
{
"content": "Title: Emission theory Content: Emission theory , also called emitter theory or ballistic theory of light , was a competing theory for the special theory of relativity , explaining the results of the Michelson -- Morley experiment of 1887 . Emission theories obey the principle of relativity by having no preferred frame for light transmission , but say that light is emitted at speed `` c '' relative to its source instead of applying the invariance postulate . Thus , emitter theory combines electrodynamics and mechanics with a simple Newtonian theory . Although there are still proponents of this theory outside the scientific mainstream , this theory is considered to be conclusively discredited by most scientists .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Emission_theory",
"rank": 6,
"score": 97830
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 7,
"score": 96674
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 8,
"score": 96393
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 9,
"score": 95739
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 10,
"score": 95616
},
{
"content": "Title: Toba catastrophe theory Content: The Toba supereruption was a supervolcanic eruption that occurred about 75,000 years ago at the site of present-day Lake Toba ( Sumatra , Indonesia ) . It is one of the Earth 's largest known eruptions . The Toba catastrophe theory holds that this event caused a global volcanic winter of 6 -- 10 years and possibly a 1,000-year-long cooling episode . In 1993 , science journalist Ann Gibbons suggested a link between the eruption and a population bottleneck in human evolution , and Michael R. Rampino of New York University and Stephen Self of the University of Hawaii at Manoa gave support to the idea . In 1998 , the bottleneck theory was further developed by Stanley H. Ambrose of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . Both the link and global winter theories are highly controversial . The Toba event is the most closely studied supereruption .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Toba_catastrophe_theory",
"rank": 11,
"score": 95012
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 12,
"score": 94736
},
{
"content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming",
"rank": 13,
"score": 92945
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 14,
"score": 92907
},
{
"content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme",
"rank": 15,
"score": 92750
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 16,
"score": 91762
},
{
"content": "Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Christine_Wiedinmyer",
"rank": 17,
"score": 91095
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning",
"rank": 18,
"score": 91042
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 19,
"score": 90923
},
{
"content": "Title: Welteislehre Content: Welteislehre ( WEL ; `` World Ice Theory '' or `` World Ice Doctrine '' ) , also known as Glazial-Kosmogonie ( Glacial Cosmogony ) , is a discredited cosmological concept proposed by Hanns Hörbiger , an Austrian engineer and inventor . Hörbiger did not arrive at his ideas through research , but said that he had received it in a `` vision '' in 1894 . According to his ideas , ice was the basic substance of all cosmic processes , and ice moons , ice planets , and the `` global ether '' ( also made of ice ) had determined the entire development of the universe .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Welteislehre",
"rank": 20,
"score": 90454
},
{
"content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32",
"rank": 21,
"score": 89669
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 22,
"score": 89452
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Michael_Raupach",
"rank": 23,
"score": 89449
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 24,
"score": 89088
},
{
"content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut",
"rank": 25,
"score": 88773
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 26,
"score": 88191
},
{
"content": "Title: 1808/1809 mystery eruption Content: A colossal volcanic eruption in the VEI 6 range is believed to have taken place in late 1808 and is suspected of contributing to a period of global cooling that lasted for years , in a similar way to how the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora ( VEI 7 ) led to the Year Without a Summer in 1816 .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "1808/1809_mystery_eruption",
"rank": 27,
"score": 87955
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 28,
"score": 87585
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 29,
"score": 87189
},
{
"content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Politics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 30,
"score": 85987
},
{
"content": "Title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth Content: This timeline of volcanism on Earth is a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission around the Quaternary period . Some cooled the global climate ; the extent of this effect depends on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted . The topic in the background is an overview of the VEI and sulfur dioxide emission / Volcanic winter relationship . Before the Holocene epoch , the criteria are less strict because of scarce data availability , partly since later eruptions have destroyed the evidence . So , the known large eruptions after the Paleogene period are listed , and especially those relating to the Yellowstone hotspot , the Santorini , and the Taupo Volcanic Zone . Only some eruptions before the Neogene period are listed . Active volcanoes such as Stromboli , Mount Etna and Kilauea do not appear on this list , but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated calderas do appear . Some dangerous volcanoes in `` populated areas '' appear many times : so Santorini , six times and Yellowstone hotspot , twenty-one times . The Bismarck volcanic arc , New Britain , and the Taupo Volcanic Zone , New Zealand , appear often too . In order to keep the list manageable , the eruptions in the Holocene on the link : Holocene Volcanoes in Kamchatka are n't yet added , but they are listed in Peter L. Ward 's supplemental table .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth",
"rank": 31,
"score": 85534
},
{
"content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg",
"rank": 32,
"score": 85302
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka",
"rank": 33,
"score": 84874
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 34,
"score": 84749
},
{
"content": "Title: George Michanowsky Content: George Michanowsky ( 1920 -- 1993 ) was an American archaeologist who discovered some markings on Bolivian rocks in 1956 . In 1977 he published a book called The Once and Future Star in which he explained his theory of supernova explosion on a constellation named Vela which happened 7,000 years ago . In the same work he also mentions that Atlantis is called NI-DUK-KI in Sumerian texts and is used to be Isle of the Blest before the flood . Later on , as he explained , after the flood , it was named Dilmun . His theory is n't well received by other scientists in the same field ; For example David Hatcher Childress argues that it is impossible for Atlantis to be Dilmun since its one of the Bahrain islands . Michanowsky also suggested that global warming played an effect in Atlantis disappearance .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "George_Michanowsky",
"rank": 35,
"score": 84713
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_label",
"rank": 36,
"score": 84513
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 37,
"score": 84119
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Global_warming_conspiracy_theory",
"rank": 38,
"score": 83873
},
{
"content": "Title: Sh2-297 Content: Sh2-297 ( also known as Sharpless 297 ) is an emission nebula in the constellation Canis Major . The region was catalogued in 1959 in the extended seconded edition of the Sharpless catalogue . This area is part of the Canis Major OB1 Association , and is a very active area of new star formation . Studies in 1988 found that the bright star illuminating the nebula was 8th magnitude HD 53623 / HIP 34178 with spectral class B1II/III . Later in 2004 it was shown that there was embedded a cold but massive Young Stellar Object or YSO within Sh2-297 near the edge of one of the dark rifts . This object has been observed in the far-infrared , but it is so deeply embedded in an interstellar cloud that it is undetectable in shorter wavelength observations such as the Two Micron All Sky Survey ( 2MASS ) , leading it to be originally named `` Unidentified young stellar object 1 '' or UYSO-1 . It was further revealed that this unseen stellar source produces a carbon monoxide ( CO ) bipolar outflow with a total mass of solar masses , while the surrounding extended envelope weighs -- . Some 96 other YSO 's have been discovered to be part of Sh-297 , having a mean age of one million years and range in masses between and . Many variable stars are also assigned with this nebula complex , including the three brightest : MW Ori , TT Ori and V559 Ori . Distance is estimated between 1.0 and 1.4 kpc . ( 3,300 -- 4,600 ly . ) , averaging 1.2 kpc . or 3,900 ly .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Sh2-297",
"rank": 39,
"score": 83871
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 40,
"score": 83351
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 41,
"score": 83225
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 42,
"score": 83161
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 43,
"score": 83084
},
{
"content": "Title: No Pressure (film) Content: No Pressure is a 2010 short film produced by the global warming mitigation campaign 10:10 , written by Richard Curtis and Franny Armstrong , and directed by Dougal Wilson . Intended for cinema and television advertisements , No Pressure is composed of scenes in which a variety of people in every-day situations are graphically blown to pieces for failing to be sufficiently enthusiastic about the 10:10 campaign to reduce CO2 emissions . The film 's makers said that they viewed No Pressure as `` a funny and satirical tongue-in-cheek little film in the over-the-top style of Monty Python or South Park '' . Before its release , The Guardian described it as `` attention-grabbing '' and `` pretty edgy . '' The film was withdrawn from public circulation by 10:10 , on the same day it was released , due to negative publicity . Charities that had backed the film stated they were `` absolutely appalled '' upon seeing it , and several of 10:10 's corporate and strategic partners withdrew from partnership .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "No_Pressure_(film)",
"rank": 44,
"score": 82016
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 45,
"score": 81929
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 46,
"score": 81865
},
{
"content": "Title: Lake Nyos disaster Content: The Lake Nyos disaster occurred on 21 August 1986 , when a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos , in northwestern Cameroon , produced a large cloud of carbon dioxide , which descended onto nearby villages , killing 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock . The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000 -- 300,000 tons ( some sources state as much as 1.6 million tons ) of CO2 . This gas cloud rose at nearly 100 km/h and spilled over the northern lip of the lake . It then rushed down two valleys , branching off to the north , displacing all the air and suffocating people and livestock within 25 km of the lake . A degassing system has since been installed at the lake , with the aim of reducing the concentration of in deep waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Lake_Nyos_disaster",
"rank": 47,
"score": 81056
},
{
"content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Volcanic_winter",
"rank": 48,
"score": 81028
},
{
"content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2",
"rank": 49,
"score": 80697
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 50,
"score": 80693
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 51,
"score": 80686
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 52,
"score": 80603
},
{
"content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike",
"rank": 53,
"score": 80555
},
{
"content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Global_dimming",
"rank": 54,
"score": 80539
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 55,
"score": 80191
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 56,
"score": 79808
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 57,
"score": 79797
},
{
"content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Revelle_factor",
"rank": 58,
"score": 79761
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 59,
"score": 79750
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 60,
"score": 79727
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 61,
"score": 79695
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 62,
"score": 79394
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006",
"rank": 63,
"score": 79356
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 64,
"score": 79273
},
{
"content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Fugitive_emissions",
"rank": 65,
"score": 79238
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 66,
"score": 79212
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal Emission Spectrometer Content: The Thermal Emission Spectrometer ( TES ) is an instrument on board Mars Global Surveyor . TES collects two types of data , hyperspectral thermal infrared data from 6 to 50 micrometers ( μm ) and bolometric visible-NIR ( 0.3 to 2.9 μm ) measurements . TES has six detectors arranged in a 2x3 array , and each detector has a field of view of approximately 3 × 6 km on the surface of Mars . The TES instrument uses the natural harmonic vibrations of the chemical bonds in materials to determine the composition of gases , liquids , and solids . TES identified a large ( 30,000 square-kilometer ) area that contained the mineral olivine . Olivine was found in the Nili Fossae formation . It is thought that the ancient impact that created the Isidis basin resulted in faults that exposed the olivine . Olivine is present in many mafic volcanic rocks . In the presence of water it weathers into minerals such as goethite , chlorite , smectite , maghemite , and hematite . Olivine was also discovered in many other small outcrops within 60 degrees north and south of the equator . Olivine has also been found in the SNC ( shergottite , nakhlite , and chassigny ) meteorites that are generally accepted to have come from Mars . Later studies have found the olivine-rich rocks to cover over 113,000 square kilometers . That is 11 times larger than the five volcanoes on the Big Island of Hawaii .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Thermal_Emission_Spectrometer",
"rank": 67,
"score": 79137
},
{
"content": "Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 68,
"score": 78921
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonemys Content: Carbonemys cofrinii is an extinct podocnemidid turtle known from the early Paleocene Cerrejón Formation of Colombia , 60 million years ago , about five million years after the KT extinction event . In 2005 , the holotype specimen was discovered in a Colombian coal mine by a North Carolina State doctoral student named Edwin Cadena . It had a shell that measured about 1.72 m , making it one of the world 's largest turtles . Carbonemys ' jaws were massive and would be powerful enough to eat a crocodile . This turtle coexisted with the giant boid , Titanoboa .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Carbonemys",
"rank": 69,
"score": 78498
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 70,
"score": 78381
},
{
"content": "Title: HIP 14810 b Content: HIP 14810 b is a massive hot Jupiter approximately 170 light-years away in the constellation of Aries . It has mass 3.88 times that of Jupiter and orbits at 0.0692 AU . It was discovered by the N2K Consortium in 2006 and the discovery paper was published in 2007 . Prior to this a preliminary orbit had been published in the Catalog of Nearby Exoplanets .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "HIP_14810_b",
"rank": 71,
"score": 77839
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Carbon_footprint",
"rank": 72,
"score": 77709
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 73,
"score": 77504
},
{
"content": "Title: Svante Arrhenius Content: Svante August Arrhenius ( 19 February 1859 -- 2 October 1927 ) was a Nobel-Prize winning Swedish scientist , originally a physicist , but often referred to as a chemist , and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry . He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903 , becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate , and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death . His lasting contributions to science are exemplified and memorialized by the Arrhenius equation , Arrhenius definition of an acid , lunar crater Arrhenius , the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University , all named after him . He was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide increase Earth 's surface temperature through the Arrhenius effect , leading Keeling to conclude that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are large enough to cause global warming .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Svante_Arrhenius",
"rank": 74,
"score": 77437
},
{
"content": "Title: K2-3d Content: K2-3d , also known as EPIC 201367065 d , is a confirmed massive solid exoplanet orbiting the red dwarf star K2-3 , and the outermost of three such planets discovered in the system . It is located 137 ly away from Earth in the constellation of Leo . The exoplanet was found by using the transit method , in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured . It was the first planet in the Kepler `` Second Light '' mission to receive the letter `` d '' designation for a planet . Its discovery was announced in January 2015 .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "K2-3d",
"rank": 75,
"score": 77422
},
{
"content": "Title: List of largest volcanic eruptions Content: In a volcanic eruption , lava , tephra ( volcanic bombs , lapilli , and ash ) , and various gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure . While many eruptions only pose dangers to the immediately surrounding area , Earth 's largest eruptions can have a major regional or even global impact , with some affecting the climate and contributing to mass extinctions . Volcanic eruptions can generally be characterized as either explosive eruptions , sudden ejections of rock and ash , or effusive eruptions , relatively gentle outpourings of lava . A separate list is given below for each type . All of the eruptions listed below have produced at least 1000 km3 of lava and tephra ; for explosive eruptions , this corresponds to a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( or VEI ) of 8 . They are at least a thousand times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens , which produced only 1 km3 of material , and at least six times larger than the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora , the largest eruption in recent history , which produced 160 km3 of volcanic deposits . There have probably been many such eruptions during Earth 's history beyond those shown in these lists . However erosion and plate tectonics have taken their toll , and many eruptions have not left enough evidence for geologists to establish their size . Even for the eruptions listed here , estimates of the volume erupted can be subject to considerable uncertainty .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "List_of_largest_volcanic_eruptions",
"rank": 76,
"score": 77398
},
{
"content": "Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Vatican_Climate_Forest",
"rank": 77,
"score": 77199
},
{
"content": "Title: Project Vulcan Content: Project Vulcan is a NASA/DOE funded effort under the North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions at space/time scales much finer than has been achieved in the past . The initial purpose of the Vulcan Project was to aid in quantification of the North American carbon budget , to support inverse estimation of carbon sources and sinks , and to support the demands posed by higher resolution CO2 observations . The detail and scope of the Vulcan CO2 inventory has now made it a valuable tool for policymakers , demographers , social scientists and the public at large . Project Vulcan has achieved U.S. fossil fuel CO2 emissions at < 10 km spatial scales and an hourly time scale , based on datasets such as air quality emissions reporting , census data , highway statistics , energy statistics , and econometric data . Furthermore , Vulcan includes significant process-level detail , dividing the emissions into economic sectors and sub-sectors in addition to 23 fuel types . It has been produced for the year 2002 , and an annual product spanning 1980-2006 will be available by late-2009 . The first Vulcan inventory ( v1 .0 ) was released to the public in early April 2008 . Version 1.1 was released in February 2009 and Version 1.2 is due out in early August 2009 . In addition to the data release , establishment of the Vulcan website and a press release , a video of various aspects of atmospheric transport was released on Purdue University 's YouTube website and portions of the Vulcan inventory are available on Google Earth . As of 2015 , version 2.2 has been published on a site hosted by Arizona State University .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Project_Vulcan",
"rank": 78,
"score": 76971
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 79,
"score": 76825
},
{
"content": "Title: NW Rota-1 Content: NW Rota-1 is a seamount in the Mariana Islands, northwest of Rota, which was discovered through its hydrothermal activity in 2003. The volcano has been observed to be erupting underwater, the first time that submarine explosive eruptions have been directly witnessed. The summit of the seamount lies at 517 m (1,696 ft) below sea level, with a ridge capping off the seamount. It has several craters, the most active of which is located south of the summit ridge and is called \"Brimstone Pit\". Eruptions have been recorded in 2008–2010 and took the form of Strombolian eruptions with the emission of lava and large amounts of tephra. The erupted material is unstable and forms sediment flows and landslides; one large landslide occurred on 14 August 2009 and stripped part of the southern flank of NW Rota-1. Such landslides generate ash plumes underwater and are similar to large landslides at other active submarine volcanoes. The activity gives rise to intense hydrothermal plumes, which contain droplets of molten sulfur and bubbles of carbon dioxide, among other compounds. It is estimated that NW Rota-1 releases 400,000 ± 100,000 tonne/year of carbon dioxide. The hydrothermal activity nourishes microbial mats and these in turn many animals, although the unstable environment from the frequent eruptions limits animal diversity.",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "NW_Rota-1",
"rank": 80,
"score": 76716
},
{
"content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence",
"rank": 81,
"score": 76699
},
{
"content": "Title: Supervolcano Content: A supervolcano is an informal term that describes a volcano which has erupted more than 1015 kg ( 1012 t ) of ejecta . This corresponds to larger eruptions of Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) 7 , and all eruptions of VEI-8 and higher , or around 500 km3 or more of ejecta . A supervolcanic eruption may be a single short-term event , or a long-term massive lava flow lasting up to millions of years . Supervolcanoes occur when magma in the mantle rises into the crust but is unable to break through it and pressure builds in a large and growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the pressure . This can occur at hotspots ( for example , Yellowstone Caldera ) or at subduction zones ( for example , Toba ) . Another setting for the eruption of very large amounts of volcanic material is in large igneous provinces , which can cover huge areas with lava and volcanic ash , causing long-lasting climate change ( such as the triggering of a small ice age or global warming ) , which can threaten species with extinction . The Oruanui eruption of New Zealand 's Taupo Volcano ( around 25,360 years ago ) was the world 's most recent supereruption and a VEI-8 eruption .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Supervolcano",
"rank": 82,
"score": 76603
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_trading",
"rank": 83,
"score": 76458
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greenhouse Conspiracy Content: The Greenhouse Conspiracy is a documentary film broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990 , as part of the Equinox series , which criticised the theory of global warming and asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding . It is one of the earliest instances of the suggestion of a conspiracy to promote false claims supporting global warming . Although the title of the program implied the existence of a conspiracy , when interviewed on the program Patrick Michaels played down the idea , saying , `` It may not quite add up to a conspiracy , but certainly a coalition of interests has promoted the greenhouse theory : scientists have needed funds , the media a story , and governments a worthy cause '' .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "The_Greenhouse_Conspiracy",
"rank": 84,
"score": 76453
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 85,
"score": 76308
},
{
"content": "Title: Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories Content: This article contains hypotheses not currently accepted by the majority of the scientific community . For the majority view within the scientific community , see History of HIV/AIDS . Various fringe theories have arisen to speculate about purported alternative origins for the human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) , with claims ranging from it being due to accidental exposure to supposedly purposeful acts . Several inquiries and investigations have been carried out as a result , and each of these theories have consequently been determined to be based on unfounded and/or false information . HIV has been shown to have evolved from or is closely related to the simian immunodeficiency virus ( SIV ) in West Central Africa sometime in the early 20th century . HIV was discovered in the 1980s by the French scientist Luc Montagnier . Before the 1980s , HIV was an unknown deadly disease .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Discredited_HIV/AIDS_origins_theories",
"rank": 86,
"score": 76154
},
{
"content": "Title: Discredited hypotheses for the Cambrian explosion Content: As understanding of the events of the Cambrian becomes clearer , data have accumulated to make some postulated causes for the Cambrian explosion look improbable . Some examples are the evolution of herbivory , vast changes in plate tectonic rates or orbital motion , or different evolutionary mechanisms in force .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Discredited_hypotheses_for_the_Cambrian_explosion",
"rank": 87,
"score": 75931
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 88,
"score": 75798
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project Content: Deep Earth Carbon Degassing ( DECADE ) project is an initiative to unite scientists around the world to make tangible advances towards quantifying the amount of carbon outgassed from the Earth 's deep interior ( core , mantle , crust ) into the surface environment ( e.g. biosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , atmosphere ) through naturally occurring processes . DECADE is an initiative within the Deep Carbon Observatory ( DCO ) . Volcanoes are the main pathway in which deeply-sourced volatiles , including carbon , are transferred from the Earth 's interior to the surface environment . An additional , though less well understood pathway includes along faults and fractures within the Earth 's crust , often referred to as tectonic degassing . When the DCO was first formed in 2009 estimates of global carbon flux from volcanic regions ranged from 65 to 540 Mt/yr , and constraints on global tectonic degassing were virtually unknown . The order of magnitude uncertainty in current volcanic/tectonic carbon outgassing makes answering fundamental questions about the global carbon budget virtually impossible . In particular , one fundamental unknown is if carbon transferred to the Earth 's interior via subduction is efficiently recycled back to the Earth 's mantle lithosphere , crust and surface environment through volcanic and tectonic degassing , or if significant quantities of carbon are being subducted into the deep mantle . Because significant quantities of mantle carbon are also released through Mid-Ocean Ridge volcanism , if carbon inputs and outputs at subduction zone settings are in balance , then the net effect will be an imbalance in the global carbon budget , with carbon being preferentially removed from the Earth 's deep interior and redistributed to more shallow reservoirs including the mantle lithosphere , crust , hydrosphere and atmosphere . The implications of this may mean that carbon concentrations in the surface environment are increasing over Earth 's history , which has significant implications for climate change . Findings from the DECADE project will increase our understanding of the way carbon cycles through deep Earth , and patterns in volcanic emissions data could potentially alert scientists to an impending eruption .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Deep_Earth_Carbon_Degassing_Project",
"rank": 89,
"score": 75579
},
{
"content": "Title: HUDF-JD2 Content: HUDF-JD2 ( UDF 033238.7 -274839.8 or BBG 3179 ) is a distant , massive , post-starburst galaxy that was discovered with the Hubble Ultra Deep Field ( HUDF ) image . It was the most distant galaxy identified in the HUDF , in 2005 . It is located at in the constellation of Fornax . In a 2005 search for very red galaxies in the HUDF that were not detected at wavelengths shorter than the near-infrared J band , two objects were detected . The second , initially designated UDF033238.7-274839 .8 , displayed a high redshift and showed characteristics of a post-starburst galaxy . The derived photometric redshift yielded z approximately equal to 6.5 , which indicates it is most likely being viewed from a time when the Universe was only 830 million years old . The estimated bolometric luminosity of this galaxy is a trillion ( 1012 ) times the solar luminosity ( the luminosity of the Sun ) and it has a mass of approximately . The spectrum of this object indicates that most of its energy is being emitted by stars with three solar masses or less . Hence , as larger stars will exist for shorter periods , this galaxy has an age of more than 300 million years . The period of initial active star formation in this galaxy may have lasted less than 100 million years , during which the galaxy likely participated in the reionization event . The unusually high mass estimate for this object may be explained by other factors . If it has an active galactic nucleus , this may reduce the mass estimate to half the current value . The estimate could also be effected by gravitational lensing , although it is too far away from the nearest visible object that could produce that effect : a foreground spiral galaxy located 7 ″ .3 distant .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "HUDF-JD2",
"rank": 90,
"score": 75530
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 91,
"score": 75236
},
{
"content": "Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Evangelical_Climate_Initiative",
"rank": 92,
"score": 75216
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 93,
"score": 75210
},
{
"content": "Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Clean_Energy_Act_2011",
"rank": 94,
"score": 75190
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Cool_Earth_50",
"rank": 95,
"score": 75155
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory",
"rank": 96,
"score": 74985
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 97,
"score": 74976
},
{
"content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming",
"rank": 98,
"score": 74910
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 99,
"score": 74774
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 Nabro eruption Content: The 2011 Nabro eruption was an eruption of the Nabro stratovolcano in the Southern Red Sea Region of Eritrea , which began on 12 June 2011 after a series of earthquakes . The eruption killed seven and possibly a further 31 people and is estimated to be the highest altitude injection of sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) ever observed by satellite . The Mount Pinatubo eruption 20 years earlier emitted ten times more SO2 . The ash cloud from the eruption reached altitudes which disrupted airline traffic in the region . Until the eruption began , the volcano had no records of historical eruptions .",
"qid": "31",
"docid": "2011_Nabro_eruption",
"rank": 100,
"score": 74719
}
] |
Harvard study finds that wind turbines create MORE global warming than the fossil fuels they eliminate | [
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of wind power Content: The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels , is relatively minor . Compared with other low carbon power sources , wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated . According to the IPCC , in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources , wind turbines have a median value of between 15 and 11 ( geq/kWh ) depending on whether off - or onshore turbines are being assessed . While wind turbine installations may cover a large area , they are compatible with many land uses such as farming and grazing , as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made unavailable for use . Wind turbines generate some noise . At a residential distance of 300 m this may be around 45 dB , which is slightly louder than a refrigerator . At 1.5 km distance most wind turbines become inaudible . From a fundamental biological point of view , it is known that loud noise increases stress and stress causes diseases . Peer-reviewed research has generally supported the view that when properly sited wind turbines do not affect human health from noise . However , when improperly sited , data from the monitoring of two groups of growing geese revealed substantially lower body weights and higher concentrations of a stress hormone in the blood of the first group of geese who were situated 50 meters away compared to a second group which was at a distance of 500 meters from the turbine . Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape can be significant . Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes . Siting restrictions ( such as setbacks ) have often been implemented to limit any intrusive environmental impacts . There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures . The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant , depending on specific circumstances . Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities , and protection of peat bogs , affect the siting and operation of wind turbines .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_wind_power",
"rank": 1,
"score": 157286
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind power Content: Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power . Wind power , as an alternative to burning fossil fuels , is plentiful , renewable , widely distributed , clean , produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation , consumes no water , and uses little land . The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of nonrenewable power sources . Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network . Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power , competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants . Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land , and offshore farms have less visual impact , but construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher . Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations . Wind power gives variable power which is very consistent from year to year but which has significant variation over shorter time scales . It is therefore used in conjunction with other electric power sources to give a reliable supply . As the proportion of wind power in a region increases , a need to upgrade the grid , and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur . Power management techniques such as having excess capacity , geographically distributed turbines , dispatchable backing sources , sufficient hydroelectric power , exporting and importing power to neighboring areas , using vehicle-to-grid strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low , can in many cases overcome these problems . In addition , weather forecasting permits the electric power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur . As of 2015 , Denmark generates 40 % of its electric power from wind , and at least 83 other countries around the world are using wind power to supply their electric power grids . In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16 % to 369,553 MW . Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4 % of worldwide electric power usage , 11.4 % in the EU .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind_power",
"rank": 2,
"score": 118226
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 3,
"score": 111015
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 4,
"score": 108875
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 5,
"score": 106349
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind turbine Content: A wind turbine is a device that converts the wind 's kinetic energy into electrical power . Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types . The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or caravans or to power traffic warning signs . Slightly larger turbines can be used for making contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid . Arrays of large turbines , known as wind farms , are becoming an increasingly important source of intermittent renewable energy and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind_turbine",
"rank": 6,
"score": 104759
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind turbine syndrome Content: Wind turbine syndrome or wind farm syndrome is a psychosomatic disorder primarily caused by anxiety generated by heightened awareness of turbines -- the `` nocebo effect '' -- prompted by proponents of the idea that wind turbines have adverse health effects . While proponents claim that a number of effects including death , cancer and congenital abnormality have been caused by wind farms , the distribution of recorded events correlates with media coverage of wind farm syndrome itself , and not with the presence or absence of wind farms . It is not recognised by any international disease classification system and does not appear in any title or abstract in the United States National Library of Medicine 's PubMed database . The Center for Media and Democracy 's SourceWatch website has identified at least one Australian fossil fuel industry funded astroturfing group as involved in promoting the idea of wind turbine syndrome . An investigation led to the foundation being stripped of its status as a health promotion charity .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind_turbine_syndrome",
"rank": 7,
"score": 104418
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 8,
"score": 103531
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 9,
"score": 103152
},
{
"content": "Title: Alternative energy Content: Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel . These alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels , such as its high carbon dioxide emissions , an important factor in global warming . Marine energy , hydroelectric , wind , geothermal and solar power are all alternative sources of energy . The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time , as have controversies regarding energy use . Because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates , defining some energy types as `` alternative '' is considered very controversial .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Alternative_energy",
"rank": 10,
"score": 101498
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind Power Production Incentive Content: The Wind Power Production Incentive , or WPPI , was a program of the Canadian Government that promoted the generation of electricity from wind power in Canada to reduce the amount of greenhouse gas that would otherwise enter the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels . During the 5 years field trial projects were performed to test the performance based on various weather conditions . Provision of economic incentives were guaranteed for up to 1,000 MW of new installed capacity by 2007 . New installations in 2003 included the MacBride Wind Farm ( 75.9 MW ) in Alberta , the North Cape Wind Farm Expansion ( 5.3 MW ) , and the Aeolous Wind Turbine ( 3 MW ) in PEI , the Parc éolien du Renard ( 2.25 MW ) in Quebec , the Cypress Hill Wind Farm Expansion ( 4.6 MW ) in Saskatchewan , and the Ontario Place Wind turbine ( 0.75 MW ) in Ontario . ( IEA Wind 2002 Annual Report pg . 79 ) The government paid about half the excess cost of producing electricity from wind , compared to conventional sources , for the first 10 years of a project . The Canadian WPPI Program started in 2002 and ended on March 31 , 2007 after a change of government . A different program partly replaced it . A wind farm costs about the same to build per watt of nameplate capacity as a coal-fired power station of similar rating , but the economies of scale are fewer for a wind farm due to the lower quantity of power produced over the life of a station . Depending on location , wind farms may produce nearly full power output only about 28 % of the time , whereas a base-loaded coal-fired station runs at full output more than 85 % of the time . The WPPI provided a direct subsidy per kilowatthour of wind energy produced , from 1.2 cents down to 0.8 cents depending on the startup date of a project . Measures were taken to distribute the incentive across the country . The total estimated cost of the program was ( CDN ) $ 260 million . The program lived a short 5 year life .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind_Power_Production_Incentive",
"rank": 11,
"score": 100909
},
{
"content": "Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "100%_renewable_energy",
"rank": 12,
"score": 99662
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 13,
"score": 99004
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of the energy industry Content: The environmental impact of the energy industry is diverse . Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia . Initially it was with the use of fire for light , heat , cooking and for safety , and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years . In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources . Consumption of fossil fuel resources leads to global warming and climate change . In most parts of the world little change is being made to slow these changes . If the peak oil theory proves true , and more explorations of viable alternative energy sources are made , our impact could be less hostile to our environment . Rapidly advancing technologies can achieve a transition of energy generation , water and waste management , and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry",
"rank": 14,
"score": 98266
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Wind Energy Council Content: The Global Wind Energy Council ( GWEC ) was established in 2005 to provide a credible and representative forum for the entire wind energy sector at an international level . GWEC 's mission is to ensure that wind power is established as one of the world 's leading energy sources , providing substantial environmental and economic benefits . A new report launched by the Global Wind Energy Council predicts that , despite temporary supply chain difficulties , international wind markets are set to continue their strong growth . In 2006 , total installed wind power capacity increased by 25 % globally , generating some $ 18 billion ( US$ 23 billion ) worth of new generating equipment and bringing global wind power capacity up to more than 74GW . While the European Union is still the leading market in wind energy with over 48GW of installed capacity , other continents such as North America and Asia are developing quickly .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Global_Wind_Energy_Council",
"rank": 15,
"score": 97767
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson",
"rank": 16,
"score": 97490
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel",
"rank": 17,
"score": 97238
},
{
"content": "Title: James McCarthy (oceanographer) Content: James J. McCarthy is a Professor of Biological Oceanography at Harvard and was President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science from Feb 2008-Feb 2009 . McCarthy is Alexander Agassiz Professor of Biological Oceanography and former Master of Pforzheimer House . He is also Acting Curator of the Malacology Department in the Museum of Comparative Zoology . His studies address factors that regulate the processes of primary production and nutrient supply in upper ocean , approached using controlled laboratory studies and field investigations . Study sites range from near shore to the open ocean . Recent and current field research sites include the North Atlantic , equatorial Pacific , and Arabian Sea . He is on the faculty of the Harvard Medical School Center for Health and the Global Environment . Quote from Science News February 2009 interview : The Maldives and Kiribati highlight a hidden challenge for coping with climate change \\ global Warming . It 's not just about slowing the emissions of greenhouse gases . It 's also about figuring out what to do for localities threatened with the possibility of extinction from -LSB- rising ocean waters . `` They are like the canary in the coal mine in terms of the dramatic impact of climate change on a whole civilization of people '' `` They did n't cause the problem , but they will be among the first to feel it . '' The 2007 IPCC report took an extremely conservative approach to potential sea level rise , focusing on thermal expansion . It estimated that sea level increases could range from 0.2 to 0.6 meters by 2100 . Experts cautioned , however , that these numbers were highly uncertain and probably underestimated the potential change . The IPCC analysis did not take into account the unexpectedly rapid rate of melting and decay of polar ice sheets , particularly in Greenland , that has been observed recently , or the prospect of accelerated breakdown of polar sheets in the future . `` That 's not something that was anticipated '' .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "James_McCarthy_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 18,
"score": 96693
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 19,
"score": 96649
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 20,
"score": 96190
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Grenada",
"rank": 21,
"score": 95116
},
{
"content": "Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 22,
"score": 94818
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 23,
"score": 93905
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 24,
"score": 93638
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental and Energy Study Institute Content: The Environmental and Energy Study Institute ( EESI ) is an independent , bi-partisan 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization that aims to promote environmentally sustainable societies . Based out of Washington , DC , EESI seeks to be a catalyst moving society away from environmentally damaging fossil fuels and toward a clean energy future . The organization was established in 1984 by a bipartisan and bicameral group of members of the United States Congress who were concerned with global environmental and energy problems . EESI works to advance policy solutions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and ground-level air pollution ; improve public health , energy security , and economic development opportunities ; and increase use of renewable energy and energy efficiency . The group seeks to advance its mission through policymaker education , coalition building , and policy development .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Environmental_and_Energy_Study_Institute",
"rank": 25,
"score": 93478
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-based fuel Content: Carbon-based fuel is any fuel principally from the oxidation or burning of carbon . Carbon-based fuels are of two main kinds , biofuels and fossil fuels . Whereas biofuels are derived from recent-growth organic matter and are typically harvested , as with logging of forests and cutting of corn , fossil fuels are of prehistoric origin and are extracted from the ground , the principal fossil fuels being oil , coal , and natural gas . From an economic policy perspective , an important distinction between biofuels and fossil fuels is that only the former is sustainable or renewable . Whereas we can continue to obtain energy from biofuels indefinitely in principle , the Earth 's reserves of fossil fuels was determined millions of years ago and is therefore fixed as far as our foreseeable future is concerned . The great variability in the ease of extraction of fossil fuels however makes its endgame scenario one of increasing prices over one or more centuries rather than of abrupt exhaustion . From the perspective of climate and ecology , biofuels and fossil fuels have in common that they contribute to the production of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which has emerged in recent decades as the fastest-changing greenhouse gas , whose principal impacts are global warming and ocean acidification . However biofuels actively participate in the carbon cycle today by photosynthesizing carbon dioxide , unlike fossil fuels whose participation was long ago , and can therefore in principle bring atmospheric CO2 into an equilibrium not possible with the continued use of fossil fuel . But in practice photosynthesis is a slow process , and the additional fuel produced by artificial methods of accelerating it such as application of fertilizer tends to be offset by the energy consumed by the accelerating processes , to a degree currently under active debate . In contrast the speed of photosynthesis is immaterial for fossil fuels because they had millions of years in which to accumulate . Burning of both fossil fuels and biofuels usually also produces carbon monoxide , which is toxic and can kill a person after mixing with the haemoglobin of the blood , increasing its concentration in the body . Biofuels and fossil fuels may also produce many other air pollutants depending on the contents of the fuel .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Carbon-based_fuel",
"rank": 26,
"score": 93180
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 27,
"score": 92994
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind turbine prognostics Content: The growing demand for renewable energy has spurred global adoption and expansion of wind turbine technology . To increase energy capacity for existing and future wind farm projects , prognostics and health management ( PHM ) techniques are considered as a critical approach , whose functionality to diagnose and prognose system degradation and failure is capable to enhance reliability and reduce downtime .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind_turbine_prognostics",
"rank": 28,
"score": 92728
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind Energy (journal) Content: Wind Energy is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on wind power . It is published by John Wiley & Sons and the editors-in-chief are Rebecca Bartholomew ( Cornell University ) and Scott Schreck ( National Renewable Energy Laboratory ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 2.556 , ranking it 35th out of 83 journals in `` Energy & Fuels '' and 12th out of 128 journals in `` Engineering Mechanical '' .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind_Energy_(journal)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 92678
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind power in the United Kingdom Content: The United Kingdom is one of the best locations for wind power in the world , and is considered to be the best in Europe . Wind power contributed 11 % of UK electricity generation in 2015 , and 17 % in December 2015 . Allowing for the costs of pollution , particularly the carbon emissions of other forms of production , onshore wind power is the cheapest form of energy in the United Kingdom . In 2016 , the UK generated more electricity from wind power than from coal . Wind power delivers a growing percentage of the energy of the United Kingdom and at the end of May 2017 , it consisted of 7,520 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of almost 15.5 gigawatts : 10,128 megawatts of onshore capacity and 5,356 megawatts of offshore capacity . This placed the United Kingdom at this time as the world 's sixth largest producer of wind power ( behind 1 . China , 2 . USA , 3 . Germany , 4 . India and 5 . Spain ) , having overtaken France and Italy in 2012 . Polling of public opinion consistently shows strong support for wind power in the UK , with nearly three quarters of the population agreeing with its use , even for people living near onshore wind turbines . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . Three large offshore wind farms came on stream in 2015 , Gwynt y Môr ( 576 MW max . capacity ) , Humber Gateway ( 219 MW ) and Westermost Rough ( 210 MW ) . Through the Renewables Obligation , British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee . The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate ( ROC ) for each MW · h of electricity they have purchased . Within the United Kingdom , wind power is the largest source of renewable electricity , and the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass . However , the UK 's Conservative government is opposed to onshore wind power and has attempted to cancel existing subsidies for onshore wind turbines a year early from April 2016 , although the House of Lords have struck these changes down . Overall , wind power raises costs of electricity slightly . In 2015 , it was estimated that the use of wind power in the UK had added # 18 to the average yearly electricity bill . This was the additional cost to consumers of using wind to generate about 9.3 % of the annual total ( see table below ) -- about # 2 for each 1 % . Nevertheless , offshore wind power is significantly more expensive than onshore , which raises costs . Offshore wind projects completed in 2012 -- 14 had a levelised cost of electricity of # 131/MW · h compared to a wholesale price of # 40 -- 50/MW · h ; the industry hopes to get the cost down to # 100/MW · h for projects approved in 2020 .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 30,
"score": 91954
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind power in Iran Content: This article discuss the development and implementation of wind power in Iran . Iran has relied primarily on a fossil fuel-based energy sector to power its country . However , in the last decade Iran has made steps to decrease its dependency on fossil fuels by investing in the renewable energy of wind power . This article discuss the process as well as the reasons for Iran 's interest in renewable energy ; the positive and negative effects as a result of the presence of wind power ; the political dynamics occurring in Iran ; and its attempt to also invest in nuclear energy as well .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind_power_in_Iran",
"rank": 31,
"score": 91843
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Carbon_bubble",
"rank": 32,
"score": 90869
},
{
"content": "Title: Save the Climate Content: Save The Climate ( Sauvons le Climat ) is a French association created in 2004 by Hervé Nifenecker , Roger Balian , Rémy Carle and Bernard Lerouge . In May 2012 , five associations are members and thousands of people have signed its manifesto . Its purpose is to fight against global warming and provide public information on topics fundamental to sustainable development , the environment , and energy , through eliminating the use of fossil fuels in France by maintaining the share of nuclear power generation in parallel with the use of `` heat-like '' renewable energy . The association is approved by the French government as a combination of popular education .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Save_the_Climate",
"rank": 33,
"score": 90062
},
{
"content": "Title: Global stilling Content: Global stilling is the decrease of wind speed observed near the Earth ´ s surface ( ~ 10-meter height ) over the last three decades ( mainly since the 1980s ) , originally termed `` stilling '' . This slowdown of surface winds has mainly affected mid-latitude regions of both hemispheres , with a global average reduction of -0.140 m s-1 dec-1 ( meters per second per decade ) or between 5 and 15 % over the past 50-years . The weakening of winds has mainly occurred over continental surfaces , whereas winds has tended to strengthen over ocean regions . In the last few years , a break in this decrease of wind speed has been detected with a recovery at global scales since 2013 . The exact causes of the global stilling are uncertain and has been mainly attributed to two major drivers : ( i ) changes in large scale atmospheric circulation , and ( ii ) an increase of surface roughness due to e.g. forest growth , land use changes , and urbanization . Under a global warming scenario , changes in wind speed are currently a potential concern for the society , due to their impacts on a wide array of spheres , such as wind power generation , ecohydrological implications for agriculture and hydrology , wind-related hazards and catastrophes , or air quality and human health , among many others .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Global_stilling",
"rank": 34,
"score": 89342
},
{
"content": "Title: Harvard Medical School Center for Health and the Global Environment Content: The Center for Health and the Global Environment is located at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health . The mission of the Center is to help people understand that our health , and that of our children , depends on the health of the environment , and that we must do everything we can to protect it . It bestows the Global Environmental Citizen Award annually upon an individual working to protect the environment . The Center was founded in 1996 , at Harvard Medical School , to promote a wider understanding of the human health consequences of global environmental change . The Center moved to the Harvard Chan School in October 2012 . To realize the mission and catalyze change , the Center : Conducts research and translate knowledge into concrete , personal terms that everyone can relate to . Informs policy by bringing the latest and best science into legislative decisions . Convenes today 's thought leaders to advance strategies for creating a healthy world . Educates and inspires tomorrow 's leaders so that they may influence the direction of their chosen fields towards a more sustainable future . Empowers key stakeholders to make decisions that will protect for our health and the health of the environment .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Harvard_Medical_School_Center_for_Health_and_the_Global_Environment",
"rank": 35,
"score": 88958
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 36,
"score": 88676
},
{
"content": "Title: George Philippidis Content: George Philippidis is a renewable energy leader who has published and spoken extensively about the global need for energy diversification over the last 20 years . He advocates the development of renewable and alternative low-carbon power and fuels to enhance energy security , combat climate change , and secure sustainable economic growth . He has authored 11 cleantech patents , written numerous articles , and spoken nationally and internationally on this subject emphasizing that renewable and alternative energy will initially supplement and augment current resources and progressively replace fossil energy , provided that governments institute long-term energy policies promoting the development of and private investment in new energy technologies . A diverse energy portfolio , depending on the local availability of natural resources , includes ( 1 ) solar , wind , biomass-to-power , ocean , and geothermal energy for power generation , and ( 2 ) renewable hydrocarbons , biomass - and algae-derived biofuels , and electric vehicles for transportation . The private sector and the markets should determine which of those forms of low-carbon energy are most appropriate and cost-effective locally in different parts of the country and the world . Dr. Philippidis studied Chemical Engineering at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in Greece getting a BS and at the University of Minnesota receiving a PhD . He also studied Business Administration at the University of Denver obtaining an MBA . He led strategic business units at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( NREL ) of the US Department of Energy in Denver and at a subsidiary of Thermo Electron Corporation in Boston before becoming Energy Director of the Applied Research Center , the business arm of Florida International University in Miami . Presently , he is Director of the Alternative Energy Research Center and Associate Professor of Biofuel Engineering at the University of South Florida Polytechnic in the Tampa Bay area , where he works with companies and venture capital firms to commercialize clean energy technologies and educates students and professionals in critical energy issues . He has been advising the federal and state governments on energy policy , venture capital and private equity firms on investment in cleantech , and the private sector in the United States and Latin America on the establishment of a renewable energy industry .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "George_Philippidis",
"rank": 37,
"score": 88534
},
{
"content": "Title: Fossil fuel phase-out Content: Fossil fuel phase out refers to the discontinuation of the use of fossil fuels , through the decommissioning of operating fossil fuel-fired power plants , the prevention of the construction of new ones , and the use of Alternative energy to replace the role of fossil fuels . The purpose of fossil fuel phase-out is to reduce the negative externalities that use of fossil fuels cause . Negative externalities refer to the costs a certain activity has over people who did not choose to incur in them . A direct negative externality from fossil fuels ' use is air pollution , and an indirect negative externality are mining accidents , that happen as a consequence of the extraction of fossil fuels . Fossil fuel burning contributes to climate change , as it releases greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Fossil_fuel_phase-out",
"rank": 38,
"score": 88285
},
{
"content": "Title: Ende Gelände 2016 Content: Ende Gelände 2016 was a large civil disobedience protest movement in Germany to limit global warming through fossil fuel phase-out . 3,500 -- 4,000 environmental activists from twelve countries blocked the Welzow-Süd open-pit coal mine and the coal-fired Schwarze Pumpe power station , then owned by Vattenfall ( Spremberg ) , from 13 to 15 May 2016 .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Ende_Gelände_2016",
"rank": 39,
"score": 87772
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 40,
"score": 87574
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap and Share Content: Cap and Share was originally developed by Feasta ( the Foundation for the Economics of Sustainability ) and is a regulatory and economic framework for controlling the use of fossil fuels in relation to climate stabilisation . Accepting that climate change is a global problem and that there is a need to cap and reduce greenhouse gas emissions globally , the philosophy of Cap and Share maintains that the earth 's atmosphere is a fundamental common resource . Consequently , it is argued , each individual should get an equal share of the benefits from the limited amount of fossil fuels that will have to be burned and their emissions released into the atmosphere in the period until the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases has been stabilised at a safe level .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Cap_and_Share",
"rank": 41,
"score": 87498
},
{
"content": "Title: Underwood Wind Farm Content: The Underwood Wind Farm ( Enbridge Ontario Wind Farm ) is a wind farm located in Bruce County , Ontario , near the shores of Lake Huron . It was developed by Enbridge Inc. , a Canadian corporation better known for involvement in fossil fuels and their distribution . The farm consists of 110 Vestas V82 wind turbines , each rated at 1.65 MW , for a total nameplate capacity of 181.5 MW . The project includes a substation to step up the power generated by the turbines to 230kV for transmission . The Enbridge Ontario Wind Farm is not the only energy development in the area ; Bruce County also boasts the Huron Wind wind farm , and the Bruce Nuclear Generating Station .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Underwood_Wind_Farm",
"rank": 42,
"score": 87487
},
{
"content": "Title: Richard G. Richels Content: Richard `` Rich '' Gayle Richels directs global climate change research at the Electric Power Research Institute . Richels received a BS degree in physics from the College of William & Mary . He was awarded MS and PhD degrees in decision science from Harvard University 's Division of Applied Sciences . Richels has served on a number of national and international advisory panels , including committees of the Department of Energy , the Environmental Protection Agency , and the National Research Council . He served as an expert witness at the Department of Energy 's hearings on the National Energy Strategy and testified at Congressional hearings on priorities in global climate change research . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second , Third and Fourth Assessment Reports ( the IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore ) and served on the Synthesis Team for the US National Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on the United States . He currently serves on the Scientific Steering Committee for the US Carbon Cycle Program and the Advisory Committee for Princeton University Carbon Mitigation Initiative . He has served as Editor of the Energy , Environment and National Resources area of the Operations Research Journal . He has also served on the Board of Editors of The Energy Journal and the Journal of Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis , and contributed to the Energy Modeling Forum . Richels is a co-author of Buying Greenhouse Insurance - the Economic Costs of Emission Limits ( with Alan S. Manne ) , and of Economic and environmental choices in the stabilization of atmospheric concentrations ( with Tom Wigley and Jae Edmonds ) . Both studies outline an economic approach to climate policy . Richels is a researcher on integrated assessment modelling for climate change , and regularly appears in the media .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Richard_G._Richels",
"rank": 43,
"score": 87475
},
{
"content": "Title: Kick the Fossil Fuel Habit Content: Kick The Fossil Fuel Habit : 10 Clean Technologies to Save Our World is a 2010 book by clean energy venture capitalist Tom Rand . The book is about making an energy transition from fossil fuels to clean technologies , by changing to 100 % renewable energy . It includes detailed descriptions of the technologies required - solar energy , wind power , geothermal energy and more . Author Tom Rand says we will `` need to deploy resources on a scale not seen since World War II , generate international co-operation , and develop rules to put a price on carbon . '' Rand says that there are lots of reasons to kick the fossil fuel habit : `` energy security ; the moral cost of supporting undemocratic regimes that sit on the oil we use ; the military cost , both in blood and cash , to keep the supply lines open ; and getting a leg up on the competition in the next industrial revolution . Each of these is reason enough to kick the habit '' . Rand stresses that we need to act quickly and , equally important , collectively . That means `` this generation of government , businesses and individuals all need act together to save the world for the next '' .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Kick_the_Fossil_Fuel_Habit",
"rank": 44,
"score": 87421
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind turbines on public display Content: The great majority of wind turbines around the world belong to individuals or corporations who use them to generate electric power or to perform mechanical work . As such , wind turbines are primarily designed to be working devices . However , the large size and height above surroundings of modern industrial wind turbines , combined with their moving rotors , often makes them among the most conspicuous objects in their areas . A few localities have exploited the attention-getting nature of wind turbines by placing them on public display , either with visitor centers on their bases , or with viewing areas farther away . The wind turbines themselves are generally of conventional horizontal-axis , three-bladed design , and generate power to feed electrical grids , but they also serve the unconventional roles of technology demonstration , public relations , and education .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind_turbines_on_public_display",
"rank": 45,
"score": 86977
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 46,
"score": 86908
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 47,
"score": 86700
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 48,
"score": 86610
},
{
"content": "Title: Walkaway Wind Farm Content: Alinta wind farm ( also known as Walkaway wind farm ) is a wind power station at Walkaway , just south of Geraldton , Western Australia . The Alinta wind farm has an installed capacity of 89.1 megawatts . It supplies Perth and the south west in the south-west interconnected system ( SWIS ) . Each year the wind farm generates energy that would normally produce 360,150 tonnes of greenhouse gases if generated by fossil fuel based methods . This is the equivalent of removing 76,000 cars from the roads . Electricity produced by the wind farm is purchased mainly by Alinta Energy . The owner is Infigen Energy Ltd. .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Walkaway_Wind_Farm",
"rank": 49,
"score": 86311
},
{
"content": "Title: Renewable energy in Denmark Content: Denmark is a world leading country in wind energy production and wind turbine production . In 2014 Denmark produced 57.4 % of its net electricity generation from renewable energy sources . The Danish wind company Vestas Wind Systems A/S has expanded from its domestic base and by 2015 had a revenue of $ 8.423 billion , with more than 18,000 employees globally and manufacturing plants in Denmark , Germany , India , Italy , Romania , the United Kingdom , Spain , Sweden , Norway , Australia , China , and the United States ( see Vestas link above for sources ) . Wind power alone produced 42.7 % of Denmark 's electricity production in 2014 and is expected to increase its production by nearly 80 % in the years to 2024 . Denmark has a target of producing 30 % of all its energy needs from RE energy sources by 2020 , a considerable increase from the 17 % it attained in 2005 . By 2014 this figure had already reached 29.2 % and was the fifth highest amongst the EU-28 countries . The country has ambitious renewable energy goals for the future , including using renewable energy for 100 % of its energy needs in all sectors including transport by 2050 . In the heating sector the country has long used and continues to develop district heating ( DH ) networks . Hot water or steam is produced centrally and then distributed through a network of insulated pipes to high population areas . Houses within a district heating area have heat exchangers installed instead of boilers for their heating and hot water requirements . The heat exchanger keeps the two water systems separate and means that heat can be adjusted as with a familiar domestic boiler . One simple but important innovation in the district heating network was the development of internally insulated pipes . The two pipes taking and receiving the return of water are placed inside a much larger pipe and insulating material is set so as to fill the figure eight shaped void between the two smaller and the large pipe . In 2013 district heating supplied over 60 % of all households in Denmark with heating and hot water . The development of district heating technology has led Denmark to become a world leader in industrial pump and thermostat designs and its products are used in many industries worldwide . Cogeneration is also widely used . This is a process that extracts the waste heat produced when generating electricity . Power stations designed to do this are known as Combined Heat and Power ( CHP ) stations . CHP stations in Denmark are often sized to provide the heat required for the local district heating system . Thus CHP stations produce both electricity for the grid and heat for district heating systems . Heat can be stored in large industrial hot water tanks for several days allowing electricity and heat supply to be provided time independently from each other . By 2013 the use of CHP stations had reduced the overall energy consumption in Denmark by 11 % . Danish electricity generation has become increasingly decentralised with a move away from production in the large central power stations to many smaller , locally based and mostly CHP stations . Many of these smaller stations use locally sourced bio energy sources including straw and wood pellets .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Denmark",
"rank": 50,
"score": 86040
},
{
"content": "Title: Robert O. Mendelsohn Content: Robert O. Mendelsohn ( born 1952 in New York City ) is an American environmental economist . He is currently the Edwin Weyerhaeuser Davis Professor of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University , Professor of Economics in Economics Department at Yale University and Professor in the School of Management at Yale University.Professor Mendelsohn is a major figure in the economics of global warming , being for example a contributor to the first Copenhagen Consensus report . Mendelsohn received a BA in economics from Harvard University in 1973 and obtained his Ph.D. in economics from Yale University in 1978 . Professor Mendelsohn has written over one hundred peer-reviewed articles and edited six books . The focus of his research has been the valuation of the environment . He has developed methods to value natural ecosystems including coral reefs , old-growth forests , non-timber forest products , ecotourism , and outdoor recreation . He has also developed methods to value pollution including emissions of criteria pollutants ( such as particulates and sulfur dioxide ) and hazardous waste sites . His most recent work values the impacts of greenhouse gases , including the effects of climate change on agriculture , forests , water resources , energy , and coasts . This research carefully integrates adaptation into impact assessment and has recently been extended to developing countries around the world . He has also been involved in studies of nonrenewable resources , forest management , and specifically carbon sequestration in forests .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Robert_O._Mendelsohn",
"rank": 51,
"score": 85904
},
{
"content": "Title: Copper in renewable energy Content: Renewable energy sources such as solar , wind , tidal , hydro , biomass , and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market . The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of fossil fuels as well as their negative environmental impacts . While the average capacity of renewable energy sources was only 7 % globally in 2010 , most installation of new capacity has been with renewables . Few new installations were from fossil fuel-based power plants . The trend towards new power capacity by renewables is expected to continue through 2020 . Since renewable energy supplies offset the amount of fossil fuels that need to be combusted in power plants , the use of renewables indirectly helps to reduce CO2 emissions . Hence , renewable energy supplies enable societies to progress towards lower-carbon-based economies . Copper plays an important role in renewable energy systems . Since copper is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor among the engineering metals ( second only to silver ) , power systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts . By using copper instead of other lower electrical energy-efficient metal conductors , less electricity needs to be generated to satisfy a given power demand . This article discusses the role of copper in various renewable energy generation systems .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Copper_in_renewable_energy",
"rank": 52,
"score": 85766
},
{
"content": "Title: WIND (spacecraft) Content: The Global Geospace Science ( GGS ) Wind satellite is a NASA science spacecraft launched at 04:31:00 EST on November 1 , 1994 , from launch pad 17B at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station ( CCAFS ) in Merritt Island , Florida aboard a McDonnell Douglas Delta II 7925-10 rocket . Wind was designed and manufactured by Martin Marietta Astro Space Division in East Windsor , New Jersey . The satellite is a spin stabilized cylindrical satellite with a diameter of 2.4 m and a height of 1.8 m. It was deployed to study radio waves and plasma that occur in the solar wind and in the Earth 's magnetosphere . The spacecraft 's original mission was to orbit the Sun at the Lagrangian point , but this was delayed to study the magnetosphere and near lunar environment when the SOHO and ACE spacecraft were sent to the same location . Wind has been at continuously since 2004 , and is still operating as of . Wind currently has enough fuel to last over 50 years at . Wind continues to produce new and exciting scientific results and as of January 31 , 2017 ( not including 2017 publications ) has accumulated over 4310 refereed scientific publications . Mission operations are conducted from the Multi-Mission Operations Center ( MMOC ) in Building 14 at Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Maryland . Wind data can be accessed using the SPEDAS software . Wind is the sister ship to GGS Polar .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "WIND_(spacecraft)",
"rank": 53,
"score": 85737
},
{
"content": "Title: Howard Wilson Emmons Content: Howard Wilson Emmons ( 1912 -- 1998 ) was a professor in the department of Mechanical Engineering at Harvard University . During his career he conducted original research on fluid mechanics , combustion and fire safety . Today he is most widely known for his pioneering work in the field of fire safety engineering . He has been called `` the father of modern fire science '' for his contribution to the understanding of flame propagation and fire dynamics . He also helped design the first supersonic wind tunnel , identified a signature of the transition to turbulence in boundary layer flows ( now known as `` Emmons spots '' ) , and was the first to observe compressor stall in a gas turbine compressor ( still a major item of research today ) . He was eventually awarded the Timoshenko Medal by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the 1968 Sir Alfred Egerton Gold Medal from The Combustion Institute . Upon Professor Emmons ' death , Professor Patrick Pagni wrote : `` It is not possible to properly summarize the magnitude of Professor Emmons ' unique contributions to the establishment of fire safety science as a discipline , other than to call him `` Mr. Fire Research '' . He continues to be remembered through the Emmons Lecture at International Symposium of The International Association for Fire Safety Science and the Howard W. Emmons Distinguished Scholar Endowment at Worcester Polytechnic Institute .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Howard_Wilson_Emmons",
"rank": 54,
"score": 85506
},
{
"content": "Title: Fossil fuel divestment Content: Fossil fuel divestment or fossil fuel divestment and investment in climate solutions is the removal of investment assets including stocks , bonds , and investment funds from companies involved in extracting fossil fuels , in an attempt to reduce climate change by tackling its ultimate causes . Numerous groups advocate fossil fuel divestment , which in 2015 was reportedly the fastest growing divestment movement in history . Beginning on campuses in The United States in 2011 with students urging their administrations to turn investments in the fossil fuel industry into investments in clean energy and communities most impacted by climate change , the movement soon spread across the globe . By December 2016 , a total of 688 institutions and over 58,000 individuals representing $ 5.5 trillion in assets worldwide had been divested from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Fossil_fuel_divestment",
"rank": 55,
"score": 85438
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 56,
"score": 85349
},
{
"content": "Title: Electricity sector in the United Kingdom Content: The electricity sector in the United Kingdom relies mainly on fossil fuelled power and 15-20 % in nuclear power and similar amounts of renewable power . Fossil fuel generator use in general and coal use in particularly is shrinking , with coal generators now only mainly being run in Winter due to pollution and costs . In 2008 nuclear electricity production was 860 kWh pro person . In 2014 , 28.1 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , which contributed 9.3 % of the UK 's electricity requirement . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . The United Kingdom voluntarily ended the use of incandescent lightbulbs in 2011 . Between 2007 and 2012 , the UK 's peak electrical demand has fallen from 61.5 GW to 57.5 GW The use of electricity declined 11 % in 2009 compared to 2004 and respectively . The UK is planning to reform its Electricity Market . It plans to introduce a capacity mechanism and contracts for difference to encourage the building of new generation .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Electricity_sector_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 57,
"score": 85224
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind power by country Content: As of the end of 2016 , the worldwide total cumulative installed electricity generation capacity from wind power amounted to 486,790 MW , an increase of 12.5 % compared to the previous year . installations increased by 54,642 MW , 63,330 MW , 51,675 MW and 36,023 MW in 2016 , 2015 , 2014 and 2013 respectively . Since 2010 more than half of all new wind power was added outside of the traditional markets of Europe and North America , mainly driven by the continuing boom in China and India . At the end of 2015 , China had 145 GW of wind power installed . In 2015 , China installed close to half of the world 's added wind power capacity . Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration , such as 39 % of stationary electricity production in Denmark , 18 % in Portugal , 16 % in Spain , 14 % in Ireland and 9 % in Germany in 2010 . As of 2011 , 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis . Wind power 's share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1 % .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind_power_by_country",
"rank": 58,
"score": 85215
},
{
"content": "Title: The Phoenix Project: Shifting from Oil to Hydrogen Content: The Phoenix Project : Shifting from Oil To Hydrogen is a 360-page book authored by Harry Braun that provides a plan for the USA to shift from oil and other fossil and nuclear fuels to wind powered hydrogen production systems by 2020 . From a technology perspective , wind machines are no more difficult to manufacture than automobiles , which is why they could have been mass-produced for large-scale hydrogen production in the 1920s . Making hydrogen from the wind and water is the `` silver bullet '' that can make the USA energy independent of all fossil and nuclear fuels . Indeed , it is the only energy option that is pollution-free , carbon-free and can displace all fossil and nuclear fuels worldwide forever because it is completely renewable . Every green plant on the earth is a solar hydrogen machine that extracts hydrogen from water ( H20 ) with the energy of the sun . Rather than waiting for fuel cells or hybrid vehicles , the Phoenix Project advocates simply modifying every existing vehicle ( and power plant ) to use hydrogen . Category : Hydrogen economy Category : Environmental non-fiction books",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "The_Phoenix_Project:_Shifting_from_Oil_to_Hydrogen",
"rank": 59,
"score": 85002
},
{
"content": "Title: Green paradox Content: The green paradox , identified by German economist Hans-Werner Sinn , is the observation that an environmental policy that becomes greener with the passage of time acts like an announced expropriation for the owners of fossil fuel resources , inducing them to accelerate resource extraction and hence to accelerate global warming .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Green_paradox",
"rank": 60,
"score": 84660
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 61,
"score": 84561
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Massachusetts",
"rank": 62,
"score": 84472
},
{
"content": "Title: Sergei Petrovskii Content: Sergei Petrovskii is a Russian-born British mathematician who researches the modeling of natural phenomena . He is a professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Leicester . In 2015 , he led a study that found that if the ocean temperature were to increase by about six degrees Celsius due to global warming , phytoplankton might stop producing oxygen . This would lead to shortages of oxygen in the atmosphere , which could be very harmful to humans . Petrovskii said , `` About two thirds of the planet 's total atmospheric oxygen is produced by ocean phytoplankton - and therefore cessation would result in the depletion of atmospheric oxygen on a global scale . This would likely result in the mass mortality of animals and humans . '' Petrovskii 's study appeared in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biology . Another stream of his research is modelling of biological invasions where he discovered a new phenomenon called `` patchy invasion '' . Contrary to a commonly used paradigm of alien species spread by a travelling population front , in the patchy invasion the invasive species spreads into new areas by creating individual patches not preceded by a front propagation . Patchy invasion has been observed in several invasions of insects and birds and has been studied theoretically using a variety of growth-dispersal models .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Sergei_Petrovskii",
"rank": 63,
"score": 83889
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 64,
"score": 83824
},
{
"content": "Title: Kerry Emanuel Content: Kerry Andrew Emanuel ( born April 21 , 1955 ) is an American professor of meteorology currently working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge . In particular he has specialized in atmospheric convection and the mechanisms acting to intensify hurricanes . He was named one of the Time 100 influential people of 2006 . In 2007 , he was elected as a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences . He hypothesized in 1994 about a superpowerful type of hurricane which could be formed if average sea surface temperature increased another 15C more than it 's ever been ( see `` hypercane '' ) . In a March 2008 paper published in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society , he put forward the conclusion that global warming is likely to increase the intensity but decrease the frequency of hurricane and cyclone activity . Gabriel Vecchi , of NOAA said of Emanuel 's announcement , `` While his results do n't rule out the possibility that global warming has contributed to the recent increase in activity in the Atlantic , they suggest that other factors -- possibly in addition to global warming -- are likely to have been substantial contributors to the observed increase in activity . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Kerry_Emanuel",
"rank": 65,
"score": 83806
},
{
"content": "Title: Floating wind turbine Content: A floating wind turbine is an offshore wind turbine mounted on a floating structure that allows the turbine to generate electricity in water depths where bottom-mounted towers are not feasible . Locating wind farms out at sea can reduce visual pollution while providing better accommodation for fishing and shipping lanes . In addition , the wind is typically more consistent and stronger over the sea , due to the absence of topographic features that disrupt wind flow . Floating wind parks are wind farms that site several floating wind turbines closely together to take advantage of common infrastructure such as power transmission facilities .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Floating_wind_turbine",
"rank": 66,
"score": 83588
},
{
"content": "Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Friends_of_Science",
"rank": 67,
"score": 83281
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 68,
"score": 83199
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 69,
"score": 83129
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 70,
"score": 82920
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 71,
"score": 82786
},
{
"content": "Title: Spirit of Ireland Content: Spirit of Ireland is a proposal to build pumped-storage hydroelectricity reservoirs in valleys in Ireland 's west coast combined with large-scale windfarms to reduce Ireland 's dependence on imported energy and fossil fuels . It would initially involve identifying up to five coastal valleys from counties Donegal to Cork , building dams on their seaward side and flooding them with sea water . These would provide a hydro-power back-up for the wind farms . Typically , wind farms only produce 25 to 35 per cent of their maximum possible electricity output when measured over a long period . The proposed hydro-generating stations would come into play when wind speeds were either too low or too high to be useful . Each of the reservoirs would be able store up to 100 gigawatt-hours of hydro energy . Under the Spirit of Ireland proposals , a very typical natural valley water reservoir would have a dammed lake area when full of 4 square Km -- e.g. average 2 km x 2 km . Based on studied shapes , depths and height from the sea etc. , two such reservoirs would deliver some 200 GWh of electrical energy . A third reservoir would increase this to 300 GWh . This is a considerable energy store and in fact there are many valleys studied which would give considerably larger storage . The long term strategy is to develop higher capacity electrical interconnectors with continental Europe via the United Kingdom which would allow export of excess generating capacity whilst allowing for the import of electricity in the event of sustained no wind conditions . This scenario would be expected to be very infrequent and during such times the reservoirs would be filled using imported electricity at off peak times which would command much lower prices . Locations for the pumped storage reservoirs have not yet been decided but are expected to be located in areas that are otherwise economically deprived which would help to fulfil the Irish goal of balanced regional development .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Spirit_of_Ireland",
"rank": 72,
"score": 82616
},
{
"content": "Title: Spoiled (film) Content: Spoiled ( stylized as spOILed ) is a 2011 documentary film about energy myths , environmental issues with energy , the problems with alternative energy , and the global warming controversy associated with energy . Spoiled also discusses wind energy , solar energy , fossil fuels , green energy , alternative energy , and sustainable energy as a part of its renewable energy documentary scope .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Spoiled_(film)",
"rank": 73,
"score": 82545
},
{
"content": "Title: NASA wind turbines Content: Starting in 1975 , NASA managed a program for the United States Department of Energy and the United States Department of Interior to develop utility-scale wind turbines for electric power , in response to the increase in oil prices . A number of the world 's largest wind turbines were developed and tested under this pioneering program . The program was an attempt to leap well beyond the then-current state of the art of wind turbine generators , and developed a number of technologies later adopted by the wind turbine industry . The development of the commercial industry however was delayed by a significant decrease in competing energy prices during the 1980s .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "NASA_wind_turbines",
"rank": 74,
"score": 82403
},
{
"content": "Title: Energy4All Content: Energy4All facilitates the creation and development of wind turbine cooperatives in the United Kingdom , based on the experienced gained in the creation of the UK 's first wind co-op , Baywind Energy Co-operative . It has gone on to raise at least # 6million on behalf of the co-operatives , through community share offerings . Whilst not technically a co-operative itself , the organisation has helped create at least ten wind co-ops , including Westmill Wind Farm Co-operative and Boyndie Wind Farm Co-operative , who , along with Baywind , own Energy4All . One of the co-operatives it has created , Energy Prospects Co-operative , specialises in taking early stage wind co-operatives through the development and planning application stages to the point where a community share offer , managed by Energy4All , can be launched to fund the project . They won an Ashden Award in 2012 .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Energy4All",
"rank": 75,
"score": 82378
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "World_Climate_Report",
"rank": 76,
"score": 82207
},
{
"content": "Title: Crude Impact Content: Crude Impact is a 2006 film written and directed by James Jandak Wood . It is a documentary about the effect of fossil fuels on issues such as global warming , the environmental crisis , society and the questionable practices of oil companies . Crude Impact was an official selection at over thirty film festivals around the world . The film had a limited theatrical release in the United States and Canada . It has been broadcast on television in several countries . Crude Impact has been translated into French , Spanish , Czech , Turkish and Finnish .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Crude_Impact",
"rank": 77,
"score": 81953
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind-turbine aerodynamics Content: The primary application of wind turbines is to generate energy using the wind . Hence , the aerodynamics is a very important aspect of wind turbines . Like most machines , there are many different types of wind turbines , all of them based on different energy extraction concepts . Though the details of the aerodynamics depend very much on the topology , some fundamental concepts apply to all turbines . Every topology has a maximum power for a given flow , and some topologies are better than others . The method used to extract power has a strong influence on this . In general , all turbines may be grouped as being either lift-based , or drag-based ; the former being more efficient . The difference between these groups is the aerodynamic force that is used to extract the energy . The most common topology is the horizontal-axis wind turbine ( HAWT ) . It is a lift-based wind turbine with very good performance . Accordingly , it is a popular choice for commercial applications and much research has been applied to this turbine . Despite being a popular lift-based alternative in the latter part of the 20th century , the Darrieus wind turbine is rarely used today . The Savonius wind turbine is the most common drag type turbine . Despite its low efficiency , it remains in use because of its robustness and simplicity to build and maintain .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind-turbine_aerodynamics",
"rank": 78,
"score": 81949
},
{
"content": "Title: ENESSERE Content: ENESSERE is an Italian company , founded in 2009 , with headquarters in Brendola and a manufacturer of small vertical wind turbines . Its foundation and the development of the Hercules wind turbine is a response to the Environmental impact of wind power , namely to the aestethic concerns . Hercules was launched in 2015 as a piece of Design with wooden wings and applying the Golden Ratio . ENESSERE is one of the 100 energy stories that Italy provided to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris in December 2015 .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "ENESSERE",
"rank": 79,
"score": 81876
},
{
"content": "Title: Fossil fuel power station Content: A fossil fuel power station is a power station which burns fossil fuel such as coal , natural gas , or petroleum to produce electricity . Central station fossil fuel power plants are designed on a large scale for continuous operation . In many countries , such plants provide most of the electrical energy used . Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the heat energy of combustion into mechanical energy , which then operates an electrical generator . The prime mover may be a steam turbine , a gas turbine or , in small plants , a reciprocating internal combustion engine . All plants use the energy extracted from expanding gas , either steam or combustion gases . Very few MHD generators have been built which directly convert the energy of hot , moving water into electricity . MHD means Magnetohydrodynamics , which is the study of the magnetic properties of electrically conducting fluids . Examples of such magnetofluids include plasmas , liquid metals , salt water and electrolytes . By-products of thermal power plant operation must be considered in their design and operation . Waste heat energy , which remains due to the finite efficiency of the Carnot , Rankine , or Diesel power cycle , is released directly to the atmosphere or river/lake water , or indirectly to the atmosphere using a cooling tower with river or lake water used as a cooling medium . The flue gas from combustion of the fossil fuels is discharged to the air . This gas contains carbon dioxide and water vapor , as well as other substances such as nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur oxides ( SOx ) , mercury , traces of other metals , and , for coal-fired plants , fly ash . Solid waste ash from coal-fired boilers must also be removed . Some coal ash can be recycled for building materials . Fossil fueled power stations are major emitters of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , a greenhouse gas which according to a consensus opinion of scientific organisations is a contributor to global warming . The results of a recent study show that the net income available to shareholders of large companies could see a significant reduction from the greenhouse gas emissions liability related to only natural disasters in the U.S. from a single coal-fired power plant . However , as of 2015 , no such cases have awarded damages in the U.S. Per unit of electric energy , brown coal emits nearly two times as much CO2 as natural gas , and black coal emits somewhat less than brown . Carbon capture and storage of emissions is not currently available .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Fossil_fuel_power_station",
"rank": 80,
"score": 81579
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Content: The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes . GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future . GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Global_Energy_and_Water_Cycle_Experiment",
"rank": 81,
"score": 81427
},
{
"content": "Title: Steam turbine Content: A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft . Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884 . Because the turbine generates rotary motion , it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator -- about 90 % of all electricity generation in the United States ( 1996 ) is by use of steam turbines . The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam , which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible expansion process .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Steam_turbine",
"rank": 82,
"score": 81412
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Mayhew (biologist) Content: Peter Mayhew is a British biologist at the University of York in the United Kingdom . He is the lead author of a study showing a long-term association between global temperature and biodiversity , origination , and extinction in the fossil record . This study demonstrated that biodiversity tends to be relatively low during greenhouse phases in Earth history and that extinction rates ( including mass extinctions ) tend to be higher . On the basis of this work he was nominated as one of the `` Great Britons of 2007 '' . He is also author of a textbook on evolutionary ecology .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Peter_Mayhew_(biologist)",
"rank": 83,
"score": 81396
},
{
"content": "Title: Westmill Wind Farm Co-operative Content: Westmill Wind Farm Co-operative Ltd is a community-owned Industrial and Provident Society that owns 100 % of the Westmill Wind Farm which is an onshore wind farm near the village of Watchfield in the Vale of White Horse , England . It has five 1.3 MW wind turbines erected in a line along the disused runway of the former RAF Watchfield . The wind farm has a power output of up to 6.5 MW , projected to produce as much electricity in a year as used by more than 2,500 homes . The turbines were erected in 8 days and the first fully month of generation was March 2008 . It has an open day usually in June each year . The wind energy cooperative was established in 2004 and has more than 2,000 members . The wind farm is intended to help to reduce dependence on fossil fuels whose emissions are considered to contribute to climate change . In 2007 Westmill Wind Farm Co-operative received a Schumacher Award . Westmill Wind Farm was originally developed by Adam Twine who was in the later stages assisted by Energy4All , a company founded to enable community owned renewable energy projects by Baywind Energy Co-operative . Westmill Sustainable Energy Trust ( WeSET ) is a charity formed in 2010 that receives 0.5 % of the wind farm 's revenue each year . Its objective is to encourage and promote the deployment of sustainable energy , in particular ( but not exclusively ) within a 25-mile radius from Westmill Wind Farm . Its website has educational material and details of how to visit Westmill Wind Farm . The community-owned Westmill Solar Park is located on an adjoining site . Westmill Woodland Burial Ground , a natural burial site , is also close to the wind farm .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Westmill_Wind_Farm_Co-operative",
"rank": 84,
"score": 81344
},
{
"content": "Title: Alternative Energy: Political, Economic, and Social Feasibility Content: Alternative Energy : Political , Economic , and Social Feasibility ( Lanham , Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield , 2006 . ) , a 2006 book by Christopher A. Simon , discusses the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy . The book has been called a `` sophisticated , insightful , and well written book on the current global push to adopt varying forms of alternative energy , from wind to solar , geothermal , hydrogen , and beyond '' . In 2008 , Christopher Simon , associate professor of political science at the University of Nevada , Reno , was named the `` Technology Educator of the Year '' by Nevada 's Center for Entrepreneurship and Technology .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Alternative_Energy:_Political,_Economic,_and_Social_Feasibility",
"rank": 85,
"score": 81246
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal power station Content: A thermal power station is a power plant in which heat energy is converted to electric power . In most of the places in the world the turbine is steam-driven . Water is heated , turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator . After it passes through the turbine , the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated ; this is known as a Rankine cycle . The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different heat sources , fossil fuel dominates here , although nuclear heat energy and solar heat energy are also used . Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy . Certain thermal power plants also are designed to produce heat energy for industrial purposes of district heating , or desalination of water , in addition to generating electrical power .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Thermal_power_station",
"rank": 86,
"score": 81191
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar-wind hybrid turbine Content: More and more research is being put into Solar-wind hybrid turbines , since predicting either wind or sun can be difficult . Many different designs are being tested to determine if there is an efficient way to combine the two . Installing solar panels on the already existing wind turbines was tested , but produced blinding rays of light that posed a threat to airplanes . These beams also had the potential to cause fires if concentrated . The solution to this was produce tinted solar panels that do not reflect as much light . Another proposed design was to have a vertical axis wind turbine coated in solar cells that are able to absorb sunlight from any angle . While these designs are still being tested , scientists are having success , and these new hybrid units are a very promising project .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Solar-wind_hybrid_turbine",
"rank": 87,
"score": 81153
},
{
"content": "Title: Harvard alumni health study Content: The Harvard alumni health study is a cohort study focusing on the effect of exercise on coronary artery disease , strokes , diabetes , hypertension , cancer , obesity and mortality . Including only male , Harvard College graduates who began their studies between 1916 and 1950 and were still living in 1966 , the study began with 21,582 individuals . Data was collected on the lifestyle and health of these men in 1962 , 1966 , 1977 , 1988 , and 1993 , at which point only 11,894 men remained in the study . As with all cohort studies , the narrow catchment criteria for participants was both a strength and a weakness : selecting only educated , middle-aged , predominantly white males lent the study greater power to see statistically significant results in that demographic , but left it blind to broader reaching phenomena . Fit people did better and had less disease than unfit people . If people changed from unfit to fit their disease risk went down .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Harvard_alumni_health_study",
"rank": 88,
"score": 80876
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 89,
"score": 80791
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Millar Wind Farm Content: The Mount Millar Wind Farm is situated on an escarpment between the towns of Cowell and Cleve located 100 km southwest of Whyalla , South Australia . The 35 wind turbines are positioned on the elongated Mount Millar site ( about 7 km in length ) to maximise wind exposure . The wind farm can generate up to 70 megawatts ( MW ) of electricity and will provide enough energy to meet the needs of about 36,000 typical households . Because wind farms do not emit greenhouse gases in the generation of electricity , wind energy is considered a highly desirable form of renewable energy and assists in the reduction of the State 's reliance on coal and gas fired electricity generation . The Mount Millar Wind Farm is different from other SA wind farms , due to the turbines being a direct drive machine that do n't have gear boxes . This is why the nacelle of these turbines has a larger diameter than most . It connects to ElectraNet 's existing transmission network at Yadnarie Substation , via a new 33 km 132 kV overhead transmission line and substation . Construction of this wind farm started in late 2004 and was completed in December 2005 . Power production started in February 2006 . The $ 130 million project was developed by Tarong Energy Corporation Ltd , which has interests in both Queensland and South Australia ( including South Australia 's first wind farm , Starfish Hill Wind Farm ) . The Mount Millar wind farm was acquired by Meridian Energy in 2010 .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Mount_Millar_Wind_Farm",
"rank": 90,
"score": 80784
},
{
"content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change",
"rank": 91,
"score": 80697
},
{
"content": "Title: Darrieus wind turbine Content: The Darrieus wind turbine is a type of vertical axis wind turbine ( VAWT ) used to generate electricity from the energy carried in the wind . The turbine consists of a number of curved aerofoil blades mounted on a vertical rotating shaft or framework . The curvature of the blades allows the blade to be stressed only in tension at high rotating speeds . There are several closely related wind turbines that use straight blades . This design of wind turbine was patented by Georges Jean Marie Darrieus , a French aeronautical engineer ; filing for the patent was October 1 , 1926 . There are major difficulties in protecting the Darrieus turbine from extreme wind conditions and in making it self-starting .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Darrieus_wind_turbine",
"rank": 92,
"score": 80568
},
{
"content": "Title: Energy in Denmark Content: Denmark has considerable sources of oil and natural gas in the North Sea and ranked as number 32 in the world among net exporters of crude oil in 2008 . Denmark expects to be self-sufficient with oil until 2050 . However , gas resources are expected to decline , and production may decline below consumption in 2020 , making imports necessary . A large but decreasing proportion of electricity is produced from coal , and hydropower and 3-4 % nuclear power is imported while wind turbines supply the equivalent of about 42 % of electricity demand by 2015 ( see Wind power in Denmark ) . In February 2011 the Danish government announced the `` Energy Strategy 2050 '' with the aim to be fully independent of fossil fuels by 2050 , and a new government repeated the goal in 2015 despite public scepticism . The European Renewables Directive set a mandatory target at 20 % share of energy from renewable sources by 2020 ( EU combined ) . In 2012 the Danish government adopted a plan to increase the share of electricity production from wind to 50 % by 2020 , and to 84 % in 2035 . Denmark 's electrical grid is connected by transmission lines to other European countries , and had ( according to the World Economic Forum ) the best energy security in the EU in 2013 although this had fallen to third in the EU by 2014 . Denmark imports around 12 % of its energy .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Energy_in_Denmark",
"rank": 93,
"score": 80514
},
{
"content": "Title: Batokunku Content: Batokunku ( also spelled Batukunku ) is a village located in Kombo South , one of the nine districts of The Gambia 's Western Division . In January 2009 , the village became notable as the location of the first wind turbine erected in West Africa . The 150 kilowatt turbine , a second-hand machine originally built by the Danish wind energy manufacturer Bonus , currently provides electrical power for the entire village . The windmill is currently serviced/maintained by Global Energy ( generator service ) based in the nearby village of Tujereng in collaboration with Windstrom SH from Germany .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Batokunku",
"rank": 94,
"score": 80504
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies",
"rank": 95,
"score": 80448
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon power Content: Low-carbon power comes from processes or technologies that , produce power with substantially lower amounts of carbon dioxide emissions than is emitted from conventional fossil fuel power generation . It includes low carbon power generation sources such as wind power , solar power , hydropower and , including fuel preparation and decommissioning , nuclear power . The term largely excludes conventional fossil fuel plant sources , and is only used to describe a particular subset of operating fossil fuel power systems , specifically , those that are successfully coupled with a flue gas carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) system .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Low-carbon_power",
"rank": 96,
"score": 80443
},
{
"content": "Title: List of energy resources Content: These are modes of energy production , energy storage , or energy conservation , listed alphabetically . Note that not all sources are accepted as legitimate or have been proven to be tappable . Atomic energy Banki turbine -- hydro power , like overshot or even like turbine ... Battery ( electricity ) Bioalcohol Biodiesel Biodiesel production Biofuel Biogas Biomass Bio-nano generator Bitumen Breeder reactor Bubble fusion -- a nuclear fusion reaction hypothesized to occur during sonoluminescence , an extreme form of acoustic cavitation . Coal Coal mining Cold fusion Combustion Compound turbine -- two axle , steam Compressed air energy storage Concentrated solar power Deep lake water cooling Diesel Dyson sphere Electrical grid Energy tower External combustion engine Fischer-Tropsch process Flywheel ( storage ) Fossil fuel Fossil-fuel power station Francis turbine Fuel -- a substance used as a source of energy , usually by the heat produced in combustion . Fuel cell Fuel efficiency Fusion power Gas turbine Gasohol Geothermal exchange heat pump Geothermal heating Geothermal power Grid energy storage High-altitude wind power - Energy can be captured from the wind by kites , aerostats , airfoil matrices , balloons , bladed turbines , kytoon , tethered gliders sailplanes Hydroelectricity Hydrogen economy Hydrogen storage , Underground hydrogen storage Hydropower-Energy from moving water Implosion Kaplan turbine Light crude Liquid fuel Liquid nitrogen economy Marine current power Magnetohydrodynamic , generator , MHD generator or dynamo transforms thermal energy or kinetic energy directly into electricity Methane clathrate Methanol Methanol economy Natural gas Natural gas field Natural gas vehicle Nuclear energy -- energy in the nucleus or core of atoms Nuclear fusion Nuclear reactor Nuclear reprocessing Oil drilling Oil platform Oil refinery Oil shale Oil well Osmotic power - or salinity gradient power - is the energy available from the difference in the salt concentration between seawater and river water OTEC -- Ocean thermal energy conversion Oxidation Peat Perpetuum Mobile Petroleum Photovoltaics Piezoelectricity Pneumatics -- compressed air Products based on refined oil Propellant Pumped-storage hydroelectricity Pyrolysis Renewable energy Savonius wind turbine -- wind Small hydro Solar box cooker Solar cell Solar chimney Solar panel Solar energy Solar power satellite Solar thermal energy Solar updraft tower -- large version of the solar chimney concept Solar water heating Solid fuel Sonoluminescence -- the emission of short bursts of light from imploding bubbles in a liquid when excited by sound . SSTAR -- small , sealed , transportable , autonomous reactor Steam turbine Stirling engine Straight vegetable oil Stranded gas reserve Sulfur-iodine cycle Sustainable design Synfuel Syngas Tar sands Tesla turbine Thermal depolymerization Thermal power station Thorium Tidal power Transmutation Turgo turbine -- impulse water turbine designed for medium head applications Tyson turbine -- for river flow harnessing UASB Uranium Vacuum energy Vibration energy scavenging Vortex energy Water turbine Wave power Wind energy Wind farm Wind turbine Wood fuel Wood gas Zero-point energy",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "List_of_energy_resources",
"rank": 97,
"score": 80268
},
{
"content": "Title: History of wind power Content: Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind . For more than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water . Wind power was widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams , or later , requiring sources of fuel . Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands , and in arid regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback , wind pumps provided water for livestock and steam engines . With the development of electric power , wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power . Throughout the 20th century parallel paths developed small wind plants suitable for farms or residences , and larger utility-scale wind generators that could be connected to electricity grids for remote use of power . Today wind powered generators operate in every size range between tiny plants for battery charging at isolated residences , up to near-gigawatt sized offshore wind farms that provide electricity to national electrical networks . By 2014 , over 240,000 commercial-sized wind turbines were operating in the world , producing 4 % of the world 's electricity .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "History_of_wind_power",
"rank": 98,
"score": 80248
},
{
"content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Duncan_Wingham",
"rank": 99,
"score": 80237
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind turbine design Content: Wind turbine design is the process of defining the form and specifications of a wind turbine to extract energy from the wind . A wind turbine installation consists of the necessary systems needed to capture the wind 's energy , point the turbine into the wind , convert mechanical rotation into electrical power , and other systems to start , stop , and control the turbine . This article covers the design of horizontal axis wind turbines ( HAWT ) since the majority of commercial turbines use this design . In 1919 the physicist Albert Betz showed that for a hypothetical ideal wind-energy extraction machine , the fundamental laws of conservation of mass and energy allowed no more than 16/27 ( 59.3 % ) of the kinetic energy of the wind to be captured . This Betz ' law limit can be approached by modern turbine designs which may reach 70 to 80 % of this theoretical limit . In addition to aerodynamic design of the blades , design of a complete wind power system must also address design of the hub , controls , generator , supporting structure and foundation . Further design questions arise when integrating wind turbines into electrical power grids .",
"qid": "33",
"docid": "Wind_turbine_design",
"rank": 100,
"score": 80195
}
] |
Ice berg melts, ocean level remains the same. | [
{
"content": "Title: Berge Meere und Giganten Content: Berge Meere und Giganten ( Mountains Seas and Giants ) is a 1924 science fiction novel by German author Alfred Döblin . Stylistically and structurally experimental , the novel follows the development of human society into the 27th century and depicts global-scale conflicts between future polities , technologies , and natural forces , culminating in the catastrophic harvesting of Iceland 's volcanic energy in order to melt Greenland 's ice cap . Among critics , Berge Meere und Giganten has the reputation of being a difficult and polarizing novel , and has not received nearly as much attention as Döblin 's following novel , Berlin Alexanderplatz ( 1929 ) . Inspired by the mundane sight of pebbles rolling in the Baltic Sea surf in the summer of 1921 , Döblin began writing Berge Meere und Giganten that fall , conducting extensive research into various natural and human sciences in the process . Although he had originally conceived of it as a hymn to the city and technology , over the course of writing the novel it evolved into a tribute to the power of nature . He finished the manuscript in the summer of 1923 , and it was published by Fischer Verlag the following year .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Berge_Meere_und_Giganten",
"rank": 1,
"score": 120728
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 2,
"score": 119115
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A",
"rank": 3,
"score": 118529
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 4,
"score": 117690
},
{
"content": "Title: Berg Ice Stream Content: Berg Ice Stream is an ice stream about 30 nmi long flowing into Carroll Inlet between Rydberg Peninsula and Espenschied Nunatak , on the English Coast . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from surveys and from U.S. Navy air photos , 1961 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Captain Harold Berg , commander of USNS Eltanin on Antarctic cruises , 1964 -- 65 .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Berg_Ice_Stream",
"rank": 5,
"score": 116694
},
{
"content": "Title: Bergschrund Content: A bergschrund ( from the German for mountain cleft ) is a crevasse that forms where moving glacier ice separates from the stagnant ice or firn above . It is often a serious obstacle for mountaineers , who sometimes abbreviate `` bergschrund '' to `` schrund '' . In a corrie or cirque , the bergschrund is positioned at the rear , parallel to the back wall of the corrie . It is caused by the rotational movement of the glacier . In a longitudinal glacier , the bergschrund is at the top end of the glacier at a right angle to the flow of the glacier . It is caused by the downwards flow of the glacier . Bergschrunds extend to the bedrock and can have a depth of well over 100 m. In winter , a bergschrund is often filled by snow from avalanches from the mountain above it . In later summer , due to melting , it lies open and can present a very difficult obstacle to alpinists . The bergschrund is distinct from the randkluft ( also called rimaye ) , which is the crevasse of which one face is the rock , back wall of the corrie . The randkluft arises in part from the melting of the ice arising from the presence of the warmer rock face . However , the randkluft is sometimes called a bergschrund . On the South Col route to reach the summit of Mount Everest , a deep bergschrund lies at the bottom of the Lhotse face , separating Camp II from Camp III .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Bergschrund",
"rank": 6,
"score": 114352
},
{
"content": "Title: Melt pond Content: Melt ponds are pools of open water that form on sea ice in the warmer months of spring and summer . The ponds are also found on glacial ice and ice shelves . Ponds of melted water can also develop under the ice . Melt ponds are usually darker than the surrounding ice , and their distribution and size is highly variable . They absorb solar radiation rather than reflecting it as ice does and , thereby , have a significant influence on Earth 's radiation balance . This differential , which had not been scientifically investigated until recently , has a large effect on the rate of ice melting and the extent of ice cover . Melt ponds can melt through to the ocean 's surface . Seawater entering the pond increases the melt rate because the salty water of the ocean is warmer than the fresh water of the pond . The increase in salinity also depresses the water 's freezing point . Water from melt ponds over land surface can run into crevasses or moulins -- tubes leading under ice sheets or glaciers -- turning into meltwater . The water may reach the underlying rock . The effect is an increase in the rate of ice flow to the oceans , as the fluid behaves like a lubricant in the basal sliding of glaciers .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Melt_pond",
"rank": 7,
"score": 113787
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater Content: Meltwater is water released by the melting of snow or ice , including glacial ice , tabular icebergs and ice shelves over oceans . Meltwater is often found in the ablation zone of glaciers , where the rate of snow cover is reducing . Meltwater can be produced during volcanic eruptions , in a similar way in which the more dangerous lahars form . When meltwater pools on the surface rather than flowing , it forms melt ponds . As the weather gets colder meltwater will often re-freeze . Meltwater can collect or melt under the ice 's surface . These pools of water , known as subglacial lakes can form due to geothermal heat and friction .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Meltwater",
"rank": 8,
"score": 111954
},
{
"content": "Title: Bergier commission Content: The Bergier commission in Bern was formed by the Swiss government on 12 December 1996 . It is also known as the ICE ( `` Independent Commission of Experts '' ) . Founded in a decade when Switzerland had come under recurring criticism for its behaviour during World War II , particularly with respect to its relations with the Nazi government in Germany , the commission was established by the Swiss Parliament and headed by Jean-François Bergier , an economic historian . Made up of Polish , American , Israeli and Swiss historians , the Commission 's mandate was to investigate the volume and fate of assets moved to Switzerland before , during , and immediately after the Second World War . The investigation was to be made from a historical and legal point of view ; with a particular emphasis on the links between the Nazi regime and Swiss banks . The mandate covers almost every type of asset , including gold , currency and cultural assets . The content of the research program was broadened by the government to include economic relations , arms production , `` Aryanisation measures '' , the monetary system , and refugee policy .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Bergier_commission",
"rank": 9,
"score": 110097
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1B",
"rank": 10,
"score": 110022
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Arctic_Ocean",
"rank": 11,
"score": 107332
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice",
"rank": 12,
"score": 106695
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet",
"rank": 13,
"score": 106427
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic ice pack Content: The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Arctic_ice_pack",
"rank": 14,
"score": 105691
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Paleoflooding",
"rank": 15,
"score": 105687
},
{
"content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850",
"rank": 16,
"score": 105039
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice calving Content: Ice calving , also known as glacier calving or iceberg calving , is the breaking of ice chunks from the edge of a glacier . It is a form of ice ablation or ice disruption and is normally caused by the glacier expanding . It is the sudden release and breaking away of a mass of ice from a glacier , iceberg , ice front , ice shelf , or crevasse . The ice that breaks away can be classified as an iceberg , but may also be a growler , bergy bit , or a crevasse wall breakaway . Calving of glaciers is often accompanied by a loud cracking or booming sound before blocks of ice up to 60 m high break loose and crash into the water . The entry of the ice into the water causes large , and often hazardous waves . The waves formed in locations like Johns Hopkins Glacier can be so large that boats can not approach closer than 3 km . These events have become major tourist attractions in locations such as Alaska . Many glaciers terminate at oceans or freshwater lakes which results naturally with the calving of large numbers of icebergs . Calving of Greenland 's glaciers produce 12,000 to 15,000 icebergs each year alone . Calving of ice shelves is usually preceded by a rift . These events are not often observed . Etymologically , calving is cognatic with calving as in bearing a calf .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_calving",
"rank": 17,
"score": 104650
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael Berg (screenwriter) Content: Michael Berg is an American screenwriter best known as a co-writer of Ice Age for 20th Century Fox .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Michael_Berg_(screenwriter)",
"rank": 18,
"score": 104366
},
{
"content": "Title: Pressure melting point Content: The pressure melting point is the temperature at which ice melts at a given pressure . The pressure melting point is a constant 0 ° C at pressures above the triple point at 611.7 Pa , where water can exist in only the solid or liquid phases , through atmospheric pressure ( 100 kPa ) until about 10 MPa . With increasing pressure above 10 MPa , the pressure melting point decreases to a minimum of − 21.9 ° C at 209.9 MPa . Thereafter , the pressure melting point rises rapidly with pressure , passing back through 0 ° C at 632.4 MPa .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Pressure_melting_point",
"rank": 19,
"score": 102148
},
{
"content": "Title: Underplating Content: Underplating is the accumulation of partial melts at the base of the crust where an ocean plate is subducting under continental crust . Underplating is the result of partial melts being produced in the mantle wedge above a subducting plate . The partial melting is induced by a lowering of the melting temperature , the solidus , by the input of water and other volatiles supplied by phase transitions in the subducting slab . When the buoyant partial melt rises upwards through the mantle , it will usually stall at the base of the crust and pond there . This is because the crust is usually less dense than the underplating magma , and this is the point at which the ascending magma reaches a level of neutral buoyancy . The evolving melt will remain here until it fractionates enough ( through MASH processes ) that the remaining melt is less dense than the surrounding rock ; the melt will then continue up into the crust , leaving behind the heavier mafic minerals which were crystallized during fractional crystallization . The assemblage of minerals remaining behind are typically mafic or ultramafic , and are responsible for the observed seismic anomaly which indicates underplated material .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Underplating",
"rank": 20,
"score": 99936
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline",
"rank": 21,
"score": 98163
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold blob (North Atlantic) Content: The cold blob in the North Atlantic describes a cold temperature anomaly of ocean surface waters , affecting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation ( AMOC ) which is part of the thermohaline circulation , possibly related to global warming-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Cold_blob_(North_Atlantic)",
"rank": 22,
"score": 97941
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 23,
"score": 97491
},
{
"content": "Title: Become Ocean Content: Become Ocean is an American orchestral composition by John Luther Adams . The Seattle Symphony Orchestra commissioned the work and premiered it at Benaroya Hall , Seattle , on 20 and 22 June 2013 . The work won the 2014 Pulitzer Prize for Music and the 2015 Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition . The work , in a single movement , was inspired by the oceans of Alaska and the Pacific Northwest . The composer took his title from a phrase of John Cage in honour of Lou Harrison , and further explained his title with this note placed in his score : `` Life on this earth first emerged from the sea . As the polar ice melts and sea level rises , we humans find ourselves facing the prospect that once again we may quite literally become ocean . ''",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Become_Ocean",
"rank": 24,
"score": 97067
},
{
"content": "Title: Dubrower Berge Content: The Dubrower Berge are an ice age range of hills ( end moraines ) in the German state of Brandenburg . They lie about six kilometres southeast of Fürstenwalde / Spree in the county of Oder-Spree in the triangle between the villages of Langewahl , Alt Golm in the municipality of Rietz-Neuendorf and Neu Golm in the municipality of Bad Saarow . The name is derived from the Slavic dub which means oak . The Dubrower Berge are easy to reach from Berlin or Frankfurt/Oder on the A12 autobahn , just 2 kilometres to the north . A transmission tower has been erected at their highest point , 150 metres above sea level ( NN ) . The extensive stands of woods and variety of landscapes in the Dubrower Berge and surrounding area are used by hikers and cyclists . Near the village of Langewahl in the Dubrower Berge is the Osterquelle spring .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Dubrower_Berge",
"rank": 25,
"score": 97057
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 26,
"score": 95751
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Sea_ice",
"rank": 27,
"score": 95518
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice rafting Content: Ice rafting is the transport of various materials by ice . Various objects deposited on ice may eventually become embedded in the ice . When the ice melts after a certain amount of drifting , these objects are deposited onto the bottom of the water body , e.g. , onto a river bed or an ocean floor . These deposits are called ice rafted debris ( IRD ) or ice rafted deposits . Ice rafting was a primary mechanism of sediment transport during glacial episodes of the Pleistocene when sea levels were very low and much of the land was covered by large masses ( sheets ) of ice . The rafting of various size sediments into deeper ocean waters by icebergs became a rather important process . Ice rafting is still a process occurring today although its impact is significantly less and much harder to gauge . The melting of large icebergs deposits sediment of various sizes , usually referred to as glacial marine sediment , onto the shelf and deeper marine areas . Ice rafting may be used for analysis of ice drift pattern by matching the rafted sediment with its origin . Ice rafting must also be taken into an account in archaeology and as a possible cause of displacement of archaeological artifacts .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_rafting",
"rank": 28,
"score": 95145
},
{
"content": "Title: Beaufort Gyre Content: The Beaufort Gyre is a wind-driven ocean current located in the Arctic Ocean polar region . The gyre contains both ice and water . It accumulates fresh water by the process of melting the ice floating on the surface of the water .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Beaufort_Gyre",
"rank": 29,
"score": 95081
},
{
"content": "Title: Grease ice Content: Grease ice is a very thin , soupy layer of frazil crystals clumped together , which makes the ocean surface resemble an oil slick . Grease ice is the second stage in the formation of solid sea ice after ice floes and then frazil ice . New sea ice formation takes place throughout the winter in the Arctic . The first ice that forms in a polynya are loose ice crystals called frazil ice . If the level of turbulence is sufficient , the frazil ice will be mixed down into the upper layer and form a surface layer of grease ice . The term ` grease ice ' follows World Meteorological Organization nomenclature . Grease ice differs from ` slush ' , where slush is similarly created by snow falling into the top layer of an ocean basin , river , or lake . The two terms are related due to the process of ice crystals being blown into a polynya which can be the initiation of the grease ice layer , given a minimum level of mixing and cooling of the ocean surface .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Grease_ice",
"rank": 30,
"score": 94897
},
{
"content": "Title: Bentley Subglacial Trench Content: Bentley Subglacial Trench is a vast topographic trench in Marie Byrd Land , West Antarctica , 80 ° S , 115 ° W . At 2,555 meters ( 8,382 ft ) below sea level , it is the lowest point on the surface of the earth not covered by ocean , although it is covered by ice . Normally , it is not counted as the lowest point on land , since the overlying ice sheet makes it essentially subterranean . ( See Extremes on Earth and Vestfold Hills ) Also , if the ice melted , the area would be under water . The trench was named in 1961 after Charles R. Bentley who was the geophysicist in charge of the scientific expeditions in West Antarctica in 1957 -- 59 that led to its discovery .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Bentley_Subglacial_Trench",
"rank": 31,
"score": 94807
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 32,
"score": 94358
},
{
"content": "Title: Berg Bay Content: Berg Bay is a small bay between Birthday Point and Islands Point in the west side of Robertson Bay , northern Victoria Land , Antarctica . The bay was charted and named in 1911 by the Northern Party led by Victor Campbell of the British Antarctic Expedition , 1910 -- 13 , because icebergs appear to gravitate there . Haffner Glacier , which flows into this bay adjacently , may also contribute to the large amount of icebergs or ` Bergy Bits ' floating throughout the bay . Berg Bay lies situated on the Pennell Coast , a portion of Antarctica lying between Cape Williams and Cape Adare .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Berg_Bay",
"rank": 33,
"score": 93485
},
{
"content": "Title: Cryovolcano Content: A cryovolcano ( colloquially known as an ice volcano ) is a theoretical type of volcano that erupts volatiles such as water , ammonia or methane , instead of molten rock . Collectively referred to as cryomagma or ice-volcanic melt , these substances are usually liquids and can form plumes , but can also be in vapour form . After eruption , cryomagma is expected to condense to a solid form when exposed to the very low surrounding temperature . Cryovolcanoes may potentially form on icy moons and other objects with abundant water past the Solar System 's snow line ( such as Pluto ) . A number of features have been identified as possible cryovolcanoes on Pluto , Titan and Ceres . In addition , although they are not known to form volcanoes , ice geysers have been observed on Enceladus and potentially Triton . One potential energy source on some solar system bodies for melting ices and producing cryovolcanoes is tidal friction . It has also been suggested that translucent deposits of frozen materials could create a subsurface greenhouse effect that would accumulate the required heat . Signs of past warming of the Kuiper belt object Quaoar have led scientists to speculate that it exhibited cryovolcanism in the past . Radioactive decay could provide the energy necessary for such activity , as cryovolcanoes can emit water mixed with ammonia , which would melt at − 95 ° C and create an extremely cold liquid that would flow out of the volcano .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Cryovolcano",
"rank": 34,
"score": 93350
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice shelf Content: An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_shelf",
"rank": 35,
"score": 93236
},
{
"content": "Title: Robson Glacier Content: The Robson Glacier is the primary source of the short Robson River , one of the uppermost tributaries of the Fraser River . Located on the British Columbia-Alberta Boundary and the Continental Divide to the east of Berg Lake in Mount Robson Provincial Park , it sits on the northeast flank of Mount Robson in Mount Robson Provincial Park , British Columbia in the Canadian Rockies . Its meltwater feeds unofficially named Robson Lake , whose outlet marks the start of the Robson River .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Robson_Glacier",
"rank": 36,
"score": 93160
},
{
"content": "Title: Melting (EP) Content: Melting is the second EP by South Korean singer Hyuna , released on October 21 , 2012 . It features the number one single , `` Ice Cream '' . The release date was originally scheduled for October 22 , 2012 but due to a leak it was digitally released a day earlier by Cube Entertainment .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Melting_(EP)",
"rank": 37,
"score": 92166
},
{
"content": "Title: Stamukha Content: A stamukha ( plural : stamukhi ) is a grounded accumulation of sea ice rubble that typically develops along the boundary between fast ice and the drifting pack ice , or becomes incorporated into the fast ice . It is a pressure ridge . Wind , currents and tides contribute to this phenomenon . Stamukhi tend to occur in belts that are parallel to the shoreline , along coastal shoals , at water depths of about 20 m ( 65 ft ) , but that can reach 50 m ( 160 ft ) . They can build up to heights 10 m or more above the waterline . Although they remain pinned to the seabed , these features can be subject to small displacements , either due to thermal expansion or to the pressure exerted by the drifting pack ice onto the fast ice . Because stamukhi tend to be deeply grounded , they may occur as isolated ice features in the open sea during the summer season , after the surrounding ice has melted away . Since stamukhi extend downward into the seabed , they present a risk to submarine pipelines and telecommunications cables that cross the shoreline . Seabed penetration by the ice can reach a depth of 5 m.",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Stamukha",
"rank": 38,
"score": 91688
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice V Content: Ice V ( pronounced `` ice five '' ) is a monoclinic crystalline phase of water , formed by cooling water to 253 K at 500 MPa . It has a complicated structure , including 4-membered , 5-membered , 6-membered , and 8-membered rings and a total of 28 molecules in the unit cell . Ganymede 's interior probably includes a liquid water ocean with tens to hundreds of kilometers of Ice V at its base .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_V",
"rank": 39,
"score": 91243
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice circle Content: An ice disc , ice circle , or ice pan is a natural phenomenon that occurs in slow moving water in cold climates . Ice circles are thin and circular slabs of ice that rotate slowly in the water . It is believed that they form in eddy currents . It has been shown that existing ice discs can maintain their rotation due to melting . Ice discs have most frequently been observed in Scandinavia and North America , but they are occasionally recorded as far south as England and Wales . An ice disc was observed in Wales in December 2008 and another was reported in England in January 2009 . An ice disc was observed on the Sheyenne River in North Dakota in December 2013 . An ice circle of approximately 50 ft. in diameter was observed and photographed in Lake Katrine , New York on the Esopus Creek around January 23 , 2014 . In Idaho , extreme weather led to a rare sighting of an Ice disk on the Snake River on January 22 , 2014 . An unusual natural phenomenon , ice disks occur in slow moving water in cold climates and can vary in size , with circles more than 15 metres ( 49 ft ) in diameter observed .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_circle",
"rank": 40,
"score": 90993
},
{
"content": "Title: Getz Ice Shelf Content: The Getz Ice Shelf is the largest Antarctic ice shelf along the SE Pacific-Antarctic coastline , over 300 mi long and from 20 to wide , bordering the Hobbs and Bakutis Coasts of Marie Byrd Land between the McDonald Heights and Martin Peninsula . Several large islands are partially or wholly embedded in the ice shelf , pinning the calving front . Summer temperature and salinity measurements from 1994 to 2010 show the shelf is subject to more changeable oceanic forcing than other Antarctic shelves . Beneath cold surface waters , the thermocline was ∼ 200 m shallower in 2007 than in 2000 , indicative of shifting access of deep water to the continental shelf and ice shelf base . The calculated area-average basal melt rates was between 1.1 and 4.1 m of ice per year , making Getz the largest source of meltwater to the Southern Ocean . The ice shelf westward of Siple Island was discovered by the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) in December 1940 . The portion eastward of Siple Island was first delineated from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 . The entire feature was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy air photos of 1962 -- 65 . It was named by the USAS ( 1939 -- 41 ) for George F. Getz of Chicago , Illinois , who helped furnish the seaplane for the expedition .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Getz_Ice_Shelf",
"rank": 41,
"score": 90831
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 42,
"score": 90437
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 Content: The Great Arctic Cyclone , or `` Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 , '' was an extratropical cyclone which centered on the Arctic Ocean in early August , 2012 . Such storms are rare in the Arctic summer , although common in the winter . The Great Arctic Cyclone was the strongest summer storm and the 13th strongest storm observed at any time since satellite observations began in 1979 . Although the Great Arctic Cyclone did not cause the record melting of sea ice which occurred in 2012 , turbulence resulting from the storm is believed to have contributed to melting of sea ice due to the rise of warmer saltier water from below .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Great_Arctic_Cyclone_of_2012",
"rank": 43,
"score": 90347
},
{
"content": "Title: Central Swedish ice-edge zone Content: The central Swedish ice-edge zone was formed when the melting of inland ice slowed down during a cold period approximately 12,000 years ago and the ice edge stood relatively still for around 800 years . This occurred during the cold part of the Younger Dryas period . The central Swedish ice-edge zone contains many terminal moraines , including moraine ridges . The zone is therefore sometimes referred to as the central Swedish terminal moraines . The area also features many sandy delta areas and other ice river deposits of stones , gravel and sand . The zone stretches from southern Norway , through Dalsland , Västergötland , Östergötland and up through Södermanland . The area then continues with terminal moraines through southern Finland ( where it is known as Salpausselkä ) and into Russia along a curve up towards the Arctic Ocean .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Central_Swedish_ice-edge_zone",
"rank": 44,
"score": 90234
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice algae Content: Ice algae are any of the various types of algal communities found in annual and multi-year sea or terrestrial ice . On sea ice in polar regions of the oceans , ice algae communities play an important role in primary production . The timing of blooms of the algae is especially important for supporting higher trophic levels at times of the year when light is low and ice cover still exists . Sea ice algal communities are mostly concentrated in the bottom layer of the ice , but can also occur in brine channels within the ice , in melt ponds , and on the surface . Because terrestrial ice algae occur in freshwater systems , the species composition differs greatly from that of sea ice algae . These communities are significant in that they often change the color of glaciers and ice sheets , impacting the reflectivity of the ice itself .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_algae",
"rank": 45,
"score": 89494
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice VII Content: Ice VII is a cubic crystalline form of ice . It can be formed from liquid water above 3 GPa ( 30,000 atmospheres ) by lowering its temperature to room temperature , or by decompressing heavy water ( D2O ) ice VI below 95 K. Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih , ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures . Ice VII is metastable over a wide range of temperatures and pressures and transforms into low-density amorphous ice ( LDA ) above 120K . Ice VII has a triple point with liquid water and ice VI at 355 K and 2.216 GPa , with the melt line extending to at least 715 K and 10 GPa . It can also be created by increasing the pressure on ice VI at ambient temperature . Like the majority of ice phases ( including ice Ih ) , the hydrogen atom positions are disordered . In addition , the oxygen atoms are disordered over multiple sites . The structure of ice VII comprises a hydrogen bond framework in the form of two interpenetrating ( but non-bonded ) sublattices . Hydrogen pass through the center of the water hexamers and thus do not connect the two lattices . Ice VII has a density of about 1.65 g cm − 3 ( at 2.5 GPa and 25 ° C ) , which is less than twice the cubic ice density as the intra-network O -- O distances are 8 % longer ( at 0.1 MPa ) to allow for interpenetration . The cubic unit cell has a side length of 3.3501 Å ( for D2O , at 2.6 GPa and 22 ° C ) and contains two water molecules . Ice VII is the only disordered phase of ice that can be ordered by simple cooling , and it forms ( ordered ) ice VIII below 273 K up to ~ 8 GPa . Above this pressure , the VII -- VIII transition temperature drops rapidly , reaching 0 K at ~ 60 GPa . Thus , ice VII has the largest stability field of all of the molecular phases of ice . The cubic oxygen sub-lattices that form the backbone of the ice VII structure persist to pressures of at least 128 GPa ; this pressure is substantially higher than that at which water loses its molecular character entirely , forming ice X . In high pressure ices , protonic diffusion ( movement of protons around the oxygen lattice ) dominates molecular diffusion , an effect which has been measured directly . Scientists hypothesize that ice VII may comprise the ocean floor of Titan as well as extrasolar planets ( such as Gliese 436 b and GJ 1214 b ) that are largely made of water .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_VII",
"rank": 46,
"score": 89394
},
{
"content": "Title: Brinicle Content: A brinicle ( brine icicle , also known as ice stalactite ) is a downward growing hollow tube of ice enclosing a plume of descending brine that is formed beneath developing sea ice . As sea water freezes in the polar oceans , salt brine concentrates are expelled from the sea ice , creating a downward flow of dense , extremely cold and saline water with a lower freezing point than the surrounding water . When this plume comes into contact with the neighboring ocean water , its extremely cold temperature causes ice to instantly be formed around the flow . This creates a hollow stalactite or icicle , referred to as a brinicle .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Brinicle",
"rank": 47,
"score": 89299
},
{
"content": "Title: Berkner Island Content: Berkner Island or Berkner Ice Rise or Hubley Island is an ice rise , where bedrock below sea level makes the ice dome upward . If the ice cap melted , it would be under water . Berkner `` Island '' is high and completely ice-covered and about 320 km long and 150 km wide , with an area of 44000 km2 . Berkner is surrounded by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf . The northernmost point of the Berkner is about 20 km from the open sea . It lies in the overlapping portion of the Argentine and the British claims . The island rises to 869 m ( 975 m according to other sources ) and separates Ronne Ice Shelf from the Filchner Ice Shelf . It is characterized by two domes , Reinwarthhöhe in the north ( 698 m ) , at , and Thyssenhöhe in the south ( 869 m ) , at . It is indented by three bays on the eastern side , which are from north to south : McCarthy Inlet , Roberts Inlet , and Spilhouse Inlet . Gould Bay is on the north coast . Berkner Island is about 150 km west of Luitpold Coast , Coats Land , the closest mainland of Eastern Antarctica . 17 km off the northwest corner of Berkner Island is Hemmen Ice Rise . Berkner Island was discovered by members of the United States-International Geophysical Year ( US-IGY ) party at Ellsworth Station under the leadership of Capt. Finn Ronne , United States Navy Reserve ( USNR ) , during the 1957-1958 season . Berkner Island was named by the United States Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for American physicist Lloyd Berkner , engineer with the Byrd Antarctic Expedition ( 1928 -- 1930 ) . Since 1990 , Berkner Island has been a jumping off point for a number of long distance polar expeditions . Ben Saunders has planned an unsupported journey from the island to the South Pole and back . It was the start point of Henry Worsley 's attempt to cross the Antarctic in 2015/16 . In the 1994/1995 field season the British Antarctic Survey , Alfred Wegener Institute and the Forschungsstelle für Physikalische Glaziologie of the University of Münster cooperated in a project drilling ice cores on the North and South Domes of Berkner Island .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Berkner_Island",
"rank": 48,
"score": 88716
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Oceanite Content: Mount Oceanite is a conspicuous ice-covered mountain ( probably an extinct volcano ) rising to 915 m in the extreme southeast corner of Montagu Island , South Sandwich Islands . The name applied by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) in 1971 refers to the oceanite lavas present in this area , which occur nowhere else in the South Sandwich Islands . Oceanite , Mount",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Mount_Oceanite",
"rank": 49,
"score": 88440
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback",
"rank": 50,
"score": 88388
},
{
"content": "Title: Frazil ice Content: Frazil ice is a collection of loose , randomly oriented needle-shaped ice crystals in water . It resembles slush and has the appearance of being slightly oily when seen on the surface of water . It sporadically forms in open , turbulent , supercooled water , which means that it usually forms in rivers , lakes and oceans , on clear nights when the weather is colder , and air temperature reaches -6 C or lower . Frazil ice is the first stage in the formation of sea ice .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Frazil_ice",
"rank": 51,
"score": 88108
},
{
"content": "Title: Heinrich event Content: A Heinrich event is a natural phenomenon in which large armadas of icebergs break off from glaciers and traverse the North Atlantic . First described by marine geologist Hartmut Heinrich ( Heinrich , H. , 1988 ) , they occurred during five of the last seven glacial periods or `` ice ages '' over the past 640,000 years ( Hodell , et al. , 2008 ) . Heinrich events are particularly well documented for the last glacial period but notably absent from the penultimate glaciation ( Obrochta et al. , 2014 ) . The icebergs contained rock mass , which has been eroded by the glaciers , and as they melted , this matter was dropped onto the sea floor as ice rafted debris ( abbreviated to `` IRD '' ) . The icebergs ' melting caused extensive amounts of fresh water to be added to the North Atlantic . Such inputs of cold and fresh water may well have altered the density-driven , thermohaline circulation patterns of the ocean , and often coincide with indications of global climate fluctuations . Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the cause of Heinrich events , most of which imply instability of the massive Laurentide ice sheet , a continental glacier covering North America during the last glacial period . Other northern hemisphere ice sheets were potentially involved as well ( Scandinavia , Iceland , Greenland ) . However , the initial cause of this instability is still debated .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Heinrich_event",
"rank": 52,
"score": 87465
},
{
"content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Past_sea_level",
"rank": 53,
"score": 87364
},
{
"content": "Title: Fire 'n Ice Content: Fire 'n Ice is a puzzle game released by Tecmo for the Nintendo Entertainment System . It is the prequel to Solomon 's Key , and is known as Solomon 's Key 2 in Europe and Solomon no Kagi 2 : Coolmintou Kyuushutsu Sakusen ( Solomon 's Key 2 : Coolmint Rescue Mission ) in Japan . The aim of the game involves players extinguishing all fires in a level in order to proceed . They do this by creating and melting ice or kicking ice onto the fires . This game also has a level editor ( which may expose some bugs that substantially affect the game mechanics ) , but only the Japanese version permits saving the levels one creates . An unofficial conversion for Russian ZX Spectrum clones was made in 2003 . It uses the plot and levels from the original game , but with remade graphics that adhere to platform limitations and completely new music . In 2015 , another unofficial conversion was released , for the Commodore Amiga .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Fire_'n_Ice",
"rank": 54,
"score": 87296
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Arctic_dipole_anomaly",
"rank": 55,
"score": 87268
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice-ice Content: Ice-ice is a disease condition of seaweed . Ice-ice is caused when changes in salinity , ocean temperature and light intensity cause stress to seaweeds , making them produce a `` moist organic substance '' that attracts bacteria in the water and induces the characteristic `` whitening '' and hardening of the seaweed 's tissues . Bacteria involved include those in the Vibrio-Aeromonas and Cytophaga-Flavobacteria complexes . The bacteria lyse epidermal cells and chloroplasts , turning the seaweed tissue white . The disease is known from seaweeds including Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum , economically important sources of carrageenan . In countries where seaweed is harvested as a crop , ice-ice can wreak havoc on yields . Zamboanga , Philippines , had an outbreak of ice-ice in 2004 , and Bali , Indonesia , experienced an outbreak in 2009 . A rise in surface sea temperatures of 2-3 degrees Celsius can trigger ice-ice outbreaks .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice-ice",
"rank": 56,
"score": 87209
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean Under the Ice Content: Ocean Under the Ice is a science fiction novel by Robert L. Forward , collaborating with his wife , Martha Dodson Forward . It is part of the Rocheworld series , about an expedition to explore planets found in orbit around Barnard 's Star . It was written after Marooned on Eden , but is before it in the continuity . This is the third book in the continuity . It follows the crew of humans and Flouwen as they explore Zulu , a moon of the gas planet Gargantua , and encounter 2 sentient species , the icerugs and the coelasharks .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ocean_Under_the_Ice",
"rank": 57,
"score": 86742
},
{
"content": "Title: Melta Point Content: Melta Point ( Nos Melta \\ ` nos ` mel-ta \\ ) is a rocky point on the coast of Hero Bay , Livingston Island , formed by an offshoot of Teres Ridge . Adjacent ice-free area 116 ha . The point is named after the ancient Melta , ancestor of the present town of Lovech in Northern Bulgaria . This is one of the Bulgarian names bestowed on hitherto nameless geographical features by the Tangra 2004/05 Expedition .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Melta_Point",
"rank": 58,
"score": 86740
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Conference Content: The inaugural Arctic Ocean Conference was held in Ilulissat , Greenland May 27 -- May 29 , 2008 . Five countries , Canada , Denmark , Norway , Russia and the United States , discussed key issues relating to the Arctic Ocean . The meeting was significant because of its plans for environmental regulation , maritime security , mineral exploration , polar oil oversight , and transportation . Before the conclusion of the conference , the attendees announced the Ilulissat Declaration . The conference was the first ever held at the ministerial level that included the five regional powers . It came at the invitation of Per Stig Møller , Denmark 's Foreign Minister , and Hans Enoksen , Greenlandic Premier in 2007 after several territorial disputes in the Arctic . States Møller , `` We must continue to fulfill our obligations in the Arctic area until the UN decides who will have the right to the sea and the resources in the region . We must agree on the rules and what to do if climate changes make more shipping possible . '' `` We need to send a common political signal to both our own populations and the rest of the world that the five coastal states will address the opportunities and challenges in a responsible manner . '' Ilulissat 's melting glacier was an appropriate backdrop for the landmark conference . The key ministry level attendees were : Canada : Gary Lunn , Canadian Minister for Nature Resources Denmark : Per Stig Møller ; Hans Enoksen Norway : Jonas Gahr Støre , Norwegian Minister for Foreign Affairs Russia : Sergey Lavrov , Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs United States : John D. Negroponte , Deputy Secretary of State",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Arctic_Ocean_Conference",
"rank": 59,
"score": 86720
},
{
"content": "Title: Regelation Content: Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing again when the pressure is reduced . Many sources state that regelation can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of ice , with a heavy weight attached to it . The pressure exerted on the ice slowly melts it locally , permitting the wire to pass through the entire block . The wire 's track will refill as soon as pressure is relieved , so the ice block will remain solid even after wire passes completely through . This experiment is possible for ice at − 10 ° C or cooler , and while essentially valid , the details of the process by which the wire passes through the ice are complex . The phenomenon works best with high thermal conductivity materials such as copper , since latent heat of fusion from the top side needs to be transferred to the lower side to supply latent heat of melting . If 1 mm diameter wire is used , over an ice cube 50 mm wide , the area the force is exerted on is 50 mm2 . This is 50 × 10 − 6 m2 . Force ( in newtons ) equals pressure ( in pascals ) multiplied by area ( in square metres ) . If at least 500 atm ( 50 MPa ) is required to melt the ice , a force of ( 50 × 106 Pa ) ( 50 × 10 − 6 m2 ) = 2500 N is required , a force roughly equal to the weight of 250 kg on Earth . Regelation was discovered by Michael Faraday . Regelation occurs only for substances , such as ice , that have the property of expanding upon freezing , for the melting points of those substances decrease with increasing external pressure . The melting point of ice falls by 0.0072 ° C for each additional atm of pressure applied . For example , a pressure of 500 atmospheres is needed for ice to melt at − 4 ° C.",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Regelation",
"rank": 60,
"score": 86160
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice shove Content: An ice shove , ice surge , ice heave , ivu , or shoreline ice pileup is a surge of ice from an ocean or large lake onto the shore . Ice shoves are caused by ocean currents , strong winds , or temperature differences pushing ice onto the shore , creating piles up to 12 metres ( 40 feet ) high . Some have described them as ` ice tsunamis ' , but the phenomenon works like an iceberg . Witnesses have described the shove 's sound as being like that of a train or thunder . Ice shoves can damage buildings and plants that are near to the body of water . Arctic communities can be affected by ice shoves .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_shove",
"rank": 61,
"score": 86074
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Sea_level_equation",
"rank": 62,
"score": 85844
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Ic Content: Ice Ic ( pronounced `` ice one c '' or `` ice icy '' ) is a metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice . H. König was the first to identify and deduce the structure of ice Ic . The oxygen atoms in ice Ic are arranged in a diamond structure and is extremely similar to ice Ih having nearly identical densities and the same lattice constant along the hexagonal puckered-planes . It forms at temperatures between 130 and 220 K ( − 140 and − 50 ° C ) upon cooling , and can exist up to 240 K upon warming , when it transforms into ice Ih . Apart from forming from supercooled water , ice Ic has also been reported to form from amorphous ice as well as from the high pressure ices II , III and V . It can form in and is occasionally present in the upper atmosphere and is believed to be responsible for the observation of Scheiner 's halo , a rare ring that occurs near 28 degrees from the Sun or the Moon . Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_Ic",
"rank": 63,
"score": 85566
},
{
"content": "Title: Melting point Content: The melting point ( or , rarely , liquefaction point ) of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure . At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium . The melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure . When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid , it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point . Because of the ability of some substances to supercool , the freezing point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance . When the `` characteristic freezing point '' of a substance is determined , in fact the actual methodology is almost always `` the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice '' , that is , the melting point .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Melting_point",
"rank": 64,
"score": 85422
},
{
"content": "Title: Starvation (glaciology) Content: In glaciology , starvation occurs when a glacier retreats , not because of temperature increases , but due to precipitation so low that the ice flow downward into the zone of ablation exceeds the replenishment from snowfall . Eventually , the ice will move so far down that it either calves into the ocean or melts . When starvation does occur , however , it can almost always be reversed by slight changes in precipitation , such as are brought about by mountain ranges . Thus , even if glaciers do not cover a lowland due to low precipitation , glaciation is almost certain to occur at higher elevations .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Starvation_(glaciology)",
"rank": 65,
"score": 85381
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Cream (Hyuna song) Content: `` Ice Cream '' is song by South Korean singer Hyuna , and is taken from her second EP , Melting . The song alternative also features Maboos . On the day that the song was released , 22 October 2012 , it was viewed two million times . Within four days , the music video for `` Ice Cream '' had almost reached eight million views on YouTube . Cube Entertainment ( or Play CUBE Entertainment ) released the video on YouTube . On 26 October ( KST ) , the video reached ten million views on YouTube , nine days faster than Gangnam Style , HyunA 's first collaboration with PSY . There is an ongoing discussion concerning whether or not the video should have a nineteen-plus rating . The song has a `` strong hiphop sound and unique rapping '' from Hyuna . On 21 October 2012 , the extended play Melting was leaked on a `` foreign music site '' , a day before the EP 's intended release . The song nevertheless managed to reach first place on many music websites .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_Cream_(Hyuna_song)",
"rank": 66,
"score": 85151
},
{
"content": "Title: Berg Lake Content: Berg Lake is a lake on the Robson River just below the river 's source located within Mount Robson Provincial Park , at the doorstep of the north face of Mount Robson , the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies . It is partly fed by the Berg Glacier . The turquoise colored Berg Lake is dotted with icebergs even in the middle of summer . Berg Lake can be reached by following a marked hiking trail for 19 km from the parking lot . To reach the parking lot , follow Highway 5 north from Valemount to Highway 16 and head east 18 km . Or , follow Yellowhead Highway 16 west from Jasper townsite for 84 km to the Mount Robson Viewpoint centre . On the north side of the highway , follow a two-lane paved road for 2 km , ending at the parking lot .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Berg_Lake",
"rank": 67,
"score": 84928
},
{
"content": "Title: River icebreaker Content: A river icebreaker is an icebreaker specially designed to operate in shallow waters such as rivers and estuaries , and often able to pass through canals and under bridges . As published by the American Society of Civil Engineers almost a century ago , `` On some rivers , particularly where melting first takes place on the upper river , as on the Oder and Weichsel in Germany , the formation of ice jams is a frequent cause of floods . '' River icebreakers can operate in any navigable waterway to prevent such ice jams . Various river icebreakers , from smaller vessels to nuclear-powered shallow draft icebreakers Taymyr-class Vaygach and Taymyr , are also in service in the large rivers of the Russian arctic .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "River_icebreaker",
"rank": 68,
"score": 84889
},
{
"content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 69,
"score": 84757
},
{
"content": "Title: Two Ocean Glacier Content: Two Ocean Glacier is in Glacier National Park in the U.S. state of Montana . The glacier is situated on the west side Continental Divide below Vulture Peak at an average elevation of 8400 ft above sea level . As of 2005 , Two Ocean Glacier consisted of numerous ice patches covering a total of 67 acre and is more than 35 percent smaller than it was in 1966 .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Two_Ocean_Glacier",
"rank": 70,
"score": 84612
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Arctic_resources_race",
"rank": 71,
"score": 84004
},
{
"content": "Title: Yung Berg Content: Christian Ward ( born September 9 , 1985 ) , better known as his stage names Yung Berg and Hitmaka , is an American record producer , rapper and songwriter . Yung Berg had been previously signed to DMX 's Bloodline Records as Iceberg but then signed to Epic Records . His debut single was `` Sexy Lady '' , which features R&B singer Junior released in April 2007 . His debut album Look What You Made Me was released in 2008 .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Yung_Berg",
"rank": 72,
"score": 83623
},
{
"content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm",
"rank": 73,
"score": 83339
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 74,
"score": 83145
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice dam (roof) Content: An ice dam is an ice build-up on the eaves of sloped roofs of heated buildings that results from melting snow under a snow pack reaching the eave and freezing there . Freezing at the eave impedes the drainage of meltwater , which adds to the ice dam and causes backup of the meltwater in a manner , which may cause water leakage into the roof and consequent damage to the building and its contents if the water leaks through the roof .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_dam_(roof)",
"rank": 75,
"score": 82938
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age 2: The Meltdown (video game) Content: Ice Age 2 : The Meltdown is a video and computer game based on the film of the same name . It was developed by Eurocom and published by Vivendi Games . The Wii version was released shortly after the launch of the system . It is the final game published by Fox Interactive before the company shut down in 2006 .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_Age_2:_The_Meltdown_(video_game)",
"rank": 76,
"score": 82893
},
{
"content": "Title: Lake Whittlesey Content: Lake Whittlesey was a proglacial lake that was an ancestor of present-day Lake Erie . It formed about 14,000 years ago . As the Erie Lobe of the Wisconsin Glacier retreated at the end of the last ice age , it left melt-water in a previously-existing depression area that was the valley of an eastward-flowing river known as the Erigan River that probably emptied into the Atlantic Ocean following the route of today 's Saint Lawrence River . The lake stood at 735 ft to 740 ft above sea level . The remanent beach is not horizontal as there is a ` hinge line ' southwest of a line from Ashtabula , Ohio , through the middle part of Lake St. Clair . The hinge line is where the horizontal beaches of the lake have been warped upwards towards the north by the isostatic rebound as the weight of the ice sheet was removed from the land . The rise is 60 ft north into Michigan and the Ubly outlet . The current altitude of the outlet is 800 ft above sea level . Where the outlet entered the Second Lake Saginaw at Cass City the elevation is 740 ft above sea level . The Lake Whittlesey beach called the Belmore Beach and is a gravel ridge 10 ft to 15 ft high and one-eighth mile ( 18 meters ) wide . Lake Whittlesey was maintained at the level of the Ubly outlet only until the ice melted back on the `` Thumb '' far enough to open a lower outlet . This ice recession went far enough to allow the lake to drop about 20 ft below the lowest of the Arkona beaches to Lake Warren levels . The strip of Lake bottom between the Whittlesey and Warren beaches in southeastern Michigan is largely a clayey plain , the principal exceptions being at deltas of Lake Arkona . The deltas of streams entering Lake Whittlesey are less conspicuous than of the same streams in connection with its predecessor , Lake Arkona . One reason for this is the fact that the rise of water caused estuarine conditions for some distance up the valleys beyond the Whittlesey beach , and it was necessary to fill these estuaries from their heads down-stream past the beach before the lake-bed proper would receive a coating of delta material . Frank Taylor named this body of water , Lake Whittlesey in 1897 . The lake created the Belmore beach of the Erie-Huron basin . It flowed across the `` thumb '' of Michigan , through an outlet known as the Ubly outlet .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Lake_Whittlesey",
"rank": 77,
"score": 82815
},
{
"content": "Title: Melting the Ice Queen (remix) Content:",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Melting_the_Ice_Queen_(remix)",
"rank": 78,
"score": 82732
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice mélange Content: Ice mélange refers to a mixture of sea ice types , icebergs , and snow without a clearly defined floe that forms from shearing and fracture at the ice front . Ice mélange is commonly the result of an ice calving event where ice breaks off the edge of a glacier . Ice mélange affects many of the Earth 's processes including glacier calving , ocean wave generation and frequency , generation of seismic waves , atmosphere and ocean interactions , and tidewater glacier systems . Ice mélange is possibly the largest granular material on Earth , and is quasi-2-dimensional",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_mélange",
"rank": 79,
"score": 82582
},
{
"content": "Title: Cabbeling Content: Cabbeling is when two separate water parcels mix to form a third which sinks below both parents . The combined water parcel is denser than the original two water parcels . The two parent water parcels may have the same density , but they have different properties ; for instance , different salinities and temperatures . Seawater almost always gets more dense if it gets either slightly colder or slightly saltier . But medium-warm , medium-salty water can be denser than both fresher , colder water and saltier , warmer water ; in other words , the equation of state for seawater is monotonic , but non-linear . See diagram . Cabbeling may also occur in fresh water , since pure water is densest at about 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) . A mixture of 1 ° C water and 6 ° C water , for instance , might have a temperature of 4 ° C , making it denser than either parent . Ice is also less dense than water , so although ice floats in warm water , meltwater sinks in warm water . The densification of the new mixed water parcel is a result of a slight contraction upon mixing ; a decrease in volume of the combined water parcel . A new water parcel that has the same mass , but is lower in volume , will be denser . Denser water sinks or downwells in the otherwise neutral surface of the water body , where the two initial water parcels originated .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Cabbeling",
"rank": 80,
"score": 82436
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenland ice sheet Content: The Greenland ice sheet ( Grønlands indlandsis , Sermersuaq ) is a vast body of ice covering 1710000 km ² , roughly 80 % of the surface of Greenland . It is the second largest ice body in the world , after the Antarctic ice sheet . The ice sheet is almost 2400 km long in a north-south direction , and its greatest width is 1100 km at a latitude of 77 ° N , near its northern margin . The mean altitude of the ice is 2135 m . The thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point . It is not the only ice mass of Greenland -- isolated glaciers and small ice caps cover between 76000 and around the periphery . If the entire 2850000 km3 of ice were to melt , it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m . The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice , or its Danish equivalent , indlandsis . It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Greenland_ice_sheet",
"rank": 81,
"score": 82260
},
{
"content": "Title: IceMole Content: IceMole is an autonomous ice research probe , incorporating a new type of ice-melting tip for the exploration of polar regions , glaciers , ice sheets , and extraterrestrial regions , developed by a team from the FH Aachen , a Fachhochschule ( University of Applied Sciences ) in Aachen , Germany . The advantage over previous probes is that the IceMole can change its direction and can be recovered after being used . A driving ice screw allows the probe to drill through soil layers and other contaminations in the ice .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "IceMole",
"rank": 82,
"score": 82154
},
{
"content": "Title: Partial melting Content: Partial melting occurs when only a portion of a solid is melted . For mixed substances , such as a rock containing several different minerals or a mineral that displays solid solution , this melt can be different from the bulk composition of the solid . Partial melting occurs where the solidus and liquidus temperatures are different . For single minerals this can happen when they exhibit solid solution , for example in olivines between iron and magnesium . In rocks made up of several different minerals , some will melt at lower temperatures than others . Partial melting is an important consideration in geology with respect to the chemical differentiation of crustal rocks . Virtually all rocks on Earth derive from material from the interior of the earth that has been partially melted . The main places where partial melting occurs are subduction zones , mid-ocean ridges and hotspots . In all these places partial melting is often associated with volcanism , although some melts do not make it to the surface . Partial melts are thought to play an important role in enriching old parts of the continental lithosphere in incompatible elements . Partial melts produced at depth move upwards due to the compaction of the surrounding matrix .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Partial_melting",
"rank": 83,
"score": 82115
},
{
"content": "Title: Iceberg Content: An iceberg or ice mountain is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water . It may subsequently become frozen into pack ice ( one form of sea ice ) . As it drifts into shallower waters , it may come into contact with the seabed , a process referred to as seabed gouging by ice . Almost 91 % of an iceberg is below the surface of the water .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Iceberg",
"rank": 84,
"score": 82066
},
{
"content": "Title: Taurocottus bergii Content: Taurocottus bergii is a species of sculpin native to the northwestern Pacific Ocean . It occurs at depths of from 40 to . This species grows to a length of 20 cm SL . This species is the only known member of its genus .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Taurocottus_bergii",
"rank": 85,
"score": 82048
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltdown (Icehouse album) Content: Meltdown is a remix album by Australian rock synthpop band , Icehouse with tracks remixed by Australian electronic musicians and bands including Infusion , sonicanimation and beXta . It was released in October 2002 within Australia by dIVA Records ( Icehouse founder Iva Davies ' own label ) under Warner Music Australia . The single `` Lay Your Hands on Me '' ( Icehouse Vs. Speed Of Light ) peaked at # 85 on the Australian singles chart . The album was re-released , in 2004 by Rock Up label / Star Records , as Street Cafe or more fully Street Cafe and Other Remixed Hits with a different track order and different cover art ( see infobox below right ) .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Meltdown_(Icehouse_album)",
"rank": 86,
"score": 82013
},
{
"content": "Title: Champlain Sea Content: The Champlain Sea was a temporary inlet of the Atlantic Ocean , created by the retreating glaciers during the close of the last ice age . The Sea once included lands in what are now the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario , as well as parts of the American states of New York and Vermont . The mass of ice from the continental ice sheets had depressed the rock beneath it over millennia . At the end of the last ice age , while the rock was still depressed , the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa River valleys , as well as modern Lake Champlain , were below sea level and flooded with rising worldwide sea levels , once the ice no longer prevented the ocean from flowing into the region . As the land gradually rose again , in the process known as isostatic rebound , the sea coast gradually retreated to its current location . The sea lasted from about 13,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago and was continuously shrinking during that time , since the rebounding continent was slowly rising above sea level . At its peak , the sea extended inland as far south as Lake Champlain and somewhat farther west than the city of Ottawa , Ontario , and farther up the Ottawa River past Pembroke . The remaining glaciers fed the sea during that time , making it more brackish than typical seawater . It is estimated that the sea was as much as 150 m above the level of today 's Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers . The best evidence of this former sea is the vast clay plain deposited along the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers . This resulted in distinctive forest types , and large wetlands . Other modern evidence of the sea can be seen in the form of whale fossils , ( belugas , fin whales , and bowhead whales ) and marine shells that have been found near the cities of Ottawa , Ontario , and Montreal , Quebec . There are also fossils of oceanic fish such as capelin . The Sea also left ancient raised shorelines in the former coastal regions , and the Leda clay deposits in areas of deeper water . The northern shore of the lake was in southern Quebec where outcrops of the Canadian shield form the Eardley Escarpment . This escarpment still has distinctive plants that may date back to the sea . The Eardley Escarpment is known locally as the Gatineau Hills ; part of the Mattawa fault at the southeastern edge of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben , in Eastern Ontario and the Outaouais region of Quebec , more commonly known as the Ottawa Valley .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Champlain_Sea",
"rank": 87,
"score": 81997
},
{
"content": "Title: Berg River Content: The Berg River ( also called Great Berg River or in Afrikaans : Bergrivier ) is a river located just north of Cape Town in the Western Cape Province of South Africa . It is approximately 294 km ( 183 mi ) long with a catchment area of 7,715 km ² ( 2979 mi ² ) and outlets into the Atlantic Ocean . About 65 % of the Berg River area is under agriculture . The major towns in the Berg River area are Velddrif and Laaiplek near the coast , Piketberg , Hopefield , Moorreesburg and Darling further inland , and Wellington and Paarl in the upper catchment . The lead source of the Berg River is south of Franschhoek in the Drakenstein Mountains . The Great Berg River can be subdivided into the following segments : Upper Berg River & Tributaries Upper Middle Berg River & Tributaries Lower , Middle Berg River & Tributaries Lower Berg River & Tributaries .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Berg_River",
"rank": 88,
"score": 81950
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age: The Meltdown Content: Ice Age : The Meltdown is a 2006 American computer-animated comedy adventure film produced by Blue Sky Studios and released by 20th Century Fox . As the first sequel to the 2002 film Ice Age , it focuses on the herd escaping an upcoming flood , during which Manny finds love . It was directed by Carlos Saldanha , co-director of the first film , with the music composed by John Powell . The original voice cast -- Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Chris Wedge -- is joined by Queen Latifah , Seann William Scott and Josh Peck . The film premiered in Belgium on March 1 , 2006 . It was eventually released in 70 countries , with the last release being in China , on June 9 , 2006 . The Meltdown received mixed critical reaction but was a box office success by earning over $ 660 million . Three more sequels were released -- Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ice_Age:_The_Meltdown",
"rank": 89,
"score": 81906
},
{
"content": "Title: Blue iceberg Content: A blue iceberg is visible after the ice from above the water melts , causing the smooth portion of ice from below the water to overturn . The rare blue ice is formed from the compression of pure snow , which then develops into glacial ice . Icebergs may also appear blue due to light refraction and age . Older icebergs reveal vivid hues of green and blue , resulting from a high concentration of color , microorganisms , and compacted ice . One of the better known blue icebergs rests in the waters off Sermilik fjord near Greenland . It is described as an electric blue iceberg and is known to locals as `` blue diamond '' .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Blue_iceberg",
"rank": 90,
"score": 81759
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 91,
"score": 81666
},
{
"content": "Title: Ferrigno Ice Stream Content: Ferrigno Ice Stream is an ice Stream more than 15 nmi long flowing into Eltanin Bay southwest of Wirth Peninsula , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Jane G. Ferrigno of the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . Ferrigno has been a specialist for some decades from the 1970s in the use of satellite imagery for glacier studies and map compilation , co-leader of the USGS team that compiled the 1:5,000,000 - scale radiometer maps of Antarctica , and task leader of the team that is compiling 25 glaciological and coastal-change maps of Antarctica . Beneath the glacier lies the Ferrigno Rift , a rift valley some 1.5 km deep , 10 km wide , and at least 100 km long . The rift valley was discovered using ice-penetrating radar during a survey of the glacier in 2010 by a team from the British Antarctic Survey and the University of Aberdeen investigating ice-melt on the glacier that had been measured using satellites . The ice-filled rift valley is connected to the ocean and is believed to impact ice loss on the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Ferrigno_Ice_Stream",
"rank": 92,
"score": 81593
},
{
"content": "Title: Øivind Berg Content: Øivind Berg ( born 23 March 1946 ) is a Norwegian ice hockey player . He was born in Oslo and represented the club IF Frisk Asker . He played for the Norwegian national ice hockey team , and participated at the Winter Olympics in Sapporo in 1972 , where the Norwegian team placed 8th .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Øivind_Berg",
"rank": 93,
"score": 81589
},
{
"content": "Title: Waterworld Content: Waterworld is a 1995 American post-apocalyptic science fiction action film directed by Kevin Reynolds and co-written by Peter Rader and David Twohy . It was based on Rader 's original 1986 screenplay and stars Kevin Costner , who also produced it with Charles Gordon and John Davis . It was distributed by Universal Pictures . The setting of the film is in the distant future . Although no exact date was given in the film itself , it has been suggested that it takes place in 2500 . The polar ice caps have completely melted , and the sea level has risen over 7,600 m ( 25,000 feet ) , covering nearly all of the land . The film illustrates this with an unusual variation on the Universal logo , which begins with the usual image of Earth , but shows the planet 's water levels gradually rising and the polar ice caps melting until nearly all the land is submerged . The plot of the film centers on an otherwise nameless antihero , `` The Mariner '' , a drifter who sails the Earth in his trimaran . The most expensive film ever made at the time , Waterworld was released to mixed reviews , praising the futuristic setting and premise but criticizing the characterization and acting performances . The film also was unable to recoup its massive budget at the box office ; however , the film did later become profitable due to video and other post-cinema sales . The film was also nominated for an Academy Award in the category Best Sound at the 68th Academy Awards . The film 's release was accompanied by a tie-in novel , video game , and three themed attractions at Universal Studios Hollywood , Universal Studios Singapore , and Universal Studios Japan called Waterworld : A Live Sea War Spectacular , which are all still running as of 2017 . Universal Studios Hollywood had closed it down for refurbishment , but had it re-opened in April 2017 .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Waterworld",
"rank": 94,
"score": 81422
},
{
"content": "Title: Bergisel Content: The Bergisel is a hill ( 746 m ) that lies to the south of Innsbruck , Austria , in the area of Wilten , where the Sill river meets the Inn Valley . The word 's first syllable Berg - does n't correspond etymologically to the German word Berg with the meaning mountain . The Bergisel 's contemporary name is derived from the pre-Roman word burgusinus ( elevated position ) , which then altered through folk etymology , causing the occasional spelling Berg Isel or its English equivalent Mount Isel . Among its earlier uses were as a cremation site and as a habitation area during the Ice Age . In 1809 , Bergisel was the site of the four Battles of Bergisel under the command of the freedom fighter Andreas Hofer . In 1892 , the Andreas Hofer monument was erected in order to commemorate the battles . Since 1952 , Innsbruck has hosted one leg of the Four Hills Tournament . The Bergiselschanze was built of concrete for the 1964 Winter Olympics to replace an older , smaller ramp . It was also used for the 1976 Winter Olympics . A new ramp was opened in 2003 , designed by the architect Zaha Hadid , as the old one no longer conformed to contemporary requirements of ski jumping . Until an accident following a mass panic , which resulted in several deaths , the Bergisel stadium was also the site of the Air & Style snowboard festival . Both the Brenner railway and the Brennerautobahn have tunnels below the Bergisel . The Sill Gorge , a recreational site , is located at its base . The Bergisel can be reached by the Stubaitalbahn from Innsbruck , exiting at Station Sonnenburgerhof , or by the Tram 1 , at Station Bergisel .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Bergisel",
"rank": 95,
"score": 81415
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon–Glatzel equation Content: The Simon -- Glatzel equation is an empirical correlation describing the pressure dependence of the melting temperature of a solid . The pressure dependence of the melting temperature is small for small pressure changes because the volume change during fusion or melting is rather small . However , at very high pressures higher melting temperatures are generally observed as the liquid usually occupies a larger volume than the solid making melting more thermodynamically unfavorable at elevated pressure . If the liquid has a smaller volume than the solid ( as for ice and liquid water ) a higher pressure leads to a lower melting point .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Simon–Glatzel_equation",
"rank": 96,
"score": 81145
},
{
"content": "Title: Besh Barmag Mountain Content: Besh Barmag ( Beş Barmaq ) literally translated as Five Finger Mountain , is in Siazan District of Azerbaijan , not far from the Caspian Sea . It rises to 382 m above the sea level overlooking the Baku-Quba Highway . The mountain is a solid rock and is one of the most famous mountains in the Caucasus , known for its mythical stories . It is a sacred place for regular visitation by pilgrims . Tide marks on the mount attest to meltwater inundation from the northern glacial ice caps and date back to the end of the last ice age . The tidelines confirm the theory of a Holocene outflow of meltwater from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea , rather than a direct incursion of sea water into the Black Sea as a result of global sea level rise . Estimates of the increase in Caspian Sea level height are between + 20 and 30 meters .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Besh_Barmag_Mountain",
"rank": 97,
"score": 80902
},
{
"content": "Title: Icy moon Content: Icy moons are a class of natural satellites with surfaces composed mostly of ice . An icy moon may harbor an ocean underneath the surface , and possibly include a rocky core of silicate or metallic rocks . It is thought that they may be composed of ice II or other polymorph of water ice . The prime example of this class of object is Europa . Icy moons warmed by tides may be the most common type of object to have liquid water , and thus the type of object most likely to have water-based life . Some icy moons exhibit cryovolcanism , as well as geysers . The best studied example is Saturn 's Enceladus .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "Icy_moon",
"rank": 98,
"score": 80890
},
{
"content": "Title: FESOM Content: FESOM ( Finite-Element/volumE Sea ice-Ocean Model ) is a multi-resolution ocean general circulation model that solves the equations of motion describing the ocean and sea ice using finite-element and finite-volume methods on unstructured computational grids . The model is developed and supported by researchers at the Alfred Wegener Institute , Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research ( AWI ) , in Bremerhaven , Germany .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "FESOM",
"rank": 99,
"score": 80517
},
{
"content": "Title: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea Content: For the ICES civil engineering software package see COGO . The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea ( ICES ; Conseil International de l'Exploration de la Mer , CIEM ) is the world 's oldest intergovernmental science organization . ICES is headquartered in Copenhagen , Denmark , where its multinational Secretariat staff of 51 provide scientific , administrative and secretarial support to the ICES community . It was established on July 22 , 1902 in Copenhagen .",
"qid": "35",
"docid": "International_Council_for_the_Exploration_of_the_Sea",
"rank": 100,
"score": 80477
}
] |
When the exact same group of 'experts' who claimed it was global cooling in 1977 now claim it's global warming you can easily see why I am skeptical | [
{
"content": "Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming",
"rank": 1,
"score": 161383
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy",
"rank": 2,
"score": 150326
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool It (film) Content: Cool It is a 2010 documentary film based on the book Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming by Danish political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The film stars Lomborg , best known for authoring The Skeptical Environmentalist . It premiered in September in Canada at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival and had a theatrical United States release on November 12 , 2010 . The film was directed by Ondi Timoner .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Cool_It_(film)",
"rank": 3,
"score": 144764
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 4,
"score": 141548
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool It Content: Cool It may refer to : Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming , a 2007 book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg Cool It ( film ) , a 2010 documentary film based on the above book Cool It ( TV series ) , a 1980s British television comedy series featuring Phil Cool",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Cool_It",
"rank": 5,
"score": 133040
},
{
"content": "Title: Howard Friel Content: Howard Friel is a U.S. independent scholar and author who wrote The Lomborg Deception : Setting the Record Straight About Global Warming ( Yale University Press , 2010 , ISBN 978-0-300-16103-8 ) , a critique of Bjørn Lomborg 's books The Skeptical Environmentalist and Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming . He also co-authored Israel-Palestine on Record : How the New York Times Misreports Conflict in the Middle East with Richard Falk ( Verso , 2007 ) . He co-authored The Record of the Paper : How the New York Times Misreports US Foreign Policy with Richard Falk ( Verso , 2004 , ISBN 978-1-84467-019-2 ) . In 1995 , Friel edited Guns and the Constitution : The Myth of Second Amendment Protection for Firearms in America with Dennis Henigan .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Howard_Friel",
"rank": 6,
"score": 132804
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 7,
"score": 123934
},
{
"content": "Title: Geophysical global cooling Content: Before the concept of plate tectonics , global cooling was a geophysical theory by James Dwight Dana , also referred to as the contracting earth theory . It suggested that the Earth had been in a molten state , and features such as mountains formed as it cooled and shrank . As the interior of the Earth cooled and shrank , the rigid crust would have to shrink and crumple . The crumpling could produce features such as mountain ranges .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Geophysical_global_cooling",
"rank": 8,
"score": 117439
},
{
"content": "Title: The Skeptical Environmentalist Content: The Skeptical Environmentalist : Measuring the Real State of the World ( Verdens sande tilstand , literal translation : The True State of the World ) is a book by Danish environmentalist author Bjørn Lomborg , controversial for its claims that overpopulation , declining energy resources , deforestation , species loss , water shortages , certain aspects of global warming , and an assortment of other global environmental issues are unsupported by analysis of the relevant data . It was first published in Danish in 1998 , while the English edition was published as a work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001 . Due to the scope of the project , comprising the range of topics addressed , the diversity of data and sources employed , and the many types of conclusions and comments advanced , The Skeptical Environmentalist does not fit easily into a particular scientific discipline or methodology . Although published by the social sciences division of Cambridge University Press , the findings and conclusions were widely challenged on the basis of natural science . This interpretation of The Skeptical Environmentalist as a work of environmental science generated much of the controversy and debate that surrounded the book .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "The_Skeptical_Environmentalist",
"rank": 9,
"score": 117184
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "World_Climate_Report",
"rank": 10,
"score": 113932
},
{
"content": "Title: Keep Cool (board game) Content: Keep Cool is a board game created by Klaus Eisenack and Gerhard Petschel-Held of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and published by the German company Spieltrieb in November 2004 . The game can be classified as both a serious game and a global warming game . In Keep Cool , up to six players representing the world 's countries compete to balance their own economic interests and the world 's climate in a game of negotiation . The goal of the game as stated by the authors is to `` promote the general knowledge on climate change and the understanding of difficulties and obstacles , and `` to make it available for a board game and still retain the major elements and processes . ''",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Keep_Cool_(board_game)",
"rank": 11,
"score": 112808
},
{
"content": "Title: Everything's Cool (film) Content: Everything 's Cool is a 2007 documentary film that examines the divide between scientists and the general populace on the topic of global warming . Director Dan Gold said of the motivation for the film that `` I 'm optimistic that finally the message that this is real , that human beings are the cause of the most recent warming trend , and that it 's an important issue , that message is actually reaching America . On the other hand ... if that message was fully understood , we would be moving a lot faster to slow this down and to reverse this course . '' The documentary was shown at the Sundance film festival in January 2007 and at the San Francisco International Film Festival in May 2007 . The directors also took Blue Vinyl , a film about plastic pollution , to Sundance in 2002 . It was shown on CBC in Canada as part of the Passionate Eye series . The New York Times called it `` a breezy polemic about the politics of global warming ... -LSB- that -RSB- adopts a cheerful comic tone to avoid scaring audiences . '' The LA Times said that `` With wit and passion , Gold and Helfand marshal a plethora of data and developments yet never lose their narrative thread . '' . The New York Sun was less favourable , calling it `` the best movie I 've ever seen about global warming for kids in junior high school , but it 's the most annoying movie about global warming I 've ever seen for adults . ''",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Everything's_Cool_(film)",
"rank": 12,
"score": 110687
},
{
"content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg",
"rank": 13,
"score": 109126
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 14,
"score": 108793
},
{
"content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason",
"rank": 15,
"score": 108290
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Climate_change_denial",
"rank": 16,
"score": 107318
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Peter_Doran",
"rank": 17,
"score": 105375
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 18,
"score": 104429
},
{
"content": "Title: Skeptical Science Content: Skeptical Science ( occasionally abbreviated SkS ) is a climate science blog and information resource created in 2007 by Australian cognitive scientist John Cook . In addition to publishing articles on current events relating to climate science and climate policy , the site maintains a large database of articles analyzing the merit of arguments commonly put forth by those who oppose the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Skeptical_Science",
"rank": 19,
"score": 103945
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 20,
"score": 103074
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 21,
"score": 102165
},
{
"content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming",
"rank": 22,
"score": 100257
},
{
"content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 99631
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_warming_conspiracy_theory",
"rank": 24,
"score": 98664
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Cool Content: Global Cool is a green living campaign run by the Global Cool Foundation , a registered climate change charity in the United Kingdom . As well as running the Global Cool lifestyle magazine website , Global Cool Foundation also works with corporate partners and the UK Government to promote sustainability to a mainstream audience .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_Cool",
"rank": 25,
"score": 98449
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Globes: Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet Content: Cool Globes : Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet is a public art project dedicated to increasing awareness of global warming . A nonprofit corporation , `` Cool Globes : Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet '' sponsored a Chicago public art exhibit of 125 5 ft globes decorated with solutions to global warming , placed in Grant Park near the Field Museum of Natural History , the Shedd Aquarium , and along the lakefront bike path during the summer of 2007 . The project is similar to the popular `` Cows on Parade '' exhibit of 1999 , but with a social conscience . The Cool Globes adopts the idea of Berlin 's town mascot ; the entailing United Buddy Bears exhibitions are very different from all other urban events . The bears were created by the German artists Klaus and Eva Herlitz . The idea and the philosophy behind the United Buddy Bears exhibitions are unique : with its international approach and its symbolism , this synthesis of the arts globally promotes tolerance , international understanding and a peaceful coexistence .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Cool_Globes:_Hot_Ideas_for_a_Cooler_Planet",
"rank": 26,
"score": 98106
},
{
"content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event",
"rank": 27,
"score": 97981
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 28,
"score": 97639
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents",
"rank": 29,
"score": 96834
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 30,
"score": 96507
},
{
"content": "Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "The_Chilling_Stars",
"rank": 31,
"score": 96430
},
{
"content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer",
"rank": 32,
"score": 95164
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 33,
"score": 94960
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greenhouse Conspiracy Content: The Greenhouse Conspiracy is a documentary film broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990 , as part of the Equinox series , which criticised the theory of global warming and asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding . It is one of the earliest instances of the suggestion of a conspiracy to promote false claims supporting global warming . Although the title of the program implied the existence of a conspiracy , when interviewed on the program Patrick Michaels played down the idea , saying , `` It may not quite add up to a conspiracy , but certainly a coalition of interests has promoted the greenhouse theory : scientists have needed funds , the media a story , and governments a worthy cause '' .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "The_Greenhouse_Conspiracy",
"rank": 34,
"score": 94071
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle",
"rank": 35,
"score": 93880
},
{
"content": "Title: 1808/1809 mystery eruption Content: A colossal volcanic eruption in the VEI 6 range is believed to have taken place in late 1808 and is suspected of contributing to a period of global cooling that lasted for years , in a similar way to how the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora ( VEI 7 ) led to the Year Without a Summer in 1816 .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "1808/1809_mystery_eruption",
"rank": 36,
"score": 93506
},
{
"content": "Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Taken_by_Storm",
"rank": 37,
"score": 92787
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_Climate_Coalition",
"rank": 38,
"score": 91838
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 39,
"score": 91595
},
{
"content": "Title: Myron Ebell Content: Myron Ebell is Director of Global Warming and International Environmental Policy at the Competitive Enterprise Institute ( CEI ) , a libertarian advocacy group based in Washington , D.C. . He is also the chairman of the Cooler Heads Coalition , a loose coalition formed in 1997 which presents itself as `` focused on dispelling the myths of global warming by exposing flawed economic , scientific , and risk analysis '' . In these organizations , Ebell has been central in promoting climate change denial , distributing his views to the media and politicians . Ebell , who is not a scientist , has been described as a climate change skeptic , a climate contrarian and a climate change denier . In September 2016 , Ebell was appointed by then Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump to lead his transition team for the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Myron_Ebell",
"rank": 40,
"score": 91361
},
{
"content": "Title: World Jump Day Content: The World Jump Day was an event scheduled for July 20 , 2006 at 11:39.13 UTC , at which time the organization claimed to have 600 million people from the western hemisphere jump simultaneously . They claimed this would move the Earth out of its orbit , and into a new one , one that would not cause global warming . The site was a hoax , an art installation by Torsten Lauschmann ( claiming to be a Professor Hans Peter Niesward from the Institute for Gravitational Physics in Munich ) , and in no way serious . The German student association Lambda Omega Lambda provided hosting and programming services .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "World_Jump_Day",
"rank": 41,
"score": 91359
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 42,
"score": 91235
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand Content: Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand is a non-fiction book about climate change denial , coauthored by Haydn Washington and John Cook , with a foreword by Naomi Oreskes . Washington had a background in environmental science prior to authoring the work , and Cook was educated in physics and founded the website Skeptical Science which compiles peer-reviewed evidence of global warming . The book was first published in hardcover and paperback formats in 2011 by Earthscan , a division of Routledge . The book presents an in-depth analysis and refutation of climate change denial , going over several arguments point-by-point and disproving them with peer-reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus for climate change . The authors assert that those denying climate change engage in tactics including cherry picking data purported to support their specific viewpoints , and attacking the integrity of climate scientists . They use social science theory to examine the phenomenon of climate change denial in the wider public , and call this phenomenon a form of pathology . The book traces financial support for climate change denial to the fossil fuel industry , asserting these companies have attempted to influence public opinion on the matter . Washington and Cook write that politicians have a tendency to use weasel words as part of a propaganda tactic through use of spin , as a way to deflect public interest away from climate change and remain passive on the issue . The authors conclude that if the public ceased engaging in denial , the problem of climate change could be realistically addressed . For his research on the book , and efforts in communicating the essence of climate change science to the general public , John Cook won the 2011 Australian Museum Eureka Prize for Advancement of Climate Change Knowledge . Climate Change Denial received a positive reception in reviews from publications including : The Ecologist , ECOS magazine , academic journal Natures Sciences Sociétés , the journal Education published by the New South Wales Teachers Federation , . An article in The New American was critical , describing the labels of `` deniers '' and `` denialists '' as cruel and forms of character assassination .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Denial:_Heads_in_the_Sand",
"rank": 43,
"score": 90734
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning",
"rank": 44,
"score": 89983
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 45,
"score": 89639
},
{
"content": "Title: ANDRILL Content: ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "ANDRILL",
"rank": 46,
"score": 89494
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 47,
"score": 89355
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)",
"rank": 48,
"score": 89342
},
{
"content": "Title: Merchants of Doubt Content: Merchants of Doubt : How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming is a 2010 non-fiction book by American historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway . It identifies parallels between the global warming controversy and earlier controversies over tobacco smoking , acid rain , DDT , and the hole in the ozone layer . Oreskes and Conway write that in each case `` keeping the controversy alive '' by spreading doubt and confusion after a scientific consensus had been reached , was the basic strategy of those opposing action . In particular , they say that Fred Seitz , Fred Singer , and a few other contrarian scientists joined forces with conservative think tanks and private corporations to challenge the scientific consensus on many contemporary issues . The George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer , two of the subjects , have been critical of the book . Other reviewers have been more favorable . One reviewer said that Merchants of Doubt is exhaustively researched and documented , and may be one of the most important books of 2010 . Another reviewer saw the book as his choice for best science book of the year . It was made into a film , Merchants of Doubt , directed by Robert Kenner , released in 2014 .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Merchants_of_Doubt",
"rank": 49,
"score": 89094
},
{
"content": "Title: SuperFreakonomics Content: SuperFreakonomics : Global Cooling , Patriotic Prostitutes , and Why Suicide Bombers Should Buy Life Insurance is the second non-fiction book by University of Chicago economist Steven Levitt and The New York Times journalist Stephen J. Dubner , released in early October 2009 in Europe and on October 20 , 2009 in the United States . It is a sequel to Freakonomics : A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "SuperFreakonomics",
"rank": 50,
"score": 88894
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know",
"rank": 51,
"score": 88764
},
{
"content": "Title: 1816 Content: This year was known as the ` Year Without a Summer ' because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere , the result of the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1815 . The sulfur from this eruption reflected the sun 's rays and caused severe global cooling , catastrophic in some locations .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "1816",
"rank": 52,
"score": 88635
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming (Sonny Rollins album) Content: Global Warming is an album by jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins , released on the Milestone label in 1998 , featuring performances by Rollins with Stephen Scott , Bob Cranshaw , Idris Muhammad , Clifton Anderson , Victor See Yuen and Perry Wilson .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_Warming_(Sonny_Rollins_album)",
"rank": 53,
"score": 88533
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Taylor (environmentalist) Content: Peter Taylor ( b. 24 Jan 1948 ) is a UK environmentalist with a long track record of public activism and scholarship on issues ranging from nuclear safety , ocean pollution , biodiversity strategies , renewable energy and climate change . His recent work on global warming has been questioned by environmentalists . His 2009 book Chill : a reassessment of global warming theory argued that most of the recent documented warming is caused by peaking natural cycles , that there is also a potential for global cooling and that adaptation not mitigation should be a priority . His views received widespread coverage in the media -- with front page on the Daily Express , and articles in the online versions of The Mail , The Times and an Al Jazeera video .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Peter_Taylor_(environmentalist)",
"rank": 54,
"score": 88484
},
{
"content": "Title: Tottenham Court Road chiller Content: In the 1930s , London Transport Board installed an experimental refrigeration plant on the London Underground at Tottenham Court Road tube station . The plant was operational between 1938 and 1949 . The experimental plant was built because temperature measurements through the 1930s showed that the Underground was steadily getting warmer . Although the temperatures were not at unsafe levels ( peaks of 82 ° F / 27.8 ° C occurred at a few stations in summertime ) , the LTB perceived that if the trend continued , cooling in summer would be required at some time in the future , and it would be sensible to develop suitable technology . The chiller used water as the working fluid . The evaporators consisted of indirect heat exchangers mounted in the platform tunnels which were fed water at just above 0 ° C . The condenser was sited in the outflow air path of an existing tunnel cooling fan , which had been installed in a disused lift shaft at the station in 1933 . The outgoing air going through the condenser was warmed by 2 -- 3 ° C , before being discharged to atmosphere . Two descriptions of the cooling capacity exist . The first ( from 1939 ) gives the capacity as `` about half a million British thermal units per hour . '' The second ( 1982 ) states that it was `` equivalent to melting approximately 51 tonnes of ice per day . '' In SI units , these are 146 kW and 197 kW respectively . The experimental plant was not considered a success , mainly because the cooling it provided was at high cost . An extract fan of the same cooling capacity ( ` cooling capacity ' in the sense that a fan removes warm air in the tunnels and replaces it with cooler air from outside ) used up one-eighth of the electricity of the experimental refrigeration plant . Not only that , such a fan was easier to maintain and cost less to install . In the austere post-war years , the electrical power drawn by the chiller could not be justified . It was used intermittently during the 1940s , and was decommissioned in 1949 .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Tottenham_Court_Road_chiller",
"rank": 55,
"score": 88265
},
{
"content": "Title: John Lawrence Daly Content: John L. Daly ( 31 March 1943 -- 29 January 2004 ) was an Australian teacher and self-declared `` Greenhouse skeptic . '' He was known for speaking out publicly against what he called the `` Global Warming scare , '' and authored the book The greenhouse trap : Why the greenhouse effect will not end life on earth , published in 1989 by Bantam Books . Since his death his website , Still Waiting for Greenhouse is maintained by Jerry Brennan , though updates slowed considerably after Daly 's death and stopped completely in 2008 . Daly investigated various studies by scientists which appear to support global warming scenarios and raised objections to them . For example , he denied that the average sea level is rising , on the basis the ` Isle of the Dead ' mean ocean level benchmark .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "John_Lawrence_Daly",
"rank": 56,
"score": 87973
},
{
"content": "Title: Keep Cool Content: Keep Cool may refer to : Keep Cool ( film ) , a 1997 Chinese black comedy directed by Zhang Yimou Keep Cool ( board game ) , a German-made global warming board game",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Keep_Cool",
"rank": 57,
"score": 87973
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 58,
"score": 87170
},
{
"content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_dimming",
"rank": 59,
"score": 86876
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 60,
"score": 86802
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "The_Great_Warming",
"rank": 61,
"score": 86762
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science",
"rank": 62,
"score": 86478
},
{
"content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Iris_hypothesis",
"rank": 63,
"score": 86181
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 64,
"score": 86058
},
{
"content": "Title: Dave Thomas (skeptic) Content: Dave Thomas ( born 1953 ) is a physicist and mathematician best known for his scientific skepticism research and writings . He is a graduate of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology , and his work covers the Roswell and Aztec UFO sightings , the Bible code , global warming , the 9/11 Truth movement and chemtrails . Many of Thomas ' articles have been published in Skeptical Inquirer magazine .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Dave_Thomas_(skeptic)",
"rank": 65,
"score": 86000
},
{
"content": "Title: Lavoisier Group Content: The Lavoisier Group is an Australian organisation formed by politicians and dominated by retired industrial businesspeople and engineers . It does not accept the science of global warming and works to influence attitudes of policy makers and politicians . The organisation downplays the risk of the effects of global warming , rejects the scientific conclusion that human activity causes it , and opposes policies designed to curtail it . Some members regard climate change as a `` scam . '' The group was named after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier ( 1743-1794 ) , the father of modern chemistry who disproved the Phlogiston theory of combustion .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Lavoisier_Group",
"rank": 66,
"score": 85937
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental skepticism Content: Environmental skepticism is the belief that claims by environmentalists , and the environmental scientists who support them , are false or exaggerated . The term is also applied to those who are critical of environmentalism in general . Environmental skepticism is closely linked with anti-environmentalism and climate change denial . Environmental skeptics have argued that the extent of harm coming from human activities is less certain than some scientists and scientific bodies claim , or that it is too soon to be introducing curbs in these activities on the basis of existing evidence , or that further discussion is needed regarding who should pay for such environmental initiatives . One of the focus themes in the environmental skeptics movement is the idea that environmentalism is a growing threat to social and economic progress and the civil liberties . The popularity of the term was enhanced by Bjørn Lomborg 's book The Skeptical Environmentalist . Lomborg approached environmental claims from a statistical and economic standpoint , and concluded that often the claims made by environmentalists were overstated . Lomborg argued , on the basis of cost -- benefit analysis , that few environmentalist claims warranted serious concern . However , in 2010 , Lomborg stated that he believes in the need for `` tens of billions of dollars a year to be invested in tackling climate change '' and declared global warming to be `` undoubtedly one of the chief concerns facing the world today '' and `` a challenge humanity must confront '' . He summarized his position , saying `` Global warming is real - it is man-made and it is an important problem . But it is not the end of the world . ''",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Environmental_skepticism",
"rank": 67,
"score": 85741
},
{
"content": "Title: Pattern Recognition in Physics Content: Pattern Recognition in Physics was an open-access journal originally published by Copernicus Publications which was established in March 2013 and terminated in January 2014 . The editors-in-chief were Sid-Ali Ouadfeul ( Algerian Petroleum Institute ) and Nils-Axel Mörner , the latter of whom is a well-known global warming skeptic . Copernicus ceased its publication due to concerns over the publications views towards the scientific consensus of global climate change and the method of peer review . In March 2014 Ouadfeul reopened the journal , `` run on private founding '' -LSB- sic -RSB-",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Pattern_Recognition_in_Physics",
"rank": 68,
"score": 85469
},
{
"content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Volcanic_winter",
"rank": 69,
"score": 85238
},
{
"content": "Title: David Legates Content: David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university , and a former Delaware State Climatologist . Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale . Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "David_Legates",
"rank": 70,
"score": 85211
},
{
"content": "Title: Jerry Taylor Content: Jerome Cogburn `` Jerry '' Taylor ( born August 2 , 1962 ) is an American environmental activist and policy analyst . Taylor is the president of the Niskanen Center , a Washington , D.C. based think tank that advocates for market environmentalism and the adoption of a carbon tax system to combat global warming . Before founding the Niskanen Center in 2015 , Taylor was a senior fellow at the Cato Institute , where he previously espoused a skeptical position on environmental issues . Taylor 's case is notable as an example of a former climate-change skeptic who came to embrace policies to address climate change after researching the scientific consensus behind man-made global warming . During the 1990s and 2000s Taylor made regular media appearances as a global warming skeptic , including on Penn and Teller 's show Bullshit as well as a special edition of the John Stossel show devoted to attacking climate science . Taylor changed his prior beliefs because `` the scientific evidence became stronger and stronger over time . '' In 2015 , Taylor published a recantation entitled the `` Conservative Case for a Carbon Tax '' in which he espoused a global carbon taxation system , enforced by tariffs and implemented as a revenue neutral tax swap . Taylor attended the University of Iowa as a political science major . He is also a board game designer who has released three wargames , Hammer of the Scots , Crusader Rex , and Richard III . He resides in Arlington , Virginia with his wife and their children .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Jerry_Taylor",
"rank": 71,
"score": 84800
},
{
"content": "Title: Gordon J. F. MacDonald Content: Gordon James Fraser MacDonald ( July 30 , 1929 -- May 14 , 2002 ) was an American geophysicist and environmental scientist , best known for his principled skepticism regarding continental drift ( now called plate tectonics ) , involvement in the development of the McNamara Line electronic defense barrier during the Vietnam War , and early research and advocacy on manmade global climate change . MacDonald was admired for his creative mind , and his ability to connect scientific issues and matters of public policy . MacDonald was born in Mexico of a Scottish father and American mother . A childhood bout with polio only sharpened his competitive instincts . He applied to Harvard for a football scholarship and graduated summa cum laude at the age of 20 . Remaining at Harvard , he became a Harvard Junior Fellow , then received his Ph.D. in geology in 1954 . MacDonald was a faculty member at MIT ( 1954 -- 1958 ) , UCLA ( 1958 -- 1966 ) , UC Santa Barbara ( 1968 -- 1970 ) , Dartmouth ( 1972 -- 1983 ) and UCSD ( 1990 -- 1996 ) . Outside of academia , MacDonald was a long-time member of the elite JASON advisory group of scientists . He served on the original Presidential Council on Environmental Quality ( 1970 -- 1972 ) . President Nixon remarked at the time , `` I have three members of the Harvard class of 1950 on my staff , all summa cum laude . '' The reference was to Henry Kissinger , James Schlesinger , and MacDonald . MacDonald chaired the CIA 's MEDEA Committee ( 1993 -- 1996 ) , a group of environmental scientists convened by the CIA to study whether data from classified intelligence systems could shed light on global environmental issues . He was awarded the CIA 's Agency Seal Medallion in 1994 . He was Chief Scientist and Vice President of the MITRE Corporation from 1983 to 1990 . He later became the director of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Gordon_J._F._MacDonald",
"rank": 72,
"score": 84768
},
{
"content": "Title: Liu Wansu Content: Liu Wansu ( ; 1110 -- 1200 ) was a Jin dynasty Chinese physician . He observed the high frequency of fever and inflammation in serious diseases and promoted the idea of using herbs of cooling nature to treat these conditions . This was a step in the opposite direction of many of his predecessors , who focused on using warming herbs . This work had much influence on the later concept of `` wen bing '' or epidemic febrile diseases , which corresponded to ( and preceded ) the Western concept of contagious disease . He also undertook a detailed study of the Nei Ching Su Wen -LSB- Nei Jing Su Wen -RSB- , describing the etiology of disease in relation to the teachings of that famous text . He is credited with founding the Cold and Cooling School and developed the theory of similar transformation . The body 's host qi is yang , therefore warm . Hence any evil guest qi , either externally invading or internally engendered , will tend to transform into a warm or hot evil similar to the body 's host or ruling qi . He is considered one of the four great masters of the Jin and Yuan dynasties .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Liu_Wansu",
"rank": 73,
"score": 84742
},
{
"content": "Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Greening_Earth_Society",
"rank": 74,
"score": 84703
},
{
"content": "Title: Newton's law of cooling Content: Newton 's law of cooling states that the rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the difference in the temperatures between the body and its surroundings provided the temperature difference is small and the nature of radiating surface remains same . As such , it is equivalent to a statement that the heat transfer coefficient , which mediates between heat losses and temperature differences , is a constant . This condition is generally true in thermal conduction ( where it is guaranteed by Fourier 's law ) , but it is often only approximately true in conditions of convective heat transfer , where a number of physical processes make effective heat transfer coefficients somewhat dependent on temperature differences . Finally , in the case of heat transfer by thermal radiation , Newton 's law of cooling is not true . Sir Isaac Newton did not originally state his law in the above form in 1701 , when it was originally formulated . Rather , using today 's terms , Newton noted after some mathematical manipulation that the rate of temperature change of a body is proportional to the difference in temperatures between the body and its surroundings . This final simplest version of the law given by Newton himself , was partly due to confusion in Newton 's time between the concepts of heat and temperature , which would not be fully disentangled until much later . When stated in terms of temperature differences , Newton 's law ( with several further simplifying assumptions , such as a low Biot number and temperature-independent heat capacity ) results in a simple differential equation for temperature-difference as a function of time . This equation has a solution that specifies a simple negative exponential rate of temperature-difference decrease , over time . This characteristic time function for temperature-difference behavior , is also associated with Newton 's law of cooling .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Newton's_law_of_cooling",
"rank": 75,
"score": 84453
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 76,
"score": 84414
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental Assessment Institute Content: The Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) ( Institut for Miljøvurdering -- IMV ) was an independent body under the Danish Ministry of the Environment . It was established in February 2002 by the Liberal/Conservative Danish Government with the task of making environmental and economic cost/benefit analyses . The EAI 's first Director was political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The EAI was seen by some as a vehicle created for Lomborg , whose book The Skeptical Environmentalist argues that many perceived environmental problems are vastly exaggerated by environmental lobby and that policy responses based on such exaggerated claims are often misguided . The Government appointed Ole P. Kristensen , an ex-professor at the institute where Lomborg worked , as the first Director of the Board . His job was to find the director and the other board members . Lomborg was soon announced as the director . The EAI began operating on June 1 , 2002 . The EAI published a series of reports on environmental issues , from the value of a deposit/return system for drink cans to global warming . Most of them are in Danish . A report from October 2002 made an economic cost-benefit analysis of deposits on disposable bottles and cans . It concluded that it would be better to abandon the deposit system and to let the bottles and cans be burned together with other household garbage . However , it turned out afterwards that many of the Danish incineration plants operate at temperatures at which aluminum cans will not burn , but only melt , and that the cans would pose a great economic problem for them . A committee was formed in March 2003 to evaluate the reports issued by the EAI during the second half of 2002 . This committee was composed of one Danish member and four experts from Sweden and Norway . The committee adjudged the first three reports published in 2002 as superficial attempts to focus attention on the EAI . The other reports were adjudged appealing to the public , but the committee was not confident in the conclusions of two reports and in general criticized the cost-benefit analyses . In November 2003 , five out of the seven board members resigned on the same day . Three of them did so because of disagreement about the Institute 's involvement in the Copenhagen Consensus project , the others did so because of lack of time and conflicts of interest . In mid-June 2004 , there was some stir in the Danish printed media because it was revealed that criticism of Lomborg ´ s book from Danish climate experts had been repressed for years by the head of the EAI ( Lomborg ) . Lomborg resigned as director on August 1 , 2004 . From July 1 , 2007 , the Environmental Assessment Institute was changed into a department of the Danish Economic Council , and thus no longer exists as a separate institute .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Environmental_Assessment_Institute",
"rank": 77,
"score": 84006
},
{
"content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Neoglaciation",
"rank": 78,
"score": 83930
},
{
"content": "Title: The Dying Sun Content: The Dying Sun is a science fiction novel by Gary Blackwood , published in 1989 . Set in the mid-21st century , the book depicts a world where the sun 's light is actually diminishing over time , cooling the Earth ( as opposed to global warming ) , which causes a mass migration from the U.S. to Mexico . The large influx from the north causes overpopulation and a wave of violence in the south , and James and Robert , two friends , decide to go north to escape the crime-ridden south . The novel is a 1990 Friends of American Writers Best Young Adult Novel .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "The_Dying_Sun",
"rank": 79,
"score": 83910
},
{
"content": "Title: World Federation of Scientists Content: The World Federation of Scientists is a multi-disciplinary association of scientists focused around concentrating talent to solving planetary challenges . Established in Erice , Sicily in 1973 by a group of eminent researchers led by Isidor Isaac Rabi and Antonino Zichichi , it has grown to include more than 10,000 scientists drawn from 110 countries . Notable scientists involved with the association include T. D. Lee , Laura Fermi , Eugene Wigner , Paul Dirac , and Piotr Kapitza . The federation administers the Erice Prize and the Gian Carlo Wick Gold Medal Prize . It notably holds annual seminars on planetary threats , discussing issues such as adaption to and mitigation of global climate change . Václav Klaus , then President of the Czech Republic , gave the keynote lecture of their August 2012 meeting , his skeptical views sparking debate among the attendees . It is not related to the World Federation of Science Journalists .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "World_Federation_of_Scientists",
"rank": 80,
"score": 83905
},
{
"content": "Title: DeSmogBlog Content: The DeSmogBlog , founded in January 2006 , is a blog that focuses on topics related to global warming . The site describes itself as `` the world 's number one source for accurate , fact based information regarding Global Warming misinformation campaigns . '' DeSmogBlog opposes what it describes as `` a well-funded and highly organized public relations campaign '' that it says is `` poisoning '' the climate change debate . Since its inception , the site has received several mentions in the media regarding its involvement in global warming issues . The site was co-founded by James Hoggan , president of a public relations firm based in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada . The website was recognized in December 2007 with an award by a trade organization for its standards and content .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "DeSmogBlog",
"rank": 81,
"score": 83389
},
{
"content": "Title: IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme Content: The International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme ( IEA SHC ) is one of over 40 multilateral Technology Collaboration Programmes ( also known as TCPs ) of the International Energy Agency . It was one of the first of such programmes , founded in 1977 . Its current mission is to `` advance international collaborative efforts for solar energy to reach the goal set in the vision of contributing 50 % of the low temperature heating and cooling demand by 2030 . '' . Its international solar collector statistics Solar Heat Worldwide serve as a reference document for governments , financial institutions , consulting firms and non-profit organizations .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "IEA_Solar_Heating_and_Cooling_Programme",
"rank": 82,
"score": 83370
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy Content: The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy",
"rank": 83,
"score": 83365
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 84,
"score": 83246
},
{
"content": "Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet",
"rank": 85,
"score": 83240
},
{
"content": "Title: Planet Relief Content: Planet Relief was a proposed BBC television special dealing with the issue of global warming , originally scheduled for broadcast in January 2008 . The programme , which had been in development for 18 months , was meant to be similar to previous BBC programmes such as Comic Relief and Sport Relief . However , it was cancelled before it was broadcast , allegedly because the BBC was concerned that it would be `` biased '' towards promoting responses based on acceptance of mainstream climate change science .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Planet_Relief",
"rank": 86,
"score": 83087
},
{
"content": "Title: George Kukla Content: George Kukla ( born Jiří Kukla ; 14 March 1930 -- 31 May 2014 ) was a senior research scientist at the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University . Kukla was a member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences , prior to emigrating to the US , and a pioneer in the field of astronomical climate forcing . In 1972 he became a central figure in convincing the United States government to take the dangers of climate change seriously . Kukla and geologist , Robert Matthews of Brown University , convened a historic conference , themed : `` The Present Interglacial : How and When will it End ? '' Kukla and Matthews then highlighted the dangers of global cooling in Science magazine and , to President Richard Nixon . The Nixon administration reacted swiftly to their letter , which described calamities such as killer frosts , lower food production and floods , to come . By February 1973 , the State Department had established a Panel on the Present Interglacial , which advised Drs. Kukla and Matthews that it `` was seized of the matter '' and numerous other government agencies were soon included . Kukla was co-author of a chapter in the book `` Natural Climate Variability on Decade to Century Time Scales '' published by the National Research Council . Kukla believed all glacial periods in Earth 's history began with global warming ( understood as an increase of area-weighted average global mean temperature ) . He believed Earth 's recent warming is mostly natural and will ultimately lead to a new ice age .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "George_Kukla",
"rank": 87,
"score": 82976
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 88,
"score": 82719
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Content: The Committee for Skeptical Inquiry ( CSI ) , formerly known as the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal ( CSICOP ) , is a program within the transnational American non-profit educational organization Center for Inquiry ( CFI ) , which seeks to `` promote scientific inquiry , critical investigation , and the use of reason in examining controversial and extraordinary claims . '' Paul Kurtz proposed the establishment of CSICOP in 1976 as an independent non-profit organization ( before merging with CFI as one of its programs in 2015 ) , to counter what he regarded as an uncritical acceptance of , and support for , paranormal claims by both the media and society in general . Its philosophical position is one of scientific skepticism . CSI 's fellows have included notable scientists , Nobel laureates , philosophers , psychologists , educators and authors . It is headquartered in Amherst , New York .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry",
"rank": 89,
"score": 82211
},
{
"content": "Title: An Inconsistent Truth Content: An Inconsistent Truth is a 2012 documentary film written , produced , and featuring , nationally syndicated conservative talk radio host Phil Valentine and directed by Shayne Edwards . Valentine , a skeptic of global warming theory , interviewed scientists about the validity of Al Gore 's film An Inconvenient Truth and the facts presented within . What he is told by the scientists he interviews is that there is no consensus on the issue of global warming or climate change . The film argues that global warming proponents keep changing its label , basing their argument on what Valentine says is shaky scientific ground .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "An_Inconsistent_Truth",
"rank": 90,
"score": 82157
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 91,
"score": 82096
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Cool_Earth_50",
"rank": 92,
"score": 82085
},
{
"content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Duncan_Wingham",
"rank": 93,
"score": 82077
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 94,
"score": 81854
},
{
"content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "North_Report",
"rank": 95,
"score": 81757
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies",
"rank": 96,
"score": 81590
},
{
"content": "Title: Warming Content: Warming may refer to : People Eugenius Warming , ( 1841 -- 1924 ) , Danish botanist Thomas Warming , ( b. 1969 ) , Danish illustrator , painter and author Other Global warming Warming up Warming Land",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Warming",
"rank": 97,
"score": 81482
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 98,
"score": 81229
},
{
"content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm",
"rank": 99,
"score": 81118
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat death paradox Content: Formulated in 1862 by Lord Kelvin , Hermann von Helmholtz and William John Macquorn Rankine , the heat death paradox , also known as Clausius 's paradox and thermodynamic paradox , is a reductio ad absurdum argument that uses thermodynamics to show the impossibility of an infinitely old universe . This paradox is based upon the classical model of the universe in which the universe is eternal . Clausius 's paradox is a paradox of paradigm . It was necessary to amend the fundamental ideas about the universe , which brought about the change of the paradigm . The paradox was solved when the paradigm was changed . The paradox was based upon the rigid mechanical point of view of the Second principle of thermodynamics postulated by Rudolf Clausius according to which heat can only be transferred from a warmer to a colder object . If the universe was eternal , as claimed in the classical stationary model of the universe , it should already be cold . Any hot object transfers heat to its cooler surroundings , until everything is at the same temperature . For two objects at the same temperature as much heat flows from one body as flows from the other , and the net effect is no change . If the universe were infinitely old , there must have been enough time for the stars to cool and warm their surroundings . Everywhere should therefore be at the same temperature and there should either be no stars , or everything should be as hot as stars . Since there are stars and the universe is not in thermal equilibrium it can not be infinitely old . The paradox does not arise in Big Bang or Steady State cosmology . In Big Bang cosmology , the current age of the universe is not old enough to have reached equilibrium ; while in a Steady State system , sufficient hydrogen is replenished or regenerated continuously to allow for a constant average density and preventing stars from running down .",
"qid": "36",
"docid": "Heat_death_paradox",
"rank": 100,
"score": 81096
}
] |
Scientists studying Antarctica sea ice warn a rise in accumulation could spark the next ice age. | [
{
"content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment",
"rank": 1,
"score": 176667
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice and the Sky Content: Ice and the Sky ( La Glace et le ciel , also known as Antarctica : Ice and Sky ) is a 2015 French documentary film directed by Luc Jacquet about the work of Claude Lorius , who began studying Antarctic ice in 1957 , and , in 1965 , was the first scientist to be concerned about global warming . The film was selected to close the 2015 Cannes Film Festival .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Ice_and_the_Sky",
"rank": 2,
"score": 154821
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 3,
"score": 149536
},
{
"content": "Title: Tim Naish Content: Tim Naish is a New Zealand glaciologist . He is the Director of the Antarctic Research Centre , Victoria University of Wellington , New Zealand . He has written about the collapse of Antarctica 's Larsen B ice shelf . In 2002 , between January 31 and March 7 the Larsen B ice shelf collapsed and broke up . Tim Naish warned that the ice shelf of Weddell Sea is imperiled , and if the temperature rises by 3 ° C , the ice shelves of Antarctica will become thinner . `` These are dramatic changes '' -- said Tim Naish . In 2009 , Professor Naish was awarded a New Zealand Antarctic Medal ( NZAM ) for services to Antarctic climate science .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Tim_Naish",
"rank": 4,
"score": 148662
},
{
"content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Duncan_Wingham",
"rank": 5,
"score": 148154
},
{
"content": "Title: ANDRILL Content: ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "ANDRILL",
"rank": 6,
"score": 143948
},
{
"content": "Title: Catherine Ritz Content: Catherine Ritz is a French Antarctic researcher , best known for her work on ice sheets and their impact on sea level rise .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Catherine_Ritz",
"rank": 7,
"score": 142862
},
{
"content": "Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "John_H._Mercer",
"rank": 8,
"score": 140413
},
{
"content": "Title: Konrad Steffen Content: Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Konrad_Steffen",
"rank": 9,
"score": 139126
},
{
"content": "Title: David Vaughan (glaciologist) Content: David Glyn Vaughan OBE is a climate scientist at the British Antarctic Survey . His research focus is the role of ice sheets in the Earth system and the societal threat of climate change and rising sea levels . He is a co-ordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . His research work includes the mapping of the bed under Pine Island Glacier and the discovery of a subglacial volcano . Vaughan was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to glaciology .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "David_Vaughan_(glaciologist)",
"rank": 10,
"score": 137339
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 11,
"score": 136295
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice",
"rank": 12,
"score": 133350
},
{
"content": "Title: Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica Content: The Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica is a research program consisting of two overland traverses of East Antarctica : the first from the Norwegian Troll Station to the South Pole in the 2007/2008 season ; and a return traverse via a different route in 2008/2009 . The main research focus of the program is climate change , the stated goals being to : Investigate climate variability in Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica on time scales of years to a thousand years . Establish spatial and temporal variability in snow accumulation over this area of Antarctica to understand its impact on sea level . Investigate the impact of atmospheric and oceanic variability on the chemical composition of firn and ice in the region . Revisit areas and sites first explored by traverses in the 1960s , for detection of possible changes and to establish benchmark data sets for future research efforts . The program is part of Trans-Antarctic Scientific Traverse Expeditions -- Ice Divide of East Antarctica ( TASTE-IDEA ) , and the International Partners in Ice Coring Sciences ( IPICS ) , both of which have ISCU-WMO endorsement for the International Polar Year 2007-2009 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Norwegian-U.S._Scientific_Traverse_of_East_Antarctica",
"rank": 13,
"score": 132874
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet",
"rank": 14,
"score": 131821
},
{
"content": "Title: Gordon Hamilton (scientist) Content: Gordon Hamilton ( -- 22 October 2016 ) was a Scottish climate scientist who studied glaciers . He died on a trip to Antarctica in 2016 when his snowmobile fell into a crevasse . He was 50 at the time of his death . Native to Scotland , Hamilton received a doctorate from the University of Cambridge and was a professor of the University of Maine . The Hamilton Glacier on the Antarctic Edward VII Peninsula has been named after him since 2003 . A 2010 New York Times article documented the danger involved in Hamilton 's field work noting that climate scientists including Hamilton and others were willing to take risks in order to retrieve temperature data that is essential to their work .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Gordon_Hamilton_(scientist)",
"rank": 15,
"score": 131623
},
{
"content": "Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Quaternary_glaciation",
"rank": 16,
"score": 130705
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 17,
"score": 129739
},
{
"content": "Title: Henry Ice Rise Content: Henry Ice Rise is a triangular-shaped ice rise about 70 mi long located between Korff Ice Rise and the southern portion of Berkner Island in the Ronne Ice Shelf , Antarctica . It was first visited by the United States International Geophysical Year geophysical traverse party from Ellsworth Station , 1957 -- 58 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Captain Clifford D. Henry of the Military Sealift Command , a veteran American polar sea captain and master of . Henry died aboard his ship , February 16 , 1975 , while returning from his fourteenth voyage to Antarctica in support of the U.S. Antarctic Research Program .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Henry_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 18,
"score": 128468
},
{
"content": "Title: Burcu Özsoy Content: Burcu Özsoy ( born in Gaziantep , Turkey , in 1976 ) is a Turkish scientist who works with sea ice remote sensing in Antarctica . Özsoy is head of the first Turkish polar research center , ITU PolReC .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Burcu_Özsoy",
"rank": 19,
"score": 127714
},
{
"content": "Title: Cape Roberts Project Content: Between 1997 and 1999 the international Cape Roberts Project ( CRP ) has recovered up to 1000 m long drill cores in the Ross Sea , Antarctica to reconstruct the glaciation history of Antarctica . Scientists from various institutes in seven countries have participated : Australia , Germany , United Kingdom , The Netherlands , Italy , New Zealand , and USA . After a seismic pre-site survey the area off Cape Roberts in the Ross Sea at the margin of the Transantarctic Mountains ( 77 ° S 163 ° 43 ` E ) was found to be suitable . Drilling was performed using a conventional core wireline system with a drill derrick , protected by a cover against the rough climate . Sea ice was 2 m thick with a water depth of 150 -- below . Four overlapping drill cores at three sites reflect in excellent quality the geological history and glaciation of the Antarctic during the last 34 million years . As a logistic and scientific basis the American McMurdo Station and Scott Base of New Zealand were used . Supply of the drill site was performed with motor sledges and snow mobiles , exchange of personal with helicopters . The costs for the logistics were around four Million US dollar .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Cape_Roberts_Project",
"rank": 20,
"score": 127515
},
{
"content": "Title: Dvořák Ice Rise Content: Dvořák Ice Rise is an ice rise 1.5 nmi in extent , rising above the ice of Mendelssohn Inlet in the southwest part of Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was first mapped , from air photos taken by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition , 1947 -- 48 , by D. Searle of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1960 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Antonín Dvořák , the Czech composer . ( 1841-1904 ) .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Dvořák_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 21,
"score": 127426
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Wadhams Content: Peter Wadhams ScD ( born 14 May 1948 ) , is professor of Ocean Physics , and Head of the Polar Ocean Physics Group in the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics , University of Cambridge . He is best known for his work on sea ice . He is the president of the International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans Commission on Sea Ice and Coordinator for the International Programme for Antarctic Buoys . Wadhams has been the leader of 40 polar field expeditions . Wadhams advocates for the use of climate engineering to mitigate climate change .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Peter_Wadhams",
"rank": 22,
"score": 126224
},
{
"content": "Title: Pat Langhorne Content: Pat Langhorne ( born 1955 ) is an Antarctic sea ice researcher . She is a Professor in the physics department at the University of Otago , New Zealand . She was previously head of department ( 2012 -- 2015 ) . She now leads the sea ice observation component of one of New Zealand 's National Science Challenges -- the Deep South .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Pat_Langhorne",
"rank": 23,
"score": 125477
},
{
"content": "Title: Julie Palais Content: Julie Michelle Palais ( * September 2 , 1956 in Massachusetts ) is an award-winning polar glaciologist who has made great contributions to climate change research studying volcanic fallout in ice cores from both Greenland and Antarctica . Since 1990 , she has played a pivotal role working at the National Science Foundation as Program Director of the Antarctic Glaciology Program in the Division of Polar Programs . Both the Palais Glacier and Palais Bluff in Antarctica were named in her honor . She has made twenty-eight trips to Antarctica and three trips to Greenland , and was the co-recipient of the Explorer Club 's Lowell Thomas Award .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Julie_Palais",
"rank": 24,
"score": 122694
},
{
"content": "Title: Hemmen Ice Rise Content: Hemmen Ice Rise is an ice rise 11 mi long and 2 to wide , with an estimated area of 55 sqkm , located 17 km off the northwest corner of Berkner Island in the Ronne Ice Shelf , Antarctica . The feature appears for the first time on a chart prepared at Ellsworth Station in 1957 by Captain Finn Ronne , U.S. Navy Reserve . The ice rise was subsequently noted in U.S. Earth Resources Technology Satellite imagery . It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee for George E. Hemmen , Executive Secretary of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research in 1972 ; he served with the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey as a meteorological observer at Admiralty Bay , 1952 -- 53 , and as Base Leader at Deception Island , 1953 -- 54 , and with the Royal Society Antarctic Expedition , 1956 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Hemmen_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 25,
"score": 122085
},
{
"content": "Title: Schaus Ice Rises Content: Schaus Ice Rises is a group of small ice rises merged within the Wilkins Ice Shelf , aligned east-west just off the north side of Eroica Peninsula , situated off the southwest coast of Alexander Island , Antarctica . Mapped by United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1967-68 and from Landsat imagery taken 1972-73 . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Commander Richard Schaus , U.S. Navy , assigned to the Division of Polar Programs , National Science Foundation ( NSF ) , as aviation projects officer , 1979-80 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Schaus_Ice_Rises",
"rank": 26,
"score": 122068
},
{
"content": "Title: Sophie Warny Content: Sophie Warny ( born 1969 ) is a Belgian Antarctic researcher , best known for her work on palynology . As an associate professor at Louisiana State University in the Department of Geology and Geophysics and one of the curators at the Museum of Natural Science , Warny studies past climate change patterns by examining fossilized pollen and spores . She is currently the vice president of the Gulf Coast Section of the Society for Sedimentary Geology ( GCSSEPM ) .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Sophie_Warny",
"rank": 27,
"score": 121909
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctica: A Year on Ice Content: Antarctica : A Year on Ice is the first feature film by New Zealand filmmaker Anthony B. Powell . This documentary is set in Antarctica , specifically in the Ross Island region , which is home to two research bases : United States ' McMurdo Station and New Zealand 's Scott Base . It chronicles a year of time spent living and working at these remote stations ; the summer season ( October to February ) when the sun shines 24 hours a day and the long dark winter ( February to October ) where the sun goes down for four long months and darkness envelopes the environment . The film focuses on the everyday workers that keep the stations and the equipment running so the scientists can complete their work . Interviewees include a helicopter pilot , fireman , firehouse dispatcher , cook , mechanic , storekeeper , storeman , finance person , administrative person , and operations manager . Extensive use of time-lapse photography is used to document the changing seasons and the Antarctic landscapes . Powell had to invent many of his own camera systems to survive the extreme conditions of the deep Antarctic winter . Powell 's previous work includes footage for Discovery , National Geographic , and was featured in BBC 's Frozen Planet . The film also touches upon topics such as ` T3 Syndrome , ' a term that describes what happens to people during the winter , when the T3 hormone in the brain is reassigned to the muscles of the body in an effort to protect it against the extreme cold . The film also describes how the community works and plays together including the annual New Year 's party `` Ice Stock '' . The film 's post-production was completed at Park Road Post Production in Wellington , New Zealand .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Antarctica:_A_Year_on_Ice",
"rank": 28,
"score": 121742
},
{
"content": "Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Weddell_Polynya",
"rank": 29,
"score": 121322
},
{
"content": "Title: RV Laurence M. Gould Content: The RV Laurence M. Gould is an icebreaker used by researchers from the United States ' National Science Foundation . for research in the Southern Ocean . The vessel is named after Laurence McKinley Gould a widely recognized American scientist , who had explored both the Arctic and Antarctic . He was second in command of Admiral Richard E. Byrd 's first expedition to Antarctica from 1928 to 1930 . He helped to set up an exploration base at Little America on the Ross Ice Shelf at the Bay of Whales . Gould , an international figure with 25 honorary degrees , and a principal architect of the Antarctic Treaty , died in 1995 at the age of 98 . That same year , the National Science Foundation initiated the charter for the services of this ice-strengthened vessel to further its studies and knowledge of the Antarctic Peninsula and Southern Ocean . The ARSV Laurence M. Gould is operated by the Antarctic Support Contract ( ASC ) on a long-term charter from Edison Chouest Offshore ( ECO ) . ASC staffs the vessel with a charter representative to coordinate cruise planning and scheduling , and with a technical staff to support science operations . ECO provides the vessel master , ice pilot and crew . The Gould , completed in 1998 , is 230 feet long and is ice-classed ABS-A1 , capable of breaking one foot of level ice with continuous forward motion . The Gould can accommodate 37 scientists and staff in one and two-person staterooms . The Gould acts as a resupply ship and does long term environmental research ( LTER ) in the Drake Passage and the Antarctic Peninsula , shuttling between Punta Arenas , Chile and Palmer Station , Antarctica . She replaced the RV Polar Duke as the main supply ship to Palmer Station .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "RV_Laurence_M._Gould",
"rank": 30,
"score": 120892
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Ice_age",
"rank": 31,
"score": 120702
},
{
"content": "Title: Karoo Ice Age Content: The Karoo Ice Age from 360 -- 260 million years ago ( Mya ) was the second major ice age of the Phanerozoic Eon . It is named after the tillite ( Dwyka Group ) found in the Karoo region of South Africa ( and adjacent areas ) , where evidence for this ice age was first clearly identified in the 19th century . The tectonic assembly of the continents of Euramerica ( later with the Uralian orogeny , into Laurasia ) and Gondwana into Pangaea , in the Hercynian-Alleghany Orogeny , made a major continental land mass within the Antarctic region , and the closure of the Rheic Ocean and Iapetus Ocean saw disruption of warm-water currents in the Panthalassa Ocean and Paleotethys Sea , which led to progressive cooling of summers , and the snowfields accumulating in winters , causing mountainous alpine glaciers to grow , and then spread out of highland areas , making continental glaciers which spread to cover much of Gondwana . At least two major periods of glaciation have been discovered : The first glacial period was associated with the Mississippian subperiod ( 359.2 -- 318.1 Mya ) : ice sheets expanded from a core in southern Africa and South America . The second glacial period was associated with the Pennsylvanian subperiod ( 318.1 -- 299 Mya ) ; ice sheets expanded from a core in Australia and India . The extent of ancient glaciations in Antarctica is not well known , because the present ice sheet hides the evidence .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Karoo_Ice_Age",
"rank": 32,
"score": 120423
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Peter_Doran",
"rank": 33,
"score": 120075
},
{
"content": "Title: Petrie Ice Rises Content: Petrie Ice Rises is a group of ice rises extending in a north-south line lying merged within the Wilkins Ice Shelf , to the west of Alexander Island , Antarctica . Seen from the air on a British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) radio echo sounding flight around Alexander Island , February 11 , 1967 , and later accurately positioned from U.S. Landsat imagery . Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) in 1980 after David L. Petrie , BAS and Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) electronic technician , about 1966-70 , who was on the flight .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Petrie_Ice_Rises",
"rank": 34,
"score": 119877
},
{
"content": "Title: Harrisson Ice Rises Content: The Harrisson Ice Rises are a local swelling of the ice surface 12 nmi west-southwest of Henderson Island , Antarctica , where the Shackleton Ice Shelf overrides an underlying obstruction . The feature was discovered by the Eastern Sledge Party of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition ( 1911 -- 14 ) under Douglas Mawson , who named the feature for Charles T. Harrisson , biologist with the expedition .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Harrisson_Ice_Rises",
"rank": 35,
"score": 119568
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice People Content: Ice People is a documentary film directed by Anne Aghion about the research of Allan Ashworth and Adam Lewis in Antarctica . Produced by Dry Valleys Productions , this 2008 film portrays the scientists discovering fossils from 13.9 million years ago . The film premiered at the San Francisco International Film Festival in April 2008 and was screened at the Jerusalem Film Festival in July 2008 . This film aired on Sundance Channel in 2009 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Ice_People",
"rank": 36,
"score": 119546
},
{
"content": "Title: Humphreys Ice Rise Content: Humphreys Ice Rise is an ice rise in the Muller Ice Shelf in the southwestern part of Lallemand Fjord , Loubet Coast , Antarctica . It was photographed from the air by the Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition , 1956 -- 57 , and surveyed by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey , 1956 -- 59 . In association with the names of glaciologists grouped in this area , the feature was named `` Humphreys Hill '' by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after William J. Humphreys , an American meteorologist and specialist on the effects of ice in the atmosphere . Humphreys was joint author with W.A. Bentley ( for whom Bentley Crag was named ) of Snow Crystals , New York , 1931 . It was renamed as Humphreys Ice Rise to reflect the true nature of the feature .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Humphreys_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 37,
"score": 118994
},
{
"content": "Title: Crary Ice Rise Content: Crary Ice Rise is an Antarctic ice rise in the south-central part of the Ross Ice Shelf . At 82 ° 56 'S , it is the southernmost ice rise . The feature was investigated by the USARP Ross Ice Shelf Project in the 1970s . The name came into use among USARP workers and honors Albert P. Crary ( 1911 -- 87 ) , American geophysicist .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Crary_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 38,
"score": 117902
},
{
"content": "Title: Vere Ice Rise Content: Vere Ice Rise is a small ice rise lying merged within the Wilkins Ice Shelf , lying off the west coast of Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was roughly mapped from the air by British Antarctic Survey on a radio echo sounding flight on 1 February 1967 , and later accurately positioned from U.S. Landsat imagery of February 1979 . It was named by the United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1980 after Flight Lieutenant Robert P. Vere , RAF , the second pilot of the Twin Otter aircraft used on the British Antarctic Survey flight .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Vere_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 39,
"score": 117701
},
{
"content": "Title: Spark Point Content: Spark Point , also Canto Point , is a rocky point forming the northwest side of the entrance to both Discovery Bay and Galápagos Cove , and the east side of the entrance to Jambelí Cove in the northeast of Greenwich Island in the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica . The point ends up in a conspicuous monolithic formation and has an adjacent ice-free area of 164 ha . The area was visited by early 19th century sealers . The feature is named after the American sealing schooner Spark which operated out of the nearby Clothier Harbour in 1820-21 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Spark_Point",
"rank": 40,
"score": 117483
},
{
"content": "Title: Landy Ice Rises Content: Landy Ice Rises is a group of six ice rises in the Bach Ice Shelf near the head of Stravinsky Inlet , on Alexander Island . They were named by the UK Antarctic Place-names Committee in 1980 after Michael Paul Landy , a British Antarctic Survey glaciologist from 1975 to 1981 , who worked in the area from Adelaide station , 1975 -- 76 , and Rothera station , 1976-77 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Landy_Ice_Rises",
"rank": 41,
"score": 117334
},
{
"content": "Title: Louise Huffman Content: Louise Tolle Huffman ( born July 24 , 1951 ) is an American teacher with over 30 years of teaching experience with many years focused on polar science and climate studies , and has written educational outreach books and articles on Antarctica . She is the Director of Education and Outreach for the US Ice Drilling Program Office ( IDPO ) , responsible for outreach efforts highlighting IDPO scientists and their research results .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Louise_Huffman",
"rank": 42,
"score": 117307
},
{
"content": "Title: Gregory S. Stone Content: Gregory Schofield Stone ( born 1957 in Boston , Massachusetts ) is an ocean scientist , explorer , and marine conservationist . He was an early pioneer of research in Antarctica on marine mammals and , later , ice ecology . He is an authority on New Zealand 's Hector 's dolphin . Stone is also an undersea technology and exploration specialist , particularly in his use of deep-sea submersibles , and has produced an award-winning series of marine conservation films .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Gregory_S._Stone",
"rank": 43,
"score": 116883
},
{
"content": "Title: European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica Content: The European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica ( EPICA ) is a multinational European project for deep ice core drilling in Antarctica . Its main objective is to obtain full documentation of the climatic and atmospheric record archived in Antarctic ice by drilling and analyzing two ice cores and comparing these with their Greenland counterparts ( GRIP and GISP ) . Evaluation of these records will provide information about the natural climate variability and mechanisms of rapid climatic changes during the last glacial epoch . The European Science Foundation EPICA Programme ( 1996 -- 2005 ) provides co-ordination for EPICA drilling activities at Dome Concordia and Kohnen Station , which are supported by the European Commission and by national contributions from Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . Deep drilling took place at two sites in Antarctica : Concordia Station at Dome C and Kohnen Station . In 2008 the project received the Descartes Prize for Research .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "European_Project_for_Ice_Coring_in_Antarctica",
"rank": 44,
"score": 116860
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice rise Content: An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Ice_rise",
"rank": 45,
"score": 116855
},
{
"content": "Title: Fletcher Ice Rise Content: Fletcher Ice Rise , or Fletcher Promontory , is a large ice rise , 100 mi long and 40 mi wide , at the southwest side of the Ronne Ice Shelf , Antarctica . The feature is completely ice covered and rises between Rutford Ice Stream and Carlson Inlet . The ice rise was observed , photographed and roughly sketched by Lieutenant Ronald F. Carlson , U.S. Navy , in the course of a C-130 aircraft flight of December 14 -- 15 , 1961 from McMurdo Sound to this vicinity and returning . It was mapped in detail by the U.S. Geological Survey from Landsat imagery taken 1973 -- 74 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Joseph O. Fletcher , director of the Office of Polar Programs , National Science Foundation , 1971 -- 74 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Fletcher_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 46,
"score": 116572
},
{
"content": "Title: Alison Murray (scientist) Content: Alison Murray is an American biochemist and Antarctic researcher , best known for her work demonstrating the existence of microbial life within an ice-sealed Antarctic lake ( Lake Vida ) . She studies how microorganisms persist and function in extremely cold and harsh environments , including those that lack oxygen and biological sources of energy .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Alison_Murray_(scientist)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 116503
},
{
"content": "Title: Tharp Ice Rise Content: Tharp Ice Rise is an ice rise , about 1.3 nautical miles ( 2.4 km ) long , located at the ice front ( 1966 ) of Larsen Ice Shelf , 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ) east of Cape Fanning , Merz Peninsula , Black Coast . The ice rise was mapped by United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1966-69 . In association with the names of Antarctic oceanographers grouped in this area , named by the United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) in 1977 after Marie Tharp , American marine geologist and oceanographer of Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory , Columbia University , New York . Category : Ice rises of Antarctica Category : Landforms of Palmer Land",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Tharp_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 48,
"score": 116371
},
{
"content": "Title: McDonald Ice Rumples Content: The McDonald Ice Rumples constitute an ice rise in the Brunt Ice Shelf bordering the Weddell Sea in Antarctica , covering an area of 3 by . Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition reported a glacier in this vicinity in January 1915 . It was named `` Allan McDonald Glacier '' after Allan McDonald of the British Association of Magallanes at Punta Arenas , who was chiefly responsible for raising funds for sending the schooner Emma on the third attempt , in July 1916 , to rescue the 22 men of the Endurance left on Elephant Island . The Royal Society International Geophysical Year expeditions occupied Halley Research Station nearby ( 1955 -- 59 ) and were familiar with this feature , and reported that in 1957 the maximum elevation above the general surface of the ice shelf , a few hundred metres from the ice front , was about 18 m . It has now been identified with `` Allan McDonald Glacier '' , and for the sake of historical continuity the UK Antarctic Place-names Committee has given the name McDonald to these ice rumples .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "McDonald_Ice_Rumples",
"rank": 49,
"score": 115729
},
{
"content": "Title: Rutford Ice Stream Content: Rutford Ice Stream is a major Antarctic ice stream , about 180 miles long and over 15 miles wide , which drains southeastward between the Sentinel Range , Ellsworth Mountains and Fletcher Ice Rise into the southwest part of Ronne Ice Shelf . Named by US-ACAN for geologist Robert Hoxie Rutford , a member of several USARP expeditions to Antarctica ; leader of the University of Minnesota Ellsworth Mountains Party , 1963-1964 . Rutford served as Director of the Division of Polar Programs , National Science Foundation , 1975-1977 . The ice stream is situated in a deep trough which is a tectonic feature between the Ellsworth Mountains and the Fletcher Promontory . Because of this the ice stream position may have been stable for millions of years . The bed of the ice stream reaches 2000 m below sea level . Therefore , between the bed of the ice stream and the height of the Ellsworth Mountains there is a vertical relief of 7 km over a distance of only 40 km . At the upper ( inland ) end of the ice stream the ice thickness reaches 3100 m falling to around 2300 m in the trough . Flow speed reaches a maximum of around 400 metres per year about 40 km inland from where the ice stream meets the Ronne Ice Shelf and starts to float on the sea . The speed of the Rutford ice stream varies by as much as 20 % every two weeks , in response to variations in the tides .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Rutford_Ice_Stream",
"rank": 50,
"score": 115365
},
{
"content": "Title: Miller Ice Rise Content: Miller Ice Rise is an ice rise nearly 2 nmi long and 1 nmi wide at the ice front ( 1974 ) of the Wordie Ice Shelf , 16 nmi west-northwest of the Triune Peaks , in southern Marguerite Bay , Antarctica . It was surveyed by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1948 -- 49 , and was photographed from the air by the U.S. Navy in 1966 . The feature was named , in 1977 , by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Richard Miller , a U.S. Navy chief radioman at Palmer Station in the winter party of 1968 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Miller_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 51,
"score": 115267
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic microorganism Content: Antarctica is one of the most physically and chemically extreme terrestrial environments to be inhabited by microorganisms . Nonetheless , on February 6 , 2013 , scientists reported that bacteria were found living in the cold and dark in a lake buried a half-mile deep ( 0.5 mi ) under the ice in Antarctica . This finding was later confirmed by scientists on August 20 , 2014 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Antarctic_microorganism",
"rank": 52,
"score": 115177
},
{
"content": "Title: Elisabeth Isaksson Content: Elisabeth Isaksson is a Swedish glaciologist and geologist who has researched polar climate history on the basis of ice cores . She has also studied snow and ice pollution on the Norwegian island of Svalbard and has participated in award-winning European projects on Antarctic climate change .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Elisabeth_Isaksson",
"rank": 53,
"score": 115095
},
{
"content": "Title: Burgess Ice Rise Content: Burgess Ice Rise is a small ice rise lying within the Wilkins Ice Shelf , off the west coast of Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was mapped from the air on a radio echo sounding flight by the British Antarctic Survey on February 11 , 1967 , and later accurately positioned from U.S. Landsat imagery of February 1979 . It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1980 after Flight Lieutenant Robert William Burgess , Royal Air Force pilot in command of the Twin Otter aircraft on the flight .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Burgess_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 54,
"score": 114980
},
{
"content": "Title: Skytrain Ice Rise Content: Skytrain Ice Rise is a large , flattish , peninsula-like ice rise of about 50 miles extent , extending from the vicinity of Meyer Hills in the Heritage Range eastward into the Ronne Ice Shelf of Antarctica . It was mapped by United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and USN air photos , 1961 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after the LC-47 Douglas Skytrain airplane ( also called R4D and Dakota ) , used extensively in the supply and placement of U.S. field personnel in Antarctica beginning with USN Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 , and continuing into the late 1960s .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Skytrain_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 55,
"score": 114741
},
{
"content": "Title: Kottmeier Mesa Content: Kottmeier Mesa is a prominent 2,120 m high mesa , 2.8 nmi northwest of Mount J. J. Thomson in the Asgard Range of Victoria Land , Antarctica . Almost wholly ice covered , the mesa is 1.5 nmi long , averages 0.5 nmi wide , and rises above the converging heads of David Valley , Bartley Glacier , Matterhorn Glacier , and the north flank of Rhone Glacier , all receiving ice that drains from the mesa . Kottmeier Mesa was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( 1997 ) after Steven T. Kottmeier , who as a United States Antarctic Program researcher , 1981 -- 87 , investigated sea ice microbial communities in the fast ice of McMurdo Sound , as well as krill associated with ice edge zones in the Bellingshausen , Scotia and Weddell seas . He served as the manager of laboratory facilities at McMurdo Station for ITT Antarctic Services , 1988 -- 90 ; from 1990 he worked for Antarctic Support Associates , initially as manager of laboratory science , and from 1997 as chief scientist .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Kottmeier_Mesa",
"rank": 56,
"score": 114701
},
{
"content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 57,
"score": 114685
},
{
"content": "Title: Heirtzler Ice Piedmont Content: Heirtzler Ice Piedmont is a relatively low , triangular-shaped , ice-covered area of about 7 nmi extent , located at the west side of Violante Inlet and north of Maury Glacier , on the Black Coast of Palmer Land , Antarctica . The feature was first seen and photographed from the air by the United States Antarctic Service on December 30 , 1940 , and was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1966 -- 69 . In association with the names of continental drift scientists grouped in this area , it was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after James R. Heirtzler , an American physicist . Heirtzler was a Research Scientist at Columbia University 's Lamont -- Doherty Geological Observatory , 1960 -- 64 , and Senior Research Scientist , 1964 -- 67 ; he was Senior Scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute , 1969 -- 86 ; Geophysicist and Head of the Geophysics Branch at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center from 1986 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Heirtzler_Ice_Piedmont",
"rank": 58,
"score": 114558
},
{
"content": "Title: Green Ice Rises Content: The Green Ice Rises are a local swelling of the Antarctic ice surface 5 nmi east of Henderson Island , where the Shackleton Ice Shelf overrides an underlying obstruction . The feature was mapped by G.D. Blodgett ( 1955 ) from aerial photography taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump ( 1946 -- 47 ) , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Duane L. Green , a radio operator and recorder with U.S. Navy Operation Windmill parties which established astronomical control stations along Wilhelm II , Knox , and Budd coasts in January and February , 1948 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Green_Ice_Rises",
"rank": 59,
"score": 114490
},
{
"content": "Title: Amery Ice Shelf Content: The Amery Ice Shelf is a broad ice shelf in Antarctica at the head of Prydz Bay between the Lars Christensen Coast and Ingrid Christensen Coast . It is part of Mac . Robertson Land . The name `` Cape Amery '' was applied to a coastal angle mapped on February 11 , 1931 by the British Australian New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition ( BANZARE ) under Douglas Mawson . He named it for William Bankes Amery , a civil servant who represented the United Kingdom government in Australia ( 1925 -- 28 ) . The Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names interpreted this feature to be a portion of an ice shelf and , in 1947 , applied the name Amery to the whole shelf . In 2001 two holes were drilled through the ice shelf by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division and specially designed seabed sampling and photographic equipment was lowered to the underlying seabed . By studying the fossil composition of sediment samples recovered , scientists have inferred that a major retreat of the Amery Ice Shelf to at least 80 km landward of its present location may have occurred during the mid-Holocene climatic optimum ( about 5,700 years ago ) . In December 2006 , it was reported by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation that Australian scientists were heading to the Amery Ice Shelf to investigate enormous cracks that had been forming for over a decade at a rate of three to five metres a day . These fractures threaten to break off a 1000 square kilometre piece of the Amery Ice Shelf . Scientists want to discover what is causing the cracks , as there has not been similar activity since the 1960s . However , the head of research believes that it is too early to attribute the cause to Global Warming as there is the possibility of a natural 50-60 year cycle being responsible . Lambert Glacier flows from Lambert Graben into the Amery Ice Shelf on the southwest side of Prydz Bay . The Amery Basin is an undersea basin north of the Amery Ice Shelf . The Chinese Antarctic Zhongshan Station and Russian Progress Station are located near this ice shelf . The Amery Ice Shelf is small compared to the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Amery_Ice_Shelf",
"rank": 60,
"score": 114323
},
{
"content": "Title: Martin Ice Rise Content: Martin Ice Rise is an ice rise , 6 nmi long and 3 nmi wide , merged within the George VI Ice Shelf and the George VI Sound , located 10 nmi southwest of Kirwan Inlet , off the east coast of Alexander Island and the west coast of Palmer Land , Antarctica . It was delineated as an ice rise from U.S. Landsat imagery of January 1973 , and was named in 1977 by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Sir David Martin ( 1914 -- 76 ) , Executive Secretary of the Royal Society , 1947 -- 76 , who played a leading role in organizing the Royal Society International Geophysical Year Expedition , 1956 -- 58 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Martin_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 61,
"score": 113788
},
{
"content": "Title: Korff Ice Rise Content: Korff Ice Rise is an ice rise , 80 nmi long and 20 nmi wide , lying 50 nmi east-northeast of Skytrain Ice Rise in the southwestern part of the Ronne Ice Shelf , Antarctica . It was discovered by the US -- IGY Ellsworth Traverse Party , 1957 -- 58 , and named by the party for Professor Serge A. Korff , vice chairman of the cosmic ray technical panel , U.S. National Committee for the International Geophysical Year , 1957 -- 59 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Korff_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 62,
"score": 113473
},
{
"content": "Title: Ives Ice Rise Content: Ives Ice Rise is an ice rise about 1 mi long at the head of Weber Inlet , an ice-filled inlet situated between Bennett Dome and Berlioz Point on the Beethoven Peninsula , situated in the southwest part of Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1967 -- 68 and Landsat imagery taken 1972 -- 73 . In association with the names of composers grouped in this area , it was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Charles Ives , the American composer .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Ives_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 63,
"score": 113178
},
{
"content": "Title: South Pole–Queen Maud Land Traverse Content: The South Pole -- Queen Maud Land Traverse ( SPQMLT ) was a three-part scientific exploration of Antarctica undertaken by the United States in the 1960s . The three parts , referred to individually as South Pole -- Queen Maud Land Traverse I , II , and III ( SPQMLT-1 , -2 , and -3 ) , traveled a zigzag route across nearly 4200 km of the Antarctic Plateau in the austral summers of 1964-1965 , 1965-1966 , and 1967-1968 . The participants included scientists from Belgium , Norway , and the United States . Their objectives included determining the thickness of the Antarctic Ice Sheet , the elevation and slope of its surface , the rate of ice accumulation , and the subglacial topography . Other objectives included measuring the density and temperature of the ice at depth , measuring the geomagnetic field and gravity , and obtaining snow samples and ice cores .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "South_Pole–Queen_Maud_Land_Traverse",
"rank": 64,
"score": 112904
},
{
"content": "Title: Fowler Ice Rise Content: Fowler Ice Rise is a very large Antarctic ice rise between Evans Ice Stream and Carlson Inlet , in the southwest part of the Ronne Ice Shelf . The feature appears to be completely ice-covered except for the Haag Nunataks , which protrude above the surface in the northwestern portion . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from Landsat imagery taken 1973 -- 74 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Captain Alfred N. Fowler , U.S. Navy , Commander of the U.S. Naval Support Force , Antarctica , 1972 -- 74 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Fowler_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 65,
"score": 112688
},
{
"content": "Title: Yan Liu (scientist) Content: Yan Liu is a Chinese Antarctic researcher best known for her work on iceberg calving . She is an Associate Professor of Geography in the College of Global Change and Earth System Science ( GCESS ) and Polar Research Institute , Beijing Normal University .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Yan_Liu_(scientist)",
"rank": 66,
"score": 112577
},
{
"content": "Title: Dome A Content: Dome A or Dome Argus is the loftiest ice dome on the Antarctic Plateau , located 1200 km inland . It is thought to be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth ; scientists believe that temperatures can sometimes even drop below -102 ° C in the winter . It is the highest ice feature in Antarctica , consisting of an ice dome or eminence of 4093 m elevation above sea level . It is located near the center of East Antarctica , approximately midway between the enormous head of Lambert Glacier and the geographic South Pole , within the Australian claim .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Dome_A",
"rank": 67,
"score": 112526
},
{
"content": "Title: Edwardsiella andrillae Content: Edwardsiella andrillae is a species of sea anemone that uniquely lives anchored to the underside of sea ice offshore of Antarctica . It was discovered in December 2010 during a test run of an undersea robot by a team of researchers associated with the Antarctic Geological Drilling ( ANDRILL ) Program . The newly discovered anemone was named for the aforementioned program .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Edwardsiella_andrillae",
"rank": 68,
"score": 112314
},
{
"content": "Title: Dougal Goodman Content: Dougal Jocelyn Goodman OBE is a British scientist , chief executive of the Foundation for Science and Technology . Goodman studied at Christ 's College , Cambridge and researched the mechanical properties of ice at the Cavendish Laboratory , Cambridge under Professor David Tabor . In 1980 he worked for BP managing a research programme on the effects of ice forces on offshore structures , later becoming head of safety for the company . From 1995 to 2000 he was a Deputy Director of the British Antarctic Survey responsible for the science undertaken by the UK Antarctic Programme , and was awarded the Polar Medal . His interests are polar history and development of arctic areas as well as walking from Coulags Croft in Coulags in the highlands of Scotland . He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2012 Birthday Honours for services to science .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Dougal_Goodman",
"rank": 69,
"score": 112234
},
{
"content": "Title: Thiel Trough Content: Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Thiel_Trough",
"rank": 70,
"score": 112179
},
{
"content": "Title: Gipps Ice Rise Content: Gipps Ice Rise is a roughly elliptical ice rise , 10 nmi long and bounded by an ice cliff on all sides , lying at the edge of the Larsen Ice Shelf about 35 nmi northeast of Hearst Island . The feature was discovered by William R. MacDonald of the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , December 18 , 1966 , while on a photographic mapping mission of this area aboard a Super Constellation aircraft crewed by the U.S. Navy VXE-6 Squadron . The ice rise was first mapped from these photos by the USGS . The name was proposed by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee for Derek R. Gipps , a Senior Executive Officer with the British Antarctic Survey , 1961 -- 73 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Gipps_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 71,
"score": 111756
},
{
"content": "Title: Institute Ice Stream Content: The Institute Ice Stream is an ice stream flowing north into the Ronne Ice Shelf , Antarctica , southeast of Hercules Inlet . The feature was traversed by the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) Ellsworth -- Byrd Seismic Party , 1958 -- 59 , and the USARP -- University of Wisconsin Seismic Party , 1963 -- 64 . It was delineated by the Scott Polar Research Institute -- National Science Foundation -- Technical University of Denmark airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967 -- 79 , and in association with Foundation Ice Stream and Support Force Glacier , named after the Scott Polar Research Institute , Cambridge , England .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Institute_Ice_Stream",
"rank": 72,
"score": 111060
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Sea_ice",
"rank": 73,
"score": 111059
},
{
"content": "Title: Coker Ice Rise Content: Coker Ice Rise is a small ice rise in Wordie Ice Shelf , 6 nmi west-northwest of the Triune Peaks , Fallières Coast . It was photographed from the air by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition , 1947 -- 48 , and surveyed by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey , 1958 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Walter B. Coker , U.S. Navy , radioman , Palmer Station winter party , 1969 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Coker_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 74,
"score": 110896
},
{
"content": "Title: Crary Knoll Content: Crary Knoll is a symmetrical ice-covered knoll rising to 1,520 m , 2 nmi south-southeast of Holmes Block in the Skelton Glacier area , Hillary Coast . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1994 . The toponym provides a historical footnote that U.S. scientist Albert P. Crary , for whom Crary Ice Rise is also named , led geophysical traverses past this feature to the Polar Plateau en route to the South Pole and other destinations .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Crary_Knoll",
"rank": 75,
"score": 110855
},
{
"content": "Title: Students on Ice Content: Students on Ice ( also known as SOI ) is a Canadian charitable organisation that leads educational expeditions to the Arctic and Antarctic for international high school and university students . Its mandate is to provide youth , educators and scientists from around the world with learning and teaching opportunities in the polar regions , with the goal of fostering new understanding of and respect for the global environment .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Students_on_Ice",
"rank": 76,
"score": 110812
},
{
"content": "Title: Nancy Bertler Content: Nancy Bertler is an Antarctic researcher , who has led major initiatives to investigate climate history using Antarctic ice cores , and best known for her leadership of the Roosevelt Island Climate Evolution Programme ( RICE ) . She is an associate professor at the Antarctic Research Centre at Victoria University of Wellington in New Zealand .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Nancy_Bertler",
"rank": 77,
"score": 110799
},
{
"content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum",
"rank": 78,
"score": 110758
},
{
"content": "Title: Kendrick Taylor Content: Kendrick Cashman Taylor , Jr. is a climate change researcher working with ice cores in Greenland and Antarctica . While a Research Professor at the Desert Research Institute in Reno , Nevada , he was the Chief Scientist for the Siple Dome and WAIS Divide ice core projects in Antarctica . He has also done work on near shore clarity at Lake Tahoe and teaching World Vision how to use geophysics to find favorable locations for shallow water wells in West Africa . His ResearcherID is A-3469-2016 and ORCID is 0000-0001-8535-1261 . Kendrick Cashman Taylor , Sr. ( 1922 -- 1995 ) was an engineer who specialized in vacuum metallurgy , especially related to depositing thin films on mylar . He is listed as the inventor on the follow U.S.A. patents : US3185565 , US3314826 , US3278331 , US3326177 , US3601179 , US3215423 , US3330900 , US3180633 , US3554268 , US3235243 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Kendrick_Taylor",
"rank": 79,
"score": 110415
},
{
"content": "Title: Davis Ice Rise Content: Davis Ice Rise is an ice rise , 4 nmi long , near the terminus of Smith Glacier , 8 nmi southeast of Mayo Peak , Bear Peninsula , on the Walgreen Coast , Marie Byrd Land . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1966 and from Landsat imagery taken 1972 -- 73 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Commander Arthur R. Davis , U.S. Navy , Supply Officer , Operation Deep Freeze , 1975 -- 76 and 1976 -- 77 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Davis_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 80,
"score": 110387
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 81,
"score": 110321
},
{
"content": "Title: Joseph Adhémar Content: Joseph Alphonse Adhémar ( 1797 -- 1862 ) was a French mathematician . He was the first to suggest that ice ages were controlled by astronomical forces in his 1842 book Revolutions of the Sea . The Earth 's orbit is elliptical , with the Sun at one focus ; lines drawn through the summer and winter solstice ; and the spring and autumn equinox ; intersect with the sun at right angles . The Earth is closest to the Sun ( perihelion ) near the northern hemisphere winter solstice . The earth moves faster through its orbit when closer to the sun . Hence , the period from the northern hemisphere 's autumn equinox to winter and spring is shorter by around seven days than the period from spring to summer to autumn ; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere . Hence , northern hemisphere winter is shorter . Because of this , Adhemar reasoned that because the southern hemisphere had more hours of darkness in winter , it must be cooling , and attributed the Antarctic ice sheet to this . Adhemar knew of the 22,000 year cycle of precession of the equinoxes , and theorised that the ice ages occurred in this cycle . One immediate objection to the theory was that the total insolation during a year does not vary at all during the precessional cycle , only its seasonal distribution . Another was that the timing was wrong ; however this could not be tested by observations available at the time . Adhemar 's theory was further developed , first by James Croll and later by Milutin Milanković . Adhemar predicted the Antarctic ice sheet and theorised about its thickness by comparing the depths of the Arctic and circum-Antarctic oceans . Finding the Antarctic oceans deeper ( the measurements he used may not have been fully representative ) and attributing this to the gravitational attraction of the Antarctic ice sheet , he postulated a truly enormous ice sheet approximately 90 km thick .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Joseph_Adhémar",
"rank": 82,
"score": 110221
},
{
"content": "Title: Linchpin Ice Rise Content: Linchpin Ice Rise is a small ice rise northeast of Miller Ice Rise , situated near the ice front of Wordie Ice Shelf on the Fallières Coast of Antarctica . The feature was mapped from U.S. Landsat imagery , 1974 -- 79 , and was so named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee because the ice rise plays a key role ( linchpin ) in maintaining the position of the ice front , as observed in 1979 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Linchpin_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 83,
"score": 110059
},
{
"content": "Title: Ross expedition Content: The Ross expedition was a voyage of scientific exploration of the Antarctic in 1839 to 1843 , led by James Clark Ross , with two unusually strong warships , HMS Erebus and HMS Terror . It explored what is now called the Ross Sea and discovered the Ross Ice Shelf . On the expedition , Ross discovered the Transantarctic Mountains and the volcanoes Erebus and Terror , named after his ships . The young botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker made his name on the expedition . The expedition inferred the position of the South Magnetic Pole , and made substantial observations of the zoology and botany of the region , resulting in a monograph on the zoology , and a series of four detailed monographs by Hooker on the botany , collectively called Flora Antarctica and published in parts between 1843 and 1859 . The expedition was the last major voyage of exploration made wholly under sail . Among the expedition 's biological discoveries was the Ross seal , a species confined to the pack ice of Antarctica .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Ross_expedition",
"rank": 84,
"score": 109768
},
{
"content": "Title: Nathaniel B. Palmer (icebreaker) Content: The Nathaniel B. Palmer is an ice-capable research ship owned by Offshore Service Vessels LLC , operated by Edison Chouest Offshore , Inc. and chartered by the United States National Science Foundation . The Nathaniel B. Palmer is tasked with extended scientific missions in the Antarctic . The Nathaniel B. Palmer was purpose-built for and delivered to the NSF by Edison Chouest Offshore 's North American Shipbuilding facility in 1992 . The Nathaniel B. Palmer carries a helicopter , accommodates up to 37 scientists , has a crew of 22 and is capable of missions lasting up to 75 days . The vessel is named after merchant mariner and ship builder Nathaniel Brown Palmer , credited by some historians with the discovery of Antarctica .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Nathaniel_B._Palmer_(icebreaker)",
"rank": 85,
"score": 109643
},
{
"content": "Title: Castellini Bluff Content: Castellini Bluff is a rock bluff rising to c. 500 m between Dibble Bluff and Mount Nesos in west White Island , Ross Archipelago . Named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2005 after Michael A. Castellini , Institute of Marine Sciences , University of Alaska , Fairbanks , who studied the Weddell seal in McMurdo Sound sea ice areas from 1977 to 2004 , including winter season research at White Island with Randall W. Davis in 1981 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Castellini_Bluff",
"rank": 86,
"score": 109501
},
{
"content": "Title: Mikhail Somov Content: Mikhail Mikhailovich Somov ( 7 April 1908 , in Moscow -- 30 December 1973 , in Leningrad ) was a Soviet oceanologist , polar explorer , Doctor of Geographical Sciences ( 1954 ) . Mikhail Somov graduated from the Moscow Hydrometeorological Institute in 1937 . In 1939 , he was appointed senior researcher at the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute . In 1950-1951 , Mikhail Somov headed a drift-ice station North Pole-2 . In 1955-1957 , he became the commander of the first Soviet Antarctic Expedition . Mikhail Somov was also the first Soviet delegate to the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research . The Somov Sea north of Victoria Land and a glacier in Queen Maud Land ( both East Antarctica ) bear Mikhail Somov 's name , as well as a scientific icebreaker . A minor planet 3334 Somov discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos in 1981 is named after him . Somov was a Hero of the Soviet Union .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Mikhail_Somov",
"rank": 87,
"score": 109249
},
{
"content": "Title: Derwael Ice Rise Content: Derwael Ice Rise is 40 km long , 35 km wide and about 400 m tall ice rise in ice shelf off Princess Ragnhild Coast , Antarctica . Situated 70 km east of Breid Bay in northern part of Roi Baudouin Ice Shelf , directly in front of Western Ragnhild Glacier . Named for geodesist of Belgian Antarctic expedition Jean-Jacques Derwael . Studies suggest that Derwael Ice Rise has remain relatively stable over the last millennia .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Derwael_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 88,
"score": 109168
},
{
"content": "Title: Foundation Ice Stream Content: Foundation Ice Stream is a major ice stream in Antarctica 's Pensacola Mountains . The ice stream drains northward for 150 mi along the west side of the Patuxent Range and the Neptune Range to enter the Ronne Ice Shelf westward of Dufek Massif . The United States Geological Survey mapped the stream from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos , 1956 -- 66 . The Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names named the stream in recognition of the National Science Foundation , which provided major support to the U.S. Antarctic Research Program during this period .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Foundation_Ice_Stream",
"rank": 89,
"score": 109099
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 90,
"score": 108953
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 91,
"score": 108807
},
{
"content": "Title: Dott Ice Rise Content: Dott Ice Rise is a peninsula-like feature that is ice-drowned except for the Barrett Nunataks , about 20 nautical miles ( 40 km ) long , extending eastward from the Heritage Range of the Ellsworth Mountains and terminating at Constellation Inlet at the southwest edge of Ronne Ice Shelf . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos , 1961 -- 66 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Robert H. Dott , a United States Antarctic Research Program geologist and senior U.S. representative at Bernardo O'Higgins Base , summer 1961-62 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Dott_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 92,
"score": 108744
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica",
"rank": 93,
"score": 108667
},
{
"content": "Title: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea Content: For the ICES civil engineering software package see COGO . The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea ( ICES ; Conseil International de l'Exploration de la Mer , CIEM ) is the world 's oldest intergovernmental science organization . ICES is headquartered in Copenhagen , Denmark , where its multinational Secretariat staff of 51 provide scientific , administrative and secretarial support to the ICES community . It was established on July 22 , 1902 in Copenhagen .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "International_Council_for_the_Exploration_of_the_Sea",
"rank": 94,
"score": 108517
},
{
"content": "Title: MacAyeal Ice Stream Content: MacAyeal Ice Stream , formerly Ice Stream E , is an ice stream in Antarctica flowing west to the juncture of Shirase Coast and Siple Coast between Bindschadler Ice Stream and Echelmeyer Ice Stream . It is one of several major ice streams draining from Marie Byrd Land into the Ross Ice Shelf . The ice streams were investigated and mapped by U.S. Antarctic Research Program personnel in a number of field seasons from 1983 -- 84 onwards and named Ice Stream A , B , C , etc. , according to their position from south to north . The name was changed from Ice Scream E by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2002 to honor Douglas R. MacAyeal of the Department of Geophysical Sciences , University of Chicago , a U.S. Antarctic Program investigator in the Ross Sea area including study of the Ross Ice Shelf , the West Antarctic Ice Sheet and the Marie Byrd Land ice streams , 1989 -- 2002 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "MacAyeal_Ice_Stream",
"rank": 95,
"score": 108402
},
{
"content": "Title: Bawden Ice Rise Content: Bawden Ice Rise is an ice rise , 8 nmi long and 2 nmi wide , near the edge of the Larsen Ice Shelf , 41 nmi east-southeast of Cape Alexander , Graham Land . The feature , which may consist of more than one ice rise , was mapped on a British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) radio echo sounding flight from Adelaide Island in February 1975 , and named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1985 after John Bawden , who was with BAS from 1971 and was Finance Officer , 1973 -- 78 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Bawden_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 96,
"score": 108100
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice storm warning Content: An Ice Storm Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when freezing rain produces a significant and possibly damaging accumulation of ice . The criteria for this warning vary from state to state , but typically an ice storm warning will be issued any time more than 1/4 in of ice is expected to accumulate in an area ; in some areas , the criterion is 1/2 in . A freezing rain advisory or freezing drizzle advisory will be issued when a small amount of icing is possible . In Canada , a Freezing Rain Warning has the same meaning .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Ice_storm_warning",
"rank": 97,
"score": 108083
},
{
"content": "Title: Barclay Kamb Content: Walter Barclay Kamb was a longtime professor and researcher at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) . Professor Kamb was one of the first scientists to journey to the Antarctic to study how the glacier sheets move and operate . He is listed as a member of the National Academy of Sciences in the Geology department . Kamb died on 21 April 2011 .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Barclay_Kamb",
"rank": 98,
"score": 107939
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice pier Content: An ice pier is a man-made structure used to assist the unloading of ships in Antarctica . It is constructed by pumping seawater into a contained area and allowing the water to freeze . By repeating this procedure several times , additional layers are built up . The final structure is many metres in thickness , and strong enough to support container trucks . Operation Deep Freeze personnel constructed the first floating ice pier at Antarctica 's southernmost sea port at McMurdo Station in 1973 . Ice piers have been in use each summer season since , at McMurdo 's natural harbor at Winter Quarters Bay located at . The harbor is positioned on the southern tip of Ross Island . Historically , two supply ships , a freighter and a tanker , arrive at the ice pier each summer , after an icebreaker opens a ship channel through pack ice . The ice pier 's key function is to provide a platform for freight trucks to come alongside a supply ship to receive or offload cargo . Steel cables attached to shoreline hold the dock in a fixed position . Port officials distribute freight arriving at the dock to McMurdo Station , nearby Scott Base , and to field camps as far away as the South Pole . Imports include virtually any materials needed to support personnel living and working in Antarctica . Exports range from items such as scientific ice core samples and human waste collected from field camps to broken equipment and recyclables for return to the United States for processing . Ice piers typically have a lifespan of three to five years . Once an ice pier is no longer usable , icebreakers tow the pier to sea to be cast adrift .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Ice_pier",
"rank": 99,
"score": 107811
},
{
"content": "Title: Laramie Potts Content: Laramie Potts is an American scientist at Ohio State University who identified the Wilkes Land mass concentration in Antarctica in collaboration with Ralph von Frese . He is from South Africa . He currently ( December 2010 ) teaches geomatics ( surveying ) at the New Jersey Institute of Technology . Potts is a Post-Doctoral Researcher in Civil and Environmental Engineering and Geodetic Science . He and von Frese used gravity measurements by NASA 's GRACE satellites to identify a 200-mile ( 300 km ) wide mass concentration . This mass anomaly is centered within a larger ring-like structure visible in radar images of the land surface beneath the Antarctic ice cap . This combination led these researchers to speculate that it may be the result of a large impact event .",
"qid": "38",
"docid": "Laramie_Potts",
"rank": 100,
"score": 107755
}
] |
More than 500 scientists and professionals in climate and related fields have sent a 'European Climate Declaration' to the Secretary-General of the United Nations | [
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 1,
"score": 192355
},
{
"content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists",
"rank": 2,
"score": 167801
},
{
"content": "Title: European Academy of Environmental Affairs Content: The European Academy for Environmental Affairs ( also known as European Academy of Environmental Affairs ) is a private organization which cosponsored the 1995 conference that produced the Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change , a SEPP-initiated document in which some scientists argue against global warming theories . Founder and president of the Academy was the late Prof. Dr. hc . Helmut Metzner ( 1925-1999 ) , who was professor for chemical plant physiology . Metzner was accused of having connections to the Studienzentrum Weikersheim , a right-wing think-tank in Baden-Württemberg . In 1993 the Academy also held a conference in Mannheim under the title `` Globale Erwärmung - Tatsache oder Behauptung ? '' ( Global warming -- fact or fiction ? ) . The Academy was recognized in a consultative function by the Council of Europe , but the status was withdrawn because of the Academy 's failure to comply with its obligations . The Academy has no active web pages , and it may be defunct . A list of textbooks on ecology issued by the Academy is available online .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Academy_of_Environmental_Affairs",
"rank": 3,
"score": 155150
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Special Envoy on Climate Change Content: There are currently three United Nations Special Envoys on Climate Change , appointed by Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon on May 1 , 2007 . The envoys will be engaging in consultations with Governments and other organizations in order to assist the Secretary-General to progress the international negotiations towards a post-Kyoto climate change treaty . Gro Harlem Brundtland is a former Prime Minister of Norway and former chair of the World Commission on Environment and Development . Han Seung Soo served as President of the United Nations General Assembly in 2001 , and also as Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Korea . Ricardo Lagos , former President of Chile is the third Special Envoy . The appointment of Lagos was controversial among Chilean environmental groups who questioned his track record on the matter , claiming that he ` showed an utter lack of consideration for the environment , promoted policies against environmental sustainability and favored the interests of big economic groups , even defending crimes against nature internationally ' .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "United_Nations_Special_Envoy_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 4,
"score": 147401
},
{
"content": "Title: European Geosciences Union Content: The European Geosciences Union ( EGU ) is a non-profit international union in the fields of Earth , planetary , and space sciences . The organization has headquarters in Munich ( Germany ) . Membership is open to individuals who are professionally engaged in or associated with these fields and related studies , including students and retired seniors . The EGU publishes 16 open-access scientific journals and organises a number of topical meetings , as well as education and outreach activities . Its most prominent event is the EGU General Assembly , an annual conference that brings together over 11,000 scientists from all over the world . The meeting 's sessions cover a wide range of topics , including volcanology , planetary exploration , the Earth 's internal structure and atmosphere , climate change , and renewable energies . The EGU has 22 scientific divisions that reflect the interdisciplinary nature of the organization .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Geosciences_Union",
"rank": 5,
"score": 145290
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 6,
"score": 145111
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Climate_Summit",
"rank": 7,
"score": 139585
},
{
"content": "Title: János Pásztor (diplomat) Content: János Pásztor ( born 1955 ) is a Hungarian diplomat , the Senior Adviser to the Secretary-General on Climate Change . He joined his current role in January 2016 at the request of United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon . Prior to his current role he was Assistant Secretary-General on Climate Change in the Executive Office of the Secretary-General of the United Nations in New York City . He was appointed Assistant Secretary-General in January 2015 after taking leave of absence from the World Wide Fund for Nature International where he was Policy and Science Director and acting Director for Conservation .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "János_Pásztor_(diplomat)",
"rank": 8,
"score": 138947
},
{
"content": "Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Paris_Agreement",
"rank": 9,
"score": 136292
},
{
"content": "Title: Noeleen Heyzer Content: Dr. Noeleen Heyzer , a social scientist , served as Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations ( 2007 - 2015 ) . She was the first woman to serve as the Executive Secretary of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific ( ESCAP ) since its founding in 1947 . As the Executive Secretary ( August 2007-January 2014 ) , she strengthened ESCAP 's capacity and effectiveness to support the countries of the region , using its convening powers and standard-setting authority , rigorous analysis , technical and policy assistance to build the economic and social foundations for inclusive and sustainable development . She worked with key political leaders and decision-makers in 54 Member States to shape regional policy agendas for Asia Pacific 's transition towards sustainable and shared prosperity , and established regional cooperation mechanisms to address the `` new normal '' of volatility , such as the food-fuel-finance crises and climate change . She focused on harnessing development opportunities through multi-stakeholder alliances and partnerships to sustain development gains , reduce poverty and inequalities , transforming the quality of people 's lives . Among the many significant achievements of the region , under her tenure with ESCAP , have been groundbreaking intergovernmental agreements on a regional intermodal transport and logistical system , especially for landlocked developing countries ; and initiatives such as Regional Connectivity including assistance in the formulation of ASEAN 's Connectivity Master Plan , exploration of an Asia-Pacific Energy Highway , an ICT super-highway , and the negotiation supporting the new Silk Route of economic development in Central Asia . Other major milestones are the regional action plans on inclusive socioeconomic policies and social protection ; the strengthening of vital statistics and civil registration ; financing and technology for an inclusive and green future ; the building of productive capacities of Least Developed Countries and secure employment in vulnerable communities ; the empowerment of women and youth . She was also responsible for the establishment of ESCAP 's works on resilience to man-made and natural disasters , and the stewardship of water , energy and natural resources especially for small islands states , least developed and landlocked countries . In 2009 , Dr. Heyzer led an unprecedented dialogue with Myanmar 's leaders on development and poverty reduction , resulting in the Government of Myanmar requesting the formation of a development partnership that has allowed practitioners and eminent international scholars , such as the Nobel Prize economist Professor Joseph Stiglitz , and local researchers to exchange experiences and ideas with government agencies and civil society . This has been regarded by many as helping to catalyze the opening-up of the country from its former isolation . In 2008 , she also worked closely with ASEAN , the Government of Myanmar , and the UN in the recovery efforts assisting cyclone-affected people in the Ayeyarwady Delta . She was also the United Nations Secretary-General 's Special Adviser for Timor-Leste , working to support peace-building , state-building , and sustainable development .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Noeleen_Heyzer",
"rank": 10,
"score": 135448
},
{
"content": "Title: European Climate Forum Content: The European Climate Forum ( ECF ) is a platform for joint studies and science-based stakeholder dialogues on climatic change . ECF brings together representatives of different parties concerned with the climate problem .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Climate_Forum",
"rank": 11,
"score": 133985
},
{
"content": "Title: European Assembly for Climate Justice Content: The European Assembly for Climate Justice took place in Brussels from 26 to 29 November 2010 . Over 250 people from ten European countries assembled for four days of debates , discussion , action and networking .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Assembly_for_Climate_Justice",
"rank": 12,
"score": 133481
},
{
"content": "Title: Klimaforum09 Content: Klimaforum09 - People 's Climate Summit , an open and alternative climate conference in December 2009 , was attended by about 50,000 people . Environmental activists from regions of the world most affected by climate change convened in Copenhagen at Klimaforum09 with leaders such as Vandana Shiva , founder of Navdanya , Nnimmo Bassey , chair of Friends of the Earth International , and author Naomi Klein . A People 's Declaration from Klimaforum09 was formulated before and during the People 's Climate Summit calling for `` System change - not climate change '' and handed over to the 15th Conference of the Parties of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at 18 December . Klimaforum09 took place from 7 December to 18 December 2009 in the DGI-byen conference center , near the Copenhagen Central Station , as open and alternative event during UNFCCC COP15 . The summit with over 300 debates , exhibitions , films , concerts and plays was organised by the Klimaforum network , a broad network of civil society organisations , and realized with the help of hundreds of volunteers .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Klimaforum09",
"rank": 13,
"score": 133412
},
{
"content": "Title: New York Declaration on Forests Content: The New York Declaration on Forests is a voluntary and non-legally binding political declaration which grew out of dialogue among governments , companies and civil society , spurred by the United Nations Secretary-General 's Climate Summit held in New York in 2014 . The Declaration pledges to halve the rate of deforestation by 2020 , to end it by 2030 , and to restore hundreds of millions of acres of degraded land . The proposed land restoration is described as covering `` an area larger than India '' . A voluntary Action Agenda accompanies the Declaration , providing `` a guide to governments , companies , and organizations regarding the diverse set of actions that can achieve -LSB- the Declaration 's -RSB- transformational goals '' . A Washington-based consulting firm , Climate Advisers , wrote the draft of the Declaration . It has been signed by 37 governments , 20 sub-national governments , 53 multi-national companies , 16 groups representing indigenous communities and 63 non-government organisations . The Declaration has been generally welcomed . The governments of Germany , Norway and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland issued a joint statement strongly supporting the declaration , and committing their governments to `` strengthening existing and creating new partnerships with forest countries designing green growth strategies , with leading private sector companies taking deforestation out of their supply chains , and with the financial sector , civil society and other donor governments to align incentives , transform markets and tip the balance against forest destruction '' along with a financial commitment to fund up to 20 new programmes subject to robust , credible proposals being put forward by developing countries . Some non-governmental organisations have also highlighted the limitations of the Declaration .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "New_York_Declaration_on_Forests",
"rank": 14,
"score": 131821
},
{
"content": "Title: Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research Content: The Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research ( abbreviated CICERO ; Senter for klimaforskning ) is an interdisciplinary research centre for climate research and environmental science/environmental studies in Oslo . CICERO was established by the Government of Norway in 1990 . It is organised as an independent foundation and is affiliated with the University of Oslo . The current director is Kristin Halvorsen , former Minister of Finance .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Centre_for_International_Climate_and_Environmental_Research",
"rank": 15,
"score": 131524
},
{
"content": "Title: List of parties to the Kyoto Protocol Content: As of June 2013 , there are 192 parties to the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , which aims to combat global warming . This total includes 191 states ( 189 United Nations member states as well as the Cook Islands and Niue ) and one supranational union ( the European Union ) . Canada renounced the convention effective 15 December 2012 and ceased to be a member from that date . With the Protocol 's 2008-2012 commitment period expiring , the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was agreed to , which establishes new commitments for the period 2013-2020 . As of April 2017 , 77 states have accepted this amendment .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 16,
"score": 131349
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment",
"rank": 17,
"score": 130652
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 18,
"score": 130592
},
{
"content": "Title: Yvo de Boer Content: Yvo de Boer ( born June 12 , 1954 ) is an advisor and consultant on international environmental policy . De Boer is the former Executive Secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , a position he held from 2006 until 2010 . After his UN tenure , de Boer was Global Chairman of Climate Change and Sustainability Services at KPMG . Since 2014 , de Boer has been Director-General of the Global Green Growth Institute ( GGGI ) , a Seoul-based international environmental organization .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Yvo_de_Boer",
"rank": 19,
"score": 130431
},
{
"content": "Title: Citizens' Climate Lobby Content: Citizens ' Climate Lobby ( CCL ) is an international grassroots environmental group that trains and supports volunteers to build relationships with their elected representatives in order to influence climate policy . Operating since 2007 , the goal of CCL is to build political support across party lines to put a price on carbon , specifically a revenue neutral carbon fee and dividend ( CF&D ) at the national level . CCL is supported by notable climate scientists James Hansen , Katharine Hayhoe , and Daniel Kammen . CCL 's advisory board also includes former Secretary of State George Shultz , former US Representative Bob Inglis , actor Don Cheadle , and RESULTS founder Sam Daley-Harris . Founded in the United States , CCL has active groups in Australia , Bangladesh , Brazil , Burundi , Cameroon , Canada , Chile , France , Germany , Iceland , India , Italy , Kenya , Nepal , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Nigeria , Panama , Poland , Portugal , Qatar , Romania , Serbia , Scotland , Sweden , Switzerland , the Ukraine , and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Citizens'_Climate_Lobby",
"rank": 20,
"score": 130386
},
{
"content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 21,
"score": 130356
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP19 or CMP9 was held in Warsaw , Poland from 11 to 23 November 2013 . This is the 19th yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP 19 ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 9th session of the Meeting of the Parties ( CMP 9 ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference delegates continue the negotiations towards a global climate agreement . UNFCCC 's Executive Secretary Christiana Figueres and Poland 's Minister of the Environment Marcin Korolec led the negotiations . The conference led to an agreement that all states would start cutting emissions as soon as possible , but preferably by the first quarter of 2015 . The Warsaw Mechanism was also proposed .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "2013_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 22,
"score": 130190
},
{
"content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 23,
"score": 130166
},
{
"content": "Title: Ambo Declaration Content: The Ambo Declaration was adopted at the Tarawa Climate Change Conference on 10 November 2010 by Australia , Brazil , China , Cuba , Fiji , Japan , Kiribati , Maldives , Marshall Islands , New Zealand , Solomon Islands and Tonga . The declaration calls for more and immediate action to be undertaken to address the causes and adverse impacts of climate change . The Ambo Declaration , named after the village in Kiribati where parliament sits , was slated to be a non-legally-binding agreement between the nations to present at the larger international climate change summit , COP16 in Cancun , Mexico . The United States , the United Kingdom and Canada , who also attended the conference , chose not to be part of the declaration by taking Observer status . The purpose of the conference was to support the initiative of the President of Kiribati , Anote Tong , to hold a consultative forum between vulnerable states and their partners with a view of creating an enabling environment for multi-party negotiations under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . The conference was a successor event to the Climate Vulnerable Forum first held in November 2009 in the Maldives , when eleven climate vulnerable countries signed the Bandos Island declaration pledging to show moral leadership and commence greening their economies by voluntarily committing to achieving carbon neutrality . Based on the lessons learned in the COP process , the TCCC proposed a more inclusive format of consultations , involving key partners among major developed and developing nations . The ultimate objective of TCCC was to reduce the number and intensity of various fault lines between parties to the COP process , explore elements of agreement between the parties and thereby to support Kiribati 's and other parties ' contribution to COP16 to be held in Cancun , Mexico , from 29 November to 10 December 2010 .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Ambo_Declaration",
"rank": 24,
"score": 130027
},
{
"content": "Title: Harlan Watson Content: Harlan L. Watson is an American congressional staffer on the House Science , Space and Technology Committee . He holds `` a B.A. in Physics from Western Illinois University , a Ph.D. in Physics from Iowa State University , and an M.A. in Economics from Georgetown University . '' Posts he has held include : chairman of the Policy and Implementation Committee of the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate Senior Climate Negotiator and Special Representative in the State Department staff member of the House of Representatives ' Committee on Science Science Advisor to the Secretary of the Interior Deputy Assistant and Principal Deputy Secretary of Interior for Water and Science staff member of the United States Senate Subcommittee on Energy , Nuclear Proliferation , and Federal Services On February 6 , 2001 , a fax was sent from Exxon Mobil to the Council on Environmental Quality , a White House office . The fax asked that Watson be made '' ` available to work with the team ' of Americans attending international climate change meetings . '' Later in 2001 , he was appointed by the George W. Bush administration as Special Envoy to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , for which he held the rank of ambassador . As the chief negotiator representing the United States at the December 2005 conference in Montréal , Watson walked out of a meeting , reportedly over a disagreement about the title of a document .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Harlan_Watson",
"rank": 25,
"score": 129991
},
{
"content": "Title: Directorate-General for Climate Action Content: The Directorate-General for Climate Action or DG CLIMA , established in February 2010 , is a department of the European Commission . The current Commissioner is Miguel Arias Cañete . The DG is headed by Jos Delbeke , Director General for Climate Action . Climate change was previously the responsibility of the Directorate-General for the Environment . DG Climate Change participates in international negotiations on climate , helps the European Union to deal with the consequences of climate change and encourages it to meet its targets for 2020 . It also develops and implements the EU Emissions Trading System .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Directorate-General_for_Climate_Action",
"rank": 26,
"score": 129982
},
{
"content": "Title: 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: __ NOTOC __ The 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place at the Bali International Conference Centre , Nusa Dua , in Bali , Indonesia , between December 3 and December 15 , 2007 ( though originally planned to end on 14 December ) . Representatives from over 180 countries attended , together with observers from intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations . The conference encompassed meetings of several bodies , including the 13th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( COP 13 ) , the 3rd Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol ( MOP 3 or CMP 3 ) , together with other subsidiary bodies and a meeting of ministers . Negotiations on a successor to the Kyoto Protocol dominated the conference . A meeting of environment ministers and experts held in June called on the conference to agree on a road-map , timetable and ` concrete steps for the negotiations ' with a view to reaching an agreement by 2009 . It has been debated whether this global meeting on climate change has achieved anything significant at all . Initial EU proposals called for global emissions to peak in 10 to 15 years and decline `` well below half '' of the 2000 level by 2050 for developing countries and for developed countries to achieve emissions levels 20-40 % below 1990 levels by 2020 . The United States strongly opposed these numbers , at times backed by Japan , Canada , Australia and Russia . The resulting compromise mandates `` deep cuts in global emissions '' with references to the IPCC 's Fourth Assessment Report .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "2007_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 27,
"score": 129785
},
{
"content": "Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Dennis_Tirpak",
"rank": 28,
"score": 129223
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 29,
"score": 129064
},
{
"content": "Title: EuroScience Content: EuroScience ( the founding organisation of ESOF , EuroScience Open Forum ) is a pan-European grassroots organisation for the support and promotion of science and technology in Europe . The membership of EuroScience consists of individuals interested in constructing a scientific Europe . Its members include anyone interested in European research , whether professional scientists , policy-makers , industries or members of the public . EuroScience represents European scientists of all disciplines ( natural sciences , mathematics , medical sciences , engineering , social sciences , humanities and the arts ) , institutions of the public sector , universities , research institutes as well as the business and industry sector . EuroScience is open to research professionals , science administrators , policy-makers , teachers , PhD students , post-docs , engineers , industrialists , and generally to any citizen interested in science and technology and its links with society . EuroScience organises meetings of all sizes at the international level or at regional levels ; publish position papers ; and use the Internet to discuss science within a public agenda . EuroScience also edits the free online magazine EuroScientist and is part of the European project RRI Tools . Euroscience is headquartered in Strasbourg . The president is Lauritz Holm-Nielsen and secretary General is Peter Tindemans .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "EuroScience",
"rank": 30,
"score": 128823
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Action Network Content: Climate Action Network -- International ( CAN ) is an umbrella group of environmental non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) active on the issue of climate change . It is most active at meetings of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where it publishes a daily newsletter `` ECO '' , presenting the views of the Environmental NGO community . The Climate Action Network-International is a worldwide network of over 1100 non-governmental organizations in 120 countries working to promote government and individual action to limit human-induced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels . CAN members work to achieve this goal through the coordination of information exchange and NGO strategy on international , regional and national climate issues . CAN has formal regional networks which coordinate these efforts in Africa , Central and Eastern Europe , Europe , Latin America , North America , South Asia , Southeast Asia , and Japan . CAN also has members in China , the Pacific and the Middle East . CAN members place a high priority on both a healthy environment and development that `` meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs '' ( Brundtland Commission ) . Climate Action Network 's vision is to protect the atmosphere while allowing for sustainable and equitable development worldwide .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Climate_Action_Network",
"rank": 31,
"score": 128465
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Climate March Content: The Global Climate March took place in various cities around the world on 29 November 2015 , the day before the opening of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The march was organized by a huge coalition of climate groups and global activists ( such as Avaaz and the international environmental organization 350 . org ) , and involved more than 2,000 events around the globe , in 175 different countries . An estimated number of 785,000 people took part at the marches . Follow-on marches scheduled in 2017 include the March for Science on 22 April 2017 ) and the People 's Climate Mobilization scheduled 29 April 2017 .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Global_Climate_March",
"rank": 32,
"score": 128256
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 33,
"score": 128244
},
{
"content": "Title: European Commissioner for Climate Action Content: The Commissioner for Climate Action is a new post in the European Commission . It was created in 2010 , being split from the environmental portfolio to focus on fighting climate change . The current Commissioner is Miguel Arias Cañete . The European Union has made a number of moves in regard to climate change . Most notably it signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 , set up its Emission Trading Scheme in 2005 and is currently agreeing to unilaterally cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % by 2020 .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Commissioner_for_Climate_Action",
"rank": 34,
"score": 128090
},
{
"content": "Title: European Commissioner for the Environment Content: The Commissioner for the Environment is the member of the European Commission responsible for EU environmental policy . The current Commissioner is Karmenu Vella . The European Union has made a number of environmental moves , partially in regard to climate change . Most notably it signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 , set up its Emission Trading Scheme in 2005 and is currently agreeing to unilaterally cut its emissions by 20 % by 2020 . ( See : Energy policy of the European Union ) Other policies include Natura 2000 , a widespread and successful network of nature conservation sites , the Registration , Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals ( REACH ) directive requiring safety testing on widely used chemicals , and the Water Framework Directive ensuring water quality reaches higher standards .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Commissioner_for_the_Environment",
"rank": 35,
"score": 127901
},
{
"content": "Title: 2008 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2008 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place at PIF Congress Centre , Poznań International Fair ( PIF ) , in Poznań , Poland , between December 1 and December 12 , 2008 . Representatives from over 180 countries attended along with observers from intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations . The conference encompassed meetings of several bodies , including the 14th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( COP 14 ) and the 4th Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol ( MOP 4 or CMP 4 ) . Subsidiaries of these bodies also met , including the fourth session of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA 4 ) , a resumed session of the Ad HocWorking Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP 6 ) , and the twenty-ninth sessions of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation ( SBI 29 ) , and the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice ( SBSTA 29 ) .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "2008_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 36,
"score": 126529
},
{
"content": "Title: Gordon McBean Content: Dr. Gordon McBean , , is a Canadian climatologist who serves as chairman of the board of trustees of the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences . He is a professor at the University of Western Ontario and Chair for Policy in the Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction . Previously he was the Assistant Deputy Minister of Meteorological Service of Canada . In 1995 , McBean gave a speech to the World Meteorological Organization on global warming . In 2006 , McBean , with Dr. Andrew Weaver and Ken Denman , authored an open letter , signed by 90 climate scientists , to Prime Minister Stephen Harper calling for an effective national climate change strategy . Newswire press release The letter ( PDF ) Univ. of Western Ontario page Globe and Mail article The letter was a response to an earlier open letter to Harper from 60 scientists ( 19 Canadians ) arguing against the Kyoto accord and questioning its scientific basis : National Post April 6 , 2006 , retrieved April 20 , 2007 . In addition to his involvement with the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences , McBean is member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences partnerships committee and since 2014 president of the International Council for Science ( before 2014 member of the environment advisory committee ) . He also acts as a mentor for the Loran Scholars program .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Gordon_McBean",
"rank": 37,
"score": 126302
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration Content: The Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration was created as part of the Clear Skies Initiative in February 2002 by George W. Bush , as a Cabinet-level effort to coordinate climate change science and technology research . The White House says : `` The Secretary of Commerce and Secretary of Energy will lead the effort , in close coordination with the President 's Science Advisor . The research effort will continue to be coordinated through the National Science and Technology Council in accordance with the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . ''",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change_Science_and_Technology_Integration",
"rank": 38,
"score": 126125
},
{
"content": "Title: High Level Advisory Group on Climate Financing Content: United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon established a High-Level Advisory Group on Climate Change Financing ( AGF ) on 12 February 2010 for the duration of ten months . The group 's aim was to `` study potential sources of revenue that will enable achievement of the level of climate change financing that was promised during the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 . ''",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "High_Level_Advisory_Group_on_Climate_Financing",
"rank": 39,
"score": 125950
},
{
"content": "Title: Jimmy Adegoke Content: James O. Adegoke ( born 1963 ) is an award-winning climate scientist and professor at the University of Missouri-Kansas City ( UMKC ) where he served as Chair of the Department of Geosciences ( 2008-2010 ) . He also served as an appointee of the Mayor of Kansas City Missouri on the city 's Environmental Management Commission ( EMC ) and has testified before the South Africa Parliament 's Portfolio Committee on Science and Technology and the Climate Change Committee of the Nigerian House of Representatives . In the United States , he has testified at the United States House of Representatives for the United States House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming . He also serves on the Technical Advisory Board of several United Nations ( UN ) applied science programs , including the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) project on the application of remote sensing for water resources and ecosystem management in Africa .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Jimmy_Adegoke",
"rank": 40,
"score": 125945
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Programme Content: The World Climate Programme ( WCP ) was established following the first World Climate Conference in 1979 . The major sponsors are the World Meteorological Organization , United Nations Environment Programme , the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) , and the International Council for Science ( ICSU ) . The World Climate Research Programme is a component of the WCP .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "World_Climate_Programme",
"rank": 41,
"score": 125806
},
{
"content": "Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Christopher_Field",
"rank": 42,
"score": 125779
},
{
"content": "Title: Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate Change Content: See Also : climate change mitigation , emissions trading . The Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate ( MEF ) was launched on March 28 , 2009 . The MEF is intended to facilitate a candid dialogue among major developed and developing economies , help generate the political leadership necessary to achieve a successful outcome at the December UN climate change conference in Copenhagen , and advance the exploration of concrete initiatives and joint ventures that increase the supply of clean energy while cutting greenhouse gas emissions . The 17 major economies are : Australia , Brazil , Canada , China , the European Union , France , Germany , India , Indonesia , Italy , Japan , South Korea , Mexico , Russia , South Africa , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Denmark , in its capacity as the President of the December 2009 Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change , and the United Nations have also participated in this dialogue along with Observers .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Major_Economies_Forum_on_Energy_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 43,
"score": 125313
},
{
"content": "Title: European Climate Foundation Content: The European Climate Foundation is an international organisation whose aims are to promote climate and energy policies that it says would greatly reduce Europe 's greenhouse gas emissions and to help Europe play a stronger international leadership role in mitigating climate change . According to the grop , key elements of a sustainable energy future include : A substantial increase in energy efficiency A successful transition from conventional to renewable energy Maintenance of the earth 's ecological systems and the life-supporting services they provide Equitable distribution of energy services to different segments of the population , both internationally and within nations . The European Climate Foundation is funded by the Nationale Postcode Loterij , The Arcadia Fund , The Children 's Investment Fund Foundation , The ClimateWorks Foundation , The McCall MacBain Foundation , Oak Foundation , The Stordalen Foundation and The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Climate_Foundation",
"rank": 44,
"score": 125155
},
{
"content": "Title: 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference was an international meeting of political leaders and activists to discuss environmental issues . It was held in Marrakech , Morocco from November 7 to 18 . The conference incorporated the twenty-second Conference of the Parties ( COP22 ) , the twelfth meeting of the parties for the Kyoto Protocol ( CMP12 ) , and the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement ( CMA1 ) . The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combatting climate change and to '' -LSB- demonstrate -RSB- to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is underway '' . Participants work together to come up with global solutions to climate change . The conference was presided over by Salaheddine Mezouar , the Moroccan Minister for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation . Approximately 20,000 participants were expected to attend . On 2 May 2016 , events firm GL Events signed the service contract . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also lent its support to the preparation for COP 22 '' .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "2016_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 45,
"score": 125147
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Climate Council Content: The Copenhagen Climate Council is a global collaboration between international business and science founded by the leading independent think tank in Scandinavia , Monday Morning , based in Copenhagen . The councilors of the Copenhagen Climate Council have come together to create global awareness of the importance of the UN Climate Summit ( COP15 ) in Copenhagen , December 2009 , and to ensure technical and public support and assistance to global decision makers when agreeing on a new climate treaty to replace the Kyoto Protocol from 1997 .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Climate_Council",
"rank": 46,
"score": 125136
},
{
"content": "Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 47,
"score": 125024
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 48,
"score": 124955
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 49,
"score": 124687
},
{
"content": "Title: World Meteorological Organization Content: The World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) is an intergovernmental organization with a membership of 191 Member States and Territories . It originated from the International Meteorological Organization ( IMO ) , which was founded in 1873 . Established by the ratification of the WMO Convention on 23 March 1950 , WMO became the specialised agency of the United Nations for meteorology ( weather and climate ) , operational hydrology and related geophysical sciences a year later . Its current Secretary-General is Petteri Taalas and the President of the World Meteorological Congress , its supreme body , is David Grimes . The Organization is headquartered in Geneva , Switzerland .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "World_Meteorological_Organization",
"rank": 50,
"score": 124195
},
{
"content": "Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 51,
"score": 123140
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 52,
"score": 123109
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation Content: The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation ( UNSCEAR ) was set up by resolution of the United Nations General Assembly in 1955 . 21 states are designated to provide scientists to serve as members of the committee which holds formal meetings ( sessions ) annually and submits a report to the General Assembly . The organisation has no power to set radiation standards nor to make recommendations in regard to nuclear testing . It was established solely to `` define precisely the present exposure of the population of the world to ionizing radiation . ''",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation",
"rank": 53,
"score": 122943
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 54,
"score": 122862
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 55,
"score": 122520
},
{
"content": "Title: European Association for Chemical and Molecular Sciences Content: The European Association for Chemical and Molecular Sciences ( EuCheMS ) is a European non-profit organisation which promotes collaboration between non-profit scientific and technical societies in the field of chemistry . The association took over the role and responsibilities of the Federation of European Chemical Societies and Professional Institutions which was founded in 1970 . It currently has over 41 member societies , five supporting members , and supports 18 divisions and working parties . It represents about than 160,000 chemists across Europe . David Cole-Hamilton was elected president in 2014 for a period of three years , and Nineta Hrastelj Majcen is the General Secretary . Previous presidents include Luis Oro ( 2008-2011 ) and Ulrich Schubert ( 2011-2014 ) .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Association_for_Chemical_and_Molecular_Sciences",
"rank": 56,
"score": 122472
},
{
"content": "Title: Jacqueline McGlade Content: Jacqueline Myriam McGlade ( born May 30 , 1955 ) is a British-born Canadian marine biologist and environmental informatics professor . Her research focusses on the spatial and nonlinear dynamics of ecosystems , climate change and scenario development . She was Executive Director of the European Environment Agency from 2003-2013 , where she was on leave from her post as Professor of Environmental Informatics at University College London . In 2014 she became Chief Scientist and Director of the Division of Early Warning and Assessment of the United Nations Environment Programme based in Nairobi .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Jacqueline_McGlade",
"rank": 57,
"score": 121949
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 58,
"score": 121946
},
{
"content": "Title: Norwegian Institute for Air Research Content: The Norwegian Institute for Air Research ( Norsk Institutt for luftforskning ) or NILU is one of the leading specialized scientific laboratories in Europe researching issues related to air pollution , climate change and health . NILU has a staff of scientists , engineers and technicians with specialized expertise for working on air pollution problems . The staff do more than two hundred projects annually for research councils , industries , international banks and local , national and international authorities and organizations . Its director since 2009 is Kari Nygaard .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Norwegian_Institute_for_Air_Research",
"rank": 59,
"score": 121609
},
{
"content": "Title: James Dooge Content: James Clement Dooge ( 30 July 1922 -- 20 August 2010 ) was an Irish politician , engineer , climatologist , hydrologist and academic . Dooge had a profound effect on the debate over climate change , in the world of hydrology and in politics in the formation of the European Union . Dooge lived a multifaceted existence with his roles including a period as Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs , Acting President of Ireland ( Presidential Commission ) , chairman of the report which led to the Single European Act and the Treaty of Maastricht , Chairman of the Irish Senate , Professor of Engineering in University College Cork and University College Dublin , President of the International Council for Science , President of the Royal Irish Academy and Chairman of the Irish Film Board . Dooge was a member of the Royal Irish Academy and the Fellowship of Engineering . He worked as an expert consultant to a wide range of specialised United Nations agencies including UNESCO , World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) . He also acted in an expert consultancy role to DGXII ( Research ) at the European Commission . He is best known in Ireland as only the second Senator to be appointed to the cabinet . In the world of academia and hydrology he is known for his numerous publications in the field with unit hydrograph theory developed by Dooge in 1959 and is generally regarded as a pioneer in the field . His work in Europe through the Dooge Committee led to the formation of the SEA and the Treaty of Maastricht . Upon his death in 2010 , UNESCO-IHE described him as a `` towering figure and pioneer in hydrology '' whilst the Chancellor of the NUI , Dr. Maurice Manning , described him as `` that rare phenomenon in Irish life , a public intellectual whose life was devoted , without posture , to the public service . '' Professor John Sweeney who was one of the scientists as part of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change honoured with the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 described him as `` perhaps one of the most important , prolific and distinguished scientists of the past generation . ''",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "James_Dooge",
"rank": 60,
"score": 120877
},
{
"content": "Title: Subsidiary Body of Scientific and Technological Advice Content: The Subsidiary Body of Scientific and Technological Advice ( SBSTA ) is a subsidiary body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) Conference of the Parties ( COP ) . It meets at least twice a year to advise the COP on matters of science , technology and methodology . It is designed to be open to participation by all parties and to be multidisciplinary . It advises on guidelines for improving standards of national communications and emission inventories . Its roles defined in Article 9 of the UNFCCC are : ( a ) Provide assessments of the state of scientific knowledge relating to climate change and its effects ; ( b ) Prepare scientific assessments on the effects of measures taken in the implementation of the Convention ; ( c ) Identify innovative , efficient and state-of-the-art technologies and know-how and advise on the ways and means of promoting development and/or transferring such technologies ; ( d ) Provide advice on scientific programmes , international cooperation in research and development related to climate change , as well as on ways and means of supporting endogenous capacity-building in developing countries ; and ( e ) Respond to scientific , technological and methodological questions that the Conference of the Parties and its subsidiary bodies may put to the body .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Subsidiary_Body_of_Scientific_and_Technological_Advice",
"rank": 61,
"score": 120857
},
{
"content": "Title: Moscow Declarations Content: The Moscow Declarations were four declarations signed during the Moscow Conference on October 30 , 1943 . The declarations may be distinguished from the Communique that was issued following the Moscow Conference of 1945 . They were signed by the foreign secretaries of the Governments of the United States , the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union and Nationalist China . Four declarations were signed at the conference : The Declaration of the Four Nations on General Security , the Declaration on Italy , the Declaration on Austria , and the Declarations on Atrocities .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Moscow_Declarations",
"rank": 62,
"score": 120808
},
{
"content": "Title: Julia Slingo Content: Dame Julia Mary Slingo , ( née Walker ; born 13 December 1950 ) is a British meteorologist and climate scientist . She has been the Chief Scientist at the Met Office since 2009 . She is also a Visiting Professor in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading , where she held , prior to appointment to the Met Office , the positions of Director of Climate Research in the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) National Centre for Atmospheric Science and founding Director of the Walker Institute for Climate System Research . From 2015 to 2016 she was one of the members of the High Level Group of Scientific Advisors of the European Commission Scientific Advice Mechanism , part of its Directorate-General for Research and Innovation .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Julia_Slingo",
"rank": 63,
"score": 120525
},
{
"content": "Title: Directorate-General for the Environment Content: The Directorate-General for the Environment ( DG Environment ) is a Directorate-General of the European Commission , responsible for the European Union policy area of the environment . In February 2010 , departments relating to climate change were split off from the environment , industry and external relations DGs to form the DG Climate Action .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Directorate-General_for_the_Environment",
"rank": 64,
"score": 120478
},
{
"content": "Title: European Year for Development 2015 Content: 2015 was designated the European Year for Development by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union in Decision No 472/2014/EU . In 2015 the Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs ) came to an end and the process of defining an international development agenda to replace them culminated with the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development , which includes a set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals . The United Nations Climate Change Conference COP21 , which aims to achieve a global agreement on climate action , will also be held at the end of 2015 . In this context 2015 was considered a timely opportunity to raise awareness on the European Union 's current development co-operation and to encourage engagement of EU citizens in development policy .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Year_for_Development_2015",
"rank": 65,
"score": 120316
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium Content: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium is an annual high level international event where top researchers and politicians , senior business executives , representatives of NGOs and other decision makers meet to share experiences and to discuss climate change solutions . The topics are related to the challenges of climate change , other environmental issues , and issues directly connected to the Arctic and the Northern areas which could have major global consequences . Participation is limited to 45 people , by invitation only . The Symposium takes place on Svalbard at 79 degrees north . It is the world 's northernmost permanent settlement and is only 1200 km from the North Pole . The Norwegian Government has transformed this former mining community into a major base for scientific research and environmental monitoring in the Arctic . The base hosts scientists from more than 20 nations and plays an important role in international climate change research . It is owned and operated by the governmental company Kings Bay AS , a coal mining company in earlier days . The scenery is exceptional , with a backdrop of unspoiled Arctic nature . The purpose of the Symposium is to exchange knowledge , improve the understanding and seek solutions of the challenging impacts these issues have both on the Arctic regions and internationally . The Symposium is organized by Kings Bay AS in cooperation with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research , the Ministry of the Environment -RSB- , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , the Ministry of Justice and the Police , and the -LSB- Research Council of Norway -RSB- . Statkraft AS is a co-organizer and sponsor of the Symposium . The secretariat is by CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo . His Royal Highness Crown Prince Haakon of Norway is patron of the Symposium . The first Symposium was arranged in March 2006 . The main themes for the symposia have been : 2006 - The changing Arctic - new opportunities and challenges 2007 - The changing Arctic - global climate change - the need for action 2008 - Global climate change and research challenges 2009 - Climate change : Understanding global politics towards Copenhagen and beyond 2010 - The Changing Arctic and Its Global Implications 2011 - cancelled due to volcanic ash cloud 2012 - Towards a green economy : the role of technology 2013 - The Changing Arctic - Opportunity or Threat 2014 - Breaking the Climate Stalemate",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "The_Ny-Ålesund_Symposium",
"rank": 66,
"score": 120310
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge",
"rank": 67,
"score": 120164
},
{
"content": "Title: Rebecca Sommer Content: Rebecca Sommer is a German artist , journalist , photographer , documentary filmmaker , and a human rights , nature rights and climate justice activist . She works with international NGO 's in special consultative status to the United Nations ( ECOSOC ) in participatory status with the Council of Europe , and civil society observer status to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . She convened and co-founded in 2001 Earth Peoples in NYC , a global network working together to promote natural and human rights , with special focus on Indigenous Peoples , Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth . 2004 she was commissioned by the United Nations to film and produce the awareness-raising video `` Indigenous Peoples and the United Nations Nr .1 '' , which was first presented at the Dag Hammarskjöld Library Auditorium at the United Nations Headquarters . In 2007 , prior to the adoption of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples at the UN General Assembly , she created a video lobby-tool `` Discussions on the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples '' to encourage discussions with a number of countries that expressed concern about some key issues , such as self-determination , access to lands , territories and resources and the lack of a clear definition of the term indigenous . UN agencies UNHCHR and UNHCHR as well states such as Bolivia , Guatemala , Mexico and Germany supported her awareness-raising efforts and enabled during the year several film screenings of her work to encourage debates among states that were reluctant to adopt the Declaration . Since 2013 she is the president of the Arbeitsgruppe Flucht + Menschenrechte ( AG F+M ) , a network supporting refugees in Europe . Sommer earns her living as an artist in print and film , and has worked as the editor-at-large for British magazines such as Scene , The Face , and Spirit and American magazines such as Black Book and Madison , while living in Germany , India , Great Britain , Brazil , South Africa and the United States .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Rebecca_Sommer",
"rank": 68,
"score": 119383
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow",
"rank": 69,
"score": 119339
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Secretary-General selection, 2016 Content: A United Nations Secretary-General selection was held in October 2016 to choose the ninth Secretary-General of the United Nations to succeed Ban Ki-moon from 1 January 2017 . Six straw polls were held in the Security Council from 21 July 2016 to 5 October 2016 . António Guterres of Portugal led the polling in every round , finishing the last round with 13 ` encourage ' votes , 0 ` discourage ' votes , and 2 abstentions . On 6 October 2016 , the Security Council unanimously recommended Guterres to the General Assembly , which formally selected him by acclamation on 13 October 2016 . The 2016 selection was much more open than previous selections , with public nominations being sought and candidates participating in televised debates . Women and Eastern Europeans were favored , as no woman had ever served as Secretary-General , and the Eastern European Group was the only one of the UN Regional Groups never to have held the office . However , the two campaigns offset each other , and the selection was won by the only candidate who was neither female nor from Eastern Europe .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "United_Nations_Secretary-General_selection,_2016",
"rank": 70,
"score": 119211
},
{
"content": "Title: Olga Zolina Content: Olga Zolina ( 6 February 1975 ) is a climate scientist , member of the GEWEX ( WCRP ) , responsible for GEWEX Radiation Panel ( extreme climate and weather events ) , member of the European Geosciences Union , German Meteorological Society and the American Geophysical Union .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Olga_Zolina",
"rank": 71,
"score": 118834
},
{
"content": "Title: Majuro Declaration Content: The Majuro Declaration is an initiative of the Pacific Islands Forum , which was signed on 5 September 2013 at Majuro in the Marshall Islands during the 44th Pacific Islands Forum summit . At the summit the leaders of the Pacific Islands Forum nations recognised the need for strengthened national systems to plan for , access , deliver , absorb and monitor climate change and for donor countries to continue to simplify and harmonise their assessment , implementation and reporting processes for financing projects directed to climate change adaptation , mitigation and risk reduction . The intention of the Majuro Declaration is to highlight the commitment of the leaders of the Pacific Islands Forum nations to the reduction and phasing down of greenhouse gas pollution worldwide , with the leaders wanting to spark a `` new wave of climate leadership '' .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Majuro_Declaration",
"rank": 72,
"score": 118615
},
{
"content": "Title: Rolph Payet Content: Rolph Antoine Payet FRGS ( born 4 August 1968 ) is an international policy expert , researcher and speaker on environment , climate and island issues , and was the first President & Vice-Chancellor of the University of Seychelles . He was Minister of Environment and Energy in the Cabinet of Seychelles from 2012 to 2014 . He is currently United Nations Executive Secretary for the Basel , Rotterdam and Stockholm Convention .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Rolph_Payet",
"rank": 73,
"score": 118403
},
{
"content": "Title: World Scientists' Warning to Humanity Content: In late 1992 , the late Henry W. Kendall , a former chair of the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) board of directors , wrote `` World Scientists ' Warning to Humanity '' , which begins : `` Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course . '' A majority of the Nobel Prize laureates in the sciences signed the document ; about 1,700 of the world 's leading scientists appended their signature . It is sometimes offered in opposition to the Heidelberg Appeal -- also signed by numerous scientists and Nobel laureates earlier in 1992 -- which begins by criticizing `` an irrational ideology which is opposed to scientific and industrial progress , and impedes economic and social development . '' This document is often cited by those who oppose theories relating to climate change . However , the Heidelberg Appeal offers no specific recommendations and is not an indictment of environmental science : `` We fully subscribe to the objectives of a scientific ecology for a universe whose resources must be taken stock of , monitored and preserved . But we herewith demand that this stock-taking , monitoring and preservation be founded on scientific criteria and not on irrational pre-conceptions . '' In contrast , the UCS-led petition contains specific recommendations : `` We must , for example , move away from fossil fuels to more benign , inexhaustible energy sources to cut greenhouse gas emissions and the pollution of our air and water . ... We must stabilize population . ''",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity",
"rank": 74,
"score": 118321
},
{
"content": "Title: Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations Content: The Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations was a statement issued on December 17 , 1942 , by the American and British governments on behalf of the Allied Powers . In it , they describe the ongoing events of the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Europe . The statement was read to British House of Commons in a floor speech by Foreign secretary Anthony Eden , and published on the front page of the New York Times and many other newspapers . It was made in response to a 16-page note addressed to the Allied governments on December 10 by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Polish government-in-exile , Count Edward Raczynski , titled The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Joint_Declaration_by_Members_of_the_United_Nations",
"rank": 75,
"score": 118201
},
{
"content": "Title: European Science and Environment Forum Content: The European Science and Environment Forum ( ESEF ) , now defunct , called itself `` an independent , non-profit-making alliance of scientists whose aim is to ensure that scientific debates are properly aired , and that decisions which are taken , and action that is proposed , are founded on sound scientific principles . '' Typically this manifested itself in questioning the science upon which environmental safety regulations are based . The Forum was linked , via shared staff ( Julian Morris and Roger Bate ) and a shared web server , to the International Policy Network and the Sustainable Development Network . The most prominent academic members were US scientists known for skepticism on global warming and the relationship between Chloro Fluoro Carbon or CFCs and the ozone depletion . In 1996 , Roger Bate approached R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company for a grant of # 50,000 to fund a book on risk , containing a chapter on passive smoking , but the grant request was denied and the money was never received . In 1997 , the ESEF published What Risk ? Science , Politics and Public Health , edited by Roger Bate which included a chapter on passive smoking . In 1998 the Academic Members of ESEF included Bruce Ames , Sallie Baliunas , Robert Balling , Jack Barrett , C.J.F. Böttcher , Peter Dietze , Tor Ragnar Gerholm , Gerhard Gerlich , Sherwood Idso , Helmut Metzner , Patrick J. Michaels , William Mitchell , Harry N.A. Priem , Michel Salomon , S. Fred Singer , Willie Soon , Wolfgang Thüne , and Gerd-Rainer Weber , while Richard S. Courtney and Michael Gough were Business Members .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Science_and_Environment_Forum",
"rank": 76,
"score": 118044
},
{
"content": "Title: Arcot Ramachandran Content: Arcot Ramachandran is an Indian scientist , anthropologist , author and a former Under-Secretary General of United Nations Centre for Human Settlements , known for his scholarship on the subjects of heat and mass transfer and environment and his social commitment to the cause of sustainable development . The Government of India honoured him in 2003 , with the Padma Bhushan , the third highest civilian award , for his services to the fields of Science and Engineering .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Arcot_Ramachandran",
"rank": 77,
"score": 117958
},
{
"content": "Title: Jennifer Welsh Content: Jennifer Welsh is a Canadian researcher , writer and consultant , currently the United Nations Secretary-General 's Special Adviser on the Responsibility to Protect . She currently resides in Florence , Italy , where she is Professor and Chair in International Relations at the European University Institute . She is also a Senior Research Fellow at Somerville College , University of Oxford . Welsh was also a professor of International Relations at the University of Oxford and co-director of the Oxford Institute for Ethics , Law and Armed Conflict , part of the James Martin 21st Century School . She has also served as consultant to a number of organizations including ; the Conference Board of Canada , McKinsey and Co , the Aspen Institute 's Business and Society Program and the Government of Canada . Welsh was born in Regina , Saskatchewan . She received her Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Saskatchewan , and then went on to become a Rhodes Scholar earning her Masters and Doctorate in International Relations from the University of Oxford . Welsh is the author of two books and co-editor of several others . Her latest book is At Home in the World : Canada 's Global Vision for the 21st Century . In it , she provides an alternative vision for Canada 's role in international relations and contends that Canada is a `` Model Citizen '' not a `` Middle Power '' . Welsh suggests that Canada can play a major role in International policy if it provides a model for other countries to follow . Welsh is to deliver the 2016 CBC Massey Lectures , entitled The Return of History .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Jennifer_Welsh",
"rank": 78,
"score": 117502
},
{
"content": "Title: European Academy of Sciences Content: The European Academy of Sciences ( EurASc ) ( Academia Scientiarum Europaea ) is an international non-profit organization ) aiming to promote excellence in science and technology . Based in Brussels , Belgium , it has about 550 members , including 65 Nobel Prize and Fields Medal winners , from 47 countries . It was established on 17 December 2003 . Since 2004 , the academy has published multidisciplinary annals , e-newsletters for science and technology , and since 2009 various books . Its first general assemblies and ceremonies of awards were organized in Brussels and since 2009 each year in another country ( 2009 : Università di Bologna , Italy ; 2010 : Academy of Athens , Greece ; 2011 : Università di Milano , Italy ; 2012 : Université de Liège , Belgium ; 2013 : L.C.C de Toulouse , France ; 2014 : Cada do Infante , Porto , Portugal ; 2015 : Le Quartz Centre de Congrès Brest , France ; 2016 : Palais des Académies in Brussels , Belgium ) . Since 2012 the academy has also organized an annual symposium called The Future of Sciences in the 21st Century .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Academy_of_Sciences",
"rank": 79,
"score": 117487
},
{
"content": "Title: Christiana Figueres Content: Karen Christiana Figueres Olsen ( born 7 August 1956 ) is a Costa Rican diplomat with 35 years of experience in high level national and international policy and multilateral negotiations . She was appointed Executive Secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) in July 2010 , six months after the failed COP15 in Copenhagen . During the next six years she dedicated herself to rebuilding the global climate change negotiating process based on fairness , transparency and collaboration , leading to the 2015 Paris Agreement , widely recognized as a historical achievement . Over the years she has worked in the fields of climate change , sustainable development , energy , land use , technical and financial cooperation . She is a frequent public speaker and widely published author . She is the mother of two young women , and speaks Spanish , English , and German .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Christiana_Figueres",
"rank": 80,
"score": 117460
},
{
"content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy",
"rank": 81,
"score": 117418
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 82,
"score": 117341
},
{
"content": "Title: Connie Hedegaard Content: Connie Hedegaard Koksbang ( born 15 September 1960 ) is a Danish politician and public intellectual who was European Commissioner for Climate Action in the ( second Barroso ) European Commission from 10 February 2010 through 31 October 2014 . On behalf of Denmark , she hosted the UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen 2009 . She was Danish Minister for Climate and Energy from 23 November 2007 as a member of the Cabinet of Anders Fogh Rasmussen III and that of Lars Løkke Rasmussen and had been the Danish Minister for the Environment from 2 August 2004 to 23 November 2007 , as a member of the Cabinet of Anders Fogh Rasmussen I and II . In Denmark , she was a member of the Conservative People 's Party ( DKF ) , and was a member of parliament ( Folketing ) from 10 January 1984 to 3 October 1990 . She was also elected a member of the Folketing in the 2005 Danish parliamentary election . Prior to becoming a minister , she worked as a journalist at DR , the Danish national broadcaster .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Connie_Hedegaard",
"rank": 83,
"score": 117264
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants Content: The Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants ( CCAC ) was launched by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and six countries -- Bangladesh , Canada , Ghana , Mexico , Sweden and the United States -- on 16February 2012 . The CCAC aims to catalyze rapid reductions in short-lived climate pollutants to protect human health , agriculture and the environment . To date , more than $ 47million has been pledged to the Climate and Clean Air Coalition from Canada , Denmark , the European Commission , Germany , Japan , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , and the United States . The program is managed out of the United Nations Environmental Programme through a Secretariat in Paris , France .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Climate_and_Clean_Air_Coalition_to_Reduce_Short-Lived_Climate_Pollutants",
"rank": 84,
"score": 117259
},
{
"content": "Title: 2005 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2005 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place between November 28 and December 9 , 2005 , in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . The conference included the 11th Conference of the Parties ( COP11 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , and was the first Meeting of the Parties ( MOP1 ) to the Kyoto Protocol since their initial meeting in Kyoto in 1997 . It was one of the largest intergovernmental conferences on climate change ever . The event marked the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol on 16 February 2005 . Hosting more than 10,000 delegates , it was one of Canada 's largest international events ever and the largest gathering in Montreal since Expo 67 . The Montreal Action Plan was an agreement to `` extend the life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its 2012 expiration date and negotiate deeper cuts in greenhouse-gas emissions '' by starting negotiations , without delay on an extension of the protocol . Canada 's environment minister , at the time , Stéphane Dion , said the agreement provides a `` map for the future '' .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "2005_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 85,
"score": 117149
},
{
"content": "Title: European Environment Agency Content: The European Environment Agency ( EEA ) is the agency of the European Union ( EU ) that provides independent information on the environment , thereby helping those involved in developing , adopting , implementing and evaluating environmental policy , as well as informing the general public . The agency is governed by a management board composed of representatives of the governments of its 33 member states , a European Commission representative and two scientists appointed by the European Parliament , assisted by a committee of scientists . The EEA was established by the European Economic Community ( EEC ) Regulation 1210/1990 ( amended by EEC Regulation 933/1999 and EC Regulation 401/2009 ) and became operational in 1994 . It is headquartered in Copenhagen , Denmark . The current Executive Director of the agency is Professor Hans Bruyninckx , who has been appointed for a five-year term . He is the successor of Professor Jacqueline McGlade . The member states of the union are members ; however the Council Regulation establishing it provided that other states may become members of it by means of agreements concluded between them and the EU . It was the first EU body to open its membership to the 13 candidate countries ( pre-2004 enlargement ) . The EEA has 33 member countries and six cooperating countries . The European environment information and observation network ( Eionet ) is a partnership network of the EEA and the countries . The EEA is responsible for developing the network and coordinating its activities . To do so , the EEA works closely together with national focal points , typically national environment agencies or environment ministries . They are responsible for coordinating national networks involving many institutions ( about 350 in all ) . The 33 member countries include the 28 European Union Member States together with Iceland , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland and Turkey . The six Balkans countries are cooperating countries : Albania , Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Republic of Macedonia , Montenegro , Serbia as well as Kosovo under the UN Security Council Resolution 1244/99 . These cooperation activities are integrated into Eionet and are supported by the European Union under the Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance . The EEA is an active member of the EPA Network .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Environment_Agency",
"rank": 86,
"score": 117104
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Alliance Content: Climate Alliance of European Cities with Indigenous Rainforest Peoples is a network of local authorities founded in 1990 and committed to the protection of the world 's climate . The European Secretariat of Climate Alliance is based in Frankfurt am Main , Germany . Climate Alliance has members in Austria , Belgium , Bosnia-Herzegovina , Bulgaria , Croatia , Czech Republic , Denmark , France , Georgia , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Luxembourg , Macedonia , Netherlands , Poland , Portugal , Romania , Slovakia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland and Ukraine .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Climate_Alliance",
"rank": 87,
"score": 116608
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference was held in Cancún , Mexico , from 29 November to 10 December 2010 . The conference is officially referred to as the 16th session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 6th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol . In addition , the two permanent subsidiary bodies of the UNFCCC -- the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice ( SBSTA ) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation ( SBI ) -- held their 33rd sessions . The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference extended the mandates of the two temporary subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) , and they met as well .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "2010_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 88,
"score": 116588
},
{
"content": "Title: Matthew England Content: Matthew England is a physical oceanographer and climate scientist . England completed a B.Sc . ( Honours Class I and University Medal ) and a Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) at the University of Sydney , Australia . In 2005 he became a Professor at the University of New South Wales , and was awarded an Australian Research Council Federation Fellowship that same year . England was awarded an Australian Research Council Laureate Fellowship in 2011 . He was elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science in 2014 and a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union in 2016 . England 's work relates to the global-scale ocean circulation and its influence on regional climate , with a focus on climate processes in the Southern Hemisphere and around Antarctica . England established the Climate Change Research Centre at the University of New South Wales with Professor Andrew Pitman in 2007 . England is a former Fulbright Scholar and CSIRO Flagship Fellow . He currently co-chairs the CLIVAR Southern Ocean Regional Panel . England was an organiser and signatory of the 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists . England was the convening lead author of the Copenhagen Diagnosis in 2009 , chairing its release in Copenhagen at the UNFCCC COP15 meeting .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Matthew_England",
"rank": 89,
"score": 116415
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 90,
"score": 116151
},
{
"content": "Title: Bali Communiqué Content: __ NOTOC __ On 30 November 2007 , the business leaders of 150 global companies published a communiqué to world leaders calling for a comprehensive , legally binding United Nations framework to tackle climate change . The initiative represents an unprecedented coming together of the international business community and includes some of the biggest companies and brands from around the world , including the United States , Europe , Australia and China . It has been led by The Prince of Wales 's UK and EU Corporate Leaders Groups on Climate Change , which are developed and run by the Cambridge Programme for Sustainability Leadership . It was hoped that the Bali Communiqué will have a significant impact on the UN climate negotiations starting on December 3 , 2007 in Bali , Indonesia ( see 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference ) . The Bali Communiqué calls for : a comprehensive , legally binding United Nations framework to tackle climate change emission reduction targets to be guided primarily by science those countries that have already industrialised to make the greatest effort world leaders to seize the window of opportunity and agree on a work plan of negotiations to ensure an agreement can come into force after 2012 ( when the existing Kyoto Protocol expires )",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Bali_Communiqué",
"rank": 91,
"score": 116057
},
{
"content": "Title: Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research Content: The Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research is a climate research centre in Bergen , Norway . The centre has a special focus on Northern Europe and the Polar regions . The centre was started in 2000 and is a co-operation between University of Bergen , Institute of Marine Research , the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center and Uni Research . The centre was part of Research Council of Norway 's Centre of Excellence program from 2003 to 2013 . Eystein Jansen headed the centre from 2000 to 2013 , while Tore Furevik has been director since 2014 . Researchers from the Bjerknes Centre have taken part in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment reports ; Eystein Jansen as one of the lead authors in the fourth report and upcoming fifth report . It is named after Vilhelm Bjerknes and his son Jacob Bjerknes .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Bjerknes_Centre_for_Climate_Research",
"rank": 92,
"score": 115998
},
{
"content": "Title: Territorial Approach to Climate Change Content: The Territorial Approach to Climate Change ( TACC ) works with local level governments ( states , provinces , cities , municipalities ) in developing countries and countries in transition to increase resilience to climate change impact and reduce their carbon footprint . The TACC is a partnership of five agencies that includes UNEP , UNDP , UNITAR , UN-Habitat and UNCDF . TACC as a global action came into existence after the Saint Malo Declaration . Sub-national authorities recognised that urgent and collective action was needed to respond appropriately to climate change . The United Nations recognised that most investments to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions and adapt to climate change take place at the sub-national and local levels . Developing the capacity of sub-national governments in low income countries to create conditions that reduce the perceived investments risks and access new sources of environmental finance was seen as key to addressing climate change . Phase 1 of the programme - Awareness raising and training - was led by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) . Phase 2 - Analysis , assessment and action plan - was led by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . Phase 3 - Projects - was also led by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . Initial projects under TACC were conducted in : Uganda Uruguay ( the pilot project ) Albania Algeria Colombia Ethiopia Peru Senegal",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Territorial_Approach_to_Climate_Change",
"rank": 93,
"score": 115926
},
{
"content": "Title: European Union climate and energy package Content: The European plan on climate change consists of a range of measures adopted by the members of the European Union to fight against climate change . The plan was launched in March 2007 , and after months of tough negotiations between the member countries , it was adopted by the European Parliament on December 2008 . The package focuses on emissions cuts , renewables and energy efficiency .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "European_Union_climate_and_energy_package",
"rank": 94,
"score": 115921
},
{
"content": "Title: Indur M. Goklany Content: Indur M. Goklany is a science and technology policy analyst for the United States Department of the Interior , where he holds the position of Assistant Director of Programs , Science and Technology Policy . He has represented the United States at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and during the negotiations that led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . He was a rapporteur for the Resource Use and Management Subgroup of Working Group III of the IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 , and is the author of Clearing the Air ( 1999 ) , The Precautionary Principle ( 2001 ) , and The Improving State of the World ( 2007 ) .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Indur_M._Goklany",
"rank": 95,
"score": 115681
},
{
"content": "Title: EUMETSAT Content: EUMETSAT ( European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites ) is an intergovernmental organisation created through an international convention agreed by a current total of 30 European Member States : Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Croatia , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Iceland , Italy , Latvia , Lithuania , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Portugal , Romania , Slovakia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , Turkey , and the United Kingdom . These States fund the EUMETSAT programs and are the principal users of the systems . EUMETSAT also has 1 Cooperating State . Cooperation agreements with Serbia have entered into force . The convention establishing EUMETSAT was opened for signature in 1983 and entered into force on 19 June 1986 . EUMETSAT 's primary objective is to establish , maintain and exploit European systems of operational meteorological satellites . EUMETSAT is responsible for the launch and operation of the satellites and for delivering satellite data to end-users as well as contributing to the operational monitoring of climate and the detection of global climate changes . The activities of EUMETSAT contribute to a global meteorological satellite observing system coordinated with other space-faring nations . Satellite observations are an essential input to numerical weather prediction systems and also assist the human forecaster in the diagnosis of potentially hazardous weather developments . Of growing importance is the capacity of weather satellites to gather long-term measurements from space in support of climate change studies . EUMETSAT is not part of the European Union , but became a signatory to the International Charter on Space and Major Disasters in 2012 , thus providing for the global charitable use of its space assets .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "EUMETSAT",
"rank": 96,
"score": 115448
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme",
"rank": 97,
"score": 115151
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 98,
"score": 115134
},
{
"content": "Title: Secretary-General of the European Economic and Social Committee Content: The Secretary-General heads the Secretariat of the European Economic and Social Committee ( EESC ) . About seven hundred EESC officials work in the EESC Secretariat . Some 350 of those work in the ` joint services ' , a special shared service established together with the Committee of the Regions . The chief role of the EESC 's Secretary-General is to implement decisions taken by the Plenary Assembly , the Bureau and the President . The Secretary-General is also responsible for managing the administration and the budget . Appointed by the Bureau of the Committee , the Secretary-General serves for a renewable term of five years . The current Secretary-General is Luis Planas Puchades , whose term began on 1 March 2014 . Previous Secretaries-Generals include : 2008 - 2013 Martin Westlake ( United Kingdom ) 1998 -- 2008 Patrick Venturini ( France ) 1996 -- 1998 Adriano Graziosi ( Italy ) 1992 -- 1996 Simon-Pierre Nothomb ( Belgium ) 1987 -- 1992 Jacques Moreau ( France ) 1979 -- 1987 Roger Louet ( France ) 1971 -- 1978 Delfo Delfini ( Italy ) 1958 -- 1971 Jacques Genton ( France )",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Secretary-General_of_the_European_Economic_and_Social_Committee",
"rank": 99,
"score": 114930
},
{
"content": "Title: Reuben Olembo Content: Professor Reuben James Olembo ( 1937 - 2005 ) was a prominent Kenyan academic , scientist and environmentalist . He was a Deputy Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , which he played a pivotal role in helping found , and United Nations Assistant Secretary General from 1994-1998 . He became the Acting Secretary General of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , after his retirement from UNEP .",
"qid": "41",
"docid": "Reuben_Olembo",
"rank": 100,
"score": 114899
}
] |
Unprecedented climate change has caused sea level at Sydney Harbour to rise approximately 0.0 cm over the past 140 years. | [
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Sydney Content: The climate of Sydney is humid subtropical ( Köppen Cfa ) , shifting from mild and cool in winter to warm and hot in the summer , with no extreme seasonal differences as the weather is moderated by proximity to the ocean . More contrasting temperatures are recorded in the inland western suburbs . Rainfall is spread evenly throughout the year , though it is generally highest between February and June . Precipitation varies across the region , with areas adjacent to the coast being the wettest . Sydney has 103.9 clear days annually , with the monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 53 % in January to 72 % in August . The city receives around 20 thunderstorms per year . Sydney 's heat is usually dry when temperatures soar over 35 C . In some hot days , low pressure troughs would increase humidity and southerly busters would decrease temperatures . In late autumn and winter , east coast lows can bring large amounts of rainfall . Sydney experiences an urban heat island effect , making certain parts of the city more vulnerable to extreme heat , particularly the west . Efforts have been introduced to investigate and mitigate this heat effect , including increasing shade from tree canopies , adding rooftop gardens to high rise structures and changing pavement colour . The El Niño Southern Oscillation plays an important role in determining Sydney 's weather patterns : drought and bushfire on the one hand , and storms and flooding on the other . Sydney is prone to heat waves and drought , which have become more common in recent years .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Climate_of_Sydney",
"rank": 1,
"score": 141886
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 2,
"score": 140135
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour (Nova Scotia) Content: Sydney Harbour is the 10-mile long Y-shaped inlet of the Atlantic , oriented southwest-northeast on the northern shore of Cape Breton Island , Nova Scotia , Canada . At its upper reaches , the harbour forks to form 2 arms , the Northwest Arm and the South Arm . The South Arm is fed upstream by the Sydney River . Sydney harbour is the maritime hub for the city of Sydney , Nova Scotia . Located on the South Arm , Sydney affords year-round ice-free deep-water anchorage for large ships , including cruise ships . The Harbour underwent major dredging in 2011 , clearing the channel to 17-meter depth and making it accessible to large container ships . Five port facilities currently operate on the shores of Sydney Harbour : the International Coal Pier , Nova Scotia Lands , Sydney Marine Terminal , Sydport Industrial Park ( Edwardsville ) and Marine Atlantic ( North Sydney ) . The sixth , the new container terminal is being planned for Edwardsville .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_(Nova_Scotia)",
"rank": 3,
"score": 136143
},
{
"content": "Title: Plastiki Content: The Plastiki is a 60 ft catamaran made out of 12,500 reclaimed plastic bottles and other recycled PET plastic and waste products . The craft was built using cradle to cradle design philosophies and features many renewable energy systems , including solar panels , wind and trailing propeller turbines , and bicycle generators . The frame was designed by Australian naval architect Andrew Dovell . The boat 's name is a play on the 1947 Kon-Tiki raft used to sail across the Pacific by Norwegian explorer Thor Heyerdahl , and its voyage roughly followed the same route . On March 20 , 2010 , the sailing vessel set off from San Francisco , California to cross the Pacific Ocean with a crew of six : British skipper Jo Royle , co-skipper David Thompson , expedition diver Olav Heyerdahl , filmmakers Max Jourdan and Vern Moen , and expedition leader David de Rothschild . The expedition projected landfall in Sydney , Australia and included plans to visit several sites en route of ecological importance or which were susceptible to environmental issues caused by global warming , for instance the current sea level rise , ocean acidification and marine pollution . Plastiki arrived in Sydney Harbour on July 26 , 2010 , accompanied by a small flotilla of boats . Shortly afterwards , it was towed to the Australian National Maritime Museum in Darling Harbour , where it was on display until late August .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Plastiki",
"rank": 4,
"score": 133299
},
{
"content": "Title: Geography of Sydney Content: Sydney , New South Wales , Australia is located in a coastal basin bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the east , the Blue Mountains to the west , the Hawkesbury River to the north and the Woronora Plateau to the south . Sydney lies on a submergent coastline , where the ocean level has risen to flood deep river valleys ( rias ) carved in the Sydney sandstone . Port Jackson , better known as Sydney Harbour , is one such ria . The Sydney area lies on Triassic shales and sandstones . The sand that was to become the sandstone of today was washed from Broken Hill and laid down about 200 million years ago . The region mostly consists of low rolling hills and wide valleys in a rain shadow area near the Blue Mountains . There are more than 70 harbour and ocean beaches , including the famous Bondi Beach , in the urban area . Most of Sydney 's water storages are on tributaries of the Nepean River . Parramatta River drains a large area of Sydney 's western suburbs . Sydney sprawls over two major regions : the Cumberland Plain , a relatively flat region lying to the south and west of Port Jackson , and the Hornsby Plateau , a sandstone plateau lying mainly to the north of the harbour , rising to 200 metres above sea level within the urban area and dissected by steep valleys such as the Lane Cove River valley . Sydney 's native plant species are predominantly eucalyptus trees , and its soils are usually red and yellow in texture . Sydney 's urban area covers 1,788 km ² ( 690 mi ² ) . As at June 2015 Sydney 's estimated population was 4.92 million , giving an urban population density of 2037 people per square kilometre . Sydney is particularly noted for its low population density , due to its history . Surrounded by land that was considered unowned by the city 's founders , early Sydney enjoyed relatively low land values . Coupled with successive governments ' willingness to release new land on the city 's outskirts for further development , this history has given Sydney a low-density self-image .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Geography_of_Sydney",
"rank": 5,
"score": 132867
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour National Park Content: The Sydney Harbour National Park is a protected national park comprising parts of Sydney Harbour , its foreshores and various islands . The 392 ha national park lies within the Sydney metropolitan area and was created progressively , from 1975 . The national park protects the landforms of Bradleys Head , Clark Island , Dobroyd Head , Fort Denison , Georges Head , Goat Island , Middle Head , Nielsen Park , Rodd Island , Shark Island , Sydney Heads including the Quarantine Station at North Head and The Gap bluff at South Head . The national park also protects the waterway between North Head and Dobroyd Head , defined as the North Sydney Harbour Aquatic Reserve . Parts of the national park lie outside the harbour and face the Tasman Sea . The national park is managed by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_National_Park",
"rank": 6,
"score": 131716
},
{
"content": "Title: Port Jackson Content: Port Jackson , consisting of the waters of Sydney Harbour , Middle Harbour , North Harbour and the Lane Cove and Parramatta Rivers , is the ria or natural harbour of Sydney , New South Wales , Australia . The harbour is an inlet of the Tasman Sea ( part of the South Pacific Ocean ) . It is the location of the Sydney Opera House and Sydney Harbour Bridge . The location of the first European settlement in Australia , Port Jackson has continued to play a key role in the history and development of Sydney . Many recreational events are based on or around the harbour itself particularly the Sydney New Year 's Eve celebrations and the starting point of the Sydney to Hobart yacht race . The waterways of Port Jackson are managed by the Roads & Maritime Services . Sydney Harbour National Park protects a number of islands and foreshore areas , swimming spots , bushwalking tracks and picnic areas .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Port_Jackson",
"rank": 7,
"score": 130605
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 8,
"score": 129783
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 9,
"score": 129609
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014 South-Eastern Australian heatwave Content: The 2014 South-Eastern Australian Heatwave was a prolonged period of time in which highly unseasonal weather was recorded across the south and south-eastern corridor of mainland Australia . The heatwave commenced during early May , and was the longest ever recorded in Australia 's modern history , lasting in some places up to 15 days . Sydney , Melbourne and Adelaide were most hard hit , with temperatures in these areas breaking late Autumn records and causing a distinct lack of precipitation , especially in Sydney , Australia 's most populous city . The cause of this phenomenon was a large blocking High pressure system situated over the Tasman sea , which pushed usual Autumn cold fronts far south of the mainland .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "2014_South-Eastern_Australian_heatwave",
"rank": 10,
"score": 128879
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour Trust Content: The Sydney Harbour Trust began operations on 1 November 1900 with responsibility for the Navigation Department and Marine Board of Sydney Harbour . The Trust , as governed by an act of the New South Wales Parliament consisted of three commissioners ( including one titled as President - Walter Loveridge CMG ) appointed by the Governor of New South Wales . It was responsible for the improvement and preservation of Sydney 's port . The trust regulated the movement of vessels and the handling of cargo in the port through a Harbour Master , carried out dredging operations , removed wrecks , granted licences for the erection of piers , maintained wharf facilities and collected wharfage rates , maintained swimming baths . The trust also managed fire fighting and other safety equipment within the harbour . All foreshores , lighthouses and tugs within the harbour which belonged to the Government were vested in the Trust , as well as the power to reclaim land . The Trust was wound up in 1936 with the establishment of the Maritime Services Board .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_Trust",
"rank": 11,
"score": 128628
},
{
"content": "Title: 2009 Australian dust storm Content: The 2009 Australian dust storm , also known as the Eastern Australian dust storm , was a dust storm that swept across the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland from 22 to 24 September . The capital , Canberra , experienced the dust storm on 22 September , and on 23 September the storm reached Sydney and Brisbane . Some of the thousands of tons of dirt and soil lifted in the dust storm were dumped in Sydney Harbour and the Tasman Sea . On 23 September , the dust plume measured more than 500 km in width and 1000 km in length and covered dozens of towns and cities in two states . By 24 September , analysis using MODIS at NASA measured the distance from the northern edge at Cape York to the southern edge of the plume to be 3,450 km . While the cloud was visible from space , on the ground the intense red-orange colour and drop in temperature drew comparisons with nuclear winter , Armageddon , and the planet Mars . The dust storm was described by the Bureau of Meteorology as a `` pretty incredible event '' that was the worst in the state of New South Wales in nearly 70 years . The phenomenon was reported around the world . The Weather Channel 's Richard Whitaker said : `` This is unprecedented . We are seeing earth , wind and fire together '' .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "2009_Australian_dust_storm",
"rank": 12,
"score": 128552
},
{
"content": "Title: Middle Harbour Content: Middle Harbour ( or Warring-Ga ) , a semi -- mature tide dominated drowned valley estuary , is the northern arm of Port Jackson , an inlet of the Tasman Sea located north of Sydney central business district on the coast of New South Wales , Australia . Middle Harbour has its source in the upper reaches of Garigal National Park where it forms Middle Harbour Creek and flows southeast to become Middle Harbour at Bungaroo and travels for approximately 10 km before reaching its mouth at Port Jackson between Grotto Point near Clontarf and Middle Head . The catchment area of Middle Harbour is approximately 100 km2 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Middle_Harbour",
"rank": 13,
"score": 126921
},
{
"content": "Title: 1947 Sydney hailstorm Content: The 1947 Sydney hailstorm was a natural disaster which struck Sydney , Australia , on 1 January 1947 . The storm cell developed on the morning of New Year 's Day , a public holiday in Australia , over the Blue Mountains , hitting the city and dissipating east of Bondi in the mid-afternoon . At the time , it was the most severe storm to strike the city since recorded observations began in 1792 . The high humidity , temperatures and weather patterns of Sydney increased the strength of the storm . The cost of damages from the storm were , at the time , approximately GB # 750,000 ( US$ 3 million ) ; this is the equivalent of around A$ 45 million in modern figures . The supercell dropped hailstones larger than 8 cm in diameter , with the most significant damage occurring in the central business district and eastern suburbs of Sydney . The event caused around 1000 injuries , with between 200 and 350 people requiring hospitalisation or other medical attention , predominantly caused by broken glass shards . The majority of severe injuries reported were suffered by people on Sydney 's beaches , where many were without shelter . The size of the hailstones were the largest seen in Sydney for 52 years , until the 1999 Sydney hailstorm caused A$ 1.7 billion in insured damage in becoming the costliest natural disaster in Australian history .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "1947_Sydney_hailstorm",
"rank": 14,
"score": 126829
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 15,
"score": 124156
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia",
"rank": 16,
"score": 123154
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour Bridge Content: The Sydney Harbour Bridge is a steel through arch bridge across Sydney Harbour that carries rail , vehicular , bicycle , and pedestrian traffic between the Sydney central business district ( CBD ) and the North Shore . The dramatic view of the bridge , the harbour , and the nearby Sydney Opera House is an iconic image of Sydney , and Australia . The bridge is nicknamed `` The Coathanger '' because of its arch-based design . Under the direction of Dr John Bradfield of the NSW Department of Public Works , the bridge was designed and built by British firm Dorman Long and Co Ltd of Middlesbrough and opened in 1932 . The bridge 's design was influenced by the Hell Gate Bridge in New York City . It is the sixth longest spanning-arch bridge in the world and the tallest steel arch bridge , measuring 134 m from top to water level . It was also the world 's widest long-span bridge , at 48.8 m wide , until construction of the new Port Mann Bridge in Vancouver was completed in 2012 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_Bridge",
"rank": 17,
"score": 121908
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 18,
"score": 120236
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour (disambiguation) Content: Sydney Harbour can refer to : Port Jackson , the harbour of Sydney , Australia Sydney Harbour ( Nova Scotia ) , the harbour of Sydney , Nova Scotia",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 19,
"score": 120206
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 20,
"score": 119297
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour Federation Trust Content: The Sydney Harbour Federation Trust ( `` Harbour Trust '' ) is an Australian Government agency established in 2001 to preserve and rehabilitate a number of defence and other Commonwealth lands in and around Sydney Harbour . These lands were off limits to the public , some for over 100 years . Over the last ten years , the Harbour Trust has remediated the lands and , with one exception , all are now publicly accessible . The Harbour Trust has transformed the lands into urban parklands with walking tracks , lookouts and picnic areas . Precincts have been landscaped and services upgraded . Buildings and facilities have been renovated and leased to businesses as diverse as research institutes , restaurants and cafes , education providers , gymnasiums and office-based businesses . The Trust now offers short-term holiday accommodation at Headland Park in Mosman and Cockatoo Island which also boasts a camp ground with harbour and city views . An ecological sanctuary is being created at North Head Sanctuary at Manly . Public programs run by the Harbour Trust include open days , guided and self-guided tours , children 's activity trails , a popular audio tour of Cockatoo Island , children 's vacation activities and a wide range of publications , interpretive signage , documentaries and other explanatory material . The Harbour Trust has implemented a comprehensive events program to promote and utilise its lands , particularly on Cockatoo Island , the largest island in the harbour . Events have included a three-day music and cultural festival , contemporary art installations , a comedy festival , a component of the Sydney Festival and an international motocross competition . The island is a major venue for the Biennale of Sydney . The lands managed by the Harbour Trust are : Cockatoo Island Headland Park , Mosman ( Middle Head , Georges Heights and Chowder Bay ) North Head Sanctuary ( Former School of Artillery , North Head , Manly Woolwich Dock and Parklands Macquarie Lighthouse Snapper Island Former Marine Biological Station , Watsons Bay HMAS Platypus , Neutral Bay A number of other bodies have responsibility for the management of lands around Sydney Harbour including the Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority and the Sydney Harbour National Park , both entities of the New South Wales State Government . Parking and other illegal activities on Sydney Harbour Trust land is enforced as a Commonwealth offence by special Sydney Harbour Trust rangers , which is a minimum $ 100 fine and is not enforced as a NSW-Government State Debt Recovery Office matter .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_Federation_Trust",
"rank": 21,
"score": 119032
},
{
"content": "Title: 1999 Sydney hailstorm Content: The 1999 Sydney hailstorm was the costliest natural disaster in Australian insurance history , causing extensive damage along the east coast of New South Wales . The storm developed south of Sydney on the afternoon of Wednesday , April 14 , 1999 and struck the city 's eastern suburbs , including the central business district , later that evening . The storm dropped an estimated 500,000 tonnes of hailstones in its path . Insured damages caused by the storm were over A$ 1.7 billion , with the total damage bill ( including uninsured damages ) estimated to be around A$ 2.3 billion . It was the costliest in Australian history in insured damages , surpassing the A$ 1.1 billion in insured damages caused by the 1989 Newcastle earthquake . Lightning also claimed one life during the storm , and the event caused approximately 50 injuries . The storm was classified as a supercell following further analysis of its erratic nature and extreme attributes . During the event , the Bureau of Meteorology was constantly surprised by the frequent changes in direction , as well as the severity of the hail and the duration of the storm . The event was also unique as the time of year and general conditions in the region were not seen as conducive for extreme storm cell formation .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "1999_Sydney_hailstorm",
"rank": 22,
"score": 118879
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority Content: Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority is a statutory authority that owns and manages some of the Government of New South Wales most significant foreshore assets , including Sydney 's heritage and cultural precincts at The Rocks and Darling Harbour . The Foreshore Authority is also place manager for a number of culturally significant sites in Sydney , including Rozelle Rail Yards , White Bay Power Station - forming a significant part of The Bays Precinct Urban Renewal Program , currently in planning by UrbanGrowth NSW - and Ballast Point Park . The authority was formed in 1998 under the to consolidate the works and functions of the City West Development Corporation , Darling Harbour Authority and Sydney Cove Authority . The Authority 's mandate is to : protect and enhance the natural and cultural heritage of the foreshore area promote , coordinate , manage , undertake and secure the orderly and economic development and use of the foreshore area , including the provision of infrastructure , and promote , coordinate , organise , manage , undertake , secure , provide and conduct cultural , educational , commercial , tourist , recreational , entertainment and transport activities and facilities . Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority embraces the concept of place making , supporting tourism and the visitor economy by hosting major events in The Rocks and Darling Harbour each year . Between them , they represent the top two tourist precincts in Sydney and attract around 41 million visitors annually . The Authority also manages significant commercial and retail leases -- with a new retail strategy for The Rocks currently being implemented -- provides security , cleaning , building maintenance and other facility management services , cares for the public domain and protects over 100 New South Wales State Heritage listed items . Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority works collaboratively across New South Wales State and local governments , industry groups and the private sector to deliver urban renewal projects that provide visitor , business and transport experiences worthy of iconic harbour locations . A prime example of this is The Goods Line , a pedestrian and cycle network linking Central station through Ultimo to Darling Harbour , with the first stage opened in August 2015 . The Authority has previously been responsible for managing specific areas of foreshore land in Sydney , including Barangaroo ( undergoing a major redevelopment , managed by the Barangaroo Delivery Authority ) and the Darling Quarter retail and commercial redevelopment at Darling Harbour ( managed in part by Lend Lease ) . The Authority is administered by a Board that reports to the New South Wales Minister for Finance , Services and Property , Dominic Perrottet . The Foreshore Authority is a part of the Department of Finance and Services ( New South Wales ) cluster .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_Foreshore_Authority",
"rank": 23,
"score": 117038
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour defences Content: Sydney Harbour was protected by coastal batteries and other fixed defences from the early 19th century until the 1960s . These defences were constructed to protect the Australian city of Sydney from attack by enemy warships and submarines .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_defences",
"rank": 24,
"score": 116595
},
{
"content": "Title: Middle Harbour Creek Content: Middle Harbour Creek , a tributary of Middle Harbour , is a youthful tide dominated , drowned valley estuary northwest of Sydney Harbour , located in Sydney , New South Wales , Australia .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Middle_Harbour_Creek",
"rank": 25,
"score": 116316
},
{
"content": "Title: Harbor Content: A harbor or harbour ( see spelling differences ) , or haven , is a body of water where ships , boats and barges seek shelter from stormy weather , or are stored for future use . The term `` harbor '' , referring primarily to a sheltered body of water , is often used interchangeably with `` port '' , which is a man-made facility built for loading and unloading vessels and dropping off and picking up passengers . Ports are often located in harbors . Harbors can be natural or artificial . An artificial harbor can have deliberately constructed breakwaters , sea walls , or jettys , or they can be constructed by dredging , which requires maintenance by further periodic dredging . An example of an artificial harbor is Long Beach Harbor , California , United States which was an array of salt marshes and tidal flats too shallow for modern merchant ships before it was first dredged in the early 20th century . In contrast , a natural harbor is surrounded on several sides by prominences of land . Examples of natural harbors include Sydney Harbour , Australia and Trincomalee Harbour in Sri Lanka .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Harbor",
"rank": 26,
"score": 115922
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Declaration Content: The Sydney APEC Leaders ' Declaration on Climate Change , Energy Security and Clean Development was adopted at APEC Australia 2007 on 8 September 2007 . The agreement indicates the wish of signatories to work towards aspirational goals on energy efficiency per unit of GDP while encouraging forest cover in the region . The APEC wide regional aspirational goal is to reduce energy intensity by at least 25 percent by 2030 from the 2005 level , and set an APEC-wide regional goal of increasing forest cover in the region by 200,000 square kilometres by 2020 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Declaration",
"rank": 27,
"score": 115902
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 28,
"score": 115138
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Life Sydney Aquarium Content: SEA LIFE Sydney Aquarium ( formerly Sydney Aquarium ) contains a large variety of Australian aquatic life , displaying more than 700 species comprising more than 13,000 individual fish and other sea and water creatures from most of Australia 's water habitats . Additionally , the aquarium features 14 themed zones including Jurassic Seas , Discovery Rockpool , Shark Walk , and the world 's largest Great Barrier Reef display . Along the way , visitors encounter animals unique to each habitat , including two of only five dugongs on display in the world , sharks , stingrays , penguins and tropical fish , among others . It is a public aquarium located in the city of Sydney , New South Wales , Australia . It is located on the eastern ( city ) side of Darling Harbour to the north of the Pyrmont Bridge . It is a full institutional member of the Zoo and Aquarium Association ( ZAA ) and the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums ( WAZA ) .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sea_Life_Sydney_Aquarium",
"rank": 29,
"score": 115061
},
{
"content": "Title: Broken Bay Content: Broken Bay , a semi -- mature tide-dominated drowned valley estuary , is a large inlet of the Tasman Sea located about 50 km north of Sydney central business district on the coast of New South Wales , Australia ; being one of the bodies of water that separate greater Metropolitan Sydney from the Central Coast . Broken Bay is the first major bay north of Sydney Harbour . Broken Bay has its origin at the confluence of the Hawkesbury River , Pittwater , and Brisbane Water and flows openly into the Tasman Sea . The total catchment area of the bay is approximately 17.1 km ² .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Broken_Bay",
"rank": 30,
"score": 114957
},
{
"content": "Title: Riverlife Content: The Riverlife project aims to engage the community to actively appreciate Cooks River in Sydney , Australia . It usually more a tidal inlet then a River although is capable of flooding and receives the stormwater from 100 square kilometers of a highly urbanised part of the Sydney Metropolitan area . Other major waterways of Sydney include the Hawkesbury , Sydney Harbour , Georges River , and Port Hacking , all of which are Rias , but Cooks River shows more signs of slow weathering and development as a river than of being a flooded river valley . The River was an important part of the life of local aborigines for tens of thousands of years , and was a beautiful recreation facility for Sydney Siders during the early years of the development of the City . While severely damaged by development , the River and its catchment has many redeeming features , and the history of repair is now almost as rich as the history of damaging industrial and urban use . Riverlife is a joint initiative of Marrickville , Canterbury and Strathfield Councils funded by Our Environment - It 's a Living Thing . Riverlife is one of a number of projects / groups / initiatives which are attempting to lead to improvements to Cooks River . One other significant project is CookNet The Riverlife project began in 2002 and has involved a number of aspects .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Riverlife",
"rank": 31,
"score": 114418
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour Tunnel Content: The Sydney Harbour Tunnel is a twin-tube road tunnel in Sydney , Australia . The tunnel was completed and opened to traffic in August 1992 to provide a second vehicular crossing of Sydney Harbour to alleviate congestion on the Sydney Harbour Bridge . It is the only tunnel under the harbour , although there are plans to build a set of rail tunnels . The tunnel joins the Warringah Freeway at North Sydney , and the Cahill Expressway at the entrance to the Domain Tunnel . It has two lanes in each direction , and runs at an angle of approximately thirty degrees ( North to South ) to the Sydney Harbour Bridge , which has eight lanes , with a tidal flow operation . In 2008 , the tunnel was carrying around 90,000 vehicles per day .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_Tunnel",
"rank": 32,
"score": 114014
},
{
"content": "Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave",
"rank": 33,
"score": 113904
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour anti-submarine boom net Content: The Sydney Harbour anti-submarine boom net was an anti-torpedo and submarine defence net that was in Sydney Harbour during World War II . It spanned the entire width of the harbour from Green Point , Watsons Bay to Georges Head , on the northern side of Sydney Harbour . The boom formed part of the Sydney Harbour defences which also included artillery batteries and patrol boats .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_anti-submarine_boom_net",
"rank": 34,
"score": 113826
},
{
"content": "Title: Division of Warringah Content: The Division of Warringah is an Australian electoral division in the state of New South Wales . The division is named after the Warringah area of Sydney , which itself is named by an Aboriginal Australian word which translates into English as `` rain '' , `` waves '' or `` sea '' . The Division was proclaimed at the redistribution of 13 September 1922 , and was first contested at the 1922 federal election . Centred on Mosman and the Northern Beaches region of Sydney , it covers most of the land between Middle Harbour and the Tasman Sea . It extends from Port Jackson in the south to the suburb of Dee Why in the north . Besides Mosman , it includes Allambie , Allambie Heights , Balgowlah , Balgowlah Heights , Balmoral , Beauty Point , Brookvale , Clifton Gardens , Clontarf , Cremorne Point , Curl Curl , Fairlight , Freshwater , Harbord , Killarney Heights , Kurraba Point , Manly Vale , Mosman , North Balgowlah , North Curl Curl , North Head , North Manly , Queenscliff , Seaforth , and Wingala ; as well as parts of Beacon Hill , Cremorne , Dee Why , Forestville , Frenchs Forest , Narraweena , and Neutral Bay . The seat has always been held by the Liberal Party of Australia or its predecessors ; the Northern Beaches have long been Liberal heartland . The current member and former Prime Minister Tony Abbott , has held the seat since winning a 1994 by-election .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Division_of_Warringah",
"rank": 35,
"score": 113543
},
{
"content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Past_sea_level",
"rank": 36,
"score": 112893
},
{
"content": "Title: Attack on Sydney Harbour Content: In late May and early June 1942 , during World War II , submarines belonging to the Imperial Japanese Navy made a series of attacks on the cities of Sydney and Newcastle in New South Wales , Australia . On the night of 31 May -- 1 June , three Ko-hyoteki-class midget submarines , each with a two-member crew , entered Sydney Harbour , avoided the partially constructed Sydney Harbour anti-submarine boom net , and attempted to sink Allied warships . Two of the midget submarines were detected and attacked before they could successfully engage any Allied vessels , and the crews scuttled their boats and committed suicide . These submarines were later recovered by the Allies . The third submarine attempted to torpedo the heavy cruiser , but instead sank the converted ferry HMAS Kuttabul , killing 21 sailors . This midget submarine 's fate was unknown until 2006 , when amateur scuba divers discovered the wreck off Sydney 's northern beaches . Immediately following the raid , the five Japanese fleet submarines that carried the midget submarines to Australia embarked on a campaign to disrupt merchant shipping in eastern Australian waters . Over the next month , the submarines attacked at least seven merchant vessels , sinking three ships and killing 50 sailors . During this period , between midnight and 02:30 on 8 June , two of the submarines bombarded the ports of Sydney and Newcastle . The midget submarine attacks and subsequent bombardments are among the best-known examples of Axis naval activity in Australian waters during World War II , and are the only occasion in history when either city has come under attack . The physical effects were slight : the Japanese had intended to destroy several major warships , but sank only an unarmed depot ship and failed to damage any significant targets during the bombardments . The main impact was psychological ; creating popular fear of an impending Japanese invasion and forcing the Australian military to upgrade defences , including the commencement of convoy operations to protect merchant shipping .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Attack_on_Sydney_Harbour",
"rank": 37,
"score": 112883
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 38,
"score": 112180
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 39,
"score": 111929
},
{
"content": "Title: Perseverance Harbour Content: Perseverance Harbour , also known as South harbour , is a large indentation in the coast of Campbell Island , one of New Zealand 's subantarctic outlying islands . The harbour is a long lateral fissure which reaches the ocean in the island 's southeast , and is overlooked by the island 's highest point , Mount Honey . The Campbell Island Meteorological Station lies at the western end of the harbour . On 4 November 1810 the island 's discoverer Captain Frederick Hasselborough ( or `` Hasselburgh '' or `` Hasselburg '' ; there are several spellings ) , who had returned from Sydney , was drowned in Perseverance Harbour , together with Elizabeth Farr , a young woman born at Norfolk Island , and a twelve - or thirteen-year-old Sydney boy George Allwright .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Perseverance_Harbour",
"rank": 40,
"score": 110849
},
{
"content": "Title: List of beaches in Sydney Content: The city of Sydney , Australia , is home to some of the finest and most famous beaches in the world . There are well over 100 beaches in the city , ranging in size from a few feet to several kilometres , located along the city 's Pacific Ocean coastline and its harbours , bays and rivers . With around 70 surf beaches and dozens of harbour coves , Sydney is almost unrivalled in the world for the number and quality of beaches available . The water and sand among the city beaches , despite their popularity , are remarkably clean . The beach watch program was established in 1989 in response to community concern about the impact of sewage pollution on human health and the environment at Sydney 's ocean beaches .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "List_of_beaches_in_Sydney",
"rank": 41,
"score": 110389
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 42,
"score": 110178
},
{
"content": "Title: Darling Harbour Content: Darling Harbour is a harbour adjacent to the city centre of Sydney , New South Wales , Australia . It is also a large recreational and pedestrian precinct that is situated on western outskirts of the Sydney central business district . Originally named Long Cove , the locality extends northwards from Chinatown , along both sides of Cockle Bay to Darling Harbour wharf on the east , and to the suburb of Pyrmont on the west . Cockle Bay is just one of the waterways that makes up Darling Harbour , which opens north into the much larger Port Jackson . The precinct and its immediate surroundings are administered independently of the local government area of the City of Sydney , by Property NSW .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Darling_Harbour",
"rank": 43,
"score": 109719
},
{
"content": "Title: Western Harbour Tunnel & Beaches Link Content: The Western Harbour Tunnel & Beaches Link is a planned north-south motorway along the current alignment of Wakehurst Parkway between Warringah Road , Frenchs Forest and the WestConnex motorway in Sydney . The four-lane motorway is planned to be 14 km long and to be built ( with both State and Federal funding ) . It is intended to providing direct access from the Northern Beaches to the new Inner West situated at Rozelle .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Western_Harbour_Tunnel_&_Beaches_Link",
"rank": 44,
"score": 109680
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney New Year's Eve 2016–17 Content: Sydney New Year 's Eve 2016 -- 17 was the 22nd Sydney New Year 's Eve held in Sydney Harbour on the evening of 31 December 2016 and in the early hours of 1 January 2017 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_New_Year's_Eve_2016–17",
"rank": 45,
"score": 109355
},
{
"content": "Title: Lower North Shore (Sydney) Content: The Lower North Shore refers to the Sydney Harbour Peninsula that is located on the north side of the Sydney Harbour Bridge . The three bodies of water that surround the Lower North Shore are Lane Cove River on its western boarder , Sydney harbour on its south side , and Middle Harbour on its east . The Lower North Shore borders the Upper North Shore when the Lane Cover River and Middle Harbour are at their closest . Lower North Shore encompasses suburbs belonging to the local government areas of Municipality of Mosman , City of Willoughby , Municipality of Lane Cove , and North Sydney Council . On the 12 May 2016 the NSW government proposed merging the 3 of the 4 Lower North Shore Councils ( Municipality of Mosman , City of Willoughby and North Sydney Council ) to form a new council with the proposed name of the `` City of the Lower North Shore '' , and propose Municipality of Lane Cove would be kept separate but surrounded by the City of the Lower North Shore under a different council . The Lower North Shore adjacent suburbs to the water are Neutral Bay , Greenwich , Waverton , Mosman , Cremorne , Lavender Bay , Milsons Point , Cammeray and North Sydney . The region is home to hundreds of parks and reserves , including Sydney Harbour National Park and the Lane Cove National Park . Local sportsgrounds include North Sydney Oval , the region 's largest in capacity , followed by Chatswood Oval and Christie Park . Major waterways in the region include Port Jackson , the Lane Cove River , the Parramatta River , Middle Harbour and the many creek systems that branch out from these main aquatic lifelines . Category : Geography of Sydney",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Lower_North_Shore_(Sydney)",
"rank": 46,
"score": 108617
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney New Year's Eve 2015–16 Content: Sydney New Year 's Eve 2015 -- 16 was the 21st Sydney New Year 's Eve held in Sydney Harbour on the evening of 31 December 2015 and in the early hours of 1 January 2016 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_New_Year's_Eve_2015–16",
"rank": 47,
"score": 108475
},
{
"content": "Title: Broken Hill Content: Broken Hill is an isolated mining city in the far west of outback New South Wales , Australia . It is near the border with South Australia on the crossing of the Barrier Highway ( A32 ) and the Silver City Highway ( B79 ) , in the Barrier Range . It is 315 m above sea level , with a hot desert climate , an average rainfall of 235 mm . The closest major city is Adelaide , the capital of South Australia , which is more than 500 km to the southwest and linked via route A32 . Broken Hill has been referred to as `` The Silver City '' , the `` Oasis of the West '' , and the `` Capital of the Outback '' . Although over 1,100 km west of Sydney and surrounded by semi-desert , the town has prominent park and garden displays and offers a number of attractions , such as the Living Desert Sculptures . The town has a high potential for solar power , given its extensive daylight hours of sunshine . The Broken Hill Solar Plant , which was completed in 2015 , is one of the largest in the Southern Hemisphere .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Broken_Hill",
"rank": 48,
"score": 108267
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014–15 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2014 -- 15 Australian bushfire season was expected to have the potential for many fires in eastern Australia after lower than expected rainfall was received in many areas . Authorities released warnings in the early spring that the season could be particularly bad . Warmer and drier weather conditions were experienced during winter and extended into 2015 , due to a developing El Niño event . Sydney was on track to record its hottest autumn on record and only had one fifth of the average rainfall in May . Adelaide recorded sixteen consecutive days of 20 C in May 2014 . Queensland sweltered through a heatwave , with record October temperatures being set in many towns through the state . New October records included Toowoomba with 36.4 C , St George with 42.6 C , Amberley with 41.3 C and Roma with 41.6 C. Throughout 2014 and the first 6 months of 2015 , 18 fires were declared `` national disasters '' affecting a total of 68 local government areas across New South Wales , South Australia , Victoria and the Northern Territory .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "2014–15_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 49,
"score": 108094
},
{
"content": "Title: Seaforth, New South Wales Content: Seaforth is a suburb of northern Sydney , in the state of New South Wales , Australia . Seaforth is located 12 kilometres north-east of the Sydney central business district in the local government area of Northern Beaches Council and is part of the Northern Beaches region . Seaforth overlooks Middle Harbour and is linked south to Mosman by the Spit Bridge . To the west , Seaforth overlooks Sugarloaf Bay across to the suburbs of Northbridge , Castlecrag and Castle Cove . The Garigal National Park sits on the northern border .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Seaforth,_New_South_Wales",
"rank": 50,
"score": 108012
},
{
"content": "Title: Division of Sydney Content: The Division of Sydney is an Australian electoral division in the state of New South Wales . The division draws it name from Sydney , the most populous city in Australia , which itself was named after former British Home Secretary Thomas Townshend , 1st Viscount Sydney . The division was proclaimed at the redistribution of 21 November 1968 , replacing the old Division of Dalley , Division of East Sydney and Division of West Sydney , and was first contested at the 1969 election . The division is located around the City of Sydney , and includes many inner suburbs such as , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and parts of , and in the Inner West , as well as , , , and in the Eastern Suburbs . Lord Howe Island , within the Tasman Sea and some 400 km north-east of the Sydney central business district , is located within the division ; as are the harbour islands from Spectacle Island to the Sydney Heads , and all the waters of Port Jackson , except for Middle Harbour and North Harbour . The current Member for the Division of Sydney , since the 1998 federal election , is Tanya Plibersek , a member of the Australian Labor Party and the current Deputy Leader of the Opposition .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Division_of_Sydney",
"rank": 51,
"score": 107679
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Marine_transgression",
"rank": 52,
"score": 107675
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney New Year's Eve 2013–14 Content: Sydney New Year 's Eve 2013 -- 14 was the 19th Sydney New Year 's Eve held at Sydney Harbour on the evening of 31 December 2013 and in the early hours of 1 January 2014 . ABC1 broadcast the event for a first time on public television . The theme was previously revealed to be `` Shine '' and was Reg Mombassa 's only year as creative headliner .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_New_Year's_Eve_2013–14",
"rank": 53,
"score": 107636
},
{
"content": "Title: Boat Harbour (Kurnell) Content: Boat Harbour is a small beach located on the north-eastern side of the Kurnell Peninsula in Sydney , Australia .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Boat_Harbour_(Kurnell)",
"rank": 54,
"score": 107588
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour Transport Board Content: The Sydney Harbour Transport Board was a statutory of the Government of New South Wales responsible for the provision of ferry services on Sydney Harbour from July 1951 until November 1974 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_Transport_Board",
"rank": 55,
"score": 107581
},
{
"content": "Title: June 2007 Hunter Region and Central Coast storms Content: The June 2007 Hunter Region and Central Coast storms commenced on Friday , 8 June 2007 , following the development of an intense east coast low pressure system during the previous night . Over the next 36 hours these areas were battered by the system 's strong winds and torrential rain , which caused extensive flooding , damage , loss of life and the grounding of a 225 m long bulk carrier . The strongest observed wind gusts were 135 km/h at Norah Head and 124 km/h at Newcastle . The New South Wales Premier , Morris Iemma , declared a natural disaster for the affected areas . More than 105,000 homes had been left without power . Rainfall had exceeded 300 mm in the Hunter region and 200 mm in parts of the Central Coast and Sydney . Nearly 6,000 State Emergency Service volunteers , including crews from across New South Wales , Australian Capital Territory , Queensland and Victoria worked in the area , having responded to over 10,000 calls for assistance . A family of four and a nephew were killed when a section of road collapsed under their car as they drove along the Pacific Highway at Somersby on the Central Coast . Two people died when their four-wheel drive was swept off a bridge by floodwaters at Clarence Town and a man died near Lambton when he was swept into a storm-water drain . The following day , a man died when a tree fell onto his vehicle at Brunkerville . Another man died during a house fire that , it is believed , was started by a candle being used during the blackouts caused by the storm . The total death toll rose to ten . The unladen bulk carrier ran aground on Nobbys Beach at Newcastle , after its captain failed to heed a warning to move out to sea to escape the approaching storm . The Newcastle Westpac Life Saver Rescue Helicopter Service used both of their aircraft to winch the Pasha Bulker crew of 22 to safety , transporting them to Nobbys Beach parking lot . However , on completion of the rescue , the aircraft had to abandon the flight back to their Broadmeadow base due to lack of visibility and dangerously strong winds . On the evening of Sunday 10 June , approximately 4,000 residents in riverside communities of central Maitland , South Maitland and Lorn were forced to evacuate their homes in anticipation that the Hunter River would breach its levee system . Evacuation centres were set up at East Maitland and Maitland High School . However , by the morning of 11 June the floodwater had peaked without breaking the levee bank .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "June_2007_Hunter_Region_and_Central_Coast_storms",
"rank": 56,
"score": 107561
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Institute of Australia Content: The Climate Institute is a Sydney-based policy think-tank established in 2005 to encourage progressive policies for managing climate change in Australia . Its board consists of a mixture of academics and business people drawn from rural , scientific and business backgrounds . Recent research work by the Institute includes analysis of the vulnerability of sport to the growing physical impacts of climate change , modelling the effects of Australia 's Renewable Energy Target , and examining the financial impacts of delayed climate change action . The Institute also produces an annual Climate of the Nation report , which is a comprehensive survey of Australians ' attitudes on climate change , its impacts and solutions . An important component of The Climate Institute 's work is in building alliances and networks representing organisations across Australia 's economy and society to achieve diverse support for strong action on climate change . It has been a lead player in key business alliances such as the Australian Climate Roundtable . Through its role in the Asset Owners Disclosure Project , the Institute was also a pioneer in trying to get large asset owners -- such as superannuation and pension funds -- to recognise and disclosure carbon risk . The Institute was originally set up for 5 years under funding provided by the Poola Foundation 's Tom Kantor fund . The Institute has now been running for more than a decade , but the expiry of significant philanthropic support means that it now faces key challenges if it is to continue to operate beyond 2017 . In December 2015 , The Age reported that the organisation was struggling with fundraising , as its core funding ran out . The Institute has been very actively seeking new donors . It has announced that it will close in June 2017 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Climate_Institute_of_Australia",
"rank": 57,
"score": 107556
},
{
"content": "Title: Harbour Rocks Hotel Content: The Harbour Rocks Hotel is a heritage-listed 55-room boutique hotel situated in the precinct of The Rocks , in Sydney , Australia . It is a four star-rated hotel , and also houses the Lanes Restaurant & Bar on the lower level , complete with an outdoor terrace .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Harbour_Rocks_Hotel",
"rank": 58,
"score": 107486
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Heads Content: The Sydney Heads ( also simply known as the Heads ) form the two-kilometre-wide entrance to Sydney Harbour in Sydney , Australia . North Head and Quarantine Head are to the north ; South Head and Dunbar Head are to the south ; and Middle Head , Georges Head , and Chowder Head are to the west and within the harbour . The Hornby Lighthouse is located on South Head and is Australia 's third-oldest lighthouse . Macquarie Lighthouse , Australia 's first lighthouse , is three kilometres to the south on Dunbar Head .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Heads",
"rank": 59,
"score": 107453
},
{
"content": "Title: 1994 Eastern seaboard fires Content: The 1994 Eastern seaboard fires were bushfires in New South Wales , Australia between August 1993 and 16 January 1994 were widespread along the NSW coast from Bega to the Queensland border and inland as far as Bathurst . Also Over 80 separate fires encouraged by extreme hot dry and windy conditions threatened many areas including the major cities of Newcastle and Sydney . The fires killed four people and burnt out over 800,000 ha . The fires across the state destroyed 225 homes in total - 101 of which were in the southern Sydney suburbs of Jannali and Como West where Como West Public School was also destroyed . 13 houses were destroyed in suburbs around Lane Cove National Park and 42 were destroyed around Kuringai National Park , Garigal National Park and the Royal National Park , 9 houses including a Youth hostel were destroyed in Hawkesbury Heights in the Blue Mountains . These fires generated a large amount of media coverage internationally . Unlike earlier fires -- several of which caused much more damage -- the 1994 bushfires entered a major city , as the later Black Christmas and 2003 Canberra bushfires would . Additionally , this was the only occasion in which a major city , Sydney , had been threatened with total isolation due to fire . At the peak of the fires only the Hume Highway to the southwest remained open . All other road and rail routes out of Sydney were closed . Residents of the entire metropolitan area of Sydney had to contend with ash raining down on them , and the sky remained a blazing orange colour for days afterwards .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "1994_Eastern_seaboard_fires",
"rank": 60,
"score": 107288
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney New Year's Eve 2012–13 Content: Sydney New Year 's Eve 2012 -- 13 was the 18th Sydney New Year 's Eve held at Sydney Harbour on the evening of 31 December 2012 and in the early hours of 1 January 2013 . The Nine Network broadcast the event for their fourth consecutive year ( fourteenth overall ) . The theme was previously revealed to be `` Embrace '' and was Kylie Minogue 's only year as creative headliner .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_New_Year's_Eve_2012–13",
"rank": 61,
"score": 107017
},
{
"content": "Title: Harbourside Shopping Centre Content: Harbourside Shopping Centre ( also known as Harbourside Darling Harbour ) is a large-scale shopping centre in Darling Harbour , close to the Sydney central business district in Australia . It is located next door to the new International Convention Centre with views of the city 's skyline . As of December 2016 , Harbourside attracts more than 11.9 million people per year and is expecting to reach $ 154 million in spending .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Harbourside_Shopping_Centre",
"rank": 62,
"score": 107007
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Irvine, New South Wales Content: Mount Irvine is a small village and a mountain located in the Blue Mountains region in the state of New South Wales , Australia . The village is situated in the City of Blue Mountains . At an elevation of 850 m above sea level , the mountain is approximately 85 km west northwest from Sydney CBD and more than two hours by car . The area has a wet micro climate and rich basalt soils , weathered from ancient volcanics . Rainfall is in excess of 1500 mm a year and vegetation is predominantly temperate rain forest . The area is typified by some spectacular temperate gardens , similar to those in the neighbouring area of Mount Wilson . There are only twenty or so properties with a small amount of commercial activity ; mainly walnut and chestnut groves . There is no mainstream commercial farming , and organic methods are widely used .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Mount_Irvine,_New_South_Wales",
"rank": 63,
"score": 106811
},
{
"content": "Title: Greycliffe disaster Content: The Greycliffe disaster occurred in Sydney Harbour ( Australia ) on 3 November 1927 when the harbour ferry Greycliffe and the Union Steamship Company mail steamer Tahiti collided . The smaller ferry was cut in two and sank with the loss of 40 lives , the deadliest incident on Sydney Harbour .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Greycliffe_disaster",
"rank": 64,
"score": 106728
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney New Year's Eve 2011–12 Content: Sydney New Year 's Eve 2011 -- 12 was the 17th Sydney New Year 's Eve held at Sydney Harbour on the evening of 31 December 2011 and in the early hours of 1 January 2012 . The Nine Network broadcast the event for their third consecutive year ( fourteenth overall ) . The theme was previously revealed to be `` Time to Dream '' and was Marc Newson 's only year as creative headliner .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_New_Year's_Eve_2011–12",
"rank": 65,
"score": 106562
},
{
"content": "Title: Sow and Pigs Reef Content: Sow and Pigs Reef is a rocky reef in Sydney Harbour , New South Wales , Australia . The reef is situated on the eastern side of the main shipping channel between Middle Head and South Head . It is 150 m long and up to 70 m wide . Originally the reef was exposed and resembled a sow and her litter . Explosives were used to reduce the reef , however , and now the reef is only exposed at a very low tide . A number of ships have been wrecked or damaged after hitting the reef . Category : Geography of Sydney",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sow_and_Pigs_Reef",
"rank": 66,
"score": 106460
},
{
"content": "Title: Harbour City Content: Harbour City may refer to : Harbour City ( Hong Kong ) , a shopping centre Harbor City , Los Angeles , the community in Los Angeles Harbour City Metrolink station , light rail station in Greater Manchester Harbour City , a ruined but still partly used development near Cape Fugui , Shimen District in northern Taiwan . Sydney , nicknamed `` the Harbour City '' Nanaimo , British Columbia is officially called `` The Harbour City '' . Nanaimo is called `` The Harbour City '' ( formerly The Hub City ) , because of the BC Ferries connection from Nanaimo ( on Vancouver Island ) to the City of Vancouver 's Horseshoe Bay and Tsawwassen Ferry Terminals , respectively Vancouver 's Northern and Southern terminals , on the continental mainland .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Harbour_City",
"rank": 67,
"score": 106424
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Ports Corporation Content: Sydney Ports Corporation , a corporation owned by the Government of New South Wales , is responsible for the management , development and operation of seaport facilities within metropolitan Sydney , and two minor seaports located in Eden and in Yamba , within the state of New South Wales , Australia . Sydney Ports is established pursuant to the .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Ports_Corporation",
"rank": 68,
"score": 106072
},
{
"content": "Title: HMAS Sea Mist Content: HMAS Sea Mist ( Q10 ) was a channel patrol boat operated by the Naval Auxiliary Patrol of the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) during World War II . Sea Mist was a 65 ft cruiser built by Lars Halvorsen and Sons in 1939 for motor racing identity Hope Bartlett . She was requisitioned and later commissioned by the RAN as a channel patrol boat . During the attack on Sydney Harbour by the Imperial Japanese Navy on 31 May 1942 , the Sea Mist , together with Steady Hour and Yarroma , spotted the conning tower of midget submarine M-21 in Taylors Bay . The patrol boats had set their depth charge fuses to 15 m , and when Sea Mist passed over the place where the submarine had just submerged and dropped a depth charge , she had only five seconds to clear the area . The blast damaged M-21 , which inverted and rose to the surface before sinking again . Sea Mist then dropped a second depth charge , which damaged one of her two propellers and prevented her from making further attacks . Sea Mist earned one battle honours for her wartime service , `` Pacific 1942 '' .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "HMAS_Sea_Mist",
"rank": 69,
"score": 106040
},
{
"content": "Title: Real Insurance Sydney Harbour 10k Content: The Real Insurance Sydney Harbour 10k is an Australian 10 km road race , held annually in Sydney , Australia . The event is certified accurate and is approved by the AIMS ( Association of International Marathons and Distance Races ) . The Real Insurance Sydney Harbour 10k has been running since 2012 and can we used as a test event before the winter classics . The Real Insurance Sydney Harbour 10k also has an additional 5k course which will be running for the first time in 2014 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Real_Insurance_Sydney_Harbour_10k",
"rank": 70,
"score": 105942
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Harbour Bridge cycleway Content: The Sydney Harbour Bridge cycleway is a 2 km conjoined cycleway from the north and south that crosses the Sydney Harbour Bridge on its western side , linking the Sydney central business district with North Sydney , Sydney 's Northern Suburbs and the North Shore , in Sydney , New South Wales , Australia .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Harbour_Bridge_cycleway",
"rank": 71,
"score": 105927
},
{
"content": "Title: Shute Harbour Content: Shute Harbour is a sheltered port for small vessels located approximately 10 kilometres east of Airlie Beach on the Whitsunday Coast of Queensland , Australia . Serving mainly as a boarding point for ferries between the Whitsunday Islands and the mainland , it is also home to many charter boat operations and provides the best access to many Island resorts and camp-sites . Once second only to Sydney 's Circular Quay as the busiest commuter port in Australia and hosting the largest seaplane airbase in the Southern hemisphere , Shute Harbour has faced many years of uncertainty as most ferry operations have moved to marinas in Airlie Beach . Shute Harbour Transit Facility is managed by the Whitsunday Regional Council . Major redevelopmentMajor redevelopment plans plans for the facility have been flagged due to ageing infrastructure , however much uncertainty exists with the nature of these plans . There are regular bus and taxi services available to and from the port which take the winding road through Conway National Park towards the harbour . Shute Harbour takes its name from Shute Island .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Shute_Harbour",
"rank": 72,
"score": 105774
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Basin Content: The Sydney Basin is both a structural entity and a depositional area , now preserved on the east coast of New South Wales , Australia and with some of its eastern side now subsided beneath the ocean . It has also lost area on its western side by erosion . Confusion may arise because geologists use the term `` Basin '' both to mean an area in which deposition is occurring and at other time to mean the rocks formed by that deposition - which are slightly different ` takes ' on the matter . The Sydney Basin consists of Permian and Triassic sedimentary rocks . It is named for the city of Sydney which is centred within it and stretches from Newcastle in the north to Batemans Bay in the south , and west to the Great Dividing Range . The basin is also home to the major centres of Newcastle and Wollongong , and contains economically significant reserves of coal . Sydney 's famous harbour and the sculptured cliffs of the Blue Mountains are signature formations of relatively hard upper strata of sandstone . The basin contains the UNESCO World Heritage-listed Greater Blue Mountains Area .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Basin",
"rank": 73,
"score": 105458
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 74,
"score": 105213
},
{
"content": "Title: City of Sydney Content: The City of Sydney is the local government area covering the Sydney central business district and surrounding inner city suburbs of the greater metropolitan area of Sydney , New South Wales , Australia . The central business district of Sydney is roughly bounded by Circular Quay and Sydney Harbour to the north , Macquarie Street to the east , Darling Harbour to the west and Liverpool Street and Central railway station to the south . On 6 February 2004 , the former local government area of the City of South Sydney was formally merged into the City of Sydney . Suburbs within the boundaries of the City of Sydney before the merger include the central business district of Sydney itself , Pyrmont and Ultimo to the west , Haymarket to the south , and other suburbs . Suburbs within the City of South Sydney before the merger included Woolloomooloo , Alexandria , Darlington ( now mostly occupied by the University of Sydney ) , Erskineville , Newtown , Redfern , Glebe , Waterloo , most of Surry Hills and a portion of Paddington . The leader of the City of Sydney holds the title of the Lord Mayor of Sydney . The current Lord Mayor is Councillor Clover Moore who has been in office since 27 March 2004 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "City_of_Sydney",
"rank": 75,
"score": 105154
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney River Content: The Sydney River is a short river located in Cape Breton County , Nova Scotia , Canada . Historically , it was also referred to as the Spanish River from the 18th century French name for its estuary , Baie d'Espagnols . It separates the community of Coxheath , on the north bank of the river , from Howie Centre and Sydney River , Nova Scotia . Sydney River rises in Blacketts Lake and runs 7 km to its mouth at South Arm of Sydney Harbour , draining a watershed of 140 km south of the crest of the Coxheath Hills . The river is an estuary for the last 4.5 km below the `` Sysco Dam '' in the community of Sydney River . The dam was constructed in 1902 , converting the stretch of river immediately above the dam from a tidal estuary to a freshwater reservoir lake . Its watershed contains more than 2000 homes . The Sydney River valley is glacial with thick deposits , kames , eskers and outwash gravels creating a series of shallow lakes connected by narrow channels . This low valley was a traditional canoe portage used by the Mi ` kmaq for travelling between Sydney Harbour and the East Bay of Bras d'Or Lake . The river is one of only two Canadian watersheds with a known population of the yellow lampmussel . The lampmussel is found above the dam constructed in 1902 , which increased the area of freshwater habitat suitable for lampmussel in the watershed .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_River",
"rank": 76,
"score": 105005
},
{
"content": "Title: 2012–13 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Australian bushfire season had above average fire potential for most of the southern half of the continent from the east coast to the west . This is despite having extensive fire in parts of the country over the last 12 months . The reason for this prediction is the abundant grass growth spurred by two La Niña events over the last two years . Most parts of the country experienced a heat wave at the start of 2013 , with a new national average maximum being set on 7 January 2013 . The new record of 40.33 C beat the old record of 40.17 C that had been set on 21 December 1972 . Another record also beaten in 2013 was Australia 's mean temperature climbing from 31.86 C set on 21 December 1972 to 32.23 C on 7 January 2013 . Additionally , six of the 20 hottest days in Australian records ( by average maximum ) have been in January 2013 . Australia also experienced its hottest summer on average following a particularly hot spell in January . Using average day and night temperatures the average was found to be 28.6 C beating the previous record set in the summer of 1997 -- 1988 . Fourteen of the weather bureau 's 112 long term weather stations recorded their hottest days on record including one in Sydney that recorded a daytime record of 46 C . The daytime maximum temperatures for 2012 -- 13 also beat the 1982 -- 83 record and January was the hottest month since records began in 1910 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "2012–13_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 77,
"score": 104696
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 78,
"score": 104655
},
{
"content": "Title: Harbour City Ferries Content: Harbour City Ferries was formed as a 50/50 joint venture between Broadspectrum and Transdev Australasia and began operating the services of Sydney Ferries under a seven-year contract on 28 July 2012 . It leases both the Balmain Maintenance Facility and the fleet from Sydney Ferries . Transdev bought out Broadspectrum 's 50 % shareholding in December , 2016 . , the Harbour City Ferries fleet consisted of 28 vessels .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Harbour_City_Ferries",
"rank": 79,
"score": 104655
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney New Year's Eve 2008–09 Content: Sydney New Year 's Eve 2008 -- 09 was the 14th Sydney New Year 's Eve held at Sydney Harbour on the evening of 31 December 2008 and in the early hours of 1 January 2009 . It was the final year in a three-year deal that Network Ten would broadcast the event and was co-hosted by Kim Watkins and Andrew Günsberg for their second consecutive year . On 9 December 2008 , the theme was revealed to be `` Creation '' with fireworks produced once again by Foti International Fireworks . This was Rhoda Roberts ' first year as creative director .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_New_Year's_Eve_2008–09",
"rank": 80,
"score": 104602
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney New Year's Eve 2006–07 Content: Sydney New Year 's Eve 2006 -- 07 was the 12th Sydney New Year 's Eve held at Sydney Harbour on the evening of 31 December 2006 and in the early hours of 1 January 2007 . It was the first year that Network Ten would broadcast the event , having won a three-year deal from the Nine Network and was co-hosted by Gretel Killeen and Daniel MacPherson . The theme was previously revealed to be `` A Diamond Night in Emerald City '' to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the Sydney Harbour Bridge , with fireworks once again produced by Foti International Fireworks . This was Wayne Harrison 's second consecutive year as creative director .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_New_Year's_Eve_2006–07",
"rank": 81,
"score": 104601
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney New Year's Eve 2005–06 Content: Sydney New Year 's Eve 2005 -- 06 was the 11th Sydney New Year 's Eve held at Sydney Harbour on the evening of 31 December 2005 and in the early hours of 1 January 2006 . The Nine Network broadcast the event for their eleventh and final consecutive year , as Network Ten won the broadcasting rights for a three-year deal . Nine would later regain the rights back from Ten after their deal had ended . This was also Richard Wilkins eleventh and last consecutive year as host . The theme was previously revealed to be `` Heart of the Harbour '' with fireworks once again produced by Foti International Fireworks . This was Wayne Harrison 's first year as creative director .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_New_Year's_Eve_2005–06",
"rank": 82,
"score": 104552
},
{
"content": "Title: MV Sydney 2000 Content: MV Sydney 2000 is a cruise ship operating on Sydney Harbour . It holds the title for being the largest cruise ship operating on the harbour . Built in 1998 by Oceanfast in Henderson , Western Australia , it soon commenced operations as a three deck and five private dining room floating restaurant . The ship is owned by Captain Cook Cruises . On 18 July 2008 , Sydney 2000 hosted Pope Benedict XVI on his journey from Rose Bay to Barangaroo for the official World Youth Day 2008 welcoming .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "MV_Sydney_2000",
"rank": 83,
"score": 104536
},
{
"content": "Title: Division of West Sydney Content: The Division of West Sydney was an Australian Electoral Division in the state of New South Wales . It was located in the inner western suburbs of Sydney , and at various times included the suburbs of Pyrmont , Darling Harbour , Surry Hills , Balmain and Glebe . West Sydney was proclaimed in 1900 , and was one of the original 75 seats to be contested at the first Federal election . It was abolished at the redistribution of 21 November 1968 . It was the first of four seats to be held by Billy Hughes , the eleventh Prime Minister of Australia and the longest-serving member of the Australian Parliament . It was also held by T. J. Ryan , a former Premier of Queensland .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Division_of_West_Sydney",
"rank": 84,
"score": 104530
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea",
"rank": 85,
"score": 104485
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Cove Content: Sydney Cove is a small bay on the southern shore of Sydney Harbour , one of several harbours in Port Jackson , on the coast of Sydney , New South Wales , Australia .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Cove",
"rank": 86,
"score": 104450
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Exhibition Centre @ Glebe Island Content: Sydney Exhibition Centre @ Glebe Island was an interim facility purpose built at Glebe Island to house large trade and consumer shows during the development of the new International Convention Centre Sydney at Darling Harbour . The venue opened in February 2014 , following the closure of the Sydney Convention & Exhibition Centre in December 2013 , and closed on 30 September 2016 . The structure , which was supplied by GL Events and previously used as the media centre at the 2012 London Olympics , was located on the Sydney Harbour foreshore underneath the Anzac Bridge . Managed by AEG Odgen , a joint venture between Australian venue management interests and AEG Facilities of the United States ( Anschutz Entertainment Group ) , Sydney Exhibition Centre @ Glebe Island had the largest single exhibition hall in Sydney at 9,600 square metres and has 20,000 square metres of permanent exhibition space .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Exhibition_Centre_@_Glebe_Island",
"rank": 87,
"score": 104418
},
{
"content": "Title: Bare Creek Content: Bare Creek , a watercourse that is part of the Middle Harbour catchment of Sydney Harbour , is located in the northern beaches region of Sydney , New South Wales , Australia .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Bare_Creek",
"rank": 88,
"score": 104376
},
{
"content": "Title: Electoral district of Sydney Content: Sydney is an electoral district of the Legislative Assembly of the Australian state of New South Wales in Inner Sydney . It includes the Sydney CBD ; the suburbs and localities of Barangaroo , Broadway , Chinatown , Darling Harbour , Darlinghurst , Dawes Point , Elizabeth Bay , Haymarket , Millers Point , Paddington , Potts Point , Pyrmont , The Rocks , Woolloomooloo , Wynyard ; and parts of Edgecliff , Rushcutters Bay , Surry Hills , Ultimo and Woollahra . Independent Alex Greenwich has represented the seat since the 2012 Sydney by-election , triggered by the resignation of previous independent Clover Moore , who was the Lord Mayor of Sydney , due to introduced state laws preventing dual membership of state parliament and local council .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Electoral_district_of_Sydney",
"rank": 89,
"score": 104244
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sea_level",
"rank": 90,
"score": 104095
},
{
"content": "Title: Electoral district of Middle Harbour Content: Middle Harbour was an electoral district for the Legislative Assembly in the Australian state of New South Wales , named after Middle Harbour , Sydney . It was first created in 1904 , partly replacing Warringah and Willoughby . In 1920 , with the introduction of proportional representation , it was absorbed into North Shore . It was recreated in 1988 , replacing Willoughby , and abolished in 1991 , being replaced by Willoughby .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Electoral_district_of_Middle_Harbour",
"rank": 91,
"score": 104077
},
{
"content": "Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Weddell_Polynya",
"rank": 92,
"score": 104070
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia",
"rank": 93,
"score": 104063
},
{
"content": "Title: Water supply and sanitation in Australia Content: The water supply and sanitation in Australia is universal and of good quality . As the country 's supply of freshwater is increasingly vulnerable to droughts , possibly as a result of climate change , there is an emphasis on water conservation and various regions have imposed restrictions on the use of water . In 2006 , Perth became the first Australian city to operate a seawater desalination plant , the Kwinana Desalination Plant , to reduce the city 's vulnerability to droughts . More plants are planned or are under construction in Sydney , Gold Coast , Melbourne , and Adelaide . The use of reclaimed water is also increasingly common . However , some desalination plants were put in stand-by modes in 2010 following above average rainfall levels and floods in 2010 . Governments of Australian states and territories , through state-owned companies , are in charge of service provision in Western Australia , South Australia and the Northern Territory , while utilities owned by local governments provide services in parts of Queensland and Tasmania . In Victoria , New South Wales and Southeast Queensland , state-owned utilities provide bulk water which is then distributed by utilities owned by either local or state governments . The Minister for Sustainability , Environment , Water , Population and Communities is responsible for water policies at the federal level .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Australia",
"rank": 94,
"score": 103997
},
{
"content": "Title: Tourism in Sydney Content: Tourism in Sydney , Australia forms an important part of the city 's economy . The city received 7 million domestic visitors and 8.2 million international visitors in year ending December 2010 , making it the 42nd most visited city in the world . The most famous attractions include the Sydney Opera House , and the Sydney Harbour Bridge . Other attractions include the Sydney Mardi Gras , Royal Botanical Gardens , Luna Park , the beaches and Sydney Tower .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Tourism_in_Sydney",
"rank": 95,
"score": 103970
},
{
"content": "Title: Harbour City Opera Content: Harbour City Opera ( HCO ) is an opera company in Sydney , Australia , presenting chamber opera performances from the mainstream operatic repertoire . The company was founded in early 2013 to provide opportunities for opera singers on the cusp of a professional career and other professionals in the field , and to engage an audience outside the traditional opera circles . HCO 's founder and creative director , Sarah Ann Walker , has been nominated for the 2014 Telstra Business Women 's Awards . The board of Harbour City Opera includes Wagnerian tenor Glenn Winslade and singer and pianist Glenn Amer .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Harbour_City_Opera",
"rank": 96,
"score": 103894
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney Tar Ponds Content: The Sydney Tar Ponds were a hazardous waste site on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia , Canada . Located on the eastern shore of Sydney Harbour in the former city of Sydney ( now amalgamated into the Cape Breton Regional Municipality ) , the Tar Ponds formed in a tidal estuary at the mouth of Muggah Creek , a freshwater stream that empties into the harbour . Throughout the 19th century , runoff from coke ovens associated with Sydney Steel Corporation 's ( SYSCO ) now-decommissioned steel mill filled the estuary with a variety of coal-based contaminants and sludge . Efforts to clean up the waterway were dogged by false starts , delays , and political controversy . After extensive public consultation and technical studies , a C$ 400 million cleanup plan , jointly funded by the Government of Canada and Government of Nova Scotia , was announced in January 2007 . The cleanup was completed in 2013 with the opening of Open Hearth Park which is situated on the site of the former steel plant and has hosted events such as an Aerosmith concert in September 2014 .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_Tar_Ponds",
"rank": 97,
"score": 103860
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney New Year's Eve 2010–11 Content: Sydney New Year 's Eve 2010 -- 11 was the 16th Sydney New Year 's Eve held at Sydney Harbour on the evening of 31 December 2010 and in the early hours of 1 January 2011 . The Nine Network broadcast the event for their second consecutive year ( thirteenth overall ) , with Alicia Gorey and Michael Usher co-hosting . The theme was previously revealed to be `` Make Your Mark '' with fireworks produced once again by Foti International Fireworks . It was Rhoda Roberts ' third and final consecutive year as creative director , being succeeded by Marc Newson .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_New_Year's_Eve_2010–11",
"rank": 98,
"score": 103838
},
{
"content": "Title: Sydney New Year's Eve 2009–10 Content: Sydney New Year 's Eve 2009 -- 10 was the 15th Sydney New Year 's Eve held at Sydney Harbour on the evening of 31 December 2009 and in the early hours of 1 January 2010 . The Nine Network broadcast the event for the first time since the 2005 -- 06 event , regaining the rights back from Network Ten after their three-year deal had ended and was co-hosted by Leila McKinnon and Cameron Williams . On 1 December 2009 , the theme was revealed to be `` Awaken the Spirit '' with fireworks once again produced by Foti International Fireworks . It was Rhoda Roberts ' second consecutive year as creative director .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "Sydney_New_Year's_Eve_2009–10",
"rank": 99,
"score": 103585
},
{
"content": "Title: North Sydney, Nova Scotia Content: North Sydney ( Scottish Gaelic : Am Bàr ) is a former town and current community in Nova Scotia 's Cape Breton Regional Municipality . Located on the north side of Sydney Harbour , along the eastern coast of Cape Breton Island , North Sydney is an important port in Atlantic Canada , serving as the western terminus of the Marine Atlantic ferry service . It acts as the marine link for the Trans-Canada Highway to Newfoundland and is often termed `` The Gateway To Newfoundland '' for that reason . Marine Atlantic ferries currently operate from North Sydney 's terminal to the ports of Channel-Port aux Basques and Argentia . The Crown Corporation is one of the largest employers in the area .",
"qid": "42",
"docid": "North_Sydney,_Nova_Scotia",
"rank": 100,
"score": 103326
}
] |
Human-produced carbon might be one of the factors [of climate change], but there’s simply no evidence that it is a significant one. | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 1,
"score": 148920
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 2,
"score": 143070
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 3,
"score": 142111
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Kaya_identity",
"rank": 4,
"score": 141467
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 5,
"score": 140497
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 6,
"score": 137169
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 7,
"score": 132109
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 8,
"score": 131336
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 9,
"score": 129753
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 10,
"score": 128711
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 11,
"score": 127878
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 12,
"score": 126712
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 13,
"score": 126047
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes",
"rank": 14,
"score": 125540
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 15,
"score": 123878
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon literacy Content: Carbon Literacy is a term used to describe an awareness of climate change and the climate impacts of mankind 's everyday actions . The term has been used in a range of contexts in scientific literature and in casual usage ( see Research ) , but is most associated with The Carbon Literacy Project ( CLP ) .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_literacy",
"rank": 16,
"score": 122593
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England",
"rank": 17,
"score": 121628
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 18,
"score": 120377
},
{
"content": "Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Zero-carbon_city",
"rank": 19,
"score": 120194
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry",
"rank": 20,
"score": 119602
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme",
"rank": 21,
"score": 119443
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 22,
"score": 119292
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 23,
"score": 118598
},
{
"content": "Title: The Carbon Principles Content: The Carbon Principles are a series of guidelines established by three leading Wall Street banks -- Citigroup Inc. , JP Morgan Chase , and Morgan Stanley -- to assess the risks in financing electric power projects in terms of climate change . These principles call for `` enhanced diligence '' in evaluating electric power industry borrowers in terms of their use of energy efficiency ; renewable and low-carbon distributed energy technologies ; and conventional and advanced generating technologies . The Climate Principles are a similar framework for climate change best practice for the financial sector . This is a comprehensive industry framework for a response to climate change and has been adopted by Crédit Agricole , Munich Re , Standard Chartered , Swiss Re and HSBC",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "The_Carbon_Principles",
"rank": 24,
"score": 118529
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 25,
"score": 118133
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 26,
"score": 117939
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 27,
"score": 117602
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Greenhouse_debt",
"rank": 28,
"score": 117110
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 29,
"score": 116081
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 30,
"score": 115666
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 31,
"score": 115460
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 32,
"score": 114650
},
{
"content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance",
"rank": 33,
"score": 114588
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 34,
"score": 114022
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon lock-in Content: Carbon lock-in refers to the self-perpetuating inertia created by large fossil fuel-based energy systems that inhibits public and private efforts to introduce alternative energy technologies . Related to the concept of technological lock-in , the concept is most used in relation to the challenge of altering the current energy infrastructure to respond to global climate change . The concept and term was first coined by Gregory C. Unruh in a 1999 Fletcher School , Tufts University doctoral thesis entitled `` Escaping Carbon Lock-In . '' It has since gained popularity in climate change policy discussions , especially those focused on preventing the globalization of carbon lock-in to rapidly industrializing countries like China and India . The source of carbon lock-in inertia in energy systems arises from the co-evolution of large interdependent technological networks and the social institutions and cultural practices that support and benefit from system growth . The growth of the system is fostered by increasing returns to scale .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_lock-in",
"rank": 35,
"score": 113548
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon process management Content: Carbon Process Management ( CPM ) is a management process which promotes environmental effectiveness in organizations . It is designed to maximize efficiencies in the consumption of resources that contribute to climate change . When implemented effectively , CPM techniques can reduce operating costs , realizing gains in brand equity , competitive advantage and stakeholder value . Initially introduced by First Carbon Solutions , CPM uses Japanese kaizen philosophy which continuously improves workplace practices to reduce wastage , this is combined business process management ( BPM ) which increases efficiency . Governments who resorts to legal mechanisms and regulation to deal with the risks of climate change , techniques such as CPM are directed towards a corporate approach in helping reduce greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_process_management",
"rank": 36,
"score": 112502
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_bubble",
"rank": 37,
"score": 112224
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 38,
"score": 112207
},
{
"content": "Title: Gary Haq Content: Dr. Gary Haq is a Human Ecologist and freelance author , broadcaster and a Senior Researcher at the Stockholm Environment Institute at the University of York . He is an expert in transport and environment , climate change , carbon footprint , behavioural change , carbon and urban air pollution management . He is author of several reports on climate change , behaviour and lifestyle Greening the Greys : Climate Change and the Over 50s , The Carbon Cost of Christmas and Growing Old in a Changing Climate : Meeting the Challenges of Climate Change and an Ageing Population . During 2006-2008 he coordinated a climate change communication campaign in Yorkshire Climate Talk in collaboration with BBC Radio and York Press . He has undertaken research and provided policy advice on air quality management in developing countries . He undertook the first comprehensive assessment of air quality management in 20 Asian Cities and developed a Strategic Framework for Air Quality Management in Asian Cities . He is author of five books : Towards Sustainable Transport Planning , World Transport Policy and Practice , Urban Air Pollution in Asian Cities , Environmentalism Since 1945 , Short Guide to Environmental Policy . He is author of the environmental blog : A Human Ecologist 's View .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Gary_Haq",
"rank": 39,
"score": 112154
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 40,
"score": 111532
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Environmental_issue",
"rank": 41,
"score": 111486
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Act_2008",
"rank": 42,
"score": 111473
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 43,
"score": 111441
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 44,
"score": 110867
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 45,
"score": 110836
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 46,
"score": 109908
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 47,
"score": 109843
},
{
"content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Black_carbon",
"rank": 48,
"score": 109588
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainability and environmental management Content: At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , according to sustainability principles . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles . Management of the Earth 's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Sustainability_and_environmental_management",
"rank": 49,
"score": 109160
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 50,
"score": 109137
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 51,
"score": 109103
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 52,
"score": 108848
},
{
"content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Recycled_fuel",
"rank": 53,
"score": 108759
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 54,
"score": 108550
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Authority",
"rank": 55,
"score": 108334
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 56,
"score": 108030
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 57,
"score": 107107
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 58,
"score": 106730
},
{
"content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 59,
"score": 106479
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 60,
"score": 106427
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration and global environmental change (Report) Content: Migration and Global Environmental Change was a report about the influence of climate change on patterns of human migration and displacement published in 2011 . The report was produced by the Foresight unit at the UK 's Government Office of Science . It became known colloquially as ` The Foresight Report ' among people working in the field of climate-linked migration . The report was led by Professor Richard Black of Sussex University . The report was one of the first assessments of all the existing evidence and research on the connections between climate change and migration . The report authors also commissioned a number of new peer reviewed articles on migration and climate change , significant adding to the evidence base of the topic . The report attracted significant media attention on its release . The report was critical of previous predictions of the number of people who could be forced to move by climate change . It argued that making such numerical predictions was impossible because attributing climate change as the sole cause of someone 's migration was difficult . The report popularized the idea of trapped populations . The report argued that as well as being forced to move by climate change impacts , people might also be forced to stay where they are . The report drew on evidence showing that as people become poorer as a result of a degraded environment , they become less able to migrate . The idea of trapped populations had been present in the academic literature for sometime , however the media attention results from the release of the report brought the idea to a wider public for the first time . The report also popularized the idea of migration as climate change adaptation . Again , the authors drew on existing academic literature on the topic . They made the case that migration should be seen as a legitimate and empowering way for some people to adapt to the impacts of climate change .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Migration_and_global_environmental_change_(Report)",
"rank": 61,
"score": 106229
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 62,
"score": 105758
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Content: The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum ( CSLF ) is an international initiative to advance carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) technology . The Forum is a Ministerial-level organization that includes 23 member countries and the European Commission . Membership is open to national governmental entities that are significant producers or users of fossil fuel and that have a commitment to invest resources in research , development and demonstration activities in carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies . CSLF also recognizes that stakeholders , those organizations that are affected by and can affect the goals of CSLF , form an essential component of CSLF activities . The CSLF Charter , signed in June 2003 , organized the CSLF by creating a Policy Group , which governs the overall framework and policies of the CSLF , a Technical Group , which reviews the progress of collaborative projects and makes recommendations to the Policy Group on any needed actions , and an administrative Secretariat , which organizes CSLF meetings , coordinates communications among CSLF Members , and acts as a clearinghouse of information . In July 2005 , the G8 Summit endorsed the CSLF in its Plan of Action on Climate Change , Clean Energy and Sustainable Development , and identified it as a medium of cooperation and collaboration with key developing countries in dealing with greenhouse gases . Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include : the joint statement of the U.S.-European Union Summit on Energy Security , Energy Efficiency , Renewables and Economic Development , and the Mainz Declaration of Germany and the United States on Cleaner and More Efficient Energy , Development and Climate Change . In 2006 and 2007 , the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage . Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders . The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO2 capture , transport and storage research and activities .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum",
"rank": 63,
"score": 105653
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_Disclosure_Project",
"rank": 64,
"score": 105549
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 65,
"score": 105438
},
{
"content": "Title: China Carbon Forum Content: China Carbon Forum ( CCF ) is a non-profit organisation which aims to facilitate stakeholder dialogue in the climate change sector in the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , including environmental policy and the renewables , clean tech and Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) markets . CCF organizes events , including speaker/networking events , stakeholder consultations , and meetings with VIPs , to discuss current climate change issues affecting China . The latest series of events are the China Low Carbon Leadership Network series , jointly organized with GIZ . The organization is based in Beijing , China .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "China_Carbon_Forum",
"rank": 66,
"score": 105155
},
{
"content": "Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carnian_Pluvial_Event",
"rank": 67,
"score": 105083
},
{
"content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe",
"rank": 68,
"score": 104783
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs",
"rank": 69,
"score": 104764
},
{
"content": "Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Vatican_Climate_Forest",
"rank": 70,
"score": 104187
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Mexico Content: Mexico highly depends on the burning of its fossil fuels , and for the same reason , it is in its interest to look into mitigation solutions for its corresponding emissions . In the General Law on Climate Change on 2012 , Mexico promised to reduce 20 % of its GHG emissions by 2020 and 50 % by 2050 , as well as in the Paris Agreement . 19 % of the this new mitigation plan will be dedicated to carbon capture and storage and specifically 10 % to the energetic industry .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Mexico",
"rank": 71,
"score": 104172
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 72,
"score": 104172
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon War Room Content: The Carbon War Room ( CWR ) is an international non-governmental organization ( NGO ) and think tank working on issues regarding market-based solutions to climate change . While its main offices are in London , New York City and Washington , D.C. , Carbon War Room also has associates around the world . It was founded by Virgin Group CEO Richard Branson and merged with the Rocky Mountain Institute in December 2014 .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_War_Room",
"rank": 73,
"score": 104145
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Levy Content: The Climate Change Levy ( CCL ) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom . Its aim is to provide an incentive to increase energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions ; however , there have been ongoing calls to replace it with a proper carbon tax .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Levy",
"rank": 74,
"score": 104092
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 75,
"score": 103703
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 76,
"score": 103649
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 77,
"score": 103513
},
{
"content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Landfill_gas",
"rank": 78,
"score": 103332
},
{
"content": "Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 79,
"score": 103139
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Shift Content: Carbon Shift : How Peak Oil and the Climate Crisis Will Change Canada ( and Our Lives ) is a 2009 non-fiction book edited by Thomas Homer-Dixon and Nick Garrison that collects six essays that discusses the issues of peak oil and climate change . The book was first published in hardcover by Random House of Canada in 2009 under the title Carbon Shift : How the Twin Crises of Oil Depletion and Climate Change Will Define the Future , and became a national bestseller . In 2010 , the paperback was published by Vintage Canada , a division of Random House Canada , the sub-title then changing to How Peak Oil and the Climate Crisis Will Change Canada ( and Our Lives ) .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_Shift",
"rank": 80,
"score": 103138
},
{
"content": "Title: Mary Christina Wood Content: Mary Christina Wood ( born 1962 ) is an Oregon Philip H. Knight Professor of Law and author , best known for her writings advocating for the use of the Public trust doctrine to compel government action on climate change . Wood originated the approach , called atmospheric trust litigation , `` to hold governments worldwide accountable for reducing carbon pollution within their jurisdictions , and her research is being used in cases and petitions brought on behalf of children and youth throughout the United States and in other countries . '' In 2014 , after a number of atmospheric trust litigation and petitions were brought by young people worldwide , Forbes contributor James Conca wrote , '' ( i ) f the Supreme Court holds the government responsible for at least trying to protect our atmosphere , things could certainly change here in America . ''",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Mary_Christina_Wood",
"rank": 81,
"score": 103100
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 82,
"score": 102972
},
{
"content": "Title: Vote Climate U.S. PAC Content: Vote Climate U.S. PAC is an American super PAC founded in 2013 and directed by American political activist Karyn Strickler . Its mission is `` to elect candidates to get off fossil fuels , transition to clean , renewable energy and put a price on carbon , in order to slow global warming and related weather extremes . '' Strickler has named the implementation of a carbon tax as a principal goal . As a super PAC ( a type of political action committee ) , the organization can not contribute to candidates but can make independent expenditures on their behalf .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Vote_Climate_U.S._PAC",
"rank": 83,
"score": 102394
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_Code_Red",
"rank": 84,
"score": 102343
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 85,
"score": 102308
},
{
"content": "Title: London Climate Change Agency Content: The London Climate Change Agency Limited ( LCCA ) , was a municipal company owned by the London Development Agency ( LDA ) that worked in partnership with private sector companies ( notably EDF Energy ) to design , finance , construct , own and operate decentralised low energy and zero-carbon projects for London , as well as providing services to others . It operated in the areas of energy , water , waste and transport . In 2009 it was integrated into the London Development Agency The Agency was launched on 20 June 2005 to implement a manifesto commitment by Ken Livingstone in the 2004 elections for the Mayor of London . Its budget for 2006-07 is # 815,000 , 63 % of which is funded directly by the LDA . The Chief Executive Officer is Allan Jones , who previously led the development of the pioneering sustainable community energy system in Woking . The London Climate Change Agency plans to create a similar system for London . As of 2006 , London produces 7 % of the UK 's carbon emissions . The LCCA is seen as one of the key vehicles for delivering the Mayor 's energy strategy , which targets cuts in these emissions of 20 % by 2010 and 60 % by 2050 ( although achieving the first of these targets is unlikely ) . The Agency is also expected to play a role in ensuring that the London Olympic games are the first to be powered by low carbon technology .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "London_Climate_Change_Agency",
"rank": 86,
"score": 102189
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 87,
"score": 102134
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 88,
"score": 101936
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 89,
"score": 101820
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 90,
"score": 101803
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 91,
"score": 101709
},
{
"content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions",
"rank": 92,
"score": 101613
},
{
"content": "Title: G8 Climate Change Roundtable Content: The G8 Climate Change Roundtable was formed in January 2005 at the World Economic Forum in Davos , Switzerland . Its purpose was to address the global climate change issue facing governments , business and civil society . The first meeting was held in Gleneagles , Scotland , from 6 -- 8 July 2005 , to coincide with the 31st G8 summit . The roundtable was established by twenty-three leading international businesses with the assistance of G8 President and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair , to co-operatively engage in a global plan of action . The aim of the group was to ensure that a long-term policy framework was set up to enable consistent and transparent market-based solutions in mitigating climate change , while also addressing issues linked to climate change ; such as economic growth , poverty , and adequate energy supplies . Carbon trading is one of the most popular pricing mechanisms used to the reduce greenhouse emissions worldwide . The group devised a Framework for Action which called for technology incentive programs , the establishment of common metrics , for example in energy efficiency , and the expansion of emissions trading schemes . Some of the companies participating include Ford , British Airways , HSBC , EdF and BP . Now , the Climate Change Roundtable has a membership of 150 businesses spread across the globe . Environmentalists raised concerns that the body 's statement does not call for targets or include timetables . Friends of the Earth noted that the roundtable represented a major shift by the business community towards efforts to mitigate climate change .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "G8_Climate_Change_Roundtable",
"rank": 93,
"score": 101514
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 94,
"score": 101125
},
{
"content": "Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Christopher_Field",
"rank": 95,
"score": 100972
},
{
"content": "Title: Woodland Carbon Code Content: The Woodland Carbon Code is the UK standard for afforestation projects for climate change mitigation . It provides independent verification and validation and assurance about the levels of carbon sequestration from managed woodland and their contribution to climate change mitigation . The Code , which sets out project design and management requirements , was established in 2011 to promote best practice procedures for organisations wanting to create woodland to mitigate their carbon emissions . Compliance with the code means that woodland carbon projects are responsibly and sustainably managed to national standards ; will have reliable estimates for the amount of carbon that will be sequestered or locked up as a result of the tree planting ; be publicly registered and independently verified ; and meet transparent criteria and standards to ensure that real carbon benefits are delivered . Every Woodland Carbon Code project appears on the UK Register of Woodland Carbon Projects ; registry services are provided by Markit . All project developers and carbon buyers will have an account on the registry , which also contains project information and documentation , as well as the facility to list , track ownership and retire carbon units . Projects and their documentation are validated at the outset by a third party accredited by the UK Accreditation Service ( UKAS ) . An ongoing monitoring programme for the woodland will have also been agreed at the time of validation and projects will be verified by an accredited third party at regular intervals . Woodland Carbon Code projects generate Woodland Carbon Units , which once verified can be used by UK businesses to help compensate for their gross emissions .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Woodland_Carbon_Code",
"rank": 96,
"score": 100952
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 97,
"score": 100786
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 98,
"score": 100532
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006",
"rank": 99,
"score": 100506
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .",
"qid": "44",
"docid": "Climate_engineering",
"rank": 100,
"score": 100487
}
] |
CO2 does not cause climate change, it RESPONDS to it [...] | [
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 1,
"score": 141430
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 2,
"score": 131635
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 3,
"score": 119121
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_sensitivity",
"rank": 4,
"score": 118131
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 5,
"score": 116483
},
{
"content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Suess_effect",
"rank": 6,
"score": 115147
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 7,
"score": 114918
},
{
"content": "Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Timothy_Ball",
"rank": 8,
"score": 114887
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 9,
"score": 114142
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 10,
"score": 112828
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 11,
"score": 112579
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 12,
"score": 112218
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 13,
"score": 111275
},
{
"content": "Title: NoCO2 Certification Program Content: The NoCO2 Certification Program is a ` Climate Change actions ' certification scheme administered by Australia 's Carbon Reduction Institute",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "NoCO2_Certification_Program",
"rank": 14,
"score": 109620
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 15,
"score": 109591
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 16,
"score": 108211
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 17,
"score": 108024
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Dress Content: The Climate Dress was designed in 2009 by Danish design company Diffus Design in collaboration with the Swiss embroidery company Forster-Rohner , Alexandra Institute and the Danish School of Design . The Climate Dress is laced with hundreds of light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) that responds to the level of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the nearby surroundings and are powered through the conductive embroidery by an Arduino Lily pad microprocessor and a carbon dioxide detector , resulting in patterns that range from slow pulses to rapid flashes depending on the concentration of the CO2 . The Climate Dress does not rely on wiring , soldering , or crimping , which is often the case with smart textile products . All functional elements are blended into the embroidery and exposed to the viewer . The Climate Dress was presented at the Cop 15 Climate Summit in Copenhagen in 2009 , at the `` Health Environment Climate '' exhibition . In 2011 the Climate Dress won first prize in the Design That Performs contest , hosted by Samsung .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_Dress",
"rank": 18,
"score": 107728
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "CO2_is_Green",
"rank": 19,
"score": 107600
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 20,
"score": 107303
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 21,
"score": 106246
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 22,
"score": 106029
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 23,
"score": 105968
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 24,
"score": 105689
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 25,
"score": 104994
},
{
"content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Recycled_fuel",
"rank": 26,
"score": 104757
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 27,
"score": 103877
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 28,
"score": 103826
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 29,
"score": 102253
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 30,
"score": 101989
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Response Act 2002 Content: The Climate Change Response Act 2002 is an Act of Parliament passed by the government of New Zealand . The Climate Change Response Act 2002 created a legal framework for New Zealand to ratify the Kyoto Protocol and to meet obligations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . It sets out powers for the Minister of Finance to manage New Zealand 's holdings of Assigned amount units and to trade Kyoto-compliant emission units ( carbon credits ) on the international market . It establishes a registry to record holdings and transfers of emission units . It establishes a national inventory agency to record and report greenhouse gas emissions . The legislative purposes of the Climate Change Response Act 2002 are ; to enable New Zealand to meet its obligations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol , and , to provide for the a New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme for greenhouse gases that reduces net emissions below business-as-usual levels . The Climate Change Response ( Emissions Trading ) Amendment Act 2008 established the Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand 's version of the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme in September 2008 . Part 4 of the Climate Change Response Act sets out the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Response_Act_2002",
"rank": 31,
"score": 101770
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 32,
"score": 101285
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 33,
"score": 101181
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 34,
"score": 100787
},
{
"content": "Title: The Carbon Principles Content: The Carbon Principles are a series of guidelines established by three leading Wall Street banks -- Citigroup Inc. , JP Morgan Chase , and Morgan Stanley -- to assess the risks in financing electric power projects in terms of climate change . These principles call for `` enhanced diligence '' in evaluating electric power industry borrowers in terms of their use of energy efficiency ; renewable and low-carbon distributed energy technologies ; and conventional and advanced generating technologies . The Climate Principles are a similar framework for climate change best practice for the financial sector . This is a comprehensive industry framework for a response to climate change and has been adopted by Crédit Agricole , Munich Re , Standard Chartered , Swiss Re and HSBC",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "The_Carbon_Principles",
"rank": 35,
"score": 100460
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Michael_Raupach",
"rank": 36,
"score": 100409
},
{
"content": "Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Central_chemoreceptors",
"rank": 37,
"score": 99906
},
{
"content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Landfill_gas",
"rank": 38,
"score": 99752
},
{
"content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Scott_Denning",
"rank": 39,
"score": 99748
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England",
"rank": 40,
"score": 99717
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 41,
"score": 99712
},
{
"content": "Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 42,
"score": 99646
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_footprint",
"rank": 43,
"score": 99251
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 44,
"score": 98870
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme",
"rank": 45,
"score": 98842
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 46,
"score": 98835
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 47,
"score": 98523
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 48,
"score": 98378
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 49,
"score": 98060
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Act_2008",
"rank": 50,
"score": 98013
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 51,
"score": 97990
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 52,
"score": 97969
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon lock-in Content: Carbon lock-in refers to the self-perpetuating inertia created by large fossil fuel-based energy systems that inhibits public and private efforts to introduce alternative energy technologies . Related to the concept of technological lock-in , the concept is most used in relation to the challenge of altering the current energy infrastructure to respond to global climate change . The concept and term was first coined by Gregory C. Unruh in a 1999 Fletcher School , Tufts University doctoral thesis entitled `` Escaping Carbon Lock-In . '' It has since gained popularity in climate change policy discussions , especially those focused on preventing the globalization of carbon lock-in to rapidly industrializing countries like China and India . The source of carbon lock-in inertia in energy systems arises from the co-evolution of large interdependent technological networks and the social institutions and cultural practices that support and benefit from system growth . The growth of the system is fostered by increasing returns to scale .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_lock-in",
"rank": 53,
"score": 97712
},
{
"content": "Title: EU Allowances Content: EU Allowances are Climate credits ( or Carbon credits ) used in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . EU Allowances are issued by the EU Member States into Member State Registry accounts . By April 30 of each year , operators of installations covered by the EU ETS must surrender an EU Allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted in the previous year . Category : Carbon emissions in the European Union",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "EU_Allowances",
"rank": 54,
"score": 97609
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Levy Content: The Climate Change Levy ( CCL ) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom . Its aim is to provide an incentive to increase energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions ; however , there have been ongoing calls to replace it with a proper carbon tax .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Levy",
"rank": 55,
"score": 97546
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 56,
"score": 97405
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 57,
"score": 97127
},
{
"content": "Title: Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation Content: This article documents the debate over China 's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation and mitigation of climate change in China . Both internationally and within the People 's Republic of China , there has been an ongoing debate over China 's responsibilities , particularly since 2006 , when China surpassed the US as the country with the highest emissions rate for the main atmospheric gas in global warming , carbon dioxide ( CO2 )",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Debate_over_China's_economic_responsibilities_for_climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 58,
"score": 96418
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 59,
"score": 96374
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Response (Emissions Trading) Amendment Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Response ( Emissions Trading ) Amendment Act 2008 was a statute enacted in September 2008 by the Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand that established the first version of the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , a national all-sectors all-greenhouse gases uncapped and highly internationally linked emissions trading scheme .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Response_(Emissions_Trading)_Amendment_Act_2008",
"rank": 60,
"score": 96347
},
{
"content": "Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Chicago_Climate_Exchange",
"rank": 61,
"score": 96247
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 62,
"score": 96112
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 63,
"score": 95646
},
{
"content": "Title: Co-benefits of climate change mitigation Content: Co-benefits of climate change mitigation as defined in the 4th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change are the positive benefits related to the reduction of greenhouse gases . Examples of such climate mitigation policies include improved energy efficiency of plants , renewable energy uptake and fuel switching which might enable a range of co-benefits such as air-pollution impacts , technological innovation , energy-supply security through increased energy diversity , reduced fuel cost and employment possibilities .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 64,
"score": 95587
},
{
"content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "James_Hansen",
"rank": 65,
"score": 95322
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon literacy Content: Carbon Literacy is a term used to describe an awareness of climate change and the climate impacts of mankind 's everyday actions . The term has been used in a range of contexts in scientific literature and in casual usage ( see Research ) , but is most associated with The Carbon Literacy Project ( CLP ) .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_literacy",
"rank": 66,
"score": 95211
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 67,
"score": 94938
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006",
"rank": 68,
"score": 94577
},
{
"content": "Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 69,
"score": 94490
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes",
"rank": 70,
"score": 94443
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 71,
"score": 94070
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding",
"rank": 72,
"score": 93907
},
{
"content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance",
"rank": 73,
"score": 93746
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 74,
"score": 93717
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_engineering",
"rank": 75,
"score": 93459
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Authority",
"rank": 76,
"score": 93356
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 77,
"score": 93014
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 78,
"score": 92995
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning",
"rank": 79,
"score": 92920
},
{
"content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Politics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 80,
"score": 92698
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 81,
"score": 92612
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 82,
"score": 92290
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_Zealand",
"rank": 83,
"score": 92286
},
{
"content": "Title: China Carbon Forum Content: China Carbon Forum ( CCF ) is a non-profit organisation which aims to facilitate stakeholder dialogue in the climate change sector in the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , including environmental policy and the renewables , clean tech and Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) markets . CCF organizes events , including speaker/networking events , stakeholder consultations , and meetings with VIPs , to discuss current climate change issues affecting China . The latest series of events are the China Low Carbon Leadership Network series , jointly organized with GIZ . The organization is based in Beijing , China .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "China_Carbon_Forum",
"rank": 84,
"score": 92033
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry",
"rank": 85,
"score": 91997
},
{
"content": "Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Evangelical_Climate_Initiative",
"rank": 86,
"score": 91645
},
{
"content": "Title: G8 Climate Change Roundtable Content: The G8 Climate Change Roundtable was formed in January 2005 at the World Economic Forum in Davos , Switzerland . Its purpose was to address the global climate change issue facing governments , business and civil society . The first meeting was held in Gleneagles , Scotland , from 6 -- 8 July 2005 , to coincide with the 31st G8 summit . The roundtable was established by twenty-three leading international businesses with the assistance of G8 President and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair , to co-operatively engage in a global plan of action . The aim of the group was to ensure that a long-term policy framework was set up to enable consistent and transparent market-based solutions in mitigating climate change , while also addressing issues linked to climate change ; such as economic growth , poverty , and adequate energy supplies . Carbon trading is one of the most popular pricing mechanisms used to the reduce greenhouse emissions worldwide . The group devised a Framework for Action which called for technology incentive programs , the establishment of common metrics , for example in energy efficiency , and the expansion of emissions trading schemes . Some of the companies participating include Ford , British Airways , HSBC , EdF and BP . Now , the Climate Change Roundtable has a membership of 150 businesses spread across the globe . Environmentalists raised concerns that the body 's statement does not call for targets or include timetables . Friends of the Earth noted that the roundtable represented a major shift by the business community towards efforts to mitigate climate change .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "G8_Climate_Change_Roundtable",
"rank": 87,
"score": 90706
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 88,
"score": 90405
},
{
"content": "Title: Territorial Approach to Climate Change Content: The Territorial Approach to Climate Change ( TACC ) works with local level governments ( states , provinces , cities , municipalities ) in developing countries and countries in transition to increase resilience to climate change impact and reduce their carbon footprint . The TACC is a partnership of five agencies that includes UNEP , UNDP , UNITAR , UN-Habitat and UNCDF . TACC as a global action came into existence after the Saint Malo Declaration . Sub-national authorities recognised that urgent and collective action was needed to respond appropriately to climate change . The United Nations recognised that most investments to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions and adapt to climate change take place at the sub-national and local levels . Developing the capacity of sub-national governments in low income countries to create conditions that reduce the perceived investments risks and access new sources of environmental finance was seen as key to addressing climate change . Phase 1 of the programme - Awareness raising and training - was led by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) . Phase 2 - Analysis , assessment and action plan - was led by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . Phase 3 - Projects - was also led by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . Initial projects under TACC were conducted in : Uganda Uruguay ( the pilot project ) Albania Algeria Colombia Ethiopia Peru Senegal",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Territorial_Approach_to_Climate_Change",
"rank": 89,
"score": 90330
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator",
"rank": 90,
"score": 89869
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming",
"rank": 91,
"score": 89857
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Shift Content: Carbon Shift : How Peak Oil and the Climate Crisis Will Change Canada ( and Our Lives ) is a 2009 non-fiction book edited by Thomas Homer-Dixon and Nick Garrison that collects six essays that discusses the issues of peak oil and climate change . The book was first published in hardcover by Random House of Canada in 2009 under the title Carbon Shift : How the Twin Crises of Oil Depletion and Climate Change Will Define the Future , and became a national bestseller . In 2010 , the paperback was published by Vintage Canada , a division of Random House Canada , the sub-title then changing to How Peak Oil and the Climate Crisis Will Change Canada ( and Our Lives ) .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_Shift",
"rank": 92,
"score": 89856
},
{
"content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction",
"rank": 93,
"score": 89660
},
{
"content": "Title: Mars Surveyor '98 program Content: The Mars Surveyor '98 program comprised two spacecraft launched separately , the Mars Climate Orbiter ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter ) and the Mars Polar Lander ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander ) ; on board the Mars Polar Lander spacecraft were two surface-penetrator probes ( Deep Space 2 ) . The two missions were to study the Martian weather , climate , water and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) budget , to understand the reservoirs , behavior , and atmospheric role of volatiles and to search for evidence of long-term and episodic climate changes . Both spacecraft were launched during the 1998 Mars orbit insertion launch window . Both were lost , including the penetrator probes .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Mars_Surveyor_'98_program",
"rank": 94,
"score": 89473
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 95,
"score": 89133
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 96,
"score": 89128
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 97,
"score": 89116
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon War Room Content: The Carbon War Room ( CWR ) is an international non-governmental organization ( NGO ) and think tank working on issues regarding market-based solutions to climate change . While its main offices are in London , New York City and Washington , D.C. , Carbon War Room also has associates around the world . It was founded by Virgin Group CEO Richard Branson and merged with the Rocky Mountain Institute in December 2014 .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Carbon_War_Room",
"rank": 98,
"score": 89099
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Hypercapnia",
"rank": 99,
"score": 89030
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "51",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 100,
"score": 89016
}
] |
[T]he raw data, the actual thermometer data[...] shows that the US has been cooling for 80 to 90 years. | [
{
"content": "Title: Raw data Content: Raw data , also known as primary data , is data ( e.g. , numbers , instrument readings , figures , etc. ) collected from a source . If a scientist sets up a computerized thermometer which records the temperature of a chemical mixture in a test tube every minute , the list of temperature readings for every minute , as printed out on a spreadsheet or viewed on a computer screen is `` raw data '' . Raw data has not been subjected to processing , `` cleaning '' by researchers to remove outliers , obvious instrument reading errors or data entry errors , or any analysis ( e.g. , determining central tendency aspects such as the average or median result ) . As well , raw data has not been subject to any other manipulation by a software program or a human researcher , analyst or technician . It is also referred to as primary data . Raw data is a relative term ( see data ) , because even once raw data has been `` cleaned '' and processed by one team of researchers , another team may consider this processed data to be `` raw data '' for another stage of research . Raw data can be inputted to a computer program or used in manual procedures such as analyzing statistics from a survey . The term `` raw data '' can refer to the binary data on electronic storage devices , such as hard disk drives ( also referred to as `` low-level data '' ) .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Raw_data",
"rank": 1,
"score": 109612
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 2,
"score": 105503
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 3,
"score": 100098
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy",
"rank": 4,
"score": 94724
},
{
"content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event",
"rank": 5,
"score": 94465
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record Content: For extreme records instead of records as a set of data , see List of weather records The temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time . The most detailed information exists since 1850 , when methodical thermometer-based records began . There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation , particularly during the current Holocene epoch . Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Temperature_record",
"rank": 6,
"score": 93653
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 7,
"score": 93321
},
{
"content": "Title: Recording thermometer Content: A recording thermometer is a type of thermometer that records temperature changes over a period of time . One end of the strip is attached to a long , light metal lever that holds a special pen . Tiny movement of the bimetallic strip causes much larger movement of the free end of the lever and the pen . The pen traces a rising and falling line on a strip of paper attached to a slowly turning drum . The drum usually makes one turn every seven or so days , so afterwards each strip of paper contains a complete and accurate record of temperature changes for a whole week . There are normally two types of metal on the bimetallic strip . Mostly one is steel and one is copper . Because these metals expand and contract at different rates.When one of these metals expand it curls tighter , when one contracts it uncurl slightly . When it curls or uncurls , the data is converted into electric signals , which record the temperature change . Category : Thermometers",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Recording_thermometer",
"rank": 8,
"score": 93051
},
{
"content": "Title: Typical meteorological year Content: A typical meteorological year ( TMY ) is a collation of selected weather data for a specific location , generated from a data bank much longer than a year in duration . It is specially selected so that it presents the range of weather phenomena for the location in question , while still giving annual averages that are consistent with the long-term averages for the location in question . TMY data is frequently used in building simulation , in order to assess the expected heating and cooling costs for the design of the building . It is also used by designers of solar energy systems including solar domestic hot water systems and large scale solar thermal power plants . The first TMY collection was based on 229 locations in the US and was collected between 1948 and 1980 . The second edition of the TMY is called `` TMY 2 '' . It is based on 239 stations collecting data between 1961 and 1990 . The TMY2 data include Precipitable water column ( precipitable moisture ) , which is important in predicting radiative cooling . The third , and latest TMY collection ( TMY3 ) was based on data for 1020 locations in the USA including Guam , Puerto Rico , and US Virgin Islands , derived from a 1976-2005 period of record where available , and a 1991-2005 period of record for all other locations . The TMYs are data sets of hourly values of solar radiation and meteorological elements for a 1-year period . Their intended use is for computer simulations of solar energy conversion systems and building systems to facilitate performance comparisons of different system types , configurations , and locations in the United States and its territories . Because they represent typical rather than extreme conditions , they are not suited for designing systems to meet the worst-case conditions occurring at a location . The source data are available for download from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory . Commercial software packages supporting simulations using TMY data include TRNSYS , PV * SOL and PVscout PVSyst . TMY data specific for specific locations will usually need to be paid for . On the other hand , an advanced , comprehensive , and free simulation package developed under funding from the US Department of Energy called EnergyPlus also reads TMY3 data files , and a large number of these are available at no cost from their website . NREL provides access to TMY2 and TMY3 data sets and also uses these data sets in its online solar energy calculator PVWatts . A complete and comprehensive review of weather files , including TMY , can be found in Herrera et al. , 2017 .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Typical_meteorological_year",
"rank": 9,
"score": 92416
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermotunnel cooling Content: Thermotunnel cooling is similar to thermionic emission cooling in that fast moving electrons carry heat across a gap but can not return due to a voltage difference . The problem with using thermal electrons to carry heat is the fact that , due to the high work function of metals , which are the only practical emitters , the lowest cooling temperate is around 600 ° C - clearly not useful except in the most unusual applications . Thermotunnel cooling avoids this problem by making the gap narrow enough that electrons can tunnel across the gap , carrying the heat with them . The problem with this approach has been getting two surfaces near enough that they can tunnel over a large area , yet not touch at any point , which would short the device out preventing it from doing any useful cooling .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Thermotunnel_cooling",
"rank": 10,
"score": 91603
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network",
"rank": 11,
"score": 90971
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold wave Content: A cold wave ( known in some regions as a cold snap ) is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling of the air . Specifically , as used by the U.S. National Weather Service , a cold wave is a rapid fall in temperature within a 24-hour period requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture , industry , commerce , and social activities . The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the rate at which the temperature falls , and the minimum to which it falls . This minimum temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year . In the United States , a cold spell is defined as the national average high temperature dropping below 20 F.",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cold_wave",
"rank": 12,
"score": 90629
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermometer Content: A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient . A thermometer has two important elements : ( 1 ) a temperature sensor ( e.g. the bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer ) in which some physical change occurs with temperature , and ( 2 ) some means of converting this physical change into a numerical value ( e.g. the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass thermometer ) . Thermometers are widely used in industry to control and regulate processes , in the study of weather , in medicine , and in scientific research . There are various principles by which different thermometers operate . They include the thermal expansion of solids or liquids with temperature , and the change in pressure of a gas on heating or cooling . Radiation-type thermometers measure the infrared energy emitted by an object , allowing measurement of temperature without contact . Most metals are good conductors of heat and they are solids at room temperature . Mercury is the only one in liquid state at room temperature , and has high coefficient of expansion . Hence , the slightest change in temperature is notable when it 's used in a thermometer . This is the reason behind mercury and alcohol being used in thermometer . Some of the principles of the thermometer were known to Greek philosophers of two thousand years ago . The modern thermometer gradually evolved from the thermoscope with the addition of a scale in the early 17th century and standardisation through the 17th and 18th centuries .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Thermometer",
"rank": 13,
"score": 90436
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 14,
"score": 90321
},
{
"content": "Title: Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal Content: The Huelmo -- Mascardi Cold Reversal ( HMCR ) is a cooling event in South America between 11,400 and 10,200 14C years BP . This cooling began about 550 years before the Younger Dryas cooling in the Northern Hemisphere , and both periods ended at about the same time . The event was given its name from the Huelmo , Chile , and Mascardi Lake , Argentina ( Nahuel Huapi National Park ) sites where it was detected and dated . The HMCR cooling event began with the accentuation of a cooling period which began 12,400 14C yr BP . The 11,400 14C yr BP ( 13,400 calendar years BP ) event onset took place 400 -- 700 years before the onset of the Younger Dryas event . The 10,200 14C yr BP ( circa 11,500 cal yr BP ) end date is difficult to calibrate to a calendar year because it took place during a radiocarbon age plateau . The end of the HMCR also marked the end of the cooling period .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Huelmo–Mascardi_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 15,
"score": 90217
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling-off period (consumer rights) Content: In consumer rights legislation and practice , a cooling-off period is a period of time following a purchase when the purchaser may choose to cancel a purchase , and return goods which have been supplied , for any reason , and obtain a full refund . Many retailers will voluntarily allow a purchaser a cooling-off period , which encourages reduced-risk impulse purchases . In addition , legislation exists in various parts of the world enforcing this right , to varying degrees . For example , in the European Union , the Consumer Rights Directive of 2011 obliges member states to give purchasers the right to return goods or cancel services purchased from a business away from a normal commercial premises , such as online , mail order , or door-to-door , with limited exceptions , within two weeks or one year if the seller did not clearly inform the purchaser of their rights from the receipt of the goods , for a full refund . The Consumer Rights Directive is implemented in the United Kingdom by the Consumer Contracts ( information , Cancellation and Additional Charges ) Regulations 2013 .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cooling-off_period_(consumer_rights)",
"rank": 16,
"score": 90123
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 Southwestern United States heat wave Content: The 2013 Southwestern United States heat wave occurred in late June to early July 2013 , lasting from around four days to a week locally . Daily highs were up to 15 ° C ( 26 ° F ) above average , with relative humidity below 15 % . Many locations experienced temperatures over 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . 46 monthly record high temperatures were reached or broken , and 21 records for the highest overnight temperatures were reached or broken .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "2013_Southwestern_United_States_heat_wave",
"rank": 17,
"score": 89756
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermostat Content: A thermostat is a component which senses the temperature of a system so that the system 's temperature is maintained near a desired setpoint . A thermostat can often be the main control unit for a heating or cooling system , in applications ranging from ambient air control , to such as automotive coolant control , but is also used in many other applications , such as an electric clothes iron . It is a `` closed loop '' control device , as it seeks to reduce the error between the desired and measured temperatures . Sometimes a thermostat combines both the sensing and control action elements of a controlled system , such as in an automotive thermostat .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Thermostat",
"rank": 18,
"score": 89673
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 19,
"score": 89108
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 20,
"score": 88130
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 21,
"score": 87922
},
{
"content": "Title: Hilotherapy Content: Hilotherapy is a continuous-flow therapy that may be used as thermotherapy for warming or as cryotherapy for cooling . A device ( Hilotherm ) provides exactly the selected temperature between 10 ° C and 38 ° C . This temperature is applied to the patient by face masks or body cuffs .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Hilotherapy",
"rank": 22,
"score": 87443
},
{
"content": "Title: Sure Chill Technology Content: Sure Chill is a cooling technology which is currently being used in medical refrigerators , but has wider potential in the future for domestic refrigerators and beverage coolers . According to BBC , the refrigerator ` can stay at 4C for more than 10 days without power , and is used mainly in Africa ' to store vaccines and other medical supplies . It can be powered by electricity or solar and uses the physics of water to store energy , thus not relying on batteries . http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/business/industries/technology/article4086699.ece In 2013 the technology that uses an ice-mass to maintain refrigerator temperature without power won a $ 100,000 research award from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation . In 2014 , the company was awarded a further $ 1.4 Million from the Gates Foundation to develop a life-saving vaccine cooler as part of the foundation 's goal to eliminate preventable diseases worldwide .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Sure_Chill_Technology",
"rank": 23,
"score": 87194
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermoreceptor Content: A thermoreceptor is a non-specialised sense receptor , or more accurately the receptive portion of a sensory neuron , that codes absolute and relative changes in temperature , primarily within the innocuous range . In the mammalian peripheral nervous system , warmth receptors are thought to be unmyelinated C-fibres ( low conduction velocity ) , while those responding to cold have both C-fibers and thinly myelinated A delta fibers ( faster conduction velocity ) . The adequate stimulus for a warm receptor is warming , which results in an increase in their action potential discharge rate . Cooling results in a decrease in warm receptor discharge rate . For cold receptors their firing rate increases during cooling and decreases during warming . Some cold receptors also respond with a brief action potential discharge to high temperatures , i.e. typically above 45 ° C , and this is known as a paradoxical response to heat . The mechanism responsible for this behavior has not been determined . In humans , temperature sensation enters the spinal cord along the axons of Lissauer 's tract that synapse on second order neurons in grey matter of the dorsal horn , one or two vertebral levels up . The axons of these second order neurons then decussate , joining the spinothalamic tract as they ascend to neurons in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Thermoreceptor",
"rank": 24,
"score": 86950
},
{
"content": "Title: Nest Learning Thermostat Content: The Nest Learning Thermostat by Nest Labs is an electronic , programmable , and self-learning Wi-Fi-enabled thermostat that optimizes heating and cooling of homes and businesses to conserve energy . It is based on a machine learning algorithm : For the first weeks users have to regulate the thermostat in order to provide the reference data set . Nest can then learn people 's schedule , at which temperature they are used to and when . Using built-in sensors and phones ' locations it can shift into energy saving mode when it realizes nobody is at home .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Nest_Learning_Thermostat",
"rank": 25,
"score": 86612
},
{
"content": "Title: Programme for International Student Assessment (2000 to 2012) Content: The Programme for International Student Assessment has had several runs before the most recent one in 2012 . The first PISA assessment was carried out in 2000 . The results of each period of assessment take about one year and a half to be analysed . First results were published in November 2001 . The release of raw data and the publication of technical report and data handbook only took place in spring 2002 . The triennial repeats follow a similar schedule ; the process of seeing through a single PISA cycle , start-to-finish , always takes over four years . 470,000 15-year-old students representing 65 nations and territories participated in PISA 2009 . An additional 50,000 students representing nine nations were tested in 2010 . Every period of assessment focuses on one of the three competence fields of reading , math , science ; but the two others are tested as well . After nine years , a full cycle is completed : after 2000 , reading was again the main domain in 2009 .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Programme_for_International_Student_Assessment_(2000_to_2012)",
"rank": 26,
"score": 86441
},
{
"content": "Title: Algorithmic cooling Content: Algorithmic cooling is an algorithmic method for transferring heat ( or entropy ) from some qubits to others or outside the system and into the environment , which results in a cooling effect . This method uses regular quantum operations on ensembles of qubits , and it can be shown that it can succeed beyond Shannon 's bound on data compression . The phenomenon is a result of the connection between thermodynamics and information theory . The cooling itself is done in an algorithmic manner using ordinary quantum operations . The input is a set of qubits , and the output is a subset of qubits cooled to a desired threshold determined by the user . This cooling effect may have usages in initializing cold ( highly pure ) qubits for quantum computation and in increasing polarization of certain spins in nuclear magnetic resonance . Therefore , it can be used in the initializing process taking place before a regular quantum computation .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Algorithmic_cooling",
"rank": 27,
"score": 86208
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling center Content: A cooling center is a air-conditioned public space set up by local authorities to temporarily deal with the health effects of a heat wave . Cooling centers are meant to prevent hyperthermia caused by heat , humidity , and poor air quality . Cooling centers provide shade , water , and restrooms ; medical attention and referrals to social services may also be offered . Their services are aimed at the homeless , at-risk populations such as the elderly , and those without air conditioning . As the danger of heat waves has risen in the public consciousness , cooling centers are increasingly used in cities such as New York City , Chicago , Boston , and Toronto , as well as less urban population areas . Cooling centers may also be used in places like Seattle where home air conditioning is rare but summer can bring temperatures exceeding 90 F for several days . They are usually sited at multiple locations throughout a municipality , such as public libraries , community centers , senior centers , and police stations . Another health measure sometimes taken during heat waves is to extend operational hours at public beaches and swimming pools .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cooling_center",
"rank": 28,
"score": 85976
},
{
"content": "Title: World's tallest thermometer Content: The World 's Tallest Thermometer is a landmark located in Baker , California , USA . It is an electric sign that commemorates the record 134 degrees Fahrenheit ( 57 degrees Celsius ) recorded in nearby Death Valley on July 10 , 1913 . The sign weighs 76812 lb and is held together by 125 cuyd of concrete . It stands 134 ft tall and is capable of displaying a maximum temperature of 134 F , both of which are a reference to the temperature record .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "World's_tallest_thermometer",
"rank": 29,
"score": 85629
},
{
"content": "Title: Six's thermometer Content: Six 's thermometer is a registering thermometer which can record the maximum and minimum temperatures reached over a period of time , for example 24 hours . It is used to record the extremes of temperature at a location , for instance in meteorology and horticulture . It was invented by a British scientist James Six , born in Canterbury , in 1780 ; the same basic design remains in use . It is also commonly known as a maximum -- minimum , minimum -- maximum , maxima -- minima or minima -- maxima thermometer , of which it is the earliest practical design . The thermometer indicates the current temperature , and the highest and lowest temperatures since last reset .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Six's_thermometer",
"rank": 30,
"score": 85075
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 31,
"score": 84708
},
{
"content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years",
"rank": 32,
"score": 84637
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermoelectric cooling Content: Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux between the junction of two different types of materials . A Peltier cooler , heater , or thermoelectric heat pump is a solid-state active heat pump which transfers heat from one side of the device to the other , with consumption of electrical energy , depending on the direction of the current . Such an instrument is also called a Peltier device , Peltier heat pump , solid state refrigerator , or thermoelectric cooler ( TEC ) . It can be used either for heating or for cooling , although in practice the main application is cooling . It can also be used as a temperature controller that either heats or cools . This technology is far less commonly applied to refrigeration than vapor-compression refrigeration is . The primary advantages of a Peltier cooler compared to a vapor-compression refrigerator are its lack of moving parts or circulating liquid , very long life , invulnerability to leaks , small size , and flexible shape . Its main disadvantages are high cost and poor power efficiency . Many researchers and companies are trying to develop Peltier coolers that are cheap and efficient . ( See Thermoelectric materials . ) A Peltier cooler can also be used as a thermoelectric generator . When operated as a cooler , a voltage is applied across the device , and as a result , a difference in temperature will build up between the two sides . When operated as a generator , one side of the device is heated to a temperature greater than the other side , and as a result , a difference in voltage will build up between the two sides ( the Seebeck effect ) . However , a well-designed Peltier cooler will be a mediocre thermoelectric generator and vice versa , due to different design and packaging requirements .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Thermoelectric_cooling",
"rank": 33,
"score": 84211
},
{
"content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer",
"rank": 34,
"score": 84113
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 35,
"score": 83912
},
{
"content": "Title: Central England temperature Content: The Central England Temperature ( CET ) record is a meteorological dataset originally published by Professor Gordon Manley in 1953 and subsequently extended and updated in 1974 , following many decades of painstaking work . The monthly mean surface air temperatures , for the Midlands region of England , are given ( in degrees Celsius ) from the year 1659 to the present . This record represents the longest series of monthly temperature observations in existence . It is a valuable dataset for meteorologists and climate scientists . It is monthly from 1659 , and a daily version has been produced from 1772 . The monthly means from November 1722 onwards are given to a precision of 0.1 ° C . The earliest years of the series , from 1659 to October 1722 inclusive , for the most part only have monthly means given to the nearest degree or half a degree , though there is a small ` window ' of 0.1 degree precision from 1699 to 1706 inclusive . This reflects the number , accuracy , reliability and geographical spread of the temperature records that were available for the years in question .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Central_England_temperature",
"rank": 36,
"score": 83727
},
{
"content": "Title: Gentherm Incorporated Content: Gentherm Incorporated , formerly called Amerigon , created the first thermoelectrically heated and cooled seat system for the automotive industry . Called the `` Climate Control Seat '' system , it was first adopted by the Ford Motor Company and introduced as an option on the model year 2000 Lincoln Navigator in 1999 . Today it is available on more than 50 vehicles sold by Ford , General Motors , Toyota ( Lexus ) , Kia , Hyundai , Nissan ( Infinity ) , Range Rover and Jaguar Land Rover . The company today is a developer and marketer of thermal management technologies for heating and cooling and temperature control devices for a variety of industries . Gentherm is publicly traded on Nasdaq under the symbol THRM and is headquartered in Northville , MI . Gentherm 's thermoelectric technologies are based on the Peltier Effect , the 1834 discovery that passing an electric current through a sandwich of two dissimilar metals will make them hot on one side and cold ( the lack of heat ) on the other . Since 2005 , Gentherm has been partnering with BMW and Ford on a project that is backed by the U.S. Department of Energy focused on the development of an automotive thermoelectric generator ( ATEG ) that converts waste exhaust heat into electrical power based on the Seebeck Effect . A prototype of the ATEG was named one of the most promising innovations for 2012 by Car and Driver magazine . In December 2014 the company announced that it will open a new automotive plant in Prilep , Macedonia and that will employ 1,000 people . This is Gentherm 's first facility in Macedonia .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Gentherm_Incorporated",
"rank": 37,
"score": 82977
},
{
"content": "Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans",
"rank": 38,
"score": 82973
},
{
"content": "Title: Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit Content: Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit featured in press discussions of disputes over access to data from instrumental temperature records , particularly during the Climatic Research Unit email controversy which began in November 2009 . The UK Freedom of Information Act ( FOIA ) came into effect in 2005 , and FOI requests were made to the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) for the raw data from weather stations used in developing instrumental temperature record datasets , for copies of agreements under which the raw data was obtained from meteorology institutions , and also for email correspondence relating to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report . In many cases the raw data which CRU had obtained from National Meteorological Organisations was subject to restrictions on redistribution : on 12 August 2009 CRU announced that they were seeking permission to waive these restrictions , and on 24 November 2009 the university stated that over 95 % of the CRU climate data set had already been available for several years , with the remainder to be released when permissions were obtained . In a decision announced on 27 July 2011 the Information Commissioner 's Office ( ICO ) required release of raw data even though permissions had not been obtained or in one instance had been refused , and on 27 July 2011 CRU announced release of the raw instrumental data not already in the public domain , with the exception of Poland which was outside the area covered by the FOIA request . A 2008 FOI request by David Holland for emails discussing work on the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report was refused by the university . In November 2009 he alleged that CRU emails posted online discussed deleting the emails he had requested : in January 2010 the Deputy Information Commissioner told a journalist that this indicated an offence under section 77 of the FOIA , but prosecution was time-barred by statute of limitations . Newspapers misrepresented this as a decision in relation to raw data , and the issue was discussed by the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee inquiry , which found there had been a lack of openness . The ICO decision published on 7 July 2010 stated that this potential offence had not been investigated as it was time-barred . As Holland was content not to proceed with his complaint against the university , no further action was needed , but the ICO would `` consider whether further action is appropriate to secure future compliance . '' In September 2011 the ICO issued new guidance to universities . This described exceptions and exemptions to protect research , including allowance for internal exchange of views between academics and researchers free from external scrutiny , as well as commending actively disclosing information when it is in the public interest .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Freedom_of_Information_requests_to_the_Climatic_Research_Unit",
"rank": 39,
"score": 82711
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest Content: Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest ( DHCA ) is a surgical technique that involves cooling the body to temperatures below 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , and stopping blood circulation and brain function for up to one hour . It is used when blood circulation to the brain must be stopped because of delicate surgery within the brain , or because of surgery on large blood vessels that lead to or from the brain . DHCA is a form of carefully managed clinical death in which heartbeat and all brain activity cease . At normal body temperature of 37 ° C only several minutes of stopped blood circulation causes changes within the brain leading to permanent damage after circulation is restored . Reducing body temperature extends the time interval that such stoppage can be survived . At a brain temperature of 14 ° C , blood circulation can be safely stopped for 30 to 40 minutes . There is an increased incidence of brain injury at times longer than 40 minutes , but sometimes circulatory arrest for up to 60 minutes is used if life-saving surgery requires it . Infants tolerate longer periods of DHCA than adults . Applications of DHCA include repairs of the aortic arch , repairs to head and neck great vessels , repair of large cerebral aneurysms , repair of cerebral arteriovenous malformations , pulmonary thromboendarterectomy , and resection of tumors that have invaded the vena cava .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Deep_hypothermic_circulatory_arrest",
"rank": 40,
"score": 82442
},
{
"content": "Title: Wet-bulb temperature Content: The wet-bulb temperature is the temperature a parcel of air would have if it were cooled to saturation ( 100 % relative humidity ) by the evaporation of water into it , with the latent heat being supplied by the parcel . A wet-bulb thermometer will indicate a temperature close to the true ( thermodynamic ) wet-bulb temperature . The wet-bulb temperature is the lowest temperature that can be reached under current ambient conditions by the evaporation of water only . Ambient pressure Wet-bulb temperature is largely determined by both actual air temperature ( dry-bulb temperature ) and the amount of moisture in the air ( humidity ) . At 100 % relative humidity , the wet-bulb temperature equals the dry-bulb temperature .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Wet-bulb_temperature",
"rank": 41,
"score": 82377
},
{
"content": "Title: Engine coolant temperature sensor Content: The coolant temperature sensor is used to measure the temperature of the engine coolant of an internal combustion engine . The readings from this sensor are then fed back to the engine control unit ( ECU ) , which uses this data to adjust the fuel injection and ignition timing . On some vehicles the sensor may also be used to switch on the electric cooling fan . The data may also be used to provide readings for a coolant temperature gauge on the dashboard .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Engine_coolant_temperature_sensor",
"rank": 42,
"score": 82374
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 43,
"score": 81938
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Biz campaign Content: The Cool Biz campaign is a Japanese campaign initiated by the Japanese Ministry of the Environment from summer 2005 as a means to help reduce Japanese electricity consumption by limiting the use of air conditioning . This was enabled by changing the standard office air conditioner temperature to 28 ° C ( or about 82 ° F ) and introducing a liberal summer dress code in the bureaucracy of the Japanese government so staff could work in the warmer temperature . The campaign then spread to the private sector . This idea was proposed by the then-Minister Yuriko Koike under the cabinet of Prime Minister Junichirō Koizumi . Initially the campaign was from June to September , but from 2011 , when there were electricity shortages after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami it was lengthened . It now runs from May to October .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cool_Biz_campaign",
"rank": 44,
"score": 81493
},
{
"content": "Title: Total air temperature Content: In aviation , stagnation temperature is known as total air temperature and is measured by a temperature probe mounted on the surface of the aircraft . The probe is designed to bring the air to rest relative to the aircraft . As the air is brought to rest , kinetic energy is converted to internal energy . The air is compressed and experiences an adiabatic increase in temperature . Therefore total air temperature is higher than the static ( or ambient ) air temperature . Total air temperature is an essential input to an air data computer in order to enable computation of static air temperature and hence true airspeed . The relationship between static and total air temperatures is given by : where : static air temperature , SAT ( kelvins or degrees Rankine ) total air temperature , TAT ( kelvins or degrees Rankine ) Mach number ratio of specific heats , approx 1.400 for dry air In practice , the total air temperature probe will not perfectly recover the energy of the airflow , and the temperature rise may not be entirely due to adiabatic process . In this case , an empirical recovery factor ( less than 1 ) may be introduced to compensate : ( 1 ) : Where : e = recovery factor ( also noted Ct ) Typical recovery factors Platinum wire ratiometer thermometer ( `` flush bulb type '' ) : e ≈ 0.75 - 0.9 Double platinum tube ratiometer thermometer ( `` TAT probe '' ) : e ≈ 1 Other notations Total air temperature ( TAT ) is also called : indicated air temperature ( IAT ) or ram air temperature ( RAT ) Static air temperature ( SAT ) is also called : outside air temperature ( OAT ) or true air temperature",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Total_air_temperature",
"rank": 45,
"score": 81440
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature Content: A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold . It is measured by a thermometer . Several scales and units exist for measuring temperature , the most common being Celsius ( denoted ° C ; formerly called centigrade ) , Fahrenheit ( denoted ° F ) , and , especially in science , Kelvin ( denoted K ) . The coldest theoretical temperature is absolute zero , at which the thermal motion of atoms and molecules reaches its minimum -- classically , this would be a state of motionlessness , but quantum uncertainty dictates that the particles still possess a finite zero-point energy . Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale , − 273.15 ° C on the Celsius scale , and − 459.67 ° F on the Fahrenheit scale . The kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies , especially of fluids . It indicates the absolute temperature as proportional to the average kinetic energy of the random microscopic motions of those of their constituent microscopic particles , such as electrons , atoms , and molecules , that move freely within the material . Temperature is important in all fields of natural science including physics , geology , chemistry , atmospheric sciences , medicine and biology as well as most aspects of daily life .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Temperature",
"rank": 46,
"score": 80855
},
{
"content": "Title: Hekla 3 eruption Content: The Hekla 3 eruption ( H-3 ) circa 1000 BC is considered the most severe eruption of Hekla during the Holocene . It threw about 7.3 km3 of volcanic rock into the atmosphere , placing its Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) at 5 . This would have cooled temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere for several years afterwards . An eighteen-year span of global cooling that is recorded in Irish bog oaks has been attributed to H-3 . The eruption is detectable in Greenland ice-cores , the bristlecone pine sequence , and the Irish oak sequence of extremely narrow growth rings . Andy Baker 's team of researchers dated it to 1021 BC ± 130 -- 100 . A `` high chronology '' ( earlier ) interpretation of the above results is preferred by Baker , based also on growth of stalagmites . In Sutherland , northwest Scotland , a spurt of four years of doubled annual luminescent growth banding of calcite in a stalagmite is datable to 1135 BC ± 130 . A rival , `` low-chronology '' interpretation of the eruption has been made by Andrew Dugmore : 2879 BP ( 929 BC ± 34 ) . In 1999 , Dugmore suggested a non-volcanic explanation for the Scottish results . In 2000 skepticism concerning conclusions about connecting Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 ( probably 2310 BC ± 20 ) with paleoenvironmental events and archaeologically attested abandonment of settlement sites in northern Scotland was expressed by John P. Grattan and David D. Gilbertson . Some Egyptologists have firmly dated the eruption to 1159 BC , and blamed it for famines under Ramesses III during the wider Bronze Age collapse . Dugmore has rebutted this dating . Other scholars have held off on this dispute , preferring the neutral and vague `` 3000 BP '' .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Hekla_3_eruption",
"rank": 47,
"score": 80690
},
{
"content": "Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Excessive_heat_warning",
"rank": 48,
"score": 80388
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermoscope Content: A thermoscope is a device that shows changes in temperature . A typical design is a tube in which a liquid rises and falls as the temperature changes . The modern thermometer gradually evolved from it with the addition of a scale in the early 17th century and standardisation through the 17th and 18th centuries .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Thermoscope",
"rank": 49,
"score": 79620
},
{
"content": "Title: Air cooling Content: Air cooling is a method of dissipating heat . It works by expanding the surface area of or increasing the flow of air over the object to be cooled , or both . An example of the former is to add cooling fins to the surface of the object , either by making them integral or by attaching them tightly to the object 's surface ( to ensure efficient heat transfer ) . In the case of the latter , it is done by using a fan blowing air into or onto the object one wants to cool . The addition of fins to a heat sink increases its total surface area , resulting in greater cooling effectiveness . In all cases , the air has to be cooler than the object or surface from which it is expected to remove heat . This is due to the second law of thermodynamics , which states that heat will only move spontaneously from a hot reservoir ( the heat sink ) to a cold reservoir ( the air ) .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Air_cooling",
"rank": 50,
"score": 79373
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Mesopause",
"rank": 51,
"score": 79191
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric thermometer Content: A atmospheric thermometer is a device that measures the temperature of the indoor or outdoor atmosphere . The most common type consists of a long tube that contains mercury or colored alcohol at the base , although there are also other kinds , such as spring and digital thermometers . When the atmospheric temperature rises , it causes the material inside the air thermometer to expand . Conversely , when the air gets colder , the material contracts and travels back down.Thermometers use temperature scales either Fahrenheit , Celsius , Kelvin , to provide a measure of heat in degrees . Category : Thermometers",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Atmospheric_thermometer",
"rank": 52,
"score": 79189
},
{
"content": "Title: HadCRUT Content: HadCRUT is the dataset of monthly instrumental temperature records formed by combining the sea surface temperature records compiled by the Hadley Centre of the UK Met Office and the land surface air temperature records compiled by the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) of the University of East Anglia . The data is provided on a grid of boxes covering the globe , with values provided for only those boxes containing temperature observations in a particular month and year . Interpolation is not applied to infill missing values . The first version of HadCRUT initially spanned the period 1881 -- 1993 , and this was later extended to begin in 1850 and to be regularly updated to the current year/month in near real-time .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "HadCRUT",
"rank": 53,
"score": 79055
},
{
"content": "Title: Medium Cool Records Content: Medium Cool was a United Kingdom independent record label that existed between 1986 and 1989 . Specializing in jangly guitar-pop , it released records by bands such as The Raw Herbs , The Siddeleys , The Rain , The Waltones , The Popguns , and The Corn Dollies .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Medium_Cool_Records",
"rank": 54,
"score": 78968
},
{
"content": "Title: 2006 North American heat wave Content: The 2006 North American heat wave spread throughout most of the United States and Canada beginning on July 15 , 2006 , killing at least 225 people . That day the temperature reached 117 ° F ( 47 ° C ) in Pierre , South Dakota , with many places in South Dakota that hit well into the 120s . In early reports from this heat wave , at least three died in Philadelphia , Arkansas , and Indiana . In Maryland , the state health officials reported that three people died of heat-related causes . Another heat related death was suspected in Chicago . Although many heat related deaths go unreported , by July 19 , the Associated Press reported that the soaring heat was blamed for 12 deaths from Oklahoma City to the Philadelphia area . Reports by early morning July 20 raised the death toll to at least 16 in seven states . This period of heat also saw a wind storm ( derecho ) in St. Louis that caused widespread power outages , including for cooling centers designed to provide relief for those suffering from the heat . In addition , places on the West Coast , like California 's Central Valley and Southern California experienced humid heat , which is unusual for the area .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "2006_North_American_heat_wave",
"rank": 55,
"score": 78883
},
{
"content": "Title: United States temperature extremes Content: For the United States , the extremes are 134 F in Death Valley , California in 1913 and -79.8 F recorded in Prospect Creek , Alaska in 1971 . The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15 , 1972 in Loma , Montana , when the temperature rose from -54 to . The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds . For example , the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 F-change occurred in Spearfish , South Dakota , a rise from -4 to .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "United_States_temperature_extremes",
"rank": 56,
"score": 78667
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling capacity Content: Cooling capacity is the measure of a cooling system 's ability to remove heat . The SI units are watts ( W ) . Another common unit is the ton , which describes the amount of water at a given temperature that can be frozen in a given amount of time . 1 ton of refrigeration is the ability of a refrigerator to freeze 2000 lb of water at 0 ° C or 32 ° F in the period of 24 hours . 1 ton of refrigeration is equivalent to 211 kJ/min or 200 Btu/min . The basic SI units equation for deriving cooling capacity is of the form : Where is the cooling capacity -LSB- kW -RSB- is the mass rate -LSB- kg/s -RSB- is the specific heat capacity -LSB- kJ/kg K -RSB- is the temperature change -LSB- K -RSB-",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cooling_capacity",
"rank": 57,
"score": 78511
},
{
"content": "Title: Miller-Casella thermometer Content: The Miller-Casella thermometer was a Six 's thermometer with a double bulb used extensively by the Challenger expedition during the late nineteenth century . The thermomemeter was used for water temperature readings along 360 different research stations around the world 's oceans . The thermometer , which was about 9 inches in length , was enclosed in a copper case and filled with a solution of creosote in spirit . A U-shaped mercury tube recorded maximum and minimum temperature as the thermometer was lowered and raised into the ocean . This design assumed accurate measurements could be taken as long as the water closer to the surface of the ocean was always warmer than that below . Scientists aboard the HMS Challenger later questioned this assumption and made temperutare measurements with reversing thermometers instead which would n't require the coldest water to be at the ocean 's bottom .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Miller-Casella_thermometer",
"rank": 58,
"score": 78450
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermo-hygrograph Content: A thermo-hygrograph or hygrothermograph is a chart recorder that measures and records both temperature and humidity ( or dew point ) . Similar devices that record only one parameter are a thermograph for temperature and hygrograph for humidity . Thermographs where the variations are recorded using photography were described by several scientists as early as 1845 , including Francis Ronalds who was Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory . An updated model of the initial machine was deployed across the national observational network set up by the new UK Met Office in 1867 and coordinated by Kew Observatory . These instruments then saw extended use around the world . An alternative thermograph configuration has a pen that records temperature on a revolving cylinder . The pen is at the end of a lever that is controlled by a bi-metal strip of temperature-sensitive metal which bends as the temperature changes . A human hair bundle can be used for humidity in such machines .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Thermo-hygrograph",
"rank": 59,
"score": 78418
},
{
"content": "Title: RNA thermometer Content: An RNA thermometer ( or RNA thermosensor ) is a temperature-sensitive non-coding RNA molecule which regulates gene expression . RNA thermometers often regulate genes required during either a heat shock or cold shock response , but have been implicated in other regulatory roles such as in pathogenicity and starvation . In general , RNA thermometers operate by changing their secondary structure in response to temperature fluctuations . This structural transition can then expose or occlude important regions of RNA such as a ribosome binding site , which then affects the translation rate of a nearby protein-coding gene . RNA thermometers , along with riboswitches , are used as examples in support of the RNA world hypothesis . This theory proposes that RNA was once the sole nucleic acid present in cells , and was replaced by the current DNA → RNA → protein system . Examples of RNA thermometers include FourU , the Hsp90 cis-regulatory element , the ROSE element and the Hsp17 thermometer .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "RNA_thermometer",
"rank": 60,
"score": 78336
},
{
"content": "Title: Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1894 -- 95 was severe for the British Isles with a CET of 1.27 C . Many climatologists have come to view this winter as the end of the Little Ice Age and the culmination of a decade of harsh winters in Britain . Whereas the average CET for the ten winters from 1885 -- 86 to 1894 -- 95 was 2.87 C , no winter with a CET under 3.0 C followed for twenty-two years and no month as cold as February or January 1895 until 1940 . In contrast , between 1659 and 1894 no spell with every winter CET above 3.0 C had lasted longer than twelve winters . Although this winter -- which featured the lowest North Atlantic Oscillation index between 1882 and 1962 with lower values recorded only in 1880/1881 , 1962/1963 and 1968/1969 -- affected most of Europe and North America very severely , the difficulties Britain had coping with it vis-à-vis the United States and Germany is seen as marking a beginning in the decline of British hegemony in global affairs . The severe winter led to mass unemployment and severe disruptions to shipping on the River Thames , which froze for the last time on record . Because mass political activism had not yet created the welfare state , most workers were left without sustenance and in industrial centres large soup kitchens were widespread to feed these people . There were also numerous skating festivals organised to take advantage of the unusually cold and sunny weather , with up to fifty thousand people skating on The Serpentine in London 's Hyde Park and speed skating races being widely popular and generating money to be used for relief of the poor , and in some cases to provide them with temporary work as vendors for spectators . Coal supplies dwindled as transporting coal by river was impossible , whilst many recently introduced exotic plants were killed by the cold .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Winter_of_1894–95_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 61,
"score": 78260
},
{
"content": "Title: H2Ceramic cooling Content: H2Ceramic cooling ( also called H2C or Hot-to-Cold ) is a computer cooling product offered as an option in Dell 's XPS gaming systems , advertised specifically as facilitating CPU overclocking . H2C is a two-stage Liquid/Thermoelectric ( TEC ) hybrid cooling system that combines a liquid-to-air heat exchanger ( much like a liquid radiator ) , a thermoelectric fluid chiller , and control circuitry to optimize CPU cooling with minimal power . The components are delivered as a single unit designed to last a minimum of 5 years without service or liquid refilling . The XPS 710 H2C and Dell XPS 720 H2C featured a design where all components were mounted in a single plastic chassis and which only cooled the CPU . This design only matched motherboards with a very specific CPU socket location and was later replaced by a new and more flexible design featuring a separate pump unit which made it much easier to fit a broader range of motherboards with different CPU socket locations . The new design allowed the unit to cool the motherboard chipset as well .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "H2Ceramic_cooling",
"rank": 62,
"score": 77882
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling vest Content: A cooling vest is a piece of specially made clothing designed to lower or stabilize body temperature and make exposure to warm climates or environments more bearable . Cooling vests are used by many athletes , construction workers , and welders , as well as individuals suffering from Multiple Sclerosis , Hypohidrotic Ectodermal Dysplasia , or various types of sports injuries .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cooling_vest",
"rank": 63,
"score": 77824
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling flow Content: A cooling flow occurs according to the theory that the intracluster medium ( ICM ) in the centres of galaxy clusters should be rapidly cooling at the rate of tens to thousands of solar masses per year . This should happen as the ICM ( a plasma ) is quickly losing its energy by the emission of X-rays . The X-ray brightness of the ICM is proportional to the square of its density , which rises steeply towards the centres of many clusters . Also the temperature falls to typically a third or a half of the temperature in the outskirts of the cluster . The typical -LSB- predicted -RSB- timescale for the ICM to cool is relatively short , less than a billion years . As material in the centre of the cluster cools out , the pressure of the overlying ICM should cause more material to flow inwards ( the cooling flow ) . In a steady state , the rate of mass deposition , i.e. the rate at which the plasma cools , is given by where L is the bolometric ( i.e. over the entire spectrum ) luminosity of the cooling region , T is its temperature , k is the Boltzmann constant and μm is the mean molecular mass .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cooling_flow",
"rank": 64,
"score": 77791
},
{
"content": "Title: Quartz thermometer Content: The quartz thermometer is a high-precision , high accuracy temperature sensor . It measures temperature by measuring the frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator . The oscillator contains a specially cut crystal that results in a linear temperature coefficient of frequency , so the measurement of the temperature is essentially reduced to measurement of the oscillator frequency . Resolutions of .0001 ° C , and accuracy of .02 ° C from 0-100 ° C are achievable . The high linearity makes it possible to achieve high accuracy over an important temperature range that contains only one convenient temperature reference point for calibration , the triple point of water . Introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1965 , the successor company , Agilent , has discontinued the Model 2804A Quartz Thermometer . Other manufacturers make nearly linear-in-temperature quartz crystals that may be used to construct thermometers of similar performance .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Quartz_thermometer",
"rank": 65,
"score": 77783
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling curve Content: A cooling curve is a line graph that represents the change of phase of matter , typically from a gas to a solid or a liquid to a solid . The independent variable ( X-axis ) is time and the dependent variable ( Y-axis ) is temperature . Below is an example of a cooling curve used in castings . The initial point of the graph is the starting temperature of the matter , here noted as the `` pouring temperature '' . When the phase change occurs there is a `` thermal arrest '' , that is the temperature stays constant . This is because the matter has more internal energy as a liquid or gas than in the state that it is cooling to . The amount of energy required for a phase change is known as latent heat . The `` cooling rate '' is the slope of the cooling curve at any point .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cooling_curve",
"rank": 66,
"score": 77775
},
{
"content": "Title: MMTS (meteorology) Content: A Maximum Minimum Temperature System or MMTS is a temperature recording system that keeps track of the maximum and minimum temperatures that have occurred over some given time period . The earliest , and still perhaps most familiar , form is the Maximum minimum thermometer invented by James Six in 1782 . Today a typical MMTS is a thermistor . This may be read locally or can transmit its results electronically .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "MMTS_(meteorology)",
"rank": 67,
"score": 77736
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 68,
"score": 77641
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermization Content: Thermization , also spelled thermisation , is a method of sanitizing raw milk with low heat . It is useful for partial removing of pathogens , while keeping the good bacteria flora in . The process is not used on other food products , and is similar to pasteurization but uses lower temperatures , allowing the milk product to retain more of its original taste . In Europe , there is a distinction between cheeses made of thermized milk and raw-milk cheeses . However , the United States ' Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) places the same regulations on all unpasteurized cheeses . As a result , cheeses from thermized milk must be aged for 60 days or more before being sold in the United States , the same restriction placed on raw-milk cheeses by the FDA . Thermization involves heating milk at temperatures of around 145 - for 15 seconds , while pasteurization involves heating milk at 160 F for 15 seconds or at 145 F for 30 minutes . Thermization is used to extend the keeping quality of raw milk ( the length of time that milk is suitable for consumption ) when it can not be immediately used in other products , such as cheese . Thermization can also be used to extend the storage life of fermented milk products by inactivating microorganisms in the product . Thermization inactivates psychrotrophic bacteria in milk , preventing the growth of heat-resistant enzymes and allowing the milk to be stored below 8 C for three days , or stored at 0 - for seven days . Later , the milk may be given stronger heat treatment to be preserved longer . Cooling thermized milk before reheating is necessary to delay/prevent the outgrowth of bacterial spores . When the milk is first heated , spores can begin to germinate , but their growth can be halted or delayed when the milk is refrigerated , depending on the microorganisms ' growth requirements . Germinated spores are sensitive to subsequent heating , however since germination is not a homogeneous process , not all spores will germinate or be inactivated by subsequent heating .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Thermization",
"rank": 69,
"score": 77640
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cool_tropics_paradox",
"rank": 70,
"score": 77380
},
{
"content": "Title: Server immersion cooling Content: Server immersion cooling is a computer cooling practice by which computer components or servers are submerged in a thermally but not electrically conductive liquid . The coolant liquid is commonly a mineral-based oil with dielectric properties . Server immersion cooling has the potential of becoming a popular server cooling solution for green data centers , as it allows them to drastically reduce their Power Usage Effectiveness ( PUE ) . Multiple relevant brands like Intel and Facebook have already validated the advantages of submerging servers . Servers and other IT hardware cooled by immersion cooling do n't require fans , thus these are removed together with any thermal paste to avoid it from dissolving in the oil . The oils used in immersion cooling usually operate at temperatures between 35 to , this allows data centers to use much more efficient evaporative or adiabatic cooling towers instead of chiller-based air cooling . Current commercial applications for immersion cooling range from data center oriented solutions for commodity server cooling , server clusters , HPCC applications and Bitcoin Mining .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Server_immersion_cooling",
"rank": 71,
"score": 77157
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 72,
"score": 77113
},
{
"content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Neoglaciation",
"rank": 73,
"score": 77097
},
{
"content": "Title: Computer cooling Content: Computer cooling is required to remove the waste heat produced by computer components , to keep components within permissible operating temperature limits . Components that are susceptible to temporary malfunction or permanent failure if overheated include integrated circuits such as CPUs , chipset , graphics cards , and hard disk drives . Components are often designed to generate as little heat as possible , and computers and operating systems may be designed to reduce power consumption and consequent heating according to workload , but more heat may still be produced than can be removed without attention to cooling . Use of heatsinks cooled by airflow reduces the temperature rise produced by a given amount of heat . Attention to patterns of airflow can prevent the development of hotspots . Computer fans are widely used along with heatsinks to reduce temperature by actively exhausting hot air . There are also more exotic cooling techniques , such as liquid cooling . All modern day processors are designed to cut out or reduce their voltage ( which translates to power usage ) and/or clock speed if the internal temperature of the processor exceeds a specified limit . Cooling may be designed to reduce the ambient temperature within the case of a computer e.g. by exhausting hot air , or to cool a single component or small area ( spot cooling ) . Components commonly individually cooled include the CPU , GPU and the northbridge .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Computer_cooling",
"rank": 74,
"score": 77024
},
{
"content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Interglacial",
"rank": 75,
"score": 77023
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling, Kent Content: Cooling is a village and civil parish on the Hoo Peninsula , overlooking the North Kent Marshes , 6 miles north northwest of Rochester , England . According to the 2001 census the parish had a population of 209 , which increased to 216 at the 2011 Census . Cooling was recorded in the Domesday Book when it was held by Bishop Odo of Bayeux ( half-brother of William the Conqueror ) . The most notable surviving feature of the village is Cooling Castle , built on the edge of the marshes during the 12th century to defend the neighbouring port of Cliffe from the threat of French raiders .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cooling,_Kent",
"rank": 76,
"score": 76707
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling load Content: Cooling load is the rate at which sensible and latent heat must be removed from the space to maintain a constant space dry-bulb air temperature and humidity . Sensible heat into the space causes its air temperature to rise while latent heat is associated with the rise of the moisture content in the space . The building design , internal equipment , occupants , and outdoor weather conditions may affect the cooling load in a building using different heat transfer mechanisms . The SI units are watts .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cooling_load",
"rank": 77,
"score": 76594
},
{
"content": "Title: Wax thermostatic element Content: The wax thermostatic element was invented in 1936 by Sergius Vernet ( 1899-1968 ) . Its principal application is in automotive thermostats used in the engine cooling system . The first applications in the plumbing and heating industries were in Sweden ( 1970 ) and in Switzerland ( 1971 ) . Wax thermostatic elements transform heat energy into mechanical energy using the thermal expansion of waxes when they melt . This wax motor principle also finds applications besides engine cooling systems , including heating system thermostatic radiator valves , plumbing , industrial , and agriculture .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Wax_thermostatic_element",
"rank": 78,
"score": 76494
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermoelectric materials Content: Thermoelectric materials show the thermoelectric effect in a strong or convenient form . The thermoelectric effect refers to phenomena by which either a temperature difference creates an electric potential or an electric potential creates a temperature difference . These phenomena are known more specifically as the Seebeck effect ( converting temperature to current ) , Peltier effect ( converting current to temperature ) , and Thomson effect ( conductor heating/cooling ) . While all materials have a nonzero thermoelectric effect , in most materials it is too small to be useful . However , low-cost materials that have a sufficiently strong thermoelectric effect ( and other required properties ) could be used in applications including power generation and refrigeration . A commonly used thermoelectric material in such applications is bismuth telluride . Thermoelectric materials are used in thermoelectric systems for cooling or heating in niche applications , and are being studied as a way to regenerate electricity from waste heat .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Thermoelectric_materials",
"rank": 79,
"score": 76426
},
{
"content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record",
"rank": 80,
"score": 76407
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling (disambiguation) Content: Cooling is the transfer of thermal energy via thermal radiation , heat conduction or convection . Cooling may also refer to : Cooling ( surname ) , any of several people `` Cooling '' , a song written and performed by Tori Amos on her 1999 album To Venus and Back A Cantonese food classification Cooling , Kent , a village in Kent , England",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cooling_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 81,
"score": 76156
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 82,
"score": 76010
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermotropism Content: Thermotropism or thermotropic movement is the movement of a plant or part of a plant in response to a change in temperature . A common example is the curling of Rhododendron leaves in response to cold temperatures . Mimosa pudica also show thermotropism by the collapsing of leaf petioles leading to the folding of leaflets , when temperature drops . The term `` thermotropism '' was originated by French botanist Philippe Van Tieghem in his 1884 textbook Traité de botanique . Van Tieghem stated that a plant irradiated with an optimum growth temperature on one side laterally , and a much higher or lower temperature on the opposite side , would exhibit faster growth on the side exposed to optimum temperature . The precise physiological mechanism enabling plant thermotropism is not yet understood . It has been noted that one of the earliest physiological responses by plants to cooling is an influx of calcium ions from the cell walls into the cytosol , which increases calcium ion concentration in the intracellular space . This calcium influx is dependent upon mechanical changes in the actin cytoskeleton that alter the fluidity of the cell membrane , which allows calcium ion channels to open . From this information , a hypothesis has formed that the plant cell plasma membrane is an important site of plant temperature perception .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Thermotropism",
"rank": 83,
"score": 75892
},
{
"content": "Title: Boyce MotoMeter Content: The Boyce MotoMeter was patented in 1912 , and was used in automobiles to read the temperature of the radiator . From then through the late 1920s , the Boyce MotoMeter Company in Long Island City , New York , founded in 1912 by the German immigrant Hermann Schlaich , manufactured a variety of different models which varied in size and design . The non-pressurized Thermosiphon cooling systems that were widely used until the 1920s led to a low boiling point . The Boyce MotoMeter was a simple device . Although it not always warned about engine overheating in time to prevent damage , it offered for the first time information about the engine temperature from the driver 's seat . Motometers were at first aftermarket devices . Later , vehicle builders ( not only car manufacturers ) began to offer them as standard or optional equipment , and dealerships began to offer them , too , sometimes as give-away or incentive items . The MotoMeter Company soon delivered these with metal dials inside that showed the make 's or dealer 's logo and script printed on it . The standard motometer came in three sizes for small cars , medium cars , and large cars and trucks . There were also slight changes to each of the original models and new designs and accessories like hood ornaments , toppers , illuminating devices or locks were added to the line of meters while some others were discontinued . Toppers are small metal castings that fit to a bracket on the motometer . They were used in a similar way as modern decals showing the vehicle owner 's heritage , profession , preferences , or support his business , his preferred sports , or even a political statement . Toppers were also offered by other novelty producing companies , Ronson among them . Boyce kept several patents on its products and fought infringements . By 1927 the company was offering a wide variety , but the motometer became soon obsolete when dash-mounted temperature gauges appeared around 1930 . Boyce had such a device patented as early as 1917 .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Boyce_MotoMeter",
"rank": 84,
"score": 75857
},
{
"content": "Title: Radiant cooling Content: A radiant cooling system refers to a temperature-controlled surface that cools indoor temperatures by the removing sensible heat and where more than half of heat transfer occurs through thermal radiation . Heat will flow from objects , occupants , equipment and lights in a space to a cooled surface as long as their temperatures are warmer than that of the cooled surface and they are within the line of sight of the cooled surface . The process of radiant exchange has a negligible effect on air temperature , but through the process of convection , the air temperature will be lowered when air comes in contact with the cooled surface . Radiant cooling systems use the opposite effect of radiant heating systems , which rely on the process of heat flow from a heated surface to objects and occupants .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Radiant_cooling",
"rank": 85,
"score": 75845
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold Content: Cold is the presence of low temperature , especially in the atmosphere . In common usage , cold is often a subjective perception . A lower bound to temperature is absolute zero , defined as 0.00 K on the Kelvin scale , an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale . This corresponds to 0 K on the Celsius scale , 0 K on the Fahrenheit scale , and 0 K on the Rankine scale . Since temperature relates to the thermal energy held by an object or a sample of matter , which is the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particle constituents of matter , an object will have less thermal energy when it is colder and more when it is hotter . If it were possible to cool a system to absolute zero , all motion of the particles in a sample of matter would cease and they would be at complete rest in this classical sense . The object would be described as having zero thermal energy . Microscopically in the description of quantum mechanics , however , matter still has zero-point energy even at absolute zero , because of the uncertainty principle .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cold",
"rank": 86,
"score": 75799
},
{
"content": "Title: 2000 Southern United States heat wave Content: Aided by drought , a heat wave persisted in late Summer 2000 along the southern tier of the United States from July to early September of that year . Near the end of the period , daily , monthly , and even all-time record high temperatures were broken , with highs commonly peaking well over 100 degrees Fahrenheit . On September 4 , Houston hit 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) and Dallas peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) ; on September 5 , Corpus Christi peaked at 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) , San Antonio peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) while College Station and Austin reached 112 ° F ( 44.4 ° C ) . Damage totaled $ 4 billion , mainly due to wildfires and crop losses , and there were 140 deaths .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "2000_Southern_United_States_heat_wave",
"rank": 87,
"score": 75681
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature measurement Content: Temperature measurement ( or thermometry ) describes the process of measuring a current local temperature for immediate or later evaluation . Datasets consisting of repeated standardized measurements can be used to assess temperature trends .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Temperature_measurement",
"rank": 88,
"score": 75623
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling bath Content: A cooling bath , in laboratory chemistry practice , is a liquid mixture which is used to maintain low temperatures , typically between 13 ° C and − 196 ° C . These low temperatures are used to collect liquids after distillation , to remove solvents using a rotary evaporator , or to perform a chemical reaction below room temperature ( see : kinetic control ) . Cooling baths are generally one of two types : ( a ) a cold fluid ( particularly liquid nitrogen , water , or even air ) -- but most commonly the term refers to ( b ) a mixture of 3 components : ( 1 ) a cooling agent ( such as dry ice or water ice ) ; ( 2 ) a liquid ` carrier ' ( such as liquid water , ethylene glycol , acetone , etc. ) , which transfers heat between the bath and the vessel ; ; and ( 3 ) an additive to depress the melting-point of the solid/liquid system . A familiar example of this is the use of an ice/rock-salt mixture to freeze ice cream . Adding salt lowers the freezing temperature of water , lowering the minimum temperature attainable with only ice .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cooling_bath",
"rank": 89,
"score": 75562
},
{
"content": "Title: Blast chilling Content: Blast chilling is a method of cooling food quickly to a low temperature that is relatively safe from bacterial growth . Bacteria multiply fastest between +8 ° C ( 46 ° F ) and +68 ° C ( 154 ° F ) . By reducing the temperature of cooked food from +70 ° C ( 158 ° F ) to +3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) or below within 90 minutes , the food is rendered safe for storage and later consumption . This method of preserving food is commonly used in food catering and , recently , in the preparation of ` instant ' foods , as it ensures the safety and the quality of the food product . The blast chiller is a cousin of the refrigerator , another appliance designed to store food between +3 ° C and +5 ° C , but the blast chiller is a higher grade and more expensive appliance and is usually only found in commercial kitchens . As of 2013 , in the UK , blast chillers are typically priced from 2,000 to 8,000 GBP excluding VAT . Use of blast chillers is prescribed for the restaurants of the European Union , e.g. in the regulations 852/2004 or 853/2004 .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Blast_chilling",
"rank": 90,
"score": 75413
},
{
"content": "Title: Medical thermometer Content: A medical thermometer is used for measuring human or animal body temperature . The tip of the thermometer is inserted into the mouth under the tongue ( oral or sub-lingual temperature ) , under the armpit ( axillary temperature ) , or into the rectum via the anus ( rectal temperature ) .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Medical_thermometer",
"rank": 91,
"score": 75381
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep water source cooling Content: Deep water source cooling ( DWSC ) or deep water air cooling is a form of air cooling for process and comfort space cooling which uses a large body of naturally cold water as a heat sink . It uses water at 4 to 10 degrees Celsius drawn from deep areas within lakes , oceans , aquifers or rivers , which is pumped through the one side of a heat exchanger . On the other side of the heat exchanger , cooled water is produced .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Deep_water_source_cooling",
"rank": 92,
"score": 75372
},
{
"content": "Title: International Temperature Scale of 1990 Content: The International Temperature Scale of 1990 ( ITS-90 ) published by the Consultative Committee for Thermometry ( CCT ) of the International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) is an equipment calibration standard for making measurements on the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales . ITS -- 90 is an approximation of the thermodynamic temperature scale that facilitates the comparability and compatibility of temperature measurements internationally . It specifies fourteen calibration points ranging from 0.65 ± 0 K to ± 0 K ( -272.50 ± 0 ° C to ± 0 ° C ) and is subdivided into multiple temperature ranges which overlap in some instances . ITS-90 is the latest ( as of 2014 ) of a series of International Temperature Scales adopted by CIPM since 1927 . Adopted at the 1989 General Conference on Weights and Measures , it supersedes the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 ( amended edition of 1975 ) and the 1976 `` Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale '' . CCT has also adopted a mise en pratique ( practical instructions ) in 2011 . The lowest temperature covered by ITS-90 is 0.65 K . In 2000 , the temperature scale was extended further , to 0.9 mK , by the adoption of a supplemental scale , known as the Provisional Low Temperature Scale of 2000 ( PLTS-2000 ) .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "International_Temperature_Scale_of_1990",
"rank": 93,
"score": 75349
},
{
"content": "Title: Free cooling Content: Free cooling is an economical method of using low external air temperatures to assist in chilling water , which can then be used for industrial processes , or air conditioning systems . The chilled water can either be used immediately or be stored for the short - or long-term . When outdoor temperatures are lower relative to indoor temperatures , this system utilizes the cool outdoor air as a free cooling source . In this manner , the system replaces the chiller in traditional air conditioning systems while achieving the same cooling result . Such systems can be made for single buildings or district cooling networks .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Free_cooling",
"rank": 94,
"score": 75116
},
{
"content": "Title: Refrigerate after opening Content: The term refrigerate after opening is an instruction on commercial preserved food products to cool the container after it has been opened and the contents exposed to open air . Moist foods are commonly preserved using canning and vacuum sealing to kill off any bacteria and molds , and to prevent further growth by removing oxygen . Dry-product containers are often preserved with heating and filling the empty container spaces with an inert nonreactive gas such as nitrogen . Once opened for consumption , the product is immediately exposed to atmospheric oxygen and floating dust particles containing bacteria and mold spores , and all protections from the preservation process are immediately lost . At room temperature , mold and bacteria growth resumes almost immediately , and warmer temperatures can lead to an explosion of growth that rapidly degrades the food product . This organism growth can result in the accumulation of poisonous bacterial substances in the food product such as botulin , that lead to food poisoning , sickness , or death . Cooling the food product to a temperature just above freezing in a refrigerator is generally required to slow the growth of these organisms . This cooling can permit foods to remain safely edible for up to two weeks after opening . Simply loosening the lid of a vacuum-packed food product to break the seal is enough to permit the bacteria and mold growth to resume . The amount of air inhaled into the container when the seal is broken is small , but sufficient to permit slow growth of contaminating and decomposing organisms . This seal is extremely important to the safe preservation of the food product . That is why most preserved screw-top food products use a domed metal cover that emits an audible popping sound as the container is opened . The dome is held down by the vacuum seal and will not make a popping sound when the cover is pressed on a properly sealed container .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Refrigerate_after_opening",
"rank": 95,
"score": 75101
},
{
"content": "Title: 1808/1809 mystery eruption Content: A colossal volcanic eruption in the VEI 6 range is believed to have taken place in late 1808 and is suspected of contributing to a period of global cooling that lasted for years , in a similar way to how the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora ( VEI 7 ) led to the Year Without a Summer in 1816 .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "1808/1809_mystery_eruption",
"rank": 96,
"score": 75040
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Rawalpindi Content: Rawalpindi features a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen : Cwa ) with long and hot summers , a monsoon and short , mild and wet winters . Its climate is classified as very similar to its twin city Islamabad , but the geographical location and extreme urbanization of Rawalpindi has led to weather and climatic conditions that are notably different from its twin . Rawalpindi 's weather has historically been known to change rather quickly due to its proximity to Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range . These mountains not only influence the weather of the city , but also provide great recreation during the hot months . Furthermore , Its warm comfortable mean annual temperature of 21.3 C attracts people to live here permanently from all over Pakistan . The average annual rainfall is abundant at 1249 mm , most of which falls in the monsoon season . However , frontal cloud bands also bring significant rainfall in the winter . In summers , June is the hottest with record maximum temperature at a blistering 48.3 C recorded on 13 June 1953 . On the other hand , January is the coldest month of the year when temperature can drop to a minimum -3.9 C in the winter recorded on 17 January 1967 . Throughout the year , Rawalpindi and Islamabad experience an average of about 90 thunderstorms , which is the highest frequency of thunderstorms in Punjab province of any plane station . In fact , most rainfall in the city is accompanied by a thunderstorm with peak activity experienced in August . Record rainfall was experienced in the year 2013 at a massive 1952 mm mostly due to an unusually wet monsoon season . On a typical day , the city hosts breezy afternoons ( 30 km/h + ) , but usually calm to light breeze ( Beaufort scale ) wind conditions are observed after midnight . The mean annual wind speed of Rawalpindi is roughly 10 km/h at 14 m height . Moreover , just a few kilometers southwest of Rawalpindi , the potential power generation has been identified by U.S. Aid to be between marginal to good ( 5.4 m/s to 7.4 m/s ) at 50 m height .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Climate_of_Rawalpindi",
"rank": 97,
"score": 75012
},
{
"content": "Title: Aethrioscope Content: An aethrioscope ( or æthrioscope ) is a meteorological device invented by Sir John Leslie in 1818 for measuring the chilling effect of a clear sky . The name is from the Greek word for clear - αίθριος . It consists of a metallic cup standing upon a tall hollow pedestal , with a differential thermometer placed so that one of its bulbs is in the focus of the paraboloid formed by the cavity of the cup . The interior of the cup is highly polished and is kept covered by a plate of metal , being opened when an observation is made . The second bulb is always screened from the sky and so is not affected by the radiative effect of the clear sky , the action of which is concentrated upon the first bulb . The contraction of the air in the second bulb by its sudden exposure to a clear sky causes the liquid in the stem to rise . The device will respond in a contrary fashion when exposed to heat radiation and so may be used as a pyrometer too .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Aethrioscope",
"rank": 98,
"score": 75010
},
{
"content": "Title: March 2012 North American heat wave Content: In March 2012 , one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America . Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region , and subsequently spread eastward . The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin . Once this warm surge inundated the area , a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued . NOAA 's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March . In some places the temperature exceeded 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . For instance , in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the highest temperature recorded was 87 ° F on March 21 ; in Chicago a high of 87 ° F was also recorded on that same day . Records were broken in unusual ways . Chicago , for example , saw temperatures above 80 ° F every day between March 14 -- 18 , breaking records on all five days . Chicago would go on to record eight days at or above 80 ° F during the month , with many suburban areas recording an additional day in the 80s on March 19 ( that day , the city only tied its record high of 78 ° F ) . In context , the National Weather Service 's Chicago branch noted that Chicago typically averages only one day in the 80 's in April . And only once in 140 years of weather observations has April produced as many 80 ° F days as this March . In Traverse City , Michigan one day began with a low temperature ( 67 ° F ) higher than the previous record high for the day . Temperature records across much of southern Canada also were shattered . Some of the most impressive readings came from Nova Scotia on March 22 , when the mercury climbed to 30.0 C at a climate station in Lake Major , making it the highest March temperature recorded in Nova Scotia , and the third highest March temperature recorded in Canada . That same day , the temperature hit 29.2 C at Western Head , Nova Scotia . The heat reached as far east as Cape Breton Island , with the temperature climbing to 24.0 C at Sydney , Nova Scotia on March 22 , a place historically surrounded by ice-jammed waters , frigid winds , and snow in March . The week of March 18 also set record temperatures in Manitoba and much of Ontario as well as into the Maritime Provinces . Non-severe thunderstorms were reported on the evening hours of March 21 , through to the early morning hours March 22 into northern Ontario . In addition , NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data show that the atmospheric pattern was so persistent that much of the Midwest and Northeast , and up into Ontario , had temperature departures over periods of several days to a week or more of magnitudes which would be unusual even for a single day . Averaged over the seven-day period from March 16 to March 22 inclusive , nearly the entire area of the Midwest and Northeast U.S. and most of Ontario and Quebec had temperatures 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) or more above the 1981-2010 average . Even more dramatically , most of Iowa and Minnesota , all of Wisconsin and Michigan , and most of southeastern Ontario had seven-day mean temperatures more than 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) above the climatological average for the same period . An 84 ° F high at Madison , WI in early March was 43 ° F above average and followed an overnight low of 60 ° F , 35 degrees above normal the daily high being more than seven standard deviations above the mean . The absolute temperature and departure statistically would be equivalent to a mid-July high at that station in excess of 125 ° F or more ; the highest temperature recorded there was 107 ° at least once during the heat waves of the middle 1930s . This mild warm spell brought out spring peepers in northern Ontario on 23 March , which are usually not heard until mid-to-late April , or sometimes early May . The warm weather was also responsible for several early-season tornado touchdowns , such as the EF3 that struck Dexter , Michigan , near Ann Arbor .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "March_2012_North_American_heat_wave",
"rank": 99,
"score": 74859
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool early Earth Content: The cool early Earth ( CEE ) theory posits that for part of the Hadean geological eon , at the beginning of the Earth 's history , it had a modest influx of bolides and a cool climate , allowing the presence of liquid water . This would have been after the extreme conditions of earth 's earliest history between 4.6 and 4.4 billion years ( Ga ) ago , but before the Late Heavy Bombardment of 4.1 to 3.8 Ga ago . In 2002 John Valley et al argued that detrital zircons found in Western Australia , dating to 4.0 -- 4.4 Ga ago , were formed at relatively low temperatures , that meteorite impacts may have been less frequent than previously thought , and that the earth may have gone through long periods when liquid oceans and life were possible . In 2016 Gavin Kenny et al replied to suggestions that zircons were formed by melting during tectonic subduction at plate boundaries , and argued that at least some of them were formed by meteorite impacts .",
"qid": "55",
"docid": "Cool_early_Earth",
"rank": 100,
"score": 74757
}
] |
Earth’s mean temperature over the last 2,000 years shows two previous periods when temperatures were warmer than they are now; from 1–200 A.D., an epoch called the Roman Warm Period, and more recently the Medieval Warm Period from 900–1100 A.D. | [
{
"content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period",
"rank": 1,
"score": 190525
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 2,
"score": 174421
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 3,
"score": 170651
},
{
"content": "Title: Iron Age Cold Epoch Content: The Iron Age Cold Epoch ( also referred to as Iron Age climate pessimum or Iron Age neoglaciation ) was a period of unusually cold climate in the North Atlantic region , lasting from about 900 BC to about 300 BC , with an especially cold wave in 450 BC during the expansion of ancient Greece . It was followed by the Roman Warm Period ( 250 BC -- 400 AD ) .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Iron_Age_Cold_Epoch",
"rank": 4,
"score": 167898
},
{
"content": "Title: Roman Warm Period Content: The Roman Warm Period or the Roman climatic optimum has been proposed as a period of unusually warm weather in Europe and the North Atlantic that ran from approximately 250 BC to AD 400 .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Roman_Warm_Period",
"rank": 5,
"score": 166789
},
{
"content": "Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports",
"rank": 6,
"score": 156817
},
{
"content": "Title: Middle Bronze Age Cold Epoch Content: The Middle Bronze Age Cold Epoch was a period of unusually cold climate in the North Atlantic region , lasting from about 1800 BC to about 1500 BC . It was followed by the Bronze Age Optimum ( 1500 -- 900 year BC ) . During that epoch , a series of severe volcanic eruptions occurred , including Mount Vesuvius ( Avellino eruption , ≈ 1660 BC ) , Mount Aniakchak ( ≈ 1645 BC ) , and Thera ( Minoan eruption , ≈ 1620 BC ) .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Middle_Bronze_Age_Cold_Epoch",
"rank": 7,
"score": 146397
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 8,
"score": 145705
},
{
"content": "Title: Glacial period Content: A glacial period ( alternatively glacial or glaciation ) is an interval of time ( thousands of years ) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances . Interglacials , on the other hand , are periods of warmer climate between glacial periods . The last glacial period ended about 15,000 years ago . < ref name = `` Severinghaus1999 '' > </ref> The Holocene epoch is the current interglacial . A time when there are no glaciers on Earth is considered a greenhouse climate state .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Glacial_period",
"rank": 9,
"score": 143391
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 10,
"score": 138936
},
{
"content": "Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Younger_Dryas",
"rank": 11,
"score": 138273
},
{
"content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Pliocene_climate",
"rank": 12,
"score": 138211
},
{
"content": "Title: Older Dryas Content: The Older Dryas was a stadial ( cold ) period between the Bølling and Allerød interstadials ( warmer phases ) approximately 14,000 years ago ( BP ) , towards the end of the Pleistocene epoch . Its age is not well defined , with estimates varying by 400 years , but its duration is agreed to have been around two centuries . The gradual warming since the last glacial maximum 27-24 ,000 years BP has been interrupted by two cold spells , the Older Dryas having been followed by the Younger Dryas ( c. 12,900-11 ,650 BP ) . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and deeper during the Older than the succeeding Younger Dryas , and there is no evidence of human occupation of Britain . In north-west Europe an earlier Oldest Dryas is also recognised . They are named after an indicator genus , the arctic and alpine plant Dryas , the remains of which are found in higher concentrations in deposits from colder periods . The Older Dryas was a variable cold , dry Blytt-Sernander period , observed in climatological evidence in only some regions , depending on latitude . In regions where it is not observed , the Bølling-Allerød is considered a single interstadial ( warm ) period . Evidence of the Older Dryas is strongest in northern Eurasia , particularly part of North Europe roughly equivalent to Pollen zone Ic .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Older_Dryas",
"rank": 13,
"score": 134264
},
{
"content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Interglacial",
"rank": 14,
"score": 133547
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Ice_age",
"rank": 15,
"score": 133316
},
{
"content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming",
"rank": 16,
"score": 132178
},
{
"content": "Title: Holocene Content: The Holocene ( -LSB- pronˈhɒləˌsiːn , _ ˈhoʊ - -RSB- ) is the geological epoch that began after the Pleistocene at approximately 11,700 years before present . The term `` Recent '' ( usually capitalised ) has often been used as an exact synonym of `` Holocene '' , although this usage is discouraged in 21st-century science . The Holocene is part of the Quaternary period . Its name comes from the Ancient Greek words ὅλος ( holos , whole or entire ) and καινός ( kainos , new ) , meaning `` entirely recent '' . It has been identified with the current warm period , known as MIS 1 , and can be considered an interglacial in the current ice age based on that evidence . The Holocene also encompasses the growth and impacts of the human species worldwide , including all its written history , development of major civilizations , and overall significant transition toward urban living in the present . Human impacts on modern-era Earth and its ecosystems may be considered of global significance for future evolution of living species , including approximately synchronous lithospheric evidence , or more recently atmospheric evidence of human impacts . Given these , a new term , Anthropocene , is specifically proposed and used informally only for the very latest part of modern history involving significant human impact .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Holocene",
"rank": 17,
"score": 127726
},
{
"content": "Title: Stadial Content: Stadials and interstadials are phases dividing the Quaternary period , that last 2.6 million years . Stadial are colder periods and interstadials are warmer . Each phase has a Marine Isotope Stage ( MIS ) number , working backwards from the present , with stadial having even numbers and interstadials odd numbers . Thus the current Holocene is MIS1 and the most recent ice age is MIS2 . Stages are divided into warmer and colder intervals . MIS 5e ( the Eemian ) , the hottest of the last million years , was the oldest interstadial of MIS5 , with MIS3 and MIS1 being interstadials and MIS2 and MIS4 being colder stadials . In glacials a and c are stadials and b and d are warmer interstadials . Thus MIS 6a , 6c and 6e are stadials and 6b and 6d are interstadials . Generally , stadials endure for a thousand years or less , interstadials for less than ten thousand years , interglacials for more than ten thousand and glacials for about one hundred thousand . The Bølling Oscillation and the Allerød Oscillation , where they are not clearly distinguished in the stratigraphy , are taken together to form the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , and dated from about 14,700 to 12,700 years before the present . Greenland ice cores show 24 interstadials during the one hundred thousand years of the Wisconsin glaciation . Referred to as the Dansgaard-Oeschger events , they have been extensively studied , and in their northern European contexts are sometimes named after towns , such as the Brorup , the Odderade , the Oerel , the Glinde , the Hengelo , the Denekamp , etc. .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Stadial",
"rank": 18,
"score": 126562
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Ancient Rome Content: The climate of Ancient Rome varied throughout the existence of that civilization . In the first half of the 1st millennium BC the climate of Italy was more humid and cool than now and the presently arid south saw more precipitation . The northern regions were situated in the temperate climate zone , while the rest of Italy was in the subtropics , having a warm and mild climate . During the annual melt of the mountain snow even small rivers would overflow , swamping the terrain ( Tuscany and the Pontine Marshes were deemed impassable in antiquity ) . The existence of Roman civilization ( including the Eastern Roman Empire ) spanned three climatological periods : Early Subatlantic ( 900 BC -- 175 AD ) , Mid-Subatlantic ( 175 -- 750 ) and Late Subatlantic ( since 750 ) . The written , archaeological and natural-scientific proxy evidence independently but consistently shows that during the period of the Roman Empire 's maximum expansion and final crisis , the climate underwent changes . The Empire 's greatest extent under Trajan coincided with the Roman climatic optimum . The climate change occurred at different rates , from apparent near stasis during the early Empire to rapid fluctuations during the late Empire . Still , there is some controversy in the notion of a generally moister period in the eastern Mediterranean in AD -- 600 AD due to conflicting publications .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Climate_of_Ancient_Rome",
"rank": 19,
"score": 124050
},
{
"content": "Title: 1453 Content: Year 1453 ( MCDLIII ) was a common year starting on Monday ( link will display the full calendar ) of the Julian calendar . It is sometimes cited as the notional end of the Middle Ages by historians who define the medieval period as the time between the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and the fall of the Byzantine ( Eastern Roman ) Empire .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "1453",
"rank": 20,
"score": 123292
},
{
"content": "Title: Waalian interglacial Content: The Waalian interglacial ( Waal-Warmzeit or Waal-Interglazial ) ( Zagwijn , 1960 ) was an interglacial in northern Europe that lasted from about 1.45 million to 1.20 million years ago . It thus lies entirely within the Old Pleistocene and is thus part of the Cenozoic . Its name is derived from a major branch of the Rhine delta , the Waal . The Waal warm period could correspond temporally to the Danube-Gunz interglacial of the northern Alpine Foreland . The warm period lies wholly within the Matuyama epoch , in which the earth 's magnetic field , with a few exceptions , had a different polarity from that today : the magnetic north pole ( actually corresponding to the magnetic south ) lay near the geographic south pole .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Waalian_interglacial",
"rank": 21,
"score": 123271
},
{
"content": "Title: Flandrian interglacial Content: The Flandrian interglacial or stage is the name given by geologists and archaeologists in the British Isles to the first , and so far only , stage of the Holocene epoch ( the present geological period ) , covering the period from around 12,000 years ago , at the end of the last glacial period to the present day . As such , it is in practice identical in span to the Holocene . Present climatological theory ( based on analysis of Milankovitch cycles ) forecasts that the present Flandrian climate should decline in temperature towards a global climate similar to that of the ice age . Less orbital eccentricity may have the effect of moderating this temperature downturn . The Flandrian began as the relatively short-lived Younger Dryas climate downturn came to an end . This formed the last gasp of the Devensian glaciation , the final stage of the Pleistocene epoch and is traditionally seen as the latest warm interglacial in a series that has been occurring throughout the Quaternary geological period . The first part of the Flandrian , known as the Younger Atlantic , was a period of fairly rapid sea level rise , known as the Flandrian transgression and associated with the melting of the Fenno-Scandian , Scottish , Laurentide and Cordilleran glaciers . Fjords were formed during the Flandrian transgression when U-shaped glaciated valleys were inundated with water .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Flandrian_interglacial",
"rank": 22,
"score": 122633
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record Content: For extreme records instead of records as a set of data , see List of weather records The temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time . The most detailed information exists since 1850 , when methodical thermometer-based records began . There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation , particularly during the current Holocene epoch . Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Temperature_record",
"rank": 23,
"score": 121505
},
{
"content": "Title: Subatlantic Content: The Subatlantic is the current climatic age of the Holocene epoch . It started at about 2,500 years BP and is still ongoing . Its average temperatures were slightly lower than during the preceding Subboreal and Atlantic . During its course the temperature underwent several oscillations which had a strong influence on fauna and flora and thus indirectly on the evolution of human civilizations . With intensifying industrialisation , human society started to stress the natural climatic cycles with increased greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Subatlantic",
"rank": 24,
"score": 121144
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 25,
"score": 121002
},
{
"content": "Title: Pliocene Content: The Pliocene ( -LSB- pronˈplaɪəˌsiːn -RSB- also Pleiocene ) Epoch is the epoch in the geologic timescale that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58 million years BP . It is the second and youngest epoch of the Neogene Period in the Cenozoic Era . The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pleistocene Epoch . Prior to the 2009 revision of the geologic time scale , which placed the four most recent major glaciations entirely within the Pleistocene , the Pliocene also included the Gelasian stage , which lasted from 2.588 to 1.806 million years ago , and is now included in the Pleistocene . As with other older geologic periods , the geological strata that define the start and end are well identified but the exact dates of the start and end of the epoch are slightly uncertain . The boundaries defining the Pliocene are not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer Miocene and the relatively cooler Pliocene . The upper boundary was set at the start of the Pleistocene glaciations .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Pliocene",
"rank": 26,
"score": 120826
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ice Age Content: The Ice Age may refer to : The Last glacial period , which occurred from c. 110,000 -- c. 11,700 years ago The Pleistocene , a geological epoch lasting from c. 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago and spanning the world 's most recent period of repeated glaciations . The Plio-Pleistocene , a geological pseudo-period which begins about 5 million years ago and combines the time ranges of the formally defined Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events lasting from the Quaternary period to the present . For the general period of temperature reduction , see Ice age .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "The_Ice_Age",
"rank": 27,
"score": 120598
},
{
"content": "Title: 1st century Content: The 1st century was the century that lasted from AD 1 to AD 100 according to the Julian calendar . It is often written as the or to distinguish it from the 1st century BC ( or BCE ) which preceded it . The 1st century is considered part of the Classical era , epoch , or historical period . During this period Europe , North Africa and the Near East fell under increasing domination by the Roman Empire , which continued expanding , most notably conquering Britain under the emperor Claudius ( AD 43 ) . The reforms introduced by Augustus during his long reign stabilized the empire after the turmoil of the previous century 's civil wars . Later in the century the Julio-Claudian dynasty , which had been founded by Augustus , came to an end with the suicide of Nero in AD 68 . There followed the famous Year of Four Emperors , a brief period of civil war and instability , which was finally brought to an end by Vespasian , ninth Roman emperor , and founder of the Flavian dynasty . The Roman Empire generally experienced a period of prosperity and dominance in this period and the First Century is remembered as part of the Empire 's golden age . The 1st century saw the appearance of Christianity . China continued to be dominated by the Han Dynasty , despite a fourteen-year interruption by the Xin dynasty under Wang Mang . Han rule was restored in AD 23 ; Wang Mang 's rule represents the watershed between the Western/Former Han and the Eastern/Later Han . The capital was also moved from Chang ` an to Luoyang .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "1st_century",
"rank": 28,
"score": 120022
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene Content: The Paleocene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliəˌsiːn , _ ˈpæ - , _ - lioʊ - -RSB- ) or Palaeocene , the `` old recent '' , is a geologic epoch that lasted from about . It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era . As with many geologic periods , the strata that define the epoch 's beginning and end are well identified , but the exact ages remain uncertain . The Paleocene Epoch brackets two major events in Earth 's history . It started with the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous , known as the Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) boundary . This was a time marked by the demise of non-avian dinosaurs , giant marine reptiles and much other fauna and flora . The die-off of the dinosaurs left unfilled ecological niches worldwide . The Paleocene ended with the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , a geologically brief ( ~ 0.2 million year ) interval characterized by extreme changes in climate and carbon cycling . The name `` Paleocene '' comes from Ancient Greek and refers to the `` old ( er ) '' ( παλαιός , palaios ) `` new '' ( καινός , kainos ) fauna that arose during the epoch .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Paleocene",
"rank": 29,
"score": 119740
},
{
"content": "Title: Middle Miocene Content: The Middle Miocene is a sub-epoch of the Miocene Epoch made up of two stages : the Langhian and Serravallian stages . The Middle Miocene is preceded by the Early Miocene . The sub-epoch lasted from 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma to 11.608 ± 0.005 Ma ( million years ago ) . During this period , a sharp drop in global temperatures took place . This event is known as the Middle Miocene Climate Transition . For the purposes of establishing European Land Mammal Ages this sub-epoch is equivalent to the Astaracian age .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Middle_Miocene",
"rank": 30,
"score": 118407
},
{
"content": "Title: 2nd century Content: The 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Common Era . It is considered part of the Classical era , epoch , or historical period . Early in the century , the Roman Empire attained its greatest expansion under the emperor Trajan , but after his death became primarily defensive for the rest of its history . Much prosperity took place throughout the empire at this time , ruled as it were by the Five Good Emperors , a succession of well-received and able rulers . This period also saw the removal of the Jews from Jerusalem during the reign of Hadrian after Bar Kokhba 's revolt . The last quarter of the century saw the end of the period of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana at the death of the emperor Marcus Aurelius , last of the `` Five Good Emperors '' , and the accession of Commodus . Although the Han Dynasty of China was firmly cemented into power and extended its imperial influence into Central Asia during the first half of the century , by the second half there was widespread corruption and open rebellion . This set in motion its ultimate decline , until it was overthrown in 220 .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "2nd_century",
"rank": 31,
"score": 118102
},
{
"content": "Title: List of states during the Middle Ages Content: Post-classical history ( also called the Post-classical Era is the period of time that immediately followed the end of ancient history . Depending on the continent , the era generally falls between the years AD 200-600 and AD 1200 -- 1500 . The name of this era of history derives from classical antiquity ( or the Greco-Roman era ) of Europe . Though , the everyday context in use is reverse ( such as historians reference to Medieval China ) . In European history , `` post-classical '' is synonymous with the medieval time or Middle Ages , the period of history from around the 5th century to the 15th century . It began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery . The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history : Antiquity , Medieval period , and Modern period . The Medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early , the High , and the Late Middle Ages .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "List_of_states_during_the_Middle_Ages",
"rank": 32,
"score": 117220
},
{
"content": "Title: Piora Oscillation Content: The Piora Oscillation was an abrupt cold and wet period in the climate history of the Holocene Epoch ; it is generally dated to the period of c. 3200 to 2900 BCE . Some researchers associate the Piora Oscillation with the end of the Atlantic climate regime , and the start of the Sub-Boreal , in the Blytt -- Sernander sequence of Holocene climates . The spatial extent of the change is unclear ; it does not show up as a major , or even identifiable , event in hemispheric temperature reconstructions .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Piora_Oscillation",
"rank": 33,
"score": 116582
},
{
"content": "Title: Timeline of glaciation Content: There have been five known ice ages in the Earth 's history , with the Earth experiencing the Quaternary Ice Age during the present time . Within ice ages , there exist periods of more severe glacial conditions and more temperate referred to as glacial periods and interglacial periods , respectively . The Earth is currently in such an interglacial period of the Quaternary Ice Age , with the last glacial period of the Quaternary having ended approximately 11,700 years ago with the start of the Holocene epoch . Based on climate proxies , paleoclimatologists study the different climate states originating from glaciation .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Timeline_of_glaciation",
"rank": 34,
"score": 115875
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 35,
"score": 115808
},
{
"content": "Title: AD 1 Content: __ NOTOC __ AD 1 ( I ) , 1 AD or 1 CE is the epoch year for the Anno Domini calendar era . It was a common year starting on Saturday or Sunday , Sources disagree regarding the starting day of Julian year AD 1 , ( see leap year error for further information ) . a common year starting on Saturday by the proleptic Julian calendar , and a common year starting on Monday by the proleptic Gregorian calendar . In its time , year 1 was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Paullus , named after Roman consuls Gaius Caesar and Lucius Aemilius Paullus , and less frequently , as year 754 AUC ( ab urbe condita ) within the Roman Empire . The denomination `` AD 1 '' for this year has been in consistent use since the mid-medieval period when the anno Domini ( AD ) calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years . It was the beginning of the Christian/Common era . The preceding year is 1 BC ; there is no year 0 in this numbering scheme . The Anno Domini dating system was devised in AD 525 by Dionysius Exiguus . The Julian calendar , a 45 BC reform of the Roman calendar , was the calendar used by Rome in AD 1 .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "AD_1",
"rank": 36,
"score": 115688
},
{
"content": "Title: Holocene climatic optimum Content: The Holocene Climate Optimum ( HCO ) was a warm period during roughly the interval 9,000 to 5,000 years BP . This event has also been known by many other names , including : Hypsithermal , Altithermal , Climatic Optimum , Holocene Optimum , Holocene Thermal Maximum , and Holocene Megathermal . This warm period was followed by a gradual decline until about two millennia ago . For other temperature fluctuations see : Temperature record For other past climate fluctuation see : Paleoclimatology For the pollen zone and Blytt-Sernander period associated with the climate optimum , see : Atlantic ( period )",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Holocene_climatic_optimum",
"rank": 37,
"score": 115574
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Middle Ages Content: The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history generally comprising the 14th and 15th centuries ( c. 1301 -- 1500 ) . The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern era ( and , in much of Europe , the Renaissance ) . Around 1300 , centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt . A series of famines and plagues , including the Great Famine of 1315 -- 1317 and the Black Death , reduced the population to around half of what it was before the calamities . Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare . France and England experienced serious peasant uprisings , such as the Jacquerie and the Peasants ' Revolt , as well as over a century of intermittent conflict in the Hundred Years ' War . To add to the many problems of the period , the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism . Collectively these events are sometimes called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages . Despite these crises , the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences . Following a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts that took root in the High Middle Ages , the Italian Renaissance began . The absorption of Latin texts had started before the Renaissance of the 12th century through contact with Arabs during the Crusades , but the availability of important Greek texts accelerated with the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks , when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West , particularly Italy . Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing , which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning . These two things would later lead to the Protestant Reformation . Toward the end of the period , the Age of Discovery began . The rise of the Ottoman Empire , culminating in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 , eroded the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire and cut off trading possibilities with the east . Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes , leading to the expedition of Columbus to the Americas in 1492 , and Vasco da Gama 's circumnavigation of India and Africa in 1498 . Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations . The changes brought about by these developments have led many scholars to view this period as the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of modern history and early modern Europe . However , the division is somewhat artificial , since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society . As a result there was developmental continuity between the ancient age ( via classical antiquity ) and the modern age . Some historians , particularly in Italy , prefer not to speak of the Late Middle Ages at all , but rather see the high period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance and the modern era .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Late_Middle_Ages",
"rank": 38,
"score": 115196
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 39,
"score": 114981
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 40,
"score": 114943
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 41,
"score": 114511
},
{
"content": "Title: Miocene Content: The Miocene ( -LSB- pronˈmaɪəˌsiːn -RSB- ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about ( Ma ) . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell . Its name comes from the Greek words μείων ( meiōn , `` less '' ) and καινός ( kainos , `` new '' ) and means `` less recent '' because it has 18 % fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene . The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch . The earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene , with the climate slowly cooling towards a series of ice ages . The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event but consist rather of regional boundaries between the warmer Oligocene and the cooler Pliocene Epoch . The apes arose and diversified during the Miocene , becoming widespread in the Old World . By the end of this epoch , the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path . As in the Oligocene before it , grasslands continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent . In the Miocene seas , kelp forests made their first appearance and soon became one of Earth 's most productive ecosystems . The plants and animals of the Miocene were fairly modern . Mammals and birds were well-established . Whales , seals , and kelp spread . The Miocene is of particular interest to geologists and palaeoclimatologists as major phases of the Himalayan orogeny had occurred during the Miocene , affecting monsoonal patterns in Asia , which were interlinked with glaciations in the northern hemisphere .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Miocene",
"rank": 42,
"score": 114402
},
{
"content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Neoglaciation",
"rank": 43,
"score": 114367
},
{
"content": "Title: Early Middle Ages Content: The Early Middle Ages ( or early medieval period ) marked the start of the Middle Ages of European history , lasting from the 6th to the 10th century CE . The Early Middle Ages followed the decline of the Western Roman Empire and preceded the High Middle Ages ( c. 10th to 13th centuries ) . The Early Middle Ages largely overlap with Late Antiquity . The term `` Late Antiquity '' is used to emphasize elements of continuity with the Roman Empire , while `` Early Middle Ages '' is used to emphasize developments characteristic of the later medieval period . The period saw a continuation of trends begun during late classical antiquity , including population decline , especially in urban centres , a decline of trade , and increased immigration . The period has been labelled the `` Dark Ages '' , a characterization highlighting the relative scarcity of literary and cultural output from this time , especially in Northwestern Europe . However , the Eastern Roman Empire , or Byzantine Empire , continued to survive , and in the 7th century the Islamic caliphates conquered swathes of formerly Roman territory . Many of these trends were reversed later in the period . In 800 the title of emperor was revived in Western Europe by Charlemagne , whose Carolingian Empire greatly affected later European social structure and history . Europe experienced a return to systematic agriculture in the form of the feudal system , which introduced such innovations as three-field planting and the heavy plow . Barbarian migration stabilized in much of Europe , although Northern Europe was greatly affected by the Viking expansion .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Early_Middle_Ages",
"rank": 44,
"score": 113408
},
{
"content": "Title: Quaternary Content: Quaternary ( -LSB- pronkwəˈtɜrnəri -RSB- ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy ( ICS ) . It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.588 ± 0.005 million years ago to the present . The Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs : the Pleistocene ( 2.588 million years ago to 11.7 thousand years ago ) and the Holocene ( 11.7 thousand years ago to today ) . The informal term `` Late Quaternary '' refers to the past 0.5 -- 1.0 million years . The Quaternary Period is typically defined by the cyclic growth and decay of continental ice sheets driven by Milankovitch cycles and the associated climate and environmental changes that occurred .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Quaternary",
"rank": 45,
"score": 113075
},
{
"content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years",
"rank": 46,
"score": 112513
},
{
"content": "Title: 554 BC Content: The year 554 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 200 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 554 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "554_BC",
"rank": 47,
"score": 112107
},
{
"content": "Title: Middle Ages Content: In the history of Europe , the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century . It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery . The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history : classical antiquity , the medieval period , and the modern period . The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early , High , and Late Middle Ages . Population decline , counterurbanisation , invasion , and movement of peoples , which had begun in Late Antiquity , continued in the Early Middle Ages . The large-scale movements of the Migration Period , including various Germanic peoples , formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire . In the seventh century , North Africa and the Middle East -- once part of the Byzantine Empire -- came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate , an Islamic empire , after conquest by Muhammad 's successors . Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures , the break with classical antiquity was not complete . The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power . The empire 's law code , the Corpus Juris Civilis or `` Code of Justinian '' , was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages . In the West , most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions . Monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued . The Franks , under the Carolingian dynasty , briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th and early 9th century . It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions -- Vikings from the north , Hungarians from the east , and Saracens from the south . During the High Middle Ages , which began after 1000 , the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and the Medieval Warm Period climate change allowed crop yields to increase . Manorialism , the organisation of peasants into villages that owed rent and labour services to the nobles , and feudalism , the political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rent from lands and manors , were two of the ways society was organised in the High Middle Ages . The Crusades , first preached in 1095 , were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims . Kings became the heads of centralised nation states , reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified Christendom more distant . Intellectual life was marked by scholasticism , a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason , and by the founding of universities . The theology of Thomas Aquinas , the paintings of Giotto , the poetry of Dante and Chaucer , the travels of Marco Polo , and the Gothic architecture of cathedrals such as Chartres are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period and into the Late Middle Ages . The Late Middle Ages was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine , plague , and war , which significantly diminished the population of Europe ; between 1347 and 1350 , the Black Death killed about a third of Europeans . Controversy , heresy , and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the interstate conflict , civil strife , and peasant revolts that occurred in the kingdoms . Cultural and technological developments transformed European society , concluding the Late Middle Ages and beginning the early modern period .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Middle_Ages",
"rank": 48,
"score": 111836
},
{
"content": "Title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion Content: Fashion in the period 1500 -- 1550 in Western Europe is marked by voluminous clothing worn in an abundance of layers ( one reaction to the cooling temperatures of the Little Ice Age , especially in Northern Europe and the British Isles ) . Contrasting fabrics , slashes , embroidery , applied trims , and other forms of surface ornamentation became prominent . The tall , narrow lines of the late Medieval period were replaced with a wide silhouette , conical for women with breadth at the hips and broadly square for men with width at the shoulders . Sleeves were a center of attention , and were puffed , slashed , cuffed , and turned back to reveal contrasting linings . Henry VIII of England ( ruled 1509 -- 1547 ) and Francis I of France ( ruled 1515 -- 1547 ) strove to host the most glittering renaissance court , culminating in the festivities around the Field of Cloth of Gold ( 1520 ) . But the rising power was Charles V , king of Spain , Naples , and Sicily from 1516 , heir to the style as well as the riches of Burgundy , and Holy Roman Emperor from 1530 . The inflow of gold and silver from the New World into recently united Spain changed the dynamics of trade throughout Western Europe , ushering in a period of increased opulence in clothing that was tempered by the Spanish taste for sombre richness of dress that would dominate the second half of the century . This widespread adaptation of Hispanic court attire in Europe was seen as a sign of allegiance to the empire of Charles V. Regional variations in fashionable clothing that arose in the 15th century became more pronounced in the sixteenth . In particular , the clothing of the Low Countries , German states , and Scandinavia developed in a different direction than that of England , France , and Italy , although all absorbed the sobering and formal influence of Spanish dress after the mid-1520s . Linen shirts and chemises or smocks had full sleeves and often full bodies , pleated or gathered closely at neck and wrist . The resulting small frill gradually became a wide ruffle , presaging the ruff of the latter half of the century . These garments were often decorated with embroidery in black or red silk , and occasionally with gold metal threads if the garment was meant to be flashier of ones wealth . The bodice was boned and stiffened to create a more structured form , and often a busk was inserted to emphasize the flattening and elongation of the torso . Small geometric patterns appeared early in the period and , in England , evolved into the elaborate patterns associated with the flowering of blackwork embroidery . German shirts and chemises were decorated with wide bands of gold trim at the neckline , which was uniformly low early in the period and grew higher by midcentury . Silk brocades and velvets in bold floral patterns based on pomegranate and thistle or artichoke motifs remained fashionable for those who could afford them , although they were often restricted to kirtles , undersleeves and doublets revealed beneath gowns of solid-coloured fabrics or monochromatic figured silks . Yellow and red were fashionable colors . Inspired by the mended uniforms of the Swiss soldiers after the country 's 1477 victory over the Duke of Burgundy , elaborate slashing remained popular , especially in Germany , where a fashion arose for assembling garments in alternating bands of contrasting fabrics . Elsewhere , slashing was more restrained , but bands of contrasting fabric called guards , whether in color or texture , were common as trim on skirts , sleeves , and necklines . These were often decorated with bands of embroidery or applied passementerie . Bobbin lace arose from passementerie in this period , probably in Flanders , and was used both as an edging and as applied trim ; it is called passamayne in English inventories . The most fashionable furs were the silvery winter coat of the lynx and dark brown ( almost black ) sable .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "1500–1550_in_Western_European_fashion",
"rank": 49,
"score": 111405
},
{
"content": "Title: Early anthropocene Content: The Early Anthropocene Hypothesis ( sometimes called Early Anthropogenic ) was proposed by William Ruddiman . It posits that the Anthropocene era , as some scientists call the most recent period in Earth 's history when the activities of the human race first began to have a significant global impact on Earth 's climate and ecosystems , did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the industrial era , as was commonly assumed , but dates back to 8,000 years ago , triggered by intense farming activities after agriculture became widespread . It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior , a pattern that is explained by natural variations in Earth 's orbit known as Milankovitch cycles .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Early_anthropocene",
"rank": 50,
"score": 110699
},
{
"content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event",
"rank": 51,
"score": 110622
},
{
"content": "Title: Medieval reenactment Content: Medieval reenactment is a form of historical reenactment that focuses on re-enacting European history in the period from the fall of Rome to about the end of the 15th century . The second half of this period is often called the Middle Ages . This multiplicity of terms is compounded by the variety of other terms used for the period . The first period is sometimes called the Migration Period or Dark Ages by Western European historians , and as Völkerwanderung ( `` wandering of the peoples '' ) by German historians . This term is usually reserved for the 5th and 6th centuries . Re-enactors who re-create the next period of history - 7th to 11th centuries - often refer to this as Early medieval . The 12th to 14th centuries fall under the term High medieval , while the 15th century is often termed Late medieval . With such a wide range of eras most medieval reenactment groups focus on a smaller time period , sometimes restricting their interest to a particular century , or even a specific decade , series of battles , or monarch , depending on how authentic the reenactment and encampment is intended to be .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Medieval_reenactment",
"rank": 52,
"score": 110536
},
{
"content": "Title: Biber-Danube interglacial Content: The Biber-Danube interglacial ( Biber-Donau-Interglazial ) or Biber-Danube warm period ( Biber-Donau-Warmzeit ) is the oldest named warm period of the Pleistocene epoch in the Alps . It falls between the Biber and Danube glaciations .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Biber-Danube_interglacial",
"rank": 53,
"score": 110419
},
{
"content": "Title: Langhian Content: The Langhian is , in the ICS geologic timescale , an age or stage in the middle Miocene epoch/series . It spans the time between 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma and 13.65 ± 0.05 Ma ( million years ago ) during the Middle Miocene . The Langhian was a continuing warming period defined by Lorenzo Pareto in 1865 , it was originally established in the Langhe area north of Ceva in northern Italy , hence the name . The Langhian is preceded by the Burdigalian and followed by the Serravallian stage .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Langhian",
"rank": 54,
"score": 109435
},
{
"content": "Title: 553 BC Content: The year 553 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 201 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 552 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "553_BC",
"rank": 55,
"score": 108642
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool early Earth Content: The cool early Earth ( CEE ) theory posits that for part of the Hadean geological eon , at the beginning of the Earth 's history , it had a modest influx of bolides and a cool climate , allowing the presence of liquid water . This would have been after the extreme conditions of earth 's earliest history between 4.6 and 4.4 billion years ( Ga ) ago , but before the Late Heavy Bombardment of 4.1 to 3.8 Ga ago . In 2002 John Valley et al argued that detrital zircons found in Western Australia , dating to 4.0 -- 4.4 Ga ago , were formed at relatively low temperatures , that meteorite impacts may have been less frequent than previously thought , and that the earth may have gone through long periods when liquid oceans and life were possible . In 2016 Gavin Kenny et al replied to suggestions that zircons were formed by melting during tectonic subduction at plate boundaries , and argued that at least some of them were formed by meteorite impacts .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Cool_early_Earth",
"rank": 56,
"score": 108597
},
{
"content": "Title: Pleistocene Content: The Pleistocene ( -LSB- pronˈplaɪstəˌsiːn , _ - toʊ - -RSB- , often colloquially referred to as the Ice Age ) is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago , spanning the world 's most recent period of repeated glaciations . The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period and also with the end of the Paleolithic age used in archaeology . The Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era . In the ICS timescale , the Pleistocene is divided into four stages or ages , the Gelasian , Calabrian , Ionian and Tarantian . All of these stages were defined in southern Europe . In addition to this international subdivision , various regional subdivisions are often used . Before a change finally confirmed in 2009 by the International Union of Geological Sciences , the time boundary between the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene was regarded as being at 1.806 million years Before Present ( BP ) , as opposed to the currently accepted 2.588 million years BP : publications from the preceding years may use either definition of the period .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Pleistocene",
"rank": 57,
"score": 108184
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 58,
"score": 107710
},
{
"content": "Title: Grand unification epoch Content: In physical cosmology , assuming that nature is described by a Grand unification theory , the grand unification epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe following the Planck epoch , starting at about 10 − 43 seconds after the Big Bang , in which the temperature of the universe was comparable to the characteristic temperatures of grand unified theories . If the grand unification energy is taken to be 1015 GeV , this corresponds to temperatures higher than 1027 K . During this period , three of the four fundamental interactions -- electromagnetism , the strong interaction , and the weak interaction -- were unified as the electronuclear force . Gravity had separated from the electronuclear force at the end of the Planck era . During the grand unification epoch , physical characteristics such as mass , charge , flavour and colour charge were meaningless . The grand unification epoch ended at approximately 10 − 36 seconds after the Big Bang . At this point several key events took place . The strong force separated from the other fundamental forces . The temperature fell below the threshold at which X and Y bosons could be created , and the remaining X and Y bosons decayed . It is possible that some part of this decay process violated the conservation of baryon number and gave rise to a small excess of matter over antimatter ( see baryogenesis ) . This phase transition is also thought to have triggered the process of cosmic inflation that dominated the development of the universe during the following inflationary epoch .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Grand_unification_epoch",
"rank": 59,
"score": 107415
},
{
"content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer",
"rank": 60,
"score": 107258
},
{
"content": "Title: 552 BC Content: The year 552 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 202 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 552 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "552_BC",
"rank": 61,
"score": 107055
},
{
"content": "Title: 534 BC Content: The year 534 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 220 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 534 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "534_BC",
"rank": 62,
"score": 106927
},
{
"content": "Title: 524 BC Content: The year 524 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 230 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 524 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "524_BC",
"rank": 63,
"score": 106417
},
{
"content": "Title: Eemian Content: The Eemian ( also called the last interglacial , Sangamonian , Ipswichian , Mikulin , Kaydaky , Valdivia or Riss-Würm ) was the interglacial period which began about 130,000 years ago and ended about 115,000 years ago . It corresponds to Marine Isotope Stage 5e . Although sometimes referred to as the `` last interglacial '' ( in the `` most recent previous '' sense of `` last '' ) , it was the second-to-latest interglacial period of the current Ice Age , the most recent being the Holocene which extends to the present day ( having followed the last glacial period ) . The prevailing Eemian climate is believed to have been warmer than that of the Holocene . The Eemian is known as the Ipswichian in the UK , the Mikulin interglacial in Russia , the Valdivia interglacial in Chile and the Riss-Würm interglacial in the Alps . Depending on how a specific publication defines the Sangamonian Stage of North America , the Eemian is equivalent to either all or part of it .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Eemian",
"rank": 64,
"score": 106399
},
{
"content": "Title: 564 BC Content: The year 564 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 190 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 564 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "564_BC",
"rank": 65,
"score": 106390
},
{
"content": "Title: Last ice age Content: Last ice age may refer to : Quaternary glaciation , the period of the last few million years Last glacial period , the most recent glacial period of the current ice age Little Ice Age , a hundred years of relative cold in the Middle Ages after what historians term the Medieval Warm Period",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Last_ice_age",
"rank": 66,
"score": 106304
},
{
"content": "Title: Neogene Content: The Neogene ( -LSB- pronˈniːəˌdʒiːn -RSB- ) is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period Mya . The Neogene is sub-divided into two epochs , the earlier Miocene and the later Pliocene . Some geologists assert that the Neogene can not be clearly delineated from the modern geological period , the Quaternary . During this period , mammals and birds continued to evolve into roughly modern forms , while other groups of life remained relatively unchanged . Early hominids , the ancestors of humans , appeared in Africa near the end of the period . Some continental movement took place , the most significant event being the connection of North and South America at the Isthmus of Panama , late in the Pliocene . This cut off the warm ocean currents from the Pacific to the Atlantic ocean , leaving only the Gulf Stream to transfer heat to the Arctic Ocean . The global climate cooled considerably over the course of the Neogene , culminating in a series of continental glaciations in the Quaternary Period that follows .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Neogene",
"rank": 67,
"score": 106150
},
{
"content": "Title: 535 BC Content: The year 535 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 219 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 535 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "535_BC",
"rank": 68,
"score": 106088
},
{
"content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum",
"rank": 69,
"score": 106081
},
{
"content": "Title: 536 BC Content: The year 536 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 218 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 536 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "536_BC",
"rank": 70,
"score": 105794
},
{
"content": "Title: 530 BC Content: The year 530 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 224 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 530 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "530_BC",
"rank": 71,
"score": 105761
},
{
"content": "Title: 531 BC Content: The year 531 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 223 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 531 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "531_BC",
"rank": 72,
"score": 105560
},
{
"content": "Title: 543 BC Content: The year 543 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 211 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 543 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "543_BC",
"rank": 73,
"score": 105544
},
{
"content": "Title: Athryilatus Content: Athryilatus ( Greek : Αθρυίλατος ) ( 1st-2nd century AD ) a Greek physician from Thasos , Macedonia ( Roman province ) . According to Plutarch 's Symposiacs , Athryilatus considered women warmer than men ; saying Women endure cold better than men , they are not so sensible of the sharpness of the weather , and are contented with a few clothes .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Athryilatus",
"rank": 74,
"score": 105506
},
{
"content": "Title: 556 BC Content: The year 556 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 198 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 556 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "556_BC",
"rank": 75,
"score": 105487
},
{
"content": "Title: 538 BC Content: The year 538 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 216 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 538 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "538_BC",
"rank": 76,
"score": 105475
},
{
"content": "Title: 573 BC Content: The year 573 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 181 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 573 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "573_BC",
"rank": 77,
"score": 105464
},
{
"content": "Title: 558 BC Content: The year 558 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 196 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 558 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "558_BC",
"rank": 78,
"score": 105444
},
{
"content": "Title: 532 BC Content: The year 532 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 222 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 532 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "532_BC",
"rank": 79,
"score": 105426
},
{
"content": "Title: 566 BC Content: The year 566 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 188 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 566 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "566_BC",
"rank": 80,
"score": 105416
},
{
"content": "Title: 575 BC Content: The year 575 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 179 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 575 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "575_BC",
"rank": 81,
"score": 105289
},
{
"content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2",
"rank": 82,
"score": 105254
},
{
"content": "Title: 551 BC Content: The year 551 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 203 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 551 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "551_BC",
"rank": 83,
"score": 105246
},
{
"content": "Title: 526 BC Content: The year 526 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 244 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 526 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "526_BC",
"rank": 84,
"score": 105235
},
{
"content": "Title: 537 BC Content: The year 537 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 217 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 537 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "537_BC",
"rank": 85,
"score": 105230
},
{
"content": "Title: 557 BC Content: The year 557 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 197 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 557 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "557_BC",
"rank": 86,
"score": 105188
},
{
"content": "Title: Atlantic (period) Content: The Atlantic in palaeoclimatology was the warmest and moistest Blytt-Sernander period , pollen zone and chronozone of Holocene northern Europe . The climate was generally warmer than today . It was preceded by the Boreal , with a climate similar to today 's , and was followed by the Subboreal , a transition to the modern . Because it was the warmest period of the Holocene , the Atlantic is often referenced more directly as the Holocene climatic optimum , or just climatic optimum .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Atlantic_(period)",
"rank": 87,
"score": 105103
},
{
"content": "Title: YAD06 Content: YAD06 is a tree located in the Yamal Peninsula of Siberia . A core sample from this tree , YADO61 , provided data used to support hockey stick interpretation of global climate history . The data was originally published in 1995 a paper by Keith Briffa of the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia . The paper asserted that the late Middle Ages , previously described as a `` Medieval Warm Period , '' was actually quite cold . Steve McIntyre has described this tree as possibly `` the most influential tree in the world '' , and publicly accused Briffa of cherry-picking certain tree ring records in order to get a specific result , creating what Michael E. Mann described as a `` manufactured scandal . ''",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "YAD06",
"rank": 88,
"score": 104991
},
{
"content": "Title: 568 BC Content: The year 568 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 186 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 568 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "568_BC",
"rank": 89,
"score": 104978
},
{
"content": "Title: 576 BC Content: The year 576 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 178 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 576 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "576_BC",
"rank": 90,
"score": 104959
},
{
"content": "Title: 525 BC Content: The year 525 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 229 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 525 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "525_BC",
"rank": 91,
"score": 104920
},
{
"content": "Title: 514 BC Content: The year 514 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 240 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 514 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "514_BC",
"rank": 92,
"score": 104894
},
{
"content": "Title: 561 BC Content: The year 561 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 193 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 561 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "561_BC",
"rank": 93,
"score": 104804
},
{
"content": "Title: 562 BC Content: The year 562 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 192 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 562 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "562_BC",
"rank": 94,
"score": 104708
},
{
"content": "Title: 567 BC Content: The year 567 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 187 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 567 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "567_BC",
"rank": 95,
"score": 104625
},
{
"content": "Title: 539 BC Content: The year 539 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 215 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 539 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "539_BC",
"rank": 96,
"score": 104592
},
{
"content": "Title: 513 BC Content: The year 513 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 241 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 513 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "513_BC",
"rank": 97,
"score": 104588
},
{
"content": "Title: Early Miocene Content: The Early Miocene ( also known as Lower Miocene ) is a sub-epoch of the Miocene Epoch made up of two stages : the Aquitanian and Burdigalian stages . The sub-epoch lasted from 23.03 ± 0.05 Ma to 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma ( million years ago ) . It was preceded by the Oligocene epoch . As the climate started to get cooler , the landscape started to change . New mammals evolved to replace the extinct animals of the Oligocene epoch.The first members of the hyena and weasel family started to evolve to replace the extinct Hyaenodon , entelodonts and bear-dogs . The chalicotheres survived the Oligocene epoch . A new genus of entelodont called Daeodon evolved in order to adapt to the new habitats and hunt the new prey animals of the Early Miocene epoch ; it quickly became the top predator of North America . But it became extinct due to competition from Amphicyon , a newcomer from Eurasia . Amphicyon bested Daeodon because the bear-dog 's larger brain , sharper teeth and longer legs built for longer chases helped it to overcome its prey .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "Early_Miocene",
"rank": 98,
"score": 104511
},
{
"content": "Title: 571 BC Content: The year 571 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 183 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 571 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "571_BC",
"rank": 99,
"score": 104482
},
{
"content": "Title: 547 BC Content: The year 547 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar . In the Roman Empire , it was known as year 207 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 547 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .",
"qid": "57",
"docid": "547_BC",
"rank": 100,
"score": 104479
}
] |
So that means that probably about half, maybe half of that nine-tenths of the degree [of total warming] might be caused by greenhouse gases | [
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 1,
"score": 131763
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 2,
"score": 120428
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 3,
"score": 114770
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 4,
"score": 113331
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 5,
"score": 113261
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 6,
"score": 112295
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 7,
"score": 111281
},
{
"content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model",
"rank": 8,
"score": 111181
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 9,
"score": 110316
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 10,
"score": 108583
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 11,
"score": 108552
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 12,
"score": 108244
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 13,
"score": 107836
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 14,
"score": 107614
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 15,
"score": 106536
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 16,
"score": 106436
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_debt",
"rank": 17,
"score": 106280
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas removal Content: Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_removal",
"rank": 18,
"score": 105349
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 19,
"score": 104822
},
{
"content": "Title: The 2030 °Challenge Content: The 2030 ° Challenge is an initiative by Edward Mazria and Architecture 2030 asking the global architecture and construction community to adopt a series of greenhouse gas reduction targets for new and renovated buildings . In many developed countries the construction and use of buildings is the leading consumer of energy and producer of greenhouse gas emissions . Stabilizing and reversing emissions in this sector is key to keeping future global warming under one degree celsius ( ° C ) above today 's level , in order to avoid increased global warming , potentially to reach a tipping point .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "The_2030_°Challenge",
"rank": 20,
"score": 103949
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 21,
"score": 103565
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 22,
"score": 102703
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_inventory",
"rank": 23,
"score": 102268
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 24,
"score": 101833
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 25,
"score": 101345
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 26,
"score": 100951
},
{
"content": "Title: Total equivalent warming impact Content: Total equivalent warming impact or TEWI is besides global warming potential measure used to express contributions to global warming . It is defined as sum of the direct emissions ( chemical ) and indirect emissions ( energy use ) of greenhouse gases .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Total_equivalent_warming_impact",
"rank": 27,
"score": 100849
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 28,
"score": 100683
},
{
"content": "Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 29,
"score": 100671
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 30,
"score": 100311
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 31,
"score": 100224
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 32,
"score": 100035
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 33,
"score": 99924
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 34,
"score": 99722
},
{
"content": "Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Lee_Hannah",
"rank": 35,
"score": 99457
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 36,
"score": 98933
},
{
"content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Landfill_gas",
"rank": 37,
"score": 98803
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006",
"rank": 38,
"score": 98502
},
{
"content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Fugitive_emissions",
"rank": 39,
"score": 98352
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 40,
"score": 97844
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 41,
"score": 97487
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 42,
"score": 97113
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 43,
"score": 96847
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act",
"rank": 44,
"score": 95704
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 45,
"score": 95153
},
{
"content": "Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases",
"rank": 46,
"score": 94707
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline",
"rank": 47,
"score": 94440
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 48,
"score": 94433
},
{
"content": "Title: California Proposition 23 (2010) Content: Proposition 23 was a California ballot proposition that was on the November 2 , 2010 California statewide ballot . It was defeated by California voters during the statewide election by a 23 % margin . If passed , it would have suspended AB 32 , a law enacted in 2006 , legally referred to its long name , the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 . Sponsors of the initiative referred to their measure as the California Jobs Initiative while opponents called it the Dirty Energy Prop . The goal of the proposition was to freeze the provisions of AB 32 until California 's unemployment rate dropped to 5.5 % or below for four consecutive quarters . Since the rate was then at 12.4 % , and it had been decades since the state had seen an unemployment rate below 5.5 % for such a period of time , this wording was seen by former Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger and others as a wording trick to delay the environmental regulations indefinitely . AB 32 requires that greenhouse emission levels in the state be cut to 1990 levels by 2020 , in a gradual process of cutting that is slated to begin in 2012 . Reducing greenhouse emission levels to 1990 levels will involve cutting them by about 15 % from 2010 levels . AB 32 includes a provision allowing the Governor of California to suspend the provisions of AB 32 if there are `` extraordinary circumstances '' in place , such as `` significant economic harm '' . The supporters of Prop 23 , Assemblyman Dan Logue and Ted Costa , decided to circulate a petition to accomplish a suspension of the environmental regulations . Governor Schwarzenegger , as well as the major party candidates for Governor , Jerry Brown , and Meg Whitman , all stated they would vote `` no '' on Prop 23 . Brown however favored `` adjustments '' to AB 32 , while Whitman would have immediately suspended the law . Louise Bedsworth , a research fellow at the Public Policy Institute of California , predicted in April 2010 that total campaign spending on this proposition would top the $ 154 million record set in 2006 by Proposition 87 . If campaign spending on the proposition does reach that level , it could be because supporters and opponents view the battle over the suspension of AB 32 as symbolic in the larger national debate over global warming . Steven Maviglio , speaking for a group that wants to keep AB 32 intact , said , '' ... this could be a ground zero for the battle for the future of clean energy '' .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "California_Proposition_23_(2010)",
"rank": 49,
"score": 94431
},
{
"content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Global_dimming",
"rank": 50,
"score": 94406
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 51,
"score": 94127
},
{
"content": "Title: Methane emissions Content: Global methane emissions are major part of the global greenhouse gas emissions . Methane in the atmosphere has a 100-year global warming potential of 34 .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Methane_emissions",
"rank": 52,
"score": 93914
},
{
"content": "Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions",
"rank": 53,
"score": 93860
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting Content: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is a method of calculating the amount of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) emitted by a region in a given time-scale . A National Emissions Inventory ( NEI ) measuring a country 's GHG emissions in a year is required by the UNFCCC to provide a benchmark for the country 's emission reductions , and subsequently to evaluate international climate policies such as the Kyoto protocol ( although the original has now expired , extensions have been agreed ) as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . There are two conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions : production-based ( sometimes referred to as territorial-based ) or consumption-based . Production-based emissions take place `` within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction '' . Consumption-based emissions encompass those emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports . This means the importing country takes responsibility for emissions related to production of the exporting country 's exports . By these definitions production-based emissions include exports but exclude imports and emissions embodied in international trade , whereas consumption-based emissions refer to the reverse ( Table 1 ) . Which technique is applied by policymakers is fundamental as each can generate a very different NEI . Different NEIs would result in a country 's choosing different optimal mitigation activities , the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging . The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms , although much of the literature favours consumption-based accounting . The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_accounting",
"rank": 54,
"score": 93737
},
{
"content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 55,
"score": 93013
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greenhouse Conspiracy Content: The Greenhouse Conspiracy is a documentary film broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990 , as part of the Equinox series , which criticised the theory of global warming and asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding . It is one of the earliest instances of the suggestion of a conspiracy to promote false claims supporting global warming . Although the title of the program implied the existence of a conspiracy , when interviewed on the program Patrick Michaels played down the idea , saying , `` It may not quite add up to a conspiracy , but certainly a coalition of interests has promoted the greenhouse theory : scientists have needed funds , the media a story , and governments a worthy cause '' .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "The_Greenhouse_Conspiracy",
"rank": 56,
"score": 92974
},
{
"content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis",
"rank": 57,
"score": 92473
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Massachusetts",
"rank": 58,
"score": 92131
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide equivalent Content: Carbon dioxide equivalent ( CDE ) and equivalent carbon dioxide ( e and eq ) are two related but distinct measures for describing how much global warming a given type and amount of greenhouse gas may cause , using the functionally equivalent amount or concentration of carbon dioxide as the reference .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_equivalent",
"rank": 59,
"score": 92103
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Kaya_identity",
"rank": 60,
"score": 92063
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_accounting",
"rank": 61,
"score": 92047
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 62,
"score": 91777
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 63,
"score": 91613
},
{
"content": "Title: Kivalina v. ExxonMobil Corp. Content: __ NOTOC __ Kivalina v. ExxonMobil Corporation , et al. is a lawsuit filed on February 26 , 2008 , in a United States district court . The suit , based on the common law theory of nuisance , claims monetary damages from the energy industry for the destruction of Kivalina , Alaska by flooding caused by climate change . The damage estimates made by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Government Accountability Office are placed between $ 95 million and $ 400 million . This lawsuit is an example of greenhouse gas emission liability . The suit was dismissed by the United States district court on September 30 , 2009 , on the grounds that regulating greenhouse emissions was a political rather than a legal issue and one that needed to be resolved by Congress and the Administration rather than by courts . An appeal was filed with the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in November 2009 . In September 2012 , the panel of appeals judges decided not to reinstate the case . The city appealed the court of appeals decision to the U.S. Supreme Court and on May 20 , 2013 the Supreme Court justices decided not hear the case , effectively ending the city 's legal claim .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Kivalina_v._ExxonMobil_Corp.",
"rank": 64,
"score": 91513
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 Content: The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 , also known as Senate Bill 375 or SB 375 , is a State of California law targeting greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles . The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) sets goals for the reduction of statewide greenhouse gas emissions . Passenger vehicles are the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions statewide , accounting for 30 % of total emissions . SB 375 therefore provides key support to achieve the goals of AB 32 . SB 375 instructs the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) to set regional emissions ' reduction targets from passenger vehicles . The Metropolitan Planning Organization for each region must then develop a `` Sustainable Communities Strategy '' ( SCS ) that integrates transportation , land-use and housing policies to plan for achievement of the emissions target for their region . In a press release the day he signed the bill into law , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger stated , `` What this will mean is more environmentally-friendly communities , more sustainable developments , less time people spend in their cars , more alternative transportation options and neighborhoods we can safely and proudly pass on to future generations . ''",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Sustainable_Communities_and_Climate_Protection_Act_of_2008",
"rank": 65,
"score": 91239
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions",
"rank": 66,
"score": 90910
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act of the Canadian province of Alberta was the first law of its type to impose greenhouse gas cuts on large industrial facilities . Starting from July 1 , 2007 , Alberta facilities that emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases per year will be required to reduce their emissions intensity by 12 percent under the Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act . Companies have three ways to meet their reductions : they can make operating improvements , buy an Alberta-based credit , or contribute to the Climate Change and Emissions Management Fund . The regulations apply to about 100 large facilities which emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases a year . Those facilities account for about 70 per cent of Alberta 's industrial greenhouse gas emissions . The annual cost of compliance is estimated to be $ 177 million - or less than one tenth of one per cent of Alberta 's nominal GDP ( $ 242 billion in 2006 ) .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Climate_Change_and_Emissions_Management_Amendment_Act",
"rank": 67,
"score": 90906
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Carbon_footprint",
"rank": 68,
"score": 90851
},
{
"content": "Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001",
"rank": 69,
"score": 90675
},
{
"content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850",
"rank": 70,
"score": 90587
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Runaway_climate_change",
"rank": 71,
"score": 90487
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 72,
"score": 90399
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Low-carbon_diet",
"rank": 73,
"score": 90338
},
{
"content": "Title: Virgin Earth Challenge Content: The Virgin Earth Challenge is a competition offering a $ 25 million prize for whoever can demonstrate a commercially viable design which results in the permanent removal of greenhouse gases out of the Earth 's atmosphere to contribute materially in global warming avoidance . The prize was conceived and financed by Sir Richard Branson , a successful British entrepreneur , and was announced in London on 9 February 2007 by Branson and former US Vice President and 2007 Nobel Prize winner Al Gore , creator of the 2006 film An Inconvenient Truth on climate change . Among more than 2600 applications , 11 finalists were announced on 2 November 2011 . These are Biochar Solutions , from the US ; Biorecro , Sweden ; Black Carbon , Denmark ; Carbon Engineering , Canada ; Climeworks , Switzerland ; COAWAY , US ; Full Circle Biochar , US ; Global Thermostat , US ; Kilimanjaro Energy , US ; Smartstones -- Olivine Foundation , Netherlands , and The Savory Institute , US .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Virgin_Earth_Challenge",
"rank": 74,
"score": 90297
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 75,
"score": 90099
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite",
"rank": 76,
"score": 89978
},
{
"content": "Title: Executive Orders S-3-05 and B-30-15 Content: Executive Orders S-3-05 is an Executive Order of the State of California signed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in June 2005 that set greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets for the State of California and laid out responsibilities among the state agencies for implementing the Executive Order and for reporting on progress toward the targets . Specifically , the Executive Order established these targets : By 2010 , reduce GHG emissions to 2000 levels By 2020 , reduce GHG emissions to 1990 levels By 2050 , reduce GHG emissions to 80 percent below 1990 levels The first and second goals were enshrined into law by the legislation known as AB 32 , or the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , which gave the California Air Resources Board broad authority to implement a market-based system ( also known as cap-and-trade ) to achieve these goals . California Executive Order B-30-15 ( April 2015 , signed by Governor Jerry Brown ) added the intermediate target of : By 2030 , reduce GHG emissions to 40 percent below 1990 levels .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Executive_Orders_S-3-05_and_B-30-15",
"rank": 77,
"score": 89842
},
{
"content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut",
"rank": 78,
"score": 89724
},
{
"content": "Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Paris_Agreement",
"rank": 79,
"score": 89616
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Environmental_issue",
"rank": 80,
"score": 89270
},
{
"content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme",
"rank": 81,
"score": 89056
},
{
"content": "Title: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Content: Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Post–Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissions",
"rank": 82,
"score": 89038
},
{
"content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32",
"rank": 83,
"score": 88847
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 84,
"score": 88811
},
{
"content": "Title: Physical properties of greenhouse gases Content:",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Physical_properties_of_greenhouse_gases",
"rank": 85,
"score": 88113
},
{
"content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 86,
"score": 87963
},
{
"content": "Title: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate Content: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate ( second edition , 2009 ) or Ten Technologies to Save the Planet ( first edition , 2008 ) is a popular science book by Chris Goodall first published in 2008 and re-issued in 2009 by Profile Books . Its ten chapters each detail a technology that has the potential to reduce Greenhouse Gases while being economically and technologically viable in the present or near future . The book received a positive critical response for the way in which it was written and dealt with the issues surrounding Global Warming .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Ten_Technologies_to_Fix_Energy_and_Climate",
"rank": 87,
"score": 87732
},
{
"content": "Title: Fluorinated gases Content: Fluorinated gases ( F-gases ) are man-made gases that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries and contribute to a global greenhouse effect . There are four types : hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) and nitrogen trifluoride ( NF3 ) .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Fluorinated_gases",
"rank": 88,
"score": 87444
},
{
"content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Drawdown_(climate)",
"rank": 89,
"score": 86923
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Mafia Content: Greenhouse Mafia is the title of a TV program aired by the ABC on the 13 February 2006 episode of its weekly current affairs program Four Corners . The program says the term greenhouse mafia is the `` in house '' name used by Australia 's carbon lobby for itself . The program featured former Liberal Party member Guy Pearse and Four Corners host Janine Cohen , while others concerned about the influence exerted by the fossil fuel lobby also participated . The report was based on a thesis Pearse wrote at the Australian National University between 1999 and 2005 regarding the response of Australian business to global warming . According to the program , lobby groups representing the coal , car , oil , and aluminium industries have wielded their power to prevent Australia from reducing its greenhouse gas emissions , which were already among the highest per capita in the world in 1990 .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_Mafia",
"rank": 90,
"score": 86875
},
{
"content": "Title: United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions Content: The United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions is established by the United States Department of Energy under the Energy Policy Act 1992 . It is administered by the Energy Information Administration through the Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Program . Separately , the Environmental Protection Agency in 2009 commenced implementing a mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program , which applies to facilities that emit 25,000 metric tons or more per year .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "United_States_federal_register_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions",
"rank": 91,
"score": 86795
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic methane emissions Content: Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Arctic_methane_emissions",
"rank": 92,
"score": 86690
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 93,
"score": 86583
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 94,
"score": 86530
},
{
"content": "Title: 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane Content: 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane is an organic chemical , an organofluoride . It is a colorless gas , usually available in the form of a liquid gas . It is used as a fire suppression agent , a foaming agent , a highly effective refrigerant , a heat transfer medium , a dielectric gas , a sterilant carrier , a polymerization medium , a carrier fluid , a displacement drying agent , a thermodynamic power cycle working fluid , etc. . When used as a fire suppressant , hexafluoropropane carries the DuPont trade name , FE-36 . 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane is a greenhouse gas ; its global warming potential is 6300 . It is manufactured by reacting 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexachloropropane with hydrogen fluoride in gas phase at temperature between 250-400 ° C , in presence of a catalyst in the form of trivalent chromium ( e.g. chromium ( III ) chloride ) supported on carbon with low content of specific impurities .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane",
"rank": 95,
"score": 86493
},
{
"content": "Title: San Francisco Climate Action Plan Content: The San Francisco Climate Action Plan is a greenhouse gas reduction initiative adopted by the City and County of San Francisco , United States in 2002 . It aims to reduce the city 's greenhouse gas emissions to 20 % below 1990 levels by 2012 .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "San_Francisco_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 96,
"score": 86174
},
{
"content": "Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Air_pollution_in_Germany",
"rank": 97,
"score": 86128
},
{
"content": "Title: Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Content: The Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord ( Midwestern Accord ) is a regional agreement by six governors of states in the US Midwest who are members of the Midwestern Governors Association ( MGA ) , and the premier of one Canadian province , whose purpose is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . The accord has been inactive since March 2010 , when an advisory group presented a plan for action to the association with a scheduled implementation date of January 2012 . Signatories to the accord are the US states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Illinois , Iowa , Michigan , Kansas , and the Canadian Province of Manitoba . Observers of the accord are Indiana , Ohio , and South Dakota , as well as the Canadian Province of Ontario . While the Midwest has intensive manufacturing and agriculture sectors , making it the most coal-dependent region in North America , it also has significant renewable energy resources and is particularly vulnerable to the climate change caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels . The Midwestern Accord was the fourth tier of the MGA Energy Security and Climate Stewardship Summit Platform , signed on November 15 , 2007 . It established the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Program , which aimed to : establish greenhouse gas reduction targets and time frames consistent with signing states ' targets ; develop a market-based and multi-sector cap-and-trade mechanism to help achieve those reduction targets ; establish a system to enable tracking , management , and crediting for entities that reduce greenhouse gas emissions ; and develop and implement additional steps as needed to achieve the reduction targets , such as a low-carbon fuel standards and regional incentives and funding mechanisms . Through the Midwestern Accord , the governors agreed to establish a Midwestern greenhouse gas reduction program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in their states , as well as a working group to provide recommendations regarding the implementation of the accord . In June 2009 , the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Advisory Group finalized its draft recommendations . In March 2010 the advisory group presented a plan to the MGA that called for implementation beginning in January 2012 . No further action was taken , as leadership in several of the states switched positions on climate policy . In July 2014 , accord member Kansas and observers Indiana , South Dakota , and Ohio joined a lawsuit opposing the EPA Clean Power Plan , federal climate regulations which could be met by implementation of the accord .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Midwestern_Greenhouse_Gas_Reduction_Accord",
"rank": 98,
"score": 86051
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Climate_system",
"rank": 99,
"score": 86012
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions in Kentucky Content: The report `` Kentucky Greenhouse Gas Inventory '' provides a detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and sinks for Kentucky in 1990 . Emissions were estimated using methods from EPA 's 1995 guidance document State Workbook : Methodologies for Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions . In 1990 , Kentucky emitted 35.4 million metric tons of carbon equivalent ( MMTCE ) . In addition , Kentucky estimated emissions of 0.4 MMTCE from biofuels . Emissions from biofuels are not included . The principal greenhouse gases were carbon dioxide , comprising 87.9 million metric tons ( 24.0 MMTCE ) , and methane , with 1.1 million metric tons ( 6.4 MMTCE ) . Other emissions included 0.0016 million metric tons of perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) ( 4.8 MMTCE ) , and 0.003 million metric tons of nitrous oxide ( 0.2 MMTCE ) The major source of carbon dioxide emissions was fossil fuel combustion ( 96 % ) , the majority of which is utility coal . Minor emissions came from cement and lime production and forest/grassland conversion . Carbon dioxide sinks ( i.e. , an increase in forest carbon storage ) offset about 26 % of the total carbon dioxide emissions . Sources of methane emissions were coal mining ( 73 % ) , domesticated animals ( 12 % ) , landfills ( 10 % ) , manure management ( 3 % ) , and natural gas/oil extraction ( 2 % ) . Nitrous oxide emissions were from fertilizer use . Sources of perfluorocarbons were HCFC-22 production ( 91 % ) and aluminum production ( 9 % ) . Kentucky 's emissions in 1990 were 9.6 MTCE per capita , compared to 1990 U.S. emissions of 6.4 MTCE per capita . Kentucky 's per capita emissions are high due to the large volume of coal-related activities in the state .",
"qid": "60",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_in_Kentucky",
"rank": 100,
"score": 86002
}
] |
[NASA] has been adjusting temperatures from the past[...] | [
{
"content": "Title: Temperature control Content: Temperature control is a process in which change of temperature of a space ( and objects collectively there within ) is measured or otherwise detected , and the passage of heat energy into or out of the space is adjusted to achieve a desired average temperature .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Temperature_control",
"rank": 1,
"score": 103929
},
{
"content": "Title: 2MASS J22282889-4310262 Content: 2MASS J22282889-4310262 is a brown dwarf discovered by The Hubble Space Telescope and The Spitzer Space Telescope in 2013 . Through the uses of the Hubble and Spitzer , NASA astronomers were able to develop the most detailed ` weather map ' for the brown dwarf utilizing different wavelengths of infrared light to show changing light patterns and different layers of material in the windstorms ( the layers were generated because water and methane vapors infrared wavelengths ) . This observation was the first time that researchers were able to probe such variability at different altitudes of the body . On the outer layers of the star , gases condense into raindrop like particles made up of sand and iron which fall onto the interior . Researchers also determined that the object 's temperature ranges from 1,100 to 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit ( 600 to 700 degrees Celsius ) .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "2MASS_J22282889-4310262",
"rank": 2,
"score": 98143
},
{
"content": "Title: Mars Climate Orbiter Content: The Mars Climate Orbiter ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter ) was a 338 kg robotic space probe launched by NASA on December 11 , 1998 to study the Martian climate , Martian atmosphere , and surface changes and to act as the communications relay in the Mars Surveyor '98 program for Mars Polar Lander . However , on September 23 , 1999 , communication with the spacecraft was lost as the spacecraft went into orbital insertion , due to ground-based computer software which produced output in non-SI units of pound ( force ) - seconds ( lbf · s ) instead of the SI units of newton-seconds ( N · s ) specified in the contract between NASA and Lockheed . The spacecraft encountered Mars on a trajectory that brought it too close to the planet , causing it to pass through the upper atmosphere and disintegrate .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Mars_Climate_Orbiter",
"rank": 3,
"score": 97189
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network",
"rank": 4,
"score": 92525
},
{
"content": "Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "List_of_climate_research_satellites",
"rank": 5,
"score": 90793
},
{
"content": "Title: Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe Content: The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ) , originally known as the Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( MAP ) , was a spacecraft operating from 2001 to 2010 which measured temperature differences across the sky in the cosmic microwave background ( CMB ) -- the radiant heat remaining from the Big Bang . Headed by Professor Charles L. Bennett of Johns Hopkins University , the mission was developed in a joint partnership between the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and Princeton University . The WMAP spacecraft was launched on June 30 , 2001 from Florida . The WMAP mission succeeded the COBE space mission and was the second medium-class ( MIDEX ) spacecraft in the NASA Explorers program . In 2003 , MAP was renamed WMAP in honor of cosmologist David Todd Wilkinson ( 1935 -- 2002 ) , who had been a member of the mission 's science team . After 9 years of operations , WMAP was switched off in 2010 , following the launch of the more advanced Planck spacecraft by ESA in 2009 . WMAP 's measurements played a key role in establishing the current Standard Model of Cosmology : the Lambda-CDM model . The WMAP data are very well fit by a universe that is dominated by dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant . Other cosmological data are also consistent , and together tightly constrain the Model . In the Lambda-CDM model of the universe , the age of the universe is billion years . The WMAP mission 's determination of the age of the universe to better than 1 % precision . The current expansion rate of the universe is ( see Hubble constant ) of . The content of the universe presently consists of ordinary baryonic matter ; cold dark matter ( CDM ) that neither emits nor absorbs light ; and of dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant that accelerates the expansion of the universe . Less than 1 % of the current contents of the universe is in neutrinos , but WMAP 's measurements have found , for the first time in 2008 , that the data prefers the existence of a cosmic neutrino background with an effective number of neutrino species of . The contents point to a Euclidean flat geometry , with curvature of . The WMAP measurements also support the cosmic inflation paradigm in several ways , including the flatness measurement . The mission has won various awards : according to Science magazine , the WMAP was the Breakthrough of the Year for 2003 . This mission 's results papers were first and second in the `` Super Hot Papers in Science Since 2003 '' list . Of the all-time most referenced papers in physics and astronomy in the INSPIRE-HEP database , only three have been published since 2000 , and all three are WMAP publications . Bennett , Lyman A. Page , Jr. , and David N. Spergel , the latter both of Princeton University , shared the 2010 Shaw Prize in astronomy for their work on WMAP . Bennett and the WMAP science team were awarded the 2012 Gruber Prize in cosmology . As of October 2010 , the WMAP spacecraft is derelict in a heliocentric graveyard orbit after 9 years of operations . All WMAP data are released to the public and have been subject to careful scrutiny . The final official data release was the nine-year release in 2012 . Some aspects of the data are statistically unusual for the Standard Model of Cosmology . For example , the largest angular-scale measurement , the quadrupole moment , is somewhat smaller than the Model would predict , but this discrepancy is not highly significant . A large cold spot and other features of the data are more statistically significant , and research continues into these .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe",
"rank": 6,
"score": 89530
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat Capacity Mapping Mission Content: The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission ( HCMM ) was the first Applications Explorer Mission . HCMM provided comprehensive , accurate , high-spatial-resolution thermal surveys of the surface of the Earth . HCCM was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on April 26 , 1978 by a Scout-F rocket . Its mass was 117.0 kg . The HCMM spacecraft was placed in a circular sun-synchronous orbit , allowing the spacecraft to sense surface temperatures near the maximum and minimum of the diurnal cycle . There was no on-board data storage capability , so only real-time data were transmitted when the satellite came within reception range of seven ground stations . During February 21 -- 23 , 1980 , the HCMM orbital altitude was lowered from 620 km to 540 km to stop the drift of the orbit plane to unfavorable sun angles which in turn reduced the power collection capability of the solar panels . The operations of the spacecraft were terminated on September 30 , 1980 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Heat_Capacity_Mapping_Mission",
"rank": 7,
"score": 87182
},
{
"content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years",
"rank": 8,
"score": 87036
},
{
"content": "Title: Pill thermometer Content: A pill thermometer is an ingestible thermometer that allows a person 's core temperature to be continuously monitored . It was developed by NASA in collaboration with Johns Hopkins University for use with astronauts . Since then the pill has been used by mountain climbers , football players , cyclists and F1 drivers . The Thermometer Pill is currently manufactured by the company , HQ Inc under the brand name CorTemp .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Pill_thermometer",
"rank": 9,
"score": 86187
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 10,
"score": 86040
},
{
"content": "Title: Spacecraft thermal control Content: In spacecraft design , the function of the thermal control system ( TCS ) is to keep all the spacecraft 's component systems within acceptable temperature ranges during all mission phases . It must cope with the external environment , which can vary in a wide range as the spacecraft is exposed to deep space or to solar or planetary flux , and with ejecting to space the internal heat generated by the operation of the spacecraft itself . Thermal control is essential to guarantee the optimum performance and success of the mission because if a component is subjected to temperatures which are too high or too low , it could be damaged or its performance could be severely affected . Thermal control is also necessary to keep specific components ( such as optical sensors , atomic clocks , etc. ) within a specified temperature stability requirement , to ensure that they perform as efficiently as possible . The thermal control subsystem can be composed both of passive and of active items and works in two ways : protects the equipment from overheating , either by thermal insulation from external heat fluxes ( such as the Sun or the planetary infrared and albedo flux ) , or by proper heat removal from internal sources ( such as the heat emitted by the internal electronic equipment ) . protects the equipment from temperatures that are too cold , by thermal insulation from external sinks , by enhanced heat absorption from external sources , or by heat release from internal sources . Passive Thermal Control System ( PTCS ) components include : Multi-layer insulation ( MLI ) , which protects the spacecraft from excessive solar or planetary heating as well as from excessive cooling when exposed to deep space coatings that change the thermo-optical properties of external surfaces thermal fillers to improve the thermal coupling at selected interfaces ( for instance on the thermal path between an electronic unit and its radiator ) thermal washers to reduce the thermal coupling at selected interfaces thermal doublers to spread on the radiator surface the heat dissipated by equipment mirrors ( secondary surface mirrors , SSM , or optical solar reflectors , OSR ) to improve the heat rejection capability of the external radiators and at the same time to reduce the absorption of external solar fluxes radioisotope heater units ( RHU ) , used by some planetary and exploratory missions to produce and store electrical power for TCS purposes Active Thermal Control System ( ATCS ) components include : thermostatically controlled resistive electric heaters to keep the equipment temperature above its lower limit during the mission 's cold phases fluid loops to transfer the heat emitted by equipment to the radiators . They can be : single-phase loops , controlled by a pump two-phase loops , composed of heat pipes ( HP ) , loop heat pipes ( LHP ) or capillary pumped loops ( CPL ) louvers ( which change the heat rejection capability to space as a function of temperature ) thermoelectric coolers",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Spacecraft_thermal_control",
"rank": 11,
"score": 84627
},
{
"content": "Title: Ehrenfest–Tolman effect Content: The Ehrenfest -- Tolman effect ( also known as the Tolman -- Ehrenfest effect ) , created by Richard C. Tolman and Paul Ehrenfest , argues that temperature is not constant in space at thermal equilibrium , but varies with the spacetime curvature . Specifically , it depends on the spacetime metric . In a stationary spacetime with timelike Killing vector field , the temperature satisfies instead the Tolman-Ehrenfest relation : , where is the norm of the timelike Killing vector field . This relationship leads to the concept of thermal time which has been considered as a possible basis for a fully general-relativistic thermodynamics . It has been shown that the Tolman -- Ehrenfest effect can be derived by applying the equivalence principle to the concept that temperature is the rate of thermal time with respect to proper time .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Ehrenfest–Tolman_effect",
"rank": 12,
"score": 84199
},
{
"content": "Title: List of temperature sensors Content:",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "List_of_temperature_sensors",
"rank": 13,
"score": 83902
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "NOAA-6",
"rank": 14,
"score": 83802
},
{
"content": "Title: High Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder Content: The High Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder ( HIRDLS ) is an instrument on board the NASA Aura . It follows in the heritage of LRIR ( Nimbus-6 ) , LIMS and SAMS ( Nimbus-7 ) , ISAMS and CLAES ( UARS ) . It was designed to observe global distribution of temperature and concentrations of O3 , H2O , CH4 , N2O , NO2 , HNO3 , N2O5 , CFC-11 , CFC-12 , ClONO2 , and aerosols in the upper troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere . After launch , activation of the HIRDLS instrument revealed that the optical path was blocked so that 20 % of the aperture could view the Earth 's atmosphere . Engineering studies suggest that a piece of thermal blanketing material ruptured from the back of the instrument during the explosive decompression of launch . Attempts to remove this material mirror failed . However , even with the 80 % blockage , measurements at high vertical resolution can be made at one scan angle .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "High_Resolution_Dynamics_Limb_Sounder",
"rank": 15,
"score": 83305
},
{
"content": "Title: CLARREO Content: CLARREO ( Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory ) is a high-priority NASA decadal survey mission , originally selected as such by the National Research Council in 2007 . The CLARREO mission is intended to provide a metrology laboratory in orbit to accurately quantify and attribute Earth 's climate change ( see List of climate research satellites ) . If launched at the earliest opportunity , CLARREO 's observations could be used to detect the largest of climate trends above natural variability by the year 2039 . Then it may go on to further test , validate , and improve prediction by climate models . The mission also might provide the first orbiting radiometers with enough accuracy to serve as reference calibration standards that can fine-tune other spaceborne sensors and climate research , making climate trends apparent in their data sets within a 30-year time frame . Due to funding cuts in announced for the 2012 budget , the CLARREO mission was significantly scaled back , while remaining spaceborne projects were eyed to fill the gap . In the President 's FY16 budget request , CLARREO was provided $ 76.9 M to demonstrate essential measurement technologies of the CLARREO Tier 1 Decadal Survey mission . That funding will potentially support the flight of two instruments , Reflected Solar ( RS ) and Infrared ( IR ) spectrometers , hosted on the International Space Station in FY 2019 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "CLARREO",
"rank": 16,
"score": 82652
},
{
"content": "Title: Space Environment Simulation Laboratory Content: The Space Environment Simulation Laboratory ( SESL ) in Building 32 at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center was built in 1965 . It initially was used to test Apollo Program spacecraft and equipment in a space environment . It can simulate the vacuum and thermal environments that would be encountered . It consists of two human-rated chambers : A ( larger ) and B. Chamber A is equipped with a gaseous helium shroud capable of reaching temperatures of -439.9 Fahrenheit ( -262.1 Celsius or 11 Kelvin , ) and is currently being used to test the James Webb Space Telescope .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Space_Environment_Simulation_Laboratory",
"rank": 17,
"score": 82602
},
{
"content": "Title: GROVER Content: GROVER or Goddard Remotely Operated Vehicle for Exploration and Research is an Earth-bound autonomous student-designed rover developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center . With this solar-powered rover , scientists hope to get cheaper data about the Greenland ice sheet that lies in a rapidly warming region . The test drive started in Summit Camp in Greenland on a three kilometer thick ice sheet , which is the highest spot on the largest island of the World . The science team is led by the glaciologist Lora Koenig from NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Md. . The test began on 3 May 2013 at temperatures as low as -30 ° C and is planned to continue till 8 June 2013 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "GROVER",
"rank": 18,
"score": 82547
},
{
"content": "Title: Frank Wentz Content: Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Frank_Wentz",
"rank": 19,
"score": 82359
},
{
"content": "Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment",
"rank": 20,
"score": 82115
},
{
"content": "Title: F.lux Content: f.lux is a cross-platform computer program that adjusts a display 's color temperature according to location and time of day . The program was designed to reduce eye strain during night-time use and reduce disruption of sleep patterns .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "F.lux",
"rank": 21,
"score": 82042
},
{
"content": "Title: Geologic temperature record Content: The Geologic temperature record are changes in Earth 's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion ( 109 ) year time scales . The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a crucial component of the climate and oceanography of the time .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Geologic_temperature_record",
"rank": 22,
"score": 81453
},
{
"content": "Title: Comparison of embedded computer systems on board the Mars rovers Content: The embedded computer systems on board the Mars rovers sent by NASA must withstand the high radiation levels and large temperature changes in space . For this reason their computational resources are limited compared to systems commonly used on Earth .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Comparison_of_embedded_computer_systems_on_board_the_Mars_rovers",
"rank": 23,
"score": 80889
},
{
"content": "Title: Diviner Content: Diviner , also referred to as the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment ( DLRE ) , is an infrared radiometer aboard NASA 's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter , part of the Lunar Precursor Robotic Program which is studying the Moon . It has been used to create temperature maps of the Moon 's surface , as well as detect ice deposits and surface composition . On 9 October 2009 , the Diviner team announced the detection of a hot spot on the Moon at the location of the LCROSS spacecraft impact site .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Diviner",
"rank": 24,
"score": 80587
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder",
"rank": 25,
"score": 80072
},
{
"content": "Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "AATSR",
"rank": 26,
"score": 79866
},
{
"content": "Title: Redshift (software) Content: Redshift is an application that adjusts the computer display 's color temperature based upon the time of day . The program is free software , and is intended to reduce eye strain as well as insomnia . Redshift transitions the computer display 's color temperature evenly between daytime and night temperatures to allow the user 's eyes to slowly adapt . At night , the color temperature is low and is typically 3000 -- 4000 K , preferably matching the room 's lighting temperature . Typical color temperature during the daytime is 5500 -- 6500 K.",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Redshift_(software)",
"rank": 27,
"score": 79815
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 28,
"score": 79801
},
{
"content": "Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Remote_Sensing_Systems",
"rank": 29,
"score": 79009
},
{
"content": "Title: Space Capsule Recovery Experiment II Content: The Space Capsule Recovery Experiment II ( commonly known as SRE-2 ) was an Indian re-entry demonstration experiment designed by the Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) . It was a follow-on mission of SRE-1 which was successfully completed in January 2007 . It was supposed to test some of the critical technologies for the Indian human spaceflight programme . The second mission was to carry three experiments devoted to biological science and an improved isothermal furnace with 1000 ° C temperature to carry out materials science experiments . As of August 2016 , SRE-2 is not mentioned in the ISRO official page . Comptroller and Auditor General of India released a report titled `` Inordinate delay in realisation of SRE-2 mission '' in 2014 . Outcome Budget 2016-17 of Department of Space mentions that development of space grade color camera and image storage unit for SRE-2 would be undertaken during year 2016-17 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Space_Capsule_Recovery_Experiment_II",
"rank": 30,
"score": 78998
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold Atom Laboratory Content: Cold Atom Laboratory ( CAL ) is an experimental instrument being developed for launch to the International Space Station ( ISS ) in June 2017 . The instrument will create extremely cold conditions in the microgravity environment of the ISS leading to the formation of Bose Einstein Condensates that are a magnitude colder than those that are created in laboratories on Earth . In a space-based laboratory , up to 20 seconds interaction times and as low as 1 picokelvin temperatures are achievable , and it could lead to exploration of unknown quantum mechanical phenomena and test some of the most fundamental laws of physics . NASA 's JPL scientists state that the CAL investigation could advance knowledge in the development of extremely sensitive quantum detectors , which could be used for monitoring the gravity of Earth and other planetary bodies , or for building advanced navigation devices . The initial mission will have a duration of 12 months with up to five years of extended operation .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Cold_Atom_Laboratory",
"rank": 31,
"score": 78842
},
{
"content": "Title: Soyuz 6 Content: Soyuz 6 ( Союз 6 , Union 6 ) was part of a joint mission with Soyuz 7 and Soyuz 8 that saw three Soyuz spacecraft in orbit together at the same time , carrying a total of seven cosmonauts . The crew of Georgi Shonin and Valeri Kubasov were meant to take high-quality movie photography of the Soyuz 7 and Soyuz 8 docking , but the rendezvous systems on all three spacecraft failed . It is still not known exactly what the actual problem was , but it is often quoted as being a helium pressurization integrity test . The version of Soyuz 7K-OK spacecraft used for the missions carried a torus-shaped docking electronics equipment housing surrounding the motor assembly on the back of the service module , which is thought to have been pressurised with helium to provide a benign environment for the electronics . It was then jettisoned after docking to lower the mass of the spacecraft for reentry . Due to unstable temperature , disparity between the frequencies of the transmitters and receivers , which were stabilized by special quartz resonators , occurred . The piezocrystals were supposed to be in thermostats at a strictly constant temperature . The crew was made up of Shonin and Kubasov , who carried out experiments in space welding . They tested three methods : using an electron beam , a low-pressure plasma arc and a consumable electrode . While welding , Kubasov almost burned through the hull of the vehicle 's Living Compartment , which in the absence of spacesuits could have resulted in a catastrophic situation . The apparatus was designed at the E. O. Paton Electric Welding Institute , Kiev , Ukraine . The weld quality was said to be in no way inferior to that of Earth-based welds . After eighty orbits of the Earth , they landed on 16 October 1969 , 180 km northwest of Karaganda , Kazakhstan . The radio call sign of the spacecraft was Antey , referring to the Greek hero Antaeus , but at the time of the flight , however , it was also the name of the largest practicable aircraft , the Soviet Antonov 22 , made in Ukraine . But unlike the call signs of Soyuz 7 and Soyuz 8 , it was not the name of a squadron in Soviet military training , of uncertain role , for the one that begins with the letter ` a ' is Aktif , meaning `` active '' .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Soyuz_6",
"rank": 32,
"score": 78821
},
{
"content": "Title: Giovanni (meteorology) Content: Giovanni ( meteorology ) - Web interface that allows users to analyze NASA 's gridded data from various satellite and surface observations . Giovanni provides researchers with the capability to examine data on atmospheric chemistry , atmospheric temperature , water vapor and clouds , atmospheric aerosols , precipitation , and ocean chlorophyll and surface temperature . The primary data consist of global gridded data sets with reduced spatial resolution . Basic analytical functions performed by Giovanni currently are carried out by the Grid Analysis and Display System ( GrADS ) . The GES-DISC Interactive Online Visualization ANd aNalysis Infrastructure ( Giovanni ) allows to explore satellite data using sophisticated analyses and visualizations . Giovanni allows access to data from multiple remote sites , supports multiple data formats including Hierarchical Data Format ( HDF ) , HDF-EOS , network Common Data Form ( netCDF ) , GRIdded Binary ( GRIB ) , and binary , and multiple plot types including area , time , Hovmoller , and image animation .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Giovanni_(meteorology)",
"rank": 33,
"score": 78782
},
{
"content": "Title: Minus Eighty Degree Laboratory Freezer for ISS Content: The Minus Eighty-Degree Laboratory Freezer for ISS ( MELFI ) is a European-built experiment storage freezer for the International Space Station . It comprises four independent dewars which can be set to operate at different temperatures . Currently temperatures of − 80 ° C , − 26 ° C , and +4 ° C are used during on-orbit ISS operations . Both reagents and samples will be stored in the freezer . As well as storage the freezer is designed to be used to transport samples to and from the ISS in a temperature controlled environment . The total capacity of the unit is 300 litres .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Minus_Eighty_Degree_Laboratory_Freezer_for_ISS",
"rank": 34,
"score": 78542
},
{
"content": "Title: Mars Surveyor '98 program Content: The Mars Surveyor '98 program comprised two spacecraft launched separately , the Mars Climate Orbiter ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter ) and the Mars Polar Lander ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander ) ; on board the Mars Polar Lander spacecraft were two surface-penetrator probes ( Deep Space 2 ) . The two missions were to study the Martian weather , climate , water and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) budget , to understand the reservoirs , behavior , and atmospheric role of volatiles and to search for evidence of long-term and episodic climate changes . Both spacecraft were launched during the 1998 Mars orbit insertion launch window . Both were lost , including the penetrator probes .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Mars_Surveyor_'98_program",
"rank": 35,
"score": 78267
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 36,
"score": 78245
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbit phasing Content: In astrodynamics , orbit phasing is the adjustment of the time-position of spacecraft along its orbit , usually described as adjusting the orbiting spacecraft 's true anomaly . Orbital phasing is primarily used in scenarios where a spacecraft in a given orbit must be moved to a different location within the same orbit . The change in position within the orbit is usually defined as the phase angle , ϕ , and is the change in true anomaly required between the spacecraft 's current position to the final position . The phase angle can be converted in terms of time using Kepler 's Equation : where t is defined as time elapsed to cover phase angle in original orbit T1 is defined as period of original orbit E is defined as change of Eccentric anomaly between spacecraft and final position e1 is defined as Orbital eccentricity of original orbit Φ is defined as change in true anomaly between spacecraft and final position This time derived from the phase angle is the required time the spacecraft must gain or lose to be located at the final position within the orbit . To gain or lose this time , the spacecraft must be subjected to a simple two-impulse Hohmann transfer which takes the spacecraft away from , and then back to , its original orbit . The first impulse to change the spacecraft 's orbit is performed at a specific point in the original orbit ( point of impulse , POI ) , usually performed in the original orbit 's periapsis or apoapsis . The impulse creates a new orbit called the `` phasing orbit '' and is larger or smaller than the original orbit resulting in a different period time than the original orbit . The difference in period time between the original and phasing orbits will be equal to the time converted from the phase angle . Once one period of the phasing orbit is complete , the spacecraft will return to the POI and the spacecraft will once again be subjected to a second impulse , equal and opposite to the first impulse , to return it to the original orbit . When complete , the spacecraft will be in the targeted final position within the original obit . To find some of the phasing orbital parameters , first one must find the required period time of the phasing orbit using the following equation . where T1 is defined as period of original orbit T2 is defined as period of phasing orbit t is defined as time elapsed to cover phase angle in original orbit Once phasing orbit period is determined , the phasing orbit semimajor axis can be derived from the period formula : where a2 is defined as semimajor axis of phasing orbit T2 is defined as period of phasing orbit μ is defined as Standard gravitational parameter From the semimajor axis , the phase orbit apogee and perigee can be calculated : where a2 is defined as semimajor axis of phasing orbit ra is defined as apogee of phasing orbit rp is defined as perigee of phasing orbit Finally , the phasing orbit 's angular momentum can be found from the equation : where h2 is defined as angular momentum of phasing orbit ra is defined as apogee of phasing orbit rp is defined as perigee of phasing orbit μ is defined as Standard gravitational parameter To find the impulse required to change the spacecraft from its original orbit to the phasing orbit , the change of spacecraft velocity , ∆ V , at POI must be calculated from the angular momentum formula : where ∆ V is change in velocity between phasing and original orbits at POI v1 is defined as the spacecraft velocity at POI in original orbit v2 is defined as the spacecraft velocity at POI in phasing orbit r is defined as radius of spacecraft from the orbit 's focal point to POI h1 is defined as angular momentum of original orbit h2 is defined as angular momentum of phasing orbit Remember that this change in velocity , ∆ V , is only the amount required to change the spacecraft from its original orbit to the phasing orbit . A second change in velocity equal to the magnitude but opposite in direction of the first must be done after the spacecraft travels one phase orbit period to return the spacecraft from the phasing orbit to the original orbit . Total change of velocity required for the phasing maneuver is equal to two times ∆ V. Orbit phasing can also be referenced as co-orbital rendezvous like a successful approach to a space station in a docking maneuver . Here , two spacecraft on the same orbit but at different true anomalies rendezvous by either one or both of the spacecrafts entering phasing orbits which cause them to return to their original orbit at the same true anomaly at the same time . Phasing maneuvers are also commonly employed by geosynchronous satellites , either to conduct station-keeping maneuvers to maintain their orbit above a specific latitude , or to change latitude altogether .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Orbit_phasing",
"rank": 37,
"score": 78113
},
{
"content": "Title: Deinococcus geothermalis Content: Deinococcus geothermalis is a bacterium . It produces orange-pigmented colonies and has an optimum growth temperature of about 45 ° C to 50 ° C . It is extremely gamma radiation-resistant . Its type strain is AG-3a ( = DSM 11300 ) . A space mission called EXPOSE-R2 was launched on 24 July 2014 aboard the Russian Progress M-23M , and was attached on 18 August 2014 outside the ISS on the Russian module Zvezda . The two main experiments will test the resistance of a variety of extremophile microorganisms , including Deinococcus geothermalis to long-term exposure to outer space and to a Mars simulated environment .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Deinococcus_geothermalis",
"rank": 38,
"score": 78108
},
{
"content": "Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "MSU_temperature_measurements",
"rank": 39,
"score": 78098
},
{
"content": "Title: David Minard Content: Captain David Minard , MC , USN ( 23 May 1913 -- 9 October 2005 ) Mercury Seven heat stress physiologist for Project Mercury In the late 1950s , Minard as a captain in the U.S. Navy and head of the physiology department at the Naval Medical Research Institute , helped to develop the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature Index utilized to measure heat stress in the military and other industrial settings . Minard , with Constantin Yaglou , created the wet bulb globe temperature index in 1957 for U.S. Marines training at Parris Island , South Carolina . It is still commonly used as a heat-stress index in the military , steel mills , marathon races and industrial environments . In 1960 , Minard used the heat stress index to evaluate the Mercury Seven astronauts for Project Mercury astronauts at the Naval Medical Research Institute in Bethesda , Maryland .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "David_Minard",
"rank": 40,
"score": 78003
},
{
"content": "Title: GOES-G Content: GOES-G was a weather satellite to be operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . The satellite was designed to sense and monitor meteorological conditions from a geostationary orbit , intended to replace GOES-5 and provide continuous vertical profiles of atmospheric temperature and moisture . It was lost due to the launch failure of a Delta 3914 rocket on 3 May 1986 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "GOES-G",
"rank": 41,
"score": 77847
},
{
"content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Josh_Willis",
"rank": 42,
"score": 77822
},
{
"content": "Title: Colorado Student Space Weather Experiment Content: Colorado Student Space Weather Experiment ( CSSWE ) was the sixth National Science Foundation sponsored CubeSat mission . It was built by students at the University of Colorado at Boulder with advising from professionals at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics . The CSSWE mission was a joint effort by the University of Colorado 's Department of Aerospace Engineering Sciences and Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics . The mission principal investigator was Profs. Xinlin Li , and the Co-PIs are Prof. Scott Palo and Dr. Shri Kanekal . The project manager for the project was Dr. Lauren Blum , the system engineer was Dr. David Gerhardt , and the instrument scientist was Dr. Quintin Schiller . CSSWE launched on September 13 , 2012 , on an Atlas V rocket by the United Launch Alliance on ELaNa-VI as part of the NASA 's CubeSat Launch Initiative ( CSLI ) . The CSSWE team released its science products to the public for download on NASA 's Coordinated Data Analysis Web Site ( CDAWeb ) . As of December 22 , 2014 , CSSWE showed severe battery degradation , likely due to pushing the battery thousands of cycles beyond the battery 's design specs . As a result , CSSWE can not retain enough power to receive or transmit data .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Colorado_Student_Space_Weather_Experiment",
"rank": 43,
"score": 77767
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep Space Climate Observatory Content: Deep Space Climate Observatory ( DSCOVR ; formerly known as Triana , unofficially known as GoreSat ) is a NOAA Earth observation and space weather satellite launched by SpaceX on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle on February 11 , 2015 from Cape Canaveral . It was originally developed as a NASA satellite proposed in 1998 by then-Vice President Al Gore for the purpose of Earth observation . It is in a Lissajous orbit at the Sun-Earth Lagrangian point , 1500000 km from Earth , to monitor variable solar wind condition , provide early warning of approaching coronal mass ejections and observe phenomena on Earth including changes in ozone , aerosols , dust and volcanic ash , cloud height , vegetation cover and climate . At this location it has a continuous view of the Sun and the sunlit side of the Earth . The satellite is orbiting the Sun-Earth point in a six-month period , with a spacecraft-Earth-Sun angle varying from 4 to 15 degrees . It takes full-Earth pictures about every two hours and is able to process them faster than other Earth observation satellites . DSCOVR started orbiting around by June 8 , 2015 , just over 100 days after launch . After the spacecraft arrived on site and entered its operational phase , NASA began releasing near-real time images of Earth through the EPIC instrument 's website .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Deep_Space_Climate_Observatory",
"rank": 44,
"score": 77383
},
{
"content": "Title: GRACE and GRACE-FO Content: The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) was a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its science mission in October 2017. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO) is a continuation of the mission on near-identical hardware, launched in May 2018. By measuring gravity anomalies, GRACE showed how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time. Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth's ocean, geology, and climate. GRACE was a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas at Austin, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the German Aerospace Center and Germany's National Research Center for Geosciences, Potsdam. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP (Earth System Science Pathfinder) program. The principal investigator is Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research, and the co-principal investigator is Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam.The two GRACE satellites (GRACE-1 and GRACE-2) were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia, on a Rockot (SS-19 + Breeze upper stage) launch vehicle on 17 March 2002. The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89°. During normal operations, the satellites were separated by 220 km along their orbit track. This system was able to gather global coverage every 30 days. GRACE far exceeded its 5-year design lifespan, operating for 15 years until the decommissioning of GRACE-2 on 27 October 2017. Its successor, GRACE-FO, was successfully launched on 22 May 2018. In 2019, a glacier in West Antarctica was named after the GRACE mission.",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "GRACE_and_GRACE-FO",
"rank": 45,
"score": 77228
},
{
"content": "Title: Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer Content: ASTER ( Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer ) is a Japanese sensor which is one of five remote sensory devices on board the Terra satellite launched into Earth orbit by NASA in 1999 . The instrument has been collecting data since February 2000 . ASTER provides high-resolution images of the planet Earth in 14 different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum , ranging from visible to thermal infrared light . The resolution of images ranges between 15 and 90 meters . ASTER data are used to create detailed maps of surface temperature of land , emissivity , reflectance , and elevation . The ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model ( GDEM ) is available at no charge to users worldwide via electronic download .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Advanced_Spaceborne_Thermal_Emission_and_Reflection_Radiometer",
"rank": 46,
"score": 77211
},
{
"content": "Title: Roy Spencer (scientist) Content: Roy Warren Spencer ( born December 20 , 1955 ) is a meteorologist , Principal Research Scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , and the U.S. Science Team leader for the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer ( AMSR-E ) on NASA 's Aqua satellite . He has served as Senior Scientist for Climate Studies at NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center . He is known for his satellite-based temperature monitoring work , for which he was awarded the American Meteorological Society 's Special Award .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Roy_Spencer_(scientist)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 76816
},
{
"content": "Title: Glory (satellite) Content: The Glory satellite was a planned NASA satellite mission that would have collected data on the chemical , micro-physical and optical properties -- and the spatial and temporal distributions -- of sulfate and other aerosols , and would have collected solar irradiance data for the long-term climate record . The science focus areas served by Glory included : atmospheric composition ; carbon cycle , ecosystems , and biogeochemistry ; climate variability and change ; and water and energy cycles . The US$ 424 million satellite was lost on March 4 , 2011 , when its Taurus XL carrier rocket malfunctioned . A subsequent investigation revealed that the fairing system failed to open fully , causing the satellite to reenter the atmosphere at which point it likely broke up and burned .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Glory_(satellite)",
"rank": 48,
"score": 76638
},
{
"content": "Title: Amplitude adjusting Content: The Amplitude adjusting ( also referred to as Amplitude control ) enables the power control of electric loads , which are operated with AC voltage . A representative application is the heating control of industrial high temperature furnaces .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Amplitude_adjusting",
"rank": 49,
"score": 76475
},
{
"content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Iris_hypothesis",
"rank": 50,
"score": 76250
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 51,
"score": 76149
},
{
"content": "Title: 1966 NASA T-38 crash Content: The 1966 NASA T-38 crash occurred when a NASA Northrop T-38 Talon crashed at Lambert Field in St. Louis , Missouri , on February 28 , 1966 , killing two Project Gemini astronauts , Elliot See and Charles Bassett . The aircraft , piloted by See , crashed into the McDonnell Aircraft building where their Gemini 9 spacecraft was being assembled . The weather was poor with rain , snow , fog , and low clouds . A NASA panel , headed by the Chief of the Astronaut Office , Alan Shepard , investigated the crash . While the panel considered possible medical issues or aircraft maintenance problems , in addition to the weather and air traffic control factors , the end verdict was that the crash was caused by pilot error . In the aftermath of the crash , the backup crew of Thomas Stafford and Eugene Cernan were moved up to the primary position for the Gemini 9 mission , scheduled for early June . Jim Lovell and Buzz Aldrin , who had formerly been the backup for Gemini 10 , became the mission 's backup crew , and through the normal rotation were assigned as prime crew for Gemini 12 . Without the Gemini experience , it is unlikely that Aldrin would have been assigned to the Apollo 11 mission , during which he became the second man to walk on the Moon .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "1966_NASA_T-38_crash",
"rank": 52,
"score": 75916
},
{
"content": "Title: Charged Aerosol Release Experiment Content: The Charged Aerosol Release Experiment also known as CARE , is a project run by NASA which will use a rocket to release dust in the upper atmosphere to form a dusty plasma in space . The clouds thus generated are intended to simulate naturally occurring phenomena called noctilucent clouds , which are the highest clouds in the atmosphere . The CARE experiment is intended to create an artificial dust layer at the boundary of space in a controlled sense , in order to `` allow scientists to study different aspects of it , the turbulence generated on the inside , the distribution of dust particles and such . '' The dust cloud is generated using the Nihka motor dust generator . The dust cloud is composed of aluminum oxide , carbon monoxide , hydrogen chloride , water , and nitrogen , as well as smaller amounts of carbon dioxide , hydrogen , monatomic chlorine , and monatomic hydrogen . According to NASA , SHIMMER will track the CARE dust cloud for days or even months . The SHIMMER instrument has previously viewed natural noctilucent clouds for the past two years . The CARE will be the first space viewing of an artificial noctilucent cloud . The rocket was set to launch between 7:30 and 7:57 EDT on Tuesday Sept. 14 , 2009 from NASA 's Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Charged_Aerosol_Release_Experiment",
"rank": 53,
"score": 75666
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment",
"rank": 54,
"score": 75420
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer Content: TeGa redirects here . It can refer to Terra Galega . The Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer ( TEGA ) is a scientific instrument aboard the Phoenix spacecraft . TEGA 's design is based on experience gained from the failed Mars Polar Lander . Soil samples taken from the Martian surface by the robot arm are eventually delivered to the TEGA , where they are heated in an oven to about 1,000 ° C . This heat causes the volatile compounds to be given off as gases which are sent to a mass spectrometer for analysis . This spectrometer is adjusted to measure particularly the isotope ratios for oxygen , carbon , nitrogen , and heavier gases . Detection values are as low as 10 parts per billion . The Phoenix TEGA has 8 ovens , which are enough for 8 samples .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Thermal_and_Evolved_Gas_Analyzer",
"rank": 55,
"score": 75291
},
{
"content": "Title: MERLIN (Microgravity Experiment Research Locker/ Incubator) Content: Microgravity Experiment Research Locker/Incubator ( MERLIN ) was designed by University of Alabama at Birmingham ( UAB ) Center for Biophysical Sciences and Engineering ( CBSE ) to operate as a hardmounted , single middeck locker equivalent within the ISS EXPRESS rack , the Space Shuttle , SpaceX Dragon , and Cygnus ( spacecraft ) . It is used to provide a temperature controlled environment for scientific experiments between -20 ° C and 48.5 ° C. MERLIN is also used to Support Crew Galley Operations .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "MERLIN_(Microgravity_Experiment_Research_Locker/_Incubator)",
"rank": 56,
"score": 75161
},
{
"content": "Title: Spaceflight Meteorology Group Content: __ NOTOC __ The Spaceflight Meteorology Group ( SMG ) is a U.S. weather forecasting unit staffed by the National Weather Service ( NWS ) for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) which provides pertinent information on the current and expected state of the atmosphere during human spaceflight operations . It is located at the Johnson Space Center in Houston , Texas . Meteorological information for the broader space program is provided by the 45th Space Wing 's 45th Weather Squadron of the U.S. Air Force . SMG covered Space Shuttle missions and was planned to cover Orion missions . Following the landing of Space Shuttle Atlantis during STS-135 on July 21 , 2011 , many of the SMG forecasters were relocated elsewhere in the National Weather Service , leaving a reduced staff at JSC . The Spaceflight Meteorology Group is also tasked with forecasting emergency landings for Soyuz missions when those rendezvous with the International Space Station .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Spaceflight_Meteorology_Group",
"rank": 57,
"score": 74974
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia",
"rank": 58,
"score": 74855
},
{
"content": "Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Satellite_temperature_measurements",
"rank": 59,
"score": 74700
},
{
"content": "Title: UAH satellite temperature dataset Content: The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset",
"rank": 60,
"score": 74378
},
{
"content": "Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Ghrsst-pp",
"rank": 61,
"score": 74356
},
{
"content": "Title: Space Shuttle main engine Content: The Aerojet Rocketdyne RS-25 , otherwise known as the Space Shuttle main engine ( SSME ) , is a liquid-fuel cryogenic rocket engine that was used on NASA 's Space Shuttle and is planned to be used on its successor , the Space Launch System . Built in the United States by Rocketdyne , the RS-25 burns cryogenic liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants , with each engine producing 1859 kN of thrust at liftoff . Although the RS-25 can trace its heritage back to the 1960s , concerted development of the engine began in the 1970s , with the first flight , STS-1 , occurring on April 12 , 1981 . The RS-25 has undergone several upgrades over its operational history to improve the engine 's reliability , safety , and maintenance load . The engine produces a specific impulse ( Isp ) of 452 isp in a vacuum , or 366 isp at sea level , has a mass of approximately 3.5 t , and is capable of throttling between 67 % and 109 % of its rated power level in one-percent increments . The RS-25 operates at temperatures ranging from -253 ° C to 3300 ° C ( 6000 ° F ) . The Space Shuttle used a cluster of three RS-25 engines mounted in the aft structure of the orbiter , with fuel being drawn from the external tank . The engines were used for propulsion during the entirety of the spacecraft 's ascent , with additional thrust being provided by two solid rocket boosters and the orbiter 's two AJ10-190 orbital maneuvering system engines . Following each flight , the engines were removed from the orbiter , inspected , and refurbished before being reused on another mission .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Space_Shuttle_main_engine",
"rank": 62,
"score": 74347
},
{
"content": "Title: NASA (Swedish band) Content: NASA is a Swedish synthpop band fronted by Patrik Henzel and Martin Thors . They debuted in 1983 with a song for a Swedish film . In 1985 they had a Swedish top ten hit `` Paula '' . In the 1980s , the band had little success outside of Sweden . A planned US album was recorded , but then shelved by Columbia Records . They continued to have numerous hit singles in their home country of Sweden . They were basically defunct for most of the 1990s , but had a resurgence with the album `` Remembering the Future '' in 1999 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "NASA_(Swedish_band)",
"rank": 63,
"score": 74216
},
{
"content": "Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Explorer_7",
"rank": 64,
"score": 74173
},
{
"content": "Title: Meteor (satellite) Content: The Meteor spacecraft are weather observation satellites launched by the USSR and Russia . The Meteor satellite series was developed during the 1960s . The Meteor satellites were designed to monitor atmospheric and sea-surface temperatures , humidity , radiation , sea ice conditions , snow-cover , and clouds .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Meteor_(satellite)",
"rank": 65,
"score": 73743
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 66,
"score": 73495
},
{
"content": "Title: Mars Observer Content: The Mars Observer spacecraft , also known as the Mars Geoscience/Climatology Orbiter , was a robotic space probe launched by NASA on September 25 , 1992 to study the Martian surface , atmosphere , climate and magnetic field . During the interplanetary cruise phase , communication with the spacecraft was lost on August 21 , 1993 , 3 days prior to orbital insertion . Attempts to re-establish communication with the spacecraft were unsuccessful .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Mars_Observer",
"rank": 67,
"score": 73401
},
{
"content": "Title: 1908 Content: According to NASA reports , 1908 was the coldest recorded year since 1880 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "1908",
"rank": 68,
"score": 73223
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Mars Content: The climate of Mars has been an issue of scientific curiosity for centuries , in part because Mars is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope . Although Mars is smaller than the Earth , at 11 % of Earth 's mass , and 50 % farther from the Sun than the Earth , its climate has important similarities , such as the polar ice caps , seasonal changes and the observable presence of weather patterns . It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists . While Mars 's climate has similarities to Earth 's , including periodic ice ages , there are also important differences , such as much lower thermal inertia . Mars ' atmosphere has a scale height of approximately 11 km , 60 % greater than that on Earth . The climate is of considerable relevance to the question of whether life is or was present on the planet . The climate briefly received more interest in the news due to NASA measurements indicating increased sublimation of the south polar icecap leading to some popular press speculation that Mars was undergoing a parallel bout of global warming , although Mars ' average temperature has actually cooled in recent decades . Mars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible . Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above , while direct measurements of atmospheric conditions have been provided by a number of landers and rovers . Advanced Earth orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful `` big picture '' observations of relatively large weather phenomena . The first Martian flyby mission was Mariner 4 which arrived in 1965 . That quick two-day pass ( July 14 -- 15 , 1965 ) was limited and crude in terms of its contribution to the state of knowledge of Martian climate . Later Mariner missions ( Mariner 6 , and Mariner 7 ) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information . Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program in 1975 and continues with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . This observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model . Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Climate_of_Mars",
"rank": 69,
"score": 73149
},
{
"content": "Title: InSight Content: InSight is a robotic Mars lander manufactured in the 2010s which was originally planned for launch in March 2016 . The name is a backronym for Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations , Geodesy and Heat Transport . Due to the failure of its SEIS instrument prior to launch , NASA announced in December 2015 that the mission had been postponed , and in March 2016 , launch was rescheduled for 5 May 2018 . The mission 's objective is to place a stationary lander equipped with a seismometer and heat transfer probe on the surface of Mars to study its early geological evolution . This would bring new understanding of the Solar System 's terrestrial planets -- Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars -- and Earth 's Moon . By reusing technology from the Mars Phoenix lander , which successfully landed on Mars in 2008 , it is expected that the cost and risk will be reduced . Following a persistent vacuum failure in the main scientific instrument , the launch window was missed , and the InSight spacecraft was returned to Lockheed Martin 's factory in Colorado . NASA officials decided in March 2016 to spend an estimated to delay launch of InSight to May 2018 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "InSight",
"rank": 70,
"score": 73126
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleothermometer Content: A paleothermometer is a methodology for determining past temperatures using a proxy found in a natural record such as a sediment , ice core , tree rings or TEX86 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Paleothermometer",
"rank": 71,
"score": 72951
},
{
"content": "Title: William J. Borucki Content: William J. ( Bill ) Borucki ( born 1939 ) is a space scientist who worked at the NASA Ames Research Center . Upon joining NASA in 1962 , Borucki designed the heat shields for Apollo program spacecraft . He later turned his attention to the optical efficiency of lightning strikes in the atmospheres of planets , investigating the propensity that these lightning strikes could create molecules that would later become the precursors for life . Subsequently , Borucki 's attention turned to extrasolar planets and their detection , particularly through the transit method . In light of this work , Borucki was named the principal investigator for NASA 's Kepler mission , launched on March 6 , 2009 and dedicated to a transit-based search for habitable planets . In 2013 , Borucki was awarded the United States National Academy of Sciences 's Henry Draper Medal for his work with Kepler . In 2015 he received the Shaw Prize in Astronomy .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "William_J._Borucki",
"rank": 72,
"score": 72872
},
{
"content": "Title: STS-134 Content: STS-134 ( ISS assembly flight ULF6 ) was the penultimate mission of NASA 's Space Shuttle program and the 25th and last spaceflight of . This flight delivered the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier to the International Space Station . Mark Kelly served as the mission commander . STS-134 was expected to be the final space shuttle mission if STS-135 did not receive funding from Congress . However , in February 2011 , NASA stated that STS-135 would fly `` regardless '' of the funding situation . STS-135 , flown by Atlantis , took advantage of the processing for STS-335 , the Launch On Need mission that would have been necessary if the STS-134 crew became stranded in orbit . Changes in the design of the main payload , AMS-02 , as well as delays to STS-133 , led to delays in the mission . The first launch attempt on 29 April 2011 was scrubbed at 12:20 pm by launch managers due to problems with two heaters on one of the orbiter 's auxiliary power units ( APU ) . Endeavour launched successfully at 08:56:28 EDT ( 12:56:28 UTC ) on 16 May 2011 , and landed for the final time on 1 June 2011 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "STS-134",
"rank": 73,
"score": 72660
},
{
"content": "Title: Space blanket Content: A space blanket ( depending on the function , also known as a Mylar blanket , first aid blanket , safety blanket , thermal blanket , weather blanket , or heat sheet ) is an especially low-weight , low-bulk blanket made of heat-reflective thin plastic sheeting . They are used on the exterior surfaces of spacecraft for thermal control as well as by people . Their design reduces the heat loss in a person 's body which would otherwise occur due to thermal radiation , water evaporation , or convection . Their compact size before unfurling and light weight makes them ideal when space is at a premium . They may be included in first aid kits and also in camping equipment . Lost campers and hikers have an additional possible benefit : the metallic surface appearance flashes in the sun , allowing use as an improvised distress beacon for searchers .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Space_blanket",
"rank": 74,
"score": 72475
},
{
"content": "Title: Akatsuki (spacecraft) Content: , also known as the Venus Climate Orbiter ( VCO ) and Planet-C , is a Japanese ( JAXA ) space probe tasked to study the atmosphere of Venus . It was launched aboard an H-IIA 202 rocket on 20 May 2010 , and failed to enter orbit around Venus on 6 December 2010 . After the craft orbited the Sun for five years , engineers placed it into an alternative elliptical Venusian orbit on 7 December 2015 by firing its attitude control thrusters for 20 minutes . By using five different cameras , Akatsuki will study the stratification of the atmosphere , atmospheric dynamics , and cloud physics . Astronomers working on the mission reported detecting a possible gravity wave that occurred on the planet Venus in December 2015 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Akatsuki_(spacecraft)",
"rank": 75,
"score": 72381
},
{
"content": "Title: International Planetary Patrol Program Content: The NASA International Planetary Patrol Program consists of a network of astronomical observatories to collect uninterrupted images and observations of the large-scale atmospheric and surface features of the planets . This group was established in 1969 , and consisted of the Mauna Kea Observatory , the Mount Stromlo Observatory , the Perth Observatory , the Republic Observatory , the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory , the Magdalena Peak Station of the New Mexico State University , and the Lowell Observatory . The activities were coordinated by William A. Baum of Lowell Observatory . For Mars , they monitored clouds and dust storms , as well as the seasonal fluctuations in the climate . The martian dust storms of 1971 and 1973 were extensively covered . They also observed changes in the Jovian atmosphere , including the Great Red Spot . Venus has been monitored for circulation of the cloud deck .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "International_Planetary_Patrol_Program",
"rank": 76,
"score": 72378
},
{
"content": "Title: Unmanned NASA missions Content: Following is a sampling of some of NASA 's past and present programs excluding manned spacecraft . The years in brackets are for first and latest launching . A program is a number of flights or missions with the same kind of satellite , therefore the name of the program and the name of the satellite used will often be the same . In all NASA have made more than 1,000 unmanned missions into Earth orbit or beyond .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Unmanned_NASA_missions",
"rank": 77,
"score": 72226
},
{
"content": "Title: Voyager 2 Content: Voyager 2 is a space probe launched by NASA on August 20 , 1977 , to study the outer planets . Part of the Voyager program , it was launched 16 days before its twin , Voyager 1 , on a trajectory that took longer to reach Jupiter and Saturn but enabled further encounters with Uranus and Neptune . It is the only spacecraft to have visited either of the ice giants . Its primary mission ended with the exploration of the Neptunian system on October 2 , 1989 , after having visited the Uranian system in 1986 , the Saturnian system in 1981 , and the Jovian system in 1979 . Voyager 2 is now in its extended mission to study the outer reaches of the Solar System and has been operating for . It remains in contact through the Deep Space Network . At a distance of 114 AU from the Sun as of April 5th , 2017 , Voyager 2 is one of the most distant human-made objects , along with Voyager 1 , New Horizons , Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 . The probe was moving at a velocity of 15.4 km/s relative to the Sun as of December 2014 and is traveling through the heliosheath . Upon reaching interstellar space , Voyager 2 is expected to provide the first direct measurements of the density and temperature of the interstellar plasma .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Voyager_2",
"rank": 78,
"score": 72114
},
{
"content": "Title: Gesiel José de Lima Content: Gesiel José de Lima , commonly known as Nasa ( born December 8 , 1968 ) , is a retired association footballer who played as a midfielder for several Série A clubs .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Gesiel_José_de_Lima",
"rank": 79,
"score": 71917
},
{
"content": "Title: HadCM3 Content: HadCM3 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Coupled Model , version 3 ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom . It was one of the major models used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report in 2001 . Unlike earlier AOGCMs at the Hadley Centre and elsewhere ( including its predecessor HadCM2 ) , HadCM3 does not need flux adjustment ( additional `` artificial '' heat and freshwater fluxes at the ocean surface ) to produce a good simulation . The higher ocean resolution of HadCM3 is a major factor in this ; other factors include a good match between the atmospheric and oceanic components ; and an improved ocean mixing scheme ( Gent and McWilliams ) . HadCM3 has been run to produce simulations for periods of over a thousand years , showing little drift in its surface climate . HadCM3 is composed of two components : the atmospheric model HadAM3 and the ocean model HadOM3 ( which includes a sea ice model ) . Simulations use a 360-day calendar , where each month is 30 days .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "HadCM3",
"rank": 80,
"score": 71730
},
{
"content": "Title: Outer space Content: Outer space or just space , is the void that exists between celestial bodies , including Earth . It is not completely empty , but consists of a hard vacuum containing a low density of particles , predominantly a plasma of hydrogen and helium as well as electromagnetic radiation , magnetic fields , neutrinos , dust , and cosmic rays . The baseline temperature , as set by the background radiation from the Big Bang , is 2.7 kelvins ( K ) ( − 270.45 ° C ; − 454.81 ° F ) . Plasma with a number density of less than one hydrogen atom per cubic metre and a temperature of millions of kelvins in the space between galaxies accounts for most of the baryonic ( ordinary ) matter in outer space ; local concentrations have condensed into stars and galaxies . In most galaxies , observations provide evidence that 90 % of the mass is in an unknown form , called dark matter , which interacts with other matter through gravitational but not electromagnetic forces . Data indicates that the majority of the mass-energy in the observable universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy . Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe , but even galaxies and star systems consist almost entirely of empty space . There is no firm boundary where outer space starts . However the Kármán line , at an altitude of 100 km above sea level , is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping . The framework for international space law was established by the Outer Space Treaty , which was passed by the United Nations in 1967 . This treaty precludes any claims of national sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space . Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the peaceful uses of outer space , anti-satellite weapons have been tested in Earth orbit . Humans began the physical exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude balloon flights , followed by manned rocket launches . Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961 and unmanned spacecraft have since reached all of the known planets in the Solar System . Due to the high cost of getting into space , manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon . Outer space represents a challenging environment for human exploration because of the dual hazards of vacuum and radiation . Microgravity also has a negative effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss . In addition to these health and environmental issues , the economic cost of putting objects , including humans , into space is high .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Outer_space",
"rank": 81,
"score": 71712
},
{
"content": "Title: 2001 Mars Odyssey Content: 2001 Mars Odyssey is a robotic spacecraft orbiting the planet Mars . The project was developed by NASA , and contracted out to Lockheed Martin , with an expected cost for the entire mission of US$ 297 million . Its mission is to use spectrometers and a thermal imager to detect evidence of past or present water and ice , as well as study the planet 's geology and radiation environment . It is hoped that the data Odyssey obtains will help answer the question of whether life has ever existed on Mars and create a risk-assessment of the radiation future astronauts on Mars might experience . It also acts as a relay for communications between the Mars Exploration Rovers , Mars Science Laboratory , and previously the Phoenix lander to Earth . The mission was named as a tribute to Arthur C. Clarke , evoking the name of 2001 : A Space Odyssey . Odyssey was launched April 7 , 2001 , on a Delta II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , and reached Mars orbit on October 24 , 2001 , at 02:30 UTC ( October 23 , 19:30 PDT , 22:30 EDT ) . It is currently in a polar orbit around Mars with an altitude of about 3,800 km or 2,400 miles . By December 15 , 2010 , it broke the record for longest serving spacecraft at Mars , with 3,340 days of operation , claiming the title from NASA 's Mars Global Surveyor . It currently holds the record for the longest-surviving continually active spacecraft in orbit around a planet other than Earth , ahead of the Pioneer Venus Orbiter , at .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "2001_Mars_Odyssey",
"rank": 82,
"score": 71664
},
{
"content": "Title: ARCADE Content: Absolute Radiometer for Cosmology , Astrophysics , and Diffuse Emission ( ARCADE ) is a program which utilizes high-altitude balloon instrument package intended to measure the heating of the universe by the first stars and galaxies after the big bang and search for the signal of relic decay or annihilation . In July 2006 a strong residual radio source was found using the radiometer . ARCADE has been funded by the NASA 's Science Mission Directorate under the Astronomy and Physics Research and Analysis Suborbital Investigation program . The program is composed of a team led by Alan Kogut of NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center . ARCADE was launched from NASA 's Columbia Scientific Balloon Facility in Palestine , Texas , conducted under the auspices of the Balloon Program Office at Wallops Flight Facility . The balloon flew to an altitude of 120000 ft , viewing about 7 % of the sky during its observations . The instrument is designed to detect radiation at centimeter wavelengths . The craft contained seven radiometers which were cooled to 2.7 K using liquid helium , with the intent to measure temperature differences as small as 1/1000 of a degree against a background which is only 3 K . The optics in the instrument package were placed near the top of the dewar flask which cooled them in order to prevent the instruments from seeing the walls of the container , thereby simplifying the processing of the observational data . This design choice necessitated the use of superfluid pumps in order to drench the radiometers in liquid helium . The design also utilized heaters in order to create a cloud of helium gas , in place of using a ( relatively warm ) window , which also simplified processing of the observational data .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "ARCADE",
"rank": 83,
"score": 71226
},
{
"content": "Title: Adaptive simulated annealing Content: Adaptive simulated annealing ( ASA ) is a variant of simulated annealing ( SA ) algorithm in which the algorithm parameters that control temperature schedule and random step selection are automatically adjusted according to algorithm progress . This makes the algorithm more efficient and less sensitive to user defined parameters than canonical SA . These are in the standard variant often selected on the basis of experience and experimentation ( since optimal values are problem dependent ) , which represents a significant deficiency in practice . The algorithm works by representing the parameters of the function to be optimized as continuous numbers , and as dimensions of a hypercube ( N dimensional space ) . Some SA algorithms apply Gaussian moves to the state , while others have distributions permitting faster temperature schedules . Imagine the state as a point in a box and the moves as a rugby-ball shaped cloud around it . The temperature and the step size are adjusted so that all of the search space is sampled to a coarse resolution in the early stages , whilst the state is directed to favorable areas in the late stages . Another ASA variant , thermodynamic simulated annealing , automatically adjusts the temperature at each step based on the energy difference between the two states , according to the laws of thermodynamics .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Adaptive_simulated_annealing",
"rank": 84,
"score": 71179
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael Helfert Content: Dr. Michael Helfert was a senior scientist at NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center , and acted as chief scientist and scientist for Earth observations for 100 + Space Shuttle missions ( 1982 -- 2008 ) . Those Mission Reports were primarily published in the journal Geocarto International . He was also the Director of the National Climatic Data Center 's Southeast Regional Climate Center and the South Carolina state climatologist . While at the National Climate Data Center he was also the Director of the U.S. Climate Reference Network . This program designed and maintained very precise climate monitoring stations throughout the USA as well as selected overseas locations in Italy and Siberia .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Michael_Helfert",
"rank": 85,
"score": 71046
},
{
"content": "Title: Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array Content: The Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array ( RAPID/MOCHA ) program is a collaborative research project between the National Oceanography Centre ( Southampton , U.K. ) , the University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( RSMAS ) , and NOAA 's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ( AOML ) that measure the meridional overturning circulation ( MOC ) and ocean heat transport in the North Atlantic Ocean . This array was deployed in March 2004 to continuously monitor the MOC and ocean heat transport that are primarily associated with the Thermohaline Circulation across the basin at 26 ° N . The RAPID-MOCHA array is planned to be continued through 2014 to provide a decade or longer continuous time series . The continuous observations are measured by an array of instruments along 26 ° N . This monitoring array directly measures the transport of the Gulf Stream in the Florida Strait using an undersea cable and a moored array measures bottom pressure and water column density ( including temperature and salinity ) at the western and eastern boundary and on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( MAR ) . Absolute transports including barotropic circulation are monitored using precision bottom pressure gauges . `` Dynamic height '' moorings are used to estimate the spatially average geostropic velocity profile and associated transports over relatively wide mooring separations . The dynamic height moorings requires measurements on both sides of the current field only , rather both the horizontal and vertical structure of the current field to be sufficiently well resolved to estimate transports . The basin-wide MOC strength and vertical structure are estimated via Ekman transports by satellite scatterometer measurements and the geotrophic and direct current observations . RAPID-MOCHA is funded by the National Environmental Research Council ( NERC ) and the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Rapid_Climate_Change-Meridional_Overturning_Circulation_and_Heatflux_Array",
"rank": 86,
"score": 70927
},
{
"content": "Title: Space mirror (climate engineering) Content: The use of space mirrors as an anti-global warming measure is a proposed technology for climate change mitigation by deflection of sunlight . It was one of a series of proposals for controlling global warming made to the United States government in 2001 . At the `` Response Options to Rapid or Severe Climate Change '' round-table meeting organized by the President 's Climate Change Technology Program in September 2001 to gather ideas for averting climate change , one of the proposals was to station one or more wire-mesh `` mirrors '' in orbit to deflect sunlight back into space or to filter it . The idea was proposed by Lowell Wood , a senior staff scientist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , who calculated that deflecting 1 % of sunlight would restore climatic stability , and that that would require either a single mirror 600000 sqmi in area or several smaller ones . Wood had been researching the idea for more than ten years but considered it so infeasible that it should only be a back-up plan for solving the global warming problem . In January 2007 , The Guardian reported that the US government was recommending that research on sunlight deflection , including space mirrors , be continued as `` insurance '' and that the next United Nations Report on Climate Change advocate such a strategy . In addition to the space mirror , suggested sunlight-reducing techniques included launching thousands of highly reflective balloons and pumping sulphate droplets into the upper atmosphere to emulate volcanic emissions . Space mirrors were first considered in the 1980s as a way to cool the climate of Venus . James Early , also at Livermore , in 1989 proposed using a `` space shade '' 2,000 kilometers in diameter orbiting at Lagrangian Point L1 . He estimated the cost at between one and ten trillion US dollars and suggested manufacturing it on the moon using moon rock . Using space mirrors as a space sunshade to reduce the impact of sunlight falls into the category of geoengineering : deliberately modifying the earth 's climate . At a conference on the topic organized by Daniel Schrag of Harvard University and David Keith of the University of Calgary in November 2007 , the consensus was that it was worth studying such ideas further despite their high cost , the doubtful feasibility of some including the space mirror , and the risk of their distracting attention from reduction of greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Space_mirror_(climate_engineering)",
"rank": 87,
"score": 70581
},
{
"content": "Title: Nasaş G.S.K. Content: Nasaş Gençlik ve Spor Kulübü ( in English : Nasaş Youth and Sports Club ) , commonly known as Nasaş or Nasaşspor is a defunct professional basketball club that was based in İzmit , Turkey . The club competed in the Turkish Basketball League and was playing its home games at the İzmit Atatürk Spor Salonu .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Nasaş_G.S.K.",
"rank": 88,
"score": 70527
},
{
"content": "Title: Mars 2020 Content: Mars 2020 is a Mars rover mission by NASA 's Mars Exploration Program with a planned launch in 2020 . It is intended to investigate an astrobiologically relevant ancient environment on Mars , investigate its surface geological processes and history , including the assessment of its past habitability , the possibility of past life on Mars , and potential for preservation of biosignatures within accessible geological materials . In May 2017 , evidence of the earliest known life on land may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old geyserite , a mineral deposit often found around hot springs and geysers , uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia . These findings may be helpful in deciding where best to search for early signs of life on the planet Mars . The as-yet unnamed Mars 2020 was announced by NASA on 4 December 2012 at the fall meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco . The rover 's design will be derived from the Curiosity rover , but will carry a different scientific payload . Nearly 60 proposals for rover instrumentation were evaluated and , on 31 July 2014 , NASA announced the payload for the rover .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Mars_2020",
"rank": 89,
"score": 70471
},
{
"content": "Title: NASA Earth Science Content: NASA Earth Science , formerly called the NASA Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) , formerly called Mission To Planet Earth ( MTPE ) , is a NASA research program `` to develop a scientific understanding of the Earth system and its response to natural and human-induced changes to enable improved prediction of climate , weather , and natural hazards for present and future generations '' .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "NASA_Earth_Science",
"rank": 90,
"score": 70331
},
{
"content": "Title: Steve McIntyre Content: Steven McIntyre ( born c. 1947 ) is a Canadian mining exploration company director , a former minerals prospector and semi-retired mining consultant whose work has included statistical analysis . He is best known as the founder and editor of Climate Audit , a blog devoted to the analysis and discussion of climate data . He is most prominent as a critic of the temperature record of the past 1000 years and the data quality of NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies . He is known in particular for his statistical critique , with economist Ross McKitrick , of the hockey stick graph which appears to show that the increase in late 20th century global temperatures is unprecedented in the past 1,000 years .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Steve_McIntyre",
"rank": 91,
"score": 70211
},
{
"content": "Title: WD 0346+246 Content: WD 0346 +246 is a white dwarf in the ecliptic constellation of Taurus . It was discovered in 1997 when examination of photographs taken for a survey of brown dwarfs in the Pleiades revealed a faint star with high proper motion . It is one of the coolest white dwarfs known , with an effective temperature estimated to be approximately 3900 K equaling to a spectral type of M0 . Recent studies using NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope and MDM Observatory 's 2.4-meter telescope ( near Tucson , Arizona , USA ) shows that this white dwarf ( together with another one : SDSS J110217 , 48 +411315.4 ) has a lowest ( for white dwarfs ) surface temperature about 3700 and 3800 degrees K due to the age of 11 to 12 billion years .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "WD_0346+246",
"rank": 92,
"score": 70151
},
{
"content": "Title: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Content: Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System",
"rank": 93,
"score": 69973
},
{
"content": "Title: TeikyoSat-3 Content: TeikyoSat-3 was a technology demonstrator and microbiology marbology intended to research the slime mold life cycle in sacromontarism species . Specifically , the effects of ionizing carbonized bobolinbonin ( 20-30 Gy/year ) are or special concern . The primary mission is expected to be finished in 10 -- 20 days with completion of first life cycle of slime mold in space , but mission can be extended to study evolutionary lognationskinbarinolastinsishia for a maximum of 1 year . Also , a novel thermal control mechinashitia capable of keeping a stable ( 10 ° C to 28 ° C ) temperature in bianiro stable sharpoloson ( 20 kg ) microsatellite bus is being tested . The satellite is made in Teikyo University ( Japan ) and has a size of 320x320x370mm . The microsatellite microbiology experimental platform is intended to address issues with cost and uncertain future of experiments based on International Space Station . TeikyoSat-3 also transmit its telemetry uncoded at 473.45 MHz , and any amateur radio operator is welcome to share downlink data .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "TeikyoSat-3",
"rank": 94,
"score": 69751
},
{
"content": "Title: Adjustment Team Content: `` Adjustment Team '' is a science fiction short story by American writer Philip K. Dick . It was first published in Orbit Science Fiction ( September -- October 1954 , No. 4 ) with illustration by Faragasso . It was later reprinted in The Sands of Mars and Other Stories ( Australian ) in 1958 , The Book of Philip K. Dick in 1973 , The Turning Wheel and Other Stories ( United Kingdom ) in 1977 , The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick in 1987 ( Underwood -- Miller ) , 1988 ( Gollancz , United Kingdom ) , 1990 ( Citadel Twilight , United States ) , Selected Stories of Philip K. Dick in 2002 and in The Early Work of Philip K. Dick , Volume One : The Variable Man & Other Stories in 2009 . `` Adjustment Team '' served as the basis for the 2011 film The Adjustment Bureau .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Adjustment_Team",
"rank": 95,
"score": 69742
},
{
"content": "Title: Advanced Composition Explorer Content: Advanced Composition Explorer ( ACE ) is a NASA Explorers program Solar and space exploration mission to study matter comprising energetic particles from the solar wind , the interplanetary medium , and other sources . Real-time data from ACE is used by the NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center to improve forecasts and warnings of solar storms . The ACE robotic spacecraft was launched August 25 , 1997 and entered a Lissajous orbit close to the Lagrangian point ( which lies between the Sun and the Earth at a distance of some 1.5 million km from the latter ) on December 12 , 1997 . The spacecraft is currently operating at that orbit . Because ACE is in a non-Keplerian orbit , and has regular station-keeping maneuvers , the orbital parameters in the adjacent information box are only approximate . The spacecraft is still in generally good condition in 2015 , and is projected to have enough fuel to maintain its orbit until 2024 . NASA Goddard Space Flight Center managed the development and integration of the ACE spacecraft .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "Advanced_Composition_Explorer",
"rank": 96,
"score": 69720
},
{
"content": "Title: ESSA-8 Content: ESSA-8 was a weather satellite launched by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) on December 15 , 1968 , from Vandenberg Air Force Base , California . Its name was derived from that of its oversight agency , the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) . ESSA-8 was an 18-sided polygon . It measured 42 in in diameter by 22 in in height , with a mass of 290 lb . It was made of aluminum alloy and stainless steel covered with 10,020 solar cells . The cells charged 63 nickel -- cadmium batteries , which served as a power source . The satellite could take 8 to 10 pictures every 24 hours . Each photo covered a 2000 sqmi area at a resolution of 2 mi per pixel . ESSA-8 's mission was to replace ESSA-6 , and provide detailed cloud pattern photography to ground stations worldwide . Partners in the project included NASA , ESSA , RCA , the National Weather Service , and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NMC ) . ESSA-8 operated for 2,644 days until it was deactivated on March 12 , 1976 .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "ESSA-8",
"rank": 97,
"score": 69594
},
{
"content": "Title: NASA Earth Observatory Content: NASA Earth Observatory is an online publishing outlet for NASA which was created in 1999 . It is the principal source of satellite imagery and other scientific information pertaining to the climate and the environment which are being provided by NASA for consumption by the general public . It is funded with public money , as authorized by the United States Congress , and is part of the EOS Project Science Office located at Goddard Space Flight Center . NASA Earth Observatory has won the Webby People 's Voice Award in Education three times . There were a series of publicized images issued by the website in 2008 , including imagery of clouds streaming over the Caspian Sea , dust storms curling off the coast of Morocco , the crumbling of the Wilkins Ice Shelf , Hurricane Bertha , and others .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "NASA_Earth_Observatory",
"rank": 98,
"score": 69584
},
{
"content": "Title: HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe Content: HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe was the first rocket and spacecraft combination built by Copenhagen Suborbitals , a Danish organization attempting to perform the first amateur suborbital manned spaceflight . The vehicle consisted of a motor named HEAT-1X and a spacecraft Tycho Brahe . Its launch location was a floating platform named Sputnik . The rocket was test launched twice : In 2010 a power shortage caused a valve to freeze shut , which prevented launch . In 2011 the rocket was successfully launched , reaching an altitude of 2.8 km before the engine was remotely shut off due to a wrong trajectory .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "HEAT_1X_Tycho_Brahe",
"rank": 99,
"score": 69578
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-15 Content: NOAA-15 ( designated NOAA-K before launch ) is one of the NASA-provided TIROS series of weather forecasting satellite run by NOAA . It was launched on 13 May 1998 , and is currently operational , in a sun-synchronous orbit , 807 km above the Earth , orbiting every 101 minutes . It hosts the AMSU-A and AMSU-B instruments , the AVHRR and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS/3 ) instruments , as well as a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM/2 ) . APT transmission frequency is 137.62 MHz . Due to problems with the S-band transmitter high-gain antennas , NOAA-15 has been configured for High Resolution Picture Transmission using the S-Band Transmitter # 2 ( 1702.5 MHz ) omnidirectional antenna .",
"qid": "61",
"docid": "NOAA-15",
"rank": 100,
"score": 69534
}
] |
A windmill could spin until it falls apart and never generate as much energy as was invested in building it. | [
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Content: A windmill is a mill that converts the energy of wind into rotational energy by means of vanes called sails or blades . Centuries ago , windmills usually were used to mill grain ( gristmills ) , pump water ( windpumps ) , or both . The majority of modern windmills take the form of wind turbines used to generate electricity , or windpumps used to pump water , either for land drainage or to extract groundwater .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill",
"rank": 1,
"score": 141470
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill (disambiguation) Content: A windmill is an engine powered by the wind to produce energy . Windmill may also refer to :",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 2,
"score": 125564
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill (sailing dinghy) Content: The Windmill is a two-person one-design sailing dinghy designed by Clark Mills in 1953 . It was designed to be inexpensive and buildable by amateur woodworkers , such as father-and-son team . Originally conceived as a follow-on to Mills ' popular Optimist dinghy , it proved itself fast and competitive without the complexity of a spinnaker or trapeze . Construction of the boat is somewhat unorthodox : design has no frames at all . The plywood hull is constructed on the jig with longerons forming the hull shape ; the longerons are in turn stiffened by two thwarts and the transom piece . The result is lightweight yet strong , quick-to-construct hull . This , combined with good performance of the boat has made it popular with homebuilders . Glass-reinforced plastic is also allowed as hull material . The class has a strong membership with boats racing in a number of areas around the US , large fleets in the Ohio , New Hampshire , Chesapeake and Florida travel around the country to attend regional regattas . The class nationals are held at a different venue each year in July allowing racers to see new places . The class is often raced with family teams of husband and wife as well as father daughter teams . In 2012 over 25 boats attend the Nationals at Rock Hall Maryland . Most recently 37 boats attended the 2014 Nationals at Hoover Sailing Club in Ohio . The class has a quality manufacturer of fiberglass hulls . Information and officer contacts are available on the class webpage : http://windmillclass.com as well as the Facebook page Windmill Class Association .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_(sailing_dinghy)",
"rank": 3,
"score": 114752
},
{
"content": "Title: Spinnenkop Wedderveer Content: Spinnenkop Wedderveer ( -LSB- ˈspɪnə ( n ) ˌkɔp ˌʋɛdərˈveːr -RSB- ) is a wind powered sawmill in the village of Wedderveer , Groningen , Netherlands . It is a hollow post windmill of the type called `` spinnenkop '' by the Dutch built on top of a brick shed . The mill is listed as a Rijksmonument , number 388083 and is in working order .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Spinnenkop_Wedderveer",
"rank": 4,
"score": 113436
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill ship Content: A windmill ship , wind energy conversion system ship or wind energy harvester ship propels itself by use of a windmill to drive a propeller . They use wind power through a mechanical or electrical transmission to the propeller . Where transmission is electric , storage batteries may also be used to allow power generated at one time to be used for propulsion later on . Windmill ships should not be confused with rotor ships , which instead rely on the Magnus effect for propulsion .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_ship",
"rank": 5,
"score": 112396
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill (b-boy move) Content: The Windmill ( or briefly Mill ) is a popular b-boying move . The breaker rolls his torso continuously in a circular path on the floor , across the upper chest/shoulders/back , while twirling his legs in a V-shape through the air .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_(b-boy_move)",
"rank": 6,
"score": 110577
},
{
"content": "Title: Panemone windmill Content: A panemone windmill is a type of vertical axis wind turbine . It has a rotating axis positioned vertically , while the wind-catching blades move parallel to the wind . By contrast , the shaft of a horizontal axis wind turbine ( HAWT ) points into the wind while its blades move at right-angles to the wind 's thrust . That is , a panemone primarily uses drag whereas the blades of a HAWT use lift . Historically the earliest known wind machine was made by the Persians and it was the panemone design , consisting of a wall , with slits , surrounding a vertical axle containing four to eight fabric sails . As the wind blew , the sails would turn the axle , which was in turn connected to grain grinders or some form of water transportation device ( though little is known of the actual details of such methods ) .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Panemone_windmill",
"rank": 7,
"score": 109224
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill (testing framework) Content: Windmill is a cross-platform , cross-browser software testing framework , primarily used for testing Web applications . Most users write tests in Python or in JavaScript , but there is also a library that provides Ruby support . Windmill also provides a recorder tool that allows writing tests without learning a programming language . Windmill supports all major modern Web browsers , and runs on Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux . Category : Software testing",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_(testing_framework)",
"rank": 8,
"score": 106872
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill (chess) Content: In chess , a windmill is a tactic in which a combination of discovered checks and regular checks , usually by a rook and a bishop , can win massive amounts of . This tactic is also sometimes referred to as a see-saw .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_(chess)",
"rank": 9,
"score": 106093
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill interchange Content: The windmill interchange is a four-way road interchange . The windmill serves two arterial roadways by grade separation . All turning movements are served by a right-hand exit ramp , with stop sign or traffic signal at the ramp termini . Vehicles make right and left-turn movements at the ramp intersections and are removed from the main intersection in conventional intersection design . Left turns can turn into left merge lanes , so vehicles have to wait for gaps in arterial traffic in only one direction ( similar to the Continuous Green T-intersection operations . ) This application is best suited for locations where free-flow through movements are desired for both intersecting roadways , with moderate to low turning movement volumes . This interchange design is best suited for rural locations where ROW is available at the intersection quadrants and quadrant development is low to minimize attraction of turning movement volumes . A similar concept involves a `` Parclo '' A4 partial cloverleaf interchange , since that type of junction involves turning traffic off the freeway turning left onto the arterial , though the arterial itself exits with loop ramps eliminating left-hand turns onto the freeway , as well as to not invoke at-grade crossings for left turns onto the freeway . A variation of the windmill , called the diverging windmill , increases capacity by altering the direction of traffic flow of the interchanging highways , making the connecting ramps much more direct . The interchange is named for its similar overhead appearance to the blades of a windmill .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_interchange",
"rank": 10,
"score": 105275
},
{
"content": "Title: Boyd's Windmill Content: Boyd 's Windmill , also known as Boyd 's Wind Grist Mill , is a historic smock mill at Paradise Valley Park on Prospect Avenue in Middletown , Rhode Island . John Peterson built the windmill on Old Mill Lane in Portsmouth , Rhode Island in 1810 , and William Boyd purchased it in 1815 . It originally had four common sails , but four more were added by the family . The mill is a timber-frame structure , octagonal in shape , and about 30 ft tall , with a rotating cap powered by eight vanes with canvas sheets . The grindstones in the middle of the mill are Fall River granite ; the upper one , which is connected to the power mechanisms , rotates six times for each turn of the mill 's main shaft . In 1916 Benjamin Boyd removed the original vanes and powered the mill using a gasoline engine . It is one of only two windmills ( out of what was estimated to be more than thirty ) to survive on Aquidneck Island . The windmill was restored by the Middletown Historical Society after receiving it as a donation in 1990 and moving it to Paradise Valley Park in Middletown . The windmill is open to the public on Sunday afternoons in July , August and September . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Boyd's_Windmill",
"rank": 11,
"score": 103405
},
{
"content": "Title: Windpump Content: A windpump is a type of windmill which is used for pumping water . Windpumps were used to pump water since at least the 9th century in what is now Afghanistan , Iran and Pakistan . The use of wind pumps became widespread across the Muslim world and later spread to China and India . Windmills were later used extensively in Europe , particularly in the Netherlands and the East Anglia area of Great Britain , from the late Middle Ages onwards , to drain land for agricultural or building purposes . Simon Stevin 's work in the waterstaet involved improvements to the sluices and spillways to control flooding . Windmills were already in use to pump the water out , but in Van de Molens ( On mills ) , he suggested improvements , including the idea that the wheels should move slowly , and a better system for meshing of the gear teeth . These improvements increased the efficiency of the windmills used to pump water out of the polders by three times . He received a patent on his innovation in 1586 . Eight - to ten-bladed windmills were used in the Region of Murcia , Spain , to raise water for irrigation purposes . The drive from the windmill 's rotor was led down through the tower and back out through the wall to turn a large wheel known as a noria . The noria supported a bucket chain which dangled down into the well . The buckets were traditionally made of wood or clay . These windmills remained in use until the 1950s , and many of the towers are still standing . Early immigrants to the New World brought with them the technology of windmills from Europe . On US farms , particularly on the Great Plains , wind pumps were used to pump water from farm wells for cattle . In California and some other states , the windmill was part of a self-contained domestic water system , including a hand-dug well and a redwood water tower supporting a redwood tank and enclosed by redwood siding ( tankhouse ) . The self-regulating farm wind pump was invented by Daniel Halladay in 1854 . Eventually , steel blades and steel towers replaced wooden construction , and at their peak in 1930 , an estimated 600,000 units were in use , with capacity equivalent to 150 megawatts . Very large lighter wind pumps in Australia directly crank the pump with the rotor of the windmill . Extra back gearing between small rotors for high wind areas and the pump crank prevents trying to push the pump rods down on the downstroke faster than they can fall by gravity . Otherwise pumping too fast leads to the pump rods buckling , making the seal of the stuffing box leak and wearing through the wall of the rising main ( UK ) or the drop-pipe ( US ) so all output is lost . The multi-bladed wind pump or wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel hence became , for many years , a fixture of the landscape throughout rural America . These mills , made by a variety of manufacturers , featured a large number of blades so that they would turn slowly with considerable torque in moderate winds and be self-regulating in high winds . A tower-top gearbox and crankshaft converted the rotary motion into reciprocating strokes carried downward through a rod to the pump cylinder below . Today , rising energy costs and improved pumping technology are increasing interest in the use of this once declining technology .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windpump",
"rank": 12,
"score": 103351
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill (solitaire) Content: Windmill is a solitaire card game played with two decks of playing cards . It is so called because the initial layout resembles a windmill 's sails . First , an ace is placed at the center . Then eight cards are placed around in such a way that the layout looks like a cross . The ace forms the primary foundation and the eight cards form the reserve . The gaps at the corner of the `` sails '' are reserved for kings and form the secondary foundations . The suits of the kings to be placed on the secondary foundations are disregarded . The object of the game is to build the primary foundation up to king with 52 cards in it and the secondary foundations down to ace with 13 cards each in them . All foundations are built regardless of suit . The illustration below shows how the tableau is initially laid out . ( A ) is for the primary foundation , R for the reserve ( 8 free cells ) and ( K ) for the secondary foundations , empty at first . The game starts by moving cards from the reserve to either the primary foundation or , if available , to one of the secondary foundations . Gaps in the reserve must be immediately filled by cards from the wastepile or , if the wastepile is empty , from the stock . If no more moves are possible from the reserve , the player deals cards from the stock one at a time to the wastepile , searching for playable cards . The player may also move the top card of a secondary foundation to the primary foundation , provided that the next card to be placed on the primary foundation comes from either the wastepile or the reserve . When the primary foundation reaches a king , an ace can be placed over it . But when a secondary foundation reaches an ace , it can longer be built unless the ace is moved to the primary foundation . The game is won when all cards are in the foundations : 52 on the primary foundation and 13 on each of the four secondary foundations . There is also an alternate variation wherein the direction of building on the primary and secondary foundations is reversed . In this variation , the primary foundation starts with a laid-out king and is built down while the secondary foundations start with the first available aces and are built up .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_(solitaire)",
"rank": 13,
"score": 101550
},
{
"content": "Title: The Windmill (restaurant) Content: The Windmill ( stylized as WindMill ) is a chain of restaurants located mostly near the Jersey Shore known for its hot dogs and other fast food . The original location , a windmill-shaped building in Long Branch , New Jersey , was built and opened in 1963 . Leo and Ed Levine bought the restaurant in 1976 , and opened a second location in Belmar , New Jersey , three years later . Since then , WindMill Gourmet Fast Foods has grown to include seven locations -- three franchises and four owned by the family . George James in The New York Times writes , `` Aside from Sabrett , the family-owned hot dog manufacturer based in New Jersey that makes the Windmill hot dog , the Levines , probably constitute the largest wiener dynasty in the state . '' The Windmill 's hotdog style is a Jersey Shore flat-grilled dog . The Windmill 's Long Branch location is known for its fierce competition with nearby Max 's Famous Hotdogs . The Windmill claims it is a favorite of Bruce Springsteen . Besides its staple hot dogs , the chain serves many other sandwiches , including chicken and fish , and a California-style double burger known as the Big Ed , though it can be made to suit the customer 's wishes . The burgers and the chain 's ribeye steak sandwich are popular with customers . Side dishes include cheese French fries almost as well known as the hot dogs , and chili cheese fries and fried mushrooms . In addition to standard fountain soda selectionsand bottled drinks , several locations feature milk shakes . The condiment offerings , set up at the purchase counter , include diced onions , a variety of relishes , sauerkraut , and pickles . The mustard is of the spicy brown or deli type , not yellow .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "The_Windmill_(restaurant)",
"rank": 14,
"score": 99363
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill (song) Content: `` Windmill '' is a song and a single made by the German power metal band Helloween taken from the album Chameleon . This single has the same b-sides as the single Step Out of Hell , and the same cover . `` Windmill '' was released in Europe and `` Step Out of Hell '' in Japan .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_(song)",
"rank": 15,
"score": 98181
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill graph Content: In the mathematical field of graph theory , the windmill graph Wd ( k , n ) is an undirected graph constructed for k ≥ 2 and n ≥ 2 by joining n copies of the complete graph Kk at a shared vertex . That is , it is a 1-clique-sum of these complete graphs .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_graph",
"rank": 16,
"score": 98123
},
{
"content": "Title: Tower mill Content: A tower mill is a type of vertical windmill consisting of a brick or stone tower , on which sits a wooden ` cap ' or roof , which can rotate to bring the sails into the wind . This rotating cap on a firm masonry base gave tower mills great advantages over earlier post mills , as they could stand much higher , bear larger sails , and thus afford greater reach into the wind . Windmills in general had been known to civilization for centuries , but the tower mill represented an improvement on traditional western-style windmills . The tower mill was an important source of power for Europe for nearly 600 years from 1300 -- 1900 , contributing to 25 percent of the industrial power of all wind machines before the advent of the steam engine and coal power . It represented a modification or a demonstration of improving and adapting technology that had been known by humans for ages . Although these types of mills were effective , some argue that , owing to their complexity , they would have initially been built mainly by the most wealthy individuals .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Tower_mill",
"rank": 17,
"score": 98085
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill (TV series) Content: Windmill was a British television series , usually shown on Sunday lunchtimes on BBC2 , which ran from 26 August 1985 to 3 April 1988 , presented by Chris Serle , its name taken from the BBC television archives being housed at Windmill Road in West London at the time . It was one of the first shows fully to exploit the potential of the BBC 's archive , showing during its run hundreds of television clips from the 1940s to the 1980s , always based around a specific theme . Among the many shows represented were The Morecambe and Wise Show , Monty Python 's Flying Circus , The Sky at Night , Whicker 's World , Nationwide , Doctor Who , Steptoe and Son , Blue Peter , and the original 1950s Watch With Mother series . A number of clips were also shown from the television newsreels of the late 1940s . Weekly features included a regular `` Comedy Classic '' , always fitting with each episode 's theme , and `` All Your Own Work '' , which featured films made in the past by members of the public ( often those included in earlier BBC series such as Caught in Time and `` Everybody 's Doing It '' ) . Each edition also featured a studio guest , who would pick their favourites from the archives and whose own appearances would usually also be shown ; Richard Stilgoe , for example , chose a clip from Jack Rosenthal 's play The Evacuees , fitting in with the episode 's `` Childhood '' theme , and a clip from his own series And Now the Good News was shown . From 4 December 1988 the series was replaced by Boxpops , another archive-based series but much faster-paced and pop-orientated with no studio presenter .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_(TV_series)",
"rank": 18,
"score": 98025
},
{
"content": "Title: Balsall Common Mill, Berkswell Content: Berkswell windmill is a four bladed tower mill constructed in 1826 on the site of a former post mill , in the village of Balsall Common , in the parish of Berkswell , in the Metropolitan Borough of Solihull , West Midlands . The windmill is built in brick with a wooden boat shaped cap , and is turned into the wind by an endless chain winding mechanism . It was historically used to grind flour and animal feeds , and in 1927 the milling wheels were adapted to run via a diesel engine , not reliant upon the variable nature of the wind . The mill was finally closed in 1948 , after the last miller John Hammond died . The windmill is a grade II Star listed building and a scheduled monument . It is in private ownership . It is currently closed as it is undergoing extensive repairs and maintenance . ( REF : Friends of the Berkswell Windmill ) . It was formerly restored between 1973 and 1975 , by the Millwright Derek Ogden , for its then owners George and Betty Field , and was complete , with sails and all internal machinery and tools for making flour and animal feed . However , after the death of the owner the windmill again fell into some disrepair until purchased by the current owner in 2006 . It is currently undergoing further extensive restoration work . The refurbishment work includes work to the perimeter wall , tower , cap and new sails . ( ref : Friends of the Berkswell Windmill )",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Balsall_Common_Mill,_Berkswell",
"rank": 19,
"score": 98019
},
{
"content": "Title: St Margaret's Bay Windmill Content: St Margarets Bay Windmill is a Grade II listed Smock mill on South Foreland , the southeasternmost point of England . It was built in 1929 to generate electricity for the attached house , high on the White Cliffs of Dover .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "St_Margaret's_Bay_Windmill",
"rank": 20,
"score": 97648
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill (company) Content: is a Japanese adult visual novel video game developer . They also have a sub-brand , Windmill Oasis , which produces high-quality games with 2D animation .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_(company)",
"rank": 21,
"score": 97625
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Software Content: Windmill Software is a Canadian software company . Windmill Software today publishes property management software and management information system software , but the company is more notable for its past role as a developer , marketer , publisher , and distributor of computer and video games . The company developed several games for the IBM PC in the early 1980s .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Software",
"rank": 22,
"score": 97389
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill (band) Content: Windmill is an indie pop band led by London-based musician Matthew Thomas Dillon . Windmill have released 3 full length albums : 2007 's Puddle City Racing Lights , 2009 's Epcot Starfields , and Above Duffle Farm . Windmill has released music on indie labels Melodic Records in the UK , Friendly Fire Recordings in the US , Greenland in Europe and Beat Records in Japan . Dillon also released 2012 's October on Tennis Courts , under the name of Outer Albert . Windmill 's sound is piano-based , featuring Dillon 's distinctive high-pitched , warbly vocals , lush , layered arrangements , and often minimal use of drums . Dillon is the band 's songwriter and sole permanent member , performing most of the instruments on Windmill 's recordings .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_(band)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 96824
},
{
"content": "Title: Smock mill Content: The smock mill is a type of windmill that consists of a sloping , horizontally weatherboarded or thatched tower , usually with six or eight sides . It is topped with a roof or cap that rotates to bring the sails into the wind . This type of windmill got its name from its resemblance to smocks worn by farmers in an earlier period .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Smock_mill",
"rank": 24,
"score": 96356
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Millar Wind Farm Content: The Mount Millar Wind Farm is situated on an escarpment between the towns of Cowell and Cleve located 100 km southwest of Whyalla , South Australia . The 35 wind turbines are positioned on the elongated Mount Millar site ( about 7 km in length ) to maximise wind exposure . The wind farm can generate up to 70 megawatts ( MW ) of electricity and will provide enough energy to meet the needs of about 36,000 typical households . Because wind farms do not emit greenhouse gases in the generation of electricity , wind energy is considered a highly desirable form of renewable energy and assists in the reduction of the State 's reliance on coal and gas fired electricity generation . The Mount Millar Wind Farm is different from other SA wind farms , due to the turbines being a direct drive machine that do n't have gear boxes . This is why the nacelle of these turbines has a larger diameter than most . It connects to ElectraNet 's existing transmission network at Yadnarie Substation , via a new 33 km 132 kV overhead transmission line and substation . Construction of this wind farm started in late 2004 and was completed in December 2005 . Power production started in February 2006 . The $ 130 million project was developed by Tarong Energy Corporation Ltd , which has interests in both Queensland and South Australia ( including South Australia 's first wind farm , Starfish Hill Wind Farm ) . The Mount Millar wind farm was acquired by Meridian Energy in 2010 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Mount_Millar_Wind_Farm",
"rank": 25,
"score": 96333
},
{
"content": "Title: Spinnenkop Openluchtmuseum, Arnhem Content: The spinnenkop of the Netherlands Open Air Museum in Arnhem is a small drainage mill originally located near Gorredijk , Friesland , Netherlands . It is a hollow post windmill that has been restored to working order .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Spinnenkop_Openluchtmuseum,_Arnhem",
"rank": 26,
"score": 96034
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecotricity Content: Ecotricity is an energy company based in Stroud , Gloucestershire , England specialising in selling green energy to consumers that it primarily generates from its 70 megawatt wind power portfolio - the company prefers the term windmill rather than wind turbine . It is built on the principle of heavily reinvesting its profit in building more of its own green energy generation .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Ecotricity",
"rank": 27,
"score": 95741
},
{
"content": "Title: De Windhond Content: De Windhond is a windmill in the city of Woerden , Netherlands . The mill was built in 1755 on an artificial hill of 9.3 metre in height that was part of the defensive enclosure ( stadswal ) of the ancient city . The mill itself is 5.7 metre high . The windmill sail spans 25.2 metre . The building is a prominent feature defining the skyline of the town . It is registered as a national monument .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "De_Windhond",
"rank": 28,
"score": 95735
},
{
"content": "Title: Tot Voordeel en Genoegen Content: Tot Voordeel en Genoegen ( Profit and Pleasure ) is a windmill built in 1798 on the Molendijk 15 in Alphen , Gelderland , in the Netherlands . It is a large post mill , built above a roundhouse , used for grinding wheat flour . It is the only windmill in the Netherlands that drives three pairs of millstones . The mechanism is mostly wooden , since iron was expensive when it was built . The windmill , which is still functional , can be rotated on its post to face the wind for maximum effect .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Tot_Voordeel_en_Genoegen",
"rank": 29,
"score": 95389
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas O. Perry Content: Thomas Osborn Perry was a mechanical engineer , designer , and the original innovator of the all-metal windmill . Perry made significant contributions to the field of wind powered turbines and was an early pioneer of modern wind power technology .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Thomas_O._Perry",
"rank": 30,
"score": 95149
},
{
"content": "Title: Himriksmole Content: The Himriksmole , also known as Groene Ster after the recreational area and nature reserve where it is located , is a drainage mill near the village of Tytsjerk , Friesland , Netherlands . It is a hollow post windmill of the type called spinnenkop by the Dutch . The mill is listed as a Rijksmonument , number 35675 , and is used to raise the water level in the nature reserve .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Himriksmole",
"rank": 31,
"score": 94922
},
{
"content": "Title: De Geeuwpoldermolen, Oppenhuizen Content: The Geeuwpoldermolen ( or Geau 's Mole in Frisian ) is a drainage mill near the twin village of Oppenhuizen , Friesland , Netherlands . It is a hollow post windmill of the type called spinnenkop by the Dutch . The mill is listed as a Rijksmonument , number 39810 and it is still in use for draining the Geeuwpolder . It was almost completely renewed at a restoration in 1987 , earlier restorations were in 1954 and 1965 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "De_Geeuwpoldermolen,_Oppenhuizen",
"rank": 32,
"score": 94566
},
{
"content": "Title: Jhimpir Wind Energy Project (FFCEL) Content: Fauji Fertilizer Company Energy Limited , has built 49.5 MW wind Energy Farm at Jhimpir near Karachi . Contract of supply of mechanical design was awarded to Nordex and Descon Engineering Limited . Nordex a German wind turbine manufacturer . Pakistani Govt . also has issued LOI of 100 MW Wind power plant to FFCEL . Pakistani Govt . has plans to achieve electric power up to 2500 MW by the end of 2015 from wind energy to bring down energy shortage . The ADB financed $ 143 million Jhimpir windmill project , which is being executed by Zorlu Energy Pakistan , the local subsidiary of a Turkish company , on the land of 1148 acres at Jhimpir in Thatta District of Sindh province . As many as 34 wind turbines have been erected on the wind farm with power generation capacity of 1.8 megawatts each turbine . In total more than 106 megawatts electricity has so far been included in the national power transmission system when the wind energy projects of FFCEL and Zorlu Energy became operational and started generating electricity . Currently , 45 wind power projects of around 3200 MW capacity are under process in Pakistan .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Jhimpir_Wind_Energy_Project_(FFCEL)",
"rank": 33,
"score": 94219
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill sail Content: Windmills are powered by their sails . Sails are found in different designs , from primitive common sails to the advanced patent sails .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_sail",
"rank": 34,
"score": 94160
},
{
"content": "Title: Terpzigt, Marssum Content: Terpzigt is a drainage mill in Marssum , Friesland , Netherlands . It is the smallest spinnenkop , a type of hollow post windmill . The mill is listed as a Rijksmonument , number 8625 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Terpzigt,_Marssum",
"rank": 35,
"score": 93808
},
{
"content": "Title: Mill Run Wind Energy Center Content: The Mill Run Wind Energy Center is a wind farm located in Fayette County , Pennsylvania with ten 1.5 MW Enron Wind TZs that began commercial operation in November 2001 . The wind farm has a combined total nameplate capacity of 15 MW , but actually produces about 39,420 megawatt-hours of electricity annually . The wind farm was developed by Atlantic Renewable Energy and Horizon Wind Energy , and constructed and operated by NextEra Energy Resources , based in Florida .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Mill_Run_Wind_Energy_Center",
"rank": 36,
"score": 93136
},
{
"content": "Title: Gee-haw whammy diddle Content: A gee-haw whammy diddle is a mechanical toy consisting of two wooden sticks . One has a series of notches cut transversely along its side and a smaller wooden stick or a propeller attached to the end with a nail or pin . This stick is held stationary in one hand with the notches up , and the other stick is rubbed rapidly back and forth across the notches . This causes the propeller to rotate . Sometimes also known as a ouija windmill , a hoodoo stick or a VooDoo stick . The word whammy is sometimes whimmy and the word diddle sometimes doodle , giving it three possible other names , and the gee-haw may also be dropped . Gee-haw refers to the fact that , by rubbing your finger against the notched stick while rubbing , the direction of the spinning propeller may be reversed . The operator may do this surreptitiously and yell `` gee '' or `` haw '' to make it appear that the propeller is reacting to the commands . If you call it a hooey stick , you would yell `` hooey '' each time you want the direction to change .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Gee-haw_whammy_diddle",
"rank": 37,
"score": 93057
},
{
"content": "Title: Doris Mooltje, Oudega Content: Doris Mooltsje is a drainage mill near the village of Oudega , Friesland , Netherlands . It is a hollow post windmill of the type called spinnenkop by the Dutch . The mill is listed as a Rijksmonument , number 527647 and has been restored to working order in 1998 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Doris_Mooltje,_Oudega",
"rank": 38,
"score": 92997
},
{
"content": "Title: The Windmill, Brixton Content: The Windmill is a pub and live music venue in Brixton , London , England , with a reputation for championing new music . The pub was built in 1971 for the adjacent Blenheim Gardens housing estate and named after the neighbouring heritage site of the only lasting ( and working ) windmill ( aka Ashby 's Mill ) in the London area . It went through various phases of being a bar that attracted locals , bikers , the Irish community and by the end of the 1990s it was hosting DJs , poets and the occasional live bands . Around 2002 the Windmill shifted focus onto live music . Early gigs included a semi-secret double bill of Calexico and Kurt Wagner ( of Lambchop ) followed by a gig by The 5678s , just after they had appeared as the house band in Quentin Tarantino 's Kill Bill : Volume 2 . A Rottweiler dog living on the roof of the venue ( known as `` Roof Dog '' ) became the Windmill 's mascot , until its death in August 2015 . The Windmill was voted the third best music venue in London , in a 2012 poll in Time Out magazine , and # 7 by The Guardian in 2008 , and has been described as `` one of the top-10 music venues in the U.K. '' . Well-known bands to have played gigs at The Windmill include : ... And You Will Know Us By The Trail Of Dead , The Acorn , Akron/Family , Archie Bronson Outfit , Architecture In Helsinki , Art Brut , The Answer , Biffy Clyro , The Black Lips , Bloc Party , Brakes , British Sea Power , Broken Family Band , Caitlin Rose , Calexico , The Cribs , Crystal Stilts , The Crimea , Damo Suzuki , Dananananaykroyd , Daniel Johnston , DJ Scotch Egg , Dub Trio , Duke Special , Duke Spirit , The Enemy , Example , Florence & The Machine , Frank Turner , Frightened Rabbit , Fuck Buttons , Guillemots , Hard-Fi , Herman Dune , Hot Chip , The Horrors , Jamie T , Jeffrey Lewis , Just Jack , Karkwa , The King Blues , Klaxons , Let 's Wrestle , Los Campesinos , Lucero , The Magic Numbers , Maximo Park , Mekons , Metronomy , Micachu , Noah & The Whale , OK Go , The Pains Of Being Pure At Heart , Peggy Sue , Pete & the Pirates , Plan B , PW Long , The Rakes , The Rumble Strips , Scouting For Girls , Scritti Politti , Shonen Knife , Stereolab , Television Personalities , Thunderclap Newman , Tilly & The Wall , Tom McRae , Tom Vek , The Vaccines , Vic Godard and Subway Sect , The Veils , The View , Vivian Girls , The War on Drugs , William Elliott Whitmore , The Wombats , Yeasayer , Yngve & The Innocent , The Young Knives .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "The_Windmill,_Brixton",
"rank": 39,
"score": 92845
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Hill, Buckinghamshire Content: Windmill Hill is a purpose-built archive and office complex near Waddesdon Manor . It houses family archives from Waddesdon Manor , a contemporary art collection , a reading room , and performance spaces . It was built in 2011 by Stephen Marshall Architects of London . Originally a dairy farm , the building is now representative of the conservation and environmental work of the Rothschild Foundation . Original elements of the dairy farm have been retained , including two red-brick barns . Many vernacular features of the farm buildings have also been reinterpreted such as the metallic roofs and oak shutters . The complex was built using environmentally sustainable design principles . It has grey water recycling and ground source heating . The shutters allow natural ventilation and the deep eaves protect offices from the sun . It is also one of Britain 's largest naturally-cooled archives as the stores have thick walls which create a stable environment without the use of air-conditioning . The archives comprise a variety of documents including manuscripts , maps , plans , photographs , drawings and accounts . There is a growing contemporary art collection which includes sculpture by Sarah Lucas , Angus Fairhurst , and Richard Long as well as paintings and installations .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Hill,_Buckinghamshire",
"rank": 40,
"score": 92726
},
{
"content": "Title: Fatum, Tzum Content: Fatum is a drainage mill near the village of Tzum , Friesland , Netherlands . It is a hollow post windmill of the type called `` spinnenkop '' by the Dutch . The mill is listed as a Rijksmonument , number 15876 and is in working order though it can no longer be used for drainage .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Fatum,_Tzum",
"rank": 41,
"score": 92675
},
{
"content": "Title: The Windmill (1937 film) Content: The Windmill is a 1937 British drama film directed by Arthur B. Woods and starring Hugh Williams , Glen Alyn and Henry Mollison . During the First World War , the German adopted daughter of a Belgian innkeeper tries to balance her loyalty to her father , who is a spy for the Germans , and her love for a British soldier billited in their inn . It was based on a novel by John Drabble .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "The_Windmill_(1937_film)",
"rank": 42,
"score": 92357
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill, New Mexico Content: Windmill is a census-designated place in Hidalgo County , New Mexico , United States . Its population was 43 as of the 2010 census . The community is located along New Mexico State Road 9 . The community was founded in the 1970s . While it is located on a windy plain , as of 1991 it did not have a windmill despite its name .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill,_New_Mexico",
"rank": 43,
"score": 92008
},
{
"content": "Title: Gladden Windmill Content: Gladden Windmill is an historic windmill formerly located on Pigeon Valley Road in Napoli , Cattaraugus County , New York . The windmill was built in 1890 and is a well-preserved example of a vertical wind turbine built during the 19th century . Although no longer operational , the turbine ( and associated mill structure ) is a rare example of wind power technology in the United States . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 . Since its listing , the windmill has been dismantled and moved to Conewango , New York .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Gladden_Windmill",
"rank": 44,
"score": 91954
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Performing Arts Content: Windmill Theatre Co ( previously known as Windmill Performing Arts ) established in 2002 as a South Australian Government initiative is Australia 's flagship professional theatre company for child and young adult audiences . The current artistic director is Rosemary Myers . Since 2002 , it has grown into a leading national company . The founding director and creative producer was Cate Fowler ( through 2007 ) . The founding patron was children 's author Mem Fox ( through 2007 ) . Windmill performs a season in Adelaide yearly , with shows also touring through regional South Australia and interstate . Internationally , Windmill have performed in many countries , including in the US ( including Off-Broadway ) , New Zealand , Singapore and South Korea .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Performing_Arts",
"rank": 45,
"score": 91825
},
{
"content": "Title: Iron Turbine Windmill Content: Iron Turbine Windmill is an historic windmill at 415 W. Gurley Street , on the grounds of the Sharlot Hall Museum in Prescott , Arizona . It is technically a windpump , but the American term is windmill . The windmill was built in 1876 and added to the National Historic Register in 1981 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Iron_Turbine_Windmill",
"rank": 46,
"score": 91813
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Hill (Gibraltar) Content: Windmill Hill or Windmill Hill Flats is one of a pair of plateaux , known collectively as the Southern Plateaux , at the southern end of the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar . It is located just to the south of the Rock of Gibraltar , which descends steeply to the plateau . Windmill Hill slopes down gently to the south with a height varying from 120 m at the north end to 90 m at the south end . It covers an area of about 19 ha , though about 6 ha at the north end is built over . The plateau is ringed to the south and east with a line of cliffs which descend to the second of the Southern Plateaux , Europa Flats , which is itself ringed by sea cliffs . Both plateaux are the product of marine erosion during the Quaternary period and subsequent tectonic uplift . Windmill Hill was originally on the shoreline and its cliffs were cut by the action of waves , before the ground was uplifted and the shoreline moved further out to the edge of what is now Europa Flats .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Hill_(Gibraltar)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 91457
},
{
"content": "Title: Operation Windmill Content: Operation Windmill ( OpWml ) was the United States Navy 's Second Antarctica Developments Project , an exploration and training mission to Antarctica in 1947 -- 1948 . This operation was a follow up to the First Antarctica Development Project known as Operation Highjump . The expedition was commanded by Commander Gerald L. Ketchum , USN , and the flagship of Task Force 39 was the icebreaker USS Burton Island . Missions during Operation Windmill varied including supply activities , helicopter reconnaissance of ice flows , scientific surveys , underwater demolition surveys , and convoy exercises . The icebreaker USS Edisto ( AG-89 ) sailed on 1 November 1947 for the Panama Canal to rendezvous with the Burton Island for the expedition .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Operation_Windmill",
"rank": 48,
"score": 91221
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Islands Content: The Windmill Islands are an Antarctic group of rocky islands and rocks about 6 nmi wide , paralleling the coast of Wilkes Land for 17 nmi immediately north of Vanderford Glacier along the east side of Vincennes Bay . Kirkby Shoal is a small shoal area with depths of less than 18 m extending about 140 m westwards and SSW , about 3.4 km from the summit of Shirley Island , Windmill Islands , and 0.15 mi NW of Stonehocker Point , Clark Peninsula . The Windmill Islands were mapped from aerial photographs taken by USN Operation Highjump , 1946-47 . So named by the US-ACAN because personnel of Operation Windmill , 1947 -- 48 , landed on Holl Island at the southwest end of the group to establish ground control for USN Operation Highjump photographs . The term `` Operation Windmill '' is a popular expression which developed after the expedition disbanded and refers to the extensive use of helicopters made by this group . The official title of this expedition was the ` Second Antarctic Development Project ' , U.S. Navy Task Force 39 , 1947 -- 48 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Islands",
"rank": 49,
"score": 91066
},
{
"content": "Title: Generation on the Wind Content: Generation on the Wind is a 1979 documentary film produced by David Vassar and Andrew Finley . The film is a character study centered on a rag tag group of young artists , mechanics and environmental activists who successfully built the largest electrical generating windmill in the world . The documentary required two years of shooting to finish the film . It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Generation_on_the_Wind",
"rank": 50,
"score": 91054
},
{
"content": "Title: Wendhausen Windmill Content: The Wendhausen Windmill ( German : Windmühle Wendhausen ) is a tower mill located in Wendhausen , a town within the municipality of Lehre , Lower Saxony , Germany . Built in 1837 , it is the only five-sailed windmill in Germany still in operation .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Wendhausen_Windmill",
"rank": 51,
"score": 90628
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind turbine Content: A wind turbine is a device that converts the wind 's kinetic energy into electrical power . Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types . The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or caravans or to power traffic warning signs . Slightly larger turbines can be used for making contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid . Arrays of large turbines , known as wind farms , are becoming an increasingly important source of intermittent renewable energy and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Wind_turbine",
"rank": 52,
"score": 90460
},
{
"content": "Title: Darrieus wind turbine Content: The Darrieus wind turbine is a type of vertical axis wind turbine ( VAWT ) used to generate electricity from the energy carried in the wind . The turbine consists of a number of curved aerofoil blades mounted on a vertical rotating shaft or framework . The curvature of the blades allows the blade to be stressed only in tension at high rotating speeds . There are several closely related wind turbines that use straight blades . This design of wind turbine was patented by Georges Jean Marie Darrieus , a French aeronautical engineer ; filing for the patent was October 1 , 1926 . There are major difficulties in protecting the Darrieus turbine from extreme wind conditions and in making it self-starting .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Darrieus_wind_turbine",
"rank": 53,
"score": 90405
},
{
"content": "Title: Skidby Windmill Content: Skidby Windmill is a Grade II * listed working windmill at Skidby near Beverley , in the East Riding of Yorkshire , England . Originally built in 1821 , the mill was further extended to its current 5 stories in 1870 . It is powered by 4 sails , 11 metres in length , and was in commercial use until 1966 . Between 1954 and 1966 the mill was used for grinding animal feedstuff using newly installed electric rollers but also continued producing stoneground flour , too . The mill was sold to the local council in 1969 for # 1 and after being renovated was opened in 1974 as a working museum . It is the last working English windmill north of the Humber , producing stoneground wholemeal flour from locally grown wheat . The mill is open to visitors all week , milling takes place from Wednesday to Sunday weather permitting . Adjacent warehouses contain the Museum of East Riding Rural Life , including a famous ` Wolds Wagon ' built by P.H. Sissons & Sons , which was originally lent to the Beverley Army Museum of transport . P.H. Sissons & Sons were based at Beswick and built wagons from 1854 onwards . In 2008 , work began on the mill to replace some structural members in the cap and fantail . The work involved the 15 ton cap being removed by a crane ; the only time that the cap has been removed since the 1870s .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Skidby_Windmill",
"rank": 54,
"score": 90241
},
{
"content": "Title: Klopotec Content: A klopotec ( pronounced -LSB- klɔˈpɔːtəts -RSB- ) is a wooden mechanical device on a high wooden pole , similar to a windmill . It is used as a bird scarer in the vineyards of traditional wine-growing landscapes of Slovenia , Austria , and Croatia . It is one of the symbols of Slovenia and Styria . The windmill in the Slovene Hills typically has four blades , and in Haloze six blades , driving an axis with a sail or vane that is constructed to swivel so it is always positioned perpendicular to the wind . As the axis rotates , wooden hammers are lifted off their resting position by fixed notches . As they fall back , they rhythmically impact on a wooden board . While the quality of the sound is dependent on the wood of which the hammers and sounding boards are made of , the rattle frequency depends on the number of hammers , as well as changes in wind speed . The device is used primarily to scare starlings and other birds off the vineyards so that they do not peck grapes . A folk belief also states that klopotecs drive snakes from the vineyards and soften grapes . In Catholic folk music of its region of origin , it is sometimes combined with an organ stop and used as a rural church instrument ( e.g. in Gleisdorf parish church ) .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Klopotec",
"rank": 55,
"score": 90008
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmills (Rick Roberts album) Content: Windmills is the debut solo album by country rock musician Rick Roberts . The album was recorded a year after his stint as lead singer of The Flying Burrito Brothers , and two years before co-founding the band Firefall . Roberts was joined on the record by Burrito Brothers bandmate Chris Hillman , as well as three of the Eagles : Don Henley , Bernie Leadon ( formerly of the Burrito Brothers ) , and Randy Meisner . Other guest musicians include David Crosby , Jackson Browne , Al Perkins , Dallas Taylor , Marc Benno and Byron Berline . The standout tracks are `` Sail Away '' , `` In My Own Small Way '' , and `` Jenny 's Blues '' , and all of the songs were written by Roberts , except Harlan Howard 's `` Pick Me Up on Your Way Down '' .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmills_(Rick_Roberts_album)",
"rank": 56,
"score": 89796
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Limestone Content: The Windmill Limestone is a geologic formation in Nevada . It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Limestone",
"rank": 57,
"score": 89671
},
{
"content": "Title: The Old Windmill, Brisbane Content: The Old Windmill is a heritage-listed tower mill in Wickham Park at 226 Wickham Terrace , Spring Hill , City of Brisbane , Queensland , Australia . It was built in 1820s by convict labour and is the oldest surviving building in Queensland . It is also known as Brisbane Observatory and Windmill Tower . It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "The_Old_Windmill,_Brisbane",
"rank": 58,
"score": 89380
},
{
"content": "Title: Ramløse Windmill Content: Ramløse Windmill ( Danish . Ramløse Mølle ) is a smock mill located in the northeastern corner of Ramløse , Gribskov Municipality , North Zealand , some 60 km north west of Copenhagen , Denmark . Built in 1908 , it remained in service until 1937 . The mill has been restored to working order and is operated by a group of local volunteers six times a year . One of the other buildings at the site , a former workshop , has been turned into a small museum which exhibits historic tools used by different trades . There is also a B&B and a café .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Ramløse_Windmill",
"rank": 59,
"score": 89183
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Theatre Company Content: Windmill Theatre Company Inc is a non-professional theatre company located in the outer-Eastern suburbs of Melbourne , Victoria . Specifically , their activities occur , and the bulk of their members reside , in the municipalities of Casey , Cardinia and Dandenong . In the past , the company has produced a variety of show types but currently specialises in musical theatre and are members of the Music Theatre Guild of Victoria . The Company started in 1968 as Westernport Light Opera Society , performing in Koo Wee Rup and in the years that followed , shows have been performed in many different theatres and halls as far from Melbourne as Wangaratta . The name changed to Westernport Theatre Company ( WTC ) and more recently to Windmill Theatre Company .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Theatre_Company",
"rank": 60,
"score": 89176
},
{
"content": "Title: Monnikenburenmolen, Nijhuizum Content: The Monnikenburenmolen or Nijhuizumermolen is a drainage mill in Nijhuizum , Friesland , Netherlands . It was restored in 2008 after it was only just saved from demolishment in 1994 . It is a hollow post windmill of a type called `` spinnenkop '' by the Dutch . The mill is listed as a Rijksmonument , number 527646 . It can help drain the polder and has been designated as a backup to the pumping station by the waterboard Wetterskip Fryslân .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Monnikenburenmolen,_Nijhuizum",
"rank": 61,
"score": 88939
},
{
"content": "Title: Turby wind turbine Content: The Turby is a brand of vertical-axis Darrieus wind turbine . The three vertical aerofoil blades have a helical twist of 60 degrees , similar to Gorlov 's water turbines . The turbine consists of three vertical symmetrical airfoil blades , each having a helical twist . The helical feature spreads the torque evenly over the entire revolution , thus preventing the destructive pulsations of the straight-bladed giromill ( Darrieus turbine ) . The wind pushes each blade around on both the windward and leeward sides of the turbine . As with a Darrieus turbine , theoretically , there is no torque on a stationary turbine , due to symmetry of the turbine and of the blades . Starting is achieved by operating the generator as a motor . Torque is caused by a change in the apparent wind direction relative to the moving blades . Another advantage of the helical twist is that the blades generate torque well from upward-slanting airflow . This is negligible in open country , but tall buildings and cliff faces generate a bow wave which directs airflow up and over them . Turbines mounted on high building rooftops or clifftops are exposed to significantly slanting flow , and the Turby can extract more useful energy from it than a propeller-type turbine can because horizontal axis ( HAWT ) types can not change their pitch to face the wind directly . The turbine measures 2.0 m ( 6 ' 7 '' ) in diameter by 2.9 m ( 9 ' 6 '' ) high ( including generator ) , and weighs 136 kg ( 300 lb ) . It is specified to generate power in winds of between 4 m/s ( 9 mph , 7.8 kts ) and 14 m/s ( 31 mph , 27.2 kts ) , and can survive winds of 55 m/s ( 123 mph , 107kts ) . The rated power at 14 m/s is 2.5 kW ( 3.35 hp ) . The AC output from the synchronous generator is rectified to DC , then inverted to AC at 230V 50 Hz . Core International developed the turbine in the Netherlands with research input from the Delft University of Technology .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Turby_wind_turbine",
"rank": 62,
"score": 88780
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Hill culture Content: The Windmill Hill culture was a name given to a people inhabiting southern Britain , in particular in the Salisbury Plain area close to Stonehenge , c. 3000 BC . They were an agrarian Neolithic people ; their name comes from Windmill Hill , a causewayed camp . Together with another Neolithic tribe from East Anglia , a tribe whose worship involved stone circles , it is thought that they were responsible for the earliest work on the Stonehenge site . The material record left by these people includes large circular hill-top enclosures , causewayed enclosures , long barrows , leaf-shaped arrowheads and polished stone axes . They raised cattle , sheep , pigs , and dogs , and grew wheat and mined flints . Since the term was first coined by archaeologists , further excavation and analysis has indicated that it consisted of several discrete cultures such as the Hembury and the Abingdon cultures ; and that `` Windmill Hill culture '' is too general a term .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Hill_culture",
"rank": 63,
"score": 88585
},
{
"content": "Title: Aalstermolen Content: The Aalstermolen ( English : Aalster Mill ) is a windmill located on the Raadhuisstraat 28A in Aalst , Waalre , in the province of North Brabant , Netherlands . Built in 1904 on an artificial hill , the windmill functioned as gristmill . The mill was built as a tower mill and its sails have a span of 25.70 meters . The mill has been a national monument ( nr 38186 ) since 15 May 1968 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Aalstermolen",
"rank": 64,
"score": 88474
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Hill, Hampshire Content: Windmill Hill is a chalk hill running alongside the A3 ( M ) in the East Hampshire District of Hampshire , England , overlooking Chalton to the East , and Clanfield to the west . It measures 193 metres above sea level and is named so because of Chalton Windmill which sits upon its summit . This windmill is a grade ll listed building and lay derelict until the late 1970s , when it was restored and converted into a private residence . On its northern slopes at Bascomb Copse sits Butser Ancient Farm , which moved there in 1991 . The hill has numerous footpaths some of which lead to the small village of Blendworth and then to Horndean to the south , and Queen Elizabeth Country Park and Butser Hill , which is well within walking distance to the north .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Hill,_Hampshire",
"rank": 65,
"score": 88338
},
{
"content": "Title: Pointe-Claire Windmill Content: The Pointe-Claire Windmill ( French : Moulin à vent de Pointe-Claire ) is a windmill in Pointe-Claire , Quebec , Canada . It is the oldest windmill on the island of Montreal and one of 18 remaining windmills in Quebec . Like most mills in New France it was built to a French design , a cylindrical stone tower with a movable roof which could be turned by a tail pole to face the sails to the wind . The mill had two doors , to provide an exit regardless of which ways the sails faced . The walls are four French feet ( 1m32 ) thick at the base . The interior is 12 French feet in diameter by 24 high . The mill originally contained elevated platforms beneath gun slits for defence . The surrounding shoreline was fenced with pointed wooden stakes . However , the site was never attacked .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Pointe-Claire_Windmill",
"rank": 66,
"score": 88312
},
{
"content": "Title: Arch Windmill Content: Albert `` Arch '' Windmill ( 5 June 1915 -- 5 March 2007 ) was a British motorcycle speedway rider who rode for Hackney Wick Wolves in the 1930s and Wimbledon Dons and Walthamstow Wolves after World War II . Originally from Watford , Windmill began his racing career in grasstrack at Barnet in 1934 . His first experience of speedway was at Birmingham in 1936 , signing shortly afterwards for Hackney Wick . He stayed with the Wolves until the start of World War II in 1939 , spending the war years in the Royal Air Force . After being demobbed he opened Windmill Garage in Hemel Hempstead , and returned to speedway with Wimbledon , where he scored 11 points in his first match and spent the season at reserve , averaging 3.80 . He moved on to Walthamstow Wolves at the start of the 1949 season . When the Wolves closed down at the end of 1951 he moved on to Southern League club Aldershot for his final season , retiring at the end of 1952 . Windmill represented England in the 1939 Test series against the Dominions . In his later years , Windmill became president of the Veteran Speedway Riders ' Association .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Arch_Windmill",
"rank": 67,
"score": 88157
},
{
"content": "Title: Foster Spinning Co. Content: Foster Spinning Co. is an historic textile mill on Cove Street in Fall River , Massachusetts . The mill was built in 1916 from red brick and had a capacity of 13,312 spindles when built . It was the last new textile mill built in Fall River . Its buildings are not particularly architecturally distinctive , representing typical early-20th century mill construction , but the complex is relatively complete , including the original main mill , boiler house , smokestack , and wooden storage building . In 1920 the plant was enlarged , increasing its capacity to 25,000 spindles . The Foster Spinning Company operated on the premises until 1962 . The property was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Foster_Spinning_Co.",
"rank": 68,
"score": 87985
},
{
"content": "Title: Quainton Windmill Content: __ NOTOC __ Quainton Windmill ( aka Banner Mill ) is a historic windmill in the village of Quainton , Buckinghamshire , England , United Kingdom . The 70 ft ( 20m ) six-storey brick tower mill , built 1830 -- 32 , is one of the most visible buildings in the village . It was derelict for most of the 20th century it has now been restored and can grind wheat into flour . The windmill was built by James Anstiss and it is still owned by the Anstiss family . It is the tallest windmill in Buckinghamshire . The mill had a steam engine installed early in its working life . Until 1881 , it was wind-driven , but milling came to an end in 1900 . The building remained unused as a mill , without a cap or sails , until 1974 , when the owner formed the Quainton Windmill Society , with the aim of restoring the windmill . The Society spent 23 years undertaking restoration work . In 1997 , milling was re-established . In 2013 English Heritage and The Department of Culture , Media and Sport have upgraded the listing status of the mill from Grade II to Grade II * for the following principal reasons : Architectural interest : the windmill reflects in its design and machinery the specific function it was intended to fulfil and how it was adapted to meet changes in technology and in the economy ; Intactness : the original mill machinery and fittings are intact and in working order ; Rarity : it is an example of a tall six-storey windmill and is the third tallest windmill in England . It was altered to be operated by an auxiliary steam engine which unusually was placed within the structure of the mill . An external survey was carried out on 2 October by Oxley Conservation and Bonwick Milling Heritage Consultancy . Using a giant `` cherry - picker '' enabling them to closely examine the structure of the mill and to provide a detailed report of its condition . The report states : ` The extent of decay suffered is such that the head frame timbers have been significantly weakened and will be particularly vulnerable to failure in adverse weather conditions -LSB- high winds -RSB- ; this risk is heightened by the sails and fantail which will exert tremendous forces on the timbers . ' With have agreement of English Heritage and the A.V.D.C. Historic Building Risk Officer the Sails and the Fantail were removed in December 2013 to reduce the stress on the timbers . The mill is open Sundays between 10am and 2pm between March and October .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Quainton_Windmill",
"rank": 69,
"score": 87777
},
{
"content": "Title: Turbine Content: A turbine ( from the Latin turbo , a vortex , related to the Greek τύρβη , tyrbē , meaning `` turbulence '' ) is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work . The work produced by a turbine can be used for generating electrical power when combined with a generator or producing thrust , as in the case of jet engines . A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly , which is a shaft or drum with blades attached . Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor . Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels . Gas , steam , and water turbines have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid . Credit for invention of the steam turbine is given both to British engineer Sir Charles Parsons ( 1854 -- 1931 ) for invention of the reaction turbine , and to Swedish engineer Gustaf de Laval ( 1845 -- 1913 ) for invention of the impulse turbine . Modern steam turbines frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the same unit , typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade root to its periphery . The word `` turbine '' was coined in 1822 by the French mining engineer Claude Burdin from the Latin turbo , or vortex , in a memo , `` Des turbines hydrauliques ou machines rotatoires à grande vitesse '' , which he submitted to the Académie royale des sciences in Paris . Benoit Fourneyron , a former student of Claude Burdin , built the first practical water turbine .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Turbine",
"rank": 70,
"score": 87741
},
{
"content": "Title: De Adriaan, Veldhoven Content: De Adriaan ( English : The Adriaan ) is a windmill located on the Windmolen 17 in Meerveldhoven , a neighbourhood of Veldhoven , North Brabant , Netherlands . Build in 1906 on an artificial hill , the windmill functioned as gristmill . The mill was built as a tower mill and its sails have a span of 26.20 meters . The mill is a national monument ( nr 37040 ) since 1 October 1969 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "De_Adriaan,_Veldhoven",
"rank": 71,
"score": 87561
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Stars F.C. Content: Windmill Stars Football Club is a Northern Irish intermediate football club based in Armagh , playing in the Intermediate Division A of the Mid-Ulster Football League . Club colours are orange and navy . The club participates in the Irish Cup .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Stars_F.C.",
"rank": 72,
"score": 87428
},
{
"content": "Title: Mill Creek Wind Farm Content: Mill Creek Wind Farm is a wind farm in the Ohariu Valley near Wellington , New Zealand . The wind farm is operated by Meridian Energy and has 26 wind turbines . The application for resource consents described the project as having a total capacity of up to 71.3 MW . The wind farm will cover an area of approximately 18 km ² and use 31 Siemens 2.3 MW wind turbines . A 33,000-volt power line will connect the wind farm to Transpower 's Wilton substation , where the farm 's electricity will be injected into both Wellington Electricity 's local distribution network and the national grid . The resource consents were granted in February 2009 with conditions , including a limit of 29 turbines and a maximum height of 111m . Local Ohariu Valley residents who opposed the development lodged an appeal to the Environment Court . In August 2011 , the Environment Court approved the resource consents for the project , subject to a limit of 26 turbines . Construction began in late 2012 , and the first electricity was generated in May 2014 . It became fully operational in October 2014 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Mill_Creek_Wind_Farm",
"rank": 73,
"score": 87372
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill fantail Content: A fantail is a small windmill mounted at right angles to the sails , at the rear of the windmill , and which turns the cap automatically to bring it into the wind . The fantail was patented in 1745 by Edmund Lee , a blacksmith working at Brockmill Forge near Wigan , England , and perfected on mills around Leeds and Hull towards the end of the 18th century . Fantails are found on all types of traditional windmills and are especially useful where changes in wind direction are frequent . They are more common in England , Denmark and Germany than in other parts of Europe , and are little-known on windmills elsewhere except where English millwrighting traditions were in evidence . The rotating fantail turns the cap of the windmill via a system of gearing to a toothed rack around the top of the mill tower , or to wheels running on the ground in the case of a post mill . It does so until the fantail sails are oriented parallel to the wind , as in this case the wind can no longer move them . When the fantail is oriented parallel to the wind , the main sails are in the optimal perpendicular orientation and produce maximum power .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_fantail",
"rank": 74,
"score": 87325
},
{
"content": "Title: Op de Vrouweheide Content: Op de Vrouweheide ( English : On the Vrouweheide ) is a windmill located on the Vrouwenheide just south of Ubachsberg , Voerendaal , in the Dutch province of Limburg . Build in 1858 as a tower mill , on an artificial hill , the windmill functioned as gristmill . The mill is a national monument ( nr 37893 ) since 17 January 1967 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Op_de_Vrouweheide",
"rank": 75,
"score": 87306
},
{
"content": "Title: Old Buckenham Windmill Content: Old Buckenham Windmill is a tower flour mill which stands in the village of Old Buckenham , Norfolk , England . It is a Grade II * listed building , notable for being the largest diameter windmill in the country . The tower was built in 1818 of brick in five storeys and is 8 meters ( 26.5 feet ) in diameter at the base . The cap was boat shaped and extended to the rear . At 7.3 meters ( 24 feet ) in diameter , it was the largest known cap in the country , requiring five truck wheels and 17 centring wheels to carry the weight . Originally fitted with eight plain sails , it was converted to use four patent sails . There were five pairs of French stones on the second floor but milling at the mill ceased in 1926 and the stones were broken up . The mill was originally built for John Burlingham , who was also the miller at a local postmill . During its working life , it was owned by Jeremiah James Colman , of Colman 's Mustard , and later by Prince Frederick Duleep Singh , who lived in Old Buckenham Hall at the end of the 19th century . It is now the property of the Norfolk Windmills Trust , who are in the process of restoring it to its original condition . The mill is normally open to the public on the second Sunday of each month from May to September .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Old_Buckenham_Windmill",
"rank": 76,
"score": 87229
},
{
"content": "Title: Victoria Grist Windmill Content: Victoria Grist Windmill is an historic gristmill in Memorial Square in Victoria , Texas , United States . The windmill was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 30 , 1976 and became an American Society of Mechanical Engineers Landmark in May , 1991 . The windmill was built in 1870 and is probably the last remaining windmill of European design in the Southwestern United States . Standing 35 feet high and supporting four 15-foot blades , the Dutch turret-mill style windmill was constructed by German immigrant Fred Meiss , Jr. and Otto Fiek near Spring Creek . The turret-style allowed the top to be turned so the sails face the wind . The millstones were made in Europe and shipped through the port of Indianola . The stones were capable of grinding 500 pounds of cornmeal a week . The walls of the mill are constructed of wooden logs and covered with shakes . In 1935 , the Victoria Grist Windmill was moved from its earlier location ( west of Victoria ) to Memorial Square .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Victoria_Grist_Windmill",
"rank": 77,
"score": 87163
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmills at Kinderdijk Content: The windmills at Kinderdijk are a group of 19 monumental windmills in the Alblasserwaard polder , in the province of South Holland , Netherlands . Most of the mills are part of the village of Kinderdijk in the municipality of Molenwaard , and one mill , De Blokker , is part of the municipality of Alblasserdam . Built in 1738 and 1740 , to keep water out of the polder , it is the largest concentration of old windmills in the Netherlands and one of the best-known Dutch tourist sites . The mills are listed as national monuments and the entire area is a protected village view since 1993 . They have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmills_at_Kinderdijk",
"rank": 78,
"score": 87160
},
{
"content": "Title: Thelnetham Windmill Content: Thelnetham Windmill , also known as Button 's Mill is a Grade II * listed tower mill constructed of brick . The windmill is located at Thelnetham , Suffolk , England . It was built in the early nineteenth century to grind wheat into flour . Thelnetham windmill worked by wind power until 1924 , latterly on two sails , after which it became derelict . In 1979 , a group of enthusiasts purchased Thelnetham windmill for restoration . Numerous volunteers helped to restore the mill to full working order over an eight-year period . The mill is open to the public , and flour ground at the mill can be bought at the site . The mill is a small four storey tower mill with Patent sails and winded by a fantail . It drives two pairs of millstones , with a third pair driven by an auxiliary engine .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Thelnetham_Windmill",
"rank": 79,
"score": 87076
},
{
"content": "Title: Erico Spinadel Content: Erico Spinadel ( May 6 , 1929 , Vienna , Austria ) is an Austrian and Argentine Industrial Engineer specialized in Wind Power . He has got his PhD at the University of Buenos Aires , Argentina , in 2004 . Erico Spinadel joined 1956 the Argentine National Atomic Energy Commission ( CNEA ) and in January 1959 he was the first operator driving a nuclear reactor ( the RA 1 ) to critical conditions , and in this way , started the use of nuclear energy in the southern hemisphere , generating electricity and also producing radioisotopes for hospitals and for industrial applications . Between 1994 and 2001 , he was Consulting Full Professor at the University of Buenos Aires , School of Engineering , Argentina . From 1986 to 1994 he was designed Director of the Electricity Department of the School of Engineering , University of Buenos Aires FIUBA . Since 1994 he is Consulting Emeritus Professor at the National University of Lujan , Argentina . In 1994 , he was designed President of the Argentine Wind Energy Association ( AAEE ) . Since 2008 he is Regional Director on the Latin American Wind Energy Association ( LAWEA ) . and Member of the Board of the World Wind Energy Association He is Wind Energy consultant for United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNIDO-ONUDI since 1992 , fulfilled by special invitation of the respective Governments several missions in Indonesia and the far east . Dr. Erico Spinadel is a leader in the field of Wind Power in the research of a multidisciplinary systemic approach for developing countries got wide international recognition . He is the author of more than 7 books and published more than 50 research papers .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Erico_Spinadel",
"rank": 80,
"score": 87075
},
{
"content": "Title: De Wicher Content: De Wicher is a drainage mill near the village of Kalenberg , Overijssel , Netherlands . It is a hollow post windmill of the type called spinnenkop by the Dutch . The mill is in working order and used to drain the reed beds during winter to improve accessibility for reed cutters .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "De_Wicher",
"rank": 81,
"score": 86904
},
{
"content": "Title: Mykonos windmills Content: The Mykonos windmills are iconic feature of the Greek island of the Mykonos . The island is one of the Cyclades islands , which neighbour Delos in the Aegean Sea . The windmills can be seen from every point of the village of Mykonos , the island 's principal village , which is frequently called the Chora ( which translates to `` Country '' in Greek , but refers to an island 's `` Town '' ) on Greek islands . The windmills are the first thing seen when coming into the harbour of Alefkandra , as they stand on a hill overlooking the area . Most windmills face towards the North where the island 's climate sources its strongest winds over the largest part of the year . There are currently 16 windmills on Mykonos of which seven are positioned on the famous landmark hill in Chora . Most of them were built by the Venetians in the 16th century , but construction continued into the early 20th century . They were primarily used to mill wheat . They were an important source of income for the inhabitants . Their use gradually declined until they ceased production in the middle of the 20th century . Their architecture is similar . They all have a round shape , white colour and a pointed roof and very small windows . Such windmills are found in almost all Cyclades islands . One of these windmills has been transformed into a museum . The whole village of Chora and part of the harbour are visible from this point .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Mykonos_windmills",
"rank": 82,
"score": 86808
},
{
"content": "Title: Aermotor Windmill Company Content: The Aermotor Windmill Company is an American manufacturer of wind-powered water pumps . The widespread use of their distinctive wind pumps on ranches throughout the arid plains and deserts of the United States has made their design a quintessential image of the American West .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Aermotor_Windmill_Company",
"rank": 83,
"score": 86721
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Hill, Avebury Content: Windmill Hill is a Neolithic causewayed enclosure in the English county of Wiltshire , part of the Avebury World Heritage Site , about 1 mile ( 2 km ) northwest of Avebury . Enclosing an area of 21 acre , it is the largest known causewayed enclosure in Britain . The site was first occupied around 3800 BC , although the only evidence is a series of pits apparently dug by an agrarian society using Hembury pottery . During a later phase , c. 3300 BC , three concentric segmented ditches were placed around the hilltop site , the outermost with a diameter of 365 metres . The causeways interrupting the ditches vary in width from a few centimetres to 7 m. Material from the ditches was piled up to create internal banks , the deepest ditches and largest banks are on the outer circuit . The site was bought by Alexander Keiller in 1924 and excavated over several seasons from 1926 -- 1929 by Keiller and Harold St George Gray whose work established it as the type site for causewayed camps as they were then called . Pottery from the bottom of the ditches was also the type style for the Windmill Hill culture . Later occupation layers contained early Peterborough ware than the later Mortlake and Fengate varieties . Large quantities of bone , both human and animal , were also recovered from the ditch fill . The camp remained in use throughout the rest of the Neolithic with Grooved ware and Beaker potsherds having been found in later deposits . A Bronze Age bell barrow was later built between the inner and middle rings . Michael Dames has proposed a composite theory of seasonal rituals in an attempt to explain Windmill Hill and its associated sites : ( West Kennet Long Barrow , the Avebury henge , The Sanctuary , and Silbury Hill ) .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Hill,_Avebury",
"rank": 84,
"score": 86690
},
{
"content": "Title: Teetlum, Tzum Content: Teetlum , ( Frisian : Teatlum ) after a nearby terp , also known as Duivenhok ` dove coat ' named after the polder it drained , is a drainage mill near the village of Tzum , Friesland , Netherlands . It is a hollow post windmill of the type called spinnenkop by the Dutch . The mill is listed as a Rijksmonument , number 15877 and can be used to drain the adjacent polder .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Teetlum,_Tzum",
"rank": 85,
"score": 86634
},
{
"content": "Title: Ashton Windmill Content: Ashton windmill is a Tower mill in Chapel Allerton , Somerset , England . Its tower is over 7.5 m high with stone walls that are 60 cm thick . The sails are 13 m across and used to be covered with canvas . The last millstones were 1.2 m across and the millstones used to grind wheat for flour and beans for cattle food . The first mill on the site was medieval , but the present structure probably dates from the 18th century . It was modernised in 1900 with machinery brought from the demolished Moorlinch mill , and iron hoops around the building being added . It was restored in 1967 . The mill has been designated by English Heritage as a grade II * listed building . It is now preserved , having been given to Bristol City Museum in 1966 and is owned by Sedgemoor District Council , and maintained by volunteers . In 2008 the council applied for listed building planning consent to undertake major restoration work on the windmill , including replacement of the stone steps , installation of hand rails , guard rails and safety bars , alterations to the window shutters and replacement of the sail frames with wood laminate . In 2010 Sedgemoor Council decided it could no longer afford to maintain the windmill and has appealed for an independent group of trustees to take on the responsibility for the building .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Ashton_Windmill",
"rank": 86,
"score": 86577
},
{
"content": "Title: Windlust Content: Windlust ( meaning a love of wind ) is a name given to some windmills in the Netherlands . Mills named Windlust include : - Windlust , Achthuizen , a tower mill in Achthuizen , South Holland Windlust , Brouwershaven , a smock mill in Zeeland Windlust , Burum , a smock mill in Burum , Friesland De Windlust , Burdaard , a smock mill in Burdaard , Friesland Windlust , Goudswaard , a tower mill in South Holland Windlust , Hoek , a tower mill in Zeeland Windlust , Nederweert , a tower mill in Limburg Windlust , Nieuw-Beijerland , a tower mill in South Holland Windlust , Nieuwerkerk aan de IJssel , a tower mill in South Holland Windlust , Nistelrode , a post mill in North Brabant Windlust , Noordwolde , a smock mill in Noordwolde , Friesland Windlust , Nootdorp , a smock mill in South Holland Windlust , Overschild , a smock mill in Groningen Windlust , Radewijk , a tower mill in Overijssel Windlust , Vorstenbosch , a tower post mill in North Brabant Windlust , Wassenaar , a tower mill in South Holland Windlust , Wateringen , a tower mill in South Holland Windlust , Westmaas , a tower mill in South Holland Windlust , Wolvega , a smock mill in Friesland Windlust , Zandeweer , a smock mill in Groningen",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windlust",
"rank": 87,
"score": 86461
},
{
"content": "Title: Blennerville Windmill Content: Blennerville Windmill is a tower mill in Blennerville , Co. . Kerry and the tallest of its kind in Europe at 21.3 metres high . Blennerville Windmill was built by Sir Rowland Blennerhassett in 1800 whom the village of Blennerville is named after . The windmill was used for grinding corn for both the local population and for export to Britain . However , by the mid-late 19th century due to the introduction of steam power , the silting of the river channel at Blennerville , the opening of the Tralee Ship Canal in 1846 , and the building of Fenit Harbour in 1880 ; the windmill fell into ruins . In 1981 Tralee Urban District Council purchased the windmill with work beginning on restoring it in June 1984 before being completed and opened by An Taoiseach Charles Haughey in 1990 . It is now impressively restored and open to the public with a visitors centre comprising a craft centre , exhibition gallery , audio-visual presentation and restaurant . There is a guided tour of the five-storey windmill detailing the grain milling process . Blennerville Windmill is now Ireland ´ s only commercially operated windmill in existence .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Blennerville_Windmill",
"rank": 88,
"score": 86433
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill at Wijk bij Duurstede Content: The Windmill of Wijk bij Duurstede ( c. 1670 ) is an oil on canvas painting by the Dutch painter Jacob van Ruisdael . It is an example of Dutch Golden Age painting and is now in the collection of the Amsterdam Museum , on loan to the Rijksmuseum . The painting shows Wijk bij Duurstede , a riverside town about 20 kilometers from Utrecht , with a dominating cylindrical windmill , harmonised by the lines of river bank and sails , and the contrasts between light and shadow working together with the intensified concentration of mass and space . The attention to detail is remarkable . Art historian Seymour Slive reports that both from an aeronautical engineering and a hydrological viewpoint the finest levels of details are correct , in the windmill 's sails and the river 's waves respectively . It is not known for certain when Ruisdael painted the Windmill . The painting is not dated , as very few of his works are after 1653 . Dating subsequent work has therefore been largely detective work and speculation . It is assumed that it was painted in 1670 . Unlike many other Ruisdaels the Windmill seems to have remained in Dutch hands . It was acquired by Adriaan van der Hoop ( 1778-1854 ) of Amsterdam at an unknown date , and bequeathed by him to the city of Amsterdam in 1854 . Since 30 June 1885 it has been lent to the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam , by the city of Amsterdam . Its enduring popularity is evidenced by card sales in the Rijksmuseum , with the Windmill ranking third after Rembrandt 's Night Watch and Vermeer 's View of Delft . Ruisdael 's windmill no longer stands , although its foundations can still be seen . Another windmill located a few hundred meters further is often confused with Ruisdael 's . This confusion was created when Hofstede de Groot in 1911 wrote about the painting :",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_at_Wijk_bij_Duurstede",
"rank": 89,
"score": 86379
},
{
"content": "Title: Windshaft Content: The windshaft is a part in a windmill that carries the sails and also the brake wheel ( Smock and Tower mills , and in some Post mills ) or the head wheel and tail wheel in a Post Mill . Windshafts can be wholly made of wood , or wood with a cast iron poll end ( upon where the sails are mounted ) or entirely of cast iron . Category : Architectural elements",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windshaft",
"rank": 90,
"score": 86214
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Hill Batteries Content: The Windmill Hill Batteries are a series of artillery batteries situated on Windmill Hill , Gibraltar near the south of the peninsula . They are part of the fortifications of Gibraltar . The batteries were originally established by Lt General Edward Cornwallis during his governorship of Gibraltar between 1762 -- 77 , built on the site of the old windmills after which the hill was named . The singular Windmill Hill Battery refers to one particular battery almost equidistant between Genista Battery and Europa Advance Battery . The armament of the batteries changed frequently as artillery technology evolved . They lined the escarpment of Windmill Hill , a plateau overlooking the lower ground of Europa Point . The flatness and relative inaccessibility of Windmill Hill made it an ideal place to position artillery to repel attacks coming from the Atlantic or Mediterranean sides of Gibraltar , or to enfilade an amphibious landing . In 1865 , a naming system for the batteries was adopted that saw each of their emplacements described by a letter , from Emplacement A on the west end near Detention Barracks to Emplacement R on the east side by the Retrenched Barracks . The installation of four 6-inch quick-firing guns with a range of 10000 yd bearing on Spanish land batteries was proposed in 1901 , with another four to be installed on the Mediterranean side . During the Second World War , four 3.7-inch anti-aircraft guns were installed on the batteries and two 9.2-inch howitzers were mounted on Emplacement F. The batteries are still mostly intact , though some were built upon later and their names altered .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Hill_Batteries",
"rank": 91,
"score": 85903
},
{
"content": "Title: Denver Windmill Content: Denver Windmill is a Grade II * listed tower mill at Denver , Norfolk , England , which has been restored to full working order .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Denver_Windmill",
"rank": 92,
"score": 85664
},
{
"content": "Title: Byasa impediens Content: Byasa impediens , the pink-spotted windmill , is a species of butterfly from the family Papilionidae ( swallowtails ) found in Taiwan . The wingspan is 10 -- 11 cm . The wings are black and have large light pink spots . The underside of the wings are similar to the upside . The body is partially black with a covering of red hairs underneath . The larva feed on Aristolochia species .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Byasa_impediens",
"rank": 93,
"score": 85602
},
{
"content": "Title: Evening Landscape: A Windmill by a Stream Content: Evening Landscape : A Windmill by a Stream is a 17th-century oil on canvas painting by the Dutch Golden Age painter Jacob van Ruisdael . It is in the collection of Queen Elizabeth II , on display at the Queen 's Gallery at Buckingham Palace . It was acquired by King George IV in 1810 . A similar painting , dated 1646 , is in the collection of the Cleveland Museum of Art . Slive writes that the Queen 's version shows how much young Ruisdael has progressed in just a few years . The farm and windmill are more set back and reflections of evening light create a freer sense of space . The painting is catalogue number 130 in Seymour Slive 's 2001 catalogue raisonné of Ruisdael . The painting is number 173 in the 1911 catalogue raisonné by art historian Hofstede de Groot , where it is called A View in Holland : Landscape with a Windmill . Its dimensions are 75.6 cm x 100.8 cm . It is signed in the lower left . It is not dated , but Slive writes it is dateable to about 1650 .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Evening_Landscape:_A_Windmill_by_a_Stream",
"rank": 94,
"score": 85457
},
{
"content": "Title: Poi tricks Content: Some poi tricks include : reels , weaves , fountains , crossovers and windmills . The more skilled the spinner , the more complex and subtle tricks they can pull . Some advanced tricks involve body wraps , which involve wrapping a poi string around an arm or leg , then pulling it to swing the poi back in the opposite direction . Throws and catches are also performed with the poi . Split time and split direction moves are possible , and some of the more difficult moves , such as the ` five beat weave ' , isolations or hyperloop require a considerable amount of manual dexterity , coordination and fine timing to accomplish . Manual strength is not a factor , as power and control come from good timing . There are different planes that the poi are spun in and these are usually parallel planes : wall plane - facing a wall wheel plane - sitting in car , poi spinning at your sides like wheels horizontal plane - like a lasso The poi can be spun in the same direction ( weaves ) or opposite directions ( butterflies ) . Moves such as stalls and wraps can change direction of one poi to change between these two classes .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Poi_tricks",
"rank": 95,
"score": 85429
},
{
"content": "Title: Xarolla Windmill Content: The Xarolla Windmill at Żurrieq , Malta is one of the windmills constructed by the Order of St. John in the villages and towns of Malta . It was built in the 18th-century and is presently one of the most preserved windmills in Malta . The windmill is an agri-tourism attraction and is found in a complex of agricultural buildings such as a farmhouse , a chapel , catacombs and others . The windmill is also used as an art studio . In 1674 Grand Master Nicolas Cotoner built five windmills around Malta , one of which was tax-Xarolla . Tax-Xarolla Windmill was built by Grand Master Antonio Manoel de Vilhena in 1724 . Sometimes after 1998 , this was restored to its original working order . It is now the only functioning windmill on the islands of Malta . This is a valuable witness of local culture and heritage ; it still has parts of the original mechanisms and can still grain the wheat . In the year 2000 , this building was passed over to be administered by the Żurrieq Local Council and is intended to serve also as a cultural centre .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Xarolla_Windmill",
"rank": 96,
"score": 85375
},
{
"content": "Title: Horsey Windpump Content: Horsey Windpump is a windpump or drainage windmill in the care of the National Trust in the village of Horsey , on The Broads near Great Yarmouth , Norfolk , England . The structure is a grade II * listed building .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Horsey_Windpump",
"rank": 97,
"score": 85366
},
{
"content": "Title: Windmill Broadcasting Content: Windmill Broadcasting is an online local community radio station , broadcasting to the people of Stafford and its environs , including Stone , Eccleshall and Penkridge , from the Broad Eye Windmill . It is branded as a ` Feel Good ' radio station , and is the only known radio station in the world to broadcast from a windmill . Windmill Broadcasting can be heard online , on TuneIn , and on Wi-Fi radios , and is operated entirely by volunteers , with no paid members of staff .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Windmill_Broadcasting",
"rank": 98,
"score": 85268
},
{
"content": "Title: Volendam Windmill Content: Volendam Windmill is a smock mill located on Adamic Hill Road in Holland Township , New Jersey , United States . The windmill was designed and built in 1965 by Paul Jorgenson . The Volendam Windmill Museum is a working mill driven by wind , used for grinding raw grain into flour . The 60-foot structure is seven stories high with sail arms 68 feet from tip to tip . In 2007 , two of the sail arms of the windmill were damaged in a windstorm . As of November 2010 , the county 's website shows that the museum is closed .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Volendam_Windmill",
"rank": 99,
"score": 84905
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Healthy windmill Content: Mount Healthy windmill is a ruined windmill on the north side of Tortola in the British Virgin Islands . It was formerly used during the plantation era of the Territory to crush sugar cane . After the collapse of the sugar economy in the early nineteenth century the windmill fell into disuse and became a ruin . It crushed cane for the sugar mill and rum distillery in nearby Brewer 's Bay . One of the owners of the mill was Balziel Hodge , son of the notorious Arthur William Hodge . Today it is a national park .",
"qid": "65",
"docid": "Mount_Healthy_windmill",
"rank": 100,
"score": 84859
}
] |
Fifty-five thousand years ago the whole world was 2°C warmer than it is today[...] | [
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 1,
"score": 120730
},
{
"content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer",
"rank": 2,
"score": 95735
},
{
"content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period",
"rank": 3,
"score": 95069
},
{
"content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Pliocene_climate",
"rank": 4,
"score": 90277
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 5,
"score": 89884
},
{
"content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming",
"rank": 6,
"score": 88929
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Mesopause",
"rank": 7,
"score": 88614
},
{
"content": "Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet",
"rank": 8,
"score": 88396
},
{
"content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2",
"rank": 9,
"score": 88236
},
{
"content": "Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Younger_Dryas",
"rank": 10,
"score": 88195
},
{
"content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event",
"rank": 11,
"score": 88029
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 12,
"score": 86434
},
{
"content": "Title: Highest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air , 1.5 meters above the ground , and shielded from direct sunlight . The highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 C in Furnace Creek Ranch , California , located in the Death Valley desert in the United States , on July 10 , 1913 . The former highest official temperature on Earth , held for 90 years by ` Aziziya , Libya , was de-certified by the WMO ( World Meteorological Organization ) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature ( this temperature of 57.8 ° C ( 136 ° F ) , registered on 13 September 1922 , is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error ) . Christopher C. Burt , the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification , believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is `` a myth '' , and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high , as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid . Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley , but is instead 53.9 C recorded five times : 20 July 1960 , 18 July 1998 , 20 July 2005 , 7 July 2007 , and 30 June 2013 . Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C . A ground temperature of 84 ° C ( 183.2 ° F ) has been recorded in Port Sudan , Sudan . A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C ( 201 ° F ) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972 ; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded . The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C for dry , darkish soils of low thermal conductivity . Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers . There is a satellite record of 66.8 C measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008 . Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009 , taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite , found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C ( 159.3 ° F ) , which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert , Iran . The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured ( 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2009 ) . These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Highest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth",
"rank": 13,
"score": 86236
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 14,
"score": 85410
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic",
"rank": 15,
"score": 85134
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature in Canada Content:",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Temperature_in_Canada",
"rank": 16,
"score": 84404
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 heatwave in Ireland and the United Kingdom Content: The 2013 heat wave in the United Kingdom and Ireland was a period of unusually hot weather primarily in July 2013 , with isolated warm days in June and August . A prolonged high pressure system over Britain and Ireland caused higher than average temperatures for 19 consecutive days in July , reaching 33.5 ° C at Heathrow and Northolt . Following a brief period of cooler weather at the end of July , temperatures temporarily rose again , peaking at 34.1 ° C on 1 August in the United Kingdom , the warmest the country had seen since July 2006 , and 31.0 ° C in Ireland . At 19 days , the July heatwave was the longest continuous period of hot weather in the UK since August 1997 . However , in the general sense , Britain did not have an overall exceptional summer ; the country experienced cool low pressure systems brought by an unseasonably low latitude by the jet stream for the 6 summers previous , which made the summer of 2013 more `` welcome '' and feel warmer than other summers . The historical records suggests `` Using the CET record ( for June , July & August ) , the average temperature by that measure was 16.3 degC ( Provisional ) : neither June nor August was exceptionally warm , so this value does not ` rate ' too highly when set against other very warm summer seasons . '' With June being a cool month and August being an Average month , in terms of temperatures the English Central summer temperature ended up being on the average side set up against previous summers since the CET series began in 1659 .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "2013_heatwave_in_Ireland_and_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 17,
"score": 83519
},
{
"content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Interglacial",
"rank": 18,
"score": 82771
},
{
"content": "Title: 50th parallel north Content: The 50th parallel north is a circle of latitude that is 50 degrees north of the Earth 's equatorial plane . It crosses Europe , Asia , the Pacific Ocean , North America , and the Atlantic Ocean . At this latitude the sun is visible for 16 hours , 22 minutes during the summer solstice and 8 hours , 4 minutes during the winter solstice . The maximum altitude of the sun on the summer solstice is 63.5 degrees and on the winter solstice it is 16.5 degrees . At this latitude , the average sea surface temperature between 1982 and 2011 was about 8.5 ° C ( 47.3 ° F ) .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "50th_parallel_north",
"rank": 19,
"score": 82591
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_Antarctica",
"rank": 20,
"score": 82406
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 21,
"score": 82201
},
{
"content": "Title: Roman Warm Period Content: The Roman Warm Period or the Roman climatic optimum has been proposed as a period of unusually warm weather in Europe and the North Atlantic that ran from approximately 250 BC to AD 400 .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Roman_Warm_Period",
"rank": 22,
"score": 82175
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Adelaide Content: Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) , with mild to cool winters with moderate rainfall and warm to hot , dry summers . Adelaide is the driest of the Australian capital cities and the past two decades have been far warmer than usual , with the past 8 years seeing an excess of 40 + degrees every summer . Alarmingly , the city has also recorded almost 10 consecutive years of below-average Spring rainfall , with 2014 on track to continuing this trend . A spike in heat waves , droughts and record-breaking high temperatures over the past decade has led to some concerns over the effects of global warming and Man-made climate change ( AGW ) on the city . Nine of the ten warmest years recorded in Adelaide have occurred since 2002 , with 2013 being the hottest year and summer 2015 -- 2016 being the fourth-hottest summer recorded .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_Adelaide",
"rank": 23,
"score": 81834
},
{
"content": "Title: Athryilatus Content: Athryilatus ( Greek : Αθρυίλατος ) ( 1st-2nd century AD ) a Greek physician from Thasos , Macedonia ( Roman province ) . According to Plutarch 's Symposiacs , Athryilatus considered women warmer than men ; saying Women endure cold better than men , they are not so sensible of the sharpness of the weather , and are contented with a few clothes .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Athryilatus",
"rank": 24,
"score": 81753
},
{
"content": "Title: Older Dryas Content: The Older Dryas was a stadial ( cold ) period between the Bølling and Allerød interstadials ( warmer phases ) approximately 14,000 years ago ( BP ) , towards the end of the Pleistocene epoch . Its age is not well defined , with estimates varying by 400 years , but its duration is agreed to have been around two centuries . The gradual warming since the last glacial maximum 27-24 ,000 years BP has been interrupted by two cold spells , the Older Dryas having been followed by the Younger Dryas ( c. 12,900-11 ,650 BP ) . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and deeper during the Older than the succeeding Younger Dryas , and there is no evidence of human occupation of Britain . In north-west Europe an earlier Oldest Dryas is also recognised . They are named after an indicator genus , the arctic and alpine plant Dryas , the remains of which are found in higher concentrations in deposits from colder periods . The Older Dryas was a variable cold , dry Blytt-Sernander period , observed in climatological evidence in only some regions , depending on latitude . In regions where it is not observed , the Bølling-Allerød is considered a single interstadial ( warm ) period . Evidence of the Older Dryas is strongest in northern Eurasia , particularly part of North Europe roughly equivalent to Pollen zone Ic .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Older_Dryas",
"rank": 25,
"score": 81594
},
{
"content": "Title: 2007 World Championships in Athletics – Men's marathon Content: The Men 's Marathon event at the 2007 World Championships in Athletics took place on August 25 , 2007 in the streets of Osaka , Japan . The weather conditions were difficult , with 28 degrees C ( 82 ° F ) and 72 per cent humidity at the start of the race . The temperature rose to 30 degrees C ( 86 ° F ) towards the end of the race , and many competitors failed to finish the race .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "2007_World_Championships_in_Athletics_–_Men's_marathon",
"rank": 26,
"score": 80856
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 27,
"score": 80731
},
{
"content": "Title: 1911 Eastern North America heat wave Content: The 1911 Eastern North America heat wave was an 11-day heat wave in New York City and other Eastern cities that killed 380 people starting on July 4 , 1911 . In Nashua , New Hampshire , the temperature peaked at 106 degrees Fahrenheit ( 41 C ) . In New York City , 146 people and 600 horses died . In Boston , the temperature rose to 104 ° ( 40 ° C ) on July 4 , an all-time record high that still stands today .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "1911_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave",
"rank": 28,
"score": 80674
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Pakistan Content: Pakistan recorded one of the highest temperatures in the world -- 53.5 ° C -- on 26 May 2010 , the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan , but also the hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded on the continent of Asia . As Pakistan is located on a great landmass north of the Tropic of Cancer ( between latitudes 25 ° and 36 ° N ) , it has a continental type of climate characterized by extreme variations of temperature , both seasonally and daily . Very high altitudes modify the climate in the cold , snow-covered northern mountains ; temperatures on the Balochistan Plateau are somewhat higher . Along the coastal strip , the climate is modified by sea breezes . In the rest of the country , temperatures reach great heights in the summer ; the mean temperature during June is 38 ° F in the plains , the highest temperatures can exceed 47 ° C . In the summer , hot winds called Loo blow across the plains during the day . Trees shed their leaves to avoid loss of moisture . The dry , hot weather is broken occasionally by dust storms and thunderstorms that temporarily lower the temperature . Evenings are cool ; the diurnal variation in temperature may be as much as 11C to 17C . Winters are cold , with minimum mean temperatures in Punjab of about 4 ° C in January , and sub-zero temperatures in the far north and Balochistan . The monsoon and the Western Disturbance are the two main factors which alter the weather over Pakistan ; otherwise , Continental air prevails for rest of the year . Following are the main factors that influence the weather over Pakistan . Western Disturbances mostly occur during the winter months and cause light to moderate showers in southern parts of the country while moderate to heavy showers with heavy snowfall in the northern parts of the country . These westerly waves are robbed of most of the moisture by the time they reach Pakistan . Fog occurs during the winter season and remains for weeks in upper Sindh , central Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab . Southwest Monsoon occurs in summer from the month of June till September in almost whole Pakistan excluding western Balochistan , FATA , Chitral and Gilgit -- Baltistan . Monsoon rains bring much awaited relief from the scorching summer heat . These monsoon rains are quite heavy by nature and can cause significant flooding , even severe flooding if they interact with westerly waves in the upper parts of the country . Tropical Storms usually form during the summer months from late April till June and then from late September till November . They affect the coastal localities of the country . Dust storms occur during summer months with peak in May and June , They are locally known as Andhi . These dust storms are quite violent . Dust storms during the early summer indicates the arrival of the monsoons while dust storms in the autumn indicate the arrival of winter . Heat waves occur during May and June , especially in southern Punjab , central Balochistan and interior Sindh . Thunderstorms most commonly occur in northern Punjab , Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad Kashmir . Continental air prevails during the period when there is no precipitation in the country . Pakistan has four seasons : a cool , dry winter from December through February ; a hot , dry spring from March through May ; the summer rainy season , or southwest monsoon period , from June through September ; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November . The onset and duration of these seasons vary somewhat according to location . The climate in the capital city of Islamabad varies from an average daily low of 2 ° C in January to an average daily high of 38 ° C in June . Half of the annual rainfall occurs in July and August , averaging about 255 millimeters in each of those two months . The remainder of the year has significantly less rain , amounting to about fifty millimeters per month . Hailstorms are common in the spring . Pakistan 's largest city , Karachi , which is also the country 's industrial center , is more humid than Islamabad but gets less rain . Only July and August average more than twenty-five millimeters of rain in the Karachi area ; the remaining months are exceedingly dry . The temperature is also more uniform in Karachi than in Islamabad , ranging from an average daily low of 13 ° C during winter evenings to an average daily high of 34 ° C on summer days . Although the summer temperatures do not get as high as those in Punjab , the high humidity causes the residents a great deal of discomfort . In Islamabad , there are cold winds from the north of Pakistan .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_Pakistan",
"rank": 29,
"score": 80026
},
{
"content": "Title: Holocene climatic optimum Content: The Holocene Climate Optimum ( HCO ) was a warm period during roughly the interval 9,000 to 5,000 years BP . This event has also been known by many other names , including : Hypsithermal , Altithermal , Climatic Optimum , Holocene Optimum , Holocene Thermal Maximum , and Holocene Megathermal . This warm period was followed by a gradual decline until about two millennia ago . For other temperature fluctuations see : Temperature record For other past climate fluctuation see : Paleoclimatology For the pollen zone and Blytt-Sernander period associated with the climate optimum , see : Atlantic ( period )",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Holocene_climatic_optimum",
"rank": 30,
"score": 79951
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool early Earth Content: The cool early Earth ( CEE ) theory posits that for part of the Hadean geological eon , at the beginning of the Earth 's history , it had a modest influx of bolides and a cool climate , allowing the presence of liquid water . This would have been after the extreme conditions of earth 's earliest history between 4.6 and 4.4 billion years ( Ga ) ago , but before the Late Heavy Bombardment of 4.1 to 3.8 Ga ago . In 2002 John Valley et al argued that detrital zircons found in Western Australia , dating to 4.0 -- 4.4 Ga ago , were formed at relatively low temperatures , that meteorite impacts may have been less frequent than previously thought , and that the earth may have gone through long periods when liquid oceans and life were possible . In 2016 Gavin Kenny et al replied to suggestions that zircons were formed by melting during tectonic subduction at plate boundaries , and argued that at least some of them were formed by meteorite impacts .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Cool_early_Earth",
"rank": 31,
"score": 79765
},
{
"content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event",
"rank": 32,
"score": 79584
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperate climate Content: In geography , temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions . The temperatures in these regions are generally relatively moderate , rather than extremely hot or cold , and the changes between summer and winter are also usually moderate .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Temperate_climate",
"rank": 33,
"score": 79352
},
{
"content": "Title: 1911 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The United Kingdom heatwave of 1911 was a particularly severe heat wave and associated drought . Records were set around the country for temperature in England , including the highest accepted temperature , at the time , of 36.7 C ( 98.6 F ) , only broken 79 years later in the 1990 heatwave , which reached 37.1 C ( 98.78 F ) . The highest ever accepted temperature is currently 38.5 C ( 101.3 F ) recorded on 10 August 2003 in Faversham , Kent . North America was also affected around about this time .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "1911_United_Kingdom_heat_wave",
"rank": 34,
"score": 79241
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Glacial Content: The Late Glacial ( c. 13,000 -- 10,000 years ago ) , or Tardiglacial ( `` Late Glacial '' ) , is defined primarily by the beginning of the modern warm period , in which climates in the Northern Hemisphere warmed substantially , causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum ( c. 25,000 -- 13,000 years ago ) . At this time , human populations , previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum climatic conditions , gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere 's Eurasian landmass and eventually populate North America via Beringia for the first time . Evidence for its occurrence stems from two main types of analysis . The first is the use of oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) gathered from stratified deep-sea sediment cores . Samples are gathered and measured for change in isotope levels to determine temperature fluctuation for given periods of time . The second is a proxy measurement , the observation of certain reappearing fauna and flora fossils that can survive only in temperate climates , thus indicating warming trends for a given geographic area . Archaeological evidence of settlement and resettlement in certain areas by humans also serve as proxy measurements . Towards the end of OIS 2 in which the Late Glacial Maximum occurs , the deep-sea sediment cores indicate a gradually warming climate , and the reappearance of certain warm-weather flora and fauna remains throughout the Northern Hemisphere correlate with that trend . A period of relatively brief cold oscillation , referred to as the Younger Dryas , is detected during OIS 2 , as can be inferred from an increase in isotope weight .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Late_Glacial",
"rank": 35,
"score": 79101
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of London Content: London , the capital and largest city in England and the United Kingdom has a temperate oceanic climate , with regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year . Summer temperatures rarely rise much above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , though higher temperatures have become more common recently . The highest temperature ever recorded in London was 38.1 ° C ( 100.6 ° F ) , measured at Kew Gardens during the European Heat Wave of 2003 . In modern times , heavy snowfalls have been infrequent with snow generally only settling once or twice each winter and accumulations usually of no more than an inch ( 2.5 cm ) or so . Despite its reputation as being a rainy city , London receives less precipitation ( 601 mm ( 24 in ) in a year ) , than Rome , Bordeaux , Toulouse , Naples and less than half the precipitation of Sydney or New York City . This is despite the fact that sub-tropical regions usually receive fewer rainy or overcast days . London 's large built-up area creates a microclimate ( an `` urban heat island '' ) , with heat stored by the city 's buildings . Sometimes temperatures are 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) warmer in the city than in the surrounding areas .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_London",
"rank": 36,
"score": 79044
},
{
"content": "Title: August 2009 Argentine winter heat wave Content: The 2009 Argentine winter heat wave was a period of unusual and exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of the winter on August 2009 in Argentina . Several provinces of the country were most affected . Several records were broken . August 2009 was the warmest month since official measurements began . On 30 August 2009 it was hot enough to be the middle of summer late last week in the heart of Argentina even with the calendar showing more than three weeks remaining in the Southern Hemisphere winter . A shot of tropical heat drawn unusually far southward hiked temperatures 30 C-change above normal in the city of Buenos Aires and across the north-central regions of the country . Even though normal high temperatures for late August are near 16 C , readings topped 30 C degrees at midweek , then topped out above 32 C degrees during the weekend . Temperatures hit 33.8 C on 29 August and finally 34.6 C on 31 August in Buenos Aires , making it the hottest day ever recorded in winter breaking the 1996 winter record of 33.7 C. Elsewhere in Argentina , the mid-northern city of Córdoba reached a dramatic high of 37.8 C degrees on 29 August 2009 . Another northern city , Santa Fe , registered 38.3 C degrees on 30 August , compared to the normal high of around 18 C.",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "August_2009_Argentine_winter_heat_wave",
"rank": 37,
"score": 78978
},
{
"content": "Title: 1976 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1976 United Kingdom heat wave led to the hottest summer average temperature in the UK since records began . At the same time , the country suffered a severe drought . It was one of the driest , sunniest and warmest summers ( June/July/August ) in the 20th century , although 1995 is now regarded as the driest . Only a few places registered more than half their average summer rainfall . In the CET record , it was the warmest summer in that series . It was the warmest summer in the Aberdeen area since at least 1864 . It was the driest summer since 1868 in Glasgow .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "1976_United_Kingdom_heat_wave",
"rank": 38,
"score": 78963
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar climate Content: The polar climate regions are characterized by a lack of warm summers . Every month in a polar climate has an average temperature of less than 10 C. Regions with polar climate cover more than 20 % of the Earth . The sun shines for long hours in the summer , and for many fewer hours in the winter . A polar climate results in treeless tundra , glaciers , or a permanent or semi-permanent layer of ice . It has cool summers and very cold winters .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Polar_climate",
"rank": 39,
"score": 78792
},
{
"content": "Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth",
"rank": 40,
"score": 78687
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 41,
"score": 78157
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 42,
"score": 77978
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Biz campaign Content: The Cool Biz campaign is a Japanese campaign initiated by the Japanese Ministry of the Environment from summer 2005 as a means to help reduce Japanese electricity consumption by limiting the use of air conditioning . This was enabled by changing the standard office air conditioner temperature to 28 ° C ( or about 82 ° F ) and introducing a liberal summer dress code in the bureaucracy of the Japanese government so staff could work in the warmer temperature . The campaign then spread to the private sector . This idea was proposed by the then-Minister Yuriko Koike under the cabinet of Prime Minister Junichirō Koizumi . Initially the campaign was from June to September , but from 2011 , when there were electricity shortages after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami it was lengthened . It now runs from May to October .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Cool_Biz_campaign",
"rank": 43,
"score": 77934
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014–16 El Niño event Content: The 2014 -- 16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line . These unusually warm waters influenced the world 's weather in a number of ways , which in turn significantly affected various parts of the world . These included drought conditions in Venezuela , Australia and a number of Pacific islands while significant flooding was also recorded . During the event more tropical cyclones than normal occurred within the Pacific Ocean , while fewer than normal occurred in the Atlantic Ocean .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "2014–16_El_Niño_event",
"rank": 44,
"score": 77913
},
{
"content": "Title: 1906 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1906 United Kingdom heat wave occurred all over the country from August to September . This was unusual as the highest temperatures were recorded in early September and the intense heat began in late August , whereas most heat waves in the UK begin in June and July . Even so , the heatwave had a comparable intensity to the 1990 heat wave , and it has been described as the most intense September heat wave in the 20th century . From 31 August to 3 September , the temperature in the UK exceeded 32 C consecutively over most of the UK on these four days . In September , CET Central England and Birmingham recorded a highest temperature of 31.5 C , and Oxford recorded a highest temperature of 33.1 C ; however , this record for September in Oxford was broken in 1911 with a temperature of 33.4 C. 2 September was the hottest day of the month as temperatures reached 35.6 C in Bawtry . This day was also the hottest over the most of the UK , again unusual because of its late occurrence . This remains the hottest September temperature of any day in the UK and the eighth-hottest day overall in the 20th century . Scotland also had temperatures reaching 32.2 C at Gordon Castle , Moray , and Northern Ireland had temperatures reaching 27.8 C in Armagh , County Armagh both recorded on 1 September 1906 .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "1906_United_Kingdom_heat_wave",
"rank": 45,
"score": 77694
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Estonia Content: Estonia lies in the northern part of the temperate climate zone and in the transition zone between maritime and continental climate . Because Estonia ( and all of Northern Europe ) is continuously warmed by maritime air influenced by the heat content of the northern Atlantic Ocean , it has a milder climate despite its northern latitude . The Baltic Sea causes differences between the climate of coastal and inland areas . Estonia has four seasons of near-equal length . Average temperatures range from 16.3 ° C on the Baltic islands to 18.1 ° C inland in July , the warmest month , and from -3.5 ° C on the Baltic islands to -7.6 ° C inland in February , the coldest month . The average annual temperature in Estonia is 5.2 ° C . The average temperature in February , the coldest month of the year , is -5.7 ° C . The average temperature in July , which is considered the warmest month of the year , is 16.4 ° C . The climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean , the North-Atlantic Stream and the Icelandic Minimum , which is an area known for the formation of cyclones and where the average air pressure is lower than in neighbouring areas . Estonia is located in a humid zone in which the amount of precipitation is greater than total evaporation . The average precipitation in 1961 -- 1990 ranged from 535 to per year and was heaviest in late summer . There were between 102 and 127 rainy days a year , and average precipitation was most plentiful on the western slopes of the Sakala and Haanja Uplands . Snow cover , which is deepest in the south-eastern part of Estonia , usually lasts from mid-December to late March .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_Estonia",
"rank": 46,
"score": 77592
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 Southwestern United States heat wave Content: The 2013 Southwestern United States heat wave occurred in late June to early July 2013 , lasting from around four days to a week locally . Daily highs were up to 15 ° C ( 26 ° F ) above average , with relative humidity below 15 % . Many locations experienced temperatures over 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . 46 monthly record high temperatures were reached or broken , and 21 records for the highest overnight temperatures were reached or broken .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "2013_Southwestern_United_States_heat_wave",
"rank": 47,
"score": 77539
},
{
"content": "Title: Western Hemisphere Warm Pool Content: The Western Hemisphere Warm Pool ( WHWP ) is a region of sea surface temperatures ( SST ) warmer than 28.5 ° C that develops west of Central America in the spring , then expands to the tropical waters to the east . The WHWP includes the tropical Atlantic Ocean ( TNA ) east of the Lesser Antilles , Caribbean Sea , Gulf of Mexico , and eastern north Pacific Ocean ( ENP ) . A WHWP heating cycle begins with warmth in the eastern North Pacific in the spring . A dipole pattern off Central America appears due to surges of cooler , drier air through the gap at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . During spring , the warm pools grow and merge . Their warmth and moisture feed the Mexican monsoon . By summer , the warmth spreads across the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean areas .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Western_Hemisphere_Warm_Pool",
"rank": 48,
"score": 77490
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 49,
"score": 77335
},
{
"content": "Title: March 2012 North American heat wave Content: In March 2012 , one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America . Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region , and subsequently spread eastward . The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin . Once this warm surge inundated the area , a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued . NOAA 's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March . In some places the temperature exceeded 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . For instance , in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the highest temperature recorded was 87 ° F on March 21 ; in Chicago a high of 87 ° F was also recorded on that same day . Records were broken in unusual ways . Chicago , for example , saw temperatures above 80 ° F every day between March 14 -- 18 , breaking records on all five days . Chicago would go on to record eight days at or above 80 ° F during the month , with many suburban areas recording an additional day in the 80s on March 19 ( that day , the city only tied its record high of 78 ° F ) . In context , the National Weather Service 's Chicago branch noted that Chicago typically averages only one day in the 80 's in April . And only once in 140 years of weather observations has April produced as many 80 ° F days as this March . In Traverse City , Michigan one day began with a low temperature ( 67 ° F ) higher than the previous record high for the day . Temperature records across much of southern Canada also were shattered . Some of the most impressive readings came from Nova Scotia on March 22 , when the mercury climbed to 30.0 C at a climate station in Lake Major , making it the highest March temperature recorded in Nova Scotia , and the third highest March temperature recorded in Canada . That same day , the temperature hit 29.2 C at Western Head , Nova Scotia . The heat reached as far east as Cape Breton Island , with the temperature climbing to 24.0 C at Sydney , Nova Scotia on March 22 , a place historically surrounded by ice-jammed waters , frigid winds , and snow in March . The week of March 18 also set record temperatures in Manitoba and much of Ontario as well as into the Maritime Provinces . Non-severe thunderstorms were reported on the evening hours of March 21 , through to the early morning hours March 22 into northern Ontario . In addition , NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data show that the atmospheric pattern was so persistent that much of the Midwest and Northeast , and up into Ontario , had temperature departures over periods of several days to a week or more of magnitudes which would be unusual even for a single day . Averaged over the seven-day period from March 16 to March 22 inclusive , nearly the entire area of the Midwest and Northeast U.S. and most of Ontario and Quebec had temperatures 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) or more above the 1981-2010 average . Even more dramatically , most of Iowa and Minnesota , all of Wisconsin and Michigan , and most of southeastern Ontario had seven-day mean temperatures more than 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) above the climatological average for the same period . An 84 ° F high at Madison , WI in early March was 43 ° F above average and followed an overnight low of 60 ° F , 35 degrees above normal the daily high being more than seven standard deviations above the mean . The absolute temperature and departure statistically would be equivalent to a mid-July high at that station in excess of 125 ° F or more ; the highest temperature recorded there was 107 ° at least once during the heat waves of the middle 1930s . This mild warm spell brought out spring peepers in northern Ontario on 23 March , which are usually not heard until mid-to-late April , or sometimes early May . The warm weather was also responsible for several early-season tornado touchdowns , such as the EF3 that struck Dexter , Michigan , near Ann Arbor .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "March_2012_North_American_heat_wave",
"rank": 50,
"score": 77081
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 51,
"score": 76704
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Peter_Doran",
"rank": 52,
"score": 76568
},
{
"content": "Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave",
"rank": 53,
"score": 76499
},
{
"content": "Title: 2006 European cold wave Content: The 2006 European cold wave was an unusual cold wave which resulted in abnormal winter conditions over much of Europe . Southern Europe saw cold and snow , while places in northern Norway saw abnormally mild conditions . The phenomenon started on 20 January in Russia with temperatures below -40 ° C and extended to Central Europe where parts of Poland , Slovakia and Austria saw temperatures drop below -30 ° C . The cold resulted in the deaths of up to 50 people in Russia and a significant death toll in Eastern Europe including Moldova and Romania . The abnormal conditions gradually abated towards the end of the month .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "2006_European_cold_wave",
"rank": 54,
"score": 76398
},
{
"content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate",
"rank": 55,
"score": 76317
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of the Nordic countries Content: The climate of the Nordic countries is that of a region in Northern Europe that consists of Denmark , Finland , Iceland , Norway and Sweden and their associated territories , which include the Faroe Islands , Greenland and Åland . Stockholm , Sweden has on average the warmest summer of the Nordic countries , with an average maximum temperature of 23 ° C in July ; Copenhagen , Oslo and Helsinki have an average July maximum temperature of 22 ° C.",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_the_Nordic_countries",
"rank": 56,
"score": 76080
},
{
"content": "Title: Iron Age Cold Epoch Content: The Iron Age Cold Epoch ( also referred to as Iron Age climate pessimum or Iron Age neoglaciation ) was a period of unusually cold climate in the North Atlantic region , lasting from about 900 BC to about 300 BC , with an especially cold wave in 450 BC during the expansion of ancient Greece . It was followed by the Roman Warm Period ( 250 BC -- 400 AD ) .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Iron_Age_Cold_Epoch",
"rank": 57,
"score": 76069
},
{
"content": "Title: Eismitte Content: Eismitte , in English also called Mid-Ice , was the site of an Arctic expedition in the interior of Greenland that took place from July 1930 through August 1931 , and claimed the life of noted German scientist Alfred Wegener . The name `` Eismitte '' means Ice-Center in German , and the campsite was located 402 km from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,000 meters ( 9,843 feet ) . The coldest temperature recorded during the expedition was − 64.9 ° C ( − 85 ° F ) , while the warmest temperature noted was − 2.8 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . For the 12-month period beginning September 1 , 1930 and ending August 31 , 1931 , the warmest month , July , had a mean monthly temperature of − 12.2 ° C ( 10 ° F ) , while the coldest month , February , averaged − 47.2 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) . Over the same period a total of 110 millimeters ( 4.33 inches ) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded , with most of it , rather surprisingly , being received in winter . At the latitude of the camp , the sun does not set between May 13 and July 30 each year , and does not rise between November 23 and January 20 .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Eismitte",
"rank": 58,
"score": 76049
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature Content: A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold . It is measured by a thermometer . Several scales and units exist for measuring temperature , the most common being Celsius ( denoted ° C ; formerly called centigrade ) , Fahrenheit ( denoted ° F ) , and , especially in science , Kelvin ( denoted K ) . The coldest theoretical temperature is absolute zero , at which the thermal motion of atoms and molecules reaches its minimum -- classically , this would be a state of motionlessness , but quantum uncertainty dictates that the particles still possess a finite zero-point energy . Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale , − 273.15 ° C on the Celsius scale , and − 459.67 ° F on the Fahrenheit scale . The kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies , especially of fluids . It indicates the absolute temperature as proportional to the average kinetic energy of the random microscopic motions of those of their constituent microscopic particles , such as electrons , atoms , and molecules , that move freely within the material . Temperature is important in all fields of natural science including physics , geology , chemistry , atmospheric sciences , medicine and biology as well as most aspects of daily life .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Temperature",
"rank": 59,
"score": 76038
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Alabama Content: The state is classified as humid subtropical ( Cfa ) under the Köppen climate classification . The average annual temperature is 64 ° F ( 18 ° C ) . Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico , while the northern parts of the state , especially in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast , tend to be slightly cooler . Generally , Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year . Alabama receives an average of 56 in of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300 days in the southern part of the state . Hailstorms occur occasionally in the spring and summer , but are seldom destructive . Heavy fogs are rare , and are confined chiefly to the coast . Thunderstorms occur throughout the year - they are most common in the summer , but most severe in the spring and fall , when destructive winds and tornadoes occasionally occur . Hurricanes are quite common in the state , especially in the southern part , and major hurricanes occasionally strike the coast which can be very destructive .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_Alabama",
"rank": 60,
"score": 75995
},
{
"content": "Title: 2006 European heat wave Content: The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries . The United Kingdom , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , Italy , Poland , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Germany and western parts of Russia were most affected . Several records were broken . In the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Ireland and the United Kingdom , July 2006 was the warmest month since official measurements began .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "2006_European_heat_wave",
"rank": 61,
"score": 75969
},
{
"content": "Title: Stadial Content: Stadials and interstadials are phases dividing the Quaternary period , that last 2.6 million years . Stadial are colder periods and interstadials are warmer . Each phase has a Marine Isotope Stage ( MIS ) number , working backwards from the present , with stadial having even numbers and interstadials odd numbers . Thus the current Holocene is MIS1 and the most recent ice age is MIS2 . Stages are divided into warmer and colder intervals . MIS 5e ( the Eemian ) , the hottest of the last million years , was the oldest interstadial of MIS5 , with MIS3 and MIS1 being interstadials and MIS2 and MIS4 being colder stadials . In glacials a and c are stadials and b and d are warmer interstadials . Thus MIS 6a , 6c and 6e are stadials and 6b and 6d are interstadials . Generally , stadials endure for a thousand years or less , interstadials for less than ten thousand years , interglacials for more than ten thousand and glacials for about one hundred thousand . The Bølling Oscillation and the Allerød Oscillation , where they are not clearly distinguished in the stratigraphy , are taken together to form the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , and dated from about 14,700 to 12,700 years before the present . Greenland ice cores show 24 interstadials during the one hundred thousand years of the Wisconsin glaciation . Referred to as the Dansgaard-Oeschger events , they have been extensively studied , and in their northern European contexts are sometimes named after towns , such as the Brorup , the Odderade , the Oerel , the Glinde , the Hengelo , the Denekamp , etc. .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Stadial",
"rank": 62,
"score": 75930
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 North American heat wave Content: The 2011 North American heat wave was a deadly summer 2011 heat wave that affected the Southern Plains , Midwestern United States , Eastern Canada , Northeastern United States , and much of the Eastern Seaboard , and had Heat index/Humidex readings reaching upwards of 131 ° F. On a national basis , the heat wave was the hottest in 75 years .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "2011_North_American_heat_wave",
"rank": 63,
"score": 75909
},
{
"content": "Title: The Warmers Content: The Warmers were a post-hardcore band based in Washington , D.C. active from 1994 to 1997 . A trio featuring former Faith vocalist Alec MacKaye ( guitar and vocals ) , Juan Luis Carrera ( bass and vocals ) , and Amy Farina ( drums ) , The Warmers recorded for the Washington D.C. based record label Dischord . Their self-titled album The Warmers , released in February 1996 , was praised for its minimalism and Farina 's `` furious '' drumming . `` The thing that really knocked me out is the not-drumming in her drumming , where she does n't bang where she 's supposed to , and holds off , and then puts it in , '' said MacKaye of Farina 's style . `` The rhythm is just too awesome . Had we gotten a hot-shot guitar player , they might want to rock the guitar a little too hard , and we 'd lose the attention to the rhythm . '' An EP entitled Wanted : More was released posthumously in May 2004 and features six songs recorded in December 1996 . `` Poked It With A Stick '' , originally from their album The Warmers , is featured on the three-CD compilation album 20 Years of Dischord . Farina would go on to form The Evens with Alec 's brother and her husband Ian MacKaye .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "The_Warmers",
"rank": 64,
"score": 75788
},
{
"content": "Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature",
"rank": 65,
"score": 75693
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 66,
"score": 75613
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 67,
"score": 75515
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 68,
"score": 75438
},
{
"content": "Title: 2000 Southern United States heat wave Content: Aided by drought , a heat wave persisted in late Summer 2000 along the southern tier of the United States from July to early September of that year . Near the end of the period , daily , monthly , and even all-time record high temperatures were broken , with highs commonly peaking well over 100 degrees Fahrenheit . On September 4 , Houston hit 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) and Dallas peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) ; on September 5 , Corpus Christi peaked at 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) , San Antonio peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) while College Station and Austin reached 112 ° F ( 44.4 ° C ) . Damage totaled $ 4 billion , mainly due to wildfires and crop losses , and there were 140 deaths .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "2000_Southern_United_States_heat_wave",
"rank": 69,
"score": 75247
},
{
"content": "Title: 2001 Eastern North America heat wave Content: A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States ( with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions ) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July . It began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying . It waned in most areas by the middle of the month , and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves , it was very intense at its peak . The high humidity and high temperatures led to major heat wave that overtook the major Northeast Megalopolis . Temperatures in Central Park , New York City reached a peak of 103 F . The temperature reached 105 F in Newark , New Jersey . Meanwhile , in Ontario and Quebec , extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August . Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached 37 C on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit 38 C on the same day , the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping 35 C. Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave . Even in Nova Scotia , surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures still broke 35 C in some locations . Glace Bay , which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking 35.5 C on August 10 . At least four New Yorkers died of hyperthermia . Chicago had at least 21 deaths .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "2001_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave",
"rank": 70,
"score": 75160
},
{
"content": "Title: Degree Day Unit Content: The Degree Day Unit is an inexact unit of measurement generally used by the pest control industry and lawn and landscape services regarding the amount of days , normally in the spring , of temperatures above 50 degrees Fahrenheit . For many years insects and weeds were simply assumed to emerge in the early spring based on only average temperatures of the different areas . If unseasonable temperatures occurred especially extended winter conditions and/or snow the emergence of either would vary considerably . Each weed or insect , is based on studies of how many warm days they need to emerge so each month a total of 50 degree days are totaled and compared to how many are needed for each . Temperature controls the developmental rate of many organisms . Plants and invertebrate animals , including insects and nematodes , require a certain amount of heat to develop from one point in their life cycles to another . This measure of accumulated heat is known as physiological time . Theoretically , physiological time provides a common reference for the development of organisms . The amount of heat required to complete a given organism 's development does not vary -- the combination of temperature ( between thresholds ) and time will always be the same . Physiological time is often expressed and approximated in units called degree-days ( ° D ) . Category : Pest control Category : Units of measurement",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Degree_Day_Unit",
"rank": 71,
"score": 74912
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Ireland Content: The climate of Ireland is mild , moist and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes . Ireland 's climate is defined as a temperate oceanic climate , or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system , a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe . The country receives generally cool summers and mild winters . It is considerably warmer than other areas on its latitude , because it lies in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean , and as a result is warmed by the North Atlantic Current all year . As a small island downwind of a large ocean , the climate of Ireland is profoundly impacted by that ocean . The Atlantic overturning circulation , which includes ocean currents such as the North Atlantic Current , moves heat northwards , which is then carried by the prevailing winds towards Ireland . Thermohaline circulation The prevailing wind blows from the southwest , breaking on the high mountains of the west coast . Rainfall is therefore a particularly prominent part of western Irish life , with Valentia Island , off the west coast of County Kerry , getting almost twice as much annual rainfall as Dublin on the east ( 1400 mm vs. 762 mm ) . January and February are the coldest months of the year , and mean daily air temperatures fall between 4 and during these months . July and August are the warmest , with mean daily temperatures of 14 to , whilst mean daily maximums in July and August vary from 17 to near the coast , to 19 to inland . The sunniest months are May and June , with an average of five to seven hours sunshine per day . Though extreme weather events in Ireland are comparatively rare when compared with other countries in the European Continent , they do occur . Atlantic depressions , occurring mainly in the months of December , January and February , can occasionally bring winds of up to 160 km/h to Western coastal counties , with the winter of 2013/14 being the stormiest on record . The summer months , and particularly around late July/early August , thunderstorms can develop .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_Ireland",
"rank": 72,
"score": 74899
},
{
"content": "Title: March 2012 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The March 2012 United Kingdom and Ireland heat wave was a period of unseasonable warm weather with temperatures getting above 20 C in many places . The average temperature for this time of year in the United Kingdom is 10 C. Aboyne , Scotland , recorded a temperature of 23.6 C on 27 March , the highest March temperature in Scotland since records began . For around eight days no clouds were visible for the majority of places in the UK , allowing the sun to shine straight down through the blue sky and induce high air temperatures . The high pressure also meant there was little wind to act as a coolant .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "March_2012_United_Kingdom_heat_wave",
"rank": 73,
"score": 74570
},
{
"content": "Title: 300 Club Content: The 300 Club is the name given to those who have endured a range of temperature of 300 ° Fahrenheit ( 166 ° C ) within a very short time . The practice originated at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica . Participants in the 300 Club wait for a day when the temperature drops to − 100 ° F ( -73 ° C ) for more than a few minutes , generally in the winter . Those taking part first warm up in a sauna heated to 200 ° F ( 93 ° C ) for as long as 10 minutes . Then they run naked in the snow to the Geographic South Pole , running around it in the − 100 ° F weather . After this , they usually warm themselves back in the sauna again , often with the aid of alcoholic beverages . There are several patches made to commemorate the occasion that are entitled to be worn by those who have joined the 300 Club .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "300_Club",
"rank": 74,
"score": 74530
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 75,
"score": 74494
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Svalbard Content: The climate of Svalbard is principally a result of its latitude , which is between 74 ° and 81 ° north . Average July temperatures range from 3 and , and in January temperatures are normally between − 13 and . The North Atlantic Current moderates Svalbard 's temperatures , particularly during winter , giving it up to 20 C-change higher winter temperature than similar latitudes in continental Russia and Canada . This keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year . The interior fjord areas and valleys , sheltered by the mountains , have less temperature differences than the coast , giving about 2 ° C lower summer temperatures and 3 ° C higher winter temperatures . On the south of Spitsbergen , the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west . During winter , the temperature difference between south and north is typically 5 ° C , while only about 3 ° C in summer . Bear Island has average temperatures even higher than the rest of the archipelago . The archipelago is the meeting place for cold polar air from the north and mild , wet sea air from the south , creating low pressure and changing weather and fast winds , particularly in winter ; in January , a strong breeze is registered 17 % of the time at Isfjord Radio , but only 1 % of the time in July . In summer , particularly away from land , fog is common , with visibility under 1 km registered 20 % of the time in July and 1 % of the time in January , at Hopen and Bear Island . Precipitation is frequent , but falls in small quantities , typically less than 400 mm in Western Spitsbergen . More rain falls in the uninhabited east side , where there can be more than 1000 mm . The warmest temperature ever recorded was 21.3 C in July 1979 and the coldest was -46.3 C in March 1986 .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_Svalbard",
"rank": 76,
"score": 74493
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 77,
"score": 74368
},
{
"content": "Title: Atlantic (period) Content: The Atlantic in palaeoclimatology was the warmest and moistest Blytt-Sernander period , pollen zone and chronozone of Holocene northern Europe . The climate was generally warmer than today . It was preceded by the Boreal , with a climate similar to today 's , and was followed by the Subboreal , a transition to the modern . Because it was the warmest period of the Holocene , the Atlantic is often referenced more directly as the Holocene climatic optimum , or just climatic optimum .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Atlantic_(period)",
"rank": 78,
"score": 74343
},
{
"content": "Title: Summer of 1976 (Europe) Content: The summer of 1976 was considered to be one of the hottest summers in Europe ( and especially the United Kingdom ) within recent memory . A large high-pressure area dominated most of Europe for all of the summer months . The pressure system moved into place in late May 1976 and remained until the first traces of rain were recorded on August 27 . Rainfall throughout the July -- August period was down by half the annual average . During this spell of hot weather temperatures exceeded 32 ° C ( 89.6 ° F ) at several weather stations within the United Kingdom every day and the town of Cheltenham had eleven , including seven successive days from the 1st of July - recording 35.9 ° C ( 96.6 ° F ) on the 3rd . For the entire period much of Europe was bathed in continual sunshine with the United Kingdom seeing an average of more than 14 hours of sunshine per day . 1976 was dubbed `` The year of the Ladybird '' in that country due to the rise in the mass numbers of ladybirds brought on by the long hot period . `` The long hot summer of 1976 which eventually ended in September of that year , was the culmination of a 16-week dry spell - the longest recorded over England and Wales since 1727 . `` Quote From Met Office The summer of 1976 is by now a firmly established reference point for discussion in the UK of contemporary hot spells .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Summer_of_1976_(Europe)",
"rank": 79,
"score": 74220
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Budapest Content: The Climate of Budapest is humid continental . Winter ( December until early March ) is by far the coldest and cloudiest time of year . Snowfall is fairly frequent in most years , and nighttime temperatures of − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) are not uncommon from mid-December until mid-February . The spring months ( March and April ) see variable conditions , with a rapid increase in the average temperature . Budapest 's summer , lasting from June until September , is the warmest time of year . Budapest has as much summer sunshine as many Mediterranean resorts . Sudden heavy showers also occur , particularly in May and June . The autumn in Budapest ( mid-September until late October ) is characterized by less rain than in summer and long sunny days .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_Budapest",
"rank": 80,
"score": 74140
},
{
"content": "Title: A Day's Wait Content: `` A Day 's Wait '' is a short story by Ernest Hemingway published in his 1933 short story collection Winner Take Nothing about a nine-year-old boy who is sick during a cold winter . The story focuses on the boy and his father who calls him Schatz ( German , meaning darling ) . When the boy gets the flu , a doctor is called in and recommends three different medicines and tells the boy 's father that his temperature is 102 degrees Fahrenheit ( 39 degrees Celsius ) . He is very quiet and depressed , finally asking when he will die ; he had thought that a 102 degree temperature was lethal because he heard in France ( where Celsius is used ) that one can not live with a temperature over 44 degrees . When the father explains to him the difference in scales , the boy slowly relaxes , and the next day , `` he cried very easily at little things that were of no importance . '' The story ´ s theme is the boy 's misunderstanding leading to the fear of his death without his father realizing this . analysis : a ) A fateful misunderstanding The misunderstanding between father and son exists because they do not have the same thoughts . The boy thinks he will die but the father thinks his son is only ill . The boy uses the word `` it '' to describe the process of dying . The father also uses the word `` it '' , but to describe that it is no problem for him to stay at home with his son . Since they only use the pronoun `` it '' neither of them knows what the other person is talking about . b ) The hunting scene The landscape is described as frozen because it 's a cold day . The father 's behaviour is also cold because he is shooting birds and killing them . The father 's inability to understand his son is symbolically expressed by the layer of ice separating him from nature ( he is helpless on the icy surface ) ; the same helplessness applies to his relationship to his son . c ) Interdependence between theme and point of view The theme focuses on the misunderstanding between father and son , which is disastrous for the son due to the lack of knowledge as far as the different scales are concerned . The failure in communication leads to the son ´ s being afraid of dying . This is why Hemingway chooses the first person narrator with a limited point of view . He is therefore confined to presenting mere observations and suppositions . `` The boy was evidently holding tight onto himself about something '' , which is only one example of the father ´ s suppositions . The father is only an observer of the scene without realizing the son ´ s fears . He remains detached and can not imagine and feel the son ´ s distress . An observer narrator is the best way of expressing this distance between the two . Hemingway cleverly chooses this point of view as one means of showing the lack of mutual closeness in the relationship between father and son . The father does not imagine the son ´ s fears and can not look into his mind at all .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "A_Day's_Wait",
"rank": 81,
"score": 74022
},
{
"content": "Title: 2019 heat wave in India and Pakistan Content: From mid-May to mid-June 2019, India and Pakistan had a severe heat wave. It was one of the hottest and longest heat waves since the two countries began recording weather reports. The highest temperatures occurred in Churu, Rajasthan, reaching up to 50.8 °C (123.4 °F), a near record high in India, missing the record of 51.0 °C (123.8 °F) set in 2016 by a fraction of a degree. As of 12 June 2019, 32 days are classified as parts of the heatwave, making it the second longest ever recorded.As a result of hot temperatures and inadequate preparation, more than 184 people died in the state of Bihar, with many more deaths reported in other parts of the country. In Pakistan, five infants died after extreme heat exposure.The heat wave coincided with extreme droughts and water shortages across India and Pakistan. In mid-June, reservoirs that previously supplied Chennai ran dry, depriving millions. The water crisis was exacerbated by high temperatures and lack of preparation, causing protests and fights that sometimes led to killing and stabbing.",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "2019_heat_wave_in_India_and_Pakistan",
"rank": 82,
"score": 73949
},
{
"content": "Title: 2018 British Isles heat wave Content: The 2018 Britain and Ireland heat wave was a period of unusually hot weather that took place in June, July and August. It caused widespread drought, hosepipe bans, crop failures, and a number of wildfires. These wildfires worst affected northern moorland areas around the Greater Manchester region, the largest was at Saddleworth Moor and another was at Winter Hill, together these burned over 14 square miles (36 km2) of land over a period of nearly a month.A heat wave was officially declared on 22 June, with Scotland and Northern Ireland recording temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) for the first time since the July 2013 heat wave. The British Isles were in the middle of a strong warm anticyclone inside a strong northward meander of the jet stream, this was part of the wider 2018 European heat wave. The Met Office declared summer 2018 the joint hottest on record together with 1976, 2003 and 2006.",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "2018_British_Isles_heat_wave",
"rank": 83,
"score": 73945
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 84,
"score": 73926
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of New York Content: The climate of New York state is generally humid continental , while the extreme southeastern portion of the state ( New York City area ) lies in the warm temperate climate zone . Winter temperatures average below freezing during January and February in much of New York state , but several degrees above freezing along the Atlantic coastline , including New York City . Seasonally , summer-like conditions prevail from June to early September statewide , while areas in far southern New York and New York City have summer conditions from late May through late September . Cold air damming east of the Appalachians leads to protracted periods of cloud cover and precipitation east of the range , primarily between the October and April months . Winter-like conditions prevail from November through April in northern New York , and from December through March in southern New York . On average , western New York is much cloudier than points south and east in New York , much of it generated from the Great Lakes . Greenhouse gas emission is low on a per capita basis when compared to most other states due to the extensive use of mass transit , particularly across New York City . The significant urbanization within New York city has led to an urban heat island , which causes temperatures to be warmer overnight in all seasons . Annual precipitation is fairly even throughout the year across New York state . The Great Lakes region of New York sees the highest annual rain and snow amounts in New York state , and heavy lake effect snow is common in western New York in winter . In the hotter months , large , long-lived complexes of thunderstorms can invade the state from Canada and the Great Lakes , while tropical cyclones can bring rains and winds from the southwest during the summer and fall . Hurricane impacts on the state occur once every 18 -- 19 years , with major hurricane impacts every 70 -- 74 years . An average of ten tornadoes touch down in New York annually .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_New_York",
"rank": 85,
"score": 73786
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Turkey",
"rank": 86,
"score": 73749
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Sea_surface_temperature",
"rank": 87,
"score": 73737
},
{
"content": "Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Planetary_equilibrium_temperature",
"rank": 88,
"score": 73723
},
{
"content": "Title: List of extreme temperatures in Spain Content: Here is a list of the hottest and coldest temperature recorded in spain and is getting hotter . On July 30 , 1876 and August 4 , 1881 , temperatures of 123.8 ° F ( 51 ° C ) and 122 ° F ( 50 ° C ) were both reported for Seville : these readings are unreliable , since they were measured under a standard exposure and in poor technical conditions . A temperature of 119.8 ° F ( 48.8 ° C ) was also recorded at Cazalla de la Sierra on August 30 , 1926 , but is generally not considered valid by international standards , along with other unofficial readings measured in various locations , likely taken with not proper instruments . On July 17 , 1978 , an unconfirmed temperature of 117.5 ° F ( 47.5 ° C ) was recorded at Barranco de Masca , Tenerife . * This is the highest reliable and confirmed temperature for Murcia and Spain overall . A dubious reading of 118 ° F ( 47.8 ° C ) was reported for Murcia on July 29 , 1876 .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "List_of_extreme_temperatures_in_Spain",
"rank": 89,
"score": 73714
},
{
"content": "Title: Pneumonia front Content: The term Pneumonia front , first coined by Milwaukee Weather Bureau Office in the 1960s , is used to describe a rare meteorological phenomenon observed on the western Lake Michigan , USA , shoreline during the warm season . These fronts are defined as lake-modified synoptic scale cold fronts that result in one-hour temperature drops of 16 ° F ( 8.9 ° C ) or greater . They do not necessarily have to be synoptic , or large scale , cold fronts . Very often in the Spring to early summer the temperature difference between the cold lake waters and the warmer air over land can be as much as 35-40 ° F. Under weak prevailing winds , a density current can often develop in the form of a lake breeze that moves from that water to the adjacent shoreline and several miles inland . This `` lake-breeze cold front '' can drop temperature in places like Chicago , Milwaukee and Green Bay significantly as they cross the area . There has been many a Spring day at Wrigley Field that surprises people who may have travelled from an inland location toward the shore to take in an afternoon game , only to feel the effects of the `` pneumonia front '' as that cold blast of air comes through . The following are eighteen occurrences of a lake modified synoptic scale cold front or `` pneumonia front '' .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Pneumonia_front",
"rank": 90,
"score": 73677
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold Sunday Content: `` Cold Sunday '' was a meteorological event which took place on January 17 , 1982 , when unprecedentedly cold air swept down from Canada and plunged temperatures across much of the United States far below existing all-time record lows . The phenomenon was caused by an unusually strong high pressure system over Saskatchewan with a core pressure of 1055mb ( 31.15 inHg ) , a level rarely seen outside of permanent polar areas such as Siberia and Antarctica . A recent snowfall had left the ground without any way to hold on to its heat and temperatures dropped precipitously . This mass of cold air was so strong that the temperature at Mequon , Wisconsin , dropped to − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) . The previous record was − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) and temperatures below − 20 ° F ( − 29 ° C ) had been felt there only six times in the previous 100 years . The lowest temperature recorded that day in the United States was − 52 ° F ( − 47 ° C ) , measured near Tower , Minnesota . Below is a partial list of cities which set all-time record low temperatures in the United States . This is only a small fraction of all locales setting record low temperatures : Hundreds of towns and cities from North Dakota to New Jersey to Mississippi broke records , and the vast majority of the records set on `` Cold Sunday '' still stand . The cold was not confined to the night , either . In Princeton , New Jersey , and Cincinnati , Ohio , the daytime high temperatures were 2 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) and − 9 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) . The average high temperature in January is 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) in both cities . While much of South Florida escaped the deep freeze , enough damage was done to citrus crops in Central Florida during the month of January to write off the 1982 harvest as a disaster . International Falls , Minnesota : − 45 ° F ( − 43 ° C ) Saint Cloud , Minnesota : − 35 ° F ( − 37 ° C ) Madison , Wisconsin : − 31 ° F ( − 35 ° C ) Green Bay , Wisconsin : − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Chicago , Illinois : − 27 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Milwaukee , Wisconsin : − 26 ° F ( − 32 ° C ) Moline , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Peoria , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Akron , Ohio : − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania : − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) Cleveland , Ohio : − 17 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) Jackson , Mississippi : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Washington , D.C. : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Birmingham , Alabama : − 2 ° F ( − 19 ° C )",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Cold_Sunday",
"rank": 91,
"score": 73611
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Moscow Content: Moscow has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with warm , sometimes hot , somewhat humid summers and long , cold winters . Typical high temperatures in the warm months of June , July and August are around 23 ° C , but during heat waves , which can occur anytime from May to September , daytime temperature highs often top 30 ° C for sometimes one or two weeks . In the winter , temperatures normally drop to approximately -10 ° C , though there can be periods of warmth with temperatures rising above 0 ° C. Summer lasts from mid-May to the beginning of September . Winter lasts from the beginning of November to the end of March .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_Moscow",
"rank": 92,
"score": 73580
},
{
"content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model",
"rank": 93,
"score": 73558
},
{
"content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Deglaciation",
"rank": 94,
"score": 73529
},
{
"content": "Title: Early 2012 European cold wave Content: The Early 2012 European cold wave was a deadly cold wave that started on January 27 , 2012 and brought snow and freezing temperatures to much of the European continent . There were more than 824 reported deaths . Particularly low temperatures hit several Eastern and Northern European countries , reaching as low as -42.7 C in Finland . The heaviest snow was recorded in the Balkan region . The cold weather was a result of an extensive area of very high pressure located in over the north east of the continent in northern Russia , which circulated cold air from the east .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Early_2012_European_cold_wave",
"rank": 95,
"score": 73511
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Mecca Content: Mecca features a hot desert climate . Mecca retains its hot temperature in winter , which can range from 18 C at night to 30 C in the day . Summer temperatures are extremely hot , often being over 40 C during the day , dropping to 30 C at night . Rain usually falls in Mecca in small amounts between November and January . The rainfall , as scant as it is , also presents the threat of flooding and has been a danger since the earliest times . According to Al-Kurdī , there had been 89 historic floods by 1965 , including several in the period . In the last century the most severe one occurred in 1942 . Since then , dams have been constructed to ameliorate the problem .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_Mecca",
"rank": 96,
"score": 73445
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold Content: Cold is the presence of low temperature , especially in the atmosphere . In common usage , cold is often a subjective perception . A lower bound to temperature is absolute zero , defined as 0.00 K on the Kelvin scale , an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale . This corresponds to 0 K on the Celsius scale , 0 K on the Fahrenheit scale , and 0 K on the Rankine scale . Since temperature relates to the thermal energy held by an object or a sample of matter , which is the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particle constituents of matter , an object will have less thermal energy when it is colder and more when it is hotter . If it were possible to cool a system to absolute zero , all motion of the particles in a sample of matter would cease and they would be at complete rest in this classical sense . The object would be described as having zero thermal energy . Microscopically in the description of quantum mechanics , however , matter still has zero-point energy even at absolute zero , because of the uncertainty principle .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Cold",
"rank": 97,
"score": 73184
},
{
"content": "Title: List of extreme weather records in Pakistan Content: The weather extremes in Pakistan include high and low temperatures , Heaviest rainfall and flooding . The highest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan is 54 ° C which was recorded in Turbat , Balochistan 30 May 2017 It was not only the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan but also the hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded on the continent of Asia . and the fourth-highest temperature ever recorded on earth . The second-highest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan is 53 C which was recorded in Larkana , Sindh on 26 May 2010 . It is hottest city in Pakistan , as well as the second hottest city in the world , but it is second-hottest place in Pakistan and fifth-hottest place of world . It is fifth-highest temperature ever recorded on Earth . The highest rainfall of 620 mm was recorded in Islamabad during 24 hours on 23 July 2001 . The record-breaking rain fell in just 10 hours .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "List_of_extreme_weather_records_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 98,
"score": 73181
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Kolkata Content: Kolkata has a Tropical wet-and-dry climate ( Köppen climate classification Aw ) . The annual mean temperature is 24.8 ° C ( 80 ° F ) ; monthly mean temperatures range from 15 ° C to 30 ° C ( 59 ° F to 86 ° F ) . Summers are hot and humid with temperatures in the low 30 's and during dry spells the maximum temperatures often exceed 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) during May and June . Winter tends to last for only about two and a half months , with seasonal lows dipping to 9 ° C -- 11 ° C ( 48.2 ° F -- 51.8 ° F ) between December and January . The highest recorded temperature is 43.9 ° C ( 111 ° F ) and the lowest is 3 ° C ( 37.4 ° F ) . Often during early summer , dusty squalls followed by spells of thunderstorm and heavy rains lash the city , bringing relief from the humid heat . These thunderstorms are convective in nature , and is locally known as Kal baisakhi ( কালবৈশাখী , Nor ` westers ) . Rains brought by the Bay of Bengal branch of South-West monsoon lash the city between June and September and supplies the city with most of its annual rainfall of 1,582 mm ( 62.3 inches ) . The highest rainfall occurs during the monsoon in August ( 306 mm ) . The city receives 2,528 hours of sunshine per annum , with the maximum sunlight occurring in March . Pollution is a major concern in Kolkata , and the Suspended Particulate Matter ( SPM ) level is high when compared to other major cities of India , leading to regular smog and haze . Severe air pollution in the city has caused rise in pollution-related respiratory ailments such as lung cancer .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Climate_of_Kolkata",
"rank": 99,
"score": 73145
},
{
"content": "Title: Bed warmer Content: A bed warmer was a common household item in countries with cold winters , especially in Europe . It consisted of a metal container , usually fitted with a handle and shaped somewhat like a modern frying pan , with a solid or finely perforated lid . The pan would be filled with hot coals and placed under the covers of a bed , to warm it up and/or dry it out before use . After the invention of rubber , the classical bed warmer was largely supplanted by the hot water bottle , which is still widely used . In the early 20th century , electric blankets and then the electric bed warmer , ( containing a lampholder and low wattage light bulb ) , were invented to fulfill the same need .",
"qid": "67",
"docid": "Bed_warmer",
"rank": 100,
"score": 73039
}
] |
Sea level rise is not going to happen. | [
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 1,
"score": 139328
},
{
"content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 2,
"score": 122732
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 3,
"score": 113389
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis",
"rank": 4,
"score": 104995
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "The_Sea_is_Rising",
"rank": 5,
"score": 102493
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "The_Sea_Has_Risen",
"rank": 6,
"score": 100663
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Sea_level",
"rank": 7,
"score": 100048
},
{
"content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Josh_Willis",
"rank": 8,
"score": 98676
},
{
"content": "Title: Seaford Rise, South Australia Content: Seaford Rise is a metropolitan suburb of Adelaide , South Australia . It lies within the City of Onkaparinga . Its boundaries are formed by Griffiths Drive in the north , Commercial Road in the west , Main South Road in the east , and by an arbitrary border with Maslin Beach in the south .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Seaford_Rise,_South_Australia",
"rank": 9,
"score": 96418
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Rising_from_the_Sea",
"rank": 10,
"score": 95434
},
{
"content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Past_sea_level",
"rank": 11,
"score": 93411
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Sea_Level_(band)",
"rank": 12,
"score": 92985
},
{
"content": "Title: Risella Content: Risella is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Risella",
"rank": 13,
"score": 92032
},
{
"content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Equilibrium_level",
"rank": 14,
"score": 91471
},
{
"content": "Title: When the Sea Rises Content: When the Sea Rises ( Quand la mer monte ... ) is a 2004 French-Belgian romantic comedy film directed by Yolande Moreau and Gilles Porte . It was Moreau 's directorial debut .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "When_the_Sea_Rises",
"rank": 15,
"score": 89503
},
{
"content": "Title: Young Detective Dee: Rise of the Sea Dragon Content: Young Detective Dee : Rise of the Sea Dragon is a 2013 Chinese action-adventure fantasy mystery film directed , produced , and co-written by Tsui Hark . It is a prequel to Hark 's 2010 film Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame , which starred Andy Lau . Taiwanese-Canadian actor Mark Chao takes over from him as a young Detective Dee , while Feng Shaofeng , Lin Gengxin , Kim Bum ( in his Chinese debut ) , and Angelababy co-star alongside a returning Carina Lau from Mystery of the Phantom Flame , rounding up the ensemble cast . A sequel of the film and the third installment of the Detective Dee series , titled Detective Dee : The Four Heavenly Kings will be released in 2018 . Filming will begin in March 2017 .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Young_Detective_Dee:_Rise_of_the_Sea_Dragon",
"rank": 16,
"score": 89296
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea",
"rank": 17,
"score": 88717
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Marine_transgression",
"rank": 18,
"score": 88289
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A",
"rank": 19,
"score": 88054
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Sea-level_curve",
"rank": 20,
"score": 87872
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Tide",
"rank": 21,
"score": 87613
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Sea_level_equation",
"rank": 22,
"score": 87478
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Sea_Level_(album)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 87342
},
{
"content": "Title: Risellopsis Content: Risellopsis is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Risellopsis",
"rank": 24,
"score": 86821
},
{
"content": "Title: Risella tantillus Content: Risella tantillus is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Risella_tantillus",
"rank": 25,
"score": 86487
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1B",
"rank": 26,
"score": 86102
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 27,
"score": 85708
},
{
"content": "Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Seamount",
"rank": 28,
"score": 85329
},
{
"content": "Title: Clade (novel) Content: Clade is a science fiction novel written by Mark Budz , published in 2003 . In Clade , an environmental disaster called the Ecocaust has caused sea levels to rise and causing additional strains on human resources . The government , in response , becomes more restrictive on human freedoms , and this novel explores what happens after the Ecocaust .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Clade_(novel)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 85060
},
{
"content": "Title: Unicorn Skeleton Mask Content: Unicorn Skeleton Mask is the twenty-fifth studio album by Omar Rodríguez-López as a solo artist . It was given a `` surprise '' digital release on January 2 , 2013 , just a day after the release of Equinox and Woman Gives Birth To Tomato ! . Three of the album 's songs , `` Sea Is Rising , '' `` Maria Te Canta , '' and `` Bored To Burns '' were previously debuted live as instrumental pieces during Omar Rodriguez Lopez Group 2010 tour . These tracks resurfaced in the 2016 Ipecac series with `` Sea Is Rising '' appearing on the album Corazones , half of the songs present as alternate versions on Zapopan , and with most of the rest surfacing in 2017 as alternate recordings on Zen Thrills . Since 2014 the album is no longer available to purchase officially , as Rodriguez-Lopez 's Bandcamp page has been taken down after a split with Sargent House label . Parts of a couple of these songs were also used on the following record , ¿ Sólo Extraño ? as well as its proper release in 2016 of Nom de Guerre Cabal . `` Right Of Way '' appears reworked in `` House in the Sand '' / `` Life Proves Its Worth '' and the drum track for `` Tennessee '' is present on `` Invisible Laziness '' / `` Bitter Sunsets '' before reappearing as `` With You If You Give A Damn '' on Zen Thrills . As of January 2017 , `` Names '' remains the only track to not be re-released in the Ipecac Series .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Unicorn_Skeleton_Mask",
"rank": 30,
"score": 84551
},
{
"content": "Title: Oceans Will Rise Content: Oceans Will Rise is the third and final album by Montreal indie rock band the Stills , released August 19 , 2008 . In late 2007 , Toronto-based record label Arts & Crafts signed the band to a worldwide recording deal . Once again working with producer Gus Van Go , the group felt , according to vocalist Tim Fletcher , `` a raw energy of inspiration '' during the new album 's recording efforts that was absent in previous sessions . Two tracks , `` Being Here '' and `` Rooibos/Palm Wine Drinkard '' , were first available for download via Spin magazine 's website . Pitchfork noted that the album `` reconciled the mannered 1980s sound that first got them noticed with the open-hearted earthiness of their sophomore effort '' . Oceans Will Rise was awarded a Juno Award for Alternative Album of the Year on March 28 , 2009 . The track `` Everything I Build '' was featured in the 2009 episode `` Rubicon '' of ABC television series Defying Gravity . The track `` I 'm With You '' was featured in an Alexander Keith 's beer commercial in Canada .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Oceans_Will_Rise",
"rank": 31,
"score": 84544
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice rise Content: An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Ice_rise",
"rank": 32,
"score": 84274
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level, North Carolina Content: Sea Level is an unincorporated community in northeastern Carteret County , North Carolina . It rests on the banks of the Core Sound and has a population of roughly 450 . It is located in what was known to early settlers as Hunting Quarters . Sea Level has one of the lowest elevations in North Carolina ; it is estimated that approximately 75 % of the community floods when hurricanes pass through . US 70 is the major thoroughfare through the community . The community is the location of NC 12 's southern terminus .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Sea_Level,_North_Carolina",
"rank": 33,
"score": 84117
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Tide_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 34,
"score": 83616
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Tide_gauge",
"rank": 35,
"score": 83283
},
{
"content": "Title: Benham Plateau Content: The Benham Rise , officially known as the Philippine Rise , is a seismically active undersea region and extinct volcanic ridge located in the Philippine Sea approximately 250 km east of the northern coastline of Dinapigue , Isabela . Under the Philippine Sea lie a number of basins including the West Philippine Sea Basin , inside of which is located the Central Basin Fault ( CBF ) . The Benham Plateau is located in the CBF and its basement probably is a micro-continent . Several scientific surveys have been made on the feature to study its nature and its impact on tectonic subduction , including one about its effects on the 1990 Luzon earthquake . The Philippines claimed this feature as part of its continental shelf in a claim lodged with the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on 8 April 2009 , and which was approved under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) in 2012 . It is designated as a `` protected food supply exclusive zone '' by the Philippine government in May 2017 . Mining and oil exploration is banned in the Benham Plateau as a protected area . On May 16 , 2017 , Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 25 renaming the region to Philippine Rise .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Benham_Plateau",
"rank": 36,
"score": 83201
},
{
"content": "Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Tidal_range",
"rank": 37,
"score": 82991
},
{
"content": "Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "A_Sea_So_Far",
"rank": 38,
"score": 82540
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Sea_level_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 39,
"score": 82448
},
{
"content": "Title: Risellopsis varia Content: Risellopsis varia is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Risellopsis_varia",
"rank": 40,
"score": 82422
},
{
"content": "Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level",
"rank": 41,
"score": 82111
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide (Forgotten Realms novel) Content: Rising Tide is a fantasy novel by Mel Odom , set in the world of the Forgotten Realms , and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game . It is the first novel in `` The Threat from the Sea '' trilogy . It was published in paperback in January 1999 .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_(Forgotten_Realms_novel)",
"rank": 42,
"score": 82025
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 81849
},
{
"content": "Title: CryoSat Content: CryoSat is an ESA programme to monitor variations in the extent and thickness of polar ice through use of a satellite in low Earth orbit . The information provided about the behaviour of coastal glaciers that drain thinning ice sheets will be key to better predictions of future sea level rise . The CryoSat-1 spacecraft was lost in a launch failure in 2005 , however the programme was resumed with the successful launch of a replacement , CryoSat-2 , launched on 8 April 2010 . CryoSat is operated from the European Space Operations Centre ( ESOC ) in Darmstadt , Germany .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "CryoSat",
"rank": 44,
"score": 81529
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Meier Content: Mark F. Meier ( 1925 -- November 25 , 2012 ) was an American glaciologist who was considered a leading expert on the study of rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers . Meier was the Director of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research ( INSTAAR ) from 1985 to 1994 and remained the institute 's director emeritus until his death in 2012 . He was also a professor of geological sciences at the University of Colorado - Boulder . Meier was born and raised in Iowa . He resided in Boulder , Colorado , since 1985 . In 1956 , Meier founded the U.S. Geological Survey 's department of glaciology . He obtained doctorate in 1957 from the California Institute of Technology . Meier served as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey 's Project Office of Glaciology in Tacoma , Washington , until he became the director of INSTAAR in 1985 . Meier was one of the first glaciologists to use remote sensing to study glaciers and rates of melting . He headed several studies of tidewater glacier dynamics in the U.S. state of Alaska . Meier organized the systematic measurement and assessment of glacier mass balance within North America to mark the International Geophysical Year and International Hydrological Decade , which was observed from 1965 to 1975 . His numerous recognitions and awards included the Seligman Crystal from the International Glaciological Society in 1993 , the Robert E. Horton Medal in 1996 , three medals from the USSR Academy of Sciences ( now the Russian Academy of Sciences ) and the United States Department of the Interior 's Distinguished Service Award . Meier died in Boulder , Colorado , on November 25 , 2012 , at the age of 86 . He is survived by his wife , Barbara , his children , Lauren Meier , Gretchen Meier , and Mark S. Meier , and his seven grandchildren .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Mark_Meier",
"rank": 45,
"score": 81406
},
{
"content": "Title: The Threat from the Sea Content: The Threat From the Sea is a series of fantasy novels written mostly by Mel Odom . It contains three novels : Rising Tide , Under Fallen Stars , and The Sea Devil 's Eye . It also contains the anthology book , Realms of the Deep .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "The_Threat_from_the_Sea",
"rank": 46,
"score": 80262
},
{
"content": "Title: Green Blade Rising Content: Green Blade Rising is the seventh studio album by the Levellers , released in 2002 .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Green_Blade_Rising",
"rank": 47,
"score": 79988
},
{
"content": "Title: John Lawrence Daly Content: John L. Daly ( 31 March 1943 -- 29 January 2004 ) was an Australian teacher and self-declared `` Greenhouse skeptic . '' He was known for speaking out publicly against what he called the `` Global Warming scare , '' and authored the book The greenhouse trap : Why the greenhouse effect will not end life on earth , published in 1989 by Bantam Books . Since his death his website , Still Waiting for Greenhouse is maintained by Jerry Brennan , though updates slowed considerably after Daly 's death and stopped completely in 2008 . Daly investigated various studies by scientists which appear to support global warming scenarios and raised objections to them . For example , he denied that the average sea level is rising , on the basis the ` Isle of the Dead ' mean ocean level benchmark .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "John_Lawrence_Daly",
"rank": 48,
"score": 79747
},
{
"content": "Title: 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake Content: The 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake or 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake occurred on May 26 , at 11:59:57 local time ( 02:59:59.6 UTC ) , It had a magnitude of 7.8 on the moment magnitude scale . It occurred in the Sea of Japan , about 100 km west of the coast of Noshiro in Akita Prefecture , Japan . Out of the 104 fatalities , all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami , which struck communities along the coast , especially Aomori and Akita Prefectures and the east coast of Noto Peninsula . Images of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbor of Wajima on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV . The waves exceeded 10 m in some areas . Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of South Korea ( whether North Korea was affected is not known ) . The tsunami also hit Okushiri Island , the site of a more deadly tsunami 10 years later .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "1983_Sea_of_Japan_earthquake",
"rank": 49,
"score": 78735
},
{
"content": "Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "East_Pacific_Rise",
"rank": 50,
"score": 78625
},
{
"content": "Title: A Song Will Rise Content: A Song Will Rise is the fourth studio album by the American folk music trio Peter , Paul & Mary , released in 1965 ( see 1965 in music ) .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "A_Song_Will_Rise",
"rank": 51,
"score": 78546
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea cave Content: A sea cave , also known as a littoral cave , is a type of cave formed primarily by the wave action of the sea . The primary process involved is erosion . Sea caves are found throughout the world , actively forming along present coastlines and as relict sea caves on former coastlines . Some of the largest wave-cut caves in the world are found on the coast of Norway , but are now 100 feet or more above present sea level . These would still be classified as littoral caves . By contrast , in places like Thailand 's Phang Nga Bay , solutionally formed caves in limestone have been flooded by the rising sea and are now subject to littoral erosion , representing a new phase of their enlargement . Some of the best-known sea caves are European . Fingal 's Cave , on the Scottish island of Staffa , is a spacious cave some 70 m long , formed in columnar basalt . The Blue Grotto of Capri , although smaller , is famous for the apparent luminescent quality of its water , imparted by light passing through underwater openings . The Romans built a stairway in its rear and a now-collapsed tunnel to the surface . The Greek islands are also noted for the variety and beauty of their sea caves . Numerous sea caves have been surveyed in England , Scotland , and in France , particularly on the Normandy coast . Until 2013 , the largest known sea caves were found along the west coast of the United States , the Hawaiian islands , and the Shetland Islands . In 2013 the discovery and survey of the world 's largest sea cave was announced . Located on New Zealand 's Otago coast on the South Island , Matainaka Cave has proven to be the world 's most extensive at 1.5 km in length . Also in 2013 , Crossley reported a newly surveyed complex reaching just over a kilometer in survey at Bethells Beach on New Zealand 's North Island .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Sea_cave",
"rank": 52,
"score": 78501
},
{
"content": "Title: Over Sea, Under Stone Content: Over Sea , Under Stone is a contemporary fantasy novel written for children by the English author Susan Cooper , first published in London by Jonathan Cape in 1965 . Cooper wrote four sequels about ten years later , making it the first volume in a series usually called The Dark is Rising ( 1965 to 1977 ) . In contrast to the rest of the series , it is more a mystery , with traditional fantasy elements mainly the subject of hints later in the narrative . Thus it may ease readers into the fantasy genre .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Over_Sea,_Under_Stone",
"rank": 53,
"score": 78449
},
{
"content": "Title: SeeFood Content: SeeFood ( also known as Sea Level in the United States ) is a Malaysian computer-animated adventure film produced by Silver Ant and released in Malaysian cinemas on 8 March 2012 . SeeFood was first launched in Poland on 7 October 2011 . It received financial support from Malaysian Ministry of Science , Technology and Innovation and from the Multimedia Development Corporation .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "SeeFood",
"rank": 54,
"score": 78364
},
{
"content": "Title: Lord Howe Rise Content: The Lord Howe Rise is a deep sea plateau which extends from south west of New Caledonia to the Challenger Plateau , west of New Zealand in the south west of the Pacific Ocean . To its west is the Tasman Basin and to the east is the New Caledonia Basin . Lord Howe Rise has a total area of about 1,500,000 square km , and generally lies about 750 to 1,200 metres under water . It is part of Zealandia , a much larger continent that is now mostly submerged , and so is composed of continental crust .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Lord_Howe_Rise",
"rank": 55,
"score": 78090
},
{
"content": "Title: Problem of future contingents Content: Future contingent propositions ( or simply , future contingents ) are statements about states of affairs in the future that are neither necessarily true nor necessarily false . The problem of future contingents seems to have been first discussed by Aristotle in chapter 9 of his On Interpretation ( De Interpretatione ) , using the famous sea-battle example . Roughly a generation later , Diodorus Cronus from the Megarian school of philosophy stated a version of the problem in his notorious Master Argument . The problem was later discussed by Leibniz . The problem can be expressed as follows . Suppose that a sea-battle will not be fought tomorrow . Then it was also true yesterday ( and the week before , and last year ) that it will not be fought , since any true statement about what will be the case in the future was also true in the past . But all past truths are now necessary truths ; therefore it is now necessarily true in the past , prior and up to the original statement `` A sea battle will not be fought tomorrow , '' that the battle will not be fought , and thus the statement that it will be fought is necessarily false . Therefore , it is not possible that the battle will be fought . In general , if something will not be the case , it is not possible for it to be the case . `` For a man may predict an event ten thousand years beforehand , and another may predict the reverse ; that which was truly predicted at the moment in the past will of necessity take place in the fullness of time '' ( De Int . 18b35 ) . This conflicts with the idea of our own free choice : that we have the power to determine or control the course of events in the future , which seems impossible if what happens , or does not happen , is necessarily going to happen , or not happen . As Aristotle says , if so there would be no need `` to deliberate or to take trouble , on the supposition that if we should adopt a certain course , a certain result would follow , while , if we did not , the result would not follow '' .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Problem_of_future_contingents",
"rank": 56,
"score": 77949
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Ocean_heat_content",
"rank": 57,
"score": 77816
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 58,
"score": 77358
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System",
"rank": 59,
"score": 77237
},
{
"content": "Title: Corazones (Omar Rodríguez-López album) Content: Corazones is the twenty-eighth studio album by Omar Rodríguez-López as a solo artist , released on 29 July 2016 . It is his second release in the 12 album series initiated by Ipecac Recordings . The song `` Sea is Rising '' made its first studio appearance on 2013 's Unicorn Skeleton Mask , while the song was actually debuted instrumentally on the Omar Rodriguez Lopez Group 2010 tour . `` Running Away '' was uploaded in advance as the album 's single . On August 1 , 2016 , Pitchfork released a music video for the song `` Running Away '' directed by Violeta Felix which features John Frusciante , former Mars Volta bassist Eva Gardner , Teri Gender Bender ( of Le Butcherettes and Bosnian Rainbows ) , photographer Robin Laananen , actress Tatiana Velazquez , visual artist Aura T-09 and Buzz Osborne ( of The Melvins ) all punching Omar in the face .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Corazones_(Omar_Rodríguez-López_album)",
"rank": 60,
"score": 77120
},
{
"content": "Title: Standard sea level Content: Standard sea level ( SSL ) ( also known as sea level standard ( SLS ) ) defines a set of conditions for physical calculations . The term `` standard sea level '' is used to indicate that values of properties are to be taken to be the same as those standard at sea level , and is done to define values for use in general calculations .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Standard_sea_level",
"rank": 61,
"score": 77014
},
{
"content": "Title: Retrogradation Content: Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common : during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets . with extremely low sediment input .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Retrogradation",
"rank": 62,
"score": 76818
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929",
"rank": 63,
"score": 76515
},
{
"content": "Title: Cat Hellisen Content: Cat Hellisen ( born 31 May 1977 ) is the South African author of fantasy novels When the Sea is Rising Red , House of Sand and Secrets , and Beastkeeper . .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Cat_Hellisen",
"rank": 64,
"score": 76339
},
{
"content": "Title: Chatham Rise Content: The Chatham Rise is an area of ocean floor to the east of New Zealand , forming part of the Zealandia continent . It stretches for some 1000 km from near the South Island in the west , to the Chatham Islands in the east . It is New Zealand 's most productive and important fishing ground , as well as important habitat for whales . Relative to the rest of the Pacific Ocean waters around New Zealand , the Chatham Rise is relatively shallow , no more than 1000 m deep at any point . This shallowness is made more remarkable by the depth of the ocean immediately to the north and south . To the northeast , the Hikurangi Trench , an extension of the much deeper Kermadec Trench , drops to below 3000 m close to the New Zealand coast , and further from the coast the Rise borders on the Hikurangi Plateau . To the south , similar depths are achieved in the Bounty Trough . Past the eastern end of the rise , the sea floor drops away to the abyssal plain .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Chatham_Rise",
"rank": 65,
"score": 76281
},
{
"content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Deglaciation",
"rank": 66,
"score": 76254
},
{
"content": "Title: South Tasman Rise Content: The South Tasman Rise is an area of seafloor that lies 550 km south of Hobart , Tasmania in the Southern Ocean where water depths are about 1,500 metres . The South Tasman Rise is also known as the Tasmania Ridge or South Tasmania Ridge .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "South_Tasman_Rise",
"rank": 67,
"score": 76228
},
{
"content": "Title: MV Cape Rise (T-AKR-9678) Content: The , formerly Audi Riyadh , formerly Seaspeed Arabia is a roll-on/roll-off and container ship built in 1977 .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "MV_Cape_Rise_(T-AKR-9678)",
"rank": 68,
"score": 75900
},
{
"content": "Title: Thiel Trough Content: Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Thiel_Trough",
"rank": 69,
"score": 75283
},
{
"content": "Title: Ingression coast Content: An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level . Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral ( tidal ) processes , because the sea level , which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period , did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago . Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform -- e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief -- various types of ingression coast emerge , such as rias , skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Ingression_coast",
"rank": 70,
"score": 75151
},
{
"content": "Title: Outer trench swell Content: The outer trench swell , outer trench high , or outer rise is a subtle ridge on the seafloor near an oceanic trench , where a descending plate begins to flex and fault in preparation for its descent into the mantle at a subduction zone . The lithosphere is bent upwards by plate stresses , and is not in isostatic equilibrium ( distinguish from the `` outer ridge '' of a forearc ) . Typically , the gravity field over the outer swell is about 50 mGal ( 0.5 mm/s ² ) higher than expected from isostasy , while gravity over the trench is about 200 mGal ( 2 mm/s ² ) less than that expected from isostatic considerations . The bending of the plate is associated with tension in the upper 20 km , and shallow earthquakes , caused by tensional failure induced by the downward bending of the oceanic plate are common ; about 20 extensional outer rise earthquakes with magnitude 5 or greater occur annually . Most tension axes are perpendicular to the trench , independent of the direction of relative motion between the two plates , indicating that failure is controlled by bending stresses in the plate . Plate bending also causes deeper ( down to 50 km ) earthquakes due to compression . The wavelength and amplitude of this flexure can be used to constrain the state of stress across the plate boundary . The width of the outer rise is directly related to the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere . The thickness of the elastic lithosphere varies between 20 and 30 km for most trench profiles . Faulting related to plate bending and stair-stepping of the descending slab into the trench may allow seawater to infiltrate deep into the crust and perhaps upper mantle . This may lead to large scale formation of serpentinite in the upper mantle of the downgoing plate ( Ranero et al. , 2003 ) . Faulting of the downgoing plate results in a horst and graben structure that allows sediment that reaches the trench to be deposited in graben and carried downward . This faulting also breaks up seamounts as they approach the trench . The principal mechanism of frontal erosion may reflect combined effects of seamount tunneling , mass wasting and transport to the trench , deposition in a graben on the downgoing plate , and descent into the mantle . Outer trench swells are geoscientific frontiers and much remains to be learned about them . Recent volcanoes have been discovered on ~ 135-million-year-old Pacific Plate east of Japan ( Hirano et al. , 2006 ) . These small alkalic volcanoes are small percent melts of asthenosphere that exploit bending-related lithospheric faults to reach the seafloor . Hirano et al. , ( 2006 ) proposed that these small volcanoes erupted along lithospheric fractures in response to plate flexure during subduction . If bending-related faulting and serpentinization is an important process beneath outer trench swells , there are probably also abundant low-temperature hydrothermal vents on the swells , similar to those of the Lost City ( hydrothermal field ) .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Outer_trench_swell",
"rank": 71,
"score": 75023
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 72,
"score": 74840
},
{
"content": "Title: Heli Fire Content: is an arcade game developed by Nintendo , and released in September 1980 by Nintendo . Some sources claim that Ikegami Tsushinki also did design work on Heli Fire . A Nintendo Entertainment System/Famicom port was planned but was canceled for unknown reasons . Similar to the 1976 Midway title Sea Wolf , players control a submarine in which they must survive as long as possible against a barrage of enemy attacks from the sea and above . The submarine can move in eight directions and can defend itself with missiles . While ships and mines attack the submarine from the water , enemy helicopters , which come in four different colors that designate their speed , drop missiles and depth charges at the submarine from the air . Each level consists of three sets of ten helicopters ( for a total of 30 ) which must be destroyed within a specified time limit , or else they start to attack in a `` special assault pattern '' . After a certain number of helicopters are destroyed , the submarine resurfaces , and a native girl dances ( called `` dancers of the isles '' ) on top of the submarine while bonus points are awarded . After each level , the water level rises , placing the submarine closer to the helicopters and underwater traps . Heli Fire came in both upright and cocktail arcade cabinets . It featured black and white raster graphics and used overlays to provide color . It could be played with one player or two players who alternate turns . The sound was provided by Hirokazu Tanaka , and it consisted of one amplified monoural channel .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Heli_Fire",
"rank": 73,
"score": 74821
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 74,
"score": 74764
},
{
"content": "Title: Foodflation Content: Foodflation ( also known as Food price bubble ) is the continuous rise in the food prices which is higher than the general inflation level . According to Reuters food prices have gone up by 11.7 % in the first 11 months of 2010 whereas the general price level ( inflation ) has risen only by 1.9 % . This indicates a serious mismatch and requires precautionary measures to avoid food crisis creating starving nations . Majority of people from developing nations spend more than 80 % of their income on food and what will happen if the food prices rise at 15 % -20 % rate ? Should n't this issue be given more priority in the agendas of world economists ? World leaders fear of food crisis . They expect for a world without food , starvation , hunger and may be a world war III to not divide/acquire countries but to for survival and reduce the hunger of the nations . Certain countries have already started missions to get rid of food crisis . Indonesian President have requested his people to start a vegetable farm in their gardens in a smaller scale which will help them to reduce effects of food crisis . Indian and Chinese governments have taken precautionary measures but they seem to have failed and the food prices in those countries are rising . Meanwhile , Sri Lanka is warned of food crisis at the beginning of the year 2011 and it is the time for us to think about foodflation at a local level .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Foodflation",
"rank": 75,
"score": 74635
},
{
"content": "Title: North Aral Sea Content: The North Aral Sea is the portion of the former Aral Sea that is fed by the Syr Darya River . It split from the South Aral Sea in 1986 as water levels dropped due to river diversion for agriculture . The poorly built Dike Kokaral intended to contain the North Aral Sea and save its fisheries failed twice , but in 2005 the government of Kazakhstan was able to fund a more robust design . Since then , water levels have risen faster than expected and fish stocks have increased . Plans to build a second dike to increase water levels further were due to begin in 2010 .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "North_Aral_Sea",
"rank": 76,
"score": 74483
},
{
"content": "Title: Doggerland Content: Doggerland was an area now beneath the southern North Sea that connected Great Britain to continental Europe during and after the last glacial period . It was flooded by rising sea levels around 6,500 -- 6,200 BCE . Geological surveys have suggested that it stretched from Britain 's east coast to the Netherlands and the western coasts of Germany and the peninsula of Jutland . It was probably a rich habitat with human habitation in the Mesolithic period , although rising sea levels gradually reduced it to low-lying islands before its final submergence , possibly following a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slide . The archaeological potential of the area had first been identified in the early 20th century , but interest intensified in 1931 when a fishing trawler operating east of the Wash dragged up a barbed antler point that was subsequently dated to a time when the area was tundra . Vessels have dragged up remains of mammoth , lion and other animals , as well as a few prehistoric tools and weapons . Doggerland was named after the Dogger Bank , which in turn was named after the 17th century Dutch fishing boats called doggers .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Doggerland",
"rank": 77,
"score": 74187
},
{
"content": "Title: Urban Creep Content: Urban Creep were a seminal South African rock band . The band was formed in 1994 and recorded two critically acclaimed albums , ` Sea Level ` and ` Tightroper ` . ` Sea Level ` was nominated for Rock album of the year 1995 at the South African Music Industry awards . ` Sea Level ` and ` Slow Thighs ` both got to number 1 on the 5fm top 40 in 1995 and 1997 respectively . According to well known musician and critic Dave Marks : `` Chris Letcher 's finger-picking acoustic & electric guitar style , unique vocals & song writing abilities combined with the classical & maskanda strains of Brendan Jury 's violin , keyboards & rock vocals , made the Creeps the urban legend & sensation they were '' . The band members were Brendan Jury ( viola , keyboard and vocals ) , Chris Letcher ( guitar and vocals ) , Ross Campbell ( drums ) and Didier Noblia ( bass ) . Ross Campbell originally drummed for the Durban band , Celtic Rumours ( Slow Rain ) and with Nibs van der Spuy in Plagal Cadence .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Urban_Creep",
"rank": 78,
"score": 74122
},
{
"content": "Title: Continental rise Content: The continental rise is an underwater feature found between the continental slope and the abyssal plain . This feature can be found all around the world , and it represents the final stage in the boundary between continents and the deepest part of the ocean . The environment in the continental rise is quite unique , and many oceanographers study it extensively in the hopes of learning more about the ocean and geologic history . At the bottom of the continental slope , one will find the continental rise , an underwater hill composed of tons of accumulated sediments . The general slope of the continental rise is between 0.5 degrees and 1.0 degrees . Deposition of sediments at the mouth of submarine canyons may form enormous fan-shaped accumulations called submarine fans . Submarine fans form part of the continental rise . Beyond the continental rise stretches the abyssal plain , an extremely deep and flat area of the sea floor . The abyssal plain hosts many unique life forms which are uniquely adapted to survival in its cold , high pressure , and dark conditions . The flatness of the abyssal plain is interrupted by massive underwater mountain chains near the tectonic boundaries of the Earth 's plates.The sediments are mostly sand and pieces of coral or rock . Category : Oceanography",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Continental_rise",
"rank": 79,
"score": 74121
},
{
"content": "Title: Irminger Sea Content: The Irminger Sea is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is 480 km long and 290 km wide at its narrowest . The northern limit is the Greenland-Iceland Rise on the bottom of the Denmark Strait between Iceland and East Greenland , which connects to the Greenland Sea . To the southwest , it reaches to Cape Farvel , the southern tip of Greenland , and meets the Labrador Sea at this point . South of this point is the open North Atlantic Ocean . The sea floor of the Irminger Sea is largely part of the Irminger Basin , a northeastern continuation of the maximally 4600 m deep Labrador Basin , which on the east is bordered by the Reykjanes Ridge . This delineation is oceanographic only and does not represent any official borders . The Irminger Sea is one of the main fishing areas of the Rose fish . The Irminger Sea was named after Danish vice-admiral Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger ( 1802 -- 1888 ) , after whom also the Irminger Current was named .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Irminger_Sea",
"rank": 80,
"score": 73916
},
{
"content": "Title: John A. Church Content: John A. Church ( born 1951 ) is an expert on sea level and its changes . He was co-convening lead author ( with Jonathan M. Gregory ) for the chapter on Sea Level in the IPCC Third Assessment Report . He was also a co-convening lead author for the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is a member of the Joint Scientific Committee of the WCRP . He is currently a project leader at CSIRO .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "John_A._Church",
"rank": 81,
"score": 73728
},
{
"content": "Title: Nothoadmete Content: Nothoadmete is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Cancellariidae , the nutmeg snails .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Nothoadmete",
"rank": 82,
"score": 73682
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea Shall Not Have Them Content: The Sea Shall Not Have Them is a 1954 British war film starring Michael Redgrave , Dirk Bogarde and Anthony Steel . It was directed by Lewis Gilbert and is based on the 1953 novel by John Harris , set during the Second World War . Musical soundtrack by composer Malcolm Arnold . The film title is the motto of the Royal Air Force 's Air Sea Rescue Service .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "The_Sea_Shall_Not_Have_Them",
"rank": 83,
"score": 73681
},
{
"content": "Title: Nicholas X. Notias Content: Nicholas X. Notias ( Νικόλαος Χ . Νοτιάς born 1966 ) , is a Greek American businessman , ship-owner and ship-manager , owner of Seabridge Chartering LLC located in Wall Street , Vice President and Director of Operations of Independence Maritime Agency Inc. and Trojan Maritime Inc. . He 's also a large shareholder of the real estate Notias Constructions Company , Director of Operations of Cardiff Holdings Inc. , Director of Operations of Liverpool Holdings Inc. , and until June 2013 , the major shareholder and Vice President of the famous Greek football club A.E.K. Athens .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Nicholas_X._Notias",
"rank": 84,
"score": 73259
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea protest Content: In maritime law , a sea protest is a notarized statement obtained after a ship enters port after a rough voyage . Its purpose is to protect the ship 's charterer or owner from liability for damage to the cargo , the ship or to other ships in a collision , where this was caused by the perils of the sea ( for example , bad weather ) . If it is known or suspected that such damage has occurred , the captain will make a sworn `` protest in common form '' at the office of a notary public , or a consul . If the full extent of any damage caused only becomes apparent while or after the cargo is unloaded , the captain may return to the office of the notary public to extend his protest . If a sea protest is not made , the owner or charterer may be liable for the damage caused and may be unable to produce the ship 's log ( which would have recorded the relevant incidents ) as evidence in court .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Sea_protest",
"rank": 85,
"score": 73248
},
{
"content": "Title: Notobranchaeidae Content: The Notobranchaeidae are a taxonomic family of floating sea slugs or `` sea angels '' , pelagic marine opisthobranch gastropod mollusks . The small pelagic snails of this family have no shell ( except in the early embryonic stage ) . They are carnivores , equipped with swimming parapodia ( fleshy wing-like flaps ) , strong jaws , and grasping tentacles , often with suckers resembling those of cephalopods .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Notobranchaeidae",
"rank": 86,
"score": 73160
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sailor Not the Sea Content: The Sailor not the Sea is an album by the Belgian singer-songwriter Ozark Henry ( stage name of Piet Goddaer ) , released in 2004 . The album was awarded for double Platinum in Belgium ( 80.000 copies sold ) .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "The_Sailor_Not_the_Sea",
"rank": 87,
"score": 73132
},
{
"content": "Title: Kačák Event Content: The Kačák Event ( -LSB- ˈkatʃaːk -RSB- ) or Kačák-otomari Event is a widely recognised bioevent or series of events that occurred close to the end of the Eifelian Age of the Middle Devonian Epoch . It involved a global eustatic rise in sea level . It was named for the Kačák Member of the Srbsko Formation in Bohemia , where it is represented by a black shale interval within a sequence of limestone . In marine environments , this appears as an anoxic event , often forming potential hydrocarbon source rocks such as the Marcellus Shale . Within the Old Red Sandstone continent , it is represented by the Achanarras lake , the deepest and most widespread lake that developed within the Orcadian Basin . The event is associated with significant extinctions , particularly amongst the Ammonoidea .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Kačák_Event",
"rank": 88,
"score": 72943
},
{
"content": "Title: Rise: The Vieneo Province Content: Rise : The Vieneo Province ( abbreviated to Rise ) is `` free-to-play '' Internet-based virtual world . Through a free downloadable client program , users interact with each other through motional vehicles and avatars , providing an advanced level of a social network service combined with general aspects of a metaverse . While Rise is sometimes referred to as a game , in general it does not have points , scores , winners or losers , levels , an end-strategy , or most of the other characteristics of a typical game . Players , often called `` citizens '' , can visit this virtual world almost as if it were a real place . They explore , meet other citizens , socialize , participate in individual and alliance activities , and buy and produce goods ( virtual property ) and services from one another . As they spend more time in the world , they learn new skills and mature socially , learning the culture and manners of a virtual environment . The game contains player-driven economics , a dynamic weather system , and a detailed terrain engine . Vieneo , the fictitious moon the game is based on , has all the typical attributes of a planet or moon and was made using StarGen . The aerodynamic and astrodynamic physics are of the highest fidelity and therefore closely mimic reality . One of the goals of many players is to fly up into orbit and look down at the large gaming arena .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Rise:_The_Vieneo_Province",
"rank": 89,
"score": 72654
},
{
"content": "Title: The Powerless Rise Content: The Powerless Rise is the fifth studio album by American metalcore band As I Lay Dying . The album was released on May 7 , 2010 in Europe and was released on May 11 , 2010 in the United States . The Powerless Rise debuted at No. 10 on the Billboard 200 with sales of 38,000 . The album features three singles : `` Beyond Our Suffering '' , `` Parallels '' , and `` Anodyne Sea '' . Music videos have been released for all three , with the latest one ( `` Beyond Our Suffering '' ) consisting of live footage .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "The_Powerless_Rise",
"rank": 90,
"score": 72619
},
{
"content": "Title: Notarchus Content: Notarchus is a genus of sea slugs or sea hares , marine opisthobranch gastropod mollusks in the family Aplysiidae , the sea hares .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Notarchus",
"rank": 91,
"score": 72334
},
{
"content": "Title: Ghost forest Content: Ghost forests occur in areas where sea level has changed . When there is a change in sea level , coastal regions may become inundated with sea water , altering the coastline and sometimes killing large areas of trees , leaving behind what is called a `` ghost forest . '' Ghost forests may develop in a variety of environments . And while ghost forests can occur in many different places , the physical coastal features are what dictate why they occur . For example , in the southern US coastal marshes are expanding into dry wooded areas , killing trees and leaving behind areas of dead trees called snags . This region of the US is at or below sea level , making the area more susceptible to tides . The coastal features that dictated the creation of these ghost forests are directly affected by changing sea levels and therefore indirectly affected by climate change . With global sea level rise , the coastlines in the southern US are being altered and leaving behind salt marshes filled with dead and dying trees . In other parts of the world , ghost forests can be the result of tectonic activity and not necessarily global sea level rise . In the Pacific northwest , there is a large , active subduction zone called the Cascadia Subduction Zone . Here , we have a convergent plate boundary where the Gorda plate , the Juan de Fuca plate , and the Explorer plate are being subducted underneath the North American plate . As these plates attempt to slide past one another , they often become stuck . For several hundred years the plates will be locked in place and the tension builds . As a result of this tension we get what is called orogenic uplift . This is where the tension building between two converging plates gets translated into vertical uplift of the mountains on the coast . Orogenic uplift is usually associated with earthquakes and mountain building . But then , every 500 + years , there is large earthquake in the Cascadia Subduction Zone and all that built up tension is released . The release of this tension results in what is called subsidence . And with subsidence the once elevated coastline will drop down several meters to below sea level . Here , sea level has not changed , but the coastline has been deformed , making it susceptible to tides . Areas of the coastline are now inundated with sea water , creating marshes and leaving behind ghost forests . In addition to subsidence , these large earthquakes will also cause tsunamis . It is possible to determine that ghost forests in the Pacific northwest were created by earthquakes and subsidence by looking at the stratigraphic record . Digging down into the earth , adjacent to a ghost forest , we will see different layers of sediment . These different layers represent different environments . When observing the stratigraphy in a ghost forest , one will see a layer of material that is filled with organic material . This layer represents the old forest floor , prior to subsidence . Then , on top of the layer that represents the old forest floor , there will often be a large sandy deposit . This layer represents the tsunami event , where the coast was flooded with sea water that is filled with sandy sediment . Superimposed on top of the tsunami deposit will be a muddy deposit , representative of an area subjected to ocean tides . Looking at the stratigraphic record , it is possible to reconstruct a series of events that lead to the creation of a ghost forest . Where , in a convergent plate boundary , we have orogenic uplift , followed by earthquakes resulting in subsidence and tsunamis , altering the coast and creating a ghost forest .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Ghost_forest",
"rank": 92,
"score": 72333
},
{
"content": "Title: Annual cycle of sea level height Content: The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Annual_cycle_of_sea_level_height",
"rank": 93,
"score": 71909
},
{
"content": "Title: Notomyotida Content: The Notomyotida are an order of sea stars containing at least 75 species in eight genera of the monotypic family , Benthopectinidae . These asteroids are deep-sea dwelling and have flexible arms . The inner dorso-lateral surface of the arms contain characteristic longitudinal muscle bands .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Notomyotida",
"rank": 94,
"score": 71818
},
{
"content": "Title: North Sea flood of 1953 Content: The 1953 North Sea flood ( Watersnoodramp , literally `` water emergency disaster '' ) was a major flood caused by a heavy storm that occurred on the night of Saturday , 31 January 1953 and morning of Sunday , 1 February 1953 . The floods struck the Netherlands , Belgium , England and Scotland . A combination of a high spring tide and a severe European windstorm over the North Sea caused a storm tide ; the combination of wind , high tide , and low pressure led to a water level of more than 5.6 m above mean sea level in some locations . The flood and waves overwhelmed sea defences and caused extensive flooding . The Netherlands , a country with 20 % of its territory below mean sea level and 50 % less than 1 m above sea level and which relies heavily on sea defences , was worst affected , recording 1,836 deaths and widespread property damage . Most of the casualties occurred in the southern province of Zeeland . In England , 307 people were killed in the counties of Lincolnshire , Norfolk , Suffolk and Essex . Nineteen were killed in Scotland . Twenty-eight people were killed in West Flanders , Belgium . In addition , more than 230 deaths occurred on water craft along Northern European coasts as well as on ships in deeper waters of the North Sea . The ferry MV Princess Victoria was lost at sea in the North Channel east of Belfast with 133 fatalities , and many fishing trawlers sank . Realising that such infrequent events could recur , the Netherlands particularly , and the United Kingdom carried out major studies on strengthening of coastal defences . The Netherlands developed the Delta Works , an extensive system of dams and storm surge barriers . The UK constructed storm surge barriers on the River Thames below London and on the River Hull where it meets the Humber estuary .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "North_Sea_flood_of_1953",
"rank": 95,
"score": 71811
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine riser tensioner Content: A marine riser tensioner is a device used on an offshore drilling vessel which provides a near constant upward force on the drilling riser independent of the movement of the floating drill vessel . The marine riser is connected to the wellhead on the sea bed and therefore the tensioner must manage the differential movements between the riser and the rig . If there were no tensioner and the rig moves downward , the riser would buckle ; if the rig rises then high forces would be transmitted to the riser and it would stretch and be damaged . Tensioners have historically been composed of hydraulic actuated cylinders with wire sheaves . More recently , active electrical motors have been used for compensation purposes .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Marine_riser_tensioner",
"rank": 96,
"score": 71801
},
{
"content": "Title: James Jardine Content: James Jardine ( 1776 -- 20 June 1858 ) was a Scottish civil engineer , mathematician and geologist . He was the first person to determine mean sea level .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "James_Jardine",
"rank": 97,
"score": 71777
},
{
"content": "Title: Notaeolidiidae Content: Notaeolidiidae is a taxonomic family of sea slugs , specifically aeolid nudibranchs , marine gastropod molluscs in the superfamily Flabellinoidea .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Notaeolidiidae",
"rank": 98,
"score": 71711
},
{
"content": "Title: EverQuest II: Rise of Kunark Content: EverQuest II : Rise of Kunark is the EverQuest II expansion pack from Sony Online Entertainment . The expansion pack introduces a new continent , Kunark ; a new player race , the Sarnak ; and raises the level cap for adventure , tradeskills and guilds to 80 .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "EverQuest_II:_Rise_of_Kunark",
"rank": 99,
"score": 71164
},
{
"content": "Title: Rise (TV series) Content: Rise ( formerly known as Drama High ) is an upcoming American drama television series created by Jason Katims and Jeffrey Seller based on the young adult novel Drama High by Michael Sokolove , starring Josh Radnor in the main role of Lou Volpe . The pilot was ordered to series by NBC on May 4 , 2017 along with The Brave , making both series the first regular series orders by the network for the 2017 -- 18 United States network television schedule .",
"qid": "69",
"docid": "Rise_(TV_series)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 71079
}
] |
Cold weather to grip world as solar minimum to deepen, NASA says | [
{
"content": "Title: Deep Space Climate Observatory Content: Deep Space Climate Observatory ( DSCOVR ; formerly known as Triana , unofficially known as GoreSat ) is a NOAA Earth observation and space weather satellite launched by SpaceX on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle on February 11 , 2015 from Cape Canaveral . It was originally developed as a NASA satellite proposed in 1998 by then-Vice President Al Gore for the purpose of Earth observation . It is in a Lissajous orbit at the Sun-Earth Lagrangian point , 1500000 km from Earth , to monitor variable solar wind condition , provide early warning of approaching coronal mass ejections and observe phenomena on Earth including changes in ozone , aerosols , dust and volcanic ash , cloud height , vegetation cover and climate . At this location it has a continuous view of the Sun and the sunlit side of the Earth . The satellite is orbiting the Sun-Earth point in a six-month period , with a spacecraft-Earth-Sun angle varying from 4 to 15 degrees . It takes full-Earth pictures about every two hours and is able to process them faster than other Earth observation satellites . DSCOVR started orbiting around by June 8 , 2015 , just over 100 days after launch . After the spacecraft arrived on site and entered its operational phase , NASA began releasing near-real time images of Earth through the EPIC instrument 's website .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep_Space_Climate_Observatory",
"rank": 1,
"score": 110965
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Mesopause",
"rank": 2,
"score": 102075
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar minimum Content: Solar minimum is the period of least solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the sun . During this time , sunspot and solar flare activity diminishes , and often does not occur for days at a time . The date of the minimum is described by a smoothed average over 12 months of sunspot activity , so identifying the date of the solar minimum usually can only happen 6 months after the minimum takes place . Solar minima are not generally correlated with changes in climate but recent studies have shown a correlation with regional weather patterns . Solar minimum is contrasted with the solar maximum , where there may be hundreds of sunspots .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_minimum",
"rank": 3,
"score": 100871
},
{
"content": "Title: Dalton Minimum Content: The Dalton Minimum was a period of low sunspot count , representing low solar activity , named after the English meteorologist John Dalton , lasting from about 1790 to 1830 or 1796 to 1820 , corresponding to the period solar cycle 4 to solar cycle 7 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Dalton_Minimum",
"rank": 4,
"score": 94046
},
{
"content": "Title: Willie Soon Content: Wei-Hock `` Willie '' Soon ( born 1966 ) is an externally-funded part-time researcher of the Smithsonian at the Solar and Stellar Physics ( SSP ) Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . Soon co-authored The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun -- Earth Connection with Steven H. Yaskell . The book treats historical and proxy records of climate change coinciding with the Maunder Minimum , a period from 1645 to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare . Soon disputes the current scientific understanding of climate change , and contends that most global warming is caused by solar variation rather than by human activity . He gained visibility in part due to strong scientific criticism of the methodology of a paper which he co-wrote . Climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies have strongly refuted Soon 's arguments , and the Smithsonian does not support his conclusions . He is nonetheless frequently cited by politicians opposed to climate-change legislation .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Willie_Soon",
"rank": 5,
"score": 93812
},
{
"content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Impact_winter",
"rank": 6,
"score": 92433
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar weather Content: Solar weather is branch of meteorology , which studies behavior of sun and what type of predictions can be done . Solar weather research includes for instance doing simulations of possible behavior of sun . Uses are for instance giving warnings to satellites about possible solar storms . Due to enormous size and mass of sun and complicated feedback systems solar weather predictions are n't as good as normal -- earth - weather predictions . ( Exceptions with sun spots ) Solar weather is closely related to space weather and often included in same category .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_weather",
"rank": 7,
"score": 91083
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment",
"rank": 8,
"score": 90149
},
{
"content": "Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Theodor_Landscheidt",
"rank": 9,
"score": 89713
},
{
"content": "Title: Space weather Content: Space weather is a branch of space physics and aeronomy concerned with the time varying conditions within the Solar System , including the solar wind , emphasizing the space surrounding the Earth , including conditions in the magnetosphere , ionosphere and thermosphere . Space weather is distinct from the terrestrial weather of the Earth 's atmosphere ( troposphere and stratosphere ) . The science of space weather is focused on fundamental research and practical applications . The term space weather was first used in the 1950s and came into common usage in the 1990s .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Space_weather",
"rank": 10,
"score": 88896
},
{
"content": "Title: NASA Deep Space Network Content: The NASA Deep Space Network ( DSN ) is a worldwide network of US spacecraft communication facilities , located in the United States ( California ) , Spain ( Madrid ) , and Australia ( Canberra ) , that supports NASA 's interplanetary spacecraft missions . It also performs radio and radar astronomy observations for the exploration of the solar system and the universe , and supports selected Earth-orbiting missions . DSN is part of the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) . Similar networks are run by Europe , Russia , China , India , and Japan .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "NASA_Deep_Space_Network",
"rank": 11,
"score": 88084
},
{
"content": "Title: GROVER Content: GROVER or Goddard Remotely Operated Vehicle for Exploration and Research is an Earth-bound autonomous student-designed rover developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center . With this solar-powered rover , scientists hope to get cheaper data about the Greenland ice sheet that lies in a rapidly warming region . The test drive started in Summit Camp in Greenland on a three kilometer thick ice sheet , which is the highest spot on the largest island of the World . The science team is led by the glaciologist Lora Koenig from NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Md. . The test began on 3 May 2013 at temperatures as low as -30 ° C and is planned to continue till 8 June 2013 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "GROVER",
"rank": 12,
"score": 86492
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar phenomena Content: Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots . These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations . The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth . Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_phenomena",
"rank": 13,
"score": 86209
},
{
"content": "Title: The Coldest Season Content: The Coldest Season is a 2007 album by dub techno duo Echospace ( credited on the album as Deepchord Presents Echospace ) which is composed of Rod Modell ( Deepchord ) and Stephen Hitchell . The Coldest Season was recorded using old analog equipment . The album is very atmospheric with ambient and techno influences . It was named the 49th best album of the decade by Resident Advisor .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "The_Coldest_Season",
"rank": 14,
"score": 83887
},
{
"content": "Title: Space weathering Content: Space weathering is the damage that occurs to any object exposed to the harsh environment of outer space . Bodies without atmospheres ( including the Moon , Mercury , the asteroids , comets , and most of the moons of other planets ) incur many weathering processes : collisions of galactic cosmic rays and solar cosmic rays , irradiation , implantation , and sputtering from solar wind particles , and bombardment by different sizes of meteorites and micrometeorites . Space weathering is important because these processes affect the physical and optical properties of the surface of many planetary bodies . Therefore , it is critical to understand the effects of space weathering in order to properly interpret remotely sensed data .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Space_weathering",
"rank": 15,
"score": 83700
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold Atom Laboratory Content: Cold Atom Laboratory ( CAL ) is an experimental instrument being developed for launch to the International Space Station ( ISS ) in June 2017 . The instrument will create extremely cold conditions in the microgravity environment of the ISS leading to the formation of Bose Einstein Condensates that are a magnitude colder than those that are created in laboratories on Earth . In a space-based laboratory , up to 20 seconds interaction times and as low as 1 picokelvin temperatures are achievable , and it could lead to exploration of unknown quantum mechanical phenomena and test some of the most fundamental laws of physics . NASA 's JPL scientists state that the CAL investigation could advance knowledge in the development of extremely sensitive quantum detectors , which could be used for monitoring the gravity of Earth and other planetary bodies , or for building advanced navigation devices . The initial mission will have a duration of 12 months with up to five years of extended operation .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Cold_Atom_Laboratory",
"rank": 16,
"score": 82569
},
{
"content": "Title: Spörer Minimum Content: The Spörer Minimum is a hypothesized 90-year span of low solar activity , from about 1460 until 1550 , which was identified and named by John A. Eddy in a landmark 1976 paper published in Science titled `` The Maunder Minimum '' . It occurred before sunspots had been directly observed and was discovered instead by analysis of the proportion of carbon-14 in tree rings , which is strongly correlated with solar activity . It is named for the German astronomer Gustav Spörer .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Spörer_Minimum",
"rank": 17,
"score": 82398
},
{
"content": "Title: Lockheed Martin Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory Content: The Lockheed Martin Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory ( LMSAL ) is part of the Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center ( ATC ) that is known primarily for its scientific work in the field of solar physics , astronomy and space weather . The LMSAL team is part of Lockheed Martin Space Systems and has close affiliations with NASA and the solar physics group at Stanford University . Located in Palo Alto , California , LMSAL is involved in many ground - and space-based missions that study the Sun , with a sharp focus on basic research into understanding and predicting space weather and the behavior of the Sun , including its impacts on Earth and climate .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Lockheed_Martin_Solar_and_Astrophysics_Laboratory",
"rank": 18,
"score": 81531
},
{
"content": "Title: January 2017 European cold wave Content: A period of exceptionally cold and snowy winter weather in January 2017 occurred in Eastern and Central Europe . In some areas , flights and shipping services were suspended , and there was major disruption to power supplies and other essential infrastructure . The weather was the result of stationary high pressure over western Europe , resulting in strong winds circulating from Russia and Scandinavia towards eastern Europe . On 9 January , the Continental Arctic ( cA ) air mass extended from Germany across the Balkans , resulting in deep snow in Greece and strong bora winds affecting Croatia in particular . In addition , heavy snow in central and Southern Italy was the result of cold air flowing across the warmer Adriatic Sea . At least 61 deaths were attributed to the cold wave .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "January_2017_European_cold_wave",
"rank": 19,
"score": 81305
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_gain",
"rank": 20,
"score": 80967
},
{
"content": "Title: 1908 Content: According to NASA reports , 1908 was the coldest recorded year since 1880 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "1908",
"rank": 21,
"score": 80844
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold wave Content: A cold wave ( known in some regions as a cold snap ) is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling of the air . Specifically , as used by the U.S. National Weather Service , a cold wave is a rapid fall in temperature within a 24-hour period requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture , industry , commerce , and social activities . The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the rate at which the temperature falls , and the minimum to which it falls . This minimum temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year . In the United States , a cold spell is defined as the national average high temperature dropping below 20 F.",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Cold_wave",
"rank": 22,
"score": 80742
},
{
"content": "Title: Coronal radiative losses Content: In astronomy and in astrophysics , for radiative losses of the solar corona , it is meant the energy flux irradiated from the external atmosphere of the Sun ( traditionally divided into chromosphere , transition region and corona ) , and , in particular , the processes of production of the radiation coming from the solar corona and transition region , where the plasma is optically-thin . On the contrary , in the chromosphere , where the temperature decreases from the photospheric value of 6000 K to the minimum of 4400 K , the optical depth is about 1 , and the radiation is thermal . The corona extends much further than a solar radius from the photosphere and looks very complex and inhomogeneous in the X-rays images taken by satellites ( see the figure on the right taken by the XRT on board Hinode ) . The structure and dynamics of the corona are dominated by the solar magnetic field . There are strong evidences that even the heating mechanism , responsible for its high temperature of million degrees , is linked to the magnetic field of the Sun . The energy flux irradiated from the corona changes in active regions , in the quiet Sun and in coronal holes ; actually , part of the energy is irradiated outwards , but approximately the same amount of the energy flux is conducted back towards the chromosphere , through the steep transition region . In active regions the energy flux is about 107 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , in the quiet Sun it is roughly 8 105 -- 106 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , and in coronal holes 5 105 - 8 105 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , including the losses due to the solar wind . The required power is a small fraction of the total flux irradiated from the Sun , but this energy is enough to maintain the plasma at the temperature of million degrees , since the density is very low and the processes of radiation are different from those occurring in the photosphere , as it is shown in detail in the next section .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Coronal_radiative_losses",
"rank": 23,
"score": 79737
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_maximum",
"rank": 24,
"score": 79440
},
{
"content": "Title: Advanced Composition Explorer Content: Advanced Composition Explorer ( ACE ) is a NASA Explorers program Solar and space exploration mission to study matter comprising energetic particles from the solar wind , the interplanetary medium , and other sources . Real-time data from ACE is used by the NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center to improve forecasts and warnings of solar storms . The ACE robotic spacecraft was launched August 25 , 1997 and entered a Lissajous orbit close to the Lagrangian point ( which lies between the Sun and the Earth at a distance of some 1.5 million km from the latter ) on December 12 , 1997 . The spacecraft is currently operating at that orbit . Because ACE is in a non-Keplerian orbit , and has regular station-keeping maneuvers , the orbital parameters in the adjacent information box are only approximate . The spacecraft is still in generally good condition in 2015 , and is projected to have enough fuel to maintain its orbit until 2024 . NASA Goddard Space Flight Center managed the development and integration of the ACE spacecraft .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Advanced_Composition_Explorer",
"rank": 25,
"score": 79364
},
{
"content": "Title: 1994 North American cold wave Content: The 1994 North American cold wave occurred over the midwestern United States , eastern United States , and southern Canada during January 1994 . Two notable cold air events occurred from January 18-19 and from January 21-22 . There were 67 minimum temperature records set on January 19 . Indiana and Kentucky both set state records on January 19 . The United States experienced its coldest temperature month since February 1934 , although much of the West experienced mild temperatures . Washington and Idaho experienced the second warmest January recorded in the previous 100 years . During the same period , the western United States experienced one of its most damaging earthquakes ever , and the eastern United States experienced a major snowfall that significantly delayed traffic . Over 100 deaths occurred in the United States as a result of the cold wave .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "1994_North_American_cold_wave",
"rank": 26,
"score": 79178
},
{
"content": "Title: Space Weather Prediction Center Content: The Space Weather Prediction Center ( SWPC ) , titled the Space Environment Center ( SEC ) until 2007 , is a laboratory and service center of the US National Weather Service ( part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) ) located in Boulder , Colorado . SWPC continually monitors and forecasts Earth 's space environment , providing solar-terrestrial information . SWPC is the official source of space weather alerts and warnings for the United States .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Space_Weather_Prediction_Center",
"rank": 27,
"score": 79063
},
{
"content": "Title: Nordic Deep Content: Nordic Deep is the warmest coldwater free-diving competition in the world . Located in Lysekil , Sweden . The depth is > 90m .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Nordic_Deep",
"rank": 28,
"score": 78897
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold trap (astronomy) Content: In astronomy , a cold trap is a close to the surface layer of the atmosphere that is substantially colder than both the deeper and higher layers . The temperature of the air drops with increasing height above the surface of the earth reaching a low point ( which for the earth resides at about 20 kilometers height ) . It is called a trap because it keeps ascending gases with high melting points in by freezing them to a solid which then drops back to the planet surface . The most important gas to be kept in that way , on the Earth , is water vapor , which without the presence of a cold trap in the atmosphere would gradually escape or dissociate into space , making life impossible . However , because of the cold trap water vapor condenses into droplets of liquid water or tiny ice crystals , forming clouds . The cold trap retains one-tenth of one percentof the water in the atmosphere in the form of a vapor at high altitudes . The cold trap is also a layer which above ultraviolet intensity is strong , since higher up the amount of water vapor is negligible . Oxygen screens out ultraviolet intensity . Some astronomers believe that the lack of a cold trap is why the planets Venus and Mars both lost most of their liquid water early in their histories .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Cold_trap_(astronomy)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 78698
},
{
"content": "Title: ESSA-8 Content: ESSA-8 was a weather satellite launched by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) on December 15 , 1968 , from Vandenberg Air Force Base , California . Its name was derived from that of its oversight agency , the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) . ESSA-8 was an 18-sided polygon . It measured 42 in in diameter by 22 in in height , with a mass of 290 lb . It was made of aluminum alloy and stainless steel covered with 10,020 solar cells . The cells charged 63 nickel -- cadmium batteries , which served as a power source . The satellite could take 8 to 10 pictures every 24 hours . Each photo covered a 2000 sqmi area at a resolution of 2 mi per pixel . ESSA-8 's mission was to replace ESSA-6 , and provide detailed cloud pattern photography to ground stations worldwide . Partners in the project included NASA , ESSA , RCA , the National Weather Service , and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NMC ) . ESSA-8 operated for 2,644 days until it was deactivated on March 12 , 1976 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "ESSA-8",
"rank": 30,
"score": 78314
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar X-ray Imager Content: Solar X-ray Imager ( SXI ) are full-disc X-ray instruments observing the Sun aboard GOES satellites . The SXI on GOES 12 was the first of its kind and allows the U.S. NOAA to better monitor and predict space weather .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_X-ray_Imager",
"rank": 31,
"score": 76991
},
{
"content": "Title: Maunder Minimum Content: The Maunder Minimum , also known as the `` prolonged sunspot minimum '' , is the name used for the period starting in about 1645 and continuing to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare , as noted by solar observers of the time . The term was introduced after John A. Eddy published a landmark 1976 paper in Science . Astronomers before Eddy had also named the period after the solar astronomers Annie Russell Maunder ( 1868 -- 1947 ) and E. Walter Maunder ( 1851 -- 1928 ) , who studied how sunspot latitudes changed with time . The period which the husband and wife team examined included the second half of the 17th century . Two papers were published in Edward Maunder 's name in 1890 and 1894 , and he cited earlier papers written by Gustav Spörer . Because Annie Maunder had not received a university degree ( due to restrictions at the time ) , her contribution was not publicly recognized . Spörer noted that , during a 28-year period ( 1672 -- 1699 ) within the Maunder Minimum , observations revealed fewer than 50 sunspots . This contrasts with the typical 40,000 -- 50,000 sunspots seen in modern times . Like the Dalton Minimum and Spörer Minimum , the Maunder Minimum coincided with a period of lower-than-average European temperatures .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Maunder_Minimum",
"rank": 32,
"score": 76697
},
{
"content": "Title: European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica Content: The European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica ( EPICA ) is a multinational European project for deep ice core drilling in Antarctica . Its main objective is to obtain full documentation of the climatic and atmospheric record archived in Antarctic ice by drilling and analyzing two ice cores and comparing these with their Greenland counterparts ( GRIP and GISP ) . Evaluation of these records will provide information about the natural climate variability and mechanisms of rapid climatic changes during the last glacial epoch . The European Science Foundation EPICA Programme ( 1996 -- 2005 ) provides co-ordination for EPICA drilling activities at Dome Concordia and Kohnen Station , which are supported by the European Commission and by national contributions from Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . Deep drilling took place at two sites in Antarctica : Concordia Station at Dome C and Kohnen Station . In 2008 the project received the Descartes Prize for Research .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "European_Project_for_Ice_Coring_in_Antarctica",
"rank": 33,
"score": 76264
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Content: The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory ( SOHO ) is a spacecraft built by a European industrial consortium led by Matra Marconi Space ( now Astrium ) that was launched on a Lockheed Martin Atlas II AS launch vehicle on December 2 , 1995 , to study the Sun , and has discovered over 3000 comets . It began normal operations in May 1996 . It is a joint project of international cooperation between the European Space Agency ( ESA ) and NASA . Originally planned as a two-year mission , SOHO continues to operate after over 20 years in space . In June 2013 , a mission extension lasting until December 2016 was approved . In addition to its scientific mission , it is the main source of near-real-time solar data for space weather prediction . Along with the GGS Wind , Advanced Composition Explorer ( ACE ) and DSCOVR , SOHO is one of four spacecraft in the vicinity of the Earth -- Sun L1 point , a point of gravitational balance located approximately 0.99 astronomical unit ( AU ) s from the Sun and 0.01 AU from the Earth . In addition to its scientific contributions , SOHO is distinguished by being the first three-axis-stabilized spacecraft to use its reaction wheels as a kind of virtual gyroscope ; the technique was adopted after an on-board emergency in 1998 that nearly resulted in the loss of the spacecraft .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory",
"rank": 34,
"score": 76006
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold Weather Content: Cold Weather is an American mystery film written by Aaron Katz , Ben Stambler , and Brendan McFadden and directed by Katz with Stambler and McFadden producing . The film stars Cris Lankenau as a former forensic science student investigating the mysterious disappearance of his ex-girlfriend . The film was shot and set in Portland , Oregon , which was also the setting of Katz 's debut feature , Dance Party USA . Cold Weather premiered at the South by Southwest Film Festival in March 2010 and was released in the United States by IFC Films on February 4 , 2011 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Cold_Weather",
"rank": 35,
"score": 75476
},
{
"content": "Title: Voyager 1 Content: Voyager 1 is a space probe launched by NASA on September 5 , 1977 . Part of the Voyager program to study the outer Solar System , Voyager 1 launched 16 days after its twin , Voyager 2 . Having operated for as of today , the spacecraft still communicates with the Deep Space Network to receive routine commands and return data . At a distance of 138 AU from the Sun as of March 2017 , it is the farthest spacecraft from Earth as well as the farthest man-made object . It is also the most distant object in the solar system whose specific location is known , even farther than Eris ( 96 AU ) and V774104 ( ~ 103 AU ) . The probe 's primary mission objectives included flybys of Jupiter , Saturn , and Saturn 's large moon , Titan . While the spacecraft 's course could have been altered to include a Pluto encounter by forgoing the Titan flyby , exploration of the moon , which was known to have a substantial atmosphere , took priority . It studied the weather , magnetic fields , and rings of the two planets and was the first probe to provide detailed images of their moons . After completing its primary mission with the flyby of Saturn on November 20 , 1980 , Voyager 1 began an extended mission to explore the regions and boundaries of the outer heliosphere . On August 25 , 2012 , Voyager 1 crossed the heliopause to become the first spacecraft to enter interstellar space and study the interstellar medium . Voyager 1 's extended mission is expected to continue until around 2025 , when its radioisotope thermoelectric generators will no longer supply enough electric power to operate any of its scientific instruments .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Voyager_1",
"rank": 36,
"score": 75274
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold weather rule Content: A cold weather rule or cold weather law is a law or regulation that prohibits public utility companies from disconnecting customers who are unable to pay for the energy used to heat their homes during the winter . Such regulations may also require utility companies to reconnect customers during those periods . Several U.S. states have such rules , including Kansas , Minnesota , and Missouri . The protection provided by a cold weather rule may not be automatic , and poor customers may have to register with their service provider to indicate either a complete inability to pay or to set up a special payment plan . In Minnesota , the rule is in effect between October 15 and April 15 of the next year , and requires reconnection of electricity and/or natural gas depending on which energy sources are necessary for heat . The state 's Public Utilities Commission does n't regulate liquefied petroleum gas or oil , so those services may not be provided . However , if an LP - or oil-fired heater requires electricity in order to function , the rule requires electrical service to be reconnected . In addition to providing warmth for residents , cold weather rules help prevent damage to homes . Wintertime temperatures can freeze Water pipes , potentially causing bursts in the lines as the water inside expands as it turns into ice . Cleaning up after this can lay heavy burdens upon people who are already of limited financial means . Category : Kansas law Category : Minnesota law Category : Missouri law",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Cold_weather_rule",
"rank": 37,
"score": 75259
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 38,
"score": 75085
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep space exploration Content: Deep space exploration ( or deep-space exploration ) is the branch of astronomy , astronautics and space technology that is involved with exploring the distant regions of outer space . Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights ( deep-space astronautics ) and by robotic spacecraft . At present the furthest space probe mankind has constructed and launched from Earth is Voyager 1 , which was announced on December 5 , 2011 to have reached the outer edge of the Solar system , and entered interstellar space on August 25 , 2012 . Deep space exploration further than this vessel 's capacity is not yet possible due to limitations in the space-engine technology currently available . Some of the best candidates for future deep space engine technologies include anti-matter , nuclear power and beamed propulsion . The latter , beamed propulsion , appears to be the best candidate for deep space exploration presently available , since it uses known physics and known technology that is being developed for other purposes .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep_space_exploration",
"rank": 39,
"score": 74700
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep Space 1 Content: Deep Space 1 ( DS1 ) was a NASA technology demonstration spacecraft which flew by an asteroid and a comet . It was part of the New Millennium Program , dedicated to testing advanced technologies . Launched on 24 October 1998 , the Deep Space 1 spacecraft carried out a flyby of asteroid 9969 Braille , which was its primary science target . The mission was extended twice to include an encounter with comet 19P/Borrelly and further engineering testing . Problems during its initial stages and with its star tracker led to repeated changes in mission configuration . While the flyby of the asteroid was a partial success , the encounter with the comet retrieved valuable information . Three of twelve technologies on board had to work within a few minutes of separation from the carrier rocket for the mission to continue . The Deep Space series was continued by the Deep Space 2 probes , which were launched in January 1999 piggybacked on the Mars Polar Lander and were intended to strike the surface of Mars ( though contact was lost and the mission failed ) . Deep Space 1 was the first NASA spacecraft to use ion propulsion rather than the traditional chemical-powered rockets .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep_Space_1",
"rank": 40,
"score": 74682
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep Space 2 Content: Deep Space 2 was a NASA probe part of the New Millennium Program . It included two highly advanced miniature space probes that were sent to Mars aboard the Mars Polar Lander in January 1999 . The probes were named `` Scott '' and `` Amundsen '' , in honor of Robert Falcon Scott and Roald Amundsen , the first explorers to reach the Earth 's South Pole . Intended to be the first spacecraft to penetrate below the surface of another planet , after entering the Mars atmosphere DS2 was to detach from the Mars Polar Lander mother ship and plummet to the surface using only an aeroshell impactor , with no parachute . The mission was declared a failure on March 13 , 2000 , after all attempts to reestablish communications following the descent went unanswered .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep_Space_2",
"rank": 41,
"score": 74441
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 42,
"score": 74427
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep Impact (spacecraft) Content: Deep Impact was a NASA space probe launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station at 18:47 UTC on January 12 , 2005 . It was designed to study the interior composition of the comet Tempel 1 ( 9P/Tempel ) , by releasing an impactor into the comet . At 05:52 UTC on July 4 , 2005 , the impactor successfully collided with the comet 's nucleus . The impact excavated debris from the interior of the nucleus , forming an impact crater . Photographs taken by the spacecraft showed the comet to be more dusty and less icy than had been expected . The impact generated an unexpectedly large and bright dust cloud , obscuring the view of the impact crater . Previous space missions to comets , such as Giotto and Stardust , were fly-by missions . These missions were able to photograph and examine only the surfaces of cometary nuclei , and even then from considerable distances . The Deep Impact mission was the first to eject material from a comet 's surface , and the mission garnered large publicity from the media , international scientists , and amateur astronomers . Upon the completion of its primary mission , proposals were made to further utilize the spacecraft . Consequently , Deep Impact flew by Earth on December 31 , 2007 on its way to an extended mission , designated EPOXI , with a dual purpose to study extrasolar planets and comet Hartley 2 ( 103P/Hartley ) .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep_Impact_(spacecraft)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 74386
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Frost of 1709 Content: The Great Frost , as it was known in England , or Le Grand Hiver ( `` The Great Winter '' ) , as it was known in France , was an extraordinarily cold winter in Europe in late 1708 and early 1709 , and was the coldest European winter during the past 500 years . The severe cold occurred during the time of low sunspot activity known as the Maunder Minimum .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Great_Frost_of_1709",
"rank": 44,
"score": 73998
},
{
"content": "Title: Kuafu project Content: The Kuafu project is a Chinese space project to establish a space weather forecasting system composed of three satellites , originally to be completed by 2012 . As of the Solar Wind XIII conference in June 2012 , the planned launch date is 2017 . However , due to withdrawal first by Canada and then ESA , the project was indefinitely postponed . The project is named after Kuafu , a giant in Chinese mythology who chased the sun and died trying . One of these satellites will be placed at the Sun-Earth Lagrangian Point L1 , while the other two will be placed in polar orbits .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Kuafu_project",
"rank": 45,
"score": 73572
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar cycle 15 Content: Solar cycle 15 was the fifteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.1 years , beginning in July 1913 and ending in August 1923 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 175.7 ( August 1917 ) , and the starting minimum was 2.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 15 to 16 , there were a total of 534 days with no sunspots . A major geomagnetic storm during 13 -- 15 May 1921 caused damage in communication systems and aurora displays in much of the eastern United States . Geomagnetic storms in March 1918 , August 1919 , October 1919 , and March 1920 affected telegraph lines , while a solar flare on 13 May 1921 also affected rail signal and switching equipment , in what was known as the `` New York Railroad Storm . ''",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_cycle_15",
"rank": 46,
"score": 73482
},
{
"content": "Title: Heliophysics Science Division Content: The Heliophysics Science Division of the Goddard Space Flight Center ( NASA ) conducts research on the Sun , its extended solar system environment ( the heliosphere ) , and interactions of Earth , other planets , small bodies , and interstellar gas with the heliosphere . Division research also encompasses geospace -- Earth 's uppermost atmosphere , the ionosphere , and the magnetosphere -- and the changing environmental conditions throughout the coupled heliosphere ( solar system weather ) . Scientists in the Heliophysics Science Division develop models , spacecraft missions and instruments , and systems to manage and disseminate heliophysical data . They interpret and evaluate data gathered from instruments , draw comparisons with computer simulations and theoretical models , and publish the results . The Division also conducts education and public outreach programs to communicate the excitement and social value of NASA heliophysics .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Heliophysics_Science_Division",
"rank": 47,
"score": 73449
},
{
"content": "Title: Asteroid Redirect Mission Content: The Asteroid Redirect Mission ( ARM ) , also known as the Asteroid Retrieval and Utilization ( ARU ) mission and the Asteroid Initiative , is a potential future space mission proposed by NASA . Still in the early stages of planning and development , the Asteroid Retrieval Robotic Mission ( ARRM ) spacecraft would rendezvous with a large near-Earth asteroid and use robotic arms with anchoring grippers to retrieve a 4-meter boulder from the asteroid . The spacecraft will characterize the asteroid and demonstrate at least one planetary defense technique before transporting the boulder to a stable lunar orbit , where it could be further analyzed both by robotic probes and by a future manned mission , ARCM ( Asteroid Redirect Crewed Mission ) . If funded , the mission would be launched in December 2021 , with the additional objectives to test a number of new capabilities needed for future human expeditions to deep space , including advanced ion thrusters . The proposed 2018 NASA budget plans to cancel this mission .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Asteroid_Redirect_Mission",
"rank": 48,
"score": 73036
},
{
"content": "Title: 2MASS J22282889-4310262 Content: 2MASS J22282889-4310262 is a brown dwarf discovered by The Hubble Space Telescope and The Spitzer Space Telescope in 2013 . Through the uses of the Hubble and Spitzer , NASA astronomers were able to develop the most detailed ` weather map ' for the brown dwarf utilizing different wavelengths of infrared light to show changing light patterns and different layers of material in the windstorms ( the layers were generated because water and methane vapors infrared wavelengths ) . This observation was the first time that researchers were able to probe such variability at different altitudes of the body . On the outer layers of the star , gases condense into raindrop like particles made up of sand and iron which fall onto the interior . Researchers also determined that the object 's temperature ranges from 1,100 to 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit ( 600 to 700 degrees Celsius ) .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "2MASS_J22282889-4310262",
"rank": 49,
"score": 72642
},
{
"content": "Title: Radio Solar Telescope Network Content: The Radio Solar Telescope Network ( RSTN ) is a network of solar observatories maintained and operated by the 557th Weather Wing , ACC . The RSTN consists of ground-based observatories in Australia , Italy , Massachusetts , New Mexico and Hawaii .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Radio_Solar_Telescope_Network",
"rank": 50,
"score": 72592
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar Resource Content: The Solar Resource was an Australian entry in the inaugural World Solar Challenge race -- then known as the Pentax World Solar Challenge race -- in 1987 . The Solar Resource was one of 24 entries from 7 countries ( Australia , Denmark , Japan , Pakistan , Switzerland , United States and West Germany ) which raced from Darwin to Adelaide , a journey of just over 3000 km . The Solar Resource finished 7th overall , but came first in the ` Private Entry ' category . Its overall average speed during the race 25.64 km/h . The race was won by the US-built GM entry , Sunraycer . The Solar Resource was an Australian privately funded backyard project , headed by Ian Landon Smith , an engineer and alternative energy specialist during 1986-7 . During that time , each component of the Solar Resource was made and re-made 3 times prior to a successful final construction . While the cost of building the car was approximately $ 75,000 , almost $ 1 million on the 760 gallium-arsenide solar cells , usually used on space satellites . The dimensions of the Solar Resource include a height of 1.04 metres , a width of 2 metres and a depth of 5.43 metres , with a total weight of 170 kg . It is powered by an electric motor that is Swiss-made , which has a variable drive , chain drive to its rear wheels . Built around a square tube frame , the body is set very low to the ground and is square in section , but with a rounded nose , which features four holes for ventilation . The cockpit cover is made of removable fibreglass , while the body panels are made of fibreglass , mylar and Kevlar . Attached to the roof , just above the tinted windscreen , is an externally mounted rear-view mirror which functions in the same manner as a ` periscope ' . The pneumatic tyres have four orange-coloured lights in each corner of the ` hubcap ' which act as indicators . The axles are covered with white aerofoil and extend out from the body ; the two front axles extend out further than the two rear ones . The cockpit itself features polystyrene panels in the sides around the horizontally positioned aluminium tube frame seat . Two bottles are located behind the seat -- one for drinking has a tube attached , and the other is for squirting and cooling purposes . Also behind the seat are two 12-volt Pulsar batteries . In front of the seat , the control panel contains digital readout instruments for the voltage and amp readings of both , the battery and the solar cells . Because of its racing context , a clock and stop watch are also part of the control panel . There is also a twenty-channel CB radio beneath the control panel . The steering wheel , shaped like a boomerang , is set in the centre . Smith donated the Solar Resource to the Powerhouse Museum in 1990 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_Resource",
"rank": 51,
"score": 72491
},
{
"content": "Title: Halloween solar storms, 2003 Content: The Halloween solar storms were a series of solar flares and coronal mass ejections that occurred from mid-October to early November 2003 , peaking around October 28 -- 29 . Satellite-based systems and communications were affected , aircraft were advised to avoid high altitudes near the polar regions , and a one-hour-long power outage occurred in Sweden as a result of the solar activity . Aurorae were observed at latitudes as far south as Texas and the Mediterranean countries of Europe . The SOHO satellite failed temporarily , and the Advanced Composition Explorer ( ACE ) was damaged by the solar activity . Numerous other spacecraft were damaged or experienced downtime due to various issues . Some of them were intentionally put into safe mode in order to protect sensitive equipment . Astronauts aboard the International Space Station ( ISS ) had to stay inside the more shielded parts of the Russian Orbital Segment to protect themselves against the increased radiation levels . Both the Ulysses spacecraft which was near Jupiter at the time , and Cassini , approaching Saturn , were able to detect the emissions . In April 2004 , Voyager 2 was also able to detect them as they reached the spacecraft . One of the solar storms was compared by some scientists in its intensity to the Carrington Event of 1859 . These events occurred during solar cycle 23 , approximately three years after its peak in 2000 , which was marked by another occurrence of solar activity known as the Bastille Day Flare .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Halloween_solar_storms,_2003",
"rank": 52,
"score": 72401
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold weather payment Content: Cold weather payments are paid by the United Kingdom government to recipients of certain state benefits in the event of particularly cold weather in the winter . The Social Fund Cold Weather Payments ( General ) Regulations 1988 govern the system under the Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992 . Each time the local temperature is less than 0 ° C for seven consecutive days between 1 November and 31 March then a payment of # 25 is made . This is in addition to the Winter Fuel Payment . Category : Pensions and benefits in the United Kingdom",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Cold_weather_payment",
"rank": 53,
"score": 72379
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian cold wave (2012) Content: Indian cold wave during the winter months of 2012 killed at least 92 people across northern and eastern India . The drop in temperature had a devastating effect on the hundreds of thousands of homeless people in India . Most of the dead were homeless and elderly people , living in the state of Uttar Pradesh . Other northern and eastern states such as Rajasthan , Punjab , Haryana , New Delhi , Jammu and Kashmir , Himachal Pradesh , Madhya Pradesh , Bihar and Tripura were also affected by this cold snap . New Delhi was also gripped by cold weather , with the temperature dipping to 7oC on the Christmas Day and 1oC after New Year .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Indian_cold_wave_(2012)",
"rank": 54,
"score": 72255
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep Space Network (disambiguation) Content: A Deep Space Network is a communication network that supports interplanetary spacecraft missions ; several instances exist , such as : NASA Deep Space Network , a world-wide network of large antennas and communication facilities , located in the United States ( California ) , Spain ( Madrid ) , and Australia ( Canberra ) , that supports interplanetary spacecraft missions Chinese Deep Space Network , a network of large antennas and communication facilities that supports the lunar and interplanetary spacecraft missions of China European Deep Space Network Japanese Deep Space Network Indian Deep Space Network , an Indian network of large antennas and communication facilities that supports the interplanetary spacecraft missions of India Soviet Deep Space Network , a network of large antennas and communication facilities that supports interplanetary spacecraft missions , and radio and radar astronomy observations for the exploration of the solar system and the universe",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep_Space_Network_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 55,
"score": 72114
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep Space Transport Content: The Deep Space Transport is a crewed interplanetary spacecraft being planned by NASA to carry crew to the Martian vicinity for missions to its moons and surface . It would use a combination of electric and chemical propulsion and carry a crew of six in a large habitat . The vehicle would be assembled at the proposed Deep Space Gateway by a series of Space Launch System launches , and return there after its mission to be serviced and reused for a new mission .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep_Space_Transport",
"rank": 56,
"score": 72033
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar wind Content: The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun . This plasma consists of mostly electrons , protons and alpha particles with thermal energies between 1.5 and 10 keV . Embedded within the solar-wind plasma is the interplanetary magnetic field . The solar wind varies in density , temperature and speed over time and over solar latitude and longitude . Its particles can escape the Sun 's gravity because of their high energy resulting from the high temperature of the corona , which in turn is a result of the coronal magnetic field . At a distance of more than a few solar radii from the sun , the solar wind is supersonic and reaches speeds of 250 to 750 kilometers per second . The flow of the solar wind is no longer supersonic at the termination shock . The Voyager 2 spacecraft crossed the shock more than five times between 30 August and 10 December 2007 . Voyager 2 crossed the shock about a billion kilometers closer to the Sun than the 13.5 billion kilometer distance where Voyager 1 came upon the termination shock . The spacecraft moved outward through the termination shock into the heliosheath and onward toward the interstellar medium . Other related phenomena include the aurora ( northern and southern lights ) , the plasma tails of comets that always point away from the Sun , and geomagnetic storms that can change the direction of magnetic field lines .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_wind",
"rank": 57,
"score": 71868
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenland ice core project Content: The Greenland Ice Core Project ( GRIP ) was a multinational European research project , organized through the European Science Foundation . Funding came from 8 nations ( Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Iceland , Italy , Switzerland , and United Kingdom ) , and from the European Union . The project ran from 1989 to 1995 , with drilling seasons from 1990 to 1992 . GRIP successfully drilled a 3029-metre ice core to the bed of the Greenland ice sheet at Summit , Central Greenland from 1989 to 1992 at . Studies of isotopes and various atmospheric constituents in the core have revealed a detailed record of climatic variations reaching more than 100,000 years back in time . The results indicate that Holocene climate has been remarkably stable and have confirmed the occurrence of rapid climatic variation during the last ice age ( the Wisconsin ) . Delta-O-18 variations observed in the core part believed to date from the Eemian Stage have not been confirmed by other records including the NGRIP core and are now believed not to represent climate events : the interglacial climate of Eemian Stage appears to have been as stable as the Holocene .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Greenland_ice_core_project",
"rank": 58,
"score": 71848
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar Observing Optical Network Content: The Solar Observing Optical Network ( SOON ) consists of three U.S. Air Force ( USAF ) Air Force Weather Agency ( AFWA ) solar observatories . AFWA operates a solar telescope at each site to monitor solar active regions at optical wavelengths . The National Geophysical Data Center ( NGDC ) archives histograms of intensity versus area every minute for the active regions . It also archives magnetograms of the magnetic field structure and tachograms of plasma velocities on an irregular schedule . The SOON observatories are operated by detachments of AFWA 's 2nd Weather Group at the following sites : RAAF Learmonth , Western Australia , Australia Holloman AFB , New Mexico , USA San Vito dei Normanni Air Station , San Vito dei Normanni , Italy ( contractor-run site ) Telescopes at Palehua , Hawaii and Ramey Air Force Base , Puerto Rico have been shut down . There is an active Consolidated Repair Activity ( CRA ) based out of Holloman Air Force Base , New Mexico which is operated by the 49th Communications Squadron . The CRA provides depot-level maintenance and support to the SOON program . The CRA also develops maintenance procedures , institutes physical ( non-software ) updates , and overhauls all three telescopes on a regular basis .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_Observing_Optical_Network",
"rank": 59,
"score": 71778
},
{
"content": "Title: Soviet Deep Space Network Content: The Soviet Deep Space Network is a network of large antennas and communication facilities that supports interplanetary spacecraft missions , and radio and radar astronomy observations for the exploration of the solar system and the universe . It was built to support the space missions of the Soviet Union . Similar networks are run by the USA , China , Europe , Japan , and India .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Soviet_Deep_Space_Network",
"rank": 60,
"score": 71679
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold front Content: A cold front is defined as the leading edge of a cooler mass of air , replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air , which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure . It forms in the wake of an extratropical cyclone , at the leading edge of its cold air advection pattern , which is also known as the cyclone 's dry conveyor belt circulation . Temperature changes across the boundary can exceed 30 C-change . When enough moisture is present , rain can occur along the boundary . If there is significant instability along the boundary , a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone . If instability is less , a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front , which increases the temperature difference across the boundary . Cold fronts are stronger in the fall and spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer . When a cold front catches up with the preceding warm front , the portion of the boundary that does so is then known as an occluded front .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Cold_front",
"rank": 61,
"score": 71533
},
{
"content": "Title: Frost line (astrophysics) Content: In astronomy or planetary science , the frost line , also known as the snow line or ice line , is the particular distance in the solar nebula from the central protostar where it is cold enough for volatile compounds such as water , ammonia , methane , carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide to condense into solid ice grains . This condensation temperature depends on the volatile substance and the partial pressure of vapor in the protostar nebula . The actual temperature and distance for the snow line of water ice depend on the physical model used to calculate it and on the theoretical solar nebula model : 170 K at 2.7 AU ( Hayashi , 1981 ) 143 K at 3.2 AU to 150 K at 3 AU ( Podolak and Zucker , 2010 ) 3.1 AU ( Martin and Livio , 2012 ) ≈ 150 K for μm-size grains and ≈ 200 K for km-size bodies ( D'Angelo and Podolak , 2015 ) The radial position of the condensation/evaporation front varies over time , as the nebula evolves . Occasionally , the term snow line is also used to represent the present distance at which water ice can be stable ( even under direct sunlight ) . This current snow line distance is different from the formation snow line distance during the formation of Solar System , and approximately equals 5 AU . The reason for the difference is that during the formation of Solar System , the solar nebula was an opaque cloud where temperature were lower close to the Sun , and the Sun itself was less energetic . After formation , the ice got buried by infalling dust and it has remained stable a few meters below the surface . If ice within 5 AU is exposed , e.g. by a crater , then it sublimates on short timescales . However , out of direct sunlight ice can remain stable on the surface of asteroids ( and the Moon ) if it is located in permanently shadowed craters , where temperature may remain very low over the age of the Solar System ( e.g. 30 -- 40 K on the Moon ) . Observations of the asteroid belt , located between Mars and Jupiter , suggest that the water snow line during formation of Solar System was located within this region . The outer asteroids are icy C-class objects ( e.g. Abe et al. 2000 ; Morbidelli et al. 2000 ) whereas the inner asteroid belt is largely devoid of water . This implies that when planetesimal formation occurred the snow line was located at around 2.7 AU from the Sun . For example , the dwarf planet Ceres with semi-major axis of 2.77 AU lies almost exactly on the lower estimation for water snow line during the formation of the Solar System . Ceres appears to have an icy mantle and may even have a water ocean below the surface . Each volatile substance has its own snow line , e.g. carbon monoxide and nitrogen , so it is important to always specify which material 's snow line is meant . The lower temperature in the nebula beyond the frost line makes many more solid grains available for accretion into planetesimals and eventually planets . The frost line therefore separates terrestrial planets from giant planets in the Solar System . However , giant planets have been found inside the frost line around several other stars ( so-called hot Jupiters ) . They are thought to have formed outside the frost line , and later migrated inwards to their current positions . Earth , which lies less than a quarter of the distance to the frost line but is not a giant planet , has adequate gravitation for keeping methane , ammonia , and water vapor from escaping it . Methane and ammonia are rare in the Earth 's atmosphere only because of their instability in an oxygen-rich atmosphere that results from life forms ( largely green plants ) whose biochemistry suggests plentiful methane and ammonia at one time , but of course liquid water and ice , which are chemically stable in such an atmosphere , form much of the surface of Earth . Researchers Rebecca Martin and Mario Livio have proposed that asteroid belts may tend to form in the vicinity of the frost line , due to nearby giant planets disrupting planet formation inside their orbit . By analysing the temperature of warm dust found around some 90 stars , they concluded that the dust ( and therefore possible asteroid belts ) was typically found close to the frost line . The term is borrowed from the notion of `` frost line '' in soil science .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Frost_line_(astrophysics)",
"rank": 62,
"score": 71526
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar cycle 20 Content: Solar cycle 20 was the twentieth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.4 years , beginning in October 1964 and ending in March 1976 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 156.6 ( November 1968 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 20 to 21 , there were a total of 272 days with no sunspots . Comparison with other cycles shows that geomagnetic activity during the declining phase of cycle 20 ( 1973 -- 1975 ) was unusually high . Data from solar cycle 20 was used to build the K-1974 solar proton fluence model , used for planning space missions during solar cycle 21 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_cycle_20",
"rank": 63,
"score": 71459
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep (rapper) Content: DEEP aka Deep Cold , Deep Da 1 , was a Punjabi-American Southern rap artist from Houston , Texas . Raised in Houston , Deep Cold attended the same high school as Paul Wall and Chamillionaire . His first interest in music came at a young age when a tight family house hold income made him seek other avenues/interests . After a rough year in 2000 , Deep Cold was forced to re-evaluate his position and decided to co-create Da 1 Records with his cousin . Deep Cold released his debut album In Trunks Now in 2005 on his independent label . It featured big Southern Rap names such as Slim Thug , David Banner , Big Moe , Big Pokey as well as Too Short . Since then he has personally signed new artists Lenny Lenn and Kamla Punjabi to the label and has played a major role in the financing of their album . His comment about his style of music . `` I do n't have a specific style of music that can be categorized . I make music that transcends hate , barriers and race . That 's what music is intended to He co-hosted a MTV Desi Show with Kamala Punjabi . In 2009 Deep Cold and Kamla Punjabi released a collaboration album ` Nach Nach ' which was produced by DJ Sanj/J-Nas Deep released ` Dekhlo Punjabi Munde ' in 2007 . The song quickly moved up the BBC charts and spread worldwide . In 2010 ` Dekhlo Punjabi Munde ' was refixed by replacing Deep Cold and Kamla Punjabi 's verses with the vocals of Diljit Dosanjh and featured in the Punjabi movie Mel Karade Rabba . The chorus for the song remained the same . Deep Cold has worked with David Banner , Too Short , Slim Thug , Big Moe , Lil KeKe , Billy Cook , C-Note ( Botany Boyz ) , S.U.C. - Screwed Up Click , Master Saleem , Sonu Niggam , The Teflon Don , Sonny Brown , DJ Sanj/J-Nas , Diljit Singh , Jas Rai , Kamla Punjabi , Haji Springer and more . Deep Cold & Kamla Punjabi released two songs with Universal on their compilation ` Desi Hustle ' - Siti Maar and Duniya . Deep Cold has also teamed up with Sonny Brown and The Teflon Don to form the group 3 SINGHS . Deep Cold died on March 5 , 2014 while visiting India for his upcoming projects with big names in the Punjabi and Bollywood industry .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep_(rapper)",
"rank": 64,
"score": 71446
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar transition region Content: The solar transition region is a region of the Sun 's atmosphere , between the chromosphere and corona . It is visible from space using telescopes that can sense ultraviolet . It is important because it is the site of several unrelated but important transitions in the physics of the solar atmosphere : Below , gravity tends to dominate the shape of most features , so that the Sun may often be described in terms of layers and horizontal features ( like sunspots ) ; above , dynamic forces dominate the shape of most features , so that the transition region itself is not a well-defined layer at a particular altitude . Below , most of the helium is not fully ionized , so that it radiates energy very effectively ; above , it becomes fully ionized . This has a profound effect on the equilibrium temperature ( see below ) . Below , the material is opaque to the particular colors associated with spectral lines , so that most spectral lines formed below the transition region are absorption lines in infrared , visible light , and near ultraviolet , while most lines formed at or above the transition region are emission lines in the far ultraviolet ( FUV ) and X-rays . This makes radiative transfer of energy within the transition region very complicated . Below , gas pressure and fluid dynamics usually dominate the motion and shape of structures ; above , magnetic forces dominate the motion and shape of structures , giving rise to different simplifications of magnetohydrodynamics . The transition region itself is not well studied in part because of the computational cost , uniqueness , and complexity of Navier-Stokes combined with electrodynamics . Helium ionization is important because it is a critical part of the formation of the corona : when solar material is cool enough that the helium within it is only partially ionized ( i.e. retains one of its two electrons ) , the material cools by radiation very effectively via both black body radiation and direct coupling to the helium Lyman continuum . This condition holds at the top of the chromosphere , where the equilibrium temperature is a few tens of thousands of kelvins . Applying slightly more heat causes the helium to ionize fully , at which point it ceases to couple well to the Lyman continuum and does not radiate nearly as effectively . The temperature jumps up rapidly to nearly one million kelvin , the temperature of the solar corona . This phenomenon is called the temperature catastrophe and is a phase transition analogous to boiling water to make steam ; in fact , solar physicists refer to the process as evaporation by analogy to the more familiar process with water . Likewise , if the amount of heat being applied to coronal material is slightly reduced , the material very rapidly cools down past the temperature catastrope to around one hundred thousand kelvin , and is said to have condensed . The transition region consists of material at or around this temperature catastrophe . The transition region is visible in far-ultraviolet ( FUV ) images from the TRACE spacecraft , as a faint nimbus above the dark ( in FUV ) surface of the Sun and the corona . The nimbus also surrounds FUV-dark features such as solar prominences , which consist of condensed material that is suspended at coronal altitudes by the magnetic field .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_transition_region",
"rank": 65,
"score": 71335
},
{
"content": "Title: Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk Content: The Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk ( GOLD ) mission is a planned Heliophysics Mission of Opportunity ( MOO ) for NASA 's Explorer program . Led by Richard Eastes at the Florida Space Institute , which is located at the University of Central Florida ( UCF ) , GOLD will provide a new capability for imaging the boundary between Earth and space in order to answer key questions about the effects of solar and atmospheric variability on the Earth 's space weather . GOLD was one of 11 proposals selected , of the 42 submitted , for further study in September 2011 . On April 12 , 2013 , NASA announced that GOLD , along with the Ionospheric Connection Explorer ( ICON ) , had been selected for flight in 2017 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Global-scale_Observations_of_the_Limb_and_Disk",
"rank": 66,
"score": 71226
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep water source cooling Content: Deep water source cooling ( DWSC ) or deep water air cooling is a form of air cooling for process and comfort space cooling which uses a large body of naturally cold water as a heat sink . It uses water at 4 to 10 degrees Celsius drawn from deep areas within lakes , oceans , aquifers or rivers , which is pumped through the one side of a heat exchanger . On the other side of the heat exchanger , cooled water is produced .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep_water_source_cooling",
"rank": 67,
"score": 71202
},
{
"content": "Title: FlexCraft Content: FlexCraft is a proposed support craft for the NASA Deep Space Habitat ( DSH ) . FlexCraft would be used by an individual astronaut for EVA or tele-operated activities . The hardware would connect directly to the DSH airlock and would share a common atmosphere as the parent ship to provide immediate access to space without pre-breathing by DSH crew . With a pressurized volume of 0.62 m3 , the FlexCraft is meant for only one person with an `` excursion time '' of less than 8 hours . Its propellant would be gaseous nitrogen , and it would have a Delta-V of 21 m/s with a total gross mass projected at 452 kg . An already-identified limitation is that it can not be used during solar particle events . The FlexCraft concept was first presented in a 2012 conference paper by Brand N. Griffin .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "FlexCraft",
"rank": 68,
"score": 71092
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-15 Content: NOAA-15 ( designated NOAA-K before launch ) is one of the NASA-provided TIROS series of weather forecasting satellite run by NOAA . It was launched on 13 May 1998 , and is currently operational , in a sun-synchronous orbit , 807 km above the Earth , orbiting every 101 minutes . It hosts the AMSU-A and AMSU-B instruments , the AVHRR and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS/3 ) instruments , as well as a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM/2 ) . APT transmission frequency is 137.62 MHz . Due to problems with the S-band transmitter high-gain antennas , NOAA-15 has been configured for High Resolution Picture Transmission using the S-Band Transmitter # 2 ( 1702.5 MHz ) omnidirectional antenna .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "NOAA-15",
"rank": 69,
"score": 71065
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar Lake Content: Solar Lake ( Birkat aš-Šams ) is a saline desert lake located on the edge of the Red Sea , about 18 km south of Eilat in the Sinai Peninsula , Taba , Egypt , close to its borders with Israel . A small lake of high salinity , it is the site of complex biochemical phenomena , linked to cycles of evaporation and of infiltration of waters . Solar Lake became isolated from the Red Sea as littoral sediments closed off an embayment between two rocky headlands . The saline waters of the Gulf of Aqaba that seep into Solar Lake are further concentrated by evaporation in the lake . It is believed that in addition to losses from evaporation , there is a crack system at the bottom of the lake Monohydrocalcite and other carbonates appear to be deposited in Solar Lake by the action of benthic cyanobacterial mats ( stromatolite ) , which may be 1 m thick . At night the top metre of surface water loses heat to the cold desert air but insulates the lower layer . The insulated lower layer continues to gain solar energy each day and to accumulate heavy brine from above . Solar Lake develops some of the highest temperature solar-heated waters of any lake : certain layers can reach as high as 60 ° C , temperatures matched only by some geothermal lakes . Due to the strong layering during certain times , the thermal gradients can be as high as 18 ºCm − 1 . In the summer , the lake turns over and becomes well-mixed thermally and in salinity . The residence time of water in the lake is believed to be 5.5 -- 6 months",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_Lake",
"rank": 70,
"score": 70832
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic oscillation Content: The Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode/Northern Hemisphere Annular Mode ( NAM ) is an index ( which varies over time with no particular periodicity ) of the dominant pattern of non-seasonal sea-level pressure variations north of 20N latitude , and it is characterized by pressure anomalies of one sign in the Arctic with the opposite anomalies centered about 37 -- 45N . The AO is believed by climatologists to be causally related to , and thus partially predictive of , weather patterns in locations many thousands of miles away , including many of the major population centers of Europe and North America . NASA climatologist Dr. James E. Hansen explained the mechanism by which the AO affects weather at points so distant from the Arctic , as follows : `` The degree to which Arctic air penetrates into middle latitudes is related to the AO index , which is defined by surface atmospheric pressure patterns . When the AO index is positive , surface pressure is low in the polar region . This helps the middle latitude jet stream to blow strongly and consistently from west to east , thus keeping cold Arctic air locked in the polar region . When the AO index is negative , there tends to be high pressure in the polar region , weaker zonal winds , and greater movement of frigid polar air into middle latitudes . '' This zonally symmetric seesaw between sea level pressures in polar and temperate latitudes was first identified by Edward Lorenz and named in 1998 by David W.J. Thompson and John Michael Wallace . The North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) is a close relative of the AO and there exist arguments about whether one or the other is more fundamentally representative of the atmosphere 's dynamics ; Ambaum et al. argue that the NAO can be identified in a more physically meaningful way . Over most of the past century , the Arctic Oscillation alternated between its positive and negative phases . Starting in the 1970s the oscillation has trended to more of a positive phase when averaged using a 60-day running mean , though it has trended to a more neutral state in the last decade . The oscillation still fluctuates stochastically between negative and positive values on daily , monthly , seasonal and annual time scales , although , despite its stochastic nature , meteorologists have attained high levels of predictive accuracy in recent times , at least for the shorter term forecasts . ( The correlation between actual observations and the 7-day mean GFS ensemble AO forecasts is approximately 0.9 , a figure at the high end for that statistic . ) The National Snow and Ice Data Center describes the effects of the AO in some detail : `` In the positive phase , higher pressure at midlatitudes drives ocean storms farther north , and changes in the circulation pattern bring wetter weather to Alaska , Scotland and Scandinavia , as well as drier conditions to the western United States and the Mediterranean . In the positive phase , frigid winter air does not extend as far into the middle of North America as it would during the negative phase of the oscillation . This keeps much of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains warmer than normal , but leaves Greenland and Newfoundland colder than usual . Weather patterns in the negative phase are in general `` opposite '' to those of the positive phase . '' Climatologists are now routinely invoking the Arctic Oscillation in their official public explanations for extremes of weather . The following statement from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Climatic Data Center : State of the Climate December 2010 which uses the phrase `` negative Arctic Oscillation '' four times , is very representative of this increasing tendency : `` Cold arctic air gripped western Europe in the first three weeks of December . Two major snowstorms , icy conditions , and frigid temperatures wreaked havoc across much of the region ... The harsh winter weather was attributed to a negative Arctic Oscillation , which is a climate pattern that influences weather in the Northern Hemisphere . A very persistent , strong ridge of high pressure , or ` blocking system ' , near Greenland allowed cold Arctic air to slide south into Europe . Europe was not the only region in the Northern Hemisphere affected by the Arctic Oscillation . A large snow storm and frigid temperatures affected much of the Midwest United States on December 10 -- 13 ... '' A further , quite graphic illustration of the effects of the negative phase of the oscillation occurred in February 2010 . In that month , the Arctic Oscillation reached its most negative monthly mean value , − 4.266 , in the entire post-1950 era ( the period of accurate record-keeping ) . That month was characterized by three separate historic snowstorms that occurred in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States . The first storm dumped 25 in on Baltimore , Maryland , on February 5 -- 6 , and then a second storm dumped 19.5 in on February 9 -- 10 . In New York City , a separate storm deposited 20.9 in on February 25 -- 26 . This kind of snowstorm activity is as anomalous and extreme as the negative AO value itself . Similarly , the greatest negative value for the AO since 1950 in January was − 3.767 in 1977 , which coincided with the coldest mean January temperature in New York City , Washington , D.C. , Baltimore , and many other mid-Atlantic locations in that span of time . And though the January AO has been negative only 60.6 % of the time between 1950 and 2010 , 9 of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York City since 1950 have coincided with negative AOs . However , the correlation between sharply negative Arctic Oscillations and excessive winter cold and snow in regions vulnerable in that way to these negative AOs should not be overstated . It is by no means a simple , one-to-one equivalence . An extreme Arctic Oscillation does not necessarily mean extreme weather will occur . For example , since 1950 , eight out of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York did not coincide with the 10 lowest January AO values . And the fourth warmest January there since 1950 coincided with one of those 10 most negative AOs . So , although many climatologists believe that the Arctic Oscillation affects the probability of certain weather events occurring in certain places , the heightened chance of a phenomenon by no means assures it , nor does the lessened likelihood exclude it . Further , the precise value of the AO index only imperfectly reflects the severity of the weather associated with it .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Arctic_oscillation",
"rank": 71,
"score": 70792
},
{
"content": "Title: Local Leo Cold Cloud Content: The Local Leo Cold Cloud is a relatively nearby cloud of interstellar gas . It ranges from 11.3 to 24.3 parsecs in distance . The cloud 's neutral gas temperature is around 20K , which is cold compared to the 1,000,000 K temperature of the Local Bubble in which it is embedded . The hydrogen atom density in this cloud is 3,000 atoms per cubic centimeter , which is dense for interstellar medium . Thermal infrared radiation from dust in the cloud can be detected at 0.1 mm .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Local_Leo_Cold_Cloud",
"rank": 72,
"score": 70674
},
{
"content": "Title: Annualized geo solar Content: Annualized geo-solar enables passive solar heating in even cold , foggy north temperate areas . It uses the ground under or around a building as thermal mass to heat and cool the building . After a designed , conductive thermal lag of 6 months the heat is returned to , or removed from , the inhabited spaces of the building . In hot climates , exposing the collector to the frigid night sky in winter can cool the building in summer . The six-month thermal lag is provided by about three meters ( ten feet ) of dirt . A six-meter-wide ( 20 ft ) buried skirt of insulation around the building keeps rain and snow melt out of the dirt , which is usually under the building . The dirt does radiant heating and cooling through the floor or walls . A thermal siphon moves the heat between the dirt and the solar collector . The solar collector may be a sheet-metal compartment in the roof , or a wide flat box on the side of a building or hill . The siphons may be made from plastic pipe and carry air . Using air prevents water leaks and water-caused corrosion . Plastic pipe does n't corrode in damp earth , as metal ducts can . AGS heating systems typically consist of : A very well-insulated , energy efficient , eco-friendly living space ; Heat captured in the summer months from a sun-warmed sub-roof or attic space , a sunspace or greenhouse , a ground-based , flat-plate , thermosyphon collector , or other solar-heat collection device ; Heat transported from the collection source into ( typically ) the earth mass under the living space ( for storage ) , this mass surrounded by a sub-surface perimeter `` cape '' or `` umbrella '' providing both insulation from easy heat-loss back up to the outdoors air and a barrier against moisture migration through that heat-storage mass ; A high-density floor whose thermal properties are designed to radiate heat back into the living space , but only after the proper sub-floor-insulation-regulated time-lag ; A control-scheme or system which activates ( often PV-powered ) fans and dampers , when the warm-season air is sensed to be hotter in the collection area ( s ) than in the storage mass , or allows the heat to be moved into the storage-zone by passive convection ( often using a solar chimney and thermally activated dampers . ) Usually it requires several years for the storage earth-mass to fully preheat from the local at-depth soil temperature ( which varies widely by region and site-orientation ) to an optimum Fall level at which it can provide up to 100 % of the heating requirements of the living space through the winter . This technology continues to evolve , with a range of variations ( including active-return devices ) being explored . The listserve where this innovation is most often discussed is `` Organic Architecture '' at Yahoo . This system is almost exclusively deployed in northern Europe . One system has been built at Drake Landing in North America . A more recent system is a Do-it-yourself energy-neutral home in progress in Collinsville , IL that will rely solely on Annualized Solar for conditioning .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Annualized_geo_solar",
"rank": 73,
"score": 70641
},
{
"content": "Title: Year of the Solar System Content: The Year of the Solar System is a NASA education/public outreach initiative . The year runs October 2010 until August 2012 , a Martian year . For each month 's topic there are resources for clubs , schools and the general public . The months/topics are : October 2010 : The Journey Begins November 2010 : Birth of Worlds Dec 2010/Jan 2011 : A Family Affair February 2011 : Small Bodies -- Big Impacts March 2011 : Ancient Astronomers/Modern Tools : Celebrating Sun-Earth Day April 2011 : Water , Water , Everywhere ! May 2011 : Volcanism ! June 2011 : Impacts ! July 2011 : Rocks in Space August 2011 : Windy Worlds September 2011 : Gravity : It 's What Keeps Us Together October 2011 : Moons and Rings : Our Favorite Things November 2011 : Magnetospheres : Planetary Shields Dec 2011/Jan 2012 : Evolving Worlds February 2012 : Far-Ranging Robots March 2012 : Shadows of the Sun April 2012 : Ice ! May 2012 : New Data , New Ideas Jun/Jul 2012 : Got Life ? August 2012 : Discovering New Worlds The Year of the Solar System is supported by NASA 's Science Mission Directorate and its Planetary Science Division .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Year_of_the_Solar_System",
"rank": 74,
"score": 70631
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "NOAA-6",
"rank": 75,
"score": 70552
},
{
"content": "Title: Early 2014 North American cold wave Content: The 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that extended through the late winter months of the 2013 -- 2014 winter season , and was also part of an unusually cold winter affecting parts of Canada and parts of the north-central and upper eastern United States . The event occurred in early 2014 and was caused by a southward shift of the North Polar Vortex . Record-low temperatures also extended well into March . On January 2 , an Arctic cold front initially associated with a nor'easter tracked across Canada and the United States , resulting in heavy snowfall . Temperatures fell to unprecedented levels , and low temperature records were broken across the United States . Business , school , and road closures were common , as well as mass flight cancellations . Altogether , more than 200 million people were affected , in an area ranging from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and extending south to include roughly 187 million residents of the Continental United States .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Early_2014_North_American_cold_wave",
"rank": 76,
"score": 70382
},
{
"content": "Title: Shallow sky Content: Shallow sky is a term sometimes used by amateur astronomers , as the opposite to deep sky . The shallow sky is space within the Solar System , plus the Earth 's atmosphere . Sky phenomena such as planetary conjunctions , solar eclipses , lunar eclipses , as well as atmospheric phenomena like haloes , rainbows , and noctilucent clouds , are all occurring in the shallow sky . The Shallow Sky Bulletin ( ISSN 0897-2532 ) was published by Stephen M. Smith from 1986 through 2000 . Mr. Smith operated The Comet Rapid Announcement Service ( CRAS ) to disseminate notices about newly discovered bright comets , news about comets and daily positions ( ephemerides ) for observable comets . The common practice for publishing comet tables was to display positions at 10-day intervals . All of the comet position tables published in SSB were at 1-day intervals . During the 14-year run of SSB , CRAS subscribers were informed about all observable comets . In the 2006 April 13 issue of The Minor Planet Circulars/Minor Planets and Comets , published by The Minor Planet Center of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory , Mr. Smith 's work was honored by the naming of minor planet 9891 Stephensmith . Category : Observational astronomy",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Shallow_sky",
"rank": 77,
"score": 70160
},
{
"content": "Title: CMB cold spot Content: The CMB Cold Spot or WMAP Cold Spot is a region of the sky seen in microwaves that has been found to be unusually large and cold relative to the expected properties of the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) . The `` cold spot '' is approximately 70 µK colder than the average CMB temperature ( approximately 2.7 K ) , whereas the root mean square of typical temperature variations is only 18 µK.After the dipole anisotropy , which is due to the Doppler shift of the microwave background radiation due to our peculiar velocity relative to the comoving cosmic rest frame , has been subtracted out . This feature is consistent with the Earth moving at some 627 km/s towards the constellation Virgo . At some points , the `` cold spot '' deviates 140 µK colder than the average CMB temperature . The radius of the `` cold spot '' subtends about 5 ° ; it is centered at the galactic coordinate lII = 207.8 ° , bII = − 56.3 ° ( equatorial : α = , δ = ) . It is , therefore , in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere , in the direction of the constellation Eridanus . Typically , the largest fluctuations of the primordial CMB temperature occur on angular scales of about 1 ° . Thus a cold region as large as the `` cold spot '' appears very unlikely , given generally accepted theoretical models . Various alternative explanations exist , including a so-called Eridanus Supervoid or Great Void . This would be an extremely large region of the universe , roughly 150 to 300 Mpc or 500 million to one billion light-years across and 6 to 10 billion light years away from us , at redshift , containing a density of matter much smaller than the average density at that redshift . Such a void would affect the observed CMB via the integrated Sachs -- Wolfe effect . If a comparable supervoid did exist , it would be one of the largest structures in the observable universe . A study published in 2015 shows the most likely explanation for the CMB cold spot is the supervoid one ( see below ) .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "CMB_cold_spot",
"rank": 78,
"score": 70086
},
{
"content": "Title: Space environment Content: Space environment is a branch of astronautics , aerospace engineering and space physics that seeks to understand and address conditions existing in space that affect the design and operation of spacecraft . A related subject , space weather , deals with dynamic processes in the solar-terrestrial system that can give rise to effects on spacecraft , but that can also affect the atmosphere , ionosphere and geomagnetic field , giving rise to several other kinds of effects on human technologies . Effects on spacecraft can arise from radiation , space debris and meteoroid impact , upper atmospheric drag and spacecraft electrostatic charging . Radiation in space usually comes from three main sources : ( i ) the Van Allen radiation belts ; ( ii ) solar proton events and solar energetic particles ; and ( iii ) galactic cosmic rays . For long duration missions , the high doses of radiation can damage electronic components and solar cells . A major concern is also radiation-induced `` single-event effects '' such as single event upset . Manned missions usually avoid the radiation belts and the international space station is at an altitude well below the most severe regions of the radiation belts . During solar energetic events ( solar flares and coronal mass ejections ) particles can be accelerated to very high energies and can reach the Earth in times as short as 30 minutes ( but usually take some hours ) . These particles are mainly protons and heavier ions that can cause radiation damage , disruption to logic circuits and even hazards to astronauts . Manned missions to return to the Moon or to travel to Mars will have to deal with the major problems presented by solar particle events to radiation safety , in addition to the important contribution to doses from the low-level background cosmic rays . In near-Earth orbits , the Earth 's geomagnetic field screens spacecraft from a large part of these hazards - a process called geomagnetic shielding . Space debris and meteoroids can impact spacecraft at high speeds , causing mechanical or electrical damage . The average speed of space debris is 10 km/s while the average speed of meteoroids is much greater . For example , the meteoroids associated with the Perseid meteor shower travel at an average speed of 58 km/s . Mechanical damage from debris impacts have been studied through space missions including LDEF , which had over 20,000 documented impacts through its 5.7 year mission . Electrical anomalies associated with impact events include ESA 's Olympus spacecraft , which lost attitude control during the 1993 Perseid meteor shower . A similar event occurred with the Landsat 5 spacecraft during the 2009 Perseid meteor shower . Spacecraft electrostatic charging is caused by the hot plasma environment around the Earth . The plasma encountered in the region of the geostationary orbit becomes heated during geomagnetic substorms caused by disturbances in the solar wind . `` Hot '' electrons ( with energies in the kilo-electron volt range ) collect on surfaces of spacecraft and can establish electrostatic potentials of the order of kilovolts . As a result , discharges can occur and are known to be the source of many spacecraft anomalies . Solutions devised by scientists and engineers include , but are not limited to , spacecraft shielding , special `` hardening '' of electronic systems , various collision detection systems . Evaluation of effects during spacecraft design includes application of various models of the environment , including radiation belt models , spacecraft-plasma interaction models and atmospheric models to predict drag effects encountered in lower orbits and during reentery . The field often overlaps with the disciplines of astrophysics , atmospheric science , space physics , and geophysics , albeit usually with an emphasis on application . The United States government maintains a Space Weather Prediction Center at Boulder , Colorado . The Space Weather Prediction Center ( SWPC ) is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . SWPC is one of the National Weather Service 's ( NWS ) National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) . Space weather effects on Earth can include ionospheric storms , temporary decreases in ozone densities , disruption to radio communication , to GPS signals and submarine positioning . Some scientists also theorize links between sunspot activity and ice ages .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Space_environment",
"rank": 79,
"score": 69883
},
{
"content": "Title: SOLAR (ISS) Content: SOLAR is an ESA science observatory on the Columbus Laboratory , which is part of the International Space Station . SOLAR was launched with Columbus on February 2008 aboard STS-122 . It was externally mounted to Columbus with the European Technology Exposure Facility ( EuTEF ) . SOLAR has three main space science instruments : SOVIM , SOLSPEC and SOL-ACES . Together they provide detailed measurements of the Sun 's spectral irradiance . The SOLAR platform and its instruments are controlled from the Belgian User Support and Operations Centre ( B.USOC ) , located at the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy ( BISA ) in Uccle , Belgium . SOVIM ( Solar Variantions and Irradiance Monitor ) instrument is based on an earlier instrument ( SOVA ) which flew aboard the European Retrievable Carrier , launched on STS-46 in 1992 . It is designed to measure solar radiation with wavelengths from 200 nanometers - 100 micrometers . This covers near-ultraviolet , visible and infrared areas of the spectrum . SOLSPEC ( Solar Spectral irradiance measurements ) is designed to measure the solar spectral irradiance in the 165 - to 3000-nanometer range with high spectral resolution . SOL-ACES ( Auto-calibrating Extreme Ultraviolet and Ultraviolet spectrometers ) consists of four grazing incidence grating spectrometers . They are designed to measure the EUV/UV spectral regime ( 17 nanometers - 220 nanometers ) with moderate spectral resolution . The mission was originally planned for a 2003 launch , but was delayed following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster . Some other components are also planned to be mounted externally on Columbus on future missions , including the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space ( ACES ) . Another name for SOLAR may be Solar Monitoring Observatory or SMO . In 2012 , the entire 450-tonne station was rotated so SOLAR could observe a full rotation of the Sun continuously . A Solar rotation takes about 24 -- 28 days depending on the latitude .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "SOLAR_(ISS)",
"rank": 80,
"score": 69695
},
{
"content": "Title: Disturbance storm time index Content: The disturbance storm time ( Dst , Kyoto Dst ) index is a measure in the context of space weather . It gives information about the strength of the ring current around Earth caused by solar protons and electrons . The ring current around Earth produces a magnetic field that is directly opposite Earth 's magnetic field , i.e. if the difference between solar electrons and protons gets higher , then Earth 's magnetic field becomes weaker . A negative Dst value means that Earth 's magnetic field is weakened . This is particularly the case during solar storms .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Disturbance_storm_time_index",
"rank": 81,
"score": 69561
},
{
"content": "Title: Explosive cyclogenesis Content: Explosive cyclogenesis ( also referred to as a weather bomb , meteorological bomb , explosive development , or bombogenesis ) refers in a strict sense to a rapidly deepening extratropical cyclonic low-pressure area . To enter this category , the central pressure of a depression at 60 ° latitude is required to decrease by 24 mb ( hPa ) or more in 24 hours . This is a predominantly maritime , winter event , but also occurs in continental settings . This process is the extratropical equivalent of the tropical rapid deepening .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Explosive_cyclogenesis",
"rank": 82,
"score": 69536
},
{
"content": "Title: Gerard C. Bond Content: Gerard Clark Bond ( May 20 , 1940 -- June 29 , 2005 ) was a widely published and highly respected American geologist . Bond received his Bachelor of Science degree at Capital University in Columbus , Ohio , where his father Ralph Bond was a Professor of Geology . He worked at the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades , New York as Head of the Deep-Sea Sample Repository , after teaching briefly at Williams College in Williamstown , Massachusetts and the University of California , Davis . Bond theorized that variations in solar activity -- the appearance of sunspots and changes in the emission of solar radiation -- might be driving 1,500-year-cycles of amplified variability in northern hemisphere climate during the last glaciation , resulting in increases in iceberg discharges from the Laurentide ice sheet into the North Atlantic ocean , as evidenced by changes in the petrology of grains he extracted from deep sea cores covering this period . The cyclicity is also found during the Holocene , where the events are referred to as Bond events . Bond was awarded the Ewing Medal at the AGU Fall Meeting Honors Ceremony , December 2003 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Gerard_C._Bond",
"rank": 83,
"score": 69531
},
{
"content": "Title: Winter of 2009–10 in Great Britain and Ireland Content: The winter of 2009 -- 10 in the United Kingdom ( also called The Big Freeze by British media ) was a meteorological event that started on 16 December 2009 , as part of the severe winter weather in Europe . January 2010 was provisionally the coldest January since 1987 across the country . A persistent pattern of cold northerly and easterly winds brought cold , moist air to the United Kingdom with many snow showers , fronts and polar lows bringing snowy weather with it . The first snowfall began on 17 December 2009 , before a respite over the Christmas period . The most severe snowy weather began on 5 January in North West England and west Scotland with temperatures hitting a low of -17.6 ° C in Greater Manchester , England . The snow spread to Southern England on 6 January and by 7 January the United Kingdom was blanketed in snow , which was captured by NASA 's Terra satellite . The thaw came a week later , as temperatures started to increase . The winter weather brought widespread transport disruption , school closures , power failures , the postponement of sporting events and 25 deaths . A low of -22.3 ° C was recorded in Altnaharra , Scotland on 8 January 2010 . Overall it was the coldest winter since 1978 -- 79 , with a mean temperature of 1.5 ° C.",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Winter_of_2009–10_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland",
"rank": 84,
"score": 69519
},
{
"content": "Title: Spacecraft thermal control Content: In spacecraft design , the function of the thermal control system ( TCS ) is to keep all the spacecraft 's component systems within acceptable temperature ranges during all mission phases . It must cope with the external environment , which can vary in a wide range as the spacecraft is exposed to deep space or to solar or planetary flux , and with ejecting to space the internal heat generated by the operation of the spacecraft itself . Thermal control is essential to guarantee the optimum performance and success of the mission because if a component is subjected to temperatures which are too high or too low , it could be damaged or its performance could be severely affected . Thermal control is also necessary to keep specific components ( such as optical sensors , atomic clocks , etc. ) within a specified temperature stability requirement , to ensure that they perform as efficiently as possible . The thermal control subsystem can be composed both of passive and of active items and works in two ways : protects the equipment from overheating , either by thermal insulation from external heat fluxes ( such as the Sun or the planetary infrared and albedo flux ) , or by proper heat removal from internal sources ( such as the heat emitted by the internal electronic equipment ) . protects the equipment from temperatures that are too cold , by thermal insulation from external sinks , by enhanced heat absorption from external sources , or by heat release from internal sources . Passive Thermal Control System ( PTCS ) components include : Multi-layer insulation ( MLI ) , which protects the spacecraft from excessive solar or planetary heating as well as from excessive cooling when exposed to deep space coatings that change the thermo-optical properties of external surfaces thermal fillers to improve the thermal coupling at selected interfaces ( for instance on the thermal path between an electronic unit and its radiator ) thermal washers to reduce the thermal coupling at selected interfaces thermal doublers to spread on the radiator surface the heat dissipated by equipment mirrors ( secondary surface mirrors , SSM , or optical solar reflectors , OSR ) to improve the heat rejection capability of the external radiators and at the same time to reduce the absorption of external solar fluxes radioisotope heater units ( RHU ) , used by some planetary and exploratory missions to produce and store electrical power for TCS purposes Active Thermal Control System ( ATCS ) components include : thermostatically controlled resistive electric heaters to keep the equipment temperature above its lower limit during the mission 's cold phases fluid loops to transfer the heat emitted by equipment to the radiators . They can be : single-phase loops , controlled by a pump two-phase loops , composed of heat pipes ( HP ) , loop heat pipes ( LHP ) or capillary pumped loops ( CPL ) louvers ( which change the heat rejection capability to space as a function of temperature ) thermoelectric coolers",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Spacecraft_thermal_control",
"rank": 85,
"score": 69472
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep-water coral Content: The habitat of deep-water corals , also known as cold-water corals , extends to deeper , darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals , ranging from near the surface to the abyss , beyond 2000 m where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 C. Deep-water corals belong to the Phylum Cnidaria and are most often stony corals , but also include black and horny corals and soft corals including the Gorgonians ( sea fans ) . Like tropical corals , they provide habitat to other species , but deep-water corals do not require zooxanthellae to survive . While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species , only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs . Instead , they form aggregations called patches , banks , bioherms , massifs , thickets or groves . These aggregations are often referred to as `` reefs , '' but differ structurally and functionally . Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as `` mounds , '' which more accurately describes the large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off , rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates . Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs . Submarine communications cables and fishing methods such as bottom trawling tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs . The deep-water habitat is designated as a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan habitat .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep-water_coral",
"rank": 86,
"score": 69470
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Tropical_rain_belt",
"rank": 87,
"score": 69451
},
{
"content": "Title: Space sunshade Content: A space sunshade or sunshield is a parasol that diverts or otherwise reduces some of a star 's radiation , preventing them from hitting a spacecraft or planet and thereby reducing its insolation , which results in reduced heating . Light can be diverted by different methods . First proposed in 1989 , the original space sunshade concept involves putting a large occulting disc , or technology of equivalent purpose at the L1 gravitation point between the Earth and Sun . A sunshade is of particular interest as a climate engineering method for mitigating global warming through solar radiation management . Such shades could also be used to produce space solar power , acting as solar power satellites . Proposed shade designs include a single-piece shade and a shade made by a great number of small objects . Most such proposals contemplate a blocking element at the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrangian point . In 1989 James Early proposed a space-based sun-shade to divert sunlight at the planetary level . His design involved making a large glass ( 2000 km ) occulter from lunar material and placing at the L1 point . Issues included the large amount of material needed to make the disc and also the energy to launch it to its orbit .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Space_sunshade",
"rank": 88,
"score": 69429
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep Space Habitat Content: Deep Space Habitat ( DSH ) is a 2012 proposed NASA conceptual design to support a crew of 4 for exploration beyond Low Earth orbit . Initial concept missions include 60-day and 500-day mission configurations , composed of International Space Station-derived hardware , the Orion crew capsule and various support craft . The Habitat would be equipped with at least one International Docking System Standard ( IDSS ) docking system . Developing a Deep Space Habitat would allow a crew to live and work safely in space for up to one year on missions to explore cis-lunar space and some near-Earth asteroids . It would also provide experience favorable for designing longer-duration habitats that could be used for manned missions to Mars and more distant asteroids . In 2015 NASA funded the studies of several types of deep space habitat concepts under the Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships ( NextSTEP ) . Further details were provided in 2017 . Phase 1 DSH development is complete , Phase 2 is being worked on and Phase 3 is being planned .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep_Space_Habitat",
"rank": 89,
"score": 69398
},
{
"content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2009 Content: Global storm activity of 2009 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2009 to December 31 , 2009 . Wintery storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Summer storms including flooding , severe thunderstorms and extratropical cyclones ( which can occur in summer or winter ) are also included in this list to a certain extent . As this occurred a heat wave and/or unforeseen monsoon weather also hit parts of Australia in 2009 and 2010 . Victoria , the scene of horrific bushfires the year before , had a far colder summer , with hot weather arriving more than a month later than usual in 2009 . August 17 saw a dust storm at Laguna Mar Chiquita as a major drought hit Argentina , and flooding and hailstorms hit southeastern Australia and Queensland in March 2010 . The lack of winter precipitation in parts of China , however , contributed to a severe drought in the southwest . Bolivia , Venezuela , Mali , Mauritania , Morocco and Spain have also seen periods of drought in 2009 and 2010 . On between May 12 and 26 , both Mauritania , the Sénégal River Area and neighbouring parts of both Senegal and Mali faced both a drought and famine in 2010 . A storm ( from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz `` noise , tumult '' ) is any disturbed state of an astronomical body 's atmosphere , especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather . Storms are created when a centre of low pressure develops , with a system of high pressure surrounding it . This combination of opposing forces can create winds and result in the formation of storm clouds , such as the cumulonimbus . Small , localized areas of low pressure can form from hot air rising off hot ground , resulting in smaller meteorological disturbances such as dust devils and whirlwinds .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2009",
"rank": 90,
"score": 69329
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep ocean water Content: Deep ocean water ( DOW ) is the name for cold , salty water found deep below the surface of Earth 's oceans . Ocean water differs in temperature and salinity . Warm surface water is generally saltier than the cooler deep or polar waters ; in polar regions , the upper layers of ocean water are cold and fresh . Deep ocean water makes up about 90 % of the volume of the oceans . Deep ocean water has a very uniform temperature , around 0-3 ° C , and a salinity of about 3.5 % or as oceanographers state as 35 ppt ( parts per thousand ) . In specialized locations such as the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii NELHA ocean water is pumped to the surface from approximately 900 metres ( 3000 feet ) deep for applications in research , commercial and pre-commercial activities . DOW is typically used to describe ocean water at sub-thermal depths sufficient to provide a measurable difference in water temperature . When deep ocean water is brought to the surface , it can be used for a variety of things . Its most useful property is its temperature . At the surface of the Earth , most water and air is well above 3 ° C . The difference in temperature is indicative of a difference in energy . Where there is an energy gradient , skillful application of science and engineering can harness that energy for productive use by humans . Assuming the source of deep ocean water is environmentally friendly and replenished by natural mechanisms , it forms a more innovative basis for cleaner energy than current fossil-fuel-derived energy . The simplest use of cold water is for air conditioning : using the cold water itself to cool air saves the energy that would be used by the compressors for traditional refrigeration . Another use could be to replace expensive desalination plants . When cold water passes through a pipe surrounded by humid air , condensation results . The condensate is pure water , suitable for humans to drink or for crop irrigation . Via a technology called Ocean thermal energy conversion , the temperature difference can be turned into electricity .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep_ocean_water",
"rank": 91,
"score": 69309
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold wave of 1978 Content: The cold wave of 1978 was a weather event that occurred in the eastern United States . Beginning in December 1977 and lasting until March , it produced one of the coldest winters on record in all states east of the Rockies except Maine .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Cold_wave_of_1978",
"rank": 92,
"score": 69247
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar Operational Environmental Satellites Content: The Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite ( POES ) project operates a constellation of weather satellites in polar orbits around the Earth . It is a joint effort between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites ( EUMETSAT ) . Spacecraft for the project are provided by NASA and the European Space Agency . NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center oversees the manufacture , integration and test of the NASA-provided TIROS satellites . The launch of the first polar-orbiting weather satellites in attempt to improve the accuracy and detail of weather analysis and forecasting began with FL . TIROS 1 ( Television Infrared Observation Satellite ) on April 1 , 1960 . On-orbit satellite operation of these is performed by NOAA 's Office of Satellite and Product Operations ( OSPO ) . The POES constellation also includes an ESA-provided MetOp satellite operated by EUMETSAT . To protect the satellite from solar and terrestrial anomalies such as solar radiation belts and fluctuations of charged particles at altitude , the POES project is equipped with the Space Environment Monitor 2 ( SEM-2 ) which provides awareness of these anomalies that may impair the operation of the satellite and its other sensors . The POES program will be superseded by the Joint Polar Satellite System ( JPSS ) .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Polar_Operational_Environmental_Satellites",
"rank": 93,
"score": 69180
},
{
"content": "Title: IBM Deep Thunder Content: Deep Thunder is a research project by IBM that aims to improve short-term local weather forecasting through the use of high-performance computing . It is part of IBM 's Deep Computing initiative that also produced the Deep Blue chess computer . Deep Thunder is intended to provide local , high-resolution weather predictions customized to weather-sensitive specific business operations . For example , it could be used to predict the wind velocity at an Olympic diving platform , or where there will be flooding or damaged power lines in up to 84 hours in advance . The project is now headquartered at IBM 's Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights , New York .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "IBM_Deep_Thunder",
"rank": 94,
"score": 69176
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar cycle 12 Content: Solar cycle 12 was the twelfth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.3 years , beginning in December 1878 and ending in March 1890 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 124.4 ( December 1883 ) , and the starting minimum was 3.7 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 12 to 13 , there were a total of 736 days with no sunspots . A very bright blood-red aurora display happened over New York on 16 April 1882 , while significant communication disturbances occurred . A geomagnetic storm later in that year produced the aurora of November 17 , 1882 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_cycle_12",
"rank": 95,
"score": 69103
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep-sky object Content: Deep-sky objects are astronomical objects other than individual stars and Solar System objects ( such as Sun , Moon , planets , comets , etc. ) . The classification is used for the most part by amateur astronomers to denote visually observed faint naked eye and telescopic objects such as star clusters , nebulae and galaxies .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Deep-sky_object",
"rank": 96,
"score": 69080
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar Eclipse: Depth of Darkness Content: Solar Eclipse-Depth of Darkness is an upcoming Hollywood feature historic film based on the world politics immediately after Indian independence and partition . It is set in a violent India , divided on religious grounds . The feature takes an alternative view of the events that led to the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi on 30 January 1948 . Produced by Ralitza Ivanova , Moobi Alwright & directed by Karim Traidia and Pankaj Sehgal , the film is featured by Stephen Lang , Vinnie Jones , Luke Pasqualino , Om Puri , Bobbie Phillips , Mark Moses , Rajit Kapur , Govind Namdeo , Raajpal Yadav , Anant Mahadevan , Avtar Gill , Gauhar Khan , Elissar , Vikas Shrivastava , Behzad Khan and introduces Vivaan Tiwari , Alen Thomson and Alessa Novelli in key roles .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Solar_Eclipse:_Depth_of_Darkness",
"rank": 97,
"score": 69020
},
{
"content": "Title: LGarde Content: LGarde , also L'Garde or L · Garde , is an American aerospace and defense technology company founded in 1971 in Orange County , CA and is the primary contractor for the Sunjammer spacecraft , the world largest solar sail . The company was an early pioneer of thin-skinned , multi-task inflatable structures used in various military and space applications . At the height of the Cold War , L · Garde developed and manufactured inflatable targets and decoy systems for U.S. military defense , and countermeasure systems for the Strategic Defense Initiative ( Star Wars ) . After the Cold-War , the company used the technologies and manufacturing techniques it had developed to land a contract to design and build the inflatable antenna experiment and other thin-film inflatable space structures using its unique application of rigidizable tube technology . The company 's unusual name is an acronym formed by the initials of the founding partners : Bill Larkin , Gayle Bilyeu , Alan Hirasuna , Rich Walstrom , Don Davis . The `` E '' comes from the Latin term `` et al '' ( and others ) as a tip to other partners and original employees of the company .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "LGarde",
"rank": 98,
"score": 68999
},
{
"content": "Title: Yohkoh Content: Yohkoh ( ようこう , Sunbeam in Japanese ) , known before launch as Solar-A , was a Solar observatory spacecraft of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science ( Japan ) , in collaboration with space agencies in the United States and the United Kingdom . It was launched into Earth orbit on August 30 , 1991 by the M-3S-5 rocket from Kagoshima Space Center . It took its first image on September 13 , 1991 21:53:40 .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "Yohkoh",
"rank": 99,
"score": 68851
},
{
"content": "Title: MMTS (meteorology) Content: A Maximum Minimum Temperature System or MMTS is a temperature recording system that keeps track of the maximum and minimum temperatures that have occurred over some given time period . The earliest , and still perhaps most familiar , form is the Maximum minimum thermometer invented by James Six in 1782 . Today a typical MMTS is a thermistor . This may be read locally or can transmit its results electronically .",
"qid": "71",
"docid": "MMTS_(meteorology)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 68827
}
] |
[O]ne of the previously fastest shrinking glaciers in the world is growing again, calling into question the narrative that rapid climate change [...] | [
{
"content": "Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Heard_Island_glaciers",
"rank": 1,
"score": 116062
},
{
"content": "Title: Columbia Glacier (Alaska) Content: The Columbia Glacier is a glacier in Prince William Sound on the south coast of the U.S. state of Alaska , is one of the fastest moving glaciers in the world , and has been retreating since the early 1980s . It was named after Columbia University , one of several glaciers in the area named for elite U.S. colleges by the Harriman Alaska Expedition in 1899 . The Alaska Marine Highway vessel M/V Columbia is named after the Columbia Glacier .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Columbia_Glacier_(Alaska)",
"rank": 2,
"score": 106775
},
{
"content": "Title: List of glaciers in Glacier National Park (U.S.) Content: There are at least 35 named glaciers in Glacier National Park ( U.S. ) . In 1850 , the area now comprising the national park had 150 glaciers . There are 25 active glaciers remaining in the park today . Since the ice ages stopped 10,000 years ago , there have been many slight climate shifts causing periods of glacier growth or melt-back . The glaciers are currently being studied to see the effect of global warming It is estimated that if current warming trends continue , there will be no glaciers left in the park by 2030 .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "List_of_glaciers_in_Glacier_National_Park_(U.S.)",
"rank": 3,
"score": 105141
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 4,
"score": 104007
},
{
"content": "Title: Dansgaard–Oeschger event Content: Dansgaard -- Oeschger events ( often abbreviated D -- O events ) are rapid climate fluctuations that occurred 25 times during the last glacial period . Some scientists say that the events occur quasi-periodically with a recurrence time being a multiple of 1,470 years , but this is debated . The comparable climate cyclicity during the Holocene is referred to as Bond events .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Dansgaard–Oeschger_event",
"rank": 5,
"score": 102850
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 6,
"score": 102682
},
{
"content": "Title: Chasing Ice Content: Chasing Ice is a 2012 documentary film about the efforts of nature photographer James Balog and his Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) to publicize the effects of climate change , directed by Jeff Orlowski . It was released in the United States on November 16 , 2012 . The documentary includes scenes from a glacier calving event that took place at Jakobshavn Glacier in Greenland , lasting 75 minutes , the longest such event ever captured on film . Two EIS videographers waited several weeks in a small tent overlooking the glacier , and were finally able to witness 7.4 km3 of ice crashing off the glacier . `` The calving of a massive glacier believed to have produced the ice that sank the Titanic is like watching a city break apart . ''",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Chasing_Ice",
"rank": 7,
"score": 102615
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 8,
"score": 100984
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 9,
"score": 100708
},
{
"content": "Title: Upsala Glacier Content: The Upsala Glacier is a large valley glacier in Argentina 's Los Glaciares National Park . It flows from the Southern Patagonian Ice Field , feeding the nearby Perito Moreno Glacier . The glacier terminus is at Lago Argentino . The Upsala Glacier is well known for its rapid retreat , which many see as evidence for global warming . The name comes from the old spelling with one p of Uppsala University , which sponsored the first glaciological studies in the area . The University is located in Uppsala , Sweden . The glacier showed almost continual recession up until 1999 . The acceleration in ice motion during the two decades preceding 1999 may have been augmented by the release of backstress when the glacier retreated beyond the islands in Brazo Upsala . Another period of even faster retreat started in 2008 .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Upsala_Glacier",
"rank": 10,
"score": 99930
},
{
"content": "Title: List of glaciers Content: A glacier ( -LSB- ˈɡleɪʃər -RSB- ) or ( -LSB- ˈɡlæsiə -RSB- ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight ; it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation ( melting and sublimation ) over many years , often centuries . Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight , creating crevasses , seracs , and other distinguishing features . Because glacial mass is affected by long-term climate changes , e.g. , precipitation , mean temperature , and cloud cover , glacial mass changes are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "List_of_glaciers",
"rank": 11,
"score": 99670
},
{
"content": "Title: Upper Fremont Glacier Content: Upper Fremont Glacier is in the Fitzpatrick Wilderness of Shoshone National Forest in the U.S. state of Wyoming . This Wind River Range alpine glacier is associated with the largest grouping of glaciers in the U.S. Rocky Mountains and lies on the north slope of Fremont Peak , the third tallest mountain in Wyoming . Upper Fremont Glacier is at an average altitude of 13450 ft and is one of the highest altitude glaciers in the American Rockies . Ice core samples were taken from Upper Fremont Glacier in 1990-1991 . These ice cores were analyzed for climatic changes as well as alterations of atmospheric chemicals . In 1998 an unbroken ice core sample of 538 ft was taken from the glacier and subsequent analysis of the ice showed an abrupt change in the oxygen isotope ratio oxygen-18 to oxygen-16 in conjunction with what is widely regarded as the end of the Little Ice Age , a period of cooler global temperatures between the years 1550 and 1850 . A linkage was established with a similar ice core study which had been undertaken on the Quelccaya Ice Cap in Peru , which also demonstrated the same changes in the oxygen isotope ratio during the same period . The climatic implications from the ice cores taken from both sites support evidence of a sudden global climate change during the mid 19th century . Ice cores from the glacier also showed increased levels of Tritium ( 3H ) and chlorine-36 around the year 1963 , which coincides with the peak period of above ground nuclear testing . The same ice cores were also tested for Mercury deposition from natural and human-induced activities . This is the first known instance in which ice cores have been used to determine Mercury deposition from a mid-latitude glacier in North America , as all previous studies have been derived from other sources . The majority of Mercury deposition is by way of the atmosphere and sources of the element may be from volcanic activity or from industrialization , but volcanoes contribute a small proportion of the Mercury . The ice core samples from the Upper Fremont Glacier indicated that levels of Mercury increased dramatically during the industrial revolution and have decreased significantly since the mid-1980s . It is believed that the decrease in Mercury deposition since the 1980s coincides with the passage of the Clean Air Act .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Upper_Fremont_Glacier",
"rank": 12,
"score": 99055
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 13,
"score": 98898
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback",
"rank": 14,
"score": 98494
},
{
"content": "Title: African humid period Content: The African humid period (AHP) is a climate period in Africa during the late Pleistocene and Holocene geologic epochs, when northern Africa was wetter than today. The covering of much of the Sahara desert by grasses, trees and lakes was caused by changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun; changes in vegetation and dust in the Sahara which strengthened the African monsoon; and increased greenhouse gases, which may imply that anthropogenic global warming could result in a shrinkage of the Sahara desert. During the preceding last glacial maximum, the Sahara contained extensive dune fields and was mostly uninhabited. It was much larger than today, but its lakes and rivers such as Lake Victoria and the White Nile were either dry or at low levels. The humid period began about 14,600–14,500 years ago at the end of Heinrich event 1, simultaneously to the Bølling-Allerød warming. Rivers and lakes such as Lake Chad formed or expanded, glaciers grew on Mount Kilimanjaro and the Sahara retreated. Two major dry fluctuations occurred; during the Younger Dryas and the short 8.2 kiloyear event. The African humid period ended 6,000–5,000 years ago during the Piora Oscillation cold period. While some evidence points to an end 5,500 years ago, in the Sahel, Arabia and East Africa the period appears to have taken place in several steps such as the 4.2 kiloyear event. The AHP led to a widespread settlement of the Sahara and the Arabian Deserts, and had a profound effect on African cultures, such as the birth of the Pharaonic civilization. They lived as hunter-gatherers until the agricultural revolution and domesticated cattle, goats and sheep. They left archeological sites and artifacts such as one of the oldest ships in the world, and rock paintings such as those in the Cave of Swimmers and in the Acacus Mountains. Earlier humid periods in Africa were postulated after the discovery of these rock paintings in now-inhospitable parts of the Sahara. When the period ended, humans gradually abandoned the desert in favour of regions with more secure water supplies, such as the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia, where they gave rise to early complex societies.",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "African_humid_period",
"rank": 15,
"score": 98202
},
{
"content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Glacier_mass_balance",
"rank": 16,
"score": 98168
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Arctic_geoengineering",
"rank": 17,
"score": 97713
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme Ice Survey Content: The Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) , based in Boulder , Colorado , uses time-lapse photography , conventional photography and video to document the effects of global warming on glacial ice . It is the most wide-ranging glacier study ever conducted using ground-based , real-time photography . Starting in 2007 the EIS team installed as many as 43 time-lapse cameras at a time at 18 glaciers in Greenland , Iceland , Alaska , Canada , the Nepalese Himalaya ( where cameras were installed at Mount Everest in 2010 ) , and the Rocky Mountains of the U.S. . The cameras shoot year-round , every half hour of daylight . The team supplements the time-lapse record by occasionally repeating shots at fixed locations in Iceland , Bolivia , the Canadian province of British Columbia and the French and Swiss Alps . Collected images are being used for scientific evidence and as part of a global outreach campaign aimed at educating the public about the effects of climate change . EIS imagery has appeared in time-lapse videos displayed in the terminal at Denver International Airport ; in media productions such as the 2009 NOVA Extreme Ice documentary on PBS ; and is the focus of the feature-length film Chasing Ice , directed by Jeff Orlowski , which premiered at the Sundance film festival in Utah on January 23 , 2012 . Major findings were published in 2012 in Ice : Portraits of the World 's Vanishing Glaciers by James Balog ( Rizzoli Publishing ) .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Extreme_Ice_Survey",
"rank": 18,
"score": 97694
},
{
"content": "Title: Pine Island Glacier Content: Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay . The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream . The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Pine_Island_Glacier",
"rank": 19,
"score": 97052
},
{
"content": "Title: Bukkehåmmårtjørna Content: Bukkehåmmårtjørna is a small lake in eastern Jotunheimen . This is the highest lake that has been investigated as a climate archive in southern Norway , being situated 1594 m above sea level . A small glacier , Bukkehåmmårbreen , is draining meltwater into the lake at present . This glacier reformed just short of 6,000 years ago following the Holocene climate optimum and has existed continuously since . After growing gradually towards 4,000 years before present ( BP ) the glacier has been of near present size over the last 4,000 years , growing slightly larger over the last 2-2 ,500 years . Prior to the climate optimum and following the deglaciation the glacier melted some 10,000 years before present . The flat valley-shoulder that the lake is eroded into is locally known as a `` fly '' . This particular level at about 1600 m a.s.l. and is believed to have been formed between 100 and 85 million years ago during the Cretaceous period . Standing on the shore-line of Bukkehåmmårtjørna thus means that you are standing on the remnants of a landscape that the Dinosaurs ruled . The small lake existed prior to the Last Glacial Maximum since it contains organic material older than 30,000 years old . Currently being reassessed , growing evidence now indicates that much of the landscape that can be seen from this site is practically unchanged since the age of the Mammoth who lived on the wide plateaus more than 40,000 years ago . The view from the lake , or higher up on the mountain-peak Høgdebrotet therefore includes a view into the landscapes of the distant past , including the landscape of the dinosaurs , the pre-ice age landscape , the landscape of the Mammoth during the last glacial period . By squinting your eyes and imagining the present forest-limit below , located some 300 m higher than at present and by imagining the glaciers of Leirungsalpene being absent you can also see the landscape as it was 7,000 years ago .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Bukkehåmmårtjørna",
"rank": 20,
"score": 96713
},
{
"content": "Title: Exit Glacier Content: Exit Glacier is a glacier derived from the Harding Icefield in the Kenai Mountains of Alaska and one of Kenai Fjords National Park 's major attractions . It is one of the most accessible valley glaciers in Alaska and is a visible indicator of glacial recession due to climate change . Exit Glacier retreated approximately 187 ft from 2013 to 2014 and park scientists continue to monitor and record the glacier 's accelerating recession . It received its name for serving as the exit for the first recorded crossing of the Harding Icefield in 1968 .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Exit_Glacier",
"rank": 21,
"score": 95465
},
{
"content": "Title: Glacier growing Content: Glacier growing , artificial glaciation or glacier grafting , is a practice carried out in the Hindu Kush and Himalaya regions aimed at creating small new glaciers to increase water supply for crops and in some cases to sustain micro hydro power . In order to encourage the growth of a glacier local farmers acquire ice from naturally occurring glaciers , and carry it to high altitude areas where the ice is put inside a small cave dug out in a scree-slope . Along with the ice other ingredients such as water , salt , sawdust , wheat husks and charcoal are also placed at the site . The use of glacier grafting is an old skill of the mountain farmers of Baltistan and Gilgit , where it is used for irrigation purposes since at least the 19th century . This technique was described by Lieutenant David Lockhart Robertson Lorimer ( 1876 -- 1962 ) in the 1920s . Allegedly glacier grafting also has been used to block mountain passes .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Glacier_growing",
"rank": 22,
"score": 94786
},
{
"content": "Title: Engilchek Glacier Content: Engilchek Glacier ( Эңилчек , Энильчек - Enilchek , also Иныльчек - Inylchek ) is a glacier in the Central Tian Shan Mountains of Issyk-Kul Region , northeastern Kyrgyzstan . Its snout is 50 km east of the village of Engilchek . The South Inylchek Glacier ranks as the sixth longest non-polar glacier in the world and is the largest and fastest moving glacier in Kyrgyzstan . The main glacier has two arms , the North and South Engilchek Glaciers . The latter is longer and provides an overall length of 60.5 km . with an area of 17.2 km2 and an ice thickness of roughly 150 -- 200 m in the bottom parts . The glacier stems from the Chinese-Kazakh-Kyrgyz massif of Khan Tengri and Pik Pobedy and the upper part of the glacier falls in all three countries . Meltwater from the glacier feeds a tributary of the Aksu River , which crosses the Chinese border into the Tarim Basin . Water from this glacier also feeds the seasonal glacial Lake Merzbacher which ultimately flows into the Engilchek River .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Engilchek_Glacier",
"rank": 23,
"score": 93976
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar see-saw Content: The polar see-saw ( also : Bipolar seesaw ) is the phenomenon that temperature changes in the northern and southern hemispheres may be out of phase . The theory ( or hypothesis ) states that large changes , f.e. when the glaciers are intensely growing or depleting , in the formation of ocean bottom water in both poles take a long time to exert their effect in the other hemisphere . Estimates of the period of delay vary , one typical estimate is 1500 years . This is usually studied in the context of ice-cores taken from Antarctica and Greenland .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Polar_see-saw",
"rank": 24,
"score": 93911
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 25,
"score": 93834
},
{
"content": "Title: Tidewater glacier cycle Content: The tidewater glacier cycle is the typically centuries-long behavior of tidewater glaciers that consists of recurring periods of advance alternating with rapid retreat and punctuated by periods of stability . During portions of its cycle , a tidewater glacier is relatively insensitive to climate change .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Tidewater_glacier_cycle",
"rank": 26,
"score": 93823
},
{
"content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum",
"rank": 27,
"score": 93231
},
{
"content": "Title: Thwaites Glacier Content: Thwaites Glacier is an unusually broad and fast Antarctic glacier flowing into Pine Island Bay , part of the Amundsen Sea , east of Mount Murphy , on the Walgreen Coast of Marie Byrd Land . Its surface speeds exceed 2 km/yr near its grounding line , and its fastest flowing grounded ice is centred between 50 and 100 km east of Mount Murphy . It was named by ACAN after Fredrik T. Thwaites , a glacial geologist , geomorphologist and professor emeritus at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison . Thwaites Glacier drains into West Antarctica 's Amundsen Sea and is closely watched for its potential to raise sea levels . Along with Pine Island Glacier , Thwaites Glacier has been described as part of the `` weak underbelly '' of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet , due to its apparent vulnerability to significant retreat . This hypothesis is based on both theoretical studies of the stability of marine ice sheets and recent observations of large changes on both of these glaciers . In recent years , the flow of both of these glaciers have accelerated , their surfaces lowered , and the grounding lines retreated .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Thwaites_Glacier",
"rank": 28,
"score": 93049
},
{
"content": "Title: Glacial motion Content: Glacial motion is the motion of glaciers , which can be likened to rivers of ice . It has played an important role in sculpting many landscapes . Most lakes in the world occupy basins scoured out by glaciers . Glacial motion can be fast ( up to 30 m/day , observed on Jakobshavn Isbræ in Greenland ) or slow ( 0.5 m/year on small glaciers or in the center of ice sheets ) , but is typically around 1 metre/day .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Glacial_motion",
"rank": 29,
"score": 92825
},
{
"content": "Title: The Glacier Trust Content: The Glacier Trust is a not-for-profit organisation dedicated to monitoring and publishing research on glaciers in the Himalayan mountain regions . The trust focuses on working with locals in the Himalayan countryside in order to secure and prevent the effects of climate change on the landscape .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "The_Glacier_Trust",
"rank": 30,
"score": 92704
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 31,
"score": 92580
},
{
"content": "Title: Nef Glacier Content: Nef Glacier is a glacier located in Laguna San Rafael National Park , in the Aysén del General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo Region of Chile . It trends southeast from Cerro Largo to its terminus in the lake that shared its name . It is the fifth largest glacier in the Northern Patagonian Ice Field , after San Quintín , San Rafael , Steffen and Colonia .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Nef_Glacier",
"rank": 32,
"score": 92276
},
{
"content": "Title: Grewingk Glacier Content: Grewingk Glacier is a 13-mile-long ( 21 km ) glacier located in the Kenai Mountains , near Kachemak Bay , in the U.S. state of Alaska . It begins at and trends northwest to , 15 miles ( 24 km ) east-southeast of Homer . It was named in 1880 by W. H. Dall of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for the Baltic German geologist Constantin Grewingk .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Grewingk_Glacier",
"rank": 33,
"score": 92143
},
{
"content": "Title: Øksfjordjøkelen Content: Øksfjordjøkelen ( Ákšovuonjiehkki ) is the ninth largest glacier in mainland Norway . The glacier is located on the border between Finnmark and Troms counties . The 42 km2 glacier lies in both Loppa and Kvænangen municipalities . The highest point was earlier known to have an elevation of 1204 m . It is now a mere 1191 m due to glacier shrinkage . But it still is , for the time being , the highest point in all of Finnmark county . The mountain Svartfjellet lies just north of the glacier in Loppa . That is another of the highest points in Finnmark county . The lowest point on the glacier has an elevation of 330 m . The village of Alteidet in Kvænangen is located nearby , along the European route E6 .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Øksfjordjøkelen",
"rank": 34,
"score": 92071
},
{
"content": "Title: Gordon Hamilton (scientist) Content: Gordon Hamilton ( -- 22 October 2016 ) was a Scottish climate scientist who studied glaciers . He died on a trip to Antarctica in 2016 when his snowmobile fell into a crevasse . He was 50 at the time of his death . Native to Scotland , Hamilton received a doctorate from the University of Cambridge and was a professor of the University of Maine . The Hamilton Glacier on the Antarctic Edward VII Peninsula has been named after him since 2003 . A 2010 New York Times article documented the danger involved in Hamilton 's field work noting that climate scientists including Hamilton and others were willing to take risks in order to retrieve temperature data that is essential to their work .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Gordon_Hamilton_(scientist)",
"rank": 35,
"score": 91927
},
{
"content": "Title: Bering Glacier Content: Bering Glacier is a glacier in the U.S. state of Alaska . It currently terminates in Vitus Lake south of Alaska 's Wrangell-St . Elias National Park , about 10 km from the Gulf of Alaska . Combined with the Bagley Icefield , where the snow that feeds the glacier accumulates , the Bering is the largest glacier in North America . Warmer temperatures and changes in precipitation over the past century have thinned the Bering Glacier by several hundred meters . Since 1900 the terminus has retreated as much as 12 km . The Bering Glacier exhibits `` surges '' , acceleration events of the flow rate of the glacier , every 20 years or so . During these periods the glacier terminus advances . The surges are generally followed by periods of retreat , so despite the periodic advances the glacier has been shrinking overall . Most glaciers along the Alaskan coast have been retreating along with the Bering Glacier . The glacial retreat has an interesting side effect , an increase in the frequency of earthquakes in the region . The Wrangell and St. Elias mountain ranges that spawn the Bering Glacier were created by the collision of the Pacific and North American tectonic plates -LSB- the Pacific Plate is sliding underneath ( being subducted by ) the North American Plate -RSB- . The weight of the vast amount of ice in the Bering Glacier is enough to depress the Earth 's crust , stabilizing the boundary between the two plates . As the glaciers lose mass , the pressure of the ice is diminished . This reduced compression allows the rocks along faults to move more freely , resulting in more earthquakes . Scientists from the Michigan Tech Research Institute , working with U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Bureau of Land Management have recently discovered that the glacier is releasing approximately 30 km3 of water a year , more than twice the amount of water in the entire Colorado River . Meltwater at the terminus collects in Vitus Lake , which flows via the Seal River to the Gulf of Alaska .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Bering_Glacier",
"rank": 36,
"score": 91828
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 37,
"score": 91753
},
{
"content": "Title: Fastook Glacier Content: Fastook Glacier is a southern tributary to Mulock Glacier about 20 nmi long and 5 nmi wide . It heads on the north side of Longhurst Plateau in the Cook Mountains and flows north between Butcher Ridge and the Finger Ridges . It was named after James L. Fastook of the Department of Computer Sciences and the Institute for Quaternary Studies at the University of Maine , a United States Antarctic Program investigator of ice streams , ice shelves , and ice sheets over a 20-year period beginning about 1978 .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Fastook_Glacier",
"rank": 38,
"score": 90996
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Nienow Content: Peter Nienow is a professor in glaciology at the University of Edinburgh . His research focuses on how glaciers and ice sheets respond to climate change . He is a winner of the Polar Medal , an award given to British citizens in recognition of acquisition of knowledge about polar regions , and who have undertaken polar expeditions in extreme hardship .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Peter_Nienow",
"rank": 39,
"score": 90617
},
{
"content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850",
"rank": 40,
"score": 90225
},
{
"content": "Title: Névé Content: Névé -LSB- neɪˈveɪ -RSB- is a young , granular type of snow which has been partially melted , refrozen and compacted , yet precedes the form of ice . This type of snow is associated with glacier formation through the process of nivation . Névé that survives a full season of ablation turns into firn , which is both older and slightly denser . Firn eventually becomes glacial ice -- the long-lived , compacted ice that glaciers are composed of . Glacier formation can take days to years depending on freeze-thaw factors . Névé is annually observed in skiing slopes , and is generally disliked as an icy falling zone . Névé has a minimum density of 500 kg/m ³ , which is roughly half of the density of liquid water at 1 atm . Névé can also refer to the alpine region in which snowfall accumulates , becomes névé , and feeds a glacier .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Névé",
"rank": 41,
"score": 89026
},
{
"content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Deglaciation",
"rank": 42,
"score": 88839
},
{
"content": "Title: Mingyong Glacier Content: Mingyong Glacier is located in the Yunnan Province , People 's Republic of China , The glacier retreated 200 meters ( 656 feet ) in four years . The region has also seen a rising tree line and these events are believed to be associated with global warming . The glacier is sacred to the local peoples . The glacier is fed by snows which fall on 6,740 m ( 22,107 ft ) Mount Meili , also known as the Meili Snow Mountain . Glaciers in China 's Tibetan region are melting at 7 percent annually . At 28.5 degrees north and an elevation of 2,700 meters ( 8,858 ft ) , the glacier is located at the lowest latitude and elevation of any glacier in China .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Mingyong_Glacier",
"rank": 43,
"score": 88777
},
{
"content": "Title: World Glacier Monitoring Service Content: The World Glacier Monitoring Service ( WGMS ) was started in 1986 , combining the two former services PSFG ( Permanent Service on Fluctuations of Glaciers ) and TTS/WGI ( Temporal Technical Secretary/World Glacier Inventory ) . It is a service of the International Association of the Cryospheric Sciences of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics ( IACS , IUGG ) as well as of the World Data System of the International Council for Science ( WDS , ICSU ) and works under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) , and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) The WGMS is based at a centre at the University of Zurich in Switzerland , and the Director of the Service is Michael Zemp . It is supported by the United Nations Environment Programme . WGMS `` collects standardised observations on changes in mass , volume , area and length of glaciers with time ( glacier fluctuations ) , as well as statistical information on the distribution of perennial surface ice in space ( glacier inventories ) . Such glacier fluctuation and inventory data are high priority key variables in climate system monitoring ; they form a basis for hydrological modelling with respect to possible effects of atmospheric warming , and provide fundamental information in glaciology , glacial geomorphology and quaternary geology . Such glacier fluctuation and inventory data are high priority key variables in climate system monitoring ; they form a basis for hydrological modelling with respect to possible effects of atmospheric warming , and provide fundamental information in glaciology , glacial geomorphology and quaternary geology . The highest information density is found for the Alps and Scandinavia , where long and uninterrupted records are available '' `` In close collaboration with the U.S. National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) and the Global Land Ice Measurements from Space ( GLIMS ) initiative , the WGMS is in charge of the Global Terrestrial Network for Glaciers ( GTN-G ) within GTOS/GCOS . GTN-G aims at combining ( a ) in-situ observations with remotely sensed data , ( b ) process understanding with global coverage and ( c ) traditional measurements with new technologies by using an integrated and multi-level strategy ''",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "World_Glacier_Monitoring_Service",
"rank": 44,
"score": 88737
},
{
"content": "Title: Konrad Steffen Content: Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Konrad_Steffen",
"rank": 45,
"score": 88329
},
{
"content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Abrupt_climate_change",
"rank": 46,
"score": 88197
},
{
"content": "Title: Glacial earthquake Content: Glacial earthquakes are earthquakes as large as magnitude 5.1 that occur in glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one kilometer per year . The number of glacial earthquakes in Greenland shows a peak every year in July , August and September , and the number is increasing over time . In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005 , more events were detected every year since 2002 , and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year . This increase in the numbers of glacial earthquakes in Greenland may be a response to global warming . Seismic waves are also generated by the Whillans Ice Stream , a large , fast-moving river of ice pouring from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet into the Ross Ice Shelf . Two bursts of seismic waves are released every day , each one equivalent to a magnitude 7 earthquake , and are seemingly related to the tidal action of the Ross Sea . During each event a 96 by 193 kilometer ( 60 by 120 mile ) region of the glacier moves as much as .67 meters ( 2.2 feet ) over about 25 minutes , remains still for 12 hours , then moves another half-meter . The seismic waves are recorded at seismographs around Antarctica , and even as far away as Australia , a distance of more than 6,400 kilometers . Because the motion takes place of such a long period of time 10 to 25 minutes , it can not be felt by scientists standing on the moving glacier . It is not known if these events are related to global warming .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Glacial_earthquake",
"rank": 47,
"score": 87990
},
{
"content": "Title: Syed Iqbal Hasnain Content: Syed Iqbal Hasnain is an Indian glaciologist , writer , educationist and the Chairman of the Glacier and Climate Change Commission of the Government of Sikkim . He is a former vice chancellor of the University of Calicut and a member of the United Nations Environment Program Committee on Global Assessment of Black Carbon and Troposphere Ozone . Hasnain has served the Jawaharlal Nehru University as a professor of glaciology and has been associated with The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) and the Centre for Policy Research , a social science research institute affiliated to the Indian Council of Social Science Research ( ICSSR ) . A distinguished Visiting Fellow of the Stimson Center , he has delivered several orations and has written articles and a book on glaciology . The Government of India awarded him the fourth highest civilian honour of the Padma Shri , in 2009 , for his contributions to studies on environment .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Syed_Iqbal_Hasnain",
"rank": 48,
"score": 86737
},
{
"content": "Title: Neumayer Glacier Content: Neumayer Glacier is a glacier , 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ) long and 2 nautical miles ( 3.7 km ) wide , which flows east along the north flank of the Allardyce Range to the west side of the head of Cumberland West Bay , South Georgia . Charted by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Otto Nordenskiöld , 1901 -- 04 , and named for Georg von Neumayer . Between 2005 and 2009 , the glacier retreated 1 km .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Neumayer_Glacier",
"rank": 49,
"score": 86708
},
{
"content": "Title: Julie Palais Content: Julie Michelle Palais ( * September 2 , 1956 in Massachusetts ) is an award-winning polar glaciologist who has made great contributions to climate change research studying volcanic fallout in ice cores from both Greenland and Antarctica . Since 1990 , she has played a pivotal role working at the National Science Foundation as Program Director of the Antarctic Glaciology Program in the Division of Polar Programs . Both the Palais Glacier and Palais Bluff in Antarctica were named in her honor . She has made twenty-eight trips to Antarctica and three trips to Greenland , and was the co-recipient of the Explorer Club 's Lowell Thomas Award .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Julie_Palais",
"rank": 50,
"score": 86522
},
{
"content": "Title: Storglaciären Content: Storglaciären ( Swedish for The Grand Glacier ) is a glacier in Tarfala Valley in the Scandinavian Alps of Kiruna Municipality , Sweden . The glacier is classified as polythermal having both cold and warm bottom temperatures . It was on Storglaciären that the first glacier mass balance research program began ( immediately after World War II ) , which continues to the present day ; this is the longest continuous study of its type in the world . Storglaciären has had a cumulative negative mass balance of -17 m between 1946 -- 2006 . The program began monitoring the Rabots Glaciär in 1982 , Riukojietna in 1985 , and Mårmaglaciären in 1988 . All three of these glaciers have had a strong negative mass balance since monitoring began . For the purpose of studying Storglaciären and nearby glaciers , Stockholm University operates the Tarfala research station in the Kebnekaise region of northern Sweden .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Storglaciären",
"rank": 51,
"score": 86252
},
{
"content": "Title: Norwegian Glacier Museum Content: The Norwegian Glacier Museum ( Norsk Bremuseum ) is a museum in Fjærland , Sogn og Fjordane , Norway . The museum 's stated purpose is to `` collect , create and disseminate knowledge about glaciers and climate '' -- it provides information about the glacier Jostedalsbreen and the Jostedalsbreen National Park and also houses the Ulltveit-Moe Climate Centre . The museum is open from April through October , daily . It was founded as a joint project between the organizations and institutions Norwegian Trekking Association , the International Glaciological Society , the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate , the Norwegian Polar Institute , the Sogn og Fjordane University College , the University of Bergen and the University of Oslo . The building was designed by Sverre Fehn . In 2002 a decision was made to build an extension to the museum , which was also designed by Fehn . In 2006 Sarner Ltd , a UK-based museum and attraction design company were commissioned to create an experiential exhibit on climate change . The exhibit Our Fragile Climate was opened in July 2007 by former US vice-president Walter Mondale .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Norwegian_Glacier_Museum",
"rank": 52,
"score": 86251
},
{
"content": "Title: James Balog Content: James Balog ( pronounced BAY-log ; born July 15 , 1952 ) is an American photographer whose work explores the relationship between humans and nature . Since the early 1980s Balog has photographed such subjects as endangered animals , North America 's old-growth forests , and polar ice . His work aims to combine insights from art and science to produce innovative , dynamic and sometimes shocking interpretations of our changing world . Balog 's best-known project explores the impact of climate change on the world 's glaciers . In 2007 he initiated the Extreme Ice Survey , the most wide-ranging ground-based photographic glacier study ever conducted . National Geographic magazine showcased Balog 's ice work in June 2007 and June 2010 , and the project is featured in the 2009 NOVA documentary Extreme IceSee Extreme Ice . as well as the 75-minute film Chasing Ice , which premiered in January 2012 . Balog 's book Ice : Portraits of the World 's Vanishing Glaciers summarizes the work of the Extreme Ice Survey through 2012 . Balog has received many awards for his work , including the Royal Photographic Society Hood Medal , a 2010 Heinz Award , the Duke University LEAF Award , the Same Rose '58 and Julie Walters Prize for Global Environmental Activism at Dickinson College , the Aspen Institute 's Visual Arts & Design Award , the Rowell Award for the Art of Adventure , the Leica Medal of Excellence , and the International League of Conservation Photographers League Award . He was the North American Nature Photography Association 's Outstanding Photographer of the Year in 2008 and PhotoMedia 's Person of the Year for 2011 . In 1996 he became the first photographer ever commissioned by the U.S. Postal Service to create a full set of stamps . He is the author of seven books , including Extreme Ice Now : Vanishing Glaciers and Changing Climate : A Progress Report ( 2009 ) , Tree : A New Vision of the American Forest ( 2004 ) , and Survivors : A New Vision of Endangered Wildlife ( 1990 ) , hailed as a conceptual breakthrough in nature photography . Balog received an Honorary Doctor of Science Degree from the University of Alberta . As a consequence of this historic work , in 2009 , he served as a U.S. / NASA representative at the United Nations Conference on Climate Change ( COP-15 ) in Copenhagen . In 2015 , he made four presentations at COP-21 in Paris . In January 2016 , Balog began production on another feature-length documentary film , Life Tectonic ( working title ) , exploring the environmental effects of the Anthropocene . The film is scheduled to debut in early 2018 . He is a founding Fellow of the International League of Conservation Photographers . He lives in the foothills of the Rockies above Boulder , Colorado , with his wife , Suzanne , and two daughters .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "James_Balog",
"rank": 53,
"score": 86076
},
{
"content": "Title: Dakshin Gangotri Glacier Content: The Dakshin Gangotri Glacier is a small tongue of the polar continental ice sheet impinging on the Schirmacher Oasis of central Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was discovered by the Second Indian Expedition to Antarctica in 1983 , and named for India 's first Antarctic research station . Since then its snout , and the area around it , has been regularly monitored and it has become a valuable site for tracking the impact of global warming through changes in the movement of the Antarctic ice sheet . The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA ) No. 163 .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Dakshin_Gangotri_Glacier",
"rank": 54,
"score": 85889
},
{
"content": "Title: Neny Glacier Content: Neny Glacier is a glacier on the southwest side of Hemimont Plateau flowing northwest into the north part of Neny Fjord on the west side of Antarctic Peninsula . This feature together with Gibbs Glacier , which flows southeast , occupy a transverse depression between Neny Fjord and Mercator Ice Piedmont on the east side of Antarctic Peninsula . The name Neny Glacier , derived from association with Neny Fjord , was first used by the U.S. Antarctic Service , 1939 -- 41 , whose members used the glacier as a sledging route . Category : Glaciers of Graham Land Category : Fallières Coast",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Neny_Glacier",
"rank": 55,
"score": 85829
},
{
"content": "Title: Swami Sundaranand Content: Swami Sundaranand ( born April , 1926 near Nellore , Andhra Pradesh , India ) is a Yogi , photographer , author and mountaineer who lectures widely in India on threats to the Ganges River and the loss of Himalayan glaciers due to global warming . Sundarananda was a student of the reclusive yoga master Swami Tapovan Maharaj ( 1889 -- 1957 ) , who wrote in the late 19th and early 20th centuries about yogic life in the Himalayas in the classic yoga book Wanderings in the Himalayas ( Himagiri Vihar ) . Sundaranand lived with Swami Tapovan in the then inaccessible area of Gangotri , at the source of the Ganges , which is considered one of India 's most sacred places . Since 1948 , he has lived by the Ganges in Gangotri , at 10,400 feet , in a modest hut ( kuti ) which his master Swami Tapovan Maharaj later bequeathed to him on his death in 1957 . There , Swami Sundaranand has lived in solitude and through the severest of winters without any comforts or conveniences . He has witnessed up close the gradual shrinking of the Gangotri Glacier from which the Ganges springs forth , and has chronicled his devotion to the natural beauty of the Indian Himalayas as an accomplished photographer . A museum devoted to environmental protection and spiritual guidance , containing Swami Sundaranand 's Himalayan photography , is now in the planning stages . It will be located in Gangotri on the property of Sundaranand and his master . As an ascetic , he took the brahmacharya sadhu vow over 59 years ago and daily devotes his life to rigorous meditation and other spiritual practices . He continues to be a principal advocate for the ecological preservation of the Himalayas , the Ganges and its source at Gangotri . He has taken more than 100,000 photos , over a 50-year period , of the shrinking Gangotri glacier in the Indian Himalayas . He now travels India raising awareness of the Gangotri 's rapid decline . Nicknamed `` the Sadhu Who Clicks '' because of his photography , he is also a noted mountain climber , having scaled over 25 Himalayan peaks , and climbing twice with Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay . Sir Edmund Hillary paid his respects to Swami Sundaranad in the 1980s at his Gangotri hut . Of the Gangotri glacier , Swami Sundaranand says : `` In 1949 , when I first saw the glacier , I felt as if all my sins were washed away and I had truly attained rebirth . But now , it is impossible to experience that Ganga of the past . '' Swami Sundaranand is the author of the book Himalaya : Through the Lens of a Sadhu with over 425 photographs spanning 60 years of his work . The book also contains a letter of endorsement from the former Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee . He sought to capture the Eternal in Nature and to document the region as it once was with a special emphasis on planting the seeds of hope and inspiration to solve the environmental concerns of the area . A lookout point and plaque have been built downriver from Gangotri and dedicated to the Swami 's work and efforts . Swami Sundaranand is the subject of a feature documentary shot at his home in Gangotri titled Personal Time with Swamiji . The film was produced by The Center for Healing Arts and directed by Victor Demko .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Swami_Sundaranand",
"rank": 56,
"score": 85697
},
{
"content": "Title: Lednia Content: Lednia is a monotypic genus , containing the single species Lednia tumana ( the meltwater stonefly ) -- a rare , alpine , aquatic insect that is endangered due to likely loss of glaciers and snowpacks in the Glacier National Park and other habitat in the Rocky Mountains due to climate change . The insect lives in the coldest streams just downstream of the glacier or snowbank sources and is considered as an early warning indicator species of climate warming in mountain ecosystems . The Fisheries and Wildlife Service isbeing petitioned to protect the species under the U.S. . Endangered Species Act .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Lednia",
"rank": 57,
"score": 85668
},
{
"content": "Title: Touming Mengke Glacier Content: The Mengke glacier is one of China 's largest glaciers . The glacier is 10.1 km long . It covers 21.9 sqkm . It is located in the Qilian Mountain range , in Subei County . The New York Times profiled the glacier 's retreat as symbolic of the dangers of global warming .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Touming_Mengke_Glacier",
"rank": 58,
"score": 85538
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 59,
"score": 85302
},
{
"content": "Title: Nereson Glacier Content: Nereson Glacier is a glacier about 5 nautical miles ( 9 km ) long draining the north side of Siple Island . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after Nadine A. Nereson , University of Washington , glaciologist whose research in West Antarctica during the 1990s focused on the history of ice flow , and the past and present stability of the ice sheet . Category : Glaciers of Marie Byrd Land",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Nereson_Glacier",
"rank": 60,
"score": 85273
},
{
"content": "Title: Ngozumpa glacier Content: The Ngozumpa glacier , below the sixth highest mountain in the world Cho Oyu in Nepal , at 36 km , is the longest glacier in the Himalayas . Ngozumpa Glacier is a large persistent body of ice . It flows slowly due to stresses induced by its weight .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Ngozumpa_glacier",
"rank": 61,
"score": 85036
},
{
"content": "Title: Sowers Glacier Content: Sowers Glacier is a glacier that flows from the prominent cirque on the east side of Craddock Massif and continues between Willis Ridge on the north , and Sanchez Peak and Stolnik Peak on the south , to join Thomas Glacier north of Mount Osborne , in the Sentinel Range , Ellsworth Mountains in Antarctica . The glacier was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in 2006 after Todd A. Sowers , Environment Institute , Department of Geosciences , Pennsylvania State University ; United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) investigator of climate change and abrupt climate change , using isotopes and atmospheric gases , including greenhouse gases , from the ice core record , 1991-2006 .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Sowers_Glacier",
"rank": 62,
"score": 84824
},
{
"content": "Title: Surge (glacier) Content: Glacial surges are short-lived events where a glacier can advance substantially , moving at velocities up to 100 times faster than normal . Surging glaciers cluster around a few areas . High concentrations of surging glaciers occur in Svalbard , the Canadian Arctic islands , Alaska and Iceland . In some glaciers , surges can occur in fairly regular cycles , with 15 to 100 or more surge events per year . In other glaciers , surging remains unpredictable . In some glaciers , however , the period of stagnation and build-up between two surges typically lasts 10 to 200 years and is called the quiescent phase . During this period the velocities of the glacier are significantly lower , and the glaciers can retreat substantially .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Surge_(glacier)",
"rank": 63,
"score": 84502
},
{
"content": "Title: List of glaciers in South America Content: Glaciers in South America develop exclusively on the Andes and are subject to the Andes various climatic regimes namely the Tropical Andes , Dry Andes and the Wet Andes . Apart from this there is a wide range of altitudes on which glaciers develop from 5000 m in the Altiplano mountains and volcanoes to reaching sealevel as tidewater glaciers from San Rafael Lagoon ( 45 ° S ) and southwards . South America hosts two large ice fields , the Northern and Southern Patagonian Ice Fields , of which the second is the largest contiguous body of glaciers in extrapolar regions . By surface about 80 % of South Americas glaciers lie in Chile .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "List_of_glaciers_in_South_America",
"rank": 64,
"score": 84481
},
{
"content": "Title: Academy of Sciences Glacier Content: The Academy of Sciences Glacier ( ледник Академии наук Lednik Akademii Nauk ) , is a large ice cap on Komsomolets Island , Severnaya Zemlya , Russian Federation . It is the largest in Severnaya Zemlya and is also the largest glacier formation of Russia .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Academy_of_Sciences_Glacier",
"rank": 65,
"score": 84477
},
{
"content": "Title: Fast ice Content: Fast ice ( also called land-fast ice , landfast ice , and shore-fast ice ) is sea ice that is `` fastened '' to the coastline , to the sea floor along shoals or to grounded icebergs . Fast ice may either grow in place from the sea water or by freezing pieces of drifting ice to the shore or other anchor sites . Unlike drift ( or pack ) ice , fast ice does not move with currents and winds . The width ( and the presence ) of this ice zone is usually seasonal and depends on ice thickness , topography of the sea floor and islands . It ranges from a few meters to several hundred kilometers . Seaward expansion is a function of a number of factors , notably water depth , shoreline protection , time of year and pressure from the pack ice . The topography of the fast ice varies from smooth and level to rugged ( when submitted to large pressures ) . The ice foot refers to ice that has formed at the shoreline , through multiple freezing of water between ebb tides , and is separated by the remainder of the fast ice surface by tidal cracks . Further away from the coastline , the ice may become anchored to the sea bottom -- it is then referred to as bottomfast ice . Fast ice can survive one or more melting seasons ( i.e. summer ) , in which case it can be designated following the usual age-based categories : first-year , second-year , multiyear . The fast ice boundary is the limit between fast ice and drift ( or pack ) ice -- in places , this boundary may coincide with a shear ridge . Fast ice may be delimited or enclose pressure ridges which extend sufficiently downward so as to be grounded -- these features are known as stamukhi .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Fast_ice",
"rank": 66,
"score": 84461
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 67,
"score": 84374
},
{
"content": "Title: Nabesna Glacier Content: Nabesna Glacier is a glacier in the U.S. state of Alaska . Fed by deep snowfall in the Wrangell Mountains , the 53 mile ( 85 km ) long Nabesna is the longest valley glacier in North America and the world 's longest interior valley glacier . The glacier flows from an extensive icefield which covers the northern flanks of 14163 ft Mount Wrangell , a large shield volcano . It heads initially east past other volcanic peaks including Mount Blackburn and Atna Peaks and then turns north to its terminus near 3,000 ft ( 900 m ) elevation , about 15 mi south of the old mining settlement of Nabesna at the end of the Nabesna Road . The vast expanse and length of the Nabesna is fed by approximately 40 tributary glaciers . Melting ice at its terminus forms the Nabesna River , which flows northward through Tetlin National Wildlife Refuge and into the Tanana River . The glacier was named for the Nabesna River in 1902 by F. C. Schrader of the U.S. Geological Survey . It provides the normal route of access into the heart of the eastern Wrangell Mountains , for ski mountaineers , climbers , and scientists . Ski-equipped bush planes can typically land between 6,000 and 7,000 ft ( 1,800-2 ,100 m ) on the central portion of the glacier when the ice and crevasses are covered by winter snow .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Nabesna_Glacier",
"rank": 68,
"score": 84156
},
{
"content": "Title: Icefall Content: An icefall is a portion of certain glaciers characterized by rapid flow and a chaotic crevassed surface . The term icefall is formed by analogy with the word waterfall , a similar , but much higher speed , phenomenon . When ice movement is faster than elsewhere , because the glacier bed steepens or narrows , the flow can not be accommodated by plastic deformation and the ice fractures , forming crevasses . Where two fractures meet , seracs ( ice towers ) can be formed . When the movement of the ice slows down , the crevasses can coalesce , resulting in the surface of the glacier becoming smoother .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Icefall",
"rank": 69,
"score": 84014
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic Glacier Content: Arctic Glacier is a manufacturer of packaged ice in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada . The company was founded in 1996 and has rapidly grown to become the largest producer of ice for the Canadian market and one of the largest for the American market . The company operates 36 production and 50 distribution facilities , and employs more than 1,100 people year-round . Employment increases to 2,400 employees during the summer to meet the increased seasonal demand . Corporate headquarters are located in Winnipeg and employ 85 people . The company declared bankruptcy in March 2012 . It was delisted from the TSX in October 2011 . In April 2012 , its main rival Reddy Ice also declared bankruptcy in a pre-packaged bankruptcy backed by creditor Centerbridge Partners . H.I.G. Capital agreed to acquire Arctic Glacier in May 2012 . The sale was completed July 27 , 2012 .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Arctic_Glacier",
"rank": 70,
"score": 83875
},
{
"content": "Title: Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station Content: The Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station 2007 ( APLIS07 ) is an U.S.A. and Japanese laboratory dedicated to the study of global climate change , located about 300km south of the Arctic Circle , Alaska on the West Ridge of the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Applied_Physics_Laboratory_Ice_Station",
"rank": 71,
"score": 83821
},
{
"content": "Title: Mendenhall Glacier Content: Mendenhall Glacier ( also Sitaantaagu ) is a glacier about 13.6 miles long located in Mendenhall Valley , about 12 mi from downtown Juneau in the southeast area of the U.S. state of Alaska . The glacier and surrounding landscape is protected as part of the 5,815-acre Mendenhall Glacier Recreation Area , a federally designated unit of the Tongass National Forest . The Juneau Icefield Research Program has monitored the outlet glaciers of the Juneau Icefield since 1942 , including Mendenhall Glacier . The glacier has also retreated 1.75 mi since 1929 , when Mendenhall Lake was created , and over 2.5 mi since 1500 . The end of the glacier currently has a negative glacier mass balance and will continue to retreat in the foreseeable future . Given that average yearly temperatures are currently increasing , and the outlook is for this trend to continue , it is actually possible that the glacier might experience a period of stabilization or slight advance during its retreating march . This is because increasing amounts of warm , moist air will be carried up to the head of the icefield , where colder ambient temperatures will cause it to precipitate as snow . The increased amount of snow will feed the icefield , possibly enough to offset the continually increasing melting experienced at the glacier 's terminus . However , this interesting phenomenon will fade away if temperatures continue to climb , since the head of the glacier will no longer have cold enough ambient temperatures to cause snow to precipitate .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Mendenhall_Glacier",
"rank": 72,
"score": 83523
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Peter_Doran",
"rank": 73,
"score": 83415
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice stream Content: A fast-moving ice or ice stream is a region of an ice sheet that moves significantly faster than the surrounding ice . Ice streams are a type of glacier . They are significant features of the Antarctic where they account for 10 % of the volume of the ice . They are up to 50 km wide , 2 km thick , can stretch for hundreds of kilometres , and account for most of the ice leaving the ice sheet . The speed of an ice stream can be over 1,000 metres per year , an order of magnitude faster than the surrounding ice . The shear forces at the edge of the ice stream cause deformation and recrystallization of the ice , making it softer , and concentrating the deformation in narrow bands or shear margins . Crevasses form , particularly around the shear margins . Most ice streams have some water at their base , which lubricates the flow . The type of bedrock also is significant . Soft , deformable sediments result in faster flow than hard rock .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Ice_stream",
"rank": 74,
"score": 83406
},
{
"content": "Title: Negribreen Content: Negribreen is glacier at Spitsbergen , Svalbard . The glacier debouches into Storfjorden , in Olav V Land and Sabine Land , and forms a wide glacier front with the moving extreme point Kapp Antinori . The glacier covers an area of about 1180 km2 . It is named after Italian geographer Christoforo Negri .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Negribreen",
"rank": 75,
"score": 83157
},
{
"content": "Title: David Vaughan (glaciologist) Content: David Glyn Vaughan OBE is a climate scientist at the British Antarctic Survey . His research focus is the role of ice sheets in the Earth system and the societal threat of climate change and rising sea levels . He is a co-ordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . His research work includes the mapping of the bed under Pine Island Glacier and the discovery of a subglacial volcano . Vaughan was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to glaciology .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "David_Vaughan_(glaciologist)",
"rank": 76,
"score": 83120
},
{
"content": "Title: Neve Glacier Content: Neve Glacier is in North Cascades National Park in the U.S. state of Washington and is on the north slopes of Snowfield Peak . Neve Glacier flows generally north and splits in two with two terminal tongues , one flowing to the northwest which is known as Ladder Creek Glacier and the other descending a total of more than 1.8 mi to the east . Ladder Creek Glacier descends from 7800 to , while the east tongue also originates from the same altitude and descends to 5600 ft. Between 1850 and 2006 , Neve Glacier is estimated to have retreated more than 1000 m.",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Neve_Glacier",
"rank": 77,
"score": 82976
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 78,
"score": 82863
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 79,
"score": 82816
},
{
"content": "Title: Wapta Icefield Content: The Wapta Icefield is located on the Continental Divide in the Waputik Mountains of the Canadian Rockies , in the provinces of British Columbia and Alberta . The icefield is shared by Banff and Yoho National Parks and numerous outlet glaciers extend from the icefield , including the Vulture , Bow and Peyto Glaciers . Runoff from the icefields and outlet glaciers supply water to both the Kicking Horse and Bow Rivers , as well as numerous streams and lakes . The icefield is one of the most studied in the Canadian Rockies and all evidence supports the conclusion that the icefield is shrinking in area , especially near the lowest altitudes of its outlet glaciers , including Peyto Glacier , in which the glacier has become both shorter in length and thinner in thickness . In the 1980s the icefield covered an area of approximately 80 km ² ( 30 miles ² ) . The icefield is easily accessible by mountaineers in both the summer and winter . Both ski trips in the winter and glacier hiking trips in the summer often combine a traverse of this icefield with a trip across the Waputik Icefield directly to the south .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Wapta_Icefield",
"rank": 80,
"score": 82803
},
{
"content": "Title: Vatnajökull Content: Vatnajökull ( -LSB- ˈvaʰtnaˌjœːkʏtl̥ -RSB- ) , also known as the Vatna Glacier in English , is the largest and most voluminous ice cap in Iceland , and one of the largest in area in Europe . It is the second largest glacier in area after Austfonna on Svalbard in Norway but , nevertheless , larger by volume . It is located in the south-east of the island , covering more than 8 percent of the country .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Vatnajökull",
"rank": 81,
"score": 82767
},
{
"content": "Title: Kronebreen Content: Kronebreen is a glacier located at the western side of Spitsbergen , Svalbard . It is one of the largest glacier streams on Svalbard , draining about 690 square kilometers . The glacier moves with an average speed of two meters per day . Kronebreen merges with two other glaciers , the Kongsvegen glacier and the Conway glacier . The merged glacier ends up in Kongsfjorden , and the common glacier front is called Kongsbreen .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Kronebreen",
"rank": 82,
"score": 82489
},
{
"content": "Title: Snowshoe Glacier Content: Snowshoe Glacier is a glacier 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ) long flowing west from a col in the southwest flank of Neny Glacier into Neny Fjord , western Graham Land . Roughly surveyed from the ground ( 1936 ) and photographed from the air ( 1937 ) by British Graham Land Expedition ( BGLE ) . Surveyed by Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) in 1949 . The name was suggested by K.S.P. Butler of the FIDS in 1948 because the shape of the glacier with its narrow head and wide mouth resembles a snowshoe . Category : Glaciers of Graham Land Category : Fallières Coast",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Snowshoe_Glacier",
"rank": 83,
"score": 82435
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline",
"rank": 84,
"score": 82318
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 85,
"score": 82284
},
{
"content": "Title: Wintun Glacier Content: The Wintun Glacier is a glacier situated on the eastern flank of Mount Shasta , in the U.S. state of California . It is both the third largest and third most voluminous glacier in California after the neighboring Hotlum Glacier and the Whitney Glacier . The Wintun Glacier starts on the east side of Mount Shasta 's main summit , and it has the highest permanent snow and ice on the mountain , reaching above 14100 ft to within a few dozen feet ( ~ 8 -- 15 m ) of the true summit . The glacier flows east down a steep slope and terminates in two lobes , the longer of which extends down near 9800 ft. In 2002 , scientists made the first detailed survey of Mount Shasta 's glaciers in 50 years . They found that seven of the glaciers have grown over the period 1951-2002 , with the Hotlum and Wintun Glaciers nearly doubling , the Bolam Glacier increasing by half , and the Whitney and Konwakiton Glaciers growing by a third .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Wintun_Glacier",
"rank": 86,
"score": 82282
},
{
"content": "Title: Teepe Glacier Content: Teepe Glacier is below the northeast face of Teepe Pillar in Grand Teton National Park , Wyoming , United States . The glacier is immediately southeast of Grand Teton in the heart of the Cathedral Group collection of high peaks in the Teton Range . Between 1967 and 2006 , Teepe Glacier lost approximately 60 percent of its surface area , shrinking from 13 to .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Teepe_Glacier",
"rank": 87,
"score": 82278
},
{
"content": "Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system",
"rank": 88,
"score": 82031
},
{
"content": "Title: Höllentalferner Content: The Höllentalferner is a glacier in the western Wetterstein Mountains . It is a cirque glacier that covers the upper part of the Höllental valley and its location in a rocky bowl between the Riffelwandspitzen and Germany 's highest mountain , the Zugspitze , means that it is well-protected from direct sunshine . With an area of 24.7 ha ( as of 2006 ) it is almost as big as the nearby Northern Schneeferner , the largest glacier in Germany . It is about 1 km long and up to 700 m wide . It is the only German glacier with a proper glacial tongue . In spite of its relatively low elevation of just to , the glacier is not in acute danger because it is located in a deeply hollowed bowl and is fed by avalanche snow ( as a Lawinenkesselgletscher or `` avalanche bowl glacier '' ) and is therefore less badly affected by global warming . In order to climb the Zugspitze through the Höllental valley the Höllentalferner has to be negotiated . Depending on the season the randkluft of the glacier is a key point on the way to the Klettersteig .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Höllentalferner",
"rank": 89,
"score": 81790
},
{
"content": "Title: Tustumena Glacier Content: The Tustumena Glacier is a glacier located on the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska . The Tustumena Glacier begins in the Harding Icefield and makes its way down west for about 20 mi until its terminus roughly 5 mi before Tustumena Lake . The glacier is retreating due to global warming . A small lake called Arctic Lake sits alongside Tustumena Glacier , with its outflow underneath the ice . This lake periodically fills up and then drains as the glacier moves , leaving icebergs stranded in the sand . The Alaska Marine Highway ferry M/V Tustumena derives its name from this glacier .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Tustumena_Glacier",
"rank": 90,
"score": 81724
},
{
"content": "Title: Snow field Content: Snowfield is also a former name of the UK indie rock band Editors A snow field , snowfield or neve is an accumulation of permanent snow and ice , typically found above the snow line , normally in mountainous and glacial terrain . Glaciers originate in snowfields . The lower end of a glacier is usually free from snow and névé in summer . In the upper end and above the upper boundary of a glacier , the snow field is an ice field covered with snow . The glacier upper boundary , where it emerges from under a snow field , is ill-defined because of gradual transition .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Snow_field",
"rank": 91,
"score": 81593
},
{
"content": "Title: Imja Tsho Content: Imja Tsho ( or Imja Lake ) is a glacial lake created after melt water began collecting at the foot of the Imja Glacier on the lower part of the glacier in the 1950s . A 2009 study described this lake of melt water as one of the fastest-growing in the Himalaya . Held in place by a terminal moraine , Imja Tsho threatens downstream communities with the potential for a glacial outburst flood . Imja Tsho has been identified as one of the potentially dangerous lakes in Himalaya . It is located at 27 ° 59 ' 17 '' N latitude , 86 ° 55 ' 31 '' E longitude and at an altitude of 5010 m in Everest region of Nepal . The catchment of Imja Tsho occupies the northeastern part of the Dudh Koshi sub-basin . The lake itself is located on the lower part of the glacier at the toe of its mother glaciers ( snout of Imja and Lhotse Shar Glaciers ) . The Lhotse Shar Glacier flows in a south-westerly direction . The Imja Glacier on the other hand is oriented in a north-westerly direction and has its terminus at about 5100 m . These two glaciers coalesce approximately 3.5 km above the terminus and flow westwards just beneath the trekking path of Imja Tse . The lake was first mapped in the form of a few ponds from the satellite image taken in 1962 . The total area of the ponds was approximately 0.03 km2 then ( 27916 sq m ) . With the melting of glaciers , the ponds merged into a supra-glacial lake in the 1970s and it has grown continuously ever since . The lake area increased to approximately 0.8 km2 ( 796600 sq m ) in 2000 with an average growth rate of 0.02 km2 per year . On the basis of newly released image of 21 November 2009 on Google Earth , the Imja Tsho has attained an area of 1.055 km2 as a result of which the growth rate of the lake has increased to 0.025 km2 per year from 2000 to 2009 . The preliminary analysis has also shown that there has been an increase of almost 11 % in the lake area compared to the area calculated on the basis of satellite image received on October 2008 . In 2016 the Nepalese Army constructed an outlet and drained over 4 million cubic meters of water from the lake .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Imja_Tsho",
"rank": 92,
"score": 81467
},
{
"content": "Title: Brüggen Glacier Content: Brüggen Glacier , also known as Pío XI Glacier , is in southern Chile and is the largest western outflow from the Southern Patagonian Ice Field . Now about 66 km in length , it is the longest glacier in the southern hemisphere outside Antarctica . Unlike most glaciers worldwide , it advanced significantly from 1945 to 1976 , Brüggen surged 5 km across the Eyre Fjord , reaching the western shore by 1962 and cutting off Lake Greve from the sea . The glacier continued advancing both northward and southward in the fjord to near its present position before stabilizing . The growth covers a distance of more than 10 km north to south , adding nearly 60 km2 of ice . The glacier is named after the German geologist Juan Brüggen Messtorff .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Brüggen_Glacier",
"rank": 93,
"score": 81442
},
{
"content": "Title: Harald Moltke Glacier Content: The Harald Moltke Glacier is located in the far northwest of Greenland , to the north of the Thule Air Base . It is one of four large glaciers which feeds the Wolstenholme Fjord ( sometimes referred to as `` the world 's largest ice machine '' ) . The other glaciers are the Salisbury Glacier , the Chamberlin Glacier , and the Knud Rasmussen Glacier . The Harald Moltke Glacier is over 5 km in length and is approximately 1500 m in width .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Harald_Moltke_Glacier",
"rank": 94,
"score": 81304
},
{
"content": "Title: Quelccaya Ice Cap Content: The Quelccaya Ice Cap is the largest glaciated area in the tropics . Located in the Cordillera Oriental section of the Andes mountains of Peru , the ice cap is at an average altitude of 5,470 m and spans an area of 44 km2 . As with the majority of the Earth 's glaciers , the Quelccaya Ice cap has retreated significantly since it was first studied . Since 1978 the icecap has lost approximately 20 % of its area , and the rate of retreat is increasing . Comparing pictures taken in 1963 and 1978 , an annual retreat rate of 4.7 m was estimated . In the first few years of the 21st century , the annual retreat was measured to be as much as 205 m , more than 40 times as fast . The major outlet glacier from the Quelccaya Ice Cap , the Qori Kalis Glacier , has also retreated significantly since 1963 .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Quelccaya_Ice_Cap",
"rank": 95,
"score": 81222
},
{
"content": "Title: Nemo Glacier Content: Nemo Glacier is a glacier flowing east into Nemo Cove , Pourquoi Pas Island , in northeast Marguerite Bay . Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) , 1979 , in association with Nemo Cove . Category : Glaciers of Graham Land Category : Fallières Coast",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Nemo_Glacier",
"rank": 96,
"score": 81184
},
{
"content": "Title: Langjökull Content: Langjökull ( Icelandic for `` long glacier '' ) is the second largest ice cap in Iceland ( 953 km2 ) , after Vatnajökull . It is situated in the west of the Icelandic interior or Highlands of Iceland and can be seen clearly from Haukadalur . The glacier is located at . Its volume is 195 km ³ and the ice is up to 580 m thick . The highest point of the ice cap ( at Baldjökull at the northern end of Langjökull ) is about 1450 m above sea level . In the past , the largest recorded surface area was in 1840 .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Langjökull",
"rank": 97,
"score": 81169
},
{
"content": "Title: Vashon Glaciation Content: The Vashon Glaciation or Vashon Stade was the most recent period of very cold climate in which glaciers existed at elevations at and near sea level in the western part of present-day Washington state . It occurred during a colder than present part of the current ice age . The Vashon Glaciation lasted from about 19,000 - 16,000 BP ( Before Present - present defined as January 1 , 1950 for this scale ) . The Cordilleran Ice Sheet was an ice sheet that covered present-day southern Alaska and parts of western Canada . During the Vashon Glaciation , the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced into the Puget Sound region .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Vashon_Glaciation",
"rank": 98,
"score": 81162
},
{
"content": "Title: Eiríksjökull Content: Eiríksjökull ( Icelandic for `` Eirík 's glacier '' ) is a glacier north-west of Langjökull in Iceland , with an area of 22 km2 reaching a height of 1675 m , making it the largest table mountain in Iceland . Rising over 1000 m above its surrounding , the lowest 350 m of a hyaloclastite ( móberg ) tuya formed presumably by a single subglacial volcanic activity is capped by a 750 m thick lava shield . It is currently dormant or extinct in terms of volcanic activity .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Eiríksjökull",
"rank": 99,
"score": 81078
},
{
"content": "Title: Firn Content: Firn ( -LSB- fɪərn -RSB- from Swiss German firn `` last year 's '' , cognate with before ) is partially compacted névé , a type of snow that has been left over from past seasons and has been recrystallized into a substance denser than névé . It is ice that is at an intermediate stage between snow and glacial ice . Firn has the appearance of wet sugar , but has a hardness that makes it extremely resistant to shovelling . Its density generally ranges from 0.4 g/cm ³ to 0.83 g/cm ³ , and it can often be found underneath the snow that accumulates at the head of a glacier . Snowflakes are compressed under the weight of the overlying snowpack . Individual crystals near the melting point are semiliquid and slick , allowing them to glide along other crystal planes and to fill in the spaces between them , increasing the ice 's density . Where the crystals touch they bond together , squeezing the air between them to the surface or into bubbles . In the summer months , the crystal metamorphosis can occur more rapidly because of water percolation between the crystals . By summer 's end , the result is firn . The minimum altitude that firn accumulates on a glacier is called the firn limit , firn line or snowline .",
"qid": "72",
"docid": "Firn",
"rank": 100,
"score": 80927
}
] |
The models predicted about three times the amount of warming in the world we’ve seen since [1988]. | [
{
"content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory",
"rank": 1,
"score": 126457
},
{
"content": "Title: Navy Global Environmental Model Content: The Navy Global Environmental Model ( NAVGEM ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer simulation run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the NWS 's Global Forecast System , which runs out to 16 days , the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) and the CMC 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) , both of which run out 10 days , and the UK Met Office 's Unified Model , which runs out to 6 days , it is one of five synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The NAVGEM became operational in February 2013 , replacing the NOGAPS . It uses the same forecast range as the NOGAPS did ( three-hour intervals out 180 hours ) but also uses a refurbished dynamic core and improvements to the physics simulations compared to its predecessor . Category : Numerical climate and weather models Category : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Navy_Global_Environmental_Model",
"rank": 2,
"score": 122940
},
{
"content": "Title: Model for Prediction Across Scales Content: The Model for Prediction Across Scales ( MPAS ) is a coupled Earth system modeling package that integrates atmospheric , oceanographic and cryospheric modeling on a variety of scales from the planetary to regional and mesoscale/microscale . It includes climate and weather modeling and simulations that were first used by researchers in 2013 . The atmospheric components ( MPAS-A ) were led by the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) 's Earth System Laboratory ( NESL ) and the oceanographic components ( MPAS-O ) by the Climate , Ocean , and Sea Ice Modeling Group ( COSIM ) at Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) . It has been used for real-time weather as well as seasonal forecasting of convection , tornadoes and tropical cyclones , among other uses . Its atmospheric modeling aspects are intended to use and complement rather than replace the Weather Research and Forecasting Model ( WRF-ARW/NMM ) , the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) and the Community Earth System Model ( CESM ) .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Model_for_Prediction_Across_Scales",
"rank": 3,
"score": 118674
},
{
"content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera",
"rank": 4,
"score": 118580
},
{
"content": "Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Fate_of_the_World",
"rank": 5,
"score": 118134
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 6,
"score": 116409
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Climate_model",
"rank": 7,
"score": 116226
},
{
"content": "Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Petar_Gburčik",
"rank": 8,
"score": 115216
},
{
"content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Vicky_Pope",
"rank": 9,
"score": 114660
},
{
"content": "Title: Flow-following, finite-volume Icosahedral Model Content: The Flow-following , finite-volume Icosahedral Model ( FIM ) is a numerical weather prediction model that has been under development at the Earth System Research Laboratory in the United States since 2008 . The FIM is being developed as a candidate to eventually supplant the Global Forecast System , the United States 's current medium-range forecast model . The FIM was originally slated to become operational some time in 2014 ( as of autumn 2016 the model is still testing ) ; the GFS will continue to be run and maintained for several years afterward , much in the same way the GFS and its predecessor , the Nested Grid Model , ran concurrently for several years . The model currently produces similar results to the GFS , but runs slower on the NWS 's operational computers . Its three-part name derives from its key features : `` flow-following '' indicates that its vertical coordinates are based on both terrain and potential temperature ( isentropic sigma coordinates , previously used in the now-discontinued rapid update cycle model ) , and `` finite-volume '' describes the method used for calculating horizontal transport . The `` icosahedral '' portion describes the model 's most uncommon feature : whereas most grid-based forecast models have historically used rectangular grid points ( a less than ideal arrangement for a planet that is a slightly oblate spheroid ) , the FIM instead fits Earth to a truncated icosahedron , with twelve evenly spaced pentagons ( including two at the poles ) anchoring a grid of hexagons . The FIM runs as a multiscale model , with a suffix number indicating the model 's horizontal resolution . FIM7 operates at a spatial resolution of approximately 60 km , FIM8 at 30 km , FIM9 at 15km and FIM9 .5 at 10km . The FIM7 and FIM8 both run twice daily ( 0z and 12z ) with 6-hour temporal resolution out to 14 days . The FIM9 runs four times daily , also with 6-hour steps , out to 10 days . ( FIM9 .5 is not currently in operation . )",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Flow-following,_finite-volume_Icosahedral_Model",
"rank": 10,
"score": 114483
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Forecast System Content: The Global Forecast System ( GFS ) is a global numerical weather prediction system containing a global computer model and variational analysis run by the United States ' National Weather Service ( NWS ) . The mathematical model is run four times a day , and produces forecasts for up to 16 days in advance , but with decreased spatial resolution after 10 days . The forecast skill generally decreases with time ( as with any numerical weather prediction model ) and for longer term forecasts , only the larger scales retain significant accuracy . It is one of the predominant synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The GFS model is a spectral model with an approximate horizontal resolution of 13 km for the first 10 days and 27 km from 240 to 384 hours ( 16 days ) . In the vertical , the model is divided into 64 layers and temporally , it produces forecast output every hour for the first 120 hours , three hourly through day 10 and 12 hourly through day 16 . The output from the GFS is also used to produce model output statistics . In addition to the main model , the GFS is also the basis of a lower resolution 20-member ( 22 , counting the control and operational members ) ensemble that runs concurrently with the operational GFS and is available on the same time scales . This ensemble is referred to as the `` Global Ensemble Forecast System '' ( GEFS ) . Ensemble model output statistics are available out to 8 days . The GFS ensemble is combined with Canada 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ensemble to form the North American Ensemble Forecast System ( NAEFS ) . As with most works of the U.S. government , GFS data is not copyrighted and is available for free in the public domain under provisions of U.S. law . Because of this , the model serves as the basis for the forecasts of numerous private , commercial and foreign weather companies . By 2015 the GFS model had fallen behind the accuracy of other global weather models . This was most notable in the GFS model incorrectly predicting Hurricane Sandy turning out to sea until 4 days before landfall ; while the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ' model predicted landfall correctly at 7 days . Much of this was suggested to be due to limits in computational resources within the National Weather Service . In response , the NWS purchased new supercomputers , increasing processing power from 776 teraflops to 5.78 petaflops . The agency has also been testing a potential replacement model with different mechanics , the flow-following , finite-volume Icosahedral Model ( FIM ) , since the early 2010s .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Global_Forecast_System",
"rank": 11,
"score": 113612
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 12,
"score": 113443
},
{
"content": "Title: Unified Model Content: The Unified Model is a Numerical Weather Prediction and climate modeling software suite originally developed by the United Kingdom Met Office , and now both used and further developed by many weather-forecasting agencies around the world . The Unified Model gets its name because a single model is used across a range of both timescales ( nowcasting to centennial ) and spatial scales ( convective scale to climate system earth modelling ) . The models are grid-point based , rather than wave based , and are run on a variety of supercomputers around the world . The Unified Model atmosphere can be coupled to a number of ocean models . At the Met Office it is used for the main suite of Global Model , North Atlantic and Europe model ( NAE ) and a high-resolution UK model ( UKV ) , in addition to a variety of Crisis Area Models and other models that can be run on demand . Similar Unified Model suites with global and regional domains are used by many other national or military weather agencies around the world for operational forecasting . Data for numerical weather prediction is provided by observations from satellites , from the ground ( both human and from automatic weather stations ) , from buoys at sea , radar , radiosonde weather balloons , wind profilers , commercial aircraft and a background field from previous model runs . The computer model is only adjusted towards the observations using assimilation , rather than forcing the model to accept an observed value that might make the system unstable ( and could be an inaccurate observation ) . The Unified Model software suite is written in Fortran ( originally 77 but now predominantly 90 ) and uses height as the vertical variable . Because most developments of interest are at near to the ground the vertical layers are closer together near the surface .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Unified_Model",
"rank": 13,
"score": 112577
},
{
"content": "Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Theodor_Landscheidt",
"rank": 14,
"score": 112574
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme",
"rank": 15,
"score": 111574
},
{
"content": "Title: Numerical weather prediction Content: Numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions . Though first attempted in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results . A number of global and regional forecast models are run in different countries worldwide , using current weather observations relayed from radiosondes , weather satellites and other observing systems as inputs . Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions ; the latter are widely applied for understanding and projecting climate change . The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts ; however , atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area , such as wildfires . Manipulating the vast datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to only about six days . Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts , along with deficiencies in the numerical models themselves . Post-processing techniques such as model output statistics ( MOS ) have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions . A more fundamental problem lies in the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations that govern the atmosphere . It is impossible to solve these equations exactly , and small errors grow with time ( doubling about every five days ) . Present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to about 14 days even with perfectly accurate input data and a flawless model . In addition , the partial differential equations used in the model need to be supplemented with parameterizations for solar radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , and the effects of terrain . In an effort to quantify the large amount of inherent uncertainty remaining in numerical predictions , ensemble forecasts have been used since the 1990s to help gauge the confidence in the forecast , and to obtain useful results farther into the future than otherwise possible . This approach analyzes multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model or multiple models .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Numerical_weather_prediction",
"rank": 16,
"score": 111496
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 17,
"score": 111283
},
{
"content": "Title: HadGEM1 Content: HadGEM1 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model , version 1 ) is a coupled climate model developed at the Met Office 's Hadley Centre in 2006 and used in IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on climate change . It represents a significant scientific advance on its predecessor , HadCM3 . HadGEM1 also provides a basis for further development of models , particularly involving enhanced resolution and full Earth System modelling . The current version is HadGEM3 .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "HadGEM1",
"rank": 18,
"score": 110646
},
{
"content": "Title: World Ocean Circulation Experiment Content: The World Ocean Circulation Experiment ( WOCE ) was a component of the international World Climate Research Program , and aimed to establish the role of the World Ocean in the Earth 's climate system . WOCE 's field phase ran between 1990 and 1998 , and was followed by an analysis and modeling phase that ran until 2002 . When the WOCE was conceived , there were three main motivations for its creation . The first of these is the inadequate coverage of the World Ocean , specifically in the Southern Hemisphere . Data was also much more sparse during the winter months than the summer months , and there was -- and still to some extent -- a critical need for data covering all seasons . Secondly , the data that did exist was not initially collected for studying ocean circulation and was not well suited for model comparison . Lastly , there were concerns involving the accuracy and reliability of some measurements . The WOCE was meant to address these problems by providing new data collected in ways designed to `` meet the needs of global circulation models for climate prediction . ''",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment",
"rank": 19,
"score": 109647
},
{
"content": "Title: NRLMSISE-00 Content: NRLMSISE-00 is an empirical , global model of the Earth 's atmosphere from ground to space . It models the temperatures and densities of the atmosphere 's components . A primary use of this model is to aid predictions of satellite orbital decay due to atmospheric drag . This model has also been used by astronomers to calculate the mass of air between telescopes and laser beams in order to assess the impact of laser guide stars on the non-lasing telescopes .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "NRLMSISE-00",
"rank": 20,
"score": 109417
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy",
"rank": 21,
"score": 109384
},
{
"content": "Title: EdGCM Content: The Educational Global Climate Model or EdGCM is a fully functional global climate model ( GCM ) that has been ported for use on desktop computers ( Windows PCs and Macs ) . It operates through a graphical user interface and is integrated with a relational database and scientific visualization utllities , all of which aim at helping improve the quality of teaching and understanding of climatology by making real-world research experiences more accessible . EdGCM is designed to permit teachers and students to conduct in-depth investigations of past , present and future climate scenarios in a manner that is essentially identical to the techniques used by national and international climate research organizations . EdGCM was developed at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies as a joint project of Columbia University and NASA scientists and programmers . The Global Climate Model at the core of EdGCM is GISS Model II . During the 1980s and early 1990s this GCM was one of NASA 's primary climate research tools . Results from the model have appeared in hundreds of scientific publications . The coarser resolution of the climate model in EdGCM ( 8 ° x 10 ° , latitude x longitude ) makes it inexpensive to run . But , because it contains most of the key atmospheric physics of modern GCMs , EdGCM is also used by climate researchers who do not have access to the most recent GCM versions .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "EdGCM",
"rank": 22,
"score": 108680
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 23,
"score": 108486
},
{
"content": "Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model Content: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by Fleet Numerical . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) it is one of several synoptic scale medium-range models in general use .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System_Model",
"rank": 24,
"score": 108425
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 25,
"score": 107352
},
{
"content": "Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "General_circulation_model",
"rank": 26,
"score": 107187
},
{
"content": "Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Content: The Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model was run four times a day and produced weather forecasts . The NOGAPS was replaced by the NAVGEM in February 2013 .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System",
"rank": 27,
"score": 107176
},
{
"content": "Title: ERA-40 Content: ERA-40 is an ECMWF re-analysis of the global atmosphere and surface conditions for 45-years , over the period from September 1957 through August 2002 by ECMWF . Many sources of the meteorological observations were used , including radiosondes , balloons , aircraft , buoyes , satellites , scatterometers . This data was run through the ECMWF computer model at a 125 km resolution . As the ECMWF 's computer model is one of the more highly regarded in the field of forecasting , many scientists take its reanalysis to have similar merit . The data is stored in GRIB format . The reanalysis was done in an effort to improve the accuracy of historical weather maps and aid in a more detailed analysis of various weather systems through a period that was severely lacking in computerized data . With the data from reanalyses such as this , many of the more modern computerized tools for analyzing storm systems can be utilized , at least in part , because of this access to a computerized simulation of the atmospheric state .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "ERA-40",
"rank": 28,
"score": 106459
},
{
"content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell",
"rank": 29,
"score": 106449
},
{
"content": "Title: Masao Kanamitsu Content: Masao Kanamitsu ( November 6 , 1943 in Kumamoto , Japan -- August 17 , 2011 in Del Mar , California ) - was Japanese and American atmospheric scientist working in the field of data assimilation . His research greatly influenced global and regional climate change studies including development of breakthrough reanalysis and downscaling datasets and weather forecasting studies . He was the co-author of one of the most cited geophysics paper in his time . Kanamitsu was born in 1943 and was raised in Sapporo . He did his B.S. and M. Sc . in 1968 at Hokkaido University , Japan and M.Sc . and Ph. D. in 1975 at Florida State University . He was one of the large group of Japanese scientists who after the World War II greatly contributed to the development of the dynamic meteorology in the US and in the World including Syukuro Manabe , Taroh Matsuno , Kikuro Miyakoda , and Akio Arakawa . He served as a Forecaster at Japan Meteorological Agency , as a leader of the Global Modeling Branch , Development Division , and later as an Acting Chief of the Prediction Branch at the Climate Prediction Center of the National Meteorological Center . In 2001 he moved to Scripps Institution of Oceanography where he worked to the rest of his life . He had a group of young researchers working with him . Kanamitsu was instrumental in creating one of the most successful datasets used in global change studies - the NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis for which he received a Group Gold Medal from the Department of Commerce in 1997 . His 1996 reanalysis paper is one of the most celebrated paper in atmospheric science and geosciences - at the time of his death this paper was cited 7985 times . His publications report ambitious , multiyear in making , and extensive project to develop regional-scale climate change dataset based on the NCEP -- NCAR reanalysis for the period 1948 -- 2005 . This downscaling paved the way for local scale understanding of climate changes . In he worked out a problem of how to produce meteorological dataset such as winds , pressures , or temperature on fine scale ( say every 10 km ) if the measurements are performed every 200 km . This led to a concept of dynamical downscaling of climate analysis using regional models . He served as an editor for the Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan ( 1980 -- 1985 ) and the Monthly Weather Review ( 1991 -- 1993 ) . He was active scientifically to the end of his very productive life . At the time of his death he was a researcher at Scripps Institution of Oceanography where in relatively short time of about 10 years he wrote 35 papers . Kanamitsu was survived by his wife Mariko and he had daughter Tomoko . He enjoyed hiking in various mountain ranges around Japan , United States and Europe . He loved dogs . He received Meteorological Society of Japan award in 1983 . He was known as Kana among his friends .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Masao_Kanamitsu",
"rank": 30,
"score": 106342
},
{
"content": "Title: David Carson (climatologist) Content: David John Carson is a climatologist . He has been director of the Hadley Centre ( around 1990-1996 ) , director of Numerical Weather Prediction at the UKMO ( around 1999-2000 ) , and was director of the World Climate Research Programme from 2000-2005 . Carson joined the UK Meteorological Office in 1969 , following his Ph.D from the Department of Applied Mathematics , University of Liverpool , working on the structure and evolution of the atmospheric boundary layer . He did early research on the development of atmospheric general circulation models . In 1982 , he was appointed to Assistant Director within the Met Office , and led the Boundary Layer Research Branch and later the Dynamical Climatology Branch . For 1987 -- 1989 Carson was seconded to the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) as their first Programme Director for atmospheric sciences . He returned to the Met . Office in January 1990 and became Director of Climate Research and then first Director of the Hadley Centre .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "David_Carson_(climatologist)",
"rank": 31,
"score": 105959
},
{
"content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 32,
"score": 105911
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 33,
"score": 105882
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project Content: Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project ( AMIP ) is a standard experimental protocol for global atmospheric general circulation models ( AGCMs ) . It provides a community-based infrastructure in support of climate model diagnosis , validation , intercomparison , documentation and data access . Virtually the entire international climate modeling community has participated in this project since its inception in 1990 . AMIP is endorsed by the Working Group on Numerical Experimentation ( WGNE ) of the World Climate Research Programme , and is managed by the Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison with the guidance of the WGNE AMIP Panel . The AMIP experiment itself is simple by design ; an AGCM is constrained by realistic sea surface temperature and sea ice from 1979 to near present , with a comprehensive set of fields saved for diagnostic research . This model configuration removes the added complexity of ocean-atmosphere feedbacks in the climate system . It is not meant to be used for climate change prediction , an endeavor that requires a coupled atmosphere-ocean model ( e.g. , see AMIP 's sister project CMIP ) .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Atmospheric_Model_Intercomparison_Project",
"rank": 34,
"score": 105656
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 35,
"score": 105642
},
{
"content": "Title: James Annan Content: James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "James_Annan",
"rank": 36,
"score": 105545
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 37,
"score": 105474
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Mesoscale Model Content: The North American Mesoscale Model ( NAM ) , refers to a numerical weather prediction model run by National Centers for Environmental Prediction for short-term weather forecasting . Currently , the Weather Research and Forecasting Non-hydrostatic Mesoscale Model ( WRF-NMM ) model is run as the NAM , thus , three names ( NAM , WRF , or NMM ) typically refer to the same model output . The WRF replaced the Eta model on June 13 , 2006 . The model is run four times a day ( 00 , 06 , 12 , 18 UTC ) out to 84 hours . It is currently run with 12 km horizontal resolution and with three-hour temporal resolution , providing finer detail than other operational forecast models . The NAM ensemble is known as the Short Range Ensemble Forecast ( SREF ) and runs out 87 hours .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "North_American_Mesoscale_Model",
"rank": 38,
"score": 105210
},
{
"content": "Title: CCCma Content: CCCma ( Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis ) is part of the Climate Research Division of Environment Canada and is located at the University of Victoria , Victoria , British Columbia . Its purpose is to develop and apply climate models to improve understanding of climate change and make quantitative projections of future climate in Canada and globally . Its seasonal forecasting system provides climate forecasts over Canada on timescales of months to years .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "CCCma",
"rank": 39,
"score": 104711
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 40,
"score": 104594
},
{
"content": "Title: Nested Grid Model Content: The Nested Grid Model ( usually known as NGM for short ) was a numerical weather prediction model run by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction , a division of the National Weather Service , in the United States . The NGM was , as its name suggested , derived from two levels of grids : a hemispheric-scale grid and a synoptic-scale grid , the latter of which had a resolution of approximately 90 kilometers . Its most notable feature was that it assumed the hydrostatic equation . The NGM debuted in 1987 , directly replacing the limited-area fine-mesh ( LFM ) model , which was immediately halted upon the NGM 's debut . The NGM was also used to create model output statistics . Development of the model stopped in 1993 . By 2000 , the model was seen as obsolete , particularly for mesoscale features that were not hydrostatic , and was scheduled to be superseded by the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) in 2001 . However , though the NGM ceased widespread use in the early 2000s due to the GFS and improvements in the Eta model ( later the North American Mesoscale Model ) , and the NGM 's short-range LAMP products were phased out in 2006 , NGM MOS products continued to be in significant general use ( alongside the Eta/NAM and GFS ) until March 3 , 2009 , when the NGM MOS products were finally discontinued .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Nested_Grid_Model",
"rank": 41,
"score": 103793
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 42,
"score": 103701
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Ecological_forecasting",
"rank": 43,
"score": 103683
},
{
"content": "Title: International Arctic Research Center Content: The International Arctic Research Center , or IARC , established in 1999 , is a research institution focused on integrating and coordinating study of climate change in the Arctic . The primary partners in IARC are Japan and the United States . Participants include organizations from Canada , China , Denmark , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The Center is located at the University of Alaska Fairbanks , in the Syun-Ichi Akasofu Building . The Keith B. Mather Library is the science library housed in the Akasofu Building , serving IARC and the Geophysical Institute of UAF . The building also houses the UAF atmospheric sciences department , the Center for Global Change and the Fairbanks forecast office of the National Weather Service . Study projects are focused within four major themes : Arctic ocean models and observation Arctic atmosphere : feedbacks , radiation , and weather analysis Permafrost/Frozen soil models and observations Arctic biota/vegetation ( ecosystem models ) IARC is devoting specific effort to answering the following three questions : To what extent is climate change due to natural vs man-made causes ? What parameters , processes and interactions are needed to understand and predict future climate change ? What are the likely impacts of climate change ?",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "International_Arctic_Research_Center",
"rank": 44,
"score": 103383
},
{
"content": "Title: History of numerical weather prediction Content: The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "History_of_numerical_weather_prediction",
"rank": 45,
"score": 103232
},
{
"content": "Title: Rapid Refresh Content: The Rapid Refresh ( RR or RAP ) is a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model . The model is designed to provide short-range hourly weather forecasts for North America . The Rapid Refresh was officially made operational on May 1 , 2012 , replacing the Rapid Update Cycle ( RUC ) . The Rapid Refresh is run at the NOAA National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) . It is based on the framework of the Weather Research and Forecasting model ( WRF ) ; the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) provides the boundary parameters . The grid points are spaced every 13 km , with 50 vertical intervals extending up to the 10-hectopascal ( 10 mb ) level of the atmosphere . The model runs once each hour , with forecasts given hourly out to 18 hours . An experimental version of the Rapid Refresh runs at the Earth System Research Laboratory ( ESRL ) , a NOAA unit that develops models in the research stage prior to operational implementation . This version uses more modern model framework and also has a higher-resolution mode , the High Resolution Rapid Refresh ( HRRR ) , that uses a 3 km grid spacing and gives forecasts in 15-minute intervals ( though still only issued once an hour ) .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Rapid_Refresh",
"rank": 46,
"score": 103136
},
{
"content": "Title: ECHAM Content: ECHAM is a general circulation model ( GCM ) developed by the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology , one of the research organisations of the Max Planck Society . It was created by modifying global forecast models developed by ECMWF to be used for climate research . The model was given its name as a combination of its origin ( the ` EC ' being short for ` ECMWF ' ) and the place of development of its parameterisation package , Hamburg . The default configuration of the model resolves the atmosphere up to 10 hPa ( primarily used to study the lower atmosphere ) , but it can be reconfigured to 0.01 hPa for use in studying the stratosphere and lower mesosphere . Different versions of ECHAM , primarily different configurations of ECHAM5 , have been the basis of many publications , listed on the ECHAM5 website .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "ECHAM",
"rank": 47,
"score": 103127
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 48,
"score": 103053
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 49,
"score": 102793
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical cyclone forecast model Content: A tropical cyclone forecast model is a computer program that uses meteorological data to forecast aspects of the future state of tropical cyclones . There are three types of models : statistical , dynamical , or combined statistical-dynamic . Dynamical models utilize powerful supercomputers with sophisticated mathematical modeling software and meteorological data to calculate future weather conditions . Statistical models forecast the evolution of a tropical cyclone in a simpler manner , by extrapolating from historical datasets , and thus can be run quickly on platforms such as personal computers . Statistical-dynamical models use aspects of both types of forecasting . Four primary types of forecasts exist for tropical cyclones : track , intensity , storm surge , and rainfall . Dynamical models were not developed until the 1970s and the 1980s , with earlier efforts focused on the storm surge problem . Track models did not show forecast skill when compared to statistical models until the 1980s . Statistical-dynamical models were used from the 1970s into the 1990s . Early models use data from previous model runs while late models produce output after the official hurricane forecast has been sent . The use of consensus , ensemble , and superensemble forecasts lowers errors more than any individual forecast model . Both consensus and superensemble forecasts can use the guidance of global and regional models runs to improve the performance more than any of their respective components . Techniques used at the Joint Typhoon Warning Center indicate that superensemble forecasts are a very powerful tool for track forecasting .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Tropical_cyclone_forecast_model",
"rank": 50,
"score": 102331
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Content: The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes . GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future . GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Global_Energy_and_Water_Cycle_Experiment",
"rank": 51,
"score": 102110
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental Modeling Center Content: The Environmental Modeling Center ( EMC ) improves numerical weather , marine and climate predictions at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) , through a broad program of research in data assimilation and modeling . In support of the NCEP operational forecasting mission , the EMC develops , improves and monitors data assimilation systems and models of the atmosphere , ocean and coupled system , using advanced methods developed internally as well as cooperatively with scientists from Universities , NOAA Laboratories and other government agencies , and the international scientific community .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Environmental_Modeling_Center",
"rank": 52,
"score": 101972
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Energy and Water Exchanges Content: The Global Energy and Water cycle Exchanges project (abbreviated GEWEX, formerly named the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment from 1990 to 2012) is an international research project and a core project of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). In the beginning, the project intended to observe, comprehend and model the Earth's water cycle. The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives, studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed. Sunlight's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain, and dries out land masses after rain. Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes. GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere. If the Earth's climates were identical from year to year, then people could predict when, where and what crops to plant. However, instability created by solar variation, weather trends, and chaotic events creates weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales. Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities. GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data, and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future.",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Global_Energy_and_Water_Exchanges",
"rank": 53,
"score": 101955
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Forecast System Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Forecast System or Coupled Forecast System ( both names abbreviated CFS ) is a medium to long range numerical weather prediction and a climate model run by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) to bridge weather and climate timescales . Version 2 became operational as CFSv2 in 2011 .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Climate_Forecast_System",
"rank": 54,
"score": 101659
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 55,
"score": 101193
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Environmental Multiscale Model Content: The Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) , is an integrated forecasting and data assimilation system developed in the Recherche en Prévision Numérique ( RPN ) , Meteorological Research Branch ( MRB ) , and the Canadian Meteorological Centre ( CMC ) . Along with the NWS 's Global Forecast System ( GFS ) , which runs out to 16 days , the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , which runs out 10 days , the Naval Research Laboratory Navy Global Environmental Model ( NAVGEM ) , which runs out eight days , and the UK Met Office 's Unified Model , which runs out to 6 days , it is one of the five predominant synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The GEM 's operational model , known as the Global Deterministic Prediction System ( GDPS ) , is currently operational for the global data assimilation cycle and medium-range forecasting , the regional data assimilation spin-up cycle and short-range forecasting . Furthermore , mesoscale forecasts ( distributed under the names Regional Deterministic Prediction System or RDPS for the coarser mesh and High Resolution Deterministic Prediction System or HRDPS for the finer mesh ) are produced overnight and are available to the operational forecasters . A growing number of meteorological applications are now either based on or use the GEM model . Output from the GEM goes out to 10 days , on par with the public output of the European Integrated Forecast System . The ensemble variant of the GEM is known as the Global Ensemble Prediction System ( GEPS ) . It has 20 members ( plus control ) and runs out 16 days , the same range as the American Global Forecast System . The GEPS runs alongside the GFS ensemble to form the North American Ensemble Forecast System . A Regional Ensemble Prediction System ( REPS ) , covering North America and also having 20 members plus control , runs out 72 hours . The GEM model has been developed to meet the operational weather forecasting needs of Canada for the coming years . These presently include short-range regional forecasting , medium-range global forecasting , and data assimilation . In the future they will include nowcasting at the meso-scales , and dynamic extended-range forecasting on monthly to seasonal timescales . The essence of the approach is to develop a single highly efficient model that can be reconfigured at run time to either run globally at uniform-resolution ( with possibly degraded resolution in the `` other '' hemisphere ) , or to run with variable resolution over a global domain such that high resolution is focused over an area of interest . The operational GEM model dynamics is formulated in terms of the hydrostatic primitive equations with a terrain following pressure vertical coordinate ( h ) . The time discretization is an implicit two-time-level semi-Lagrangian scheme . The spatial discretization is a Galerkin grid-point formulation on an Arakawa C-grid in the horizontal ( lat-lon ) and an unstaggered vertical discretization . The horizontal mesh can be of uniform or variable resolution , and furthermore can be arbitrarily rotated , the vertical mesh is also variable . The explicit horizontal diffusion is -2 on all prognostic variables . The operational GEM model is interfaced with a full complement of physical parametrizations , these currently include : solar and infrared radiation interactive with water vapor , carbon dioxide , ozone and clouds , prediction of surface temperature over land with the force-restore method , turbulence in the planetary boundary layer through vertical diffusion , diffusion coefficients based on stability and turbulent kinetic energy , surface layer based on Monin-Obukhov similarity theory , shallow convection scheme ( non precipitating ) , Kuo-type deep convection scheme ( global forecast system ) , Fritsch-Chappell type deep convection scheme ( regional forecast system ) , Sundqvist condensation scheme for stratiform precipitation , gravity wave drag . The next stage of development of the GEM model is to evaluate the non-hydrostatic version for mesoscale applications where the hydrostatic assumption breaks down . The limited-area ( open-boundary ) version is scheduled to follow . The distributed memory version of GEM is almost completed , it is a major recoding effort that is based upon a locally developed communication interface currently using Message Passing Interface . Research on the performance of different land surface schemes such as ISBA ( Interaction Soil-Biosphere-Atmosphere ) and CLASS ( Canadian Land Surface Scheme ) is making progress . The strategy is progressing towards a unified data assimilation and forecast system , at the heart of which lies a single multipurpose and multiscale numerical model . Output from Canadian forecast models such as the GEM is under Canadian crown copyright but is issued under a free license if properly attributed to Environment Canada . Various unofficial sites thus redistribute GEM data , including the GDPS and GEPS .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Global_Environmental_Multiscale_Model",
"rank": 56,
"score": 100968
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 57,
"score": 100956
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting model Content: The Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting ( HWRF ) model is a specialized version of the Weather Research and Forecasting ( WRF ) model and is used to forecast the track and intensity of tropical cyclones . The model was developed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory , the University of Rhode Island , and Florida State University . It became operational in 2007 .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Hurricane_Weather_Research_and_Forecasting_model",
"rank": 58,
"score": 100943
},
{
"content": "Title: THORPEX Content: THORPEX ( stands for The Observing system Research and Predictability Experiment ) is an international research programme established in 2003 by the World Meteorological Organization to accelerate improvements in the utility and accuracy of weather forecasts up to two weeks ahead . It is part of the World Weather Research Programme and is a key component of the WMO Natural Disaster Reduction and Mitigation Programme .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "THORPEX",
"rank": 59,
"score": 100925
},
{
"content": "Title: CLIVAR Content: CLIVAR ( climate variability and predictability ) is a component of the World Climate Research Programme . Its purpose is to describe and understand climate variability and predictability on seasonal to centennial time-scales , identify the physical processes responsible for climate change and develop modeling and predictive capabilities for climate modelling .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "CLIVAR",
"rank": 60,
"score": 100891
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth Simulator Content: The , developed by the Japanese government 's initiative `` Earth Simulator Project '' , was a highly parallel vector supercomputer system for running global climate models to evaluate the effects of global warming and problems in solid earth geophysics . The system was developed for Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency , Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute , and Japan Marine Science and Technology Center ( JAMSTEC ) in 1997 . Construction started in October 1999 , and the site officially opened on March 11 , 2002 . The project cost 60 billion yen . Built by NEC , ES was based on their SX-6 architecture . It consisted of 640 nodes with eight vector processors and 16 gigabytes of computer memory at each node , for a total of 5120 processors and 10 terabytes of memory . Two nodes were installed per 1 metre x 1.4 metre x 2 metre cabinet . Each cabinet consumed 20 kW of power . The system had 700 terabytes of disk storage ( 450 for the system and 250 for the users ) and 1.6 petabytes of mass storage in tape drives . It was able to run holistic simulations of global climate in both the atmosphere and the oceans down to a resolution of 10 km . Its performance on the LINPACK benchmark was 35.86 TFLOPS , which was almost five times faster than the previous fastest supercomputer , ASCI White . ES was the fastest supercomputer in the world from 2002 to 2004 . Its capacity was surpassed by IBM 's Blue Gene/L prototype on September 29 , 2004 . ES was replaced by the Earth Simulator 2 ( ES2 ) in March 2009 . ES2 is an NEC SX-9 / E system , and has a quarter as many nodes each of 12.8 times the performance ( 3.2 x clock speed , four times the processing resource per node ) , for a peak performance of 131 TFLOPS . With a delivered LINPACK performance of 122.4 TFLOPS , ES2 was the most efficient supercomputer in the world at that point . In November 2010 , NEC announced that ES2 topped the Global FFT , one of the measures of the HPC Challenge Awards , with the performance number of 11.876 TFLOPS . ES2 was replaced by the Earth Simulator 3 ( ES3 ) in March 2015 . ES3 is a NEC SX-ACE system with 5120 nodes .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Earth_Simulator",
"rank": 61,
"score": 100824
},
{
"content": "Title: Adam Scaife Content: Adam Arthur Scaife B.A. M.A. MSc PhD FRMetS ( born 18 March 1970 ) is a British physicist , and head of long range prediction at the Met Office . He is an honorary visiting Professor at Exeter University . Scaife carries out research into long range weather forecasting and computer modelling of the climate . Scaife has published over 100 peer reviewed studies on atmospheric dynamics , computer modelling and climate predictability and change and recently published popular science and academic books on meteorology .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Adam_Scaife",
"rank": 62,
"score": 100066
},
{
"content": "Title: MM5 (weather model) Content: The MM5 ( short for Fifth-Generation Penn State/NCAR Mesoscale Model ) is a regional mesoscale model used for creating weather forecasts and climate projections . It is a community model maintained by Penn State University and the National Center for Atmospheric Research . The MM5 is a limited-area , terrain-following sigma coordinate model that is used to replicate or forecast mesoscale and regional scale atmospheric circulation . It has been updated many times since the 1970s to fix bugs , adapt to new technologies , and work on different types of computers and software . It is used in many different ways : for research and for weather prediction . In research , it is used to compare it to other models , to see what works and what does not work . Since the MM5 has high quality three-dimensional data , it is good for looking at the atmosphere and the weather patterns . It is also used for air quality models .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "MM5_(weather_model)",
"rank": 63,
"score": 99995
},
{
"content": "Title: Community Earth System Model Content: The Community Earth System Model ( CESM ) is a fully coupled numerical simulation of the Earth system consisting of atmospheric , ocean , ice , land surface , carbon cycle , and other components . CESM includes a climate model providing state-of-art simulations of the Earth 's past , present , and future . It is the successor of the Community Climate System Model ( CCSM ) , specifically version 4 ( CCSMv4 ) , which provided the initial atmospheric component for CESM . Strong ensemble forecasting capabilities , CESM-LE ( CESM-Large Scale ) , were developed at the onset to control for error and biases across different model runs ( realizations ) . Simulations from the Earth 's surface through the thermosphere are generated utilizing the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model ( WACCM ) . CESM1 was released in 2010 with primary development by the Climate and Global Dynamics Division ( CGD ) of the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) , and significant funding by the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) and the Department of Energy ( DoE ) .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Community_Earth_System_Model",
"rank": 64,
"score": 99977
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 65,
"score": 99935
},
{
"content": "Title: Held-Hou Model Content: The Held-Hou Model is a model for the Hadley circulation of the atmosphere that would exist in the absence of atmospheric turbulence . The model was developed by Isaac Held and Arthur Hou in 1980 . The essence of the model is that air rising from the surface at the equator conserves its angular momentum as it moves poleward . This distribution of wind , in turn , determines the distribution of temperature , which determines the latitudinal extent of the circulation by requiring energy conservation . This stands in contrast to George Hadley 's original conception of the circulation , which he argued reached the poles . The Hadley circulation has a cooling effect at and near the equator and a warming effect at higher latitudes within the Hadley Cell . This energy transport can be converted into a mass transport , to determine the strength of the circulation , by normalizing by the appropriate vertical stability . The effects of moisture and seasons on the model have been studied . Earth 's atmosphere violates the underlying assumptions of the model : angular momentum is not conserved and the tropical atmosphere is not energetically closed . As such , the Held-Hou model is a conceptual model that does not make quantitatively accurate predictions of the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation to changes in atmospheric parameters .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Held-Hou_Model",
"rank": 66,
"score": 99746
},
{
"content": "Title: Coupled model intercomparison project Content: In climatology , the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project ( CMIP ) is a framework and the analog of the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project ( AMIP ) for global coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models ( GCMs ) . CMIP began in 1995 under the auspices of the Working Group on Coupled Modeling ( WGCM ) , which is in turn under auspices of CLIVAR and the Joint Scientific Committee for the World Climate Research Program . The Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory supports CMIP by helping WGCM to determine the scope of the project , by maintaining the project 's data base and by participating in data analysis . CMIP has received model output from the pre-industrial climate simulations ( `` control runs '' ) and 1 % per year increasing-CO2 simulations of about 30 coupled GCMs . More recent phases of the project ( 20C3M , ... ) include more realistic scenarios of climate forcing for both historical , paleoclimate and future scenarios .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Coupled_model_intercomparison_project",
"rank": 67,
"score": 99429
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 68,
"score": 99414
},
{
"content": "Title: Predicta Content: The Philco Predicta is an American television made in several models by the Philco company in the late 1950s . The Predicta was marketed as the world 's first swivel screen television . The Predicta had a thinner picture tube than many other televisions at the time , which led it to be marketed as a more futuristic television set . Slow sales , lack of a color model and very poor reliability eventually drove Philco into bankruptcy and sale in 1960 . In the late 1990s the rights were acquired by Dave Riedel and Mike Lipscomb of Telstar LLC , who hand-made new sets on a limited basis until 2008 .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Predicta",
"rank": 69,
"score": 99397
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 70,
"score": 98830
},
{
"content": "Title: Weather Research and Forecasting Model Content: The Weather Research and Forecasting ( WRF ) Model -LSB- ˈwɔrf -RSB- is a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) system designed to serve both atmospheric research and operational forecasting needs . NWP refers to the simulation and prediction of the atmosphere with a computer model , and WRF is a set of software for this . WRF features two dynamical ( computational ) cores ( or solvers ) , a data assimilation system , and a software architecture allowing for parallel computation and system extensibility . The model serves a wide range of meteorological applications across scales ranging from meters to thousands of kilometers . The effort to develop WRF began in the latter part of the 1990s and was a collaborative partnership principally among the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( represented by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) and the ( then ) Forecast Systems Laboratory ( FSL ) ) , the Air Force Weather Agency ( AFWA ) , the Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) , the University of Oklahoma ( OU ) , and the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) . The bulk of the work on the model has been performed or supported by NCAR , NOAA , and AFWA . WRF allows researchers to produce simulations reflecting either real data ( observations , analyses ) or idealized atmospheric conditions . WRF provides operational forecasting a flexible and robust platform , while offering advances in physics , numerics , and data assimilation contributed by the many research community developers . WRF is currently in operational use at NCEP and other forecasting centers internationally . WRF has grown to have a large worldwide community of users ( over 30,000 registered users in over 150 countries ) , and workshops and tutorials are held each year at NCAR . WRF is used extensively for research and real-time forecasting throughout the world . WRF offers two dynamical solvers for its computation of the atmospheric governing equations , and the variants of the model are known as WRF-ARW ( Advanced Research WRF ) and WRF-NMM ( Nonhydrostatic Mesoscale Model ) . The Advanced Research WRF ( ARW ) is supported to the community by the NCAR Mesoscale and Microscale Meteorology Division . The WRF-NMM solver variant was based on the Eta Model , and later Nonhydrostatic Mesoscale Model , developed at NCEP . The WRF-NMM ( NMM ) is supported to the community by the Developmental Testbed Center ( DTC ) . The WRF serves as the basis for the Rapid Refresh model , an operational forecast model run regularly at NCEP . A version of WRF-NMM tailored for hurricane forecasting , HWRF ( Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting ) , became operational in 2007 . In 2009 , a polar optimized WRF was released through the Byrd Polar Research Center at the Ohio State University .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Weather_Research_and_Forecasting_Model",
"rank": 71,
"score": 98809
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Climate_change_scenario",
"rank": 72,
"score": 98363
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program Content: The Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program ( TOGA ) was a ten-year study ( 1985-1994 ) of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) aimed specifically at the prediction of climate phenomena on time scales of months to years . TOGA emphasized the tropical oceans and their relationship to the global atmosphere . Underlying TOGA is the premise that the dynamic adjustment of the ocean in the tropics is far more rapid than at higher latitudes . Thus disturbances emanating from the western Pacific Ocean ( such as El Niño ) may propagate across the basin on time scales of weeks compared to years for corresponding basin-wide propagation at higher latitudes . The significance of shorter dynamic times scales near the equator is that they are similar to those of highly energetic atmospheric modes . This similarity allows the formation of coupled modes between the ocean and the atmosphere . TOGA was instrumental in developing a comprehensive observing system for the equatorial Pacific Ocean and laid important groundwork for ENSO prediction , data assimilation and understanding of air-sea interaction .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Tropical_Ocean_Global_Atmosphere_program",
"rank": 73,
"score": 98322
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson",
"rank": 74,
"score": 98284
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 75,
"score": 98052
},
{
"content": "Title: David H. Bromwich Content: David H. Bromwich is a member of the Byrd Polar Research Center and a professor at the Department of Geography , The Ohio State University . His work has involved the evaluation and diagnosis of polar weather and climate variability . He received his Ph.D. in meteorology from the University of Wisconsin , Madison . In 1979 he joined Ohio State 's Byrd Polar Research Center as a research scientist . His research has focused on the variability of precipitation over Antarctica , Greenland , and the Arctic Ocean , thus contributing to the understanding of climate and potential sea level changes . He has made contributions to defining aspects of U.S. science policy . Having helped identify the need to improve numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) for the Antarctic , Bromwich has been influential in the development and evaluation of the Antarctic Mesoscale Prediction System ( AMPS ) . In April 2001 AMPS was one of four weather models used to predict a window of opportunity for the emergency medical evacuation of Ronald Shemenski from the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . Flights to the base are normally halted from late February until November because of the extreme winter cold and darkness . But the airlift was successfully completed and pilot Sean Loutitt confirmed the reliance on the forecasts , stating `` The weather was the biggest concern '' .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "David_H._Bromwich",
"rank": 76,
"score": 98045
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 77,
"score": 97971
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 78,
"score": 97110
},
{
"content": "Title: Transient climate simulation Content: A transient climate simulation is a mode of running a global climate model ( GCM ) in which a period of time ( typically 1850 -- 2100 ) is simulated with continuously-varying concentrations of greenhouse gases so that the climate of the model represents a realistic mode of possible change in the real world .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Transient_climate_simulation",
"rank": 79,
"score": 97019
},
{
"content": "Title: Robert E. Davis (climatologist) Content: Robert E. Davis is a Professor of Climatology at the University of Virginia 's Department of Environmental Sciences . Davis received his Ph.D. in 1988 from the University of Delaware . His research contributions include the development of a system for measuring the power of Nor'easter s . In his studies of global warming , he has suggested that it may manifest more by milder winters than by hotter summers , and predicted that its effects on human population will not be severe .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Robert_E._Davis_(climatologist)",
"rank": 80,
"score": 96869
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 81,
"score": 96737
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate: Long range Investigation, Mapping, and Prediction Content: Climate : Long range Investigation , Mapping , and Prediction , known as CLIMAP , was a major research project of the 1970s and 80s to produce a map of climate conditions during the Last Glacial Maximum . The project was funded by the National Science Foundation as part of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration ( 1970s ) and is based in large part of the collection and analysis of a very large number of sediment cores to create a snapshot of conditions across the oceans . The CLIMAP project also resulted in maps of vegetative zones across the continents and the estimated extent of glaciation at the time . Most CLIMAP results aim to describe the Earth as it was 18 thousand years ago , but there was also an analysis to look at conditions during the previous interglacial -- 120 thousand years ago ( CLIMAP 1981 ) . CLIMAP has been a cornerstone of paleoclimate research and remains the most used sea surface temperature reconstruction of the global ocean during the last glacial maximum ( Yin and Battisti 2001 ) , but it has also been persistently controversial . CLIMAP resulted in estimates of global cooling of only 3.0 ± 0.6 ° C relative to the modern day ( Hoffert and Covey 1992 ) . The climate change during an ice age that occurs far from the continental ice sheets themselves is believed to be primarily controlled by changes in greenhouse gases , hence the conditions during the last glacial maximum provide a natural experiment for measuring the impact of changes in greenhouse gases on climate . The cited estimates of 3.0 ° C implies a climate sensitivity to carbon dioxide changes at the low end of the range proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . However , CLIMAP also suggested that some of the tropics and in particular much of the Pacific Ocean were warmer than they are today . To date , no climate model has been able to reproduce the proposed warming in the Pacific ( Yin and Battisti 2001 ) , with most preferring a several degree cooling . Also , it appears that climate models which are forced to match the CLIMAP sea surface measurements are too warm to match estimates for changes at continental locations ( Pinot et al. 1999 ) . This suggests that either climate model design is missing some important unknown factor , or CLIMAP systematically overestimated the temperatures in the tropical oceans during the last glacial , though there is at present no consistent explanation for why or how this should have happened . Unfortunately cost and difficulty of collecting sediment cores from the open Pacific has limited the availability of samples that might help to confirm or disprove these observations . If the Pacific reconstruction is assumed to be in error , it would result in a larger climate sensitivity to changes in greenhouse gases .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Climate:_Long_range_Investigation,_Mapping,_and_Prediction",
"rank": 82,
"score": 96572
},
{
"content": "Title: André Robert Content: Dr. André Robert ( April 28 , 1929 -- November 18 , 1993 ) was a Canadian meteorologist who pioneered the modelling the Earth 's atmospheric circulation . Born in New York , NY in 1928 , Robert moved to Grand-Mère , Quebec in May 1937 . He received his BSc from Laval University in 1952 and his MSc from the University of Toronto in 1953 . He began employment with the Meteorological Service of Canada as a weather forecaster , then in 1959 shifted his interest to research in atmospheric models for short and medium-range numerical weather prediction . For his PhD ( awarded in 1965 ) , Robert worked at McGill University on the spectral model using spectral harmonics for the representation of atmospheric fields in global climate and numerical weather prediction models . Between 1963 and 1970 , Robert developed the semi-implicit time integration algorithm for an efficient integration of the primitive equations for numerical weather prediction and climate models . Several weather centres in the world adopted this algorithm for their models ( Canada in 1974 , Australia in 1976 , ECMWF in 1977 , USA in 1980 ) . In 1980 , Robert successfully combined his semi-implicit scheme with existing Lagrangian techniques which allows the use of much longer time steps and hence produces a very efficient integration of meteorological equations . Robert retired from the Canadian Meteorological Centre in Montreal in 1987 and took a Faculty position at the Université du Québec à Montréal . There he worked with colleagues to develop a fully elastic atmospheric model that relaxed the hydrostatic approximation used by all large-scale climate and numerical weather prediction models , thus paving the way to a universal model formulation usable at all scales . The resulting model came to be known by the name of Mesoscale Compressible Community model ( MC ) . Robert 's career was devoted to developing and implementing numerical techniques to solve the interacting time-dependent partial differential equations governing the chronological development of atmospheric behavior in an efficient manner , while still retaining accuracy ; in contrast to many scientists who were concerned only with precision .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "André_Robert",
"rank": 83,
"score": 96287
},
{
"content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 84,
"score": 96255
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 85,
"score": 96239
},
{
"content": "Title: Penny Whetton Content: Penelope Whetton ( born 5 January 1958 ) is a climatologist and an expert in regional climate change projections due to global warming and in the impacts of those changes . Her primary scientific focus has been Australia .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Penny_Whetton",
"rank": 86,
"score": 95648
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 87,
"score": 95505
},
{
"content": "Title: DICE model Content: The Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy model , referred to as the DICE model or Dice model , is a computer-based integrated assessment model developed by William Nordhaus that `` integrates in an end-to-end fashion the economics , carbon cycle , climate science , and impacts in a highly aggregated model that allows a weighing of the costs and benefits of taking steps to slow greenhouse warming . '' Nordhaus also developed the RICE model ( Regional Integrated Climate-Economy model ) , a variant of the DICE model that was updated and developed alongside the DICE model . Others who collaborated with Nordhaus to develop the model include David Popp , Zili Yang , Joseph Boyer , and other colleagues . The DICE model is one of the three main integrated assessment models used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency , and it provides estimates intermediate between the other two models .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "DICE_model",
"rank": 88,
"score": 95480
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes",
"rank": 89,
"score": 95330
},
{
"content": "Title: Debye model Content: In thermodynamics and solid state physics , the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contribution to the specific heat ( heat capacity ) in a solid . It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice ( heat ) as phonons in a box , in contrast to the Einstein model , which treats the solid as many individual , non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators . The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity , which is proportional to -- the Debye T3 law . Just like the Einstein model , it also recovers the Dulong -- Petit law at high temperatures . But due to simplifying assumptions , its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures . See M. Shubin and T. Sunada for a rigorous treatment of the Debye model .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Debye_model",
"rank": 90,
"score": 95031
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 91,
"score": 94942
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric model Content: An atmospheric model is a mathematical model constructed around the full set of primitive dynamical equations which govern atmospheric motions . It can supplement these equations with parameterizations for turbulent diffusion , radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , the kinematic effects of terrain , and convection . Most atmospheric models are numerical , i.e. they discretize equations of motion . They can predict microscale phenomena such as tornadoes and boundary layer eddies , sub-microscale turbulent flow over buildings , as well as synoptic and global flows . The horizontal domain of a model is either global , covering the entire Earth , or regional ( limited-area ) , covering only part of the Earth . The different types of models run are thermotropic , barotropic , hydrostatic , and nonhydrostatic . Some of the model types make assumptions about the atmosphere which lengthens the time steps used and increases computational speed . Forecasts are computed using mathematical equations for the physics and dynamics of the atmosphere . These equations are nonlinear and are impossible to solve exactly . Therefore , numerical methods obtain approximate solutions . Different models use different solution methods . Global models often use spectral methods for the horizontal dimensions and finite-difference methods for the vertical dimension , while regional models usually use finite-difference methods in all three dimensions . For specific locations , model output statistics use climate information , output from numerical weather prediction , and current surface weather observations to develop statistical relationships which account for model bias and resolution issues .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Atmospheric_model",
"rank": 92,
"score": 94911
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 93,
"score": 94542
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 94,
"score": 94461
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia",
"rank": 95,
"score": 94262
},
{
"content": "Title: Model output statistics Content: Model Output Statistics ( MOS ) is a multiple linear regression technique in which predicands , often near-surface quantities , such as 2-meter ( AGL ) air temperature , horizontal visibility , and wind direction , speed and gusts , are related statistically to one or more predictors . The predictors are typically forecasts from a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model , climatic data , and , if applicable , recent surface observations . Thus , output from NWP models can be transformed by the MOS technique into sensible weather parameters that are familiar to the `` person on the street '' .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Model_output_statistics",
"rank": 96,
"score": 94198
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 97,
"score": 94041
},
{
"content": "Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "William_D._Sellers",
"rank": 98,
"score": 93901
},
{
"content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "Duncan_Wingham",
"rank": 99,
"score": 93742
},
{
"content": "Title: WEPP Content: The Water Erosion Prediction Project ( WEPP ) Model is a physically based erosion simulation model built on the fundamentals of hydrology , plant science , hydraulics , and erosion mechanics . The model was developed by an interagency team of scientists to replace the Universal Soil Loss Equation ( USLE ) and has been widely used in the United States and the world . WEPP requires four inputs , i.e. , climate , topography , soil , and management ( vegetation ) ; and provides various types of outputs , including water balance ( surface runoff , subsurface flow , and evapotranspiration ) , soil detachment and deposition at points along the slope , sediment delivery , and vegetation growth . The WEPP model has been improved continuously since its public delivery in 1995 , and is applicable for a variety of areas ( e.g. , cropland , rangeland , forestry , fisheries , and surface coal mining ) .",
"qid": "74",
"docid": "WEPP",
"rank": 100,
"score": 93730
}
] |
The science is clear, climate change is making extreme weather events, including tornadoes, worse. | [
{
"content": "Title: Extreme weather events in Melbourne Content: thumb | A church destroyed by the 1918 Brighton tornado Extreme weather events in Melbourne , Australia have occurred on multiple occasions . The city has experienced a number of highly unusual weather events and extremes of weather . An increase in heat waves and record breaking temperatures over the last decade has led to much discussion over the effects of climate change in the country .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Extreme_weather_events_in_Melbourne",
"rank": 1,
"score": 130871
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 2,
"score": 130777
},
{
"content": "Title: Severe weather Content: Severe weather refers to any dangerous meteorological phenomena with the potential to cause damage , serious social disruption , or loss of human life . Types of severe weather phenomena vary , depending on the latitude , altitude , topography , and atmospheric conditions . High winds , hail , excessive precipitation , and wildfires are forms and effects of severe weather , as are thunderstorms , downbursts , lightning , tornadoes , waterspouts , tropical cyclones , and extratropical cyclones . Regional and seasonal severe weather phenomena include blizzards , snowstorms , ice storms , and duststorms .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Severe_weather",
"rank": 3,
"score": 126354
},
{
"content": "Title: John T. Allen Content: John Terrence Allen is an Australian atmospheric scientist and leading contributor on severe thunderstorm and tornado environments , particularly in the context of climate change , including seasonal prediction of hail and tornadoes . He is currently an assistant professor of meteorology at Central Michigan University . He was formerly a researcher at the International Research Institute for Climate and Society ( IRI ) at The Earth Institute ( EI ) of Columbia University . Allen was born to Leon and Kerry Allen and grew up in suburban Sydney . He earned a Ph.D. from the University of Melbourne in 2012 . Other research interests include severe thunderstorm , hail , and tornado climatologies , tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones , social impacts of high-impact weather and climate , seasonal predictions , reanalysis studies , and evaluation of models and data sets . He signed , with Paul Markowski , Harold Brooks , et al. , a prominent rebuttal to physicist Richard A. Muller 's contention in a New York Times opinion piece that tornado activity in the U.S. had decreased and that the alleged decrease was tied to global warming . In addition to his formal studies , Allen is a recreational storm chaser .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "John_T._Allen",
"rank": 4,
"score": 122672
},
{
"content": "Title: Meteorological disasters Content: Meteorological disasters are caused by extreme weather , e.g. rain , drought , snow , extreme heat or cold , ice , or wind . Violent , sudden and destructive change to the environment related to , produced by , or affecting the earth 's atmosphere , especially the weather-forming processes . Examples of weather disasters include blizzard , cyclones , droughts , hailstorms , heat waves , hurricanes , floods ( caused by rain ) , and tornadoes .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Meteorological_disasters",
"rank": 5,
"score": 122383
},
{
"content": "Title: European Severe Storms Laboratory Content: The European Severe Storms Laboratory ( ESSL ) started as an informal network of European scientists with the goal to advance research on severe convective storms and extreme weather events on a European level and can be seen as the European equivalent to the National Severe Storms Laboratory . Severe weather includes extreme local meteorological events like tornados , heavy precipitation events and avalanches . The ESSL focuses on research questions concerning convective storms and other extreme weather phenomena which can be treated more efficiently on a pan-European scale .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "European_Severe_Storms_Laboratory",
"rank": 6,
"score": 119008
},
{
"content": "Title: James Elsner Content: James Brian Elsner ( born 1959 ) is an American atmospheric scientist , geographer , and applied statistician who has made substantial contributions to understanding of the spatial , temporal , and physical relationships of tropical cyclones and tornadoes , and the influence of climate change . Elsner earned a B.S. ( 1981 ) , M.S. ( 1984 ) , and Ph.D. ( 1988 ) from the University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee ( UWM ) . He joined the faculty of Florida State University ( FSU ) in 1990 as an assistant professor in the Department of Meteorology and moved to the Department of Geography in 1998 where he has held his current position as the Earl and Sophia Shaw Professor since 2008 . He has been President of Climatek , Inc. , since 2001 . Elsner organized the biannual International Summit on Hurricanes and Climate Change in 2001 and the International Summit on Tornadoes and Climate Change , the first scientific conference on the topic , in 2014 . He is a storm chaser and leads a FSU storm intercept program . He is member of the American Association of Geographers ( AAG ) , the American Geophysical Union ( AGU ) , and the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "James_Elsner",
"rank": 7,
"score": 118151
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme weather events of 535–536 Content: The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the most severe and protracted short-term episodes of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2000 years . The event is thought to have been caused by an extensive atmospheric dust veil , possibly resulting from a large volcanic eruption in the tropics , or debris from space impacting the Earth . Its effects were widespread , causing unseasonal weather , crop failures and famines worldwide .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Extreme_weather_events_of_535–536",
"rank": 8,
"score": 116158
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 9,
"score": 114191
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 10,
"score": 112450
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 11,
"score": 112359
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado outbreak and floods of April 28 – May 1, 2017 Content: The tornado outbreak and floods of April 28 -- May 1 , 2017 were a series of severe weather events that affected the central United States , producing life-threatening flooding and a major tornado outbreak . It formed out of a disturbance in the Southwestern United States on April 28 , and caused significant impacts , including a heavy snowstorm in the Rockies , and other types of severe weather . Up to 3 ft of snow fell on the cold side of the system , and up to a foot of rain fell in and around the central parts of the nation . The most significant and damaging events of the storm unfolded late on April 29 , when two large , long-tracked , and powerful wedge tornadoes struck areas near Canton , Texas , the strongest being an EF4 . Together , the two tornadoes caused four deaths and many injuries .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_outbreak_and_floods_of_April_28_–_May_1,_2017",
"rank": 12,
"score": 111982
},
{
"content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe",
"rank": 13,
"score": 111818
},
{
"content": "Title: List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes Content: Among the most violent known meteorological events are tornadoes . Each year , more than 2,000 tornadoes occur worldwide , with the vast majority occurring in the United States and Europe . In order to assess the intensity of these events , meteorologist Ted Fujita devised a method to estimate maximum winds within the storm based on damage caused ; this became known as the Fujita scale . At the top end of the scale , which ranks from 0 to 5 , are F5 tornadoes . These storms were estimated to have had winds between 260 mph and 320 mph . Following two particularly devastating tornadoes in 1997 and 1999 , engineers questioned the reliability of the scale . Ultimately , a new scale was devised that took into account 28 different damage indicators ; this became known as the Enhanced Fujita scale . With building designs taken more into account , winds in an EF5 tornado were estimated to be in excess of 200 mph . Since 1950 , there have been 59 officially rated F5 and EF5 tornadoes in the United States and 1 F5 in Canada . Additionally , the works of tornado expert Thomas P. Grazulis revealed the existence of several dozen more between 1880 and 1995 . Grazulis also put into question the ratings of several currently rated F5 tornadoes . Outside the United States and Canada , seven tornadoes have been rated F5 : two each in France , Germany , and Italy and one in Russia . Several other tornadoes are also documented as possibly attaining this status . Since structures are completely destroyed in both cases , the identification and assignment of scale between an EF4 tornado and an EF5 is often very difficult .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "List_of_F5_and_EF5_tornadoes",
"rank": 14,
"score": 111229
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 15,
"score": 110380
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 16,
"score": 110360
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 17,
"score": 109972
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme weather Content: Extreme weather includes unexpectable , unusual , unpredictable severe or unseasonal weather ; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution -- the range that has been seen in the past . Often , extreme events are based on a location 's recorded weather history and defined as lying in the most unusual ten percent . In recent years some extreme weather events have been attributed to human-induced global warming , with studies indicating an increasing threat from extreme weather in the future .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Extreme_weather",
"rank": 18,
"score": 109750
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration Content: The Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration was created as part of the Clear Skies Initiative in February 2002 by George W. Bush , as a Cabinet-level effort to coordinate climate change science and technology research . The White House says : `` The Secretary of Commerce and Secretary of Energy will lead the effort , in close coordination with the President 's Science Advisor . The research effort will continue to be coordinated through the National Science and Technology Council in accordance with the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . ''",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change_Science_and_Technology_Integration",
"rank": 19,
"score": 109185
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 20,
"score": 109172
},
{
"content": "Title: Ultimate Tornado Content: Ultimate Tornado is a documentary that first aired on the National Geographic Channel on April 12 , 2006 . It focuses on several unusually violent tornado events that have occurred in the United States , which include the 2004 Attica , Kansas tornado outbreak ( F2-F3 ) , the 1995 Pampa , Texas tornado ( F4 ) , the Jarrell tornado outbreak ( F5 ) , and the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak ( F5 ) . It last examined the possible effects of a theoretical F6 tornado hitting downtown Dallas , Texas , postulating that this would be the worst tornado in history in terms of cost , damage , destruction and loss of life . Category :2006 in the environment Category : National Geographic Channel programs Category : Documentary films about disasters Category : Tornado",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Ultimate_Tornado",
"rank": 21,
"score": 108328
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 22,
"score": 108136
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm Data Content: Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena ( SD ) is a monthly NOAA publication with comprehensive listings and detailed summaries of severe weather occurrences in the United States . Included is information on tornadoes , high wind events , hail , lightning , floods and flash floods , tropical cyclones ( hurricanes ) , ice storms , snow , extreme temperatures such as heat waves and cold waves , droughts , and wildfires . Photographs of weather and attendant damage are used as much as possible . Maps of significant weather are also included .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Storm_Data",
"rank": 23,
"score": 108076
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 24,
"score": 107402
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 25,
"score": 107357
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Change (journal) Content: Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climatic_Change_(journal)",
"rank": 26,
"score": 106636
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Brooklyn/Queens tornadoes Content: The 2010 Brooklyn/Queens tornadoes were a severe weather event that occurred in the boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens in New York City on September 16 , 2010 . These tornadoes were the second to touch down in New York City that year , the first having occurred in the Bronx on July 25 . The storms struck New York City just as the evening rush hour was beginning . Damaging winds , heavy downpours , and hail up to 1 in wreaked havoc with the evening commute . Hundreds of downed trees led to a temporary suspension of service on the Long Island Rail Road , Amtrak , and several subway services , including the , , and , leaving tens of thousands of commuters stranded . Passage on local roadways was nearly impossible due to fallen branches and downed power lines . Major highways including the Long Island Expressway and the Grand Central Parkway were at a standstill . A woman was killed when a tree fell and crushed the vehicle she was driving . Another man in Flushing was killed by a tree crashing into his home by Kissena Park . Extensive and widespread wind damage led to over 30,000 downed trees , and power lines . Scattered power outages were reported across parts of the city . Two separate tornadoes were later confirmed in Park Slope and Flushing , two areas that suffered the worst damage from the storms . The stronger of the two tornadoes touched down over Flushing and was rated an EF1 with maximum winds of 100 mph . The tornado touched down in Flushing Meadows Corona Park and headed through Northeast Queens . The twister tore down the 150-year-old steeple of St. George 's Church in downtown Flushing . In addition to the tornadoes , the National Weather Service confirmed the occurrence of a macroburst bringing winds up to 125 mph to a wide swath of Middle Village and Forest Hills . The tornadoes were documented by The New York Times . These tornadoes were part of a small outbreak that produced several damaging tornadoes across the Midwest , especially in Ohio . An EF2 tornado caused severe damage near Wooster . Another strong EF3 tornado that destroyed numerous homes near Reedsville and Belleville killed 1 person and injured several more .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "2010_Brooklyn/Queens_tornadoes",
"rank": 27,
"score": 105834
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture",
"rank": 28,
"score": 105194
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical cyclones and tornadoes in Pakistan Content: The tropical cyclones and tornadoes in Pakistan include the deadliest cyclone to hit the country and the deadliest tornado to struck the country . Pakistan lies in the temperate zone . The climate is generally arid , characterized by the extreme south western part of the country where Gwadar is the main port city . Though cyclones are rare in the Arabian sea which is a part of North Indian Ocean , cyclones that form in this sea mostly move towards Gujarat rather than Pakistan . Cyclones in the Arabian sea form mostly from May till June and then from September till October , monsoon season plays a vital role for the formation of cyclone in this basin . Tropical storms that hit Pakistan are mostly remnants by the time reach Pakistan or make landfall in south eastern Sindh which is not very much populated they rarely move towards the Balochistan coast .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tropical_cyclones_and_tornadoes_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 29,
"score": 104741
},
{
"content": "Title: March 1983 South Florida tornado outbreak Content: The March 1983 South Florida tornado outbreak was a significant severe weather event that affected the southern Florida peninsula , including the Miami metropolitan area , on March 17 , 1983 . A total of at least five tornadoes affected the region as many as 17 were reported , only two were confirmed in the official National Weather Service records . The strongest tornado produced F2 damage on the Fujita scale and skipped across the Everglades region from the eastern Big Cypress National Preserve through the Everglades and Francis S. Taylor Wildlife Management Area to Lighthouse Point -- a path length of nearly 53 mi . An F1 tornado also affected Naples and Golden Gate . Additionally , unconfirmed tornadoes affected an RV park southeast of East Naples , as well as the Stuart and Jupiter areas , respectively . In addition to tornadoes , severe thunderstorms produced hail to 1 in in diameter , as well as rainfall totals of 1 to in some areas .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "March_1983_South_Florida_tornado_outbreak",
"rank": 30,
"score": 104396
},
{
"content": "Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Loss_and_damage",
"rank": 31,
"score": 104315
},
{
"content": "Title: List of Storm Prediction Center high risk days Content: A high risk severe weather event is the greatest threat level issued by the Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) for convective weather events in the United States . High risks are issued only a few times a year when forecasters at the SPC are confident that a major severe weather outbreak , namely tornadoes and occasionally derechoes , will occur on the given day . These are typically reserved for the most extreme events . Limited details are available for days before the late 1990s , and it is probable that there were additional high risk days with no online documentation , especially in the 1980s .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "List_of_Storm_Prediction_Center_high_risk_days",
"rank": 32,
"score": 103652
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 33,
"score": 103425
},
{
"content": "Title: NYC: Tornado Terror Content: NYC : Tornado Terror is a 2008 Canadian made for TV disaster film . It stars Nicole de Boer , Sebastian Spence , and Jerry Wasserman . It premiered on Syfy on October 4 , 2008 , and is directed by Tibor Takács . The film is about global warming which causes the upper and lower atmosphere to separate so that their different movements generate huge electrical charges which causes huge electrical tornadoes to drop on New York City causing destruction and loss of life . Dr. Cassie Lawrence tries to stop the twisters as chaos ensues . NASA ignores the mayor who recommends following Dr. Lawrence 's advice and use silver iodide on the atmosphere instead , which makes things worse , so it is down to our heroes to use a rebel scientist with his own makeshift rockets to use dry ice ( frozen CO2 ) . The problem is solved , but before the film ends , the same storm effects begin in Paris .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "NYC:_Tornado_Terror",
"rank": 34,
"score": 103218
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 35,
"score": 103205
},
{
"content": "Title: 1996 Southern Ontario tornadoes Content: Southern Ontario 's worst tornado outbreak of the decade came on Saturday , April 20 , 1996 . Severe weather had raked parts of the U.S. Midwest the day before , where seventeen F2 or greater tornadoes touched down ( ten in Illinois alone ) . A cold front was being dragged eastward into unusually warm and unstable air associated with a strong storm system moving through the northern tier of the U.S. Out of the two significant tornadoes that day , both rated F3 , it was remarkable that no lives were lost . Nine people escaped with minor injuries . Many homes were severely damaged in Williamsford , Arthur , and Violet Hill . Many areas that experienced the tornadoes on May 31 , 1985 were hit once again , especially the Grand Valley area . The first tornado that touched down tore a 40 kilometre long path southeast of Owen Sound . A second tornado touched down farther south and took a 60 kilometre track from Arthur to just southwest of Barrie . There was a third brief touchdown near Orillia associated with the parent storm of the second tornado .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "1996_Southern_Ontario_tornadoes",
"rank": 36,
"score": 103044
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 37,
"score": 102667
},
{
"content": "Title: 1998 Eastern tornado outbreak Content: The 1998 Eastern Tornado Outbreak of June 2 , 1998 , was one of the most significant tornado outbreaks in recent history over the east-central United States . This severe weather event spawned a total of 47 tornadoes over 9 states from New York to South Carolina and caused an estimated $ 42 million in damage , 80 injuries and 2 fatalities . For Pennsylvania in particular , it was the second historic and deadly severe weather outbreak in three days , as it immediately followed the Late-May 1998 Tornado Outbreak and Derecho on May 30 -- 31 , 1998 , which spawned 41 tornadoes over New York , New Jersey , Pennsylvania and Vermont , caused an estimated $ 83 million in damage , 109 injuries and 1 fatality . Hardest hit areas from the June 2 tornado outbreak included Pennsylvania , which reported 22 tornadoes on June 2 ( and a total of 45 tornadoes from May 31 to June 2 ) , western Maryland , where 5 tornadoes occurred , and West Virginia , where some counties in the Potomac Highlands reported their first tornado in recent history . Tornadoes were also observed in New York , Virginia , Ohio , Tennessee , North Carolina and South Carolina . The most damaging tornado hit Carnegie , part of the Pittsburgh metropolitan area in Allegheny County , Pennsylvania , at 5:55 PM EDT . There , 50 injuries and $ 13 million in damage were reported . The deadliest tornado , an F3 on the Fujita Scale , hit near Meshoppen , Pennsylvania , in Wyoming County , around 10:30 PM EDT . This tornado caused 2 fatalities , 15 injuries and $ 2.2 million in damage . The most violent tornado hit Frostburg , Maryland , in Allegany County , at 9:43 PM EDT . 5 persons were injured , and $ 5 million in property damage was reported . With winds up to 210 mph , it was the first F4 tornado to have hit the state of Maryland since the National Weather Service began keeping records in 1950 . The Frostburg Tornado had moved southeast from Somerset County , Pennsylvania , where it was rated F3 . The 1998 Eastern Tornado Outbreak stands out , because it spawned an unusually high number of supercell thunderstorms , occurrences of damaging winds and hail , and tornadoes , in the central Appalachian Mountain area , where most residents were unaccustomed to experiencing such violent thunderstorms that are commonly believed to only occur in Tornado Alley in the central part of the United States .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "1998_Eastern_tornado_outbreak",
"rank": 38,
"score": 102514
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 Super Outbreak Content: The 2011 Super Outbreak was the largest , costliest , and one of the deadliest tornado outbreaks ever recorded , affecting the Southern , Midwestern , and Northeastern United States and leaving catastrophic destruction in its wake . The event affected Alabama and Mississippi the most severely , but it also produced destructive tornadoes in Arkansas , Georgia , Tennessee and Virginia , and affected many other areas throughout the Southern and Eastern United States . In total , 362 tornadoes were confirmed by NOAA 's National Weather Service ( NWS ) and Government of Canada 's Environment Canada in 21 states from Texas to New York to southern Canada . Widespread and destructive tornadoes occurred on each day of the outbreak , with April 27 being the most active day with a record of 218 tornadoes touching down that day from midnight to midnight CDT ( 0500 -- 0500 UTC ) . Four of the tornadoes were destructive enough to be rated EF5 , which is the highest ranking possible on the Enhanced Fujita scale ; typically these tornadoes are only recorded about once each year or less . In total , 348 people were killed as a result of the outbreak , which includes 324 tornado-related deaths across six states and an additional 24 fatalities caused by other thunderstorm-related events such as straight-line winds , hail , flash flooding or lightning . In Alabama alone , 238 tornado-related deaths were confirmed by the Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) and the state 's Emergency Management Agency . April 27 's 317 fatalities were the most tornado-related fatalities in the United States in a single day since the `` Tri-State '' outbreak on March 18 , 1925 ( when at least 747 people were killed ) . Nearly 500 preliminary local storm reports were received for tornadoes over four days , including 292 in 16 states on April 27 alone . This event was the costliest tornado outbreak and one of the costliest natural disasters in United States history ( even after adjustments for inflation ) , with total damages of approximately $ 11 billion ( 2011 USD ) .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "2011_Super_Outbreak",
"rank": 39,
"score": 102391
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado outbreak of May 18–21, 2013 Content: The tornado outbreak of May 18 -- 21 , 2013 was a significant tornado outbreak that affected parts of the Midwestern United States and lower Great Plains . This event occurred just days after a deadly outbreak struck Texas and surrounding southern states on May 15 . On May 16 , a slow moving trough crossed the Rockies and traversed the western Great Plains . Initially , activity was limited to scattered severe storms ; however , by May 18 , the threat for organized severe thunderstorms and tornadoes greatly increased . A few tornadoes touched down that day in Kansas and Nebraska , including an EF4 near Rozel , Kansas . Maintaining its slow eastward movement , the system produced another round of severe weather nearby . Activity significantly increased on May 19 , with tornadoes confirmed in Oklahoma , Kansas , Iowa , Missouri , and Illinois . In Oklahoma , two strong tornadoes , one rated EF4 , caused significant damage in rural areas of the eastern Oklahoma City metropolitan area ; two people lost their lives near Shawnee . The most dramatic events unfolded on May 20 as a large EF5 tornado devastated parts of Moore , Oklahoma , killing 24 people . Thousands of structures were destroyed , with many being completely flattened . Several other tornadoes occurred during the day in areas further eastward , though the majority were weak and caused little damage . The severe threat shifted towards damaging straight-line winds on May 21 as a large squall line developed across the southern states . Further north in Ontario , three tornadoes , including an EF2 , touched down . Over the following five days , the system responsible for the outbreak moved very little across the Eastern United States . By May 24 , it virtually stalled off the coast of New England , resulting in several days of heavy rain across the region . It later moved northeastward and was last noted by the Weather Prediction Center late on May 26 over southeastern Canada . During the storm 's eleven-day trek across the United States , it produced at least 60 tornadoes , four of which were rated EF3 or higher . Over 1,000 reports of damaging winds were received by the Storm Prediction Center as well . The system 's slow movement also resulted in record-breaking rainfall in North Dakota , New York and Vermont . Additionally , during the overnight of May 25 -- 26 , unusually cold air behind the cyclone resulting in record-late snowfall across northern New England . Overall , severe weather associated with the storm was responsible for 30 fatalities ( 26 from tornadoes ) and nearly 400 injuries in the United States . Additionally , damage was estimated to amount to $ 2 -- 5 billion , making it one of the costliest severe weather events on record .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_outbreak_of_May_18–21,_2013",
"rank": 40,
"score": 101817
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado outbreak sequence of June 3–11, 2008 Content: The tornado outbreak sequence of June 3 -- 11 , 2008 was a series of tornado outbreaks affecting most of central and eastern North America from June 3 -- 11 , 2008 . 192 tornadoes were confirmed , along with widespread straight -- line wind wind damage . Seven people were killed from a direct result of tornadoes ; four in Iowa , two in Kansas , and one in Indiana . Eleven additional people were killed across five states by other weather events including lightning , flash flooding , and straight-line winds . Severe flooding was also reported in much of Indiana , Wisconsin , Minnesota and Iowa as a result of the same thunderstorms , while high heat and humidity affected much of eastern North America ; particularly along the eastern seaboard of the United States from New York City to the Carolinas .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_outbreak_sequence_of_June_3–11,_2008",
"rank": 41,
"score": 101664
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado records Content: This article lists various tornado records . The most extreme tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State Tornado , which spread through parts of Missouri , Illinois , and Indiana on March 18 , 1925 . It is considered an F5 , though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era . It holds records for longest path length at 219 mi , longest duration at about 3 1/2 hours , and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado at 73 mph anywhere on Earth . In addition , it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history with 695 fatalities . It was also the third-costliest tornado in history at the time , but has been surpassed by several others non-normalized . When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation , it still ranks third today . The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daulatpur -- Saturia tornado in Bangladesh on April 26 , 1989 , which killed approximately 1,300 people . Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history kill more than 100 people , almost half of the total for the rest of the world . For 37 years , the most extensive tornado outbreak on record , in almost every category , was the 1974 Super Outbreak , which affected a large area of the central United States and extreme southern Ontario in Canada on April 3 and April 4 , 1974 . Not only did this outbreak feature 148 tornadoes in only 18 hours , but an unprecedented number of them were violent ; 7 were of F5 intensity and 23 were F4 . During the peak of this outbreak there were 16 tornadoes on the ground at the same time . More than 300 people , possibly as many as 330 , were killed by tornadoes during this outbreak . However , this record was later broken during the 2011 Super Outbreak , which resulted in 362 tornadoes and 324 tornadic fatalities .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_records",
"rank": 42,
"score": 100905
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado outbreak of November 17, 2013 Content: The tornado outbreak of November 17 , 2013 , was the deadliest and costliest in the U.S. state of Illinois to occur in the month of November and fourth largest for the state overall . Associated with a strong trough in the upper levels of the atmosphere , the event resulted in 73 tornadoes tracking across regions of the Midwest United States and Ohio River Valley , impacting seven states . Severe weather during the tornado outbreak caused over 100 injuries and eleven fatalities , of which eight were tornado related . Two tornadoes -- both in Illinois and rated EF4 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale -- were the strongest documented during the outbreak and combined for five deaths . In addition to tornadoes , the system associated with the outbreak produced sizeable hail peaking at 4.00 in in diameter in Bloomington , Illinois , as well as damaging winds estimated as strong as 100 mph in three locations . The development and progression of a severe weather event on November 17 had been well anticipated , and appeared in Storm Prediction Center products as early as November 12 . The first storms associated with the event formed during the afternoon and evening hours of November 16 over the Great Plains , producing primarily hail and strong winds . However , tornadic activity was limited to November 17 , as individual supercell thunderstorms tracked across the Midwest United States , at times producing long-tracked tornadoes . The first tornadoes formed over Illinois , while the final tornadoes developed over Tennessee . Towards the end of November 17 , these individual systems had merged into an extensive squall line that tracked eastward across the Mid-Atlantic states , producing damaging wind before exiting into the Atlantic Ocean early on November 18 . With damage estimated at approximately $ 1.6 billion , the tornado outbreak became the seventh weather event and fifth tornado outbreak in the U.S. to accrue over $ 1 billion in damage that year . Tornadoes alone were responsible for $ 1.067 billion in damage , with the EF4 tornado that struck Washington , Illinois accounting for $ 935 million of the total . In addition to structural damage , widespread power outages affected thousands of electricity customers across the same regions impacted by the tornado outbreak and subsequent squall line . Non-tornadic deaths and injured include one killed in Jackson County , Michigan , when a tree fell on a car , one killed by live wires in Shiawassee County , Michigan , one killed after touching a downed wire in Detroit , and two minor injuries in a home damaged by wind in Ohio .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_outbreak_of_November_17,_2013",
"rank": 43,
"score": 100836
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Columbus, Ohio Content: Columbus , Ohio deals with a variety of weather every year altering the climate of the city . Tornadoes , severe thunderstorms , blizzards , and winter storms occur from time to time . The last tornado to hit the Columbus area was on October 26 , 2010 when an EF0 was confirmed by the National Weather Service 1 mile north of Groveport , Ohio . The last tornado touchdown previous to that was on September 22 , 2010 and was also rated an EF0 with estimated wind speeds of 65 mph The last major snow storm with snow accumulation was recorded on March 8 , 2008 . 20.4 inches of snow fell in Columbus during the North American blizzard of 2008 that affected a large portion of the midwestern United States . The area also received frozen precipitation , resulting in power outages across the central Ohio area . The northern portion of the Columbus Metropolitan Area received 12 to 18 inches of snow accumulation , with major snow drifts .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climate_of_Columbus,_Ohio",
"rank": 44,
"score": 100833
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado outbreak of February 28 – March 1, 2017 Content: The tornado outbreak of February 28 -- March 1 , 2017 was a widespread and significant outbreak of tornadoes and severe weather that affected the Midwestern United States at the end of February 2017 and beginning of March . Fueled by the combination of ample instability , strong wind shear , and rich low-level moisture , the event led to 70 confirmed tornadoes and thousands of other non-tornadic severe weather reports . The most notable aspect of the outbreak was a long-tracked EF4 tornado -- the first violent tornado of 2017 and the first violent tornado during the month of February since the 2013 Hattiesburg , Mississippi tornado -- that tracked from Perryville , Missouri to near Christopher , Illinois , killing one person . Three EF3 tornadoes were recorded during the event , including one that caused two fatalities in Ottawa , Illinois , one that caused a fatality near Crossville , and one that heavily damaged or destroyed homes in and around Washburn . In addition to the deaths , 38 people were injured by tornadoes and an additional 30 were injured by non-tornadic impacts , mainly by fallen trees .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_outbreak_of_February_28_–_March_1,_2017",
"rank": 45,
"score": 100779
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 46,
"score": 100621
},
{
"content": "Title: Southwest Ontario Tornado Outbreak of 1984 Content: On the evening of September 2 , 1984 ( Labour Day ) several tornadoes hit southwestern Ontario from Windsor to London . This was the biggest severe weather event of the year for the province . During the morning hours , the surface map revealed a rather potent low pressure system ( for late summer ) over northern Michigan , moving to the northeast . A warm front was moving into southern Ontario and bringing with it a moist , unstable airmass . Thunderstorms were also reported across much of district during the early morning hours as well . The cold front however , was still back over Lake Michigan and tracking steadily towards the east . During the afternoon , the weather generally cleared up in the outbreak area and temperatures reached the upper 20 's Celsius ( low 80s F ) with dewpoints in the low 20 's Celsius ( low 70s F ) .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Southwest_Ontario_Tornado_Outbreak_of_1984",
"rank": 47,
"score": 100619
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climate_Code_Red",
"rank": 48,
"score": 100512
},
{
"content": "Title: Severe thunderstorm outbreak Content: A severe thunderstorm outbreak , also called a severe weather outbreak or simply a severe outbreak , is an event in which a weather system or combination of weather systems produces a multitude of severe thunderstorms in a region over a continuous span of time . A severe outbreak which is most notable for its tornadoes is called a tornado outbreak . The four kinds of severe weather produced in these outbreaks are tornadoes , severe wind , large hail , and flash flooding .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Severe_thunderstorm_outbreak",
"rank": 49,
"score": 99942
},
{
"content": "Title: North American blizzard of 2008 Content: The North American blizzard of 2008 was a winter storm that struck most of southern and eastern North America from March 6 to March 10 , 2008 . The storm was most notable for a major winter storm event from Arkansas to Quebec . It also produced severe weather across the east coast of the United States with heavy rain , damaging winds and tornadoes , causing locally significant damage . The hardest hit areas by the wintry weather were from the Ohio Valley to southern Quebec where up to a half a meter of snow fell locally including the major cities of Columbus , Ohio , Cleveland , Ohio , and Ottawa , Ontario . For many areas across portions of the central United States , Ontario and Quebec , it was the worst winter storm in the past several years . The blizzard and its aftermath caused at least 17 deaths across four US states and three Canadian provinces , while hundreds others were injured mostly in weather-related accidents and tornadoes .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "North_American_blizzard_of_2008",
"rank": 50,
"score": 99940
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornadoes of 2008 Content: This page documents notable tornadoes and tornado outbreaks worldwide in 2008 . Strong and destructive tornadoes form most frequently in the United States , Bangladesh , and Eastern India , but they can occur almost anywhere under the right conditions . Tornadoes also develop occasionally in southern Canada during the Northern Hemisphere 's summer and somewhat regularly at other times of the year across Europe , Asia , and Australia . Tornadic events are often accompanied with other forms of severe weather , including strong thunderstorms , strong winds , and hail . There were 1,692 tornadoes confirmed in the United States in 2008 , with 126 confirmed fatalities . This made 2008 the deadliest year in that country since 1998 . Nine other fatalities have been reported elsewhere in the world : three in France , two each in Bangladesh and Poland and one each in Russia and China . With 1,692 confirmed tornadoes , 2008 ranked as the third most active US tornado season on record , only 2011 and 2004 have had more tornadoes confirmed with 1,700 and 1,817 , respectively . The US state of Kansas received the most tornadoes in the United States in 2008 with 187 .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornadoes_of_2008",
"rank": 51,
"score": 99763
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 52,
"score": 99664
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)",
"rank": 53,
"score": 99541
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornadoes of 2017 Content: This page documents notable tornadoes and tornado outbreaks worldwide in 2017 . Strong and destructive tornadoes form most frequently in the United States , Bangladesh , and Eastern India , but they can occur almost anywhere under the right conditions . Tornadoes also develop occasionally in southern Canada during the Northern Hemisphere 's summer and somewhat regularly at other times of the year across Europe , Asia , and Australia . Tornadic events are often accompanied with other forms of severe weather , including strong thunderstorms , strong winds , and hail . There have been 935 reports of tornadoes in the United States in 2017 so far , of which at least 830 have been confirmed . A total of 40 tornado-related deaths have occurred worldwide as of May 31 : 38 in the United States , one in Brazil and Russia . 2017 got off to an exceptionally early start , having the second most active January since records began in 1950 , and one of the most active first quarters in recorded history . 2017 has also had four high risks issued by the Storm Prediction Center so far this year . This is the most active in the sense of high risks since 2011 , which had five high risks issued throughout the entire year .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornadoes_of_2017",
"rank": 54,
"score": 99487
},
{
"content": "Title: 2007 Brooklyn tornadoes Content: The 2007 Brooklyn tornado was the strongest tornado on record to strike in New York City . It formed in the early morning hours of August 8 , 2007 , skipping along an approximately 9 mi-long path , from Staten Island across The Narrows to Brooklyn . The worst damage was in and around Sunset Park and Bay Ridge , in Brooklyn . The U.S. National Weather Service estimated its strength there as an EF2 on the Enhanced Fujita scale . No serious injuries or fatalities were reported as a result of the tornado , but several people were treated at area hospitals for flying glass injuries . At least 40 buildings and 100 cars were damaged . New York State Senator Martin Golden 's office estimated damages in the tens of millions of U.S. dollars . The storm system produced severe street flooding , and disrupted all modes of transportation throughout the city . Service was delayed or suspended on all 24 New York City Subway services during the morning rush hour , and nine services were still not running by the evening rush .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "2007_Brooklyn_tornadoes",
"rank": 55,
"score": 99355
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 56,
"score": 99055
},
{
"content": "Title: Sicily Tornadoes Content: The Sicily tornadoes were two tornadoes that swept the Marsala countryside in western Sicily , Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ( now Italy ) in early December ( possibly late November ) 1851 . The total number of victims is unknown , but is assessed at over 500 . It is one of the 10 deadliest tornadoes ever , achieving the highest death toll for a tornado event in continental Europe and the second in European history after the Valletta , Malta Tornado . Tornadoes are an extremely rare occurrence in Italy , sometimes happening on a local scale but rarely causing relevant damage . Sicily tornadoes are the oldest documented occurrence of the phenomena on Italian ground . While the event is documented in many official sources , such as church registers and community archives , there are few reports from local witnesses . On December 20 , 1851 , the Illustrated London News published a report dating back to December 8 submitted by local sources in Malta , describing the path of two large waterspouts that crossed Sicilian plains from Marsala to Castellamare del Golfo , moving north-eastbound and evolving in a supercell of two full-blown tornadoes less than 500 meters apart . Along their path , heavy rain and hailstorms caused additional damage to farmlands . The most stricken area was Castellamare , where half the town was destroyed and about 200 citizens perished . The city harbor sustained serious damage , with many vessels destroyed or capsized and their crews lost at sea .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Sicily_Tornadoes",
"rank": 57,
"score": 99042
},
{
"content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Abrupt_climate_change",
"rank": 58,
"score": 98925
},
{
"content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Reasons_for_concern",
"rank": 59,
"score": 98870
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Katrina and global warming Content: The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Hurricane_Katrina_and_global_warming",
"rank": 60,
"score": 98829
},
{
"content": "Title: Cultural significance of tornadoes Content: Tornado damage to human-made structures is a result of the high wind velocity and windblown debris . Tornadic winds have been measured in excess of 300 mph ( 480 km/h ) . Tornadoes are a serious hazard to life and limb . As such , people in tornado-prone areas often adopt plans of action in case a tornado approaches .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Cultural_significance_of_tornadoes",
"rank": 61,
"score": 98666
},
{
"content": "Title: 1953 Vicksburg, Mississippi, tornadoes Content: The 1953 Vicksburg , Mississippi tornadoes were a deadly severe weather event that affected northeastern Louisiana , southeastern Arkansas , and western Mississippi on December 5 , 1953 . At least four confirmed tornadoes touched down ; one of the tornadoes produced F5 damage on the Fujita scale as it moved through the city of Vicksburg , causing 38 deaths in the area . It remains the fifth-deadliest tornado to affect the U.S. state of Mississippi , behind the 1840 Natchez tornado , the 1936 Tupelo , Mississippi , tornado , the February 21 , 1971 , tornado in Cary , Mississippi and the March 3 , 1966 , tornado in Jackson , Mississippi . It is one of just four F5 tornadoes recorded in Mississippi since 1950 .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "1953_Vicksburg,_Mississippi,_tornadoes",
"rank": 62,
"score": 98653
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado outbreak of March 6–7, 2017 Content: The tornado outbreak of March 6 -- 7 , 2017 was a widespread severe weather and tornado outbreak that affected portions of the Midwestern United States in the overnight hours of March 6 -- 7 . Occurring just days after a deadly and more significant event across similar areas just a week prior , this particular outbreak led to 56 tornadoes within a 9-hour period as a quasi-linear convective system and discrete supercell thunderstorms traversed the region . The most notable aspect of the outbreak was an EF3 tornado that damaged or destroyed hundreds of structures within Oak Grove , Missouri , injuring 12 people but causing no fatalities . An EF1 tornado touched down near Bricelyn , the earliest known tornado on record in the state of Minnesota . Outside of tornadic activity , hundreds of damaging wind reports and a multitude of severe hail reports were documented .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_outbreak_of_March_6–7,_2017",
"rank": 63,
"score": 98466
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 64,
"score": 98409
},
{
"content": "Title: October 1997 North American storm complex Content: The October 1997 North American storm complex was a blizzard and tornado outbreak that affected the Northwest , Rockies , much of the Midwest and Deep south . 84 tornadoes were confirmed as the system moved eastward across the eastern half of the United States , including four that were rated as F3 on the Fujita scale . The storms resulted in 13 deaths ( five in Colorado , two each in Nebraska and Illinois , and one each in Michigan , Iowa , Oklahoma , and Kansas ) , and caused power outages and school closings lasting up to a week in affected areas . The event was famously billed by the University of Nebraska-Lincoln as being a `` two-hundred year storm '' . The wind caused much damage , downing trees and power poles . Category :1997 in North America Category : Tornadoes in the United States Category : Tornadoes of 1997 Category : October 1997 events",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "October_1997_North_American_storm_complex",
"rank": 65,
"score": 98404
},
{
"content": "Title: Greg Craven (teacher) Content: Greg Craven is an American high school science teacher and climate change author . The creator of a 2007 viral video on YouTube , he is the author of the 2009 book What 's the Worst That Could Happen ? : A Rational Response to the Climate Change Debate .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Greg_Craven_(teacher)",
"rank": 66,
"score": 98368
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate appraisal Content: A climate appraisal is a unique , location-based report for a specific property on climate change ( from global warming ) and other environmental risks . Information in a climate appraisal report enables property owners and/or buyers to assess for themselves how climate change risks could impact a specific property address in the future , probably by utilizing both historical and projected data from scientific modeling to display those potential risks . A climate appraisal report may include historical and projected information in the following categories : shoreline reduction from sea level rise , risk from hurricanes , tornadoes , earthquakes , volcanoes , droughts , wildfires , floods , diseasees , and industrial pollution . A report may integrate a wide range of environmental risk information after geocoding a location .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climate_appraisal",
"rank": 67,
"score": 97962
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornadoes of 2016 Content: This page documents notable tornadoes and tornado outbreaks worldwide in 2016 . Strong and destructive tornadoes form most frequently in the United States , Bangladesh , and Eastern India , but they can occur almost anywhere under the right conditions . Tornadoes also develop occasionally in southern Canada during the Northern Hemisphere 's summer and somewhat regularly at other times of the year across Europe , Asia , and Australia . Tornadic events are often accompanied with other forms of severe weather , including strong thunderstorms , strong winds , and hail . There were 1,059 tornadoes reported in the United States in 2016 , of which 976 were confirmed . Worldwide , 130 fatalities were reported : 99 in China , 18 in the United States , five in Uruguay , four in Brazil and two in Italy and Russia each . 2016 was slightly below-average in terms of tornado activity , but near-record tornado numbers occurred in February .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornadoes_of_2016",
"rank": 68,
"score": 97890
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornadoes of 2015 Content: This page documents notable tornadoes and tornado outbreaks worldwide in 2015 . Strong and destructive tornadoes form most frequently in the United States , Bangladesh , and Eastern India , but they can occur almost anywhere under the right conditions . Tornadoes also develop occasionally in southern Canada during the Northern Hemisphere 's summer and somewhat regularly at other times of the year across Europe , Asia , and Australia . Tornadic events are often accompanied with other forms of severe weather including strong thunderstorms , winds and hail . There were 1,285 tornadoes reported in the United States in 2015 according to the Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) , of which at least 1,178 have been confirmed . Worldwide , 109 fatalities have been reported : 45 in Pakistan , 36 in the United States , 14 in Mexico , 7 in China , 3 in Myanmar , 2 in Brazil and 1 each in Italy and Russia . 2015 ended the very quiet trend of the 2012 , 2013 and 2014 seasons , and was the most active in four years .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornadoes_of_2015",
"rank": 69,
"score": 97865
},
{
"content": "Title: Late December 2012 North American storm complex Content: Near the end of 2012 , a massive storm complex developed that produced both a tornado outbreak and a blizzard across the southern and eastern United States . On Christmas Day 2012 ( December 25 ) , a tornado outbreak occurred across Southern United States . This severe weather/tornado event affected the United States Gulf Coast and southern East Coast over a two-day span . It occurred in conjunction with a much larger winter storm event that brought blizzard conditions to much of the interior United States . In total , 31 tornadoes were confirmed by the National Weather Service in five states from Texas to North Carolina . All but one of the tornadoes that occurred during the outbreak touched down on December 25 , with the other occurring the following day in North Carolina . Two of the tornadoes were destructive enough to be rated EF3 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale . At least 16 people died as a result of the related blizzard , and thousands were without power . There were 63 preliminary local storm reports received for tornadoes , including 60 in four states on December 25 alone . Significant tornadoes included a long -- tracked EF3 that moved across areas of Mississippi and an EF2 that moved through Mobile , Alabama . The Mobile tornado damaged many homes , businesses , a hospital , and a high school , with estimated damages totaling $ 1.35 million .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Late_December_2012_North_American_storm_complex",
"rank": 70,
"score": 97784
},
{
"content": "Title: Upper Great Lakes severe weather outbreak of August 23, 1998 Content: The Upper Great Lakes severe weather outbreak of August 23 , 1998 was a severe weather outbreak that affected parts of Wisconsin , and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . The outbreak occurred on August 23 , 1998 and caused millions of dollars in damage to the region . One fatality is attributed to this severe weather event , when a severe thunderstorm knocked a tree onto a camper killing its sole occupant . A supercell spawned a F3 tornado that ripped across Door County causing $ 6.5 million in damages . It was the 8th most costly tornado in Wisconsin history injuring two people , destroying multiple structures and disrupting the regional economy and tourism . Two storms moved through the Fox Valley producing a minimal F0 tornado , but devastating amounts of hail . Damages from the hail were estimated to be around $ 5 million and damaged many structures and vehicles . Wisconsin Governor Tommy Thompson requested a Presidential Disaster Declaration from President Bill Clinton for the disaster , but was denied .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Upper_Great_Lakes_severe_weather_outbreak_of_August_23,_1998",
"rank": 71,
"score": 97694
},
{
"content": "Title: List of tornadoes in the May 18–21, 2013 tornado outbreak Content: From May 18 -- 21 , 2013 , a significant tornado outbreak took place across parts of the Midwestern United States and lower Great Plains . This event occurred just days after a deadly outbreak struck Texas and surrounding southern states on May 15 . On May 16 , a slow moving trough crossed the Rockies and traversed the western Great Plains . Initially , activity was limited to scattered severe storms ; however , by May 18 , the threat for organized severe thunderstorms and tornadoes greatly increased . A few tornadoes touched down that day in Kansas and Nebraska , including an EF4 near Rozel , Kansas . Maintaining its slow eastward movement , the system produced another round of severe weather nearby . Activity significantly increased on May 19 , with tornadoes confirmed in Oklahoma , Kansas , Iowa , Missouri , and Illinois . In Oklahoma , two strong tornadoes , one rated EF4 , caused significant damage in rural areas of the eastern Oklahoma City metropolitan area ; two people lost their lives in Shawnee . The most dramatic events unfolded on May 20 as a large EF5 tornado devastated parts of Moore , Oklahoma , with 24 people being killed . Thousands of structures were destroyed , with many being completely flattened . Several other tornadoes occurred during the day in areas further eastward , though the majority were weak and caused little damage . The severe threat shifted towards damaging straight-line winds on May 21 as a large squall line developed across the southern states . Further north in Ontario , three tornadoes , including an EF2 , touched down . Over the following five days , the system responsible for the outbreak moved very little across the Eastern United States . By May 24 , it virtually stalled off the coast of New England , resulting in several days of heavy rain across the region . It later moved northeastward and was last noted by the Weather Prediction Center late on May 26 over southeastern Canada . During the storm 's eleven-day trek across the United States , it produced at least 60 tornadoes , four of which were rated EF3 or higher . Over 1,000 reports of damaging winds were received by the Storm Prediction Center as well . The system 's slow movement also resulted in record-breaking rains in North Dakota , New York , and Vermont . Additionally , during the overnight of May 25 -- 26 , unusually cold air behind the cyclone resulting in record-late snows across northern New England .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "List_of_tornadoes_in_the_May_18–21,_2013_tornado_outbreak",
"rank": 72,
"score": 97637
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations",
"rank": 73,
"score": 97554
},
{
"content": "Title: Edmonton tornado Content: The Edmonton tornado of 1987 , an event also known as Black Friday to Edmontonians , was a powerful and devastating tornado that ripped through the eastern part of Edmonton , Alberta , Canada and parts of neighbouring Strathcona County on the afternoon of Friday , July 31 , 1987 . It was one of seven other tornadoes in central Alberta the same day . The tornado remained on the ground for an hour , cutting a swath of destruction 30.8 km long and up to a 1300 m wide in places , and peaking at F4 on the Fujita scale . The tornado killed 27 people , injured more than 300 people , destroyed more than 300 homes , and caused more than CAD332 .27 million in property damage at four major disaster sites . The loss of life , injuries and destruction of property made it the worst natural disaster in Alberta 's recent history and one of the worst in Canada 's history . Weather forecasts issued during the morning and early afternoon of July 31 , 1987 for Edmonton revealed a recognition by Environment Canada of a high potential for unusually severe thunderstorms that afternoon . Environment Canada responded swiftly upon receipt of the first report of a tornado touchdown from a resident of Leduc County which is immediately adjacent to Edmonton 's southern boundary .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Edmonton_tornado",
"rank": 74,
"score": 97443
},
{
"content": "Title: Early-May 1965 tornado outbreak sequence Content: The early-May 1965 tornado outbreak sequence was a major severe weather event that affected much of the Central United States on May 5 -- 8 , 1965 . For four consecutive days , tornado outbreaks produced at least three significant ( F2 + ) tornadoes each day , and at least two violent ( F4 -- F5 ) tornadoes on three of the four days . The entire sequence generated 37 significant tornadoes , including at least nine violent tornadoes , one of which was rated F5 . On May 5 , two F4s struck Iowa , including a long-tracked tornado family that injured 11 people . On May 6 , an outbreak of six strong tornadoes , four of them violent F4s , affected Minneapolis and St. Paul , Minnesota , and has been nicknamed `` The Longest Night '' , killing 13 people and causing major damages -- at the time the most damaging single weather event in Minnesota history . Three of the six tornadoes occurred on the ground simultaneously , and two of them hit the section of Minnesota State Highway 100 ( now Interstate 694 ) and University Avenue in the city of Fridley . Both Fridley tornadoes damaged 1,100 homes and destroyed about 425 ; total losses reached $ 14.5 million , $ 5 million of which was to the Fridley school system . On May 7 , three significant tornadoes hit portions of the Upper Midwest , and beginning early on May 8 , a major tornado outbreak affected the Great Plains states , particularly in Nebraska and South Dakota . The outbreak on May 8 produced numerous significant , long-lived tornadoes , including at least three violent tornadoes , two of which were actually long-tracked tornado families . A very large F5 tornado struck Tripp County in South Dakota , and two major F4s tracked across parts of Greeley and Antelope Counties in Nebraska . One of the F4s struck the small village of Primrose , almost totally destroying the settlement , causing possible F5 damage , and killing four people . Additionally , a high-end F3 obliterated a farm in Gregory County , South Dakota , and may have been an F4 as well . Many of the individual tornadoes on May 8 moved north and northwest , an unusual trajectory for supercells in this part of the Great Plains . Many of the long-tracked tornadoes on this date , rather than single tornadoes , were probably tornado families like the two long-lived F4s .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Early-May_1965_tornado_outbreak_sequence",
"rank": 75,
"score": 97277
},
{
"content": "Title: Snowden D. Flora Content: Snowden Dwight Flora ( 1879 -- 1957 ) was an American meteorologist and climatologist best known for studies of the history of weather events such as tornadoes and hail . His book , Tornadoes of the United States , was the only even modestly advanced book on the subject available for many years and influenced an entire generation of meteorologists as well as contributed to the advancement of the field as a compilation of material unavailable elsewhere . Its many uniquely available photographs and engaging anecdotes helped make it easily the best selling book in the history of the University of Oklahoma Press at the time .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Snowden_D._Flora",
"rank": 76,
"score": 97272
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 77,
"score": 97147
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents",
"rank": 78,
"score": 97019
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado outbreak of February 23–24, 2016 Content: The tornado outbreak of February 23 -- 24 , 2016 was an unusually prolific late-winter tornado outbreak that resulted in significant damage across the southern and eastern half of the United States in late February 2016 . Lasting nearly a day and a half , the outbreak produced a total of 61 tornadoes across eleven states , which ranked it as one of the largest February tornado outbreaks in the United States on record , with only the 2008 Super Tuesday tornado outbreak having recorded more . In addition , it was also one of the largest winter tornado outbreaks overall as well . The most significant and intense tornadoes of the event were four EF3s that struck southeastern Louisiana , Pensacola , Florida , Evergreen , Virginia , and Tappahannock , Virginia . Tornadoes were also reported in other places like Texas , Florida , and Pennsylvania . Severe thunderstorms , hail and gusty winds were also felt in the Northeastern United States and Mid-Atlantic states on February 24 as well . In addition to the outbreak , non-tornadic impacts were felt in the Midwest , where the storm system produced blizzard conditions and cold temperatures in places including Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , and even parts of southern Ontario in Canada . Snowfall totals of up to 17 in were recorded in parts of the hardest hit areas by the snowstorm .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_outbreak_of_February_23–24,_2016",
"rank": 79,
"score": 96773
},
{
"content": "Title: April 1920 tornado outbreak Content: The April 1920 tornado outbreak was a multi-day severe weather event that affected the Southeastern United States on April 19 -- 21 , 1920 . The most intense portion of the outbreak occurred on the morning of April 20 . At least seven tornadoes affected the American U.S. states of Mississippi , Alabama , and Tennessee , six of them rated violent F4s on the Fujita scale . At least one of them may have attained F5 intensity , though this is uncertain . The tornado outbreak killed at least 243 people . Five of the tornadoes were long tracked , each traveling more than 32 mi across Mississippi and into Alabama . A tornado that began in Oktibbeha County , Mississippi , crossed into Alabama and lifted over Limestone County , having covered a distance of more than 130 mi . Along its path , the tornado destroyed entire communities and killed at least 44 people in Alabama , becoming the state 's deadliest tornado until March 21 , 1932 , when another F4 tornado killed 49 people . An EF5 tornado on April 27 , 2011 , is currently the state 's deadliest on record , with 72 fatalities . In addition to the tornadoes on April 20 , other tornadoes associated with the same weather system occurred on April 19 and April 21 .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "April_1920_tornado_outbreak",
"rank": 80,
"score": 96694
},
{
"content": "Title: 1989 Northeastern United States tornado outbreak Content: The 1989 Northeastern United States tornado outbreak was a series of tornadoes which caused more than $ 130 million ( 1989 USD ) in damage across the Northeastern United States on July 10 , 1989 . The storm system affected five states with severe weather , including hail up to 2.5 in across , thunderstorm winds up to 90 mph , and 17 tornadoes . Several towns in New York and Connecticut were particularly hard-hit . Several homes were leveled in Schoharie , New York and extensive damage occurred in Bantam , Connecticut . A large section of Hamden , Connecticut , including an industrial park and hundreds of homes , was destroyed ; and in some places buildings were flattened to the ground . More than 150 people were injured by the tornado outbreak , and one person was killed by straight-line thunderstorm winds . While tornado outbreaks in this area are unusual , this storm was especially rare in that it produced six significant tornadoes , two of which were violent F4s , and featured many tornadoes with tracks of several miles . __ TOC __",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "1989_Northeastern_United_States_tornado_outbreak",
"rank": 81,
"score": 96590
},
{
"content": "Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Nature_Climate_Change",
"rank": 82,
"score": 96561
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado outbreak of May 26–31, 2013 Content: The tornado outbreak of May 26 -- 31 , 2013 was a prolonged and widespread tornadic event that affected a large portion of the United States . The outbreak was the result of a slow-moving but powerful storm system that produced several strong tornadoes across the Great Plains states , especially in Kansas and Oklahoma . Other strong tornadoes caused severe damage in Nebraska , Missouri , Illinois , and Michigan . The outbreak extended as far as New York . 27 fatalities were reported in total , with nine resulting from tornadoes ( eight in Oklahoma and one in Arkansas ) . By far the most significant tornado of the outbreak was an extremely large EF3 that struck areas near the town of El Reno , Oklahoma on May 31 . With a maximum width of 2.6 mi , it was the largest tornado on record . The second highest wind speeds recorded on Earth , around 295 mph , were also observed in this tornado . The twister was responsible for eight deaths , including famous storm chaser Tim Samaras , his son Paul , and Carl Young as a result of being caught off-guard by the tornado 's unprecedented width . In addition , the tornado caused an unknown amount of injuries .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_outbreak_of_May_26–31,_2013",
"rank": 83,
"score": 96480
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Katrina tornado outbreak Content: Accompanying Hurricane Katrina 's catastrophic coastal impacts was a moderate tornado outbreak spawned by the cyclone 's outer bands . The event spanned August 26 -- 31 , 2005 , with 57 tornadoes touching down across 8 states . One person died and numerous communities suffered damage of varying degrees from central Mississippi to Pennsylvania , with Georgia sustaining record monetary damage for the month of August . Due to extreme devastation in coastal areas of Louisiana and Mississippi , multiple tornadoes may have been overlooked -- overshadowed by the effects of storm surge and large-scale wind -- and thus the full extent of the hurricane 's tornado outbreak is uncertain . Furthermore , an indeterminate number of waterspouts likely formed throughout the life cycle of Katrina . The outbreak began with an isolated F2 over the Florida Keys on August 26 ; no tornadoes were recorded the following day as the storm traversed the Gulf of Mexico . Four weak tornadoes were observed on August 28 as the hurricane approached land , each causing little damage . Coincident with Katrina 's landfall , activity began in earnest on August 29 with numerous tornadoes touching down across Gulf Coast states . Georgia suffered the greatest impact on this day , with multiple F1 and F2 tornadoes causing significant damage ; one person died in Carroll County , marking the first known instance of a tornado-related death in the state during August . A record 18 tornadoes touched down across Georgia on August 29 , far exceeding the previous daily record of just 2 tornadoes for the month throughout the state . Activity diminished over the subsequent two days as the former hurricane moved northward . Several more tornadoes touched down across the Mid-Atlantic states before the cessation of the outbreak just after midnight local time on August 31 .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Hurricane_Katrina_tornado_outbreak",
"rank": 84,
"score": 96347
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 85,
"score": 96320
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornadoes of 2006 Content: This page documents notable tornadoes and tornado outbreaks worldwide in 2006 . Strong and destructive tornadoes form most frequently in the United States , Bangladesh , and Eastern India , but they can occur almost anywhere under the right conditions . Tornadoes also develop occasionally in southern Canada during the Northern Hemisphere 's summer and somewhat regularly at other times of the year across Europe , Asia , and Australia . Tornadic events are often accompanied with other forms of severe weather , including strong thunderstorms , strong winds , and hail . In 2006 , there were 1,333 reported tornadoes in the US ( of which 1,103 tornadoes were confirmed ) , with 67 reported fatalities ( about half of those recorded in Tennessee ) . In addition , four other tornado-related deaths were reported in Europe - all of them in Germany where 119 tornadoes were confirmed , 12 deaths in Japan and one tornado fatality has been reported in Canada , in the province of Manitoba for a worldwide total of 84 .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornadoes_of_2006",
"rank": 86,
"score": 96253
},
{
"content": "Title: 1974 Super Outbreak Content: The 1974 Super Outbreak was the second-largest tornado outbreak on record for a single 24-hour period , just behind the 2011 Super Outbreak . It was also the most violent tornado outbreak ever recorded , with 30 F4/F5 tornadoes confirmed . From April 3 to April 4 , 1974 , there were 148 tornadoes confirmed in 13 U.S. states and the Canadian province of Ontario . In the United States , tornadoes struck Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Ohio , Kentucky , Tennessee , Alabama , Mississippi , Georgia , North Carolina , Virginia , West Virginia , and New York . The entire outbreak caused more than $ 600 million ( 1974 USD ) in damage in the United States alone , and extensively damaged approximately 900 mi2 along a total combined path length of 2,600 mi . At one point , as many as 15 separate tornadoes were ongoing at the same time . The 1974 Super Outbreak remains one of the most outstanding severe convective weather episodes of record in the continental United States . The outbreak far surpassed previous and succeeding events in terms of severity , longevity , extent , and death toll , with the notable exception of the 2011 Super Outbreak , which lasted from April 25 to 28 and killed a total of 324 people .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "1974_Super_Outbreak",
"rank": 87,
"score": 96211
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 88,
"score": 96199
},
{
"content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change",
"rank": 89,
"score": 96147
},
{
"content": "Title: Dansgaard–Oeschger event Content: Dansgaard -- Oeschger events ( often abbreviated D -- O events ) are rapid climate fluctuations that occurred 25 times during the last glacial period . Some scientists say that the events occur quasi-periodically with a recurrence time being a multiple of 1,470 years , but this is debated . The comparable climate cyclicity during the Holocene is referred to as Bond events .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Dansgaard–Oeschger_event",
"rank": 90,
"score": 96087
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado outbreak of April 6–8, 2006 Content: The tornado outbreak of April 6 -- 8 , 2006 , was a major tornado outbreak in the central and parts of the southern United States that began on April 6 , 2006 , in the Great Plains and continued until April 8 in South Carolina , with most of the activity on April 7 . The hardest-hit area was Middle Tennessee where several strong tornadoes devastated entire neighborhoods and left ten people dead . The worst damage took place in Gallatin , Tennessee . Other communities north of Nashville were also hard hit . There were 73 tornadoes confirmed across 13 states , with the bulk of them coming on the afternoon and evening of April 7 across the South , particularly in Tennessee . In total , 10 deaths were reported as a result of the tornadoes , and over $ 650 million in damage was reported , of which over $ 630 million was in Middle Tennessee . It was the third major outbreak of 2006 , occurring just days after another major outbreak on April 2 . It was also considered to be the worst disaster event in Middle Tennessee since the Nashville Tornadoes of 1998 on April 16 , 1998 .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_outbreak_of_April_6–8,_2006",
"rank": 91,
"score": 96020
},
{
"content": "Title: 1970 Lubbock tornado Content: The 1970 Lubbock tornado was a tornado event that occurred in Lubbock , Texas , on May 11 , 1970 . It was one of the worst tornadoes in Texas history , and occurred exactly 17 years to the day after the deadly Waco Tornado . It is also the most recent F5 tornado to have struck a central business district of a large city .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "1970_Lubbock_tornado",
"rank": 92,
"score": 95923
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 New Year's Eve tornado outbreak Content: The 2010 New Year 's Eve tornado outbreak was a three-day-long tornado outbreak that impacted the central and lower Mississippi Valley from December 30 , 2010 to January 1 , 2011 . Associated with a low pressure system and a strong cold front , 37 tornadoes tracked across five states over the length of the severe event , killing nine and injuring several others . Activity was centered in the states of Missouri and later Mississippi on December 31 . Seven tornadoes were rated EF3 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale ; these were the strongest during the outbreak . Non-tornadic winds were recorded to have reached as high as 80 mph ( 130 km/h ) at eight locations on December 31 , while hail as large as 2.75 in ( 7.0 cm ) was documented north-northeast of Mansfield , Missouri . Overall , damage from the outbreak totaled US$ 123.3 million , most of which was related to tornadoes . The United States Storm Prediction Center first noted a possible New Year 's Eve severe weather event as early as December 25 , 2010 . These forecasts gained confidence as the event approached , with a focus on the Ozarks and adjacent areas . Supercells developed in this area during the night of December 30 and tracked across central Missouri , producing several tornadoes and large hail . However , the bulk of activity during the outbreak was a result of a long line of supercells that tracked from Oklahoma to Illinois , producing five EF3 tornadoes . One of these tracked through northwestern Arkansas , killing four . Another tore through eastern sections of Fort Leonard Wood in Missouri , destroying 159 homes and causing US$ 90 million in damage , making it the costliest tornado of the outbreak . A separate cluster of storms later developed in Louisiana before tracking into Mississippi , producing several tornadoes across southern and central regions of the state on January 1 .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "2010_New_Year's_Eve_tornado_outbreak",
"rank": 93,
"score": 95919
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado climatology Content: Tornadoes have been recorded on all continents except Antarctica and are most common in the middle latitudes where conditions are often favorable for convective storm development . The United States has the most tornadoes of any country , as well as the strongest and most violent tornadoes . A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the central United States popularly known as Tornado Alley . Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include significant portions of Europe , South Africa , Bangladesh , parts of Argentina , Uruguay , and southern and southeast Brazil , New Zealand , and far eastern Asia . The United States averaged 1,274 tornadoes per year in the last decade while Canada reports nearly 100 annually ( largely in the southern regions ) . However , the UK has most tornadoes per area per year , 0.14 per 1000 km ² , although these tornadoes are generally weak , and many other European countries have a similar number of tornadoes per area . The severity of tornadoes is commonly measured by the Enhanced Fujita Scale , which scales tornado intensity from EF0 to EF5 by wind speed and the amount of damage they do to human environments . These judgments are made after the tornado has dissipated and the damage trail is carefully studied by weather professionals . Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter . The seasonal transition during autumn and spring promotes the development of extratropical cyclones and frontal systems that support strong convective storms . Tornadoes are also common in landfalling tropical cyclones , where they are focused in the right poleward section of the cyclone . Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices , which persist until landfall . However , favorable conditions for tornado development can occur any time of the year . Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day , because of solar heating . Worldwide , most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon , between 3 pm and 7 pm local time , with a peak near 5 pm . Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day , as evidenced by the Gainesville Tornado of 1936 ( one of the deadliest tornadoes in history ) that occurred at 8:30 am local time .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_climatology",
"rank": 94,
"score": 95880
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Climate_risk",
"rank": 95,
"score": 95850
},
{
"content": "Title: ARkStorm Content: An ARkStorm ( for Atmospheric River 1,000 Storm ) is a hypothetical but scientifically realistic `` megastorm '' scenario developed and published by the United States Geological Survey , Multi Hazards Demonstration Project ( MHDP ) . It describes an extreme storm that might impact much of California causing up to $ 725 billion in losses ( most caused by flooding ) , and affect a quarter of California 's homes . The event would be similar to exceptionally intense California storms which occurred between December 1861 and January 1862 . The name `` ARkStorm '' means `` Atmospheric River ( AR ) 1,000 ( k ) . ''",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "ARkStorm",
"rank": 96,
"score": 95825
},
{
"content": "Title: Tornado outbreak of February 28 – March 2, 2007 Content: The tornado outbreak of February 28 -- March 2 , 2007 was a deadly tornado outbreak across the southern United States that began in Kansas on February 28 , 2007 . The severe weather spread eastward on March 1 and left a deadly mark across the southern US , particularly in Alabama and Georgia . Twenty deaths were reported ; one in Missouri , nine in Georgia , and 10 in Alabama . Scattered severe weather was also reported in North Carolina on March 2 , producing the final tornado of the outbreak before the storms moved offshore into the Atlantic Ocean . In the end , there were 56 tornadoes confirmed during the outbreak , including three EF3 tornadoes reported across three states , as well as three EF4 tornadoes ; two in Alabama and one in Kansas , the first such tornadoes since the introduction of the Enhanced Fujita Scale . Total damages were estimated at over $ 580 million from tornadoes alone , making it the fourth-costliest tornado outbreak in US history ( the figure not including damage from other thunderstorm impacts including hail and straight-line winds ) . Insured losses in the state of Georgia topped $ 210 million , making this outbreak the costliest in that state 's history . Enterprise , Alabama , which was hit the hardest , sustained damages in excess of $ 307 million .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Tornado_outbreak_of_February_28_–_March_2,_2007",
"rank": 97,
"score": 95812
},
{
"content": "Title: 2012 Hurricane Isaac tornado outbreak Content: The 2012 Hurricane Isaac tornado outbreak was a tropical cyclone-produced severe-weather event that affected the U.S. states of Florida , Mississippi , Alabama , Louisiana , Missouri , and Illinois from August 27 to September 4 , 2012 . Hurricane Isaac produced a total of 34 tornadoes , with the strongest being two EF2s in Mississippi and Arkansas . 19 tornado watches were issued for Isaac over eight days . 171 tornado warnings covered 12 states , with Mississippi being issued the most at 77 .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "2012_Hurricane_Isaac_tornado_outbreak",
"rank": 98,
"score": 95791
},
{
"content": "Title: Waffle House Index Content: The Waffle House Index is an informal metric used by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) to determine the effect of a storm and the likely scale of assistance required for disaster recovery.The measure is based on the reputation of the Waffle House restaurant chain for staying open during extreme weather and for reopening quickly , albeit sometimes with a limited menu , after very severe weather events such as tornadoes or hurricanes . The term was coined by FEMA Administrator Craig Fugate in May 2011 , following the 2011 Joplin tornado ; the two Waffle House restaurants in Joplin remained open after the EF5 multiple-vortex tornado struck the city on May 22 . According to Fugate , `` If you get there and the Waffle House is closed ? That 's really bad . That 's when you go to work . '' The index has three levels , based on the extent of operations and service at the restaurant following a storm : Green : the restaurant is serving a full menu , indicating the restaurant has power and damage is limited . Yellow : the restaurant is serving a limited menu , indicating there may be no power or only power from a generator or food supplies may be low . Red : the restaurant is closed , indicating severe damage . Professor Panos Kouvelis of Olin Business School says Waffle House , along with other chains , such as Home Depot , Walmart , and Lowe 's , which do a significant proportion of their business in the southern US where there is a frequent risk of hurricanes , demonstrates the benefit of good risk management and disaster preparedness . Because the restaurants have a disaster plan and a cut-down menu prepared for times when there is no power or limited supplies , the Waffle House Index rarely reaches the red level . The Waffle House Index sits alongside more formal measures of wind , rainfall , and other weather information , such as the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale , which are used to indicate the intensity of a storm . On Thursday October 6th 2016 , the index reached red when all Waffle House restaurants on Florida 's I-95 between Titusville and Fort Pierce were closed . This was caused by Hurricane Matthew ravaging Caribbean islands and the east coast of the United States .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "Waffle_House_Index",
"rank": 99,
"score": 95552
},
{
"content": "Title: May 2009 Southern Midwest derecho Content: The May 2009 Southern Midwest Derecho was an extreme progressive derecho and mesoscale convective vortex ( MCV ) event that struck southeastern Kansas , southern Missouri , and southwestern Illinois on May 8 , 2009 . Thirty-nine tornadoes , including two of EF3 strength on the Enhanced Fujita Scale , were reported in addition to high non-tornadic winds associated with the derecho and MCV . Due to the abnormal shape of the storm on radar and the extremely strong winds , many called this an `` inland hurricane . '' A new class of storm , the Super Derecho , has been used to describe this event after analysis in 2010 . Embedded supercells produced hail up to baseball size in southern Missouri , a rare event in a derecho . A wind gust to 106 mph was recorded by a backup anemometer at the Carbondale , Illinois , airport after official National Weather Service equipment failed .",
"qid": "75",
"docid": "May_2009_Southern_Midwest_derecho",
"rank": 100,
"score": 95547
}
] |
Burping cows are more damaging to the climate than all the cars on this planet. | [
{
"content": "Title: Intimidation Content: Intimidation ( also called cowing ) is intentional behavior that `` would cause a person of ordinary sensibilities '' to fear injury or harm . It is not necessary to prove that the behavior was so violent as to cause terror or that the victim was actually frightened . Threat , criminal threatening ( or threatening behavior ) is the crime of intentionally or knowingly putting another person in fear of bodily injury . `` Threat of harm generally involves a perception of injury ... physical or mental damage ... act or instance of injury , or a material and detriment or loss to a person . '' `` A terroristic threat is a crime generally involving a threat to commit violence communicated with the intent to terrorize other . '' `` Intimidation '' is the name of a criminal offense in several U.S. states .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Intimidation",
"rank": 1,
"score": 103913
},
{
"content": "Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Mootral",
"rank": 2,
"score": 92804
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 3,
"score": 92276
},
{
"content": "Title: Ruminal tympany Content: Ruminal tympany , also known as bloat , is a disease of ruminant animals , characterized by an excessive volume of gas in the rumen . Ruminal tympany may be primary , known as frothy bloat , or secondary , known as free-gas bloat . In the rumen , food eaten by the ruminant is fermented by microbes . This fermentation process continually produces gas , the majority of which is expelled from the rumen by eructation ( burping ) . Ruminal tympany occurs when this gas becomes trapped in the rumen . In frothy bloat ( primary ruminal tympany ) , the gas produced by fermentation is trapped within the fermenting material in the rumen , causing a build up of foam which can not be released by burping . In cattle , the disease may be triggered after an animal eats a large amount of easily fermenting plants , such the legumes alfalfa , red clover , or white clover . Some legumes , such as sainfoin , birdsfoot trefoil and cicer milkvetch are not associated with cause bloat in cattle . In feedlot cattle , a diet containing a high proportion of cereal grain can lead to primary ruminal tympany . The main signs in cattle are distension of the left side of the abdomen , dyspnea ( difficulty breathing ) and severe distress . If gas continues to accumulate , the right side of the abdomen may also become distended , with death occurring in cattle within 3 -- 4 hours after symptoms begin . In free-gas bloat ( secondary ruminal tympany ) , gas builds up in the rumen and can not escape , due to blockage of the esophagus .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Ruminal_tympany",
"rank": 4,
"score": 91779
},
{
"content": "Title: Cow wallpaper Content: Andy Warhol 's Cow wallpaper was the first in a series of wallpaper designs he created from the 1960s to the 1980s . Some of Warhol 's work has been described as being Keatonesque . According to Warhol , the inspiration for the cow theme stemmed from art dealer Ivan Karp : `` Another time he said , ` Why do n't you paint some cows , they 're so wonderfully pastoral and such a durable image in the history of the arts . ' ( Ivan talked like this . ) I do n't know how ` pastoral ' he expected me to make them , but when he saw the huge cow heads -- bright pink on a bright yellow background -- that I was going to have made into rolls of wallpaper , he was shocked . But after a moment he exploded with : ` They 're super-pastoral ! They 're ridiculous ! They 're blazingly bright and vulgar ! ' I mean , he loved those cows and for my next show we papered all the walls in the gallery with them . ''",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cow_wallpaper",
"rank": 5,
"score": 90013
},
{
"content": "Title: Wet burp Content: A wet burp is a slang term for a burp where small amounts of liquid are regurgitated . It is similar to vomiting -- one who experiences a wet burp often has an acidic/burning sensation in the mouth , which can be displeasurable . In addition to the cause of this typically being related to acid reflux disease , it also occurs if an individual consumes too much food for the stomach to handle . This results in the partially digested contents of the stomach to back up into the esophageal canal , which may cause small amounts of the bile and food to come up during the burp . This may also be accompanied by excessive , deep burping . Wet burping can also take place if someone consumes food too quickly , resulting in air being trapped throughout the stomach 's chyme . When the air is released , it carries small amounts of chyme with it . According to Charles Bourland , a consultant for the NASA Food Technology Commercial Space Center , if one burps in outer space , it is usually wet because the liquid and gas do not separate in the stomach like they do on Earth .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Wet_burp",
"rank": 6,
"score": 88093
},
{
"content": "Title: Burping Content: Burping ( also known as belching , ructus , erupt or eructation ) is the release of gas from the digestive tract ( mainly esophagus and stomach ) through the mouth .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Burping",
"rank": 7,
"score": 87975
},
{
"content": "Title: Bubona Content: In ancient Roman religion , Bubona is thought to have been a goddess of cattle , but she is named only by Saint Augustine . Augustine mocks Bubona as one of the minor Roman deities whose names correspond to their functions , and derives her name from the Latin word bos ( genitive bovis , hence English `` bovine '' ) , which usually means `` ox '' in the singular and `` cattle '' in the plural ( bubus in the dative and ablative plural ; compare bubulcus , one who drives or tends cattle ) . The formation of this theonym has been compared to that of Bellona , `` she who presides over war ( bellum ) '' ; Pomona , `` she who presides over orchard fruits ( pomum ) '' ; and Epona , the Romano-Celtic horse goddess ( from Gaulish epos , `` horse '' ) whose image was placed in stables as a tutelary for the animals . Augustine mentions Bubona in two passages . In addition to the passage on theonyms and divine personifications , he lists her among several other deities who had specialized functions for the Romans , in contrast to the one god of the Jews . Georg Wissowa thought that a festival of cattle ( ludi boum causa ) mentioned by Pliny must have been dedicated to Bubona . Those who celebrated the rites were called Bubetii , a title which appears only in Pliny .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Bubona",
"rank": 8,
"score": 86787
},
{
"content": "Title: Poll evil Content: Poll evil is a traditional term for a painful condition in a horse or other equid , that starts as an inflamed bursa at the anterior end of the neck between vertebrae and the nuchal ligament , and swells until it presents as an acute swelling at the poll , on the top of the back of the animal 's head . The swelling can increase until it ruptures and drains . It can be caused by infection from Actinomyces bovis or Brucella abortus organisms , but may also occur due to parasite infestation , skin trauma , or badly fitting horse tack . Because of modern efforts to reduce the incidence of brucellosis in livestock , horses are less exposed to the Brucella abortus organism , and hence most modern cases of poll evil arise from trauma linked to a horse striking its head against poorly designed or low-clearance structures , or to improper use of equipment , particularly leaving a halter on the horse around the clock . The term has been in use since at least the 1750s . Before modern antibiotics were developed , the condition was very difficult to treat . In the 18th century , it was treated with remedies such as vinegar , wine , elder flower and even turpentine . Today , cases caught early can be cleaned with peroxide , ice packs and diluted dimethyl sulfoxide solution , with antibiotics used to prevent or slow infection . If the infection has set in and there is a discharge , antibiotic treatment along with hot packs and surgery under local anesthesia to remove infected and dead tissue is usually required . Fistulous withers is a similar condition but on the animal 's withers .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Poll_evil",
"rank": 9,
"score": 86098
},
{
"content": "Title: Burp (disambiguation) Content: Burp or BURP may refer to : Burping , release of gas from the digestive tract through the mouth Big and Ugly Rendering Project , distributed computing project using BOINC BURP domain , group of amino acid proteins Burp suite , computer security application Harry Hill 's TV Burp , British television comedy programme TV Burp ( Australian TV series ) , Australian television comedy program Basic Using Reverse Polish , programming language used on the PSI Comp 80 ( computer ) brioche-purl stitch , a kind of stitch in brioche knitting `` Burp '' , a comic strip by Jeremy Banks in Oink ! BackUp and Restore Program , network backup and restore .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Burp_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 10,
"score": 85905
},
{
"content": "Title: Big and Ugly Rendering Project Content: Big and Ugly Rendering Project ( BURP ) is a non-commercial distributed computing project using the BOINC framework . It is currently under development to work as a publicly distributed system for the rendering of 3D graphics . BURP also refers to the volunteer and grid computing software BOINC , because BURP needs BOINC in order to distribute computing task among their users . BURP is free software distributed under the GNU General Public License V3 licence . Because BURP is used to refer to both BOINC project and BURP back-end software , some confusion can arise when talking about other services running the BURP software . BOINC users who are considering joining BURP should know that they will not always have work available , as the projects depend on users to submit sessions that need rendering . This may be confusing to new users , as the BOINC client may report `` Got 0 new tasks '' or other error messages without explaining the reason for not getting any work .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Big_and_Ugly_Rendering_Project",
"rank": 11,
"score": 84817
},
{
"content": "Title: Buwch Frech Content: Y Fuwch Frech ( Welsh : literally the speckled/brindled cow ) is a cow in Welsh folklore . She was described by Elias Owen as the `` Freckled Cow '' . In his essay on folklore , written originally for the national eisteddfod of 1887 and subsequently republished , he recorded a story from Denbighshire of a cow which was said to give milk to `` any one -LSB- ... -RSB- in want of milk '' until a witch milked the cow dry . The cow then left , plunging into a lake near Cerrig-y-drudion , and leading her two children , long-horned oxen ( which are themselves the subject of other legends ) , after her . Owen also quoted an earlier author on the matter of another Buwch Frech . This author translated it as a Dun Cow , and wrote that a bone said to belong to it was to be found in Gwydir near Llanrwst . Owen observed that `` we have in these places conflicting conditions , which I will not endeavour to reconcile '' . The idea of fairy cows with abundant milk which came from and returned to lakes occurs across Wales : Robin Gwyndaf of the Museum of Welsh Life lists a number of other names for them in both English and Welsh . Owen likewise linked his Freckled Cow with a number of similar cows such as one over the border in Shropshire : `` There she is known as The White Cow of Mitchell 's Fold '' . This cow also gave a pail of milk to anyone who came until a witch milked her dry .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Buwch_Frech",
"rank": 12,
"score": 84245
},
{
"content": "Title: Cowspiracy Content: Cowspiracy : The Sustainability Secret is a 2014 documentary film produced and directed by Kip Andersen and Keegan Kuhn . The film explores the impact of animal agriculture on the environment , and investigates the policies of environmental organizations on this issue . Environmental organizations investigated in the film include Greenpeace , Sierra Club , Surfrider Foundation , Rainforest Action Network , and many more . The film was crowdfunded on IndieGoGo , with 1,449 contributors giving $ 117,092 . This funding was 217 % of their goal , and it allowed them to dub the film into Spanish and German and subtitle it into more than 10 other languages , including Chinese and Russian . Screenings are licensed through the distributor as well as on Tugg . A new cut of the documentary , executive-produced by Leonardo DiCaprio , premiered globally on Netflix on September 15 , 2015 . Journalist Chris Hedges stated that this film led him to become a vegan .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cowspiracy",
"rank": 13,
"score": 83833
},
{
"content": "Title: Cattle Cabin Content: The Cattle Cabin is a one-room log cabin that was built in the Sierra Nevada by Hale Tharp and two partners in 1890 , in present day Sequoia National Park , California . Cattle Cabin is located in the Giant Forest of giant redwoods ( Sequoiadendron giganteum ) , and is associated with Tharp 's Log as a structure supporting ranching operations in the area . The cabin and the surrounding lands were bought by the National Park Service in 1916 .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cattle_Cabin",
"rank": 14,
"score": 83789
},
{
"content": "Title: Cattle egret Content: The cattle egret ( Bubulcus ibis ) is a cosmopolitan species of heron ( family Ardeidae ) found in the tropics , subtropics and warm temperate zones . It is the only member of the monotypic genus Bubulcus , although some authorities regard two of its subspecies as full species , the western cattle egret and the eastern cattle egret . Despite the similarities in plumage to the egrets of the genus Egretta , it is more closely related to the herons of Ardea . Originally native to parts of Asia , Africa and Europe , it has undergone a rapid expansion in its distribution and successfully colonised much of the rest of the world in the last century . It is a white bird adorned with buff plumes in the breeding season . It nests in colonies , usually near bodies of water and often with other wading birds . The nest is a platform of sticks in trees or shrubs . Cattle egrets exploit drier and open habitats more than other heron species . Their feeding habitats include seasonally inundated grasslands , pastures , farmlands , wetlands and rice paddies . They often accompany cattle or other large mammals , catching insect and small vertebrate prey disturbed by these animals . Some populations of the cattle egret are migratory and others show post-breeding dispersal . The adult cattle egret has few predators , but birds or mammals may raid its nests , and chicks may be lost to starvation , calcium deficiency or disturbance from other large birds . This species maintains a special relationship with cattle , which extends to other large grazing mammals ; wider human farming is believed to be a major cause of their suddenly expanded range . The cattle egret removes ticks and flies from cattle and consumes them . This benefits both species , but it has been implicated in the spread of tick-borne animal diseases .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cattle_egret",
"rank": 15,
"score": 83593
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme",
"rank": 16,
"score": 83347
},
{
"content": "Title: DB drag racing Content: dB drag racing is a competition rewarding the person who can produce the loudest sound inside a vehicle . The `` dB '' means decibels of sound pressure level ( SPL ) . In these competitions , SPL of over 140 decibels is common ; and the international record is 171.5 . Competitive vehicles can range from a small vehicle with a single amplifier and subwoofer up to a large van with dozens of amplifiers and subwoofers powered by dozens of car batteries and with upgraded electrical wiring and alternators . There were 10,000 competitors in 2003 and 300 `` races '' . U.S. National Championships were held in Tennessee . During a competition , the vehicle must be driven 20 feet . Nobody is allowed to sit in the vehicle during trials because injury would be certain . The vehicles are sealed tight to maximize containment of the sound energy for the decibel level meter . The competitor stands away from the vehicle with an on/off switch control while a computer voice announces the stages for the `` races '' . The test tone consists of a very short resonating tone between 30 Hz and 70 Hz , called `` the burp '' .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "DB_drag_racing",
"rank": 17,
"score": 83200
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 18,
"score": 82727
},
{
"content": "Title: Car Wars The Card Game Content: Car Wars : The Card Game is a card game version of Steve Jackson Games ' Car Wars miniatures game . Players have a card in front of them to represent the car that they 're using to battle other players . In turn , each player plays attack cards to try to do damage to the other players ' cars , and the other players respond with armor and maneuver cards to avoid the damage . The object of the game is to make sure your car is the last one functional . Steve Jackson Games also publishes Battle Cattle : The Card Game , based on Wingnut Games ' Battle Cattle miniatures game . The game mechanics are the same as Car Wars : The Card Game , so the two games can be combined , with some players playing cows and other players playing cars .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Car_Wars_The_Card_Game",
"rank": 19,
"score": 82680
},
{
"content": "Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Dennis_Tirpak",
"rank": 20,
"score": 82584
},
{
"content": "Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Loss_and_damage",
"rank": 21,
"score": 82545
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 22,
"score": 82419
},
{
"content": "Title: List of animal sounds Content: This is a list of words used in the English language to represent the noises of particular animals , especially noises used by animals for communication . Words on the list are in the form of verbs , though many can also be used as nouns or interjections , including many onomatopoeias ( additional ones here abbreviated `` OP '' ) . Antelopes -- snort Badgers -- growl Bats -- screech Bears -- roar , growl Bees -- buzz Big cats ( tigers , lions , jaguars & leopards ) -- roar , growl , snarl Bitterns -- boom Cats -- mew , meow , purr , hiss Chickens -- cluck ( female ; OP : cha-caw , bah-gawk ) ; crow ( male ; OP : cock-a-doodle-doo ) Chimpanzees -- scream Chinchillas -- squeak Cicadas -- chirp Cattle/Cows -- moo Crickets -- chirp Crows -- caw , cah Curlews -- pipe Deer -- bellow ( buck ) bleat ( doe , fawn ) Dogs/wolves -- bark , howl , growl , bay ( OP : arf , bow-wow , ruff , woof , yap ) Dolphins -- click Donkeys/asses -- hee-haw also bray Ducks -- quack Eagles -- screech Elephants -- trumpet Elk -- bugle ( male ) , bleat ( calves ) Ferrets -- dook Frogs/toads -- croak ( OP : ribbit ) Giraffes -- bleat Geese -- honk , hiss Grasshoppers -- chirp Guinea pigs -- squeak Hamsters -- squeak Hermit crabs -- chirp Horses -- neigh , whinny , nicker Hippopotamuses -- growl Hyenas -- laugh Linnets -- chuckle Magpies -- chatter Mice/Rats -- squeak Monkeys -- scream Moose -- bellow Mosquitos -- whine Okapis -- cough , bellow Oxen -- moo Owls -- hoot , hiss Parrots -- squawk , talking Peacocks -- scream Pigs/hogs -- oink , snort , squeal Pigeons -- coo Prairie dogs -- bark Rabbits/Hares -- squeak Raccoons -- trill Ravens -- croak Rhinoceros -- bellow Rooks -- caw Seals -- bark Sheep/goats/lambs -- bleat , baa Snakes -- hiss Songbirds -- chirrup , chirp , tweet , sing , warble ( larks / warblers / wrens ) , twitter ( sparrows ) Swans -- cry , hiss Tapirs -- squeak Tarantulas -- hiss Tokay geckos -- croak Turkeys -- gobble Vultures -- scream Walruses -- groan Whales -- sing",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "List_of_animal_sounds",
"rank": 23,
"score": 82312
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 24,
"score": 81369
},
{
"content": "Title: Burlina Content: The Burlina is a breed of cattle from the sub-alpine regions of north-east Italy . It is distributed mainly in the provinces of Treviso , Verona and Vicenza . It is a dual-purpose breed , but is raised principally for milk production . It has been suggested that it may be related to the similar Bretonne Pie Noir breed of small pied dairy cattle in Brittany .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Burlina",
"rank": 25,
"score": 81369
},
{
"content": "Title: Cows (band) Content: Cows were a post-hardcore/noise rock band from Minneapolis , Minnesota . The band formed in 1987 and disbanded in 1998 . They were known for a unique mixture of punk rock played with large amounts of noise and surreal humour ; their music is often considered noise rock . Their CD releases are often difficult to find , as most of them are out of print , with the exception of Whorn and Orphan 's Tragedy . Some of their albums , such as their debut album , Taint Pluribus Taint Unum , were never released in CD format . They have a star on what is probably the most famous venue in the area , First Avenue . After disbanding , Shannon Selberg went on to front the band Heroine Sheiks .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cows_(band)",
"rank": 26,
"score": 81336
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 27,
"score": 80692
},
{
"content": "Title: Burp suite Content: Burp or Burp Suite is a graphical tool for testing Web application security . The tool is written in Java and developed by PortSwigger Security . The tool has 2 versions : a free version that can be downloaded free of charge ( Free Edition ) and a full version that can be purchased after a trial period ( Professional Edition ) . The tool was developed to provide a comprehensive solution for a comprehensive tool designed for web application security checks . Except for basic options such as proxy server , scanner and intruder . The tool contains more advanced options such as spider , repeater , decoder , comparer , extender and sequencer . In addition , the company also developed a mobile application that contains similar tools and is available for download to mobile devices with the version of software iOs 8 and above only .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Burp_suite",
"rank": 28,
"score": 80665
},
{
"content": "Title: Buelingo Content: The Buelingo is a modern American composite breed of belted beef cattle . It was created in North Dakota , in the United States , in the 1970s , and is named for one of the breeders , Russ Bueling . The hybridisation started from animals of Angus and Shorthorn type , which were crossed with Limousin and a Dutch Belted bull to fix the gene for belting ; this was purely for appearance . Chianina blood was later added to improve the composite breed . In 1989 a breed society , the Buelingo Beef Cattle Society , was started . The breed is noted for the following ; Excellent quality and lean marbling Good maternal characteristics Fertility Docility Small Calving weights",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Buelingo",
"rank": 29,
"score": 80382
},
{
"content": "Title: 1966 anti-cow slaughter agitation Content: In 1966 , Hindu organisations agitated to demand a ban on the slaughter of cows in India , as enshrined in the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution of India . Among others , the Shankaracharya fasted for the cause . The agitation culminated in a massive demonstration outside Sansad Bhavan in New Delhi on 7 November 1966 ( as per Hindu Panchang , Vikram Samvat , Kartik Shukla Ashtami , famously known as Gopashtami among Hindus ) . The Prime Minister , Indira Gandhi did not accept the demand for a ban on cow slaughtering . A mob of 10,000 advocates against cow slaughter , led by Hindu holymen tried to storm the parliament , but were prevented . The mob then rampaged through the capital city . A 48-hour curfew was ordered , all the meetings were banned . The Mob also attacked the then congress president Kamaraj 's Delhi residence and set it on fire . Many died in police firing to control the crowd . The Home minister , Gulzarilal Nanda , resigned , taking responsibility for the administration 's failure to maintain law and order . The Shankracharya Niranjandev Tirth , Swami Karpatri and Mahatma Ramchandra Veer observing a fast for killing of sadhus . Mahatma Ramchandra Veer observing 166 days longtime fast at that time .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "1966_anti-cow_slaughter_agitation",
"rank": 30,
"score": 80290
},
{
"content": "Title: Bulling (cattle) Content: Bulling is a behaviour seen in cattle when one mounts another , usually when one or the other is a female in oestrus ( on heat ) ; `` bulling '' is commonly used as a term for a female in oestrus . Female cattle in oestrus may mount any adult cattle , especially a bull ( fertile male ) if one is present , but they will also mount castrated males or other females . A bulling female will often also be mounted by other cattle , both male and female ( only fertile males are usually capable of mating ) . A dominant bull will defend the bulling female from being mounted by other cattle . Bulling is used by farmers to recognise oestrus , which is important to determine the fertile period when cows may be artificially inseminated . Care is needed to identify whether the animal in oestrus is the one mounting or being mounted , and of course sometimes both animals may be in oestrus . Mounting behaviour is also sometimes seen between adult cattle in the absence of a female in oestrus .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Bulling_(cattle)",
"rank": 31,
"score": 80149
},
{
"content": "Title: Kerry cattle Content: Kerry cattle ( Bó Chiarraí or Buinín ) are a rare breed of dairy cattle , native to Ireland . They are believed to be one of the oldest breeds in Europe . Their coat is almost entirely black , with a little white on the udder . The horns are whitish with dark tips . Cows weigh about 350 -- 400 kg and produce 3000 -- 3700 kg of milk per lactation . The breed is probably descended from the Celtic Shorthorn , brought to Ireland as early as 2000 BC . They were developed as a milking breed suited to small subsistence farms of southern and western Ireland . They cause less damage to soils in high rainfall areas than larger breeds . By 1983 there were only around 200 pedigree Kerry cattle in the world , but numbers have since increased . A herd is maintained in the Irish state owned estate of Farmleigh . Murphys Ice Cream uses milk from the breed . Kerry cattle were imported to the United States in 1818 and prospered in the nineteenth century , but had become scarce by the 1930s . Today there are only a few herds in North America , mostly more recent imports in Canada .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Kerry_cattle",
"rank": 32,
"score": 79878
},
{
"content": "Title: Mess Búachalla Content: Mess Búachalla , meaning ` the cow-herder 's foundling ' , in Irish mythology , is the mother of the High King Conaire Mór . Her origins are somewhat confused . In the tale Tochmarc Étaíne she is the daughter of the High King Eochu Airem and his own daughter , whom he slept with after being fooled into believing she was her mother Étaín ( in the Banshenchas Eochu and Étaín 's daughter is named as Esa ) . In Togail Bruidne Dá Derga , she is the daughter of Eochu 's brother Eochu Feidlech and Étaín herself . Because of her incestuous conception her father orders her exposed , but she is found and brought up by a herdsman and his wife . She grows up to be very beautiful , and is forcibly married by the High King Eterscél . One night , in Eterscél 's house , she is visited by an unknown man who flies in her skylight in the form of a bird , and she has his son , Conaire Mór , who is brought up as Eterscél 's son .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Mess_Búachalla",
"rank": 33,
"score": 79790
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 34,
"score": 79291
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 35,
"score": 79215
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "United_Nations_Ocean_Conference",
"rank": 36,
"score": 78960
},
{
"content": "Title: BURP domain Content: In molecular biology , the BURP domain is a ~ 230-amino acid protein domain , which has been named for the four members of the group initially identified , BNM2 , USP , RD22 , and PG1beta . It is found in the C-terminal part of a number of plant cell wall proteins , which are defined not only by the BURP domain , but also by the overall similarity in their modular construction . The BURP domain proteins consists of either three or four modules : ( i ) an N-terminal hydrophobic domain - a presumptive transit peptide , joined to ( ii ) a short conserved segment or other short segment , ( iii ) an optional segment consisting of repeated units which is unique to each member , and ( iv ) the C-terminal BURP domain . Although the BURP domain proteins share primary structural features , their expression patterns and the conditions under which they are expressed differ . The presence of the conserved BURP domain in diverse plant proteins suggests an important and fundamental functional role for this domain . It is possible that the BURP domain represents a general motif for localization of proteins within the cell wall matrix . The other structural domains associated with the BURP domain may specify other target sites for intermolecular interactions . Some proteins known to contain a BURP domain are listed below : Brassica protein BNM2 , which is expressed during the induction of microspore embryogenesis . Field bean USPs , abundant non-storage seed proteins with unknown function . Soybean USP-like proteins ADR6 ( or SALI5-4A ) , an auxin-repressible , aluminium-inducible protein and SALI3-2 , a protein that is up-regulated by aluminium . Soybean seed coat BURP-domain protein 1 ( SCB1 ) . It might play a role in the differentiation of the seed coat parenchyma cells . Arabidopsis RD22 drought induced protein . Maize ZRP2 , a protein of unknown function in cortex parenchyma . Tomato PG1beta , the beta-subunit of polygalacturonase isozyme 1 ( PG1 ) , which is expressed in ripening fruits . Cereal RAFTIN . It is essential specifically for the maturation phase of pollen development .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "BURP_domain",
"rank": 37,
"score": 78698
},
{
"content": "Title: Mo, Ni, Que Content: Mo , Ni , Que is a public art work by Swiss artist Samuel Buri located at the Lynden Sculpture Garden near Milwaukee , Wisconsin . The fiberglass sculpture consists of three colorful cows that appear to graze ; it is installed on the lawn . The title of the sculpture is derived from the name of its original owner , Monique Barbier . Mo , Ni , Que was exhibited at the Kunsthalle , Basel , Switzerland from January 22 to February 20 , 1977 as part of a three-man show featuring Samuel Buri , William Phillips and Hans Remond .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Mo,_Ni,_Que",
"rank": 38,
"score": 78246
},
{
"content": "Title: Purpuradusta minoridens Content: Purpuradusta minoridens , common name : the small-toothed cowry , is a species of tropical sea snail , a cowry , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Cypraeidae .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Purpuradusta_minoridens",
"rank": 39,
"score": 78119
},
{
"content": "Title: Bubulcus Content: Bubulcus is a genus of heron in the family Ardeidae . Most taxonomic authorities lump both of the following together , calling it cattle egret , and making the genus monotypic . It contains the following species : Western cattle egret , Bubulcus ibis Eastern cattle egret , Bubulcus coromandus",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Bubulcus",
"rank": 40,
"score": 77889
},
{
"content": "Title: TV Burp (Australian TV series) Content: TV Burp was an Australian television comedy program which premiered on the Seven Network on 23 July 2009 hosted by Ed Kavalee . The show presents a satirical look at the previous week 's television , including extracts from TV shows with added sketches , observational voice-overs , and guest appearances . The show was based on the original British award-winning TV series Harry Hill 's TV Burp . The first season finished on Thursday 10 September 2009 , with Seven hoping to bring it back some time in the near future , though the second series did not air in 2010 .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "TV_Burp_(Australian_TV_series)",
"rank": 41,
"score": 77596
},
{
"content": "Title: Scuttle shake Content: Scuttle shake ( sometimes called cowl shake in the US ) is the term used for the phenomenon experienced in many convertible or open top automobiles where , due to lower structural rigidity caused by the lack of a roof , the middle section of the chassis flexes , causing the bulkhead in front of the passenger compartment to move and vibrate when the vehicle is subject to uneven road surfaces . Passengers feel it as a noticeable vibration and shudder .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Scuttle_shake",
"rank": 42,
"score": 77584
},
{
"content": "Title: USCGC Cowslip (WLB-277) Content: USCGC Cowslip ( WLB-277 ) is a 180 ft sea going buoy tender ( WLB ) . A Cactus-class vessel , she was built by Marine Ironworks and Shipbuilding Corporation in Duluth , Minnesota . Cowslips preliminary design was completed by the United States Lighthouse Service and the final design was produced by Marine Iron and Shipbuilding Corporation in Duluth . On 16 September 1941 the keel was laid . She was launched on 11 April 1942 and commissioned on 17 October 1942 . The original cost for the hull and machinery was $ 918,873 . Cowslip is one of 39 original 180 ft seagoing buoy tenders built between 1942-1944 . All but one of the original tenders , the , were built in Duluth . After commissioning , Cowslip was assigned to Boston , Massachusetts , where she served until 1944 . From 1944 until 1973 , it was assigned to Portland , Maine . Cowslip was decommissioned in 1973 and later sold to a civilian firm in 1977 . After the loss of in 1980 , the Coast Guard reacquired Cowslip and recommissioned her as a replacement . After recommissioning , Cowslip was assigned to Governor 's Island , New York from 1981-1983 . From 1983-1984 , she was moved to the Coast Guard yard in Curtis Bay , Maryland to take part in the Coast Guard 's Service Life Extension Program ( SLEP ) that eventually provided major upgrades for 14 of the 39 180-class ships . The work done to Cowslip , which cost $ 8.9 million , was completed in 1984 and required 16 months . The upgrades included new main engines , a Marine Sanitation Device system , upgraded electronics and navigation equipment , a propulsion control computer , and a central fluid power system . In addition , the ships 's berthing spaces were renovated , the ship 's office and radio room were expanded , additional storeroom space was added and the boom control booth was relocated . After renovation , Cowslip was assigned to Portsmouth , Virginia , where she stayed until 1995 . In 1995 Cowslip moved to the west coast and called Astoria , Oregon home port until her retirement . One notable incident in Cowslip 's career is a collision with the 757 ft container ship Ever Grade that occurred in the Columbia River in 1997 . Although sustaining significant damage , Cowslip was repaired and sent back into service . Cowslip was decommissioned for a second time in November 2002 and sold to the Nigerian Navy for use as a general purpose vessel .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "USCGC_Cowslip_(WLB-277)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 77096
},
{
"content": "Title: Burple Content: Burple is a discontinued drink mix that was packaged in an expandable accordion-like plastic container . There were two sizes of Burple available , a lunchbox-size ( 8 oz ) and a full-size ( 64 oz ) container . It was distributed by Sundale Beverages of Belmont , California and sold mainly in the Midwest .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Burple",
"rank": 44,
"score": 77034
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Environmental_issue",
"rank": 45,
"score": 77029
},
{
"content": "Title: The Climate Monologues Content: The Climate Monologues is an episodic one-woman play , created and performed by Sharon Abreu . Inspired by The Vagina Monologues , The Climate Monologues consists of a series of monologues and original songs from the point of view of people affected by and working to prevent climate change . The play premiered at the Orcas Island Grange in Eastsound , WA , on May 16 , 2010 . On March 11 , 2011 , Abreu received The Spirit of Nature , Ecology and Society Environmental Justice Award . at The Culture of Climate Change colloquium at the City University of New York ( CUNY ) Graduate Center in New York City , for her presentation of The Climate Monologues . Abreu performed an updated version of the show on March 27 , 2016 , in the Los Angeles Women 's Theatre Festival . Orcas Issues said in a review of a September 8 , 2016 , performance at Random Howse in Eastsound , WA : `` Sharon Abreu is an inspired listener . She listens to the stories of West Virginian coal mining families , NW activists , Tribal leaders , Mississippi teachers , a Colorado cowgirl and Orcas ' own Lea Bossler and tells them back to us in compelling , non-scientific language about the world we live in . '' Theater reviewer Lexi Orphanos wrote , `` Abreu 's monologues bring a humanity to the statistics that plaster our newspapers and Facebook feeds . She does n't just give you the facts , she gives you a human life , bent and reshaped by environmental abuse . '' A September 24 , 2016 , performance at the United Solo Theatre Festival sold out , was listed as a bestseller and a repeat performance was added which took place on November 18 , 2016 . The play was featured in chapter 6 , Orcas Island 's Irthlingz : Community Art as Activism in the 2016 book , A Song to Save the Salish Sea : Musical Performance as Environmental Activism , by Mark Pedelty , published by Indiana University Press .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "The_Climate_Monologues",
"rank": 46,
"score": 76817
},
{
"content": "Title: Cowl (oast) Content: A cowl is a device used on a kiln to keep the weather out of and to induce a flow of air through the kiln . They are normally associated with oasts but can also be found on breweries ( Letheringsett , Norfolk ) , maltings ( Ware , Hertfordshire ; Hadlow , Kent ) and watermills ( East Linton , East Lothian ) .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cowl_(oast)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 76682
},
{
"content": "Title: Cowling Content: A cowling is the covering of a vehicle 's engine , most often found on automobiles and aircraft . A cowling may be used : for drag reduction for engine cooling by directing airflow as an air intake for jet engines for decorative purposes Examples in aviation include the NACA cowling and Townend ring .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cowling",
"rank": 48,
"score": 76596
},
{
"content": "Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Vatican_Climate_Forest",
"rank": 49,
"score": 76516
},
{
"content": "Title: Tharparkar (cattle) Content: Tharparkar ( Hindi : थारपारकर ) ( also known as White Sindhi , Cutchi and Thari ) is a breed of cattle originating in Tharparkar District in Sindh province in present day Pakistan . It is a dual purpose breed known for both its milking and draught potential . The name is derived from Thar Desert of Rajasthan adjoining Tharparkar area which was its usual habitat and place of origin . The cattle is of medium to large build and have white to gray skin .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Tharparkar_(cattle)",
"rank": 50,
"score": 76464
},
{
"content": "Title: Cattle urine patches Content: Urine patches in cattle pastures generate large concentrations of the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide through nitrification and denitrification processes in urine-contaminated soils . Over the past few decades , the cattle population has increased more rapidly than the human population . Between the years 2000 and 2050 , the cattle population is expected to increase from 1.5 billion to 2.6 billion . When large populations of cattle are packed into pastures , excessive amounts of urine soak into soils . This increases the rate at which nitrification and denitrification occur and produce nitrous oxide . Currently , nitrous oxide is one of the single most important ozone-depleting emissions and is expected to remain the largest throughout the 21st century .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cattle_urine_patches",
"rank": 51,
"score": 76322
},
{
"content": "Title: Bu Laia Content: Bu Laʻia ( born as Shawn Kaui Hill in Waimanalo , Hawaii ) is a Hawaiian comedian known for his use of Hawaiian pidgin and for wearing a large `` afro style '' wig and blacking out one of his front teeth while performing . He starred in a cable television show in the early 1990s and released two comic musical albums entitled False Crack ??? and Hawaii 's Most Wanted . He also attained fame -- or notoriety -- when he ran for governor of Hawaiʻi in 1994 ( when he was too young to legally do so ) and again as a member of the Natural Law Party in 2002 . He also attracted attention when he was arrested for riding a skateboard at Honolulu International Airport . Bu is pidgin for `` Bull '' . The name `` Bu Laʻia '' is a homophone of `` Bull Liar '' , a phrase meaning `` an outrageous liar '' . His name is reminiscent of the character created by Hawaiian comedian Kent Bowman , `` K.K. Kaumanua '' ( K.K. Cow -- Manure ) famous for his `` Pidgin English Children 's Stories , '' although Bowman 's character uses the pidgin English of an earlier generation .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Bu_Laia",
"rank": 52,
"score": 76095
},
{
"content": "Title: Purpuradusta fimbriata Content: Purpuradusta fimbriata , common name : the fringed cowry , is a species of sea snail , a cowry , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Cypraeidae , the cowries .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Purpuradusta_fimbriata",
"rank": 53,
"score": 76081
},
{
"content": "Title: Cattle Content: Cattle -- colloquially cows -- are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates . They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae , are the most widespread species of the genus Bos , and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos taurus . Cattle are raised as livestock for meat ( beef and veal ) , as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products , and as draft animals ( oxen or bullocks that pull carts , plows and other implements ) . Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel . In some regions , such as parts of India , cattle have significant religious meaning . Around 10,500 years ago , cattle were domesticated from as few as 80 progenitors in southeast Turkey . According to an estimate from 2011 , there are 1.4 billion cattle in the world . In 2009 , cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome . Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth , and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cattle",
"rank": 54,
"score": 76061
},
{
"content": "Title: Burpengary, Queensland Content: Burpengary is a town and suburb in the Moreton Bay Region , Queensland , Australia . It is 35 km from the Brisbane CBD . The name is derived from the Aboriginal word burpengar , meaning the `` place of the green wattle '' . Burpengary is one of Moreton Bay region 's fastest growing residential areas . Retailers in Burpengary include ALDI , Woolworths Limited and Coles Supermarkets . Burpengary Creek is the suburb 's main waterway .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Burpengary,_Queensland",
"rank": 55,
"score": 75964
},
{
"content": "Title: Cattleya purpurata Content: Cattleya purpurata , also known Laelia purpurata and Sophronitis purpurata , is native to Brazil where it is very popular among orchid growers . It is an epiphyte that is found in the canopy of tall trees near coastal areas , in the Brazilian states of Rio Grande do Sul , Santa Catarina and São Paulo . The orchid favors bright light and cool to warm conditions and is relative easy to cultive . C. purpurata has been used extensively as a parent in hybridizing with Cattleyas . Cattleya purpurata blooms from late spring to fall with three to five flowers on a spike . The flowers are long-lasting and fragrant .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cattleya_purpurata",
"rank": 56,
"score": 75632
},
{
"content": "Title: Cow Tower, Norwich Content: The Cow Tower is an artillery tower by the River Wensum in Norwich , Norfolk , England . Built between 1398 and 1399 by the city authorities in response to the threat from France and indigenous English rebels , the tower was intended to defend the north-eastern approach to Norwich with hand cannons and bombards . It stood apart from the main city walls , close to the river where its height would have allowed it to fire onto the higher ground opposite the city . The tower was designed to hold a garrison when required and was well furnished , probably using different floors for dining and sleeping . It was maintained throughout the 15th century , and played a role in Kett 's Rebellion of 1549 , when the rebels attacked Norwich , deploying artillery and damaging the tower 's parapets . Repairs to the tower 's walls in the late 19th century inadvertently caused long-term damage , and in 1953 it was taken into the guardianship of the Ministry of Works , who stabilised its condition in a five-year conservation project . In the 21st century , Cow Tower is managed by English Heritage and Norwich City Council ; the tower is now only a shell , however , as the floors and the roof of the building have been lost . The circular tower is 11.2 m across , 14.6 m high and divided into three storeys . Its walls are 1.8 m thick at the base , with a core of flint stone , faced on the inside and outside with brick ; the archaeologist T. P. Smith considers it to feature some `` of the finest medieval brickwork '' in England . The walls have gunports for the smaller pieces of artillery and the roof would have supported the heavier bombards , with wide embrasures giving the weapons adequate firing space . The Cow Tower was specially designed to support the use of gunpowder artillery , making it a very rare structure in England for this period : the only close equivalents are God 's House Tower in Southampton , and the West Gate at Canterbury .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cow_Tower,_Norwich",
"rank": 57,
"score": 75509
},
{
"content": "Title: Bucolus Content: Bucolus -LSB- ˈbjuːkoʊ-ləs -RSB- is the name of four men in Greek mythology and of one early Christian saint : Bucolus , father of Sphelus , and grandfather of Iasus , captain of the Athenians at the Trojan War . Iasus was killed by Aeneas . Bucolus , son of Hippocoon , king of Sparta . Bucolus , son of Heracles and Marse , daughter of Thespius and Megamede . Bucolus , meaning `` cow boy '' ( from '' βους '' ( vous = ox ) + '' κελεύω '' ( kelevein = command ) ) , was a nickname of Daphnis . Saint Bucolus , one of the first Christian bishops of ancient Smyrna , disciple of St John the Theologian . Bucolus is a genus of ladybird beetles .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Bucolus",
"rank": 58,
"score": 75460
},
{
"content": "Title: Western cattle egret Content: The western cattle egret ( Bubulcus ibis ) is a species of heron ( family Ardeidae ) found in the tropics , subtropics and warm temperate zones . Most taxonomic authorites lump this species and the eastern cattle egret together ( called the cattle egret ) , but some ( including the International Ornithologists ' Union separate them . Despite the similarities in plumage to the egrets of the genus Egretta , it is more closely related to the herons of Ardea . Originally native to parts of Asia , Africa and Europe , it has undergone a rapid expansion in its distribution and successfully colonised much of the rest of the world in the last century . It is a white bird adorned with buff plumes in the breeding season . It nests in colonies , usually near bodies of water and often with other wading birds . The nest is a platform of sticks in trees or shrubs . Western cattle egrets exploit drier and open habitats more than other heron species . Their feeding habitats include seasonally inundated grasslands , pastures , farmlands , wetlands and rice paddies . They often accompany cattle or other large mammals , catching insect and small vertebrate prey disturbed by these animals . Some populations of the cattle egret are migratory and others show post-breeding dispersal . The adult cattle egret has few predators , but birds or mammals may raid its nests , and chicks may be lost to starvation , calcium deficiency or disturbance from other large birds . This species maintains a special relationship with cattle , which extends to other large grazing mammals ; wider human farming is believed to be a major cause of their suddenly expanded range . The cattle egret removes ticks and flies from cattle and consumes them . This benefits both species , but it has been implicated in the spread of tick-borne animal diseases .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Western_cattle_egret",
"rank": 59,
"score": 75460
},
{
"content": "Title: Cattle trespass Content: Cattle trespass was an ancient common law tort whereby the keeper of livestock was held strictly liable for any damage caused by the straying livestock . Under English law the tort was abolished by section 1 ( 1 ) ( c ) of the Animals Act 1971 , but the tort continues to subsist in other common law jurisdictions , either in its original form as a common law tort , or as modified by statute . Liability for cattle trespass is similar to , but conceptually distinct from , the old common law scienter action in relation to strict liability for animals which are known to be vicious . In many of the reported cases , claims for cattle trespass and scienter are pleaded in the alternative .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cattle_trespass",
"rank": 60,
"score": 75420
},
{
"content": "Title: Cow-calf Content: In North American railroading , a cow-calf ( also cow and calf ) locomotive is a set of switcher-type diesel locomotives . The set usually is a pair ; some 3-unit sets ( with two calves ) were built , but this was rare . A cow is equipped with a driving cab ; a calf is not . The two are coupled together ( either with regular couplers or a semi-permanent drawbar ) and are connected with MU cables and brake lines so that both locomotive units can be operated from a single cab . Cows are analogous to A units and calves to B unit road locomotives . Both have prime movers . Like the early EMD FT locomotives , the Cow-calf sets were typically built as mated pairs , with the Cow ( or cabbed unit ) and calf ( or cabless unit ) sharing a number . However this was not always the case , with over time many of the sets being broken up and couplers added to aid with versatility . Most cow-calf sets were built between the 1930s and the 1950s . They were built by several different makers , although General Motors ' Electro-Motive Division built far more than the others . As originally constructed , the cow-calf units were typically used in hump yards where they spent much of their life pushing long trains over the hump for classification . There were , however , a few notable cases where this was not so , with some industrial railroads using non mated pairs as light road switcher locomotives . However , as with the larger three unit Cow-calf sets , such was very rare . The cow-calf concept was adopted on Queensland 2 ft gauge sugar cane railways with two locomotives being coupled permanently in multiple-unit mode with the cab of one removed . This was utilised by Isis Mill ( 1980-1993 ) and by Mackay Sugar ( 2005 ) . The concept was also used in the United Kingdom by British Rail to produce the unique Class 13 locomotives , composed of two Class 08 locomotives . British terminology is master-and-slave unit . Cow-calf locomotives can be distinguished from the sometimes very similar looking slug and slug mother sets by the fact that both cows and calves are independently powered , while slugs are engineless , and dependent on power from their `` mother '' units .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cow-calf",
"rank": 61,
"score": 75189
},
{
"content": "Title: Buphagus (mythology) Content: In Greek mythology , Buphagus , son of Iapetus and Thornax , was an Arcadian hero and husband of Promne . He received the wounded Iphicles , the brother of Heracles , into his house , and took care of him until he died . Buphagus was afterwards killed by Artemis for having pursued her . Buphagus ( which means bull , cattle-eater ) was also a surname of Heracles , Lepreus , and others , who were believed to have eaten a whole bull at once .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Buphagus_(mythology)",
"rank": 62,
"score": 75096
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on marine mammals Content: The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_marine_mammals",
"rank": 63,
"score": 75065
},
{
"content": "Title: Copy-on-write Content: Copy-on-write ( COW ) , sometimes referred to as implicit sharing or shadowing , is a resource-management technique used in computer programming to efficiently implement a `` duplicate '' or `` copy '' operation on modifiable resources . If a resource is duplicated but not modified , it is not necessary to create a new resource ; the resource can be shared between the copy and the original . Modifications must still create a copy , hence the technique : the copy operation is deferred to the first write . By sharing resources in this way , it is possible to significantly reduce the resource consumption of unmodified copies , while adding a small overhead to resource-modifying operations .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Copy-on-write",
"rank": 64,
"score": 74907
},
{
"content": "Title: Burcher, New South Wales Content: Burcher is a small rural village situated in central New South Wales , Australia , in Lachlan Shire . As of 2006 , Burcher had a population of 185 . Its main attractions include Lake Cowal , known for its diverse birdlife ; and the Lake Cowal Gold Mine , an open cut mine situated south-east of Burcher . The community of Burcher has two churches , a public school , a local hotel , and a corner store . Sporting facilities include a nine-hole golf course , a cricket field , and tennis courts . The school has closed and the school property is now in private ownership .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Burcher,_New_South_Wales",
"rank": 65,
"score": 74889
},
{
"content": "Title: Gokarna Aunsi Content: Gokarna Aunsi ( Sanskrit : गोकर्ण औसीं ) literally translated as cow eared ( Gokarna ) and no moon night ( Aunsi ) and is a late August or early September celebration in Nepal where the Hindu population worships cow eared incarnation of lord Shiva and their fathers . It is also known as Kushe Aausi and Bubako mukh herne din ( Nepali for `` looking at father 's face '' ) , because , apart from giving gifts , sons perform a certain ceremony : sons touch father 's feet with their forehead and look at father 's eyes , while daughters only have to touch his hand before looking . Many people go to the Shiva temple of Gokarneswor Mahadev , in Gokarna , a suburb of Kathmandu , and they bathe and make offerings in the new moon day ( Amavasya ) . People whose father has died also perform Shraddha ( yearly death rituals ) . The Nepali celebration is completely unrelated to the Western celebration of Father 's Day . It falls on September 1 in 2016 .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Gokarna_Aunsi",
"rank": 66,
"score": 74869
},
{
"content": "Title: Bucca tornado Content: The Bucca tornado was one of the most violent tornadoes ever observed in Australia , being the first Australian tornado to be officially rated F4 on the Fujita scale . It occurred near the township of Bucca ( near Bundaberg ) in Queensland on 29 November 1992 at around 2:20 pm AEST . The tornado was accompanied by cricket-ball sized hail across Bucca and Bullyard regions . It damaged or destroyed nine houses , some flattened to the ground . Trees were snapped and stones were found embedded into tree trunks . Several tree saplings were speared into the walls of homes . A refrigerator from one home was blown away and never found . A 3-ton truck was also thrown 300 m and approximately 20 cattle were killed . The weather system that spawned the Bucca tornado was also responsible for an F3 tornado at Oakhurst .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Bucca_tornado",
"rank": 67,
"score": 74866
},
{
"content": "Title: Battle Cattle: The Card Game Content: Battle Cattle : The Card Game is a card game published by Steve Jackson Games . The game mechanics are based on the same system as Car Wars : The Card Game , so the two games are able to be combined , with some players playing cows and some players playing cars . The game concept is based on the Battle Cattle miniatures game published by Wingnut Games . The gameplay is based on the idea of putting a bunch of cows augmented with heavy weapons in an arena with two objectives , to kill the rest of the cows as quickly as possible with the weapons provided , and to survive the battle . Each player takes turns playing weapon cards to attack other cows , and plays defense cards to protect himself against attack .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Battle_Cattle:_The_Card_Game",
"rank": 68,
"score": 74457
},
{
"content": "Title: Cow (public service announcement) Content: Cow , also titled Only Stwpd Cowz Txt N Drive , is a 30-minute public service announcement film directed by Peter Watkins-Hughes with assistance from Gwent Police and Tredegar Comprehensive School . The August 2008 film was a co-production by Gwent Police and Tred Films , with special effects by Zipline Creative Limited . The film features original music by Stuart Fox , a composer and sound designer from Gloucester UK . A previous film , `` Lucky Luke , '' was intended to warn about the dangers of joy riding ; `` Cow '' was intended to be a sequel of sorts . The film , using local drama students as actors , tells the story of 17-year-old Cassie `` Cow '' Cowan ( Jenny Davies ) , who texts and drives and gets into a car accident ; her friends Emm and Jules ( Amy Ingram and Laura Quantick ) are in the vehicle with her . Four people die as a result of Cassie 's actions . The police intended for the film to be aired in British schools . The police agency said that it took a `` few thousand pounds '' to make the film . 300 drama students auditioned for the making of the film . The full PSA is shown to students in the United Kingdom . As of 2009 the PSA had not been aired on television stations in the United States . In 2010 a modified 30-second version of the public service announcement was to begin airing during certain hours in 13 television stations in central and upstate South Carolina .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cow_(public_service_announcement)",
"rank": 69,
"score": 74395
},
{
"content": "Title: Chery A15 Content: The Chery A15 , also known as Cowin , Flagcloud or Amulet , is a subcompact car produced by the Chinese manufacturer Chery from 2003 to 2010 .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Chery_A15",
"rank": 70,
"score": 74204
},
{
"content": "Title: Sirenia Content: The Sirenia , commonly referred to as sea cows or sirenians , are an order of fully aquatic , herbivorous mammals that inhabit swamps , rivers , estuaries , marine wetlands , and coastal marine waters . The Sirenia comprise the families Dugongidae ( the dugong ) , Trichechidae ( manatees ) , † Protosirenidae ( Eocene sirenians ) , and † Prorastomidae ( terrestrial sirenians ) . Currently , four species of sirenians exist . Sirenians are classified in the clade Paenungulata , alongside the elephants and the hyraxes , and evolved in the Eocene 50 million years ago . The Dugongidae diverged from the Trichechidae in the late Eocene or early Oligocene . Sirenians grow to between 2.5 and in length and 1,500 kg in weight . The now extinct Steller 's sea cow was the largest sirenian to have lived , and could reach lengths of 8 m and weights of 8 to . Sirenians have a large , fusiform body to prevent drag through the water . They have heavy bones that act as ballasts to counteract the buoyancy of their blubber . They have a thin layer of blubber and consequently are sensitive to temperature fluctuations , which cause migrations when water temperatures dip too low . Sirenians are slow-moving , typically coasting at 8 kph , but they can reach 24 kph in short bursts . They use their strong lips to pull out seagrasses , consuming 10 -- 15 % of their body weight per day . While breathing , they hold just their nostrils above the surface , sometimes standing on their tails to do so . Sirenians typically inhabit warm , shallow , coastal waters or rivers . They are mainly herbivorous , but have been known to consume animals such as birds and jellyfish . Males typically mate with more than one female ( polygyny ) , and may participate in lek mating . Sirenians are K-selectors , and display parental care . The meat , oil , bones , and skins are valuable items sold in markets . Mortality is often caused by direct hunting by humans or other human-induced causes , such as habitat destruction , entanglement in fishing gear , and watercraft collisions . Steller 's sea cow went extinct due to overhunting in 1768 .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Sirenia",
"rank": 71,
"score": 74134
},
{
"content": "Title: Purpuradusta oryzaeformis Content: Purpuradusta oryzaeformis is a species of sea snail , a cowry , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Cypraeidae , the cowries .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Purpuradusta_oryzaeformis",
"rank": 72,
"score": 73988
},
{
"content": "Title: Búri Content: Búri ( or Buri ) was the first god in Norse mythology . He is the father of Borr and grandfather of Odin , Vili and Ve . He was formed by the cow Auðumbla licking the salty ice of Ginnungagap during the time of Ymir . The only extant source of this myth is Snorri Sturluson 's Prose Edda . Búri is mentioned nowhere in the Poetic Edda and only once in the skaldic corpus . In Skáldskaparmál Snorri Sturluson quotes the following verse by the 12th century skald Þórvaldr blönduskáld .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Búri",
"rank": 73,
"score": 73939
},
{
"content": "Title: Buir station Content: Buir is a railway station situated at Kerpen , Rhein-Erft-Kreis in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia on the Cologne -- Aachen railway . It is served by Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn lines S13 between Sindorf or Düren and Troisdorf and by S19 between Düren and Hennef ( Sieg ) , Blankenberg ( Sieg ) , Herchen or Au ( Sieg ) . Together these provide two services an hour to Cologne on weekdays and Saturdays and once an hour on Sundays and public holidays . It is classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 5 station .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Buir_station",
"rank": 74,
"score": 73934
},
{
"content": "Title: Carcass grade Content: A carcass grade is an assessment of quality for a culled cow or bull . The various grades are defined by the United States Department of Agriculture , and assessments are based primarily on the fatness of the cow to be culled . Cows are culled from herds for a variety of reasons , including poor production , age , or health problems . A carcass grade ( or expected carcass grade ) is used to determine selling prices for cull cows , which are estimated to comprise 20 % of the beef available to consumers in the United States . Grades are determined based on an animal 's fat content and body condition . The most common grades , from best to worst , are `` breakers '' ( fleshy , body condition 7 or above ) , `` boners '' ( body condition 5 to 7 ) , `` lean '' , and `` light '' ( thin , body condition 1 to 4 ) . Carcasses rated as lean or light often are sold for less per pound , as less meat is produced from the carcass despite processing costs remaining similar to those of higher grade carcasses .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Carcass_grade",
"rank": 75,
"score": 73925
},
{
"content": "Title: Facial eczema Content: Facial eczema , FE , is a disease that mainly affects ruminants such as cattle , sheep , deer , goats and South American camelids ( alpaca , llamas ) . It is caused by the fungus Pithomyces chartarum that under favorable conditions can rapidly disseminate in pastures . The fungus requires warm humid weather with night time temperatures of over 13 ° C ( 55 ° F ) for several days , and litter at the bottom of the sward . Pithomyces chartarum occurs worldwide but is a problem predominantly where farm animals are intensively grazed , especially in New Zealand . The spores of the fungus release the mycotoxin sporidesmin in the gastrointestinal tract , causing a blockage in the bile ducts that leads to injury of the liver . Bile , chlorophyll and other waste products consequently build up in the bloodstream causing photo sensitivity of the skin especially that exposed to direct sunlight . This in turn causes severe skin irritation that the animal attempts to relieve by rubbing its head against available objects , resulting in peeling of the skin . The large family of fungi that produce mycotoxins , of which sporidesmin is one , live mainly on ryegrasses and can cause significant problems in grazing animals . Sporidesmin can lower an animals immunity and affect total production in farm animals , and , when taken in larger quantities , can result in death . The clinical symptoms of FE are distressing : restlessness , frequent urination , shaking , persistent rubbing of the head against objects ( e.g. fences , trees etc. ) , drooping and reddened ears , swollen eyes , and avoidance of sunlight by seeking shade . Exposed areas of skin develop weeping dermatitis and scabs that can become infected and attractive to blow-fly causing myiasis .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Facial_eczema",
"rank": 76,
"score": 73880
},
{
"content": "Title: Eastern cattle egret Content: The eastern cattle egret ( Bubulcus coromandus ) is a species of heron ( family Ardeidae ) found in the tropics , subtropics and warm temperate zones . Most taxonomic authorites lump this species and the western cattle egret together as subspecies of the cattle egret , but some ( including the International Ornithologists ' Union separate them . Despite the similarities in plumage to the egrets of the genus Egretta , it is more closely related to the herons of Ardea '' . It is native to southern and eastern Asia , and Australasia . It is a white bird adorned with buff plumes in the breeding season . It nests in colonies , usually near bodies of water and often with other wading birds . The nest is a platform of sticks in trees or shrubs . Eastern cattle egrets exploit drier and open habitats more than other heron species . Their feeding habitats include seasonally inundated grasslands , pastures , farmlands , wetlands and rice paddies . They often accompany cattle or other large mammals , catching insect and small vertebrate prey disturbed by these animals . Some populations of the cattle egret are migratory and others show post-breeding dispersal . The adult eastern cattle egret has few predators , but birds or mammals may raid its nests , and chicks may be lost to starvation , calcium deficiency or disturbance from other large birds . This species maintains a special relationship with cattle , which extends to other large grazing mammals ; wider human farming is believed to be a major cause of their suddenly expanded range . The cattle egret removes ticks and flies from cattle and consumes them . This benefits both species , but it has been implicated in the spread of tick-borne animal diseases .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Eastern_cattle_egret",
"rank": 77,
"score": 73777
},
{
"content": "Title: Archimedes' cattle problem Content: Archimedes ' cattle problem ( or the problema bovinum or problema Archimedis ) is a problem in Diophantine analysis , the study of polynomial equations with integer solutions . Attributed to Archimedes , the problem involves computing the number of cattle in a herd of the sun god from a given set of restrictions . The problem was discovered by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in a Greek manuscript containing a poem of forty-four lines , in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel , Germany in 1773 . The problem remained unsolved for a number of years , due partly to the difficulty of computing the huge numbers involved in the solution . The general solution was found in 1880 by A. Amthor . Using logarithmic tables , he calculated the first digits of the smallest solution , showing that it is about cattle , far more than could fit in the observable universe . The decimal form is too long for humans to calculate exactly , but multiple precision arithmetic packages on computers can write it out explicitly .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Archimedes'_cattle_problem",
"rank": 78,
"score": 73677
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 79,
"score": 73612
},
{
"content": "Title: Luksong baka Content: Loosely translated in English , as `` Jump over the Cow . '' , is a traditional Filipino game that originated from Bulacan , it involves a minimum of 3 players and a maximum of 10 players . It involves the players jumping over the person called the `` Baka '' , and the main goal of the players is to successfully jump over the `` Baka '' without touching or falling over him/her .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Luksong_baka",
"rank": 80,
"score": 73468
},
{
"content": "Title: Cowl (chimney) Content: A cowl is a usually hood-shaped covering used to increase the draft of a chimney and prevent backflow . The cowl , usually made of galvanized iron , is fitted to the chimney pot to prevent wind blowing the smoke back down into the room below . Undoubtedly named after the resemblance of many designs to the cowl garment worn by monks , they have been in use for centuries . When using an open fire to heat a room the smoke rises through a flue to a chimney pot on the roof . Under normal conditions the warm air from the fire will rise up the chimney emitting the smoke with it and dispersing it at rooftop level where it is less of a nuisance . In strong winds the pressure of the wind may overwhelm the updraft and push the airflow in reverse down the flue . Smoke will then fill the room it is intended to heat posing a health and fire risk , causing discomfort and dirtying furnishings in its path . When raw coal rather than smokeless fuel is burnt , the amount of smoke may be considerable and measures to prevent backflow occurring are a necessity . A secondary function is to prevent birds and squirrels from nesting in the chimney . They often also act as a rain guard to keep rain from going down the chimney . A metal wire mesh is sometimes added as a spark arrestor . Wooden cowls were used on oasts to prevent the ingress of rain into kilns , and create a flow of air through the kiln . A H-style cap ( cowl ) is a chimney top constructed from chimney pipes shaped like the letter H . It is an age-old method to regulate draft in situations where prevailing winds or turbulence cause downdraft and backpuffing . Although the H-cap has a distinctive advantage over most other downdraft caps , it fell out of favor because of its bulky looks . It is found mainly in marine use but has been gaining popularity again for its energy saving functionality . The H-cap stabilizes the draft rather than increasing it . Other downdraft caps are based on the Venturi effect , solving downdraft problems by increasing the updraft constantly resulting in much higher fuel consumption .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cowl_(chimney)",
"rank": 81,
"score": 73367
},
{
"content": "Title: Bulman, Northern Territory Content: Bulman is a cattle station town in the Northern Territory of Australia . Along with the Aboriginal community of Weemol , 5 km away , Bulman is considered a closed community and visitors require a permit from the Northern Land Council to transit or visit the town . The combined population of Bulman and Weemol at the 2011 census was 291 and is one of few significant settlements on the Central Arnhem Road between Katherine and Nhulunbuy . Facilities in the town include a school , health clinic , police station and an all weather airstrip . Bulman is extremely isolated and during the wet season all access can be cut off , such as following Tropical Cyclone Paul in 2010 , with the community having received 443 millimetres of rain in a 24-hour period , closing all roads out of town and the airport .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Bulman,_Northern_Territory",
"rank": 82,
"score": 73288
},
{
"content": "Title: Harry Hill's TV Burp Content: Harry Hill 's TV Burp ( also known as just TV Burp ) is a British television comedy programme that ran for 11 years from 2001 to 2012 , and was produced by Avalon Television for ITV . The show was written and hosted by comedian Harry Hill , with each episode taking a humorous look back to the previous week of programming on British television .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Harry_Hill's_TV_Burp",
"rank": 83,
"score": 73141
},
{
"content": "Title: Burpengary railway station Content: Burpengary railway station is located on the North Coast line in Queensland , Australia . It serves the suburb of Burpengary in the Moreton Bay Region .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Burpengary_railway_station",
"rank": 84,
"score": 73129
},
{
"content": "Title: Burpham, Surrey Content: There is also a Burpham in West Sussex , England near Arundel Burpham -LSB- ` bɜrfəm -RSB- is a suburb of Guildford , a town in Surrey , England with an historic village centre . It includes George Abbot School , a parade of small shops , and the nationally recognised Sutherland Memorial Park . Burpham is bordered by the neighbourhoods of Merrow to the south-east and Jacobs Well to the north-west . Burpham is separated from Merrow by the New Guildford Line , the railway line between Guildford and Effingham Junction . Between Burpham and Jacobs Well is Burpham Court Farm Park , a rare breeds conservation centre that straddles the River Wey .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Burpham,_Surrey",
"rank": 85,
"score": 73004
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 86,
"score": 72566
},
{
"content": "Title: Burpengary East, Queensland Content: Burpengary East is a suburb in the Moreton Bay Region , Queensland , Australia . In the 2011 census , Burpengary East had a population of 5,762 people .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Burpengary_East,_Queensland",
"rank": 87,
"score": 72353
},
{
"content": "Title: Carnism Content: Carnism is a concept used in discussions of humanity 's relation to other animals , defined as a prevailing ideology that conditions people to support the use and consumption of animal products , especially meat . Carnism is presented as a dominant belief system supported by a variety of defense mechanisms and mostly unchallenged assumptions . The term carnism was coined by social psychologist Melanie Joy in 2001 and popularized by her book Why We Love Dogs , Eat Pigs , and Wear Cows ( 2009 ) . Central to the ideology , according to the theory , is the acceptance of meat-eating as `` natural '' , `` normal '' , `` necessary '' , and ( sometimes ) `` nice '' . An important feature of carnism is the classification of only particular species of animal as food , and the acceptance of practices toward those animals that would be rejected as unacceptable cruelty if applied to other species . This classification is culturally relative , so that , for example , dogs are eaten by some people in Korea but may be pets in the West , while cows are eaten in the West but protected in much of India .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Carnism",
"rank": 88,
"score": 72347
},
{
"content": "Title: Fordhook Farm Content: Fordhook Farm , also known as Burpee Farm , is a historic farm and national historic district located at Doylestown Township , Bucks County , Pennsylvania . It encompasses 12 contributing buildings and 2 contributing structures . They include the houses , barn , spring house , ice house , carriage house , `` farm house , '' `` cottage '' and seed house , and two greenhouses . The main house is constructed of fieldstone , and the oldest section pre-dates 1798 . Washington Atlee Burpee ( 1858-1915 ) purchased the farm in 1888 . The farm was used for experimentation and seed production by Burpee Seeds until 1981 . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987 .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Fordhook_Farm",
"rank": 89,
"score": 72267
},
{
"content": "Title: Cow tipping Content: Cow tipping is the purported activity of sneaking up on any unsuspecting or sleeping upright cow and pushing it over for entertainment . The practice of cow tipping is generally considered an urban legend , and stories of such feats viewed as tall tales . The implication that rural citizens seek such entertainment due to lack of other alternatives is viewed as a stereotype . The concept of cow tipping apparently developed in the 1970s , though tales of animals that can not rise if they fall has historical antecedents dating to the Roman Empire . Cows routinely lie down and can easily regain their footing unless sick or injured . Scientific studies have been conducted to determine if cow tipping is theoretically possible , with varying conclusions . All agree that cows are large animals that are difficult to surprise and will generally resist attempts to be tipped . Estimates suggest a force of between 3000 and is needed , and that at least four and possibly as many as fourteen people would be required to achieve this . In real-life situations where cattle have to be laid on the ground , or `` cast '' , such as for branding , hoof care or veterinary treatment , either rope restraints are required or specialized mechanical equipment is used that confines the cow and then tips it over . On rare occasions , cattle can lie down or fall down in proximity to a ditch or hill that restricts their normal ability to rise without help . Cow tipping has many references in popular culture and is also used as a figure of speech .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cow_tipping",
"rank": 90,
"score": 72224
},
{
"content": "Title: Anoa Content: This article refers to the animal . For the Indonesian-made military vehicle , see Anoa ( armoured personnel carrier ) . Anoa , also known as midget buffalo and sapiutan , are a subgenus of Bubalus comprising two species native to Indonesia : the mountain anoa ( Bubalus quarlesi ) and the lowland anoa ( Bubalus depressicornis '' ) . Both live in undisturbed rainforest , and are essentially miniature water buffalo . They are similar in appearance to a deer , weighing 150 - . Both are found on the island of Sulawesi and the nearby island of Buton in Indonesia . They apparently live singly or in pairs , rather than in herds like most cattle , except when the cows are about to give birth . One young is born per year . Both species of anoa have been classified as endangered since the 1960s , and the population continues to decrease . Fewer than 5000 animals of each species likely remain . Reasons for their decline include hunting for hide , horns , and meat by the local peoples and loss of habitat due to the advancement of settlement . Currently , hunting is the more serious factor in most areas .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Anoa",
"rank": 91,
"score": 72149
},
{
"content": "Title: COWI A/S Content: COWI A/S is an international consulting group , specialising in engineering , environmental science and economics , based in Lyngby , Denmark . It has been involved in more than 50,000 projects in 175 countries and has approximately 6,400 employees , including engineers , biologists , geologists , economists , surveyors , anthropologists , sociologists and architects .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "COWI_A/S",
"rank": 92,
"score": 72145
},
{
"content": "Title: Burpham Content: Burpham is a rural village and civil parish in the Arun District of West Sussex , England . The village is on an arm of the River Arun slightly less than 2 mi northeast of Arundel . Just over half of the population is of non working age ( retired or younger children ) . Wepham is a rural hamlet in the parish about 1.7 mi northeast of Arundel on the road between Burpham and Warningcamp .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Burpham",
"rank": 93,
"score": 72053
},
{
"content": "Title: U.S. Global Change Research Program Content: The United States Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society . The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 ( P.L. 101-606 ) , which called for `` a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand , assess , predict , and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change . '' Thirteen departments and agencies participate in the USGCRP , which was known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program from 2002 through 2008 . The program is steered by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research under the Committee on Environment , Natural Resources and Sustainability , overseen by the Executive Office of the President , and facilitated by a National Coordination Office . During the past two decades , the United States , through the USGCRP , has made the world 's largest scientific investment in the areas of climate change and global change research . Since its inception , the USGCRP has supported research and observational activities in collaboration with several other national and international science programs . These activities led to major advances in several key areas including : Observing and understanding short - and long-term changes in climate , the ozone layer , and land cover ; Identifying the impacts of these changes on ecosystems and society ; Estimating future changes in the physical environment , and vulnerabilities and risks associated with those changes ; and Providing scientific information to enable effective decision making to address the threats and opportunities posed by climate and global change . These advances have been documented in numerous assessments commissioned by the program and have played prominent roles in international assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Program results and plans are documented in the program 's annual report , Our Changing Planet .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program",
"rank": 94,
"score": 72026
},
{
"content": "Title: Cypraeoidea Content: Cypraeoidea , the cowries and cowry allies , is a superfamily of sea snails , marine gastropods included in the clade Littorinimorpha . This superfamily had been called Cypraeacea and was named by Rafinesque in 1815 .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Cypraeoidea",
"rank": 95,
"score": 71980
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs",
"rank": 96,
"score": 71965
},
{
"content": "Title: Subnivean climate Content: Subnivean climate ( From Latin for `` under '' ( sub ) and `` snow '' ( nives ) refers to the zone in and underneath snowpack . This is the environment of many hibernal animals , as it provides protection from predators and insulation . The subnivean climate is formed by three different types of snow metamorphosis : destructive metamorphosis , which begins when snow falls ; constructive metamorphosis , the movement of water vapor to the surface of the snowpack ; and melt metamorphosis , the melting/sublimation of snow to water vapor and its refreezing in the snowpack . These three types of metamorphosis transform individual snowflakes into ice crystals and create spaces under the snow where small animals can move .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Subnivean_climate",
"rank": 97,
"score": 71859
},
{
"content": "Title: Livestock dehorning Content: Dehorning is the process of removing the fully grown horns of livestock . Cattle , sheep , and goats are sometimes dehorned for economic and safety reasons . Disbudding is a different process with similar results ; it cauterizes and thus destroys horn buds before they have grown into horns . Disbudding is commonly performed early in an animal 's life , as are other procedures such as docking and castration . Many breeds of cattle and sheep are naturally hornless polled and therefore do not need to be dehorned or disbudded . Most other livestock species can not easily be bred to lack horns naturally . In one case , the poll gene in goats was linked to hermaphrodism in a single study several decades ago , although fertile polled goats have been bred . Horns are removed because they can pose a risk to humans , other animals and to the bearers of the horns themselves ( horns are sometimes caught in fences or prevent feeding ) . Dehorning is normally performed with local anesthesia and sedation by a veterinarian or a trained professional . Removal of larger horns is usually performed during spring and autumn to avoid fly season . In very large horns , `` tipping '' ( removal of the tip of the horn ) may be recommended to minimize bleeding . Dehorning is not routinely performed , since it is a difficult and painful process for the animal . Instead , most responsible breeders disbud ( see below ) their animals while young , when the process is quick and easy . Dehorning is controversial , considered by some concerned with animal welfare to be cruelty because of the pain it can cause .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Livestock_dehorning",
"rank": 98,
"score": 71731
},
{
"content": "Title: Mali i Lopës Content: Mali i Lopës , meaning ` Cow 's Mountain ' in English , is a mountain found in eastern Albania in the Dibër County . At a height of 2020 m above sea level , Mali i Lopës is the highest point of the commune of Martanesh and whole Bulqizë district . Most of the mountain is covered in lush woodland while there are some patches of grass mainly on the mountain 's western slopes .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Mali_i_Lopës",
"rank": 99,
"score": 71696
},
{
"content": "Title: Center on Wisconsin Strategy Content: The Center on Wisconsin Strategy ( COWS ) is a progressive policy institute housed on the campus of the University of Wisconsin -- Madison . It was founded in 1991 by UW Professor Joel Rogers . The organization says that its core values are democracy , sustainability and equality .",
"qid": "76",
"docid": "Center_on_Wisconsin_Strategy",
"rank": 100,
"score": 71686
}
] |
[S]unspot activity on the surface of our star has dropped to a new low. | [
{
"content": "Title: Low-surface-brightness galaxy Content: A low-surface-brightness galaxy , or LSB galaxy , is a diffuse galaxy with a surface brightness that , when viewed from Earth , is at least one magnitude lower than the ambient night sky . Most LSBs are dwarf galaxies , and most of their baryonic matter is in the form of neutral gaseous hydrogen , rather than stars . They appear to have over 95 % of their mass as non-baryonic dark matter . There appears to be no supernova activity in these galaxies . Rotation curve measurements indicate an extremely high mass-to-light ratio , meaning that stars and luminous gas contribute only very little to the overall mass balance of an LSB . The centers of LSBs show no large overdensities in stars , unlike e.g. the bulges of normal spiral galaxies . Therefore , they seem to be dark-matter-dominated even in their centers , which makes them excellent laboratories for the study of dark matter . In comparison to the high-surface-brightness galaxies , LSBs are mainly isolated field galaxies , found in regions devoid of other galaxies . In their past , they had fewer tidal interactions or mergers with other galaxies , which could have triggered enhanced star formation . This is an explanation for the small stellar content . LSB galaxies were theorized to exist in 1976 by Mike Disney . The first LSB galaxy verified to exist was Malin 1 , discovered in 1986 . As such , it was also the first giant LSB galaxy identified . At the time of its discovery , it was the largest spiral galaxy known ( by scale-length measurement ) . UGC 1382 was previous thought to be an elliptical galaxy , but low-brightness spiral arms were later detected . UGC 1382 is much closer to Earth than Malin 1 .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Low-surface-brightness_galaxy",
"rank": 1,
"score": 104242
},
{
"content": "Title: Gliese 229 Content: Gliese 229 ( also written as Gl 229 or GJ 229 ) is a red dwarf about 19 light years away in the constellation Lepus . It has 58 % of the mass of the Sun , 69 % of the Sun 's radius , and a very low projected rotation velocity of 1 km/s at the stellar equator . The star is known to be a low activity flare star , which means it undergoes random increases in luminosity because of magnetic activity at the surface . The spectrum shows emission lines of calcium in the H and K bands . The emission of X-rays has been detected from the corona of this star . These may be caused by magnetic loops interacting with the gas of the star 's outer atmosphere . No large-scale star spot activity has been detected . The space velocity components of this star are U = +12 , V = -- 11 and W = -- 12 km/s . The orbit of this star through the Milky Way galaxy has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an orbital inclination of 0.005 .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Gliese_229",
"rank": 2,
"score": 99853
},
{
"content": "Title: Star activity Content: Star activity is the relaxation or alteration of the specificity of restriction enzyme mediated cleavage of DNA that can occur under reaction conditions that differ significantly from those optimal for the enzyme . The result is typically cleavage at non-canonical recognition sites , or sometimes complete loss of specificity . Differences which can lead to star include low ionic strength , high pH , and high ( > 5 % v/v ) glycerol concentrations . The latter condition is of particular practical interest , since commercial restriction enzymes are usually supplied in a buffer containing a substantial amount of glycerol ( 50 % v/v is typical ) , meaning insufficient dilution of the enzyme solution can cause star activity ; this problem most often arises during double or multiple digests . Star activity can happen because of presence of Mg2 + , as is seen in HindIII , for example .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Star_activity",
"rank": 3,
"score": 98026
},
{
"content": "Title: Kleinmann-Low nebula Content: The Kleinmann-Low nebula ( Orion KL nebula ) is the most active star forming region of the Orion Nebula . It is a cluster of stars within a molecular cloud .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Kleinmann-Low_nebula",
"rank": 4,
"score": 94076
},
{
"content": "Title: TVLM 513-46546 Content: TVLM 513-46546 is an ultracool red dwarf in the constellation Boötes , exhibiting a flare star activity and all the same varying semi-regularly due to dissimilarly bright hemispheres and a rotation period of about two days . The star has a mass as low as 90 times the mass of Jupiter ( or 9 percent of Sun 's mass ) and an estimated radius of 11 percent that of Sun ( nearly a Jupiter-sized star ) . The star also shows hints of an unseen companion with undetermined mass . Future monitoring will be able to confirm or rule out low-mass stellar or even planetary mass companions ( down to 2-10 Jupiter masses ) , with orbital periods spanning between 1 and 15 days . Assuming a stellar luminosity of 0.042 percent that of Sun , the habitable zone where an Earth-like planet may retain liquid water at comfortable temperatures would be located within 0.02 Astronomical Units ( roughly 10 times the distance of the Moon from Earth ) .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "TVLM_513-46546",
"rank": 5,
"score": 89285
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 4628 Content: HD 4628 ( 96 G. Piscium ) is a main sequence star in the equatorial constellation of Pisces . It has a spectral classification of K2 .5 V and an effective temperature of 5,829 K , giving it an orange-red hue with a slightly smaller mass and girth than our Sun . HD 4628 lies at a distance of approximately 24.3 light years from the Sun . The apparent magnitude is just sufficient for this star to be viewed with the unaided eye . The star appears to be slightly older than our Sun -- approximately 5.4 billion years old . The surface activity is low and , based upon the detection of UV emission , it may have a relatively cool corona with a temperature of one million K. The star has a relatively high proper motion of 1.4 ″ per year and is moving in our general direction with a radial velocity of − 10.8 km/s . HD 4628 will make its closest approach to the Sun in about 32,000 years , when it comes within 7.3 pc . No definitive companion has yet been found in orbit around this star . In 1958 it was thought to have stellar companion that was also a flare star , but this was subsequently disproved .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_4628",
"rank": 6,
"score": 86524
},
{
"content": "Title: Low Stars Content: Low Stars is a musical project of Dave Gibbs and Chris Seefried , that captures the sound of classic bands like Crosby , Stills , and Nash and The Eagles .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Low_Stars",
"rank": 7,
"score": 86387
},
{
"content": "Title: Winter Star Party Content: The Winter Star Party , aka WSP , is an annual convention of amateur astronomers where the primary activity is nighttime astronomical observation . Most attendees camp on site . BBC Sky at Night magazine rated WSP as one of the top 10 star parties in the world . WSP was first established in 1984 by Tippy D'Auria . The event is run at Camp Wesumkee located on Scout Key in the Lower Florida Keys . It is hosted by the Southern Cross Astronomical Society of Miami , Florida .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Winter_Star_Party",
"rank": 8,
"score": 86174
},
{
"content": "Title: W Ursae Majoris variable Content: A W Ursae Majoris variable , also known as a low mass contact binary , is a type of eclipsing binary variable star . These stars are close binaries of spectral types F , G , or K that share a common envelope of material and are thus in contact with one another . They are termed contact binaries because the two stars touch and transfer mass and energy through the connecting neck , although astronomer R.E. Wilson argues that the term `` overcontact '' is more appropriate . The class is divided into two subclasses : A-type and W-type A-type W UMa binaries are composed of two stars both hotter than the Sun , having spectral types A or F , and periods of 0.4 to 0.8 day . The W-types have cooler spectral types of G or K and shorter periods of 0.22 to 0.4 day . The difference between the surface temperatures of the components is less than several hundred kelvins . A new subclass was introduced in 1978 : B-type . The B-types have larger surface temperature difference . In 2004 the H ( high mass ratio ) systems were discovered by Sz . Csizmadia and P. Klagyivik . The H-types have a higher mass ratio than ( = ( secondary 's mass ) / ( primary 's mass ) ) and they have extra angular momentum . These stars were first shown to follow a period-color relation ( shorter period systems are redder ) by Olin J. Eggen . In 2012 , Terrell , Gross and Cooney published a color-survey of 606 W UMa systems in the Johnson-Cousins photometric system . Their light curves differ from those of classical eclipsing binaries , undergoing a constant ellipsoidal variation rather than discrete eclipses . This is because the stars are gravitationally distorted by one another , and thus the projected area of the stars is constantly changing . The depths of the brightness minima are usually equal because both stars have nearly equal surface temperatures . W Ursae Majoris is the prototype of this class .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "W_Ursae_Majoris_variable",
"rank": 9,
"score": 84780
},
{
"content": "Title: 12 Ophiuchi Content: 12 Ophiuchi is a variable star in the constellation Ophiuchus . No companions have yet been detected in orbit around this star , and it remains uncertain whether or not it possesses a dust ring . This star is categorized as a BY Draconis variable , with variable star designation V2133 . The variability is attributed to large-scale magnetic activity on the chromosphere ( in the form of starspots ) combined with a rotational period that moved the active regions into ( and out of ) the line of sight . This results in low amplitude variability of 12 Ophiuchi 's luminosity . The star also appears to display rapid variation in luminosity , possibly due to changes in the starspots . Measurements of the long-term variability show two overlapping cycles of starspot activity ( compared to the Sun 's single , 11-year cycle . ) The periods of these two cycles are 4.0 and 17.4 years . This star is among the top 100 target stars for NASA 's planned Terrestrial Planet Finder mission . However , the mission is now postponed indefinitely . Its abundance of heavy elements ( elements heavier than helium ) is nearly identical to that of the Sun . The surface gravity is equal to , which is somewhat higher than the Sun 's . The space velocity is 30 km/s relative to the solar system . The high rotation period and active chromosphere are indicative of a relatively young star .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "12_Ophiuchi",
"rank": 10,
"score": 84113
},
{
"content": "Title: QX Normae Content: QX Normae is an active low mass X ray binary in the constellation Norma . It is composed of a neutron star and a star smaller and cooler than the Sun . The X-ray component , known as 4U 1608-52 , was discovered in the early 1970s , while the visual component , QX Normae , was discovered in 1977 . By analysing the interstellar extinction between Earth and the system , Güver and colleagues calculated the most likely distance to be 5.8 kpc ( 19,000 light-years ) , and the neutron star 's mass to be 1.74 ± 0.14 times that of the Sun and radius to be a mere 9.3 ± 1.0 km .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "QX_Normae",
"rank": 11,
"score": 83517
},
{
"content": "Title: Van Biesbroeck's star catalog Content: In 1961 the astronomer George Van Biesbroeck published a catalog of low luminosity stars discovered using the 82 in Otto Struve refractor telescope of the McDonald Observatory in Texas .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Van_Biesbroeck's_star_catalog",
"rank": 12,
"score": 82466
},
{
"content": "Title: Low Stars (album) Content: Low Stars is the debut album from Los Angeles band Low Stars . Signed by Hear Music , and released through Starbucks , Low Stars revisit the days when virtuoso vocals and melodies ruled pop , and three - and four-part harmonies piled up like layer cake . The album features single `` Calling All Friends '' , which was the theme song for ABC television series What About Brian . Songs `` Need a Friend '' and `` LA Forever '' were featured in TV and Film respectively and the song `` Just Around the Corner '' was the featured video from the album . The cover photograph by Henry Diltz was taken in Agora Hills at the same location he shot the cover of the Eagles ' Desperado .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Low_Stars_(album)",
"rank": 13,
"score": 82426
},
{
"content": "Title: Lambda Boötis star Content: A Lambda Boötis star is a type of peculiar star which has an unusually low abundance of iron peak elements in its surface layers . One possible explanation for this is that it is the result of accretion of metal-poor gas from a circumstellar disc , a second possibility is the accretion of material from a hot Jupiter suffering from mass loss . The prototype is Lambda Boötis .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Lambda_Boötis_star",
"rank": 14,
"score": 81144
},
{
"content": "Title: Yellow giant Content: A yellow giant is a luminous giant star of low or intermediate mass ( roughly 0.5 -- 11 solar masses ( M ) ) in a late phase of its stellar evolution . The outer atmosphere is inflated and tenuous , making the radius large and the surface temperature as low as 5,200-7500 K . The appearance of the yellow giant is from white to yellow , including the spectral types F and G . About 10.6 percent of all giant stars are yellow giants . Category : Star types Category : Giant stars",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Yellow_giant",
"rank": 15,
"score": 80749
},
{
"content": "Title: Active surface Content: An active surface is a surface of a radio telescope that is under active computer control of its shape . Large ( more than 10 m in diameter or length ) radio telescopes always bend during operation , due to their enormous weight and the fact that even the strongest materials are not perfectly stiff . This bending , in the range of a few millimetres , does not affect low frequency operation much , but dramatically reduces the efficiency of the telescope at higher frequencies where the wavelengths are comparable to the distortion . Typically , the efficiency of a telescope drops appreciably when the deviation from the desired shape is more than 1/10 of the considered wavelength . An active surface uses numerous small actuators to move the surface panels with respect to the underlying frame , and thus maintain the correct shape . An active surface can try to compensate for many different types of errors . The first is gravity -- this is simplest since previous measurements , or even a mathematical model , can be used to predict ( and correct ) any bending . More difficult is correction for wind and thermal errors , since these require measuring and correcting in real time . Some examples of active surfaces are : Green Bank Telescope Large Millimeter Telescope Sardinia Radio Telescope Noto Radio Observatory The Chinese Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical Telescope uses a uniquely ambitious form of active surface , not only correcting errors , but applying deflections of up to 47 cm in order to aim and focus the telescope .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Active_surface",
"rank": 16,
"score": 80261
},
{
"content": "Title: Red giant Content: A red giant is a luminous giant star of low or intermediate mass ( roughly 0.3 -- 8 solar masses in a late phase of stellar evolution . The outer atmosphere is inflated and tenuous , making the radius large and the surface temperature as low as 5,000 K and lower . The appearance of the red giant is from yellow-orange to red , including the spectral types K and M , but also class S stars and most carbon stars . The most common red giants are stars on the red-giant branch ( RGB ) that are still fusing hydrogen into helium in a shell surrounding an inert helium core . Other red giants are the red-clump stars in the cool half of the horizontal branch , fusing helium into carbon in their cores via the triple-alpha process ; and the asymptotic-giant-branch ( AGB ) stars with a helium burning shell outside a degenerate carbon -- oxygen core , and a hydrogen burning shell just beyond that .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Red_giant",
"rank": 17,
"score": 79304
},
{
"content": "Title: Cataclysmic variable star Content: Cataclysmic variable stars ( CV ) are stars which irregularly increase in brightness by a large factor , then drop back down to a quiescent state . They were initially called novae , from the Latin ` new ' , since ones with an outburst brightness visible to the naked eye and an invisible quiescent brightness appeared as new stars in the sky . Cataclysmic variable stars are binary stars that consist of two components ; a white dwarf primary , and a mass transferring secondary . The stars are so close to each other that the gravity of the white dwarf distorts the secondary , and the white dwarf accretes matter from the companion . Therefore , the secondary is often referred to as the donor star . The infalling matter , which is usually rich in hydrogen , forms in most cases an accretion disc around the white dwarf . Strong UV and X-ray emission is often seen from the accretion disc , powered by the loss of gravitational potential energy from the infalling material . Material at the inner edge of disc falls onto the surface of the white dwarf primary . A classical nova outburst occurs when the density and temperature at the bottom of the accumulated hydrogen layer rise high enough to ignite runaway hydrogen fusion reactions , which rapidly convert the hydrogen layer to helium . If the accretion process continues long enough to bring the white dwarf close to the Chandrasekhar limit , the increasing interior density may ignite runaway carbon fusion and trigger a Type Ia supernova explosion , which would completely destroy the white dwarf . The accretion disc may be prone to an instability leading to dwarf nova outbursts , when the outer portion of the disc changes from a cool , dull mode to a hotter , brighter mode for a time , before reverting to the cool mode . Dwarf novae can recur on a timescale of days to decades .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Cataclysmic_variable_star",
"rank": 18,
"score": 79131
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 155358 Content: HD 155358 is a low metallicity yellow dwarf star approximately 43 pc away in the constellation Hercules . This star is known to be orbited by two extrasolar planets . The star is 11.9 billion years old and has a mass 0.89 times that of the Sun . At the time of the planets ' discoveries , it was notable for being the lowest metallicity planet-bearing star known , with an iron-to-hydrogen ratio 21 % of the solar value .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_155358",
"rank": 19,
"score": 79129
},
{
"content": "Title: Subdwarf O star Content: A subdwarf O star ( sdO ) is a type of hot , but low-mass star . O-type subdwarfs are much dimmer than regular O-type main-sequence stars , but with a brightness about 10 to 100 times that of the Sun , and have a mass approximately half that of the Sun . Their temperature ranges from 40,000 to 100,000 K. Ionized helium is prominent in their spectra . Gravity acceleration is expressed by log g between 4.0 and 6.5 . Many sdO stars are moving at high velocity through the Milky Way and are found at high galactic latitudes .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Subdwarf_O_star",
"rank": 20,
"score": 79012
},
{
"content": "Title: A0620-00 Content: A0620-00 ( V616 Monocerotis , V616 Mon ) is a low-mass X-ray binary star and black-hole candidate in the constellation of Monoceros .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "A0620-00",
"rank": 21,
"score": 78859
},
{
"content": "Title: EW Aquarii Content: EW Aquarii is a star in the constellation Aquarius . A low amplitude Delta Scuti variable , it varies between magnitudes 6.41 and 6.48 over 2.16 hours . Located around 410 light-years distant , it shines with a luminosity approximately 31 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 7163 K.",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "EW_Aquarii",
"rank": 22,
"score": 78146
},
{
"content": "Title: 41 G. Arae Content: 41 G. Arae or GJ 666 A is a binary star system in the constellation Ara . Although often called just 41 Arae , it is more accurate to call it 41 G. Arae , as the number 41 is the Gould designation ( Flamsteed only covered the northern hemisphere ) . The primary star in this system is a G-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of G8V . It has about 81 % of the mass of the Sun , and 79 % of the Sun 's radius . The fainter member of the pair has a peculiar spectrum that shows a deficiency in elements with a higher atomic number than Helium . No planetary companions have been detected in orbit around these stars . The two stars share a highly elliptical orbit that takes several centuries to complete . The estimates of the period range from 693 to 2,200 years , and the average separation of the two stars is about 210 AUs ( or 210 times the average distance between the Earth and the Sun ) . This system has a relatively high proper motion , moving over a second of arc across the sky each year . The space velocity components of this system are = . The stars in this system show low chromospheric activity , and have a net space velocity of 52 km/s relative to the Sun . This , in combination with their low metallicity , shows that the pair belongs to the old disk population .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "41_G._Arae",
"rank": 23,
"score": 78082
},
{
"content": "Title: Pre-stellar core Content: Pre-stellar cores are the nurseries of new stars , and are an early phase in the formation of low-mass stars , before gravitational collapse produces a central protostar . The spatial distribution of pre-stellar cores shows the history of their formation , and their sensitivity to the physics controlling their creation . Most of our Galaxy 's star formation takes place in clusters and groups within large molecular clouds . These clouds are often turbulent , showing supersonic line widths and complex magnetic fields which play crucial roles in cloud physics . The properties of pre-stellar cores within molecular clouds aid understanding of the large-scale physical processes dictating star formation .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Pre-stellar_core",
"rank": 24,
"score": 77997
},
{
"content": "Title: Innes' star Content: Innes ' star ( Gliese 422 ) is an M3.5-type red dwarf , located in constellation Carina . It has around 35 % of the mass of the Sun , yet only 1.1 % of its luminosity , and an estimated surface temperature of 3,323 K. It is known for the fact that it had once been considered one of the nearest stars to Earth , due to erroneously measured parallax . The estimated distance was less than 10 light-years in the following studies : In List of stars nearer than 5 parsecs by Ejnar Hertzsprung ( 1922 ) its parallax is 0.339 arcsec ( distance is 2.95 pc or 9.62 ly ) , and it is the 4th closest star system after Alpha Centauri ABC , Barnard 's Star and Sirius AB ; In A study of the near-by stars by Willem Jacob Luyten and Harlow Shapley ( 1930 ) its parallax is 0.337 arcsec ( distance is 2.97 pc or 9.68 ly ) , and it is the 4th closest star system after Alpha Centauri ABC , Barnard 's Star and 22 H Camelopardalis ( Sirius is further ) ; In List of stars nearer than five parsecs by Peter van de Kamp ( 1930 ) its parallax is 0.34 arcsec ( distance is 2.94 pc or 9.59 ly ) , and it is the 7th closest star system after Alpha Centauri ABC , Barnard 's Star , Wolf 359 , Lalande 21185 , Sirius AB and BD-12 4523 ; In Stars within ten parsecs of the Sun by Louise Freeland Jenkins ( 1937 ) its parallax is 0.34 arcsec ( distance is 2.94 pc or 9.59 ly ) , and it is the 6th closest star system after Alpha Centauri , Barnard 's Star , Wolf 359 , Lalande 21185 and Sirius . Its actual distance is 12.7 pc or 41.3 light-years , based on parallax by van Leeuwen ( 2007 ) : arcsec . Innes ' star was discovered in 1920 by Robert T. A. Innes in Union Observatory , Union of South Africa , who had discerned its large proper motion and a parallax of 0.337 arcsec . The discovery was published in Circular of the Union Observatory No. 49 , hence its discovery name is UO 49 , or In UOC 49 . However , UO designations should be used with caution since they are often not unique for each star : the number in the name is the number of Circular , so all stars published in one Circular have identical names . So , all other newfound stars , published in the 49th Circular , may be named UO 49 too . In 2014 , a Mega-Earth or a mini-Neptune GJ 422 b of approximately 10-Earth-masses was discovered in the system of this star , orbiting the star every 26 days and lying at a distance of around 0.11 astronomical units ( AU ) -- 11 % of the distance between our Earth and Sun -- in the stellar system 's habitable zone , which for this star has been calculated to lie between 0.11 and 0.21 AU . This star is one of a few stars named after people -- named after a scientist , whereas the majority of proper names of stars have ancient origins or medieval , in the main Arabic , ones . Certain stars , found to be nearby due to their large proper motion , also fall into this class and are named after their discoverers : Barnard 's Star ; Kapteyn 's Star ; Luyten 's Star ; van Maanen 's Star : van Biesbroeck 's Star ; and Teegarden 's Star . Innes is also known as the discoverer of Proxima Centauri .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Innes'_star",
"rank": 25,
"score": 77833
},
{
"content": "Title: Proxima Centauri Content: Proxima Centauri or Alpha Centauri C is a red dwarf , a small low-mass star , about 4.25 light-years from the Sun in the constellation of Centaurus . It was discovered in 1915 by the Scottish astronomer Robert Innes , the Director of the Union Observatory in South Africa , and is the nearest-known star to the Sun . With an apparent magnitude of 11.05 , it is too faint to be seen with the naked eye . Proxima Centauri forms a third component of the Alpha Centauri binary star system , currently with a separation of about AU and an orbital period of 550,000 years . Because of Proxima Centauri 's proximity to Earth , its angular diameter can be measured directly . It is about one-seventh the diameter of the Sun . It has a mass about an eighth of the Sun 's mass , and its average density is about 40 times that of the Sun . Although it has a very low average luminosity , Proxima is a flare star that undergoes random dramatic increases in brightness because of magnetic activity . The star 's magnetic field is created by convection throughout the stellar body , and the resulting flare activity generates a total X-ray emission similar to that produced by the Sun . The mixing of the fuel at Proxima Centauri 's core through convection and its relatively low energy-production rate mean that it will be a main-sequence star for another four trillion years , or nearly 300 times the current age of the universe . In 2016 , the European Southern Observatory announced the discovery of Proxima b , a planet orbiting the star at a distance of roughly 0.05 AU with an orbital period of approximately 11.2 Earth days . Its estimated mass is at least 1.3 times that of the Earth . The equilibrium temperature of Proxima b is estimated to be within the range where water could exist as liquid on its surface , thus placing it within the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri , although because Proxima Centauri is a red dwarf and a flare star , whether it could support life is disputed . Previous searches for orbiting companions had ruled out the presence of brown dwarfs and supermassive planets .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Proxima_Centauri",
"rank": 26,
"score": 77593
},
{
"content": "Title: 4U 0614+091 Content: 4U 0614 +091 is a low-mass X-ray binary star system which features a neutron star and a low-mass companion star . The binary system lies 10,000 light-years away in Orion . It produces jets like a microquasar , the first time an object other than a black hole has been shown to produce jets .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "4U_0614+091",
"rank": 27,
"score": 77441
},
{
"content": "Title: NGC 296 Content: NGC 296 is a low surface brightness unbarred spiral galaxy in the constellation of Pisces .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "NGC_296",
"rank": 28,
"score": 76985
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 12039 Content: HD 12039 is a variable star in the constellation of Cetus at a distance of about 133 ly . It is categorized as a BY Draconis variable because of luminosity changes caused by surface magnetic activity coupled with rotation of the star . The stellar classification G4V is similar to the Sun , indicating this is a main sequence star that is generating energy at its core through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen . The effective temperature of 5,585 K gives the star a yellow hue . It has about the same mass as the Sun , but only emits 89 % of the Sun 's luminosity . This is a young star with age estimates ranging from 7.5 − 8 million years to 30 million years . In 2006 , a debris field was discovered in orbit around this star using infrared observations by the Spitzer telescope . This debris is thought to be an asteroid belt . The measured temperature of the debris is 110 K , which places it in an orbit between 4 and 6 AU from the star , or about the same distance where Jupiter orbits the Sun . This debris disk may have been created by the breakup of a single , 100 km diameter planetesimal through a collision . The star system does not show any excess emission at 70 μm , indicating it does not have a cold outer dust disk . The star was examined for the presence of an extrasolar planet with a mass in the range 2-10 Jupiter masses and an orbital distance of 3-15 .5 AU . Instead , in 2007 , a close stellar companion was likely discovered . This object is separated from the primary by 0.15 arcseconds , making it unlikely to be a background object . This star has been proposed as a member of the Tucana-Horoglium Association ( T-WA ) , a stream of young stars with a common motion through space . The T-WA association is about 30 million years old . The space velocity components of this star are = . It is orbiting the Milky Way galaxy with an orbital eccentricity of 0.06 , with a distance that varies from 7.11 − 8.01 kpc of the galactic core . The inclination of its orbit carries it as far as 90 parsecs above the galactic plane .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_12039",
"rank": 29,
"score": 76788
},
{
"content": "Title: SDSS J102915+172927 Content: SDSS J102915 +172927 or Caffau 's star is a population II star in the galactic halo , seen in the constellation Leo . It is about 13 billion years old , making it one of the oldest stars in the Galaxy . At the time of its discovery , it had the lowest metallicity of any known star . It is small ( less than 0.8 solar masses ) , deficient in carbon , nitrogen , oxygen , and completely devoid of lithium . Because carbon and oxygen provide a fine structure cooling mechanism that is critical in the formation of low-mass stars , the origins of Caffau 's star are somewhat mysterious . It has been suggested , both for theoretical and observational reasons , that the formation of low-mass stars in the interstellar medium requires a critical metallicity somewhere between 1.5 × 10 − 8 and 1.5 × 10 − 6 . The metallicity of Caffau 's star is less than 6.9 × 10 − 7 . According to Schneider et al. , cooling by dust rather than the fine structure lines of CII and OI may have enabled the creation of such low-mass , metal-poor stars in the early universe . The absence of lithium implies past temperatures of at least two million Kelvins . The star was described by Elisabetta Caffau et al. in an article published by the journal Nature in September 2011 . Caffau had been searching for extremely metal-poor stars for the past ten years . It was identified by automated software which analyzed data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey . This was followed up by observations with the X-shooter and UVES instruments on the Very Large Telescope in Chile . Caffau and her team expect to find between five and fifty similar stars with the telescope in the future .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "SDSS_J102915+172927",
"rank": 30,
"score": 76568
},
{
"content": "Title: Beta Aquilae Content: Beta Aquilae ( β Aquilae , abbreviated Beta Aql , β Aql ) , also named Alshain , is a star in the constellation of Aquila . It has magnitude 3.71 and is of spectral class G8IV . It has a very low level of surface magnetic activity and may be in a state similar to a Maunder minimum . Since 1943 , the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified . It is approximately 44.7 light years from Earth . It has a 12th magnitude optical companion , Beta Aquilae B , which is 13 arcseconds away in the sky .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Beta_Aquilae",
"rank": 31,
"score": 76511
},
{
"content": "Title: PG 1159 star Content: A PG 1159 star , often also called a pre-degenerate , is a star with a hydrogen-deficient atmosphere that is in transition between being the central star of a planetary nebula and being a hot white dwarf . These stars are hot , with surface temperatures between 75,000 K and 200,000 K , and are characterized by atmospheres with little hydrogen and absorption lines for helium , carbon and oxygen . Their surface gravity is typically between 104 and 106 meters per second squared . Some PG 1159 stars are still fusing helium. , § 2.1.1 , 2.1.2 , Table 2 . The PG 1159 stars are named after their prototype , PG 1159-035 . This star , found in the Palomar-Green survey of ultraviolet-excess stellar objects , was the first PG 1159 star discovered . It is thought that the atmospheric composition of PG 1159 stars is odd because , after they have left the asymptotic giant branch , they have reignited helium fusion . As a result , a PG 1159 star 's atmosphere is a mixture of material which was between the hydrogen - and helium-burning shells of its AGB star progenitor. , § 1 . They are believed to eventually lose mass , cool , and become DO white dwarfs. ; , § 4 . Some PG 1159 stars have varying luminosities . These stars vary slightly ( 5 -- 10 % ) in brightness due to non-radial gravity wave pulsations within themselves . They vibrate in a number of modes simultaneously , with typical periods between 300 and 3,000 seconds. , Table 1 . The first known star of this type is also PG 1159-035 , which was found to be variable in 1979 , and was given the variable star designation GW Vir in 1985 . These stars are called GW Vir stars , after their prototype , or the class may be split into DOV and PNNV stars. , § 1.1 ;",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "PG_1159_star",
"rank": 32,
"score": 76057
},
{
"content": "Title: Beta Comae Berenices Content: Beta Comae Berenices ( β Comae Berenices , β Com ) is a main sequence dwarf star in the northern constellation of Coma Berenices . It is located at a distance of about 29.78 ly from Earth . The Greek letter beta usually indicates that the star has the second highest visual magnitude in the constellation . However , with an apparent visual magnitude of 4.3 , this star is actually slightly brighter than α Comae Berenices . It can be seen with the naked eye , but may be too dim to be viewed from a built-up urban area . The star is similar to the Sun , being only slightly larger and brighter in absolute magnitude . It has a stellar classification of G0 V , compared to G2 V for the Sun . The effective temperature of the outer envelope is 5,936 K , giving it a yellow hue of a G-type star . In terms of age it is younger than the Sun , being about 3 billion years old . Observations of short term variations in the chromatic activity suggest that the star undergoes differential rotation , with a rotation period of about 11 -- 13 days . Its surface has a measured activity cycle of 16.6 years , compared to 11 years on the Sun . It may also have a secondary activity cycle of 9.6 years . At one time it was thought that this star might have a spectroscopic companion . However , this was ruled out by means of more accurate radial velocity measurements . No planets have yet been detected around it , and there is no evidence of a dusty disk . The habitable zone for this star , defined as the locations where liquid water could be present on an Earth-like planet , is 0.918 -- 1.96 AU , where 1 AU is the average distance from the Earth to the Sun .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Beta_Comae_Berenices",
"rank": 33,
"score": 75990
},
{
"content": "Title: UGC 477 Content: UGC 477 is a low surface brightness ( LSB ) galaxy , located in the Pisces constellation . It is located over 110 million light years away . At around 100,000 light years across , it is similar in size to Milky Way galaxy .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "UGC_477",
"rank": 34,
"score": 75546
},
{
"content": "Title: Lead star Content: A lead star is a low-metallicity star with an overabundance of lead and bismuth as compared to other products of the S-process .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Lead_star",
"rank": 35,
"score": 75512
},
{
"content": "Title: GRO J1719-24 Content: GRO J1719-24 ( GRS 1716-249 , V2293 Oph , X-Ray Nova Ophiuchi 1993 ) is supposed to be a low-mass X-ray binary . Its name derives from an X-ray transient , detected in 1993 . The system consists of a black hole candidate and a low mass companion , estimated to be a main sequence star of the spectral type K05-V . The rotation period is uncertain , estimated at 14.7 h . The light curve possibly exhibits some faster fluctuations as well , which are hypothesized to be produced by blobs of matter in the accretion disk .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "GRO_J1719-24",
"rank": 36,
"score": 75511
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-dimensional chaos in stellar pulsations Content: Low-dimensional chaos in stellar pulsations is the current interpretation of an established phenomenon . The light curves of intrinsic variable stars with large amplitudes have been known for centuries to exhibit behavior that goes from extreme regularity , as for the classical Cepheids and the RR Lyrae stars , to extreme irregularity , as for the so-called Irregular variables . In the Population II stars this irregularity gradually increases from the low period W Virginis variables through the RV Tauri variables into the regime of the semiregular variables .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Low-dimensional_chaos_in_stellar_pulsations",
"rank": 37,
"score": 75168
},
{
"content": "Title: ACOT11 Content: Acyl-coenzyme A thioesterase 11 also known as StAR-related lipid transfer protein 14 ( STARD14 ) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ACOT11 gene . This gene encodes a protein with acyl-CoA thioesterase activity towards medium ( C12 ) and long-chain ( C18 ) fatty acyl-CoA substrates which relies on its StAR-related lipid transfer domain . Expression of a similar murine protein in brown adipose tissue is induced by cold exposure and repressed by warmth . Expression of the mouse protein has been associated with obesity , with higher expression found in obesity-resistant mice compared with obesity-prone mice . Alternative splicing results in two transcript variants encoding different isoforms .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "ACOT11",
"rank": 38,
"score": 75112
},
{
"content": "Title: Red dwarf Content: A red dwarf is a small and relatively cool star on the main sequence , of either K or M spectral type . Red dwarfs range in mass from a low of 0.075 to about 0.50 solar mass and have a surface temperature of less than 4,000 K. Red dwarfs are by far the most common type of star in the Milky Way , at least in the neighborhood of the Sun , but because of their low luminosity , individual red dwarfs can not be easily observed . From Earth , not one is visible to the naked eye . Proxima Centauri , the nearest star to the Sun , is a red dwarf ( Type M5 , apparent magnitude 11.05 ) , as are fifty of the sixty nearest stars . According to some estimates , red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the stars in the Milky Way . Stellar models indicate that red dwarfs less than are fully convective . Hence the helium produced by the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen is constantly remixed throughout the star , avoiding its buildup at the core and prolonging the period of fusion . Red dwarfs therefore develop very slowly , maintaining a constant luminosity and spectral type for trillions of years , until their fuel is depleted . Because of the comparatively short age of the universe , no red dwarfs exist at advanced stages of evolution .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Red_dwarf",
"rank": 39,
"score": 75093
},
{
"content": "Title: Gliese 167 Content: Gliese 167 is a K5-V type star located 42.8 light years ( 13.1 pc ) from the sun and is found in the night sky at the co-ordinates RA 04h 4m 9s and Dec. -53 ° 26 ' in the constellation Dorado with an apparent magnitude of 7.62 . The star has an absolute magnitude of 7.03 , a parallax of 075.6 ± 09.4 mas and a radial velocity of -23.2 km/s . Cooler than the sun , surface temperature is estimated at 4557 ° K and some flare activity has been observed . The star is also known as HD 27274 , LHS 1650 , Hip 19884 , and SAO 233456 .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Gliese_167",
"rank": 40,
"score": 73490
},
{
"content": "Title: MOA-2007-BLG-192L Content: MOA-2007-BLG-192L is a low-mass red dwarf star or brown dwarf , approximately 3,000 light-years away in the constellation of Sagittarius . It is estimated to have a mass approximately 6 % of the Sun 's . In 2008 , an Earth-sized extrasolar planet was announced to be orbiting this object .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "MOA-2007-BLG-192L",
"rank": 41,
"score": 73253
},
{
"content": "Title: Giant star Content: A giant star is a star with substantially larger radius and luminosity than a main-sequence ( or dwarf ) star of the same surface temperature . They lie above the main sequence ( luminosity class V in the Yerkes spectral classification ) on the Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram and correspond to luminosity classes II and III . The terms giant and dwarf were coined for stars of quite different luminosity despite similar temperature or spectral type by Ejnar Hertzsprung about 1905 . Giant stars have radii up to a few hundred times the Sun and luminosities between 10 and a few thousand times that of the Sun . Stars still more luminous than giants are referred to as supergiants and hypergiants . A hot , luminous main-sequence star may also be referred to as a giant , but any main-sequence star is properly called a dwarf no matter how large and luminous it is .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Giant_star",
"rank": 42,
"score": 73127
},
{
"content": "Title: O-type star Content: An O-type star is a hot , blue-white star of spectral type O in the Yerkes classification system employed by astronomers . They have temperatures in excess of 30,000 Kelvin ( K ) and so appear to the left on the Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram . Stars of this type are identified by their dominant Helium II absorption lines , strong lines of other ionised elements , and Hydrogen and neutral He lines weaker than spectral type B. Stars of this type are particularly rare ; only 0.00003 % of the main sequence are O-type stars . However , because they are usually very bright , they can be seen when further away than dimmer stars , and four of the 90 brightest stars as seen from Earth are O type . Due to high temperature and luminosity , O-type stars end their lives rather quickly in violent supernova explosions , resulting in black holes or neutron stars . Most of these stars are young massive main sequence , giant , or supergiant stars , but the central stars of planetary nebulae , old low-mass stars near the end of their lives , also usually have O spectra . O-type stars are typically located in regions of active star formation , such as the spiral arms of a spiral galaxy or a pair of galaxies undergoing collision and merger ( such as the Antennae Galaxies ) . These stars illuminate any surrounding material and are largely responsible for the distinct coloration of a galaxy 's arms . Furthermore , O-type stars are also frequent in multiple star systems where their evolution is more difficult to predict due to mass transfer and the possibility of component stars going supernova at different times .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "O-type_star",
"rank": 43,
"score": 72977
},
{
"content": "Title: STARS-II Content: Space Tethered Autonomous Robotic Satellite II or STARS-II , was a nanosatellite built by Japan 's Kagawa University to test an electrodynamic tether in low Earth orbit , a follow-on to the STARS mission . STARS-II was launched by an H-IIA rocket , flying in the 202 configuration , as a secondary payload aboard the launch of the GPM Core Observatory on 27 February 2014 . After two months in orbit , STARS-II reentered the atmosphere on 26 April 2014 .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "STARS-II",
"rank": 44,
"score": 72972
},
{
"content": "Title: G 196-3 Content: G 196-3 is a young low-mass M dwarf type star which is about 100 million years old . The star is located within the Ursa Major constellation about 50.2 light years away from the Earth . During observations by Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias in Tenerife , Spain in 1998 , a substellar-mass object was discovered to orbit approximately 300 astronomical units ( AU ) from the star . It was detected using direct imaging .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "G_196-3",
"rank": 45,
"score": 72966
},
{
"content": "Title: BD-17°63 Content: BD-17 ° 63 is an low-mass K type star in the southern constellation Cetus . It is a 9th magnitude star at a distance of about 116 light years from Earth .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "BD-17°63",
"rank": 46,
"score": 72884
},
{
"content": "Title: GRO J1655-40 Content: GRO J1655-40 is a binary star consisting of an evolved F-type primary star and a massive , unseen companion , which orbit each other once every 2.6 days in the constellation of Scorpius . Gas from the surface of the visible star is accreted onto the dark companion , which appears to be a stellar black hole with several times the mass of the Sun . The optical companion of this low-mass X-ray binary is a subgiant F star . Along with GRS 1915 +105 , GRO J1655-40 is one of at least two galactic `` microquasars '' that may provide a link between the supermassive black holes generally believed to power extragalactic quasars and more local accreting black hole systems . In particular , both display the radio jets characteristic of many active galactic nuclei . The distance from the Solar System is probably about 11,000 light years , or approximately half-way from the Sun to the Galactic Center , but a closer distance of ~ 2800 ly is not ruled out . GRO J1655-40 and its companion are moving through the Milky Way at around 112 km/s ( 250,000 miles per hour ) , in a galactic orbit that depends on its exact distance , but is mostly interior to the `` Solar circle '' , d ~ 8,500 pc , and within 150 pc ( ~ 500 ly ) of the galactic plane . For comparison , the Sun and other nearby stars have typical speeds on the order of 20 km/s relative to the average velocity of stars moving with the galactic disk 's rotation in the solar neighborhood , which supports the idea that the black hole formed from the collapse of the core of a massive star . As the core collapsed , its outer layers exploded as a supernova . Such explosions often seem to leave the remnant system moving through the galaxy with unusually high speed . The outburst source was found to exhibit quasi-periodic oscillations ( QPOs ) whose frequency increases monotonically during the rising phase of the outburst and with monotonically decreasing frequency in the declining phase of the outburst . This can be easily modeled assuming propagation of an oscillating shock wave : steadily going closer to the black hole due to rise in the Keplerian component rate in the rising phase and going away from the black hole as viscosity is withdrawn in the declining phase . The shock appears to be propagating at a speed of a few meters per second .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "GRO_J1655-40",
"rank": 47,
"score": 72620
},
{
"content": "Title: Starwisp Content: Starwisp is a hypothetical unmanned interstellar probe design proposed by Robert L. Forward . It is propelled by a microwave sail , similar to a solar sail in concept , but powered by microwaves from a man-made source .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Starwisp",
"rank": 48,
"score": 72068
},
{
"content": "Title: Stacy McGaugh Content: Stacy McGaugh ( born January 11 , 1964 ) is an American astronomer and professor in the Department of Astronomy at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland , Ohio . His fields of specialty include low surface brightness galaxies , galaxy formation and evolution , tests of dark matter and alternative hypotheses , and measurements of cosmological parameters . Stacy McGaugh was an undergraduate student at MIT ( S.B. 1985 ) and a graduate student at Princeton and the University of Michigan ( Ph.D. 1992 ) . He held postdoctoral appointments at Cambridge University , the Carnegie Institution of Washington , and Rutgers University before joining the faculty of the University of Maryland in 1998 . He moved to Case Western in 2012 . He is married with two children . He is a Distinguished Alumnus of Flint ( Michigan ) Northern High School ( 2001 ) and of the Astronomy Department of the University of Michigan ( 2013 ) . Known in the field of extragalactic astronomy for his early work on Low Surface Brightness Galaxies and the elemental abundances in HII Regions , McGaugh has also contributed to the study of the kinematics of galaxies , being among the first to point out that low surface brightness galaxies are dark matter dominated and that they pose the cuspy halo problem . He also coined the expression `` baryonic Tully -- Fisher relation . '' He predicted the first to second peak amplitude ratio of the acoustic power spectrum of the Cosmic microwave background radiation . McGaugh found surprising support for the Modified Newtonian dynamics proposed by Mordehai Milgrom as an alternative to Dark matter in his work on Low Surface Brightness Galaxies . This has proven to be very controversial since it implies the non-existence of the non-baryonic dark matter that is central to physical cosmology . Nevertheless , his predictions for the mass distribution of the Milky Way and the velocity dispersions of the dwarf Spheroidal satellites of the Andromeda spiral galaxy have largely been confirmed by subsequent observations .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Stacy_McGaugh",
"rank": 49,
"score": 72000
},
{
"content": "Title: Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism Content: The Kelvin -- Helmholtz mechanism is an astronomical process that occurs when the surface of a star or a planet cools . The cooling causes the pressure to drop , and the star or planet shrinks as a result . This compression , in turn , heats the core of the star/planet . This mechanism is evident on Jupiter and Saturn and on brown dwarfs whose central temperatures are not high enough to undergo nuclear fusion . It is estimated that Jupiter radiates more energy through this mechanism than it receives from the Sun , but Saturn might not . The latter process causes Jupiter to shrink at a rate of two centimetres each year . The mechanism was originally proposed by Kelvin and Helmholtz in the late 19th century to explain the source of energy of the Sun . By the mid-19th century , conservation of energy had been accepted , and one consequence of this law of physics is that the Sun must have some energy source to continue to shine . Because nuclear reactions were unknown , the main candidate for the source of solar energy was gravitational contraction . However , it soon was recognized by Sir Arthur Eddington and others that the total amount of energy available through this mechanism only allowed the Sun to shine for millions of years rather than the billions of years that the geological and biological evidence suggested for the age of the Earth . ( Kelvin himself had argued that the Earth was millions , not billions , of years old . ) The true source of the Sun 's energy remained uncertain until the 1930s , when it was shown by Hans Bethe to be nuclear fusion .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Kelvin–Helmholtz_mechanism",
"rank": 50,
"score": 71944
},
{
"content": "Title: Samsung Galaxy Star Content: The Samsung Galaxy Star is a low-end smartphone manufactured by Samsung Electronics . It is running on Android 4.1.2 ( jelly Bean ) . It has unofficial Android 4.4 , 5.1 , 6.0.1 and 7.1 roms . It was announced in April 2013 , it was subsequently released in May 2013 . It is the cheapest smartphone in the Samsung Galaxy series . Like all other Samsung Galaxy smartphones , the Galaxy Star runs on the Android mobile operating system . The phone is available in 2 versions : a single SIM version ( GT-S5280 ) and a dual SIM version ( GT-S5282 ) . The phone competes with other low-cost smartphones such as the smartphones from the Nokia Asha series as well as low-cost smartphones manufactured by Indian manufacturers such as Micromax , Karbonn , Spice Digital , Lava International and Celkon . It is available in certain Asian countries such as India , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Nepal , Bangladesh , Myanmar , Philippines , Indonesia etc. where low-cost smartphones are very popular as well as in Morocco , Algeria , South Africa , Portugal , France , Germany , Russia and Ukraine . Brazilian version is also released , dubbed GT-S5283B .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Samsung_Galaxy_Star",
"rank": 51,
"score": 71918
},
{
"content": "Title: Dwarf star Content: A dwarf star is a star of relatively small size and low luminosity . Most main sequence stars are dwarf stars . The term was originally coined in 1906 when the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung noticed that the reddest stars -- classified as K and M in the Harvard scheme could be divided into two distinct groups . They are either much brighter than the Sun , or much fainter . To distinguish these groups , he called them `` giant '' and `` dwarf '' stars , the dwarf stars being fainter and the giants being brighter than the Sun . Most stars are currently classified under the Morgan Keenan System using the letters O , B , A , F , G , K , and M , a sequence from the hottest : O type , to the coolest : M type . The scope of the term `` dwarf '' was later expanded to include the following : Dwarf star alone generally refers to any main-sequence star , a star of luminosity class V : main-sequence stars ( dwarfs ) . Example : Achernar ( B6Vep ) Red dwarfs are low-mass main-sequence stars . Yellow dwarfs are main-sequence ( dwarf ) stars with masses comparable to that of the Sun . Orange dwarfs are K-type main-sequence stars . A blue dwarf is a hypothesized class of very-low-mass stars that increase in temperature as they near the end of their main-sequence lifetime . A white dwarf is a star composed of electron-degenerate matter , thought to be the final stage in the evolution of stars not massive enough to collapse into a neutron star or undergo a Type II supernova -- stars less massive than roughly 9 solar masses . A black dwarf is a white dwarf that has cooled sufficiently such that it no longer emits any visible light . A brown dwarf is a substellar object not massive enough to ever fuse hydrogen into helium , but still massive enough to fuse deuterium -- less than about 0.08 solar masses and more than about 13 Jupiter masses .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Dwarf_star",
"rank": 52,
"score": 71908
},
{
"content": "Title: Tip of the red-giant branch Content: Tip of the red-giant branch ( TRGB ) is a primary distance indicator used in astronomy . It uses the luminosity of the brightest red-giant-branch stars in a galaxy as a standard candle to gauge the distance to that galaxy . It has been used in conjunction with observations from the Hubble Space Telescope to determine the relative motions of the Local Cluster of galaxies within the Local Supercluster . The Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram ( HR diagram ) is a plot of stellar luminosity versus surface temperature for a population of stars . During the core hydrogen burning phase of a Sun-like star 's lifetime , it will appear on the HR diagram at a position along a diagonal band called the main sequence . When the hydrogen at the core is exhausted , energy will continue to be generated by hydrogen fusion in a shell around the core . The center of the star will accumulate the helium `` ash '' from this fusion and the star will migrate along an evolutionary branch of the HR diagram that leads toward the upper right . That is , the surface temperature will decrease and the total energy output ( luminosity ) of the star will increase as the surface area increases . At a certain point , the helium at the core of the star will reach a pressure and temperature where it can begin to undergo nuclear fusion through the triple-alpha process . For a star with less than 1.8 times the mass of the Sun , this will occur in a process called the helium flash . The evolutionary track of the star will then carry it toward the left of the HR diagram as the surface temperature increases under the new equilibrium . The result is a sharp discontinuity in the evolutionary track of the star on the HR diagram . This discontinuity is called the tip of the red-giant branch . When distant stars at the TRGB are measured in the I-band ( in the infrared ) , their luminosity is somewhat insensitive to their composition of elements heavier than helium ( metallicity ) or their mass ; they are a standard candle with an I-band absolute magnitude of -- 4.0 ± 0.1 . This makes the technique especially useful as a distance indicator . The TRGB indicator uses stars in the old stellar populations ( Population II ) .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Tip_of_the_red-giant_branch",
"rank": 53,
"score": 71864
},
{
"content": "Title: Star Canopus diving accident Content: The Star Canopus diving accident was an incident in Scotland in November 1978 that claimed the lives of two British commercial divers . During a routine dive beside the Beryl Alpha platform in the North Sea , the diving bell of the diving support vessel MS Star Canopus was lost when its main lift wire , life support umbilical , and guide wires were severed by an anchor chain of the semi-submersible Haakon Magnus . The bell dropped to the seabed at a depth of over 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . Its two occupants , 25-year-old Lothar Michael Ward and 28-year-old Gerard Anthony `` Tony '' Prangley , were unable to release the bell 's drop weight in order to return to the surface because it was secured to the bell frame with secondary locking pins . Since there was not a bell stage to keep the bottom door of the bell off the seabed , the divers could not exit the bell to release the pins . Despite the efforts of three rescue vessels -- Intersub 4 , Tender Carrier , and Uncle John -- the bell was not recovered for over thirteen hours , by which time Ward and Prangley had died of hypothermia and drowning .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Star_Canopus_diving_accident",
"rank": 54,
"score": 71845
},
{
"content": "Title: Helium flash Content: A helium flash is a very brief thermal runaway nuclear fusion of large quantities of helium into carbon through the triple-alpha process in the core of low mass stars ( between 0.8 solar masses and 2.0 ) during their red giant phase ( the Sun is predicted to experience a flash 1.2 billion years after it leaves the main sequence ) . A much rarer runaway helium fusion process can also occur on the surface of accreting white dwarf stars . Low mass stars do not produce enough gravitational pressure to initiate normal helium fusion . As the hydrogen in the core is exhausted , some of the helium left behind is instead compacted into degenerate matter , supported against gravitational collapse by quantum mechanical pressure rather than thermal pressure . This increases the density and temperature of the core until it reaches approximately 100 million kelvin , which is hot enough to cause helium fusion ( or `` helium burning '' ) in the core . However , a fundamental quality of degenerate matter is that changes in temperature do not produce a change of volume of the matter until the thermal pressure becomes so very high that it exceeds degeneracy pressure . In main sequence stars , thermal expansion regulates the core temperature , but in degenerate cores this does not occur . Helium fusion increases the temperature , which increases the fusion rate , which further increases the temperature in a runaway reaction . This produces a flash of very intense helium fusion that lasts only a few minutes , but briefly emits energy at a rate comparable to the entire Milky Way galaxy . In the case of normal low mass stars , the vast energy release causes much of the core to come out of degeneracy and causes it to thermally expand ( a processes requiring so much energy , it is roughly equal to the total energy released by the helium flash to begin with ) , and any left-over energy is absorbed into the star 's upper layers . Thus the helium flash is mostly undetectable to observation , and is described solely by astrophysical models . After the core 's expansion and cooling , the star 's surface rapidly cools and contracts ( in as little as 10,000 years ) until it is roughly 2 % of its former radius and luminosity . It is estimated that the electron-degenerate helium core weighs about 40 % of the star mass and that 6 % of the core is converted into carbon .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Helium_flash",
"rank": 55,
"score": 71760
},
{
"content": "Title: HR 3384 Content: HR 3384 ( 11 G. Pyxidis ) is solitary star in the southern constellation of Pyxis . It has an apparent magnitude of 6.38 , indicating it is faintly visible to the naked eye . Based on the Bortle scale , the star can be viewed from dark rural skies . Astrometric measurements of the star by the Hipparcos spacecraft , give an estimated distance of about 40 ly from Earth . This star is lower in mass than the Sun at around 75 % , and has just 85 % of the Sun 's radius . The spectrum matches a spectral class G9V , indicating that this is a G-type main sequence star that is generating energy through the nuclear fusion of hydrogen at its core . The star is rotating slowly with a period of around 40 days . Surface magnetic activity has been detected with a periodic cycle of days . HR 3384 has been examined for evidence of a circumstellar debris disk or planets , but , as of 2012 , none have been discovered .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HR_3384",
"rank": 56,
"score": 71491
},
{
"content": "Title: S Antliae Content: S Antliae is a W Ursae Majoris-type eclipsing binary variable star in Antlia . It varies in apparent magnitude from 6.27 to 6.83 over a period of 15.6 hours . The system shines with a combined spectrum of A9V . Based upon an annual parallax shift of 11.84 milliarc seconds as measured by the Hipparcos satellite , this system is 84 pc from Earth . Analysing and recalibrating yields a parallax of 13.30 and hence a distance of 76 pc . The system is classed as an A-type W Ursae Majoris variable -- the primary is hotter than the secondary and the drop in magnitude is caused by the latter passing in front of the former . Calculating the properties of the component stars from the orbital period indicates that the primary star has a mass 1.94 times and a diameter 2.026 times that of the Sun , and the secondary has a mass 0.76 times and a diameter 1.322 times that of the Sun . The primary has a surface temperature of 7800 K , while the secondary is a little cooler at 7340 K . The two stars have similar luminosity and spectral type as they have a common envelope and share stellar material . The system is thought to be around 5-6 billion years old . The two stars will eventually merge to form a single fast-spinning star . Its variability was first recorded in 1888 by H.M. Paul , and at the time it had the shortest known period of any variable star . It was initially thought to be an Algol-type eclipsing binary , but this was discounted by E.C. Pickering on account of it lacking a shallow minimum in its maximum and the width of its minimum period . Alfred H. Joy noted the similarity of its light curve to W Ursae Majoris in 1926 , concluding the system was indeed an eclipsing binary with two stars of spectral type A8 .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "S_Antliae",
"rank": 57,
"score": 71361
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 133002 Content: HD 133002 is the Henry Draper Catalogue designation for a star in the northern constellation of Ursa Minor . With an apparent visual magnitude of 5.65 , it is faintly visible to the naked eye . ( According to the Bortle scale , it can be viewed from dark rural skies . ) The high declination of +82.5 ° means it is hidden from view from most of the southern hemisphere . Parallax measurements made with the Hipparcos spacecraft yield an estimated distance of around 141 light years from the Sun . If it was instead positioned at a distance of 10 pc , this would be a second magnitude star . This is an F-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of F9 V . It is estimated to have 51 % greater mass than the Sun , and is younger with an age of around 2.8 billion years . The projected rotational velocity along the star 's equator is a relatively leisurely 5.2 km/s . The star is considered a photometric solar analog , although it is deficient in elements more massive than helium when compared to the Sun . The chemical composition and relatively low surface gravity for a star of its classification suggest that this may instead be a subgiant star that is in the process of evolving away from the main sequence . The effective temperature of the star 's photosphere is 5,461 K , giving it the yellow-white hue of an F-type star . This star has been examined for evidence of an infrared excess , but none was detected . During a 2006 − 2007 survey of nearby stars , it was discovered that HD 133002 has a low-mass common proper motion stellar companion . This object has an estimated 15 % of the Sun 's mass . It has a projected separation of around 80 AU from the primary , which suggests an orbital period of roughly 700 years . At present , there is insufficient observational data available to determine orbital elements .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_133002",
"rank": 58,
"score": 71348
},
{
"content": "Title: William Lower Content: Sir William Lower ( 1570 -- 12 April 1615 ) was an English astronomer from the early telescopic period , and a Member of Parliament . He was born in Cornwall , and after studying at Exeter College , Oxford , he married and settled in South-west Wales . In 1607 he observed Halley 's comet and took a number of careful measurements which he communicated to Thomas Harriot , by which it was determined that the comet was following a curved course . Lower suggested that the comet 's orbit obeyed Kepler 's laws ( instead of being an atmospheric phenomenon or following a rectilinear path , as was generally thought at the time ) Using a telescope that had been provided by Harriot , Lower made a number of observations of the moon , and noted that its surface appeared irregular and `` like a tart that my cooke made me last weeke '' . Similar observations were published by Galileo a few weeks later . Lower represented Bodmin in the 1601 parliament , and Lostwithiel from 1604 to 1611 . He was knighted in 1603 . Lower married Penelope Perrot , the daughter of Sir Thomas Perrot and Dorothy Devereux , by whom he had three sons and a daughter . After Lower 's death Penelope ( née Perrot ) married secondly Sir Robert Naunton , by whom she had a daughter Penelope , who married Philip Herbert , 5th Earl of Pembroke .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "William_Lower",
"rank": 59,
"score": 71121
},
{
"content": "Title: Applegate mechanism Content: The Applegate mechanism ( Applegate 's mechanism or Applegate effect ) explains long term orbital period variations seen in certain eclipsing binaries . As a main sequence star goes through an activity cycle , the outer layers of the star are subject to a magnetic torque changing the distribution of angular momentum , resulting in a change in the star 's oblateness . The orbit of the stars in the binary pair is gravitationally coupled to their shape changes , so that the period shows modulations ( typically on the order of ∆ P/P ∼ 10 − 5 ) on the same time scale as the activity cycles ( typically on the order of decades ) .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Applegate_mechanism",
"rank": 60,
"score": 70995
},
{
"content": "Title: Asymptotic giant branch Content: The asymptotic giant branch ( AGB ) is a region of the Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram populated by evolved cool luminous stars . This is a period of stellar evolution undertaken by all low - to intermediate-mass stars ( 0.6 -- 10 solar masses ) late in their lives . Observationally , an asymptotic-giant-branch star will appear as a bright red giant with a luminosity thousands of times greater than the Sun . Its interior structure is characterized by a central and largely inert core of carbon and oxygen , a shell where helium is undergoing fusion to form carbon ( known as helium burning ) , another shell where hydrogen is undergoing fusion forming helium ( known as hydrogen burning ) , and a very large envelope of material of composition similar to main-sequence stars .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Asymptotic_giant_branch",
"rank": 61,
"score": 70979
},
{
"content": "Title: Mercury-manganese star Content: A mercury-manganese star is a type of chemically peculiar star with a prominent spectral line at 398.4 nm , due to absorption from ionized mercury . These stars are of spectral type B8 , B9 , or A0 , corresponding to surface temperatures between about 10,000 and 15,000 K , with two distinctive characteristics : An atmospheric excess of elements like phosphorus , manganese , gallium , strontium , yttrium , zirconium , platinum and mercury . A lack of a strong dipole magnetic field . Their rotation is relatively slow , and as a consequence their atmosphere is relatively calm . It is thought , but has not been proven , that some types of atoms sink under the force of gravity , while others are lifted towards the exterior of the star by radiation pressure , making a heterogeneous atmosphere .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Mercury-manganese_star",
"rank": 62,
"score": 70962
},
{
"content": "Title: Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems Content: K-type main-sequence stars may be candidates for supporting extraterrestrial life . These stars are known as `` Goldilocks stars '' as they emit enough radiation in the non-UV ray spectrum to provide a temperature that allows liquid water to exist on the surface of a planet ; they also remain stable in the main phase longer than the Sun , allowing more time for life to form on a planet around a K-type main-sequence star . The planet 's habitable zone , ranging from 0.1 -- 0.4 to 0.3 -- 1.3 astronomical units ( AU ) , depending on the size of the star , is often far enough from the star so as not to be tidally locked to the star , and to have a sufficiently low solar flare activity not to be lethal to life . In comparison , red dwarf stars have too much solar activity and quickly tidally lock the planets in their habitable zones , making them less suitable for life . The odds of intelligent life arising may be better on planets around K-type main-sequence stars than around Sun-like stars , given the extra time available for it to evolve . Few planets thus far have been found around K-type main-sequence stars , but those that have are potential candidates for extraterrestrial life .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Habitability_of_K-type_main-sequence_star_systems",
"rank": 63,
"score": 70913
},
{
"content": "Title: Fulton surface-to-air recovery system Content: The Fulton surface-to-air recovery system ( STARS ) is a system used by the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , United States Air Force and United States Navy for retrieving persons on the ground using aircraft such as the MC-130E Combat Talon I and Boeing B-17 . It involves using an overall-type harness and a self-inflating balloon which carries an attached lift line . An MC-130E engages the line with its V-shaped yoke and the person is reeled on board . Red flags on the lift line guide the pilot during daylight recoveries ; lights on the lift line are used for night recoveries . Recovery kits were designed for one and two-man retrievals . This system was developed by inventor Robert Edison Fulton , Jr. , for the Central Intelligence Agency in the early 1950s . It was an evolution from a similar system that was used during World War II by American and British forces to retrieve both personnel and downed assault gliders following airborne operations . The earlier system did not use a balloon , but had a pair of poles that were set in the ground on either side of the person to be retrieved , with a line running from the top of one pole to the other . An aircraft , usually a C-47 Skytrain , would trail a grappling hook and engage the line , which was attached to the person to be retrieved .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Fulton_surface-to-air_recovery_system",
"rank": 64,
"score": 70811
},
{
"content": "Title: Delta Coronae Borealis Content: Delta Coronae Borealis ( δ CrB ) is a star in the constellation Corona Borealis . Its apparent magnitude is 4.60 , and it is around 170 light-years distant . It is actually a yellow giant star of spectral type G3 .5 III that around 2.4 times as massive as the Sun and has swollen to 7.4 times its radius . It has a surface temperature of 5180 K. For most of its existence , Delta Coronae Borealis was a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B before it ran out of hydrogen fuel in its core . Its luminosity and spectrum suggest it has just crossed the Hertzsprung gap , having finished burning core hydrogen and just begun burning hydrogen in its shell . It is slightly variable , over a period of 59 days , thought to be because of its sunspots . It is a strong source of X-rays due to its hot corona .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Delta_Coronae_Borealis",
"rank": 65,
"score": 70803
},
{
"content": "Title: R Sagittae Content: R Sagittae is an RV Tauri variable star in the constellation Sagitta that varies from magnitude 8.0 to 10.5 in 70.77 days . It is a post-AGB low mass yellow supergiant that varies between spectral types G0Ib and G8Ib as it pulsates . Its variable star designation of `` R '' indicates that it was the first star discovered to be variable in the constellation . It was discovered in 1859 by Joseph Baxendell , though classified as a semi regular variable until RV Tauri variables were identified as a distinct class in 1905 . R Sagittae is classified as an RV Tauri variable because of the distinctive regular variations with alternating deep and shallow minima . The period is conventionally quoted as the time between two deep minima and is the fundamental pulsation mode . The shallow minimum is the result of a first overtone pulsation . It is further classified as RVb since the average and maximum magnitude varies slowly over several years . The main period also varies over a period of decades . It has around 90 % the mass of the Sun and an average effective ( surface ) temperature of around 5000 K . It is around 10,000 times as luminous as the Sun . Variable star observer David Levy recommends that amateur observers monitor it once a week to observe changes in brightness . RV Tauri variables are post-AGB stars , originally similar to the Sun but now in the last stages of their lives . They are crossing the Cepheid instability strip as they lose their outer layers on the way to becoming a planetary nebula . Although their spectra and luminosities resemble supergiants , they are old low mass population II stars . A period-colour-luminosity relationship has been derived from observations of RV Tauri variables in the Large Magellanic Cloud that is closely related to the relationship for type II Cepheid variables .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "R_Sagittae",
"rank": 66,
"score": 70755
},
{
"content": "Title: Beta Gruis Content: Beta Gruis ( β Gruis , β Gru ) is the second brightest star in the southern constellation of Grus . It was once considered the rear star in the tail of the constellation of the ( Southern ) Fish : it , with α , δ , θ . ι , and λ Gru , belonged to Piscis Austrinus in medieval Arabic astronomy . This is a red giant star with an estimated mass of about 2.4 times that of the Sun and a surface temperature of approximately 3,480 K , just over half the surface temperature of the Sun . This low temperature accounts for the dull red color of an M-type star . The total luminosity is about 2,500 times that of the Sun , and it has estimated 180 times the Sun 's radius . Beta Gruis is a type semiregular variable ( SRb ) star that varies in magnitude by about 0.4 . It varies between intervals when it displays regular changes with a 37-day periodicity and times when it undergoes slow irregular variability . Beta Gruis played a crucial part in Perth Observatory 's tracking of comet 2000 WM1 LINEAR in December 2001 .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Beta_Gruis",
"rank": 67,
"score": 70608
},
{
"content": "Title: Main sequence Content: In astronomy , the main sequence is a continuous and distinctive band of stars that appears on plots of stellar color versus brightness . These color-magnitude plots are known as Hertzsprung -- Russell diagrams after their co-developers , Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell . Stars on this band are known as main-sequence stars or `` dwarf '' stars . These are the most numerous true stars in the universe , and include the Earth 's Sun . After a star has formed , it generates thermal energy in the dense core region through nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium . During this stage of the star 's lifetime , it is located along the main sequence at a position determined primarily by its mass , but also based upon its chemical composition and other factors . All main-sequence stars are in hydrostatic equilibrium , where outward thermal pressure from the hot core is balanced by the inward pressure of gravitational collapse from the overlying layers . The strong dependence of the rate of energy generation in the core on the temperature and pressure helps to sustain this balance . Energy generated at the core makes its way to the surface and is radiated away at the photosphere . The energy is carried by either radiation or convection , with the latter occurring in regions with steeper temperature gradients , higher opacity or both . The main sequence is sometimes divided into upper and lower parts , based on the dominant process that a star uses to generate energy . Stars below about 1.5 times the mass of the Sun ( or 1.5 solar masses primarily fuse hydrogen atoms together in a series of stages to form helium , a sequence called the proton -- proton chain . Above this mass , in the upper main sequence , the nuclear fusion process mainly uses atoms of carbon , nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries in the CNO cycle that produces helium from hydrogen atoms . Main-sequence stars with more than two solar masses undergo convection in their core regions , which acts to stir up the newly created helium and maintain the proportion of fuel needed for fusion to occur . Below this mass , stars have cores that are entirely radiative with convective zones near the surface . With decreasing stellar mass , the proportion of the star forming a convective envelope steadily increases , whereas main-sequence stars below 0.4 undergo convection throughout their mass . When core convection does not occur , a helium-rich core develops surrounded by an outer layer of hydrogen . In general , the more massive a star is , the shorter its lifespan on the main sequence . After the hydrogen fuel at the core has been consumed , the star evolves away from the main sequence on the HR diagram . The behavior of a star now depends on its mass , with stars below 0.23 becoming white dwarfs directly , whereas stars with up to ten solar masses pass through a red giant stage . More massive stars can explode as a supernova , or collapse directly into a black hole .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Main_sequence",
"rank": 68,
"score": 70576
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 85512 Content: HD 85512 is a solitary K-type main-sequence star located approximately 36 light-years away in the constellation Vela . It is approximately one billion years older than the Sun . It is extremely chromospherically inactive , only slightly more active than Tau Ceti . The star is known to host one low-mass planet .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_85512",
"rank": 69,
"score": 70489
},
{
"content": "Title: Phi2 Pavonis Content: Phi2 Pavonis ( φ2 Pav , φ2 Pavonis ) is a solitary star in the southern constellation of Pavo ( the Peacock ) . It is faintly visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of +5.10 . Based upon an annual parallax shift of 40.55 mas as seen from Earth , it is located 80.4 light years from the Sun . At that distance , the visual magnitude is diminished by an extinction factor of 0.07 due to interstellar dust . It is a member of the thin disk population . This is a yellow-white hued G-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of . This notation indicates the surface abundance of iron and cyanogen are below normal for this class of star . It is around 5.7 billion years old and is spinning with a period of around 28 days . It has an estimated 1.09 times the mass of the Sun and is 1.86 times the Sun 's radius . The star is radiating 3.39 times the solar luminosity from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 6,091 K. This system was in 1991 a test case for the Zeta Herculis moving group , of low metallicity stars with 5 billion years of age . This group includes besides Zeta Herculis : δ Trianguli , ζ Reticuli , 1 Hydrae , Gl 456 , Gl 678 , and Gl 9079 . In 1998 , using the European Southern Telescope in Chile , a planet was announced to be orbiting the star . This team retracted this claim in 2002 , but found a different periodicity of 7 days possibly due to stellar rotation .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Phi2_Pavonis",
"rank": 70,
"score": 70303
},
{
"content": "Title: Stellar isochrone Content: In stellar evolution , an isochrone is a curve on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram , representing a population of stars of the same age . The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram plots a star 's luminosity against its temperature , or equivalently , its color . Stars change their positions on the HR diagram throughout their life . Newborn stars of low or intermediate mass are born cold but extremely luminous . They contract and dim along the Hayashi track , decreasing in luminosity but staying at roughly the same temperature , until reaching the main sequence directly or by passing through the Henyey track . Stars evolve relatively slowly along the main sequence as they fuse hydrogen , and after the vast majority of their lifespan , all but the least massive stars become giants . They then evolve quickly towards their stellar endpoints : white dwarfs , neutron stars , or black holes . Isochrones can be used to date open clusters because their members all have roughly the same age . If the initial mass function of the open cluster is known , isochrones can be calculated at any age by taking every star in the initial population , using numerical simulations to evolve it forwards to the desired age , and plotting the star 's luminosity and magnitude on the HR diagram . The resulting curve is an isochrone , which can be compared against the observational color-magnitude diagram to determine how well they match . If they match well , the assumed age of the isochrone is close to the actual age of the cluster . Category : Stellar evolution",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Stellar_isochrone",
"rank": 71,
"score": 70261
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 20868 Content: | - bgcolor = '' #FFFAFA '' HD 20868 is a low-mass K type star in the southern constellation Fornax . It is a 10th magnitude star at a distance of about 151 light years from Earth .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_20868",
"rank": 72,
"score": 70180
},
{
"content": "Title: Luyten's Star Content: Luyten 's Star ( GJ 273 ) is a red dwarf in the constellation Canis Minor located at a distance of approximately 12.36 ly from the Sun . It has a visual magnitude of 9.9 , making it too faint to be viewed with the unaided eye . It is named after Willem Jacob Luyten , who , in collaboration with Edwin G. Ebbighausen , first determined its high proper motion in 1935 . This star is approximately a quarter the mass of the Sun and has 35 % of the Sun 's radius . Luyten 's Star is at the maximum mass at which a red dwarf can be fully convective , which means that most if not all of the star forms an extended convection zone . It has a stellar classification of M3 .5 V , with the V luminosity class indicating this is a main-sequence star that is generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen at its core . The projected rotation rate of this star is too low to be measured , but is no greater than 1 km/s . Measurements of periodic variation in surface activity suggest a leisurely rotation period of roughly 116 days . The effective temperature of the star 's outer envelope is a relatively cool 3,150 K , giving the star the characteristic red-orange hue of an M-type star . At present , Luyten 's Star is moving away from the Solar System . The closest approach occurred about 13,000 years ago when it came within 3.67 parsecs . The star is currently located 1.2 light years distant from Procyon , and the latter would appear as a visual magnitude − 4.5 star in the night sky of a hypothetical planet orbiting Luyten 's Star . The closest encounter between the two stars occurred about 600 years ago when Luyten 's Star was at its minimal distance of about 1.12 ly from Procyon . The space velocity components of Luyten 's Star are U = +16 , V = − 66 and W = − 17 km/s .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Luyten's_Star",
"rank": 73,
"score": 70101
},
{
"content": "Title: Blue supergiant star Content: Blue supergiant stars are hot luminous stars , referred to scientifically as OB supergiants . They have luminosity class I and spectral class B9 or earlier . Blue supergiants ( BSGs ) are found towards the top left of the Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram to the right of the main sequence . They are larger than the Sun but smaller than a red supergiant , with surface temperatures of 10,000 -- 50,000 K and luminosities from about 10,000 to a million times the Sun .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Blue_supergiant_star",
"rank": 74,
"score": 69966
},
{
"content": "Title: F Hydrae Content: F Hydrae , also known as HD 74395 , is a star in the constellation Hydra with an apparent magnitude is 4.64 . It was catalogued as 31 Monocerotis , but this name is now rarely used since the star is now within the boundaries of Hydra . It is a low mass yellow supergiant around a thousand times brighter than the sun and five times as massive . F Hya is a catalogued as a triple star , with 8th magnitude BD-06 ° 2707 80 '' away and 13th magnitude companion at 57 '' .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "F_Hydrae",
"rank": 75,
"score": 69138
},
{
"content": "Title: Ross 128 Content: Ross 128 is a small star in the equatorial zodiac constellation of Virgo , the virgin . The apparent magnitude of Ross 128 is 11.13 , which is much too faint to be seen with the unaided eye . Based upon parallax measurements , the distance of this star from Earth is 10.89 ly , making it the twelfth closest star to the Solar System . It was first cataloged in 1926 by American astronomer Frank Elmore Ross . This low mass star has a stellar classification of M4 V , which places it among a category of stars known as red dwarfs . It has 15 % of the mass of the Sun and 21 % of the Sun 's radius , but generates energy so slowly that it has only 0.036 % of the Sun 's visible luminosity . However , most of the energy being radiated by the star is in the infrared band , with the bolometric luminosity being equal to 0.35 % of solar . This energy is being radiated from the star 's outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 3,180 K . This gives it the cool orange-red glow of an M-type star . Ross 128 is an old disk star , which means it has a low abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium , what astronomers term the star 's metallicity , and it orbits near the plane of the Milky Way galaxy . It is classified as an active flare star since it can undergo unpredictable and dramatic increases in luminosity for a period of several minutes . Because of the low rate of flare activity , it is thought to be a magnetically evolved star . That is , there is some evidence that the magnetic braking of the star 's stellar wind has lowered the frequency of flares , but not the net yield . On multiple occasions this star has been examined for the existence of a low stellar mass or brown dwarf companion orbiting at a distance of at least one astronomical unit from the primary . However , no companions have yet been discovered . The star also lacks a strong excess of infrared radiation . An infrared excess is usually an indicator of a dust ring in orbit around the star . Ross 128 is orbiting through the galaxy with an orbital eccentricity of 0.122 , causing its distance from the Galactic Center to range between 26.8 - . This orbit will bring the star closer to the Solar System in the future . The nearest approach will occur in about 71,000 years , when it will come within 6.233 + / - .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Ross_128",
"rank": 76,
"score": 69122
},
{
"content": "Title: WISEP J190648.47+401106.8 Content: WISEP J190648 .47 +401106.8 ( shortened to W1906 +40 ) is a L-dwarf star . In 2015 it was shown to have on its surface a storm the size of Jupiter 's Great Red Spot . The storm rotates around the star roughly every 9 hours and has lasted since at least 2013 , when observations of the storm began . The star is 53 light-years from Earth , has an intrinsic brightness of 0.0002 that of the sun , a radius of 0.9 Jupiters , and a surface temperature of 2,311 K . The star emits significant flares . Distance 53.3 ( +1.17 , -1.11 ) light years .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "WISEP_J190648.47+401106.8",
"rank": 77,
"score": 69112
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 176871 Content: HD 176871 is a 6th magnitude star in the constellation Lyra , approximately 700 light years away from Earth . It is a bluish white star of the spectral type B5V , meaning it possesses a surface temperature of 11,000 to 25,000 kelvins and is a dwarf star , like our Sun . Its surface is at least twice as hot as the Sun , and it is several thousand times as luminous .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_176871",
"rank": 78,
"score": 68818
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme helium star Content: An extreme helium star ( abbreviated EHe ) is a low-mass supergiant that is almost devoid of hydrogen , the most common chemical element of the Universe . Since there are no conditions where stars devoid of hydrogen can be formed from molecular clouds , it is theorized that they are the product of the mergers of helium-core and carbon-oxygen core white dwarfs . Extreme helium stars form a sub-group within the broader category of hydrogen-deficient stars . The latter includes cool carbon stars like R Coronae Borealis , helium-rich spectral class O or B stars , population I Wolf-Rayet stars , AM CVn stars , white dwarfs of spectral type WC , and transition stars like PG 1159 . The first known extreme helium star , HD 124448 , was discovered in 1942 by Daniel M. Popper at the McDonald Observatory in Austin , USA . This star displayed no lines of hydrogen in its spectrum , but strong helium lines as well as the presence of carbon and oxygen . The second , PV Telescopii , was discovered in 1952 , and by 1996 a total of 25 candidates had been found . ( This list was narrowed to 21 by 2006 . ) A common characteristic of these stars is that the abundance ratio of carbon to helium is always in the range of 0.3 to 1 % . This is despite wide variation of other abundance ratios in EHe stars . The known extreme helium stars are supergiants where hydrogen is underabundant by a factor of 10,000 or more . The surface temperatures of these stars range from 9,000 -- 35,000 K . They are primarily composed of helium , with the second most abundant element , carbon , forming about one atom per 100 atoms of helium . The chemical composition of these stars implies that they have undergone both hydrogen and helium burning at some stage of their evolution . Two possible scenarios were proposed to explain the composition of extreme helium stars . The double-degenerate ( DD ) model explained the stars as forming in a binary system consisting of a smaller helium white dwarf and a more massive carbon-oxygen white dwarf . Both stars had ceased to produce energy through nuclear fusion and were now compact objects . The emission of gravitational radiation caused their orbit to decay until they merged . If the combined mass does not exceed the Chandrasekhar limit , the helium will accrete onto the C-O dwarf and ignite to form a supergiant . Later this will become an EHe star before cooling to become a white dwarf . The final-flash ( FF ) model suggested that an EHe star could form as a late evolutionary stage of a star after if had left the asymptotic giant branch . As the star is cooling to form a white dwarf , helium ignites in a shell around the core , causing the outer layers to expand rapidly . If the hydrogen in this envelope is consumed , the star becomes hydrogen deficient and it contracts to form an EHe . Examination of element abundances from seven EHe stars agreed with those predicted by the DD model .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Extreme_helium_star",
"rank": 79,
"score": 68759
},
{
"content": "Title: Doppler imaging Content: Inhomogeneous structures on stellar surfaces , i.e. temperature differences , chemical composition or magnetic fields , create characteristic distortions in the spectral lines due to the Doppler effect . These distortions will move across spectral line profiles due to the stellar rotation . The technique to reconstruct these structures on the stellar surface is called Doppler-imaging , often based on the Maximum Entropy image reconstruction to find the stellar image . This technique gives the smoothest and simplest image that is consistent with observations . To understand the magnetic field and activity of stars , studies of the Sun are not sufficient . Therefore , studies of other stars are necessary . Periodic changes in brightness have long been observed in stars which indicate cooler or brighter starspots on the surface . These spots are larger than the ones on the Sun , covering up to 20 % of the star . Spots with similar size as the ones on the Sun would hardly give rise to changes in intensity . In order to understand the magnetic field structure of a star , it is not enough to know that spots exist because their location and extent are also important .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Doppler_imaging",
"rank": 80,
"score": 68369
},
{
"content": "Title: NGC 3201 Content: NGC 3201 ( also known as Caldwell 79 ) is a low galactic latitude globular cluster in the southern constellation of Vela . It has a very low central concentration of stars . This cluster was discovered by James Dunlop on May 28 , 1826 and listed it in his 1827 catalogue . He described it as `` a pretty large pretty bright round nebula , 4 ′ or 5 ′ diameter , very gradually condensed towards the centre , easily resolved into stars ; the figure is rather irregular , and the stars are considerably scattered on the south '' . The radial velocity of this cluster is unusually high at 490 km/s , larger than any other cluster known . This corresponds to a peculiar velocity of 240 km/s . While high , this is lower than the escape velocity of the Milky Way galaxy . It is located at a distance of 16,300 light years from the Sun and has an estimated 254,000 times the mass of the Sun . This cluster is about 10.24 billion years old . The stellar population of this cluster is inhomogeneous , varying with distance from the core . The effective temperature of the stars shows an increase with greater distance , with the redder and cooler stars tending to be located closer to the core . As of 2010 , is one of only two clusters ( including Messier 4 ) that shows a definite inhomogeneous population .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "NGC_3201",
"rank": 81,
"score": 68308
},
{
"content": "Title: HE 1327-2326 Content: HE1327-2326 , discovered in 2005 by Anna Frebel and collaborators , was the star with the lowest known iron abundance until SMSS J031300.36-670839 .3 was discovered . The star is a member of Population II stars , with an iron to hydrogen ratio ( -LSB- Fe/H -RSB- ) , or metallicity , of − 5.6 . This number indicates that its iron content is 1/400 ,000 that of the Earth 's sun . However , it has a carbon abundance of roughly one-tenth solar ( -LSB- C/H -RSB- = − 1.0 ) , and it is not known how these two abundances can be produced simultaneously . Discovered by the Hamburg/ESO survey for metal-poor stars , it was probably formed during an age of the universe when the metal content was much lower . It has been speculated that this star is part of the second generation , born out of the gas clouds which were polluted by the primordial Population III stars .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HE_1327-2326",
"rank": 82,
"score": 68244
},
{
"content": "Title: PT Puppis Content: PT Puppis ( PT Pup ) is a star in the constellation Puppis . Anamarija Stankov confirmed this star as a Beta Cephei variable . Analysis of its spectrum and allowing for extinction gives a mass 7.94 times that of the Sun , a surface temperature of 19,400 K and luminosity of 6405 Suns .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "PT_Puppis",
"rank": 83,
"score": 68235
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 53143 Content: HD 53143 is a star in the Carina constellation , located about 59.8 ly from the Earth . With an apparent visual magnitude of 6.80 , this star is a challenge to view with the naked eye even under ideal viewing conditions . Using the technique of gyrochronology , which measures the age of a low-mass star based on its rotation , HD 53143 is about old . Depending on the source , the stellar classification for this star is G9 V or K1V , placing it near the borderline between G-type and K-type main sequence stars . In either case , it is generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen at its core . This star is smaller than the Sun , with about 85 % of the Sun 's radius . It is emitting only 70 % of the Sun 's luminosity . The effective temperature of the star 's outer envelope is cooler than the Sun at 5,224 K , giving it a golden-orange hue . Based upon an excess of infrared emission , a circumstellar debris disk has been found in this sysyem . This disk is inclined at an angle of about 40 -- 50 ° to the line of sight from the Earth and it has an estimated mass of more than . ( For comparison , the mass of the Moon is 7.3477 × 1022 kg . ) This is one of the oldest known debris disk systems and hence may be replenished through the collision of larger bodies . The observed inner edge of the disk is at a distance of 55 Astronomical Units ( AU ) from the host star , while it stretches out to twice that distance , or 110 AU . This debris disk may extend outside this range , as the measurements are limited by the sensitivity of the instruments . The dust appears evenly distributed with no indication of clumping .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_53143",
"rank": 84,
"score": 68190
},
{
"content": "Title: EL/M-2238 STAR Content: The EL/M -2238 3D-STAR is a multi-purpose air and surface-search naval radar system developed by IAI Elta for medium-sized ships like corvettes and frigates . STAR is an acronym of Surveillance & Threat Alert Radar .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "EL/M-2238_STAR",
"rank": 85,
"score": 68122
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 176527 Content: HD 176527 is a 5th magnitude star in the constellation Lyra , approximately 350 light years away from Earth . It is an orange giant star of the spectral type K2III . It therefore has a surface temperature of 3,500 to 5,000 kelvins and is much larger and brighter , yet cooler , than our Sun .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_176527",
"rank": 86,
"score": 68002
},
{
"content": "Title: NGC 45 Content: NGC 45 is a low surface brightness spiral galaxy in the constellation of Cetus . In the Catalogue of Named Galaxies , it is called Tenebrosus Ceti , or the dark galaxy . It was discovered on 11 November 1835 by the English astronomer John Herschel . In the sky , it is located near the magnitude 6.8 star HD 941 . NGC 45 has no clear defined spiral arms like the Milky Way galaxy . Unlike the Milky Way , the center bar nucleus is also very small and distorted . NGC 45 thus does not have a galactic habitable zone like the Milky Way . For the Milky Way , the galactic habitable zone is commonly believed to be an annulus with an outer radius of about 10 kiloparsecs and an inner radius close to the Galactic Center , both of which lack hard boundaries .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "NGC_45",
"rank": 87,
"score": 67797
},
{
"content": "Title: Standard terminal arrival route Content: In aviation , a standard terminal arrival route or standard terminal arrival ( STAR ) is a published procedure followed by aircraft on an IFR flight plan just before reaching a destination airport . A STAR is an ATC-coded IFR arrival route established for application to arriving IFR aircraft destined for certain airports . Area navigation ( RNAV ) STAR/FMSP procedures for arrivals serve the same purpose but are used only by aircraft equipped with FMS or GPS . The purpose of both is to simplify clearance delivery procedures and facilitate transition between en route and instrument approach procedures .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Standard_terminal_arrival_route",
"rank": 88,
"score": 67713
},
{
"content": "Title: Starolaspa Content: Starolaspa ( Староласпа Староласпа Urum : Эст ' и Ласпи ) is a village in Boykivske Raion ( district ) in Donetsk Oblast of eastern Ukraine , at 67.7 km SSE from the centre of Donetsk city , on the right bank of the Kalmius river . During the War in Donbass , that started in 2014 , the village was taken under control of pro-Russian forces .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Starolaspa",
"rank": 89,
"score": 67687
},
{
"content": "Title: New Low Content: New Low is a 2010 independent American romantic comedy film written , directed , produced , and edited by Adam Bowers , who also stars in the film along with Jayme Ratzer , Valerie Jones , and YouTube personality Toby Turner . It premiered January 23 , 2010 at the Sundance Film Festival .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "New_Low",
"rank": 90,
"score": 67665
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 19275 Content: HD 19275 is a 5th magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia , approximately 162 light years away from Earth . It is a dwarf star , like the Sun , of the spectral type A2Vnn . It therefore has a surface temperature of 7,500 to 11,000 kelvins and is many times more luminous than the Sun . The `` nn '' in its spectral type signifies that it has very broad spectral lines , because it rotates very fast .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_19275",
"rank": 91,
"score": 67651
},
{
"content": "Title: Pair-instability supernova Content: A pair-instability supernova occurs when pair production , the production of free electrons and positrons in the collision between atomic nuclei and energetic gamma rays , reduces thermal pressure inside a supermassive star 's core . This pressure drop leads to a partial collapse , then greatly accelerated burning in a runaway thermonuclear explosion which blows the star completely apart without leaving a black hole remnant behind . Pair-instability supernovae can only happen in stars with a mass range from around 130 to 250 solar masses and low to moderate metallicity ( low abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium , a situation common in Population III stars ) . The recently observed objects SN 2006gy , SN 2007bi , SN 2213-1745 and SN 1000 +0216 are hypothesized to have been pair-instability supernovae .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Pair-instability_supernova",
"rank": 92,
"score": 67623
},
{
"content": "Title: Low Islands Content: The Low Islands are one of the many uninhabited Canadian arctic island groups in Qikiqtaaluk Region , Nunavut . They are located in Ungava Bay , stretching between Young Island to the south and Lookout Island to the north .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Low_Islands",
"rank": 93,
"score": 67493
},
{
"content": "Title: UW Coronae Borealis Content: UW Coronae Borealis , also known as MS 1603.6 +2600 , is a low mass X-ray binary star system located in the constellation Corona Borealis . Astronomer Simon Morris and colleagues discovered the X-ray source in 1990 and were able to match it up with a faint star with an average visual magnitude of 19.4 . The system is thought to be made up of a neutron star that has an accretion disk that draws material from its companion , a star less massive than the Sun . The disk is asymmetrical . The variability of the system is complex , with several periods identified : the two components orbit each other every 111 minutes , while there is another period of 112.6 minutes . The beat period of these is 5.5 days , which is thought to represent the precession of the asymmetrical accretion disk around the neutron star .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "UW_Coronae_Borealis",
"rank": 94,
"score": 67478
},
{
"content": "Title: HIP 41378 Content: HIP 41378 is a star located 378 light-years away in the constellation of Cancer . The star has an apparent magnitude of 8.92 . This F-type main sequence dwarf has a mass of 1.15 and a radius of 1.4 . It has a surface temperature of about 6199 K.",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HIP_41378",
"rank": 95,
"score": 67461
},
{
"content": "Title: Epsilon Piscium Content: Epsilon Piscium ( Epsilon Psc , ε Piscium , ε Psc ) is the Bayer designation for a star approximately 182 ly away from the Earth , in the constellation Pisces . It is a yellow-orange star of the G9 III or K0 III spectral type , meaning it has a surface temperature around 5,000 Kelvin . This is a normal giant star , slightly cooler in surface temperature , yet brighter and larger than the Sun . It is a suspected occultation double , with both stars having the same magnitude , separated by 0.25 arcsecond .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "Epsilon_Piscium",
"rank": 96,
"score": 67449
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 167965 Content: HD 167965 is a 6th magnitude star in the constellation Lyra , approximately 590 light years from Earth . It is a bluish white subgiant star of the spectral type B7IV , meaning it has a surface temperature of 11,000 to 25,000 kelvins . It is larger and brighter than our Sun , and its surface is at least twice as hot .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_167965",
"rank": 97,
"score": 67276
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 174179 Content: HD 174179 is a 6th magnitude star in the constellation Lyra , approximately 1,100 light years from Earth . It is a bluish white subgiant star of the spectral type B3IVp , meaning it possesses a surface temperature of 11,000 to 25,000 kelvins . Its surface is at least twice as hot as the Sun , and it is larger and brighter in comparison . The `` p '' in its spectral type signifies that there is an unspecified peculiarity with the star 's spectrum .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "HD_174179",
"rank": 98,
"score": 67265
},
{
"content": "Title: A-type main-sequence star Content: An A-type main-sequence star ( A V ) or A dwarf star is a main-sequence ( hydrogen-burning ) star of spectral type A and luminosity class V . These stars have spectra which are defined by strong hydrogen Balmer absorption lines . They have masses from 1.4 to 2.1 times the mass of the Sun and surface temperatures between 7600 and 11 500 K. Bright and nearby examples are Altair ( A7 V ) , Sirius A ( A1 V ) , and Vega ( A0 V ) . A-type stars are fully radiative and thus are not expected to harbor a magnetic dynamo . As a consequence , because they do not have strong stellar winds they lack a means to generate X-ray emission .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "A-type_main-sequence_star",
"rank": 99,
"score": 67246
},
{
"content": "Title: O-type main-sequence star Content: An O-type main-sequence star ( O V ) is a main-sequence ( core hydrogen-burning ) star of spectral type O and luminosity class V . These stars have between 15 and 90 times the mass of the Sun and surface temperatures between 30,000 and 52,000 K . They are between 30,000 and 1,000,000 times as luminous as the Sun . These stars are rare ; it is estimated that there are no more than 20,000 in the entire Milky Way . Examples include σ Orionis A and 10 Lacertae .",
"qid": "77",
"docid": "O-type_main-sequence_star",
"rank": 100,
"score": 67086
}
] |
The rate of warming according to the data is much slower than the models used by the IPCC | [
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 1,
"score": 116707
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 2,
"score": 113648
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 3,
"score": 106161
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 4,
"score": 103967
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 5,
"score": 102521
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 6,
"score": 101387
},
{
"content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Reasons_for_concern",
"rank": 7,
"score": 101067
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 8,
"score": 100869
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 9,
"score": 100252
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 10,
"score": 99647
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 11,
"score": 98225
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline",
"rank": 12,
"score": 96981
},
{
"content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 13,
"score": 95745
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 14,
"score": 94663
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Climate_risk",
"rank": 15,
"score": 94152
},
{
"content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory",
"rank": 16,
"score": 93827
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 17,
"score": 93657
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992",
"rank": 18,
"score": 92518
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 19,
"score": 92504
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 20,
"score": 91493
},
{
"content": "Title: HadGEM1 Content: HadGEM1 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model , version 1 ) is a coupled climate model developed at the Met Office 's Hadley Centre in 2006 and used in IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on climate change . It represents a significant scientific advance on its predecessor , HadCM3 . HadGEM1 also provides a basis for further development of models , particularly involving enhanced resolution and full Earth System modelling . The current version is HadGEM3 .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "HadGEM1",
"rank": 21,
"score": 91310
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 22,
"score": 90355
},
{
"content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 23,
"score": 90044
},
{
"content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Vicky_Pope",
"rank": 24,
"score": 89801
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 25,
"score": 89505
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 26,
"score": 88918
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 27,
"score": 88715
},
{
"content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 28,
"score": 86567
},
{
"content": "Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Representative_Concentration_Pathways",
"rank": 29,
"score": 85186
},
{
"content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason",
"rank": 30,
"score": 85178
},
{
"content": "Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Bert_Bolin",
"rank": 31,
"score": 85142
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 32,
"score": 84797
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 33,
"score": 84749
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 34,
"score": 84518
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 35,
"score": 83868
},
{
"content": "Title: HadCM3 Content: HadCM3 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Coupled Model , version 3 ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom . It was one of the major models used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report in 2001 . Unlike earlier AOGCMs at the Hadley Centre and elsewhere ( including its predecessor HadCM2 ) , HadCM3 does not need flux adjustment ( additional `` artificial '' heat and freshwater fluxes at the ocean surface ) to produce a good simulation . The higher ocean resolution of HadCM3 is a major factor in this ; other factors include a good match between the atmospheric and oceanic components ; and an improved ocean mixing scheme ( Gent and McWilliams ) . HadCM3 has been run to produce simulations for periods of over a thousand years , showing little drift in its surface climate . HadCM3 is composed of two components : the atmospheric model HadAM3 and the ocean model HadOM3 ( which includes a sea ice model ) . Simulations use a 360-day calendar , where each month is 30 days .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "HadCM3",
"rank": 36,
"score": 83838
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 37,
"score": 82885
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow",
"rank": 38,
"score": 82576
},
{
"content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Roger_Pulwarty",
"rank": 39,
"score": 82283
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 40,
"score": 82011
},
{
"content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Seita_Emori",
"rank": 41,
"score": 81978
},
{
"content": "Title: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model Content: GFDL CM2.X ( Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model , version 2 . X ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in the United States . It is one of the leading climate models used in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC , along with models developed at the Max Planck Institute for Climate Research , the Hadley Centre and the National Center for Atmospheric Research .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Geophysical_Fluid_Dynamics_Laboratory_Coupled_Model",
"rank": 42,
"score": 81708
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers",
"rank": 43,
"score": 80910
},
{
"content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation",
"rank": 44,
"score": 80475
},
{
"content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "North_Report",
"rank": 45,
"score": 80372
},
{
"content": "Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy",
"rank": 46,
"score": 80326
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 47,
"score": 79927
},
{
"content": "Title: Yuri Izrael Content: Yuri Antonovich Izrael ( Юрий Антониевич Израэль 15 May 1930 , Tashkent -- 23 January 2014 , Moscow ) was a vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) until September 2008 , when the new bureau was elected . He was the `` most influential scientific adviser '' for Vladimir Putin , the former president of Russia , according to CNN . Izrael was former chairman of the Committee for Hydrometeorology . He also served as director of the Institute of Global Climate and Ecology , which is a part of the Russian Academy of Sciences . He was a first vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization and helped develop the World Weather Watch . In 1992 , Izrael won the International Meteorological Organization Prize and the UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize for , among other accomplishments , contributing to the `` success of Working Group I I '' of the IPCC .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Yuri_Izrael",
"rank": 48,
"score": 79904
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change acronyms Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Climate_change_acronyms",
"rank": 49,
"score": 79857
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas Knutson Content: Thomas Knutson is a climate modeller at the US Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory , a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research covers hurricane activity , the link between climate change and hurricane incidence and intensity , and climate change detection and attribution . He served as a contributing author on working group 1 of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He is an Associate Editor of the American Meteorological Society 's Journal of Climate . He has published in Science , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Journal of Geophysical Research , Journal of Climate , Tropical Cyclone Research and Review , Tellus A and the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . In 2004 , Knutson published a paper suggesting that increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide would lead to more intense hurricanes . This finding was subsequently supported by independent research . Knutson was invited to discuss his thesis on Ron Reagan 's MSNBC talk show , but the invitation was withdrawn after the White House intervened . Source : New Scientist Magazine 2007-02-03 , p. 5",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Thomas_Knutson",
"rank": 50,
"score": 79829
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act",
"rank": 51,
"score": 79758
},
{
"content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera",
"rank": 52,
"score": 79301
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Michael_E._Mann",
"rank": 53,
"score": 79101
},
{
"content": "Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Rajendra_K._Pachauri",
"rank": 54,
"score": 78253
},
{
"content": "Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 55,
"score": 78237
},
{
"content": "Title: Steve Running Content: Steven W. Running , ( born 1950 ) Regents Professor , Forest Ecology , College of Forestry & Conservation at the University of Montana , and Director of the Numerical Terradynamics Simulation Group , is responsible for developing the earth observing-oriented algorithms used by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) on board NASA 's satellites , Terra and Aqua . He continues to be the lead investigator on this project . Running 's MOD17 algorithms are used to provide accurate and continuous global monitoring of the terrestrial biosphere , specifically , generating near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at 8-day intervals . These datasets are unique in that they provide global data on primary productivity and span a decade . A recognized expert in global ecosystem monitoring , Running was invited to serve on the board of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . In 2007 , the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Running made the following statement about winning the prize : `` We 've got to get past all the petty bickering and get to work . This is about a big transition for society over the next 50 years . The path we are on is unsustainable . What the Nobel committee is saying is that we 've got to wake up . We 've got to change the course of the whole world . '' Steve Running is co-author of the 2007 book , Forest Ecosystems , and has published over 240 scientific papers . In 2012 , Running suggested a tenth planetary boundary , the annual net global primary production of all terrestrial plants , as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give `` a clear signal about the health of ecosystems '' .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Steve_Running",
"rank": 56,
"score": 78150
},
{
"content": "Title: Energy modeling Content: Energy modeling or energy system modeling is the process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them . Such models often employ scenario analysis to investigate different assumptions about the technical and economic conditions at play . Outputs may include the system feasibility , greenhouse gas emissions , cumulative financial costs , natural resource use , and energy efficiency of the system under investigation . A wide range of techniques are employed , ranging from broadly economic to broadly engineering . Mathematical optimization is often used to determine the least-cost in some sense . Models can be international , regional , national , municipal , or stand-alone in scope . Governments maintain national energy models for energy policy development . Energy models are usually intended to contribute variously to system operations , engineering design , or energy policy development . This page concentrates on policy models . Individual building energy simulations are explicitly excluded , although they too are sometimes called energy models . IPCC-style integrated models , which also contain a representation of the world energy system and are used to examine global transformation pathways through to 2050 or 2100 are not considered here in detail . Energy modeling has increased in importance as the need for climate change mitigation has grown in importance . The energy supply sector is the largest contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions . The IPCC reports that climate change mitigation will require a fundamental transformation of the energy supply system , including the substitution of unabated ( not captured by CCS ) fossil fuel conversion technologies by low-GHG alternatives .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Energy_modeling",
"rank": 57,
"score": 77805
},
{
"content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "John_T._Houghton",
"rank": 58,
"score": 77695
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "IPCC_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 59,
"score": 77573
},
{
"content": "Title: Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change Content: The Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change ( CMCC ) is an Italian research centre dedicated to climate and climate related research , including climate variability , its causes and consequences , carried out through numerical models ranging from Global Earth System to Regional models within the Euro-Mediterranean area .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Euro-Mediterranean_Center_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 60,
"score": 77052
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature Content: In its AR4 , WG1 report , Chapter3 , the IPCC explains global temperature in these words :",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Global_temperature",
"rank": 61,
"score": 76736
},
{
"content": "Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports",
"rank": 62,
"score": 76702
},
{
"content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth",
"rank": 63,
"score": 76617
},
{
"content": "Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Arturo_Villavicencio",
"rank": 64,
"score": 76476
},
{
"content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "David_Karoly",
"rank": 65,
"score": 76390
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal",
"rank": 66,
"score": 76357
},
{
"content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis",
"rank": 67,
"score": 76279
},
{
"content": "Title: Ismail El Gizouli Content: Ismail Abdel Rahim El Gizouli is a Sudanese civil servant specializing in energy and environment and a member of the bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He has acted as interim chairman of the IPCC since 24 February 2015 , following the resignation of Rajendra Kumar Pachauri . This appointment will last until the next election for a chairman , which is due to take place at the 42nd session in October 2015 .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Ismail_El_Gizouli",
"rank": 68,
"score": 76104
},
{
"content": "Title: GO-ESSP Content: The Global Organization of Earth System Science Portals or ( GO-ESSP ) is an international collaboration , formed in 2003 , that is developing software infrastructure to support the distribution , and analysis of climate model data and related observations . GO-ESSP is playing a central role in coordinating United States and European efforts to document and distribute data for the 5th coupled model intercomparison project , which will be part of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "GO-ESSP",
"rank": 69,
"score": 75937
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 70,
"score": 75867
},
{
"content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell",
"rank": 71,
"score": 75760
},
{
"content": "Title: Randles–Sevcik equation Content: In cyclic voltammetry , the Randles -- Sevcik equation describes the effect of scan rate on the peak current ip . For simple redox events such as the ferrocene/ferrocenium couple , ip depends not only on the concentration and diffusional properties of the electroactive species but also on scan rate . Or if the solution is at 25 ° C : ip = current maximum in amps n = number of electrons transferred in the redox event ( usually 1 ) A = electrode area in cm2 F = Faraday Constant in C mol − 1 D = diffusion coefficient in cm2/s C = concentration in mol/cm3 ν = scan rate in V/s R = Gas constant in J K − 1 mol − 1 T = temperature in K For novices in electrochemistry , the predictions of this equation appear counter-intuitive , i.e. that ip increases at faster voltage scan rates . It is important to remember that current , i , is charge ( or electrons passed ) per unit time . In cyclic voltammetry , the current passing through the electrode is limited by the diffusion of species to the electrode surface . This diffusion flux is influenced by the concentration gradient near the electrode . The concentration gradient , in turn , is affected by the concentration of species at the electrode , and how fast the species can diffuse through solution . By changing the cell voltage , the concentration of the species at the electrode surface is also changed , as set by the Nernst equation . Therefore , a faster voltage sweep causes a larger concentration gradient near the electrode , resulting in a higher current .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Randles–Sevcik_equation",
"rank": 72,
"score": 75613
},
{
"content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy",
"rank": 73,
"score": 75605
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment",
"rank": 74,
"score": 75473
},
{
"content": "Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Richard_A._Betts",
"rank": 75,
"score": 75085
},
{
"content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Deglaciation",
"rank": 76,
"score": 74620
},
{
"content": "Title: Valerie Masson-Delmotte Content: Valerie Masson-Delmotte is a French climate scientist and Research Director at the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission , where she works in the Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ( LSCE ) . She uses data from past climates to test models of climate change , and has contributed to several IPCC reports .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Valerie_Masson-Delmotte",
"rank": 77,
"score": 74061
},
{
"content": "Title: Climarice Content: Climarice is a research project , carried out by The Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research ( Bioforsk , Norway ) , Tamil Nadu Agricultural University ( TNAU , India ) , International Water Management Institute ( IWMI , India ) and International Pacific Research Center ( IPRC , United States ) ; which is trying to assess the impact of climate variability on water availability and rice production in the Cauvery river basin of Tamil Nadu , India . In particular , the impacts of climate change on extreme events such as droughts , floods , heat waves and on the spatial and temporal distribution of the monsoon rains will certainly impact rice production and food security in India . However , there is a significant level of uncertainty in the climate models ' projections that cascade into impact models and thereby influence policy decisions related to adaptation . For both scientific community and policy makers , reducing the uncertainties is a big challenge . On a positive note , examination of historical observed rice production data in India shows an overall increasing trend in many regions with annual fluctuations . Will this trend continue given the projected change in climate and population increase in India ? Climarice is funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , is currently assessing the impacts of climate change on rice production areas and rice productivity . Specifically , the project is assessing the behavior of the Indian monsoon in different climate scenarios , and examining its impact on the water availability , rice crop production and the resultant socio economic vulnerability and adaptation of farming communities in the Cauvery river basin , India . Since the project was started in January 2008 , relevant coping and adaptation mechanisms have been identified and techniques developed to address the issues of climate vulnerabilities in rice production .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Climarice",
"rank": 78,
"score": 73806
},
{
"content": "Title: Carl Mears Content: Carl Mears is a Senior Scientist , at Remote Sensing Systems , since 1998 . He has worked on validation of SSM/I derived winds , and rain-flagging algorithm for the QuikScat scatterometer . He is best known for his work with Frank Wentz in developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the UAH one . Mears was a major contributor to Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere : Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences , the first released report from the US Climate Change Science Program . He also contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group one report , Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Carl_Mears",
"rank": 79,
"score": 73762
},
{
"content": "Title: Bert Metz Content: Bert Metz ( born 15 August 1945 , The Hague ) is a Dutch climate policy expert . He was Co-chair of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III on mitigation on climate change for the third and fourth assessment report of the IPCC . Currently he is a fellow at the european climate foundation . Metz obtained an Engineer 's degree in Chemical Engineering at Delft University of Technology and subsequently his Ph.D. degree at the same university . From 1976 to 1987 he worked for Dutch Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment in the fields of air pollution , external safety , noise pollution , chemical waste and the enforcement of environmental laws . From 1987 until 1992 he was Counsellor for Health and Environment at the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Washington DC . In 1992 he became Deputy Director for Air and Energy of the Netherlands Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment , with responsibility for climate policy . He led the Netherlands delegation to the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Convention . In 1997 he moved to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency at RIVM to head the group on climate change and global sustainability and was elected as co-chairman of the Working Group on Climate Change Mitigation of the IPCC for the preparation of the Third Assessment Report . In 2002 he was re-elected in that position for the 4th Assessment Report cycle . Although formally retired , Bert Metz is still very active in the climate policy arena , among others as advisor for the European Climate Foundation and as steering group member of UNEP 's annual Emissions Gap Report . In 2008 he was named Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau . .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Bert_Metz",
"rank": 80,
"score": 73524
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 81,
"score": 73521
},
{
"content": "Title: TOMCAT/SLIMCAT Content: TOMCAT/SLIMCAT is an off-line chemical transport model ( CTM ) , which models the time-dependent distribution of chemical species in the troposphere and stratosphere . It can be used to study topics such as ozone depletion and tropospheric pollution , and was one of the models used the IPCC report on Aviation and the Global Atmosphere . It incorporates a choice of detailed chemistry schemes for the troposphere or stratosphere , and an optional chemical data assimilation scheme . The original model code , called the Toulouse Off-line Model of Chemistry And Transport ( TOMCAT ) , was written by Martyn Chipperfield at Météo France . `` Off-line '' in this sense describes the fact that although the meteorological data ( wind components and other fields ) which are used as input to the CTM typically derive from a general circulation model ( GCM ) , the CTM is run as a separate program outside of a GCM ; this is as distinct from a chemistry simulation scheme which runs within a GCM , in which the simulated chemical distributions , e.g. of ozone , can provide feedback on the meteorology via the GCM 's radiation scheme . A version called the Single Layer Isentropic Model of Chemistry And Transport ( SLIMCAT ) was developed in 1995 . This used a level of constant potential temperature ( or equivalently , of constant specific entropy , hence isentropic ) , exploiting the fact that due to approximate conservation of energy , atmospheric motions are approximately adiabatic and hence air parcels remain on isentropic levels on short timescales . A diabatic heating scheme was later added , to allow for multiple isentropic levels with transport between them on longer timescales , although the name `` SLIMCAT '' has remained despite the multiple levels . The two programs are now maintained as a single code base , which runs in Fortran , and has been parallelised . TOMCAT has been further extended to include a detailed treatment of aerosol . GLOMAP ( Global Model of Aerosol Processes ) simulates a wide range of aerosol species including black carbon , sulfate , sea spray , soil dust , and secondary organic aerosol . The primary purpose of TOMCAT/GLOMAP is to simulate aerosol radiative forcing and the impact of aerosol on climate .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "TOMCAT/SLIMCAT",
"rank": 82,
"score": 73384
},
{
"content": "Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Physical_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 83,
"score": 73347
},
{
"content": "Title: Stephen Schneider Content: Stephen Henry Schneider ( February 11 , 1945 -- July 19 , 2010 ) was Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University , a Co-Director at the Center for Environment Science and Policy of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Senior Fellow in the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment . Schneider served as a consultant to federal agencies and White House staff in the Richard Nixon , Jimmy Carter , Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations . Schneider 's research included modeling of the atmosphere , climate change , and the effect of global climate change on biological systems . Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal Climatic Change and authored or co-authored over 450 scientific papers and other publications . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) at the time of his death . During the 1980s , Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming . In 2006 Professor Schneider was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence advising the South Australian Government of Premier Mike Rann on climate change and renewable energy policies . In ten years South Australia went from zero to 31 % of its electricity generation coming from renewables . An annual award for outstanding climate science communication was created in Schneider 's honor after his death , by the Commonwealth Club of California .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Stephen_Schneider",
"rank": 84,
"score": 73070
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios",
"rank": 85,
"score": 73002
},
{
"content": "Title: Raymond Pierrehumbert Content: Raymond T. Pierrehumbert is the Halley Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford . Previously , he was Louis Block Professor in Geophysical Sciences at the University of Chicago . He was a lead author on the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) and a co-author of the National Research Council report on abrupt climate change . He was awarded a John Simon Guggenheim Fellowship in 1996 , which was used to launch collaborative work on the climate of early Mars with collaborators in Paris . He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union ( AGU ) and has been named Chevalier de l'Ordre des Palmes Académiques by the Republic of France . He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2015 and sits on the Science and Security Board of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists . Pierrehumbert 's central research interest is how climate works as a system and developing idealized mathematical models to be used to address questions of climate science such as how the earth kept from freezing over : the faint young sun paradox . Current interests include climate of extrasolar planets . Pierrehumbert contributes to RealClimate . Pierrehumbert is married to Janet Pierrehumbert , professor of Language Modeling at the University of Oxford .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Raymond_Pierrehumbert",
"rank": 86,
"score": 72951
},
{
"content": "Title: American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment Content: The American College & University Presidents ' Climate Commitment ( ACUPCC ) is a `` high-visibility effort '' to address global warming ( global climate disruption ) by creating a network of colleges and universities that have committed to neutralize their greenhouse gas emissions and accelerate the research and educational efforts of higher education to equip society to re-stabilize the earth 's climate . Second Nature is the main supporting organization of the ACUPCC .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "American_College_&_University_Presidents'_Climate_Commitment",
"rank": 87,
"score": 72878
},
{
"content": "Title: 2007 Nobel Peace Prize Content: The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in two equal parts , between the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and Al Gore `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "2007_Nobel_Peace_Prize",
"rank": 88,
"score": 72855
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry",
"rank": 89,
"score": 72590
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 90,
"score": 72285
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy",
"rank": 91,
"score": 72136
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of wind power Content: The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels , is relatively minor . Compared with other low carbon power sources , wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated . According to the IPCC , in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources , wind turbines have a median value of between 15 and 11 ( geq/kWh ) depending on whether off - or onshore turbines are being assessed . While wind turbine installations may cover a large area , they are compatible with many land uses such as farming and grazing , as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made unavailable for use . Wind turbines generate some noise . At a residential distance of 300 m this may be around 45 dB , which is slightly louder than a refrigerator . At 1.5 km distance most wind turbines become inaudible . From a fundamental biological point of view , it is known that loud noise increases stress and stress causes diseases . Peer-reviewed research has generally supported the view that when properly sited wind turbines do not affect human health from noise . However , when improperly sited , data from the monitoring of two groups of growing geese revealed substantially lower body weights and higher concentrations of a stress hormone in the blood of the first group of geese who were situated 50 meters away compared to a second group which was at a distance of 500 meters from the turbine . Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape can be significant . Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes . Siting restrictions ( such as setbacks ) have often been implemented to limit any intrusive environmental impacts . There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures . The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant , depending on specific circumstances . Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities , and protection of peat bogs , affect the siting and operation of wind turbines .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_wind_power",
"rank": 92,
"score": 72029
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 93,
"score": 72017
},
{
"content": "Title: The Deniers Content: The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "The_Deniers",
"rank": 94,
"score": 71994
},
{
"content": "Title: Sudden stratospheric warming Content: A sudden stratospheric warming ( SSW ) is an event where the polar vortex of westerly winds in the winter hemisphere slows down or even reverses direction over the course of a few days . The change is accompanied by a rise of stratospheric temperature by several tens of kelvins .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Sudden_stratospheric_warming",
"rank": 95,
"score": 71879
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions Content: Climate Change : Global Risks , Challenges and Decisions was a conference on Climate Change held at the Bella Center by the University of Copenhagen . The event was organised with the assistance of other universities in the International Alliance of Research Universities . The stated aim of the conference was to provide `` a summary of existing scientific knowledge two years after the last IPCC report . '' The conference took place on 10 -- 12 March 2009 .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Climate_Change:_Global_Risks,_Challenges_and_Decisions",
"rank": 96,
"score": 71432
},
{
"content": "Title: DayCent Content: Daycent is a daily time series biogeochemical model used in agroecosystems to simulates fluxes of carbon and nitrogen between the atmosphere , vegetation , and soil . It is a daily version of the CENTURY biogeochemical model . The United States Environmental Protection Agency , United States Department of Agriculture/ARS and the Colorado State University Natural Resource Ecology Lab are currently using the Daycent model to develop a national inventory of N2O emissions from U.S. agricultural soils . This inventory will be compared and contrasted with the existing Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) agricultural N2O emissions inventory for the United States . Having more accurate data to account for nutrient cycling could have significant implications for public policy associated with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and potential future mitigation efforts in the United States . Model inputs include daily maximum/minimum air temperature and precipitation , surface soil texture class , and land cover/use data . Model outputs include daily fluxes of various N-gas species ( e.g. , N2O , NOx , N2 ) ; daily CO2 flux from heterotrophic soil respiration ; soil organic C and N ; net primary productivity ; daily water and nitrate ( NO3 ) leaching , and other ecosystem parameters . Daycent has been tested with data from various native and managed systems . In similar studies , comparisons between Daycent simulated data and measured values for annual crop yields , N2O emissions , and NO3 leaching produced r2 values of 0.72 , 0.68 , and 0.61 respectively . Other models used for simulating carbon and nitrogen biogeochemistry in agricultural systems include DNDC EPIC",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "DayCent",
"rank": 97,
"score": 71324
},
{
"content": "Title: Ionospheric pierce point Content: Most global navigation satellite systems ( GNSS ) are subjected to errors induced by the ionosphere . Because ionospheric delay affects the speed of microwave signals differently depending on their frequency -- a characteristic known as dispersion , delays measured on two or more frequency bands can be used to measure dispersion , and this measurement can then be used to estimate the delay at each frequency . The principal source of the dispersion comes from the total electron content ( TEC ) in the ionosphere , along the line of sight from the satellite to the receiver . Because it is difficult to measure the TEC along the line of sight , instead a prediction can be made using a simplified model of the ionosphere . This model assumes that the ionosphere is a thin , uniform-density shell about the earth , located near the mean altitude H of maximum TEC ( approx . 350 km ) . Using geometry , a slant intersection with this shell model can be determined and a vertical TEC measurement inferred . The intersection between line of sight and this shell is called the ionospheric pierce point ( IPP ) . It perpendicular projection onto earth 's surface is called subionospheric point .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Ionospheric_pierce_point",
"rank": 98,
"score": 71054
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth System Grid Content: The Earth System Grid ( ESG ) is a data distribution portal whose development is funded mainly by the -LSB- United States Department of Energy -RSB- . It is the portal through which the Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is distributing data for the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and the 2014 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Earth_System_Grid",
"rank": 99,
"score": 70690
},
{
"content": "Title: Vincent R. Gray Content: __ NOTOC __ Vincent Richard Gray ( born 24 March 1922 ) is a New Zealand-based chemist , and a founder of the New Zealand Climate Science Coalition . Born in London on 24 March 1922 , Gray was awarded a PhD in physical chemistry by the University of Cambridge after studies on incendiary bomb fluids made from aluminium soaps . In New Zealand , he was the first Director of Building Research and later , Chief Chemist of the Coal Research Association . He has also published many articles and reports , seven in peer-reviewed journals . After retirement , he had four and a half years in China and when he returned became a critic of the claim that climate was harmed by human emissions of greenhouse gases . He has commented on every publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , with 1,898 comments on the 2007 Report . He has published critical studies on all of the reports including a book `` The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of ` Climate Change 2001 ' '' . He has published `` Confessions of a Climate Sceptic '' He is sceptical of the anthropogenic global warming : `` The two main `` scientific '' claims of the IPCC are the claim that `` the globe is warming '' and `` Increases in carbon dioxide emissions are responsible '' . Evidence for both of these claims is fatally flawed . '' Gray has called for the IPCC to be abolished , claiming it is `` fundamentally corrupt '' due to his conclusion that for significant parts of the work of the IPCC , the data collection and scientific methods employed are unsound and that the IPCC resists all efforts to try to discuss or rectify these problems . Gray was featured on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation program Counterpoint in a debate entitled `` Nine Lies about Global Warming '' , and was interviewed in a featured story in the New Zealand Herald as a `` prominent '' global warming skeptic . In 2002 , Gray also published a book , The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of `` Climate Change 2001 '' . In it , Gray argues `` that the quality and reliability of the IPCC 's measurements are poor , the system of determining how much weight should be attributed to different influences on the earth 's temperature is faulty , and the validity of evidence derived from computer modeling is questionable . ''",
"qid": "79",
"docid": "Vincent_R._Gray",
"rank": 100,
"score": 70308
}
] |
The atmospheric residency time of carbon dioxide is five years | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 1,
"score": 109984
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 2,
"score": 107719
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 3,
"score": 107218
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 4,
"score": 101215
},
{
"content": "Title: PGY Content: PGY , short for postgraduate year , refers to a North American numerical scheme denoting the progress of postgraduate dental , medicine , podiatry or pharmacy residents in their residency programs . It is used to stratify responsibility in most training programs and to determine salary . The grade of the resident is denoted with a numeral after the PGY designation , such as PGY-3 for a third-year resident . The length of residency depends mostly on the field a graduate chooses to take . Medical specialties such as family medicine and internal medicine often requires three years , whereas surgery usually requires a minimum of five , and neurological surgery is the longest at seven years . Subspecialization ( vascular or orthopedic spine surgery as a branch of surgery , for example ) in any field will add time to postgraduate training . For more information on specific medical residency programs , see the American Medical Association 's Fellowship and Residency Electronic Interactive Database . Dental residencies for general practice , known as GPRs , are generally one year , with a possibility of a second year at some facilities . Dental specialties , such as orthodontics , require 2-4 years , while oral and maxillofacial surgery requires 4-6 years . Some specialty programs require that applicants have completed at least a one-year GPR residency , while other programs require applicants to have some private practice experience as a general dentist . Regardless of requirements , completing a GPR residency will make an applicant more competitive for any specialty program . Medical physics residencies range between 2 and 4 years , with at least 2 years fulfilling the necessary clinical experience . Completion of a CAMPEP-accredited residency allows one to sit for board examinations administered through the American Board of Radiology . PGY-3 , and/or if also available 4 , generally consist of scholarly research years , akin to a postdoctoral research position . Residencies options are either radiation oncology physics or medical imaging . Pharmacy residencies are usually one year , but a PGY-2 can be completed , often as an option , for pharmacy specialties such as critical care , cardiology , oncology , etc. . In some teaching institutions , trainees are required to indicate level of training on all signatures ( John Doe , M.D. , PGY-1 or R-1 ) . Residencies are also offered for those in the physician assistant profession in a variety of specialties such as surgery and emergency medicine . Internships and Residencies are also offered for those who have completed graduate education in psychology known as interns and post - doc fellows .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "PGY",
"rank": 5,
"score": 96337
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 6,
"score": 94329
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 7,
"score": 94145
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory",
"rank": 8,
"score": 92866
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 9,
"score": 90163
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 10,
"score": 89974
},
{
"content": "Title: 5 Years Time Content: `` 5 Years Time '' , also known as `` 5 Years Time ( Sun Sun Sun ) '' is a song released by English folk rock band Noah and the Whale . It was originally released in 2007 , but it later was re-released on 4 August 2008 , and became their first top-ten hit .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "5_Years_Time",
"rank": 11,
"score": 89004
},
{
"content": "Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "TanSat",
"rank": 12,
"score": 88729
},
{
"content": "Title: Permafrost carbon cycle Content: The Permafrost Carbon Cycle is a sub-cycle of the larger global carbon cycle . Permafrost is defined as subsurface material that remains below 0o C ( 32o F ) for at least two consecutive years . Because permafrost soils remain frozen for long periods of time , they store large amounts of carbon and other nutrients within their frozen framework during that time . Permafrost represents a large carbon reservoir that is seldom considered when determining global terrestrial carbon reservoirs . Recent and ongoing scientific research however , is changing this view . The permafrost carbon cycle ( Arctic Carbon Cycle ) deals with the transfer of carbon from permafrost soils to terrestrial vegetation and microbes , to the atmosphere , back to vegetation , and finally back to permafrost soils through burial and sedimentation due to cryogenic processes . Some of this carbon is transferred to the ocean and other portions of the globe through the global carbon cycle . The cycle includes the exchange of carbon dioxide and methane between terrestrial components and the atmosphere , as well as the transfer of carbon between land and water as methane , dissolved organic carbon , dissolved inorganic carbon , particulate inorganic carbon and particulate organic carbon .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Permafrost_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 13,
"score": 88464
},
{
"content": "Title: 5 Years Content: 5 Years or Five Years may refer to :",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "5_Years",
"rank": 14,
"score": 88427
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 15,
"score": 87972
},
{
"content": "Title: RuBisCO Content: Ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase , commonly known by the abbreviations RuBisCO , RuBPCase , or RuBPco , is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation , a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose . In chemical terms , it catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ( also known as RuBP ) . It is probably the most abundant enzyme on Earth .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "RuBisCO",
"rank": 16,
"score": 87901
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_profiling",
"rank": 17,
"score": 87700
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network",
"rank": 18,
"score": 87457
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 19,
"score": 87101
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 20,
"score": 87003
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 21,
"score": 86519
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Atmosphere",
"rank": 22,
"score": 86414
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_Engineering",
"rank": 23,
"score": 85512
},
{
"content": "Title: Permanent residence (United States) Content: United States lawful permanent residency , informally known as green card , is the immigration status of a person authorized to live and work in the United States of America permanently . Green cards are valid for 10 years for permanent residents , and 2 years for conditional permanent residents . After this period , the card must be renewed or replaced . The application process may take several years . An immigrant usually has to go through a three-step process to get permanent residency that includes petition and processing . A United States Permanent Resident Card ( USCIS Form I-551 ) , formerly known as Alien Registration Card or Alien Registration Receipt Card ( INS Form I-151 ) , is an identification card attesting to the permanent resident status of an alien in the United States . Owing to its green design from 1946 until 1964 , it is known informally as a `` green card '' , a nickname it retained even after the color was changed . The card was restored to green in 2010 . `` Green card '' also refers to an immigration process of becoming a permanent resident . The green card serves as proof that its holder , a lawful permanent resident ( LPR ) , has been officially granted immigration benefits , including permission to reside and take employment in the United States . The holder must maintain permanent resident status , and can be removed from the United States if certain conditions of this status are not met . Green cards were formerly issued by the Immigration and Naturalization Service ( INS ) . The Homeland Security Act of 2002 ( Pub . L. No. 107 -- 296 , 116 Stat . 2135 ) dismantled INS and separated the former agency into three components within the Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) . The first , the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services ( USCIS ) , handles applications for immigration benefits . Two other agencies were created to oversee the INS 's former functions of immigration enforcement : U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement ( ICE ) and U.S. Customs and Border Protection ( CBP ) , respectively . Permanent residents of the United States eighteen years of age or older must carry their actual green card at all times . Failing to do so is a violation of the Immigration and Nationality Act , carrying the possibility of a fine up to $ 100 and/or imprisonment for up to 30 days for each offense . Only the federal government can impose these penalties . Cards issued between January 1977 and August 1989 do not have document numbers or expiration dates and are valid indefinitely .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Permanent_residence_(United_States)",
"rank": 24,
"score": 85039
},
{
"content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 25,
"score": 84365
},
{
"content": "Title: Permanent residency in Canada Content: Permanent residence of Canada is a status of a person who is not a Canadian citizen but who has been granted permission to live and work in Canada without any time limit on their stay . To become a permanent resident , a foreign national must make an application to Immigration , Refugees and Citizenship Canada ( IRCC ) , formerly known as Citizenship and Immigration Canada . A permanent resident must live in Canada for two years out of every five , or risk losing that status .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Permanent_residency_in_Canada",
"rank": 26,
"score": 84290
},
{
"content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Amorphous_carbonia",
"rank": 27,
"score": 83655
},
{
"content": "Title: Jacques Beaulieu Content: For the Canadian ice hockey coach , seeJacques Beaulieu ( ice hockey ) Jacques A. Beaulieu , ( born April 15 , 1932 ) is a Canadian physicist who invented the first transversely excited atmospheric carbon dioxide laser or TEA laser in 1968 . In 1978 , he was awarded the Royal Society of Canada 's Thomas W. Eadie Medal . In 2002 , he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada in recognition of his `` major influence on the development of lasers and their application in the fields of defence and medicine '' . In 1999 , he was made a Grand Officer of the National Order of Quebec . In 1980 , he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Jacques_Beaulieu",
"rank": 28,
"score": 83610
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling (disambiguation) Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that depicts the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the twentieth century . It is named after Charles David Keeling who discovered the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations and plotted the graph . Keeling may also refer to : Keeling , Virginia North Keeling Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Surname Charles Keeling , climatologist Edward Keeling Harold Keeling John Keeling , MP Ralph Keeling , son of Charles , also climatologist William Keeling , English sea captain",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Keeling_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 83029
},
{
"content": "Title: Isotopes of carbon Content: Carbon ( 6C ) has 15 known isotopes , from 8C to 22C , of which 12C and 13C are stable . The longest-lived radioisotope is 14C , with a half-life of 5,700 years . This is also the only carbon radioisotope found in nature -- trace quantities are formed cosmogenically by the reaction 14N + 1n → 14C + 1H . The most stable artificial radioisotope is 11C , which has a half-life of 20.334 minutes . All other radioisotopes have half-lives under 20 seconds , most less than 200 milliseconds . The least stable isotope is 8C , with a half-life of 2.0 x 10 − 21 s.",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Isotopes_of_carbon",
"rank": 30,
"score": 82783
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 31,
"score": 82480
},
{
"content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Biosequestration",
"rank": 32,
"score": 82370
},
{
"content": "Title: Long-term resident (European Union) Content: A long-term resident in the European Union is a person who is not a citizen of an EU country but has resided legally and continuously within its territory for five years with a means of support ( i.e. without recourse to the social assistance system of the host country ) and fulfills some further requirements , as defined in Directive 2003/109/EC . The status permits the holder some of the rights of free movement afforded to EU/EEA citizens in the participating countries ; not all EU countries participate in implementing the Directive . The implementation of the directive is left to the participating countries , with some national variations in the requirements for and benefits of long-term resident status .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Long-term_resident_(European_Union)",
"rank": 33,
"score": 81609
},
{
"content": "Title: Noble-Relay Teaching Residency Content: The Noble-Relay Teaching Residency is a two-year teaching program offered through the Relay Graduate School of Education in which residents are placed in a campus within the Noble Network of Charter Schools . Second year residents transition into a full-time paid teaching position and have the opportunity to earn a Masters of Arts in Teaching . Eligible graduate students can receive teaching state licensure from Illinois State Board of Education ( ISBE ) .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Noble-Relay_Teaching_Residency",
"rank": 34,
"score": 81368
},
{
"content": "Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "C._Kumar_N._Patel",
"rank": 35,
"score": 81079
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 36,
"score": 80787
},
{
"content": "Title: Five Years Content: `` Five Years '' is a song written by David Bowie , recorded on 15 November 1971 , and released as the opening track on the album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars in 1972 . The song tells of an Earth doomed to destruction in five years and the aftermath of this knowledge . Bowie is rumoured to have chosen the length of time , five years , as a result of a dream in which his deceased father told him he must never fly again and would die in five years . The `` market square '' , referred to in the opening line , is Aylesbury market square , in Buckinghamshire , England . Bowie debuted both the Hunky Dory and The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars albums at Friars Club , in the town , and is reputed to have formed the Spiders there , following the `` Hunky Dory '' gig . Allmusic describe the track as `` easily one of the greatest album-opening songs ever '' .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Five_Years",
"rank": 37,
"score": 80759
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_sink",
"rank": 38,
"score": 80502
},
{
"content": "Title: Paul Wennberg Content: Paul O. Wennberg is the R. Stanton Avery Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry and Environmental Science and Engineering at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) . He is the director of the Ronald and Maxine Linde Center for Global Environmental Science . He is chair of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network and a founding member of the Orbiting Carbon Observatory project , which created NASA 's first spacecraft for analysis of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . He is also the principal investigator for the Mars Atmospheric Trace Molecule Occultation Spectrometer ( MATMOS ) to investigate trace gases in Mars 's atmosphere . Wennberg 's research focuses on the atmospheric chemistry of planets , including air quality , photochemistry , and the carbon cycle . He designs and builds remote-sensing and in-situ scientific instruments which are used in field investigations supported by the National Science Foundation and NASA . His scientific instruments have made it possible to measure radicals in the atmosphere at concentrations that could not previously be detected . He measures atmospheric trace gases , making it possible to accurately describe the exchange of carbon dioxide and other gases between the atmosphere and the land and ocean . His research has substantially advanced understanding of the atmospheric chemistry of the troposphere and the stratosphere .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Paul_Wennberg",
"rank": 39,
"score": 80426
},
{
"content": "Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network",
"rank": 40,
"score": 80063
},
{
"content": "Title: Five Years (book) Content: Five Years is an autobiographical collection of Paul Goodman 's notebooks between 1955 and 1960 .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Five_Years_(book)",
"rank": 41,
"score": 79994
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 42,
"score": 79966
},
{
"content": "Title: Five Years (1969–1973) Content: Five Years ( 1969 -- 1973 ) is a box set by David Bowie , released in September 2015 . The period of Bowie 's career from 1969 to 1973 is summarised over twelve discs and thirteen LPs . Exclusive to the box sets is Re : Call 1 , a new compilation of non-album singles , single versions and B-sides . It includes the albums David Bowie ( more commonly known as Space Oddity ) , The Man Who Sold the World , Hunky Dory , The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars , Aladdin Sane and the last Spiders album with Bowie PinUps . The albums cover the 5 years of Bowie 's rise to stardom , with the box set also including Live Santa Monica ' 72 , the last Ziggy Stardust show at the Hammersmith Odeon and the 2003 Ken Scott mix of Ziggy Stardust , previously only available on the 2003 SACD edition and the DVD-Audio on the 2012 40th anniversary edition of the album . The box set comes with a companion book featuring rarely seen photos , recording essays from producers Tony Visconti and Ken Scott , original press reviews and a short foreword by Ray Davies of The Kinks .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Five_Years_(1969–1973)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 79773
},
{
"content": "Title: Mean residence time Content: The mean residence time ( MRT ) in pharmacokinetics is the average amount of time that a single molecule of drug stays in the body . It is defined as the sum of all the residence times ( the amount of time that an individual molecule of drug stays in the body ) divided by the number of molecules .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Mean_residence_time",
"rank": 44,
"score": 79718
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Charles_David_Keeling",
"rank": 45,
"score": 79396
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 46,
"score": 79274
},
{
"content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike",
"rank": 47,
"score": 79194
},
{
"content": "Title: Resident – 5-nin no Kenshui Content: is a 2012 Japanese television drama series .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Resident_–_5-nin_no_Kenshui",
"rank": 48,
"score": 79156
},
{
"content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 49,
"score": 78841
},
{
"content": "Title: Crystal Geyser Content: Crystal Geyser is located on the east bank of the Green River approximately 4.5 mi downstream from Green River , Utah , United States . It is a rare example of a cold-water carbon dioxide driven geyser ; geothermal activity does not play a role in the activity of the geyser . The ground water near the geyser has significant quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide , along with substantial underground gas accumulations in the surrounding area . Saturation of the aquifer with creates enough pressure to force groundwater through the geyser and out on to the surface . The geyser erupts sometimes to a height of 130 ft or more . During 2005 , a study of the timing of the eruptions found them to be bimodal . About 66 % of eruptions in the study occurred about 8 hours after the previous eruption , and the rest about 22 hours after . The geyser erupts for an average of one hundred minutes a day , with eruptions either lasting 7 -- 32 minutes , or 98 -- 113 minutes . The bimodal distribution of eruptions is not a well-understood pattern , but is found in other geysers , both cold-water and otherwise . Between eruption events , the water level is approximately seventeen feet below the surface of the geyser -- at the level of the water table . In the preface to an eruption , water surfaces , fills the pond around the geyser , and begins to bubble . Bubbling events occur with increasing frequency in the time leading up to an eruption , but are not constant ; bubbling events last for a few minutes , with a few minutes of calm in between . Bubbling events at the main geyser also frequently alternate with bubbling events at natural side-pools . The current form of the geyser was created by an exploration well drilled in 1935 in attempt to locate oil . The well was originally 2600 ft deep , but an earlier owner of the land partially filled it in , meaning that the well is now only a couple hundred metres deep . The area surrounding the modern geyser is covered in a thick layer of orange travertine . Near the river , adjacent to the modern orange travertine , are substantial deposits of white travertine , perhaps reflecting the original depositional environment of the geyser ( before the exploratory well was drilled . ) The first written record of Crystal Geyser comes from the report of the Powell Geographic Expedition of 1869 , July 13 , 1869 : We stop to examine some interesting rocks , deposited by mineral springs that at one time must have existed here , but which are no longer flowing ...",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Crystal_Geyser",
"rank": 50,
"score": 78694
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate",
"rank": 51,
"score": 78217
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Mars",
"rank": 52,
"score": 78211
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 53,
"score": 77872
},
{
"content": "Title: Five-year plan Content: Five-year plan may refer to :",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Five-year_plan",
"rank": 54,
"score": 77517
},
{
"content": "Title: Five Long Years Content: `` Five Long Years '' is a song written and recorded by blues vocalist/pianist Eddie Boyd in 1952 . Called one of the `` few postwar blues standards -LSB- that has -RSB- retained universal appeal '' , Boyd 's `` Five Long Years '' reached number one on the Billboard R&B chart . Numerous blues and other artists have recorded interpretations of the song .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Five_Long_Years",
"rank": 55,
"score": 77503
},
{
"content": "Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Gilbert_Plass",
"rank": 56,
"score": 77360
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_monoxide",
"rank": 57,
"score": 77281
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon intensity Content: This article lists countries by their carbon intensity . Carbon intensity is defined as a country 's annual carbon dioxide emissions divided by the country 's gross domestic product . National incomes are calculated using market exchange rates ( MER ) and purchasing power parities ( PPP ) . Units are metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity",
"rank": 58,
"score": 77225
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_retirement",
"rank": 59,
"score": 77132
},
{
"content": "Title: Resident. Two Years of Oakenfold at Cream. Content: Resident . Two Years of Oakenfold at Cream . is a DJ mix album by Paul Oakenfold .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Resident._Two_Years_of_Oakenfold_at_Cream.",
"rank": 60,
"score": 77118
},
{
"content": "Title: 1,3,5-Trioxanetrione Content: The chemical compound 1,3,5-trioxanetrione , or 1,3,5-trioxacyclohexane-2 ,4,6 - trione is a hypothetical oxide of carbon with formula C3O6 . It can be considered a cyclic trimer of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or as a triple ketone of 1,3,5-trioxane ( 1,3,5-trioxacyclohexane ) . Theoretical calculations indicate that the compound is unstable at room temperature ( half-life less than 8 seconds ) ; but may be stable at -196 ° C.",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "1,3,5-Trioxanetrione",
"rank": 61,
"score": 76397
},
{
"content": "Title: Cook Islands permanent residency Content: Cook Islands permanent residents are residents of the Cook Islands who hold permanent residency visas and who are not ethnic Cook Islanders . By law , a maximum of 650 Cook Islands Permanent Residence certificates may be in effect at any one moment ( excluding certificates issued to spouses of Cook Islanders or Cook Islands permanent residents who have been married for at least five years ) . Therefore , after applying for permanent residency in the Cook Islands , a person may have to wait for a length of time before a Permanent Residence certificate is issued to him or her .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Cook_Islands_permanent_residency",
"rank": 62,
"score": 76339
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide transmission rate Content: Carbon dioxide transmission rate ( COTR ) is the measurement of the amount of carbon dioxide gas that passes through a substance over a given period . It is mostly carried out on non-porous materials , where the mode of transport is diffusion , but there are a growing number of applications where the transmission rate also depends on flow through apertures of some description .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_transmission_rate",
"rank": 63,
"score": 76325
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon cycle Content: The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere , pedosphere , geosphere , hydrosphere , and atmosphere of the Earth . Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone . Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle , the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life . It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere , as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks . The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges ( incomes and losses ) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop ( e.g. , atmosphere and biosphere ) of the carbon cycle . An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide . The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier , and popularized by Humphry Davy .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_cycle",
"rank": 64,
"score": 76319
},
{
"content": "Title: Controlled atmosphere Content: A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen , as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated . Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Controlled_atmosphere",
"rank": 65,
"score": 76213
},
{
"content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Scott_Denning",
"rank": 66,
"score": 76107
},
{
"content": "Title: Malaysia My Second Home Content: The Malaysia My Second Home program ( commonly abbreviated `` MM2H '' ) is an international residency scheme enacted by the Government of Malaysia to allow foreigners to live in the country on a long-stay visa of up to 10 years . To qualify for the program , applicants must meet certain financial and medical criteria . Successful applicants are then entitled to enter and leave the country on a largely unrestricted basis , and also benefit from other incentives aimed at making their stay in Malaysia more convenient . Certain restrictions may apply .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Malaysia_My_Second_Home",
"rank": 67,
"score": 76055
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_scrubber",
"rank": 68,
"score": 75965
},
{
"content": "Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World",
"rank": 69,
"score": 75848
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 70,
"score": 75708
},
{
"content": "Title: Carboxysome Content: Carboxysomes are bacterial organelles consisting of polyhedral protein shells filled with the enzyme Ribulose-1 ,5 - biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase ( RuBisCO ) - the predominant enzyme in carbon fixation and the rate limiting enzyme in the Calvin Cycle-and a carbonic anhydrase . Carboxysomes are thought to have evolved as a consequence of the increase in oxygen concentration in the ancient atmosphere ; this is because oxygen is a competing substrate to carbon dioxide in the RuBisCO reaction . To overcome the inefficiency of RuBisCO , carboxysomes concentrate carbon dioxide inside the shell by means of co-localized carbonic anhydrase activity , which produces carbon dioxide from the bicarbonate that diffuses into the carboxysome . The resulting production of carbon dioxide near RuBisCO decreases the proportion of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate oxygenation and thereby avoids costly photorespiratory reactions . The surrounding shell provides a barrier to carbon dioxide loss , helping to increase its concentration around RuBisCO . The carboxysome is an essential part of the carbon-concentrating mechanism ( CCM ) . Carboxysomes are the best studied example of a bacterial microcompartment ( BMC ) , the term for functionally diverse organelles that are alike in having a protein shell .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carboxysome",
"rank": 71,
"score": 75658
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 72,
"score": 75588
},
{
"content": "Title: Before Present Content: Before Present ( BP ) years is a time scale used mainly in geology and other scientific disciplines to specify when events occurred in the past . Because the `` present '' time changes , standard practice is to use 1 January 1950 as commencement date of the age scale , reflecting the fact that radiocarbon dating became practical in the 1950s . The abbreviation `` BP '' , with the same meaning , has also been interpreted as `` Before Physics '' ; that is , before nuclear weapons testing artificially altered the proportion of the carbon isotopes in the atmosphere , making dating after that time likely to be unreliable .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Before_Present",
"rank": 73,
"score": 75441
},
{
"content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Revelle_factor",
"rank": 74,
"score": 75398
},
{
"content": "Title: Robert Berner Content: Robert Arbuckle Berner ( November 25 , 1935 -- January 10 , 2015 ) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the modeling of the carbon cycle . He taught Geology and Geophysics from 1965 to 2007 at Yale University , where he latterly served as Professor Emeritus until his death . His work on sedimentary rocks led to the co-founding of the BLAG model of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which takes into account both geochemical and biological contributions to the carbon cycle .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Robert_Berner",
"rank": 75,
"score": 75343
},
{
"content": "Title: Huronian glaciation Content: The Huronian glaciation ( or Makganyene glaciation ) was a glaciation that extended from 2.4 billion years ago ( Ga ) to 2.1 Ga , during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era . The Huronian glaciation followed after the Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE ) , a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane . The oxygen combined with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water , which does not retain heat as well as methane does . It is the oldest and longest ice age , occurring at a time when , in a biological sense , only simple , unicellular life existed on Earth . This ice age led to a mass-extinction on Earth .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Huronian_glaciation",
"rank": 76,
"score": 75339
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 77,
"score": 75234
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 78,
"score": 75059
},
{
"content": "Title: Urban Teacher Residency Content: Urban Teacher Residency ( UTR ) is an innovative teacher-training program targeting specific high-needs school districts in urban areas . Reminiscent of medical residency models , UTR combines academic coursework with experiential learning under a teacher mentor . UTR programs work with partner universities and area school districts , giving aspiring teachers an opportunity to earn a master 's degree while gaining first-hand teaching experience in a public school under the supervision of a veteran teacher . Models differ slightly between programs because they are specialized for the areas they serve . Teachers agree to serve at least three years in the classroom after they complete this residency .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Urban_Teacher_Residency",
"rank": 79,
"score": 74846
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 80,
"score": 74843
},
{
"content": "Title: Fermentation in winemaking Content: The process of fermentation in winemaking turns grape juice into an alcoholic beverage . During fermentation , yeasts transform sugars present in the juice into ethanol and carbon dioxide ( as a by-product ) . In winemaking , the temperature and speed of fermentation are important considerations as well as the levels of oxygen present in the must at the start of the fermentation . The risk of stuck fermentation and the development of several wine faults can also occur during this stage , which can last anywhere from 5 to 14 days for primary fermentation and potentially another 5 to 10 days for a secondary fermentation . Fermentation may be done in stainless steel tanks , which is common with many white wines like Riesling , in an open wooden vat , inside a wine barrel and inside the wine bottle itself as in the production of many sparkling wines .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Fermentation_in_winemaking",
"rank": 81,
"score": 74821
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon pentoxide Content: Carbon pentaoxide or carbon pentoxide is an unstable molecular oxide of carbon . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule has a C2 symmetry . It consists of a five membered ring with one carbon and four oxygen atoms . A fifth oxygen atom has a double bond to the carbon . Calculation has resulted in a theoretical structure . The pentagon is not regular , but varies in the length of its sides and angles . The distance between the oxygen atoms that are not attached to carbon is 1.406 Å , whereas the distance between one of these atoms and an oxygen attached to carbon is 1.457 Å . The carbon oxygen bond length is 1.376 Å . The double carbon to oxygen bond is the shortest at 1.180 Å . There is no carbon-to-carbon bond as there is only one carbon atom . The OOO bond angle is 100.2 ° and the OOC angle is 109.1 ° . The OCO bond angle is 125.4 ° .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_pentoxide",
"rank": 82,
"score": 74416
},
{
"content": "Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Katsuko_Saruhashi",
"rank": 83,
"score": 74305
},
{
"content": "Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Kenneth_Hare",
"rank": 84,
"score": 74125
},
{
"content": "Title: Australian permanent resident Content: Australian permanent residents are residents of Australia who hold a permanent residency visa but are not citizens of Australia . A holder of a permanent residency visa may remain in Australia indefinitely . A 5-year initial visa , which corresponds to the underlying migration program , is granted alongside the permanent residency . Until the initial visa expires , the visa holder may leave and re-enter Australia freely . A notable feature of the permanent residency visa is that , even after the initial visa expires , the holder is entitled to stay in Australia indefinitely without breaching immigration regulations . Permanent residency may be revoked at the discretion of the responsible Minister , for example in cases of criminal misconduct . Permanent residents enjoy many of the rights and privileges of citizens , including access to free or subsidised legal and health services . They do not have the right to vote in federal or state/territory elections , unless they were registered to vote prior to 1984 , but may vote in some local government elections . Permanent residents are not entitled to an Australian passport . Most permanent residents are eligible to become citizens after a waiting period . When the waiting period is complete , the process of sitting the citizenship test and attending the ceremony will add an additional three to twelve months .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Australian_permanent_resident",
"rank": 85,
"score": 74067
},
{
"content": "Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Capnophile",
"rank": 86,
"score": 73814
},
{
"content": "Title: 5 Alive! Content: 5 Alive ! is the first live album released by the band Carbon Leaf . It was recorded over five concerts in the autumn and winter of 2002 and released in 2003 on the band 's own label , Constant Ivy Music . It is their last release on their own label prior to signing with Vanguard Records in 2004 .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "5_Alive!",
"rank": 87,
"score": 73680
},
{
"content": "Title: Residence time (statistics) Content: In statistics , the residence time is the average amount of time it takes for a random process to reach a certain boundary value , usually a boundary far from the mean .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Residence_time_(statistics)",
"rank": 88,
"score": 73516
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 89,
"score": 73508
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonic maceration Content: Carbonic maceration is a winemaking technique , often associated with the French wine region of Beaujolais , in which whole grapes are fermented in a carbon dioxide rich environment prior to crushing . Conventional alcoholic fermentation involves crushing the grapes to free the juice and pulp from the skin with yeast serving to convert sugar into ethanol . Carbonic maceration ferments most of the juice while it is still inside the grape , although grapes at the bottom of the vessel are crushed by gravity and undergo conventional fermentation . The resulting wine is fruity with very low tannins . It is ready to drink quickly but lacks the structure for long-term aging . In the most extreme case , such as with Beaujolais nouveau , the period between picking and bottling can be less than six weeks . During carbonic maceration , an anaerobic environment is created by pumping carbon dioxide into a sealed container filled with whole grape clusters . The carbon dioxide gas permeates through the grape skins and begins to stimulate fermentation at an intracellular level . The entire process takes place inside each single , intact berry . Ethanol is produced as a by-product of this process but studies have shown that other unique chemical reactions take place that have a distinctive effect on the wine .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbonic_maceration",
"rank": 90,
"score": 73438
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 91,
"score": 73429
},
{
"content": "Title: Free-air concentration enrichment Content: Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment ( FACE ) is a method used by ecologists and plant biologists that raises the concentration of in a specified area and allows the response of plant growth to be measured . Experiments using FACE are required because most studies looking at the effect of elevated concentrations have been conducted in labs and where there are many missing factors including plant competition . Measuring the effect of elevated using FACE is a better way of estimating how plant growth will change in the future as the concentration rises in the atmosphere . FACE also allows the effect of elevated on plants that can not be grown in small spaces ( trees for example ) to be measured .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Free-air_concentration_enrichment",
"rank": 92,
"score": 73336
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Carbon_shifting",
"rank": 93,
"score": 73332
},
{
"content": "Title: Veterinary specialties Content: A veterinary specialist is a veterinarian who specializes in a clinical field of veterinary medicine . Most specialties require a 1-year internship or 2 years of clinical practice prior to beginning a residency of 3 -- 4 years ' duration . Most specialties require the resident to produce some academic contribution ( often in the form of a scientific publication ) in order to qualify to sit the certifying examination . Admission or entry into a Veterinary Specialty residency program is quite competitive in the United States and Canada . A veterinarian needs to complete a 1 year internship or , for some residency programs , have 2 years of clinical experience . A Veterinary Specialist may be consulted when an animal 's condition requires specialized care above and beyond that which a regular veterinarian can offer . Many Veterinary Specialists require a referral in order to be seen . After treatment , a Veterinary Specialist may stay in close contact with the referring veterinarian to provide ongoing treatment suggestions and advice . Veterinary specialists may earn 2-3 times more than general practice veterinarians .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Veterinary_specialties",
"rank": 94,
"score": 73322
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Venus",
"rank": 95,
"score": 73318
},
{
"content": "Title: V.E. Zuev Institute of Atmospheric Optics Content: The V.E. Zuev Institute of Atmospheric Optics is a Russian research organisation based in Tomsk . Its purpose is to study the atmosphere . The Laboratory of Optical Signals Propagation gathers satellite data on aerosols , ozone , and Earth reflectivity over Siberia . The Laboratory of Aerosol Optics collects information on temperature , humidity , soot , and atmospheric scattering at Tomsk . The TOR Station measures gas constituents in the atmosphere , in cluding carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide , ozone , nitrogen oxides , methane and hydrogen sulfide at two locations . The Siberian lidar station can measure the temperature in the stratosphere and troposphere . Aerosol particle size is measured by using six different wavelengths for the laser . The institute was founded in 1969 by Vladimir Yevseyevich Zuev who became its director . The parent organisation was the Laboratory of Infrared Radiations of the Siberian Physical-Technical Institute of the Tomsk State University . A journal is published called Atmospheric and Oceanic Optics .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "V.E._Zuev_Institute_of_Atmospheric_Optics",
"rank": 96,
"score": 73307
},
{
"content": "Title: Andrew Watson (scientist) Content: Andrew James Watson FRS ( born 1952 ) is a British marine and atmospheric scientist and an expert in processes affecting atmospheric carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations . He was formerly a Professor of biogeochemistry in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia , in 2013 he moved to a position as Professor at the College of Life and Environmental Sciences at the University of Exeter .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Andrew_Watson_(scientist)",
"rank": 97,
"score": 73298
},
{
"content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 98,
"score": 73284
},
{
"content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Black_carbon",
"rank": 99,
"score": 73255
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "82",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 100,
"score": 73203
}
] |
Sea-level rise does not seem to depend on ocean temperature, and certainly not on CO2 | [
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 1,
"score": 138703
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 2,
"score": 133417
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 3,
"score": 115374
},
{
"content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 4,
"score": 111773
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 5,
"score": 108708
},
{
"content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Josh_Willis",
"rank": 6,
"score": 106550
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Ocean_heat_content",
"rank": 7,
"score": 105771
},
{
"content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Past_sea_level",
"rank": 8,
"score": 105755
},
{
"content": "Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Oceanic_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 9,
"score": 103887
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 10,
"score": 102548
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 11,
"score": 102144
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Sea_level",
"rank": 12,
"score": 101980
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Ocean_acidification",
"rank": 13,
"score": 101688
},
{
"content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis",
"rank": 14,
"score": 95119
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 15,
"score": 94421
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans",
"rank": 16,
"score": 93179
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Sea_surface_temperature",
"rank": 17,
"score": 93038
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Sea_level_equation",
"rank": 18,
"score": 91597
},
{
"content": "Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Katsuko_Saruhashi",
"rank": 19,
"score": 91310
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 20,
"score": 91062
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A",
"rank": 21,
"score": 90451
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1B",
"rank": 22,
"score": 89917
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Tide",
"rank": 23,
"score": 88936
},
{
"content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Duncan_Wingham",
"rank": 24,
"score": 88682
},
{
"content": "Title: Lysocline Content: The lysocline is the depth in the ocean below which the rate of dissolution of calcite increases dramatically . Shallow marine waters are generally supersaturated in calcite , CaCO3 , so as marine organisms ( which often have shells made of calcite or its polymorph , aragonite ) die , they will tend to fall downwards without dissolving . As depth and pressure increases within the water column , the corresponding calcite saturation of seawater decreases and the shells start to dissolve . The reaction involved , though more complex , can be thought of as : CaCO3 ( s ) + H2O + CO2 → Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 − ( aq ) . At the lysocline , the rate of dissolution increases dramatically . Below this , there exists a depth known as the carbonate compensation depth ( CCD ) below which the rate of supply of calcite equals the rate of dissolution , such that no calcite is deposited . This depth is the equivalent of a marine snow-line , and averages about 4,500 meters below sea level . Hence , the lysocline and CCD are not equivalent . The lysocline and compensation depth occur at greater depths in the Atlantic ( 5000-6000 m ) than in the Pacific ( 4000 - 5000 m ) , and at greater depths in equatorial regions than in polar regions . The depth of the CCD varies as a function of the chemical composition of the seawater and its temperature . Specifically , it is the deep waters that are undersaturated with calcium carbonate primarily because its solubility increases strongly with increasing pressure and salinity and decreasing temperature . Furthermore , it is not constant over time , having been globally much shallower in the Cretaceous through to Eocene . If the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide continues to increase , the CCD can be expected to rise , along with the ocean 's acidity .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Lysocline",
"rank": 25,
"score": 88110
},
{
"content": "Title: Free Ocean CO2 Enrichment Content: Free Ocean CO2 Enrichment ( FOCE ) is a technology facilitating studies of the consequences of ocean acidification for marine organisms and communities by enabling the precise control of CO2 enrichment within in situ , partially open , experimental enclosures . Current FOCE systems control experimental CO2 perturbations by real-time monitoring of differences in seawater pH between treatment ( i.e. high-CO2 ) and control ( i.e. ambient ) seawater within experimental enclosures .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Free_Ocean_CO2_Enrichment",
"rank": 26,
"score": 88097
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Marine_transgression",
"rank": 27,
"score": 87995
},
{
"content": "Title: Oceans Will Rise Content: Oceans Will Rise is the third and final album by Montreal indie rock band the Stills , released August 19 , 2008 . In late 2007 , Toronto-based record label Arts & Crafts signed the band to a worldwide recording deal . Once again working with producer Gus Van Go , the group felt , according to vocalist Tim Fletcher , `` a raw energy of inspiration '' during the new album 's recording efforts that was absent in previous sessions . Two tracks , `` Being Here '' and `` Rooibos/Palm Wine Drinkard '' , were first available for download via Spin magazine 's website . Pitchfork noted that the album `` reconciled the mannered 1980s sound that first got them noticed with the open-hearted earthiness of their sophomore effort '' . Oceans Will Rise was awarded a Juno Award for Alternative Album of the Year on March 28 , 2009 . The track `` Everything I Build '' was featured in the 2009 episode `` Rubicon '' of ABC television series Defying Gravity . The track `` I 'm With You '' was featured in an Alexander Keith 's beer commercial in Canada .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Oceans_Will_Rise",
"rank": 28,
"score": 87948
},
{
"content": "Title: Estuarine acidification Content: Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Estuarine_acidification",
"rank": 29,
"score": 86441
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 30,
"score": 86054
},
{
"content": "Title: David Archer (scientist) Content: David Archer is a computational ocean chemist , and has been a professor at the Geophysical Sciences department at the University of Chicago since 1993 . He has published research on the carbon cycle of the ocean and the sea floor . He has worked on the history of atmospheric CO2 concentration , the expectation of fossil fuel CO2 over geologic time scales in the future , and the impact of CO2 on future ice age cycles , ocean methane hydrate decomposition , and coral reefs . He is a contributor to the RealClimate blog .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "David_Archer_(scientist)",
"rank": 31,
"score": 85654
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean current Content: An ocean current is a continuous , directed movement of seawater generated by forces acting upon this mean flow , such as breaking waves , wind , the Coriolis effect , cabbeling , temperature and salinity differences , while tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon . Depth contours , shoreline configurations , and interactions with other currents influence a current 's direction and strength . Therefore ocean currents are primarily horizontal water movements . Ocean currents flow for great distances , and together , create the global conveyor belt which plays a dominant role in determining the climate of many of the Earth 's regions . More specifically , ocean currents influence the temperature of the regions through which they travel . For example , warm currents traveling along more temperate coasts increase the temperature of the area by warming the sea breezes that blow over them . Perhaps the most striking example is the Gulf Stream , which makes northwest Europe much more temperate than any other region at the same latitude . Another example is Lima , Peru where the climate is cooler ( sub-tropical ) than the tropical latitudes in which the area is located , due to the effect of the Humboldt Current .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Ocean_current",
"rank": 32,
"score": 84965
},
{
"content": "Title: Continental rise Content: The continental rise is an underwater feature found between the continental slope and the abyssal plain . This feature can be found all around the world , and it represents the final stage in the boundary between continents and the deepest part of the ocean . The environment in the continental rise is quite unique , and many oceanographers study it extensively in the hopes of learning more about the ocean and geologic history . At the bottom of the continental slope , one will find the continental rise , an underwater hill composed of tons of accumulated sediments . The general slope of the continental rise is between 0.5 degrees and 1.0 degrees . Deposition of sediments at the mouth of submarine canyons may form enormous fan-shaped accumulations called submarine fans . Submarine fans form part of the continental rise . Beyond the continental rise stretches the abyssal plain , an extremely deep and flat area of the sea floor . The abyssal plain hosts many unique life forms which are uniquely adapted to survival in its cold , high pressure , and dark conditions . The flatness of the abyssal plain is interrupted by massive underwater mountain chains near the tectonic boundaries of the Earth 's plates.The sediments are mostly sand and pieces of coral or rock . Category : Oceanography",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Continental_rise",
"rank": 33,
"score": 84679
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth",
"rank": 34,
"score": 84262
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "The_Sea_is_Rising",
"rank": 35,
"score": 83893
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 36,
"score": 83864
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 37,
"score": 83550
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Climate_sensitivity",
"rank": 38,
"score": 83311
},
{
"content": "Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Seamount",
"rank": 39,
"score": 83069
},
{
"content": "Title: Seagaia Ocean Dome Content: The , was one of the world 's largest indoor waterparks , located in Miyazaki , Miyazaki , Japan . The Polynesia-themed Ocean Dome , which was a part of the Sheraton Seagaia Resort , measured 300 metres in length and 100 metres in width , and was listed on the Guinness World Records . It opened in 1993 , and visitor numbers peaked in 1995 at 1.25 million a year . Depending on the season , entrance cost was ¥ 2600 ( $ 21.17 ) for an adult and ¥ 1600 ( $ 13.03 ) for a child . The Ocean Dome was officially closed on October 1 , 2007 as part of a renovation and partial re-branding of the resort . The roof of the structure was retractable in four sections . The Ocean Dome sported a simulated flame-spitting volcano , artificial sand and the world 's largest retractable roof , which provided a permanently blue sky even on a rainy day . The air temperature was always held at around 30 C and the water at around 28 C.",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Seagaia_Ocean_Dome",
"rank": 40,
"score": 82713
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean fertilization Content: Ocean fertilization or ocean nourishment is a type of climate engineering based on the purposeful introduction of nutrients to the upper ocean to increase marine food production and to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . A number of techniques , including fertilization by iron , urea and phosphorus have been proposed .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Ocean_fertilization",
"rank": 41,
"score": 81987
},
{
"content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Revelle_factor",
"rank": 42,
"score": 81981
},
{
"content": "Title: Notothenioidei Content: Notothenioidei is one of 18 suborders from the order Perciformes and includes Antarctic fish and sub-Antarctic fish . Notothenioids are distributed mainly throughout the Southern Ocean around the coasts of New Zealand , South America , and Antarctica . The main seawater temperatures between − 2 and 4 ° C ( 28 and 39 ° F ) , but some the subpolar species inhabit waters that may be as warm as 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) around New Zealand and South America . Seawater temperatures below the freezing point of fresh water ( 0 ° C or 32 ° F ) are possible due to the dissolved salts . Notothenioids have a depth range of about 0 -- 1,500 m ( 0 -- 4,921 ft ) . Comparison studies between sub-Antarctic and Antarctic notothenioids have revealed different ecological processes and genetic differences between the two groups of fish , like loss of hemoglobin and changes in buoyancy .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Notothenioidei",
"rank": 43,
"score": 81966
},
{
"content": "Title: Oceana (band) Content: Oceana is an American rock band from St. Petersburg , Florida . Formed in 2007 and beginning with a post-hardcore sound , they were signed to Rise Records released their debut album titled The Tide on March 4 , 2008 , followed by the album Birth.Eater on May 19 , 2009 . They debuted a lighter indie rock sound with their EP Clean Head released on May 11 , 2010 . While recording their third album , One Big Particular Loop , in 2012 , they reinvented themselves under the name Polyenso .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Oceana_(band)",
"rank": 44,
"score": 81810
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 45,
"score": 81678
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "The_Sea_Has_Risen",
"rank": 46,
"score": 81676
},
{
"content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Equilibrium_level",
"rank": 47,
"score": 81563
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Sea_level_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 48,
"score": 81492
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Coral_in_non-tropical_regions",
"rank": 49,
"score": 81427
},
{
"content": "Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Ghrsst-pp",
"rank": 50,
"score": 81247
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Sea-level_curve",
"rank": 51,
"score": 81072
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis",
"rank": 52,
"score": 80852
},
{
"content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Suess_effect",
"rank": 53,
"score": 80802
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 54,
"score": 80630
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 55,
"score": 80353
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 56,
"score": 79812
},
{
"content": "Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Weddell_Polynya",
"rank": 57,
"score": 79622
},
{
"content": "Title: Heather Willauer Content: Heather D. Willauer ( born 1974 ) is an American analytical chemist and inventor working in Washington , D.C. , at the United States Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) . Leading a research team , Willauer has patented a method for removing carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from seawater , in tandem with hydrogen ( H2 ) removed simultaneously . Willauer is researching catalysts to enable a continuous Fischer -- Tropsch process to recombine carbon monoxide ( CO ) and hydrogen gases into complex hydrocarbon liquids to synthesize jet fuel for Navy and Marine aviation , and fuel for the U.S. Navy 's ships at sea . The work of Willauer 's team of researchers , once the technology is incorporated into the U.S. Navy 's warships in the 2020s , is expected to release such ships from their reliance on vulnerable replenishment oilers to give them indefinite time on station , if they are sailing in mildly acidic seawater . Especially significant is the ability to maintain naval air operations without regular deliveries of jet fuel . A side benefit of the technology is that it will decrease harmful ocean acidification , by removing CO2 from seawater .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Heather_Willauer",
"rank": 58,
"score": 79472
},
{
"content": "Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level",
"rank": 59,
"score": 79298
},
{
"content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "LOWERN",
"rank": 60,
"score": 79249
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep sea creature Content: The term deep sea creature refers to organisms that live below the photic zone of the ocean . These creatures must survive in extremely harsh conditions , such as hundreds of bars of pressure , small amounts of oxygen , very little food , no sunlight , and constant , extreme cold . Most creatures have to depend on food floating down from above . These creatures live in very demanding environments , such as the abyssal or hadal zones , which , being thousands of meters below the surface , are almost completely devoid of light . The water is between 3 and 10 degrees Celsius and has low oxygen levels . Due to the depth , the pressure is between 20 and 1,000 bars . Creatures that live hundreds or even thousands of meters deep in the ocean have adapted to the high pressure , lack of light , and other factors .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Deep_sea_creature",
"rank": 61,
"score": 79209
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 62,
"score": 78724
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 63,
"score": 78664
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Tide_gauge",
"rank": 64,
"score": 78440
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 65,
"score": 78403
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea",
"rank": 66,
"score": 78196
},
{
"content": "Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "East_Pacific_Rise",
"rank": 67,
"score": 78041
},
{
"content": "Title: Ieodo Ocean Research Station Content: Ieodo Ocean Research Station is an ocean platform constructed by South Korea and placed on the submerged Socotra Rock in the East China Sea . The stated purpose of the platform is the collection of meteorological data , provision for maritime safety , and fisheries monitoring . However , as South Korea and China both claim that Socotra Rock lies in their respective Exclusive Economic Zones , the platform does have strategic implications . The platform was officially opened in June 2003 . The platform has a helipad a couple of lower decks for equipment and workspace . Although the station has residential facilities that can comfortably accommodate 8 people for 15 days , the station is typically uninhabited and operated remotely . While Socotra Rock rises to a maximum of 4.6 m below sea level , the platform is founded on a portion of the rock that is substantially deeper at 40m below sea level . As a result , the platform is approximately 700m from the rock 's `` peak . '' The platform rises approximately 36m from sea level .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Ieodo_Ocean_Research_Station",
"rank": 68,
"score": 78025
},
{
"content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Deglaciation",
"rank": 69,
"score": 77970
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Tide_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 70,
"score": 77970
},
{
"content": "Title: Ridge push Content: Ridge push or sliding plate force is a proposed mechanism for plate motion in plate tectonics . Because mid-ocean ridges lie at a higher elevation than the rest of the ocean floor , gravity causes the ridge to push on the lithosphere that lies farther from the ridge . As molten magma rises at a mid-ocean ridge it heats the rocks around it . The heat expelled by the magma expands the lithosphere and asthenosphere at the ridge , pushing them above the surrounding ocean floor . As time passes , the heated rocks cool and their density increases . When this happens gravity pulls the weighty lithosphere away from the mid-ocean ridge , down the sloping asthenosphere , which , in turn , allows new molten magma to well up . This fresh magma will eventually become new lithosphere . The cooling rock exerts a force on spreading lithospheric plates , helping to drive their movements . The force is called ridge push . It can be calculated by the principle of isostasy , making a balance between the mid-ocean ridge and the old ocean floor . Notably , in such a calculation , the force depends only on the temperature of the asthenosphere at the ridge ( the same in all ` normal ' ridges , though higher at hotspots , and not on the spreading rate of the ridge . Another force , that for some plates exceeds ridge-push , is slab pull , where the weight of a subducting slab pulls the plate at the surface along .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Ridge_push",
"rank": 71,
"score": 77734
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 72,
"score": 77418
},
{
"content": "Title: Impacts of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef Content: Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs . The Great Barrier Reef , considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot , is located in Australia . Similar to other coral reefs , it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification . Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which is taken up by the ocean . This process can increase sea surface temperature , decrease aragonite , and lower the pH of the ocean . Calcifying organisms are under risk , due to the resulting lack of aragonite in the water and the decreasing pH. This decreased health of coral reefs , particularly the Great Barrier Reef , can result in reduced biodiversity . Organisms can become stressed due to ocean acidification and the disappearance of healthy coral reefs , such as the Great Barrier Reef , is a loss of habitat for several taxa .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_on_the_Great_Barrier_Reef",
"rank": 73,
"score": 77416
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System",
"rank": 74,
"score": 77120
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Rising_from_the_Sea",
"rank": 75,
"score": 77066
},
{
"content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation",
"rank": 76,
"score": 76964
},
{
"content": "Title: South Tasman Rise Content: The South Tasman Rise is an area of seafloor that lies 550 km south of Hobart , Tasmania in the Southern Ocean where water depths are about 1,500 metres . The South Tasman Rise is also known as the Tasmania Ridge or South Tasmania Ridge .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "South_Tasman_Rise",
"rank": 77,
"score": 76937
},
{
"content": "Title: Sigma-t Content: Sigma-t is a quantity used in oceanography to measure the density of seawater at a given temperature . σT is defined as ρ ( S , T ) -1000 kg m − 3 , where ρ ( S , T ) is the density of a sample of seawater at temperature T and salinity S , measured in kg m − 3 , at standard atmospheric pressure . For example , a water sample with a density of 1.027 g/cm3 has a σT value of 27 .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Sigma-t",
"rank": 78,
"score": 76889
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Content: A sea is a large body of salt water that is surrounded in whole or in part by land . More broadly , `` the sea '' is the interconnected system of Earth 's salty , oceanic waters -- considered as one global ocean or as several principal oceanic divisions . The sea moderates Earth 's climate and has important roles in the water cycle , carbon cycle , and nitrogen cycle . Although the sea has been traveled and explored since prehistory , the modern scientific study of the sea -- oceanography -- dates broadly to the British Challenger expedition of the 1870s . The sea is conventionally divided into up to five large oceanic sections -- including the International Hydrographic Organization 's four named oceans ( the Atlantic , Pacific , Indian , and Arctic ) and the Southern Ocean ; smaller , second-order sections , such as the Mediterranean , are known as seas . Owing to the present state of continental drift , the Northern Hemisphere is now fairly equally divided between land and sea ( a ratio of about 2:3 ) but the South is overwhelmingly oceanic ( 1:4.7 ) . Salinity in the open ocean is generally in a narrow band around 3.5 % by mass , although this can vary in more landlocked waters , near the mouths of large rivers , or at great depths . About 85 % of the solids in the open sea are sodium chloride . Deep-sea currents are produced by differences in salinity and temperature . Surface currents are formed by the friction of waves produced by the wind and by tides , the changes in local sea level produced by the gravity of the Moon and Sun . The direction of all of these is governed by surface and submarine land masses and by the rotation of the Earth ( the Coriolis effect ) . Former changes in sea levels have left continental shelves , shallow areas in the sea close to land . These nutrient-rich waters teem with life , which provide humans with substantial supplies of food -- mainly fish , but also shellfish , mammals , and seaweed -- which are both harvested in the wild and farmed . The most diverse areas surround great tropical coral reefs . Whaling in the deep sea was once common but whales ' dwindling numbers prompted international conservation efforts and finally a moratorium on most commercial hunting . Oceanography has established that not all life is restricted to the sunlit surface waters : even under enormous depths and pressures , nutrients streaming from hydrothermal vents support their own unique ecosystem . Life may have started there and aquatic microbial mats are generally credited with the oxygenation of Earth 's atmosphere ; both plants and animals first evolved in the sea . The sea is an essential aspect of human trade , travel , mineral extraction , and power generation . This has also made it essential to warfare and left major cities exposed to earthquakes and volcanoes from nearby faults ; powerful tsunami waves ; and hurricanes , typhoons , and cyclones produced in the tropics . This importance and duality has affected human culture , from early sea gods to the epic poetry of Homer to the changes induced by the Columbian Exchange , from burial at sea to Basho 's haikus to hyperrealist marine art , and inspiring music ranging from the shanties in The Complaynt of Scotland to Rimsky-Korsakov 's `` The Sea and Sinbad 's Ship '' to A-mei 's `` Listen to the Sea '' . It is the scene of leisure activities including swimming , diving , surfing , and sailing . However , population growth , industrialization , and intensive farming have all contributed to present-day marine pollution . Atmospheric carbon dioxide is being absorbed in increasing amounts , lowering its pH in a process known as ocean acidification . The shared nature of the sea has made overfishing an increasing problem .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Sea",
"rank": 79,
"score": 76867
},
{
"content": "Title: Pressure system Content: A pressure system is a relative peak or lull in the sea level pressure distribution . The surface pressure at sea level varies minimally , with the lowest value measured 87 kPa and the highest recorded 108.57 kPa . High - and low-pressure systems evolve due to interactions of temperature differentials in the atmosphere , temperature differences between the atmosphere and water within oceans and lakes , the influence of upper-level disturbances , as well as the amount of solar heating or radiationized cooling an area receives . Pressure systems cause weather to be experienced locally . Low-pressure systems are associated with clouds and precipitation that minimize temperature changes throughout the day , whereas high-pressure systems normally associate with dry weather and mostly clear skies with larger diurnal temperature changes due to greater radiation at night and greater sunshine during the day . Pressure systems are analyzed by those in the field of meteorology within surface weather maps .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Pressure_system",
"rank": 80,
"score": 76827
},
{
"content": "Title: Spice (oceanography) Content: In oceanography the term spice refers to spatial variations in the temperature and salinity of seawater whose effects on density cancel each other . Such density compensated thermohaline variability is ubiquitous in the upper ocean . Warmer , saltier water is more spicy while cooler , less salty water is more minty . For a density ratio of 1 , all the thermohaline variability is spice , and there are no density fluctuations . Category : Oceanography",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Spice_(oceanography)",
"rank": 81,
"score": 76387
},
{
"content": "Title: PCO2 Content: The PCO2 is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , normally used in reference to blood , but also used in Oceanography to describe the partial pressure of CO2 in the Ocean . Usually the arterial blood is the relevant context ; the symbol for PCO2 in arterial blood is PaCO2 . Measurement of PaCO2 in the systemic circulation indicates the effectiveness of ventilation at the lungs ' alveoli , given the diffusing capacity of the gas . It is a good indicator of respiratory function and the closely related factor of acid -- base homeostasis , reflecting the amount of acid in the blood ( without lactic acid ) .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "PCO2",
"rank": 82,
"score": 76287
},
{
"content": "Title: Atlantic multidecadal oscillation Content: The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) is a climate cycle that affects the sea surface temperature of the North Atlantic Ocean based on different modes on multidecadal timescales . While there is some support for this mode in models and in historical observations , controversy exists with regard to its amplitude , and in particular , the attribution of sea surface temperature change to natural or anthropogenic causes , especially in tropical Atlantic areas important for hurricane development .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Atlantic_multidecadal_oscillation",
"rank": 83,
"score": 76099
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide North America Content: Rising Tide North America is a grassroots network of groups and individuals in North America organizing action against the root causes of climate change and work towards a non-carbon society . Rising Tide North America is part of an international network dedicated to building a climate justice and anti-extraction movement . Rising Tide generally takes a strongly `` no compromise '' stance on the environment and a vehement opposition to solutions proposed by corporations who , they say , are responsible for creating environmental problems in the first place .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_North_America",
"rank": 84,
"score": 75911
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 85,
"score": 75890
},
{
"content": "Title: Chatham Rise Content: The Chatham Rise is an area of ocean floor to the east of New Zealand , forming part of the Zealandia continent . It stretches for some 1000 km from near the South Island in the west , to the Chatham Islands in the east . It is New Zealand 's most productive and important fishing ground , as well as important habitat for whales . Relative to the rest of the Pacific Ocean waters around New Zealand , the Chatham Rise is relatively shallow , no more than 1000 m deep at any point . This shallowness is made more remarkable by the depth of the ocean immediately to the north and south . To the northeast , the Hikurangi Trench , an extension of the much deeper Kermadec Trench , drops to below 3000 m close to the New Zealand coast , and further from the coast the Rise borders on the Hikurangi Plateau . To the south , similar depths are achieved in the Bounty Trough . Past the eastern end of the rise , the sea floor drops away to the abyssal plain .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Chatham_Rise",
"rank": 86,
"score": 75828
},
{
"content": "Title: South Pacific Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project Content: The primary goal of the project is to provide accurate , long term records of the variance of the sea level in the Pacific and South Pacific oceans .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "South_Pacific_Sea_Level_and_Climate_Monitoring_Project",
"rank": 87,
"score": 75674
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 88,
"score": 75510
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 89,
"score": 74958
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 90,
"score": 74483
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian Ocean Dipole Content: The Indian Ocean Dipole ( IOD ) , also known as the Indian Niño , is an irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperatures in which the western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer and then colder than the eastern part of the ocean . Monsoon in India is generally affected by the temperature between bay of Bangal in the east and The Arabian sea in the west",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Indian_Ocean_Dipole",
"rank": 91,
"score": 74369
},
{
"content": "Title: CORA dataset Content: CORA ( standing for Coriolis Ocean database ReAnalysis ) is a global oceanographic temperature and salinity dataset produced and maintained by the French institute IFREMER . Most of those data are real-time data coming from different types of platforms ( research vessels , profilers , underwater gliders , drifting buoys , moored buoys , sea mammals , opportunity ships , ... ) .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "CORA_dataset",
"rank": 92,
"score": 74233
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 93,
"score": 74204
},
{
"content": "Title: Rio Grande Rise Content: The Rio Grande Rise is an aseismic ocean ridge in the southern Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Brazil . Together with the Walvis Ridge off Africa , the Rio Grande Rise forms a V-shaped structure of mirrored hotspot tracks or seamount chains across the northern South Atlantic . In 2013 , Brazilian scientists announced that they found granite boulders on the Rio Grande Rise and speculated that it could be the remains of a submerged continent , which they called the `` Brazilian Atlantis '' . Other researchers , however , noted that such boulders can end-up on the ocean floor by less speculative means .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Rio_Grande_Rise",
"rank": 94,
"score": 74040
},
{
"content": "Title: Lord Howe Rise Content: The Lord Howe Rise is a deep sea plateau which extends from south west of New Caledonia to the Challenger Plateau , west of New Zealand in the south west of the Pacific Ocean . To its west is the Tasman Basin and to the east is the New Caledonia Basin . Lord Howe Rise has a total area of about 1,500,000 square km , and generally lies about 750 to 1,200 metres under water . It is part of Zealandia , a much larger continent that is now mostly submerged , and so is composed of continental crust .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Lord_Howe_Rise",
"rank": 95,
"score": 73967
},
{
"content": "Title: When the Sea Rises Content: When the Sea Rises ( Quand la mer monte ... ) is a 2004 French-Belgian romantic comedy film directed by Yolande Moreau and Gilles Porte . It was Moreau 's directorial debut .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "When_the_Sea_Rises",
"rank": 96,
"score": 73963
},
{
"content": "Title: Irminger Sea Content: The Irminger Sea is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is 480 km long and 290 km wide at its narrowest . The northern limit is the Greenland-Iceland Rise on the bottom of the Denmark Strait between Iceland and East Greenland , which connects to the Greenland Sea . To the southwest , it reaches to Cape Farvel , the southern tip of Greenland , and meets the Labrador Sea at this point . South of this point is the open North Atlantic Ocean . The sea floor of the Irminger Sea is largely part of the Irminger Basin , a northeastern continuation of the maximally 4600 m deep Labrador Basin , which on the east is bordered by the Reykjanes Ridge . This delineation is oceanographic only and does not represent any official borders . The Irminger Sea is one of the main fishing areas of the Rose fish . The Irminger Sea was named after Danish vice-admiral Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger ( 1802 -- 1888 ) , after whom also the Irminger Current was named .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Irminger_Sea",
"rank": 97,
"score": 73803
},
{
"content": "Title: Seawater Content: Seawater , or salt water , is water from a sea or ocean . On average , seawater in the world 's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5 % ( 35 g/L , or 0.600 M ) This means that every kilogram ( roughly one litre by volume ) of seawater has approximately 35 g of dissolved salts ( predominantly sodium and chloride ions ) . Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L . Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water ( density 1.0 kg/L at 4 C ) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume . The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases . At typical salinity , it freezes at about -2 C . The coldest seawater ever recorded ( in a liquid state ) was in 2010 , in a stream under an Antarctic glacier , and measured -2.6 C. Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4 . However , there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Seawater",
"rank": 98,
"score": 73749
},
{
"content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850",
"rank": 99,
"score": 73740
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean surface topography Content: The ocean surface has highs and lows , similar to the hills and valleys of Earth 's land surface depicted on a topographic map . These variations , called ocean surface topography ( or sea surface topography ) , also dynamic topography , are mapped using direct ( usually satellite-based ) or indirect measurements of sea surface height relative to Earth 's geoid . Earth 's geoid is a calculated surface of equal gravitational potential energy and represents the shape the sea surface would be if the ocean were not in motion . The main purpose of measuring ocean surface topography is to understand the large-scale circulation of the ocean . On a daily basis , SSH is most obviously affected by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting on the Earth . Over longer timescales , SSH is influenced by ocean circulation . Typically , SSH anomalies resulting from these forces differ from the mean by less than ± 1 m at the global scale . Other influences include temperature , salinity , tides , waves , and the loading of atmospheric pressure . The slowest and largest variations are due to changes in the Earth 's gravitational field ( geoid ) due to the rearrangement of continents , formation of sea mounts and other redistribution of rock . Since the Earth 's gravitational field is relatively stable on decadal to centennial timescales , ocean circulation plays a more significant role in the observed variation of SSH . Across the seasonal cycle changes in patterns of warming , cooling and surface wind forcing affect circulation and influence SSH . Variations in SSH can be measured by satellite altimetry ( e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon ) and used to calculate determine sea level rise and properties such as ocean heat storage .",
"qid": "85",
"docid": "Ocean_surface_topography",
"rank": 100,
"score": 73702
}
] |
There isn’t yet any empirical evidence for their claim that greenhouse gases even cause temperatures to increase. | [
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 1,
"score": 149177
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 2,
"score": 139240
},
{
"content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis",
"rank": 3,
"score": 135983
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 4,
"score": 135389
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 5,
"score": 135105
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 6,
"score": 133662
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 7,
"score": 131791
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 8,
"score": 129453
},
{
"content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model",
"rank": 9,
"score": 127895
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 10,
"score": 127811
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 11,
"score": 125829
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 12,
"score": 125095
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 13,
"score": 121067
},
{
"content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 14,
"score": 120772
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 15,
"score": 120554
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Peter_Thejll",
"rank": 16,
"score": 118294
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 17,
"score": 118088
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 18,
"score": 117406
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Solar_gain",
"rank": 19,
"score": 116105
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 20,
"score": 115788
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 21,
"score": 114248
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 22,
"score": 112064
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 23,
"score": 111993
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 24,
"score": 108201
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline",
"rank": 25,
"score": 107848
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 26,
"score": 106785
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 27,
"score": 106218
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 28,
"score": 105089
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 29,
"score": 104810
},
{
"content": "Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases",
"rank": 30,
"score": 104661
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 31,
"score": 103738
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 32,
"score": 102960
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 33,
"score": 102466
},
{
"content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850",
"rank": 34,
"score": 101618
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 35,
"score": 101585
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 36,
"score": 101456
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas removal Content: Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_removal",
"rank": 37,
"score": 100467
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Earth's_energy_budget",
"rank": 38,
"score": 100416
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 39,
"score": 99917
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 40,
"score": 99849
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 41,
"score": 99610
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 42,
"score": 98959
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 43,
"score": 98780
},
{
"content": "Title: Physical properties of greenhouse gases Content:",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Physical_properties_of_greenhouse_gases",
"rank": 44,
"score": 98469
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 45,
"score": 97901
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Greenhouse_debt",
"rank": 46,
"score": 97465
},
{
"content": "Title: The 2030 °Challenge Content: The 2030 ° Challenge is an initiative by Edward Mazria and Architecture 2030 asking the global architecture and construction community to adopt a series of greenhouse gas reduction targets for new and renovated buildings . In many developed countries the construction and use of buildings is the leading consumer of energy and producer of greenhouse gas emissions . Stabilizing and reversing emissions in this sector is key to keeping future global warming under one degree celsius ( ° C ) above today 's level , in order to avoid increased global warming , potentially to reach a tipping point .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "The_2030_°Challenge",
"rank": 47,
"score": 97311
},
{
"content": "Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Radiative_forcing",
"rank": 48,
"score": 97133
},
{
"content": "Title: Kepler-22b Content: Kepler-22b , also known by its Kepler object of interest designation KOI-087 .01 , is an extrasolar planet orbiting within the empirical habitable zone of the Sun-like star Kepler-22 . It is located about 600 ly from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus . It was discovered by NASA 's Kepler Space Telescope in December 2011 and was the first known transiting planet to orbit within the habitable zone of a Sun-like star . Kepler-22 is too dim to be seen with the naked eye . Kepler-22b 's size is roughly twice that of Earth . Its mass and surface composition are unknown . An Earth-like composition for the planet has been ruled out . It is likely to have a volatile-rich composition with a liquid or gaseous outer shell . The only parameters of the planet 's orbit that are currently available are its orbital period , which is about , and its inclination , which is approximately 90 ° . Evidence suggests that the planet has a moderate surface temperature , assuming that the surface is not subject to extreme greenhouse heating . In the absence of an atmosphere , its equilibrium temperature ( assuming an Earth-like albedo ) would be approximately 262 K. The planet 's first transit was observed on 12 May 2009 . Confirmation of the existence of Kepler-22b was announced on 5 December 2011 .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Kepler-22b",
"rank": 49,
"score": 97009
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_system",
"rank": 50,
"score": 96281
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 51,
"score": 96214
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 52,
"score": 96163
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_inventory",
"rank": 53,
"score": 95880
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas",
"rank": 54,
"score": 95578
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 55,
"score": 94238
},
{
"content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Drawdown_(climate)",
"rank": 56,
"score": 93827
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Runaway_climate_change",
"rank": 57,
"score": 93783
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greenhouse Conspiracy Content: The Greenhouse Conspiracy is a documentary film broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990 , as part of the Equinox series , which criticised the theory of global warming and asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding . It is one of the earliest instances of the suggestion of a conspiracy to promote false claims supporting global warming . Although the title of the program implied the existence of a conspiracy , when interviewed on the program Patrick Michaels played down the idea , saying , `` It may not quite add up to a conspiracy , but certainly a coalition of interests has promoted the greenhouse theory : scientists have needed funds , the media a story , and governments a worthy cause '' .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "The_Greenhouse_Conspiracy",
"rank": 58,
"score": 93450
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite",
"rank": 59,
"score": 93332
},
{
"content": "Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit",
"rank": 60,
"score": 93091
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act",
"rank": 61,
"score": 92996
},
{
"content": "Title: Inversion temperature Content: The inversion temperature in thermodynamics and cryogenics is the critical temperature below which a non-ideal gas ( all gases in reality ) that is expanding at constant enthalpy will experience a temperature decrease , and above which will experience a temperature increase . This temperature change is known as the Joule-Thomson effect , and is exploited in the liquefaction of gases.Inversion temperature depends on the nature of gas .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Inversion_temperature",
"rank": 62,
"score": 92839
},
{
"content": "Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Planetary_equilibrium_temperature",
"rank": 63,
"score": 92784
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 64,
"score": 92397
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 65,
"score": 92251
},
{
"content": "Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Hell_and_High_Water_(book)",
"rank": 66,
"score": 91788
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 67,
"score": 91635
},
{
"content": "Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "ECOCITIES_(software)",
"rank": 68,
"score": 91048
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 69,
"score": 90877
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Grenada",
"rank": 70,
"score": 90666
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 71,
"score": 90245
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 72,
"score": 90069
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 73,
"score": 90055
},
{
"content": "Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Mootral",
"rank": 74,
"score": 90031
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 75,
"score": 89854
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 76,
"score": 89705
},
{
"content": "Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)",
"rank": 77,
"score": 89533
},
{
"content": "Title: 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane Content: 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane is an organic chemical , an organofluoride . It is a colorless gas , usually available in the form of a liquid gas . It is used as a fire suppression agent , a foaming agent , a highly effective refrigerant , a heat transfer medium , a dielectric gas , a sterilant carrier , a polymerization medium , a carrier fluid , a displacement drying agent , a thermodynamic power cycle working fluid , etc. . When used as a fire suppressant , hexafluoropropane carries the DuPont trade name , FE-36 . 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane is a greenhouse gas ; its global warming potential is 6300 . It is manufactured by reacting 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexachloropropane with hydrogen fluoride in gas phase at temperature between 250-400 ° C , in presence of a catalyst in the form of trivalent chromium ( e.g. chromium ( III ) chloride ) supported on carbon with low content of specific impurities .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane",
"rank": 78,
"score": 89457
},
{
"content": "Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Timothy_Ball",
"rank": 79,
"score": 89314
},
{
"content": "Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 80,
"score": 89304
},
{
"content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut",
"rank": 81,
"score": 89035
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 82,
"score": 88530
},
{
"content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Iris_hypothesis",
"rank": 83,
"score": 88515
},
{
"content": "Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Living_in_the_Hothouse",
"rank": 84,
"score": 88483
},
{
"content": "Title: Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Content: The Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord ( Midwestern Accord ) is a regional agreement by six governors of states in the US Midwest who are members of the Midwestern Governors Association ( MGA ) , and the premier of one Canadian province , whose purpose is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . The accord has been inactive since March 2010 , when an advisory group presented a plan for action to the association with a scheduled implementation date of January 2012 . Signatories to the accord are the US states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Illinois , Iowa , Michigan , Kansas , and the Canadian Province of Manitoba . Observers of the accord are Indiana , Ohio , and South Dakota , as well as the Canadian Province of Ontario . While the Midwest has intensive manufacturing and agriculture sectors , making it the most coal-dependent region in North America , it also has significant renewable energy resources and is particularly vulnerable to the climate change caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels . The Midwestern Accord was the fourth tier of the MGA Energy Security and Climate Stewardship Summit Platform , signed on November 15 , 2007 . It established the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Program , which aimed to : establish greenhouse gas reduction targets and time frames consistent with signing states ' targets ; develop a market-based and multi-sector cap-and-trade mechanism to help achieve those reduction targets ; establish a system to enable tracking , management , and crediting for entities that reduce greenhouse gas emissions ; and develop and implement additional steps as needed to achieve the reduction targets , such as a low-carbon fuel standards and regional incentives and funding mechanisms . Through the Midwestern Accord , the governors agreed to establish a Midwestern greenhouse gas reduction program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in their states , as well as a working group to provide recommendations regarding the implementation of the accord . In June 2009 , the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Advisory Group finalized its draft recommendations . In March 2010 the advisory group presented a plan to the MGA that called for implementation beginning in January 2012 . No further action was taken , as leadership in several of the states switched positions on climate policy . In July 2014 , accord member Kansas and observers Indiana , South Dakota , and Ohio joined a lawsuit opposing the EPA Clean Power Plan , federal climate regulations which could be met by implementation of the accord .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Midwestern_Greenhouse_Gas_Reduction_Accord",
"rank": 85,
"score": 88349
},
{
"content": "Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "European_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 86,
"score": 88239
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 87,
"score": 88144
},
{
"content": "Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Paris_Agreement",
"rank": 88,
"score": 88136
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 89,
"score": 88096
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Cool_tropics_paradox",
"rank": 90,
"score": 87928
},
{
"content": "Title: Boyle's law Content: Boyle 's law ( sometimes referred to as the Boyle -- Mariotte law , or Mariotte 's law ) is an experimental gas law that describes how the pressure of a gas tends to increase as the volume of the container decreases . A modern statement of Boyle 's law is The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies if the temperature and amount of gas remain unchanged within a closed system . Mathematically , Boyle 's law can be stated as or where P is the pressure of the gas , V is the volume of the gas , and k is a constant . The equation states that product of pressure and volume is a constant for a given mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant . For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions , the law can be usefully expressed as The equation shows that , as volume increases , the pressure of the gas decreases in proportion . Similarly , as volume decreases , the pressure of the gas increases . The law was named after chemist and physicist Robert Boyle , who published the original law in 1662 .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Boyle's_law",
"rank": 91,
"score": 87726
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 92,
"score": 87265
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Content: A greenhouse ( also called a glasshouse , or , if with sufficient heating , a hothouse ) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material , such as glass , in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown . These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings . A miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame . The interior of a greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the external ambient temperature , protecting its contents in cold weather . Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers . The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations , heating , cooling , lighting , and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth . Different techniques are then used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate ( i.e. , air temperature , relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit ) in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Greenhouse",
"rank": 93,
"score": 87229
},
{
"content": "Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001",
"rank": 94,
"score": 87154
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_West_Virginia",
"rank": 95,
"score": 87093
},
{
"content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "James_Hansen",
"rank": 96,
"score": 87074
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 97,
"score": 87039
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_accounting",
"rank": 98,
"score": 87015
},
{
"content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "LOWERN",
"rank": 99,
"score": 86887
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting Content: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is a method of calculating the amount of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) emitted by a region in a given time-scale . A National Emissions Inventory ( NEI ) measuring a country 's GHG emissions in a year is required by the UNFCCC to provide a benchmark for the country 's emission reductions , and subsequently to evaluate international climate policies such as the Kyoto protocol ( although the original has now expired , extensions have been agreed ) as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . There are two conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions : production-based ( sometimes referred to as territorial-based ) or consumption-based . Production-based emissions take place `` within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction '' . Consumption-based emissions encompass those emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports . This means the importing country takes responsibility for emissions related to production of the exporting country 's exports . By these definitions production-based emissions include exports but exclude imports and emissions embodied in international trade , whereas consumption-based emissions refer to the reverse ( Table 1 ) . Which technique is applied by policymakers is fundamental as each can generate a very different NEI . Different NEIs would result in a country 's choosing different optimal mitigation activities , the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging . The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms , although much of the literature favours consumption-based accounting . The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage .",
"qid": "86",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_accounting",
"rank": 100,
"score": 86871
}
] |
NOAA has adjusted past temperatures to look colder than they were and recent temperatures to look warmer than they were. | [
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 1,
"score": 102275
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cool_tropics_paradox",
"rank": 2,
"score": 100486
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAA-6",
"rank": 3,
"score": 97777
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat (Colder album) Content: Heat is the second album from French musician Colder , released on Output Recordings on July 4 , 2005 . The album was produced in Paris , France and was released on CD , limited edition CD ( housed in a digipak ) , and limited edition red-colored 12 '' vinyl . The album was also released on CD in Mexico with two bonus tracks . All versions of the album are out of print .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Heat_(Colder_album)",
"rank": 4,
"score": 96825
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Tropical_rain_belt",
"rank": 5,
"score": 94067
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 6,
"score": 93474
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 7,
"score": 93243
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold front Content: A cold front is defined as the leading edge of a cooler mass of air , replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air , which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure . It forms in the wake of an extratropical cyclone , at the leading edge of its cold air advection pattern , which is also known as the cyclone 's dry conveyor belt circulation . Temperature changes across the boundary can exceed 30 C-change . When enough moisture is present , rain can occur along the boundary . If there is significant instability along the boundary , a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone . If instability is less , a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front , which increases the temperature difference across the boundary . Cold fronts are stronger in the fall and spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer . When a cold front catches up with the preceding warm front , the portion of the boundary that does so is then known as an occluded front .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cold_front",
"rank": 8,
"score": 93208
},
{
"content": "Title: Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Content: Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) is a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . OAR is also referred to as NOAA Research . NOAA Research is the research and development arm of NOAA and is the driving force behind NOAA environmental products and services aimed at protecting life and property and promoting sustainable economic growth . Research , conducted by programs within NOAA and through collaborations outside NOAA , focuses on enhancing the understanding of environmental phenomena such as tornadoes , hurricanes , climate variability , changes in the ozone layer , El Niño / La Niña events , fisheries productivity , ocean currents , deep sea thermal vents , and coastal ecosystem health . The origins of NOAA Research date back more than 200 years with the creation of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 by Thomas Jefferson . The Coast Survey , which became the U.S. Lake Survey office in 1841 , was developed to undertake `` a hydrographic survey of northwestern -LSB- Great -RSB- lakes . '' Research executed by the scientists of this group was innovative and holistic : the first current meters were developed to understand water flow rates , and forecasting techniques were greatly enhanced to predict water levels and the relationship to lakefront property . The same traits of world class , long-term research continue to define NOAA Research today . The science and technology that NOAA Research produces is not only relevant to society , it anticipates and responds to partners ' needs to demonstrates the value of technologies so that partners can deploy them into their applications . OAR works with end-users to integrate mature technologies ( and associated expertise ) into larger systems , either in NOAA operations or partner applications , via testbeds , patents , etc. .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Office_of_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Research",
"rank": 9,
"score": 92937
},
{
"content": "Title: Colder Weather Content: `` Colder Weather '' is a song performed by the Zac Brown Band , an American country music group . Lead singer Zac Brown co-wrote the song with Coy Bowles ( the band 's keyboardist and guitarist ) , Wyatt Durrette and Levi Lowrey . It is the band 's seventh single release overall , and the second single from their 2010 album You Get What You Give .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Colder_Weather",
"rank": 10,
"score": 92408
},
{
"content": "Title: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Content: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ; pronounced -LSB- ˈnoʊ.ə -RSB- , like `` Noah '' ) is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere . NOAA warns of dangerous weather , charts seas , guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources , and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment . In addition to its civilian employees , over 11,000 as of 2015 , NOAA research and operations are supported by 379 uniformed service members who make up the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps . NOAA traces its history to the Coast Survey established by President Thomas Jefferson in 1807 . In its present form , it combined several scientific agencies in 1970 . The Acting Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere at the Department of Commerce and the agency 's interim administrator has been Benjamin Friedman since the end of the Obama administration on January 20 , 2017 .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration",
"rank": 11,
"score": 91969
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia",
"rank": 12,
"score": 91453
},
{
"content": "Title: No Colder Place Content: No Colder Place is a book written by S. J. Rozan and published by St. Martin 's Paperbacks in 1997 , which later went on to win the Anthony Award for Best Novel in 1998 .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "No_Colder_Place",
"rank": 13,
"score": 89776
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold Content: Cold is the presence of low temperature , especially in the atmosphere . In common usage , cold is often a subjective perception . A lower bound to temperature is absolute zero , defined as 0.00 K on the Kelvin scale , an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale . This corresponds to 0 K on the Celsius scale , 0 K on the Fahrenheit scale , and 0 K on the Rankine scale . Since temperature relates to the thermal energy held by an object or a sample of matter , which is the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particle constituents of matter , an object will have less thermal energy when it is colder and more when it is hotter . If it were possible to cool a system to absolute zero , all motion of the particles in a sample of matter would cease and they would be at complete rest in this classical sense . The object would be described as having zero thermal energy . Microscopically in the description of quantum mechanics , however , matter still has zero-point energy even at absolute zero , because of the uncertainty principle .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cold",
"rank": 14,
"score": 89645
},
{
"content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period",
"rank": 15,
"score": 89050
},
{
"content": "Title: Brown ocean effect Content: The brown ocean effect is an observed weather phenomenon where tropical cyclones , which are commonly expected to lose energy when they make landfall , instead maintain strength or intensify over land surfaces . While these systems are highly common in the United States and China , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) names Australia the most conducive environment after 30 years of research . In Australia such storm systems are called agukabams . One source of the brown ocean effect has been identified as the large amount of latent heat that can be released from extremely wet soils . A 2013 NASA study found that , from 1979-2008 , 45 of 227 tropical storms either gained or maintained strength after making landfall . The press release stated , `` The land essentially mimics the moisture-rich environment of the ocean , where the storm originated . '' Originally , countless research devoted to extratropical cyclones , storms that first derive energy from the warm ocean waters and later from the conjecture of various air masses , explained the intensification of storms after landfall . However , as research into these storms persists , Anderson and Shepherd , the two leading scientists behind the NASA study , discovered that some of these storms were not transitioning from warm-core to cold-core but were actually maintaining their warm-core dynamics , while ultimately outputting a greater measure of rainfall . In order for the brown ocean effect to take place , three land conditions must be met : `` First , the lower level of the atmosphere mimics a tropical atmosphere with minimal variation in temperature . Second , soils in the vicinity of the storms need to contain ample moisture . Finally , evaporation of the soil moisture releases latent heat , which the team found must measure at least 70 watts averaged per square meter . '' Storm systems impacted by the brown ocean effect gave rise to a new sub-category of tropical storm type called Tropical Cyclone Maintenance and Intensification Event or TCMI . Another study concluded that latent surface heat flux from land surfaces actually have the potential to be larger than from the ocean , albeit for brief periods only . Anderson and Shepherd are also examining the effects of climate change on TCMIs , looking into the potential intensification of these storms due to increase or decrease in the degree of wetness and dryness in areas susceptible to these systems .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Brown_ocean_effect",
"rank": 16,
"score": 88728
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 17,
"score": 88635
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 18,
"score": 87183
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-7 Content: NOAA-7 , designated NOAA-C before launch , was an American weather satellite launched in June 1981 as part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Polar Operational Environmental Satellites ( POES ) program . It was used to support the Global Atmospheric Research Program ( GARP ) during 1978 -- 1984 . An earlier launch , NOAA-B , was scheduled to become NOAA-7 , however NOAA-B failed to reach its required orbit . The launch of NOAA-7 took place at 10:52:59 UTC ( 3:53 a.m. PST ) on 23 June 1981 from Space Launch Complex 3W at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California . NOAA-7 was launched atop an Atlas E/F rocket with a Star-37S-ISS upper stage . The NOAA-7 satellite had a mass of 588.9 kg . The satellite 's design provided an economical and stable sun synchronous platform for advanced operational instruments to measure the Earth 's atmosphere , its surface and cloud cover , and the near space environment . The primary sensors included an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR ) and a TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) . One of the primary mission sensors , the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) , failed 7 February 1985 . There were a number of secondary experiments on-board NOAA-7 . These include a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) and a Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) . The United States Air Force also provided a contamination monitor to assess contamination sources , levels and effects for consideration on future spacecraft . NOAA-7 was based upon the Block 5D spacecraft bus developed for the U.S. Air Force . The satellite was capable of maintaining an earth-pointing accuracy of better than ± 0.1 ° with a motion rate of less than 0.035 degrees/second . NOAA-7 was withdrawn from use in June 1986 after its power system malfunctioned . In August 1997 the decommissioned satellite experienced an abrupt 1 second change in orbital period . At the same time 3 new debris particles were observed . It is unclear if this was caused by an internal release of energy or collision with an unidentified object . As of 8 December 2013 , the derelict satellite remains in a 834 by orbit , inclined at 98.87 degrees and with a period of 101.62 minutes .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAA-7",
"rank": 19,
"score": 86785
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm Data Content: Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena ( SD ) is a monthly NOAA publication with comprehensive listings and detailed summaries of severe weather occurrences in the United States . Included is information on tornadoes , high wind events , hail , lightning , floods and flash floods , tropical cyclones ( hurricanes ) , ice storms , snow , extreme temperatures such as heat waves and cold waves , droughts , and wildfires . Photographs of weather and attendant damage are used as much as possible . Maps of significant weather are also included .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Storm_Data",
"rank": 20,
"score": 85685
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-18 Content: NOAA-18 , known before launch as NOAA-N , is a weather forecasting satellite run by NOAA . NOAA-N ( 18 ) was launched on May 20 , 2005 , into a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 854 km above the Earth , with an orbital period of 102 minutes . It hosts the AMSU-A , MHS , AVHRR , Space Environment Monitor SEM/2 instrument and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) instruments , as well as the SBUV/2 ozone-monitoring instrument . It is the first NOAA POES satellite to use MHS in place of AMSU-B . APT transmission frequency is 137.9125 MHz ( NOAA-18 changed frequencies with NOAA-19 on June 23 , 2009 ) .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAA-18",
"rank": 21,
"score": 85582
},
{
"content": "Title: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program Content: The United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program ( abbreviated as NOAA CSI ) , formerly the Climate Assessment and Services Division of CPO supports the NOAA Climate Service . The goals of the CSI program are : public relations regarding water resources in coastal zones , research and development for coastal regions , and inter-agency communication .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration_Climate_and_Societal_Interactions_Program",
"rank": 22,
"score": 85563
},
{
"content": "Title: Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array Content: The Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array ( RAPID/MOCHA ) program is a collaborative research project between the National Oceanography Centre ( Southampton , U.K. ) , the University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( RSMAS ) , and NOAA 's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ( AOML ) that measure the meridional overturning circulation ( MOC ) and ocean heat transport in the North Atlantic Ocean . This array was deployed in March 2004 to continuously monitor the MOC and ocean heat transport that are primarily associated with the Thermohaline Circulation across the basin at 26 ° N . The RAPID-MOCHA array is planned to be continued through 2014 to provide a decade or longer continuous time series . The continuous observations are measured by an array of instruments along 26 ° N . This monitoring array directly measures the transport of the Gulf Stream in the Florida Strait using an undersea cable and a moored array measures bottom pressure and water column density ( including temperature and salinity ) at the western and eastern boundary and on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( MAR ) . Absolute transports including barotropic circulation are monitored using precision bottom pressure gauges . `` Dynamic height '' moorings are used to estimate the spatially average geostropic velocity profile and associated transports over relatively wide mooring separations . The dynamic height moorings requires measurements on both sides of the current field only , rather both the horizontal and vertical structure of the current field to be sufficiently well resolved to estimate transports . The basin-wide MOC strength and vertical structure are estimated via Ekman transports by satellite scatterometer measurements and the geotrophic and direct current observations . RAPID-MOCHA is funded by the National Environmental Research Council ( NERC ) and the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Rapid_Climate_Change-Meridional_Overturning_Circulation_and_Heatflux_Array",
"rank": 23,
"score": 85321
},
{
"content": "Title: Stadial Content: Stadials and interstadials are phases dividing the Quaternary period , that last 2.6 million years . Stadial are colder periods and interstadials are warmer . Each phase has a Marine Isotope Stage ( MIS ) number , working backwards from the present , with stadial having even numbers and interstadials odd numbers . Thus the current Holocene is MIS1 and the most recent ice age is MIS2 . Stages are divided into warmer and colder intervals . MIS 5e ( the Eemian ) , the hottest of the last million years , was the oldest interstadial of MIS5 , with MIS3 and MIS1 being interstadials and MIS2 and MIS4 being colder stadials . In glacials a and c are stadials and b and d are warmer interstadials . Thus MIS 6a , 6c and 6e are stadials and 6b and 6d are interstadials . Generally , stadials endure for a thousand years or less , interstadials for less than ten thousand years , interglacials for more than ten thousand and glacials for about one hundred thousand . The Bølling Oscillation and the Allerød Oscillation , where they are not clearly distinguished in the stratigraphy , are taken together to form the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , and dated from about 14,700 to 12,700 years before the present . Greenland ice cores show 24 interstadials during the one hundred thousand years of the Wisconsin glaciation . Referred to as the Dansgaard-Oeschger events , they have been extensively studied , and in their northern European contexts are sometimes named after towns , such as the Brorup , the Odderade , the Oerel , the Glinde , the Hengelo , the Denekamp , etc. .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Stadial",
"rank": 24,
"score": 85119
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 25,
"score": 84964
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Biz campaign Content: The Cool Biz campaign is a Japanese campaign initiated by the Japanese Ministry of the Environment from summer 2005 as a means to help reduce Japanese electricity consumption by limiting the use of air conditioning . This was enabled by changing the standard office air conditioner temperature to 28 ° C ( or about 82 ° F ) and introducing a liberal summer dress code in the bureaucracy of the Japanese government so staff could work in the warmer temperature . The campaign then spread to the private sector . This idea was proposed by the then-Minister Yuriko Koike under the cabinet of Prime Minister Junichirō Koizumi . Initially the campaign was from June to September , but from 2011 , when there were electricity shortages after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami it was lengthened . It now runs from May to October .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cool_Biz_campaign",
"rank": 26,
"score": 84812
},
{
"content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "LOWERN",
"rank": 27,
"score": 84341
},
{
"content": "Title: Subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole Content: The Subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole ( SIOD ) is featured by the oscillation of sea surface temperatures ( SST ) in which the southwest Indian Ocean i.e. south of Madagascar is warmer and then colder than the eastern part i.e. off Australia . It was first identified in the studies of the relationship between the SST anomaly and the south-central Africa rainfall anomaly ; the existence of such a dipole was identified from both observational studies and model simulations .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Subtropical_Indian_Ocean_Dipole",
"rank": 28,
"score": 83977
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA's Environmental Real-time Observation Network Content: NOAA 's Environmental Real-time Observation Network ( NERON ) is a project to establish a nationwide network of weather monitoring stations across the United States . A 20-mile by 20-mile grid has been established , with the hopes of having one observation system within each grid cell . Effort is being put forth by local National Weather Service offices and other state climate groups to ensure that sites in the network meet important criteria . The network will be composed of existing ( and in some cases upgraded ) sites ( ASOS , Cooperative Observer Network , etc. ) as well as new sites being established for other local and state efforts . Many stations in New England and New York have already been installed .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAA's_Environmental_Real-time_Observation_Network",
"rank": 29,
"score": 83728
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 30,
"score": 83466
},
{
"content": "Title: Colder (musician) Content: Marc Nguyen Tan ( born 1974 ) , known for his dance music as Colder , is a French dance musician , graphic designer who also is a DJ and remixer who remains actively involved in dance music and other projects . Colder 's sound is rooted in the post-punk and post-disco of the late 1970s and early 1980s . Colder is also influenced by dub and krautrock .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Colder_(musician)",
"rank": 31,
"score": 83178
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-17 Content: NOAA-17 was a weather forecasting satellite operated by NOAA . It was launched on 24 June 2002 , in a sun-synchronous orbit , 824 km above the Earth , orbiting every 101 minutes . It hosted the AMSU , AVHRR and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HRIS ) instruments . The satellite was retired in 2013 . Automatic Picture Transmission frequency was 137.5 MHz . NOAA-17 was decommissioned on 10 April 2013 .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAA-17",
"rank": 32,
"score": 82912
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 33,
"score": 82668
},
{
"content": "Title: Athryilatus Content: Athryilatus ( Greek : Αθρυίλατος ) ( 1st-2nd century AD ) a Greek physician from Thasos , Macedonia ( Roman province ) . According to Plutarch 's Symposiacs , Athryilatus considered women warmer than men ; saying Women endure cold better than men , they are not so sensible of the sharpness of the weather , and are contented with a few clothes .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Athryilatus",
"rank": 34,
"score": 82309
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory Content: The Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory ( CMDL ) was a climate laboratory in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . In October 2005 , it was merged with five other NOAA labs to form the Earth System Research Laboratory . CMDL 's mission was to observe and understand , through accurate , long-term records of atmospheric gases , aerosol particles , and solar radiation , the Earth 's atmospheric system controlling climate forcing , ozone depletion and baseline air quality , in order to develop products that will advance global and regional environmental information and services .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Climate_Monitoring_and_Diagnostics_Laboratory",
"rank": 35,
"score": 82160
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Mesopause",
"rank": 36,
"score": 82104
},
{
"content": "Title: Weather Forecasting Improvement Act of 2013 Content: The Weather Forecasting Improvement Act of 2013 was a bill that intended to authorize appropriations over the 2014-2017 period for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) to improve forecasting of severe weather events . The bill also sought to authorize NOAA to carry out various other activities related to weather forecasting and research . The bill was introduced in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Weather_Forecasting_Improvement_Act_of_2013",
"rank": 37,
"score": 82010
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA Weather Radio Content: NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ; also known as NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards ) is a network of radio stations in the United States that broadcast continuous weather information directly from a nearby ( < 40 miles ) Weather Forecast Office of the service 's operator , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) , an agency of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) within the United States Department of Commerce . NOAA Weather Radio broadcasts National Weather Service warnings , watches , forecasts , weather observations and other hazard information 24 hours a day . It also broadcasts alerts of non-weather emergencies such as national security , natural , environmental and public safety ( such as an AMBER Alert ) through the U.S. Federal Communications Commission 's ( FCC ) Emergency Alert System .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAA_Weather_Radio",
"rank": 38,
"score": 81714
},
{
"content": "Title: Warm front Content: A warm front is a density discontinuity located at the leading edge of a homogeneous warm air mass , and is typically located on the equator-facing edge of an isotherm gradient . Warm fronts lie within broader troughs of low pressure than cold fronts , and move more slowly than the cold fronts which usually follow because cold air is denser and less easy to remove from the Earth 's surface . This also forces temperature differences across warm fronts to be broader in scale . Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform , and rainfall gradually increases as the front approaches . Fog can also occur preceding a warm frontal passage . Clearing and warming is usually rapid after frontal passage . If the warm air mass is unstable , thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front , and after frontal passage thundershowers may continue . On weather maps , the surface location of a warm front is marked with a red line of semicircles pointing in the direction of travel .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Warm_front",
"rank": 39,
"score": 81131
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian Ocean Dipole Content: The Indian Ocean Dipole ( IOD ) , also known as the Indian Niño , is an irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperatures in which the western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer and then colder than the eastern part of the ocean . Monsoon in India is generally affected by the temperature between bay of Bangal in the east and The Arabian sea in the west",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Indian_Ocean_Dipole",
"rank": 40,
"score": 81008
},
{
"content": "Title: A Cooler Climate Content: A Cooler Climate is a Showtime Original movie . It originally aired on August 22 , 1999 . It is based on a book with the same name by Zena Collier . Sally Field and Judy Davis were both nominated for their performance in the film during the 6th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards for outstanding performance by a female actor in a television movie or miniseries . They both also received an Emmy nomination for their performances in the film .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "A_Cooler_Climate",
"rank": 41,
"score": 80865
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-15 Content: NOAA-15 ( designated NOAA-K before launch ) is one of the NASA-provided TIROS series of weather forecasting satellite run by NOAA . It was launched on 13 May 1998 , and is currently operational , in a sun-synchronous orbit , 807 km above the Earth , orbiting every 101 minutes . It hosts the AMSU-A and AMSU-B instruments , the AVHRR and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS/3 ) instruments , as well as a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM/2 ) . APT transmission frequency is 137.62 MHz . Due to problems with the S-band transmitter high-gain antennas , NOAA-15 has been configured for High Resolution Picture Transmission using the S-Band Transmitter # 2 ( 1702.5 MHz ) omnidirectional antenna .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAA-15",
"rank": 42,
"score": 80683
},
{
"content": "Title: Science On a Sphere Content: Science On a Sphere ( SOS ) is a spherical projection system created by NOAA . It presents high-resolution video on a suspended globe rather than a flat screen , with the aim of better representing global phenomena . Animated images of atmospheric storms , climate change , and ocean temperature can be shown on the sphere to explain these complex environmental processes . SOS systems are most frequently installed in science museums , universities , zoos , and research institutions , although new and novel uses for these systems in a variety of presentation spaces and contexts are starting to emerge . The system has been installed in more than 130 locations worldwide .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Science_On_a_Sphere",
"rank": 43,
"score": 80312
},
{
"content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation",
"rank": 44,
"score": 80306
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermoreceptor Content: A thermoreceptor is a non-specialised sense receptor , or more accurately the receptive portion of a sensory neuron , that codes absolute and relative changes in temperature , primarily within the innocuous range . In the mammalian peripheral nervous system , warmth receptors are thought to be unmyelinated C-fibres ( low conduction velocity ) , while those responding to cold have both C-fibers and thinly myelinated A delta fibers ( faster conduction velocity ) . The adequate stimulus for a warm receptor is warming , which results in an increase in their action potential discharge rate . Cooling results in a decrease in warm receptor discharge rate . For cold receptors their firing rate increases during cooling and decreases during warming . Some cold receptors also respond with a brief action potential discharge to high temperatures , i.e. typically above 45 ° C , and this is known as a paradoxical response to heat . The mechanism responsible for this behavior has not been determined . In humans , temperature sensation enters the spinal cord along the axons of Lissauer 's tract that synapse on second order neurons in grey matter of the dorsal horn , one or two vertebral levels up . The axons of these second order neurons then decussate , joining the spinothalamic tract as they ascend to neurons in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Thermoreceptor",
"rank": 45,
"score": 80196
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-19 Content: NOAA-19 , designated NOAA-N ' ( NOAA-N Prime ) prior to launch , is the last of the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's POES series of weather satellites ( which was scheduled to be replaced by the next-generation NPOESS series before the NPOESS project was cancelled ) . NOAA-19 was launched on February 6 , 2009 .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAA-19",
"rank": 46,
"score": 80061
},
{
"content": "Title: Colder Content: Colder may refer to : The comparative of cold Colder ( musician ) , French electronic producer Colder ( song ) , a song by Charon Agent Colder , a fictional character played by Tanya Robb in the British web series Corner Shop Show",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Colder",
"rank": 47,
"score": 80031
},
{
"content": "Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World",
"rank": 48,
"score": 79792
},
{
"content": "Title: Mpemba effect Content: The Mpemba effect , named after Erasto Batholomeo Mpemba ( b. 1950 ) in 1963 , is the observation that , in some circumstances , warmer water can freeze faster than colder water . Although there is some conflicting published support for the effect , there is disagreement on exactly what the effect is and under what circumstances it occurs . There have been reports of similar phenomena since ancient times , although with insufficient detail for the claims to be replicated . A number of possible explanations for the effect have been proposed .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Mpemba_effect",
"rank": 49,
"score": 79787
},
{
"content": "Title: State of the Climate Content: The State of the Climate is an annual report that is primarily led by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Climatic Data Center ( NOAA/NCDC ) , located in Asheville , North Carolina , but whose leadership and authorship spans roughly 100 institutions in about 50 countries .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "State_of_the_Climate",
"rank": 50,
"score": 79671
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat death paradox Content: Formulated in 1862 by Lord Kelvin , Hermann von Helmholtz and William John Macquorn Rankine , the heat death paradox , also known as Clausius 's paradox and thermodynamic paradox , is a reductio ad absurdum argument that uses thermodynamics to show the impossibility of an infinitely old universe . This paradox is based upon the classical model of the universe in which the universe is eternal . Clausius 's paradox is a paradox of paradigm . It was necessary to amend the fundamental ideas about the universe , which brought about the change of the paradigm . The paradox was solved when the paradigm was changed . The paradox was based upon the rigid mechanical point of view of the Second principle of thermodynamics postulated by Rudolf Clausius according to which heat can only be transferred from a warmer to a colder object . If the universe was eternal , as claimed in the classical stationary model of the universe , it should already be cold . Any hot object transfers heat to its cooler surroundings , until everything is at the same temperature . For two objects at the same temperature as much heat flows from one body as flows from the other , and the net effect is no change . If the universe were infinitely old , there must have been enough time for the stars to cool and warm their surroundings . Everywhere should therefore be at the same temperature and there should either be no stars , or everything should be as hot as stars . Since there are stars and the universe is not in thermal equilibrium it can not be infinitely old . The paradox does not arise in Big Bang or Steady State cosmology . In Big Bang cosmology , the current age of the universe is not old enough to have reached equilibrium ; while in a Steady State system , sufficient hydrogen is replenished or regenerated continuously to allow for a constant average density and preventing stars from running down .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Heat_death_paradox",
"rank": 51,
"score": 79481
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold weather rule Content: A cold weather rule or cold weather law is a law or regulation that prohibits public utility companies from disconnecting customers who are unable to pay for the energy used to heat their homes during the winter . Such regulations may also require utility companies to reconnect customers during those periods . Several U.S. states have such rules , including Kansas , Minnesota , and Missouri . The protection provided by a cold weather rule may not be automatic , and poor customers may have to register with their service provider to indicate either a complete inability to pay or to set up a special payment plan . In Minnesota , the rule is in effect between October 15 and April 15 of the next year , and requires reconnection of electricity and/or natural gas depending on which energy sources are necessary for heat . The state 's Public Utilities Commission does n't regulate liquefied petroleum gas or oil , so those services may not be provided . However , if an LP - or oil-fired heater requires electricity in order to function , the rule requires electrical service to be reconnected . In addition to providing warmth for residents , cold weather rules help prevent damage to homes . Wintertime temperatures can freeze Water pipes , potentially causing bursts in the lines as the water inside expands as it turns into ice . Cleaning up after this can lay heavy burdens upon people who are already of limited financial means . Category : Kansas law Category : Minnesota law Category : Missouri law",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cold_weather_rule",
"rank": 52,
"score": 79401
},
{
"content": "Title: CMB cold spot Content: The CMB Cold Spot or WMAP Cold Spot is a region of the sky seen in microwaves that has been found to be unusually large and cold relative to the expected properties of the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) . The `` cold spot '' is approximately 70 µK colder than the average CMB temperature ( approximately 2.7 K ) , whereas the root mean square of typical temperature variations is only 18 µK.After the dipole anisotropy , which is due to the Doppler shift of the microwave background radiation due to our peculiar velocity relative to the comoving cosmic rest frame , has been subtracted out . This feature is consistent with the Earth moving at some 627 km/s towards the constellation Virgo . At some points , the `` cold spot '' deviates 140 µK colder than the average CMB temperature . The radius of the `` cold spot '' subtends about 5 ° ; it is centered at the galactic coordinate lII = 207.8 ° , bII = − 56.3 ° ( equatorial : α = , δ = ) . It is , therefore , in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere , in the direction of the constellation Eridanus . Typically , the largest fluctuations of the primordial CMB temperature occur on angular scales of about 1 ° . Thus a cold region as large as the `` cold spot '' appears very unlikely , given generally accepted theoretical models . Various alternative explanations exist , including a so-called Eridanus Supervoid or Great Void . This would be an extremely large region of the universe , roughly 150 to 300 Mpc or 500 million to one billion light-years across and 6 to 10 billion light years away from us , at redshift , containing a density of matter much smaller than the average density at that redshift . Such a void would affect the observed CMB via the integrated Sachs -- Wolfe effect . If a comparable supervoid did exist , it would be one of the largest structures in the observable universe . A study published in 2015 shows the most likely explanation for the CMB cold spot is the supervoid one ( see below ) .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "CMB_cold_spot",
"rank": 53,
"score": 79233
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 54,
"score": 79070
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-16 Content: NOAA-16 , designated NOAA-L before launch , is one of the NASA-provided TIROS series of weather forecasting satellites operated by NOAA .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAA-16",
"rank": 55,
"score": 78784
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA-4 Content: NOAA-4 , also known as ITOS-G was a weather satellite operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . It was part of a series of satellites called ITOS , or improved TIROS . NOAA-4 was launched on a Delta rocket on 15 November 1974 . The launch carried two other satellites : AMSAT-OSCAR 7 and Intasat . It remained operational for 1463 days until it was deactivated by NOAA on 18 November 1978 .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAA-4",
"rank": 56,
"score": 78508
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 57,
"score": 78374
},
{
"content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming",
"rank": 58,
"score": 78367
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat wave Content: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather , which may be accompanied by high humidity , especially in oceanic climate countries . While definitions vary , a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season . Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area . The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century . Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures , thousands of deaths from hyperthermia , and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning . A heat wave is considered extreme weather , and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Heat_wave",
"rank": 59,
"score": 78334
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold and heat adaptations in humans Content: Cold and heat adaptations in humans are a part of the broad adaptability of Homo sapiens . Adaptations in humans can be physiological , genetic , or cultural , which allow people to live in a wide variety of climates . There has been a great deal of research done on developmental adjustment , acclimatization , and cultural practices , but less research on genetic adaptations to cold and heat temperatures . The human body always works to remain in homeostasis . One form of homeostasis is thermoregulation . Body temperature varies in every individual , but the average internal temperature is 37.0 ° C ( 98.6 ° F ) . Stress from extreme external temperature can cause the human body to shut down . When the body becomes hypothermic , the core temperature drops to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) . Hyperthermia results when the core body temperature rises above 37.5-38 .3 ° C ( 99.5-100 .9 ° F ) . These temperatures commonly result in mortality . Humans have adapted to living in these extreme climates primarily through culture and technology , such as the use of clothing and shelter .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans",
"rank": 60,
"score": 78306
},
{
"content": "Title: Office of Global Programs Content: The Office of Global Programs ( OGP ) is a division of the United States ' National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) run under the auspices of the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . The purpose of the OGP is to oversee the NOAA Climate and Global Change ( C&GC ) Program . The OGP assists NOAA in its task of providing climate forecasts by sponsoring focused scientific research , within approximately eleven research elements , aimed at understanding climate variability and its predictability .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Office_of_Global_Programs",
"rank": 61,
"score": 78037
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAA National Operational Model Archive and Distribution System (NOMADS) Content: The NOAA National Operational Model Archive and Distribution System ( NOMADS ) is a Web-services based project providing both real-time and retrospective format independent access to climate and weather model data .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAA_National_Operational_Model_Archive_and_Distribution_System_(NOMADS)",
"rank": 62,
"score": 77944
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic",
"rank": 63,
"score": 77909
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Arctic_geoengineering",
"rank": 64,
"score": 77872
},
{
"content": "Title: Getting Warmer Content: Getting Warmer may refer to : Hot or cold , a game played by telling seekers they are `` getting warmer '' to the target Getting Warmer ( album ) , a 2000 album by Roger Eno `` Getting Warmer '' ( song ) , a 2016 song by Gwen Stefani",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Getting_Warmer",
"rank": 65,
"score": 77856
},
{
"content": "Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower",
"rank": 66,
"score": 77732
},
{
"content": "Title: Frontogenesis Content: Frontogenesis is a meteorological process of tightening of horizontal temperature gradients to produce fronts . In the end , two types of fronts form : cold fronts and warm fronts . A cold front is a narrow line where temperature decreases rapidly . A warm front is a narrow line of warmer temperatures and essentially where much of the precipitation occurs . Frontogenesis occurs as a result of a developing baroclinic wave . According to Hoskins & Bretherton ( 1972 , p. 11 ) , there are eight mechanisms that influence temperature gradients : horizontal deformation , horizontal shearing , vertical deformation , differential vertical motion , latent heat release , surface friction , turbulence and mixing , and radiation . Semigeostrophic frontogenesis theory focuses on the role of horizontal deformation and shear .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Frontogenesis",
"rank": 67,
"score": 77567
},
{
"content": "Title: Coldwater fish Content: Coldwater fish , in the context of aquariums , refers to fish species that prefer cooler water temperatures than tropical fish , typically below 20 ° C . Some examples are koi and goldfish . These species tend to grow more slowly and live longer than fish that live in warmer waters , and are generally felt to be easier to keep . Coldwater fish are fish such as goldfish , koi , and other members of the carp family that are able to survive in cold water temperatures . When kept in a household aquarium , they do not require a heater and are quite comfortable at around 60 ° F ( 15 ° C ) . These fish are also desirable choices for outdoor ponds and can stand temperatures down to 10 ° C.",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Coldwater_fish",
"rank": 68,
"score": 77469
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Climate and Ocean Research Content: The Cooperative Institute for Climate and Ocean Research ( CICOR ) formalizes a major collaborative relationship between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution ( WHOI ) . CICOR provides a framework at WHOI for coordinating NOAA-funded research and for developing cooperative NOAA-funded research at academic institutions in the northeastern United States . CICOR also provides NOAA investigators with access to WHOI facilities , including 4 ships and 2 submersibles , and the Northeast National Ion Microprobe Facility . The CICOR research themes are : The coastal ocean and near shore processes The ocean 's participation in climate and climate variability Marine ecosystem processes analysis .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Climate_and_Ocean_Research",
"rank": 69,
"score": 77427
},
{
"content": "Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy",
"rank": 70,
"score": 77237
},
{
"content": "Title: Tierra fría Content: In Latin America , tierra fría ( Spanish for cold land ) are mountain locations where high elevation results in a markedly cooler climate than that encountered in the lowlands at a comparable latitude . The combination of low latitude and high altitude -- typically between approximately 6,000 ft ( about 1,850 m ) and 10,000 ft ( about 3,600 m ) in locations within 10 ° of the equator -- produces a climate that falls into the same category as many oceanic climates found along the west coasts of the continents within the temperate zones -- mild temperatures all year round , with monthly averages ranging from about 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) in the coldest months to about 18 ° C ( 64.4 ° F ) in the warmest months ( at places further poleward the range of altitudes where this climate exists becomes progressively lower ) . Common crops grown in the tierra fría are potatoes , wheat , barley , oats , corn , and rye . Beyond the tierra fría is a region known as the suni , puna , or páramos ; near the Equator this encompasses places with altitudes of between roughly 12,000 ft ( 3,600 m ) and 15,000 ft ( 4,500 m ) , representing the treeline and the snow line respectively . Vegetation here resembles that found in the tundra of the polar regions . Still higher is the tierra nevada , where permanent snow and ice prevail . The Peruvian geographer Javier Pulgar Vidal ( Altitudinal zonation ) used following altitudes : 2,300 m ( end of the Cloud forest or Yunga fluvial ) , 3,500 m ( Treeline ) and 4,800 m ( Puna end ) . Some of Latin America 's largest cities are found in the tierra fria , most notably Bogotá , Colombia , altitude 2,640 m , Mexico City , Mexico , altitude 2,240 m and Quito , Ecuador , altitude 2,850 m ; all three cities are also the capitals of those respective countries . Agriculture in the region resembles that which is conducted in valley areas in the temperate zones , featuring such crops as barley and potatoes .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Tierra_fría",
"rank": 71,
"score": 77212
},
{
"content": "Title: Cabbeling Content: Cabbeling is when two separate water parcels mix to form a third which sinks below both parents . The combined water parcel is denser than the original two water parcels . The two parent water parcels may have the same density , but they have different properties ; for instance , different salinities and temperatures . Seawater almost always gets more dense if it gets either slightly colder or slightly saltier . But medium-warm , medium-salty water can be denser than both fresher , colder water and saltier , warmer water ; in other words , the equation of state for seawater is monotonic , but non-linear . See diagram . Cabbeling may also occur in fresh water , since pure water is densest at about 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) . A mixture of 1 ° C water and 6 ° C water , for instance , might have a temperature of 4 ° C , making it denser than either parent . Ice is also less dense than water , so although ice floats in warm water , meltwater sinks in warm water . The densification of the new mixed water parcel is a result of a slight contraction upon mixing ; a decrease in volume of the combined water parcel . A new water parcel that has the same mass , but is lower in volume , will be denser . Denser water sinks or downwells in the otherwise neutral surface of the water body , where the two initial water parcels originated .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cabbeling",
"rank": 72,
"score": 77184
},
{
"content": "Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature",
"rank": 73,
"score": 77171
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Climate Applications and Research Content: The Cooperative Institute for Climate Applications and Research ( CICAR ) formalizes a major collaborative relationship between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and Columbia University . The CICAR research themes are : Modeling , understanding , prediction , and assessment of climate variability and change Development , collection , analysis , and archiving of instrumental and Paleoclimate data Development of the application of climate variability and change prediction and assessment to provide information for decision makers and assess risk to water resources , agriculture , health , and policy",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Climate_Applications_and_Research",
"rank": 74,
"score": 77167
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Adelaide Content: Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) , with mild to cool winters with moderate rainfall and warm to hot , dry summers . Adelaide is the driest of the Australian capital cities and the past two decades have been far warmer than usual , with the past 8 years seeing an excess of 40 + degrees every summer . Alarmingly , the city has also recorded almost 10 consecutive years of below-average Spring rainfall , with 2014 on track to continuing this trend . A spike in heat waves , droughts and record-breaking high temperatures over the past decade has led to some concerns over the effects of global warming and Man-made climate change ( AGW ) on the city . Nine of the ten warmest years recorded in Adelaide have occurred since 2002 , with 2013 being the hottest year and summer 2015 -- 2016 being the fourth-hottest summer recorded .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Climate_of_Adelaide",
"rank": 75,
"score": 77150
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 76,
"score": 76905
},
{
"content": "Title: John Michael Wallace Content: John Michael Wallace ( born October 28 , 1940 ) , is a professor of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington , as well as the former director of the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean ( JISAO ) -- a joint research venture between the University of Washington and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research concerns understanding global climate and its variations using observations and covers the quasi biennial oscillation , Pacific decadal oscillation and the annular modes of the Arctic oscillation and the Antarctic oscillation , and the dominant spatial patterns in month-to-month and year-to-year climate variability , including the one through which El Niño phenomenon in the tropical Pacific influences climate over North America . He is also the coauthor with Peter V. Hobbs of what is generally considered the standard introductory textbook in the field : Atmospheric Science : An Introductory Survey . He was the third most cited geoscientist during the period 1973 -- 2007 .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "John_Michael_Wallace",
"rank": 77,
"score": 76569
},
{
"content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Roger_Pulwarty",
"rank": 78,
"score": 76568
},
{
"content": "Title: WXJ62 Content: WXJ62 ( sometimes referred to as Nome All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Nome Census Area in Alaska ( excluding St. Lawrence Island ) . It is programmed from the National Weather Service Forecast Office in Fairbanks with its transmitter located in Nome . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the Nome Borough in North Central Alaska . The County Coverage ( SAME/FIPS Code ) for the area is : 002180 .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "WXJ62",
"rank": 79,
"score": 76371
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies Content: The Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies ( CIMMS ) provides a mechanism to link the scientific and technical resources of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the University of Oklahoma ( OU ) to create a center of research excellence in mesoscale meteorology , regional climate studies , and related subject areas . It is located at the National Weather Center ( NWC ) in Norman , Oklahoma . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) . The CIMMS research themes are : Basic convective and mesoscale research Forecast improvements Climatic effects of/controls on mesoscale processes Socioeconomic impacts of mesoscale weather systems and regional scale climate variations Doppler weather radar research and development Climate change monitoring and detection",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Mesoscale_Meteorological_Studies",
"rank": 80,
"score": 76268
},
{
"content": "Title: WNG652 Content: WNG652 is a NOAA Weather Radio ( Radio del Tiempo de NOAA in Spanish ) station that serves the El Paso metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in El Paso , Texas with its transmitter located in El Paso . It broadcasts weather and hazard information in Spanish for El Paso & Hudspeth counties in Texas and Doña Ana & Otero Counties in New Mexico . It is one of few NOAA Weather Radio stations across the United States to broadcast in a Spanish language .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "WNG652",
"rank": 81,
"score": 76246
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Ice_cap_climate",
"rank": 82,
"score": 76205
},
{
"content": "Title: KEC76 Content: KEC76 ( sometimes referred to as NOAA All Hazards Radio ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Denver metropolitan area and surrounding cities . It is programmed from the National Weather Service forecast office in Boulder , Colorado with its transmitter located in Denver ( The NWS refers to the transmitter as Glendale however the tower is in Denver south of Glendale City Limits ) . It broadcasts weather and hazard information for the following Counties : Adams , Arapahoe , Broomfield , Clear Creek , Denver , Douglas , Elbert , Gilpin , central & eastern Park , Jefferson and Southern Weld .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "KEC76",
"rank": 83,
"score": 76202
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 84,
"score": 76091
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Atmospheric Sciences and Terrestrial Applications Content: The Cooperative Institute for Atmospheric Sciences and Terrestrial Applications ( CIASTA ) formalizes a major collaborative relationship between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the Desert Research Institute ( DRI ) . CIASTA serves as a focal point for the interaction between NOAA and the Intermountain West research community for research activities related to NOAA 's tasks and responsibilities in that region . The research is focussed on four general areas : weather , climate , air quality , and terrestrial ecosystems and climate .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Atmospheric_Sciences_and_Terrestrial_Applications",
"rank": 85,
"score": 76032
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar climate Content: The polar climate regions are characterized by a lack of warm summers . Every month in a polar climate has an average temperature of less than 10 C. Regions with polar climate cover more than 20 % of the Earth . The sun shines for long hours in the summer , and for many fewer hours in the winter . A polar climate results in treeless tundra , glaciers , or a permanent or semi-permanent layer of ice . It has cool summers and very cold winters .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Polar_climate",
"rank": 86,
"score": 75966
},
{
"content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason",
"rank": 87,
"score": 75845
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold Sunday Content: `` Cold Sunday '' was a meteorological event which took place on January 17 , 1982 , when unprecedentedly cold air swept down from Canada and plunged temperatures across much of the United States far below existing all-time record lows . The phenomenon was caused by an unusually strong high pressure system over Saskatchewan with a core pressure of 1055mb ( 31.15 inHg ) , a level rarely seen outside of permanent polar areas such as Siberia and Antarctica . A recent snowfall had left the ground without any way to hold on to its heat and temperatures dropped precipitously . This mass of cold air was so strong that the temperature at Mequon , Wisconsin , dropped to − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) . The previous record was − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) and temperatures below − 20 ° F ( − 29 ° C ) had been felt there only six times in the previous 100 years . The lowest temperature recorded that day in the United States was − 52 ° F ( − 47 ° C ) , measured near Tower , Minnesota . Below is a partial list of cities which set all-time record low temperatures in the United States . This is only a small fraction of all locales setting record low temperatures : Hundreds of towns and cities from North Dakota to New Jersey to Mississippi broke records , and the vast majority of the records set on `` Cold Sunday '' still stand . The cold was not confined to the night , either . In Princeton , New Jersey , and Cincinnati , Ohio , the daytime high temperatures were 2 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) and − 9 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) . The average high temperature in January is 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) in both cities . While much of South Florida escaped the deep freeze , enough damage was done to citrus crops in Central Florida during the month of January to write off the 1982 harvest as a disaster . International Falls , Minnesota : − 45 ° F ( − 43 ° C ) Saint Cloud , Minnesota : − 35 ° F ( − 37 ° C ) Madison , Wisconsin : − 31 ° F ( − 35 ° C ) Green Bay , Wisconsin : − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Chicago , Illinois : − 27 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Milwaukee , Wisconsin : − 26 ° F ( − 32 ° C ) Moline , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Peoria , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Akron , Ohio : − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania : − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) Cleveland , Ohio : − 17 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) Jackson , Mississippi : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Washington , D.C. : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Birmingham , Alabama : − 2 ° F ( − 19 ° C )",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Cold_Sunday",
"rank": 88,
"score": 75824
},
{
"content": "Title: Colder Than Here Content: Colder Than Here is the debut play by the British playwright Laura Wade . It premiered in 2005 at the Soho Theatre directed by Abigail Morris . The comedy explores a woman dying of bone cancer and her family coming to terms with her impending death . Joint with Laura Wade 's other play that also premiered that year concerning death Breathing Corpses it won the writer the Critics ' Circle Theatre Award for Most Promising Playwright and an Olivier Award nomination for Outstanding Achievement in an Affiliate Theatre . The play has been subsequently produced off-Broadway by MCC Theater in New York , 2005 , in Darmstadt in 2006 and Stockholm in 2006 and 2007",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Colder_Than_Here",
"rank": 89,
"score": 75704
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAAS Rainier (S 221) Content: NOAA Ship Rainier ( S 221 ) is an American survey vessel in commission with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) since 1970 . Prior to her NOAA service , she was in commission in the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey as USC&GS Rainier ( MSS 21 ) from 1968 to 1970 . She is named for Mount Rainier in the state of Washington and is the sister ship of NOAAS Fairweather ( S 220 ) and the decommissioned NOAAS Mount Mitchell ( S 222 ) .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAAS_Rainier_(S_221)",
"rank": 90,
"score": 75622
},
{
"content": "Title: Massenerhebung effect Content: The Massenerhebung effect ( German for `` mountain mass elevation '' ) describes variation in the tree line based on mountain size and location . In general , mountains surrounded by large ranges will tend to have higher tree lines than more isolated mountains due to heat retention and wind shadowing . This effect is important for determining weather patterns in mountainous regions , as regions of similar altitude and latitude may nonetheless have much warmer or colder climates based on surrounding mountain ranges . For example , in Borneo , Gunung Palung , located on the coast , has moss forest at 900 m , while the montane forest on Gunung Mulu starts at 1200 m and at 1800 m on Mount Kinabalu .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Massenerhebung_effect",
"rank": 91,
"score": 75457
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Thermal_low",
"rank": 92,
"score": 74834
},
{
"content": "Title: National Severe Storms Laboratory Content: The National Severe Storms Laboratory ( NSSL ) is a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) weather research laboratory under the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research . It is one of seven NOAA Research Laboratories ( RLs ) . NSSL studies weather radar , tornadoes , flash floods , lightning , damaging winds , hail , and winter weather in an effort to improve warnings and forecasts and to save lives and reduce property damage . Researchers at NSSL developed the first Doppler weather radar , and have contributed to the development of NEXRAD ( WSR-88D ) . The group conducts various research experiments using mobile radar systems and continues to make advances in the field of meteorology . NSSL has a partnership with the Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies ( CIMMS ) at the University of Oklahoma that enables collaboration and participation by students and visiting scientists in performing research . The Lab also works closely with the Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) and the National Weather Service Norman Forecast Office , which are co-located at the National Weather Center ( NWC ) in Norman , Oklahoma . The NWC houses a unique combination of University of Oklahoma , NOAA and state organizations that work together to improve understanding of weather .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "National_Severe_Storms_Laboratory",
"rank": 93,
"score": 74831
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 94,
"score": 74746
},
{
"content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer",
"rank": 95,
"score": 74636
},
{
"content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years",
"rank": 96,
"score": 74391
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 97,
"score": 74365
},
{
"content": "Title: NOAAS Researcher (R 103) Content: NOAAS Researcher ( R 103 ) , was an American oceanographic research vessel in commission in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) from 1970 to 1996 . Previously , she had been in commission in the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1970 as USC&GS Researcher ( OSS 03 ) . In 1987 , Researcher was renamed NOAAS Malcolm Baldrige ( R 103 ) .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "NOAAS_Researcher_(R_103)",
"rank": 98,
"score": 74202
},
{
"content": "Title: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Content: The Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory ( GFDL ) is a laboratory in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . The current director is Dr. Venkatachalam Ramaswamy . It is one of seven NOAA Research Laboratories ( RLs ) . GFDL is engaged in comprehensive long lead-time research to expand the scientific understanding of the physical processes that govern the behavior of the atmosphere and the oceans as complex fluid systems . These systems can then be modeled mathematically and their phenomenology can be studied by computer simulation methods . GFDL 's accomplishments include the development of the first climate models to study global warming , the first comprehensive ocean prediction codes , and the first dynamical models with significant skill in hurricane track and intensity predictions . Much current research within the laboratory is focused around the development of Earth System Models for assessment of natural and human-induced climate change .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Geophysical_Fluid_Dynamics_Laboratory",
"rank": 99,
"score": 74116
},
{
"content": "Title: Pneumonia front Content: The term Pneumonia front , first coined by Milwaukee Weather Bureau Office in the 1960s , is used to describe a rare meteorological phenomenon observed on the western Lake Michigan , USA , shoreline during the warm season . These fronts are defined as lake-modified synoptic scale cold fronts that result in one-hour temperature drops of 16 ° F ( 8.9 ° C ) or greater . They do not necessarily have to be synoptic , or large scale , cold fronts . Very often in the Spring to early summer the temperature difference between the cold lake waters and the warmer air over land can be as much as 35-40 ° F. Under weak prevailing winds , a density current can often develop in the form of a lake breeze that moves from that water to the adjacent shoreline and several miles inland . This `` lake-breeze cold front '' can drop temperature in places like Chicago , Milwaukee and Green Bay significantly as they cross the area . There has been many a Spring day at Wrigley Field that surprises people who may have travelled from an inland location toward the shore to take in an afternoon game , only to feel the effects of the `` pneumonia front '' as that cold blast of air comes through . The following are eighteen occurrences of a lake modified synoptic scale cold front or `` pneumonia front '' .",
"qid": "87",
"docid": "Pneumonia_front",
"rank": 100,
"score": 74056
}
] |
They were going to be gone by now, but now they're setting records | [
{
"content": "Title: You Should Have Been Gone by Now Content: `` You Should Have Been Gone by Now '' is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist Eddy Raven . It was released in December 1985 as the third single from the album Love and Other Hard Times . The song reached # 3 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart . It was written by Raven , Don Pfrimmer and Frank J. Myers .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "You_Should_Have_Been_Gone_by_Now",
"rank": 1,
"score": 121949
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone Records Content: Gone Records , originally Real Gone , was a record label founded by George Goldner that was active in the late 1950s and early 1960s . Among the artists that recorded for the label were Bill Haley & His Comets , Ral Donner , Jo-Ann Campbell , Eddie Platt and Johnny Rivers . It was acquired by Morris Levy and incorporated into Roulette Records in 1962 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_Records",
"rank": 2,
"score": 114219
},
{
"content": "Title: Goner Records Content: Goner Records is an independent record label and record store co-owned by Eric Friedl of The Oblivians and Zac Ives and is based in Memphis , Tennessee . It is known for releasing albums by punk and garage rock bands such as the King Khan & BBQ Show and the late Jay Reatard . The label also hosts Goner Fest , an annual Memphis music festival .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Goner_Records",
"rank": 3,
"score": 111818
},
{
"content": "Title: I'll Be Gone (Spectrum song) Content: `` I 'll Be Gone '' or `` Some Day I 'll Have Money '' is a song by Australian progressive rock group Spectrum released as their debut single by EMI on Harvest Records in January 1971 . It peaked at # 1 on the national singles chart , while it reached Top 5 in Melbourne , Sydney and Brisbane . The song was written by guitarist and vocalist Mike Rudd , and produced by Howard Gable . The B-side , `` Launching Place Part Two '' was written to promote a music festival . Spectrum never repeated the success of `` I 'll Be Gone '' .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "I'll_Be_Gone_(Spectrum_song)",
"rank": 4,
"score": 105710
},
{
"content": "Title: Now You're Gone (Whitesnake song) Content: `` Now You 're Gone '' is a single by the band Whitesnake from their 1989 album Slip of the Tongue . Recorded in 1988 and featured on the aforementioned album in 1989 , the song was released as a single in 1990 . `` Now You 're Gone '' follows an alternatively slow/fast paced rhythm . David Coverdale 's lyrics focus on a man who desperately longs for a woman after a break-up and is notable for then full-fledged Whitesnake guitarist Steve Vai 's shredding guitar and Tommy Aldridge 's expert drumming . The song reached number 96 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , number 15 on Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks and number 31 in the United Kingdom . It is featured on most of Whitesnake 's compilation albums , including the Whitesnake 's Greatest Hits of 1994 and the 20th anniversary edition of Slip of the Tongue .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_You're_Gone_(Whitesnake_song)",
"rank": 5,
"score": 105668
},
{
"content": "Title: World Be Gone Content: World Be Gone '' is the seventeenth studio album by English synthpop duo Erasure . The album was released through Mute Records on 19 May 2017 in the UK , and 20 May 2017 in North America .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "World_Be_Gone",
"rank": 6,
"score": 103849
},
{
"content": "Title: BYO Records discography Content: The discography of BYO Records , an independent record label based in Los Angeles , consists of 118 releases : 85 studio albums , one live album , 13 compilation albums , 2 EPs , 15 singles , one video album , and one box set . BYO ( Better Youth Organization ) Records was started in 1982 by brothers Shawn and Mark Stern of the band Youth Brigade . The label 's first release was the compilation album Someone Got Their Head Kicked In ! , showcasing a number of Los Angeles punk rock acts . This was followed by Youth Brigade 's debut album Sound & Fury , released in limited numbers and re-recorded the following year with a different track list . Over the next few years the label released albums by notable acts including 7 Seconds , SNFU , and Jr. . Gone Wild . The label was inactive following the decline of hardcore punk in 1986 , releasing only two albums between 1987 and 1991 . It was revived in 1992 in conjunction with the Sterns ' new act Royal Crown Revue and the revival of Youth Brigade . During the punk rock revival of the 1990s BYO released albums by Jughead 's Revenge , The Bouncing Souls , Automatic 7 , Hepcat , 22 Jacks , Terrorgruppe , Pezz , Jon Cougar Concentration Camp , and others . The BYO Split Series was launched in 1999 , a series of split albums featuring two bands per release ; it lasted until 2004 and comprised five albums . Since 2000 BYO has released albums by Pistol Grip , Manic Hispanic , Filthy Thieving Bastards , The Unseen , Sixer , One Man Army , Consumed , Throw Rag , The Business , The Briefs , Clit 45 , A Global Threat , Wednesday Night Heroes , and others . In 2009 the label celebrated its ( approximate ) 25th anniversary with the release of Let Them Know : The Story of Youth Brigade and BYO Records , a box set chronicling the label 's history in a coffee table book , a documentary film on DVD , and a compilation album on both CD and double LP of bands covering songs from the BYO catalog .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "BYO_Records_discography",
"rank": 7,
"score": 103750
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone Now Content: Gone Now is the second album by American indie pop act Bleachers , released on June 2 , 2017 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_Now",
"rank": 8,
"score": 102880
},
{
"content": "Title: My Man's Gone Now Content: `` My Man 's Gone Now '' is an aria composed by George Gershwin , with lyrics by DuBose Heyward , written for the opera Porgy and Bess ( 1935 ) . Sung in the original production by Ruby Elzy , it has been covered by many female singers , notably Ella Fitzgerald ( Porgy & Bess album ) , Leontyne Price , Audra McDonald ( who would later sing the part of Bess ) , Nina Simone , Sarah Vaughan , and Shirley Horn , among others .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "My_Man's_Gone_Now",
"rank": 9,
"score": 102148
},
{
"content": "Title: I'm Gonna Be a Country Girl Again Content: I 'm Gon na Be a Country Girl Again is the fifth album by Cree singer/songwriter Buffy Sainte-Marie . As its title suggested , it saw her embrace Nashville country music with the help of session veterans such as the Jordanaires , Grady Martin , Roy M. Huskey , Jr. and Floyd Cramer . The album included re-recordings of `` Now That the Buffalo 's Gone '' and `` The Piney Wood Hills '' from her first and second albums respectively . `` Tall Trees in Georgia '' , in contrast to most of the material , showed Sainte-Marie performing in a style reminiscent of her earliest work . I 'm Gon na Be a Country Girl Again was not as well received critically or even commercially as her previous four albums , and relatively few of the songs unique to it have notable cover versions ( Neko Case 's cover of `` Soulful Shade of Blue '' may be considered an exception ) . The title tune , however , was to become a Top 40 UK hit after she reached the Top Ten there with the title tune to the movie Soldier Blue ( from her album She Used to Wan na Be a Ballerina ) .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "I'm_Gonna_Be_a_Country_Girl_Again",
"rank": 10,
"score": 101757
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone II – But Never Too Gone! Content: Gone II - But Never Too Gone is the second album by the instrumental band , Gone . During that period , the SST Record label Greg Ginn was facing some serious debts and other problems ; such as fans not being interested in non-punk bands that he was signing . This would be the last album from the band , thanks to bandleader Greg Ginn 's fingers being broken from a basketball accident .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_II_–_But_Never_Too_Gone!",
"rank": 11,
"score": 100133
},
{
"content": "Title: Now That You're Gone (Sheryl Crow song) Content: `` Now That You 're Gone '' is a song written and recorded by American singer-songwriter Sheryl Crow . It was released as the third single from Crow 's sixth studio album Detours in the United Kingdom . The song was ranked the 97th best song of the year 2008 by Rolling Stone , who describe the song as having : `` All the sassy independence of Kelly Clarkson 's `` Since U Been Gone , '' except 20 years wiser . With bluesy swagger , Crow has mastered the art of writing breakup anthems for grown-ups . . ''",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_That_You're_Gone_(Sheryl_Crow_song)",
"rank": 12,
"score": 99393
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone at Last Content: `` Gone at Last '' is a song by the American singer-songwriter Paul Simon . It was the lead single from his fourth studio album , Still Crazy After All These Years ( 1975 ) , released on Columbia Records . Phoebe Snow and the Jessy Dixon Singers provide guest vocals , with Snow receiving credit on the single release .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_at_Last",
"rank": 13,
"score": 99370
},
{
"content": "Title: Now You're Gone – The Album Content: Now You 're Gone -- The Album is the second studio album by Swedish Eurodance musician Basshunter . Released on 14 July 2008 , it features English remakes of older Basshunter hits , and entered the UK Albums Chart at number one , selling in excess of 329,717 copies in the UK making it Platinum . It is 350,000 copies saled in Europe . In New Zealand , the album peaked at number one in its fifth week , and was certified Platinum and selling over 20,000 copies . The album spent a total of two weeks at number one .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_You're_Gone_–_The_Album",
"rank": 14,
"score": 98885
},
{
"content": "Title: A Toast to Those Who Are Gone Content: A Toast to Those Who Are Gone is a 1986 compilation album of recordings that Phil Ochs made in the early to mid-1960s , mostly between his contracts with Elektra Records and A&M Records . In line with recordings made on the former , Ochs espouses his left-leaning views on civil rights on songs like `` Ballad of Oxford '' , `` Going Down To Mississippi '' and `` Colored Town '' , his views on worker 's rights on `` No Christmas in Kentucky '' , his attack on the American Medical Association on `` A.M.A. Song '' , and the unwilling hero ( perhaps Ochs himself ) on the title track . The CD carried an extra track , `` The Trial '' , and the liner notes were by noted Ochs fan Sean Penn. .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "A_Toast_to_Those_Who_Are_Gone",
"rank": 15,
"score": 98828
},
{
"content": "Title: Give Till It's Gone Content: Give Till It 's Gone is the tenth studio album by Ben Harper . The album was released in Italy on May 10 , 2011 and worldwide on May 17 , 2011 by Virgin Records . It is Harper 's first solo album since Both Sides Of The Gun , released in 2006 . However , his band , Relentless7 , feature prominently on all the tracks , even co-writing some of the tracks with Harper . The album 's title is taken from a line in the second track , `` I Will Not Be Broken . '' The album was preceded by the single `` Rock N ' Roll Is Free '' , released as a free download on March 22 , 2011 . In Italy , the first single from the album was `` Do n't Give Up on Me Now '' , released on April 1 , 2011 . In the album , Ben Harper collaborates with the ex-Beatle Ringo Starr , who co-wrote and played the drums in the tracks `` Spilling Faith '' and `` Get There from Here '' . Another song from the album , `` Pray That Our Love Sees the Dawn '' , features American singer-songwriter Jackson Browne .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Give_Till_It's_Gone",
"rank": 16,
"score": 98762
},
{
"content": "Title: Eric Friedl Content: Eric Friedl , also known by his stage name , Eric Oblivian , is the founder and owner of Goner Records , an independent music label and record store located in Memphis , Tennessee . He is also an American singer , songwriter , guitarist , and entrepreneur . He was a founding member of the Memphis garage-rock band the Oblivians , and was a member , along with Jay Reatard of The Reatards and King Louie Bankston of The Royal Pendletons , in the garage band , the Bad Times . Friedl is a current member of The Dutch Masters , the True Sons of Thunder , and the New Memphis Legs .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Eric_Friedl",
"rank": 17,
"score": 96944
},
{
"content": "Title: Teenage Hate Content: Teenage Hate is the debut studio album by the American garage punk band , The Reatards . It was released in 1998 via Goner Records . Goner Records reissued the album on May 17 , 2011 , one year after Jay Reatard 's death . The posthumous release included two rare recordings , The Reatards Cassette and Fuck Elvis Here 's The Reatards Cassette , which have been previously released on only cassette format . These were included in the bonus disc . The reissue , which includes covers from artists such as The Beatles , Buddy Holly , Fear , Lil ' Bunnies , The Litter , and The Dead Boys , met with a critical acclaim . The album features elements from various music genres , such as garage rock , punk rock , southern rock , power pop , blues and rockabilly . The recording utilizes a raw lo-fi sound , which makes it sound like `` it was recorded on a telephone '' . The album also juxtaposes hooks and choruses with highly dissonant guitars and screaming , which were compared to those of Black Francis of Pixies .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Teenage_Hate",
"rank": 18,
"score": 96726
},
{
"content": "Title: Raucous Records Content: Raucous Records is a British record label focusing on rockabilly , psychobilly , rock and roll , and surf music . The label has released albums such as `` Between The Polecats '' by The Polecats , `` Rock 'n' Roll Fever '' by Jay Chance , `` Rockabilly Express '' by Gary Setzer and Barry Ryan , `` The Lost Album '' by The Meteors , `` Real Gone Katz '' by The Go-Katz , `` Reeferbilly Blowout '' by The Shakin ' Pyramids , `` My Ol' Guitar '' by Gary Bennett ex-BR5-49 , and `` This is Rockabilly Clash '' by various Rockabilly bands performing the songs of The Clash . The label was formed in 1987 by Howard Raucous , initially to release a vinyl EP by his psychobilly band The Go-Katz , Initially based in Loughborough , Leicestershire , relocating in the early 1990s to Fleetwood , Lancashire . Category : British record labels",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Raucous_Records",
"rank": 19,
"score": 95715
},
{
"content": "Title: Ideal (album) Content: Ideal is the eponymous debut album by R&B group Ideal released on August 24 , 1999 by Virgin Records US . The first single `` Get Gone '' was featured on the 1999 compilation album Now That 's What I Call Music ! 3 The album sold 615,000 units in the U.S. , according to Nielsen SoundScan , and was certified Gold by the RIAA . It features the hit single `` Get Gone '' , which reached # 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , and the moderately successful third single `` Whatever '' . Allmusic 's Heather Phares called Ideal 's initial effort a `` heartfelt first album '' which showcased the `` group 's smooth , sensuous vocal styling and romantic songwriting .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Ideal_(album)",
"rank": 20,
"score": 95308
},
{
"content": "Title: When It's Gone Content: `` When It 's Gone '' is a song written by Jimmie Fadden and Don Schlitz , and recorded by American country music group Nitty Gritty Dirt Band . It was released in October 1989 as the third single from the album Will the Circle Be Unbroken : Volume Two . The song reached number 10 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart . It was their band 's last top 10 hit .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "When_It's_Gone",
"rank": 21,
"score": 95213
},
{
"content": "Title: Know by Heart Content: Know by Heart is the American Analog Set 's fourth studio album . It was released on September 4 , 2001 , and was their first album on Tiger Style Records . The song `` The Postman '' contains vocals by guest Ben Gibbard of Death Cab for Cutie and the Postal Service . Gibbard later covered the song `` Choir Vandals '' on Home Series Vol . V , a split EP with the American Analog Set 's own Andrew Kenny . `` Gone to Earth '' first appeared on AmAnSet 's 1996 album The Fun of Watching Fireworks . `` Aaron and Maria '' was included in an issue of CMJ New Music Monthly in 2002 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Know_by_Heart",
"rank": 22,
"score": 95173
},
{
"content": "Title: Now You're Gone (Basshunter song) Content: `` Now You 're Gone '' is a song performed by Swedish dance musician Basshunter in cooperation with DJ Mental Theo 's Bazzheadz . The single uses the same music as `` Boten Anna '' , Basshunter 's major European hit in 2006 , but its lyrics , performed in English by Sebastian Westwood , are completely different . The song was covered by Crazy Frog as `` Everyone '' , on his third studio album and parodied by former BBC Radio 1 host , Chris Moyles .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_You're_Gone_(Basshunter_song)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 95149
},
{
"content": "Title: Love Is Here and Now You're Gone Content: `` Love Is Here and Now You 're Gone '' is a 1967 song recorded by The Supremes for the Motown label . Written and composed by Motown 's main production team Holland -- Dozier -- Holland , it became the second consecutive number-one pop single from the Supremes ' album The Supremes Sing Holland -- Dozier -- Holland and the group 's ninth overall chart-topper in the United States on Billboard Hot 100 , peaking March 1967 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Love_Is_Here_and_Now_You're_Gone",
"rank": 24,
"score": 95103
},
{
"content": "Title: Which Way Do I Go (Now That I'm Gone) Content: `` Which Way Do I Go ( Now That I 'm Gone ) '' is a song recorded by American country music artist Waylon Jennings . It was released in January 1989 as the second single from the album Full Circle . The song reached # 28 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart . The song was written by Johnny MacRae and Steve Clark .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Which_Way_Do_I_Go_(Now_That_I'm_Gone)",
"rank": 25,
"score": 94879
},
{
"content": "Title: Things to Come from Those Now Gone Content: Things to Come from Those Now Gone is the third album by Muhal Richard Abrams which was released on the Delmark label in 1975 and features performances of seven of Abrams ' compositions by Abrams with varying line-ups that include Wallace McMillan , Edwin Daugherty , Richard Brown , Emanuel Cranshaw , Reggie Willis , Rufus Reid , Steve McCall and Wilbur Campbell with vocals by Ella Jackson .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Things_to_Come_from_Those_Now_Gone",
"rank": 26,
"score": 94672
},
{
"content": "Title: Now That's What I Call Music! 69 (UK series) Content: Now That 's What I Call Music ! 69 or Now 69 is a compilation album that was released on 17 March 2008 . The album is the 69th edition of the original UK Now ! series . It was released on compact disc and to digital music retailers . In its first week of release , it sold 382,759 copies , at the time the biggest ever first week sale of any Now album beating the previous record of Now 57 in 2004 . Now 69 is the second fastest selling Now after Now 70 . It was the first in the series to include bonus music videos from iTunes . Now 69 features four songs which reached number one on the UK Singles Chart : `` Mercy '' , `` Now You 're Gone '' , `` When You Believe '' , and `` What a Wonderful World '' . The original version of the Utah Saints song Something Good previously appeared on Now ! 22 . For reasons unknown , the album credits Apologize by OneRepublic as the Timbaland version of the song . The version used is the solo version .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_That's_What_I_Call_Music!_69_(UK_series)",
"rank": 27,
"score": 93845
},
{
"content": "Title: Going, Going, Gone (Bryan White song) Content: `` Going , Going , Gone '' is a song written by Bob DiPiero , John Scott Sherrill , and Steve Cropper . It was first recorded by American country music artist Bryan White on his 1994 self-titled debut album . It was later cut by American country music artist Neal McCoy . It was released in September 1996 as the second single from the album Neal McCoy . The song reached # 35 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Going,_Going,_Gone_(Bryan_White_song)",
"rank": 28,
"score": 93427
},
{
"content": "Title: Still Feel Gone Content: Still Feel Gone is the second album by American alternative country pioneers Uncle Tupelo . It was released in 1991 on Rockville Records and re-released in 2003 by Sony Legacy .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Still_Feel_Gone",
"rank": 29,
"score": 93351
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone, Gone, Gone (song) Content: `` Gone , Gone , Gone '' is a song recorded by American recording artist Phillip Phillips from his debut album The World from the Side of the Moon . It was released on February 11 , 2013 by Interscope Records as the second single from the album . The song was co-written by Derek Fuhrmann , Todd Clark , and Gregg Wattenberg , Wattenberg also produced the song himself . `` Gone , Gone , Gone '' became a moderate commercial success in the United States as it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and has sold more than two million digital copies since its release .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone,_Gone,_Gone_(song)",
"rank": 30,
"score": 92984
},
{
"content": "Title: All That Was Has Gone Content: All That Was Has Gone is the fourth studio album by British band Northern Uproar . It was released in 2013 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "All_That_Was_Has_Gone",
"rank": 31,
"score": 92925
},
{
"content": "Title: Go Records Content: Go Records ( usually badged as Go !! Records ) was a small independent Melbourne-based recording label which ran from 1964 to 1968 . Its releases were manufactured and distributed by the Melbourne-based recording and electronics company Astor . The Go !! label was established by the producers of the similarly named The Go !! Show , Horrie Dargie , Arthur Young and Johnny Tillbrook ( known as ` DYT Productions ' ) . The label was noted for its cross-promotion of singers with the television show . The label produced 54 singles but with only limited commercial success . Bands awarded contracts included The Cherokees , The Deakins , MPD Ltd , Tony & The Shantels ( from Shepparton , Victoria ) , The Chosen Few ( South Australia ) , and The Clique ( Perth ) . One band , The Rondells , included several members who went on to form the rhythm section of Daddy Cool . Another group , The Strangers provided backing for the solo singers who appeared on The Go !! Show as well as performing their own material which was released on the Go !! label . Lead guitarist John Farrar went on to produce and write songs for Olivia Newton-John , most notably for the films Xanadu and Grease .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Go_Records",
"rank": 32,
"score": 92870
},
{
"content": "Title: You'll Be Gone Content: `` You 'll Be Gone '' is a song co-written by Elvis Presley and published by Elvis Presley Music and released in 1965 on the Girl Happy soundtrack album and as a 45 single . The song was recorded in 1962 and is significant because it was co-written by Elvis Presley , with his bodyguard Red West and Charlie Hodge . The other song that Elvis Presley composed was `` That 's Someone You Never Forget '' in 1961 with Red West , which was on the Pot Luck LP released in 1962 . The song was recorded on Sunday , March 18 , 1962 at RCA Studio B in Nashville , Tennessee .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "You'll_Be_Gone",
"rank": 33,
"score": 92746
},
{
"content": "Title: Now Those Days Are Gone Content: `` Now Those Days Are Gone '' is a single by UK pop group Bucks Fizz . It became a UK top ten hit in July 1982 and featured on the group 's album Are You Ready . The song was nominated for an Ivor Novello award the following year .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_Those_Days_Are_Gone",
"rank": 34,
"score": 92600
},
{
"content": "Title: Days Gone By (James House album) Content: Days Gone By is an album by American country music artist James House . Released in 1995 as his third and final studio album , it was also his only album for the Epic Records label . The album itself peaked at 48 on the U.S. Billboard Top Country Albums charts , and 19 on Top Heatseekers . Four of its singles entered the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks ( now Hot Country Songs ) charts : `` A Real Good Way to Wind Up Lonesome '' , `` Little by Little '' , `` This Is Me Missing You '' , and `` Anything for Love '' ; `` This Is Me Missing You '' was the highest-charting single of his career , peaking at 6 in mid-1995 . In addition , the album 's title track was included in the soundtrack to the 1994 movie The Cowboy Way . Days Gone By also features guest vocals from Trisha Yearwood , as well as Raul Malo ( of The Mavericks ) and Nikki Nelson ( who was then the lead singer for Highway 101 ) .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Days_Gone_By_(James_House_album)",
"rank": 35,
"score": 92193
},
{
"content": "Title: Now Is the Time (Nightmares on Wax album) Content: N.O.W Is the Time is a best of compilation from Nightmares on Wax , released to celebrate his 25-year career as the longest serving artist on Warp Records . Two versions of the record will be released in June 2014 , a standard edition comprising two discs ` Nightmares by Day ' and ` Nightmares by Night ' consisting of 28 of his most popular tracks . A special edition vinyl box set will also be made available , ` N.O.W IS THE TIME : DEEP DOWN EDITION ' , with remixes , rarities and a number of unreleased tracks alongside a book of memorabilia and interviews .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_Is_the_Time_(Nightmares_on_Wax_album)",
"rank": 36,
"score": 92181
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone (Bebe Rexha song) Content: `` Gone '' is a song by Bebe Rexha . It was released worldwide on December 19 , 2014 . The song tells of the singer lamenting a past love . The chorus contains the lyrics '' 'Cause I 'm a lost river that 'll never reach the sea / When you 're not here with me , when you 're gone / I 'm sick to my bones , I do n't feel natural / Without you I 'm not whole , when you 're gone . '' In Australia , the song was used in television advertisements promoting the drama series Love Child on the Nine Network .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_(Bebe_Rexha_song)",
"rank": 37,
"score": 92052
},
{
"content": "Title: Someplace Else Now Content: Someplace Else Now is a 1972 album by American singer Lesley Gore and is her eighth studio album . It was preceded by the 1968 compilation album Golden Hits Volume 2 . Only one single was released from the album , `` She Said That '' . It was also her only album for the Motown subsidiary MoWest Records . The album was released on CD in August 2015 via Real Gone Music .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Someplace_Else_Now",
"rank": 38,
"score": 91679
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone (Vacationer album) Content: Gone is the debut studio album by American band Vacationer . It was released in March 2012 under Downtown Records .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_(Vacationer_album)",
"rank": 39,
"score": 91619
},
{
"content": "Title: Go-Set Content: Go-Set was the first Australian pop music newspaper , published weekly from 2 February 1966 to 24 August 1974 , and was founded in Melbourne by Phillip Frazer , Peter Raphael and Tony Schauble . Widely described as a pop music `` bible '' , it became an influential publication , introduced the first national pop record charts and featured many notable contributors including fashion designer Prue Acton , journalist Lily Brett , rock writer / band manager Vince Lovegrove , music commentator Ian Meldrum , rock writer / music historian Ed Nimmervoll and radio DJ Stan Rofe . It spawned the original Australian edition of Rolling Stone magazine in late 1972 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Go-Set",
"rank": 40,
"score": 91571
},
{
"content": "Title: Mike & The Mechanics (1999 album) Content: Mike & The Mechanics is the fifth studio album by Mike + The Mechanics , released in 1999 . As the name is easily confused with the 1985 album , Mike + The Mechanics , it is also referred to as M6 ( i.e. , the sixth album by the group , including the Hits compilation ) . It includes the top 40 hit `` Now That You 've Gone '' . This was the last studio album with Paul Young , who died the year after its release ; the group did not release another album until Rewired in 2004 . The album was not officially released in North America and is only available as an import there . However , the band 's former US label Atlantic Records is still thanked in the liner notes .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Mike_&_The_Mechanics_(1999_album)",
"rank": 41,
"score": 91464
},
{
"content": "Title: Till It's Gone Content: `` Till It 's Gone '' is a song by American hip hop recording artist Yelawolf , featured on his 2015 album Love Story . Written by Yelawolf , producer WLPWR , guitarist Mike Hartnett and mixing engineer Matthew Hayes , it was originally featured on some versions of the 2014 Shady Records compilation Shady XV . The song was released as the second single from both albums on September 16 , 2014 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Till_It's_Gone",
"rank": 42,
"score": 91313
},
{
"content": "Title: Tyler Coffey Content: Tyler Coffey ( born January 24 , 1976 ) is a musician and record producer based in Seattle , Washington . He is known for playing guitar in `` With Friends Like These '' who signed to Sound vs. Silence Records in 2009 . Their debut , Dead and Gone , was mixed by Barrett Jones ( Foo Fighters , Nirvana , Pearl Jam ) . Soon after the release of the record , the band took an unexplained hiatus . Although the band never released a public statement regarding the hiatus , sources claim it was related to family health issues and not due to any sort of feud . Coffey announced in February 2011 , that he and Smith will be co-producing a new record together under the moniker `` ASHA '' . The title of the record is A.R.C. Coffey is slated to front the band , Smith is participating as a producer , and will not perform with the band . In 2012 he created and executive produced `` One Night Only '' a television series featuring up and coming bands , collaborating with better known acts . He is currently working on preproduction for his first feature length film . Tentatively titled Conor Wayne which he wrote and will direct . The film is set to shoot in winter 2016 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Tyler_Coffey",
"rank": 43,
"score": 91285
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sound of Johnny Cash Content: The Sound of Johnny Cash is the twelfth album by American singer-songwriter Johnny Cash , released in 1962 ( see 1962 in music ) . Among other songs , it contains `` In the Jailhouse Now '' , a Jimmie Rodgers cover which reached No. 8 on the Country charts , and `` Delia 's Gone '' , which Cash would re-record years later , on American Recordings , in 1994 . Cash would also go on to record a significantly slower , more ballad-like version of `` I 'm Free from the Chain Gang Now '' , which was ultimately released in 2006 on American V : A Hundred Highways as the last track on the album . During the recording sessions for the album , Cash rerecorded his Sun Records hits `` Folsom Prison Blues '' , `` Hey Porter '' and `` I Walk the Line '' , but none of these versions were ultimately used on the album and sat unreleased until the 1990s .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "The_Sound_of_Johnny_Cash",
"rank": 44,
"score": 91210
},
{
"content": "Title: Forever Now (Level 42 album) Content: Forever Now is the tenth studio album released by the British pop musical group Level 42 , released in 1994 . There were two releases of the album with different track listings and cover art . The first release in 1994 on RCA records has 11 tracks . In 1996 , the album was re-released by the label Resurgence , with 15 tracks including six additional tracks , but without the songs `` Tired Of Waiting '' & `` All Over You '' . Also some of the songs on this version varied in length from those on the RCA release , and the track `` Billy 's Gone '' was completely remixed . The Resurgence album was re-released in 2009 by the label Edsel , as a double CD , bringing `` Tired Of Waiting '' & `` All Over You '' back to the track listing again , and also adding extended remixes of `` All Over You '' , `` Forever Now '' , `` Learn To Say No '' and `` Love In A Peaceful World '' . The sleeve notes for the reissue state that the Resurgence version of the album contained the original intended track listing . It was the final album release for Level 42 before the original breakup , and was their last album of the 90 's to feature the participation of three original members : Mark King , Mike Lindup and Phil Gould . Level 42 released a new album in 2006 named Retroglide with King , Lindup and Gary Husband and a small participation by Boon Gould . Phil Gould , dismayed at what he felt was the record company 's ineptitude , did not go on the road with the band on their Forever Now tour . He was replaced for the tour with live session drummer Gavin Harrison , and Jakko Jakszyk rejoined on guitar . Three singles were issued off the album : `` Forever Now '' , `` All Over You '' and `` Love in a Peaceful World '' - all reached the top 40 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Forever_Now_(Level_42_album)",
"rank": 45,
"score": 91113
},
{
"content": "Title: Going, Going, Gone (Bob Dylan song) Content: `` Going , Going , Gone '' is a song by Bob Dylan . It was released in 1974 on the album Planet Waves . The song is in the key of F major and deals with the themes of reflection and suicide . Bob Dylan is accompanied by The Band . Critics have admired the interplay in the song between Dylan 's desperate vocal and guitarist Robbie Robertson 's lead guitar . Rock critic Tim Riley wrote that `` The Band 's windup pitch to `` Going , Going , Gone '' is a wonder of pinpoint ensemble playing : Robertson makes his guitar entrance choke as if a noose had suddenly tightened around its neck , '' adding that The Band 's sympathetic `` shaping of the song ... is so perfectly attuned to the bottomed-out quality of Dylan 's mood that Robertson 's guitar sounds like it 's scratching the itch in Dylan 's throat . ''",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Going,_Going,_Gone_(Bob_Dylan_song)",
"rank": 46,
"score": 91018
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone (Dwight Yoakam album) Content: Gone is the sixth studio album by country music artist Dwight Yoakam . It rose as far up as # 5 on the Billboard Country Albums chart . It produced three singles on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts : `` Nothing '' at No. 20 , `` Gone ( That 'll Be Me ) '' at No. 51 , and `` Sorry You Asked ? '' at No. 59 . The final single , `` Heart of Stone '' , failed to chart in the United States . This was also the first album of his career not to produce a Top Ten country hit .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_(Dwight_Yoakam_album)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 90607
},
{
"content": "Title: Best of the Trilogy... All the Beauty I Have Lost Forever Will Be Gone Content: Best of the Trilogy ... All the Beauty I Have Lost Forever Will Be Gone '' is a compilation album by the Norwegian gothic metal band Mortal Love , released on the German record label Massacre Records on July 15 , 2011 . To the date of release of this album , the ten-year contract signed for the band with Massacre Records was about to expire . Shortly after this , Mortal Love was officially dissolved after five years of inactivity . It consists of a selection of the best songs of the three studio albums released by the band between 2002 and 2006 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Best_of_the_Trilogy..._All_the_Beauty_I_Have_Lost_Forever_Will_Be_Gone",
"rank": 48,
"score": 90431
},
{
"content": "Title: Never or Now Content: Never or Now is the debut solo album by Lisa Scott-Lee . It was released in South Africa on 26 March 2007 and on 14 June as a digital download in the United Kingdom through Concept Records . The album consists of Scott-Lee 's first two singles `` Lately '' and `` Too Far Gone '' some other tracks that were released and through Mercury Records before she was dropped in 2003 as well as some later material she worked on while she was signed to Concept Records such as the single `` Electric '' . The album was originally going to be released as Unleashed back in 2003 but as a result from Scott-Lee being dropped from her record label the album 's release was pushed to a 2007 release as Never or Now . The sound of the album mainly consists of dance-pop and electro-pop but gradually progresses into more or a rock-pop sound . The fourth track on the album `` Back In Time '' was covered by Angel City ( electronic music group ) for their album Love Me Right in 2005 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Never_or_Now",
"rank": 49,
"score": 90290
},
{
"content": "Title: Now You're Gone Content: Now You 're Gone may refer to : Now You 're Gone -- The Album , a 2008 album by Basshunter `` Now You 're Gone '' ( Basshunter song ) , the title song `` Now You 're Gone '' ( Whitesnake song ) , 1989 `` Now You 're Gone '' , 1981 song by Bucks Fizz . B-side to `` The Land of Make Believe ''",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_You're_Gone",
"rank": 50,
"score": 90180
},
{
"content": "Title: Now That the Buffalo's Gone Content: `` Now That the Buffalo 's Gone '' is the first song from the 1964 album It 's My Way ! by Canadian First Nations singer-songwriter Buffy Sainte-Marie . The song 's title refers to the near-extinction of the American bison and serves as a metaphor for the cultural genocide inflicted by Europeans . A classic folk protest song , `` Now That the Buffalo 's Gone '' has a simple arrangement with guitar and vocals by Sainte-Marie and bass played by Art Davis . The song is a lament that addresses the continuous confiscation of Indian lands . In the song , Sainte-Marie contrasts the treatment of post-war Germany , whose people were allowed to keep their land and their dignity , to that of North American Indians . As a contemporary example , Sainte-Marie mentions how the Treaty of Canandaigua was broken through the building of the Kinzua Dam . She refers to the dam again in her 1966 song `` My Country ` Tis of Thy People You 're Dying . '' While her original lyrics claimed that George Washington signed the treaty , it was actually his agent , Timothy Pickering who signed . Sainte-Marie later changed the lyrics to refer to a `` treaty forever your senators sign . '' The song describes ongoing governmental attempts to wrest land from the Cheyenne , Iroquois and Seneca . Sainte-Marie recorded the song again for her 1968 album I 'm Gon na Be a Country Girl Again , updating the lyrics from `` that of the Seneca and the Cheyenne '' to `` that of the Chippewa and the Cheyenne '' and again for the 1996 album Up Where We Belong with the lyrics `` the government now wants the Navajo land , that of the Inuit and the Cheyenne . '' The 1996 version removed any mention of the Kinzua Dam , a change that was explained by Sainte-Marie on her website `` This song was on my first album and I 'd have thought it would be obsolete by now . But governments are still breaking promises and stealing indigenous lands , and I still believe that informed people can help make things better . '' Sainte-Marie allowed historian Alvin M. Josephy , Jr. to use the song 's title for his 1984 book of the same name .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_That_the_Buffalo's_Gone",
"rank": 51,
"score": 90105
},
{
"content": "Title: Now & Then Records Content: Now & Then Records was a record label founded in 1992 by Mark Ashton , Bruce Mee and Peter Sims . The label based in Wigan , England released albums dealing with album-oriented rock , hard rock and melodic rock musical genres . In 1998 Now & Then became a production company with its album releases handled by Frontiers Records . The first release on the Now & Then label was Gary Hughes ' self tiled album ( NTHEN 1 ) in 1992 . Now and Then 's fifth release ( NTHEN 5 ) , was Liverpool based prog-rockers The Quest , debut album Do You Believe . The same band released their second album Change on the same label a few years later .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_&_Then_Records",
"rank": 52,
"score": 90091
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone Girl (album) Content: Gone Girl is the 58th album by American country singer Johnny Cash , released on Columbia Records in 1978 . It features The Rolling Stones ' Beggars Banquet song `` No Expectations '' , the original `` It Comes and Goes '' and Rodney Crowell 's `` A Song for the Life '' , as well as a version of Kenny Rogers ' famous single `` The Gambler '' , released just a month before Gone Girl . Three singles from the album , `` Gone Girl '' , `` I Will Rock and Roll with You '' and `` It 'll Be Her '' , were released , but did not reach the country chart 's top 20 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_Girl_(album)",
"rank": 53,
"score": 89899
},
{
"content": "Title: I'll Be Gone (Linkin Park song) Content: `` I 'll Be Gone '' is a song by American rock band Linkin Park from their fifth studio album , Living Things . The song was written by the band and produced by co-lead vocalist Mike Shinoda and Rick Rubin . The song features strings by Arcade Fire arranger Owen Pallett . It entered the UK Rock Singles Charts at number 26 and was added to the playlist of Los Angeles modern rock station KROQ on December 5 , 2012 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "I'll_Be_Gone_(Linkin_Park_song)",
"rank": 54,
"score": 89803
},
{
"content": "Title: Everyday Now Content: `` Everyday Now '' is a song by Scottish band Texas . It was first recorded for the band 's 1989 EP of the same name , Everyday Now . It was released as a single on 5 August 1989 and is taken from the band 's debut album Southside . The song debuted at # 58 on the UK Singles Charts , peaking at # 44 , and as a result became the band 's second single not to reach the UK Top 40 ( although it did fare better than the previous single , `` Thrill Has Gone '' ) . The song has been described as `` a bluesy ballad which drips with soul '' . A re-recorded version featured on their album The Greatest Hits , and a live version of the song was issued on the album The BBC Sessions .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Everyday_Now",
"rank": 55,
"score": 89770
},
{
"content": "Title: I.R.S. Records Content: I.R.S. Records was an American record label founded by Miles Copeland III and Jay Boberg in 1979 . I.R.S. produced some of the most popular bands of the 1980s , including R.E.M. and The Go-Go 's .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "I.R.S._Records",
"rank": 56,
"score": 89574
},
{
"content": "Title: Things We Do Content: Things We Do is the first album from the band Indigenous , released in 1998 under the Pachyderm Records label . In 1999 , Indigenous won three Native American Music Awards for this record , including two top honors : Album of the Year and Group of the Year . A video for the lead single and title track , directed by Chris Eyre ( acclaimed director of Smoke Signals ) , won the American Indian Film Festival award and was shown three times at the Sundance Film Festival . The track `` Now That You 're Gone '' peaked at # 22 on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock chart , making Indigenous one of the first Native American bands to break into that realm . Amazon.com named the band Blues Artist of the Year . Indigenous was featured on broadcast shows such as NPR 's All Things Considered , Late Night with Conan O'Brien , CBS Saturday Morningand Austin City Limits . B.B. King became a self-proclaimed fan , and invited the band to join his Blues Festival Tour .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Things_We_Do",
"rank": 57,
"score": 89363
},
{
"content": "Title: Never Been Gone Content: Never Been Gone is an album by the American singer/songwriter Carly Simon , released on October 27 , 2009 by Iris Records . The album features new acoustic versions of many of Simon 's past hits , as well as two new songs . It is her 25th studio album ( and her 35th overall , including live and compilation albums ) . The album peaked at # 134 on the United States Billboard 200 album chart in 2009 , and the International version peaked at # 45 on the United Kingdom 's UK Albums Chart in 2010 . It was given away free with The Mail on Sunday newspaper on 28 March 2010 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Never_Been_Gone",
"rank": 58,
"score": 89204
},
{
"content": "Title: Last Fair Deal Gone Down Content: `` Last Fair Deal Gone Down '' is a song by American blues musician Robert Johnson . It was recorded during Johnson 's third recording session in San Antonio , Texas , on November 27 , 1936 . The song was released on a 78 rpm record in April the following year by Vocalion Records as the second side of `` 32-20 Blues '' . It was included on the first reissue of Johnson 's songs , King of the Delta Blues Singers in 1961 . In 1990 , it was released on compact disc as part of The Complete Recordings box set , and in 2000 it was included in Harry Smith 's Anthology of American Folk Music , Vol . 4 . The song connects some scenes of gambling , work and romance , by situating them on the Gulf and Ship Island Railroad . The expression `` Deal Go Down '' comes from the card game `` Georgia Skin '' . The railroad serves as more than a setting ; Max Haymes finds , in the one unclear verse , a furious description of the convict lease work used when the railroad was laid , before Johnson was born . Elijah Wald agrees that the song features lyrics and structure of an archaic work song , similar to `` It Makes A Long Time Man Feel Bad '' ; the traditional melody and structure were adapted from Charley Patton 's record , `` You 're Gon na Need Somebody When You Die '' ( 1929 ) , its lyrics discarded . David Brackett describes the musical changes , `` Johnson modifies this arrangement , simplifying the high-register slide part ... and adding a contrasting syncopated figure in the middle of the recording ( but omitting the sermon ) . '' But Wald traces also lyrics borrowed from the song `` Do n't Let Your Deal Go Down '' , recorded by Fiddlin ' John Carson among others , which might have suggested to Johnson some of the changes in arrangement . Artists who later interpreted the song include Keb Mo , Eric Clapton , Peter Green , Todd Rundgren , C.W. Stoneking and the Blue Tits , Crooked Still , and Beck in concert .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Last_Fair_Deal_Gone_Down",
"rank": 59,
"score": 89152
},
{
"content": "Title: Gonna Get Along Without Ya Now Content: `` Gon na Get Along Without Ya Now '' is a popular song written by Milton Kellem , and published in 1951 . Originally written in English , it has been done in several styles and tempos . The very first known recorded version was in june 1951 , by Roy Hogsed ( source : Wikipedia ) . The `` original '' version , recorded by Teresa Brewer with Orchestra directed by Ray Bloch on January 10 , 1952 , was released by Coral Records as catalog number 60676 on April 5 , 1952 . It reached # 25 on the Billboard charts . It was done in a `` Swing '' style , with big band backing ( including mouth harp ) . Patience and Prudence had more success with the song when they recorded it in 1956 reaching # 11 on the charts . This is considered the benchmark version , by which all others are judged , due to the intimate harmony of the two young singers . This version brightened the melody somewhat , and later artists followed the brighter version , as did Brewer when she recorded an album version in 1964 in a semi-Caribbean style . Two other versions hit the US chart in 1964 as sung by Tracey Dey ( peaking at # 51 ) and Skeeter Davis ( peaking at # 48 ) . Dey 's version was done in a style emulating the Wall of Sound , which was popular with girl groups at the time . Davis ' version reached the Top 10 on Country charts , and is considered by oldies enthusiasts to be `` the '' cover version . Where the Patience and Prudence version has an orchestral backing , the Davis version has a pop band backing of electronic organ , bass and drums , with violin and backup singers .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gonna_Get_Along_Without_Ya_Now",
"rank": 60,
"score": 89113
},
{
"content": "Title: Going to a Go-Go Content: Going to a Go-Go is a 1965 album by the Miracles , the first to credit the group as Smokey Robinson and the Miracles . It includes four of the Miracles ' Top 20 hits : `` Ooo Baby Baby '' , `` The Tracks of My Tears '' , `` Going to a Go-Go '' , and `` My Girl Has Gone '' . It was produced by Miracles lead singer Smokey Robinson , along with Frank Wilson and William `` Mickey '' Stevenson . Primarily produced by Miracles lead singer Smokey Robinson , Going to a Go-Go features compositions co-written by Miracles members Robinson , Ronald White , Bobby Rogers , Pete Moore , and Marv Tarplin . In fact , with the sole exception of the song , `` My Baby Changes Like The Weather '' , this entire album was written by The Miracles . Going To A Go-Go was the only Miracles studio LP to chart within the Top 10 of the Billboard 200 albums chart , where it remained for 40 weeks peaking at number 8 . The LP peaked at number-one on Billboard 's R&B albums chart . In 2003 , the album achieved Gold Record status . It was ranked number 271 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . Going to a Go-Go was reissued on CD in 2002 , coupled with the Miracles ' Away We a Go-Go .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Going_to_a_Go-Go",
"rank": 61,
"score": 89060
},
{
"content": "Title: BluesWay Records Content: BluesWay Records was a subsidiary label of ABC-Paramount Records , begun by Bob Thiele in 1966 . Artists such as John Lee Hooker , Jimmy Reed , Jimmy Rushing , Otis Spann , and T-Bone Walker were among those who signed for the label . BluesWay released B. B. King 's 1969 Live and Well and Completely Well albums , the latter containing his hit `` The Thrill is Gone '' . The label also released the James Gang 's first album , 1969 's Yer ' Album . BluesWay ceased operations in 1970 , with Hooker , King and James Gang being transferred to the parent ABC Records label . The imprint was briefly revived in 1973-74 . The BluesWay masters , along with the rest of ABC Records ' assets , were sold to MCA Records in 1978 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "BluesWay_Records",
"rank": 62,
"score": 89048
},
{
"content": "Title: Real Gone Content: Real Gone may refer to : Real Gone ( album ) , a 2004 album by Tom Waits `` Real Gone '' ( song ) , a song recorded by Sheryl Crow for the soundtrack to the film Cars `` Real Real Gone '' , a song by Van Morrison Real Gone Music , a reissue record label Gone Records , a record label originally known as Real Gone",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Real_Gone",
"rank": 63,
"score": 89035
},
{
"content": "Title: Here Is Gone Content: `` Here Is Gone '' is a song recorded by the Goo Goo Dolls . It was released in March 2002 as the lead single from their seventh studio album , Gutterflower . It reached number 18 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 3 on the Adult Top 40 . `` Here is Gone '' peaked at number 21 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart , and number 29 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . This was also the last song from the band to be played on CHR stations , peaking at number 15 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Here_Is_Gone",
"rank": 64,
"score": 89021
},
{
"content": "Title: Consider Me Gone Content: `` Consider Me Gone '' is a song written by Steve Diamond and Marv Green . It was recorded by American country music artist Reba McEntire as her second release for the Valory label , a sister label of Big Machine Records . It is also the second single from her thirty-third studio album Keep On Loving You , which was released on August 18 , 2009 . On the Billboard country singles charts dated for the week of January 2 , 2010 , the song became McEntire 's twenty-fourth number-one single . It is also her longest-lasting number one at four weeks .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Consider_Me_Gone",
"rank": 65,
"score": 88972
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone Again Content: Gone Again is an album by Patti Smith , released June 18 , 1996 on Arista Records . The production of the record was preceded by the deaths of many of Smith 's close friends and peers , including her husband Fred `` Sonic '' Smith , her brother Todd , Robert Mapplethorpe , Richard Sohl and Kurt Cobain , with whom Smith had sympathized . In addition to this , Gone Again also features the last studio performance of Jeff Buckley released before his death less than a year later . May 13 , 1999 Rolling Stone magazine placed the album on its list of `` The Essential Recordings of the '90s '' .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_Again",
"rank": 66,
"score": 88605
},
{
"content": "Title: Now That You're Gone (Corina song) Content: `` Now That You 're Gone '' is the third single from freestyle singer Corina 's debut album Corina .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_That_You're_Gone_(Corina_song)",
"rank": 67,
"score": 88598
},
{
"content": "Title: Molestin Records Content: Molestin Records are an independent record label based in Reykjavík , Iceland . It was founded in 2008 by members of the Icelandic heavy metal bands Celestine and Momentum ( the name of the record label being a portmanteau of the two band names ) and they release metal albums . They are notable for signing the artists Celestine and Gone Postal .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Molestin_Records",
"rank": 68,
"score": 88110
},
{
"content": "Title: Who Will Cut Our Hair When We're Gone? Content: Who Will Cut Our Hair When We 're Gone ? is the sole studio album by the Canadian indie rock band the Unicorns . It features several re-arranged versions of songs from their earlier self-released CD Unicorns Are People Too . The album was first issued on CD and on vinyl in North America by Alien8 Recordings on 21 October 2003 , and on CD in Europe by Rough Trade Records in 2004 . It has since been repressed in limited quantities on pink and brown vinyl by Alien8 and was re-released on 26 August 2014 on the band 's own label , Caterpillar Records . The album received positive reviews both upon its release and in retrospective analyses , and it has been considered to be one of the best Canadian indie rock albums of all time .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Who_Will_Cut_Our_Hair_When_We're_Gone?",
"rank": 69,
"score": 88071
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone Away (EP) Content: Gone Away is an EP by Die Kreuzen , released in 1989 through Touch and Go Records .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_Away_(EP)",
"rank": 70,
"score": 88070
},
{
"content": "Title: Porgy and Bess (1950 album) Content: This album is a 1950 recording of selections from George Gershwin 's opera Porgy and Bess , sung by the noted opera stars Robert Merrill and Risë Stevens . The album featured no black singers at all , even though the opera was written for a mostly African-American cast ( the whites in the opera speak , but do not sing ) . It was recorded by RCA Victor on September 12 and September 13 , 1950 . The album was originally released on one twelve-inch 33 rpm LP with the catalog number LM 1124 . Naxos Records re-released the album on CD along with the complete 1951 recording , though the Naxos CD omitted the chorus number `` Gone , Gone Gone '' . ( Naxos 8.110287-88 )",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Porgy_and_Bess_(1950_album)",
"rank": 71,
"score": 88020
},
{
"content": "Title: Go Now Content: `` Go Now '' is a song composed by Larry Banks and Milton Bennett . It was first recorded in January 1964 by Bessie Banks , and later became associated with The Moody Blues .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Go_Now",
"rank": 72,
"score": 87652
},
{
"content": "Title: All Hope Is Gone Content: All Hope Is Gone is the fourth studio album by American metal band Slipknot . Released on August 20 , 2008 by Roadrunner Records , the album was published in two versions : the standard album in a CD case and a special edition packaged in a six-fold digipak containing three bonus tracks , a 40 page booklet , and a bonus DVD with a documentary of the album 's recording . Preparation for the album began in 2007 , while recording started in February 2008 in the band 's home state of Iowa . Before the album 's launch , Slipknot released a series of promotional images and audio samples from the album through various websites . All Hope Is Gone is considered the band 's most eclectic-sounding album , incorporating elements from their previous three . Songs such as the opening track `` Gematria ( The Killing Name ) '' and the title track espouse the band 's more brutal , death metal-influenced edge , reminiscent of songs such as '' ( sic ) '' from their debut self-titled album ; slow burning , `` trippy '' elements such as `` Gehenna '' , reminiscent of `` Skin Ticket '' from their second album Iowa ; and more tragic , sentimental tracks such as `` Dead Memories '' and `` Snuff '' . Lyrically , All Hope Is Gone centers on themes such as anger , disaffection , obsession , and the music industry . The album name also features a more prominent focus on politics than their previous albums . Slipknot promoted All Hope Is Gone on a world tour and at the Mayhem Festival . Generally well received by critics , the album reached the top position on nine record charts worldwide , including the Billboard 200 -- the first Slipknot album to do so . It was certified platinum by the RIAA on August 10 , 2010 for shipments in excess of 1,000,000 albums in the United States . It is the final studio album released by the band to include two longtime members : bassist and founding member Paul Gray , who was found dead in an Iowa hotel on May 24 , 2010 , almost two years after the release of All Hope Is Gone , and drummer Joey Jordison , who departed from the group in December 2013 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "All_Hope_Is_Gone",
"rank": 73,
"score": 87512
},
{
"content": "Title: Anna Gordy Gaye Content: Anna Ruby Gaye ( née Gordy ; January 28 , 1922 -- January 31 , 2014 ) was an American businesswoman , composer and songwriter . An elder sister of Motown founder Berry Gordy , she became a record executive in the mid-to-late 1950s distributing records released on Checker and Gone Records before forming the Anna label with Billy Davis and sister Gwen . Gordy later became known as a songwriter for several hits including the Originals ' `` Baby , I 'm for Real '' , and at least two songs on Marvin Gaye 's What 's Going On album . The first wife of Gaye , their turbulent marriage later served as inspiration for Gaye 's album , Here , My Dear .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Anna_Gordy_Gaye",
"rank": 74,
"score": 87370
},
{
"content": "Title: Days Are Gone Content: Days Are Gone is the debut studio album by American pop rock band Haim . It was released on September 27 , 2013 by Polydor Records . The album has spawned six singles : `` Forever '' , `` Do n't Save Me '' , `` Falling '' , `` The Wire '' , `` If I Could Change Your Mind '' and `` My Song 5 '' . The album was recognized as one of The 100 Best Albums of the Decade So Far by Pitchfork in August 2014 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Days_Are_Gone",
"rank": 75,
"score": 87231
},
{
"content": "Title: She Wouldn't Be Gone Content: `` She Would n't Be Gone '' is a song written by Jennifer Adan and Cory Batten , and recorded by American country music singer , Blake Shelton . It was released in August 2008 as the first single from his fifth studio album , Startin ' Fires , which was released on November 18 , 2008 . The song became his fifth Number One song on the Hot Country Songs chart for the weeks of February 7 -- 14 , 2009 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "She_Wouldn't_Be_Gone",
"rank": 76,
"score": 87182
},
{
"content": "Title: Do You Believe Me Now (album) Content: Do You Believe Me Now is the second studio album of American country music singer Jimmy Wayne . It was released on August 26 , 2008 . The album is also Wayne 's first album in five years and his debut for Valory Music Group , a subsidiary of Big Machine Records . Its title track was released as the lead-off single to the album , and became Wayne 's first Number One single on the Hot Country Songs chart . `` I Will '' was released in October 2008 as the album 's second single . It also includes re-recordings of Wayne 's first two singles , `` Stay Gone '' and `` I Love You This Much '' , previously included on his 2003 self-titled debut .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Do_You_Believe_Me_Now_(album)",
"rank": 77,
"score": 87164
},
{
"content": "Title: My Girl Has Gone Content: `` My Girl Has Gone '' is a 1965 R&B single recorded by The Miracles for Motown 's Tamla label . Included on their 1965 album Going to a Go-Go , `` My Girl Has Gone '' was the follow-up to the group 's number 16 Billboard Hot 100 million-selling hit `` The Tracks Of My Tears '' . Written by Miracles members Smokey Robinson , Ronnie White , Pete Moore , and Marv Tarplin , the single was a Top 20 Pop hit , peaking at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States , and a Top 5 R&B hit , peaking at number three on Billboard 's R&B singles chart . According to Robinson , Moore , and Bobby Rogers , the inspiration behind `` My Girl Has Gone '' was the guitar riffs of Miracles member Marv Tarplin , who also inspired `` The Tracks of My Tears '' . Marv employed a 12 string guitar on the song , accompanied by the other Miracles ' gospel-inspired harmonies , arranged by Miracle Pete Moore ( who was , for years , the group 's uncredited vocal arranger ) . As with many Miracles songs , the lyrics of `` My Girl has Gone '' describe the end of the narrator 's relationship with his lover : My girl has gone , and said goodbyeDo n't you cry , hold your head up high Do n't give up , give love one more try , 'Cause there 's a right girl for every guy . `` My Girl Has Gone '' has been covered by artists such as Etienne Daho , Edwyn Collins , Ken Parker , and Motown labelmate Bobby Taylor . The Miracles can be seen performing `` My Girl Has Gone '' on the Motown DVD release , Smokey Robinson & The Miracles : The Definitive Performances 1963-1987 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "My_Girl_Has_Gone",
"rank": 78,
"score": 86976
},
{
"content": "Title: Love Is Gone (album) Content: Love is Gone is the second studio album by American rock band , Dommin , released on February 2 , 2010 in the United States and February 15 , 2010 in the United Kingdom . Although it is their debut album under the Roadrunner Records label , Mend Your Misery , released four years prior , is their debut studio album overall . Six of the twelve tracks from Mend Your Misery were re-released on Love is Gone ; all of them , including their song `` My Heart , Your Hands '' , being re-recorded or remixed for this album .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Love_Is_Gone_(album)",
"rank": 79,
"score": 86928
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone (Montgomery Gentry song) Content: `` Gone '' is a song written by Bob DiPiero and Jeffrey Steele , and recorded by the American country music duo Montgomery Gentry . It was released in November 2004 as the third single from the duo 's album You Do Your Thing , reaching a peak of # 3 on the U.S. country charts , # 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 and # 92 on the Pop 100 . The single has also been certified as a digital gold single by the Recording Industry Association of America . This song is used in the Rock Band Country Track Pack .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_(Montgomery_Gentry_song)",
"rank": 80,
"score": 86859
},
{
"content": "Title: Yesterday's Gone: Complete Ember & World Artists Content: Yesterday 's Gone : Complete Ember & World Artists is a complete collection of all of Chad & Jeremy 's recordings for the UK Indie label , Ember from 1963-1964 . Disc One Includes the US LPs Yesterday 's Gone ( 1964 ) and Sing for You ( 1965 ) in their entirety , plus the duo 's contributions to the Various Artists LP Live Folk From The Mayfair Theatre London , recorded October 12 , 1963 . The May Fair Hotel opened in 1927 and houses the Mayfair Theatre London , which opened the same year as the Concert . Disc Two Includes all of the mono singles , plus outtakes , alternative takes and stereo versions of non-LP tracks . The London Studio sessions were produced by John Barry ( composer ) & Shel Talmy . The New York sessions were produced by Jimmie Haskell . The London sessions , include six live tracks , freshly remastered from the original Ember tape sources . A Previously unreleased track : ` Lemon Tree ' ( stereo version ) is included , plus the first official release of ` It Was A Very Good Year ' ( stereo version ) and ` From A Window ' ( alternative take ) . This compilation was released by Cherry Red Records on August 26 , 2016 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Yesterday's_Gone:_Complete_Ember_&_World_Artists",
"rank": 81,
"score": 86810
},
{
"content": "Title: Something in the Air (album) Content: Something in the Air is the second album from American country music singer Lila McCann . Her second and final album for Asylum Records , it was released in 1999 and it achieved RIAA gold certification . Four of its singles entered the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks ( now Hot Country Songs ) charts : `` With You '' ( # 9 ) , `` Crush '' ( # 41 ) , `` I Will Be '' ( # 47 ) and `` Kiss Me Now '' ( # 41 ) ; `` With You '' was also a # 41 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 . `` You 're Gone '' was originally slated as the album 's first single , but was not released .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Something_in_the_Air_(album)",
"rank": 82,
"score": 86738
},
{
"content": "Title: It's Gonna Be Me Content: `` It 's Gon na Be Me '' is a song by American boy band NSYNC . It was released on June 13 , 2000 as the second single in the United States and third in Europe from their second studio album No Strings Attached . The song was NSYNC 's only Billboard Hot 100 number-one hit , making it their highest-charting single . It topped the chart for two consecutive weeks and has been certified Gold by the RIAA . The song serves as the opening track of the 2000 compilation album Now That 's What I Call Music ! 5",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "It's_Gonna_Be_Me",
"rank": 83,
"score": 86477
},
{
"content": "Title: Here Today and Gone Tomorrow Content: `` Here Today and Gone Tomorrow '' is a song written by Leroy `` Sugarfoot '' Bonner , Joe Harris , Marshall `` Rock '' Jones , Ralph `` Pee Wee '' Middlebrooks , Dutch Robinson , Clarence `` Satch '' Satchell , and Gary Webster of the Ohio Players for their 1969 album Observations in Time . David Bowie performed this track live on his Diamond Dogs tour in 1974 ( as `` Here Today , Gone Tomorrow '' ) . The version recorded on this tour was released as a bonus track on the 1990 Rykodisc reissue of the live album David Live . The 2005 Virgin Records/EMI reissue of the album put the song back into the correct position in the set-list in track listing order .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Here_Today_and_Gone_Tomorrow",
"rank": 84,
"score": 86455
},
{
"content": "Title: Let the Jukebox Keep On Playing Content: `` Let the Jukebox Keep On Playing '' is a 1955 country song written by Carl Perkins . It was released on October 22 , 1955 by Sun Records as a 78 and 45 single , 224 , b/w `` Gone , Gone , Gone '' . The song was a follow-up to `` Turn Around '' , released on Flip . `` Let the Jukebox Keep On Playing '' was a slow country ballad featuring a fiddle and steel guitar . The song was geared towards the country and western market . The flip side , `` Gone , Gone , Gone '' , was an uptempo rockabilly song that was tailored for the new emerging genre of rock and roll . Elvis Presley had paired fast , uptempo numbers backed with country and pop ballads on his Sun releases . Mike Ness of the band Social Distortion recorded the song on his 1999 album Under the Influences . The Ballroom Rockets , David Tanner , Wanted Men , and Aaron Keim , Scott McCormick & Char Mayer have also performed the song .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Let_the_Jukebox_Keep_On_Playing",
"rank": 85,
"score": 86405
},
{
"content": "Title: The Johnstones Content: The Johnstones are a ska punk band from Ajax , Ontario , Canada formed in 2002 and signed to the Union Label Group . In 2006 , they signed to Stomp Records of Montreal , released the full-length album Word is Bond and began touring Canada and the U.S. . Their video ` Gone for a Long Time ' received ` buzz-worthy ' status and gained heavy rotation on MuchMusic , staying on the charts for 8 weeks . In 2008 , they released Sex , an E.P. produced by Flashlight Brown alumni Fil Bucchino and Matt Hughes . Ryan Long , Jarek Hardy along with 40-year-old Gary Kraft do a weekly podcast with thousands of listeners available free on iTunes . They are currently in the third season . As well , Long and Hardy have a side project called Tall Guy Short Guy . Mike Murphy was added to the band 's lineup in 2009 , allowing Long to be the front-man of the band , `` to work the stage more , and to add more dynamics to the live show '' . 2009 also saw the release of a full-length CD called `` Cant be Trusted '' . They released a DVD called `` Get On Board '' on April 30 , 2010 , and The `` Gimmie your Love '' EP in April 2010",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "The_Johnstones",
"rank": 86,
"score": 86294
},
{
"content": "Title: Taller in More Ways Content: Taller in More Ways is the fourth studio album by British girl group Sugababes , released by Island Records on 10 October 2005 , in the United Kingdom . It was primarily produced by Dallas Austin and Jony Rockstar , with additional production from Cameron McVey , Xenomania and Guy Sigsworth . The title of the album was inspired by a line in the album 's second single , `` Ugly '' . Upon release , Taller in More Ways received generally favourable reviews from music critics . It topped the UK Albums Chart , becoming the group 's first domestic number one album . It was certified 2 × Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Additionally , it reached the top ten in Ireland , Switzerland , the Netherlands , and Austria . Mutya Buena left the Sugababes in December 2005 and was replaced by Amelle Berrabah . As a result , Taller in More Ways was re-released in March 2006 with the addition of a new song , `` Now You 're Gone '' , and three re-recorded tracks featuring the vocals of Berrabah ; `` Got ta Be You '' , `` Follow Me Home '' , and `` Red Dress '' .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Taller_in_More_Ways",
"rank": 87,
"score": 86269
},
{
"content": "Title: Years Gone By Content: Years Gone By is the third studio album by Albert King released in May 1969 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Years_Gone_By",
"rank": 88,
"score": 86265
},
{
"content": "Title: Spirit They're Gone, Spirit They've Vanished Content: Spirit They 're Gone , Spirit They 've Vanished is the first collaborative studio album by Avey Tare ( David Portner ) and Panda Bear ( Noah Lennox ) , released in August 2000 . It was later retroactively classified as the debut album by experimental pop band Animal Collective . The album was first released as a CD on the band 's own Animal label ( now known as Paw Tracks ) with only 2000 copies produced . It was reissued as a double CD along with Danse Manatee in 2003 on FatCat Records , and later on limited edition vinyl through FatCat . Both UK and US pressings used DMM mastering .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Spirit_They're_Gone,_Spirit_They've_Vanished",
"rank": 89,
"score": 85964
},
{
"content": "Title: Goin' Gone Content: `` Goin ' Gone '' is a song written by Pat Alger , Bill Dale and Fred Koller , and recorded by American country artist Kathy Mattea . It was released in September 1987 as the first single from the album Untasted Honey . `` Goin ' Gone '' was Kathy Mattea 's ninth country hit and the first of four number one country singles . The single went to number one for one week and spent fifteen weeks on the country chart .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Goin'_Gone",
"rank": 90,
"score": 85954
},
{
"content": "Title: Since You've Been Gone (The Outfield song) Content: `` Since You 've Been Gone '' is a song by the English rock band the Outfield . It was the lead single from their debut studio album , Bangin ' ( 1987 ) , released on Columbia Records . The single was released in May 1987 . In the U.S. , the song hit number 11 on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart and number 31 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was the best-performing single from Bangin .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Since_You've_Been_Gone_(The_Outfield_song)",
"rank": 91,
"score": 85870
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone Is Love Content: Gone Is Love is a studio album released by Paul Mauriat and his Orchestra in 1970 on Philips LP record 600345 . The title track was released as a single ( Philips ) 40683 which charted on the Easy Listening top-40 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_Is_Love",
"rank": 92,
"score": 85789
},
{
"content": "Title: Up and Gone Content: `` Up and Gone '' is a song recorded by American country music trio Jennifer McCarter and The McCarters . It was released in March 1989 as the first single from their album Better Be Home Soon . The song peaked at number 9 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart . The song was written by Verlon Thompson and Bill Caswell .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Up_and_Gone",
"rank": 93,
"score": 85779
},
{
"content": "Title: By Now Content: `` By Now '' is a song written by Dean Dillon , Don Pfrimmer and Charles Quillen , and recorded by American country music artist Steve Wariner . It was released in April 1981 as the second single from the album Steve Wariner . The song reached number 6 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "By_Now",
"rank": 94,
"score": 85709
},
{
"content": "Title: Till You Were Gone Content: `` Till You Were Gone '' is a song co-written and recorded by Country musician Mike Reid . It was released in March 1991 as the second single from his album Turning for Home . It peaked at # 17 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart and at # 8 on the Canadian RPM Country Tracks chart . This song followed Reid 's number-one debut single , `` Walk on Faith . '' Reid wrote the song with Rory Michael Bourke .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Till_You_Were_Gone",
"rank": 95,
"score": 85459
},
{
"content": "Title: Now ... Us! Content: Now ... Us ! is the second studio album by German pop group No Angels , released by Polydor subsidiary Cheyenne Records on June 24 , 2002 ( see 2002 in music ) in German speaking Europe . It was primarily produced by Thorsten Brötzmann , with additional production from Peter Ries , Pontus Söderqvist , Fahrenheit & Kelvin , Leslie Mandoki , Mousse T. , and band member Lucy Diakovska among others . The album received a mixed reception from professional music critics , but was generally praised for the inclusion of more personal content that appeared in form of five self-penned solo songs on Now ... Us ! . Upon its release , the album opened on top of the German Media Control albums chart , and at number 2 and 4 on the Austrian and Swiss albums chart respectively . It ranked twelfth on the year-end charts in Germany . Now ... Us ! spawned three singles , including the band 's third non-consecutive number-one `` Something About Us '' , summer-lite `` Still in Love with You '' and funk-unfluenced `` Let 's Go to Bed . '' A fourth single , the Alison Moyet cover `` All Cried Out , '' was included on a Special Winter Edition of the album , released on November 18 , 2002 .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Now_..._Us!",
"rank": 96,
"score": 85420
},
{
"content": "Title: Gone (NSYNC song) Content: `` Gone '' is a song by American boy band NSYNC . It was released as the second single from their third studio album , Celebrity . The single debuted on the band 's 2001 PopOdyssey World Tour , during the summer of 2001 . The commercial release of the single did not occur until Summer 2001 . In 2002 , Bachata group , Aventura covered the song on their album , We Broke the Rules . The song was nominated at the 44th Grammy Awards for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals , but lost to U2 's `` Stuck in a Moment You Ca n't Get Out Of '' . In April 2002 , a remix of the track , entitled the `` Gone Clubbin ' I 'll Be Back Late Mix '' , appeared as a double A-side with The Neptunes ' remix of `` Girlfriend '' in several countries , however , was released as a solo single in both Europe and Australia . This was also featured on the 2002 compilation album Now That 's What I Call Music ! 9 . Timberlake stated that the song was originally intended for Michael Jackson , but Jackson wanted to record the song as a duet between himself and Timberlake .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Gone_(NSYNC_song)",
"rank": 97,
"score": 85416
},
{
"content": "Title: Stillborn (song) Content: `` Stillborn '' is a song from the Black Label Society album The Blessed Hellride . The song was also released as a single . Wylde 's own vocal style also became quite similar to Ozzy Osbourne 's for this record , while Osbourne was featured in the song on chorus singing with Zakk the lines , `` The feelings I once felt are now Dead and gone . I 've waited here for you for so very long . '' `` Stillborn '' tells the story of a man whose girlfriend treats him so poorly and takes so much advantage of him that his love for her dies , leaving him feeling dead as well . Wylde insists that it is not autobiographical and that if any girl were to treat him like that , he would simply break up with her . The video was directed by Rob Zombie , featuring his signature style of blue lighting , zombies , and a regular female cameo , Rob Zombie 's wife Sheri Moon Zombie . The idea came together while touring together on Ozzfest . Wylde has performed an acoustic version of `` Stillborn '' that is not only longer but also features a much different sound , following an acoustic solo throughout much of song . The song also appears in the game Guitar Hero World Tour , with the singer as Zakk Wylde . It is the encore in the guitar career after defeating Wylde in a guitar duel .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Stillborn_(song)",
"rank": 98,
"score": 85361
},
{
"content": "Title: I'll Be Gone (Avicii song) Content: `` I 'll Be Gone '' is an Avicii single , featuring Joakim Berg . The track was premiered on Tiësto 's Club Life podcast , and it was previously leaked into the internet under the name `` Stars '' . It is yet to be released . Avicii used the instrumental of this song and mixed it with the vocals of his other song , `` Liar Liar '' , to make `` Liar Liar ( Avicii by Avicii ) '' .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "I'll_Be_Gone_(Avicii_song)",
"rank": 99,
"score": 85308
},
{
"content": "Title: Dance Nation (record label) Content: `` Hard2Beat '' redirects here . For the song by Hard-Fi , see Hard to Beat . Dance Nation is a British independent record label which is a subsidiary of Ministry of Sound . When founded in 2007 it was known as Hard2Beat Records , and was rebranded to its current name in 2010 . The label 's first release was `` Now You 're Gone '' by Basshunter , and they have released other singles and compilation albums since then . In April 2009 they held Dance Nation Live , a live arena tour across the UK . Basshunter headlined the tour with acts including Sash ! , Lasgo , and Platnum . Dance Nation has its own customised content channel on Audiotube . The label brand was used as a Sky TV Channel in 2012 , since it has not had any new releases or live tours . The official website went offline in April 2015 as well as all social media sites .",
"qid": "91",
"docid": "Dance_Nation_(record_label)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 85171
}
] |
unadjusted data suggests that temperatures in Australia have only increased by 0.3 degrees over the past century, not the 1 degree usually claimed | [
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia",
"rank": 1,
"score": 156709
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Adelaide Content: Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) , with mild to cool winters with moderate rainfall and warm to hot , dry summers . Adelaide is the driest of the Australian capital cities and the past two decades have been far warmer than usual , with the past 8 years seeing an excess of 40 + degrees every summer . Alarmingly , the city has also recorded almost 10 consecutive years of below-average Spring rainfall , with 2014 on track to continuing this trend . A spike in heat waves , droughts and record-breaking high temperatures over the past decade has led to some concerns over the effects of global warming and Man-made climate change ( AGW ) on the city . Nine of the ten warmest years recorded in Adelaide have occurred since 2002 , with 2013 being the hottest year and summer 2015 -- 2016 being the fourth-hottest summer recorded .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_of_Adelaide",
"rank": 2,
"score": 132509
},
{
"content": "Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave",
"rank": 3,
"score": 130285
},
{
"content": "Title: Angry Summer Content: The Australian summer of 2012 -- 2013 , known as the Angry Summer or Extreme Summer , resulted in 123 weather records being broken over a 90-day period , including the hottest day ever recorded for Australia as a whole , the hottest January on record , the hottest summer average on record , and a record seven days in a row when the whole continent averaged above 39 ° C. Single-day temperature records were broken in dozens of towns and cities , as well as single-day rainfall records , and several rivers flooded to new record highs . In January 2013 , the Bureau of Meteorology altered its weather forecasting chart 's temperature scale to include a range , coloured purple , between 52 ° and 54 ° C . The reporting of the heatwave in the Australian media attracted controversy in the scientific community , as very few articles cited a correlation between the event and climate change , which it was correlated with according to studies conducted by the University of Melbourne .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Angry_Summer",
"rank": 4,
"score": 125907
},
{
"content": "Title: 2012–13 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Australian bushfire season had above average fire potential for most of the southern half of the continent from the east coast to the west . This is despite having extensive fire in parts of the country over the last 12 months . The reason for this prediction is the abundant grass growth spurred by two La Niña events over the last two years . Most parts of the country experienced a heat wave at the start of 2013 , with a new national average maximum being set on 7 January 2013 . The new record of 40.33 C beat the old record of 40.17 C that had been set on 21 December 1972 . Another record also beaten in 2013 was Australia 's mean temperature climbing from 31.86 C set on 21 December 1972 to 32.23 C on 7 January 2013 . Additionally , six of the 20 hottest days in Australian records ( by average maximum ) have been in January 2013 . Australia also experienced its hottest summer on average following a particularly hot spell in January . Using average day and night temperatures the average was found to be 28.6 C beating the previous record set in the summer of 1997 -- 1988 . Fourteen of the weather bureau 's 112 long term weather stations recorded their hottest days on record including one in Sydney that recorded a daytime record of 46 C . The daytime maximum temperatures for 2012 -- 13 also beat the 1982 -- 83 record and January was the hottest month since records began in 1910 .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2012–13_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 5,
"score": 125895
},
{
"content": "Title: Early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave was a heat wave that commenced in late January and led to record-breaking prolonged high temperatures in the region . The heat wave is considered one of the , if not the , most extreme in the region 's history . During the heat wave , fifty separate locations set various records for consecutive , highest daytime and overnight temperatures . The highest temperature recorded during the heat wave was 48.8 ° C in Hopetoun , Victoria , a record for the state . Many locations through the region recorded all-time high temperatures including capital cities Adelaide , which reached its third-highest temperature , 45.7 ° C , and Melbourne , which recorded its highest-ever temperature on record , 46.4 ° C. Both cities broke records for the most consecutive days over 40 ° C , while Mildura , Victoria recorded an all-time record twelve consecutive days over 43 ° C. The exceptional heat wave was caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that settled over the Tasman Sea , with a combination of an intense tropical low located off the North West Australian coast and a monsoon trough over Northern Australia , which produced ideal conditions for hot tropical air to be directed down over southeastern Australia . The heat began in South Australia on 25 January but became more widespread over southeast Australia by 27 January . A weak cool change moved over the southern coastal areas bringing some relief on 30 January , including Melbourne , where the change arrived that evening , dropping temperatures to an average of 30.8 ° C. Higher temperatures returned on the following weekend with Melbourne recording its hottest day since records began in 1855 , 46.4 ° C , also the highest temperature ever recorded in an Australian capital city . The heat wave generated extreme fire conditions during the peak of the 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season , causing many bushfires in the affected region , contributing to the extreme bushfire conditions on 7 February , also known as the Black Saturday bushfires , which claimed 173 lives in Victoria . Ten months after this heat wave , a second struck the same region in November 2009 .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Early_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave",
"rank": 6,
"score": 122505
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Australia Content: Australia 's climate is governed largely by its size and by the hot , sinking air of the subtropical high pressure belt . This moves north and south with the seasons , so that the rainfall pattern over Australia is highly seasonal . Australia 's rainfall is the lowest of all continents except Antarctica . But it is variable , with frequent droughts lasting several seasons -- thought to be caused in part by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation . The climate varies widely due to its large geographical size , but by far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid . Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil . The northern part of the country has a tropical climate , varied between tropical rainforests , grasslands and part dessert . Because Australia is a small continent , separated from polar regions by the Southern Ocean , it is not subject to the movements of frigid polar air that sweep over Northern Hemisphere continents during winter . Consequently , its winter is relatively mild , so that there is n't the great contrast between summer and winter temperatures there is in the northern continents . Yet in many parts of the country , seasonal highs and lows can be considerable : temperatures have ranged from above 50 C to well below zero . Nonetheless , minimum temperatures are moderated . The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world . Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive droughts alongside considerable wet periods . Occasionally a dust storm will blanket a region and there are reports of the occasional tornado . Tropical cyclones , heat waves , bushfires and frosts in the country are also associated with the Southern Oscillation . Rising levels of salinity and desertification in some areas is ravaging the landscape . Climate change in Australia is a highly contentious issue . Temperatures in the country have risen following an increasing trend of global warming between the years of 1910 to 2004 by approximately 0.7 ° C. Overnight minimum temperatures have warmed more rapidly than daytime maximum temperatures in recent years . The late-20th century warming has been largely attributed to the increased greenhouse effect . According to the Bureau of Meteorology , 80 % of the land has less than 600 mm of rainfall per year and 50 % has even less than 300 mm . As a whole , Australia has a very low annual average rainfall of 419 mm .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_of_Australia",
"rank": 7,
"score": 120558
},
{
"content": "Title: January 2014 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The January 2014 southeastern Australia heat wave was a significant heat wave event which affected most of southeastern Australia from 13 to 18 January 2014 . The main areas affected were Victoria , Tasmania , southern New South Wales away from the coast and the southern half of South Australia . The event ranked along with the 2009 heat wave , 1939 heat wave and 1908 heat wave as one of the most significant multi-day heatwaves on record . The heat wave broke a number of records for extended periods of heat . A spike in heat waves and record breaking high temperatures across Australia over the past five years has led to concerns over the effects of global warming and climate change on the country . Adelaide , South Australia suffered the brunt of the summer heat wave , recording 13 days with temperatures above 40 ° C.",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "January_2014_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave",
"rank": 8,
"score": 118265
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Tasmania Content: Tasmania has a cool temperate climate with four distinct seasons . The highest recorded maximum temperature in Tasmania is 42.2 ° C at Scamander on 30 January 2009 , during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave . Tasmania 's lowest recorded minimum temperature is -13.0 ° C on 30 June 1983 , at Butlers Gorge , Shannon , and Tarraleah . Rainfall in Tasmania is highly differentiated for a relatively compact island . It follows a complicated pattern rather analogous to that found on large continents at the same latitude in the northern hemisphere . Rainfall increases from around 506 mm at Ouse in the centre to 2690 mm at Cradle Valley in the northwestern highlands . Sunshine is also highly differentiated , with average quotients ranging from around 4 hours a day ( under 1500 hours a year ) in the South West of the island , up to around 7 hours daily ( 2550 hours annually ) in the North East around the Launceston area .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_of_Tasmania",
"rank": 9,
"score": 114397
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia",
"rank": 10,
"score": 113688
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014 South-Eastern Australian heatwave Content: The 2014 South-Eastern Australian Heatwave was a prolonged period of time in which highly unseasonal weather was recorded across the south and south-eastern corridor of mainland Australia . The heatwave commenced during early May , and was the longest ever recorded in Australia 's modern history , lasting in some places up to 15 days . Sydney , Melbourne and Adelaide were most hard hit , with temperatures in these areas breaking late Autumn records and causing a distinct lack of precipitation , especially in Sydney , Australia 's most populous city . The cause of this phenomenon was a large blocking High pressure system situated over the Tasman sea , which pushed usual Autumn cold fronts far south of the mainland .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2014_South-Eastern_Australian_heatwave",
"rank": 11,
"score": 112769
},
{
"content": "Title: Adaptation to global warming in Australia Content:",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Adaptation_to_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 12,
"score": 112692
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014–15 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2014 -- 15 Australian bushfire season was expected to have the potential for many fires in eastern Australia after lower than expected rainfall was received in many areas . Authorities released warnings in the early spring that the season could be particularly bad . Warmer and drier weather conditions were experienced during winter and extended into 2015 , due to a developing El Niño event . Sydney was on track to record its hottest autumn on record and only had one fifth of the average rainfall in May . Adelaide recorded sixteen consecutive days of 20 C in May 2014 . Queensland sweltered through a heatwave , with record October temperatures being set in many towns through the state . New October records included Toowoomba with 36.4 C , St George with 42.6 C , Amberley with 41.3 C and Roma with 41.6 C. Throughout 2014 and the first 6 months of 2015 , 18 fires were declared `` national disasters '' affecting a total of 68 local government areas across New South Wales , South Australia , Victoria and the Northern Territory .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2014–15_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 13,
"score": 112553
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Sydney Content: The climate of Sydney is humid subtropical ( Köppen Cfa ) , shifting from mild and cool in winter to warm and hot in the summer , with no extreme seasonal differences as the weather is moderated by proximity to the ocean . More contrasting temperatures are recorded in the inland western suburbs . Rainfall is spread evenly throughout the year , though it is generally highest between February and June . Precipitation varies across the region , with areas adjacent to the coast being the wettest . Sydney has 103.9 clear days annually , with the monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 53 % in January to 72 % in August . The city receives around 20 thunderstorms per year . Sydney 's heat is usually dry when temperatures soar over 35 C . In some hot days , low pressure troughs would increase humidity and southerly busters would decrease temperatures . In late autumn and winter , east coast lows can bring large amounts of rainfall . Sydney experiences an urban heat island effect , making certain parts of the city more vulnerable to extreme heat , particularly the west . Efforts have been introduced to investigate and mitigate this heat effect , including increasing shade from tree canopies , adding rooftop gardens to high rise structures and changing pavement colour . The El Niño Southern Oscillation plays an important role in determining Sydney 's weather patterns : drought and bushfire on the one hand , and storms and flooding on the other . Sydney is prone to heat waves and drought , which have become more common in recent years .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_of_Sydney",
"rank": 14,
"score": 112156
},
{
"content": "Title: 2008–09 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season was the Australian bushfire season that ran from late December 2008 to April/May 2009 . Above average rainfalls in December , particularly in Victoria , delayed the start of the season , but by January 2009 , conditions throughout South eastern Australia worsened with the onset of one of the region 's worst heat waves . On 7 February , extreme bushfire conditions precipitated major bushfires throughout Victoria , involving several large fire complexes , which continued to burn across the state for around one month . 173 people lost their lives in these fires and 414 were injured . 3,500 + buildings were destroyed , including 2,029 houses , and 7,562 people displaced . Late 2008 had relatively few bushfires . Victoria in particular experienced higher than average rainfall in December , decreasing the fire danger in many regions of the state . Initial observations in October 2008 predicted an above average fire potential across Australia 's coastal regions and a below average potential in Central Australia , where drought has reduced the available fuel . In late January and early February , the effects of the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave increased temperatures across south-eastern Australia , particularly in Victoria and South Australia , where several locations broke all time temperature records . Various days of high wind speed , combined with the hot dry conditions , created extreme bushfire conditions between 25 January and 7 February 2009 .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2008–09_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 15,
"score": 111387
},
{
"content": "Title: Centre Island, Australia Content: Centre Island is a small , uninhabited island , in the Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands , Australia . An automated weather station run by the Bureau of Meteorology has been operating on the island since 1968 . Temperatures range from 23.8 ° C to 31.2 ° C and the average annual rainfall is 1053.4 mm .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Centre_Island,_Australia",
"rank": 16,
"score": 110777
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 17,
"score": 108388
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 18,
"score": 106679
},
{
"content": "Title: Capel, Western Australia Content: Capel is a town in the South West region of Western Australia , located 212 km south of Perth and midway between Bunbury and Busselton . The town is located on the Capel River and is approximately 19 m above sea level . Capel has a Mediterranean climate , with hot dry summers and cool wet winters . Daily temperatures range from 13 ° C to 40 ° C in summer , and from 5 ° C to 27 ° C in winter . Average annual rainfall is about 830 mm . Historically , Capel is a farming area ; traditional agricultural pursuits include dairy and beef . In recent times , Capel has become popular for hobby farms , and a number of innovative agricultural pursuits have been introduced , including alpacas , viticulture , aquaculture and growing of blue gums . There is also some mining of mineral sands in the Shire , and tourism is increasingly important to the Shire 's economy . The Capel area was settled very early in the history of colonial Western Australia . The Capel River was discovered by Frederick Ludlow in 1834 , but it was not named until the Bussell family settled in the area . The name honours Capel Carter Brockman ( 1839 -- 1924 ) , daughter of John Bussell ( 1803 -- 1875 ) , who was named after a Miss Capel Carter , a cousin of the Bussells in England with whom Bussell family members corresponded . In the 1830s a number of settlers followed the Bussells into the area , and both James Stirling and John Hutt , ( the first two Governors of Western Australia ) took up land in the region . Plans to establish a townsite in the area were first mooted in 1844 , but the site was not surveyed until the 1870s and lots were not sold until 1897 . Initially the town was named Coolingnup , which is the Noongar Aboriginal name for the place ; the name was changed to Capel in 1899 . The population of the town was 91 ( 44 males and 47 females ) in 1898 . Westralian Sands was established in 1954 but commenced operations in 1959 when it started mining and processing the Yoganup deposit just north of the town . Another company , RGC , operated a mine to the south of the town . In 1998 both companies merged to form Iluka Resources which continues to operate ilmenite mines around the area and produce synthetic rutile at the processing facility to the north of the town along the Bussell Highway .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Capel,_Western_Australia",
"rank": 19,
"score": 106418
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Melbourne Content: Melbourne , the state capital of Victoria and second largest city in Australia , has a temperate oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) and is well known for its changeable weather conditions . This is mainly due to Melbourne 's geographical location . This temperature differential is most pronounced in the spring and summer months and can cause very strong cold fronts to form . These cold fronts can be responsible for all sorts of severe weather from gales to severe thunderstorms and hail , minor temperature drops , and heavy rain .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_of_Melbourne",
"rank": 20,
"score": 105538
},
{
"content": "Title: Riverland Content: The Riverland is a region of South Australia . It covers an area of 9386 km2 along the Murray River from where it flows into South Australia from New South Wales and Victoria downstream to Blanchetown . The major town centres are Renmark , Berri , Loxton , Waikerie , Barmera and Monash , along with many minor townships , the population is approximately 35,000 people . The Riverland is located 1.75 to 3 hours ( or 150 to ) north east of Adelaide , and 90 minutes west ( or 120 to ) from Mildura , Victoria via the Sturt Highway . The Riverland has a Mediterranean climate with warm , dry summers and relatively mild winters , with temperatures a few degrees above those of Adelaide . The average summer temperature is 32.5 C , with a winter average of 16.2 C and an average rainfall of 260.6 mm .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Riverland",
"rank": 21,
"score": 103422
},
{
"content": "Title: Liawenee Content: Liawenee ( / laɪɑ : wi : ni : / ) is a small town in Tasmania , Australia built near Great Lake and the River Ouse , and was established on 11 June 1920 . The town is known for its fishing at nearby Great Lake and hosts several fishing events . Liawenee and surrounding Miena Dam experience annual mean maximum temperatures of 12.6 and 10.1 respectively and are thus amongst the coldest permanently inhabited places in Australia ; irrespective of Miena Dam Liawenee is colder on this metric than notable mainland sites of a similar altitude such as Nimmitabel ( 15.6 ) and Cooma ( 19.4 ) as well as Thredbo village ( 13.5 ) - a station of considerably greater altitude ( 1380m AMSL ) . Within Tasmania , only the uninhabited summits of Mount Wellington ( Kunanyi ) and Mount Read record lower annual mean maximum temperatures ( 7.8 and 8.7 respectively ) although other mountains of Tasmania that currently lack weather stations may experience similar or colder conditions also .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Liawenee",
"rank": 22,
"score": 102663
},
{
"content": "Title: Southwest corner of Western Australia Content: The south-west corner drainage region of Western Australia is one of only two temperate and relatively fertile parts of mainland Australia . It covers about 140000 km2 , or a little less than 2 % of the continent . For comparison , this is about the same size as North Carolina or a little larger than England . The landscape is generally flat and sandy but there are several major features , in particular the Stirling Range near Albany , which reach 1096 m at their highest point , and the Darling Scarp . The climate is temperate Mediterranean . Summers are warm to hot and dry , winters are cool and wet . Mountains near the coast concentrate rainfall in that area , with parts of the extreme south-western corner receiving as much as 1400 mm per year . Away from the coast , however , precipitation drops rapidly , with inland areas averaging about 250 mm per year .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Southwest_corner_of_Western_Australia",
"rank": 23,
"score": 101632
},
{
"content": "Title: Bushfires in Australia Content: Bushfires in Australia are frequent events during the warmer months of the year , due to Australia 's mostly hot , dry climate . Each year , such fires impact extensive areas . On one hand , they can cause property damage and loss of human life . On the other hand , certain native flora in Australia have evolved to rely on bushfires as a means of reproduction , and fire events are an interwoven and an essential part of the ecology of the continent . For thousands of years , Indigenous Australians have used fire to foster grasslands for hunting and to clear tracks through dense vegetation . Major firestorms that result in severe loss of life are often named based on the day on which they occur , such as Ash Wednesday and Black Saturday . Some of the most intense , extensive and deadly bushfires commonly occur during droughts and heat waves , such as the 2009 Southern Australia heat wave , which precipitated the conditions during the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in which 173 people lost their lives . Other major conflagrations include the 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfires , the 2003 Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires and the 2006 December Bushfires . Global warming is increasing the frequency and severity of bushfires .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Bushfires_in_Australia",
"rank": 24,
"score": 101110
},
{
"content": "Title: Leonora, Western Australia Content: Leonora is a town in the Goldfields-Esperance region of Western Australia , located 833 km northeast of the state capital , Perth , and 237 km north of the city of Kalgoorlie . At the 2011 census , Leonora had a population of 779 , 24 % of which were of Aboriginal descent . The area has a semi-arid climate , with a mean annual rainfall of 233 mm . Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) for July to 37 ° C ( 99 ° F ) for January . Leonora is primarily a mining town . There are a number of major gold mines in the Shire , as well as the Murrin Murin laterite nickel project . The area supports a significant pastoral industry . The first European explorer was John Forrest , who visited the area in 1869 . On 21 June 1869 Forrest 's party made camp near a conspicuous hill , which Forrest named Mount Leonora , after his six-year-old niece Frances ( Fanny ) Leonora Hardey . In 1894 , gold was discovered in the area by a prospector named Morrisey , and in the following two years a number of rich finds resulted in rapid development of the area . The Sons of Gwalia gold mine brought Leonora to the attention of the world . By 1897 a residential and business area had been established , and the town was gazetted as Leonora in 1897 . Leonora had a single track passenger tramway linking the town and nearby Gwalia , from 1901 to 1921 . Initially steam driven , the service was electric from November 1908 , and petrol powered from 1915 . In 2003 , work commenced on a desalination plant intended to improve the town 's water quality . It was designed to supply 2.5 million litres of treated water per day . Construction was expected to be completed by Christmas that year . In 2010 , the Rudd Government relocated asylum seekers from Christmas Island to the ` Leonora Alternative Place of Detention ' , an immigration detention centre , previously used as a mine workers hostel , in Leonora . The Abbott Government closed the facility in February 2014 .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Leonora,_Western_Australia",
"rank": 25,
"score": 100947
},
{
"content": "Title: Wiluna, Western Australia Content: Wiluna is a town in the Mid West region of Western Australia . It is situated on the edge of the Western Desert at the gateway to the Canning Stock Route and Gunbarrel Highway . It is the service centre of the local area for the local Aboriginal people , the pastoral industry , the Wiluna Gold Mine , and many more people who work on other mines in the area on a `` fly-in/fly-out '' basis . Wiluna 's climate is hot and dry , with an annual rainfall of 254 mm ( 10 in ) . Mean maximum temperatures range from 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) in July , to 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) in January .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Wiluna,_Western_Australia",
"rank": 26,
"score": 100123
},
{
"content": "Title: Alice Springs Content: Alice Springs -LSB- ˌælᵻs_ˈsprɪŋz -RSB- ( Arrernte : Mparntwe ) is the third largest town in the Northern Territory of Australia . Popularly known as `` the Alice '' or simply `` Alice '' , Alice Springs is situated roughly in Australia 's geographic centre . The area is known as Mparntwe to its original inhabitants , the Arrernte , who have lived in the Central Australian desert in and around what is now Alice Springs for thousands of years . The name Alice Springs was given by surveyor William Whitfield Mills after Alice , Lady Todd ( née Alice Gillam Bell ) , wife of the telegraph pioneer Sir Charles Todd . Alice Springs has a population of 27,972 , which makes up 8.7 percent of the territory 's population . Alice Springs is nearly equidistant from Adelaide and Darwin . The town straddles the usually dry Todd River on the northern side of the MacDonnell Ranges . The surrounding region is known as Central Australia , or the Red Centre , an arid environment consisting of several different deserts . In Alice Springs temperatures can vary dramatically , with an average maximum temperature in summer of 35.6 ° C and an average minimum temperature in winter of 5.1 ° C. Alice Springs has faced many problems in recent years , largely stemming from an increase in crime and a strong racial divide that has existed for years in the town .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Alice_Springs",
"rank": 27,
"score": 99319
},
{
"content": "Title: Brachychiton collinus Content: Brachychiton collinus , or outcrop kurrajong , is a small deciduous tree found growing in some of the harshest climatic conditions in Australia . This small tree is commonly found between Cloncurry and Mount Isa in North-West Queensland , Australia . The North-West savannah zone of Queensland is characterised by very high summer temperatures of up to 50 degrees Celsius and an unpredictable monsoonal rainfall that may deliver the whole annual rainfall of some 50 cm overnight . This tree most often grows on rocky outcrops where little other scrub , grasses or other understory plants can survive . It is probable that this preference for bare rocky outcrops is a function of the tree 's sensitivity to fire . Most brachychiton species do not survive a strong grass or brush fire .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Brachychiton_collinus",
"rank": 28,
"score": 98889
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_West_Virginia",
"rank": 29,
"score": 98250
},
{
"content": "Title: Margaret River (wine region) Content: Margaret River is the major geographical indication wine region in southwest Western Australia , with 5,017 hectares under vine and 215 wineries as at 2012 . Margaret River wine region is made up predominately of boutique size wine producers ; although winery operations range from the smallest crushing 3.5 tonne per year to the largest around 7000 tonne . The climate of Margaret River is more strongly maritime-influenced than any other major Australian region . It has the lowest mean annual temperature range , of only 7.6 ° C , and for good measure has the most marked Mediterranean climate in terms of rainfall , with only 200 millimetres of the annual 1160 millimetres falling between October and April . The low diurnal and seasonal temperature range means an unusually even accumulation of warmth . Overall the climate is similar to that of Bordeaux in a dry vintage . Although the region produces just three percent of total Australian grape production , it produces over 20 percent of Australia 's premium wine market . The principal grape varieties are fairly evenly split between red and white ; Cabernet Sauvignon , Chardonnay , Sauvignon blanc , Sémillon , Shiraz , Merlot , Chenin blanc and Verdelho .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Margaret_River_(wine_region)",
"rank": 30,
"score": 97827
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014 Adelaide heatwave Content: The 2014 Adelaide heatwave was a heat wave that occurred in Adelaide , South Australia in both January and February 2014 . The heatwaves were so strong that it broke records , becoming the hottest summer ever recorded in Adelaide . Although there were no deaths directly linked to the heatwave as of 2015 , there were at least 136 heat-related hospital admissions recorded .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2014_Adelaide_heatwave",
"rank": 31,
"score": 97161
},
{
"content": "Title: Walla Walla, New South Wales Content: Walla Walla -LSB- ˈwɒlə_ˈwɒlə -RSB- is a town in Greater Hume Shire Council in New South Wales , Australia . It is about 39 km north of Albury-Wodonga and 130 km south of Wagga Wagga . Walla Walla had a population of 581 people in 2006 and has the largest Lutheran church in New South Wales . Walla Walla has an elevation of 196 m above sea level . In summer Walla Walla has an average high of 31 ° C and a low of 13 ° C during winter it has a high of 12 ° C and a low of 2 ° C , although maximum temperatures can reach the mid-40s ° C ( mid-110s ° F ) and the area often experiences frosts during winter . It is the home of the Walla Walla Football Club which is a club within the Hume Football League . Walla Walla has many other sports available such as netball , tennis , lawn bowls , croquet , cricket and a local swimming pool . Walla Walla is also the home of St Paul 's College , the only Lutheran secondary school in NSW . The school offers an equine program , with many students keeping horses in the adjacent equine centre , as well as agricultural studies . Boarding students are drawn from communities within the Greater Hume Shire , the Riverina , North Eastern Victoria and further afield from the cities of Sydney , Canberra and Melbourne .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Walla_Walla,_New_South_Wales",
"rank": 32,
"score": 96776
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas",
"rank": 33,
"score": 96714
},
{
"content": "Title: Rockley, New South Wales Content: Rockley is a small village in the Central Tablelands region in New South Wales , Australia . At the , Rockley had a population of 174 people . Rockley has a tablelands climate similar to Bathurst . Summers are generally warm and mild . Autumn is generally mild to cool with few frosts at the end of the season . Winter is generally cool to cold with some day times maxima under 5 degrees , there are on average about 3 snowfalls per years . Many days through winter have thick frost and fog . Spring has some late frosts and then the days turn warm .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Rockley,_New_South_Wales",
"rank": 34,
"score": 95839
},
{
"content": "Title: Winter sport in Australia Content: Winter Sports in Australia encompasses a great variety of activities across the continent of Australia , including winter sports played in snow and ice such as ice hockey . Climate varies considerably from the tropical North to temperate South in Australia , and sporting practices vary accordingly . Ice and snow sports like Skiing in Australia are conducted in the high country of the Australian Alps and Tasmanian Wilderness . Australia has relatively low mountain ranges , but a long history of participation in recreational skiing ( since the 1860s ) and the Winter Olympic Games ( since 1936 ) . Australians have won olympic gold in ice skating , skiing and snow-boarding events . Australia 's generally flat geography and usually mild winter climate otherwise provide ideal conditions for international non-snow/ice winter sports and team games like Rugby Union Football , Rugby League Football and Association Football ( Soccer ) , which are all popular sports during the Australian winter and in which Australia has enjoyed considerable international success . Australian rules football is a home-grown winter football code with a wide following throughout Australia . Many other sports are also played or watched in Australia through the winter season .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Winter_sport_in_Australia",
"rank": 35,
"score": 95520
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge",
"rank": 36,
"score": 95109
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature in Canada Content:",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Temperature_in_Canada",
"rank": 37,
"score": 95096
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature (song) Content: `` Temperature '' is the third worldwide and the second American single from Jamaican DJ Sean Paul 's album The Trinity ( 2005 ) . The song was produced by Rohan `` Snowcone '' Fuller and received a positive reception from music critics . The song was released as the second U.S. single in the first quarter of 2006 and reached number one in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 and became Paul 's third number one hit single . It reached the top ten in Canada and France and the top twenty in the United Kingdom , peaking at # 11 there . In Australia , `` Temperature '' debuted at number nineteen but quickly found its way to number five the following weeks . `` Temperature '' won Dance Song Of The Year at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards in 2007 . `` Temperature '' became Sean Paul 's biggest hit single in the US . In Australia it became a hit , with Sean Paul making interview appearances on radio , including on the Paul Celoni Radio Show . Even though it only spent one week at # 1 , `` Temperature '' showed extreme longevity on the Billboard Hot 100 , spending 17 weeks in the top 10 . Until Nelly Furtado and Timbaland 's `` Promiscuous '' , this was the longest run in the top ten for a single in 2006 . It became Sean Paul 's first single to sell an excess of one million digital downloads , earning platinum certification . The song uses the dancehall riddim `` Applause '' . It was used in the games Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA 2 and Dance Central ( in the latter as DLC ) . It can also be heard in the 2007 film , Norbit . Officially , there are two versions of the song , which only differ in their rhythm . In 2008 , the media reported that Stacey Gayle of New York City experienced seizures as a result of hearing the song .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Temperature_(song)",
"rank": 38,
"score": 94881
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme weather events in Melbourne Content: thumb | A church destroyed by the 1918 Brighton tornado Extreme weather events in Melbourne , Australia have occurred on multiple occasions . The city has experienced a number of highly unusual weather events and extremes of weather . An increase in heat waves and record breaking temperatures over the last decade has led to much discussion over the effects of climate change in the country .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Extreme_weather_events_in_Melbourne",
"rank": 39,
"score": 94819
},
{
"content": "Title: Alfred Sandover Content: Alfred Sandover M.B.E. ( 24 November 1866 -- 4 May 1958 ) , Australian hardware merchant and philanthropist , was born in Plymouth England , the youngest of five children . Graduating from North Adelaide Grammar School in 1881 , he came to Perth Western Australia in 1884 , arriving in Fremantle when the temperature was 41 ° C ( 106 ° F ) and vowing to stay not a day over his contract . In 1921 Sandover donated the medal bearing his name as the West Australian Football League 's annual award recognising the league 's fairest and best player of the regular season .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Alfred_Sandover",
"rank": 40,
"score": 94136
},
{
"content": "Title: Water fluoridation in Australia Content: Australia is one of many countries that have water fluoridation programs currently operating ( see Fluoridation by country ) . As of March 2012 , artificially fluoridated drinking water is provided for 70 % or more of the population in all states and territories . The acceptance of the benefits of water fluoridation occurred in Australia in December 1953 , roughly two years after acceptance in the United States . Many of Australia 's drinking water supplies subsequently began fluoridation in the 1960s and 1970s . By 1984 almost 66 % of the Australian population had access to fluoridated drinking water , represented by 850 towns and cities . Some areas within Australia have natural fluoride levels in the groundwater , which was estimated in 1991 to provide drinking water to approximately 0.9 % of the population . A key difference between the implementation of drinking water fluoridation in the United States and Australia was the impact of temperature and climate on water consumption . Temperatures are a key factor in the establishment of legislative requirements , such as the Water Fluoridation Regulation 2008 in Queensland , that prescribe concentrations of fluoride to be added to the water . Consequently , areas with higher average temperatures require less fluoride to be added to the drinking water to achieve the same oral health benefits . The tropical conditions found in parts of Australia , such as Queensland , also make it difficult to maintain fluoridation equipment due to higher levels of corrosion caused by the wet climate . The addition of fluoride to a drinking water supply is generally governed by the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines . The Guidelines recommend a health-related guideline value ( maximum concentration ) of 1.5 mg/L for fluoride , which mirrors the World Health Organisation Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality 2006 . Guidance on the concentration of fluoride has been present in the Guidelines since 1983 . Like other countries with water fluoridation programs , Australia has organised anti-fluoride groups that contest the health benefits of fluoride . In addition to claiming that fluoride offers no health benefits whatsoever , they claim that moderate fluoride exposure can lead to reduced IQ , damaged bones , brain , kidneys and thyroid , dental fluorosis , and many more severe effects .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Water_fluoridation_in_Australia",
"rank": 41,
"score": 93934
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 42,
"score": 93703
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 43,
"score": 93584
},
{
"content": "Title: Caiguna Airport Content: Caiguna Airport is an airport in Australia . It is located in the municipality of Shire of Dundas and the state of Western Australia , in the southwestern part of the country , 2200 km west of the capital , Canberra . Caiguna Airport is 107 meters above sea level . The terrain around the Caiguna Airport is very flat . The highest point in the vicinity is 122 meters above sea level , 1.4 km west of Caiguna Airport . The neighborhood around Caiguna Airport is almost uninhabited , with less than two inhabitants per square kilometer . The surroundings Caiguna Airport is essentially an open scrubland . A cold steppe climate prevails in the area . The average annual temperature in the area is 18 ° C . The warmest month is January , when the average temperature is 26 ° C and the coldest is July , with 10 ° C . The average annual rainfall is 353 millimeters . The wettest month is January , with an average of 65 mm of precipitation , and the driest is August , with 3 mm of rainfall . Category : Airports in Western Australia",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Caiguna_Airport",
"rank": 44,
"score": 92394
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Association of Australia Content: The United Nations Association of Australia ( UNAA ) is the official non-profit , non-government , membership-based , organization working on behalf of the United Nations core body to promote its overall aims and ideals , and equally seeking to build support for the UN 's programs , activities and agencies . The UNAA official mission is `` to inform , inspire and engage all Australians regarding the work , goals and values of the UN to create a safer , fairer and more sustainable world '' . It has division offices in every State and Territory of Australia , with the national office run out of Canberra . Its national president is Major General ( Retd ) Michael G Smith AO , who succeeded Australian Senator Russell Trood in 2016 , who in turn had succeeded Australian Politician Robert Hill in 2012 . The UNAA works closely with United Nations specialised agencies and departments such as the UNDPI , UNIC and UNHCR and has consultative status with ECOSOC as a member of the World Federation of United Nations Associations ( WFUNA ) . The organisation works closely with the Australian Government , especially the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Australian Parliamentarians . The UNAA is governed by a National Board which meets quarterly . The National Board elects a representative Executive Team , including National Executive Director to take responsibility for the ongoing work nationally . The UNAA also works to support various initiatives of the United Nations which focus on key international affairs topics such as ( but not exclusive to ) : Conflict resolution Human rights Asylum seekers Climate Change Gender equality Environmental protection Global governance Peace education Sustainable development United Nations Global Compact The UNAA hosts educational events and activities ( including Model United Nations conferences ) ; works constructively with and makes submissions to government and parliament ; hosts public awards ceremonies on a variety of social , media and environmental topics ; drives celebratory UN observance day activities ; operates development projects overseas and generally acts as a key link between the UN and the Australian public . The UNAA group has various organs including , but not limited to : a national academic network , a federal parliamentary group , Divisions in every state and territory , a Young Professionals network , a Youth network and a national office .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "United_Nations_Association_of_Australia",
"rank": 45,
"score": 91992
},
{
"content": "Title: 100 Degrees Content: `` 100 Degrees '' is a song by Australian singer-songwriter Kylie Minogue , with her sister Dannii Minogue . The track was the second single from Kylie 's album Kylie Christmas . It was released on 13 November 2015 by Parlophone and Warner Bros. . Records . An alternate version of the song was released on 1 April 2016 , `` 100 Degrees ( Still Disco to Me ) '' , without the word `` Christmas '' . Kylie announced that the song would serve as the second single during The X Factor Australia on 16 November . She also confirmed that she would perform the track , alongside Dannii , on the season 7 grand final on 24 November . In a statement , Kylie said : `` I 'll be bringing a little Christmas cheer to The X Factor stage , I ca n't wait to come home and perform on the show with Dannii '' . The performance was their first performance together since their live performance of `` Kids '' on her Showgirl : The Homecoming Tour in 2006 , and the first televised performance together since they performed `` Sisters Are Doin ' It for Themselves '' on Young Talent Time in 1986 . Kylie wrote `` 100 Degrees '' about adapting to a winter Christmas in the UK after being raised in Australia and was inspired by Donna Summer 's vintage disco classics . Dannii said ; `` There 's not enough party Christmas songs , everyone has Christmas parties , but what music do you put on ? This song is perfect for dancing to . And our X Factor performance is going to be all guns blazing . And by guns , I mean glitter guns . It 's going to be a very sparkly , very Minogue Christmas . '' The song was used by Target Australia for their Christmas commercials . The adverts starred Dannii Minogue , who has a fashion line with Target Australia .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "100_Degrees",
"rank": 46,
"score": 91830
},
{
"content": "Title: Laverton, Western Australia Content: Laverton , originally known as British Flag , is a town in the Goldfields-Esperance region of Western Australia , and the centre of administration for the Shire of Laverton . The town of Laverton is located at the western edge of the Great Victoria Desert , 957 km north-northeast of the state capital , Perth , and 124 km east-northeast of the town of Leonora with an elevation of 461 m. About a third of the population is of Aboriginal descent . The area is semi-arid , with a mean annual rainfall of 233 mm . It is also quite warm , with mean daily maximum temperatures ranging from 17 ° C ( 62 ° F ) in July to 36 ° C ( 97 ° F ) in January Laverton is the westernmost town on the Outback Way - a proposed highway which goes through the Northern Territory to Winton in outback Queensland .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Laverton,_Western_Australia",
"rank": 47,
"score": 91541
},
{
"content": "Title: Environment of Australia Content: The Australian environment ranges from virtually pristine Antarctic territory and rainforests to degraded industrial areas of major cities . Forty distinct ecoregions have been identified across the Australian mainland and islands . Central Australia has a very dry climate . The interior has a number of deserts while most of the coastal areas are populated . Northern Australia experiences tropical cyclones while much of the country is prone to periodic drought . Agriculture and mining are the predominant land uses which affect the Australian environment . The management of the impact on the environment from the mining industry , the protection of the Great Barrier Reef , forests and native animals are recurring issues of conservation . Clean Up Australia Day was an initiative developed in 1989 to collaboratively clean up local areas and is held on the first Sunday of autumn ( in March ) .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Environment_of_Australia",
"rank": 48,
"score": 91341
},
{
"content": "Title: 2009–10 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2009 -- 10 Australian bushfire season was the bushfire season which occurred predominantly from June 2009 to May 2010 . Increased attention has been given to this season as authorities and government attempt to preempt any future loss of life after the Black Saturday bushfires during the previous season , 2008 -- 09 . Long range weather observations predict very hot , dry and windy weather conditions during the summer months , leading to a high risk of bushfire occurrence . In late September , several bushfires affected southeastern and northern Queensland . In October , bushfires affected much of the central latitudes of Australia , across Western Australia , Queensland and New South Wales . In early November , a heat wave across southeastern Australia and high bushfire risk weather , precipitated a series of bushfires in those states , particularly South Australia , where 6 people were injured in separate incidents . In December , a further 5 people were injured and a helicopter pilot killed , whilst fighting bushfires in NSW . Later that month , a 60-year-old man and three other men suffered burns whilst fighting fires in Southern NSW , while major fires burnt in the Riverina , far east Gippsland and Port Lincoln . Between Christmas and New Years 2009 , bushfires affected the northern and central Wheatbelt of Western Australia , destroying 37 homes and about 3,000 hectares ( 7,410 acres ) of bushland . In early January 2010 , Victoria and South Australia experienced `` Catastrophic '' category fire conditions , and on 10 January , a CFA volunteer was killed and 2 others injured after a fire truck rolled en route to a fire near Mansfield , in Victoria 's north east .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2009–10_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 49,
"score": 91097
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 50,
"score": 91062
},
{
"content": "Title: Dalhousie Springs Content: Dalhousie Springs is a group of over 60 natural artesian springs located in Witjira National Park on the western fringe of the Simpson Desert , 180 kilometres northeast of Oodnadatta in northern South Australia . The water temperatures in the springs range from 38 to 43 degrees Celsius . The water is highly mineralised but drinkable ( barely ) . Dalhousie Springs is a popular starting point for crossing the Simpson Desert eastwards to Birdsville in Queensland ( around 600 kilometres ) . In 1915 , the total flow rate of the Dalhousie Springs complex was over 23,000 litres/second , but drilling had reduced this to 17,360 litres/second by 2000 . There are a number of unique species of fish that live in the waters around Dalhousie Springs , such as the Dalhousie catfish ( Neosilurus gloveri ) , the Dalhousie hardyhead ( Craterocephalus dalhousiensis ) and the Dalhousie goby ( Chlamydogobius gloveri ) . The Dalhousie Springs is also part of a series of Dreamtime Stories involving 3 species of fish which only live in the Dalhousie Springs , which consists of 8 active springs with the largest 50 metres long and 10 metres deep . Witjira-Dalhousie Springs was added to the Australian National Heritage List in August 2009 .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Dalhousie_Springs",
"rank": 51,
"score": 91060
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010–12 La Niña event Content: The 2010 -- 12 La Niña event was one of the strongest on record . It caused Australia to experience its wettest September on record in 2010 , and its second-wettest year on record in 2010 . It also led to an unusual intensification of the Leeuwin Current , the 2010 Pakistan floods , the 2010 -- 11 Queensland floods , and the 2011 East Africa drought . It also helped keep the average global temperature below recent trends , leading to 2011 tying with 1997 for the 14th-warmest year on record .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2010–12_La_Niña_event",
"rank": 52,
"score": 91052
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of London Content: London , the capital and largest city in England and the United Kingdom has a temperate oceanic climate , with regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year . Summer temperatures rarely rise much above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , though higher temperatures have become more common recently . The highest temperature ever recorded in London was 38.1 ° C ( 100.6 ° F ) , measured at Kew Gardens during the European Heat Wave of 2003 . In modern times , heavy snowfalls have been infrequent with snow generally only settling once or twice each winter and accumulations usually of no more than an inch ( 2.5 cm ) or so . Despite its reputation as being a rainy city , London receives less precipitation ( 601 mm ( 24 in ) in a year ) , than Rome , Bordeaux , Toulouse , Naples and less than half the precipitation of Sydney or New York City . This is despite the fact that sub-tropical regions usually receive fewer rainy or overcast days . London 's large built-up area creates a microclimate ( an `` urban heat island '' ) , with heat stored by the city 's buildings . Sometimes temperatures are 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) warmer in the city than in the surrounding areas .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_of_London",
"rank": 53,
"score": 91034
},
{
"content": "Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Living_in_the_Hothouse",
"rank": 54,
"score": 91002
},
{
"content": "Title: 2016–17 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2016-17 Australian Bushfire Season saw a very wet start with the 5th wettest December on record being 76 % above the average rainfall for the month.across much of the country . This caused a significant surge in vegetation growth leading into the fire danger period .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2016–17_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 55,
"score": 89685
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 56,
"score": 88776
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves",
"rank": 57,
"score": 88696
},
{
"content": "Title: Australian region tropical cyclone Content: An Australian tropical cyclone is a non frontal , low pressure system that has developed , within an environment of warm sea surface temperatures and little vertical wind shear aloft in either the Southern Indian Ocean or the South Pacific Ocean . Within the Southern Hemisphere there are officially three areas where tropical cyclones develop on a regular basis , these areas are the South-West Indian Ocean between Africa and 90 ° E , the Australian region between 90 ° E and 160 ° E and the South Pacific basin between 160 ° E and 120 ° W . The Australian region between 90 ° E and 160 ° E is officially monitored by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology , the Papua New Guinea National Weather Service and the Badan Meteorologi Klimatologi dan Geofisika , while others like the Fiji Meteorological Service and the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration also monitor the basin . Each tropical cyclone year within this basin starts on July 1 and runs throughout the year , encompassing the tropical cyclone season which runs from November 1 and lasts until April 30 each season . Within the basin , most tropical cyclones have their origins within the South Pacific Convergence Zone or within the Northern Australian monsoon trough , both of which form an extensive area of cloudiness and are dominant features of the season . Within this region a tropical disturbance is classified as a tropical cyclone , when it has 10-minute sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km/h ( 35 mph ) , that wrap halfway around the low level circulation centre , while a severe tropical cyclone is classified when the maximum 10-minute sustained wind speeds are greater than 120 km/h ( 75 mph ) .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Australian_region_tropical_cyclone",
"rank": 58,
"score": 88681
},
{
"content": "Title: 1943–44 Australian bushfire season Content: The 1943 -- 44 Australian bushfire season was marked by a series of major bushfires following severe drought conditions in the state of Victoria in Australia . The summer of 1943 -- 44 was the driest summer ever recorded in Melbourne until 2002 with just 46 mm falling , a third of the long-term average . Between 22 December 1943 and 15 February 1944 , 51 people were killed , 700 injured , and 650 buildings were destroyed across the state . Many personnel who would have been normally available for fire fighting duties had been posted overseas and to remote areas of Australia during World War II .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "1943–44_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 59,
"score": 88484
},
{
"content": "Title: 2000s Australian drought Content: The 2000s drought in Australia , also known as the Millennium drought is said by some to be the worst drought recorded since European settlement . The drought affected most of southern Australia , including its largest cities and largest agricultural region ( the Murray-Darling basin ) . It commenced with low rainfall conditions in late 1996 and through 1997 , and worsened through particularly dry years in 2001 and 2002 . By 2003 it was recognised as the worst drought on record . The year 2006 was the driest on record for many parts of the country and conditions remained hot and dry through to early 2010 . The emergence of La Niña weather conditions in 2010 rapidly ended the drought , and led to floods in some locations . The drought placed extreme pressure on agricultural production and urban water supply in much of southern Australia . It has led to the construction of six major seawater desalination plants to provide water to Australia 's major cities , and to changes in the management of water in the Murray-Darling basin , particularly the formation of the Murray-Darling Basin Authority .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2000s_Australian_drought",
"rank": 60,
"score": 88415
},
{
"content": "Title: 2009 Australian heat wave Content: Two catastrophic heat waves struck Australia in 2009 : Early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave on 25 January -- 9 February 2009 Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in late October -- mid-November 2009",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2009_Australian_heat_wave",
"rank": 61,
"score": 88344
},
{
"content": "Title: Fremantle Prison riot Content: The Fremantle Prison riot was a prison riot that occurred on 4 January 1988 at Fremantle Prison , in Western Australia . The riot was organised as a diversion for an escape that was to take place . Prisoners created a fire as part of the diversion , and temperatures inside the cells were recorded at 52.2 ° C ( 126 ° F ) . 3 division and 4 division were taken over by a total of seventy prisoners , and 5 officers were taken hostage . The fire caused $ 1.8 million in damage and unintentionally prevented the planned escape . It was suggested that the riot and fire was staged as a diversion by twelve men including Brenden Abbott , to assist a mass escape from the prison . During the two weeks prior to the riot they collected 3 litres of fuel from lawnmowers , which they managed to conceal in their drink bottles .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Fremantle_Prison_riot",
"rank": 62,
"score": 88016
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of South Africa Content: The climate of South Africa is determined by South Africa 's situation between 22 ° S and 35 ° S , in the Southern Hemisphere 's subtropical zone , and its location between two oceans , Atlantic and Indian . It has a wider variety of climates than most other countries in sub-Saharan Africa , and it has lower average temperatures than other countries within this range of latitude , like Australia , because much of the interior ( central plateau or Highveld , including Johannesburg ) of South Africa is at higher elevation . Winter temperatures may reach the freezing point at high altitude , but are at their most mild in coastal regions , particularly the Eastern Cape . Cold and warm coastal currents running north-west and north-east respectively account for the difference in climated between west and east coasts . The weather is also influenced by ENSO ( El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ) . South Africa experiences a high degree of sunshine with rainfall about half of the global average , increasing from west to east , and with semi-desert regions in the north-west . While the Western Cape has a Mediterranean climate with winter rainfall , most of the country experiences summer rainfall .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_of_South_Africa",
"rank": 63,
"score": 87723
},
{
"content": "Title: Geography of New South Wales Content: New South Wales ( abbreviated as NSW ) is Australia 's most populous state , located in the east coast of the continent . It is in the southern hemisphere between latitudes 28 and 38 degrees south of the equator and longitudes 143 and 154 degrees east of the Universal Prime Meridian ( formerly known as the Greenwich meridian ) . The state is in the warm temperate climatic zone .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Geography_of_New_South_Wales",
"rank": 64,
"score": 87681
},
{
"content": "Title: Crime in Australia Content: Crime in Australia is combated by the Australian police and other agencies . The number of offenders proceeded against by police during 2013-2014 increased by 4 % . In 2013-2014 the offender rate , which is the number of offenders in the population of Australia , increased by 2 % . The number of Youth offenders fell by 4 % . The most prevalent offences are Public Disorder offences , followed by illicit drug offences . The largest percentage increase are sexual assault and related offences which increased by 19 % . From the National Australian Homicide Monitoring program report 2012 : `` The homicide rate has continued to decline each year , since 1989-90 . The periods 2010-2011 and 2011-2012 are the lowest homicide rate since data collection began in 1989 '' In fact , the Australian murder rate has fallen to close to one per 100,000 while the US rate is still roughly at 4.5 per 100,000 -- over four times as high . Moreover , robberies in Australia occur at only about half the rate of the US ( 58 in Australia versus 113.1 per 100,000 in the US in 2012 ) .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Crime_in_Australia",
"rank": 65,
"score": 87359
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 66,
"score": 87065
},
{
"content": "Title: Oceanic climate Content: An oceanic climate ( also known as marine , west coast and maritime ) is the Köppen classification of the climate typical of west coasts in higher middle latitudes of continents , and generally features cool summers ( relative to their latitude ) and cool but not cold winters , with a relatively narrow annual temperature range and few extremes of temperature , with the exception for transitional areas to continental , subarctic and highland climates . Oceanic climates are defined as having a monthly mean temperature below 22 C in the warmest month , and above 0 C in the coldest month . It typically lacks a dry season , as precipitation is more evenly dispersed throughout the year . It is the predominant climate type across much of North Western Europe , the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada , portions of southwestern South America and small areas of southeast Australia , and New Zealand as well as isolated locations elsewhere . Oceanic climates generally have cool summers and cool ( but not cold ) winters . They are characterised by a narrower annual range of temperatures than are encountered in other places at a comparable latitude , and generally do not have the extremely dry summers of Mediterranean climates or the hot summers of humid subtropical . Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe , where they spread much farther inland than in other continents . Oceanic climates can have much storm activity as they are located in the belt of the stormy westerlies . Many oceanic climates have frequent cloudy or overcast conditions due to the near constant storms and lows tracking over or near them . The annual range of temperatures is smaller than typical climates at these latitudes due to the constant stable marine air masses that pass through oceanic climates , which lack both very warm and very cool fronts .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Oceanic_climate",
"rank": 67,
"score": 86803
},
{
"content": "Title: 1900 in Australia Content:",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "1900_in_Australia",
"rank": 68,
"score": 86752
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Delhi Content: The climate of Delhi is an overlap between monsoon-influenced humid subtropical ( Köppen climate classification Cwa ) and semi-arid ( Köppen climate classification BSh ) , with high variation between summer and winter temperatures and precipitation . Delhi 's version of a humid subtropical climate is markedly different from many other humid subtropical cities such as Sao Paulo , New Orleans and Brisbane in that the city features dust storms ( something more commonly seen in a desert climate ) , has relatively dry short winters and has a prolonged spell of very hot weather , due to its semi-arid climate . Summers start in early April and peak in May , with average temperatures near 32 ° C although occasional heat waves can result in highs close to 45 ° C ( 114 ° F ) on some days and therefore higher apparent temperature . The monsoon starts in late June and lasts until mid-September , with about 797.3 mm ( 31.5 inches ) of rain . The average temperatures are around 29 ° C ( 85 ° F ) , although they can vary from around 25 ° C ( 78 ° F ) on rainy days to 32 ° C ( 99 ° F ) during dry spells . The monsoons recede in late September , and the post-monsoon season continues till late October , with average temperatures sliding from 29 ° C ( 85 ° F ) to 21 ° C ( 71 ° F ) . Winter starts in late November or early december and peaks in January , with average temperatures around 12 -- 13 ° C ( 54 -- 55 ° F ) . Although winters are generally mild , Delhi 's proximity to the Himalayas results in cold waves leading to lower apparent temperature due to wind chill . Delhi is notorious for its heavy fogs during the winter season . In December , reduced visibility leads to disruption of road , air and rail traffic . They end in early February , and are followed by a short spring until the onset of the summer . Extreme temperatures have ranged from − 2.2 ° C to 48.4 ° C.",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_of_Delhi",
"rank": 69,
"score": 86538
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves",
"rank": 70,
"score": 86413
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 in Australia Content:",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2013_in_Australia",
"rank": 71,
"score": 86293
},
{
"content": "Title: Fahrenheit 43 Content: Fahrenheit 43 is a pop rock band from Melbourne , Australia .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Fahrenheit_43",
"rank": 72,
"score": 86265
},
{
"content": "Title: List of Australian environmental books Content: This is a list of Australian environmental books : Global Spin : The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism ( 1997 ) , by Sharon Beder Human Ecology , Human Economy : Ideas for an Ecologically Sustainable Future ( 1997 ) , edited by Mark Diesendorf and Clive Hamilton Running from the Storm : The Development of Climate Change Policy in Australia ( 2001 ) , by Clive Hamilton A Big Fix : Radical Solutions for Australia 's Environmental Crisis ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe The Weather Makers ( 2005 ) , by Tim Flannery Environmental Principles and Policies ( 2006 ) , by Sharon Beder Patriots : Defending Australia 's Natural Heritage ( 2006 ) , by William J Lines Chasing Kangaroos ( 2007 ) , by Tim Flannery Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy ( 2007 ) , by Mark Diesendorf High and Dry : John Howard , Climate Change and the Selling of Australia 's Future ( 2007 ) , by Guy Pearse The 3rd Degree : Frontline in Australia 's Climate War ( 2007 ) , by Murray Hogarth Maralinga : Australia 's Nuclear Waste Cover-up ( 2007 ) , by Alan Parkinson Reaction Time : Climate Change and the Nuclear Option ( 2007 ) , by Ian Lowe Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change ( 2007 ) , by Clive Hamilton Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action ( 2008 ) , by David Spratt and Philip Sutton Now or Never : A Sustainable Future for Australia ? ( 2008 ) , by Tim Flannery Quarry Vision : Coal , Climate Change and the End of the Resources Boom ( 2009 ) , by Guy Pearse Requiem for a Species ( 2010 ) , by Clive Hamilton",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "List_of_Australian_environmental_books",
"rank": 73,
"score": 86212
},
{
"content": "Title: Tempe, New South Wales Content: Tempe is a suburb in the Inner West of Sydney , in the state of New South Wales , Australia . Tempe is located 9 kilometres south of the Sydney central business district in the local government area of Inner West Council . Tempe sits on the northern bank of the Cooks River and is separated from Sydney Airport by the Alexandra Canal , also known as Sheas Creek . The Wolli Creek waterway also empties into the Cooks River near Tempe .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Tempe,_New_South_Wales",
"rank": 74,
"score": 86076
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Southern (Western Australia) Content: __ NOTOC __ The Great Southern Region is one of the nine regions of Western Australia , as defined by the Regional Development Commissions Act 1993 , for the purposes of economic development . It is a section of the larger South Coast of Western Australia and neighbouring agricultural regions . The region officially comprises the local government areas of Albany , Broomehill-Tambellup , Cranbrook , Denmark , Gnowangerup , Jerramungup , Katanning , Kent , Kojonup , Plantagenet and Woodanilling . The Great Southern Region has an area of 39007 km2 and a population of about 54,000 . Its administrative centre is the historic port of Albany . It has a Mediterranean climate , with hot , dry summers and cool , wet winters . The economy of the Great Southern Region is dominated by livestock farming and crop-growing . It has some of the most productive cereal grain and pastoral land in the state , and is a major producer of wool and lamb . Albany is a major fishing centre . The coast of the Great Southern Region has milder summer weather than areas on the west coast proper and is also a popular destination for holidaymakers , tourists , anglers and surfers . Albany is home to the Kalgan River which is associated with riverboats , from 1918 to 1935 with the Silver Star which lowered its funnel to get under a bridge , and today with the Kalgan Queen which lowers its roof to pass beneath the same bridge . Noongar people have inhabited the region for tens of thousands of years . European settlement began with the establishment of a temporary British military base , commanded by Major Edmund Lockyer , at King George Sound ( Albany ) on Christmas Day , 1826 . Albany is consequently regarded as the oldest European settlement in Western Australia .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Great_Southern_(Western_Australia)",
"rank": 75,
"score": 85782
},
{
"content": "Title: Murraylands Content: The Murraylands is a geographical region in South Australia ; generally , the lower part of the Murray River basin , in South-Eastern South Australia . The area stretches from Blanchetown ; roughly 130 kilometres north-east of Adelaide , right down to Wellington , which is situated at the beginning of Lake Alexandrina . The major towns in this region include ; Morgan , Truro , Swan Reach , Mannum , Callington , Tailem Bend , Mannum , Murray Bridge , Meningie , Coonaplyn , Tintinara , Karoonda , Lamaroo and Pinnaroo . Murray Bridge has the largest population base , with approximately 19,724 reported in the 2011 Census . The area stretches from Blanchetown ; roughly 130 kilometres north-east of Adelaide , right down to Wellington , which is situated at the beginning of Lake Alexandrina . The region focuses mainly on the main towns of Murray Bridge and Mannum and has a population of around 65,000 . In recent years , the Murraylands region has been plagued by an extensive drought , which has affected business and the economy of the region . The region has a Mediterranean-style climate , with hot dry summers and mild winters . The climate is cooler than Adelaide and the annual rainfall is higher than the rest of the state , ranging between 450mm at Keith to 800mm around Mount Bun . As you go north , the land becomes semi-arid and has desert like conditions . The Murraylands region has a summer average temperature of 28oC and 15oC in winter .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Murraylands",
"rank": 76,
"score": 85740
},
{
"content": "Title: Deserts of Australia Content: Named deserts of Australia cover 1371000 km2 , or 18 % of the Australian mainland . However , approximately 35 % of the Australian continent receives so little rain it is effectively desert . The deserts in Australia are primarily distributed throughout the western plateau and interior lowlands of the continent . By international standards Australian deserts receive relative high rates of rainfall . No weather station situated in an arid region records less than 100 mm of average annual rainfall . The deserts of Australia , particularly in the interior , lack any significant summer rains . Deserts are not necessarily completely devoid of vegetation , but have large areas where vegetation is very limited in height or extent .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Deserts_of_Australia",
"rank": 77,
"score": 85715
},
{
"content": "Title: U.S. state and territory temperature extremes Content: The following table lists the highest and lowest temperatures recorded in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and the 5 inhabited U.S. territories during the past two centuries, in both Fahrenheit and Celsius. If two dates have the same temperature record (e.g. record low of 40°F in 1911 in Aibonito and 1966 in San Sebastian in Puerto Rico), only the most recent date is shown.",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "U.S._state_and_territory_temperature_extremes",
"rank": 78,
"score": 85711
},
{
"content": "Title: 1990–91 Australian region cyclone season Content: The 1990 -- 91 Australian region cyclone season was a slightly below average cyclone season , with ten tropical cyclones occurring within the region between 90 ° E and 160 ° E . The season officially ran from November 1 , 1990 , to April 30 , 1991 , with the first disturbance of the season forming on 10 December and the last disturbance moving out of the region during 11 May . Six people were killed by Cyclone Joy when it made landfall on Australia . During the season , tropical cyclones were monitored by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology , who ran Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers ( TCWC ) in Perth , Darwin , and Brisbane . The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and Papua New Guinea National Weather Service also monitored systems within the basin during the season . The JTWC designated systems with a number and either a S or a P suffix depending on which side of 135E . The Bureau of Meteorology and Papua New Guinea national Weather Service both used the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale , and estimated windspeeds over a ten-minute period , while the JTWC estimated sustained winds over a one-minute period and are comparable to the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "1990–91_Australian_region_cyclone_season",
"rank": 79,
"score": 85685
},
{
"content": "Title: Broken Hill Content: Broken Hill is an isolated mining city in the far west of outback New South Wales , Australia . It is near the border with South Australia on the crossing of the Barrier Highway ( A32 ) and the Silver City Highway ( B79 ) , in the Barrier Range . It is 315 m above sea level , with a hot desert climate , an average rainfall of 235 mm . The closest major city is Adelaide , the capital of South Australia , which is more than 500 km to the southwest and linked via route A32 . Broken Hill has been referred to as `` The Silver City '' , the `` Oasis of the West '' , and the `` Capital of the Outback '' . Although over 1,100 km west of Sydney and surrounded by semi-desert , the town has prominent park and garden displays and offers a number of attractions , such as the Living Desert Sculptures . The town has a high potential for solar power , given its extensive daylight hours of sunshine . The Broken Hill Solar Plant , which was completed in 2015 , is one of the largest in the Southern Hemisphere .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Broken_Hill",
"rank": 80,
"score": 85654
},
{
"content": "Title: Northern Pacific seastar in Australia Content: The Northern Pacific starfish , ( Asterias amurensis ) is an invasive species in Australia . The starfish is native to the coasts of northern China , North Korea , South Korea , Russia and Japan and distribution of this species into other countries has increased . It is on the Invasive Species Specialist Group list of the world 's 100 worst invasive species . In Australia spawning occurs from July to October at temperatures of 10 ° C to 12 ° C. Fertilized eggs develop into free-swimming larvae that live in the water for around 90 days before settling and metamorphosing into juvenile seastars . In one year the northern Pacific seastar is capable of increasing its diameter by 8 cm ; when fully grown the northern Pacific seastar lives up to five years , and can reach sizes up to 40 to 50 cm in diameter . Larval survival is constrained by temperature and salinity of the surrounding marine habitat , with the optimal ranges respectively 8 ° C to 16 ° C , and 3 ‰ to 8.75 ‰ . Generally , seastars are sensitive to salinity fluctuations , and are unlikely to be found in places of high salinity . In Japan its numbers increase and reach outbreak proportions for two to three years ; outbreaks have been found to occur in three or ten year cycles . Native to the coasts of northern China , Korea , Russia and Japan , the northern Pacific seastar lives in waters between 7 ° C and 22 ° C . It lives in mainly shallow water , but also is found as deep as 200 metres . It is rarely found on reefs or high wave action areas , instead sitting on mud , sand or pebbles . In Tasmania , due to the plague of these seastars , hunting days have been organized , where volunteers work together to physically remove as many of the seastars as possible . Efforts of this kind in 1993 resulted in the collection of more than 30,000 seastars . During the first attempts to remove the seastar from Tasmania , many of the seastars that were captured were cut up and thrown back into the sea . Unfortunately , each part that was thrown back was able to regenerate and grow a new seastar as long as it had part of the central disc remaining . Seastar poisons are not specific and in the ocean , could damage many other natural marine communities . Also , the amount of chemicals needed to poison seastars in estuaries would be uneconomical , and very impractical . In Australia , northern Pacific seastars do n't have any pathogens , though in Japan , northern Pacific seastars are attacked by a unicelled animal called Orchitophrya . Orchitophrya invades seastars ' testes , kills sperm , and castrates the seastar . However scientists later discovered that Orchitophrya does n't usually invade all 10 of the seastar 's testes and does n't have the effect hoped for . The northern Pacific seastar has also been found in Port Phillip Bay , Victoria , for some years now . The seastar has migrated inland in the Maribyrnong River , reaching as far inland as Essendon . The Maribyrnong is a salty river ( previously known as Saltwater River ) , but finding the seastar this far inland is unusual .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Northern_Pacific_seastar_in_Australia",
"rank": 81,
"score": 85487
},
{
"content": "Title: Adelaide Hills Content: The Adelaide Hills are part of the Mount Lofty Ranges , east of the city of Adelaide in the state of South Australia . It is unofficially centred on the largest town in the area , Mount Barker , which has a population of around 29,000 and is also one of Australia 's fastest growing towns . The Adelaide Hills region is one of the cooler wine regions of mainland Australia as , despite warm days in January and February when the grapes are ripening , the region generally experiences cool nights . This significant diurnal variation results in cool mean daily temperatures even in summer and the consequence of this is high quality , cool-climate wines , leading to its world-famous reputation as a wine producing region . The numerous wineries and cellar doors are represented by a regional association and geographical indication called the Adelaide Hills wine region .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Adelaide_Hills",
"rank": 82,
"score": 85472
},
{
"content": "Title: Williamstown, South Australia Content: Not to be confused with the once eastern suburb of Mount Gambier , also called Williamstown . Williamstown is a small South Australian village on the southern fringe of the Barossa Valley wine-growing region . It is 51 km north east of Adelaide and 16 km south-east of Gawler . Williamstown was originally known as Victoria Creek . The village was laid out in 1858 by Lewis Johnston , or Johnstone , on land he purchased in 1857 , and named for his son . The village has an elevation of 310m and an average rainfall of 680mm . It has a summer average temperature of 31 ° C with temperatures often reaching mid 40 's , and a winter average temperature of 15 ° C , with nights dropping below freezing , which makes the region excellent for the cultivation of fruits , especially grapes in the lower riverine alluvial deposits . Williamstown was essentially a farming area with sheep and cattle in the early days with fruit orchards , mixed farms and vines . The village also sustained a forestry and lumber industry from the earliest days with three sawmills . Today only a small family owned mill remains with the closure of the two larger mills by 1990 . Many residents work in the wine / viticulture industry throughout the Barossa Valley . In the Australian Federation Year a local hay barn found along Yettie Road ( Yatta Creek Road ) inhabited by ducks and pigeons was discovered to be the remains of the alleged oldest homestead in South Australia ( circa 1821 ) which has been carefully restored to its former glory . Springfield Homestead along Springton Road was originally the home of a local land baron pastoralist BJ McLaughlin who was a contemporary of the more famous Australian pastoral entrepreneurs and cattle barons . His great-great grandchildren still live at the historic Homestead . They still operate the fourth largest cattle station in Australia at Commonwealth Hill . The nearby Barossa , Para Wirra and South Para Reservoirs were built in the early 1950s to help supply Adelaide with their demanding domestic water supplies . The Whispering Wall public attraction at the Barossa Reservoir is the colloquial name given to the curved dam retaining structure where nearby evidence of former small operation gold mining exists from the 1840s as evidenced by the local name of Kalamazoo Homestead . A handful of ` boutique ' tourist gold mining operation were started around 1985 onwards near Sandy Creek and West of the reservoir aptly named the Barossa Goldfields . In recent decades numerous tourist accommodation and gastronomical ventures have been established to service the growing Barossa Valley wine tour industry , such as boutique businesses Linfield Road Wines / Cottage and Te-Aro Estate Wines . Williamstown is considered to be a ` Southern gateway ' town into the Barossa Valley itself and in recent years land releases and new family homes have brought a new lease of life to the sleepy little town which boasts one of the oldest public house hotels in South Australia dating from 1841and several original farm homesteads built by the first homesteaders from rough-cut slab timber . One excellent example of which can be found somewhere along Warren Road . In the late summer of 1956 Williamstown was struck by a large earthquake of an estimated magnitude 4.1 that lasted for almost eight minutes and caused structural damaged to many of the stone structures and brick buildings in the area that can be seen to this day . It is reported that domestic wells and sweetwater springs in the area dried up for several weeks thereafter due to the many landslips and seismic movement below the surrounding Gawler Range and local hills . In the springtime Williamstown is seen at its best with a carpet of green grass and wildflowers along the many creeks and thick woodlands covering the low rolling hills around the town dotted with large dairy pastures and vineyards . To the East and South Williamstown is skirted with Forestry Commission plantations open for public access in certain areas and large swathes of National Park and the Hales Conservation Park for hikers . The Williamstown Oval is set in the welcome summer shade of a large wooded hill in a small valley ringed with a crystal clear cold water spring that feeds the stream that passes through the town . At the Oval there is a picnic area and small caravan park for visitors and transients alike overlooking the local Football Clubhouse and public swimming pool . In 1970 Williamstown had the happy pleasure of hosted one of the very last performances of the Barnum & Baily , Ringling Brothers Circus in the original Big Top at the Oval where their famous performing Elephants were enjoyed along with ` the world 's smallest horse ' at just over five hands high . Williamstown is in the Barossa Council local government area , the state electoral district of Schubert and the federal Division of Mayo .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Williamstown,_South_Australia",
"rank": 83,
"score": 85297
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 in Australia Content:",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2010_in_Australia",
"rank": 84,
"score": 85196
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 85,
"score": 85037
},
{
"content": "Title: 4° Content: 4 ° may refer to : 4 ° , or Quarto a book or pamphlet produced from full ` blanksheets ' , each of which is printed with eight pages of text , four to a side 4 ° , a reference to a 4-degrees Celsius increase in the global average temperature due to climate change , 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference `` 4 ° '' , the third single by the progressive rock band Tool from their 1993 album Undertow `` 4 Degrees '' , the first single by experimental pop singer Anohni from her 2016 album Hopelessness",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "4°",
"rank": 86,
"score": 84877
},
{
"content": "Title: Lane Cove Bushland Park Content: Lane Cove Bushland Park is located in suburban Lane Cove , 5 kilometres from the centre of Sydney , Australia . It is regarded as one of the more interesting areas of fungi in the country . In the year 2000 , Bushland Park was placed on the Register of the National Estate , under the Australian Heritage Commission Act , 1975 . Average annual rainfall is 1220 mm . Soils are moderately fertile , based on Hawkesbury sandstone and Ashfield Shale . The climate is warm and humid .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Lane_Cove_Bushland_Park",
"rank": 87,
"score": 84809
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Nevada Content: Climate change in Nevada has been measured over the last century , with the average temperature in Elko , Nevada increasing by 0.6 F-change , and precipitation increasing by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Nevada",
"rank": 88,
"score": 84718
},
{
"content": "Title: 2002–03 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2002 -- 03 Australian bushfire season was a particularly extensive bushfire season in Australia . It ran predominantly from December 2002 to March 2003 and involved over 3,000 separate fires in Victoria alone . The 2003 Canberra bushfires were also particularly severe . The developing drought in Australia and well below-average rainfall through winter and spring of 2002 established conditions conducive to above-average bushfire potential . During the 2002 -- 03 season , there were 5,999 bushfires attended by the relevant agency Australia-wide and 7 fatalities , 4 of those from the January Canberra fires . Perhaps the most well known fire of the season was the Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires that burnt in north-eastern Victoria , the Victorian Alps and Gippsland . This fire was ignited in several locations by multiple lightning strikes and burnt 1.12 million hectares of land over the course of 2 months . Over 15,000 personnel were directly engaged with this fire complex .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2002–03_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 89,
"score": 84583
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 90,
"score": 84493
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Artesian Basin Content: The Great Artesian Basin ( GAB ) , located in Australia , is the largest and deepest artesian basin in the world , stretching over 1700000 km2 , with measured temperatures ranging from 30 - . The basin provides the only source of fresh water through much of inland Australia . The Basin underlies 23 % of the continent , including the states and territories of Queensland ( most of ) , the Northern Territory ( the south-east corner of ) , South Australia ( the north-east part of ) , and New South Wales ( northern part of ) . The basin is 3000 m deep in places and is estimated to contain 64900 km3 of groundwater . The Great Artesian Basin Coordinating Committee ( GABCC ) coordinates activity between the various levels of government and community organisations .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Great_Artesian_Basin",
"rank": 91,
"score": 84379
},
{
"content": "Title: High and Dry (book) Content: High and Dry : John Howard , Climate Change and the Selling of Australia 's Future is a 2007 book written by Guy Pearse . In the book , Pearse accuses Prime Minister John Howard of `` wilful blindness '' on the issue of global warming . According to the book , the Prime Minister and several of his key ministers were `` captured by a group of industries and their lobbyists , known as the greenhouse mafia '' . Guy Pearse was a longtime member of the Liberal Party and was speechwriter for Robert Hill , Australia 's Environment Minister from 1997-2000 .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "High_and_Dry_(book)",
"rank": 92,
"score": 84238
},
{
"content": "Title: 2017 in Australia Content:",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2017_in_Australia",
"rank": 93,
"score": 84236
},
{
"content": "Title: Agriculture in Australia Content: Australia is a major agricultural producer and exporter , with over 325,300 employed in Agriculture , forestry and fishing as of February 2015 . Agriculture and its closely related sectors earn $ 155 billion-a-year for a 12 % share of GDP . Australian farmers and graziers own 135,997 farms , covering 61 % of Australia 's landmass . Across the country there is a mix of irrigation and dry-land farming . The CSIRO , the federal government agency for scientific research in Australia , has forecast that climate change will cause decreased precipitation over much of Australia and that this will exacerbate existing challenges to water availability and quality for agriculture . There are three main zones : the high rainfall zone of Tasmania and a narrow coastal zone ( used principally for dairying and beef production ) ; wheat , sheep zone ( cropping ( principally winter crops ) , and the grazing of sheep ( for wool , lamb and mutton ) plus beef cattle ) and the pastoral zone ( characterised by low rainfall , less fertile soils , and large scale pastoral activities involving the grazing of beef cattle and sheep for wool and mutton ) . An indicator of viability of agriculture in the state of South Australia is whether land is within Goyder 's Line .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Agriculture_in_Australia",
"rank": 94,
"score": 84128
},
{
"content": "Title: Southern Australia Content: The term Southern Australia is generally considered to include the states and territories of Australia of New South Wales , Victoria , Tasmania , the Australian Capital Territory and South Australia . The part of Western Australia south of latitude 26 ° south -- a definition widely used in law and state government policy -- is also usually included . Although it comprises about half of the total area of Australia , Southern Australia includes about three quarters of the Australian population , the two largest cities ( Sydney and Melbourne ) , the political capital ( Canberra ) , the main food growing areas and the main industrial centres . The area is also notable for its primarily temperate , mediterranean , alpine or arid environmental and climatic conditions which contrasts to the mainly tropical climate of Northern Australia . Southern Australia suffers from bushfires and wildfires .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Southern_Australia",
"rank": 95,
"score": 84093
},
{
"content": "Title: Fremantle Doctor Content: The Fremantle Doctor , the Freo Doctor , or simply The Doctor is the Western Australian vernacular term for the cooling afternoon sea breeze which occurs during summer months in south west coastal areas of Western Australia . The sea breeze occurs because of the major temperature difference between the land and sea . The name was in use as early as the 1870s and was similar to equivalent terms for winds that occurred in South Africa and the West Indies .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Fremantle_Doctor",
"rank": 96,
"score": 83934
},
{
"content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer",
"rank": 97,
"score": 83501
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 in Australia Content:",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2015_in_Australia",
"rank": 98,
"score": 83427
},
{
"content": "Title: Obesity in Australia Content: Obesity in Australia is an `` epidemic '' with `` increasing frequency . '' The Medical Journal of Australia found that obesity in Australia more than doubled in the two decades preceding 2003 , and the unprecedented rise in obesity has been compared to the same health crisis in America . The rise in obesity has been attributed to poor eating habits in the country closely related to the availability of fast food since the 1970s , sedentary lifestyles and a decrease in the labour workforce .",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "Obesity_in_Australia",
"rank": 99,
"score": 83374
},
{
"content": "Title: 2005 in Australia Content:",
"qid": "93",
"docid": "2005_in_Australia",
"rank": 100,
"score": 83295
}
] |
[climate scientists] say that aspects of the case of Hurricane Harvey suggest global warming is making a bad situation worse. | [
{
"content": "Title: Tropical Storm Harvey (1999) Content: Tropical Storm Harvey was a moderately strong tropical storm that caused flooding across south Florida during the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season . The tenth tropical cyclone and eighth named storm of the season , Harvey developed from a tropical wave in the Gulf of Mexico on September 19 . After forming , the system gradually intensified and became a tropical storm early on September 20 . Throughout the rest of its duration , Harvey slowly intensified as it headed eastward . Late on September 21 , Harvey made landfall in Southwest Florida with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km/h ) . Harvey emerged into the Atlantic early on September 22 , but was absorbed by an extratropical cyclone . The remnants of Harvey reached Atlantic Canada before dissipating . Harvey caused minor flooding in south Florida because of light to relatively heavy rainfall in that portion of the state and at least 34 houses and businesses in southern Florida were flooded . There were sporadic reports of tropical storm-force winds throughout the state , as well as two tornadoes . Damage estimates in Florida reached about $ 15 million ( 1999 USD ) . Throughout the rest of the United States , impact was limited , confined to light rainfall in Georgia , North Carolina and South Carolina . Heavy rainfall was reported in Atlantic Canada and Harvey became the wettest tropical cyclone on record in that country . Significant flooding , especially to roads and houses , was reported due to the heavy rainfall and damage throughout Atlantic Canada totalled several million dollars .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Tropical_Storm_Harvey_(1999)",
"rank": 1,
"score": 140087
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Harvey Content: The name Harvey has been used for five tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean . Hurricane Harvey ( 1981 ) - threatened Bermuda but turned away before striking , no damage . Hurricane Harvey ( 1993 ) - short-lived storm that threatened no land . Tropical Storm Harvey ( 1999 ) - struck Florida , causing $ 15 million in damage . Tropical Storm Harvey ( 2005 ) - earliest eighth-storm formation in the Atlantic Ocean since record-keeping began , breaking the old record set in 1936 by 12 days . Threatened Bermuda . Tropical Storm Harvey ( 2011 ) - record eighth-storm failing to reach hurricane strength , in a single season , since reliable records began . Strong tropical storm that affected parts of Central America . Category : Atlantic hurricane disambiguation pages",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Harvey",
"rank": 2,
"score": 137175
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical Storm Harvey (2011) Content: Tropical Storm Harvey was the final tropical cyclone in a record-breaking string of eight consecutive storms that failed to attain hurricane intensity . The eighth tropical cyclone and eighth named storm of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season , Harvey developed from a tropical wave in the western Caribbean Sea on August 19 . It moved over warm waters in the vicinity of Central America . Later on August 19 , the system strengthened into Tropical Storm Harvey while just offshore Honduras . Additional organization occurred and Harvey attained its peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km/h ) prior to coming ashore Belize on August 20 . Harvey weakened to a tropical depression on August 21 , but re-intensified to a tropical storm after emerging into the Bay of Campeche . Early on August 22 , it made landfall in Veracruz , then weakened and dissipated several hours later . The precursor disturbance caused thunderstorms throughout the Lesser Antilles , producing squally weather and gusty winds . On Saint Croix in the United States Virgin Islands , gusty winds downed trees , which struck power lines , leaving minor electrical outages . Along its path , Harvey dropped heavy rainfall across much of Central America . Strong winds and heavy precipitation were reported in the country of Belize . Heavy rains in Mexico triggered numerous landslides , one of which killed 3 people . Landslides in damaged 36 homes and 334 homes in the states of Chiapas and Veracruz , respectively . Heavy rainfall also caused rivers to overflow , damaging homes and businesses . Two additional people died in Mexico from unknown causes .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Tropical_Storm_Harvey_(2011)",
"rank": 3,
"score": 137047
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Katrina and global warming Content: The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Katrina_and_global_warming",
"rank": 4,
"score": 133946
},
{
"content": "Title: Cyclone Harvey Content: Cyclone Harvey was a tropical cyclone that struck Queensland and the Northern Territory of Australia during the 2004 -- 05 Australian region cyclone season . It had a minimum pressure of 967 mbar ( hPa ; 28.56 inHg ) and maximum wind gusts of 220 km/h .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Cyclone_Harvey",
"rank": 5,
"score": 131032
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Climate_Code_Red",
"rank": 6,
"score": 123570
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents",
"rank": 7,
"score": 118031
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 8,
"score": 114317
},
{
"content": "Title: Kerry Emanuel Content: Kerry Andrew Emanuel ( born April 21 , 1955 ) is an American professor of meteorology currently working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge . In particular he has specialized in atmospheric convection and the mechanisms acting to intensify hurricanes . He was named one of the Time 100 influential people of 2006 . In 2007 , he was elected as a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences . He hypothesized in 1994 about a superpowerful type of hurricane which could be formed if average sea surface temperature increased another 15C more than it 's ever been ( see `` hypercane '' ) . In a March 2008 paper published in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society , he put forward the conclusion that global warming is likely to increase the intensity but decrease the frequency of hurricane and cyclone activity . Gabriel Vecchi , of NOAA said of Emanuel 's announcement , `` While his results do n't rule out the possibility that global warming has contributed to the recent increase in activity in the Atlantic , they suggest that other factors -- possibly in addition to global warming -- are likely to have been substantial contributors to the observed increase in activity . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Kerry_Emanuel",
"rank": 9,
"score": 113759
},
{
"content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe",
"rank": 10,
"score": 113535
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 11,
"score": 112461
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 12,
"score": 110119
},
{
"content": "Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "I'm_not_a_scientist",
"rank": 13,
"score": 109155
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 14,
"score": 108779
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 15,
"score": 108753
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 16,
"score": 106836
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 17,
"score": 106537
},
{
"content": "Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Storms_of_My_Grandchildren",
"rank": 18,
"score": 106179
},
{
"content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm",
"rank": 19,
"score": 106054
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 20,
"score": 105845
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 21,
"score": 105498
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of Hurricane Ivan in the Lesser Antilles and South America Content: The effects of Hurricane Ivan in the Lesser Antilles and South America in September 2004 included 44 deaths and over $ 1 billion in damage ( 2004 USD ) , primarily in Grenada where it was considered the worst hurricane in nearly 50 years . Hurricane Ivan developed from a tropical wave on September 2 and rapidly intensified to become a major hurricane , passing through the southern Lesser Antilles on September 7 with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km/h ) . At the time , its typical storm force winds extended outward up to 160 miles ( 260 km ) with hurricane-force winds outward to 70 miles ( 110 km ) , and the northern portion of the eye passed over Grenada . In the region , the worst damage occurred on Grenada , where the damage total of $ 1.1 billion ( 2004 USD , ( $ USD ) ) represented 200 % of its GDP . The hurricane damaged more than 14,000 homes and destroyed 30 % of the houses , leaving about 18,000 people homeless . A total of 39 people were killed by the hurricane on the island . Elsewhere , Hurricane Ivan caused at least three fatalities and moderate damage in northern Venezuela . One person died each in Trinidad and Barbados . The name Ivan was later retired .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Effects_of_Hurricane_Ivan_in_the_Lesser_Antilles_and_South_America",
"rank": 22,
"score": 105033
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 23,
"score": 103974
},
{
"content": "Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Taken_by_Storm",
"rank": 24,
"score": 103666
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 25,
"score": 103563
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 26,
"score": 103510
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 27,
"score": 102342
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 28,
"score": 101895
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 29,
"score": 101487
},
{
"content": "Title: 1999 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 1999 Atlantic hurricane season had five Category 4 hurricanes -- the highest number recorded in a single season in the Atlantic basin , later tied in 2005 . The season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . It was a fairly active season , mostly due to a persistent La Niña that developed in the latter half of 1998 . The first storm , Arlene , formed on June 11 to the southeast of Bermuda . It meandered slowly for a week and caused no impact on land . Other tropical cyclones that did not affect land were Hurricane Cindy , Tropical Storm Emily , and Tropical Depression Twelve . Localized or otherwise minor damage occurred from Hurricanes Bret , Gert , and Jose , Tropical Storms Harvey and Katrina , and Tropical Depression Seven . The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Floyd , a strong Category 4 hurricane that caused devastating flooding along the East Coast of the United States , especially in North Carolina . Damage from the storm totaled approximately $ 6.9 billion ( 1999 USD ) and there were at least 77 fatalities , making it the deadliest hurricane in the United States since Hurricane Agnes in 1972 . Flooding from Floyd in North Carolina followed Hurricane Dennis , a slow and erratic -- moving storm that dropped heavy rainfall in the eastern portion of the state . Tropical Depression Eleven in October contributed to extreme flooding in Mexico , which left 636 people dead and caused $ 491.3 million in damage , though impact could not be distinguished from the storm itself . Hurricane Irene caused extensive flooding in Cuba and Florida , with lesser effects in the Bahamas and North Carolina . Irene was the second -- costliest storm of the season , with about $ 800 million in damage . Hurricane Lenny was an unusual eastward -- moving storm in the Caribbean Sea and a strong late -- season storm . It caused extensive damage in the Lesser Antilles in the month of November . Collectively , the storms of the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season caused at least 123 fatalities and $ 8.58 billion in losses .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "1999_Atlantic_hurricane_season",
"rank": 30,
"score": 101223
},
{
"content": "Title: 1981 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 1981 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1981 , and lasted until November 30 , 1981 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The 1981 season was high in activity with 18 tropical depressions and twelve storms forming during the year . Nine of these systems made landfall . Cindy , Harvey , and Irene neither affected land directly nor indirectly . Hurricane Dennis caused millions of dollars in damage in Dade County , Florida and produced the highest rainfall totals of any tropical cyclone this season . Tropical Depression Eight caused the most damage , due to flooding in Texas at the end of August , and led to most fatalities of any tropical cyclone this season ( five ) . Tropical Depressions Two and Eight caused a majority of the damage and fatalities this season , with both affecting Louisiana and Texas . Katrina was the only named storm with associated fatalities .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "1981_Atlantic_hurricane_season",
"rank": 31,
"score": 100401
},
{
"content": "Title: James Elsner Content: James Brian Elsner ( born 1959 ) is an American atmospheric scientist , geographer , and applied statistician who has made substantial contributions to understanding of the spatial , temporal , and physical relationships of tropical cyclones and tornadoes , and the influence of climate change . Elsner earned a B.S. ( 1981 ) , M.S. ( 1984 ) , and Ph.D. ( 1988 ) from the University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee ( UWM ) . He joined the faculty of Florida State University ( FSU ) in 1990 as an assistant professor in the Department of Meteorology and moved to the Department of Geography in 1998 where he has held his current position as the Earl and Sophia Shaw Professor since 2008 . He has been President of Climatek , Inc. , since 2001 . Elsner organized the biannual International Summit on Hurricanes and Climate Change in 2001 and the International Summit on Tornadoes and Climate Change , the first scientific conference on the topic , in 2014 . He is a storm chaser and leads a FSU storm intercept program . He is member of the American Association of Geographers ( AAG ) , the American Geophysical Union ( AGU ) , and the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "James_Elsner",
"rank": 32,
"score": 100004
},
{
"content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change",
"rank": 33,
"score": 99674
},
{
"content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 34,
"score": 99584
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics",
"rank": 35,
"score": 99083
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 36,
"score": 98755
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture",
"rank": 37,
"score": 98568
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Haiti Content: In early July 2005 , Hurricane Dennis brushed the southern coast of Haiti and produced deadly flash flooding across the nation . Forming from a tropical depression on July 4 , Dennis began impacting Haiti two days later with heavy rains . Civil authorities and international agencies acted quickly to protect lives , ordering evacuations -- approximately 1,000 people complied -- and prepositioning emergency supplies . Over the subsequent two days , the hurricane 's outer bands continued to impact the nation before effects abated . Widespread flash floods and landslides caused substantial damage , with areas along the Tiburon Peninsula taking the brunt of the impact . A bridge collapse near Grand-Goâve left 15 people dead or missing . All told , Dennis killed 56 people and wrought US$ 50 million in damage . The nation 's government released emergency relief funds on July 7 and international agencies provided considerable assistance to residents in the months after the storm . World Concern aided roughly 18,000 residents and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies assisted approximately 4,000 people .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Effects_of_Hurricane_Dennis_in_Haiti",
"rank": 38,
"score": 97932
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas Knutson Content: Thomas Knutson is a climate modeller at the US Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory , a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research covers hurricane activity , the link between climate change and hurricane incidence and intensity , and climate change detection and attribution . He served as a contributing author on working group 1 of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He is an Associate Editor of the American Meteorological Society 's Journal of Climate . He has published in Science , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Journal of Geophysical Research , Journal of Climate , Tropical Cyclone Research and Review , Tellus A and the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . In 2004 , Knutson published a paper suggesting that increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide would lead to more intense hurricanes . This finding was subsequently supported by independent research . Knutson was invited to discuss his thesis on Ron Reagan 's MSNBC talk show , but the invitation was withdrawn after the White House intervened . Source : New Scientist Magazine 2007-02-03 , p. 5",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Thomas_Knutson",
"rank": 39,
"score": 97240
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 40,
"score": 97166
},
{
"content": "Title: Harvey Sweetland Lewis Content: Harvey Sweetland Lewis ( born April 1976 ) is an American ultrarunner , social studies and economics teacher , world traveler and public speaker . In July 2014 , Lewis won the Badwater Ultramarathon near Death Valley , CA , in just under 23 hours and 53 minutes . This race is touted as the world 's toughest foot race due to extremely hot temperatures and immense elevation changes throughout the course . Six months later near the Canada -- US border in International Falls , MN , Lewis tied for second place at the Arrowhead 135 , showing not only his adaptability for racing in any climate , but also his sportsmanship . He and fellow runner Jan Kriska battled for second place for most of the race , but in the end , both agreed to finish together tied for second , according to accounts from the race . Noted for his spontaneity as much as his dedication , Lewis often seeks new challenges to improve his health , often with positive effects on the community or the environment as a side benefit . For example , he commutes to work every day of his own volition , either running , cycling or occasionally skiing or walking . Even on days immediately following an endurance race , he makes the six-mile round trip commute with his backpack filled with a change of clothes , his laptop , graded homework assignments and his packed lunch . With his health and the environment as motivation , Lewis has run to work for most of his adult life : as a college student , a factory worker and even a car salesperson ( before he became a teacher ) . When interviewed after his 3:20 sprint finish at the inaugural Cincinnati Flying Pig Marathon in 1999 , Lewis joked : `` I am the only car salesman in America who runs to and from work . '' Lewis often posts videos of his training strategies , races and his morning-after commutes to his Ultra Runner social media outlet , recounting the people who inspire him along the way while simultaneously holding himself accountable to his goals . Lewis encourages people to find a source of inspiration and pursue one 's dreams to the fullest . Lewis represented Team USA at the 24-Hour World Championships by the International Association of Ultrarunners ( IAU ) in 2013 and 2014 . When Lewis ran 154.590 miles at the Spartanburg , SC , 24-hour race in March 2014 , that earned him the top qualifier position to again represent Team USA at the international championship in Turin , Italy in April 2015 . Lewis placed second at the 24-hour USA national championships in September , 2014 at the Northcoast 24-hour Endurance Run , with 136.34 miles .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Harvey_Sweetland_Lewis",
"rank": 41,
"score": 97054
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 42,
"score": 96929
},
{
"content": "Title: Eric Holthaus Content: Eric Holthaus ( born 1981 ) is a meteorologist who works for Slate , and former columnist for the Wall Street Journal who has frequently written about the impacts of global climate change . Holthaus grew up in Kansas . His writing during Hurricane Sandy resulted in a substantial following . During his career , he has advised numerous groups and individuals on coping with changing weather , including Indian military officials and Ethiopian subsistence farmers . He has traveled to Ethiopia in many occasions , where he does work for a climate project . On September 27 , 2013 , feeling that his extensive air travel was contributing to the problem , Holthaus vowed never to fly again .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Eric_Holthaus",
"rank": 43,
"score": 96846
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Alley Content: Hurricane Alley is an area of warm water in the Atlantic Ocean stretching from the west coast of northern Africa to the east coast of Central America and Gulf Coast of the Southern United States . Many hurricanes form within this area . The sea surface temperature of the Atlantic in Hurricane Alley has been steadily growing warmer over the past decades , which most climate scientists believe accounts for the increase in hurricane activity .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Alley",
"rank": 44,
"score": 96752
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 45,
"score": 96710
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 46,
"score": 96686
},
{
"content": "Title: Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone Content: Mediterranean tropical-like cyclones , sometimes referred to as Mediterranean hurricanes or medicanes , are rare meteorological phenomena observed in the Mediterranean Sea . Due to the dry nature of the Mediterranean region , formation of tropical cyclones is infrequent , with only 99 recorded tropical-like storms between 1948 and 2011 . No agency , however , is officially responsible for monitoring the formation and development of medicanes . Tropical cyclogenesis typically occurs within two separate regions of the sea . The first region , encompassing areas of the western Mediterranean , is more conducive for development than the other , the Ionian Sea to the east . The rough mountainous geography of the region raises additional difficulties despite being favorable for the development of severe weather and convective activity in general , and only with abnormal meteorological circumstances can medicanes form . Numerous studies have been conducted on the impact of global warming on Mediterranean tropical cyclone formation , generally concluding that fewer yet more intense storms would form . The development of tropical cyclones in the Mediterranean Sea can usually only occur under somewhat unusual circumstances . Low wind shear and atmospheric instability induced by incursions of cold air are often required . A majority of medicanes are also accompanied by upper-level troughs , providing energy required for intensifying atmospheric convection -- thunderstorms -- and heavy precipitation . The baroclinic properties of the Mediterranean region , with high temperature gradients , also provides necessary instability for the formation of tropical cyclones . Another factor , rising cool air , provides necessary moisture as well . Warm sea surface temperatures ( SSTs ) are mostly unnecessary , however , as most medicanes ' energy is derived from warmer air temperatures . When these favorable circumstances coincide , the genesis of warm-core Mediterranean tropical cyclones , often from within existing cut-off cold-core lows , is possible in a conducive environment for formation . Several notable and damaging medicanes are known to have occurred . In September 1969 , a north African Mediterranean tropical cyclone produced flooding that killed nearly 600 individuals , left 250,000 homeless , and crippled local economies . A medicane in September 1996 that developed in the Balearic Islands region spawned six tornadoes and inundated parts of the islands . Several medicanes have also been subject to extensive study , such as those of January 1982 , January 1995 , September 2006 , November 2011 , and November 2014 . The January 1995 storm is one of the best-studied Mediterranean tropical cyclones , with its close resemblance to tropical cyclones elsewhere and availability of observations . The medicane of September 2006 , meanwhile , is well-studied due to availability of existing observations and data . In November 2011 , the NOAA 's Satellite Analysis Branch monitored a possible medicane , named Rolf by the Free University of Berlin ( FU Berlin ) , though it ceased doing so the following month . No agency is officially responsible for monitoring the basin .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Mediterranean_tropical-like_cyclone",
"rank": 47,
"score": 96265
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm World Content: In his book Storm World : Hurricanes , Politics , and the Battle over Global Warming , Chris Mooney discusses tensions between two different approaches to analyzing global warming and its effect on hurricanes .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Storm_World",
"rank": 48,
"score": 96211
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Katrina Content: Hurricane Katrina was the costliest natural disaster and one of the five deadliest hurricanes in the history of the United States . The storm is currently ranked as the third most intense United States landfalling tropical cyclone , behind only the 1935 Labor Day hurricane and Hurricane Camille in 1969 . Overall , at least 1,245 people died in the hurricane and subsequent floods , making it the deadliest United States hurricane since the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane . Total property damage was estimated at $ 108 billion ( 2005 USD ) , roughly four times the damage wrought by Hurricane Andrew in 1992 in the United States . The eleventh named storm and fifth hurricane of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season , Katrina originated over the Bahamas on August 23 from the interaction between a tropical wave and the remnants of Tropical Depression Ten . Early the following day , the new depression intensified into Tropical Storm Katrina . The cyclone headed generally westward toward Florida and strengthened into a hurricane only two hours before making landfall at Hallandale Beach and Aventura on August 25 . After very briefly weakening to a tropical storm , Katrina emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on August 26 and began to rapidly deepen . The storm strengthened to a Category 5 hurricane over the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico , but weakened before making its second landfall as a Category 3 hurricane on August 29 in southeast Louisiana . The storm caused severe destruction along the Gulf coast from central Florida to Texas , much of it due to the storm surge and levee failure . Severe property damage occurred in coastal areas , such as Mississippi beachfront towns ; over 90 percent of these were flooded . Boats and casino barges rammed buildings , pushing cars and houses inland ; water reached 6 - from the beach . Over fifty breaches in New Orleans 's hurricane surge protection were the cause of the majority of the death and destruction during Katrina on August 29 , 2005 . Eventually 80 % of the city and large tracts of neighboring parishes became flooded , and the floodwaters lingered for weeks . According to a modeling exercise conducted by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) , two-thirds of the deaths in Greater New Orleans were due to levee and floodwall failure . All of the major studies concluded that the USACE , the designers and builders of the levee system as mandated by the Flood Control Act of 1965 , is responsible . This is mainly due to a decision to use shorter steel sheet pilings in an effort to save money . In January 2008 , Judge Stanwood Duval , U.S. District Court , ruled that despite the Corps ' role in the flooding , the agency could not be held financially liable because of sovereign immunity in the Flood Control Act of 1928 . Exactly ten years after Katrina , J. David Rogers , lead author of a new report in the official journal of the World Water Council concluded that the flooding during Katrina `` could have been prevented had the corps retained an external review board to double-check its flood-wall designs . '' There was also an investigation of the responses from federal , state and local governments , resulting in the resignation of Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) director Michael D. Brown , and of New Orleans Police Department ( NOPD ) Superintendent Eddie Compass . Many other government officials were criticized for their responses , especially New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin , Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco , and President George W. Bush . Several agencies including the United States Coast Guard ( USCG ) , National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) , and National Weather Service ( NWS ) were commended for their actions . They provided accurate hurricane weather tracking forecasts with sufficient lead time .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Katrina",
"rank": 49,
"score": 96079
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 50,
"score": 96074
},
{
"content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason",
"rank": 51,
"score": 96051
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know",
"rank": 52,
"score": 95906
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 53,
"score": 95897
},
{
"content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Scott_Denning",
"rank": 54,
"score": 95287
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Florida Content: The effects of Hurricane Dennis in Florida included 14 deaths and $ 1.5 billion ( 2005 US$ ) in damage . The tropical wave that became Hurricane Dennis formed on June 29 , 2005 , and proceeded westward across the Atlantic Ocean . It became a tropical depression on July 4 , a tropical storm on July 5 , and a hurricane on July 7 . Dennis rapidly intensified to attain Category 4 status on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale , and made landfall in Cuba where it weakened to Category 1 status , before re-emerging in the Gulf of Mexico and re -- intensifying . The storm made landfall as a Category 3 hurricane on Santa Rosa Island on July 10 . As Dennis was impacting Cuba , the outer rainbands affected the Florida Keys causing moderate wind gusts peaking at 87 mph on Sombrero Key . In central Florida , Dennis produced numerous tornadoes , one severely damaging a house . In Punta Gorda , three people were found dead in a car submerged in a ditch flooded by heavy rain . Dennis made landfall in the Florida Panhandle , causing moderate damage , although not as severe as previously predicted . Wind gusts peaked at 121 mph , and maximum rainfall reached 7.08 in . Storm surge of 6 - inundated parts of St. Marks and nearby locations . During the height of the storm , approximately 236,000 customers in the Florida Panhandle were without electric power .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Effects_of_Hurricane_Dennis_in_Florida",
"rank": 55,
"score": 95251
},
{
"content": "Title: John T. Allen Content: John Terrence Allen is an Australian atmospheric scientist and leading contributor on severe thunderstorm and tornado environments , particularly in the context of climate change , including seasonal prediction of hail and tornadoes . He is currently an assistant professor of meteorology at Central Michigan University . He was formerly a researcher at the International Research Institute for Climate and Society ( IRI ) at The Earth Institute ( EI ) of Columbia University . Allen was born to Leon and Kerry Allen and grew up in suburban Sydney . He earned a Ph.D. from the University of Melbourne in 2012 . Other research interests include severe thunderstorm , hail , and tornado climatologies , tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones , social impacts of high-impact weather and climate , seasonal predictions , reanalysis studies , and evaluation of models and data sets . He signed , with Paul Markowski , Harold Brooks , et al. , a prominent rebuttal to physicist Richard A. Muller 's contention in a New York Times opinion piece that tornado activity in the U.S. had decreased and that the alleged decrease was tied to global warming . In addition to his formal studies , Allen is a recreational storm chaser .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "John_T._Allen",
"rank": 56,
"score": 95068
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science",
"rank": 57,
"score": 94845
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate appraisal Content: A climate appraisal is a unique , location-based report for a specific property on climate change ( from global warming ) and other environmental risks . Information in a climate appraisal report enables property owners and/or buyers to assess for themselves how climate change risks could impact a specific property address in the future , probably by utilizing both historical and projected data from scientific modeling to display those potential risks . A climate appraisal report may include historical and projected information in the following categories : shoreline reduction from sea level rise , risk from hurricanes , tornadoes , earthquakes , volcanoes , droughts , wildfires , floods , diseasees , and industrial pollution . A report may integrate a wide range of environmental risk information after geocoding a location .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Climate_appraisal",
"rank": 58,
"score": 94774
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Carol Content: Hurricane Carol was among the worst tropical cyclones on record to affect the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island in the United States . It developed from a tropical wave near the Bahamas on August 25 , 1954 , and slowly strengthened as it moved northwestward . On August 27 , Carol intensified to reach winds of 105 mph ( 165 km/h ) , but weakened as its motion turned to a northwest drift . A strong trough of low pressure turned the hurricane northeastward , and Carol later intensified into a major hurricane . While paralleling the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern United States , the storm produced strong winds and rough seas that caused minor coastal flooding and slight damage to houses in North Carolina , Virginia , Washington , D.C. , Delaware , and New Jersey . The well-organized hurricane accelerated north-northeastward and made landfall on eastern Long Island , New York , and then over eastern Connecticut on August 31 with sustained winds estimated at 110-mph and a barometric pressure near 956 mb . Carol transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over New Hampshire later on August 31 , 1954 . In New York , strong winds on Long Island damaged about 1,000 houses , left 275,000 people without electricity , downed many trees , and resulted in heavy crop losses . Storm surge flooded LaGuardia Airport and inundated the Montauk Highway , which left the eastern portion of Long Island isolated . Carol also brought strong winds and rough seas to coastal Connecticut , Rhode Island , and southeastern Massachusetts . Throughout the region , about 150,000 people were left without electricity and telephone service . 1,545 houses were destroyed and another 9,720 were damaged . Approximately 3,500 cars and 3,000 boats were destroyed . There were 65 deaths and 1,000 injuries in New England . The storm caused an additional $ 1 million in damage in Canada as well as two deaths . Overall , Carol caused 72 fatalities and damage totaled $ 462 million ( 1954 USD ) , making it the costliest hurricane in the history of the United States , at the time . Following the storm , Carol was retired , becoming the first name to be removed from the naming lists in the Atlantic basin .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Carol",
"rank": 59,
"score": 94705
},
{
"content": "Title: List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes Content: Category 4 , the second-highest classification on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale , is used for tropical cyclones that have winds of 130 -- 156 mph ( 209 -- 251 km/h ; 113 -- 136 kn ) . The division of the eastern and central Pacific basins occurs at 140 ° W ; the eastern Pacific covers area east of 140 ° W , while the central Pacific extends between 140 ° W to 180 ° W. Both basins ' division points are at 66 ° N as a northern point and the equator as the southern point . As of , 116 hurricanes have attained Category 4 status in the northeastern Pacific basins . This list does not include storms that also attained Category 5 status on the scale . Numerous climatological factors influence the formation of hurricanes in the Pacific basins . The North Pacific High and Aleutian Low , usually present between January and April , cause strong wind shear and unfavorable conditions for the development of hurricanes . During its presence , El Niño results in increased numbers of powerful hurricanes through weaker wind shear , while La Niña reduces the number of such hurricanes through the opposite . Global warming may also influence the formation of tropical cyclones in the Pacific basin . During a thirty-year period with two sub-periods , the first between 1975 and 1989 and the second between 1990 and 2004 , an increase of thirteen Category 4 or 5 storms was observed from the first sub-period . __ TOC __",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "List_of_Category_4_Pacific_hurricanes",
"rank": 60,
"score": 94610
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 61,
"score": 94518
},
{
"content": "Title: 1989 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 1989 Atlantic hurricane season featured the costliest tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin at the time , Hurricane Hugo . The season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . It was a near average season with 11 named storms . The first storm , Tropical Depression One , developed on June 15 , and dissipated two days later without effects on land . Later that month , Tropical Storm Allison caused severe flooding , especially in Texas and Louisiana . Tropical Storm Barry , Tropical Depressions Six , Nine , and Thirteen , and Hurricanes Erin and Felix caused negligible impact . Hurricane Gabrielle and Tropical Storm Iris caused light effects on land , with the former resulting in nine fatalities from rip currents offshore the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada , while the latter produced minor flooding in the United States Virgin Islands . The most notable storm of the season was Hurricane Hugo , a Category 5 hurricane that caused at least $ 10 billion ( 1989 USD ) in damage and 88 fatalities as it ravaged the Lesser Antilles and the United States , especially the state of South Carolina . Hugo ranked as the costliest Atlantic hurricane until Hurricane Andrew in 1992 , and has since fallen further due to destructive storms in the 2000s and early 2010s . Few other storms in 1989 caused significant damage ; hurricanes Chantal and Jerry both resulted in flooding and wind impacts in Texas . Hurricane Dean also caused light damage in Bermuda and the Canadian province of Newfoundland . Tropical Storm Karen , the final storm of the season , brought heavy rainfall and a tornado to Cuba , before dissipating on December 4 . Overall , the storms of the season collectively caused 124 fatalities and at least $ 10.54 billion in damage .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "1989_Atlantic_hurricane_season",
"rank": 62,
"score": 94461
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Earth_2100",
"rank": 63,
"score": 94402
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Dolores (1974) Content: Hurricane Dolores was regarded as the worst hurricane to strike Acapulco since 1938 . Developing on June 13 , 1974 , the system rapidly organized into a tropical storm the next day off the southern coast of Mexico . Over the following day , Dolores developed an eye-like feature and attained hurricane status . With peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km/h ) , the storm made landfall near Acapulco . Once onshore , Dolores rapidly dissipated and was last noted on June 17 . Across Southwestern Mexico , Hurricane Dolores produced heavy rains that triggered widespread flooding and mudslides . Numerous roads sustained damage , separating communities from surrounding areas . At least 18 people were killed and 32 others were injured by the storm . Additionally , an estimated 173,000 people were affected across the country .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Dolores_(1974)",
"rank": 64,
"score": 94311
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of Hurricane Ivan in the Greater Antilles Content: From September 8 to 14 , 2004 , Hurricane Ivan moved through the Caribbean Sea , affecting all of the Greater Antilles . Reaching peak winds of 165 mph ( 270 km/h ) , Ivan attained Category 5 strength on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale , the strongest possible category , on three times in the Caribbean . It first lashed the southern coasts of Puerto Rico and Hispaniola with high waves , killing five people in the Dominican Republic and Haiti ; in the latter country , two others drowned due to storm flooding . The effects in Jamaica were among the worst from a tropical cyclone in the island 's recorded history . The storm caused severe damage which left 18,000 people homeless . An estimated 17 people on the island were killed by Ivan .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Effects_of_Hurricane_Ivan_in_the_Greater_Antilles",
"rank": 65,
"score": 93883
},
{
"content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming",
"rank": 66,
"score": 93616
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 67,
"score": 93568
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle",
"rank": 68,
"score": 93537
},
{
"content": "Title: Droughts in the United States Content: Drought in the United States is similar to that of other portions of the globe . Below normal precipitation leads to drought , which is caused by an above average persistence of high pressure over the drought area . Changes in the track of extratropical cyclones , which can occur during climate cycles such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , or ENSO , as well as the North Atlantic Oscillation , Pacific Decadal Oscillation , and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation , modulates which areas would be more prone to drought and when drought develops . Increased drought frequency is expected to be one of the effects of global warming . In dry areas , removing grass cover and going with a more natural vegetation for the area can reduce the impact of drought , since a significant amount of fresh water is used to keep lawns green . Droughts are periodic , alternating with floods over a series of years . The worst droughts in the history of the United States occurred during the 1930s and 1950s , periods of time known as ` Dust Bowl ' years in which droughts lead to significant economic damages and social changes . In particular , relief and health agencies became overburdened and many local community banks had to close .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Droughts_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 69,
"score": 93366
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of Hurricane Mitch in Honduras Content: The effects of Hurricane Mitch in Honduras included the worst flooding in Honduras in the 20th century . Hurricane Mitch , the strongest storm of the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season , formed on October 22 , and after becoming a Category 5 hurricane , it weakened and struck Honduras on October 29 . While near peak intensity , Mitch struck the offshore Guanaja island , where it nearly destroyed the mangrove forest . On the mainland , the hurricane dropped torrential rainfall , and many gauges were washed away in mountainous areas where unofficial rainfall totals were as high as 1900 mm ( 75 in ) . The highest official total was 928 mm at Choluteca in southern Honduras , which was more than half of the annual precipitation average there . The rains caused widespread flooding and landslides , although impact from winds was not as severe . The President of Honduras estimated that Mitch set back 50 years of economic development . The storm wrecked about 35,000 houses and damaged another 50,000 , leaving up to 1.5 million people homeless , or about 20 % of the country 's population . Mitch directly caused $ 2.005 billion in damage , with an additional $ 1.8 billion in indirect costs . Most of the damage was ruined crops , and cash crop exports were cut by 9.4 % in 1999 , largely due to the storm . Over 70 % of the transportation infrastructure was damaged , mostly damaged highways and bridges . Widespread areas experienced power outages , and about 70 % of the country lost water after the storm . In the capital , Tegucigalpa , a large landslide affected three neighborhoods and formed a temporary dam . Floods in the city damaged buildings that were over 350 years old . Throughout the country , there were at least 7,000 fatalities , some reported in each department . Following the storm , officials in Honduras requested international assistance , which totaled $ 2.8 billion over a several year period . Despite this , the gross domestic product began decreasing at the end of 1998 , and contracted by 1.9 % in 1999 . Officials enacted a widespread curfew following the storm , and for 15 days temporarily restricted constitutional rights to maintain order . There were outbreaks in various diseases , and many residents faced food and water shortages . Due to the heavy damage , the name Mitch was retired from the Atlantic hurricane naming list .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Effects_of_Hurricane_Mitch_in_Honduras",
"rank": 70,
"score": 93329
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy Content: The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy",
"rank": 71,
"score": 93145
},
{
"content": "Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Loss_and_damage",
"rank": 72,
"score": 93012
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 73,
"score": 92939
},
{
"content": "Title: 1968 Scotland storm Content: The 1968 Scotland storm ( or Hurricane Low Q ) was a deadly storm that moved through the Central Belt of Scotland during mid January 1968 . It was described as Central Scotland 's worst natural disaster since records began and the worst gale in the United Kingdom . Some said that the damage resembled what happened during the Clydebank Blitz in 1941 . 20 people died from the storm , with 9 dead in Glasgow . 700 people were left homeless . A 134 mph wind gust was recorded at Great Dun Fell in Cumbria , England . At the time this was the strongest wind gust ever recorded in the United Kingdom , though this was superseded in 1986 when a 173 mph gust was recorded at Cairn Gorm .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "1968_Scotland_storm",
"rank": 74,
"score": 92900
},
{
"content": "Title: May 2016 United States storm complex Content: The May 2016 United States storm complex was a flood in the United States that occurred on May 31 , 2016 , affecting the states of Arkansas , Kansas , Nebraska , Oklahoma , and Texas . The inundation set precipitation records in Texas and Oklahoma . On June 2 , 2016 , the rising of the Brazos River required evacuations for portions of Brazoria County , Texas . Ten deaths of Texans and thousands of home evacuations led Texas Governor Greg Abbott to issue a statewide Disaster Proclamation on June 1 , 2016 considering the damage in thirty-one counties including Austin , Bandera , Bastrop , Brazoria , Brazos , Burleson , Coleman , Colorado , Erath , Fayette , Fort Bend , Grimes , Hidalgo , Hood , Jasper , Kleberg , Lee , Leon , Liberty , Lubbock , Montgomery , Palo Pinto , Parker , Polk , Robertson , San Jacinto , Tyler , Walker , Waller , Washington and Wharton counties . Meteorologists attribute this storm 's devastation to the power of the El Niño climate cycle . An El Niño system is identified following fluctuation in the climate , characterized by an eastern shift of warming ocean water from the western tropical Pacific Ocean and rainfall along the equator .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "May_2016_United_States_storm_complex",
"rank": 75,
"score": 92718
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Jamaica Content: In early July 2005 , Hurricane Dennis brushed Jamaica , bringing torrential rain and damaging floods to the island nation . Forming from a tropical depression on July 4 , Dennis began impacting Jamaica three days later . Approximately 6,000 people evacuated from coastal and flood-prone areas prior to the storm 's arrival while relief agencies allocated resources for recovery operations . Passing northeast of the island , impact from Dennis stemmed primarily from rainfall -- accumulations peaked at 24.54 in and reached 1-in-50 year event levels . Widespread flooding and landslides damaged homes and isolated communities . Saint Thomas and Portland Parishes were hardest-hit ; hundreds required evacuation as multiple rivers burst their banks . Overall , 209,000 people were affected with 6,000 households requesting assistance . A week after Dennis , Hurricane Emily brought further rain to the island , exacerbating damage . Their combined effects damaged or destroyed 440 homes with total losses reaching J$ 5.976 billion ( US$ 96.87 million ) , of which at least J$ 2.128 billion ( US$ 34.5 million ) can be attributed to Dennis alone . One person died due to flooding . Relief operations began before the hurricane subsided , and international communities provided further aid . The overall effects of Dennis were limited and the nation 's economy sustained no major ramifications .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Effects_of_Hurricane_Dennis_in_Jamaica",
"rank": 76,
"score": 92716
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Liza (1976) Content: Hurricane Liza is considered the worst natural disaster in the history of Baja California Sur . The seventeenth tropical cyclone , thirteenth named storm , and eighth hurricane of the 1976 Pacific hurricane season , Liza developed from an area of disturbed weather southwest of the Mexican coast on September 25 . Slowly intensifying , the system attained tropical storm strength the following day . In favorable conditions , Liza continued to intensify , reaching hurricane strength on September 28 after developing an eye . The hurricane peaked in intensity as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane scale on September 30 , with winds of 140 mph and a minimum barometric pressure of 948 mbar ( hPa ; 28.00 inHg ) . Liza weakened as it moved northward into the Gulf of California . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane made its second landfall north of Los Mochis , Sinaloa with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km/h ) , making it one of 13 storms to make landfall as major hurricanes in the basin . Inland , the hurricane rapidly weakened and dissipated on October 2 . Prior to the arrival of Liza , residents along the Gulf of California coastline were evacuated , although some refused to leave their homes . Radio stations warned all nearby ships to remain at harbor . Liza brought heavy rainfall to the area , which caused significant flash flooding . Following a dam burst by the El Cajoncito Creek along the outskirts of La Paz , hundreds of people were swept away by flood waters . In La Paz , the capital of the state , 412 people died and 20,000 were left homeless . Nearly one-third of the homes in the town were destroyed . Throughout the state , a variety of death tolls were reported , but officials estimated that 1,000 people had perished . In the states of Sinaloa and Sonora , Liza caused moderate damage and left 30,000 to 54,000 homeless , along with 155 more casualties . Along the Gulf of California , 108 people were presumed dead after 12 boats were lost . The remnants of the storm later affected the United States , bringing moderate rainfall In the aftermath of the storm , rescue workers spent days digging through mud to find victims of the hurricane until the search was disbanded on October 6 . The government received criticism for the tragedy , citing that the dam that broke had been poorly built . Overall , at least 1,263 fatalities and $ 100 million ( 1976 USD ) in damage are attributed to the hurricane , making it one of the deadliest tropical cyclones on record in the eastern Pacific , as well as one of the few Pacific hurricanes to kill more than 1,000 people .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Liza_(1976)",
"rank": 77,
"score": 92592
},
{
"content": "Title: 2005 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 2005 Atlantic hurricane season was the most active Atlantic hurricane season in recorded history , shattering numerous records . The impact of the season was widespread and ruinous with an estimated 3,913 deaths and record damage of about $ 159.2 billion . Of the storms that made landfall , five of the season 's seven major hurricanes -- Dennis , Emily , Katrina , Rita , and Wilma -- were responsible for most of the destruction . The Mexican states of Quintana Roo and Yucatán and the US states of Florida and Louisiana were each struck twice by major hurricanes ; Cuba , the Bahamas , Haiti , Mississippi , Texas , Alabama , and Tamaulipas were each struck once and in each case brushed by at least one more . The most catastrophic effects of the season were felt on the United States ' Gulf Coast , where a 30 ft ( 10 m ) storm surge from Hurricane Katrina caused devastating flooding that destroyed most structures on the Mississippi coastline ; subsequent levee failures in New Orleans , Louisiana caused by the storm crippled the city . Furthermore , Hurricane Stan combined with an extratropical system to cause deadly mudslides across Central America , with Guatemala being hardest-hit . The 2005 season was the first to observe more tropical cyclones in the Atlantic than the West Pacific ; on average , the latter experiences 26 while the Atlantic only averages 12 . This event was repeated in the 2010 season ; however , the 2010 typhoon season broke the record for the fewest storms observed in a single year , while the 2005 typhoon season featured near average activity . The season officially began on June 1 , 2005 , and lasted until November 30 , although it effectively persisted into January 2006 due to continued storm activity . A record twenty-eight tropical and subtropical storms formed , of which a record fifteen became hurricanes . Of these , a record seven strengthened into major hurricanes , a record-tying five became Category 4 hurricanes and a record four reached Category 5 strength , the highest categorization for hurricanes on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale . Among these Category 5 storms were hurricanes Katrina and Wilma , respectively the costliest and the most intense Atlantic hurricanes on record . This year was also notable because the list of storm names was used up and six Greek letter names had to be used .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season",
"rank": 78,
"score": 92566
},
{
"content": "Title: Harvey Cirque Content: Harvey Cirque is a cirque containing a small glacier between Scheuermann Spur and Corell Cirque in the southern part of the Darwin Mountains of Antarctica . The cirque occurs along the extensive Prebble Icefalls which contribute some ice to the head of the cirque ; there is limited flow from the cirque to Hatherton Glacier . It was named after geologist Ralph P. Harvey of Case Western Reserve University , Cleveland , Ohio , who was engaged in the United States Antarctic Program Antarctic Search for Meteorites ( ANSMET ) in the Transantarctic Mountains for many austral summers , 1992 -- 2001 , ultimately as ANSMET principal investigator .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Harvey_Cirque",
"rank": 79,
"score": 92477
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Alberto (1982) Content: Hurricane Alberto caused the worst flooding in western Cuba in 32 years . The first tropical storm and hurricane of the 1982 Atlantic hurricane season , Alberto developed from a tropical disturbance on June 2 in the southern Gulf of Mexico . It rapidly organized and attained hurricane status the following day , the earliest date for a hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean since Hurricane Alma in May 1970 . Shortly after reaching peak winds off 85 mph ( 140 km/h ) , Alberto rapidly weakened due to approaching upper-level winds . Initial forecasts predicted the hurricane would continue northeastward into Florida ; it turned sharply westward and drifted erratically for several days across the eastern Gulf of Mexico , before dissipating on June 6 . Alberto produced heavy rainfall in western Cuba , causing flash flooding and severe damage . The storm damaged 8,745 houses and destroyed 154 buildings , leaving hundreds homeless . Heavy rainfall continued in the country for several weeks after the storm , and damage from Alberto totaled about $ 85 million ( 1982 USD , $ USD ) . At least 23 people were killed in the country . Initially , Alberto was forecast to continue northeastward and strike Florida , though it turned and rapidly weakened , resulting in minor effects in the state .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Alberto_(1982)",
"rank": 80,
"score": 92425
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Georgia Content: The effects of Hurricane Dennis in Georgia included two deaths and $ 24 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage . On June 29 , 2005 , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa . Gradually , the system organized on July 2 and formed a broad low pressure area . The system continued to organize , and it became a tropical depression on July 4 . Tracking westward , it became a tropical storm on July 5 and a hurricane on July 7 . Dennis rapidly intensified to attain Category 4 status on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale before making landfall on Cuba . The storm weakened to Category 1 status before re-emerging in the Gulf of Mexico and intensifying . Dennis made landfall on the Florida Panhandle on July 10 , then tracked over southeast Alabama . Dennis had moderate effects in the state , primarily from flooding . One rainband in particular stalled in southwest portions of the state and produced 4 -- 8 inches ( 100 -- 200 mm ) of rain , with isolated reports of up to 12 in . Flash flooding occurred in several areas , damaging hundreds of homes and businesses . Light to moderate wind gusts of 42 mph combined with saturated ground downed several trees , one of which fell into a house , killing a man near Atlanta . A man also died while working with utility crews to restore power . One tornado was reported , downing 200 trees .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Effects_of_Hurricane_Dennis_in_Georgia",
"rank": 81,
"score": 92345
},
{
"content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Roger_Pulwarty",
"rank": 82,
"score": 91967
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Olivia (1975) Content: Hurricane Olivia was considered the worst hurricane to hit Mazatlán , Sinaloa since 1943 , in addition to being the strongest landfalling and costliest hurricane of the 1975 Pacific hurricane season . Olivia formed on October 22 to the south of Mexico , quickly intensifying into a tropical storm . The storm moved northwestward initially , followed by a northeast turn . On October 23 , Olivia attained hurricane status , and the next day reached Category 3 intensity on the Saffir-Simpson scale just before moving ashore Mazatlán in northwest Mexico . Olivia destroyed 7,000 houses in the region , leaving 30,000 people homeless , and damage totaled $ 20 million ( 1975 USD , $ USD ) . The hurricane killed 30 people , 20 of them from drowning in shrimp boats .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Olivia_(1975)",
"rank": 83,
"score": 91823
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Barry Content: Hurricane Barry was the fourth tropical depression , second hurricane and named storm of the inactive 1983 Atlantic hurricane season . Developing out of a tropical wave on August 23 , Barry quickly strengthened off the coast of Florida , reaching an initial peak intensity with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km/h ) . However , increased wind shear caused the storm to weaken to a tropical depression before making landfall near Melbourne , Florida , the next morning . Traveling almost due west , the storm regenerated and became a hurricane on August 28 . The storm made landfall on the northern Mexican coastline later that day at peak intensity . Rapid weakening followed shortly after and the storm dissipated the next day . The storm had only minor effects in the United States but destroyed hundreds of homes and left over 400 homeless in northern Mexico . Despite the damage , there were no reports of fatalities or injuries .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Barry",
"rank": 84,
"score": 91700
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Dynamics Content: Climate Dynamics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media . It covers all aspects of the dynamics of global climate systems , including analytical and numerical modeling research on the structure and behavior of the atmosphere , oceans , cryosphere , biomass , and land surface as interacting components of the dynamics of global climate . The journal also publishes reviews and papers emphasizing an integrated view of the physical and biogeochemical processes governing climate and climate change .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Climate_Dynamics",
"rank": 85,
"score": 91641
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical Storm Barry (2013) Content: Tropical Storm Barry was a weak and short-lived tropical cyclone that brought heavy rains to parts of Central America and Mexico in June 2013 . Barry originated from a tropical wave that developed in the southern Caribbean Sea . The wave tracked northwestward and began to develop in marginally favorable conditions . On June 17 , the disturbance was upgraded to Tropical Depression Two by the National Hurricane Center . Due to its close proximity to land , the system failed to intensify before crossing the southern Yucatán Peninsula . The depression emerged over the Bay of Campeche late on June 18 and became increasingly organized . During the afternoon of June 19 , data from Hurricane Hunters revealed the system had intensified into a tropical storm . The newly named Barry attained peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km/h ) before making landfall in Veracruz , Mexico on June 20 . Once onshore , the storm quickly weakened and degenerated into a remnant low that night . Areas from northern Nicaragua to South-Central Mexico experienced heavy rains from the storm , with notable flooding occurring in many areas . Swollen rivers displaced thousands in Veracruz and killed two people , while two others were killed by a river in Oaxaca . In El Salvador , one person was killed by flooding .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Tropical_Storm_Barry_(2013)",
"rank": 86,
"score": 91500
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical Storm Octave (1983) Content: Tropical Storm Octave was considered the worst tropical cyclone in the history of Arizona . The origins of Tropical Storm Octave were from a tropical disturbance that formed south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on September 23 , 1983 . Steered by a deep layer high over Mexico , the disturbance moved west for four days before becoming a tropical depression on September 27 off the southwest coast of Mexico . Over an area of warm sea surface temperatures , it was able to quickly strengthen to peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km/h ) , through wind shear prevented much further development . By September 30 , Octave was accelerating to the northeast , steadily weakening due to cooler waters . That day it weakened to tropical depression status , and on October 2 , Octave dissipated . In Arizona , the highest rainfall total was 12.0 in at Mount Graham . In Tucson , flood waters were reportedly 8 ft ( 2.4 m ) high . Throughout the state , excessive rainfall caused many rivers to overflow . After the rain ended , the Santa Cruz , Rillito , and Gila rivers experienced their highest crests on record . Five towns -- Clifton , Duncan , Winkelman , Hayden , and Marana -- were almost completely flooded . In Marana , many homes were submerged , forcing residents to be evacuated . Over 700 homes were destroyed in Clifton . In addition , 86 of the town 's 126 business were heavily damaged due to the flooding . Around 3,000 buildings were destroyed due to Octave . A total of 853 houses , mobile homes , and apartments were destroyed while 2,052 others were damaged . About 10,000 people were temporarily left homeless . Damage in Arizona totaled $ 500 million ( 1983 USD ) , which was above the preliminary estimate of $ 300 million . Fourteen people drowned and 975 persons were injured . Elsewhere , Octave was responsible for $ 12.5 million in damage in New Mexico . Following the storm , governor Bruce Babbitt declared a state of emergency . President Ronald Reagan declared Cochise , Gila , Graham , Greenlee , Pima , Pinal , Santa Cruz and Yavapai counties a `` major disaster area '' .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Tropical_Storm_Octave_(1983)",
"rank": 87,
"score": 91442
},
{
"content": "Title: List of New Mexico hurricanes Content: The inland U.S. state of New Mexico has experienced impacts from 81 known tropical cyclones and their remnants . There have been 68 known tropical cyclones from the Eastern Pacific that affected the state , compared to only 13 such Atlantic hurricanes . The biggest threat from such storms in the state is their associated rainfall and flooding . The wettest storm was from the remnants of an Atlantic storm in 1941 that produced 11.33 in of precipitation . Since 1950 , the highest rainfall total recorded was 9.8 in in Canton , also associated with an Atlantic storm in 1954 . The rains in 1954 resulted in flooding in six towns that killed at least four people . Other deadly rainfall events from tropical cyclone remnants include Hurricane Dolly in 2008 and Tropical Storm Georgette in 2010 . The former swept away a person along the Rio Ruidoso and caused $ 25 million in damage ( 2008 USD ) , which was the most damaging storm event . The floods damaged 500 buildings and destroyed 13 bridges . The latter caused heavy rains that resulted in one death in the Rio Grande .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "List_of_New_Mexico_hurricanes",
"rank": 88,
"score": 91183
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Doreen (1977) Content: Hurricane Doreen was considered the worst tropical cyclone to affect California in 32 years . The tenth tropical cyclone , fourth named storm , and second hurricane of the otherwise inactive 1977 Pacific hurricane season , it developed on August 13 . The depression tracked northwestward , intensifying into Tropical Storm Doreen later that day . Further strengthening occurred over the subsequent days , and Doreen attained its peak as a minimal hurricane early on August 15 . Executing a turn towards the north-northwest , Doreen made its first landfall as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale near Puerto San Carlos . Drifting offshore , Doreen made a second and final landfall near the northern portion of the Baja California as a tropical storm before rapidly weakening to a tropical depression . The tropical depression dissipated south of southern California on August 18 . Hurricane Doreen and its remnants caused severe flooding in northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States . In Mexico , heavy rainfall was reported on both Baja California and the mainland of Mexico . Flooding left 2,000 people homeless in Mexicali along the United States-Mexico border , in addition , 325 homes and businesses were destroyed in southern California . Several highways were also flooded during the passage of the storm , most notably , lanes on Interstate 8 and Interstate 15 were washed out . In San Diego and Imperial County , the total damage to agricultural interests was $ 25 million ( 1977 USD ) . In addition , eight fatalities were reported in California . Elsewhere , impact from Doreen was relatively light .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Doreen_(1977)",
"rank": 89,
"score": 91170
},
{
"content": "Title: Rare events Content: Rare events are events that occur with low frequency , and the term is often used in particular reference to infrequent or hypothetical events that have potentially widespread impact and which might destabilize society . Rare events encompass natural phenomena ( major earthquakes , tsunamis , hurricanes , floods , asteroid impacts , solar flares , etc. ) , anthropogenic hazards ( warfare and related forms of violent conflict , acts of terrorism , industrial accidents , financial and commodity market crashes , etc. ) , as well as phenomena for which natural and anthropogenic factors interact in complex ways ( epidemic disease spread , global warming-related changes in climate and weather , etc. ) .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Rare_events",
"rank": 90,
"score": 91081
},
{
"content": "Title: National Hurricane Research Laboratory Content: The National Hurricane Research Laboratory ( NHRL ) was formed in December 1964 out of the National Hurricane Research Project , the U. S. Weather Bureau 's effort to scientifically examine tropical cyclones in order to make better predictions . Laboratory status signified that this effort was now a permanent part of the Weather Bureau 's activities . Director R. Cecil Gentry supervised the move of NHRL from the Aviation Building near Miami International Airport , to the newly built Computer Center building on the University of Miami 's Coral Gables campus in January 1965 . They were accompanied by the Miami hurricane forecast office , and the two combined entities were known , at that time , as the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) . The 1965 hurricane field program centered on researching Hurricane Betsy . Project STORMFURY made plans to seed Betsy to examine hurricane modification methods , but Betsy turned before entering the operational area , so instead NHRL carried out a ` dry run ' , in which no silver iodide was released . Confusion in communicating this change in plans to the press resulted in some people believing Betsy was seeded and that its subsequent track changes were a result of that . No further seeding opportunities presented themselves over the next five years , so NHRL scientists concentrated on examining hurricanes in their unmodified states . Notable hurricanes that they flew experiments in include Hurricane Inez ( 1966 ) , Hurricane Beulah ( 1967 ) , and Hurricane Gladys ( 1968 ) . They also improved on their hurricane track forecast models such as NHC-67 and SANBAR , a barotropic model developed in conjunction with Dr. Fred Sanders ( MIT ) . They refined their models of storm circulation , and used these improved versions to test STORMFURY theories . In addition to their earlier projects , they participated in international weather research projects such as BOMEX ( 1969 ) . In 1967 , the ` NHC ' name was claimed solely by the Miami hurricane forecast office . Another seeding opportunity availed itself in August 1969 , when Hurricane Debbie moved into their operational area . They carried out several seedings over two days . While they were busy in Puerto Rico , Hurricane Camille rapidly intensified and struck the Gulf coast . The outfall from that devastating storm prompted improvements in the reconnaissance fleets . NHRL carried out another seeding experiment on Hurricane Ginger ( 1971 ) , but it was a weak , disorganized system , and little change was noted . Hurricane activity in the Atlantic became decidedly slower in the 1970s , and NHRL managers tried to move STORMFURY to the Pacific . That proved politically unfeasible , and the Navy and Air Force withdrew from Project STORMFURY . NHRL turned more to theoretical studies and sought improvements to its computer models . They also participated in GATE , a massive international weather experiment held off the west coast of Africa , examining disturbances which could form into hurricanes . In 1975 , the Experimental Meteorology Laboratory was enfolded into NHRL and it became known as the National Hurricane and Experimental Meteorology Laboratory ( NHEML ) for the next six years . NHEML engaged in several cloud modification studies as hurricane activity remained low . NHEML gained access to new Orion P-3 aircraft in 1975 and 1976 to replace the DC-6s . The new airframes also had better instrumentation , including digitized radars and cloud physics probes . NHC and NHEML were moved from their University of Miami perch in 1978 to a nearby commercial office building . This move proved disruptive , as some archive material was lost and caused some long-time staff members to retire or resign ; however , the better quality data from the P-3s was analyzed by a new generation of researchers , hired to replace those who left after the move . This resulted in improved understanding of hurricane dynamics , leading to the formulation of the eyewall replacement cycle . With the decline in enthusiasm for weather modification and the end of Project STORMFURY in 1983 , a portion of the Experimental Meteorology scientists were transferred out of the NHEML to the former Environmental Research Laboratory in Boulder , Colorado , with the remaining organization once again resuming the title of NHRL . In 1984 , NHRL was renamed the Hurricane Research Division , or HRD , of the Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory , or AOML . This meant moving the hurricane researchers from their offices co-located with the NHC out to NOAA 's AOML facility , located on Virginia Key , a barrier island located between downtown Miami and Key Biscayne . In August , 1992 , the facility sustained moderate damage after the passage of Hurricane Andrew , however , despite significant personal disruption of their own lives , reconnaissance flights continued into Andrew until it made a final landfall along the Louisiana coastline several days later . During the 1990s the HRD staff continued to refine its forecasting models , and despite the retirement or transfer of several long-time key research staff members , made numerous research flights into a number of notable hurricanes of that decade , including Hurricane Opal ( 1995 ) and Hurricane Georges ( 1998 ) . During the disastrous 2005 hurricane season , the organization flew ongoing missions into infamous Hurricane Katrina , which provided invaluable data that continues to be studied at their Miami facility .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "National_Hurricane_Research_Laboratory",
"rank": 91,
"score": 90818
},
{
"content": "Title: Paul D. Thacker Content: Paul D. Thacker , sometimes bylined as Paul Thacker , is an American journalist who specializes in science , medicine , and environmental reporting , as well as photoshop . He has written for Science , Journal of the American Medical Association , Salon.com , and The New Republic , and Environmental Science & Technology . In 2009 , he was working on the Senate Finance Committee for Republican Senator Chuck Grassley investigating medical research conflicts of interest . He has been interviewed on programs such as Fox News Sunday , and CNN Headline News . He left Congress in 2010 , the day before releasing a report on ghostwriting in a medical journal run by American Heart Association . In 2006 , he won 2nd place in the annual awards presented by the US Society of Environmental Journalists . That same year , Thacker 's work was profiled on Exposé : America 's Investigative Reports . In September 2006 , Thacker wrote a story for Salon that reported on political suppression of climate science within the US National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) during the G.W. Bush presidency . The agency sits within the Department of Commerce . Chuck Fuqua , an official in Commerce , was choosing which NOAA scientists could speak to the press about the link between global warming and hurricanes . Fuqua has no training in science . One of the documents Thacker found was released by the office of Democratic Congressman Henry Waxman . Based partly on Thacker 's reporting , 14 Senators launched an investigation into NOAA and NASA . In 2005 , he pointed out that commentator Steven J. Milloy had judged the 2004 science journalism contest put on by the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) . The contest is widely cited as the most prestigious prize in science journalism . Milloy is a science columnist for Fox News who has been a lobbyist for the EOP group and who headed up The Advancement of Sound Science Coalition ( TASSC ) , an industry front created by Big Tobacco . Milloy also runs a couple of non-profits from his home that receive money from Exxon-Mobil . After Thacker revealed Milloy 's ties to industry , AAAS removed any mention of Milloy from its Web site , but Thacker saved a copy of the Web page , which can be found in his story . Thacker also reported on a product defense company called The Weinberg Group . In the story , Thacker wrote about a letter that The Weinberg Group sent to DuPont outlining a plan to protect DuPont from litigation and regulation over Teflon . The Weinberg Group had done similar work for Big Tobacco and is currently working in Europe to defeat alcohol regulations .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Paul_D._Thacker",
"rank": 92,
"score": 90703
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Alicia Content: Hurricane Alicia was the costliest tropical cyclone in the Atlantic since Hurricane Agnes in 1972 . Alicia was the third depression , the first tropical storm , and the only major hurricane of the 1983 Atlantic hurricane season . It struck Galveston and Houston , Texas directly , causing $ 2.6 billion ( 1983 USD ; US$ ) in damage and killing 21 people ; this made it the worst Texas hurricane since Hurricane Carla in 1961 . In addition , Alicia was the first billion-dollar tropical cyclone in Texas history . Hurricane Alicia was the first hurricane to hit the United States mainland since Hurricane Allen in August 1980 . The time between the two storms totaled three years and eight days ( 1,103 days ) . Hurricane Alicia became the last major hurricane ( Category 3 or higher ) to strike Texas until the stronger Hurricane Bret in 1999 made landfall . Alicia was the first storm for which the National Hurricane Center issued landfall probabilities . Hurricane Alicia was notable for the delayed post storm evacuation of Galveston Island ( since the eye of the storm traveled the evacuation route up Interstate 45 from Galveston to Houston ) . The hurricane was also notable for the shattering of many windows in downtown Houston by loose gravel from the roofs of new skyscrapers and by other debris , prompting changes to rooftop construction codes .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Hurricane_Alicia",
"rank": 93,
"score": 90687
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of Hurricane Georges in the Dominican Republic Content: The effects of Hurricane Georges in the Dominican Republic in 1998 were some of the worst in its recorded history . Georges produced $ 1 billion of damage to the island and killed over 380 people . 7000 people evacuated to six shelters in the capital city of Santo Domingo . Supplies came from countries including the United States , France , Spain , Italy , Canada , Chile and others . Hurricane Georges had just recently reached Category 3-status when it made landfall on the island and became the worst storm to affect the island since Hurricane David made a direct landfall in 1979 .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Effects_of_Hurricane_Georges_in_the_Dominican_Republic",
"rank": 94,
"score": 90660
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Peter_Doran",
"rank": 95,
"score": 90603
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "The_Great_Warming",
"rank": 96,
"score": 90568
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of Hurricane Isabel in North Carolina Content: The effects of Hurricane Isabel on North Carolina were the worst from a hurricane since Hurricane Floyd made landfall in 1999 . Hurricane Isabel formed from a tropical wave on September 6 , 2003 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . It moved northwestward , and within an environment of light wind shear and warm waters it steadily strengthened to reach peak winds of 165 mph ( 265 km/h ) on September 11 . After fluctuating in intensity for four days , Isabel gradually weakened and made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km/h ) on September 18 . It quickly weakened over land and became extratropical over western Pennsylvania the next day . Isabel produced moderate to heavy damage across eastern North Carolina , totaling $ 450 million ( 2003 USD , $ USD ) . Damage was heaviest in Dare County , where storm surge flooding and strong winds damaged thousands of houses . The storm surge produced a 2,000 foot ( 600 m ) wide inlet on Hatteras Island , isolating Hatteras by road for two months . Strong winds downed hundreds of trees of across the state , leaving up to 700,000 residents without power . Most areas with power outages had power restored within a few days . The hurricane directly killed one person and indirectly killed two in the state .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Effects_of_Hurricane_Isabel_in_North_Carolina",
"rank": 97,
"score": 90411
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm Desmond Content: Storm Desmond was an extratropical cyclone and fourth named storm of the 2015 -- 16 UK and Ireland windstorm season , notable for directing a plume of moist air , known as an atmospheric river , which brought record amounts of orographic rainfall to upland areas of northern Atlantic Europe and subsequent major floods . In the United Kingdom the worst affected areas were centred on Cumbria , parts of Lancashire and the Scottish Borders . In Ireland the worst affected areas were in the Shannon River Basin in the west and Irish midlands . The extent of damage caused in such a short period across wide areas brought into focus the performance of UK central government flood defence strategies . Expensive flood defence systems were proven ineffective and in some cases appeared to increase the problem . Professor Dieter Helm , Chair of the UK government 's Natural Capital Committee stated in January 2016 : `` Flooding crises tend to follow an established pattern . First , there is immediate help and assistance . Then second , there is a `` review '' . On occasions , this leads to a third stage of genuine reform , but in most cases `` sticking plasters '' are applied . These are incremental and often sensible , but typically fail to address the core issues and hence provide only a temporary respite . There are very good reasons why '' sticking plasters '' will not work this time . The conventional approach to flood defence , carried out by the Environment Agency ( EA ) , and financed largely by the Treasury , is at best inefficient . Sometimes it is even counterproductive , encouraging the sorts of land use and land management decisions that can actually make flooding worse in the medium term . '' The Chairman of the UK 's Environment Agency , the body responsible for main river maintenance resigned in early 2016 . The UK government House of Commons Select Committee for the environment challenged the Chief Executive Officer of the Environment Agency on its performance by stating : `` You -LSB- Sir James Bevan , CEO -RSB- said `` The capacity of a river does n't matter ! '' You 've got to be certain the leopard has changed its spots . And I will keep repeating this . You have n't really given us an answer as to whether you have monitored the situation . I 'm fearful . You allowed the River Parrett -LSB- Somerset -RSB- to silt up , you allowed the Tone to silt up , you allowed the tributaries to silt up , and then it flooded . '' The Committee added : `` The EA do n't provide -LSB- quotes for work -RSB- when doing projects so we ca n't compare like with like -LSB- with other project providers -RSB- . There is an argument for transparency on your spending ... You say the right words and hold onto your power . '' Severe rain and some flooding was also being reported in Northumberland , north Wales and Yorkshire . Disruption from flooding , high winds , and damage to infrastructure led to the suspension of hundreds of rail services across the country , with the West Coast Main Line closed for several days due to flooding and a landslide . Sports fixtures were also cancelled and more than 43,000 homes across the north of England were left without power , as well as over 2,000 homes in the Republic of Ireland and around 700 in Wales . The expected heavy rainfall was considered to be an extreme weather event by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute , who named it Synne . The Free University of Berlin named the low Ted , as part of its Adopt -- a -- vortex programme .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Storm_Desmond",
"rank": 98,
"score": 90374
},
{
"content": "Title: 1928 Haiti hurricane Content: The 1928 Haiti hurricane was considered the worst tropical cyclone in Haiti since the 1886 Indianola hurricane . The second tropical cyclone and second hurricane of the season , the storm developed from a tropical wave near Tobago on August 7 . Steadily intensifying as it moved northwestward , the system passed through the southern Windward Islands . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea early on August 8 , the tropical depression strengthened into a tropical storm . On August 9 , the storm strengthened to the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane . The next day , the hurricane peaked with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km/h ) . After striking the Tiburon Peninsula of Haiti , the cyclone began weakening and fell to tropical storm intensity on August 12 . By midday on the following day , the storm made landfall near Cienfuegos , Cuba . Upon emerging into the Straits of Florida , the storm began to re-strengthen . Early on August 13 , it struck Big Pine Key , Florida , as a strong tropical storm . Weakening slowly while moving north-northwestward , the system made another landfall near St. George Island . After moving inland , the tropical storm slowly deteriorated and dissipated over West Virginia on August 17 . In Haiti , the storm completely wiped out livestock and many crops , particularly coffee , cocoa , and sugar . Several villages were also destroyed , rendering approximately 10,000 people homeless . Damage reached $ 1 million and there were at least 200 deaths . The only impact in Cuba was downed banana trees . In Florida , the storm left minor wind damage along the coast . A Seaboard Air Line Railroad station was destroyed in Boca Grande , while signs , trees , and telephone poles were knocked down in Sarasota . Several streets in St. Petersburg were closed due to flooding or debris . Between Cedar Key and the Florida Panhandle , several vessels capsized . Water washed up along the side of roads and in wooded areas . The storm contributed to flooding onset by the previous hurricane , with rainfall peaking at 13.5 in in Caesars Head , South Carolina . The worst impact from flooding occurred in North Carolina , where several houses were destroyed . Six people were killed in the state , of which four due to flooding . Property damage in the state totaled over $ 1 million . Overall , the storm caused at least $ 2 million in damage and 210 fatalities .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "1928_Haiti_hurricane",
"rank": 99,
"score": 90329
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical Storm Barry (2001) Content: Tropical Storm Barry was a strong tropical storm that made landfall on the Florida Panhandle during August 2001 . The third tropical cyclone and second named storm of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season , Barry developed from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on July 24 . The wave entered the Caribbean on July 29 and spawned a low-pressure area , which organized into Tropical Storm Barry on August 3 . After fluctuations in intensity and track , the storm attained peak winds of 70 mph over the Gulf of Mexico . Barry headed northward and moved ashore along the Gulf Coast before dissipating on August 7 . Unlike the devastating Tropical Storm Allison earlier in the season , Barry 's effects were moderate . Nine deaths occurred : six in Cuba and three in Florida . As a tropical cyclone , Barry produced heavy rainfall that peaked at 8.9 in at Tallahassee . Gusts in the area reached 79 mph , which was the highest wind speed recording for the storm . The precursor tropical wave to Barry dropped large amounts of rain on southern Florida , leading to significant flooding and structural damage . Moderate flooding and wind damage occurred throughout the Florida Panhandle . As the storm 's remnants tracked inland , parts of the Mississippi Valley received light precipitation . Barry caused an estimated $ 30 million ( 2001 USD ) in damage .",
"qid": "95",
"docid": "Tropical_Storm_Barry_(2001)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 90271
}
] |
The IPCC, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which is sort of the voice of the consensus, concedes that there has been no increase in extreme weather events. | [
{
"content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 1,
"score": 318780
},
{
"content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Reasons_for_concern",
"rank": 2,
"score": 297471
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Climate_risk",
"rank": 3,
"score": 286294
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 4,
"score": 274286
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 5,
"score": 270779
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 6,
"score": 269902
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 7,
"score": 268914
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 8,
"score": 267938
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers",
"rank": 9,
"score": 266865
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow",
"rank": 10,
"score": 261943
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 11,
"score": 261474
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change acronyms Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Climate_change_acronyms",
"rank": 12,
"score": 259257
},
{
"content": "Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Rajendra_K._Pachauri",
"rank": 13,
"score": 259124
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 14,
"score": 249947
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992",
"rank": 15,
"score": 249598
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "IPCC_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 16,
"score": 248370
},
{
"content": "Title: Yuri Izrael Content: Yuri Antonovich Izrael ( Юрий Антониевич Израэль 15 May 1930 , Tashkent -- 23 January 2014 , Moscow ) was a vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) until September 2008 , when the new bureau was elected . He was the `` most influential scientific adviser '' for Vladimir Putin , the former president of Russia , according to CNN . Izrael was former chairman of the Committee for Hydrometeorology . He also served as director of the Institute of Global Climate and Ecology , which is a part of the Russian Academy of Sciences . He was a first vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization and helped develop the World Weather Watch . In 1992 , Izrael won the International Meteorological Organization Prize and the UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize for , among other accomplishments , contributing to the `` success of Working Group I I '' of the IPCC .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Yuri_Izrael",
"rank": 17,
"score": 245690
},
{
"content": "Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Bert_Bolin",
"rank": 18,
"score": 242342
},
{
"content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation",
"rank": 19,
"score": 239953
},
{
"content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Roger_Pulwarty",
"rank": 20,
"score": 235781
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 21,
"score": 232990
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment",
"rank": 22,
"score": 232023
},
{
"content": "Title: Ismail El Gizouli Content: Ismail Abdel Rahim El Gizouli is a Sudanese civil servant specializing in energy and environment and a member of the bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He has acted as interim chairman of the IPCC since 24 February 2015 , following the resignation of Rajendra Kumar Pachauri . This appointment will last until the next election for a chairman , which is due to take place at the 42nd session in October 2015 .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Ismail_El_Gizouli",
"rank": 23,
"score": 231781
},
{
"content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy",
"rank": 24,
"score": 230379
},
{
"content": "Title: 2007 Nobel Peace Prize Content: The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in two equal parts , between the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and Al Gore `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "2007_Nobel_Peace_Prize",
"rank": 25,
"score": 228652
},
{
"content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "John_T._Houghton",
"rank": 26,
"score": 223974
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 27,
"score": 223092
},
{
"content": "Title: Bert Metz Content: Bert Metz ( born 15 August 1945 , The Hague ) is a Dutch climate policy expert . He was Co-chair of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III on mitigation on climate change for the third and fourth assessment report of the IPCC . Currently he is a fellow at the european climate foundation . Metz obtained an Engineer 's degree in Chemical Engineering at Delft University of Technology and subsequently his Ph.D. degree at the same university . From 1976 to 1987 he worked for Dutch Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment in the fields of air pollution , external safety , noise pollution , chemical waste and the enforcement of environmental laws . From 1987 until 1992 he was Counsellor for Health and Environment at the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Washington DC . In 1992 he became Deputy Director for Air and Energy of the Netherlands Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment , with responsibility for climate policy . He led the Netherlands delegation to the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Convention . In 1997 he moved to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency at RIVM to head the group on climate change and global sustainability and was elected as co-chairman of the Working Group on Climate Change Mitigation of the IPCC for the preparation of the Third Assessment Report . In 2002 he was re-elected in that position for the 4th Assessment Report cycle . Although formally retired , Bert Metz is still very active in the climate policy arena , among others as advisor for the European Climate Foundation and as steering group member of UNEP 's annual Emissions Gap Report . In 2008 he was named Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau . .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Bert_Metz",
"rank": 28,
"score": 222545
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 29,
"score": 220767
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 30,
"score": 217735
},
{
"content": "Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Arturo_Villavicencio",
"rank": 31,
"score": 217425
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline",
"rank": 32,
"score": 215934
},
{
"content": "Title: Hoesung Lee Content: Hoesung Lee ( born December 31 , 1945 ) is a South Korean economist and current chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . He is professor in the economics of climate change , energy and sustainable development in the Graduate School of Energy , Environment , Policy & Technology at Korea University in the Republic of Korea . Lee received his B.A. in economics from Seoul National University and a Ph.D. in economics from Rutgers University . Lee was elected as the chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) on October 6 , 2015 . One of his elder brothers is Lee Hoi-chang , former Prime Minister of South Korea and three-time presidential candidate .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Hoesung_Lee",
"rank": 33,
"score": 215218
},
{
"content": "Title: Joel B. Smith Content: Joel B. Smith is an expert on climate change policy . He was a coordinating lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2001 assessment report and a lead author of the 2007 assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . He is currently a Principal at Stratus Consulting Inc. , in Boulder , CO. .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Joel_B._Smith",
"rank": 34,
"score": 210621
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios",
"rank": 35,
"score": 210619
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 36,
"score": 210351
},
{
"content": "Title: Indur M. Goklany Content: Indur M. Goklany is a science and technology policy analyst for the United States Department of the Interior , where he holds the position of Assistant Director of Programs , Science and Technology Policy . He has represented the United States at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and during the negotiations that led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . He was a rapporteur for the Resource Use and Management Subgroup of Working Group III of the IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 , and is the author of Clearing the Air ( 1999 ) , The Precautionary Principle ( 2001 ) , and The Improving State of the World ( 2007 ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Indur_M._Goklany",
"rank": 37,
"score": 210220
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 38,
"score": 209392
},
{
"content": "Title: Mohan Munasinghe Content: Mohan Munasinghe is a Sri Lankan physicist , academic and economist with a focus on energy , water resources , sustainable development and climate change . He was a Vice-Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former Vice-President of the United States Al Gore . Munasinghe is the Chairman of the Munasinghe Institute for Development . Currently he is a Professor of Sustainable Development at the Sustainable Consumption Institute , University of Manchester , and Institute Professor at the Vale Sustainable Development Institute , Federal University of Para , Brazil . He also serves on the board of directors of Green Cross International and is a member of the Club of Rome .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Mohan_Munasinghe",
"rank": 39,
"score": 206262
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 40,
"score": 202180
},
{
"content": "Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "List_of_environmental_reports",
"rank": 41,
"score": 201324
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act",
"rank": 42,
"score": 199626
},
{
"content": "Title: Burtoni Award Content: The Burtoni Award was created in 2003 by a group of leading experts and policy makers in the field of climate change . Its purpose is to recognize outstanding contributions to the science of adaptation to climate change . The award is named after the first recipient of the award , Ian Burton , an Emeritus Professor at the University of Toronto and a pioneer in the field of adaptation to climate change and extreme events and disasters . Ian has contributed to three Assessment Reports of the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) and the recent Special Report on Extremes ( SREX ) . Subsequent recipients of the Burtoni Award are : Roger Jones ( Australia ) 2005 . Saleemul Huq ( Bangladesh ) 2007 . Coleen Vogel ( South Africa ) 2010 . Karen O'Brien ( Norway/USA ) 2012 . Mark Pelling ( United Kingdom ) 2015 . Richard J.T. Klein ( the Netherlands ) 2016 . Short biographies of the awardees follow : Roger Jones is Professorial Research Fellow at the Centre for Strategic Economic Research , Victoria University Australia . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and has the same role in the Fifth Assessment Report . The Burtoni was awarded in recognition of his innovations in research methods for assessing adaptation to climate change , particularly in the application of risk management to adaptation . Saleemul Huq is a Senior Fellow with the International Institute for Environment and Development in London and Director of ICCCD ( International Centre for Climate Change and Development in Dhaka , Bangladesh . He received the award for his work linking adaptation and development , his research on decision making and his efforts to build capacity . It was awarded during a three-day workshop on Community-based Adaptation to Climate Change in Dhaka . Coleen Vogel is an Independent Consultant and previously Professor of Sustainability at the University of Witwatersrand , Johannesburg . She was Lead Author for the IPCC 4th assessment Report Working Group 2 Chapter on Africa , and she chaired the International Scientific Committee of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Climate Change . Karen O'Brien is Professor in the Department of Sociology and Human Geography at the University of Oslo , Norway . She was Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Chapter 20 : Climate-resilient pathways : adaptation , mitigation , and sustainable development ) . She was a Coordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) in Chapter 8 ` Towards a Resilient and Sustainable Future ' . She was Chair of the Global Environmental Change and Human Security ( GECHS ) project of the IHDP from 2005-2010 . Mark Pelling is Professor of Geography at King 's College London . His research interests are in the institutions and social relationships that shape vulnerability and adaptation to natural disasters , including those associated with climate change , and in the ways in which conflicting values and practices of development inform resilience and transformation in the face of environmental change . He served as a coordinating author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) and its Fifth Assessment Report . He also sits on the Scientific Steering Committees for the IGBP-IHDP core project Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone ( LOICZ ) and the ICSU core project Integrated Research on Disaster Risk ( IRDR ) . Richard J.T. Klein is a Senior Research Fellow at the Stockholm Environment Institute and Editor-in-Chief of the journal Climate and Development . He was awarded the Burtoni in recognition of his work to advance knowledge through international research , capacity-building and educational collaborations , including as co-director and chief scientist of the Nordic Centre of Excellence for Strategic Adaptation Research ( NORD-STAR ) and as a member , until 2015 , of the Scientific Steering Committee of the Global Programme of Research on Climate Change Vulnerability , Impacts and Adaptation ( PROVIA ) . He was only 24 when he became lead author of a chapter in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Second Assessment Report , published in 1994 . He has been a lead author or coordinating lead author of every IPCC Assessment Report since , as well as two Special Reports .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Burtoni_Award",
"rank": 43,
"score": 198001
},
{
"content": "Title: Jean Palutikof Content: Jean Palutikof is founding Director of the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility ( NCCARF ) at Griffith University , Australia . She has held this position since 2008 . Prior to this , Professor Palutikof was based at the UK Met Office during which time she managed the production of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability ) . Professor Palutikof is among the foremost scholars of climate change adaptation and was lead author and review editor for several assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and was present in Oslo at the ceremony at which the IPCC received the Nobel Peace Prize .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Jean_Palutikof",
"rank": 44,
"score": 195612
},
{
"content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "David_Karoly",
"rank": 45,
"score": 194374
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 46,
"score": 193806
},
{
"content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 47,
"score": 193478
},
{
"content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 48,
"score": 192931
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 49,
"score": 192609
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 50,
"score": 192247
},
{
"content": "Title: David Titley Content: David W. Titley is a professor of meteorology at Pennsylvania State University and the founding director of their Center for Solutions to Weather and Climate Risk . He was also NOAA 's chief operating officer from 2012 -- 2013 . Before assuming these positions , he was a rear admiral in , and the chief oceanographer of , the U.S. Navy , in which he served for 32 years . Titley initiated the Navy 's Task Force on Climate Change , and serves on the CNA Corporation 's Military Advisory Board . He was formerly a climate change skeptic , but later changed his mind after looking at the evidence of what factors influence climate -- which are , according to Titley , `` what are the larger things doing -- what is the ocean doing ? What is the sun doing ? And what 's our atmosphere doing ? '' Since then , he has described climate change as `` one of the driving forces in the 21st century '' and said that it contributed to the 2011 Arab Spring . The Department of Defense requested that Titley present on their behalf at both Congressional Hearings and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) meetings from 2009 to 2011 . Titley is a member of the Hoover Institution 's Arctic Security Initiative , and serves on the Advisory Boards of the Applied Research Laboratory at Penn State , the Center for Climate and Security , Columbia University 's Center for Research on Environmental Decisions , and the Association of Climate Change Officers . He is a member of the National Academies of Science committee on Geoengineering and the Center for Naval Analysis ' Military Advisory Board and co-chairs the National Research Council 's `` A Decadal Survey of Ocean Sciences '' committee . Titley sits on the Science and Security Board at the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , which , among other things , enables him to participate in the discussions that determine the position of the Bulletin 's famed Doomsday Clock . Titley is also on the Advisory Board of Citizens Climate Lobby .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "David_Titley",
"rank": 51,
"score": 191616
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 52,
"score": 189468
},
{
"content": "Title: Steve Running Content: Steven W. Running , ( born 1950 ) Regents Professor , Forest Ecology , College of Forestry & Conservation at the University of Montana , and Director of the Numerical Terradynamics Simulation Group , is responsible for developing the earth observing-oriented algorithms used by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) on board NASA 's satellites , Terra and Aqua . He continues to be the lead investigator on this project . Running 's MOD17 algorithms are used to provide accurate and continuous global monitoring of the terrestrial biosphere , specifically , generating near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at 8-day intervals . These datasets are unique in that they provide global data on primary productivity and span a decade . A recognized expert in global ecosystem monitoring , Running was invited to serve on the board of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . In 2007 , the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Running made the following statement about winning the prize : `` We 've got to get past all the petty bickering and get to work . This is about a big transition for society over the next 50 years . The path we are on is unsustainable . What the Nobel committee is saying is that we 've got to wake up . We 've got to change the course of the whole world . '' Steve Running is co-author of the 2007 book , Forest Ecosystems , and has published over 240 scientific papers . In 2012 , Running suggested a tenth planetary boundary , the annual net global primary production of all terrestrial plants , as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give `` a clear signal about the health of ecosystems '' .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Steve_Running",
"rank": 53,
"score": 187990
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 54,
"score": 186360
},
{
"content": "Title: C. Vernon Cole Content: Dr. C. Vernon Cole ( 1922 -- August 30 , 2013 ) was a soil scientist known primarily for his work on nutrient cycling in agroecosystems . He was a member of Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second Assessment report , and the lead author of Chapter 23 `` Agricultural Options for Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions '' . The IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "C._Vernon_Cole",
"rank": 55,
"score": 185082
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Michael_E._Mann",
"rank": 56,
"score": 184212
},
{
"content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance",
"rank": 57,
"score": 182907
},
{
"content": "Title: Energy Modeling Forum Content: The Energy Modeling Forum ( EMF ) is a structured forum for discussing important issues in energy and the environment . The EMF was established in 1976 at Stanford University . The EMF works through a series of ad hoc working groups , each focussing on a particular corporate or policy decision . The EMF provides a non-partisan platform that ensures objective consideration of opposing views . Participation is by invitation . Since the late-1990s , the EMF has made contributions to the economics of climate change , as witnessed in the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and on integrated assessment modeling more generally . John Weyant is the current director of the EMF .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Energy_Modeling_Forum",
"rank": 58,
"score": 182122
},
{
"content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Seita_Emori",
"rank": 59,
"score": 181042
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry",
"rank": 60,
"score": 180742
},
{
"content": "Title: Harry F. Lins Content: Harry F. Lins ( born 1948 ) is a hydrologist with the U.S. Geological Survey . Since joining USGS in 1971 , his work has spanned several Earth science disciplines , including coastal processes , surface water hydrology , and hydroclimatology . Although most of his career has been spent conducting research , he managed the USGS Global Change Hydrology Program from 1989 to 1997 , and served as Co-Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Hydrology and Water Resources Working Group for the First Assessment Report . In 1999 , he and USGS colleague David Wolock developed `` WaterWatch '' , the Nation 's first website depicting maps and graphs of water resources conditions in near real-time . Lins currently serves as President of the World Meteorological Organization 's ( WMO ) Commission for Hydrology . Since the early 1980s , Lins ' research has focused principally on characterizing the surface water response to climate , with an emphasis on regional streamflow variability , long-term trends , and the statistical techniques appropriate for such analyses . Lins ' most controversial research , which has not been fully embraced by the climate science community , suggests that the significance of climate trends may be greatly overstated because it does not consider the possibility that long-term persistence is a component of climatic variations . Lins holds a B.S. in Geography from the University of Maryland ( 1971 ) , an M.S. in Geography from the University of Delaware , ( 1978 ) , and a Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences from the University of Virginia ( 1993 ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Harry_F._Lins",
"rank": 61,
"score": 180128
},
{
"content": "Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Mootral",
"rank": 62,
"score": 179838
},
{
"content": "Title: Anders Levermann Content: Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Anders_Levermann",
"rank": 63,
"score": 178597
},
{
"content": "Title: Raymond Pierrehumbert Content: Raymond T. Pierrehumbert is the Halley Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford . Previously , he was Louis Block Professor in Geophysical Sciences at the University of Chicago . He was a lead author on the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) and a co-author of the National Research Council report on abrupt climate change . He was awarded a John Simon Guggenheim Fellowship in 1996 , which was used to launch collaborative work on the climate of early Mars with collaborators in Paris . He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union ( AGU ) and has been named Chevalier de l'Ordre des Palmes Académiques by the Republic of France . He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2015 and sits on the Science and Security Board of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists . Pierrehumbert 's central research interest is how climate works as a system and developing idealized mathematical models to be used to address questions of climate science such as how the earth kept from freezing over : the faint young sun paradox . Current interests include climate of extrasolar planets . Pierrehumbert contributes to RealClimate . Pierrehumbert is married to Janet Pierrehumbert , professor of Language Modeling at the University of Oxford .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Raymond_Pierrehumbert",
"rank": 64,
"score": 178547
},
{
"content": "Title: Giulio Boccaletti Content: Giulio Boccaletti , Ph.D. , ( born in Modena , Italy ) is the British-Italian Chief Strategy Officer and Global Managing Director for Water at The Nature Conservancy . Trained as a physicist and atmospheric scientist , Boccaletti currently sits on the World Economic Forum 's Global Agenda Council , and has served on the OECD-WWC High Level Panel on Infrastructure Financing for a Water-Secure World . An alumnus of MIT , Princeton and Bologna universities , Boccaletti was briefly a lead author of the fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributes to the ideas platform published by the Edge Foundation , Inc. .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Giulio_Boccaletti",
"rank": 65,
"score": 178097
},
{
"content": "Title: John Zillman Content: John W. Zillman AO ( born 28 July 1939 ) is an Australian meteorologist , and former President of the World Meteorological Organization and the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering ( ATSE ) . He was born and was educated in Brisbane , Queensland . Through his leadership in professional organizations and advisory groups , Zillman has contributed to shaping science and innovation policy in Australia . More widely , he has contributed to raising awareness to the consequences of global climate change through involvement in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "John_Zillman",
"rank": 66,
"score": 178069
},
{
"content": "Title: Kirk R. Smith Content: Kirk R. Smith is an expert on the health and climate effects of household energy use in developing nations . He is currently a professor of Global Environmental Health at the University of California , Berkeley , where his research focuses on the relationships among environmental quality , health , resource use , climate , development , and policy in developing countries . Smith contributed a great deal to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . Smith is a recipient of the 2012 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement for his work with cookstoves , health , and climate . He is also credited with designing and implementing the first randomized controlled trial of the health effects of indoor air pollution ( IAP ) from cookstoves .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Kirk_R._Smith",
"rank": 67,
"score": 177778
},
{
"content": "Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 68,
"score": 177717
},
{
"content": "Title: Carlo Carraro Content: Carlo Carraro ( born May 17 , 1957 , in Italy ) is the Chancellor of the University of Venice for the three-year period 2009-2012 , with a two-year extension of his mandate in accordance to the Gelmini University Law bringing it up to summer 2014 . He is also professor of Environmental Economics at the same University . He is Director of the Sustainable Development Programme of the Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei and Director of the Climate Impacts and Policy Division of the Euro-Mediterranean Center for Climate Change ( CMCC ) . In 2008 , Carlo Carraro was elected Vice-Chair of the Working Group III and Member of the Bureau of the Nobel Laureate Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Carlo_Carraro",
"rank": 69,
"score": 177117
},
{
"content": "Title: Ottmar Edenhofer Content: Ottmar Georg Edenhofer ( born in 8 July 1961 in Gangkofen , Lower Bavaria , Germany ) is one of the world 's leading experts on climate change policy , environmental and energy policy , and energy economics . Edenhofer currently holds the professorship of the Economics of Climate Change at the Technical University of Berlin . He is deputy director and chief economist of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research ( PIK ) as well as director of the Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change ( MCC ) . From 2008 to 2015 he served as one of the co-chairs of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . Among other functions , he is a member of the OECD Advisory Council `` Growth , Investment and the Low-Carbon Transition '' , a member of the High-Level Commission on Carbon Prices , a member of the Advisory Committee of the Green Growth Knowledge Platform ( GGKP ) , and a member of the German Academy of Science and Engineering ( acatech ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Ottmar_Edenhofer",
"rank": 70,
"score": 176515
},
{
"content": "Title: David Wratt Content: David Stuart Wratt QSO is the Chief Scientist ( Climate ) at the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) and is responsible for NIWA 's National Climate Centre . He has a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury . He has worked in the USA and Australia as well as New Zealand . His expertise includes climate and meteorology , climate change science and impacts , mountain meteorology , and air quality . He is a Companion of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He chairs the Climate Committee of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He is a member of the Bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and he is a Vice-Chair of IPCC Working Group 1 , which assesses the physical science of climate change . He was a Coordinating Lead Author of the `` Australia and New Zealand '' chapter of the IPCC Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . After gaining a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury and a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Illinois , he worked for the New Zealand Meteorological Service . In 1992 he and other climate researchers transferred to NIWA . Wratt has stated : `` There 's a strong scientific case for significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions . We need a combination of reducing our emissions in New Zealand and being part of international negotiations to reduce emissions globally in order to forestall the worst effects . '' Wratt was made a Companion of the Queen 's Service Order in the 2012 New Year Honours , for services to science .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "David_Wratt",
"rank": 71,
"score": 175910
},
{
"content": "Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy",
"rank": 72,
"score": 175691
},
{
"content": "Title: Gabriele C. Hegerl Content: Gabriele C. Hegerl FRS ( born 1962 ) is Professor of Climate System Science at the University of Edinburgh School of GeoSciences . Prior to 2007 she held research positions at Texas A&M University and at Duke University 's Nicholas School of the Environment , during which time she was a coordinating lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth and Fifth Assessment Report .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Gabriele_C._Hegerl",
"rank": 73,
"score": 174906
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Bullock (scientist) Content: Peter Bullock ( 6 July 1937 -- 5 April 2008 ) was a soil scientist whose initial work in the field of soil micromorphology preceded an interest in land degradation . His advocacy of the need to treat soil as a sustainable resource led to his appointment to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Bullock contributed to the reports of the IPCC , which was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Peter_Bullock_(scientist)",
"rank": 74,
"score": 174168
},
{
"content": "Title: New York City Panel on Climate Change Content: The New York City Panel on Climate Change ( NPCC ) , was convened by Mayor Michael Bloomberg in August 2008 as part of PlaNYC .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "New_York_City_Panel_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 75,
"score": 173973
},
{
"content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 76,
"score": 173893
},
{
"content": "Title: Steve Rayner Content: Steve Rayner is James Martin Professor of Science and Civilization at Oxford University and Director of the Institute for Science , Innovation and Society , a member of the Oxford Martin School . He describes himself as an `` undisciplined social scientist '' having been trained in philosophy , comparative religion ( BA University of Kent ) and political anthropology ( PhD University College London ) . A key research interest is climate policy , in particular adaptation and geoengineering as ways to mitigate climate change 's effects . He has been an outspoken critic of the architecture of the Kyoto Protocol , and his paper The Wrong Trousers : Radically Rethinking Climate Policy , co-written with Gwyn Prins of the London School of Economics has been widely cited on this topic . He is also interested in wicked problems , uncomfortable knowledge and clumsy solutions . He is currently principal investigator of the Oxford Programme for the Future of Cities and co-director of the Oxford Geoengineering Programme . In 2008 , he was listed by Wired Magazine as one of the 15 people the next President should listen to and was recognized for his contribution to the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Steve_Rayner",
"rank": 77,
"score": 173550
},
{
"content": "Title: NPCC Content: NPCC may refer to : National Police Cadet Corps , a student uniformed organisation in Singapore National Police Chiefs ' Council , a co-ordinating body for policing in the UK ( replacing the previous Association of Chief Police Officers ) Northeast Power Coordinating Council , one of nine regional electric reliability councils under North American Electric Reliability Corporation ( NERC ) authority North Point Community Church , a megachurch in Atlanta NPCC Enterprises , a website development company in Wilkes-Barre , Pennsylvania New York City Panel on Climate Change , an advisory panel to the New York City Mayor on climate change modeled on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC )",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "NPCC",
"rank": 78,
"score": 173243
},
{
"content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists",
"rank": 79,
"score": 172041
},
{
"content": "Title: Richard G. Richels Content: Richard `` Rich '' Gayle Richels directs global climate change research at the Electric Power Research Institute . Richels received a BS degree in physics from the College of William & Mary . He was awarded MS and PhD degrees in decision science from Harvard University 's Division of Applied Sciences . Richels has served on a number of national and international advisory panels , including committees of the Department of Energy , the Environmental Protection Agency , and the National Research Council . He served as an expert witness at the Department of Energy 's hearings on the National Energy Strategy and testified at Congressional hearings on priorities in global climate change research . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second , Third and Fourth Assessment Reports ( the IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore ) and served on the Synthesis Team for the US National Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on the United States . He currently serves on the Scientific Steering Committee for the US Carbon Cycle Program and the Advisory Committee for Princeton University Carbon Mitigation Initiative . He has served as Editor of the Energy , Environment and National Resources area of the Operations Research Journal . He has also served on the Board of Editors of The Energy Journal and the Journal of Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis , and contributed to the Energy Modeling Forum . Richels is a co-author of Buying Greenhouse Insurance - the Economic Costs of Emission Limits ( with Alan S. Manne ) , and of Economic and environmental choices in the stabilization of atmospheric concentrations ( with Tom Wigley and Jae Edmonds ) . Both studies outline an economic approach to climate policy . Richels is a researcher on integrated assessment modelling for climate change , and regularly appears in the media .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Richard_G._Richels",
"rank": 80,
"score": 171432
},
{
"content": "Title: Gary Yohe Content: Gary Wynn Yohe is the Huffington Foundation Professor of Economics and Environmental Studies at Wesleyan University , Middletown , Connecticut . He holds a PhD from Yale University . Yohe specializes in Microeconomic theory , Natural Resources , and Environmental Economics . He is a researcher on the economics of climate change and integrated assessment modelling . Among other works , he is an editor of the book `` Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change '' and co-author ( with Edwin Mansfield ) of `` Microeconomics | Microeconomics : Theory and Applications '' . He is a senior member of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was awarded a share of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore . He has been involved with the IPCC since the mid-1990s , has served , among other capacities , as a Lead Author for four different chapters in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , and as Convening Lead Author for the last chapter of the contribution of Working Group II to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Yohe also worked with the Core Writing Team to prepare the overall Synthesis Report for the entire Assessment . Yohe is also a member of the New York City Panel on Climate Change and the standing Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change of the National Academy of Sciences . He is also a standing member of the National Academy of Sciences ' Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change . He was a vice-chair of the Third National Climate Assessment . He is one of the four co-signers of an open letter , dated March 12 , 2010 , regarding possible errors in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and regularly advises the US government .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Gary_Yohe",
"rank": 81,
"score": 168937
},
{
"content": "Title: 2005 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2005 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place between November 28 and December 9 , 2005 , in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . The conference included the 11th Conference of the Parties ( COP11 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , and was the first Meeting of the Parties ( MOP1 ) to the Kyoto Protocol since their initial meeting in Kyoto in 1997 . It was one of the largest intergovernmental conferences on climate change ever . The event marked the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol on 16 February 2005 . Hosting more than 10,000 delegates , it was one of Canada 's largest international events ever and the largest gathering in Montreal since Expo 67 . The Montreal Action Plan was an agreement to `` extend the life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its 2012 expiration date and negotiate deeper cuts in greenhouse-gas emissions '' by starting negotiations , without delay on an extension of the protocol . Canada 's environment minister , at the time , Stéphane Dion , said the agreement provides a `` map for the future '' .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "2005_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 82,
"score": 168094
},
{
"content": "Title: Pedro Moura Costa Content: Pedro Moura Costa ( born 1963 , Brazil ) is an entrepreneur involved in environmental finance with a focus on the international efforts for greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emission reductions . Of particular relevance , he was the founder and President of EcoSecurities Group Plc. , one of the leading project developers for the international carbon markets , and has written widely about the policy and science of climate change mitigation , including contributions to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Pedro_Moura_Costa",
"rank": 83,
"score": 167870
},
{
"content": "Title: Dork Sahagian Content: Dork Sahagian is an Armenian American climate scientist . He is the Director of the Environmental Initiative at Lehigh University in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania . He invented a technique for calculating the Earth 's air pressure in the past , based on the difference in the size of the bubbles in cooled volcanic lava . Sahagian contributed to three of four assessment reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , which on October 12 , 2007 was jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with former vice president Al Gore .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Dork_Sahagian",
"rank": 84,
"score": 167773
},
{
"content": "Title: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Content: The Intergovernmental science-policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services ( IPBES ) is an independent intergovernmental body established to strengthen the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity , long-term human well-being and sustainable development . It was established in Panama City , on 21 April 2012 by 94 governments . IPBES is placed under the auspices of four United Nations entities : UNEP , UNESCO , FAO and UNDP and administered by UNEP . All the member countries of the United Nations can join the platform and its Members are committed to building IPBES as the leading intergovernmental body for assessing the state of the planet 's biodiversity , its ecosystems and the essential services they provide to society . One thousand scientists from all over the world currently contribute to the work of IPBES on a voluntary basis . They are nominated by their government or an organization , and selected by the MEP . Peer review forms a key component of the work of IPBES to ensure that a range of views is reflected in its work , and that the work is complete to the highest scientific standards . The IPBES provides a mechanism recognized by both the scientific and policy communities to synthesize , review , assess and critically evaluate relevant information and knowledge generated worldwide by governments , academia , scientific organizations , non-governmental organizations as well as indigenous peoples and local communities . This involves a credible group of experts in conducting assessments of such information and knowledge in a transparent way . IPBES is unique in that it will aim to strengthen capacity for the effective use of science in decision-making at all levels . The IPBES will also aim to address the needs of Multilateral Environmental Agreements ( MEAs ) that are related to biodiversity and ecosystem services : the Convention on Biological Diversity ( CBD ) , the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , the Convention on Migratory Species ( CMS ) , the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands , UNESCO 's World Heritage Convention ( WHC ) , the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture ( ITPGR ) and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification ( UNCCD ) . IPBES will build on existing processes ensuring synergy and complementarities in each other 's work . The IPBES secretariat is based in Bonn , Germany .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Intergovernmental_Science-Policy_Platform_on_Biodiversity_and_Ecosystem_Services",
"rank": 85,
"score": 167626
},
{
"content": "Title: Stephen Schneider Content: Stephen Henry Schneider ( February 11 , 1945 -- July 19 , 2010 ) was Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University , a Co-Director at the Center for Environment Science and Policy of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Senior Fellow in the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment . Schneider served as a consultant to federal agencies and White House staff in the Richard Nixon , Jimmy Carter , Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations . Schneider 's research included modeling of the atmosphere , climate change , and the effect of global climate change on biological systems . Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal Climatic Change and authored or co-authored over 450 scientific papers and other publications . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) at the time of his death . During the 1980s , Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming . In 2006 Professor Schneider was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence advising the South Australian Government of Premier Mike Rann on climate change and renewable energy policies . In ten years South Australia went from zero to 31 % of its electricity generation coming from renewables . An annual award for outstanding climate science communication was created in Schneider 's honor after his death , by the Commonwealth Club of California .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Stephen_Schneider",
"rank": 86,
"score": 167611
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Scenario Group Content: The Global Scenario Group ( GSG ) was an international , interdisciplinary body convened in 1995 by the Tellus Institute and the Stockholm Environment Institute to develop scenarios for world development in the twenty-first century . The GSG 's underlying scenario development work was rooted in the long-range integrated scenario analysis that Tellus Institute and Stockholm Environment Institute had undertaken through the PoleStar Project . Initially conceived in 1991 as a tool for integrated sustainability planning and long-range scenario analysis , PoleStar was inspired by the 1987 Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future , which first put the concept of `` sustainable development '' on the international agenda . The work of the Global Scenario Group was widely adopted in high-level intergovernmental settings . The scenarios informed numerous international assessments , including the World Water Council 's World Water Vision report in 1999 -- 2000 , the OECD Environmental Outlook in 2001 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's greenhouse gas emission mitigation assessment in 2001 , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Third GEO Report in 2002 , and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in 2005 . Several of the GSG participants who actively participated in the IPCC assessments have been recognized for contributing to the 2007 award of the Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Global_Scenario_Group",
"rank": 87,
"score": 165413
},
{
"content": "Title: Piers Forster Content: Piers Forster is Professor of Physical Climate Change and Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate at the University of Leeds . A physicist by training , his research focuses on quantifying the different human causes of climate change and the way the Earth responds . He is best known for his work on radiative forcing , climate sensitivity , contrails and geoengineering . He has contributed heavily to the writing of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports , including acting as a Lead Author for both the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Piers_Forster",
"rank": 88,
"score": 164462
},
{
"content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 89,
"score": 164441
},
{
"content": "Title: The Deniers Content: The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "The_Deniers",
"rank": 90,
"score": 164001
},
{
"content": "Title: John Woods (oceanographer) Content: Professor John Woods , CBE ( born 1939 ) is a British oceanographer . He studied physics at Imperial College , London ( 1958-66 ) , after which he was appointed principal research fellow at the Meteorological Office ( 1966-72 ) , while leading the RN Operation Thermocline in which he pioneered underwater flow visualisation . Later he joined NERC as Director of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( 1986-1994 ) , where he created the National Oceanography Centre at Southampton . He held professorships at Southampton University ( 1972-77 ) , Kiel University ( 1977-86 ) and Imperial College London ( 1994 - ) , carrying out research into the seasonal boundary layer of the ocean and plankton ecosystem models , and modelling global container freight . Woods has served on a number of international project committees , including GARP ( Global Atmospheric Research Programme ) , WCRP ( World Climate Research Programme0 , IGBP ( International GeoSphere-Biosphere Programme ) , EuroGOOS ( European Global Ocean Observing System ) . He was co-chairman of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment . He was a lead author of the first report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , an organisation which was later awarded the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize jointly with Al Gore . He is now ( 2015 ) Emeritus Professor of Oceanography & Complex Systems in the Faculty of Engineering , Department of Earth Science & Engineering , Imperial College London . He is Adjunct Fellow of Linacre College , University of Oxford ( 1994 - ) , and Emeritus Researcher of the CNR ( Italian National Research Council ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "John_Woods_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 91,
"score": 163105
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 92,
"score": 162781
},
{
"content": "Title: Fatima Denton Content: Fatima Denton is the Co-ordinator for the African Climate Policy Centre ( ACPC ) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa ( UNECA ) , based in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia . She directs a special initiatives division focused on innovation , science , technology and natural resource management . She partners with countries such as Benin and Liberia to develop and implement country needs assessment missions . Fatima Denton writes about topics including renewable energy , sustainable development , climate change , gender and climate change , climate change adaptation , vulnerability , food security and water and energy poverty . She is a lead author for Working Group II 's Fifth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and for the IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) . She has served on a number of scientific committees including the Independent Science Panel ( ISP ) of the CGIAR Climate Change and Food Security Programme ( CCAFS ) . Denton was the 2015 Barbara Ward Lecturer , challenging policy-makers , researchers , and academics in London to reexamine Africa and its relationship to climate change . She is a speaker at the 2016 Borlaug Dialogue International Symposium , one of several `` Women Leaders Driving Agricultural Transformation in Africa '' .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Fatima_Denton",
"rank": 93,
"score": 162164
},
{
"content": "Title: Berrien Moore III Content: Berrien Moore III is the former director of the Institute for the Study of Earth , Oceans , and Space at the University of New Hampshire and the founding director of Climate Central . In June 2010 , he accepted a set of linked positions at the University of Oklahoma : Vice President , Weather & Climate Programs , Director , National Weather Center , and Dean , College of Atmospheric and Geographic Sciences . He holds the Chesapeake Energy Corporation Chair in Climate Studies . Moore was a coordinating lead author of the final chapter of the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , an organisation that shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . Among his other honors are the 2007 Dryden Lectureship in Research from the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal . Moore holds a Ph.D. in Mathematics from the University of Virginia .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Berrien_Moore_III",
"rank": 94,
"score": 160983
},
{
"content": "Title: Ogunlade Davidson Content: Ogunlade Davidson ( nationality : Sierra Leone ) is Co-chair of the Working Group III , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change since 1997 . From 1996 until 2000 , he held the post of Dean of the Faculty of Engineering , Fourah Bay College , University of Sierra Leone . He is the current Minister of Energy and Water Resources of Sierra Leone in the Ernest Bai Koroma Administration .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Ogunlade_Davidson",
"rank": 95,
"score": 160400
},
{
"content": "Title: Paul Raskin Content: Paul Raskin is the founding President of the Tellus Institute , which has conducted over 3,500 research and policy projects throughout the world on environmental issues , resource planning , scenario analysis , and sustainable development . His research and writing has centered on formulating and analyzing alternative global and regional scenarios , and the requirements for a transition to a sustainable , just , and livable future , called the Great Transition . Dr. Raskin has served as a lead author on a number of high profile international reports , including the U.S. National Academy of Science 's Board on Sustainability , the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Global Environment Outlook , the Earth Charter , and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Paul_Raskin",
"rank": 96,
"score": 158072
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Climate Network Content: The Global Climate Network ( GCN ) is an alliance of influential think tanks and research institutes in different countries that collaborate on research into climate change policy and whose stated aim is to help address the political blockages to ambitious action to tackle global warming . The Network has members in nine countries worldwide , including the USA , China , India , UK , Australia , Brazil , Norway , South Africa and Nigeria . Its Secretariat is housed at the Institute for Public Policy Research in London , UK . GCN members are engaged jointly in a programme of research projects , the results of which each member feeds into policy making at the domestic and international levels . Collectively , members of the Global Climate Network are committed to a vision of a prosperous and secure world in which greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced to a level that is no longer harmful to the climate system . Working together , the Network construct a narrative for action on climate change that is concerned with human and economic progress as well as environmental wellbeing . The Network 's patrons are Dr Rajendra Pachauri , chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and director-general of the Energy and Resources Institute in India ; John Podesta , former Chief of Staff to President Bill Clinton and director of Center for American Progress , and Lord Christopher Patten of Barnes , former European Commissioner for External Affairs .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Global_Climate_Network",
"rank": 97,
"score": 157738
},
{
"content": "Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases",
"rank": 98,
"score": 156947
},
{
"content": "Title: Werner Kurz Content: Werner Kurz is a Canadian research scientist at Canada 's Pacific Forestry Centre in Victoria , British Columbia . He is leading the development of an accounting system to assess potential climate change known as the National Forest Carbon Accounting System for Canada . Currently , his research focuses on using forest land to its maximum carbon efficiency , reducing the impact of natural disasters , and managing forests . Kurz holds a PhD in forest ecology from the University of British Columbia . He has made significant contributions to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognized by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "Werner_Kurz",
"rank": 99,
"score": 154609
},
{
"content": "Title: International Pepper Community Content: The International Pepper Community ( IPC ) is an intergovernmental organisation of states that produce agricultural pepper . In Bangkok on 16 April 1971 , the Agreement establishing the International Pepper Community was concluded . After this treaty came into force on 29 March 1972 , the IPC was created . IPC headquarters are located in Jakarta , Indonesia . Six states have ratified the IPC Agreement and are thus full members of the IPC : Brazil ( since 1981 ) , India ( 1972 ) , Indonesia ( 1972 ) , Malaysia ( 1972 ) , Sri Lanka ( 2002 ) , and Vietnam ( 2005 ) . Papua New Guinea has not ratified the Agreement but has been admitted to the IPC as an associate member .",
"qid": "96",
"docid": "International_Pepper_Community",
"rank": 100,
"score": 154165
}
] |
according, again, to the official figures—during this past 10 years, if anything, mean global temperature, average world temperature, has slightly declined | [
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 1,
"score": 114407
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 2,
"score": 111027
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline",
"rank": 3,
"score": 110712
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 4,
"score": 108237
},
{
"content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer",
"rank": 5,
"score": 105743
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 6,
"score": 105181
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 7,
"score": 104796
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 8,
"score": 104662
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 9,
"score": 104120
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 10,
"score": 103116
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 11,
"score": 102494
},
{
"content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event",
"rank": 12,
"score": 100869
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 13,
"score": 98741
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 14,
"score": 98560
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 15,
"score": 95770
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia",
"rank": 16,
"score": 94478
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 17,
"score": 94236
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network",
"rank": 18,
"score": 93270
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 19,
"score": 93086
},
{
"content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years",
"rank": 20,
"score": 92938
},
{
"content": "Title: Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1894 -- 95 was severe for the British Isles with a CET of 1.27 C . Many climatologists have come to view this winter as the end of the Little Ice Age and the culmination of a decade of harsh winters in Britain . Whereas the average CET for the ten winters from 1885 -- 86 to 1894 -- 95 was 2.87 C , no winter with a CET under 3.0 C followed for twenty-two years and no month as cold as February or January 1895 until 1940 . In contrast , between 1659 and 1894 no spell with every winter CET above 3.0 C had lasted longer than twelve winters . Although this winter -- which featured the lowest North Atlantic Oscillation index between 1882 and 1962 with lower values recorded only in 1880/1881 , 1962/1963 and 1968/1969 -- affected most of Europe and North America very severely , the difficulties Britain had coping with it vis-à-vis the United States and Germany is seen as marking a beginning in the decline of British hegemony in global affairs . The severe winter led to mass unemployment and severe disruptions to shipping on the River Thames , which froze for the last time on record . Because mass political activism had not yet created the welfare state , most workers were left without sustenance and in industrial centres large soup kitchens were widespread to feed these people . There were also numerous skating festivals organised to take advantage of the unusually cold and sunny weather , with up to fifty thousand people skating on The Serpentine in London 's Hyde Park and speed skating races being widely popular and generating money to be used for relief of the poor , and in some cases to provide them with temporary work as vendors for spectators . Coal supplies dwindled as transporting coal by river was impossible , whilst many recently introduced exotic plants were killed by the cold .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Winter_of_1894–95_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 21,
"score": 92481
},
{
"content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Drawdown_(climate)",
"rank": 22,
"score": 92360
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 23,
"score": 91310
},
{
"content": "Title: The Better Angels of Our Nature Content: The Better Angels of Our Nature : Why Violence Has Declined is a 2011 book by Steven Pinker , in which he argues that violence in the world has declined both in the long run and in the short run and suggests explanations as to why this has occurred . In a conversation with Richard Dawkins he states that in last four decades in the United States , the rate of rape has gone down by 80 % . He admits that because of the vanishing communication gap , today , the number of reportings of violence has risen giving people an impression of rising rapes , abuses and other violent activities .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "The_Better_Angels_of_Our_Nature",
"rank": 24,
"score": 90167
},
{
"content": "Title: Global stilling Content: Global stilling is the decrease of wind speed observed near the Earth ´ s surface ( ~ 10-meter height ) over the last three decades ( mainly since the 1980s ) , originally termed `` stilling '' . This slowdown of surface winds has mainly affected mid-latitude regions of both hemispheres , with a global average reduction of -0.140 m s-1 dec-1 ( meters per second per decade ) or between 5 and 15 % over the past 50-years . The weakening of winds has mainly occurred over continental surfaces , whereas winds has tended to strengthen over ocean regions . In the last few years , a break in this decrease of wind speed has been detected with a recovery at global scales since 2013 . The exact causes of the global stilling are uncertain and has been mainly attributed to two major drivers : ( i ) changes in large scale atmospheric circulation , and ( ii ) an increase of surface roughness due to e.g. forest growth , land use changes , and urbanization . Under a global warming scenario , changes in wind speed are currently a potential concern for the society , due to their impacts on a wide array of spheres , such as wind power generation , ecohydrological implications for agriculture and hydrology , wind-related hazards and catastrophes , or air quality and human health , among many others .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_stilling",
"rank": 25,
"score": 89771
},
{
"content": "Title: Human Security Report 2005 Content: The Human Security Report 2005 is a report outlining declining world trends of global violence from the early 1990s to 2003 . The study reported major worldwide declines in the number of armed conflicts , genocides , military coups , and international crises , as well as in the number of battle-related deaths per armed conflict . Three years in the making and launched in 2005 , the report was produced at the Human Security Centre at the University of British Columbia 's Liu Institute for Global Issues by the Human Security Report Project ( HSRP ) , which moved in May 2007 to join Simon Fraser University 's School for International Studies . The Human Security Report covers similar ground to the long-running Peace and Conflict series . According to the 2005 Report , the world saw a shift in global security after the end of the Cold War , with a 40 % decrease in the number of armed conflicts being waged around the world since the early 1990s , and an 80 % decrease of genocides between 1998 and 2001 . Some critics have questioned the relevance of this data , noting that conflict and violence are still significant obstacles for human development , worldwide security , and sustainable peace . For example , a recent Human Development Report from the United Nations Development Programme agrees that the number of conflicts has declined in the last decade , but claims that the wars of the past 15 years have exterminated a larger number of human lives . The Human Security Report argues that there is no evidence to support such a contention . The Report claims that the average number of battle-related deaths per conflict has declined from some 38,000 in 1950 to less than 500 in 2007 . Individual fatality tolls may well be inaccurate ; the trends , however , are indisputable . There are no accurate data on the ( much larger ) number of people who die from war-exacerbated disease and malnutrition , but the Report argues that there are good reasons for believing that these have declined as well . Some critics have argued that there was too much focus on battle-related `` direct '' deaths in the Report . However , an entire section discusses the large number of `` indirect '' deaths caused by war-exacerbated malnutrition and disease . In some cases , the Report says , the ratio of indirect to direct deaths is higher than 10:1 . The Report argues that conflict-driven disease and malnutrition are greater threats to human security than bombs and bullets . But it also argues that indirect deaths have declined over the past 15 years , along with battle-related deaths . Indirect deaths -- the hidden cost of war -- is one of the two main themes of the later Human Security Report 2009/2010 . Indirect deaths are driven by the intensity and scope of political violence . The 2009/2010 Report argues that , since humanitarian assistance has increased on a per capita basis and since recent peacetime health interventions -- primarily immunization -- reduce death tolls in wartime , it is highly likely that indirect deaths from war-exacerbated disease and malnutrition have declined to a greater degree than have `` direct '' deaths from violent injuries . Since the 2005 Report appeared , the data on armed conflict trends , which comes from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program , indicates that there has been a 25 % increase in the overall number of conflicts in which a state is one of the warring parties , but that the number of high-intensity conflicts ( those generating 1,000 or more battle deaths in a year ) have continued to decline and are now some 68 % lower than at the end of the Cold War .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Human_Security_Report_2005",
"rank": 26,
"score": 89525
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 27,
"score": 87189
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Turkey",
"rank": 28,
"score": 87071
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 29,
"score": 86312
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 30,
"score": 86252
},
{
"content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Pliocene_climate",
"rank": 31,
"score": 86199
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 32,
"score": 84847
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 33,
"score": 84027
},
{
"content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Deglaciation",
"rank": 34,
"score": 83983
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka",
"rank": 35,
"score": 82823
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 36,
"score": 82643
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 37,
"score": 82581
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 38,
"score": 82305
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 39,
"score": 82294
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 40,
"score": 81501
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 41,
"score": 81127
},
{
"content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming",
"rank": 42,
"score": 81050
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 43,
"score": 80044
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 44,
"score": 79874
},
{
"content": "Title: Decline in amphibian populations Content: The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide . Since the 1980s , decreases in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world . These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity , and several causes are believed to be involved , including disease , habitat destruction and modification , exploitation , pollution , pesticide use , introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation ( UV-B ) . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research . Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000 -- 45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation . Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s , awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s . By 1993 , more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline . Today , the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction , with severe implications for global biodiversity .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Decline_in_amphibian_populations",
"rank": 45,
"score": 79519
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 46,
"score": 79189
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 47,
"score": 78107
},
{
"content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Interglacial",
"rank": 48,
"score": 77556
},
{
"content": "Title: Lapse rate Content: The lapse rate is the rate at which atmospheric temperature decreases with an increase in altitude . The terminology arises from the word lapse in the sense of a decrease or decline . While most often applied to Earth 's troposphere , the concept can be extended to any gravitationally supported parcel of gas .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Lapse_rate",
"rank": 49,
"score": 76092
},
{
"content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Impact_winter",
"rank": 50,
"score": 75631
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming taxes Content:",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_warming_taxes",
"rank": 51,
"score": 75469
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 52,
"score": 75468
},
{
"content": "Title: 1991 in spaceflight Content: This was the final year of the Soviet Union , and thus the end of the Cold War competition between the two space superpowers . The launch rate declined drastically from the initial three decades of the Space Age to the modern average of about eighty orbital launches per year worldwide .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "1991_in_spaceflight",
"rank": 53,
"score": 75457
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 54,
"score": 75207
},
{
"content": "Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet",
"rank": 55,
"score": 75122
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_West_Virginia",
"rank": 56,
"score": 75048
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 57,
"score": 74972
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States",
"rank": 58,
"score": 74764
},
{
"content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Past_sea_level",
"rank": 59,
"score": 73994
},
{
"content": "Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming",
"rank": 60,
"score": 73845
},
{
"content": "Title: Holocene climatic optimum Content: The Holocene Climate Optimum ( HCO ) was a warm period during roughly the interval 9,000 to 5,000 years BP . This event has also been known by many other names , including : Hypsithermal , Altithermal , Climatic Optimum , Holocene Optimum , Holocene Thermal Maximum , and Holocene Megathermal . This warm period was followed by a gradual decline until about two millennia ago . For other temperature fluctuations see : Temperature record For other past climate fluctuation see : Paleoclimatology For the pollen zone and Blytt-Sernander period associated with the climate optimum , see : Atlantic ( period )",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Holocene_climatic_optimum",
"rank": 61,
"score": 73840
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 62,
"score": 73627
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas",
"rank": 63,
"score": 73574
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Nevada Content: Climate change in Nevada has been measured over the last century , with the average temperature in Elko , Nevada increasing by 0.6 F-change , and precipitation increasing by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Nevada",
"rank": 64,
"score": 73427
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Sea_surface_temperature",
"rank": 65,
"score": 73352
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 66,
"score": 73191
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Arctic_geoengineering",
"rank": 67,
"score": 73149
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 68,
"score": 73098
},
{
"content": "Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "David_Parker_(climatologist)",
"rank": 69,
"score": 72864
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 70,
"score": 72788
},
{
"content": "Title: 4° Content: 4 ° may refer to : 4 ° , or Quarto a book or pamphlet produced from full ` blanksheets ' , each of which is printed with eight pages of text , four to a side 4 ° , a reference to a 4-degrees Celsius increase in the global average temperature due to climate change , 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference `` 4 ° '' , the third single by the progressive rock band Tool from their 1993 album Undertow `` 4 Degrees '' , the first single by experimental pop singer Anohni from her 2016 album Hopelessness",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "4°",
"rank": 71,
"score": 72566
},
{
"content": "Title: Wegman Report Content: The Wegman Report ( officially called the Ad Hoc Committee Report on the ` Hockey Stick ' Global Climate Reconstruction ) was prepared in 2006 by three statisticians led by Edward Wegman at the request of Rep. Joe Barton of the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce to validate criticisms made by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years , in particular the reconstructions by Mann , Bradley and Hughes which had become the focus of the hockey stick controversy .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Wegman_Report",
"rank": 72,
"score": 72553
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_system",
"rank": 73,
"score": 72483
},
{
"content": "Title: Gulf of Maine Closed Areas Content: The Gulf of Maine has been fished since the 1700s , and has been a historic fishing area since . Climate change is having significant impacts on this ecosystem ; between 2004 and 2013 , the Gulf of Maine has warmed faster than 99.9 % of the global oceans , increasing average temperature by 2 ° C. Having seen the depletion of groundfish stocks starting in the early 1990s , managers took care to create five closure areas in the Gulf of Maine . These closed areas do not prohibit all fishing , rather they prevent the further degradation of benthic habitat and groundfish species . Closed areas are different than Marine Protected Areas ( MPA ) because they allow some forms of fishing and other activities to occur that would normally not be allowed in MPA .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Gulf_of_Maine_Closed_Areas",
"rank": 74,
"score": 72431
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 75,
"score": 72350
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 76,
"score": 72247
},
{
"content": "Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Planetary_equilibrium_temperature",
"rank": 77,
"score": 72173
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves",
"rank": 78,
"score": 72158
},
{
"content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Abrupt_climate_change",
"rank": 79,
"score": 71908
},
{
"content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "North_Report",
"rank": 80,
"score": 71905
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)",
"rank": 81,
"score": 71851
},
{
"content": "Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Younger_Dryas",
"rank": 82,
"score": 71744
},
{
"content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming",
"rank": 83,
"score": 71739
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes",
"rank": 84,
"score": 71140
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know",
"rank": 85,
"score": 71136
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves",
"rank": 86,
"score": 71017
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 87,
"score": 70714
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable global warming Content: Unstoppable global warming may refer to : Runaway climate change Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years , book by Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Unstoppable_global_warming",
"rank": 88,
"score": 70545
},
{
"content": "Title: Oil depletion Content: Oil depletion is the decline in oil production of a well , oil field , or geographic area . The Hubbert peak theory makes predictions of production rates based on prior discovery rates and anticipated production rates . Hubbert curves predict that the production curves of non-renewing resources approximate a bell curve . Thus , according to this theory , when the peak of production is passed , production rates enter an irreversible decline . The United States Energy Information Administration predicted in 2006 that world consumption of oil will increase to 98.3 Moilbbl/d ( mbd ) in 2015 and 118 million barrels per day in 2030 . With 2009 world oil consumption at 84.4 mbd , reaching the projected 2015 level of consumption would represent an average annual increase between 2009 and 2015 of 2.7 % per year .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Oil_depletion",
"rank": 89,
"score": 70399
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Adelaide Content: Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) , with mild to cool winters with moderate rainfall and warm to hot , dry summers . Adelaide is the driest of the Australian capital cities and the past two decades have been far warmer than usual , with the past 8 years seeing an excess of 40 + degrees every summer . Alarmingly , the city has also recorded almost 10 consecutive years of below-average Spring rainfall , with 2014 on track to continuing this trend . A spike in heat waves , droughts and record-breaking high temperatures over the past decade has led to some concerns over the effects of global warming and Man-made climate change ( AGW ) on the city . Nine of the ten warmest years recorded in Adelaide have occurred since 2002 , with 2013 being the hottest year and summer 2015 -- 2016 being the fourth-hottest summer recorded .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_of_Adelaide",
"rank": 90,
"score": 70252
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by average yearly temperature Content: Average yearly temperature is calculated by averaging the minimum and maximum daily temperatures in the country , averaged for the years 1961-1990 , based on gridded climatologies from the Climatic Research Unit elaborated in 2011 .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_average_yearly_temperature",
"rank": 91,
"score": 70007
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Earth's_energy_budget",
"rank": 92,
"score": 69999
},
{
"content": "Title: Richard C. Duncan Content: Richard Duncan is chief author of the Olduvai theory , a prediction of rapidly declining world energy production . He has an MS in Electrical Engineering ( 1969 ) and a PhD in Systems Engineering ( 1973 ) from the University of Washington . The Olduvai theory holds that the ratio of world energy production per capita , which he denotes by the metric e , will peak as the extraction rates of fossil fuels fall increasingly behind demand , causing catastrophic social and economic collapse , starting with massive electrical blackouts worldwide . He suggests that humans would eventually revert to a stone-age style of living after the majority of the world 's population dies off over the coming century . In 1996 , Duncan claimed that e had peaked around 1978 . In 2000 , the theory was revised to hold that the ratio would begin to decline around 2007 . The peak was again revised in 2013 to have occurred in 2012 . He bases his theory on the fact that a steep rise in global population and petroleum use almost parallel each other but population increases at a slightly faster rate than does energy use . Duncan 's research data , compiled in partnership with geologist Dr. Walter Youngquist , have become widely used resources for those studying past and current trends in oil production and depletion .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Richard_C._Duncan",
"rank": 93,
"score": 69909
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Coral_in_non-tropical_regions",
"rank": 94,
"score": 69837
},
{
"content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period",
"rank": 95,
"score": 69823
},
{
"content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Reasons_for_concern",
"rank": 96,
"score": 69454
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 97,
"score": 69340
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge",
"rank": 98,
"score": 69173
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 99,
"score": 69090
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program Content: The Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program ( GTSPP ) is a cooperative international project that seeks to develop and maintain a global ocean Temperature-Salinity resource with up-to-date and high quality data .",
"qid": "97",
"docid": "Global_Temperature-Salinity_Profile_Program",
"rank": 100,
"score": 69080
}
] |
Trump's action could push the Earth over the brink, to become like Venus, with a temperature of two hundred and fifty degrees, and raining sulphuric acid. | [
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Venus",
"rank": 1,
"score": 159093
},
{
"content": "Title: Life on Venus Content: The speculation of life currently existing on Venus decreased significantly since the early 1960s , when spacecraft began studying Venus and it became clear that the conditions on Venus are extreme compared to those on Earth . The fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth , raising temperatures on the surface to nearly 735 K , the atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth , and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect , make water-based life as we know it unlikely on the surface of the planet . However , a few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature , acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Life_on_Venus",
"rank": 2,
"score": 135497
},
{
"content": "Title: Terraforming of Venus Content: The terraforming of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation . Terraforming Venus was first seriously proposed by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961 , although fictional treatments , such as The Big Rain by Poul Anderson , preceded it . Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet . These three changes are closely interrelated , because Venus 's extreme temperature is due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense carbon-dioxide atmosphere : Reducing Venus 's surface temperature of 462 C. Eliminating most of the planet 's dense 9.2 MPa carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide atmosphere , via removal or conversion to some other form . Addition of breathable oxygen to the atmosphere .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Terraforming_of_Venus",
"rank": 3,
"score": 132786
},
{
"content": "Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 4,
"score": 128972
},
{
"content": "Title: Venus snow Content: Venus snow is a brightening of the radar reflection from the surface of Venus at high elevations . The `` snow '' appears to be a mineral condensate of lead sulfide and bismuth sulfide precipitated from the atmosphere at altitudes above 2600 metres . The nature of the `` snow '' was initially unknown . In radar images , smooth surfaces such as lava plains generally appear dark , while rough surfaces such as impact debris appear bright . The composition of the rock also alters the radar return : conductive material , or material with a high dielectric constant , appears brighter . It was therefore initially difficult to determine whether the high-altitude areas of Venus were different from the lowlands in chemical composition or in texture . Possible explanations included loose soil , different rates of weathering at high and low elevations , and chemical deposition at high elevation . It could not be water ice , which can not exist in the extremely hot , dry conditions of the Venusian surface . Data from the radar mapper on the Pioneer Venus orbiter suggested an explanation in terms of chemical composition . It was hypothesized that the underlying rock contained iron pyrite or other metallic inclusions that would be very reflective . At the high temperatures found on the surface of Venus , these minerals would gradually evaporate . Faster weathering at high elevation might continually expose new material , causing the highlands to appear brighter than lowlands . High-resolution radar observations by the Magellan probe by 1995 began to favor the hypothesis that metallic compounds sublimate in lower , warmer altitudes and deposit in higher , cooler areas . Candidates included tellurium , pyrite , and other metal sulfides .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Venus_snow",
"rank": 5,
"score": 121462
},
{
"content": "Title: Executive Order 13653 Content: Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Executive_Order_13653",
"rank": 6,
"score": 120751
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration Content: The environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration represents a shift from the policy priorities and goals of his predecessor , Barack Obama . During the campaign Trump often described environmental regulations as an impediment to business . He promised to roll back many regulations and end a moratorium on the leasing of federal coal reserves . Immediately upon his inauguration , the White House released an `` America First Energy Plan '' , which focused on fossil fuels and did not mention renewable energy . The plan would repeal many Obama policies including the Climate Action Plan and the Waters of the U.S. rule , and limit the Environmental Protection Agency 's mission to protecting air and water quality . Within days of taking office he signed executive orders to approve two controversial pipelines and to require federal review of the Clean Water Rule and the Clean Power Plan . He also invited American manufacturers to suggest what regulations should be eliminated ; industry leaders submitted 168 comments , of which nearly half targeted Environmental Protection Agency rules . In March 2017 he released a proposed 2018 budget which would cut funding for the EPA by 31 % . In May 2017 Congress approved a budget for the balance of the 2017-18 year which cuts the EPA 's funding by 1 % and eliminates no jobs . Trump 's appointments to key agencies dealing in energy and environmental policy reflected his commitment to deregulation , particularly of the fossil fuel industry . Several of his cabinet picks , such as Rick Perry as Secretary of Energy and Scott Pruitt as Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency , were of people with a history of opposition to the agency they were named to head .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Environmental_policy_of_the_Donald_Trump_administration",
"rank": 7,
"score": 119956
},
{
"content": "Title: Surface features of Venus Content: The surface of Venus is dominated by geologic features that include volcanoes , large impact craters , and aeolian erosion and sedimentation landforms . Venus has a topography reflecting its single , strong crustal plate , with a unimodal elevation distribution ( over 90 % of the surface lies within an elevation of -1.0 and 2.5 km ) that preserves geologic structures for long periods of time . Studies of the Venusian surface are based on imaging , radar , and altimetry data collected from several exploratory space probes , particularly Magellan , since 1961 ( see Venus Exploration ) . Despite its similarities to Earth in size , mass , density , and possibly composition , Venus has a unique geology that is unlike Earth 's . Although much older than Earth 's , the surface of Venus is relatively young compared to other terrestrial planets ( < 500 million years old ) , possibly due to a global-scale resurfacing event that buried much of the previous rock record . Venus is believed to have approximately the same bulk elemental composition as Earth , due to the physical similarities , but the exact composition is unknown . The surface conditions on Venus are more extreme than on Earth , with temperatures ranging from 453 to 473 ° C and pressures of 95 bar . Venus lacks water , which makes crustal rock stronger and helps preserve surface features . The features observed provide evidence for the geological processes at work . Twenty feature types have been categorized thus far . These classes include local features , such as craters , coronae , and undae , as well as regional-scale features , such as planitiae , plana , and tesserae .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Surface_features_of_Venus",
"rank": 8,
"score": 118268
},
{
"content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Volcanic_winter",
"rank": 9,
"score": 114780
},
{
"content": "Title: United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement Content: On June 1, 2017, United States President Donald Trump announced that the U.S. would cease all participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation, and begin negotiations to re-enter the agreement \"on terms that are fair to the United States, its businesses, its workers, its people, its taxpayers,\" or form a new agreement. In withdrawing from the agreement, Trump stated that \"The Paris accord will undermine (the U.S.) economy,\" and \"puts (the U.S.) at a permanent disadvantage.\" Trump stated that the withdrawal would be in accordance with his America First policy. In accordance with Article 28 of the Paris Agreement, a country cannot give notice of withdrawal from the agreement before three years of its start date in the relevant country, which was on November 4, 2016 in the case of the United States. The White House later clarified that the U.S. will abide by the four-year exit process. On November 4, 2019, the administration gave a formal notice of intention to withdraw, which takes 12 months to take effect. Until the withdrawal took effect, the United States was obligated to maintain its commitments under the Agreement, such as the requirement to continue reporting its emissions to the United Nations. The withdrawal took effect on November 4, 2020, one day after the 2020 U.S. presidential election.While celebrated by some members of the Republican Party, international reactions to the withdrawal were overwhelmingly negative from across the political spectrum, and the decision received substantial criticism from religious organizations, businesses, political leaders of all parties, environmentalists, and scientists and citizens from the United States and internationally.Following Trump's announcement, the governors of several U.S. states formed the United States Climate Alliance to continue to advance the objectives of the Paris Agreement at the state level despite the federal withdrawal. As of July 1, 2019, 24 states, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico have joined the alliance, and similar commitments have also been expressed by other state governors, mayors, and businesses.Trump's withdrawal from the Paris agreement will impact other countries by reducing its financial aid to the Green Climate fund. The termination of the $3 billion U.S. funding will ultimately impact climate change research and decrease society's chance of reaching the Paris Agreement goals, as well as omit U.S. contributions to the future IPCC reports. Trump's decision will also affect the carbon emission space as well as the carbon price. The U.S.'s withdrawal will also mean that the spot to take over the global climate regime will be obtainable for China and the EU.President-elect Joe Biden vowed to rejoin the Paris Agreement on his first day in office.",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Paris_Agreement",
"rank": 10,
"score": 109942
},
{
"content": "Title: Trump's Razor Content: Trump 's Razor is an aphorism or heuristic coined to help explain President Donald Trump 's seemingly inexplicable behavior . Inspired by Occam 's razor , Trump 's Razor advises us to explain President Trump 's actions by `` ascertaining the stupidest possible scenario that can be reconciled with the available facts and that answer is likely correct . ''",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trump's_Razor",
"rank": 11,
"score": 109099
},
{
"content": "Title: Sulfamic acid Content: Sulfamic acid , also known as amidosulfonic acid , amidosulfuric acid , aminosulfonic acid , and sulfamidic acid , is a molecular compound with the formula H3NSO3 . This colorless , water-soluble compound finds many applications . Sulfamic acid melts at 205 ° C before decomposing at higher temperatures to H2O , SO3 , SO2 , and N2 . Sulfamic acid ( H3NSO3 ) may be considered an intermediate compound between sulfuric acid ( H2SO4 ) , and sulfamide ( H4N2SO2 ) , effectively replacing an -- OH group with an -- NH2 group at each step . This pattern can extend no further in either direction without breaking down the -- SO2 group . Sulfamates are derivatives of sulfamic acid .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Sulfamic_acid",
"rank": 12,
"score": 108197
},
{
"content": "Title: Trumpler (Martian crater) Content: Trumpler Crater is a crater in the Phaethontis quadrangle of Mars , located at 61.8 ° S latitude and 150.8 ° W longitude . It is78 .0 km in diameter and was named after Robert Julius Trumpler , and the name was approved in 1973 . The first image below shows the relationship among three craters that are near each other . Keeler Crater is to the North of Trumpler Crater . After Keeler was formed , a later impact formed Trumpler Crater , and in the process destroyed part of Keeler .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trumpler_(Martian_crater)",
"rank": 13,
"score": 107881
},
{
"content": "Title: Trump resistance Content: The Trump resistance is a political effort to push back against the politics of U.S. President Donald Trump . This has included fielding more Democratic challengers than usual ( including a large number of female candidates ) , lobbying representatives , creating a Trump resistance fund , and holding protests against Donald Trump . The Trump resistance is motivated by , e.g. , opposition to his stances on immigration , the environment , women 's rights , gun control , LGBTQ rights , and civil liberties . The grassroots nature of the movement has drawn comparisons to the Tea Party movement . The resistance has also been commercialized somewhat .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trump_resistance",
"rank": 14,
"score": 106828
},
{
"content": "Title: Presidency of Donald Trump Content: The presidency of Donald Trump began at noon EST on January 20 , 2017 , the day that Donald Trump was inaugurated as the 45th President of the United States , succeeding Barack Obama . Trump , a Republican , was a businessman from New York City at the time of his victory in the 2016 presidential election over Democrat Hillary Clinton . His running mate , former Governor Mike Pence of Indiana , took office as the 48th Vice President of the United States on the same day . Trump 's term in office is set to end on January 20 , 2021 , though he is eligible for election to a second term and has declared his intention to run . During his first few months in office , , Trump has issued 36 executive orders and 25 presidential memoranda . The executive orders 13769 and 13780 dealing with denying admission to the US of people from several foreign countries have been blocked by federal courts . Trump 's nominee to the Supreme Court , Neil Gorsuch , was confirmed by the United States Senate on April 7 , 2017 .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Presidency_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 15,
"score": 106763
},
{
"content": "Title: Donald Trump Content: Donald John Trump ( born June 14 , 1946 ) is the 45th and current President of the United States . Before entering politics , he was a businessman and television personality . Trump was born and raised in Queens , New York City , and earned an economics degree from the Wharton School . He then took charge of The Trump Organization , the real estate and construction firm founded by his paternal grandmother , which he ran for 45 years until 2016 . During his real estate career , Trump built , renovated , and managed numerous office towers , hotels , casinos , and golf courses . Besides real estate , he started several side ventures and has licensed the use of his name for the branding of various products and properties , including Trump Entertainment Resorts , Trump Steaks , and Trump Vodka . He was the founder of Trump University . He owned the Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants from 1996 to 2015 , and he produced and hosted The Apprentice , a reality television series on NBC , from 2004 to 2015 . His net worth was estimated to be $ 3.5 billion , making him the 544th richest person in the world . Trump first publicly expressed interest in running for political office in 1987 . He won two Reform Party presidential primaries in 2000 , but withdrew his candidacy early on . In June 2015 , he launched his campaign for the 2016 presidential election and quickly emerged as the front-runner among seventeen candidates in the Republican primaries . His remaining opponents all suspended their campaigns by the end of May 2016 , and in July he was formally nominated at the Republican National Convention along with Indiana governor Mike Pence as his running mate . Many of his campaign statements were controversial or false , generating much free media coverage . Trump won the general election on November 8 , 2016 , in a surprise victory against Democratic opponent Hillary Clinton and commenced his presidency on January 20 , 2017 . He became the oldest and wealthiest person ever to assume the presidency , the first without prior military or government service , and the fifth to have won the election while losing the popular vote . His political positions have been described by scholars and commentators as populist , protectionist , and nationalist .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Donald_Trump",
"rank": 16,
"score": 106583
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 17,
"score": 106307
},
{
"content": "Title: A Planet for the President Content: A Planet for the President ( 2004 ) is a novel by Alistair Beaton . Set in the not-too-distant future , it satirically ponders the question of what action the President of the United States might take if he finally realized that global climate change is converting the earth into an increasingly uninhabitable planet , also for Americans . Eventually persuaded by his aides to `` think the unthinkable '' , the President in the novel , Fletcher J. Fletcher , greenlights drastic measures to stop environmental destruction and to secure for himself a place in history as the saviour of the earth . A biting political satire , A Planet for the President is a ( deliberately ) thinly disguised take on George W. Bush and his administration . The book has been hailed by the Daily Mail , a British tabloid , as `` Dr Strangelove for the Eco generation '' .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "A_Planet_for_the_President",
"rank": 18,
"score": 106177
},
{
"content": "Title: Acid rain Content: Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic , meaning that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions ( low pH ) . It can have harmful effects on plants , aquatic animals and infrastructure . Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide , which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids . Some governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere with positive results . Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes , and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions . Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests , freshwaters and soils , killing insect and aquatic life-forms , causing paint to peel , corrosion of steel structures such as bridges , and weathering of stone buildings and statues as well as having impacts on human health .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Acid_rain",
"rank": 19,
"score": 105247
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 20,
"score": 104771
},
{
"content": "Title: Geology of Venus Content: Venus is a planet with striking geology . Of all the other planets in the Solar System , it is the one nearest to Earth and most like it in terms of mass , but has no magnetic field or recognizable plate tectonic system . Much of the ground surface is exposed volcanic bedrock , some with thin and patchy layers of soil covering , in marked contrast with Earth , the Moon , and Mars . Some impact craters are present , but Venus is similar to Earth in that there are much fewer craters than on the other rocky planets that are largely covered by them . This is due in part to the thickness of the Venusian atmosphere disrupting small impactors before they strike the ground , but the paucity of large craters may be due to volcanic re-surfacing , possibly of a catastrophic nature . Volcanism appears to be the dominant agent of geological change on Venus . Some of the volcanic landforms appear to be unique to the planet . There are shield and composite volcanoes similar to those found on Earth . Given that Venus has approximately the same size , density , and composition as Earth , it is plausible that volcanism may be continuing on the planet today , although convincing direct observations of a volcanic eruption have not yet occurred , leaving modern volcanism an open question . Most of the Venusian surface is relatively flat ; it is divided into three topographic units : lowlands , highlands , and plains . In the early days of radar observation the highlands drew comparison to the continents of Earth , modern research has shown that this is superficial and the absence of plate tectonics makes this comparison misleading . Tectonic features are present to a limited extent , including linear `` deformation belts '' composed of folds and faults . These may be caused by mantle convection . Many of the tectonic features such as tesserae ( large regions of highly deformed terrain , folded and fractured in two or three dimensions ) , and arachnoids ( for those features resembling a spider 's web ) are associated with volcanism . Eolian landforms are not widespread on the planet 's surface , but there is considerable evidence the planet 's atmosphere causes the chemical weathering of rock , especially at high elevations . There is only 20 ppm water vapor in the Venusian atmosphere , and no liquid erosion features ( aside from those of lava flows ) are visible in radar images of the surface . The atmosphere shows isotopic evidence of having been stripped of volatile elements by offgassing and solar wind erosion over time , implying the possibility that Venus may have had liquid water at some point in the distant past ; no direct evidence for this has been found . Much speculation about the geological history of Venus continues today . The surface of Venus is not easily accessible because of the extremely thick atmosphere ( some 90 times that of Earth 's ) and the 470 ° C surface temperature . Much of what is known about it stems from orbital radar observations , because the surface is permanently obscured in visible wavelengths by cloud cover . In addition , a number of landers have returned data from the surface , including images .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Geology_of_Venus",
"rank": 21,
"score": 104585
},
{
"content": "Title: Tetragramma donaldtrumpi Content: Tetragramma donaldtrumpi is a species of fossil sea urchins discovered and identified by William R. Thompson , Jr. in 2016 . The specimen locality is from the Lower Cretaceous , Trinity Group , of the Glen Rose Formation near Fischer , Texas , in the United States . The Tetragramma genus is known from the Upper Jurassic ( Oxfordian ) to the Upper Cretaceous ( Turonian ) . Thompson named the species to honor the then President-elect Donald Trump .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Tetragramma_donaldtrumpi",
"rank": 22,
"score": 104215
},
{
"content": "Title: Trumpler 16 Content: Trumpler 16 ( Tr 16 ) is a massive open cluster that is home to some of the most luminous stars in the Milky Way Galaxy . It is situated within the Carina Nebula complex in the Carina -- Sagittarius Arm , located approximately 2842 pc from Earth . The cluster has one naked eye member star , Eta Carinae . Its most luminous members are and , with both having luminosities several million times that of the Sun , and there are six other extreme stars with O3 spectral classes . Both and are binaries , with the primary stars contributing most of the luminosity , but with companions which are themselves more massive and luminous than most stars . Across all wavelengths , is estimated to be the more luminous of the two , 6,300,000 times the Sun 's luminosity ( absolute bolometric magnitude -12.25 ) compared to at 5,000,000 times the Sun 's luminosity ( absolute bolometric magnitude -12.0 ) . However , appears by far the brightest object , both because it is brighter in visual wavelengths and because it is embedded in nebulosity which exaggerates the luminosity . is very hot and emits most of its radiation as ultraviolet . Trumpler 16 and Trumpler 14 are the most prominent star clusters in , a giant stellar association in the Carina spiral arm . Another cluster within , , is thought to be an extension of appearing visually separated only because of an intervening dust lane . The spectral types of the stars indicate that formed by a single wave of star formation . Because of the extreme luminosity of the stars formed , their stellar winds push away the clouds of dust , similar to the Pleiades . In a few million years , after the brightest stars have exploded as supernovae , the cluster will slowly die away . includes most of the stars in the eastern portion of the association .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trumpler_16",
"rank": 23,
"score": 103948
},
{
"content": "Title: Presidential transition of Donald Trump Content: Planning for the presidential transition of Donald Trump , led by then Vice President-elect , former Governor Mike Pence of Indiana , began before Donald Trump won the United States presidential election on November 8 , 2016 , and became the President-elect . Donald Trump was formally elected by the Electoral College on December 19 , 2016 . The transition was formerly led by Chris Christie until he and a number of his supporters were replaced or demoted on November 11 . The transition ended when he was inaugurated at noon EST on January 20 , 2017 .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Presidential_transition_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 24,
"score": 103469
},
{
"content": "Title: The Last Trump Content: `` The Last Trump '' is a science fiction short story by American writer Isaac Asimov . It was first published in the June 1955 issue of Fantastic Universe and reprinted in the 1957 collection Earth Is Room Enough . Although humorous , it deals inter alia with a serious subject , calendar reform .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "The_Last_Trump",
"rank": 25,
"score": 103068
},
{
"content": "Title: Foreign policy of the Donald Trump administration Content: The foreign policy of the Donald Trump administration includes a focus on security , by fighting terrorists abroad and strengthening border defenses and immigration controls ; an expansion of the U.S. military ; an `` America First '' approach to trade ; and diplomacy whereby `` old enemies become friends '' . It is inspired by foreign policy positions expressed by Donald Trump during his presidential campaign . However , during the campaign his stated positions changed frequently , so that it was `` difficult to glean a political agenda , or even a set of clear , core policy values ahead of his presidency . '' During the campaign , Trump promised he would provide presidential leadership with strong diplomacy to restore respect for the United States around the world . He supported a robust national defense . In his first budget proposal as president , Trump proposed a $ 54 billion ( 10 % ) increase in defense spending , to a total of $ 639 billion for fiscal year 2018 . He said the increase would be needed to fight terrorism , improve troop readiness , and build new ships and planes and would be paid for by deep cuts to other agencies , including a 28 % cut from the State Department budget . He also requested an additional $ 30 billion for the Defense Department for the remainder of fiscal year 2017 . During the campaign , Trump `` repeatedly defined American global interests almost purely in economic terms , '' with the nation 's `` roles as a peacekeeper , as a provider of a nuclear deterrent against adversaries like North Korea , as an advocate of human rights and as a guarantor of allies ' borders '' being `` quickly reduced to questions of economic benefit to the United States . '' He repeatedly called for allied countries , including Germany , Israel , Japan , Saudi Arabia , and South Korea , to pay the United States for helping protect their nations , and suggested that his willingness to defend a country might depend on how much that country was willing to `` pay us to save them . '' Trump and his team continued that theme as president , emphasizing their view that other countries need to increase their financial commitment to their own defense or compensate the United States for providing it . Candidate Trump emphasized a get-tough approach toward terrorists . He called for the resumption of waterboarding `` and much worse '' . He repeatedly expressed support for the use of torture by the U.S. for the purpose of trying to get information from terrorists , and said the law should be changed to allow waterboarding and other forms of torture . However , after his election Trump stated that he would defer to the views of Secretary of Defense James Mattis , who opposes waterboarding and torture . In an early campaign interview , Trump stated `` You have to take out their families , when you get these terrorists , you have to take out their families . ... When they say they do n't care about their lives , you have to take out their families . '' When pressed on what `` take out '' meant , Trump said the United States should `` wipe out their homes '' and `` where they came from . '' After becoming president , Trump relied on his White House advisors rather than the State Department to advise him on international relations . As Secretary of State he chose Rex Tillerson , formerly CEO of ExxonMobil . Tillerson did not have previous government or diplomatic experience , but due to ExxonMobil 's international activities he had experience with and contacts in many other countries , particularly Russia . The State Department normally has two deputy secretaries of state and six undersecretaries ; as of March 2017 no nominations had been submitted for any of those senior positions . In many cases Trump has given important foreign policy assignments to advisors within the White House , particularly chief political strategist Stephen K. Bannon and senior advisor Jared Kushner . Trump has made important decisions , such as a proposed travel ban from certain countries and a counter-terrorism strike in Yemen , without any input from the State Department . In March Trump proposed a budget that cut the State Department 's funding by 28 % . All of this has led to reports that the State Department has been `` sidelined '' .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Foreign_policy_of_the_Donald_Trump_administration",
"rank": 26,
"score": 102800
},
{
"content": "Title: List of executive actions by Donald Trump Content: United States presidents issue executive orders to help officers and agencies of the executive branch manage the operations within the federal government itself . Presidential memoranda are closely related , and like executive orders have the force of law on the Executive Branch , but are generally considered less prestigious . Presidential memoranda do not have an established process for issuance or publication ; unlike executive orders , they are not numbered . A Presidential determination is a determination resulting in an official policy or position of the executive branch of the United States government . Presidential determinations may involve any number of actions , including setting or changing policy , or any number of other exercises of executive power . A Presidential proclamation is a statement issued by a president on a matter of public policy . They are generally defined as , `` the act of causing some state matters to be published or made generally known . A written or printed document in which are contained such matters , issued by proper authority ; as the president 's proclamation , the governor 's , the mayor 's proclamation . '' A Presidential notice can also be issued . A Presidential Sequestration Order can also be issued . Executive orders , Presidential memoranda , Presidential determinations , Presidential proclamations , Presidential notices , and Presidential Sequestration Orders are compiled by the Office of the Federal Register ( within the National Archives and Records Administration ) and are printed by the Government Printing Office . They are published daily , except on federal holidays . A free source of these documents is the Federal Register , which contains government agency rules , proposed rules , and public notices . There are no copyright restrictions on the Federal Register ; as a work of the U.S. government , it is in the public domain . Listed below are executive orders beginning with order number 13765 , Presidential memoranda , Presidential determinations , Presidential proclamations , and Presidential notices signed by United States President Donald Trump .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "List_of_executive_actions_by_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 27,
"score": 101929
},
{
"content": "Title: Venus Content: Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellites . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows at night and , though rare , occasionally be visible in broad daylight . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its maximum angular distance from the Sun ( elongation ) is 47.8 ° . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism . As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the `` morning star '' and `` evening star '' . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC . As the closest planet to Earth , Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 in 1962 ) , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 in 1970 ) . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Venus",
"rank": 28,
"score": 101791
},
{
"content": "Title: Social policy of Donald Trump Content: President Donald Trump describes himself as pro-life and generally opposes abortion with some exceptions : rape , incest , and circumstances endangering the health of the mother . He has said that he is committed to appointing justices who may overturn the ruling in Roe v. Wade . Trump personally opposes same-sex marriage but said after the election that he considers the nationwide legality of same-sex marriage a `` settled '' issue with the Obergefell v. Hodges ruling . This appeared to contradict some of his campaign statements , where he said he would `` strongly consider '' appointing justices to overturn this decision . Trump supports a broad interpretation of the Second Amendment and says he is opposed to gun control in general , although his views have shifted over time . Trump opposes legalizing recreational marijuana but supports legalizing medical marijuana . He favors capital punishment , as well as the use of waterboarding .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Social_policy_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 29,
"score": 101654
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "United_Nations_Ocean_Conference",
"rank": 30,
"score": 101183
},
{
"content": "Title: Trumpler (lunar crater) Content: thumb | right | 240px | Oblique Lunar Orbiter 2 image with Trumpler below center and Nušl above center Trumpler is a lunar crater on the far side of the Moon , named after Robert Julius Trumpler . It lies just to the south of the crater Nušl , and northwest of Freundlich . To the southwest is the heavily battered crater Tikhomirov . This is an old , eroded crater with an outer rim that has been damaged in places by subsequent impacts , especially along the southwestern section . The rim edge has been worn to the point where it is now poorly defined , and forms an uneven ridge in the surface . A short chain of small craterlets extends from near the crater midpoint to just outside the eastern rim . The southern interior floor is generally less impacted in the northern half .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trumpler_(lunar_crater)",
"rank": 31,
"score": 101087
},
{
"content": "Title: Political positions of Donald Trump Content: Donald Trump is an American businessman , television personality , and the 45th President of the United States . Trump 's proposals include elements from across the political spectrum . For example , he has proposed sizable income tax cuts and deregulation consistent with conservative ( Republican Party ) policies , along with significant infrastructure investment and protection for entitlements for the elderly , typically considered liberal ( Democratic Party ) policies . His anti-globalization policies of trade protectionism and immigration reduction cross party lines . Trump has said that he is `` totally flexible on very , very many issues . '' Trump 's `` signature issue '' is illegal immigration , and in particular building or expanding a border wall between the U.S. and Mexico . As of October 2016 , Trump 's campaign had posted fourteen categories of policy proposals on his website , which have been since removed . During October 2016 , Trump outlined a series of steps for his first 100 days in office . Trump 's political positions , and his descriptions of his beliefs , have frequently changed . Politico has described his positions as `` eclectic , improvisational and often contradictory . '' According to an NBC News count , over the course of his campaign Trump made `` 141 distinct shifts on 23 major issues . '' Fact-checking organizations reported that during the campaign , Trump made a record number of false statements compared to other candidates .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Political_positions_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 32,
"score": 100814
},
{
"content": "Title: Sulfuric acid Content: Sulfuric acid ( alternative spelling sulphuric acid ) is a highly corrosive strong mineral acid with the molecular formula H2SO4 and molecular weight 98.079 g/mol . It is a pungent-ethereal , colorless to slightly yellow viscous liquid that is soluble in water at all concentrations . Sometimes , it is dyed dark brown during production to alert people to its hazards . The historical name of this acid is oil of vitriol . Sulfuric acid is a diprotic acid and shows different properties depending upon its concentration . Its corrosiveness on other materials , like metals , living tissues or even stones , can be mainly ascribed to its strong acidic nature and , if concentrated , strong dehydrating and oxidizing properties . It is also hygroscopic , readily absorbing water vapour from the air . Sulfuric acid at a high concentration can cause very serious damage upon contact , since not only does it cause chemical burns via hydrolysis , but also secondary thermal burns through dehydration . It can lead to permanent blindness if splashed onto eyes and irreversible damage if swallowed . Sulfuric acid has a wide range of applications including in domestic acidic drain cleaners , as an electrolyte in lead-acid batteries and in various cleaning agents . It is also a central substance in the chemical industry . Principal uses include mineral processing , fertilizer manufacturing , oil refining , wastewater processing , and chemical synthesis . It is widely produced with different methods , such as contact process , wet sulfuric acid process , lead chamber process and some other methods .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Sulfuric_acid",
"rank": 33,
"score": 100314
},
{
"content": "Title: Trumpler 2 Content: Trumpler 2 is an open cluster located in the constellation Perseus . It is approximately 2000 light-years from Earth , placing its position within the Perseus Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy . Although at this large distance , it can be seen with the naked eye , at magnitude 6 . It has a central red star named HD 16068 of spectral type K3.5II-III , and is visually the brightest star of the cluster as seen from Earth .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trumpler_2",
"rank": 34,
"score": 100096
},
{
"content": "Title: Executive Order 13772 Content: Executive Order 13772 , titled `` Core Principles for Regulating the United States Financial System '' , is an executive order signed by U.S. President Donald Trump on February 3 , 2017 . The eighth executive action by the president during his first 100 days in office , it establishes the `` core principles '' of regulation under the Trump Administration and tasks the United States Department of the Treasury to review the Financial Stability Oversight Council , originally established under the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act , and report to the President in 120 days on current regulations and their effectiveness in carrying out these core principles .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Executive_Order_13772",
"rank": 35,
"score": 100070
},
{
"content": "Title: Van Trump Glacier Content: The Van Trump Glacier is actually a scattering of glaciers and snowfields located on the southern flank of Mount Rainier in Washington . Named after P. B. Van Trump , who was part of an early ascent of Mount Rainier , the glacier covers 0.2 sqmi and contains 500 million ft3 ( 14 million m3 ) of ice . The glacier is located between the Wilson Glacier to the east and the Kautz Glacier to the west . The elevation of the scattering ranges from 7000 ft at the lower end to 9800 ft on the upper reaches of the glacier . Meltwater from the glacier drains into the Nisqually River .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Van_Trump_Glacier",
"rank": 36,
"score": 99984
},
{
"content": "Title: Trumped: Inside the Greatest Political Upset of All Time Content: Trumped : Inside the Greatest Political Upset of All Time is a 2017 American documentary film that chronicles the 2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump , leading up to his electoral victory in November 2016 . The film was directed by Ted Bourne , Mary Robertson , and Banks Tarver , and was created from footage that was shot for the Showtime television documentary series , The Circus : Inside the Greatest Political Show on Earth , starring Mark Halperin , John Heilemann , and Mark McKinnon ; the three also appear in the film as well . The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2017 , and later premiered on Showtime on February 3 , 2017 . Trumped received mostly negative reviews , being criticized for feeling rushed and for not going into enough detail on how Trump won the election . Critics also believed that the film was released too soon after the election .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trumped:_Inside_the_Greatest_Political_Upset_of_All_Time",
"rank": 37,
"score": 99869
},
{
"content": "Title: Sulfolobus Content: Sulfolobus is a genus of microorganism in the family Sulfolobaceae . It belongs to the archaea domain . Sulfolobus species grow in volcanic springs with optimal growth occurring at pH 2-3 and temperatures of 75-80 ° C , making them acidophiles and thermophiles respectively . Sulfolobus cells are irregularly shaped and flagellar . Species of Sulfolobus are generally named after the location from which they were first isolated , e.g. Sulfolobus solfataricus was first isolated in the Solfatara volcano . Other species can be found throughout the world in areas of volcanic or geothermal activity , such as geological formations called mud pots , which are also known as solfatare ( plural of solfatara ) .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Sulfolobus",
"rank": 38,
"score": 99482
},
{
"content": "Title: P. B. Van Trump Content: Philemon Beecher Van Trump ( 1839 -- 1916 ) , also known as P. B. Van Trump , was an American pioneering mountaineer and writer who lived in the state of Washington . He is best known for the first ascent of Mount Rainier in 1870 . Van Trump was born in Lancaster , Ohio on December 18 , 1838 . He was educated at Kenyon College and the New York University . In 1867 he moved to Washington Territory as the private secretary to Marshall F. Moore , the seventh governor of the territory . Moore was Van Trump 's brother-in-law . Van Trump first saw Mount Rainier in August , 1867 , and later remembered , `` That first true vision of the mountain , revealing so much of its glorious beauty and grandeur , its mighty and sublime form filling up nearly all of the field of direct vision , swelling up from the plain and out of the green forest till its lofty triple summit towered immeasurably above the picturesque foothills , the westering sun flooding with golden light and softening tints its lofty summit , rugged sides and far-sweeping flanks -- all this impressed me so indescribably , enthused me so thoroughly , that I then and there vowed , almost with fervency , that I would some day stand upon its glorious summit , if that feat were possible to human effort and endurance . '' Van Trump and General Hazard Stevens made the first documented successful climb of Mount Rainier on August 17 , 1870 . They climbed the mountain via the Gibraltar route . He climbed the mountain at least five other times . Van Trump guided John Muir to the summit of Mount Rainier in 1888 . Muir describes this climb in a chapter of his book Steep Trails . Muir and Van Trump kept in touch after the climb . Van Trump joined the Sierra Club in 1893 making him one of their first members outside California . He later served on the Sierra Club committee that campaigned for the creation of Mount Rainier National Park . After his wife died in 1907 , Van Trump took a position greeting tourists at a summer tent camp at Indian Henry 's Hunting Ground at Mt Rainier . He served briefly as a seasonal ranger and spent winters with the Longmire family . Failing health caused him to relocate to New York in 1915 to spend his final days with relatives . He died on December 27 , 1916 and was interred at the Kattellville Cemetery , Broome County , New York . The Stevens Van Trump Historic Monument along the Skyline Trail in Mount Rainier National Park was erected to commemorate the historic first ascent of the mountain . Van Trump Park , an alpine meadow , Van Trump Creek and Van Trump Glacier , all in the national park , are named after him .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "P._B._Van_Trump",
"rank": 39,
"score": 98997
},
{
"content": "Title: The Trump (horse) Content: The Trump was an Australian-bred Thoroughbred racehorse who won the Caulfield-Melbourne Cup double as well as two other principal ( Group One ) ( G1 ) races in 1937 . He showed his versatility by winning races over distances of six furlongs to two miles .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "The_Trump_(horse)",
"rank": 40,
"score": 98150
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 41,
"score": 97771
},
{
"content": "Title: Action Earth Content: Action Earth is an Australian environmental series that airs on The Weather Channel and FOX8 on the hour , every hour . It is narrated by Olympic medallist Ian Thorpe . Action Earth was produced as a 20-part series , with each episode 5 minutes long . Each episode focuses on a different environmental aspect , and aims to educate the public on how to improve our planet . Category : Fox8 shows Category :2007 Australian television series debuts Category :2000 s Australian television series",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Action_Earth",
"rank": 42,
"score": 97657
},
{
"content": "Title: Immigration policy of Donald Trump Content: Illegal immigration was a signature issue of US President Donald Trump 's presidential campaign , and his proposed reforms and remarks about this issue generated much publicity . A hallmark promise of his campaign was to build a substantial wall on the United States-Mexico border . Trump has also expressed support for a variety of `` limits on legal immigration and guest-worker visas '' , including a `` pause '' on granting green cards , which Trump says will `` allow record immigration levels to subside to more moderate historical averages '' . Trump 's proposals regarding H-1B visas frequently changed throughout his presidential campaign , but as of late July 2016 , he appears to oppose the H-1B visa program . Trump has questioned official estimates of the number of undocumented immigrants in the United States ( between 11 and 12 million ) , insisting the number is much higher ( between 30 and 34 million ) .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Immigration_policy_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 43,
"score": 97248
},
{
"content": "Title: Trump (card games) Content: A trump is a playing card which is elevated above its normal rank in trick-taking games . Typically , an entire suit is nominated as a trump suit ; these cards then outrank all cards of plain ( non-trump ) suits . In other contexts , the term trump card can refer to any sort of action , authority , or policy which automatically prevails over all others .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trump_(card_games)",
"rank": 44,
"score": 97188
},
{
"content": "Title: Bjørn Trumpy Content: Bjørn Trumpy ( 6 July 1900 -- 8 June 1974 ) was a Norwegian physicist . He was born in Bergen . His research areas covered spectral physics , earth magnetism , cosmic radiation and nuclear physics . Trumpy was the first rector at the University of Bergen , from its establishment in 1948 . He was decorated Commander of the Order of St. Olav in 1951 .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Bjørn_Trumpy",
"rank": 45,
"score": 97150
},
{
"content": "Title: Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016 Content: The 2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump , an American businessman , television personality , and author , was formally launched on June 16 , 2015 , at Trump Tower in New York City . Trump was the Republican nominee for President of the United States in the 2016 election , having won the most state primaries , caucuses , and delegates at the 2016 Republican National Convention . He chose Mike Pence , the sitting Governor of Indiana , as his vice presidential running mate . On November 8 , 2016 , Trump and Pence were elected president and vice president of the United States . Trump 's populist positions in opposition to illegal immigration and various trade agreements , such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership , earned him support especially among voters who were male , white , blue-collar and those without college degrees . Some of his remarks were controversial and helped his campaign garner extensive coverage by the mainstream media , trending topics , and social media . Trump 's campaign rallies attracted large crowds , as well as public controversy . Some of the events were marked by incidents of violence between Trump supporters and protesters , mistreatment of some journalists , and disruption by a large group of protesters who effectively shut down a major rally in Chicago . Trump was accused of inciting violence at his rallies . Trump 's disdain for political correctness was a staple theme of his campaign and proved popular among his supporters . Many , including some mainstream commentators and some prominent Republicans , viewed him as appealing to racism , a charge that he `` repeatedly and vehemently denies . '' Trump 's most polarizing and widely reported proposals were about issues of immigration and border security , especially his proposed deportation of all illegal immigrants , the proposed construction of a substantial wall on the Mexico -- United States border at Mexican expense , his characterizations of many Mexican immigrants as `` criminals , drug dealers , rapists , etc '' , and a temporary ban on foreign Muslims entering the U.S. ( which he later modified to apply to people originating from countries with a history of terrorism against the United States or its allies ) . Opposition to Trump grew during his campaign among both Republicans ( who viewed Trump as irrevocably damaging to the party and its chances of winning elections during and after 2016 , leading to the coalescence of the Stop Trump movement ) and Democrats ( who decried Trump 's anti-immigrant and anti-Muslim policies , his behavior toward critics , his treatment of the media , and the ethno-nationalist alt-right 's support of his campaign because of said policies and his anti-political correctness stance , which many cited to be a factor in the rise of hate crimes and other hate-motivated incidents against ethnic and religious minorities prior to and following Trump 's win ) ; although , some conservatives , liberals and independents criticized Republican Congressmembers for prioritizing party loyalty and avoiding alienation of Trump supporters to ensure re-election , over condemning several of Trump 's actions . Some critics of Trump ( among them Robert Reich , Keith Olbermann and Glenn Beck ) had went so far -- based on his immigration platforms , his circumvention of democratic norms , his tendencies to vehemently push back against critics ( including revoking campaign access to certain members of the press for reporting stories he perceives as negative or critical ) , and his perceived narcissism -- as to call Trump 's mental health into question and warn that , if elected , he could put America in danger of either falling into an authoritarian regime or a dictatorship , or endangering its citizens by starting a nuclear war against foreign countries without justifiable provocation .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Donald_Trump_presidential_campaign,_2016",
"rank": 46,
"score": 97100
},
{
"content": "Title: Stop Trump movement Content: The Stop Trump movement , also called the anti-Trump , Dump Trump , or Never Trump movement , was the informal name for the effort on the part of some Republicans and other prominent conservatives to prevent front-runner and now President of the United States Donald Trump from obtaining the Republican Party presidential nomination , and , following his nomination , the presidency , for the 2016 United States presidential election . Although Trump 's campaign drew a substantial amount of criticism , he was ultimately elected in November 2016 and sworn in as president on January 20 , 2017 . The movement gained momentum following Trump 's wins in the March 15 , 2016 , Super Tuesday primaries , including his victory over U.S. Senator Marco Rubio in Florida . After U.S. Senator Ted Cruz dropped out of the race following Trump 's primary victory in Indiana on May 3 , 2016 , Trump became the presumptive nominee , while internal opposition to Trump remained as the process pivoted towards a general election . Following unsuccessful attempts by some delegates at the Republican National Convention to block his nomination , Trump became the Republican Party 's 2016 nominee for President of the United States on July 18 , 2016 . Some members of the Stop Trump movement endorsed alternative candidates in the general election , such as Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton , Libertarian nominee Gary Johnson , independent conservative Evan McMullin , and American Solidarity Party nominee Mike Maturen . These efforts ultimately failed when Trump won the general election on November 8 . According to exit polls , Trump received 90 % of the GOP vote , while Clinton won 89 % of Democratic voters .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Stop_Trump_movement",
"rank": 47,
"score": 97083
},
{
"content": "Title: Donald Trump and Billy Bush recording Content: On October 7 , 2016 , during the 2016 United States presidential election , The Washington Post released a video and accompanying article about then presidential candidate Donald Trump and television host Billy Bush having `` an extremely lewd conversation about women '' in 2005 . In the video , Trump indicated that he might start kissing a woman that he and Bush were about to meet during the filming of an episode of Access Hollywood , a show owned by NBCUniversal . Trump then said : `` I do n't even wait . And when you 're a star , they let you do it , you can do anything ... grab them by the pussy '' . As a result of this remark , some in the media dubbed the resulting scandal Pussygate . Commentators and lawyers have described such an action as sexual assault . News of the recording broke two days before the second 2016 presidential debate between Trump , the Republican nominee , and Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton . Trump gave a statement in which he apologized for the video 's content , but said that Bill Clinton had `` said far worse to me on the golf course . '' The recording provoked strong reactions by media figures and politicians across the political spectrum . Statements from Republican officials were varied . Some , including Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell , Trump 's vice-presidential running mate Mike Pence , and Republican National Committee Chairman Reince Priebus , indicated their disapproval of Trump 's words but did not renounce their support or call for his resignation from the ticket . Other Republicans , most prominently former presidential nominee John McCain , stated that they would no longer support Trump 's presidential campaign , and some called for his withdrawal from the ticket . House Speaker Paul Ryan announced that he would no longer defend or support Trump 's campaign , although he did not officially retract his endorsement of Trump . Bush resigned from his position as a host on NBC 's Today show , while Trump would face allegations of sexual misconduct from several women before he would go on to win the election .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Donald_Trump_and_Billy_Bush_recording",
"rank": 48,
"score": 97073
},
{
"content": "Title: Make America Number 1 Content: Make America Number 1 is a super PAC ( political action committee ) that supported the presidential campaigns of Ted Cruz and Donald Trump in the 2016 United States presidential election . During the primary campaign , the super PAC was known as Keep the Promise I . In the general election , it informally termed itself Defeat Crooked Hillary PAC . The PAC is run by Rebekah Mercer , the second daughter of its largest donor Robert Mercer . Robert Mercer donated $ 15.5 million to the PAC during the 2016 campaign ; philanthropist Bernard Marcus donated $ 2 million ; and Cherna Moskowitz donated $ 1 million . As of November 2 , it had received a total of $ 19,586,131 in donations . Robert Mercer is the fourth-largest contributor to Super PACs in the 2016 cycle . Rebekah Mercer has been chairperson of the PAC since 2015 . Its operations were headed by Kellyanne Conway from August 2015 until she was tapped to serve as the Campaign Manager of the Donald Trump campaign in mid-August 2016 . The PAC also employed Stephen Bannon , who joined the campaign as CEO . After Conway 's departure , David Bossie took leadership . He left in September to become Trump 's Deputy Campaign Manager , and Rebekah Mercer took over leadership of day-to-day operations . During the general election the PAC ran anti-Hillary Clinton ads in a $ 350,000 campaign in Ohio and Pennsylvania . Make America Number 1 responded to the public release of Donald Trump 's conversation with Billy Bush about his treatment of women by stating , `` We are completely indifferent to Mr. Trump 's locker room braggadocio . ''",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Make_America_Number_1",
"rank": 49,
"score": 96976
},
{
"content": "Title: Rebuilding America Now Content: Rebuilding America Now is a political action committee ( PAC ) created to support Donald Trump 's 2016 presidential campaign . A so-called Super PAC , Restore America Now is permitted to raise and spend unlimited amounts of corporate , union , and individual campaign contributions under the terms of the Citizens United Supreme Court decision . Rebuilding America Now was founded in June 2016 by Tom Barrack , a real-estate investor and long-time friend of Trump . Lori Gay and Ken McKay took senior roles with the Super PAC upon its founding . Though Rebuilding America Now is one of several Super PACs founded to support Trump 's bid for the presidency , it has been described as the `` primary '' Super PAC supporting Trump by the New York Times . Vice presidential nominee Mike Pence and Trump campaign manager Paul Manafort have both endorsed the Super PAC . Trump himself had previously denigrated the use of Super PACs , but later agreed to headline fundraising events for Rebuilding America Now . Los Angeles real estate developer Geoffrey Palmer emerged as the first publicly-disclosed big donor to the group , having donated $ 2 million to the organization .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Rebuilding_America_Now",
"rank": 50,
"score": 96877
},
{
"content": "Title: Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign Content: The 2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump was formally launched on June 16, 2015, at Trump Tower in New York City. Trump was the Republican nominee for President of the United States in the 2016 election, having won the most state primaries, caucuses, and delegates at the 2016 Republican National Convention. He chose Mike Pence, the sitting Governor of Indiana, as his vice presidential running mate. On November 8, 2016, Trump and Pence were elected president and vice president of the United States. Trump's populist positions in opposition to illegal immigration and various trade agreements, such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership, earned him support especially among voters who were male, white, blue-collar, working class, and those without college degrees.Many of Trump's remarks were controversial and helped his campaign garner extensive coverage by the mainstream media, trending topics, and social media. Trump's campaign rallies attracted large crowds as well as public controversy. Some of the events were marked by incidents of violence between Trump supporters and protesters, mistreatment of some journalists, and disruption by a large group of protesters who effectively shut down a major rally in Chicago. Trump himself was accused of inciting violence at his rallies.Trump's disdain for political correctness was a staple theme of his campaign and proved popular among his supporters. Many, including some mainstream commentators and some prominent Republicans, viewed him as appealing to racism, a charge that Trump has repeatedly denied. Trump's most polarizing and widely reported proposals were about issues of immigration and border security, especially his proposed deportation of all illegal immigrants, the proposed construction of a substantial wall on the Mexico–United States border at Mexican expense, his characterizations of many illegal Mexican immigrants as \"criminals, drug dealers, rapists, etc\", and a temporary ban on foreign Muslims entering the U.S. (which he later modified to apply to people originating from countries which he described as having a history of terrorism against the United States or its allies).Opposition to Trump grew during his campaign among both Republicans (who viewed Trump as irrevocably damaging to the party and its chances of winning elections during and after 2016, leading to the coalescence of the Stop Trump movement) and Democrats (who decried Trump's anti-immigrant and anti-Muslim policies, his behavior toward critics, his treatment of the media, and his support from the ethno-nationalist alt-right). Although some prominent Republican leaders declined to endorse Trump after he won the Republican nomination, many Republican congress-members showed support for Trump and his policy positions despite major personal or political conflicts with him. Some such supporters of Trump's campaign were accused, by both conservatives and liberals, of prioritizing party loyalty and avoiding alienation of Trump supporters to ensure re-election, thereby refraining from condemning Trump's actions.On January 6, 2017, the United States government's intelligence agencies concluded that the Russian government interfered in the 2016 United States elections against the campaign of Hillary Clinton and in support of Trump. As president, Trump has repeatedly rejected the conclusions of the U.S. intelligence agencies.",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign",
"rank": 51,
"score": 96874
},
{
"content": "Title: Trump effect Content: The Trump effect is an alleged increase in school bullying in the United States caused by the rhetoric Donald Trump used during his 2016 presidential campaign . A survey of teachers by the Southern Poverty Law Center claimed that Trump 's language was being used by students in classroom settings , having the effect of increasing bullying , especially against youth of color . This survey has been criticized for relying largely on anecdotal evidence , as has the SPLC 's method of collecting the survey 's data .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trump_effect",
"rank": 52,
"score": 96666
},
{
"content": "Title: Attempted assassination of Donald Trump Content: On June 18 , 2016 , an attempt was made to assassinate Donald Trump , the Republican presumptive nominee for the 2016 United States presidential election , in the final weeks of the Republican presidential primaries . While Trump was speaking at a rally in Las Vegas , Nevada , Briton Michael Steven Sandford attempted to seize the sidearm of a Las Vegas Metropolitan police officer providing security for the event before being subdued . There were no injuries . Sandford , who had a lengthy history of mental disorders , stated that he had wished to kill Trump to prevent him from becoming President . Sandford was ultimately charged with disrupting an official function and being an illegal alien in possession of a firearm . On September 13 , 2016 , he pled guilty to both charges as part of a plea bargain . On December 13 , 2016 , he was sentenced to 12 months and one day 's imprisonment . Sandford was released and deported in May 2017 .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Attempted_assassination_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 53,
"score": 96577
},
{
"content": "Title: Opinion polling on the Donald Trump administration Content: Opinion polling on the Donald Trump administration has been regularly taken by universities , media outlets , and survey companies since the start of the Donald Trump presidency . Public sentiment on a number of Donald Trump 's key actions and proposals has also been tracked . Presidential approval ratings have revealed Trump to be the least popular US president in modern history as of the first few months of the term . However , polls also reveal that he is the most popular US president in modern history among Republican voters , gathering larger approval rating than George W. Bush , George H.W. Bush and Ronald Reagan in their first months . In his first month , Donald Trump has an approval rating among Republican voters of 84 % , compared to 82 % , 82 % and 78 % in the first months of Bush Jr. , Bush Sr. and Reagan respectively in the same demographic . This is dramatically negated by his approval ratings among Democrat voters , where he has 8 % approval rating , compared to 30 % , 46 % and 39 % for Bush Jr. , Bush Sr. and Reagan respectively .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Opinion_polling_on_the_Donald_Trump_administration",
"rank": 54,
"score": 96432
},
{
"content": "Title: Doomsday Clock Content: The Doomsday Clock is a symbol which represents the likelihood of a human-caused global catastrophe . Maintained since 1947 by the members of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Science and Security Board , the Clock represents an analogy for the threat of global nuclear war . Since 2007 , it has also reflected climate change and new developments in the life sciences and technology that could inflict irrevocable harm to humanity . The Clock represents the hypothetical global catastrophe as `` midnight '' and The Bulletins opinion on how close the world is to a global catastrophe as a number of `` minutes '' to midnight . Its original setting in 1947 was seven minutes to midnight . It has been set backward and forward 22 times since then , the smallest ever number of minutes to midnight being two ( in 1953 ) and the largest seventeen ( in 1991 ) . , the Clock is set at two and a half minutes to midnight , due to a `` rise of ` strident nationalism ' worldwide , United States President Donald Trump 's comments over North Korea , Russia , nuclear weapons , and the disbelief in the scientific consensus over climate change by the Trump Administration . '' This setting is the Clock 's second closest approach to midnight since its introduction . In-person visits to see the Doomsday Clock are not possible . There is no physical Doomsday Clock at The Bulletins office in the University of Chicago .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Doomsday_Clock",
"rank": 55,
"score": 96144
},
{
"content": "Title: Donald Trump (disambiguation) Content: Donald Trump ( born 1946 ) is the 45th President of the United States , as well as a businessman and television personality . Donald Trump may also refer to :",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Donald_Trump_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 56,
"score": 96127
},
{
"content": "Title: Akatsuki (spacecraft) Content: , also known as the Venus Climate Orbiter ( VCO ) and Planet-C , is a Japanese ( JAXA ) space probe tasked to study the atmosphere of Venus . It was launched aboard an H-IIA 202 rocket on 20 May 2010 , and failed to enter orbit around Venus on 6 December 2010 . After the craft orbited the Sun for five years , engineers placed it into an alternative elliptical Venusian orbit on 7 December 2015 by firing its attitude control thrusters for 20 minutes . By using five different cameras , Akatsuki will study the stratification of the atmosphere , atmospheric dynamics , and cloud physics . Astronomers working on the mission reported detecting a possible gravity wave that occurred on the planet Venus in December 2015 .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Akatsuki_(spacecraft)",
"rank": 57,
"score": 95968
},
{
"content": "Title: The Day of the Donald Content: The Day of the Donald ( subtitled Trump Trumps America ! ) is a satirical work of fiction by Andrew Shaffer . Published on June 28 , 2016 , the book imagines Donald Trump winning the US election to become the forty-fifth president ( which subsequently occurred ) and examines his second year in office .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "The_Day_of_the_Donald",
"rank": 58,
"score": 95933
},
{
"content": "Title: Venus in fiction Content: Fictional representations of Venus have existed since the 19th century . Its impenetrable cloud cover gave science fiction writers free rein to speculate on conditions at its surface ; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it very similar in size to Earth , it possessed a substantial atmosphere . Closer to the Sun than Earth , the planet was frequently depicted as warmer , but still habitable by humans . The genre reached its peak between the 1930s and 1950s , at a time when science had revealed some aspects of Venus , but not yet the harsh reality of its surface conditions .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Venus_in_fiction",
"rank": 59,
"score": 95655
},
{
"content": "Title: Trumpler 14 Content: Trumpler 14 ( Tr 14 ) is an open cluster with a diameter of 6 ly , located within the inner regions of the Carina Nebula , approximately 2753 pc from Earth . Together with the nearby Trumpler 16 , they are the main clusters of the Carina OB1 stellar association , which is the largest association in the Carina Nebula , although Trumpler 14 is not as massive or as large as Trumpler 16 . About stars have been identified in Trumpler 14 . and the total mass of the cluster is estimated to be 4,300 .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trumpler_14",
"rank": 60,
"score": 95396
},
{
"content": "Title: Sulfolobus solfataricus Content: Sulfolobus solfataricus is a species of thermophilic archaeon . It was first isolated and discovered in the Solfatara volcano which it was subsequently named after . However , these organisms are not isolated to volcanoes but are found all over the world in places such as hot springs . The species grows best in temperatures around 80 ° Celsius , a pH level between 2 and 4 , and enough sulfur for solfataricus to metabolize in order to gain energy . These conditions qualify it as an extremophile and it is specifically known as a thermoacidophile because of its preference to high temperatures and low pH levels . It usually has a spherical cell shape and it makes frequent lobes . Being an autotroph it receives energy from growing on sulfur or even a variety of organic compounds . Currently , it is the most widely studied organism that is within the Crenarchaeota branch . Solfataricus are researched for their methods of DNA replication , cell cycle , chromosomal integration , transcription , RNA processing , and translation . All the data points to the organism having a large percent of archaeal-specific genes , which showcases the differences between the three types of microbes : archaea , bacteria , and eukarya .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Sulfolobus_solfataricus",
"rank": 61,
"score": 95176
},
{
"content": "Title: Business career of Donald Trump Content: Donald Trump is an American businessman , former television personality , and the 45th President of the United States . He began his real estate career at his father 's company , Elizabeth Trump and Son , which he later renamed to The Trump Organization . He rose to public prominence after a number of successful real estate deals in Manhattan and New York City , and his company now owns and develops lodging and golf courses around the world . Trump partly or completely owned several beauty pageants between 1996 and 2015 . He has marketed his name to many building projects and commercial products . Trump 's unsuccessful business ventures have included several casino and hotel bankruptcies , the folding of his New Jersey Generals football team , and the now-defunct Trump University . With his election to the presidency the question arose what he would do with his business activities to avoid conflicts of interest . At a press conference on January 11 , 2017 , Trump said he will resign all management roles with The Trump Organization , leaving his two oldest sons Don Jr. and Eric to run it . Trump will retain his financial stake in the business .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Business_career_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 62,
"score": 95110
},
{
"content": "Title: Timeline of the presidency of Donald Trump Content: Donald Trump was elected President of the United States on November 8 , 2016 and was inaugurated on January 20 , 2017 . He is currently serving his day in office . A daily chronicle of his presidency is available for each quarter : Timeline of the Trump presidency , 2017 Q1 Timeline of the Trump presidency , 2017 Q2 * Presidency of Donald Trump Trump Trump",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Timeline_of_the_presidency_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 63,
"score": 94965
},
{
"content": "Title: Donald Trump (Last Week Tonight) Content: `` Donald Trump '' is a segment of the HBO news satire series Last Week Tonight with John Oliver , devoted to Donald Trump , who later became the President of the United States . It was first aired on February 28 , 2016 , as part of the third episode of the third season , when Trump was the frontrunner for the Republican Party nomination for the presidency . During the 22-minute segment , comedian John Oliver discusses Trump 's 2016 presidential campaign and his career in business , outlining his campaign rhetoric , varying political positions and failed business ventures . He also says the Trump family name was changed at one point from the ancestral name `` Drumpf '' . The segment , which is the show 's most viewed to date , popularized the term `` Donald Drumpf '' -- which as Oliver stated , was coined with the intent to uncouple the grandeur of the last name so Trump 's supporters would be able to better acknowledge his political and entrepreneurial flaws , and started a campaign urging viewers to `` Make Donald Drumpf Again '' -- a play on Trump 's own campaign slogan , `` Make America Great Again '' . To date , this is the only episode in which Oliver has described Trump explicitly as `` Drumpf . ''",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Donald_Trump_(Last_Week_Tonight)",
"rank": 64,
"score": 94839
},
{
"content": "Title: Sulphuric Acid (novel) Content: Sulphuric Acid ( Acide sulfurique ) is a Belgian novel by Amélie Nothomb . It was first published in 2005 . It details the thoughts and pursuits of the people involved in a reality show recreating a concentration camp . The book provoked strong reactions , both for and against . Nothomb was subsequently invited to explain herself on a TV show hosted by her friend Frédéric Beigbeder .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Sulphuric_Acid_(novel)",
"rank": 65,
"score": 94771
},
{
"content": "Title: John G. Trump Content: John George Trump ( August 21 , 1907 -- February 21 , 1985 ) was an American electrical engineer , inventor , and physicist . He was a recipient of U.S. President Ronald Reagan 's National Medal of Science , and a member of the National Academy of Engineering . John Trump was noted for developing rotational radiation therapy . Together with Robert J. Van de Graaff , he developed one of the first million-volt X-ray generators . He was the paternal uncle of Donald Trump .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "John_G._Trump",
"rank": 66,
"score": 94434
},
{
"content": "Title: Russell Vought Content: Russell Vought is an American political organizer and government official . He is President Donald Trump 's nominee to become Deputy Director of the Office of Management and Budget . Prior to his nomination , Vought served for seven years as the vice president of Heritage Action . He has also served as the executive director and budget director of the Republican Study Committee , as the policy director for the Republican Conference of the United States House of Representatives , and as a legislative assistant for U.S. Senator Phil Gramm .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Russell_Vought",
"rank": 67,
"score": 94388
},
{
"content": "Title: Inauguration of Donald Trump Content: The inauguration of Donald Trump as the 45th President of the United States marked commencement of the four-year term of Donald Trump as President and Mike Pence as Vice President . An estimated 160,000 people attended the public ceremony held on Friday , January 20 , 2017 on the West Front of the United States Capitol Building in Washington , D.C. Along with being the oldest and wealthiest person inaugurated as president , he is the first without prior military or governmental service experience . The event was the 58th presidential inauguration . The official theme of the event was `` Uniquely American '' . Held in Washington , D.C. from January 17 to 21 , 2017 , inaugural events included concerts , the swearing-in ceremony , a Congressional luncheon , parade , inaugural balls , and the interfaith inaugural prayer service . Administered by Chief Justice of the United States John Roberts , the presidential oath was taken by Trump as his first task after becoming president at noon , in keeping with Article Two , Section 1 , Clause 8 and the 20th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution , with the vice presidential oath taken by Pence and administered by Associate Justice Clarence Thomas immediately preceding it . Trump was sworn in with his left hand on a pair of Bibles , his personal copy and the Lincoln Bible . The inauguration was accompanied by protests in the United States and other countries .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Inauguration_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 68,
"score": 94370
},
{
"content": "Title: Infrastructure policy of Donald Trump Content: The infrastructure policy of Donald Trump includes ensuring U.S. energy independence (by catering to the fossil fuel, nuclear, and renewable energy industries), safeguarding the cybersecurity of the national power grid and other critical infrastructure, locking China out of the U.S. fifth-generation Internet market, and rolling back regulations to ease the process of planning and construction. While there have been no major infrastructure spending packages yet, some individual policies and projects have advanced piecemeal, especially in rural areas. Although there is recognition of the need to upgrade American infrastructure from both sides of the political aisle, as of April 2020, no major infrastructure bill has been passed due to disagreements over the details of such a spending package, namely, what to spend on, how much to spend, and how to pay for it. 'Infrastructure' is a rather broad term that means different things to different people. In general, the aim of the Trump administration is revitalizing the national economy and enhancing national security despite the tendency of his own Republican Party to oppose large federal expenditures and tax hikes whereas members of the opposition Democratic Party typically favor investing in renewable energy and new infrastructure that could combat climate change, and tend to be less averse to deficit spending. This article focuses exclusively on physical or hard infrastructure, as opposed to soft infrastructure, or public institutions.",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Infrastructure_policy_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 69,
"score": 94345
},
{
"content": "Title: Milutin Milanković Content: Milutin Milanković ( Милутин Миланковић , pronounced -LSB- milǔtin milǎːnkɔʋitɕ -RSB- 28 May 1879 -- 12 December 1958 ) was a Serbian mathematician , astronomer , climatologist , geophysicist , civil engineer , doctor of technology , university professor and popularizer of science . Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science . The first contribution is the `` Canon of the Earth 's Insolation '' , which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the Solar system . The second contribution is the explanation of Earth 's long-term climate changes caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun , now known as Milankovitch cycles . This explained the ice ages occurring in the geological past of the Earth , as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future . He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth 's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system , Mercury , Venus , Mars , and the Moon , as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets . He demonstrated the interrelatedness of celestial mechanics and the Earth sciences , and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of descriptive sciences into exact ones .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Milutin_Milanković",
"rank": 70,
"score": 94294
},
{
"content": "Title: First 100 days of Donald Trump's presidency Content: The first 100 days of Donald Trump 's presidency began with his inauguration as the 45th President of the United States , which occurred at noon on January 20 , 2017 . The 48th Vice President of the United States , Mike Pence , was inaugurated on the same day . The 100th day of Trump 's presidency was April 29 , 2017 . Trump first announced his plan for the first hundred days of his presidency in Gettysburg , Pennsylvania , on October 23 , 2016 , before the election . One of Trump 's major accomplishments , made as part of a `` 100-day pledge '' , was the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States . Structurally , President Trump had the advantage of a Republican Party majority in the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate , but was unable to fulfill his major pledges in his first 100 days and had an approval rating of between 40 and 42 percent , `` the lowest for any first-term president at this point in his tenure '' . Although he tried to make progress on one of his key economic policies -- the dismantling of the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act -- his failure to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ( ACA ) in the first 100 days was a major setback . He reversed his position on a number of issues including labeling China as a currency manipulator , NATO , launching the 2017 Shayrat missile strike without congressional approval , the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) , renomination of Janet Yellen as Chair of the Federal Reserve , and the nomination of Export-Import Bank directors . Supporters claimed that as the first to have been elected President in present times who has held neither military or political office , he therefore faced a steep learning curve . Trump 's approval among his base was high , with 96 % of those who voted for him saying in an April 2017 poll that they would vote for him again . Near the end of the 100 days , the Trump administration introduced a broad outline of a sweeping tax reform focusing on deep tax cuts . While it is intended to encourage economic growth , there were concerns from some members of the United States Congress about raising the national deficit . In spite of the sharp decline in gross domestic product ( GDP ) in the first quarter of 2017 -- representing the weakest quarterly economic growth in three years -- the S&P 500 was near an all-time high , representing a 12 % rise from the first quarter of 2016 , as investor confidence remained elevated . Although Trump had to concede to delay funding for the U.S. -- Mexico border wall he had promised , narrowly avoiding a government shutdown a few days before the end of the first 100 days , his rhetoric may have contributed to a sharp drop in the number of illegal crossings at the Mexico -- United States border . Trump signed 24 executive orders in his first 100 days , the most executive orders of any President since World War II . He also signed 22 presidential memoranda , 20 presidential proclamations , and 28 bills . About a dozen of those bills roll-back regulations finalized during the last months of his immediate predecessor Barack Obama 's presidency using the Congressional Review Act . Most of the other bills are `` small-scale measures that appoint personnel , name federal facilities or modify existing programs . '' None of Trump 's bills are considered to be `` major bills '' -- based on a `` longstanding political-science standard for ` major bills ' . '' Presidential historian Michael Beschloss said that `` based on a legislative standard '' -- which is what the first 100 days has been judged on since the tenure of President Franklin Roosevelt , who enacted 76 laws in 100 days including nine that were `` major '' -- `` Trump is really pretty low down on the list . ''",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "First_100_days_of_Donald_Trump's_presidency",
"rank": 71,
"score": 94287
},
{
"content": "Title: Ron Nicol Content: Ronald L. Nicol ( born 1952/53 ) is an American management consultant and senior advisor for the Boston Consulting Group . As of 2016 , he is the director of the agency action team in President-elect Donald J. Trump 's transition .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Ron_Nicol",
"rank": 72,
"score": 94041
},
{
"content": "Title: Donald Trump (song) Content: `` Donald Trump '' is a song by American rapper Mac Miller , and the only song released as an official single from his mixtape Best Day Ever . The melody , which is played throughout the song , is taken from `` Vesuvius '' by Sufjan Stevens . The music video to the song was uploaded to YouTube on March 3 , 2011 , while the single was released digitally on May 17 , 2011 . `` Donald Trump '' is also incorrectly included as a bonus track on the track list of some versions of Mac Miller 's debut album Blue Slide Park . Miller himself confirmed that the song does not feature on the album . The song was dedicated to the American business magnate Donald Trump , who , five years after the song 's release , was elected as the 45th President of the United States . During Trump 's 2016 campaign , the song regained popularity , hitting # 28 on the iTunes Charts on November 9 , 2016 , the day after he was elected president . However Mac Miller has personally stated in an interview that he was not a supporter of Trump .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Donald_Trump_(song)",
"rank": 73,
"score": 93868
},
{
"content": "Title: Rogue Twitter accounts Content: Following the election of Donald Trump as the 45th President of United States a ` Resist ' movement began for those in opposition to his presidency . Employees within government organisations and departments took to Twitter to anonymously voice their opposition using accounts that are typically prefixed with either Rogue or Alt . Alice Stollmeyer has dubbed this Twitter resistance movement '' #twistance '' . It 's thought that the Badlands Park Service were the first to create a ` rogue account ' in opposition to President Trump 's assertion that Climate Change was n't real .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Rogue_Twitter_accounts",
"rank": 74,
"score": 93859
},
{
"content": "Title: Ushas Mons Content: Ushas Mons is a 2-kilometer-high ( 1.25 mile ) volcano in the southern hemisphere of Venus at 25 degrees south latitude , 323 degrees east longitude . Its name is derived from vedic goddess of dawn Ushas The volcano is marked by numerous bright lava flows and a set of north-south trending fractures , many of which appear to have formed after the lavas were erupted onto the surface . In the central summit area , however , younger flows remain unfractured . An impact crater can be seen among the fractures in the upper center of the image . The association of faulting and volcanism is common on this type of volcano on Venus , and is believed to result from a large zone of hot material upwelling from the Venusian mantle , a phenomenon known on Earth as a `` hotspot . '' Category : Volcanoes of Venus",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Ushas_Mons",
"rank": 75,
"score": 93801
},
{
"content": "Title: Belt of Venus Content: The Belt of Venus or Venus 's Girdle or Twilight Wedge is an atmospheric phenomenon seen shortly before sunrise or shortly after sunset . The observer is , or is very nearly , surrounded by a pinkish glow ( or anti-twilight arch ) that extends roughly 10 ° -- 20 ° above the horizon . Like alpenglow , backscattering of reddened sunlight also creates the Belt of Venus . Unlike the Belt of Venus , the direct illumination of clouds and aerosols that create the afterglow which characterizes alpenglow hover low in the atmosphere and create a red horizontal band visible just after sunset or before sunrise . Unlike alpenglow , the sunlight refracted in the fine dust particles that create the rosy pinkish arch of the Belt of Venus hover high in the atmosphere and perpetuate it long after sunset or long before sunrise . In a way , the Belt of Venus is a true alpenglow visible at twilight near the anti-solar point . Often , the glow is separated from the horizon by a dark layer , the Earth 's shadow or `` dark segment . '' The arch 's light pink color is due to backscattering of reddened light from the rising or setting Sun . A very similar effect can be seen during a total solar eclipse . The zodiacal light , which is caused by reflection of sunlight from the interplanetary dust in the solar system , is also a similar phenomenon . The name of the phenomenon alludes to the cestus , a girdle or breast-band , of the Ancient Greek goddess Aphrodite , customarily equated with the Roman goddess Venus .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Belt_of_Venus",
"rank": 76,
"score": 93590
},
{
"content": "Title: Rudolf Trümpy Content: Rudolf Trümpy ( 16 August 1921 -- 30 January 2009 ) was a Swiss Geologist , who was born in the small Swiss town of Glarus . He graduated from the ETH Zürich in the late 1940s with a thesis titled : `` Der Lias der Glarner Alpen '' . From 1947 to 1953 he spent his post-doctoral years in Lausanne before being appointed professor at ETH Zürich in 1953 . He would remain there until 1986 . His research mainly concentrated on alpine geology . However , he also published papers on extra-alpine regions like Greenland , the Montagne Noire and the Sahara . He was the author of the reference book Geology of Switzerland . Trümpy is the recipient of numerous awards and prizes including the Wollaston Medal and the Penrose Medal . In 1978 he was elected a Foreign Associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences . He is also a member of the French Academy of Sciences . Many stratigraphic formations in the western Alps were first described by Trümpy . For example , the Couches de l'Aroley , the Couches des Marmontains and the Couches de St Cristoph .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Rudolf_Trümpy",
"rank": 77,
"score": 93526
},
{
"content": "Title: 2017 Shayrat missile strike Content: The 2017 Shayrat missile strike took place on the morning of 7 April 2017 , and involved the launch of 59 Tomahawk cruise missiles by the United States from the Mediterranean Sea into Syria , aimed at the Shayrat Airbase controlled by the Syrian government . The strike was executed under responsibility of U.S. President Donald Trump , as a direct response to the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack that occurred on 4 April . The strike was the first unilateral military action by the United States targeting Ba'athist Syrian government forces during the Syrian Civil War . Trump stated shortly thereafter , `` It is in this vital national security interest of the United States to prevent and deter the spread and use of deadly chemical weapons . '' The Syrian Air Force launched airstrikes against the rebels from the base only hours after the American attack . The ability to continue to use the base for these attacks has been attributed to the advance warning the US gave to Syria 's ally , Russia , prior to the missile strike .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "2017_Shayrat_missile_strike",
"rank": 78,
"score": 93454
},
{
"content": "Title: Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections Content: United States intelligence agencies have concluded that there was Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections . In January 2017 , a published U.S. intelligence community assessment expressed `` high confidence '' that the Russian government favored Donald Trump over Hillary Clinton and that Russian President Vladimir Putin personally ordered an `` influence campaign '' to denigrate Clinton and to harm her electoral chances and potential presidency . The report concluded that Russia used disinformation , data thefts , leaks , and social media `` trolls '' in an effort to give an advantage to Trump over Clinton but did not target or compromise vote tallying . These conclusions were reaffirmed by the lead intelligence officials in the Trump administration in May 2017 . Intelligence allies of the U.S. in Europe had found communications between suspected Russian agents and the Trump campaign as early as 2015 . Some media organizations have referred to this interference as `` Kremlingate '' . On October 7 , 2016 , the Office of the Director of National Intelligence ( DNI ) and the Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) jointly stated that Russia hacked the Democratic National Committee ( DNC ) servers and Clinton campaign chairman John Podesta 's personal email account and leaked their documents to WikiLeaks . Several cybersecurity firms stated that the cyberattacks were committed by Russian intelligence groups Fancy Bear and Cozy Bear . In October 2016 , U.S. President Barack Obama directly warned Putin to stop interfering or face `` serious consequences '' . Russian officials initially issued categorical denials of any Russian involvement in any DNC hacks or leaks . In June 2017 , however , in a shift from Russia 's previous blanket denials , Putin suggested that private `` patriotically minded '' Russian hackers could have been responsible for cyberattacks , while continuing to deny government involvement . In January 2017 , Director of National Intelligence James Clapper testified that Russia 's alleged meddling in the 2016 presidential campaign went beyond hacking , and included disinformation such as the dissemination of fake news often promoted on social media . President-elect Trump initially rejected the reports of Russian interference and criticized the intelligence agencies , saying that Democrats were simply reacting to their election loss . Investigations on Russian influence , including potential collusion between the Trump campaign and Russian officials , were started by the FBI , the Senate Intelligence Committee and the House Intelligence Committee . Six federal agencies have also been investigating possible links and financial ties between the Kremlin and Trump 's associates , including his son-in-law Jared Kushner and advisers Carter Page , Paul Manafort and Roger Stone . In December 2016 , Obama ordered a report on hacking efforts aimed at U.S. elections since 2008 . On December 29 , 2016 , the U.S. expelled 35 Russian diplomats , denied access to two Russia-owned compounds , and broadened existing sanctions on Russian entities and individuals . Russia did not retaliate . On March 20 , 2017 , FBI director James Comey testified to the House Intelligence Committee that the FBI had been conducting a counter-intelligence investigation about Russian interference since July 2016 , including possible coordination between associates of Trump and Russia . On May 9 , 2017 , in a move that was widely criticized as an attempt to curtail the Russian investigation by the FBI , Trump dismissed Comey . On May 17 , 2017 , Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein appointed former FBI Director Robert Mueller as special counsel in the FBI 's Russian investigation .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Russian_interference_in_the_2016_United_States_elections",
"rank": 79,
"score": 93334
},
{
"content": "Title: Economic policy of Donald Trump Content: Donald Trump 's signature economic policies , sometimes referred to as Trumponomics , include the raising of tariffs , across-the-board tax cuts , the dismantling of the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act , and the repeal of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ( `` Obamacare '' ) . Trump 's economic plan was released in August 2016 and was widely described as light on details , with Trump insisting `` In the coming weeks , we will be offering more detail on all of these policies '' .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Economic_policy_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 80,
"score": 93228
},
{
"content": "Title: William Trump Content: William Trump ( November 7 , 1923 -- July 24 , 2009 ) served aboard a Landing Craft Infantry vessel during four amphibious assaults , during World War II . His vessel , the USS LCI-90 , participated in the invasion of French North Africa , Sicily and Anzio in 1943 , and in the Invasion of Normandy in 1944 . It was during the Invasion of Normandy that Trump earned a Silver Star . He volunteered to venture onto the Omaha Beach and anchor a safety line for the 200 soldiers his vessel carried to follow ashore . Trump had to make his way past heavily mined beach fortifications , while under heavy enemy fire . His helmet was creased by a German bullet . Trump lied about his age , and enlisted in the Coast Guard in 1942 at 17 years old . He retired as a Chief Petty Officer , in 1965 After retirement Trump joined the Merchant Marine , serving for fifteen years aboard vessels of Belcher Oil Company . Only eleven other members of the Coast Guard have been awarded silver stars .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "William_Trump",
"rank": 81,
"score": 93055
},
{
"content": "Title: Trump (video gamer) Content: Jeffrey Shih born June 28 , 1987 , also known by his username Trump or TrumpSC , is an American professional video game player who streams Hearthstone : Heroes of Warcraft and previously Starcraft II . As of 2017 he plays for Tempo Storm . Prior to joining Team SoloMid in 2014 , Shih grew his channel into one of the most popular Hearthstone streams on the game streaming website Twitch . He is one of the top Hearthstone competitors in North America . He formerly played Starcraft II for gaming groups Team Legion and Vega Squadron .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trump_(video_gamer)",
"rank": 82,
"score": 93019
},
{
"content": "Title: List of geological features on Venus Content: This is a list of geological features on Venus . Venus is the second planet from the Sun . Venus is classified as a terrestrial planet and it is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' owing to their similar size , gravity , and bulk composition ( Venus is both the closest planet to Earth and the planet closest in size to Earth ) . The surface of Venus is covered by a dense atmosphere and presents clear evidence of former violent volcanic activity . It has shield and composite volcanoes similar to those found on Earth .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "List_of_geological_features_on_Venus",
"rank": 83,
"score": 92839
},
{
"content": "Title: Venus of Savignano Content: The Venus of Savignano is a Venus figurine made from soft greenstone ( serpentine ) dating back to the Upper Paleolithic , which was discovered in 1925 near Savignano sul Panaro in the Province of Modena , Italy . With 22.5 cm in height , 4.8 cm in width and 5.2 cm in depth , and with a weight of 586.5 g , it 's one of the largest known Venuses among the about 190 dated to the Upper Paleolithic in Europe and Siberia . With a proposed dating of 25,000 -- 20,000 years ago , it is considered one of the earliest expressions of art in Italy .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Venus_of_Savignano",
"rank": 84,
"score": 92793
},
{
"content": "Title: In Trump We Trust Content: In Trump We Trust : E Pluribus Awesome ! is a 2016 book by Ann Coulter in support of Donald Trump and his 2016 campaign for the presidency of the United States . The e-book was a New York Times bestseller in September 2016 .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "In_Trump_We_Trust",
"rank": 85,
"score": 92721
},
{
"content": "Title: The Trump Organization Content: The Trump Organization is an American privately owned international conglomerate based in Trump Tower in Midtown Manhattan , New York City . It serves as the holding company for all of the business ventures of the current President of the United States , Donald Trump . The company was founded in 1923 by Trump 's grandmother and father as Elizabeth Trump & Son . From 1971 to 2017 , Trump ran the company as chairman and president . After being elected U.S. president , Trump announced that his two oldest sons Donald Trump Jr. and Eric Trump ( both longtime company executive vice presidents ) , along with longtime CFO Allen Weisselberg , 69 , have taken over the management of the company , serving as trustees for the duration of Trump 's presidency . Although he is no longer involved with its day-to-day management , the company remains under Trump 's ownership . Daughter Ivanka Trump is also , in March 2017 , listed as an executive vice president of the `` next generation '' management of the organization . The Trump Organization has interests in real estate development , investing , brokerage , sales and marketing , and property management . The company owns , operates , invests , and develops residential real estate , hotels , resorts , residential towers , and golf courses in different countries , as well as owning several hundred thousand square feet ( several hectares ) of prime Manhattan real estate . It lists involvement in 515 subsidiaries and entities with 264 of them bearing Trump 's name and another 54 including his initials . With investments within the United States and globally , The Trump Organization spans a wide variety of industries including real estate , construction , hospitality , entertainment , book and magazine publishing , media , model management , retail , financial services , board game development , food and beverages , business education , online travel , airlines , helicopter air services and beauty pageants . It owns a New York television production company that produces television programs including the reality television program , The Apprentice . The company also engages in retailing , having at various times sold fashion apparel , jewelry and accessories , books , home furnishings , lighting products , bath textiles and accessories , bedding , home fragrance products , small leather goods , barware , steaks , chocolate bars , and bottled spring water . The Trump Organization has divested a number of properties that continue to bear the Trump name even though Trump no longer owns them . For example , in February 2016 , it sold its stake in Trump Entertainment Resorts , which owns the Trump Taj Mahal , the Trump Plaza , and the Trump Marina casinos in Atlantic City , New Jersey . Since October 2016 , The Trump Organization has also developed properties under the name Scion Hotels , which are priced lower and are marketed towards younger customers .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "The_Trump_Organization",
"rank": 86,
"score": 92652
},
{
"content": "Title: Joseph Trumpeldor Content: Joseph Trumpeldor ( November 21 , 1880 -- March 1 , 1920 , , Иосиф Трумпельдор , -LSB- ˈjɔsef trumpelˈdɔʁ -RSB- , -LSB- ˈjosif trumpʲɪlʲˈdor -RSB- ) , was an early Zionist activist and war hero . He helped organize the Zion Mule Corps and bring Jewish immigrants to Israel . Trumpeldor died defending the settlement of Tel Hai in 1920 and subsequently became a Zionist national hero . According to a standard account , to him are attributed the last words , reminiscent of Horace : `` It does not matter , it is good to die for our country . ''",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Joseph_Trumpeldor",
"rank": 87,
"score": 92576
},
{
"content": "Title: Donald Trump–Russia dossier Content: The Donald Trump -- Russia dossier is a private intelligence dossier that was written by Christopher Steele , a former British MI6 intelligence officer . It contains unverified allegations of misconduct and ties between Donald Trump , then President-elect , and the Russian government during the 2016 U.S. presidential election and the period preceding the election . The existence of the dossier was first reported on January 10 , 2017 . Steele went into hiding after the release of the dossier , but reappeared on March 7 , 2017 . The dossier alleges that the Russian Federal Security Service ( FSB ) has kompromat on Trump -- damaging or embarrassing material which could be used to blackmail him , including allegations about Trump 's sexual and financial activities in Russia . The dossier also states that the Russian government promoted Trump 's candidacy to create divisions in Western alliances , and that during his presidential campaign , at the heat of the Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election , there was exchange of information and collusion between Russian officials and people associated with Trump 's campaign . The media and the intelligence community have stressed that accusations in the dossier have not been verified . Most experts have treated the dossier with caution , but in February , it was reported that some details related to conversations between foreign nationals had been independently corroborated , giving U.S. intelligence and law enforcement greater confidence in some aspects of the dossier as investigations continued . Trump himself has denounced the report , calling it `` fake news '' and `` phony . '' A Russian government spokesman dismissed the dossier , saying its allegations were false . Steele 's former colleagues came out in defense of his character and expertise . The dossier was produced as part of opposition research during the 2016 U.S. presidential election . The research was initially funded by Republicans who did not want Trump to be the Republican Party nominee for president . After Trump won the primaries , a Democratic client took over the funding ; and , following Trump 's election , Steele continued working on the report pro bono and passed on the information to British and American intelligence services .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Donald_Trump–Russia_dossier",
"rank": 88,
"score": 92534
},
{
"content": "Title: New York Republican primary, 2016 Content: The 2016 New York Republican primary was held on April 19 in the U.S. state of New York as one of the Republican Party 's primaries ahead of the 2016 presidential election . Donald Trump won his home state with 59 % of the vote and picked up 89 pledged delegates . He won over all age groups , income levels and political ideologies , with most voters saying they want a candidate who `` can bring change '' and `` tells it like it is '' . Most voters supported Trump 's proposed ban on Muslim immigration to the United States . The Democratic Party also held their own New York primary on the same day which was won by Hillary Clinton . Apart from that , no other primaries were scheduled for that day by either party .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "New_York_Republican_primary,_2016",
"rank": 89,
"score": 92149
},
{
"content": "Title: People's Climate March (2017) Content: The People 's Climate March ( also called People 's Climate Movement ) was a protest which took place on Washington , D.C. 's National Mall , and among 300 locations throughout the United States , and locations outside the U.S. , on April 29 , 2017 . Organizers announced the demonstration in January 2017 to protest the environmental policies of U.S. President Donald Trump and his administration . The protests were held at the end of his first 100 days as president , during stormy weather across the U.S. . There was an estimated 200,000 participating in the D.C. march .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "People's_Climate_March_(2017)",
"rank": 90,
"score": 92147
},
{
"content": "Title: Baltis Vallis Content: Baltis Vallis is a sinuous channel on Venus ranging from one to three kilometers wide and nearly 7,000 kilometers long , slightly longer than the Nile and the longest known channel of any kind in the solar system . It is thought that it once held a river of lava known as a lava channel . The lava must have had a very low viscosity , possibly due to a carbonatite composition . At the volcano Ol Doinyo Lengai in Tanzania , natrocarbonatite lava erupts at around 510 C , not far above Venus 's mean ambient temperature of 462 C. Analysis of cross-sectional profiles ( using brightness data from Magellan synthetic aperture radar images ) indicates that while Baltis Vallis does have levees , primarily in its first 1500 km , and intrachannel ridges , mainly in the segment 1500 to 3000 km from the source , the feature is primarily erosional , with a bottom surface 20 -- 100 m below the surrounding plains at 90 % of the sites studied . The average depths and widths of the channel are 46 ± 16 m and 2.2 ± 0.4 km , respectively . The channel is located in an area consisting entirely of plains and wrinkle ridges . The topography of the channel undulates , with some stretches travelling uphill , suggesting that various regions have uplifted and subsided since the channel formed . Both ends of the channel are obscured , however , so its original length is unknown . The channel was initially discovered by the Soviet Venera 15 and 16 orbiters which , in spite of their one-kilometer resolution , detected more than 1,000 km of the channel . These channel-like features are common on the plains of Venus . In some places they appear to have been formed by lava which may have melted or thermally eroded a path over the plains ' surface . Most are 1 to 3 kilometers ( 0.6 to 2 miles ) wide . They resemble terrestrial meandering rivers in some aspects , with meanders , cutoff bows and abandoned channel segments . However , Venus channels are not as tightly sinuous as terrestrial rivers . Most are partly buried by younger lava plains , making their sources difficult to identify . A few have vast radar-dark plains units associated with them , suggesting large flow volumes . These channels with large deposits appear to be older than other channel types , as they are crossed by fractures and wrinkle ridges , and are often buried by other volcanic materials . In addition , they appear to run both upslope and downslope , suggesting that the plains were warped by regional tectonism after channel formation .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Baltis_Vallis",
"rank": 91,
"score": 92076
},
{
"content": "Title: Filmography of Donald Trump Content: Donald Trump is an American businessman , television personality and the 45th and current President of the United States who has made cameo appearances in 12 films and around 10 television series .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Filmography_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 92,
"score": 92027
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Mesopause",
"rank": 93,
"score": 91719
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Mars Content: The climate of Mars has been an issue of scientific curiosity for centuries , in part because Mars is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope . Although Mars is smaller than the Earth , at 11 % of Earth 's mass , and 50 % farther from the Sun than the Earth , its climate has important similarities , such as the polar ice caps , seasonal changes and the observable presence of weather patterns . It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists . While Mars 's climate has similarities to Earth 's , including periodic ice ages , there are also important differences , such as much lower thermal inertia . Mars ' atmosphere has a scale height of approximately 11 km , 60 % greater than that on Earth . The climate is of considerable relevance to the question of whether life is or was present on the planet . The climate briefly received more interest in the news due to NASA measurements indicating increased sublimation of the south polar icecap leading to some popular press speculation that Mars was undergoing a parallel bout of global warming , although Mars ' average temperature has actually cooled in recent decades . Mars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible . Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above , while direct measurements of atmospheric conditions have been provided by a number of landers and rovers . Advanced Earth orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful `` big picture '' observations of relatively large weather phenomena . The first Martian flyby mission was Mariner 4 which arrived in 1965 . That quick two-day pass ( July 14 -- 15 , 1965 ) was limited and crude in terms of its contribution to the state of knowledge of Martian climate . Later Mariner missions ( Mariner 6 , and Mariner 7 ) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information . Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program in 1975 and continues with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . This observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model . Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Climate_of_Mars",
"rank": 94,
"score": 91655
},
{
"content": "Title: Residences of Donald Trump Content: U.S. President Donald Trump currently has seven residences . During his time at the New York Military Academy , he lived on campus ; he later rented row houses in college . In 1971 , Trump moved to a studio on 75th Street in Manhattan . Since the completion of Trump Tower in 1983 , Trump has lived in a three-level penthouse on the top floors . He purchased the Seven Springs mansion in Bedford , New York in 1995 . Upon Trump 's election to the US presidency , he moved into the White House in Washington , D.C. while First Lady Melania and their son will stay at Trump Tower in Manhattan until the end of the school year before moving to the White House as well .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Residences_of_Donald_Trump",
"rank": 95,
"score": 91638
},
{
"content": "Title: The America We Deserve Content: The America We Deserve is a book about public policy written by American businessman Donald Trump , later President of the United States , along with the help of author Dave Shiflett . It was published in January 2000 , while Trump was considering running for president in that year 's election on the Reform Party 's ticket . The book lists and details a set of policy proposals Trump intended to implement should he ever become president .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "The_America_We_Deserve",
"rank": 96,
"score": 91598
},
{
"content": "Title: Trumpia Content: Trumpia is an online multi-channel marketing and messaging software provider , offering mobile marketing , email marketing , voice broadcast , instant messaging , and social media marketing tools for businesses , non-profit organizations , and various types of membership organizations . Trumpia was ranked 46th in Software Companies , 33rd in the Los Angeles Metro Area , 80th in Top 100 California Companies , and 515th overall for the Inc. 5000 List of fastest-growing companies in 2012 . In 2011 , Website Magazine named Trumpia in the Top 3 position for the `` Top 50 Movers and Shakers in Mobile Services . '' Trumpia.com is headquartered in Anaheim , California , and is owned and operated by DoCircle , Inc. , a California-based corporation .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Trumpia",
"rank": 97,
"score": 91527
},
{
"content": "Title: Timeline of the Trump presidency, 2017 Q2 Content: The following is a timeline of the presidency of Donald Trump during the second quarter of 2017 . Other articles relating to Donald Trump 's post-election activities are : Presidential transition of Donald Trump First 100 days of Donald Trump 's presidency List of executive actions by Donald Trump List of presidential trips made by Donald Trump ( international trips )",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Timeline_of_the_Trump_presidency,_2017_Q2",
"rank": 98,
"score": 91508
},
{
"content": "Title: Timeline of the Trump presidency, 2017 Q1 Content: The following is a timeline of the presidency of Donald Trump during the first quarter of 2017 . Other articles relating to Donald Trump 's post-election activities are : Presidential transition of Donald Trump First 100 days of Donald Trump 's presidency List of executive actions by Donald Trump List of presidential trips made by Donald Trump ( international trips )",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Timeline_of_the_Trump_presidency,_2017_Q1",
"rank": 99,
"score": 91408
},
{
"content": "Title: Melania Trump Content: Melania Trump ( born Melanija Knavs -LSB- mɛˈlaːnija ˈknaːu̯s -RSB- , April 26 , 1970 ; Germanized to Melania Knauss ) is the current First Lady of the United States . Before marrying future President Donald Trump in 2005 , she worked as a fashion model ; by 2016 she considered herself a `` full-time mom '' . She was born in the city of Novo Mesto in Slovenia , then known as the Socialist Republic of Slovenia within Yugoslavia . She became a permanent resident of the United States in 2001 , and obtained U.S. citizenship in 2006 . Trump is the first naturalized U.S. citizen to become First Lady , and the second one born overseas . Louisa Adams , born in London to an American father , was legally a natural-born U.S. citizen .",
"qid": "98",
"docid": "Melania_Trump",
"rank": 100,
"score": 91341
}
] |
Most likely the primary control knob [on climate change] is the ocean waters and this environment that we live in. | [
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 1,
"score": 113377
},
{
"content": "Title: Control knob Content: A control knob is a rotary control used to provide input to a device when grasped by an operator and turned , so that the degree of rotation corresponds to the desired input . Such knobs are one of the most common components in control systems and are found on all sorts of devices .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Control_knob",
"rank": 2,
"score": 102397
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 3,
"score": 102093
},
{
"content": "Title: Bandspread Content: In a radio receiver , a bandspread control is a secondary tuning control that allows accurate tuning of closely spaced frequencies of a radio band . With a main tuning control that covered a wide range of frequencies , for example 10-14 megahertz in a few turns of the tuning knob , a very small motion might change the tuning by tens of kilohertz and would make accurate tuning to any particular frequency difficult . A calibrated bandspread tuning control allows the main tuning to be set to a predefined spot on the control , and the bandspread allows tuning of a particular frequency within some restricted range of the main tuning control . One method of adding a bandspread control was to put a relatively small value variable tuning capacitor and dial directly in parallel with the main tuning variable capacitor ( or connected to a tap on the coil of the tuned circuit ) . The smaller capacitor would have much less effect on the resonant frequency than the main capacitor , allowing fine discrimination of the tuned frequency . A second method , mechanical bandspread , was a second tuning knob connected through a gear train to the main tuning knob ; each turn of the bandspread dial moved the main dial through a small part of its range , improving the precision of tuning . Bandspread controls were found on communications receivers , amateur radio receivers , and some broadcast receivers . With the advent of digital frequency synthesizers that could be set with high resolution by a keypad or incremental tuning knob , the requirement for bandspread control in many applications was eliminated . In the mid 1960s , some British portable radios had a separate ` Bandspread ' waveband covering the highest frequencies of the medium wave ( AM ) band ( typically 1400 - 1600kHz ) to simplify tuning of popular commercial stations such as the offshore Radio Caroline and the continental Radio Luxembourg . A single tuning knob was used for all wavebands .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Bandspread",
"rank": 4,
"score": 100935
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "United_Nations_Ocean_Conference",
"rank": 5,
"score": 100187
},
{
"content": "Title: Ministry of Environment and Climate Change (Romania) Content: The Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change ( Ministerul Mediului și Schimbărilor climatice ) is one of the ministries of the Government of Romania . The institution was known as the Ministry of Environment and Waters Management ( Ministerul Mediului și Gospodăririi Apelor ) before April 2007 ; and then the Ministry of Environment and Forests .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Ministry_of_Environment_and_Climate_Change_(Romania)",
"rank": 6,
"score": 99647
},
{
"content": "Title: James McCarthy (oceanographer) Content: James J. McCarthy is a Professor of Biological Oceanography at Harvard and was President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science from Feb 2008-Feb 2009 . McCarthy is Alexander Agassiz Professor of Biological Oceanography and former Master of Pforzheimer House . He is also Acting Curator of the Malacology Department in the Museum of Comparative Zoology . His studies address factors that regulate the processes of primary production and nutrient supply in upper ocean , approached using controlled laboratory studies and field investigations . Study sites range from near shore to the open ocean . Recent and current field research sites include the North Atlantic , equatorial Pacific , and Arabian Sea . He is on the faculty of the Harvard Medical School Center for Health and the Global Environment . Quote from Science News February 2009 interview : The Maldives and Kiribati highlight a hidden challenge for coping with climate change \\ global Warming . It 's not just about slowing the emissions of greenhouse gases . It 's also about figuring out what to do for localities threatened with the possibility of extinction from -LSB- rising ocean waters . `` They are like the canary in the coal mine in terms of the dramatic impact of climate change on a whole civilization of people '' `` They did n't cause the problem , but they will be among the first to feel it . '' The 2007 IPCC report took an extremely conservative approach to potential sea level rise , focusing on thermal expansion . It estimated that sea level increases could range from 0.2 to 0.6 meters by 2100 . Experts cautioned , however , that these numbers were highly uncertain and probably underestimated the potential change . The IPCC analysis did not take into account the unexpectedly rapid rate of melting and decay of polar ice sheets , particularly in Greenland , that has been observed recently , or the prospect of accelerated breakdown of polar sheets in the future . `` That 's not something that was anticipated '' .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "James_McCarthy_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 7,
"score": 97381
},
{
"content": "Title: Department of Sustainability and Environment Content: The Department of Sustainability and Environment ( DSE ) was a state government department that managed water resources , climate change , bushfires , public land , forests and eco systems in the state of Victoria , Australia . It was created in 2002 when the Department of Natural Resources and Environment was divided into the Department of Primary Industries and the Department of Sustainability and Environment . The department supported and advised two Victorian ministers , the Minister for Environment and Climate Change , Ryan Smith , and the Minister for Water , Peter Walsh , and helped with the management and administration of their portfolios . The Department secretary was Greg Wilson . It had 2700 staff working at 90 locations across the state . The Department of Sustainability and Environment was merged with the Department of Primary Industries to form the Department of Environment and Primary Industries ( Victoria ) in April 2013 .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Department_of_Sustainability_and_Environment",
"rank": 8,
"score": 96483
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 9,
"score": 95824
},
{
"content": "Title: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Content: The Ministry of Environment , Forest and Climate Change ( MoEFCC ) is an Indian government ministry . The ministry portfolio is currently held by Dr. Harsh Vardhan , Union Minister of Environment , Forest and Climate Change . The ministry is responsible for planning , promoting , coordinating , and overseeing the implementation of environmental and forestry programmes in the country . The main activities undertaken by the ministry include conservation and survey of the flora of India and fauna of India , forests and other wilderness areas ; prevention and control of pollution ; afforestation , and land degradation mitigation . It is responsible for the administration of the national parks of India . One of the three All India Services , the Indian Forest Service ( IFoS ) is under the administration and supervision of the Ministry of Environment , Forest and Climate Change .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Ministry_of_Environment,_Forest_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 10,
"score": 92550
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_system",
"rank": 11,
"score": 92132
},
{
"content": "Title: Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change Content: The Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change ( MOECC ) is a Ontario government ministry responsible for protecting and improving the quality of the environment in the Canadian province of Ontario , as well as coordinating Ontario 's actions on climate change . This includes administration of government programs , such as Ontario 's Drive Clean and Clean Water Act . The ministry headquarters are located inside the Ontario Government Buildings . The current Minister is Glen Murray .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Ministry_of_the_Environment_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 12,
"score": 91830
},
{
"content": "Title: Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array Content: The Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array ( RAPID/MOCHA ) program is a collaborative research project between the National Oceanography Centre ( Southampton , U.K. ) , the University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( RSMAS ) , and NOAA 's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ( AOML ) that measure the meridional overturning circulation ( MOC ) and ocean heat transport in the North Atlantic Ocean . This array was deployed in March 2004 to continuously monitor the MOC and ocean heat transport that are primarily associated with the Thermohaline Circulation across the basin at 26 ° N . The RAPID-MOCHA array is planned to be continued through 2014 to provide a decade or longer continuous time series . The continuous observations are measured by an array of instruments along 26 ° N . This monitoring array directly measures the transport of the Gulf Stream in the Florida Strait using an undersea cable and a moored array measures bottom pressure and water column density ( including temperature and salinity ) at the western and eastern boundary and on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( MAR ) . Absolute transports including barotropic circulation are monitored using precision bottom pressure gauges . `` Dynamic height '' moorings are used to estimate the spatially average geostropic velocity profile and associated transports over relatively wide mooring separations . The dynamic height moorings requires measurements on both sides of the current field only , rather both the horizontal and vertical structure of the current field to be sufficiently well resolved to estimate transports . The basin-wide MOC strength and vertical structure are estimated via Ekman transports by satellite scatterometer measurements and the geotrophic and direct current observations . RAPID-MOCHA is funded by the National Environmental Research Council ( NERC ) and the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Rapid_Climate_Change-Meridional_Overturning_Circulation_and_Heatflux_Array",
"rank": 13,
"score": 91761
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainability and environmental management Content: At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , according to sustainability principles . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles . Management of the Earth 's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Sustainability_and_environmental_management",
"rank": 14,
"score": 91075
},
{
"content": "Title: Australian Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey Content: The Australian Continuous Plankton Recorder ( AusCPR ) survey is a joint project of the CSIRO and the Australian Antarctic Division , DEWHA , to monitor plankton communities as a guide to the health of Australia 's oceans . Plankton respond rapidly to changes in the ocean environment compared to other marine animals such as fish , birds and mammals , which makes them ideal biological indicators of ecosystem change . AusCPR was initiated in 2007 and funding has been secured initially for four years , although it is envisaged that the survey will continue well into the future . The aims of the AusCPR survey are to : map plankton biodiversity and distribution develop the first long-term phytoplankton and zooplankton baseline for Australian waters document plankton changes in response to climate change provide indices for fisheries management detect harmful algal blooms validate satellite remote sensing initialise and test ecosystem models The AusCPR survey uses the Continuous Plankton Recorder ( CPR ) , a device developed by pioneering British marine biologist Sir Alister Hardy . In 1931 , this device formed the basis of the ongoing CPR survey of the North Atlantic . This survey is one of the longest running marine biological surveys in the world , and many climate related changes in the plankton have been observed over the past 70 years . The design of the CPR has remained fundamentally unchanged over time as the simple yet robust design is a key to its success as an effective plankton sampler . The key to its success as a frequent basin-scale sampler is that the device is towed behind ships of opportunity ( SOOPs ) unaccompanied by scientists or research staff , making it a cost-effective sampling platform . The CPR is towed at about 10 metres below the surface and for about 450 nautical miles ( 830 km ) per ` tow ' . The plankton enters a small opening in the device and is trapped and preserved between two layers of silk mesh . In the laboratory the silk is unrolled and phytoplankton and zooplankton are counted and identified . Data generated by the survey will be made freely available according to the Integrated Marine Observing System ( IMOS ) -RSB- data policy and will provide researchers and policy makers with environmental and climatic indicators on harmful algal blooms , eutrophication , pollution , climate change and fisheries . The AusCPR survey will collaborate with sister surveys , the SCAR Southern Ocean Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey and the Continuous Plankton Recorder in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Australian_Continuous_Plankton_Recorder_Survey",
"rank": 15,
"score": 90865
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow Content: The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Committee_for_a_Constructive_Tomorrow",
"rank": 16,
"score": 90510
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans",
"rank": 17,
"score": 90174
},
{
"content": "Title: Central Pollution Control Board Content: The Central Pollution Control Board ( CPCB ) of India is a statutory organisation under the Ministry of Environment , Forest and Climate Change ( MoEF & CC ) . It was established in 1974 under the Water ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act , 1974 . CPCB is also entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air ( Prevention and Control of Pollution ) Act , 1981 . It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests under the provisions of the Environment ( Protection ) Act , 1986 . It Co-ordinates the activities of the State Pollution Control Boards by providing technical assistance and guidance and also resolves disputes among them . It is the apex organisation in country in the field of pollution control , as a technical wing of MoEF . The board is led by its chairman , who is nominated by the Central Government . The current acting chairman is Shri S.P. Singh Parihar IAS . CPCB has its head office in New Delhi , with seven zonal offices and 5 laboratories . The board conducts environmental assessments and research . It is responsible for maintaining national standards under a variety of environmental laws , in consultation with zonal offices , tribal , and local governments . It has responsibilities to conduct monitoring of water and air quality , and maintains monitoring data . The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a wide variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs and energy conservation efforts . It advises the central government to prevent and control water and air pollution . It also advises the Governments of Union Territories on industrial and other sources of water and air pollution . CPCB along with its counterparts the State Pollution Control Boards ( SPCBs ) are responsible for implementation of legislation relating to prevention and control of environmental pollution . The board has approximately 500 full-time employees including engineers , scientists , and environmental protection specialists .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Central_Pollution_Control_Board",
"rank": 18,
"score": 89533
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 19,
"score": 89000
},
{
"content": "Title: South Pacific Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project Content: The primary goal of the project is to provide accurate , long term records of the variance of the sea level in the Pacific and South Pacific oceans .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "South_Pacific_Sea_Level_and_Climate_Monitoring_Project",
"rank": 20,
"score": 88603
},
{
"content": "Title: Environment and Climate Change Canada Content: Environment and Climate Change Canada ( or simply its former name , Environment Canada , or EC ) ( Environnement et Changement climatique Canada ) , legally incorporated as the Department of the Environment under the Department of the Environment Act ( R.S. , 1985 , c. E-10 ) , is the department of the Government of Canada with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources . The powers , duties and functions of the Minister of the Environment extend to and include matters relating to : `` preserve and enhance the quality of the natural environment , including water , air , soil , flora and fauna ; conserve Canada 's renewable resources ; conserve and protect Canada 's water resources ; forecast daily weather conditions and warnings , and provide detailed meteorological information to all of Canada ; enforce rules relating to boundary waters ; and coordinate environmental policies and programs for the federal government . '' Its ministerial headquarters is located in les Terrasses de la Chaudière , Gatineau , Quebec . Under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act ( CEPA 1999 ) ( R.S. , 1999 , c. 33 ) , Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the cleanup of hazardous waste and oil spills for which the government is responsible , and to provide technical assistance to other jurisdictions and the private sector as required . The department is also responsible for international environmental issues ( e.g. , Canada-USA air issues ) . CEPA was the central piece of Canada 's environmental legislation but was replaced when budget implementation bill ( C-38 ) entered into effect in June 2012 . Under the Constitution of Canada , responsibility for environmental management in Canada is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments . For example , provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges ( e.g. , to the air ) . The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country ( e.g. , benzene ) . Environment Canada provides stewardship of the Environmental Choice Program , which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of ( GEN ) Global Ecolabelling Network . Environment Canada continues ( 2005 -- present ) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making , and to standardize policy implementation .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Environment_and_Climate_Change_Canada",
"rank": 21,
"score": 88347
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Research_Centre",
"rank": 22,
"score": 88332
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on marine mammals Content: The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_marine_mammals",
"rank": 23,
"score": 88028
},
{
"content": "Title: Adaptation to climate change in Jordan Content: Adaptation to climate change in Jordan describes measures with the objective to prepare the country for the impacts of climate change . Water resources in Jordan are scarce . Besides the rapid population growth , the impacts of climate change are likely to further exacerbate the problem . Temperatures will increase and the total annual precipitation is likely to decrease , however with a fair share of uncertainty . Hence , existing and new activities with the objective to minimize the gap between water supply and demand contribute to adapt Jordan to tomorrow 's climate . This might be accompanied by activities improving Jordan 's capacity to monitor and project meteorological and hydrological data and assess its own vulnerability to climate change . This article focuses on the impacts of climate change on the Jordanian water sector .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Adaptation_to_climate_change_in_Jordan",
"rank": 24,
"score": 87583
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 25,
"score": 87349
},
{
"content": "Title: Norwegian Climate and Pollution Agency Content: The Norwegian Climate and Pollution Agency ( Klima - og forurensningsdirektoratet , Klif ) , named Norwegian Pollution Control Authority ( Statens forurensningstilsyn ) , SFT ) until 2010 , was a Norwegian government agency from 1974 to 2013 when it was merged into the Norwegian Environment Agency . The agency was responsible for insuring that pollution , waste and other harmful substances did n't result in health damage , inflict the well-being or hinder the production and reproduction of nature . In particular it had a responsibility of pollution related to sea and water , chemicals , waste and recycling , global warming , air pollution and noise . It was subordinate to the Norwegian Ministry of the Environment and was responsible to ensure that the Pollution Act , the Product Control Act and the Climate Quota Act were followed , including issuing permits for submission , including controlling that these permissions are followed . The agency had 325 employees based in Oslo . Pollution Control Authority Category : Government agencies established in 1974 Category : Organisations based in Oslo Category : Environmental agencies Category : Ministry of Climate and the Environment ( Norway )",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Norwegian_Climate_and_Pollution_Agency",
"rank": 26,
"score": 87055
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 27,
"score": 86957
},
{
"content": "Title: Plows, Plagues and Petroleum Content: Plows , Plagues and Petroleum : How Humans Took Control of Climate is a 2005 book published by Princeton University Press and written by William Ruddiman , a paleoclimatologist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Virginia . He has authored and co-authored several books and academic papers on the subject of climate change . Scientists often refer to this period as the `` Anthropocene '' and define it as the era in which humans first began to alter the earth 's climate and ecosystems . Ruddiman contends that human induced climate change began as a result of the advent of agriculture thousands of years ago and resulted in warmer temperatures that could have possibly averted another ice age ; this is the early anthropocene hypothesis .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Plows,_Plagues_and_Petroleum",
"rank": 28,
"score": 86638
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory Content: The Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory ( CMDL ) was a climate laboratory in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . In October 2005 , it was merged with five other NOAA labs to form the Earth System Research Laboratory . CMDL 's mission was to observe and understand , through accurate , long-term records of atmospheric gases , aerosol particles , and solar radiation , the Earth 's atmospheric system controlling climate forcing , ozone depletion and baseline air quality , in order to develop products that will advance global and regional environmental information and services .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_Monitoring_and_Diagnostics_Laboratory",
"rank": 29,
"score": 86627
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 30,
"score": 86100
},
{
"content": "Title: Oceanside Water Pollution Control Plant Content: The Oceanside Water Pollution Control Plant ( OWPCP ) is a wastewater treatment plant operated by the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission , in San Francisco , California , United States . The award-winning facility is noted for its mostly underground construction inside a hollowed-out hill . It is located between Ocean Beach and Lake Merced in the far-southwest corner of the city , near the San Francisco Zoo , and the California National Guard . OWPCP is a secondary treatment plant handling one-third of the city 's wastewater . The maximum treatment plant capacity is 65 e6USgal per day , with the average daily dry weather flow of 17.5 e6USgal . Construction on the , 12 acre facility began in January 1990 and was completed in June 1994 . 70 percent of the structure is underground covered with 6 ft of earth and landscaping .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Oceanside_Water_Pollution_Control_Plant",
"rank": 31,
"score": 85658
},
{
"content": "Title: OceanoScientific Content: The OceanoScientific Programme is a scientific process studying causes and consequences of climate change at the ocean - atmosphere interface .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "OceanoScientific",
"rank": 32,
"score": 85531
},
{
"content": "Title: Executive Order 13653 Content: Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Executive_Order_13653",
"rank": 33,
"score": 85405
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)",
"rank": 34,
"score": 85373
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 35,
"score": 84944
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Ecological_forecasting",
"rank": 36,
"score": 84874
},
{
"content": "Title: Eve Mosher Content: Eve Mosher is an American environmental artist living and working in New York City . She is best known for her public art installation HighWaterLine , which premiered in New York City in 2007 . Her predictions about where waters would rise due to climate change were validated by flood levels during Hurricane Sandy in 2012 . Other locations for installations of HighWaterLine include Miami , Florida , where it was created with the help of volunteers ( 2013 ) and Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ( 2014 ) . Installations have been discussed for Dublin , Ireland , and London , England .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Eve_Mosher",
"rank": 37,
"score": 84769
},
{
"content": "Title: VNREDSat 1A Content: VNREDSat-1 ( short for Vietnam Natural Resources , Environment and Disaster Monitoring Satellite ) is the first optical Earth Observing satellite of Vietnam ; its primary mission is to monitor and study the effects of climate change , predict and take measures to prevent natural disasters , and optimise the management of Vietnam 's natural resources .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "VNREDSat_1A",
"rank": 38,
"score": 84689
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic adaptation Content: Climate adaptation refers to specific adaptations in a living organism that develop in response to changes in climate and habitat . Such adaptations could include physical changes , such as skin or fur color and composition changes , or the adaptations could be behavioral , such as burrowing into the ground or spending more time in water . These are not necessarily permanently expressed traits , instead encompassing the potential for the individual to adapt to certain environments . The change in the environment triggers a change in behavior which would not have been present had the organism not been exposed to that specific stimuli . Climate adaptation is constrained by the genetic variability of the species in question .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climatic_adaptation",
"rank": 39,
"score": 84588
},
{
"content": "Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Hell_and_High_Water_(book)",
"rank": 40,
"score": 84136
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 41,
"score": 83782
},
{
"content": "Title: Alan Longhurst Content: Alan Reece Longhurst is a British-born Canadian oceanographer who invented the Longhurst-Hardy Plankton Recorder , and is widely known for his contributions to the primary scientific literature , together with his numerous monographs , most notably the `` Ecological Geography of the Sea '' . He led an effort that produced the first estimate of global primary production in the oceans using satellite imagery , and also quantified vertical carbon flux through the planktonic ecosystem via the biological pump . More recently , he has offered a number of critical reviews of several aspects of fishery management science and climate change science .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Alan_Longhurst",
"rank": 42,
"score": 83370
},
{
"content": "Title: Knob Content: Knob may refer to : A round handle Doorknob Control knob , controls a device Brodie knob , on a steering wheel A rounded hill or mountain , particularly in the Appalachians and the Ozarks Tow ball or hitch ball Protrusions on the surface of erythrocytes associated with Maurer 's clefts in malaria Dorset knob , a biscuit",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Knob",
"rank": 43,
"score": 83049
},
{
"content": "Title: Aragonite sea Content: An aragonite sea contains aragonite and high-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic carbonate precipitates . Therefore , the chemical conditions of the seawater must be notably high in magnesium content for an aragonite sea to form . This is in contrast to a calcite sea in which low-magnesium calcite is the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate . The Early Paleozoic and the Middle to Late Mesozoic oceans were predominantly calcite seas , whereas the Middle Paleozoic through the Early Mesozoic and the Cenozoic ( including today ) are characterized by aragonite seas . Aragonite seas form due to several factors , the most obvious of these is a high magnesium content . However , the sea level and the temperature of the surrounding system also determine whether an aragonite sea will form . Calcite seas occurred at times of rapid seafloor spreading and global greenhouse climate conditions . Calcite is the predominant mineral in warm , shallow marine environments . Aragonite on the other hand , is the dominant mineral in cool marine water environments . This trend has been observed by looking at the chemistry of carbonates , dating them and analyzing the conditions under which they were formed . One study has examined the temporal and spatial distribution of limestone-marl alternations in Ordovician , Jurassic and Cretaceous ( times of calcite seas ) . This study concluded that the most abundant of the limestone-marl alternations occurred in settings similar to today 's seas which favor aragonite production .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Aragonite_sea",
"rank": 44,
"score": 82884
},
{
"content": "Title: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement Content: The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Laboratoire_des_sciences_du_climat_et_de_l'environnement",
"rank": 45,
"score": 82821
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 46,
"score": 82641
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States",
"rank": 47,
"score": 82431
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 48,
"score": 82398
},
{
"content": "Title: Upwelling Content: Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense , cooler , and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface , replacing the warmer , usually nutrient-depleted surface water . The nutrient-rich upwelled water stimulates the growth and reproduction of primary producers such as phytoplankton . Due to the biomass of phytoplankton and presence of cool water in these regions , upwelling zones can be identified by cool sea surface temperatures ( SST ) and high concentrations of chlorophyll-a . The increased availability in upwelling regions results in high levels of primary productivity and thus fishery production . Approximately 25 % of the total global marine fish catches come from five upwellings that occupy only 5 % of the total ocean area . Upwellings that are driven by coastal currents or diverging open ocean have the greatest impact on nutrient-enriched waters and global fishery yields . __ TOC __",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Upwelling",
"rank": 49,
"score": 82046
},
{
"content": "Title: Bruce A. Menge Content: Bruce A. Menge is an American ocean ecologist . He has spent over forty years studying the processes that drive the dynamics of natural communities . His fields of interest include : structure and dynamics of marine meta-ecosystems , responses of coastal ecosystems to climate change , linking benthic and inner shelf pelagic communities , the relationship between scale and ecosystem dynamics , bottom-up and top-down control of community structure , recruitment dynamics , ecophysiology and sub-organismal mechanisms in environmental stress models , larval transport and connectivity , impact of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems , controls of productivity , population , community , and geographical ecology . He settled on two career goals : carrying out experiment-based field research to investigate the dynamics of rocky intertidal communities , focusing on species interactions and environmental context and how this might shape a community , and using the resulting data to test and modify theories on how communities were organized .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Bruce_A._Menge",
"rank": 50,
"score": 81782
},
{
"content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Glacier_mass_balance",
"rank": 51,
"score": 81492
},
{
"content": "Title: Minister of Environment and Climate Change (Canada) Content: The Minister of Environment and Climate Change ( Ministre de l'Environnement et du Changement Climatique ) is the Minister of the Crown in the Canadian Cabinet who is responsible for overseeing the federal government 's environment department , Environment and Climate Change Canada . The Minister is also responsible for overseeing Parks Canada and the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency . Noted environment ministers of the past have included Jack Davis , Roméo LeBlanc , Jean Charest , Stéphane Dion , Sheila Copps , David Anderson and Peter Kent . Known as the Minister of the Environment until 2015 , the position was given its current name in 2015 upon the creation of the 29th Canadian Ministry .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Minister_of_Environment_and_Climate_Change_(Canada)",
"rank": 52,
"score": 81418
},
{
"content": "Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Living_in_the_Hothouse",
"rank": 53,
"score": 80989
},
{
"content": "Title: Hans Oeschger Content: Hans Oeschger ( 2 April 1927 , Ottenbach -- 25 December 1998 , Bern ) was the founder of the Division of Climate and Environmental Physics at the Physics Institute of the University of Bern in 1963 and director until his retirement in 1992 . Oeschger was the first to date the `` age '' of Pacific deep water . The Oeschger counter was the leading instrument for many years which enabled the Oeschger 's team to measure the activity of naturally occurring radioisotopes . Oeschger was a pioneer and leader in ice core research . In collaboration with his colleagues he was the first to measure the glacial-interglacial change of atmospheric . They showed in 1979 that the atmospheric concentration of during the glacial was almost 50 % lower than today . Together with his colleagues Chester C. Langway and Willi Dansgaard , he documented a series of abrupt climate changes in the Greenland ice cores now known as Dansgaard-Oeschger events . Hans Oeschger was deeply troubled by the potential of an increased greenhouse effect caused by the steady increase of atmospheric . He said : `` The worst for me would be , if there were serious changes in the next 5 to 10 years and we scientists are helpless and did not have the courage to point at these dangerous developments early . '' He was a Lead Author of the First Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The European Geophysical Society established the Hans Oeschger Medal in his honour in 2001 . The centre of excellence for climate research at the University of Bern ( Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research ) , which was founded in 2007 , is named after Hans Oeschger .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Hans_Oeschger",
"rank": 54,
"score": 80786
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Taylor (environmentalist) Content: Peter Taylor ( b. 24 Jan 1948 ) is a UK environmentalist with a long track record of public activism and scholarship on issues ranging from nuclear safety , ocean pollution , biodiversity strategies , renewable energy and climate change . His recent work on global warming has been questioned by environmentalists . His 2009 book Chill : a reassessment of global warming theory argued that most of the recent documented warming is caused by peaking natural cycles , that there is also a potential for global cooling and that adaptation not mitigation should be a priority . His views received widespread coverage in the media -- with front page on the Daily Express , and articles in the online versions of The Mail , The Times and an Al Jazeera video .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Peter_Taylor_(environmentalist)",
"rank": 55,
"score": 80784
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_variability",
"rank": 56,
"score": 80762
},
{
"content": "Title: Ilulissat Declaration Content: The Ilulissat Declaration was announced on May 28 , 2008 by the five coastal states of the Arctic Ocean ( United States , Russia , Canada , Norway and Denmark ) , meeting at the political level during the Arctic Ocean Conference in Ilulissat , Greenland to discuss the Arctic ocean , climate change , the protection of the marine environment , maritime safety , and division of emergency responsibilities if new shipping routes are opened . One of the chief goals written into the declaration was blockage of any `` new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean '' . An additional pledge for `` the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims , '' was expected as the conference invitation originated in 2007 as a consequence of several jurisdictional disputes , including Hans Island and Arktika 2007 . Because the objective of the meeting was to discuss legal regimes and jurisdictional issues in the Arctic Ocean , only the five coastal states of that ocean were invited . The Arctic Council , being the only circumpolar Arctic international forum , which also includes the three Arctic states that do not border the Arctic Ocean ( Sweden , Finland and Iceland ) was deliberately not used as a forum . These three states are therefore not a party to the Ilulissat Declaration . Likewise , the Arctic indigenous peoples , who have a prominent position within the Arctic Council , were not involved in the Ilulissat negotiations . The conference , held May 27 to May 29 , 2008 , was hosted by Per Stig Møller , Danish Minister of Foreign Affairs , and Hans Enoksen , Greenlandic Prime Minister . The key ministerial level attendees included Sergey Lavrov , Russian Minister for Foreign Affairs , Jonas Gahr Støre , Norwegian Minister for Foreign Affairs , Gary Lunn , Canadian Minister for Natural Resources , and John Negroponte , American Deputy Secretary of State .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Ilulissat_Declaration",
"rank": 57,
"score": 80706
},
{
"content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 58,
"score": 80694
},
{
"content": "Title: Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change Content: The Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change ( MCC ) conducts research and fosters dialogue about how the global commons , such as the atmosphere and the oceans , might be used and shared by many yet nevertheless be protected . A main theme is the compatibility of economic growth with sustainable development and climate protection .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Mercator_Research_Institute_on_Global_Commons_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 59,
"score": 80510
},
{
"content": "Title: Karin Lochte Content: Karin Lochte ( born 20 September 1952 ) is a German oceanographer , researcher , and climate change specialist . In 2007 , she became director of the Alfred Wegener Institute in Bremerhaven as well as chairman of the management committee of Jacobs University Bremen .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Karin_Lochte",
"rank": 60,
"score": 80450
},
{
"content": "Title: Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity Content: Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity , or SMOS , is a satellite which forms part of ESA 's Living Planet Programme . It is intended to provide new insights into Earth 's water cycle and climate . In addition , it is intended to provide improved weather forecasting and monitoring of snow and ice accumulation .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Soil_Moisture_and_Ocean_Salinity",
"rank": 61,
"score": 80116
},
{
"content": "Title: Space mirror (climate engineering) Content: The use of space mirrors as an anti-global warming measure is a proposed technology for climate change mitigation by deflection of sunlight . It was one of a series of proposals for controlling global warming made to the United States government in 2001 . At the `` Response Options to Rapid or Severe Climate Change '' round-table meeting organized by the President 's Climate Change Technology Program in September 2001 to gather ideas for averting climate change , one of the proposals was to station one or more wire-mesh `` mirrors '' in orbit to deflect sunlight back into space or to filter it . The idea was proposed by Lowell Wood , a senior staff scientist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , who calculated that deflecting 1 % of sunlight would restore climatic stability , and that that would require either a single mirror 600000 sqmi in area or several smaller ones . Wood had been researching the idea for more than ten years but considered it so infeasible that it should only be a back-up plan for solving the global warming problem . In January 2007 , The Guardian reported that the US government was recommending that research on sunlight deflection , including space mirrors , be continued as `` insurance '' and that the next United Nations Report on Climate Change advocate such a strategy . In addition to the space mirror , suggested sunlight-reducing techniques included launching thousands of highly reflective balloons and pumping sulphate droplets into the upper atmosphere to emulate volcanic emissions . Space mirrors were first considered in the 1980s as a way to cool the climate of Venus . James Early , also at Livermore , in 1989 proposed using a `` space shade '' 2,000 kilometers in diameter orbiting at Lagrangian Point L1 . He estimated the cost at between one and ten trillion US dollars and suggested manufacturing it on the moon using moon rock . Using space mirrors as a space sunshade to reduce the impact of sunlight falls into the category of geoengineering : deliberately modifying the earth 's climate . At a conference on the topic organized by Daniel Schrag of Harvard University and David Keith of the University of Calgary in November 2007 , the consensus was that it was worth studying such ideas further despite their high cost , the doubtful feasibility of some including the space mirror , and the risk of their distracting attention from reduction of greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Space_mirror_(climate_engineering)",
"rank": 62,
"score": 80029
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Paleoflooding",
"rank": 63,
"score": 79826
},
{
"content": "Title: Katherine Richardson Christensen Content: Katherine Richardson is Professor in Biological Oceanography at the University of Copenhagen . She was one of the main organisers of the scientific conference Climate Change : Global Risks , Challenges and Decisions , which sought to inform the 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Katherine_Richardson_Christensen",
"rank": 64,
"score": 79673
},
{
"content": "Title: RheinBlick2050 Content: RheinBlick2050 is an environmental science research project on the impacts of regional climate change on discharge of the Rhine River and its major tributaries ( here : Moselle and Main rivers ) in Central Europe . The project runtime was from January 2008 until September 2010 , initiated by and coordinated on behalf of the International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin ( CHR ) .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "RheinBlick2050",
"rank": 65,
"score": 79642
},
{
"content": "Title: Valby Internment Content: The Internment in Valby is constructed in a former beer depot in relationship with the state of emergency laws introduced in relationship with the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) December 2009 It is the primary detention used for climate activists , who will be arrested by the police . The police can detain people for 12 hours , which is called preemptive arrest The procedure : 1 ) The detainees will be placed on benches in handcuffs until they will be called to be booked and searched . 2 ) Then they will be led to the cages ( pejoratively called `` dog cages '' in the Danish media ) which can each accommodate 8-10 persons . 3 ) If police investigation leads to charges the detainee will be transferred to Vestre Fængsel . Otherwise the detainee will be released after the 12-hour period since the arrest has passed . There will be access to toilet and water . Food can be earned after 6 hours . Due to limited heating possibilities the detainees can be granted a blanket . A common nickname in the press is the `` Climate Prison ''",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Valby_Internment",
"rank": 66,
"score": 79397
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 67,
"score": 79190
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature control Content: Temperature control is a process in which change of temperature of a space ( and objects collectively there within ) is measured or otherwise detected , and the passage of heat energy into or out of the space is adjusted to achieve a desired average temperature .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Temperature_control",
"rank": 68,
"score": 79060
},
{
"content": "Title: Roger Revelle Prize Content: The Roger Revelle Prize is a prize given out by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography to people who have made outstanding contributions that advance or promote scientific research in fields such as oceanography , climatology and other planetary sciences . This prize is named for Roger Revelle , a scientist who served as director of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and was instrumental in the founding of the University of California , San Diego . He was an important oceanographer and a pioneer in climate change research . The inaugural recipient of this prize was Al Gore , the former Vice President of the United States . He was awarded the prize on 6 March 2009 for his efforts to bring climate change and environmental issues to a worldwide audience . The second recipient of this prize was Prince Albert of Monaco . He was awarded the prize on 23 October 2009 for his efforts to promote scientific research and protection of the environment .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Roger_Revelle_Prize",
"rank": 69,
"score": 79044
},
{
"content": "Title: National Centers for Environmental Prediction Content: The United States National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) delivers national and global weather , water , climate and space weather guidance , forecasts , warnings and analyses to its Partners and External User Communities . These products and services are based on a service-science legacy and respond to user needs to protect life and property , enhance that nation 's economy and support the nation 's growing need for environmental information . The centers form part of the National Weather Service . There are nine centers : Aviation Weather Center provides aviation warnings and forecasts of hazardous flight conditions at all levels within domestic and international air space . Climate Prediction Center monitors and forecasts short-term climate fluctuations and provides information on the effects climate patterns can have on the nation . Environmental Modeling Center develops and improves numerical weather , climate , hydrological and ocean prediction through a broad program in partnership with the research community . National Hurricane Center provides forecasts of the movement and strength of tropical weather systems and issues watches and warnings for the North Atlantic and the Eastern Pacific Ocean . NCEP Central Operations sustains and executes the operational suite of numerical analyses and forecast models and prepares NCEP products for dissemination . Ocean Prediction Center issues weather warnings and forecasts out to five days for the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans north of 30 degrees North . Space Weather Prediction Center provides space weather alerts and warnings for disturbances that can affect people and equipment working in space and on earth . Storm Prediction Center provides tornado and severe weather watches for the contiguous United States along with a suite of hazardous weather forecasts . Weather Prediction Center provides nationwide analysis and forecast guidance products out through seven days .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "National_Centers_for_Environmental_Prediction",
"rank": 70,
"score": 78848
},
{
"content": "Title: Lawrence A. Mysak Content: Lawrence Mysak , ( born January 1940 in Saskatoon , Saskatchewan ) is a Canadian applied mathematician , working primarily on physical oceanography , and climate research , particularly arctic and palaeoclimate research . Born in Saskatoon , Saskatchewan , Lawrence earned his B.Sc . in applied mathematics in 1961 from the University of Alberta ( Canada ) along with his Assoc. Mus . ( flute performance ) , his M.Sc . from the University of Adelaide in 1963 ( where he was supervised by George Szekeres ) and his Ph.D. , also in applied mathematics , from Harvard University in 1967 . Lawrence continues to play the flute now with the I Medici di McGill orchestra . Then followed faculty appointments at Harvard University and the University of British Columbia where he co-authored the standard textbook on Waves in the Ocean with Paul LeBlond . Finally he joined the faculty at McGill University from 1986 until his retirement in 2010 . At McGill University Mysak was the founding director , in 1990 , of the McGill Centre for Global Change Research which is now known as the Global Environment and Climate Change Centre and during his tenure Dr. Mysak served as president of the International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans , IAPSO . and serves on the Board of Trustees of the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences . Mysak 's research focuses on Arctic sea ice and climate during the Little Ice Age ; sea ice rheology ( viscous-plastic vs. purely plastic models ) ; modeling the freshwater budget of the Arctic Ocean and exchanges with the North Atlantic Ocean ( present and past ) ; response of the ocean carbon cycle to Milankovitch forcing in a low-order atmosphere-ocean-sea ice model ; and reconstruction of climate change in Europe during the past millennium from an analysis of church architecture , comparing the Medieval Warm Period with the Little Ice Age .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Lawrence_A._Mysak",
"rank": 71,
"score": 78782
},
{
"content": "Title: International Arctic Research Center Content: The International Arctic Research Center , or IARC , established in 1999 , is a research institution focused on integrating and coordinating study of climate change in the Arctic . The primary partners in IARC are Japan and the United States . Participants include organizations from Canada , China , Denmark , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The Center is located at the University of Alaska Fairbanks , in the Syun-Ichi Akasofu Building . The Keith B. Mather Library is the science library housed in the Akasofu Building , serving IARC and the Geophysical Institute of UAF . The building also houses the UAF atmospheric sciences department , the Center for Global Change and the Fairbanks forecast office of the National Weather Service . Study projects are focused within four major themes : Arctic ocean models and observation Arctic atmosphere : feedbacks , radiation , and weather analysis Permafrost/Frozen soil models and observations Arctic biota/vegetation ( ecosystem models ) IARC is devoting specific effort to answering the following three questions : To what extent is climate change due to natural vs man-made causes ? What parameters , processes and interactions are needed to understand and predict future climate change ? What are the likely impacts of climate change ?",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "International_Arctic_Research_Center",
"rank": 72,
"score": 78578
},
{
"content": "Title: Gulf of Maine Closed Areas Content: The Gulf of Maine has been fished since the 1700s , and has been a historic fishing area since . Climate change is having significant impacts on this ecosystem ; between 2004 and 2013 , the Gulf of Maine has warmed faster than 99.9 % of the global oceans , increasing average temperature by 2 ° C. Having seen the depletion of groundfish stocks starting in the early 1990s , managers took care to create five closure areas in the Gulf of Maine . These closed areas do not prohibit all fishing , rather they prevent the further degradation of benthic habitat and groundfish species . Closed areas are different than Marine Protected Areas ( MPA ) because they allow some forms of fishing and other activities to occur that would normally not be allowed in MPA .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Gulf_of_Maine_Closed_Areas",
"rank": 73,
"score": 78311
},
{
"content": "Title: Primary airport control station Content: Primary Airport Control Station , or PACS , is a survey marker established in the vicinity of an airport and tied directly to the National Spatial Reference System . This control consists of permanent marks with precisely determined latitudes , longitudes and elevations . PACS and SACS are designated by the National Geodetic Survey and must meet the specific siting , construction , and accuracy requirements . ( also see airport security ) PACS coordinates are established by meeting a survey , data processing , adjustment and reporting standard known as the NGS Bluebook . ( See Air safety for more info )",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Primary_airport_control_station",
"rank": 74,
"score": 78282
},
{
"content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 75,
"score": 78195
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 76,
"score": 78118
},
{
"content": "Title: John Gummer Content: John Selwyn Gummer , Baron Deben , PC ( born 26 November 1939 in Stockport , Cheshire ) is a British Conservative Party politician , formerly Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Suffolk Coastal and now a member of the House of Lords . Lord Deben is Chairman of the UK 's independent Committee on Climate Change . He also chairs the sustainability consultancy Sancroft International , recycler Valpak , GLOBE International -- the Global Legislators Organisation for a Balanced Environment , the Association of Professional Financial Advisers and Veolia Water UK . He is a non-executive director of Veolia Voda , The Catholic Herald and the Castle Trust -- a mortgage and investment firm . He is also a Trustee of the ocean conservation charity , Blue Marine Foundation . John Gummer stood down from the House of Commons at the 2010 general election and was appointed to the House of Lords as Lord Deben .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "John_Gummer",
"rank": 77,
"score": 78020
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014–16 El Niño event Content: The 2014 -- 16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line . These unusually warm waters influenced the world 's weather in a number of ways , which in turn significantly affected various parts of the world . These included drought conditions in Venezuela , Australia and a number of Pacific islands while significant flooding was also recorded . During the event more tropical cyclones than normal occurred within the Pacific Ocean , while fewer than normal occurred in the Atlantic Ocean .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "2014–16_El_Niño_event",
"rank": 78,
"score": 77953
},
{
"content": "Title: Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States Content: Issues that affect drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States include water scarcity , pollution , a backlog of investment , concerns about the affordability of water for the poorest , and a rapidly retiring workforce . Increased variability and intensity of rainfall as a result of climate change is expected to produce both more severe droughts and flooding , with potentially serious consequences for water supply and for pollution from combined sewer overflows . Droughts are likely to particularly affect the 66 percent of Americans whose communities depend on surface water . As for drinking water quality , there are concerns about disinfection by-products , lead , perchlorates and pharmaceutical substances , but generally drinking water quality in the U.S. is good . Cities , utilities , state governments and the federal government have addressed the above issues in various ways . To keep pace with demand from an increasing population , utilities traditionally have augmented supplies . However , faced with increasing costs and droughts , water conservation is beginning to receive more attention and is being supported through the federal WaterSense program . The reuse of treated wastewater for non-potable uses is also becoming increasingly common . Pollution through wastewater discharges , a major issue in the 1960s , has been brought largely under control . Most Americans are served by publicly owned water and sewer utilities . Eleven percent of Americans receive water from private ( so-called `` investor-owned '' ) utilities . In rural areas , cooperatives often provide drinking water . Finally , up to 15 percent of Americans are served by their own wells . Water supply and wastewater systems are regulated by state governments and the federal government . At the state level , health and environmental regulation is entrusted to the corresponding state-level departments . Public Utilities Commissions or Public Service Commissions regulate tariffs charged by private utilities . In some states they also regulate tariffs by public utilities . At the federal level , drinking water quality and wastewater discharges are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , which also provides funding to utilities through State Revolving Funds . Water consumption in the United States is more than double that in Central Europe , with large variations among the states . In 2002 the average American family spent $ 474 on water and sewerage charges , which is about the same level as in Europe . The median household spent about 1.1 percent of its income on water and sewage .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Drinking_water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 79,
"score": 77719
},
{
"content": "Title: Stern Review Content: The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the Government of the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern , chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics ( LSE ) and also chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) at Leeds University and LSE . The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy . Although not the first economic report on climate change , it is significant as the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind . The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen , presenting a unique challenge for economics . The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions . The Stern Review 's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong , early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting . The Review points to the potential impacts of climate change on water resources , food production , health , and the environment . According to the Review , without action , the overall costs of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5 % of global gross domestic product ( GDP ) each year , now and forever . Including a wider range of risks and impacts could increase this to 20 % of GDP or more , also indefinitely . Stern believes that 5 -- 6 degrees of temperature increase is `` a real possibility . '' The Review proposes that one percent of global GDP per annum is required to be invested to avoid the worst effects of climate change . In June 2008 , Stern increased the estimate for the annual cost of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e to 2 % of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change . There has been a mixed reaction to the Stern Review from economists . Several economists have been critical of the Review , for example , a paper by Byatt et al. ( 2006 ) describes the Review as `` deeply flawed '' . Some economists ( such as Brad DeLong and John Quiggin ) have supported the Review . Others have criticised aspects of Review 's analysis , but argued that some of its conclusions might still be justified based on other grounds , e.g. , see papers by Martin Weitzman ( 2007 ) and Dieter Helm ( 2008 ) .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Stern_Review",
"rank": 80,
"score": 77694
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean fertilization Content: Ocean fertilization or ocean nourishment is a type of climate engineering based on the purposeful introduction of nutrients to the upper ocean to increase marine food production and to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . A number of techniques , including fertilization by iron , urea and phosphorus have been proposed .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Ocean_fertilization",
"rank": 81,
"score": 77639
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_change_feedback",
"rank": 82,
"score": 77574
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment",
"rank": 83,
"score": 77366
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_justice",
"rank": 84,
"score": 77303
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Earth's_energy_budget",
"rank": 85,
"score": 77156
},
{
"content": "Title: Quaternary Environment of the Eurasian North Content: Quaternary Environment of the Eurasian North , abbreviated QUEEN was an international and interdisciplinary research programme in the Arctic . QUEEN was established to understand the processes involved in environmental changes in the Arctic region by studying past environmental changes during the Late Cenozoic era . A primary objective of QUEEN was to make the environmental record and the history of glaciation during the last 250,000 years as complete for Eurasia as elsewhere . Regions of particular importance for understanding the Arctic 's role in global climate change are the Eurasian shelves and the land masses south of these , including Siberian permafrost . The ice sheets in these regions are key elements in paleoclimatic models and play a vital role in the reconstruction of a continuous paleoenvironmental record . Special effort was devoted to the correlation of records from different sources across the Arctic . The programme was running between 1996 and 2003 under the umbrella of the European Science Foundation ( ESF ) and was coordinated by Prof. Dr. Jörn Thiede .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Quaternary_Environment_of_the_Eurasian_North",
"rank": 86,
"score": 76886
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 87,
"score": 76794
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate",
"rank": 88,
"score": 76728
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_ethics",
"rank": 89,
"score": 76708
},
{
"content": "Title: Newsfail Content: Newsfail : Climate Change , Feminism , Gun Control , and Other Fun Stuff We Talk About Because Nobody Else Will is a book written by Jamie Kilstein and Allison Kilkenny , hosts of internet radio show Citizen Radio . The book was published by Simon & Schuster in 2014 .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Newsfail",
"rank": 90,
"score": 76673
},
{
"content": "Title: Grantham Institute - Climate Change and Environment Content: The Grantham Institute - Climate Change and Environment ( formerly Grantham Institute for Climate Change ) is one of five Global Institutes at Imperial College London and one of three Grantham sponsored centres in the UK . The Institute was founded in 2007 with a # 12m donation from the Grantham Foundation for the Protection of the Environment , an organisation set up by Hannelore and Jeremy Grantham . The Institute brings together climate and global environmental change expertise from across the College for climate change related research and translation into real world impact . Their aim is to improve the interaction between researchers and decision makers in business and governments , communicating research to help ensure that choices are based on the best understanding of the science and evidence available .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Grantham_Institute_-_Climate_Change_and_Environment",
"rank": 91,
"score": 76601
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental Change Institute Content: The Environmental Change Institute was founded in 1987 in Oxford University in England `` to organize and promote interdisciplinary research on the nature , causes and impact of environmental change and to contribute to the development of management strategies for coping with future environmental change . '' This statement still embodies the ECI 's ethos of purposeful environmental research and knowledge exchange . With an annual research income of # 4.7 million in 2013/14 , a portfolio of 50 active projects , 350 partners and 60 researchers working across 40 countries , the ECI is an active and influential player in environmental change science . The ECI 's research is interdisciplinary , both in outlook and approach . ECI has a well - established track record in relation to climate , energy and ecosystems and a growing expertise in relation to food and water . ECI is a leading player in number of large research activities , including : the UK Climate Impacts Programme ( UKCIP ) which develops new tools to link climate science with stakeholders in business and government in order to create innovative adaptations to the impacts of climate change ; Climateprediction.net the world 's largest citizen science climate ensemble with 350,000 individuals running climate simulations in order to better understand regional climate patterns ; leaders of major EU consortium programmes including one on the impacts and risks of extreme climate change ( Impressions ) ; and coordinators of GEM , a global ecological monitoring programme across remote forest locations in South America , Africa and Asia . The ECI 's full portfolio of projects has led to academic papers and citations totaling over 45,000 since 2000 . The ECI is also home to the MSc in Environmental Change and Management ( ECM ) , the School 's first taught postgraduate masters ' programme , and Oxford 's most popular graduate science course . The Institute is led by Professor Jim Hall .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Environmental_Change_Institute",
"rank": 92,
"score": 76490
},
{
"content": "Title: Jane Lubchenco Content: Jane Lubchenco ( born December 4 , 1947 ) is an American environmental scientist and marine ecologist who teaches and does research at Oregon State University . Her research interests include interactions between the environment and human well-being , biodiversity , climate change , and sustainable use of oceans and the planet . From 2009-2013 , she served as Administrator of NOAA and Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere . After resigning from NOAA , she was the Mimi and Peter Haas Distinguished Visitor in Public Service at Stanford University ( March -- June 2013 ) . In June 2013 , she returned to Oregon State University where she was on the faculty prior to being invited by President-Elect Obama to serve on his ` science team . '",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Jane_Lubchenco",
"rank": 93,
"score": 76468
},
{
"content": "Title: William Curry (oceanographer) Content: William Curry , Ph.D. , Director , Ocean and Climate Change Institute at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute Geology and Geophysics Department . He holds a Bachelor of Science , University of Delaware , 1974 , with specialization in Geology , and a Ph.D from Brown University , 1980 , also with a specialization in Geology . Dr. Curry studies the history of earth 's climate and carbon cycle using geological records of ocean chemistry and physical properties . He is actively involved with sea going expeditions to collect deep sea sediments and uses the chemistry of fossils in the sediments to determine how climate has changed on decadal to millennial time scales . He has been a member of the Scientific Staff at WHOI since 1981 .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "William_Curry_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 94,
"score": 76402
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 95,
"score": 76390
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Accountability Act (Bill C-224) Content: The Climate Change Accountability Act is a Private Member 's Bill that has been submitted in the 39th , 40th and 41st Canadian Parliament . It was originally tabled in October 2006 in the Canadian House of Commons as Bill C-377 of the 39th Parliament by Jack Layton , then the leader of the New Democratic Party of Canada ( NDP ) . It passed third reading by a vote of 148 to 116 with the support of caucuses of the Liberal Party of Canada , the Bloc Québécois and the NDP ( the Conservative Party of Canada , led by Prime Minister Stephen Harper , voted against it ) . However , Bill C-377 died as it was still before the Senate when Parliament was dissolved for the 2008 Canadian federal election . On February 10 , 2009 Bruce Hyer , then the New Democrat Deputy Environment Critic and MP for Thunder Bay-Superior North , seconded by Layton , reintroduced it in the 40th Parliament as Bill C-311 . It passed 2nd Reading on April 1 , 2009 by a vote of 141 to 128 , and was sent to the Standing Committee on the Environment and Sustainable Development . On October 21 , 2009 , the House voted 169 to 93 to allow the Committee more time to study the Bill , as the sixty sitting days permitted for its consideration under Standing Order 97.1 ( 1 ) of the House of Commons had expired . Passage of the Climate Change Accountability Act was therefore effectively delayed until 2010 , meaning it would not influence the government in negotiations at the UN COP15 global climate change treaty negotiations held in December 2009 in Copenhagen . On December 10 , 2009 , the committee report on Bill C-311 was presented to the House , without amendment to the Bill . The December 30 , 2009 prorogation of the House did not affect the Bill , as Private Member 's Bills are reinstated at the stage last completed , and Bill C-311 had not been considered at Report Stage at prorogation . When Parliament resumed , C-311 was concurred in at Report Stage on April 14 , 2010 by vote 155 to 137 . The bill was passed by the House of Commons at 3rd Reading on May 5 , 2010 with 149 votes for and 136 votes against . It received 1st Reading in the Senate on May 6 , 2010 before being defeated at 2nd Reading on November 16 , 2010 by a vote of 43 to 32 . The bill was re-introduced as Bill C-224 on June 15 , 2011 by current NDP Environment Critic and MP for Halifax , Megan Leslie . The bill was seconded by Deputy Environment Critic Laurin Liu .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Accountability_Act_(Bill_C-224)",
"rank": 96,
"score": 76383
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 97,
"score": 76288
},
{
"content": "Title: Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study Content: The Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study or Surface Ocean - Lower Atmosphere Study ( SOLAS ) is an international scientific research initiative that is one of the core projects of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme . SOLAS has a goal to achieve quantitative understanding of the key biogeochemical-physical interactions and feedbacks between the ocean and atmosphere , and of how this coupled system affects and is affected by climate and environmental change . Thus , this international project is a critical component to understanding the Earth system and the effects of climate change on this system . The project includes meteorologists , oceanographers , marine biologists , and policy-makers . SOLAS has three major focus areas : Biogeochemical interactions and feedbacks between ocean and atmosphere , Exchange processes at the air-sea interface and the role of transport and transformation in the atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers , and Air-sea flux of carbon dioxide and other long-lived radiatively active gases ( this last focus is developed jointly with the Integrated Marine and Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research project ; IMBER ) . These three focuses are detailed in the project 's Science Plan and Implementation Strategy and in three separate Implementation Plans , and each focus has its own Implementation Working Group . The project is administered by a panel of scientific experts in the Scientific Steering Committee , and project coordination is handled by the SOLAS International Project Office at the University of East Anglia in Norwich UK . Scientific research is conducted by nations across the globe , and SOLAS has 23 established National Networks . SOLAS runs a successful biennial International Summer School , held at the Institut d'Etudes Scientifiques de Cargèse in Corsica France , and the next Summer School is scheduled for 2007 . Communications from SOLAS include a monthly e-bulletin , a biannual newsletter , and a website . An Open Science Meeting was held in Xiamen China in March 2007 .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Surface_Ocean_Lower_Atmosphere_Study",
"rank": 98,
"score": 76271
},
{
"content": "Title: Framework convention Content: Framework convention may mean : Framework Convention Alliance for Tobacco Control , in the United States Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities , by the Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Framework_convention",
"rank": 99,
"score": 76224
},
{
"content": "Title: Knobbed porgy Content: The knobbed porgy , Calamus nodosus , is an ocean-going species of gamefish of the Sparidae ( Bream/Porgy family ) . They are only found in the western portion of the tropical Atlantic Ocean , where they are often caught with trawling nets or by angling , and used as food . The Knobbed porgy was named by John Randall and David Caldwell as part of a 1966 review of the Calamus genus , which was published in the academic journal Science . Randall and Caldwell also described three other species of Calamus in the paper .",
"qid": "99",
"docid": "Knobbed_porgy",
"rank": 100,
"score": 76178
}
] |
'Global warming' is a myth — so say 80 graphs from 58 peer-reviewed scientific papers published in 2017. | [
{
"content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "North_Report",
"rank": 1,
"score": 145836
},
{
"content": "Title: Global and Planetary Change Content: Global and Planetary Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research into the earth sciences , particularly pertaining to changes in aspects thereof such as sea level and the chemical composition of the atmosphere . It has been published by Elsevier since it was established in 1989 . The editors-in-chief are S.A.P.L. Cloetingh ( Utrecht University ) , T.M. Cronin ( United States Geological Survey ) , K. McGuffie ( University of Technology Sydney ) , and H. Oberhänsli ( Museum für Naturkunde ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 3.155 , ranking it 9th out of 45 journals in the category `` Geography , Physical '' .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_and_Planetary_Change",
"rank": 2,
"score": 142684
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Research (journal) Content: Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Climate_Research_(journal)",
"rank": 3,
"score": 141399
},
{
"content": "Title: The Hockey Stick Illusion Content: The Hockey Stick Illusion : Climategate and the Corruption of Science is a book written by Andrew Montford and published by Stacey International in 2010 . Montford , an accountant and science publisher who publishes a blog called ` Bishop Hill ' provides his analysis of the history of the `` hockey stick graph '' of global temperatures for the last 1000 years and the controversy promoted by mining exploration company director Steve McIntyre about the research which produced the graph . The book describes the history of the graph from its inception to the beginning of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( `` Climategate '' ) . The book was Amazon UK 's second bestselling environment book of 2010 .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "The_Hockey_Stick_Illusion",
"rank": 4,
"score": 139442
},
{
"content": "Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Nature_Climate_Change",
"rank": 5,
"score": 139249
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Dynamics Content: Climate Dynamics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media . It covers all aspects of the dynamics of global climate systems , including analytical and numerical modeling research on the structure and behavior of the atmosphere , oceans , cryosphere , biomass , and land surface as interacting components of the dynamics of global climate . The journal also publishes reviews and papers emphasizing an integrated view of the physical and biogeochemical processes governing climate and climate change .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Climate_Dynamics",
"rank": 6,
"score": 138830
},
{
"content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 7,
"score": 134930
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Environmental Change Content: Global Environmental Change is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering research on environmental change that was established in 1990 . It is published by Elsevier . Editors-in-chief are J. Barnett , Declan Conway , L. Lebel and K. Seto . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 5.089 , ranking it 11th out of 223 journals in the category `` environmental sciences '' .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Environmental_Change",
"rank": 8,
"score": 134284
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 9,
"score": 133664
},
{
"content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming",
"rank": 10,
"score": 132054
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 11,
"score": 131455
},
{
"content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change",
"rank": 12,
"score": 131344
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 13,
"score": 130473
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies",
"rank": 14,
"score": 129551
},
{
"content": "Title: PLOS ONE Content: PLOS ONE ( originally PLoS ONE ) is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal published by the Public Library of Science ( PLOS ) since 2006 . The journal covers primary research from any discipline within science and medicine . Operating under a pay-to-publish model , PLOS ONE publishes approximately 50 % of submitted manuscripts . All submissions go through a pre-publication review by a member of the board of academic editors , who can elect to seek an opinion from an external reviewer . According to the journal , papers are not to be excluded on the basis of lack of perceived importance or adherence to a scientific field . Although the number of submissions decreased from 2013 to 2014 , PLOS ONE remained the world 's largest journal by number of papers published ( about 30,000 a year , or 85 papers per day ) . Numbers decreased further to 22,000 published papers in 2016 , and since 2017 PLOS ONE is the second largest journal ( after Scientific Reports ) .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "PLOS_ONE",
"rank": 15,
"score": 126849
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 16,
"score": 125653
},
{
"content": "Title: Science (journal) Content: Science , also widely referred to as Science Magazine , is the peer-reviewed academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) and one of the world 's top academic journals . It was first published in 1880 , is currently circulated weekly and has a print subscriber base of around 130,000 . Because institutional subscriptions and online access serve a larger audience , its estimated readership is 570,400 people . The major focus of the journal is publishing important original scientific research and research reviews , but Science also publishes science-related news , opinions on science policy and other matters of interest to scientists and others who are concerned with the wide implications of science and technology . Unlike most scientific journals , which focus on a specific field , Science and its rival Nature cover the full range of scientific disciplines . According to the Journal Citation Reports , Sciences 2015 impact factor was 34.661 . Although it is the journal of the AAAS , membership in the AAAS is not required to publish in Science . Papers are accepted from authors around the world . Competition to publish in Science is very intense , as an article published in such a highly cited journal can lead to attention and career advancement for the authors . Fewer than 7 % of articles submitted are accepted for publication . Science is based in Washington , D.C. , United States , with a second office in Cambridge , England .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Science_(journal)",
"rank": 17,
"score": 125005
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 18,
"score": 124531
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 19,
"score": 123421
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "World_Climate_Report",
"rank": 20,
"score": 123256
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Peter_Doran",
"rank": 21,
"score": 123253
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents",
"rank": 22,
"score": 122034
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 120703
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Change (journal) Content: Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Climatic_Change_(journal)",
"rank": 24,
"score": 120499
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_warming_conspiracy_theory",
"rank": 25,
"score": 120497
},
{
"content": "Title: Graphs and Combinatorics Content: Graphs and Combinatorics ( ISSN 0911-0119 , abbreviated Graphs Combin . ) is a peer-reviewed academic journal in graph theory and combinatorics published by Springer Japan . Its editor-in-chief is Katsuhiro Ota of Keio University . The journal was first published in 1985 . Its founding editor in chief was Hoon Heng Teh of Singapore , the president of the Southeast Asian Mathematics Society , and its managing editor was Jin Akiyama . Originally , it was subtitled `` An Asian Journal '' . In most years since 1999 , it has been ranked as a second-quartile journal in discrete mathematics and theoretical computer science by SCImago Journal Rank .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Graphs_and_Combinatorics",
"rank": 26,
"score": 120452
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 27,
"score": 119054
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 28,
"score": 118891
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Business Review Content: The Global Business Review is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering all aspects of management . Global Business Review is published by International Management Institute in association with Sage Publications . It publishes articles which are of a multi-disciplinary , interdisciplinary , and internationally significant nature . This is a refereed journal with an emphasis on Asian and Indian perspectives . Papers are reviewed by eminent academicians and professionals from various places of the world .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Business_Review",
"rank": 29,
"score": 118357
},
{
"content": "Title: Annual Review of Environment and Resources Content: Annual Review of Environment and Resources is an annual peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews , Inc. . It covers environmental science and engineering , ecology , conservation science , water assets , energy resources , atmosphere , oceans , climate change , agriculture , livestock , natural resource management and global change . The journal was established in 1976 as Annual Review of Energy and renamed Annual Review of Energy and the Environment in 1991 , before receiving its current title in 2003 . The editors-in-chief are Ashok Gadgil of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Thomas P. Tomich of University of California , Davis . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2012 impact factor of 4.968 .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Annual_Review_of_Environment_and_Resources",
"rank": 30,
"score": 117945
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal of Graph Theory Content: The Journal of Graph Theory is a peer-reviewed mathematics journal specializing in graph theory and related areas , such as structural results about graphs , graph algorithms with theoretical emphasis , and discrete optimization on graphs . The scope of the journal also includes related areas in combinatorics and the interaction of graph theory with other mathematical sciences . It is published by John Wiley & Sons . The journal was established in 1977 by Frank Harary . The editors-in-chief are Paul Seymour ( Princeton University ) and Carsten Thomassen ( Technical University of Denmark ) .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Journal_of_Graph_Theory",
"rank": 31,
"score": 117815
},
{
"content": "Title: Pattern Recognition in Physics Content: Pattern Recognition in Physics was an open-access journal originally published by Copernicus Publications which was established in March 2013 and terminated in January 2014 . The editors-in-chief were Sid-Ali Ouadfeul ( Algerian Petroleum Institute ) and Nils-Axel Mörner , the latter of whom is a well-known global warming skeptic . Copernicus ceased its publication due to concerns over the publications views towards the scientific consensus of global climate change and the method of peer review . In March 2014 Ouadfeul reopened the journal , `` run on private founding '' -LSB- sic -RSB-",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Pattern_Recognition_in_Physics",
"rank": 32,
"score": 116893
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 33,
"score": 116887
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 34,
"score": 116820
},
{
"content": "Title: State of Fear Content: State of Fear is a 2004 techno-thriller novel by Michael Crichton in which eco-terrorists plot mass murder to publicize the danger of global warming . Despite being a work of fiction , the book contains many graphs and footnotes , two appendices , and a twenty-page bibliography in support of Crichton 's beliefs about global warming . Climate scientists , science journalists , environmental groups and science advocacy organisations dispute Crichton 's views on the science as being error-filled and distorted . The novel had an initial print run of 1.5 million copies and reached the # 1 bestseller position at Amazon.com and # 2 on the New York Times Best Seller list for one week in January 2005 . The novel itself has garnered mixed reviews , with some literary reviewers stating that the book 's presentation of facts and stance on the global warming debate detracted from the book 's plot .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "State_of_Fear",
"rank": 35,
"score": 116428
},
{
"content": "Title: Studies in World Christianity Content: Studies in World Christianity is a peer-reviewed academic journal which examines the development of Christianity worldwide -- known broadly as World Christianity . Its primary interests are in the rich diversity of Christianity in Africa , Asia , Latin America , Oceania , and eastern Europe , as well as diasporic forms of non-Western Christianity emerging in contexts such as Western Europe and North America . Articles in the journal engage a variety of academic disciplines -- historical , theological , and social scientific . The journal is published three times a year in April , August and December by Edinburgh University Press . It is associated with the Centre for the Study of World Christianity , formerly the Centre for the Study of Non-Western Christianity , in the School of Divinity at the University of Edinburgh . The journal was founded by Andrew F. Walls in April 1995 as Studies in World Christianity : The Edinburgh Review of Theology and Religion . The journal is currently edited by Brian Stanley .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Studies_in_World_Christianity",
"rank": 36,
"score": 116043
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth System Dynamics Content: Earth System Dynamics is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union . The journal publishes articles describing original research on the geology , climate change , and atmospheric science . According to the 2016 Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 4.589 . The editors-in-chief are Somnath Baidya Roy , Alex Kleidon , Valerio Lucarini , and Ning Zeng .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Earth_System_Dynamics",
"rank": 37,
"score": 115976
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth Interactions Content: Earth Interactions is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society , American Geophysical Union , and Association of American Geographers . It covers interactions between the lithosphere , hydrosphere , atmosphere , and biosphere in the context of global issues or global change .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Earth_Interactions",
"rank": 38,
"score": 115974
},
{
"content": "Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet",
"rank": 39,
"score": 115452
},
{
"content": "Title: The Scientific World Journal Content: The Scientific World Journal ( formerly , The ScientificWorldJournal ) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering fields in the life sciences ranging from biomedicine to environmental sciences . It was established in 2001 and is published by Hindawi Publishing Corporation . The journal was delisted in the 2015 Journal Citation Reports ( thus not receiving an impact factor ) because of `` anomalous citation patterns '' .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "The_Scientific_World_Journal",
"rank": 40,
"score": 115378
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Open Access Forum Content: The Global Open Access List ( GOAL ) , until January 2012 the American Scientist Open Access Forum , is the longest-standing online discussion forum on Open Access ( free online access to peer-reviewed research ) . It was created by the American Scientist , which is published by Sigma Xi , in September 1998 , before the term `` Open Access '' ( OA ) was coined , and it was originally called the `` September98-Forum . '' Its first focus was an article published in American Scientist in which Thomas J Walker of the University of Florida proposed that journals should furnish free online access out of the fees authors pay them to purchase reprints . Stevan Harnad , who had in 1994 made the Subversive Proposal that all researchers should self archive their peer-reviewed research , was invited to moderate the forum , which was not expected to last more than a few months . It continued to grow in size and influence across the years and is still the site where most of the main developments in OA are first mooted , including self-archiving , institutional repositories , citation impact , research performance metrics , publishing reform , copyright reform , open access journals , and open access mandates .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Open_Access_Forum",
"rank": 41,
"score": 115058
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Ecology and Biogeography Content: Global Ecology and Biogeography is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that was established in 1991 . It covers research in the field of macroecology . The current editor-in-chief is Brian McGill . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2010 impact factor of 5.273 , ranking it first among 42 journals in the category `` Geography , Physical '' and 7th out of 129 journals in the category `` Ecology '' , and 4th in the category `` Biodiversity and Conservation '' .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Ecology_and_Biogeography",
"rank": 42,
"score": 115052
},
{
"content": "Title: Foundation (journal) Content: Foundation : The International Review of Science Fiction is a critical peer-reviewed literary magazine established in 1972 that publishes articles and reviews about science fiction . It is published triannually ( spring , summer , and winter ) by the Science Fiction Foundation . Worlds Without End called it `` the essential critical review of science fiction '' , whilst The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction has called it `` perhaps the liveliest and indeed the most critical of the big three critical journals '' ( the others being Extrapolation ( journal ) and Science Fiction Studies ) . A long-running feature was the series of interviews and autobiographical pieces with leading writers , entitled `` The Profession of Science Fiction '' , a selection of which was edited and published by Macmillan Publishers in 1992 . Several issues have been themed , including # 93 ( A Celebration of British Science Fiction , 2005 ) , published also as part of the Foundation Studies in Science Fiction . The hundredth edition ( Summer 2007 ) was unusual in that it was an all-fiction issue , including stories by such writers as Vandana Singh , Tricia Sullivan , Karen Traviss , Jon Courtenay Grimwood , John Kessel , Nalo Hopkinson , Greg Egan , and Una McCormack . Back issues of the journal are archived at the University of Liverpool 's SF Hub whilst more recent issues can be found electronically via the database providers ProQuest .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Foundation_(journal)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 115025
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science",
"rank": 44,
"score": 115015
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 45,
"score": 114813
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 46,
"score": 114582
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 47,
"score": 114424
},
{
"content": "Title: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences Content: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences is an annual peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews , which broadly covers Earth and planetary sciences , including geology , atmospheric sciences , climate , geophysics , environmental science , geological hazards , geodynamics , planet formation , and solar system origins . The editors-in-chief are Katherine H. Freeman ( Pennsylvania State University ) and Raymond Jeanloz ( University of California , Berkeley ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 10.188 .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Annual_Review_of_Earth_and_Planetary_Sciences",
"rank": 48,
"score": 114380
},
{
"content": "Title: An Inconvenient Truth (book) Content: An Inconvenient Truth : The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming and What We Can Do About It is a 2006 book by Al Gore released in conjunction with the film An Inconvenient Truth . It is published by Rodale Press in Emmaus , Pennsylvania , in the United States . Based on Gore 's lecture tour on the topic of global warming this book elaborates upon points offered in the film . The publisher of the text states that the book , `` brings together leading-edge research from top scientists around the world ; photographs , charts , and other illustrations ; and personal anecdotes and observations to document the fast pace and wide scope of global warming . '' Michiko Kakutani argues in the New York Times that the book 's `` roots as a slide show are very much in evidence . It does not pretend to grapple with climate change with the sort of minute detail and analysis '' given by other books on the topic `` and yet as a user-friendly introduction to global warming and a succinct summary of many of the central arguments laid out in those other volumes , `` An Inconvenient Truth '' is lucid , harrowing and bluntly effective . '' In a section called `` The Politicization of Global Warming '' , Al Gore said this statement : As for why so many people still resist what the facts clearly show , I think , in part , the reason is that the truth about the climate crisis is an inconvenient one that means we are going to have to change the way we live our lives . A highlighted statement separated from the main writing in that section was : The truth about the climate crisis is an inconvenient one that means we are going to have to change the way we live our lives . In 2009 , the audiobook version , narrated by Beau Bridges , Cynthia Nixon , and Blair Underwood , won the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "An_Inconvenient_Truth_(book)",
"rank": 49,
"score": 114141
},
{
"content": "Title: Monthly Weather Review Content: The Monthly Weather Review is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society . It covers research related to analysis and prediction of observed and modeled circulations of the atmosphere , including technique development , data assimilation , model validation , and relevant case studies . This includes papers on numerical techniques and data assimilation techniques that apply to the atmosphere and/or ocean environment . The editor-in-chief is David M. Schultz ( University of Manchester ) .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Monthly_Weather_Review",
"rank": 50,
"score": 113223
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Environmental Politics Content: Global Environmental Politics is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal which examines the relationship between global political forces and environmental change . It covers such topics as the role of states , international finance , science and technology , and grass roots movements . Issues of Global Environmental Politics are divided into three types of articles : short commentaries for a section called Current Debates/Forum , full-length research articles , and book review articles . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 2.316 , ranking it 13th out of 163 journals in the category `` Political Science '' .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Environmental_Politics",
"rank": 51,
"score": 112947
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 52,
"score": 112835
},
{
"content": "Title: Who's Afraid of Peer Review? Content: `` Who 's Afraid of Peer Review ? '' is an article written by Science correspondent John Bohannon that describes his investigation of peer review among fee-charging open-access journals . Between January and August 2013 , Bohannon submitted fake scientific papers to 304 journals owned by as many fee-charging open access publishers . The papers , writes Bohannon , `` were designed with such grave and obvious scientific flaws that they should have been rejected immediately by editors and peer reviewers '' , but 60 % of the journals accepted them . The article and associated data were published in the 4 October 2013 issue of Science as open access .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Who's_Afraid_of_Peer_Review?",
"rank": 53,
"score": 112770
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 54,
"score": 112661
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network",
"rank": 55,
"score": 111753
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific Data (journal) Content: Scientific Data is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal published by the Nature Publishing Group since 2014 . It focuses on descriptions of data sets relevant to the natural sciences , which are provided as machine readable data , complemented with a human oriented narrative . The journal was not the first to publish data papers , but is one of few journals that purely publish data papers . The journal is abstracted and indexed by Index Medicus/MEDLINE/PubMed .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Scientific_Data_(journal)",
"rank": 56,
"score": 111746
},
{
"content": "Title: Alternatives: Global, Local, Political Content: Alternatives : Global , Local , Political is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes papers in the field of international relations . The journal 's editor is R.B.J. Walker ( University of Victoria ) . It has been in publication since 2005 and is currently published by SAGE Publications in association with Centre for the Study of Developing Societies .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Alternatives:_Global,_Local,_Political",
"rank": 57,
"score": 111591
},
{
"content": "Title: International Game Theory Review Content: International Game Theory Review is a peer-reviewed academic journal published quarterly by World Scientific . It contains articles and surveys on theories and applications of game theory in socio-economic and political contexts and other related areas . Aside from regular articles on theory , methodology and application of games , it also includes case studies and articles on policy-making issues . The current managing editor is David Yeung ( Hong Kong Shue Yan University ) .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "International_Game_Theory_Review",
"rank": 58,
"score": 110767
},
{
"content": "Title: World Scientific Content: World Scientific Publishing is an academic publisher of scientific , technical , and medical books and journals headquartered in Singapore . The company was founded in 1981 . It publishes about 500 books annually as well as more than 150 journals in various fields . In 1995 , World Scientific co-founded the London-based Imperial College Press together with the Imperial College of Science , Technology and Medicine .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "World_Scientific",
"rank": 59,
"score": 110510
},
{
"content": "Title: Pathogens and Global Health Content: Pathogens and Global Health is a peer-reviewed medical journal published by Maney Publishing . It covers tropical diseases , including their microbiology , epidemiology and molecular biology , as well as medical entomology , HIV/AIDS , malaria , and tuberculosis . The editor-in-chief is Andrea Crisanti ( Imperial College London ) .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Pathogens_and_Global_Health",
"rank": 60,
"score": 110369
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 61,
"score": 110325
},
{
"content": "Title: International Symposium on Graph Drawing Content: The International Symposium on Graph Drawing ( GD ) is an annual academic conference in which researchers present peer reviewed papers on graph drawing , information visualization of network information , geometric graph theory , and related topics .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "International_Symposium_on_Graph_Drawing",
"rank": 62,
"score": 110270
},
{
"content": "Title: Soon and Baliunas controversy Content: The Soon and Baliunas controversy involved the publication in 2003 of a review study written by aerospace engineer Willie Soon and astronomer Sallie Baliunas in the journal Climate Research , which was quickly taken up by the G.W. Bush administration as a basis for amending the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was strongly criticized by numerous scientists for its methodology and for its misuse of data from previously published studies , prompting concerns about the peer review process of the paper . The controversy resulted in the resignation of half of the editors of the journal and in the admission by its publisher Otto Kinne that the paper should not have been published as it was .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy",
"rank": 63,
"score": 110077
},
{
"content": "Title: Advances in Atmospheric Sciences Content: Advances in Atmospheric Sciences is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal co-published by Springer Science + Business Media and Science Press . It covers research on the dynamics , physics and chemistry of the atmosphere and oceans , including weather systems , numerical weather prediction , climate dynamics and variability , and satellite meteorology . It was established in 1984 . The editors-in-chief are D. Lü , H. Wang ( Chinese Academy of Sciences ) , and M. Xue ( University of Oklahoma . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 1.338 .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Advances_in_Atmospheric_Sciences",
"rank": 64,
"score": 109458
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Policy Content: Global Policy is a peer-reviewed academic journal based at Durham University focusing on the `` point where ideas and policy meet '' , published in association with Wiley-Blackwell . The journal was launched at the 4th Global Public Policy Network conference at the London School of Economics and Political Science on Monday 22 March 2010 , with near simultaneous launch events held in Beijing and Brussels . The theme of the one-day conference was `` Global Challenges : Global Impact '' . The General Editors are David Held , Eva-Maria Nag and Dani Rodrik . Its first issue included articles by UK Development Secretary Douglas Alexander , General David Petraeus , Head of US Central Command , Mary Kaldor and Ian Goldin and Tiffany Vogel of Oxford University . The journal 's first edition defines its six main foci Globally relevant risks and collective action problems International policy coordination Normative theories of global governance The change from national-level to ` bloc ' - level policy making The transition from single-polar to multipolar governance Innovations in global governance According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 0.603 , ranking it 95th out of 161 journals in the category `` Political Science '' and 49th out of 85 journals in the category `` International Relations '' .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Policy",
"rank": 65,
"score": 109104
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Public Health (journal) Content: Global Public Health is a peer-reviewed public health journal published by Taylor & Francis and established in 2006 . The editor-in-chief is Richard G. Parker ( Mailman School of Public Health ) .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Public_Health_(journal)",
"rank": 66,
"score": 109085
},
{
"content": "Title: RSC Advances Content: RSC Advances is an online-only peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on all aspects of the chemical sciences . It was established in 2011 and is published by the Royal Society of Chemistry . The editor-in-chief is Mike D. Ward ( University of Sheffield ) . In 2014 , RSC Advances moved to a very high publication frequency , initially about 100 issues per year ( similar to that of ChemComm ) , but later in the year ( and in 2015 ) turned to even higher frequency -- however it is not a continuous journal . In terms of the number of papers published annually , this has increased dramatically from 233 in 2011 to 13,287 in 2016 . In late 2016 , it was announced that with effect from January 2017 , RSC Advances , the world 's largest chemistry journal would convert from a subscription based journal to an open access journal . Article Processing Charges will be # 500 for 2017/2018 and # 750 thereafter",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "RSC_Advances",
"rank": 67,
"score": 108728
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Media and Communication Content: Global Media and Communication is a triannual peer-reviewed academic journal that covers the field of communication studies . The editors-in-chief are Daya K. Thussu ( University of Westminster ) , John Downing ( Southern Illinois University ) , Des Freedman ( Goldsmiths ) , Clemencia Rodríguez ( University of Oklahoma ) , and Yuezhi Zhao . It was established in 2005 and is currently published by SAGE Publications .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Media_and_Communication",
"rank": 68,
"score": 108624
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Health Action Content: Global Health Action is a peer-reviewed open access healthcare journal published by Co-Action Publishing on behalf of the Umeå Centre for Global Health Research . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 1.646 .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Health_Action",
"rank": 69,
"score": 108223
},
{
"content": "Title: Discrete Mathematics (journal) Content: Discrete Mathematics is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal in the broad area of discrete mathematics , combinatorics , graph theory , and their applications . It was established in 1971 and is published by North-Holland Publishing Company . It publishes both short notes , full length contributions , as well as survey articles . In addition , the journal publishes a number of special issues each year dedicated to a particular topic . Although originally it published articles in French and German , it now allows only English language articles . The editor-in-chief is Douglas West ( University of Illinois , Urbana ) .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Discrete_Mathematics_(journal)",
"rank": 70,
"score": 107899
},
{
"content": "Title: International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics Content: The International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics is a peer-reviewed journal , published by World Scientific , covering mathematical physics . It was originally published bimonthly beginning in January 2004 ; as of 2006 it appears 8 times a year . Editorial policy for the journal specifies that `` The journal publishes short communications , research and review articles devoted to the application of geometric methods ( including differential geometry , algebraic geometry , global analysis and topology ) to quantum field theory , non-perturbative quantum gravity , string and brane theory , quantum mechanics , semi-classical approximations in quantum theory , quantum thermodynamics and statistical physics , quantum computation and control theory . ''",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "International_Journal_of_Geometric_Methods_in_Modern_Physics",
"rank": 71,
"score": 107857
},
{
"content": "Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Taken_by_Storm",
"rank": 72,
"score": 107818
},
{
"content": "Title: Planetary and Space Science Content: Planetary and Space Science , published 15 times per year , is a peer-reviewed scientific journal established in 1959 . It publishes original research articles along with short communications ( letters ) . The main topic is solar system processes which encompasses multiple areas of the natural sciences . Numerical simulations of solar system processes are also conducted at ground based facilities or on-board space platforms . The editor-in-chief is Rita Schulz ( European Space Agency/European Space Research and Technology Centre ) . It is published by Elsevier .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Planetary_and_Space_Science",
"rank": 73,
"score": 107795
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming",
"rank": 74,
"score": 107543
},
{
"content": "Title: World Cultures Content: World Cultures is an electronic peer-reviewed academic journal of cross-cultural studies . It was founded in 1985 by Douglas R. White , editor in chief until 1990 , followed by Greg Truex 1991 , J. Patrick Gray , Peter N. Peregrine ( 1992-2014 ) . The current publisher is Greg Truex ( 2015-16 ) . It is an eScholarship journal that publishes cross-cultural research articles and published computerized codebooks and datasets . These include the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample , Western North American Indians , an Atlas of Archaeology , the Ethnographic Atlas ( Murdock , 1967 ) , and Lewis Binford 's Constructing Frames of Reference : An Analytical Method for Archaeological Theory Building Using Ethnographic and Environmental Data Sets ( 2001 ) and numerous other topics . Numerous software programs for cross-cultural analysis have also been published . Part of the purpose of the journal is to provide codebooks and data that are in the public domain for scientific use , at minimal cost of distribution , both to support scientific work and instructional use . New as well as legacy issues of the journal are at the free on-line site of the California Digital Library . The largest of the databases supported by the journal to date are the contributed multiauthored coded data for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample , now numbering over 2,000 coded variables on 186 societies by over 90 different contributing authors .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "World_Cultures",
"rank": 75,
"score": 107037
},
{
"content": "Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Fate_of_the_World",
"rank": 76,
"score": 106960
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 77,
"score": 106951
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific journal Content: In academic publishing , a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science , usually by reporting new research . There are thousands of scientific journals in publication , and many more have been published at various points in the past ( see list of scientific journals ) . Most journals are highly specialized , although some of the oldest journals such as Nature publish articles and scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields . Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer reviewed , in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal 's standards of quality , and scientific validity . If the journal 's editor considers the paper appropriate , at least two researchers preferably from the same field check the paper for soundness of its scientific argument , and must agree to publish it . Although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional magazines , they are actually quite different . Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually , as one would read a magazine . The publication of the results of research is an essential part of the scientific method . If they are describing experiments or calculations , they must supply enough details that an independent researcher could repeat the experiment or calculation to verify the results . Each such journal article becomes part of the permanent scientific record . The history of scientific journals dates from 1665 , when the French Journal des sçavans and the English Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society first began systematically publishing research results . Over a thousand , mostly ephemeral , were founded in the 18th century , and the number has increased rapidly after that . Articles in scientific journals can be used in research and higher education . Scientific articles allow researchers to keep up to date with the developments of their field and direct their own research . An essential part of a scientific article is citation of earlier work . The impact of articles and journals is often assessed by counting citations ( citation impact ) . Some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles , and seminar classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper . Schoolbooks and textbooks have been written usually only on established topics , while the latest research and more obscure topics are only accessible through scientific articles . In a scientific research group or academic department it is usual for the content of current scientific journals to be discussed in journal clubs . Academic credentials for promotion into academic ranks are established in large part by the number and impact of scientific articles published , and many doctoral programs allow for thesis by publication , where the candidate is required to publish a certain number of scientific articles . The standards that a journal uses to determine publication can vary widely . Some journals , such as Nature , Science , PNAS , and Physical Review Letters , have a reputation of publishing articles that mark a fundamental breakthrough in their respective fields . In many fields , a formal or informal hierarchy of scientific journals exists ; the most prestigious journal in a field tends to be the most selective in terms of the articles it will select for publication , and usually will also have the highest impact factor . In some countries , journal rankings can be utilized for funding decisions and even evaluation of individual researchers , although they are poorly suited for that purpose . It is also common for journals to have a regional focus , specializing in publishing papers from a particular country or other geographic region , like African Invertebrates . Articles tend to be highly technical , representing the latest theoretical research and experimental results in the field of science covered by the journal . They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the field and advanced students . In some subjects this is inevitable given the nature of the content . Usually , rigorous rules of scientific writing are enforced by the editors ; however , these rules may vary from journal to journal , especially between journals from different publishers . Articles are usually either original articles reporting completely new results or reviews of current literature . There are also scientific publications that bridge the gap between articles and books by publishing thematic volumes of chapters from different authors .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Scientific_journal",
"rank": 78,
"score": 106876
},
{
"content": "Title: World Archaeology Content: World Archaeology is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering all aspects of archaeology . It was established in 1969 and originally published triannually by Routledge & Kegan Paul . In 2004 it changed to a quarterly publication schedule while remaining under the Routledge imprint . Each of the year 's first three issues within a volume are dedicated to specific individual themes and topics within archaeology , and contributions address the topic from a variety of perspectives . The fourth and last issue of the year has been given over to coverage of current debates within archaeology , in which papers discuss significant issues and global concerns in the field .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "World_Archaeology",
"rank": 79,
"score": 106733
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle",
"rank": 80,
"score": 106608
},
{
"content": "Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Ross_Gelbspan",
"rank": 81,
"score": 106402
},
{
"content": "Title: Review of International Organizations Content: The Review of International Organizations is a peer-reviewed academic journal that analyzes operations and policies of both governmental and non-governmental organizations . Scientific contributions cover agencies such as the International Monetary Fund , the World Trade Organization , the World Bank , the G7 , the NATO , the European Court of Human Rights , the United Nations , and similar formal institutions . In addition , the journal offers research on networks of international cooperation , including the Global Development Network and the International Competition Forum . The journal is published by Springer Boston . Its current editors are Axel Dreher ( Editor-in-Chief , University of Heidelberg ) , James Vreeland ( Associate Editor , Georgetown University ) , Roland Vaubel ( Associate Editor , University of Mannheim ) and Todd Sandler ( Associate Editor , University of Texas at Dallas ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 2.444 , ranking it 11th out of 163 journals in the category `` Political Science '' and 6th out of 86 journals in the category `` International Relations '' .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Review_of_International_Organizations",
"rank": 82,
"score": 106316
},
{
"content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason",
"rank": 83,
"score": 106139
},
{
"content": "Title: Advances in Space Research Content: Advances in Space Research ( ASR ) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that is published 27 times per year by Elsevier . It was established in 1981 and is the official journal of the Committee on Space Research ( COSPAR ) . The editor-in-chief is Pascal Willis . Topics of interest for this journal are all interactions observed in space research , including space studies of the Earth 's surface , meteorology , and climate . Acceptable articles in the context of space research are from the perspective of astrophysics , materials science , the life sciences , and fundamental physics . Also included in this context is the study of planetary meteorologies , and planetary climates . Other research encompasses Earth-based astronomy observations , the study of space debris , and space weather .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Advances_in_Space_Research",
"rank": 84,
"score": 106084
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat and Mass Transfer Content: Heat and Mass Transfer is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer . It serves the circulation of new developments in the field of basic research of heat and mass transfer phenomena , as well as related material properties and their measurements . Thereby applications to engineering problems are promoted . The journal publishes original research reports . As of 1995 the title `` Wärme - und Stoffübertragung was changed to Heat and Mass Transfer .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Heat_and_Mass_Transfer",
"rank": 85,
"score": 105734
},
{
"content": "Title: International Journal of Climatology Content: The International Journal of Climatology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing research in the field of climatology . Established in 1981 , the journal is published 15 times per year by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Royal Meteorological Society . The editor-in-chief is Radan Huth ( Charles University in Prague ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 3.609 .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "International_Journal_of_Climatology",
"rank": 86,
"score": 105663
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Society (journal) Content: Global Society is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering international relations and globalization . It was established in 1987 as Paradigms and obtained its current name in 1996 . The editor-in-chief is Andrea den Boer ( University of Kent ) . The journal is published by Taylor & Francis on behalf of the University of Kent .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Society_(journal)",
"rank": 87,
"score": 105590
},
{
"content": "Title: International Journal of Mathematics and Computer Science Content: The International Journal of Mathematics and Computer Science ( online : , print : ) is a biannual peer-reviewed scientific journal which was established in 2006 and publishes original papers in the broad subjects of mathematics and computer science . It is abstracted and indexed by Zentralblatt Math and Mathematical Reviews . The editor in chief is Badih Ghusayni ( Lebanese University , Hadath , Lebanon ) .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "International_Journal_of_Mathematics_and_Computer_Science",
"rank": 88,
"score": 105542
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal of Global Infectious Diseases Content: Journal of Global Infectious Diseases ( ISSN : Print - 0974-777X , Online - 0974-8245 ) is peer-reviewed open access journal published on behalf of the Global Infectiologists Network . The journal publishes articles on the subject of Infectious diseases , Microbiology including bacteriology , virology , mycology and parasitology , Immunology , Public Health , Critical Care , Epidemiology , Nutrition , Pharmacotherapeutics . The journal is indexed with Caspur , DOAJ , EBSCO Publishing 's Electronic Databases , Expanded Academic ASAP , Genamics JournalSeek , Google Scholar , Health & Wellness Research Center , Health Reference Center Academic , Hinari , Index Copernicus , OpenJGate , PubMed , Pubmed Central , SCOLOAR , SIIC databases , Ulrich 's International Periodical Directory . There are no page charges for submissions to the journal .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Journal_of_Global_Infectious_Diseases",
"rank": 89,
"score": 105489
},
{
"content": "Title: Physical Review Letters Content: Physical Review Letters ( PRL ) , established in 1958 , is a peer-reviewed , scientific journal that is published 52 times per year by the American Physical Society . As also confirmed by various measurement standards , which include the Journal Citation Reports impact factor and the journal h-index proposed by Google Scholar , many physicists and other scientists consider Physical Review Letters one of the most prestigious journals in the field of physics . PRL is published as a print journal , and is in electronic format , online and CD-ROM . Its focus is rapid dissemination of significant , or notable , results of fundamental research on all topics related to all fields of physics . This is accomplished by rapid publication of short reports , called `` Letters '' . Papers are published and available electronically one article at a time . When published in such a manner , the paper is available to be cited by other work . The Lead Editor is Hugues Chaté . The Managing Editor is Reinhardt B. Schuhmann .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Physical_Review_Letters",
"rank": 90,
"score": 105422
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Content: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics is an open access peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the European Geosciences Union . It covers research on the Earth 's atmosphere and the underlying chemical and physical processes , including the altitude range from the land and ocean surface up to the turbopause , including the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere . The main subject areas comprise atmospheric modelling , field measurements , remote sensing , and laboratory studies of gases , aerosols , clouds and precipitation , isotopes , radiation , dynamics , and biosphere and hydrosphere interactions . Article types published are research and review articles , technical notes , and commentaries . The journal has a two-stage publication process . In the first stage , papers that pass a rapid access peer-review are immediately published on the Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions forum website . They are then subject to interactive public peer review , including the referees ' comments ( anonymous or attributed ) , additional comments by other members of the scientific community ( attributed ) , and the authors ' replies . In the second stage , if accepted , the final revised papers are published in the journal . To ensure publication precedence for authors , and to provide a lasting record of the scientific discussion , both the journal and the forum are permanently archived and fully citable .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Atmospheric_Chemistry_and_Physics",
"rank": 91,
"score": 105267
},
{
"content": "Title: David Legates Content: David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university , and a former Delaware State Climatologist . Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale . Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "David_Legates",
"rank": 92,
"score": 105162
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know",
"rank": 93,
"score": 105109
},
{
"content": "Title: The Holocene Content: The Holocene is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research in the field of environmental studies , in particular environmental change over the last c. 11,500 years , particularly the interface between the long Quaternary record and the natural and human-induced environmental processes operating at the Earth 's surface today . It is published eight times a year by SAGE Publications . The editor-in-chief is John A. Matthews ( University of Wales , Swansea ) .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "The_Holocene",
"rank": 94,
"score": 104769
},
{
"content": "Title: Conflict Management and Peace Science Content: Conflict Management and Peace Science is a peer-reviewed academic journal appearing five times a year that publishes scholarly articles and book reviews in the field of international relations ( specifically peace and conflict studies ) on topics such as international conflict , arms races , international trade , foreign policy , international mediation , and conflict resolution . The journal is published under the auspices of the Peace Science Society . The journal includes original and review articles .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Conflict_Management_and_Peace_Science",
"rank": 95,
"score": 104434
},
{
"content": "Title: Medical Science Monitor Content: The Medical Science Monitor is a peer-reviewed general medical journal . It was established in 1995 and is published by International Scientific Information . It was published in both print and online formats until 2012 , at which point the journal became online-only . The editor-in-chief is George Stefano ( State University of New York at Old Westbury ) . In 2012 , the journal was one of 51 journals banned from Thomson Reuters ' Journal Citation Reports after it had been accused of conspiring with two other journals -- Cell Transplantation and The Scientific World Journal -- to raise each other 's impact factors . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 1.433 .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Medical_Science_Monitor",
"rank": 96,
"score": 104304
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal of Graph Algorithms and Applications Content: The Journal of Graph Algorithms and Applications is an open access peer-reviewed scientific journal covering the subject of graph algorithms and graph drawing . The journal was established in 1997 and the editor-in-chief is Giuseppe Liotta ( University of Perugia ) . It is abstracted and indexed by Scopus and MathSciNet .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Journal_of_Graph_Algorithms_and_Applications",
"rank": 97,
"score": 104195
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth, Moon, and Planets Content: Earth , Moon , and Planets is a peer-reviewed scientific journal , published approximately ten times per year by Springer Science + Business Media . It was established in 1969 under the title The Moon , was known as The Moon and the Planets from 1978 to 1983 , and was first published under the current title in February 1984 . The editor-in-chief is Murthy S. Gudipati ( Caltech and JPL ) . The journal 's main focus is on research about the Solar System . Besides original research articles , Earth , Moon , and Planets publishes conference proceedings , review articles , book reviews , and special issues .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Earth,_Moon,_and_Planets",
"rank": 98,
"score": 104125
},
{
"content": "Title: Geophysical Journal International Content: Geophysical Journal International is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Royal Astronomical Society and the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft ( German Geophysical Society ) . The journal published original research papers , research notes , letters , and book reviews . It was established in 1922 . The editor-in-chief is Jeannot Trampert ( Utrecht University ) . The journal covers research on all aspects of geophysics , including planetary science .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Geophysical_Journal_International",
"rank": 99,
"score": 104025
},
{
"content": "Title: Mythlore Content: Mythlore is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal published by the Mythopoeic Society . Although it publishes articles that explore the genres of myth and fantasy in general , special attention is given to the three most prominent members of the Inklings : J. R. R. Tolkien , C. S. Lewis , and Charles Williams . The current editor-in-chief is Janet Brennan Croft .",
"qid": "100",
"docid": "Mythlore",
"rank": 100,
"score": 103769
}
] |
Neither the rate nor the magnitude of the reported late twentieth century surface warming (1979–2000) lay outside normal natural variability. | [
{
"content": "Title: 20th century Content: The 20th century was a century that began on January 1 , 1901 and ended on December 31 , 2000 . It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium . It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 . The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : World War I and World War II , nuclear power and space exploration , nationalism and decolonization , the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts ; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology ; poverty reduction and world population growth , awareness of environmental degradation , ecological extinction ; and the birth of the Digital Revolution . It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life . The term `` short twentieth century '' was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991 . Global total fertility rates , sea level rise and ecological collapses increased ; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation , water depletion . and the mass extinction of half the world 's estimated nine million unique species and wildlife population ; consequences which are now being dealt with . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927 ; by late 1999 , the global population reached 6 billion . Global literacy averaged 80 % ; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history , with over half achieving 70 + years ( three decades longer than it was a century ago ) .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_century",
"rank": 1,
"score": 118514
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 2,
"score": 112721
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th century (disambiguation) Content: The 20th century of the Common Era began on 1 January 1901 and ended on 31 December 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar . 20th century may also refer to : Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 Broadway play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 American comedy Twentieth Century Pictures , a 1930s film studio The 20th Century , the 1950s television series Twentieth Century ( Cold Chisel album ) , 1984 Twentieth Century ( Alabama album ) , 1999 Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a sans-serif typeface 20th Century ( album ) , an album 3X Krazy 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a gin cocktail 20th Century Fox , a movie and television production company 20th Century Limited , the flagship passenger train of the New York Central Railroad 20th Century Records , a record label begun as a soundtrack division of Twentieth Century Pictures 20th Century with Mike Wallace , the 1990s-2000s television series 20th Century , a sub-unit of Japanese boyband V6 `` Twentieth Century '' , a song from the 2006 album , Fundamental by the Pet Shop Boys",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_century_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 3,
"score": 112521
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth century (disambiguation) Content: Twentieth century may refer to : The 20th century AD , the period between the years 1901 and 2000 of the Gregorian calendar The 20th century BC 20th Century Fox 20th Century Limited , a passenger train between Chicago and New York City that operated from 1902 to 1967 Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 film On the Twentieth Century , a 1978 musical based on the play and film Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a geometric sans-serif typeface . 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a cocktail Twentieth Century ( TV series ) , a long-running TV documentary series telecast on CBS from 1957 to 1970 , and hosted by Walter Cronkite",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_century_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 4,
"score": 111352
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 5,
"score": 110744
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 6,
"score": 108687
},
{
"content": "Title: List of 20th-century earthquakes Content: This list of 20th-century earthquakes is a global list of notable earthquakes that occurred in the 20th century . After 1900 most earthquakes have some degree of instrumental records and this means that the locations and magnitudes are more reliable than for earlier events . To prevent this list becoming unmanageable , only those of magnitude 6 and above are included unless they are notable for some other reason .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "List_of_20th-century_earthquakes",
"rank": 7,
"score": 108186
},
{
"content": "Title: The 20th Century Content: The Twentieth Century was a documentary television program sponsored by the Prudential Insurance Company that ran on the CBS network from 20 October 1957 until 4 January 1970 . It was hosted by Walter Cronkite . The opening and closing theme music was written by composer George Antheil . The program presented filmed reports on news and cultural events that were important for the development of the 20th century . The show did not just present the events but also interpreted them . Such subjects as World War I and major assassinations were presented in context . On 20 January 1967 the show , sponsored by Union Carbide ( `` The Discovery Company '' ) , was renamed The 21st Century . The show 's focus changed to the future and to what mankind could look forward to . The 21st Century was cancelled after three seasons ( its final broadcast was on 4 January 1970 ) . The reason given was that the writers had run out of things to talk about . However , it is possible that CBS may have wished to replace it with a more commercially successful program .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "The_20th_Century",
"rank": 8,
"score": 106143
},
{
"content": "Title: Year 2000 problem Content: The Year 2000 problem , also known as the Y2K problem , the Millennium bug , the Y2K bug , or Y2K , was a computer bug related to the formatting and storage of calendar data . Problems were anticipated , and arose , because twentieth-century software often represented the four-digit year with only the final two digits -- making the year 2000 indistinguishable from 1900 . The assumption of a twentieth-century date in such programs caused various errors , such as the incorrect display of dates and the inaccurate ordering of automated dated records or real-time events . In 1997 the British Standards Institute ( BSI ) developed standard DISC PD2000-1 defining `` Year 2000 Conformity requirements '' as four rules : ( 1 ) No valid date will cause any interruption in operations ; ( 2 ) Calculation of durations between , or the sequence of , pairs of dates will be correct whether any dates are in different centuries ; ( 3 ) In all interfaces and in all storage , the century must be unambiguous , either specified , or calculable by algorithm ; ( 4 ) Year 2000 must be recognised as a leap year . It identifies two problems that may exist in many computer programs . First , the practice of representing the year with two digits became problematic with logical error ( s ) arising upon `` rollover '' from x99 to x00 . This had caused some date-related processing to operate incorrectly for dates and times on and after 1 January 2000 , and on other critical dates which were billed `` event horizons '' . Without corrective action , long-working systems would break down when the '' ... 97 , 98 , 99 , 00 ... '' ascending numbering assumption suddenly became invalid . Secondly , some programmers had misunderstood the Gregorian calendar rule that determines whether years that are exactly divisible by 100 are not leap years , and assumed the year 2000 would not be a leap year . Years divisible by 100 are not leap years , except for years that are divisible by 400 . Thus the year 2000 was a leap year . Companies and organisations worldwide checked , fixed , and upgraded their computer systems to address the anticipated problem . Very few computer failures were reported when the clocks rolled over into 2000 . It is not known how many problems went unrecorded .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Year_2000_problem",
"rank": 9,
"score": 103977
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century Society Content: The Twentieth Century Society ( abbreviated as C20 ) is a British charity which campaigns for the preservation of architectural heritage from 1914 onwards . The society 's interests embrace buildings and artefacts that characterise 20th-century Britain . It is formally recognised as one of the National Amenity Societies , and as such is a statutory consultee on alterations to listed buildings within its period of interest , and must be notified of any proposed work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition . The society was formed as the Thirties Society in 1979 , the year in which the prominent `` Thirties -- British art and design before the War '' exhibition was shown at the Hayward Gallery . Its establishment was inspired by and loosely modelled on the Victorian Society , which aims to protect pre-1914 Victorian and Edwardian buildings . Though several modern movement buildings had been recommended for listing by Nikolaus Pevsner in 1970 , it was felt by Marcus Binney , John Harris and Simon Jenkins that much more needed to be done . Bevis Hillier was the first president , and Clive Aslet the first honorary secretary . In 1992 , the society changed its name to the Twentieth Century Society , as it was felt that `` Thirties Society '' failed to indicate its interest in the protection of buildings from other periods as well .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_Society",
"rank": 10,
"score": 103152
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 11,
"score": 102222
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century (typeface) Content: Twentieth Century is a geometric sans-serif typeface designed by Sol Hess for Lanston Monotype in 1937 . It was created as a competitor to the successful Futura typeface for Monotype 's hot metal typesetting system . Like Futura it has a single-story ` a ' ( as in handwriting ) and a straight ` j' with no bend . A very large font family , Twentieth Century is particularly known for a limited range of styles being bundled with many Microsoft products such as Office . Numerous other variants exist , including versions for very small text and an Art Deco-influenced titling capitals design , Twentieth Century Poster , with rounded capitals . In addition , Twentieth Century served as an inspiration for Century Gothic , designed by Monotype in 1991 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_(typeface)",
"rank": 12,
"score": 101379
},
{
"content": "Title: Short twentieth century Content: The term `` short 20th century '' , originally proposed by Iván Berend ( Hungarian Academy of Sciences ) but defined by Eric Hobsbawm , a British Marxist historian and author , refers to the period between the years 1914 and 1991 . That period begins with the beginning of World War I , and ends with the fall of the Soviet Union . The chain of events represented such significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : It started with World War I , which caused the end of the German , Ottoman , Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires . World War II was greatly influenced by the outcome of World War I . The Cold War was a result of World War II and ended with the fall of the Soviet Union . The term is analogous to the long 19th century , also coined by Hobsbawm , denoting the period 1789 to 1914 , and to the long 18th century , or approximately 1688 to 1815 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Short_twentieth_century",
"rank": 13,
"score": 100472
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 14,
"score": 99712
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th century BC Content: The 20th century BC was a century which lasted from the year 2000 BC to 1901 BC .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_century_BC",
"rank": 15,
"score": 99019
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century (film) Content: Twentieth Century is a 1934 American pre-Code screwball comedy film . Much of the film is set on the 20th Century Limited train as it travels from Chicago to New York City . The film was directed by Howard Hawks , stars John Barrymore and Carole Lombard , and features Walter Connolly , Roscoe Karns and Edgar Kennedy . Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur adapted their Broadway play of the same name -- itself based on the unproduced play Napoleon of Broadway by Charles Bruce Millholland -- with uncredited contributions from Gene Fowler and Preston Sturges . Along with Frank Capra 's It Happened One Night , also released in 1934 ( which amazingly has exactly the same music over the opening titles ) , Twentieth Century is considered to be a prototype for the screwball comedy . `` Howard Hawks ' rapid-fire romantic comedy established the essential ingredients of the screwball -- a dizzy dame , a charming but befuddled hero , dazzling dialogue and a dash of slapstick . '' Its success propelled Lombard into the front ranks of film comediennes . The film was added to the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress in 2011 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_(film)",
"rank": 16,
"score": 98128
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century (play) Content: For the 1934 film of the same name , see Twentieth Century ( film ) . Twentieth Century is a play by Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur based on the unproduced play Napoleon of Broadway by Charles B. Millholland , inspired by his experience working for the eccentric Broadway impresario David Belasco .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_(play)",
"rank": 17,
"score": 97898
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th century in the United States Content: The 20th century in the United States refers to the period in the United States from 1901 through 2000 in the Gregorian calendar . For information on this period , see : : Category :20 th century in the United States History of the United States series : History of the United States ( 1865 -- 1918 ) History of the United States ( 1918 -- 1945 ) History of the United States ( 1945 -- 1964 ) History of the United States ( 1964 -- 1980 ) History of the United States ( 1980 -- 1991 ) History of the United States ( 1991 -- present ) Timeline of the United States *",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_century_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 18,
"score": 97433
},
{
"content": "Title: 1900 (film) Content: 1900 ( Novecento , `` Twentieth Century '' ) is a 1976 Italian epic historical drama film directed by Bernardo Bertolucci , starring Robert De Niro , Gérard Depardieu , Dominique Sanda , Sterling Hayden , Alida Valli , Romolo Valli , Stefania Sandrelli , Donald Sutherland , and Burt Lancaster . Set in Bertolucci 's ancestral region of Emilia , the film is a praise of communism and chronicles the lives of two men during the political turmoils that took place in Italy in the first half of the 20th century . The film was screened at the 1976 Cannes Film Festival , but was not entered into the main competition . Due to the film 's length , 1900 was presented in two parts when originally released in many countries and regions , including Italy , East and West Germany , Denmark , Belgium , Norway , Sweden , Colombia and Hong Kong . Other countries , such as the United States , released an edited version of the film .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "1900_(film)",
"rank": 19,
"score": 97227
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th Century (cocktail) Content: The 20th Century is a cocktail created in 1937 by a British bartender named C.A. Tuck , and named in honor of the celebrated Twentieth Century Limited train which ran between New York City and Chicago from 1902 until 1967 . The recipe was first published in 1937 in the Café Royal Cocktail Book by William J Tarling , President of the United Kingdom Bartenders ' Guild and head bartender at the Café Royal .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_Century_(cocktail)",
"rank": 20,
"score": 96847
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century (Cold Chisel album) Content: Twentieth Century is the final studio album for Australian band Cold Chisel until the group reformed in 1998 . The album was written and recorded over various sessions during the period of the band 's break-up and during breaks in their final tour . It was released in early 1984 and peaked at No. 1 on the Australian albums chart , their 3rd consecutive album to do so . It charted for a total of 46 weeks .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_(Cold_Chisel_album)",
"rank": 21,
"score": 95791
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth-century theatre Content: Twentieth-century theatre describes a period of great change within the theatrical culture of the 20th century , mainly in Europe and North America . There was a widespread challenge to long established rules surrounding theatrical representation ; resulting in the development of many new forms of theatre , including modernism , Expressionism , Impressionism . political theatre and other forms of Experimental theatre , as well as the continuing development of already established theatrical forms like naturalism and realism . Throughout the century , the artistic reputation of theatre improved after being derided throughout the 19th century . However , the growth of other media , especially film , has resulted in a diminished role within culture at large . In light of this change , theatrical artists have been forced to seek new ways to engage with society . The various answers offered in response to this have prompted the transformations that make up its modern history . Developments in areas like Gender theory and postmodern philosophy identified and created subjects for the theatre to explore . These sometimes explicitly meta-theatrical performances were meant to confront the audience 's perceptions and assumptions in order to raise questions about their society . These challenging and influential plays characterized much of the final two decades of the 20th-century . Although largely developing in Europe and North America through the beginning of the century , the next 50 years saw an embrace of non-Western theatrical forms . Influenced by the dismantling of empires and the continuing development of post-colonial theory , many new artists utilized elements of their own cultures and societies to create a diversified theatre .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth-century_theatre",
"rank": 22,
"score": 95077
},
{
"content": "Title: Classic 100 Twentieth Century (ABC) Content: During 2011 the Australian radio station ABC Classic FM held a Classic 100 Twentieth Century countdown . Voting for the countdown was held between 1 October 2011 and 23 October 2011 , with each listener permitted to vote for up to 10 pieces of music that were `` composed since 1900 '' . The broadcasting of the results of the countdown began on 26 November 2011 and concluded on 3 December 2011 ( with the top-ranked works played live by the Adelaide Symphony Orchestra in concert at the Adelaide Festival Theatre ) .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Classic_100_Twentieth_Century_(ABC)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 94501
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 24,
"score": 94412
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th Century Club (Reno, Nevada) Content: With this motto , `` The measure of the worth of an organization to its community , is bound in its ability to embrace opportunities for service '' the Twentieth Century Club ( sometimes referred to as the `` 20th Century Club '' ) had its beginning in 1894 . Mrs. Walter McNab Miller served as President for an original group of 84 women . The Club 's name was chosen to reflect a look forward to the future and the beginning of the new century . In 1894 , Club members started a circulating library , and in 1898 a scholarship to the University of Nevada was funded . In 1901 , members of the Twentieth Century Club participated in founding the Kindergarten Association and urged the Legislature to establish public kindergartens throughout the state . During the war years , many hours were devoted to the home-front war effort . In 1925 a Clubhouse was built on First Street on the river . Through the years the Clubhouse was the pride of its members . Much social life of Reno revolved around the facilities of this Clubhouse -- weddings , luncheons , dinner dances , and civic meetings . In 1980 , the Twentieth Century Club sold the building , and the Club 's Steinway grand piano was donated to the Reno Philharmonic . Since 1986 two scholarships are awarded to female students with an interest in medicine . Currently the scholarships are in the amount of $ 2500 each . Monetary donations totaling $ 20,000 are given to local philanthropic organizations each year , and organized philanthropic endeavors are scheduled at Club meetings throughout the year . A monthly luncheon is held September through May featuring a program of music or lecturers . The Twentieth Century Club has entered its third century as the oldest , active women 's club in the state of Nevada . Contact information is as follows : The Twentieth Century Club , P.O. Box 11631 , Reno , NV 89510-1631 , Peggy Slattery , President , 775-544-7052 The former Twentieth Century Clubhouse , now known as the 20th Century Building still stands today and is located at 335 W. First St. This building is historic and listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The building was designed by Fred M. Schadler and includes Classical Revival and Prairie School architecture . It was built in 1925 . The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 . It was deemed significant as an `` interesting '' building designed by a prominent local architect and for association with the Twentieth Century Club , which was `` prominent and important '' in Reno .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_Century_Club_(Reno,_Nevada)",
"rank": 25,
"score": 93730
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th Canadian Ministry Content: The Twentieth Canadian Ministry was the first cabinet chaired by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau . It governed Canada from 20 April 1968 to 4 June 1979 , including all of the 28th , 29th , and 30th Canadian Parliaments . The government was formed by the Liberal Party of Canada . Trudeau was also Prime Minister in the Twenty-Second Canadian Ministry .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_Canadian_Ministry",
"rank": 26,
"score": 93665
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century (Alabama album) Content: Twentieth Century is the eighteenth studio album of country music band Alabama , released in 1999 by RCA Records . It produced the singles '' ( God Must Have Spent ) A Little More Time on You '' , a collaboration with 'N Sync , `` Small Stuff '' , `` We Made Love '' and `` Twentieth Century '' , which respectively reached numbers 3 , 24 , 63 , and 51 on the Hot Country Songs charts . In addition , '' ( God Must Have Spent ) A Little More Time on You '' was the band 's last top ten hit on the country charts . '' ( God Must Have Spent ) A Little More Time On You '' was originally recorded by 'N Sync in 1998 on their first album * NSYNC .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_(Alabama_album)",
"rank": 27,
"score": 93275
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century Club (Buffalo, New York) Content: The Twentieth Century Club is a women 's social club founded in the late 19th century in Buffalo , New York . It is located at 595 Delaware Avenue , in the Delaware District neighborhood . It was the first club run by women , for women , in the United States . The club developed out of the Graduates Association of the Buffalo Seminary , spearheaded by Charlotte Mulligan , a teacher , writer , and musician from a well-to-do family . She envisioned a club rich in tradition , education , and culture . The Twentieth Century Club became noted for the many lavish social events held there , but education was , and still is , the primary focus of activity . Starting with an 1894 lecture on Abraham Lincoln , and continuing through the present , the Club has a long tradition of presenting prominent speakers and programs by recognized experts on a wide variety of subjects . From the 19th century , when women could n't vote and had limited opportunity , to today in the 21st century when possibilities seem limitless , the Twentieth Century Club has truly spanned its namesake century and connected those prior and succeeding . Its history parallels and chronicles not only the history of events in Buffalo , but also that of the enormous societal changes which have occurred in its lifespan . In 1894 , the club purchased the present property and hired the firm of Green & Wicks to design a clubhouse to add to the front of an existing Baptist church . The clubhouse is a three story building in the Italian renaissance style . The building is 78 feet wide and 96 feet deep . The first story is of Indiana limestone and the rest of the structure of pressed brick , of a warm red tone , with a cornice of terra cotta . The Ionic order pillars across the front of the second story are of blue marble . The original church structure at the rear of the lot was demolished in 1904 and a gymnasium , pool , showers , and a hot room were added . Additional land and a formal garden were added to the rear of the property in 1933 . In 2011 the building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_Club_(Buffalo,_New_York)",
"rank": 28,
"score": 93074
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th century in ichnology Content: The 20th century in ichnology refers to advances made between the years 1900 and 1999 in the scientific study of trace fossils , the preserved record of the behavior and physiological processes of ancient life forms , especially fossil footprints . Significant fossil trackway discoveries began almost immediately after the start of the 20th century with the 1900 discovery at Ipolytarnoc , Hungary of a wide variety of bird and mammal footprints left behind during the early Miocene . Not long after , fossil Iguanodon footprints were discovered in Sussex , England , a discovery that probably served as the inspiration for Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's The Lost World . Several enduring mysteries from the 19th century continued to vex ichnologists , like the identity of the Chirotherium trackmaker . Renowned paleontologist Franz von Nopcsa attributed the ichnogenus to the prosauropod dinosaur Plateosaurus , despite an apparent mismatch between its number of toes ( 4 ) and the preserved digit traces of Chirotherium ( 5 ) . Von Nopcsa explained the discrepancy by arguing that one of the impressions in the Chirotherium tracks was left by a soft tissue structure that did not fossilize . However , it was Wolfgang Soergel who correctly hypothesized that Chirotherium was produced by a distant relative of modern crocodilians . Using only its footprints as a guide he reconstructed the life appearance of the Chirotherium trackmaker . Decades later paleontologists described an animal named Ticinosuchus which precisely fulfilling Soergel 's predictions . Ticinosuchus or a close relative seems to have been the true Chirotherium trackmaker . During the 20th century , many significant fossil trackway discoveries were made in the western United States . In the 1930s and 1940s , Roland T. Bird discovered the tracks of large sauropod and theropod dinosaurs in Texas . He excavated a major section of the track ways on behalf of the American Museum of Natural History . This was the first large scale excavation of fossil footprints in history . In the 1950s Lee Stokes reported unusual footprints he interpreted as the first known pterosaur tracks . This attribution would be controversial much of the rest of the century but has since been vindicated . The dinosaur footprints of Dinosaur Ridge in Colorado were also discovered and studied in the 20th century . The advent of the Dinosaur Renaissance and the publication by R. McNeil Alexander of a formula which could reconstruct their running speed based on data from fossil trackways brought renewed interest and prestige to ichnology during the late 20th century . This led to several symposia on the subject of vertebrate trace fossils . In 1986 such a conference dedicated to dinosaur footprints was held in New Mexico . Roughly a decade later renowned German ichnologist Heinrich Haubold organized a conference dedicated to the more ancient footprints of the Paleozoic Era . This gathering has been regarded as a turning point in the study of tracks of that age .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_century_in_ichnology",
"rank": 29,
"score": 92814
},
{
"content": "Title: Stonehenge in its landscape Content: Stonehenge in its landscape : Twentieth century excavations by R. M. J. Cleal , K. E. Walker and R. Montague is an archaeological report on Stonehenge published in 1995 . It presented the results of a two year intensive study of all the known records of the various excavations at Stonehenge in the twentieth century , including a rephasing of the development of the monument . Unlike popular books on the subject , Stonehenge in its landscape details the complex archaeological stratigraphy of the site . It has been described as `` an essential reference work for the specialist '' .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Stonehenge_in_its_landscape",
"rank": 30,
"score": 92454
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Content: The Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt ( notated Dynasty XX , alternatively 20th Dynasty or Dynasty 20 ) is classified as the third and last Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period , lasting from 1189 BC to 1077 BC . The 20th Dynasty and the 19th Dynasty furthermore together constitute an era known as the Ramesside period .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt",
"rank": 31,
"score": 92284
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th-century events Content: The 20th-century events include many notable events which occurred throughout the 20th century , which began on January 1 , 1901 , and ended on December 31 , 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th-century_events",
"rank": 32,
"score": 92230
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 33,
"score": 92186
},
{
"content": "Title: On the Twentieth Century Content: On the Twentieth Century is a musical with book and lyrics by Betty Comden and Adolph Green and music by Cy Coleman . Based partly on the 1930s film and play of the same name , the musical is part operetta , part farce and part screwball comedy . The story involves the behind-the-scenes relationship between Lily , a temperamental actress and Oscar , a bankrupt theatre producer . On a luxury train traveling from Chicago to New York in the 1920s , Oscar tries to cajole the glamorous Hollywood star into playing the lead in his new , but not-yet-written drama , and perhaps to rekindle their romance . The musical ran on Broadway in 1978 -- 1979 , running for 449 performances and winning five Tony Awards . It showcased Madeline Kahn in the role of Lily Garland , and when Kahn left the show , the role launched the career of Judy Kaye . Several revivals followed in London and elsewhere , and a 2015 Broadway revival featured Kristin Chenoweth .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "On_the_Twentieth_Century",
"rank": 34,
"score": 92066
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 35,
"score": 91524
},
{
"content": "Title: Water export Content: Water exports involve exporting freshwater from one country to another . Large increases in human population and economic growth throughout the world during the twentieth century placed a huge stress on the world 's freshwater resources . Combined with climate change , they will place an even greater demand on water resources in this century . Water shortages have become an international concern , and freshwater has been described as `` blue gold '' and `` the oil of the 21st Century . ''",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Water_export",
"rank": 36,
"score": 91126
},
{
"content": "Title: A Brief History of the Twentieth Century Content: A Brief History of the Twentieth Century is the first compilation album by Gang of Four . It was released in December 1990 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "A_Brief_History_of_the_Twentieth_Century",
"rank": 37,
"score": 90947
},
{
"content": "Title: Death rates in the 20th century Content: Death Rates in the 20th century is the ratio of deaths compared to the population around the world throughout the 20th century . When giving these ratios , they are most commonly expressed by number of deaths per 1,000 people per year . Many factors contribute to death rates such as cause of death , increasing the death rate , an aging population , which could increase and decrease the death rates by birth rates , and improvements in public health , decreasing the death rate . According to the CIA World Factbook , as of July 2012 , the global crude death rate is 7.99 deaths/1 ,000 population . The crude death rate represents the total number of deaths per year per thousand people . Comparatively , the crude death rate in the year 1900 was 17.2 deaths/1 ,000 population and 9.6 deaths/1 ,000 population in 1950 in America .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Death_rates_in_the_20th_century",
"rank": 38,
"score": 90803
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 39,
"score": 90099
},
{
"content": "Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports",
"rank": 40,
"score": 89885
},
{
"content": "Title: Painting the Century: 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900–2000 Content: Painting the Century : 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900 -- 2000 was an international exhibition held at the National Portrait Gallery in London in 2000 -- 2001 that exhibited a painting representing each year of the 20th century . A book of the same name was published by the National Portrait Gallery by Robin Gibson with an introduction by Professor Norbert Lynton that illustrates all works exhibited .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Painting_the_Century:_101_Portrait_Masterpieces_1900–2000",
"rank": 41,
"score": 89872
},
{
"content": "Title: Age wave Content: Age Wave refers to a massive population and cultural shift caused by three converging global demographic forces : The baby boom . In the middle of the twentieth century , fertility rates increased significantly in the United States , Canada , Australia , and most of Europe . For example , nearly one-third of Americans -- 76 million people -- were born between 1946 and 1964 . This period of increased fertility era occurred between the baby busts of the Depression and World War II and the Vietnam war . Elevating longevity . Due to advances in public health , nutrition management and medical advances , life expectancy vaulted during the 20th century . For example , in the United States , life expectancy at birth in 1900 was 47 . Today , life expectancy at birth in the United States is 78 . The birth dearth . The baby boom has been followed by a period of declining fertility rates , so that many parts of the world are now experiencing sub-replacement fertility levels . According to Ken Dychtwald , Ph.D. , who first envisioned this demographically-driven transformation and coined the term , the `` age wave '' has already reshaped social and cultural trends , marketplace opportunities , productivity , and consumption patterns . Because of its enormous size and unique preferences and priorities , the men and women of this generation do n't just populate existing lifestages or consumer trends , they transform them . Some examples of trends and events driven by the age wave include : Benjamin Spock 's book , The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care , published during the first year of the baby boom , sold at least one million copies a year for eight straight years . 1.5 million cans of baby food were consumed in 1953 , almost six times as many as a decade before . Enrollment in the Cub Scouts doubled between 1950 and 1955 . The toy industry increased fifteen-fold in the 1940s and 1950s to meet the needs of rapidly growing numbers of children . 83 percent of the total population growth in the United States during the 1950s was in the suburbs as parents of the baby boomers moved out of the cities to raise their larger families . In the 1960s , teenagers accounted for 55 percent of all soft drink sales , 53 percent of all movie tickets , and 43 percent of all records sold . Fast food franchisers grew 20 percent a year . Sales of home gym equipment rose from $ 75 million in 1982 to over $ 1 billion in 1985 . Minivans and SUVs were created and came to dominate the auto industry in the 1980s and 1990s as baby boomers began raising families . The age wave will cause a massive slowdown in workforce growth in the coming years . In the next decade , America 's workforce will grow only 4 percent as the boomers begin to retire , down from 12 percent in the current decade and 29 percent in the 1970s when the boomers were entering the workforce . Dychtwald argues that as the boomer generation continues to mature , life 's second half is about to be further transformed , and that in the next several decades , this age wave will shift the epicenter of consumer activity from a focus on youth to the needs , challenges , and aspirations of maturing consumers . Because of the aging of the boomer generation , we are about to see an explosion of maturity-oriented products and services such as : nutraceuticals , cosmeceuticals , fitness communes , re-careering , philanthropreneuring , career-transition coordinators , smart homes , long-term care and longevity insurance , equity-release , reverse mortgages , college campus-based retirement housing and Internet cemeteries . However , the age wave will also put unprecedented pressure on families , communities and governments as multiplying numbers of older adults strain entitlements , eldercare , healthcare delivery and pensions . Criticisms All of these ancedotes may not reflect purely demographic changes , but also changes in norms of social present in the period . Especially activities like baby food consumption or Boy Scout attendance . Baby food consumption points to changes in beliefs about childhood nutrition , marketing and increased wealth with which to buy packaged food . Boy Scout attendance is not a stable fraction of the population ( all those of a certain age ) but rather a reflection of trends in beliefs about proper young male socialization and ideology .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Age_wave",
"rank": 42,
"score": 89728
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture",
"rank": 43,
"score": 89692
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th-century art Content: 20th-century art -- and what it became as modern art -- began with modernism in the late 19th century . Nineteenth-century movements of Post-Impressionism ( Les Nabis ) , Art Nouveau and Symbolism led to the first twentieth-century art movements of Fauvism in France and Die Brücke ( `` The Bridge '' ) in Germany . Fauvism in Paris introduced heightened non-representational colour into figurative painting . Die Brücke strove for emotional Expressionism . Another German group was Der Blaue Reiter ( `` The Blue Rider '' ) , led by Kandinsky in Munich , who associated the blue rider image with a spiritual non-figurative mystical art of the future . Kandinsky , Kupka , R. Delaunay and Picabia were pioneers of abstract ( or non-representational ) art . Cubism , generated by Picasso , Braque , Metzinger , Gleizes and others rejected the plastic norms of the Renaissance by introducing multiple perspectives into a two-dimensional image . Futurism incorporated the depiction of movement and machine age imagery . Dadaism , with its most notable exponents , Marcel Duchamp , who rejected conventional art styles altogether by exhibiting found objects , notably a urinal , and too Francis Picabia , with his Portraits Mécaniques . Parallel movements in Russia were Suprematism , where Kasimir Malevich also created non-representational work , notably a black canvas . The Jack of Diamonds group with Mikhail Larionov was expressionist in nature . Dadaism preceded Surrealism , where the theories of Freudian psychology led to the depiction of the dream and the unconscious in art in work by Salvador Dalí . Kandinsky 's introduction of non-representational art preceded the 1950s American Abstract Expressionist school , including Jackson Pollock , who dripped paint onto the canvas , and Mark Rothko , who created large areas of flat colour . Detachment from the world of imagery was reversed in the 1960s by the Pop Art movement , notably Andy Warhol , where brash commercial imagery became a Fine Art staple . Warhol also minimised the role of the artist , often employing assistants to make his work and using mechanical means of production , such as silkscreen printing . This marked a change from Modernism to Post-Modernism . Photorealism evolved from Pop Art and as a counter to Abstract Expressionists . Subsequent initiatives towards the end of the century involved a paring down of the material of art through Minimalism , and a shift toward non-visual components with Conceptual art , where the idea , not necessarily the made object , was seen as the art . The last decade of the century saw a fusion of earlier ideas in work by Jeff Koons , who made large sculptures from kitsch subjects , and in the UK , the Young British Artists , where Conceptual Art , Dada and Pop Art ideas led to Damien Hirst 's exhibition of a shark in formaldehyde in a vitrine .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th-century_art",
"rank": 44,
"score": 89646
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatological normal Content: Climatological normal is a 30-year average of a weather variable . Climatological normals are used as an average or baseline to evaluate climate events and provide context for year-to-year variability . Normals can be calculated for a variety of weather variables including temperature and precipitation and rely on data from weather stations . Variability from the 30-year averages is typical and climate variability looks at the magnitude of extremes .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Climatological_normal",
"rank": 45,
"score": 89422
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th century in fashion Content:",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_century_in_fashion",
"rank": 46,
"score": 89324
},
{
"content": "Title: List of manned Mars mission plans Content: This list of manned Mars mission plans in the 20th century is a listing of formal proposals , studies , and plans for a human manned mission to Mars during the 20th century . It is limited to serious studies done with engineering and scientific knowledge about the capabilities of then current technology , typically for high-budget space agencies like NASA . Mission profiles included manned flybys , manned landers , or other types of Mars system encounter strategies . For later plans , see Manned mission to Mars . Many mission concepts for expeditions to Mars were proposed in the late 20th century . David Portree 's history volume Humans to Mars : Fifty Years of Mission Planning , 1950 -- 2000 discusses many of these . Portree notes that every 26 Earth months a lower energy Earth to Mars transfer opportunity opens , so missions typically coincide with one of these windows . In addition , the lowest available transfer energy varies on a roughly 16-year cycle , with a minimum in the 1969 and 1971 launch windows , rising to a peak in the late 70s , and hitting another low in 1986 and 1988 . Also of note , the Mariner 4 Mars flyby in 1965 provided radically more accurate data about the planet ; a surface atmospheric pressure of about 1 % of Earth 's and daytime temperatures of -100 degrees Celsius ( -148 degrees Fahrenheit ) were estimated . No magnetic field or Martian radiation belts were detected . The new data meant redesigns for planned Martian landers , and showed life would have a more difficult time surviving there than previously anticipated . Later NASA probes in the 1970s , 80s , and 90s confirmed the findings about Mars environmental conditions . The first `` engineering analysis '' of a manned mission to Mars was made by Wernher von Braun in 1948 . It was originally published as Das Marsprojekt in West Germany in 1952 , and as The Mars Project in English in the United States in 1953 . Von Braun 's Mars `` flotilla '' included ten 4,000-ton ships with 70 crew members . The expected launch year was 1965 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "List_of_manned_Mars_mission_plans",
"rank": 47,
"score": 88809
},
{
"content": "Title: 1980 United States heat wave Content: The 1980 United States Heat Wave was a period of intense heat and drought that wreaked havoc on much of the Midwestern United States and Southern Plains throughout the summer of 1980 . It is among the most devastating natural disasters in terms of deaths and destruction in U.S. history , claiming at least 1,700 lives and because of the massive drought , agricultural damage reached US$ 20.0 billion ( US$ 55.4 billion in 2007 dollars , adjusted for the GNP inflation index ) . It is among the billion-dollar weather disasters listed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "1980_United_States_heat_wave",
"rank": 48,
"score": 88391
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th century in literature Content: Literature of the 20th century refers to world literature produced during the 20th century ( 1901 to 2000 ) . In terms of the Euro-American tradition , the main periods are captured in the bipartite division , Modernist literature and Postmodern literature , flowering from roughly 1900 to 1940 and 1960 to 1990 respectively , divided , as a rule of thumb , by World War II . The somewhat malleable term of contemporary literature is usually applied with a post-1960 cutoff point . Although these terms ( modern , contemporary and postmodern ) are most applicable to Western literary history , the rise of globalization has allowed European literary ideas to spread into non-Western cultures fairly rapidly , so that Asian and African literatures can be included into these divisions with only minor qualifications . And in some ways , such as in Postcolonial literature , writers from non-Western cultures were on the forefront of literary development . Technological advances during the 20th century allowed cheaper production of books , resulting in a significant rise in production of popular literature and trivial literature , comparable to the similar developments in music . The division of `` popular literature '' and `` high literature '' in the 20th century is by no means absolute , and various genres such as detectives or science fiction fluctuate between the two . Largely ignored by mainstream literary criticism for the most of the century , these genres developed their own establishments and critical awards ; these include the Nebula Award ( since 1965 ) , the British Fantasy Award ( since 1971 ) or the Mythopoeic Awards ( since 1971 ) . Towards the end of the 20th century , electronic literature developed due to the development of hypertext and later the world wide web . The Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded annually throughout the century ( with the exception of 1914 , 1918 , 1935 and 1940 -- 1943 ) , the first laureate ( 1901 ) being Sully Prudhomme . The New York Times Best Seller list has been published since 1942 . The best-selling literary works of the 20th century are estimated to be The Lord of the Rings ( 1954/55 , 150 million copies ) , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone ( 1997 , 120 million copies ) and And Then There Were None ( 1939 , 115 million copies ) . The Lord of the Rings was also voted `` book of the century '' in various surveys . Perry Rhodan ( 1961 to present ) proclaimed as the best-selling book series , with an estimated total of 1 billion copies sold .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_century_in_literature",
"rank": 49,
"score": 88140
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century Motor Car Corporation Content: Not to be confused with the `` Twentieth Century Motor Company '' , a fictional corporation in `` Atlas Shrugged '' . The Twentieth Century Motor Car Corporation was an automobile company started by con-artist Geraldine Elizabeth Carmichael in 1974 . The company 's flagship vehicle was the Dale , a prototype three-wheeled two-seater sports car designed and built by Dale Clifft . It was touted as being powered by an 850 cc air-cooled engine and featuring 70 mpgus fuel economy and a $ 2,000 ( in 1974 US dollars ) price , which were popular specifications during the mid 1970s US fuel crisis . Carmichael , 37 in 1974 , claimed to be the widow of a NASA structural engineer , a mother of five , and a farm girl from Indiana . In reality , she had been wanted by the police since 1961 for alleged involvement in a counterfeiting operation ; she had since changed her name , as she was a trans woman . The company would ultimately prove to be fraudulent when Carmichael went into hiding with investors ' money .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_Motor_Car_Corporation",
"rank": 50,
"score": 87610
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th Century with Mike Wallace Content: 20th Century with Mike Wallace was a documentary television program produced by CBS News Productions in association with A&E Network . It aired on The History Channel , a unit of A&E Television Networks , LLC , from approximately 1994-2005 . It was hosted by veteran CBS correspondent and anchor Mike Wallace . The program used footage gathered by CBS crews and contemporary reporting by CBS correspondents to document great events and movements of the 20th century , mainly the latter decades of that era . The range of topics is suggested by some of the program titles -- `` Underwater : The Great -LSB- Mississippi River -RSB- Flood of ' 93 '' ( no. 52 , 1996-04-10 ) ; `` Coming home : Agent Orange and the Gulf War Syndrome '' ( no. 91 , 1998-11-18 ) ; `` Search for Peace in the Middle East '' ( no. 106 , 1998-12-14 ) ; `` China after Mao '' ( no. 116 , 1999-03-05 ) .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_Century_with_Mike_Wallace",
"rank": 51,
"score": 87502
},
{
"content": "Title: List of solar eclipses in the 20th century BC Content: This is a list of solar eclipses in the 20th century BC . During the period 2000 to 1901 BC there were 239 solar eclipses of which 84 were partial , 71 were annular ( one non-central ) , 62 were total , and 22 were hybrids . The greatest number of eclipses in one year was four , occurring in 10 different years : 1998 BC , 1983 BC , 1980 BC , 1958 BC , 1940 BC , 1926 BC , 1922 BC , 1918 BC , 1911 BC , and 1904 BC . One month , March 1958 BC , had two eclipses .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "List_of_solar_eclipses_in_the_20th_century_BC",
"rank": 52,
"score": 87449
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th Century (album) Content: 20th Century , also known as The Best of 3X Krazy , is the first compilation album released by 3X Krazy . It was released on October 10 , 2000 and was a double CD .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_Century_(album)",
"rank": 53,
"score": 87182
},
{
"content": "Title: List of large volcanic eruptions of the 20th century Content: This is a list of volcanic eruptions of the 20th century measuring a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of at least 4 , as well as notable smaller eruptions . Note that there may be many other eruptions that have not been identified , and estimates for the size of eruptions can be subject to considerable uncertainties .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "List_of_large_volcanic_eruptions_of_the_20th_century",
"rank": 54,
"score": 87167
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century Theatre Content: Twentieth Century Theatre is a registered historic building in Cincinnati , Ohio , listed in the National Register on August 26 , 1993 . It is located at 3021 Madison Road . Built in 1941 as a deluxe neighborhood movie theater , today it functions as a mixed use venue for special events catering and concerts .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_Theatre",
"rank": 55,
"score": 86976
},
{
"content": "Title: List of solar eclipses in the 20th century Content: This is a list of solar eclipses in the 20th century . During the period 1901 to 2000 there were 228 solar eclipses of which 78 were partial , 73 were annular ( two non-central ) , 71 were total ( three non-central ) and 6 were hybrids . The greatest number of eclipses in one year was five , in 1935 , and one month , July 2000 , had two eclipses .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "List_of_solar_eclipses_in_the_20th_century",
"rank": 56,
"score": 86802
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th Century Blues Content: 20th Century Blues may refer to : Blues , the musical form and genre `` Twentieth Century Blues '' , a song from the 1931 musical Cavalcade by Noël Coward 20th Century Blues ( Marianne Faithfull album ) , 1996 20th Century Blues ( Robin Trower album ) , 1994",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_Century_Blues",
"rank": 57,
"score": 86679
},
{
"content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2",
"rank": 58,
"score": 86586
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century Impressions Content: Twentieth Century Impressions was a series of travel , political and social reference books published by Lloyds Greater Britain Publishing Company in London between 1901 and 1914 . The full titles were typically styled as Twentieth Century Impressions of -LSB- country name -RSB- : Its history , people , commerce , industries and resources . Arnold Wright ( 1858-1941 ) was editor in chief or author of most of the range of titles . In most cases the books were over 600 pages in length ( some over 800 ) . Wright was an enthusiast for colonialism , in the decade before the First World War . In most of the earlier volumes , H. A. Cartwright and O. Breakspear were assistants . In the volumes closer to 1914 , Wright was designated as the Historian for a volume . Reginald Lloyd was also designated as Director in Chief of the later publications .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_Impressions",
"rank": 59,
"score": 86478
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth-Century Science-Fiction Writers Content: Twentieth-Century Science-Fiction Writers is a book by Curtis C. Smith published in October 1981 on science fiction authors in the 20th century . It is the third in the St. Martin 's Press 's Twentieth-Century Writers of the English Language series with the others being Twentieth-Century Crime and Mystery Writers and Twentieth-Century Children 's Writers .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth-Century_Science-Fiction_Writers",
"rank": 60,
"score": 86374
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century Pictures Content: Twentieth Century Pictures was an independent Hollywood motion picture production company created in 1933 by Joseph Schenck ( the former president of United Artists ) and Darryl F. Zanuck from Warner Bros. . Financial backing came from Schenck 's younger brother Nicholas Schenck , president of Loew 's , the theater chain that owned Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer ( MGM ) , and from Louis B. Mayer of MGM , who wanted a position for his son-in-law , William Goetz . The company product was distributed by United Artists ( UA ) , and leased space at Samuel Goldwyn Studios . Schenck was President of Twentieth Century , while Zanuck was named Production Chief and Goetz and Raymond Griffith served as vice-presidents . Their initial stars under contract were George Arliss , Constance Bennett , and Loretta Young ; however the Goetz connection meant that talent could be borrowed from MGM . The company was successful from the very beginning ; out of their first 18 films , only one , Born to Be Bad , was not a financial success . Their 1934 production , The House of Rothschild was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture . In 1935 , they produced the classic film Les Misérables , from Victor Hugo 's novel , which was also nominated for Best Picture . In the winter of 1934 , Zanuck began negotiate with the UA board to acquire stock of the company and become a board member , but became outraged by UA 's co-founder Mary Pickford 's refusal to reward Twentieth Century with the company 's stock , fearing it would have diluted the value of holdings by another UA stockholder and co-founder , D.W. Griffith . Schenck , who had been a UA stockholder for over ten years , resigned from United Artists in protest of the shoddy treatment of Twentieth Century , and Zanuck ; thus began discussions with other distributors , which led to talks with the bankrupt Fox Studios in the early spring of 1935 . Twentieth Century Pictures merged with Fox Studios to form 20th Century-Fox ( the hyphen was dropped in 1985 ) in 1935 . For many years , 20th Century Fox claimed to have been founded in 1915 . For instance , it marked 1945 as its 30th anniversary . However , in recent years it has claimed the 1935 merger as its founding .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_Pictures",
"rank": 61,
"score": 86361
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century New Testament Content: The Twentieth Century New Testament ( TCNT ) is an English translation of the New Testament . Originally published in three parts between 1898 and 1901 , it is considered the first translation of the Bible into modern English . After further revisions based on suggestions from readers , the final version was published in 1904 . The Twentieth Century New Testament was produced in Britain over a period of 15 years by a group of approximately 20 people . Although they were all fluent in the `` koine '' Greek of the New Testament , the translators were not professional scholars but a varied cross section of society -- ministers , housewives , school teachers , railroad workers , and businessmen . However they shared the desire ( as the Preface to their work puts it ) , `` to do for the English nation what has been done already for the people of almost all other countries -- to enable Englishmen to read the most important part of their Bible in that form of their own language which they themselves use . '' As the project progressed J. Rendel Harris and Richard Francis Weymouth , two well known scholars of the time , voluntarily advised the group , helping to ensure scholarly integrity . Also , translation was done using the then-cutting edge Westcott and Hort text of the Greek New Testament , further adding to the accuracy of their rendering . In a break with most translations , the TCNT arranges the New Testament books in the order scholars believe they were written -- Mark comes before Matthew , for instance . They also include brief introductions before each book . Because of the translators ' meticulous attention to the best scholarship of their day , Bruce Metzger concluded that their version still holds up remarkably well today , despite the lapse of over 100 years .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_New_Testament",
"rank": 62,
"score": 86208
},
{
"content": "Title: The Twentieth Century Approaches Content: The Twentieth Century Approaches is a 1986 Soviet film adaptation of Arthur Conan Doyle 's stories about Sherlock Holmes . It is the fifth film in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson film series directed by Igor Maslennikov . The film is based on four stories by Conan Doyle -- `` The Adventure of the Engineer 's Thumb '' , `` The Adventure of the Second Stain '' , `` The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans '' , `` His Last Bow '' .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "The_Twentieth_Century_Approaches",
"rank": 63,
"score": 86205
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th century in poetry Content:",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_century_in_poetry",
"rank": 64,
"score": 86108
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 65,
"score": 86059
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th-century French literature Content: 20th-century French literature is literature written in French from 1900 to 1999 . For literature made after 1999 , see the article Contemporary French literature . Many of the developments in French literature in this period parallel changes in the visual arts . For more on this , see French art of the 20th century .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th-century_French_literature",
"rank": 66,
"score": 85817
},
{
"content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming",
"rank": 67,
"score": 85392
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Cloud_feedback",
"rank": 68,
"score": 83886
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth century studies in neuroscience Content: Twentieth century studies in neuroscience is an article detailing important and seminal studies and undertakings of scientists and doctors working in the field of neuroscience during the twentieth century .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_century_studies_in_neuroscience",
"rank": 69,
"score": 83885
},
{
"content": "Title: Det 20de Århundre Content: Det 20de Århundre ( `` The Twentieth Century '' ) was a periodical published by the Norwegian Labour Party .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Det_20de_Århundre",
"rank": 70,
"score": 83840
},
{
"content": "Title: Paris in the Twentieth Century Content: Paris in the Twentieth Century ( Paris au XXe siècle ) is a science fiction novel by Jules Verne . The book presents Paris in August 1960 , 97 years in Verne 's future , where society places value only on business and technology . Written in 1863 but first published 131 years later ( 1994 ) , the novel follows a young man who struggles unsuccessfully to live in a technologically advanced , but culturally backwards world . Often referred to as Verne 's `` lost novel '' , the work paints a grim , dystopian view of a technological future civilization . Many of Verne 's predictions were remarkably on target . His publisher , Pierre-Jules Hetzel , would not release the book because he thought it was too unbelievable , and its sales prospects would be inferior to Verne 's previous work , Five Weeks in a Balloon .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Paris_in_the_Twentieth_Century",
"rank": 71,
"score": 83836
},
{
"content": "Title: Hilbert's twentieth problem Content: Hilbert 's twentieth problem is one of the 23 Hilbert problems set out in a celebrated list compiled in 1900 by David Hilbert . It asks whether all boundary value problems can be solved ( that is , do variational problems with certain boundary conditions have solutions ) .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Hilbert's_twentieth_problem",
"rank": 72,
"score": 83574
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 73,
"score": 83408
},
{
"content": "Title: Life on Display (book) Content: Life on Display : Revolutionizing U.S. Museums of Science and Natural History in the Twentieth Century is a history of modern American science education and its relationship with museums of science . It was written by Karen A. Rader and Victoria E. M. Cain and published by the University of Chicago Press in 2014 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Life_on_Display_(book)",
"rank": 74,
"score": 83368
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th-century philosophy Content: 20th-century philosophy saw the development of a number of new philosophical schools -- including logical positivism , analytic philosophy , phenomenology , existentialism , and poststructuralism . In terms of the eras of philosophy , it is usually labelled as contemporary philosophy ( succeeding modern philosophy , which runs roughly from the time of Descartes until the twentieth-century ) . As with other academic disciplines , philosophy increasingly became professionalized in the twentieth century , and a split emerged between philosophers who considered themselves part of either the `` analytic '' or `` continental '' traditions . However , there have been disputes regarding both the terminology and the reasons behind the divide , as well as philosophers who see themselves as bridging the divide . In addition , philosophy in the twentieth century became increasingly technical and harder for lay people to read .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th-century_philosophy",
"rank": 75,
"score": 83358
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th Century Fox Content: Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation ( known as Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation with a hyphen from 1935 until 1985 , professionally as 20th Century Fox , Twentieth Century Fox or simply known as Fox ) is an American film studio currently owned by 21st Century Fox . It is one of the Big Six major American film studios and is located in the Century City area of Los Angeles , just west of Beverly Hills . The studio was formerly owned by News Corporation . 20th Century Fox is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America . In 2015 , 20th Century Fox celebrated its 80th anniversary as a studio .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_Century_Fox",
"rank": 76,
"score": 83252
},
{
"content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Neoglaciation",
"rank": 77,
"score": 83161
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Climate_variability",
"rank": 78,
"score": 83160
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century Zoo Content: Twentieth Century Zoo was an American psychedelic rock band formed from the remnants of The Bittersweets in Phoenix , Arizona in 1967 . The band released several singles , and an album to reach regional acclaim before disbanding in 1970 . Their later works spanned across multiple genres , including early examples of proto-punk . The band was known for playing among other highly successful acts , and incorporating their influences into the group 's own individual sound .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_Zoo",
"rank": 79,
"score": 83126
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 80,
"score": 83064
},
{
"content": "Title: 1906 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1906 United Kingdom heat wave occurred all over the country from August to September . This was unusual as the highest temperatures were recorded in early September and the intense heat began in late August , whereas most heat waves in the UK begin in June and July . Even so , the heatwave had a comparable intensity to the 1990 heat wave , and it has been described as the most intense September heat wave in the 20th century . From 31 August to 3 September , the temperature in the UK exceeded 32 C consecutively over most of the UK on these four days . In September , CET Central England and Birmingham recorded a highest temperature of 31.5 C , and Oxford recorded a highest temperature of 33.1 C ; however , this record for September in Oxford was broken in 1911 with a temperature of 33.4 C. 2 September was the hottest day of the month as temperatures reached 35.6 C in Bawtry . This day was also the hottest over the most of the UK , again unusual because of its late occurrence . This remains the hottest September temperature of any day in the UK and the eighth-hottest day overall in the 20th century . Scotland also had temperatures reaching 32.2 C at Gordon Castle , Moray , and Northern Ireland had temperatures reaching 27.8 C in Armagh , County Armagh both recorded on 1 September 1906 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "1906_United_Kingdom_heat_wave",
"rank": 81,
"score": 83019
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century Club of Lansdowne Content: Twentieth Century Club of Lansdowne is a historic club building located at Lansdowne , Delaware County , Pennsylvania . It was built in 1911 , and is a 1 1/2 - story , rectangular stone and brick building measuring 43 feet , 10 inches , by 95 feet , 6 inches . It has a small rear wing , slate pyramid-shaped roof with two projecting front gables , and a large articulated chimney . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_Club_of_Lansdowne",
"rank": 82,
"score": 83015
},
{
"content": "Title: List of earthquakes in 1920 Content: This is a list of earthquakes in 1920 . Only magnitude 6.0 or greater earthquakes appear on the list . Lower magnitude events are included if they have caused death , injury or damage . Events which occurred in remote areas will be excluded from the list as they would n't have generated significant media interest . All dates are listed according to UTC time . With over 200,000 deaths being recorded in China , and substantial fatalities elsewhere , 1920 was one of the deadliest years of the 20th century for earthquakes .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "List_of_earthquakes_in_1920",
"rank": 83,
"score": 82869
},
{
"content": "Title: List of state leaders in the 20th century Content: State leaders in the 19th century -- State leaders in the 21st century -- State leaders by year This is a list of the leaders of autonomous states in the 20th century ( 1901 -- 2000 ) AD , such as the heads of state , heads of government , and the general secretaries of single-party states . These polities are generally sovereign states , including states with limited recognition ( when recognised by at least one UN member state ) , but excludes minor dependent territories , whose leaders can be found listed under territorial governors in the 20th century . For completeness , these lists can include colonies , protectorates , or other dependent territories that have since gained sovereignty .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "List_of_state_leaders_in_the_20th_century",
"rank": 84,
"score": 82856
},
{
"content": "Title: Le Petit Vingtième Content: Le Petit Vingtième ( -LSB- lə pti vɛ̃tjɛm -RSB- , The Little Twentieth ) was the weekly youth supplement to the Belgian newspaper Le Vingtième Siècle ( `` The Twentieth Century '' ) from 1928 to 1940 . The comics series The Adventures of Tintin first appeared in its pages .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Le_Petit_Vingtième",
"rank": 85,
"score": 82665
},
{
"content": "Title: Timeline of twentieth-century theatre Content: The following timeline of twentieth-century theatre offers a year-by-year account of the performance and publication of notable works of drama and significant events in the history of theatre during the 20th century . Musical theatre works are excluded from the list below . __ NOTOC __",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Timeline_of_twentieth-century_theatre",
"rank": 86,
"score": 82515
},
{
"content": "Title: List of 20th-century summiters of Mount Everest Content: Mount Everest , at 8848 m is the world 's highest mountain and a particularly desirable peak for mountaineers . This is a list of people who reached the summit of Mount Everest in the 20th century . Overall about 1,383 people summited Everest between 1953 and the end of 2000 . After 2000 , the number of summiters greatly increased when ascending the mountain became more accessible and more popular . By 2013 , 6,871 summits had been recorded by 4,042 different people .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "List_of_20th-century_summiters_of_Mount_Everest",
"rank": 87,
"score": 82495
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th Century Hits Content: 20th Century Hits is a remix album of recordings by Boney M. released by BMG in 1999 . This remix project which was credited as ` Boney M. 2000 ' spun off a series of new single releases ; `` Ma Baker -- Somebody Scream '' in early 1999 and previously included on French compilation Ultimate , `` Daddy Cool ' 99 '' featuring Mobi T. , `` Caribbean Night Fever / Hooray ! Hooray ! It 's A Holi-Holiday '' and `` Sunny '' .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_Century_Hits",
"rank": 88,
"score": 82431
},
{
"content": "Title: The Nineteenth Century (periodical) Content: The Nineteenth Century was a British monthly literary magazine founded in 1877 by Sir James Knowles . Many of the early contributors to The Nineteenth Century were members of the Metaphysical Society . The journal was intended to publish debate by leading intellectuals . In 1901 , the title was changed to The Nineteenth Century and After . In October 1933 , the magazine ran a review of H. G. Wells ' work by Gerald Heard . Its title was subsequently changed again to The Twentieth Century in 1951 . It was published until 1972 . The magazine notably asserted , shortly before the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , that , `` The only court in which nations ' issues can and will be tried is the court of God , which is war . ''",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "The_Nineteenth_Century_(periodical)",
"rank": 89,
"score": 82343
},
{
"content": "Title: People's Century Content: People 's Century is a television documentary series examining the 20th century . It was a joint production of the BBC in the United Kingdom and PBS member station WGBH Boston in the United States . The series was first shown on BBC in the 1995 , 1996 and 1997 television seasons before being shown elsewhere in the world and before being broadcast in the USA in 1998 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "People's_Century",
"rank": 90,
"score": 81986
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th Century Fox Records Content: 20th Century Fox Records , also known as 20th Fox Records and 20th Century Records , was a wholly owned subsidiary of film studio 20th Century Fox . The history of the label actually covers three distinct 20th Century Fox-related operations in the analog era , ranging chronologically from about 1938 to 1981 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_Century_Fox_Records",
"rank": 91,
"score": 81979
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth-Century Blues: The Songs of Noël Coward Content: Twentieth-Century Blues : The Songs of Noël Coward is a 1998 Noël Coward tribute album curated by Neil Tennant , who invited prominent artists of the day to reinterpret Noël Coward 's songs for the late 20th century . Profits from the albums sale were donated to the Red Hot AIDS Charitable Trust . The album yielded the double A-sided single `` Someday I 'll Find You '' / `` I 've Been to a Marvellous Party '' , which reached number 28 in the UK Singles Chart . A Twentieth-Century Blues DVD was also released . Some altercations occurred during the recording of the album . Black Grape were originally meant to record `` Mad Dogs and Englishmen '' , but the band withdrew due to a conflict between members ; Space recorded the song instead . In addition , the final song recorded , Damon Albarn and Michael Nyman 's version of `` London Pride '' , was nearly rejected due to being , reportedly , almost unrecognisable in its original version . Tennant ordered the song to be kept , though Albarn had already agreed to make changes by that time . Suede were asked to release their version of `` Poor Little Rich Girl '' as a single but declined in order to focus on preparing their next album , Head Music .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Twentieth-Century_Blues:_The_Songs_of_Noël_Coward",
"rank": 92,
"score": 81888
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)",
"rank": 93,
"score": 81746
},
{
"content": "Title: The Unfinished Twentieth Century Content: In the 2001 book The Unfinished Twentieth Century , author Jonathan Schell suggests that an essential feature of the twentieth century was the development of humankind 's capacity for self-destruction , with the rise in many forms of `` policies of extermination '' . Schell goes on to suggest that the world now faces a clear choice between the abolition of all nuclear weapons , and full nuclearization , as the necessary technology and materials diffuse around the globe .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "The_Unfinished_Twentieth_Century",
"rank": 94,
"score": 81702
},
{
"content": "Title: 1979 Bali earthquake Content: The 1979 Bali earthquake occurred at with a surface wave magnitude of 6.3 . The shock occurred southeast of the coast of Karangasem Regency in the Lombok Strait , and about 60 km east-northeast of Denpasar . The temblor damaged up to 80 percent of the buildings in Karangasem Regency , displaced between 15,000 and 500,000 people and briefly severed road links to the provincial capital , Denpasar .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "1979_Bali_earthquake",
"rank": 95,
"score": 81654
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 96,
"score": 81603
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th Century Man Content: `` 20th Century Man '' is a song recorded by British rock band The Kinks . It was released as a single in December 1971 from the band 's 1971 LP Muswell Hillbillies , an album with blues and country roots . It centered on such themes as poverty , housing development , alienation , the welfare state , and other troubles of the modern world .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_Century_Man",
"rank": 97,
"score": 81084
},
{
"content": "Title: The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century Content: The Third Wave : Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century is a 1991 book by Samuel P. Huntington which outlines the significance of a third wave of democratization to describe the global trend that has seen more than 60 countries throughout Europe , Latin America , Asia , and Africa undergo some form of democratic transitions since Portugal 's `` Carnation Revolution '' in 1974 . The catch-phrase `` the third wave '' has been widely used among scholars studying what is considered by some to be democratic transitions and democratization throughout much of the developing world . The phrase however , has come under criticism , largely by those who stress that so called democratic transitions are little more than transitions to semi-authoritarian rule , as demanded by the international realities of a post-cold war world .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "The_Third_Wave:_Democratization_in_the_Late_Twentieth_Century",
"rank": 98,
"score": 81000
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th Army Corps (Russian Empire) Content: The Twentieth Army Corps ( 20-й армейский корпус ) was a formation of the Imperial Russian Army that was first raised in 1899 , and was most famous for fighting in World War I , on the Eastern theatre of war , during the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes . Before World War I , the 20th Corps was stationed in the Vilno Military District , with corps headquarters in Riga . At the outbreak of the war , the corps consisted of two infantry divisions and a number of independent battalions and brigades . It was demobilized in April 1917 .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "20th_Army_Corps_(Russian_Empire)",
"rank": 99,
"score": 80925
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .",
"qid": "101",
"docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline",
"rank": 100,
"score": 80921
}
] |
Forward projections of solar cyclicity imply the next few decades may be marked by global cooling rather than warming, despite continuing CO2 emissions. | [
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 1,
"score": 151218
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning",
"rank": 2,
"score": 147628
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 3,
"score": 137234
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 4,
"score": 136407
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 5,
"score": 135489
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Marine_cloud_brightening",
"rank": 6,
"score": 129885
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Cool_Earth_50",
"rank": 7,
"score": 129626
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 8,
"score": 129616
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 9,
"score": 124829
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 10,
"score": 124040
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 11,
"score": 123834
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar radiation management Content: Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Solar_radiation_management",
"rank": 12,
"score": 123075
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 13,
"score": 122631
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 14,
"score": 122091
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 15,
"score": 120666
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 16,
"score": 120241
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 17,
"score": 119319
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Climate_engineering",
"rank": 18,
"score": 119285
},
{
"content": "Title: Milankovitch cycles Content: Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth . The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer . Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important . Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Milankovitch_cycles",
"rank": 19,
"score": 117547
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 20,
"score": 117522
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 21,
"score": 117371
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 22,
"score": 116742
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 23,
"score": 115604
},
{
"content": "Title: Haworth projection Content: A Haworth projection is a common way of writing a structural formula to represent the cyclic structure of monosaccharides with a simple three-dimensional perspective . Organic chemistry and especially biochemistry are the areas of chemistry that use the Haworth projection the most . The Haworth projection was named after the English chemist Sir Norman Haworth . A Haworth projection has the following characteristics : Carbon is the implicit type of atom . In the example on the right , the atoms numbered from 1 to 6 are all carbon atoms . Carbon 1 is known as the anomeric carbon . Hydrogen atoms on carbon are implicit . In the example , atoms 1 to 6 have extra hydrogen atoms not depicted . A thicker line indicates atoms that are closer to the observer . In the example on the right , atoms 2 and 3 ( and their corresponding OH groups ) are the closest to the observer . Atoms 1 and 4 are farther from the observer . Atom 5 and the other atoms are the farthest . The groups below the plane of the ring in Haworth projections correspond to those on the right-hand side of a Fischer projection . This rule does not apply to the groups on the two ring carbons bonded to the endocyclic oxygen atom .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Haworth_projection",
"rank": 24,
"score": 114781
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios",
"rank": 25,
"score": 114460
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 26,
"score": 114402
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 27,
"score": 114344
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 28,
"score": 114313
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Arctic_geoengineering",
"rank": 29,
"score": 113277
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 30,
"score": 112813
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 31,
"score": 112478
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 32,
"score": 111489
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Michael_Raupach",
"rank": 33,
"score": 111306
},
{
"content": "Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Theodor_Landscheidt",
"rank": 34,
"score": 110351
},
{
"content": "Title: IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme Content: The International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme ( IEA SHC ) is one of over 40 multilateral Technology Collaboration Programmes ( also known as TCPs ) of the International Energy Agency . It was one of the first of such programmes , founded in 1977 . Its current mission is to `` advance international collaborative efforts for solar energy to reach the goal set in the vision of contributing 50 % of the low temperature heating and cooling demand by 2030 . '' . Its international solar collector statistics Solar Heat Worldwide serve as a reference document for governments , financial institutions , consulting firms and non-profit organizations .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "IEA_Solar_Heating_and_Cooling_Programme",
"rank": 35,
"score": 109635
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 36,
"score": 109090
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 37,
"score": 108878
},
{
"content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme",
"rank": 38,
"score": 108329
},
{
"content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32",
"rank": 39,
"score": 107054
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 40,
"score": 107005
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 41,
"score": 106823
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 42,
"score": 106363
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar variability Content: Solar variability refers to changes in solar activity , such as : Solar variation , the change in the amount of radiation emitted by the Sun ( see Solar radiation ) see also solar cycle , specifically for the 11-year cyclic variation in solar activity Changes in the solar wind , i.e. , charged particles ( moving much slower than the speed of light ) Category : Solar phenomena",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Solar_variability",
"rank": 43,
"score": 106184
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 44,
"score": 106166
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 45,
"score": 106089
},
{
"content": "Title: 10:10 Content: 10:10 is a charity that enables people to take practical action on climate change , and combines these local actions to inspire a more ambitious approach to the issue at every level of society . Founded in 2009 , 10:10 began by campaigning for a 10 % reduction in carbon emissions in 2010 , and has since broadened its approach to include a range of projects focused on carbon reduction and renewable energy . Its three main projects are Solar Schools , which helps communities crowdfund the cost of solar panels for their local schools ; #itshappening , which showcases positive examples of progress on climate change ; and Back Balcombe , which supports a solar power cooperative in the Sussex village targeted for oil drilling , and promotes community-scale renewable energy nationally .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "10:10",
"rank": 46,
"score": 106081
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 47,
"score": 105933
},
{
"content": "Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Representative_Concentration_Pathways",
"rank": 48,
"score": 105753
},
{
"content": "Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "ECOCITIES_(software)",
"rank": 49,
"score": 105567
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Solar_gain",
"rank": 50,
"score": 105374
},
{
"content": "Title: Nevada Solar One Content: Nevada Solar One is a concentrated solar power plant , with a nominal capacity of 64 MW and maximum steam turbine power output up to 72 MW net ( 75 MW gross ) , spread over an area of 400 acre . The projected CO2 emissions avoided is equivalent to taking approximately 20,000 cars off the road annually . The project required an investment of $ 266 million USD , and the project officially went into operation in June 2007 . Electricity production is estimated to be 134 million kilowatt hours per year . It is the second solar thermal energy ( STE ) power plant built in the United States in more than 16 years , and the largest STE plant built in the world since 1991 . It is located in Eldorado Valley in the southwest fringe of Boulder City , Nevada , and was built in that city 's Energy Resource Zone , which requires renewable generation as part of plant development permits ; Nevada Solar One was approved as part of Duke Energy 's larger El Dorado Energy project that built 1 GW of electrical generation capacity . The solar trough generation was built by Acciona Solar Power , a partially owned subsidiary of Spanish conglomerate Acciona Energy . Lauren Engineers & Constructors ( Abilene , TX ) was the EPC contractor for the project . Acciona purchased a 55 percent stake in Solargenix ( formerly Duke Solar ) and Acciona owns 95 percent of the project . Nevada Solar One is unrelated to the Solar One power plant in California .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Nevada_Solar_One",
"rank": 51,
"score": 105345
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 52,
"score": 105274
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 53,
"score": 105253
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 54,
"score": 105195
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool the Earth Content: Cool the Earth Inc. is a non-profit educational organization based in Northern California . The mission of Cool the Earth is to educate kids and their families about climate change and motivate them to take simple measurable actions at home to reduce their carbon emissions . Currently , the organization offers programming to over 100 elementary schools .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Cool_the_Earth",
"rank": 55,
"score": 104949
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 56,
"score": 104929
},
{
"content": "Title: Financial incentives for photovoltaics Content: Financial incentives for photovoltaics are incentives offered to electricity consumers to install and operate solar-electric generating systems , also known as photovoltaics ( PV ) . A government may offer incentives in order to encourage the PV industry to achieve the economies of scale needed to compete where the cost of PV-generated electricity is above the cost from the existing grid . Such policies are implemented to promote national or territorial energy independence , high tech job creation and reduction of carbon dioxide emissions which cause climate change . When , in a given country or territory , the cost of solar electricity falls to meet the rising cost of grid electricity , then ` grid parity ' is reached , and in principle incentives are no longer needed . In some places , the price of electricity varies as a function of time and day ( due to demand variations ) . In places where high demand ( and high electricity prices ) coincide with high sunshine ( usually hot places with air conditioning ) then grid parity is reached before the cost solar electricity meets the average price of grid electricity .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Financial_incentives_for_photovoltaics",
"rank": 57,
"score": 104637
},
{
"content": "Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Vatican_Climate_Forest",
"rank": 58,
"score": 104358
},
{
"content": "Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)",
"rank": 59,
"score": 104089
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool School Challenge Content: The Cool School Challenge is a program part of the Puget Sound Clean Air Agency , designed to spread climate education and engage students and teachers in reducing the greenhouse gas emissions of their schools . The program also aims to encourage student leadership and empowerment in the process . Most of the schools that have taken on the program are located in the Puget Sound area , however there are various schools from around the United States ( and one international school , the American School of Dubai ) that have done so as well . The program has reports on their website to have reduced a total of over 2.2 million pounds of carbon .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Cool_School_Challenge",
"rank": 60,
"score": 104018
},
{
"content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction",
"rank": 61,
"score": 103631
},
{
"content": "Title: Cyclostratigraphy Content: Cyclostratigraphy is the study of astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions . Astronomical cycles are variations of the Earth 's orbit around the sun due to the gravitational interaction with other masses within the solar system . Due to this cyclicity solar irradiation differs through time on different hemispheres and seasonality is affected . These insolation variations have influence on Earth 's climate and so on the deposition of sedimentary rocks . The main orbital cycles are precession with at present main periods of 19 and 23 kyr , obliquity with at present main periods of 41 kyr , and 1.2 Myr , and eccentricity with at present main periods of around 100 kyr , 405 kyr , and 2.4 Myr . Cyclostratigraphic studies of rock records can lead to accurate dating of events in the geological past , to increase understanding of cause and consequences of Earth 's ( climate ) history , and to more control on depositional mechanisms of sediments and the acting of sedimentary systems .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Cyclostratigraphy",
"rank": 62,
"score": 103470
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 63,
"score": 103357
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Climate_change_scenario",
"rank": 64,
"score": 102625
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 65,
"score": 102196
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 66,
"score": 101721
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 67,
"score": 101181
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 68,
"score": 100880
},
{
"content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Politics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 69,
"score": 100851
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool Effect Content: Cool Effect is a crowdfunding platform that provides individuals the opportunity to support carbon emissions reductions by funding carbon-reducing projects around the world . Cool Effect is a registered 501 ( c ) 3 nonprofit organization headquartered in Kentfield , California .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Cool_Effect",
"rank": 70,
"score": 100432
},
{
"content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut",
"rank": 71,
"score": 100227
},
{
"content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model",
"rank": 72,
"score": 100224
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson",
"rank": 73,
"score": 100112
},
{
"content": "Title: Selling Solar Content: Selling Solar : The Diffusion of Renewable Energy in Emerging Markets is a 2009 Earthscan book by Damian Miller . Dr Miller argues that , in order to solve the climate crisis , the world must immediately and dramatically accelerate the commercialization of renewable energy technology . This needs to happen in the industrialized world , as well as in the emerging markets of the developing world where most future GHG emissions will occur . Author Damian Miller holds a doctorate from the Judge School of Business , Cambridge , and is the CEO of Orb Energy which is based in India .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Selling_Solar",
"rank": 74,
"score": 99926
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Solar_maximum",
"rank": 75,
"score": 99921
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 76,
"score": 99677
},
{
"content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Future_of_Earth",
"rank": 77,
"score": 99596
},
{
"content": "Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Evangelical_Climate_Initiative",
"rank": 78,
"score": 99477
},
{
"content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Global_dimming",
"rank": 79,
"score": 99372
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Hawaii Content: Hawaii Governor Linda Lingle has approved a number of energy-related bills to address climate change and promote local renewable energy production . The governor 's energy bill-signing streak started in late April 2008 with the approval of House Bill 2502 , which allows solar energy facilities to be located on less-productive agricultural lands , followed in late May by the approval of HB 3179 , which makes it easier for biofuel producers to lease state lands . In the same time frame , the governor approved SB 2034 , SB 3190 , and HB 2168 , which authorize special purpose revenue bonds to help finance a 2.7-megawatt wave energy facility off the coast of Maui , a solar energy facility on Oahu , and hydrogen generation and conversion facilities at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority , located on the island of Hawaii . Senate Bill 644 , approved on June 26 , 2008 prohibits the issuing of building permits for new homes without solar water heaters as of 2010 . The bill excludes homes located in areas with poor solar energy resources , homes using other renewable energy sources , and homes employing on-demand gas-fired water heaters . The bill also eliminates solar thermal energy tax credits for those homes . On June 6 , 2008 the governor approved SB 988 , which allows the Hawaii Public Utility Commission to establish a rebate for solar photovoltaic electric systems , and HB 2550 , which encourages net metering for residential and small commercial customers . On July 1 , 2008 the governor approved the final three energy bills , including HB 2863 , which provides streamlined permitting for new renewable energy facilities of at least 200 megawatts in capacity . HB 2505 creates a full-time renewable energy facilitator to help the state expedite those permits , while a third bill , HB 2261 , will provide loans of up to $ 1.5 million and up to 85 % of the cost of renewable energy projects at farms and aquaculture facilities .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Hawaii",
"rank": 80,
"score": 98882
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_label",
"rank": 81,
"score": 98686
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 82,
"score": 98642
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 83,
"score": 98511
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 84,
"score": 98410
},
{
"content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence",
"rank": 85,
"score": 98213
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 86,
"score": 98172
},
{
"content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera",
"rank": 87,
"score": 98164
},
{
"content": "Title: Aquifer thermal energy storage Content: Aquifer thermal energy storage ( ATES ) is the storage and recovery of thermal energy in the subsurface . ATES is applied to provide heating and cooling to buildings . Storage and recovery of thermal energy is achieved by extraction and injection of groundwater from aquifers using groundwater wells . Systems commonly operate in a seasonal mode . The groundwater that is extracted in summer , is used for cooling by transferring heat from the building to the groundwater by means of a heat exchanger . Subsequently , the heated groundwater is injected back into the aquifer , which creates a storage of heated groundwater . In wintertime , the flow direction is reversed such that the heated groundwater is extracted and can be used for heating ( often in combination with a heat pump ) . Therefore , operating an ATES system uses the subsurface as a temporal storage to buffer seasonal variations in heating and cooling demand . When replacing traditional fossil fuel dependent heating and cooling systems , ATES can serve as a cost-effective technology to reduce the primary energy consumption of a building and the associated CO2 emissions . In 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , many countries and regions have made targets for global climate protection . The European Union also set a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , increase use of sustainable energy and improve energy efficiency . For this target , ATES can actually contribute significantly , as about 40 % of global energy consumption is done by buildings , and is mainly for heating and cooling . Therefore , the development of ATES has been paid a lot of attention and the number of ATES has increased dramatically , especially in Europe . For example , in the Netherlands , it was estimated that about 20,000 ATES systems could be achieved by 2020 . This can yield a CO2 emission reduction of about 11 % , for the target of the Netherlands . Besides the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Turkey , and Sweden are also increasing the application of ATES . ATES can be applied worldwide , as long as the climatic conditions and geohydrological conditions are right . As ATES systems cumulate in urban areas optimisation of subsurface space requires attention in areas with suitable conditions .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Aquifer_thermal_energy_storage",
"rank": 88,
"score": 98071
},
{
"content": "Title: World Energy Outlook Content: The annual World Energy Outlook is the International Energy Agency 's flagship publication , widely recognised as the most authoritative source for global energy projections and analysis . It represents the leading source for medium to long-term energy market projections , extensive statistics , analysis and advice for both governments and the energy business . It is produced by the Office of the Chief Economist , presently under the direction of Dr. Fatih Birol . Using a Reference Scenario based on no change in current policies , it enables policy-makers to evaluate their current path . The WEO has also developed an alternative scenario that puts the global energy systems on a trajectory to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions in line with limiting the increase in temperature to 2 ° C.",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "World_Energy_Outlook",
"rank": 89,
"score": 97689
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 90,
"score": 97546
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Climate_oscillation",
"rank": 91,
"score": 97288
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar Energy Perspectives Content: Solar Energy Perspectives is a 2011 book by the International Energy Agency . Solar energy technologies come in various forms -- solar heating , solar photovoltaics , solar thermal electricity -- and can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces : The development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits . It will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating climate change , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared . Solar Energy Perspectives builds upon past analyses of solar energy deployment contained in the World Energy Outlook , Energy Technology Perspectives and several IEA Technology Roadmaps . It aims at `` offering an updated picture of current technology trends and markets , as well as new analyses on how solar energy technologies for electricity , heat and fuels can be used in the various energy consuming sectors , now and in the future '' .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Solar_Energy_Perspectives",
"rank": 92,
"score": 97258
},
{
"content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Volcanic_winter",
"rank": 93,
"score": 96862
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 94,
"score": 96817
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 95,
"score": 96772
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 96,
"score": 96461
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming",
"rank": 97,
"score": 96369
},
{
"content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event",
"rank": 98,
"score": 96291
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Carbon_footprint",
"rank": 99,
"score": 96223
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .",
"qid": "102",
"docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy",
"rank": 100,
"score": 95978
}
] |
global warming ceased around the end of the twentieth century and was followed (since 1997) by 19 years of stable temperature | [
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 1,
"score": 145066
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th century Content: The 20th century was a century that began on January 1 , 1901 and ended on December 31 , 2000 . It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium . It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 . The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : World War I and World War II , nuclear power and space exploration , nationalism and decolonization , the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts ; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology ; poverty reduction and world population growth , awareness of environmental degradation , ecological extinction ; and the birth of the Digital Revolution . It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life . The term `` short twentieth century '' was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991 . Global total fertility rates , sea level rise and ecological collapses increased ; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation , water depletion . and the mass extinction of half the world 's estimated nine million unique species and wildlife population ; consequences which are now being dealt with . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927 ; by late 1999 , the global population reached 6 billion . Global literacy averaged 80 % ; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history , with over half achieving 70 + years ( three decades longer than it was a century ago ) .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "20th_century",
"rank": 2,
"score": 135617
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 3,
"score": 134217
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 4,
"score": 128401
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 5,
"score": 128164
},
{
"content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event",
"rank": 6,
"score": 127622
},
{
"content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming",
"rank": 7,
"score": 127345
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 8,
"score": 125876
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 9,
"score": 122786
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 10,
"score": 121490
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 11,
"score": 118711
},
{
"content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer",
"rank": 12,
"score": 117825
},
{
"content": "Title: Short twentieth century Content: The term `` short 20th century '' , originally proposed by Iván Berend ( Hungarian Academy of Sciences ) but defined by Eric Hobsbawm , a British Marxist historian and author , refers to the period between the years 1914 and 1991 . That period begins with the beginning of World War I , and ends with the fall of the Soviet Union . The chain of events represented such significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : It started with World War I , which caused the end of the German , Ottoman , Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires . World War II was greatly influenced by the outcome of World War I . The Cold War was a result of World War II and ended with the fall of the Soviet Union . The term is analogous to the long 19th century , also coined by Hobsbawm , denoting the period 1789 to 1914 , and to the long 18th century , or approximately 1688 to 1815 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Short_twentieth_century",
"rank": 13,
"score": 117739
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 14,
"score": 117556
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 15,
"score": 117374
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 16,
"score": 116461
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th century (disambiguation) Content: The 20th century of the Common Era began on 1 January 1901 and ended on 31 December 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar . 20th century may also refer to : Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 Broadway play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 American comedy Twentieth Century Pictures , a 1930s film studio The 20th Century , the 1950s television series Twentieth Century ( Cold Chisel album ) , 1984 Twentieth Century ( Alabama album ) , 1999 Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a sans-serif typeface 20th Century ( album ) , an album 3X Krazy 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a gin cocktail 20th Century Fox , a movie and television production company 20th Century Limited , the flagship passenger train of the New York Central Railroad 20th Century Records , a record label begun as a soundtrack division of Twentieth Century Pictures 20th Century with Mike Wallace , the 1990s-2000s television series 20th Century , a sub-unit of Japanese boyband V6 `` Twentieth Century '' , a song from the 2006 album , Fundamental by the Pet Shop Boys",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "20th_century_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 17,
"score": 113802
},
{
"content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period",
"rank": 18,
"score": 113714
},
{
"content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2",
"rank": 19,
"score": 113609
},
{
"content": "Title: 2000s (decade) Content: The 2000s ( pronounced `` two-thousands '' or `` twenty-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 2000 , and ended on December 31 , 2009 . The growth of the Internet contributed to globalization during the decade , which allowed faster communication among people around the world . The economic growth of the 2000s had considerable social , environmental and mass extinction consequences , raised demand for diminishing energy resources , and was still vulnerable , as demonstrated by the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "2000s_(decade)",
"rank": 20,
"score": 113309
},
{
"content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Interglacial",
"rank": 21,
"score": 111506
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 22,
"score": 110136
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "World_Climate_Report",
"rank": 23,
"score": 109827
},
{
"content": "Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Carnian_Pluvial_Event",
"rank": 24,
"score": 108468
},
{
"content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Neoglaciation",
"rank": 25,
"score": 107205
},
{
"content": "Title: Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1894 -- 95 was severe for the British Isles with a CET of 1.27 C . Many climatologists have come to view this winter as the end of the Little Ice Age and the culmination of a decade of harsh winters in Britain . Whereas the average CET for the ten winters from 1885 -- 86 to 1894 -- 95 was 2.87 C , no winter with a CET under 3.0 C followed for twenty-two years and no month as cold as February or January 1895 until 1940 . In contrast , between 1659 and 1894 no spell with every winter CET above 3.0 C had lasted longer than twelve winters . Although this winter -- which featured the lowest North Atlantic Oscillation index between 1882 and 1962 with lower values recorded only in 1880/1881 , 1962/1963 and 1968/1969 -- affected most of Europe and North America very severely , the difficulties Britain had coping with it vis-à-vis the United States and Germany is seen as marking a beginning in the decline of British hegemony in global affairs . The severe winter led to mass unemployment and severe disruptions to shipping on the River Thames , which froze for the last time on record . Because mass political activism had not yet created the welfare state , most workers were left without sustenance and in industrial centres large soup kitchens were widespread to feed these people . There were also numerous skating festivals organised to take advantage of the unusually cold and sunny weather , with up to fifty thousand people skating on The Serpentine in London 's Hyde Park and speed skating races being widely popular and generating money to be used for relief of the poor , and in some cases to provide them with temporary work as vendors for spectators . Coal supplies dwindled as transporting coal by river was impossible , whilst many recently introduced exotic plants were killed by the cold .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Winter_of_1894–95_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 26,
"score": 107094
},
{
"content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Pliocene_climate",
"rank": 27,
"score": 106706
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 28,
"score": 106064
},
{
"content": "Title: 1750 Content: Various sources , including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , use the year 1750 as a baseline year for the end of the pre-industrial era .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "1750",
"rank": 29,
"score": 104850
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 30,
"score": 103824
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 31,
"score": 103500
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 32,
"score": 103272
},
{
"content": "Title: The End of the Twentieth Century Content: The End of the Twentieth Century ( Das Ende des 20 . Jahrhunderts ) is a monumental installation by the German artist Joseph Beuys from 1983 . It consists of large , oblong pieces of basalt , all of which have a conical hole bored into them at one end . In these holes smaller cones of rock have been placed , lined with clay and felt . The rocks evoke bones or corpses , and in their random alignment could produce the sensation in a viewer that `` the state of the world is beyond control '' . This inevitably brings to mind Beuys ' experiences during World War II , in which he served as a Luftwaffe pilot and many of his family members were killed . However , the materials of clay and felt symbolize potential growth and `` suggest the possibility of new life emerging at the end of a dark century '' . The project 's theme of renewal is closely associated with the project 7000 Oaks , in which basalt stones were paired with oak trees . The impermanence of the materials Beuys chose for the installation has presented problems for conservators .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "The_End_of_the_Twentieth_Century",
"rank": 33,
"score": 102500
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)",
"rank": 34,
"score": 102457
},
{
"content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event",
"rank": 35,
"score": 102452
},
{
"content": "Title: The End of Nature Content: The End of Nature is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Anchor in 1989 . It has been called the first book on global warming written for a general audience . McKibben had thought that simply stating the problem would provoke people to action .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "The_End_of_Nature",
"rank": 36,
"score": 101977
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth century (disambiguation) Content: Twentieth century may refer to : The 20th century AD , the period between the years 1901 and 2000 of the Gregorian calendar The 20th century BC 20th Century Fox 20th Century Limited , a passenger train between Chicago and New York City that operated from 1902 to 1967 Twentieth Century ( play ) , a 1932 play Twentieth Century ( film ) , a 1934 film On the Twentieth Century , a 1978 musical based on the play and film Twentieth Century ( typeface ) , a geometric sans-serif typeface . 20th Century ( cocktail ) , a cocktail Twentieth Century ( TV series ) , a long-running TV documentary series telecast on CBS from 1957 to 1970 , and hosted by Walter Cronkite",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Twentieth_century_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 37,
"score": 101573
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 38,
"score": 101079
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 39,
"score": 101065
},
{
"content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Abrupt_climate_change",
"rank": 40,
"score": 100971
},
{
"content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming",
"rank": 41,
"score": 100744
},
{
"content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years",
"rank": 42,
"score": 100595
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Turkey",
"rank": 43,
"score": 100486
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture",
"rank": 44,
"score": 100153
},
{
"content": "Title: Pattern Recognition in Physics Content: Pattern Recognition in Physics was an open-access journal originally published by Copernicus Publications which was established in March 2013 and terminated in January 2014 . The editors-in-chief were Sid-Ali Ouadfeul ( Algerian Petroleum Institute ) and Nils-Axel Mörner , the latter of whom is a well-known global warming skeptic . Copernicus ceased its publication due to concerns over the publications views towards the scientific consensus of global climate change and the method of peer review . In March 2014 Ouadfeul reopened the journal , `` run on private founding '' -LSB- sic -RSB-",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Pattern_Recognition_in_Physics",
"rank": 45,
"score": 100029
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming (Sonny Rollins album) Content: Global Warming is an album by jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins , released on the Milestone label in 1998 , featuring performances by Rollins with Stephen Scott , Bob Cranshaw , Idris Muhammad , Clifton Anderson , Victor See Yuen and Perry Wilson .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_Warming_(Sonny_Rollins_album)",
"rank": 46,
"score": 99844
},
{
"content": "Title: The 20th Century Content: The Twentieth Century was a documentary television program sponsored by the Prudential Insurance Company that ran on the CBS network from 20 October 1957 until 4 January 1970 . It was hosted by Walter Cronkite . The opening and closing theme music was written by composer George Antheil . The program presented filmed reports on news and cultural events that were important for the development of the 20th century . The show did not just present the events but also interpreted them . Such subjects as World War I and major assassinations were presented in context . On 20 January 1967 the show , sponsored by Union Carbide ( `` The Discovery Company '' ) , was renamed The 21st Century . The show 's focus changed to the future and to what mankind could look forward to . The 21st Century was cancelled after three seasons ( its final broadcast was on 4 January 1970 ) . The reason given was that the writers had run out of things to talk about . However , it is possible that CBS may have wished to replace it with a more commercially successful program .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "The_20th_Century",
"rank": 47,
"score": 99308
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 48,
"score": 98941
},
{
"content": "Title: The 20th Anniversary Collection Content: The 20th Anniversary Collection is a 2001 compilation CD from Rational Youth , released , as suggested by the title , to commemorate the band 's twentieth anniversary . It would also prove to be their last release to date , as the band ceased operations in February , 2002 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "The_20th_Anniversary_Collection",
"rank": 49,
"score": 98781
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century (Cold Chisel album) Content: Twentieth Century is the final studio album for Australian band Cold Chisel until the group reformed in 1998 . The album was written and recorded over various sessions during the period of the band 's break-up and during breaks in their final tour . It was released in early 1984 and peaked at No. 1 on the Australian albums chart , their 3rd consecutive album to do so . It charted for a total of 46 weeks .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_(Cold_Chisel_album)",
"rank": 50,
"score": 98449
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th-century events Content: The 20th-century events include many notable events which occurred throughout the 20th century , which began on January 1 , 1901 , and ended on December 31 , 2000 , according to the Gregorian calendar .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "20th-century_events",
"rank": 51,
"score": 98355
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know",
"rank": 52,
"score": 97812
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 53,
"score": 97231
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves",
"rank": 54,
"score": 96742
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 55,
"score": 96624
},
{
"content": "Title: Older Dryas Content: The Older Dryas was a stadial ( cold ) period between the Bølling and Allerød interstadials ( warmer phases ) approximately 14,000 years ago ( BP ) , towards the end of the Pleistocene epoch . Its age is not well defined , with estimates varying by 400 years , but its duration is agreed to have been around two centuries . The gradual warming since the last glacial maximum 27-24 ,000 years BP has been interrupted by two cold spells , the Older Dryas having been followed by the Younger Dryas ( c. 12,900-11 ,650 BP ) . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and deeper during the Older than the succeeding Younger Dryas , and there is no evidence of human occupation of Britain . In north-west Europe an earlier Oldest Dryas is also recognised . They are named after an indicator genus , the arctic and alpine plant Dryas , the remains of which are found in higher concentrations in deposits from colder periods . The Older Dryas was a variable cold , dry Blytt-Sernander period , observed in climatological evidence in only some regions , depending on latitude . In regions where it is not observed , the Bølling-Allerød is considered a single interstadial ( warm ) period . Evidence of the Older Dryas is strongest in northern Eurasia , particularly part of North Europe roughly equivalent to Pollen zone Ic .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Older_Dryas",
"rank": 56,
"score": 96545
},
{
"content": "Title: 20th century BC Content: The 20th century BC was a century which lasted from the year 2000 BC to 1901 BC .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "20th_century_BC",
"rank": 57,
"score": 96473
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 58,
"score": 96270
},
{
"content": "Title: Allerød oscillation Content: The Allerød oscillation ( Allerødtiden ) was a warm and moist global interstadial that occurred at the end of the last glacial period . It raised temperatures in the northern Atlantic region to almost present-day levels , before they declined again in the succeeding Younger Dryas period , which was followed by the present interglacial period . In some regions , especially in northern Eurasia , there is evidence for a cold period known as the Older Dryas interrupting the interstadial . In such regions the shorter oscillation ending with the Older Dryas is known as the Bølling oscillation , and the Allerød period is the interstadial following the Older Dryas . The Allerød period was named after a type site in Furesø municipality in Sjælland , Denmark ( near Copenhagen ) , where deposits created during the period were first identified in work published in 1901 by Hartz and Milthers . This Blytt-Sernander period corresponds to Pollen zone II .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Allerød_oscillation",
"rank": 59,
"score": 96120
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 60,
"score": 96048
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network",
"rank": 61,
"score": 95991
},
{
"content": "Title: Ende Gelände 2016 Content: Ende Gelände 2016 was a large civil disobedience protest movement in Germany to limit global warming through fossil fuel phase-out . 3,500 -- 4,000 environmental activists from twelve countries blocked the Welzow-Süd open-pit coal mine and the coal-fired Schwarze Pumpe power station , then owned by Vattenfall ( Spremberg ) , from 13 to 15 May 2016 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Ende_Gelände_2016",
"rank": 62,
"score": 95429
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 63,
"score": 95194
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves",
"rank": 64,
"score": 95176
},
{
"content": "Title: Water export Content: Water exports involve exporting freshwater from one country to another . Large increases in human population and economic growth throughout the world during the twentieth century placed a huge stress on the world 's freshwater resources . Combined with climate change , they will place an even greater demand on water resources in this century . Water shortages have become an international concern , and freshwater has been described as `` blue gold '' and `` the oil of the 21st Century . ''",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Water_export",
"rank": 65,
"score": 94372
},
{
"content": "Title: Leslie Collier Content: Leslie Harold Collier ( 9 February 1921 -- 14 March 2011 ) was a scientist responsible for developing a freeze-drying method to produce a more heat stable smallpox vaccine in the late 1940s . Collier added a key component , peptone , a soluble protein , to the process . This protected the virus , enabling the production of a heat-stable vaccine in powdered form . Previously , smallpox vaccines would become ineffective after 1 -- 2 days at ambient temperature . The development of his vaccine production method played a large role in enabling the World Health Organization to initiate its global smallpox eradication campaign in 1967 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Leslie_Collier",
"rank": 66,
"score": 94323
},
{
"content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm",
"rank": 67,
"score": 94295
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Tour Content: The Global Warming Tour was a concert tour by American hard rock band Aerosmith that included 67 concert performances across North America , Oceania , Asia and Latin America . Prior to the first leg of the tour , the band played a private event for Walmart shareholders . The first leg of the tour included 23 performances and lasted from late May through early August 2012 . The second leg included 14 performances in November and December 2012 . Before the second leg of the tour , the band performed a brief set at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in mid September . Also prior to the second leg , to promote the release of their new album in early November , the band made three special nationally-televised performances in New York City and also did a special performance in front of their old Boston apartment . The performances on the first two legs of the tour were held primarily in indoor arenas , with a couple outdoor shows and a few festival dates on the first leg , including three festivals in eastern Canada and Milwaukee 's Summerfest . The third leg of the tour ran from late April to mid May 2013 and saw Aerosmith playing their first shows in Australia since 1990 , as well as their first-ever shows in New Zealand and the Philippines . On May 30 , the band performed as part of the `` Boston Strong '' charity concert for victims of the Boston Marathon bombings . In July 2013 , the band played at the Greenbrier Classic in West Virginia and at Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut . In August 2013 , the band performed four concerts in Japan , but their first-ever shows in China and Taiwan were cancelled due to poor ticket sales . The band also performed in August at the Harley-Davidson 110th anniversary concert series in Milwaukee . Concerts were planned for Latin America in September and October , including their first-ever shows in Uruguay , Guatemala and El Salvador . Cheap Trick was the opening act for all dates in the first two legs except for a few festival shows . The Dead Dasies , a supergroup featuring Jon Stevens and Richard Fortus , were the opening act for the Australia/New Zealand leg . The tour is in promotion of Aerosmith 's new album Music from Another Dimension ! , released on November 6 , 2012 . In addition to many of their biggest hits and a few choice album cuts , the band has so far performed four new songs from Music from Another Dimension on this tour , three of them regularly ( `` Oh Yeah '' , `` Legendary Child '' , and `` Lover Alot '' ) , with the potential for more songs to be played in the 2013 leg . During the South America leg , specifically in Argentina and Brazil , Aerosmith toured with Whitesnake , including performances at the Personal Fest in Buenos Aires and at the Monsters of Rock in São Paulo . On May 5 , 2013 , the band announced they had cancelled their first-ever show in Jakarta due to safety concerns . In 2014 , Aerosmith played 17 concerts across Europe from May 14 to July 2 . A new tour , the Let Rock Rule Tour , was scheduled to follow in July , August , and September 2014 that saw Aerosmith play several dates in North America . This tour featured Slash ( with Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators ) as the opening act . Full details of the tour were announced on April 8 , 2014 . On May 14 , 2014 , the band announced that they had cancelled their concert in Istanbul after Turkey declared a three-day mourning for the victims of Soma mine disaster . July 2 , 2014 concert in Kiev was cancelled due to civil unrest in Ukraine .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Tour",
"rank": 68,
"score": 94220
},
{
"content": "Title: Year 2000 problem Content: The Year 2000 problem , also known as the Y2K problem , the Millennium bug , the Y2K bug , or Y2K , was a computer bug related to the formatting and storage of calendar data . Problems were anticipated , and arose , because twentieth-century software often represented the four-digit year with only the final two digits -- making the year 2000 indistinguishable from 1900 . The assumption of a twentieth-century date in such programs caused various errors , such as the incorrect display of dates and the inaccurate ordering of automated dated records or real-time events . In 1997 the British Standards Institute ( BSI ) developed standard DISC PD2000-1 defining `` Year 2000 Conformity requirements '' as four rules : ( 1 ) No valid date will cause any interruption in operations ; ( 2 ) Calculation of durations between , or the sequence of , pairs of dates will be correct whether any dates are in different centuries ; ( 3 ) In all interfaces and in all storage , the century must be unambiguous , either specified , or calculable by algorithm ; ( 4 ) Year 2000 must be recognised as a leap year . It identifies two problems that may exist in many computer programs . First , the practice of representing the year with two digits became problematic with logical error ( s ) arising upon `` rollover '' from x99 to x00 . This had caused some date-related processing to operate incorrectly for dates and times on and after 1 January 2000 , and on other critical dates which were billed `` event horizons '' . Without corrective action , long-working systems would break down when the '' ... 97 , 98 , 99 , 00 ... '' ascending numbering assumption suddenly became invalid . Secondly , some programmers had misunderstood the Gregorian calendar rule that determines whether years that are exactly divisible by 100 are not leap years , and assumed the year 2000 would not be a leap year . Years divisible by 100 are not leap years , except for years that are divisible by 400 . Thus the year 2000 was a leap year . Companies and organisations worldwide checked , fixed , and upgraded their computer systems to address the anticipated problem . Very few computer failures were reported when the clocks rolled over into 2000 . It is not known how many problems went unrecorded .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Year_2000_problem",
"rank": 69,
"score": 93553
},
{
"content": "Title: Middle Miocene Content: The Middle Miocene is a sub-epoch of the Miocene Epoch made up of two stages : the Langhian and Serravallian stages . The Middle Miocene is preceded by the Early Miocene . The sub-epoch lasted from 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma to 11.608 ± 0.005 Ma ( million years ago ) . During this period , a sharp drop in global temperatures took place . This event is known as the Middle Miocene Climate Transition . For the purposes of establishing European Land Mammal Ages this sub-epoch is equivalent to the Astaracian age .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Middle_Miocene",
"rank": 70,
"score": 92846
},
{
"content": "Title: The Carbon War Content: The Carbon War : Global Warming and the End of the Oil Era is a 1999 book by former oil geologist Jeremy Leggett about global warming .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "The_Carbon_War",
"rank": 71,
"score": 92757
},
{
"content": "Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming",
"rank": 72,
"score": 92440
},
{
"content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 73,
"score": 92398
},
{
"content": "Title: 2nd millennium Content: The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1 , 1001 and ended on December 31 , 2000 of the Gregorian calendar . It was the second period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era . It encompassed the High and Late Middle Ages , the Mongol Empire , the Renaissance , the Baroque era , the early Modern Age , the age of Enlightenment , the age of colonialism , industrialization , the rise of nation states , and the 19th and 20th century with the impact of science , widespread education , and universal health care and vaccinations in many nations . The centuries of expanding large-scale warfare with high-tech weaponry ( of the World Wars and nuclear bombs ) were offset by growing peace movements , the United Nations , plus doctors and health workers crossing borders to treat injuries and disease , and the return of the Olympics as contest without combat . Scientists prevailed in explaining intellectual freedom ; humans took their first steps on the Moon during the 20th century ; and new technology was developed by governments , industry , and academia across the world , with education shared by many international conferences and journals . The development of movable type , radio , television , and the internet spread information worldwide , within minutes , in audio , video , and print-image format to inform , educate and entertain billions of people by the end of the 20th century . The Renaissance saw the beginning of the second migration of humans from Europe , Africa , and Asia to the Americas , beginning the ever-accelerating process of globalization . The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations , with home offices in multiple countries . International business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought . The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium ( from 310 million in 1000 to 600 million in 1700 ) and later increased tenfold over its last three centuries , exceeding 6 billion in 2000 . Consequently , unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences , giving rise to extreme poverty , climate change and biotic crisis .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "2nd_millennium",
"rank": 74,
"score": 92159
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 75,
"score": 91930
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleogene Content: The Paleogene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliːədʒiːn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈpeɪliːədʒiːn -RSB- also spelled Palaeogene or Palæogene ; informally Lower Tertiary ) is a geologic period and system that spans 43 million years from the end of the Cretaceous Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Neogene Period Mya . It is the beginning of the Cenozoic Era of the present Phanerozoic Eon . The Paleogene is most notable for being the time during which mammals diversified from relatively small , simple forms into a large group of diverse animals in the wake of the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event that ended the preceding Cretaceous Period . This period consists of the Paleocene , Eocene and Oligocene epochs . The end of the Paleocene ( 55.5 / 54.8 Mya ) was marked by the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic , which upset oceanic and atmospheric circulation and led to the extinction of numerous deep-sea benthic foraminifera and on land , a major turnover in mammals . The terms ` Paleogene System ' ( formal ) and ` lower Tertiary System ' ( informal ) are applied to the rocks deposited during the ` Paleogene Period ' . The somewhat confusing terminology seems to be due to attempts to deal with the comparatively fine subdivisions of time possible in the relatively recent geologic past , for which more details are preserved . By dividing the Tertiary Period into two periods instead of directly into five epochs , the periods are more closely comparable to the duration of ` periods ' of the preceding Mesozoic and Paleozoic Eras .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Paleogene",
"rank": 76,
"score": 91690
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate stabilization wedge Content: The Climate stabilization Wedges is an approach produced by Princeton University researchers looking at Climate change mitigation scenarios . The project was funded by Ford Motor Company between 2000 and 2009 and has been receiving funding from BP since 2000 . The goal of the approach , Stephen Pacala and Robert H. Socolow , is to demonstrate that global warming is a problem which can be attacked using today 's commercially available technologies to reduce emissions . The objective is to stabilize concentrations under 500ppm for the next fifty years , using wedges from a variety of different strategies which fit into the stabilization triangle . A newer estimate by the original authors indicated that by 2011 , the number of necessary wedges had increased from seven to nine . This was due to the continuing increase in emissions since the original 2004 paper which determined the number of wedges that would have been necessary , if serious action to mitigate climate change had begun then .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Climate_stabilization_wedge",
"rank": 77,
"score": 91458
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 78,
"score": 91409
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming taxes Content:",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Global_warming_taxes",
"rank": 79,
"score": 91251
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "The_Great_Warming",
"rank": 80,
"score": 91233
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 81,
"score": 91174
},
{
"content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850",
"rank": 82,
"score": 90948
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Runaway_climate_change",
"rank": 83,
"score": 90637
},
{
"content": "Title: Planet Relief Content: Planet Relief was a proposed BBC television special dealing with the issue of global warming , originally scheduled for broadcast in January 2008 . The programme , which had been in development for 18 months , was meant to be similar to previous BBC programmes such as Comic Relief and Sport Relief . However , it was cancelled before it was broadcast , allegedly because the BBC was concerned that it would be `` biased '' towards promoting responses based on acceptance of mainstream climate change science .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Planet_Relief",
"rank": 84,
"score": 90482
},
{
"content": "Title: Team of the century Content: In team sport , team of the century and team of the decade are hypothetical best teams over a given time period . For the century team , it can be either 100 years , or for a century ( always the 20th ) . Similarly the team of the decade can be for 10 years or a decade ( for example the 1980s ) . Teams of the decade and century are selected for both leagues and clubs and sometimes selected for other reasons , such as to honour the contribution of a particular ethnic group . Teams of the 20th century in particular have been controversial due to their loose criteria and the systemic bias toward current players , given that the performance of players before the advent of broadcasting of matches can not be reviewed and relies on hearsay and archival records . The Team of the Century concept used extensively in the sport of Australian rules football , where , since the mid-1990s , leagues ( such as the VFL/AFL or SANFL ) , as well as football clubs , have named their best team ( see Football ( Australian rules ) positions ) . Teams of the decades followed . One of the most famous examples of the team of the century concept was in 1996 , when the AFL Team of the Century was named on 2 September 1996 , during the League 's centenary season . An example from Ireland was when in 1984 the GAA selected their Football Team of the Century and Hurling Team of the Century to celebrate the first 100 years of the GAA . The term was used again in 2011 when the Team of Century from the Sigerson Cup was chosen .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Team_of_the_century",
"rank": 85,
"score": 90349
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Content: The Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt ( notated Dynasty XX , alternatively 20th Dynasty or Dynasty 20 ) is classified as the third and last Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period , lasting from 1189 BC to 1077 BC . The 20th Dynasty and the 19th Dynasty furthermore together constitute an era known as the Ramesside period .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt",
"rank": 86,
"score": 90345
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar cycle 20 Content: Solar cycle 20 was the twentieth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.4 years , beginning in October 1964 and ending in March 1976 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 156.6 ( November 1968 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 20 to 21 , there were a total of 272 days with no sunspots . Comparison with other cycles shows that geomagnetic activity during the declining phase of cycle 20 ( 1973 -- 1975 ) was unusually high . Data from solar cycle 20 was used to build the K-1974 solar proton fluence model , used for planning space missions during solar cycle 21 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Solar_cycle_20",
"rank": 87,
"score": 90266
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle",
"rank": 88,
"score": 90146
},
{
"content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 89,
"score": 90067
},
{
"content": "Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Hirnantian",
"rank": 90,
"score": 90018
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 91,
"score": 89977
},
{
"content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Duncan_Wingham",
"rank": 92,
"score": 89766
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States",
"rank": 93,
"score": 89650
},
{
"content": "Title: Early anthropocene Content: The Early Anthropocene Hypothesis ( sometimes called Early Anthropogenic ) was proposed by William Ruddiman . It posits that the Anthropocene era , as some scientists call the most recent period in Earth 's history when the activities of the human race first began to have a significant global impact on Earth 's climate and ecosystems , did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the industrial era , as was commonly assumed , but dates back to 8,000 years ago , triggered by intense farming activities after agriculture became widespread . It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior , a pattern that is explained by natural variations in Earth 's orbit known as Milankovitch cycles .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Early_anthropocene",
"rank": 94,
"score": 89565
},
{
"content": "Title: 2000 Content: 2000 was designated as : International Year for the Culture of Peace World Mathematical Year Popular culture holds the year 2000 as the first year of the 21st century and the 3rd millennium due to a tendency of grouping the years according to decimal values , as if year zero were counted . According to the Gregorian Calendar , these distinctions fall to the year 2001 because the 1st century was retroactively said to start with year AD 1 . Since the calendar does not have year zero , its first millennium spanned from years 1 to 1000 inclusively and its second millennium from years 1001 to 2000 ( See more at Millennium ) . The year 2000 is sometimes abbreviated as `` Y2K '' ( the `` Y '' stands for `` year '' , and the `` K '' stands for `` kilo '' which means `` thousand '' ) . The year 2000 was the subject of Y2K concerns , which are fears that computers would not shift from 1999 to 2000 correctly . However , by the end of 1999 , many companies had already converted to new , or upgraded , existing software . Some even obtained Y2K certification . As a result of massive effort , relatively few problems occurred .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "2000",
"rank": 95,
"score": 89435
},
{
"content": "Title: Twentieth Century (typeface) Content: Twentieth Century is a geometric sans-serif typeface designed by Sol Hess for Lanston Monotype in 1937 . It was created as a competitor to the successful Futura typeface for Monotype 's hot metal typesetting system . Like Futura it has a single-story ` a ' ( as in handwriting ) and a straight ` j' with no bend . A very large font family , Twentieth Century is particularly known for a limited range of styles being bundled with many Microsoft products such as Office . Numerous other variants exist , including versions for very small text and an Art Deco-influenced titling capitals design , Twentieth Century Poster , with rounded capitals . In addition , Twentieth Century served as an inspiration for Century Gothic , designed by Monotype in 1991 .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Twentieth_Century_(typeface)",
"rank": 96,
"score": 89142
},
{
"content": "Title: Cretaceous Content: The Cretaceous ( -LSB- pronkrᵻˈteɪʃəs -RSB- , ) is a geologic period and system that spans 79 million years from the end of the Jurassic Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Paleogene Period Mya . It is the last period of the Mesozoic Era . The Cretaceous Period is usually abbreviated K , for its German translation Kreide ( chalk ) . The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate , resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas . These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles , ammonites and rudists , while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land . During this time , new groups of mammals and birds , as well as flowering plants , appeared . The Cretaceous ended with a large mass extinction , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , in which many groups , including non-avian dinosaurs , pterosaurs and large marine reptiles died out . The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg boundary ) , a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction which lies between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Cretaceous",
"rank": 97,
"score": 89070
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming",
"rank": 98,
"score": 89010
},
{
"content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "North_Report",
"rank": 99,
"score": 88871
},
{
"content": "Title: 1900s (decade) Content: The 1900s ( pronounced `` nineteen-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1909 . The term `` nineteen-hundreds '' can also equally be used for the years 1900 -- 1999 ( see 1900s ) . The Edwardian era ( 1901 -- 1910 ) covers a similar span of time .",
"qid": "103",
"docid": "1900s_(decade)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 88789
}
] |
Increases in atmospheric CO2 followed increases in temperature. | [
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 1,
"score": 142793
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 2,
"score": 122587
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 3,
"score": 118827
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 4,
"score": 117605
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 5,
"score": 117218
},
{
"content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Suess_effect",
"rank": 6,
"score": 111844
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 7,
"score": 109565
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 8,
"score": 109414
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 9,
"score": 109221
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 10,
"score": 108897
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 11,
"score": 107150
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 12,
"score": 106694
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 13,
"score": 104525
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 14,
"score": 102368
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 15,
"score": 101372
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 16,
"score": 100381
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 17,
"score": 100338
},
{
"content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Keith_E._Idso",
"rank": 18,
"score": 100321
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 19,
"score": 99408
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 20,
"score": 98247
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 21,
"score": 97274
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 22,
"score": 97199
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 23,
"score": 97177
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Climate_sensitivity",
"rank": 24,
"score": 96618
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 25,
"score": 96248
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding",
"rank": 26,
"score": 95423
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 27,
"score": 95010
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 28,
"score": 94916
},
{
"content": "Title: Mars atmospheric entry Content: Mars atmospheric entry is the entry into the atmosphere of Mars . High velocity entry into Martian air creates a CO2-N2 plasma , as opposed to O2-N2 for Earth air . Mars entry is affected by the radiative effects of hot CO2 gas and Martian dust suspended in the air . Flight regimes for entry , descent , and landing systems include aerocapture , hypersonic , supersonic , and subsonic . Thermal protection systems and atmospheric friction have been used historically to reduce most of the kinetic energy that needs to be lost prior to landing , with parachutes and , sometimes , a final bit of retropropulsion used in the final landing . High-altitude high-velocity retropropulsion is being researched for future transport flights landing heavier cargos . For example , Mars Pathfinder entered in 1997 . About 30 minutes prior to entry , the cruise stage and entry capsule separated . When the capsule hit the atmosphere it de-accelerated from about 7.3 km/s to 0.4 km/s ( 16330 mph to 900 mph ) over three minutes . As it descended the parachute opened to slow it down further , and soon after the heat shield was released . During entry a signal was relayed back to Earth , including semaphore signals for important events .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Mars_atmospheric_entry",
"rank": 29,
"score": 93715
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 30,
"score": 93393
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 31,
"score": 93293
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Pluto Content: The atmosphere of Pluto is the tenuous layer of gases surrounding Pluto . It consists mainly of nitrogen ( N2 ) , with minor amounts of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , all of which are vaporized from their ices on Pluto 's surface . It contains layered haze , probably consisting of heavier compounds which form from these gases due to high-energy radiation . The atmosphere of Pluto is notable for its strong and not completely clear seasonal changes caused by peculiarities of the orbital and axial rotation of Pluto . Surface pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto , measured by New Horizons in 2015 , is about , roughly 100,000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . Temperature on the surface is 40 to , but it quickly grows with altitude due to methane-generated greenhouse effect . Near the altitude it reaches 110 K , and then slowly decreases . Pluto is the only trans-Neptunian object with a known atmosphere . Its closest analog is the atmosphere of Triton , although in some aspects it resembles even the atmosphere of Mars . The atmosphere of Pluto has been studied since the 1980s by way of earth-based observation of occultations of stars by Pluto and spectroscopy . In 2015 , it was studied from a close distance by the spacecraft New Horizons .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Pluto",
"rank": 32,
"score": 93091
},
{
"content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Revelle_factor",
"rank": 33,
"score": 93073
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 34,
"score": 92963
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 35,
"score": 92941
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Atmosphere",
"rank": 36,
"score": 91735
},
{
"content": "Title: Respiratory acidosis Content: Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Respiratory_acidosis",
"rank": 37,
"score": 91673
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 38,
"score": 91059
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 39,
"score": 90927
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes",
"rank": 40,
"score": 90582
},
{
"content": "Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Gilbert_Plass",
"rank": 41,
"score": 90307
},
{
"content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Amorphous_carbonia",
"rank": 42,
"score": 90273
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric convection Content: Atmospheric convection is the result of a parcel-environment instability , or temperature difference , layer in the atmosphere . Different lapse rates within dry and moist air lead to instability . Mixing of air during the day which expands the height of the planetary boundary layer leads to increased winds , cumulus cloud development , and decreased surface dew points . Moist convection leads to thunderstorm development , which is often responsible for severe weather throughout the world . Special threats from thunderstorms include hail , downbursts , and tornadoes .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Atmospheric_convection",
"rank": 43,
"score": 90107
},
{
"content": "Title: Estuarine acidification Content: Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Estuarine_acidification",
"rank": 44,
"score": 89911
},
{
"content": "Title: Fink effect Content: The Fink effect , also known as `` diffusion anoxia '' , `` diffusion hypoxia '' , or the `` third gas effect '' , is a factor that influences the pO2 ( partial pressure of oxygen ) within the alveolus . When soluble gases ( e.g. nitrous oxide , N2O ) are breathed in large quantities they can be dissolved in body fluids rapidly . This can lead to a temporary increase in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolus , causing an increase in their respective partial pressures . The effect is named for Bernard Raymond Fink ( 1914 -- 2000 ) , whose 1955 paper first explained it . When a patient is recovering from N2O anaesthesia , large quantities of this gas cross from the blood into the alveolus ( down its concentration gradient ) and so for a short period of time , the O2 and CO2 in the alveolus are diluted by this gas . This could cause the partial pressure of oxygen to decrease and could temporarily lead to hypoxia . The decrease in CO2 could also potentiate this effect as ventilation would be suppressed , leading to potential hypoxaemia . Nonetheless , this effect would only last a couple of minutes and hypoxia can be avoided by increasing the fractional inspired oxygen concentration when recovering from N2O anaesthesia .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Fink_effect",
"rank": 45,
"score": 89829
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 46,
"score": 89661
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Hypercapnia",
"rank": 47,
"score": 88740
},
{
"content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Scott_Denning",
"rank": 48,
"score": 88188
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 49,
"score": 87882
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 50,
"score": 87547
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Atmospheric_temperature",
"rank": 51,
"score": 87242
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 52,
"score": 87047
},
{
"content": "Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Modified_atmosphere",
"rank": 53,
"score": 86984
},
{
"content": "Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "993–994_carbon-14_spike",
"rank": 54,
"score": 86971
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Mesopause",
"rank": 55,
"score": 86545
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 56,
"score": 86462
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory",
"rank": 57,
"score": 86437
},
{
"content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike",
"rank": 58,
"score": 86233
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 59,
"score": 86197
},
{
"content": "Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Bomb_pulse",
"rank": 60,
"score": 85969
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 61,
"score": 85432
},
{
"content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model",
"rank": 62,
"score": 85375
},
{
"content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Iris_hypothesis",
"rank": 63,
"score": 85324
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 64,
"score": 84873
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling (disambiguation) Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that depicts the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the twentieth century . It is named after Charles David Keeling who discovered the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations and plotted the graph . Keeling may also refer to : Keeling , Virginia North Keeling Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Surname Charles Keeling , climatologist Edward Keeling Harold Keeling John Keeling , MP Ralph Keeling , son of Charles , also climatologist William Keeling , English sea captain",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Keeling_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 65,
"score": 84828
},
{
"content": "Title: Bohr effect Content: The Bohr effect is a physiological phenomenon first described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian Bohr , stating that haemoglobin 's oxygen binding affinity ( see Oxygen -- haemoglobin dissociation curve ) is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide . Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid , an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH , resulting in hemoglobin proteins releasing their load of oxygen . Conversely , a decrease in carbon dioxide provokes an increase in pH , which results in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Bohr_effect",
"rank": 66,
"score": 84661
},
{
"content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis",
"rank": 67,
"score": 84610
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Venus",
"rank": 68,
"score": 84520
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 69,
"score": 84513
},
{
"content": "Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "C3_carbon_fixation",
"rank": 70,
"score": 84339
},
{
"content": "Title: Inversion (meteorology) Content: In meteorology , an inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude . It almost always refers to a `` temperature inversion '' , i.e. an increase in temperature with height , or to the layer ( `` inversion layer '' ) within which such an increase occurs . An inversion can lead to pollution such as smog being trapped close to the ground , with possible adverse effects on health . An inversion can also suppress convection by acting as a `` cap '' . If this cap is broken for any of several reasons , convection of any moisture present can then erupt into violent thunderstorms . Temperature inversion can notoriously result in freezing rain in cold climates .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Inversion_(meteorology)",
"rank": 71,
"score": 84222
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 72,
"score": 84216
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 73,
"score": 83773
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing",
"rank": 74,
"score": 83671
},
{
"content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event",
"rank": 75,
"score": 83517
},
{
"content": "Title: Bosch reaction Content: The Bosch reaction is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon ( graphite ) , water , and a 10 % return of invested heat . It is named after the German chemist Carl Bosch . This reaction requires the introduction of iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees Celsius . The overall reaction is as follows : CO2 ( g ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → C ( s ) + 2 H2O ( g ) The above reaction is actually the result of two reactions . The first reaction , the reverse water gas shift reaction , is a fast one : CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O The second reaction controls the reaction rate : CO + H2 → C + H2O The overall reaction produces 2.3 × 103 joules for every gram of carbon dioxide reacted at 650 ° C. Reaction temperatures are in the range of 450 to 600 ° C. The reaction can be accelerated in the presence of an iron , cobalt or nickel catalyst . Ruthenium also serves to speed up the reaction . Together with the Sabatier reaction , the Bosch reaction is studied as a way to remove carbon dioxide and to generate clean water aboard a space station . The reaction is also used to produce graphite for radiocarbon dating with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . The Bosch reaction is being investigated for use in maintaining space station life support . Though the Bosch reaction would present a completely closed hydrogen and oxygen cycle which only produces atomic carbon as waste , difficulties in maintaining its higher required temperature and properly handling carbon deposits mean that significantly more research will be required before a Bosch reactor can become a reality . One problem is that the production of elemental carbon tends to foul the catalyst 's surface , which is detrimental to the reaction 's efficiency .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Bosch_reaction",
"rank": 76,
"score": 83459
},
{
"content": "Title: Kappa mechanism Content: The κ -- mechanism is the driving mechanism behind the changes in luminosity of many types of pulsating variable stars . Here , the Greek letter kappa is used to indicate the radiative opacity at any particular depth of the stellar atmosphere . In a normal star , an increase in compression of the atmosphere causes an increase in temperature and density ; this produces a decrease in the opacity of the atmosphere , allowing heat energy to escape more rapidly . The result is an equilibrium condition where temperature and pressure are maintained in a balance . However , in cases where the opacity increases with temperature , the atmosphere becomes unstable against pulsations . If a layer of a stellar atmosphere moves inward , it becomes denser and more opaque , causing heat flow to be checked . In return , this heat increase causes a build-up of pressure that pushes the layer back out again . The result is a cyclic process as the layer repeatedly moves inward and then is forced back out again . Stellar non-adiabatic pulsation resulting from the κ -- mechanism occurs in regions where hydrogen and helium are partly ionized , or where there are negative hydrogen ions . An example of such a zone is in RR Lyrae variables where the partial second ionization of helium occurs . Hydrogen ionization is most likely the cause of pulsation activity in Mira variables , rapidly oscillating Ap stars ( roAp ) and ZZ Ceti variables . In Beta Cephei variables , stellar pulsations occur at a depth where the temperature reaches approximately 200,000 K and there is an abundance of iron . The increase in the opacity of iron at this depth is known as the Z bump , where Z is the astronomical symbol for elements other than hydrogen and helium .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Kappa_mechanism",
"rank": 77,
"score": 83028
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Charles_David_Keeling",
"rank": 78,
"score": 82888
},
{
"content": "Title: Inversion temperature Content: The inversion temperature in thermodynamics and cryogenics is the critical temperature below which a non-ideal gas ( all gases in reality ) that is expanding at constant enthalpy will experience a temperature decrease , and above which will experience a temperature increase . This temperature change is known as the Joule-Thomson effect , and is exploited in the liquefaction of gases.Inversion temperature depends on the nature of gas .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Inversion_temperature",
"rank": 79,
"score": 82745
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Ocean_acidification",
"rank": 80,
"score": 82668
},
{
"content": "Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "William_D._Sellers",
"rank": 81,
"score": 82554
},
{
"content": "Title: Lime kiln Content: A lime kiln is a kiln used for the calcination of limestone ( calcium carbonate ) to produce the form of lime called quicklime ( calcium oxide ) . The chemical equation for this reaction is CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2 This reaction takes place at 900 ° C ( 1650 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 1 atmosphere ) , but a temperature around 1000 ° C ( 1800 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 3.8 atmospheres ) is usually used to make the reaction proceed quickly . Excessive temperature is avoided because it produces unreactive , `` dead-burned '' lime . Slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ) can be formed by mixing water with quicklime .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Lime_kiln",
"rank": 82,
"score": 82320
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator",
"rank": 83,
"score": 82285
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 84,
"score": 81819
},
{
"content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions",
"rank": 85,
"score": 81816
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_monoxide",
"rank": 86,
"score": 81638
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature dependence of liquid viscosity Content: The temperature dependence of liquid viscosity is the phenomenon by which liquid viscosity tends to decrease ( or , alternatively , its fluidity tends to increase ) as its temperature increases . This can be observed , for example , by watching how cooking oil appears to move more fluidly upon a frying pan after being heated by a stove .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Temperature_dependence_of_liquid_viscosity",
"rank": 87,
"score": 81414
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat burst Content: In meteorology , a heat burst is a rare atmospheric phenomenon characterized by gusty winds and a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in dew point ( moisture ) . Heat bursts typically occur during night-time and are associated with decaying thunderstorms . Although this phenomenon is not fully understood , it is theorized that the event is caused when rain evaporates ( virga ) into a parcel of cold dry air high in the atmosphere making the air denser than its surroundings . The parcel descends rapidly , warming due to compression , overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface , similar to a downburst . Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above 38 ° C , sometimes rising by 20 F-change or more within only a few minutes . More extreme events have also been documented , where temperatures have been reported to exceed 120 ° F. However , such extreme events have never been officially verified . Heat bursts are also characterized by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong , even damaging , winds .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Heat_burst",
"rank": 88,
"score": 81412
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_sink",
"rank": 89,
"score": 81329
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 90,
"score": 81295
},
{
"content": "Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Central_chemoreceptors",
"rank": 91,
"score": 81133
},
{
"content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "James_Hansen",
"rank": 92,
"score": 80902
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric instability Content: Atmospheric instability is a condition where the Earth 's atmosphere is generally considered to be unstable and as a result the weather is subjected to a high degree of variability through distance and time . Atmospheric stability is a measure of the atmosphere 's tendency to encourage or deter vertical motion , and vertical motion is directly correlated to different types of weather systems and their severity . In unstable conditions , a lifted thing , such as a parcel of air will be warmer than the surrounding air at altitude . Because it is warmer , it is less dense and is prone to further ascent . In meteorology , instability can be described by various indices such as the Bulk Richardson Number , lifted index , K-index , convective available potential energy ( CAPE ) , the Showalter , and the Vertical totals . These indices , as well as atmospheric instability itself , involve temperature changes through the troposphere with height , or lapse rate . Effects of atmospheric instability in moist atmospheres include thunderstorm development , which over warm oceans can lead to tropical cyclogenesis , and turbulence . In dry atmospheres , inferior mirages , dust devils , steam devils , and fire whirls can form . Stable atmospheres can be associated with drizzle , fog , increased air pollution , a lack of turbulence , and undular bore formation .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Atmospheric_instability",
"rank": 93,
"score": 80863
},
{
"content": "Title: Stratosphere Content: The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Stratosphere",
"rank": 94,
"score": 80757
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 95,
"score": 80662
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric temperature range Content: Atmospheric temperature range is the numerical difference between the minimum and maximum values of temperature observed in a given location during a period of time ( e.g. , in a given day , month , year , century ) or the average ( average of all temperature ranges in a period of time ) . The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called diurnal temperature variation .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Atmospheric_temperature_range",
"rank": 96,
"score": 80171
},
{
"content": "Title: Hot-dip galvanization Content: Hot-dip galvanization is a form of galvanization . It is the process of coating iron and steel with zinc , which alloys with the surface of the base metal when immersing the metal in a bath of molten zinc at a temperature of around 840 F . When exposed to the atmosphere , the pure zinc ( Zn ) reacts with oxygen ( O2 ) to form zinc oxide ( ZnO ) , which further reacts with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) to form zinc carbonate ( ZnCO3 ) , a usually dull grey , fairly strong material that protects the steel underneath from further corrosion in many circumstances . Galvanized steel is widely used in applications where corrosion resistance is needed without the cost of stainless steel , and is considered superior in terms of cost and life-cycle . It can be identified by the crystallization patterning on the surface ( often called a `` spangle '' ) . Galvanized steel can be welded ; however , one must exercise caution around the resulting toxic zinc fumes . Galvanized steel is suitable for high-temperature applications of up to 392 F . The use of galvanized steel at temperatures above this will result in peeling of the zinc at the inter metallic layer . Electrogalvanized sheet steel is often used in automotive manufacturing to enhance the corrosion performance of exterior body panels ; this is , however , a completely different process which tends to achieve lower coating thicknesses of zinc . Like other corrosion protection systems , galvanizing protects steel by acting as a barrier between steel and the atmosphere . However , zinc is a more electropositive ( active ) metal in comparison to steel . This is a unique characteristic for galvanizing , which means that when a galvanized coating is damaged and steel is exposed to the atmosphere , zinc can continue to protect steel through galvanic corrosion ( often within an annulus of 5 mm , above which electron transfer rate decreases ) .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Hot-dip_galvanization",
"rank": 97,
"score": 80115
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric thermometer Content: A atmospheric thermometer is a device that measures the temperature of the indoor or outdoor atmosphere . The most common type consists of a long tube that contains mercury or colored alcohol at the base , although there are also other kinds , such as spring and digital thermometers . When the atmospheric temperature rises , it causes the material inside the air thermometer to expand . Conversely , when the air gets colder , the material contracts and travels back down.Thermometers use temperature scales either Fahrenheit , Celsius , Kelvin , to provide a measure of heat in degrees . Category : Thermometers",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Atmospheric_thermometer",
"rank": 98,
"score": 80049
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 99,
"score": 79830
},
{
"content": "Title: Controlled atmosphere Content: A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen , as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated . Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres .",
"qid": "104",
"docid": "Controlled_atmosphere",
"rank": 100,
"score": 79827
}
] |
Therefore, CO2 levels could not have forced temperatures to rise. | [
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 1,
"score": 121268
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 2,
"score": 115539
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 3,
"score": 115384
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 4,
"score": 111591
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 5,
"score": 111474
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 6,
"score": 110008
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 7,
"score": 108269
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth",
"rank": 8,
"score": 108022
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Climate_sensitivity",
"rank": 9,
"score": 102782
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 10,
"score": 101463
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 11,
"score": 100954
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 12,
"score": 100514
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Hypercapnia",
"rank": 13,
"score": 99981
},
{
"content": "Title: Bosch reaction Content: The Bosch reaction is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon ( graphite ) , water , and a 10 % return of invested heat . It is named after the German chemist Carl Bosch . This reaction requires the introduction of iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees Celsius . The overall reaction is as follows : CO2 ( g ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → C ( s ) + 2 H2O ( g ) The above reaction is actually the result of two reactions . The first reaction , the reverse water gas shift reaction , is a fast one : CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O The second reaction controls the reaction rate : CO + H2 → C + H2O The overall reaction produces 2.3 × 103 joules for every gram of carbon dioxide reacted at 650 ° C. Reaction temperatures are in the range of 450 to 600 ° C. The reaction can be accelerated in the presence of an iron , cobalt or nickel catalyst . Ruthenium also serves to speed up the reaction . Together with the Sabatier reaction , the Bosch reaction is studied as a way to remove carbon dioxide and to generate clean water aboard a space station . The reaction is also used to produce graphite for radiocarbon dating with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . The Bosch reaction is being investigated for use in maintaining space station life support . Though the Bosch reaction would present a completely closed hydrogen and oxygen cycle which only produces atomic carbon as waste , difficulties in maintaining its higher required temperature and properly handling carbon deposits mean that significantly more research will be required before a Bosch reactor can become a reality . One problem is that the production of elemental carbon tends to foul the catalyst 's surface , which is detrimental to the reaction 's efficiency .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Bosch_reaction",
"rank": 14,
"score": 99676
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 15,
"score": 98991
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 16,
"score": 98540
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding",
"rank": 17,
"score": 98397
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 18,
"score": 97872
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 19,
"score": 97629
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 20,
"score": 97349
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 21,
"score": 95953
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 22,
"score": 95386
},
{
"content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Suess_effect",
"rank": 23,
"score": 95217
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 24,
"score": 94707
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 25,
"score": 94307
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 26,
"score": 94013
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 27,
"score": 93416
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 28,
"score": 91495
},
{
"content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Black_carbon",
"rank": 29,
"score": 90803
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 30,
"score": 90316
},
{
"content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming",
"rank": 31,
"score": 90235
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 32,
"score": 89704
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 33,
"score": 89546
},
{
"content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "James_Hansen",
"rank": 34,
"score": 89500
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "CO2_is_Green",
"rank": 35,
"score": 88671
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 36,
"score": 88427
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator",
"rank": 37,
"score": 87649
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning",
"rank": 38,
"score": 87087
},
{
"content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Amorphous_carbonia",
"rank": 39,
"score": 86774
},
{
"content": "Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Katsuko_Saruhashi",
"rank": 40,
"score": 86684
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing",
"rank": 41,
"score": 86550
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 42,
"score": 86494
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 43,
"score": 86304
},
{
"content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model",
"rank": 44,
"score": 85781
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 45,
"score": 85673
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-burning process Content: The carbon-burning process or carbon fusion is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in the cores of massive stars ( at least 8 at birth ) that combines carbon into other elements . It requires high temperatures ( > 5 × 108 K or 50 keV ) and densities ( > 3 × 109 kg/m3 ) . These figures for temperature and density are only a guide . More massive stars burn their nuclear fuel more quickly , since they have to offset greater gravitational forces to stay in ( approximate ) hydrostatic equilibrium . That generally means higher temperatures , although lower densities , than for less massive stars . To get the right figures for a particular mass , and a particular stage of evolution , it is necessary to use a numerical stellar model computed with computer algorithms . Such models are continually being refined based on nuclear physics experiments ( which measure nuclear reaction rates ) and astronomical observations ( which include direct observation of mass loss , detection of nuclear products from spectrum observations after convection zones develop from the surface to fusion-burning regions -- known as ` dredge-up ' events -- and so bring nuclear products to the surface , and many other observations relevant to models ) .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon-burning_process",
"rank": 46,
"score": 84862
},
{
"content": "Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "C3_carbon_fixation",
"rank": 47,
"score": 84666
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 48,
"score": 84634
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 49,
"score": 84554
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_monoxide",
"rank": 50,
"score": 84190
},
{
"content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 51,
"score": 83942
},
{
"content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis",
"rank": 52,
"score": 83923
},
{
"content": "Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system",
"rank": 53,
"score": 83513
},
{
"content": "Title: Fink effect Content: The Fink effect , also known as `` diffusion anoxia '' , `` diffusion hypoxia '' , or the `` third gas effect '' , is a factor that influences the pO2 ( partial pressure of oxygen ) within the alveolus . When soluble gases ( e.g. nitrous oxide , N2O ) are breathed in large quantities they can be dissolved in body fluids rapidly . This can lead to a temporary increase in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolus , causing an increase in their respective partial pressures . The effect is named for Bernard Raymond Fink ( 1914 -- 2000 ) , whose 1955 paper first explained it . When a patient is recovering from N2O anaesthesia , large quantities of this gas cross from the blood into the alveolus ( down its concentration gradient ) and so for a short period of time , the O2 and CO2 in the alveolus are diluted by this gas . This could cause the partial pressure of oxygen to decrease and could temporarily lead to hypoxia . The decrease in CO2 could also potentiate this effect as ventilation would be suppressed , leading to potential hypoxaemia . Nonetheless , this effect would only last a couple of minutes and hypoxia can be avoided by increasing the fractional inspired oxygen concentration when recovering from N2O anaesthesia .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Fink_effect",
"rank": 54,
"score": 83183
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 55,
"score": 82750
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 56,
"score": 82608
},
{
"content": "Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Radiative_forcing",
"rank": 57,
"score": 82600
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 58,
"score": 82434
},
{
"content": "Title: Dicyanoacetylene Content: Dicyanoacetylene , also called carbon subnitride or but-2-ynedinitrile '' ' ( IUPAC ) , is a compound of carbon and nitrogen with chemical formula C4N2 . It has a linear molecular structure , N ≡ C − C ≡ C − C ≡ N ( often abbreviated as NC4N ) , with alternating triple and single covalent bonds . It can be viewed as acetylene with the two hydrogen atoms replaced by cyanide groups . At room temperature , dicyanoacetylene is a clear liquid . Because of its high endothermic heat of formation , it can explode to carbon powder and nitrogen gas , and it burns in oxygen with a bright blue-white flame at a temperature of 5260 K ( 4990 ° C , 9010 ° F ) , which is the hottest flame of any known chemical reaction .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Dicyanoacetylene",
"rank": 59,
"score": 82042
},
{
"content": "Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 60,
"score": 81993
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 61,
"score": 81624
},
{
"content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Revelle_factor",
"rank": 62,
"score": 81366
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 63,
"score": 81317
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_suboxide",
"rank": 64,
"score": 81283
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 65,
"score": 81260
},
{
"content": "Title: Sabatier reaction Content: The Sabatier reaction or Sabatier process was discovered by the French chemist Paul Sabatier in the 1910s . It involves the reaction of hydrogen with carbon dioxide at elevated temperatures ( optimally 300 -- 400 ° C ) and pressures in the presence of a nickel catalyst to produce methane and water . Optionally , ruthenium on alumina ( aluminium oxide ) makes a more efficient catalyst . It is described by the following exothermic reaction : CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O + energy ∆ H = − 165.0 kJ/mol ( some initial energy/heat is required to start the reaction )",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Sabatier_reaction",
"rank": 66,
"score": 81238
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 67,
"score": 81026
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 68,
"score": 80915
},
{
"content": "Title: Cobalt(II) fluoride Content: Cobalt ( II ) fluoride is a chemical compound with the formula ( CoF2 ) . It is a pink crystalline solid compound which is antiferromagnetic at low temperatures ( TN = 37.7 K ) The formula is given for both the red tetragonal crystal , ( CoF2 ) , and the tetrahydrate red orthogonal crystal , ( CoF2 · 4H2O ) . CoF2 is used in oxygen-sensitive fields , namely metal production . In low concentrations , it has public health uses . CoF2 is sparingly soluble in water . The compound can be dissolved in warm mineral acid , and will decompose in boiling water . Yet the hydrate is water-soluble , especially the di-hydrate CoF2 · 2H2 O and tri-hydrate CoF2 · 3H2O forms of the compound . The hydrate will also decompose with heat .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Cobalt(II)_fluoride",
"rank": 69,
"score": 80850
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature's Rising Content: Temperature 's Rising is a compilation album released in 1995 by the Canadian rock band Loverboy . The album was the third compilation by the band , but this particular compilation aimed at the more rarely heard songs by the band , and the minor hits that the previous compilations did not cover .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Temperature's_Rising",
"rank": 70,
"score": 80814
},
{
"content": "Title: Respiratory failure Content: Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system , meaning that the arterial oxygen , carbon dioxide or both can not be kept at normal levels . A drop in the oxygen carried in blood is known as hypoxemia ; a rise in arterial carbon dioxide levels is called hypercapnia . Respiratory failure is classified as either Type I or Type II , based on whether there is a high carbon dioxide level . The definition of respiratory failure in clinical trials usually includes increased respiratory rate , abnormal blood gases ( hypoxemia , hypercapnia , or both ) , and evidence of increased work of breathing . The normal partial pressure reference values are : oxygen PaO2 more than 80 mmHg , and carbon dioxide PaCO2 lesser than 45 mmHg .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Respiratory_failure",
"rank": 71,
"score": 80569
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 72,
"score": 80473
},
{
"content": "Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Central_chemoreceptors",
"rank": 73,
"score": 80343
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Mesopause",
"rank": 74,
"score": 80337
},
{
"content": "Title: Oxocarbon Content: An oxocarbon or oxide of carbon is a chemical compound consisting only of carbon and oxygen . The simplest and most common oxocarbons are carbon monoxide ( CO ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Many other stable ( practically if not thermodynamically ) or metastable oxides of carbon are known , but they are rarely encountered , such as carbon suboxide ( C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O ) and mellitic anhydride ( C12O9 ) . While textbooks will often list only the first three , and rarely the fourth , a large number of other oxides are known today , most of them synthesized since the 1960s . Some of these new oxides are stable at room temperature . Some are metastable or stable only at very low temperatures , but decompose to simpler oxocarbons when warmed . Many are inherently unstable and can be observed only momentarily as intermediates in chemical reactions or are so reactive that they can exist only in the gas phase or under matrix isolation conditions . The inventory of oxocarbons appears to be steadily growing . The existence of graphene oxide and of other stable polymeric carbon oxides with unbounded molecular structures suggests that many more remain to be discovered .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Oxocarbon",
"rank": 75,
"score": 80217
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 76,
"score": 80102
},
{
"content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "LOWERN",
"rank": 77,
"score": 80035
},
{
"content": "Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Gilbert_Plass",
"rank": 78,
"score": 79865
},
{
"content": "Title: Angelo Battelli Content: Angelo Battelli ( 28 March 1862 -- 11 December 1916 ) was an Italian scientist , notable for having measured temperatures and heats of fusion of non-metallic substances , metallic conductivities and thermoelectric effects in magnetic metals , and the Thomson effect . He investigated osmotic pressures , surface tensions , and physical properties of carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) , water ( H2O ) , and alcohols , especially their vapor pressures , critical points , and densities . He studied X-rays and cathode rays . He investigated the resistance of solenoids to high-frequency alternating currents .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Angelo_Battelli",
"rank": 79,
"score": 79624
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 80,
"score": 79549
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon detonation Content: Carbon detonation is the violent reignition of thermonuclear fusion in a white dwarf , which produces a Type Ia supernova . A white dwarf undergoes carbon detonation only if it has a binary star companion , be it a normal star or another white dwarf , close enough for the dwarf star to siphon sufficient amounts of matter onto itself , the siphoned matter having been expelled during the process of the companion 's own late stage stellar evolution . If the companion supplies enough matter to the dead star , the white dwarf 's internal pressure and temperature will rise high enough to fuse the previously unfusable carbon in the white dwarf 's core . Carbon detonation generally occurs when the accreted matter pushes the white dwarf 's mass close to the Chandrasekhar limit of roughly 1.4 solar masses . The same happens when two white dwarfs collide and the mass of the remnant is also over the Chandrasekhar limit . While heat is released by the fusion reactions , pressure initially is due almost entirely to electron degeneracy pressure rather than thermal energy and thus does not increase much , inhibiting expansion of the star ( until too late ) and allowing temperature and thus the rate of fusion to increase dramatically in a runaway process . The resumption of fusion spreads outward in a series of uneven , expanding `` bubbles '' exhibiting Rayleigh -- Taylor instability . Within the fusion area , the increase in heat with unchanged volume results in an exponentially rapid increase in the rate of fusion -- a sort of supercritical event as thermal pressure increases boundlessly . With no hydrostatic equilibrium possible , this triggers a `` thermonuclear flame , '' and an explosive eruption through the dwarf star 's surface that completely disrupts it , seen as a Ia supernova . This process , of a volume supported by electron degeneracy pressure instead of thermal pressure gradually reaching conditions capable of igniting runaway fusion , is also found in a less dramatic form in a helium flash in the core of a sufficiently massive red giant star .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_detonation",
"rank": 81,
"score": 79319
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature Rising (album) Content: Temperature Rising is the second English language album by Thai singer Tata Young . It was released in 2006 . The album consist of cover songs and original songs . The first single is `` El Nin-YO ! '' , from the lyrics of which the album 's title comes from . ( `` You got my temperature rising like El Nin-YO ! '' ) . Her second single is `` Zoom '' which was released in September . `` Come Rain Come Shine '' , the third single , was used in Star World 's station promo 's from December 2006 to mid-2007 . The promo includes footage of Tata Young singing `` Come Rain Come Shine '' as well as scenes from some of Star World 's television shows ( Everybody Loves Raymond , American Idol etc. . ) Track # 7 , `` Zoom '' , was covered by Ashley Tisdale on her 2007 debut album Headstrong , under the title as `` Do n't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) '' . Temperature Rising was last Tata Young album released on cassette tapes , but in very small numbers produced in a short time until September 2006 .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Temperature_Rising_(album)",
"rank": 82,
"score": 79158
},
{
"content": "Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Timothy_Ball",
"rank": 83,
"score": 79086
},
{
"content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction",
"rank": 84,
"score": 79040
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 85,
"score": 78958
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 86,
"score": 78670
},
{
"content": "Title: Gustav Lorentzen (scientist) Content: Gustav Fredrik Lorentzen ( 13 January 1915 -- 7 August 1995 ) was a thermodynamic scientist from Norway . Gustav Lorentzen was a professor at Norwegian Institute of Technology , and Norwegian University of Science and Technology . In the late 1980s , Gustav Lorentzen rediscovered how CO2 could be used as a refrigerant in heating and cooling applications . He developed the modern thermodynamic transcritical cycle in 1988-1991 . In 1988 Lorentzen designed a concept for a new , but simple and efficient way of regulating CO2 systems . This idea became the turning point in the re-invention of CO2 cooling technology . Meanwhile , the Japanese corporation Denso had familiarized itself with Lorentzen 's dissertation in 1993 , and was evaluating the concept as a basis for a new air-condition application in cars . A series of communications between Lorentzen and Denso followed and the result of the collaboration between Lorentzen and Denso was a fundamental step in the innovation of EcoCute which was commercialized in 2000s .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Gustav_Lorentzen_(scientist)",
"rank": 87,
"score": 78538
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat of combustion Content: The calorific value is the total energy released as heat when a substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions . The chemical reaction is typically a hydrocarbon or other organic molecule reacting with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water and release heat . It may be expressed with the quantities : energy/mole of fuel ( kJ/mol ) energy/mass of fuel energy/volume of the fuel The calorific value is conventionally measured with a bomb calorimeter . It may also be calculated as the difference between the heat of formation ΔH of the products and reactants ( though this approach is purely empirical since most heats of formation are calculated from measured heats of combustion ) . For a fuel of composition CcHhOoNn , the magnitude of the heat of combustion is to a good approximation ( ± 3 % ) . The calorific value of all organic compounds has the sign corresponding to an exothermic reaction ( negative in the standard chemical convention ) because the double bond in molecular oxygen is much weaker than other double bonds or pairs of single bonds , particularly those in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water ; conversion of the weak bonds in O2 to the stronger bonds in CO2 and H2O releases energy as heat . The heating value ( or energy value or calorific value ) of a substance , usually a fuel or food ( see food energy ) , is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it . The energy value is a characteristic for each substance . It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance , usually mass , such as : kJ/kg , kJ/mol , kcal/kg , Btu/lb . Heating value is commonly determined by use of a bomb calorimeter . Heating value unit conversions : MJ/kg = kcal/kg × 238.846 Btu/lb = kJ/kg × 2.326 Btu/lb = kcals/kg x0 .5556 The heat of combustion for fuels is expressed as the HHV , LHV , or GHV .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Heat_of_combustion",
"rank": 88,
"score": 78301
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 89,
"score": 78249
},
{
"content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Keith_E._Idso",
"rank": 90,
"score": 77927
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate",
"rank": 91,
"score": 77795
},
{
"content": "Title: Boudouard reaction Content: The Boudouard reaction , named after Octave Leopold Boudouard , is the redox reaction of a chemical equilibrium mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide at a given temperature . It is the disproportionation of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide and graphite or its reverse : 2CO + C The Boudouard Reaction to form carbon dioxide and carbon is exothermic at all temperatures . However , the standard enthalpy of the Boudouard reaction becomes less negative with increasing temperature , as shown to the side . While the formation enthalpy of is higher than that of , the formation entropy is much lower . Consequently , the standard free energy of formation of from its component elements is almost constant and independent of the temperature , while the free energy of formation of decreases with temperature . At high temperatures , the forward reaction is therefore endergonic , favoring the ( exergonic ) reverse reaction toward CO , even though the forward reaction is still exothermic . The effect of temperature on the extent of the Boudouard reaction is indicated better by the value of the equilibrium constant than by the standard free energy of reaction . The value of log10 ( Keq ) for the reaction ( valid between 500 -- ) is : has a value of zero at . The implication of the change in Keq with temperature is that a gas containing may form elemental carbon if the mixture cools below a certain temperature . The thermodynamic activity of carbon may be calculated for a / mixture by knowing the partial pressure of each species and the value of Keq . For instance , in a high temperature reducing environment , such as that created for the reduction of iron oxide in a blast furnace or the preparation of carburizing atmospheres , carbon monoxide is the stable oxide of carbon . When a gas rich in is cooled to the point where the activity of carbon exceeds one , the Boudouard Reaction can take place . Carbon monoxide then tends to disproportionate into carbon dioxide and graphite , which forms soot . In industrial catalysis , this is not just an eyesore ; sooting ( also called coking ) can cause serious and even irreversible damage to catalysts and catalyst beds . This is a problem in the catalytic reforming of petroleum and the steam reforming of natural gas . The reaction is named after the French chemist , Octave Leopold Boudouard ( 1872 -- 1923 ) , who investigated this equilibrium in 1905 .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Boudouard_reaction",
"rank": 92,
"score": 77642
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory",
"rank": 93,
"score": 77567
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 94,
"score": 77509
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 dragster Content: CO2 dragsters are miniature racing cars which are propelled by a carbon dioxide cartridge , pierced to start the release of the gas , and which race on a typically 60 foot track . They are frequently used to demonstrate mechanical principles such as mass , force , acceleration , or aerodynamics . Two hooks ( eyelets or screw eyes ) linked to a string ( usually monofilament fishing line ) the bottom of the car prevent the vehicle from losing control during launch . In a race , a laser scanner records the speed of the car at the end of its run . Often , the dragster is carved out of balsa wood because of its light weight . CO2 cars are a part of engineering curriculae in diverse parts of the world such as Australia , New Zealand and the United States . In the United States , classroom projects and competitions can operate under the aegis of the Technology Student Association at middle school and high school levels . Competitions can be featured in local newspapers . Students learn about the forces of gravity , drag , wind resistance , and the motion of air as a fluid . The projects mainly test the aerodynamic , mass and friction properties of a car . These forces can influence performance in a race , so it is vital to take them into account when building .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "CO2_dragster",
"rank": 95,
"score": 77475
},
{
"content": "Title: Multi-component gas analyzer system Content: A multi-component gas analyzer system ( Multi-GAS ) is an instrument package used to take real-time high-resolution measurements of volcanic gas plumes . A Multi-GAS package includes an infrared spectrometer for CO2 , two electrochemical sensors for SO2 and H2S , and pressure -- temperature -- humidity sensors , all in a weatherproof box weighing approximately 3 kg , as well as radio transmitters to transmit data to remote locations . The instrument package is portable , and its operation and data analysis are simple enough to be conducted by non-specialists . Multi-GAS instruments have been used to measure volcanic gas plumes at Mount Etna , Stromboli , Vulcano Italy , Villarrica ( volcano ) Chile , Masaya Volcano Nicaragua , Mount Yasur and Ambrym Vanuatu , Miyake-jima and Mount Asama Japan , Soufrière Hills Montserrat , with permanent installations at Etna and Stromboli . Multi-GAS measurements of CO2/SO2 ratios can allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas , improving prediction of volcanic activity .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Multi-component_gas_analyzer_system",
"rank": 96,
"score": 77375
},
{
"content": "Title: Martian polar ice caps Content: The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Martian_polar_ice_caps",
"rank": 97,
"score": 77310
},
{
"content": "Title: 1,2-Dioxetanedione Content: The chemical compound 1,2-dioxetanedione , or 1,2-dioxacyclobutane-3 ,4 - dione , often called peroxyacid ester , is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) with formula C2O4 . It can be viewed as a double ketone of 1,2-dioxetane ( 1,2-dioxacyclobutane ) , or a cyclic dimer of carbon dioxide . In ordinary conditions , it quickly decomposes to carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) even at 180 K , but can be detected by mass spectrometry and other techniques . 1,2-Dioxetanedione is an intermediate in the chemoluminescent reactions used in glowsticks . The decomposition proceeds via a paramagnetic oxalate biradical intermediate . Recently it has been found that a high-energy intermediate in one of these reactions ( between oxalyl chloride and hydrogen peroxide in ethyl acetate ) , which is presumed to be 1,2-dioxetanedione , can accumulate in solution at room temperature ( up to a few micromoles at least ) , provided that the activating dye and all traces of metals and other reducing agents are removed from the system , and the reactions are carried out in an inert atmosphere .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "1,2-Dioxetanedione",
"rank": 98,
"score": 77241
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "CO2_content",
"rank": 99,
"score": 77203
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "105",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 100,
"score": 77079
}
] |
sea-level rise is not accelerating. | [
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 1,
"score": 132430
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 2,
"score": 118430
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1B",
"rank": 3,
"score": 99162
},
{
"content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 4,
"score": 96920
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis",
"rank": 5,
"score": 92527
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "The_Sea_is_Rising",
"rank": 6,
"score": 92163
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Sea_level",
"rank": 7,
"score": 91107
},
{
"content": "Title: NAIRU Content: NAIRU is an acronym for non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment , and refers to a level of unemployment below which inflation rises . It was first introduced as NIRU ( non-inflationary rate of unemployment ) by Franco Modigliani and Lucas Papademos in 1975 , as an improvement over the `` natural rate of unemployment '' concept , which was proposed earlier by Milton Friedman . Monetary policy conducted under the assumption of a NAIRU involves allowing just enough unemployment in the economy to prevent inflation rising above a given target figure . Prices are allowed to increase gradually and some unemployment is tolerated .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "NAIRU",
"rank": 8,
"score": 90839
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "The_Sea_Has_Risen",
"rank": 9,
"score": 90257
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea",
"rank": 10,
"score": 87493
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A",
"rank": 11,
"score": 85849
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Tide",
"rank": 12,
"score": 85226
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Rising_from_the_Sea",
"rank": 13,
"score": 85094
},
{
"content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Josh_Willis",
"rank": 14,
"score": 84552
},
{
"content": "Title: Yoldia Sea Content: Yoldia Sea is a name given by geologists to a variable brackish-water stage in the Baltic Sea basin that prevailed after the Baltic ice lake was drained to sea level during the Weichsel glaciation . Dates for the Yoldia sea are obtained mainly by radiocarbon dating material from ancient sediments and shore lines and from clay-varve chronology . They tend to vary by as much as a thousand years , but a good estimate is 10,300 -- 9500 radiocarbon years BP , equivalent to ca 11,700-10 ,700 calendar years BP . The sea ended gradually when isostatic rise of Scandinavia closed or nearly closed its effluents , altering the balance between saline and fresh water . The Yoldia Sea became Ancylus Lake . The Yoldia Sea stage had three phases of which only the middle phase had brackish water . The name of the sea is adapted from the obsolete name of the bivalve , Portlandia arctica ( previously known as Yoldia arctica ) , found around Stockholm . This bivalve requires cold saline water . It characterizes the middle phase of the Yoldia Sea , during which saline water poured into the Baltic , before the acceleration of glacial melting .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Yoldia_Sea",
"rank": 15,
"score": 84304
},
{
"content": "Title: Seaford Rise, South Australia Content: Seaford Rise is a metropolitan suburb of Adelaide , South Australia . It lies within the City of Onkaparinga . Its boundaries are formed by Griffiths Drive in the north , Commercial Road in the west , Main South Road in the east , and by an arbitrary border with Maslin Beach in the south .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Seaford_Rise,_South_Australia",
"rank": 16,
"score": 83952
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerating change Content: In futures studies and the history of technology , accelerating change is a perceived increase in the rate of technological change throughout history , which may suggest faster and more profound change in the future and may or may not be accompanied by equally profound social and cultural change .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerating_change",
"rank": 17,
"score": 83362
},
{
"content": "Title: Nonradiation condition Content: Classical nonradiation conditions define the conditions according to classical electromagnetism under which a distribution of accelerating charges will not emit electromagnetic radiation . According to the Larmor formula in classical electromagnetism , a single point charge under acceleration will emit electromagnetic radiation , i.e. light . In some classical electron models a distribution of charges can however be accelerated so that no radiation is emitted . The modern derivation of these nonradiation conditions by Hermann A. Haus is based on the Fourier components of the current produced by a moving point charge . It states that a distribution of accelerated charges will radiate if and only if it has Fourier components synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Nonradiation_condition",
"rank": 18,
"score": 83345
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Tide_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 19,
"score": 83340
},
{
"content": "Title: Advanced Graphics Riser Content: The Advanced Graphics Riser is a variation of the Accelerated Graphics Port ( AGP ) used in some PCIe motherboards made by MSI to offer a limited backwards compatibility with AGP . It is , effectively , a modified PCIe slot allowing for performance comparable to an AGP 4x/8x slot , but with limited support of AGP cards . The manufacturer has published a non-exhaustive compatibility list of cards and chipsets that work with the modified slot .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Advanced_Graphics_Riser",
"rank": 20,
"score": 81830
},
{
"content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Past_sea_level",
"rank": 21,
"score": 81721
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Tide_gauge",
"rank": 22,
"score": 81505
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Sea-level_curve",
"rank": 23,
"score": 80972
},
{
"content": "Title: Risella Content: Risella is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Risella",
"rank": 24,
"score": 80578
},
{
"content": "Title: When the Sea Rises Content: When the Sea Rises ( Quand la mer monte ... ) is a 2004 French-Belgian romantic comedy film directed by Yolande Moreau and Gilles Porte . It was Moreau 's directorial debut .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "When_the_Sea_Rises",
"rank": 25,
"score": 80543
},
{
"content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Equilibrium_level",
"rank": 26,
"score": 80422
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerating expansion of the universe Content: The accelerating expansion of the universe is the observation that the universe appears to be expanding at an increasing rate , so that the velocity at which a distant galaxy is receding from the observer is continuously increasing with time . The accelerated expansion was discovered in 1998 , by two independent projects , the Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team , which both used distant type Ia supernovae as standard candles to measure the acceleration . The discovery was unexpected , cosmologists at the time expecting that the expansion would be decelerating due to the gravitational attraction of the matter in the universe . Three members of these two groups have subsequently been awarded Nobel Prizes for their discovery . Confirmatory evidence has been found in baryon acoustic oscillations and in analyses of the clustering of galaxies . The expansion of the universe is thought to have been accelerating since the universe entered its dark-energy-dominated era roughly 5 billion years ago . Within the framework of general relativity , an accelerating expansion can be accounted for by a positive value of the cosmological constant , equivalent to the presence of a positive vacuum energy , dubbed `` dark energy '' . While there are alternative possible explanations , the description assuming dark energy ( positive ) is used in the current standard model of cosmology , which also includes cold dark matter ( CDM ) and is known as the Lambda-CDM model .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe",
"rank": 27,
"score": 80394
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Sea_level_equation",
"rank": 28,
"score": 79941
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice rise Content: An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Ice_rise",
"rank": 29,
"score": 79666
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Sea_Level_(band)",
"rank": 30,
"score": 79509
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)",
"rank": 31,
"score": 79381
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerate (disambiguation) Content: In general , to accelerate is to change velocity or increase speed ; see Acceleration . Accelerate may also refer to : Accelerate ( Jump5 album ) , a 2003 pop album Accelerate ( R.E.M. album ) , a 2008 alternative rock album Accelerate ( Peter Andre ) , a 2010 a pop album USS Accelerate ( ARS-30 ) , a salvage ship",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerate_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 32,
"score": 79330
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide (Forgotten Realms novel) Content: Rising Tide is a fantasy novel by Mel Odom , set in the world of the Forgotten Realms , and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game . It is the first novel in `` The Threat from the Sea '' trilogy . It was published in paperback in January 1999 .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_(Forgotten_Realms_novel)",
"rank": 33,
"score": 79080
},
{
"content": "Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Seamount",
"rank": 34,
"score": 78655
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Marine_transgression",
"rank": 35,
"score": 78040
},
{
"content": "Title: A Nation Deceived Content: A Nation Deceived : How Schools Hold Back America 's Brightest Students is The Templeton National Report on Acceleration , a report which was published in 2004 and edited by Nicholas Colangelo , Susan G. Assouline , and Miraca Gross . This report argues for the academic acceleration of qualified gifted and talented students , based on the results of studies on outcomes of accelerating and not accelerating high-achieving students . Despite the evidence that acceleration is a beneficial practice when implemented correctly , many teachers and parents are reluctant to accelerate students . The report presents the research on acceleration in an effort to increase the number of students who have access to acceleration . The report is divided into two parts : Volume I , which summarizes the research and provides an introduction to acceleration as an academic intervention for gifted students ; and Volume II , an edited volume that provides a more detailed overview of relevant research studies . The success of A Nation Deceived led to the creation of the Acceleration Institute ( formerly the Institute for Research and Policy on Acceleration ) , which is dedicated to the study and support of educational acceleration for academically talented students . A Nation Empowered , a follow-up to A Nation Deceived , was published in 2015 . It expands upon findings of the original report and incorporates research that has emerged since publication of A Nation Deceived .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "A_Nation_Deceived",
"rank": 36,
"score": 78034
},
{
"content": "Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "East_Pacific_Rise",
"rank": 37,
"score": 77427
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerate (R.E.M. album) Content: Accelerate is the fourteenth studio album by American alternative rock band R.E.M. , released on March 31 , 2008 in Europe , and on April 1 in North America . Produced with Jacknife Lee , Accelerate was intended as a departure from the 2004 album Around the Sun . R.E.M. previewed several of the album 's tracks during a five-night residency at the Olympia Theatre in Dublin , Republic of Ireland , and recorded the album in a nine-week schedule . The album received a warm reception from music critics , earning a 79/100 rating on Metacritic . Reviewers often complimented the aggressive , purposeful sound of the songs , with Q magazine critic Keith Cameron stating that `` Accelerate is the sound of a band having enjoyed a good word with themselves -- and us . ''",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerate_(R.E.M._album)",
"rank": 38,
"score": 77251
},
{
"content": "Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "A_Sea_So_Far",
"rank": 39,
"score": 77049
},
{
"content": "Title: Benham Plateau Content: The Benham Rise , officially known as the Philippine Rise , is a seismically active undersea region and extinct volcanic ridge located in the Philippine Sea approximately 250 km east of the northern coastline of Dinapigue , Isabela . Under the Philippine Sea lie a number of basins including the West Philippine Sea Basin , inside of which is located the Central Basin Fault ( CBF ) . The Benham Plateau is located in the CBF and its basement probably is a micro-continent . Several scientific surveys have been made on the feature to study its nature and its impact on tectonic subduction , including one about its effects on the 1990 Luzon earthquake . The Philippines claimed this feature as part of its continental shelf in a claim lodged with the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on 8 April 2009 , and which was approved under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) in 2012 . It is designated as a `` protected food supply exclusive zone '' by the Philippine government in May 2017 . Mining and oil exploration is banned in the Benham Plateau as a protected area . On May 16 , 2017 , Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 25 renaming the region to Philippine Rise .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Benham_Plateau",
"rank": 40,
"score": 77005
},
{
"content": "Title: Risellopsis Content: Risellopsis is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Risellopsis",
"rank": 41,
"score": 76442
},
{
"content": "Title: USS Accelerate (ARS-30) Content: USS Accelerate ( ARS-30 ) was a salvage ship in the service of the United States Navy . She was originally built as the steam-propelled mooring tender Toteco by Kyle & Purdy , for International Petroleum . Either late in 1929 or early 1930 , the vessel was renamed Walling .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "USS_Accelerate_(ARS-30)",
"rank": 42,
"score": 76267
},
{
"content": "Title: Acceleration due to gravity Content: Acceleration due to gravity may refer to Gravitational acceleration , the acceleration caused by the gravitational attraction of massive bodies in general Gravity of Earth , the acceleration caused by the gravitational attraction of the Earth Standard gravity , or g , the standard value of gravitational acceleration at sea level on Earth",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Acceleration_due_to_gravity",
"rank": 43,
"score": 76256
},
{
"content": "Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level",
"rank": 44,
"score": 75868
},
{
"content": "Title: Risella tantillus Content: Risella tantillus is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Risella_tantillus",
"rank": 45,
"score": 75474
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerated freefall Content: Accelerated freefall ( AFF ) ( known in Canada as progressive freefall , in Finland as Nova ( = NOpeutettu VApaapudotus , a literal translation ) ) is a method of skydiving training . This method of skydiving training is called `` accelerated '' because the progression is the fastest way to experience solo freefall , normally from 10,000 to 15,000 feet `` Above Ground Level '' ( AGL ) . In static line progression , more jumps are required to experience freefall , but the jumps are less expensive for the student as one instructor can dispatch multiple students per load and students are initially dispatched from lower altitudes . Under accelerated freefall , one or sometimes two instructors are dedicated just to one student .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerated_freefall",
"rank": 46,
"score": 75318
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerate (Jump5 album) Content: Accelerate is the fourth album by the Christian pop group Jump5 . It was released on October 7 , 2003 . The album demonstrated the group 's shift towards a pop/rock sound , and was also the first album on which a member of the group had writing credits . Half of the album was made up of covers , including `` Walking on Sunshine '' by Katrina and the Waves and `` Shining Star '' by Earth , Wind & Fire . The group 's cover of Sister Sledge 's `` We Are Family '' was used as the theme for the Radio Disney Family Pledge Initiative . It charted at # 150 on the Billboard Top 200 and at # 8 on the Top Christian Albums charts .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerate_(Jump5_album)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 74549
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerate (Peter Andre album) Content: Accelerate is the seventh album released by British singer-songwriter Peter Andre .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerate_(Peter_Andre_album)",
"rank": 48,
"score": 74530
},
{
"content": "Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Tidal_range",
"rank": 49,
"score": 74399
},
{
"content": "Title: J-PAS Content: J-PAS ( Javalambre Physics of the accelerating universe Astronomical Survey ) is an astronomical facility located in Pico del Buitre in Sierra de Javalambre , near Teruel , in Spain . It is constituted of two telescopes : a 2.5 metre primary mirror telescope ( T250 ) and an 80-centimeter telescope ( T80 ) . The T250 will observe the sky in 56 colors with a large field 1.2 Giga-pixel camera , constituted by an array of 14 CCDs . J-PAS will observe more than 8000 square degrees ( about 1/5 of the whole sky ) during 5/6 years . J-PAS filters cover the entire visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum ( 3500 Å to 10000 Å ) .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "J-PAS",
"rank": 50,
"score": 74319
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Sea_Level_(album)",
"rank": 51,
"score": 74284
},
{
"content": "Title: Thiel Trough Content: Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Thiel_Trough",
"rank": 52,
"score": 74187
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Meier Content: Mark F. Meier ( 1925 -- November 25 , 2012 ) was an American glaciologist who was considered a leading expert on the study of rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers . Meier was the Director of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research ( INSTAAR ) from 1985 to 1994 and remained the institute 's director emeritus until his death in 2012 . He was also a professor of geological sciences at the University of Colorado - Boulder . Meier was born and raised in Iowa . He resided in Boulder , Colorado , since 1985 . In 1956 , Meier founded the U.S. Geological Survey 's department of glaciology . He obtained doctorate in 1957 from the California Institute of Technology . Meier served as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey 's Project Office of Glaciology in Tacoma , Washington , until he became the director of INSTAAR in 1985 . Meier was one of the first glaciologists to use remote sensing to study glaciers and rates of melting . He headed several studies of tidewater glacier dynamics in the U.S. state of Alaska . Meier organized the systematic measurement and assessment of glacier mass balance within North America to mark the International Geophysical Year and International Hydrological Decade , which was observed from 1965 to 1975 . His numerous recognitions and awards included the Seligman Crystal from the International Glaciological Society in 1993 , the Robert E. Horton Medal in 1996 , three medals from the USSR Academy of Sciences ( now the Russian Academy of Sciences ) and the United States Department of the Interior 's Distinguished Service Award . Meier died in Boulder , Colorado , on November 25 , 2012 , at the age of 86 . He is survived by his wife , Barbara , his children , Lauren Meier , Gretchen Meier , and Mark S. Meier , and his seven grandchildren .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Mark_Meier",
"rank": 53,
"score": 74069
},
{
"content": "Title: Continental rise Content: The continental rise is an underwater feature found between the continental slope and the abyssal plain . This feature can be found all around the world , and it represents the final stage in the boundary between continents and the deepest part of the ocean . The environment in the continental rise is quite unique , and many oceanographers study it extensively in the hopes of learning more about the ocean and geologic history . At the bottom of the continental slope , one will find the continental rise , an underwater hill composed of tons of accumulated sediments . The general slope of the continental rise is between 0.5 degrees and 1.0 degrees . Deposition of sediments at the mouth of submarine canyons may form enormous fan-shaped accumulations called submarine fans . Submarine fans form part of the continental rise . Beyond the continental rise stretches the abyssal plain , an extremely deep and flat area of the sea floor . The abyssal plain hosts many unique life forms which are uniquely adapted to survival in its cold , high pressure , and dark conditions . The flatness of the abyssal plain is interrupted by massive underwater mountain chains near the tectonic boundaries of the Earth 's plates.The sediments are mostly sand and pieces of coral or rock . Category : Oceanography",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Continental_rise",
"rank": 54,
"score": 73872
},
{
"content": "Title: The Threat from the Sea Content: The Threat From the Sea is a series of fantasy novels written mostly by Mel Odom . It contains three novels : Rising Tide , Under Fallen Stars , and The Sea Devil 's Eye . It also contains the anthology book , Realms of the Deep .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "The_Threat_from_the_Sea",
"rank": 55,
"score": 73617
},
{
"content": "Title: Young Detective Dee: Rise of the Sea Dragon Content: Young Detective Dee : Rise of the Sea Dragon is a 2013 Chinese action-adventure fantasy mystery film directed , produced , and co-written by Tsui Hark . It is a prequel to Hark 's 2010 film Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame , which starred Andy Lau . Taiwanese-Canadian actor Mark Chao takes over from him as a young Detective Dee , while Feng Shaofeng , Lin Gengxin , Kim Bum ( in his Chinese debut ) , and Angelababy co-star alongside a returning Carina Lau from Mystery of the Phantom Flame , rounding up the ensemble cast . A sequel of the film and the third installment of the Detective Dee series , titled Detective Dee : The Four Heavenly Kings will be released in 2018 . Filming will begin in March 2017 .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Young_Detective_Dee:_Rise_of_the_Sea_Dragon",
"rank": 56,
"score": 73537
},
{
"content": "Title: I/O Acceleration Technology Content: I/O Acceleration Technology ( I/OAT ) is a DMA engine ( an embedded DMA controller ) by Intel bundled with high-end server motherboards , that offloads memory copies from the main processor by performing direct memory accesses ( DMA ) . It is typically used for accelerating network traffic , but supports any kind of copy . For the Internet of Autonomous Things , see Autonomous Things . Using I/OAT for network acceleration is supported by Microsoft Windows since the release of Scalable Networking Pack for Windows Server 2003 SP1 . It was used by the Linux kernel starting in 2006 but this feature was subsequently disabled due to an alleged lack of performance benefits while creating a possibility of data corruption .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "I/O_Acceleration_Technology",
"rank": 57,
"score": 73451
},
{
"content": "Title: Viral decay acceleration Content: Viral decay acceleration ( VDA ) is a therapeutic strategy which increases the mutation frequency of a virus toward an error catastrophe threshold . Viruses evolve at rates approximately one million times faster than the human genome . The high mutation rate increases diversity within the viral population and facilitates survival in the face of host immune responses , depletion of target cells and antiviral therapeutics . This evolutionary advantage however comes at a considerable cost in that the vast majority of virus particles have mutated beyond a survivability threshold and are therefore non-infectious . Laboratory studies have demonstrated that therapeutics capable of increasing the mutation frequency as little as 2-fold results in collapse of the viral population . These therapeutics , termed VDA agents , accelerate the accumulation of additional mutations in the viral genome , progressively debilitating the virus which causes decay and eventual extinction of the entire viral population .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Viral_decay_acceleration",
"rank": 58,
"score": 73441
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerated-X Content: Accelerated-X is a proprietary port of the X Window System to Intel x86 machines .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerated-X",
"rank": 59,
"score": 73412
},
{
"content": "Title: Unicorn Skeleton Mask Content: Unicorn Skeleton Mask is the twenty-fifth studio album by Omar Rodríguez-López as a solo artist . It was given a `` surprise '' digital release on January 2 , 2013 , just a day after the release of Equinox and Woman Gives Birth To Tomato ! . Three of the album 's songs , `` Sea Is Rising , '' `` Maria Te Canta , '' and `` Bored To Burns '' were previously debuted live as instrumental pieces during Omar Rodriguez Lopez Group 2010 tour . These tracks resurfaced in the 2016 Ipecac series with `` Sea Is Rising '' appearing on the album Corazones , half of the songs present as alternate versions on Zapopan , and with most of the rest surfacing in 2017 as alternate recordings on Zen Thrills . Since 2014 the album is no longer available to purchase officially , as Rodriguez-Lopez 's Bandcamp page has been taken down after a split with Sargent House label . Parts of a couple of these songs were also used on the following record , ¿ Sólo Extraño ? as well as its proper release in 2016 of Nom de Guerre Cabal . `` Right Of Way '' appears reworked in `` House in the Sand '' / `` Life Proves Its Worth '' and the drum track for `` Tennessee '' is present on `` Invisible Laziness '' / `` Bitter Sunsets '' before reappearing as `` With You If You Give A Damn '' on Zen Thrills . As of January 2017 , `` Names '' remains the only track to not be re-released in the Ipecac Series .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Unicorn_Skeleton_Mask",
"rank": 60,
"score": 73368
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 61,
"score": 73162
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 62,
"score": 72981
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerated Math Content: Accelerated Math is a daily , progress-monitoring software tool that monitors and manages mathematics skills practice , from preschool math through calculus . It is primarily used by primary and secondary schools , and it is published by Renaissance Learning , Inc. . Currently , there are five versions : a desktop version and a web-based version in Renaissance Place , the company 's web software for Accelerated Math and a number of other software products ( e.g. Accelerated Reader ) . In Australia and the United Kingdom , the software is referred to as `` Accelerated Maths '' .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerated_Math",
"rank": 63,
"score": 72952
},
{
"content": "Title: Outer trench swell Content: The outer trench swell , outer trench high , or outer rise is a subtle ridge on the seafloor near an oceanic trench , where a descending plate begins to flex and fault in preparation for its descent into the mantle at a subduction zone . The lithosphere is bent upwards by plate stresses , and is not in isostatic equilibrium ( distinguish from the `` outer ridge '' of a forearc ) . Typically , the gravity field over the outer swell is about 50 mGal ( 0.5 mm/s ² ) higher than expected from isostasy , while gravity over the trench is about 200 mGal ( 2 mm/s ² ) less than that expected from isostatic considerations . The bending of the plate is associated with tension in the upper 20 km , and shallow earthquakes , caused by tensional failure induced by the downward bending of the oceanic plate are common ; about 20 extensional outer rise earthquakes with magnitude 5 or greater occur annually . Most tension axes are perpendicular to the trench , independent of the direction of relative motion between the two plates , indicating that failure is controlled by bending stresses in the plate . Plate bending also causes deeper ( down to 50 km ) earthquakes due to compression . The wavelength and amplitude of this flexure can be used to constrain the state of stress across the plate boundary . The width of the outer rise is directly related to the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere . The thickness of the elastic lithosphere varies between 20 and 30 km for most trench profiles . Faulting related to plate bending and stair-stepping of the descending slab into the trench may allow seawater to infiltrate deep into the crust and perhaps upper mantle . This may lead to large scale formation of serpentinite in the upper mantle of the downgoing plate ( Ranero et al. , 2003 ) . Faulting of the downgoing plate results in a horst and graben structure that allows sediment that reaches the trench to be deposited in graben and carried downward . This faulting also breaks up seamounts as they approach the trench . The principal mechanism of frontal erosion may reflect combined effects of seamount tunneling , mass wasting and transport to the trench , deposition in a graben on the downgoing plate , and descent into the mantle . Outer trench swells are geoscientific frontiers and much remains to be learned about them . Recent volcanoes have been discovered on ~ 135-million-year-old Pacific Plate east of Japan ( Hirano et al. , 2006 ) . These small alkalic volcanoes are small percent melts of asthenosphere that exploit bending-related lithospheric faults to reach the seafloor . Hirano et al. , ( 2006 ) proposed that these small volcanoes erupted along lithospheric fractures in response to plate flexure during subduction . If bending-related faulting and serpentinization is an important process beneath outer trench swells , there are probably also abundant low-temperature hydrothermal vents on the swells , similar to those of the Lost City ( hydrothermal field ) .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Outer_trench_swell",
"rank": 64,
"score": 72628
},
{
"content": "Title: OpenRL Content: PowerVR OpenRL ™ is a flexible low level interactive ray tracing API , available for download as an SDK for accelerating ray tracing in both graphics and non-graphics ( e.g. , physics ) applications . OpenRL was developed by the Caustic Professional division of Imagination Technologies . A free perpetual license of OpenRL is available for integration , with either commercial or non-commercial applications . In OpenRL , acceleration structures are built and maintained transparently , behind the scenes , and this eliminates the need for the client application to write any code to create or traverse them . This also allows for ray tracing hardware acceleration of the acceleration structure assembly .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "OpenRL",
"rank": 65,
"score": 72535
},
{
"content": "Title: Lord Howe Rise Content: The Lord Howe Rise is a deep sea plateau which extends from south west of New Caledonia to the Challenger Plateau , west of New Zealand in the south west of the Pacific Ocean . To its west is the Tasman Basin and to the east is the New Caledonia Basin . Lord Howe Rise has a total area of about 1,500,000 square km , and generally lies about 750 to 1,200 metres under water . It is part of Zealandia , a much larger continent that is now mostly submerged , and so is composed of continental crust .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Lord_Howe_Rise",
"rank": 66,
"score": 72446
},
{
"content": "Title: Risellopsis varia Content: Risellopsis varia is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Risellopsis_varia",
"rank": 67,
"score": 72412
},
{
"content": "Title: Human accelerated region 1 Content: In molecular biology , Human accelerated region 1 ( highly accelerated region 1 , HAR1 ) is a segment of the human genome found on the long arm of chromosome 20 . It is a Human accelerated region . It is located within a pair of overlapping long non-coding RNA genes , HAR1A ( HAR1F ) and HAR1B ( HAR1R ) .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Human_accelerated_region_1",
"rank": 68,
"score": 72362
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Sea_level_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 69,
"score": 72324
},
{
"content": "Title: Chatham Rise Content: The Chatham Rise is an area of ocean floor to the east of New Zealand , forming part of the Zealandia continent . It stretches for some 1000 km from near the South Island in the west , to the Chatham Islands in the east . It is New Zealand 's most productive and important fishing ground , as well as important habitat for whales . Relative to the rest of the Pacific Ocean waters around New Zealand , the Chatham Rise is relatively shallow , no more than 1000 m deep at any point . This shallowness is made more remarkable by the depth of the ocean immediately to the north and south . To the northeast , the Hikurangi Trench , an extension of the much deeper Kermadec Trench , drops to below 3000 m close to the New Zealand coast , and further from the coast the Rise borders on the Hikurangi Plateau . To the south , similar depths are achieved in the Bounty Trough . Past the eastern end of the rise , the sea floor drops away to the abyssal plain .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Chatham_Rise",
"rank": 70,
"score": 72221
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea cave Content: A sea cave , also known as a littoral cave , is a type of cave formed primarily by the wave action of the sea . The primary process involved is erosion . Sea caves are found throughout the world , actively forming along present coastlines and as relict sea caves on former coastlines . Some of the largest wave-cut caves in the world are found on the coast of Norway , but are now 100 feet or more above present sea level . These would still be classified as littoral caves . By contrast , in places like Thailand 's Phang Nga Bay , solutionally formed caves in limestone have been flooded by the rising sea and are now subject to littoral erosion , representing a new phase of their enlargement . Some of the best-known sea caves are European . Fingal 's Cave , on the Scottish island of Staffa , is a spacious cave some 70 m long , formed in columnar basalt . The Blue Grotto of Capri , although smaller , is famous for the apparent luminescent quality of its water , imparted by light passing through underwater openings . The Romans built a stairway in its rear and a now-collapsed tunnel to the surface . The Greek islands are also noted for the variety and beauty of their sea caves . Numerous sea caves have been surveyed in England , Scotland , and in France , particularly on the Normandy coast . Until 2013 , the largest known sea caves were found along the west coast of the United States , the Hawaiian islands , and the Shetland Islands . In 2013 the discovery and survey of the world 's largest sea cave was announced . Located on New Zealand 's Otago coast on the South Island , Matainaka Cave has proven to be the world 's most extensive at 1.5 km in length . Also in 2013 , Crossley reported a newly surveyed complex reaching just over a kilometer in survey at Bethells Beach on New Zealand 's North Island .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Sea_cave",
"rank": 71,
"score": 72048
},
{
"content": "Title: Academic acceleration Content: Academic acceleration is the advancement of gifted students in subjects at a rate that places them ahead of where they would be in the regular school curriculum . Because it provides students with level-appropriate material , academic acceleration has been described as a `` fundamental need '' for gifted students . Although the bulk of educational research on academic acceleration has been within the United States , the practice occurs worldwide .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Academic_acceleration",
"rank": 72,
"score": 71475
},
{
"content": "Title: Ingression coast Content: An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level . Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral ( tidal ) processes , because the sea level , which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period , did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago . Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform -- e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief -- various types of ingression coast emerge , such as rias , skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Ingression_coast",
"rank": 73,
"score": 71452
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level, North Carolina Content: Sea Level is an unincorporated community in northeastern Carteret County , North Carolina . It rests on the banks of the Core Sound and has a population of roughly 450 . It is located in what was known to early settlers as Hunting Quarters . Sea Level has one of the lowest elevations in North Carolina ; it is estimated that approximately 75 % of the community floods when hurricanes pass through . US 70 is the major thoroughfare through the community . The community is the location of NC 12 's southern terminus .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Sea_Level,_North_Carolina",
"rank": 74,
"score": 71419
},
{
"content": "Title: South Tasman Rise Content: The South Tasman Rise is an area of seafloor that lies 550 km south of Hobart , Tasmania in the Southern Ocean where water depths are about 1,500 metres . The South Tasman Rise is also known as the Tasmania Ridge or South Tasmania Ridge .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "South_Tasman_Rise",
"rank": 75,
"score": 71326
},
{
"content": "Title: Martin Ford (author) Content: Martin Ford is a futurist focusing on the impact of artificial intelligence and robotics on society and the economy , and the author of two books : Rise of the Robots : Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future ( 2015 ) and The Lights In the Tunnel : Automation , Accelerating Technology and the Economy of the Future ( 2009 ) . Both books deal with the effects of automation and the potential for structural unemployment and dramatically increasing inequality . His most recent book , Rise of the Robots , was a New York Times bestseller and won the # 30,000 Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year Award in 2015 . Ford is the founder of a Silicon Valley-based software development firm , and earned a BSE in computer engineering , Magna cum laude , from the University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , and a graduate business degree from UCLA 's Anderson School of Management .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Martin_Ford_(author)",
"rank": 76,
"score": 70864
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerated pluralism Content: Accelerated pluralism is a theory coined by Bruce Bimber which claims that `` the net is accelerating the process of issue group formation and action '' . Accelerated pluralism is a method of mobilization used in the formation of social movements that is facilitated by the use of information communication technologies . This method of group formation is unique because through the use of the Internet people are able congregate in the virtual public sphere and decide which form of action to take . According to the Center for Democracy and Technology 's Daniel Weitnzer , the Internet facilitates a `` one-to-one interaction ... between citizens and government '' something that is missing in today 's politics . Accelerated pluralism played a major role in the mobilization efforts of the Arab Spring , Occupy and Black Lives Matter social movements by allowing the participants to congregate cheaply and quickly . ICTs in combination with accelerated pluralism played a major role in the `` ignition of social protest , the cascade of inspiring images and stories '' in social movements .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerated_pluralism",
"rank": 77,
"score": 70789
},
{
"content": "Title: Rise (non-governmental organization) Content: Rise , Inc. is an American non-governmental civil rights organization working with multiple state legislatures and the U.S. Congress to implement a sexual assault survivors ' bill of rights . Its founder and president is Amanda Nguyen . In October 2016 , the Sexual Assault Survivors ' Rights Act was enacted in the United States .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Rise_(non-governmental_organization)",
"rank": 78,
"score": 70696
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929",
"rank": 79,
"score": 70562
},
{
"content": "Title: Particle acceleration Content: In a compressible sound transmission medium - mainly air - air particles get an accelerated motion : the particle acceleration or sound acceleration with the symbol a in metre/second2 . In acoustics or physics , acceleration ( symbol : a ) is defined as the rate of change ( or time derivative ) of velocity . It is thus a vector quantity with dimension length/time2 . In SI units , this is m/s2 . To accelerate an object ( air particle ) is to change its velocity over a period . Acceleration is defined technically as `` the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time '' and is given by the equation where a is the acceleration vector v is the velocity vector expressed in m/s t is time expressed in seconds . This equation gives a the units of m / ( s · s ) , or m/s2 ( read as `` metres per second per second '' , or `` metres per second squared '' ) . An alternative equation is : where is the average acceleration ( m/s2 ) is the initial velocity ( m/s ) is the final velocity ( m/s ) is the time interval ( s ) Transverse acceleration ( perpendicular to velocity ) causes change in direction . If it is constant in magnitude and changing in direction with the velocity , we get a circular motion . For this centripetal acceleration we have One common unit of acceleration is g-force , one g being the acceleration caused by the gravity of Earth . In classical mechanics , acceleration is related to force and mass ( assumed to be constant ) by way of Newton 's second law :",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Particle_acceleration",
"rank": 80,
"score": 70221
},
{
"content": "Title: MV Cape Rise (T-AKR-9678) Content: The , formerly Audi Riyadh , formerly Seaspeed Arabia is a roll-on/roll-off and container ship built in 1977 .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "MV_Cape_Rise_(T-AKR-9678)",
"rank": 81,
"score": 70210
},
{
"content": "Title: 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake Content: The 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake or 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake occurred on May 26 , at 11:59:57 local time ( 02:59:59.6 UTC ) , It had a magnitude of 7.8 on the moment magnitude scale . It occurred in the Sea of Japan , about 100 km west of the coast of Noshiro in Akita Prefecture , Japan . Out of the 104 fatalities , all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami , which struck communities along the coast , especially Aomori and Akita Prefectures and the east coast of Noto Peninsula . Images of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbor of Wajima on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV . The waves exceeded 10 m in some areas . Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of South Korea ( whether North Korea was affected is not known ) . The tsunami also hit Okushiri Island , the site of a more deadly tsunami 10 years later .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "1983_Sea_of_Japan_earthquake",
"rank": 82,
"score": 69819
},
{
"content": "Title: Decay-accelerating factor Content: Complement decay-accelerating factor , also known as CD55 or DAF , is a protein that , in humans , is encoded by the CD55 gene . DAF regulates the complement system on the cell surface . It recognizes C4b and C3b fragments that are created during C4 ( classical complement pathway and lectin pathway ) and C3 ( alternate complement pathway ) activation . Interaction of DAF with cell-associated C4b of the classical and lectin pathways interferes with the conversion of C2 to C2a , thereby preventing formation of the C4b2a C3 convertase , and interaction of DAF with C3b of the alternative pathway interferes with the conversion of factor B to Bb by factor D , thereby preventing formation of the C3bBb C3 convertase of the alternative pathway . Thus , by limiting the amplification convertases of the complement cascade , DAF indirectly blocks the formation of the membrane attack complex . This glycoprotein is broadly distributed among hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells . It is a determinant for the Cromer blood group system .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Decay-accelerating_factor",
"rank": 83,
"score": 69411
},
{
"content": "Title: CryoSat Content: CryoSat is an ESA programme to monitor variations in the extent and thickness of polar ice through use of a satellite in low Earth orbit . The information provided about the behaviour of coastal glaciers that drain thinning ice sheets will be key to better predictions of future sea level rise . The CryoSat-1 spacecraft was lost in a launch failure in 2005 , however the programme was resumed with the successful launch of a replacement , CryoSat-2 , launched on 8 April 2010 . CryoSat is operated from the European Space Operations Centre ( ESOC ) in Darmstadt , Germany .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "CryoSat",
"rank": 84,
"score": 69378
},
{
"content": "Title: Heartbeats Accelerating Content: Heartbeats Accelerating is the sixth album by Kate & Anna McGarrigle , released in 1990 . It was their first album in eight years , after Love Over and Over in 1982 , and received favourable reviews from many music critics . Bill Dillon , Pierre Marchand , Joel Zifkin and Kate 's son Rufus Wainwright appear as guest musicians . The title track was covered by Linda Ronstadt on her 1993 album Winter Light . It was given a New Age treatment and became a worldwide hit . Issued as a single , Ronstadt 's version of the song reached the top 30 at the Adult Contemporary chart , number 12 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart in the United States , and peaked at number 17 on Canada 's RPM 100 Hit Tracks ( the Canadian equivalent of the Billboard Hot 100 ) . It was also successful in several other countries , including Australia . The song `` I Eat Dinner ( When the Hunger 's Gone ) '' was covered in 2004 by Kate 's son Rufus Wainwright along with Dido for the film Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason and it appears on the soundtrack album . Cœur de pirate covered the album 's title track on the soundtrack album for the fifth season of the television drama series Trauma .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Heartbeats_Accelerating",
"rank": 85,
"score": 69129
},
{
"content": "Title: Music for an Accelerated Culture Content: Music for an Accelerated Culture is the debut album from new rave/grindie band Hadouken ! . The album contains nine new songs , three of which ( `` Spend Your Life '' , `` What She Did '' and `` Declaration of War '' ) have been previously played on tour , the album also includes two older Hadouken ! songs ; Liquid Lives and That Boy That Girl . The title is thought to be a reference to both Douglas Coupland 's book Generation X : Tales for an Accelerated Culture and The Prodigy 's album , Music for the Jilted Generation .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Music_for_an_Accelerated_Culture",
"rank": 86,
"score": 69110
},
{
"content": "Title: Irminger Sea Content: The Irminger Sea is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is 480 km long and 290 km wide at its narrowest . The northern limit is the Greenland-Iceland Rise on the bottom of the Denmark Strait between Iceland and East Greenland , which connects to the Greenland Sea . To the southwest , it reaches to Cape Farvel , the southern tip of Greenland , and meets the Labrador Sea at this point . South of this point is the open North Atlantic Ocean . The sea floor of the Irminger Sea is largely part of the Irminger Basin , a northeastern continuation of the maximally 4600 m deep Labrador Basin , which on the east is bordered by the Reykjanes Ridge . This delineation is oceanographic only and does not represent any official borders . The Irminger Sea is one of the main fishing areas of the Rose fish . The Irminger Sea was named after Danish vice-admiral Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger ( 1802 -- 1888 ) , after whom also the Irminger Current was named .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Irminger_Sea",
"rank": 87,
"score": 69007
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide North America Content: Rising Tide North America is a grassroots network of groups and individuals in North America organizing action against the root causes of climate change and work towards a non-carbon society . Rising Tide North America is part of an international network dedicated to building a climate justice and anti-extraction movement . Rising Tide generally takes a strongly `` no compromise '' stance on the environment and a vehement opposition to solutions proposed by corporations who , they say , are responsible for creating environmental problems in the first place .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_North_America",
"rank": 88,
"score": 68176
},
{
"content": "Title: Plasma acceleration Content: Plasma acceleration is a technique for accelerating charged particles , such as electrons , positrons and ions , using an electric field associated with electron plasma wave or other high-gradient plasma structures ( like shock and sheath fields ) . The plasma acceleration structures are created either using ultra-short laser pulses or energetic particle beams that are matched to the plasma parameters . These techniques offer a way to build high performance particle accelerators of much smaller size than conventional devices . The basic concepts of plasma acceleration and its possibilities were originally conceived by Toshiki Tajima and Prof. John M. Dawson of UCLA in 1979 . Initial designs of experiment for `` wakefield '' were conceived at UCLA by the group of Prof. Chan Joshi . Current experimental devices show accelerating gradients several orders of magnitude better than current particle accelerators . Plasma accelerators have immense promise for innovation of affordable and compact accelerators for various applications ranging from high energy physics to medical and industrial applications . Medical applications include betatron and free-electron light sources for diagnostics or radiation therapy and protons sources for hadron therapy . Plasma accelerators generally use wakefields generated by plasma density waves . However , plasma accelerators can operate in many different regimes depending upon the characteristics of the plasmas used . For example , an experimental laser plasma accelerator at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory accelerates electrons to 1 GeV over about 3.3 cm ( 5.4 x1020 gn ) , and one at the SLAC conventional accelerator ( highest electron energy accelerator ) requires 64 m to reach the same energy . Similarly , using plasmas an energy gain of more than 40 GeV was achieved using the SLAC SLC beam ( 42 GeV ) in just 85 cm using a plasma wakefield accelerator ( 8.9 x1020 gn ) . Once fully developed , the technology could replace many of the traditional RF accelerators currently found in particle colliders , hospitals and research facilities . The Texas Petawatt laser facility at the University of Texas at Austin accelerated electrons to 2 GeV over about 2 cm ( 1.6 x1021 gn ) . This record was broken ( by more than 2x ) in 2014 by the scientists at the BELLA ( laser ) Center at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , when they produced electron beams up to 4.25 GeV . In late 2014 , researchers from SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory using the Facility for Advanced Accelerator Experimental Tests ( FACET ) published proof of the viability of plasma acceleration technology . It was shown to be able to achieve 400 to 500 times higher energy transfer compared to a general linear accelerator design . A proof-of-principle plasma wakefield accelerator experiment using a 400 GeV proton beam from the Super Proton Synchrotron is currently under construction at CERN . The experiment , named AWAKE , is scheduled for start-up at the end of 2016 .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Plasma_acceleration",
"rank": 89,
"score": 68029
},
{
"content": "Title: Over Sea, Under Stone Content: Over Sea , Under Stone is a contemporary fantasy novel written for children by the English author Susan Cooper , first published in London by Jonathan Cape in 1965 . Cooper wrote four sequels about ten years later , making it the first volume in a series usually called The Dark is Rising ( 1965 to 1977 ) . In contrast to the rest of the series , it is more a mystery , with traditional fantasy elements mainly the subject of hints later in the narrative . Thus it may ease readers into the fantasy genre .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Over_Sea,_Under_Stone",
"rank": 90,
"score": 68004
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System",
"rank": 91,
"score": 67888
},
{
"content": "Title: Mortgage acceleration Content: Mortgage acceleration is the practice of paying off a mortgage loan faster than required by terms of the mortgage agreement . As interest on mortgages is compounded , early payments diminish the period needed to pay off the mortgage , and avoid a quotient of compounded interest . In addition , acceleration may refer to a clause in a mortgage note ( See Acceleration clause ) that allows the mortgage holder to declare the entire debt of a defaulted mortgagor due and payable . A commonplace method of mortgage acceleration is a so-called bi-weekly payment plan , in which half of the normal calendar monthly payment is made every two weeks , so that 13/12 of the yearly amount due is paid per annum . Commonplace too , is the practice of making ad hoc additional payments . The agreements associated with certain mortgages preclude or penalize early payments .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Mortgage_acceleration",
"rank": 92,
"score": 67859
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 93,
"score": 67781
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerationen Content: Accelerationen ( Accelerations ) , op. 234 , is a waltz composed by Johann Strauss II in 1860 for the Engineering Students ' Ball at the Sofienbad-Saal in Vienna . It is one of his best-known waltzes , famous especially for its rapidly accelerating opening waltz theme . Accelerations is featured in Erich Wolfgang Korngold 's The Tales of Strauss , Op. 21 as well as many of Strauss 's other well-known waltzes .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerationen",
"rank": 94,
"score": 67745
},
{
"content": "Title: Corazones (Omar Rodríguez-López album) Content: Corazones is the twenty-eighth studio album by Omar Rodríguez-López as a solo artist , released on 29 July 2016 . It is his second release in the 12 album series initiated by Ipecac Recordings . The song `` Sea is Rising '' made its first studio appearance on 2013 's Unicorn Skeleton Mask , while the song was actually debuted instrumentally on the Omar Rodriguez Lopez Group 2010 tour . `` Running Away '' was uploaded in advance as the album 's single . On August 1 , 2016 , Pitchfork released a music video for the song `` Running Away '' directed by Violeta Felix which features John Frusciante , former Mars Volta bassist Eva Gardner , Teri Gender Bender ( of Le Butcherettes and Bosnian Rainbows ) , photographer Robin Laananen , actress Tatiana Velazquez , visual artist Aura T-09 and Buzz Osborne ( of The Melvins ) all punching Omar in the face .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Corazones_(Omar_Rodríguez-López_album)",
"rank": 95,
"score": 67555
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Ocean_heat_content",
"rank": 96,
"score": 67531
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Lesko Content: Mark J. Lesko ( born February 4 , 1967 ) is the Executive Director of Accelerate Long Island . He is a former American politician and Assistant U.S. Attorney . Accelerate Long Island is a regional collaboration among Long Island 's major research institutions , including Brookhaven National Laboratory , Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory , Hofstra University , the North Shore-LIJ Feinstein Institute , Stony Brook University , and the business community to commercialize research and create high tech startup companies .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Mark_Lesko",
"rank": 97,
"score": 67366
},
{
"content": "Title: The 10,000 Year Explosion Content: The 10,000 Year Explosion : How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution is a 2009 book by anthropologists Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending . Starting with their own take on the conventional wisdom that the evolutionary process stopped when modern humans appeared , the authors explain the genetic basis of their view that human evolution is accelerating , illustrating it with some examples .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "The_10,000_Year_Explosion",
"rank": 98,
"score": 67353
},
{
"content": "Title: Accelerationism Content: In political and social theory , accelerationism is the idea that either the prevailing system of capitalism , or certain technosocial processes that have historically characterised it , should be expanded , repurposed , or accelerated in order to generate radical social change . Some contemporary accelerationist philosophy takes as its starting point the Deleuzo-Guattarian theory of deterritorialisation , aiming to identify , deepen , and radicalise the forces of deterritorialisation with a view to overcoming the countervailing tendencies that suppress the possibility of far-reaching social transformation . Accelerationism may also refer more broadly , and usually pejoratively , to support for the deepening of capitalism in the belief that this will hasten its self-destructive tendencies and ultimately lead to its collapse . Accelerationist theory has been divided into mutually contradictory left-wing and right-wing variants . `` Left-accelerationism '' attempts to press `` the process of technological evolution '' beyond the constrictive horizon of capitalism , for example by repurposing modern technology for socially beneficial and emancipatory ends ; `` right-accelerationism '' supports the indefinite intensification of capitalism itself , possibly in order to bring about a technological singularity .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Accelerationism",
"rank": 99,
"score": 67301
},
{
"content": "Title: Monterey Accelerated Research System Content: Monterey Accelerated Research System ( MARS ) is a cabled-based observatory system below the surface of Monterey Bay , developed and managed by the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute . The system , operational since November 10 , 2008 , incorporates a 52 km undersea cable that carries data and power to benthic instrument nodes , AUVs , and various benthic and moored instrumentation .",
"qid": "108",
"docid": "Monterey_Accelerated_Research_System",
"rank": 100,
"score": 67268
}
] |
Local and regional sea levels continue to exhibit typical natural variability—in some places rising and in others falling. | [
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 1,
"score": 135164
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 2,
"score": 126775
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Tide",
"rank": 3,
"score": 125127
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 4,
"score": 113339
},
{
"content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Past_sea_level",
"rank": 5,
"score": 108363
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Coral_in_non-tropical_regions",
"rank": 6,
"score": 103149
},
{
"content": "Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level",
"rank": 7,
"score": 102304
},
{
"content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 8,
"score": 98963
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Sea_level",
"rank": 9,
"score": 98638
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline",
"rank": 10,
"score": 97848
},
{
"content": "Title: Annual cycle of sea level height Content: The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Annual_cycle_of_sea_level_height",
"rank": 11,
"score": 97764
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Sea_level_equation",
"rank": 12,
"score": 96440
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 13,
"score": 94132
},
{
"content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Josh_Willis",
"rank": 14,
"score": 93763
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Climate_variability",
"rank": 15,
"score": 93528
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Tide_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 16,
"score": 91598
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)",
"rank": 17,
"score": 90560
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Marine_transgression",
"rank": 18,
"score": 90085
},
{
"content": "Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Tidal_range",
"rank": 19,
"score": 89830
},
{
"content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Duncan_Wingham",
"rank": 20,
"score": 88809
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 21,
"score": 87403
},
{
"content": "Title: Measurement of sea ice Content: Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Measurement_of_sea_ice",
"rank": 22,
"score": 86630
},
{
"content": "Title: National Tidal and Sea Level Facility Content: Established in 2002 , The National Tidal and Sea Level Facility is responsible for monitoring sea levels in the UK . The NTSLF comprises the UK National Tide Gauge Network , geodetic networks , and gauges in the British Dependent Territories of the South Atlantic and Gibraltar . Data collected is used to create tidal predictions , monitor climate change and determine extreme sea levels for navigation and coastal engineering design . The Network is funded by the UK Environment Agency . Associated scientific research is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "National_Tidal_and_Sea_Level_Facility",
"rank": 23,
"score": 86596
},
{
"content": "Title: Orientation (computer vision) Content: In computer vision and image processing a common assumption is that sufficiently small image regions can be characterized as locally one-dimensional , e.g. , in terms of lines or edges . For natural images this assumption is usually correct except at specific points , e.g. , corners or line junctions or crossings , or in regions of high frequency textures . However , what size the regions have to be in order to appear as one-dimensional varies both between images and within an image . Also , in practice a local region is never exactly one-dimensional but can be so to a sufficient degree of approximation . Image regions which are one-dimensional are also referred to as simple or intrinsic one-dimensional ( i1D ) . Given an image of dimension d ( d = 2 for ordinary images ) , a mathematical representation of a local i1D image region is where is the image intensity function which varies over a local image coordinate ( a d-dimensional vector ) , is a one-variable function , and is a unit vector . The intensity function is constant in all directions which are perpendicular to . Intuitively , the orientation of an i1D-region is therefore represented by the vector . However , for a given , is not uniquely determined . If then can be written as which implies that also is a valid representation of the local orientation . In order to avoid this ambiguity in the representation of local orientation two representations have been proposed The double angle representation The tensor representation The double angle representation is only valid for 2D images ( d = 2 ) , but the tensor representation can be defined for arbitrary dimensions d of the image data .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Orientation_(computer_vision)",
"rank": 24,
"score": 86593
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional variation Content: A regional variation generally refers to times when a radio station or television station simultaneously broadcasts different programmes , continuity or advertisements to different parts of its coverage area . This may be so as to provide programming specific to a particular region , such as local news or may be so as to allow advertisements to be targeted to a particular area . Some regional variations are the consequence of a federal style television network or radio network where a local station is part of a larger broadcast network and broadcasts the network 's programmes some of the time and its own programming the rest of the time . The latter is therefore sometimes considered a regional variation . Examples of this include the UK 's ITV network throughout much of its history , and American network affiliate stations . Regional variation is also a common term used in British television listings publications , such as magazines and newspapers , to show the different programmes broadcast in different areas of the country .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Regional_variation",
"rank": 25,
"score": 86220
},
{
"content": "Title: Pacific decadal oscillation Content: The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California . During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Pacific_decadal_oscillation",
"rank": 26,
"score": 85508
},
{
"content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Deglaciation",
"rank": 27,
"score": 85017
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea",
"rank": 28,
"score": 84816
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Sea-level_curve",
"rank": 29,
"score": 84116
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 30,
"score": 83994
},
{
"content": "Title: South Pacific Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project Content: The primary goal of the project is to provide accurate , long term records of the variance of the sea level in the Pacific and South Pacific oceans .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "South_Pacific_Sea_Level_and_Climate_Monitoring_Project",
"rank": 31,
"score": 83903
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "The_Sea_is_Rising",
"rank": 32,
"score": 82168
},
{
"content": "Title: Multiscale European Soil Information System Content: Multiscale European Soil Information System ( MEUSIS ) is based on local , regional , national and European Soil Data sets . On the one hand , the high geographical variability of soil and the close interface between the soil status and the local conditions require the soil information and assessment criteria to have a strong built-in local element . On the other hand , soil issues have also a broader and wider dimension with global consequences . The major bottleneck of the assessment of the soil condition in Europe , based on already existing data , is the lack of comparable methodologies for soil survey , digital soil mapping , monitoring and data transfer . There is a high variability of soil information in Europe , which also varies from country to country . Local , Regional and National Authorities are derailing with soil data ; soil data sets from different countries are often implemented using different methodologies and measuring techniques .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Multiscale_European_Soil_Information_System",
"rank": 33,
"score": 81340
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis",
"rank": 34,
"score": 81158
},
{
"content": "Title: Spice (oceanography) Content: In oceanography the term spice refers to spatial variations in the temperature and salinity of seawater whose effects on density cancel each other . Such density compensated thermohaline variability is ubiquitous in the upper ocean . Warmer , saltier water is more spicy while cooler , less salty water is more minty . For a density ratio of 1 , all the thermohaline variability is spice , and there are no density fluctuations . Category : Oceanography",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Spice_(oceanography)",
"rank": 35,
"score": 81032
},
{
"content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Equilibrium_level",
"rank": 36,
"score": 80723
},
{
"content": "Title: Bond event Content: Bond events are North Atlantic ice rafting events that are tentatively linked to climate fluctuations in the Holocene . Eight such events have been identified . Bond events were previously believed to exhibit a quasi ~ 1,500-year cycle , but the primary period of variability is now put at ~ 1,000 years . Gerard C. Bond of the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University was the lead author of the 1997 paper that postulated the theory of 1470-year climate cycles in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic . However , more recent work has shown that these tracers provide little support for 1,500-year intervals of climate change , and the reported ~ 1,500 ± 500-year period was a statistical artifact . Furthermore , following publication of the Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 ( GICC05 ) for the North GRIP ice core , it became clear that Dansgaar-Oescher Events also show no such a pattern . The North Atlantic ice-rafting events happen to correlate with episodes of lowered lake levels in the Mid-Atlantic region , USA , the most weak events of the Asian monsoon for at least the past 9,000 years , and also correlate with most aridification events in the Middle East for the past 55,000 years ( both Heinrich and Bond events ) . For reasons that are unclear , the only Holocene Bond event that has a clear temperature signal in the Greenland ice cores is the 8.2 kyr event .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Bond_event",
"rank": 37,
"score": 80407
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide UK Content: Rising Tide UK is the United Kingdom part of the International Rising Tide Network , both of which were created in 2000 to carry out direct action against the root causes of climate change , and to work towards a fossil fuel free future . RTUK takes a no-compromise position and believes that only the complete dismantling of the fossil fuel industry and a shift to low consumption lifestyles will be sufficient to halt climate change . Rising Tide UK is formed of regional and local groups in the UK , and supports networks of similar groups around the country . Actions carried out by Rising Tide UK groups range from protests and street-theatre style events , to mass occupations of petrol stations , and blockades of key fossil fuel industrial sites .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_UK",
"rank": 38,
"score": 79629
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Climate_oscillation",
"rank": 39,
"score": 79013
},
{
"content": "Title: Rossby whistle Content: The Rossby whistle is the oscillation of sea-level and bottom pressure in the Caribbean Sea with the period of 120 days and influenced by propagating westward oceanic Rossby wave . It is observed that a baroclinic Rossby wave propagating westward across the Caribbean Sea , oscillating with a period of 120 days , is rapidly returned to the east along the southern boundary as coastal shelf waves . The porous boundary of the Caribbean Sea results in this oscillation influencing a mass exchange with the wider ocean , leading to an almost uniform bottom pressure variability over the Grenada , Venezuela , and Colombia basins . These observations are based on satellite observation of the sea-level , monthly means of basin-averaged ocean bottom pressure using GRACE data , tide gauge measurements , and data from a bottom pressure recorder . The oscillation was first found in a numerical modelling simulation , from which is shown one cycle of the least squares fit of ( left ) sea level and ( right ) bottom pressure on basin averaged bottom pressure in the Caribbean Sea .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Rossby_whistle",
"rank": 40,
"score": 78551
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Tide_gauge",
"rank": 41,
"score": 78356
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional accents of English Content: -LSB- noticelang = en -RSB- Spoken English shows great variation across regions where it is the predominant language . This article provides an overview of the numerous identifiable variations in pronunciation ; such distinctions usually derive from the phonetic inventory of local dialects , as well as from broader differences in the Standard English of different primary-speaking populations . Accent is the part of dialect concerning local pronunciation . Vocabulary and grammar are described elsewhere ; see List of dialects of the English language . Secondary English speakers tend to carry over the intonation and phonetics of their mother tongue in English speech . For more details , see Non-native pronunciations of English . Primary English-speakers show great variability in terms of regional accents . Some , such as Pennsylvania Dutch English , are easily identified by key characteristics ; others are more obscure or easily confused . Broad regions can possess sub-forms as identified below ; for instance , towns located less than 10 mi from the city of Manchester , such as Bolton , Oldham and Salford , each have distinct accents , all of which together comprise the broader accent of Lancashire county ; while these sub-dialects are very similar to each other , non-local listeners can identify firm differences . English accents can differ enough to create room for misunderstandings . For example , the pronunciation of pearl in some variants of Scottish English can sound like the entirely unrelated word petal to an American ear . For a summary of the differences between accents , see International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Regional_accents_of_English",
"rank": 42,
"score": 78275
},
{
"content": "Title: Tidewater region Content: The Tidewater region is a geographic area of southeast Virginia and northeastern North Carolina , part of the Atlantic coastal plain in the United States of America . Portions of Maryland facing the Chesapeake Bay are also given this designation . The area gains its name because of the effects of the changing tides on local rivers , sounds , and the ocean . The area is generally flat and low and composed of tidal marsh and large expanses of swamp . Much of the area is covered with pocosin and the higher areas are used for agricultural farmlands . Geographically , in North Carolina and Virginia the Tidewater area is the land between the Suffolk Scarp and the Atlantic Ocean . The Hampton Roads area of Virginia is considered to be in the Tidewater . Extreme Southern Maryland and parts of the lower Eastern Shore round out the northern fringe of the region on the Chesapeake Bay . The term tidewater may be correctly applied to all portions of any area , including Virginia , where the water level is affected by the tides ( more specifically , where the water level rises when the tide comes in ) . In the case of Virginia , the Tidewater region includes the land east of the Fall Line , the natural border with the Piedmont Region . It includes Hampton Roads , the rest of the Virginia Peninsula , the Middle Peninsula , the Northern Neck , and the Eastern Shore . Planters in the early American colonies extended their tobacco productions above the `` fall line , '' where waterfalls or rapids mark the end of the Tidewater and the beginning of the foothill region known as the Piedmont . Tidewater is host to flora commonly associated with the South Atlantic pine forests and lower Southeast Coastal Plain maritime flora , the latter found primarily in southeastern Virginia .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Tidewater_region",
"rank": 43,
"score": 78220
},
{
"content": "Title: David Battisti Content: David Battisti is The Tamaki Endowed Chair of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington and a fellow at the American Geophysical Union . His research interests include understanding how interactions between the ocean , land , atmosphere , and sea ice lead to climatic variability at timescales that vary from seasonal to decadal timescales , as well as the paleoclimate . He is also interested in how climate variability ( including El Nino ) affects food production . He received his PhD in 1988 at the University of Washington Department of Atmospheric Sciences . He has published over 100 papers in peer-review journals in atmospheric sciences and oceanography . He also helps organize an annual set of climate dynamics courses .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "David_Battisti",
"rank": 44,
"score": 78074
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations",
"rank": 45,
"score": 77823
},
{
"content": "Title: Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling Content: The Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling ( CPOM ) is a centre for research into polar region processes which may affect : polar atmosphere and ocean circulation ; the Earth 's albedo ; and global sea levels . It is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council , a UK Research Council . CPOM comprises research groups from 3 Universities : University College London , University of Bristol , and University of Edinburgh . In 2006 , research carried out by CPOM resulted in the press report `` Secret rivers found in Antarctic '' . The survey used the European Space Agency 's ERS-2 satellite radar to measure a region in East Antarctica with some of the oldest , thickest ice on the continent . The survey revealed synchronous changes in ice surface height ( both rise and falls ) at locations hundreds of kilometres apart . According to CPOM Director , Duncan Wingham , the only conceivable mechanism for the observations was the movement of water .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Centre_for_Polar_Observation_&_Modelling",
"rank": 46,
"score": 77805
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "The_Sea_Has_Risen",
"rank": 47,
"score": 77625
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System",
"rank": 48,
"score": 77360
},
{
"content": "Title: Independent Natural Resources, Inc Content: Independent Natural Resources , Inc. or INRI is an American IP holding company based in Eden Prairie , Minnesota . `` It formed Renew Blue in Dallas as a wholly owned subsidiary charged with licensing the SEADOG pump . '' The SEADOG Pump is an ocean-wave energy technology patented by Independent Natural Resources Inc. ( INRI ) and invented by Kenneth W. Welch , Jr. . The SEADOG Pump rises and falls with ocean swells , effectively capturing the energy in the ocean waves , to pump seawater to a land-based elevated holding tank . Once in the tank , the potential energy of the water can be used to drive hydroelectric generators to generate electricity or desalinated water . The technology was tested in the Gulf of Mexico with results validated by Texas A&M University at Galveston . The SEADOG Pump 's manufacturer estimates that `` a square-mile field of pumps could generate 50 to 1,500 megawatts of electricity -- enough to power thousands of homes -- depending on the size and frequency of waves . '' The company 's technology has been showcased in multiple energy conferences including the Gulf Coast Innovation Conference & Showcase and the Energy and Clean Technology Venture Forum . It also has had features in The Star Tribune , The Houston Business Journal , The Houston Chronicle , and Popular Mechanics . INRI ceased operations in 2010 and have since gone through bankruptcy and liquidation .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Independent_Natural_Resources,_Inc",
"rank": 49,
"score": 77188
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Sea_ice",
"rank": 50,
"score": 77172
},
{
"content": "Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "A_Sea_So_Far",
"rank": 51,
"score": 76624
},
{
"content": "Title: List of places on land with elevations below sea level Content: This is a list of places below mean sea level that are on land . Places in tunnels , mines , basements , dug holes ( also with open sky ) , under water , under ice , or existing temporarily as a result of ebbing of sea tide etc. are not included . Places where seawater and rainwater is pumped away are included . Fully natural places below sea level require a dry climate , otherwise rain would exceed evaporation and fill the area . All figures are in meters below sea level , arranged by depth , lowest first :",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level",
"rank": 52,
"score": 76006
},
{
"content": "Title: Atlantic Equatorial mode Content: The Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño is a quasiperiodic interannual climate pattern of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean . It is the dominant mode of year-to-year variability that results in alternating warming and cooling episodes of sea surface temperatures accompanied by changes in atmospheric circulation . The term Atlantic Niño comes from its close similarity with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) that dominates the tropical Pacific basin . The Atlantic Niño is not the same as the Atlantic Meridional ( Interhemispheric ) Mode that consists of a north-south dipole and operates more on decadal timescales . The equatorial warming and cooling events associated with the Atlantic Niño are known to be strongly related to atmospheric climate anomalies , especially in African countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea . Therefore , understanding of the Atlantic Niño ( or lack thereof ) has important implications for climate prediction in those regions . Although the Atlantic Niño is an intrinsic mode to the equatorial Atlantic , there may be a tenuous causal relationship between ENSO and the Atlantic Niño in some circumstances .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Atlantic_Equatorial_mode",
"rank": 53,
"score": 75806
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea breeze Content: A sea breeze or onshore breeze is any wind that blows from a large body of water toward or onto a landmass ; it develops due to differences in air pressure created by the differing heat capacities of water and dry land . As such sea breezes are more localised than prevailing winds . Because land absorbs solar radiation far more quickly than water , a sea breeze is a common occurrence along coasts after sunrise . By contrast , a land breeze or offshore breeze is the reverse effect : dry land also cools more quickly than water and , after sunset , a sea breeze dissipates and the wind instead flows from the land towards the sea . Sea breezes and land breezes are both important factors in coastal regions ' prevailing winds . The term offshore wind may refer to any wind over open water . Wind farms are often situated near a coast to take advantage of the normal daily fluctuations of wind speed resulting from sea or land breezes . While many onshore wind farms and offshore wind farms do not rely on these winds , a nearshore wind farm is a type of offshore wind farm located on shallow coastal waters to take advantage of both sea and land breezes . ( For practical reasons , other offshore wind farms are situated further out to sea and rely on prevailing winds rather than sea breezes . )",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Sea_breeze",
"rank": 54,
"score": 75732
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A",
"rank": 55,
"score": 75693
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea cave Content: A sea cave , also known as a littoral cave , is a type of cave formed primarily by the wave action of the sea . The primary process involved is erosion . Sea caves are found throughout the world , actively forming along present coastlines and as relict sea caves on former coastlines . Some of the largest wave-cut caves in the world are found on the coast of Norway , but are now 100 feet or more above present sea level . These would still be classified as littoral caves . By contrast , in places like Thailand 's Phang Nga Bay , solutionally formed caves in limestone have been flooded by the rising sea and are now subject to littoral erosion , representing a new phase of their enlargement . Some of the best-known sea caves are European . Fingal 's Cave , on the Scottish island of Staffa , is a spacious cave some 70 m long , formed in columnar basalt . The Blue Grotto of Capri , although smaller , is famous for the apparent luminescent quality of its water , imparted by light passing through underwater openings . The Romans built a stairway in its rear and a now-collapsed tunnel to the surface . The Greek islands are also noted for the variety and beauty of their sea caves . Numerous sea caves have been surveyed in England , Scotland , and in France , particularly on the Normandy coast . Until 2013 , the largest known sea caves were found along the west coast of the United States , the Hawaiian islands , and the Shetland Islands . In 2013 the discovery and survey of the world 's largest sea cave was announced . Located on New Zealand 's Otago coast on the South Island , Matainaka Cave has proven to be the world 's most extensive at 1.5 km in length . Also in 2013 , Crossley reported a newly surveyed complex reaching just over a kilometer in survey at Bethells Beach on New Zealand 's North Island .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Sea_cave",
"rank": 56,
"score": 75329
},
{
"content": "Title: Ingression coast Content: An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level . Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral ( tidal ) processes , because the sea level , which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period , did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago . Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform -- e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief -- various types of ingression coast emerge , such as rias , skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Ingression_coast",
"rank": 57,
"score": 75291
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide North America Content: Rising Tide North America is a grassroots network of groups and individuals in North America organizing action against the root causes of climate change and work towards a non-carbon society . Rising Tide North America is part of an international network dedicated to building a climate justice and anti-extraction movement . Rising Tide generally takes a strongly `` no compromise '' stance on the environment and a vehement opposition to solutions proposed by corporations who , they say , are responsible for creating environmental problems in the first place .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_North_America",
"rank": 58,
"score": 75277
},
{
"content": "Title: North Sea Region Programme Content:",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "North_Sea_Region_Programme",
"rank": 59,
"score": 75225
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical Atlantic SST Dipole Content: The Tropical Atlantic SST Dipole refers to a cross-equatorial sea surface temperature ( SST ) pattern that appears dominant on decadal timescales . It has a period of about 12 years , with the SST anomalies manifesting their most pronounced features around 10 -- 15 degrees of latitude off of the Equator . The term Tropical Atlantic SST dipole is only one of the characteristic names used to refer to this mode of variability ; other definitions include the interhemispheric SST gradient or the Meridional Atlantic mode . This decadal-scale SST pattern constitutes one of the key features of SST variability in the Tropical Atlantic ocean , with another one being the Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño , which occurs in the zonal ( east-west ) direction at interannual timescales , with sea surface temperature and heat content anomalies being observed in the eastern equatorial basin . Its importance in climate dynamics and decadal-scale climate prediction is evident when investigating its impact on adjacent continental regions such as the Northeast Brazil , the Sahel as well as its influence on North Atlantic cyclogenesis .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Tropical_Atlantic_SST_Dipole",
"rank": 60,
"score": 75087
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional Scale Nodes Content: The National Science Foundation 's ( NSF ) Ocean Observatories Initiative ( OOI ) Regional Scale Nodes ( RSN ) component is an electro-optically cabled underwater observatory that directly connects to the global Internet . It is the largest cable-linked seabed observatory in the world , and also the first of its kind in the United States . Located on the southern part of the Juan de Fuca plate , off the coast of Washington and Oregon , it is the first ocean observatory to span a tectonic plate . RSN utilizes several high-power , high-bandwidth sub-sea terminals called primary nodes which are linked together by fiber-optic cable and provide support to oceanographic sensors at key locations . Upon completion of the network in 2014 , RSN will cover a distance of over 900 kilometers at depths of up to 3000 meters . Implementation of the OOI Regional Scale Nodes is led by the University of Washington 's ( UW ) School of Oceanography , the UW Applied Physics Laboratory , and L-3 MariPro . Live RSN data from > 100 seafloor and water column instruments will be made available live on the Internet . This will allow both scientists and the general public to study long-term changes in ocean systems over the next 25 years . Construction of RSN will be completed in 2014 . Efforts are substantially aided by the crews of ROPOS ( Remotely Operated Platform for Observation Sciences . The 83-day VISIONS ’14 expedition aboard the 274-foot global-class R/V Thomas G. Thompson is responsible for the observatory 's final implementation .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Regional_Scale_Nodes",
"rank": 61,
"score": 74856
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural process variation Content: Natural process variation , sometimes just called process variation , is the statistical description of natural fluctuations in process outputs .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Natural_process_variation",
"rank": 62,
"score": 74762
},
{
"content": "Title: The Threat from the Sea Content: The Threat From the Sea is a series of fantasy novels written mostly by Mel Odom . It contains three novels : Rising Tide , Under Fallen Stars , and The Sea Devil 's Eye . It also contains the anthology book , Realms of the Deep .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "The_Threat_from_the_Sea",
"rank": 63,
"score": 74532
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 64,
"score": 74525
},
{
"content": "Title: Dunkirk transgression Content: The three Dunkirk transgressions are events of marine transgression ( rising seas ) around the shores of the Low Countries in the late Roman period . Soil survey geological evidences and lack of human occupation artefacts led scientists to formulate the claim that the Netherlands was largely underwater between the 3rd century and 1050 . This is the so-called third Dunkirk Transgression . The reality of the events , hypothetically determined by cyclical phases of strong sea level rises in historical times , is debated . The low-lying continental coast of Europe was lightly populated until c. 200 BC , when the climate and environment became more amenable to human habitation . Conditions remained favourable from 200 BC to 250 AD , and the region became densely populated . However the region had been undergoing a series of marine transgressions ( called Dunkirk 0 through Dunkirk IIIb ) characterised by a rising water table and floods that left layers of clay on the land . The heaviest blow came with the `` Dunkirk II transgression '' that began in the 3rd century and continually worsened , leaving large areas of the coast uninhabitable from c. 350 -- c. 700 . People were forced to abandon their homes and emigrate . Archaeologists conducting research along the historically flood-prone coast tell this same story for The Rhine/Meuse delta ( Zeeland , Brabant , parts of South Holland and Limburg ) ; Friesland ; Groningen ; Ostfriesland , German Friesland and the Weser/Jade estuary ; and Dithmarschen , Eiderstedt and Nordfriesland . In the Rhine/Meuse delta , the population became scanty . Between the 5th and 7th centuries there were few centers of occupation in the delta region , and in the estuarine and peat areas no settlements at all have been found . The area would not be repopulated until the Carolingian Era . The areas with river clay were so covered with sedimentation that habitation was almost impossible between 250 -- 650 .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Dunkirk_transgression",
"rank": 65,
"score": 74332
},
{
"content": "Title: River regime Content: River regime can describe one of two characteristics of a reach of an alluvial river : The variability in its discharge throughout the course of a year in response to precipitation , temperature , evapotranspiration , and drainage basin characteristics ( Beckinsale , 1969 ) A series of characteristic power-law relationships between discharge and width , depth , and slope The latter is described by the fact that the discharge through a river of an approximate rectangular cross-section must , through conservation of mass , equal where is the volumetric discharge , is the mean flow velocity , is the channel width ( breadth ) and is the channel depth . Because of this relationship , as discharge increases , depth , width , and/or mean velocity must increase as well . Empirically-derived relationships between depth , slope , and velocity are : refers to a `` dominant discharge '' or `` channel-forming discharge '' , which is typically the 1 -- 2 year flood , though there is a large amount of scatter around this mean . This is the event that causes significant erosion and deposition and determines the channel morphology . The variability in discharge over the course of a year is commonly represented by a hydrograph with mean monthly discharge variations plotted over the annual time scale . When interpreting such records of discharge , it is important to factor in the time scale over which the average monthly values were calculated . It is particularly difficult to establish a typical annual river regime for rivers with high interannual variability in monthly discharge and/or significant changes in the catchment 's characteristics ( e.g. tectonic influences or the introduction of water management practices ) .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "River_regime",
"rank": 66,
"score": 74025
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Rising_from_the_Sea",
"rank": 67,
"score": 73914
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Paleoflooding",
"rank": 68,
"score": 73854
},
{
"content": "Title: Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture Content: SEARCA or the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture is one of the oldest among 21 regional centers of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization ( SEAMEO ) . Founded on 27 November 1966 , SEARCA is mandated to strengthen institutional capacities in agricultural and rural development in Southeast Asia . For its Tenth Five-Year Plan ( FY2014/2015 - FY2018/2019 ) , SEARCA works to strengthen institutional capacities toward inclusive and sustainable agricultural and rural development ( ISARD ) in Southeast Asia through graduate education and institutional development , research and development , and knowledge management . These programs are anchored on SEARCA 's strategic thrusts that promote social inclusion , environmental sustainability , and cross-cutting concerns that impact Southeast Asia . SEARCA serves the 11 SEAMEO member countries , namely : Brunei Darussalam , Cambodia , Indonesia , Lao People 's Democratic Republic , Malaysia , Myanmar , the Philippines , Singapore , Thailand , Vietnam , and Timor-Leste . The Center is hosted by the Government of the Philippines on the campus of the University of the Philippines Los Baños ( UPLB ) in Laguna , Philippines .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Southeast_Asian_Regional_Center_for_Graduate_Study_and_Research_in_Agriculture",
"rank": 69,
"score": 73817
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)",
"rank": 70,
"score": 73730
},
{
"content": "Title: Local adaptation Content: A population is said to be locally adapted if organisms in that population have differentially evolved as compared to other populations within their species in response to selective pressures imposed by some aspect of their local environment , be that aspect biotic or abiotic . Therefore , Local adaptation is simply when a population of organisms has evolved to be more well-suited to its environment than other members of the same species . Local adaptation is often determined via reciprocal transplant experiments , where organisms from one population are transplanted into another population , and vice versa , and their finesses measured . If the transplanted organisms have lower fitness in the novel environment , than the native population can be said to be locally adapted . Populations located in different environments may be faced with different biotic and abiotic pressures , consequently natural selection may drive the evolution of these populations in different directions . This divergent natural selection can lead to differences in trait values among populations for those traits that are heritable and impact organism fitness . Local adaptation of a variety of traits has been demonstrated in numerous , phylogenetically disparate organisms . Examples of local adaptation abound in the natural world . For instance , many plant populations exhibit local adaptation . This has been established by reciprocally transplanting plants from one population into another population , and vice versa . The transplanted plants often do worse in the novel environment , than their conspecifics that are locally adapted . Many examples of local adaptation exist in host-parasite systems as well . For instance , a host may be resistant to a locally-abundant pathogen or parasite , but conspecific hosts from elsewhere where that pathogen is not abundant may have no evolved no such adaptation . -",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Local_adaptation",
"rank": 71,
"score": 73682
},
{
"content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis",
"rank": 72,
"score": 73640
},
{
"content": "Title: Regionalized variable theory Content: Regionalized variable theory ( RVT ) is a geostatistical method used for interpolation in space . The concept of the theory is that interpolation from points in space should not be based on a smooth continuous object . It should be , however , based on a stochastic model that takes into consideration the various trends in the original set of points . The theory considers that within any dataset , three types of relationships can be detected : Structural part , which is also called the trend . Correlated variation . Uncorrelated variation , or noise . After defining the above three relationships , RVT then applies the first law of geography , in order to predict the unknown values of points . The major application of this theory is the Kriging method for interpolation . Category : Interpolation",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Regionalized_variable_theory",
"rank": 73,
"score": 73586
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Sea_Level_(band)",
"rank": 74,
"score": 73548
},
{
"content": "Title: Rises and falls Content: Rises and falls is a category of the ballroom dance technique that refers to rises and falls of the body of a dancer achieved through actions of knees and feet ( ankles ) . This technique is primarily recognized in International Standard and American Smooth dance categories . Rises and falls are important in Waltz , Foxtrot , Quickstep , and Viennese Waltz . Tango is described the `` level '' or `` flat '' dance , and its basic technique specifically eliminates rises/falls in the overall motion , with the exception of certain advanced figures and styles . The expression `` rises and falls of the body '' is a rather vague one , and in attempts to be more precise some texts refer to center of gravity , rather than body . This may also be misleading if taken out of context : the center of gravity may be lowered , e.g. , by bends and sways . In addition , a certain amount of body rise and fall may be achieved by hip action , used in Latin dance , but absolutely proscribed in Standard and Smooth . Rises and falls of the body is a natural phenomenon during casual walking : when feet are apart the body is closer to the ground than when the feet are together . Some dances , e.g. , Charleston , exaggerate this natural `` bobbing '' , while in many others bobbing at each step is considered to be bad style or lack of proper technique .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Rises_and_falls",
"rank": 75,
"score": 73317
},
{
"content": "Title: SEARCC Content: The South East Asia Regional Computer Confederation ( SEARCC ) is a not-for-profit association of national computer professional associations of the Asia-Pacific region . The South East Asia Regional Computer Confederation ( SEARCC ) is a forum of national Information Technology professional societies in the Asia Pacific region.The Charter and Constitution of SEARCC was signed in Singapore on the 28th February 1978 . Six national societies from the region , the Hong Kong Computer Society , Indonesian Computer Society , Malaysian National Computer Confederation , Philippines Computer Society , Singapore Computer Society and Computer Association of Thailand were the founding signatories . SEARCC is a member of IFIP ( International Federation for Information Processing ) . IFIP is an umbrella organization for national societies working in the field of information technology . It is a non-governmental , non-profit organization with offices in Laxenburg , Austria . IFIP was established in 1960 under the auspices of UNESCO . Its members are : Australian Computer Society Canadian Information Processing Society Hong Kong Computer Society Computer Society of India Computer and Informatics Professionals Society of Indonesia ( IPKIN ) Information Processing Society of Japan Malaysian National Computer Confederation Institute of IT Professionals New Zealand Computer Society of Pakistan Philippine Computer Society Computer Society of Sri Lanka Computer Society of the Republic of China Computer Association of Thailand SEARCC also runs the annual International Schools ' Software Competition , a teams programming competition , normally contested by winning teams from the country 's national programming competitions .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "SEARCC",
"rank": 76,
"score": 73205
},
{
"content": "Title: Phytodetritus Content: In oceanography , phytodetritus is the organic particulate matter resulting from phytoplankton and other organic material in surface waters falling to the seabed . This process takes place almost continuously as a `` marine snow '' of descending particles , falling at the rate of about 100 to per day . Under certain conditions , phytoplankton may aggregate and fall rapidly through the water column to arrive little changed on the seabed . These fluxes sometimes occur seasonally or periodically , are sometimes associated with algal blooms and may constitute the greater part of descending organic matter . If the amount is greater than the benthic detritivores can process , the phytodetritus forms a fluffy layer on the surface of the sediment . It accumulates in many shallow and deep water locations throughout the world . Phytodetritus varies in colour and appearance and may be greenish , brown or grey , flocculent or gelatinous . It includes the microscopic remains of diatoms , dinoflagellates , dictyochales , coccolithophores , foraminiferans , phaeodareans , tintinnids , crustacean eggs and moults , protozoan faecal pellets , picoplankton and other planktonic matter embedded in a membranous gelatinous matrix . One of the most important genera of forams is Globigerina ; vast areas of the ocean floor are covered with `` Globigerina ooze '' , so named by Murray and Renard in 1873 , dominated by the shells of planktonic forms . Larger materials may also be present including large animal remains such as carcases , large fragments of plant and faecal matter .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Phytodetritus",
"rank": 77,
"score": 73156
},
{
"content": "Title: Benham Plateau Content: The Benham Rise , officially known as the Philippine Rise , is a seismically active undersea region and extinct volcanic ridge located in the Philippine Sea approximately 250 km east of the northern coastline of Dinapigue , Isabela . Under the Philippine Sea lie a number of basins including the West Philippine Sea Basin , inside of which is located the Central Basin Fault ( CBF ) . The Benham Plateau is located in the CBF and its basement probably is a micro-continent . Several scientific surveys have been made on the feature to study its nature and its impact on tectonic subduction , including one about its effects on the 1990 Luzon earthquake . The Philippines claimed this feature as part of its continental shelf in a claim lodged with the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on 8 April 2009 , and which was approved under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) in 2012 . It is designated as a `` protected food supply exclusive zone '' by the Philippine government in May 2017 . Mining and oil exploration is banned in the Benham Plateau as a protected area . On May 16 , 2017 , Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 25 renaming the region to Philippine Rise .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Benham_Plateau",
"rank": 78,
"score": 73059
},
{
"content": "Title: Land and Sea Content: Land and Sea is a locally produced Canadian documentary television show broadcast in Newfoundland and Labrador on CBNT-DT in St. John 's , and on all CBC Television outlets throughout the province . It has been on the air since 1964 ( interrupted only by a short cancellation in the early 1990s , but revived after an outcry from fans ) , and is the longest running regional television program on CBC Television . Originally a black-and-white program , it began broadcasting in colour in the late 1960s/early 1970s . There is also a Maritime version of Land and Sea which is broadcast on the full CBC network on Sunday afternoons , and episodes from that version are often alternated with Newfoundland-based episodes .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Land_and_Sea",
"rank": 79,
"score": 72934
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Sea_level_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 80,
"score": 72830
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural region Content: A natural region is a basic geographic unit . Usually it is a region which is distinguished by its common natural features of geography , geology , and climate . From the ecological point of view , the naturally occurring flora and fauna of the region are likely to be influenced by its geographical and geological factors , such as soil and water availability , in a significant manner . Thus most natural regions are homogeneous ecosystems . Human impact can be an important factor in the shaping and destiny of a particular natural region .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Natural_region",
"rank": 81,
"score": 72721
},
{
"content": "Title: Southern Economic Association Content: The Southern Economic Association ( SEA ) is a regional-based scholarly economic organization based at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga . The SEA was founded in 1928 . It is one of five general professional economic associations . For the SEA member characteristics ( e.g. political affiliation , policy opinions ) in relation to the other major economic associations see Klein et . al. .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Southern_Economic_Association",
"rank": 82,
"score": 72678
},
{
"content": "Title: Klaus Hasselmann Content: Klaus Hasselmann ( born 25 October 1931 ) is a leading oceanographer and climate modeller . He is probably best known for developing the Hasselmann model of climate variability , where a system with a long memory ( the ocean ) integrates stochastic forcing , thereby transforming a white-noise signal into a red-noise one , thus explaining ( without special assumptions ) the ubiquitous red-noise signals seen in the climate .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Klaus_Hasselmann",
"rank": 83,
"score": 72523
},
{
"content": "Title: Whale fall Content: A whale fall is the carcass of a cetacean that has fallen into the bathyal or abyssal zone ( i.e. deeper than 1000 m ) on the ocean floor . They can create complex localized ecosystems that supply sustenance to deep-sea organisms for decades . This is unlike in shallower waters , where a whale carcass will be consumed by scavengers over a relatively short period of time . It was with the development of deep-sea robotic exploration that whale falls were first observed in the late 1970s . Organisms that have been observed at deep-sea whale falls include giant isopods , squat lobsters , bristleworms , prawns , shrimp , lobsters , hagfish , Osedax , crabs , sea cucumbers , and sleeper sharks . Whale falls are able to occur in the deep open ocean due to cold temperatures and high hydrostatic pressures . In the coastal ocean , a higher incidence of predators as well as warmer waters hasten the decomposition of whale carcasses . Carcasses may also float due to decompositional gases , keeping the carcass at the surface . In the deep-sea , cold temperatures slow decomposition rates , and high hydrostatic pressures increase gas solubility , allowing food falls to remain intact and sink to great depths . There have also been studies based on the carcasses of other , non-mammalian marine vertebrates that have fallen to the deep sea . In particular , the chance discovery of a whale shark carcass and three mobulid ray carcasses led to observations on the communities that form surrounding large elasmobranch falls as opposed to whale falls . Whale sharks inhabit waters of roughly 1,000 meters depth regularly , which suggests it could be a regular form of food fall in areas where it is abundant . Many eelpouts ( Zoarcidae ) were found surrounding the whale shark with some evidence of direct feeding as boreholes were observed on the carcass . Another theory suggests that the eelpouts were waiting for their main prey , amphipods and other small benthic animals . The three rays found were at varying stages of decomposition , leading to varying assemblages found surrounding the individuals . A higher abundance of scavengers was found surrounding the more intact individuals , including scavengers typical of whale falls like hagfish . Around the least intact individual a bacterial mat was observed in the zone of enrichment , but no clams or mussels typical of this environment ( i.e. whale falls ) were seen . Overall , the four carcasses observed showed no evidence of progression past the scavenger stage ( Stage 1 below ) . The size limitations , as well as physiological differences between large elasmobranchs and whales more than likely causes the changes observed in the communities surrounding their respective carcasses . Osedax worms have the ability to extract collagen from bones as well as lipids , enabling them to sustain themselves on bones other than the lipid-rich remains of whales . Although no Osedax were found on the non-mammalian remains in this study , their absence may have been due to the timing of observation , and the Osedax had not yet colonized the carcasses . Various studies on smaller cetaceans and other marine vertebrate food falls come to similar conclusions that these falls bring a large amount of new organic material to depth , but support mostly a scavenger community , as opposed to the diverse assemblage seen at whale falls . This conclusion can be drawn based on the knowledge that large whales have much higher lipid content in their bulk composition and bone marrow , which supports the diverse communities present in succession at whale falls . ( Witte , 1999 ; Janssen et al. , 2000 ; Kemp et al. , 2006 ; Higgs et al. , 2014 ) .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Whale_fall",
"rank": 84,
"score": 72519
},
{
"content": "Title: Water board (Netherlands) Content: Dutch water boards ( waterschappen or hoogheemraadschappen ) are regional government bodies charged with managing water barriers , waterways , water levels , water quality and sewage treatment in their respective regions . These regional water authorities are among the oldest forms of local government in the Netherlands , some of them having been founded in the 13th century . Around 26 percent of the area of the Netherlands is at or below sea level and several branches of the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta run through this relatively small country . Historically there always was a good deal of coastal and river flooding . Flood control in the Netherlands is a national priority , since about two thirds of the country is vulnerable to flooding , while at the same time it is one of the most densely populated areas on Earth . Natural sand dunes and man-made dikes , dams and floodgates provide defense against storm surges from the sea . River dikes prevent flooding of land by the major rivers Rhine and Meuse , while a complicated system of drainage ditches , canals and pumping stations ( historically : windmills ) keep the low-lying parts dry for habitation and agriculture . Water boards are independent local government bodies responsible for maintaining this system . An Unie van Waterschappen ( the association of Dutch regional water authorities , referring to itself as ` Dutch Water Authorities ' ) promotes the interests of Dutch water boards at a national and international level . 23 of the water boards are members of this association . The Unie van Waterschappen acts collaboratively with other appropriate bodies or institutions to pursue the Association 's objectives , including association with other European organisations through membership of the EUWMA , ( European Union of Water Management Associations ) .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Water_board_(Netherlands)",
"rank": 85,
"score": 72445
},
{
"content": "Title: 98.7 Sea FM Content: 98.7 Sea FM ( ACMA callsign : 4RGM ) is an Australian radio station in Queensland . Owned and operated as part of Southern Cross Austereo 's LocalWorks network , it broadcasts an adult contemporary format to Mackay , Queensland and the Whitsunday Islands . First broadcast on 21 September 1999 , it was established by RG Capital - later sold to Macquarie Regional RadioWorks and Southern Cross Media Group - and is based in the Suncorp building on Victoria Street in Mackay , alongside sister station Hot FM .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "98.7_Sea_FM",
"rank": 86,
"score": 72368
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar Content: The Regional Museum of Natural History , Bhubaneswar is a museum in Bhubaneswar , Odisha , India with exhibits on plants , animals and geology of the eastern region of India . The Regional Museum of Natural History at Bhubaneswar , was inaugurated in 2004 . It was undertaken by the Ministry of Environment and Forests , Government of India . The museum is located near Acharaya Vihar Square on Sachivalaya Marg , Bhubaneswar . The museum exhibits plants , animals and geology of the Odisha , the Eastern and north-eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India . The galleries emphasize the conservation of nature and natural resources while depicting ecological interrelationship among plants and animals . Visually challenged students can feel the exhibits of animals on the premises . The museum provides an extracurricular activity for schools and promotes environmental awareness . A skeleton of baleen whale has been installed in the museum , which is supposed to be largest for any museum in India .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Regional_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Bhubaneswar",
"rank": 87,
"score": 72363
},
{
"content": "Title: South East Asia Youth Soccer Cup Content: The SEA Cup is the pre-eminent regional football tournament for school boys in South-East Asia . These boys individually represent their own state school boys team . The SEA Cup was founded by Julian Verdina in 1988 , and then taken over by Dave Phelp ( now retired to Aberdeen ) in 1989 . Other names associated with the tournament are Peter Dixon , Sally Ann Spellman , Joe Keiser , Keith Thorn ( ANZA ) , Jim Boyd , Terry Thodesen , David Straffon , John Stamp , Steve Wise , Gary Mundy ( Bangkok ) , and Gerry Burgon ( Jakarta ) . The countries represented are : - Malaysia : Kuala Lumpur Youth Soccer - Singapore : ANZA Soccer , Singapore - Thailand : Bangkok Soccer League - Indonesia Jakarta Youth Soccer ( since withdrawn ) Up to 2002 , tournaments were held at Under 12 and Under 15 levels . From the 2003 tournament , the Under 12 age group was changed to be Under 13 . An Under 18 age group was held for the 1st time in 2008 . In 2010 , an award was inaugurated for the Overall SEA Cup Champions for the year . In 2015 U9 and U11 categories were introduced for 7 a side In 2010 , Kuala Lumpur won all 3 age groups ( U13 , U15 & U18 ) , an achievement which had not previously been achieved in the SEA Cup , although prior to 2008 three countries had won both U12/U13 & U15 in a single year . KLYS became the first winners of the Overall Champions award . 2011 , during the 24th Annual SEA Cup . Kuala Lumpur retained the Overall Champions on home soil in Kuala Lumpur , recording wins in all 3 age groups ( U13 , U15 and U18 ) . 2012 , saw Kuala Lumpur retaining the Overall Championship in Bangkok , Thailand at the Bangkok Patana School . Kuala Lumpur recorded wins in the U15 and the U18 age group . Coach Luis Pablo led the U18 's to their 5th consecutive title and Coach Aidil Sulaiman led the U15 's to the U15 's 3rd consecutive title . Kuala Lumpur U18 's also smashed the overall SEA Cup record for most goals scored by scoring 23 goals in 3 games . ANZA Singapore we 're also the winners of the U13 competition winning all 3 of their matches . 2014 brought a year of change . The event was hosted in Kuala Lumpur but surprisingly Singapore became Overall Champions . Anza placed first in the U13 's category , 2nd in the U15 's category and secured their place as Champions with a victory against KLYS in the U18 finals , after a last minute winner in the very last game . This dramatic end to the tournament saw Singapore become overall Champions for the first time in 27 years . 2015 saw BSL win the Overall Championship on home soil recording wins in all three categories U13 , U15 and U18 . The tournament was expanded to include U9s and U11s for the first time with KLYS and ANZA proving victorious respectively . 2016 , in Singapore , ANZA won the Championship for the second time in 3 years recording wins in the U15 and U18 groupings and runners up in the U13s . The ANZA Juniors also recorded success in the U9 and U11 competitions",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "South_East_Asia_Youth_Soccer_Cup",
"rank": 88,
"score": 72261
},
{
"content": "Title: David H. Bromwich Content: David H. Bromwich is a member of the Byrd Polar Research Center and a professor at the Department of Geography , The Ohio State University . His work has involved the evaluation and diagnosis of polar weather and climate variability . He received his Ph.D. in meteorology from the University of Wisconsin , Madison . In 1979 he joined Ohio State 's Byrd Polar Research Center as a research scientist . His research has focused on the variability of precipitation over Antarctica , Greenland , and the Arctic Ocean , thus contributing to the understanding of climate and potential sea level changes . He has made contributions to defining aspects of U.S. science policy . Having helped identify the need to improve numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) for the Antarctic , Bromwich has been influential in the development and evaluation of the Antarctic Mesoscale Prediction System ( AMPS ) . In April 2001 AMPS was one of four weather models used to predict a window of opportunity for the emergency medical evacuation of Ronald Shemenski from the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . Flights to the base are normally halted from late February until November because of the extreme winter cold and darkness . But the airlift was successfully completed and pilot Sean Loutitt confirmed the reliance on the forecasts , stating `` The weather was the biggest concern '' .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "David_H._Bromwich",
"rank": 89,
"score": 72131
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 90,
"score": 71945
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Ocean_heat_content",
"rank": 91,
"score": 71733
},
{
"content": "Title: Falls of Lora Content: The Falls of Lora is a tidal race which forms at the mouth of Loch Etive when a particularly high tide runs out from the loch . They form white water rapids for two to five days either side of the spring tides . The falls of Lora are generated when the water level in the Firth of Lorn ( i.e. the open sea ) drops below the level of the water in Loch Etive as the tide goes out . As the seawater in Loch Etive pours out through the narrow mouth of the loch , it passes over a rocky shelf which causes the rapids to form . As the tide rises again there is a period of slack water when the levels are the same on either side . However , due to the narrow entrance to the Loch , the tide rises more quickly than the water can flow into the Loch . Thus there is still considerable turbulence at high tide caused by flow into the Loch . Thus , unlike most situations where slack water is at high and low tides , in the case of the Falls of Lora slack water occurs when the levels on either side are the same , not when the tidal change is at its least . As a result , the tidal range is much greater on the coast than it is inside the loch . A 3 m range at Oban may produce only a 1.3 m at Bonawe on the loch shore . The loch mouth is spanned by Connel Bridge . The race is popular with white water kayakers and divers as well as tourists and photographers .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Falls_of_Lora",
"rank": 92,
"score": 71721
},
{
"content": "Title: Horizontal Falls Content: The Horizontal Falls or Horizontal Waterfalls ( nicknamed the `` Horries '' ) is the name given to a natural phenomenon on the coast of the Kimberley region in Western Australia . Horizontal Falls are described as `` One of the greatest wonders of the natural world '' ( Attenborough , 2013 ) . They are formed from a break in-between the McLarty Ranges reaching up to 25m in width . The natural phenomenon is created as seawater builds up faster on one side of the gaps than the other , creating a waterfall up to 5m high on a King tide . Within each change of the tide the direction of the falls reverses , creating vast tidal whirlpools . Within this area live the Balangarra , Bardi Jawa , Uunguu , and Dambimangari indigenous communities , which tour companies must take care to respect . The northern , most seaward gorge is 20 m-wide and the southern , more inland gorge is 12 m. Above each of the gorges are natural reservoirs between 6 -- long which fill and empty with seawater through the gorge openings . The inner gorge is also partly fed by fresh water from Poulton Creek .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Horizontal_Falls",
"rank": 93,
"score": 71648
},
{
"content": "Title: British regional literature Content: The setting is particularly important in regional literature . In literature regionalism refers to fiction or poetry that focuses on specific features , such as dialect , customs , history , and landscape , of a particular region ( also called local colour ) : `` Such a locale is likely to be rural and/or provincial . ''",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "British_regional_literature",
"rank": 94,
"score": 71614
},
{
"content": "Title: Variability Content: Variability is how spread out or closely clustered a set of data is . Variability may refer to : Climate variability , changes in the components of Earth 's climate system and their interactions Genetic variability , a measure of the tendency of individual genotypes in a population to vary from one another Heart rate variability , a physiological phenomenon where the time interval between heart beats varies Human variability , the range of possible values for any measurable characteristic , physical or mental , of human beings Spatial variability , when a quantity that is measured at different spatial locations exhibits values that differ across the locations Statistical variability , a measure of dispersion in statistics Variable renewable energy Variability function , a component of Bernoulli stochastics , a mathematical model Variability hypothesis , nineteenth century hypothesis that males have a greater range of ability than females",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Variability",
"rank": 95,
"score": 71574
},
{
"content": "Title: North Atlantic oscillation Content: The North Atlantic Oscillation ( NAO ) is a weather phenomenon in the North Atlantic Ocean of fluctuations in the difference of atmospheric pressure at sea level ( SLP ) between the Icelandic low and the Azores high . Through fluctuations in the strength of the Icelandic low and the Azores high , it controls the strength and direction of westerly winds and location of storm tracks across the North Atlantic . It is part of the Arctic oscillation , and varies over time with no particular periodicity . The NAO was discovered through several studies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Unlike the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean , the NAO is a largely atmospheric mode . It is one of the most important manifestations of climate fluctuations in the North Atlantic and surrounding humid climates . The North Atlantic Oscillation is closely related to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) , but should not be confused with the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "North_Atlantic_oscillation",
"rank": 96,
"score": 71290
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans",
"rank": 97,
"score": 71222
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional park Content: A regional park is an area of land preserved on account of its natural beauty , historic interest , recreational use or other reason , and under the administration of a form of local government .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Regional_park",
"rank": 98,
"score": 71051
},
{
"content": "Title: Caribbean natural region Content: The Caribbean region is mostly lowland plains extending from the northern reaches of the Colombian Andes to the Caribbean Sea that are characterized by a variety of ecosystems including : humid forests , dry forests , savannas , wetlands and desert . The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta rise from the plains to snow-capped peaks , separated from the Andes as an isolated area of high biodiversity and endemism . It contains one of the largest marshes in Colombia , the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta . The main river is the Magdalena which is fully navigable in the region and a major path for the flow of shipments to and from inland Colombia .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Caribbean_natural_region",
"rank": 99,
"score": 71015
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional climate levels in viticulture Content: In viticulture , there are several levels of regional climates that are used to describe the terroir or immutable characteristics of an area . These levels can be as broad as a macroclimate which includes entire wine regions or as small as a microclimate which includes the unique environment around an individual grapevine . In the middle is the mesoclimate which usually describes the characteristics of a particular vineyard site .",
"qid": "109",
"docid": "Regional_climate_levels_in_viticulture",
"rank": 100,
"score": 70844
}
] |
The temperature is not rising nearly as fast as the alarmist computer models predicted. | [
{
"content": "Title: Temperature's Rising Content: Temperature 's Rising is a compilation album released in 1995 by the Canadian rock band Loverboy . The album was the third compilation by the band , but this particular compilation aimed at the more rarely heard songs by the band , and the minor hits that the previous compilations did not cover .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Temperature's_Rising",
"rank": 1,
"score": 95510
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature Rising (album) Content: Temperature Rising is the second English language album by Thai singer Tata Young . It was released in 2006 . The album consist of cover songs and original songs . The first single is `` El Nin-YO ! '' , from the lyrics of which the album 's title comes from . ( `` You got my temperature rising like El Nin-YO ! '' ) . Her second single is `` Zoom '' which was released in September . `` Come Rain Come Shine '' , the third single , was used in Star World 's station promo 's from December 2006 to mid-2007 . The promo includes footage of Tata Young singing `` Come Rain Come Shine '' as well as scenes from some of Star World 's television shows ( Everybody Loves Raymond , American Idol etc. . ) Track # 7 , `` Zoom '' , was covered by Ashley Tisdale on her 2007 debut album Headstrong , under the title as `` Do n't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) '' . Temperature Rising was last Tata Young album released on cassette tapes , but in very small numbers produced in a short time until September 2006 .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Temperature_Rising_(album)",
"rank": 2,
"score": 92635
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 3,
"score": 91198
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperatures Rising Content: Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from September 12 , 1972 to August 29 , 1974 . During its 46-episode run , it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups . The series was developed for the network by William Asher and Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems . Set in a fictional Washington , D.C. hospital , the series featured James Whitmore as a no-nonsense chief of staff , forced to deal with the outlandish antics of a young intern ( Cleavon Little ) and three nurses ( Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox ) . For the first season , 26 episodes were produced and broadcast . In the second season , Whitmore was replaced in the lead role by comedian Paul Lynde , and Asher was replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson . The series was re-titled The New Temperatures Rising Show , and featured a new supporting cast : Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner . Cleavon Little was the only returning member of the original cast . In this season , Lynde was presented as the penny-pinching chief of staff , with Bond as his nagging mother and owner of the hospital . The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus in January 1974 due to poor ratings . It returned in July in yet another incarnation . Asher returned as producer and restored the series to its original format -- albeit with Lynde continuing in the lead . Reverting to the original title of Temperatures Rising , Little remained in the show 's cast , accompanied by a new line-up of supporting players : Alice Ghostley , Barbara Rucker and , returning from the first season 's cast , Nancy Fox . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third version of the sitcom ran for seven episodes , after which it was cancelled permanently .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Temperatures_Rising",
"rank": 4,
"score": 89746
},
{
"content": "Title: List of Temperatures Rising episodes Content: Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired for two years on the ABC network , during which time it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups with a total of 46 episodes . The series was originally developed , produced , and occasionally directed by William Asher for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems and premiered on September 12 , 1972 , in the time slot of Tuesday nights at 8:00 PM . The regular cast consisted of Cleavon Little as Dr. Jerry Noland , Joan Van Ark as Nurse Annie Carlisle , Reva Rose as Nurse Mildred `` Millie '' MacInerny , Nancy Fox as Student Nurse Ellen Turner , and James Whitmore as Dr. Vincent Campanelli . The premise of the series featured Campanelli as the no-nonsense chief-of-staff of Capitol General , a ( fictional ) Washington , D.C. hospital , who is forced to deal with the outlandish antics of Noland and the three nurses , whom Campanelli refers to as `` the four horsemen of aggravation '' . During its first season -- and first format -- 26 episodes were aired with the final one broadcast on . Reruns of the season 's episodes continued until September 4 , 1973 . Despite heavy competition in the ratings from Maude on CBS and Bonanza on NBC , Temperatures Rising did well enough in its first season to be renewed for a second . For this second season , John Mitchell , the head of Screen Gems , decided to replace James Whitmore with comedian Paul Lynde , whose own sitcom , The Paul Lynde Show ( also produced by William Asher for the 1972 -- 73 season ) was to be cancelled . Asher was against the change and declined to continue with Temperatures Rising , resulting in him being replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson . Under them , Van Ark , Rose , and Fox were dropped from the cast along with Whitmore , thus retaining Little as the only returning member . The New Temperatures Rising Show , as the series was now retitled , began airing on , and starred Paul Lynde as Dr. Paul Mercy , Sudie Bond as his mother Martha Mercy , Barbara Cason as Miss Tillis , the head nurse , Jennifer Darling as Nurse `` Windy '' Winchester , Jeff Morrow as Dr. Lloyd Axton , John Dehner as Dr. Charles Cleveland Claver , and Cleavon Little as Dr. Jerry Noland , while Jerry Houser was featured in a recurring role as an intern named Haskell . In this season Mercy was presented as the penny-pinching chief-of-staff , with his nagging mother as the owner of the hospital . Little 's character was changed to the chief surgeon and `` the only sane member of this medical madhouse '' . The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus on . The ratings for the show were poor and , as a result , Mitchell asked Asher to return to the series as producer and restore it to its original format -- albeit with Paul Lynde continuing in the lead . For the third format of the series -- which reverted to the original title of Temperatures Rising -- Bond , Cason , Darling , Morrow , Dehner , and Houser were dropped from the cast while Lynde and Little continued on as , respectively , Dr. Mercy and Dr. Nolan . Added to the line-up were Alice Ghostley as Nurse Edwina Moffitt , sister of Dr. Mercy , and Barbara Rucker as Nurse Kelly , while Nancy Fox , from the first-season cast , returned as Nurse Ellen Turner . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third format of the sitcom ran for seven episodes from July 18 to , after which it was cancelled permanently . As of , , Temperatures Rising has not been released on DVD or Blu-ray Disc .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "List_of_Temperatures_Rising_episodes",
"rank": 5,
"score": 89328
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature Rising Content: Temperature Rising may refer to : Temperature Rising ( album ) , a 2006 album by Tata Young Temperature 's Rising , an album by Loverboy `` Temperature 's Rising '' ( song ) , a 1995 song by Mobb Deep from The Infamous Temperatures Rising , an American television situation comedy",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Temperature_Rising",
"rank": 6,
"score": 87420
},
{
"content": "Title: List of temperature sensors Content:",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "List_of_temperature_sensors",
"rank": 7,
"score": 86605
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat detector Content: A heat detector is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the convected thermal energy of a fire increases the temperature of a heat sensitive element . The thermal mass and conductivity of the element regulate the rate flow of heat into the element . All heat detectors have this thermal lag . Heat detectors have two main classifications of operation , `` rate-of-rise '' and `` fixed temperature '' . The Heat detector is used to help in the reduction of damaged property . It is triggered when temperature increases .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Heat_detector",
"rank": 8,
"score": 86074
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature's Rising (song) Content: `` Temperature 's Rising '' is the third single from Mobb Deep 's 2nd album , The Infamous . The song is in the form of a letter to an associate that is hiding from the police , who went by the name Killa Black , he was also the older brother of Havoc . Killa Black , according to Prodigy in his 2011 autobiography `` My Infamous Life : The Autobiography of Mobb Deep 's Prodigy '' , murdered a man over Walkman speakers , & Havoc hid Killa Black 's gun in his basket of clothes . In the song , the narrator reveals that he is covering up evidence of his imprisoned friends ' criminal actions , and speaks of his paranoia , fearing that the police are closing in on him . It contains a sample of `` Where There Is Love '' by Patrice Rushen . A few years after the song was released , Killa Black committed suicide , in his mother 's bathroom , from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head after coming home for the murder that is mentioned in the song . After being released , Killa Black became a Muslim . The B-side is `` Give Up the Goods ( Just Step ) '' . There is a remix to the single , also produced by Q-Tip , that utilizes the same Patrice Rushen sample that is used on the album version . The original version of the song was produced by Mobb Deep .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Temperature's_Rising_(song)",
"rank": 9,
"score": 85881
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal simulations for integrated circuits Content: Miniaturizing components has always been a primary goal in the semiconductor industry because it cuts production cost and lets companies build smaller computers and other devices . Miniaturization , however , has increased dissipated power per unit area and made it a key limiting factor in integrated circuit performance . Temperature increase becomes relevant for relatively small-cross-sections wires , where it may affect normal semiconductor behavior . Besides , since the generation of heat is proportional to the frequency of operation for switching circuits , fast computers have larger heat generation than slow ones , an undesired effect for chips manufacturers . This article summaries physical concepts that describe the generation and conduction of heat in an integrated circuit , and presents numerical methods that model heat transfer from a macroscopic point of view .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Thermal_simulations_for_integrated_circuits",
"rank": 10,
"score": 85729
},
{
"content": "Title: Thaw (weather) Content: January thaw is a term applied to a thaw or rise in temperature in mid-winter found in mid-latitude North America . Sinusoidal estimates of expected temperatures , for northern locales , usually place the lowest temperatures around January 23 and the highest around July 24 , and provide fairly accurate estimates of temperature expectations . Actual average temperatures in North America usually significantly differ twice over the course of the year : Mid-autumn temperatures tend to be warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal model , creating the impression of extended summer warmth known as Indian summer . For five days around January 25 , temperatures are usually significantly warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal estimate , and also warmer than neighboring temperatures on both sides . During this `` thaw '' period , usually lasting for about a week , temperatures are generally about 6 ° C ( 10 ° F ) above normal . This varies from year to year , and temperatures fluctuate enough that such a rise in late-January temperature would be unremarkable ; what is remarkable ( and unexplained ) is the tendency for such rises to occur more commonly in late January than in mid-January or early February , which sinusoidal estimates have to be slightly warmer . In some regions ( such as northern Canada ) this phenomenon will not be manifest as a `` thaw '' in the technical sense , since temperatures will remain below freezing . The January thaw is believed to be a weather singularity . A possible physical mechanism for such phenomena was offered in the 1950s by E.G. Bowen : he suggested that some `` calendaricities '' ( as he called them ) might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory then received some support from several sources . However , Bowen 's ideas later fell out of favour with the development of atmospheric dynamic modelling techniques , although one of his rainfall peaks does seem to correspond with the date of the January thaw . Data analysis has not found statistically significant support for the supposed January thaw . The authors of this study state that `` the effects of sampling in finite climate records are wholly adequate to account for the existence of January thaw ` features ' in northeastern U.S. temperature data . ''",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Thaw_(weather)",
"rank": 11,
"score": 81951
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 12,
"score": 80740
},
{
"content": "Title: Tm2 Content: TM2 , or Thermal Monitoring 2 , is a throttling control method used on LGA 775 versions of the Pentium 4 , Pentium D and Celeron processors and also on the Pentium M series of processors . TM2 reduces processor temperature by lowering the CPU clock multiplier , and thereby the processor core speed . In contrast , TM1 inserts an idle cycle into the CPU for thermal control without decreasing multipliers . TM1 and TM2 are associated with DTS/PECI -- Digital Temperature Sensor/Platform Environment Control Interface .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Tm2",
"rank": 13,
"score": 80093
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 14,
"score": 79454
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 15,
"score": 79350
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "HD_73256_b",
"rank": 16,
"score": 78688
},
{
"content": "Title: Mathematical Modeling of Mercury Thermometer Content: A mathematical model is use to study the behavior of a system as it evolves over time.Mathematical model basically takes the form of a set of assumptions related to operation of the system.These assumptions are expressed in form of mathematical or logical relationships between the entities of system . Let us consider an mercury thermometer which is located in a flowing stream of fluid for which temperature T0 varies with time.We have to calculate the response or the time variation of the thermometer reading T for a particular change in T0 . Following assumptions are made for the analysis : 1 . The resistance to heat transfer offered by glass and mercury is negligible.So all the resistance to heat transfer is present in the film surrounding the bulb . 2 . At any instant mercury assumes a uniform temperature throughout.And all the thermal capacity is in the mercury . The above 2 assumptions are known as lumping of parameters because all the resistance is `` lumped '' into one location and all the capacitance into another.Thus it is a lumped model of mercury thermometer . 3 . There is no expansion or contraction in the glass wall which contains mercury during the transient response . ( Hence mercury reading will not rise or fall due to change in volume of glass wall ) . 4 . Initially thermometer is assumed to be at steady state at t = 0 . Diagram : Energy balance : On applying the unsteady-state energy balance ( Input rate ) - ( output rate ) = ( Rate of accumulation ) We get , = ( 1 ) Ԏ + ( 2 ) where Ԏ = m = mass of mercury in bulb c = heat capacity of mercury A = surface area of bulb for heat transfer t = time h = film coefficient of heat transfer Ԏ = time constant of the system At steady state , ( 3 ) for t ≤ 0 Subtracting ( 3 ) from ( 2 ) we get Ԏ + ( 4 ) Let & where Y , X are known as deviation variables . Therefore equation ( 4 ) become Ԏ + ( 5 ) Taking Laplace transform on equation ( 5 ) , we get Ԏ ( 6 ) Ԏ ( 7 ) Ԏ = G ( s ) is the transfer function . X ( s ) = Transform of forcing function or input , in deviation form Y ( s ) = Transform of response or output , in deviation form . Transfer function is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the deviation in thermometer reading ( output ) to the Laplace transform of the deviation in the surrounding temperature ( input ) . We can find the response of the system or output by giving various types of inputs like step input , impulse input , sinusoidal input , etc. .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Mathematical_Modeling_of_Mercury_Thermometer",
"rank": 17,
"score": 77846
},
{
"content": "Title: Apparent temperature Content: Apparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans , caused by the combined effects of air temperature , relative humidity and wind speed . The measures are most commonly applied to perceived outdoor temperatures , but also apply to indoors , especially to saunas or when homes or workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled or insulated to provide comfortable or healthy conditions . The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above 80 ° F ( 27 degrees C ) . In humid conditions , the air feels much hotter , because of the reduction in evaporation of perspiration . The wind chill factor measures the effect of wind speed on cooling of the human body below 50 ° F ( 10 degrees C ) . As airflow increases over the skin , more heat will be removed . Standard models and conditions are used . The wet-bulb globe temperature ( WBGT ) combines the effects of radiation , humidity , temperature and wind speed on the perception of temperature . It is not often used as the resulting figure is very location specific ( e.g. cloud cover and/or wind shielding ) .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Apparent_temperature",
"rank": 18,
"score": 77598
},
{
"content": "Title: Fujitsu Celsius Content: The Fujitsu Celsius is a line of laptop and workstation computers manufactured by Fujitsu . The brand name has also been used for graphic accelerators . The computers are intended for applications such as computer-aided design , digital content creation , geographical information systems work , architecture , engineering , financial forecasting , flux balance analysis , scientific simulation , electronic design , and virtual reality . The laptops have Intel Core vPro , i5 , or i7 processors , while the workstations have one or two Intel Xeon processors for a total of up to 16 cores . The R920 is able to accept up to 512 GB of RAM . Fujitsu Celsius equipment was used to stitch together thousands of individual photographic images to create large-scale 360-degree panoramic images : an 80-gigapixel image of London was published in November 2010 , stating : `` using this excellent workstation allowed this record-breaking photo to be created a few weeks faster than would have been possible on any other available PC . '' The 320-gigapixel photomosaic of London published in February 2013 was prepared on a Celsius R920 in three months ' time .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Fujitsu_Celsius",
"rank": 19,
"score": 76887
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat burst Content: In meteorology , a heat burst is a rare atmospheric phenomenon characterized by gusty winds and a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in dew point ( moisture ) . Heat bursts typically occur during night-time and are associated with decaying thunderstorms . Although this phenomenon is not fully understood , it is theorized that the event is caused when rain evaporates ( virga ) into a parcel of cold dry air high in the atmosphere making the air denser than its surroundings . The parcel descends rapidly , warming due to compression , overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface , similar to a downburst . Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above 38 ° C , sometimes rising by 20 F-change or more within only a few minutes . More extreme events have also been documented , where temperatures have been reported to exceed 120 ° F. However , such extreme events have never been officially verified . Heat bursts are also characterized by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong , even damaging , winds .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Heat_burst",
"rank": 20,
"score": 76398
},
{
"content": "Title: Held-Hou Model Content: The Held-Hou Model is a model for the Hadley circulation of the atmosphere that would exist in the absence of atmospheric turbulence . The model was developed by Isaac Held and Arthur Hou in 1980 . The essence of the model is that air rising from the surface at the equator conserves its angular momentum as it moves poleward . This distribution of wind , in turn , determines the distribution of temperature , which determines the latitudinal extent of the circulation by requiring energy conservation . This stands in contrast to George Hadley 's original conception of the circulation , which he argued reached the poles . The Hadley circulation has a cooling effect at and near the equator and a warming effect at higher latitudes within the Hadley Cell . This energy transport can be converted into a mass transport , to determine the strength of the circulation , by normalizing by the appropriate vertical stability . The effects of moisture and seasons on the model have been studied . Earth 's atmosphere violates the underlying assumptions of the model : angular momentum is not conserved and the tropical atmosphere is not energetically closed . As such , the Held-Hou model is a conceptual model that does not make quantitatively accurate predictions of the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation to changes in atmospheric parameters .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Held-Hou_Model",
"rank": 21,
"score": 76048
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 22,
"score": 75843
},
{
"content": "Title: SpeedFan Content: SpeedFan is a system monitor for Microsoft Windows that can read temperatures , voltages and fan speeds of computer components . It can change computer fan speeds depending on the temperature of various components . The program can display system variables as charts and as an indicator in the system tray . Fully configurable user events can be defined to execute specific actions based on system status .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "SpeedFan",
"rank": 23,
"score": 75321
},
{
"content": "Title: Recording thermometer Content: A recording thermometer is a type of thermometer that records temperature changes over a period of time . One end of the strip is attached to a long , light metal lever that holds a special pen . Tiny movement of the bimetallic strip causes much larger movement of the free end of the lever and the pen . The pen traces a rising and falling line on a strip of paper attached to a slowly turning drum . The drum usually makes one turn every seven or so days , so afterwards each strip of paper contains a complete and accurate record of temperature changes for a whole week . There are normally two types of metal on the bimetallic strip . Mostly one is steel and one is copper . Because these metals expand and contract at different rates.When one of these metals expand it curls tighter , when one contracts it uncurl slightly . When it curls or uncurls , the data is converted into electric signals , which record the temperature change . Category : Thermometers",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Recording_thermometer",
"rank": 24,
"score": 75059
},
{
"content": "Title: Urban thermal plume Content: An urban thermal plume describes rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earth 's atmosphere caused by urban areas being warmer than surrounding areas . Over the past thirty years there has been increasing interest in what have been called urban heat island ( UHI ) , but it is only since 2007 that thought has been given to the rising columns of warm air , or ` thermal plumes ' that they produce . We are all familiar with on-shore breezes at the seaside on a warm day , and off-shore breezes at night . These are caused by the land heating up faster on a sunny day and cooling faster after sunset , respectively . Our personal experience of on-shore breezes shows us that the thermals , or warm airs , that rise from the land and sea respectively have a sensible effect on the local microscale meteorology ; and perhaps at times on the mesometeorology . Urban thermal plumes have as powerful although less localized an effect . London is generally 3 to 9 Celsius hotter than the Home Counties . London 's meteorological aberrations were first studied by Luke Howard , FRS in the 1810s , but the notion that this large warm area would produce a significant urban thermal plume was not seriously proposed until very recently . Microscale thermal plumes , whose diameters may be measured in tens of metres , such as those produced by industrial chimney stacks , have been extensively investigated , but largely from the point of view of the plumes dispersal by local micrometeorology . Though their velocity is generally less , their very much greater magnitude ( diameter ) means that urban thermal plumes will have a more significant effect upon the mesometeorology and even continental macrometeorology .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Urban_thermal_plume",
"rank": 25,
"score": 74825
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature in Canada Content:",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Temperature_in_Canada",
"rank": 26,
"score": 74578
},
{
"content": "Title: Raijin-2 Content: Raijin-2 ( Rising-2 ) is a Japanese micro-satellite launched in 2014 . The satellite is built around a 10 cm diameter , 1m focal length Cassegrain telescope and features the following instruments : HPT - main telescope with 5m resolution at nadir , operating in visible and near-infrared bands BOL - bolometer array camera for cloud temperature measurement WFC - wide field-of-view CCD camera LSI-N and LSI-W - 2 CMOS medium field-of-view cameras for near-infrared imaging VLF-ANT , R - radio antenna to receive signatures of lighting events All instruments are powered by GaAs solar cells mounted on the spacecraft body , with estimated electrical power of 47.6 W . The spacecraft features an unusual central-pillar bus , inherited from the Sprite-Sat satellite . The attitude control is done by means of reaction wheels and magneto-torquers , and qualified for 0.1 degrees angular accuracy .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Raijin-2",
"rank": 27,
"score": 74525
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 28,
"score": 74458
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal Content: A thermal column ( or thermal ) is a column of rising air in the lower altitudes of Earth 's atmosphere , a form of atmospheric updraft . Thermals are created by the uneven heating of Earth 's surface from solar radiation , and are an example of convection , specifically atmospheric convection . The Sun warms the ground , which in turn warms the air directly above it .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Thermal",
"rank": 29,
"score": 74365
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 30,
"score": 74219
},
{
"content": "Title: Insulation system Content: The electrical insulation system for wires used in generators , electric motors , transformers , and other wire-wound electrical components is divided into different classes by temperature and temperature rise . The electrical insulation system is sometimes referred to as insulation class or thermal classification . The different classes are defined by NEMA , Underwriters Laboratories ( UL ) , and IEC standards . The maximum hot-spot operating temperature is reached by adding the rated ambient temperature of the machine ( often 40 ° C ) , a temperature rise , and a 10 ° C hot-spot allowance . Electrical machines are usually designed with an average temperature below the rated hot-spot temperature to allow for acceptable life . Insulation does not suddenly fail if the hot-spot temperature is reached , but useful operating life declines rapidly ; a rule of thumb is a halving of life for every 10 ° C. Older editions of standards listed materials to be used for the various temperature classes . Modern editions of standards are proscriptive , only indicating that the insulation system must provide acceptable life at the specified temperature rise . In large machines , different systems may be used according to the predicted temperature rise of the machine ; for example , in large hydroelectric generators , stator windings may be Class B but the more difficult to cool rotor winding may be Class F.",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Insulation_system",
"rank": 31,
"score": 74076
},
{
"content": "Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Excessive_heat_watch",
"rank": 32,
"score": 73573
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal Credits Content: Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Thermal_Credits",
"rank": 33,
"score": 73515
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature gradient Content: A temperature gradient is a physical quantity that describes in which direction and at what rate the temperature changes the most rapidly around a particular location . The temperature gradient is a dimensional quantity expressed in units of degrees ( on a particular temperature scale ) per unit length . The SI unit is kelvin per meter ( K/m ) . It can be also seen in the formula of dQ/dt i.e. the formula of rate of heat transfer per second . Temperature gradients in the atmosphere are important in the atmospheric sciences ( meteorology , climatology and related fields ) .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Temperature_gradient",
"rank": 34,
"score": 73300
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature Content: A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold . It is measured by a thermometer . Several scales and units exist for measuring temperature , the most common being Celsius ( denoted ° C ; formerly called centigrade ) , Fahrenheit ( denoted ° F ) , and , especially in science , Kelvin ( denoted K ) . The coldest theoretical temperature is absolute zero , at which the thermal motion of atoms and molecules reaches its minimum -- classically , this would be a state of motionlessness , but quantum uncertainty dictates that the particles still possess a finite zero-point energy . Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale , − 273.15 ° C on the Celsius scale , and − 459.67 ° F on the Fahrenheit scale . The kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies , especially of fluids . It indicates the absolute temperature as proportional to the average kinetic energy of the random microscopic motions of those of their constituent microscopic particles , such as electrons , atoms , and molecules , that move freely within the material . Temperature is important in all fields of natural science including physics , geology , chemistry , atmospheric sciences , medicine and biology as well as most aspects of daily life .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Temperature",
"rank": 35,
"score": 73046
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermally Advantaged Chassis Content: A Thermally Advantaged Chassis ( TAC ) is a computer enclosure that complies with the Thermally Advantaged Chassis specifications created by Intel . It is capable of maintaining an internal ambient temperature below 38 degrees Celsius when functioning with Intel 's Pentium 4 and Celeron D processors based on 90 nm process technology , and an ambient temperature below 39 degrees Celsius when using a Pentium D processor . Intel maintains that using a thermally advantaged chassis is the absolute minimum requirement for using Pentium 4 ( Prescott ) , Pentium D , and Celeron D , processors .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Thermally_Advantaged_Chassis",
"rank": 36,
"score": 72871
},
{
"content": "Title: Laser flash analysis Content: The laser flash analysis or laser flash method is used to measure thermal diffusivity of a variety of different materials . An energy pulse heats one side of a plane-parallel sample and the resulting time dependant temperature rise on the backside due to the energy input is detected . The higher the thermal diffusivity of the sample , the faster the energy reaches the backside . A state-of-the-art laser flash apparatus ( LFA ) to measure thermal diffusivity over a broad temperature range , is shown on the right hand side . In a one-dimensional , adiabatic case the thermal diffusivity is calculated from this temperature rise as follows : Where is the thermal diffusivity in cm ² / s is the thickness of the sample in cm is the time to the half maximum in s",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Laser_flash_analysis",
"rank": 37,
"score": 71986
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermoscope Content: A thermoscope is a device that shows changes in temperature . A typical design is a tube in which a liquid rises and falls as the temperature changes . The modern thermometer gradually evolved from it with the addition of a scale in the early 17th century and standardisation through the 17th and 18th centuries .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Thermoscope",
"rank": 38,
"score": 71968
},
{
"content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 39,
"score": 71920
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Coral_in_non-tropical_regions",
"rank": 40,
"score": 71687
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 41,
"score": 71444
},
{
"content": "Title: Debye model Content: In thermodynamics and solid state physics , the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contribution to the specific heat ( heat capacity ) in a solid . It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice ( heat ) as phonons in a box , in contrast to the Einstein model , which treats the solid as many individual , non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators . The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity , which is proportional to -- the Debye T3 law . Just like the Einstein model , it also recovers the Dulong -- Petit law at high temperatures . But due to simplifying assumptions , its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures . See M. Shubin and T. Sunada for a rigorous treatment of the Debye model .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Debye_model",
"rank": 42,
"score": 71360
},
{
"content": "Title: Galileo thermometer Content: A Galileo thermometer ( or Galilean thermometer ) is a thermometer made of a sealed glass cylinder containing a clear liquid and several glass vessels of varying mass . As the temperature changes , the individual floats rise or fall in proportion to their respective weights and the density of the surrounding liquid . It is named after Galileo Galilei because he discovered the principle on which this thermometer is based -- that the density of a liquid changes in proportion to its temperature -- and he also invented a thermoscope based on this principle .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Galileo_thermometer",
"rank": 43,
"score": 71122
},
{
"content": "Title: RTTOV (radiative transfer code) Content: RTTOV - the fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave nadir scanning radiometers ( see push broom scanner ) . Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties RTTOV calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory input is water vapour . Optionally ozone , carbon dioxide , nitrous oxide , methane and carbon monoxide can be variable with all other constituents assumed to be constant . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used . The spectral range of the RTTOV9 .1 model is 3-20 micrometres ( 500 -- 3000 cm-1 ) in the infrared . RTTOV contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules for variational assimilation or retrieval applications . One of several applications of RTTOV are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "RTTOV_(radiative_transfer_code)",
"rank": 44,
"score": 70740
},
{
"content": "Title: Rise over thermal Content: In wireless communication systems , the rise over thermal ( ROT ) indicates the ratio between the total interference received on a base station and the thermal noise . The ROT is a measurement of congestion of a cellular telephone network . The acceptable level of ROT is often used to define the capacity of systems using CDMA ( code division multiple access ) .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Rise_over_thermal",
"rank": 45,
"score": 70582
},
{
"content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Duncan_Wingham",
"rank": 46,
"score": 70329
},
{
"content": "Title: Computer cooling Content: Computer cooling is required to remove the waste heat produced by computer components , to keep components within permissible operating temperature limits . Components that are susceptible to temporary malfunction or permanent failure if overheated include integrated circuits such as CPUs , chipset , graphics cards , and hard disk drives . Components are often designed to generate as little heat as possible , and computers and operating systems may be designed to reduce power consumption and consequent heating according to workload , but more heat may still be produced than can be removed without attention to cooling . Use of heatsinks cooled by airflow reduces the temperature rise produced by a given amount of heat . Attention to patterns of airflow can prevent the development of hotspots . Computer fans are widely used along with heatsinks to reduce temperature by actively exhausting hot air . There are also more exotic cooling techniques , such as liquid cooling . All modern day processors are designed to cut out or reduce their voltage ( which translates to power usage ) and/or clock speed if the internal temperature of the processor exceeds a specified limit . Cooling may be designed to reduce the ambient temperature within the case of a computer e.g. by exhausting hot air , or to cool a single component or small area ( spot cooling ) . Components commonly individually cooled include the CPU , GPU and the northbridge .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Computer_cooling",
"rank": 47,
"score": 70159
},
{
"content": "Title: Absolute hot Content: Absolute hot is a concept of temperature that postulates the existence of a highest attainable temperature of matter . The concept has been popularized by the television series Nova . In this presentation , absolute hot is assumed to be the high end of a temperature scale starting at absolute zero , which is the temperature at which entropy is minimal and classical thermal energy is zero . Contemporary models of physical cosmology postulate that the highest possible temperature is the Planck temperature , which has the value , or 142 quintillion kelvins ( 142 nonillion on the short scale ) . Above about , particle energies become so large that gravitational forces between them would become as strong as other fundamental forces according to current theories . There is no existing scientific theory for the behavior of matter at these energies . A quantum theory of gravity would be required . The models of the origin of the universe based on the Big Bang theory assume that the universe passed through this temperature about 10 − 42 seconds after the Big Bang as a result of enormous entropy expansion . Another theory of absolute hot is based on the Hagedorn temperature , where the thermal energies of the particles exceed the mass-energy of a hadron particle-antiparticle pair . Instead of temperature rising , at the Hagedorn temperature more and heavier particles are produced by pair production , thus preventing effective further heating , given that only hadrons are produced . However , further heating is possible ( with pressure ) if the matter undergoes a phase change into a quark -- gluon plasma . Therefore , this temperature is more akin to a boiling point rather than an insurmountable barrier . For hadrons , the Hagedorn temperature is 2 × 1012 K , which has been reached and exceeded in LHC and RHIC experiments . However , in string theory , a separate Hagedorn temperature can be defined , where strings similarly provide the extra degrees of freedom . However , it is so high ( 1030 K ) that no current or foreseeable experiment can reach it . Quantum physics formally assumes infinitely positive or negative temperatures in descriptions of spin system undergoing population inversion from the ground state to a higher energy state by excitation with electromagnetic radiation . The temperature function in these systems exhibits a singularity , meaning the temperature tends to positive infinity , before discontinuously switching to negative infinity . However , this applies only to specific degrees of freedom in the system , while others would have normal temperature dependency . If equipartitioning were possible , such formalisms ignore the fact that the spin system would be destroyed by the decomposition of ordinary matter before infinite temperature could be reached uniformly in the sample .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Absolute_hot",
"rank": 48,
"score": 69720
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 49,
"score": 69720
},
{
"content": "Title: Brightness temperature Content: Brightness temperature is the temperature a black body in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings would have to be to duplicate the observed intensity of a grey body object at a frequency . This concept is extensively used in radio astronomy and planetary science . The brightness temperature is not a temperature as ordinarily understood . It characterizes radiation , and depending on the mechanism of radiation can differ considerably from the physical temperature of a radiating body ( though it is theoretically possible to construct a device which will heat up by a source of radiation with some brightness temperature to the actual temperature equal to brightness temperature ) . Nonthermal sources can have very high brightness temperatures . In pulsars the brightness temperature can reach 1026 K. For the radiation of a typical helium -- neon laser with a power of 60 mW and a coherence length of 20 cm , focused in a spot with a diameter of 10 µm , the brightness temperature will be nearly . For a black body , Planck 's law gives : where ( the Intensity or Brightness ) is the amount of energy emitted per unit surface area per unit time per unit solid angle and in the frequency range between and ; is the temperature of the black body ; is Planck 's constant ; is frequency ; is the speed of light ; and is Boltzmann 's constant . For a grey body the spectral radiance is a portion of the black body radiance , determined by the emissivity . That makes the reciprocal of the brightness temperature : At low frequency and high temperatures , when , we can use the Rayleigh -- Jeans law : so that the brightness temperature can be simply written as : In general , the brightness temperature is a function of , and only in the case of blackbody radiation it is the same at all frequencies . The brightness temperature can be used to calculate the spectral index of a body , in the case of non-thermal radiation .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Brightness_temperature",
"rank": 50,
"score": 69685
},
{
"content": "Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Excessive_heat_warning",
"rank": 51,
"score": 69309
},
{
"content": "Title: Marconi Transistorised Automatic Computer (T.A.C.) Content: The Marconi Transistorized Automatic Computer was Marconi Company 's first computer , designed and manufactured from around 1959 . They employed Germanium transistors which by this time were sufficiently reliable with room temperatures kept below about 23 degrees C. Apart from transistor failure other common faults included Power Supply capacitors ` drying out ' resulting in excess ripple and poor connections on the computer input output highway . Paper tape peripherals had their own poor reliability influenced by degree of operator usage . The type S3301 was a 500 kHz clocked 20 bit word machine with two Mullard core memory stores providing 4k of 20 bit data , see Ref . 4 . The internal CPU logic was synchronised to even and odd clock signals and special signals generated via the microinstruction diode boards . The memory logic had slow and fast loops to speed the transfer of sequential data bursts . Its microinstructions were programmed on diode boards . A facility was provided to microstep through instructions to help with fault finding . Processor status bits were provided with machine instructions being decoded from 6 bits in the current address memory word . Double word data had the MSB designated a sign bit coded as binary fractions ( -1 to +1 ) for the square root , multiply and divide instructions . The instruction set had the usual functions based on three registers named A , B and D ( C was the current address in memory register , M ) . An additional instruction assisted with checksum calculation for data transferred to and from main data stores ( viz . Sperry Rand magnetic drums . ) . Applications included marking up radar screens with aircraft info and providing data processing for operators in a Nuclear Power Station . Surviving computers ( ex Power Station ) are on display at Bletchley Park National Museum of Computing ( operational ) and Jim Austin 's collection near the University of York . Addition manuals and documentation exist at the School of Computer Science , University of Manchester and the Manchester John Rylands Library , the original performance summary specification at . Marconi went on to develop the Myriad series of computers",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Marconi_Transistorised_Automatic_Computer_(T.A.C.)",
"rank": 52,
"score": 69269
},
{
"content": "Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "MSU_temperature_measurements",
"rank": 53,
"score": 69164
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Thermal_runaway",
"rank": 54,
"score": 69002
},
{
"content": "Title: Operating temperature Content: An operating temperature is the temperature at which an electrical or mechanical device operates . The device will operate effectively within a specified temperature range which varies based on the device function and application context , and ranges from the minimum operating temperature to the maximum operating temperature ( or peak operating temperature ) . Outside this range of safe operating temperatures the device may fail . Aerospace and military-grade devices generally operate over a broader temperature range than industrial devices ; commercial-grade devices generally have the narrowest operating temperature range . It is one component of reliability engineering . Similarly , biological systems have a viable temperature range , which might be referred to as an `` operating temperature '' .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Operating_temperature",
"rank": 55,
"score": 68792
},
{
"content": "Title: Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array Content: The Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array ( RAPID/MOCHA ) program is a collaborative research project between the National Oceanography Centre ( Southampton , U.K. ) , the University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( RSMAS ) , and NOAA 's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ( AOML ) that measure the meridional overturning circulation ( MOC ) and ocean heat transport in the North Atlantic Ocean . This array was deployed in March 2004 to continuously monitor the MOC and ocean heat transport that are primarily associated with the Thermohaline Circulation across the basin at 26 ° N . The RAPID-MOCHA array is planned to be continued through 2014 to provide a decade or longer continuous time series . The continuous observations are measured by an array of instruments along 26 ° N . This monitoring array directly measures the transport of the Gulf Stream in the Florida Strait using an undersea cable and a moored array measures bottom pressure and water column density ( including temperature and salinity ) at the western and eastern boundary and on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( MAR ) . Absolute transports including barotropic circulation are monitored using precision bottom pressure gauges . `` Dynamic height '' moorings are used to estimate the spatially average geostropic velocity profile and associated transports over relatively wide mooring separations . The dynamic height moorings requires measurements on both sides of the current field only , rather both the horizontal and vertical structure of the current field to be sufficiently well resolved to estimate transports . The basin-wide MOC strength and vertical structure are estimated via Ekman transports by satellite scatterometer measurements and the geotrophic and direct current observations . RAPID-MOCHA is funded by the National Environmental Research Council ( NERC ) and the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Rapid_Climate_Change-Meridional_Overturning_Circulation_and_Heatflux_Array",
"rank": 56,
"score": 68596
},
{
"content": "Title: Quartz thermometer Content: The quartz thermometer is a high-precision , high accuracy temperature sensor . It measures temperature by measuring the frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator . The oscillator contains a specially cut crystal that results in a linear temperature coefficient of frequency , so the measurement of the temperature is essentially reduced to measurement of the oscillator frequency . Resolutions of .0001 ° C , and accuracy of .02 ° C from 0-100 ° C are achievable . The high linearity makes it possible to achieve high accuracy over an important temperature range that contains only one convenient temperature reference point for calibration , the triple point of water . Introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1965 , the successor company , Agilent , has discontinued the Model 2804A Quartz Thermometer . Other manufacturers make nearly linear-in-temperature quartz crystals that may be used to construct thermometers of similar performance .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Quartz_thermometer",
"rank": 57,
"score": 68538
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 58,
"score": 68491
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Mesopause",
"rank": 59,
"score": 68405
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 60,
"score": 68362
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric thermometer Content: A atmospheric thermometer is a device that measures the temperature of the indoor or outdoor atmosphere . The most common type consists of a long tube that contains mercury or colored alcohol at the base , although there are also other kinds , such as spring and digital thermometers . When the atmospheric temperature rises , it causes the material inside the air thermometer to expand . Conversely , when the air gets colder , the material contracts and travels back down.Thermometers use temperature scales either Fahrenheit , Celsius , Kelvin , to provide a measure of heat in degrees . Category : Thermometers",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Atmospheric_thermometer",
"rank": 61,
"score": 68220
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 62,
"score": 68151
},
{
"content": "Title: Rapid thermal processing Content: Rapid Thermal Processing ( RTP ) refers to a semiconductor manufacturing process which heats silicon wafers to high temperatures ( over 1,000 ° C ) on a timescale of several seconds or less . During cooling , however , wafer temperatures must be brought down slowly to prevent dislocations and wafer breakage due to thermal shock . Such rapid heating rates are often attained by high intensity lamps or lasers . These processes are used for a wide variety of applications in semiconductor manufacturing including dopant activation , thermal oxidation , metal reflow and chemical vapor deposition .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Rapid_thermal_processing",
"rank": 63,
"score": 68147
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature jump Content: The temperature jump method is a technique used in chemical kinetics for the measurement of very rapid reaction rates . It is one of a class of chemical relaxation methods pioneered by the German physical chemist Manfred Eigen in the 1950s . In these methods , a reacting system initially at equilibrium is perturbed rapidly and then observed as it relaxes back to equilibrium . In the case of temperature jump , the perturbation involves rapid heating which changes the value of the equilibrium constant , followed by relaxation to equilibrium at the new temperature . The heating usually involves discharging of a capacitor ( in the kV range ) through a small volume ( < 1 mL ) of a conducting solution containing the molecule/reaction to be studied . In some versions of the apparatus used , the solution is heated instead by the output of a pulsed laser which emits in the near infra-red . When laser heating is employed , the solution need not be conducting . In both cases , the temperature of the solution is caused to rise by a small amount in microseconds ( or less in the case of laser heating ) . This allows the study of the shift in equilibrium of reactions that equilibrate in milliseconds ( or microseconds with laser temperature jump ) , these changes most commonly being observed using absorption spectroscopy or fluorescence spectroscopy . Due to the small volumes involved the temperature of the solution returns to that of its surroundings in minutes . The fractional extent of the reaction ( i.e. the percentage change in concentration of a measurable species ) depends on the molar enthalpy change ( ΔH ° ) between the reactants and products and the equilibrium position . If K is the equilibrium constant and dT is the change in temperature then the enthalpy change is given by the Van ' t Hoff equation : where R is the universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature . When a single step in a reaction is perturbed in a temperature jump experiment , the reaction follows a single exponential decay function with time constant equal to a function of the forward ( ka ) and reverse ( kb ) rate constants . For the perturbation of a simple equilibrium A < = > B which is first order in both directions , the reciprocal of the time constant equals the sum of the two rate constants The two rate constants can be determined from the values of and the equilibrium constant : , yielding two equations for two unknowns . In more complex reaction networks , when multiple reaction steps are perturbed , then the reciprocal time constants are given by the eigenvalues of the characteristic rate equations . The ability to observe intermediate steps in a reaction pathway is one of the attractive features of this technology . Related chemical relaxation methods include pressure jump , electric field jump and pH jump .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Temperature_jump",
"rank": 64,
"score": 68003
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Thermal_low",
"rank": 65,
"score": 67989
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal fluctuations Content: In statistical mechanics , thermal fluctuations are random deviations of a system from its average state , that occur in a system at equilibrium . All thermal fluctuations become larger and more frequent as the temperature increases , and likewise they decrease as temperature approaches absolute zero . Thermal fluctuations are a basic manifestation of the temperature of systems : A system at nonzero temperature does not stay in its equilibrium microscopic state , but instead randomly samples all possible states , with probabilities given by the Boltzmann distribution . Thermal fluctuations generally affect all the degrees of freedom of a system : There can be random vibrations ( phonons ) , random rotations ( rotons ) , random electronic excitations , and so forth . Thermodynamic variables , such as pressure , temperature , or entropy , likewise undergo thermal fluctuations . For example , for a system that has an equilibrium pressure , the system pressure fluctuates to some extent about the equilibrium value . Only the ` control variables ' of statistical ensembles ( such as N , V and E in the microcanonical ensemble ) do not fluctuate . Thermal fluctuations are a source of noise in many systems . The random forces that give rise to thermal fluctuations are a source of both diffusion and dissipation ( including damping and viscosity ) . The competing effects of random drift and resistance to drift are related by the fluctuation-dissipation theorem . Thermal fluctuations play a major role in phase transitions and chemical kinetics .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Thermal_fluctuations",
"rank": 66,
"score": 67903
},
{
"content": "Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave",
"rank": 67,
"score": 67892
},
{
"content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg",
"rank": 68,
"score": 67756
},
{
"content": "Title: Blizzard Warning Content: A Blizzard Warning ( SAME code : BZW ) is an advisory issued by the National Weather Service of the United States which means sustained winds or frequent gusts of 35 mph / 15 m/s or greater with heavy snow is forecast for a period of 3 hours or more . A blizzard tends to reduce visibilities to 1/4 of a mile ( 400 m ) or less . A Severe Blizzard Warning is a variation issued in some cases of winds above 45 mph / 20 m/s and temperatures below 10 ° F / -12 ° C. Most local weather offices will activate and broadcast the SAME alarm tone on relevant NOAA Weather Radio stations for both varieties of warning . In Canada , comparable warnings are issued by Environment Canada . These are the main two types of Canadian blizzard warnings as of 2010 : National Warning below tree line - when winds are 40 kilometres/hr or greater with widespread reductions in visibility to 400 metres ( 1/4 mile ) or less from blowing snow or blowing snow with falling snow for at least 4 hours . Northern ( Arctic ) Warning above tree line - same as National Warning but must last for at least 6 hours . The same warnings are issued by Weatheradio Canada and re-issued by media outlets like The Weather Network .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Blizzard_Warning",
"rank": 69,
"score": 67741
},
{
"content": "Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Content: The Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model was run four times a day and produced weather forecasts . The NOGAPS was replaced by the NAVGEM in February 2013 .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System",
"rank": 70,
"score": 67708
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal velocity Content: The thermal velocity or thermal speed is a typical velocity of the thermal motion of particles which make up a gas , liquid , etc. . Thus , indirectly , thermal velocity is a measure of temperature . Technically speaking it is a measure of the width of the peak in the Maxwell -- Boltzmann particle velocity distribution . Note that in the strictest sense thermal velocity is not a velocity , since velocity usually describes a vector rather than simply a scalar speed . Since the thermal velocity is only a `` typical '' velocity , a number of different definitions can be and are used . Taking to be the Boltzmann constant , is the temperature , and is the mass of a particle , then we can write the different thermal velocities :",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Thermal_velocity",
"rank": 71,
"score": 67703
},
{
"content": "Title: Total air temperature Content: In aviation , stagnation temperature is known as total air temperature and is measured by a temperature probe mounted on the surface of the aircraft . The probe is designed to bring the air to rest relative to the aircraft . As the air is brought to rest , kinetic energy is converted to internal energy . The air is compressed and experiences an adiabatic increase in temperature . Therefore total air temperature is higher than the static ( or ambient ) air temperature . Total air temperature is an essential input to an air data computer in order to enable computation of static air temperature and hence true airspeed . The relationship between static and total air temperatures is given by : where : static air temperature , SAT ( kelvins or degrees Rankine ) total air temperature , TAT ( kelvins or degrees Rankine ) Mach number ratio of specific heats , approx 1.400 for dry air In practice , the total air temperature probe will not perfectly recover the energy of the airflow , and the temperature rise may not be entirely due to adiabatic process . In this case , an empirical recovery factor ( less than 1 ) may be introduced to compensate : ( 1 ) : Where : e = recovery factor ( also noted Ct ) Typical recovery factors Platinum wire ratiometer thermometer ( `` flush bulb type '' ) : e ≈ 0.75 - 0.9 Double platinum tube ratiometer thermometer ( `` TAT probe '' ) : e ≈ 1 Other notations Total air temperature ( TAT ) is also called : indicated air temperature ( IAT ) or ram air temperature ( RAT ) Static air temperature ( SAT ) is also called : outside air temperature ( OAT ) or true air temperature",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Total_air_temperature",
"rank": 72,
"score": 67673
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling flow Content: A cooling flow occurs according to the theory that the intracluster medium ( ICM ) in the centres of galaxy clusters should be rapidly cooling at the rate of tens to thousands of solar masses per year . This should happen as the ICM ( a plasma ) is quickly losing its energy by the emission of X-rays . The X-ray brightness of the ICM is proportional to the square of its density , which rises steeply towards the centres of many clusters . Also the temperature falls to typically a third or a half of the temperature in the outskirts of the cluster . The typical -LSB- predicted -RSB- timescale for the ICM to cool is relatively short , less than a billion years . As material in the centre of the cluster cools out , the pressure of the overlying ICM should cause more material to flow inwards ( the cooling flow ) . In a steady state , the rate of mass deposition , i.e. the rate at which the plasma cools , is given by where L is the bolometric ( i.e. over the entire spectrum ) luminosity of the cooling region , T is its temperature , k is the Boltzmann constant and μm is the mean molecular mass .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Cooling_flow",
"rank": 73,
"score": 67655
},
{
"content": "Title: Overheating (electricity) Content: Overheating is a phenomenon of rising of temperature in an electric circuit ( or portion of a circuit ) . Overheating causes potential damage to the circuit components , and can cause fire , explosion , or injury . Damage caused by overheating are commonly irreversible ; i.e. the only way to repair is to replace some components .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Overheating_(electricity)",
"rank": 74,
"score": 67636
},
{
"content": "Title: Hugh Pelham Content: Sir Hugh Reginald Brentnall Pelham ( born 1954 ) FRS FMedSci is a cell biologist who has contributed to our understanding of the body 's response to rises in temperature through the synthesis of heat shock proteins . He has been the Director of the Medical Research Council ( MRC ) Laboratory of Molecular Biology ( LMB ) at the University of Cambridge since 2006 .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Hugh_Pelham",
"rank": 75,
"score": 67615
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas",
"rank": 76,
"score": 67559
},
{
"content": "Title: Rapid Refresh Content: The Rapid Refresh ( RR or RAP ) is a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model . The model is designed to provide short-range hourly weather forecasts for North America . The Rapid Refresh was officially made operational on May 1 , 2012 , replacing the Rapid Update Cycle ( RUC ) . The Rapid Refresh is run at the NOAA National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) . It is based on the framework of the Weather Research and Forecasting model ( WRF ) ; the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) provides the boundary parameters . The grid points are spaced every 13 km , with 50 vertical intervals extending up to the 10-hectopascal ( 10 mb ) level of the atmosphere . The model runs once each hour , with forecasts given hourly out to 18 hours . An experimental version of the Rapid Refresh runs at the Earth System Research Laboratory ( ESRL ) , a NOAA unit that develops models in the research stage prior to operational implementation . This version uses more modern model framework and also has a higher-resolution mode , the High Resolution Rapid Refresh ( HRRR ) , that uses a 3 km grid spacing and gives forecasts in 15-minute intervals ( though still only issued once an hour ) .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Rapid_Refresh",
"rank": 77,
"score": 67551
},
{
"content": "Title: Silicon bandgap temperature sensor Content: The silicon bandgap temperature sensor is an extremely common form of temperature sensor ( thermometer ) used in electronic equipment . Its main advantage is that it can be included in a silicon integrated circuit at very low cost . The principle of the sensor is that the forward voltage of a silicon diode , which may be the base-emitter junction of a bipolar junction transistor ( BJT ) , is temperature-dependent , according to the following equation : where T = temperature in kelvins , T0 = reference temperature , VG0 = bandgap voltage at absolute zero , VBE0 = junction voltage at temperature T0 and current IC0 , K = Boltzmann 's constant , q = charge on an electron , n = a device-dependent constant . By comparing the voltages of two junctions at the same temperature , but at two different currents , IC1 and IC2 , many of the variables in the above equation can be eliminated , resulting in the relationship : Note that the junction voltage is a function of current density , i.e. current/junction area , and a similar output voltage can be obtained by operating the two junctions at the same current , if one is of a different area to the other . A circuit that forces IC1 and IC2 to have a fixed N :1 ratio , gives the relationship : An electronic circuit , such as the Brokaw bandgap reference , that measures ΔVBE can therefore be used to calculate the temperature of the diode . The result remains valid up to about 200 ° C to 250 ° C , when leakage currents become large enough to corrupt the measurement . Above these temperatures , materials such as silicon carbide can be used instead of silicon . The voltage difference between two p-n junctions ( e.g. diodes ) , operated at different current densities , is proportional to absolute temperature ( PTAT ) . PTAT circuits using either BJT or CMOS transistors are widely used in temperature sensors ( where we want the output to vary with temperature ) , and also in bandgap voltage references and other temperature-compensating circuits ( where we want the same output at every temperature ) . If high precision is not required it is enough to bias a diode with any constant low current and use its − 2 mV / ˚C thermal coefficient for temperature calculation , however this requires calibration for each diode type . This method is common in monolithic temperature sensors . -LSB- citation required -RSB-",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Silicon_bandgap_temperature_sensor",
"rank": 78,
"score": 66959
},
{
"content": "Title: Mean radiant temperature Content: __ NOTOC __ The mean radiant temperature ( MRT ) is defined as the uniform temperature of an imaginary enclosure in which the radiant heat transfer from the human body is equal to the radiant heat transfer in the actual non-uniform enclosure . MRT is a concept arising from the fact that the net exchange of radiant energy between two objects is approximately proportional to their temperature difference multiplied by their ability to emit and absorb heat ( emissivity ) . It is simply the area weighted mean temperature of all the objects surrounding the body . This is valid as long as the absolute temperatures of objects in question are large compared to the temperature differences , allowing linearization of the Stefan-Boltzmann Law in the relevant temperature range . MRT also has a strong influence on thermophysiological comfort indexes such as physiological equivalent temperature ( PET ) or predicted mean vote ( PMV ) . What we experience and feel relating to thermal comfort in a building is related to the influence of both the air temperature and the temperature of surfaces in that space . The mean radiant temperature is expressed as this surface temperature and is controlled by enclosure performances . Maintaining a balance between the operative temperature and the mean radiant temperature can create a more comfortable space . This is done with effective design of the building , interior and with the use of high temperature radiant cooling and low temperature radiant heating .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Mean_radiant_temperature",
"rank": 79,
"score": 66919
},
{
"content": "Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model Content: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by Fleet Numerical . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) it is one of several synoptic scale medium-range models in general use .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System_Model",
"rank": 80,
"score": 66651
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat generation in integrated circuits Content: The heat dissipation in integrated circuits problem has gained an increasing interest in recent years due to the miniaturization of semiconductor devices . The temperature increase becomes relevant for cases of relatively small-cross-sections wires , because such temperature increase may affect the normal behavior of semiconductor devices .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Heat_generation_in_integrated_circuits",
"rank": 81,
"score": 66581
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 82,
"score": 66534
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 83,
"score": 66498
},
{
"content": "Title: RAD750 Content: The RAD750 is a radiation-hardened single board computer manufactured by BAE Systems Electronics , Intelligence & Support . The successor of the RAD6000 , the RAD750 is for use in high radiation environments experienced on board satellites and spacecraft . The RAD750 was released in 2001 , with the first units launched into space in 2005 . The CPU has 10.4 million transistors , nearly an order of magnitude more than the RAD6000 ( which had 1.1 million ) . It is manufactured using either 250 or 150 nm photolithography and has a die area of 130 mm2 . It has a core clock of 110 to 200 MHz and can process at 266 MIPS or more . The CPU can include an extended L2 cache to improve performance . The CPU itself can withstand 200,000 to 1,000,000 rads ( 2,000 to 10,000 gray ) , temperature ranges between -- 55 ° C and 125 ° C and requires 5 watts of power . The standard RAD750 single-board system ( CPU and motherboard ) can withstand 100,000 rads ( 1,000 gray ) , temperature ranges between -- 55 ° C and 70 ° C and requires 10 watts of power . The RAD750 system has a price that is comparable to the RAD6000 which is US$ 200,000 per board ( per 2002 reference ) . However customer program requirements and quantities will greatly affect the final unit costs . The RAD750 is based on the PowerPC 750 . Its packaging and logic functions are completely compatible with the PowerPC 7xx family . The term RAD750 is a registered trademark of BAE Systems Information and Electronic Systems Integration Inc. .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "RAD750",
"rank": 84,
"score": 66485
},
{
"content": "Title: Infrared thermometer Content: An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted by the object being measured . They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer , or non-contact thermometers or temperature guns , to describe the device 's ability to measure temperature from a distance . By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity , the object 's temperature can often be determined . Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices known as `` thermal radiation thermometers '' . Sometimes , especially near ambient temperatures , readings may be subject to error due to the reflection of radiation from a hotter body -- even the person holding the instrument -- rather than radiated by the object being measured , and to an incorrect assumed emissivity . The design essentially consists of a lens to focus the infrared thermal radiation on to a detector , which converts the radiant power to an electrical signal that can be displayed in units of temperature after being compensated for ambient temperature . This permits temperature measurement from a distance without contact with the object to be measured . A non-contact infrared thermometer is useful for measuring temperature under circumstances where thermocouples or other probe-type sensors can not be used or do not produce accurate data for a variety of reasons .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Infrared_thermometer",
"rank": 85,
"score": 66483
},
{
"content": "Title: Frog thermometer Content: The frog thermometer or - as the Cimento academicians defined it , the botticino -LSB- small-toad -RSB- thermometer - contained small glass spheres of different density , which were immersed in alcohol . The device was used as a clinical thermometer , tied to the wrist or the arm of the patient with the head of the frog facing upward . The variations in body temperature were registered by the movement of the spheres . The rise in temperature causes an increase in the volume of the alcohol , reflected in the movement of the small spheres ( first the less dense , then the more dense ) . Because of the spheres ' sluggish motion , this thermometer was also called infingardo -LSB- slothful , slow -RSB- . The invention of this model is attributed to Ferdinand II de ' Medici .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Frog_thermometer",
"rank": 86,
"score": 66437
},
{
"content": "Title: United States temperature extremes Content: For the United States , the extremes are 134 F in Death Valley , California in 1913 and -79.8 F recorded in Prospect Creek , Alaska in 1971 . The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15 , 1972 in Loma , Montana , when the temperature rose from -54 to . The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds . For example , the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 F-change occurred in Spearfish , South Dakota , a rise from -4 to .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "United_States_temperature_extremes",
"rank": 87,
"score": 66369
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature (song) Content: `` Temperature '' is the third worldwide and the second American single from Jamaican DJ Sean Paul 's album The Trinity ( 2005 ) . The song was produced by Rohan `` Snowcone '' Fuller and received a positive reception from music critics . The song was released as the second U.S. single in the first quarter of 2006 and reached number one in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 and became Paul 's third number one hit single . It reached the top ten in Canada and France and the top twenty in the United Kingdom , peaking at # 11 there . In Australia , `` Temperature '' debuted at number nineteen but quickly found its way to number five the following weeks . `` Temperature '' won Dance Song Of The Year at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards in 2007 . `` Temperature '' became Sean Paul 's biggest hit single in the US . In Australia it became a hit , with Sean Paul making interview appearances on radio , including on the Paul Celoni Radio Show . Even though it only spent one week at # 1 , `` Temperature '' showed extreme longevity on the Billboard Hot 100 , spending 17 weeks in the top 10 . Until Nelly Furtado and Timbaland 's `` Promiscuous '' , this was the longest run in the top ten for a single in 2006 . It became Sean Paul 's first single to sell an excess of one million digital downloads , earning platinum certification . The song uses the dancehall riddim `` Applause '' . It was used in the games Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA 2 and Dance Central ( in the latter as DLC ) . It can also be heard in the 2007 film , Norbit . Officially , there are two versions of the song , which only differ in their rhythm . In 2008 , the media reported that Stacey Gayle of New York City experienced seizures as a result of hearing the song .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Temperature_(song)",
"rank": 88,
"score": 66346
},
{
"content": "Title: Community Radiative Transfer Model Content: Community Radiative Transfer Model ( CRTM ) is a fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave radiometers . Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties CRTM calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory inputs in terms of variable gases are water vapor and ozone . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used . CRTM contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules are used in inversion methods , including variational assimilation and satellite retrievals . One of several applications of CRTM are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Community_Radiative_Transfer_Model",
"rank": 89,
"score": 66035
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Polar_High",
"rank": 90,
"score": 65822
},
{
"content": "Title: 1911 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The United Kingdom heatwave of 1911 was a particularly severe heat wave and associated drought . Records were set around the country for temperature in England , including the highest accepted temperature , at the time , of 36.7 C ( 98.6 F ) , only broken 79 years later in the 1990 heatwave , which reached 37.1 C ( 98.78 F ) . The highest ever accepted temperature is currently 38.5 C ( 101.3 F ) recorded on 10 August 2003 in Faversham , Kent . North America was also affected around about this time .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "1911_United_Kingdom_heat_wave",
"rank": 91,
"score": 65794
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 92,
"score": 65739
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 93,
"score": 65688
},
{
"content": "Title: Rise (perfume) Content: Rise ( also known as Beyoncé Rise ) is a perfume endorsed by Beyoncé and distributed through division Coty Beauty of manufacturer Coty , Inc. . She collaborated with perfumer Loc Dong from the company International Flavors & Fragrances ( IFF ) for creating the scent . It marks her third fragrance following the release of Heat ( 2010 ) and Pulse ( 2011 ) . Inspired by African-American author Maya Angelou and meant to showcase private sides of Beyoncé 's personal life , Rise was created as a woman 's fragrance . It was released in February 2014 to various stores ; a promotional poster and a commercial shot by English music video director Jake Nava were released the same month with the latter featuring Beyoncé surrounded by golden glitter . Upon their release , the perfume and the commercial were positively received by critics with Rise 's various scents and its feminist inspiration being particularly hailed . Rise features top notes of Italian bergamot orange , golden apricot and a basil sorbet middle notes of gold symphony orchid freesia blossom and jasminum sambac and base notes of autumn woods accord , cashmere musk and a vetiver extract .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Rise_(perfume)",
"rank": 94,
"score": 65565
},
{
"content": "Title: Chassis Air Guide Content: Chassis Air Guide or CAG in abbreviation , is Intel 's thermal system to PC chassis . The system includes an air duct for CPU , because in an environment of increasing thermal loads , the processor is generally the most demanding component in terms of system thermal design . It also describes optimal locations for intake and exhaust fans . Lower chassis temperature brings lower processor die temperature , while most computer enclosures typically provide an internal thermal environment of approximately 40-45 ° C at a 35 ° C room , Intel claims . CAG provides a system to lower processor 's thermal environment . The initial revision known as CAG 1.0 was released on May 2002 . The recent version known as CAG 1.1 was then released on September 2003 .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Chassis_Air_Guide",
"rank": 95,
"score": 65482
},
{
"content": "Title: Antenna noise temperature Content: In telecommunication , antenna noise temperature is the temperature of a hypothetical resistor at the input of an ideal noise-free receiver that would generate the same output noise power per unit bandwidth as that at the antenna output at a specified frequency . In other words , antenna noise temperature is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces in a given environment . This temperature is not the physical temperature of the antenna . Moreover , an antenna does not have an intrinsic `` antenna temperature '' associated with it ; rather the temperature depends on its gain pattern and the thermal environment that it is placed in . Antenna noise temperature has contributions from several sources : Galactic radiation Earth heating The sun Electrical devices The antenna itself Galactic noise is high below 1000 MHz . At around 150 MHz , it is approximately 1000K . At 2500 MHz , it has leveled off to around 10K . Earth has an accepted standard temperature of 290K . The level of the sun 's contribution depends on the solar flux . It is given by where is the solar flux , is the wavelength , and is the gain of the antenna in decibels . The antenna noise temperature depends on antenna coupling to all noise sources in its environment as well as on noise generated within the antenna . That is , in a directional antenna , the portion of the noise source that the antenna 's main and side lobes intersect contribute proportionally . For example , a satellite antenna may not receive noise contribution from the earth in its main lobe , but sidelobes will contribute a portion of the 290K earth noise to its overall noise temperature .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Antenna_noise_temperature",
"rank": 96,
"score": 65325
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat (American Me album) Content: Heat is the debut album by American hardcore punk band American Me . It was released on February 19 , 2008 through Rise Records . It 's the only album to feature Doug Funny on bass , Phillip Ralston on guitars and Scott Walker on drums .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Heat_(American_Me_album)",
"rank": 97,
"score": 65276
},
{
"content": "Title: Liquid crystal thermometer Content: A liquid crystal thermometer , temperature strip or plastic strip thermometer is a type of thermometer that contains heat-sensitive ( thermochromic ) liquid crystals in a plastic strip that change colour to indicate different temperatures . Liquid crystals possess the mechanical properties of a liquid , but have the optical properties of a single crystal . Temperature changes can affect the colour of a liquid crystal , which makes them useful for temperature measurement . The resolution of liquid crystal sensors is in the 0.1 ° C range . Disposable liquid crystal thermometers have been developed for home and medical use . For example if the thermometer is black and it is put onto someone 's forehead it will change colour depending on the temperature of the person . There are two stages in the liquid crystals : the hot nematic stage is the closest to the liquid phase where the molecules are freely moving around and only partly ordered . the cold smectic stage is closest to a solid phase where the molecules align themselves into tightly wound chiral matrixes . Liquid crystal thermometers portray temperatures as colors and can be used to follow temperature changes caused by heat flow . They can be used to observe that heat flows by conduction , convection , and radiation . In medical applications , liquid crystal thermometers may be used to read body temperature by placing against the forehead . These are safer than a mercury-in-glass thermometer , and may be advantageous in some patients , but do not always give an exact result , except the analytic liquid crystal thermometer which show the exact temperature between 35.5 to 40.5 Celsius . Liquid crystal thermometers are also commonly used in aquariums in homebrewing , and in mood rings . The Liquid crystal thermometer was invented by Bob Parker in California , one of many of the inventor 's thermochromic applications patented in the 1970s .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Liquid_crystal_thermometer",
"rank": 98,
"score": 65199
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature-programmed reduction Content: Temperature-programmed reduction ( TPR ) is a technique for the characterization of solid materials and is often used in the field of heterogeneous catalysis to find the most efficient reduction conditions , an oxidized catalyst precursor is submitted to a programmed temperature rise while a reducing gas mixture is flowed over it . It was developed by John Ward Jenkins whilst developing heterogeneous catalysts for Shell Oil company , but was never patented .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Temperature-programmed_reduction",
"rank": 99,
"score": 65190
},
{
"content": "Title: Conjugate convective heat transfer Content: The contemporary conjugate heat transfer model was developed after computers came into wide use in order to substitute the empirical relation of proportionality of heat flux to temperature difference with heat transfer coefficient which was the only tool in theoretical heat convection since the times of Newton . This model , based on a strictly mathematically-stated problem , describes the heat transfer between a body and a fluid flowing over or inside it as a result of the interaction of two objects . The physical processes and solutions of the governing equations are considered separately for each object in two subdomains . Matching conditions for these solutions at the interface provide the distributions of temperature and heat flux along the body/flow interface , eliminating the need for a heat transfer coefficient . Moreover , it may be calculated using these data .",
"qid": "113",
"docid": "Conjugate_convective_heat_transfer",
"rank": 100,
"score": 65056
}
] |
more than 100 per cent of the warming over the past century is due to human actions | [
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 1,
"score": 126632
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 2,
"score": 126244
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 3,
"score": 121039
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 4,
"score": 113897
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 5,
"score": 110124
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Day of Action Content: Global Day of Action is a direct action protest format . Environmentalism initiatives begun to use it in 2005 in connection with Global Climate Campaign . They aimed to focus world attention on the anthropogenic effect that humans are having on global warming . Its main objective is to spearhead demands that elected representatives of their respective governments honor commitments set forth by the Kyoto Protocol , by conducting in unison peaceful demonstrations around the world . The demonstration , or rallies , are intended to coincide with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , a meeting of world leaders from 189 nations , that meet annually to discuss climate change .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Global_Day_of_Action",
"rank": 6,
"score": 106804
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 7,
"score": 106486
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 8,
"score": 105002
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 9,
"score": 104633
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 10,
"score": 103749
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "United_Nations_Ocean_Conference",
"rank": 11,
"score": 102398
},
{
"content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change",
"rank": 12,
"score": 100074
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 13,
"score": 99145
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 14,
"score": 98847
},
{
"content": "Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Human_extinction",
"rank": 15,
"score": 97037
},
{
"content": "Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Forests_for_the_21st_Century",
"rank": 16,
"score": 96036
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 17,
"score": 93964
},
{
"content": "Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Lee_Hannah",
"rank": 18,
"score": 93317
},
{
"content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 19,
"score": 93001
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 20,
"score": 92991
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 21,
"score": 92587
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 22,
"score": 92191
},
{
"content": "Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "100%_renewable_energy",
"rank": 23,
"score": 91893
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture",
"rank": 24,
"score": 91328
},
{
"content": "Title: Early anthropocene Content: The Early Anthropocene Hypothesis ( sometimes called Early Anthropogenic ) was proposed by William Ruddiman . It posits that the Anthropocene era , as some scientists call the most recent period in Earth 's history when the activities of the human race first began to have a significant global impact on Earth 's climate and ecosystems , did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the industrial era , as was commonly assumed , but dates back to 8,000 years ago , triggered by intense farming activities after agriculture became widespread . It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior , a pattern that is explained by natural variations in Earth 's orbit known as Milankovitch cycles .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Early_anthropocene",
"rank": 25,
"score": 90397
},
{
"content": "Title: Business action on climate change Content: Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Business_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 26,
"score": 90220
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 27,
"score": 89929
},
{
"content": "Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Air_pollution_in_Germany",
"rank": 28,
"score": 89258
},
{
"content": "Title: Cumulative effects (environment) Content: Cumulative environmental effects can be defined as effects on the environment which are caused by the combined results of past , current and future activities . Over time , direct and indirect human activities combine to collectively impact the environment . These effects may differ from the original , individual activities . For example , ecosystems can be damaged by the combined effects of human activities , such as air , land , and/or water pollution , improper handling of industrial waste , and other human development activities . Global warming is the cumulative effect caused by too much greenhouse gas , and it may then cause a loss in biodiversity and acid rain . North America has contributed to creating various cumulative effects on the environment . Many states in the United States have inadequate or no formal environmental review requirements in order to assess the cumulative effects on the environment from harmful practices . The extent to which cumulative effects in each state are evaluated varies greatly . For example , some programs only require an assessment on specific natural resource issues and others require comprehensive examination of cumulative effects on the environment . Environmental assessments are a necessity to ensure the further advancement of healthy ecosystems , habitats , and wildlife .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Cumulative_effects_(environment)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 89180
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_change_denial",
"rank": 30,
"score": 88652
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 31,
"score": 88384
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on human health Content: The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health",
"rank": 32,
"score": 88230
},
{
"content": "Title: Human impact on marine life Content: Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.According to the IPCC (2019), since 1950 \"many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats.\"It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as wilderness, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast.",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Human_impact_on_marine_life",
"rank": 33,
"score": 88128
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping",
"rank": 34,
"score": 88060
},
{
"content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 35,
"score": 87929
},
{
"content": "Title: Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011–2020 Content: The Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011 -- 2020 was officially proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in March 2010 . Its goal is to stabilize and reduce the forecast level of road traffic deaths around the world . It is estimated that 5 millions lives could be saved on the world 's roads during the Decade . According to the Global status report on road safety , road traffic crashes take the lives of nearly 1.3 million people every year , and injure 20 -- 50 million more . More than 90 % of road traffic deaths and injuries occur in low-income and middle-income countries , which have only 48 % of the world 's registered vehicles . If no action is taken , road traffic crashes are predicted to result in the deaths of around 1.9 million people annually by 2020 . Global activities related to the Decade are coordinated by the United Nations Road Safety Collaboration . Grover , fictional character from the television show Sesame Street was named a Global Ambassador by the WHO .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Decade_of_Action_for_Road_Safety_2011–2020",
"rank": 36,
"score": 87808
},
{
"content": "Title: Action/2015 Content: action/2015 was a global coalition of more than 2200 organisations and networks from over 150 countries , united by the belief that 2015 was a critical year for progress in the fight against climate change , poverty and inequality . Throughout the year , this coalition engaged and mobilised the public at critical decision-making points to call on leaders to commit to strong goals and agreements at two crucial UN summits in 2015 - the UN General Assembly and the UN Climate Change Conference . Throughout the year millions of activists came together through action/2015 to ensure world leaders would feel the pressure to seize the opportunity to tackle poverty , inequality and climate change . With 31 million campaign actions taken in 157 countries , action/2015 was a massive global movement for change -- the biggest-ever of its kind .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Action/2015",
"rank": 37,
"score": 87299
},
{
"content": "Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Stockholm_Memorandum",
"rank": 38,
"score": 87237
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 39,
"score": 86508
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 40,
"score": 86489
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 41,
"score": 85806
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 42,
"score": 85554
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_Code_Red",
"rank": 43,
"score": 85290
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 44,
"score": 85218
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Environmental_issue",
"rank": 45,
"score": 84510
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 46,
"score": 84282
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 47,
"score": 84268
},
{
"content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Global_dimming",
"rank": 48,
"score": 84113
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia",
"rank": 49,
"score": 83936
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 50,
"score": 83896
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 51,
"score": 83887
},
{
"content": "Title: Boulder Climate Action Plan Content: The Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide community efforts for reducing greenhouse gas emissions . Those strategies have focused on improving energy efficiency and conservation in our homes and businesses -- the source of nearly three-fourths of local emissions . The plan also promotes strategies to reduce emissions from transportation , which account for over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 52,
"score": 83844
},
{
"content": "Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001",
"rank": 53,
"score": 83785
},
{
"content": "Title: Chicago Climate Action Plan Content: The Chicago Climate Action Plan ( CCAP ) is Chicago 's climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy that was adopted in September 2008 . The CCAP has an overarching goal of reducing Chicago 's greenhouse gas emissions by 80 percent below 1990 levels by 2050 , with an interim goal of 25 percent below 1990 levels by 2020 .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Chicago_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 54,
"score": 83743
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs",
"rank": 55,
"score": 83315
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 56,
"score": 82782
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_gender",
"rank": 57,
"score": 82659
},
{
"content": "Title: Chesapeake Climate Action Network Content: The Chesapeake Climate Action Network ( CCAN ) is the first grassroots nonprofit organization dedicated exclusively to fighting global warming in Maryland , Virginia , and the District of Columbia . The organization 's mission is to foster a rapid societal switch to clean energy and energy-efficient products , joining similar efforts worldwide to address global warming .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Chesapeake_Climate_Action_Network",
"rank": 58,
"score": 82524
},
{
"content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Abrupt_climate_change",
"rank": 59,
"score": 82360
},
{
"content": "Title: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle Content: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse . Agricultural and industrial nitrogen ( N ) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation . As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs , the global nitrogen cycle ( Fig. 1 ) has been significantly altered over the past century . Global atmospheric nitrous oxide ( N2O ) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~ 270 nmol/mol to ~ 319 nmol/mol in 2005 . Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions , most of which are due to the agricultural sector . This article is intended to give a brief review of the history of anthropogenic N inputs , and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle",
"rank": 60,
"score": 82288
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 61,
"score": 82028
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 62,
"score": 81794
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 63,
"score": 81733
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Performance Index Content: The Climate Change Performance Index ( CCPI ) is an annual publication by Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe . It evaluates the climate protection performance of 58 countries , responsible for over 90 % of global energy-related emissions . CCPI 2013 publication covers emissions from the fossil fuels , except emissions from the shipping industry . Following CCPI 2013 publication may include emissions from deforestation , agriculture and waste . 50 % of the evaluation is based on emissions trend , 30 % on emissions level and 20 % on national and international climate policy assessments made by more than 200 experts . The most recent results ( published December 2014 ) illustrate that efforts are still insufficient to prevent dangerous climate change . Thus , no country received rankings one to three in the results for 2015 although Denmark which topped the list was praised for its efforts .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Performance_Index",
"rank": 64,
"score": 81254
},
{
"content": "Title: List of climate change initiatives Content: Here is a list of international , national , regional , and local political initiatives to take action on climate change ( global warming ) . A Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide efforts for climate change mitigation .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "List_of_climate_change_initiatives",
"rank": 65,
"score": 81005
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 66,
"score": 80744
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Mongolia Content: There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to both human and biophysical wellness . These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors , but increasingly because of human actions . One of these issues is climate change , which will be responsible for an increase in desertification , natural disasters , and land degradation . Another is deforestation , which is expanding due to human recklessness , pests , disease , and fire . Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification , a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible land use . Additionally , more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction . And , especially in population centers , Mongolians deal with air and water pollution caused by human industrialization .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Mongolia",
"rank": 67,
"score": 80290
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 68,
"score": 80231
},
{
"content": "Title: San Francisco Climate Action Plan Content: The San Francisco Climate Action Plan is a greenhouse gas reduction initiative adopted by the City and County of San Francisco , United States in 2002 . It aims to reduce the city 's greenhouse gas emissions to 20 % below 1990 levels by 2012 .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "San_Francisco_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 69,
"score": 80163
},
{
"content": "Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Turning_the_Corner_Plan",
"rank": 70,
"score": 80053
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Action Network Content: Climate Action Network -- International ( CAN ) is an umbrella group of environmental non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) active on the issue of climate change . It is most active at meetings of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where it publishes a daily newsletter `` ECO '' , presenting the views of the Environmental NGO community . The Climate Action Network-International is a worldwide network of over 1100 non-governmental organizations in 120 countries working to promote government and individual action to limit human-induced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels . CAN members work to achieve this goal through the coordination of information exchange and NGO strategy on international , regional and national climate issues . CAN has formal regional networks which coordinate these efforts in Africa , Central and Eastern Europe , Europe , Latin America , North America , South Asia , Southeast Asia , and Japan . CAN also has members in China , the Pacific and the Middle East . CAN members place a high priority on both a healthy environment and development that `` meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs '' ( Brundtland Commission ) . Climate Action Network 's vision is to protect the atmosphere while allowing for sustainable and equitable development worldwide .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_Action_Network",
"rank": 71,
"score": 79373
},
{
"content": "Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Wildland_fire_emission",
"rank": 72,
"score": 78860
},
{
"content": "Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Compact_of_Mayors",
"rank": 73,
"score": 78391
},
{
"content": "Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Future_Evolution",
"rank": 74,
"score": 77947
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_justice",
"rank": 75,
"score": 77794
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 76,
"score": 77509
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 77,
"score": 77387
},
{
"content": "Title: Green Zone Community Climate Action Content: Green Zone Community Climate Action is a charitable unincorporated association formed in November 2016 . Based in Broomfield , Essex , this organisation delivers climate change awareness at a grass roots level to improve public understanding of Global warming and promote individual actions that can help to address this . The charity works with Marks & Spencer through the project Neighbourly among other retailers to reduce food waste and share unsold food within the community . The charity also supports climate education for primary school children through clubs . The charity took part in the worldwide 24 Hours of Reality campaign broadcast by The Climate Reality Project . Working alongside additional community charities Green Zone Community Climate Action is one of many new projects created to assist the UK in meeting the United Nations global Sustainable Development Goals",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Green_Zone_Community_Climate_Action",
"rank": 78,
"score": 77246
},
{
"content": "Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change",
"rank": 79,
"score": 76789
},
{
"content": "Title: World Poverty and Human Rights Content: World Poverty and Human Rights : Cosmopolitan Responsibilities and Reforms is a 2002 book by Thomas Pogge . In the book , Pogge explains that the poorest 44 percent of humankind have 1.3 percent of global income and their purchasing power per person per day is less than that of $ 2.15 in the US in 1993 ; 826 million of them do not have enough to eat . One-third of all human deaths are from poverty-related causes : 18 million annually , including 12 million children under five . At the other end of the spectrum , the 15 percent of humankind in the developed countries have 80 percent of global income . Pogge argues that shifting 1 or 2 percent of the wealthy states ' share toward poverty eradication is morally compelling . Yet most of the affluent believe that they have no such responsibility and Thomas Pogge 's book seeks to explain how this belief is sustained . He analyses how our `` moral and economic theorizing and our global economic order '' have adapted to make us appear disconnected from mass poverty abroad . Dispelling the illusion , he also offers a normative standard of global economic justice and makes detailed , realistic proposals toward fulfilling it .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "World_Poverty_and_Human_Rights",
"rank": 80,
"score": 76770
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual and political action on climate change Content: Individual and political action on climate change can take many forms . Many actions aim to build social and political support to limit , and subsequently reduce , the concentration of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) in the atmosphere , with the goal of mitigating climate change . Other actions seek to address the ethical and moral aspects of climate justice , especially with regard to the anticipated unequal impacts of climate change adaptation .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Individual_and_political_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 81,
"score": 76715
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents",
"rank": 82,
"score": 76249
},
{
"content": "Title: Dengue fever outbreaks Content: As of 2010 dengue fever is believed to infect 50 to 100 million people worldwide a year with 1/2 million life-threatening infections . It dramatically increased in frequency between 1960 and 2010 , by 30 fold . This increase is believed to be due to a combination of urbanization , population growth , increased international travel , and global warming . The geographical distribution is around the equator with 70 % of the total 2.5 billion people living in endemic areas from Asia and the Pacific . Many people in outbreaks are not virally tested , therefore their infections may also be due to chikungunya , a coinfection of both , or even other similar viruses .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Dengue_fever_outbreaks",
"rank": 83,
"score": 76199
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 84,
"score": 75738
},
{
"content": "Title: US Climate Symposium Content: The US Climate Symposium ( also known as USCAN ( US Climate Action Network ) ) was established in 1989 by groups and organizations working towards fight and threat of global warming . The need for a forum for a joint strategy development and advocacy to effect change in a coordinated way at the state and local level as well as at the United Nations and in Washington , D.C.",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "US_Climate_Symposium",
"rank": 85,
"score": 75711
},
{
"content": "Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Friends_of_Science",
"rank": 86,
"score": 75631
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming",
"rank": 87,
"score": 75607
},
{
"content": "Title: Bird conservation Content: Bird conservation is a field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds . Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species . Over one hundred species have gone extinct in historical times , although the most dramatic human-caused extinctions occurred in the Pacific Ocean as humans colonised the islands of Melanesia , Polynesia and Micronesia , during which an estimated 750-1800 species of bird became extinct . According to Worldwatch Institute , many bird populations are currently declining worldwide , with 1,200 species facing extinction in the next century . The biggest cited reason surrounds habitat loss . Other threats include overhunting , accidental mortality due to structural collisions , long-line fishing bycatch , pollution , competition and predation by pet cats , oil spills and pesticide use and climate change . Governments , along with numerous conservation charities , work to protect birds in various ways , including legislation , preserving and restoring bird habitat , and establishing captive populations for reintroductions . See Late Quaternary prehistoric birds for birds which disappeared in prehistoric and early historic times , usually due to human activity ( i.e. , starting with the Upper Paleolithic Revolution ) . For birds having gone extinct in modern times ( since 1500 ) , see List of extinct birds .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Bird_conservation",
"rank": 88,
"score": 75380
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 89,
"score": 75242
},
{
"content": "Title: History of sustainability Content: The history of sustainability traces human-dominated ecological systems from the earliest civilizations to the present . This history is characterized by the increased regional success of a particular society , followed by crises that were either resolved , producing sustainability , or not , leading to decline . In early human history , the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plant and animal communities . Between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago , agrarian communities emerged which depended largely on their environment and the creation of a `` structure of permanence '' . The Western industrial revolution of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in fossil fuels . Coal was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity . Modern sanitation systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease . In the mid-20th century , a gathering environmental movement pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed . In the late 20th century , environmental problems became global in scale . The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-renewable energy resources . In the 21st century , there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by the human-induced enhanced greenhouse effect , produced largely by forest clearing and the burning of fossil fuels .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "History_of_sustainability",
"rank": 90,
"score": 75168
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 91,
"score": 75146
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Greenhouse_debt",
"rank": 92,
"score": 75085
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 93,
"score": 74948
},
{
"content": "Title: List of Australian environmental books Content: This is a list of Australian environmental books : Global Spin : The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism ( 1997 ) , by Sharon Beder Human Ecology , Human Economy : Ideas for an Ecologically Sustainable Future ( 1997 ) , edited by Mark Diesendorf and Clive Hamilton Running from the Storm : The Development of Climate Change Policy in Australia ( 2001 ) , by Clive Hamilton A Big Fix : Radical Solutions for Australia 's Environmental Crisis ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe The Weather Makers ( 2005 ) , by Tim Flannery Environmental Principles and Policies ( 2006 ) , by Sharon Beder Patriots : Defending Australia 's Natural Heritage ( 2006 ) , by William J Lines Chasing Kangaroos ( 2007 ) , by Tim Flannery Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy ( 2007 ) , by Mark Diesendorf High and Dry : John Howard , Climate Change and the Selling of Australia 's Future ( 2007 ) , by Guy Pearse The 3rd Degree : Frontline in Australia 's Climate War ( 2007 ) , by Murray Hogarth Maralinga : Australia 's Nuclear Waste Cover-up ( 2007 ) , by Alan Parkinson Reaction Time : Climate Change and the Nuclear Option ( 2007 ) , by Ian Lowe Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change ( 2007 ) , by Clive Hamilton Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action ( 2008 ) , by David Spratt and Philip Sutton Now or Never : A Sustainable Future for Australia ? ( 2008 ) , by Tim Flannery Quarry Vision : Coal , Climate Change and the End of the Resources Boom ( 2009 ) , by Guy Pearse Requiem for a Species ( 2010 ) , by Clive Hamilton",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "List_of_Australian_environmental_books",
"rank": 94,
"score": 74914
},
{
"content": "Title: Water export Content: Water exports involve exporting freshwater from one country to another . Large increases in human population and economic growth throughout the world during the twentieth century placed a huge stress on the world 's freshwater resources . Combined with climate change , they will place an even greater demand on water resources in this century . Water shortages have become an international concern , and freshwater has been described as `` blue gold '' and `` the oil of the 21st Century . ''",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Water_export",
"rank": 95,
"score": 74716
},
{
"content": "Title: European Commissioner for Climate Action Content: The Commissioner for Climate Action is a new post in the European Commission . It was created in 2010 , being split from the environmental portfolio to focus on fighting climate change . The current Commissioner is Miguel Arias Cañete . The European Union has made a number of moves in regard to climate change . Most notably it signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 , set up its Emission Trading Scheme in 2005 and is currently agreeing to unilaterally cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % by 2020 .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "European_Commissioner_for_Climate_Action",
"rank": 96,
"score": 74651
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 97,
"score": 74627
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 98,
"score": 74569
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 99,
"score": 73945
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "118",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 100,
"score": 73912
}
] |
90 per cent of the world's coral reefs will disappear in the next 35 years due to coral bleaching induced by global warming, pollution and over-development. | [
{
"content": "Title: Coral bleaching Content: Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel algae that lives inside their tissues . Normally , coral polyps live in an endosymbiotic relationship with the algae and that relationship is crucial for the coral and hence for the health of the whole reef . Bleached corals continue to live . But as the algae provide the coral with 90 % of its energy , after expelling the algae the coral begins to starve . Above-average sea water temperatures caused by global warming have been identified as a leading cause for coral bleaching worldwide . Between 2014 and 2016 , the longest global bleaching events ever were recorded . According to the United Nations Environment Programme , these bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale . In 2016 , bleaching hit 90 percent of coral on the Great Barrier Reef and killed 29 percent of the reef 's coral . In 2017 , the bleaching further expanded to areas of the park that were previously spared , such as the central one . __ TOC __",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_bleaching",
"rank": 1,
"score": 217668
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_in_non-tropical_regions",
"rank": 2,
"score": 191313
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs",
"rank": 3,
"score": 177567
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "United_Nations_Ocean_Conference",
"rank": 4,
"score": 164891
},
{
"content": "Title: Yellow-band disease Content: Yellow-band disease ( similar to Yellow Blotch disease ) is a disease that attacks colonies of coral at a time when coral is already under stress from pollution , overfishing , and climate change . It is characterized by large blotches or patches of bleached , yellowed tissue on Caribbean scleractinian corals . Yellow-band disease is a bacterial infection that spreads over coral , causing the discolored bands of pale-yellow or white lesions along the surface of an infected coral colony . The lesions are the locations where the bacteria have killed the coral 's symbiotic photosynthetic algae , called zooxanthellae which are a major energy source for the coral . This cellular damage and the loss of its major energy source cause the coral to starve , and usually cause coral death . There is evidence that climate change could be worsening the disease .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Yellow-band_disease",
"rank": 5,
"score": 148589
},
{
"content": "Title: Census of Coral Reefs Content: The Census of Coral Reefs ( CReefs ) is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that surveys the biodiversity of coral reef ecosystems internationally . The project works to study what species live in coral reef ecosystems , to develop standardized protocols for studying coral reef ecosystems , and to increase access to and exchange of information about coral reefs scattered throughout the globe . The CReefs project uses the implementation of autonomous reef-monitoring structures ( ARMS ) to study the species that inhabit coral reefs . These structures are placed on the sea floor in areas where coral reefs exist , where they are left for one year . At the end of the year , the ARMS is pulled to the surface , along with the species which have inhabited it , for analysis . Coral reefs are thought to be the most organically different of all marine ecosystems . Major declines in key reef ecosystems suggest a decline in reef population throughout the world due to environmental stresses . The vulnerability of coral reef ecosystems is expected to increase significantly in response to climate change . The reefs are also being threatened by induced coral bleaching , ocean acidification , sea-level rise , and changing storm tracks . Reef biodiversity could be in danger of being lost before it is even documented , and researchers will be left with a limited and poor understanding of these complex ecosystems . In an attempt to enhance global understanding of reef biodiversity , the goals of the CReefs Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems were to conduct a diverse global census of coral reef ecosystems . And increase access to and exchange of coral reef data throughout the world . Because coral reefs are the most diverse and among the most threatened of all marine ecosystems , there is great justification to learn more about them .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Census_of_Coral_Reefs",
"rank": 6,
"score": 145128
},
{
"content": "Title: Acanthastrea hillae Content: Acanthastrea hillae is a species of coral that can be found throughout Indo-Pacific waters . This species is moderately common , but is susceptible to coral bleaching and the global decline in coral reef habitat .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Acanthastrea_hillae",
"rank": 7,
"score": 142977
},
{
"content": "Title: Resilience of coral reefs Content: The resilience of coral reefs is the biological ability of coral reefs to recover from natural disturbances such as storms and bleaching episodes . Resilience refers to the ability of biological or social systems to overcome pressures and stresses by maintaining key functions through resisting or adapting to change . Reef resistance measures how well coral reefs tolerate changes in ocean chemistry , sea level , and sea surface temperature . Reef resistance and resilience are important factors in coral reef recovery from the effects of ocean acidification . Natural reef resilience can be used as a recovery model for coral reefs and an opportunity for management in marine protected areas ( MPAs ) . __ TOC __",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Resilience_of_coral_reefs",
"rank": 8,
"score": 135109
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest reef system , stretching along the East coast of Australia from the northern tip down to the town of Bundaberg , is composed of roughly 2,900 individual reefs and 940 islands and cays that stretch for 2,300 kilometres ( 1,616 mi ) and cover an area of approximately 344,400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland in northeast Australia . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . According to the 2014 report of the Australian Government 's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) , says that climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef , while the other major environmental pressures are listed as decreased water quality from land-based runoff , impacts from coastal development and some persistent impacts from fishing activities . The reef is also threatened by storms , coral bleaching and ocean acidification . The 2014 report also shows that , while numerous marine life species have recovered after previous declines , the strength of the dugong population is continuing to decline . Terry Hughes , Federation Fellow , ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University , wrote in a 14 August 2014 Conversation piece that harmful government policies and ongoing conflicts of interest over mining royalties are risks of an equivalent magnitude . The GBRMPA consider climate change , poor water quality , coastal development , and some impacts from fishing to be the area 's major threats , but reef scientists Jon Day , Bob Pressey , Jon Brodie and Hughes stated that the `` cumulative effects of many combined impacts '' is the real issue . In a Conversation Article , Mathieu Mongin , a biogeochemical modeller at CSIRO and colleagues mapped parts of the Great Barrier Reef that are most exposed to ocean acidification . This map of pH on the Great Barrier Reef presents the exposure to ocean acidification on each of the 3,581 reefs , providing managers with the information they need to tailor management to individual reefs . The Great Barrier Reef is not a singular reef nor a physical barrier that prevents exchange between reefs ; it is a mixture of thousands of productive reefs and shallow areas lying on a continental shelf with complex oceanic circulation .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Environmental_threats_to_the_Great_Barrier_Reef",
"rank": 9,
"score": 134580
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 10,
"score": 132837
},
{
"content": "Title: African coral reefs Content: African coral reefs are coral reefs mainly found along the south and east coasts of Africa . The east coast corals extend from the Red Sea to Madagascar in the south , and are an important resource for the fishersmen of Kenya , Tanzania and Madagascar . As with coral reefs elsewhere , African coral reefs are more biologically diverse than the surrounding ocean , and support species such as the mantis shrimp , potato grouper , humphead wrasse and maxima clam , as well as many seaweeds and corals . On the east coast , temperatures average about 26 C over the year . The average rainfall is highest between January to April , at about 300 mm , and lowest during August to November , at about 100 mm . There are multiple threats to the reefs , such a tourist diving and damaging the corals , or taking samples . Then there are industrial run-offs and pollutants , untreated sewage and the increasing sediment flows in rivers that threaten all of the coastal ecosystems . The reef is also threatened by climate change . Due to global warming , the sea surface temperature increases and in 1997/98 a particularly severe ` El Nino ' killed 90 percent of corals on the reef . The CORDIO ( COral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean ) NGO have set up an East African task force to monitor the reef 's management .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "African_coral_reefs",
"rank": 11,
"score": 131400
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reef Alliance Content: The Coral Reef Alliance ( CORAL ) is a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco , California , that partners with local reef communities around the world to protect coral reefs . CORAL was founded in Berkeley , California , in 1994 by Stephen Colwell , and is currently headed by Dr. Michael Webster . With 19 % of the world 's coral reefs already destroyed and another 35 % at immediate risk or threatened due to human pressures , organizations like CORAL are addressing an urgent need .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_Reef_Alliance",
"rank": 12,
"score": 130682
},
{
"content": "Title: Acanthastrea regularis Content: Acanthastrea regularis is a species of coral found in Indo-Pacific waters from Australia to the western Pacific Ocean . It is usually uncommon throughout its range , but can be more common locally . It has a narrow depth range , and so is susceptible to coral bleaching and disease . It is also threatened by the global decline in coral reef habitats .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Acanthastrea_regularis",
"rank": 13,
"score": 128623
},
{
"content": "Title: White pox disease Content: White pox disease ( also `` acroporid serratiosis '' and `` patchy necrosis '' ) , first noted in 1996 on coral reefs near the Florida keys , is a coral disease affecting Elkhorn coral ( Acropora palmata ) throughout the Caribbean . It causes irregular white patches or blotches on the coral that result from the loss of coral tissue . These patches distinguish white pox disease from white band disease which produces a distinctive white band where the coral skeleton has been denuded . The blotches caused by this disease are also clearly differentiated from coral bleaching and scars caused by coral-eating snails . It is very contagious , spreading to nearby coral . At the locations where white pox disease has been observed , it is estimated to have reduced the living tissue in elkhorn corals by 50 -- 80 % . In the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary ( FKNMS ) , the losses of living coral are estimated to average around 88 % . Elkhorn coral was formerly the dominant shallow water reef-building coral throughout the Caribbean but now is listed as a threatened , due in part to disease . Elkhorn coral is the first species of coral to be listed as threatened in the United States , Also due in part to this disease .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "White_pox_disease",
"rank": 14,
"score": 128594
},
{
"content": "Title: Acanthastrea brevis Content: Acanthastrea brevis is a vulnerable species of stony coral found in reef habitats at depths of 1 -- 20 m . It is threatened by habitat loss and crown-of-thorns starfish predation . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and ocean acidification .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Acanthastrea_brevis",
"rank": 15,
"score": 127269
},
{
"content": "Title: Acanthastrea ishigakiensis Content: Acanthastrea ishigakiensis is a species of coral found in Indo-Pacific waters . It is widespread but uncommon throughout its range . It has a narrow depth range , and is susceptible to coral bleaching and disease . It is also threatened by the global loss of coral reef habitats .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Acanthastrea_ishigakiensis",
"rank": 16,
"score": 127100
},
{
"content": "Title: Goniastrea stelligera Content: Goniastrea stelligera , commonly known as knob coral , is a species of stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs in shallow water on the coast of East Africa and in the Indo-Pacific region . This is a common species of coral but it seems to be decreasing in abundance . The main threat it faces is from the destruction of its coral reef habitat , and it is also moderately susceptible to coral bleaching , so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being `` near threatened '' .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Goniastrea_stelligera",
"rank": 17,
"score": 126774
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reef Adventure Content: Coral Reef Adventure is a 70mm American documentary film released in 2003 to IMAX theaters . It is narrated by actor Liam Neeson , and directed by Greg MacGillivray . Embarking on a 10-month expedition through the islands of the South Pacific , husband and wife underwater photography-duo Michele and Howard Hall explore the declining reefs and failing health of the world 's oceans . From Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , to a friend 's coral reef-sustained village in Fiji , the diving expeditions show a range of coral reefs , from flourishing ones filled with unusual and exotic inhabitants , to vast stretches of bleached coral decline which prompted the Hall 's activism . Along their journey , scientists working to understand and save the reefs meet with the Hall 's . Jean-Michel Cousteau , son of the famed oceanographer Jacques Cousteau , also makes an appearance , as do well-known dive guide and singer Rusi Vulakoro , brother of Vude singer Laisa Vulakoro , who guides the Halls in their dive adventure . This documentary film is the third oceanic , ecologically-themed IMAX production from director MacGillivray , after The Living Sea and Dolphins . Crosby Stills & Nash contribute to the film 's soundtrack . The Giant Screen Theater Association named it the best film achievement of 2003 .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_Reef_Adventure",
"rank": 18,
"score": 126609
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral reef protection Content: Coral reef protection is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy coral reefs and to help damaged reefs recover . The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health . One management technique is to create Marine Protected Areas ( MPAs ) that directly limit human activities such as fishing . It takes approximately 10 thousand years for coral polyps to form a reef , and between 100,000 and 30 million years for a fully mature reef to form .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_reef_protection",
"rank": 19,
"score": 123498
},
{
"content": "Title: Southeast Asian coral reefs Content: Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world 's marine ecosystems . They serve many functions , such as forming the livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials . Coral reefs are developed by the carbonate-based skeletons of a variety of animals and algae . Slowly and overtime , the reefs build up to the surface in oceans . Coral reefs are found in shallow , warm salt water . The sunlight filters through clear water and allows microscopic organisms to live and reproduce . The Indian Ocean holds 60 % of the world 's coastal reefs , 25 % are in the Pacific and 15 % are in the western Atlantic . There are coral reefs in the Persian Gulf , Madagascar , the Philippines , Hawaiian Islands and off Southeast Asia . Coral reefs have been preserved and identified in rocks over 400 million years old . Coral reefs are actually composed of tiny , fragile animals known as coral polyps . Coral reefs are significantly important because of the biodiversity . Although the number of fish are decreasing , the remaining coral reefs contain more unique sea creatures . The variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than anywhere else in the world . An estimation of 70-90 % of fish caught are dependent on coral reefs in Southeast Asia and reefs support over 25 % of all known marine species . However , those sensitive coral reefs are facing detrimental effects on them due to variety of factors : overfishing , sedimentation and pollution , bleaching , and even tourist-related damage .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs",
"rank": 20,
"score": 123011
},
{
"content": "Title: Oyster reef restoration Content: Oyster reef restoration refers to the process of rebuilding or restoring of oyster reefs all over the globe . Over time , oysters have been negatively affected by environmental change , such as harmful fishing techniques , over harvesting , water pollution , and other factors . The results of these factors have been disease and ultimately , a large decline in the global population of oysters and the prevalence and sustainability of oyster reefs . Apart from the ecological importance of oyster reefs , oyster farming is an important industry , particularly in coastal areas . Both artificial materials and natural components have been used to rebuild the reefs in an attempt to regenerate the oyster population thus fostering the reformation of reefs .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Oyster_reef_restoration",
"rank": 21,
"score": 122051
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Barrier Reef: Biology, Environment and Management Content: The Great Barrier Reef : Biology , Environment and Management is a 2007 book by Pat Hutchings , Mike Kingsford and Ove Hoegh-Guldberg . It describes the organisms and ecosystems of Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , and the biological , chemical and physical processes that influence them . Issues discussed include climate change , coral bleaching , coral disease and coral reef fishing . The book includes a field guide to help people identify the common animals and plants on the reef . The book has illustrations and contributions from 33 international experts . Pat Hutchings is a Senior Principal Research Scientist at the Australian Museum . Michael Kingsford is the Head of School of Marine Biology and Aquaculture at James Cook University . Ove Hoegh-Guldberg is the Director of the Centre for Marine Studies at the University of Queensland .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "The_Great_Barrier_Reef:_Biology,_Environment_and_Management",
"rank": 22,
"score": 121878
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef is the world 's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2300 km over an area of approximately 344400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland , Australia . The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world 's biggest single structure made by living organisms . This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms , known as coral polyps . It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981 . CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world . The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which helps to limit the impact of human use , such as fishing and tourism . Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff , climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching , and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish . According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985 . The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples , and is an important part of local groups ' cultures and spirituality . The reef is a very popular destination for tourists , especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions . Tourism is an important economic activity for the region , generating over AUD$ 3 billion per year . In November 2014 , Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef . A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought , seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures . In October 2016 , Outside published an obituary for the reef ; the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef . In March 2017 , the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of a 800-kilometre ( 500 mi ) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures , an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef",
"rank": 23,
"score": 121761
},
{
"content": "Title: Impacts of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef Content: Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs . The Great Barrier Reef , considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot , is located in Australia . Similar to other coral reefs , it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification . Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which is taken up by the ocean . This process can increase sea surface temperature , decrease aragonite , and lower the pH of the ocean . Calcifying organisms are under risk , due to the resulting lack of aragonite in the water and the decreasing pH. This decreased health of coral reefs , particularly the Great Barrier Reef , can result in reduced biodiversity . Organisms can become stressed due to ocean acidification and the disappearance of healthy coral reefs , such as the Great Barrier Reef , is a loss of habitat for several taxa .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_on_the_Great_Barrier_Reef",
"rank": 24,
"score": 121701
},
{
"content": "Title: Holocene extinction Content: The Holocene extinction , otherwise referred to as the Sixth extinction or Anthropocene extinction , is the ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch , mainly due to human activity . The large number of extinctions spans numerous families of plants and animals , including mammals , birds , amphibians , reptiles and arthropods . With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforest , as well as other areas , the vast majority of these extinctions is thought to be undocumented . According to the species-area theory , and based on upper-bound estimating , the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year , making it the greatest loss of biodiversity since the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event . The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna , starting at the end of the last Ice Age . Megafauna outside of the African continent , which did not evolve alongside humans , proved highly sensitive to the introduction of new predation , and many died out shortly after early humans began spreading and hunting across the Earth ( additionally , many African species have also gone extinct in the Holocene ) . These extinctions , occurring near the Pleistocene -- Holocene boundary , are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event . The arrival of humans on different continents coincides with megafaunal extinction . The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species added to existing stress conditions . Although there is debate regarding how much human predation affected their decline , certain population declines have been directly correlated with human activity , such as the extinction events of New Zealand and Hawaii . Aside from humans , climate change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions , especially at the end of the Quaternary . The ecology of humanity has been noted as being that of an unprecedented `` global superpredator '' that regularly preys on the adults of other apex predators and has worldwide effects on food webs . Extinctions of species have occurred on every land mass and ocean , with many famous examples within Africa , Asia , Europe , Australia , North and South America , and on smaller islands . Overall , the Holocene extinction can be characterized by the human impact on the environment . The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century , with meat consumption , overfishing , ocean acidification and the amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal , cosmopolitan decline in biodiversity . A ballooning human population along with profligate consumption are considered to be the primary drivers of this rapid decline .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Holocene_extinction",
"rank": 25,
"score": 121264
},
{
"content": "Title: Porites nodifera Content: Porites nodifera , also known as Dome Coral , is a species of stony coral in the Poritidae family . In the Persian Gulf , Porites spp. , including Porites nodifera are the dominant corals present . This may be as a result of coral bleaching affecting Acropora spp . to a greater extent , and Porites filling in resulting gaps in the reef .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Porites_nodifera",
"rank": 26,
"score": 120295
},
{
"content": "Title: Alveopora fenestrata Content: Alveopora fenestrata is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia and the oceanic west Pacific Ocean . It can be found in shallow coral reefs , to a depth of 30 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Alveopora_fenestrata",
"rank": 27,
"score": 119339
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora acuminata Content: Acropora acuminata is a species of acroporid coral found in Australia , the Red Sea , the central Indo-Pacific , Japan , the northern Indian Ocean , the East China Sea , southeast Asia , and the western Pacific Ocean . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , the crown-of-thorns sea star ( Acanthaster planci ) , and harvesting for the aquarium trade . It is found on shallow coral reefs from depths of 5 -- 20 m . It was described by Verrill in 1864 .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Acropora_acuminata",
"rank": 28,
"score": 118957
},
{
"content": "Title: Alveopora viridis Content: Alveopora viridis is a species of stony coral that has a highly disjunct range , and can be found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the northern Indian Ocean and in Palau and the Mariana Islands . It is found on lower coral reef slopes to depths of 50 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and is harvested for the aquarium trade .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Alveopora_viridis",
"rank": 29,
"score": 118275
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral reef fish Content: Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs . Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity . Among the myriad inhabitants , the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch . Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef , many of them hidden or well camouflaged . Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs . Coral reefs occupy less than one percent of the surface area of the world oceans , but still they provide a home for 25 percent of all marine fish species . Reef habitats are a sharp contrast to the open water habitats that make up the other 99 % of the world oceans . However , loss and degradation of coral reef habitat , increasing pollution , and overfishing including the use of destructive fishing practices , are threatening the survival of the coral reefs and the associated reef fish .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_reef_fish",
"rank": 30,
"score": 117006
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka",
"rank": 31,
"score": 116364
},
{
"content": "Title: Alveopora allingi Content: Alveopora allingi is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean . It has also been found in Palau and the Mariana Islands . It is susceptible to coral bleaching and is rated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as a `` vulnerable species '' .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Alveopora_allingi",
"rank": 32,
"score": 115973
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora hemprichii Content: Acropora hemprichii is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg in 1834 . Found in shallow reefs in marine environments , this species occurs at depths of 3 to , and lives for between 13 and 24 years . The species is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List , and has a decreasing population . It is common with a wide range , and is listed on Appendix II of CITES .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Acropora_hemprichii",
"rank": 33,
"score": 114863
},
{
"content": "Title: Platygyra daedalea Content: Platygyra daedalea , sometimes known as the lesser valley coral , is a colonial species of stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow water in the Indo-Pacific region . It is a common species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of `` least concern '' .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Platygyra_daedalea",
"rank": 34,
"score": 114740
},
{
"content": "Title: Kimbe Bay Content: Kimbe Bay is a large bay in West New Britain Province , off the northern coast of New Britain , Papua New Guinea , at . Kimbe Bay is an important biodiversity hotspot . 60 percent of the coral species of the entire Indo-Pacific region live here . Kimbe Bay is the home of more than 860 coral reef fish species . Because of a massive die-off of coral worldwide due to pollution , human activities , and global warming , Kimbe Bay has become increasingly important , since it is seen as one of the last holdouts for coral should the degradation continue . Efforts are currently underway to limit the human impact on the bay . Due to its beauty it is also a popular diving site .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Kimbe_Bay",
"rank": 35,
"score": 114597
},
{
"content": "Title: Alveopora verrilliana Content: Alveopora verrilliana is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan , the East China Sea , the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean and the Johnston Atoll . It can also be found in Palau and the southern Mariana Islands . It grows on shallow coral reefs to a depth of 30 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and is harvested for the aquarium trade .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Alveopora_verrilliana",
"rank": 36,
"score": 114222
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora abrotanoides Content: Acropora abrotanoides is a species of acroporid coral found in Indo-Pacific waters from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden east to the East China Sea , the central Pacific Ocean and Australia . It is found in shallow coral reefs to a maximum depth of 10 -- 15 m . It is vulnerable to coral bleaching , disease and crown-of-thorns starfish . It is resistant to predation as it has well-developed radial corallite lips . It was described by Lamarck in 1816 .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Acropora_abrotanoides",
"rank": 37,
"score": 114182
},
{
"content": "Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Carnian_Pluvial_Event",
"rank": 38,
"score": 114032
},
{
"content": "Title: Anacropora puertogalerae Content: Anacropora puertogalerae is a species of briar coral that can be found in the central Indo-Pacific , Japan , the East China Sea , eastern Australia , the oceanic west Pacific Ocean , the Philippines and the Maldives . It is also found in the Andaman Islands , Rodrigues , Fiji and Vanuatu . It occurs in shallow reefs , from depths of 5 -- 20 m . It is very fragile , and is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease and habitat loss .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Anacropora_puertogalerae",
"rank": 39,
"score": 113582
},
{
"content": "Title: Alveopora spongiosa Content: Alveopora spongiosa is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean . It can be found on protected upper coral reef slopes , generally from depth of 9 -- 20 m , but can grow at depths of up to 50 m . It is moderately susceptible to coral bleaching , and is harvested for the aquarium trade .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Alveopora_spongiosa",
"rank": 40,
"score": 113212
},
{
"content": "Title: Decline in amphibian populations Content: The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide . Since the 1980s , decreases in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world . These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity , and several causes are believed to be involved , including disease , habitat destruction and modification , exploitation , pollution , pesticide use , introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation ( UV-B ) . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research . Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000 -- 45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation . Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s , awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s . By 1993 , more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline . Today , the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction , with severe implications for global biodiversity .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Decline_in_amphibian_populations",
"rank": 41,
"score": 111733
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Triangle Initiative Content: The Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs , Fisheries , and Food Security ( CTI-CFF ) , also shortly known as the Coral Triangle Initiative ( CTI ) , is a multilateral partnership of six countries ( Indonesia , Malaysia , Philippines , Papua New Guinea , Solomon Islands , Timor-Leste ) working together to sustain extraordinary marine and coastal resources by addressing crucial issues such as food security , climate change , and marine biodiversity .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_Triangle_Initiative",
"rank": 42,
"score": 110919
},
{
"content": "Title: Anacropora spinosa Content: Anacropora spinosa is a species of briar coral that can be found in the central Indo-Pacific , Southeast Asia , the Solomon Islands , Japan , the East China Sea and the oceanic west Pacific Ocean . It is also found in Rodrigues and the Andaman Islands . It occurs in shallow reefs , from depths of 5 -- 15 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease and reduction of coral reef habitats .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Anacropora_spinosa",
"rank": 43,
"score": 110777
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora aculeus Content: Acropora aculeus is a species of acroporid corals found throughout the Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , southeast Asia , Japan and the East China Sea . It is also present in the western Pacific Ocean . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching , disease , and crown-of-thorns starfish predation . It is also harvested for aquaria .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Acropora_aculeus",
"rank": 44,
"score": 110350
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral poaching Content: Coral poaching is the confiscation of highly valued coral species from protected areas for sale as many types of jewellery that could be sold of upwards to $ 1,800 per gram . The illegal removal of coral is one of the most major environmental issues in many counties of Eastern Asia that destroys valuable ecosystems that harbors marine life . The resulting effect of harvesting coral colonies causes a significant financial loss to the surrounding economies and the destruction of environments .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_poaching",
"rank": 45,
"score": 109448
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora nasuta Content: Acropora nasuta is a species of branching stony coral in the family Acroporidae . It is native to the western and central Indo-Pacific where it is found in shallow reef habitats . Like other corals of the genus Acropora , it is susceptible to coral bleaching and coral diseases and the IUCN has listed it as being `` Near Threatened '' .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Acropora_nasuta",
"rank": 46,
"score": 109267
},
{
"content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Future_of_Earth",
"rank": 47,
"score": 109056
},
{
"content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event",
"rank": 48,
"score": 108719
},
{
"content": "Title: Seriatopora aculeata Content: Seriatopora aculeata is a species of colonial stony coral in the family Pocilloporidae . It forms a bushy clump . It is native to the Central Indo-Pacific and the Oceanic West Pacific . Its range includes the Philippines , the Great Barrier Reef , Fiji , Indonesia , the Coral Sea , southern Madagascar and Vanuatu . It grows in shallow reef environments , at depths down to about 40 m . It is an uncommon species and subject to coral diseases and bleaching . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the conservation status of this species as being `` vulnerable '' .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Seriatopora_aculeata",
"rank": 49,
"score": 108692
},
{
"content": "Title: Ordovician–Silurian extinction events Content: The Ordovician -- Silurian extinction events , when combined , are the second-largest of the five major extinction events in Earth 's history in terms of percentage of genera that became extinct . This event greatly affected marine communities , which caused the disappearance of one third of all brachiopod and bryozoan families , as well as numerous groups of conodonts , trilobites , and graptolites . The Ordovician-Silurian extinction occurred during the Hirnantian stage of the Ordovician Period and the subsequent Rhuddanian stage of the Silurian Period . The last event is dated in the interval of 455 -- 430 Ma ago , i.e. , lasting from the Middle Ordovician to Early Silurian , thus including the extinction period . This event was the first of the big five Phanerozoic events and was the first to significantly affect animal-based communities . Almost all major taxonomic groups were affected during this extinction event . Extinction was global during this period , eliminating 49-60 % of marine genera and nearly 85 % of marine species . Brachiopods , bivalves , echinoderms , bryozoans and corals were particularly affected . Prior to the late Ordovician cooling , temperatures were relatively warm and it is the suddenness of the climate changes and the elimination of habitats due to sea-level fall that are believed to have precipitated the extinctions . The falling sea level disrupted or eliminated habitats along the continental shelves . Evidence for the glaciation was found through deposits in the Sahara Desert . A combination of lowering of sea level and glacially driven cooling were likely driving agents for the Ordovician mass extinction .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Ordovician–Silurian_extinction_events",
"rank": 50,
"score": 105554
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 51,
"score": 105532
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral reef Content: Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals . Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups . The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria , which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones , corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps . Most reefs grow best in warm , shallow , clear , sunny and agitated waters . Often called `` rainforests of the sea '' , shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth . They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface , about half the area of France , yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Paradoxically , coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients . They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters , but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas . Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism , fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$ 29.8-375 billion . However , coral reefs are fragile ecosystems , partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature . They are under threat from climate change , oceanic acidification , blast fishing , cyanide fishing for aquarium fish , sunscreen use , overuse of reef resources , and harmful land-use practices , including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution , which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_reef",
"rank": 52,
"score": 105474
},
{
"content": "Title: Bird conservation Content: Bird conservation is a field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds . Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species . Over one hundred species have gone extinct in historical times , although the most dramatic human-caused extinctions occurred in the Pacific Ocean as humans colonised the islands of Melanesia , Polynesia and Micronesia , during which an estimated 750-1800 species of bird became extinct . According to Worldwatch Institute , many bird populations are currently declining worldwide , with 1,200 species facing extinction in the next century . The biggest cited reason surrounds habitat loss . Other threats include overhunting , accidental mortality due to structural collisions , long-line fishing bycatch , pollution , competition and predation by pet cats , oil spills and pesticide use and climate change . Governments , along with numerous conservation charities , work to protect birds in various ways , including legislation , preserving and restoring bird habitat , and establishing captive populations for reintroductions . See Late Quaternary prehistoric birds for birds which disappeared in prehistoric and early historic times , usually due to human activity ( i.e. , starting with the Upper Paleolithic Revolution ) . For birds having gone extinct in modern times ( since 1500 ) , see List of extinct birds .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Bird_conservation",
"rank": 53,
"score": 105213
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Triangle Content: The Coral Triangle is a geographical term so named as it refers to a roughly triangular area of the tropical marine waters of Indonesia , Malaysia , Papua New Guinea , Philippines , Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste that contain at least 500 species of reef-building corals in each ecoregion . This region encompasses portions of two biogeographic regions : the Indonesian-Philippines Region , and the Far Southwestern Pacific Region . The Coral Triangle is recognized as the global centre of marine biodiversity and a global priority for conservation . It is also called the `` Amazon of the seas '' and covers 5.7 e6km2 of ocean waters . Its biological resources sustain the lives of over 120 million people . According to the Coral Triangle Knowledge Network , about $ 3 billion in fisheries exports and another $ 3 billion in coastal tourism revenues are derived as annual foreign exchange income in the region . The WWF considers the region a top priority for marine conservation , and the organization is addressing the threats it faces through its Coral Triangle Program , launched in 2007 .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_Triangle",
"rank": 54,
"score": 105087
},
{
"content": "Title: Coenothecalia Content: Coenothecalia ( also known as Helioporacea ) is an order of the subclass Octocorallia that forms massive lobed crystalline calcareous skeletons in colonial corals . These corals first appeared in the Cretaceous period . The blue coral ( Heliopora coerulea ) , the only species in the family Helioporidae , is most common in shallow water of the tropical Pacific and Indo-Pacific reefs . It has no spicule , and is the only octocoral known to produce a massive skeleton formed of fibrocrystalline aragonite fused into lamellae , similar to that of the Scleractinia ( stony corals ) . They form large colonies that can exceed a meter in diameter . They are composed of vertical branches , or folia . The surface of blue coral and similar species appears smooth and the color in life is a distinctive grey-brown with white tips . The entire skeleton , however , has an unusual blue color and therefore the species is commonly exploited for decorative uses . The blue color of the skeleton ( which is covered with a layer of brown polyps ) is caused by iron salts . Blue coral can be used in tropical aquaria , and the crystalline calcareous fibres in the skeletons can be used for jewelry . Individual polyps have eight feathery tentacles and , in the gastrovascular cavity , eight septa , or partitions . Cilia ( tiny hairlike projections ) on six septa draw water into the cavity . Cilia on the other two septa expel water . The skeleton consists of spicules that form a protective cup around each polyp . This order also includes the family Lithotelestidae .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coenothecalia",
"rank": 55,
"score": 104521
},
{
"content": "Title: Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (biologist) Content: Ove Hoegh-Guldberg ( born 26 September 1959 , in Sydney , Australia ) , is the inaugural Director of the Global Change Institute at the University of Queensland , and the holder of a Queensland Smart State Premier fellowship ( 2008 -- 2013 ) . He studies climate change and coral reefs . Hoegh-Guldberg has appeared on television , including two Australian Story series profiling his life and work , and radio , and maintains a blog on coral reefs , politics and the environment . He is of Danish ancestry and is a direct descendant and namesake of Ove Høegh-Guldberg , a politician in late 18th Century Denmark .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Ove_Hoegh-Guldberg_(biologist)",
"rank": 56,
"score": 103629
},
{
"content": "Title: Seacology Content: Seacology is a nonprofit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) charitable organization headquartered in Berkeley , California , that works to preserve island ecosystems and cultures around the world . Founded in 1991 , it began with the work of ethnobotanist Paul Alan Cox , who researched tropical plants and their medicinal value in the village of Falealupo in Samoa during the mid-1980s . When the villagers were pressured into selling logging rights to their rainforest in 1988 to build a new school , Cox and his wife offered to help secure funds for the new school in return for an agreement with the villagers to protect their forest . With the help of his friends and family , Cox secured the funds within six months , later earning him and the village chief , Fuiono Senio , the Goldman Environmental Prize for their efforts . Word spread throughout the islands , and with increasing demand for similar projects , Cox , along with Bill Marré and Ken Murdock , decided to form Seacology and expand their work internationally . For the first few years , the organization operated on a volunteer basis . Duane Silverstein became the first employee in 1999 , and headquarters were relocated to Berkeley , not far from his residence . Because of the high risk of extinction for island fauna and the decline in coral reef ecosystems , Seacology 's primary focus is projects in which villagers sign contracts under which they agree to help protect either terrestrial or marine habitat for a specified time in return for new buildings or services . The operations are low-cost , averaging around US$ 20,000 to $ 25,000 . Construction is done with local labor and without the use of machinery . Seacology selects its projects by reviewing the recommendations of its field representatives and its scientific advisory board . By mid-2016 , Seacology had initiated more than 275 projects globally , and helped preserve 753456 acre of marine habitat and 615745 acre of terrestrial habitat . At the same time , they had helped construct 104 new facilities and provided 36 programs , which included educational materials , vital medical services , and environmental training . In addition to helping local people on islands like Fiji , Kendhoo , and many others , their projects have helped protect mangrove forests , sea turtles , dugongs , and one of the rarest primates in the world : the Hainan black crested gibbon . Seacology also awards an annual Seacology Prize to indigenous islanders for their efforts in conservation and cultural preservation . The organization helps support island communities by fostering ecotourism , and has helped raise emergency funds following destructive tsunamis . Its budget is modest , and it does not compensate its board members . It has won awards from Yahoo! and Travel + Leisure magazine , and has been featured in the music video `` What About Now '' by the American rock band Daughtry .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Seacology",
"rank": 57,
"score": 103338
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef Content: A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface . Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Reef",
"rank": 58,
"score": 103267
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 59,
"score": 102994
},
{
"content": "Title: International Coral Reef Initiative Content: The International Coral Reef Initiative ( ICRI ) is an informal partnership among nations , international organisations and non-government organisations to help protect coral reefs globally . It aims to implement Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 , Aichi Target 10 of the Convention on Biological Diversity 's 10-year Strategic Plan , and other relevant internationally agreed objectives and targets . It does so by : raising global awareness on the plight of coral reefs around the world promoting the sharing of best practices in coral reef management and building capacity of coral reef managers around the world ensuring that coral reefs are included in relevant international deliberations . It is the `` only global entity solely devoted to coral reefs '' .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "International_Coral_Reef_Initiative",
"rank": 60,
"score": 102490
},
{
"content": "Title: Halysitidae Content: Halysitidae is an extinct family of tabulate corals . These tabulate corals lived from Ordovician to Devonian ( from 471.8 to 412.3 Ma ) . Fossil corals of the family Halysitidae have been found in the sediments of Afghanistan , Canada , United States , Venezuela and Australia .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Halysitidae",
"rank": 61,
"score": 101758
},
{
"content": "Title: Mehmet Coral Content: Mehmet Gündüz Coral ( born 11 September 1947 ) is a Turkish novelist , known for his novels with historical settings . His works , such as Extinct Times of Byzantium ( author house/USA 2000 ) and The Lost Diaries of Constantinople ( DK Publishing 2008 ) , are also translated to foreign languages .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Mehmet_Coral",
"rank": 62,
"score": 101568
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas J. Goreau Content: Thomas J. Goreau ( Tom Goreau , * in Jamaica ) is a biogeochemist and marine biologist ; son of Thomas F. Goreau and Nora I. Goreau . After studying in Jamaican primary and secondary schools , he earned degrees in planetary physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , in planetary astronomy at the California Institute of Technology , and in biogeochemistry at Harvard University ( Ph.D. ) . With his parents he researched the coral reefs of Jamaica , and continues to conduct research on the impacts of global climate change , pollution , and new diseases in reefs all across the Caribbean , Indian Ocean , and Pacific . His current work focuses on coral reef restoration , fisheries restoration , shore line protection , renewable energy , community based coral reef management , mariculture , soil metabolism , and stabilization of global carbon dioxide . He was formerly Senior Scientific Affairs Officer at the United Nations Centre for Science and Technology for Development . He is currently President of the Global Coral Reef Alliance .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Thomas_J._Goreau",
"rank": 63,
"score": 101240
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 64,
"score": 101152
},
{
"content": "Title: Robert O. Mendelsohn Content: Robert O. Mendelsohn ( born 1952 in New York City ) is an American environmental economist . He is currently the Edwin Weyerhaeuser Davis Professor of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University , Professor of Economics in Economics Department at Yale University and Professor in the School of Management at Yale University.Professor Mendelsohn is a major figure in the economics of global warming , being for example a contributor to the first Copenhagen Consensus report . Mendelsohn received a BA in economics from Harvard University in 1973 and obtained his Ph.D. in economics from Yale University in 1978 . Professor Mendelsohn has written over one hundred peer-reviewed articles and edited six books . The focus of his research has been the valuation of the environment . He has developed methods to value natural ecosystems including coral reefs , old-growth forests , non-timber forest products , ecotourism , and outdoor recreation . He has also developed methods to value pollution including emissions of criteria pollutants ( such as particulates and sulfur dioxide ) and hazardous waste sites . His most recent work values the impacts of greenhouse gases , including the effects of climate change on agriculture , forests , water resources , energy , and coasts . This research carefully integrates adaptation into impact assessment and has recently been extended to developing countries around the world . He has also been involved in studies of nonrenewable resources , forest management , and specifically carbon sequestration in forests .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Robert_O._Mendelsohn",
"rank": 65,
"score": 101141
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reefs (film) Content: Coral Reefs ( French title : Le Récif de corail ) is a 1938 French language motion picture adventure drama directed by Maurice Gleize . The screenplay was written by Charles Spaak , based on novel by Jean Martet . The film stars Jean Gabin , Michèle Morgan , Pierre Renoir and Gina Manès . It tells the story of a charged innocent Mexican sailor who escapes to a lagoon in the Pacific Ocean . He meets with a lonely girl in the woods , having an affair . However his current gunrunning operation is noticed by an earnest detective .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_Reefs_(film)",
"rank": 66,
"score": 101114
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 67,
"score": 100537
},
{
"content": "Title: Paraclinus cingulatus Content: Paraclinus cingulatus , the coral blenny , is a species of labrisomid blenny native to the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea from southern Florida to Honduras and through the Greater Antilles . It is an inhabitant of coral reefs and lives amongst rubble and can also be found in tide pools . This species can reach a length of 3 cm TL .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Paraclinus_cingulatus",
"rank": 68,
"score": 100395
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reef Restaurant Content: The Coral Reef Restaurant is a themed seafood restaurant in The Seas with Nemo & Friends , which is located in Epcot 's Future World . One entire wall of the restaurant consists of a glass window that is eight inches thick and that provides a view into an aquarium . While they eat , restaurant guests are able to watch tarpons , sharks , sea turtles , stingrays , groupers , and sometimes scuba divers in the six-million-gallon aquarium . Artist Kim Minichiello painted the underwater scene that appears on the restaurant 's menu covers . Ron Douglas 's cookbook America 's Most Wanted Recipes : Just Desserts includes two dishes from the Coral Reef Restaurant : the Baileys and Jack Daniel 's Mousse and the Chocolate Wave Cake . One reviewer from The Guardian compares the Coral Reef Restaurant to the Sci-Fi Dine-In Theater Restaurant in Disney 's Hollywood Studios , writing that both restaurants `` are great settings '' where `` eating is awful . '' In The Unofficial Guide to Walt Disney World with Kids 2015 , Bob Sehlinger , Liliane Opsomer , and Len Testa call the Coral Reef Restaurant one of the two most overpriced restaurants in Epcot , the other being Monsieur Paul . In Pauline Frommer 's Walt Disney World and Orlando , Jason Cochran writes of his experience of the Coral Reef Restaurant , saying , `` I had some of the worst food in my life ... although the setting rocks . '' In Beyond the Attractions : A Guide to Walt Disney World with Preschoolers , Lisa Battista calls the aquarium view `` incredible '' .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_Reef_Restaurant",
"rank": 69,
"score": 99318
},
{
"content": "Title: Brain coral Content: Brain coral is a common name given to corals in the family Mussidae , so called due to their generally spheroid shape and grooved surface which resembles a brain . Each head of coral is formed by a colony of genetically identical polyps which secrete a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate ; this makes them important coral reef builders like other stony corals in the order Scleractinia . Brain corals are found in shallow warm-water coral reefs in all the world 's oceans . They are part of the phylum Cnidaria , in a class called Anthozoa or `` flower animals '' . The lifespan of the largest brain corals is 900 years . Colonies can grow as large as 1.8 m ( 6 ft ) or more in height . Brain corals extend their tentacles to catch food at night . During the day , they use their tentacles for protection by wrapping them over the grooves on their surface . The surface is hard and offers good protection against fish or hurricanes . Branching corals , such as staghorn corals , grow more rapidly , but are more vulnerable to storm damage . Like other genera of corals , brain corals feed on small drifting animals , and also receive nutrients provided by the algae which live within their tissues . The behavior of one of the most common genera , Favia , is semiaggressive ; it will sting other corals with its extended sweeper tentacles during the night . The genus and species have not been defined through the scientific classification segment .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Brain_coral",
"rank": 70,
"score": 99122
},
{
"content": "Title: SECORE Content: SECORE ( SExual COral REproduction ) is an international non-profit organization focused on coral reef conservation . The group has over sixty supporters in North America , Europe and Japan , and comprises public aquariums , institutes , and universities . Founded in 2001 at the Rotterdam Zoo in the Netherlands , the organization has been developing methods of captive coral reproduction and preservation , citing studies that have predicted coral reefs could be extinct within decades due to climate change . Based on the coral reproduction research of Dr. Dirk Petersen at the Rotterdam Zoo ( The Netherlands ) , SECORE was born in 2002 . Petersen 's findings led to innovative techniques on the use sexual coral reproduction for coral reef conservation . Established by the aquarium community and coral conservation scientists , SECORE initially focused on ex situ conservation and later as well on reef restoration ( in situ conservation ) . In 2004 , Mike Brittsan , M.Sc. , of the Columbus Zoo & Aquarium joined SECORE to take over the leading role in the USA . Over the years , both institutions , the Rotterdam Zoo and the Columbus Zoo & Aquarium -- in collaboration with other organisations -- started a very successful workshop program not only to train experts in the SECORE techniques , but also to bring different institutions together for a common goal -- help saving the greatest marine ecosystem on our planet , the coral reef . SECORE supports excellent science in various fields , such as coral restoration , coral population genetics or coral cryopreservation . Together with its more than 60 supporting partner institutions , SECORE reaches millions of people to spread the word about the dramatic situation of our ocean and what we can do about it .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "SECORE",
"rank": 71,
"score": 98917
},
{
"content": "Title: Syringoporidae Content: Syringoporidae is an extinct family of phaceloid tabulate coral . These tabulate corals lived from the Ordovician to the Permian period ( from 449.5 to 279.5 Ma ) . Fossils of species belonging to the Syringoporidae family have been found in the sediments of Europe , Russia , China , Japan , Thailand , Australia , Canada and United States .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Syringoporidae",
"rank": 72,
"score": 98766
},
{
"content": "Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Forests_for_the_21st_Century",
"rank": 73,
"score": 98057
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Sri Lanka Content: Environmental issues in Sri Lanka include large-scale logging of forests and degradation of mangroves , coral reefs and soil . Air pollution and water pollution are challenges for Sri Lanka since both cause negative health impacts . Insufficient waste management , especially in rural areas , leads to environmental pollution . Sri Lanka is also vulnerable to climate change impacts such as extreme weather events and sea level rise . Industrialization and population growth are major drivers of these environmental issues . A lack of public awareness and governmental guidelines intensify the problems .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Sri_Lanka",
"rank": 74,
"score": 97973
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 75,
"score": 97915
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef Check Content: Reef Check is an international non-governmental organization dedicated to the conservation of two reef ecosystems : tropical coral reefs and Californian rocky reefs . The Foundation is headquartered in Los Angeles , California , United States , but uses data from volunteer scuba diver teams in over 80 countries , ranging from Australia , Japan , to even Germany . It is the United Nations ' official coral reef monitoring program .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Reef_Check",
"rank": 76,
"score": 97752
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 77,
"score": 97585
},
{
"content": "Title: Sponge reef Content: Sponge reefs serve an important ecological function as habitat , breeding and nursery areas for fish and invertebrates . The reefs are currently threatened by the fishery , offshore oil and gas industries . Attempts are being made to protect these unique ecosystems through fishery closures and potentially the establishment of Marine Protected Areas ( MAPs ) around the sponge reefs . Hexactinellid sponge reefs were common in the Late Jurassic period , and were believed to have gone extinct during or shortly after the Cretaceous period . Living sponge reefs were discovered in the Queen Charlotte Basin ( QCB ) in 1987 -- 1988 , and were reported in the Georgia Basin ( GB ) in 2005 . These sponge reefs are considered to be `` living fossils '' .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Sponge_reef",
"rank": 78,
"score": 97505
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 79,
"score": 97418
},
{
"content": "Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Future_Evolution",
"rank": 80,
"score": 97131
},
{
"content": "Title: Colony collapse disorder Content: Colony collapse disorder ( CCD ) is the phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a colony disappear and leave behind a queen , plenty of food and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees and the queen . While such disappearances have occurred throughout the history of apiculture , and were known by various names ( disappearing disease , spring dwindle , May disease , autumn collapse , and fall dwindle disease ) , the syndrome was renamed colony collapse disorder in late 2006 in conjunction with a drastic rise in the number of disappearances of western honey bee ( Apis mellifera ) colonies in North America . European beekeepers observed similar phenomena in Belgium , France , the Netherlands , Greece , Italy , Portugal , and Spain , Switzerland and Germany , albeit to a lesser degree , and the Northern Ireland Assembly received reports of a decline greater than 50 % . Colony collapse disorder causes significant economic losses because many agricultural crops ( although no staple foods ) worldwide are pollinated by western honey bees . According to the Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , the worth of global crops with honey bee pollination was estimated at close to $ 200 billion in 2005 . Shortages of bees in the US have increased the cost to farmers renting them for pollination services by up to 20 % . In the six years leading up to 2013 , more than 10 million beehives were lost , often to CCD , nearly twice the normal rate of loss . To put this in perspective , according to U.N. FAO data , the world 's beehive stock rose from around 50 million in 1961 to around 83 million in 2014 , which is about 1.3 % average annual growth . Average annual growth has accelerated to 1.9 % since 2009 . Several possible causes for CCD have been proposed , but no single proposal has gained widespread acceptance among the scientific community . Suggested causes include : infections with Varroa and Acarapis mites ; malnutrition ; various pathogens ; genetic factors ; immunodeficiencies ; loss of habitat ; changing beekeeping practices ; or a combination of factors . A large amount of speculation has surrounded a family of pesticides called neonicotinoids as having caused CCD .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Colony_collapse_disorder",
"rank": 81,
"score": 96974
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral World Ocean Park Content: Coral World is a marine park located on the island of St. Thomas , U.S. Virgin Islands . The ocean park consists of an open-water system where water flows through each of the exhibits and back out to the ocean . Exhibits include the Caribbean Reef Encounter an 80,000 gallon circular tank open at the top for the natural elements to filter in . Marine Gardens which has 21 smaller tanks displaying ocean life in the Caribbean . Shark Shallows a nursery for adolescent sharks . A stingray pool where guests can feed the stingray after the presentation . Two turtle pools with rescued sea turtles . A touch pool with sea stars , couch , hermit crabs , sea cucumbers and sea urchins . The lorikeet aviary where you can feed lorikeets . A sea lion show that is held twice daily in Marine Gardens . And an Underwater Observatory Tower that goes down 20 feet under the ocean with windows for looking and watching ocean life in its natural habit . Gift shops and restaurants are also on site . Coral World was inaugurated in the 1970s . It has been one of St. Thomas ' most important tourist attractions since then . In September 1998 , workers at Coral World began to breed seahorses . In 2000 , the park was awarded the EPA Environmental Quality Award .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_World_Ocean_Park",
"rank": 82,
"score": 96907
},
{
"content": "Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Human_extinction",
"rank": 83,
"score": 96570
},
{
"content": "Title: Ambodivahibe Marine Reserve Content: Ambodivahibe Marine Reserve is a new marine protected area that was identified during a marine Rapid assessment ( RAP ) in the north-east of Madagascar as an unusually rich zone for marine biodiversity . A cool upwelling from the deep bay is thought to provide natural resilience to coral bleaching and this may explain the unusually pristine coral habitat . Category : Marine sanctuaries",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Ambodivahibe_Marine_Reserve",
"rank": 84,
"score": 96319
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 85,
"score": 95879
},
{
"content": "Title: Halysites Content: Halysites ( meaning chain coral ) is an extinct genus of tabulate coral . Colonies range from less than one to tens of centimeters in diameter , and they fed upon plankton . These tabulate corals lived from Ordovician to Silurian ( from 449.5 to 412.3 Ma ) . Fossils of Halysites species have been found in the sediments of Canada , United States , Poland and Australia .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Halysites",
"rank": 86,
"score": 95865
},
{
"content": "Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Lee_Hannah",
"rank": 87,
"score": 95553
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific Content: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific ( CRISP ) is a French inter-ministerial project founded in 2002 . Its aims focus on developing a vision for the future for coral reef eco-systems and the communities that depend on them within the French overseas territories and Pacific Island developing countries . Programme coordination is provided by the CRISP Coordination Unit and a programme manager who is supported by scientific counselors . The programme is hosted by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community who is located in Nouméa , New-Caledonia . CRISP is under the institutional protection from the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme . It is a regional initiative that promotes the protection and sustainable management of the coral reefs of the Pacific island states .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_Reef_Initiative_for_the_South_Pacific",
"rank": 88,
"score": 95389
},
{
"content": "Title: Aquaculture of coral Content: Coral aquaculture , also known as coral farming or coral gardening , is the cultivation of corals for commercial purposes or coral reef restoration . Aquaculture is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs , which have been declining around the world . The process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying . Small corals are propagated in nurseries then replanted on the reef . Coral is farmed by coral farmers who live locally to the reefs and farm for reef conservation or for income . It is also farmed by scientists for research , by businesses for the supply of the live and ornamental coral trade , and by private aquarium hobbyists . __ TOC __",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Aquaculture_of_coral",
"rank": 89,
"score": 95284
},
{
"content": "Title: Skeletal eroding band Content: Skeletal eroding band ( SEB ) is a disease of corals that appears a black or dark gray band that slowly advances over corals , leaving a spotted region of dead coral in its wake . It is the most common disease of corals in the Indian and Pacific Oceans , and is also found in the Red Sea . So far one agent has been clearly identified , the ciliate Halofolliculina corallasia . This makes SEB the first coral disease known to be caused by a protozoan . When H. corallasia divides , the daughter cells move to the leading edge of the dark band and produce a protective shell called a lorica . To do this , they drill into the coral 's limestone skeleton , killing coral polyps in the process . A disease with very similar symptoms has been found in the Caribbean Sea , but has been given a different name as it is caused by a different species in the genus Halofolliculina and occurs in a different type of environment .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Skeletal_eroding_band",
"rank": 90,
"score": 94963
},
{
"content": "Title: Favosites Content: Favosites is an extinct genus of tabulate coral characterized by polygonal closely packed corallites ( giving it the common name `` honeycomb coral '' ) . The walls between corallites are pierced by pores known as mural pores which allowed transfer of nutrients between polyps . Favosites , like all coral , thrived in warm sunlit seas , forming colorful reefs , feeding by filtering microscopic plankton with their stinging tentacles . The genus had a worldwide distribution from the Late Ordovician to Late Permian .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Favosites",
"rank": 91,
"score": 94960
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 92,
"score": 94929
},
{
"content": "Title: Defaunation Content: Defaunation is the loss of animals from ecological communities . The growth of the human population , combined with advances in harvesting technologies , has led to more intense and efficient exploitation of the environment . This has resulted in the depletion of large vertebrates from ecological communities , creating what has been termed `` empty forest '' . Defaunation differs from extinction ; it includes both the disappearance of species and declines in abundance . Defaunation effects were first implied at the Symposium of Plant-Animal Interactions at the University of Campinas , Brazil in 1988 in the context of neotropical forests . Since then , the term has gained broader usage in conservation biology as a global phenomenon . It is estimated that more than 50 percent of all wildlife has been lost in the last 40 years . in 2020 it is estimated that 68 % of the worlds wildlife will be lost . In South America , there is believed to be a 70 percent loss .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Defaunation",
"rank": 93,
"score": 94781
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Triangle Day Content: The Coral Triangle Day was established on June 9 , to celebrate and raise awareness of the ocean conservation and protection , especially on the Coral Triangle , the world 's epicenter of marine biodiversity . Intended as an open-sourced event , the day is celebrated by individuals , organizations , and establishment concerned on the Coral Triangle . The Coral Triangle day was observed the first time on June 9 , 2012 , in conjunction with the World Oceans Day on June 8 .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coral_Triangle_Day",
"rank": 94,
"score": 94518
},
{
"content": "Title: Bruno Van Peteghem Content: Bruno Van Peteghem ( born in New Caledonia ) was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2001 , for his campaign to place the island 's coral reef ( among the world 's largest and most unusual ) on UNESCO 's World Heritage List in order to protect the reef against destruction from nickel mining industries .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Bruno_Van_Peteghem",
"rank": 95,
"score": 94457
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep-water coral Content: The habitat of deep-water corals , also known as cold-water corals , extends to deeper , darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals , ranging from near the surface to the abyss , beyond 2000 m where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 C. Deep-water corals belong to the Phylum Cnidaria and are most often stony corals , but also include black and horny corals and soft corals including the Gorgonians ( sea fans ) . Like tropical corals , they provide habitat to other species , but deep-water corals do not require zooxanthellae to survive . While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species , only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs . Instead , they form aggregations called patches , banks , bioherms , massifs , thickets or groves . These aggregations are often referred to as `` reefs , '' but differ structurally and functionally . Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as `` mounds , '' which more accurately describes the large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off , rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates . Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs . Submarine communications cables and fishing methods such as bottom trawling tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs . The deep-water habitat is designated as a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan habitat .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Deep-water_coral",
"rank": 96,
"score": 94234
},
{
"content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850",
"rank": 97,
"score": 94233
},
{
"content": "Title: Coralliozetus micropes Content: Coralliozetus micropes , the Scarletfin blenny , is a species of chaenopsid blenny found in coral reefs in the eastern central Pacific ocean . It can reach a maximum length of 4 cm TL . This species feeds primarily on zooplankton .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Coralliozetus_micropes",
"rank": 98,
"score": 93851
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora dendrum Content: Acropora dendrum is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by Bassett-Smith in 1890 . Found in tropical , shallow reefs in areas of powerful waves at depths of 5 to , it is threatened by disease . The species is rated as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List , with a decreasing population . It is not common but found over a large area , and is listed on CITES Appendix II .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Acropora_dendrum",
"rank": 99,
"score": 93757
},
{
"content": "Title: Millepora dichotoma Content: Millepora dichotoma '' , the net fire coral , is a species of hydrozoan , consisting of a colony of polyps with a calcareous skeleton . Part of the metabolism of the fire coral relies on zooxanthellae included in their anatomy . They are found from the Red Sea to Samoa and South Africa . They form fan-shaped colonies up to 60 cm across , but clumps may be several metres across . Coloured mustard to olive-yellow , the fans form in a single plane . Feeding polyps snare plankton from the passing current along exposed portions of upper reef slopes up to 15 m depth , growing transverse to the prevailing current to ensure maximum exposure to passing foodstuff . The stinging nematocysts contain a toxin which causes painful burn-like wounds on contact . At worst , this may cause collapse in those with a severe allergic reaction . Skin irritation may continue for up to two weeks .",
"qid": "120",
"docid": "Millepora_dichotoma",
"rank": 100,
"score": 93538
}
] |
the warming is not nearly as great as the climate change computer models have predicted. | [
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 1,
"score": 103290
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 2,
"score": 99369
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 3,
"score": 98939
},
{
"content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 4,
"score": 96808
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 5,
"score": 95972
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_model",
"rank": 6,
"score": 95609
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 7,
"score": 95399
},
{
"content": "Title: Syukuro Manabe Content: is a meteorologist and climatologist who pioneered the use of computers to simulate global climate change and natural climate variations .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Syukuro_Manabe",
"rank": 8,
"score": 93540
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 9,
"score": 93402
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 10,
"score": 92999
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 11,
"score": 92885
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes",
"rank": 12,
"score": 92861
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 13,
"score": 91857
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson",
"rank": 14,
"score": 91781
},
{
"content": "Title: Navy Global Environmental Model Content: The Navy Global Environmental Model ( NAVGEM ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer simulation run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the NWS 's Global Forecast System , which runs out to 16 days , the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) and the CMC 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) , both of which run out 10 days , and the UK Met Office 's Unified Model , which runs out to 6 days , it is one of five synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The NAVGEM became operational in February 2013 , replacing the NOGAPS . It uses the same forecast range as the NOGAPS did ( three-hour intervals out 180 hours ) but also uses a refurbished dynamic core and improvements to the physics simulations compared to its predecessor . Category : Numerical climate and weather models Category : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Navy_Global_Environmental_Model",
"rank": 15,
"score": 91699
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 16,
"score": 91047
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 17,
"score": 90517
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia",
"rank": 18,
"score": 90488
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 19,
"score": 89339
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 20,
"score": 89110
},
{
"content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory",
"rank": 21,
"score": 89107
},
{
"content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Vicky_Pope",
"rank": 22,
"score": 88595
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 23,
"score": 88337
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 24,
"score": 88242
},
{
"content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera",
"rank": 25,
"score": 88135
},
{
"content": "Title: DICE model Content: The Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy model , referred to as the DICE model or Dice model , is a computer-based integrated assessment model developed by William Nordhaus that `` integrates in an end-to-end fashion the economics , carbon cycle , climate science , and impacts in a highly aggregated model that allows a weighing of the costs and benefits of taking steps to slow greenhouse warming . '' Nordhaus also developed the RICE model ( Regional Integrated Climate-Economy model ) , a variant of the DICE model that was updated and developed alongside the DICE model . Others who collaborated with Nordhaus to develop the model include David Popp , Zili Yang , Joseph Boyer , and other colleagues . The DICE model is one of the three main integrated assessment models used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency , and it provides estimates intermediate between the other two models .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "DICE_model",
"rank": 26,
"score": 87860
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_Zealand",
"rank": 27,
"score": 87804
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 28,
"score": 87744
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 87361
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Ecological_forecasting",
"rank": 30,
"score": 87338
},
{
"content": "Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "General_circulation_model",
"rank": 31,
"score": 87259
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_scenario",
"rank": 32,
"score": 87166
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 33,
"score": 87129
},
{
"content": "Title: EdGCM Content: The Educational Global Climate Model or EdGCM is a fully functional global climate model ( GCM ) that has been ported for use on desktop computers ( Windows PCs and Macs ) . It operates through a graphical user interface and is integrated with a relational database and scientific visualization utllities , all of which aim at helping improve the quality of teaching and understanding of climatology by making real-world research experiences more accessible . EdGCM is designed to permit teachers and students to conduct in-depth investigations of past , present and future climate scenarios in a manner that is essentially identical to the techniques used by national and international climate research organizations . EdGCM was developed at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies as a joint project of Columbia University and NASA scientists and programmers . The Global Climate Model at the core of EdGCM is GISS Model II . During the 1980s and early 1990s this GCM was one of NASA 's primary climate research tools . Results from the model have appeared in hundreds of scientific publications . The coarser resolution of the climate model in EdGCM ( 8 ° x 10 ° , latitude x longitude ) makes it inexpensive to run . But , because it contains most of the key atmospheric physics of modern GCMs , EdGCM is also used by climate researchers who do not have access to the most recent GCM versions .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "EdGCM",
"rank": 34,
"score": 87014
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 35,
"score": 86239
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Global_warming_game",
"rank": 36,
"score": 85618
},
{
"content": "Title: Numerical weather prediction Content: Numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions . Though first attempted in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results . A number of global and regional forecast models are run in different countries worldwide , using current weather observations relayed from radiosondes , weather satellites and other observing systems as inputs . Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions ; the latter are widely applied for understanding and projecting climate change . The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts ; however , atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area , such as wildfires . Manipulating the vast datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to only about six days . Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts , along with deficiencies in the numerical models themselves . Post-processing techniques such as model output statistics ( MOS ) have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions . A more fundamental problem lies in the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations that govern the atmosphere . It is impossible to solve these equations exactly , and small errors grow with time ( doubling about every five days ) . Present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to about 14 days even with perfectly accurate input data and a flawless model . In addition , the partial differential equations used in the model need to be supplemented with parameterizations for solar radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , and the effects of terrain . In an effort to quantify the large amount of inherent uncertainty remaining in numerical predictions , ensemble forecasts have been used since the 1990s to help gauge the confidence in the forecast , and to obtain useful results farther into the future than otherwise possible . This approach analyzes multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model or multiple models .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Numerical_weather_prediction",
"rank": 37,
"score": 85533
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas",
"rank": 38,
"score": 85378
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 39,
"score": 85348
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle",
"rank": 40,
"score": 85207
},
{
"content": "Title: PRECIS Content: PRECIS ( Providing REgional Climates for Impacts Studies , pronounced pray-sea ) is developed at the Hadley Centre at the UK Met Office , PRECIS is a regional climate modelling system designed to run on a Linux based PC . PRECIS can be applied to any area of the globe to generate detailed climate change projections .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "PRECIS",
"rank": 41,
"score": 85125
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 42,
"score": 84890
},
{
"content": "Title: James Annan Content: James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "James_Annan",
"rank": 43,
"score": 84652
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 44,
"score": 84462
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy",
"rank": 45,
"score": 84439
},
{
"content": "Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Petar_Gburčik",
"rank": 46,
"score": 84289
},
{
"content": "Title: Transient climate simulation Content: A transient climate simulation is a mode of running a global climate model ( GCM ) in which a period of time ( typically 1850 -- 2100 ) is simulated with continuously-varying concentrations of greenhouse gases so that the climate of the model represents a realistic mode of possible change in the real world .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Transient_climate_simulation",
"rank": 47,
"score": 83941
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "The_Great_Warming",
"rank": 48,
"score": 83853
},
{
"content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell",
"rank": 49,
"score": 83717
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 50,
"score": 83443
},
{
"content": "Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Fate_of_the_World",
"rank": 51,
"score": 83256
},
{
"content": "Title: Climateprediction.net Content: Climateprediction.net ( CPDN ) is a distributed computing project to investigate and reduce uncertainties in climate modelling . It aims to do this by running hundreds of thousands of different models ( a large climate ensemble ) using the donated idle time of ordinary personal computers , thereby leading to a better understanding of how models are affected by small changes in the many parameters known to influence the global climate . The project relies on the volunteer computing model using the BOINC framework where voluntary participants agree to run some processes of the project at the client-side in their personal computers after receiving tasks from the server-side for treatment . CPDN , which is run primarily by Oxford University in England , has harnessed more computing power and generated more data than any other climate modelling project . It has produced over 100 million model years of data so far . , there are more than 12,000 active participants from 223 countries with a total BOINC credit of more than 27 billion , reporting about 55 teraflops ( 55 trillion operations per second ) of processing power .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climateprediction.net",
"rank": 52,
"score": 83109
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 53,
"score": 82911
},
{
"content": "Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model Content: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by Fleet Numerical . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) it is one of several synoptic scale medium-range models in general use .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System_Model",
"rank": 54,
"score": 82854
},
{
"content": "Title: Dynamic global vegetation model Content: A Dynamic Global Vegetation Model ( DGVM ) is a computer program that simulates shifts in potential vegetation and its associated biogeochemical and hydrological cycles as a response to shifts in climate . DGVMs use time series of climate data and , given constraints of latitude , topography , and soil characteristics , simulate monthly or daily dynamics of ecosystem processes . DGVMs are used most often to simulate the effects of future climate change on natural vegetation and its carbon and water cycles . DGVMs generally combine biogeochemistry , biogeography , and disturbance submodels . Disturbance is often limited to wildfires , but in principle could include any of : forest/land management decisions , windthrow , insect damage , ozone damage etc. . DGVMs usually `` spin up '' their simulations from bare ground to `` equilibrium '' vegetation to establish realistic initial values for their various `` pools '' : carbon and nitrogen in live and dead vegetation , soil organic matter , etc. corresponding to a documented historical vegetation cover . DGVMs are usually run in a spatially distributed mode , with simulations carried out for thousands of `` cells '' , geographic points which are assumed to have homogeneous conditions within each cell . Simulations are carried out across a range of spatial scales , from global to landscape . Cells are usually arranged as lattice points ; the distance between adjacent lattice points may be as coarse as a few degrees of latitude or longitude , or as fine as 30 arc-seconds . Simulations of the conterminous United States in the first DGVM comparison exercise ( LPJ and MC1 ) called the VEMAP project in the 1990s used a lattice grain of one-half degree . Global simulations by the PIK group and collaborators using 6 different DGVMs ( HYBRID , IBIS , LPJ , SDGVM , TRIFFID , and VECODE ) used the same resolution as the general circulation model ( GCM ) that provided the climate data , 3.75 deg longitude x 2.5 deg latitude , a total of 1631 land grid cells . Sometimes lattice distances are specified in kilometers rather than angular measure , especially for finer grains , so a project like VEMAP is often referred to as 50 km grain . Several DGVMs appeared in the middle 1990s . The first was apparently IBIS ( Foley et al. , 1996 ) , VECODE ( Brovkin et al. , 1997 ) , followed by several others described below : Several DGVMs have been developed by various research groups around the world : LPJ - Germany , Sweden IBIS - Integrated Biosphere Simulator - U.S. MC1 - U.S. HYBRID - U.K. SDGVM - U.K. SEIB-DGVM - Japan TRIFFID - U.K. VECODE - Germany CLM-DVGM - U.S. Ecosystem Demography ( ED , ED2 ) The next generation of models - earth system models ( ex . CCSM , ORCHIDEE , JULES , CTEM ) - now includes the important feedbacks from the biosphere to the atmosphere so that vegetation shifts and changes in the carbon and hydrological cycles affect the climate . DGVMs commonly simulate a variety of plant and soil physiological processes . The processes simulated by various DGVMs are summarized in the table below . Abbreviations are : NPP , net primary production ; PFT , plant functional type ; SAW , soil available water ; LAI , leaf area index ; I , solar radiation ; T , air temperature ; Wr , root zone water supply ; PET , potential evapotranspiration ; vegc , total live vegetation carbon . References : Category : Scientific modeling",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Dynamic_global_vegetation_model",
"rank": 55,
"score": 82687
},
{
"content": "Title: CLIVAR Content: CLIVAR ( climate variability and predictability ) is a component of the World Climate Research Programme . Its purpose is to describe and understand climate variability and predictability on seasonal to centennial time-scales , identify the physical processes responsible for climate change and develop modeling and predictive capabilities for climate modelling .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "CLIVAR",
"rank": 56,
"score": 82480
},
{
"content": "Title: Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Content: The Copernicus Climate Change Service ( C3S ) is one of the six thematic services provided by the European Union 's Copernicus Programme . The Copernicus Programme is managed by the European Commission and the C3S is implemented by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) and is expected to become operational in 2018 . The objective of the Copernicus Climate Change Service is to build an EU knowledge base in support of mitigation and adaptation policies for Climate Change and Global Warming . The goal of the operational Climate Change service is to provide reliable information about the current and past state of the climate , the forecasts on a seasonal time scale , and the more likely projections in the coming decades for various scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions and other Climate Change contributors .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Copernicus_Climate_Change_Service_(C3S)",
"rank": 57,
"score": 82178
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 58,
"score": 81911
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Cloud_feedback",
"rank": 59,
"score": 81702
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Forecast System Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Forecast System or Coupled Forecast System ( both names abbreviated CFS ) is a medium to long range numerical weather prediction and a climate model run by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) to bridge weather and climate timescales . Version 2 became operational as CFSv2 in 2011 .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_Forecast_System",
"rank": 60,
"score": 81454
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 61,
"score": 81385
},
{
"content": "Title: History of numerical weather prediction Content: The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "History_of_numerical_weather_prediction",
"rank": 62,
"score": 80217
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 63,
"score": 80204
},
{
"content": "Title: Adam Scaife Content: Adam Arthur Scaife B.A. M.A. MSc PhD FRMetS ( born 18 March 1970 ) is a British physicist , and head of long range prediction at the Met Office . He is an honorary visiting Professor at Exeter University . Scaife carries out research into long range weather forecasting and computer modelling of the climate . Scaife has published over 100 peer reviewed studies on atmospheric dynamics , computer modelling and climate predictability and change and recently published popular science and academic books on meteorology .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Adam_Scaife",
"rank": 64,
"score": 80187
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 65,
"score": 80133
},
{
"content": "Title: CCCma Content: CCCma ( Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis ) is part of the Climate Research Division of Environment Canada and is located at the University of Victoria , Victoria , British Columbia . Its purpose is to develop and apply climate models to improve understanding of climate change and make quantitative projections of future climate in Canada and globally . Its seasonal forecasting system provides climate forecasts over Canada on timescales of months to years .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "CCCma",
"rank": 66,
"score": 80082
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents",
"rank": 67,
"score": 79974
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 68,
"score": 79808
},
{
"content": "Title: Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Content: The Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model was run four times a day and produced weather forecasts . The NOGAPS was replaced by the NAVGEM in February 2013 .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System",
"rank": 69,
"score": 79800
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Runaway_climate_change",
"rank": 70,
"score": 79548
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 71,
"score": 79008
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States",
"rank": 72,
"score": 78978
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 73,
"score": 78873
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental niche modelling Content: Environmental niche modelling , alternatively known as species distribution modelling , ( ecological ) niche modelling , predictive habitat distribution modelling , and climate envelope modelling refers to the process of using computer algorithms to predict the distribution of species in geographic space on the basis of a mathematical representation of their known distribution in environmental space ( = realized ecological niche ) . The environment is in most cases represented by climate data ( such as temperature , and precipitation ) , but other variables such as soil type , water depth , and land cover can also be used . These models allow for interpolating between a limited number of species occurrence and they are used in several research areas in conservation biology , ecology and evolution . The extent to which such modelled data reflect real-world species distributions will depend on a number of factors , including the nature , complexity , and accuracy of the models used and the quality of the available environmental data layers ; the availability of sufficient and reliable species distribution data as model input ; and the influence of various factors such as barriers to dispersal , geologic history , or biotic interactions , that increase the difference between the realized niche and the fundamental niche . Environmental niche modelling may be considered a part of the discipline of biodiversity informatics .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Environmental_niche_modelling",
"rank": 74,
"score": 78748
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 75,
"score": 78151
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 76,
"score": 78117
},
{
"content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 77,
"score": 77904
},
{
"content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 78,
"score": 77887
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 79,
"score": 77842
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 80,
"score": 77816
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_West_Virginia",
"rank": 81,
"score": 77487
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 82,
"score": 77416
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 83,
"score": 77366
},
{
"content": "Title: Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison Content: The Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison ( PCMDI ) is a program at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore , California . Livermore is in the San Francisco Bay Area in the United States . It is funded by the Regional and Global Climate Modeling Group ( RGCM ) and the Atmospheric System Research ( ASR ) programs of the Climate and Environment Sciences Division of the United States Department of Energy .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Program_for_Climate_Model_Diagnosis_and_Intercomparison",
"rank": 84,
"score": 77339
},
{
"content": "Title: CliSAP Content: The `` Integrated Climate System Analysis and Prediction '' ( CliSAP ) Cluster of Excellence is a research association of the Universität Hamburg , the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology ( MPI-M ) , the Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht ( Centre for Materials and Coastal Research , HZG ) , and the German Climate Computing Center ( DKRZ ) . The Cluster of Excellence started in 2007 as part of the Excellence Initiative of the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research . It is therefore funded by the German Research Foundation ( DFG ) . CliSAP conducts fundamental research on climate and climate change in the fields of natural , economic and social sciences .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "CliSAP",
"rank": 85,
"score": 77329
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 86,
"score": 77291
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 87,
"score": 77034
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional Atmospheric Modeling System Content: The Regional Atmospheric Modeling System ( RAMS ) is a set of computer program that simulates the atmosphere for weather and climate research and for numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) . Other components include a data analysis and a visualization package . RAMS was developed in the 1980s at Colorado State University ( CSU ) , spearheaded by William R. Cotton and Roger A. Pielke , for mesoscale meteorological modeling . Subsequent development is primarily done by Robert L. Walko and Craig J. Tremback under the supervision of Cotton and Pielke . It is a comprehensive non-hydrostatic model . It is written primarily in Fortran with some C code and it runs best under the Unix operating system . Version 6 was released in 2009 . RAMS is the basis for a system simulating the Martian atmosphere that is named MRAMS .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Regional_Atmospheric_Modeling_System",
"rank": 88,
"score": 77013
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 89,
"score": 76844
},
{
"content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Abrupt_climate_change",
"rank": 90,
"score": 76812
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia",
"rank": 91,
"score": 76718
},
{
"content": "Title: Model for Prediction Across Scales Content: The Model for Prediction Across Scales ( MPAS ) is a coupled Earth system modeling package that integrates atmospheric , oceanographic and cryospheric modeling on a variety of scales from the planetary to regional and mesoscale/microscale . It includes climate and weather modeling and simulations that were first used by researchers in 2013 . The atmospheric components ( MPAS-A ) were led by the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) 's Earth System Laboratory ( NESL ) and the oceanographic components ( MPAS-O ) by the Climate , Ocean , and Sea Ice Modeling Group ( COSIM ) at Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) . It has been used for real-time weather as well as seasonal forecasting of convection , tornadoes and tropical cyclones , among other uses . Its atmospheric modeling aspects are intended to use and complement rather than replace the Weather Research and Forecasting Model ( WRF-ARW/NMM ) , the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) and the Community Earth System Model ( CESM ) .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Model_for_Prediction_Across_Scales",
"rank": 92,
"score": 76709
},
{
"content": "Title: Penny Whetton Content: Penelope Whetton ( born 5 January 1958 ) is a climatologist and an expert in regional climate change projections due to global warming and in the impacts of those changes . Her primary scientific focus has been Australia .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Penny_Whetton",
"rank": 93,
"score": 76577
},
{
"content": "Title: Unified Model Content: The Unified Model is a Numerical Weather Prediction and climate modeling software suite originally developed by the United Kingdom Met Office , and now both used and further developed by many weather-forecasting agencies around the world . The Unified Model gets its name because a single model is used across a range of both timescales ( nowcasting to centennial ) and spatial scales ( convective scale to climate system earth modelling ) . The models are grid-point based , rather than wave based , and are run on a variety of supercomputers around the world . The Unified Model atmosphere can be coupled to a number of ocean models . At the Met Office it is used for the main suite of Global Model , North Atlantic and Europe model ( NAE ) and a high-resolution UK model ( UKV ) , in addition to a variety of Crisis Area Models and other models that can be run on demand . Similar Unified Model suites with global and regional domains are used by many other national or military weather agencies around the world for operational forecasting . Data for numerical weather prediction is provided by observations from satellites , from the ground ( both human and from automatic weather stations ) , from buoys at sea , radar , radiosonde weather balloons , wind profilers , commercial aircraft and a background field from previous model runs . The computer model is only adjusted towards the observations using assimilation , rather than forcing the model to accept an observed value that might make the system unstable ( and could be an inaccurate observation ) . The Unified Model software suite is written in Fortran ( originally 77 but now predominantly 90 ) and uses height as the vertical variable . Because most developments of interest are at near to the ground the vertical layers are closer together near the surface .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Unified_Model",
"rank": 94,
"score": 76398
},
{
"content": "Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "People's_Climate_March",
"rank": 95,
"score": 76262
},
{
"content": "Title: Model year (computer modeling) Content: The term model year in computer modeling is used for calculated equations describing one calendar year of data . If a climate model , for example , is calculating the climate from 2015 to 2020 , the computer has to calculate 5 model years , however it most likely takes much less time for the computer to do so . The term is used in descriptions for models like climateprediction.net , which has produced about 125 million model years of data until May 2011 .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Model_year_(computer_modeling)",
"rank": 96,
"score": 76242
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical cyclone forecast model Content: A tropical cyclone forecast model is a computer program that uses meteorological data to forecast aspects of the future state of tropical cyclones . There are three types of models : statistical , dynamical , or combined statistical-dynamic . Dynamical models utilize powerful supercomputers with sophisticated mathematical modeling software and meteorological data to calculate future weather conditions . Statistical models forecast the evolution of a tropical cyclone in a simpler manner , by extrapolating from historical datasets , and thus can be run quickly on platforms such as personal computers . Statistical-dynamical models use aspects of both types of forecasting . Four primary types of forecasts exist for tropical cyclones : track , intensity , storm surge , and rainfall . Dynamical models were not developed until the 1970s and the 1980s , with earlier efforts focused on the storm surge problem . Track models did not show forecast skill when compared to statistical models until the 1980s . Statistical-dynamical models were used from the 1970s into the 1990s . Early models use data from previous model runs while late models produce output after the official hurricane forecast has been sent . The use of consensus , ensemble , and superensemble forecasts lowers errors more than any individual forecast model . Both consensus and superensemble forecasts can use the guidance of global and regional models runs to improve the performance more than any of their respective components . Techniques used at the Joint Typhoon Warning Center indicate that superensemble forecasts are a very powerful tool for track forecasting .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Tropical_cyclone_forecast_model",
"rank": 97,
"score": 76025
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Grenada",
"rank": 98,
"score": 76002
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture",
"rank": 99,
"score": 75959
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .",
"qid": "123",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge",
"rank": 100,
"score": 75925
}
] |
El Niño drove record highs in global temperatures suggesting rise may not be down to man-made emissions. | [
{
"content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event",
"rank": 1,
"score": 174155
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014–16 El Niño event Content: The 2014 -- 16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line . These unusually warm waters influenced the world 's weather in a number of ways , which in turn significantly affected various parts of the world . These included drought conditions in Venezuela , Australia and a number of Pacific islands while significant flooding was also recorded . During the event more tropical cyclones than normal occurred within the Pacific Ocean , while fewer than normal occurred in the Atlantic Ocean .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "2014–16_El_Niño_event",
"rank": 2,
"score": 167179
},
{
"content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation",
"rank": 3,
"score": 155937
},
{
"content": "Title: El Niño Content: El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall . Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "El_Niño",
"rank": 4,
"score": 155761
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 5,
"score": 154277
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves",
"rank": 6,
"score": 149610
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 7,
"score": 146274
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves",
"rank": 8,
"score": 144600
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 9,
"score": 136845
},
{
"content": "Title: 1982–83 El Niño event Content: The 1982 -- 83 El Niño event was one of the strongest El Niño events since records were kept . It led to widespread flooding across the southern United States , droughts in Indonesia and Australia , and lack of snow in northern areas of the United States . The estimated economic impact was over US$ 8 billion . This El Niño event also led to an abnormal amount of hurricanes in the Pacific Ocean during this time span ; the strongest hurricane up to 1983 hit Hawaii during this El Niño event . It led to declines of 77 % among Galápagos penguins and 49 % among flightless cormorants . In addition to these losses in penguins and cormorants , this El Niño event caused a quarter of adult native sea lions and fur seals on Peru 's coast to starve , while the entirety of both seals ' pup populations perished . In Ecuador heavy rainfall and flooding led to high fish and shrimp harvests , however the large amounts of standing water also allowed mosquito populations to thrive , leading to large outbreaks of malaria .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "1982–83_El_Niño_event",
"rank": 10,
"score": 136681
},
{
"content": "Title: La Niña Content: La Niña ( -LSB- lɑːˈniːnjə -RSB- , -LSB- la ˈniɲa -RSB- ) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is the counterpart of El Niño as part of the broader El Niño -- Southern Oscillation climate pattern . The name La Niña originates from Spanish , meaning `` the little girl '' , analogous to El Niño meaning `` the little boy '' . It has also in the past been called anti-El Niño , and El Viejo ( meaning `` the old man '' ) . During a period of La Niña , the sea surface temperature across the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3 to 5 ° C . In the United States , an appearance of La Niña persists for at least five months . It has extensive effects on the weather in North America , even affecting the Atlantic Hurricane Season .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "La_Niña",
"rank": 11,
"score": 132047
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the United States Content: The El Niño -- Southern Oscillation affects the location of the jet stream , which alters rainfall patterns across the West , Midwest , the Southeast , and throughout the tropics . The shift in the jet stream also leads to shifts in the occurrence of severe weather , and the number of tropical cyclones expected within the tropics in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans affected by changes in the ocean temperature and the subtropical jet stream . The winter will have a negative phase according to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Effects_of_the_El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 12,
"score": 129278
},
{
"content": "Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave",
"rank": 13,
"score": 125211
},
{
"content": "Title: Atlantic Equatorial mode Content: The Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño is a quasiperiodic interannual climate pattern of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean . It is the dominant mode of year-to-year variability that results in alternating warming and cooling episodes of sea surface temperatures accompanied by changes in atmospheric circulation . The term Atlantic Niño comes from its close similarity with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) that dominates the tropical Pacific basin . The Atlantic Niño is not the same as the Atlantic Meridional ( Interhemispheric ) Mode that consists of a north-south dipole and operates more on decadal timescales . The equatorial warming and cooling events associated with the Atlantic Niño are known to be strongly related to atmospheric climate anomalies , especially in African countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea . Therefore , understanding of the Atlantic Niño ( or lack thereof ) has important implications for climate prediction in those regions . Although the Atlantic Niño is an intrinsic mode to the equatorial Atlantic , there may be a tenuous causal relationship between ENSO and the Atlantic Niño in some circumstances .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Atlantic_Equatorial_mode",
"rank": 14,
"score": 124410
},
{
"content": "Title: El Niño (disambiguation) Content: El Niño is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon . El Niño may also refer to : El Niño ( Def Squad album ) El Niño ( oratorio ) , by American composer John Adams El Niño ( Eldritch album ) El Niño ( film ) El Niño , a race car in the video game Need for Speed III : Hot Pursuit El Niño , a nickname of Spanish golfer Sergio García El Niño , a nickname of Spanish footballer Fernando Torres El Niño , a nickname of baseball player Hanley Ramírez El Niño , a nickname of hockey player Nino Niederreiter El Niño , a nickname of mixed martial artist Gilbert Melendez El Niño , a fictional airline of a non-existing country San Escobar",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "El_Niño_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 15,
"score": 123333
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 16,
"score": 123054
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 17,
"score": 123032
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 18,
"score": 120676
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 19,
"score": 120326
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 20,
"score": 120296
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 21,
"score": 120262
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 22,
"score": 120075
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Victorian Holocausts Content: Late Victorian Holocausts : El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World is a book by Mike Davis about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns , particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries , Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism , and the relation with famine in particular . Davis argues that `` Millions died , not outside the ` modern world system ' , but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures . They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism ; indeed , many were murdered ... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith , Bentham and Mill . ''",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Late_Victorian_Holocausts",
"rank": 23,
"score": 119065
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_oscillation",
"rank": 24,
"score": 118809
},
{
"content": "Title: List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes Content: Category 4 , the second-highest classification on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale , is used for tropical cyclones that have winds of 130 -- 156 mph ( 209 -- 251 km/h ; 113 -- 136 kn ) . The division of the eastern and central Pacific basins occurs at 140 ° W ; the eastern Pacific covers area east of 140 ° W , while the central Pacific extends between 140 ° W to 180 ° W. Both basins ' division points are at 66 ° N as a northern point and the equator as the southern point . As of , 116 hurricanes have attained Category 4 status in the northeastern Pacific basins . This list does not include storms that also attained Category 5 status on the scale . Numerous climatological factors influence the formation of hurricanes in the Pacific basins . The North Pacific High and Aleutian Low , usually present between January and April , cause strong wind shear and unfavorable conditions for the development of hurricanes . During its presence , El Niño results in increased numbers of powerful hurricanes through weaker wind shear , while La Niña reduces the number of such hurricanes through the opposite . Global warming may also influence the formation of tropical cyclones in the Pacific basin . During a thirty-year period with two sub-periods , the first between 1975 and 1989 and the second between 1990 and 2004 , an increase of thirteen Category 4 or 5 storms was observed from the first sub-period . __ TOC __",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "List_of_Category_4_Pacific_hurricanes",
"rank": 25,
"score": 116520
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 26,
"score": 115065
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 27,
"score": 114945
},
{
"content": "Title: May 2016 United States storm complex Content: The May 2016 United States storm complex was a flood in the United States that occurred on May 31 , 2016 , affecting the states of Arkansas , Kansas , Nebraska , Oklahoma , and Texas . The inundation set precipitation records in Texas and Oklahoma . On June 2 , 2016 , the rising of the Brazos River required evacuations for portions of Brazoria County , Texas . Ten deaths of Texans and thousands of home evacuations led Texas Governor Greg Abbott to issue a statewide Disaster Proclamation on June 1 , 2016 considering the damage in thirty-one counties including Austin , Bandera , Bastrop , Brazoria , Brazos , Burleson , Coleman , Colorado , Erath , Fayette , Fort Bend , Grimes , Hidalgo , Hood , Jasper , Kleberg , Lee , Leon , Liberty , Lubbock , Montgomery , Palo Pinto , Parker , Polk , Robertson , San Jacinto , Tyler , Walker , Waller , Washington and Wharton counties . Meteorologists attribute this storm 's devastation to the power of the El Niño climate cycle . An El Niño system is identified following fluctuation in the climate , characterized by an eastern shift of warming ocean water from the western tropical Pacific Ocean and rainfall along the equator .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "May_2016_United_States_storm_complex",
"rank": 28,
"score": 114525
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010–12 La Niña event Content: The 2010 -- 12 La Niña event was one of the strongest on record . It caused Australia to experience its wettest September on record in 2010 , and its second-wettest year on record in 2010 . It also led to an unusual intensification of the Leeuwin Current , the 2010 Pakistan floods , the 2010 -- 11 Queensland floods , and the 2011 East Africa drought . It also helped keep the average global temperature below recent trends , leading to 2011 tying with 1997 for the 14th-warmest year on record .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "2010–12_La_Niña_event",
"rank": 29,
"score": 114035
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 30,
"score": 113032
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 31,
"score": 112567
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 32,
"score": 111432
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 33,
"score": 111126
},
{
"content": "Title: Subtropical ridge Content: The subtropical ridge , also known as the subtropical high or horse latitudes , is a significant belt of atmospheric high pressure situated around the latitudes of 30 ° N in the Northern Hemisphere and 30 ° S in the Southern Hemisphere . It is the product of the global air circulation cell known as the Hadley Cell . The subtropical ridge is characterized by mostly calm winds , which act to reduce air quality under its axis by causing fog overnight , and haze during daylight hours as a result of the stable atmosphere found near its location . The air descending from the upper troposphere flows out from its center at surface level toward the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere , creating both the trade winds and the westerlies . The subtropical ridge moves poleward during the summer , reaching its most northern latitude in early fall , before moving equatorward during the cold season . The El Niño southern climate oscillation ( ENSO ) can displace the northern hemisphere subtropical ridge , with La Niñas allowing for a more northerly axis for the ridge , while El Niños show flatter , more southerly ridges . The change of the ridge position during ENSO cycles changes the tracks of tropical cyclones that form around their equatorward and western peripheries . As the subtropical ridge varies in position and strength , it can enhance or depress monsoon regimes around their low-latitude periphery . The term `` horse latitudes '' refers to and is synonymous with the subtropical ridge or subtropical high .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Subtropical_ridge",
"rank": 34,
"score": 110230
},
{
"content": "Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Satellite_temperature_measurements",
"rank": 35,
"score": 109936
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 36,
"score": 109881
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 37,
"score": 109473
},
{
"content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm",
"rank": 38,
"score": 109397
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 39,
"score": 109293
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 40,
"score": 109017
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 41,
"score": 108993
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 42,
"score": 108950
},
{
"content": "Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Hell_and_High_Water_(book)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 108418
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 44,
"score": 108295
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 45,
"score": 108206
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian Ocean Dipole Content: The Indian Ocean Dipole ( IOD ) , also known as the Indian Niño , is an irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperatures in which the western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer and then colder than the eastern part of the ocean . Monsoon in India is generally affected by the temperature between bay of Bangal in the east and The Arabian sea in the west",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Indian_Ocean_Dipole",
"rank": 46,
"score": 107664
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 47,
"score": 107291
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project Content: The Tropical Atmosphere Ocean ( TAO ) project is a major international effort that instrumented the entire tropical Pacific Ocean with approximately 70 deep ocean moorings . The development of the TAO array in 1985 was motivated by the 1982-1983 El Niño event and ultimately designed for the study of year-to-year climate variations related to El Niño and the Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Led by the TAO Project Office of the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory ( PMEL ) , the full array of 70 moorings was completed in 1994 . The completed TAO array provides in-situ data collection of high quality oceanographic and surface meteorological data for monitoring , forecasting , and understanding of climate swings associated with El Niño and La Nina . In January 2000 , the TAO array was renamed the TAO/TRITON array in recognition of the contribution made by the TRITON ( Triangle Trans-Ocean Buoy Network ) moorings . The TRITON moorings are situated along , and to the west of , 156E and are operated and managed by JAMSTEC .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Tropical_Atmosphere_Ocean_project",
"rank": 48,
"score": 106935
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 49,
"score": 105872
},
{
"content": "Title: 2004 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest Atlantic hurricane season on record until surpassed by the following year . More than half of the 16 tropical cyclones brushed or struck the United States . The season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . Due to a Modoki El Niño -- a rare type of El Niño in which unfavorable conditions are produced over the eastern Pacific instead of the Atlantic basin due to warmer sea surface temperatures farther west along the equatorial Pacific -- activity was above average . The first storm , Alex , developed offshore of the Southeastern United States on July 31 . It brushed the Carolinas and the Mid-Atlantic , causing one death and $ 7.5 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage . Several storms caused only minor damage , including tropical storms Bonnie , Earl , Hermine , and Matthew . In addition , hurricanes Danielle , Karl , and Lisa , Tropical Depression Ten , Subtropical Storm Nicole and Tropical Storm Otto had no effect on land while tropical cyclones . Hurricane Charley made landfall in Florida as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) , causing $ 15.1 billion in damage in the United States alone . Later in August , Hurricane Frances struck the Bahamas and Florida , causing at least 49 deaths and $ 9.5 billion in damage . The most intense storm , and the one that caused the most damage , was Hurricane Ivan . It was a Category 5 hurricane that devastated multiple countries adjacent to the Caribbean Sea , before entering the Gulf of Mexico and causing catastrophic destruction on the Gulf Coast of the United States , especially Alabama and Florida . Throughout the countries it passed through , Ivan left 129 fatalities and over $ 23.33 billion in damage . The most significant tropical cyclone in terms of deaths was Hurricane Jeanne . In Haiti , torrential rainfall in the mountainous areas resulted in mudslides and severe flooding , causing at least 3,006 fatalities . Jeanne also struck Florida , inflicting extensive destruction . Overall , the storm caused at least $ 8.1 billion in damage and 3,042 deaths . Collectively , the storms of this season caused at least 3,270 deaths and about $ 57.37 billion in damage , making it the costliest Atlantic hurricane season at the time , until the following season . With six hurricanes reaching at least Category 3 intensity , 2004 also had the most major hurricanes since 1996 . However , that record would also be surpassed in 2005 , with seven major hurricanes that year . In the spring of 2005 , four names were retired : Charley , Frances , Ivan , and Jeanne . This tied the then-record most names retired with 1955 and 1995 , while five were retired in 2005 .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season",
"rank": 50,
"score": 105723
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 51,
"score": 105137
},
{
"content": "Title: Nino Content: Nino or Niño may refer to : Nino ( name ) El Niño , a climate pattern in the tropical Pacific Ocean NINO , an abbreviation for National insurance number in the United Kingdom Niño , the smallest conga drum Niño ( single ) , a single from the album Dulce Beat by Belanova Nino ( novel ) , a 1938 children 's novel by Valenti Angelo Niño ( TV series ) , a 2014 Philippine TV series Philips Nino , a PDA-style device The Netherlands Institute for the Near East",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Nino",
"rank": 52,
"score": 105018
},
{
"content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe",
"rank": 53,
"score": 104777
},
{
"content": "Title: 1998 Klang Valley water crisis Content: The 1998 Klang Valley water crisis occurred in Malaysia in February 1998 when the three reservoir dams in Klang Valley , Klang Gates Dam , Batu Dam and Semenyih Dam suffered a substantial drop in water level following the El Niño phenomenon . The subsequent water shortage affected almost all the residents in the Klang Valley causing the government to impose water rationing prior to the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur . The shortage was blamed on El Nino despite actual rainfall in the months leading up to February 1998 in Federal Territory not being significantly below average . In fact in November 1997 , Klang Gates Dam had its highest recorded rainfall . Similarly in October 1997 the Kajang station not far from the Semenyih dam had its highest rainfall in record .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "1998_Klang_Valley_water_crisis",
"rank": 54,
"score": 104620
},
{
"content": "Title: John Michael Wallace Content: John Michael Wallace ( born October 28 , 1940 ) , is a professor of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington , as well as the former director of the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean ( JISAO ) -- a joint research venture between the University of Washington and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research concerns understanding global climate and its variations using observations and covers the quasi biennial oscillation , Pacific decadal oscillation and the annular modes of the Arctic oscillation and the Antarctic oscillation , and the dominant spatial patterns in month-to-month and year-to-year climate variability , including the one through which El Niño phenomenon in the tropical Pacific influences climate over North America . He is also the coauthor with Peter V. Hobbs of what is generally considered the standard introductory textbook in the field : Atmospheric Science : An Introductory Survey . He was the third most cited geoscientist during the period 1973 -- 2007 .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "John_Michael_Wallace",
"rank": 55,
"score": 104163
},
{
"content": "Title: Eric Guilyardi Content: Eric Guilyardi is a climate scientist , professor in the department of meteorology at the University of Reading and directeur de recherche CNRS at LOCEAN at Institute Pierre Simon Laplace ( IPSL ) in Paris , France . He is an expert of the El Niño phenomenon . He has been a Lead Author for the IPCC AR5 report .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Eric_Guilyardi",
"rank": 56,
"score": 104090
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 57,
"score": 103725
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 58,
"score": 103333
},
{
"content": "Title: Maximum parcel level Content: The maximum parcel level ( MPL ) is the highest level in the atmosphere that a moist convectively rising air parcel will reach after ascending from the level of free convection ( LFC ) through the free convective layer ( FCL ) and reaching the equilibrium level ( EL ) , near the tropopause . As the parcel rises through the FCL it expands adiabatically causing its temperature to drop , often below the temperature of its surroundings , and eventually lose buoyancy . Because of this , the EL is approximately the region where the distinct flat tops ( called anvils ) often observed on cumulonimbus clouds form . If the air parcel ascended quickly enough then it retains momentum after it has cooled and continues rising past the EL , ceasing at the MPL ( visually represented by the overshooting top , above the anvil ) .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Maximum_parcel_level",
"rank": 59,
"score": 102736
},
{
"content": "Title: El Niño (Def Squad album) Content: El Niño is the only album from hip hop supergroup Def Squad . The three Def Squad members , Redman , Erick Sermon and Keith Murray , released this album on June 30 , 1998 to positive critical and commercial feedback . The album is now out of print . It reached # 2 on The Billboard 200 and had one single , `` Full Cooperation '' . The CD was released as a Promotional Package including a `` Survival Of the Illest 3 '' disc , a mixtape featuring Method Man and Redman hosting . The song `` Ride Wit Us '' later appeared on Keith Murray 's third album It 's a Beautiful Thing .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "El_Niño_(Def_Squad_album)",
"rank": 60,
"score": 101446
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network",
"rank": 61,
"score": 100975
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature Rising (album) Content: Temperature Rising is the second English language album by Thai singer Tata Young . It was released in 2006 . The album consist of cover songs and original songs . The first single is `` El Nin-YO ! '' , from the lyrics of which the album 's title comes from . ( `` You got my temperature rising like El Nin-YO ! '' ) . Her second single is `` Zoom '' which was released in September . `` Come Rain Come Shine '' , the third single , was used in Star World 's station promo 's from December 2006 to mid-2007 . The promo includes footage of Tata Young singing `` Come Rain Come Shine '' as well as scenes from some of Star World 's television shows ( Everybody Loves Raymond , American Idol etc. . ) Track # 7 , `` Zoom '' , was covered by Ashley Tisdale on her 2007 debut album Headstrong , under the title as `` Do n't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) '' . Temperature Rising was last Tata Young album released on cassette tapes , but in very small numbers produced in a short time until September 2006 .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Temperature_Rising_(album)",
"rank": 62,
"score": 100761
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program Content: The Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program ( TOGA ) was a ten-year study ( 1985-1994 ) of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) aimed specifically at the prediction of climate phenomena on time scales of months to years . TOGA emphasized the tropical oceans and their relationship to the global atmosphere . Underlying TOGA is the premise that the dynamic adjustment of the ocean in the tropics is far more rapid than at higher latitudes . Thus disturbances emanating from the western Pacific Ocean ( such as El Niño ) may propagate across the basin on time scales of weeks compared to years for corresponding basin-wide propagation at higher latitudes . The significance of shorter dynamic times scales near the equator is that they are similar to those of highly energetic atmospheric modes . This similarity allows the formation of coupled modes between the ocean and the atmosphere . TOGA was instrumental in developing a comprehensive observing system for the equatorial Pacific Ocean and laid important groundwork for ENSO prediction , data assimilation and understanding of air-sea interaction .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Tropical_Ocean_Global_Atmosphere_program",
"rank": 63,
"score": 100222
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 64,
"score": 100142
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 65,
"score": 99742
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Nora (1997) Content: Hurricane Nora was only the third tropical cyclone on record to reach Arizona as a tropical storm . Nora was the fourteenth named tropical cyclone and seventh hurricane of the 1997 Pacific hurricane season . The September storm formed off the Pacific coast of Mexico , and aided by waters warmed by the 1997 -- 98 El Niño event , eventually peaked at Category 4 intensity on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane scale . Nora took an unusual path , making landfall twice as a hurricane in Baja California . Weakening quickly after landfall , its remnants lashed the Southwestern United States with tropical-storm-force winds , torrential rain and flooding . The storm was blamed for two direct casualties in Mexico , as well as substantial beach erosion on the Mexican coast , flash flooding in Baja California , and record precipitation in Arizona . It persisted far inland and eventually dissipated near the Arizona -- Nevada border .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Hurricane_Nora_(1997)",
"rank": 66,
"score": 99726
},
{
"content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "David_Karoly",
"rank": 67,
"score": 99647
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 68,
"score": 99501
},
{
"content": "Title: Doji bara famine Content: The Doji bara famine ( also , Skull famine ) of 1791-92 in South Asia was brought on by a major El Niño event lasting from 1789 CE to 1795 CE and producing prolonged droughts . Recorded by William Roxburgh , a surgeon with the British East India Company , in a series of pioneering meteorological observations , the El Niño event caused the failure of the South Asian monsoon for four consecutive years starting in 1789 . The resulting famine , which was severe , caused widespread mortality in Hyderabad , Southern Maratha Kingdom , Deccan , Gujarat , and Marwar ( then all ruled by Indian rulers ) . In regions like the Madras Presidency ( governed by the East India Company ) , where the famine was less severe , and where records were kept , half the population perished in some districts , such as in the Northern Circars . In other areas , such as Bijapur , although no records were kept , both the famine and the year 1791 came to be known in folklore as the Doji bara ( also Doĝi Bar ) or the `` skull famine , '' on account , it was said , of the `` bones of the victims which lay unburied whitening the roads and the fields . '' As in the Chalisa famine of a decade earlier , many areas were depopulated from death or migration . According to one study , a total of 11 million people may have died during the years 1789 -- 1792 as a result of starvation or accompanying epidemics of disease .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Doji_bara_famine",
"rank": 69,
"score": 99463
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_system",
"rank": 70,
"score": 99127
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 71,
"score": 99079
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 72,
"score": 98703
},
{
"content": "Title: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Content: Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Post–Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissions",
"rank": 73,
"score": 98558
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 74,
"score": 98317
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical instability waves Content: Tropical instability waves , often abbreviated TIW , are a phenomenon in which the interface between areas of warm and cold sea surface temperatures near the equator form a regular pattern of westward-propagating waves . These waves are often present in the Atlantic Ocean , extending westward from the African coast , but are more easily recognizable in the Pacific , extending westward from South America . They have an average period of about 30 days and wavelength of about 1100 kilometers , and are largest in amplitude between June and November . They are also largest during La Niña conditions , and may disappear when strong El Niño conditions are present . Tropical instability waves are not related to tropical waves , which are atmospheric disturbances that propagate westward along the Intertropical Convergence Zone , sometimes giving rise to tropical storms .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Tropical_instability_waves",
"rank": 75,
"score": 98309
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 76,
"score": 98196
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 77,
"score": 98196
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 78,
"score": 97986
},
{
"content": "Title: Cosculluela: El Niño Content: El Niño is the second album by Reggaeton artist Cosculluela . It was released by Rotweilas Inc. and White Lion Records on December 13 , 2011 . The first single was `` Si Tu No Estas '' , the second single was `` Soñando Despierto '' , and the third single was `` Rompan Fila '' . El Niño was one of the most successful and anticipated reggaeton albums of the year .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Cosculluela:_El_Niño",
"rank": 79,
"score": 97718
},
{
"content": "Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 80,
"score": 97207
},
{
"content": "Title: Methane emissions Content: Global methane emissions are major part of the global greenhouse gas emissions . Methane in the atmosphere has a 100-year global warming potential of 34 .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Methane_emissions",
"rank": 81,
"score": 97124
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 82,
"score": 97070
},
{
"content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_dimming",
"rank": 83,
"score": 96926
},
{
"content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme",
"rank": 84,
"score": 96787
},
{
"content": "Title: 1965 Philmont Scout Ranch flash flood Content: On June 17 , 1965 , a large flash flood occurred in the Scouting camp Philmont Scout Ranch , which is near Cimarron , New Mexico , United States . Heavy rain throughout the area caused waters in Rayado Canyon and the Cimarron River to rise to extreme levels ; up to 12.42 feet at the highest . After June 17 , water levels gradually decreased over the course of several days . The impacts of the flood included the destruction of several campsites and the loss of many old photographs and documents kept at Philmont , however no injuries or deaths resulted from the flood . The 1965 flash flood was the largest flash flood in the history of Philmont until the 2015 flood , which occurred 50 years later in the same month . Both of the floods occurred in El Niño years as well .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "1965_Philmont_Scout_Ranch_flash_flood",
"rank": 85,
"score": 96693
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014–15 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2014 -- 15 Australian bushfire season was expected to have the potential for many fires in eastern Australia after lower than expected rainfall was received in many areas . Authorities released warnings in the early spring that the season could be particularly bad . Warmer and drier weather conditions were experienced during winter and extended into 2015 , due to a developing El Niño event . Sydney was on track to record its hottest autumn on record and only had one fifth of the average rainfall in May . Adelaide recorded sixteen consecutive days of 20 C in May 2014 . Queensland sweltered through a heatwave , with record October temperatures being set in many towns through the state . New October records included Toowoomba with 36.4 C , St George with 42.6 C , Amberley with 41.3 C and Roma with 41.6 C. Throughout 2014 and the first 6 months of 2015 , 18 fires were declared `` national disasters '' affecting a total of 68 local government areas across New South Wales , South Australia , Victoria and the Northern Territory .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "2014–15_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 86,
"score": 96547
},
{
"content": "Title: African coral reefs Content: African coral reefs are coral reefs mainly found along the south and east coasts of Africa . The east coast corals extend from the Red Sea to Madagascar in the south , and are an important resource for the fishersmen of Kenya , Tanzania and Madagascar . As with coral reefs elsewhere , African coral reefs are more biologically diverse than the surrounding ocean , and support species such as the mantis shrimp , potato grouper , humphead wrasse and maxima clam , as well as many seaweeds and corals . On the east coast , temperatures average about 26 C over the year . The average rainfall is highest between January to April , at about 300 mm , and lowest during August to November , at about 100 mm . There are multiple threats to the reefs , such a tourist diving and damaging the corals , or taking samples . Then there are industrial run-offs and pollutants , untreated sewage and the increasing sediment flows in rivers that threaten all of the coastal ecosystems . The reef is also threatened by climate change . Due to global warming , the sea surface temperature increases and in 1997/98 a particularly severe ` El Nino ' killed 90 percent of corals on the reef . The CORDIO ( COral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean ) NGO have set up an East African task force to monitor the reef 's management .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "African_coral_reefs",
"rank": 87,
"score": 96095
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 88,
"score": 96093
},
{
"content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Fugitive_emissions",
"rank": 89,
"score": 96041
},
{
"content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth",
"rank": 90,
"score": 96025
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow Content: The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Committee_for_a_Constructive_Tomorrow",
"rank": 91,
"score": 96013
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 92,
"score": 95928
},
{
"content": "Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change",
"rank": 93,
"score": 95850
},
{
"content": "Title: Water resources management in the Dominican Republic Content: With surface water resources of 20 billion m3 ( BCM ) per year , of which 12 BCM are groundwater recharge , water resources in the Dominican Republic ( DR ) could be considered abundant . But irregular spatial and seasonal distribution , coupled with high consumption in irrigation and urban water supply , translates into water scarcity . Rapid economic growth and increased urbanization have also affected environmental quality and placed strains on the DR 's water resources base . In addition , the DR is exposed to a number of natural hazards , such as hurricanes , storms , floods , Drought , earthquakes , and fires . Global climate change is expected to induce permanent climate shocks to the Caribbean region , which will likely affect the DR in the form of sea level rise , higher surface air and sea temperatures , extreme weather events ( such as tropical storms and hurricanes ) , increased rainfall intensity ( leading to both more frequent and severe flooding ) and more frequent and more severe `` El Niño-like '' conditions . Water resources management in the country , in particular water quality , quantity and Watershed management faces major challenges today . Despite of the lack of systematic data limiting an accurate and detailed assessment of the scope of the problems , there is a consensus that : ( i ) the overall poor quality of surface , groundwater and coastal water resources is the result of a lack of waste water management and agricultural run-off , causing health problems that disproportionally affect the poor ; ( ii ) water scarcity is a regional problem resulting from poor demand management in irrigation , urban water supply and tourist infrastructure in drier regions ; ( iii ) weak watershed management leads to soil erosion and amplifies the damage and frequency of flooding ; and ( iv ) the overall lack of solid waste management pollutes water sources , causes disease and is a nuisance for inhabitants and visitors alike . The DR government is in the process of reducing its role as main investor for water resources infrastructure and services provider decentralizing some responsibilities to local and regional government , water users organizations , and private companies .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Water_resources_management_in_the_Dominican_Republic",
"rank": 94,
"score": 95750
},
{
"content": "Title: Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Content: Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) is a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . OAR is also referred to as NOAA Research . NOAA Research is the research and development arm of NOAA and is the driving force behind NOAA environmental products and services aimed at protecting life and property and promoting sustainable economic growth . Research , conducted by programs within NOAA and through collaborations outside NOAA , focuses on enhancing the understanding of environmental phenomena such as tornadoes , hurricanes , climate variability , changes in the ozone layer , El Niño / La Niña events , fisheries productivity , ocean currents , deep sea thermal vents , and coastal ecosystem health . The origins of NOAA Research date back more than 200 years with the creation of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 by Thomas Jefferson . The Coast Survey , which became the U.S. Lake Survey office in 1841 , was developed to undertake `` a hydrographic survey of northwestern -LSB- Great -RSB- lakes . '' Research executed by the scientists of this group was innovative and holistic : the first current meters were developed to understand water flow rates , and forecasting techniques were greatly enhanced to predict water levels and the relationship to lakefront property . The same traits of world class , long-term research continue to define NOAA Research today . The science and technology that NOAA Research produces is not only relevant to society , it anticipates and responds to partners ' needs to demonstrates the value of technologies so that partners can deploy them into their applications . OAR works with end-users to integrate mature technologies ( and associated expertise ) into larger systems , either in NOAA operations or partner applications , via testbeds , patents , etc. .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Office_of_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Research",
"rank": 95,
"score": 95739
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Russia Content: Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Russia",
"rank": 96,
"score": 95642
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 97,
"score": 95573
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka",
"rank": 98,
"score": 95489
},
{
"content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Drawdown_(climate)",
"rank": 99,
"score": 95396
},
{
"content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .",
"qid": "126",
"docid": "Equilibrium_level",
"rank": 100,
"score": 95296
}
] |
Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide has helped raise global food production and reduce poverty. | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 1,
"score": 182818
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 2,
"score": 165700
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 3,
"score": 153548
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 4,
"score": 149259
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 5,
"score": 148280
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 6,
"score": 147802
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 7,
"score": 147685
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 8,
"score": 147664
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 9,
"score": 144772
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 10,
"score": 142797
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 11,
"score": 142698
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 12,
"score": 141671
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 13,
"score": 141231
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 14,
"score": 140612
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 15,
"score": 140006
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 16,
"score": 138702
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 17,
"score": 138401
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 18,
"score": 138180
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 19,
"score": 137222
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 20,
"score": 136240
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 21,
"score": 136063
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 22,
"score": 135973
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Low-carbon_diet",
"rank": 23,
"score": 135706
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 24,
"score": 135423
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Charles_David_Keeling",
"rank": 25,
"score": 135399
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 26,
"score": 135380
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 27,
"score": 135351
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 28,
"score": 132034
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes",
"rank": 29,
"score": 131792
},
{
"content": "Title: D. James Baker Content: D. James Baker ( born March 23 , 1937 ) is an American scientist who was trained as a physicist , practiced as an oceanographer , and has held science and management positions in academia , non-profit institutions , and government agencies . He a former Under Secretary of Commerce for Atmosphere and Oceans and Administrator of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , and currently Director , Global Carbon Measurement Program , William J. Clinton Foundation working with forestry programs in developing countries with the aim of reducing carbon dioxide emissions and at the same time helping alleviate poverty .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "D._James_Baker",
"rank": 30,
"score": 131589
},
{
"content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Keith_E._Idso",
"rank": 31,
"score": 131262
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 32,
"score": 130830
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 33,
"score": 130808
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 34,
"score": 130519
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 35,
"score": 128532
},
{
"content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence",
"rank": 36,
"score": 127965
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 37,
"score": 127366
},
{
"content": "Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "The_Green_Initiative",
"rank": 38,
"score": 127255
},
{
"content": "Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Emission_Reduction_Unit",
"rank": 39,
"score": 127162
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 40,
"score": 126506
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 41,
"score": 126457
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 42,
"score": 125596
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 43,
"score": 125319
},
{
"content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Biosequestration",
"rank": 44,
"score": 124591
},
{
"content": "Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Campus_carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 45,
"score": 124148
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 46,
"score": 123750
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 47,
"score": 123257
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_label",
"rank": 48,
"score": 123088
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson",
"rank": 49,
"score": 123039
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_shifting",
"rank": 50,
"score": 122644
},
{
"content": "Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Modified_atmosphere",
"rank": 51,
"score": 122217
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 52,
"score": 120356
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmentalism in motorsport Content: The issue of environmentalism in motorsport surrounds the whole of auto racing to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions contributing to global warming .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Environmentalism_in_motorsport",
"rank": 53,
"score": 119933
},
{
"content": "Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution",
"rank": 54,
"score": 119466
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 55,
"score": 119004
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping",
"rank": 56,
"score": 118365
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 57,
"score": 117974
},
{
"content": "Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World",
"rank": 58,
"score": 117813
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Tropical_peat",
"rank": 59,
"score": 117808
},
{
"content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Politics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 60,
"score": 117680
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry",
"rank": 61,
"score": 117502
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainability and environmental management Content: At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , according to sustainability principles . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles . Management of the Earth 's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Sustainability_and_environmental_management",
"rank": 62,
"score": 116743
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Environmental_issue",
"rank": 63,
"score": 116629
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming",
"rank": 64,
"score": 116247
},
{
"content": "Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Stuart_Agnew",
"rank": 65,
"score": 116178
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_bubble",
"rank": 66,
"score": 116138
},
{
"content": "Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation",
"rank": 67,
"score": 116137
},
{
"content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32",
"rank": 68,
"score": 115756
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 69,
"score": 115433
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance",
"rank": 70,
"score": 115333
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_footprint",
"rank": 71,
"score": 115326
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England",
"rank": 72,
"score": 114618
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Kaya_identity",
"rank": 73,
"score": 114398
},
{
"content": "Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Christine_Wiedinmyer",
"rank": 74,
"score": 114367
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 75,
"score": 114230
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 76,
"score": 114059
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 77,
"score": 114031
},
{
"content": "Title: Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels Content: The indirect land use change impacts of biofuels , also known as ILUC , relates to the unintended consequence of releasing more carbon emissions due to land-use changes around the world induced by the expansion of croplands for ethanol or biodiesel production in response to the increased global demand for biofuels . As farmers worldwide respond to higher crop prices in order to maintain the global food supply-and-demand balance , pristine lands are cleared to replace the food crops that were diverted elsewhere to biofuels ' production . Because natural lands , such as rainforests and grasslands , store carbon in their soil and biomass as plants grow each year , clearance of wilderness for new farms translates to a net increase in greenhouse gas emissions . Due to this change in the carbon stock of the soil and the biomass , indirect land use change has consequences in the GHG balance of a biofuel . Other authors have also argued that indirect land use changes produce other significant social and environmental impacts , affecting biodiversity , water quality , food prices and supply , land tenure , worker migration , and community and cultural stability .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels",
"rank": 78,
"score": 113942
},
{
"content": "Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Forests_for_the_21st_Century",
"rank": 79,
"score": 113629
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 80,
"score": 113013
},
{
"content": "Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 81,
"score": 112995
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 82,
"score": 112872
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 83,
"score": 112662
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Climate-friendly_gardening",
"rank": 84,
"score": 112651
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 85,
"score": 112341
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory",
"rank": 86,
"score": 112322
},
{
"content": "Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Wildland_fire_emission",
"rank": 87,
"score": 112011
},
{
"content": "Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Mootral",
"rank": 88,
"score": 111731
},
{
"content": "Title: Sherwood B. Idso Content: Sherwood B. Idso ( born June 12 , 1942 ) is the president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization . Prior to that time he was a Research Physicist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Agricultural Research Service at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix , Arizona , where he worked since June 1967 . He was also closely associated with Arizona State University over most of this period , serving as an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Geology , Geography , and Botany and Microbiology . His two sons , Craig and Keith , are , respectively , the founder and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Idso is the author or co-author of over 500 publications including the books Carbon Dioxide : Friend or Foe ? ( 1982 ) and Carbon Dioxide and Global Change : Earth in Transition ( 1989 ) . He served on the editorial board of the international journal Agricultural and Forest Meteorology from 1973 to 1993 and since 1993 has served on the editorial board of Environmental and Experimental Botany . Over the course of his career , he has been an invited reviewer of manuscripts for 56 different scientific journals and 17 different funding agencies , representing an unusually large array of disciplines . He is an ISI highly cited researcher .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Sherwood_B._Idso",
"rank": 89,
"score": 111404
},
{
"content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance",
"rank": 90,
"score": 111207
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 91,
"score": 111072
},
{
"content": "Title: Mary Christina Wood Content: Mary Christina Wood ( born 1962 ) is an Oregon Philip H. Knight Professor of Law and author , best known for her writings advocating for the use of the Public trust doctrine to compel government action on climate change . Wood originated the approach , called atmospheric trust litigation , `` to hold governments worldwide accountable for reducing carbon pollution within their jurisdictions , and her research is being used in cases and petitions brought on behalf of children and youth throughout the United States and in other countries . '' In 2014 , after a number of atmospheric trust litigation and petitions were brought by young people worldwide , Forbes contributor James Conca wrote , '' ( i ) f the Supreme Court holds the government responsible for at least trying to protect our atmosphere , things could certainly change here in America . ''",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Mary_Christina_Wood",
"rank": 92,
"score": 111051
},
{
"content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions",
"rank": 93,
"score": 110951
},
{
"content": "Title: Criegee intermediate Content: A Criegee intermediate ( also called a Criegee zwitterion or Criegee biradical ) is a carbonyl oxide with two charge centers . These molecules help to break down sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere , and may help offset global warming . The formation of this sort of structure was first postulated in the 1950s by Rudolf Criegee , for whom it is named , but it was n't until 2013 that direct detection of such chemicals was reported . Infrared spectroscopy suggests the electronic structure is a zwitterion rather than a biradical as some had proposed .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Criegee_intermediate",
"rank": 94,
"score": 110930
},
{
"content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction",
"rank": 95,
"score": 110790
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 96,
"score": 110724
},
{
"content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 97,
"score": 110481
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies",
"rank": 98,
"score": 110467
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 99,
"score": 110072
},
{
"content": "Title: List of carbon ranches Content: This is a working list of Carbon Ranches a term referring to regenerative agriculture practices that specifically accomplish carbon sequestration in the soil . `` The world 's cultivated soils have lost between 50 and 70 percent of their original carbon stock . '' ( Lal ) `` A mere two percent increase in the carbon content of the planet 's soils could offset 100 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions going into the atmosphere . '' ( Lal ) Grasslands cover 350 billion hectares , comprising 70 % of global agricultural land making carbon ranching an especially climate beneficial alternative to meat produced as part of a Concentrated animal feeding operation . Carbon ranching may include , but is not limited to Managed intensive rotational grazing , Compost application , Holistic management ( agriculture ) and Tree planting . There are many research groups and NGO 's studying and advancing this field including Arizona State University , The Carbon Cycle Institute , Holistic Management International , The Ohio State University , The Quivira Coalition , The Savory Institute , The Soil Carbon Coalition , Texas A&M University . This list does not necessarily reflect scientific or academic endorsements insofar as best practices and results vary across ranches , climates , time periods , and sources of funding and are therefore challenging to quantify and/or compare . Currently , confirmation of the carbon ranching designation is confirmed through either third party citation or Soil Organic Matter test result .",
"qid": "127",
"docid": "List_of_carbon_ranches",
"rank": 100,
"score": 110006
}
] |
Sea level rise, which was occurring long before humans could be blamed, has not accelerated. | [
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 1,
"score": 115479
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 2,
"score": 109398
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis",
"rank": 3,
"score": 100017
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1B",
"rank": 4,
"score": 94839
},
{
"content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 5,
"score": 89078
},
{
"content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Past_sea_level",
"rank": 6,
"score": 86532
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Marine_transgression",
"rank": 7,
"score": 86301
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine regression Content: Marine regression is a geological process occurring when areas of submerged seafloor are exposed above the sea level . The opposite event , marine transgression , occurs when flooding from the sea covers previously exposed land . Evidence of marine regressions and transgressions occurs throughout the fossil record , and these fluctuations are thought to have caused or contributed to several mass extinctions , among them the Permian-Triassic extinction event ( 250 million years ago ) and Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event ( 66 Ma ) . At the time of the Permian-Triassic extinction , the largest extinction event in the Earth 's history , global sea level fell 250 m ( 820 ft ) . A major regression could itself cause marine organisms in shallow seas to go extinct , but mass extinctions tend to involve both terrestrial and aquatic species , and it is harder to see how a marine regression could cause widespread extinctions of land animals . Regressions are , therefore , seen as correlates or symptoms of major extinctions , rather than primary causes . The Permian regression might have been related to the formation of Pangaea : the accumulation of all the major landmasses into one body could have facilitated a regression , by providing `` a slight enlargement of the ocean basins as the great continents coalesced . '' However , that cause could not have applied in all , or even many , other cases . During the ice ages of the Pleistocene , a clear correlation existed between marine regressions and episodes of glaciation ; as the balance shifts between the global cryosphere and hydrosphere , more of the planet 's water in ice sheets means less in the oceans . At the height of the last ice age , at around 18,000 years before the present , the global sea level was 120 to 130 m ( 390-425 ft ) lower than today . A cold spell around 6 million years ago was linked to an advance in glaciation , a marine regression , and the start of the Messinian salinity crisis in the Mediterranean basin . Some major regressions of the past , however , seem unrelated to glaciation episodes -- the regression that accompanied the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous Period being one example . A clear and certain understanding of major marine regressions has not yet been achieved ; according to one hypothesis , regressions may be linked to a `` slowdown in sea-floor spreading , leading to a generalized drop in sea level ( as the mid-ocean ridges would take up less space ) ... '' In that view , major marine regressions are one aspect of a normal variation in rates of plate tectonic activity , which lead to major episodes of global volcanism like the Siberian Traps and the Deccan Traps , which in turn cause large extinction events .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Marine_regression",
"rank": 8,
"score": 85794
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "The_Sea_Has_Risen",
"rank": 9,
"score": 84166
},
{
"content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis",
"rank": 10,
"score": 83929
},
{
"content": "Title: Dunkirk transgression Content: The three Dunkirk transgressions are events of marine transgression ( rising seas ) around the shores of the Low Countries in the late Roman period . Soil survey geological evidences and lack of human occupation artefacts led scientists to formulate the claim that the Netherlands was largely underwater between the 3rd century and 1050 . This is the so-called third Dunkirk Transgression . The reality of the events , hypothetically determined by cyclical phases of strong sea level rises in historical times , is debated . The low-lying continental coast of Europe was lightly populated until c. 200 BC , when the climate and environment became more amenable to human habitation . Conditions remained favourable from 200 BC to 250 AD , and the region became densely populated . However the region had been undergoing a series of marine transgressions ( called Dunkirk 0 through Dunkirk IIIb ) characterised by a rising water table and floods that left layers of clay on the land . The heaviest blow came with the `` Dunkirk II transgression '' that began in the 3rd century and continually worsened , leaving large areas of the coast uninhabitable from c. 350 -- c. 700 . People were forced to abandon their homes and emigrate . Archaeologists conducting research along the historically flood-prone coast tell this same story for The Rhine/Meuse delta ( Zeeland , Brabant , parts of South Holland and Limburg ) ; Friesland ; Groningen ; Ostfriesland , German Friesland and the Weser/Jade estuary ; and Dithmarschen , Eiderstedt and Nordfriesland . In the Rhine/Meuse delta , the population became scanty . Between the 5th and 7th centuries there were few centers of occupation in the delta region , and in the estuarine and peat areas no settlements at all have been found . The area would not be repopulated until the Carolingian Era . The areas with river clay were so covered with sedimentation that habitation was almost impossible between 250 -- 650 .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Dunkirk_transgression",
"rank": 11,
"score": 81228
},
{
"content": "Title: Kačák Event Content: The Kačák Event ( -LSB- ˈkatʃaːk -RSB- ) or Kačák-otomari Event is a widely recognised bioevent or series of events that occurred close to the end of the Eifelian Age of the Middle Devonian Epoch . It involved a global eustatic rise in sea level . It was named for the Kačák Member of the Srbsko Formation in Bohemia , where it is represented by a black shale interval within a sequence of limestone . In marine environments , this appears as an anoxic event , often forming potential hydrocarbon source rocks such as the Marcellus Shale . Within the Old Red Sandstone continent , it is represented by the Achanarras lake , the deepest and most widespread lake that developed within the Orcadian Basin . The event is associated with significant extinctions , particularly amongst the Ammonoidea .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Kačák_Event",
"rank": 12,
"score": 80927
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea",
"rank": 13,
"score": 80211
},
{
"content": "Title: North Sea flood of 1953 Content: The 1953 North Sea flood ( Watersnoodramp , literally `` water emergency disaster '' ) was a major flood caused by a heavy storm that occurred on the night of Saturday , 31 January 1953 and morning of Sunday , 1 February 1953 . The floods struck the Netherlands , Belgium , England and Scotland . A combination of a high spring tide and a severe European windstorm over the North Sea caused a storm tide ; the combination of wind , high tide , and low pressure led to a water level of more than 5.6 m above mean sea level in some locations . The flood and waves overwhelmed sea defences and caused extensive flooding . The Netherlands , a country with 20 % of its territory below mean sea level and 50 % less than 1 m above sea level and which relies heavily on sea defences , was worst affected , recording 1,836 deaths and widespread property damage . Most of the casualties occurred in the southern province of Zeeland . In England , 307 people were killed in the counties of Lincolnshire , Norfolk , Suffolk and Essex . Nineteen were killed in Scotland . Twenty-eight people were killed in West Flanders , Belgium . In addition , more than 230 deaths occurred on water craft along Northern European coasts as well as on ships in deeper waters of the North Sea . The ferry MV Princess Victoria was lost at sea in the North Channel east of Belfast with 133 fatalities , and many fishing trawlers sank . Realising that such infrequent events could recur , the Netherlands particularly , and the United Kingdom carried out major studies on strengthening of coastal defences . The Netherlands developed the Delta Works , an extensive system of dams and storm surge barriers . The UK constructed storm surge barriers on the River Thames below London and on the River Hull where it meets the Humber estuary .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "North_Sea_flood_of_1953",
"rank": 14,
"score": 80194
},
{
"content": "Title: Clade (novel) Content: Clade is a science fiction novel written by Mark Budz , published in 2003 . In Clade , an environmental disaster called the Ecocaust has caused sea levels to rise and causing additional strains on human resources . The government , in response , becomes more restrictive on human freedoms , and this novel explores what happens after the Ecocaust .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Clade_(novel)",
"rank": 15,
"score": 80052
},
{
"content": "Title: Curtis Marean Content: Curtis W. Marean is a professor of archaeology at Arizona State University . In a 2010 article in Scientific American , Marean explained how anatomically modern humans survived the MIS 6 glacial stage 195-123 thousand years ago , a period during which the human population was limited to only a few hundreds breeding individuals . During this period , sea levels dropped more than a hundred meters and the sloping South African Agulhas Bank was transformed into a plain on which humans could survive on shellfish and wash-ups from the sea . He is currently the associate director of the Institute of Human Origins in Tempe , Arizona .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Curtis_Marean",
"rank": 16,
"score": 79512
},
{
"content": "Title: Doggerland Content: Doggerland was an area now beneath the southern North Sea that connected Great Britain to continental Europe during and after the last glacial period . It was flooded by rising sea levels around 6,500 -- 6,200 BCE . Geological surveys have suggested that it stretched from Britain 's east coast to the Netherlands and the western coasts of Germany and the peninsula of Jutland . It was probably a rich habitat with human habitation in the Mesolithic period , although rising sea levels gradually reduced it to low-lying islands before its final submergence , possibly following a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slide . The archaeological potential of the area had first been identified in the early 20th century , but interest intensified in 1931 when a fishing trawler operating east of the Wash dragged up a barbed antler point that was subsequently dated to a time when the area was tundra . Vessels have dragged up remains of mammoth , lion and other animals , as well as a few prehistoric tools and weapons . Doggerland was named after the Dogger Bank , which in turn was named after the 17th century Dutch fishing boats called doggers .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Doggerland",
"rank": 17,
"score": 79387
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "The_Sea_is_Rising",
"rank": 18,
"score": 79195
},
{
"content": "Title: The 10,000 Year Explosion Content: The 10,000 Year Explosion : How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution is a 2009 book by anthropologists Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending . Starting with their own take on the conventional wisdom that the evolutionary process stopped when modern humans appeared , the authors explain the genetic basis of their view that human evolution is accelerating , illustrating it with some examples .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "The_10,000_Year_Explosion",
"rank": 19,
"score": 78805
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 20,
"score": 78685
},
{
"content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Josh_Willis",
"rank": 21,
"score": 78208
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Sea_level",
"rank": 22,
"score": 77794
},
{
"content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Deglaciation",
"rank": 23,
"score": 77528
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A",
"rank": 24,
"score": 76733
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Rising_from_the_Sea",
"rank": 25,
"score": 76489
},
{
"content": "Title: Acceleration (human development) Content: thumb | 400px | Secular trend in decrease in age of menarche in Western European and North American girlsAfter : thumb | 400px | Stature comparison between American-born children of European descent and earlier populations of the same heritageAfter : Acceleration in human development process is the phenomenon which has been registered in many populations around the world . This applies equally to the growth of certain anthropometric parameters and the speed of reaching sexual maturity . These facts illustrate the results of secular changes in body height and appearance of the first menstruation ( menarche ) . Increases in human stature are a main indicator of improvements in the average health of populations . The newest data set for the average height of adult male birth cohorts , from the mid-nineteenth century to 1980 , in 15 European countries was studied ( in the populations listed ) . During a century average height increased by 11 cm representing a dramatic improvement of this phenomenon . It is interesting that the apparent acceleration of body height occurred during the Ĝ . Also , in the mid-nineteenth century young European women 's menarche occurred at the average age of 16.5 years . One hundred years later , this age was reduced to under 12 years . Increase in adult height of birth cohorts ( cm/decade )",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Acceleration_(human_development)",
"rank": 26,
"score": 75880
},
{
"content": "Title: Hangenberg event Content: The Hangenberg event is a bioevent that occurred at the end of the Famennian epoch ( late Devonian ) associated with the Late Devonian extinction ( roughly 358.9 ± 0.4 million years ago ) ; it was an anoxic event marked by a black shale . It has been proposed that this was related to a rapid sea-level fall due to the last phase of the Devonian Southern Hemisphere glaciation . It has also been suggested that it was linked to an increase in terrestrial plant cover , leading to increased nutrient supply in rivers . This may have led to eutrophication of semi-restricted epicontinental seas and could have stimulated algal blooms . It is named from the Hangenberg Shale , part of a sequence that straddles the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary , from the Rhenish Massif in Germany . Following the extinction , vertebrates experienced reduced body size for the following 36 million years , at least in part because smaller taxa diversified more successfully .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Hangenberg_event",
"rank": 27,
"score": 75408
},
{
"content": "Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Hirnantian",
"rank": 28,
"score": 74822
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Sea_Level_(band)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 74754
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Tide",
"rank": 30,
"score": 74635
},
{
"content": "Title: Messinian salinity crisis Content: The Messinian Salinity Crisis ( MSC ) , also referred to as the Messinian Event , and in its latest stage as the Lago Mare event , was a geological event during which the Mediterranean Sea went into a cycle of partly or nearly complete desiccation throughout the latter part of the Messinian age of the Miocene epoch , from 5.96 to 5.33 Ma ( million years ago ) . It ended with the Zanclean flood , when the Atlantic reclaimed the basin . Sediment samples from below the deep seafloor of the Mediterranean Sea , which include evaporite minerals , soils , and fossil plants , indicate that the precursor of the Strait of Gibraltar closed tight about 5.96 million years ago , sealing the Mediterranean off from the Atlantic . This resulted in a period of partial desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea , the first of several such periods during the late Miocene . After the strait closed for the last time around 5.6 Ma , the region 's generally dry climate conditions at the time caused the Mediterranean basin to nearly dry out completely within a mere millennium . This massive desiccation left a deep and dry basin , reaching a depth of 3 to below normal sea level , with a few hypersaline pockets similar to today 's Dead Sea . Then , around 5.5 Ma , less dry climatic conditions resulted in the basin receiving more freshwater from rivers , progressively filling and diluting the hypersaline lakes into larger pockets of brackish water ( much like today 's Caspian sea ) . The Messinian Salinity Crisis ended with the Strait of Gibraltar finally reopening 5.33 Ma , when the Atlantic rapidly filled up the Mediterranean basin in what is known as the Zanclean flood . Even today , the Mediterranean is considerably saltier than the North Atlantic due to its near isolation by the Strait of Gibraltar and its high rate of evaporation . If the Strait of Gibraltar closes again ( which is likely to happen in the near future on a geological time scale ) , the Mediterranean would mostly evaporate in about a thousand years , after which continued northward movement of Africa may obliterate the Mediterranean altogether .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Messinian_salinity_crisis",
"rank": 31,
"score": 74483
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 32,
"score": 74102
},
{
"content": "Title: Beach evolution Content: The shoreline is where the land meets the sea and it is continually changing . Over the long term , the water is eroding the land . Beaches represent a special case , in that they exist where sand accumulated from the same processes that strip away rocky and sedimentary material . That is , they can grow as well as erode . River deltas are another exception , in that silt that erodes up river can accrete at the river 's outlet and extend ocean shorelines . Catastrophic events such as tsunamis , hurricanes and storm surges accelerate beach erosion , potentially carrying away the entire sand load . Human activities can be as catastrophic as hurricanes , albeit usually over a longer time interval .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Beach_evolution",
"rank": 33,
"score": 73588
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations",
"rank": 34,
"score": 73471
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Sea-level_curve",
"rank": 35,
"score": 72887
},
{
"content": "Title: Human wave attack Content: The human wave attack , also known as the human sea attack , is an offensive infantry tactic in which an attacker conducts an unprotected frontal assault with densely concentrated infantry formations against the enemy line , intended to overrun the defenders by engaging in melee combat .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Human_wave_attack",
"rank": 36,
"score": 72730
},
{
"content": "Title: Baltic Sea hypoxia Content: Baltic Sea hypoxia refers to low levels of oxygen in bottom waters , also known as hypoxia , occurring regularly in the Baltic Sea . the total area of bottom covered with hypoxic waters with oxygen concentrations less than 2 mg/l in the Baltic Sea has averaged 49,000 km2 over the last 40 years . The ultimate cause of hypoxia is excess nutrient loading from human activities causing algal blooms . The blooms sink to the bottom and use oxygen to decompose at a rate faster than it can be added back into the system through the physical processes of mixing . The lack of oxygen ( anoxia ) kills bottom-living organisms and creates dead zones .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Baltic_Sea_hypoxia",
"rank": 37,
"score": 72300
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Glacial Content: The Late Glacial ( c. 13,000 -- 10,000 years ago ) , or Tardiglacial ( `` Late Glacial '' ) , is defined primarily by the beginning of the modern warm period , in which climates in the Northern Hemisphere warmed substantially , causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum ( c. 25,000 -- 13,000 years ago ) . At this time , human populations , previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum climatic conditions , gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere 's Eurasian landmass and eventually populate North America via Beringia for the first time . Evidence for its occurrence stems from two main types of analysis . The first is the use of oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) gathered from stratified deep-sea sediment cores . Samples are gathered and measured for change in isotope levels to determine temperature fluctuation for given periods of time . The second is a proxy measurement , the observation of certain reappearing fauna and flora fossils that can survive only in temperate climates , thus indicating warming trends for a given geographic area . Archaeological evidence of settlement and resettlement in certain areas by humans also serve as proxy measurements . Towards the end of OIS 2 in which the Late Glacial Maximum occurs , the deep-sea sediment cores indicate a gradually warming climate , and the reappearance of certain warm-weather flora and fauna remains throughout the Northern Hemisphere correlate with that trend . A period of relatively brief cold oscillation , referred to as the Younger Dryas , is detected during OIS 2 , as can be inferred from an increase in isotope weight .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Late_Glacial",
"rank": 38,
"score": 72298
},
{
"content": "Title: 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake Content: The 1983 Sea of Japan earthquake or 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake occurred on May 26 , at 11:59:57 local time ( 02:59:59.6 UTC ) , It had a magnitude of 7.8 on the moment magnitude scale . It occurred in the Sea of Japan , about 100 km west of the coast of Noshiro in Akita Prefecture , Japan . Out of the 104 fatalities , all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami , which struck communities along the coast , especially Aomori and Akita Prefectures and the east coast of Noto Peninsula . Images of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbor of Wajima on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV . The waves exceeded 10 m in some areas . Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of South Korea ( whether North Korea was affected is not known ) . The tsunami also hit Okushiri Island , the site of a more deadly tsunami 10 years later .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "1983_Sea_of_Japan_earthquake",
"rank": 39,
"score": 72236
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Tide_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 40,
"score": 72096
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Tide_gauge",
"rank": 41,
"score": 71711
},
{
"content": "Title: Yoldia Sea Content: Yoldia Sea is a name given by geologists to a variable brackish-water stage in the Baltic Sea basin that prevailed after the Baltic ice lake was drained to sea level during the Weichsel glaciation . Dates for the Yoldia sea are obtained mainly by radiocarbon dating material from ancient sediments and shore lines and from clay-varve chronology . They tend to vary by as much as a thousand years , but a good estimate is 10,300 -- 9500 radiocarbon years BP , equivalent to ca 11,700-10 ,700 calendar years BP . The sea ended gradually when isostatic rise of Scandinavia closed or nearly closed its effluents , altering the balance between saline and fresh water . The Yoldia Sea became Ancylus Lake . The Yoldia Sea stage had three phases of which only the middle phase had brackish water . The name of the sea is adapted from the obsolete name of the bivalve , Portlandia arctica ( previously known as Yoldia arctica ) , found around Stockholm . This bivalve requires cold saline water . It characterizes the middle phase of the Yoldia Sea , during which saline water poured into the Baltic , before the acceleration of glacial melting .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Yoldia_Sea",
"rank": 42,
"score": 71172
},
{
"content": "Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Tidal_range",
"rank": 43,
"score": 70863
},
{
"content": "Title: 1872 Baltic Sea flood Content: The 1872 Baltic Sea flood ( Ostseesturmhochwasser 1872 ) , often referred to as a storm flood , ravaged the Baltic Sea coast from Denmark to Pomerania in the night of 12/13 November 1872 and was , until then , the worst storm surge in the Baltic . The highest recorded peak water level was about 3.3 m above sea level ( NN ) .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "1872_Baltic_Sea_flood",
"rank": 44,
"score": 70834
},
{
"content": "Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level",
"rank": 45,
"score": 70774
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)",
"rank": 46,
"score": 70607
},
{
"content": "Title: Seaford Rise, South Australia Content: Seaford Rise is a metropolitan suburb of Adelaide , South Australia . It lies within the City of Onkaparinga . Its boundaries are formed by Griffiths Drive in the north , Commercial Road in the west , Main South Road in the east , and by an arbitrary border with Maslin Beach in the south .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Seaford_Rise,_South_Australia",
"rank": 47,
"score": 70519
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising Tide (Forgotten Realms novel) Content: Rising Tide is a fantasy novel by Mel Odom , set in the world of the Forgotten Realms , and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game . It is the first novel in `` The Threat from the Sea '' trilogy . It was published in paperback in January 1999 .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Rising_Tide_(Forgotten_Realms_novel)",
"rank": 48,
"score": 70512
},
{
"content": "Title: When the Sea Rises Content: When the Sea Rises ( Quand la mer monte ... ) is a 2004 French-Belgian romantic comedy film directed by Yolande Moreau and Gilles Porte . It was Moreau 's directorial debut .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "When_the_Sea_Rises",
"rank": 49,
"score": 70315
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Sea_level_equation",
"rank": 50,
"score": 69846
},
{
"content": "Title: Older Peron Content: The Older Peron was the name for a period identified in 1961 as an episode of a global sea-level ( i.e. eustatic ) high-stand during the Holocene Epoch . Modern understanding of the various factors involved in quantifying eustatic sea level , particularly processes relating to ocean siphoning and glacio-hydro-isostatic adjustment , claim that such previous instances of purported high-stands were not globally coherent , and do not constitute episodes of eustatic sea level higher than present .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Older_Peron",
"rank": 51,
"score": 69748
},
{
"content": "Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Loss_and_damage",
"rank": 52,
"score": 69518
},
{
"content": "Title: Human accelerated regions Content: Human accelerated regions ( HARs ) , first described in August 2006 , are a set of 49 segments of the human genome that are conserved throughout vertebrate evolution but are strikingly different in humans . They are named according to their degree of difference between humans and chimpanzees ( HAR1 showing the largest degree of human-chimpanzee differences ) . Found by scanning through genomic databases of multiple species , some of these highly mutated areas may contribute to human-specific traits . Others may represent loss of function mutations , possibly due to the action of biased gene conversion rather than adaptive evolution . Several of the HARs encompass genes known to produce proteins important in neurodevelopment . HAR1 is an 106-base pair stretch found on the long arm of chromosome 20 overlapping with part of the RNA genes HAR1F and HAR1R . HAR1F is active in the developing human brain . The HAR1 sequence is found ( and conserved ) in chickens and chimpanzees but is not present in fish or frogs that have been studied . There are 18 base pair mutations different between humans and chimpanzees , far more than expected by its history of conservation . HAR2 includes HACNS1 a gene enhancer `` that may have contributed to the evolution of the uniquely opposable human thumb , and possibly also modifications in the ankle or foot that allow humans to walk on two legs '' . Evidence to date shows that of the 110,000 gene enhancer sequences identified in the human genome , HACNS1 has undergone the most change during the evolution of humans following the split with the ancestors of chimpanzees . The substitutions in HAR2 may have resulted in loss of binding sites for a repressor , possibly due to biased gene conversion .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Human_accelerated_regions",
"rank": 53,
"score": 69429
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 54,
"score": 69351
},
{
"content": "Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Seamount",
"rank": 55,
"score": 69108
},
{
"content": "Title: Retrogradation Content: Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common : during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets . with extremely low sediment input .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Retrogradation",
"rank": 56,
"score": 68817
},
{
"content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Equilibrium_level",
"rank": 57,
"score": 68775
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Sea_Level_(album)",
"rank": 58,
"score": 68528
},
{
"content": "Title: Flood (Baxter novel) Content: Flood is a 2008 work of hard science fiction by English author Stephen Baxter . It describes a near future world where deep submarine seismic activity leads to seabed fragmentation , and the opening of deep subterranean reservoirs of water . Human civilisation is almost destroyed by the rising inundation , which covers Mount Everest in 2052 . Baxter issued a sequel to this work , entitled Ark , in 2009 . Flood was nominated for the British Science Fiction Award in 2008 .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Flood_(Baxter_novel)",
"rank": 59,
"score": 68495
},
{
"content": "Title: 1978 North Sea storm surge Content: 1978 North Sea storm surge was a storm surge which occurred over 11 -- 12 January causing extensive coastal flooding and considerable damage on the east coast of England between the Humber and Kent . Higher water levels were reached than during the devastating North Sea flood of 1953 from North Shields to King 's Lynn , but values were lower towards the Thames . Locally severe flooding occurred in Lincolnshire , The Wash , north Norfolk and Kent . Improvements in flood protection following the devastating flood of 1953 meant that the catastrophic losses seen during that storm were not repeated . The storm caused severe damage to many piers along the east coast of England .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "1978_North_Sea_storm_surge",
"rank": 60,
"score": 68487
},
{
"content": "Title: 9th millennium BC in North American history Content: The 9th millennium BC in North American history provides a timeline of events occurring within the North American continent from 9000 years ago through 8001 BC in the Gregorian calendar . Although this timeline segment may include some European or other world events that profoundly influenced later American life , it focuses on developments within Native American communities . The archaeological records supplements indigenous recorded and oral history . Because of the inaccuracies inherent in radiocarbon dating and in interpreting other elements of the archaeological record , most dates in this timeline represent approximations that may vary a century or more from source to source . The assumptions implicit in archaeological dating methods also may yield a general bias in the dating in this timeline . 9000 BC : Archaeological materials found on Channel Islands off the California coast 9000 BC : Human settlers arrive in the Great Basin with its cool , wet prevailing climate 9000 -- 8900 BC : The Folsom culture in New Mexico leaves Bison bones and stone spear points . 8700 BC : Human settlement reaches the Northwestern Plateau region . 8001 BC : The last glacial ends , causing sea levels to rise and flood the Beringia land bridge , closing the primary migration route from Siberia . 8001 BC : Sufficient rain falls on the American Southwest to support many large mammal species -- mammoth , mastodon , and a bison species - -- that soon go extinct . 8001 BC : Native Americans leave documented traces of their presence in every habitable corner of the Americas , including the American Northeast , the Pacific Northwest , and a cave on Prince of Wales Island in the Alexander archipelago of southeast Alaska , possibly following these game animals . 8001 BC : Hunters in the American Southwest both use the atlatl .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "9th_millennium_BC_in_North_American_history",
"rank": 61,
"score": 68364
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary Content: The climate across the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg or formerly the K -- T boundary ) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid , volcanism , or sea level changes . While the mass extinction is well documented , there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event . The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known , which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact . Oxygen isotopes across the K -- T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself . Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K -- T boundary suggest rapid , repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction , and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary , indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction . The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate , direct consequences of the impact .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Climate_across_Cretaceous–Paleogene_boundary",
"rank": 62,
"score": 68236
},
{
"content": "Title: Champlain Sea Content: The Champlain Sea was a temporary inlet of the Atlantic Ocean , created by the retreating glaciers during the close of the last ice age . The Sea once included lands in what are now the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario , as well as parts of the American states of New York and Vermont . The mass of ice from the continental ice sheets had depressed the rock beneath it over millennia . At the end of the last ice age , while the rock was still depressed , the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa River valleys , as well as modern Lake Champlain , were below sea level and flooded with rising worldwide sea levels , once the ice no longer prevented the ocean from flowing into the region . As the land gradually rose again , in the process known as isostatic rebound , the sea coast gradually retreated to its current location . The sea lasted from about 13,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago and was continuously shrinking during that time , since the rebounding continent was slowly rising above sea level . At its peak , the sea extended inland as far south as Lake Champlain and somewhat farther west than the city of Ottawa , Ontario , and farther up the Ottawa River past Pembroke . The remaining glaciers fed the sea during that time , making it more brackish than typical seawater . It is estimated that the sea was as much as 150 m above the level of today 's Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers . The best evidence of this former sea is the vast clay plain deposited along the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers . This resulted in distinctive forest types , and large wetlands . Other modern evidence of the sea can be seen in the form of whale fossils , ( belugas , fin whales , and bowhead whales ) and marine shells that have been found near the cities of Ottawa , Ontario , and Montreal , Quebec . There are also fossils of oceanic fish such as capelin . The Sea also left ancient raised shorelines in the former coastal regions , and the Leda clay deposits in areas of deeper water . The northern shore of the lake was in southern Quebec where outcrops of the Canadian shield form the Eardley Escarpment . This escarpment still has distinctive plants that may date back to the sea . The Eardley Escarpment is known locally as the Gatineau Hills ; part of the Mattawa fault at the southeastern edge of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben , in Eastern Ontario and the Outaouais region of Quebec , more commonly known as the Ottawa Valley .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Champlain_Sea",
"rank": 63,
"score": 68088
},
{
"content": "Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "A_Sea_So_Far",
"rank": 64,
"score": 68048
},
{
"content": "Title: Risella Content: Risella is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Risella",
"rank": 65,
"score": 68026
},
{
"content": "Title: Benham Plateau Content: The Benham Rise , officially known as the Philippine Rise , is a seismically active undersea region and extinct volcanic ridge located in the Philippine Sea approximately 250 km east of the northern coastline of Dinapigue , Isabela . Under the Philippine Sea lie a number of basins including the West Philippine Sea Basin , inside of which is located the Central Basin Fault ( CBF ) . The Benham Plateau is located in the CBF and its basement probably is a micro-continent . Several scientific surveys have been made on the feature to study its nature and its impact on tectonic subduction , including one about its effects on the 1990 Luzon earthquake . The Philippines claimed this feature as part of its continental shelf in a claim lodged with the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on 8 April 2009 , and which was approved under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) in 2012 . It is designated as a `` protected food supply exclusive zone '' by the Philippine government in May 2017 . Mining and oil exploration is banned in the Benham Plateau as a protected area . On May 16 , 2017 , Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 25 renaming the region to Philippine Rise .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Benham_Plateau",
"rank": 66,
"score": 67738
},
{
"content": "Title: Quaternary extinction event Content: The Quaternary period saw the extinctions of numerous predominantly larger , especially megafaunal , species , many of which occurred during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch . However , this extinction wave did not stop at the end of the Pleistocene , but continued , especially on isolated islands , in human-caused extinctions , although there is debate as to whether these should be considered separate events or part of the same event . Among the main causes hypothesized by paleontologists are natural climate change and overkill by humans , who appeared during the Middle Pleistocene and migrated to many regions of the world during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene . A variant of the latter possibility is the second-order predation hypothesis , which focuses more on the indirect damage caused by overcompetition with nonhuman predators . The spread of disease is also discussed as a possible reason .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Quaternary_extinction_event",
"rank": 67,
"score": 67703
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929",
"rank": 68,
"score": 67702
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Meier Content: Mark F. Meier ( 1925 -- November 25 , 2012 ) was an American glaciologist who was considered a leading expert on the study of rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers . Meier was the Director of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research ( INSTAAR ) from 1985 to 1994 and remained the institute 's director emeritus until his death in 2012 . He was also a professor of geological sciences at the University of Colorado - Boulder . Meier was born and raised in Iowa . He resided in Boulder , Colorado , since 1985 . In 1956 , Meier founded the U.S. Geological Survey 's department of glaciology . He obtained doctorate in 1957 from the California Institute of Technology . Meier served as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey 's Project Office of Glaciology in Tacoma , Washington , until he became the director of INSTAAR in 1985 . Meier was one of the first glaciologists to use remote sensing to study glaciers and rates of melting . He headed several studies of tidewater glacier dynamics in the U.S. state of Alaska . Meier organized the systematic measurement and assessment of glacier mass balance within North America to mark the International Geophysical Year and International Hydrological Decade , which was observed from 1965 to 1975 . His numerous recognitions and awards included the Seligman Crystal from the International Glaciological Society in 1993 , the Robert E. Horton Medal in 1996 , three medals from the USSR Academy of Sciences ( now the Russian Academy of Sciences ) and the United States Department of the Interior 's Distinguished Service Award . Meier died in Boulder , Colorado , on November 25 , 2012 , at the age of 86 . He is survived by his wife , Barbara , his children , Lauren Meier , Gretchen Meier , and Mark S. Meier , and his seven grandchildren .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Mark_Meier",
"rank": 69,
"score": 67530
},
{
"content": "Title: 1938 Banda Sea earthquake Content: The 1938 Banda Sea earthquake occurred in the Banda Sea region on February 1 . It had an estimated magnitude of 8.4 on the moment magnitude scale , and intensities as high as VII ( Very strong ) . It generated destructive tsunamis of up to 1.5 metres , but no human lives were lost .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "1938_Banda_Sea_earthquake",
"rank": 70,
"score": 67518
},
{
"content": "Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Weddell_Polynya",
"rank": 71,
"score": 67417
},
{
"content": "Title: Steptoean positive carbon isotope excursion Content: The Steptoean Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion ( SPICE ) was a geological event which occurred about 500 million years ago at the end of the Cambrian Period . The SPICE event was a sudden reversal of the anoxia ( lack of oxygen ) that had steadily spread throughout the oceans during the Cambrian which also affected the atmosphere . After the SPICE event , oxygen levels recovered and levels in the atmosphere may have risen as high as 30 % , higher than the 21 % of the atmosphere that prevails today . The sudden increase in oxygen led to an explosion of life across the globe .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Steptoean_positive_carbon_isotope_excursion",
"rank": 72,
"score": 67348
},
{
"content": "Title: Mulde event Content: The Mulde event was an anoxic event , and marked the second of three relatively minor mass extinctions ( the Ireviken , Mulde , and Lau events ) during the Silurian period . It coincided with a global drop in sea level , and is closely followed by an excursion in geochemical isotopes . Its onset is synchronous with the deposition of the Fröel formation in Gotland .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Mulde_event",
"rank": 73,
"score": 67206
},
{
"content": "Title: Draupner wave Content: The Draupner wave or New Year 's wave was the first rogue wave to be detected by a measuring instrument , occurring at the Draupner platform in the North Sea off the coast of Norway on 1 January 1995 . In an area with significant wave height of approximately 12 m , a freak wave with a maximum wave height of 25.6 m occurred ( peak elevation above still water level was 18.5 m ) . Prior to that measurement , no instrument-recorded evidence for rogue waves existed -- just anecdotal evidence provided by those who had encountered them at sea , although ships such as the British Ocean Weather Reporter had recorded very large waves that did not differ quite enough from their neighbors to be considered rogue . Minor damage was inflicted on the platform during this event , confirming the validity of the reading made by a downwards-pointing laser sensor .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Draupner_wave",
"rank": 74,
"score": 67116
},
{
"content": "Title: Ingression coast Content: An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level . Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral ( tidal ) processes , because the sea level , which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period , did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago . Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform -- e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief -- various types of ingression coast emerge , such as rias , skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Ingression_coast",
"rank": 75,
"score": 66948
},
{
"content": "Title: National Tidal and Sea Level Facility Content: Established in 2002 , The National Tidal and Sea Level Facility is responsible for monitoring sea levels in the UK . The NTSLF comprises the UK National Tide Gauge Network , geodetic networks , and gauges in the British Dependent Territories of the South Atlantic and Gibraltar . Data collected is used to create tidal predictions , monitor climate change and determine extreme sea levels for navigation and coastal engineering design . The Network is funded by the UK Environment Agency . Associated scientific research is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "National_Tidal_and_Sea_Level_Facility",
"rank": 76,
"score": 66794
},
{
"content": "Title: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event Content: The Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) extinction event , also known as the Cretaceous -- Tertiary ( K -- T ) extinction , was a mass extinction of some three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth that occurred over a geologically short period of time approximately 65 million years ago . With the exception of some ectothermic species like the leatherback sea turtle and crocodiles , no tetrapods weighing more than 25 kg survived . It marked the end of the Cretaceous period and with it , the entire Mesozoic Era , opening the Cenozoic Era that continues today . In the geologic record , the K -- Pg event is marked by a thin layer of sediment called the K -- Pg boundary , which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks . The boundary clay shows high levels of the metal iridium , which is rare in the Earth 's crust but abundant in asteroids . As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by Luis Alvarez , it is now generally thought that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by a massive comet or asteroid impact , estimated to be 10 km wide , 66 million years ago and its catastrophic effects on the global environment , including a lingering impact winter that made it impossible for plants and plankton to carry out photosynthesis . The impact hypothesis , also known as the Alvarez hypothesis , was bolstered by the discovery of the 180 km Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico in the early 1990s , which provided conclusive evidence that the K -- Pg boundary clay represented debris from an asteroid impact . The fact that the extinctions occurred at the same time as the impact provides strong situational evidence that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by the asteroid . It was possibly accelerated by the creation of the Deccan Traps . However , some scientists maintain the extinction was caused or exacerbated by other factors , such as volcanic eruptions , climate change , or sea level change , separately or together . A wide range of species perished in the K -- Pg extinction . The best-known victims are the non-avian dinosaurs . However , the extinction also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms , including certain mammals , pterosaurs , birds , lizards , insects , and plants . In the oceans , the K -- Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards ( Mosasauridae ) and devastated fish , sharks , mollusks ( especially ammonites , which became extinct ) and many species of plankton . It is estimated that 75 % or more of all species on Earth vanished . Yet the devastation caused by the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities . In the wake of the extinction , many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiations -- a sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches resulting from the event . Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene , producing new forms such as horses , whales , bats , and primates . Birds , fish and perhaps lizards also radiated .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Cretaceous–Paleogene_extinction_event",
"rank": 77,
"score": 66120
},
{
"content": "Title: Darwin Rise Content: The Darwin Rise is broad triangular region in the north central Pacific Ocean where there is a concentration of atolls . During his voyage across the globe Charles Darwin realised that vertical crustal motion must be responsible for the formation of continents and ocean basins , as well as isolated atolls in the Pacific . He deduced that the central basin of the Pacific had subsided while surrounding areas had risen . In 1964 U.S. geologist Henry Menard subsequently named the uplifted area in the Pacific after the English naturalist .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Darwin_Rise",
"rank": 78,
"score": 65869
},
{
"content": "Title: Human accelerated region 1 Content: In molecular biology , Human accelerated region 1 ( highly accelerated region 1 , HAR1 ) is a segment of the human genome found on the long arm of chromosome 20 . It is a Human accelerated region . It is located within a pair of overlapping long non-coding RNA genes , HAR1A ( HAR1F ) and HAR1B ( HAR1R ) .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Human_accelerated_region_1",
"rank": 79,
"score": 65799
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System",
"rank": 80,
"score": 65698
},
{
"content": "Title: 1954 Yangtze River floods Content: From June to September 1954 , the Yangtze River Floods were a series of catastrophic floodings that occurred mostly in Hubei Province . Due to unusually high volume of precipitation as well as an extraordinarily long rainy season in the middle stretch of the Yangtze River late in the spring of 1954 , the river started to rise above its usual level in around late June . Despite efforts to open three important flood gates to alleviate the rising water by diverting it , the flood level continued to rise until it hit the historic high of 44.67 m in Jingzhou , Hubei and 29.73 m in Wuhan . The number of dead from this flood was estimated at around 33,000 , including those who died of plague in the aftermath of the disaster .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "1954_Yangtze_River_floods",
"rank": 81,
"score": 65480
},
{
"content": "Title: Red Sea species hazardous to humans Content: Although most species in the Red Sea pose no threat to humans , there are a few notable exceptions .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Red_Sea_species_hazardous_to_humans",
"rank": 82,
"score": 65294
},
{
"content": "Title: North Sea flood of 2007 Content: The North Sea flood of 2007 also known as Cyclone Tilo , and as Andrea in Norway was a storm tide of the North Sea affecting the coastlines of the Netherlands , the United Kingdom , Germany , Denmark , Norway and Belgium , starting on the night of 8 -- 9 November 2007 .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "North_Sea_flood_of_2007",
"rank": 83,
"score": 64777
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea cave Content: A sea cave , also known as a littoral cave , is a type of cave formed primarily by the wave action of the sea . The primary process involved is erosion . Sea caves are found throughout the world , actively forming along present coastlines and as relict sea caves on former coastlines . Some of the largest wave-cut caves in the world are found on the coast of Norway , but are now 100 feet or more above present sea level . These would still be classified as littoral caves . By contrast , in places like Thailand 's Phang Nga Bay , solutionally formed caves in limestone have been flooded by the rising sea and are now subject to littoral erosion , representing a new phase of their enlargement . Some of the best-known sea caves are European . Fingal 's Cave , on the Scottish island of Staffa , is a spacious cave some 70 m long , formed in columnar basalt . The Blue Grotto of Capri , although smaller , is famous for the apparent luminescent quality of its water , imparted by light passing through underwater openings . The Romans built a stairway in its rear and a now-collapsed tunnel to the surface . The Greek islands are also noted for the variety and beauty of their sea caves . Numerous sea caves have been surveyed in England , Scotland , and in France , particularly on the Normandy coast . Until 2013 , the largest known sea caves were found along the west coast of the United States , the Hawaiian islands , and the Shetland Islands . In 2013 the discovery and survey of the world 's largest sea cave was announced . Located on New Zealand 's Otago coast on the South Island , Matainaka Cave has proven to be the world 's most extensive at 1.5 km in length . Also in 2013 , Crossley reported a newly surveyed complex reaching just over a kilometer in survey at Bethells Beach on New Zealand 's North Island .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Sea_cave",
"rank": 84,
"score": 64719
},
{
"content": "Title: 1958 Yellow River flood Content: The 1958 Yellow River flood was an extraordinarily large rise in the water flow of the Yellow River in China that coincided with the onset of the Great Leap Forward . In July 1958 , the peak discharge of the Yellow River at Huayuankou was 22,300 m3/s and the flood water level was so high that it rose up to the top of the levee in several places .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "1958_Yellow_River_flood",
"rank": 85,
"score": 64666
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Ocean_heat_content",
"rank": 86,
"score": 64639
},
{
"content": "Title: Viral decay acceleration Content: Viral decay acceleration ( VDA ) is a therapeutic strategy which increases the mutation frequency of a virus toward an error catastrophe threshold . Viruses evolve at rates approximately one million times faster than the human genome . The high mutation rate increases diversity within the viral population and facilitates survival in the face of host immune responses , depletion of target cells and antiviral therapeutics . This evolutionary advantage however comes at a considerable cost in that the vast majority of virus particles have mutated beyond a survivability threshold and are therefore non-infectious . Laboratory studies have demonstrated that therapeutics capable of increasing the mutation frequency as little as 2-fold results in collapse of the viral population . These therapeutics , termed VDA agents , accelerate the accumulation of additional mutations in the viral genome , progressively debilitating the virus which causes decay and eventual extinction of the entire viral population .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Viral_decay_acceleration",
"rank": 87,
"score": 64632
},
{
"content": "Title: Risellopsis Content: Risellopsis is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Risellopsis",
"rank": 88,
"score": 64501
},
{
"content": "Title: Zanclean flood Content: The Zanclean flood or Zanclean Deluge is a flood theorized to have refilled the Mediterranean Sea 5.33 million years ago . This flooding ended the Messinian salinity crisis and marks the beginning of the Zanclean age . The term was coined by Maria Bianca Cita in 1972 during the Deep Sea Drilling Project study that investigated the transition between the Messinian and Zanclean ages in the Mediterranean . According to this model , water from the Atlantic Ocean refilled the cut-off inland seas through the modern-day Strait of Gibraltar . The Mediterranean Basin flooded mostly during a period estimated to have been between several months and two years . Sea level rise in the basin may have reached rates at times greater than 10 m/d . Based on the erosion features preserved until modern times under the Pliocene sediment , these authors estimate that water rushed down a drop of more than 1 km with a discharge of up to 2e8 m3/s , about 1,000 times that of the present day Amazon River . Studies of the underground structures at the Gibraltar Strait show that the flooding channel descended in a rather gradual way toward the bottom of the basin rather than forming a steep waterfall . Not all scientific studies have agreed with the catastrophistic interpretation of this event . Some researchers have estimated that the reinstallment of a `` normal '' Mediterranean Sea basin following the Messinian `` Lago Mare '' episode took place in a much more gradual way , taking as long as 10,000 years .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Zanclean_flood",
"rank": 89,
"score": 64485
},
{
"content": "Title: Young Detective Dee: Rise of the Sea Dragon Content: Young Detective Dee : Rise of the Sea Dragon is a 2013 Chinese action-adventure fantasy mystery film directed , produced , and co-written by Tsui Hark . It is a prequel to Hark 's 2010 film Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame , which starred Andy Lau . Taiwanese-Canadian actor Mark Chao takes over from him as a young Detective Dee , while Feng Shaofeng , Lin Gengxin , Kim Bum ( in his Chinese debut ) , and Angelababy co-star alongside a returning Carina Lau from Mystery of the Phantom Flame , rounding up the ensemble cast . A sequel of the film and the third installment of the Detective Dee series , titled Detective Dee : The Four Heavenly Kings will be released in 2018 . Filming will begin in March 2017 .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Young_Detective_Dee:_Rise_of_the_Sea_Dragon",
"rank": 90,
"score": 64401
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Paleoflooding",
"rank": 91,
"score": 64346
},
{
"content": "Title: Coastal management Content: Coastal management is defense against flooding and erosion , and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands . Coastal zones occupy less than 15 % of the Earth 's land area , while they host more than 40 % of the world population . Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 km of a shoreline and 100 m of sea level , with an average density nearly 3 times higher than the global average for population . With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025 , human activities originating from this small land area will impose heavy pressure on coasts . Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities . In the European Union , almost half of the population lives within 50 kilometres of the sea and coastal resources produce much of the Union 's economic wealth . The fishing , shipping and tourism industries all compete for space along Europe 's estimated 89,000 km of coastline and coastal zones contain some of Europe 's most fragile and valuable natural habitats . Protection against sea level rise in the 21st century will be especially important , as sea level rise accelerates . Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems . Coastal sediments are disturbed and suspended by wave and tide energy .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Coastal_management",
"rank": 92,
"score": 64242
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea in culture Content: The role of the sea in human culture has been important for centuries , as people experience the sea in contradictory ways : as powerful but serene , beautiful but dangerous . Human responses to the sea can be found in artforms including literature , art , poetry , film , theatre , and classical music . The earliest art representing boats is 40,000 years old . Since then , artists in different countries and cultures have depicted the sea . Symbolically , the sea has been perceived as a hostile environment populated by fantastic creatures : the Leviathan of the Bible , Isonade in Japanese mythology , and the kraken of late Norse mythology . In the works of the psychiatrist Carl Jung , the sea symbolises the personal and the collective unconscious in dream interpretation . The sea and ships have been depicted in art ranging from simple drawings on the walls of huts in Lamu to seascapes by Joseph Turner and Dutch Golden Age painting . The Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai created colour prints of the moods of the sea , including The Great Wave off Kanagawa . The sea has appeared in literature since Homer 's Odyssey ( 8th century BC ) . The sea is a recurring theme in the Haiku poems of the Japanese Edo period poet Matsuo Bashō ( 1644 -- 1694 ) . The sea plays a major role in Homer 's epic poem the Odyssey , describing the ten-year voyage of the Greek hero Odysseus who struggles to return home across the sea , encountering sea monsters along the way . In the Middle Ages , the sea appears in romances such as the Tristan legend , with motifs such as mythical islands and self-propelled ships . Pilgrimage is a common theme in stories and poems such as The Book of Margery Kempe . Contemporary sea-inspired novels have been written by Joseph Conrad , Herman Wouk , and Herman Melville ; poems about the sea have been written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Rudyard Kipling and John Masefield . The sea has inspired much music over the centuries including sea shanties , Richard Wagner 's The Flying Dutchman , Claude Debussy 's La mer ( 1903 -- 05 ) , Charles Villiers Stanford 's Songs of the Sea ( 1904 ) and Songs of the Fleet ( 1910 ) , Edward Elgar 's Sea Pictures ( 1899 ) and Ralph Vaughan Williams ' A Sea Symphony ( 1903 -- 1909 ) . Burial at sea has been practised in various ways by countries around the world since the ancient civilisations of Egypt , Greece , and Rome .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Sea_in_culture",
"rank": 93,
"score": 64176
},
{
"content": "Title: Risella tantillus Content: Risella tantillus is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Risella_tantillus",
"rank": 94,
"score": 64085
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Empress oil spill Content: The Sea Empress oil spill occurred at the entrance to the Milford Haven Waterway in Pembrokeshire , Wales on 15 February 1996 . The Sea Empress was en route to the Texaco oil refinery near Pembroke when she became grounded on mid-channel rocks at St. Ann 's Head . Over the course of a week , she spilt 72,000 tons of crude oil into the sea . The spill occurred within the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park -- one of Europe 's most important and sensitive wildlife and marine conservation areas . It was Britain 's third largest oil spillage and the twelfth largest in the world at the time . Sailing against the outgoing tide and in calm conditions , at 20:07 GMT the ship was pushed off course by the current and became grounded after hitting rocks in the middle of the channel . The collision punctured her starboard hull causing oil to pour out into the sea . Tugs from Milford Haven Port Authority were sent to the scene and attempted to pull the vessel free and re-float her . During the initial rescue attempts , she detached several times from the tugs and grounded repeatedly -- each time slicing open new sections of her hull and releasing more oil . A full scale emergency plan was activated by the authorities . News of the grounding was first reported at 21:18 on the BBC 's Nine O'Clock News -- just over an hour after she ran aground . Over the next few days , frantic efforts to pull the vessel from the rocks continued . Tugboats were drafted in from the ports of Dublin , Liverpool and Plymouth to assist with the salvage operation .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Sea_Empress_oil_spill",
"rank": 95,
"score": 64079
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level, North Carolina Content: Sea Level is an unincorporated community in northeastern Carteret County , North Carolina . It rests on the banks of the Core Sound and has a population of roughly 450 . It is located in what was known to early settlers as Hunting Quarters . Sea Level has one of the lowest elevations in North Carolina ; it is estimated that approximately 75 % of the community floods when hurricanes pass through . US 70 is the major thoroughfare through the community . The community is the location of NC 12 's southern terminus .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Sea_Level,_North_Carolina",
"rank": 96,
"score": 64054
},
{
"content": "Title: North Aral Sea Content: The North Aral Sea is the portion of the former Aral Sea that is fed by the Syr Darya River . It split from the South Aral Sea in 1986 as water levels dropped due to river diversion for agriculture . The poorly built Dike Kokaral intended to contain the North Aral Sea and save its fisheries failed twice , but in 2005 the government of Kazakhstan was able to fund a more robust design . Since then , water levels have risen faster than expected and fish stocks have increased . Plans to build a second dike to increase water levels further were due to begin in 2010 .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "North_Aral_Sea",
"rank": 97,
"score": 63979
},
{
"content": "Title: Slack water Content: Slack water , also known as ` the stand of the tide ' , is a short period in a body of tidal water when the water is completely unstressed , and there is no movement either way in the tidal stream , and which occurs before the direction of the tidal stream reverses . Slack water can be estimated using a tidal atlas or the tidal diamond information on a nautical chart . The time of slack water , particularly in constricted waters , does not occur at high and low water , and in certain areas , such as Primera Angostura , the ebb may run for up to three hours after the water level has started to rise , and the flood may run for three hours after the water has started to fall . Thornton Lecky , writing in 1884 , illustrates the phenomenon with an inland basin of infinite size , connected to the sea by a narrow mouth . Since the level of the basin is always at mean sea level , the flood in the mouth starts at half tide , and its velocity is at its greatest at the time of high water , with the strongest ebb occurring conversely at low water .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "Slack_water",
"rank": 98,
"score": 63869
},
{
"content": "Title: HI-SEAS Content: HI-SEAS ( Hawaii Space Exploration Analog and Simulation ) is an analog habitat for human spaceflight to Mars . HI-SEAS is located in an isolated position on the slopes of the Mauna Loa volcano on the island of Hawaii . The area has Mars-like features and an elevation of approximately 8200 ft above sea level . The first HI-SEAS study was in 2013 and NASA 's Human Research Program continues to fund and sponsor follow-up studies . The missions are of extended duration from four months to a year . The purpose of the detailed research studies is to determine what is required to keep a space flight crew happy and healthy during an extended mission to Mars and while living on Mars . Research into food , crew dynamics , behaviors , roles and performance , and other aspects of space flight and a mission on Mars itself is the primary focus . The HI-SEAS researchers also carry out studies on a variety of other topics as part of their daily activities . One thing under study by NASA is trying to understand crew dynamics such as morale , stress management , and how they solve problems as group .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "HI-SEAS",
"rank": 99,
"score": 63865
},
{
"content": "Title: The Threat from the Sea Content: The Threat From the Sea is a series of fantasy novels written mostly by Mel Odom . It contains three novels : Rising Tide , Under Fallen Stars , and The Sea Devil 's Eye . It also contains the anthology book , Realms of the Deep .",
"qid": "128",
"docid": "The_Threat_from_the_Sea",
"rank": 100,
"score": 63746
}
] |
Sea level rise could reach six or seven feet by the year 2100. | [
{
"content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)",
"rank": 1,
"score": 142957
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 2,
"score": 140882
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 3,
"score": 108939
},
{
"content": "Title: Draupner wave Content: The Draupner wave or New Year 's wave was the first rogue wave to be detected by a measuring instrument , occurring at the Draupner platform in the North Sea off the coast of Norway on 1 January 1995 . In an area with significant wave height of approximately 12 m , a freak wave with a maximum wave height of 25.6 m occurred ( peak elevation above still water level was 18.5 m ) . Prior to that measurement , no instrument-recorded evidence for rogue waves existed -- just anecdotal evidence provided by those who had encountered them at sea , although ships such as the British Ocean Weather Reporter had recorded very large waves that did not differ quite enough from their neighbors to be considered rogue . Minor damage was inflicted on the platform during this event , confirming the validity of the reading made by a downwards-pointing laser sensor .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Draupner_wave",
"rank": 4,
"score": 100648
},
{
"content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Equilibrium_level",
"rank": 5,
"score": 98090
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929",
"rank": 6,
"score": 96272
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Sea_level",
"rank": 7,
"score": 95861
},
{
"content": "Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Seamount",
"rank": 8,
"score": 95385
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 9,
"score": 94780
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 10,
"score": 94730
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme points of Antarctica Content: The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Extreme_points_of_Antarctica",
"rank": 11,
"score": 92239
},
{
"content": "Title: Thiel Trough Content: Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Thiel_Trough",
"rank": 12,
"score": 90469
},
{
"content": "Title: Annual cycle of sea level height Content: The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Annual_cycle_of_sea_level_height",
"rank": 13,
"score": 90194
},
{
"content": "Title: Badwater Ultramarathon Content: The Badwater Ultramarathon describes itself as `` the world 's toughest foot race '' . It is a 135 mi course starting at 279 ft below sea level in the Badwater Basin , in California 's Death Valley , and ending at an elevation of 8360 feet ( 2548 m ) at Whitney Portal , the trailhead to Mount Whitney . It takes place annually in mid-July , when the weather conditions are most extreme and temperatures can reach 130 F. Consequently , very few people -- even among ultramarathoners -- are capable of finishing this grueling race .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Badwater_Ultramarathon",
"rank": 14,
"score": 89330
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Earth_2100",
"rank": 15,
"score": 89321
},
{
"content": "Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea",
"rank": 16,
"score": 88440
},
{
"content": "Title: Maximum parcel level Content: The maximum parcel level ( MPL ) is the highest level in the atmosphere that a moist convectively rising air parcel will reach after ascending from the level of free convection ( LFC ) through the free convective layer ( FCL ) and reaching the equilibrium level ( EL ) , near the tropopause . As the parcel rises through the FCL it expands adiabatically causing its temperature to drop , often below the temperature of its surroundings , and eventually lose buoyancy . Because of this , the EL is approximately the region where the distinct flat tops ( called anvils ) often observed on cumulonimbus clouds form . If the air parcel ascended quickly enough then it retains momentum after it has cooled and continues rising past the EL , ceasing at the MPL ( visually represented by the overshooting top , above the anvil ) .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Maximum_parcel_level",
"rank": 17,
"score": 87400
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Sea_level_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 18,
"score": 87112
},
{
"content": "Title: 1872 Baltic Sea flood Content: The 1872 Baltic Sea flood ( Ostseesturmhochwasser 1872 ) , often referred to as a storm flood , ravaged the Baltic Sea coast from Denmark to Pomerania in the night of 12/13 November 1872 and was , until then , the worst storm surge in the Baltic . The highest recorded peak water level was about 3.3 m above sea level ( NN ) .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "1872_Baltic_Sea_flood",
"rank": 19,
"score": 85860
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis",
"rank": 20,
"score": 85486
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice rise Content: An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Ice_rise",
"rank": 21,
"score": 85311
},
{
"content": "Title: Flight level Content: In aviation and aviation meteorology , a flight level ( FL ) is defined as a vertical altitude at standard pressure , nominally expressed in hundreds of feet . The pressure is computed assuming an International standard sea-level pressure datum of 1013.2 hPa ( 29.92 inHg ) , and therefore is not necessarily the same as the aircraft 's actual altitude either above mean sea level or above ground level .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Flight_level",
"rank": 22,
"score": 85021
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A",
"rank": 23,
"score": 85009
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of high altitude on humans Content: The effects of high altitude on humans are considerable . The percentage oxygen saturation of hemoglobin determines the content of oxygen in blood . After the human body reaches around 2,100 m ( 7,000 feet ) above sea level , the saturation of oxyhemoglobin begins to plummet . However , the human body has both short-term and long-term adaptations to altitude that allow it to partially compensate for the lack of oxygen . Athletes use these adaptations to help their performance . There is a limit to the level of adaptation ; mountaineers refer to the altitudes above 8000 m as the `` death zone '' , where it is generally believed that no human body can acclimatize .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Effects_of_high_altitude_on_humans",
"rank": 24,
"score": 84105
},
{
"content": "Title: South Summit (Mount Everest) Content: The South Summit of Mount Everest is the second-highest peak on Earth , and is a subsidiary peak to the primary peak of Mount Everest . Although its elevation above sea level of 8749 m is higher than the second-highest mountain on Earth , K2 ( whose summit is 8611 m above sea level ) , it is only considered a separate peak and not a separate mountain as its prominence is only 11 meters . The peak is a dome-shaped peak of snow and ice , and is connected to the summit of Mount Everest by the Cornice Traverse and Hillary Step . It was first climbed by Charles Evans and Tom Bourdillon on the 1953 British Mount Everest expedition , on May 26 , 1953 . They were unable to continue on to the primary summit , but Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay , the next pair to make a summit bid , traversed the South Summit to reach the main peak . The distance separating the two summits is approximately 130 m. A geologist with a 1965 Indian Everest expedition discovered a deposit of fossils of seashells in limestone about 100 feet above the South Summit . This expedition put nine climbers on the main summit . Describing his first ascent of Mount Everest without supplemental oxygen in 1978 , Reinhold Messner described the South Summit as `` quite a milestone for me '' . During the 1996 Mount Everest disaster , mountain guide Rob Hall and three other people died at the South Summit while descending from the main summit in an unexpected blizzard . Hall survived overnight , and established radio contact the following day , but froze to death later that day , May 11 , 1996 . His body remains on the South Summit . In 2012 Dr. Eberhard Schaaf died on descent at the south summit from altitude sickness .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "South_Summit_(Mount_Everest)",
"rank": 25,
"score": 83217
},
{
"content": "Title: J. Val Klump Content: Jeffrey Val Klump ( born December 17 , 1948 ) is an American limnologist . He was the first person to reach the deepest spot in Lake Superior , a depth of 1333 feet ( 733 feet below sea level ) , the second lowest point in the United States after Iliamna Lake , on July 30 , 1985 while aboard the R/V Seward Johnson with the Johnson Sea Link-II submersible . Klump was also the first person to reach to the deepest point in Lake Michigan as part of the same expedition . He is currently a professor in the School of Freshwater Sciences at the University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee in Milwaukee , Wisconsin and director of the Great Lakes WATER Institute .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "J._Val_Klump",
"rank": 26,
"score": 83209
},
{
"content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Josh_Willis",
"rank": 27,
"score": 82829
},
{
"content": "Title: Ieodo Ocean Research Station Content: Ieodo Ocean Research Station is an ocean platform constructed by South Korea and placed on the submerged Socotra Rock in the East China Sea . The stated purpose of the platform is the collection of meteorological data , provision for maritime safety , and fisheries monitoring . However , as South Korea and China both claim that Socotra Rock lies in their respective Exclusive Economic Zones , the platform does have strategic implications . The platform was officially opened in June 2003 . The platform has a helipad a couple of lower decks for equipment and workspace . Although the station has residential facilities that can comfortably accommodate 8 people for 15 days , the station is typically uninhabited and operated remotely . While Socotra Rock rises to a maximum of 4.6 m below sea level , the platform is founded on a portion of the rock that is substantially deeper at 40m below sea level . As a result , the platform is approximately 700m from the rock 's `` peak . '' The platform rises approximately 36m from sea level .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Ieodo_Ocean_Research_Station",
"rank": 28,
"score": 82786
},
{
"content": "Title: Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes Content: The fifteen volcanoes that make up the eight principal islands of Hawaii are the youngest in a chain of more than 129 volcanoes that stretch 5800 km across the North Pacific Ocean , called the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain . Hawaii 's volcanoes rise an average of 4572 m to reach sea level from their base . The largest and most famous , Mauna Loa , has built itself up to a height of 4169 m . As shield volcanoes , they are built by accumulated lava flows , growing no more than 3 m at a time to form a broad and gently sloping shape . Hawaiian volcanoes all follow a specific pattern of eruption , building , and erosion . Hawaiian islands undergo a systematic pattern of submarine and subaerial growth that is followed by erosion . An island 's stage of development reflects its distance from the Hawaii hotspot .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Evolution_of_Hawaiian_volcanoes",
"rank": 29,
"score": 82590
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "The_Sea_is_Rising",
"rank": 30,
"score": 82115
},
{
"content": "Title: Seabee Heights Content: Seabee Heights is a rugged snow-covered heights rising to 3400 m in the Queen Maud Mountains . The heights are about 15 nmi long and 5 nmi wide and are bounded by the flow of the DeGanahl , LaVergne and Liv Glaciers . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for the U.S. Navy Construction Battalions ( Seabees ) which have played a significant role in the building of U.S. Antarctic stations .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Seabee_Heights",
"rank": 31,
"score": 81761
},
{
"content": "Title: High-altitude football controversy Content: The high-altitude football controversy arose in May 2007 when FIFA introduced a temporary ban on international matches at more than 2500 m above sea level , citing concerns about players ' health and the `` unfair '' advantage to acclimatised home teams . The ruling meant that Bolivia , Ecuador and Colombia would be prevented from hosting FIFA World Cup qualifiers in their own capital cities . The ban was revoked in May 2008 .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "High-altitude_football_controversy",
"rank": 32,
"score": 81612
},
{
"content": "Title: Seahpo Peak Content: Seahpo Peak is a subsidiary peak of Mount Shuksan , which rises in the U.S. state of Washington . It is located about 2 mi east of the main peak of Shuksan and rises to about 7441 ft. It is located in North Cascades National Park and is part of the North Cascades range . Connected to the main peak by the roughly 7000 ft-high Jagged Ridge , Seahpo Peak stands to the north at the headwaters of a headstream of Sulphide Creek , a tributary of the Baker River . Several waterfalls tumble off its flanks , including Seahpo Peak Falls and Cloudcap Falls . ( Seahpo Peak is sometimes referred to as Cloudcap Peak . ) The mountain is also on the south side of the Nooksack Cirque , which forms the headwaters of the Nooksack River . It is bordered by the East Nooksack Glacier to the north and a few smaller unnamed glaciers to the south . It is also connected to Icy Peak by another unnamed ridge . The mountain derives its name from a French word , chapeau , meaning `` hat '' .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Seahpo_Peak",
"rank": 33,
"score": 81604
},
{
"content": "Title: Altitude diving Content: Altitude diving is underwater diving using scuba or surface supplied diving equipment where the surface is 300 meters ( 1,000 feet ) or more above sea level ( for example , a mountain lake ) . The U.S. Navy tables recommend that no alteration be made for dives at altitudes lower than 91 meters ( 300 feet ) and dives between 91 meters and 300 meters correction is required for dives over 44 meters sea water ( 145 feet sea water ) . Altitude is significant in diving because the depths and decompression used for dives at altitude are different from those used for the same dive profile at sea level .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Altitude_diving",
"rank": 34,
"score": 81514
},
{
"content": "Title: Trölladyngja Content: Situated in the Ódáðahraun lava field , Trölladyngja is the biggest of the Icelandic shield volcanoes , reaching a height of 1468 m above sea level , and rising almost 600 metres above the surrounding desert and lava fields . It is about 10 kilometres in diameter and its inclination is 4 to 5 ° in the lower slopes , but 6 to 8 ° at higher elevations . Its oblong crater is about 1,200 to 1,500 metres in length , 500 metres broad , and about 100 metres deep . Most of its lava fields have flowed in a northerly direction , with one branch of it reaching the valley of Bárðardalur , a distance of roughly 100 km .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Trölladyngja",
"rank": 35,
"score": 81321
},
{
"content": "Title: Thirteener Content: In mountaineering in the United States , a thirteener is a mountain that exceeds 13000 ft above mean sea level , similar to the more familiar `` fourteeners , '' which exceed 14000 ft. In most instances , `` thirteeners '' refers only to those peaks between 13,000 and 13,999 feet in elevation . The importance of thirteeners is greatest in Colorado , which has the majority of such peaks in North America with over 600 of them . Despite the large number of peaks , over 20 peak baggers have reported climbing all of Colorado 's thirteeners . Thirteeners are also significant in states whose highpoints fall between 13,000 and 13,999 feet . Regarding whether or not peaks in excess of 13,999 feet should be considered as `` thirteeners '' , this article will count them as such for statistical purposes , but concentrate its focus on those peaks less than 14,000 feet since the higher peaks are already covered in the fourteeners list . Not all summits over 13,000 feet qualify as thirteeners , but only those summits that mountaineers consider to be independent . Objective standards for independence include topographic prominence and isolation ( distance from a higher summit ) , or a combination . However thirteener lists do not always consistently use such objective rules . A rule commonly used by mountaineers in the contiguous United States is that a peak must have at least 300 ft of prominence to qualify . According to the Mountaineering Club of Alaska , it is standard in Alaska to use a 500 ft prominence rule rather than a 300-foot rule . These are the standards applied for the lists below .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Thirteener",
"rank": 36,
"score": 81286
},
{
"content": "Title: Hailwood's Height Content: Hailwood 's Height , preceded by Hailwood 's Rise , is situated between the 31st and 32nd Milestone road-side markers on the Snaefell Mountain Course used for the Isle of Man TT Races on the A18 Snaefell Mountain Road in the parishes of Lezayre and Lonan in the Isle of Man . The uphill section of the Mountain Course from the Bungalow to the highest point of the course at Ordnance Survey spot height 422 m above sea level near Brandywell was named Hailwood 's Rise in memory of Mike Hailwood , the former world motorcycle champion who died in 1981 . The highest point of the course adjacent to the Brandywell/B10 road junction is named Hailwood 's Height . Hailwood 's Height and Hailwood 's Rise were part of the Highland Course and the Four Inch Course used for the Gordon Bennett Trial and Tourist Trophy automobile car races held in the Isle of Man between 1904 and 1922 . Hailwood 's Height is now part of the Snaefell Mountain Course used since 1911 for the Isle of Man TT and from 1923 for the Manx Grand Prix Races .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Hailwood's_Height",
"rank": 37,
"score": 80905
},
{
"content": "Title: Australian Height Datum Content: The Australian Height Datum is a geodetic datum for altitude measurement in Australia . According to Geoscience Australia , `` In 1971 the mean sea level for 1966-1968 was assigned the value of 0.000 m on the Australian Height Datum at thirty tide gauges around the coast of the Australian continent . The resulting datum surface , with minor modifications in two metropolitan areas , has been termed the Australian Height Datum ( AHD ) and was adopted by the National Mapping Council as the datum to which all vertical control for mapping ( and other surveying functions ) is to be referred . ''",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Australian_Height_Datum",
"rank": 38,
"score": 80843
},
{
"content": "Title: Apharwat Peak Content: Apharwat Peak is a summit , situated at a height of 4390 m above the sea level , in Gulmarg . It receives heavy snowfall and remains covered with snow for much of the year . The Line of Control ( LOC ) is barely a few kilometres away from here . Lying in the second phase of the cable car ride from Gulmarg , reaching this spot is highly dependent on the weather conditions .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Apharwat_Peak",
"rank": 39,
"score": 80759
},
{
"content": "Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "A_Sea_So_Far",
"rank": 40,
"score": 80548
},
{
"content": "Title: Windy Hill (Pennines) Content: Windy Hill in the South Pennines within the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale in Greater Manchester , England , rises to 389 metres above sea level . The hill is located west of the A672 road and south west of Junction 22 on the M62 motorway . Windy Hill cutting is up to 120 feet deep and the longest on the M62 . A pedestrian footbridge , 320 feet long and 65 feet above the carriageways , carries the Pennine Way above Windy Hill cutting . Its parabolic arch and splayed legs are designed to withstand wind speeds up to 120 mph . Snow lies on Windy Hill for an average of 35 days annually and the area is prone to fog or low cloud . The boundary stone between Greater Manchester and West Yorkshire is in the cutting . The Longden End Brook rises between the hill and the motorway and the Piethorne Brook drains to reservoirs to the southwest . A radio transmitter is located to the east .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Windy_Hill_(Pennines)",
"rank": 41,
"score": 80466
},
{
"content": "Title: 2100 Ross Avenue Content: 2100 Ross Avenue ( formerly San Jacinto Tower ) is a 33-story postmodern skyscraper located at 2100 Ross Avenue/2121 San Jacinto Street in the City Center District of downtown Dallas , Texas , in the United States . The structure stands at a height of 456 feet ( 139 m ) and contains 844,000 square feet ( 78,000 m ² ) of office space . The top floor of San Jacinto Tower was the fictional location of the Oil Barons Club - an exclusive restaurant and lounge on the TV series Dallas . Exterior shots zooming onto the top floor were used .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "2100_Ross_Avenue",
"rank": 42,
"score": 80420
},
{
"content": "Title: Ferg Hawke Content: Fergus ( ` Ferg ' ) Hawke ( born November 16 , 1957 , New Westminster , British Columbia , Canada ) is a leading international ultra-distance runner , residing in South Surrey , British Columbia , Canada . Badwater Ultramarathon He has placed second in the Badwater Ultramarathon twice ( 2004 , 2005 ) , to Dean Karnazes ( 2004 : 27:30:20 ; finished second by 8 minutes ) and Scott Jurek ( 2005 : 26:33:00 ; finished second by 1:57 ) . His 2005 time is the ninth best time ever in the history of the race . The Badwater Ultramarathon is a 135-mile ( 217 km ) ultramarathon through Death Valley in mid-July , starting at Badwater Basin , the second-lowest point in the Western Hemisphere , 282 feet below sea level , and finishing 8300 feet up Mount Whitney . With a cumulative vertical ascent of 13,000 ft ( 4000 m ) and a cumulative descent of 4,700 ft ( 1400 m ) , and temperatures reaching 130 degrees Fahrenheit ( 54 degrees Celsius ) , it is considered by some people to be the most difficult footrace in the world . Other ultramarathons He holds the second-best time by a North American in the Marathon des Sables , a staged 150-mile ultramarathon race through the Sahara Desert , in Morocco : 2002 , with a time of 22:51:03 ( the record is held by Eric Deshaies of Ottawa , Canada : 2007 ) . Other notable race results include : Chuckanut Mountain 50 km , Bellingham , Washington , USA : first-place finisher overall ( 1995 ) , second ( 1998 ) , third ( 1996 and 1999 ) . Elk Beaver 50 mile Canadian Championships , Vancouver Island , B.C. : first-place finisher overall ( 1996 ) . Rose City 50 mile Ultramarathon , Portland , Oregon , USA : first-place finisher overall ( 1995 ) . Eagle Run 100 mile , Apex Mountain , British Columbia : first-place finisher overall ( 1995 ) . This race was the first official 100 mile distance ultramarathon ever held in Canada . Triathalons and ultramans His introduction to endurance events came with triathlons . He served on the Canadian National Triathlon team in 1991 , representing Canada at the World Triathlon Championships in Surfers Paradise , Australia that same year . He has competed in several ultra-triathlons , including the Ultraman World Championships in Hawaii . The Ultraman is a three-day endurance triathlon consisting of a 6.2 mile swim and a 90-mile cycle on day 1 , a 171.4 mile cycle on day 2 , and a 52.4 mile double marathon on the final day . The course circumnavigates the Big Island of Hawaii and is considered to be one of the most challenging triathlons in the world . At the 1999 Ultraman World Championships he finished third overall , with a combined time of 23:41:16 . The Distance of Truth He is the subject of a documentary film , `` The Distance of Truth '' ( directed by Robert Letson under the name of ` Meno ' ) , available at www.thedistanceoftruth.com , and has been featured in numerous television , radio , and print articles .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Ferg_Hawke",
"rank": 43,
"score": 80306
},
{
"content": "Title: Walleralm Content: The Walleralm is an alp with a mountain inn ( Berggasthaus ) that lies at a height of 1170 m above sea level at the foot of the Zettenkaiserkopf , a fore peak of the Zettenkaiser in the Austrian state of Tyrol . The alp is easily and quickly reached by mountain bike or on foot from Lake Hinterstein near Scheffau am Wilden Kaiser along a forest track . The alp has a panoramic view of the Kitzbüheler Horn mountain above the Hohe Salve and across to the Inn valley , in the distance the glaciers of the High Tauern are visible .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Walleralm",
"rank": 44,
"score": 80272
},
{
"content": "Title: Metres above sea level Content: Redirected here : feet above sea level ; AMSL means `` above mean sea level '' , and may be used for heights specified in any units . Metres above mean sea level ( MAMSL ) or simply metres above sea level ( MASL or m a.s.l. ) is a standard metric measurement in metres of the elevation or altitude of a location in reference to a historic mean sea level . Mean sea levels are affected by climate change and other factors and change over time . For this and other reasons , recorded measurements of elevation above sea level might differ from the actual elevation of a given location over sea level at a given moment .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Metres_above_sea_level",
"rank": 45,
"score": 80254
},
{
"content": "Title: South Tasman Rise Content: The South Tasman Rise is an area of seafloor that lies 550 km south of Hobart , Tasmania in the Southern Ocean where water depths are about 1,500 metres . The South Tasman Rise is also known as the Tasmania Ridge or South Tasmania Ridge .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "South_Tasman_Rise",
"rank": 46,
"score": 80213
},
{
"content": "Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Tide_gauge",
"rank": 47,
"score": 79959
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "The_Sea_Has_Risen",
"rank": 48,
"score": 79957
},
{
"content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Past_sea_level",
"rank": 49,
"score": 79699
},
{
"content": "Title: Dvořák Ice Rise Content: Dvořák Ice Rise is an ice rise 1.5 nmi in extent , rising above the ice of Mendelssohn Inlet in the southwest part of Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was first mapped , from air photos taken by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition , 1947 -- 48 , by D. Searle of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1960 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Antonín Dvořák , the Czech composer . ( 1841-1904 ) .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Dvořák_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 50,
"score": 79174
},
{
"content": "Title: Ishpatina Ridge Content: Ishpatina Ridge is the highest point of land in the Canadian province of Ontario , at an estimated 693 m above sea level . Ishpatina Ridge rises approximately 300 m above the immediate area . It was only truly recognized as Ontario 's highest point after federal government topographical mapping revealed this fact in the 1970s . Before then , the more popular Maple Mountain was thought to be higher . The ridge lies in Lady Evelyn-Smoothwater Provincial Park . Due to its remote location , Ishpatina Ridge is a challenge to reach . The closest major highway , Highway 560 , is more than 30 km north . There are a few logging roads and trails in the remote area , but they are difficult to travel in poor weather . The most popular approach route to Ishpatina is by canoe/portage via a logging road to the south out of the town of Capreol north of Sudbury . While a northern route exists ( out of Gowganda , the nearest community ) , there are numerous portages making it particularly onerous . This route has traditionally been used for a winter-time approach by ski/snowshoe . Historically , a fire tower atop the ridge was staffed by forest workers and they would have been ferried to the site by float plane . The name `` Ishpatina '' comes from an Ojibwe language word ishpadinaa , meaning `` high place/ridge '' . The city of Ishpeming , Michigan , in Marquette County , and Spadina Avenue in Toronto , Ontario derive their names from the same word . Although the Ishpatina Ridge is the highest point in Ontario , at least one other geographic feature , Maple Mountain ( approximately 25 km to the east ) has greater prominence , 37 m higher than Ishpatina Ridge 's rise over Scarecrow Lake . An abandoned firetower , often referred to as the Ellis Tower , is still standing on the highest section of the Ridge ( left ) . The original tower was an 80 ft structure erected in 1930 . The successor , currently standing , is 100 ft high and was abandoned in the 1960s . The towerman would have resided in a cabin on the shore of Scarecrow Lake and would have hiked a 3.5 km trail daily taking approximately two hours to summit and a little over one hour to descend again . Located between Tower Peak and the North Peak , the Ishpatina Canyon is one of the deepest in Ontario . The elevation of Tower Peak is 2274 feet , the bottom of the Canyon is at 1750 feet and the North Peak at 2250 feet above sea level . The canyon is nearly twice as deep as Ouimet Canyon , often considered Ontario 's deepest . However , the more gradual descent into the canyon hides the fact . The ridge was featured on an interactive web series called The Peakbaggers .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Ishpatina_Ridge",
"rank": 51,
"score": 79128
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level (album) Content: Sea Level is the 1977 eponymous debut album by Sea Level and was released on the Capricorn Records label .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Sea_Level_(album)",
"rank": 52,
"score": 78860
},
{
"content": "Title: Astrolabe Needle Content: Astrolabe Needle is a conspicuous monolith rising 50 m above sea level south of Claude Point , Brabant Island , in the Palmer Archipelago . It was discovered by the French Antarctic Expedition under Jean-Baptiste Charcot , 1903 -- 05 , and named after the Astrolabe , one of the ships of the French expedition under Captain Jules Dumont d'Urville , 1837 -- 40 .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Astrolabe_Needle",
"rank": 53,
"score": 78678
},
{
"content": "Title: Hillary Step Content: The Hillary Step is , or possibly was , a nearly vertical rock face with a height of around 12 m located high on Mount Everest at approximately 8790 m above sea level . It is located on the southeast ridge , halfway between the `` South Summit '' and the true summit , and is the last real challenge before reaching the top of the mountain via the southeast route . The Step is named after Sir Edmund Hillary , who was the first known person , along with Tenzing Norgay , to scale it on the way to the summit . It was suspected in 2016 that the 2015 earthquake had altered the Hillary Step , but there was so much snow it was not clear whether it had truly changed . It was reported in May 2017 by climbers including professional high-altitude expedition leader and six-time Everest summiteer Tim Mosedale that `` the Hillary Step is no more '' , although the full extent and interpretation of the changes are still nascent . There are multiple pictures of before and after . Another climber who thought the Step changed by 2016 was six-time Everest summiter David Liaño Gonzalez , who summited in 2013 and 2016 , when the relevant changes are reported to have occurred . However , some important Nepalese climbers , including Ang Tshering Sherpa , chairman of the Nepal Mountaineering Association , have reported that the Step is still intact but covered in more snow than before . Peter Hillary , Edmund Hillary 's son , was asked his opinion about the Step based on photos . He agreed it was there in part , but seemed to think it had undergone some sort of a change , noting especially what looked like a fresh broken rock . The Step is known as the most technically difficult part of the typical Nepal-side Everest climb In some climbing seasons after heavy snowfall , the rock face could be bypassed with snow/ice climbing . Climbing the Hillary Step has the danger of a 10000 ft drop on the right ( when going up ) and an 8000 ft drop on the left . The Hillary Step is where the late Anatoli Boukreev found a body hanging from ropes at the base of the step as relayed by his book The Climb . One expedition noted that climbing the Hillary Step was `` strenuous '' , but did offer some protection from the elements . An unaided Hillary Step climb was rated as a Class 4 rock climb , but at almost 29,000 feet altitude . When Hillary and Tenzing first climbed the Hillary Step on 29 May 1953 , they climbed the crack between the snow and the rock . Hillary reported that the snow on the step was harder than at lower elevation . In later years ascent and descent over the Step has generally been made with the assistance of fixed ropes , usually placed there by the first ascending team of the season . With increasing numbers of people climbing the mountain , the Step frequently becomes a bottleneck , with climbers forced to wait significant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes , leading to problems in getting climbers efficiently up and down the mountain . Only one climber at a time can traverse it . In a good climbing situation it is about a two-hour climb from the South Summit to the Hillary Step , one to two hours to climb the cliff , and then another 20 minutes from the top of the Hillary Step to the summit of Mount Everest . Before 2015 , the descending sequence along Everest 's southeast ridge was : Summit of Everest Final slope to summit Hillary Step 40 ft / 12 m rock cliff Cornice traverse ( knife-edge ridge ) South Summit of Everest The Balcony ( 27,500 feet / 8380 m ) <ref> < / ref",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Hillary_Step",
"rank": 54,
"score": 78372
},
{
"content": "Title: Protector Shoal Content: Protector Shoal is a submarine volcano , also called seamount , which rises gently from an ocean depth of 3900 ft to about 55 m below sea level approximately 31 mi NW of Zavodovski Island in the South Sandwich Islands chain . The last eruption occurred during March 1962 . Protector Shoal is the only volcano in the arc that has erupted rhyolite pumice .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Protector_Shoal",
"rank": 55,
"score": 78361
},
{
"content": "Title: Sonny Bono Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Sonny Bono Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuge is located 40 mi north of the Mexican border at the southern end of the Salton Sea in California 's Imperial Valley . Situated along the Pacific Flyway , the Refuge is the only one of its kind , located 227 ft below sea level . Because of its southern latitude , elevation and location in the Colorado Desert , the Refuge experiences some of the highest temperatures in the nation . Daily temperatures from May to October generally exceed 100 ° F with temperatures of 116 ° -- 120 ° F recorded yearly .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Sonny_Bono_Salton_Sea_National_Wildlife_Refuge",
"rank": 56,
"score": 78301
},
{
"content": "Title: List of summits of the San Francisco Bay Area Content: This is a list of named summits in the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area that are more than 1000 ft above sea level . Note that there are no natural features above 1000 ft in the city of San Francisco . Unless otherwise referenced , all data are from the Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS ) . GNIS elevations are imprecise .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "List_of_summits_of_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area",
"rank": 57,
"score": 78107
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Sea_Level_(band)",
"rank": 58,
"score": 78094
},
{
"content": "Title: Queen Mary's Peak Content: Queen Mary 's Peak is the summit of the island of Tristan da Cunha , in the South Atlantic Ocean . It has an elevation of 2,062 metres ( 6,765 ft ) above sea level . It is named after Mary of Teck , the Queen consort of King George V . It is the highest point of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena , Ascension and Tristan da Cunha . The mountain is the peak of the massive shield volcano which forms the island . A 300 m wide summit crater caps the peak , and it contains a heart-shaped crater lake . This lake is normally frozen during the winter , and the upper slopes of the volcano are covered in snow . The only recorded eruption began on 10 October 1961 from a vent on the north shore of the island , and continued into March 1962 . The entire population of the island had to be evacuated and did not return until 1963 . Queen Mary 's Peak was used by sailors on the route from Europe to the Indian Ocean and beyond as a navigational aid . In the 17th century the East India Company instructed captains to sail via Tristan . In 2004 , Ellen MacArthur sighted the Peak on her record-breaking circumnavigation of the world .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Queen_Mary's_Peak",
"rank": 59,
"score": 78056
},
{
"content": "Title: Irminger Sea Content: The Irminger Sea is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is 480 km long and 290 km wide at its narrowest . The northern limit is the Greenland-Iceland Rise on the bottom of the Denmark Strait between Iceland and East Greenland , which connects to the Greenland Sea . To the southwest , it reaches to Cape Farvel , the southern tip of Greenland , and meets the Labrador Sea at this point . South of this point is the open North Atlantic Ocean . The sea floor of the Irminger Sea is largely part of the Irminger Basin , a northeastern continuation of the maximally 4600 m deep Labrador Basin , which on the east is bordered by the Reykjanes Ridge . This delineation is oceanographic only and does not represent any official borders . The Irminger Sea is one of the main fishing areas of the Rose fish . The Irminger Sea was named after Danish vice-admiral Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger ( 1802 -- 1888 ) , after whom also the Irminger Current was named .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Irminger_Sea",
"rank": 60,
"score": 78027
},
{
"content": "Title: 210 Trade Content: 210 Trade was a 601 ft tall , residential-use skyscraper originally under construction in Charlotte , North Carolina . It was to be part of the EpiCentre entertainment complex that was completed in 2008 . Once completed , 210 Trade would have had 53 floors . The EpiCentre Entertainment Complex has a movie theater , restaurants , bars , shops , four floors of parking , five floors of offices and retail topped by 210 Trade with 44 residential floors . It will be connected to Uptown 's Overstreet Mall and Bank of America Plaza via skywalk over South College Street . It would have been the tallest residential building in Charlotte and the Carolinas , and it was originally going to have the second highest floor count after the Bank of America Corporate Center . The site was next to the Time Warner Cable Arena , on the site once occupied by the Old Charlotte Convention Center . As of 2016 , the project has changed from a condo to a dual Hotel ( AC/Hotel and Residence Inn ) topping out at 325 feet .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "210_Trade",
"rank": 61,
"score": 77790
},
{
"content": "Title: 2102 Tantalus Content: 2102 Tantalus ( 1975 YA ) is an Apollo asteroid discovered on December 27 , 1975 , by C. Kowal at Palomar Observatory . It is a Q-type asteroid . 2102 Tantalus is a potentially hazardous asteroid ( PHA ) because its minimum orbit intersection distance ( MOID ) is less than 0.05 AU and its diameter is greater than 150 meters . The Earth-MOID is 0.0439 AU . Its orbit is well-determined for the next several hundred years . It will pass 0.04439 AU from Earth on 2038-Dec-27 , which is just slightly closer than the 1975-Dec-26 approach of 0.046 AU . The asteroid is about 2 -- 4 km in diameter .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "2102_Tantalus",
"rank": 62,
"score": 77643
},
{
"content": "Title: Slavkovský štít Content: Slavkovský štít is the fourth highest mountain peak in the High Tatra mountains in Slovakia . Its summit is 2452 metres above sea level . It can be reached by foot on a walking trail in about four and a half hours from Starý Smokovec . The first recorded ascent was by Juraj Buchholtz in 1664 .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Slavkovský_štít",
"rank": 63,
"score": 77621
},
{
"content": "Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Rising_from_the_Sea",
"rank": 64,
"score": 77538
},
{
"content": "Title: 1995 K2 disaster Content: The 1995 K2 disaster was a mountaineering disaster on K2 in Pakistan , the world 's second tallest mountain . Six are reported to have died on August 13 , 1995 on K2 , largely related to bad weather especially reported high winds . Scott Fischer of Mountain Madness was climbing Broad Peak at the time , and suggested that a contributing factor was combination of brutal cold and 100-mph-plus winds . An American team had gained a permit to climb 8611 m K2 in the summer of 1995 . K2 is regarded as a significantly more difficult and dangerous climb than Mount Everest . By August 13 , 1995 , the remnants of the US team and Alison Hargreaves had joined forces with a New Zealand and Canadian team at Camp 4 , around 7600 m above sea level , and at least 12 hours from the summit . Later that day , having joined with a Spanish team of mountaineers above Camp 4 , New Zealander Peter Hillary , son of Everest pioneer Sir Edmund Hillary , decided to turn back , noting that the weather that had been fine for the previous four days appeared to be changing . At 6:45 pm , in fine conditions , Alison Hargreaves and Spaniard Javier Olivar reached the summit , followed by American Rob Slater , Spaniards Javier Escartín and Lorenzo Ortíz , and New Zealander Bruce Grant . All six died in a violent storm while returning from the summit . Canadian Jeff Lakes , who had turned back below the summit earlier , managed to reach one of the lower camps but died from the effects of exposure . The next day , two Spanish climbers , Pepe Garces and Lorenzo Ortas ( not Lorenzo Ortíz , who was killed in the storm ) , who had survived the storm at Camp 4 , were descending the mountain suffering from frostbite and exhaustion . Before reaching Camp 3 they found a bloodstained anorak , a climbing boot , and a harness . They recognized the equipment as belonging to Hargreaves . From Camp 3 they could also see a body in the distance . They did not approach the body , so it was not positively identified , but they had little doubt it was Hargreaves ' and concluded she had been blown off the mountain during the storm . Fatalities reported for August 13 , 1995 : Alison Hargreaves Javier Olivar Rob Slater Javier Escartín Lorenzo Ortíz Bruce Grant Also , Jeff Lakes reached a lower camp but died from exposure on August 15 , 1995 . Lorenzo Ortas and Pepe Garces survived but had to be airlifted out , enduring 6 days without a tent . Another fatality this season was earlier in the summer , in July Jordi Anglès is reported to have died from a fall at K2 .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "1995_K2_disaster",
"rank": 65,
"score": 77529
},
{
"content": "Title: Rogers Pass (Montana) Content: Rogers Pass rises 5610 ft above sea level and is located on the Continental Divide in the U.S. state of Montana . The pass is adjacent to Helena National Forest and is traversed by Montana Highway 200 . Wide shoulders provide parking for those wishing to hike the Continental Divide Trail . Bicyclists should note that the wide shoulders are limited to the very top and will not be found elsewhere on 200 . The pass is the best route between the cities of Great Falls and Missoula , Montana -- more than 800 ft lower than Lewis and Clark Pass , 5.3 mi to the northwest , which was used by Meriwether Lewis of the eponymous expedition on July 7 , 1806 . Rogers Pass is known for being the location of the coldest recorded temperature in the United States outside of Alaska . On January 20 , 1954 , a temperature of -70 degrees Fahrenheit was recorded . Rogers Pass is more than 100 mi south of Marias Pass , and there are no other roads that cross the Continental Divide between these two passes . The region between the two passes is mostly wilderness , and the majority of it has been set aside and protected from future development . The Great Bear , Scapegoat and Bob Marshall Wildernesses have been consolidated into the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex and permanently protect 1535352 acre . The region is noted for its inaccessibility and as one of the last strongholds for the grizzly bear in the lower 48 states . The Scapegoat Wilderness is a 10 mi hike north of Rogers Pass via the Continental Divide Trail .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Rogers_Pass_(Montana)",
"rank": 66,
"score": 77426
},
{
"content": "Title: João Valente (reef) Content: João Valente is a reef located nearly between the islands of Boa Vista ( 20 nmi , 35 km ) and Maio ( 25 mmi , 45 km ) . The reef 's lowest point is about 100 meters above sea level . The seamount is about 1,000 meters tall . The highest point is 14 meters below sea level and dominates the area of about 1,000 to 2,000 km2 , probably and erosion affected the volcano ( Guyot ) . The reef is partly visible during low tide . During the Ice Age , it was a larger island that once included Boa Vista and Maio , it was in the middle part and had two isthmus connecting the former Boa Vista and the Southern peninsulas . Around 7,000 to 6,000 BC , the isthmus were flooded and separated Boa Vista and Maio to form its own islands . João Valente was a flat island until around 4,000 to 3,000 BC when a rise in sea level flooded the whole island and became a reef . In about 2000 to 1000 BC , the elevation was about ten meters below sea level . The reef was mentioned as `` Baixa '' ( Portuguese for lower as being underwater and a submerged rocky area ) in a 1598 map titled Insulae Capitis Viridis which is now at the National Library of France . In a map from 1747 by Jacques-Nicolas Bellin , the reef was mentioned as a submerged rock named Jean Letton ( Roche de Jean Letton , Middle Dutch : Rotz van Jean Letton , Portuguese : Rochas de João Leitão ) . On April 20 , 1806 , the English ship The Lady Burgess sank into the reef . The high biodiversity of fishes in the reef along with other seamounts discovered in 1981 , ichthyofauna has been studied . Also it is the area where other sealife including coral are founded and may be Cape Verde 's most abundant including the waters surrounding Boa Vista .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "João_Valente_(reef)",
"rank": 67,
"score": 77142
},
{
"content": "Title: Seagaia Ocean Dome Content: The , was one of the world 's largest indoor waterparks , located in Miyazaki , Miyazaki , Japan . The Polynesia-themed Ocean Dome , which was a part of the Sheraton Seagaia Resort , measured 300 metres in length and 100 metres in width , and was listed on the Guinness World Records . It opened in 1993 , and visitor numbers peaked in 1995 at 1.25 million a year . Depending on the season , entrance cost was ¥ 2600 ( $ 21.17 ) for an adult and ¥ 1600 ( $ 13.03 ) for a child . The Ocean Dome was officially closed on October 1 , 2007 as part of a renovation and partial re-branding of the resort . The roof of the structure was retractable in four sections . The Ocean Dome sported a simulated flame-spitting volcano , artificial sand and the world 's largest retractable roof , which provided a permanently blue sky even on a rainy day . The air temperature was always held at around 30 C and the water at around 28 C.",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Seagaia_Ocean_Dome",
"rank": 68,
"score": 77089
},
{
"content": "Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "East_Pacific_Rise",
"rank": 69,
"score": 77059
},
{
"content": "Title: Footpaths of Gibraltar Content: The footpaths of Gibraltar provide access to key areas of the Upper Rock Nature Reserve , a refuge for hundreds of species of flora and fauna which in some cases are found nowhere else in Europe . The reserve occupies the upper part of the Rock of Gibraltar , a long and narrow mountain that rises to a maximum height of 424 m above sea level , and constitutes around 40 per cent of Gibraltar 's total land area . The unusual geology of the Rock of Gibraltar -- a limestone peak adjoining a sandstone hinterland -- provides a habitat for plants and animals , such as the Gibraltar candytuft and Barbary partridge , which are found nowhere else in mainland Europe . For many years , the Upper Rock was reserved exclusively for military use ; it was fenced off for military purposes , but was decommissioned and converted into a nature reserve in 1993 . The footpaths link many of the fortifications of Gibraltar . They were constructed from the 18th century onwards using chisels , hammers and rods to dig through the solid rock , in order to permit cannon , soldiers and supplies to be moved from ground level to gun positions and observation points established in numerous places on the Upper Rock . Most of these supply routes were later widened to permit vehicular traffic . Many of the roads on the Upper Rock have steel rings embedded in the rock alongside the carriageway , which were used as safety brakes for heavy loads such as cannon being pulled up the slope . Some routes were retained as footpaths to enable troop movements to be concealed behind the surrounding shrubbery , and to provide alternative routes to key points if a road was congested with a heavy load . Several of the paths can be combined into a strenuous circuit of around 10 km that takes about four hours to complete , providing broad views of the Gibraltar peninsula , the Strait of Gibraltar , Spain and the coast of Morocco .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Footpaths_of_Gibraltar",
"rank": 70,
"score": 77015
},
{
"content": "Title: Lomnický štít Content: Lomnický štít ( Lomnica Peak or Lomnický Peak ) is one of the highest and most visited mountain peaks in the High Tatras mountains of Slovakia . Connected by cable car to Tatranská Lomnica , its summit is 2634 metres above sea level , making it the second highest peak in the High Tatras after Gerlachovský štít ( 2654 m ) . The first ascent was made by local shoemaker and amateur miner Štefan Fábry around 1760-1790 , but the first recorded ascent was made by the English traveler Robert Townson and guide on 16 August 1793 . He measured almost precisely the elevation of the peak at 2633 m . The first winter ascent was made in 1891 . In the past , Lomnický štít was called Dedo ( `` Grandpa '' ) . Before the 19th century , the peak was also thought to be the highest of all . Since 1940 , tourists have reached the peak by cable car , which was the most modern in Europe at the time of opening . They are allowed to stay on the peak for 50 minutes . The cable car system is normally closed in the month of May for annual maintenance . It is also possible to climb the peak from Lomnický Saddle , but this is only permitted with a mountain guide . There is a solar observatory and weather station permanently manned year round at the terminus of the cable car .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Lomnický_štít",
"rank": 71,
"score": 76957
},
{
"content": "Title: Amsterdam Ordnance Datum Content: Normaal Amsterdams Peil ( NAP ) or Amsterdam Ordnance Datum is a vertical datum in use in large parts of Western Europe . Originally created for use in the Netherlands , its height was used by Prussia in 1879 for defining Normalnull , and in 1955 by other European countries . In the 1990s , it was used as the reference level for the United European leveling Network ( UELN ) which in turn led to the European Vertical Reference System ( EVRS ) . Mayor Johannes Hudde of Amsterdam in a way came up with the idea after he expanded the sea-dike after a flood in Amsterdam in 1675 . Of course a dike should be storm-resistant to protect a city against flooding , and in this case a margin of `` 9 feet and 5 inches '' ( 2.67 m - margin is defined in Amsterdam feet ) was deemed enough to cope with rising water . So he measured the water level of the adjacent sea arm , -LSB- IJ ( Amsterdam ) , Het IJ -RSB- and compared it with the water level in the canals within the city itself . He found that the water level at an average summer flood in the sea arm ( when the water level reaches its maximum , not counting storms ) was about the same as the level on the other side of the sea-dike , plus the margin of 9 feet and 5 inches . The relatively constant water level in the canals of Amsterdam , called Amsterdams Peil ( `` Amsterdam level '' , AP ) , equalled the level at summer flood at sea in the sea-inlet , which changes throughout the year . AP was carried over to other areas in the Netherlands in 1860 , to replace locally used levels . In this operation , an error was introduced which was corrected ( normalised ) between 1885 and 1894 , resulting in the Normaal Amsterdams Peil . Originally the zero level of NAP was the average summer flood water level in the IJ just north of the centre of Amsterdam ( which was at the time , in 1684 , the main shipping area , then still connected with the open sea ) . Currently it is physically realised by a brass benchmark on a 22-meter pile below the Dam square in Amsterdam . The brass benchmark in the Amsterdam Stopera ( combined city hall and opera house ) , which is a popular tourist attraction , is no longer used as a reference point .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Amsterdam_Ordnance_Datum",
"rank": 72,
"score": 76917
},
{
"content": "Title: Seaquist Peak Content: Seaquist Peak is a peak , 800 m , surmounting the northwest end of the Meyer Hills in the Heritage Range . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos from 1961-66 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Larry R. Seaquist , a United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) meteorologist at Ellsworth Station in 1961 . Category : Mountains of Ellsworth Land",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Seaquist_Peak",
"rank": 73,
"score": 76843
},
{
"content": "Title: Evolution on Gardiner Content: Evolution on Gardiner is a high-rise residential building and the tallest structure in Darwin , Northern Territory . It is located on the eastern part of the Darwin CBD on Knuckey Street . The roof of the tower is 100 metres above ground , reaching Darwin 's maximum height limit of 120 meters above sea level . The project was designed by architectural firm Burling Brown Architects and was built by Darwin-based Sunbuild . When first proposed in 2004 , the project faced opposition from the Department of Defence , who control the airspace over the city . Defence objected to the height of the tower which would be more than twice the height of any other building in Darwin at the time , calling for it to be reduced to 28 stories . Sunbuild successfully lobbied the department to have the height restriction raised in order to ensure the project 's viability and secure construction . The building will contain five commercial suites on the ground floor , 104 apartments , and two penthouse units . Construction began on Evolution in July 2006 and was completed in July 2008 . The building contains 1500 m ² of floor area . Evolution will comprise three high-speed lifts .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Evolution_on_Gardiner",
"rank": 74,
"score": 76758
},
{
"content": "Title: 3 Feet High and Rising Content: 3 Feet High and Rising is the debut studio album by American hip hop trio De La Soul . It was released on March 14 , 1989 , by Tommy Boy Records and Warner Bros. . Records . It marked the first of three full-length collaborations with producer Prince Paul , which would become the critical and commercial peak of both parties . It is consistently placed on ` greatest albums ' lists by noted music critics and publications . Robert Christgau called the record `` unlike any rap album you or anybody else has ever heard . '' In 1998 , the album was selected as one of The Source Magazine 's 100 Best Rap Albums . Critically , as well as commercially , the album was a success . It contains the singles , `` Me Myself and I '' , `` The Magic Number '' , `` Buddy '' , and `` Eye Know '' . In 2001 , the album was re-issued along with an extra disc of B-side tracks , and alternative versions . The album title came from the Johnny Cash song `` Five Feet High and Rising '' . It was selected by the Library of Congress as a 2010 addition to the National Recording Registry , which selects recordings annually that are culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "3_Feet_High_and_Rising",
"rank": 75,
"score": 76736
},
{
"content": "Title: Besh Barmag Mountain Content: Besh Barmag ( Beş Barmaq ) literally translated as Five Finger Mountain , is in Siazan District of Azerbaijan , not far from the Caspian Sea . It rises to 382 m above the sea level overlooking the Baku-Quba Highway . The mountain is a solid rock and is one of the most famous mountains in the Caucasus , known for its mythical stories . It is a sacred place for regular visitation by pilgrims . Tide marks on the mount attest to meltwater inundation from the northern glacial ice caps and date back to the end of the last ice age . The tidelines confirm the theory of a Holocene outflow of meltwater from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea , rather than a direct incursion of sea water into the Black Sea as a result of global sea level rise . Estimates of the increase in Caspian Sea level height are between + 20 and 30 meters .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Besh_Barmag_Mountain",
"rank": 76,
"score": 76444
},
{
"content": "Title: Mosbytoppane Content: Mosbytoppane ( earlier Mosbytoppen , sometimes anglicized as Mosby Peak ) , are two crags to the southwest of the caldera of the island of Bouvetøya . The tallest is a snow-covered peak 670 m above mean sea level and 1.3 km northeast of Norvegiaodden . It was charted by the First Norvegia Expedition in 1927 -- 28 , under Captain Harald Horntvedt . It is named for Hakon Mosby , an oceanographer and meteorologist who was one of two scientists on the expedition .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Mosbytoppane",
"rank": 77,
"score": 76321
},
{
"content": "Title: Salish Sea human foot discoveries Content: Since August 20 , 2007 , several detached human feet have been discovered on the coasts of the Salish Sea in British Columbia , Canada , and Washington , USA . The feet belonged to five men , one woman and three other people of unknown sex . Of the 16 feet found , only two have been left feet ; both of those were matched with right feet . As of February 2012 , only five feet of four people have been identified ; it is not known to whom the rest of the feet belong . In addition , several hoax feet have been planted in the area .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Salish_Sea_human_foot_discoveries",
"rank": 78,
"score": 76281
},
{
"content": "Title: EverestMax Content: EverestMax was the first expedition to successfully travel from the lowest point on land , the Dead Sea , to the highest point , Mount Everest , by unpowered means . The 6 person cycling expedition , led by Dominic Faulkner , an ex UK SAS soldier , set out on 21 December 2005 and two members of the team achieved the summit of Everest 5 months later on 21 May 2006 . The expedition cycled 5000 miles passing through the countries of Jordan , Syria , Turkey , Iran , Pakistan , India , Nepal and Tibet , before ascending Everest on foot from the Northern side .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "EverestMax",
"rank": 79,
"score": 76250
},
{
"content": "Title: Lord Howe Rise Content: The Lord Howe Rise is a deep sea plateau which extends from south west of New Caledonia to the Challenger Plateau , west of New Zealand in the south west of the Pacific Ocean . To its west is the Tasman Basin and to the east is the New Caledonia Basin . Lord Howe Rise has a total area of about 1,500,000 square km , and generally lies about 750 to 1,200 metres under water . It is part of Zealandia , a much larger continent that is now mostly submerged , and so is composed of continental crust .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Lord_Howe_Rise",
"rank": 80,
"score": 76095
},
{
"content": "Title: Dagger Peak Content: Dagger Peak is a rock peak rising steeply from sea level to about 90 m at the west end of Comb Ridge , located near the extremity of The Naze on James Ross Island , close south of Trinity Peninsula . This area was first explored in 1902 by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Otto Nordenskiöld . The peak was charted and given this descriptive name by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1945 .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Dagger_Peak",
"rank": 81,
"score": 76050
},
{
"content": "Title: 210th Battalion (Frontiersmen), CEF Content: The 210th ( Frontiersmen ) Battalion , CEF was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War . Based in Moose Jaw , Saskatchewan , the unit was raised by the local Legion of Frontiersmen in early 1916 in that city and surrounding district . After sailing to England in April 1917 , the battalion was absorbed into the 19th Reserve Battalion on April 22 , 1917 . The 210th ( Frontiersmen ) Battalion , CEF had one Commanding Officer : Lieut-Col . W. E. Seaborn . The Battalion was awarded the Battle Honour `` Honour of the Great War '' .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "210th_Battalion_(Frontiersmen),_CEF",
"rank": 82,
"score": 75923
},
{
"content": "Title: Tryvannstårnet Content: Tryvannstårnet is an 118-metre ( 387 feet ) tall broadcasting tower near Oslo , located 529 metres ( 1,736 feet ) above mean sea level on the summit of Tryvannshøyden hill overlooking lake Tryvann . Tryvannstårnet was built in 1962 and has an observation deck at a height of 60 metres ( 197 feet ) , from which , weather conditions permitting , the view extends to the border with Sweden and Gaustatoppen mountain . The observation deck was closed in 2005 because of new fire safety regulations which would have required expensive modifications which coincided with rapidly declining visitor numbers . In the 1980s and 1990s annual visitor numbers averaged 100,000 , but in the last year it was open to the public , only 25,000 . There is a large underground shelter beneath Tryvannstårnet .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Tryvannstårnet",
"rank": 83,
"score": 75889
},
{
"content": "Title: Don Walsh Content: Don Walsh ( born November 2 , 1931 ) is an American oceanographer , explorer and marine policy specialist . He and Jacques Piccard were aboard the bathyscaphe Trieste when it made a record maximum descent into the Mariana Trench on January 23 , 1960 , the deepest point of the world 's oceans . The depth was measured at 35813 ft , but later and more accurate measurements have measured it at 35,798 feet ( 10,911 m ) .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Don_Walsh",
"rank": 84,
"score": 75842
},
{
"content": "Title: Henry Ice Rise Content: Henry Ice Rise is a triangular-shaped ice rise about 70 mi long located between Korff Ice Rise and the southern portion of Berkner Island in the Ronne Ice Shelf , Antarctica . It was first visited by the United States International Geophysical Year geophysical traverse party from Ellsworth Station , 1957 -- 58 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Captain Clifford D. Henry of the Military Sealift Command , a veteran American polar sea captain and master of . Henry died aboard his ship , February 16 , 1975 , while returning from his fourteenth voyage to Antarctica in support of the U.S. Antarctic Research Program .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Henry_Ice_Rise",
"rank": 85,
"score": 75753
},
{
"content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum",
"rank": 86,
"score": 75679
},
{
"content": "Title: Rosemary Bank Content: Rosemary Bank is a seamount approximately 120 kilometres west of Scotland , located in the Rockall Trough , in the northeast Atlantic . It was discovered in 1930 by the survey vessel HMS Rosemary , from which it takes its name . The feature originated about 70 million years ago , as a result of volcanic activity . Rosemary Bank rises to approximately 2000 metres , its highest point being 300 metres below sea-level . The sea bed immediately surrounding it is approximately 2300 metres below sea-level . Around its base lies a thin `` moat '' , where the sea-bottom is at a lower depth than the surrounding terrain . Category : Seamounts of the Atlantic Ocean",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Rosemary_Bank",
"rank": 87,
"score": 75669
},
{
"content": "Title: Sullivan Heights Content: Sullivan Heights is a compact group of mountains in western Antarctica rising to 2760 m in Mount Levack centered 11.5 nmi east-northeast of Mount Tyree in the Sentinel Range , Ellsworth Mountains . Roughly elliptical in plan and 11 nmi long , the feature includes sharp mountain peaks , rugged ridges , and steep peripheral scarps . The heights are encompassed by the flow of the Crosswell , Ellen , and Dater Glaciers , with their interior drained also by Pulpudeva and Strinava Glaciers . Separated from Vinson Massif to the south-southwest by Vranya Pass . The feature was named in 1997 by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after Cornelius Wayne Sullivan ( b. 1943 ) , American oceanographer ; United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) field team leader for Sea Ice Microbial Communities ( SIMCO ) studies in McMurdo Sound , 1980 -- 86 , 1988 , 1989 ; chief scientist and cruise coordinator for AMERIEZ ( Antarctic Marine Ecosystem Research at the Ice Edge Zone ) projects in Weddell Sea , Nov -- Dec 1983 , Feb -- Apr 1986 , June -- July 1988 ; Professor of Biological Science , Hancock Institute of Marine Studies , Director , 1991 -- 93 ; Director , Office of Polar Programs , National Science Foundation , 1993 -- 97 .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Sullivan_Heights",
"rank": 88,
"score": 75549
},
{
"content": "Title: SeaGate Convention Centre Content: SeaGate Convention Centre is a performing arts and convention center located in downtown Toledo , Ohio . Opened on March 27 , 1987 , the Centre 's exhibit hall measures 74,520 square feet ( 207 feet by 360 feet ) of space and seats up to 5,100 for a banquet , 9,000 for a meeting , and 4,000 in a classroom configuration . It can be divided into three smaller halls , and , when used for concerts with a 60 foot by 40 foot stage , can seat 2,000 ( in one of the smaller halls ) , 3,000 ( in two of the smaller halls ) or 5,900 ( in the entire hall ) for concerts , stage shows , and other shows , this so that there are no bad seats in the house . Many of those seats used for concerts are in telescopic risers ; there are 18 telescopic units at the arena , set up in sections of six ; as a result there are six sections of riser seating and a total of 3,216 in the risers ( 536 per section ) . SeaGate Convention Centre also features 17552 sqft of meeting space . The facility was host for the following notable events : Gathering of the Juggalos 2001 ( July 13 -- 15 , 2001 ) Mid-American Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament ( 1996-1999 , annually ) Toledo Ice ( ABA ) ( partial 2005-2006 season ) Glass City Rollers ( WFTDA ) ( current tenant ) Jehovah 's Witnesses ; Also was annually used for Jehovah 's witnesses conventions from 2005-2012",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "SeaGate_Convention_Centre",
"rank": 89,
"score": 75547
},
{
"content": "Title: List of Ultras of the Caribbean Content: The following sortable table comprises the seven ultra-prominent summits on the islands of the Caribbean Sea . Each of these peaks has at least 1500 m of topographic prominence . Five of these peaks rise on the island of Hispaniola and one each on Jamaica and Cuba . Topographic elevation is the vertical distance above the reference geoid , a mathematical model of the Earth 's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface . The topographic prominence of a summit is the elevation difference between that summit and the highest or key col to a higher summit . The topographic isolation of a summit is the minimum great-circle distance to a point of equal elevation . This article defines a significant summit as a summit with at least 100 m of topographic prominence , and a major summit as a summit with at least 500 m of topographic prominence . An ultra-prominent summit is a summit with at least 1500 m of topographic prominence . If an elevation or prominence is calculated as a range of values , the arithmetic mean is shown .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "List_of_Ultras_of_the_Caribbean",
"rank": 90,
"score": 75328
},
{
"content": "Title: Mariana Trench Content: The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench is the deepest part of the world 's oceans . It is located in the western Pacific Ocean , an average of 200 km to the east of the Mariana Islands , in the Western Pacific East of Philippines . It is a crescent-shaped scar in the Earth 's crust , and measures about 2550 km long and 69 km wide on average . It reaches a maximum-known depth of 10994 m ( ± 40 m ) at a small slot-shaped valley in its floor known as the Challenger Deep , at its southern end , although some unrepeated measurements place the deepest portion at 11034 m . If Mount Everest were dropped into the trench at this point , its peak would still be over 1 mile underwater . At the bottom of the trench the water column above exerts a pressure of 1086 bar , more than 1,000 times the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level . At this pressure , the density of water is increased by 4.96 % , so that 95 litres of water under the pressure of the Challenger Deep would contain the same mass as 100 litres at the surface . The temperature at the bottom is 1 to . The trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the center of the Earth . This is because the Earth is not a perfect sphere ; its radius is about 25 km less at the poles than at the equator . As a result , parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13 km closer to the Earth 's center than the Challenger Deep seafloor . Xenophyophores have been found in the trench by Scripps Institution of Oceanography researchers at a record depth of 10.6 km below the sea surface . On 17 March 2013 , researchers reported data that suggested microbial life forms thrive within the trench .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Mariana_Trench",
"rank": 91,
"score": 75262
},
{
"content": "Title: Lange Anna Content: Lange Anna ( `` Tall Anna '' ) , is a 47 m high sea stack of Buntsandstein in the North Sea island of Helgoland , Germany . Its real local name is Nathurn Stak ( Northern Stack ) . Climbing the stack is not allowed but tourists can look at the rock from a distance . Lange Anna is somewhat similar to the Old Man of Hoy . In 1969 it was declared a natural monument . The stack is subject to severe weathering wear and decomposition . It was decided that any further effort for its conservation could do nothing but slowing down the process , so the Lange Anna today is consigned to its fate . Experts assume an acute danger of collapse of the top two thirds because of an instable layer of sands 16 metres above sea level , which already is the thinnest part of Lange Anna .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Lange_Anna",
"rank": 92,
"score": 75232
},
{
"content": "Title: 2100 Ra-Shalom Content: 2100 Ra-Shalom , provisional designation , is an eccentric , carbonaceous asteroid , classified as Aten asteroid and near-Earth object , about 2.7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Eleanor Helin at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 10 September 1978 . It was the second Aten asteroid to be discovered after 2062 Aten , the family 's namesake , also discovered by Helin in 1976 . The group of Aten asteroids feature a semi-major axis of less than 1 AU . Of this group , `` Ra-Shalom '' has one of the smallest semi-major axes , just 0.832 AU . It comes within 30 gigameter ( Gm ) of Mars , Earth , Venus , and Mercury . The closest approaches are to Mercury , to about 0.0784 AU ( 11.7 Gm ) . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.5 -- 1.2 AU once every 0 years and 9 months ( 277 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.44 and an inclination of 16 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It has a C-type and Xc-type spectrum on the Tholen and SMASS taxonomic scheme , respectively , and an Earth Minimum Orbit Intersection Distance ( MOID ) of nearly 0.15 AU , which is far too large to make it a potentially hazardous object . Over the last two decades , a large number of photometric light-curve observations have determined a concurring , well-defined rotation period of 19.8 hours , while the body 's albedo varies from 0.08 to 0.16 and its diameter lies in the range of 1.98 to 2.79 kilometers ( also see infobox ) . Among these differing results , the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) considers an albedo of 0.082 with a diameter of 2.78 kilometers as the most reliable result . In 1981 , the asteroid was detected using radar , revealing a relatively smooth surface at decimeter scales . The minor planet 's composed named was chosen by the discoverer to commemorate the Camp David Peace Accords between Egypt and Israel in September 1978 , and as a symbol for the universal hope for peace . Ra is the Egyptian Sun-god , who symbolizes enlightenment and life , while Shalom is the traditional Hebrew greeting meaning peace . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "2100_Ra-Shalom",
"rank": 93,
"score": 75194
},
{
"content": "Title: Chatham Rise Content: The Chatham Rise is an area of ocean floor to the east of New Zealand , forming part of the Zealandia continent . It stretches for some 1000 km from near the South Island in the west , to the Chatham Islands in the east . It is New Zealand 's most productive and important fishing ground , as well as important habitat for whales . Relative to the rest of the Pacific Ocean waters around New Zealand , the Chatham Rise is relatively shallow , no more than 1000 m deep at any point . This shallowness is made more remarkable by the depth of the ocean immediately to the north and south . To the northeast , the Hikurangi Trench , an extension of the much deeper Kermadec Trench , drops to below 3000 m close to the New Zealand coast , and further from the coast the Rise borders on the Hikurangi Plateau . To the south , similar depths are achieved in the Bounty Trough . Past the eastern end of the rise , the sea floor drops away to the abyssal plain .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Chatham_Rise",
"rank": 94,
"score": 75189
},
{
"content": "Title: Eight-thousander Content: The eight-thousanders are the 14 independent mountains on Earth that are more than 8000 m high above sea level . All eight-thousanders are located in the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges in Asia . Their summits are in the death zone . The first recorded attempt on an eight-thousander was when Albert F. Mummery and J. Norman Collie tried to climb Pakistan 's Nanga Parbat in 1895 . The attempt was unsuccessful when Mummery and two Gurkhas , Ragobir and Goman Singh , were killed by an avalanche . The first recorded successful ascent of an eight-thousander was by the French Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal , who reached the summit of Annapurna on June 3 , 1950 . The first person to climb all 14 eight-thousanders was the Italian Reinhold Messner , who completed this feat on 16 October 1986 . In 1987 , Polish climber Jerzy Kukuczka became the second person to accomplish this feat . Kukuczka is also the man who established the most ( 9 ) new routes on the main eight-thousanders . Messner summitted each of the 14 peaks without the aid of supplemental oxygen . This feat was not repeated until nine years later by the Swiss Erhard Loretan in 1995 . Phurba Tashi of Nepal has completed the most climbs of the eight-thousanders , with 30 ascents between 1998 and 2011 . Juanito Oiarzabal has completed the second most , with a total of 25 ascents between 1985 and 2011 . The alpinists with the highest number of winter ascents are Jerzy Kukuczka and the Italian Simone Moro , both with four peaks ( K2 has never been summited in the winter ) . The first woman who summited all 14 eight-thousanders with no disputed climbing was the Spanish Edurne Pasaban , in 2010 . In August 2011 , Austrian climber Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner became the first woman to climb the 14 eight-thousanders without the use of supplementary oxygen . The first couple who summited all 14 eight-thousanders were the Italians Nives Meroi , and her husband Romano Benet in 2017 . They climbed without the use of supplementary oxygen . The countries with the highest number of climbers that have climbed all 14 eight-thousanders is Italy with seven climbers , followed by South Korea and Spain with five climbers . Kazakhstan and Poland have three climbers each that completed the `` Crown of the Himalaya '' .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Eight-thousander",
"rank": 95,
"score": 75068
},
{
"content": "Title: North Sea flood of 1953 Content: The 1953 North Sea flood ( Watersnoodramp , literally `` water emergency disaster '' ) was a major flood caused by a heavy storm that occurred on the night of Saturday , 31 January 1953 and morning of Sunday , 1 February 1953 . The floods struck the Netherlands , Belgium , England and Scotland . A combination of a high spring tide and a severe European windstorm over the North Sea caused a storm tide ; the combination of wind , high tide , and low pressure led to a water level of more than 5.6 m above mean sea level in some locations . The flood and waves overwhelmed sea defences and caused extensive flooding . The Netherlands , a country with 20 % of its territory below mean sea level and 50 % less than 1 m above sea level and which relies heavily on sea defences , was worst affected , recording 1,836 deaths and widespread property damage . Most of the casualties occurred in the southern province of Zeeland . In England , 307 people were killed in the counties of Lincolnshire , Norfolk , Suffolk and Essex . Nineteen were killed in Scotland . Twenty-eight people were killed in West Flanders , Belgium . In addition , more than 230 deaths occurred on water craft along Northern European coasts as well as on ships in deeper waters of the North Sea . The ferry MV Princess Victoria was lost at sea in the North Channel east of Belfast with 133 fatalities , and many fishing trawlers sank . Realising that such infrequent events could recur , the Netherlands particularly , and the United Kingdom carried out major studies on strengthening of coastal defences . The Netherlands developed the Delta Works , an extensive system of dams and storm surge barriers . The UK constructed storm surge barriers on the River Thames below London and on the River Hull where it meets the Humber estuary .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "North_Sea_flood_of_1953",
"rank": 96,
"score": 75057
},
{
"content": "Title: Forty Foot Content: The Forty Foot is a promontory on the southern tip of Dublin Bay at Sandycove , County Dublin , Ireland , from which people have been swimming in the Irish Sea all year round for some 250 years .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Forty_Foot",
"rank": 97,
"score": 75017
},
{
"content": "Title: List of deaths on eight-thousanders Content: The eight-thousanders are the 14 mountains that rise more than 8000 m above sea level ; they are all in the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges . This is a list of mountaineers who have died on these mountains .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "List_of_deaths_on_eight-thousanders",
"rank": 98,
"score": 74585
},
{
"content": "Title: Shaigiri Content: Shaigiri is a mountain in Pakistan 's western Himalayas . The peak rises precipitously from the south end of the Rupal Valley , soaring 5584 m above sea level and some 6500 ft above the valley floor . To its east stands Rupal Peak , to its west , the iceflows of Rupal Glacier . Despite its impressive height and unique pyramid shape , Shaigiri is greatly overshadowed by its giant neighbor to the north , 8,126-metre Nanga Parbat . Though the peak itself is seldom climbed , its northern base camp ( 11,989 ft/3 ,655 m ) is a summer destination for travelers , mountaineers and local herdsmen . The peak is highly visible from most of the Rupal Valley . From Shaigiri 's base one can see Nanga Parbat 's Rupal Face and the eastern end of the Mazeno Wall . Shaigiri is accessible via the Astore Valley , which opens to the great Indus River south of Gilgit . Most treks to Shaigiri , the Mazeno Pass and Nanga Parbat 's Rupal Face are staged from the remote village of Tarashing , which is reached by jeep from Astore . Astore can be reached by bus or jeep from Gilgit , a major town on the Karakorum Highway .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Shaigiri",
"rank": 99,
"score": 74536
},
{
"content": "Title: Botev Peak Content: Botev Peak ( Връх Ботев , Vrah Botev ) is , at 2376 m above sea level , the highest peak of the Balkan Mountains . It is located close to the geographic centre of Bulgaria , and is part of the Central Balkan National Park . Until 1950 , when it was renamed in honour of Bulgarian poet and revolutionary Hristo Botev , the peak was called Yumrukchal ( Юмрукчал , from Ottoman Turkish Yumrukçal , ' a fist-like peak ' ) . A weather station and a radio tower ( opened on 10 July 1966 ) that covers 65 % of the country are located on Botev Peak . The average temperature is -8.9 ° C in January and 7.9 ° C in July . `` Botev Peak '' is the main facility of Bulgarian FM and TV broadcasting network . The situation at the top near the geographical center of Bulgaria contribute to national radio broadcasts and television broadcast here to cover more than 65 % throughout the country , also in parts of Romania and Turkey .",
"qid": "129",
"docid": "Botev_Peak",
"rank": 100,
"score": 74434
}
] |
Climate change is not making natural disasters worse | [
{
"content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe",
"rank": 1,
"score": 124924
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 2,
"score": 122303
},
{
"content": "Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Loss_and_damage",
"rank": 3,
"score": 121588
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 4,
"score": 119180
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural disasters in India Content: Natural disasters in India , many of them related to the climate of India , cause massive losses of life and property . Droughts , flash floods , cyclones , avalanches , landslides brought on by torrential rains , and snowstorms pose the greatest threats . A natural disaster might be caused by earthquakes , flooding , volcanic eruption , landslides , hurricanes etc. . In order to be classified as a disaster it will have profound environmental effect and/or human loss and frequently incurs financial loss . Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms , which usually track from north to south ; they cause extensive property damage in North India and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions . Hail is also common in parts of India , causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Natural_disasters_in_India",
"rank": 5,
"score": 118710
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 6,
"score": 113680
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal",
"rank": 7,
"score": 112312
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental emergency Content: Environmental emergencies are defined as `` sudden-onset disasters or accidents resulting from natural , technological or human-induced factors , or a combination of these , that causes or threatens to cause severe environmental damage as well as loss of human lives and property . '' ( UNEP/GC .22 / INF/5 , 13 November 2002 . ) Following a disaster or conflict , an environmental emergency can occur when people 's health and livelihoods are at risk due to the release of hazardous and noxious substances , or because of significant damage to the ecosystem . Examples include fires , oil spills , chemical accidents , toxic-waste dumping and groundwater pollution . The environmental risks can be acute and life-threatening . According to the International Disaster Database ( EM-DAT ) , between 2003 and 2013 , there were 380 industrial accidents reported , affecting 207 668 people and resulting in over US$ 22 million in losses . Climate change is having an unprecedented effect on the occurrence of natural disasters and the associated risk of environmental emergencies . With climate change already stretching the disaster relief system , future climate-related emergency events will generate increased and more costly demands for assistance .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Environmental_emergency",
"rank": 8,
"score": 112083
},
{
"content": "Title: VNREDSat 1A Content: VNREDSat-1 ( short for Vietnam Natural Resources , Environment and Disaster Monitoring Satellite ) is the first optical Earth Observing satellite of Vietnam ; its primary mission is to monitor and study the effects of climate change , predict and take measures to prevent natural disasters , and optimise the management of Vietnam 's natural resources .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "VNREDSat_1A",
"rank": 9,
"score": 105313
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 10,
"score": 103269
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural disaster Content: A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth ; examples include floods , hurricanes , tornadoes , volcanic eruptions , earthquakes , tsunamis , and other geologic processes . A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage , and typically leaves some economic damage in its wake , the severity of which depends on the affected population 's resilience , or ability to recover and also on the infrastructure available . An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population . In a vulnerable area , however , such as Nepal during the 2015 earthquake , an earthquake can have disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage , requiring years to repair .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Natural_disaster",
"rank": 11,
"score": 102205
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 12,
"score": 101893
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 13,
"score": 99984
},
{
"content": "Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Nature_Climate_Change",
"rank": 14,
"score": 99665
},
{
"content": "Title: Nature Based Solutions Content: Nature-based solutions ( NbS ) generally refer to the sustainable management and use of nature for tackling societal challenges such as climate change , water security , food security , human health , and disaster risk management . For instance , the protection of mangroves in coastal areas can limit risks of coastal erosion associated to extreme weather conditions , while providing nurseries for fish production to feed local people and sequestering CO2 . Similarly greening roofs or walls can be used to cool down city areas during summer , to capture storm water , to abate pollution , and to increase human well-being while enhancing biodiversity and connecting the city with the wider ecosystem . With NbS , healthy , resilient and diverse ecosystems ( either ` natural ' , managed or newly created ) are viewed as providing solutions for the benefit of our societies and overall biodiversity , in the face of global change . The term NbS was put forward by practitioners in the late 2000s ( in particular the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and the World Bank ) and quickly thereafter by policymakers in Europe ( most notably the European Commission ) . While the term itself is still being framed , case studies from around the world exemplify its potential , as well as the added-value with respect to existing terms and concepts and in complementing traditional conservation approaches . As a consequence , NbS are on their way to being mainstreamed in national and international policies and programmes ( e.g. climate change policy , law , infrastructure investment and financing mechanisms ) .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Nature_Based_Solutions",
"rank": 15,
"score": 99358
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 16,
"score": 99076
},
{
"content": "Title: List of natural disasters by death toll Content: A natural disaster is a sudden event that causes widespread destruction , lots of collateral damage or loss of life , brought about by forces other than the acts of human beings . A natural disaster might be caused by earthquakes , flooding , volcanic eruption , landslide , hurricanes etc. . In order to be classified as a disaster , it will have profound environmental effect and/or human loss and frequently incurs financial loss .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "List_of_natural_disasters_by_death_toll",
"rank": 17,
"score": 98881
},
{
"content": "Title: Aaranyak Content: Aaranyak is a leading wildlife NGO based in Guwahati . It is a Scientific , Industrial Research and frontline environmental organization of India . It works all over the eastern Himalayan region on nature conservation , natural resources management , climate change , disaster management and livelihood enhancement of marginalized communities through research , education and advocacy . The group says its mission is to foster conservation of biodiversity in Northeast India through research , environmental education , capacity building and advocacy for legal and policy reform to usher a new era of ecological security . Recently , UN framework convention on climate change announced Aaranyak in partnership with the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development ( ICIMOD ) as winner of its UN Lighthouse Activity Award 2014 for the successful implementation of the community-based flood early warning system in the Lakhimpur and Dhemaji Districts of Assam .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Aaranyak",
"rank": 18,
"score": 98690
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental disaster Content: An environmental disaster is a disaster to the natural environment due to human activity , which distinguishes it from the concept of a natural disaster . It is also distinct from intentional acts of war such as nuclear bombings . In this case , the impact of humans ' alteration of the ecosystem has led to widespread and/or long-lasting consequences . It can include the deaths of animals ( including humans ) and plants , or severe disruption of human life , possibly requiring migration .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Environmental_disaster",
"rank": 19,
"score": 98206
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Peter_A._Stott",
"rank": 20,
"score": 98088
},
{
"content": "Title: Meteorological disasters Content: Meteorological disasters are caused by extreme weather , e.g. rain , drought , snow , extreme heat or cold , ice , or wind . Violent , sudden and destructive change to the environment related to , produced by , or affecting the earth 's atmosphere , especially the weather-forming processes . Examples of weather disasters include blizzard , cyclones , droughts , hailstorms , heat waves , hurricanes , floods ( caused by rain ) , and tornadoes .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Meteorological_disasters",
"rank": 21,
"score": 97259
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Mongolia Content: There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to both human and biophysical wellness . These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors , but increasingly because of human actions . One of these issues is climate change , which will be responsible for an increase in desertification , natural disasters , and land degradation . Another is deforestation , which is expanding due to human recklessness , pests , disease , and fire . Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification , a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible land use . Additionally , more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction . And , especially in population centers , Mongolians deal with air and water pollution caused by human industrialization .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Mongolia",
"rank": 22,
"score": 96747
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Pakistan Content: Environmental issues in Pakistan include deforestation , air pollution , water pollution , noise pollution , climate change , pesticide misuse , soil erosion , natural disasters and desertification . These are serious environmental problems that Pakistan is facing , and they are getting worse as the country 's economy expands and the population grows . Unfortunately , not much is being done to tackle these issues , because the goals of economic growth and tackling terrorism within the country supersede the goals of environmental preservation . Although NGOs and government departments have taken initiatives to stop environmental degradation , Pakistans environmental issues still remain .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 23,
"score": 96398
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)",
"rank": 24,
"score": 96048
},
{
"content": "Title: Music for Relief Content: ` Music for Relief ' was founded by the band Linkin Park in response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami . Since inception in 2005 MFR has responded to more than 25 natural disasters across four continents including Hurricane Katrina , China 's Wenchuan earthquake , a cholera outbreak in Zimbabwe , earthquakes in Haiti in 2010 and Japan in 2011 , and most recently the Nepal earthquakes in 2015 . Music for Relief has also planted over 1.3 million trees to help reduce climate change . Recognizing the consequences of global climate change , Music for Relief expanded its focus to environmental protection and restoration in 2007 . Through programs like Power the World , a collaboration with the United Nations Foundation aimed at providing sustainable energy solutions to vulnerable populations , Music for Relief is helping people , wildlife , and the environment . Rooted in the music community , Music for Relief leverages its unique position to reach artists and countless fans around the world to raise funds and awareness for humanitarian causes .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Music_for_Relief",
"rank": 25,
"score": 95979
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 26,
"score": 95924
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 27,
"score": 95902
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 28,
"score": 95719
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_risk",
"rank": 29,
"score": 95442
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations",
"rank": 30,
"score": 95091
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_gender",
"rank": 31,
"score": 95061
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate risk management Content: Climate Risk Management ( CRM ) is a term is used for a large and growing body of work , bridging the climate change adaptation , disaster management and development sectors , amongst many others .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_risk_management",
"rank": 32,
"score": 94608
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural hazard Content: A natural hazard is a natural phenomenon that might have a negative effect on people or the environment . Natural hazard events can be grouped into two broad categories . Geophysical hazards encompass geological and meteorological phenomena such as earthquakes , volcanic eruption , wildfire , cyclonic storms , flood , drought , and coastal erosion . Biological hazards can refer to a diverse array of disease and infestation . Many geophysical hazards are related ; for example , submarine earthquakes can cause tsunamis , and hurricanes can lead to coastal flooding and erosion . Floods and wildfires can result from a combination of geological , hydrological , and climatic factors . It is possible that some natural hazards are intertemporally correlated as well . An example of the division between a natural hazard and a natural disaster is that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was a disaster , whereas living on a fault line is a hazard . Some natural hazards can be provoked or affected by anthropogenic processes ( e.g. land-use change , drainage and construction ) .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Natural_hazard",
"rank": 33,
"score": 94132
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 34,
"score": 92899
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 35,
"score": 92703
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_Code_Red",
"rank": 36,
"score": 92686
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 37,
"score": 92657
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 38,
"score": 92568
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States",
"rank": 39,
"score": 92269
},
{
"content": "Title: Green building in Bangladesh Content: Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable nations in the world due to climate change . As the ninth most populous country and twelfth most densely populated countries in the world , its rising population and limited land space have put tremendous strains on the urban ecosystem . The capital of Dhaka itself underwent severe transformations in recent years to catch up the increased rate of urbanisation . This change was paralleled by a boom in the real estate , construction and housing industry . According to United Nations Population Fund ( UNFPA ) , Dhaka is one of the most polluted cities in the world . Unified measures have been adopted from the national community in an effort to avoid further man made calamities due to climate change and higher emissions . There are six main sectors most likely to be affected by climate change in Bangladesh -- water resources and coastal zones , infrastructure and human settlements , agriculture and food security , forestry and biodiversity , fisheries , and human health . Deforestation has resulted in several man made disasters in the country 's history . Green buildings assure efficient usage of water and energy and the nation is struggling in the production of electricity and suffering from a shortage of water .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Green_building_in_Bangladesh",
"rank": 40,
"score": 92248
},
{
"content": "Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Physical_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 41,
"score": 92246
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 42,
"score": 91618
},
{
"content": "Title: Cyclone Aila Content: Severe Cyclonic Storm Aila was the worst natural disaster to affect Bangladesh since Cyclone Sidr in November 2007 . The second tropical cyclone of the 2009 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , Aila formed over the Bay of Bengal on May 23 . A relatively strong tropical cyclone , it caused extensive damage in India and Bangladesh . The storm was responsible for at least 339 deaths across Bangladesh and India ; more than 1 million people were left homeless . Health officials in Bangladesh confirmed a deadly outbreak of diarrhoea on 29 May , with more than 7,000 people being infected and four dying . In Bangladesh , an estimated 20 million people were at risk of post-disaster diseases due to Aila .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Cyclone_Aila",
"rank": 43,
"score": 91478
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Haiti Content: Environmental issues in Haiti include a severe deforestation problem , overpopulation , a lack of sanitation , natural disasters , and food insecurity . A major reason for these environmental issues is that there is not sufficient protection or management of the country 's natural resources . Other environmental issues , such as decreases in precipitation and more severe natural disasters , will likely arise in Haiti as a result of climate change . Experts agree that Haiti needs to adopt new policies to address both the issues that already exist and to prepare for the effects of climate change .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Haiti",
"rank": 44,
"score": 91173
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_poverty",
"rank": 45,
"score": 90491
},
{
"content": "Title: International Disaster and Risk Conference Content: Organized and hosted by the Global Risk Forum The International Disaster and Risk Conference IDRC is a global gathering of experts for risk reduction , disaster management , and climate change adaptation . IDRCs are held as a biennial conference in Davos , Switzerland and complemented every other year with regional conferences hosted in different regions of the world and endorse the UNISDR Global Platform meetings ( GP in 2007 , 2009 , 2011 , 2013 , and 2015 ) . The IDRC conferences promote the integral risk management approach -- across subject areas , professions , and sectors -- encompassing scientific understanding with business , policy responses , the media and citizen participation . The IDRCs encourage stronger ties with adequate public-private partnership models and devising approaches for moving towards a more truly integrative way of thinking about disaster and risks . Additional conferences and workshops dealing with specific disaster and risk topics may be organized in Davos or elsewhere . The conferences and workshops aim to provide solutions for effective and efficient global disaster and risk management and climate change adaptation . These issues need the involvement of all stakeholders of the public and the private sector . Originally organized by the Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL , since 2007 IDRCs are organised by the Global Risk Forum GRF Davos . Patronage of IDRC include the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SDC , UN organisations such as UNESCO , UN ISDR , UNDP , UNEP and ILO as well as the private sector like SWISS RE . IDRC conferences and workshops contribute to harmonizing risk reduction and disaster management with climate change adaptation measures . The IDRC Conferences provide an ideal platform for assessment and dissemination activities , as well as for networking activities . The next IDRC conference will be held from 28 August to 1 September 2014 in Davos , Switzerland .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "International_Disaster_and_Risk_Conference",
"rank": 46,
"score": 90240
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Act_2008",
"rank": 47,
"score": 90131
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical impacts of climate change Content: Climate has affected human life and civilization from the emergence of hominins to the present day . These historical impacts of climate change can improve human life and cause societies to flourish , or can be instrumental in civilization 's societal collapse .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Historical_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 48,
"score": 89800
},
{
"content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 49,
"score": 89689
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Grenada",
"rank": 50,
"score": 89647
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_Zealand",
"rank": 51,
"score": 89310
},
{
"content": "Title: Executive Order 13653 Content: Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Executive_Order_13653",
"rank": 52,
"score": 88860
},
{
"content": "Title: The Natural Disasters Content: The Natural Disasters were a professional wrestling tag team composed of Earthquake ( John Tenta ) and Typhoon ( Fred Ottman ) who competed in the World Wrestling Federation between 1991 and 1993 . The team held the WWF Tag Team Championship on one occasion .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "The_Natural_Disasters",
"rank": 53,
"score": 88726
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 54,
"score": 88522
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 55,
"score": 88384
},
{
"content": "Title: 1980 United States heat wave Content: The 1980 United States Heat Wave was a period of intense heat and drought that wreaked havoc on much of the Midwestern United States and Southern Plains throughout the summer of 1980 . It is among the most devastating natural disasters in terms of deaths and destruction in U.S. history , claiming at least 1,700 lives and because of the massive drought , agricultural damage reached US$ 20.0 billion ( US$ 55.4 billion in 2007 dollars , adjusted for the GNP inflation index ) . It is among the billion-dollar weather disasters listed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "1980_United_States_heat_wave",
"rank": 56,
"score": 88058
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental change Content: Environmental change is a change or disturbance of the environment most often caused by human influences and natural ecological processes . Environmental changes can include any number of things , including natural disasters , human interference , or animal interaction . Environmental change does not only encompass physical changes , but it can be things like an infestation of invasive species is also environmental changes .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Environmental_change",
"rank": 57,
"score": 88045
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_variability",
"rank": 58,
"score": 87774
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change (album) Content: Climate Change is the tenth studio album by rapper and songwriter Pitbull . It was released on March 17 , 2017 . through RCA Records , Polo Grounds Music and Mr. 305 Inc. . It features Enrique Iglesias , Flo Rida , Jennifer Lopez and Jason Derulo .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_Change_(album)",
"rank": 59,
"score": 87729
},
{
"content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Reasons_for_concern",
"rank": 60,
"score": 87721
},
{
"content": "Title: This is worse Content: This is worse ( Spanish : Esto es peor ) is an etching and wash drawing by the Spanish artist Francisco Goya ( 1746 -- 1828 ) . Completed between 1812 -- 1815 , though not published until 1863 , it forms part of his Disasters of War series , which Goya created as a visual protest against the violence of the 1808 Dos de Mayo Uprising and subsequent Peninsular War of 1808 -- 1814 . The image is based on a scene which occurred in Chinchón in December 1808 , at a time when Goya 's brother was living there as parish priest . When two French soldiers were killed by Spanish rebels , the French retaliated by massacring local men . Goya shows the mutilated body of a rebel impaled on the branches of a tree at two points -- through his anus and shoulder blade . The victim 's head is turned towards the picture 's viewer , in a motif that echoes the title of another work in the Disasters series - One can not look . His right arm has been chopped off above the elbow . In the background , French soldiers carry on with the massacre . The drawing contains sexual undertones in that the victim appears to have been raped . The figuration of the dead man is based in part on the Hellenistic fragment of a male nude , the Belvedere Torso , by an Athenian sculptor . Goya had earlier made a black wash drawing study of the statue during a visit to Rome . However , he subverts the classical motifs used in war art by adding a degree of theatre -- the branch through the anus , animated shoulders and close framing . The man is naked , itself a daring presentation for Spanish art in the 19th century . An 1863 print of This is Worse was purchased by the National Galleries of Scotland in 1967 .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "This_is_worse",
"rank": 61,
"score": 87698
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 62,
"score": 87607
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural Disaster (Plain White T's song) Content: `` Natural Disaster '' is the first single from the Plain White T 's fifth studio album Big Bad World . It was released to pop radio on August 8 , 2008 and peaked at # 25 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and # 38 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Natural_Disaster_(Plain_White_T's_song)",
"rank": 63,
"score": 87315
},
{
"content": "Title: Greg Craven (teacher) Content: Greg Craven is an American high school science teacher and climate change author . The creator of a 2007 viral video on YouTube , he is the author of the 2009 book What 's the Worst That Could Happen ? : A Rational Response to the Climate Change Debate .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Greg_Craven_(teacher)",
"rank": 64,
"score": 87237
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Wyoming Content: The U.S. state of Wyoming faces a broad array of environmental issues stemming from environmental changes including species introduction , endangered species , global climate change , and natural resource extraction . These changes have led to varying ecological harm to the forests and natural species of wildlife that call Wyoming home . Within the state organizations and governments are working to combat these environmental threats and restore balance to the ecology . This article details several major ecological disasters within the state while also describing the steps that are being taken by local governments , organizations , and groups to prevent future disasters .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 65,
"score": 87220
},
{
"content": "Title: Werner Kurz Content: Werner Kurz is a Canadian research scientist at Canada 's Pacific Forestry Centre in Victoria , British Columbia . He is leading the development of an accounting system to assess potential climate change known as the National Forest Carbon Accounting System for Canada . Currently , his research focuses on using forest land to its maximum carbon efficiency , reducing the impact of natural disasters , and managing forests . Kurz holds a PhD in forest ecology from the University of British Columbia . He has made significant contributions to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognized by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Werner_Kurz",
"rank": 66,
"score": 87089
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Global_warming_game",
"rank": 67,
"score": 86983
},
{
"content": "Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "European_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 68,
"score": 86636
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane Liza (1976) Content: Hurricane Liza is considered the worst natural disaster in the history of Baja California Sur . The seventeenth tropical cyclone , thirteenth named storm , and eighth hurricane of the 1976 Pacific hurricane season , Liza developed from an area of disturbed weather southwest of the Mexican coast on September 25 . Slowly intensifying , the system attained tropical storm strength the following day . In favorable conditions , Liza continued to intensify , reaching hurricane strength on September 28 after developing an eye . The hurricane peaked in intensity as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane scale on September 30 , with winds of 140 mph and a minimum barometric pressure of 948 mbar ( hPa ; 28.00 inHg ) . Liza weakened as it moved northward into the Gulf of California . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane made its second landfall north of Los Mochis , Sinaloa with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km/h ) , making it one of 13 storms to make landfall as major hurricanes in the basin . Inland , the hurricane rapidly weakened and dissipated on October 2 . Prior to the arrival of Liza , residents along the Gulf of California coastline were evacuated , although some refused to leave their homes . Radio stations warned all nearby ships to remain at harbor . Liza brought heavy rainfall to the area , which caused significant flash flooding . Following a dam burst by the El Cajoncito Creek along the outskirts of La Paz , hundreds of people were swept away by flood waters . In La Paz , the capital of the state , 412 people died and 20,000 were left homeless . Nearly one-third of the homes in the town were destroyed . Throughout the state , a variety of death tolls were reported , but officials estimated that 1,000 people had perished . In the states of Sinaloa and Sonora , Liza caused moderate damage and left 30,000 to 54,000 homeless , along with 155 more casualties . Along the Gulf of California , 108 people were presumed dead after 12 boats were lost . The remnants of the storm later affected the United States , bringing moderate rainfall In the aftermath of the storm , rescue workers spent days digging through mud to find victims of the hurricane until the search was disbanded on October 6 . The government received criticism for the tragedy , citing that the dam that broke had been poorly built . Overall , at least 1,263 fatalities and $ 100 million ( 1976 USD ) in damage are attributed to the hurricane , making it one of the deadliest tropical cyclones on record in the eastern Pacific , as well as one of the few Pacific hurricanes to kill more than 1,000 people .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Hurricane_Liza_(1976)",
"rank": 69,
"score": 86629
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_adaptation",
"rank": 70,
"score": 86597
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate appraisal Content: A climate appraisal is a unique , location-based report for a specific property on climate change ( from global warming ) and other environmental risks . Information in a climate appraisal report enables property owners and/or buyers to assess for themselves how climate change risks could impact a specific property address in the future , probably by utilizing both historical and projected data from scientific modeling to display those potential risks . A climate appraisal report may include historical and projected information in the following categories : shoreline reduction from sea level rise , risk from hurricanes , tornadoes , earthquakes , volcanoes , droughts , wildfires , floods , diseasees , and industrial pollution . A report may integrate a wide range of environmental risk information after geocoding a location .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_appraisal",
"rank": 71,
"score": 86563
},
{
"content": "Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Tyndall_Centre",
"rank": 72,
"score": 86205
},
{
"content": "Title: Alertnet Content: AlertNet is a free global humanitarian news service provided by the Thomson Reuters Foundation . AlertNet covers natural disasters , conflicts , refugees , hunger , diseases and the human impacts of climate change . Content comes from AlertNet reporters around the globe , Reuters news bureaux and 60 specialist news content partners . A global team of 25 journalists provides information on the most pressing humanitarian issues of our time . They report the world 's under-reported stories , the ` forgotten ' crises that rarely make mainstream headlines . The news service has become an essential tool for relief workers , donors , policy makers , students , journalists and the general public .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Alertnet",
"rank": 73,
"score": 86174
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 74,
"score": 86046
},
{
"content": "Title: Views on the Kyoto Protocol Content: This article is about certain views on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . A 2007 study by Gupta et al. assessed the literature on climate change policy which showed no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol , that assert these agreements have , or will , succeed in fully solving the climate problem . It was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed . The Framework Convention and its Protocol , include provisions for future policy actions to be taken . Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is `` the only game in town , '' and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions ( Aldy et al. . , 2003 , p. 9 ) . Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 5 ) . On the other hand , many economists think that the commitments are stronger than is justified . Particularly in the US , many economists have also been critical of the failure to include quantified commitments for developing countries ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 31 ) .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Views_on_the_Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 75,
"score": 86026
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 76,
"score": 86003
},
{
"content": "Title: David Beerling Content: David John Beerling FRS ( born 21 June 1965 ) is the Director of the Leverhulme Centre for Climate change mitigation and Sorby Professor of Natural Sciences in the Department of Animal and Plant Sciences ( APS ) at the University of Sheffield , UK .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "David_Beerling",
"rank": 77,
"score": 85993
},
{
"content": "Title: Htun Lwin Content: Dr. Htun Lwin or Tun Lwin is a Burmese meteorologist . He holds a PhD in Physics and has worked in Burma 's Department of Meteorology and Hydrology since he was 17 years old in 1965 for 44 years until 2009 when he retired from his ( then ) position as Director General . Dr Tun Lwin is a well-known , active `` netizen '' in Myanmar who operates a free , non-profit online service called Myanmar Climate Change Watch ( MCCW ) . Through various social media platforms such as Facebook and his website , he primarily gives weather and climate updates as well as some posts and updates about his own personal life and opinions . He has written numerous successful books on weather in Myanmar , works with local radio stations on weather-related segments and regularly writes articles on various topics not limited to just weather updates in Burmese magazines and newspaper journals . His book , The Girl Called La Niña and Articles about Natural Disasters , won the Science Knowledge Prize in the Thuta Swesone literary awards in 2007 . He also gives presentations at talks and seminars relating to climate change frequently both locally and internationally , in cities and villages in rural areas . On December 10 -- 11 , 2009 , Lwin presented his 30-page paper at a seminar hosted by the International Centre for Water Hazard ( ICHARM ) in Tsukuba , Japan , stressing the importance of awareness of storms , tsunamis and flooding in delta regions and potential atural disaster preparedness strategies in the region . In October 2010 he spoke to the Burmese media about the expected path of Cyclone Giri . He currently resides in Yangon , Myanmar with his wife , Mu Mu Than , and three children , two daughters and one son , of which the eldest is married with three children of her own .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Htun_Lwin",
"rank": 78,
"score": 85919
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 79,
"score": 85878
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural hazards in Colombia Content: Natural disasters in Colombia are the result of several different natural hazards that affect the country according to its particular geographic and geologic features . Human vulnerability , exacerbated by the lack of planning or lack of appropriate emergency management , and the fragility of the economy and infrastructure contribute to a high rate of financial , structural , and human losses . Some of the natural hazards present in Colombia are :",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Natural_hazards_in_Colombia",
"rank": 80,
"score": 85874
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate fiction Content: Climate fiction , or climate change fiction , popularly abbreviated as cli-fi ( modelled after the assonance of `` sci-fi '' ) is literature that deals with climate change and global warming . Not necessarily speculative in nature , works of cli-fi may take place in the world as we know it or in the near future . University courses on literature and environmental issues may include climate change fiction in their syllabi . This body of literature has been discussed by a variety of publications , including The New York Times , The Guardian , and Dissent magazine , among other international media outlets .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_fiction",
"rank": 81,
"score": 85814
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_ethics",
"rank": 82,
"score": 85807
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_justice",
"rank": 83,
"score": 85759
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 84,
"score": 85636
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Challenge Content: Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_Challenge",
"rank": 85,
"score": 85616
},
{
"content": "Title: Artists' Project Earth Content: Artists ' Project Earth is a UK registered charity which recruits internationally known musicians and artists through albums , concerts , art exhibitions and art related projects to raise awareness of climate change and funds for campaigns and disaster relief .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Artists'_Project_Earth",
"rank": 86,
"score": 85562
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 87,
"score": 85469
},
{
"content": "Title: A Natural Disaster Content: A Natural Disaster is the seventh album by the British rock band Anathema . It was released on 3 November 2003 in the United Kingdom and on 24 February 2004 in the United States through Music for Nations . It is the first album to feature the band 's original bassist Jamie Cavanagh , brother of band members Vincent and Daniel Cavanagh , who left Anathema prior to any release in 1991 and returned in 2001 . It is also Daniel 's first album since his departure in 2002 ( after the release of the previous album A Fine Day to Exit '' ) .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "A_Natural_Disaster",
"rank": 88,
"score": 85340
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 89,
"score": 85333
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 90,
"score": 85284
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural Resources Stewardship Project Content: The Natural Resources Stewardship Project is a Canadian non-profit organization that presents itself as undertaking `` a proactive grassroots campaign to counter the Kyoto Protocol and other greenhouse gas reduction schemes while promoting sensible climate change policy . '' The group was founded in October 2005 . A report in the Toronto Star on January 28 , 2007 stated that the organization had not revealed who funds the Stewardship Project . The Guardian and Vancouver Sun stated in 2008 that the organization is funded by energy firms . Until April 2008 , it was headed by global warming skeptic Tom Harris , formerly Ottawa director of the consulting firm High Park Group , and , until later in 2008 , Tim Ball , formerly Professor of Geography at the University of Winnipeg . Harris has stated that the NRSP was set up on the initiative of the High Park Group . NRSP has been mentioned in at least two op-ed pieces . According to the Toronto Star , the group has been described by critics as an Astroturf organization .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Natural_Resources_Stewardship_Project",
"rank": 91,
"score": 85204
},
{
"content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 92,
"score": 85172
},
{
"content": "Title: A Change of Climate Content: A Change of Climate is a novel by English author Hilary Mantel , first published in 1994 by Viking Books . At the time The Observer described it as the best book she had written . It was published in the United States by Henry Holt in 1997 and was recognised by the New York Times Book Review as one of the notable books of that year . The novel has also been identified as one of the best of the 1990s .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "A_Change_of_Climate",
"rank": 93,
"score": 85160
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural Disaster (Example song) Content: `` Natural Disaster '' is a song by Dutch DJ Laidback Luke and British singer and rapper Example . It was released on 4 October 2011 in the USA and on 16 October 2011 in the UK as the third single of Example 's third studio album , Playing in the Shadows , with an entire remix EP on iTunes . A 5-minute extended explicit album version of the song was included on the album Playing in the Shadows . The song was written by Example , Laidback Luke , and Dipesh Parmar , and was produced by Laidback Luke .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Natural_Disaster_(Example_song)",
"rank": 94,
"score": 84946
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 95,
"score": 84914
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather Makers Content: The Weather Makers : The History and Future Impact of Climate Change is a 2005 book by Tim Flannery . The book received critical acclaim . It won the major prize at the 2006 New South Wales Premier 's Literary Awards , and was short-listed for the 2010 Jan Michalski Prize for Literature .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "The_Weather_Makers",
"rank": 96,
"score": 84848
},
{
"content": "Title: Environment and Climate Change Canada Content: Environment and Climate Change Canada ( or simply its former name , Environment Canada , or EC ) ( Environnement et Changement climatique Canada ) , legally incorporated as the Department of the Environment under the Department of the Environment Act ( R.S. , 1985 , c. E-10 ) , is the department of the Government of Canada with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources . The powers , duties and functions of the Minister of the Environment extend to and include matters relating to : `` preserve and enhance the quality of the natural environment , including water , air , soil , flora and fauna ; conserve Canada 's renewable resources ; conserve and protect Canada 's water resources ; forecast daily weather conditions and warnings , and provide detailed meteorological information to all of Canada ; enforce rules relating to boundary waters ; and coordinate environmental policies and programs for the federal government . '' Its ministerial headquarters is located in les Terrasses de la Chaudière , Gatineau , Quebec . Under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act ( CEPA 1999 ) ( R.S. , 1999 , c. 33 ) , Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the cleanup of hazardous waste and oil spills for which the government is responsible , and to provide technical assistance to other jurisdictions and the private sector as required . The department is also responsible for international environmental issues ( e.g. , Canada-USA air issues ) . CEPA was the central piece of Canada 's environmental legislation but was replaced when budget implementation bill ( C-38 ) entered into effect in June 2012 . Under the Constitution of Canada , responsibility for environmental management in Canada is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments . For example , provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges ( e.g. , to the air ) . The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country ( e.g. , benzene ) . Environment Canada provides stewardship of the Environmental Choice Program , which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of ( GEN ) Global Ecolabelling Network . Environment Canada continues ( 2005 -- present ) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making , and to standardize policy implementation .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Environment_and_Climate_Change_Canada",
"rank": 97,
"score": 84786
},
{
"content": "Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Storms_of_My_Grandchildren",
"rank": 98,
"score": 84763
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 99,
"score": 84722
},
{
"content": "Title: Droughts in the United States Content: Drought in the United States is similar to that of other portions of the globe . Below normal precipitation leads to drought , which is caused by an above average persistence of high pressure over the drought area . Changes in the track of extratropical cyclones , which can occur during climate cycles such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , or ENSO , as well as the North Atlantic Oscillation , Pacific Decadal Oscillation , and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation , modulates which areas would be more prone to drought and when drought develops . Increased drought frequency is expected to be one of the effects of global warming . In dry areas , removing grass cover and going with a more natural vegetation for the area can reduce the impact of drought , since a significant amount of fresh water is used to keep lawns green . Droughts are periodic , alternating with floods over a series of years . The worst droughts in the history of the United States occurred during the 1930s and 1950s , periods of time known as ` Dust Bowl ' years in which droughts lead to significant economic damages and social changes . In particular , relief and health agencies became overburdened and many local community banks had to close .",
"qid": "132",
"docid": "Droughts_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 100,
"score": 84650
}
] |
The amount of land we use for meat — humankind’s biggest use of land — has declined by an area nearly as large as Alaska | [
{
"content": "Title: Meat Mountain Content: Meat Mountain ( elevation 2513 ft ) is a summit in North Slope Borough , Alaska , in the United States . Meat Mountain is an English translation of the Eskimo name Nikipak .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Meat_Mountain",
"rank": 1,
"score": 102376
},
{
"content": "Title: National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska Content: The National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska ( NPRA ) is an area of land on the Alaska North Slope owned by the United States federal government and managed by the Department of the Interior , Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) . It lies to the west of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge , which , is a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service managed National Wildlife Refuge , is also considered federal land . At a size of 23599999 acre , the NPRA is the largest tract of undisturbed public land in the United States . Inupiat live in several villages around its perimeter , the largest of which is Barrow , the seat of the North Slope Borough .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "National_Petroleum_Reserve–Alaska",
"rank": 2,
"score": 98575
},
{
"content": "Title: Land consumption Content: Land consumption as part of human resource consumption is the conversion of land with healthy soil and intact habitats into areas for industrial agriculture , traffic ( road building ) and especially urban human settlements . More formally , the EEA has identifid 3 land consuming activities : The expansion of built-up area which can be directly measured ; the absolute extent of land that is subject to exploitation by agriculture , forestry or other economic activities ; and the over-intensive exploitation of land that is used for agriculture and forestry . In all of those respects , land consumption is equivalent to typical land use in industrialized regions and civilizations . Since often aforementioned conversion activities are virtually irreversible , the term land loss is also used . From 1990 to 2000 , 1.4 e6ha of open space were consumed in the U.S. . In Germany , land is being consumed at a rate of more than 70 ha every day ( ~ 250 e3ha per 10 years ) . Land loss can also happen due to natural factors , like erosion or desertification - nevertheless most of those can also eventually be tracked back to human activities . Another slightly different interpretation of the term is the forced displacement or compulsory acquisition of a native people or settlers from their original land due to land grabbing , etc. . Again , in most cases , this will be due to economic reasons like search for profitable investment and commodification of natural resources . Even though global land loss progresses at an alarming rate , the land footprint , the area required by some Western countries can a lot larger than the land actually used or even available in the country itself . While land prices have surged in the first few years of the 21st century , land consumption economy still lacks environmental full-cost accounting to add the long-term costs of environmental degradation .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Land_consumption",
"rank": 3,
"score": 96147
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act Content: The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act ( ANILCA ) is a United States federal law passed on November 12 , 1980 by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on December 2 of that year . ANILCA provided varying degrees of special protection to over 157,000,000 acres of land , including national parks , national wildlife refuges , national monuments , wild and scenic rivers , recreational areas , national forests , and conservation areas . The Act provided for 43,585,000 acres of new national parklands in Alaska ; the addition of 9.8 million acres to the National Wildlife Refuge System ; twenty-five wild and scenic rivers , with twelve more to be studied for that designation ; establishment of Misty Fjords and Admiralty Island National Monuments in Southeast Alaska ; establishment of Steese National Conservation Area and White Mountains National Recreation Area to be managed by the Bureau of Land Management ; the addition of 9.1 million acres to the Wilderness Preservation System , and the addition of 3,350,000 acres to Tongass and Chugach National Forests .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska_National_Interest_Lands_Conservation_Act",
"rank": 4,
"score": 95425
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic Refuge drilling controversy Content: The question of whether to drill for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ( ANWR ) has been an ongoing political and media controversy in the United States since 1977 . ANWR comprises 19000000 acre of the north Alaskan coast . The land is situated between the Beaufort Sea to the north , Brooks Range to the south , and Prudhoe Bay to the west . It is the largest protected wilderness in the United States and was created by Congress under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 . Section 1002 of that act deferred a decision on the management of oil and gas exploration and development of 1500000 acre in the coastal plain , known as the `` 1002 area '' . The controversy surrounds drilling for oil in this subsection of ANWR . Much of the debate over whether to drill in the 1002 area of ANWR rests on the amount of economically recoverable oil , as it relates to world oil markets , weighed against the potential harm oil exploration might have upon the natural wildlife , in particular the calving ground of the Porcupine caribou . In their documentary Being Caribou the Porcupine herd was followed in its yearly migration by author and wildlife biologist Karsten Heuer and filmmaker Leanne Allison to provide a broader understanding of what is at stake if the oil drilling should happen , and educating the public . President Barack Obama once proposed to declare an additional 5 million acres of the refuge as a wilderness area , which would put a total of 12.8 million acres of the refuge permanently off-limits to drilling or other development , including the coastal plain where oil exploration has been sought .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Arctic_Refuge_drilling_controversy",
"rank": 5,
"score": 94900
},
{
"content": "Title: Taylor Complex Fire Content: The Taylor Complex Fire was a 2004 wildfire in Alaska that consumed approximately 1305592 acre of land . By acreage , it was the largest wildfire in the United States between 1997-2007 . The fire also was part of the record-breaking 2004 Alaska fire season that burned more than 6600000 acre , the most in recorded history .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Taylor_Complex_Fire",
"rank": 6,
"score": 93352
},
{
"content": "Title: Seismo Creek Content: Seismo Creek is a stream in North Slope Borough , Alaska , in the United States . It heads near Meat Mountain and flows to the Utukok River . Seismo Creek was named in 1950 for nearby seismic operations .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Seismo_Creek",
"rank": 7,
"score": 92918
},
{
"content": "Title: Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 Content: The Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 is a United States federal law that provides for the regulation of grazing on the public lands ( excluding Alaska ) to improve rangeland conditions and regulate their use . The law initially permitted 80,000,000 ac ( 32,000,000 ha ) of previously unreserved public lands of the United States to be placed into grazing districts to be administered by the Department of the Interior . As amended , the law now sets no limit on the amount of lands in grazing districts . Currently , there are approximately 162,000,000 ac ( 65,600,000 ha ) inside grazing allotments . These can be vacant , unappropriated , and unreserved land from public lands , all except for Alaska , national forests , parks , monuments , Indian reservations , railroad grant lands , and revested Coos Bay Wagon Road grant lands . Surrounding land owners may be granted right of passage over these districts . Permits are given for grazing privileges in the districts . Also permits can be given to build fences , reservoirs , and other improvements . The permittees are required to pay a fee , and the permit can not exceed ten years but is renewable . Permits can be revoked because of severe drought or other natural disasters that deplete grazing lands .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Taylor_Grazing_Act_of_1934",
"rank": 8,
"score": 92305
},
{
"content": "Title: List of U.S. Wilderness Areas Content: Four federal agencies of the United States government administer the National Wilderness Preservation System , which includes 765 Wildernesses and 109129657 acre as of 2016 . These agencies are : United States Forest Service United States National Park Service United States Bureau of Land Management United States Fish and Wildlife Service This is an area larger than Iraq or the state of California . In Alaska , there are 57425569 acre of wilderness . This represents about 52 % of the wilderness area in the United States . The National Park Service ( NPS ) has oversight of 43890500 acre of wilderness at 60 locations . The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has responsibility for 20702350 acre in 71 areas . The Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) oversees 8726011 acre at 222 unique sites . The Department of Agriculture , the U.S. Forest Service oversees 36160078 acre of wilderness areas in 442 areas . Some wilderness areas are managed by multiple agencies , so the above totals exceed the actual number of units ( 759 ) in the system . In addition , some of the 60 NPS areas with wilderness have multiple units designated as such ( for example , Lake Mead National Recreation Area ) . Some areas are designated wilderness by state or tribal governments . These are not governed by the Federal National Wilderness Preservation System . The following sortable table lists all U.S. areas that have been designated by the United States Congress under the Wilderness Act . The listed designation date is the date that the wilderness was signed into law . Some areas have been expanded or otherwise changed since the original designation date . For more information about a specific area , see the wilderness name link .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "List_of_U.S._Wilderness_Areas",
"rank": 9,
"score": 92272
},
{
"content": "Title: Steese National Conservation Area Content: The Steese National Conservation Area encompasses 1200000 acre of public land about 100 mi northeast of Fairbanks , Alaska , and is administered by the Bureau of Land Management as part of the National Landscape Conservation System . Created by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 , the Steese NCA 's special values include Birch Creek National Wild River , crucial caribou calving grounds and home range , and Dall sheep habitat . While various land uses are allowed in the Steese NCA , the area is managed so that its scenic , scientific , cultural and other resources are protected . The Steese NCA is split into the North and South Units , located on either side of the Steese Highway . The popular Pinnell Mountain National Recreation Trail skirts the edge of the North Unit .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Steese_National_Conservation_Area",
"rank": 10,
"score": 92228
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska Loyal League Content: The Alaska Loyal League was a small group of Fairbanks businessmen who were instrumental in supporting early Tanana Valley agriculture and enterprise . They included : A. Browning ; George Coleman , manager of the Northern Commercial Company ; F.S. Gordon , a merchant ; H.B. Parkin , Fairbanks Meat Company transportation agent ; E.R. Peoples , merchant ; Harry E. St. George , real estate agent ; William Fentress Thompson , editor and publisher of the Fairbanks Daily News-Miner ; and R.C. Wood , a banker . In April 1917 , the League hosted a Farmers ' Day lunch and convention , for the purpose of organizing area agriculturalists and making the valley agriculturally self-sufficient . They were behind the formation of a short-lived Farmers Bank , the Tanana Valley Agriculture Association , and later a Flouring Mill Corporation .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska_Loyal_League",
"rank": 11,
"score": 90903
},
{
"content": "Title: Peak farmland Content: Peak farmland is the maximum usable amount of land needed for crop cultivation ( agricultural land ) for a given region ( country or an entire world ) . Supporters of the peak farmland theory argue that even with the growing world population , the need for more farmland is decreasing , as food production yields per acre of farmland are rising faster than the global demand for food . This is supported by the fact that the area dedicated to farmland in some countries , both developed ( e.g. Finland ) and developing ( e.g. India , China ) , has already begun to decline . It is argued that other countries , such as the United States , are at their peak farmland now . The concept is usually referenced to the work of Jesse Ausubel and Iddo Wernick . They predict that over the next fifty years an area of at least 146 million hectares is going to be released from farming and will probably revert to its natural state . As land conversion ( from a natural state to human use ) is one of the greatest threats to the natural environment in general , and biodiversity in particular , this is seen as good for the environment . Geisler and Currens note , however , that `` Peak Farmland , though newly named , is a long-standing issue '' that has been debated by scholars for decades . The issue deals with two opposing views : one that predicts that more and more farmland will be needed to sustain the growing world population , and the other ( the peak farmland view ) that progress in agricultural techniques , measured in steadily increasing crop yields from a set amount of farmland , will result in a decrease in the amount of farmland needed to feed the world 's population , eventually leading to a decrease in the world 's acreage of farmland .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Peak_farmland",
"rank": 12,
"score": 90449
},
{
"content": "Title: Agriculture in Alaska Content: Agriculture in Alaska faces many challenges , largely due to the climate , the short growing season , and generally poor soils . However , the exceptionally long days of summer enable some vegetables to attain world record sizes .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Agriculture_in_Alaska",
"rank": 13,
"score": 89489
},
{
"content": "Title: 2004 Alaska wildfires Content: The 2004 Alaska fire season was the worst on record in terms of area burned by wildfires in the U.S. state of Alaska . Though there were fewer fires than in 1989 when almost 1,000 were recorded , more than 6600000 acre were burned by 701 fires . The largest of these fires was the Taylor Complex Fire . This fire consumed over 1700000 acre and was the deemed to be the largest fire in the United States from 1997 to 2007 . Out of all 701 fires , 426 fires were started by humans and 215 by lightning .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "2004_Alaska_wildfires",
"rank": 14,
"score": 88797
},
{
"content": "Title: Yellow-cedar decline Content: Yellow-cedar decline is the accelerated decline and mortality of Yellow-Cedar ( Chamaecyparis nootkatensis ) occurring in the Pacific Northwest Temperate Rainforest of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia in North America . This phenomena has been observed on over 200,000 hectares of forest and is believed to be due to reduced winter snowpacks and increased soil freezing .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Yellow-cedar_decline",
"rank": 15,
"score": 86970
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry",
"rank": 16,
"score": 86380
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station Content: The Alaska Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station ( AFES ) was established in 1898 in Sitka , Alaska , also the site of the first agricultural experiment farm in what was then Alaska Territory . Today the station is administered by the University of Alaska Fairbanks through the School of Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences . Facilities and programs include the Fairbanks Experiment Farm ( est. 1906 ) , the Georgeson Botanical Garden , the Palmer Research and Extension Center , the Matanuska Experiment Farm , and the Reindeer Research Program . Research at AFES has concentrated on introducing vegetable cultivars appropriate to Alaska and developing adapted cultivars of grains , grasses , potatoes , and berries ( for example , strawberries and raspberries ) . Animal and poultry management was also important in early research , with studies on sheep , yaks , cattle , dairy cows , and swine over the years . Modern animal husbandry study at AFES is focused on reindeer and muskoxen , with some research on fisheries . Other research is in soils ( cryosols and carbon cycling studies , for example ) and climate change , revegetation , forest ecology and management , and rural and economic development , including energy and biomass research .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska_Agricultural_and_Forestry_Experiment_Station",
"rank": 17,
"score": 86069
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of meat production Content: The environmental impact of meat production varies because of the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world . All agricultural practices have been found to have a variety of effects on the environment . Some of the environmental effects that have been associated with meat production are pollution through fossil fuel usage , animal methane , effluent waste , and water and land consumption . Meat is obtained through a variety of methods , including organic farming , free range farming , intensive livestock production , subsistence agriculture , hunting , and fishing . The 2006 report Livestock 's Long Shadow , released by the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) of the United Nations , states that `` the livestock sector is a major stressor on many ecosystems and on the planet as a whole . Globally it is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases and one of the leading causal factors in the loss of biodiversity , while in developed and emerging countries it is perhaps the leading source of water pollution . '' ( In this and much other FAO usage , but not always elsewhere , poultry are included as `` livestock '' . ) Some fraction of these effects is assignable to non-meat components of the livestock sector such as the wool , egg and dairy industries , and to the livestock used for tillage . Livestock have been estimated to provide power for tillage of as much as half of the world 's cropland . According to production data compiled by the FAO , 74 percent of global livestock product tonnage in 2011 was accounted for by non-meat products such as wool , eggs and milk . Meat is also considered one of the prime factors contributing to the current sixth mass extinction .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_meat_production",
"rank": 18,
"score": 85959
},
{
"content": "Title: Sitkinak Island Content: Sitkinak Island is an island of the Kodiak Archipelago of the state of Alaska , United States . It lies south of the southern tip of Kodiak Island in the western part of the Gulf of Alaska . Tugidak Island lies to its west . The two islands are the largest components of the Trinity Islands of Alaska . The Trinity Islands , and thus Sitkinak , are part of the Gulf of Alaska unit of Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge . Sitkinak Island has a land area of 235.506 km ² ( 90.929 sq mi ) and no resident population . Cattle Operation Bob Mudd runs a totally free range cattle operation with his son , Nathan . They have about 600 head which are slaughtered and processed on the island in late fall to sell as `` Beyond Organic '' beef . The unique herd of cattle have thrived on the eastern and western islands of Sitkinak since 1937 . It is one of the few pristine islands in the world to support this rare species of cattle . More information can be found at Alaska Meat Company , Sitkinak Webspace , and other websites that chronicle past military activity on Sitkinak . There is a healthy population of red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) on the island . Fox pelages varies widely with many cross individuals and cross variants .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Sitkinak_Island",
"rank": 19,
"score": 85042
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska Department of Natural Resources Content: The Alaska Department of Natural Resources is a department within the government of Alaska . The Department 's mission is to responsibly develop Alaska 's resources by making them available for maximum use and benefit consistent with the public interest . The Department comprises seven Divisions : Division of Agriculture Division of Forestry Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys Division of Mining , Land and Water Division of Oil and Gas Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation Support Services Division",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska_Department_of_Natural_Resources",
"rank": 20,
"score": 84988
},
{
"content": "Title: Whale meat Content: Whale meat is the flesh of whales used for consumption by humans or other animals , and broadly includes other consumed parts as blubber , skin , and organs . It is prepared in various ways , and has historically been eaten in many parts of the world , including across Western Europe and Colonial America , and not necessarily restricted to coastal communities , since flesh and blubber can be salt-cured . Practice of whale consumption continues today in Japan , Norway , Iceland , Faroe Islands , South Korea , China , the Inuit and other indigenous peoples of the United States ( including the Makah people of the Pacific Northwest ) , Canada , Greenland ; the Chukchi people of Siberia , and in St. Vincent and the Grenadines ( mainly on the island of Bequia ) in the Caribbean . Human consumption of whale meat is controversial and has been denounced by detractors on wildlife conservation , toxicity , and animal rights grounds .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Whale_meat",
"rank": 21,
"score": 84366
},
{
"content": "Title: Wrangell–Saint Elias Wilderness Content: Wrangell -- Saint Elias Wilderness is a wilderness area in Alaska , United States . At 9078675 acre , it is the largest designated U.S. Wilderness Area , and lies within Wrangell -- St. Elias National Park and Preserve , the largest national park in the United States . It is a land of remote valleys , wild rivers , and a fabulous wildlife population that includes Dall sheep , grizzly bears , black bears , coyotes , bison , caribou , wolverines , moose , beavers , mountain goats , gray wolves , red foxes , and marmots . In the north the glaciated peaks drop to tundra and boreal forested uplands . In the south massive glaciers spread from the mountains almost to the Gulf of Alaska . Several trails provide foot or horse access , but large braided rivers often stop progress unless a packraft is used . The classic route across the wilderness links the gold-rush era settlement of Chisana with the copper-mining era community of McCarthy , via 100 mi of tundra , trails and gravel bars . Unmaintained trails lead through spruce forests near Chisana , across high tundra plains to the White River , below 16000 ft mountains over Skolai Pass , and into the Chitistone Gorge and Canyon with waterfalls to 1500 ft high . Mosquitoes are thick in the low country during the summer , and enough snow accumulates in the high country to make avalanches a year-round danger . On the Canadian side of the border lies Kluane National Park , and together these two areas house some of the continent 's most spectacular mountain landscapes .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Wrangell–Saint_Elias_Wilderness",
"rank": 22,
"score": 84329
},
{
"content": "Title: Adak Island Content: Adak Island ( Adaax ) is an island near the western extent of the Andreanof Islands group of the Aleutian Islands in Alaska . Alaska 's southernmost town , Adak , is located on the island . The island has a land area of 711.18 km2 , measuring 54.5 km on length and 35 km on width , making it the 25th largest island in the United States . Due to harsh winds , frequent cloud cover , and cold temperatures , vegetation is mostly tundra ( grasses , mosses , berries , low-lying flowering plants ) at lower elevations . The highest point is Mt. Moffett , near the northwest end of the island , at an elevation of 3,924 feet ( 1,196 m ) . It is snow covered the greater part of the year . Adak , Alaska is its largest and principal city . The word Adak is from the Aleut word adaq , which means `` father '' .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Adak_Island",
"rank": 23,
"score": 83339
},
{
"content": "Title: Geography of Alaska Content: Alaska is one of two U.S. states not bordered by another state ; Hawaii the other . Alaska has more ocean coastline than all of the other U.S. states combined . About 500 mi of Canadian territory separate Alaska from Washington State . Alaska is thus an exclave of the United States that is part of the continental U.S. but is not part of the contiguous U.S. Alaska is also the only state , other than Hawaii , whose capital city is accessible only via ship or air , because no roads connect Juneau to the rest of the continent . The state is bordered by Yukon and British Columbia , Canada to the east , the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south , the Bering Sea , Bering Strait , and Chukchi Sea to the west , and the Beaufort Sea and the Arctic Ocean to the north . Because it extends into the Eastern Hemisphere , it is technically both the westernmost and easternmost state in the United States , as well as also being the northernmost . Alaska is the largest state in the United States in terms of land area at 570,380 sqmi , over twice ( roughly 2.47 times ) as large as Texas , the next largest state . If the state 's westernmost point were superimposed on San Francisco , California , its easternmost point would be in Jacksonville , Florida . It is larger than all but 16 sovereign nations . Alaska is home to 3.5 million lakes of 20 acre or larger . Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover 188,320 sqmi ( mostly in northern , western and southwest flatlands ) . Frozen water , in the form of glacier ice , covers some 16,000 sqmi of land and 1,200 sqmi of tidal zone . The Bering Glacier complex near the southeastern border with Yukon , Canada , covers 2,250 sqmi alone .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Geography_of_Alaska",
"rank": 24,
"score": 82665
},
{
"content": "Title: Meat Content: Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food . Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times . The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens , sheep , pigs and cattle . This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses . Meat is mainly composed of water , protein , and fat . It is edible raw , but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways . Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria and fungi . Most often , meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues , but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal . Meat is sometimes also used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species ( pigs , cattle , lambs , etc. ) raised and prepared for human consumption , to the exclusion of fish , other seafood , poultry , or other animals .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Meat",
"rank": 25,
"score": 82474
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska Content: Alaska ( -LSB- əˈlæskə -RSB- ) is a U.S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America . The Canadian administrative divisions of British Columbia and Yukon border the state to the east ; its most extreme western part is Attu Island ; it has a maritime border with Russia to the west across the Bering Strait . To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas -- the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean . The Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest . It is the largest state in the United States by area . In addition , it is the 3rd least populous and the most sparsely populated of the 50 United States ; nevertheless , it is by far the most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel in North America , its population ( the total estimated at 738,432 by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015 ) more than quadrupling the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland . Approximately half of Alaska 's residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area . Alaska 's economy is dominated by the fishing , natural gas , and oil industries , resources which it has in abundance . Military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy . The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30 , 1867 , for 7.2 million U.S. dollars at approximately two cents per acre ( $ 4.74 / km2 ) . The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11 , 1912 . It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3 , 1959 .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska",
"rank": 26,
"score": 82294
},
{
"content": "Title: Poker Flat Research Range Content: The Poker Flat Research Range ( PFRR ) is a launch facility and rocket range for sounding rockets in the U.S. state of Alaska . The world 's largest land-based rocket range , it is on a 5132 acre site about 30 miles ( 50 km ) northeast of Fairbanks . More than 1,700 launches have been conducted at the range to study the Earth 's atmosphere and the interaction between the atmosphere and the space environment . Areas studied at PFRR include the aurora , plasma physics , the ozone layer , solar proton events , Earth 's magnetic field , and ultraviolet radiation . PFRR is owned by the University of Alaska Fairbanks ( UAF ) Geophysical Institute , which operates it under contract to the NASA Wallops Flight Facility . Other users include the United States Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) , the Air Force Geophysics Lab ( AFGL ) , and various universities and research laboratories . Since its founding in 1948 , PFRR has been closely aligned with and funded by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency and its predecessor , the Defense Nuclear Agency ( DNA ) .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Poker_Flat_Research_Range",
"rank": 27,
"score": 82196
},
{
"content": "Title: Gardening in Alaska Content: Agriculture in Alaska has become more popular and more acceptable as a general idea . Although agriculture in Alaska poses many challenges , largely due to the climate , the short growing season , and generally poor soils for agriculture , there have been a number of recent successes in agriculture and gardening in Alaska . Knowledge of appropriate northern climate crops , as well as tips and tricks for the northern climate conditions will greatly enhance a gardener 's chance of success in Alaska . Additionally , there are a number of local and regional resources available to gardeners in Alaska , which are mentioned at the bottom of this article .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Gardening_in_Alaska",
"rank": 28,
"score": 82192
},
{
"content": "Title: Seal meat Content: Seal meat is the flesh , including the blubber and organs , of seals used as food for humans or other animals . It is prepared in numerous ways , often being hung and dried before consumption . Historically , it has been eaten in many parts of the world , both as a part of a normal diet , and as sustenance . The blubber is fed to chickens in the United States . Practice of human consumption continues today in Japan , Norway , Iceland , Faroe Islands , the Inuit and other indigenous peoples of the United States ( including the Makah people of the Pacific Northwest ) , Canada , Greenland ; the Chukchi people of Siberia , and Bequia in the Caribbean Sea .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Seal_meat",
"rank": 29,
"score": 81799
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska salmon fishery Content: The Alaska salmon fishery was saved due to strict mitigation measures and the implementation of policies . Alaska 's successful conservation of their salmon resources is reflected in recent healthy and abundant salmon runs . Currently , the harvest in Alaska represents about 80 % of the total wild-caught North American harvest of salmon , harvests from Canada representing about 15 % , and harvests from Pacific Northwest states representing about 5 % .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska_salmon_fishery",
"rank": 30,
"score": 81659
},
{
"content": "Title: Aquaculture in Alaska Content: Aquaculture in Alaska is dominated by the production shellfish and aquatic plants . These include Pacific oysters , blue mussels , littleneck clams , scallops , and bull kelp . Finfish farming has been prohibited in Alaska by the 16.40.210 Alaskan statute , however non-profit mariculture continues to provide a steady supply of aquaculture in the state . Many organizations that helped the ban , now encourage the growing of shellfish and other oysters .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Aquaculture_in_Alaska",
"rank": 31,
"score": 80903
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use statistics by country Content: This article includes the table with land use statistics by country . Countries are sorted by their total cultivated land area which is a sum of total arable land area and total area of permanent crops . Arable land is a land cultivated for crops like wheat , maize , and rice that are replanted after each harvest ; permanent crops land is a land cultivated for crops like citrus , coffee , and rubber that are not replanted after each harvest ; this also includes land under flowering shrubs , fruit trees , nut trees , and vines , but excludes land under trees grown for wood or timber . Other lands are any lands not arable or under permanent crops ; this includes permanent meadows and pastures , forests and woodlands , built-on areas , roads , barren land , etc. . Percentage figures for arable land , permanent crops land and other lands are all taken from CIA World Factbook as well as total land area figures ( note that total area of a country is a sum of total land area and total water area ) . All other figures , including total cultivated land area , are calculated on the basis of this mentioned data .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Land_use_statistics_by_country",
"rank": 32,
"score": 80541
},
{
"content": "Title: Afognak Content: Afognak ( Alutiiq : Agw ' aneq ) is an island 5 km north of Kodiak Island in the U.S. state of Alaska . It is 43 miles from east to west and 23 miles from north to south and has a land area of 1,812.58 km2 , making it the 18th largest island in the United States . The coast is split by many long , narrow bays . The highest point is 2,546 feet . The dense spruce forests of Afognak are home to brown bears , Roosevelt elk and Sitka black-tailed deer . Many people visit the island recreationally for hunting and fishing .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Afognak",
"rank": 33,
"score": 80398
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar power in Alaska Content: Solar power in Alaska has been primarily used in remote locations , such as the Nenana Teen Center near Fairbanks , where long summer days provide most of the electricity generated . In 2015 , Alaska ranked 45th in installed solar among U.S. states . Rooftop solar panels could provide 23 % of all electricity used in Alaska . Net metering is available for PV systems up to 25 kW but is limited to 1.5 % of average demand . IREC best practices , based on experience , recommends no limits to net metering , individual or aggregate , and perpetual roll over of kWh credits . In 2011 , Alaska 's largest solar array was the 17.28 kW array installed on a building in Anchorage . A 12 kW solar array installed in Lime Village in July 2001 helped reduce electricity costs . Annual insolation and thus power production per capacity installed is similar in Alaska to central Europe , where Germany became a leader in worldwide solar power use in the years around 2010 .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Solar_power_in_Alaska",
"rank": 34,
"score": 80072
},
{
"content": "Title: Afognak Forest Content: Afognak Forest and Fish Culture was established by the General Land Office in Alaska on December 24 , 1892 as a forest preserve . It covered 403640 acre in 1905 , when the forest reserves were transferred to the U.S. Forest Service . On July 1 , 1908 the entire forest was combined with Chugach National Forest and the name was discontinued .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Afognak_Forest",
"rank": 35,
"score": 79979
},
{
"content": "Title: Innoko National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Innoko National Wildlife Refuge is a national wildlife refuge of the United States located in western Alaska . It consists of 3,850,481 acres ( 15,582 km2 ) , of which 1,240,000 acres ( 5,018 km2 ) is designated a wilderness area . It is the fifth-largest national wildlife refuge in the United States . The refuge is administered from offices in Galena . The refuge was established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . The northern part of the refuge , called Kaiyuh Flats , is adjacent to the Yukon River southwest of Galena . It contains 751,000 acres ( 3,040 km2 ) . The southern part contains approximately 3,099,000 acres ( 12,540 km2 ) of land surrounding the Innoko River . The land is swampy and is the nesting area for hundreds of thousands of birds including ospreys , northern hawk-owls , trumpeter swans , bald eagles , common ravens , short-eared owls , and red-tailed hawks . Mammalian species that habitat this refuge are brown and black bears , Alaskan moose , wolf packs , Canadian lynx , marten , porcupine , beaver , river otter , red fox , wolverine , muskrat , and mink . The refuge has no road access from outside and contains no roads . Air access can be arranged in McGrath .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Innoko_National_Wildlife_Refuge",
"rank": 36,
"score": 79636
},
{
"content": "Title: List of largest National Wildlife Refuges Content: Here is a list of the 67 largest National Wildlife Refuges in the 50 United States . It includes all that are larger than 50,000 acres ( 200 km ² ) , and excludes those in U.S. territories ( also officially in the system ) . Acreage/Area includes water as well as land areas . Statistics are as of 30 September 2007 . The eleven largest NWRs are all in the state of Alaska .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "List_of_largest_National_Wildlife_Refuges",
"rank": 37,
"score": 79587
},
{
"content": "Title: Heliciculture Content: Heliciculture , also known as heliculture , commonly known as snail farming , is the process of raising land snails specifically for human use , either to use their flesh as edible escargot , or more recently , to obtain snail slime for use in cosmetics , or snail eggs for human consumption as a type of caviar . Perhaps the best known edible land snail species in the Western world is Helix pomatia ( also known as Roman snail or Burgundy snail ) . This snail is located throughout much of Europe . Helix aspersa , being next most known , were found originally in the Mediterranean region . Helix aspera are now common in many parts of North America , Central America , and Australasia .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Heliciculture",
"rank": 38,
"score": 79420
},
{
"content": "Title: Minto Flats South Fire Content: The Minto Flats South Fire was a large lightning-caused wildfire in Interior Alaska south of Fairbanks that ignited in late June 2009 . It was by far the largest in what was termed the `` Railbelt complex '' of fires , so named because they were all near the main route of the Alaska Railroad . By July 16 it had burned more than 156469 acre . Alaska was experiencing an unusually hot and dry start to the summer season , which in turn led to a very active wildfire season . By the time the Minto Flats fire had become the largest fire in Alaska , over seventy other blazes were active throughout the state , stretching resources to their limits . The main body of the fire was deemed too large to actually try to extinguish , and firefighting efforts were focused from the beginning on protecting lives and property . In mid July it had grown to over 20000 acres , and was rapidly expanding along its souther edge ; smokejumpers were deployed to protect cabins along the Teklanika River near Nenana . There is also an oil drilling rig in this area , and firefighters cleared the area surrounding it of fuel and instructed the drilling crew on the use of firefighting equipment . By the end of July , over 350 persons were involved in the firefighting effort , and continued hot , dry weather had helped the fire grow to over 300000 acres . The fire was not declared under control until late August .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Minto_Flats_South_Fire",
"rank": 39,
"score": 79280
},
{
"content": "Title: Agricultural land Content: Agricultural land is typically land devoted to agriculture , the systematic and controlled use of other forms of lifeparticularly the rearing of livestock and production of cropsto produce food for humans . It is thus generally synonymous with farmland or cropland . The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and others following its definitions , however , also use agricultural land or as a term of art , where it means the collection of : `` arable land '' ( a.k.a. cropland ) : here redefined to refer to land producing crops requiring annual replanting or fallowland or pasture used for such crops within any five-year period `` permanent cropland '' : land producing crops which do not require annual replanting permanent pastures : natural or artificial grasslands and shrublands able to be used for grazing livestock This sense of `` agricultural land '' thus includes a great deal of land not devoted to agricultural use . The land actually under annually-replanted crops in any given year is instead said to constitute or `` Permanent cropland '' includes forested plantations used to harvest coffee , rubber , or fruit but not tree farms or proper forests used for wood or timber . Land able to be used for farming is called . Farmland , meanwhile , is used variously in reference to all agricultural land , to all cultivable land , or just to the newly restricted sense of `` arable land '' . Depending upon its use of artificial irrigation , the FAO 's `` agricultural land '' may be divided into irrigated and non-irrigated land . In the context of zoning , agricultural land or agriculturally-zoned land refers to plots that are permitted to be used for agricultural activities , without regard to its present use or even suitability . In some areas , agricultural land is protected so that it can be farmed without any threat of development . The Agricultural Land Reserve in British Columbia in Canada , for instance , requires approval from its Agricultural Land Commission before its lands can be removed or subdivided .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Agricultural_land",
"rank": 40,
"score": 78770
},
{
"content": "Title: Inventoried roadless area Content: Inventoried Roadless Areas are a group of United States Forest Service lands that have been identified by government reviews as lands without existing roads that could be suitable for roadless area conservation as wilderness or other non-standard protections . The Inventoried Roadless areas include approximately 60000000 acre of land in 40 states and Puerto Rico . Most of these lands are in the western portion of the lower 48 states and Alaska . Idaho alone contains over 9 e6acre of inventoried roadless areas . The inventoried roadless areas range from large unroaded areas with wilderness characteristics to small tracts of land that are immediately adjacent to wilderness areas , parks and other protected lands .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Inventoried_roadless_area",
"rank": 41,
"score": 78691
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation in Thailand Content: Between 1945 and 1975 forest cover in Thailand declined from 61 percent to 34 percent of the country 's land area . Over the succeeding 11 years , Thailand lost close to 28 percent of all of its remaining forests . This means that the country lost 3.1 percent of its forest cover each year over that period . An estimate by the World Wildlife Fund concluded that between 1973 and 2009 , Thailand 's forests declined by 43 percent . The Thai Highlands in northern Thailand , the most heavily forested region of the country , were not subject to central government control and settlement until the second half of the 19th century when British timber firms , notably the Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation and the Borneo Company Limited , entered the teak trade in the late-1880s and early-1890s . The Royal Forest Department , created in 1896 and headed by a British forester until 1925 , sought to conserve the forests against the worst business practices of British , Thai , and Chinese timber firms who worked in the region . During the 20th century , deforestation in Thailand was driven primarily by agricultural expansion , although teak deforestation happened as a direct result of timber-cutting . Much of Thailand 's recent economic improvement can be attributed to increased agricultural production for export . The country was able to increase production by clearing much of their forest and converting it to cropland . The Thai government is beginning to emphasize forest restoration .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Deforestation_in_Thailand",
"rank": 42,
"score": 78629
},
{
"content": "Title: University of Alaska Fairbanks Content: The University of Alaska Fairbanks ( also referred to as UAF or Alaska ) is a public research university in Fairbanks , Alaska , United States . It is a flagship campus of the University of Alaska System . UAF is a land-grant , sea-grant , and space-grant institution , and it also participates in the sun-grant program through Oregon State University . UAF was established in 1917 and opened for classes in 1922 . UAF was originally named Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines and later as the University of Alaska from 1925 to 1975 . UAF is home to seven major research units : the Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station ; the Geophysical Institute , which operates the Poker Flat Research Range ; the International Arctic Research Center ; the Arctic Region Supercomputing Center ; the Institute of Arctic Biology ; the Institute of Marine Science ; and the Institute of Northern Engineering . Located just 200 miles ( 320 km ) south of the Arctic Circle , the Fairbanks campus ' unique location is situated favorably for arctic and northern research . The campus ' several lines of research are renowned worldwide , most notably arctic biology , arctic engineering , geophysics , supercomputing and Native Studies . The University of Alaska Museum of the North is also on the Fairbanks campus . In addition to the Fairbanks campus , UAF encompasses seven rural and urban campuses : Bristol Bay Campus in Dillingham ; Chukchi Campus in Kotzebue ; Interior-Aleutians Campus , which covers both the Aleutian Islands and the Interior ; Kuskokwim Campus in Bethel ; Northwest Campus in Nome ; and the UAF Community and Technical College in Fairbanks , UAF 's community college arm . Fairbanks is also the home of the eLearning and Distance Education , an independent learning and distance delivery program . In fall 2013 , UAF enrolled 10,214 students . Of those students , 59.3 percent were female and 40.7 percent were male ; 88 percent were undergraduates , and 12 percent were graduate students . As of May 2013 , 1,288 students had graduated during the immediately preceding summer , fall and spring semesters .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "University_of_Alaska_Fairbanks",
"rank": 43,
"score": 78513
},
{
"content": "Title: Economy of Alaska Content: The 2007 gross state product was $ 44.9 billion , 45th in the nation . Its per capita personal income for 2007 was $ 40,042 , ranking 15th in the nation . The state 's economy has been described by University of Alaska Anchorage economist Scott Goldsmith as a `` three-legged stool '' - with one leg being the petroleum and gas industry , the second leg being the federal government and the third leg being all other industries and services . Between 2004 and 2006 , the federal government was responsible for 135,000 Alaska jobs , the petroleum sector provided 110,000 jobs and all other industries and services combined for 122,000 jobs . Alaska 's main export product after oil and natural gas is seafood , primarily salmon , cod , Pollock and crab . Agriculture represents only a fraction of the Alaskan economy . Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock , dairy products , vegetables , and livestock . Manufacturing is limited , with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere . Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction , shipping , and transportation . Military bases are a significant component of the economy in both Fairbanks and Anchorage . Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy , allowing the state to keep taxes low . Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum , natural gas , coal , gold , precious metals , zinc and other mining , seafood processing , timber and wood products . There is also a growing service and tourism sector . Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Economy_of_Alaska",
"rank": 44,
"score": 78447
},
{
"content": "Title: Glacier Bay Basin Content: Glacier Bay Basin in southeastern Alaska , in the United States , encompasses the Glacier Bay and surrounding mountains and glaciers , which was first proclaimed a U.S. National Monument on February 25 , 1925 , and which was later , on December 2 , 1980 , enlarged and designated as the Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act , covering an area of 3,283,000 acres ( 1,329,000 ha ) . In 1986 , UNESCO declared an area of 57,000 acres ( 23,000 ha ) within a World Biosphere Reserve . This is the largest UNESCO protected biosphere in the world . In 1992 , UNESCO included this area as a part of a World Heritage site , extending over an area of 24,300,000-acre ( 98,000 km2 ) which also included the Wrangell-St . Elias National Park , Kluane National Park ( Canada ) and Tatshenshini-Alsek Park ( Canada ) . Part of the National Park is also designated a Wilderness area covering 2,658,000 acres ( 1,076,000 ha ) . Current glaciers cover an area 1,375 square miles ( 3,560 km2 ) and accounts for 27 % of the Park area . Up until the early 1700s the area was a large single glacier of solid ice . It has since retreated and evolved into the largest protected water area park in the world . Glacier Bay , on the Gulf of Alaska , was known as the Grand Pacific Glacier , about 4,000 feet ( 1,200 m ) thick and around 20 miles ( 32 km ) in width . Over the last 200 years the glaciers have retreated , exposing 65 miles ( 105 km ) of ocean , and in this process left 20 separate other glaciers in its trail . In 1890 , the name `` Glacier Bay '' as such was given to the bay by Captain Lester A. Beardslee of the U.S. Navy . It was first proclaimed a U.S. National Monument on February 25 , 1925 , by President Calvin Coolidge . The Glacier Bay has many branches , inlets , lagoons , islands , and channels that holds prospects for scientific exploration and visual treat . Thus , the area is popular as a cruise ship destination during summer season . However , there are restrictions imposed by the National Park Service on the numbers of vessels that can operate in a day to 2 cruise ships , 3 tour boats , 6 charter vessels , and 25 private vessels . According to National Park Service statistics for calendar year 2009 , 444,653 people visited Glacier Bay , with 422,919 of those being cruise ship passengers .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Glacier_Bay_Basin",
"rank": 45,
"score": 78396
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska's at-large congressional district Content: Alaska 's at-large Congressional District is the sole congressional district for the state of Alaska . Based on area , it is the largest congressional district in the nation and is one of the largest electoral districts in the world . The district has been represented by Republican Don Young since March 6 , 1973 .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska's_at-large_congressional_district",
"rank": 46,
"score": 78358
},
{
"content": "Title: Meat Atlas Content: Meat Atlas ( Der Fleischatlas ) is an annual report , published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe , on the methods and impact of industrial animal agriculture . Consisting of 27 short essays by different authors , the report aims to inform consumers about the impact of meat consumption on global poverty , climate change , animal welfare , biodiversity , and the migration of workers . Meat Atlas was first published in German in 2013 , and in German and English in 2014 , both under a Creative Commons license ( CC BY-SA 3.0 ) . The executive editors are Christine Chemnitz of the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Stanka Becheva of Friends of the Earth Europe .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Meat_Atlas",
"rank": 47,
"score": 78129
},
{
"content": "Title: List of census-designated places in Alaska Content: Alaska is a state situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent . According to the 2010 United States Census , Alaska is the 3rd least populous state with 736,732 inhabitants but is the largest by land area spanning 665,384.04 sqmi of land . Alaska has 204 census-designated places and six former census-designated places . Changes for 2010 include the addition of twelve new census-designated places : Badger , Chena Ridge , Eureka Roadhouse , Farmers Loop , Goldstream , Loring , Mertarvik , Nabesna , Point Possession , South Van Horn , Steele Creek , and Whitestone . Six former census-designated places counted for the 2000 census were included in 2010 : Alpine , Copperville ( merged into Tazlina CDP ) , Cube Cove , Miller Landing ( annexed to Homer city ) , Meyers Chuck and Thoms Place ( both incorporated into Wrangell city and borough ) . Two former CDPs became cities : Adak ( incorporated in 2001 ) and Gustavus ( incorporated in 2004 ) . Skagway ( disincorporated in 2007 ) is now a census-designated places . Finally , one census-designated place has a new name : Y is now Susitna North .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "List_of_census-designated_places_in_Alaska",
"rank": 48,
"score": 78026
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind power in Alaska Content: Wind power in Alaska has the potential to provide all of the electricity used in the U.S. state of Alaska . From its installation , in July 2009 through October 2012 , the Pillar Mountain Wind 4.5 MW wind farm has saved the use of nearly 3,000,000 gallons of diesel fuel in Kodiak , Alaska .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Wind_power_in_Alaska",
"rank": 49,
"score": 77885
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ( ANWR or Arctic Refuge ) is a national wildlife refuge in northeastern Alaska , United States . It consists of 19286722 acre in the Alaska North Slope region . It is the largest National Wildlife Refuge in the country , slightly larger than the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge . The refuge is administered from offices in Fairbanks . Just across the border in Yukon , Canada , are two Canadian National Parks , Ivvavik and Vuntut .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Arctic_National_Wildlife_Refuge",
"rank": 50,
"score": 77834
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainability and environmental management Content: At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , according to sustainability principles . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles . Management of the Earth 's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Sustainability_and_environmental_management",
"rank": 51,
"score": 77779
},
{
"content": "Title: Major Land Resource Areas Content: In United States conservation policy , Major Land Resource Areas ( MLRA ) are geographically associated land resource units delineated by the Natural Resources Conservation Service and characterized by a particular pattern that combines soils , water , climate , vegetation , land use , and type of farming . There are 204 MLRAs in the United States , ranging in size from less than 500000 acres to more than 60 e6acre .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Major_Land_Resource_Areas",
"rank": 52,
"score": 77635
},
{
"content": "Title: Unga Island Content: Unga Island ( Uĝnaasaqax̂ in Aleut ) is the largest of the Shumagin Islands off the Alaska Peninsula in southwestern Alaska , United States . The island has a land area of 170.73 sq mi ( 442.188 km ² ) , making it the 35th largest island in the United States . As of the 2000 census , it had a permanent population of one . Unga Island was formerly named Grekodelarovskoe ( Greek Delarov ) for Evstratii Ivanovich Delarov who explored the area in the late 18th century on behalf of the Russian-American Company .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Unga_Island",
"rank": 53,
"score": 77125
},
{
"content": "Title: Prudhoe Bay Oil Field Content: Prudhoe Bay Oil Field is a large oil field on Alaska 's North Slope . It is the largest oil field in both the United States and in North America , covering 213543 acre and originally containing approximately 25 Goilbbl of oil . The amount of recoverable oil in the field is more than double that of the next largest field in the United States , the East Texas oil field . The field is operated by BP ; partners are ExxonMobil and ConocoPhillips Alaska .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Prudhoe_Bay_Oil_Field",
"rank": 54,
"score": 77035
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Content: The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act ( ANCSA ) was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 18 , 1971 , constituting at the time the largest land claims settlement in United States history . ANCSA was intended to resolve long-standing issues surrounding aboriginal land claims in Alaska , as well as to stimulate economic development throughout Alaska . The settlement established Alaska Native claims to the land by transferring titles to twelve Alaska Native regional corporations and over 200 local village corporations . A thirteenth regional corporation was later created for Alaska Natives who no longer resided in Alaska . The act is codified as 43 U.S.C. 1601 et seq. .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act",
"rank": 55,
"score": 77024
},
{
"content": "Title: Southeast Alaska Conservation Council Content: The Southeast Alaska Conservation Council ( SEACC ) is a non-profit organization that focusses on protecting the lands and waters of Southeast Alaska . They promote conservation and advocate for sustainable natural resource management . SEACC is located in Alaska 's capital : Juneau . The environmental organization focuses specifically on concerns in the Southeast region of Alaska : including the Panhandle , the Tongass National Forest and the Inside Passage .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Southeast_Alaska_Conservation_Council",
"rank": 56,
"score": 77017
},
{
"content": "Title: Selawik National Wildlife Refuge Content: Selawik National Wildlife Refuge in northwest Alaska in the Waring Mountains was officially established in 1980 with the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act ( ANILCA ) . The 3,400 square mile ( 8,700 km ² ) refuge is situated on the Arctic Circle to the east of Kotzebue Sound . It is bounded on the north by the Waring Mountains and Kobuk Valley National Park ; and to the south by the Selawik Hills and the Purcell Mountains . Refuge lands extend eastward toward the headwaters of the Selawik River and the Continental Divide . The refuge is administered from offices in Kotzebue . Some of the land includes alpine tundra , arctic tundra , taiga , lake and wetland complexes , large river deltas , open grass and sedge meadows , and previously glaciated mountains and river valleys . Rolling , vegetated sand dunes were formed by the last retreat of the glaciers . These dunes are the remnant of a much larger system that once included the Great Kobuk Sand Dunes to the north . This area is a transition zone where the northernmost boreal forests give way to open Arctic tundra . The Selawik and Kobuk River deltas , located on the eastern shores of Selawik Lake and Hotham Inlet ( Kobuk Lake ) , provide habitat for migratory bird species . The complex array of freshwater and brackish lakes , riparian areas , and wet meadows , provide habitat and large , undisturbed , tracts for a variety of wildlife species . The approximately 21,000 lakes that occur on refuge lowlands create a large Arctic tundra lake complex .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Selawik_National_Wildlife_Refuge",
"rank": 57,
"score": 77011
},
{
"content": "Title: Izembek Wilderness Content: Izembek Wilderness is a 307982 acre wilderness area in a coastal region of the U.S. state of Alaska panhandle , facing Bristol Bay . Located within the 315000 acre Izembek National Wildlife Refuge , all of the land has been designated Wilderness , with the exception of that along a gravel road system and several private holdings . The area was designated wilderness in 1980 with the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Izembek_Wilderness",
"rank": 58,
"score": 76874
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska Botanical Garden Content: The Alaska Botanical Garden is a 110-acre ( 44.5-ha ) botanical garden located at 4601 Campbell Airstrip Road , Anchorage , Alaska , United States . It is an independent non-profit organization which opened in 1993 , is open year-round , and charges admission to support its mission . The mission of the Garden it to enhance the beauty and value of plant material through education , preservation , recreation and research . The Garden 's land consists mainly of spruce and birch forest . It features 8 developed demonstration gardens and a special location for Junior Master Gardeners . 80 acres of the 110 acre site is fenced to protect these gardens from moose . The gardens include : Over 1,100 species of perennials in the Upper and Lower Perennial Gardens ( of which some 150 are native to Alaska ) An herb garden A rock garden with over 350 types of alpine plants A wildflower walk The 1.1-mile ( 1.8-km ) Lowenfels Family Nature Trail",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska_Botanical_Garden",
"rank": 59,
"score": 76763
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural gas in Alaska Content: The State of Alaska is both a producer and consumer of natural gas . In 2006 , Alaska consumed 180.4 Bcf of natural gas . Alaskan gas wells are located in two regions . The largest source is the North Slope area around Prudhoe Bay where gas was discovered along with oil in 1968 . In 1974 the State of Alaska 's Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys estimated that the field held 26 Tcuft of natural gas . Because there is no way to transport the Prudhoe Bay gas to markets , as gas comes out of the wells , it is separated from the oil stream and reinjected into the ground to maintain the oil reservoir pressures . There are several proposals to transport the Prudhoe Bay gas . See , Alaska Gas Pipeline . The second source is located on the Kenai Peninsula on the South coast of Alaska . There are probable gas reserves of 1,726.4 Bcf in this area . Most of this gas is exported to Japan through a liquefied natural gas terminal located on the Cook Inlet . The Cook Inlet basin contains large oil and gas deposits including several offshore fields . As of 2005 there were 16 platforms in Cook Inlet , the oldest of which is the XTO A platform first installed by Shell in 1964 , and newest of which is the Kitchen Lights Unit platform installed by Crowley and supported by the German engineering and project management companies Heavylift@Sea,Overdick and Projektbox installed in 2015 . Most of the platforms are operated by Union Oil which was acquired by Chevron in 2005 . There are also numerous oil and gas pipelines running around and under the Cook Inlet . The main destinations of the gas pipelines are to Kenai where the gas is primarily used to fuel commercial fertilizer production and a liquified natural gas ( LNG ) plant and to Anchorage where the gas is consumed largely for domestic uses . ConocoPhillips and Marathon operate the LNG terminal under a series of two-year-long licenses issued by the U.S. Department of Energy under Section 3 of the Natural Gas Act . When these companies applied for another two-year extension of the license , various Alaskan entities , including the local fertizer plant opposed the application on the grounds that there was not sufficient gas to meet local requirements as well as the proposed exports . The Agrium fertilizer plant claimed it closed because it could not obtain a gas supply . On June 3 , 2008 , the Department of Energy granted the extension having found that there were sufficient supplies for Alaska 's needs . On 22 July 2014 , the Alaska LNG project submitted an application to export LNG to the US Department of Energy ( DOE ) . ExxonMobil has confirmed that the Alaska LNG project will seek to export up to 20 million tpa of LNG . The project will export LNG for a period of 30 years to countries that have existing free trade agreements ( FTA ) with the US , as well as to non-FTA countries . The project is anticipated to create up to 15,000 jobs during construction and approximately 1000 jobs for operation of the project . ExxonMobil has confirmed that the Alaska LNG project will seek to export up to 20 million tpa of LNG . The LNG project will export LNG for a period of 30 years to countries that have existing free trade agreements ( FTA ) with the US , as well as to non-FTA countries . The Alaska LNG project participants are the Alaska Gasline Development Corp. ( AGDC ) and affiliates of TransCanada , BP , ConocoPhillips , and ExxonMobil . The LNG project is now in the pre-front-end engineering and design phase , which is expected to be completed in 2016 .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Natural_gas_in_Alaska",
"rank": 60,
"score": 76527
},
{
"content": "Title: List of turkey meat producing companies in the United States Content: The United States is the world largest exporter of turkey and related products . Nearly 361,884 metric tons ( MT ) of turkey meat has been exported in 2012 . In comparison with 2011 , the industry had experienced 14 percent growth . In 2013 the turkey products were valued at nearly $ 678.9 million . 13 percent increase from 2012 . The dominant market for U.S. turkey meat is Mexico . It has been purchasing meat valued at nearly $ 372.6 million and accounting for 55 percent of turkey exports . The second largest market for U.S. turkey , purchasing more than $ 70.5 million of meat , is China . Canada and Hong Kong were other significant markets for U.S. turkey meat . ( FAS 2012 ) The United States imports a notably small percent of turkey meat ( $ 31.8 million in 2012 ) , mostly from Chile and Canada . ( FAS 2012 ) There is a list of turkey meat producing companies in the United States .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "List_of_turkey_meat_producing_companies_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 61,
"score": 76397
},
{
"content": "Title: List of the largest counties in the United States by area Content: This is a list of the 100 largest counties in the United States by area . The list is based upon the total area of a county , both land and water surface , reported by the United States Census Bureau during the 2000 Census . Alaska is not divided into counties . A different ranking becomes apparent when comparing county areas by land area alone as opposed to total area . Some counties , such as Keweenaw and Alger Counties in Michigan , include significant amounts of water in their total area and would not appear on a list that considered land area alone . This list also includes the four counties that would be included when water area is not included .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "List_of_the_largest_counties_in_the_United_States_by_area",
"rank": 62,
"score": 76311
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea otter conservation Content: Modern efforts in sea otter conservation began in the early 19th century , when the sea otter was nearly extinct due to large-scale commercial hunting . The sea otter was once abundant in a wide arc across the North Pacific ocean , from northern Japan to Alaska to Mexico . By 1911 , hunting for the animal 's luxurious fur had reduced the sea otter population to fewer than 2000 individuals in the most remote and inaccessible parts of its range . During the 20th century , sea otter populations recovered from remnant populations in the far east of Russia , western Alaska , and California . Beginning in the 1960s , efforts to translocate sea otters to previously populated areas were also successful in restoring sea otters to other parts of the west coast of North America . Populations in some areas are now thriving , and the recovery of the sea otter is considered one of the greatest successes in marine conservation . In two important parts of its range , however , sea otter populations have recently declined or have plateaued at depressed levels . In the Aleutian Islands , a massive and unexpected disappearance of sea otters has occurred in recent decades . The cause of the decline is not known , although the observed pattern of disappearances is consistent with a rise in orca predation . Sea otters give live birth . In the 1990s , California 's sea otter population stopped growing for reasons that are probably different from the difficulties facing Alaska 's otters . A high prevalence of infectious disease in juveniles and adults has been found to cause many sea otter deaths , however it is not known why California sea otters would be more vulnerable to disease than populations elsewhere . Other threats to sea otters are well-known . In particular , sea otters are highly vulnerable to oil spills , and a major spill can rapidly kill thousands of the animals . The IUCN lists the sea otter as an endangered species .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Sea_otter_conservation",
"rank": 63,
"score": 76208
},
{
"content": "Title: List of cities in Alaska Content: Alaska is a state of the United States situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent . According to the 2010 United States Census , Alaska is the 4th least populous state with 710,231 inhabitants but is the largest by land area spanning 570640.95 sqmi . , Alaska has 148 incorporated cities : four unified home rule municipalities , which are considered both boroughs and cities , ten home rule cities , nineteen first class cities and 115 second class cities . As reflected in the 2010 Census , Alaska 's incorporated cities cover only of the territory 's land mass but are home to of its population . The majority of the incorporated land mass consists of the four unified municipalities , each over 1700 sqmi in size . Only two other cities have an incorporated area exceeding 100 sqmi : Unalaska , which includes the fishing port of Dutch Harbor , and Valdez , which includes the terminus of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System . Incorporated cities in Alaska are categorized as either `` general law '' ( subdivided into `` first class '' and `` second class '' ) or `` home rule '' . Home rule cities occur when a community establishes a commission to draft a charter , which is then ratified by voters at an election . Home rule cities have all legislative powers not prohibited by law or charter . The powers and functions of general law cities are defined by Alaska state laws . Title 29 of the Alaska Statutes , which covers municipal government , requires that a community must have at least 400 permanent residents to incorporate as a home rule or first class city . This status does not diminish if a city 's population declines ; one home rule city ( Nenana ) and four first class cities ( Hydaburg , Pelican , Seldovia and Tanana ) reported populations falling below that threshold in the 2010 Census .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "List_of_cities_in_Alaska",
"rank": 64,
"score": 76083
},
{
"content": "Title: Southeast Alaska Content: Southeast Alaska , sometimes referred to as the Alaska Panhandle , is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska , which lies west from the northern half of the Canadian province , British Columbia . The majority of Southeast Alaska 's area is part of the Tongass National Forest , the United States ' largest national forest . In many places , the international border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains ( see Alaska boundary dispute ) . The region is noted for its scenery and mild rainy climate .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 65,
"score": 75965
},
{
"content": "Title: Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve Content: Wrangell -- St. Elias National Park and Preserve is a United States national park and national preserve managed by the National Park Service in south central Alaska . The park and preserve was established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . This protected area is included in an International Biosphere Reserve and is part of the Kluane/Wrangell -- St. Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek UNESCO World Heritage Site . The park and preserve form the largest area managed by the National Park Service in the United States by area with a total of 13175799 acre , an expanse that could encapsulate a total of six Yellowstone National Parks . The park includes a large portion of the Saint Elias Mountains , which include most of the highest peaks in the United States and Canada , yet are within 10 mi of tidewater , one of the highest reliefs in the world . Wrangell -- St. Elias borders on Canada 's Kluane National Park and Reserve to the east and approaches the U.S. Glacier Bay National Park to the south . The chief distinction between park and preserve lands is that sport hunting is prohibited in the park and permitted in the preserve . In addition , 9078675 acre of the park are designated as the largest single wilderness in the United States . Wrangell -- St. Elias National Monument was initially designated on December 1 , 1978 , by President Jimmy Carter using the Antiquities Act , pending final legislation to resolve the allotment of public lands in Alaska . Establishment as a national park and preserve followed the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 . The park , which is bigger than the country Switzerland , has long , extremely cold winters and a short summer season . It supports a variety of large mammals in an environment defined by relative land elevation . Plate tectonics are responsible for the uplift of the mountain ranges that cross the park . The park 's extreme high point is Mount St. Elias at 18008 ft , the second tallest mountain in both the United States and Canada . The park has been shaped by the competing forces of volcanism and glaciation . Mount Wrangell is an active volcano , one of several volcanoes in the western Wrangell Mountains . In the St. Elias Range Mount Churchill has erupted explosively within the past 2,000 years . The park 's glacial features include Malaspina Glacier , the largest piedmont glacier in North America , Hubbard Glacier , the longest tidewater glacier in Alaska , and Nabesna Glacier , the world 's longest valley glacier . The Bagley Icefield covers much of the park 's interior , which includes 60 % of the permanently ice-covered terrain in Alaska . At the center of the park , the boomtown of Kennecott exploited one of the world 's richest deposits of copper from 1903 to 1938 , exposed by and in part incorporated into Kennicott Glacier . The mine buildings and mills , now abandoned , compose a National Historic Landmark district .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Wrangell–St._Elias_National_Park_and_Preserve",
"rank": 66,
"score": 75947
},
{
"content": "Title: Bureau of Land Management Content: The Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) is an agency within the United States Department of the Interior that administers more than 247.3 e6acre of public lands in the United States which constitutes one-eighth of the landmass of the country . President Harry S. Truman created the BLM in 1946 by combining two existing agencies : the General Land Office and the Grazing Service . The agency manages the federal government 's nearly 700 e6acre of subsurface mineral estate located beneath federal , state and private lands severed from their surface rights by the Homestead Act of 1862 . Most BLM public lands are located in these 12 western states : Alaska , Arizona , California , Colorado , Idaho , Montana , Nevada , New Mexico , Oregon , Utah , Washington and Wyoming . The mission of the BLM is `` to sustain the health , diversity , and productivity of the public lands for the use and enjoyment of present and future generations . '' Originally BLM holdings were described as `` land nobody wanted '' because homesteaders had passed them by . All the same , ranchers hold nearly 18,000 permits and leases for livestock grazing on 155 e6acre of BLM public lands . The agency manages 221 wilderness areas , 23 national monuments and some 636 other protected areas as part of the National Landscape Conservation System totaling about 30 e6acre . There are more than 63,000 oil and gas wells on BLM public lands . Total energy leases generated approximately $ 5.4 billion in 2013 , an amount divided among the Treasury , the states , and Native American groups .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Bureau_of_Land_Management",
"rank": 67,
"score": 75935
},
{
"content": "Title: Kenai Fjords National Park Content: Kenai Fjords National Park is a United States National Park established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . The park covers an area of 669,984 acre on the Kenai Peninsula in southcentral Alaska , near the town of Seward . The park contains the Harding Icefield , one of the largest ice fields in the United States . The park is named for the numerous fjords carved by glaciers moving down the mountains from the ice field . The field is the source of at least 38 glaciers , the largest of which is Bear Glacier . The park lies just to the west of Seward , a popular port for cruise ships . Exit Glacier is reachable by road and is a popular tour destination . The remainder of the park is primarily accessible by boat . The fjords are glacial valleys that have been submerged below sea level by a combination of rising sea levels and land subsidence . Kenai Fjords National Monument was initially designated by President Jimmy Carter on December 1 , 1978 , using the Antiquities Act , pending final legislation to resolve the allotment of public lands in Alaska . Establishment as a national park followed the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 . The park protects the icefield , a narrow fringe of forested land between the mountains and the sea , and the deeply indented coastline . The park is home to a variety of terrestrial and marine mammals , including black bears , whales ( humpback and killer whales ) , seals and moose .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Kenai_Fjords_National_Park",
"rank": 68,
"score": 75726
},
{
"content": "Title: Esther Island (Alaska) Content: Esther Island is an island in the northwestern part of Prince William Sound of the Gulf of Alaska in the state of Alaska , United States . It has a land area of 127.336 km ² ( 49.165 sq mi ) and a resident population of 31 persons as of the 2000 census . The island is the site of the South Esther Island State Marine Park , one of the Alaska State Parks system . The island includes no permanent settlements other than the Wally Noerenberg Hatchery , one of the world 's largest Salmon hatcheries , owned and operated by the Prince William Sound Aquaculture Corporation ( PWSAC ) . The hatchery raises three different species of salmon Pink salmon , Chum salmon , and Coho salmon . The hatchery is located within the State Marine Park . The island is only accessible by floatplane or boat .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Esther_Island_(Alaska)",
"rank": 69,
"score": 75472
},
{
"content": "Title: Commercial fishing in Alaska Content: Commercial fishing is a major industry in Alaska , and has been for hundreds of years . Alaska Natives have been harvesting salmon and many other types of fish since the early 17th century . Russians came to Alaska to harvest its abundance of sealife , as well as Japanese and other Asian cultures .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Commercial_fishing_in_Alaska",
"rank": 70,
"score": 75121
},
{
"content": "Title: Geoduck aquaculture Content: Geoduck aquaculture or geoduck farming is the practice of cultivating geoducks ( specifically the Pacific geoduck , Panopea generosa ) for human consumption . The geoduck is a large edible saltwater clam , a marine bivalve mollusk , that is native to the Pacific Northwest . Juvenile geoducks are planted or seeded on the ocean floor or substrate within the soft intertidal and subtidal zones , then harvested five to seven years later when they have reached marketable size ( about 1 kg or 2.2 lbs ) . They are native to the Pacific region and are found from Baja California , through the Pacific Northwest and Southern Alaska . Most geoducks are harvested from the wild , but because of state government-instituted limits on the amount that can be harvested , the need to grow geoducks in farms to meet an increasing demand has led to the growth of the geoduck aquaculture industry , particularly in Puget Sound , Washington . Geoduck meat is a prized delicacy in Asian cuisine ; the majority of exports are sent to China ( Shanghai , Shenzhen , Guangzhou , Beijing , are the main Chinese markets ) , Hong Kong and Japan .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Geoduck_aquaculture",
"rank": 71,
"score": 75018
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use Content: Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as arable fields , pastures , and managed woods . It also has been defined as `` the total of arrangements , activities , and inputs that people undertake in a certain land cover type . ''",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Land_use",
"rank": 72,
"score": 74944
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleontology in Alaska Content: Paleontology in Alaska refers to paleontological research occurring within or conducted by people from the U.S. state of Alaska . During the Late Precambrian , Alaska was covered by a shallow sea that was home to stromatolite-forming bacteria . Alaska remained submerged into the Paleozoic era and the sea came to be home to creatures including ammonites , brachiopods , and reef-forming corals . An island chain formed in the eastern part of the state . Alaska remained covered in seawater during the Triassic and Jurassic . Local wildlife included ammonites , belemnites , bony fish and ichthyosaurs . Alaska was a more terrestrial environment during the Cretaceous , with a rich flora and dinosaur fauna . During the early Cenozoic , Alaska had a subtropical environment . The local seas continued to drop until a land bridge connected the state with Asia . Early humans crossed this bridge and remains of contemporary local wildlife such as woolly mammoths often show signs of having been butchered . More recent Native Americans interpreted local fossils through a mythological lens . The local fossils had attracted the attention of formally trained scientists by the 1830s . Major local finds include the Kikak-Tegoseak Pachyrhinosaurus bonebed . The Pleistocene-aged wooly mammoth , Mammuthus primigenius is the Alaska state fossil .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Paleontology_in_Alaska",
"rank": 73,
"score": 74903
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use in China Content: China is experiencing massive land use changes and impacts to the environment due to an unprecedented period of economic growth , which has catapulted it from one of the world 's poorest countries 30 years ago to the world 's second largest economy today . Based on trends in economic development , population growth , and land use , China 's natural landscape will experience significant and increasing pressures well into the future .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Land_use_in_China",
"rank": 74,
"score": 74519
},
{
"content": "Title: South Prince of Wales Wilderness Content: The South Prince of Wales Wilderness is a wilderness area on Prince of Wales Island , Alaska , protecting 90,968 acres of undeveloped Pacific temperate rainforest , much of which is old-growth . Managed by the United States Forest Service as part of the Tongass National Forest , the wilderness area was designated in a provision of the 1980 Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . This wilderness contains 75 or more islands that range from a few to over 500 acres in size . The South Prince of Wales Wilderness sees tidal bores , tidal surges , fierce winds , and heavy storms regularly .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "South_Prince_of_Wales_Wilderness",
"rank": 75,
"score": 74512
},
{
"content": "Title: Exxon Valdez oil spill Content: The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince William Sound , Alaska , March 24 , 1989 , when Exxon Valdez , an oil tanker owned by Exxon Shipping Company , bound for Long Beach , California , struck Prince William Sound 's Bligh Reef at 12:04 am local time and spilled 10.8 e6USgal of crude oil over the next few days . It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters . The Valdez spill is the second largest in US waters , after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill , in terms of volume released . Prince William Sound 's remote location , accessible only by helicopter , plane , or boat , made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing plans for response . The region is a habitat for salmon , sea otters , seals and seabirds . The oil , originally extracted at the Prudhoe Bay oil field , eventually covered 1300 mi of coastline , and 11000 sqmi of ocean . According to official reports , the ship was carrying approximately 54 e6USgal of oil , of which about 10.8 e6USgal were spilled into the Prince William Sound . A figure of 11 e6USgal was a commonly accepted estimate of the spill 's volume and has been used by the State of Alaska 's Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and environmental groups such as Greenpeace and the Sierra Club .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill",
"rank": 76,
"score": 74476
},
{
"content": "Title: National Register of Big Trees Content: The National Register of Big Trees is a list of the largest recorded living specimens of each tree variety found in the continental United States . A tree on this list is called a National Champion Tree . This list has been maintained since 1940 by American Forests , a nonprofit conservation organization . To be eligible , a species must be recognized as native or naturalized in the continental United States , including Alaska but not Hawaii , as documented in Elbert L. Little Jr. 's Checklist of United States Trees ( Native and Naturalized ) , published in 1979 as Agricultural Handbook 541 by the United States Department of Agriculture . At present 747 native and 79 naturalized trees are eligible , for a total of 826 eligible species and varieties . American Forests uses the following formula to calculate a point score for each tree so that they may be compared to others : Trunk Circumference ( in inches ) + Height ( in feet ) + 1/4 Average Crown Spread ( in feet ) = Total Points The current list of National Champion Trees is available online . In addition to the national list , several states , counties , and cities maintain their own list of local Champion Trees . Many are on public ground and can be visited without obtaining prior permission . The public may nominate trees as well . , the largest National Champion Tree is a giant sequoia in California . Known as the General Sherman tree , it is some 83.8 m ( 274.9 feet ) tall , 31.1 m ( 85.3 feet ) in circumference and 32.5 m ( 106.5 feet ) in average crown spread .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "National_Register_of_Big_Trees",
"rank": 77,
"score": 74394
},
{
"content": "Title: Skiland Content: Ski Land is a lift-served ski and snowboard area at Cleary Summit on the Steese Highway , 20 miles north of Fairbanks , Alaska . The area has one chairlift , North America 's most-northern ; it is 3300 feet long and serves 1057 feet of vertical rise . Road access and the lodge are on a ridge at an elevation of 2470 feet , overlooking a wooded , north-facing bowl . The location is one the best viewing spots in the winter for the northern lights , and looks over the Poker Flat research station and rocket range . The ski season typically runs from November into late April , on weekends only . Tree and glade skiing opportunities abound . On a least one occasion slopes were re-opened in May after a heavy snowfall . The slopes are patrolled by the National Ski Patrol . From 1962 - 1990 a pair of tow ropes ( upper and lower ) served 900 vertical feet total , and were generally operated by volunteers . From 1990-2014 the Birdsall family leased the resort , installing a double chairlift originally installed at the Silver Star ski area in British Columbia , to replace the ropes , and ran the hill as a family business. , In 2015 the area was acquired by locally owned Far North Alpine Ventures , LLC , who now operates it as a ski area and Aurora viewing lodge . Extensive updates to the lodges , trails , lift , maintenance equipment and other facilities have taken place recently . A new learning area and Magic Carpet will be installed in the summer of 2017 . Over the next 10 years more expansion including lodging , snow making , trail expansion , a new lodge , and new lifts are in the master development plan for the ski area . The area encourages year round , non-motorized , non-comercial , recreation for locals and visitors on its trail system . The lodges and grounds can also be rented for private events such as weddings or reunions , and the facilities can also me leased for film production or other commercial use .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Skiland",
"rank": 78,
"score": 74380
},
{
"content": "Title: Katmai National Park and Preserve Content: Katmai National Park and Preserve is a United States National Park and Preserve in southern Alaska , notable for the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes and for its Alaskan brown bears . The park and preserve covers 4,093,077 acres , being roughly the size of Wales . Most of this is a designated wilderness area in the national park where all hunting is banned , including over 3922000 acres of land . The park is named after Mount Katmai , its centerpiece stratovolcano . The park is located on the Alaska Peninsula , across from Kodiak Island , with headquarters in nearby King Salmon , about 290 mi southwest of Anchorage . The area was first designated a national monument in 1918 to protect the area around the major 1912 volcanic eruption of Novarupta , which formed the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes , a 40 sqmi , 100 to pyroclastic flow . The park includes as many as 18 individual volcanoes , seven of which have been active since 1900 . Following its designation , the monument was left undeveloped and largely unvisited until the 1950s . Initially designated because of its violent volcanic history , the monument and surrounding lands became appreciated for their abundance of sockeye salmon , the grizzly bears that fed upon them , and a wide variety of other Alaskan wildlife and marine life . After a series of boundary expansions , the present national park and preserve were established in 1980 under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Katmai_National_Park_and_Preserve",
"rank": 79,
"score": 74334
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska Raptor Center Content: The Alaska Raptor Center is a raptor rehabilitation center in Sitka in the U.S. state of Alaska . Located on a 17 -- acre campus bordering the Tongass National Forest and the Indian River , its primary mission is the rehabilitation of sick and injured eagles , hawks , falcons , owls , and other birds of prey which are brought in from all over Alaska . The Center ( the largest of its type in the state , and one of the largest in North America ) receives between 100 -- 200 birds a year , with many suffering from gunshot wounds and traffic accident-related trauma . Most of the birds arriving at the center arrive in special containers , having been flown in via the baggage compartments of Alaska Airlines planes . The Center 's goal is to introduce the birds back into the wild , once they are healed and retrained in `` raptor life skills '' ( such as flying ) in the enclosed , 20000 sqft Bald Eagle Flight-Training Center . Many birds that are no longer able to live outside captivity are sent to zoos and wildlife centers located throughout the United States . A few of the animals that could not be returned to nature have become permanent guests . More than 40,000 visitors annually come to see the two dozen resident eagles , hawks , owls , and ravens , who assist in the Center 's secondary function , that of public education . The most well-known resident is Volta , a bald eagle who suffered permanent damage after a 1992 collision with power lines ( hence the name ) . Though since nursed back to health , Volta now regularly travels to the lower 48 states as an ambassador for the Center ( out of the 100,000 or so bald eagles on Earth , half live in Alaska ) . The Center is open to the public and offers daily tours . The Alaska Raptor Center is a private , nonprofit organization .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska_Raptor_Center",
"rank": 80,
"score": 74318
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska Cooperative Extension Service Content: University of Alaska Fairbanks Cooperative Extension Service is an outreach-based educational delivery system supported by a partnership between the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) and the University of Alaska Fairbanks ( UAF ) . The UAF Cooperative Extension Service annually serves approximately 80,000 Alaskans , `` providing a link between Alaska 's diverse people and communities by interpreting and extending relevant university , research-based knowledge in an understandable and usable form to the public . '' Since 1930 the UAF Extension Service has partnered with many organizations across the state of Alaska in pursuit of fulfilling its land-grant university mission to disseminate agricultural research and other scientific information .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska_Cooperative_Extension_Service",
"rank": 81,
"score": 74107
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium Land Transfer Act Content: The Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium Land Transfer Act is a bill that would transfer some land in Alaska from the federal government to the Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium , a non-profit health organization . The land will be used to build a patient housing facility so that the organization can treat people who travel there from distant rural areas . The bill passed in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress . The bill was signed into law .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska_Native_Tribal_Health_Consortium_Land_Transfer_Act",
"rank": 82,
"score": 74094
},
{
"content": "Title: Kuiu Island Content: Kuiu Island is an island in the Alexander Archipelago in southeastern Alaska . It lies between Kupreanof Island , to its east , and Baranof Island , to its west . The island is 105 km long , and 10 to wide . It is nearly cut in two by Affleck Canal . It has 1,936.16 km2 of land area , making it the 15th largest island in the United States . The entire island is part of Tongass National Forest . The population was 10 persons at the 2000 census . It is separated from Baranof Island by Chatham Strait . The Cape Decision Light is located on Kuiu Island . Also on the island are the Kuiu Wilderness and the Tebenkof Bay Wilderness areas .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Kuiu_Island",
"rank": 83,
"score": 73979
},
{
"content": "Title: Misty Fiords National Monument Content: Misty Fiords National Monument ( or Misty Fjords National Monument ) is a national monument and wilderness area administered by the U.S. Forest Service as part of the Tongass National Forest . Misty Fiords is about 40 mi east of Ketchikan , Alaska , along the Inside Passage coast in extreme southeastern Alaska , comprising 2294343 acre of Tongass National Forest in Alaska 's Panhandle . All but 151832 acre are designated as wilderness . Congress reserved the remainder for the Quartz Hill molybdenum deposit , possibly the largest such mineral deposit in the world . The national monument was originally proclaimed by President Jimmy Carter in December 1978 as Misty Fiords National Monument , using the authorization of the Antiquities Act and became a part of an ongoing political struggle between the federal government and the State of Alaska over land use policy and authority that finally led to the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 . In that law , it was statutorily established as Misty Fjords National Monument .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Misty_Fiords_National_Monument",
"rank": 84,
"score": 73973
},
{
"content": "Title: Flesh fly (fly fishing) Content: Flesh Fly is a popular fly pattern used by rainbow trout anglers in Western Alaska . This particular fly fishing pattern is designed to mimic a chunk of rotten salmon flesh washing down stream . The pattern is usually tied using white or off white rabbit hair .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Flesh_fly_(fly_fishing)",
"rank": 85,
"score": 73914
},
{
"content": "Title: Nushagak Peninsula Content: The Nushagak Peninsula is an uninhabited peninsula in the U.S. state of Alaska . It is situated in the Dillingham Census Area , west of the Alaska Peninsula . The 520000 acre byland measures 35 x . It was named for Nushagak Bay in 1910 by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey . With a large area of lakes , ponds and tidal sloughs , the peninsula contains the biggest complex of wetlands of the Togiak National Wildlife Refuge .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Nushagak_Peninsula",
"rank": 86,
"score": 73886
},
{
"content": "Title: United States Department of the Interior Content: The United States Department of the Interior ( DOI ) is the United States federal executive department of the U.S. government responsible for the management and conservation of most federal land and natural resources , and the administration of programs relating to Native American , Alaska Natives , Native Hawaiians , territorial affairs , and insular areas of the United States . About 75 % of federal public land is managed by the department , with most of the remainder managed by the United States Department of Agriculture 's United States Forest Service . The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior , who is a member of the Cabinet of the President . The current Secretary is Ryan Zinke . The Inspector General position is currently vacant , with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General . Despite its name , the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the interior ministries of other nations , which are usually responsible for police matters and internal security . In the United States , national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily and the Department of Justice secondarily . The Department of the Interior has often been humorously called `` The Department of Everything Else '' because of its broad range of responsibilities .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "United_States_Department_of_the_Interior",
"rank": 87,
"score": 73807
},
{
"content": "Title: Outline of Alaska Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the U.S. state of Alaska : Alaska -- most extensive , northernmost , westernmost , highest , second newest , and least densely populated of the 50 states of the United States of America . Alaska occupies the westernmost extent of the Americas , bordering British Columbia and the Yukon , and is detached from the other 49 states . The summit of Denali ( formerly Mount McKinley ) at 6194 meters is the highest point of North America .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Outline_of_Alaska",
"rank": 88,
"score": 73759
},
{
"content": "Title: Livestock in Sri Lanka Content: In Sri Lanka many farmers depend on animal husbandry for their livelihood , but not a large proportion . Therefore , many livestock products have to be imported . The main livestock products in Sri Lanka are milk , meat and eggs . Hides , wools and other products are still not produced within the country . Animal power formerly used in the cultivation of rice and vegetables has been replaced by modern technology to farm lands . However animal husbandry plays an important role in the rural economy for improving the living conditions of farmers in the country . The land area of Sri Lanka is 65,610 km2 . and of this , 30 % belongs to agricultural activities . From that 30 % , 70 % is solely devoted to crop production . The remainder consists of a mixture of crops and livestock . Hence , a very small proportion of the farm land is solely devoted to livestock production . In Sri Lanka , livestock sector contributes around 1.2 % of national GDP . Livestock are spread throughout all regions of Sri Lanka with concentrations of certain farming systems in particular areas due to cultural , market and agro-climatic reasons . According to statistics from the Department of Animal Production and Health , there are about 1.3 million cattle , 0.3 million buffalo , 0.4 million goats , 13 million poultry and 0.08 million pigs in the country with negligible numbers of sheep , ducks and other animal breeds .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Livestock_in_Sri_Lanka",
"rank": 89,
"score": 73678
},
{
"content": "Title: Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge ( often shortened to Alaska Maritime or AMNWR ) is a United States National Wildlife Refuge comprising 2,400 islands , headlands , rocks , islets , spires and reefs in Alaska , with a total area of 4.9 e6acre , of which 2.64 e6acre is wilderness . The refuge stretches from Cape Lisburne on the Chukchi Sea to the tip of the Aleutian Islands in the west and Forrester Island in the southern Alaska Panhandle region in the east . The refuge has diverse landforms and terrains , including tundra , rainforest , cliffs , volcanoes , beaches , lakes , and streams . Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge is well known for its abundance of seabirds . About 75 percent of Alaskan native marine birds , 15 to 30 million among 55 species , use the refuge . AMNWR also provides a nesting habitat for an estimated 40 million seabirds , representing 80 percent of all seabirds in North America . The birds congregate in `` bird cities '' ( colonies ) along the coast . Each species has a specialized nesting site ( rock ledge , crevice , boulder rubble , pinnacle , or burrow ) . Other animals present in the park include sea lions , seals , walrus , whales and sea otters . The administrative headquarters and visitor center are located in Homer , Alaska .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alaska_Maritime_National_Wildlife_Refuge",
"rank": 90,
"score": 73598
},
{
"content": "Title: Alligator meat Content: Alligator meat is the meat from alligators that is for consumption . It has been used both historically and in contemporary times in various cuisines of the Southern United States . Alligator eggs are also for consumption . Alligator meat has been described as a healthy meat source for humans due to its high protein and low fat composition . It has been described as being mild flavored and firm in texture . In the United States , it can only be legally sourced from alligator farms , and is available for consumer purchase in specialty food stores , some grocery stores , and can also be mail ordered . Some U.S. companies process and market alligator meat derived only from the tail of alligators .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Alligator_meat",
"rank": 91,
"score": 73541
},
{
"content": "Title: Tongass National Forest Content: The Tongass National Forest -LSB- ˈtɒŋɡəs -RSB- in Southeast Alaska is the largest national forest in the United States at 17 e6acre . Most of its area is part of the temperate rain forest WWF ecoregion , itself part of the larger Pacific temperate rain forest WWF ecoregion , and is remote enough to be home to many species of endangered and rare flora and fauna . The Tongass , which is managed by the United States Forest Service , encompasses islands of the Alexander Archipelago , fjords and glaciers , and peaks of the Coast Mountains . An international border with Canada ( British Columbia ) runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains . The forest is administered from Forest Service offices in Ketchikan . There are local ranger district offices located in Craig , Hoonah , Juneau , Ketchikan , Petersburg , Sitka , Thorne Bay , Wrangell , and Yakutat .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Tongass_National_Forest",
"rank": 92,
"score": 73490
},
{
"content": "Title: Land systems Content: Land systems constitute the terrestrial component of the Earth system and encompass all processes and activities related to the human use of land , including socioeconomic , technological and organizational investments and arrangements , as well as the benefits gained from land and the unintended social and ecological outcomes of societal activities . Changes in land systems have large consequences for the local environment and human well-being and are at the same time pervasive factors of global environmental change . Land provides vital resources to society , such as food , fuel , fibres and many other ecosystem services that support production functions , regulate risks of natural hazards , or provide cultural and spiritual services . By using the land , society alters and modifies the quantity and quality of the provision of these services . Land system changes are the direct result of human decision making at multiple scales ranging from local land owners decisions to national scale land use planning and global trade agreements . The aggregate impact of many local land system changes has far reaching consequences for the Earth System , that feedback on ecosystem services , human well-being and decision making . As a consequence , land system change is both a cause and consequence of socio-ecological processes . The Global Land Programme ( GLP ) of Future Earth is an interdisciplinary community of science and practice fostering the study of land systems and the co-design of solutions for global sustainability . References Category : Geography Category : Land systems Category : Land management es :",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Land_systems",
"rank": 93,
"score": 73469
},
{
"content": "Title: Chugach National Forest Content: The Chugach National Forest is a 6,908,540 acre United States National Forest in south central Alaska . Covering portions of Prince William Sound , the Kenai Peninsula and the Copper River Delta , it was formed in 1907 from part of a larger forest reserve . The Chugach includes extensive shorelines , glaciers , forests and rivers , much of which is untouched by roads or trails . It hosts numerous bird , mammal and marine species , including extensive shorebird habitat and a bald eagle population larger than the continental 48 states combined . Human industry in the forest includes extensive tourism and some mining and oil and gas operations .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Chugach_National_Forest",
"rank": 94,
"score": 73466
},
{
"content": "Title: Agriculture in Kyrgyzstan Content: Agriculture in Kyrgyzstan is a significant sector of the economy . According to the CIA World Factbook , it comprises 18 % of the total GDP and occupies 48 % of the total labor force . Only 6.8 % of the total land area is used for crop cultivation , but 44 % of the land is used as pastures for livestock . Because of the many mountains of Kyrgyzstan , animal husbandry remains a significant part of the agricultural economy . Cultivation is centered in the Ferghana Valley , Talas Province , and Chuy Province . Among Kyrgyzstan 's agricultural products are tobacco , cotton , potatoes , vegetables , grapes , fruits , and berries . As far as total production , the largest crop is assorted types of animal fodder to feed the livestock of the country . The second largest crop is winter wheat , followed by barley , corn , and rice . Significant animal derived products include sheep , goats , cattle , and wool . Chickens , horses , and pigs are also present . In some regions , yaks are herded and bred . Of these , the top products for export are cotton and tobacco . Meat is also exported , but in less significant quantities . However , the country has over 9 million hectares of pasture and a favourable environment for the development of animal husbandry . Recently Kyrgyzstan concluded accords to export meat to Saudi Arabia from September , 2012 .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Agriculture_in_Kyrgyzstan",
"rank": 95,
"score": 73410
},
{
"content": "Title: Atka Island Content: Atka Island ( Atx̂ax̂ ) is the largest island in the Andreanof Islands of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska . The island is 50 mi east of Adak Island . It is 65 mi long and 2 - wide with a land area of 404.6 sqmi , making it the 22nd largest island in the United States . The northeast of Atka Island contains the Korovin volcano which reaches a peak of 5030 ft. Oglodak Island is located 3.4 mi off Cape Kigun , Atka 's westernmost point . The city of Atka , Alaska is on the east side of the island . The 2000 census population of the island was 95 persons , almost all in the city of Atka . On December 5 , 2008 , President George W. Bush created the World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument . A crashed B-24 Liberator on Atka is one of the 9 sites in the monument .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Atka_Island",
"rank": 96,
"score": 73304
},
{
"content": "Title: Land Content: Land , sometimes referred to as dry land , is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water . The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture , habitat , and various natural resources . Some life forms ( including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals ) have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water . Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones . The division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans . The demarcation between land and water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors . A maritime boundary is one example of a political demarcation . A variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where water meets land . Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries , where there is no clear point at which the land ends and a body of water has begun . Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Land",
"rank": 97,
"score": 73260
},
{
"content": "Title: Bushmeat Content: Bushmeat , wildmeat , or game meat is meat from non-domesticated mammals , reptiles , amphibians and birds hunted for food in tropical forests . Commercial harvesting and the trade of wildlife is considered a threat to biodiversity . Bushmeat also provides a route for a number of serious tropical diseases to spread to humans from their animal hosts . Bushmeat is used for sustenance in remote areas , while in major towns and cities in bushmeat eating societies it is treated as a delicacy .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Bushmeat",
"rank": 98,
"score": 73240
},
{
"content": "Title: Western Arctic National Parklands Content: The Western Arctic National Parklands describes four United States National Park Service units in western Alaska that are managed by a single park superintendent and their staff . The western Arctic parklands are Kobuk Valley National Park , Noatak National Preserve , Cape Krusenstern National Monument and Bering Land Bridge National Preserve . The four units have a total area of about 11000000 acre and are managed from the Northwest Arctic Heritage Center in Kotzebue , Alaska . Bering Land Bridge National Preserve has administrative offices in Nome .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Western_Arctic_National_Parklands",
"rank": 99,
"score": 73184
},
{
"content": "Title: Southcentral Alaska Content: Southcentral Alaska is the portion of the U.S. state of Alaska consisting of the shorelines and uplands of the central Gulf of Alaska . Most of the population of the state lives in this region , concentrated in and around the city of Anchorage . The area includes Cook Inlet , the Matanuska-Susitna Valley , the Kenai Peninsula , Prince William Sound , and the Copper River Valley . Tourism , fisheries , and petroleum production are important economic activities .",
"qid": "133",
"docid": "Southcentral_Alaska",
"rank": 100,
"score": 73139
}
] |
Carbon emissions are declining in most rich nations and have been declining in Britain, Germany, and France since the mid-1970s | [
{
"content": "Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 1,
"score": 175248
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 2,
"score": 164721
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 3,
"score": 161506
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 4,
"score": 152829
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 5,
"score": 152536
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 6,
"score": 149458
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England",
"rank": 7,
"score": 147693
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 8,
"score": 146011
},
{
"content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme",
"rank": 9,
"score": 145023
},
{
"content": "Title: Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate Change Content: See Also : climate change mitigation , emissions trading . The Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate ( MEF ) was launched on March 28 , 2009 . The MEF is intended to facilitate a candid dialogue among major developed and developing economies , help generate the political leadership necessary to achieve a successful outcome at the December UN climate change conference in Copenhagen , and advance the exploration of concrete initiatives and joint ventures that increase the supply of clean energy while cutting greenhouse gas emissions . The 17 major economies are : Australia , Brazil , Canada , China , the European Union , France , Germany , India , Indonesia , Italy , Japan , South Korea , Mexico , Russia , South Africa , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Denmark , in its capacity as the President of the December 2009 Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change , and the United Nations have also participated in this dialogue along with Observers .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Major_Economies_Forum_on_Energy_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 10,
"score": 144910
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 11,
"score": 144640
},
{
"content": "Title: Wind power in the United Kingdom Content: The United Kingdom is one of the best locations for wind power in the world , and is considered to be the best in Europe . Wind power contributed 11 % of UK electricity generation in 2015 , and 17 % in December 2015 . Allowing for the costs of pollution , particularly the carbon emissions of other forms of production , onshore wind power is the cheapest form of energy in the United Kingdom . In 2016 , the UK generated more electricity from wind power than from coal . Wind power delivers a growing percentage of the energy of the United Kingdom and at the end of May 2017 , it consisted of 7,520 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of almost 15.5 gigawatts : 10,128 megawatts of onshore capacity and 5,356 megawatts of offshore capacity . This placed the United Kingdom at this time as the world 's sixth largest producer of wind power ( behind 1 . China , 2 . USA , 3 . Germany , 4 . India and 5 . Spain ) , having overtaken France and Italy in 2012 . Polling of public opinion consistently shows strong support for wind power in the UK , with nearly three quarters of the population agreeing with its use , even for people living near onshore wind turbines . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . Three large offshore wind farms came on stream in 2015 , Gwynt y Môr ( 576 MW max . capacity ) , Humber Gateway ( 219 MW ) and Westermost Rough ( 210 MW ) . Through the Renewables Obligation , British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee . The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate ( ROC ) for each MW · h of electricity they have purchased . Within the United Kingdom , wind power is the largest source of renewable electricity , and the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass . However , the UK 's Conservative government is opposed to onshore wind power and has attempted to cancel existing subsidies for onshore wind turbines a year early from April 2016 , although the House of Lords have struck these changes down . Overall , wind power raises costs of electricity slightly . In 2015 , it was estimated that the use of wind power in the UK had added # 18 to the average yearly electricity bill . This was the additional cost to consumers of using wind to generate about 9.3 % of the annual total ( see table below ) -- about # 2 for each 1 % . Nevertheless , offshore wind power is significantly more expensive than onshore , which raises costs . Offshore wind projects completed in 2012 -- 14 had a levelised cost of electricity of # 131/MW · h compared to a wholesale price of # 40 -- 50/MW · h ; the industry hopes to get the cost down to # 100/MW · h for projects approved in 2020 .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 12,
"score": 143365
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 13,
"score": 143348
},
{
"content": "Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Air_pollution_in_Germany",
"rank": 14,
"score": 141811
},
{
"content": "Title: UK Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The UK Emissions Trading Scheme was a voluntary emissions trading system created as a pilot prior to the mandatory European Union Emissions Trading Scheme which it now runs in parallel with . It ran from 2002 and it closed to new entrants in 2009 . Management of the scheme transferred to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2008 . At the time , the scheme was a novel economic approach , being the first multi-industry carbon trading system in the world . ( Denmark ran a pilot greenhouse gas trading scheme between 2001 and 2003 but this only involved eight electricity companies ) . It took note of the emerging international consensus on the benefits of carbon trading that were being proposed in the mandatory Kyoto Protocol , which had not been ratified at that time , and allowed government and corporate early movers and to gain experience in the auction process and the trading system that the later schemes have entailed . It ran in parallel to a tax on energy use , the Climate Change Levy , introduced in April 2001 , but companies could get a discount on the tax if they elected to make reductions through participation in the trading scheme . The voluntary trading scheme recruited 34 participants from UK industries and organisations who promised to make reductions in their carbon emissions , this has since expanded to 54 sectors of the UK economy . In return they received a share of a # 215 million `` incentive fund '' from the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) . Each agreed to hold sufficient allowances to cover its actual emissions for that year , and participate in a cap and trade system , with an annually reducing cap . Each participant could then decide to take action to manage its emissions to exactly meet its target , or reduce its actual emissions below its target ( thereby releasing allowances that it could sell on , or save for use in future years ) , or buy allowances from other participants to cover any excess . From March 2002 , DEFRA ran an auction of emission allowances to perform allocations to participants , after the start of the mandatory EU scheme .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme",
"rank": 15,
"score": 141748
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 16,
"score": 140146
},
{
"content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme",
"rank": 17,
"score": 139301
},
{
"content": "Title: ETSWAP Content: ETSWAP ( Emissions Trading Scheme Workflow Automation Project ) is the web-based system operated by the UK Environment Agency for emitters to manage , verify and report their emissions of Carbon Dioxide ( and in the future , other Greenhouse Gases ) , as required by the EU ETS ( European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ) . The structure and process of the ETSWAP system was outlined in a Mutual Understanding Document produced by the governments of the UK , Germany , Ireland and The Netherlands , which also dubbed the system `` Workflow Automation Project '' ( WAP ) . The application is designed to meet the new requirements of the EU ETS resulting from the 2008/101/CE Directive . The system is designed to facilitate completion and submission of verified emissions and benchmarking reports , viewing of approved emissions/benchmarking plans for existing operators and submission of emissions plans for new operators . As at July 2011 , ETSWAP is configured for reporting of carbon emissions by the aviation sector and has been used by 600 aviation operators in the UK and 200 in the Republic of Ireland . The system is being expanded to cover emissions by fixed installations by 2012 .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "ETSWAP",
"rank": 18,
"score": 138564
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 19,
"score": 138416
},
{
"content": "Title: List of least carbon efficient power stations Content: This is a list of least carbon efficient power stations in selected countries . Lists were created by the WWF and lists the most polluting power stations in terms of the level of carbon dioxide produced per unit of electricity generated . In 2005 WWF created list of power stations from 30 industrialised countries , also list for EU , in 2007 WWF published updated EU list . In 2009 European Commission list with absolute emissions only , also in 2014 Climate Action Network Europe , WWF , European Environmental Bureau , Health and Environment Alliance and Climate Alliance Germany .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "List_of_least_carbon_efficient_power_stations",
"rank": 20,
"score": 137803
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Performance Index Content: The Climate Change Performance Index ( CCPI ) is an annual publication by Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe . It evaluates the climate protection performance of 58 countries , responsible for over 90 % of global energy-related emissions . CCPI 2013 publication covers emissions from the fossil fuels , except emissions from the shipping industry . Following CCPI 2013 publication may include emissions from deforestation , agriculture and waste . 50 % of the evaluation is based on emissions trend , 30 % on emissions level and 20 % on national and international climate policy assessments made by more than 200 experts . The most recent results ( published December 2014 ) illustrate that efforts are still insufficient to prevent dangerous climate change . Thus , no country received rankings one to three in the results for 2015 although Denmark which topped the list was praised for its efforts .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Performance_Index",
"rank": 21,
"score": 136523
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 22,
"score": 136418
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 23,
"score": 136340
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 24,
"score": 134578
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 25,
"score": 133756
},
{
"content": "Title: Energy in the United Kingdom Content: Energy use in the United Kingdom stood at 2,249 TWh ( 193.4 million tonnes of oil equivalent ) in 2014 . This equates to energy consumption per capita of 34.82 MWh ( 3.00 tonnes of oil equivalent ) compared to a 2010 world average of 21.54 MWh ( 1.85 tonnes of oil equivalent ) . Demand for electricity in 2014 was 34.42 GW on average ( 301.7 TWh over the year ) coming from a total electricity generation of 335.0 TWh . Successive UK governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions . One such announcement was the Low Carbon Transition Plan launched by the Brown ministry in July 2009 , which aimed to generate 30 % electricity from renewable sources , and 40 % from low carbon content fuels by 2020 . Notably , the UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy , and wind power production is its fastest growing supply , in 2014 it generated 9.3 % of the UK 's total electricity . Government commitments to reduce emissions are occurring against a backdrop of economic crisis across Europe . During the European financial crisis , Europe 's consumption of electricity shrank by 5 % , with primary production also facing a noticeable decline . Britain 's trade deficit was reduced by 8 % due to substantial cuts in energy imports . Between 2007 and 2015 , the UK 's peak electrical demand fell from 61.5 GW to 52.7 . GW . UK government energy policy aims to play a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions , whilst meeting energy demand . Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country 's energy mix through changes in costs . In 2016 , the United Kingdom was ranked 12th in the World on the Environmental Performance Index , which measures how well a country carries through environmental policy .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Energy_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 26,
"score": 133683
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions",
"rank": 27,
"score": 132860
},
{
"content": "Title: Emissions Trading Scheme in South Korea Content: South Korea 's Emissions Trading Scheme ( KETS ) is the second largest in scale after the European Union Emission Trading Scheme and was launched on January 1 , 2015 . South Korea is the second country in Asia to initiate a nation-wide carbon market after Kazakhstan . Complying to the country 's pledge made at the Copenhagen Accord of 2009 , the South Korean government aims to reduce its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by 30 % below its business as usual scenario by 2020 . They have officially employed the cap-and-trade system and the operation applies to over 525 companies which are accountable for approximately 68 % of the nation 's GHG output . The operation is divided up into three periods . The first and second phases consist of 3 years each , 2015 to 2017 and 2018 to 2020 . The final phase will spread out over the next 5 years from 2021 to 2025 . The cap-and-trade system is a tool of carbon pricing that has been adapted by several countries to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through a market mechanism . It entails a market open to the transaction of trade permits , which allow participating businesses or countries to emit a given amount of greenhouse gases . A cap is set by the government which defines the maximum level of total emissions permitted during a certain time period . The South Korean government had set the emissions cap for the first year of implementation ( 2015 ) as 573 MtCO2e . The major objectives of the KETS is to place South Korea at the forefront of the global effort in reducing GHG emissions and to develop its market competitiveness in the clean energy sector . As one of the top 10 largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions and a nation with the highest growth rate in GHG emissions , South Korea 's awareness of its carbon footprint has increased over the years . The country grows more vulnerable to climate change as the average temperature has risen by 1.5 degrees Celsius causing frequent natural disasters . Furthermore , the South Korean government aims to cut back its reliance on imported fossil fuel energy which accounts for roughly 97 % of its primary energy consumption . Lastly , by implementing the emissions trading scheme , the government has prospects of developing its green industries and increase its global share of the clean energy market .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Emissions_Trading_Scheme_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 28,
"score": 131968
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 29,
"score": 131806
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 30,
"score": 131531
},
{
"content": "Title: 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions is an agreement to provide for a further reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary fluxes . It is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution and supplements the 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions . opened for signature - 14 June 1994 entered into force - 5 August 1998 parties - ( 29 ) Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Croatia , Cyprus , Czech Republic , Denmark , European Union , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Monaco , Netherlands , Norway , Slovakia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , United Kingdom countries that have signed , but not yet ratified - ( 3 ) Poland , Russia , Ukraine",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "1994_Oslo_Protocol_on_Further_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions",
"rank": 31,
"score": 130450
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 32,
"score": 130213
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 33,
"score": 129398
},
{
"content": "Title: Low carbon leakage Content: Low carbon leakage refers to the phenomenon of a country or a region losing its low carbon industries to another country or region . The underlying low carbon leakage trend can also be identified by looking into clean energy patent distribution around the World . The threat of low carbon leakage to the European Union has been repeatedly expressed by a number of European Politicians such as climate Commissioner Connie Hedegaard , UK Energy Secretary Edward Davey and others . The low carbon leakage increases its relevance for the industrial competitiveness as the low carbon economy grows and has reached in 2013 $ 4 trillion and continues to grow at 4 % per year . Not taking relevant part in this growth opportunity is also considered as low carbon leakage . In October 2014 E&Y published a report `` European Low Carbon Industries . A Health Check . '' specifically examining the state of the European low carbon sectors . The report lists a wide variety of cases in which `` low carbon leakage '' occurs or could occur . Low carbon leakage could lead to a significant loss of competitiveness for Europe . According to former German federal minister Trittin : `` In reality there is no carbon leakage . The danger of low carbon leakage is much more real . '' I typical example is the solar panel manufacturing that has developed rapidly in China and shrunk in Europe .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Low_carbon_leakage",
"rank": 34,
"score": 128556
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon audit regime Content: A carbon audit regime is a means of accounting for quantifiable greenhouse gas control efforts . It establishes that the claimed reductions in emissions or enhancements of carbon sinks , has actually occurred and is stable . The UK is the only nation in the world that presently has such a regime .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_audit_regime",
"rank": 35,
"score": 128443
},
{
"content": "Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation",
"rank": 36,
"score": 128042
},
{
"content": "Title: Energy efficiency in British housing Content: Domestic housing in the United Kingdom presents a possible opportunity for achieving the 20 % overall cut in UK carbon dioxide emissions targeted by the Government for 2010 . However , the process of achieving that drop is proving problematic given the very wide range of age and condition of the UK housing stock .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Energy_efficiency_in_British_housing",
"rank": 37,
"score": 127994
},
{
"content": "Title: Bonn Challenge Content: The Bonn Challenge is a global effort to restore 150 million hectares of the world 's degraded and deforested lands by 2020 . It was hosted and launched by Germany and the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) in Bonn on 2 September 2011 , in collaboration with the Global Partnership on Forest/Landscape Restoration and targets delivery on the Rio Conventions and other outcomes of the 1992 Earth Summit . As at 2013 over 20 million hectares of land had been pledged for restoration from countries including Brazil , Costa Rica , El Salvador , Rwanda , and the United States . South Korea , Costa Rica , China , Rwanda and Brazil have embarked on successful landscape restoration programmes . The IUCN estimates that fulfilling the goals of the Bonn challenge would create approximately $ 84 billion per year in net benefits that could positively affect income opportunities for rural communities . It is also estimated that a reduction of the current carbondioxide emissions gap by 11-17 % will be achieved by meeting the challenge .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Bonn_Challenge",
"rank": 38,
"score": 127657
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 39,
"score": 127394
},
{
"content": "Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform",
"rank": 40,
"score": 127179
},
{
"content": "Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions",
"rank": 41,
"score": 127165
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_Disclosure_Project",
"rank": 42,
"score": 125753
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 43,
"score": 125625
},
{
"content": "Title: EU Allowances Content: EU Allowances are Climate credits ( or Carbon credits ) used in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . EU Allowances are issued by the EU Member States into Member State Registry accounts . By April 30 of each year , operators of installations covered by the EU ETS must surrender an EU Allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted in the previous year . Category : Carbon emissions in the European Union",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "EU_Allowances",
"rank": 44,
"score": 125289
},
{
"content": "Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "ACEA_agreement",
"rank": 45,
"score": 125134
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 46,
"score": 124882
},
{
"content": "Title: Nitrogen Oxide Protocol Content: Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes , opened for signature on 31 October 1988 and entered into force on 14 February 1991 , was to provide for the control or reduction of nitrogen oxides and their transboundary fluxes . It was concluded in Sofia , Bulgaria . Parties ( as of September 2016 ) : ( 36 ) Albania , Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Croatia , Cyprus , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , European Union , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovakia , Slovenia . Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , Ukraine , United Kingdom , United States .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Nitrogen_Oxide_Protocol",
"rank": 47,
"score": 124664
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon intensity Content: This article lists countries by their carbon intensity . Carbon intensity is defined as a country 's annual carbon dioxide emissions divided by the country 's gross domestic product . National incomes are calculated using market exchange rates ( MER ) and purchasing power parities ( PPP ) . Units are metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity",
"rank": 48,
"score": 124240
},
{
"content": "Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Emission_Reduction_Unit",
"rank": 49,
"score": 124005
},
{
"content": "Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 50,
"score": 123895
},
{
"content": "Title: International Carbon Action Partnership Content: The International Carbon Action Partnership ( ICAP ) was founded in 2007 by more than 15 government representatives as an international cooperative forum , bringing together states and sub-national jurisdictions that have implemented or are planning to implement emissions trading systems ( ETS ) . Then governor of California , Arnold Schwarzenegger , stated at ICAP 's founding ceremony : `` This first of its kind partnership will provide more incentives for clean-tech investment and economic growth while not letting polluters off the hook . And it will help renew the health of our planet . '' José Sócrates , the Portuguese prime minister further added that ICAP was launched in order to join carbon markets all over the world and by that be more successful in combating climate change . ICAP includes members from the European Union Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) , Western Climate Initiative ( WCI ) , Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) , Australia , New Zealand , Norway , and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . Japan and Ukraine are observers.Member jurisdictions share best practices and discuss ETS design elements with a view to creating a well-functioning global carbon market . The rationale behind ICAP 's work is that linking carbon cap and trade systems would lead to economic , social and environmental benefits .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "International_Carbon_Action_Partnership",
"rank": 51,
"score": 123808
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 52,
"score": 123077
},
{
"content": "Title: CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Content: The CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme ( the CRC , formerly the Carbon Reduction Commitment ) is a mandatory carbon emissions reduction scheme in the United Kingdom that applies to large non-energy-intensive organisations in the public and private sectors . It has been estimated that the scheme will reduce carbon emissions by 1.2 million tonnes of carbon per year by 2020 . In an effort to avoid dangerous climate change , the British Government first committed to cutting UK carbon emissions by 60 % by 2050 ( compared to 1990 levels ) , and in October 2008 increased this commitment to 80 % . The scheme has also been credited with driving up demand for energy-efficient goods and services . The CRC was announced in the 2007 Energy White Paper , published on 23 May 2007 . A consultation in 2006 showed strong support for it to be mandatory , rather than voluntary . The Commitment was introduced under enabling powers in Part 3 of the Climate Change Act 2008 . A consultation into the scheme 's implementation was launched in June 2007 . The Scheme is being introduced under the CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Order 2010 .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "CRC_Energy_Efficiency_Scheme",
"rank": 53,
"score": 122768
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 54,
"score": 122672
},
{
"content": "Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "ECOCITIES_(software)",
"rank": 55,
"score": 122267
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 56,
"score": 122216
},
{
"content": "Title: The Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership Content: The Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership ( LowCVP ) was announced by the UK Government in 2002 as an element of its Powering Future Vehicles Strategy . The purpose of the LowCVP is support reduction of carbon emissions from road transport in the UK with a clear focus on accelerating the adoption of low carbon vehicles and fuels ; other strategies for reducing transport carbon emissions , for example modal shift towards cycling and walking or reducing traffic congestion through intelligent transport systems are out of scope and are the preserve of other bodies who are more expert in those fields . The UK government has set a target for reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions and recognises that achieving its target will require emissions from road transport , which are significant , to be cut .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "The_Low_Carbon_Vehicle_Partnership",
"rank": 57,
"score": 122201
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_trading",
"rank": 58,
"score": 122104
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 59,
"score": 121825
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 60,
"score": 121782
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 61,
"score": 121753
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme",
"rank": 62,
"score": 121714
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 63,
"score": 121497
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants Content: The Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants ( CCAC ) was launched by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and six countries -- Bangladesh , Canada , Ghana , Mexico , Sweden and the United States -- on 16February 2012 . The CCAC aims to catalyze rapid reductions in short-lived climate pollutants to protect human health , agriculture and the environment . To date , more than $ 47million has been pledged to the Climate and Clean Air Coalition from Canada , Denmark , the European Commission , Germany , Japan , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , and the United States . The program is managed out of the United Nations Environmental Programme through a Secretariat in Paris , France .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Climate_and_Clean_Air_Coalition_to_Reduce_Short-Lived_Climate_Pollutants",
"rank": 64,
"score": 121344
},
{
"content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance",
"rank": 65,
"score": 120722
},
{
"content": "Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Stuart_Agnew",
"rank": 66,
"score": 120519
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in Austria Content: The Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection of Austria , established in 1972 , is responsible for the coordination at the national level of all environmental protection efforts , addressing its efforts toward problems including waste disposal , pollution , noise , sulfur dioxide , and carbon monoxide levels , as well as emissions by the iron , steel , and ceramics industries . A toxic waste law enacted in 1984 established strict regulations for the collection , transport , and disposal of dangerous substances . The Austrian government has imposed strict regulations on gas emissions , which helped to reduce sulfur dioxide by two-thirds over an eight-year period beginning in 1980 . In 1992 Austria was among the 50 countries with the highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emissions , producing 56.6 million metric tons of emissions , or 7.29 m tons per capita . In 1996 , the level rose to 59.3 million metric tons . In 2000 , the total was 60.8 million metric tons .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Austria",
"rank": 67,
"score": 120214
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 68,
"score": 119971
},
{
"content": "Title: Asia-Pacific Emissions Trading Forum Content: The Asia-Pacific Emissions Trading Forum ( AETF ) was an information service and business network dealing with domestic and international developments in emissions trading policy in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region . The AETF was originally called the Australasian Emissions Trading Forum , and was founded in 1998 under the auspices of the Sydney Futures Exchange following a proposal from Beck Consulting Services . From 2001 until 2011 the AETF published the AETF Review ( Bib ID 3998494 ) , held regular member meetings and convened numerous events and conferences . The AETF Review was published six times per year and included original articles on emissions trading developments and related topics . In 2011 the AETF formed the foundation of the new Carbon Market Institute , a not-for-profit institute , established in Melbourne , Australia to continue and develop the AETF programs . The AETF was founded to assist all potential stakeholders understand and respond to emissions trading developments both domestically and internationally . Emissions trading is a key element of the Kyoto Protocol and subsequent proposals to manage global greenhouse gas emissions under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . National or regional schemes are operating in the European Union , New Zealand and the United States and are under active consideration in China , Japan and elsewhere . In Australia , legislation under Clean Energy Future Scheme has been passed to introduce a national emissions trading scheme from 2015 .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Asia-Pacific_Emissions_Trading_Forum",
"rank": 69,
"score": 119342
},
{
"content": "Title: Electricity sector in Luxembourg Content: Electricity sector in Luxembourg describes electricity issues in Luxembourg . Luxembourg is a member of OECD and European Union . Luxembourg imports most of its energy . Luxembourg is the EU country with the second smallest forecast of renewables in 2020 . Luxembourg has one of the highest emissions of carbon dioxide per person in Europe .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Electricity_sector_in_Luxembourg",
"rank": 70,
"score": 119147
},
{
"content": "Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Paris_Agreement",
"rank": 71,
"score": 118938
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 72,
"score": 118880
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecosecurities Content: EcoSecurities is a business that sources and develops carbon credits and carbon offsets from greenhouse gas emission reduction projects throughout the world . The company has offices in Europe , Middle East , Americas and Asia and has a large portfolio of green house gas emission reduction projects covering numerous countries and technologies . EcoSecurities was created in January 1997 , 12 months before the Kyoto conference . After a period of organic growth , the company floated on the Alternative Investment Market of the London Stock Exchange in December 2005 , allowing it to grow its geographic presence by placing over 300 staff in 30 countries . Its portfolio grew to over 150 million CERs - the largest in the world at the time . In June 2007 , the company raised an additional $ 100 million to expand into new markets , with Credit Suisse becoming a major investor . It trades in the international carbon market which was valued at $ 38 billion in the first six months of 2008 . The former President and co-founder of EcoSecurities was Pedro Moura-Costa and the former CEO was Bruce Usher . At the end of 2009 the firm was acquired by JP Morgan and is now an indirect wholly owned subsidiarly of JPMorgan Chase and Co. and can provide its clients with access to the scope of services provided by the bank 's Environmental Markets business in addition to those activities of sourcing and developing greenhouse gas abatement projects outlined above . Following on from acquisition of EcoSecurities the company appointed Paul Mark Kelly as Chief Executive Officer of the company in December 2009 , when the company subsequently delisted from the Alternative Investment Market of the London Stock Exchange .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Ecosecurities",
"rank": 73,
"score": 118863
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_retirement",
"rank": 74,
"score": 118810
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 75,
"score": 118767
},
{
"content": "Title: Embedded emissions Content: One way of attributing greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions of goods that are being consumed ( also referred to as `` embodied emissions '' ) . This is different from the question of to what extent the policies of one country to reduce emissions affect emissions in other countries ( the `` spillover effect '' and `` carbon leakage '' of an emissions reduction policy ) . The UNFCCC measures emissions according to production , rather than consumption ( UK Parliament , 2010 ) . Consequently , embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting , rather than the importing , country . The question of whether to measure emissions on production instead of consumption is partly an issue of equity , i.e. , who is responsible for emissions ( Toth et al. , 2001 , p. 670 ) . The 37 Kyoto Protocol Parties , listed in Annex B of the treaty , have agreed to legally binding emission reduction commitments . Under the UNFCCC accounting of emissions , their emission reduction commitments do not include emissions attributable to their imports . In a briefing note , Wang and Watson ( 2007 ) asked the question , `` who owns China 's carbon emissions ? '' In their study , they suggested that nearly a quarter of China 's CO2 emissions might be a result of its production of goods for export , primarily to the USA but also to Europe . Based on this , they suggested that international negotiations based on within country emissions ( i.e. , emissions measured by production ) may be '' -LSB- missing -RSB- the point . '' Recent research confirms that , in 2004 , 23 % of global emissions were embedded in goods traded internationally , mostly flowing from China and other developing countries to the U.S. , Europe and Japan . Research by the Carbon Trust in 2011 revealed that approximately 25 % of all emissions from human activities ` flow ' ( i.e. are imported or exported ) from one country to another . The flow of carbon was found to be roughly 50 % emissions associated with trade in commodities such as steel , cement , and chemicals , and 50 % in semi-finished/finished products such as motor vehicles , clothing or industrial machinery and equipment .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Embedded_emissions",
"rank": 76,
"score": 118718
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 77,
"score": 118012
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_label",
"rank": 78,
"score": 117850
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 79,
"score": 117776
},
{
"content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence",
"rank": 80,
"score": 117707
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial Emissions Directive Content: The Industrial Emissions Directive ( Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions ( integrated pollution prevention and control ) ) is a European Union directive which commits European Union member states to control and reduce the impact of industrial emissions on the environment .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Industrial_Emissions_Directive",
"rank": 81,
"score": 117397
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 82,
"score": 116331
},
{
"content": "Title: Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds or Their Transboundary Fluxes ( known as the Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol or the VOC Protocol ) is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution which aims to provide for the control and reduction of emissions of volatile organic compounds in order to reduce their transboundary fluxes so as to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects . The protocol was concluded at Geneva , Switzerland . Opened for signature - November 18 , 1991 Entered into force - September 29 , 1997 Parties - ( 24 ) Austria , Belgium , Bulgaria , Croatia , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Monaco , Netherlands , Norway , Slovakia , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , United Kingdom Countries that have signed , but not yet ratified - ( 6 ) Canada , European Union , Greece , Portugal , Ukraine , United States",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Volatile_Organic_Compounds_Protocol",
"rank": 83,
"score": 116238
},
{
"content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut",
"rank": 84,
"score": 115832
},
{
"content": "Title: 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Content: The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 per cent is a 1985 protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution agreement that provided for a 30 per cent reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary fluxes by 1993 . The protocol has been supplemented by the 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions . opened for signature - July 8 , 1985 entered into force - September 2 , 1987 parties - ( 25 ) Albania , Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Netherlands , Norway , Russia , Slovakia , Sweden , Switzerland , Ukraine",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "1985_Helsinki_Protocol_on_the_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions",
"rank": 85,
"score": 115719
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_accounting",
"rank": 86,
"score": 115619
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 87,
"score": 115597
},
{
"content": "Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Airport_Carbon_Accreditation",
"rank": 88,
"score": 115562
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Mexico Content: Mexico highly depends on the burning of its fossil fuels , and for the same reason , it is in its interest to look into mitigation solutions for its corresponding emissions . In the General Law on Climate Change on 2012 , Mexico promised to reduce 20 % of its GHG emissions by 2020 and 50 % by 2050 , as well as in the Paris Agreement . 19 % of the this new mitigation plan will be dedicated to carbon capture and storage and specifically 10 % to the energetic industry .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Mexico",
"rank": 89,
"score": 115453
},
{
"content": "Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Maximilian_Auffhammer",
"rank": 90,
"score": 115416
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 91,
"score": 115415
},
{
"content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32",
"rank": 92,
"score": 115110
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 93,
"score": 114907
},
{
"content": "Title: Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport (HBEFA) Content: The Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport ( HBEFA ) is a Microsoft Access database application providing emission factors , i.e. the specific emissions in g/km , for all current road vehicle categories ( passenger cars , light duty vehicles , heavy duty vehicles , buses , and motorcycles ) . Emission factors are provided for all regulated and the most important non-regulated air pollutants as well as for fuel consumption and CO2 . HBEFA is used to estimate road transport emissions on different spatial aggregation levels from national to street level . HBEFA was originally developed on behalf of the Environmental Protection Agencies of Germany ( UBA ) , Switzerland ( FOEN/BAFU ) , and Austria ( Umweltbundesamt ) . In the meantime , further countries ( Sweden , Norway , France ) and the JRC ( Joint Research Centre of the European Commission ) are supporting HBEFA . The handbook is developed and provided by INFRAS , a Swiss research institute and independent consulting group based in Zurich and Bern . HBEFA ( the so-called `` public version '' ) is available for download for everyone ( chargeable at a fee of 250 EUR for new users ) . This public version allows users to view emission factors at different disaggregation levels . For selected experts participating in the development of HBEFA an extended version with additional features ( referred to as `` expert version '' ) is available .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Handbook_Emission_Factors_for_Road_Transport_(HBEFA)",
"rank": 94,
"score": 114815
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations REDD Programme Content: The United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation ( or UN-REDD Programme ) is a collaborative programme of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) , the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , created in 2008 in response to the UNFCCC decisions on the Bali Action Plan and REDD at COP-13 . It should not be confused with `` REDD + '' , a voluntary climate change mitigation approach that has been developed by Parties to the UNFCCC ( see below `` Difference between REDD + and the UN-REDD Programme '' ) . The overall development goal of the Programme is `` to reduce forest emissions and enhance carbon stocks in forests while contributing to national sustainable development '' . The UN-REDD Programme supports nationally led REDD + processes and promotes the informed and meaningful involvement of all stakeholders , including indigenous peoples and other forest-dependent communities , in national and international REDD + implementation . The Programme has expanded steadily since its establishment and now has over 60 official Partner Countries spanning Africa , Asia-Pacific and Latin America-Caribbean . In addition to the UN-REDD Programme , other initiatives assisting countries that are engaged in REDD + include the World Bank 's Forest Carbon Partnership Facility , Norway 's International Climate and Forest Initiative , the Global Environment Facility , Australia 's International Forest Carbon Initiative , the Collaborative Partnership on Forests , and the Green Climate Fund . The UN-REDD Programme publicly releases each year an Annual Programme Progress Report and a Semi-Annual Report .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "United_Nations_REDD_Programme",
"rank": 95,
"score": 114622
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 96,
"score": 114146
},
{
"content": "Title: Verified Carbon Standard Content: The Verified Carbon Standard ( VCS ) is a voluntary greenhouse gas program . The organization was founded by a collection of business and environmental leaders . In 2005 , The Climate Group , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) and The World Economic Forum - convened a team of global carbon market experts to draft the first VCS requirements . The World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) joined the effort soon after . These experts soon formed the VCS Steering Committee , which worked to draft the first and subsequent versions of the VCS Standard . Many of the members of the original steering committee went on to be on the original Board of Directors , which now has evolved into a body of 12 members that offers input and guidance to the organization . By 2008 , with the VCS Standard becoming more widely adopted , the Board of Directors named David Antonioli the organization 's first Chief Executive Officer . Soon after in 2009 , VCS incorporated in Washington D.C as a non-profit NGO .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Verified_Carbon_Standard",
"rank": 97,
"score": 114132
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Content: The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum ( CSLF ) is an international initiative to advance carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) technology . The Forum is a Ministerial-level organization that includes 23 member countries and the European Commission . Membership is open to national governmental entities that are significant producers or users of fossil fuel and that have a commitment to invest resources in research , development and demonstration activities in carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies . CSLF also recognizes that stakeholders , those organizations that are affected by and can affect the goals of CSLF , form an essential component of CSLF activities . The CSLF Charter , signed in June 2003 , organized the CSLF by creating a Policy Group , which governs the overall framework and policies of the CSLF , a Technical Group , which reviews the progress of collaborative projects and makes recommendations to the Policy Group on any needed actions , and an administrative Secretariat , which organizes CSLF meetings , coordinates communications among CSLF Members , and acts as a clearinghouse of information . In July 2005 , the G8 Summit endorsed the CSLF in its Plan of Action on Climate Change , Clean Energy and Sustainable Development , and identified it as a medium of cooperation and collaboration with key developing countries in dealing with greenhouse gases . Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include : the joint statement of the U.S.-European Union Summit on Energy Security , Energy Efficiency , Renewables and Economic Development , and the Mainz Declaration of Germany and the United States on Cleaner and More Efficient Energy , Development and Climate Change . In 2006 and 2007 , the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage . Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders . The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO2 capture , transport and storage research and activities .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum",
"rank": 98,
"score": 113989
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance",
"rank": 99,
"score": 113892
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Triangle (region) Content: The Black Triangle ( German Schwarzes Dreieck ) is a border region shared by Germany , Poland and the Czech Republic , long characterized by extremely high levels of pollution . The term was coined in the 1980s . For decades , industrially produced air pollutants ( chiefly sulfur dioxide ) , water pollution , acid rain and other effects took an enormous toll on the health of local residents and the surrounding environment . After the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe , the three nations acted to cut emissions . This has resulted in significant environmental improvement .",
"qid": "135",
"docid": "Black_Triangle_(region)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 113849
}
] |
Preventing future pandemics requires more not less “industrial” agriculture | [
{
"content": "Title: Intensive animal farming Content: Intensive animal farming or industrial livestock production , also known as factory farming by opponents of the practice , is a modern form of intensive farming that refers to animal husbandry , the keeping of livestock such as cattle , poultry , and fish at higher stocking densities than is usually the case with other forms of animal agriculture -- a practice typical in industrial farming by agribusinesses . The main products of this industry are meat , milk and eggs for human consumption . There are issues regarding whether factory farming is sustainable and ethical . Confinement at high stocking density is one part of a systematic effort to produce the highest output at the lowest cost by relying on economies of scale , modern machinery , biotechnology , and global trade . There are differences in the way factory farming techniques are practiced around the world . There is a continuing debate over the benefits , risks and ethical questions of factory farming . The issues include the efficiency of food production ; animal welfare ; whether it is essential for feeding the growing global population ; and the environmental impact ( e.g. pollution ) and health risks .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Intensive_animal_farming",
"rank": 1,
"score": 93234
},
{
"content": "Title: NanoMemPro IPPC Database Content: The NanoMemPro IPPC database focus the operations where membranes are introduced as Best Available Techniques in the industrial areas addressed by the IPPC Directive . The Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control ( IPPC ) Directive was adopted by the European Council on September 24 , 1996 . It defines the obligations with which highly polluting industrial and agricultural activities must comply . It establishes a procedure for authorizing these activities : a permit is issued if certain environmental conditions are met . The IPPC Directive aims to minimise pollution from various sources throughout the European Union ( it concerns both new and existing installations ) . To do so , all industrial installations covered by the Annex I of the IPPC Directive ( see ) are required to obtain an authorisation ( permit ) from the authorities in the EU countries before they are allowed to operate . The permits granted must be based on the concept of Best Available Techniques ( or BAT ) . The IPPC Directive covers 33 industrial sectors where in almost all of them membrane processes appear as BAT , not only as an end-of-pipe solution for effluent treatment but mainly as a part of the industrial production processes . Membrane process integration play a crucial role , depending on the industrial sector in which they are integrated , and these roles may be : Confinement of pollutants in concentrate streams ( that may be further treated by destructive processes ) , Permeate recycle or re-use in the industrial process , thus reducing water input and discharge , Water recycling and effluent minimization , tending to zero discharge industrial processes . The IPPC Database was designed by the NanoMemPro Network of Excellence to focus the operations where membranes are introduced as BAT in the industrial areas addressed by the IPPC Directive documents . The Database built allows any user to search information upon the following criteria : Membrane process ( Reverse Osmosis , Nanofiltration , etc. ) , Industrial sector ( Pulp and Paper , Textile Industry , etc. ) , State of Reference document approval ( BREF , DRAFT , etc. ) . The information states which membrane processes are defined as a BAT in a given industrial sector and what is the application/purpose of that membrane process ( es ) . When accessing the Database , one can enter a username and password . This password insertion is used only by the database manager . To view and search the information of the database , just press the OK button , ignoring the password insertion procedure . This IPPC Database is available in the NanoMemPro website .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "NanoMemPro_IPPC_Database",
"rank": 2,
"score": 86243
},
{
"content": "Title: Nondegradation standard Content: In United States agricultural policy , a nondegradation standard is defined in the 2002 Farm Bill provisions establishing the Conservation Security Program ( CSP ; P.L. 107-171 , Sec . 2001 ) to mean the level of measures required to protect and prevent degradation of 1 or more natural resources , as determined by the Natural Resources Conservation Service . Participating farmers ' conservation security plans must address resources of concern and meet the appropriate nondegradation standard .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Nondegradation_standard",
"rank": 3,
"score": 84123
},
{
"content": "Title: African Institute for Future Studies Content: The African Institute for Future Studies , also known as Panafrican Institute for Future Studies or INADEP , is a research institution and university founded in 1989 by the President of Zaire ( present day Democratic Republic of the Congo ) ( Ordinance 89 -- 287 of 9 November 1989 ) . It is located in Kinshasa , Democratic Republic of the Congo , though it was originally located in Zomba , Malawi . In addition to subsidiary departments that are funded for the future studies or for the exploration of the future , INADEP has funded a Centre for the exploration of the past , named Diop 's Center for Egyptology . INADEP is a member of the National Research Council of Congo and one of the National Government Organizations devoted exclusively to scientific research and to the training of new researchers .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "African_Institute_for_Future_Studies",
"rank": 4,
"score": 83489
},
{
"content": "Title: Cleaner production Content: Cleaner production is a preventive , company-specific environmental protection initiative . It is intended to minimize waste and emissions and maximize product output . By analysing the flow of materials and energy in a company , one tries to identify options to minimize waste and emissions out of industrial processes through source reduction strategies . Improvements of organisation and technology help to reduce or suggest better choices in use of materials and energy , and to avoid waste , waste water generation , and gaseous emissions , and also waste heat and noise . The concept was developed during the preparation of the Rio Summit as a programme of UNEP ( United Nations Environmental Programme ) and UNIDO ( United Nations Industrial Development Organization ) under the leadership of Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel , the former Assistant Executive Director of UNEP . The programme was meant to reduce the environmental impact of industry . It built on ideas used by 3M in its 3P programme ( pollution prevention pays ) . It has found more international support than all other comparable programmes . The programme idea was described '' ... to assist developing nations in leapfrogging from pollution to less pollution , using available technologies '' . Starting from the simple idea to produce with less waste Cleaner Production was developed into a concept to increase the resource efficiency of production in general . UNIDO has been operating National Cleaner Production Centers and Programmes ( NCPCs/NCPPs ) with centres in Latin America , Africa , Asia and Europe . In the US , the term pollution prevention is more commonly used for cleaner production . Examples for cleaner production options are : Documentation of consumption ( as a basic analysis of material and energy flows , e. g. with a Sankey diagram ) Use of indicators and controlling ( to identify losses from poor planning , poor education and training , mistakes ) Substitution of raw materials and auxiliary materials ( especially renewable materials and energy ) Increase of useful life of auxiliary materials and process liquids ( by avoiding drag in , drag out , contamination ) Improved control and automatisation Reuse of waste ( internal or external ) New , low waste processes and technologies One of the first European initiatives in cleaner production was started in Austria in 1992 by the BMVIT ( Bundesministerium für Verkehr , Innovation und Technologie ) . This resulted in two initiatives : `` Prepare '' and EcoProfit . The `` PIUS '' initiative was founded in Germany in 1999 . Since 1994 , the United Nations Industrial Development Organization operates the National Cleaner Production Centre Programme with centres in Central America , South America , Africa , Asia , and Europe .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Cleaner_production",
"rank": 5,
"score": 80066
},
{
"content": "Title: Crops for the Future (CFF) Content: Crops for the Future , known by its acronym CFF , is an independent international organisation with a mandate to promote and facilitate the greater use of neglected and underutilised crops for enhanced diversification of agricultural systems and human diets , particularly for the benefit of poor people in developing countries . Crops for the Future is the only such organisation exclusively dedicated to an agenda increasingly recognised as important to achieving food security in a sustainable manner and making use of local agricultural biodiversity .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Crops_for_the_Future_(CFF)",
"rank": 6,
"score": 79123
},
{
"content": "Title: Intensive crop farming Content: Intensive crop farming is a modern form of intensive farming that refers to the industrialized production of crops . Intensive crop farming 's methods include innovation in agricultural machinery , farming methods , genetic engineering technology , techniques for achieving economies of scale in production , the creation of new markets for consumption , patent protection of genetic information , and global trade . These methods are widespread in developed nations . The practice of industrial agriculture is a relatively recent development in the history of agriculture , and the result of scientific discoveries and technological advances . Innovations in agriculture beginning in the late 19th century generally parallel developments in mass production in other industries that characterized the latter part of the Industrial Revolution . The identification of nitrogen and phosphorus as critical factors in plant growth led to the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers , making more intensive uses of farmland for crop production possible . Similarly , the discovery of vitamins and their role in animal nutrition , in the first two decades of the 20th century , led to vitamin supplements , which in the 1920s allowed certain livestock to be raised indoors , reducing their exposure to adverse natural elements . The discovery of antibiotics and vaccines facilitated raising livestock in larger numbers by reducing disease . Chemicals developed for use in World War II gave rise to synthetic pesticides . Developments in shipping networks and technology have made long-distance distribution of produce feasible .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Intensive_crop_farming",
"rank": 7,
"score": 78918
},
{
"content": "Title: Issues in American commodity farming Content: Aside from food production , industrial agriculture also provides fuel sources and provides export opportunities . The three commodity crops are predominate : corn , soybeans and wheat . Every year , farmers use 50 e6acre to 70 e6acre for cultivating each of these three crops .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Issues_in_American_commodity_farming",
"rank": 8,
"score": 78731
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandemic Content: A pandemic ( from Greek πᾶν pan `` all '' and δῆμος demos `` people '' ) is an epidemic of infectious disease that has spread through human populations across a large region ; for instance multiple continents , or even worldwide . A widespread endemic disease that is stable in terms of how many people are getting sick from it is not a pandemic . Further , flu pandemics generally exclude recurrences of seasonal flu . Throughout history , there have been a number of pandemics , such as smallpox and tuberculosis . One of the most devastating pandemics was the Black Death , killing over 75 million people in 1350 . The most recent pandemics include the HIV pandemic as well as the 1918 and 2009 H1N1 pandemics .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandemic",
"rank": 9,
"score": 78087
},
{
"content": "Title: The Triumph of Technique Content: The Triumph of Technique : The Industrialization of Agriculture and the Destruction of Rural America is a 2004 book by Robert Wolf . The Triumph of Technique examines contemporary agriculture and its impact on rural economies . This book has been hailed by leaders of the sustainable agriculture movement as a significant contribution to understanding the depth of the current crisis in agriculture and its implications . The `` technique '' of the title refers not only to technologies but to any methods developed for the purpose of achieving predetermined ends . Wolf argues that technique , as he defines it , has taken the art out of farming by transforming it into agribusiness , on a much larger scale . He claims that this transformation has led to the decline of rural communities . Category :2004 books Category : Agriculture books Category : Intensive farming",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "The_Triumph_of_Technique",
"rank": 10,
"score": 77959
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial crop Content: An industrial crop , also called a non-food crop , is a crop grown to produce goods for manufacturing , for example of fibre for clothing , rather than food for consumption .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Industrial_crop",
"rank": 11,
"score": 77913
},
{
"content": "Title: Mechanised agriculture Content: Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanise the work of agriculture , greatly increasing farm worker productivity . In modern times , powered machinery has replaced many farm jobs formerly carried out by manual labour or by working animals such as oxen , horses and mules . The entire history of agriculture contains many examples of the use of tools , such as the hoe and the plough . But the ongoing integration of machines since the Industrial Revolution has allowed farming to become much less labour-intensive . Current mechanised agriculture includes the use of tractors , trucks , combine harvesters , countless types of farm implements , aeroplanes and helicopters ( for aerial application ) , and other vehicles . Precision agriculture even uses computers in conjunction with satellite imagery and satellite navigation ( GPS guidance ) to increase yields . Mechanisation was one of the large factors responsible for urbanisation and industrial economies . Besides improving production efficiency , mechanisation encourages large scale production and sometimes can improve the quality of farm produce . On the other hand , it can displace unskilled farm labour and can cause environmental degradation ( such as pollution , deforestation , and soil erosion ) , especially if it is applied shortsightedly rather than holistically .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Mechanised_agriculture",
"rank": 12,
"score": 77742
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandurang Vasudeo Sukhatme Content: Pandurang Vasudeo Sukhatme ( 1911 -- 1997 ) was an Indian statistician who did pioneering work in the 1940s by applying random sampling methods in agricultural statistics and in biometry . He was influential in the establishment of the Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute . Later , while working at FAO in Rome , he developed statistical models for assessing the dimensions of hunger and future food supplies for the world . He also developed methods for measuring the size and nature of the protein gap . Another of his major contributions was the application of statistical techniques for studying human nutrition . One of his ideas , the Sukhatme -- Margen hypothesis , suggested that at low calorie intake levels , stored energy in the body is used with greater metabolic efficiency and that the metabolic efficiency decreases as the intake increases above the homeostatic range . This involved paying attention to intra-individual variability that was found to be more than the inter-individual variability in protein or calorie intake . He gave a genetic interpretation of the intra-individual variation jointly with P. Narain . He was conferred the Padma Bhushan by the President of India in 1971 .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandurang_Vasudeo_Sukhatme",
"rank": 13,
"score": 77280
},
{
"content": "Title: FHCRAA Content: The Future Harvest Consortium to Rebuild Agriculture in Afghanistan ( FHCRAA ) is a consortium of aid organizations working to restructure agriculture in the central Asian nation . In the beginning of January 2002 , ICARDA , with the support of USAID , brought together 34 organizations including CGIAR centers and other research institutes , relief and development organizations , NGOs , U.S. universities , donor agencies and the Afghanistan Ministry of Agriculture at a meeting in Tashkent , Uzbekistan . FHCRAA was the result . The first stage was to identify areas , aid recipients and donor agency capabilities . The most important parters were USAID , CGIAR , ICARDA -LSB- International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas -RSB- and ICRIST ( International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ) . CGIAR is a strategic alliance of countries , international and regional organizations , and private foundations supporting 15 international agricultural centers that work with national agricultural programs and civil society organizations including the private sector .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "FHCRAA",
"rank": 14,
"score": 76781
},
{
"content": "Title: Notifiable disease Content: A notifiable disease is any disease that is required by law to be reported to government authorities . The collation of information allows the authorities to monitor the disease , and provides early warning of possible outbreaks . In the case of livestock diseases , there may also be the legal requirement to destroy the infected livestock upon notification . Many governments have enacted regulations for reporting of both human and animal ( generally livestock ) diseases . This usually happens during pandemics .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Notifiable_disease",
"rank": 15,
"score": 76764
},
{
"content": "Title: Prevention of Genocide Task Force Content: On 8 December 2008 , the Genocide Prevention Task Force , co-chaired by Madeleine Albright , a former US Secretary of State , and William Cohen , a former US Secretary of Defense , released its final report which concludes that the US government can prevent genocide and mass atrocities in the future . In the words of Mr. Cohen , `` This report provides a blueprint that can enable the United States to take preventive action , along with international partners , to forestall the specter of future cases of genocide and mass atrocities . '' Recommendations include : a proactive role of the US president which would demonstrate to the US and the world that preventing genocide and mass atrocities is a national priority creating a body within the United States National Security Council to analyze threats and consider preventative action set up a fund of $ 250 million for crisis prevention and response help create an international network for the sharing of information and the coordination of preventative action",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Prevention_of_Genocide_Task_Force",
"rank": 16,
"score": 76019
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandesara Content: Pandesara is an Industrial Area in city of Surat , India . It is about 10 km from Surat central Railway Station and 5 km from Udhana . It hosts more than 230 industries and is home to 150,000 residents . Once , Pandesara was a small village in Surat district , but owing to the establishment of industries it became a large commercial hub . It comes under Surat Municipal Corporation . Pandesara was the only area of Surat which was not affected by the floods of 2006 owing to its elevation , the highest in Surat . Pandesara adjoins to City Light , Althan , Sachin and Udhana .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandesara",
"rank": 17,
"score": 75569
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution prevention Content: Pollution prevention reduces the amount of pollution generated by a process , whether by industry , agriculture , or consumers . In contrast to most pollution control strategies , which seek to manage a pollutant after it is emitted and reduce its impact upon the environment , the pollution prevention approach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process , the reducing the amount of pollution generated at its source . Although there is wide agreement that source reduction is the preferred strategy , some professionals also use the term pollution prevention to include pollution reduction . With increasing human population , pollution has become a great concern . Pollution from human activities is a problem that does not have to be inevitable . With a comprehensive pollution prevention program , most pollution can be reduced , reused , or prevented . The US Environmental Protection Agency works to introduce pollution prevention programs to reduce and manage waste . Reducing and managing pollution may decrease the number of deaths and illnesses from pollution-related diseases .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pollution_prevention",
"rank": 18,
"score": 75558
},
{
"content": "Title: National Farm Safety & Health Week Content: National Farm Safety & Health Week is a week of commemoration , recognized annually on the third week of September in the United States . In 1944 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the first proclamation for farm safety due to the high injury rate in agriculture . Agriculture is one of the most hazardous industries with a death rate of 23.2 deaths per 100,000 workers annually according to U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2013 . However , many injuries are preventable through education . Serious injuries and death can be prevented by cautiously approaching field adjustments or repairs , taking precautions to avoid slips and falls , making smart decisions while assigning tasks to youth , using and maintaining the slow moving vehicle emblem correctly , and retrofitting tractors with rollover structures . In September 2015 , President Obama gave an official proclamation to accentuate the importance of agriculture for our society and economy as well as affirm farm safety and health programs `` America 's farmers and ranchers have played a critical role in shaping our progress and forging a better future for coming generations . Through centuries of hard work , they have supplied our Nation with products and services essential to the economic and physical well-being of our society . `` Across our country , those who work on farms bolster our economy and nourish our people by providing what we need at a most human level , helping to uphold America 's founding creed : Out of many , we are one . This week , let us recognize the steadfast dedication and commitment of agricultural producers and their families , and let us reaffirm our resolve to promote their health and safety . '' Over the years , the development and dissemination of National Farm Safety & Health Week materials shifted from the National Safety Council to National Education Center for Ag Safety ( NECAS ) . NECAS is the agricultural partner for the National Safety Council and has been serving the agricultural family and business community since 1997 . Each year they provide farmers with programs and materials to promote farmer safety and health .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "National_Farm_Safety_&_Health_Week",
"rank": 19,
"score": 75321
},
{
"content": "Title: Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems Content: Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems is a competitive research grants program authorized in the Agricultural Research , Extension , and Education Reform Act of 1998 ( P.L. 105-185 ) and reauthorized in the 2002 farm bill ( P.L. 107-171 , Sec . 7205 ) . The law allows mandatory funds available from savings in food stamp program administration to be used to support the program . Grants were awarded in FY2000 and FY2001 ; in all other years congressional appropriators have prohibited USDA from spending funds on personnel to operate the program except for oversight of existing grants .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Initiative_for_Future_Agriculture_and_Food_Systems",
"rank": 20,
"score": 75007
},
{
"content": "Title: PANACA Content: PANACA ( Parque Nacional De La Cultura Agropecuaria ) is a farming theme park that promotes contact between humans and nature , intended for those who live in the city and to create awareness about nature . The park was created in Quimbaya , in the Coffee Area of Colombia by a group of businessmen in 1990 , and today , is one of the biggest agricultural parks in the country .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "PANACA",
"rank": 21,
"score": 74574
},
{
"content": "Title: Future Group Content: Future Group is an Indian private conglomerate , headquartered in Mumbai . The company is known for having a significant prominence in Indian retail and fashion sectors , with popular supermarket chains like Big Bazaar and Food Bazaar , lifestyle stores like Brand Factory , Central etc. and also for having a notable presence in integrated foods and FMCG manufacturing sectors . Future Retail ( initially Pantaloons Retail India Ltd ( PRIL ) ) and Future Lifestyle Fashions , two operating companies of Future Group , are among the top retail companies listed in BSE with respect to assets , and in NSE with respect to market capitalization . On May 2012 , Future Group announced 50.1 % stake sale of its fashion chain Pantaloons to Aditya Birla Group in order to reduce its debt of around . To do so , Pantaloons fashion segment was demerged from Pantaloons Retail India Ltd ; the latter was then merged into another subsidiary -- Future Value Retail Ltd -- and rechristened Future Retail Ltd. .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Future_Group",
"rank": 22,
"score": 74498
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial production Content: Industrial production is a measure of output of the industrial sector of the economy . The industrial sector includes manufacturing , mining , and utilities . Although these sectors contribute only a small portion of gross domestic product ( GDP ) , they are highly sensitive to interest rates and consumer demand . This makes industrial production an important tool for forecasting future GDP and economic performance . Industrial production figures are also used by central banks to measure inflation , as high levels of industrial production can lead to uncontrolled levels of consumption and rapid inflation .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Industrial_production",
"rank": 23,
"score": 73208
},
{
"content": "Title: The Automated Society Content: In a diagram from the book The Automated Society , Bloomfield defines the history of humanity beginning over two million years ago and ending over a hundred thousand years in the future . The diagram is base on biological punctuated equilibrium and a parallel cultural evolution . The predictions of the future follow what has happened in the past . The diagram of history shows humanity having long periods of stability interrupted with short periods of transition . Humanity is currently experiencing one of those short periods of transition , from a stable agricultural period going through a transitional industrial society leading to a stable automated period . Productivity is the key to the transition ; when it is impossible to increase productivity , humanity will have arrived at the automated society . Before humanity enters the automated society , we will suffer from two near term trends . One trend is the relentlessly increasing number of human beings . The second is the relentlessly decreasing number of jobs . Jobs will be eliminated by substituting men with machines . An example of this is agriculture where once in the peasant society there were ninety percent of the people working as farmers . With the introduction of tractors , only three percent of Americans work on the farm . Once the problems of the lack of jobs , increased pollution and fewer natural resources are solved and the food factory put in operation , there should be a reconciliation of man to automation . In the automated society , men will live in affluence along with a total control of population . The one place where man will have an unlimited future will be in space . Space can provide for an unlimited increase in population and potentially the introduction of new human biological species .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "The_Automated_Society",
"rank": 24,
"score": 73173
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandemic (board game) Content: Pandemic is a cooperative board game designed by Matt Leacock and published by Z-Man Games in 2007 . Pandemic is based on the premise that four diseases have broken out in the world , each threatening to wipe out a region . The game accommodates 2 to 4 players , each playing one of five possible specialists : dispatcher , medic , scientist , researcher , or operations expert . The game is unlike most board games in that the gameplay is cooperative , rather than competitive . Through the combined effort of all the players , the goal is to discover all four cures before any of several game-losing conditions are reached . Three expansions , Pandemic : On the Brink , Pandemic : In the Lab , and Pandemic : State of Emergency , co-designed by Matt Leacock and Tom Lehmann , each add several new roles and special events , as well as rule adjustments to allow a fifth player or to play in teams . In addition , several rule expansions are included , referred to as `` challenge kits '' . Pandemic is considered one of the most successful cooperative games that has reached mainstream market sales , condensing the type of deep strategy offered by earlier cooperative games , like Arkham Horror , into a game that can be played in a limited time by a wider range of players . Pandemic Legacy : Season 1 , a spinoff version of Pandemic , which adds an ongoing storyline to the game , is currently rated by the website Board Game Geek as the greatest board game ever made .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandemic_(board_game)",
"rank": 25,
"score": 72867
},
{
"content": "Title: Genocide prevention Content: Genocide Prevention is any act or actions that works toward averting a future genocide . One of the main goals of the United Nations with the passage of the Genocide Convention after the Second World War and Holocaust is to prevent future genocide from taking place . Since genocides take a lot of planning , resources , and involved parties to carry out , they do not just happen instantaneously . Using risk assessments , policy makers and NGO 's can predict how at risk a country is for genocide . From this assessment of the risk , appropriate steps can be taken to stop a situation from evolving into a genocide . The overriding aim of genocide prevention is to prevent genocide entirely before a crisis or violence begins .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Genocide_prevention",
"rank": 26,
"score": 72358
},
{
"content": "Title: The Future of Forestry Content: The Future of Forestry is a poem by C. S. Lewis and one of three poems , along with `` Under Sentence '' and `` Pan 's Purge '' , where he expressed concern about the impact that modern society and technology would have on the countryside . It was first published in The Oxford Magazine in February 1938 and contains themes of social critique that would be present in Lewis 's later Narnia series . The poem has been compared to later poems , such as Philip Larkin 's 1972 work `` Going , Going '' . The name of the poem helped influence the naming of the California band Future of Forestry .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "The_Future_of_Forestry",
"rank": 27,
"score": 71929
},
{
"content": "Title: Pantnagar Content: Pantnagar is a town and a university campus in Udham Singh Nagar district , Uttarakhand . Nainital , Kashipur , Rudrapur and Kiccha , Haldwani are the major cities surrounding Pantnagar . The town is famous for having the first agricultural university of India which was established on 17 November 1960 . Previously the university was called the Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University or Pantnagar University . It was rechristened G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology . keeping in view the contributions of Pt . Govind Ballabh Pant , the then Chief Minister of UP . In recent years , an integrated industrial estate has been established near the campus which houses companies such as Tata motor , Bajaj , Britannia , HP , HCL , Voltas , Schneider Electric , Nestle , Dabur , Vedanta Resources etc. , as a part of SIDCUL industrial area developed by government owned State Industrial Development Corporation of Uttarakhand Limited .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pantnagar",
"rank": 28,
"score": 71821
},
{
"content": "Title: College of Agriculture, Pantnagar Content: The College of Agriculture , Pantnagar , India , is a constituent of Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology , Pantnagar . It was opened on 17 November 1960 when Jawaharlal Nehru , the first Prime Minister of India , inaugurated the university . It has a triple mandate of teaching , research and extension . The college has more than 200 faculty members engaged in agricultural sciences . The college has played a role in the Green Revolution in the country . More than 185 varieties of crops like cereals , pulses , oilseeds , forages , fruits and vegetables , etc. have been released . The 4 year Bachelor of Science in Agriculture ( BScAg ) is the flagship course of the college .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "College_of_Agriculture,_Pantnagar",
"rank": 29,
"score": 71634
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandemic (disambiguation) Content: A pandemic is a large epidemic . Pandemic may also refer to : Pandemic ( board game ) , a board game by Z-Man Games Pandemic ( comics ) , a Marvel Comics fictional character Pandemic ( film ) , a 2016 American science-fiction film Pandemic ( novel ) , 2014 sci-fi novel by Scott Sigler `` Pandemic '' ( South Park ) , the 177th episode of Comedy Central 's South Park `` Pandemic 2 : The Startling '' , the 178th episode of Comedy Central 's South Park ( continuation of above episode ) Pandemic ( TV miniseries ) , a 2007 Hallmark production starring Tiffani Thiessen and Faye Dunaway Pandemic Studios , a defunct video game developer ( The Saboteur , Star Wars Battlefront I and II )",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandemic_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 30,
"score": 71552
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial applicability Content: In certain jurisdictions ' patent law , industrial applicability or industrial application is a patentability requirement according to which a patent can only be granted for an invention which is susceptible of industrial application , i.e. for an invention which can be made or used in some kind of industry . In this context , the concept of `` industry '' is far-reaching : it includes agriculture , for instance . An example of invention which would not be susceptible of industrial application is `` a method of contraception -LSB- ... -RSB- to be applied in the private and personal sphere of a human being '' . In relationship with United States patent law , the utility requirement is a more or less corresponding , but different , requirement .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Industrial_applicability",
"rank": 31,
"score": 71263
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 Content: __ NOTOC __ The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 ( PPA ) in the United States created a national policy to have pollution prevented or reduced at the source wherever possible . It also expanded the Toxics Release Inventory . The Pollution Prevention Act focused industry , government , and public attention on reducing the amount of pollution through cost-effective changes in production , operation , and raw materials use . Opportunities for source reduction are often not realized because of existing regulations , and the industrial resources required for compliance , focus on treatment and disposal .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pollution_Prevention_Act_of_1990",
"rank": 32,
"score": 71142
},
{
"content": "Title: College of Technology, Pantnagar Content: College of Technology , Pantnagar also known as COT , Pantnagar or COT , is a state government funded engineering college located at Pantnagar in the state of Uttarakhand , India . It was established under the then Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University and now called Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology . The College of Technology was established in this university in 1962 . It has eleven departments that offer eight Bachelor of Technology ( B. Tech . ) degree programmes . The college also offers 24 postgraduate programs including a self-financed MCA program . The College is an institute in the world bank project for Technical Education Quality Improvement Program ( TEQIP ) and is also the Regional Academy Centre of CISCO . The institute also holds ISO 9001:2000 certification . The college receives financial aid from various sources including All India Council of Technical Education ( AICTE ) , University Grants Commission ( UGC ) , Department of Science and Technology ( DST ) , Indian Council of Agricultural Research ( ICAR ) and the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research ( CSIR ) in addition to aid from the Department of Higher Education , Government of Uttarakhand .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "College_of_Technology,_Pantnagar",
"rank": 33,
"score": 71123
},
{
"content": "Title: Agriculture Content: Agriculture or farming is the cultivation and breeding of animals , plants and fungi for food , fiber , biofuel , medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life . Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization , whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization . The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science . The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years , and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates , cultures , and technologies . Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology . Modern agronomy , plant breeding , agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers , and technological developments have in many cases sharply increased yields from cultivation , but at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects . Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat , but have raised concerns about animal welfare and the health effects of the antibiotics , growth hormones , and other chemicals commonly used in industrial meat production . Genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture , although they are banned in several countries . Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts . Significant degradation of land and water resources , including the depletion of aquifers , has been observed in recent decades , and the effects of global warming on agriculture and of agriculture on global warming are still not fully understood . The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods , fibers , fuels , and raw materials . Specific foods include cereals ( grains ) , vegetables , fruits , oils , meats and spices . Fibers include cotton , wool , hemp , silk and flax . Raw materials include lumber and bamboo . Other useful materials are also produced by plants , such as resins , dyes , drugs , perfumes , biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants . Over one third of the world 's workers are employed in agriculture , second only to the service sector , although the percentages of agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly over the past several centuries .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Agriculture",
"rank": 34,
"score": 71006
},
{
"content": "Title: 2009 flu pandemic in Mexico Content: In March and April 2009 , an outbreak of a new strain of influenza commonly referred to as `` swine flu '' infected many people in Mexico and other parts of the world , causing illness ranging from mild to severe . Initial reports suggested that the outbreak had started in February due to farming practices at a pig farm half-owned by Smithfield Foods . Smithfield Foods stated that it had found no clinical signs or symptoms of the presence of swine influenza in the company 's swine herd , or among its employees at its joint ventures in Mexico , that it routinely administers influenza virus vaccination to their swine herds and that it conducts monthly testing for the presence of swine influenza . The new strain was identified as a combination of several different strains of Influenzavirus A , subtype H1N1 , including separate strains of this subtype circulating in humans and in pigs . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) have expressed serious concerns that the new strain , which transmits between humans and has had a relatively high mortality rate in the possible and confirmed Mexican cases , has the potential to become an influenza pandemic . It is reported that , because the virus is already widespread , containment will be impossible . As of April 27 , 2009 , all schools nationwide remained closed until at least May 6 . Health Minister Córdova noted that the number of new cases had declined during the three days : from 141 on Saturday to 119 on Sunday and 110 on Monday . It is unclear why there were more deaths in Mexico than in other areas , as there were multiple potential variables , such as a stronger strain of the virus or more exposure to it . No definite conclusion had been reached , however the CDC reported that swine flu viruses in the US and Mexico matched .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "2009_flu_pandemic_in_Mexico",
"rank": 35,
"score": 70996
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial Emissions Directive Content: The Industrial Emissions Directive ( Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions ( integrated pollution prevention and control ) ) is a European Union directive which commits European Union member states to control and reduce the impact of industrial emissions on the environment .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Industrial_Emissions_Directive",
"rank": 36,
"score": 70860
},
{
"content": "Title: Meet Your Meat Content: Meet Your Meat is a 2002 documentary about factory farming created by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , narrated by Alec Baldwin , and directed by Bruce Friedrich and Cem Akin . The documentary explores the treatment of animals in modern animal agriculture ( also known as industrial agriculture or factory farming ) . The film runs 12 minutes long . The film documents several cases of cruelty to animals , including : Egg-laying hens live in crowded cages , six or seven hens to one battery cage the size of a file drawer . Cattle are castrated , their horns are removed and third-degree burns ( livestock branding ) are inflicted on them , all without anesthetic . Cows used for their milk have calves removed from them shortly after birth . These calves are sent to veal farms . Chickens bred and drugged to grow so quickly that their hearts , lungs , and limbs often ca n't keep up . Mother pigs ( sows ) are confined to gestation crates that are so small that the pigs can not turn around or even lie down . Chickens ' and turkeys ' beaks are burned or cut off without anesthetic . Meet Your Meat helped influence Burger King to adopt more humane policies .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Meet_Your_Meat",
"rank": 37,
"score": 70742
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandemic (miniseries) Content: Pandemic is a 2007 Hallmark Channel original mini-series with an ensemble cast . It premiered on Saturday , May 26 , 2007 at 8:00 PM as part of Hallmark Channel 's `` Uncharted Adventures '' weekend . It is now available on DVD through Hallmark Entertainment .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandemic_(miniseries)",
"rank": 38,
"score": 70624
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 Content: The Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 is a bill that was introduced in the United States House of Representatives by Ron Paul ( R-Texas ) and Barney Frank ( D-Massachusetts ) on April 2 , 2009 . Also known as H.R. 1866 , the bill clarifies the differences between marijuana and industrial hemp as well as repeals federal laws that prohibit American farmers from cultivating industrial hemp . Industrial hemp is the non-psychoactive , low-THC , oilseed and fibers varieties of the cannabis sativa plant . Hemp is a sustainable resource that can be used to create thousands of different products including fuel , fabrics , paper , household products , and food and has been used for hundreds of centuries by civilizations around the world . If H.R. 1866 passes American farmers will be permitted to compete in global hemp markets . On March 10 , 2009 , both Paul and Frank wrote a letter to their Congressional colleagues urging them to support the legislation . This bill was previously introduced in 2005 under the title of Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005 .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Industrial_Hemp_Farming_Act_of_2009",
"rank": 39,
"score": 70474
},
{
"content": "Title: Future food technology Content: New food technologies can offer solutions to malnutrition . According to the WHO ( World Healthcare Organization ) approximately 30 % of global population is malnourished . It is suggested that by 2020 the whole European Union will consume less food than China and India together .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Future_food_technology",
"rank": 40,
"score": 70456
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandemic (comics) Content: Pandemic ( Richard Palance ) is a fictional supervillan in Marvel Comics who was first mentioned in X-Men vol . 2 # 188 ( 2006 ) and appeared in X-Men vol . 2 # 194 ( 2007 ) . He was created by Mike Carey and Humberto Ramos .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandemic_(comics)",
"rank": 41,
"score": 70429
},
{
"content": "Title: Dan James Pantone Content: Dan James Pantone is an American ecologist and conservationist with a Ph.D. from the University of California , Davis . A former professor at Texas A&M University , Dr. Pantone is a researcher who has published numerous refereed articles on agroecology and sustainable agriculture . In addition , he is a specialist in Geographical Information Systems ( GIS ) which he has used to help conserve endangered species . Dr. Pantone has established his broad experience in numerous scientific disciplines by publishing diverse articles ranging from the biological control of pests to the conservation biology of endangered species .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Dan_James_Pantone",
"rank": 42,
"score": 70174
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandemic (film) Content: Pandemic is a 2016 American science fiction thriller film based on the eponymous board game directed by John Suits and written by Dustin T. Benson . Rachel Nichols stars as a doctor who leads a group to find survivors of a worldwide pandemic . The film is shot in a first-person POV , similar to first-person shooter video games .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandemic_(film)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 69797
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooperation for a Green Future Content: Cooperation for a Green Future is a non-profit foundation in the Republic of Georgia working to identify and assess environmental problems , and develop and implement innovative solutions . Their work focuses on environmental issues within the context of physical and social processes and structures . The organization seeks to create and spread within the Georgian public a common vision for a socially progressive and ecologically sustainable society , identify potential pathways toward realizing this vision , and implement specific projects and tasks in this direction . Currently , the organization conducts projects to mitigate the effects of lead pollution , to encourage the use of public transport , and to facilitate the implementation of industrial ecology practices in Georgia .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Cooperation_for_a_Green_Future",
"rank": 44,
"score": 69738
},
{
"content": "Title: Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (Queensland) Content: Agriculture and Fisheries is a department of the Queensland Government which aims to maximise the economic potential for Queensland 's primary industries on a sustainable basis through strategic industrial development . The unit was formerly known as the Department of Primary Industries which was established on 26 September 1963 .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Department_of_Agriculture,_Fisheries_and_Forestry_(Queensland)",
"rank": 45,
"score": 69294
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrielleneingabe Content: The Industrielleneingabe ( Industrial petition ) was a petition signed by twenty representatives of industry , finance , and agriculture on November 19 , 1932 , requesting that the President of Germany Paul von Hindenburg make Adolf Hitler the Chancellor of Germany . There had already been two similar attempts to assist the Nazi party in gaining control of the government , namely a petition by the Wirtschaftspolitischen Vereinigung Frankfurt ( Frankfurt Socioeconomic Union ) on July 27 , 1931 , and a declaration by 51 professors in July 1932 in Völkischer Beobachter . The idea for the Industrielleneingabe had emerged at the end of October 1932 in the Keppler-Kreis and was supported by Heinrich Himmler , who worked as a liaison to Brown House . The drafting of the letter was aided especially by Hjalmar Schacht , who was the only member of the Keppler-Kreis with any significant political experience . The Industrielleneingabe was first published in 1956 in the Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft and is used as evidence to support the idea that big business played a central role in the rise of the Nazi Party .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Industrielleneingabe",
"rank": 46,
"score": 69253
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandemic (novel) Content: Pandemic is a 2014 science fiction thriller novel by Scott Sigler and the final novel in the Infected trilogy . The book was released in hardback , e-book , and audiobook on January 21 , 2014 through Crown Publishing and is set several years after the events in Contagious .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandemic_(novel)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 69214
},
{
"content": "Title: Intensive farming Content: Intensive farming or intensive agriculture involves various types of agriculture with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area . It is characterised by a low fallow ratio , higher use of inputs such as capital and labour , and higher crop yields per unit land area . This contrasts with traditional agriculture , in which the inputs per unit land are lower . The term `` intensive '' involves various meanings , some of which refer to organic farming methods ( such as biointensive agriculture and French intensive gardening ) , and others that refer to nonorganic and industrial methods . Intensive animal farming involves either large numbers of animals raised on limited land , usually confined animal feeding operations ( CAFOs ) , often referred to as factory farms , or managed intensive rotational grazing ( MIRG ) , which has both organic and non-organic types . Both increase the yields of food and fiber per acre as compared to traditional animal husbandry . In CAFO , feed is brought to the seldom-moved animals , while in MIRG the animals are repeatedly moved to fresh forage . Most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways . Forms that rely especially heavily on industrial methods are often called industrial agriculture , which is characterised by innovations designed to increase yield . Techniques include planting multiple crops per year , reducing the frequency of fallow years , and improving cultivars . It also involves increased use of fertilizers , plant growth regulators , pesticides and mechanised agriculture , controlled by increased and more detailed analysis of growing conditions , including weather , soil , water , weeds and pests . This system is supported by ongoing innovation in agricultural machinery and farming methods , genetic technology , techniques for achieving economies of scale , logistics , and data collection and analysis technology . Intensive farms are widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide . Most of the meat , dairy , eggs , fruits and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced by such farms . Smaller intensive farms usually include higher inputs of labor and more often use sustainable intensive methods . The farming practices commonly found on such farms are referred to as appropriate technology . These farms are less widespread in both developed countries and worldwide , but are growing more rapidly . Most of the food available in specialty markets such as farmers markets is produced by these smallholder farms .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Intensive_farming",
"rank": 48,
"score": 69113
},
{
"content": "Title: Museum of Industry and Agriculture Content: The Museum of Industry and Agriculture ( Muzeum Przemysłu i Rolnictwa ) is a former museum of technology at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66 in Warsaw , Poland .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Museum_of_Industry_and_Agriculture",
"rank": 49,
"score": 69095
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecological farming Content: Ecological farming is recognised as the high-end objective among the proponents of sustainable agriculture . Ecological farming is not the same as organic farming , however there are many similarities and they are not necessarily incompatible . Ecological farming includes all methods , including organic , which regenerate ecosystem services like : prevention of soil erosion , water infiltration and retention , carbon sequestration in the form of humus , and increased biodiversity . Many techniques are used including no till , multispecies cover crops , strip cropping , terrace cultivation , shelter belts , pasture cropping etc. .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Ecological_farming",
"rank": 50,
"score": 69071
},
{
"content": "Title: Wild farming Content: The agricultural technique known as `` Wild Farming '' is a growing alternative to `` factory farming '' . Wild farming consists of planting crops that are highly associated and supportive to the natural ecosystem . This includes intercropping with native plants , following the contours and geography of the land , and supporting local food chains . The goal is to produce large crop yields , while still promoting a healthy environment . Wild farming is a backlash against the dominance of factory farming . Up until the mid 20th century , agricultural crop yields relied on natural inputs such as rainfall patterns , natural soil resources , recycling of organic matter , and built-in biological control mechanisms . Currently , agricultural practices have been conventionalized to include large monocropped fields and use of synthetics : pesticides and fertilizers . Avoiding the conventional farming practices , wild farming adopts many practices from sustainable agricultural systems such as agroecology , permaculture , forest farming , and greywater systems . The four basic guiding principles of the wild farming movement are : Direct managers to develop long-term vision for future of landscape Basic recognition of ecosystem processes . High value on biological diversity . To consider the quality of life of the community as well as the self .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Wild_farming",
"rank": 51,
"score": 68988
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandemic (South Park) Content: `` Pandemic '' is the tenth episode in the twelfth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 177th episode of the series overall , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on October 22 , 2008 . It is the first of a two-part episode . In the episode , the boys try to capitalize on a sudden rise in Peruvian flute bands , unwittingly becoming players in a demonic being 's plan to employ giant guinea pigs to attack the public . The storyline of this episode concludes in the next episode , `` Pandemic 2 : The Startling '' . The episode was written and directed by series co-creator Trey Parker .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandemic_(South_Park)",
"rank": 52,
"score": 68959
},
{
"content": "Title: Soil conservation Content: Soil conservation is the preventing of soil loss from erosion or reduced fertility caused by over usage , acidification , salinization or other chemical soil contamination . Slash-and-burn and other unsustainable methods of subsistence farming are practiced in some lesser developed areas . A sequel to the deforestation is typically large scale erosion , loss of soil nutrients and sometimes total desertification . Techniques for improved soil conservation include crop rotation , cover crops , conservation tillage and planted windbreaks and affect both erosion and fertility . When plants , especially trees , die , they decay and become part of the soil . Code 330 defines standard methods recommended by the US Natural Resources Conservation Service . Farmers have practiced soil conservation for millennia .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Soil_conservation",
"rank": 53,
"score": 68921
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee on Rural Economy, Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Environment Content: The Committee on Rural Economy Agriculture , Natural Resources and Environment is one of the Ten Permanent Committees of the Pan-African Parliament . Functions of the committee : Consider the development of common regional and continental policies in the agricultural sector . Assist the Parliament to oversee and assist with the harmonisation of policies for rural and agricultural development and promote the development policy and the implementation of programmes of the Union relating of natural resources and environment . The Chairperson of the Committee is Malik Hussein from Sudan . Louis Chimango from Malawi is Deputy Chairperson . Diop Hamdi Kalidou from Mauritania is Rapporteur . Rural Economy",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Committee_on_Rural_Economy,_Agriculture,_Natural_Resources,_and_Environment",
"rank": 54,
"score": 68904
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Agreement Content: When the Climate Change Levy was introduced in the United Kingdom , the position of energy-intensive industries was considered , given their energy usage , the requirements of the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control regime and their exposure to international competition . As a result , a 65 % discount from the levy was allowed for those sectors that agreed targets for improving their energy efficiency or reducing carbon emissions . The discount on electricity increased to 90 % in 2013 . An ` energy-intensive ' sector is one which either carries out activities which are listed as Part A ( 1 ) or A ( 2 ) activities in Part 2 of Schedule 1 to the Environmental Permitting ( England and Wales ) Regulations 2010 ( Statutory Instrument 2010 No. 675 ) ( as amended ) , or that satisfies energy intensity criteria provided by the Department of Energy and Climate Change . The regulations cover the ten main energy-intensive sectors of industry ( aluminium , cement , ceramics , chemicals , food and drink , foundries , glass , non-ferrous metals , paper , and steel ) and over thirty smaller sectors , and in agriculture , livestock units for the intensive rearing of pigs and poultry .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Agreement",
"rank": 55,
"score": 68850
},
{
"content": "Title: The Future of the American Negro Content: The Future of the American Negro , a book written in 1899 by American educator Booker T. Washington , set forth his ideas regarding the history of enslaved and freed African-American people and their need for education to advance themselves . It was re-published as a second edition in 1900 and was made available in electronic form in 2008 via Project Gutenberg . Background In the beginning of the book , the author mentions the term `` industrial education '' . Washington describes this term as meaning , learning the necessities to become a valuable member of society as well and being able to apply this knowledge to industrial business . He believes that even though slavery is illegal , the freed African-Americans are still enslaved to the white people . Those who are freed can not be members of society because they are not given the same opportunities . As the book continues , Booker T. Washington writes that in order to understand the stress he applies to industrial education , the reader must `` review the condition of affairs at the present time in the Southern States . '' He provides the information that the North and South are linked even though they were once at war . If the North can not provide education then the South will not provide it . Washington also states that the African-Americans are not superior , but that they are definitely not inferior to the white people . Slaves have had a hard time throughout their life in the United States . Their strength , knowledge , and perseverance has been tested by the white people that have run their lives for the longest time . Booker T. Washington asks , why should African-Americans have to prove themselves over and over when they have been proving themselves since they entered the country ? The author also reminds them that , `` An individual can not succeed unless that individual has a great amount of faith himself . '' African-Americans can have all the faith they want , but Washington argues that knowledge is needed to become useful members of society . Blacks have worked hard but will have to understand what they are working for . Throughout the book , Washington refers to Tuskegee , a university founded by himself and others . It was a historically black university in Tuskegee , Alabama . In The Future of an American Negro , Booker writes that the university is , `` placing men and women of intelligence , religion , modesty , conscience , and skill in every community in the South . '' Washington believes that Tuskegee University is providing the South with valuable members of society . In `` Chapter V '' , there is a reference to a study showing that some 3,000 graduates or students are doing `` commendable '' work in the Southern community . Near the end of the book , Washington describes the difference for freed slaves in the North and South . He reminds the reader that North has fewer employment option for black people which perpetuates the stress on the morals of an African-American . The South , however , having more opportunities for work and less stress on trying to do the right thing . He goes on to end the book with five principles that will aid African-Americans in their fight to have truly equal rights and opportunities . He states that these principle will be essential by saying , `` So long as the Negro is permitted to get education , acquire property , and secure employment , and is treated with respect in the business or commercials world , ... I shall have the greatest faith in his working out his own destiny in the Southern States . ''",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "The_Future_of_the_American_Negro",
"rank": 56,
"score": 68600
},
{
"content": "Title: Prevented planting acreage Content: Prevented planting , under crop insurance , refers to acreage that can not be planted because of flood , drought , or other natural disaster and so is eligibor indemnification . Also , prevented planting acreage may be excluded from the time frame used for calculating support program base acres .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Prevented_planting_acreage",
"rank": 57,
"score": 68562
},
{
"content": "Title: World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates Content: The World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates ( WASDE ) is a monthly report published by the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) providing comprehensive forecast of supply and demand for major crops ( global and United States ) and livestock ( U.S. only ) . The report provides an analysis of the fundamental condition of the agricultural commodity markets for the use of farmers , governments and other market participants . The WASDE report is compiled using information from a number of statistical reports produced by the USDA and other government agencies . It is widely considered to be the benchmark to which all other private and public agricultural forecasts are compared . The recent releases of the WASDE report provide forecasts covering : Crops ( U.S. and global ) including wheat , rice , corn , sorghum , barley , oats , soybeans , cotton , and sugar . Livestock ( U.S. only ) including meat animals , poultry , and dairy . The WASDE report is generally released between the 8th and 12th of each month at 12:00 noon Eastern Time . It is available in electronic form ( as a PDF or text file ) and can be downloaded from the USDA website from the time of release . Subscription to the report can be made through the Albert R. Mann Library for delivery by e-mail shortly after release on the Internet . As a work of the United States government , the WASDE reports are released into the public domain in accordance with U.S. copyright law , .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "World_Agricultural_Supply_and_Demand_Estimates",
"rank": 58,
"score": 68437
},
{
"content": "Title: National Agriculture Market Content: e-NAM ( National Agricultural Market ) is a pan-India electronic trading portal launched by Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers ' Welfare , Govt of India , to facilitate farmers , traders , buyers , exporters and processors with a common platform for trading commodities . It currently links 250 APMCs ( Agriculture Produce Marketing Committees ) from across 10 states . The Portal is managed by Small Farmers ' Agribusiness Consortium ( SFAC ) appointed by the Ministry in association with a group of strategic partner selected for the purpose . Traders and exporters need to get themselves registered with the portal to access its services . 69 commodities including staple food grains , vegetables and fruits are currently listed in its list of commodities available for trade .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "National_Agriculture_Market",
"rank": 59,
"score": 68163
},
{
"content": "Title: Farmers Undertake Environmental Land Stewardship Act Content: The Farmers Undertake Environmental Land Stewardship Act is a bill that would require the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) to modify the Spill Prevention , Control , and Countermeasure ( SPCC ) rule , which regulates oil discharges into navigable waters and adjoining shorelines . The rule requires certain farmers to develop an oil spill prevention plan that is certified by a professional engineer and may require them to make infrastructure changes . According to supporters , this bill would `` ease the burden placed on farmers and ranchers '' by making it easier for smaller farms to self-certify and raising the level of storage capacity under which farms are exempted . These rules apply to any storage units that contain oil , whether petroleum products or animal fats . The bill was introduced into the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Farmers_Undertake_Environmental_Land_Stewardship_Act",
"rank": 60,
"score": 68145
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013 Content: The Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013 is a law enacted by the 113th United States Congress . The Act amends the Public Health Service Act in order to extend , fund , and improve several programs designed to prepare the United States and health professionals in the event of a pandemic , epidemic , or biological , chemical , radiological , or nuclear accident or attack . The Act clarifies the authority of different American officials , makes it easier to temporarily reassign personnel to respond to emergency situations , and alters the process for testing and producing medical countermeasures . The Act is focused on improving preparedness for any public health emergency .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandemic_and_All-Hazards_Preparedness_Reauthorization_Act_of_2013",
"rank": 61,
"score": 68121
},
{
"content": "Title: U.S. Farmers and Ranchers Alliance Content: The U.S. Farmers and Ranchers Alliance is an alliance of agriculture related advocacy groups and organizations that promote industrial agriculture in the United States . Their aim is to promote a positive image of modern agricultural practices . They are supported by checkoff funds from the United States Department of Agriculture and by cooperate donations . They have been criticized for not including organic agriculture , close ties with Big Ag , and underplaying the overuse of antibiotics in animal feed .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "U.S._Farmers_and_Ranchers_Alliance",
"rank": 62,
"score": 67877
},
{
"content": "Title: Small-scale agriculture Content: Small-scale agriculture is an alternative to factory farming or more broadly , intensive agriculture or unsustainable farming methods that are prevalent in primarily first world countries . It is sometimes identified with sustainable agriculture Environmental Health Perspectives has noted that `` Sustainable agriculture is not merely a package of prescribed methods . More important , it is a change in mind set whereby agriculture acknowledges its dependence on a finite natural resource base -- including the finite quality of fossil fuel energy that is now a critical component of conventional farming systems . '' Small-scale agriculture includes a number of sustainable agriculture practices such as : organic farming , which may follow rules and regulations set by International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements ( IFOAM ) permaculture , which provides a holistic methodology for farm design arable land use , arable land ( from Latin arare , to plough ) is a form of agricultural land use , meaning land that can be ( and is ) used for growing crops . David Ricardo incorporated the idea of arable land into economic theory . non-arable land use pastoral , pastoral refers to the lifestyle of shepherds and pastoralists , moving livestock around larger areas of land according to seasons and availability of water and feed . rainfed agriculture biodynamic agriculture was developed by Rudolf Steiner , which consists of using herbal and homeopathic preparations for the cow dung/manure that is used extensively on the crops for fertilizer . The methods of food sustainability and economics are hotly debated . This is a question between agricultural economics and the draining of the largely unaccounted natural capital .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Small-scale_agriculture",
"rank": 63,
"score": 67782
},
{
"content": "Title: Influenza pandemic Content: An Influenza pandemic is an epidemic of an influenza virus that spreads on a worldwide scale and infects a large proportion of the world population . In contrast to the regular seasonal epidemics of influenza , these pandemics occur irregularly - there have been about 9 Influenza pandemics during the last 300 years . Pandemics can cause high levels of mortality , with the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic being the worst in recorded history - estimated to be responsible for the deaths of approximately 50-100 million people . There have been about three influenza pandemics in each century for the last 300 years , the most recent one being the 2009 flu pandemic . Influenza pandemics occur when a new strain of the influenza virus is transmitted to humans from another animal species . Species that are thought to be important in the emergence of new human strains are pigs , chickens and ducks . These novel strains are unaffected by any immunity people may have to older strains of human influenza and can therefore spread extremely rapidly and infect very large numbers of people . Influenza A viruses can occasionally be transmitted from wild birds to other species causing outbreaks in domestic poultry and may give rise to human influenza pandemics . The propagation of influenza viruses throughout the world is thought in part to be by bird migrations , though commercial shipments of live bird products might also be implicated , as well as human travel patterns . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) has produced a six-stage classification that describes the process by which a novel influenza virus moves from the first few infections in humans through to a pandemic . This starts with the virus mostly infecting animals , with a few cases where animals infect people , then moves through the stage where the virus begins to spread directly between people , and ends with a pandemic when infections from the new virus have spread worldwide . One strain of virus that may produce a pandemic in the future is a highly pathogenic variation of the H5N1 subtype of influenza A virus . On 11 June 2009 , a new strain of H1N1 influenza was declared to be a global pandemic ( Stage 6 ) by the WHO after evidence of spreading in the southern hemisphere . The 13 November 2009 worldwide update by the WHO stated that '' -LSB- a -RSB- s of 8 November 2009 , worldwide more than 206 countries and overseas territories or communities have reported -LSB- 503,536 -RSB- laboratory confirmed cases of pandemic influenza H1N1 2009 , including over 6,250 deaths . ''",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Influenza_pandemic",
"rank": 64,
"score": 67779
},
{
"content": "Title: Will's Future Content: Will 's Future is Taiwanese Mandopop artist Wilber Pan 's first Mandarin compilation album . It was released by Universal Music Taiwan on 18 July 2008 , between Will 's sixth album Play It Cool in 2007 and seventh album 007 in 2009 . The initial release contains two CDs and a bonus DVD with 12 music videos . It features three new tracks , two medley remixes and 29 previously released songs , from his debut album Gecko Stroll in 2002 to his sixth album Play It Cool in 2007 , as well as one track from Will Pan 's Freestyle Remix 2005 . The album is organized with dance tracks on CD one and ballads on CD two . One of the new tracks is the opening theme song , '' 夏日瘋 '' ( Summer Craze ) of 2008 Taiwanese drama Miss No Good , starring Will , Rainie Yang and Dean Fujioka . A second edition was released by Universal Music Taiwan on 24 October 2008 , Will 's Future ( Trend Expert Limited Edition ) ( 3 CD ) with a bonus CD containing insert song , '' 同一個遺憾 '' ( Same Regret ) by Wilber Pan and Blue J , and four instrumental tracks from Miss No Good . The track '' 夏日瘋 '' ( Summer Craze ) is listed at number 52 on Hit Fm Taiwan 's Hit Fm Annual Top 100 Singles Chart ( Hit-Fm年度百首單曲 ) for 2008 .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Will's_Future",
"rank": 65,
"score": 67675
},
{
"content": "Title: Panjabrao Deshmukh Content: Panjabrao Shamrao Deshmukh ( Marathi : पंजाबराव शामराव देशमुख ) ( 27 December 1898 -- 10 April 1965 ) famously known as Bhausaheb Deshmukh was a social activist and a farmer 's leader in India . He was the Minister of Agriculture in the first cabinet of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in 1952 .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Panjabrao_Deshmukh",
"rank": 66,
"score": 67396
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable Table Content: Sustainable Table was created in 2003 by the nonprofit organization GRACE to help consumers understand the problems with our food supply and offer viable solutions and alternatives from sustainable agriculture . Rather than be overwhelmed by the problems created by our industrial agricultural system , Sustainable Table celebrates the joy of food and eating from sustainable food systems . Today 's dominant form of agriculture relies on synthetic fertilizers and chemical pesticides , large amounts of water , major transportation systems and factory-style practices for raising livestock and crops . Artificial hormones in milk , antibiotic-resistant bacteria , mad cow disease , and large-scale outbreaks of potentially deadly E. coli are all associated with this industrial form of food production . Sustainable agriculture involves food production methods that are healthy , do not harm the environment , respect workers , are humane to animals , provide fair wages to farmers , and support farming communities . But rather than focus on the problems , Sustainable Table promotes the positive shift toward local , small-scale sustainable farming . The program is home to the Eat Well Guide , an online directory of sustainable products in the U.S. and Canada , and the critically acclaimed , award-winning Meatrix movies - The Meatrix , The Meatrix II : Revolting and The Meatrix II 1/2 . Sustainable Table celebrates local sustainable food , educates consumers on food-related issues and works to build community through food .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Sustainable_Table",
"rank": 67,
"score": 67321
},
{
"content": "Title: State Agricultural Farm Content: __ NOTOC __ A State Agricultural Farm ( Państwowe Gospodarstwo Rolne , PGR ) was a form of collective farming in the People 's Republic of Poland , similar to Soviet sovkhoz and to the East German Volkseigenes Gut . They were created in 1949 as a form of socialist ownership of agricultural land by the government . They were primarily formed on the Regained Territories - lands that Poland acquired from Germany after the Second World War - but existed throughout Poland . Some farms took over farms of monasteries , e.g. in Szczyrzyc , see the picture . Relatively inefficient and subsidized by the government , most PGRs went bankrupt quickly after the fall of communism and adoption of a market economy by Poland . The state run many specialised farms , which bred and trained horses ( especially Arabians , e.g. Bask ) , bred cows , fishes , produced certified seed and potatoes . Some of the farms were state ones before the World War II . Many of the specialised farms still exist , controlled by the Agricultural Property Agency . Farms were created primarily on the basis of the earlier estates . Many of these households was founded on the Regained Territories . Low efficiency of work and extensive social benefits for workers in many cases led to disastrous management with low productivity , causing state deficit . After moving to the market economy under the Act of October 19 , 1991 on agricultural property of the Treasury collective farms were liquidated and their assets were taken over by the Agricultural Property Agency of the Treasury ( now Agricultural Property Agency ) , and their workers - 300 to 450 thousand people - joined the ranks of the unemployed . Households that have not been sold or leased were administered by the Agency of the State Treasury and managed by administrators appointed by the Agency . Then sought to sell or lease property holdings and the accompanying holdings , such as apartments , holiday resorts , etc. . The social base has also been a sale of land to individual farmers . The weakest part of the land remained undeveloped for several years . The process of selling and leasing land societies and social services continues . Liquidation of state-owned farms has often been restricted , or permanent abandonment of animal husbandry , crop production limitation , changes in farming methods . This led to a drastic reduction of jobs and the resulting wide range of local problems ; in many regions , PGR were the only employer , the new owners after restructuring usually significantly reduced the employment . State-owned farms were very often the organizers of social life , and theoretically adequately met all the needs of workers . Their downfall has often caused damage to the structure of the local communities , which were not adapted to the new situation of economic activity . It has also devastated the property - partly as a result of theft , partly because of the lack of elementary security . On 22 July 2008 in Bolegorzyn , near Złocieniec a museum of the State Farms was opened .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "State_Agricultural_Farm",
"rank": 68,
"score": 67308
},
{
"content": "Title: Agriculture in Connecticut Content: Agriculture played a major role in the early growth of Connecticut as one of the original 13 colonies that would form the United States of America , particularly in the Connecticut River valley which provided fertile soil , temperate climate and easy access to markets . As the Industrial Revolution helped focus capital on mercantile centers in the 19th century , Connecticut farmers over time ceded their relative economic and political influence . In the 21st century , farming remains a relatively small but still significant industry in Connecticut , employing some 12,000 people as of 2010 . Ending years of steady declines , between 2002 and 2012 the number of Connecticut farms increased 43 percent , with one possible cause an increased consumer appetite for locally sourced food , drawing some younger people to start up small farms . Connecticut had nearly 6,000 farms with 437,000 acres of land as of 2012 , producing $ 551 million in revenue that year . In 2012 , the total value of Connecticut farmland and buildings was $ 4.4 billion , down 3.5 % from 2011 . Connecticut farms received $ 141 million in federal subsidies between 1995 and 2012 , including commodity programs , conservation payments , crop insurance , and disaster aid , ranking it 45th of the 50 states .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Agriculture_in_Connecticut",
"rank": 69,
"score": 67175
},
{
"content": "Title: Pan African School of Theology Content: Pan African School of Theology ( PAST ) is an evangelical theological college located in Nyahururu , Kenya . PAST is a globally significant entity as the first academic institution in the world solely dedicated to engaging men and women of African descent in scholarly dialogue over Pan-African issues in theology and ethnic teleology from a Biblical perspective .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pan_African_School_of_Theology",
"rank": 70,
"score": 67152
},
{
"content": "Title: Baikampady Content: Baikampady is a place north of Panambur in Dakshina Kannada district . It is at 6 km from Surathkal.There is an industrial estate , where many small scale industries are located . The Baikampadi industrial estate has many electrical , engineering , leaf spring , hollow blocks and pharmaceutical industries . It serves nearby New Mangalore port ( NMPT ) , Mangalore Fertilizers and Mangalore petroleum refinery ( MRPL ) . There is market yard for agriculture produce ( APMC ) built few years ago is lying unutilised . Very famous Sri Ram Mandir kodical is also located in baikampady .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Baikampady",
"rank": 71,
"score": 67043
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of pig farming Content: The environmental impact of pig farming refers to the threats posed to the natural environment by large-scale pig farming . Industrial pig farming , a subset of concentrated animal feeding operations , poses numerous threats to the environment . CAFOs house thousands of swine and other farm animals in confined areas , where feces and waste often spread to surrounding neighborhoods , polluting air and water with toxic waste particles . Waste from these farms have the potential to carry pathogens , bacteria ( often antibiotic resistant ) , and heavy metals that can be toxic when ingested . Pig waste also contributes to groundwater pollution in the forms of groundwater seepage and waste spray , which is essentially the usage of a sprinkler to spray vats of pig waste into neighboring areas . The contents in the spray and waste drift have been shown to cause mucosal irritation , respiratory ailment , increased stress , decreased quality of life , and higher blood pressure . This improper way to get rid of waste is an attempt for CAFOs to be cost efficient . This presents an environmental injustice problem , since the communities do not receive any benefit from the operations , and instead , suffer negative externalities , such as pollution and health problems . The Agriculture and Consumer Health Department has stated explicitly that the `` main direct environmental impact of pig production is related to the manure produced .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_pig_farming",
"rank": 72,
"score": 66995
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 73,
"score": 66876
},
{
"content": "Title: Pesticide Action Network Content: Pesticide Action Network ( PAN ) is `` an international coalition of around 600 NGOs , citizens ' groups , and individuals in about 60 countries . '' PAN is involved in fighting problems caused by pesticide use , and advocates ecologically sound alternatives . Branches include PAN North America , U. K. , Germany , Mexico , Asia and Pacific , and Africa . In November 2010 , PAN publicized a leaked Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) memo that showed that the EPA suspected the crop spray clothianidin , manufactured by German agrochemical company Bayer , as a possible cause of bee colony collapse disorder . This pesticide has a conditional approval in the U. S. , where it is widely used on sugar beets , canola , soy , sunflowers , wheat , and corn , In December 2010 , PAN North America joined with other organizations in suing California , to challenge `` the state 's approval of the cancer-causing strawberry pesticide methyl iodide . ''",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pesticide_Action_Network",
"rank": 74,
"score": 66832
},
{
"content": "Title: Alberto Cárdenas Content: Alberto Cárdenas Jiménez ( born April 4 , 1958 in Zapotlán el Grande , Jalisco ) is a Mexican politician affiliated with the conservative National Action Party ( PAN ) . He is a former governor of Jalisco , and Secretary of Agriculture in the cabinet of Felipe Calderón ( 1 December 2006 - 7 September 2009 ) . In 2006 he was elected to the Senate for PAN , representing the state of Jalisco , with his term running until 2012 . Cárdenas received a bachelor 's degree in Industrial Engineering from the Ciudad Guzmán Technological Institute and both a master 's degree in Business Planning and Ph.D. in Industrial Engineering from the Polytechnical University of Madrid , in Spain . He was the mayor of Ciudad Guzmán from 1992 until 1994 and served as governor of Jalisco from 1995 until 2001 . After leaving the post he was appointed general director of the National Forestry Commission . From 2003 until 2005 he headed the Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources in the cabinet of Vicente Fox . On July 7 , 2005 he was formally registered in the presidential primary election of the National Action Party . He competed for the nomination with former fellow cabinet members Santiago Creel and Felipe Calderón , but ultimately lost to Calderón . In the general election of July 2 , 2006 , he was elected to the Senate for the PAN , representing the state of Jalisco . Cárdenas is married to Joann Novoa Mossberger and has three children : Andrea , Alberto and Álvaro .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Alberto_Cárdenas",
"rank": 75,
"score": 66818
},
{
"content": "Title: Could not care less Content:",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Could_not_care_less",
"rank": 76,
"score": 66695
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial Scars Content: Industrial Scars is an environmental photography project by J Henry Fair , which explores the detritus of our consumer society , through large-scale aerial photo shoots and accompanying documentary research . Industrial Scars subjects range from oil drilling and coal ash waste to large-scale agricultural production and abandoned mining operations . In small airplanes , Fair circles above industrial areas and photographs with a bird 's eye perspective the effects these operations have on our environment . Topics of particular interest to Fair include the global warming process , environmental pollution , and habitat destruction - all of which are illustrated in Fair 's photographs . With his photos , Fair has called attention to environmental and political problems in different regions of the world . Fair has had touring photography exhibits in the USA , Europe , and Asia . Additionally , he travels around the world , giving environmental symposia to teach audiences about consumer responsibility and environmental awareness . Images from the Industrial Scars series have been published in National Geographic Magazine , TIME Magazine , New York Magazine , and were featured on the TODAY Show .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Industrial_Scars",
"rank": 77,
"score": 66374
},
{
"content": "Title: G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology Content: Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology also known as GBPUA&T , Pantnagar University or Pantvarsity is the first agricultural university of India . It was inaugurated by Jawaharlal Nehru on 17 November 1960 as the `` Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University '' ( UPAU ) . Later the name was changed to `` Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology '' in 1972 in memory of the first Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh , statesman and Bharat Ratna recipient Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant . The University was declared as the best among all the other State Universities in India , in 1997 . The University lies in the campus-town of Pantnagar in the district of Udham Singh Nagar in the state of Uttarakhand . The university is regarded as the harbinger of Green Revolution in India .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "G._B._Pant_University_of_Agriculture_and_Technology",
"rank": 78,
"score": 66263
},
{
"content": "Title: Regenerative agriculture Content: Regenerative agriculture is an approach to food and farming systems that regenerates topsoil and enhances biodiversity now and long into the future . Regenerative Agriculture improves water cycles , enhances ecosystem services , increases resilience to climate fluctuation and strengthens the health and vitality of farming and ranching communities . Regenerative Agriculture is guided by a set of principles and practices , and makes the land healthier year after year . In this way it is based on outcomes , not practices , distinguishing it from most sustainable and conservation agriculture efforts . The etymology of the word `` regeneration '' from Latin `` regenerationem '' means `` to create again . ''",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Regenerative_agriculture",
"rank": 79,
"score": 66223
},
{
"content": "Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Future_Evolution",
"rank": 80,
"score": 65924
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrialisation Content: Industrialisation or industrialization is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial one , involving the extensive re-organisation of an economy for the purpose of manufacturing . As industrial workers ' incomes rise , markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds tend to expand and provide a further stimulus to industrial investment and economic growth .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Industrialisation",
"rank": 81,
"score": 65468
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandeli Cale Content: Pandeli Cale ( 1879 -- 1923 ) was one of the signatories of Albanian Declaration of Independence , who subsequently served as Minister of Agriculture in the Provisional Government of Albania .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandeli_Cale",
"rank": 82,
"score": 65444
},
{
"content": "Title: DreDDup discography Content: The discography of the Serbian industrial rock band dreDDup comprises seven studio albums , one live albums , one video album , and twenty music videos . The band released their debut album , Mr Borndeads Feast in 2004 , after the release of the compact cassette Abnormal Waltz , recorded in 1998 . With the release of the band 's second studio album , Future Porn Machine , the band abolished the early mainstream concept , and turned towards industrial rock music . However , it was on the followup , El Conquistadors , that the band found their own musical style and expression , an artistically oriented industrial rock , captured live on the Live in 219 , also found on the third studio album El Conquistadors , released in 2009 . In 2009 , the band released the Industrial Renaissance DVD featuring the live recording of the 2007 Belgrade performance , and all the music videos the band had made throughout their career . Their fourth release was self-titled dreDDup ( album ) released for dPulse in 2011 . Soon after that one , band announced the last album to be ` Nautilus ' . After it was released in 2012 , the band soon went silent on studio work . Surprisingly in 2014 , they presented ' I Dreamt of a Dragon ' , their sixth studio album which contained more commercial sound . In early 2016 . band came back with another release - their seventh studio album ` DeathOven ( Rebels Have no Kings ) ' . They are currently working on their next record .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "DreDDup_discography",
"rank": 83,
"score": 65389
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial slave Content: An industrial slave is a type of slave who typically worked in an industrial setting . These slaves often had work that was more dangerous than agricultural slaves .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Industrial_slave",
"rank": 84,
"score": 65202
},
{
"content": "Title: Sandy Kemper Content: Alexander Sandy Kemper ( born June 18 , 1965 ) is an American entrepreneur , known for being founder and board chairman of Agriculture Future of America , founder of Education , Inc. , chairman of Global Trading Web Association , founder of The Collector 's Fund , and founder and CEO Perfect Commerce , formerly known as eScout .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Sandy_Kemper",
"rank": 85,
"score": 65143
},
{
"content": "Title: Panduranga Hegde Content: Panduranga Hegde is an environmentalist from Uttara Kannada district , Karnataka , India and is known as the person who started Appiko movement to protect trees in Western Ghats .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Panduranga_Hegde",
"rank": 86,
"score": 65138
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial Commission Content: The Industrial Commission was a United States government body in existence from 1898 to 1902 . It was appointed by President William McKinley to investigate railroad pricing policy , industrial concentration , and the impact of immigration on labor markets , and make recommendations to the President and Congress . McKinley and the Commissioners launched the trust-busting era . The Industrial Commission included McKinley 's Ohio running mate , Commissioner Andrew L. Harris ( a Governor of Ohio and Civil War General ) who served as Chair of the Agriculture Subcommittee , and prominent Senators and Congressmen . After McKinley was assassinated in 1901 , President Theodore Roosevelt heeded the advice of the Commissioners and further regulated the large trusts . Roosevelt became known as the nation 's toughest trust-buster .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Industrial_Commission",
"rank": 87,
"score": 65066
},
{
"content": "Title: Panayikulam Content: Panayikulam is a small village which falls in the Alangad Grama Panchayat , Paravur Taluk , Kerala , India . A nice place to live in , easily accessible to Aluva Railway Station at 7 km , Nedumbassery International Airport 10 km and the Kochi City at 15 km . It is a preferred residential locality due to its proximity to the industrial areas , viz Binanipuram , Eloor and Kalamassery , where major factories like FACT , HMT , HIL , TCC , Binani , CMRL etc. , are situated . Can commute on daily basis to the InfoPark , Kochi which is almost 12 km away . The place is providing its residents with pure water with no salinity in it and plain beautiful land very close to the Periyar River . The people here mainly rely on agriculture . Panayikulam is well known for the cultivation of Snap Melon ( Pottuvellari ) . Panayikulam is home to a lot of Non Resident Indians .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Panayikulam",
"rank": 88,
"score": 65043
},
{
"content": "Title: ACC Loan Management Content: ACC Loan Management Limited , formerly ACCBank plc , was formerly a commercial bank in Ireland that focused on agriculture and SME lending , and is now a company that focusses on managing the lending facilities of its existing clients . The bank had its origins in the Agricultural Credit Corporation ( Corparáid an Chairde Talmhaíochta ) set up in 1927 in the Irish Free State to finance agriculture ; the bank was successful and led to the creation of the Industrial Credit Company , which was modelled on it and provided finance to industry . In the early 1990s , the company name was changed from `` Agricultural Credit Corporation plc '' to `` ACCBank plc '' in order to signify that the company was now targeting more than simply agricultural customers . In early 2002 , the bank was sold by the Irish Government to Rabobank , it is now one of the three entities of the Rabobank ( Ireland ) .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "ACC_Loan_Management",
"rank": 89,
"score": 64984
},
{
"content": "Title: Agroindustrial Content: Agroindustrial ( -LSB- aɡroïdustriˈaw -RSB- , `` place for agriculture and manufacturer '' ) is a bairro in the District of Sede in the municipality of Santa Maria , in the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul . It is located in west Santa Maria .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Agroindustrial",
"rank": 90,
"score": 64896
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005 Content: The Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2005 was a bill introduced as H.R. 3037 in the United States House of Representatives on June 22 , 2005 . The bill proposes `` to amend the Controlled Substances Act to exclude industrial hemp from the definition of marihuana , and for other purposes '' . Submitted by Ron Paul , Pete Stark , Jim McDermott and Raul Grijalva , the bill was referred to the Committee on Energy and Commerce and the United States House Committee on the Judiciary . On July 1 , 2005 , Energy and Commerce referred the bill to the Subcommittee on Health . H.R. 3037 was not passed , and would need to be reintroduced before a second vote could take place . In 2009 Ron Paul ( R-Texas ) and Barney Frank ( D-Massachusetts ) proposed H.R. 1866 , commonly known as the Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 , urging fellow legistors to reconsider the definition of marijuana .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Industrial_Hemp_Farming_Act_of_2005",
"rank": 91,
"score": 64869
},
{
"content": "Title: Agriculture in Nepal Content: In Nepal , the economy is dominated by agriculture . In the late 1980s , it was the livelihood for more than 90 percent of the population , although only approximately 20 percent of the total land area was cultivable , it accounted for , on average , about 60 percent of the GDP and approximately 75 percent of exports . Since the formulation of the Fifth Five-Year Plan ( 1975 -- 80 ) , agriculture has been the highest priority because economic growth was dependent on both increasing the productivity of existing crops and diversifying the agricultural base for use as industrial inputs . According to the World Bank , agriculture is the main source of food , income , and employment for the majority . In trying to increase agricultural production and diversify the agricultural base , the government focused on irrigation , the use of fertilizers and insecticides , the introduction of new implements and new seeds of high-yield varieties , and the provision of credit . The lack of distribution of these inputs , as well as problems in obtaining supplies , however , inhibited progress . Although land reclamation and settlement were occurring in the Terai Region , environmental degradation and ecological imbalance resulting from deforestation also prevented progress . Although new agricultural technologies helped increase food production , there still was room for further growth . Past experience indicated bottlenecks , however , in using modern technology to achieve a healthy growth . The conflicting goals of producing cash crops both for food and for industrial inputs also were problematic .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Agriculture_in_Nepal",
"rank": 92,
"score": 64848
},
{
"content": "Title: Africa's Children-Africa's Future Content: Africa 's Children-Africa 's Future ( AC-AF ) was founded in 2006 and was recognized as a registered charity in 2009 . The organization conducted programming in Canada and Tanzania to encourage the empowerment of children and youth in response to the various challenges posed by the AIDS pandemic . AC-AF 's programming offered grassroots responses and sustainable solutions to build , strengthen and support community resources . Due to significant reforms in funding opportunities , the organization was forced to close its doors in 2014 .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Africa's_Children-Africa's_Future",
"rank": 93,
"score": 64777
},
{
"content": "Title: Pan Britannica Industries Content: Pan Britannica Industries Ltd ( PBI ) was a small company which had 400 employees . It was a household and agrochemical formulation company based at Britannica House , Stewardstone Road , Waltham Cross and with a distribution presence in Wisbech in Cambridgeshire . PBI was , in common with many other UK household names , both a manufacturer and marketing organisation for both agricultural and horticultural products . PBI produced many agro-chemical formulations that were popular with farmers in many parts of the globe . However It was best known for its product Baby Bio , a liquid plant food that came in a notable small perfume-shaped bottle . Other major products by PBI are the Expert range of books , such as the Garden Expert , House Plant Expert , Greenhouse Expert etc. written by , Dr D.G. Hessayon , who later became chairman of PBI . The motto of these books is `` Easy-to-follow advice and information you can trust '' . With this in mind they are colourful , informative , and contain accurate product information and literature . The Company adopted this approach throughout all its products and brands . Such an approach was in no small way attributable to Dr. Hessayon , who was highly regarded within and outside both Agriculture and Horticulture , for many years . The company was sold to the Sumitomo corporation in the late eighties , but continued to be run largely by the same management . It is now part of the Bayer Corporation , which markets the best of its brands . The Waltham Abbey site has been redeveloped into a housing estate . There is still a presence in Waltham Cross called PBI Home & Garden Ltd in the same building , now renamed Durkan house . Similar UK operations were run by ICI Agriculture , Murphy Chemical Co , Allbright & Wilson ( Farm Protection ) , Shell Chemical Company , BP and Fisons . Some small scale horticultural products were also packaged at the Waltham Abbey plant , including Draza Slug Pellets for Bayer Agriculture ( now owner of the Bio Trade Mark ) . Companies such as Elanco , DuPont , Rohm & Haas and Stauffer actually manufactured , packaged , and labelled the vast majority of Chemical marketed by PBI . Many of the products which PBI marketed gave it , a very small player , a strong market presence on the global agrochemicals scene . Due to legislation , many of the products have been discontinued in the west due to long-term human health issues , but were considered safe and manufactured by other companies around the world . Now only the benign formulas like Baby Bio have continued availability . Dr Hessayon still writes Expert books but these are now published by Transworld .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pan_Britannica_Industries",
"rank": 94,
"score": 64752
},
{
"content": "Title: Farming (disambiguation) Content: Farming or Agriculture is the practice of cultivating crops , livestock or fungi on a farm . Animal farming , the cultivation of livestock Intensive animal farming , aka factory farming Fish farming , raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures Fungus farming , the process of producing food , medicine , and other products by the farming of mushrooms and other fungi Horticulture , the cultivation of plants Crop farming Farming may also refer to : Baby farming , a practice in Victorian Britain involving the taking-in of an infant or child for payment Tax farming , the privatization of tax collection Farming , Minnesota",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Farming_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 95,
"score": 64658
},
{
"content": "Title: Pandemic Preparedness and Response Act Content: The Pandemic Preparedness and Response Act is a bill introduced on October 5 , 2005 by U.S. Senators Harry Reid , Evan Bayh , Dick Durbin , Ted Kennedy , Barack Obama , and Tom Harkin in response to the growing threat of an outbreak of avian influenza . The bill calls for : Preparing for a pandemic by finalizing , implementing and funding pandemic preparedness and response plans . Improving surveillance and international partnerships to monitor the spread of avian flu and detect the emergence of a flu strain with pandemic potential immediately . Protecting Americans through the development , production and distribution of an effective vaccine . Planning ahead for a pandemic by stockpiling antivirals , vaccines and other essential medications and supplies . Strengthening the public health infrastructure . Increasing awareness and education about pandemic flu . Devoting adequate resources to pandemic preparedness . `` This bill never became law . This bill was proposed in a previous session of Congress . Sessions of Congress last two years , and at the end of each session all proposed bills and resolutions that have n't passed are cleared from the books . Members often reintroduce bills that did not come up for debate under a new number in the next session . ... Sometimes the text of one bill or resolution is incorporated into another , and in those cases the original bill or resolution , as it would appear here , would seem to be abandoned . '' ( http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=s109-1821 )",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pandemic_Preparedness_and_Response_Act",
"rank": 96,
"score": 64607
},
{
"content": "Title: Pollution haven hypothesis Content: The pollution haven hypothesis posits that , when large industrialized nations seek to set up factories or offices abroad , they will often look for the cheapest option in terms of resources and labor that offers the land and material access they require . However , this often comes at the cost of environmentally sound practices . Developing nations with cheap resources and labor tend to have less stringent environmental regulations , and conversely , nations with stricter environmental regulations become more expensive for companies as a result of the costs associated with meeting these standards . Thus , companies that choose to physically invest in foreign countries tend to ( re ) locate to the countries with the lowest environmental standards or weakest enforcement .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Pollution_haven_hypothesis",
"rank": 97,
"score": 64605
},
{
"content": "Title: Bohdan Dobrzański Institute of Agrophysics Content: The Bohdan Dobrzański Institute of Agrophysics of the Polish Academy of Sciences ( IA PAS , Instytut Agrofizyki im . Bohdana Dobrzańskiego Polskiej Akademii Nauk , IA PAN ) is a public research and higher education institution dedicated to the study of agrophysics , agricultural sciences and research on physical problems of agriculture . The Institute publishes two English-language scientific journals , the quarterly Acta Agrophysica ( since 1993 ) and the semi-annual Polish Journal of Soil Science ( since 1968 ) . The Institute promotes agrophysics as a part of agricultural sciences that uses knowledge and methods of basic sciences such as physics , biology and chemistry for solving contemporary problems in agronomy . It develops new methods , experimental and numerical tools , products , and technological and service innovations for agriculture and for exploitation of the agricultural resources . The Institute is funded by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education . It is located in Lublin , Poland . Its email addresses include sekretariat@ipan.lublin.pl and agrof@demeter.ipan.lublin.pl . Its telephone numbers include ( 48 81 ) 744 50 61 ( to 66 ) , and its facsimile line is ( 48 81 ) 744 50 67 .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Bohdan_Dobrzański_Institute_of_Agrophysics",
"rank": 98,
"score": 64527
},
{
"content": "Title: Our Common Future Content: __ NOTOC __ Our Common Future , also known as the Brundtland Report , from the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development ( WCED ) was published in 1987 . Its targets were multilateralism and interdependence of nations in the search for a sustainable development path . The report sought to recapture the spirit of the Stockholm Conference - which had introduced environmental concerns to the formal political development sphere . Our Common Future placed environmental issues firmly on the political agenda ; it aimed to discuss the environment and development as one single issue . The document was the culmination of a `` 900-day '' international-exercise which catalogued , analysed , and synthesised : written submissions and expert testimony from `` senior government representatives , scientists and experts , research institutes , industrialists , representatives of non-governmental organizations , and the general public '' held at public hearings throughout the world . The Brundtland Commission 's mandate was to : `` re-examine the critical issues of environment and development and to formulate innovative , concrete , and realistic action proposals to deal with them ; strengthen international cooperation on environment and development and to assess and propose new forms of cooperation that can break out of existing patterns and influence policies and events in the direction of needed change ; and raise the level of understanding and commitment to action on the part of individuals , voluntary organizations , businesses , institutes , and governments '' ( 1987 : 347 ) . `` The Commission focused its attention in the areas of population , food security , the loss of species and genetic resources , energy , industry , and human settlements - realizing that all of these are connected and can not be treated in isolation one from another '' The Brundtland Commission Report recognised that human resource development in the form of poverty reduction , gender equity , and wealth redistribution was crucial to formulating strategies for environmental conservation , and it also recognised that environmental-limits to economic growth in industrialised and industrialising societies existed . The Brundtland Report claimed that poverty reduces sustainability and accelerates environmental pressures -- creating a need for the balancing between economy and ecology . As such , the Report offered `` -LSB- the -RSB- analysis , the broad remedies , and the recommendations for a sustainable course of development '' within such societies ( 1987 : 16 ) . However , the Report was unable to identify the mode ( s ) of production that are responsible for degradation of the environment , and in the absence of analysing the principles governing market-led economic growth , the Report postulated that such growth could be reformed ( and expanded ) ; this lack of analysis resulted in an obfuscated-introduction of the term sustainable development . The publication of Our Common Future and the work of the World Commission on Environment and Development laid the groundwork for the convening of the 1992 Earth Summit and the adoption of Agenda 21 , the Rio Declaration and to the establishment of the Commission on Sustainable Development . An oft-quoted definition of sustainable development is defined in the report as : `` development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs . '' In addition , key contributions of Our Common Future to the concept of sustainable development include the recognition that the many crises facing the planet are interlocking crises that are elements of a single crisis of the whole and of the vital need for the active participation of all sectors of society in consultation and decisions relating to sustainable development . Our Common Future is also known as the Brundtland Report in recognition of former Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland 's role as Chair of the World Commission on Environment and Development .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Our_Common_Future",
"rank": 99,
"score": 64371
},
{
"content": "Title: Green industrial policy Content: Green industrial policy ( GIP ) is strategic government policy that attempts to accelerate the development and growth of green industries to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Natural scientists warn that immediate action must be taken to lower greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change . Social scientists argue that the mitigation of climate change requires state intervention and governance reform . Thus , governments use GIP to address the economic , political , and environmental issues of climate change . GIP is conducive to sustainable economic , institutional , and technological transformation . It goes beyond the free market economic structure to address market failures and commitment problems that hinder sustainable investment . Effective GIP builds political support for carbon regulation which is necessary to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Several governments use different types of GIP that lead to various outcomes . GIP and industrial policy are similar , although GIP has unique challenges and goals . GIP faces the particular challenge of reconciling economic and environmental issues . It deals with a high uncertainty of green investment profitability . Furthermore , it addresses the reluctance of industry to invest in green development , and it helps current governments influence future climate policy . GIP offers opportunities for energy transition to renewables and a low-carbon economy . A large challenge for climate policy is a lack of industry and public support . GIP creates benefits that attract support for sustainability . It can create strategic niche management and generate a `` green spiral '' , or a process of feedback that combines industrial interests with climate policy . GIP can protect employees in emerging and declining industries , which leads to political support for other climate policy . Carbon pricing , sustainable energy transitions , and decreases in greenhouse gas emissions have higher chances of success as political support increases . GIP faces many risks . Some risks include poor government choices about which industries to support ; political capture of economic policy ; wasted resources ; ineffective action to combat climate change ; poor policy design that lacks policy objectives and exit strategies ; trade disputes ; and coordination failure . Strategic steps can be taken to manage the risks of GIP . Some include public and private sector communication , transparency , and accountability ; policy with clear objectives , evaluation techniques and exit strategies ; policy learning and policy experimentation ; green rent management ; strong institutions ; and a free press . Governments in various countries , states , provinces , territories , and cities use different types of green industrial policy . Distinct policy instruments lead to several outcomes . Examples include sunrise and sunset policies , subsidies , research and development , local content requirements , feed-in tariffs , tax credits , export restrictions , consumer mandates , green public procurement rules , and renewable portfolio standards .",
"qid": "137",
"docid": "Green_industrial_policy",
"rank": 100,
"score": 64325
}
] |
As a result, half of the people surveyed around the world last year said they thought climate change would make humanity extinct. | [
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 1,
"score": 140033
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 2,
"score": 126450
},
{
"content": "Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Lee_Hannah",
"rank": 3,
"score": 118670
},
{
"content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Future_of_Earth",
"rank": 4,
"score": 118135
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 5,
"score": 118019
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 6,
"score": 114286
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change opinion by country Content: Climate change opinion is the aggregate of public opinion held by the adult population . Cost constraints often restrict surveys to sample only one or two countries from each continent or focus on only one region . Because of differences among questions , wording , and methods -- it is difficult to reliably compare results or to generalize them to opinions held worldwide . In 2007 -- 2008 , the Gallup Poll surveyed individuals from 128 countries in the first comprehensive study of global opinions . The Gallup Organization aggregated opinion from the adult population fifteen years of age and older , either through the telephone or personal interviews , and in both rural and urban areas except in areas where the safety of interviewer was threatened and in scarcely populated islands . Personal interviews were stratified by population size or geography and cluster sampling was achieved through one or more stages . Although error bounds vary , they were all below ± 6 % with 95 % confidence . Weighting countries to a 2008 World Bank population estimate , sixty-one percent of individuals worldwide were aware of global warming , developed countries more aware than developing , with Africa the least aware . The median of people perceiving it as a threat was 47 % . Latin America and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change was a result of human activities , while Africa , parts of Asia and the Middle East , and countries from the Former Soviet Union led in the opposite . Awareness often translates to concern , although of those aware , individuals in Europe and developed countries in Asia perceived global warming as a greater threat than others .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_opinion_by_country",
"rank": 7,
"score": 113123
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 8,
"score": 111587
},
{
"content": "Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Human_extinction",
"rank": 9,
"score": 111225
},
{
"content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change",
"rank": 10,
"score": 108933
},
{
"content": "Title: What a Way to Go: Life at the End of Empire Content: What A Way To Go : Life at the End of Empire is a 2007 documentary film about the current situation facing humanity and the world . It discusses issues such as peak oil , climate change and the effects of global warming , population overshoot and species extinction , as well as how this situation has developed . The documentary features supporting data and interviews of Daniel Quinn , environmental activist Derrick Jensen and academics such as Richard Heinberg and many others . The tagline of the documentary is , `` A middle-class white guy comes to grips with Peak Oil , Climate Change , Mass Extinction , Population Overshoot and the demise of the American lifestyle . ''",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "What_a_Way_to_Go:_Life_at_the_End_of_Empire",
"rank": 11,
"score": 106130
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 12,
"score": 105988
},
{
"content": "Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Stockholm_Memorandum",
"rank": 13,
"score": 105484
},
{
"content": "Title: Extinction risk from global warming Content: The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Extinction_risk_from_global_warming",
"rank": 14,
"score": 104751
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations",
"rank": 15,
"score": 104535
},
{
"content": "Title: Genyornis Content: Genyornis newtoni was a large , flightless bird that lived in Australia . Over two metres in height , they were likely either omnivorous or herbivorous . They became extinct 30 ± 5 thousand years ago . Many other species became extinct in Australia around that time , coinciding with the arrival of humans . Their closest living relatives are fowl . Two main theories propose a cause for megafauna extinction - human impact and climate change . A study has been performed in which more than 700 Genyornis eggshell fragments were dated . Through this , it was determined that Genyornis declined and became extinct over a short period -- too short for it to be plausibly explained by climate change . The authors considered this to be a very good indication that the entire mass extinction event in Australia was due to human activity , rather than climate change . A 2015 study collected egg shell fragments of Genyornis from around 200 sites that show burn marks . Analysis of amino acids in the egg shells showed a thermal gradient consistent with the egg being placed on an ember fire . The egg shells were dated to between 53.9 and 43.4 thousand years before present , suggesting that humans were collecting and cooking Genyornis eggs in the thousands of years before their extinction . A later study , however , suggests that the eggs actually belogned to Progura , a genus of giant megapodes . In May 2010 , archaeologists announced the rediscovery of an Aboriginal rock art painting , possibly 40,000 years old , at the Nawarla Gabarnmung rock art site in the Northern Territory , that depicts two of the birds in detail . Late survival of Genyornis in temperate south west Victoria has also recently been suggested , based on dateable Aboriginal traditions .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Genyornis",
"rank": 16,
"score": 104442
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical impacts of climate change Content: Climate has affected human life and civilization from the emergence of hominins to the present day . These historical impacts of climate change can improve human life and cause societies to flourish , or can be instrumental in civilization 's societal collapse .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Historical_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 17,
"score": 103846
},
{
"content": "Title: Future Evolution Content: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman . He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon 's After Man : A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells 's The Time Machine . According to Ward , humanity may exist for a long time . Nevertheless , we are impacting our world . He splits his book in different chronologies , starting with the near future ( the next 1,000 years ) . Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion . Global warming raises sea levels . The ozone layer weakens . Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food . Despite all this , the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts , specifically the commercial farmed fish . This is , according to Ward , an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years ( note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred ) . After that , the world gets stranger . Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world . These include dandelions , raccoons , owls , pigs , cattle , rats , snakes , and crows to name but a few . In the human-infested ecosystem , those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered . Ward describes garbage dumps in the future infested with multiple species of rats , a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents , and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage . The story 's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows . Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species . According to him , this is incredibly unlikely . For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species . Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change , nuclear war , disease , or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapons .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Future_Evolution",
"rank": 18,
"score": 103624
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary Content: The climate across the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg or formerly the K -- T boundary ) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid , volcanism , or sea level changes . While the mass extinction is well documented , there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event . The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known , which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact . Oxygen isotopes across the K -- T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself . Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K -- T boundary suggest rapid , repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction , and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary , indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction . The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate , direct consequences of the impact .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_across_Cretaceous–Paleogene_boundary",
"rank": 19,
"score": 103293
},
{
"content": "Title: World People's Conference on Climate Change Content: The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth was a global gathering of civil society and governments hosted by the government of Bolivia in Tiquipaya , just outside the city of Cochabamba from April 19 -- 22 , 2010 . The event was attended by around 30,000 people from over 100 countries , and the proceedings were transmitted live online by OneClimate and the Global Campaign for Climate Action ( GCCA ) . The conference was viewed as a response to what some termed failed climate talks in Copenhagen during the 15th United Nations Conference of Parties ( COP15 ) climate meetings in December 2009 . There have been claims after the Conference ended that there were flaws in its organization and that the Venezuelan government funded it partially . One of the important objectives of the conference was to produce proposals for new commitments to the Kyoto Protocol and projects in the lead-up to the next UN climate negotiations scheduled during the COP16 meeting in Cancun , Mexico in December 2010 . Conference topics included a Universal Declaration on the Rights of Mother Earth ( see external links below ) , a World People 's Referendum on Climate Change , and the establishment of a Climate Justice Tribunal . The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of the Mother Earth resulted in a People 's Accord .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "World_People's_Conference_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 20,
"score": 101508
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 21,
"score": 100889
},
{
"content": "Title: Quaternary extinction event Content: The Quaternary period saw the extinctions of numerous predominantly larger , especially megafaunal , species , many of which occurred during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch . However , this extinction wave did not stop at the end of the Pleistocene , but continued , especially on isolated islands , in human-caused extinctions , although there is debate as to whether these should be considered separate events or part of the same event . Among the main causes hypothesized by paleontologists are natural climate change and overkill by humans , who appeared during the Middle Pleistocene and migrated to many regions of the world during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene . A variant of the latter possibility is the second-order predation hypothesis , which focuses more on the indirect damage caused by overcompetition with nonhuman predators . The spread of disease is also discussed as a possible reason .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Quaternary_extinction_event",
"rank": 22,
"score": 100610
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_gender",
"rank": 23,
"score": 100460
},
{
"content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 24,
"score": 100202
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_poverty",
"rank": 25,
"score": 99986
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 26,
"score": 99836
},
{
"content": "Title: Annihilationism Content: Annihilationism ( also known as extinctionism or destructionism ) is a belief that after the final judgment some human beings will be totally destroyed so as to not exist , or that their consciousness will be extinguished , rather than suffer everlasting torment in hell ( often synonymized with the lake of fire ) . Annihilationism is directly related to the doctrine of conditional immortality , the idea that a human soul is not immortal unless it is given eternal life . Annihilationism asserts that God will eventually destroy the wicked , leaving only the righteous to live on in immortality . Some annihilationists ( e.g. Seventh-day Adventists ) believe God 's love is scripturally described as an all-consuming fire and that sinful creatures can not exist in God 's presence . Thus those who elect to reject salvation through their free will are eternally destroyed because of the inherent incompatibility of sin with God 's holy character . Seventh-day Adventists posit that living in eternal hell is a false doctrine of pagan origin , as the Wicked will perish as the Bible says in the Lake of fire . Jehovah 's Witnesses believe that there can be no punishment after death because the dead cease to exist . Annihilationism stands in contrast to both the traditional and long-standing belief in eternal torture in the lake of fire , and the belief that everyone will be saved ( universal reconciliation or simply `` universalism '' ) . The belief in Annihilationism , has appeared throughout Christian history , but has always been in the minority . It experienced a resurgence in the 1980s when several prominent theologians including John Stott were prepared to argue that it could be held sincerely as a legitimate interpretation of biblical texts ( alternative to the more traditional interpretation of them ) , by those who give supreme authority to scripture . Earlier in the 20th century , some theologians at the University of Cambridge including Basil Atkinson supported the belief . 20th-century English theologians who favor annihilation include Bishop Charles Gore ( 1916 ) , William Temple , 98th Archbishop of Canterbury ( 1924 ) ; Oliver Chase Quick , Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury ( 1933 ) , Ulrich Ernst Simon ( 1964 ) , and G. B. Caird ( 1966 ) . Some Christian denominations which are annihilationist were influenced by the Millerite/Adventist movement of the mid-19th century . These include the Seventh-day Adventists , Bible Students , Christadelphians and the various Advent Christian churches . Additionally , the Church of England 's Doctrine Commission reported in 1995 that '' -LSB- h -RSB- ell is not eternal torment '' , but `` non-being '' . Some Protestant and Anglican writers have also proposed annihilationist doctrines . Annihilationists base the doctrine on their exegesis of scripture , some early church writing , historical criticism of the doctrine of hell , and the concept of God as too loving to torment his creations forever . They claim that the popular conceptions of hell stem from Jewish speculation during the intertestamental period , belief in an immortal soul which originated in Greek philosophy and influenced Christian theologians , and also graphic and imaginative medieval art and poetry . Contrasting beliefs include universal reconciliation , where all souls are seen as immortal and eventually receive salvation , and special salvation , where a positive afterlife is exclusively held by just some souls .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Annihilationism",
"rank": 27,
"score": 99762
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 28,
"score": 99221
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "United_Nations_Ocean_Conference",
"rank": 29,
"score": 98875
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 30,
"score": 98366
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy McPherson Content: Guy R. McPherson ( born 29 February 1960 ) is an American scientist , professor emeritus of natural resources and ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Arizona . He is best known for promoting the idea of near term extinction ( NTE ) , a term he coined about the possibility of human extinction as soon as 2030 . McPherson is also an author , independent scholar , lecturer , blogger , cultural critic , and permaculturist . He also is the co-host of his own radio show , `` Nature Bats Last '' . He has taught for twenty years at the University of Arizona and has served as an expert witness for legal cases involving forest fires . In May 2009 , McPherson began transitioning to living on an off-grid homestead in southern New Mexico . McPherson authors a blog called `` Nature Bats Last '' , that focuses on global climate change , energy decline and the possibility of imminent human extinction due to the increasing accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . On November 1 , 2015 , McPherson was interviewed on National Geographic Explorer with host Bill Nye . Regarding his NTE views , Andrew Revkin in The New York Times said McPherson was a `` apocalyptic ecologist ... who has built something of an ` End of Days ' following '' . Michael Tobis , a climate scientist from the University of Wisconsin , said McPherson was out of his depth and `` is not the opposite of a denialist . He is a denialist , albeit of a different stripe . ''",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Guy_McPherson",
"rank": 31,
"score": 97960
},
{
"content": "Title: Bird conservation Content: Bird conservation is a field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds . Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species . Over one hundred species have gone extinct in historical times , although the most dramatic human-caused extinctions occurred in the Pacific Ocean as humans colonised the islands of Melanesia , Polynesia and Micronesia , during which an estimated 750-1800 species of bird became extinct . According to Worldwatch Institute , many bird populations are currently declining worldwide , with 1,200 species facing extinction in the next century . The biggest cited reason surrounds habitat loss . Other threats include overhunting , accidental mortality due to structural collisions , long-line fishing bycatch , pollution , competition and predation by pet cats , oil spills and pesticide use and climate change . Governments , along with numerous conservation charities , work to protect birds in various ways , including legislation , preserving and restoring bird habitat , and establishing captive populations for reintroductions . See Late Quaternary prehistoric birds for birds which disappeared in prehistoric and early historic times , usually due to human activity ( i.e. , starting with the Upper Paleolithic Revolution ) . For birds having gone extinct in modern times ( since 1500 ) , see List of extinct birds .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Bird_conservation",
"rank": 32,
"score": 97910
},
{
"content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 33,
"score": 97795
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 34,
"score": 97062
},
{
"content": "Title: Endangered language Content: An endangered language is a language that is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speaking another language . Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers and becomes a `` dead language '' . If no one can speak the language at all , it becomes an `` extinct language '' . A dead language may still be studied through recordings or writings , but it is still dead or extinct unless there are fluent speakers . Although languages have always become extinct throughout human history , they are currently dying at an accelerated rate because of globalization and neocolonialism . Language shift most commonly occurs when speakers switch to a language associated with social or economic power or spoken more widely , the ultimate result being language death . The general consensus is that there are between 6000 and 7000 languages currently spoken , and that between 50 and 90 % of them will have become extinct by 2100 . The 20 most common languages , spoken by more than 50 million speakers each , are spoken by 50 % of the world 's population , but most languages are spoken by fewer than 10,000 people . The first step is in language death is potential endangerment . This is when a language faces strong external pressure , but there are still communities of speakers who pass the language to their children . The second stage is endangerment . Once a language has reached the endangerment stage , there are only a few speakers left and children are , for the most part , not learning the language . The third stage of language extinction is seriously endangered . During this stage , a language is unlikely to survive another generation and will soon be extinct . The fourth stage is moribund , followed by the fifth stage extinction . Many projects are under way aimed at preventing or slowing this loss by revitalizing endangered languages and promoting education and literacy in minority languages , often involving joint projects between language communities and linguists . Across the world , many countries have enacted specific legislation aimed at protecting and stabilizing the language of indigenous speech communities . Recognizing that most of the world 's endangered languages are unlikely to be revitalized , many linguists are also working on documenting the thousands of languages of the world about which little or nothing is known .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Endangered_language",
"rank": 35,
"score": 97022
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 36,
"score": 96587
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Climate Network Content: The Global Climate Network ( GCN ) is an alliance of influential think tanks and research institutes in different countries that collaborate on research into climate change policy and whose stated aim is to help address the political blockages to ambitious action to tackle global warming . The Network has members in nine countries worldwide , including the USA , China , India , UK , Australia , Brazil , Norway , South Africa and Nigeria . Its Secretariat is housed at the Institute for Public Policy Research in London , UK . GCN members are engaged jointly in a programme of research projects , the results of which each member feeds into policy making at the domestic and international levels . Collectively , members of the Global Climate Network are committed to a vision of a prosperous and secure world in which greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced to a level that is no longer harmful to the climate system . Working together , the Network construct a narrative for action on climate change that is concerned with human and economic progress as well as environmental wellbeing . The Network 's patrons are Dr Rajendra Pachauri , chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and director-general of the Energy and Resources Institute in India ; John Podesta , former Chief of Staff to President Bill Clinton and director of Center for American Progress , and Lord Christopher Patten of Barnes , former European Commissioner for External Affairs .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Global_Climate_Network",
"rank": 37,
"score": 96120
},
{
"content": "Title: World Scientists' Warning to Humanity Content: In late 1992 , the late Henry W. Kendall , a former chair of the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) board of directors , wrote `` World Scientists ' Warning to Humanity '' , which begins : `` Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course . '' A majority of the Nobel Prize laureates in the sciences signed the document ; about 1,700 of the world 's leading scientists appended their signature . It is sometimes offered in opposition to the Heidelberg Appeal -- also signed by numerous scientists and Nobel laureates earlier in 1992 -- which begins by criticizing `` an irrational ideology which is opposed to scientific and industrial progress , and impedes economic and social development . '' This document is often cited by those who oppose theories relating to climate change . However , the Heidelberg Appeal offers no specific recommendations and is not an indictment of environmental science : `` We fully subscribe to the objectives of a scientific ecology for a universe whose resources must be taken stock of , monitored and preserved . But we herewith demand that this stock-taking , monitoring and preservation be founded on scientific criteria and not on irrational pre-conceptions . '' In contrast , the UCS-led petition contains specific recommendations : `` We must , for example , move away from fossil fuels to more benign , inexhaustible energy sources to cut greenhouse gas emissions and the pollution of our air and water . ... We must stabilize population . ''",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity",
"rank": 38,
"score": 96063
},
{
"content": "Title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement Content: The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement ( VHEMT ) is an environmental movement that calls for all people to abstain from reproduction to cause the gradual voluntary extinction of humankind . VHEMT supports human extinction primarily because , in the group 's view , it would prevent environmental degradation . The group states that a decrease in the human population would prevent a significant amount of human-caused suffering . The extinctions of non-human species and the scarcity of resources required by humans are frequently cited by the group as evidence of the harm caused by human overpopulation . VHEMT was founded in 1991 by Les U. Knight , an American activist who became involved in the environmental movement in the 1970s and thereafter concluded that human extinction was the best solution to the problems facing the Earth 's biosphere and humanity . Knight publishes the group 's newsletter and serves as its spokesman . Although the group is promoted by a website and represented at some environmental events , it relies heavily on coverage from outside media to spread its message . Many commentators view its platform as unacceptably extreme , though other writers have applauded VHEMT 's perspective . In response to VHEMT , some journalists and academics have argued that humans can develop sustainable lifestyles or can reduce their population to sustainable levels . Others maintain that , whatever the merits of the idea , the human reproductive drive will prevent humankind from ever voluntarily seeking extinction .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement",
"rank": 39,
"score": 95978
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 40,
"score": 95899
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration and global environmental change (Report) Content: Migration and Global Environmental Change was a report about the influence of climate change on patterns of human migration and displacement published in 2011 . The report was produced by the Foresight unit at the UK 's Government Office of Science . It became known colloquially as ` The Foresight Report ' among people working in the field of climate-linked migration . The report was led by Professor Richard Black of Sussex University . The report was one of the first assessments of all the existing evidence and research on the connections between climate change and migration . The report authors also commissioned a number of new peer reviewed articles on migration and climate change , significant adding to the evidence base of the topic . The report attracted significant media attention on its release . The report was critical of previous predictions of the number of people who could be forced to move by climate change . It argued that making such numerical predictions was impossible because attributing climate change as the sole cause of someone 's migration was difficult . The report popularized the idea of trapped populations . The report argued that as well as being forced to move by climate change impacts , people might also be forced to stay where they are . The report drew on evidence showing that as people become poorer as a result of a degraded environment , they become less able to migrate . The idea of trapped populations had been present in the academic literature for sometime , however the media attention results from the release of the report brought the idea to a wider public for the first time . The report also popularized the idea of migration as climate change adaptation . Again , the authors drew on existing academic literature on the topic . They made the case that migration should be seen as a legitimate and empowering way for some people to adapt to the impacts of climate change .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Migration_and_global_environmental_change_(Report)",
"rank": 41,
"score": 95541
},
{
"content": "Title: Extinct language Content: An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers , especially if it has no living descendants . A dead language is `` one that is no longer the native language of any community '' , even if it is still in use , like Latin . In the modern period , language death has typically resulted from the process of cultural assimilation leading to language shift , and the gradual abandonment of a native language in favour of a foreign lingua franca . A language that currently has living native speakers is called a modern language . As of the 2000s , a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide . Most of these are minor languages in danger of extinction ; one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90 % of the currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050 .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Extinct_language",
"rank": 42,
"score": 95122
},
{
"content": "Title: Requiem for a Species Content: Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non-fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications . It argues that climate change will bring about large-scale , harmful consequences for habitability for life on Earth including humans , which it is too late to prevent . Hamilton explores why politicians , corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality . He invokes a variety of explanations , including wishful thinking , ideology , consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry . The book builds on the author 's fifteen-year prior history of writing about these subjects , with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change . Requiem for a Species has been reviewed in Resurgence magazine , Socialist Review , Sydney Morning Herald , The Age , The Common Review , and Times Higher Education , which named it `` Book of the Week '' . Extracts of the book have appeared in The Guardian and Geographical magazine . The book won a 2010 Queensland Premier 's Literary Award .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Requiem_for_a_Species",
"rank": 43,
"score": 95096
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_denial",
"rank": 44,
"score": 95039
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_adaptation",
"rank": 45,
"score": 94604
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 46,
"score": 93798
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 47,
"score": 93791
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 48,
"score": 93120
},
{
"content": "Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change",
"rank": 49,
"score": 93048
},
{
"content": "Title: Extinction Content: In biology and ecology , extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms ( taxon ) , normally a species . The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species , although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point . Because a species ' potential range may be very large , determining this moment is difficult , and is usually done retrospectively . This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa , where a species presumed extinct abruptly `` reappears '' ( typically in the fossil record ) after a period of apparent absence . More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . Through evolution , species arise through the process of speciation -- where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche -- and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition . The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established . A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance , although some species , called living fossils , survive with virtually no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years . Mass extinctions are relatively rare events ; however , isolated extinctions are quite common . Only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions . Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented . Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100 . A dagger symbol next to a species name is often used to indicate its extinction .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Extinction",
"rank": 50,
"score": 93014
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_ethics",
"rank": 51,
"score": 92835
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 52,
"score": 92735
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture",
"rank": 53,
"score": 92437
},
{
"content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe",
"rank": 54,
"score": 91948
},
{
"content": "Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Carnian_Pluvial_Event",
"rank": 55,
"score": 91898
},
{
"content": "Title: How the Other Half Dies Content: How the Other Half Dies : The Real Reasons for World Hunger is a book by Franco-American activist Susan George , a member of the Transnational Institute . It was originally published in 1976 , not long after the World Food Conference , and has been reprinted several times since . In the book , George examines and disputes two popular ideas : first , that there is not enough food , and second , that the world is over-populated . She argues that the planet could easily feed its present population and many more . She also insists that the problem is not climate change and that food technology will not provide the solution . George instead believes that the problem is that world food supply is controlled by the wealthy elite and that the poor have no say on the terms of trade that keep them hungry . The title is a parody of Jacob Riis 's book How the Other Half Lives .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "How_the_Other_Half_Dies",
"rank": 56,
"score": 91632
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Climate March Content: The Global Climate March took place in various cities around the world on 29 November 2015 , the day before the opening of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The march was organized by a huge coalition of climate groups and global activists ( such as Avaaz and the international environmental organization 350 . org ) , and involved more than 2,000 events around the globe , in 175 different countries . An estimated number of 785,000 people took part at the marches . Follow-on marches scheduled in 2017 include the March for Science on 22 April 2017 ) and the People 's Climate Mobilization scheduled 29 April 2017 .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Global_Climate_March",
"rank": 57,
"score": 91609
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 58,
"score": 91359
},
{
"content": "Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "People's_Climate_March",
"rank": 59,
"score": 91204
},
{
"content": "Title: Evolutionary suicide Content: Evolutionary suicide is an evolutionary phenomenon in which the process of adaptation causes the population to become extinct . For example , individuals might be selected to switch from eating mature plants to seedlings , and thereby deplete their food plant 's population . Selection on individuals can theoretically produce adaptations that threaten the survival of the population . Much of the research on evolutionary suicide has used the mathematical modeling technique adaptive dynamics , in which genetic changes are studied together with population dynamics . This allows the model to predict how population density will change as a given trait invades the population . Evolutionary suicide has also been referred to as `` Darwinian extinction '' , `` runaway selection to self-extinction '' , and `` evolutionary collapse '' . The idea is similar in concept to the tragedy of the commons and the Tendency of the rate of profit to fall , namely that they are all examples of an accumulation of individual changes leading to a collective disaster such that it negates those individual changes . Many adaptations have apparently negative effects on population dynamics , for example infanticide by male lions , or the production of toxins by bacteria . However , empirically establishing that an extinction event was unambiguously caused by the process of adaptation is not a trivial task .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Evolutionary_suicide",
"rank": 60,
"score": 91081
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecological effects of biodiversity Content: The diversity of species and genes in ecological communities affects the functioning of these communities . These ecological effects of biodiversity in turn are affected by both climate change through enhanced greenhouse gases , aerosols and loss of land cover , and biological diversity , causing a rapid loss of ecosystems and extinctions of species and local populations . The current rate of extinction is sometimes considered a mass extinction , with current species extinction rates on the order of 100 to 1000 times as high as in the past . The two main areas where the effect of biodiversity on ecosystem function have been studied are the relationship between diversity and productivity , and the relationship between diversity and community stability . More biologically diverse communities appear to be more productive ( in terms of biomass production ) than are less diverse communities , and they appear to be more stable in the face of perturbations . Also animals that inhabit an area may alter the surviving conditions by factors assimilated by climate .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity",
"rank": 61,
"score": 91042
},
{
"content": "Title: Action/2015 Content: action/2015 was a global coalition of more than 2200 organisations and networks from over 150 countries , united by the belief that 2015 was a critical year for progress in the fight against climate change , poverty and inequality . Throughout the year , this coalition engaged and mobilised the public at critical decision-making points to call on leaders to commit to strong goals and agreements at two crucial UN summits in 2015 - the UN General Assembly and the UN Climate Change Conference . Throughout the year millions of activists came together through action/2015 to ensure world leaders would feel the pressure to seize the opportunity to tackle poverty , inequality and climate change . With 31 million campaign actions taken in 157 countries , action/2015 was a massive global movement for change -- the biggest-ever of its kind .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Action/2015",
"rank": 62,
"score": 90582
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 63,
"score": 90524
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on marine mammals Content: The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_marine_mammals",
"rank": 64,
"score": 90444
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 65,
"score": 90397
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka",
"rank": 66,
"score": 90151
},
{
"content": "Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Loss_and_damage",
"rank": 67,
"score": 90076
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth immune system Content: The Earth immune system is a controversial proposal , claimed to be a consequence of the Gaia hypothesis . The Gaia hypothesis holds that the entire earth may be considered a single organism ( Gaia ) . As a self-maintaining organism , Earth would have an immune system of some sort in order to maintain its health . Some proponents of this speculative concept , for example , hold that humankind can be considered an `` infection '' of Gaia , and that AIDS is an attempt by this immune system to reject the infection . `` Cancer '' might be a more accurate term , as humans evolved within Gaia , and are not external invaders . An opposite view is that humankind is Gaia 's immune system itself , perhaps evolved to avert future catastrophes such as the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions of species . James Lovelock 's book `` The Revenge of Gaia '' suggests that Gaia has many mechanisms for eliminating civilizations that do harm through greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , but suggests that with increasing heat being received from the sun , Gaia 's ability to `` bounce back '' as it did after the Permian and Cretaceous extinction events , may be increasingly compromised . Paul Hawken suggests in Blessed Unrest that when Earth is considered a living system then Earth 's immune system is made up of the million or so organizations all around the globe that are working for social justice , the environment , and indigenous people 's rights . Many of these groups are linked through the Internet and other means so there is a vast network of interconnected people and groups working to protect the planet , its people , and all beings . For example , one organization that serves to link groups working on sustainable energy is Inforse in Denmark .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Earth_immune_system",
"rank": 68,
"score": 89786
},
{
"content": "Title: Klimaforum09 Content: Klimaforum09 - People 's Climate Summit , an open and alternative climate conference in December 2009 , was attended by about 50,000 people . Environmental activists from regions of the world most affected by climate change convened in Copenhagen at Klimaforum09 with leaders such as Vandana Shiva , founder of Navdanya , Nnimmo Bassey , chair of Friends of the Earth International , and author Naomi Klein . A People 's Declaration from Klimaforum09 was formulated before and during the People 's Climate Summit calling for `` System change - not climate change '' and handed over to the 15th Conference of the Parties of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at 18 December . Klimaforum09 took place from 7 December to 18 December 2009 in the DGI-byen conference center , near the Copenhagen Central Station , as open and alternative event during UNFCCC COP15 . The summit with over 300 debates , exhibitions , films , concerts and plays was organised by the Klimaforum network , a broad network of civil society organisations , and realized with the help of hundreds of volunteers .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Klimaforum09",
"rank": 69,
"score": 89744
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 70,
"score": 89701
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 71,
"score": 89678
},
{
"content": "Title: Holocene extinction Content: The Holocene extinction , otherwise referred to as the Sixth extinction or Anthropocene extinction , is the ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch , mainly due to human activity . The large number of extinctions spans numerous families of plants and animals , including mammals , birds , amphibians , reptiles and arthropods . With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforest , as well as other areas , the vast majority of these extinctions is thought to be undocumented . According to the species-area theory , and based on upper-bound estimating , the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year , making it the greatest loss of biodiversity since the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event . The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna , starting at the end of the last Ice Age . Megafauna outside of the African continent , which did not evolve alongside humans , proved highly sensitive to the introduction of new predation , and many died out shortly after early humans began spreading and hunting across the Earth ( additionally , many African species have also gone extinct in the Holocene ) . These extinctions , occurring near the Pleistocene -- Holocene boundary , are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event . The arrival of humans on different continents coincides with megafaunal extinction . The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species added to existing stress conditions . Although there is debate regarding how much human predation affected their decline , certain population declines have been directly correlated with human activity , such as the extinction events of New Zealand and Hawaii . Aside from humans , climate change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions , especially at the end of the Quaternary . The ecology of humanity has been noted as being that of an unprecedented `` global superpredator '' that regularly preys on the adults of other apex predators and has worldwide effects on food webs . Extinctions of species have occurred on every land mass and ocean , with many famous examples within Africa , Asia , Europe , Australia , North and South America , and on smaller islands . Overall , the Holocene extinction can be characterized by the human impact on the environment . The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century , with meat consumption , overfishing , ocean acidification and the amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal , cosmopolitan decline in biodiversity . A ballooning human population along with profligate consumption are considered to be the primary drivers of this rapid decline .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Holocene_extinction",
"rank": 72,
"score": 89630
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States",
"rank": 73,
"score": 89556
},
{
"content": "Title: Economists' Statement on Climate Change Content: The Economists ' Statement on Climate Change was published in 1997 , prior to the Kyoto Protocol negotiated that same year , to promote market-based solutions to climate change . It was signed by more than 2,600 economists , including 18 Nobel Prize laureates , and remains the largest public statement in the history of the economics profession . The statement was coordinated by Redefining Progress , an environmental economics think tank founded by Ted Halstead .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Economists'_Statement_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 74,
"score": 89504
},
{
"content": "Title: Global catastrophic risk Content: A global catastrophic risk is a hypothetical future event that has the potential to damage human well-being on a global scale . Some events could cripple or destroy modern civilization . Any event that could cause human extinction is known as an existential risk . Potential global catastrophic risks include anthropogenic risks ( technology risks , governance risks ) and natural or external risks . Examples of technology risks are hostile artificial intelligence , biotechnology risks , or nanotechnology weapons . Insufficient global governance creates risks in the social and political domain ( potentially leading to a global war with or without a nuclear holocaust , bioterrorism using genetically modified organisms , cyberterrorism destroying critical infrastructures like the electrical grid , or the failure to manage a natural pandemic ) as well as problems and risks in the domain of earth system governance ( with risks resulting from global warming , environmental degradation , mineral resource exhaustion , fossil energy exhaustion , or famine as a result of non-equitable resource distribution , human overpopulation , crop failures and non-sustainable agriculture ) . Examples for non-anthropogenic risks are an asteroid impact event , a supervolcanic eruption , a lethal gamma-ray burst , a geomagnetic storm destroying all electronic equipment , natural long-term climate change , or extraterrestrial life impacting life on Earth .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Global_catastrophic_risk",
"rank": 75,
"score": 89477
},
{
"content": "Title: Bird extinction Content: Out of the approximately 10,400 known bird species , about 1,300 ( 13 % ) are classified as threatened with extinction , 9 % as near threatened and of the remaining 78 % many populations are declining . There is a general consensus among scientists who study these trends that if human impact on the environment continues as it has one-third of all bird species and an even greater proportion of bird populations will be gone by the end of this century . Since 1500 , 150 species of birds have become extinct Historically , the majority of bird extinctions have occurred on islands , particularly those in the pacific . These include countries such as Australia , Fiji , and Papua New Guinea .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Bird_extinction",
"rank": 76,
"score": 89099
},
{
"content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Abrupt_climate_change",
"rank": 77,
"score": 89005
},
{
"content": "Title: Plows, Plagues and Petroleum Content: Plows , Plagues and Petroleum : How Humans Took Control of Climate is a 2005 book published by Princeton University Press and written by William Ruddiman , a paleoclimatologist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Virginia . He has authored and co-authored several books and academic papers on the subject of climate change . Scientists often refer to this period as the `` Anthropocene '' and define it as the era in which humans first began to alter the earth 's climate and ecosystems . Ruddiman contends that human induced climate change began as a result of the advent of agriculture thousands of years ago and resulted in warmer temperatures that could have possibly averted another ice age ; this is the early anthropocene hypothesis .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Plows,_Plagues_and_Petroleum",
"rank": 78,
"score": 88803
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)",
"rank": 79,
"score": 88778
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 80,
"score": 88712
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Luff (campaigner) Content: Peter John Roussel Luff , Director Mass1 , Trustee , Mass Extinction Monitoringl Observatory ( MEMO ) , Vice Chair , World Federalist Movement - Institute for Global Policy , Trustee , China Dialogue , formerly CEO Action for a Global Climate Community ( 2003-2011 ) Director of the Royal Commonwealth Society ( 1997 -- 2001 ) ; formerly Director and Vice Chair of The European Movement UK , The International European Movement ( 1986 -- 1995 ) Funding and Marketing Director of the Social Democratic Party ( 1981 -- 1987 ) and Assistant Director of Amnesty International UK ( 1974 -- 1978 )",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Peter_Luff_(campaigner)",
"rank": 81,
"score": 88540
},
{
"content": "Title: Existential risk from artificial general intelligence Content: The existential risk from artificial general intelligence is the hypothetical threat that dramatic progress in artificial intelligence ( AI ) could someday result in human extinction ( or some other unrecoverable global catastrophe ) . The argument for the existence of the threat is that the human race currently dominates other species because the human brain has some distinctive capabilities that the brains of other animals lack . If AI surpasses humanity in general intelligence and becomes `` superintelligent '' , then this new superintelligence could become powerful and difficult to control . By way of example , just as the fate of the mountain gorilla depends on human goodwill , so might the fate of humanity depend on the actions of a future machine superintelligence . The severity of different AI risk scenarios is widely debated , and rests on a number of unresolved questions about future progress in computer science . Two sources of concern are that a sudden and unexpected `` intelligence explosion '' might take an unprepared human race by surprise , and that controlling a superintelligent machine ( or even instilling it with human-compatible values ) may be an even harder problem than naively supposed .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence",
"rank": 82,
"score": 88432
},
{
"content": "Title: Campaign against Climate Change Content: The Campaign against Climate Change ( variously abbreviated to CCC or CaCC ) is a UK-based pressure group that aims to raise public awareness of anthropogenic climate change through mobilizing mass demonstrations . Founded in 2001 in response to President Bush 's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol , the organization saw a steady increase in attendance on marches before a sudden take-off in interest between October - December 2005 . An estimated 10,000 people attended a rally in London on December 3 , 2005 . The following year on November 4 , 2006 the Campaign organized a march from the US Embassy to the iCount event in Trafalgar Square . At least 25,000 people gathered in Trafalgar Square that day making it easily the biggest demonstration on climate change in the UK to date , until The Wave march in December 2009 . The December 3rd , 2005 protests were not confined to the UK , but formed part of the first Global Day of Action on Climate Change , in which CCC played a key role in co-ordinating . The demonstrations , in more than 30 countries around the world , were timed to coincide with the crucial Montreal Climate talks in Canada , at which preliminary agreements were made for a post-Kyoto treaty to take effect after 2012 . Outside Montreal itself , a crowd of between 25,000 - 40,000 gathered in a protest organized by the American-based Climate Crisis Coalition . The December 2006 protests again had an international flavour , with the London , UK protest attracting 10,000 participants . The Campaign against Climate Change has a network of local groups around the UK , which are currently in the process of being extended . On February 9 , 2008 the Campaign against Climate Change hosted a Trade Union conference on climate change . Over 300 delegates attended and heard speakers , including several Trade Union general secretaries or their deputies , from most of the major British unions . This conference was followed by two more Trade Union events in 2009 and 2010 . The campaign has also produced a report to a number of British Trade Union 's on `` One Million Climate Jobs '' . Arguing that direct government funding must be used to create jobs that can reduce Carbon emissions . CCC is an example of a growing number of climate-related environmental pressure groups that have developed during the last decade , including organizations like Rising Tide , Climaction and the coalition group Stop Climate Chaos , of which the Campaign against Climate Change is a member . CCC was heavily involved in the campaign against the closure of the Vestas Wind Turbine plant on the Isle of Wight and the occupation of the factory by the workers . The CCC was part of the mobilisations for the demonstrations that marked the United Nations talks on Climate Change in Copenhagen , in December 2009 .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Campaign_against_Climate_Change",
"rank": 83,
"score": 87957
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow",
"rank": 84,
"score": 87847
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia",
"rank": 85,
"score": 87385
},
{
"content": "Title: Say Yes demonstrations Content: The `` Say Yes '' demonstrations were a series of simultaneous political demonstrations held in major cities across Australia on 5 June 2011 to coincide with World Environment Day . The gatherings were organised as demonstrations of some public support for political action on climate change in Australia , including support for mitigation , investment in renewable energy and decommissioning of fossil fuel power stations and polluting industry . The largest individual gatherings attracting 10,000 in Melbourne and 8,000 in Sydney . The `` Say Yes '' campaign was started with actors Cate Blanchett and Michael Caton appearing in a national television advertisement . The demonstrations were organised by Say Yes Australia , a coalition of community groups , environmental organisations , unions , associations and other groups and was apolitical . All demonstrations were peaceful with no injuries or arrests . The Federal Treasurer , Wayne Swan , attended the Brisbane rally . In Canberra , the ACT Chief Minister , Katy Gallagher , was in attendance .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Say_Yes_demonstrations",
"rank": 86,
"score": 87094
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 87,
"score": 86989
},
{
"content": "Title: Woods Hole Research Center Content: The Woods Hole Research Center ( WHRC ) is a scientific research organization that studies climate change , land use change , soils , wetlands , and forests . WHRC was named the world 's top climate change think tank for 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 by the International Center for Climate Governance . The Center conducts research throughout the Amazon , the Arctic , central Africa , and North America . WHRC collaborates with a wide variety of partners to understand the causes and impacts of climate change and to implement more science-based policies .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Woods_Hole_Research_Center",
"rank": 88,
"score": 86952
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 89,
"score": 86749
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 90,
"score": 86615
},
{
"content": "Title: Language preservation Content: Language preservation is the effort to prevent languages from becoming unknown . A language is at risk of being lost when it no longer is taught to younger generations , while fluent speakers of the language ( usually the elderly ) die . Language is an important part of any society , because it enables people to communicate and express themselves . When a language dies out , future generations lose a vital part of the culture that is necessary to completely understand it . This makes language a vulnerable aspect of cultural heritage , and it becomes especially important to preserve it . According to the United Nations Educational , Scientific , and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) , from facts published in their `` Atlas of Languages in Danger of Disappearing , '' there are an estimated 6,000 languages spoken worldwide today , and half of the world 's population speaks the eight most common . More than 3,000 languages are reportedly spoken by fewer than 10,000 people each . Ethnologue , a reference work published by SIL International , has cataloged the world 's known living languages , and it estimates that 417 languages are on the verge of extinction .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Language_preservation",
"rank": 91,
"score": 86542
},
{
"content": "Title: Eocene–Oligocene extinction event Content: The transition between the end of the Eocene and the beginning of the Oligocene is marked by large-scale extinction and floral and faunal turnover ( although minor in comparison to the largest mass extinctions ) . Most of the affected organisms were marine or aquatic in nature . They included the last of the ancient cetaceans , the Archaeoceti . This was a time of major climatic change , especially cooling , not obviously linked with any single major impact or any catastrophic volcanic event . One cause of the extinction event is speculated to be extended volcanic activity . Another speculation is that the extinctions are related to several large meteorite impacts that occurred about this time . One such event caused the Chesapeake Bay impact crater ( 40 km ) , and another at the Popigai crater ( 100 km ) of central Siberia , scattering debris perhaps as far as Europe . New dating of the Popigai meteor suggests it may be a cause of the mass extinction . A leading scientific theory on climate cooling at this time is decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which slowly declined in the mid to late Eocene and possibly reached some threshold approximately 34 million years ago . This boundary is closely linked with the Oligocene Oi-1 event , an oxygen isotope excursion that marks the beginning of ice sheet coverage on Antarctica .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Eocene–Oligocene_extinction_event",
"rank": 92,
"score": 86535
},
{
"content": "Title: Neanderthal extinction Content: Neanderthal extinction began around 40,000 years ago in Europe , after anatomically modern humans had reached the continent . This date , which is based on research published in Nature in 2014 , is much earlier than previous estimates , and it was established through improved radio carbon dating methods analysing 40 sites from Spain to Russia . The survey did not include sites in Asia , where Neanderthals may have survived longer . In October 2015 , studies suggest Neanderthals may have survived even longer , as recently as 24,000 years ago instead . Hypotheses on the fate of the Neanderthals include violence from encroaching anatomically modern humans , parasites and pathogens , competitive replacement , competitive exclusion , extinction by interbreeding with early modern human populations , and failure or inability to adapt to climate change . Interbreeding took place in western Asia about 50,000 to 60,000 years ago , as evidenced by 1 to 4 percent of genomic material carried by non-African people living today . It is unlikely that any one of these hypotheses is sufficient on its own ; rather , multiple factors probably contributed to the demise of an already widely dispersed population .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Neanderthal_extinction",
"rank": 93,
"score": 86386
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 94,
"score": 86342
},
{
"content": "Title: Global change Content: Global change refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system . The system consists of the land , oceans , atmosphere , polar regions , life , the planet 's natural cycles and deep Earth processes . These constituent parts influence one another . The Earth system now includes human society , so global change also refers to large-scale changes in society . More completely , the term `` global change '' encompasses : population , climate , the economy , resource use , energy development , transport , communication , land use and land cover , urbanization , globalization , atmospheric circulation , ocean circulation , the carbon cycle , the nitrogen cycle , the water cycle and other cycles , sea ice loss , sea-level rise , food webs , biological diversity , pollution , health , over fishing , and more .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Global_change",
"rank": 95,
"score": 86283
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 96,
"score": 86258
},
{
"content": "Title: Decline in amphibian populations Content: The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide . Since the 1980s , decreases in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world . These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity , and several causes are believed to be involved , including disease , habitat destruction and modification , exploitation , pollution , pesticide use , introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation ( UV-B ) . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research . Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000 -- 45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation . Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s , awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s . By 1993 , more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline . Today , the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction , with severe implications for global biodiversity .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Decline_in_amphibian_populations",
"rank": 97,
"score": 86172
},
{
"content": "Title: Doomer Content: A doomer is a researcher of current and near future trends who believes that global problems of ecological exhaustion -- such as overpopulation , climate change , pollution , and especially peak oil -- will cause the collapse of industrial civilization , and a significant human population die-off . Many doomers are also survivalists or ` preppers ' , that is , they are actively preparing themselves for the doom they anticipate . Peak oil doomers are alarmed that humanity 's over-reliance on petroleum for agricultural and industrial productivity will cause severe problems on the downward slope of the peak . By contrast , a `` peakist '' would be one who takes a brighter view on the implications of peak oil , although this label has been dismissed from within the doomer 's movement as vacuous . The opposite of a doomer is represented by the cornucopian , who takes the optimistic position that Earth -- and outer space as well -- will provide an abundance of resources for mankind to thrive on forever . The middle ground between the doomer and the cornucopian is occupied by the environmental skeptic , who believes that claims made by environmentalists in general -- and by doomers in particular -- may be exaggerated or false .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Doomer",
"rank": 98,
"score": 85975
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Runaway_climate_change",
"rank": 99,
"score": 85971
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Performance Index Content: The Climate Change Performance Index ( CCPI ) is an annual publication by Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe . It evaluates the climate protection performance of 58 countries , responsible for over 90 % of global energy-related emissions . CCPI 2013 publication covers emissions from the fossil fuels , except emissions from the shipping industry . Following CCPI 2013 publication may include emissions from deforestation , agriculture and waste . 50 % of the evaluation is based on emissions trend , 30 % on emissions level and 20 % on national and international climate policy assessments made by more than 200 experts . The most recent results ( published December 2014 ) illustrate that efforts are still insufficient to prevent dangerous climate change . Thus , no country received rankings one to three in the results for 2015 although Denmark which topped the list was praised for its efforts .",
"qid": "138",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Performance_Index",
"rank": 100,
"score": 85899
}
] |
And in January, one out of five British children told pollsters they were having nightmares about climate change. | [
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 1,
"score": 114829
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 2,
"score": 110274
},
{
"content": "Title: Big Ask Campaign Content: The Big Ask was a campaign by Friends of the Earth calling for a new climate change law in the United Kingdom and 15 other EU member states . The United Kingdom Government announced the introduction of the Climate Change Bill in the Queen 's Speech on November 15 , 2006 . This was after 130,000 people across the country had asked their MP to support such a bill . Radiohead frontman Thom Yorke was a spokesperson for the campaign .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Big_Ask_Campaign",
"rank": 3,
"score": 103452
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change opinion by country Content: Climate change opinion is the aggregate of public opinion held by the adult population . Cost constraints often restrict surveys to sample only one or two countries from each continent or focus on only one region . Because of differences among questions , wording , and methods -- it is difficult to reliably compare results or to generalize them to opinions held worldwide . In 2007 -- 2008 , the Gallup Poll surveyed individuals from 128 countries in the first comprehensive study of global opinions . The Gallup Organization aggregated opinion from the adult population fifteen years of age and older , either through the telephone or personal interviews , and in both rural and urban areas except in areas where the safety of interviewer was threatened and in scarcely populated islands . Personal interviews were stratified by population size or geography and cluster sampling was achieved through one or more stages . Although error bounds vary , they were all below ± 6 % with 95 % confidence . Weighting countries to a 2008 World Bank population estimate , sixty-one percent of individuals worldwide were aware of global warming , developed countries more aware than developing , with Africa the least aware . The median of people perceiving it as a threat was 47 % . Latin America and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change was a result of human activities , while Africa , parts of Asia and the Middle East , and countries from the Former Soviet Union led in the opposite . Awareness often translates to concern , although of those aware , individuals in Europe and developed countries in Asia perceived global warming as a greater threat than others .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_change_opinion_by_country",
"rank": 4,
"score": 102483
},
{
"content": "Title: Campaign against Climate Change Content: The Campaign against Climate Change ( variously abbreviated to CCC or CaCC ) is a UK-based pressure group that aims to raise public awareness of anthropogenic climate change through mobilizing mass demonstrations . Founded in 2001 in response to President Bush 's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol , the organization saw a steady increase in attendance on marches before a sudden take-off in interest between October - December 2005 . An estimated 10,000 people attended a rally in London on December 3 , 2005 . The following year on November 4 , 2006 the Campaign organized a march from the US Embassy to the iCount event in Trafalgar Square . At least 25,000 people gathered in Trafalgar Square that day making it easily the biggest demonstration on climate change in the UK to date , until The Wave march in December 2009 . The December 3rd , 2005 protests were not confined to the UK , but formed part of the first Global Day of Action on Climate Change , in which CCC played a key role in co-ordinating . The demonstrations , in more than 30 countries around the world , were timed to coincide with the crucial Montreal Climate talks in Canada , at which preliminary agreements were made for a post-Kyoto treaty to take effect after 2012 . Outside Montreal itself , a crowd of between 25,000 - 40,000 gathered in a protest organized by the American-based Climate Crisis Coalition . The December 2006 protests again had an international flavour , with the London , UK protest attracting 10,000 participants . The Campaign against Climate Change has a network of local groups around the UK , which are currently in the process of being extended . On February 9 , 2008 the Campaign against Climate Change hosted a Trade Union conference on climate change . Over 300 delegates attended and heard speakers , including several Trade Union general secretaries or their deputies , from most of the major British unions . This conference was followed by two more Trade Union events in 2009 and 2010 . The campaign has also produced a report to a number of British Trade Union 's on `` One Million Climate Jobs '' . Arguing that direct government funding must be used to create jobs that can reduce Carbon emissions . CCC is an example of a growing number of climate-related environmental pressure groups that have developed during the last decade , including organizations like Rising Tide , Climaction and the coalition group Stop Climate Chaos , of which the Campaign against Climate Change is a member . CCC was heavily involved in the campaign against the closure of the Vestas Wind Turbine plant on the Isle of Wight and the occupation of the factory by the workers . The CCC was part of the mobilisations for the demonstrations that marked the United Nations talks on Climate Change in Copenhagen , in December 2009 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Campaign_against_Climate_Change",
"rank": 5,
"score": 100733
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Rush Content: Climate Rush is a UK organisation that campaigns on various environmental issues related to climate change . Their website states that , `` We are a diverse group of women and men who are determined to raise awareness of the biggest threat facing humanity today - that of Climate Change '' . The organisation was founded in October 2008 by a group of eleven women , including Tamsin Omond . They have organised various protests using direct action to highlight their cause . They model their actions on those of the suffragettes who campaigned a century ago to gain women the right to vote . Members of the Women 's Institute have campaigned alongside members of the organisation .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_Rush",
"rank": 6,
"score": 98042
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 Content: The Climate Change ( Scotland ) Act 2009 is an Act of the Scottish Parliament . The Act includes an emissions target , set for the year 2050 , for a reduction of at least 80 % from the baseline year , 1990 . Annual targets for greenhouse gas emissions must also be set , after consultation the relevant advisory bodies . Provisions are included in the Act for the creation of a Scottish Committee on Climate Change , as at present the only advisory body is the UK-wide Committee on Climate Change . Ministers in parliament must now report on the progress of these targets . As of January 2011 , public sector bodies in Scotland must comply with new guidelines set out by the Scottish Government .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_Change_(Scotland)_Act_2009",
"rank": 7,
"score": 94455
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Act_2008",
"rank": 8,
"score": 93748
},
{
"content": "Title: Are We Changing Planet Earth? Content: Are We Changing Planet Earth ? and Can We Save Planet Earth ? are two programmes that form a documentary about global warming , presented by David Attenborough . They were first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 24 May and 1 June 2006 respectively . Part of a themed season by the BBC entitled `` Climate Chaos '' , the programmes were produced in conjunction with the Discovery Channel and the Open University . They were directed by Nicolas Brown and produced by Jeremy Bristow . The music was composed by Samuel Sim . Attenborough undertook the assignment in between his ` Life ' series Life in the Undergrowth and Life in Cold Blood . Around the same time , the naturalist also narrated Planet Earth .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Are_We_Changing_Planet_Earth?",
"rank": 9,
"score": 93504
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmare (1981 film) Content: Nightmare ( also known as Nightmares in a Damaged Brain ) is a 1981 slasher film directed by Romano Scavolini . Nightmare gained instant notoriety among horror fans when it was banned in the UK as a video nasty and its distributor was sentenced to 18 months in prison for refusing to edit one second of violent footage . The film also garnered controversy for claiming in its press material that Tom Savini had provided the film 's special effects , which Savini vehemently denied .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmare_(1981_film)",
"rank": 10,
"score": 93174
},
{
"content": "Title: The Climate Coalition (UK) Content: The Climate Coalition is a group of UK based organisations who share environmental concerns . Individuals may also join . It claims it `` is the UK 's largest group of people dedicated to action on climate change and limiting its impact on the world 's poorest communities . '' Amongst its areas of focus are ending the use of coal and encourage better home insulation . Some of its members are WWF ( UK ) , Friends of the Earth , Christian Aid , RSPB , but there are many others . Its main campaigning website and theme are ` For The Love Of ' , where people are invited to defend features of the environment they love that are at threat from climate change .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "The_Climate_Coalition_(UK)",
"rank": 11,
"score": 92916
},
{
"content": "Title: If You Love Your Children Content: If You Love Your Children is a 2014 Canadian short film - depicting climate change , directed and produced by Sanjay Patel . The film has received many awards and nominations since its release in August 2014 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "If_You_Love_Your_Children",
"rank": 12,
"score": 92690
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmares! Content: Nightmares ! is a young adult children 's literature series co-authored by Jason Segel and Kirsten Miller . As of 5 November 2014 , the series has been on The New York Times Best Seller list for children 's book series . The series comprises three titles :",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmares!",
"rank": 13,
"score": 92332
},
{
"content": "Title: World People's Conference on Climate Change Content: The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth was a global gathering of civil society and governments hosted by the government of Bolivia in Tiquipaya , just outside the city of Cochabamba from April 19 -- 22 , 2010 . The event was attended by around 30,000 people from over 100 countries , and the proceedings were transmitted live online by OneClimate and the Global Campaign for Climate Action ( GCCA ) . The conference was viewed as a response to what some termed failed climate talks in Copenhagen during the 15th United Nations Conference of Parties ( COP15 ) climate meetings in December 2009 . There have been claims after the Conference ended that there were flaws in its organization and that the Venezuelan government funded it partially . One of the important objectives of the conference was to produce proposals for new commitments to the Kyoto Protocol and projects in the lead-up to the next UN climate negotiations scheduled during the COP16 meeting in Cancun , Mexico in December 2010 . Conference topics included a Universal Declaration on the Rights of Mother Earth ( see external links below ) , a World People 's Referendum on Climate Change , and the establishment of a Climate Justice Tribunal . The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of the Mother Earth resulted in a People 's Accord .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "World_People's_Conference_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 14,
"score": 92001
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006",
"rank": 15,
"score": 91991
},
{
"content": "Title: 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference Content: The 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , subtitled Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , was held 28 -- 30 September 2009 at Oxford , United Kingdom . < ref name = `` 4DC '' > 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , University of Oxford , 28-29 Sept. 2009 . </ref> The three-day conference had about 140 science , government , NGO and private sector delegates , and included 35 oral presentations and 18 poster presentations . The conference website includes a page for downloading abstracts , presentations , audio recordings , and the programme . Links to a number of news stories are also provided . The conference was sponsored by the University of Oxford , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , and the Met Office Hadley Centre . Video podcasts of all oral presentations are posted on a University of Oxford website ; however , to find videos by presenter names the above cited program must first be consulted to find the presentation title . In January 2011 , eleven papers and three introductory articles resulting from the conference were published as a special issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , Four degrees and beyond : the potential for a global temperature increase of four degrees and its implications . Many of the papers are free downloads . The contents of the special issue are listed later in this article . In July 2011 , a follow-up conference , Four Degrees Or More ? Australia in a Hot World , was held at the University of Melbourne , Australia .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "4_Degrees_and_Beyond_International_Climate_Conference",
"rank": 16,
"score": 91287
},
{
"content": "Title: Department of Energy and Climate Change Content: The Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) was a British government department created on 3 October 2008 , by then Prime Minister Gordon Brown to take over some of the functions related to energy of the Department for Business , Enterprise and Regulatory Reform , and those relating to climate change of the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs . It was led at time of closure by the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change , Amber Rudd MP . Following Theresa May 's appointment as Prime Minister in July 2016 , the department was disbanded and merged with the Department for Business , Innovation and Skills , to form the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy under Greg Clark MP . The Department released a major White Paper in July 2009 , setting out its purpose and plans . The majority of DECC 's budget was spent on managing the historic nuclear sites in the United Kingdom , in 2012/13 this being 69 % of its budget spent through the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority . The costs to the government of nuclear decommissioning are expected to increase when the last of the United Kingdom 's Magnox reactors are shut down and no longer produce an income .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Department_of_Energy_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 17,
"score": 90566
},
{
"content": "Title: A Nightmare on Elm Street 5: The Dream Child Content: A Nightmare on Elm Street 5 : The Dream Child is a 1989 American slasher film and the fifth film in the Nightmare on Elm Street series . It was directed by Stephen Hopkins , stars Robert Englund , Lisa Wilcox and Danny Hassel . It is the sequel to A Nightmare on Elm Street 4 : The Dream Master and is followed by Freddy 's Dead : The Final Nightmare . The film 's general tone is much darker and the dream sequences are more Gothic than the previous films of the series , and a blue filter lighting technique is used in most of the scenes . The film 's main titles do not display the `` 5 '' that was used in all of the promotional material , TV spots , trailers , and merchandise . The main titles simply say `` A Nightmare on Elm Street : The Dream Child '' . Released on August 11 , 1989 , the film grossed over $ 22.2 million at domestic box office to a generally mixed critical reception .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "A_Nightmare_on_Elm_Street_5:_The_Dream_Child",
"rank": 18,
"score": 90323
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 19,
"score": 89693
},
{
"content": "Title: BBC Climate Change Experiment Content: The BBC Climate Change Experiment was a BOINC project led by Oxford University with several partners including the UK Met Office , the BBC , the Open University and Reading University . It is the Transient coupled model of the Climateprediction.net project . Many participants joined the project with over 120,000 people signing up in teams . Results continued to be collected for some time with the follow-up television program being aired in January 2007 . On 8 March 2009 , Climateprediction.net officially declared that BBC Climate Change Experiment was finished , and then shut down this project .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "BBC_Climate_Change_Experiment",
"rank": 20,
"score": 89595
},
{
"content": "Title: Stern Review Content: The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the Government of the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern , chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics ( LSE ) and also chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) at Leeds University and LSE . The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy . Although not the first economic report on climate change , it is significant as the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind . The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen , presenting a unique challenge for economics . The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions . The Stern Review 's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong , early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting . The Review points to the potential impacts of climate change on water resources , food production , health , and the environment . According to the Review , without action , the overall costs of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5 % of global gross domestic product ( GDP ) each year , now and forever . Including a wider range of risks and impacts could increase this to 20 % of GDP or more , also indefinitely . Stern believes that 5 -- 6 degrees of temperature increase is `` a real possibility . '' The Review proposes that one percent of global GDP per annum is required to be invested to avoid the worst effects of climate change . In June 2008 , Stern increased the estimate for the annual cost of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e to 2 % of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change . There has been a mixed reaction to the Stern Review from economists . Several economists have been critical of the Review , for example , a paper by Byatt et al. ( 2006 ) describes the Review as `` deeply flawed '' . Some economists ( such as Brad DeLong and John Quiggin ) have supported the Review . Others have criticised aspects of Review 's analysis , but argued that some of its conclusions might still be justified based on other grounds , e.g. , see papers by Martin Weitzman ( 2007 ) and Dieter Helm ( 2008 ) .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Stern_Review",
"rank": 21,
"score": 89326
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 22,
"score": 89199
},
{
"content": "Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform",
"rank": 23,
"score": 88927
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmares (novel series) Content: Nightmares was a novel series of young adult horror fiction that began in 1992 and published until 1996 , running alongside other well-known young adult horror series such as Point Horror and Fear Street . The series was published by HarperCollins ( UK ) under their `` Lions '' imprint , and these books are often listed under either as publisher . Many of these books were published in other formats , either before or after their appearance in this series .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmares_(novel_series)",
"rank": 24,
"score": 88921
},
{
"content": "Title: G8 Climate Change Roundtable Content: The G8 Climate Change Roundtable was formed in January 2005 at the World Economic Forum in Davos , Switzerland . Its purpose was to address the global climate change issue facing governments , business and civil society . The first meeting was held in Gleneagles , Scotland , from 6 -- 8 July 2005 , to coincide with the 31st G8 summit . The roundtable was established by twenty-three leading international businesses with the assistance of G8 President and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair , to co-operatively engage in a global plan of action . The aim of the group was to ensure that a long-term policy framework was set up to enable consistent and transparent market-based solutions in mitigating climate change , while also addressing issues linked to climate change ; such as economic growth , poverty , and adequate energy supplies . Carbon trading is one of the most popular pricing mechanisms used to the reduce greenhouse emissions worldwide . The group devised a Framework for Action which called for technology incentive programs , the establishment of common metrics , for example in energy efficiency , and the expansion of emissions trading schemes . Some of the companies participating include Ford , British Airways , HSBC , EdF and BP . Now , the Climate Change Roundtable has a membership of 150 businesses spread across the globe . Environmentalists raised concerns that the body 's statement does not call for targets or include timetables . Friends of the Earth noted that the roundtable represented a major shift by the business community towards efforts to mitigate climate change .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "G8_Climate_Change_Roundtable",
"rank": 25,
"score": 88636
},
{
"content": "Title: Energy and Climate Change Select Committee Content: The Energy and Climate Change Select Committee was a select committee of the House of Commons in the Parliament of the United Kingdom that came into existence on 1 January 2009 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Energy_and_Climate_Change_Select_Committee",
"rank": 26,
"score": 87936
},
{
"content": "Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "People's_Climate_March",
"rank": 27,
"score": 87498
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Climate March Content: The Global Climate March took place in various cities around the world on 29 November 2015 , the day before the opening of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The march was organized by a huge coalition of climate groups and global activists ( such as Avaaz and the international environmental organization 350 . org ) , and involved more than 2,000 events around the globe , in 175 different countries . An estimated number of 785,000 people took part at the marches . Follow-on marches scheduled in 2017 include the March for Science on 22 April 2017 ) and the People 's Climate Mobilization scheduled 29 April 2017 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Global_Climate_March",
"rank": 28,
"score": 87466
},
{
"content": "Title: Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate Change Content: See Also : climate change mitigation , emissions trading . The Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate ( MEF ) was launched on March 28 , 2009 . The MEF is intended to facilitate a candid dialogue among major developed and developing economies , help generate the political leadership necessary to achieve a successful outcome at the December UN climate change conference in Copenhagen , and advance the exploration of concrete initiatives and joint ventures that increase the supply of clean energy while cutting greenhouse gas emissions . The 17 major economies are : Australia , Brazil , Canada , China , the European Union , France , Germany , India , Indonesia , Italy , Japan , South Korea , Mexico , Russia , South Africa , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Denmark , in its capacity as the President of the December 2009 Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change , and the United Nations have also participated in this dialogue along with Observers .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Major_Economies_Forum_on_Energy_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 29,
"score": 87283
},
{
"content": "Title: Church of England border polls 1915–1916 Content: The Church of England border polls 1915 -- 1916 were a series of referendums held in January and February 1915 , with second polls being held in March 1916 , for residents of those living in nineteen Church of England parishes whose boundaries crossed the England -- Wales border . They were carried out to determine if the parish residents wished for their parish to remain part of the Church of England or to join the newly disestablished Church in Wales under the Welsh Church Act 1914 . The polls eventually resulted in all but one of the border parishes voting to remain with the Church of England .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Church_of_England_border_polls_1915–1916",
"rank": 30,
"score": 87017
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 31,
"score": 86958
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 32,
"score": 86952
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmare (1964 film) Content: Nightmare is a 1964 British horror film directed by Freddie Francis and written by Jimmy Sangster who produced the film for Hammer Films . The film focuses on a young girl in a finishing school who is plagued by nightmares concerning her institutionalized mother .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmare_(1964_film)",
"rank": 33,
"score": 86809
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 34,
"score": 86681
},
{
"content": "Title: London Climate Change Agency Content: The London Climate Change Agency Limited ( LCCA ) , was a municipal company owned by the London Development Agency ( LDA ) that worked in partnership with private sector companies ( notably EDF Energy ) to design , finance , construct , own and operate decentralised low energy and zero-carbon projects for London , as well as providing services to others . It operated in the areas of energy , water , waste and transport . In 2009 it was integrated into the London Development Agency The Agency was launched on 20 June 2005 to implement a manifesto commitment by Ken Livingstone in the 2004 elections for the Mayor of London . Its budget for 2006-07 is # 815,000 , 63 % of which is funded directly by the LDA . The Chief Executive Officer is Allan Jones , who previously led the development of the pioneering sustainable community energy system in Woking . The London Climate Change Agency plans to create a similar system for London . As of 2006 , London produces 7 % of the UK 's carbon emissions . The LCCA is seen as one of the key vehicles for delivering the Mayor 's energy strategy , which targets cuts in these emissions of 20 % by 2010 and 60 % by 2050 ( although achieving the first of these targets is unlikely ) . The Agency is also expected to play a role in ensuring that the London Olympic games are the first to be powered by low carbon technology .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "London_Climate_Change_Agency",
"rank": 35,
"score": 86345
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmare as a Child Content: `` Nightmare as a Child '' is episode twenty-nine of the American television anthology series The Twilight Zone . It originally aired on April 29 , 1960 on CBS .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmare_as_a_Child",
"rank": 36,
"score": 86172
},
{
"content": "Title: Stop Climate Chaos Content: Stop Climate Chaos is a climate change coalition of primarily environmental and international development NGOs that was formed in September 2005 . The coalition ran the I Count campaign in 2006 -- 07 and organised The Wave , a campaign focused on the climatic impacts of energy production which took place on 5 December 2009 in the run-up to the UN talks in Copenhagen . The coalition encourages individuals to lobby the UK government for what they see as positive policies on climate change . From 2005 to 2010 the director of the coalition was Ashok Sinha . There is also a Scottish secretariat called Stop Climate Chaos Scotland .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Stop_Climate_Chaos",
"rank": 37,
"score": 86093
},
{
"content": "Title: Pleasant Dreams: Nightmares Content: Pleasant Dreams : Nightmares is a collection of fantasy and horror short stories by author Robert Bloch . It was released in 1960 and was the author 's second book published by Arkham House . It was released in an edition of 2,060 copies . The stories originally appeared in several magazines between 1946 and 1958 . The collection includes Bloch 's 1959 Hugo Award winning story , `` That Hell-Bound Train . ''",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Pleasant_Dreams:_Nightmares",
"rank": 38,
"score": 85634
},
{
"content": "Title: The Power of Nightmares Content: The Power of Nightmares : The Rise of the Politics of Fear is a BBC television documentary series by Adam Curtis . It mainly consists of archive footage , with Curtis narrating . The series was originally broadcast in the United Kingdom in 2004 . It has subsequently been aired in multiple countries and shown at various film festivals , including the 2005 Cannes Film Festival . The film compares the rise of the neoconservative movement in the United States and the radical Islamist movement , drawing comparisons between their origins , and remarking on similarities between the two groups . More controversially , it argues that radical Islamism as a massive , sinister organisation , specifically in the form of al-Qaeda , is a myth , or noble lie , perpetuated by leaders of many countries -- and particularly neoconservatives in the U.S. -- in a renewed attempt to unite and inspire their people after the ultimate failure of utopian ideas . The Power of Nightmares was praised by film critics in Britain and the United States . Its message and content have also been the subject of various critiques and criticisms from conservatives and progressives .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "The_Power_of_Nightmares",
"rank": 39,
"score": 85587
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Agreement Content: When the Climate Change Levy was introduced in the United Kingdom , the position of energy-intensive industries was considered , given their energy usage , the requirements of the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control regime and their exposure to international competition . As a result , a 65 % discount from the levy was allowed for those sectors that agreed targets for improving their energy efficiency or reducing carbon emissions . The discount on electricity increased to 90 % in 2013 . An ` energy-intensive ' sector is one which either carries out activities which are listed as Part A ( 1 ) or A ( 2 ) activities in Part 2 of Schedule 1 to the Environmental Permitting ( England and Wales ) Regulations 2010 ( Statutory Instrument 2010 No. 675 ) ( as amended ) , or that satisfies energy intensity criteria provided by the Department of Energy and Climate Change . The regulations cover the ten main energy-intensive sectors of industry ( aluminium , cement , ceramics , chemicals , food and drink , foundries , glass , non-ferrous metals , paper , and steel ) and over thirty smaller sectors , and in agriculture , livestock units for the intensive rearing of pigs and poultry .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Agreement",
"rank": 40,
"score": 85586
},
{
"content": "Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum Content: The referendum on EU membership took place on 23 June 2016 . Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum was ongoing in the months between the announcement of a referendum and the referendum polling day . Polls on the general principle of Britain 's membership of the European Union were carried out for a number of years prior to the referendum . Opinion polls of voters in general tended to show roughly equal proportions in favour of remaining and leaving . Polls of business leaders , scientists , and lawyers showed majorities in favour of remaining . Among non-British citizens in other EU member states , polling suggested that a majority were in favour of the UK remaining in the EU in principle , but that a similarly sized majority believed that if the UK were only able to remain in the EU on renegotiated terms then it should leave .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum",
"rank": 41,
"score": 85477
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom general election, 2015 Content: The United Kingdom general election of 7 May 2015 elected 650 members to the British House of Commons . It was the first general election at the end of a fixed-term Parliament . Local elections took place in most of England on the same day . Polls and commentators had predicted the outcome would be too close to call and would result in a second hung parliament similar to the 2010 election . Opinion polls were eventually proven to have underestimated the Conservative vote as they won a surprise outright majority , which bore resemblance to their victory in the 1992 general election . Having governed in coalition with the Liberal Democrats since 2010 , the Conservatives won 330 seats and 36.9 % of the vote , this time winning a working majority of 12 . The British Polling Council began an inquiry into the substantial variance between opinion polls and the actual result . Forming the first Conservative majority government since 1992 , David Cameron became the first Prime Minister to continue in office immediately after a term of at least four years with a larger popular vote share since 1900 , and the only Prime Minister other than Margaret Thatcher to continue in office immediately after a term of at least four years with a greater number of seats . The Labour Party , led by Ed Miliband , saw a small increase in its vote share to 30.4 % , but incurred a net loss of seats to return 232 MPs . This was its lowest seat tally since the 1987 election . Senior Labour shadow cabinet members , notably Ed Balls , Douglas Alexander , and Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy , were defeated . The Scottish National Party , enjoying a surge in support since the 2014 Scottish independence referendum , recorded a number of huge swings of over 30 % ( including a record-breaking swing of 39.3 % achieved in Glasgow North East ) from Labour , as it won 56 of the 59 Scottish seats to become the third-largest party in the Commons . The Liberal Democrats , led by outgoing Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg , had their worst result since being formed in 1988 , holding just eight out of their previous 57 seats with cabinet ministers Vince Cable , Ed Davey and Danny Alexander losing their seats . The UK Independence Party ( UKIP ) came third in terms of votes with 12.6 % , but only won one seat , with party leader Nigel Farage failing to win the seat of South Thanet . The Green Party won its highest-ever share of the vote with 3.8 % , and held Brighton Pavilion with an increased majority , though did not win any additional seats . Labour 's Miliband ( as national leader ) and Murphy ( as Scottish leader ) resigned , as did Clegg . Farage claimed that his resignation was rejected by his party , and he remained in post . In Northern Ireland , the Ulster Unionist Party returned to the Commons with two MPs after a five-year absence , while the Alliance Party lost its only seat despite an increase in total vote share . The Conservative majority meant that Cameron was able to fulfil a manifesto commitment to renegotiate British membership of the European Union . That renegotiation was followed by a referendum in June 2016 , which resulted in the British people voting to leave the EU and led to the resignation of Cameron as Prime Minister . The new Prime Minister , Theresa May , called in April 2017 for a fresh general election with the stated aim of securing a majority for her Brexit negotiations ; it received parliamentary approval and was scheduled for 8 June 2017 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_general_election,_2015",
"rank": 42,
"score": 85371
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 43,
"score": 84877
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Levy Content: The Climate Change Levy ( CCL ) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom . Its aim is to provide an incentive to increase energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions ; however , there have been ongoing calls to replace it with a proper carbon tax .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Levy",
"rank": 44,
"score": 84870
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge",
"rank": 45,
"score": 84867
},
{
"content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 46,
"score": 84276
},
{
"content": "Title: UK Youth Climate Coalition Content: The UK Youth Climate Coalition ( UKYCC ) is a non-profit youth organisation in the United Kingdom . The organisation is run entirely by unpaid volunteers , who are all under the ages of 25 . Formed in 2008 , the mission of the organisation is to inspire , empower and mobilise a coalition of UK youth organisations and young people to take positive action on climate change . To achieve their aims and objectives , the organisation provides training to young people on public narration whilst coordinating a series of projects , campaigns and events each year , including youth delegations to the United Nations Climate Negotiations . The organisation is supported by a coalition of non-governmental organisations .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "UK_Youth_Climate_Coalition",
"rank": 47,
"score": 84194
},
{
"content": "Title: Captain Zed and the Zee Zone Content: Captain Zed and the Zee Zone was a short-lived CITV television series , airing in the United Kingdom . When children go to sleep it is Captain Zed 's and his partner PJ 's job to prevent children from having nightmares in the dreamzone . The 26-episode series was animated by the Collingwood O'Hare studio and co-produced by DIC Entertainment & Scottish Television ( now STV Central ) in association with HIT Entertainment . The programme was re-aired in 2009 on wknd@stv - a children 's television strand on Scottish television channel , STV .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Captain_Zed_and_the_Zee_Zone",
"rank": 48,
"score": 83410
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 49,
"score": 83301
},
{
"content": "Title: 2005 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2005 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place between November 28 and December 9 , 2005 , in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . The conference included the 11th Conference of the Parties ( COP11 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , and was the first Meeting of the Parties ( MOP1 ) to the Kyoto Protocol since their initial meeting in Kyoto in 1997 . It was one of the largest intergovernmental conferences on climate change ever . The event marked the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol on 16 February 2005 . Hosting more than 10,000 delegates , it was one of Canada 's largest international events ever and the largest gathering in Montreal since Expo 67 . The Montreal Action Plan was an agreement to `` extend the life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its 2012 expiration date and negotiate deeper cuts in greenhouse-gas emissions '' by starting negotiations , without delay on an extension of the protocol . Canada 's environment minister , at the time , Stéphane Dion , said the agreement provides a `` map for the future '' .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "2005_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 50,
"score": 82807
},
{
"content": "Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom general election, 2015 Content: In the run up to the general election on 7 May 2015 , various organisations carried out opinion polling to gauge voting intention . Results of such polls are displayed in this article . Most of the polling companies listed are members of the British Polling Council ( BPC ) and abide by its disclosure rules . The date range for these opinion polls is from 6 May 2010 ( the date of the previous general election ) to 7 May 2015 . Most opinion polls cover only Great Britain ( England , Scotland and Wales ) . Separate polls covering constituent countries of the UK and English regions are reported further below while polling of individual constituencies and groups of them ( such as groups of marginals ) is covered in a separate article . In the event , the actual results proved to be rather different from those indicated by the opinion polls . Opinion polls conducted in the last few months of the campaign , and even in the last few days , had indicated a very close result between the Conservatives and Labour in terms of numbers of votes , suggesting that one of the main parties would have to form a perhaps complex coalition with smaller parties in order to govern . However the actual results showed a stronger performance by the Conservatives , which gave them an overall majority , since Labour also had a weaker performance than the polls had suggested . When the exit poll was initially presented , some commentators and politicians doubted it , with Paddy Ashdown even declaring `` If this poll is correct I will publicly eat my hat on your programme '' in response to the apparently poor results for the Liberal Democrats . The exit poll was eventually proved to have in fact overestimated the Liberal Democrats ' performance . If the Survation telephone poll ( 6 May ) had been published it would have produced results within 1 % of the election results .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_general_election,_2015",
"rank": 51,
"score": 82797
},
{
"content": "Title: People's Climate March (2017) Content: The People 's Climate March ( also called People 's Climate Movement ) was a protest which took place on Washington , D.C. 's National Mall , and among 300 locations throughout the United States , and locations outside the U.S. , on April 29 , 2017 . Organizers announced the demonstration in January 2017 to protest the environmental policies of U.S. President Donald Trump and his administration . The protests were held at the end of his first 100 days as president , during stormy weather across the U.S. . There was an estimated 200,000 participating in the D.C. march .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "People's_Climate_March_(2017)",
"rank": 52,
"score": 82781
},
{
"content": "Title: The Nightmares Content: The Nightmares is a post-punk/gothic rock bank from Jihlava , Czech Republic . The band became a publicly known group shortly after the Velvet Revolution in 1989 , whose original members were Roman Prochazka , Martin Turek , Petra Komarkova and Michal Neuhoffer . Their then mission was to formulate the post-communist expression of reminiscent darkness and liberal forward-looking optimism into a musical message . The Nightmares toured the Czech Republic , Germany , UK and other countries formerly inaccessible to them , played to radio audiences and released a compilation of tracks on CD . Category : Czech rock music groups",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "The_Nightmares",
"rank": 53,
"score": 82681
},
{
"content": "Title: Economists' Statement on Climate Change Content: The Economists ' Statement on Climate Change was published in 1997 , prior to the Kyoto Protocol negotiated that same year , to promote market-based solutions to climate change . It was signed by more than 2,600 economists , including 18 Nobel Prize laureates , and remains the largest public statement in the history of the economics profession . The statement was coordinated by Redefining Progress , an environmental economics think tank founded by Ted Halstead .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Economists'_Statement_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 54,
"score": 82557
},
{
"content": "Title: Klimaforum09 Content: Klimaforum09 - People 's Climate Summit , an open and alternative climate conference in December 2009 , was attended by about 50,000 people . Environmental activists from regions of the world most affected by climate change convened in Copenhagen at Klimaforum09 with leaders such as Vandana Shiva , founder of Navdanya , Nnimmo Bassey , chair of Friends of the Earth International , and author Naomi Klein . A People 's Declaration from Klimaforum09 was formulated before and during the People 's Climate Summit calling for `` System change - not climate change '' and handed over to the 15th Conference of the Parties of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at 18 December . Klimaforum09 took place from 7 December to 18 December 2009 in the DGI-byen conference center , near the Copenhagen Central Station , as open and alternative event during UNFCCC COP15 . The summit with over 300 debates , exhibitions , films , concerts and plays was organised by the Klimaforum network , a broad network of civil society organisations , and realized with the help of hundreds of volunteers .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Klimaforum09",
"rank": 55,
"score": 82483
},
{
"content": "Title: Suffer the Little Children Content: `` Suffer the Little Children '' is a short story by Stephen King . It was first published by Cavalier in February , 1972 . The story was later published as part of the collection Nightmares & Dreamscapes in 1993 . In the `` Notes '' section of Nightmares & Dreamscapes , King wrote that it was originally supposed to be published in his 1978 collection Night Shift , but editor Bill Thompson opted to have it cut . King had wanted to cut `` Gray Matter '' , but deferred to Thompson 's choice . King has stated that the story reminds him of the works of Ray Bradbury , and similarities have been noted by other authors as well . King also wrote that the story had `` no redeeming social merit whatever . '' In The Complete Stephen King Universe , it is described as an `` effective chiller . ''",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Suffer_the_Little_Children",
"rank": 56,
"score": 82124
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmares (Buffy the Vampire Slayer) Content: `` Nightmares '' is the tenth episode of the first season of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer . The episode 's teleplay was written by David Greenwalt , with a story by Joss Whedon , and directed by Bruce Seth Green . The episode originally aired on May 12 , 1997 , attracting a Nielsen rating of 2.5 . The episode is about the students at Sunnydale High beginning to experience aspects of their worst nightmares while awake , leading the Scooby Gang 's investigation to a young boy with a secret . However , before they can get to the bottom of things , they must face their own nightmares , which are rapidly taking over reality .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmares_(Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer)",
"rank": 57,
"score": 82027
},
{
"content": "Title: The Climate Group Content: The Climate Group is a non-profit organization that works internationally with business and government to promote clean technologies and policies , with the aim of expanding clean technology markets and reducing global greenhouse gas emissions . After launching with the support of Tony Blair in 2004 , the organization now has offices in the UK ( headquarters ) , the United States , Europe , Australia , India , mainland China and Hong Kong . As of December 2010 , The Climate Group 's membership included 80 large companies and state/city-level governments from around the world , with members representing 15 % of global GDP . The Climate Group says it is one of the world 's first business and government alliances working to create solutions to climate change that are compatible with economic growth . Solutions pursued by the organization include its technology programs , such as the LED ` Lightsavers ' global trial taking place in cities such as New York City , Hong Kong and Kolkata ; the Climate Principles project , under which financial institutions ( including Credit Agricole , HSBC , Standard Chartered , Swiss Re , F&C Asset Management and BNP Paribas ) agree to consider climate change when structuring their service and product offerings ; the States and Regions Alliance , designed to encourage state , provincial and city government climate change initiatives ; and publications assessing and promoting the potential value of low carbon technologies and policies . The Climate Group also hosts a range of events such as Climate Week NYC in New York City , a week-long global forum examining clean technology policies and financing strategies . It has partnered a range of initiatives and reports with organisations including the Global e-Sustainability Initiative ( GeSi ) , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) , the Carbon Disclosure Project , the Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation , the New York Academy of Sciences , the United Nations Foundation , the German Marshall Fund , the Office of Tony Blair and the World Business Council on Sustainable Development ( WBSCD ) .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "The_Climate_Group",
"rank": 58,
"score": 81919
},
{
"content": "Title: János Pásztor (diplomat) Content: János Pásztor ( born 1955 ) is a Hungarian diplomat , the Senior Adviser to the Secretary-General on Climate Change . He joined his current role in January 2016 at the request of United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon . Prior to his current role he was Assistant Secretary-General on Climate Change in the Executive Office of the Secretary-General of the United Nations in New York City . He was appointed Assistant Secretary-General in January 2015 after taking leave of absence from the World Wide Fund for Nature International where he was Policy and Science Director and acting Director for Conservation .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "János_Pásztor_(diplomat)",
"rank": 59,
"score": 81842
},
{
"content": "Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom general election, 2017 Content: In the run-up to the general election on 8 June 2017 , various organisations are carrying out opinion polling to gauge voting intentions . Results of such polls are displayed in this article . Most of the polling companies listed are members of the British Polling Council ( BPC ) and abide by its disclosure rules . The date range for these opinion polls is from after the previous general election , held on 7 May 2015 , to the present day . Under fixed-term legislation , the next general election was scheduled to be held on 7 May 2020 . However , on 18 April 2017 , Prime Minister Theresa May said that she would seek to bring forward the general election to Thursday 8 June 2017 , which the House of Commons approved on 19 April . For an early election to be held , two-thirds of the total membership of the House had to support the resolution . Most opinion polls cover only Great Britain , as Northern Ireland seats are contested by a different set of political parties . Most YouGov polls include the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru as single options . The English and Welsh , Scottish , and Northern Irish Green Parties are also treated as a single option by most polls .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_general_election,_2017",
"rank": 60,
"score": 81782
},
{
"content": "Title: Waking Nightmares Content: Waking Nightmares is a collection of horror stories by Ramsey Campbell , first published in 1991 by Tor Books . The first British edition was published in 1992 by Little , Brown . It contains an introduction by the author . The collection includes the following stories : `` The Guide '' ( 1989 ) `` Next Time You 'll Know Me '' ( 1988 ) `` Second Sight '' ( 1987 ) `` The Trick '' ( 1980 ) `` In the Trees '' ( 1986 ) `` Another World '' ( 1987 ) `` Playing the Game '' ( 1988 ) `` Bedtime Story '' ( 1986 ) `` Watch the Birdie '' ( 1984 ) `` Old Clothes '' ( 1985 ) `` Beyond Words '' ( 1986 ) `` Jack in the Box '' ( 1983 ) `` Eye of Childhood '' ( 1982 ) `` The Other Side '' ( 1986 ) `` Where the Heart Is '' ( 1987 ) `` Being an Angel '' ( 1989 ) `` It Helps If You Sing '' ( 1989 ) `` The Old School '' ( 1989 ) `` Meeting the Author '' ( 1989 )",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Waking_Nightmares",
"rank": 61,
"score": 81772
},
{
"content": "Title: I Dream Content: I Dream is a British children 's musical television comedy programme aimed at and mostly about teenagers , which aired in 2004 ( see 2004 in television ) . It was set at an esteemed performing arts college near Barcelona , Spain , and focuses on 13 teenagers who are invited to enrol at the college , Avalon Heights , over the summer . All eight members of the pop group S Club 8 star in the show alongside five other young actors and actresses and Hollywood film actor Christopher Lloyd . I Dream has the members of S Club 8 playing supposedly exaggerated versions of themselves , albeit with identical names to their real life counterparts . Each episode of the show includes several ( usually two or more ) songs and dance numbers involving both members and non-members of the band . Cast member George Wood called the show `` a modern day Fame '' . The lead production company was 19 Television , a subsidiary of the corporation 19 Management , which is owned by the show 's executive producer , Simon Fuller . The first episode of I Dream aired on Wednesday 22 September 2004 on BBC One . From the week of 23 November episodes were aired on Thursday instead of Wednesday , and the thirteenth and final episode aired on 16 December and featured Laila Rouass . Reruns of the show in the UK were broadcast on the CBBC Channel .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "I_Dream",
"rank": 62,
"score": 81733
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration and global environmental change (Report) Content: Migration and Global Environmental Change was a report about the influence of climate change on patterns of human migration and displacement published in 2011 . The report was produced by the Foresight unit at the UK 's Government Office of Science . It became known colloquially as ` The Foresight Report ' among people working in the field of climate-linked migration . The report was led by Professor Richard Black of Sussex University . The report was one of the first assessments of all the existing evidence and research on the connections between climate change and migration . The report authors also commissioned a number of new peer reviewed articles on migration and climate change , significant adding to the evidence base of the topic . The report attracted significant media attention on its release . The report was critical of previous predictions of the number of people who could be forced to move by climate change . It argued that making such numerical predictions was impossible because attributing climate change as the sole cause of someone 's migration was difficult . The report popularized the idea of trapped populations . The report argued that as well as being forced to move by climate change impacts , people might also be forced to stay where they are . The report drew on evidence showing that as people become poorer as a result of a degraded environment , they become less able to migrate . The idea of trapped populations had been present in the academic literature for sometime , however the media attention results from the release of the report brought the idea to a wider public for the first time . The report also popularized the idea of migration as climate change adaptation . Again , the authors drew on existing academic literature on the topic . They made the case that migration should be seen as a legitimate and empowering way for some people to adapt to the impacts of climate change .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Migration_and_global_environmental_change_(Report)",
"rank": 63,
"score": 81667
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmare disorder Content: Nightmare disorder , also known as ` dream anxiety disorder ' , is a sleep disorder characterized by frequent nightmares . The nightmares , which often portray the individual in a situation that jeopardizes their life or personal safety , usually occur during the REM stages of sleep . Though such nightmares occur within many people , those with nightmare disorder experience them with a greater frequency . The disorder 's DSM-IV number is 307.47 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmare_disorder",
"rank": 64,
"score": 81394
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmares (1980 film) Content: Nightmares is a 1980 Australian horror film , directed by John D. Lamond . It is also known as Stage Fright . It was Gary Sweet 's feature film debut .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmares_(1980_film)",
"rank": 65,
"score": 81249
},
{
"content": "Title: The Changes (TV series) Content: The Changes is a British children 's science fiction television serial filmed in 1973 and first broadcast in 1975 by the BBC . It was directed by John Prowse and is based on the trilogy written by Peter Dickinson : The Weathermonger ( 1968 ) , Heartsease ( 1969 ) , and The Devil 's Children ( 1970 ) ( the books were written in reverse order : the events of The Devil 's Children happen first , Heartsease second , and The Weathermonger third ) .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "The_Changes_(TV_series)",
"rank": 66,
"score": 81233
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_Summit",
"rank": 67,
"score": 81049
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 68,
"score": 80937
},
{
"content": "Title: Dreams and Nightmares Content: Dreams and Nightmares is the debut studio album by American hip hop recording artist Meek Mill . It was released on October 30 , 2012 , by Maybach Music Group and Warner Bros. . Records . The album features guest appearances from Nas , Rick Ross , Wale , Trey Songz , Drake , Big Sean , John Legend , Louie V , 2 Chainz , Kirko Bangz , Sam Sneak and Mary J. Blige . Mill said that it would be more cohesive than his mixtapes by having more connection in both vocal delivery and clearer beats . The album was supported by four singles in total including , `` Amen '' , `` Burn '' , `` Young & Gettin ' It '' and `` Believe It '' . Upon its release , Dreams and Nightmares received generally positive reviews from music critics . The album debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200 , selling 165,000 copies in its first week in the United States . As of June 2015 , the album has sold over 414,000 copies in the United States .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Dreams_and_Nightmares",
"rank": 69,
"score": 80879
},
{
"content": "Title: Dream Street (UK TV series) Content: Dream Street is a British children 's television series that ran from 6 May 1999 to 2002 on CITV . The show is narrated by British comedian Russ Abbot , and was aimed at children aged from 2 to 7 . The show featured talking toy vehicles , which were radio controlled in real time . The series aired back on CITV around 2008 . The show was set in a story book resting on the bedside table , and in later series with a child holding it , of a playroom during the night , whilst the child was asleep . The room also includes an element of Dream Street within it - the teddy bear clock . In later series , the title sequence revealed more of the things within the room , such as model Saturn bedposts . The official slogan was ; `` Stimulate your child 's imagination ! , because Dream Street is a world of magical fun ! '' . For Series 2 , the theme tune contained the lyric `` Get Streetwise '' , as part of the road safety campaign , which was repeated at the end of the show accompanying a short promo . CITV , the original broadcaster , repeated the series in 2008-09 , but it ended shortly after . There have been VHS releases of the series by Carlton Video . A revival of the series was announced in 2015 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Dream_Street_(UK_TV_series)",
"rank": 70,
"score": 80745
},
{
"content": "Title: Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Content: The Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) is a climate change research centre in England . It is hosted jointly by the University of Leeds and the London School of Economics and Political Science ( LSE ) . CCCEP is part of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment , which is chaired by Lord Nicholas Stern of Brentford , former Chief Economist of the World Bank and author of the widely known Stern Review . CCCEP was established in 2008 , and is funded by the ESRC . Its mission is to advance public and private action on climate change through rigorous , innovative research . In pursuit of its mission , CCCEP has five research themes in its phase 2 programme : Understanding green growth and climate-compatible development Advancing climate finance and investment Evaluating the performance of climate policies Managing climate risks and uncertainties and strengthening climate services Enabling rapid transitions in mitigation and adaptation In October 2016 , The Daily mail reported allegations that CCCEP had fraudulently obtained millions of dollars from UK taxpayers by claiming credit for research they did not produce . The organization responded to the claims saying that the alleged fraud was an overreaction to a clerical error .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Centre_for_Climate_Change_Economics_and_Policy",
"rank": 71,
"score": 80686
},
{
"content": "Title: Northern Ireland border poll 1973 Content: The Northern Ireland border poll 1973 was a referendum held in Northern Ireland on 8 March 1973 on whether Northern Ireland should remain part of the United Kingdom or join with the Republic of Ireland to form a united Ireland . It was the first time that a major referendum had been held in any region of the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Northern_Ireland_border_poll_1973",
"rank": 72,
"score": 80607
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmare (French band) Content: Nightmare is a power metal band , native of Grenoble , France . The band was influenced by the new wave of British heavy metal phenomenon developing in the UK in the 1980s and started their career playing classic heavy metal , that later changed to power metal with death metal and thrash metal influences .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmare_(French_band)",
"rank": 73,
"score": 80426
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmares (Omen album) Content: Nightmares is the first EP album of the American heavy metal band Omen . It was originally released in 1987 by Metal Blade . It was included as bonus tracks on the 1989 re-issue of Warning Of Danger and the 1996 re-issue of The Curse .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmares_(Omen_album)",
"rank": 74,
"score": 80410
},
{
"content": "Title: János Bencsik Content: János Bencsik ( born July 31 , 1965 ) is a Hungarian politician , who served as Mayor of Tatabánya from 1990 to 2010 . He was appointed State Secretary for Climate Change and Energy in the Ministry of National Development on December 12 , 2010 . He announced his resignation on December 2 , 2011 . He was replaced by Pál Kovács . He is a member of the National Assembly ( MP ) in 1998 and since 2006 . He represents Tatabánya ( Komárom-Esztergom County Constituency I ) since May 14 , 2010 . He was elected a member of the Economic and Information Technology Committee on December 30 , 2011 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "János_Bencsik",
"rank": 75,
"score": 80382
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow",
"rank": 76,
"score": 80344
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 77,
"score": 80246
},
{
"content": "Title: Dream Children Content: Dream Children is a 1998 novel by A. N. Wilson . Owing to his own early encounters , Oliver Gold , a distinguished philosopher , has decided he can only be happy with a child . Oliver , however , moves in with a widow in North London . He makes all the ladies around him fall in love with him , from the aging matriarch to a pair of lesbian lovers to a little girl named Bobs . Bobs is aged three when Oliver moves in and is aged ten by the end of the book .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Dream_Children",
"rank": 78,
"score": 80131
},
{
"content": "Title: 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: __ NOTOC __ The 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place at the Bali International Conference Centre , Nusa Dua , in Bali , Indonesia , between December 3 and December 15 , 2007 ( though originally planned to end on 14 December ) . Representatives from over 180 countries attended , together with observers from intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations . The conference encompassed meetings of several bodies , including the 13th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( COP 13 ) , the 3rd Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol ( MOP 3 or CMP 3 ) , together with other subsidiary bodies and a meeting of ministers . Negotiations on a successor to the Kyoto Protocol dominated the conference . A meeting of environment ministers and experts held in June called on the conference to agree on a road-map , timetable and ` concrete steps for the negotiations ' with a view to reaching an agreement by 2009 . It has been debated whether this global meeting on climate change has achieved anything significant at all . Initial EU proposals called for global emissions to peak in 10 to 15 years and decline `` well below half '' of the 2000 level by 2050 for developing countries and for developed countries to achieve emissions levels 20-40 % below 1990 levels by 2020 . The United States strongly opposed these numbers , at times backed by Japan , Canada , Australia and Russia . The resulting compromise mandates `` deep cuts in global emissions '' with references to the IPCC 's Fourth Assessment Report .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "2007_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 79,
"score": 80072
},
{
"content": "Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 80,
"score": 80046
},
{
"content": "Title: The Heretic (play) Content: The Heretic is a British black comedy play by Richard Bean about climate change and its sceptics . In 2011 it premiered at the Royal Court Theatre receiving positive reviews directed by Jeremy Herrin starring Juliet Stevenson , James Fleet , Lydia Wilson and Johnny Flynn . It made its Australian debut in 2012 at the Melbourne Theatre Company in a production directed by Matt Scholten and starring Noni Hazlehurst , Andrew McFarlane , Anna Samson , Shaun Goss , Lyall Brooks and Katy Warner . The play was published in 2011 , and was included in a collection of Bean 's plays published in 2013 .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "The_Heretic_(play)",
"rank": 81,
"score": 79997
},
{
"content": "Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Paris_Agreement",
"rank": 82,
"score": 79965
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle",
"rank": 83,
"score": 79941
},
{
"content": "Title: Opinion polling in United Kingdom constituencies, 2010–15 Content: Prior to the 2015 United Kingdom general election , various polling organisations conducted opinion polling in specific constituencies . The results of publicised opinion polling for individual constituencies are detailed in this article . However , most opinion polling covers Great Britain , where the results are published in this article here . Opinion polls were conducted gradually from the months after the previous general election held on 6 May 2010 , and increased in frequency before the general election which took place on 7 May 2015 . Though most opinion polls published are for general election voting intention , some polls shown are for voting intention in separate by-elections . Polls of individual constituencies are expensive compared to national polling and were previously an infrequent practice in the UK . However , a large number of individual constituency polls have been carried out in this period , most commissioned from independent polling providers by Lord Ashcroft , a Conservative peer and sponsor . In addition to polls listed in this article , other polling of constituencies has been carried out in private , often by political parties . Given the expense of polling individual constituencies , constituencies are usually only polled if they are of some particular interest , e.g. they are thought to be marginal or facing an impending by-election . The constituencies polled are not necessarily representative of a national average swing . Under the first-past-the-post electoral system the true marginal seats , by definition , will be decisive as to the outcome of the election .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Opinion_polling_in_United_Kingdom_constituencies,_2010–15",
"rank": 84,
"score": 79893
},
{
"content": "Title: Young Voices on Climate Change Content: Young Voices on Climate Change is a film series created by the non-profit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization of the same name . The films present youth solutions to the climate crisis , showing environmental initiatives planned and implemented by children in America , Europe , India , Africa and Siberia .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Young_Voices_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 85,
"score": 79847
},
{
"content": "Title: John Ashton (diplomat) Content: John Ashton CBE ( born 7 November 1956 ) was the Special Representative for Climate Change at the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office ( FCO ) from 2006 until June 2012 , Director for Strategic Partnerships at LEAD International , and is the founder and CEO of Third Generation Environmentalism ( E3G ) .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "John_Ashton_(diplomat)",
"rank": 86,
"score": 79646
},
{
"content": "Title: International Conference on Climate Change Content: The International Conference on Climate Change is a conference series organized and sponsored by The Heartland Institute which aims to bring together global warming skeptics who `` dispute that the science is settled on the causes , consequences , and policy implications of climate change . '' The first conference took place in 2008 . As at 2017 there have been twelve conferences . Most of the events have been held in the United States , but there has been one in Australia and two in Germany .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "International_Conference_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 87,
"score": 79586
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmare Content: A nightmare , also called a bad dream , is an unpleasant dream that can cause a strong emotional response from the mind , typically fear but also despair , anxiety and great sadness . The dream may contain situations of discomfort , psychological or physical terror or panic . Sufferers often awaken in a state of distress and may be unable to return to sleep for a small period . Nightmares can have physical causes such as sleeping in an uncomfortable or awkward position , having a fever , or psychological causes such as stress , anxiety , and as a side effect of various drugs . Eating before going to sleep , which triggers an increase in the body 's metabolism and brain activity , is a potential stimulus for nightmares . Recurrent nightmares may require medical help , as they can interfere with sleeping patterns and cause insomnia .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmare",
"rank": 88,
"score": 79576
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 89,
"score": 79472
},
{
"content": "Title: 2008 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2008 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place at PIF Congress Centre , Poznań International Fair ( PIF ) , in Poznań , Poland , between December 1 and December 12 , 2008 . Representatives from over 180 countries attended along with observers from intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations . The conference encompassed meetings of several bodies , including the 14th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( COP 14 ) and the 4th Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol ( MOP 4 or CMP 4 ) . Subsidiaries of these bodies also met , including the fourth session of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA 4 ) , a resumed session of the Ad HocWorking Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP 6 ) , and the twenty-ninth sessions of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation ( SBI 29 ) , and the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice ( SBSTA 29 ) .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "2008_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 90,
"score": 79448
},
{
"content": "Title: 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference was an international meeting of political leaders and activists to discuss environmental issues . It was held in Marrakech , Morocco from November 7 to 18 . The conference incorporated the twenty-second Conference of the Parties ( COP22 ) , the twelfth meeting of the parties for the Kyoto Protocol ( CMP12 ) , and the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement ( CMA1 ) . The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combatting climate change and to '' -LSB- demonstrate -RSB- to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is underway '' . Participants work together to come up with global solutions to climate change . The conference was presided over by Salaheddine Mezouar , the Moroccan Minister for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation . Approximately 20,000 participants were expected to attend . On 2 May 2016 , events firm GL Events signed the service contract . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also lent its support to the preparation for COP 22 '' .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "2016_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 91,
"score": 79385
},
{
"content": "Title: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom general election, 2001 Content: In the run up to the general election of 2001 , several polling organisations carried out opinion polling in regards to voting intention in Great Britain ( i.e. the UK excluding Northern Ireland , which is usually excluded from such voting intention surveys ) . Results of such polls are displayed below . The election took place on 7 June 2001 . The previous general election was held on 1 May 1997 , and had seen Labour return to power with a landslide victory after 18 years , led by Tony Blair . Such was the scale of Labour 's victory that it was widely accepted - even within the Conservative Party - that the next election would produce another Labour victory , with the best realistic target for other parties being to reduce the Labour majority . The parliamentary term of 1997-2001 had seen the opinion polls led by the Labour Party , mostly with a lead in excess of 10 points , over the Conservatives ( who had replaced John Major with William Hague as their new leader ) , apart from a brief spell in the autumn of 2000 when fuel protests threatened to bring Britain to a standstill . However , the blockades which had caused the protests were quickly resolved and Labour support recovered to the extent that Blair felt able to call an election for 3 May 2001 , although the recent foot and mouth crisis meant that the election was delayed for five weeks until 7 June . Another rare success for the Conservatives during this parliamentary term came in June 1999 , when it enjoyed the largest share of the votes in the European parliament elections , with William Hague vowing to keep the pound at Britain 's currency , whereas Tony Blair was refusing to rule out eventually adopting the Euro . In the event , the election produced a low turnout ( with many voters perhaps feeling that another Labour victory was inevitable ) and Labour won a second successive landslide , with the British political scene remaining almost completely unchanged with only a few seats changing hands .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_general_election,_2001",
"rank": 92,
"score": 79187
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmares (1983 film) Content: Nightmares is a 1983 American horror anthology film directed by Joseph Sargent , and starring Emilio Estevez , Lance Henriksen , Cristina Raines , Veronica Cartwright , and Richard Masur . The film is made up of four short films based on urban legends ; the first concerns a woman who encounters a killer in the backseat of her car ; the second concerns a video game-addicted teenager who is consumed by his game ; the third focuses on a fallen priest who is stalked by a pickup truck from hell ; and the last follows a suburban family battling a giant rat in their home .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmares_(1983_film)",
"rank": 93,
"score": 79059
},
{
"content": "Title: Winter of 2009–10 in Great Britain and Ireland Content: The winter of 2009 -- 10 in the United Kingdom ( also called The Big Freeze by British media ) was a meteorological event that started on 16 December 2009 , as part of the severe winter weather in Europe . January 2010 was provisionally the coldest January since 1987 across the country . A persistent pattern of cold northerly and easterly winds brought cold , moist air to the United Kingdom with many snow showers , fronts and polar lows bringing snowy weather with it . The first snowfall began on 17 December 2009 , before a respite over the Christmas period . The most severe snowy weather began on 5 January in North West England and west Scotland with temperatures hitting a low of -17.6 ° C in Greater Manchester , England . The snow spread to Southern England on 6 January and by 7 January the United Kingdom was blanketed in snow , which was captured by NASA 's Terra satellite . The thaw came a week later , as temperatures started to increase . The winter weather brought widespread transport disruption , school closures , power failures , the postponement of sporting events and 25 deaths . A low of -22.3 ° C was recorded in Altnaharra , Scotland on 8 January 2010 . Overall it was the coldest winter since 1978 -- 79 , with a mean temperature of 1.5 ° C.",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Winter_of_2009–10_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland",
"rank": 94,
"score": 78898
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 95,
"score": 78836
},
{
"content": "Title: A Dream of the Past: Sir Isumbras at the Ford Content: A Dream of the Past : Sir Isumbras at the Ford ( 1857 ) is a painting by John Everett Millais depicting a medieval knight helping two young peasant children over a swollen river . The children are carrying heavy burdens of wood for winter fuel . Though the title refers to the medieval poem Sir Isumbras , the painting does not illustrate a scene from the original text . However Millais 's friend , the writer Tom Taylor , wrote verse in a pastiche of the original poem , describing the event depicted . This was included in the original exhibition catalogue . The background of the painting is based closely on a ruined medieval bridge which stood in Bridge of Earn , Perthshire ( since demolished ) . Some of the village houses ( in Back Street ) can also be seen , though the tower house or castle to the left is imaginary . When first exhibited the painting was extremely controversial , and was attacked by many critics . Most notably , Millais 's former supporter John Ruskin declared it to be a `` catastrophe '' . The painting was also satirised in a print by Frederic Sandys , entitled `` A Nightmare '' , in which Millais himself was represented as the knight . His fellow Pre-Raphaelites Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Holman Hunt were caricatured as the children , and the horse -- transformed into a donkey -- was branded with the initials of Ruskin .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "A_Dream_of_the_Past:_Sir_Isumbras_at_the_Ford",
"rank": 96,
"score": 78773
},
{
"content": "Title: Nightmares & Dreamscapes: From the Stories of Stephen King Content: Nightmares & Dreamscapes : From the Stories of Stephen King is an eight-episode anthology series on TNT based on short stories written by Stephen King . It debuted on July 12 , 2006 , and ended its run on August 2 , 2006 . Although most of them are from the collection of the same name , there are some stories from different collections by King . A trailer confirming a DVD release of the series was made available in October 2006 . The series was filmed entirely in Melbourne , Australia .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "Nightmares_&_Dreamscapes:_From_the_Stories_of_Stephen_King",
"rank": 97,
"score": 78768
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 United Kingdom general election Content: The 2015 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday, 7 May 2015 to elect 650 members to the House of Commons. It was the first general election at the end of a fixed-term Parliament. Local elections took place in most areas on the same day. Polls and commentators had predicted the outcome would be too close to call and would result in a second consecutive hung parliament that would be either similar or more complicated than the 2010 election. Opinion polls were eventually proven to have underestimated the Conservative vote as the party unexpectedly won an outright majority, which bore resemblance to its victory at the 1992 general election. Having governed in coalition with the Liberal Democrats since 2010, the Conservatives won 330 seats and 36.9% of the vote share, giving them a small overall majority of 12 seats and their first outright win for 23 years. The Labour Party, led by Ed Miliband, saw a small increase in its share of the vote to 30.4%, but incurred a net loss of seats to return 232 MPs. This was its lowest seat tally since the 1987 general election. Senior Labour Shadow Cabinet members, notably Ed Balls, Douglas Alexander, and Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy, were defeated. The Scottish National Party, enjoying a surge in support after the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, recorded a number of swings of over 30% from Labour, as it won 56 of the 59 Scottish seats to become the third-largest party in the Commons. The Liberal Democrats, led by outgoing Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg, had their worst result since their formation in 1988, holding just eight out of their previous 57 seats, with Cabinet ministers Vince Cable, Ed Davey and Danny Alexander losing their seats. UKIP came third in terms of votes with 12.6%, but won only one seat, with party leader Nigel Farage failing to win the seat of South Thanet. The Green Party won its highest-ever share of the vote with 3.8%, and retained its only seat. Labour's Miliband (as national leader) and Murphy (as Scottish leader) both resigned, as did Clegg. In Northern Ireland, the Ulster Unionist Party returned to the Commons with two MPs after a five-year absence, while the Alliance Party lost its only seat despite an increase in total vote share.",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "2015_United_Kingdom_general_election",
"rank": 98,
"score": 78735
},
{
"content": "Title: 2006 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2006 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place between November 6 and 17 , 2006 in Nairobi , Kenya . The conference included the 12th Conference of the Parties ( COP12 ) and the 2nd Meeting of the Parties ( MOP2 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . At the meeting , BBC reporter Richard Black coined the phrase `` climate tourists '' to describe some delegates who attended `` to see Africa , take snaps of the wildlife , the poor , dying African children and women '' . Black also noted that due to delegates concerns over economic costs and possible losses of competitiveness , the majority of the discussions avoided any mention of reducing emissions . Black concluded that was a disconnect between the political process and the scientific imperative . Despite such criticism , certain strides were made at COP12 , including in the areas of support for developing countries and clean development mechanism . The parties adopted a five-year plan of work to support climate change adaptation by developing countries , and agreed on the procedures and modalities for the Adaptation Fund . They also agreed to improve the projects for clean development mechanism .",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "2006_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 99,
"score": 78702
},
{
"content": "Title: British Polling Council Content: The British Polling Council ( BPC ) is an association of market research companies whose opinion polls are regularly published or broadcast in media in the United Kingdom . The BPC was established in 2004 , twelve years after the perceived failure of opinion polls to come close to predicting the actual result of the United Kingdom general election , 1992 . BPC members use a range of fieldwork methods ( telephone , door-to-door , and internet ) and statistical tools . YouGov is a founder member of the British Polling Council",
"qid": "139",
"docid": "British_Polling_Council",
"rank": 100,
"score": 78648
}
] |
Greenpeace didn’t save the whales, switching from whale oil to petroleum and palm oil did | [
{
"content": "Title: Robert Hunter (journalist) Content: Robert ( Bob ) Lorne Hunter ( October 13 , 1941 -- May 2 , 2005 ) was a Canadian environmentalist , journalist , author and politician . He was a member of the Do n't Make a Wave Committee in 1969 , and a co-founder of Greenpeace in 1971 and its first president . He led the first on-sea anti-whaling campaigns in the world , against Russian and Australian whalers , which helped lead to the ban on commercial whaling . He campaigned against nuclear testing , the Canadian seal hunt and later , climate change with his book Thermageddon : Countdown to 2030 . He was named by Time as one of the `` Eco-Heroes '' of the 20th century and is charged with coining the terms `` mindbombs '' and `` eco-warrior '' ( a run-off from the Legend of the Rainbow Warriors , a popular hippie and environmentalist belief ) .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Robert_Hunter_(journalist)",
"rank": 1,
"score": 121869
},
{
"content": "Title: Toward the Sea Content: is a work by the Japanese composer Tōru Takemitsu , commissioned by Greenpeace for the Save the Whales campaign .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Toward_the_Sea",
"rank": 2,
"score": 121273
},
{
"content": "Title: Tokyo Two Content: The Tokyo Two are Greenpeace anti-whaling activists Junichi Sato and Toru Suzuki , who were arrested for stealing whale meat which they believed was embezzled , from a shipping depot in Aomori Prefecture , Japan in 2008 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Tokyo_Two",
"rank": 3,
"score": 118323
},
{
"content": "Title: Will E. Jackson Content: William E. ( Will ) Jackson ( born February 13 , 1945 ) served with Greenpeace in its early years ( 1975 -- 77 ) , as crew member on the first anti-whaling expedition , and as cofounder of Greenpeace San Francisco ( the first GP chapter after Vancouver , BC ) . A pioneer synthesizer player ( Serge , Buchla , Moog ) , Jackson was aboard the Greenpeace V as part of the media campaign to demonstrate whale intelligence , and to disrupt Russian whaling . Jackson played a large modular synthesizer that had been brought onboard , broadcast through underwater speakers , with the intention of communicating with whales through synthesized whale song . He was one of six persons out of a rotating pool of 35 to remain aboard throughout the expedition . Bob Hunter , cofounder and first president of Greenpeace , credits Jackson with saving him from drowning at Triangle Island . Following on the success of that voyage , Jackson opened the San Francisco office of Greenpeace . With the assistance of Fund for Animals ( Cleveland Amory , Virginia Handley ) , and eco-filmmaker Stan Minasian , and commercial pilot Al Johnson . Jackson launched a grassroots media campaign , struggling from a South-of-Market condemned hotel to gain volunteers and donations , in preparation for the first anti-sealing expedition , and the follow-up whale expedition of 1976 . ( Three years after he left , the chapter was embroiled in a lawsuit with Vancouver over a million dollars and rights ; the outcome being the formation of today 's Greenpeace International ) . These accounts and others are referenced in Robert Hunter 's book , Rex Weyler 's Greenpeace ( Rodale 2004 ) , the Hunter-Weyler collaboration To Save A Whale ( Chronicle Books 1978 ) , and The Greenpeace Story ( Dorling Kindersley 1989 ) . Prefacing his Greenpeace years , in 1970 as a multimedia artist he won a scholarship to California Institute of the Arts , but then lost it when he offended his mentor Allen Kaprow . He moved on to Serge Tcherepnin 's CalArts synthesizer workshop , and co-founded electronic music groups Cellar M with Naut Humon , and ` TO ' with Z'EV . Later he performed with Ethership ( Willard Van De Bogart , Lemon DeGeorge ) . Notably , he played synthesizer `` whale music '' with saxist Paul Winter aboard the GP-5 , and at the `` Save The Seas International Music Benefit '' , International Trade Center , Tokyo 1977 , with Z'EV . In the 1980s Jackson became interviewer/program producer for Miss Wire Waist of KPFK 's Sounds of Jamaica ( L.A. ) ; and published Jah Guide reggae culture magazine . He recorded , published and broadcast speeches on apartheid by Jesse Jackson , Michael Manley , and Bishop Desmond Tutu ; and interviews with Steel Pulse , Burning Spear , Big Youth , Mutabaruka , Ras Michael and Peter Tosh . Meanwhile , he managed a 25-year career as a maritime seaman , union captain , and then fatherhood . In 2003 he authored the reggae novel Flight From Babylon ( Infinity ) . His second novel and Greenpeace memoirs are forthcoming .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Will_E._Jackson",
"rank": 4,
"score": 117637
},
{
"content": "Title: Save the Arctic Content: Save the Arctic is a Greenpeace campaign to protect the Arctic , principally by preventing oil drilling and unsustainable industrial fishing in the area completely , surrounded by an Arctic-Environmental economics-Zone . The campaign , begun in 2012 , calls for a sanctuary in the uninhabited high seas area around the North Pole , similar to the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty . The campaign aims to begin this process by prompting a United Nations resolution on protection for the Arctic .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Save_the_Arctic",
"rank": 5,
"score": 113497
},
{
"content": "Title: Paul Watson Content: Paul Franklin Watson ( born December 2 , 1950 ) is a Canadian marine wildlife conservation and environmental activist , who founded the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society , an anti-poaching and direct action group focused on marine conservation and marine conservation activism . He is a citizen of Canada and the United States . The Toronto native joined a Sierra Club protest against nuclear testing in 1969 . He was an early and influential member of Greenpeace , crewed and skippered for it , and a founding board member in 1972 . He has been credited by The New York Times , The New Yorker and other publications with being a founder of Greenpeace , but Greenpeace denies the claim . The documentary How to Change the World shows that Watson was indeed one of the original founding members of Greenpeace . Watson argued for a strategy of direct action that conflicted with the Greenpeace interpretation of nonviolence , was ousted from the board in 1977 , and subsequently left the organization . That same year , he formed Sea Shepherd Conservation Society . The group is the subject of a reality show named Whale Wars . He promotes veganism , and a biocentric , rather than anthropocentric , worldview . Watson 's activities have led to legal action from authorities in countries including the United States , Canada , Norway , Costa Rica , and Japan . He was detained in Germany on an extradition request by Costa Rica in May 2012 , The Interpol red notice was issued on September 14 , 2012 , at the request of Japan and Costa Rica . After staying at sea for 15 months he returned to Los Angeles late October 2013 , going through customs and `` was not arrested '' . He appeared before a U.S. appeals court on November 6 , 2013 stating that neither he nor Sea Shepherd violated a 2012 order requiring them to leave whaling vessels alone . Although the United States is a signatory member of Interpol , Watson has not been detained for extradition to Japan or Costa Rica . He was living in Vermont , writing books . He has resided in Paris since July 1 , 2014 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Paul_Watson",
"rank": 6,
"score": 112221
},
{
"content": "Title: Paul Spong Content: Dr. Paul Spong is a neuroscientist and cetologist from New Zealand . He has spent more than 30 years researching orcas ( or Killer whales ) in British Columbia , and is credited with increasing public awareness of whaling , through his involvement with Greenpeace .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Paul_Spong",
"rank": 7,
"score": 111645
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenpeace Content: Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over 40 countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam , the Netherlands . Founded by Canadian and US ex-pat environmental activists in 1971 , Greenpeace states its goal is to `` ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity '' and focuses its campaigning on worldwide issues such as climate change , deforestation , overfishing , commercial whaling , genetic engineering , and anti-nuclear issues . It uses direct action , lobbying , research , and ecotage to achieve its goals . The global organization does not accept funding from governments , corporations , or political parties , relying on 2.9 million individual supporters and foundation grants . Greenpeace has a general consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council and is a founding member of the INGO Accountability Charter ; an international non-governmental organization that intends to foster accountability and transparency of non-governmental organizations . Greenpeace is known for its direct actions and has been described as the most visible environmental organization in the world . Greenpeace has raised environmental issues to public knowledge , and influenced both the private and the public sector . Greenpeace has also been a source of controversy ; its motives and methods ( some of the latter being illegal ) have received criticism , including an open letter from more than 100 Nobel laureates urging Greenpeace to end its campaign against genetically modified organisms ( GMOs ) . The organization 's direct actions have sparked legal actions against Greenpeace activists , such as fines and suspended sentences for destroying a test plot of genetically modified wheat and damaging the Nazca Lines , a UN World Heritage site in Peru .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Greenpeace",
"rank": 8,
"score": 110620
},
{
"content": "Title: Mister Splashy Pants Content: Mister Splashy Pants , or Mr. Splashypants , is a humpback whale in the South Pacific Ocean . It is being tracked with a satellite tag by Greenpeace as a part of its Great Whale Trail Expedition , which was working to raise awareness about whales threatened by the Japanese Fisheries Agency 's plan to hunt 50 humpback whales . The whale 's name was chosen in an online poll that garnered attention from several websites , including Boing Boing and Reddit , quickly becoming an internet meme . Mister Splashy Pants became the subject of a TED Talk by Reddit co-founder Alexis Ohanian , titled `` How to make a splash in social media . ''",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Mister_Splashy_Pants",
"rank": 9,
"score": 109779
},
{
"content": "Title: MY Steve Irwin Content: The MY Steve Irwin is the 59 m flagship of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society , and is used in their direct action campaigns against whaling and against illegal fisheries activities . The vessel was built in 1975 and formerly served as a Scottish Fisheries Protection Agency conservation enforcement patrol boat , the FPV Westra , for 28 years . Sea Shepherd had originally christened the vessel the MV Robert Hunter after Canadian Robert Hunter , co-founder of Greenpeace , but it was renamed in honor of The Crocodile Hunter star Steve Irwin on December 5 , 2007 . Irwin had considered joining the vessel on a voyage to Antarctica shortly before his death , and the renaming was endorsed by his widow Terri . The ship and its crew , and their efforts for conservation , are the subject of the Animal Planet show Whale Wars .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "MY_Steve_Irwin",
"rank": 10,
"score": 105266
},
{
"content": "Title: Cetyl palmitate Content: Cetyl palmitate is the ester derived from palmitic acid and cetyl alcohol . This white waxy solid is the primary constituent of spermaceti , the once highly prized wax found in the skull of sperm whales . Cetyl palmitate is a component of some solid lipid nanoparticles . Stony corals , which build the coral reefs , contain large amounts of cetyl palmitate wax in their tissues , which may function in part as an antifeedant .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Cetyl_palmitate",
"rank": 11,
"score": 104730
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Shepherd Conservation Society Content: The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society ( SSCS ) is a non-profit , marine conservation organization based in Friday Harbor on San Juan Island , Washington , in the United States . Sea Shepherd uses direct action tactics to protect marine life . The organization was founded in 1977 under the name Earth Force Society by Paul Watson , a former member of Greenpeace , after a dispute with that organization over what Watson saw as its lack of more aggressive intervention . The group has a strong focus on public relations to spread its message via the media . In 2008 , Animal Planet began filming the weekly series Whale Wars based on the group 's encounters with the Japanese whaling fleet in the Southern Ocean , a development which brought the group much publicity . Sea Shepherd currently operates nine vessels ( see : Neptune 's Navy ) . Operations have included scuttling and disabling whaling vessels at harbor , intervening in Canadian and Namibian seal hunts , shining laser light into the eyes of whalers , throwing bottles of foul-smelling butyric acid onto vessels at sea , boarding of whaling vessels while at sea , and seizure and destruction of drift nets at sea . Sea Shepherd claims that their aggressive actions are necessary , as the international community has shown itself unwilling or unable to stop species-endangering whaling and fishing practices . Sea Shepherd has received support for its tactics against fishing , whaling , and seal hunting from many celebrities , such as musicians and TV personalities . The tactics of Sea Shepherd have been opposed , even by those who denounce whaling , such as Greenpeace and the governments of Australia and New Zealand . The Japanese government have called them eco-terrorists . However , in March 2014 the International Court of Justice ruled the Japanese whaling program in the Southern Ocean was not , as claimed , for scientific purposes , and ordered Japan to cease operations . Paul Watson and American members of Sea Shepherd are currently prohibited by US courts from approaching or harassing Japanese whalers .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Sea_Shepherd_Conservation_Society",
"rank": 12,
"score": 104027
},
{
"content": "Title: Astra Agro Lestari Content: Astra Agro Lestari ( AAL ) is an Indonesian palm oil company . It is a subsidiary of PT Astra International Tbk . At least in 2004 , it controlled extensive land banks . It has two concessions on peatlands in Riau , with an estimated total area of 20,000 hectares . According to Greenpeace , 2007 , it has seven concessions on peat in Central Kalimantan . Greenpeace also reported hotspots on five Astra Agro concessions in Riau , two of which were on peatlands . Joko Supriyono was or is a director at Astra Agro and secretary of a palm oil industry lobby group . He said companies had no choice , but to continue establishing plantations on restricted areas .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Astra_Agro_Lestari",
"rank": 13,
"score": 103447
},
{
"content": "Title: Whale oil Content: Whale oil is oil obtained from the blubber of whales . Whale oil was sometimes known as train oil , which comes from the Dutch word traan ( `` tear '' or `` drop '' ) . Sperm oil , a special kind of oil obtained from the head cavities of sperm whales , differs chemically from ordinary whale oil : it comprises mostly liquid wax . Its properties and applications differ from those of regular whale oil , and it sold at a higher cost when marketed . Early industrial societies used whale oil widely in oil lamps and to make soap and margarine . With the commercial development of substitutes such as kerosene and vegetable oils , the use of whale oils declined considerably in the 20th century . With most countries having banned whaling , the sale and use of whale oil has practically ceased .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Whale_oil",
"rank": 14,
"score": 103427
},
{
"content": "Title: High North Alliance Content: The High North Alliance ( Høge Nord Alliansen ) is an umbrella organisation of several fishing , whaling and Nordic municipal councils . The organisation objectives are , it says , `` to protect the rights of whalers , sealers and fishermen to harvest renewable resources in accordance with the principle of sustainable management . '' The alliance was founded in 1991 in response to calls from environmentalists to prohibit completely commercial whaling , and , from more radical groups , calls to prohibit the killing of marine mammals for any purpose . The alliance is organised by a governing committee of six members , three from Norway , and one each from the Faroe Islands , Greenland and Iceland . The alliance is funded by membership fees , and from grants from organisations such as the North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission ( founded by Norway , Iceland , Greenland , and the Faroe Islands in 1992 ) and the Regional Development Committee for Northern Norway . Activities of the Alliance include lobbying the largely sympathetic Norwegian government for increases in Norway 's whaling quota , promoting studies into methods of more humane whaling , lobbying the International Whaling Commission into relaxing the whaling moratorium , and responding to campaigns from anti-whaling groups such as the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society and Greenpeace .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "High_North_Alliance",
"rank": 15,
"score": 103154
},
{
"content": "Title: Stop Esso campaign Content: The Stop Esso campaign was a campaign by Greenpeace , Friends of the Earth and People and Planet aimed at boycotting the oil company Esso , known as ExxonMobil in the United States , on the grounds that it is damaging the environment . The campaign alleges that Esso / ExxonMobil is : not investing in renewable energy sources denying the existence of global warming funding the creation of junk science which denies climate change , delaying urgently needed climate change action undermining the Kyoto Protocol .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Stop_Esso_campaign",
"rank": 16,
"score": 102588
},
{
"content": "Title: Save Each Other, the Whales Are Doing Fine Content: Save Each Other , the Whales Are Doing Fine is the debut studio album by American rock band Patent Pending . The original name of the CD was Save The Children , The Whales Are Doing Fine , but it was changed due to a threat to sue by the Save the Children Foundation . The title reflects the environmental concept of save the whales . Because the band did n't have the budget to fight their case in court , they were forced to change the name . Because of the changing of the name , and a few other minor legal and technical issues , the CD/DVD was pushed back one month . It came out on June 6 , instead of May 9 . The CD was released with a bonus DVD which was filmed on January 13 , 2006 at Alley Katz in Richmond , Virginia with some portions filmed on February 24 , 2006 at Calvary Lutheran Church in East Meadow , New York .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Save_Each_Other,_the_Whales_Are_Doing_Fine",
"rank": 17,
"score": 101658
},
{
"content": "Title: Whale Oil Row Content: Whale Oil Row refers to four nearly identical high quality Greek Revival houses , standing side-by-side at 105-119 Huntington Street in New London , Connecticut . All four were built between 1835 and 1845 by Charles Henry Beebe , and three were owned by men directly involved in whaling ; the fourth was owned by a dry goods merchant . All four are distinguished by their two-story gabled porticos supported by fluted columns , with a semicircular window in the gable pediment . The first one ( 105 Huntington ) is slightly wider than the others , extending on either side of the front portico . This assembly of Greek temple front houses may be unique in the United States . The group of houses was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Whale_Oil_Row",
"rank": 18,
"score": 100508
},
{
"content": "Title: Dave Currey (environmentalist) Content: Dave Currey ( born 1953 ) is a British environmentalist , writer and photographer . A minister 's son , he was born in Sussex in the UK and brought up in London . He gained a BA in Photographic Arts in 1976 following a passion in communicating visually . In 1976 , following another passion , he walked 1,000 miles across Oregon , Idaho and Wyoming to help raise awareness of conservation issues for the World Wildlife Fund . On this journey his photographs , radio and television interviews were his introduction to a world of media co-operation that would steer his next thirty years in environmental activism . In 1979 he volunteered as a photographer on board the Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior during its Icelandic anti-whaling campaign where he first met Allan Thornton , Greenpeace 's director at the time . In 1983 , while he was working in public relations photography and teaching , Thornton persuaded him to join another anti-whaling ship , `` Balaenoptera '' . With Jennifer Lonsdale , another Greenpeace veteran , they carried out undercover work in the Norwegian port of Vado , posing as journalists to gain entry to whaling factories . They were able to truthfully insist they were not working for Greenpeace as the factory workers feared , but knew it was unwise to state they were on an independent environmental activist ship . The campaign was incredibly successful resulting in a two-thirds reduction in whaling quotas and huge embarrassment for the Norwegian government . From 1978 to 1986 he often contributed to Wildlife magazine and later when it became BBC Wildlife , for a while being their `` roving naturalist '' to places such as the Everglades National Park , Yellowstone National Park , and Baja California , Mexico . He also acted as a book and television reviewer for the magazine . His nature photography was widely used during this period and he was described as `` one of the new breed of naturalist photographers , with a commitment to conservation and the style of a photojournalist . ''",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Dave_Currey_(environmentalist)",
"rank": 19,
"score": 100476
},
{
"content": "Title: Earthtrust Content: Earthtrust is a non-governmental organization ( NGO ) dedicated to wildlife protection . Located in Hawaii , Earthtrust has been involved in many high-profile activities , notably around using genetic analysis to demonstrate the prevalence of pirate whaling as well as public information campaigns around drift net fishing . Earthtrust serves as an official observer at the International Whaling Commission . Earthtrust was founded in 1976 , and continues to be directed by Don White who also was involved in the founding of a related NGO , Greenpeace .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Earthtrust",
"rank": 20,
"score": 96245
},
{
"content": "Title: Oriental Bluebird Content: The 8,725 ton Hiyo Maru was the largest member of the Japanese whaling fleet ; providing fuel , resources , and stock storage space for that fleet and its crew . In 1992 , it was renamed and re-flagged to Panama as the Oriental Bluebird . According to Greenpeace , after a dispute with the Panamanian Government in 2008 , it was de-flagged and re-registered to Japan . The Hiyo Maru served as the fuel tanker for Japan 's whaling fleet , and was alleged by Greenpeace to also transport whale meat . In August 2010 , the ship was sold to China to be scrapped .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Oriental_Bluebird",
"rank": 21,
"score": 96206
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenpeace, Salvemos Al Mediterráneo Content: Greenpeace , Salvemos al Mediterráneo ( English : Let 's save the Mediterranean Sea ) is a compilation album by various singers with benefits to the non-governmental organization Greenpeace . It was released in 1986 . It was edited only in Spain in LP format . The only unpublished song was the one by Mecano .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Greenpeace,_Salvemos_Al_Mediterráneo",
"rank": 22,
"score": 95903
},
{
"content": "Title: MV Gondwana Content: The MV Gondwana was a ship acquired by Greenpeace in 1988 , originally built in 1975 and called the Viking . Greenpeace updated the ship with a helipad and accommodation space was increased to sleep 33 people . The ship was used to supply the Greenpeace World Park Base in 1988/89 and was involved in direct action to protest against Japanese whaling in the Southern Ocean in the late 1980s .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "MV_Gondwana",
"rank": 23,
"score": 95653
},
{
"content": "Title: Criticism of Greenpeace Content: Throughout its history , the policies and objectives of the non-governmental environmental protection and conservation organization Greenpeace have been criticized by a number of groups , including national governments , members of industry , former Greenpeace members , scientists , and political groups . The organization 's methods , such as the use of direct action , have also led to controversy and legal action .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Criticism_of_Greenpeace",
"rank": 24,
"score": 95464
},
{
"content": "Title: Frank Donald Robson Content: Frank Donald Robson ( 29 September 1912 -- 30 May 1993 ) was a New Zealand logging contractor , fisherman and marine conservationist . He was born in Greenmeadows , Hawke 's Bay , New Zealand in 1912 . Robson was the first New Zealander to study whale strandings and the first systematic investigation of pollutant levels in marine mammals in New Zealand . His volunteer group , Project Jonah has saved thousands of marine mammals , continuing even after the Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978 made the Department of Conservation technically responsible for this . In the 1989 New Year Honours Robson was appointed a Companion of the Queen 's Service Order for community service .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Frank_Donald_Robson",
"rank": 25,
"score": 95096
},
{
"content": "Title: Spermaceti organ Content: The spermaceti organ is an organ that commonly appears in the heads of toothed whales of the family Physeteroidea , in particular the sperm whale . This organ contains a waxy liquid called spermaceti and is involved in the generation of sound . The spermaceti organ in sperm whales is shaped like an elongated barrel and sits on top of the whale 's melon . Historically , the liquid from this organ was used to produce sperm oil , providing the economic basis for the sperm whaling industry .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Spermaceti_organ",
"rank": 26,
"score": 94604
},
{
"content": "Title: Brent Spar Content: Brent Spar , or Brent E , was a North Sea oil storage and tanker loading buoy in the Brent oilfield , operated by Shell UK . With the completion of a pipeline connection to the oil terminal at Sullom Voe in Shetland , the storage facility had continued in use , but by 1991 , was considered to be of no further value . Brent Spar became an issue of public concern in 1995 , when the British government announced its support for Shell 's application for its disposal in deep Atlantic waters at North Feni Ridge ( approximately 250 km from the west coast of Scotland , at a depth of around 2.5 km ) . Greenpeace organized a worldwide , high-profile media campaign against this plan occupying Brent Spar for more than three weeks . In the face of public and political opposition in northern Europe ( including a widespread boycott of Shell service stations , some physical attacks and an arson attack on a service station in Germany ) , Shell abandoned its plans to dispose of Brent Spar at sea -- whilst continuing to stand by its claim that this was the safest option , both from an environmental and an industrial health and safety perspective . Greenpeace 's own reputation also suffered during the campaign , when it had to acknowledge that its assessment of the oil remaining in Brent Spar 's storage tanks had been grossly overestimated . Following Shell 's decision to pursue only on-shore disposal options , as favoured by Greenpeace and its supporters , Brent Spar was given temporary moorings in a Norwegian fjord . In January 1998 , Shell announced its decision to re-use much of the main structure in the construction of new harbour facilities near Stavanger , Norway .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Brent_Spar",
"rank": 27,
"score": 94323
},
{
"content": "Title: Golden Agri-Resources Content: Golden-Agri Resources ( GAR ) is a Singaporean palm oil company . It is listed on the Singapore Stock Exchange since 1999 . In May 2015 , its market capitalization was $ 4.1 billion . Sheikh Roshini Begum is its CEO . Alnoor is a subsidiary of GAR . Lew Syn Pau used to serve as a member of the Singaporean Parliament for 13 years and is a member of the board of directors of the firm . According to Greenpeace , GAR has six concessions on peatlands in Riau , with an estimated total are of 20,000 hectares . GAR was reported to have 1,880 hectares of peat in Central Kalimantan and 1,330 hectares in West Kalimantan , while claiming a zero-deforestation footprint . Greenpeace also discovered 322 hotspots on five to GAR 's concessions in Central Kalimantan . GAR denied these accusations and said to have a zero-burning policy since 1997 . Interviews with senior officers revealed evidence to the contrary .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Golden_Agri-Resources",
"rank": 28,
"score": 94230
},
{
"content": "Title: Whaleman Foundation Content: The Whaleman Foundation is a non-profit , marine conservation organization based in Lahaina , Hawaii in the United States . It advocates for the protection of cetaceans ( whales , dolphins , and porpoises ) and their habitats . Whaleman was founded by Jeff Pantukhoff . Hayden Panettiere is the spokesperson for the foundation . She has promoted the Foundations ' Save the Whales Again ! campaign since 2008 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Whaleman_Foundation",
"rank": 29,
"score": 93889
},
{
"content": "Title: Shores of Silence Content: Shores of Silence : Whale Sharks in India is a landmark film by Mike Pandey that brought about major legislative changes to protect whale sharks worldwide . This documentary depicts the needless killing and harvesting of whale sharks by poor Indian communities . In response to the film , the Indian government introduced legislature to ban fishing of whale sharks , declaring them endangered species and protecting them under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 . This gives whale sharks equal status to other endangered species such as tigers and rhinoceroses . Internationally , the film helped to bring the whale shark global protection under CITES . The film won 11 international awards including The Wildscreen Panda , also known as the Green Oscar . Recently , the film received four stars from the Hindustan Times .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Shores_of_Silence",
"rank": 30,
"score": 93828
},
{
"content": "Title: Astral Oil Works Content: Astral Oil Works was founded in the Greenpoint section of Brooklyn , New York , by Charles Pratt . Pratt was a pioneer of the petroleum industry who formed Charles Pratt and Company with Henry H. Rogers . The Pratt interests became part of John D. Rockefeller 's Standard Oil organization in 1874 . Specializing in illuminating oil , which had earlier been derived from whale oil , the products of the Astral Oil Works kerosene refinery became famous worldwide in the late 19th century . Company advertising used the slogan , `` The holy lamps of Tibet are primed with Astral Oil . '' Pratt founded and endowed the Pratt Institute with profits of the Astral Oil Works .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Astral_Oil_Works",
"rank": 31,
"score": 93161
},
{
"content": "Title: GreenPalm Content: GreenPalm is a certificate-trading program for `` sustainably produced '' palm oil . Established in Hull , England , in November 2006 , GreenPalm is a trading name of Book & Claim Ltd. , `` a wholly owned subsidiary of '' AarhusKarlshamn UK Ltd. .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "GreenPalm",
"rank": 32,
"score": 93035
},
{
"content": "Title: Emily Hunter Content: Emily Hunter ( born May 20 , 1984 ) is a Canadian activist , author and filmmaker . She is the daughter of the late Robert Hunter , first president of Greenpeace and Bobbi Hunter , co-founder of Greenpeace . She has been a campaigner for nearly a decade on numerous environmental causes , from fighting whaling to climate change . She is known in Canada as a writer for THIS magazine and as environmental correspondent for MTV News .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Emily_Hunter",
"rank": 33,
"score": 92635
},
{
"content": "Title: And God Created Great Whales Content: And God Created Great Whales , Op. 229 , No. 1 , is a symphonic poem for orchestra and recorded whale sounds by the American composer Alan Hovhaness . The work was commissioned by Andre Kostelanetz and the New York Philharmonic , who premiered the piece June 11,1970 in New York City . The piece has been recorded numerous times and remains one of Hovhaness 's most popular compositions . It has also been credited as an early work in the movement to save whales from extinction , alongside John Tavener 's 1966 cantata The Whale . The title of the work comes from Genesis 1:21 in the King James Version of the Bible .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "And_God_Created_Great_Whales",
"rank": 34,
"score": 92608
},
{
"content": "Title: Whale conservation Content: Whale conservation is the international environmental and ethical debate over whale hunting . The conservation and anti-whaling debate has focused on issues of sustainability as well as ownership and national sovereignty . Also raised in conservation efforts is the question of cetacean intelligence , the level of suffering which the animals undergo when caught and killed , and the importance that the mammals play in the ecosystem and a healthy marine environment . The International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) 1986 moratorium on commercial whaling , the value of lethal sampling of whales for scientific research in order to establish catch quotas has also been debated . The value of whaling to fisheries as a method of controlling whales ' perceived negative impact on fish stocks is another point of debate .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Whale_conservation",
"rank": 35,
"score": 91748
},
{
"content": "Title: A Whale Content: A Whale is a Liberian-flagged ore-oil carrier built in 2010 by Hyundai Heavy Industries , Ulsan , South Korea for TMT Co. Ltd. ( formerly Taiwan Maritime Transport Co. Ltd. ) from the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) . She has seven other sister ships in the fleet , built in 2010-2011 and named in succession : B Whale , C Whale etc. , to H Whale .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "A_Whale",
"rank": 36,
"score": 91498
},
{
"content": "Title: Ben Metcalfe Content: Bennett Metcalfe ( October 31 , 1919 -- October 14 , 2003 ) was a Canadian journalist and first chairman of Greenpeace , founded 1971 . Ben Metcalfe was born in Winnipeg . Later he moved to the United Kingdom and at the age of 16 joined the Royal Air Force . He was posted in India and North Africa . After World War II he worked as journalist in France . He moved back to Canada in 1951 , living in Winnipeg , West Vancouver , and Shawnigan Lake . He worked as a journalist , editor , and freelance correspondent for Winnipeg Free Press , the Province in Vancouver and other publications . He also started a public relations company with his second wife Dorothy . In 1971 he joined the crew member of the Greenpeace boat sailing to protest against U.S. army nuclear bomb test near Amchitka island . When the Greenpeace Foundation was established , Metcalfe became its first chairman . He recognized the importance of a media campaign as a tool to gain support for environmental issues . He left his post when Greenpeace changed focus from nuclear weapons to fighting against whaling and seal hunting . He is the author of a biography of Roderick Langmere Haig-Brown : Metcalfe , E. Bennett ( 1985 ) . A man of some importance : the life of Roderick Langmere Haig-Brown Published by James W. Wood , Vancouver . ISBN 0-921063-01-6 , ISBN 0-921063-00-8 . Metcalfe died of a heart attack at age 83 . He had three daughters Michelle , Charlotte , and Sophie ; and sons Christopher ( 1958-1980 ) , and Michael ( 1956-2002 )",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Ben_Metcalfe",
"rank": 37,
"score": 90080
},
{
"content": "Title: Spermaceti Content: Spermaceti ( from Latin sperma meaning `` semen '' , and ceti , the genitive form of `` whale '' ) is a waxy substance found in the head cavities of the sperm whale ( and , in smaller quantities , in the oils of other whales ) . Spermaceti is created in the spermaceti organ inside the whale 's head . Two theories for the spermaceti organ 's biological function suggest it either controls buoyancy , or acts as a focusing apparatus for the whale 's sense of echolocation . There has been concrete evidence to support both theories . The buoyancy theory holds that the sperm whale is capable of heating the spermaceti , lowering its density and thus allowing the whale to float ; in order for the whale to sink again , it must take water into its blowhole which cools the spermaceti into a denser solid . This claim has been called into question by recent research which indicates a lack of biological structures to support this heat exchange , as well as the fact that the change in density is too small to be meaningful until the organ grows to huge size . The proportion of wax esters in the spermaceti organ increases with the age of the whale : 38 -- 51 % in calves , 58 -- 87 % in adult females , and 71 -- 94 % in adult males . Spermaceti wax is extracted from sperm oil by crystallisation at 6 C , when treated by pressure and a chemical solution of caustic alkali . Spermaceti forms brilliant white crystals that are hard but oily to the touch , and are devoid of taste or smell , making it very useful as an ingredient in cosmetics , leatherworking , and lubricants . The substance was also used in making candles of a standard photometric value , in the dressing of fabrics , and as a pharmaceutical excipient , especially in cerates and ointments . Candlepower , a photometric unit defined in the United Kingdom Act of Parliament Metropolitan Gas Act 1860 and adopted at the International Electrotechnical Conference of 1883 , was based on the light produced by a pure spermaceti candle .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Spermaceti",
"rank": 38,
"score": 90021
},
{
"content": "Title: Whaling Content: Whaling is the hunting of whales for their usable products like meat , oil and blubber . Its earliest forms date to at least circa 3000 BC . Various coastal communities have long histories of subsistence whaling and harvesting beached whales . Industrial whaling emerged with organized fleets in the 17th century ; competitive national whaling industries in the 18th and 19th centuries ; and the introduction of factory ships along with the concept of whale harvesting in the first half of the 20th century . By the late 1930s , more than 50,000 whales were killed annually In 1986 , the International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) banned commercial whaling because of the extreme depletion of most of the whale stocks . Contemporary whaling is subject to intense debate . Pro-whaling countries , notably Japan , Norway , and Iceland , wish to lift the ban on certain whale stocks for hunting . Anti-whaling countries and environmental groups oppose lifting the ban .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Whaling",
"rank": 39,
"score": 89600
},
{
"content": "Title: Mary A. Whalen (tanker) Content: Mary A. Whalen , also known as the S.T. Kiddoo , is a historic oil tanker located in the Red Hook neighborhood of Brooklyn , Kings County , New York . She was built in 1938 by the John J. Mathis Company of Camden , New Jersey and measures 138 feet long . She is a rare example of a `` bell boat . '' The tanker shipped oil along East Coast and was at center of United States v. Reliable Transfer Co. , a seminal decision in maritime law after she ran aground in Rockaway Inlet in 1968 . She was in active service until 1994 . She was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2012 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Mary_A._Whalen_(tanker)",
"rank": 40,
"score": 89055
},
{
"content": "Title: Rainbow Warrior (1955) Content: Rainbow Warrior was a former UK Ministry of Agriculture , Fisheries and Food ( MAFF ) trawler called the Sir William Hardy . She was purchased by the environmental organization Greenpeace UK -- an office established in May 1977 with Susi Newborn , Denise Bell , David McTaggart , Charlie Hutchison and Allan Thornton as directors . The ship was active in supporting a number of Greenpeace anti-whaling , - seal hunting , - nuclear testing and - nuclear waste dumping campaigns during the late 1970s and early 1980s . She was sunk whilst in Auckland harbour in New Zealand by operatives of the French intelligence service ( DGSE ) on 10 July 1985 , killing photographer Fernando Pereira .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Rainbow_Warrior_(1955)",
"rank": 41,
"score": 89004
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenpeace India Content: Greenpeace India is the Indian branch of the global environmental group Greenpeace , a non-profit NGO , with a presence in 40 countries across Europe , the Americas , Asia and the Pacific . The Indian operations run four broad campaigns namely , stop climate change , sustainable agriculture , preserving the oceans and preventing another nuclear catastrophe . Greenpeace India states that it receives 60 % of its funding from donors in India , 38 % from Netherlands-based Greenpeace International and less than 1 % from the US-based Climate Works Foundation . According to the organization , they do not accept money from governments , intergovernmental organizations , political parties or corporations in order to avoid their influence . In 2015 , several women employees made allegations of sexual harassment , bullying and rape at Greenpeace India .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Greenpeace_India",
"rank": 42,
"score": 88581
},
{
"content": "Title: London Greenpeace Content: London Greenpeace was an anarchist environmentalist activist collective that existed between 1972 and 2001 . They were based in London , and came to international prominence when two of their activists refused to capitulate to McDonald 's in the landmark libel case known as `` McLibel '' . It was not affiliated with Greenpeace International .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "London_Greenpeace",
"rank": 43,
"score": 88533
},
{
"content": "Title: North Atlantic right whale Content: The North Atlantic right whale ( Eubalaena glacialis , which means `` good , or true , whale of the ice '' ) is a baleen whale , one of three right whale species belonging to the genus Eubalaena , all of which were formerly classified as a single species . Because of their docile nature , their slow surface-skimming feeding behaviors , their tendencies to stay close to the coast , and their high blubber content ( which makes them float when they are killed , and which produced high yields of whale oil ) , right whales were once a preferred target for whalers . At present , they are among the most endangered whales in the world , and they are protected under the U.S. Endangered Species Act and Marine Mammal Protection Act and Canada 's Species at Risk Act . There are about 400 individuals in existence in the western North Atlantic Ocean -- they migrate between feeding grounds in the Gulf of Maine and their winter calving areas off Georgia and Florida , an ocean area with heavy shipping traffic . In the eastern North Atlantic , on the other hand -- with a total population reaching into the low teens at best -- scientists believe that they may already be functionally extinct . Vessel strikes and entanglement in fixed fishing gear , which together account for nearly half of all North Atlantic right whale mortality since 1970 , are their two greatest threats to recovery .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "North_Atlantic_right_whale",
"rank": 44,
"score": 88511
},
{
"content": "Title: Pacific Whale Foundation Content: The Pacific Whale Foundation ( PWF ) is a non-governmental organization founded in 1980 and based in Maui , Hawaii that conducts whale research and educates the public in an effort to save vulnerable species of whales from extinction . As of 2012 the organization had about 150 employees . Since its foundation the PWF has been working to prevent destruction of populations of Humpback whales , dolphins , turtles and coral reefs in Hawaii . Every year the PWF organizes a `` Great Whale Count '' where volunteers systematically gather data on whales that can be seen from ten observation points along the southern shore of Maui , giving a series of snapshots that indicate changes in whale populations . The Pacific Whale Foundation provided funding to the Alfaguara project on Isla de Chiloé in southern Chile for marine surveys of the local blue whale population in the 2012 season .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Pacific_Whale_Foundation",
"rank": 45,
"score": 88381
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenpeace Arctic Sunrise ship case Content: After Greenpeace activists attempted to scale the Prirazlomnaya drilling platform on 18 September 2013 , as part of a protest against Arctic oil production , Russian authorities seized the Greenpeace ship the Arctic Sunrise in international waters in the Russian Exclusive Economic Zone on 19 September 2013 , arrested the crew at gunpoint , towed the ship to Murmansk , and detained the crew of 28 activists and two freelance journalists . The Investigative Committee of Russia opened a criminal investigation , charging the activists initially with piracy and later with hooliganism . Since the Arctic Sunrise was flying the Dutch flag , the Netherlands filed a case at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea ( ITLOS case 22 ) which argued ( and obtained ruling ) the release of the crew and ship until both parties can resolve the conflict . Russia ignored the ITLOS ruling , but eventually released the crew as part of a general amnesty adopted by the State Duma after two months of detention . The Arctic Sunrise itself was released from Russian detainment in June 2014 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Greenpeace_Arctic_Sunrise_ship_case",
"rank": 46,
"score": 88316
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine mammal observer Content: A marine mammal observer ( MMO ) is a professional in environmental consulting who specializes in whales and dolphins . In recent years there has been increased concern for the effect of man-made noise pollution in the ocean , particularly upon cetaceans - which are known to be sensitive to sound . As a result , environmental regulations have been introduced in an attempt to minimise negative impacts on marine wildlife . These guidelines have focused on the oil industry 's seismic exploration for offshore oil . They center on the practice of delaying or shutting down the use of air-guns if a whale or dolphin is sighted nearby . An MMO will implement these regulations in the field . When on board the seismic vessel , the MMO 's job is two-fold : To spot sensitive wildlife species To monitor adherence to the guidelines . Spotting , and identifying , animals involves long hours of visual surveys . Detecting cetaceans with hydrophones is known as Passive Acoustic Monitoring ( PAM ) , and this is an increasingly common technique used in addition to visual surveys . Ensuring adherence to guidelines requires a thorough knowledge of the regulations , understanding of the operations and the ability to communicate effectively with the crew . MMOs usually have a strong background in marine biology and conservation . Increasingly , the oil industry is employing a ` best practice ' attitude to environmental commitment and voluntarily taking on MMOs as independent observers in areas where no government regulations exist . In some circumstances guidelines may be open to interpretation or the environmental conditions unique and the MMO will be called upon to advise on a sensible mitigation protocol . As well as the seismic exploration industry , MMOs may also be required during ; oil rig decommissioning , where disused oil platform pilings on the seabed are removed by large amounts of explosives , marine construction projects and ; military trials of powerful new active sonar systems . Typically MMO duties are funded by the company surveying . Noise from human activity in the ocean environment is likely to increase - and become a bigger environmental issue . Discussion of how to minimize the negative effects of noise upon whales , dolphins and other marine-life will no doubt continue between industry , government agencies , military , environmental organizations and academics . It will be the MMO who puts this into practice in the field .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Marine_mammal_observer",
"rank": 47,
"score": 87587
},
{
"content": "Title: Green Hell (film) Content: Green Hell is a 1940 American jungle adventure film directed by James Whale , starring Douglas Fairbanks Jr. and Joan Bennett . Green Hell was given a lavish production by Universal Pictures , which built a massive indoor jungle set on a sound stage . An Inca temple 125 feet high , 225 feet wide , and 45,000 square feet in area were constructed . Having spent a great deal of money on a film that turned out to be a critical and financial disaster , Universal used the set again , recycling it into an Egyptian temple for The Mummy 's Hand ( 1940 ) . Whale made only one more completed film after this , the 1941 World War II romantic melodrama They Dare Not Love , starring George Brent , improbably cast as an exiled Austrian prince fighting the Nazis .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Green_Hell_(film)",
"rank": 48,
"score": 87321
},
{
"content": "Title: Willungacetus Content: Willungacetus is an extinct genus of primitive baleen whale of the family Aetiocetidae known from the Oligocene of Australia ( at Port Willunga , , paleocoordinates ) . It is the oldest-known whale from Australia , and the only aetiocetid whale currently known from the Southern Hemisphere . Neville S. Pledge first visited the type locality in 1983 and collected two boulders . These two rocks , however , were forgotten until 2001 when a partial vertebra were discovered within . The site was subsequently revisited and another specimen , a partial cranium , was discovered . Pledge referred a radius , collected from the same cliff in 1994 , to his newly named species . Pledge provisionally assigned Willungacetus to Aetiocetidae , but this assignment still needs to be confirmed .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Willungacetus",
"rank": 49,
"score": 86906
},
{
"content": "Title: The Voyage of the Odyssey Content: The Voyage of the Odyssey was a 5-year program conducted by oceanographic research and education non-profit Ocean Alliance , which collected the first baseline data set on contaminants in the world 's oceans . It was launched from San Diego in March 2000 , and ended five and a half years later in Boston , August 2005 . In a 1979 National Geographic magazine article Ocean Alliance founder and president Dr. Roger Payne predicted that toxic pollution would replace the harpoon as the next greatest threat to whales . Recognizing the stark lack of data on the subject , Roger set his organisation Ocean Alliance with the task of obtaining a global baseline data set on contaminants . After years of planning and fund-raising , the program was finally ready to launch in 2000 . In the executive summary of the project , Roger stated that , ` The Voyage of the Odyssey has proven irrefutably that ocean life is becoming polluted to unacceptable levels by metals and human-made contaminants . ' The focus of the program was on Sperm whales , a cosmopolitan species found in every major ocean . As long-lived apex predators , Sperm whales represent a useful bioindicator of health in the marine ecosystem in a toxicological context , owing to the effects of three key processes : bioaccumulation , biomagnification and the generation effect . Sadly , these three processes also make Sperm whales , and other apex predators , at great risk from toxic pollution . As mammalian apex predators that nurse their young with milk , they are also relatively similar to us , and thus are seen as the ` canaries in the coal mine ' regarding humanities relationship with the oceans . The program also had a robust educational and outreach component . In every country they visited , Odyssey crew members met with government leaders , students , teachers and journalists-many of whom kept promoting ocean health after the Odyssey departed for its next research location . The program was also the focus of a major online diary & educational webseries through American broadcaster PBS produced by Genevieve & Chris Johnson . Aside from collecting the first baseline data set on contaminants in the world 's oceans , the program was witness to a number of other successes , innovations and firsts . These include : uncovering illegal shark finning operations documenting the use of massive drift nets in the Mediterranean helping to create a 1.2 million square-mile marine mammal sanctuary in Papua New Guinea waters made incredibly rare sightings of a live Longman 's beaked whale",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "The_Voyage_of_the_Odyssey",
"rank": 50,
"score": 86622
},
{
"content": "Title: Sperm oil Content: Sperm oil is a waxy liquid obtained from sperm whales . It is a clear , yellowish liquid with a very faint odor . Sperm oil has a different composition from common whale oil . Although it is traditionally called an `` oil '' , it is technically a liquid wax . It is composed of wax esters with a small proportion of triglycerides , an ester of an unsaturated fatty acid and a branched-chain fatty alcohol . It is a natural antioxidant and heat-transfer agent . Through catalytic reaction , it carries phosphorus and sulfur derivatives providing anti-wear and friction modification . In the late 18th and early 19th centuries , sperm oil was prized as an illuminant for its bright , odorless flame and as a lubricant for its low viscosity and stability . It was supplanted in the late 19th century by less expensive alternatives such as kerosene and petroleum-based lubricants . With the 1987 international ban on whaling , sperm oil is no longer legally sold . The oil from bottlenose whales was sometimes called `` Arctic sperm oil '' . It was cheaper and inferior to true sperm oil .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Sperm_oil",
"rank": 51,
"score": 86544
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean Alliance Content: Ocean Alliance , Inc. , a 501 ( c ) 3 organization , is dedicated to the conservation of whales and their marine environment through research and education . The organization is based in the iconic Tarr & Wonson Paint Manufactory in Gloucester , Massachusetts , United States . It was founded in 1971 by biologist Roger Payne . Led by Payne and Chief Executive Officer Iain Kerr , Ocean Alliance collects a broad spectrum of data on whales and ocean life relating particularly to toxicology , behavior , bioacoustics , and genetics . From those data , the alliance works with its scientific partners to advise educators and policy makers on wise stewardship of the oceans in order to : reduce pollution , prevent the collapse of marine mammal populations , maintain human access to fish and other sea life , and benefit ocean and human health .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Ocean_Alliance",
"rank": 52,
"score": 86395
},
{
"content": "Title: Krill oil Content: Krill oil is an extract prepared from a species of Antarctic krill , Euphausia superba . Two of the most important components in krill oil are omega-3 fatty acids similar to those in fish oil , and phospholipid-derived fatty acids ( PLFA ) , mainly phosphatidylcholine ( alternatively referred to as marine lecithin ) . Studies have shown toxic residues in Antarctic krill and fish ; however , the United States Food and Drug Administration has accepted notices from krill oil manufacturers declaring that krill oil and products derived from it meet the standards for Generally Recognized as Safe ( GRAS ) status , although the FDA itself has not tested the products . While not an endangered species , Antarctic krill are a mainstay of the diets of many ocean-based species including whales and there is some environmental and scientific concern that their population has decreased dramatically both due to climate change and human harvesting .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Krill_oil",
"rank": 53,
"score": 85607
},
{
"content": "Title: Big Miracle (book) Content: Big Miracle tells the true story of three gray whales trapped beneath Arctic ice in the fall of 1988 , and of Operation Breakthrough , the collaborative efforts to free them by oil company executives , activists , Inupiat people , the U.S. military , and Soviet ice-breakers . Written by journalist Tom Rose ( who covered the event for a Japanese news channel at the time ) , the book was originally published in 1989 , titled Freeing the Whales : How the Media Created the World 's Greatest Non-Event . It was re-released under its current title by St. Martin 's Press in 2011 . A film adaption of Big Miracle directed by Ken Kwapis , starring Drew Barrymore , Ted Danson , Kristen Bell , among other stars , was released in 2012 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Big_Miracle_(book)",
"rank": 54,
"score": 85521
},
{
"content": "Title: Saghacetus Content: Saghacetus is an extinct genus of basilosaurid early whale , fossils of which have been found in the Upper Eocene ( middle Priabonian , ) Qasr el Sagha Formation , Egypt ( , paleocoordinates ) . In 1879 , German botanist Georg August Schweinfurth spent many years exploring Africa and eventually discovered the first archaeocete whale in Egypt . He visited Qasr el Sagha in 1884 and 1886 and missed the now famous `` Zeuglodon Valley '' with a few kilometres . German palaeontologist Wilhelm Barnim Dames described the material , including a well-preserved dentary which is the type specimen of Zeuglodon osiris . The generic name Saghacetus was established by to group the ancient species Dorudon osiris , D. zitteli , D. sensitivius and D. elliotsmithii on a single species , Saghacetus osiris . This species is distinguished from other members of the subfamily Dorudontinae by its smaller size and the slightly elongated proximal lumbar and caudal vertebrae.Saghacetus is smaller than its contemporary Stromerius , both of which are smaller than the older Dorudon '' .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Saghacetus",
"rank": 55,
"score": 85281
},
{
"content": "Title: Operation Breakthrough Content: Operation Breakthrough was an international effort to free three gray whales from pack ice in the Beaufort Sea near Point Barrow in the U.S. state of Alaska in 1988 . The whales ' plight generated media attention that led to the collaboration of multiple governments and organizations to free them . The youngest whale died during the effort and it is unknown if the remaining two whales ultimately survived .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Operation_Breakthrough",
"rank": 56,
"score": 85265
},
{
"content": "Title: Blue whale Content: The blue whale ( Balaenoptera musculus ) is a marine mammal belonging to the baleen whales ( Mysticeti ) . At up to 29.9 m in length and with a maximum recorded weight of 173 tonne and probably reaching over 181 tonnes ( 200 short tons ) , it is the largest animal known to have ever existed . Long and slender , the blue whale 's body can be various shades of bluish-grey dorsally and somewhat lighter underneath . There are at least three distinct subspecies : B. m. musculus of the North Atlantic and North Pacific , B. m. intermedia of the Southern Ocean and B. m. brevicauda ( also known as the pygmy blue whale ) found in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean . B. m. indica , found in the Indian Ocean , may be another subspecies . As with other baleen whales , its diet consists almost exclusively of small crustaceans known as krill . Blue whales were abundant in nearly all the oceans on Earth until the beginning of the twentieth century . For over a century , they were hunted almost to extinction by whalers until protected by the international community in 1966 . A 2002 report estimated there were 5,000 to 12,000 blue whales worldwide , in at least five groups . The IUCN estimates that there are probably between 10,000 and 25,000 blue whales worldwide today . Before whaling , the largest population was in the Antarctic , numbering approximately 239,000 ( range 202,000 to 311,000 ) . There remain only much smaller ( around 2,000 ) concentrations in each of the eastern North Pacific , Antarctic , and Indian Ocean groups . There are two more groups in the North Atlantic , and at least two in the Southern Hemisphere . As of 2014 , the Eastern North Pacific blue whale population had rebounded to nearly its pre-hunting population .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Blue_whale",
"rank": 57,
"score": 84854
},
{
"content": "Title: Save the World (George Harrison song) Content: `` Save the World '' is a song by English musician George Harrison , released as the final track of his 1981 album Somewhere in England . It was also the B-side of `` Teardrops '' , which was the second single off the album . An environmental protest song , `` Save the World '' was Harrison 's first composition to directly address topical issues such as the nuclear arms race , rainforest and wildlife devastation , and the ecologically irresponsible practices of corporate concerns . Musically , the song partly recalls the style of the comedy troupe Monty Python . Harrison recorded `` Save the World '' at his Friar Park studio in England in 1980 . The recording includes sound effects that support the song 's message of a world heading towards self-destruction , including bombs falling , a cash register , a street demonstration , and a nuclear explosion . In 1985 , Harrison contributed a version of the song with amended lyrics to Greenpeace 's self-titled fundraising album . `` Save the World '' also appeared on the home video Greenpeace : Non-Toxic Video Hits . Since its release , the song has been held in low regard by several music critics and biographers . Some of these reviewers highlight the disparity between the serious message and the quirky musical backing . In line with Harrison 's wishes , a demo of `` Save the World '' appeared as the sole bonus track on the posthumously reissued Somewhere in England in 2004 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Save_the_World_(George_Harrison_song)",
"rank": 58,
"score": 84644
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenpeace Energy Content: Greenpeace Energy is a German electric utility in the form of a registered association . The stated goal of the cooperative is the provision of environmentally friendly energy to the electrical grid . As a founding member of the association , Greenpeace e.V. holds only five shares at $ 55 in the cooperative , otherwise the environmental group and the company are financially and legally independent . The name use is linked contract with the condition that Greenpeace Energy fulfils the conditions laid down by the Greenpeace e.V. quality criteria for `` clean energy '' .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Greenpeace_Energy",
"rank": 59,
"score": 84625
},
{
"content": "Title: Walkampf Content: `` Walkampf '' ( Whale struggle ) is a song by Die Toten Hosen . It 's the second single and the thirteenth track from the album Zurück zum Glück . The title is a pun on the word `` Wahlkampf '' , which means `` election campaign '' in German . The song is about a dream by the narrator , where he finds a whale on a beach and struggles to push it back to the water , but does n't have enough strength for that . All the time , he hears the waves , the sun shouting : `` Push the whale back in the sea '' , which pressures him . He hopes to get help from a Greenpeace ship he sees , but right before his eyes , it sinks . The next day he has sore muscles and gets under the shower but then his girlfriend urges him to `` push the whale back in the sea '' and on it goes . The song opens with a slow ukulele tune , progresses into a more aggressive punk style during the 2nd verse , with the bridge between the 2nd and third verse being overlaid with a background singer giving it a more surf rock style similar to a song by the Beach Boys , and the final verse and final chorus is accompanied by bagpipes , with the background singer returning at the very tail end of the song .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Walkampf",
"rank": 60,
"score": 84564
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenpeace (disambiguation) Content: Greenpeace or Greenpeace International is a non-governmental environmental organization founded in Vancouver in 1971 . Greenpeace may also refer to : Greenpeace Foundation , a USA based environmental organization founded in Honolulu in 1976 , not affiliated to Greenpeace International London Greenpeace , an anarchist environmentalist activist collective that existed between 1971 and 2001 , not affiliated to Greenpeace International MV Greenpeace , a ship used by Greenpeace International Greenpeace Energy , German energy company affiliated to Greenpeace International Greenpeace ( music group ) , 2005 New Zealand charity supergroup affiliated to Greenpeace International",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Greenpeace_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 61,
"score": 84506
},
{
"content": "Title: Wen Bo Content: Wen Bo is a Chinese environmentalist based in Beijing . Born and raised in the coastal city of Dalian in Northeast China . Wen Bo became interested in environmental activism since watching anti-whaling actions by Greenpeace on TV . He later became a journalist with China Environment News and began reporting on China 's many environmental problems . Wen Bo helped found Green Peace 's Beijing office and went on to become the Beijing-based Co-Director of Pacific Environment 's China Program . He has studied , lived and worked in , besides China , South Korea and Japan , and thus has a comparative understanding of environmental problems , activism , and governance in these countries . He 's frequently interviewed and profiled by major international news medias such as Time magazine , Radio Free Asia , San Francisco Chronicle , the Financial Times , etc. .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Wen_Bo",
"rank": 62,
"score": 84495
},
{
"content": "Title: Whaling in Seychelles Content: Whaling in Seychelles was established in the early 19th century , coming largely to a close by 1915 due to declining prices for sperm whale oil , as well as the lack of materials and freight congestion due to the onset of World War I . The primary quarry , sperm whales , were generally caught near Bird and Denis Islands , and towed to a whaling station on Saint Anne .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Whaling_in_Seychelles",
"rank": 63,
"score": 83257
},
{
"content": "Title: Sigguk Block Content: Sigguk Block is an oil exploration block in Baffin Bay . It is located 175 km west of Disko Island , Greenland . The block consists of Alpha , T4 , and T8 prospects . The license to explore the block belongs to Cairn Energy 's subsidiary Capricorn Greenland Exploration Limited . In October 2009 Cairn Energy sold a 20 % stake of its rights to Petronas . The national oil company of Greenland NUNAOIL owns 12.5 % interest . The license expires on 31 December 2017 . Exploration wells at the Alpha prospect are drilled by semi-submersible drilling rig Stena Don and at the T8 prospect by the drillship Stena Forth . Drilling commenced on 1 July 2010 . On 24 August 2010 , Stena Forth discovered natural gas resource when it drilled the T8-1 exploration well . However , this resource occurred to be too small for commercial production . The well was plugged and abandoned . On 21 September 2010 it was announced that oil and gas resource was discovered when drilling the Alpha-1S1 well . Drilling at the Sigguk Block is opposed by Greenpeace . On 31 August 2010 , four Greenpeace activists invaded Stena Don which was drilling on the Alpha prospect . The Government of Greenland described this action as `` very serious and an illegal attack on the country 's constitutional rights '' . This action was ended on 1 September due to bad weather . All four activist were arrested and charged with breaking and entering , as well as trespass .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Sigguk_Block",
"rank": 64,
"score": 83077
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenpeace Southeast Asia Content: Greenpeace Southeast Asia is the regional office of the global environmental organization Greenpeace . Greenpeace has run successful campaigns in the Philippines , Taiwan , India , Indonesia and Thailand , often working with other local environmental groups . In late 1980s and early 1990s , Greenpeace has developed its presence , and first established an office in Japan in 1989 and then China in 1997 . Because of the region 's vital importance , initial investigations were also initiated focusing primarily on Philippines and Indonesia . Greenpeace has thoroughly campaigned in industrialized countries to reduce and eventually eliminate environmental pollution and degradation knowing that those efforts can easily be reversed as some multinational companies export dirty technologies resulting in environmental destruction in the region . In 1999 , Greenpeace led the campaign to push for the passage of Republic Act No. 8749 , otherwise known as `` The Philippine Clean Air Act '' which includes an unprecedented national ban against waste incineration . In recognition of the region 's vital importance , Greenpeace Southeast Asia was formally established on March 2000 with its head office in Bangkok , Thailand and branch offices in Manila , Philippines and Jakarta , Indonesia -- major cities in the region that are among the most polluted cities in the world today . Greenpeace Southeast Asia is firmly rooted within the local environmental communities around the countries where it operates . Licensed to use the name `` Greenpeace '' by Stichting Greenpeace Council , Greenpeace Southeast Asia contributes financially to Greenpeace International , campaign locally , participate in international campaigns , and help shape the international campaign program . Greenpeace Southeast Asia 's work in the region includes stopping hazardous waste imports , opposing radioactive shipments , campaigning against forest destruction , lobbying governments on sustainable energy issues and drawing attention to the dangers of waste incineration . It uses tactics of non-violent direct action to draw attention to what it considers significant threats to the environment , and then forces solutions . In 2005 the Rainbow Warrior II ran aground on and damaged the Tubbataha Reef in the Philippines while inspecting the reef for coral bleaching . Greenpeace was fined $ 7,000 USD for damaging the reef and agreed to pay the fine saying they felt responsible for the damage , although Greenpeace stated that the Philippines government had given it outdated charts . The park manager of Tubbatha appreciated the quick action Greenpeace took to assess the damage to the reef . As a regional organization , Greenpeace Southeast Asia focuses on bearing witness to the impacts brought by global warming , and increasing public awareness of the problems it poses . Campaigning to effect changes in the direction of the region 's energy policies for the future , the group encourages governments to turn away from fossil fuel dependency and embracing renewable , sustainable and clean sources of energy .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Greenpeace_Southeast_Asia",
"rank": 65,
"score": 82546
},
{
"content": "Title: Green Shadows, White Whale Content: Green Shadows , White Whale is a 1992 novel by Ray Bradbury . It gives a fictionalized account of his journey to Ireland in 1953-1954 to write a screen adaptation of the novel Moby-Dick with director John Huston . Bradbury has said he wrote it after reading actress Katharine Hepburn 's account of filming The African Queen with Huston in Africa . The title itself is a play on Peter Viertel 's novel White Hunter , Black Heart , which is also about Huston . Bradbury considers Green Shadows to be the culmination of thirty-five years of short stories , poems , and plays that were inspired by his stay in Ireland . As with most of his previous short-story collections , including The Illustrated Man and The Martian Chronicles , many of the short stories were originally published elsewhere and modified slightly for publication in the novel .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Green_Shadows,_White_Whale",
"rank": 66,
"score": 82213
},
{
"content": "Title: MV Greenpeace Content: The MV Greenpeace ( formerly ( 1959 -- 1977 ) and since 2002 known as the Elbe ) was a Greenpeace ship built in 1959 as an oceangoing tug/salvage vessel . She was purchased by Greenpeace in 1985 from the Maryland Pilotage Company , the vessel then being named MV Maryland , and transferred back to the Netherlands to be refitted with modern equipment before being recommissioned . ( She took over from the first Rainbow Warrior , which had been sunk in 1985 by French commandos . In 2001 she was replaced by the MV Esperanza .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "MV_Greenpeace",
"rank": 67,
"score": 81475
},
{
"content": "Title: Nine oils Content: In the 19th century , the nine oils was a preparation , or liniment , which was rubbed into the skin to relieve aches , such as over bruises . The `` nine oils '' were apparently developed in veterinary medicine , for treating horses , but later was adopted for human medical use . According to one 19th-century druggists ' book , oils used in the preparation included : train oil ; that is , whale oil or the oil of the blubber of another marine mammal oil of turpentine oil of bricks , the oil obtained by the distillation of pieces of brick saturated with rapeseed oil or olive oil oil of amber spirit of camphor Barbados tar , a kind of greenish petroleum found in Barbados oil of vitriol ; that is , sulfuric acid However , it is certain that many `` nine oils '' preparations did not contain these ingredients , and in fact it is possible that the name `` nine oils '' never referred to any specific combination of compounds . The writer James Greenwood , in 1883 , put these words in the mouth of the street-doctor `` Dr. Quackinbosh '' , in his series of articles Toilers in London , by One of the Crowd , originally serialized in the Daily Telegraph : When I first started I worked Woolwich with my `` miraculous Nine Oils . '' Men who work at heavy lifting and hauling , and are likely to get strains and ricks of the back , have a superstitious belief in the `` Nine Oils . '' It is the same wherever you go . What are they ? what , the original Nine ? Blessed if I know , nor they do n't know either . But that do n't make any difference . I used to give 'em one -- sperm oil -- and call it the Nine .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Nine_oils",
"rank": 68,
"score": 81403
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenpeace Foundation Content: Greenpeace Foundation is an environmental organization based in Hawaii . It was officially founded in 1976 as an independent offshoot of the Canadian Greenpeace Foundation and was the first Greenpeace in the United States . When the original Vancouver-based Greenpeace Foundation later evolved to Greenpeace International the Hawaii-based Greenpeace Foundation declined to join them , and remains an unaffiliated organisation . The greenpeace movement grew out of the `` peace '' and `` environmental '' movements in the early 1970s . Back then , it looked likely that the planet was going to be subjected to a nuclear war . The Canadian `` Do n't Make a Wave '' committee formed to protest US tectonic nuclear testing at Amchitka in the Aleutian Islands and later the French atmospheric testing at Mururoa in French Polynesia . The phrase `` green peace '' was used as a slogan to describe the ideals of those activists , who envisioned a healthy ( green ) and peaceful ( peace ) planet as a good thing . By about 1973 , the phrase had been shortened to a word , Greenpeace , and an organization called `` Greenpeace Foundation '' was established in Vancouver , Canada . It was this ragtag group of idealists and visionaries who first did an at-sea protest of whaling in 1975 and conducted the high-profile campaign against the clubbing of baby harp seals off Newfoundland beginning in 1976 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Greenpeace_Foundation",
"rank": 69,
"score": 81308
},
{
"content": "Title: Samuel Enderby Content: Samuel Enderby ( 17 January 171919 September 1797 ) was an English whale oil merchant . In the 18th century , he founded Samuel Enderby & Sons , a prominent shipping , whaling , and sealing company . The Enderby family had been tanners at Bermondsey , and supported Oliver Cromwell . Daniel Enderby I raised money for the army in the Long Parliament , as recorded in Hansard . The family was granted forfeited estates at Lismore , County Waterford , Ireland , which were sold in 1660 . After that time , the family was active in the ` oil and Russia trade ' and traded with the New England colonies . On 2 June 1752 , Samuel Enderby II married Mary Buxton , a daughter of his business partner , at St Paul 's Wharf in London . Enderby died in 1797 , leaving the company to his three sons Charles , Samuel III , and George . Samuel Enderby III ( 1756-1829 ) made the first successful whale catch in Australia ( 10 November 1791 ) , and was the grandfather of Major-General Charles George Gordon .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Samuel_Enderby",
"rank": 70,
"score": 81241
},
{
"content": "Title: How to Change the World (film) Content: How to Change the World is a documentary film , from writer-director Jerry Rothwell ( Deep Water ) , which chronicles the adventures of an eclectic group of young pioneers who set out to stop Richard Nixon 's nuclear bomb tests in Amchitka , Alaska , and end up creating the worldwide green movement with the birth of Greenpeace .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "How_to_Change_the_World_(film)",
"rank": 71,
"score": 81185
},
{
"content": "Title: Tzeporah Berman Content: Tzeporah Berman ( born February 5 , 1969 ) is a Canadian environmental activist , campaigner and writer . She is known for her role as one of the organizers of the logging blockades in Clayoquot Sound , British Columbia in 1992 -- 93 . The protest against the logging of the temperate rainforest was , at the time , the largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian history . Working with Greenpeace , Berman has helped bring the clearcut logging of Canada 's rainforest to international prominence . She has worked on the Great Bear Rainforest campaign , and the Boreal campaign . She is a strategic advisor on clean energy , oilsands and pipelines for many environmental , First Nations and philanthropic organizations . She has been co-director of Greenpeace International 's Global Climate and Energy Program , Executive Director and Co-founder of PowerUp Canada and Co-founder and Campaign Director of ForestEthics . In 2009 , Berman served on British Columbia 's Green Energy Task Force . The task force , appointed by Premier Gordon Campbell , was charged with making recommendations on the development of renewable energy for the province . Berman was one of the experts in the environmental documentary The 11th Hour , produced by Leonardo DiCaprio . She was named as one of six Canadian nominees for the Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship social entrepreneur of the year award , one of `` 50 Visionaries Changing the World '' in Utne Reader and as `` Canada 's Queen of Green '' in a cover story by Readers Digest . She was included in the Royal British Columbia Museum permanent exhibit of `` 150 people who have changed the face of British Columbia . '' In 2015 Berman served on the British Columbia Governments Climate Leadership Team and was appointed in 2016 to serve on the Alberta Governments Oil Sands Advisory Group as Co-Chair . Berman was listed of one of the 35 Most Influential Women in British Columbia by BC Business Magazine and awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Law from University of British Columbia .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Tzeporah_Berman",
"rank": 72,
"score": 80951
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenpeace USA Content: Greenpeace USA is the United States affiliate of Greenpeace , an international environmental nonprofit organization .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Greenpeace_USA",
"rank": 73,
"score": 80894
},
{
"content": "Title: Don't Make a Wave Committee Content: The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was the name of the anti-nuclear organization which later evolved into Greenpeace , a global environmental organization . The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was founded in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada to protest and attempt to halt further underground nuclear testing by the United States in the National Wildlife refuge at Amchitka in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska . The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was first formed in October 1969 and officially established in early 1970 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Don't_Make_a_Wave_Committee",
"rank": 74,
"score": 80875
},
{
"content": "Title: Tom Nevers, Nantucket Content: Tom Never was a Native American born on the island of Nantucket circa 1725 . His birth name was originally very long and was shortened to Tom Never by the British settlers who hired him to be in charge of a whale lookout station around 1745 . This lookout station was located in the southeast corner of the island which was subsequently known as Tom Never 's Head . In later years the apostrophe was dropped and that part of Nantucket is now known as Tom Nevers Head or simply Tom Nevers . When whale oil began to be sold in great quantity around 1870 , the law at the time gave great tax advantages to companies owned by Native Americans . A group of local businessmen added Tom Nevers to their company and named their whale oil after him . Tom Nevers Whale Oil then became the first product given a trademark by the newly formed U.S. Trademark and Patent Office in 1871 . Category :1725 births",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Tom_Nevers,_Nantucket",
"rank": 75,
"score": 80874
},
{
"content": "Title: Easy Being Green Content: Easy Being Green is one of the largest energy efficiency operators in Australia . It was established in 2004 and have been responsible for organising mass consumer action on energy efficiency . As of 2013 the company had aided over 750,000 homes and businesses with energy efficiency . The company has managed to prevent more than 5 million tonnes of carbon pollution from entering the atmosphere through their various energy efficiency projects . Easy Being Green was founded in 2004 by Nic Frances to focus on residential energy efficiency in Australia . His work in the UK to provide assistance and employment opportunities to vulnerable people was acknowledged when he was awarded the MBE . In 1998 , he emigrated from the UK to Australia . There , he led the Brotherhood of St Laurence until 2004 . His work earned him an Australian Centenary Medal . From 2005 to 2007 Paul Gilding took over the running of Easy Being Green . Prior to this , Gilding served with Greenpeace between 1989 and 1994 as an Executive Director for Greenpeace International and Greenpeace Australia . Gilding helped build Easy Being Green to a successful business employing over 200 people . The company used carbon trading to drive mass consumer action on energy efficiency . In doing so it achieved 4,300,000 tonnes of CO2 reductions and established domestic energy efficiency as a mainstream consumer and policy priority opportunity in Australia . In 2008 Easy Being Green was acquired by Jackgreen Ltd , Australia 's only renewable energy retailer . The business continued as Jackgreen 's energy efficiency arm , offering free residential energy efficiency services and upgrades . Easy Being Green in 2009 launched a major campaign on Solar hot water in which it offered a free system with an interest free green loan on the installation . In 2010 , the founder of Jackgreen Ltd , Andrew Randall , purchased the Easy Being Green assets and has been running it ever since . The company today continues as a leading Australian energy efficiency organization , with large residential energy efficiency programs , energy efficiency audits , green loans , a strong commercial efficient lighting operation and solar sales and installation .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Easy_Being_Green",
"rank": 76,
"score": 80810
},
{
"content": "Title: Songs of the Humpback Whale (album) Content: Songs of the Humpback Whale is a 1970 album produced by bio-acoustician Roger Payne . It publicly demonstrated for the first time the elaborate whale vocalizations of Humpbacks , and became the bestselling environmental album in history , selling over 100,000 copies . By raising awareness of the intelligence and culture of whales the album helped spawn a worldwide '' Save The Whales '' movement , leading to the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 10-year global moratorium on commercial whaling ( observed by all but a few nations ) .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Songs_of_the_Humpback_Whale_(album)",
"rank": 77,
"score": 80727
},
{
"content": "Title: Project Jonah Content: Project Jonah is an environmental organisation that was established in 1974 in New Zealand . It specialises in the protection and conservation of marine mammals ( whales , dolphins and seals ) . The key areas in which they work is rescuing stranded marine mammals , advocacy for marine mammals , ensuring compliance with legislation . They are regularly involved in rescuing stranded whales around New Zealand . New Zealand has one of the highest rates of whale strandings with the beached whales , and marine mammals in general , being the responsibility of the Department of Conservation . Project Jonah gave a major impetus for the government to create the Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Project_Jonah",
"rank": 78,
"score": 80314
},
{
"content": "Title: Whaling in Western Australia Content: Whaling was one of the first viable industries established in the Swan River Colony following the 1829 arrival of British settlers to Western Australia . The industry had numerous ups and downs until the last whaling station closed in Albany in 1978 . There are two main species of whales ( order Cetacea ) which form aggregations along the Western Australian coastline : the southern right whale ( Eubalaena australis ) , and the humpback whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) . The southern rights are slow swimmers and their carcases tend to float due to the high concentration of oil in the blubber - hence the name `` right '' as it made the task of the whale chasers easier . Its conservation status is now listed as `` endangered '' as result of more than 150 years of hunting . Both species migrated along the north-south coastline stopping in bays such as Geographe Bay ( east of Cape Naturaliste ) and Flinders Bay ( east of Cape Leeuwin ) for mating and breeding . Other species occasionally caught were sperm whales and blue whales , although these tended to be seen mainly along the southern coast of Western Australia .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Whaling_in_Western_Australia",
"rank": 79,
"score": 79929
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael Bengwayan Content: Michael Bengwayan is a Filipino environmental activist best known for his advocacy of using the Petroleum nut ( Pittosporum resiniferum ) as an alternative bio-fuel in the Philippines , and his involvement with advocacies to save trees from being cut , notably the Save 182 Movement which petitioned to stop the earth-balling 182 trees at Luneta Hill , Baguio City , by mall developer SM , and the campaign to stop the cutting of 1,200 trees along the Manila North Road , in the towns of Binalonan and Pozorrubio , Pangasinan . Bengwayan is the director of the Cordillera Ecological Center , and is also the proprietor of The Habitat , a five hectare farm in Tublay , Benguet which partly serves as an ecotourism site , an ecological reserve containing indigenous trees of Philippine Cordillera , and a demonstration farm for the intercropping of Arabica coffee , pineapple , pine trees , and petroleum nut .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Michael_Bengwayan",
"rank": 80,
"score": 79909
},
{
"content": "Title: Waterfront Historic Area League Content: The Waterfront Historic Area LeaguE , also known as WHALE , is a non-profit historic preservation organization located in New Bedford , Massachusetts . Its mission is : `` to promote the value and reuse of greater New Bedford 's historic structures through preservation , education and advocacy '' . The organization often promotes its cause with the words of one of its founders , Sarah Delano ( President of WHALE , 1966-1982 ) . Delano said , `` if you bulldoze your heritage , you become just anywhere '' .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Waterfront_Historic_Area_League",
"rank": 81,
"score": 79823
},
{
"content": "Title: Whale louse Content: A whale louse is a commensal crustacean of the family Cyamidae . Despite the name , they are not true lice ( which are insects ) , but rather are related to the better-known skeleton shrimp , most species of which are found in shallower waters . Whale lice are external parasites , found in skin lesions , genital folds , nostrils and eyes of marine mammals of the order Cetacea . These include not only whales but also dolphins and porpoises .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Whale_louse",
"rank": 82,
"score": 79682
},
{
"content": "Title: Serge Dedina Content: Serge Dedina is the author of Wild Sea : Eco-Wars and Surf Stories from the Coast of the California ( Tucson : University of Arizona Press ) and Saving the Gray Whale ( Tucson : University of Arizona Press ) and a conservationist from Imperial Beach , California . He is currently the Mayor of Imperial Beach , California , since the November 2014 election . He is the co-founder and Executive Director of WiLDCOAST/COSTASALVAjE , an international organization that conserves coastal and marine ecosystems and wildlife . He is the former founding director of The Nature Conservancy 's Baja California and Sea of Cortez Program . Dedina was instrumental in the development of two national parks along Baja 's Sea of Cortez coastline and a research and educational center in Magdalena Bay . He also initiated an international campaign that successfully stopped the Mitsubishi Corporation from destroying San Ignacio Lagoon -- the world 's last undeveloped gray whale lagoon . Saving the Gray Whale , is based on the three years he lived in the gray whale lagoons of Baja California .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Serge_Dedina",
"rank": 83,
"score": 79676
},
{
"content": "Title: Green hand Content: A green hand may refer to : a term for an inexperienced crew member of a 19th-century whaler on his first voyage , and who would typically have the smallest `` lay '' , or share , in the profits . In J. R. R. Tolkien 's Middle-earth books , a family of hobbits . a first-year Future Farmers of America ( FFA ) member .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Green_hand",
"rank": 84,
"score": 79658
},
{
"content": "Title: James Whale Fund for Kidney Cancer Content: The James Whale Fund for Kidney Cancer changed its name to Kidney Cancer UK on February 7 , 2016 to become the UK 's leading specialist kidney cancer charity . http://www.kcuk.org.uk/ It seeks to help reduce the harm caused by kidney cancer by increasing knowledge and awareness , providing patient information , and by supporting research into the causes , prevention and treatment of the disease . The charity was founded in 2006 by the broadcaster James Whale whose experience of dealing with the disease in 2000 , when he lost a kidney in the process , spurred him on to set up a charity to help others in a similar position . The Fund depends primarily on voluntary donations and in its short history has published a definitive guide to kidney cancer , set up a Patient Support Network and Careline , established an online renal nurse training programme and campaigned for access to life extending drugs for NHS kidney cancer patients . The charity is governed by a board of Trustees and has its head office in Cambridge , UK .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "James_Whale_Fund_for_Kidney_Cancer",
"rank": 85,
"score": 79650
},
{
"content": "Title: Samuel \"Fish Hook\" Mulford Content: Samuel `` Fish Hook '' Mulford ( 1644 -- 1725 ) got his nickname when he went to London in 1704 to protest the tax on whale oil , which he used in farming . Warned beforehand of the sly workings of pickpockets in the great foreign metropolis , the canny and cautious Mr. Mulford lined his pockets with fishhooks to foil the would-be thieves . The old Mulford farmhouse , which overlooks the Village Green of East Hampton , is one of the oldest in the county of Suffolk . It is one of the nation 's most significant , intact English colonial farmsteads . It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The Mulford farmhouse was built in 1680 by High Sheriff Josiah Hobart , an important early official of the first New York Royal Province government . Samuel `` Fish Hook '' Mulford bought the property in 1712 when Mr. Hobart died . It is owned and operated as a living museum by East Hampton Historical Society . The society bought the farm in 1957 . Villagers started a fund in 1948 to preserve the farm . Mulford was a legislator in all the governments of the colony of New York during his time . He was also a whale oil merchant . He had warehouses on Northwest Harbor , east side , along with other merchants in his village . Merchants Path is the name of the road to the warehouses .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Samuel_\"Fish_Hook\"_Mulford",
"rank": 86,
"score": 79507
},
{
"content": "Title: David McTaggart Content: David Fraser McTaggart ( June 24 , 1932 -- March 23 , 2001 ) was a Canadian-born environmentalist who played a central part in the foundation of Greenpeace International . An excellent all-around athlete , as a young man he won three consecutive Canadian National Badminton Championships in men 's singles ( 1956 -- 1958 ) and represented that country in badminton 's Thomas Cup ( men 's world team championship ) competition . Prior to his involvement in Greenpeace he had prospered as a builder and developer . In 1972 , responding to an ad in the newspapers , he used his personal boat to protest the testing of nuclear weapons in the Pacific by the French government . After getting his boat damaged and being physically hurt by the French Military , his protest succeeded in 1974 when the French announced the end of their atmospheric nuclear testing program . McTaggart spent the next several years pursuing legal action against the French government and assisting in the formation of Greenpeace affiliates across Western Europe . In 1979 he brokered an agreement that led to the formation of Greenpeace International , ending the leadership of the original founding group based in Vancouver , Canada . He became chairman and chief spokesman for Greenpeace in 1979 , retiring in 1991 to live on an olive farm in Paciano , Umbria , Italy . McTaggart continued to participate in Greenpeace forums after retirement for the rest of his life . He and singer Bryan Adams did a massive postcard campaign to help create the Southern Antarctic Whale Sanctuary . For nearly two years they toured the world asking thousands of concert goers to write to countries involved with whaling to support the sanctuary . The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary was established by the IWC in 1994 with 23 countries supporting the agreement and Japan opposing it . Te Vaka dedicated its song `` Sei Ma Le Losa '' to McTaggart , who was killed in a car accident on March 23 , 2001 , near his home in Italy . In 1987 McTaggart founded the Third Millennium Foundation , a US 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) dedicated to continuing his work for disarmament , peace , and a sustainable future . The foundation , headquartered in his former home in Paciano , Italy , continues today promoting local and global projects in his memory .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "David_McTaggart",
"rank": 87,
"score": 79262
},
{
"content": "Title: Melbert Cary Content: Melbert Brinckerhoff Cary Jr. ( 1892 -- 1941 ) was a graphic artist who imported numerous typefaces from Europe . He married Mary Flagler Cary , an heiress of one of the founders of Standard Oil . Mr Cary founded the Press of the Woolly Whale , a private press dedicated to producing fine editions of works Cary believed to be of interest and overlooked -- a rejection of the private press tradition of producing only new editions of classic works . In his own words : Our intention -LSB- is -RSB- to publish only those text which appeal strongly to us , excluding those accepted classics , so completely accepted that they are never opened . Our interest lies only with those who read their books , cherishing them because of the enjoyment gained from using them . ( Preface , The Vision of Sir Launfal ( Press of the Woolly Whale , 1929 ) ) He was also director of Continental Type Founders Association , which imported typeface from Europe , including Kabel and Eve typefaces . In the 1930s , Mr. Cary was instrumental in assisting Fritz Kredel 's emigration from Germany to the United States . During the 1920s and 1930s , Mr. Cary assembled a library of over 2,300 volumes about printing. , Melbert Cary was also an avid collector of playing cards . The Woolly Whale press 's most renowned publication was The Devil 's Bible , which was a set of playing cards using caricatures of World War I figures . In 1967 , Cary 's widow , Mary Flagler Cary , donated the couple 's card collection to Yale University , where it currently resides in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library and is referred to as the Cary Collection of Playing Cards . Woolly Whale also published The Missing Gutenberg Woodblocks , which was a made-up story of missing woodblocks from the Gutenberg project . Friz Kredel did some illustrations for this book , and some scholars took the book seriously . His father , Melbert B. Cary , was the Democratic candidate for governor of Connecticut in 1902 , and was the Chairman of the Democratic Party in Connecticut . Cary , Jr. died of bone cancer in 1941 . The Cary Collection was presented to the Rochester Institute of Technology in 1969 by the Mary Flagler Cary Charitable Trust as a memorial to Melbert Cary . Its collection of 20,000 volumes is described as one of America 's premier libraries on the history and practice of printing .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Melbert_Cary",
"rank": 88,
"score": 79169
},
{
"content": "Title: Trywork Content: A trywork , located aft of the fore-mast , is the most distinguishing feature of a whaling ship . In two cast-iron trypots set into this furnace of brick , iron and wood , whale oil was rendered from the blubber of whales , much as lard is rendered from frying fatty pork . The furnace is temporarily affixed to the deck by `` iron knees '' , and a reservoir of water under the bricks keeps the heat from burning the wood of the deck . In the 18th and 19th century New England whaling industry , the use of tryworks ( two large try pots in a brick furnace ) on whaling ships allowed them to stay at sea longer . Since they could boil out their oil , they did not have to carry unprocessed blubber home . The slices of blubber were kept as thin as possible for the process , and on New England whaling ships , these slices were known as `` bible leaves '' by the sailors . The ability to use tryworks at sea thus enabled the Yankee whaling industry to flourish .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Trywork",
"rank": 89,
"score": 79049
},
{
"content": "Title: Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society Content: ( WDC ) Whale and Dolphin Conservation is a wildlife charity that is dedicated solely to the worldwide conservation and welfare of all whales , dolphins and porpoises ( cetaceans ) . WDC is a founding partner of the Convention on Migratory Species ( CMS , also known as Bonn Convention ) , which is part of the United Nations Environment Program . The organization also develops regional protection agreements and conventions and closely cooperates with the orca ( killer whale ) research station OrcaLab in British Columbia , Canada .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Whale_and_Dolphin_Conservation_Society",
"rank": 90,
"score": 78772
},
{
"content": "Title: Oil-lamp clock Content: Oil-lamp clocks are clocks consisting of a graduated glass reservoir to hold oil - usually whale oil , which burned cleanly and evenly - supplying the fuel for a built-in lamp . As the level in the reservoir dropped , it provided a rough measure of the passage of time . The principle behind such a time-keeping device is that it measure a quantity that either decreases or increases at a constant rate . Lamps or candles , burning fuel at a steady pace , fit this category , and as a bonus produce useful light . Hourglasses depend on the steady draining of fine sand through a small aperture . Water clocks or clepsydra measure a gain or loss of water by using drops of uniform size and frequency . The Persian fenjaan made use of the constant time it took for the sinking of a floating bowl with a hole in its underside . It is unknown when , where or in which way the oil-lamp clocks were first introduced . this clock was but mainly used in the mid of 18th century",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Oil-lamp_clock",
"rank": 91,
"score": 78304
},
{
"content": "Title: Jarod Green Content: Jarod Green ( born 23 May 1981 ) is an Australian film director , screenwriter and animator most notable for his work on the short film Beached Whale and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation television series Beached Az. . Together with actor Nicholas Boshier , Green is also the creator of the online fictional character Trent from Punchy .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Jarod_Green",
"rank": 92,
"score": 78209
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenpeace Aotearoa New Zealand Content: Greenpeace Aotearoa New Zealand ( GPNZ ) is one of New Zealand 's largest environmental organisations , and is a national office of the global environmental organisation Greenpeace .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Greenpeace_Aotearoa_New_Zealand",
"rank": 93,
"score": 78101
},
{
"content": "Title: Douglas Whalen Content: Douglas H. Whalen is an American linguist . He received his Ph.D. in Linguistics from Yale University in 1982 . Since 2011 he has been a Distinguished Professor in the Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences program at the CUNY Graduate Center . He is a long-standing member of Haskins Laboratories in New Haven Connecticut , where he is a Senior Scientist and Vice President for Research . Whalen studies the relationship between speech production and speech perception from the perspective of the motor theory of speech perception . Whalen is the founder of the Endangered Language Fund , and served as its president until 2015 , when he became Chair of the Board of Directors . He is also a founding member of the Association for Laboratory Phonology and on the advisory board for Healing Through Language , an organization that researches the connection between indigenous language revitalization and physical well-being . From 2006 through 2008 , he served as a program officer at the National Science Foundation where he was affiliated with the Cognitive Neuroscience , Documenting Endangered Languages , and Linguistics programs .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Douglas_Whalen",
"rank": 94,
"score": 78081
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles Melville Scammon Content: Charles Melville Scammon ( 1825-1911 ) was a 19th-century whaleman , naturalist , and author . He was the first to hunt the gray whales of both Laguna Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio Lagoon , the former once being called `` Scammon 's Lagoon '' after him . In 1874 he wrote the book The Marine Mammals of the North-western Coast of North America , which was a financial failure . It is now considered a classic . Scammon was born in Pittston , Maine , on May 28 , 1825 . In 1850 he sailed for California . On April 1 , 1852 he left San Francisco in command of the brig Mary Helen ( 160 tons ) on a combined sealing and whaling voyage . He returned on August 26 with 350 barrels of oil obtained from elephant seals . During the winter of 1855-56 he was among the vessels hunting gray whales in Magdalena Bay , when he was commanding the ship Leonore . In December 1857 , commanding the brig Boston , with the schooner-tender Marin , he first hunted the gray whales of Laguna Ojo de Liebre , catching twenty . The following winter ( 1858 -- 59 ) , commanding the bark Ocean Bird and accompanied by the schooner tenders A.M. Simpson and Kate , he returned to the lagoon , catching forty-seven cows . In the winter of 1859-60 he first exploited another lagoon to the south , San Ignacio . Within a few seasons it had been swept clean of whales . In 1860-61 he returned to Laguna Ojo de Liebre in the bark Ocean Bird , taking a paltry 245 barrels of oil -- about seven whales . In the summer of 1862 he sailed to the Sea of Okhotsk in the San Francisco ship William C. Nye . He cruised around Iony Island and Shantar Bay until September , catching only three bowhead whales . In the winter of 1862-63 he hunted gray whales in Magdalena Bay , his last whaling cruise . He spent the following three decades in the Revenue Service , before retiring from disability in 1895 . In October 1870 , Scammon collected the 27-foot-long type specimen of the Davidson piked whale ( Balaenoptera davidsoni , Scammon , 1872 ) ; it had been found dead on the shores of Admiralty Inlet by Italian fishermen , who towed it to Port Townsend Bay , where they flensed it . He is the brother of J. Young Scammon and Eliakim P. Scammon .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Charles_Melville_Scammon",
"rank": 95,
"score": 78063
},
{
"content": "Title: WHALE (Safety Program) Content: The WHALE Program is a child safety program focused on rescue workers and automobile accidents . W.H.A.L.E. stands for `` We Have A Little Emergency . '' This car seat safety program was developed by Connie Day , a caregiver from Virginia . In the event of an automobile accident that incapacitates the adult driver and passengers , rescue personnel will have a difficult time identifying children riding in car safety seats . In some situations , these adults may not be related to the child passenger ; therefore , conventional means of obtaining information will be useless . In these cases , W.H.A.L.E. can make a significant difference .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "WHALE_(Safety_Program)",
"rank": 96,
"score": 77960
},
{
"content": "Title: Phil Radford Content: Philip David `` Phil '' Radford ( born January 2 , 1976 ) is an American environmental , clean energy and democracy leader who served as the youngest executive director of Greenpeace USA . He is a co-founder of the Democracy Initiative , Membership Drive , was founder and executive director of Power Shift , and is a board member of Green Corps and the Mertz Gilmore Foundation . He has a background in grassroots organizing , corporate social responsibility , climate change , and clean energy . Radford lives in Washington , D.C. with his wife Eileen . Radford 's theory of change shifted from viewing governments as arbitrators between public and private interests on environmental issues , to finding that most governments are captured by industry . Rather than fighting first for new laws , which could be blocked by industries , he has focused on pressuring large companies to change their practices and enlisted them as allies in pushing for strong environmental protections . Examples include Greenpeace campaigns that convinced Apple , Inc. and similar companies to shift to 100 % clean energy and lobby utilities and regulators to make that possible , as well as work to protect both the Indonesian rainforest and the Bering Sea Canyons . Radford argues that the combination of creating industry champions and `` outside pressure '' focused on the government are the keys to passing new laws to protect the environment . However , Radford has also been a vocal leader calling for the United States to pass campaign finance reform and respect all Americans ' voting rights to shift power in politics from corporations towards people and fulfill `` the promise of American democracy . '' Radford is considered by many to be a modern-day transcendentalist , in that he is very focused on nature and the environment , and he is an advocate of democracy .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Phil_Radford",
"rank": 97,
"score": 77740
},
{
"content": "Title: Anton Barth von der Lippe Content: Anton Barth von der Lippe ( 8 October 1886 -- 1960 ) was a Norwegian whaler . He was born in Tjøme as a son of dean Johan Nordahl Brun von der Lippe ( 1838 -- 1915 ) and his third wife . His father 's second wife had the son Jakob von der Lippe , who was Anton 's half-brother . Anton was also a grandson of bishop Jacob von der Lippe , nephew of Conrad Fredrik von der Lippe and first cousin once removed of Frits von der Lippe , Just Lippe and Jens von der Lippe . He established his own shipping company in 1915 , and was particularly engaged in whaling . Between 1919 and 1945 he cooperated closely with Svend Foyn Bruun . Lippe , Bruun and Anders Jahre together founded the three whaling companies Antarctic , Globus and Kosmos in 1928 . He died in 1960 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Anton_Barth_von_der_Lippe",
"rank": 98,
"score": 77570
},
{
"content": "Title: Von Hernandez Content: Von Hernandez is a leading environmental activist from the Philippines . He was Executive Director of Greenpeace Southeast Asia ( GPSEA ) from 2008-2014 , where he led the environmental group 's programs and operations in the Southeast Asian region . Prior to that , he served as Campaigns Director for the organization , and was responsible for driving the group 's campaigns in Thailand , Indonesia and the Philippines on a number of issues including climate change , forests , sustainable agriculture and toxics pollution . Currently , he serves as Development Director for Greenpeace International .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Von_Hernandez",
"rank": 99,
"score": 77552
},
{
"content": "Title: Vessel speed restrictions to reduce ship collisions with north atlantic right whales Content: The National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) established a rule to implement vessel speed restrictions of 10 knots or less on ships 65 ft or longer in various locations along the east coast of the U.S. Atlantic seaboard . The purpose of the regulations was to prevent the probability of deaths and injuries to endangered North Atlantic Right Whales due to collisions with ships . The rule was enacted December 9 , 2008 .",
"qid": "141",
"docid": "Vessel_speed_restrictions_to_reduce_ship_collisions_with_north_atlantic_right_whales",
"rank": 100,
"score": 77534
}
] |
Worst-case global heating scenarios may need to be revised upwards in light of a better understanding of the role of clouds, scientists have said. | [
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 1,
"score": 126590
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 2,
"score": 110563
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 3,
"score": 110436
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Cloud_feedback",
"rank": 4,
"score": 106262
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Scenario Group Content: The Global Scenario Group ( GSG ) was an international , interdisciplinary body convened in 1995 by the Tellus Institute and the Stockholm Environment Institute to develop scenarios for world development in the twenty-first century . The GSG 's underlying scenario development work was rooted in the long-range integrated scenario analysis that Tellus Institute and Stockholm Environment Institute had undertaken through the PoleStar Project . Initially conceived in 1991 as a tool for integrated sustainability planning and long-range scenario analysis , PoleStar was inspired by the 1987 Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future , which first put the concept of `` sustainable development '' on the international agenda . The work of the Global Scenario Group was widely adopted in high-level intergovernmental settings . The scenarios informed numerous international assessments , including the World Water Council 's World Water Vision report in 1999 -- 2000 , the OECD Environmental Outlook in 2001 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's greenhouse gas emission mitigation assessment in 2001 , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Third GEO Report in 2002 , and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in 2005 . Several of the GSG participants who actively participated in the IPCC assessments have been recognized for contributing to the 2007 award of the Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Global_Scenario_Group",
"rank": 5,
"score": 105617
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 6,
"score": 104611
},
{
"content": "Title: Worst Case Scenario (album) Content: Worst Case Scenario is the debut studio album by Belgian rock band Deus released in 1994 . The cover art was designed by guitarist Rudy Trouvé . It contains the single `` Suds & Soda '' , which became an underground hit and a fans favorite . The album was first released in Belgium on the indie label Bang ! with a different track listing : `` Right as Rain '' and `` Great American Nude '' ( both tracks present on the Zea EP released in Belgium in 1993 ) are replaced by the song `` Let Go '' . It was then released in the UK and Europe through Island Records with the track listing as written below . The song `` W.C.S. ( First Draft ) '' contains a covered bit from Frank Zappa 's `` Little Umbrellas '' , from his 1969 album , Hot Rats.Worst Case Scenario received good reviews internationally despite the hard time that the British media had to categorize its music into a genre . They finally called it Art rock ( a definition which still bothers singer Tom Barman ) . Worst Case Scenario reached Gold in Belgium , selling 30,000 copies . By April 2008 , WCS '' had sold 270,000 copies worldwide .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Worst_Case_Scenario_(album)",
"rank": 7,
"score": 104300
},
{
"content": "Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "The_Cloud_Mystery",
"rank": 8,
"score": 104105
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992",
"rank": 9,
"score": 103718
},
{
"content": "Title: Worst-case scenario Content: A worst-case scenario is a concept in risk management wherein the planner , in planning for potential disasters , considers the most severe possible outcome that can reasonably be projected to occur in a given situation . Conceiving of worst-case scenarios is a common form of strategic planning , specifically scenario planning , to prepare for and minimize contingencies that could result in accidents , quality problems , or other issues .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Worst-case_scenario",
"rank": 10,
"score": 103453
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 11,
"score": 103319
},
{
"content": "Title: Worst-Case Scenario series Content: Worst-Case Scenario is the name of a series of merchandise based on a 1999 book written by Joshua Piven and David Borgenicht and published by Chronicle Books . The series first entry , The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook , sold over 10 million copies worldwide and prompted a series of related books , games , calendars , and two television series . Later works have been published via Quirk Books and has been credited with giving the company enough funding to expand .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Worst-Case_Scenario_series",
"rank": 12,
"score": 102840
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 13,
"score": 101059
},
{
"content": "Title: Cirrus cloud thinning Content: Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Cirrus_cloud_thinning",
"rank": 14,
"score": 100938
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Cloud_formation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 15,
"score": 98896
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 16,
"score": 97862
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents",
"rank": 17,
"score": 97799
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know",
"rank": 18,
"score": 95803
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 19,
"score": 94839
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climate_change_scenario",
"rank": 20,
"score": 94584
},
{
"content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming",
"rank": 21,
"score": 94467
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme",
"rank": 22,
"score": 93428
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 23,
"score": 92899
},
{
"content": "Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "The_Chilling_Stars",
"rank": 24,
"score": 92645
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 25,
"score": 92578
},
{
"content": "Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Fate_of_the_World",
"rank": 26,
"score": 92510
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Ocean_heat_content",
"rank": 27,
"score": 91935
},
{
"content": "Title: International Cloud Experiment Content: International Cloud Experiment ( formally known as `` Tropical Warm Pool International Cloud Experiment '' - TWP-ICE ) was a scientific mission to gather information on tropical storm formation . It involved seven airplanes , a ship anchored off Darwin in Australia , RV Southern Surveyor , and over 250 scientists and researchers . The I.C.E. took place from 21 January to 23 February 2006 , and had been in the planning stages since September 2003 . The experiment was a collaboration between the US Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement ( ARM ) Program , the Bureau of Meteorology ( Australia ) , NASA the European Commission DG RTD-1 .2 and several United States , Australian , Canadian and European Universities . During the experiment , a record-breaking tropical typhoon arose , then spent seven days as a `` landphoon '' over the Australian desert . The Australian Broadcasting Corporation released in 2007 Thunderheads , a 47-minute program which has shown on the Smithsonian Channel .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "International_Cloud_Experiment",
"rank": 28,
"score": 91900
},
{
"content": "Title: Worst Case Scenario (song) Content: `` Worst Case Scenario '' is the third single by the English indie band The Hoosiers from their 2007 # 1 album The Trick to Life . It has been admitted by lead man Irwin on the band 's website that it is one of the band 's favourite songs .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Worst_Case_Scenario_(song)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 91639
},
{
"content": "Title: The Best Worst-Case Scenario Content: The Best Worst-Case Scenario is the first album released by Tooth & Nail Records alternative rock band Fair , which features notable musician and record producer Aaron Sprinkle . The album was released on June 6 , 2006 . In 2007 , the album artwork , designed by Invisible Creature was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Recording Packaging .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "The_Best_Worst-Case_Scenario",
"rank": 30,
"score": 91109
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios",
"rank": 31,
"score": 90994
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climate_Code_Red",
"rank": 32,
"score": 90794
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics",
"rank": 33,
"score": 90750
},
{
"content": "Title: Worst Case Scenario (film) Content: Worst Case Scenario was a horror film to be directed by Dutch director Richard Raaphorst .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Worst_Case_Scenario_(film)",
"rank": 34,
"score": 90621
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Marine_cloud_brightening",
"rank": 35,
"score": 90128
},
{
"content": "Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Living_in_the_Hothouse",
"rank": 36,
"score": 89674
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 37,
"score": 89316
},
{
"content": "Title: Worst-case scenario (disambiguation) Content: Worst-case scenario may refer to : Worst Case Scenario ( album ) , by dEUS `` Worst Case Scenario '' ( song ) , by The Hoosiers Worst Case Scenario ( Star Trek : Voyager ) Worst-Case Scenario series , series of books inspired by The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook Worst Case Scenarios , a reality show aired on TBS in 2002 in the U.S. Worst Case Scenario ( film ) , a Dutch horror film Worst Case Scenario Records , a UK record label Worst-Case Scenario ( TV series ) , a survival show hosted by Bear Grylls aired on Discovery Channel in 2010",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Worst-case_scenario_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 38,
"score": 88936
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 39,
"score": 88591
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 40,
"score": 88327
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 41,
"score": 88233
},
{
"content": "Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Ross_Gelbspan",
"rank": 42,
"score": 86974
},
{
"content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 86764
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 44,
"score": 86425
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 45,
"score": 85890
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 46,
"score": 85854
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 47,
"score": 85593
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 48,
"score": 85474
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 49,
"score": 85396
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 50,
"score": 85037
},
{
"content": "Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "CloudSat",
"rank": 51,
"score": 84944
},
{
"content": "Title: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Content: Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System",
"rank": 52,
"score": 84708
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 53,
"score": 84307
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 54,
"score": 84284
},
{
"content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Iris_hypothesis",
"rank": 55,
"score": 83973
},
{
"content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Seita_Emori",
"rank": 56,
"score": 83796
},
{
"content": "Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World",
"rank": 57,
"score": 83414
},
{
"content": "Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet",
"rank": 58,
"score": 83174
},
{
"content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Drawdown_(climate)",
"rank": 59,
"score": 83105
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 60,
"score": 82858
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 61,
"score": 82840
},
{
"content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change",
"rank": 62,
"score": 82772
},
{
"content": "Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Hell_and_High_Water_(book)",
"rank": 63,
"score": 82412
},
{
"content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason",
"rank": 64,
"score": 82298
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 65,
"score": 82274
},
{
"content": "Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "I'm_not_a_scientist",
"rank": 66,
"score": 82101
},
{
"content": "Title: Clouds of Smoke Content: Clouds of Smoke is a documentary directed and produced by Fatmir Terziu . It explores the recent phenomenon of global warming and asks several environmental questions . It mainly focuses on the environmental damage caused by Albania , especially its biggest industrial city , Elbasan . The documentary started as a collaboration with Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) , and it was created for the purpose of educating students at London South Bank University . It was chosen to be shown at Curzon , London , the first documentary directed by an Albanian director to be selected .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Clouds_of_Smoke",
"rank": 67,
"score": 81979
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990",
"rank": 68,
"score": 81865
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture",
"rank": 69,
"score": 81828
},
{
"content": "Title: Best, worst and average case Content: In computer science , best , worst , and average cases of a given algorithm express what the resource usage is at least , at most and on average , respectively . Usually the resource being considered is running time , i.e. time complexity , but it could also be memory or other resource . In real-time computing , the worst-case execution time is often of particular concern since it is important to know how much time might be needed in the worst case to guarantee that the algorithm will always finish on time . Average performance and worst-case performance are the most used in algorithm analysis . Less widely found is best-case performance , but it does have uses : for example , where the best cases of individual tasks are known , they can be used to improve the accuracy of an overall worst-case analysis . Computer scientists use probabilistic analysis techniques , especially expected value , to determine expected running times . The terms are used in other contexts ; for example the worst - and best-case outcome of a planned-for epidemic , worst-case temperature to which an electronic circuit element is exposed , etc. . Where components of specified tolerance are used , devices must be designed to work properly with the worst-case combination of tolerances and external conditions .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Best,_worst_and_average_case",
"rank": 70,
"score": 81570
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud forcing Content: Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Cloud_forcing",
"rank": 71,
"score": 81566
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate stabilization wedge Content: The Climate stabilization Wedges is an approach produced by Princeton University researchers looking at Climate change mitigation scenarios . The project was funded by Ford Motor Company between 2000 and 2009 and has been receiving funding from BP since 2000 . The goal of the approach , Stephen Pacala and Robert H. Socolow , is to demonstrate that global warming is a problem which can be attacked using today 's commercially available technologies to reduce emissions . The objective is to stabilize concentrations under 500ppm for the next fifty years , using wedges from a variety of different strategies which fit into the stabilization triangle . A newer estimate by the original authors indicated that by 2011 , the number of necessary wedges had increased from seven to nine . This was due to the continuing increase in emissions since the original 2004 paper which determined the number of wedges that would have been necessary , if serious action to mitigate climate change had begun then .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climate_stabilization_wedge",
"rank": 72,
"score": 80837
},
{
"content": "Title: Paul Raskin Content: Paul Raskin is the founding President of the Tellus Institute , which has conducted over 3,500 research and policy projects throughout the world on environmental issues , resource planning , scenario analysis , and sustainable development . His research and writing has centered on formulating and analyzing alternative global and regional scenarios , and the requirements for a transition to a sustainable , just , and livable future , called the Great Transition . Dr. Raskin has served as a lead author on a number of high profile international reports , including the U.S. National Academy of Science 's Board on Sustainability , the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Global Environment Outlook , the Earth Charter , and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Paul_Raskin",
"rank": 73,
"score": 80825
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 74,
"score": 80628
},
{
"content": "Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean",
"rank": 75,
"score": 80626
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle",
"rank": 76,
"score": 79655
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Earth's_energy_budget",
"rank": 77,
"score": 79421
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 78,
"score": 79081
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science",
"rank": 79,
"score": 78927
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 80,
"score": 78404
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Content: The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes . GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future . GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Global_Energy_and_Water_Cycle_Experiment",
"rank": 81,
"score": 78243
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientists for Global Responsibility Content: Scientists for Global Responsibility ( SGR ) in the United Kingdom promotes the ethical practice and use of science and technology . SGR is affiliated to the International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility ( INES ) . SGR 's main areas of concern are arms and arms control , including military involvement in UK universities ; effect of excessive greenhouse gas emissions on climate ; the nature of war and reducing barbarity ; topsoil and water shortages resulting from modern agricultural methods ; depletion of species of fish due to over-fishing ; continual spread of nuclear weapons , and reduction of occurrence of serious nuclear accidents . SGR evaluates the risk of new science and new technological solutions to older science-based problems and threats , while recognizing the enormous contribution science , design and technology has made to civilisation and human well-being .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility",
"rank": 82,
"score": 78020
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat lightning Content: Heat lightning , sometimes known as silent lightning , is the name used for the faint flashes of lightning on the horizon or other clouds from distant thunderstorms that do not have accompanying sounds of thunder . This often occurs because of inter-cloud and intra-cloud lightning , where lightning charges travel from cloud-to-cloud or merely areas of differing electric potential within a single cloud , respectively . Because of this nature , heat lightning can often be seen from great distances , and thus can be an early warning sign that thunderstorms are approaching . The term could be considered a misnomer because it has nothing to do with the heat of the lightning itself . Heat lightning can also occur if cloud-to-ground lightning occurs very far away and the sound dissipates before it reaches the observer . At night , it is possible to see the flashes of lightning from very far distances , up to 100 miles , but the sound does not carry that far . In Florida , heat lightning is often seen over the water at night , the remnants of storms that formed during the day along a sea breeze front coming in from the opposite coast . Heat lightning also occurs where airborne matter muffles the thunder , such as heavy snow in winter storms ( thundersnow ) and dust and sand storms . In some instances , heavy falling snow has silenced thunder from cloud to ground lightning strikes as close as one to two miles ( 1.6 to 3.2 km ) from the observer and severe dust storms are even more effective in many cases . Heat lightning is not to be confused with electrically-induced luminosity actually generated at mesospheric altitudes above thunderstorm systems ( and likewise visible at exceedingly great ranges ) , a phenomenon known as `` sprites '' .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Heat_lightning",
"rank": 83,
"score": 77951
},
{
"content": "Title: Scenario (artwork) Content: Scenario is an Artificial Intelligence ( AI ) computer graphic interactive installation , directed by the artist Dennis Del Favero , and developed in collaboration with scriptwriter Stephen Sewell , AI scientist Maurice Pagnucco working with computer scientists Anuraag Sridhar , Arcot Sowmya and Paul Compton . It is a 360-degree 3D cinematic work whose narrative is interactively produced by the audience and humanoid characters . The title is a Commedia dell ` arte term ( ʃeˈnarjo ) referring to the way dramatic action is dependent on the way actors and audience interact . Scenario was developed at the iCinema Centre for Interactive Cinema Research at the University of New South Wales .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Scenario_(artwork)",
"rank": 84,
"score": 77889
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 85,
"score": 77774
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud point Content: In the petroleum industry , cloud point refers to the temperature below which wax in diesel or biowax in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance . The presence of solidified waxes thickens the oil and clogs fuel filters and injectors in engines . The wax also accumulates on cold surfaces ( producing , for example , pipeline or heat exchanger fouling ) and forms an emulsion with water . Therefore , cloud point indicates the tendency of the oil to plug filters or small orifices at cold operating temperatures . An everyday example of cloud point can be seen in olive oil stored in cold weather . Olive oil begins to solidify at around 4 ° C , whereas winter temperatures in temperate countries can often be colder than 0 ° C . In these conditions , olive oil begins to develop white , waxy clumps of solidified oil that sink to the bottom of the container . In crude or heavy oils , cloud point is synonymous with wax appearance temperature ( WAT ) and wax precipitation temperature ( WPT ) . The cloud point of a nonionic surfactant or glycol solution is the temperature at which the mixture starts to phase-separate , and two phases appear , thus becoming cloudy . This behavior is characteristic of non-ionic surfactants containing polyoxyethylene chains , which exhibit reverse solubility versus temperature behavior in water and therefore `` cloud out '' at some point as the temperature is raised . Glycols demonstrating this behavior are known as `` cloud-point glycols '' and are used as shale inhibitors . The cloud point is affected by salinity , being generally lower in more saline fluids .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Cloud_point",
"rank": 86,
"score": 77565
},
{
"content": "Title: Anabatic wind Content: An anabatic wind , from the Greek anabasis , verbal of anabainein meaning moving upward , is a warm wind which blows up a steep slope or mountain side , driven by heating of the slope through insolation . It is also known as an upslope flow . These winds typically occur during the daytime in calm sunny weather . A hill or mountain top will be radiatively warmed by the Sun which in turn heats the air just above it . Air at a similar altitude over an adjacent valley or plain does not get warmed so much because of the greater distance to the ground below it . The effect may be enhanced if the lower lying ground is shaded by the mountain and so receives less heat . The air over the hill top is now warmer than the air at a similar altitude around it and will rise through convection . This creates a lower pressure region into which the air at the bottom of the slope flows , causing the wind . It is common for the air rising from the tops of large mountains to reach a height where it cools adiabatically to below its dew point and forms cumulus clouds . These can then produce rain or even thunderstorms . Anabatic winds are particularly useful to soaring glider pilots who can use them to increase the aircraft 's altitude . Anabatic winds can be detrimental to the maximum downhill speed of cyclists . Conversely , catabatic winds are down-slope winds , frequently produced at night by the opposite effect , the air near to the ground losing heat to it faster than air at a similar altitude over adjacent low-lying land . Monsoon winds are similarly generated , but on a continental scale and seasonal cycle .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Anabatic_wind",
"rank": 87,
"score": 77436
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 88,
"score": 77424
},
{
"content": "Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project",
"rank": 89,
"score": 77411
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climate_change_feedback",
"rank": 90,
"score": 77241
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Earth_2100",
"rank": 91,
"score": 77017
},
{
"content": "Title: Worst Case Scenario (Star Trek: Voyager) Content: __ NOTOC __ `` Worst Case Scenario '' is the 67th series and 25th and penultimate episode of the third season of Star Trek : Voyager .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Worst_Case_Scenario_(Star_Trek:_Voyager)",
"rank": 92,
"score": 76992
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming",
"rank": 93,
"score": 76511
},
{
"content": "Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Taken_by_Storm",
"rank": 94,
"score": 76497
},
{
"content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm",
"rank": 95,
"score": 76320
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 96,
"score": 76138
},
{
"content": "Title: Nuclear holocaust Content: A nuclear holocaust or nuclear apocalypse is a theoretical scenario involving widespread destruction and radioactive fallout causing the collapse of civilization , through the use of nuclear weapons . Under such a scenario , some of the Earth is made uninhabitable by nuclear warfare in future world wars . Besides the obvious direct destruction of cities by nuclear blasts , the potential aftermath of a nuclear war could involve firestorms , a nuclear winter , widespread radiation sickness from fallout , and/or the temporary loss of much modern technology due to electromagnetic pulses . Some scientists , such as Alan Robock , have speculated that a thermonuclear war could result in the end of modern civilization on Earth , in part due to a long-lasting nuclear winter . In one model , temperatures following a full thermonuclear war fall for several years by 7 to 8 degrees Celsius on average . The accuracy of such models are often the subject of partisan dispute . Early Cold War-era studies suggested that billions of humans would nonetheless survive the immediate effects of nuclear blasts and radiation following a global thermonuclear war . Some scholars argue that nuclear war could indirectly contribute to human extinction via secondary effects , including environmental consequences , societal breakdown , and economic collapse . Additionally , it has been argued that even a relatively small-scale nuclear exchange between India and Pakistan involving 100 Hiroshima yield weapons , could cause a nuclear winter and kill more than a billion people . Since 1947 , the Doomsday Clock of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists has visualized how close the world is from a nuclear war . The threat of a nuclear holocaust plays an important role in the popular perception of nuclear weapons . It features in the security concept of mutually assured destruction ( MAD ) and is a common scenario in survivalism . Nuclear holocaust is a common feature in literature and film , especially in speculative genres such as science fiction , dystopian and post-apocalyptic fiction .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Nuclear_holocaust",
"rank": 97,
"score": 75925
},
{
"content": "Title: Anthropogenic cloud Content: An anthropogenic or artificial cloud , is a cloud induced by human activity . Although generally clouds covering the sky have only a natural origin , from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution , the use of fossil fuels and water vapor and other gases emitted by nuclear , thermal and geothermal power plants yield significant alterations of the local weather conditions . These new atmospheric conditions can thus enhance cloud formation . Homogenitus is the term used to designate the origin of clouds produced by human activities . Various methods have been proposed for creating and utilizing this weather phenomenon . Experiments have also been carried out for various studies . For example , Russian scientists have been studying artificial clouds for more than 50 years . But by far the greatest number of anthropogenic clouds are airplane contrails ( condensation trails ) and rocket trails .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Anthropogenic_cloud",
"rank": 98,
"score": 75796
},
{
"content": "Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Planetary_equilibrium_temperature",
"rank": 99,
"score": 75734
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .",
"qid": "142",
"docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy",
"rank": 100,
"score": 75729
}
] |
Recent modelling data suggests the climate is considerably more sensitive to carbon emissions than previously believed | [
{
"content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_sensitivity",
"rank": 1,
"score": 153906
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson",
"rank": 2,
"score": 144789
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 3,
"score": 136020
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 4,
"score": 133033
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 5,
"score": 128217
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 6,
"score": 128088
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 7,
"score": 126480
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 8,
"score": 126271
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 9,
"score": 126237
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 10,
"score": 126149
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 11,
"score": 125475
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_Disclosure_Project",
"rank": 12,
"score": 125399
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 13,
"score": 124997
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 14,
"score": 124576
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 15,
"score": 124167
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 16,
"score": 124049
},
{
"content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance",
"rank": 17,
"score": 124020
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 18,
"score": 123819
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 19,
"score": 123467
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 20,
"score": 123276
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 21,
"score": 123153
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme",
"rank": 22,
"score": 122984
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 23,
"score": 122452
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 24,
"score": 121720
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Kaya_identity",
"rank": 25,
"score": 121666
},
{
"content": "Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Evangelical_Climate_Initiative",
"rank": 26,
"score": 121247
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 27,
"score": 120903
},
{
"content": "Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Vatican_Climate_Forest",
"rank": 28,
"score": 119510
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 29,
"score": 119091
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England",
"rank": 30,
"score": 118501
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 31,
"score": 117555
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 32,
"score": 116794
},
{
"content": "Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Klaus_Lackner",
"rank": 33,
"score": 116656
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 34,
"score": 116592
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 35,
"score": 116569
},
{
"content": "Title: DayCent Content: Daycent is a daily time series biogeochemical model used in agroecosystems to simulates fluxes of carbon and nitrogen between the atmosphere , vegetation , and soil . It is a daily version of the CENTURY biogeochemical model . The United States Environmental Protection Agency , United States Department of Agriculture/ARS and the Colorado State University Natural Resource Ecology Lab are currently using the Daycent model to develop a national inventory of N2O emissions from U.S. agricultural soils . This inventory will be compared and contrasted with the existing Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) agricultural N2O emissions inventory for the United States . Having more accurate data to account for nutrient cycling could have significant implications for public policy associated with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and potential future mitigation efforts in the United States . Model inputs include daily maximum/minimum air temperature and precipitation , surface soil texture class , and land cover/use data . Model outputs include daily fluxes of various N-gas species ( e.g. , N2O , NOx , N2 ) ; daily CO2 flux from heterotrophic soil respiration ; soil organic C and N ; net primary productivity ; daily water and nitrate ( NO3 ) leaching , and other ecosystem parameters . Daycent has been tested with data from various native and managed systems . In similar studies , comparisons between Daycent simulated data and measured values for annual crop yields , N2O emissions , and NO3 leaching produced r2 values of 0.72 , 0.68 , and 0.61 respectively . Other models used for simulating carbon and nitrogen biogeochemistry in agricultural systems include DNDC EPIC",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "DayCent",
"rank": 36,
"score": 116450
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 37,
"score": 116391
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 38,
"score": 116176
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 39,
"score": 115904
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 40,
"score": 115829
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 41,
"score": 115699
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_footprint",
"rank": 42,
"score": 115376
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 43,
"score": 115294
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 44,
"score": 114832
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 45,
"score": 114688
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 46,
"score": 114632
},
{
"content": "Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Chicago_Climate_Exchange",
"rank": 47,
"score": 114611
},
{
"content": "Title: EU Allowances Content: EU Allowances are Climate credits ( or Carbon credits ) used in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . EU Allowances are issued by the EU Member States into Member State Registry accounts . By April 30 of each year , operators of installations covered by the EU ETS must surrender an EU Allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted in the previous year . Category : Carbon emissions in the European Union",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "EU_Allowances",
"rank": 48,
"score": 114204
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 49,
"score": 113514
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 50,
"score": 113102
},
{
"content": "Title: Verified Carbon Standard Content: The Verified Carbon Standard ( VCS ) is a voluntary greenhouse gas program . The organization was founded by a collection of business and environmental leaders . In 2005 , The Climate Group , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) and The World Economic Forum - convened a team of global carbon market experts to draft the first VCS requirements . The World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) joined the effort soon after . These experts soon formed the VCS Steering Committee , which worked to draft the first and subsequent versions of the VCS Standard . Many of the members of the original steering committee went on to be on the original Board of Directors , which now has evolved into a body of 12 members that offers input and guidance to the organization . By 2008 , with the VCS Standard becoming more widely adopted , the Board of Directors named David Antonioli the organization 's first Chief Executive Officer . Soon after in 2009 , VCS incorporated in Washington D.C as a non-profit NGO .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Verified_Carbon_Standard",
"rank": 51,
"score": 112534
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 52,
"score": 112506
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 53,
"score": 112354
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 54,
"score": 112169
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate-friendly_gardening",
"rank": 55,
"score": 112116
},
{
"content": "Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 56,
"score": 111911
},
{
"content": "Title: DICE model Content: The Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy model , referred to as the DICE model or Dice model , is a computer-based integrated assessment model developed by William Nordhaus that `` integrates in an end-to-end fashion the economics , carbon cycle , climate science , and impacts in a highly aggregated model that allows a weighing of the costs and benefits of taking steps to slow greenhouse warming . '' Nordhaus also developed the RICE model ( Regional Integrated Climate-Economy model ) , a variant of the DICE model that was updated and developed alongside the DICE model . Others who collaborated with Nordhaus to develop the model include David Popp , Zili Yang , Joseph Boyer , and other colleagues . The DICE model is one of the three main integrated assessment models used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency , and it provides estimates intermediate between the other two models .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "DICE_model",
"rank": 57,
"score": 111819
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_Summit",
"rank": 58,
"score": 111667
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 59,
"score": 111357
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 60,
"score": 111155
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 61,
"score": 111098
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 62,
"score": 111003
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_engineering",
"rank": 63,
"score": 110874
},
{
"content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence",
"rank": 64,
"score": 110066
},
{
"content": "Title: UK Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The UK Emissions Trading Scheme was a voluntary emissions trading system created as a pilot prior to the mandatory European Union Emissions Trading Scheme which it now runs in parallel with . It ran from 2002 and it closed to new entrants in 2009 . Management of the scheme transferred to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2008 . At the time , the scheme was a novel economic approach , being the first multi-industry carbon trading system in the world . ( Denmark ran a pilot greenhouse gas trading scheme between 2001 and 2003 but this only involved eight electricity companies ) . It took note of the emerging international consensus on the benefits of carbon trading that were being proposed in the mandatory Kyoto Protocol , which had not been ratified at that time , and allowed government and corporate early movers and to gain experience in the auction process and the trading system that the later schemes have entailed . It ran in parallel to a tax on energy use , the Climate Change Levy , introduced in April 2001 , but companies could get a discount on the tax if they elected to make reductions through participation in the trading scheme . The voluntary trading scheme recruited 34 participants from UK industries and organisations who promised to make reductions in their carbon emissions , this has since expanded to 54 sectors of the UK economy . In return they received a share of a # 215 million `` incentive fund '' from the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) . Each agreed to hold sufficient allowances to cover its actual emissions for that year , and participate in a cap and trade system , with an annually reducing cap . Each participant could then decide to take action to manage its emissions to exactly meet its target , or reduce its actual emissions below its target ( thereby releasing allowances that it could sell on , or save for use in future years ) , or buy allowances from other participants to cover any excess . From March 2002 , DEFRA ran an auction of emission allowances to perform allocations to participants , after the start of the mandatory EU scheme .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme",
"rank": 65,
"score": 109870
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 66,
"score": 109799
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Michael_Raupach",
"rank": 67,
"score": 109193
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon process management Content: Carbon Process Management ( CPM ) is a management process which promotes environmental effectiveness in organizations . It is designed to maximize efficiencies in the consumption of resources that contribute to climate change . When implemented effectively , CPM techniques can reduce operating costs , realizing gains in brand equity , competitive advantage and stakeholder value . Initially introduced by First Carbon Solutions , CPM uses Japanese kaizen philosophy which continuously improves workplace practices to reduce wastage , this is combined business process management ( BPM ) which increases efficiency . Governments who resorts to legal mechanisms and regulation to deal with the risks of climate change , techniques such as CPM are directed towards a corporate approach in helping reduce greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_process_management",
"rank": 68,
"score": 109017
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 69,
"score": 108999
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 70,
"score": 108902
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 71,
"score": 108566
},
{
"content": "Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Emission_Reduction_Unit",
"rank": 72,
"score": 108448
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 73,
"score": 108237
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_scenario",
"rank": 74,
"score": 108124
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Mexico Content: Mexico highly depends on the burning of its fossil fuels , and for the same reason , it is in its interest to look into mitigation solutions for its corresponding emissions . In the General Law on Climate Change on 2012 , Mexico promised to reduce 20 % of its GHG emissions by 2020 and 50 % by 2050 , as well as in the Paris Agreement . 19 % of the this new mitigation plan will be dedicated to carbon capture and storage and specifically 10 % to the energetic industry .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Mexico",
"rank": 75,
"score": 107926
},
{
"content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Fugitive_emissions",
"rank": 76,
"score": 107905
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 77,
"score": 107621
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 78,
"score": 107577
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 79,
"score": 107357
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Cloud_feedback",
"rank": 80,
"score": 107331
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_profiling",
"rank": 81,
"score": 107206
},
{
"content": "Title: Road-effect zone Content: The Road-effect zone is the area in which effects on the natural environment extend outward from a road . Such effects are substance emissions like carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , particulate matter , nitrogen oxide , volatile organic compounds , biological matter , rubber , or salt , intangible emissions like noise or light , and changes of the micro climate like alterations of wind , water flows , temperature or moisture .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Road-effect_zone",
"rank": 82,
"score": 107121
},
{
"content": "Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation",
"rank": 83,
"score": 107025
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 84,
"score": 106932
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 85,
"score": 106708
},
{
"content": "Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Compact_of_Mayors",
"rank": 86,
"score": 106597
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental model city (Japan) Content: An is a municipality designated by the Japanese government to be a model for making large cuts in greenhouse gas emissions towards the realization of a low-carbon society .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Environmental_model_city_(Japan)",
"rank": 87,
"score": 106568
},
{
"content": "Title: Flick Off Content: FLICK OFF ( flick off ) is a Canadian advertising campaign launched by Key Gordon Communications . It is a movement to fight climate change by getting Canadians to use less energy . Its sponsors include MuchMusic , Roots Canada , Environmental Defence Canada and the Government of Ontario . Some view this program as a continuation of the scrapped program One-Tonne Challenge in global perspective . The motivation for the campaign is both to reduce energy consumption for its own sake and also with the aim of reducing carbon emissions to ultimately combat global warming . The website associated with the campaign is aimed specifically at young Canadians . The website contains educational material about causes and consequences of global warming and strategies for reducing carbon emissions , and includes a `` carbon calculator '' called One Less Tonne to measure individual carbon dioxide emissions . The website was launched by British entrepreneur Richard Branson and Ontario Environment Minister Laurel Broten in Toronto on April 25 , 2007 . According to the official website , the campaign is now in `` hibernation '' .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Flick_Off",
"rank": 88,
"score": 106556
},
{
"content": "Title: Integrated Carbon Observation System Content: Integrated Carbon Observation System ( ICOS ) is a new strategic research infrastructure to quantify the greenhouse gas balance in Europe and adjacent regions . It consists of a harmonized network of ecosystem long-term observation sites , a network of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration sites and a network of ocean observations . The network will be coordinated through a set of central facilities , including an atmospheric and an ecosystem thematic center , a central data center , an analytical laboratory and an oceanic thematic center . ICOS will provide the essential long-term observations required to understand the present state and predict future behavior of the global carbon cycle and greenhouse gas emissions . It will monitor and assess the effectiveness of carbon sequestration and/or greenhouse gases emission reduction activities on global atmospheric composition levels , including attribution of sources and sinks by region and sector . Standardized network will improved access to data and enable the development of flux products for research and political application . ICOS will be a state-of-the-art facility for the European research community . It will contribute the European share to global greenhouse gas observations under GEO , WMO-GAW and GTOS programs .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Integrated_Carbon_Observation_System",
"rank": 89,
"score": 106398
},
{
"content": "Title: International Carbon Action Partnership Content: The International Carbon Action Partnership ( ICAP ) was founded in 2007 by more than 15 government representatives as an international cooperative forum , bringing together states and sub-national jurisdictions that have implemented or are planning to implement emissions trading systems ( ETS ) . Then governor of California , Arnold Schwarzenegger , stated at ICAP 's founding ceremony : `` This first of its kind partnership will provide more incentives for clean-tech investment and economic growth while not letting polluters off the hook . And it will help renew the health of our planet . '' José Sócrates , the Portuguese prime minister further added that ICAP was launched in order to join carbon markets all over the world and by that be more successful in combating climate change . ICAP includes members from the European Union Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) , Western Climate Initiative ( WCI ) , Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) , Australia , New Zealand , Norway , and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . Japan and Ukraine are observers.Member jurisdictions share best practices and discuss ETS design elements with a view to creating a well-functioning global carbon market . The rationale behind ICAP 's work is that linking carbon cap and trade systems would lead to economic , social and environmental benefits .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "International_Carbon_Action_Partnership",
"rank": 90,
"score": 106397
},
{
"content": "Title: European Climate Exchange Content: The European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) manages the product development and marketing for ECX Carbon Financial Instruments ( ECX CFIs ) , listed and admitted for trading on the ICE Futures Europe electronic platform . It is no longer a subsidiary of the Chicago Climate Exchange but rather a sister company . Both companies are owned by Climate Exchange Plc a holding company listed on the London Stock Exchange 's AIM market . ECX / ICE Futures is the most liquid , pan-European platform for carbon emissions trading , with its futures contract based on the underlying EU Allowances ( EUAs ) and Certified Emissions Allowances ( CERs ) attracting over 80 % of the exchange-traded volume in the European market . ECX contracts ( EUA and CER Futures , options and spot contracts ) are standardised exchange-traded products and all trades are cleared by ICE Clear Europe ( LCH.Clearnet was the designated clearing house prior to November 2008 ) . More than 100 leading businesses , including global companies such as Barclays , BP , Newedge , E.ON UK , Endesa , Fortis , Goldman Sachs , Morgan Stanley and Shell have signed up for membership to trade ECX products . In addition , several hundred clients can access the market daily via banks and brokers in a process called ` order-routing ' without having to be a member themselves . ECX is a member of the Climate Exchange Plc group of companies , founded by Richard Sandor . Other member companies include the Chicago Climate Exchange ( `` CCX '' ) and IFEX . Climate Exchange Plc is listed on AIM on the London Stock Exchange , and was bought in April 2010 by IntercontinentalExchange ( ICE ) . The current Chief Executive is Patrick Birley , son of archaeologist Robin Birley .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "European_Climate_Exchange",
"rank": 91,
"score": 106222
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_state",
"rank": 92,
"score": 106205
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry",
"rank": 93,
"score": 106062
},
{
"content": "Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform",
"rank": 94,
"score": 106012
},
{
"content": "Title: Clean Power Plan Content: The Clean Power Plan is an Obama administration policy aimed at combating anthropogenic climate change ( global warming ) that was first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency in June 2014 . It is widely expected to be eliminated under President Donald Trump , who signed an executive order on March 28 , 2017 mandating the EPA to review the plan . The final version of the plan was unveiled by President Obama on August 3 , 2015 . The 460-page rule ( RIN 2060 -- AR33 ) titled `` Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources : Electric Utility Generating Units '' was published in the Federal Register on October 23 , 2015 . The Obama administration designed the plan to lower the carbon dioxide emitted by power generators .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Clean_Power_Plan",
"rank": 95,
"score": 106010
},
{
"content": "Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Christine_Wiedinmyer",
"rank": 96,
"score": 105988
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 97,
"score": 105863
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 98,
"score": 105650
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 99,
"score": 105157
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "143",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 100,
"score": 105133
}
] |
Previous IPCC reports tended to assume that clouds would have a neutral impact because the warming and cooling feedbacks would cancel each other out. | [
{
"content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Cloud_feedback",
"rank": 1,
"score": 175111
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 2,
"score": 143091
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 3,
"score": 139478
},
{
"content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Reasons_for_concern",
"rank": 4,
"score": 136941
},
{
"content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 5,
"score": 135022
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 6,
"score": 133152
},
{
"content": "Title: CLOUD experiment Content: Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or CLOUD is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) and aerosols under controlled conditions . The experiment began operation in November 2009 . The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) on aerosols and clouds , and their implications for climate . Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question , ( as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997 ) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions . Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "CLOUD_experiment",
"rank": 7,
"score": 131163
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 8,
"score": 130778
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 9,
"score": 129050
},
{
"content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Iris_hypothesis",
"rank": 10,
"score": 125327
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 11,
"score": 124535
},
{
"content": "Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Physical_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 12,
"score": 123152
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 13,
"score": 121963
},
{
"content": "Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Albrecht_effect",
"rank": 14,
"score": 120206
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud forcing Content: Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Cloud_forcing",
"rank": 15,
"score": 119865
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 16,
"score": 118438
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992",
"rank": 17,
"score": 118148
},
{
"content": "Title: Cirrus cloud thinning Content: Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Cirrus_cloud_thinning",
"rank": 18,
"score": 117417
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 19,
"score": 116273
},
{
"content": "Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics",
"rank": 20,
"score": 115637
},
{
"content": "Title: Local Leo Cold Cloud Content: The Local Leo Cold Cloud is a relatively nearby cloud of interstellar gas . It ranges from 11.3 to 24.3 parsecs in distance . The cloud 's neutral gas temperature is around 20K , which is cold compared to the 1,000,000 K temperature of the Local Bubble in which it is embedded . The hydrogen atom density in this cloud is 3,000 atoms per cubic centimeter , which is dense for interstellar medium . Thermal infrared radiation from dust in the cloud can be detected at 0.1 mm .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Local_Leo_Cold_Cloud",
"rank": 21,
"score": 115044
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 22,
"score": 114992
},
{
"content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 23,
"score": 114875
},
{
"content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation",
"rank": 24,
"score": 113373
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 25,
"score": 112591
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback",
"rank": 26,
"score": 112009
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Climate_risk",
"rank": 27,
"score": 110769
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Marine_cloud_brightening",
"rank": 28,
"score": 110194
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Climate_change_feedback",
"rank": 29,
"score": 109949
},
{
"content": "Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Twomey_effect",
"rank": 30,
"score": 109925
},
{
"content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason",
"rank": 31,
"score": 109013
},
{
"content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 32,
"score": 108850
},
{
"content": "Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "List_of_environmental_reports",
"rank": 33,
"score": 107526
},
{
"content": "Title: American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment Content: The American College & University Presidents ' Climate Commitment ( ACUPCC ) is a `` high-visibility effort '' to address global warming ( global climate disruption ) by creating a network of colleges and universities that have committed to neutralize their greenhouse gas emissions and accelerate the research and educational efforts of higher education to equip society to re-stabilize the earth 's climate . Second Nature is the main supporting organization of the ACUPCC .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "American_College_&_University_Presidents'_Climate_Commitment",
"rank": 34,
"score": 107249
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers",
"rank": 35,
"score": 106058
},
{
"content": "Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Richard_A._Betts",
"rank": 36,
"score": 105726
},
{
"content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Roger_Pulwarty",
"rank": 37,
"score": 104986
},
{
"content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Equilibrium_level",
"rank": 38,
"score": 104144
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline",
"rank": 39,
"score": 103942
},
{
"content": "Title: Music Tapes for Clouds and Tornadoes Content: Music Tapes for Clouds and Tornadoes is an album by The Music Tapes , a project consisting mainly of Neutral Milk Hotel 's Julian Koster , released in 2008 by Merge Records . Koster spent nine years recording the album using mainly antique hardware and such as a 1895 Edison wax cylinder recorder , a 1940 's wire recorder , a `` state of the art hard drive '' , and reel to reel tape recorders .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Music_Tapes_for_Clouds_and_Tornadoes",
"rank": 40,
"score": 103903
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 41,
"score": 103617
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 42,
"score": 102730
},
{
"content": "Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Campus_carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 43,
"score": 102210
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of wind power Content: The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels , is relatively minor . Compared with other low carbon power sources , wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated . According to the IPCC , in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources , wind turbines have a median value of between 15 and 11 ( geq/kWh ) depending on whether off - or onshore turbines are being assessed . While wind turbine installations may cover a large area , they are compatible with many land uses such as farming and grazing , as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made unavailable for use . Wind turbines generate some noise . At a residential distance of 300 m this may be around 45 dB , which is slightly louder than a refrigerator . At 1.5 km distance most wind turbines become inaudible . From a fundamental biological point of view , it is known that loud noise increases stress and stress causes diseases . Peer-reviewed research has generally supported the view that when properly sited wind turbines do not affect human health from noise . However , when improperly sited , data from the monitoring of two groups of growing geese revealed substantially lower body weights and higher concentrations of a stress hormone in the blood of the first group of geese who were situated 50 meters away compared to a second group which was at a distance of 500 meters from the turbine . Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape can be significant . Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes . Siting restrictions ( such as setbacks ) have often been implemented to limit any intrusive environmental impacts . There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures . The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant , depending on specific circumstances . Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities , and protection of peat bogs , affect the siting and operation of wind turbines .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_wind_power",
"rank": 44,
"score": 101703
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 45,
"score": 100233
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 46,
"score": 100172
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 47,
"score": 100171
},
{
"content": "Title: Subsidence (atmosphere) Content: Subsidence in the Earth 's atmosphere is most commonly caused by low temperatures : as air cools , it becomes denser and moves towards the ground , just as warm air becomes less dense and moves upwards . Cool subsiding air is subject to adiabatic warming which tends to cause the evaporation of any clouds that might be present . Subsidence generally causes high barometric pressure as more air moves into the same space : the polar highs are areas of almost constant subsidence , as are the horse latitudes , and these areas of subsidence are the sources of much of the world 's prevailing wind . Subsidence also causes many smaller-scale weather phenomena , such as morning fog . An extreme form of subsidence is a downburst , which can result in damage similar to that produced by a tornado . A milder form of subsidence is referred to as downdraft . Category : Atmosphere Category : Basic meteorological concepts and phenomena",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Subsidence_(atmosphere)",
"rank": 48,
"score": 99675
},
{
"content": "Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project",
"rank": 49,
"score": 99292
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry",
"rank": 50,
"score": 98865
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal",
"rank": 51,
"score": 98498
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 52,
"score": 98025
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud Content: In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Cloud",
"rank": 53,
"score": 97381
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act",
"rank": 54,
"score": 97006
},
{
"content": "Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Bert_Bolin",
"rank": 55,
"score": 96937
},
{
"content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 56,
"score": 96185
},
{
"content": "Title: Interstellar cloud Content: An interstellar cloud is the generic name given to an accumulation of gas , plasma , and dust in our and other galaxies . Put differently , an interstellar cloud is a denser-than-average region of the interstellar medium . Depending on the density , size , and temperature of a given cloud , the hydrogen in it can be neutral ( H I regions ) , ionized ( H II regions ) ( i.e. a plasma ) , or molecular ( molecular clouds ) . Neutral and ionized clouds are sometimes also called diffuse clouds , while molecular clouds are sometimes also referred to as dense clouds .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Interstellar_cloud",
"rank": 57,
"score": 96129
},
{
"content": "Title: Condensation cloud Content: A transient condensation cloud , also called Wilson cloud , is observable at large explosions in humid air . When a nuclear weapon or a large amount of a conventional explosive is detonated in sufficiently humid air , the `` negative phase '' of the shock wave causes a rarefaction ( reduction in density ) of the air surrounding the explosion , but not contained within it . This rarefaction results in a temporary cooling of that air , which causes a condensation of some of the water vapor contained in it . When the pressure and the temperature return to normal , the Wilson cloud dissipates . Since heat does not leave the affected air mass , this change of pressure is adiabatic , with an associated change of temperature . In humid air , the drop in temperature in the most rarefied portion of the shock wave can bring the air temperature below its dew point , at which moisture condenses to form a visible cloud of microscopic water droplets . Since the pressure effect of the wave is reduced by its expansion ( the same pressure effect is spread over a larger radius ) , the vapor effect also has a limited radius . Such vapor can also be seen in low pressure regions during high -- g subsonic maneuvers of aircraft in humid conditions . Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 at Bikini Atoll named that transitory cloud a `` Wilson cloud '' because of its similarity to the appearance of the inside of a Wilson cloud chamber , an instrument they would have been familiar with . ( The cloud chamber effect is caused by a temporary reduction in pressure in a closed system and marks the tracks of electrically-charged sub-atomic particles . ) Analysts of later nuclear bomb tests used the more general term condensation cloud . The shape of the shock wave , influenced by different speed in different altitudes , and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds . During nuclear tests , condensation rings around or above the fireball are commonly observed . Rings around the fireball may become stable and form rings around the rising stem of the mushroom cloud . The lifetime of the Wilson cloud during nuclear air bursts can be shortened by the thermal radiation from the fireball , which heats the cloud above the dew point and evaporates the droplets . The same kind of condensation cloud is sometimes seen above the wings of aircraft in a moist atmosphere . The top of a wing has a reduction of air pressure as part of the process of generating lift . This reduction in air pressure causes a cooling , just as above , and the condensation of water vapor . Hence , the small , transient clouds that appear . The vapor cone of a transonic aircraft is another example of a condensation cloud .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Condensation_cloud",
"rank": 58,
"score": 96070
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "IPCC_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 59,
"score": 96026
},
{
"content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "John_T._Houghton",
"rank": 60,
"score": 95982
},
{
"content": "Title: Human impact on marine life Content: Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.According to the IPCC (2019), since 1950 \"many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats.\"It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as wilderness, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast.",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Human_impact_on_marine_life",
"rank": 61,
"score": 95902
},
{
"content": "Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "The_Cloud_Mystery",
"rank": 62,
"score": 95838
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 63,
"score": 95133
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow",
"rank": 64,
"score": 95119
},
{
"content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis",
"rank": 65,
"score": 94255
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud suck Content: Cloud suck is a phenomenon commonly known in paragliding , hang gliding , and sailplane flying where pilots experience significant lift due to a thermal under the base of cumulus clouds , especially towering cumulus and cumulonimbus . The vertical extent of a cumulus cloud is a good indicator of the strength of lift beneath it , and the potential for cloud suck . Cloud suck most commonly occurs in low pressure weather and in humid conditions . Cloud suck is typically associated with an increase in thermal updraft velocity near cloud base . As a parcel of air lifted in a thermal rises , it also cools , and water vapour will eventually condense to form a cloud if the parcel rises above the lifted condensation level . As the water vapour condenses , it releases its latent heat of vaporization , thereby increasing the buoyancy of the parcel . The updraft is amplified by this latent heat release . Although the process that causes this amplification happens above cloud base height , the effect is often noticeable as much as 300 m ( 1,000 feet ) below cloud base . In fact , it is this effect below cloud base , not the effect within the cloud , that is generally referred to by pilots as cloud suck . The telltale signs for a pilot climbing in the thermal under a `` sucking '' cloud are ( 1 ) lift strengthening , ( 2 ) lift getting smoother , and ( 3 ) widening of the thermal . Paraglider pilots have reported being unable to descend in strong cloud suck , even after bringing their canopies into deep spiral , which would normally result in a rapid vertical descent . Cloud suck is especially dangerous for paraglider pilots , whose maximum speed is less than 30 knots , because storm clouds ( Cumulonimbus ) can expand and develop rapidly over a large area with accompanying large areas of strong lift . On 14 February 2007 while practising for a paragliding contest in Australia , Polish-born German team pilot Ewa Wiśnierska-Cieślewicz was sucked into a cumulonimbus cloud , climbing at up to 20 m per second ( 4,000 feet per minute ) to an altitude of 9,946 m ( 32,600 feet ) . She lost consciousness due to hypoxia , but regained consciousness after 30 minutes to an hour , and landed still covered in ice after a three and a half hour flight . Chinese paraglider pilot He Zhongpin died after he was sucked into the same storm system and struck by lightning at 5900 m ( 19,000 feet ) . His body was found the next day 15 km from his last known position prior to entering the cloud . In 2014 Italian paraglider Paolo Antoniazzi , 66 years old retired Army general , died after being sucked into a thunderstorm . Compared with hang-gliders and paragliders , sailplanes have much higher top speeds ( often over 250 km/h ) , and can more easily escape powerful cumulonimbus clouds by flying away quickly or by using very effective air brakes . A sailplane also has the added benefit of the pilot being able to put the sailplane into a spin to descend rapidly without over speeding . Cloud suck is also a concern for powered aircraft but is usually not a lethal hazard , except in extreme weather situations . The USS Shenandoah , the first rigid airship built in the United States , and the first in the world to be inflated with helium , was lost in a cloud suck accident associated with a squall line . At about 6:00 AM on 3 September 1925 , near Ava in northern Noble County , Ohio , the Shenandoah was suddenly caught in a violent updraft while at an altitude of 2,100 feet , rising at the rate of a meter per second . At about 6,200 feet the ascent was checked , but the ship began to descend . When halfway to the ground it was hit by another updraft and began to rise rapidly at an even faster rate . Ultimately the keel snapped , and the ship broke up while still more than a mile above the ground . Shenandoah 's commanding officer and 13 other officers and men were killed . Twenty-nine members of the crew survived the break-up , although some received serious injuries .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Cloud_suck",
"rank": 66,
"score": 94024
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios",
"rank": 67,
"score": 93604
},
{
"content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "David_Karoly",
"rank": 68,
"score": 93272
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 69,
"score": 92464
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud physics Content: Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation , growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds . These aerosols are found in the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere , which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere . Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water ( warm clouds ) , tiny crystals of ice ( cold clouds ) , or both ( mixed phase clouds ) . Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory . Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface . At small radii , the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large , that it does not happen naturally . Raoult 's Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution . At high concentrations , when the cloud droplets are small , the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus . In warm clouds , larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity ; because at a given velocity , the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets . The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops . When the drops become large enough that their downward velocity ( relative to the surrounding air ) is greater than the upward velocity ( relative to the earth ) of the surrounding air , the drops can fall to the earth as precipitation . The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the Bergeron process dominates . Other important processes that form precipitation are riming , when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake , and aggregation , when two solid snowflakes collide and combine . The precise mechanics of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood , but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets . Advances in weather radar and satellite technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Cloud_physics",
"rank": 70,
"score": 92441
},
{
"content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "North_Report",
"rank": 71,
"score": 92265
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloudburst Content: A cloudburst is an extreme amount of precipitation in a short period of time , sometimes accompanied by hail and thunder , that is capable of creating flood conditions . A cloudburst can suddenly dump large amounts of water e.g. 25 mm of precipitation corresponds to 25000 metric tons/km2 ( 1 inch corresponds to 72,300 short tons over one square mile ) . However , cloudbursts are infrequent as they occur only via orographic lift or occasionally when a warm air parcel mixes with cooler air , resulting in sudden condensation . At times , a large amount of runoff from higher elevations is mistakenly conflated with a cloudburst . The term `` cloudburst '' arose from the notion that clouds were akin to water balloons and could burst , resulting in rapid precipitation . Though this idea has since been disproven , the term remains in use .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Cloudburst",
"rank": 72,
"score": 92221
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar stratospheric cloud Content: Polar stratospheric clouds or PSCs , also known as nacreous clouds ( -LSB- ˈneɪkriː.əs -RSB- , from nacre , or mother of pearl , due to its iridescence ) , are clouds in the winter polar stratosphere at altitudes of 15000 - . They are best observed during civil twilight when the sun is between 1 and 6 degrees below the horizon as well as in winter and in more northerly latitudes . They are implicated in the formation of ozone holes . The effects on ozone depletion arise because they support chemical reactions that produce active chlorine which catalyzes ozone destruction , and also because they remove gaseous nitric acid , perturbing nitrogen and chlorine cycles in a way which increases ozone destruction .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Polar_stratospheric_cloud",
"rank": 73,
"score": 92167
},
{
"content": "Title: Manipulation of atoms by optical field Content: When a group of atoms is super-cooled to temperatures near absolute zero , they form a Bose -- Einstein condensate , a state of matter where quantum effects can be observed in the macroscopic system . In this state , the trajectories of the atoms can be manipulated using light . If a super-cooled atomic gas is placed in a standing light wave produced by two counter-propagating lasers of certain frequency , the atoms are diffracted in different order . A cold atom absorbs a photon from one of the laser beams and emits a photon in the other beam receiving a net momentum of in the direction of the absorbed photon . Here is the magnitude of the wave vector of the laser . This is called two-photon recoil process . In such situation , a BEC cloud sitting at the center of a trap is split into two identical clouds . The clouds then travel in opposite directions with a velocity , in the direction of the photon .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Manipulation_of_atoms_by_optical_field",
"rank": 74,
"score": 91766
},
{
"content": "Title: Cirrus uncinus cloud Content: Cirrus uncinus is a type of cirrus cloud . The name cirrus uncinus is derived from Latin , meaning `` curly hooks '' . Also known as mares ' tails , these clouds are generally sparse in the sky and very thin . The clouds occur at very high altitudes , at a temperature of about -50 to . They are generally seen when a warm or occluded front is approaching . They are very high in the troposphere and generally mean that precipitation , usually rain , is approaching .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Cirrus_uncinus_cloud",
"rank": 75,
"score": 91642
},
{
"content": "Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports",
"rank": 76,
"score": 91563
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 77,
"score": 91341
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 78,
"score": 91327
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change acronyms Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Climate_change_acronyms",
"rank": 79,
"score": 91287
},
{
"content": "Title: HVC 127-41-330 Content: HVC 127-41-330 is a high-velocity cloud . The three numbers that compose its name indicate , respectively , the galactic longitude and latitude , and velocity towards Earth in km/s . It is 20,000 light years in diameter and is located 2.3 million light years from Earth , between M31 and M33 . This cloud of neutral hydrogen ( detectable via 21 cm H-I emissions ) , unlike other HVCs shows a rotational component and dark matter . 80 % of the mass of the cloud is dark matter . It is also the first HVC discovered not associated with the Milky Way galaxy or subgroup ( subcluster ) . Astronomer Josh Simon considers it a candidate for being a dark galaxy . With its rotation , it may be a very low density dwarf galaxy of unused hydrogen ( no stars ) , a remnant of the formation of the Local Group .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "HVC_127-41-330",
"rank": 80,
"score": 91164
},
{
"content": "Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 81,
"score": 90986
},
{
"content": "Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution",
"rank": 82,
"score": 90927
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine stratocumulus Content: Marine stratocumulus is a type of stratocumulus cloud that form in the stable air off the west coast of major land masses . The Earth spins on its axis , which results in the Coriolis force pushing the ocean surface water away from the coast in the mid-latitudes . This results in upwelling of cold water from below that creates a pool of cool water at the surface , which in turn cools the air directly above it . The surface cooling results in a large temperature inversion at the top of the marine layer . As the temperature is cooled to the dewpoint , water vapor condenses upon available cloud condensation nuclei , and forms a cloud . The stability of the marine layer prevents deep convection , and thus stratiform clouds are formed . Climate scientists are currently investigating the detailed structure of marine stratocumulus clouds in an attempt to understand their effect on the climate .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Marine_stratocumulus",
"rank": 83,
"score": 90845
},
{
"content": "Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Rajendra_K._Pachauri",
"rank": 84,
"score": 90822
},
{
"content": "Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "The_Chilling_Stars",
"rank": 85,
"score": 90650
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud condensation nuclei Content: Cloud condensation nuclei or CCNs ( also known as cloud seeds ) are small particles typically 0.2 µm , or 1/100th the size of a cloud droplet on which water vapor condenses . Water requires a non-gaseous surface to make the transition from a vapour to a liquid ; this process is called condensation . In the atmosphere , this surface presents itself as tiny solid or liquid particles called CCNs . When no CCNs are present , water vapour can be supercooled at about -13 ° C ( 8 ° F ) for 5-6 hours before droplets spontaneously form ( this is the basis of the cloud chamber for detecting subatomic particles ) . In above freezing temperatures the air would have to be supersaturated to around 400 % before the droplets could form . The concept of cloud condensation nuclei is used in cloud seeding , that tries to encourage rainfall by seeding the air with condensation nuclei . It has further been suggested that creating such nuclei could be used for marine cloud brightening , a climate engineering technique .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Cloud_condensation_nuclei",
"rank": 86,
"score": 90501
},
{
"content": "Title: Anthropogenic cloud Content: An anthropogenic or artificial cloud , is a cloud induced by human activity . Although generally clouds covering the sky have only a natural origin , from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution , the use of fossil fuels and water vapor and other gases emitted by nuclear , thermal and geothermal power plants yield significant alterations of the local weather conditions . These new atmospheric conditions can thus enhance cloud formation . Homogenitus is the term used to designate the origin of clouds produced by human activities . Various methods have been proposed for creating and utilizing this weather phenomenon . Experiments have also been carried out for various studies . For example , Russian scientists have been studying artificial clouds for more than 50 years . But by far the greatest number of anthropogenic clouds are airplane contrails ( condensation trails ) and rocket trails .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Anthropogenic_cloud",
"rank": 87,
"score": 89722
},
{
"content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Seita_Emori",
"rank": 88,
"score": 89704
},
{
"content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Impact_winter",
"rank": 89,
"score": 89253
},
{
"content": "Title: Cooling-off period Content: Cooling-off period may refer to : Cooling-off period ( consumer rights ) , a period of time during which the purchaser may cancel a purchase Standstill period , the time to allow unsuccessful bidders to challenge the decision before a contract is signed Waiting period , the time which a company making an IPO must be silent about it , so as not to inflate the value of the stock artificially Period of time after the termination of a worker 's employment in which he or she is prohibited from establishing or obtaining employment with certain entities ( i.e. executing the terms of a non-compete clause or the legally mandated waiting period before a former government regulator may begin work within the industry he or she once regulated ) With respect to anger management , a period of time where two or more parties in disagreement do not communicate with each other with the understanding that it takes time for emotional connections to diminish In the nuclear power industry , the length of time that spent nuclear fuel must be stored in water before enough heat is dissipated so that the waste product can be safely reprocessed and/or transported to a more permanent storage facility",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Cooling-off_period",
"rank": 90,
"score": 89018
},
{
"content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Vicky_Pope",
"rank": 91,
"score": 88885
},
{
"content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy",
"rank": 92,
"score": 88850
},
{
"content": "Title: Photodissociation region Content: Photodissociation regions ( or photon-dominated regions , or PDRs ) are predominantly neutral regions of the interstellar medium in which far ultraviolet photons strongly influence the gas chemistry and act as the most important source of heat . They occur in any region of interstellar gas that is dense and cold enough to remain neutral , but that has too low a column density to prevent the penetration of far-UV photons from distant , massive stars . A typical and well-studied example is the gas at the boundary of a giant molecular cloud . PDRs are also associated with HII regions , reflection nebulae , active galactic nuclei , and Planetary nebulae . All the atomic gas and most of the molecular gas in the galaxy is found in PDRs .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Photodissociation_region",
"rank": 93,
"score": 88559
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 94,
"score": 88466
},
{
"content": "Title: Korea Internet Neutral Exchange Content: Korea Internet Neutral Exchange ( KINX Inc. ) , the only carrier-neutral Internet exchange ( IX ) in South Korea , is a B2B company that specializes in Internet infrastructure . KINX provides Internet data center ( IDC ) , Content Delivery Network ( CDN ) , and Cloud computing services to customers . The headquarters is in Seoul , South Korea . As of October 2014 , KINX has 94 employees .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Korea_Internet_Neutral_Exchange",
"rank": 95,
"score": 88419
},
{
"content": "Title: Independent Police Complaints Commission Content: The Independent Police Complaints Commission ( IPCC ) is a non-departmental public body in England and Wales responsible for overseeing the system for handling complaints made against police forces in England and Wales .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Independent_Police_Complaints_Commission",
"rank": 96,
"score": 88234
},
{
"content": "Title: Ismail El Gizouli Content: Ismail Abdel Rahim El Gizouli is a Sudanese civil servant specializing in energy and environment and a member of the bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He has acted as interim chairman of the IPCC since 24 February 2015 , following the resignation of Rajendra Kumar Pachauri . This appointment will last until the next election for a chairman , which is due to take place at the 42nd session in October 2015 .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Ismail_El_Gizouli",
"rank": 97,
"score": 88162
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 98,
"score": 88106
},
{
"content": "Title: Neutrality of money Content: Neutrality of money is the idea that a change in the stock of money affects only nominal variables in the economy such as prices , wages , and exchange rates , with no effect on real variables , like employment , real GDP , and real consumption . Neutrality of money is an important idea in classical economics and is related to the classical dichotomy . It implies that the central bank does not affect the real economy ( e.g. , the number of jobs , the size of real GDP , the amount of real investment ) by creating money . Instead , any increase in the supply of money would be offset by a proportional rise in prices and wages . This assumption underlies some mainstream macroeconomic models ( e.g. , real business cycle models ) . Others like monetarism view money as being neutral only in the long-run . When neutrality of money coincides with zero population growth , the economy is said to rest in steady-state equilibrium . Superneutrality of money is a stronger property than neutrality of money . It holds that not only is the real economy unaffected by the level of the money supply but also that the rate of money supply growth has no effect on real variables . In this case , nominal wages and prices remain proportional to the nominal money supply not only in response to one-time permanent changes in the nominal money supply but also in response to permanent changes in the growth rate of the nominal money supply . Typically superneutrality is addressed in the context of long-run models .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "Neutrality_of_money",
"rank": 99,
"score": 88029
},
{
"content": "Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .",
"qid": "148",
"docid": "CloudSat",
"rank": 100,
"score": 87842
}
] |
“Catherine Senior, head of understanding climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre, said more studies and more data were needed to fully understand the role of clouds and aerosols. | [
{
"content": "Title: Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research Content: The Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Change -- named in honour of George Hadley -- is one of the United Kingdom 's leading centres for the study of scientific issues associated with climate change . It is part of , and based at the headquarters of the Met Office in Exeter .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Hadley_Centre_for_Climate_Prediction_and_Research",
"rank": 1,
"score": 228589
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Chemistry and Aerosols model Content: The United Kingdom Chemistry and Aerosols ( UKCA ) is a community Chemistry-Aerosol-Climate model which are research runs of the Met Office 's operational Unified Model . It runs within the Hadley Centre example with multiple flavours of varying horizontal resolutions and vertical layers . It is a collaboration of the Met Office with the University of Cambridge , University of Leeds , University of Oxford , University of Reading , University of East Anglia , and Lancaster University in the UK and the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research of New Zealand .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Chemistry_and_Aerosols_model",
"rank": 2,
"score": 217926
},
{
"content": "Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Richard_A._Betts",
"rank": 3,
"score": 206256
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Peter_A._Stott",
"rank": 4,
"score": 203538
},
{
"content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell",
"rank": 5,
"score": 198252
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 6,
"score": 197703
},
{
"content": "Title: David Carson (climatologist) Content: David John Carson is a climatologist . He has been director of the Hadley Centre ( around 1990-1996 ) , director of Numerical Weather Prediction at the UKMO ( around 1999-2000 ) , and was director of the World Climate Research Programme from 2000-2005 . Carson joined the UK Meteorological Office in 1969 , following his Ph.D from the Department of Applied Mathematics , University of Liverpool , working on the structure and evolution of the atmospheric boundary layer . He did early research on the development of atmospheric general circulation models . In 1982 , he was appointed to Assistant Director within the Met Office , and led the Boundary Layer Research Branch and later the Dynamical Climatology Branch . For 1987 -- 1989 Carson was seconded to the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) as their first Programme Director for atmospheric sciences . He returned to the Met . Office in January 1990 and became Director of Climate Research and then first Director of the Hadley Centre .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "David_Carson_(climatologist)",
"rank": 7,
"score": 193416
},
{
"content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "John_T._Houghton",
"rank": 8,
"score": 190225
},
{
"content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Vicky_Pope",
"rank": 9,
"score": 189542
},
{
"content": "Title: HadGEM1 Content: HadGEM1 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model , version 1 ) is a coupled climate model developed at the Met Office 's Hadley Centre in 2006 and used in IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on climate change . It represents a significant scientific advance on its predecessor , HadCM3 . HadGEM1 also provides a basis for further development of models , particularly involving enhanced resolution and full Earth System modelling . The current version is HadGEM3 .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "HadGEM1",
"rank": 10,
"score": 187038
},
{
"content": "Title: Richard Betts Content: Richard Betts may refer to : Richard A. Betts , climate scientist at the Met Office Hadley Centre Richard K. Betts ( born 1947 ) , Arnold A. Saltzman Professor of War and Peace Studies , Columbia University",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Richard_Betts",
"rank": 11,
"score": 185124
},
{
"content": "Title: Geoff Jenkins (climatologist) Content: Geoffrey ( Geoff ) Jenkins is a climatologist and former head of climate change prediction at the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , part of the Met Office .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Geoff_Jenkins_(climatologist)",
"rank": 12,
"score": 184893
},
{
"content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory",
"rank": 13,
"score": 176138
},
{
"content": "Title: PRECIS Content: PRECIS ( Providing REgional Climates for Impacts Studies , pronounced pray-sea ) is developed at the Hadley Centre at the UK Met Office , PRECIS is a regional climate modelling system designed to run on a Linux based PC . PRECIS can be applied to any area of the globe to generate detailed climate change projections .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "PRECIS",
"rank": 14,
"score": 174095
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 15,
"score": 154789
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 16,
"score": 153674
},
{
"content": "Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "David_Parker_(climatologist)",
"rank": 17,
"score": 147387
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Thorne (climatologist) Content: Peter William Thorne is a climatologist and professor of physical geography in the Department of Geography , Maynooth University . He graduated with a BSc in Environmental Sciences from the University of East Anglia in 1998 , and a PhD from the School of Environmental Sciences in 2001 . He previously worked at the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research and the National Climatic Data Center , and he was a senior scientist at the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center , Bergen , Norway . He is the chair of the International Surface Temperature Initiative which consists of an interdisciplinary effort to create a suite of improved Land Surface Air Temperature products to meet science needs and societal expectations in the era of climate services . Thorne is co-chair of the GCOS Working Group on the Global Climate Observing System Reference Upper Air Network ( GRUAN ) , and he is also the project lead on the Horizon 2020 GAIA-CLIM project which aims to use such measurements to better characterise satellite measurements . He is a Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Peter_Thorne_(climatologist)",
"rank": 18,
"score": 145161
},
{
"content": "Title: Julia Slingo Content: Dame Julia Mary Slingo , ( née Walker ; born 13 December 1950 ) is a British meteorologist and climate scientist . She has been the Chief Scientist at the Met Office since 2009 . She is also a Visiting Professor in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading , where she held , prior to appointment to the Met Office , the positions of Director of Climate Research in the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) National Centre for Atmospheric Science and founding Director of the Walker Institute for Climate System Research . From 2015 to 2016 she was one of the members of the High Level Group of Scientific Advisors of the European Commission Scientific Advice Mechanism , part of its Directorate-General for Research and Innovation .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Julia_Slingo",
"rank": 19,
"score": 144561
},
{
"content": "Title: HadCRUT Content: HadCRUT is the dataset of monthly instrumental temperature records formed by combining the sea surface temperature records compiled by the Hadley Centre of the UK Met Office and the land surface air temperature records compiled by the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) of the University of East Anglia . The data is provided on a grid of boxes covering the globe , with values provided for only those boxes containing temperature observations in a particular month and year . Interpolation is not applied to infill missing values . The first version of HadCRUT initially spanned the period 1881 -- 1993 , and this was later extended to begin in 1850 and to be regularly updated to the current year/month in near real-time .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "HadCRUT",
"rank": 20,
"score": 141109
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas",
"rank": 21,
"score": 139497
},
{
"content": "Title: Met Office Content: The Met Office ( officially the Meteorological Office until 2000 ) is the United Kingdom 's national weather service . It is an executive agency and trading fund of the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy led by CEO , Rob Varley and chief scientist , Professor Stephen Belcher . The Met Office makes meteorological predictions across all timescales from weather forecasts to climate change .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Met_Office",
"rank": 22,
"score": 136044
},
{
"content": "Title: Catherine King (scientist) Content: Catherine K. King is an Australian ecotoxicologist who studies sub-Antarctic and Antarctic regions , with a focus on climate change and the impacts of contaminants and environmental stressors in terrestrial and marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Catherine_King_(scientist)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 135984
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson",
"rank": 24,
"score": 134900
},
{
"content": "Title: David Rogers (meteorologist) Content: David Peter Rogers ( born 20 March 1957 ) was Chief Executive of the Met Office from June 2004 to July 2005 . Since 2007 , he has been President and Chairman of the Health and Climate Foundation , a charity with headquarters in Washington , DC . He was educated at the University of East Anglia ( BSc ) and the University of Southampton ( PhD ) , where his thesis was on numerical modelling of the atmospheric boundary layer over the ocean .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "David_Rogers_(meteorologist)",
"rank": 25,
"score": 131690
},
{
"content": "Title: 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference Content: The 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , subtitled Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , was held 28 -- 30 September 2009 at Oxford , United Kingdom . < ref name = `` 4DC '' > 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , University of Oxford , 28-29 Sept. 2009 . </ref> The three-day conference had about 140 science , government , NGO and private sector delegates , and included 35 oral presentations and 18 poster presentations . The conference website includes a page for downloading abstracts , presentations , audio recordings , and the programme . Links to a number of news stories are also provided . The conference was sponsored by the University of Oxford , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , and the Met Office Hadley Centre . Video podcasts of all oral presentations are posted on a University of Oxford website ; however , to find videos by presenter names the above cited program must first be consulted to find the presentation title . In January 2011 , eleven papers and three introductory articles resulting from the conference were published as a special issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , Four degrees and beyond : the potential for a global temperature increase of four degrees and its implications . Many of the papers are free downloads . The contents of the special issue are listed later in this article . In July 2011 , a follow-up conference , Four Degrees Or More ? Australia in a Hot World , was held at the University of Melbourne , Australia .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "4_Degrees_and_Beyond_International_Climate_Conference",
"rank": 26,
"score": 131262
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter V. Hobbs Content: Peter Victor Hobbs ( 1936 -- 2005 ) was a British-born professor of Atmospheric Sciences and Director of the Cloud and Aerosol Research Group at the University of Washington . His research interests were in the physics and chemistry of the atmosphere , focusing on the roles played by aerosols , clouds , and precipitation . He authored over 250 peer-reviewed papers , authored four books , and edited three books . He is the coauthor with John Michael Wallace of what is generally considered the standard introductory textbook in the field : Atmospheric Science : An Introductory Survey .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Peter_V._Hobbs",
"rank": 27,
"score": 130917
},
{
"content": "Title: Catherine McKenna Content: Catherine Mary McKenna ( born August 5 , 1971 ) is a Canadian Liberal politician , who was elected to represent the riding of Ottawa Centre in the House of Commons of Canada in the 2015 federal election . She was appointed as Minister of Environment and Climate Change in the Cabinet , headed by Justin Trudeau , on November 4 , 2015 . She holds a master 's degree from the London School of Economics and a law degree from McGill University .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Catherine_McKenna",
"rank": 28,
"score": 130834
},
{
"content": "Title: Gerard Jennings Content: Gerard Jennings , also known as Professor S. Gerard Jennings , is an Irish Professor of Physics in NUI Galway , in Ireland . Jennings is the Director of the Environmental Change Institute ( ECI ) , which is a multidisciplinary research centre involving collaboration between researchers from various faculties of NUI , Galway and other research centres across Ireland . He also directs the Atmospheric Research Group , in the Department of Physics at NUI , Galway . In 2001 he was conferred with the degree of Doctor Honoris Causa ( Honorary Doctorate ) by the University of Gothenburg , Sweden . The degree was awarded in recognition of the world-recognised research achievements of Professor Jennings in the field of Atmospheric Science , which embraces aerosol and cloud physics , and climate and environmental change .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Gerard_Jennings",
"rank": 29,
"score": 130299
},
{
"content": "Title: Ellie Highwood Content: Ellie Highwood is Professor of Climate Physics at the University of Reading and was head of that department from 2012 until 2015 . She was previously a member of the RMetS Council and Education Committee . On 1 October 2016 she became the 81st President of the Royal Meteorological Society ( RMetS ) . Highwood studied physics at the University of Manchester and then studied for a PhD at the University of Reading . Her research focuses on atmospheric particulates in climate , particularly the impact of aerosol on climate change and climate model simulations . In 2015 she also took on the role of Dean for Diversity and Inclusion at the University of Reading , which is a job share with Professor Simon Chandler-Wilde . Her work has been discussed in notable publications , such as The Independent and the BBC . She has argued that cooling the planet artificially by `` injecting tiny reflective particles into the atmosphere '' ( as proposed by Paul Crutzen , for example ) could `` cause droughts and climate chaos '' in poor countries , albeit also stating that it would `` be prudent to explore alternatives that might help us in the decades ahead '' .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Ellie_Highwood",
"rank": 30,
"score": 129022
},
{
"content": "Title: CLOUD experiment Content: Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or CLOUD is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) and aerosols under controlled conditions . The experiment began operation in November 2009 . The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) on aerosols and clouds , and their implications for climate . Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question , ( as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997 ) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions . Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "CLOUD_experiment",
"rank": 31,
"score": 128512
},
{
"content": "Title: HadCM3 Content: HadCM3 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Coupled Model , version 3 ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom . It was one of the major models used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report in 2001 . Unlike earlier AOGCMs at the Hadley Centre and elsewhere ( including its predecessor HadCM2 ) , HadCM3 does not need flux adjustment ( additional `` artificial '' heat and freshwater fluxes at the ocean surface ) to produce a good simulation . The higher ocean resolution of HadCM3 is a major factor in this ; other factors include a good match between the atmospheric and oceanic components ; and an improved ocean mixing scheme ( Gent and McWilliams ) . HadCM3 has been run to produce simulations for periods of over a thousand years , showing little drift in its surface climate . HadCM3 is composed of two components : the atmospheric model HadAM3 and the ocean model HadOM3 ( which includes a sea ice model ) . Simulations use a 360-day calendar , where each month is 30 days .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "HadCM3",
"rank": 32,
"score": 126811
},
{
"content": "Title: S. K. Satheesh Content: Sreedharan Krishnakumari Satheesh ( born 1970 ) is an Indian meteorologist and a professor at the Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences of the Indian Institute of Science ( IISc ) . He holds the chair of the Divecha Centre for Climate Change , a centre under the umbrella of the IISc for researches on climate variability , climate change and their impact on the environment . He is known for his studies on atmospheric aerosols and is an elected fellow of all the three major Indian science academies viz . Indian Academy of Sciences Indian National Science Academy and the National Academy of Sciences , India as well as The World Academy of Sciences . The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research , the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research , awarded him the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology , one of the highest Indian science awards for his contributions to Earth , Atmosphere , Ocean and Planetary Sciences in 2009 . He received the TWAS Prize of The World Academy of Sciences in 2011 .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "S._K._Satheesh",
"rank": 33,
"score": 126725
},
{
"content": "Title: George Hadley Content: George Hadley ( February 12 , 1685 -- June 28 , 1768 ) was an English lawyer and amateur meteorologist who proposed the atmospheric mechanism by which the Trade Winds are sustained , which is now named in his honor as Hadley circulation . As a key factor in ensuring that European sailing vessels reached North American shores , understanding the Trade Winds was becoming a matter of great importance at the time . Hadley was intrigued by the fact that winds which should by all rights have blown straight north had a pronounced westerly flow , and it was this mystery he set out to solve .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "George_Hadley",
"rank": 34,
"score": 125407
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility Content: The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility ( ARM Climate Research Facility ) is a United States Department of Energy scientific user facility for the study of global climate change by the national and international research community . The ARM Climate Research Facility consists of global observation sites and research aircraft that measure radiative properties of the atmosphere , particularly cloud and aerosol formation processes . Continuous data from these sites , as well as supplemental data obtained through intensive field research campaigns , are available to scientists online through the ARM Data Archive . ARM is collaboratively managed by nine DOE national laboratories .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Atmospheric_Radiation_Measurement_Climate_Research_Facility",
"rank": 35,
"score": 123216
},
{
"content": "Title: John Hadley (philosopher) Content: John Hadley ( born 27 September 1966 ) is an Australian philosopher whose research concerns moral and political philosophy , including animal ethics , environmental ethics and metaethics . He is currently a senior lecturer in philosophy in the School of Humanities and Communication Arts at Western Sydney University . He has previously taught at Charles Sturt University and the University of Sydney , where he studied as an undergraduate and doctoral candidate . In addition to a variety of articles in peer-reviewed journals and edited collections , he is the author of the 2015 monograph Animal Property Rights ( Lexington Books ) and the co-editor , with Elisa Aaltola , of the 2015 collection Animal Ethics and Philosophy ( Rowman & Littlefield International ) . Hadley is known for his account of animal property rights theory . He proposes that wild animals be offered property rights over their territories , and that guardians be appointed to represent their interests in decision-making procedures . He suggests that this account could be justified directly , on the basis of the interests of the animals concerned , or indirectly , so that natural environments are protected . The theory has received discussion in popular and academic contexts , with critical responses from farming groups and mixed responses from moral and political theorists . Hadley has also conducted research on normative issues related to animal rights extremism , the aiding of others and utilitarianism .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "John_Hadley_(philosopher)",
"rank": 36,
"score": 123040
},
{
"content": "Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Dennis_Tirpak",
"rank": 37,
"score": 121839
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Research_Centre",
"rank": 38,
"score": 121141
},
{
"content": "Title: Held-Hou Model Content: The Held-Hou Model is a model for the Hadley circulation of the atmosphere that would exist in the absence of atmospheric turbulence . The model was developed by Isaac Held and Arthur Hou in 1980 . The essence of the model is that air rising from the surface at the equator conserves its angular momentum as it moves poleward . This distribution of wind , in turn , determines the distribution of temperature , which determines the latitudinal extent of the circulation by requiring energy conservation . This stands in contrast to George Hadley 's original conception of the circulation , which he argued reached the poles . The Hadley circulation has a cooling effect at and near the equator and a warming effect at higher latitudes within the Hadley Cell . This energy transport can be converted into a mass transport , to determine the strength of the circulation , by normalizing by the appropriate vertical stability . The effects of moisture and seasons on the model have been studied . Earth 's atmosphere violates the underlying assumptions of the model : angular momentum is not conserved and the tropical atmosphere is not energetically closed . As such , the Held-Hou model is a conceptual model that does not make quantitatively accurate predictions of the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation to changes in atmospheric parameters .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Held-Hou_Model",
"rank": 39,
"score": 120823
},
{
"content": "Title: Adam Scaife Content: Adam Arthur Scaife B.A. M.A. MSc PhD FRMetS ( born 18 March 1970 ) is a British physicist , and head of long range prediction at the Met Office . He is an honorary visiting Professor at Exeter University . Scaife carries out research into long range weather forecasting and computer modelling of the climate . Scaife has published over 100 peer reviewed studies on atmospheric dynamics , computer modelling and climate predictability and change and recently published popular science and academic books on meteorology .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Adam_Scaife",
"rank": 40,
"score": 120201
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992",
"rank": 41,
"score": 120187
},
{
"content": "Title: János Pásztor (diplomat) Content: János Pásztor ( born 1955 ) is a Hungarian diplomat , the Senior Adviser to the Secretary-General on Climate Change . He joined his current role in January 2016 at the request of United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon . Prior to his current role he was Assistant Secretary-General on Climate Change in the Executive Office of the Secretary-General of the United Nations in New York City . He was appointed Assistant Secretary-General in January 2015 after taking leave of absence from the World Wide Fund for Nature International where he was Policy and Science Director and acting Director for Conservation .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "János_Pásztor_(diplomat)",
"rank": 42,
"score": 117590
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 43,
"score": 117346
},
{
"content": "Title: Stephen Schneider Content: Stephen Henry Schneider ( February 11 , 1945 -- July 19 , 2010 ) was Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University , a Co-Director at the Center for Environment Science and Policy of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Senior Fellow in the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment . Schneider served as a consultant to federal agencies and White House staff in the Richard Nixon , Jimmy Carter , Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations . Schneider 's research included modeling of the atmosphere , climate change , and the effect of global climate change on biological systems . Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal Climatic Change and authored or co-authored over 450 scientific papers and other publications . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) at the time of his death . During the 1980s , Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming . In 2006 Professor Schneider was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence advising the South Australian Government of Premier Mike Rann on climate change and renewable energy policies . In ten years South Australia went from zero to 31 % of its electricity generation coming from renewables . An annual award for outstanding climate science communication was created in Schneider 's honor after his death , by the Commonwealth Club of California .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Stephen_Schneider",
"rank": 44,
"score": 117346
},
{
"content": "Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Albrecht_effect",
"rank": 45,
"score": 117205
},
{
"content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "James_Hansen",
"rank": 46,
"score": 116934
},
{
"content": "Title: Maria Cristina Facchini Content: Maria Cristina Facchini is a geoscientist and research director based , since the 1980s , at the University of Bologna in Italy . Her research is directed at the process of change , natural and man-made , from aerosols in atmospheric composition , and at how that change is affecting many aspects of our lives , including climate , ultraviolet radiation levels , and regional air quality . These impact , as her group 's website puts it , `` the fundamental necessities of human existence '' , such as human health , food production , and water resources . She has published over 100 papers , many of which have been critically acclaimed . She is on multiple panels/boards , including , since 2011 , the Scientific Advisory Board of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz , Germany .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Maria_Cristina_Facchini",
"rank": 47,
"score": 115798
},
{
"content": "Title: Leila Hadley Content: Leila Hadley ( 22 September 1925 -- 10 February 2009 ) was an American travel writer and socialite . Her books include Give Me the World ( 1958 ) and A Journey With Elsa Cloud ( 1997 ) .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Leila_Hadley",
"rank": 48,
"score": 115646
},
{
"content": "Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)",
"rank": 49,
"score": 115493
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas R. Karl Content: Thomas R. Karl ( Born 22 November 1951 , Evergreen Park , Illinois ) is the former director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Centers for Environmental Information ( NCEI ) . He joined the National Climate Centre in 1980 , and when that became the National Climatic Data Center , he continued as a researcher , becoming a Lab Chief , Senior Scientist and ultimately Director of the Center . When it merged with other centers to become NCEI in 2015 , he became its first director . He retired on 4 August 2016 .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Thomas_R._Karl",
"rank": 50,
"score": 115161
},
{
"content": "Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Petr_Chýlek",
"rank": 51,
"score": 114725
},
{
"content": "Title: Robert Jay Charlson Content: Robert Jay Charlson is an American atmospheric scientist , climate scientist , pioneer in the fields of climate forcing and climate change , and coauthor of the CLAW hypothesis . He is professor of Atmospheric Sciences , chemistry , and geophysics at the University of Washington in Seattle , Washington . Charlson earned his PhD from the University of Washington . He is a world expert in atmospheric chemistry , aerosol physics , aerosol/cloud/climate interaction , aerosol and cloud instrumentation .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Robert_Jay_Charlson",
"rank": 52,
"score": 114609
},
{
"content": "Title: Darin Toohey Content: Darin W. Toohey is an American atmospheric scientist . He is a professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences and of environmental studies at the University of Colorado Boulder since 1999 . Toohey 's research addresses the role of trace gases and aerosols on Earth 's climate , atmospheric oxidation , and air quality . He was a Jefferson Science Fellow at the United States Department of State , 2011-2012 .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Darin_Toohey",
"rank": 53,
"score": 113967
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_West_Virginia",
"rank": 54,
"score": 113378
},
{
"content": "Title: Jean Palutikof Content: Jean Palutikof is founding Director of the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility ( NCCARF ) at Griffith University , Australia . She has held this position since 2008 . Prior to this , Professor Palutikof was based at the UK Met Office during which time she managed the production of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability ) . Professor Palutikof is among the foremost scholars of climate change adaptation and was lead author and review editor for several assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and was present in Oslo at the ceremony at which the IPCC received the Nobel Peace Prize .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Jean_Palutikof",
"rank": 55,
"score": 113277
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 56,
"score": 113177
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Marine_cloud_brightening",
"rank": 57,
"score": 112966
},
{
"content": "Title: Catherine McArdle Kelleher Content: Catherine McArdle Kelleher ( born January 19 , 1939 ) is an American political scientist involved in national and international security policy . Currently , she is Senior Fellow at the Watson Institute for International Studies at Brown University and College Park Professor of Public Policy at the University of Maryland . Kelleher was the Director of the Aspen Institute in Berlin from 1998 to 2001 when she was appointed Professor of Strategy at the Naval War College ( 2001 -- 2006 ) . In the 1990s she was appointed Honorarprofessor at the Free University of Berlin , and she has regularly taught at the Geneva Center for Security Policy in Switzerland for over a decade . Her public service career began with appointment to the National War College as a professor of military strategy in the 1980s ( only the second woman professor in their history ) and a series of consulting posts in Office of the Secretary of Defense , Arms Control and Disarmament Agency , and Department of State . She has served both in the White House on the National Security Council staff ( under President Jimmy Carter ) and at various levels in the Department of Defense . Her most recent assignments are as the Secretary of Defense 's Personal Representative and Defense Advisor to the US Mission to NATO , and as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Russia , Ukraine , and Eurasia ( OSD/RUE ) in the Clinton Administration . She is considered an expert on international security .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Catherine_McArdle_Kelleher",
"rank": 58,
"score": 112812
},
{
"content": "Title: Rick S. Piltz Content: Frederick Steven `` Rick '' Piltz ( July 29 , 1943 -- October 18 , 2014 ) was a former senior associate in the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . In March 2005 , he resigned over political interference in the program 's climate change reports . In June 2005 , the New York Times exposed the role of Philip Cooney in editing government documents on climate change to create scientific uncertainty . A former lobbyist with the American Petroleum Institute , Cooney resigned and days later took a job at Exxon Mobil . Piltz went on to found Climate Science Watch , a project to hold public officials accountable for using climate science with integrity in policy making . Climate Science Watch is a program of the Government Accountability Project , a whistleblower protection agency in Washington , D.C.",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Rick_S._Piltz",
"rank": 59,
"score": 112213
},
{
"content": "Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "The_Cloud_Mystery",
"rank": 60,
"score": 111880
},
{
"content": "Title: Hadley cell Content: The Hadley cell , named after George Hadley , is a global scale tropical atmospheric circulation that features air rising near the equator , flowing poleward at 10 -- 15 kilometers above the surface , descending in the subtropics , and then returning equatorward near the surface . This circulation creates the trade winds , tropical rain-belts and hurricanes , subtropical deserts and the jet streams . In each hemisphere , there is one primary circulation cell known as a Hadley cell and two secondary circulation cells at higher latitudes , between 30 ° and 60 ° latitude known as the Ferrel cell , and beyond 60 ° as the Polar cell . Each Hadley cell operates between zero and 30 to 40 degrees north and south and is mainly responsible for the weather in the equatorial regions of the world .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Hadley_cell",
"rank": 61,
"score": 111820
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud physics Content: Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation , growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds . These aerosols are found in the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere , which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere . Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water ( warm clouds ) , tiny crystals of ice ( cold clouds ) , or both ( mixed phase clouds ) . Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory . Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface . At small radii , the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large , that it does not happen naturally . Raoult 's Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution . At high concentrations , when the cloud droplets are small , the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus . In warm clouds , larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity ; because at a given velocity , the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets . The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops . When the drops become large enough that their downward velocity ( relative to the surrounding air ) is greater than the upward velocity ( relative to the earth ) of the surrounding air , the drops can fall to the earth as precipitation . The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the Bergeron process dominates . Other important processes that form precipitation are riming , when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake , and aggregation , when two solid snowflakes collide and combine . The precise mechanics of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood , but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets . Advances in weather radar and satellite technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Cloud_physics",
"rank": 62,
"score": 110709
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud Aerosol Transport System Content: The Cloud Aerosol Transport System ( CATS ) is a light detection and ranging remote sensing instrument designed to measure the location , composition and distribution of pollution , dust , smoke , aerosols and other particulates in the atmosphere . CATS is to be installed on the Kibo module of the International Space Station and is expected to run for at least six months , and up to three years . It was launched in January 2015 aboard the SpaceX CRS-5 resupply mission . CATS will use a laser operating at three wavelengths ( 1064 , 532 , and 355 nm ) to determine cloud layer height , thickness , and depth . Some of the applications of the data gathered will be to develop and refine climate models as well as providing insight for future examinations of the atmospheres of Mars , Jupiter , and other extraterrestrial atmospheres .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Cloud_Aerosol_Transport_System",
"rank": 63,
"score": 110497
},
{
"content": "Title: Heidi Cullen Content: Heidi Cullen is the chief scientist for the non-profit environmental organization , Climate Central , located in Princeton , New Jersey . In addition , she is a guest lecturer at nearby Princeton University , and the author of the book , The Weather of the Future . An expert and commentator about issues related to climate change and the environment , she was an on-air personality at The Weather Channel , and is a senior research fellow at the University of Pennsylvania ( Penn ) .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Heidi_Cullen",
"rank": 64,
"score": 110490
},
{
"content": "Title: Catherine A. Novelli Content: Catherine Ann Novelli ( born 1957 ) is a U.S. diplomat who served as Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth , Energy , and the Environment at the U.S. Department of State from 2014 to 2017 . She is also the State Department 's Senior Coordinator for International Information Technology Diplomacy .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Catherine_A._Novelli",
"rank": 65,
"score": 110468
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Michael_Schlesinger",
"rank": 66,
"score": 110323
},
{
"content": "Title: Veerabhadran Ramanathan Content: Veerabhadran Ramanathan ( Tamil : வீரபத்ரன் இராமநாதன் ) is Victor Alderson Professor of Applied Ocean Sciences and director of the Center for Atmospheric Sciences at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography , University of California , San Diego . He has contributed to many areas of the atmospheric sciences including developments to general circulation models , atmospheric chemistry , and radiative transfer . He has been a part of major projects such as the Indian Ocean Experiment ( INDOEX ) and the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , and is known for his contributions to the area of atmospheric aerosol research . He has received numerous awards , and is a member of the US National Academy of Sciences . He has spoken about the topic of global warming , and written that `` the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming is , in my opinion , the most important environmental issue facing the world today . ''",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Veerabhadran_Ramanathan",
"rank": 67,
"score": 109713
},
{
"content": "Title: Catherine Hakim Content: Catherine Hakim ( born 30 May 1948 ) is a British sociologist who specialises in women 's employment and women 's issues . She is currently a Professorial Research Fellow at the Institute for the Study of Civil Society ( Civitas ) , and has formerly worked in British central government and been a Senior Research Fellow at the London School of Economics and the Centre for Policy Studies . She has also been a Visiting Professor at the Social Science Research Center Berlin .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Catherine_Hakim",
"rank": 68,
"score": 109535
},
{
"content": "Title: Kevin Anderson (scientist) Content: Kevin Anderson is the Deputy Director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research ; holds a joint chair in Energy and Climate Change at the School of Mechanical , Aerospace and Civil Engineering at the University of Manchester and School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ; and is an honorary lecturer in Environmental Management at the Manchester Business School . He is an adviser to the British Government ( as of 2009 ) on climate change .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Kevin_Anderson_(scientist)",
"rank": 69,
"score": 109342
},
{
"content": "Title: David A. Jones Content: David Arfon Jones is a senior climatologist at the Australian Bureau of Meteorology . He initially studied mathematics and chemistry at university but changed to atmospheric studies . Jones obtained his PhD in Earth Science from the University of Melbourne , Australia in 1995 . He subsequently completed the postgraduate diploma in weather forecasting in 1995 at the Bureau of Meteorology . In 1995 Jones commenced work in the Climate Analysis Section of the Australian National Climate Centre , focusing on the automation of climate monitoring using objective analysis techniques . Subsequently he moved to the Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre in 1997 undertaking research on the variability and change of Australia 's climate . Jones became the supervisor of Climate Analysis at the Bureau of Meteorology in 2002 . In this role he has promoted the automation of analysis , monitoring and forecasting products and the introduction of a range of innovative climate monitoring activities , with a focus on encouraging the interpretation of climate variability in the context of a rapidly changing climate . Owing to the continued misrepresentation of climate change in the Australian media Jones has written a number of public pieces correcting or explaining climate change including in The Age , and in articles for the Australian Science Media Centre . In 2006 Jones was awarded the National Australia Day Council Achievement Medallion .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "David_A._Jones",
"rank": 70,
"score": 109043
},
{
"content": "Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project",
"rank": 71,
"score": 108418
},
{
"content": "Title: Jasper Kirkby Content: Jasper Kirkby is a British experimental particle physicist currently with CERN . He originated the idea for the Tau-Charm Factory , an accelerator now under construction as BEPC II in Beijing . He has led several large particle accelerator experiments at SPEAR ; the Paul Scherrer Institute ; and most recently , the CLOUD experiment at CERN . The CLOUD experiment is investigating possible physical mechanisms for solar/cosmic ray forcing - a theory whereby cloud nucleation is affected by cosmic rays and the cosmic rays are affected by solar activity . The main purpose of the CLOUD experiment is to simulate the conditions under which clouds form in earth 's atmosphere -- specifically , the process by which cloud condensation nuclei form from aerosols in the atmosphere . Kirkby et al. published the results of CLOUD 's first experiment in the journal Nature in 2011 , reporting that cosmic rays `` seemed to enhance the production of nanometre-sized particles from the gaseous atmosphere by more than a factor of ten . '' He added , however , that the particles in question are far too small to serve as cloud condensation nuclei , adding , `` At the moment , it actually says nothing about a possible cosmic-ray effect on clouds and climate , but it 's a very important first step . ''",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Jasper_Kirkby",
"rank": 72,
"score": 108186
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud Content: In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Cloud",
"rank": 73,
"score": 108100
},
{
"content": "Title: Gerald Meehl Content: Gerald Allen `` Jerry '' Meehl is a climate scientist who has been a senior scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research since 2001 .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Gerald_Meehl",
"rank": 74,
"score": 107644
},
{
"content": "Title: Jeffrey Kiehl Content: Jeffrey Theodore Kiehl ( born June 10 , 1952 ) is an American climate scientist . He is head of the Climate Change Research Section in the National Center for Atmospheric Research located in Boulder , Colorado . He completed his atmospheric science doctoral studies at the State University of New York , Albany . He was awarded the 2012 Climate Communication Prize from the American Geophysical Union .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Jeffrey_Kiehl",
"rank": 75,
"score": 107640
},
{
"content": "Title: Sujatha Byravan Content: Sujatha Byravan is Principal Research Scientist at the Center for Study of Science , Technology and Policy ( CSTEP ) . Until 2012 , she was Senior Fellow at the Centre for Development Finance in IFMR where the focus of her work was primarily on adaptation to global warming . Her interests are in the broad areas of science , technology and development and are grounded in her technical background and education in the biological sciences . Her recent projects and publications have been on India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change , sea level rise , environmental migrants and exiles , including so-called ` climate refugees ' , biotechnology policy , innovation , and science for sustainable development . Between 2002 and 2007 , she was Executive Director and President of the Council for Responsible Genetics ( CRG ) , a non-profit/non-governmental organization devoted to fostering informed debate on the social , ethical and environmental implications of new genetic technologies . CRG carries out policy research , education and advocacy . Byravan received a PhD in molecular biology in 1989 from the University of South Carolina . She completed post-doctoral work from 1993 to 1995 at UCLA . She then worked in India as a science writer and freelance journalist . Topics she has written on include science policy , gender issues , and Indian environmental concerns and politics . During that time , Byravan also became a fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation 's LEAD ( Leadership for Environment and Development ) Program ( 1995 to 1997 ) . She later served as Director of the Fellows Program at LEAD International from 1999-2002 , and in that capacity was responsible for developing and executing the program for the graduates of LEAD , who number over 1,300 and work all over the world in various sectors . Byravan is also a fellow of the Salzburg Global Seminar on Biotechnology : Legal , Ethical and Social Issues . She received a Rockefeller Foundation Residential Fellowship at Bellagio in 2007 . She is on the board of LEAD ( India ) .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Sujatha_Byravan",
"rank": 76,
"score": 107615
},
{
"content": "Title: Giles Harrison Content: Giles Harrison is Professor of Atmospheric Physics at the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading , where he has served twice as Head of Department . His research work continues over 250 years of UK studies in atmospheric electricity , in its modern form an interdisciplinary topic at the intersection of aerosol physics , solar-climate interactions , scientific sensor development and the retrieval of quantitative data from historical sources . He has authored or co-authored over 250 papers , co-edited a conference volume on Planetary Atmospheric Electricity . and a postgraduate textbook on meteorological instruments . His research includes some of the first airborne measurements in UK airspace of Icelandic volcanic ash from Eyjafjallajökull , during the April 2010 flight ban . He was educated at Marling School Stroud , and St Catharine 's College Cambridge . He holds doctorates from Imperial College London ( PhD 1992 ) , and the University of Cambridge ( ScD 2014 ) . He is a member of the Academia Europea and a Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy . In 2011 he was the Bill Bright lecturer at the International Electrostatics Conference and in 2016 he was awarded the Appleton Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Giles_Harrison",
"rank": 77,
"score": 107360
},
{
"content": "Title: Elizabeth Pattey Content: Elizabeth Pattey , Ph.D. , is a senior research scientist at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada ( AAFC ) and the leader of the micrometeorology laboratory at the Ottawa Research and Development Centre . Her research supports nation-wide improvement in the environmental performance of agriculture , in support of the United Nations ' Framework Convention on Climate Change and Canada 's Clean Air Act . She is the co-author for over 80 peer-reviewed scientific publications , and her areas of expertise include trace gas flux measurement techniques , process-based models , and remote-sensing applications .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Elizabeth_Pattey",
"rank": 78,
"score": 107287
},
{
"content": "Title: Tom Wigley Content: Tom Wigley is a climate scientist at the University of Adelaide . He is also affiliated with the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) . He was named a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) for his major contributions to climate and carbon cycle modeling and to climate data analysis , and because he is `` one of the world 's foremost experts on climate change and one of the most highly cited scientists in the discipline . '' His h-index ( August 2014 ) is 64 , one of the highest in the discipline . He contributed to many of the reports published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . Wigley was educated as a mathematical physicist and earned his doctorate at the University of Adelaide in Australia . He served as director of the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom from 1978 to 1993 . In 1993 he went on to the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder , Colorado , where he was appointed a senior scientist in 1994 . He subsequently moved to the University of Adelaide where he currently ( 2014 ) holds a Professorial Fellowship . His published papers include the first paper to demonstrate 20th century warming using both land and marine data , the first paper to include the effects of aerosol cooling on projections of future climate change , the first paper to provide realistic scenarios for the stabilization of atmospheric CO2 , and the first paper to use pattern-based methods to identify a significant human influence on the climate . Wigley has also published a number of highly cited papers in aqueous geochemistry , including a now-standard method for carbon dating of groundwater . Wigley has argued in the popular media that the IPCC has been too optimistic about the prospect of averting harmful climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions through the use of renewable technologies alone , and argued that any realistic portfolio must include significant contributions from nuclear energy . He has also pointed out that `` the human-induced changes that are expected over the next 100 years are much , much greater than any changes that societies experienced in the past . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Tom_Wigley",
"rank": 79,
"score": 107223
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme",
"rank": 80,
"score": 107126
},
{
"content": "Title: Saleemul Huq Content: Saleemul Huq ( সালিমুল হক born 2 October 1952 ) is a Bangladeshi scientist based in London . He is a Senior Fellow in the Climate Change Group at the International Institute for Environment and Development ( IIED ) .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Saleemul_Huq",
"rank": 81,
"score": 106865
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Cloud_formation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 82,
"score": 106682
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 83,
"score": 106459
},
{
"content": "Title: Eileen Claussen Content: Eileen B. Claussen ( born 1945 ) is an American climate and energy policy administrator , diplomat , and lobbyist . She held senior posts at the U.S. Department of State , National Security Council , and Environmental Protection Agency before founding the Pew Center on Global Climate Change in 1998 . She then launched the center 's successor organization , the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions ( C2ES ) , in 2011 , and retired as president of C2ES in 2014 .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Eileen_Claussen",
"rank": 84,
"score": 106225
},
{
"content": "Title: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model Content: GFDL CM2.X ( Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model , version 2 . X ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in the United States . It is one of the leading climate models used in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC , along with models developed at the Max Planck Institute for Climate Research , the Hadley Centre and the National Center for Atmospheric Research .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Geophysical_Fluid_Dynamics_Laboratory_Coupled_Model",
"rank": 85,
"score": 106096
},
{
"content": "Title: Jyoti Kirit Parikh Content: Jyoti Kirit Parikh -RSB- is the current Executive Director of Integrated Research and Action for Development IRADe . She was a Member of the Prime Minister 's Council on Climate Change -- India and is a recipient of Nobel Peace Prize awarded To IPCC authors in 2007 . She was a Senior Professor at Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research ( IGIDR ) , Mumbai . She also worked at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis ( IIASA ) , Austria and served as senior energy consultant at the Niti Aayog ( formally Planning Commission ) , New Delhi ( 1978 -- 80 ) . She was a visiting professor at the Institute of Advanced Studies ( IAS ) of UNU , Tokyo ( 1995 -- 96 ) . She was the Acting Director of IGIDR for 1997-98 . She has an experience for nearly thirty years on energy and environment problems of the developing countries .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Jyoti_Kirit_Parikh",
"rank": 86,
"score": 106075
},
{
"content": "Title: Hadley Wickham Content: Hadley Wickham is a statistician from New Zealand who is currently Chief Scientist at RStudio and an adjunct Assistant Professor of statistics at Rice University . He is best known for his development of open-source statistical analysis software packages for R ( programming language ) that implement logics of data visualisation and data transformation . Wickham received a Bachelors of Human Biology , and a B.Sc . and a M.Sc . in statistics at the University of Auckland in 1999 -- 2004 and his PhD at Iowa State University in 2008 under the supervision of Di Cook and Heike Hoffman . In 2006 he was awarded the John Chambers Award for Statistical Computing for his work developing tools for data reshaping and visualisation . He is a prominent and active member of the R user community and has developed several notable and widely used packages including ggplot2 , plyr , dplyr , and reshape2 . Wickham 's data analysis packages for R are collectively known as the ` tidyverse ' . Wickham 's packages and writing are known for advocating a ` tidy ' approach to data import , analysis and modelling methods . According to Wickham 's tidy approach , each variable should be a column , each observation should be a row , and each type of observational unit should be a table . He was named a Fellow by the American Statistical Association in 2015 for `` pivotal contributions to statistical practice through innovative and pioneering research in statistical graphics and computing '' .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Hadley_Wickham",
"rank": 87,
"score": 106029
},
{
"content": "Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "CloudSat",
"rank": 88,
"score": 105880
},
{
"content": "Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Tyndall_Centre",
"rank": 89,
"score": 105740
},
{
"content": "Title: Pakistan Meteorological Department Content: The Pakistan Meteorological Department ( reporting name : PMD ; unofficially known as Pakistan Met Office ) , is an autonomous and independent institution tasked with providing forecasts , public warnings , and purposes of protection , safety , and general information . Apart from meteorology , it is also involved in monitoring as well as investigating weather phenomenons , astronomical events , hydrology , and research in astrophysics , climate changes , and studies on aeronautical engineering , renewable energy resources across various parts of the country . Headquartered in Islamabad , it has offices and research facilities in all over the four provinces of the country . As of current , Dr. Ghulam Rasul is the current Director-General of the Pakistan Meteorological Department .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Pakistan_Meteorological_Department",
"rank": 90,
"score": 105668
},
{
"content": "Title: Priday, Metford and Company Limited Content: Priday , Metford and Company Limited was a family-run company that produced flour at the City Flour Mills , Gloucester , England for over a century . They were closed down in 1994 and the premises converted to luxury apartments under the name of `` Priday 's Mill '' . The City Flour Mills were the location of the landmark case in contract law known as Hadley v. Baxendale .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Priday,_Metford_and_Company_Limited",
"rank": 91,
"score": 105493
},
{
"content": "Title: Driving the future Content: Driving the Future : Combating Climate Change with Cleaner , Smarter Cars is the first book by former Environmental Protection Agency senior director Margo T. Oge . The book covers climate science , politics , regulations , auto technology and proposes how to meet greenhouse gas reduction goals . It is organized into three sections .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Driving_the_future",
"rank": 92,
"score": 105377
},
{
"content": "Title: George Hadley (disambiguation) Content: George Hadley ( 1685 -- 1768 ) was an English meteorologist . George Hadley may also refer to : George Hadley ( footballer ) ( 1893 -- 1963 ) , Scottish footballer George Hadley ( orientalist ) ( died 1798 ) , East India Company officer",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "George_Hadley_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 93,
"score": 104944
},
{
"content": "Title: Catherine Morgan Content: Catherine Anne Morgan , ( born 1961 ) is a British academic specialising in the history and archaeology of Early Iron Age and Archaic Greece . Since 2015 , she has been a Senior Research Fellow at All Souls College , Oxford . She was Professor of Classical Archaeology at King 's College London from 2005 to 2015 , and Director of the British School at Athens from 2007 to 2015 .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Catherine_Morgan",
"rank": 94,
"score": 104771
},
{
"content": "Title: Meteocentre Content: Meteocentre ( also named UQAM Weather Centre ) is a website displaying real-time weather information for North America and Europe organized in three different portals , each adapted for a given area and named after a town part of the region of interest : 1 ) Montréal , for Québec , 2 ) Toulouse , for France and 3 ) Reading , for the United Kingdom . The website created in 1994 is maintained by its founder Christian Pagé , actually a research engineer at CERFACS , in collaboration since 2009 with Jean-François Caron , a research scientist at the Met Office , and hosted by the Atmospheric Sciences Group at the Université du Québec à Montréal ( UQAM ) . Its Quebec portal , the UQAM-Montreal Weather Centre , is deemed as being the most complete weather data website for Montreal and Quebec .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Meteocentre",
"rank": 95,
"score": 104723
},
{
"content": "Title: John Loughhead Content: Prof John Neil Loughhead OBE FREng FIMechE FIET ( born 24 September 1948 ) is a British businessman and Chief Scientific Adviser to Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) . He is also Executive Director of the UK Energy Research Centre and a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering . He was appointed an OBE for services to Technology in 2011 . In 2014 , he was voted as one of the Top 500 Most Influential People in Britain by Debrett 's and The Sunday Times .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "John_Loughhead",
"rank": 96,
"score": 104347
},
{
"content": "Title: Stephen Hadley Content: Stephen John Hadley ( born February 13 , 1947 ) was the 21st U.S. Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs ( commonly referred as National Security Advisor ) , serving under President George W. Bush during the second term of his administration . Hadley was Deputy National Security Advisor during the Bush 's first term . Before that Hadley served in a variety of capacities in the defense and national security fields . He has also worked as a lawyer and consultant in private practice .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Stephen_Hadley",
"rank": 97,
"score": 104251
},
{
"content": "Title: Hadley Arkes Content: Hadley P. Arkes ( born 1940 ) is an American political scientist and the Edward N. Ney Professor of Jurisprudence and American Institutions emeritus at Amherst College , where he has taught since 1966 . He is currently the founder and director of the James Wilson Institute on Natural Rights & the American Founding in Washington , D.C. Arkes received a B.A. degree at the University of Illinois and a Ph.D. from the University of Chicago where he was a student of Leo Strauss . In a series of books and articles dating from the mid-1980s , Arkes has written on a priori moral principles and advocated for their impact on constitutional interpretation . He has also dealt with their relation to constitutional jurisprudence and natural law , and their challenge to moral relativism . His works draw on political philosophers from Aristotle through the U.S. Founding Fathers , Lincoln , and contemporary authors and jurists . John O. McGinnis , reviewing Arkes ' Constitutional Illusions & Anchoring Truths in The Wall Street Journal , writes that it tries to find a path between the extremes of originalism , where the meaning of the U. S.Constitution is fixed by its original text , and the idea of the living constitution , where its meaning is updated by evolving moral principles . Arkes is founder and a member of the Committee for the American Founding , a group of Amherst alumni and students seeking to preserve the doctrines of `` natural rights '' exposited by some American Founders and Lincoln through the Colloquium on the American Founding at Amherst and in Washington , D.C. In 2010 Arkes , born and raised a Jew , converted to Catholicism , which he described as a fulfillment of his Jewish faith . Arkes serves on the advisory board and writes for First Things , an ecumenical journal that focuses on encouraging a `` religiously informed public philosophy for the ordering of society . '' In September 2016 , Arkes was among 125 Conservatives for Trump who announced they supported Donald Trump 's candidacy to be president .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Hadley_Arkes",
"rank": 98,
"score": 104183
},
{
"content": "Title: Norwegian Meteorological Institute Content: The Norwegian Meteorological Institute ( Meteorologisk institutt ) , also known as MET Norway , is Norway 's national institute which provides weather forecasts . Its three main offices are located in Oslo , Bergen and Tromsø . MET Norway has around 500 employees and some 650 part-time observers around the country . It also operated the last remaining weather ship in the world , MS Polarfront , stationed in the North Atlantic , until it was discontinued due to budgetary issues on 1 January 2010 and replaced with satellite and buoy data . The institute was founded in 1866 with the help of Norwegian astronomer and meteorologist Henrik Mohn who served as its director until 1913 . He is credited with founding meteorological research in Norway . The institute represents Norway in international organizations like the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) , and EUMETSAT . The Institute is also partner to a number of international research and monitoring projects including EMEP , MyOcean , MyWave and the North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System ( NOOS ) .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Norwegian_Meteorological_Institute",
"rank": 99,
"score": 104077
},
{
"content": "Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "152",
"docid": "Lee_Hannah",
"rank": 100,
"score": 103908
}
] |
Contemporary Global Warming placed in geological context. | [
{
"content": "Title: Global Volcanism Program Content: The Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program ( GVP ) documents Earth 's volcanoes and their eruptive history over the past 10,000 years . The GVP reports on current eruptions from around the world as well as maintaining a database repository on active volcanoes and their eruptions . In this way , a global context for the planet 's active volcanism is presented . Smithsonian reporting on current volcanic activity dates back to 1968 , with the Center for Short-Lived Phenomena ( CSLP ) . The GVP is housed in the Department of Mineral Sciences , part of the National Museum of Natural History , on the National Mall in Washington , D.C. During the early stages of an eruption , the GVP acts as a clearinghouse of reports , data , and imagery which are accumulated from a global network of contributors . The early flow of information is managed such that the right people are contacted as well as helping to sort out vague and contradictory aspects that typically arise during the early days of an eruption . The Weekly Volcanic Activity Report is a cooperative project between the Smithsonian 's Global Volcanism Program and the United States Geological Survey 's Volcano Hazards Program . Notices of volcanic activity posted on the Report website are preliminary and subject to change as events are studied in more detail . Detailed reports on various volcanoes are published monthly in the Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network The GVP also documents the last 10,000 years of Earth 's volcanism . The historic activity can guide perspectives on possible future events and on volcanoes showing activity . GVP 's volcano and eruption databases constitute a foundation for all statistical statements concerning locations , frequencies , and magnitudes of Earth 's volcanic eruptions during the last 10,000 years . Two editions of Volcanoes of the World , a regional directory ... ( 1981 ) and ( 1994 ) were published based on the GVP data and interpretations .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_Volcanism_Program",
"rank": 1,
"score": 102315
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 2,
"score": 93777
},
{
"content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2",
"rank": 3,
"score": 93370
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 4,
"score": 90281
},
{
"content": "Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Stockholm_Memorandum",
"rank": 5,
"score": 90051
},
{
"content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 6,
"score": 88910
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 7,
"score": 85388
},
{
"content": "Title: Science for the contemporary world Content:",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Science_for_the_contemporary_world",
"rank": 8,
"score": 85304
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 9,
"score": 84959
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 10,
"score": 84935
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming taxes Content:",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_warming_taxes",
"rank": 11,
"score": 84414
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ice People Content: The Ice People is a 1998 science fiction novel by Maggie Gee , set in a future world dominated by a new ice age . The novel examines different elements of contemporary society : the fundamental roles and relationships of men and women , sexuality , politics and the issue of global warming . Global warming is the initial context , where increases in temperature are then followed by the cyclic appearance of an ice age . The reaction of society and individuals to these dramatic extremes sites the novel within the genre of dystopian science fiction , but closer to the author 's heart seem to be the changes within such a scenario of issues we face today : the changes in racism as different parts of the planet change in their attractiveness ; the changes in social position as `` Insiders '' and `` Outsiders '' -- the `` haves '' and the `` have-nots '' -- live within differing conditions ; the value , status and interpretation of marriage ; parenthood -- the increasing difficulties in conception and the subsequent single-parenthood versus family issues ; the `` gang '' mentality of men and women ; the way politics is perceived , used and power abused . The Ice People has been compared to George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "The_Ice_People",
"rank": 12,
"score": 83618
},
{
"content": "Title: Holocene Content: The Holocene ( -LSB- pronˈhɒləˌsiːn , _ ˈhoʊ - -RSB- ) is the geological epoch that began after the Pleistocene at approximately 11,700 years before present . The term `` Recent '' ( usually capitalised ) has often been used as an exact synonym of `` Holocene '' , although this usage is discouraged in 21st-century science . The Holocene is part of the Quaternary period . Its name comes from the Ancient Greek words ὅλος ( holos , whole or entire ) and καινός ( kainos , new ) , meaning `` entirely recent '' . It has been identified with the current warm period , known as MIS 1 , and can be considered an interglacial in the current ice age based on that evidence . The Holocene also encompasses the growth and impacts of the human species worldwide , including all its written history , development of major civilizations , and overall significant transition toward urban living in the present . Human impacts on modern-era Earth and its ecosystems may be considered of global significance for future evolution of living species , including approximately synchronous lithospheric evidence , or more recently atmospheric evidence of human impacts . Given these , a new term , Anthropocene , is specifically proposed and used informally only for the very latest part of modern history involving significant human impact .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Holocene",
"rank": 13,
"score": 82436
},
{
"content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming",
"rank": 14,
"score": 81758
},
{
"content": "Title: Geologic Calendar Content: The Geologic Calendar is a scale in which the geological lifetime of the earth is mapped onto a calendrical year ; that is to say , the day one of the earth took place on a geologic January 1 at precisely midnight , and today 's date and time is December 31 at midnight . On this calendar , the inferred appearance of the first living single-celled organisms , prokaryotes , occurred on a geologic February 25 around 12:30 pm to 1:07 pm , dinosaurs first appeared on December 13 , the first flower plants on December 22 and the first primates on December 28 at about 9:43 pm . The first Anatomically modern humans did not arrive until around 11:48 p.m. on New Year 's Eve , and all of human history since the end of the last ice-age occurred in the last 82.2 seconds before midnight of the new year .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Geologic_Calendar",
"rank": 15,
"score": 81434
},
{
"content": "Title: Langhian Content: The Langhian is , in the ICS geologic timescale , an age or stage in the middle Miocene epoch/series . It spans the time between 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma and 13.65 ± 0.05 Ma ( million years ago ) during the Middle Miocene . The Langhian was a continuing warming period defined by Lorenzo Pareto in 1865 , it was originally established in the Langhe area north of Ceva in northern Italy , hence the name . The Langhian is preceded by the Burdigalian and followed by the Serravallian stage .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Langhian",
"rank": 16,
"score": 79487
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 17,
"score": 79004
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Turkey",
"rank": 18,
"score": 78695
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 19,
"score": 78325
},
{
"content": "Title: Adult Contemporary (radio network) Content: Adult Contemporary ( also known as AC ) is a 24-hour music format produced by Dial Global . It targets a general radio audience between the ages of 35-49 with soft rock music from the 1970s to right now . Artists featured on this network are Phil Collins , Maroon 5 , Billy Joel , Rod Stewart , Kelly Clarkson , and many more artists . Jones Radio Networks was recently purchased by Triton Media Group . Although `` AC '' was n't affected by it , the satellite feed was relocated into Dial Global 's portfolio .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Adult_Contemporary_(radio_network)",
"rank": 20,
"score": 78305
},
{
"content": "Title: Global and Planetary Change Content: Global and Planetary Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research into the earth sciences , particularly pertaining to changes in aspects thereof such as sea level and the chemical composition of the atmosphere . It has been published by Elsevier since it was established in 1989 . The editors-in-chief are S.A.P.L. Cloetingh ( Utrecht University ) , T.M. Cronin ( United States Geological Survey ) , K. McGuffie ( University of Technology Sydney ) , and H. Oberhänsli ( Museum für Naturkunde ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 3.155 , ranking it 9th out of 45 journals in the category `` Geography , Physical '' .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_and_Planetary_Change",
"rank": 21,
"score": 78231
},
{
"content": "Title: Ontario Geological Survey Content: The Ontario Geological Survey ( OGS ) is an administrative Branch of the Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines - MNDM . It is responsible for documenting and communicating the geology of Ontario , and manages the Assessment File Research Imaging database , as well as many other geological databases that describe the geology of Ontario . OGS helps people understand how to apply the geological knowledge about Ontario to address a range of public policy issues . The OGS is a public good organization . Its geological survey function is mandated by the Ontario Government . OGS has no regulatory responsibility . Ontario 's geology includes : a ) the rock ( bedrock ) ; b ) the deposits of sand , gravel , and till left by the glaciers ; c ) the mineral resources and potential ; d ) the energy resource potential within the rocks and soils ; and e ) the groundwater aquifers that contain groundwater resources . An understanding of what is at , and below , our feet is fundamental to human existence on the Earth , to understand the environment and habitats , and our ability to adapt to future changes , such as global warming . This geological knowledge is used to assess Earth resource potential , to attract investment , to ensure the health and safety of Ontario people from geo-hazards , and to plan the present and future use of the land . The OGS also collaborates with Ontario 's Aboriginal people to achieve a mutual understanding , mutual respect , and to achieve mutual interests . The OGS is a science-based organization that conducts field studies . To facilitate use of geological information by a range of technical and non-technical users , OGS provides many of Ontario 's key , regional , geological databases for easy viewing on Google Earth , but using the OGSEarth function . Themes include : bedrock geology , surficial geology , mineral resource data , groundwater aquifer data , geophysical and geochemical data , bedrock topography and overburden thickness , plus many more themes . OGS regularly shares information and fosters discussion about Ontario 's geology on its OGS Facebook page and via its OGS Twitter page .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Ontario_Geological_Survey",
"rank": 22,
"score": 78153
},
{
"content": "Title: Context Development Content: Context is a real estate development company focused on high-rise residential developments in downtown Toronto . Founded in 1997 by Stephen Gross and Howard Cohen , Context is known for urban design and contemporary architecture . They have worked with the Toronto architecture firm architectsAlliance on several condominium developments .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Context_Development",
"rank": 23,
"score": 78066
},
{
"content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Interglacial",
"rank": 24,
"score": 77557
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming (Sonny Rollins album) Content: Global Warming is an album by jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins , released on the Milestone label in 1998 , featuring performances by Rollins with Stephen Scott , Bob Cranshaw , Idris Muhammad , Clifton Anderson , Victor See Yuen and Perry Wilson .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_Warming_(Sonny_Rollins_album)",
"rank": 25,
"score": 76829
},
{
"content": "Title: Burdigalian Content: The Burdigalian is , in the geologic timescale , an age or stage in the early Miocene . It spans the time between 20.43 ± 0.05 Ma and 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma ( million years ago ) . Preceded by the Aquitanian , the Burdigalian was the first and longest warming period of the Miocene and is succeeded by the Langhian .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Burdigalian",
"rank": 26,
"score": 76681
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Standard Stratigraphic Age Content: In the stratigraphy sub-discipline of geology , a Global Standard Stratigraphic Age , abbreviated GSSA , is a chronological reference point and criterion in the geologic record used to define the boundaries ( an internationally sanctioned benchmark point ) between different geological periods , epochs or ages on the overall geologic time scale in a chronostratigraphically useful rock layer . A worldwide multidisciplinary effort has been ongoing since 1974 to define such important metrics . The points and strata need be widespread and contain an identifiable sequence of layers or other unambiguous marker ( identifiable or quantifiable ) attributes . GSSAs , and the generally more recent and preferred benchmark GSSPs are defined by the International Commission on Stratigraphy ( ICS ) under the auspices of their parent organization , the International Union of Geological Sciences ( IUGS ) , and are used primarily for time dating of rock layers older than 630 million years ago , lacking a good fossil record . The ICS first attempts to meet the standards of the GSSPs ( see below ) and if those fail , usually have enough information to make a preliminary selection of several competing GSSA prospects or proposals . The geologic record becomes spotty prior to about 542 million years ago . This is because the Earth 's crust in geological time scales is constantly being recycled by tectonic and weathering forces , and older rocks and especially readily accessible exposed strata that can act as a time calibration are rare . For more recent periods , a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point ( GSSP ) , largely based on paleontology and improved methods of fossil dating , is used to define such boundaries . In contrast to GSSAs , GSSPs are based on important events and transitions within a particular stratigraphic section . In older sections , there is insufficient fossil record or well preserved sections to identify the key events necessary for a GSSP , so GSSAs are defined based on fixed dates and selected criteria .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_Standard_Stratigraphic_Age",
"rank": 27,
"score": 76322
},
{
"content": "Title: Contemporary art Content: Contemporary art is the art of today , produced by artists who are living in the twenty-first century . Contemporary art provides an opportunity to reflect on contemporary society and the issues relevant to ourselves , and the world around us . Contemporary artists work in a globally influenced , culturally diverse , and technologically advancing world . Their art is a dynamic combination of materials , methods , concepts , and subjects that challenge traditional boundaries and defy easy definition . Diverse and eclectic , contemporary art as a whole is distinguished by the very lack of a uniform , organizing principle , ideology , or ` ism . ' Contemporary art is part of a cultural dialogue that concerns larger contextual frameworks such as personal and cultural identity , family , community , and nationality . In vernacular English , `` modern '' and `` contemporary '' are synonyms , resulting in some conflation of the terms `` modern art '' and `` contemporary art '' by non-specialists .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Contemporary_art",
"rank": 28,
"score": 76304
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 76231
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 30,
"score": 75937
},
{
"content": "Title: Neogene Content: The Neogene ( -LSB- pronˈniːəˌdʒiːn -RSB- ) is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period Mya . The Neogene is sub-divided into two epochs , the earlier Miocene and the later Pliocene . Some geologists assert that the Neogene can not be clearly delineated from the modern geological period , the Quaternary . During this period , mammals and birds continued to evolve into roughly modern forms , while other groups of life remained relatively unchanged . Early hominids , the ancestors of humans , appeared in Africa near the end of the period . Some continental movement took place , the most significant event being the connection of North and South America at the Isthmus of Panama , late in the Pliocene . This cut off the warm ocean currents from the Pacific to the Atlantic ocean , leaving only the Gulf Stream to transfer heat to the Arctic Ocean . The global climate cooled considerably over the course of the Neogene , culminating in a series of continental glaciations in the Quaternary Period that follows .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Neogene",
"rank": 31,
"score": 75815
},
{
"content": "Title: Flandrian interglacial Content: The Flandrian interglacial or stage is the name given by geologists and archaeologists in the British Isles to the first , and so far only , stage of the Holocene epoch ( the present geological period ) , covering the period from around 12,000 years ago , at the end of the last glacial period to the present day . As such , it is in practice identical in span to the Holocene . Present climatological theory ( based on analysis of Milankovitch cycles ) forecasts that the present Flandrian climate should decline in temperature towards a global climate similar to that of the ice age . Less orbital eccentricity may have the effect of moderating this temperature downturn . The Flandrian began as the relatively short-lived Younger Dryas climate downturn came to an end . This formed the last gasp of the Devensian glaciation , the final stage of the Pleistocene epoch and is traditionally seen as the latest warm interglacial in a series that has been occurring throughout the Quaternary geological period . The first part of the Flandrian , known as the Younger Atlantic , was a period of fairly rapid sea level rise , known as the Flandrian transgression and associated with the melting of the Fenno-Scandian , Scottish , Laurentide and Cordilleran glaciers . Fjords were formed during the Flandrian transgression when U-shaped glaciated valleys were inundated with water .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Flandrian_interglacial",
"rank": 32,
"score": 75664
},
{
"content": "Title: Catastrophism Content: Catastrophism is the theory that the Earth has been affected in the past by sudden , short-lived , violent events , possibly worldwide in scope . This was in contrast to uniformitarianism ( sometimes described as gradualism ) , in which slow incremental changes , such as erosion , created all the Earth 's geological features . Uniformitarianism held that the present is the key to the past , and that all things continued as they were from the indefinite past . Since the early disputes , a more inclusive and integrated view of geologic events has developed , in which the scientific consensus accepts that there were some catastrophic events in the geologic past , but these were explicable as extreme examples of natural processes which can occur . Catastrophism held that geological epochs had ended with violent and sudden natural catastrophes such as great floods and the rapid formation of major mountain chains . Plants and animals living in the parts of the world where such events occurred were killed off , being replaced abruptly by the new forms whose fossils defined the geological strata . Some catastrophists attempted to relate at least one such change to the Biblical account of Noah 's flood . The concept was first popularised by the early 19th-century French scientist Georges Cuvier , who proposed that new life forms had moved in from other areas after local floods , and avoided religious or metaphysical speculation in his scientific writings .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Catastrophism",
"rank": 33,
"score": 75374
},
{
"content": "Title: Raymond A. Price Content: Raymond Alexander Price , ( born March 25 , 1933 ) is an award winning Canadian geologist . He has used his research on the structure and tectonics of North America 's lithosphere to produce extensive geological maps . He has also provided guidance for nuclear fuel waste disposal and reports on the human contribution to Global warming . Price was born in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada . He obtained his BSc in Geology from the University of Manitoba in 1955 . He completed two more degrees in geology at Princeton University ; an A.M. in 1957 and a PhD in 1958 .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Raymond_A._Price",
"rank": 34,
"score": 75254
},
{
"content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Future_of_Earth",
"rank": 35,
"score": 74639
},
{
"content": "Title: World Content: The world is the planet Earth and all life upon it , including human civilization . In a philosophical context , the world is the whole of the physical Universe , or an ontological world . In a theological context , the world is the material or the profane sphere , as opposed to the celestial , spiritual , transcendent or sacred . The `` end of the world '' refers to scenarios of the final end of human history , often in religious contexts . History of the world is commonly understood as spanning the major geopolitical developments of about five millennia , from the first civilizations to the present . In terms such as world religion , world language , world government , and world war , world suggests international or intercontinental scope without necessarily implying participation of the entire world . World population is the sum of all human populations at any time ; similarly , world economy is the sum of the economies of all societies or countries , especially in the context of globalization . Terms like world championship , gross world product , world flags imply the sum or combination of all current-day sovereign states .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "World",
"rank": 36,
"score": 74612
},
{
"content": "Title: Post-contemporary Content: Post-contemporary ( PoCo ) is a forward-looking aesthetic philosophy distinguished by a re-constructive , global , human ethos which posits that the aesthetic experience is universal to humanity , and that this experience can inspire understanding and transformation . It has developed in tandem with new theories of Emergence in Complexity science , as well as advances in Biosemiotics . In art historical terms , `` modern '' and `` contemporary '' arts are limited to their era and are defined by stylistic and philosophical parameters - chief among them , a critique of the classical European tradition and constructive philosophy , and secondly , the Contemporary ethos is characterized by an emphasis on transient or exclusively contemporary issues which reflect the zeitgeist . Following the legacy of Modernism , Post-Modernism and Contemporary art follow the tradition of Deconstruction and questioning , while Post Contemporary emphasizes generating new , constructive hypotheses . However , modeled after the Scientific Method , both modes are inter-dependent as the question | answer can not exist without each other . Thus , Post-Contemporary views the history of the humanities as branching and pluralist , rather than a linear path of development . Consequently , PoCo has chosen a forking path , builds upon knowledge from all eras , and values quality , sublimnity , and empathy above novelty . PoCo emphasizes empathy for all , regardless of race , gender , sexual orientation , or creed . Post-Contemporary as a concept was first described by Italian Poet Primo Levi . ( See Philosophical Overview . ) Though as of yet , the first documented use of the specific term was in 2005 by Abbas Gharib in a conversation with Bahram Shirdel , two architects of Iranian origins , both proficient in western culture and participant in the current debate on . The conversation was published by Sharestan Magazine , 55 . 2007 . The discussion took this definition also to distinguish the third millennium epitomes of creative sectors , by their projection into coming avant-garde configurations , toward future . To day in its own progress , the Post-contemporary concepts , often known simply as Po-co is much better defined .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Post-contemporary",
"rank": 37,
"score": 74526
},
{
"content": "Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Ian_Clark_(geologist)",
"rank": 38,
"score": 74407
},
{
"content": "Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming",
"rank": 39,
"score": 73921
},
{
"content": "Title: Geologic record Content: The geologic record in stratigraphy , paleontology and other natural sciences refers to the entirety of the layers of rock strata -- deposits laid down by volcanism or by deposition of sediment derived from weathering detritus ( clays , sands etc. ) including all its fossil content and the information it yields about the history of the Earth : its past climate , geography , geology and the evolution of life on its surface . According to the law of superposition , sedimentary and volcanic rock layers are deposited on top of each other . They harden over time to become a solidified ( competent ) rock column , that may be intruded by igneous rocks and disrupted by tectonic events .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Geologic_record",
"rank": 40,
"score": 73817
},
{
"content": "Title: The Map that Changed the World Content: The Map that Changed the World is a book by Simon Winchester about English geologist William Smith and his great achievement , the first geological map of England and Wales . Smith 's was the first national-scale geological map , and by far the most accurate of its time . His pivotal insights were that each local sequence of rock strata was a subsequence of a single universal sequence of strata and that these rock strata could be distinguished and traced for great distances by means of embedded fossilized organisms . Winchester 's book narrates the intellectual context of the time , the development of Smith 's ideas and how they contributed to the theory of evolution and more generally to a dawning realisation of the true age of the earth . The book describes the social , economic or industrial context for Smith 's insights and work , such as the importance of coal mining and the transport of coal by means of canals , both of which were a stimulus to the study of geology and the means whereby Smith supported his research . Land owners wished to know if coal might be found on their holdings . Canal planning and construction depended on understanding the rock and soil along its route . Related topics , such as the founding of the Geological Society of London , are included . Smith 's map was published by John Cary , a leading map publisher . Winchester describes the practice of publishing at the time as well as the system of debtor 's prisons through his account of the sojourn of Smith in the King 's Bench Prison .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "The_Map_that_Changed_the_World",
"rank": 41,
"score": 73353
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 42,
"score": 73346
},
{
"content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle",
"rank": 43,
"score": 73235
},
{
"content": "Title: Contemporary society Content: Contemporary society , according to social and political scientists , is characterised by at least three fundamental directions : increasing human interconnection through a network of relationships that is progressively covering the whole planet ; the pace and depth of the evolution of human ways of life determined by technological innovation represent an absolute novelty in human history ; the scale of anthropological and ecological transformation due to the interaction between evolutionary factors ( social , cultural , economic , and technological ) has no historical precedent . These presentations are the result of a number of fundamental changes that are irreversibly transforming our daily lives , our way of thinking and perceiving the world and our way of living together . Among these fundamental changes are : improvements in life conditions , life expectancy , literacy and gender equality ; changes in domestic and international political institutions ; and the breakdown of natural equilibria .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Contemporary_society",
"rank": 44,
"score": 72985
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point Content: A Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point , abbreviated GSSP , is an internationally agreed upon reference point on a stratigraphic section which defines the lower boundary of a stage on the geologic time scale . The effort to define GSSPs is conducted by the International Commission on Stratigraphy , a part of the International Union of Geological Sciences . Most , but not all , GSSPs are based on paleontological changes . Hence GSSPs are usually described in terms of transitions between different faunal stages , though far more faunal stages have been described than GSSPs . The GSSP definition effort commenced in 1977 . As of 2012 , 64 of the 101 stages that need a GSSP have been formally defined .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Section_and_Point",
"rank": 45,
"score": 72802
},
{
"content": "Title: James L. Powell Content: James Lawrence Powell ( born July 17 , 1936 in Berea , Kentucky ) is an American geologist . He was the chairman of the geology department at Oberlin College from 1965 to 1973 , and served as its provost from 1975 to 1981 . From 1983 to 1988 , Powell was the president of Franklin and Marshall College . He served as the president of Reed College from 1988 to 1991 , after which he became the president of the Franklin Institute , and has also served on the National Science Board for 12 years . He was formerly the director of the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History , and is currently the executive director of the National Physical Science Consortium . The minor planet 9739 Powell , discovered by C. S. Shoemaker in 1987 , is named after him . In 2010 , Powell wrote a book entitled Dead Pool , which detailed the history of water supply shortages in the Western United States . In 2012 , Powell conducted a survey of scientific papers regarding the topic of anthropogenic global warming by searching Web of Science for scientific papers published from 1991 to 2012 . He identified 13,950 papers , but only 24 which argued that humans were not the primary cause of global warming . He updated his survey in 2014 to include 2,258 studies published from November 12 , 2012 , to December 21 , 2013 , and identified only one study published during this time that argued that global warming was not caused by human activity . In 2015 , Powell was elected a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "James_L._Powell",
"rank": 46,
"score": 72792
},
{
"content": "Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system",
"rank": 47,
"score": 72618
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Peter_Doran",
"rank": 48,
"score": 72525
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 49,
"score": 72084
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_warming_conspiracy_theory",
"rank": 50,
"score": 71975
},
{
"content": "Title: Keesing's Contemporary Archives Content: Keesing 's Contemporary Archives was a long-running printed summary of world news published from 1931 to 1988 and more recently on the Internet as Keesing 's Record of World Events . Its purpose is to provide a detailed , factual and neutral account of events .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Keesing's_Contemporary_Archives",
"rank": 51,
"score": 71821
},
{
"content": "Title: Contemporary (disambiguation) Content: Contemporary is the historical period that is immediately relevant to the present and is a certain perspective of modern history . Contemporary may also refer to : Contemporary philosophy Contemporary art , post-World War II art Contemporary dance , a modern genre of concert dance Contemporary literature , post-World War II literature Contemporary music , post-World War II music Contemporary ( magazine ) , an art magazine Contemporary Records , a jazz record label",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Contemporary_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 52,
"score": 71708
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science",
"rank": 53,
"score": 71643
},
{
"content": "Title: Geological Museum Content: The Geological Museum ( originally The Museum of Practical Geology , started in 1835 ) is one of the oldest single science museums in the world and now part of the Natural History Museum in London . It transferred from Jermyn Street to Exhibition Road , South Kensington in 1935 in a building designed by Sir Richard Allison and John Hatton Markham of the Office of Works .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Geological_Museum",
"rank": 54,
"score": 71448
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 55,
"score": 70963
},
{
"content": "Title: Merchants of Doubt Content: Merchants of Doubt : How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming is a 2010 non-fiction book by American historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway . It identifies parallels between the global warming controversy and earlier controversies over tobacco smoking , acid rain , DDT , and the hole in the ozone layer . Oreskes and Conway write that in each case `` keeping the controversy alive '' by spreading doubt and confusion after a scientific consensus had been reached , was the basic strategy of those opposing action . In particular , they say that Fred Seitz , Fred Singer , and a few other contrarian scientists joined forces with conservative think tanks and private corporations to challenge the scientific consensus on many contemporary issues . The George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer , two of the subjects , have been critical of the book . Other reviewers have been more favorable . One reviewer said that Merchants of Doubt is exhaustively researched and documented , and may be one of the most important books of 2010 . Another reviewer saw the book as his choice for best science book of the year . It was made into a film , Merchants of Doubt , directed by Robert Kenner , released in 2014 .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Merchants_of_Doubt",
"rank": 56,
"score": 70880
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate",
"rank": 57,
"score": 70712
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 58,
"score": 70709
},
{
"content": "Title: In Our Translated World Content: In Our Translated World : Contemporary Global Tamil Poetry is a bilingual ( Tamil and English ) anthology of Tamil poetry . This collection contains poems by 78 Tamils , of whom 21 are women . The authors are from many countries , including India , Sri Lanka , Malaysia , Singapore , Canada , Australia and Europe . Similarly , their backgrounds and experiences are diverse , described as being `` women and men , young and old , Hindu , Muslim and Christian '' . In a note about the importance of this work , Professor Sascha Ebeling of the Department of South Indian Studies , University of Chicago stated the following : `` Never before has an anthology of Tamil poetry in translation offered such a broad perspective , and no other book to date demonstrates so well the fact that over the past two decades Tamil literature has become a truly global affair . '' . In Our Translated World is the result of a project undertaken by Tamil Literary Garden with funding from Ontario government 's Trillium Foundation and others . It was edited by Chelva Kanaganayakam , professor in the Department of English and the Director for the Centre for South Asian Studies at the University of Toronto . This book was released on 9 March 2014 at the Scarborough Convention Centre .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "In_Our_Translated_World",
"rank": 59,
"score": 70568
},
{
"content": "Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Younger_Dryas",
"rank": 60,
"score": 70371
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Tour Content: The Global Warming Tour was a concert tour by American hard rock band Aerosmith that included 67 concert performances across North America , Oceania , Asia and Latin America . Prior to the first leg of the tour , the band played a private event for Walmart shareholders . The first leg of the tour included 23 performances and lasted from late May through early August 2012 . The second leg included 14 performances in November and December 2012 . Before the second leg of the tour , the band performed a brief set at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in mid September . Also prior to the second leg , to promote the release of their new album in early November , the band made three special nationally-televised performances in New York City and also did a special performance in front of their old Boston apartment . The performances on the first two legs of the tour were held primarily in indoor arenas , with a couple outdoor shows and a few festival dates on the first leg , including three festivals in eastern Canada and Milwaukee 's Summerfest . The third leg of the tour ran from late April to mid May 2013 and saw Aerosmith playing their first shows in Australia since 1990 , as well as their first-ever shows in New Zealand and the Philippines . On May 30 , the band performed as part of the `` Boston Strong '' charity concert for victims of the Boston Marathon bombings . In July 2013 , the band played at the Greenbrier Classic in West Virginia and at Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut . In August 2013 , the band performed four concerts in Japan , but their first-ever shows in China and Taiwan were cancelled due to poor ticket sales . The band also performed in August at the Harley-Davidson 110th anniversary concert series in Milwaukee . Concerts were planned for Latin America in September and October , including their first-ever shows in Uruguay , Guatemala and El Salvador . Cheap Trick was the opening act for all dates in the first two legs except for a few festival shows . The Dead Dasies , a supergroup featuring Jon Stevens and Richard Fortus , were the opening act for the Australia/New Zealand leg . The tour is in promotion of Aerosmith 's new album Music from Another Dimension ! , released on November 6 , 2012 . In addition to many of their biggest hits and a few choice album cuts , the band has so far performed four new songs from Music from Another Dimension on this tour , three of them regularly ( `` Oh Yeah '' , `` Legendary Child '' , and `` Lover Alot '' ) , with the potential for more songs to be played in the 2013 leg . During the South America leg , specifically in Argentina and Brazil , Aerosmith toured with Whitesnake , including performances at the Personal Fest in Buenos Aires and at the Monsters of Rock in São Paulo . On May 5 , 2013 , the band announced they had cancelled their first-ever show in Jakarta due to safety concerns . In 2014 , Aerosmith played 17 concerts across Europe from May 14 to July 2 . A new tour , the Let Rock Rule Tour , was scheduled to follow in July , August , and September 2014 that saw Aerosmith play several dates in North America . This tour featured Slash ( with Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators ) as the opening act . Full details of the tour were announced on April 8 , 2014 . On May 14 , 2014 , the band announced that they had cancelled their concert in Istanbul after Turkey declared a three-day mourning for the victims of Soma mine disaster . July 2 , 2014 concert in Kiev was cancelled due to civil unrest in Ukraine .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Tour",
"rank": 61,
"score": 70217
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoceanography Content: Paleoceanography is the study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past with regard to circulation , chemistry , biology , geology and patterns of sedimentation and biological productivity . Paleoceanographic studies using environment models and different proxies enable the scientific community to assess the role of the oceanic processes in the global climate by the re-construction of past climate at various intervals . Paleoceanographic research is also intimately tied to paleoclimatology .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Paleoceanography",
"rank": 62,
"score": 70212
},
{
"content": "Title: How Global Warming Works Content: How Global Warming Works is a website developed by Michael Ranney , a professor of cognitive psychology at the University of California , Berkeley in Berkeley , California , United States . The stated goal of the website is to educate the public on the mechanisms of global warming , which was motivated by research Ranney and colleagues conducted on attitudes towards and understanding of global warming .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "How_Global_Warming_Works",
"rank": 63,
"score": 70145
},
{
"content": "Title: Barry R. Bickmore Content: Barry Robert Bickmore is a professor in the department of geological sciences at Brigham Young University ( BYU ) . He is also a devout Mormon , having written Restoring the Ancient Church : Joseph Smith and Early Christianity ( Ben Lomond : FAIR , 1999 ) as well as several articles that have been published in the FARMS Review . Bickmore was born in Redwood City , California , and raised in California and Utah . He served as a missionary for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( LDS Church ) in Iowa . He obtained a degree in geology with minors in philosophy and chemistry from BYU . He then received a Ph.D. in geochemistry from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University , where his advisor was Michael F. Hochella . He then was a postdoctoral research assistant at the University of Colorado for about a year and a half prior to joining the BYU faculty in August 2001 . Bickmore , a conservative Republican , is known for his activism in support of global warming , such as when he criticized a proposed bill in Utah that described climate change as a hoax . The bill passed in spite of Bickmore 's efforts to defeat it . Among other callings in the LDS Church , Bickmore has served as a seminary teacher . In geochemistry and related fields , Bickmore has focused on the study of low-temperature geochemical reactions and the development of geoscience curricula as part of the curriculum of elementary education majors .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Barry_R._Bickmore",
"rank": 64,
"score": 70102
},
{
"content": "Title: Geophysical global cooling Content: Before the concept of plate tectonics , global cooling was a geophysical theory by James Dwight Dana , also referred to as the contracting earth theory . It suggested that the Earth had been in a molten state , and features such as mountains formed as it cooled and shrank . As the interior of the Earth cooled and shrank , the rigid crust would have to shrink and crumple . The crumpling could produce features such as mountain ranges .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Geophysical_global_cooling",
"rank": 65,
"score": 70073
},
{
"content": "Title: Modern history Content: Modern history , the modern period or the modern era , is the global historiographical approach to the timeframe after the Post-classical history . Modern history can be further broken down into periods : The early modern period began approximately in the early 16th century ; notable historical milestones included the European Renaissance and the Age of Discovery . The late modern period began approximately in the mid-18th century ; notable historical milestones included the French Revolution , American Revolution , the Industrial Revolution , and the Great Divergence . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; the next billion came just over a century later , in 1927 . Contemporary history is the span of historic events from approximately 1945 that are immediately relevant to the present time .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Modern_history",
"rank": 66,
"score": 69985
},
{
"content": "Title: Geologic temperature record Content: The Geologic temperature record are changes in Earth 's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion ( 109 ) year time scales . The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a crucial component of the climate and oceanography of the time .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Geologic_temperature_record",
"rank": 67,
"score": 69798
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 68,
"score": 69663
},
{
"content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_dimming",
"rank": 69,
"score": 69595
},
{
"content": "Title: Contemporary Latin Content: Contemporary Latin is the form of the Latin language used from the end of the 19th century through to the present . Various kinds of contemporary Latin can be distinguished . On the one hand there is its survival in areas such as taxonomy as the result of the widespread presence of the language in the New Latin era . This is usually found in the form of mere words or phrases used in the general context of other languages . On the other hand , there is the use of Latin as a language in its own right as a full-fledged means of expression . Living or Spoken Latin , being the most specific development of Latin in the contemporary context , is the primary subject of this article .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Contemporary_Latin",
"rank": 70,
"score": 69514
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Policy Foundation Content: The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Policy_Foundation",
"rank": 71,
"score": 69465
},
{
"content": "Title: Hong Kong Global Geopark Content: Hong Kong UNESCO Global Geopark , formerly Hong Kong National Geopark , was inaugurated on 3 November 2009 . It covers an area of 50 km2 across parts of the Eastern and Northeastern New Territories . It includes eight sites ( and combinations of sites ) . On 18 September 2011 , UNESCO listed the Geopark as part of its Global Geoparks Network . The Hong Kong Global Geopark consists of two geological regions : the widely distributed hexagonal rock columns in Sai Kung , which are of international geological significance , and the northeast New Territories region , which comprises sedimentary rocks formed in different geologic periods , showcasing the complete geological history of Hong Kong . The Geopark is made up of eight Geo-Areas distributed across the Sai Kung Volcanic Rock Region and Northeast New Territories Sedimentary Rock Region .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Hong_Kong_Global_Geopark",
"rank": 72,
"score": 69384
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies",
"rank": 73,
"score": 69137
},
{
"content": "Title: Miocene Content: The Miocene ( -LSB- pronˈmaɪəˌsiːn -RSB- ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about ( Ma ) . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell . Its name comes from the Greek words μείων ( meiōn , `` less '' ) and καινός ( kainos , `` new '' ) and means `` less recent '' because it has 18 % fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene . The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch . The earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene , with the climate slowly cooling towards a series of ice ages . The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event but consist rather of regional boundaries between the warmer Oligocene and the cooler Pliocene Epoch . The apes arose and diversified during the Miocene , becoming widespread in the Old World . By the end of this epoch , the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path . As in the Oligocene before it , grasslands continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent . In the Miocene seas , kelp forests made their first appearance and soon became one of Earth 's most productive ecosystems . The plants and animals of the Miocene were fairly modern . Mammals and birds were well-established . Whales , seals , and kelp spread . The Miocene is of particular interest to geologists and palaeoclimatologists as major phases of the Himalayan orogeny had occurred during the Miocene , affecting monsoonal patterns in Asia , which were interlinked with glaciations in the northern hemisphere .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Miocene",
"rank": 74,
"score": 69113
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 75,
"score": 69096
},
{
"content": "Title: Current History Content: Current History is the oldest United States-based publication devoted exclusively to contemporary world affairs . The magazine was founded in 1914 by George Washington Ochs Oakes , brother of New York Times publisher Adolph Ochs , in order to provide detailed coverage of World War I. Current History was published by The New York Times Company from its founding until 1936 . Since 1942 it has been owned by members of the Redmond family ; its current publisher is Daniel Mark Redmond . Current History , based in Philadelphia , maintains no institutional , political , or governmental affiliation . It is published monthly , from September through May . Seven issues each year are devoted to world regions ( China and East Asia , Russia and Eurasia , the Middle East , Latin America , Europe , South Asia , and Africa ) ; one issue covers current global trends ; and one issue addresses a special theme such as climate change or global governance . The magazine has followed this practice of devoting each issue to a single region or theme since 1953 . Each issue includes a chronology of major international events , and most contain a book review section and an article devoted to commentary . Contributors to Current History in the publication 's early years included George Bernard Shaw , Winston Churchill , Charles A. Beard , Allan Nevins , and Henry Steele Commager . More recently , the journal has featured authors such as James Schlesinger , Francis Fukuyama , Jeffrey Sachs , Bruce Riedel , Leslie H. Gelb , Bruce Russett , Elizabeth Economy , Charles Kupchan , Ivo Daalder , Joseph Cirincione , Phebe Marr , Juan Cole , Bruce Gilley , and Marina Ottaway . Shortly after Current History began publishing in 1914 , its editor , Ochs Oakes , decided that a magazine recording `` history in the making '' should maintain as regular contributors a group of historians and social scientists . He enlisted the help of a Harvard historian , Albert Bushnell Hart , in organizing the journal 's initial group of contributing editors . Current Historys board of contributing editors today includes Catherine Boone ( The London School of Economics and Political Science ) ; Bruce Cumings ( University of Chicago ) ; Deborah Davis ( Yale University ) ; David B. H. Denoon ( New York University ) ; Larry Diamond ( Stanford University ) ; Michele Dunne ( Carnegie Endowment for International Peace ) ; Barry Eichengreen ( University of California , Berkeley ) ; C. Christine Fair ( Georgetown University ) ; Sumit Ganguly ( Indiana University ) ; Marshall Goldman ( Wellesley College ) ; G. John Ikenberry ( Princeton University ) ; Michael T. Klare ( Hampshire College ) ; Joshua Kurlantzick ( Council on Foreign Relations ) ; Michael McFaul ( Stanford University , currently on leave ) ; Rajan Menon ( Lehigh University ) ; Augustus Richard Norton ( Boston University ) ; Joseph Nye ( Harvard University ) ; Michael Shifter ( Inter-American Dialogue ) ; Arturo Valenzuela ( Georgetown University , currently on leave ) ; and Jeffrey Wasserstrom ( University of California , Irvine ) . The publication 's editor is Alan Sorensen . The magazine was linked to an international scandal in the run-up to World War II . The New York Times had sold Current History in 1936 to the editor Merle Tracy ; in 1939 it was sold again , to an ownership group that included Joseph Hilton Smyth , who also acquired such magazines as The Living Age and The North American Review . Smyth 's association with Current History ended the same year , but he and two associates , in connection with their publishing activities , were later convicted of acting as agents for the Japanese government without registering with the State Department . Current History addressed this episode in its October 1942 issue , maintaining that Smyth during the months that he held an ownership interest in the publication did not control editorial policies . '' According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 0.127 , ranking it 149th out of 161 journals in the category `` Political Science '' and 82nd out of 85 journals in the category `` International Relations '' .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Current_History",
"rank": 76,
"score": 69085
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical geology Content: Historical geology is a discipline that uses the principles and techniques of geology to reconstruct and understand the geological history of Earth . It focuses on geologic processes that change the Earth 's surface and subsurface ; and the use of stratigraphy , structural geology and paleontology to tell the sequence of these events . It also focuses on the evolution of plants and animals during different time periods in the geological timescale . The discovery of radioactivity and the development of several radiometric dating techniques in the first half of the 20th century provided a means of deriving absolute versus relative ages of geologic history . Economic geology , the search for and extraction of fuel and raw materials , is heavily dependent on an understanding of the geological history of an area . Environmental geology , including most importantly the geologic hazards of earthquakes and volcanism , must also include a detailed knowledge of geologic history .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Historical_geology",
"rank": 77,
"score": 68948
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 78,
"score": 68942
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene Content: The Paleocene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliəˌsiːn , _ ˈpæ - , _ - lioʊ - -RSB- ) or Palaeocene , the `` old recent '' , is a geologic epoch that lasted from about . It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era . As with many geologic periods , the strata that define the epoch 's beginning and end are well identified , but the exact ages remain uncertain . The Paleocene Epoch brackets two major events in Earth 's history . It started with the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous , known as the Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) boundary . This was a time marked by the demise of non-avian dinosaurs , giant marine reptiles and much other fauna and flora . The die-off of the dinosaurs left unfilled ecological niches worldwide . The Paleocene ended with the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , a geologically brief ( ~ 0.2 million year ) interval characterized by extreme changes in climate and carbon cycling . The name `` Paleocene '' comes from Ancient Greek and refers to the `` old ( er ) '' ( παλαιός , palaios ) `` new '' ( καινός , kainos ) fauna that arose during the epoch .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Paleocene",
"rank": 79,
"score": 68923
},
{
"content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm",
"rank": 80,
"score": 68850
},
{
"content": "Title: International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences Content: The International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences ( INHIGEO ) promotes ongoing research into the history of the earth sciences , particularly the history of geology . It has 17 Honorary Senior Members and 265 Members and Associate Members worldwide . INHIGEO has been established by the International Union of Geological Sciences ( IUGS ) and is also affiliated with the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Sciences ( IUHPS ) . The suggestion for the establishment of INHIGEO in 1967 was chiefly due to the ideas and efforts of the distinguished Russian geologist Vladimir Tikhomirov ( 1915-1994 ) from the Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "International_Commission_on_the_History_of_Geological_Sciences",
"rank": 81,
"score": 68830
},
{
"content": "Title: John Phillips (geologist) Content: John Phillips FRS ( 25 December 1800 -- 24 April 1874 ) was an English geologist . In 1841 he published the first global geologic time scale based on the correlation of fossils in rock strata , thereby helping to standardize terminology including the term Mesozoic , which he invented .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "John_Phillips_(geologist)",
"rank": 82,
"score": 68771
},
{
"content": "Title: Contemporary history Content: Contemporary history is a subset of modern history which describes the historical period from approximately 1945 to the present . The term `` contemporary history '' has been in use at least since the early 19th century . Contemporary history is politically dominated by the Cold War ( 1945 -- 91 ) between the United States and Soviet Union whose effects were felt across the world . The confrontation , which was mainly fought through proxy wars and through intervention in the internal politics of smaller nations , ultimately ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact in 1991 , following the Revolutions of 1989 . The latter stages and aftermath of the Cold War enabled the democratisation of much of Europe , Africa , and Latin America . In the Middle East , the period after 1945 was dominated by conflict involving the new state of Israel and the rise of petroleum politics , as well as the growth of Islamism after the 1980s . The first supranational organisations of government , such as the United Nations and European Union , emerged during the period after 1945 , while the European colonial empires in Africa and Asia collapsed , gone by 1975 . Countercultures rose and the sexual revolution transformed social relations in western countries between the 1960s and 1980s , epitomised by the Protests of 1968 . Living standards rose sharply across the developed world because of the post-war economic boom , whereby such major economies as Japan and West Germany emerged . The culture of the United States , especially consumerism , spread widely . By the 1960s , many western countries had begun deindustrializing ; in their place , globalization led to the emergence of new industrial centres , such as Japan , Taiwan and later China , which exported consumer goods to developed countries . Science began transforming after 1945 : spaceflight , nuclear technology , laser and semiconductor technology were developed alongside molecular biology and genetics , particle physics , and the Standard Model of quantum field theory . Meanwhile the first computers were created , followed by the Internet , beginning the Information Age .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Contemporary_history",
"rank": 83,
"score": 68770
},
{
"content": "Title: Contemporary archaeology Content: Contemporary Archaeology is a field of archaeological research that focuses on the most recent ( 20th and 21st century ) past , and also increasingly explores the application of archaeological thinking to the contemporary world . It has also been referred to as the archaeology of the ` contemporary past ' . The use of this term in the United Kingdom is particularly associated with the Contemporary and Historical Archaeology in Theory ( CHAT ) conference group . The field forms part of historical archaeology , or the archaeology of the modern period . Unlike ethnoarchaeology , contemporary archaeology studies the recent and contemporary past in its own right , rather than to develop models that can inform the study of the more distant past . Often informed by anthropological material culture studies , but characterised by putting traditional archaeological methods and practices to new uses , research in this field generally aims to make an archaeological contribution to broader social scientific studies of the contemporary world , focusing especially upon contributing methods of studying material things ( objects , landscapes , buildings , material heritage , etc. ) to sociological , geographical and political studies of the modern world . The field has developed especially in heritage management , for example through English Heritage 's `` Change and Creation '' programme on the landscapes of the later 20th century As such , Contemporary Archaeology aims to explore the characteristics of diverse and rapid change across micro and macro scales by using a range of conventional and experimental Archaeology investigative techniques . Like all archaeological scholarship and practice , Contemporary Archaeology uses both inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning approaches , which can include archaeological modelling . `` Quentin Lewis recognized , contemporary archaeology has a firmer footing in the UK and Europe than it does in North America , or at least it is not an especially recognizable scholarly niche quite yet in the US . The work of scholars in the UK and Europe has turned to some materiality that is admittedly distinctive if not unique , such as the extensive scholarship of the landscapes of 20th century warfare ( for instance , English Heritage 's ambitious Cold War Monuments project , Gabriel Moshenska 's work on British air raid shelters and children 's homefront experiences of World War II , Heinrich Natho 's study of Norwegian World War II coastal defenses , and Alfredo Gonzalez-Ruibal 's analysis of Spanish Civil War Monuments ) ; Laura McAtackney 's work on `` peace walls '' in northern Ireland ; Anna Badcock and Robert Johnston 's study of protest camp sites in Derbyshire ; and contemporary graffiti ( John Schofield has cleverly captivated many journalists and questioned what archaeologists value with his assessment of Sex Pistols graffiti ) . Yet for all these distinctive dimensions of British and European heritage we could certainly point to just as many equally interesting material experiences in every corner of North America . Some of the visibility of contemporary archaeology is inevitably linked to a British and European willingness to conduct material analysis that does not require excavation . Outside North America a vast number of scholars call themselves archaeologists while studying space , the built environment , and a broad range of material things without necessarily wielding a trowel . In the US historical archaeology has fashioned a particularly productive niche by focusing on field excavation and everyday materiality , and much of our training is devoted to field methods and analysis of a distinctive range of commodities like ceramics , glass , and faunal remains that are routinely recovered from excavation contexts on nearly any historic period site '' Despite a history reaching back as far , at least , as William Rathje 's ` garbology ' project , Contemporary Archaeology remains a new sub-discipline within the university . In remaining focused on archaeology 's ability to tell stories that reach beyond official or formal discourse , Contemporary Archaeology has the potential to offer significant political critique .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Contemporary_archaeology",
"rank": 84,
"score": 68452
},
{
"content": "Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Hell_and_High_Water_(book)",
"rank": 85,
"score": 68417
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleogene Content: The Paleogene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliːədʒiːn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈpeɪliːədʒiːn -RSB- also spelled Palaeogene or Palæogene ; informally Lower Tertiary ) is a geologic period and system that spans 43 million years from the end of the Cretaceous Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Neogene Period Mya . It is the beginning of the Cenozoic Era of the present Phanerozoic Eon . The Paleogene is most notable for being the time during which mammals diversified from relatively small , simple forms into a large group of diverse animals in the wake of the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event that ended the preceding Cretaceous Period . This period consists of the Paleocene , Eocene and Oligocene epochs . The end of the Paleocene ( 55.5 / 54.8 Mya ) was marked by the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic , which upset oceanic and atmospheric circulation and led to the extinction of numerous deep-sea benthic foraminifera and on land , a major turnover in mammals . The terms ` Paleogene System ' ( formal ) and ` lower Tertiary System ' ( informal ) are applied to the rocks deposited during the ` Paleogene Period ' . The somewhat confusing terminology seems to be due to attempts to deal with the comparatively fine subdivisions of time possible in the relatively recent geologic past , for which more details are preserved . By dividing the Tertiary Period into two periods instead of directly into five epochs , the periods are more closely comparable to the duration of ` periods ' of the preceding Mesozoic and Paleozoic Eras .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Paleogene",
"rank": 86,
"score": 68297
},
{
"content": "Title: WARM (Foundation) Content: WARM is an international foundation working on the world 's contemporary conflicts , based in Sarajevo , Bosnia .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "WARM_(Foundation)",
"rank": 87,
"score": 68193
},
{
"content": "Title: National Centre for Contemporary Arts Content: The National Center for Contemporary Art ( NCCA ) , Moscow , Russia , is a major museum , exhibition and research organization which primarily aims its efforts at the development of Contemporary Russian Art within the context of the global art process , at the creation and implementation of programs and projects in the sphere of contemporary art , architecture and design both in Russia and beyond its borders . The activity of the Center evolves in close cooperation with artists and independent experts in the sphere of contemporary art , art culture and various organizations , such as museums , research institutions , public organizations , both in Russia , and abroad . The activities of the National Center of Contemporary Art follow several basic lines : popularization and support of Contemporary Russian Art ; various forms of curator work helping realize exhibition and audiovisual projects , installations , performances , hold video and movie presentations , creative sessions ; analytical and information research activity in the sphere of contemporary art ; educational activities -- lectures , seminars , master classes ; work to form the collection of contemporary art , including Russian and foreign art . Today , when the efforts of the previous years are bringing fruit , the National Center for Contemporary Art continues its active work aimed at the development and popularization of the Russian contemporary art and its integration in the global art context . At present NCCA is a network institution with its branches in major cultural centers of Russia , such as St. Petersburg , Nizhny Novgorod , Yekaterinburg and Kaliningrad . The National Center for Contemporary Art works under the auspices and with the constant support of the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation and The Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "National_Centre_for_Contemporary_Arts",
"rank": 88,
"score": 68146
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Geoparks Network Content: The Global Geoparks Network ( GGN ) ( also known as the Global Network of National Geoparks ) is a UNESCO assisted network established in 1998 . Managed under the body 's Ecological and Earth Sciences Division , the GGN seeks the promotion and conservation of the planet 's geological heritage , as well as encourages the sustainable research and development by the concerned communities .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Global_Geoparks_Network",
"rank": 89,
"score": 68124
},
{
"content": "Title: Globalization Content: Globalization ( or globalisation ; see spelling differences ) refers to the free movement of goods , capital , services , people , technology and information . It is the action or procedure of international integration of countries arising from the conversion of world views , products , ideas , and other aspects of culture . Advances in transportation ( such as the steam locomotive , steamship , jet engine , and container ships ) and in telecommunications infrastructure ( including the rise of the telegraph and its modern offspring , the Internet and mobile phones ) have been major factors in globalization , generating further interdependence of economic and cultural activities . Though many scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times , others trace its history long before the European Age of Discovery and voyages to the New World , some even to the third millennium BC . Large-scale globalization began in the 1820s . In the late 19th century and early 20th century , the connectivity of the world 's economies and cultures grew very quickly . The term globalization is recent , only establishing its current meaning in the 1970s . In 2000 , the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) identified four basic aspects of globalization : trade and transactions , capital and investment movements , migration and movement of people , and the dissemination of knowledge . Further , environmental challenges such as global warming , cross-boundary water and air pollution , and overfishing of the ocean are linked with globalization . Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization , economics , socio-cultural resources , and the natural environment . Academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas : economic globalization , cultural globalization , and political globalization . This caused shifts in population for third world countries , it took away their healthy men and unmarried women leaving wives , children , and the elderly to struggle which in return , lowered their health dramatically . The people that had left these countries also soon found out that the factory owners they started working for cut corners and worked the people extra hard , and did not care about health or safety .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Globalization",
"rank": 90,
"score": 67681
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on South Asia Content:",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia",
"rank": 91,
"score": 67334
},
{
"content": "Title: Members of the Global Geoparks Network Content: The UNESCO Global Geoparks Network was established in November 2015 replacing the earlier UNESCO-assisted Global Geoparks Network ( GGN ) which was established in 1998 . The network was set up to conserve earth 's geological heritage , as well as to promote the sustainable research and development by the concerned communities . The GGN membership is formed by national geological parks , or geoparks -- local areas focused on the protection of geological features and heritage . The first batch of members to the GGN were announced during the first International Conference on Geoparks in 2004 . By late 2015 , 120 geoparks from 33 countries had officially become part of the GGN family . There are now GGN member sites situated in 5 of 7 continents and there being none currently in either Antarctica or Australasia . Notably there are currently ( 2015 ) no global geoparks in either the United States or former Soviet Union territory as well as in South Asia , Central America and most parts of Africa ( except Morocco and Canarias ) and Middle East ( except Turkey ) . China is the country with the largest number of global geoparks .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Members_of_the_Global_Geoparks_Network",
"rank": 92,
"score": 67313
},
{
"content": "Title: Geologica Acta Content: Geologica Acta is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research in the Earth sciences . It was established in 2003 as a successor to Acta Geologica Hispanica ( 1966-2002 ) , which was a more locally oriented journal published in Spanish . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2011 impact factor of 1.672 , ranking it 12th out of 46 journals in the category `` Geology '' . The journal is funded by the University of Barcelona , the Institute of Earth Sciences Jaume Almera ( CSIC ) , the Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research ( CSIC ) , the Autonomous University of Barcelona , and the Institut Geològic de Catalunya . It receives additional financial support from the publications department of the Spanish National Research Council ( CSIC ) .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Geologica_Acta",
"rank": 93,
"score": 67263
},
{
"content": "Title: Heshigten Global Geopark Content: Heshigten Global Geopark ( , kè shí kè téng shì jiè dì zhì gōng yuán ) is a UNESCO Global Geopark in Hexigten Banner , Chifeng city , Inner Mongolia , China . Its 1,750 km2 area is contained in eight separate areas of scenic beauty and geologic significance , including volcanic , glacial , and desert features . The park was designated a National Geopark of China by the Ministry of Land and Resources on December 10 , 2001 , and as a World Geopark by UNESCO on February 11 , 2005 .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Heshigten_Global_Geopark",
"rank": 94,
"score": 67221
},
{
"content": "Title: Acrocercops geologica Content: Acrocercops geologica is a moth of the Gracillariidae family , known from Sri Lanka . It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1908 .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Acrocercops_geologica",
"rank": 95,
"score": 66993
},
{
"content": "Title: Contemporary architecture Content: Contemporary architecture is the architecture of the 21st century . No single style is dominant ; contemporary architects are working in a dozen different styles , from postmodernism and high-tech architecture to highly conceptual and expressive styles , resembling sculpture on an enormous scale . The different styles and approaches have in common the use of very advanced technology and modern building materials , such as Tube structure which allows construction of the buildings that are taller , lighter and stronger than those in the 20th century , and the use of new techniques of computer-aided design , which allow buildings to be designed and modeled on computers in three dimensions , and constructed with more precision and speed . Contemporary buildings are designed to be noticed and to astonish . Some feature concrete structures wrapped in glass or aluminum screens , very asymmetric facades , and cantilevered sections which hang over the street . Skyscrapers twist , or break into crystal-like facets . Facades are designed to shimmer or change color at different times of day . Whereas the major monuments of modern architecture in the 20th century were mostly concentrated in the United States and western Europe , contemporary architecture is global ; important new buildings have been built in China , Russia , Latin America , and particularly in the Gulf States of the Middle East ; the Burj Khalifa in Dubai was the tallest building in the world in 2016 , and the Shanghai Tower in China was the second-tallest . Most of the landmarks of contemporary architecture are the works of a small group of architects who work on an international scale . Many were designed by architects already famous in the late 20th century , including Mario Botta , Frank Gehry , Jean Nouvel , Norman Foster , Ieoh Ming Pei and Renzo Piano , while others are the work of a new generation born during or after World war II , including Zaha Hadid , Santiago Calatrava , Daniel Libeskind , Jacques Herzog , Pierre de Meuron , Rem Koolhaas , and Shigeru Ban . Other projects are the work of collectives of several architects , such as UNStudio and SANAA , or giant multinational agencies such as Skidmore , Owings & Merrill , with thirty associate architects and large teams of engineers and designers , and Gensler , with 5,000 employees in 16 countries .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Contemporary_architecture",
"rank": 96,
"score": 66922
},
{
"content": "Title: Geological history of Earth Content: The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth 's past based on the geologic time scale , a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet 's rock layers ( stratigraphy ) . Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula , a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun , which also created the rest of the Solar System . Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies . Eventually , the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere . The Moon formed soon afterwards , possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth . Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere . Condensing water vapor , augmented by ice delivered from comets , produced the oceans . As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years , continents formed and broke apart . They migrated across the surface , occasionally combining to form a supercontinent . Roughly , the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia , began to break apart . The continents later recombined to form Pannotia , , then finally Pangaea , which broke apart . The present pattern of ice ages began about , then intensified at the end of the Pliocene . The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw , repeating every 40,000 -- 100,000 years . The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Geological_history_of_Earth",
"rank": 97,
"score": 66824
},
{
"content": "Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Taken_by_Storm",
"rank": 98,
"score": 66627
},
{
"content": "Title: Rhyacian Content: The Rhyacian Period ( -LSB- pronraɪˈeɪsiən -RSB- Ρυαξ ( rhyax ) , meaning `` stream of lava '' ) is the second geologic period in the Paleoproterozoic Era and lasted from Mya to Mya ( million years ago ) . Instead of being based on stratigraphy , these dates are defined chronometrically . The Bushveld Igneous Complex and other similar intrusions formed during this period . The Huronian ( Makganyene ) global glaciation began at the start of the Rhyacian lasted 100 million years . The first known eukaryotes began to evolve in the Rhyacian period . The multicellular Francevillian Group Fossils , at 2.1-Gyr are from the Rhyacian period . For the time period from 2250 Ma to 2060 Ma , an alternative period based on stratigraphy rather than chronometry , named either the Jatulian or the Eukaryian , was suggested in the geological timescale review 2012 edited by Gradstein et al. , but , this has not yet been officially adopted by the IUGS . The term Jatulian is , however , used in the regional stratigraphy of the Paleoproterozoic rocks of Fennoscandia .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Rhyacian",
"rank": 99,
"score": 66609
},
{
"content": "Title: Period (geology) Content: A geologic period is one of several subdivisions of geologic time enabling cross-referencing of rocks and geologic events from place to place . These periods form elements of a hierarchy of divisions into which geologists have split the Earth 's history . Eons and eras are larger subdivisions than periods while periods themselves may be divided into epochs and ages . The rocks formed during a period belong to a stratigraphic unit called a system .",
"qid": "157",
"docid": "Period_(geology)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 66581
}
] |
Extreme melting and changes to the climate like this has released pressure on to the continent, allowing the ground to rise up. | [
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 1,
"score": 153138
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 2,
"score": 143840
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Arctic_dipole_anomaly",
"rank": 3,
"score": 130511
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 4,
"score": 127787
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 5,
"score": 126880
},
{
"content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "LOWERN",
"rank": 6,
"score": 125868
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment",
"rank": 7,
"score": 123931
},
{
"content": "Title: Pressure melting point Content: The pressure melting point is the temperature at which ice melts at a given pressure . The pressure melting point is a constant 0 ° C at pressures above the triple point at 611.7 Pa , where water can exist in only the solid or liquid phases , through atmospheric pressure ( 100 kPa ) until about 10 MPa . With increasing pressure above 10 MPa , the pressure melting point decreases to a minimum of − 21.9 ° C at 209.9 MPa . Thereafter , the pressure melting point rises rapidly with pressure , passing back through 0 ° C at 632.4 MPa .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Pressure_melting_point",
"rank": 8,
"score": 120776
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon–Glatzel equation Content: The Simon -- Glatzel equation is an empirical correlation describing the pressure dependence of the melting temperature of a solid . The pressure dependence of the melting temperature is small for small pressure changes because the volume change during fusion or melting is rather small . However , at very high pressures higher melting temperatures are generally observed as the liquid usually occupies a larger volume than the solid making melting more thermodynamically unfavorable at elevated pressure . If the liquid has a smaller volume than the solid ( as for ice and liquid water ) a higher pressure leads to a lower melting point .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Simon–Glatzel_equation",
"rank": 9,
"score": 120622
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica",
"rank": 10,
"score": 119199
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 11,
"score": 118827
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback",
"rank": 12,
"score": 116797
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 13,
"score": 113787
},
{
"content": "Title: Melting point Content: The melting point ( or , rarely , liquefaction point ) of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure . At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium . The melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure . When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid , it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point . Because of the ability of some substances to supercool , the freezing point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance . When the `` characteristic freezing point '' of a substance is determined , in fact the actual methodology is almost always `` the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice '' , that is , the melting point .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Melting_point",
"rank": 14,
"score": 111540
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 15,
"score": 109081
},
{
"content": "Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Zero-curtain_effect",
"rank": 16,
"score": 108733
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 17,
"score": 107151
},
{
"content": "Title: Voeykov axis Content: Voeykov axis ( or Voeikov axis ) is the axial portion ( ridge ) of a high atmospheric pressure band stretching across Eurasia roughly along the 50th parallel . It was named in honor of Alexander Voeykov , a climatologist , who studied this phenomenon . The formation if the Voeykov axis is due to the continental climate in the hinterland of Eurasia . In winter , the territory of Mongolia and Siberia experience strong cooling . This leads to the formation of stable high atmospheric pressure , known as the Siberian anticyclone . The huge size of the continent , and also the relief of the earth 's surface contributes to the ride formation . In Tuva , Mongolia and to the north are vast basins and valleys , surrounded by high mountain ranges . In winter , they cool air and stagnation occurs , that favors the growth of atmospheric pressure . On the territory of Mongolia and southern Siberia the high-pressure region diverges in two spurs in two directions - to the north and west . To the north , extends the East Siberian anticyclone . It involves a clear , quiet and extreme freezing weather , which is set in the winter in the vast eastern Siberia . West departs Voeykov axis , which can be traced on the territory of Kazakhstan and in the south of the East European Plain . It extends approximately along the line Kyzyl - Uralsk - Saratov - Kharkiv - Chisinau . To the west of Moldova , it continues , gradually weakening , down to the South of France , where there is already an action of another center of high pressure - Azores anticyclone . Winter in Eurasia the Voeнkov axis plays an important climate role as a major winds separator . In winter , the north of the axis is dominated by western and south-westerly winds . In the north of the East European Plain effect Voeнkov axis emphasizes the Icelandic Low . Their proximity enhances here westerly transport carrying wet and relatively warm air masses . To the south of the axis Voeikov blow northeasterly and easterly winds . They are cold and dry continental air of temperate latitudes of the Siberian High . In summer , high pressure over the maximum Mongolia disappears . This Voeнkov axis is stored in a weakened state , but loses its value vetrorazdelnoe . During this period it is no longer supported by the Siberian anticyclone , and the Azores anticyclone , from which the east moving anticyclones .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Voeykov_axis",
"rank": 18,
"score": 106820
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet",
"rank": 19,
"score": 106716
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Polar_High",
"rank": 20,
"score": 106604
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_of_Antarctica",
"rank": 21,
"score": 106542
},
{
"content": "Title: Virga Content: __ NOTOC __ In meteorology , virga is an observable fall streaks or shaft of precipitation falling from a cloud but evaporates or sublimates before reaching the ground . A shaft of precipitation which does n't evaporate before reaching the ground is a precipitation shaft . At high altitudes the precipitation falls mainly as ice crystals before melting and finally evaporating ; this is often due to compressional heating , because the air pressure increases closer to the ground . It is very common in the desert and in temperate climates . In North America , it is commonly seen in the Western United States and the Canadian Prairies . It is also very common in the Middle East , Australia and North Africa . Virga can cause varying weather effects , because as rain is changed from liquid to vapor form , it removes heat from the air due to the high heat of vaporization of water . Precipitation falling into these cooling down drafts may eventually reach the ground . In some instances , these pockets of colder air can descend rapidly , creating a wet or dry microburst which can be extremely hazardous to aviation . Conversely , precipitation evaporating at high altitude can compressionally heat as it falls , and result in a gusty downburst which may substantially and rapidly warm the surface temperature . This fairly rare phenomenon , a heat burst , also tends to be of exceedingly dry air . Virga also has a role in seeding storm cells whereby small particles from one cloud are blown into neighboring supersaturated air and act as nucleation particles for the next thunderhead cloud to begin forming . The word is derived from Latin virga meaning `` twig '' or `` branch '' .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Virga",
"rank": 22,
"score": 105194
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 23,
"score": 104810
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 24,
"score": 104670
},
{
"content": "Title: Cryoseism Content: A cryoseism , also known as an ice quake or a frost quake , is a seismic event that may be caused by a sudden cracking action in frozen soil or rock saturated with water or ice . As water drains into the ground , it may eventually freeze and expand under colder temperatures , putting stress on its surroundings . This stress builds up until relieved explosively in the form of a cryoseism . Another type of cryoseism is a non-tectonic seismic event caused by sudden glacial movements . This movement has been attributed to a veneer of water which may pool underneath a glacier sourced from surface ice melt . Hydraulic pressure of the liquid can act as a lubricant , allowing the glacier to suddenly shift position . This type of cryoseism can be very brief , or may last for several minutes . The requirements for a cryoseism to occur are numerous ; therefore , accurate predictions are not entirely possible and may constitute a factor in structural design and engineering when constructing in an area historically known for such events . Speculation has been made between global warming and the frequency of cryoseisms .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Cryoseism",
"rank": 25,
"score": 103956
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 26,
"score": 103953
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "2013_extreme_weather_events",
"rank": 27,
"score": 103657
},
{
"content": "Title: Subsidence (atmosphere) Content: Subsidence in the Earth 's atmosphere is most commonly caused by low temperatures : as air cools , it becomes denser and moves towards the ground , just as warm air becomes less dense and moves upwards . Cool subsiding air is subject to adiabatic warming which tends to cause the evaporation of any clouds that might be present . Subsidence generally causes high barometric pressure as more air moves into the same space : the polar highs are areas of almost constant subsidence , as are the horse latitudes , and these areas of subsidence are the sources of much of the world 's prevailing wind . Subsidence also causes many smaller-scale weather phenomena , such as morning fog . An extreme form of subsidence is a downburst , which can result in damage similar to that produced by a tornado . A milder form of subsidence is referred to as downdraft . Category : Atmosphere Category : Basic meteorological concepts and phenomena",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Subsidence_(atmosphere)",
"rank": 28,
"score": 103593
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 29,
"score": 103474
},
{
"content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm",
"rank": 30,
"score": 102560
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 31,
"score": 102477
},
{
"content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Glacier_mass_balance",
"rank": 32,
"score": 102199
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 33,
"score": 101845
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater Content: Meltwater is water released by the melting of snow or ice , including glacial ice , tabular icebergs and ice shelves over oceans . Meltwater is often found in the ablation zone of glaciers , where the rate of snow cover is reducing . Meltwater can be produced during volcanic eruptions , in a similar way in which the more dangerous lahars form . When meltwater pools on the surface rather than flowing , it forms melt ponds . As the weather gets colder meltwater will often re-freeze . Meltwater can collect or melt under the ice 's surface . These pools of water , known as subglacial lakes can form due to geothermal heat and friction .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Meltwater",
"rank": 34,
"score": 100687
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 35,
"score": 100622
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 36,
"score": 100264
},
{
"content": "Title: Melting Content: Melting , or fusion , is a physical process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a solid to a liquid . This occurs when the internal energy of the solid increases , typically by the application of heat or pressure , which increases the substance 's temperature to the melting point . At the melting point , the ordering of ions or molecules in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state , and the solid melts to become a liquid . Substances in the molten state generally have reduced viscosity as the temperature increases . An exception to this principle is the element sulfur , whose viscosity increases to a point due to polymerization and then decreases with higher temperatures in its molten state . Some organic compounds melt through mesophases , states of partial order between solid and liquid .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Melting",
"rank": 37,
"score": 99886
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 38,
"score": 99842
},
{
"content": "Title: Metamorphism Content: Metamorphism is the change of minerals or geologic texture ( distinct arrangement of minerals ) in pre-existing rocks ( protoliths ) , without the protolith melting into liquid magma ( a solid-state change ) . The change occurs primarily due to heat , pressure , and the introduction of chemically active fluids . The chemical components and crystal structures of the minerals making up the rock may change even though the rock remains a solid . Changes at or just beneath Earth 's surface due to weathering and/or diagenesis are not classified as metamorphism . Metamorphism typically occurs between diagenesis ( max . 200 ° C ) , and melting ( ~ 850 ° C ) . Three types of metamorphism exist : contact , dynamic , and regional . Metamorphism produced with increasing pressure and temperature conditions is known as prograde metamorphism . Conversely , decreasing temperatures and pressure characterize retrograde metamorphism .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Metamorphism",
"rank": 39,
"score": 99722
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A",
"rank": 40,
"score": 99677
},
{
"content": "Title: Cryosuction Content: Cryosuction is concept of negative pressure in freezing soil resulting from transformation of liquid water to ice in the soil pores whereby water migrates through soil pores to the freezing zone ( through capillary action ) . Fine-grained soils such as clays and silts enables greater negative pressures than more coarse-grained soils due to the smaller pore size . In periglacial environments , this mechanism is highly significant and it is the predominant process in ice lens formation in permafrost areas . Several models for ice-lens formation by cryosuction exist , among others the Hydrodynamic model and the Pre-melting model , many of them based on the Clausius -- Clapeyron relation with various assumptions , yielding cryosuction potentials of 11 to 12 atm per degree Celsius below zero depending on pore size .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Cryosuction",
"rank": 41,
"score": 99227
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Paleoflooding",
"rank": 42,
"score": 98737
},
{
"content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation",
"rank": 43,
"score": 98495
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Thermal_low",
"rank": 44,
"score": 98153
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_system",
"rank": 45,
"score": 97752
},
{
"content": "Title: Retrogradation Content: Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common : during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets . with extremely low sediment input .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Retrogradation",
"rank": 46,
"score": 97336
},
{
"content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis",
"rank": 47,
"score": 97240
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme weather events of 535–536 Content: The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the most severe and protracted short-term episodes of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2000 years . The event is thought to have been caused by an extensive atmospheric dust veil , possibly resulting from a large volcanic eruption in the tropics , or debris from space impacting the Earth . Its effects were widespread , causing unseasonal weather , crop failures and famines worldwide .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Extreme_weather_events_of_535–536",
"rank": 48,
"score": 97058
},
{
"content": "Title: Freshet Content: The term freshet is most commonly used to describe a spring thaw resulting from snow and ice melt in rivers located in the northern latitudes of North America . A spring freshet can sometimes last several weeks on large river systems , resulting in significant inundation of flood plains as the snowpack melts in the river 's catchment area . Freshets occur with generally diminishing strength and duration depending upon the snowpacks having large accumulations and then the local average rates of warming temperatures ; late spring melts allowing faster flooding from the relatively longer days and higher solar angle against more southerly latitudes and elevations reaching average melting temperatures sooner where earlier and generally lesser seasonal snow piles melt more gradually spread over a longer melt period . Serious flooding from southern freshets are more often related to rain storms of large tropical weather systems rolling in from the South Atlantic or Gulf of Mexico , to add their powerful heating capacity to lesser snow packs . Tropically induced rainfall influenced quick melts can also affect snow cover to latitudes as far north as southern Canada , so long as the generally colder air mass is not blocking northward movement of low pressure systems . In the eastern part of the continent , annual freshets occur from the Canadian Taiga ranging along both sides of the Great Lakes then down through the heavily forested Appalachian mountain chain and St. Lawrence valley from Northern Maine into barrier ranges in North Carolina and Tennessee . In the western part of the continent , freshets occur throughout the generally much higher elevations of the various west coast mountain ranges that extend southward down from Alaska even into the northern parts of Arizona and New Mexico . The term can also refer to the following : A flood resulting from heavy rain or a spring thaw . Whereas heavy rain often causes a flash flood , a spring thaw event is generally a more incremental process , depending upon local climate and topography . A stream , river or flood of fresh water which empties into the ocean , usually flowing through an estuary . A small stream of fresh water , irrespective of its outflow . A pool of fresh water , according to Samuel Johnson and followed in Thomas Sheridan 's dictionary , but this might have been a misinterpretation on Johnson 's part , and it is at best not a common usage .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Freshet",
"rank": 49,
"score": 96915
},
{
"content": "Title: Enthalpy of fusion Content: The enthalpy of fusion of a substance , also known as ( latent ) heat of fusion , is the change in its enthalpy resulting from providing energy , typically heat , to a specific quantity of the substance to change its state from a solid to a liquid at constant pressure . This energy includes the contribution required to make room for any associated change in volume by displacing its environment against ambient pressure . The temperature at which the phase transition occurs is the melting point . By convention , the pressure is assumed to be 1 atm unless otherwise specified . The ` enthalpy ' of fusion is a latent heat , because during melting the introduction of heat can not be observed as a temperature change , as the temperature remains constant during the process . The latent heat of fusion is the enthalpy change of any amount of substance when it melts . When the heat of fusion is referenced to a unit of mass , it is usually called the specific heat of fusion , while the molar heat of fusion refers to the enthalpy change per amount of substance in moles . The liquid phase has a higher internal energy than the solid phase . This means energy must be supplied to a solid in order to melt it and energy is released from a liquid when it freezes , because the molecules in the liquid experience weaker intermolecular forces and so have a higher potential energy ( a kind of bond-dissociation energy for intermolecular forces ) . When liquid water is cooled , its temperature falls steadily until it drops just below the line of freezing point at 0 ° C . The temperature then remains constant at the freezing point while the water crystallizes . Once the water is completely frozen , its temperature continues to fall . The enthalpy of fusion is almost always a positive quantity ; helium is the only known exception . Helium-3 has a negative enthalpy of fusion at temperatures below 0.3 K. Helium-4 also has a very slightly negative enthalpy of fusion below 0.77 K . This means that , at appropriate constant pressures , these substances freeze with the addition of heat . In the case of 4He , this pressure range is between 24.992 and 25.00 atm . These values are mostly from the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics , 62nd edition . The conversion between cal/g and J/g in the above table uses the thermochemical calorie ( calth ) = 4.184 joules rather than the International Steam Table calorie ( calINT ) = 4.1868 joules .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Enthalpy_of_fusion",
"rank": 50,
"score": 96883
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia",
"rank": 51,
"score": 96804
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 52,
"score": 96683
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 53,
"score": 96452
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-pressure area Content: A low-pressure area , low , or depression is a region where the topographic map is atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations . Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of meteorology , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas . The first area is on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere ) . A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which are of smaller wavelength . Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity . Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large-scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations . Low-pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well-hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during November . Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises , although the low-pressure area typically brings cloudy skies , which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure , the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Globally , low-pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( particularly in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low-pressure weather systems are typically known as `` depressions '' .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Low-pressure_area",
"rank": 54,
"score": 96214
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Arctic_resources_race",
"rank": 55,
"score": 95894
},
{
"content": "Title: Underplating Content: Underplating is the accumulation of partial melts at the base of the crust where an ocean plate is subducting under continental crust . Underplating is the result of partial melts being produced in the mantle wedge above a subducting plate . The partial melting is induced by a lowering of the melting temperature , the solidus , by the input of water and other volatiles supplied by phase transitions in the subducting slab . When the buoyant partial melt rises upwards through the mantle , it will usually stall at the base of the crust and pond there . This is because the crust is usually less dense than the underplating magma , and this is the point at which the ascending magma reaches a level of neutral buoyancy . The evolving melt will remain here until it fractionates enough ( through MASH processes ) that the remaining melt is less dense than the surrounding rock ; the melt will then continue up into the crust , leaving behind the heavier mafic minerals which were crystallized during fractional crystallization . The assemblage of minerals remaining behind are typically mafic or ultramafic , and are responsible for the observed seismic anomaly which indicates underplated material .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Underplating",
"rank": 56,
"score": 95697
},
{
"content": "Title: Rear-inflow jet Content: The rear-inflow jet is a component of bow echoes in a mesoscale convective system that aids in creating a stronger cold pool and downdraft . The jet forms as a response to a convective circulation having upshear tilt and horizontal pressure gradients . The cold pool that comes from the outflow of a storm forms an area of high pressure at the surface . In response to the surface high and warmer temperatures aloft due to convection , a mid-level mesolow forms behind the leading edge of the storm . With a mid-level area of low pressure , air is drawn in under the trailing stratiform region of precipitation . As air is drawn in on the rear side of the storm , it begins to descend as it approaches the front line of the cells . Before the reaching the leading edge , the jet dives heads to the ground as a strong downdraft , creating straight-line winds . Any mature mesoscale convective system is capable of developing its own rear-inflow jet , but questions remain as to what influences the strength of the jet . While the diabatic effects of sublimation , melting and evaporation play a role in influencing jet strength , these effects do not account for cases with strong rear-inflow jets . However , the diabatic effects are responsible for the jet subsiding behind the leading edge of the MCS . The sinking of the jet first starts when the mid level inflow goes under the trailing stratiform cloud before descending to the melting layer . There are other factors that contribute to the strength of any rear inflow jet . The strength of a rear inflow jet can be greatly increased with induced vortices at the end of the line , called `` line-end vortices '' or `` book-end vortices . '' These vortices at either end of the line will help reinforce the rear inflow towards the center of the line . The other factor that can help strengthen the jet is an environment in which the large scale flow is feeding/forcing mid-level air into the rear end of the storm .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Rear-inflow_jet",
"rank": 57,
"score": 95352
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Imbrian Content: In the Lunar geologic timescale , the Late Imbrian epoch occurred between 3800 million years ago to about 3200 million years ago . It was the epoch during which the mantle below the lunar basins partially melted and filled them with basalt . The melting is thought to have occurred because the impacts of the Early Imbrian thinned the overlying rock - either causing the mantle to rise because of the reduced pressure on it , bringing molten material closer to the surface ; or the top melting as heat flowed upwards through the mantle because of reduced overlying thermal insulation . The majority of lunar samples returned to earth for study come from this epoch . The Earth equivalent consists of half of the Archean eon . Category : Lunar geologic periods",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Late_Imbrian",
"rank": 58,
"score": 94910
},
{
"content": "Title: Regelation Content: Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing again when the pressure is reduced . Many sources state that regelation can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of ice , with a heavy weight attached to it . The pressure exerted on the ice slowly melts it locally , permitting the wire to pass through the entire block . The wire 's track will refill as soon as pressure is relieved , so the ice block will remain solid even after wire passes completely through . This experiment is possible for ice at − 10 ° C or cooler , and while essentially valid , the details of the process by which the wire passes through the ice are complex . The phenomenon works best with high thermal conductivity materials such as copper , since latent heat of fusion from the top side needs to be transferred to the lower side to supply latent heat of melting . If 1 mm diameter wire is used , over an ice cube 50 mm wide , the area the force is exerted on is 50 mm2 . This is 50 × 10 − 6 m2 . Force ( in newtons ) equals pressure ( in pascals ) multiplied by area ( in square metres ) . If at least 500 atm ( 50 MPa ) is required to melt the ice , a force of ( 50 × 106 Pa ) ( 50 × 10 − 6 m2 ) = 2500 N is required , a force roughly equal to the weight of 250 kg on Earth . Regelation was discovered by Michael Faraday . Regelation occurs only for substances , such as ice , that have the property of expanding upon freezing , for the melting points of those substances decrease with increasing external pressure . The melting point of ice falls by 0.0072 ° C for each additional atm of pressure applied . For example , a pressure of 500 atmospheres is needed for ice to melt at − 4 ° C.",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Regelation",
"rank": 59,
"score": 94894
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline",
"rank": 60,
"score": 94817
},
{
"content": "Title: Electromechanical disintegration Content: Electromechanical disintegration is a process in geomorphology in which lightning interacts in erosion and weathering . An excellent example of this phenomenon is fracturing in the quartz formations of the Espinaςo mountains of Brazil . For many years , itinerant miners in these mountains have reported the appearance of broken boulders and fissures along the ground after lightning storms . The Espinaςo Range represents a typical site for orographic thunderstorms , which develop from the ascent of air along mountain ranges . These storms have the highest rate of lightning occurrence and are therefore useful for studying the effects of such atmospheric discharges . These discharges have peculiar features : velocities of 160000 m/s and plasma temperatures of 30000 ° C are achieved in nanoseconds in lightning channels . Evidences of the effect of lightning on rock are the presence of beta-quartz ( T > 573 ° C , called `` flashstones '' by local diggers ) , melted barbed wires ( T > 1500 ° C ) ; furrows in soils and colluvium up to 120 m long with the presence of cristobalite , the high-temperature modification of quartz ( 1713 - ) . In permeable Precambrian quartzites , the instantaneous shock rise of temperature from 15 to , or higher , results in an extremely severe explosion-like expansion of water , leading to the formation of fissures and widening of other systems . The evidence points to lightning action , since quartz can change its modification from α to β and back again without cracking , as long as the temperature change is less than 1 C-change per minute . For this reason , cracks caused by solar radiation or fire can be ruled out . An enormous pressure of about 35.00 bar can be estimated by the presence of coesite relicts , the rare high-pressure polymorph of quartz . This lightning-induced weathering is one of the more important starting mechanisms for other weathering processes . Because of the increase in surface area , chemical weathering can attack each newly made fragment from all sides and can go deeper into bedrock as new cracks are formed or older ones extended . Thus , electromechanical disintegration is a new term for a type of weathering as old as the planet 's lithosphere , and it represents an important exogenic process for the beginning of erosion and the formation of soils .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Electromechanical_disintegration",
"rank": 61,
"score": 94804
},
{
"content": "Title: Permafrost Content: In geology , permafrost is ground , including rock or ( cryotic ) soil , at or below the freezing point of water 0 C for two or more years . Most permafrost is located in high latitudes ( in and around the Arctic and Antarctic regions ) , but alpine permafrost may exist at high altitudes in much lower latitudes . Ground ice is not always present , as may be in the case of nonporous bedrock , but it frequently occurs and it may be in amounts exceeding the potential hydraulic saturation of the ground material . Permafrost accounts for 0.022 % of total water on earth and exists in 24 % of exposed land in the Northern Hemisphere . It also occurs subsea on the continental shelves of the continents surrounding the Arctic Ocean , portions of which were exposed during the last glacial period , with global weather implications . A global temperature rise of 1.5 C-change above current levels would be enough to start the thawing of permafrost in Siberia , according to one group of scientists .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Permafrost",
"rank": 62,
"score": 94749
},
{
"content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1B",
"rank": 63,
"score": 94656
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations",
"rank": 64,
"score": 94416
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Asia Content: The Climate of Asia is wet across southeast sections , and dry across much of the interior . Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia . The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections , due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer . Southwestern sections of the continent experience low relief as a result of the subtropical high pressure belt ; they are hot in the summer , warm to cool in winter , and may snow at higher altitudes . Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere , and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America . The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan , and the phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation modulates where in Asia landfall is more likely to occur ,",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_of_Asia",
"rank": 65,
"score": 94052
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 66,
"score": 93402
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Marine_transgression",
"rank": 67,
"score": 93132
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 68,
"score": 92586
},
{
"content": "Title: Chasing Ice Content: Chasing Ice is a 2012 documentary film about the efforts of nature photographer James Balog and his Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) to publicize the effects of climate change , directed by Jeff Orlowski . It was released in the United States on November 16 , 2012 . The documentary includes scenes from a glacier calving event that took place at Jakobshavn Glacier in Greenland , lasting 75 minutes , the longest such event ever captured on film . Two EIS videographers waited several weeks in a small tent overlooking the glacier , and were finally able to witness 7.4 km3 of ice crashing off the glacier . `` The calving of a massive glacier believed to have produced the ice that sank the Titanic is like watching a city break apart . ''",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Chasing_Ice",
"rank": 69,
"score": 92507
},
{
"content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Deglaciation",
"rank": 70,
"score": 92441
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 71,
"score": 92182
},
{
"content": "Title: Stamukha Content: A stamukha ( plural : stamukhi ) is a grounded accumulation of sea ice rubble that typically develops along the boundary between fast ice and the drifting pack ice , or becomes incorporated into the fast ice . It is a pressure ridge . Wind , currents and tides contribute to this phenomenon . Stamukhi tend to occur in belts that are parallel to the shoreline , along coastal shoals , at water depths of about 20 m ( 65 ft ) , but that can reach 50 m ( 160 ft ) . They can build up to heights 10 m or more above the waterline . Although they remain pinned to the seabed , these features can be subject to small displacements , either due to thermal expansion or to the pressure exerted by the drifting pack ice onto the fast ice . Because stamukhi tend to be deeply grounded , they may occur as isolated ice features in the open sea during the summer season , after the surrounding ice has melted away . Since stamukhi extend downward into the seabed , they present a risk to submarine pipelines and telecommunications cables that cross the shoreline . Seabed penetration by the ice can reach a depth of 5 m.",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Stamukha",
"rank": 72,
"score": 92093
},
{
"content": "Title: Vertical draft Content: An updraft is a small‐scale current of rising air , often within a cloud . Localized regions of warm or cool air will exhibit vertical movement . A mass of warm air will typically be less dense than the surrounding region , and so will rise until it reaches the air is either warmer or less dense than itself . The converse will occur for a mass of cool air , and is known as subsidence . This movement of large volumes of air , especially when regions of hot , wet air rise , can create large clouds , and is the central source of thunderstorms . Drafts can also be conceived by low or high pressure regions . A low pressure region will attract air from the surrounding area , which will move towards the center and then rise , creating an updraft . A high pressure region will then attract air from the surrounding area , which will move towards the center and sink , spawning a downdraft . Updrafts and downdrafts , along with wind shear in general , are a major contributor to airplane crashes during takeoff and landing in a thunderstorm . Extreme cases , known as downbursts and microbursts can be deadly and difficult to predict or observe . The crash of Delta Air Lines Flight 191 on its final approach before landing at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport in 1985 was presumably caused by a microburst , and prompted the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) to research and deploy new storm detection radar stations at some of the major airports , notably the ones in the South , Midwest , and Northeast United States where wind shear affects air safety . Downbursts can cause extensive localized damage , similar to that caused by tornadoes . Downburst damage can be differentiated from that of a tornado because the resulting destruction is circular and radiates away from the center . Tornado damage radiates inward , towards the center of the damage . The term downdraft can also refer to a type of backdraft which occurs through chimneys which have fireplaces on the lowermost levels ( such as basements ) of multi-level buildings . It involves cold air coming down the chimney due to low air pressure , and makes it hard to light fires , and can push soot and carbon monoxide into domiciles .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Vertical_draft",
"rank": 73,
"score": 91933
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 74,
"score": 91837
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 75,
"score": 91745
},
{
"content": "Title: Premelting Content: Premelting ( also surface melting ) describes the fact that , even below its melting point , quasi-liquid films can be observed on crystalline surfaces . The thickness of the film is temperature dependent . This effect is common for all crystalline materials . Premelting shows its effects in e.g. frost heave , the growth of snowflakes and , taking grain boundary interfaces into account , maybe even in the movement of glaciers . Considering a solid-vapour interface , complete and incomplete premelting can be distinguished . During a temperature rise from below to above , in the case of complete premelting , the solid melts homogeneously from the outside to the inside ; in the case of incomplete premelting , the liquid film stays very thin during the beginning of the melting process , but droplets start to form on the interface . In either case , the solid always melts from the outside inwards , never from the inside .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Premelting",
"rank": 76,
"score": 91552
},
{
"content": "Title: Pressure system Content: A pressure system is a relative peak or lull in the sea level pressure distribution . The surface pressure at sea level varies minimally , with the lowest value measured 87 kPa and the highest recorded 108.57 kPa . High - and low-pressure systems evolve due to interactions of temperature differentials in the atmosphere , temperature differences between the atmosphere and water within oceans and lakes , the influence of upper-level disturbances , as well as the amount of solar heating or radiationized cooling an area receives . Pressure systems cause weather to be experienced locally . Low-pressure systems are associated with clouds and precipitation that minimize temperature changes throughout the day , whereas high-pressure systems normally associate with dry weather and mostly clear skies with larger diurnal temperature changes due to greater radiation at night and greater sunshine during the day . Pressure systems are analyzed by those in the field of meteorology within surface weather maps .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Pressure_system",
"rank": 77,
"score": 91071
},
{
"content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850",
"rank": 78,
"score": 90920
},
{
"content": "Title: Subglacial volcano Content: A subglacial volcano , also known as a glaciovolcano , is a volcanic form produced by subglacial eruptions or eruptions beneath the surface of a glacier or ice sheet which is then melted into a lake by the rising lava . Today they are most common in Iceland and Antarctica ; older formations of this type are found also in British Columbia and Yukon Territory , Canada . During the eruption , the heat of the lava from the subglacial volcano melts the overlying ice . The water quickly cools the lava , resulting in pillow lava shapes similar to those of underwater volcanoes . When the pillow lavas break off and roll down the volcano slopes , pillow breccia , tuff breccia , and hyaloclastite form . The meltwater may be released from below the ice as happened in Iceland in 1996 when the Grímsvötn caldera erupted , melting 3 km3 of ice and giving rise to a large glacial lake outburst flood . The shape of subglacial volcanoes tends to be quite characteristic and unusual , with a flattened top and steep sides supported against collapse by the pressure of the surrounding ice and meltwater . If the volcano eventually melts completely through the ice layer , then horizontal lava flows are deposited , and the top of the volcano assumes a nearly level form . However , if significant amounts of lava are later erupted subaerially , then the volcano may assume a more conventional shape . In Canada the volcanos have been known to form both conical and nearly level shapes . The more distinctly flat-topped , steep-sided subglacial volcanoes are called tuyas , named after Tuya Butte in northern British Columbia by Canadian geologist Bill Mathews in 1947 . In Iceland , such volcanoes are also known as table mountains .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Subglacial_volcano",
"rank": 79,
"score": 90907
},
{
"content": "Title: Melting (EP) Content: Melting is the second EP by South Korean singer Hyuna , released on October 21 , 2012 . It features the number one single , `` Ice Cream '' . The release date was originally scheduled for October 22 , 2012 but due to a leak it was digitally released a day earlier by Cube Entertainment .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Melting_(EP)",
"rank": 80,
"score": 90746
},
{
"content": "Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "John_H._Mercer",
"rank": 81,
"score": 90737
},
{
"content": "Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Heard_Island_glaciers",
"rank": 82,
"score": 90622
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of the Alps Content: The climate of the Alps is the climate , or average weather conditions over a long period of time , of the exact middle Alpine region of Europe . As air rises from sea level to the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases . The effect of mountain topography on prevailing winds is to force warm air from the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat , often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow , rain or hail . The position of the Alps in the central European continent profoundly affects the climate of all the surrounding regions . The accumulation of vast masses of snow , which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers , maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges ; it cools breezes that waft to the plains on either side , but its most important function is to regulate the water supply of the large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps . Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during fall , winter , and spring is stored in the form of snow and gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer ; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams . Nor is this all ; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia , and afford an inexhaustible supply of water , which , from a remote period , has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility . Six regions or zones , which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation , are found in the Alps . It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above sea level . Local conditions of exposure to the Sun , protection from cold winds , or the reverse , are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_of_the_Alps",
"rank": 83,
"score": 90141
},
{
"content": "Title: Early 2012 European cold wave Content: The Early 2012 European cold wave was a deadly cold wave that started on January 27 , 2012 and brought snow and freezing temperatures to much of the European continent . There were more than 824 reported deaths . Particularly low temperatures hit several Eastern and Northern European countries , reaching as low as -42.7 C in Finland . The heaviest snow was recorded in the Balkan region . The cold weather was a result of an extensive area of very high pressure located in over the north east of the continent in northern Russia , which circulated cold air from the east .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Early_2012_European_cold_wave",
"rank": 84,
"score": 90072
},
{
"content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Abrupt_climate_change",
"rank": 85,
"score": 89258
},
{
"content": "Title: European windstorm Content: European windstorm is a name given to the strongest extratropical cyclones which occur across the continent of Europe . They form as cyclonic windstorms associated with areas of low atmospheric pressure . They are most common in the autumn and winter months . On average , the month when most windstorms form is January . The seasonal average is 4.6 windstorms . Deep low pressure areas are relatively common over the North Atlantic , sometimes starting as nor'easter s off the New England coast , and frequently track across the North Atlantic Ocean towards western Europe , past the north coast of Britain and Ireland and into the Norwegian Sea . However , when they track further south they can affect almost any country in Europe . Commonly affected countries include the United Kingdom , Ireland , the Netherlands , Norway , the Faroe Islands and Iceland , but any country in Central Europe , Northern Europe and especially Western Europe is occasionally struck by such a storm system . The strong wind phenomena intrinsic to European windstorms , that give rise to `` damage footprints '' at the surface , can be placed into three categories , namely the `` warm jet '' , the `` cold jet '' and the `` sting jet '' . These phenomena vary in terms of physical mechanisms , atmospheric structure , spatial extent , duration , severity level , predictability , and location relative to cyclone and fronts . On average these storms cause economic damage $ 1.9 billion per year , and insurance losses of $ 1.4 billion per year ( 1990 -- 1998 ) . They rank as the second highest cause of global natural catastrophe insurance loss ( after U.S. hurricanes ) .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "European_windstorm",
"rank": 86,
"score": 88835
},
{
"content": "Title: Iron catastrophe Content: The iron catastrophe was a postulated major event early in the history of Earth . The original accretion of the Earth 's material into a spherical mass is thought to have resulted in a relatively uniform composition . While residual heat from the collision of the material that formed the Earth was significant , heating from radioactive materials in this mass gradually increased the temperature until a critical condition was reached . As material became molten enough to allow movement , the denser iron and nickel , evenly distributed throughout the mass , began to migrate to the center of the planet to form the core . The gravitational potential energy released by the sinking of the dense NiFe globules , along with any cooler , denser solid material , is thought to have been a runaway process , increasing the temperature of the protoplanet above the melting point of most components , resulting in the rapid formation of a molten iron core covered by a deep global silicate magma . This event , an important process of planetary differentiation , occurred at about 500 million years into the formation of the planet .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Iron_catastrophe",
"rank": 87,
"score": 88472
},
{
"content": "Title: Gulf of Maine Closed Areas Content: The Gulf of Maine has been fished since the 1700s , and has been a historic fishing area since . Climate change is having significant impacts on this ecosystem ; between 2004 and 2013 , the Gulf of Maine has warmed faster than 99.9 % of the global oceans , increasing average temperature by 2 ° C. Having seen the depletion of groundfish stocks starting in the early 1990s , managers took care to create five closure areas in the Gulf of Maine . These closed areas do not prohibit all fishing , rather they prevent the further degradation of benthic habitat and groundfish species . Closed areas are different than Marine Protected Areas ( MPA ) because they allow some forms of fishing and other activities to occur that would normally not be allowed in MPA .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Gulf_of_Maine_Closed_Areas",
"rank": 88,
"score": 88421
},
{
"content": "Title: Ground pressure Content: Ground pressure is the pressure exerted on the ground by the tires or tracks of a motorized vehicle , and is one measure of its potential mobility , especially over soft ground . It also applies to the feet of a walking person or machine . Ground pressure is measured in pascals ( Pa ) which corresponds to the United States customary units unit of pounds per square inch ( psi ) . Average ground pressure can be calculated using the standard formula for average pressure : P = F/A . In an idealized case , i.e. a static , uniform net force normal to level ground , this is simply the object 's weight divided by contact area . The ground pressure of motorized vehicles is often compared to the ground pressure of a human foot , which can be 60 - 80 kPa while walking or as much as 13 MPa for a person in spike heels . Increasing the size of the contact area on the ground ( the footprint ) in relation to the weight decreases the ground pressure . Ground pressure of 14 kPa ( 2 psi ) or less is recommended for fragile ecosystems like marshes . Decreasing the ground pressure increases the flotation , allowing easier passage of the body over soft terrain . This is often observed in activities like snowshoeing .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Ground_pressure",
"rank": 89,
"score": 88123
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth potential rise Content: In electrical engineering , earth potential rise ( EPR ) also called ground potential rise ( GPR ) occurs when a large current flows to earth through an earth grid impedance . The potential relative to a distant point on the Earth is highest at the point where current enters the ground , and declines with distance from the source . Ground potential rise is a concern in the design of electrical substations because the high potential may be a hazard to people or equipment . The change of voltage over distance ( potential gradient ) may be so high that a person could be injured due to the voltage developed between two feet , or between the ground on which the person is standing and a metal object . Any conducting object connected to the substation earth ground , such as telephone wires , rails , fences , or metallic piping , may also be energized at the ground potential in the substation . This transferred potential is a hazard to people and equipment outside the substation .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Earth_potential_rise",
"rank": 90,
"score": 88005
},
{
"content": "Title: February 1987 nor'easter Content: The February 1987 nor'easter was a significant winter storm in the US that impacted the Mid-Atlantic States around the end of the month . It delivered 8 -- 12 hours of heavy , wet snowfall to several states from West Virginia to New York between February 22 and February 24 . The storm was both preceded and followed by relatively warm temperatures , causing the snow to rapidly melt . The mild conditions were the result of a moderate anticyclone over the region that deteriorated as the nor'easter approached . Cold air damming likely took place prior to the storm 's formation . The nor'easter evolved from a complex series of low pressure areas . Eventually , the multiple center consolidated and a primary cyclone took hold along the Carolina coast . This low rapidly strengthened as it tracked northeastward . Upon reaching the Maryland coast , it turned more towards the east and intensified further to attain a minimum barometric pressure of 964 millibars by 1800 UTC on February 23 . The heaviest precipitation , occasionally accompanied by thunder and lightning , along with gusty winds , occurred between 0000 UTC and 1800 UTC . Snowfall accumulations exceeding 10 in were reported in eastern West Virginia , northern Virginia , north-central Maryland , northern Delaware , southern Pennsylvania , central and southern New Jersey , and Long Island . Most of the interior Northeast was spared a substantial impact from the storm . However , lighter totals extended as far north as central Massachusetts . The weight of the wet snow caused extensive damage to trees and power lines , and hundreds of thousands were reportedly left without power . At Washington , D.C. , 11 in of snow fell , having widespread effects . Limited states of emergency were declared in certain areas . MV Balsa 24 , a 345 ft long freighter , was lost February 25 , 1987 after it capsized in the storm . 18 sailors were killed and there was 1 survivor , who was rescued by the nuclear submarine USS Scamp ( SSN-588 ) . Fishing vessel Delores Marie was also lost , killing 3 .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "February_1987_nor'easter",
"rank": 91,
"score": 87841
},
{
"content": "Title: Meteorological disasters Content: Meteorological disasters are caused by extreme weather , e.g. rain , drought , snow , extreme heat or cold , ice , or wind . Violent , sudden and destructive change to the environment related to , produced by , or affecting the earth 's atmosphere , especially the weather-forming processes . Examples of weather disasters include blizzard , cyclones , droughts , hailstorms , heat waves , hurricanes , floods ( caused by rain ) , and tornadoes .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Meteorological_disasters",
"rank": 92,
"score": 87695
},
{
"content": "Title: Melt pond Content: Melt ponds are pools of open water that form on sea ice in the warmer months of spring and summer . The ponds are also found on glacial ice and ice shelves . Ponds of melted water can also develop under the ice . Melt ponds are usually darker than the surrounding ice , and their distribution and size is highly variable . They absorb solar radiation rather than reflecting it as ice does and , thereby , have a significant influence on Earth 's radiation balance . This differential , which had not been scientifically investigated until recently , has a large effect on the rate of ice melting and the extent of ice cover . Melt ponds can melt through to the ocean 's surface . Seawater entering the pond increases the melt rate because the salty water of the ocean is warmer than the fresh water of the pond . The increase in salinity also depresses the water 's freezing point . Water from melt ponds over land surface can run into crevasses or moulins -- tubes leading under ice sheets or glaciers -- turning into meltwater . The water may reach the underlying rock . The effect is an increase in the rate of ice flow to the oceans , as the fluid behaves like a lubricant in the basal sliding of glaciers .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Melt_pond",
"rank": 93,
"score": 87656
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 94,
"score": 87482
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme Ice Survey Content: The Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) , based in Boulder , Colorado , uses time-lapse photography , conventional photography and video to document the effects of global warming on glacial ice . It is the most wide-ranging glacier study ever conducted using ground-based , real-time photography . Starting in 2007 the EIS team installed as many as 43 time-lapse cameras at a time at 18 glaciers in Greenland , Iceland , Alaska , Canada , the Nepalese Himalaya ( where cameras were installed at Mount Everest in 2010 ) , and the Rocky Mountains of the U.S. . The cameras shoot year-round , every half hour of daylight . The team supplements the time-lapse record by occasionally repeating shots at fixed locations in Iceland , Bolivia , the Canadian province of British Columbia and the French and Swiss Alps . Collected images are being used for scientific evidence and as part of a global outreach campaign aimed at educating the public about the effects of climate change . EIS imagery has appeared in time-lapse videos displayed in the terminal at Denver International Airport ; in media productions such as the 2009 NOVA Extreme Ice documentary on PBS ; and is the focus of the feature-length film Chasing Ice , directed by Jeff Orlowski , which premiered at the Sundance film festival in Utah on January 23 , 2012 . Major findings were published in 2012 in Ice : Portraits of the World 's Vanishing Glaciers by James Balog ( Rizzoli Publishing ) .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Extreme_Ice_Survey",
"rank": 95,
"score": 87076
},
{
"content": "Title: Weathering Content: Weathering is the breaking down of rocks , soil , and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth 's atmosphere , waters , and biological organisms . Weathering occurs in situ ( on site ) , that is , in the same place , with little or no movement , and thus should not be confused with erosion , which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water , ice , snow , wind , waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations . Two important classifications of weathering processes exist -- physical and chemical weathering ; each sometimes involves a biological component . Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric conditions , such as heat , water , ice and pressure . The second classification , chemical weathering , involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known as biological weathering in the breakdown of rocks , soils and minerals . While physical weathering is accentuated in very cold or very dry environments , chemical reactions are most intense where the climate is wet and hot . However , both types of weathering occur together , and each tends to accelerate the other . For example , physical abrasion ( rubbing together ) decreases the size of particles and therefore increases their surface area , making them more susceptible to rapid chemical reactions . The various agents act in concert to convert primary minerals ( feldspars and micas ) to secondary minerals ( clays and carbonates ) and release plant nutrient elements in soluble forms . The materials left over after the rock breaks down combined with organic material creates soil . The mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent material ; thus , a soil derived from a single rock type can often be deficient in one or more minerals needed for good fertility , while a soil weathered from a mix of rock types ( as in glacial , aeolian or alluvial sediments ) often makes more fertile soil . In addition , many of Earth 's landforms and landscapes are the result of weathering processes combined with erosion and re-deposition .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Weathering",
"rank": 96,
"score": 87017
},
{
"content": "Title: Continental rise Content: The continental rise is an underwater feature found between the continental slope and the abyssal plain . This feature can be found all around the world , and it represents the final stage in the boundary between continents and the deepest part of the ocean . The environment in the continental rise is quite unique , and many oceanographers study it extensively in the hopes of learning more about the ocean and geologic history . At the bottom of the continental slope , one will find the continental rise , an underwater hill composed of tons of accumulated sediments . The general slope of the continental rise is between 0.5 degrees and 1.0 degrees . Deposition of sediments at the mouth of submarine canyons may form enormous fan-shaped accumulations called submarine fans . Submarine fans form part of the continental rise . Beyond the continental rise stretches the abyssal plain , an extremely deep and flat area of the sea floor . The abyssal plain hosts many unique life forms which are uniquely adapted to survival in its cold , high pressure , and dark conditions . The flatness of the abyssal plain is interrupted by massive underwater mountain chains near the tectonic boundaries of the Earth 's plates.The sediments are mostly sand and pieces of coral or rock . Category : Oceanography",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Continental_rise",
"rank": 97,
"score": 86734
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of the United States Content: The climate of the United States varies due to differences in latitude , and a range of geographic features , including mountains and deserts . West of the 100th meridian , much of the US is semi-arid to desert in the far southwestern US , and Mediterranean along the California coast . East of the 100th meridian , the climate is humid continental in the northern areas east through New England , to humid subtropical in the Gulf and South Atlantic regions . Southern Florida is tropical , as is Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands . Higher-elevation areas of the Rocky Mountains , the Wasatch , Sierra Nevada , and Cascade Range are alpine . The West Coast areas in coastal Oregon and Washington are oceanic climate . The state of Alaska , on the northwestern corner of the North American continent , is largely subarctic climate , but with a subpolar oceanic climate in the southeast ( Alaska Panhandle ) , southwestern peninsula and Aleutian Islands . The primary drivers of weather in the contiguous United States are the seasonal change in the solar angle , the migration north/south of the subtropical highs , and the seasonal change in the position of the polar jet stream . In the Northern Hemisphere summer the Subtropical high pressure systems move northward and closer to the United States mainland . In the Atlantic Ocean , the `` Bermuda High '' creates a south-southwest flow of warm , humid air over the eastern , southern and central United States - resulting in warm to hot temperatures , high humidity and occasional thunderstorm activity . In the Pacific Ocean high pressure builds toward the California coast resulting in a northwesterly airflow creating the typical sunny , dry , and stable weather conditions along the West Coast . In the Northern Hemisphere winter , the subtropical highs retreat southward . The polar jet stream ( and associated conflict zone between cold , dry air masses from Canada and warm , moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico ) drops further southward into the United States - bringing more precipitation and periods of disturbed weather , as well as colder or mild air masses . Areas in the southern US ( Florida , the Gulf Coast , the Desert Southwest , and southern California ) however , often have more stable weather , as the polar jet stream 's impact does not usually reach that far south . Weather systems , be they high-pressure systems ( anticyclones ) , low-pressure systems ( cyclones ) or fronts ( boundaries between air masses of differing temperature , humidity and most commonly , both ) are faster-moving and more intense in the winter/colder months than in the summer/warmer months , when the belt of lows and storms generally move into southern Canada . The Gulf of Alaska is the origination area of many storms that enter the United States . Such `` North Pacific lows '' enter the US through the Pacific Northwest , then move eastward across the northern Rocky Mountains , northern Great Plains , upper Midwest , Great Lakes and New England states . Across the central states from late fall to spring , `` Panhandle hook '' storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma/Texas panhandle areas , then northeast toward the Great Lakes . They generate unusually large temperature contrasts , and often bring heavy Gulf moisture northward , resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly-heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track , and warm conditions , heavy rains and potentially-severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously . Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward , `` Alberta clipper '' storms track east and bring light to moderate snowfalls from the Great Lakes to New England , and often , windy and severe Arctic outbreaks behind them . When winter-season Canadian cold air masses drop unusually far southward , `` Gulf lows '' can develop in or near the Gulf of Mexico , then track eastward or northeastward across the Southern states , or nearby Gulf or South Atlantic waters . They often bring rain , but on rare occasions can bring ice to areas of the interior southern states . In the cold season ( generally November to March ) , most precipitation occurs in conjunction with organized low-pressure systems and associated fronts . In the summer , storms are much more localized , with short-duration thunderstorms common in many areas east of the 100th meridian . In the warm season , storm systems affecting a large area are less frequent , and weather conditions are more solar -LCB- sun -RCB- controlled , with the greatest chance for thunderstorm and severe weather activity during peak heating hours , mostly between 3 PM and 9 PM local time . From May to August especially , often-overnight mesoscale-convective-system ( MCS ) thunderstorm complexes , usually associated with frontal activity , can deliver significant to flooding rainfall amounts from the Dakotas/Nebraska eastward across Iowa/Minnesota to the Great Lakes states . From late summer into fall ( mostly August to October ) , tropical cyclones sometimes approach or cross the Gulf and Atlantic states , bringing high winds , heavy rainfall , and storm surges ( often topped with battering waves ) to coastal areas .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Climate_of_the_United_States",
"rank": 98,
"score": 86711
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Ice_cap_climate",
"rank": 99,
"score": 86602
},
{
"content": "Title: Melt-Freeze Crust Content: A Melt-Freeze Crust or Rain Crust is a discontinuity between snow layers which can lead to avalanches . The layer can be created in two ways : A temperature high enough to allow surface snow to melt , creating a layer of melt water which may later re-freeze . Rain falling and freezing on the surface of existing snow , also creating a frozen layer . This layer is brittle , smooth and slippery , and does not bond with snow layers above it , allowing the overlying slab of snow to move down the mountain under gravity when disturbed or if the accumulated snowfall exceeds a critical mass . The initial slab may be as large as 10,000 m ² and 10 metres thick .",
"qid": "161",
"docid": "Melt-Freeze_Crust",
"rank": 100,
"score": 86420
}
] |
We’ve contacted them to ask more details about the size of the Sif. | [
{
"content": "Title: Source Input Format Content: Source Input Format ( SIF ) defined in MPEG-1 , is a video format that was developed to allow the storage and transmission of digital video . 625/50 SIF format ( PAL/SECAM ) has a resolution of ( 360 or ) 352 x 288 active pixels and a refresh rate of 25 frames per second . 525/59 .94 SIF Format ( NTSC ) has a resolution of ( 360 or ) 352 x 240 active pixels and a refresh rate of 29.97 frames per second . When compared to the CCIR 601 specifications , which defines the appropriate parameters for digital encoding of TV signals , SIF can be seen as being reduced by half in all of height , width , frame-rate , and chrominance . SIF video is known as a constrained parameters bitstream . The computer industry has defined square-pixel SIF to be 320 x 240 ( QVGA ) or 384 x 288 active pixels with a refresh rate of whatever the computer is capable of supporting .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Source_Input_Format",
"rank": 1,
"score": 101210
},
{
"content": "Title: Sif Mons Content: Sif Mons is a shield volcano in Eistla Regio on Venus . It has a diameter of 300 km and a height of 2.0 km . It is named after the Norse goddess Sif . Category : Volcanoes of Venus Category : Shield volcanoes",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sif_Mons",
"rank": 2,
"score": 94048
},
{
"content": "Title: Hard-clad silica optical fiber Content: Hard-clad silica ( HCS ) or polymer-clad fiber ( PCF ) is an optical fiber with a core of silica glass ( diameter : 200 µm ) and an optical cladding made of special plastic ( diameter : 230 µm ) . In contrast to all-silica fiber , the core and cladding can be separated from each other . Due to their medium bandwidths and transmission rates of less than 100 MBit/s , HCS fibers are suitable for distances of up to 2 km , e.g. in local networks in buildings and industry . Generally , the following applies : The higher the attenuation , the shorter the distance . For comparison , plastic optical fibers ( POF ) have low bandwidths and transmission rates ( typically 100 MBit/s ) . They also have a high attenuation and therefore , the maximum distance is around 100 meters . Glass fibers on the other hand have very high bandwidths and transmission rates of up to GBit/s . The attenuation in glass fibres is much lower , glass fibers can cover distances of more than 10 km . Regarding bandwidth and distances , HCS fibers are situated between POF and multimode or singlemode fibers .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Hard-clad_silica_optical_fiber",
"rank": 3,
"score": 92557
},
{
"content": "Title: Jabhatul Islamiya Content: Jabhatul Islamiya ( JABISO ) also known as the Somali Islamic Front ( SIF ) was an Islamist insurgent group in Somalia . The group participated in the 2006-2009 insurgency against Ethiopia and in January 2009 merged with the Asmara based wing of the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia , led by Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys , the Ras Kamboni Brigade , led by Sheikh Hassan Abdullah Hersi al-Turki and a smaller group Mu'askar Anole to form Hizbul Islam which became the second most powerful insurgent group ( after al-Shabaab ) in Somalia which continued fighting the TFG and AMISOM peacekeepers , after Ethiopian withdrawal . On 19 January 2009 , Jabhatul Islamiya fought a battle over the police headquarters of Mogadishu 's Dharkinley district with the Somali government which killed at least 2 people . Jabhatul Islamiya had seized the police station a week earlier but was overpowered and forced to withdraw . Later in the day however they received re-enforcements and managed to re-take control over the police station .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Jabhatul_Islamiya",
"rank": 4,
"score": 89134
},
{
"content": "Title: Central European Institute of Philosophy Content: The Central European Institute of Philosophy ( SIF ; Středoevropský Institut Filosofie Mitteleuropäisches Institut für Philosophie ) established in 2010 , is a joint institution of the Charles University Faculty of Humanities and the Czech Republic Academy of Sciences ' Institute of Philosophy . The SIF seeks to follow in the footsteps of Prague 's `` Cercle philosophique , '' which was established by Czech and German professors from the University of Prague in 1934 , but soon disbanded with the German occupation of Czechoslovakia . The Institute promotes philosophical research -- with an emphasis on the phenomenological as well as on trans / interdisciplinary . The Czech Republic , with its tradition of a rather unusual symbiotic alliance of Czech , Jewish , and German intellectuals is an ideal location for the SIF . The country has already birth to various influential movements : The Prague Circle literary school ( Franz Kafka , Max Brod , Felix Weltsch , Franz Werfel , Oscar Baum ) , in art Czech cubism and surrealism along with other disciplines such as empirical criticism ( Ernst Mach ) , phenomenology ( Edmund Husserl ) , and psychoanalysis ( Sigmund Freud ) . As one of its primary objectives , the SIF seeks to map the rich potential of the varied cultural and ethnic influences that shape the present day Czech state . This mapping enables a hypothesis as to the reciprocal influences of not only other European traditions but also non-European and the consequences these might hold for the present and the future . In keeping with this multi-cultural tradition , two directors guide the SIF : a Czech , Karel Novotny and a German , Hans Rainer Sepp . The Institute is composed of a staff of permanent and external members and is also supported by an international scholarly board of 36 professors or institutions representing twenty countries . All strive in close association so that SIF may bring together thinkers and scholars working in a wide range of disciplines concerned with the study of philosophical , historical , critical , and theoretical issues . In addition , SIF also is the home of the book series `` Orbis Phaenomenologicus , '' founded in 1993 and published by Königshausen & Neumann , Würzburg , Germany , as well as the newly established series `` libri nigri . Thinking Across Boundaries '' and `` libri virides . The Young Forum , '' published by Traugott Bautz , Nordhausen , Germany . A research project entitled `` Philosophical Investigations of Body Experiences : Trans-disciplinary Perspectives '' is currently underway at the SIF . In addition to its ongoing research projects , the SIF offers specialized advanced courses in conjunction with the EU Master Program `` German and French Philosophy in the European Context . '' The Institute also organizes and hosts international conferences and is very active in facilitating the publication of established and young scholars alike . To date the SIF has organized three international conferences and edited ten book publications . All of these activities attest to SIF 's commitment to providing a place of intellectual exchange , dialogue , and debate as scholars re-think the methodology and assumptions of their respective disciplines in light of the cultural perspectives and assumptions of others both past and present .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Central_European_Institute_of_Philosophy",
"rank": 5,
"score": 88064
},
{
"content": "Title: Schools Interoperability Framework Content: The Schools Interoperability Framework , Systems Interoperability Framework ( UK ) , or SIF , is a data sharing open specification for academic institutions from kindergarten through workforce . This specification is being used primarily in the United States , Canada , the UK , and Australia ; however , it is increasingly being implemented in India , and elsewhere . The specification is composed of two parts : an XML specification for modeling educational data which is specific to the educational locale ( such as North America , Australia or UK ) , and a service-oriented architecture ( SOA ) based on both direct and brokered RESTful-models for sharing that data between institutions , which is international and shared between the locales . SIF is not a product , but an industry initiative that enables diverse applications to interact and share data . By March 2007 , SIF was estimated to have been used in more than 48 US states and 6 countries , supporting five million students . The specification was started and maintained by its specification body , the Schools Interoperability Framework Association , renamed the Access For Learning Community ( A4L ) in 2015 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Schools_Interoperability_Framework",
"rank": 6,
"score": 87436
},
{
"content": "Title: Sif (comics) Content: Sif is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The character is depicted commonly in association with the superhero Thor . Based on the Norse goddess Sif , she was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby and first appeared in Journey Into Mystery # 102 ( March 1964 ) . As an Asgardian warrior and lover of Thor , Sif often accompanies Thor into battle . She has also battled alongside Balder , who has developed an unrequited attraction to her , as she never shows affection for anyone but Thor and certain individuals who have proved worthy to wield his hammer , Mjolnir , such as the noble alien warrior Beta Ray Bill and the mortal Eric Masterson . Sif has appeared in various media adaptations of Thor , including the 2011 Marvel Cinematic Universe film Thor , its 2013 sequel Thor : The Dark World , and the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , in which she is portrayed by Jaimie Alexander .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sif_(comics)",
"rank": 7,
"score": 87276
},
{
"content": "Title: Supreme Indoor Football Content: Supreme Indoor Football ( SIF ) is an indoor football league based in the Southeastern United States . The SIF was originally the creation of the Cape Fear Heroes ownership . During the league 's initial launch in 2015 , it was to be part of the Indoor Football Alliance , which would have also included a revived Continental Indoor Football League and begun play in 2016 . When the CIFL revival never materialized , and the league had difficulties in finding teams to join the league , the Heroes suspended operations , effectively suspending the league as well . The league launched on its second attempt in April 2017 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Supreme_Indoor_Football",
"rank": 8,
"score": 86907
},
{
"content": "Title: Singapore International Foundation Content: The Singapore International Foundation ( SIF ) ( Abbreviation : SIF ; Chinese : 新加坡国际基金会 ; Malay : Yayasan Antarabangsa Singapura ) is a not-for-profit organisation established on August 1 , 1991 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Singapore_International_Foundation",
"rank": 9,
"score": 86801
},
{
"content": "Title: Sif (disambiguation) Content: Sif is a Norse goddess and the wife of Thor . Sif or SIF may also refer to :",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sif_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 10,
"score": 86781
},
{
"content": "Title: Sif Content: In Norse mythology , Sif is a goddess associated with earth . Sif is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , and in the poetry of skalds . In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda , Sif is the wife of the thunder god Thor and is known for her golden hair . In the Prose Edda , Sif is named as the mother of the goddess Þrúðr by Thor and of Ullr with a father whose name is not recorded . The Prose Edda also recounts that Sif once had her hair shorn by Loki , and that Thor forced Loki to have a golden headpiece made for Sif , resulting in not only Sif 's golden tresses but also five other objects for other gods . Scholars have proposed that Sif 's hair may represent fields of golden wheat , that she may be associated with fertility , family , wedlock and/or that she is connected to rowan , and that there may be an allusion to her role or possibly her name in the Old English poem Beowulf .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sif",
"rank": 11,
"score": 86150
},
{
"content": "Title: Society for Individual Freedom Content: The Society for Individual Freedom ( SIF ) is a United Kingdom-based association of libertarians , classical liberals , free-market conservatives and others promoting individual freedom . The website of the Society states that `` The Society of Individualists was founded in 1942 , with many of its leaders and supporters , including its first president Sir Ernest Benn , drawn from those associated with the remnant individualist wing of the Liberal Party . In 1944 the Society of Individualists merged with the National League for Freedom , which itself had been formed from those associated with the explicitly anti-socialist wing of the Conservative Party . The Society for Individual Freedom took on its present name in 1947 . '' George Kennedy Young became president sometime after his departure from MI6 in 1961 . Other notable officers include its chairman , Professor Peter Walter Campbell , founder of the Dept of Politics at Reading and founding chairman of the Conservative Group for Homosexual Equality ( CGHE - LBGT ) . Gerald Howarth MP served as the organisations General Secretary from 1969 to 1971 . In 1967 the Young Libertarians , the youth organisation of SIF , broke off to create the Libertarian Alliance . There continues to be an overlap of members and officers between the LA - headed by Dr Sean Gabb - and the SIF . The SIF is independent of all political parties and relies entirely on voluntary subscriptions and donations . The SIF advocates personal freedom and less state control generally ( e.g. it is opposed to censorship and identity cards ) , and a genuinely free enterprise economy including low taxation and no state subsidies to industry . Its membership tends to be strongly Eurosceptic . The SIF is perhaps most notable for its campaign for the institution of the UK 's Parliamentary Ombudsman , beginning in 1959 , and publication , in 1961 , of the first English language book on such institutions , Occasion for Ombudsman : Is a Grievance Man Necessary for Britain ? , by journalist T. E. Utley . The campaign for the Ombudsman system - for an unelected adjudicator to help prevent bureaucratic maladministration - eventually succeeded . In 1967 the Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration was instituted . In 1975 its chairman became John Monson , 11th Baron Monson , a position he kept for the next 35 years . Monson 's most controversial campaign was against compulsory use of seat belts which eventually failed but led to accusations of irresponsibility . In 1994 the SIF published The Power to Destroy , a study of the British tax system , by Professor D. R. Myddelton .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Society_for_Individual_Freedom",
"rank": 12,
"score": 85770
},
{
"content": "Title: Specialized investment fund Content: A specialized investment fund or SIF is a lightly regulated and tax-efficient regulatory regime aimed for a broader range of eligible investors . This type of investment fund is governed by the Luxembourg law of 13 February 2007 replacing the law of 1991 defining the legal framework for institutional funds and enlarging the distribution scope to `` well-informed investors '' . The SIF law significantly simplified the rules for setting up investment fund structures ranging from straightforward investment strategies investing in listed securities to hedge funds , real estate and private equity funds . On 12 July 2013 , the SIF regime was amended by the law on alternative investment fund managers ( AIFM law ) . Consequently , the SIF law has been divided into two parts : General provisions applicable to all SIFs ; Specific provisions applicable to SIFs which qualify as Alternative Investment Fund ( AIF ) and which require to be managed by an authorized Alternative Investment Fund Manager ( AIFM ) . Due to the broad definition of AIFs , most SIFs are qualified as SIF AIFs .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Specialized_investment_fund",
"rank": 13,
"score": 85724
},
{
"content": "Title: Italian Physical Society Content: The Società Italiana di Fisica ( SIF ) or Italian Physics Society was founded in 1897 and is a non-profit organization whose aim is to promote , encourage , protect the study and the progress of physics in Italy and in the world . It is associated with the journal series Nuovo Cimento . SIF also publishes the academic journals Quaderni di Storia della Fisica and Giornale di Fisica . Some of the Nuovo Cimento journals were merged with European Physical Journal in 1986 and with Europhysics Letters in 1999 . Il Bolletino della Società Italiana di Fisica was published from 1956 to 1984 . In 1984 , it became Il Nuovo Saggiatore ( `` The New Assayer '' ) . The SIF organizes an annual national congress of study at one of the Italian universities . Its other major initiatives are the management of the `` Enrico Fermi '' International School of Physics ( an annual summer school held in Varenna ) , and the organization of conferences on specific topics . There are two types of membership in SIF : regular members ( `` can be effective partners individuals and charities '' ) and honorary members ( `` may be honorary members persons who have attained an eminent position in the physical science '' ) . Franco Bassani ( Scuola Normale di Pisa ) was President of the SIF until 2007 . He is currently chairman . The current president is Luisa Cifarelli ( University of Bologna ) , formerly Vice President .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Italian_Physical_Society",
"rank": 14,
"score": 85325
},
{
"content": "Title: Standard Interchange Format Content: Standard Interchange Format , called SIF , is a geospatial data exchange format . A standard or neutral format used to move graphics files between DOD Project 2851 and is currently codified in Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata maintained by the Federal Geographic Data Committee . Unit 69 of the NCGIA Core Corriculum in GIS states that SIF is a `` popular data exchange format for many GIS packages '' and was `` developed to support exchange of data between Intergraph and other systems . '' Navteq uses Standard Interchange Format ( SIF ) Another example of data available in SIF format can be found online from the NASA 's BOREAS project that also claims that the SIF format is `` not well documented . '' Additional criticism of SIF , along with recognition of SIF 's ubiquity and utility for exchanging data , is acknowledged in the online journal article `` Is a Standard Terrain Data Format Necessary ? ''",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Standard_Interchange_Format",
"rank": 15,
"score": 85207
},
{
"content": "Title: Sif, Yemen Content: Sif , Yemen is a village in eastern Yemen . It is located in the Hadhramaut Governorate .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sif,_Yemen",
"rank": 16,
"score": 85037
},
{
"content": "Title: Syrian Islamic Front Content: The Syrian Islamic Front ( الجبهة الإسلامية السورية al-Jabhah al-Islāmiyya as-Sūriyyah ; abbreviated SIF ) was a Salafist umbrella organisation of Islamist rebel groups fighting the Bashar al-Assad government in Syria during the Syrian Civil War . Its largest group was the Salafist Ahrar ash-Sham , which reportedly `` led '' and `` dominated '' the Front . In November 2013 , the Syrian Islamic Front was dissolved , as the organization was replaced by the Islamic Front .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Syrian_Islamic_Front",
"rank": 17,
"score": 85008
},
{
"content": "Title: US SIF Content: US SIF : The Forum for Sustainable and Responsible Investment is a United States-based membership association located in Washington , DC . that promotes environmentally and socially sustainable investment practices . US SIF was formerly known as the Social Investment Forum . It changed its name on June 9 , 2011 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "US_SIF",
"rank": 18,
"score": 83497
},
{
"content": "Title: Stavanger IF Fotball Content: Stavanger IF Fotball , the football division of Stavanger Idrettsforening , is a football club from Stavanger , Norway . In Rogaland , they are simply known as Sif , and few people would refer to them as Stavanger . SIF reached the semi finals of the Norwegian Football Cup in 1912 , 1914 , 1929 and 1930 . Its latest stint in the First Division , the second tier of the Norwegian football league system , was in 2009 . The club is currently playing in the Third Division .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Stavanger_IF_Fotball",
"rank": 19,
"score": 83277
},
{
"content": "Title: Stavanger IF Content: Stavanger Idrettsforening ( SIF ) was founded in 1905 . SIF has both a football and a handball division .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Stavanger_IF",
"rank": 20,
"score": 82941
},
{
"content": "Title: State Secretariat for International Financial Matters Content: The State Secretariat for International Financial Matters ( SIF ; French : Secrétariat d'État aux questions financières internationales , German Staatssekretariat für internationale Finanzfragen , Italian Segreteria di Stato per le questioni finanziarie internazionali , Romansh Secretariat da stadi per dumondas finanzialas internaziunalas ) is an administrative unit of the Swiss Confederation . It is an office of the federal administration of Switzerland under the responsibility of the Federal Department of Finance , and was established on 1 March 2010 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "State_Secretariat_for_International_Financial_Matters",
"rank": 21,
"score": 82688
},
{
"content": "Title: 15 cm sIG 33 (Sf) auf Panzerkampfwagen I Ausf B Content: The 15 cm sIG 33 ( Sf ) auf Panzerkampfwagen I Ausf B ( sometimes referred to as the Sturmpanzer I Bison ) was a German self-propelled heavy infantry gun used during World War II .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "15_cm_sIG_33_(Sf)_auf_Panzerkampfwagen_I_Ausf_B",
"rank": 22,
"score": 81223
},
{
"content": "Title: St. Ignatius Institute Content: The Saint Ignatius Institute ( SII ) is an undergraduate program at the University of San Francisco ( USF ) , a private university operated by the California Province of the Society of Jesus ( Jesuit Order ) in San Francisco , California . The SII offers a four-year , Great Books program as an alternative method for USF students to fulfill core cirriculum requirements for an undergraduate degree . In the twenty five years after its inception in 1976 , the SII granted its Certificate of Liberal Arts to approximately 1,000 students . During these years the SII generated both controversy and accolades due to its greater advocacy for Catholic doctrine within a diverse , more liberal Jesuit institution .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "St._Ignatius_Institute",
"rank": 23,
"score": 80643
},
{
"content": "Title: Small intensely fluorescent cell Content: Small intensely fluorescent cells ( SIF cells ) are the interneurons of the sympathetic ganglia ( postganglionic neurons ) of the Sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system ( ANS ) . The neurotransmitter for these cells is dopamine . They are a neural crest derivative and share a common sympathoadrenal precursor cell with sympathetic neurons and chromaffin cells ( adrenal medulla ) . Category : Cell biology",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Small_intensely_fluorescent_cell",
"rank": 24,
"score": 80628
},
{
"content": "Title: Silkeborg IF Content: Silkeborg IF ( Full name : Silkeborg Idrætsforening , or SIF in short ) is a professional Danish football club in Silkeborg , Denmark . The club was founded in 1917 , reached the highest level of Danish football in 1987 , and was during the 1990s one of the most successful football clubs in Denmark , finishing in first place in the league in 1993 -- 94 , third place in 1994 -- 95 , second place in 1997 -- 98 as well as a Danish Cup victory in 2001 . Silkeborg has participated in European games several times , and won the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 1996 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Silkeborg_IF",
"rank": 25,
"score": 79481
},
{
"content": "Title: Short Interframe Space Content: Short Interframe Space ( SIFS ) , is the amount of time in microseconds required for a wireless interface to process a received frame and to respond with a response frame . It is the difference in time between the first symbol of the response frame in the air and the last symbol of the received frame in the air . A SIFS time consists of the delay in receiver RF , PLCP delay and the MAC processing delay , which depends on the physical layer used . In IEEE 802.11 networks , SIFS is the interframe spacing prior to transmission of an acknowledgment , a Clear To Send ( CTS ) frame , a block ack frame that is an immediate response to either a block ack request frame or an A-MPDU , the second or subsequent MPDU of a fragment burst , a station responding to any polling a by point coordination function and during contention free periods of point coordination function .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Short_Interframe_Space",
"rank": 26,
"score": 79406
},
{
"content": "Title: Shropshire Islamic Foundation Content: The Shropshire Islamic Foundation ( SIF ) is located in the English county of Shropshire . The Foundation owns , operates from , and manages the ` Telford Islamic Academy ' , at 88 -- 90 King Street , Wellington , Telford and the ` Telford Central Mosque ' at 41 Tan Bank , Wellington , Telford . The Mosque , as a majority , operates under the Hanafi school of law and is a Sunni mosque providing Islamic education to children of all ages . This is the main mosque in Shropshire and has a community consisting of Pakistanis , Afghans , Bangladeshis , Indians , Turks , Africans and Middle Easterners all praying together . The Foundation is a registered charity -- registration number 1112127 , with the trustees being Dr. Mohammed Mujahid Hussain Qureshi -- Chairman of trustees , Mr. Shah Sawar Bhatti and Dr. Shaukat Ali Shropshire has only one other far smaller Mosque , the Jamia Masjid Gousia , aka the ` Regent Street Mosque ' , a Sufi -- Barelvi themed Mosque in Wellington .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Shropshire_Islamic_Foundation",
"rank": 27,
"score": 79093
},
{
"content": "Title: Seychelles Islands Foundation Content: Seychelles Islands Foundation ( SIF ) manages and protects the World Heritage Sites of Aldabra and Vallee de Mai . The foundation was established as a public trust in 1979 , with the President of Seychelles as patron . The Board of trustees , appointed by the President , has 14 members , including not less than five representing organizations concerned with the conservation of wildlife and natural history or national academics of science . Aldabra and Vallee de Mai are both unique , and represent the rich natural heritage of Seychelles . At these sites SIF conserves : The world 's largest raised coral atoll . The world 's largest giant tortoise population . Some of the world 's most spectacular seabird colonies . The largest intact coco de mer forest and many other endemic trees , plants and animals . Unique birds , including the last surviving flightless bird of the Indian Ocean , the Aldabra rail , and the endangered Seychelles black parrot . Category : Conservation in Seychelles",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Seychelles_Islands_Foundation",
"rank": 28,
"score": 79000
},
{
"content": "Title: Oculomotor apraxia Content: Oculomotor apraxia ( OMA ) , also known as Cogan ocular motor apraxia or saccadic initiation failure ( SIF ) is the absence or defect of controlled , voluntary , and purposeful eye movement . It was first described in 1952 by the American ophthalmologist David Glendenning Cogan . People with this condition have difficulty moving their eyes horizontally and moving them quickly . The main difficulty is in saccade initiation , but there is also impaired cancellation of the vestibulo-ocular reflex . Patients have to turn their head in order to compensate for the lack of eye movement initiation in order to follow an object or see objects in their peripheral vision , but they often exceed their target . There is controversy regarding whether OMA should be considered an apraxia , since apraxia is the inability to perform a learned or skilled motor action to command , and saccade initiation is neither a learned nor a skilled action .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Oculomotor_apraxia",
"rank": 29,
"score": 78900
},
{
"content": "Title: Swedish Union of Clerical and Technical Employees in Industry Content: The Swedish Union of Clerical and Technical Employees in Industry ( Sif , formerly Svenska Industritjänstemannaförbundet ) was the largest trade union for white-collar workers in Sweden . In 2008 , it merged with HTF to form Unionen . Founded in 1920 , it stated its primary goal as being `` to guarantee a good working life for its members '' . A main priority was taking part in the collective bargaining process . Workplace health and safety issues , competence and career issues were other major concerns . The organization also played an active part lobbying politicians in the interest of its members . The 350 000 members worked in the private sector , in companies that operated in areas including IT , telecom , construction , manufacturing and research and development . A small number was self-employed . Membership was also open to students . Around 40 percent of the members were women , as was the current President , Mari-Ann Krantz who after the fusion with HTF became the first President of Unionen . The organization was not only one of the largest labour unions in Sweden , it was also one of the wealthiest . It had funds worth several hundred million dollars , allowing the union to set aside substantial money for large ad campaigns with the object of recruiting new members . The organization had in the end of its existence 20 Regional Divisions with 23 local offices around Sweden and approximately 2.500 local union branches in the workplaces . About half the members did not belong to a local branch but could turn to a workplace representative acting as a point of contact and a channel for information . The highest decision-making body was the Congress , held every four years . It consisted of 180 elected representatives from the workplaces . The Congress elected the 11 representatives of the Sif Executive . The Swedish Union of Clerical and Technical Employees in Industry maintained independence from party politics . The organization was an affiliate of the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employees . It was also a member of several international industrial federations , such as Union Network International , a federation of unions in the IT , telecom , media & entertainment and graphics sector .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Swedish_Union_of_Clerical_and_Technical_Employees_in_Industry",
"rank": 30,
"score": 78865
},
{
"content": "Title: General number field sieve Content: In number theory , the general number field sieve ( GNFS ) is the most efficient classical algorithm known for factoring integers larger than . Heuristically , its complexity for factoring an integer ( consisting of bits ) is of the form ( in L-notation ) , where is the natural logarithm . It is a generalization of the special number field sieve : while the latter can only factor numbers of a certain special form , the general number field sieve can factor any number apart from prime powers ( which are trivial to factor by taking roots ) . When the term number field sieve ( NFS ) is used without qualification , it refers to the general number field sieve . The principle of the number field sieve ( both special and general ) can be understood as an improvement to the simpler rational sieve or quadratic sieve . When using such algorithms to factor a large number , it is necessary to search for smooth numbers ( i.e. numbers with small prime factors ) of order . The size of these values is exponential in the size of ( see below ) . The general number field sieve , on the other hand , manages to search for smooth numbers that are subexponential in the size of . Since these numbers are smaller , they are more likely to be smooth than the numbers inspected in previous algorithms . This is the key to the efficiency of the number field sieve . In order to achieve this speed-up , the number field sieve has to perform computations and factorizations in number fields . This results in many rather complicated aspects of the algorithm , as compared to the simpler rational sieve . Note that is the number of bits in the binary representation of , that is the size of the input to the algorithm , so any element of the order for a constant is exponential in . The running time of the number field sieve is super-polynomial but sub-exponential in the size of the input .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "General_number_field_sieve",
"rank": 31,
"score": 78588
},
{
"content": "Title: SIASUN UAV Content: SIASUN UAV is a Chinese UAV developed by Shenyang SIASUN Robot & Automation Co. Ltd. ( SIASUN , 新松机器人自动化股份有限公司 ) . The development of SIASUN is the direct result of 2008 Chinese winter storms , which resulted in massive power outage in China . The weather conditions prevent the conventional manual inspection of powerlines carried out by foot because access was severely limited , and as a result , SIASUN developed an UAV specially designed to carry out aerial inspection of powerlines under severe conditions such as thunderstorm , heavy rain and heavy electro-magnetic interference . SIASUN UAV is an unmanned helicopter of conventional helicopter layout with Fenestron design . Specification : Length : 3.84 m Width : 0.96 m Height : 1.26 m Rotor diameter : 3.29 m Weight : 120 kg Payload : 30 kg Power plant : 32 hp petro engine Endurance : 1 1/2 hr Speed : 100 km/hr Ceiling : 3 km Max wind scale allowed for operation : 6",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "SIASUN_UAV",
"rank": 32,
"score": 78481
},
{
"content": "Title: Sikkim Democratic Front Content: Sikkim Democratic Front ( SDF ) is a regional political party in the North East Indian state of Sikkim .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sikkim_Democratic_Front",
"rank": 33,
"score": 78064
},
{
"content": "Title: Sif Aradóttir Content: Sif Aradóttir ( born c. 1985 ) was Ungfrú Ísland or Miss Iceland in 2006 . She is from Keflavík . At the time of her crowning as Iceland 's national beauty queen , which was televised live on Icelandic Television , Sif was a student training to be an air traffic controller . Organizers of the national contest decided to send Sif to compete in Miss Universe 2006 ( to be held in Los Angeles , California on 23 July ) after a three-year unexplained absence . This also marked the first time in three years that the winner was not sent to Miss Universe 's rival pageant Miss World , which was won by Iceland 's own Unnur Birna Vilhjálmsdóttir in 2005 . Sif 's runner-up , Ásdís Svava , was Iceland 's representative at Miss World 2006 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sif_Aradóttir",
"rank": 34,
"score": 77849
},
{
"content": "Title: Sizing Content: Sizing or size is any one of numerous substances that is applied to , or incorporated into , other materials -- especially papers and textiles -- to act as a protective filler or glaze . Sizing is used in papermaking and textile manufacturing to change the absorption and wear characteristics of those materials . Sizing is used for oil-based surface preparation for gilding ( also known as mordant in this context ) . It is used by painters and artists to prepare paper and textile surfaces for some art techniques . The term `` sizing '' also refers to the process of including or applying the substance .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sizing",
"rank": 35,
"score": 77636
},
{
"content": "Title: Sialkot Trading Floor Content: Sialkot Trading Floor ( STF ) is one of the two branch offices of Lahore Stock Exchange ( LSE ) in order expand its boundaries and make ease of its access in major cites of country . Acting as a part of LSE , STF is going forward day by day to achieve aims , goals and aspirations of its ancestor . It is located in the building of Sialkot Chamber of Commerce & Industry in Sialkot . All of the brokerage houses whether active or nonnative at STF are registered houses in LSE as well as these houses are governed by Security Exchange Commission of Pakistan ( SECP ) .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sialkot_Trading_Floor",
"rank": 36,
"score": 76756
},
{
"content": "Title: Society for Individual Liberty Content: Society for Individual Liberty ( SIL ) was founded in1969 by Don Ernsberger and Dave Walter , who became its directors , after libertarian activists were expelled or later defected from Young Americans for Freedom ( YAF ) during and after their 1969 convention in St. Louis , Missouri . The founding of SIL is considered the defining moment that witnessed the `` birth of an autonomous libertarian movement . '' Purged or disillusioned YAF chapters and members withdrew from YAF and joined SIL which claimed to have 3,000 members that had grown to 103 campus chapters in the United States , `` two in Canada and one each in Sweden , India and Australia '' by 1970 . In 1989 SIL merged with Libertarian International under leadership of Vincent Miller , who assumed the position of president , changing the name of the organization to the International Society for Individual Liberty ( ISIL ) which had members in over 80 nations and hosted annual educational conference across the globe . ISIL acquired ownership of Laissez Faire Books ( LFB ) in November 2007 . In 2016 , ISIL was reorganized and renamed Liberty International with Jim Elwood serving as its executive director .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Society_for_Individual_Liberty",
"rank": 37,
"score": 76197
},
{
"content": "Title: SIF Stadion Content: SIF Stadion is a sports venue located in Stavanger , Norway . It is the home ground of Stavanger IF Fotball . Category : Football venues in Norway Category : Sports venues in Stavanger",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "SIF_Stadion",
"rank": 38,
"score": 75688
},
{
"content": "Title: Missile launch facility Content: A missile launch facility , also known as an underground missile silo , launch facility ( LF ) , or nuclear silo , is a vertical cylindrical structure constructed underground , for the storage and launching of intercontinental ballistic missiles ( ICBMs ) . The structures typically have the missile some distance below ground , protected by a large `` blast door '' on top . They are usually connected , physically and/or electronically , to a missile launch control center .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Missile_launch_facility",
"rank": 39,
"score": 75260
},
{
"content": "Title: SIG Sauer P239 Content: The SIG Sauer P239 is a semi-automatic pistol designed and manufactured by SIG Sauer , GMBH and SIG Sauer , Exeter , NH . It is offered in three calibers : 9 × 19mm Parabellum , .357 SIG and .40 S&W . With an overall length of 168 mm ( 6.6 in ) and height of 132 mm ( 5.2 in ) , and weighing approximately 710 -- 770 g ( 25 -- 27 oz ) empty ( depending on caliber ) , the P239 has become popular in the United States as a concealed carry pistol . Normal magazine capacity is 8 rounds ( 9 × 19mm ) or 7 rounds ( .357 SIG or .40 S&W ) .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "SIG_Sauer_P239",
"rank": 40,
"score": 75163
},
{
"content": "Title: Sif Atladóttir Content: Sif Atladóttir ( born 15 July 1985 ) is an Icelandic footballer who plays for Damallsvenskan club Kristianstads DFF and the Iceland women 's national team .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sif_Atladóttir",
"rank": 41,
"score": 75111
},
{
"content": "Title: 6.45×48mm XPL Swiss Content: 6.45 x48mm XPL Swiss ( or 6.45 x48 GP 80 ) is an experimental intermediate rifle cartridge that was developed in conjunction with the SIG SG 550 rifle as a potential successor to the 7.5 × 55mm Schmidt -- Rubin cartridge . The rimless cartridge has a base diameter of 11.82 mm ( similar to the 7.62 × 51mm NATO ) and a case length of 47.72 mm . The bullet is an unusual 6.65 mm diameter ( 6.45 mm refers to the bore diameter ) , fractionally smaller than the common 6.5 mm ( bore diameter ) bullet . The 6.3 g bullet was fired at a muzzle velocity of 900 m/s with 2,550 J of muzzle energy . The cartridge was not adopted , the SIG SG-550 went into production with the 5.6 × 45mm GP 90 round .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "6.45×48mm_XPL_Swiss",
"rank": 42,
"score": 74805
},
{
"content": "Title: Poor Little Sif Content: Poor Little Sif ( German : Arme kleine Sif ) is a 1927 German silent comedy film directed by Arthur Bergen and starring Paul Wegener , Adele Sandrock and Jakob Tiedtke . It was made at the Emelka Studios in Munich . The film 's art direction was by Botho Hoefer and August Rinaldi .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Poor_Little_Sif",
"rank": 43,
"score": 74540
},
{
"content": "Title: Independent Socialists (France) Content: The Independent Socialists ( Socialistes indépendants , SI ) were a French political movement and , at times , parliamentary group in the Chamber of Deputies of France during the French Third Republic . The movement was strong from 1880 till the fall of the Republic in 1940 . At first , the Independent Socialists were a diverse set of socialists who refused to affiliate with an organized party . Indeed , before the creation of the French Section of the Workers ' International ( SFIO ) in 1905 , French socialism was divided between the French Socialist Party ( PSF ) , the Socialist Party of France ( PSdF ) and the French Workers ' Party ( POF ) . Later , the name was applied to parliamentarians and local politicians who believed they held their legitimacy from voters and thus refused to follow the instructions of party leaders . Indeed , the SFIO , the main socialist party , had a strong party organization , something relatively unique in the Third Republic . In the end , following the creation of the SFIO , the name was used to refer to those who did not wish to join the SFIO . A number of those people later joined the Republican-Socialist Party ( PRS ) .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Independent_Socialists_(France)",
"rank": 44,
"score": 74513
},
{
"content": "Title: Daniel Kelly (actor) Content: Daniel Kelly ( born May 25 , 1992 ) , also known by his stage names Deph Naught and Sif , is a Canadian actor and rapper , most commonly known for his role on the long-running TV series Degrassi : The Next Generation .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Daniel_Kelly_(actor)",
"rank": 45,
"score": 74386
},
{
"content": "Title: Siangham Content: A siangham ( or siangkam ) is an imaginary melee weapon in the Dungeons & Dragons and Pathfinder tabletop role-playing games . It is a narrow , cylindrical thrusting weapon , typically about 1.5 feet ( 46 cm ) long . Its appearance is similar to an arrow , but with a handle on the end . While normally used for thrusting attacks , it can be used to slash or parry . The siangham came from Malaysia , where it is used in a fighting style called Kuntao . It is similar to the emeici , a piercing Chinese weapon .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Siangham",
"rank": 46,
"score": 74206
},
{
"content": "Title: Sif Vaya, Arizona Content: Sif Vaya is a populated place situated in Pinal County , Arizona . Over the years it has also been known as Bitter Well , Bitter Wells , Bitters Well , and Sivvaxia . Sif Vaya , which means bitter well in O'odham , became the official name as a result of a decision by the Board on Geographic Names in 1941 . It has an estimated elevation of 1965 ft above sea level .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sif_Vaya,_Arizona",
"rank": 47,
"score": 74189
},
{
"content": "Title: Borneo Cultural Festival Content: Borneo Cultural Festival or simplified as BCF is the annual festival of food and music which is held in Sibu , Sarawak on every July -- August every year since 2003 . The festival is organised by the Sibu Municipal Council . The main scope of BCF is to gather the community of Sarawak mainly in Sibu which is generally came from different ethnic and background , serving the society with a multicultural dance , music and traditional food . It 's one of the biggest traditional and yet prestiged festival event in Sibu , Sarawak .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Borneo_Cultural_Festival",
"rank": 48,
"score": 74163
},
{
"content": "Title: 1170 Siva Content: 1170 Siva , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and large Mars-crosser from the innermost regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 10 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 29 September 1930 , by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte at Uccle Observatory in Belgium , and later named after the Hindu deity Shiva .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "1170_Siva",
"rank": 49,
"score": 73994
},
{
"content": "Title: Von der Decken's sifaka Content: Von der Decken 's sifaka ( Propithecus deckenii ) is a sifaka endemic to Madagascar . It has a length of 92 to 107 centimeters , of which 42-48 centimeters are tail . Von der Decken 's Sifaka lives in western Madagascar . It lives in dry deciduous forest . Its pelage is usually creamy white , with tinges of yellow-gold , silver grey or pale brown on the neck , shoulders , back and limbs . The face is entirely black . Group size is between 2 and 10 individuals , with groups of 3 to 6 most common .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Von_der_Decken's_sifaka",
"rank": 50,
"score": 73789
},
{
"content": "Title: SÍF Sandavágur Content: SÍF Sandavágur is a Faroese Football club based in Sandavágur on the island of Vágar .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "SÍF_Sandavágur",
"rank": 51,
"score": 73788
},
{
"content": "Title: SIG SG 540 Content: The SG 540 is a 5.56 × 45mm NATO assault rifle developed in the early 1970s by Schweizerische Industrie Gesellschaft ( SIG , currently SAN Swiss Arms AG ) based out of Neuhausen , Switzerland as a private venture primarily destined for export markets and as a potential replacement for the 7.5 × 55mm Swiss SG 510 automatic rifle known as the Stgw 57 in Swiss service .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "SIG_SG_540",
"rank": 52,
"score": 73702
},
{
"content": "Title: Hennef (Sieg) Content: Hennef ( Sieg ) is a town in the Rhein-Sieg district of North Rhine-Westphalia , Germany . It is situated on the river Sieg , approx . 7 km south-east of Siegburg and 15 km east of Bonn . Hennef is the fourth-biggest town in the Rhein-Sieg-Kreis ( i.e. district ) . It is the site of the 15th-century castle , Schloss Allner , next to the Allner See .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Hennef_(Sieg)",
"rank": 53,
"score": 73593
},
{
"content": "Title: Sif El Menadi Content: Sif El Menadi is a village in the commune of Reguiba , in Reguiba District , El Oued Province , Algeria . The village is located 7 km southwest of the N48 highway .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sif_El_Menadi",
"rank": 54,
"score": 73492
},
{
"content": "Title: Crowned sifaka Content: The crowned sifaka ( Propithecus coronatus ) is a sifaka endemic to western Madagascar . It is of comparable size to the Golden-crowned sifaka and up to a meter in length , of which 47-57 centimeters are tail . The species is an arboreal vertical climber and leaper whose diet consists of leaves , fruits and flowers . It is threatened by habitat destruction and currently classified as Endangered by the IUCN .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Crowned_sifaka",
"rank": 55,
"score": 73484
},
{
"content": "Title: Common Power Format Content: The Si2 Common Power Format , or CPF is a file format for specifying power-saving techniques early in the design process . In the design of integrated circuits , saving power is a primary goal , and designers are forced to use sophisticated techniques such as clock gating , multi-voltage logic , and turning off the power entirely to inactive blocks . These techniques require a consistent implementation in the design steps of logic design , implementation , and verification . For example , if multiple different power supplies are used , then logic synthesis must insert level shifters , place and route must deal with them correctly , and other tools such as static timing analysis and formal verification must understand these components . As power became an increasingly pressing concern , each tool independently added the features needed . Although this made it possible to build low power flows , it was difficult and error prone since the same information needed to be specified several times , in several formats , to many different tools . CPF was created as a common format that many tools can use to specify power-specific data , so that power intent only need be entered once and can be used consistently by all tools . The aim of CPF is to support an automated , power-aware design infrastructure . Associated with CPF is the Power Forward Initiative ( PFI ) , a group of companies that collaborate to drive low-power design methodology and have contributed to the development of the CPF v1 .0 specification . PFI membership spans EDA , IP , library , foundry fabs , ASIC , IDM , and equipment companies . In March 2007 , CPF v1 .0 was contributed to the Silicon Integration Initiative ( Si2 ) where it was ratified by Si2 's Low Power Coalition ( LPC ) as a Si2 standard . The LPC controls the ongoing evolution of the CPF v1 .0 standard .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Common_Power_Format",
"rank": 56,
"score": 73464
},
{
"content": "Title: Safety integrity level Content: Safety integrity level ( SIL ) is defined as a relative level of risk-reduction provided by a safety function , or to specify a target level of risk reduction . In simple terms , SIL is a measurement of performance required for a safety instrumented function ( SIF ) . The requirements for a given SIL are not consistent among all of the functional safety standards . In the functional safety standards based on the IEC 61508 standard , four SILs are defined , with SIL 4 the most dependable and SIL 1 the least . A SIL is determined based on a number of quantitative factors in combination with qualitative factors such as development process and safety life cycle management .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Safety_integrity_level",
"rank": 57,
"score": 72801
},
{
"content": "Title: Sigraf Content: Sigraf ( also Sighraf , Sighrafr , fl . c. 1175 -- 1210 ) was a Romanesque stone sculptor , working on Gotland . He was mainly active as a sculptor of baptismal fonts , but also of reliquaries , carved pillars and reliefs . He was the most productive of several early medieval stone sculptors making baptismal fonts on Gotland .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sigraf",
"rank": 58,
"score": 72759
},
{
"content": "Title: Supplemental instruction Content: Supplemental Instruction ( SI ) is an academic support model developed by Dr. Deanna Martin at the University of Missouri -- Kansas City ( UMKC ) in 1973 that uses peer-assisted study sessions to improve student retention and success within targeted historically difficult courses . The SI program provides peer support by having students who succeeded in traditionally difficult academic courses ( e.g. , Organic Chemistry , Biology 101 , Logic ) help other students complete these courses . SI is a non-remedial approach that provides regular review sessions outside of class in which students work collaboratively by discussing readings , comparing notes , working together to predict test items , and sharing ideas for improving class material . Courses selected for SI tend to be `` gatekeeper '' courses for first and second year students -- generally those classes that have a 30 % or higher proportion of students who receive a `` D '' , fail , or withdraw ( the DFW rate ) from the course . Out-of-class review sessions are led by `` SI leaders , '' students who took the class already and did well . SI leaders attend all class lectures , take notes , and act as models to those currently taking the course . The SI model is used for selected courses at the undergraduate , graduate , and professional school levels , and has been adopted by colleges and universities in the United States and internationally .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Supplemental_instruction",
"rank": 59,
"score": 72555
},
{
"content": "Title: Siyah Qalam Content: The Siyah Qalam or Siāh-Qalam ( سیاه قَلَم , Siyah Kalem , meaning `` Black Pen '' ) comprise around 80 extant late 14th and early 15th century miniature folios and ink drawings ( qalam-siāhi ) , paintings and calligraphies , on various material , often silk . Measuring up to 335 x 485 cm , they are generally attributed to several hands , probably Iranian , and bear the strong influence of Chinese art and techniques . In tone and theme , the images are a highpoint of Persian draughtsmanship and include works from the Mozaffarid , Jalāyerid and Turkmen periods . They are sometimes attributed to the notname Muhammad Siyah Qalam ; equivalent in English to the Master of the Black Pen . The figures span a variety of cultures : Iranian , Palestinian , Turkish , Chinese , Mongolian , and Indian , and date to the century after reign of the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur . Notable for their intrinsic quality , they contain depictions of diabolic imagery , everyday nomadic life , and contemporary culture 's relationship with the dead . They are held at the Topkapi Saray Library , Istanbul ; parts of the larger Diez Albums of the Berlin State Library are closely related .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Siyah_Qalam",
"rank": 60,
"score": 72530
},
{
"content": "Title: Hennef (Sieg) station Content: Hennef ( Sieg ) station is located on the Sieg Railway in the town of Hennef ( Sieg ) in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia . It was opened in 1859 for passenger and freight traffic by the Cologne-Minden Railway Company along with the Sieg Railway .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Hennef_(Sieg)_station",
"rank": 61,
"score": 72442
},
{
"content": "Title: Archaeological Museum of Sifnos Content: The Archaeological Museum of Sifnos is a museum , in the village of Kastro on Sifnos ( the capital of the island since the Archaic period until 1836 ) , in Greece . Its collections include exhibits dating from the early Bronze Age to the late Byzantine period . There are mostly local finds . The building of the museum belongs to the medieval nucleus of the Kastro . It was restored by the Greek Ministry of Culture and opened to the public in 1986 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Archaeological_Museum_of_Sifnos",
"rank": 62,
"score": 72360
},
{
"content": "Title: Swiss Ice Hockey Federation Content: The Swiss Ice Hockey Federation ( SIHF ) ( Schweizerischer Eishockeyverband ( SEHV ) , Ligue Suisse de Hockey sur Glace ( LSHG ) , Federazione Svizzera di hockey su ghiaccio ) is the governing body of ice hockey in Switzerland , as recognized by the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) . It was founded in 1908 and is a founding member of the IIHF . It manages both the amateur and professional games in Switzerland , as well as the national teams on junior and senior levels .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Swiss_Ice_Hockey_Federation",
"rank": 63,
"score": 72249
},
{
"content": "Title: Stocksunds IF Content: Stocksunds Idrottsförening , Stocksunds IF , SIF , is a Swedish sportsclub in Stocksund , just north of Stockholm . The club was founded on 3 January 1935 and at present it has sections for ice hockey , association football , figure skating and floorball . The colours of the club are yellow and black and the team logo displays the Cedergren Tower , a well-known landmark in and around Stocksund . At present , Stocksunds IF does not compete in the elite leagues in any sport but has a broad activity for youths . Ice hockey player Tommy Albelin played for Stocksunds IF when he was in his teens . Category : Sports teams in Sweden Category : Ice hockey teams in Sweden",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Stocksunds_IF",
"rank": 64,
"score": 71964
},
{
"content": "Title: Siva (rebreather) Content: Siva is a model series of frogman 's rebreather made by Carleton Life Support originally made by Fullerton Sherwood Engineering Ltd. . They are : Siva S10 oxygen rebreather , dive duration 4 hours . Worn on the front of the chest . Siva S24 , usable as oxygen rebreather , or as a semi-closed circuit mixed gas rebreather with maximum depth normally 24 metres , can be set to 55 metres . Worn on the front of the chest . SIVA-55 ( technical data , images ) and SIVA PLUS : superseded by the Carleton Viper . They are worn on the back . The Siva 55 is equipped with 2 200 bar ( Inconel ) spheres with a total volume of 5.6 litres . The Siva 55 ( 55 metres of depth ) also known as ( CCDA ) Canadian Clearance Diving Apparatus works with any one of 3 Nitrox mixes ( 32.5 , 40 and 60 % Oxygen ) or pure oxygen . The pure oxygen is used for closed circuit diving so the diver can work without bubbles . The other Nato standard B , C and D mix are standard nitrox mixes used in semiclosed-circuit mode .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Siva_(rebreather)",
"rank": 65,
"score": 71944
},
{
"content": "Title: Siarnaq Content: Siarnaq ( -LSB- ˈsiːɑrnɑːk -RSB- ) , or Saturn XXIX , is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn . It was discovered by Brett J. Gladman , et al. in 2000 , and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 3 . Named after the giant Siarnaq of Inuit mythology , it is the largest member of the Inuit group of irregular satellites . Siarnaq is thought to be about 40 kilometers in diameter . It orbits Saturn at an average distance of 17.5 Gm in 895 days . The rotation period was measured by the Cassini spacecraft to approximately 10 hours and 9 minutes ; this is the shortest rotation period of all prograde irregular moons of Saturn . It is light red in color , and the Siarnaupian ( Siarnaqan ) spectrum in the infrared is very similar to the Inuit-group satellites Paaliaq and Kiviuq , supporting the thesis of a possible common origin in the break-up of a larger body . Siarnaq has been found to be in a secular resonance with Saturn , involving the precession of its periapsis and that of the planet .1 The studies of these resonances are key to understand the capture mechanism for the irregular satellites and , assuming a common origin of a given dynamical group in the break-up of a single body , to explain today 's dispersion of the orbital elements . 1The ecliptic longitudes of the periapsis of the satellite and the planet are locked .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Siarnaq",
"rank": 66,
"score": 71934
},
{
"content": "Title: Silodosin Content: Silodosin ( trade names Rapaflo ( USA ) , Silodyx ( Europe and South Africa ) , Rapilif ( India ) , Silodal ( India ) , Urief ( Japan ) , Thrupas ( South Korea ) , Urorec ( Russia ) ) is a medication for the symptomatic treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia . It acts as an α1-adrenoceptor antagonist with high uroselectivity ( selectivity for the prostate ) .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Silodosin",
"rank": 67,
"score": 71916
},
{
"content": "Title: 11066 Sigurd Content: 11066 Sigurd , provisional designation , is a stony , rare-type asteroid and elongated contact binary , classified as near-Earth object of the Apollo group of asteroids , approximately 2.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 9 February 1992 , by American astronomer couple Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker at Palomar Observatory , California , and named after Sigurd , a hero from Norse mythology .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "11066_Sigurd",
"rank": 68,
"score": 71705
},
{
"content": "Title: Sí se puede Content: Sí , se puede ( Spanish for `` Yes , it is possible '' or , roughly , `` Yes , one can '' ; -LSB- ˈsi se ˈpwe.ðe -RSB- ) is the motto of the United Farm Workers . In 1972 , during Cesar Chavez 's 25-day fast in Phoenix , Arizona , UFW 's co-founder , Dolores Huerta , came up with the slogan . The phrase has been widely adopted by other labor unions and civil rights organizations and drew widespread political and media attention as a rallying cry during the U.S. immigration reform protests , and was also used in the 2002 Disney film Got ta Kick It Up ! The saying Sí Se Puede has long been a UFW guiding principle that has served to inspire accomplishment of goals even in what at times may seem insurmountable situations . Sí Se Puede is a federally Registered Trademark of the UFW so the UFW can maintain the original meaning of this saying .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sí_se_puede",
"rank": 69,
"score": 71606
},
{
"content": "Title: Sibu (crater) Content: Sibu crater is an impact crater lying situated within the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle ( MC-19 ) region on the surface of the planet Mars , located in the Valles Marineris hemisphere in an area southeast of the Jones crater . It is located at and is 17.63 kilometres in diameter . It was named after the town of Sibu in Sarawak , Malaysia in 1976 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sibu_(crater)",
"rank": 70,
"score": 71587
},
{
"content": "Title: Interamerican Society of Cardiology Content: The Interamerican Society of Cardiology ( SIAC for its Spanish acronym ) is a nongovernmental association formed by the National Societies of Cardiology of the American Continent . The Interamerican Society of Cardiology , together with the European Society of Cardiology , founded in 1950 , the Asian Pacific Society of Cardiology , founded in 1956 , and the African Society of Cardiology founded in 1981 are the four Intercontinental Professional Societies of Cardiology of the World Heart Federation ( WHF for its acronym in English ) .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Interamerican_Society_of_Cardiology",
"rank": 71,
"score": 71538
},
{
"content": "Title: Israel Sieff, Baron Sieff Content: Israel Moses Sieff , Baron Sieff ( 4 May 1889 , Prestwich , Lancashire -- 14 February 1972 , Marylebone , London ) was an English businessman and Zionist . He was born in Manchester , where his father , a migrant from Lithuania , founded a prosperous business . Sieff was the son of Ephraim Sieff . He was educated at Manchester Grammar School and Manchester University . One of the theatres at Manchester Grammar School is named in his honour . In 1918 , Sieff was a member of the Zionist Commission which visited Palestine under the leadership of Chaim Weizmann . Sieff was president of the Political and Economic Planning think-tank from its foundation in 1931 and its chairman until 1939 . He was chairman of the British retailer Marks & Spencer from 1964 to 1967 . On 18 January 1966 he was created a life peer as Baron Sieff , of Brimpton in the Royal County of Berkshire . Upon the death of his son Daniel -- and with the financial support of his business partners and relatives by marriage , the Marks and Sacher families -- Sieff endowed the 1934 creation , by Chaim Weizmann , of the Daniel Sieff Research Institute in Rehovot in present-day Israel . Renamed the Weizmann Institute of Science in 1949 with the Sieff family 's consent , it is Israel 's premier research university in the natural sciences . Sieff was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium and his ashes were placed next to those of Simon Marks . The second of Sieff 's three sons , Marcus , was also created a life peer , becoming Lord Sieff of Brimpton .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Israel_Sieff,_Baron_Sieff",
"rank": 72,
"score": 71339
},
{
"content": "Title: 1446 Sillanpää Content: 1446 Sillanpää , provisional designation , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8.2 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 26 January 1938 , by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland . It was later named after writer Frans Eemil Sillanpää .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "1446_Sillanpää",
"rank": 73,
"score": 71297
},
{
"content": "Title: A.D.F. Siquirres Content: ADF Siquirres is a Costa Rican sports club , mostly known for its football team which currently plays in the Segunda División de Costa Rica . The club is located in Siquirres , Limón Province , and play their home games at the Finca Siquirres .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "A.D.F._Siquirres",
"rank": 74,
"score": 71177
},
{
"content": "Title: Bicolored foxface Content: The bicolored foxface , Siganus uspi , is a rabbitfish found at reefs off Fiji in the Pacific . It occasionally makes its way into the aquarium trade . It grows to a size of 24 cm in length . It was described by Michael J. Gawel after the University of the South Pacific .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Bicolored_foxface",
"rank": 75,
"score": 71141
},
{
"content": "Title: Set intersection oracle Content: A set intersection oracle ( SIO ) is a data structure which represents a collection of sets and can quickly answer queries about whether the set intersection of two given sets is non-empty . The input to the problem is n finite sets . The sum of the sizes of all sets is N ( which also means that there are at most N distinct elements ) . The SIO should quickly answer any query of the form : `` Does the set Si intersect the set Sk '' ?",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Set_intersection_oracle",
"rank": 76,
"score": 70784
},
{
"content": "Title: SNF1LK Content: Serine/threonine-protein kinase SIK1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the SIK1 gene .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "SNF1LK",
"rank": 77,
"score": 70562
},
{
"content": "Title: Sio nordenskjoldii Content: Sio nordenskjoldii , Nordenskjold 's bigscale , is a species of ridgehead found in the southern oceans at depths of from 200 to . This species grows to a length of 12.3 cm SL . This species is the only known member of its genus . This species is of minor importance to commercial fisheries .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sio_nordenskjoldii",
"rank": 78,
"score": 70435
},
{
"content": "Title: Siyeh Glacier Content: Siyeh Glacier is in Glacier National Park in the U.S. state of Montana . The glacier lies in a deep cirque to the north of Mount Siyeh at an elevation between 7200 ft and 6800 ft above sea level . Siyeh Glacier covers an area of less than 10 acre and does not meet the threshold of 25 acre often cited as being the minimum size to qualify as an active glacier . Siyeh Glacier has experienced massive retreat , losing over 73 percent of its surface area between 1966 and 2005 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Siyeh_Glacier",
"rank": 79,
"score": 70417
},
{
"content": "Title: Sigsbee (skipjack) Content: The Sigsbee is a Chesapeake Bay skipjack , built in 1901 at Deal Island , Maryland , United States . She is a 47 ft two-sail bateau , or `` V '' - bottomed deadrise type of centerboard sloop . She has a beam of 15.8 ft , a depth of 3.8 ft , and a gross registered tonnage of 8 tons . She is one of the 35 surviving traditional Chesapeake Bay skipjacks and a member of the last commercial sailing fleet in the United States . She is owned and operated by the Living Classrooms Foundation in Baltimore , Maryland . She was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sigsbee_(skipjack)",
"rank": 80,
"score": 70384
},
{
"content": "Title: Sebsi Content: A sebsi or sibsi ( سبسي , plural : sbasa ) is a traditional Moroccan cannabis pipe with a narrow clay bowl called a skuff ( or shkaff ) , with a fine metal screen . To this a hardwood stem is attached , which may be up to 46 cm long . The sebsi may be used to smoke kief ( cannabis pollen ) or mixtures of cannabis with tobacco or other herbs . The sebsi provides a small , low-temperature serving of cannabis , compared with larger traditional smoking devices like the chillum of India and Jamaica .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sebsi",
"rank": 81,
"score": 70302
},
{
"content": "Title: Sifnos Content: Sifnos ( Σίφνος the spelling Siphnos is obsolete in English but still by convention often used to refer to the island in ancient times ) is an island municipality in the Cyclades island group in Greece . The main town , near the center , known as Apollonia ( pop . 869 ) , is home of the island 's folklore museum and library . The town 's name is thought to come from an ancient temple of Apollo on the site of the church of Panayia Yeraniofora . The second-largest town is Artemonas ( 800 ) , thought to be named after an ancient temple of Apollo 's sister-goddess Artemis , located at the site of the church of Panayia Kokhi . The village of Kastro ( 118 ) , was the capital of the island during ancient times until 1836 . It is built on top of a high cliff on the island 's east shore and today has extensive medieval remains and is the location of the island 's archeological museum . The port settlement , on the west coast of the island is known as Kamares ( 245 ) .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sifnos",
"rank": 82,
"score": 69949
},
{
"content": "Title: Shift Out and Shift In characters Content: Shift Out ( SO ) and Shift In ( SI ) are ASCII control characters 14 and 15 , respectively ( 0x0E and 0x0F . ) These are sometimes also called `` Control-N '' and `` Control-O '' . The original meaning of those characters provided a way to shift a coloured ribbon , split longitudinally usually with red and black , up and down to the other colour in an electro-mechanical typewriter or teleprinter , such as the Teletype Model 38 , to automate the same function of manual typewriters . Black was the conventional ambient default colour and so was shifted `` in '' or `` out '' with the other colour on the ribbon . Later advancements in technology instigated use of this function for switching to a different font or character set and back . This was used , for instance , in the Russian character set known as KOI7 , where SO starts printing Russian letters , and SI starts printing Latin letters again . SO/SI control characters also are used to display VT-100 pseudographics , and emoji ( Japanese picture icons ) on SoftBank Mobile . ISO/IEC 2022 standard specifies their generalized usage .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Shift_Out_and_Shift_In_characters",
"rank": 83,
"score": 69887
},
{
"content": "Title: Yezo sika deer Content: The Yezo sika deer ( Cervus nippon yesoensis ) is one of the many subspecies of the sika deer . The sika that inhabit the island of Hokkaido are indigenous , although it is not known whether they originated there or migrated from the main island of Japan . Is it thought they may have traveled across the strait between the islands . The indigenous Ainu people of Hokkaido have hunted them for centuries and relied on them as a major food source . The Hokkaido sika one is the largest of the sika species with large stags approaching and sometimes exceeding 200 kg in the fall . They also sport the largest antlers with lengths often over 35 inches with the longest recorded specimen being 44 inches . By SCI measurement the Hokkaido sika produces the highest scores , although very few have been listed .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Yezo_sika_deer",
"rank": 84,
"score": 69841
},
{
"content": "Title: Sibley tent Content: The Sibley tent was invented by the American military officer Henry Hopkins Sibley and patented in 1856 . Of conical design , it stands about 12 ft high and 18 ft in diameter . It can comfortably house about a dozen men . The Sibley design differed from other conical tents , or bell tents in a number of ways . Sibley 's design is supported by a central pole that telescopes down into the supporting tripod so that it takes less space to pack and store . The tripod could be erected over a firepit for cooking and heat . The Sibley design also required no guy ropes , being held down by twenty-four pegs around the base . Additionally , unlike earlier designs , the use of a cowl over the central pole allowed for ventilation and for the escape of smoke , regardless of wind direction .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sibley_tent",
"rank": 85,
"score": 69828
},
{
"content": "Title: Social Finance (US non-profit organization) Content: Social Finance , Inc. is a nonprofit organization focusing on the emerging field of Pay for Success ( PFS ) financing ( also called a Social Impact Bond ( SIB ) ) in the United States . Social Finance provides advisory , social investment , and active performance management services to public - and private-sector partners seeking to drive more resources to social programs that deliver proven results to those in need . The organization has offices in Boston , MA and Austin , TX .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Social_Finance_(US_non-profit_organization)",
"rank": 86,
"score": 69674
},
{
"content": "Title: Steel and Industrial Forgings Ltd Content: Steel and Industrial Forgings Ltd ( SIFL ) is a public sector undertaking ( PSU ) fully owned by Government of Kerala situated in Athani in Thrissur , Kerala state of India . The company was incorporated in 1983 and started commercial production in 1986 . It is an AS 9100 C and ISO 9001:2008 certified company . The main products of SIFL are : Complex and high precision aerospace forgings , specialised forgings for defence , heavy forgings for commercial vehicles , Indian Railways and other components for automobiles etc. .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Steel_and_Industrial_Forgings_Ltd",
"rank": 87,
"score": 69557
},
{
"content": "Title: The Apple (1998 film) Content: The Apple ( سیب , translit . Sib ) is the 1998 directorial debut by Samira Makhmalbaf , daughter of Iranian director Mohsen Makhmalbaf . The film is based on a true story and features the real people that actually lived it . The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "The_Apple_(1998_film)",
"rank": 88,
"score": 69391
},
{
"content": "Title: Siglistorf Content: Siglistorf is a municipality in the district of Zurzach in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Siglistorf",
"rank": 89,
"score": 69364
},
{
"content": "Title: SIG GL 5040 Content: The SIG GL 5040/5140 is a 40 mm grenade launcher , which can be mounted under all SIG SG 550/551 assault rifle models and is operated in single-shot mode . For compact SG 552/553 , the smaller GL 5340 grenade launcher can be used .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "SIG_GL_5040",
"rank": 90,
"score": 69333
},
{
"content": "Title: Vignerons indépendants de France Content: The Vignerons indépendants de France ( VIF ) ( English : Independent winemakers of France ) is a viticultural trade association based in Paris that promotes and assists small and independent winemakers within France , similar to the British Society of Independent Brewers ( SIBA ) . Members may use the association 's logo on their products . In 1978 , it was set up as confédération nationale des caves particulières . ( CNCP ) , but changed their name and their charter in 2003 to try to unite and support independent winemakers and help them fight to keep their independence against powerful winemaking cooperatives . They currently have between 6000 and 10000 members throughout France ( as of 2009 ) . Each year , VIF arranges a number of wine fairs ( Salon des vins ) in different cities in France .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Vignerons_indépendants_de_France",
"rank": 91,
"score": 69192
},
{
"content": "Title: SANS Investigative Forensics Toolkit Content: The SANS Investigative Forensic Toolkit ( `` SIFT '' ) is a computer forensics VMware appliance that is pre-configured with all the necessary tools to perform a detailed digital forensic examination . It is compatible with expert witness format ( E01 ) , advanced forensic format ( AFF ) , and raw ( dd ) evidence formats . The new version has been completely rebuilt on an Ubuntu base with many additional tools and capabilities that can match any modern forensic tool suite .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "SANS_Investigative_Forensics_Toolkit",
"rank": 92,
"score": 69159
},
{
"content": "Title: Systemically important financial institution Content: A systemically important financial institution ( SIFI ) is a bank , insurance company , or other financial institution whose failure might trigger a financial crisis . They are colloquially referred to as `` too big to fail '' .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Systemically_important_financial_institution",
"rank": 93,
"score": 69020
},
{
"content": "Title: Sieff Content: Sieff may refer to : Adam Sieff , Communications Director at Dune Music , and a former Sony Music Director of Jazz Israel Sieff , Baron Sieff ( 1889 -- 1972 ) , British businessman Jeanloup Sieff ( 1933 -- 2000 ) , fashion photographer Joseph Sieff ( 1906 -- 1982 ) , businessman and British Zionist Marcus Sieff , Baron Sieff of Brimpton OBE ( 1913 -- 2001 ) , Jewish British businessman , chairman of Marks & Spencer from 1972 to 1982",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sieff",
"rank": 94,
"score": 68930
},
{
"content": "Title: Sieber (river) Content: The Sieber is a 35-kilometre-long , right hand tributary of the Oder in the Harz mountains of Germany . It rises at 760 metres on the Bruchberg massif and flows through Herzberg before discharging at Hattorf into the Oder which , in turn , flows into the Rhume . Its tributaries include the Kulmke , Lonau and Goldenke . In February 1910 , as part of his hydrological research into the Rhumequelle , Karl Thürnau dyed the Sieber tributary of the Eichelbach ( Herzberg ) with six kilogrammes of fluorescein . Three days later , weakly dyed water appeared in the main source of the Rhumequelle . This was confirmed in 1980 by dye tracing carried out by the Geological Survey of Lower Saxony ( Niedersächsischen Landesamtes für Bodenforschung ) . This also indicated links between the Rhumequelle and the Sieber near Hörden and the Oder near Scharzfeld . The construction of a dam was planned but never realised . As a result the Sieber valley is the only unregulated river valley in the western Harz . The upper Sieber valley has been out-of-bounds to motor traffic since the 1980s from the Forsthaus Königshof and lies partly within the Harz National Park -- the road leads to the B 242 federal highway northwest of Sonnenberg . The river gives its name to the village of Sieber in the middle of the Sieber valley . 1Sieber Category : Rivers of Lower Saxony Category : Rivers of the Harz",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Sieber_(river)",
"rank": 95,
"score": 68799
},
{
"content": "Title: Penobscot Experimental Forest Content: The Penobscot Experimental Forest ( PEF ) is an Experimental Forest managed by the US Forest Service ( USFS ) in the towns of Bradley and Eddington , in the state of Maine , USA . The mission of the PEF is to afford a setting for long-term research conducted cooperatively by USDA Forest Service scientists , university researchers , and professional forest managers in Maine ; to enhance forestry education of students and the public ; and to demonstrate how the timber needs of society are met from a working forest . The forests that encompasses the PEF today were originally purchased by nine pulp , paper , and land-holding companies in 1950 and was leased to the USFS Northeastern Forest Experiment Station as a site for long-term forest management and research . In 1994 , the PEF was donated to the University of Maine . Since then the PEF has been jointly managed by the University of Maine and the USFS . The primary research experiment at the PEF has been a long-term silviculture experiment , which contains a replicated treatments from a range of even-age and uneven-age silvicultural prescriptions , including clearcut , shelterwood , selection , diameter-limit , and unmanaged silvicultural treatments .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Penobscot_Experimental_Forest",
"rank": 96,
"score": 68674
},
{
"content": "Title: Wall of death Content: The Wall of Death , motordrome , silodrome or Well of Death ( aka `` Maut ka Kuaa '' , India ) is a carnival sideshow featuring a silo - or barrel-shaped wooden cylinder , typically ranging from 20 to in diameter and made of wooden planks , inside which motorcyclists , or the drivers of miniature automobiles , travel along the vertical wall and perform stunts , held in place by friction and centrifugal force .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Wall_of_death",
"rank": 97,
"score": 68525
},
{
"content": "Title: Silsbee effect Content: The Silsbee effect or Silsbee current refers to the effect by which , if the current exceeds a critical level , the superconducting state will be destroyed . The size of the critical current ( which can be as large as 100 amp in a 1-mm wire ) depends on the nature and geometry of the specimen and is related to whether the magnetic field produced by the current exceeds the critical field at the surface of the superconductor .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Silsbee_effect",
"rank": 98,
"score": 68500
},
{
"content": "Title: Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association Content: The Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association ( SIFMA ) is a United States industry trade group representing securities firms , banks , and asset management companies . SIFMA was formed on November 1 , 2006 , from the merger of the Bond Market Association and the Securities Industry Association . It has offices in New York City and Washington , D.C. In October 2008 , SIFMA reduced its staff by 25 % or more due to the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 which left its member firms in financial straits , and the loss of three of its primary member firms -- Lehman Brothers , Bear Stearns , and Merrill Lynch . The dismissals came at the same time as the United States Congress was considering changes in the country 's financial regulatory structure . SIFMA announced in May 2009 that it would also shed its London-based European operation . That operation was merged into the London Investment Banking Association ( LIBA ) . The 350-member American Securitization Forum ( ASF ) formerly operated as a forum of SIFMA . On January 14 , 2010 , ASF announced that it had chosen to terminate its affiliation with SIFMA as well .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Securities_Industry_and_Financial_Markets_Association",
"rank": 99,
"score": 68494
},
{
"content": "Title: Siemki Content: Siemki -LSB- ' śe1mki -RSB- ( German Scharfs ) is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Reszel , within Kętrzyn County , Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship , in northern Poland . It lies approximately 8 km north-east of Reszel , 9 km west of Kętrzyn , and 60 km north-east of the regional capital Olsztyn . Before 1945 the area was part of Germany ( East Prussia ) . The village has a population of 119 .",
"qid": "163",
"docid": "Siemki",
"rank": 100,
"score": 68468
}
] |
Small increases in average temperature translate to big increases in the number of extremely hot days, and those hot days have a big impact. | [
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 1,
"score": 111369
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_West_Virginia",
"rank": 2,
"score": 99601
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia",
"rank": 3,
"score": 98293
},
{
"content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate",
"rank": 4,
"score": 97830
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 5,
"score": 97798
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 6,
"score": 95201
},
{
"content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Impact_winter",
"rank": 7,
"score": 93920
},
{
"content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "LOWERN",
"rank": 8,
"score": 91804
},
{
"content": "Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Living_in_the_Hothouse",
"rank": 9,
"score": 90508
},
{
"content": "Title: Angry Summer Content: The Australian summer of 2012 -- 2013 , known as the Angry Summer or Extreme Summer , resulted in 123 weather records being broken over a 90-day period , including the hottest day ever recorded for Australia as a whole , the hottest January on record , the hottest summer average on record , and a record seven days in a row when the whole continent averaged above 39 ° C. Single-day temperature records were broken in dozens of towns and cities , as well as single-day rainfall records , and several rivers flooded to new record highs . In January 2013 , the Bureau of Meteorology altered its weather forecasting chart 's temperature scale to include a range , coloured purple , between 52 ° and 54 ° C . The reporting of the heatwave in the Australian media attracted controversy in the scientific community , as very few articles cited a correlation between the event and climate change , which it was correlated with according to studies conducted by the University of Melbourne .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Angry_Summer",
"rank": 10,
"score": 90463
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 11,
"score": 90002
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 12,
"score": 89963
},
{
"content": "Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature",
"rank": 13,
"score": 88751
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 14,
"score": 88716
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 15,
"score": 88424
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 16,
"score": 88327
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 17,
"score": 87161
},
{
"content": "Title: Brookings effect Content: The Brookings Effect is a meteorological phenomenon that affects the southern coast of Oregon , in which dry adiabatic heating increases the temperature of a mass of air as it travels down slope . It can occur at any time of the year producing temperatures near the Chetco River mouth which are up to 40 F-change higher than without the air movement . It is the same phenomenon as the Santa Ana winds . On July 8 , 2008 , Brookings recorded a high temperature of 108 ° F at the airport . This was not only the highest recorded temperature in the town 's history , but also the highest recorded in Oregon on that day . The Crescent City airport , approximately 30 miles south , recorded a high temperature of 68 ° F that day . Temperatures in inland Oregon throughout the Willamette Valley reached temperatures into the mid-nineties . The Brookings Effect remained very strong and localized until July 13 , 2008 , when high temperatures in Brookings dropped to 61 ° F , which is about seven degrees lower than average during the month . This report contradicts the common idea that the Brookings Effect is a Chinook wind , as moisture does not appear to play a role in the moist adiabatic cooling of air on the windward side of a mountain range , followed by dry adiabatic warming on the lee side . In contrast , the Brookings Effect resembles a Santa Ana Wind , common in Southern California in the autumn and winter . In nearly every event observed , the Brookings Effect occurs when there is a high pressure ridge off the Pacific Northwest coast or in the Great Basin , depending on the time of year , and often a cutoff low in southern to central California , causing a northerly to easterly wind in the Brookings area . Studies have shown that the north-to-south orientation of the Chetco River mouth and the town of Brookings plays a large role in the high temperatures recorded , and the reason the effect is localized . During most of the year , a sea breeze sets up along the coastline with prevailing surface winds from the northwest . The heart of Brookings , with its orientation , is protected from this maritime flow and the warm , dry , down-sloping winds that are funneled down the coastal range into the deep Chetco River gorge can reach the coast uninfluenced by the effects of the Pacific . During the Brookings Effect , there is a strong correlation between the observed temperature in Brookings and the 850 millibar temperature ( the temperature at approximately 5000 ft ) in Medford , Oregon , as is determined by the weather balloon sensing equipment launched twice a day . Medford , located inland of Brookings , is located in a valley , surrounded by the Oregon Coast Range , the Siskiyou Mountains , and the Cascade Mountains . The surface temperature in Medford is often influenced by the mountains , but the 850 millibar temperature , well off the surface , is about even with the mountain ridges in the area , and therefore unaffected . Mesoscale easterly flow at this level will cause the same air mass to move westward toward Brookings , and studies show that high pressure induced atmospheric subsidence causes the air mass to flow down the slopes of the coastal range . The Chetco River gorge , which is very deep in some places , works as a funnel to bring the parcel to the coast . Often in the winter , temperatures in Medford may peak near 40 ° F , while temperatures in Brookings will reach the upper 70s ( 25 + ° C ) due to the effect , causing Brookings to live up to its `` banana belt '' reputation .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Brookings_effect",
"rank": 18,
"score": 86571
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 19,
"score": 86563
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 20,
"score": 86060
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 21,
"score": 85955
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas",
"rank": 22,
"score": 85388
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 23,
"score": 85351
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 heatwave in Ireland and the United Kingdom Content: The 2013 heat wave in the United Kingdom and Ireland was a period of unusually hot weather primarily in July 2013 , with isolated warm days in June and August . A prolonged high pressure system over Britain and Ireland caused higher than average temperatures for 19 consecutive days in July , reaching 33.5 ° C at Heathrow and Northolt . Following a brief period of cooler weather at the end of July , temperatures temporarily rose again , peaking at 34.1 ° C on 1 August in the United Kingdom , the warmest the country had seen since July 2006 , and 31.0 ° C in Ireland . At 19 days , the July heatwave was the longest continuous period of hot weather in the UK since August 1997 . However , in the general sense , Britain did not have an overall exceptional summer ; the country experienced cool low pressure systems brought by an unseasonably low latitude by the jet stream for the 6 summers previous , which made the summer of 2013 more `` welcome '' and feel warmer than other summers . The historical records suggests `` Using the CET record ( for June , July & August ) , the average temperature by that measure was 16.3 degC ( Provisional ) : neither June nor August was exceptionally warm , so this value does not ` rate ' too highly when set against other very warm summer seasons . '' With June being a cool month and August being an Average month , in terms of temperatures the English Central summer temperature ended up being on the average side set up against previous summers since the CET series began in 1659 .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "2013_heatwave_in_Ireland_and_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 24,
"score": 85304
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 25,
"score": 84862
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 26,
"score": 84470
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 27,
"score": 84232
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka",
"rank": 28,
"score": 83681
},
{
"content": "Title: Massenerhebung effect Content: The Massenerhebung effect ( German for `` mountain mass elevation '' ) describes variation in the tree line based on mountain size and location . In general , mountains surrounded by large ranges will tend to have higher tree lines than more isolated mountains due to heat retention and wind shadowing . This effect is important for determining weather patterns in mountainous regions , as regions of similar altitude and latitude may nonetheless have much warmer or colder climates based on surrounding mountain ranges . For example , in Borneo , Gunung Palung , located on the coast , has moss forest at 900 m , while the montane forest on Gunung Mulu starts at 1200 m and at 1800 m on Mount Kinabalu .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Massenerhebung_effect",
"rank": 29,
"score": 83275
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 30,
"score": 83025
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 31,
"score": 82521
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica",
"rank": 32,
"score": 82399
},
{
"content": "Title: Hot and high Content: In aviation , hot and high is a condition of low air density due to high ambient temperature and high airport elevation . Air density decreases with increasing temperature and altitude . At any given true airspeed , lower air density reduces the amount of lift generated by the wings or the rotors of an aircraft , which may hamper an aircraft 's performance and hence its ability to operate safely . The reduced density also reduces the performance of the aircraft 's engine , compounding the effect . Aviators gauge air density by calculating the density altitude . `` Hot '' and `` high '' do not have to be mutually inclusive of one another , though this tends to be the exception . If an airport is especially hot or high , the other condition need not be present . Temperatures can change from one hour to the next , while the elevation of an airport always remains constant . The fact that temperatures decrease at higher elevations mitigates the `` hot and high '' effect to a certain extent .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Hot_and_high",
"rank": 33,
"score": 82061
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal fluctuations Content: In statistical mechanics , thermal fluctuations are random deviations of a system from its average state , that occur in a system at equilibrium . All thermal fluctuations become larger and more frequent as the temperature increases , and likewise they decrease as temperature approaches absolute zero . Thermal fluctuations are a basic manifestation of the temperature of systems : A system at nonzero temperature does not stay in its equilibrium microscopic state , but instead randomly samples all possible states , with probabilities given by the Boltzmann distribution . Thermal fluctuations generally affect all the degrees of freedom of a system : There can be random vibrations ( phonons ) , random rotations ( rotons ) , random electronic excitations , and so forth . Thermodynamic variables , such as pressure , temperature , or entropy , likewise undergo thermal fluctuations . For example , for a system that has an equilibrium pressure , the system pressure fluctuates to some extent about the equilibrium value . Only the ` control variables ' of statistical ensembles ( such as N , V and E in the microcanonical ensemble ) do not fluctuate . Thermal fluctuations are a source of noise in many systems . The random forces that give rise to thermal fluctuations are a source of both diffusion and dissipation ( including damping and viscosity ) . The competing effects of random drift and resistance to drift are related by the fluctuation-dissipation theorem . Thermal fluctuations play a major role in phase transitions and chemical kinetics .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Thermal_fluctuations",
"rank": 34,
"score": 81800
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 35,
"score": 81415
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 36,
"score": 81254
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 37,
"score": 81223
},
{
"content": "Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Excessive_heat_watch",
"rank": 38,
"score": 81040
},
{
"content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Reasons_for_concern",
"rank": 39,
"score": 80390
},
{
"content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 40,
"score": 80313
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 41,
"score": 79857
},
{
"content": "Title: 2006 European heat wave Content: The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries . The United Kingdom , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , Italy , Poland , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Germany and western parts of Russia were most affected . Several records were broken . In the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Ireland and the United Kingdom , July 2006 was the warmest month since official measurements began .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "2006_European_heat_wave",
"rank": 42,
"score": 79788
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 43,
"score": 79692
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves",
"rank": 44,
"score": 79582
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 45,
"score": 79298
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Sea_level_rise",
"rank": 46,
"score": 79106
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 47,
"score": 78970
},
{
"content": "Title: Hot Cities Content: Hot Cities is an environmental documentary series broadcast in Autumn 2009 by BBC World News . It highlighted the effects of global warming and climate change on the world 's most populous cities .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Hot_Cities",
"rank": 48,
"score": 78823
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 49,
"score": 78783
},
{
"content": "Title: Urban heat island Content: An urban heat island ( UHI ) is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities . The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day , and is most apparent when winds are weak . UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter . The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces . Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor . As a population center grows , it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature . The less-used term heat island refers to any area , populated or not , which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area . Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities , partially due to the UHI . Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons , and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes . The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone , and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems . Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island . Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in urban areas , which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat . There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming . Research on China and India indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30 % . On the other hand , one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends . Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Urban_heat_island",
"rank": 50,
"score": 78461
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans",
"rank": 51,
"score": 78433
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 52,
"score": 78304
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia",
"rank": 53,
"score": 78213
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Cloud_feedback",
"rank": 54,
"score": 78004
},
{
"content": "Title: 2001 Eastern North America heat wave Content: A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States ( with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions ) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July . It began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying . It waned in most areas by the middle of the month , and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves , it was very intense at its peak . The high humidity and high temperatures led to major heat wave that overtook the major Northeast Megalopolis . Temperatures in Central Park , New York City reached a peak of 103 F . The temperature reached 105 F in Newark , New Jersey . Meanwhile , in Ontario and Quebec , extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August . Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached 37 C on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit 38 C on the same day , the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping 35 C. Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave . Even in Nova Scotia , surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures still broke 35 C in some locations . Glace Bay , which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking 35.5 C on August 10 . At least four New Yorkers died of hyperthermia . Chicago had at least 21 deaths .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "2001_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave",
"rank": 55,
"score": 77930
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 56,
"score": 77912
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 57,
"score": 77706
},
{
"content": "Title: Drought in the United Kingdom Content: Droughts are a relatively common feature of the weather in the United Kingdom , with one around every 5 -- 10 years on average . These droughts are usually during the summer , when a blocking high causes hot , dry weather for an extended period . However droughts can vary in their characteristics . All types of drought cause issues across all sectors , with impacts extending to the ecosystem , agriculture and the economy of the whole country in severe cases of drought . The south east of the country usually suffers most , as it has the highest population ( and therefore demand ) and the lowest average precipitation per year , which is even lower in a drought . Even in these areas in severe droughts , the definition , impacts , effects and management are all minimal in comparison to drought prone areas such as Australia and parts of the United States . In recent years however , the summers of 2007 , 2008 , 2009 and August 2010 were wetter than normal , 2007 being wettest on record .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Drought_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 58,
"score": 77488
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 59,
"score": 77206
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves",
"rank": 60,
"score": 77178
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 61,
"score": 76879
},
{
"content": "Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Albrecht_effect",
"rank": 62,
"score": 76805
},
{
"content": "Title: Pan evaporation Content: Pan evaporation is a measurement that combines or integrates the effects of several climate elements : temperature , humidity , rain fall , drought dispersion , solar radiation , and wind . Evaporation is greatest on hot , windy , dry , sunny days ; and is greatly reduced when clouds block the sun and when air is cool , calm , and humid . Pan evaporation measurements enable farmers and ranchers to understand how much water their crops will need .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Pan_evaporation",
"rank": 63,
"score": 76762
},
{
"content": "Title: Apparent temperature Content: Apparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans , caused by the combined effects of air temperature , relative humidity and wind speed . The measures are most commonly applied to perceived outdoor temperatures , but also apply to indoors , especially to saunas or when homes or workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled or insulated to provide comfortable or healthy conditions . The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above 80 ° F ( 27 degrees C ) . In humid conditions , the air feels much hotter , because of the reduction in evaporation of perspiration . The wind chill factor measures the effect of wind speed on cooling of the human body below 50 ° F ( 10 degrees C ) . As airflow increases over the skin , more heat will be removed . Standard models and conditions are used . The wet-bulb globe temperature ( WBGT ) combines the effects of radiation , humidity , temperature and wind speed on the perception of temperature . It is not often used as the resulting figure is very location specific ( e.g. cloud cover and/or wind shielding ) .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Apparent_temperature",
"rank": 64,
"score": 76667
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Dhaka Content: Dhaka experiences a hot , wet and humid tropical climate . Under the Köppen climate classification , Dhaka has a tropical wet and dry climate . The city has a distinct monsoonal season , with an annual average temperature of 25 C and monthly means varying between 18 C in January and 29 C in August . Nearly 80 % of the annual average rainfall of 1854 mm occurs during the monsoon season which lasts from May until the end of September . Increasing air and water pollution emanating from traffic congestion and industrial waste are serious problems affecting public health and the quality of life in the city . Water bodies and wetlands around Dhaka are facing destruction as these are being filled up to construct multi-storied buildings and other real estate developments . Coupled with pollution , such erosion of natural habitats threatens to destroy much of the regional biodiversity . Cold weather is unusual in and around Dhaka . When temperatures decrease to 8 C or less , people without warm clothing and living in inadequate homes may die from the cold .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_of_Dhaka",
"rank": 65,
"score": 76650
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on human health Content: The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health",
"rank": 66,
"score": 76447
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 67,
"score": 76440
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment",
"rank": 68,
"score": 76370
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Arctic_geoengineering",
"rank": 69,
"score": 76246
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Solar_gain",
"rank": 70,
"score": 76161
},
{
"content": "Title: 1976 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1976 United Kingdom heat wave led to the hottest summer average temperature in the UK since records began . At the same time , the country suffered a severe drought . It was one of the driest , sunniest and warmest summers ( June/July/August ) in the 20th century , although 1995 is now regarded as the driest . Only a few places registered more than half their average summer rainfall . In the CET record , it was the warmest summer in that series . It was the warmest summer in the Aberdeen area since at least 1864 . It was the driest summer since 1868 in Glasgow .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "1976_United_Kingdom_heat_wave",
"rank": 71,
"score": 76134
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 72,
"score": 76093
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes",
"rank": 73,
"score": 76070
},
{
"content": "Title: Sukhpur Dayodhi Content: Sukhpur Dayodhi is a village in North Bihar . Sukhpur Dayodhi is endowed with fertile alluvial soil as it lies in the plain of kosi . Climate of village is mild and monsoon type . Summer is not so hot as compared to northern India mainly due to its proximity to the eastern Himalayas but temperature goes down to as cold as 8 degree Celsius during winter . Rain is mainly concentrated from May to September . `` Sukhpur Dayodhi '' is well organized in the sense that the region residing for living & agriculture is separated from each other . Most of the villagers are engaged in cultivation and business . On an average three crops are taken per year from a same piece of land . Major crops include rice , wheat mung , and corn . Mango and Litchi are also major horticulture crops . Mango is major contribution to the farmer 's income . Three major land portions namely `` Lalbagh '' `` Kalibagh '' & `` Mamabagh '' are occupied by mango trees yielding large amounts of mangoes . Only , Ganwariya Royal Rajput ( Parmar Rajput ) lives in `` Sukhpur Dayodhi '' . The education system of Sukhpur Dayodhi is much contributing for many villages since it has 6 schools namely `` High School , Sukhpur '' , `` Chetmani Middle school , Sukhpur '' , `` Prathmic School , Sukhpur , `` Harijan School '' , `` Sanskrit Madhya Vidyalaya '' & `` Primary Girlsl School '' . ` Sukhpur high school ' founded by people of Sukhpur Dayodhi , has been the flag bearer for education in the region . `` Sukhpur Dayodhi '' is providing quality school education not only to Sukhpur but also its surrounding villages . Apart from the education the high school has got a very beautiful play ground , providing the villagers to engage in sports mainly Cricket , football , volleyball . Land for construction of all these schools is donated by family member of Sukhpur Dayodhi villagers and as Babu Chetmani Singh was elder son of that family the School name was given on his name i.e. High School , Chetmani Middle School , Primary School , Girls Primary School including playground of High school , Sukhpur . There are many old temples in this village such as Thalha ka Mandir , Thakurbari , Durga Mandir , Shih Dawar , Kali Mandir , Jivach ji mandir . There are few old historical buildings ; they are really beautiful and famous . Durgapuja is the most famous festival where grand mela is organised in the village .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Sukhpur_Dayodhi",
"rank": 74,
"score": 76058
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature dependence of liquid viscosity Content: The temperature dependence of liquid viscosity is the phenomenon by which liquid viscosity tends to decrease ( or , alternatively , its fluidity tends to increase ) as its temperature increases . This can be observed , for example , by watching how cooking oil appears to move more fluidly upon a frying pan after being heated by a stove .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Temperature_dependence_of_liquid_viscosity",
"rank": 75,
"score": 75797
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of the Alps Content: The climate of the Alps is the climate , or average weather conditions over a long period of time , of the exact middle Alpine region of Europe . As air rises from sea level to the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases . The effect of mountain topography on prevailing winds is to force warm air from the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat , often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow , rain or hail . The position of the Alps in the central European continent profoundly affects the climate of all the surrounding regions . The accumulation of vast masses of snow , which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers , maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges ; it cools breezes that waft to the plains on either side , but its most important function is to regulate the water supply of the large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps . Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during fall , winter , and spring is stored in the form of snow and gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer ; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams . Nor is this all ; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia , and afford an inexhaustible supply of water , which , from a remote period , has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility . Six regions or zones , which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation , are found in the Alps . It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above sea level . Local conditions of exposure to the Sun , protection from cold winds , or the reverse , are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_of_the_Alps",
"rank": 76,
"score": 75504
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 77,
"score": 75504
},
{
"content": "Title: Adaptation to climate change in Jordan Content: Adaptation to climate change in Jordan describes measures with the objective to prepare the country for the impacts of climate change . Water resources in Jordan are scarce . Besides the rapid population growth , the impacts of climate change are likely to further exacerbate the problem . Temperatures will increase and the total annual precipitation is likely to decrease , however with a fair share of uncertainty . Hence , existing and new activities with the objective to minimize the gap between water supply and demand contribute to adapt Jordan to tomorrow 's climate . This might be accompanied by activities improving Jordan 's capacity to monitor and project meteorological and hydrological data and assess its own vulnerability to climate change . This article focuses on the impacts of climate change on the Jordanian water sector .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Adaptation_to_climate_change_in_Jordan",
"rank": 78,
"score": 75409
},
{
"content": "Title: Gulf of Maine Closed Areas Content: The Gulf of Maine has been fished since the 1700s , and has been a historic fishing area since . Climate change is having significant impacts on this ecosystem ; between 2004 and 2013 , the Gulf of Maine has warmed faster than 99.9 % of the global oceans , increasing average temperature by 2 ° C. Having seen the depletion of groundfish stocks starting in the early 1990s , managers took care to create five closure areas in the Gulf of Maine . These closed areas do not prohibit all fishing , rather they prevent the further degradation of benthic habitat and groundfish species . Closed areas are different than Marine Protected Areas ( MPA ) because they allow some forms of fishing and other activities to occur that would normally not be allowed in MPA .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Gulf_of_Maine_Closed_Areas",
"rank": 79,
"score": 75395
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat wave Content: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather , which may be accompanied by high humidity , especially in oceanic climate countries . While definitions vary , a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season . Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area . The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century . Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures , thousands of deaths from hyperthermia , and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning . A heat wave is considered extreme weather , and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Heat_wave",
"rank": 80,
"score": 75260
},
{
"content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Future_sea_level",
"rank": 81,
"score": 75036
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 82,
"score": 75018
},
{
"content": "Title: Climarice Content: Climarice is a research project , carried out by The Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research ( Bioforsk , Norway ) , Tamil Nadu Agricultural University ( TNAU , India ) , International Water Management Institute ( IWMI , India ) and International Pacific Research Center ( IPRC , United States ) ; which is trying to assess the impact of climate variability on water availability and rice production in the Cauvery river basin of Tamil Nadu , India . In particular , the impacts of climate change on extreme events such as droughts , floods , heat waves and on the spatial and temporal distribution of the monsoon rains will certainly impact rice production and food security in India . However , there is a significant level of uncertainty in the climate models ' projections that cascade into impact models and thereby influence policy decisions related to adaptation . For both scientific community and policy makers , reducing the uncertainties is a big challenge . On a positive note , examination of historical observed rice production data in India shows an overall increasing trend in many regions with annual fluctuations . Will this trend continue given the projected change in climate and population increase in India ? Climarice is funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , is currently assessing the impacts of climate change on rice production areas and rice productivity . Specifically , the project is assessing the behavior of the Indian monsoon in different climate scenarios , and examining its impact on the water availability , rice crop production and the resultant socio economic vulnerability and adaptation of farming communities in the Cauvery river basin , India . Since the project was started in January 2008 , relevant coping and adaptation mechanisms have been identified and techniques developed to address the issues of climate vulnerabilities in rice production .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climarice",
"rank": 83,
"score": 74924
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Salt Lake effect Content: The Great Salt Lake effect is a small but detectable influence on the local climate and weather around the Great Salt Lake in Utah , United States . In particular , snowstorms are a common occurrence over the region and have major socio-economic impacts due to their significant precipitation amounts . The Great Salt lake never freezes and can warm rapidly which allows lake-effect precipitation to occur from September through May . Lake-enhanced snowstorms are often attributed to creating what is locally known as `` The Greatest Snow on Earth . ''",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Great_Salt_Lake_effect",
"rank": 84,
"score": 74920
},
{
"content": "Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Excessive_heat_warning",
"rank": 85,
"score": 74706
},
{
"content": "Title: Dog days Content: The dog days or are the hot , sultry days of summer . They were historically the period following the heliacal rising of the star Sirius , which Greek and Roman astrology connected with heat , drought , sudden thunderstorms , lethargy , fever , mad dogs , and bad luck . They are now taken to be the hottest , most uncomfortable part of summer in the Northern Hemisphere .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Dog_days",
"rank": 86,
"score": 74453
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 87,
"score": 74337
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat generation in integrated circuits Content: The heat dissipation in integrated circuits problem has gained an increasing interest in recent years due to the miniaturization of semiconductor devices . The temperature increase becomes relevant for cases of relatively small-cross-sections wires , because such temperature increase may affect the normal behavior of semiconductor devices .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Heat_generation_in_integrated_circuits",
"rank": 88,
"score": 74278
},
{
"content": "Title: Hot hardness Content: In materials engineering and metallurgy , hot hardness or red hardness ( when a metal glows a dull red from the heat ) corresponds to hardness of a material at high temperatures . As the temperature of material increases , hardness decreases and at some point a drastic change in hardness occurs . The hardness at this point is termed the hot or red hardness of that material . Such changes can be seen in materials such as heat treated alloys .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Hot_hardness",
"rank": 89,
"score": 74209
},
{
"content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer",
"rank": 90,
"score": 74009
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Nevada Content: Climate change in Nevada has been measured over the last century , with the average temperature in Elko , Nevada increasing by 0.6 F-change , and precipitation increasing by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Nevada",
"rank": 91,
"score": 73954
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal expansion Content: Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape , area , and volume in response to a change in temperature . Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance . When a substance is heated , the kinetic energy of its molecules increases . Thus , the molecules begin vibrating/moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation . Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual ; this effect is limited in size , and only occurs within limited temperature ranges ( see examples below ) . The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the material 's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Thermal_expansion",
"rank": 92,
"score": 73786
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 Southwestern United States heat wave Content: The 2013 Southwestern United States heat wave occurred in late June to early July 2013 , lasting from around four days to a week locally . Daily highs were up to 15 ° C ( 26 ° F ) above average , with relative humidity below 15 % . Many locations experienced temperatures over 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . 46 monthly record high temperatures were reached or broken , and 21 records for the highest overnight temperatures were reached or broken .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "2013_Southwestern_United_States_heat_wave",
"rank": 93,
"score": 73741
},
{
"content": "Title: Summer of 1976 (Europe) Content: The summer of 1976 was considered to be one of the hottest summers in Europe ( and especially the United Kingdom ) within recent memory . A large high-pressure area dominated most of Europe for all of the summer months . The pressure system moved into place in late May 1976 and remained until the first traces of rain were recorded on August 27 . Rainfall throughout the July -- August period was down by half the annual average . During this spell of hot weather temperatures exceeded 32 ° C ( 89.6 ° F ) at several weather stations within the United Kingdom every day and the town of Cheltenham had eleven , including seven successive days from the 1st of July - recording 35.9 ° C ( 96.6 ° F ) on the 3rd . For the entire period much of Europe was bathed in continual sunshine with the United Kingdom seeing an average of more than 14 hours of sunshine per day . 1976 was dubbed `` The year of the Ladybird '' in that country due to the rise in the mass numbers of ladybirds brought on by the long hot period . `` The long hot summer of 1976 which eventually ended in September of that year , was the culmination of a 16-week dry spell - the longest recorded over England and Wales since 1727 . `` Quote From Met Office The summer of 1976 is by now a firmly established reference point for discussion in the UK of contemporary hot spells .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Summer_of_1976_(Europe)",
"rank": 94,
"score": 73572
},
{
"content": "Title: 2012–13 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2012 -- 13 Australian bushfire season had above average fire potential for most of the southern half of the continent from the east coast to the west . This is despite having extensive fire in parts of the country over the last 12 months . The reason for this prediction is the abundant grass growth spurred by two La Niña events over the last two years . Most parts of the country experienced a heat wave at the start of 2013 , with a new national average maximum being set on 7 January 2013 . The new record of 40.33 C beat the old record of 40.17 C that had been set on 21 December 1972 . Another record also beaten in 2013 was Australia 's mean temperature climbing from 31.86 C set on 21 December 1972 to 32.23 C on 7 January 2013 . Additionally , six of the 20 hottest days in Australian records ( by average maximum ) have been in January 2013 . Australia also experienced its hottest summer on average following a particularly hot spell in January . Using average day and night temperatures the average was found to be 28.6 C beating the previous record set in the summer of 1997 -- 1988 . Fourteen of the weather bureau 's 112 long term weather stations recorded their hottest days on record including one in Sydney that recorded a daytime record of 46 C . The daytime maximum temperatures for 2012 -- 13 also beat the 1982 -- 83 record and January was the hottest month since records began in 1910 .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "2012–13_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 95,
"score": 73475
},
{
"content": "Title: List of life zones by region Content: The climate and ecology of different locations on the globe naturally separate into life zones , depending on elevation , location , and latitude . The generally strong dependency on elevation is known as altitudinal zonation : the average temperature of a location decreases as the elevation increases . The general effect of elevation depends on atmospheric physics . However , the specific climate and ecology of any particular location depends on specific features of that location . This article provides a list of life zones by region , in order to illustrate the features of life zones for regions around the globe .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "List_of_life_zones_by_region",
"rank": 96,
"score": 73379
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal simulations for integrated circuits Content: Miniaturizing components has always been a primary goal in the semiconductor industry because it cuts production cost and lets companies build smaller computers and other devices . Miniaturization , however , has increased dissipated power per unit area and made it a key limiting factor in integrated circuit performance . Temperature increase becomes relevant for relatively small-cross-sections wires , where it may affect normal semiconductor behavior . Besides , since the generation of heat is proportional to the frequency of operation for switching circuits , fast computers have larger heat generation than slow ones , an undesired effect for chips manufacturers . This article summaries physical concepts that describe the generation and conduction of heat in an integrated circuit , and presents numerical methods that model heat transfer from a macroscopic point of view .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Thermal_simulations_for_integrated_circuits",
"rank": 97,
"score": 73255
},
{
"content": "Title: Degree Day Unit Content: The Degree Day Unit is an inexact unit of measurement generally used by the pest control industry and lawn and landscape services regarding the amount of days , normally in the spring , of temperatures above 50 degrees Fahrenheit . For many years insects and weeds were simply assumed to emerge in the early spring based on only average temperatures of the different areas . If unseasonable temperatures occurred especially extended winter conditions and/or snow the emergence of either would vary considerably . Each weed or insect , is based on studies of how many warm days they need to emerge so each month a total of 50 degree days are totaled and compared to how many are needed for each . Temperature controls the developmental rate of many organisms . Plants and invertebrate animals , including insects and nematodes , require a certain amount of heat to develop from one point in their life cycles to another . This measure of accumulated heat is known as physiological time . Theoretically , physiological time provides a common reference for the development of organisms . The amount of heat required to complete a given organism 's development does not vary -- the combination of temperature ( between thresholds ) and time will always be the same . Physiological time is often expressed and approximated in units called degree-days ( ° D ) . Category : Pest control Category : Units of measurement",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Degree_Day_Unit",
"rank": 98,
"score": 73166
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 99,
"score": 73069
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .",
"qid": "164",
"docid": "Sea_surface_temperature",
"rank": 100,
"score": 72972
}
] |
When the Emergency Leaders for Climate Action approached the Federal Government in April they were drawing on decades of data showing that fire conditions are getting worse. | [
{
"content": "Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Climate_Code_Red",
"rank": 1,
"score": 138585
},
{
"content": "Title: Phil Koperberg Content: Philip Christian Koperberg ( born 28 April 1943 ) , is the Chairman of the New South Wales Emergency Management Committee , responsible for advising the New South Wales government on emergency response strategies , since 2011 . Koperberg is a former Australian politician , was the New South Wales Minister for Climate Change , Environment and Water between 2007 and 2008 ; and was a member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly , representing the electorate of the Blue Mountains for the Australian Labor Party between 2007 -- 2011 . Prior to his political career , Koperberg was the Commissioner of the New South Wales Rural Fire Service ( RFS ) in Australia between 1997 -- 2007 . In September 1997 , Koperberg was appointed the RFS Commissioner when the Service was formed under the Rural Fires Act . Before this he had been Director-General of the New South Wales Bush Fire Service from May 1990 . In March 2007 he was elected to State parliament and appointed to the Ministry . However , in December he was forced to stand aside due to a police investigation regarding domestic violence allegations from 1987 . The NSW Director of Public Prosecutions declined to press charges and Koperberg was reinstated to the Ministry . He resigned from the Ministry on 22 February 2008 . Koperberg did not recontest the 2011 state election .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Phil_Koperberg",
"rank": 2,
"score": 122310
},
{
"content": "Title: German Climate Action Plan 2050 Content: The German Climate Action Plan 2050 ( Klimaschutzplan 2050 ) is a climate protection policy document approved by the German government on 14November 2016 . The plan outlines measures by which Germany can meet its various national greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals through to 2050 ( see table ) and service its international commitments under the 2016 Paris Climate Agreement . The Federal Ministry for the Environment , Nature Conservation , Building and Nuclear Safety ( BMUB ) , under minister Barbara Hendricks , led the development of the plan . The plan was progressively watered down since a draft was first leaked in 2016 . Projections from the environment ministry in September 2016 indicate that Germany will likely miss its 2020 climate target . The Climate Action Plan2050 should not be confused with an earlier document , the Climate Action Programme2020 ( Aktionsprogramm Klimaschutz ) , approved in December 2014 and which only covers the period until 2020 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "German_Climate_Action_Plan_2050",
"rank": 3,
"score": 119989
},
{
"content": "Title: U.S. Climate Action Partnership Content: The U.S. Climate Action Partnership ( USCAP ) , formed January 22 , 2007 is a co-operative group of businesses and leading environmental organizations . The group 's primary purpose is to call on the U.S. government to require significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "U.S._Climate_Action_Partnership",
"rank": 4,
"score": 115117
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Russian wildfires Content: The 2010 Russian wildfires were several hundred wildfires that broke out across Russia , primarily in the west in summer 2010 . They started burning in late July and lasted until early September 2010 . The fires were associated with record-high temperatures , which were attributed to climate change -- the summer had been the hottest recorded in Russian history -- and drought . Russian President Dmitry Medvedev declared a state of emergency in seven regions , and 28 other regions were under a state of emergency due to crop failures caused by the drought . The fires cost roughly $ 15 billion in damages . A combination of the smoke from the fires , producing heavy smog blanketing large urban regions and the record-breaking heat wave put stress on the Russian healthcare system . Munich Re estimated that in all , 56,000 people died from the effects of the smog and the heat wave . The 2010 wildfires were the worst on record to that time ; in 2012 , however , new wildfires broke out , and they proved even more extensive and damaging .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2010_Russian_wildfires",
"rank": 5,
"score": 114962
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Climate_Summit",
"rank": 6,
"score": 110922
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Canada Content: In Canada mitigation of anthropogenic climate change is being addressed more seriously by the provinces than by the federal government . The 2015 election signals greater federal leadership as noted in Canada 's National Statement at COP21 , making climate change a top priority , and pledging actions based on the best scientific evidence and advice .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Canada",
"rank": 7,
"score": 110491
},
{
"content": "Title: Action/2015 Content: action/2015 was a global coalition of more than 2200 organisations and networks from over 150 countries , united by the belief that 2015 was a critical year for progress in the fight against climate change , poverty and inequality . Throughout the year , this coalition engaged and mobilised the public at critical decision-making points to call on leaders to commit to strong goals and agreements at two crucial UN summits in 2015 - the UN General Assembly and the UN Climate Change Conference . Throughout the year millions of activists came together through action/2015 to ensure world leaders would feel the pressure to seize the opportunity to tackle poverty , inequality and climate change . With 31 million campaign actions taken in 157 countries , action/2015 was a massive global movement for change -- the biggest-ever of its kind .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Action/2015",
"rank": 8,
"score": 110163
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 Washington wildfires Content: The 2015 wildfire season was the largest in Washington state history , with more than 1 e6acre burning across the state from June to September . As many as 3,000 firefighters including 800 Washington National Guard members were deployed to fight the fires . The 17th Field Artillery Brigade of the United States Army also deployed 200 soldiers from Joint Base Lewis -- McChord to help fight the fires . On August 21 , President Barack Obama declared the fires a federal emergency . Because of the enormous extent of the fire activity , for the first time in Washington state history , officials asked residents to volunteer to assist in fighting the wildfires . On August 24 , the Washington Department of Natural Resources announced the Okanogan Complex fire had become the largest fire complex in Washington State history . The Washington State Department of Natural Resources called the season the `` worst-ever '' in the state 's history .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2015_Washington_wildfires",
"rank": 9,
"score": 108213
},
{
"content": "Title: World People's Conference on Climate Change Content: The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth was a global gathering of civil society and governments hosted by the government of Bolivia in Tiquipaya , just outside the city of Cochabamba from April 19 -- 22 , 2010 . The event was attended by around 30,000 people from over 100 countries , and the proceedings were transmitted live online by OneClimate and the Global Campaign for Climate Action ( GCCA ) . The conference was viewed as a response to what some termed failed climate talks in Copenhagen during the 15th United Nations Conference of Parties ( COP15 ) climate meetings in December 2009 . There have been claims after the Conference ended that there were flaws in its organization and that the Venezuelan government funded it partially . One of the important objectives of the conference was to produce proposals for new commitments to the Kyoto Protocol and projects in the lead-up to the next UN climate negotiations scheduled during the COP16 meeting in Cancun , Mexico in December 2010 . Conference topics included a Universal Declaration on the Rights of Mother Earth ( see external links below ) , a World People 's Referendum on Climate Change , and the establishment of a Climate Justice Tribunal . The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of the Mother Earth resulted in a People 's Accord .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "World_People's_Conference_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 10,
"score": 107178
},
{
"content": "Title: National Emergency Training Center Content: The National Emergency Training Centers ( NETC ) serves as an interagency emergency management training body for the United States government . The college campus was purchased by the U.S. Government in 1979 for use as the National Emergency Training Center . NETC is home to the National Fire Academy , United States Fire Administration , Emergency Management Institute ( EMI ) , which is operated by the Directorate of Preparedness branch of the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) . The campus also includes the learning resource center ( LRC ) library , the National Fire Data Center , and the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial . Both independently and by means of cooperative research and development agreements with the military and cooperative agreements with the technology companies and academic institutions , NETC also conducts research to identify methods for offering more effective training .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "National_Emergency_Training_Center",
"rank": 11,
"score": 105275
},
{
"content": "Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Evangelical_Climate_Initiative",
"rank": 12,
"score": 105073
},
{
"content": "Title: Executive Order 13653 Content: Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Executive_Order_13653",
"rank": 13,
"score": 103248
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 Tasmanian bushfires Content: The 2013 Tasmanian bushfires were a series of bushfires in south-eastern Tasmania in starting in November/December 2012 , with major fires in early January 2013 , right through until late April 2013 . It was predicted early on that the 2012-13 had the potential to be worse than usual . High fuel loads , coupled with a dry , warm and windy , providing potentially dangerous conditions . The Tasmania Fire Service implemented a new media campaign , with a view to increasing community preparedness and awareness of what to do if bushfires threatened . But nobody predicted that the fire season would last for almost 6 months , which is unprecedented in the recorded history of Tasmania .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2013_Tasmanian_bushfires",
"rank": 14,
"score": 102446
},
{
"content": "Title: R20 Regions of Climate Action Content: The R20 - Regions of Climate Action is a non-profit environmental organization founded in November 2010 , by former Governor of California , Arnold Schwarzenegger , with the support of the United Nations . R20 is a coalition of sub-national governments , private companies , international organizations , NGOs , and academic & financial institutions . Its mission is to help sub-national governments to implement low-carbon and climate-resilient projects , as well as to share best practices in renewable energy and energy efficiency in order to build a `` green economy '' . This NGO operates at the sub-national level as R20 believes sub-national governments constitute a powerful force for change and are best positioned to take action & implement green projects . Through this bottom-up approach , successful sub-national projects will be scaled-up to national and international levels to achieve a broader , global impact .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "R20_Regions_of_Climate_Action",
"rank": 15,
"score": 102302
},
{
"content": "Title: Irish emergency budget, 2009 Content: The 2009 Irish emergency budget refers to the delivery of an emergency government budget by the Government of Ireland on 7 April 2009 , its second in six months . It was also the second overall budget to be delivered by Fianna Fáil 's Brian Lenihan as Minister for Finance . The emergency budget announcement involved significant tax rises and a decrease in public spending . Prior to its unveiling , it was predicted to be the most severe budget in decades , with The Independent suggesting in its aftermath that it was the most severe in the country 's history .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Irish_emergency_budget,_2009",
"rank": 16,
"score": 101522
},
{
"content": "Title: US Climate Symposium Content: The US Climate Symposium ( also known as USCAN ( US Climate Action Network ) ) was established in 1989 by groups and organizations working towards fight and threat of global warming . The need for a forum for a joint strategy development and advocacy to effect change in a coordinated way at the state and local level as well as at the United Nations and in Washington , D.C.",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "US_Climate_Symposium",
"rank": 17,
"score": 100803
},
{
"content": "Title: European Commissioner for Climate Action Content: The Commissioner for Climate Action is a new post in the European Commission . It was created in 2010 , being split from the environmental portfolio to focus on fighting climate change . The current Commissioner is Miguel Arias Cañete . The European Union has made a number of moves in regard to climate change . Most notably it signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 , set up its Emission Trading Scheme in 2005 and is currently agreeing to unilaterally cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % by 2020 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "European_Commissioner_for_Climate_Action",
"rank": 18,
"score": 100448
},
{
"content": "Title: C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group Content: The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) connects 90 of the world 's greatest cities , representing 650 + million people and one quarter of the global economy . Created and led by cities , C40 is focused on tackling climate change and driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks , while increasing the health , wellbeing and economic opportunities of urban citizens . The current chair of the C40 is Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo ; the President of the Board is the 108th Mayor of New York City Michael R. Bloomberg , with Mark Watts serving as C40 Executive Director . All three work closely with the 13-member Steering Committee , the Board of Directors and C40 professional staff . The rotating Steering Committee of C40 mayors provides strategic direction and governance . Current Steering Committee members include : Amman , Boston , Copenhagen , Durban , Hong Kong , Jakarta , London , Los Angeles , Mexico City , Milan , Paris , Seoul , and Tokyo . Working across multiple sectors and initiative areas , C40 convenes networks of cities providing a suite of services in support of their efforts , including : direct technical assistance ; facilitation of peer-to-peer exchange ; and research , knowledge management & communications . C40 is also positioning cities as a leading force for climate action around the world , defining and amplifying their call to national governments for greater support and autonomy in creating a sustainable future . C40 's work is made possible by three strategic funders : Bloomberg Philanthropies , The Children 's Investment Fund Foundation ( CIFF ) , and Realdania .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "C40_Cities_Climate_Leadership_Group",
"rank": 19,
"score": 100132
},
{
"content": "Title: 2013 New South Wales bushfires Content: The 2013 New South Wales bushfires were a series of bushfires in Australia across the state of New South Wales primarily starting , or becoming notable , on 13 October 2013 ; followed by the worst of the fires beginning in the Greater Blue Mountains Area on 16 and 17 October 2013 . High fuel loads , coupled with warm , dry and windy weather , provided dangerous conditions which fuelled the fires . At the peak of the fires , on the morning of 18 October , over 100 fires were burning across the state . The Premier of New South Wales Barry O'Farrell declared a state of emergency on 20 October , empowering firefighters to evict residents and demolish fire-affected buildings . The fires are the worst in New South Wales since the 1960s . , 248 houses and other structures were destroyed across the state . Two fatalities were attributed to the fires . It was estimated that claims will exceed 94 million .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2013_New_South_Wales_bushfires",
"rank": 20,
"score": 99971
},
{
"content": "Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Compact_of_Mayors",
"rank": 21,
"score": 99926
},
{
"content": "Title: Great March for Climate Action Content: The Great March for Climate Action ( also known as the Climate March ) was launched on March 1 , 2013 by former Iowa lawmaker Ed Fallon , inspired after meeting with Bill McKibben . `` Since probably 2007 , I 've identified the climate crisis as the most serious challenge facing our planet , and I 've been pondering ways in which I could most effectively help address it . '' The non-profit organization planned to mobilize one thousand people to march across the continental United States in order to raise awareness and action on anthropogenic climate change . In the end , five people completed the entire march . The march began March 1 , 2014 in Wilmington neighborhood in South Los Angeles , California , and ended on November 1 , 2014 when marchers arrived in Washington , D.C. Along the route , participants engaged with the general public and elected officials in order to inspire society to address climate change . In a Des Moines Register interview Fallon said , `` We think it 's very important . We think this is a tool that will help mobilize people to understand the problem and to do more about it ... this needs to become the defining issue of this century . '' Fallon was inspired in part by another cross-country march , the 1986 Great Peace March for Global Nuclear Disarmament , for which he coordinated the Iowa logistics . Although this was a national campaign , it was intended to have an international audience and was desired to include participants from multiple nations , as climate change is a global phenomenon . The headquarters of the non-profit are located in Des Moines , Iowa . As of October 2013 they had six staff , had raised $ 120,000 , and earned endorsements from 350 . org , James Hansen , and U.S. Senator Tom Harkin and Congressman Bruce Braley among others .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Great_March_for_Climate_Action",
"rank": 22,
"score": 99545
},
{
"content": "Title: San Francisco Climate Action Plan Content: The San Francisco Climate Action Plan is a greenhouse gas reduction initiative adopted by the City and County of San Francisco , United States in 2002 . It aims to reduce the city 's greenhouse gas emissions to 20 % below 1990 levels by 2012 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "San_Francisco_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 23,
"score": 98346
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Action Network Content: Climate Action Network -- International ( CAN ) is an umbrella group of environmental non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) active on the issue of climate change . It is most active at meetings of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where it publishes a daily newsletter `` ECO '' , presenting the views of the Environmental NGO community . The Climate Action Network-International is a worldwide network of over 1100 non-governmental organizations in 120 countries working to promote government and individual action to limit human-induced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels . CAN members work to achieve this goal through the coordination of information exchange and NGO strategy on international , regional and national climate issues . CAN has formal regional networks which coordinate these efforts in Africa , Central and Eastern Europe , Europe , Latin America , North America , South Asia , Southeast Asia , and Japan . CAN also has members in China , the Pacific and the Middle East . CAN members place a high priority on both a healthy environment and development that `` meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs '' ( Brundtland Commission ) . Climate Action Network 's vision is to protect the atmosphere while allowing for sustainable and equitable development worldwide .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Climate_Action_Network",
"rank": 24,
"score": 97857
},
{
"content": "Title: California Climate Action Registry Content: The California Climate Action Registry was established by California statute as a non-profit voluntary registry for greenhouse gas emissions . The purpose of the Registry is to help companies and organizations with operations in the state to establish GHG emissions baselines against which any future GHG emission reduction requirements may be applied . The California Registry provides leadership on climate change by developing and promoting credible , accurate and consistent GHG reporting standards and tools for organizations to measure , monitor , third-party verify and reduce their GHG emissions consistently across industry sectors and geographical borders . In turn , the State of California offers its best efforts to ensure that California Registry members receive appropriate consideration for early action in light of future state , federal or international GHG regulatory programs . It was created on October 13 , 2001 when Gray Davis signed the legislation establishing it ( Senate Bills 1771 and 527 ) . The legislation was first introduced by Senator Byron Sher .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "California_Climate_Action_Registry",
"rank": 25,
"score": 97657
},
{
"content": "Title: Forward Challenge Content: Forward Challenge 06 was an exercise in crisis operations and continuity of government operation conducted by the Federal Emergency Management Agency and other agencies in June 2006 . The exercise included activities at Mount Weather in Virginia .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Forward_Challenge",
"rank": 26,
"score": 97402
},
{
"content": "Title: Fire and Emergency New Zealand Content: Fire and Emergency New Zealand ( FENZ ) will be established on 1 July 2017 , when 40 urban and rural fire services ( including the New Zealand Fire Service and the National Rural Fire Authority ) will amalgamate to become one organisation . The creation of the FENZ is one of the largest public sector amalgamations ever undertaken in New Zealand . The Government of New Zealand is combining nearly all organisations with firefighting and fire control responsibilities into a single organisation and also giving them the legislative mandate to perform certain non-fire-related work . The result will be that more or less wherever a fire happens ( or indeed most emergencies ) , whether in remote Fiordland or downtown Auckland , personnel from one organisation , Fire and Emergency New Zealand , will respond . And the response will be consistent , coordinated and professional . The establishment of FENZ is being managed by the FENZ Transition Project on behalf of the New Zealand Fire Service Commission .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Fire_and_Emergency_New_Zealand",
"rank": 27,
"score": 97196
},
{
"content": "Title: Cities Climate Finance Leadership Alliance Content: The Cities Climate Finance Leadership Alliance ( CCFLA ) is a coalition of more than forty organizations actively working to accelerate investment into sustainable infrastructure . The Alliance brings together a wide range of public and private institutions . For example , the Swiss Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation ( GIB ) is a member of the CCFLA Steering Committee , and occupies the `` Research/NGO/Foundations '' seat . The Alliance was launched at the United Nations Secretary-General 's Climate Summit in September 2014 . In 2016 , R20 Regions of Climate Action was elected to lead the Secretariat of CCFLA , partnering with three other organizations : FMDV , UNDP , and UNEP .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Cities_Climate_Finance_Leadership_Alliance",
"rank": 28,
"score": 97017
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Day of Action Content: Global Day of Action is a direct action protest format . Environmentalism initiatives begun to use it in 2005 in connection with Global Climate Campaign . They aimed to focus world attention on the anthropogenic effect that humans are having on global warming . Its main objective is to spearhead demands that elected representatives of their respective governments honor commitments set forth by the Kyoto Protocol , by conducting in unison peaceful demonstrations around the world . The demonstration , or rallies , are intended to coincide with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , a meeting of world leaders from 189 nations , that meet annually to discuss climate change .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Global_Day_of_Action",
"rank": 29,
"score": 96959
},
{
"content": "Title: District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department Content: The District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department , ( also known as DC FEMS , FEMS , DCFD , DC Fire , or Fire & EMS ) , established July 1 , 1884 , provides fire protection and emergency medical service to the city of Washington , D.C. , the capital of the United States . An organ of the devolved district government , Fire & EMS is responsible for providing fire suppression , ambulance service and hazardous materials containment for the federal district .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "District_of_Columbia_Fire_and_Emergency_Medical_Services_Department",
"rank": 30,
"score": 96408
},
{
"content": "Title: Environment Protection Authority (Victoria) Content: Environment Protection Authority Victoria ( EPA ) The EPA 's role is one of both prevention and response relevant to reducing the harmful effects caused to the environment by pollution . During emergency events EPA provides expert advice to emergency services . The EPA is called on regularly to respond to pollution incidents , such as industrial spills , and natural disasters , such as bush fires or floods . During bushfire season , the EPA provides advice and forecasting on the impacts of bushfire smoke . The EPA also monitors compliance with the Environment Protection Act . In line with current international regulatory practice , the EPA adopts a ` risk based ' regulatory approach . This means that it allocates resources where the greatest difference can be made regarding potential harm to the environment and the likelihood of non-compliance . EPA aspires to create a healthy environment that supports a liveable and prosperous Victoria . By effectively regulating pollution in Victoria , EPA is striving to deliver clean air , healthy waterways , safe land , and minimal disturbances from noise and odour for Victorians . The EPA is currently under review by the state government . The Ministerial Advisory Committee ( MAC ) for the independent Inquiry into the Environment Protection Authority delivered its report to the Minister for Environment , Climate Change and Water on 31 March 2016 . The Government 's response is expected mid 2016 . On Monday 16 May 2016 the Government released the MAC report which makes 48 recommendations to set the EPA up for the next generation . http://www.premier.vic.gov.au/first-step-towards-a-modern-epa/ On 17 January 2017 the Victorian State Government released its response to the Independent Inquiry into the Environment Protection Authority ( EPA ) . The government response commits to a once-in-a-generation transformation of the EPA to equip it for the future . A modernised environment protection framework with increased resourcing will ensure that the EPA can continue to protect the health of Victorians , our environment and our world-recognised liveability as Victoria 's population continues to grow . The government response supports in full 40 of the 48 recommendations , with seven supported in principle , and one supported in part . Legislative changes to modernise EPA 's governance and overhaul the Environment Protection Act 1970 will be introduced in 2017 and 2018 . These will strengthen the EPA 's independence and scientific expertise , and deliver certainty , and consistent and efficient regulation for industry . In particular , there will be a landmark shift of approach to preventing harm to the health of Victorians and our environment . The Victorian State Government 2017/18 Budget released on 2 May 2017 has committed over $ 162million to kick-start a five year reform program that will provide Victorians with a bigger , better equipped , and more effective EPA to address Victoria 's environment protection challenges now and into the future . An initial $ 45m over 18 months was announced in January 2017 includes : $ 4.8 million to expand the environmental public health capability in the EPA to better identify , manage and communicate environmental health risks in Victoria $ 6.5 million to better hold polluters to account $ 4.8 million to pilot a program of local government environment protection officers to respond more effectively to local issues affecting liveability and amenity $ 2.1 million to appoint a Chief Environmental Scientist and boost EPA 's intelligence-gathering on new and emerging risks $ 3.3 million for improved digital information management to support better regulation $ 1.5 million to strengthen EPA 's strategic role in land use planning . An interim advisory board has been appointed to support the EPA through this significant reform process and provide strategic advice to support its leadership . This will be led by current EPA Chairman , Cheryl Batagol , with interim board members : Dr John Stocker , Professor Rebekah Brown , Ross Pilling , Monique Conheady , Debra Russell , Robert Hogarth and Professor Arie Frieberg . The Independent Inquiry into the EPA was conducted over 10 months by a Ministerial Advisory Committee and the final report was publicly released on 16 May 2016 . The inquiry was the first comprehensive review of the EPA since it commenced operations in 1971 . You can find out more about the inquiry , and view the final report here . - See more at : http://delwp.vic.gov.au/environment-and-wildlife/epa-inquiry#sthash.vItBr7sq.dpuf Lily D'Ambrosio MP is the Minister for Energy , Environment and Climate Change . She was appointed to the role on 23 May 2016 and is the minister responsible for the EPA . EPA employs close to 600 staff ( expected to grow to about 750 over the next year up from about 340 in 2014 ) , based at seven locations across Victoria . Staff include scientists , engineers , lawyer , administrators , community engagement staff , Environment Protection Officers as well as specialist investigators and prosecutors . Offices are located across Victoria at Carlton ( head office ) , Macleod , Dandenong , Traralgon , Wangaratta , Bendigo , and Geelong . EPA will soon open an additional office in Exhibition Street , Melbourne . On 23 March 2017 EPA announced the appointment of Dr Andrea Hinwood as the state 's first Chief Environmental Scientist . http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/about-us/news-centre/news-and-updates/news/2017/march/23/victorias-inaugural-chief-environmental-scientist-announced",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Environment_Protection_Authority_(Victoria)",
"rank": 31,
"score": 96402
},
{
"content": "Title: List of March for Science locations Content: The March for Science was a series of protests that occurred across the United States and around the World on April 22 , 2017 . The protests were organized due to the perceived hostility of the Trump administration , as well as proposed budget cuts to federal agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency and the National Institute of Health . A major goal of the march was convincing government officials to adopt policies in-line with the scientific understanding of issues such as climate change and vaccines . Listed below are several hundreds of the affiliated marches .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "List_of_March_for_Science_locations",
"rank": 32,
"score": 96228
},
{
"content": "Title: Chicago Climate Action Plan Content: The Chicago Climate Action Plan ( CCAP ) is Chicago 's climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy that was adopted in September 2008 . The CCAP has an overarching goal of reducing Chicago 's greenhouse gas emissions by 80 percent below 1990 levels by 2050 , with an interim goal of 25 percent below 1990 levels by 2020 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Chicago_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 33,
"score": 96137
},
{
"content": "Title: Action for climate empowerment (ACE) Content: Action for Climate Empowerment ( ACE ) is a term adopted by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . It refers to Article 6 of the Convention 's original text ( 1992 ) , focusing on six priority areas : education , training , public awareness , public participation , public access to information , and international cooperation on these issues . The implementation of all six areas has been identified as the pivotal factor for everyone to understand and participate in solving the complex challenges presented by climate change . The importance of ACE is reflected in other international frameworks such as the Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs , 2015 ) ; the Global Action Programme for Education for Sustainable Development ( GAP on ESD , 2014 ) ; the Aarhus Convention ( 2011 ) ; and the Bali Guidelines ( 2010 ) . ACE calls on governments to develop and implement educational and public awareness programmes , train scientific , technical and managerial personnel , foster access to information , and promote public participation in addressing climate change and its effects . It also urges countries to cooperate in this process , by exchanging good practices and lessons learned , and strengthening national institutions . This wide scope of activities is guided by specific objectives that , together , are seen as crucial for effectively implementing climate adaptation and mitigation actions , and for achieving the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Action_for_climate_empowerment_(ACE)",
"rank": 34,
"score": 96064
},
{
"content": "Title: Federal Emergency Management Agency Content: The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) is an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security , initially created by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 and implemented by two Executive Orders on April 1 , 1979 . The agency 's primary purpose is to coordinate the response to a disaster that has occurred in the United States and that overwhelms the resources of local and state authorities . The governor of the state in which the disaster occurs must declare a state of emergency and formally request from the president that FEMA and the federal government respond to the disaster . FEMA also provides these services for territories of the United States , such as Puerto Rico . The only exception to the state 's gubernatorial declaration requirement occurs when an emergency and/or disaster takes place on federal property or to a federal asset , for example ; the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , or the Space Shuttle Columbia in the 2003 return-flight disaster . While on-the-ground support of disaster recovery efforts is a major part of FEMA 's charter , the agency provides state and local governments with experts in specialized fields and funding for rebuilding efforts and relief funds for infrastructure by directing individuals to access low interest loans , in conjunction with the Small Business Administration . In addition to this , FEMA provides funds for training of response personnel throughout the United States and its territories as part of the agency 's preparedness effort .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency",
"rank": 35,
"score": 95966
},
{
"content": "Title: 2008–09 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season was the Australian bushfire season that ran from late December 2008 to April/May 2009 . Above average rainfalls in December , particularly in Victoria , delayed the start of the season , but by January 2009 , conditions throughout South eastern Australia worsened with the onset of one of the region 's worst heat waves . On 7 February , extreme bushfire conditions precipitated major bushfires throughout Victoria , involving several large fire complexes , which continued to burn across the state for around one month . 173 people lost their lives in these fires and 414 were injured . 3,500 + buildings were destroyed , including 2,029 houses , and 7,562 people displaced . Late 2008 had relatively few bushfires . Victoria in particular experienced higher than average rainfall in December , decreasing the fire danger in many regions of the state . Initial observations in October 2008 predicted an above average fire potential across Australia 's coastal regions and a below average potential in Central Australia , where drought has reduced the available fuel . In late January and early February , the effects of the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave increased temperatures across south-eastern Australia , particularly in Victoria and South Australia , where several locations broke all time temperature records . Various days of high wind speed , combined with the hot dry conditions , created extreme bushfire conditions between 25 January and 7 February 2009 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2008–09_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 36,
"score": 95908
},
{
"content": "Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 37,
"score": 95823
},
{
"content": "Title: National Fire Academy Content: The National Fire Academy ( NFA ) is one of two schools in the United States operated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) at the National Emergency Training Center ( NETC ) in Emmitsburg , Maryland . Operated and governed by the United States Fire Administration ( USFA ) as part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) , the NFA is the country 's pre-eminent federal fire training and education institution . The original purpose of the NFA as detailed in a 1973 report to Congress was to `` function as the core of the Nation 's efforts in fire service education -- feeding out model programs , curricula , and information ... '' The NFA shares its 107 acre Emmitsburg campus with the Emergency Management Institute ( EMI ) operated by the Directorate of Preparedness branch of FEMA . The campus also includes the Learning Resource Center ( LRC ) library , the National Fire Data Center , and the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial . The campus was the original site of Saint Joseph 's Academy , a Catholic school for girls from 1809 until 1973 . It was purchased by the U.S. Government in 1979 for use as the NETC . In 2008 , the National Fire Academy trained over 122,000 first responders from all 50 States .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "National_Fire_Academy",
"rank": 38,
"score": 95585
},
{
"content": "Title: National Emergency Management Agency Content: The National Emergency Management Agency ( NEMA ; Korean : 소방방재청 , 消防防災廳 ) was an agency of South Korea , initially created by Enactment of the `` Act on Promotion of Fire Fighting Industry '' of 2008 and ceased control on 19 November 2014 as the Ministry of Public Safety and Security was founded at the same day on the incident of the MV Sewol ferry disaster . The agency 's primary purpose is to coordinate the response to any disaster that has occurred in South Korea which overwhelms the resources of local government authorities . The disaster management system of Korea goes back to `` Buyeok '' ( compulsory service ) in the era of the Three Kingdoms , which was succeeded by the Hyangyak in the Joseon Dynasty and then by the ` Civil Defense Basic Law ' enacted in 1975 after independence . The NEMA , whose predecessor is the ` Headquarters of Civil Defense and Disaster Management ' under the control of the Ministry of Government Administration and Home Affairs , was opened on June 1 , 2004 for the purpose of protecting the lives and property of the people from the large-scale disasters that have occurred repeatedly every year since 1990s . The NEMA consists of 1 officer , 3 bureaus , 19 divisions and 4 affiliated organizations . A total of 435 people ( 267 for the main office and 168 for the affiliated organizations ) work for the NEMA . Through the execution of 12 laws including the Disaster and Safety Management Basic Law , it is taking the lead in the national disaster management work of protecting the lives and property of the people .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "National_Emergency_Management_Agency",
"rank": 39,
"score": 95236
},
{
"content": "Title: People's Climate March Content: The People 's Climate March ( PCM ) was a large-scale activist event to advocate global action against climate change , which took place on Sunday , September 21 , 2014 , in New York City , along with a series of companion actions worldwide , many of which also took the name People 's Climate March . With an estimated 311,000 participants , the New York event was the largest climate change march in history . Described as `` an invitation to change everything , '' the march was called in May 2014 by 350 . org , the environmental organization founded by writer/activist Bill McKibben , and it was endorsed by `` over 1,500 organizations , including many international and national unions , churches , schools and community and environmental justice organizations . '' It was conceived as a response to ( but not a protest against ) the scheduled U.N. Climate Summit of world leaders to take place in New York City two days later , on September 23 . Although based in New York , the event was global in scope and implication , with `` companion demonstrations '' worldwide . Organizers intended the march to be `` the largest single event on climate that has been organized to date ... one so large and diverse that it can not be ignored . '' The entire PCM project consisted of `` numerous events , actions , symposia , presentations , and more organized over the course of the days leading up to the Summit , and in the days following , '' of which the march was intended to be `` the anchor event . '' Worldwide , nearly 600,000 people were estimated to have marched on September 21 , including those in New York .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "People's_Climate_March",
"rank": 40,
"score": 95062
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Christmas bushfires Content: The Black Christmas bushfires were bushfires that burnt for almost three weeks from 24 December 2001 to 7 January 2002 across New South Wales , Australia . It was the longest continuous bushfire emergency in NSW history . Low rainfall across winter and spring 2001 combined with a hot , dry December created ideal conditions for bushfires . On the day of Christmas Eve , firefighters from the Grose Vale Rural Fire Service ( RFS ) brigade attended a blaze in rugged terrain at the end of Cabbage Tree Rd , Grose Vale , believed to have been caused by power lines in the Grose Valley . On Christmas Day , strong westerly winds fuelled more than 100 bushfires across the state , creating a plume of smoke that extended across Sydney . This plume of smoke would not clear for some days as the bushfires continued to burn , creating some of the worst pollution that Sydney has ever experienced , with a regional pollution index reading of : 200 in North-West Sydney ; 120 in Central-East and South-West Sydney . The fires mainly burnt in Lane Cove National Park , the Royal National Park & Blue Mountains National Park . Overall approximately 3,000 square kilometres ( 740,000 acres ) were burnt . 121 homes were destroyed across the state and 36 damaged , mostly in the lower Blue Mountains and west of the Royal National Park around Helensburgh . Arsonists were believed to be responsible for starting many of the fires , leading to harsher penalties for those who start bushfires . The dry conditions that started the bushfires continued well into 2002 , resulting in the worst drought in 100 years . The drought was declared a `` one in 1000 year event '' . The drought finally broke with the La Nina event of 2010 -- 2011 . Significantly higher than average rainfall began in July 2010 , it was Australia 's second wettest year on record . An Erickson S-64 Aircrane helicopter became something of a celebrity during this time . Elvis ( N179AC ) was loaned to NSW by Victoria and proved instantly successful .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Black_Christmas_bushfires",
"rank": 41,
"score": 94931
},
{
"content": "Title: Emergency Alert System Content: The Emergency Alert System ( EAS ) is a national warning system in the United States put into place on January 1 , 1997 ( approved by Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) in November 1994 ) , when it replaced the Emergency Broadcast System ( EBS ) , which in turn replaced the CONELRAD System . The official EAS is designed to enable the President of the United States to speak to the United States within 10 minutes . In addition to this requirement , EAS is also designed to alert the public of local weather emergencies such as tornadoes and flash floods ( and in some cases severe thunderstorms depending on the severity of the storm ) . A national EAS test was conducted on November 9 , 2011 , at 2 p.m. Eastern Standard Time . The most recent National EAS Test was performed September 28 , 2016 , at 2:20 PM EDT ( 11:20 AM PDT ) . EAS is jointly coordinated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) and the National Weather Service ( NOAA/NWS ) . The EAS regulations and standards are governed by the Public Safety and Homeland Security Bureau of the FCC . EAS has become part of Integrated Public Alert and Warning System ( IPAWS ) , a program of FEMA . EAS messages are transmitted via AM , FM , broadcast television , cable television and Land Mobile Radio Service , as well as VHF , UHF , and FiOS ( wireline video providers ) . Digital television , satellite television , and digital cable providers , along with Sirius XM satellite radio , IBOC , DAB , smart phones and digital radio broadcasters , have been required to participate in the EAS since December 31 , 2006 . DirecTV , Dish Network , and all other DBS providers have been required to participate since May 31 , 2007 . In 2008 , the FCC began work on another system for public alerting designed and targeted at smartphones , meant to support the EAS . The Commercial Mobile Alert System ( now Wireless Emergency Alerts ) made its debut in about early 2013 in select states for select events . While this system functions independently from the Emergency Alert System , it may broadcast identical information .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Emergency_Alert_System",
"rank": 42,
"score": 94877
},
{
"content": "Title: Palestinian Authority Government of April 2003 Content: The Palestinian Authority Government of April 2003 was a government of the Palestinian National Authority ( PA ) from April to September 2003 . It was headed by Mahmoud Abbas , the very first Prime Minister . The Prime Minister and his government were inaugurated before the Parliament on 29 April . Abbas already resigned as Prime Minister on 6 September 2003 because of a struggle for power with President Yasser Arafat and the stagnated implementation of the Road map for Peace . After the discharge of the Government in September 2003 , Speaker of the Palestinian Legislative Council Ahmed Qurei was asked to become Prime Minister of an emergency government , but Arafat , on 5 October , appointed Qurei PM of a small emergency cabinet before a government could be presented to Parliament .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Palestinian_Authority_Government_of_April_2003",
"rank": 43,
"score": 94676
},
{
"content": "Title: ACTION (U.S. government agency) Content: ACTION was a United States government agency described as `` the federal domestic volunteer agency '' . It was formed July 1 , 1971 , during President Richard Nixon 's first term under the provisions of Reorganization Plan Number One , and Executive Order 11603 , June 30 , 1971 , to provide centralized coordination and administration of Government-sponsored domestic and international volunteer agencies . Among the programs transferred to the new agency were : domestic volunteer programs established in the Office of Economic Opportunity ( OEO ) pursuant to the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 ( 78 Stat . 508 ) , August 20 , 1964 : Volunteers in Service to America ( VISTA ) and the National Student Volunteer Program ( NSVP ) ; domestic volunteer programs established in the Department of Health , Education , and Welfare pursuant to the Older Americans Act of 1965 ( 79 Stat . 218 ) , July 14 , 1965 , and the Older Americans Act Amendments of 1969 ( 83 Stat . 111 ) , September 17 , 1969 : the Foster Grandparents program and the Retired Senior Volunteer Program ( RSVP ) ; the Peace Corps , the international volunteer programs represented established in the Department of State pursuant to EO 10924 , March 1 , 1961 ; the volunteer action clearinghouse functions vested in the Office of Voluntary Action at the Department of Housing and Urban Development , pursuant to EO 11470 , May 26 , 1969 . ACTION also assumed from OEO responsibility for providing logistical support to the volunteer programs of the Small Business Administration ( SBA ) : Service Corps of Retired Executives ( SCORE ) , established April 1964 ; Active Corps of Executives ( ACE ) , established August 1969 . ACTION 's responsibility for SCORE and ACE terminated in 1976 . In addition , the Senior Companions program was established in ACTION in 1973 . Foster Grandparents , RSVP , and Senior Companions were later merged into the Senior Corps . The Peace Corps was separated from ACTION in 1982 . The NSVP was redesignated National Center for Service Learning in 1980 , and terminated and superseded by Student Community Service Projects in 1987 . ACTION 's functions , and the Commission on National and Community Service , were ordered transferred to the newly established Corporation for National and Community Service ( CNCS ) no later than March 22 , 1995 , by Section 203 of the National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993 ( 107 Stat . 892 ) , September 21 , 1993 . AmeriCorps , which includes VISTA , and Senior Corps are programs of the CNCS . ACTION was abolished by Presidential Proclamation 6662 , April 4 , 1994 ( 3 CFR , 1994 ed. , 22 ) . See 362.1 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "ACTION_(U.S._government_agency)",
"rank": 44,
"score": 94566
},
{
"content": "Title: Directorate-General for Climate Action Content: The Directorate-General for Climate Action or DG CLIMA , established in February 2010 , is a department of the European Commission . The current Commissioner is Miguel Arias Cañete . The DG is headed by Jos Delbeke , Director General for Climate Action . Climate change was previously the responsibility of the Directorate-General for the Environment . DG Climate Change participates in international negotiations on climate , helps the European Union to deal with the consequences of climate change and encourages it to meet its targets for 2020 . It also develops and implements the EU Emissions Trading System .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Directorate-General_for_Climate_Action",
"rank": 45,
"score": 94557
},
{
"content": "Title: Etiwanda Fire Content: The Etiwanda Fire was a wildfire in the San Bernardino National Forest in the foothills north of Rancho Cucamonga . The fire started on April 30 , 2014 , during Santa Ana wind conditions of high temperatures and strong winds . On the first day , four schools and more than 1,500 homes were evacuated ; residential evacuation orders were canceled that evening . Nine schools were closed on May 1 , but they all were reopened on May 2 . Many nearby communities were warned of unhealthy air quality . It burned 2,143 acre and was fully contained on May 10 . The Etiwanda Fire was caused by an escaped illegal campfire .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Etiwanda_Fire",
"rank": 46,
"score": 94541
},
{
"content": "Title: Garnaut Climate Change Review Content: Professor Ross Garnaut led two climate change reviews , the first commencing in 2007 and the second in 2010 . The first Garnaut Climate Change Review was a study by Professor Ross Garnaut , commissioned by then Opposition Leader , Kevin Rudd and by the Australian State and Territory Governments on 30 April 2007 . After the election on 24 November 2007 , Prime Minister of Australia Kevin Rudd confirmed the participation of the Commonwealth Government in the Review . The Review examined the impacts of climate change on the Australian economy , and recommended medium to long-term policies and policy frameworks to improve the prospects for sustainable prosperity . Some observers have remarked that the Garnaut Review would be Australia 's version of the Stern Review . A number of forums were held around Australia to engage the public on various issues relating to the Review . The Secretariat to support the Review was based in the Victorian Department of Premier and Cabinet . The final report of the Garnaut Review was delivered on 30 September 2008 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Garnaut_Climate_Change_Review",
"rank": 47,
"score": 94204
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian Armed Forces and the Jammu and Kashmir floods, 2014 Content: In the wake of heavy monsoon rain and flash floods in Jammu and Kashmir , which have allegedly killed over four hundred and rendered hundreds of thousand homeless , the Indian Armed Forces were deployed in increasing numbers starting September 2 , 2014 to conduct search , rescue , relief , relocation , humanitarian assistance and rehabilitation missions in Jammu and Kashmir . By September 18 , over 200,000 people were rescued from the various parts of Jammu and Kashmir by the Armed forces . The Jammu and Kashmir floods , the worst in a century according to Omar Abdullah , the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir , paralyzed the state government . Omar Abdullah , responding to public criticism , told the media `` I had no government '' in the first few days following the floods , as `` My secretariat , the police headquarters , the control room , fire services , hospitals , all the infrastructure was underwater . '' Adding `` I had no cell phone and no connectivity . I am now starting to track down ministers and officers . '' The Jammu and Kashmir floods of 2014 have been blamed on heavy rainfall , about 8 inches ( 200mm ) on 4 September alone , on climate change , unplanned and uncontrolled development , encroachment of river banks , lakes , ponds , and massive loss of wet lands , absence of local government flood forecasting system , and poor governance . The Armed Forces humanitarian assistance mission in response to the floods was named Mission Sahayata ( assistances ) . Northern Command 's humanitarian assistance to Civil authorities was named ` Operation MEGH RAHAT ' . The Indian Army , Air Force , and the Navy , committed large resources to the assistance mission including over 30,000 troops ( 21,000 in Srinagar , and 9000 in Jammu ) , 15 engineer task forces , 84 Indian Air Force and Army Aviation Corps fixed wing transport aircraft and helicopters , naval commandos and rescue specialists , and Base Hospital , four field hospitals , over 106 medical detachments . `` Operation Megh Rahat '' , ended on 19 September 2014 , but `` Operation Sadbhavna '' , the relief and medical assistance support , according to government press release , will continue in `` close synergy with the civil administration and the police '' .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Indian_Armed_Forces_and_the_Jammu_and_Kashmir_floods,_2014",
"rank": 48,
"score": 94157
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate One Content: Climate One is a branch of The Commonwealth Club of California based in San Francisco , California . It aims to bridge the gap between business leadership and sustainability through discussions about strong action and climate change . Founded in 2007 by Greg Dalton , it is a public affairs forum dedicated to the exclusive coverage of energy , environment and the economy .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Climate_One",
"rank": 49,
"score": 94069
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental emergency Content: Environmental emergencies are defined as `` sudden-onset disasters or accidents resulting from natural , technological or human-induced factors , or a combination of these , that causes or threatens to cause severe environmental damage as well as loss of human lives and property . '' ( UNEP/GC .22 / INF/5 , 13 November 2002 . ) Following a disaster or conflict , an environmental emergency can occur when people 's health and livelihoods are at risk due to the release of hazardous and noxious substances , or because of significant damage to the ecosystem . Examples include fires , oil spills , chemical accidents , toxic-waste dumping and groundwater pollution . The environmental risks can be acute and life-threatening . According to the International Disaster Database ( EM-DAT ) , between 2003 and 2013 , there were 380 industrial accidents reported , affecting 207 668 people and resulting in over US$ 22 million in losses . Climate change is having an unprecedented effect on the occurrence of natural disasters and the associated risk of environmental emergencies . With climate change already stretching the disaster relief system , future climate-related emergency events will generate increased and more costly demands for assistance .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Environmental_emergency",
"rank": 50,
"score": 93990
},
{
"content": "Title: People's Climate March (2017) Content: The People 's Climate March ( also called People 's Climate Movement ) was a protest which took place on Washington , D.C. 's National Mall , and among 300 locations throughout the United States , and locations outside the U.S. , on April 29 , 2017 . Organizers announced the demonstration in January 2017 to protest the environmental policies of U.S. President Donald Trump and his administration . The protests were held at the end of his first 100 days as president , during stormy weather across the U.S. . There was an estimated 200,000 participating in the D.C. march .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "People's_Climate_March_(2017)",
"rank": 51,
"score": 93668
},
{
"content": "Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Turning_the_Corner_Plan",
"rank": 52,
"score": 93471
},
{
"content": "Title: United States Fire Administration Content: The United States Fire Administration ( USFA ) is a division of the Federal Emergency Management Agency which in turn is managed by the Department of Homeland Security located in unincorporated Frederick County , Maryland , near Emmitsburg .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "United_States_Fire_Administration",
"rank": 53,
"score": 93292
},
{
"content": "Title: Territorial Approach to Climate Change Content: The Territorial Approach to Climate Change ( TACC ) works with local level governments ( states , provinces , cities , municipalities ) in developing countries and countries in transition to increase resilience to climate change impact and reduce their carbon footprint . The TACC is a partnership of five agencies that includes UNEP , UNDP , UNITAR , UN-Habitat and UNCDF . TACC as a global action came into existence after the Saint Malo Declaration . Sub-national authorities recognised that urgent and collective action was needed to respond appropriately to climate change . The United Nations recognised that most investments to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions and adapt to climate change take place at the sub-national and local levels . Developing the capacity of sub-national governments in low income countries to create conditions that reduce the perceived investments risks and access new sources of environmental finance was seen as key to addressing climate change . Phase 1 of the programme - Awareness raising and training - was led by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) . Phase 2 - Analysis , assessment and action plan - was led by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . Phase 3 - Projects - was also led by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . Initial projects under TACC were conducted in : Uganda Uruguay ( the pilot project ) Albania Algeria Colombia Ethiopia Peru Senegal",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Territorial_Approach_to_Climate_Change",
"rank": 54,
"score": 93080
},
{
"content": "Title: Ambo Declaration Content: The Ambo Declaration was adopted at the Tarawa Climate Change Conference on 10 November 2010 by Australia , Brazil , China , Cuba , Fiji , Japan , Kiribati , Maldives , Marshall Islands , New Zealand , Solomon Islands and Tonga . The declaration calls for more and immediate action to be undertaken to address the causes and adverse impacts of climate change . The Ambo Declaration , named after the village in Kiribati where parliament sits , was slated to be a non-legally-binding agreement between the nations to present at the larger international climate change summit , COP16 in Cancun , Mexico . The United States , the United Kingdom and Canada , who also attended the conference , chose not to be part of the declaration by taking Observer status . The purpose of the conference was to support the initiative of the President of Kiribati , Anote Tong , to hold a consultative forum between vulnerable states and their partners with a view of creating an enabling environment for multi-party negotiations under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . The conference was a successor event to the Climate Vulnerable Forum first held in November 2009 in the Maldives , when eleven climate vulnerable countries signed the Bandos Island declaration pledging to show moral leadership and commence greening their economies by voluntarily committing to achieving carbon neutrality . Based on the lessons learned in the COP process , the TCCC proposed a more inclusive format of consultations , involving key partners among major developed and developing nations . The ultimate objective of TCCC was to reduce the number and intensity of various fault lines between parties to the COP process , explore elements of agreement between the parties and thereby to support Kiribati 's and other parties ' contribution to COP16 to be held in Cancun , Mexico , from 29 November to 10 December 2010 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Ambo_Declaration",
"rank": 55,
"score": 93011
},
{
"content": "Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001",
"rank": 56,
"score": 92824
},
{
"content": "Title: Preparing for Emergencies Content: Preparing for Emergencies was a public information scheme , produced by the Home Office , a department of the United Kingdom Government , advising British citizens on what to do in the event of a natural disaster , accident or terrorism . The scheme was started on 26 July 2004 in the wake of several major disasters including the 11 March 2004 Madrid train bombings , SARS and the 2001 UK foot and mouth crisis , in the form of a 22-page booklet which covered topics such as transport accidents , health , foot and mouth disease , terrorism and fire safety . The booklet was distributed to all UK households but received some criticism - comparing it to Protect and Survive , a 1980s Public Information Film that instructed people on how to remain safe from nuclear war . Some sections of the media also accused the Government of `` scaremongering '' , although information was provided on topics other than terrorism . Soon after the website accompanying the booklet was launched , a spoof website appeared , www.preparingforemergencies.co.uk , said to be from `` HM Department of Vague Paranoia '' ; it parodied the seemingly obvious advice given by the booklets , and gave such advice as : `` Alien Invasion : Negotiate using sign language , if possible . Failing that , and assuming they are n't armed with futuristic ray guns , run like hell . '' The Home Office initially objected to the website , stating that the URL was too similar to that of their own website , www.preparingforemergencies.gov.uk , and threatened to close the website down . However , after a link to the official website was added , the Home Office conceded the issue , and allowed the site to remain online . Following the original distribution , no more booklets have been produced , although the website was updated with advice on possible bird flu epidemics and the 7 July 2005 London bombings . In 2011/12 the website was permanently closed , and official emergency preparedness information for the UK was moved to the gov.uk website .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Preparing_for_Emergencies",
"rank": 57,
"score": 92243
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Commission Content: The Climate Commission was an independent body established in 2011 by the Federal Government of Australia to communicate `` reliable and authoritative information '' about climate change in Australia . Abolished by a newly elected government in September 2013 , it was relaunched as an independent non-profit organisation called the Climate Council .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Climate_Commission",
"rank": 58,
"score": 92237
},
{
"content": "Title: Department of Fire and Emergency Services Content: The Department of Fire and Emergency Services ( DFES ) is a government department that is responsible for fire and emergency services in Western Australia . The department came into being in 2012 as a result of the Perth Hills Bush Fire review .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Department_of_Fire_and_Emergency_Services",
"rank": 59,
"score": 92218
},
{
"content": "Title: Fire Corps Content: Fire Corps is an American volunteer program which is designed to connect community members with their local fire/EMS departments to help with non-emergency tasks . On a national level , Fire Corps is managed by the National Volunteer Fire Council and supported by the Department of Homeland Security , Citizen Corps , and the United States Fire Administration . Launched in 2004 , Fire Corps is one of five partner programs under Citizen Corps , the Federal Emergency Management Agency 's grassroots strategy to bring together government and community leaders to involve citizens in all-hazards emergency preparedness and resilience . The Fire Corps web site located at www.firecorps.org serves as a gateway to information , resources , training , and networking opportunities for fire/EMS departments as well as community members interested in non-operational volunteer opportunities with their department . Departments can use this site to register their citizen volunteer program and community members can use the site to find a local Fire Corps program .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Fire_Corps",
"rank": 60,
"score": 92043
},
{
"content": "Title: Department of Communications, Climate Action and Environment Content: The Department of Communications , Climate Action and Environment ( An Roinn Cumarsáide , Gníomhaithe ar son na hAeráide agus Comhshaoil ) is a department of the Government of Ireland that is responsible for the telecommunications and broadcasting sectors and regulates , protects and develops the natural resources of Ireland . The head of the department is the Minister for Communications , Climate Change and Natural Resources who is assisted by one Minister of State .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Department_of_Communications,_Climate_Action_and_Environment",
"rank": 61,
"score": 91985
},
{
"content": "Title: Green Zone Community Climate Action Content: Green Zone Community Climate Action is a charitable unincorporated association formed in November 2016 . Based in Broomfield , Essex , this organisation delivers climate change awareness at a grass roots level to improve public understanding of Global warming and promote individual actions that can help to address this . The charity works with Marks & Spencer through the project Neighbourly among other retailers to reduce food waste and share unsold food within the community . The charity also supports climate education for primary school children through clubs . The charity took part in the worldwide 24 Hours of Reality campaign broadcast by The Climate Reality Project . Working alongside additional community charities Green Zone Community Climate Action is one of many new projects created to assist the UK in meeting the United Nations global Sustainable Development Goals",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Green_Zone_Community_Climate_Action",
"rank": 62,
"score": 91965
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Justice Action Content: Climate Justice Action ( CJA ) `` is a global network of groups and individuals committed to taking action to prevent catastrophic climate change '' . CJA formed as part of the alternative mobilisation around the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , and organised mass Direct actions during the conference .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Climate_Justice_Action",
"rank": 63,
"score": 91760
},
{
"content": "Title: R. David Paulison Content: Robert David Paulison ( born February 27 , 1947 ) is an American former fire chief who served as the director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) . Paulison was appointed by President George W. Bush on September 12 , 2005 to replace the embattled Michael D. Brown , who resigned amid controversy over his handling of disaster relief in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina . Prior to his appointment , Paulison was perhaps best known nationally for his 2003 advisory regarding household items ( including duct tape and plastic sheeting ) to have on hand in case of terrorist attack . At the 2009 National Hurricane Conference , he announced he would resign January 21 , 2009 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "R._David_Paulison",
"rank": 64,
"score": 91717
},
{
"content": "Title: Emergency Federal Register Content: The Emergency Federal Register is the planned replacement for the Federal Register , the official journal of the United States government , in the event publication of the Federal Register is suspended by presidential decree following the onset of a severe national calamity , such as a major nuclear attack or the mainland invasion of the United States . According to the Office of the Federal Register , the Emergency Federal Register `` can only be activated under extreme national security conditions '' . Publication in the Federal Register of newly enacted federal regulations is required prior to their effective date . The purpose of the Emergency Federal Register would be to permit the continuation of such required publication but from a location outside of Washington , DC , in the event that city were overrun or rendered uninhabitable , or by methods or means other than bound paper , possibly including broadcast transmission or a town crier system . The Office of the Federal Register maintains alternate work sites where the Emergency Federal Register can be managed , including one site in Laurel , Maryland , another site in Rocket Center , West Virginia , and at least one other `` classified location '' . Authority for activation of an alternative to the Federal Register is contained in Title 44 , Section 1505 of the United States Code , which specifies that : In the event of an attack or threatened attack upon the continental United States and a determination by the President that as a result of an attack or threatened attack publication of the Federal Register or filing of documents with the Office of the Federal Register is impracticable , or under existing conditions publication in the Federal Register would not serve to give appropriate notice to the public of the contents of documents , the President may , without regard to any other provision of law , suspend all or part of the requirements of law or regulation for filing with the Office or publication in the Federal Register of documents or classes of documents . Many new regulations required in a crisis situation , however , would not require advance publication . A contingency regulatory code , operating in parallel to the Code of Federal Regulations and known as the Emergency Code of Federal Regulations , can be immediately promulgated following the onset of an emergency .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Emergency_Federal_Register",
"rank": 65,
"score": 91475
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Accountability Act (Bill C-224) Content: The Climate Change Accountability Act is a Private Member 's Bill that has been submitted in the 39th , 40th and 41st Canadian Parliament . It was originally tabled in October 2006 in the Canadian House of Commons as Bill C-377 of the 39th Parliament by Jack Layton , then the leader of the New Democratic Party of Canada ( NDP ) . It passed third reading by a vote of 148 to 116 with the support of caucuses of the Liberal Party of Canada , the Bloc Québécois and the NDP ( the Conservative Party of Canada , led by Prime Minister Stephen Harper , voted against it ) . However , Bill C-377 died as it was still before the Senate when Parliament was dissolved for the 2008 Canadian federal election . On February 10 , 2009 Bruce Hyer , then the New Democrat Deputy Environment Critic and MP for Thunder Bay-Superior North , seconded by Layton , reintroduced it in the 40th Parliament as Bill C-311 . It passed 2nd Reading on April 1 , 2009 by a vote of 141 to 128 , and was sent to the Standing Committee on the Environment and Sustainable Development . On October 21 , 2009 , the House voted 169 to 93 to allow the Committee more time to study the Bill , as the sixty sitting days permitted for its consideration under Standing Order 97.1 ( 1 ) of the House of Commons had expired . Passage of the Climate Change Accountability Act was therefore effectively delayed until 2010 , meaning it would not influence the government in negotiations at the UN COP15 global climate change treaty negotiations held in December 2009 in Copenhagen . On December 10 , 2009 , the committee report on Bill C-311 was presented to the House , without amendment to the Bill . The December 30 , 2009 prorogation of the House did not affect the Bill , as Private Member 's Bills are reinstated at the stage last completed , and Bill C-311 had not been considered at Report Stage at prorogation . When Parliament resumed , C-311 was concurred in at Report Stage on April 14 , 2010 by vote 155 to 137 . The bill was passed by the House of Commons at 3rd Reading on May 5 , 2010 with 149 votes for and 136 votes against . It received 1st Reading in the Senate on May 6 , 2010 before being defeated at 2nd Reading on November 16 , 2010 by a vote of 43 to 32 . The bill was re-introduced as Bill C-224 on June 15 , 2011 by current NDP Environment Critic and MP for Halifax , Megan Leslie . The bill was seconded by Deputy Environment Critic Laurin Liu .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Accountability_Act_(Bill_C-224)",
"rank": 66,
"score": 91335
},
{
"content": "Title: National Fire Incident Reporting System Content: The National Fire Incident Reporting System ( NFIRS ) is a system established by the National Fire Data Center of the United States Fire Administration ( USFA ) , a division of the Federal Emergency Management Agency . The System was established after the 1973 National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control report , America Burning , led to passage of the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 ( P.L. 93-498 ) , which authorizes the USFA to gather and analyze information on the magnitude of the Nation 's fire problem , as well as its detailed characteristics and trends . The Act further authorizes the USFA to develop uniform data reporting methods , and to encourage and assist state agencies in developing and reporting data . The NFIRS has two objectives : to help state and local governments develop fire reporting and analysis capability for their own use , and to obtain data that can be used to more accurately assess and subsequently combat the fire problem at a national level . To meet these objectives , the USFA has developed a standard NFIRS package that includes incident and casualty forms , a coding structure for data processing purposes , manuals , computer software and procedures , documentation and a National Fire Academy training course for utilizing the system . The NFIRS reporting format is based on the National Fire Protection Association Standard 901 , `` Uniform Coding for Fire Protection '' ( 1976 version ) , the 1981 codes for Fire Service Casualty Reporting , and the 1990 codes for Hazardous Materials Reporting . The version of NFIRS current as of June , 2006 , version 5.0 , was released in January , 1999 . NFIRS 5.0 expands the collection of data beyond fires to include the full range of fire department activity on a national scale . It is a true all-incident reporting system . Within the NFIRS states , participating local fire departments fill out the Incident and Casualty reports as fires occur . They forward the completed incidents via paper forms , computer media or the Internet to their state office where the data is validated and consolidated into a single computerized database . Feedback reports are generated and forwarded to the participating fire departments . Periodically , computer media containing the aggregated statewide data is sent to the National Fire Data Center at the USFA to be included in the National Database . This database is used to answer questions about the nature and causes of injuries , deaths , and property loss resulting from fires . The information is disseminated through a variety of means to states and other organizations . The National Fire Incident Reporting System is a model of successful Federal , State and local partnership . The database constitutes the world 's largest , national , annual collection of incident information . The success of NFIRS is due in part to the unique cooperative effort between USFA and the National Fire Information Council ( NFIC ) . NFIC plays a vital role in the USFA 's efforts to achieve an accurate nationwide analysis of the fire problem through support to NFIRS and its participating member states and metropolitan fire departments . NFIC 's unique partnership of Federal , state and local participants has proven to be one of the most successful , productive and cost-beneficial programs ever attempted on a national level .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "National_Fire_Incident_Reporting_System",
"rank": 67,
"score": 91268
},
{
"content": "Title: 2000–01 fires in the Western United States Content: The 2000-2001 Western United States wildfires were a series of unusually severe wildfires that caused more than $ 2 billion ( USD ) in damage and resulted in the deaths of four firefighters . Overall , 6,966,995 acres burned across the United States and 2.2 million of those acres were in Idaho and Montana alone . A declaration of a state of emergency brought six military battalions and fire fighting teams from as far away as Australian and New Zealand to the Western United States . Federal and state land management organizations recognize the fires as historic `` both in extent and duration . '' The ten year fire season average is 3.1 million acres . The fires in 2000 destroyed more than double that acreage . Nearly $ 900 million ( USD ) was spent fighting fires . Long lasting ecological damage , including flooding , top soil runoff , and air quality damage has continues to this day . The damage was particularly severe in the Bitterroot National Forest . One of the most stunning photos from these fires are two elk seeking shelter in the East Fork of the Bitterroot River . The photo became known as Elk Bath .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2000–01_fires_in_the_Western_United_States",
"rank": 68,
"score": 91098
},
{
"content": "Title: National Climate Assessment Content: The National Climate Assessment ( NCA ) is a United States government interagency ongoing effort on climate change science conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The NCA is a major product of the U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which coordinates a team of experts and receives input from a Federal Advisory Committee . The Fourth National Climate Assessment is being developed . For the Third National Climate Assessment , released in 2014 , USGCRP coordinated hundreds of experts and received advice from a sixty-member Federal Advisory Committee . NCA research is integrated and summarized in the mandatory ongoing National Climate Assessment Reports . The reports are `` extensively reviewed by the public and experts , including federal agencies and a panel of the National Academy of Sciences . The First National Climate Assessment was published in 2000 . The First National Climate Assessment Report was `` prepared by the National Assessment Synthesis Team ( NAST ) , an advisory committee chartered under the Federal Advisory Committee Act to help the US Global Change Research Program fulfill its mandate under the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The National Science and Technology Council forwarded the report to the President and Congress for their consideration as required by the Global Change Research Act . Administrative support for the US Global Change Research Program is provided by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research , which is sponsored by the National Science Foundation ( NCA 2000 ) . '' Between 2002 and 2009 , USGCRP previously known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) , produced twenty-one Synthesis and Assessment Products ( SAPs ) . The second NCA was published in 2009 and the third was released in 2014 . NCA 's overarching goal according to their May 20 , 2011 engagement strategy summary , `` is to enhance the ability of the U.S. to anticipate , mitigate , and adapt to changes in the global environment ( NCA 2011:2 ) . '' According to the USGCRP official website the NCA , In 2013 , the President 's Climate Action Plan released by the Executive Office of the President specifically noted the importance of the National Climate Assessments in achieving the goal of `` Using Sound Science to Manage Climate Impacts '' .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "National_Climate_Assessment",
"rank": 69,
"score": 91070
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015–2017 Nepal humanitarian crisis Content: The 2015 -- 2017 Nepal humanitarian crisis developed out of lack of action following the April 2015 Nepal earthquake and its aftershocks and the compounding political factors of the 2015 Nepal blockade . As of July 7 , 2016 , the National Reconstruction Authority has not yet devised a plan for how to develop nor relocate the quake struck living in temporary and flimsy shelters . Therefore , the humanitarian crisis in ongoing and is likely to see a rerun into winter 2017 and beyond , especially in remote areas . In Sindhupalchok , the worst affected zone from the 2015 quake , the situation going into winter 2016-17 essentially the same as the prior year . Development indicators have dropped , Nepal was among the countries who had seen remarkable development gains pre-quake , post-quake reversal of gains has led to some 43 % of the urban population lacks access to a toilet . It has been reported that one of the primary reasons for dropout and irregularity of girls in school attendance is the lack of toilets .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2015–2017_Nepal_humanitarian_crisis",
"rank": 70,
"score": 91027
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme",
"rank": 71,
"score": 90700
},
{
"content": "Title: Dorset and Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service Content: Dorset and Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service is an statutory emergency fire and rescue service covering the local authority areas of Bournemouth , Dorset , Poole , Swindon , and Wiltshire . The service was created on 1 April 2016 by the merger of the Dorset Fire and Rescue Service and the Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service . Its headquarters is at Salisbury , Wiltshire , some 10 mi from the Dorset county boundary . The former headquarters at Poundbury , Dorset , and Potterne , Wiltshire , are retained as area offices ; emergency calls for the combined area have been answered by a control centre at Potterne since August 2015 . Provision of the service is by the Dorset and Wiltshire Combined Fire Authority , created in April 2015 , which has thirty elected members from all five constituent councils and is chaired by Dorset county councillor Rebecca Knox . In September 2016 Ben Ansell was appointed as the service 's second Chief Fire Officer , succeeding Darran Gunter with effect from December 2016 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Dorset_and_Wiltshire_Fire_and_Rescue_Service",
"rank": 72,
"score": 90544
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 Russian wildfires Content: From 12 to 16 April 2015 , a series of wildfires spread across southern Siberia , Russia . In the Republic of Khakassia , 29 people were killed and 6,000 left homeless . Further east in Zabaykalsky Krai , four people died in wildfires near Chita . Damage was also reported in Inner Mongolia .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2015_Russian_wildfires",
"rank": 73,
"score": 90409
},
{
"content": "Title: Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 Content: The Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 was created in response to the 1973 National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control report , America Burning . The report 's authors estimated fires caused 12,000 deaths , 300,000 serious injuries and $ 11.4 billion in property damage annually in the United States , asserting that `` the richest and most technologically advanced nation in the world leads all the major industrialized countries in per capita deaths and property loss from fire . '' The report proposed that a federal agency be established to help combat the growing problem of fatal fires happening throughout the country . The S. 1769 legislation was passed by the 93rd Congressional session and enacted by the 38th President of the United States Gerald Ford on October 29 , 1974 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Federal_Fire_Prevention_and_Control_Act_of_1974",
"rank": 74,
"score": 90208
},
{
"content": "Title: Pulletop Bushfire Content: The Pulletop Bushfire , officially referred to as the `` Wandoo fire '' , started on the 6 February 2006 in hot dry and windy weather conditions about 30 km southeast of Wagga Wagga , New South Wales . The fire was thought to have been started by sparks from a tractor on a property at Pulletop which quickly got out of control . New South Wales Rural Fire Service declared a bushfire emergency and the Hume Highway was closed late in the afternoon with fears that the fire would threaten the towns of Humula , Book Book , Livingstone and Kyeamba after 10 km ² of farmland was burnt . 7 February 2006 milder conditions help firefighters to control the fire burning in inaccessible country . Over 90 km ² of farmland burnt 2,500 sheep killed 6 cattle killed 3 vehicles destroyed 2 hay sheds destroyed 50km of fencing was burnt Pine plantation worth $ 5 million , a communications installation and 19 homes saved A Natural Disaster was declared",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Pulletop_Bushfire",
"rank": 75,
"score": 90137
},
{
"content": "Title: Section 44 Content: A `` Section 44 '' refers to the New South Wales Rural Fires Act 1997 , specifically section 44 , Commissioner 's responsibility . Essentially it is used to describe when the RFS Commissioner declares a localised `` State of Emergency '' for a specific district suffering severe fire conditions that can not be managed without drawing in extensive resources from other areas . Once declared by the Commissioner the district has access to any and all fire-fighting personnel/equipment from across the State at no cost to the district or RFS , with the State Government footing the bill of all related Section 44 declared operations .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Section_44",
"rank": 76,
"score": 90003
},
{
"content": "Title: Business action on climate change Content: Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Business_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 77,
"score": 89932
},
{
"content": "Title: 2019–20 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2019–20 Australian bushfire season, colloquially known as Black Summer, was a period of unusually intense bushfires in many parts of Australia. In June 2019, the Queensland Fire and Emergency Service acting director warned of the potential for an early start to the bushfire season which normally starts in August. The warning was based on the Northern Australia bushfire seasonal outlook noting exceptional dry conditions and a lack of soil moisture, combined with early fires in central Queensland. Throughout the summer, hundreds of fires burnt, mainly in the southeast of the country. The major fires peaked during December–January. As of 9 March 2020, the fires burnt an estimated 18.6 million hectares (46 million acres; 186,000 square kilometres; 72,000 square miles), destroyed over 5,900 buildings (including 2,779 homes) and killed at least 34 people. Nearly three billion terrestrial vertebrates alone – the vast majority being reptiles – were affected and some endangered species were believed to be driven to extinction. At its peak, air quality dropped to hazardous levels in all southern and eastern states. The cost of dealing with the bushfires is expected to exceed the A$4.4 billion of the 2009 Black Saturday fires, and tourism sector revenues fell by more than A$1 billion. However, economists estimated that the Australian bushfires may cost over A$103 billion in property damage and economic losses, making the bushfires Australia's costliest natural disaster to date. Nearly 80 percent of Australians were affected either directly or indirectly by the bushfires. By 7 January 2020, the smoke had moved approximately 11,000 kilometres (6,800 mi) across the South Pacific Ocean to Chile and Argentina. As of 2 January 2020, NASA estimated that 306 million tonnes (337 million short tons) of CO2 had been emitted.From September 2019 to March 2020, fires heavily impacted various regions of the state of New South Wales. In eastern and north-eastern Victoria large areas of forest burnt out of control for four weeks before the fires emerged from the forests in late December. Multiple states of emergency were declared across New South Wales, Victoria, and the Australian Capital Territory. Reinforcements from all over Australia were called in to assist fighting the fires and relieve exhausted local crews in New South Wales. The Australian Defence Force was mobilised to provide air support to the firefighting effort and to provide manpower and logistical support. Firefighters, supplies and equipment from Canada, New Zealand, Singapore and the United States, among others, helped fight the fires, especially in New South Wales.During the ensuing crisis, an air tanker and two helicopters crashed during firefighting operations, the air tanker crash resulting in the deaths of the three crew. Two fire trucks were caught in fatal incidents caused directly by fire conditions, killing three fire fighters.By 4 March 2020, all fires in New South Wales had been extinguished completely (to the point where there were no fires in the state for the first time since July 2019), and the Victoria fires had all been contained. The last fire of the season occurred in Lake Clifton, Western Australia, in early May.There has been considerable debate regarding the underlying cause of the intensity and scale of the fires, including the role of fire management practices and climate change, which during the peak of the crisis attracted significant international attention. Politicians visiting fire impacted areas received mixed responses, in particular Prime Minister Scott Morrison. An estimated A$500 million was donated by the public at large, international organisations, public figures and celebrities for victim relief and wildlife recovery. Convoys of donated food, clothing and livestock feed were sent to affected areas.",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2019–20_Australian_bushfire_season",
"rank": 78,
"score": 89926
},
{
"content": "Title: Public Safety Act, 1953 Content: In 1953 , the Public Safety Act was enacted by the apartheid South African government ( coming into force 4 March ) . This Act empowered the government to declare stringent states of emergency and increased penalties for protesting against or supporting the repeal of a law . This act was passed in response to civil disobedience campaigns by the African National Congress ( ANC ) , in particular the Defiance Campaign of 1952 ( instigated by ANC leaders , including Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu ) . The Act included a provision that empowered the government to declare a state of emergency in any or every part of the country ( South West Africa included ) and to rule by proclamation . Under Section 3 , this power was granted to the Governor General ( and later , the State President ) , and it effectively put no limits on what measures might be taken , or for how long . Moreover , any law issued during a state of emergency could be made retrospective for four days to cover any emergency action taken by the police . The emergency regulations could suspend any act of Parliament , with a few exceptions . If the justice minister or administrator of South West Africa deemed it necessary , they could declare a state of emergency but the governor general had to approve their action within ten days . Under a state of emergency , the Minister of Law and Order , the Commissioner of the South African Police ( SAP ) , a magistrate , or a commissioned officer could detain any person for `` reasons of public safety '' . It further provided for detention without trial for any dissent .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Public_Safety_Act,_1953",
"rank": 79,
"score": 89821
},
{
"content": "Title: Burned area emergency response Content: Burned area emergency response ( BAER ) is an emergency risk management reaction to post wildfire conditions that pose risks to human life and property or could further destabilize or degrade the burned lands . Even though wildfires are natural events , the presence of people and man-made structures in and adjacent to the burned area frequently requires continued emergency risk management actions . High severity wildfires pose a continuing flood , debris flow and mudflow risk to people living within and downstream from a burned watershed as well as a potential loss of desirable watershed values . The burned area emergency response risk management process begins during or shortly after wildfire containment with risk assessments evaluating the effects of the wildfire against values needing protection . These risk assessments can range from simple to complex . An organized interdisciplinary team of subject matter experts ( e.g. , hydrologists , soil scientists , botanists , cultural resource specialists , engineers , etc. ) used among other assessment tools hydrological modeling and soil burn severity mapping to assess potential flooding and vegetation recovery after the Cerro Grande Fire in 2000 . A BAER plan is developed based on the risk assessments and burned area land management objectives . The BAER Plan identifies the most effective treatments to address the identified risks . Plan implementation timeframes are dictated primarily by anticipated future events ( e.g. , next significant rainstorm ) which also influence treatment options .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Burned_area_emergency_response",
"rank": 80,
"score": 89594
},
{
"content": "Title: Emergency Public Warning System Content: The Emergency Public Warning System was a system used in the province of Alberta , Canada until October 2011 , whereby local or provincial authorities could warn the public about impending or current emergencies affecting their area . The system was replaced by the Alberta Emergency Alert but is still in use by the provinces Ontario and British Columbia . The system was proposed by the provincial government after an F4 tornado ripped through Edmonton , Alberta on July 31 , 1987 , killing 27 and causing millions of dollars in damage . The EPWS could be activated by local police , fire , and environmental agencies ; by Environment Canada ; and by other provincial and local authorities as required . It could be activated for any of the following reasons : Severe weather Flood Wildfire Hazardous material release Terrorist threat Water contamination AMBER Alert Other threats to life , property and safety . The EPWS was originally operated by the CKUA Radio Network , but was later operated by a private company headquartered in Ottawa , Ontario.It was rebroadcast through various television and radio stations and cable systems provincewide .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Emergency_Public_Warning_System",
"rank": 81,
"score": 89487
},
{
"content": "Title: Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 Content: The Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 ( c 21 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It came into effect on 1 October 2004 . It only applies to Great Britain and most provisions apply only in England and Wales . Replacing the previous Fire Services Act 1947 in England and Wales , it clarifies the duties and powers of fire authorities to : - promote fire safety fight fires protect people and property from fires rescue people from road traffic incident deal with other specific emergencies , such as flooding or terrorist attack and do other things to respond to the particular needs of their communities and the risks they face .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Fire_and_Rescue_Services_Act_2004",
"rank": 82,
"score": 89210
},
{
"content": "Title: Boulder Climate Action Plan Content: The Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide community efforts for reducing greenhouse gas emissions . Those strategies have focused on improving energy efficiency and conservation in our homes and businesses -- the source of nearly three-fourths of local emissions . The plan also promotes strategies to reduce emissions from transportation , which account for over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 83,
"score": 88848
},
{
"content": "Title: Emergency Fire Service Content: The Emergency Fire Service ( EFS ) was the fire and emergency service that operated in rural areas of South Australia in the 20th century . In 1979 , with the passing of the Country Fires Act in the South Australian Parliament , the EFS was renamed the SA Country Fire Service .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Emergency_Fire_Service",
"rank": 84,
"score": 88788
},
{
"content": "Title: April 2016 United States storm complex Content: The April 2016 United States storm complex was a major storm system that resulted from an upper-level low in the United States stalling and producing a major snowstorm in the Rocky Mountains , and record-breaking rain in and around Houston , Texas , resulting in severe flooding . There were more than 17 inches of rain in one day in parts of the city , and up to 4 inches of rain per hour that morning at George Bush Intercontinental Airport . It is described as the wettest April in the city on record . As the most widespread flood event there since Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 , it caused a state of emergency to be declared in nine counties . __ TOC __",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "April_2016_United_States_storm_complex",
"rank": 85,
"score": 88580
},
{
"content": "Title: Northern Territory National Emergency Response Content: The Northern Territory National Emergency Response ( also referred to as `` the intervention '' ) was a package of changes to welfare provision , law enforcement , land tenure and other measures , introduced by the Australian federal government under John Howard in 2007 to address allegations of rampant child sexual abuse and neglect in Northern Territory Aboriginal communities . Operation Outreach , the intervention 's main logistical operation , conducted by a force of 600 soldiers and detachments from the ADF ( including NORFORCE ) , concluded on 21 October 2008 . In the seven years since the initiation of the Emergency Response there has not been one prosecution for child abuse come from the exercise . The package was the Federal government 's response to the Territory government 's publication of Little Children are Sacred , but implemented only two out of ninety-seven of the report 's recommendations . The response has been criticised , but also received bipartisan parliamentary support . The then Prime Minister Julia Gillard has supported the response , though her predecessor ( and successor ) Kevin Rudd did make some adjustments to its implementation . The Emergency Response has since been replaced by the very similar Stronger Futures Policy .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Northern_Territory_National_Emergency_Response",
"rank": 86,
"score": 88569
},
{
"content": "Title: Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center Content: The Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center is a civilian command facility in the U.S. Commonwealth of Virginia , used as the center of operations for the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) . Also known as the High Point Special Facility ( HPSF ) , its preferred designation since 1991 is `` SF '' . The facility is a major relocation site for the highest level of civilian and military officials in case of national disaster , playing a major role in continuity of government ( per the U.S. Continuity of Operations Plan ) . Mount Weather is the location of a control station for the FEMA National Radio System ( FNARS ) , a high frequency radio system connecting most federal public safety agencies and the U.S. military with most of the states . FNARS allows the president to access the Emergency Alert System . The site was brought into the public eye by The Washington Post , when the government facility was mentioned while reporting on the December 1 , 1974 , crash into Mount Weather of TWA Flight 514 , a Boeing 727 jetliner . The Mt. Weather facility is also featured in the early scenes of the movie `` The Sum of All Fears '' based on the Tom Clancy novel .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Mount_Weather_Emergency_Operations_Center",
"rank": 87,
"score": 88543
},
{
"content": "Title: National Fire Agency Content: The National Fire Agency of the Ministry of the Interior ( NFA ; ) is a statutory agency under the Ministry of the Interior of the Taiwan ( ROC ) . The agency provides emergency medical , fire prevention , firefighting and disaster rescue service as well as protecting civilian lives , property and safety . It was established in March 1995 . The agency is administered by the Director General which reports to the Minister for Interior . The current Director General is Chi-Tang Yeh .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "National_Fire_Agency",
"rank": 88,
"score": 88520
},
{
"content": "Title: Federal Emergency Relief Administration Content: The Federal Emergency Relief Administration ( FERA ) was the new name given by the Roosevelt Administration to the Emergency Relief Administration ( ERA ) which President Franklin Delano Roosevelt had created in 1933 . FERA was established as a result of the Federal Emergency Relief Act and was replaced in 1935 by the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) . Under Roosevelt , the agency gave loans to the states to operate relief programs . One of these , the New York state program TERA ( Temporary Emergency Relief Administration ) , was set up in 1931 and headed by Harry Hopkins , a close adviser to Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt . Roosevelt asked Congress to set up FERA -- which gave grants to the states for the same purpose -- in May 1933 , and appointed Hopkins to head it . Along with the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) it was the first relief operation under the New Deal . Basically , it gave grants and loans to states . FERA 's main goal was to alleviate household unemployment by creating new unskilled jobs in local and state government . Jobs were more expensive than direct cash payments ( called `` the dole '' ) , but were psychologically more beneficial to the unemployed , who wanted any sort of job , for self-esteem , to play the role of male breadwinner . From May 1933 until it closed in December , 1935 , FERA gave states and localities $ 3.1 billion ( 5.54 billion in 2017 ) . FERA provided work for over 20 million people and developed facilities on public lands across the country . Faced with continued high unemployment and concerns for public welfare during the coming winter of 1933-34 , FERA instituted the Civil Works Administration ( CWA ) as a $ 400 million short-term measure to get people to work . The Federal Emergency Relief Administration was shut down in 1935 and its work taken over by two completely new federal agencies , the Works Progress Administration and the Social Security Administration .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration",
"rank": 89,
"score": 88302
},
{
"content": "Title: Muslim Seven Year Action Plan on Climate Change Content: The Muslim Seven Year Action Plan on Climate Change is a climate action plan for the global Islamic community , meant to run from 2010 to 2017 . It was developed by the British Earth Mates Dialogue Center and the Kuwaiti Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs . It is one of several multi-year climate action plans developed by major religious communities , developed in coordination with the Alliance of Religions and Conservation and the United Nations Development Programme . According to the Alliance of Religions and Conservation , the plan proposes `` investigating every level of Muslim activity from daily life to annual pilgrimages , from holy cities to the future training of Imams , '' `` developing the major Muslim cities as green city models for other Islamic urban areas , '' and `` developing an Islamic label for environmentally friendly goods and services . '' Proposals were to be managed by a group called the Muslim Association for Climate Change Action ( MACCA , an acronym meant to sound like `` Mecca '' ) .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Muslim_Seven_Year_Action_Plan_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 90,
"score": 87878
},
{
"content": "Title: April 1992 Nepalese general strike Content: In 1992 , in a situation of economic crisis and chaos in Nepal , with spiralling prices as a result of implementation of changes in policy of the new Congress government , far-left groups stepped up their political agitation . A Joint People 's Agitation Committee was set up together by the Communist Party of Nepal ( Unity Centre ) , Samyukta Jana Morcha , Communist Party of Nepal ( Masal ) , the Nepal Communist League and the Communist Party of Nepal ( Marxist-Leninist-Maoist ) . The committee called for a general strike on April 6 . Violent incidents began to occur on the evening ahead of the strike . The Joint People 's Agitation Committee had called for a 30-minute ` lights out ' in the capital , and violence erupted outside Bir Hospital when activists tried to enforce the ` lights out ' . At dawn on April 6 , clashes between strike activists and police outside a police station in Pulchok ( Patan ) left two activists dead . Later in the day , a mass rally of the Agitation Committee at Tundikhel in the capital Kathmandu was attacked by police forces . As a result , riots broke out , and the Nepal Telecommunications building was set on fire . Police opened fire at the crowd , killing several people . The Human Rights Organisation of Nepal estimated that 14 people , including several on-lookers , had been killed . The violent incidents in connection with the strike spurred radical elements within the Nepalese communist movement to debate the usefulness of participation in legal politics . Two years later the Communist Party of Nepal ( Unity Centre ) was divided , with one section opting for armed struggle . This group would later rename itself as the Communist Party of Nepal ( Maoist ) and declare a `` People 's War '' in 1996 , which became the starting point for the decade-long civil war .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "April_1992_Nepalese_general_strike",
"rank": 91,
"score": 87637
},
{
"content": "Title: Liberal Party of Australia leadership spill, 2009 Content: A leadership spill of the federal parliamentary leader of the Liberal Party of Australia was held on 1 December 2009 . The incumbent , Malcolm Turnbull , was defeated by Tony Abbott in a three-way vote of Liberal Party Members of Parliament ( MPs ) . Joe Hockey also stood as a candidate . Abbott thus became the Leader of the Opposition in the Parliament of Australia . The spill was the culmination of a dispute within the Liberal Party over its response to the Rudd Government 's proposed emissions trading scheme ( ETS ) . Turnbull supported the introduction of an ETS and sought to negotiate amendments to government 's proposed legislation . Abbott came to represent many Liberal members of Parliament who were climate change sceptics or otherwise opposed the ETS . After Turnbull survived a spill motion ( a motion to declare the leadership vacant ) against his leadership in late November 2009 , Abbott declared his candidacy and a subsequent spill was moved on 1 December . Hockey -- a moderate who had been a supporter of Turnbull 's position on the ETS -- also stood . While Hockey had been expected to win , he was knocked out in the first round of voting . Abbott subsequently defeated Turnbull in the second round , 42 -- 41 .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Liberal_Party_of_Australia_leadership_spill,_2009",
"rank": 92,
"score": 87562
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Fire of Valparaíso Content: The Great Fire of Valparaíso ( Gran Incendio de Valparaíso ) started on 12 April 2014 at 16:40 local time ( 19:40 UTC ) , in the hills of the city of Valparaíso , Chile . The fire destroyed at least 2,500 homes , leaving 11,000 people homeless . An additional 6,000 people were evacuated from the city , which was placed on red alert and declared a disaster zone . Fifteen people were confirmed killed and ten suffered serious injuries .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Great_Fire_of_Valparaíso",
"rank": 93,
"score": 87478
},
{
"content": "Title: Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (Victoria) Content: The Department of Environment , Land , Water and Planning ( DELWP ) is a state government department responsible for protecting the environment , management of natural resources , managing water resources , planning , local government , fire and emergency management and property and land titles in the state of Victoria , Australia . It was created on 1 January 2015 after the 2014 Victorian State Election when Premier Daniel Andrews announced that the previous Department of Environment and Primary Industries ( DEPI ) would be renamed , with the Agriculture portfolio moved to the Department of Economic Development , Jobs , Transport and Resources , and property and land titles , planning and local government support added from the previous Department of Transport , Planning and Local Infrastructure ( DTPLI ) . The Department secretary is Adam Fennessy . The Ministers responsible the Department of Environment , Land , Water and Planning are : Hon Lily D'Ambrosio , Minister for Energy , Environment , Climate Change and Suburban Development Hon Lisa Neville , Minister for Water Hon Richard Wynne , Minister for Planning Hon Natalie Hutchins , Minister for Local Government The ministers are supported by Anthony Carbines , the Parliamentary Secretary for the Environment .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Department_of_Environment,_Land,_Water_and_Planning_(Victoria)",
"rank": 94,
"score": 87476
},
{
"content": "Title: 2010 Bolivia forest fires Content: The 2010 Bolivia forest fires led the country 's government to declare a state of emergency , as wildfires spread across the country . More than 25,000 fires are burning across 15000 km2 . These raging fires have destroyed nearly sixty homes . Bolivia is unable to combat the fires properly as it does not have enough water bombing aircraft . There was a steep jump in fire hot-spots from 17,000 on Sunday August 15 to approximately 25,000 three days later . Some of the blazes were so strong that firefighters were unable to get close enough to contain them . The head of Bolivia 's forestry service , Weimar Becerra , described the fires as `` a total disaster , it is an environmental disaster . We have six forest fires which have a height of 50 m and are growing , and as a country we do not have the capacity to put them out '' .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2010_Bolivia_forest_fires",
"rank": 95,
"score": 87380
},
{
"content": "Title: 1Sky Content: 1Sky is a United States-based campaign in support of federal action to stem global warming and promote renewable energy . 1Sky was founded in the spring of 2007 when thirty climate campaigners were on a retreat in the Hudson Valley of New York state . Partners include Step It Up 2007 ( and its global successor 350 . org ) , the Clinton Global Initiative , Greenpeace , Oxfam , and the Energy Action Coalition .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "1Sky",
"rank": 96,
"score": 87120
},
{
"content": "Title: Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act Content: The Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act of 1973 ( EPAA ) was a U.S. law that required the President to promulgate regulations to allocate and control price of petroleum products in response to the 1973 oil crisis . It was extended by the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 . The regulations were withdrawn by President Reagan in of January 28 , 1981 . In 1973 and again in 1979 the US Government took control of private stocks of oil under this law . ( Jaffe & Soligo , `` The role of inventories in oil market stability '' , Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 42 . 2002 . ) Category :1973 in law Category :93 rd United States Congress Category : United States federal energy legislation Category : Petroleum politics Category : Law articles needing an infobox",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Emergency_Petroleum_Allocation_Act",
"rank": 97,
"score": 87033
},
{
"content": "Title: Emergency Powers Act 1939 Content: The Emergency Powers Act 1939 ( EPA ) was an Act of the Oireachtas ( Irish parliament ) enacted on 3 September 1939 , after an official state of emergency had been declared on 2 September 1939 in response to the outbreak of the Second World War . The Act empowered the government to :",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "Emergency_Powers_Act_1939",
"rank": 98,
"score": 87026
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 California wildfires Content: The 2015 California wildfires were a series of wildfires that burned across the state of California during 2015 , in which 8,745 fires burned a total area of 893,362 acre . On September 11 , with the Butte Fire exploding from a size of 32,000 acres to 65,000 acres , in the Amador and Calaveras counties , Governor Jerry Brown declared a state of emergency .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2015_California_wildfires",
"rank": 99,
"score": 86989
},
{
"content": "Title: 2008 Southern African Development Community emergency meeting Content: Zambian President Levy Mwanawasa called an emergency meeting of SADC leaders for 12 April during the 2008 Zimbabwe presidential election to discuss the post-election impasse . According to Mwanawasa , Zimbabwe 's `` deepening problems '' meant that the issue needed to be `` dealt with at presidential level '' . Jacob Zuma , meanwhile , said that he thought results should have already been announced , and he described the failure to release them as `` unprecedented '' .",
"qid": "165",
"docid": "2008_Southern_African_Development_Community_emergency_meeting",
"rank": 100,
"score": 86959
}
] |
As the temperature has increased, so has the ability of scientists to determine whether specific events are linked to climate change. | [
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 1,
"score": 142705
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 2,
"score": 140611
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 3,
"score": 134779
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 4,
"score": 134327
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 5,
"score": 132540
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 6,
"score": 132124
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 7,
"score": 128859
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 8,
"score": 126838
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 9,
"score": 125543
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 10,
"score": 123097
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 11,
"score": 121834
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 12,
"score": 121204
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 13,
"score": 120369
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 14,
"score": 117918
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 15,
"score": 117432
},
{
"content": "Title: International Tundra Experiment Content: The International Tundra Experiment ( ITEX ) is a long-term international collaboration of researchers examining the responses of arctic and alpine plants and ecosystems to climate change . The ITEX network consists of more than 20 sites in polar and alpine locations around the world . Researchers measure plant responses to standardized , small-scale passive warming , snow manipulations , and nutrient additions . Researchers use small open-top chambers to passively increase mean air temperature by 1-2oC . The ITEX approach has been validated by tundra responses at the plot level . The network has published meta-analyses on plant phenology , growth , and reproduction , composition and abundance , and carbon flux .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "International_Tundra_Experiment",
"rank": 16,
"score": 117184
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 17,
"score": 115181
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 18,
"score": 114589
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture",
"rank": 19,
"score": 114384
},
{
"content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change",
"rank": 20,
"score": 114046
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 21,
"score": 113594
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment",
"rank": 22,
"score": 112399
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 23,
"score": 111932
},
{
"content": "Title: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement Content: The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Laboratoire_des_sciences_du_climat_et_de_l'environnement",
"rank": 24,
"score": 111614
},
{
"content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Reasons_for_concern",
"rank": 25,
"score": 109812
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Peter_Thejll",
"rank": 26,
"score": 109147
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 27,
"score": 108901
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 28,
"score": 108592
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 29,
"score": 108585
},
{
"content": "Title: Climarice Content: Climarice is a research project , carried out by The Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research ( Bioforsk , Norway ) , Tamil Nadu Agricultural University ( TNAU , India ) , International Water Management Institute ( IWMI , India ) and International Pacific Research Center ( IPRC , United States ) ; which is trying to assess the impact of climate variability on water availability and rice production in the Cauvery river basin of Tamil Nadu , India . In particular , the impacts of climate change on extreme events such as droughts , floods , heat waves and on the spatial and temporal distribution of the monsoon rains will certainly impact rice production and food security in India . However , there is a significant level of uncertainty in the climate models ' projections that cascade into impact models and thereby influence policy decisions related to adaptation . For both scientific community and policy makers , reducing the uncertainties is a big challenge . On a positive note , examination of historical observed rice production data in India shows an overall increasing trend in many regions with annual fluctuations . Will this trend continue given the projected change in climate and population increase in India ? Climarice is funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , is currently assessing the impacts of climate change on rice production areas and rice productivity . Specifically , the project is assessing the behavior of the Indian monsoon in different climate scenarios , and examining its impact on the water availability , rice crop production and the resultant socio economic vulnerability and adaptation of farming communities in the Cauvery river basin , India . Since the project was started in January 2008 , relevant coping and adaptation mechanisms have been identified and techniques developed to address the issues of climate vulnerabilities in rice production .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climarice",
"rank": 30,
"score": 107910
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 31,
"score": 107744
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium Content: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium is an annual high level international event where top researchers and politicians , senior business executives , representatives of NGOs and other decision makers meet to share experiences and to discuss climate change solutions . The topics are related to the challenges of climate change , other environmental issues , and issues directly connected to the Arctic and the Northern areas which could have major global consequences . Participation is limited to 45 people , by invitation only . The Symposium takes place on Svalbard at 79 degrees north . It is the world 's northernmost permanent settlement and is only 1200 km from the North Pole . The Norwegian Government has transformed this former mining community into a major base for scientific research and environmental monitoring in the Arctic . The base hosts scientists from more than 20 nations and plays an important role in international climate change research . It is owned and operated by the governmental company Kings Bay AS , a coal mining company in earlier days . The scenery is exceptional , with a backdrop of unspoiled Arctic nature . The purpose of the Symposium is to exchange knowledge , improve the understanding and seek solutions of the challenging impacts these issues have both on the Arctic regions and internationally . The Symposium is organized by Kings Bay AS in cooperation with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research , the Ministry of the Environment -RSB- , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , the Ministry of Justice and the Police , and the -LSB- Research Council of Norway -RSB- . Statkraft AS is a co-organizer and sponsor of the Symposium . The secretariat is by CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo . His Royal Highness Crown Prince Haakon of Norway is patron of the Symposium . The first Symposium was arranged in March 2006 . The main themes for the symposia have been : 2006 - The changing Arctic - new opportunities and challenges 2007 - The changing Arctic - global climate change - the need for action 2008 - Global climate change and research challenges 2009 - Climate change : Understanding global politics towards Copenhagen and beyond 2010 - The Changing Arctic and Its Global Implications 2011 - cancelled due to volcanic ash cloud 2012 - Towards a green economy : the role of technology 2013 - The Changing Arctic - Opportunity or Threat 2014 - Breaking the Climate Stalemate",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "The_Ny-Ålesund_Symposium",
"rank": 32,
"score": 107450
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents",
"rank": 33,
"score": 107250
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 34,
"score": 107004
},
{
"content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Duncan_Wingham",
"rank": 35,
"score": 106880
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit Content: The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit",
"rank": 36,
"score": 106119
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Ecological_forecasting",
"rank": 37,
"score": 105878
},
{
"content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Seita_Emori",
"rank": 38,
"score": 105533
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 39,
"score": 105281
},
{
"content": "Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Christopher_Field",
"rank": 40,
"score": 105237
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme",
"rank": 41,
"score": 105197
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 42,
"score": 104858
},
{
"content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment",
"rank": 43,
"score": 104730
},
{
"content": "Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Ian_Clark_(geologist)",
"rank": 44,
"score": 104702
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Paleoclimatology",
"rank": 45,
"score": 104392
},
{
"content": "Title: Science On a Sphere Content: Science On a Sphere ( SOS ) is a spherical projection system created by NOAA . It presents high-resolution video on a suspended globe rather than a flat screen , with the aim of better representing global phenomena . Animated images of atmospheric storms , climate change , and ocean temperature can be shown on the sphere to explain these complex environmental processes . SOS systems are most frequently installed in science museums , universities , zoos , and research institutions , although new and novel uses for these systems in a variety of presentation spaces and contexts are starting to emerge . The system has been installed in more than 130 locations worldwide .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Science_On_a_Sphere",
"rank": 46,
"score": 104038
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia",
"rank": 47,
"score": 103888
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 48,
"score": 103742
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Peter_Doran",
"rank": 49,
"score": 103481
},
{
"content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists",
"rank": 50,
"score": 103307
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 51,
"score": 102823
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_feedback",
"rank": 52,
"score": 102820
},
{
"content": "Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Cloud_formation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 53,
"score": 102677
},
{
"content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Iris_hypothesis",
"rank": 54,
"score": 102510
},
{
"content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 55,
"score": 102253
},
{
"content": "Title: James Annan Content: James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "James_Annan",
"rank": 56,
"score": 102253
},
{
"content": "Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "John_Christy",
"rank": 57,
"score": 102218
},
{
"content": "Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "List_of_climate_research_satellites",
"rank": 58,
"score": 101645
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 59,
"score": 101362
},
{
"content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 60,
"score": 101285
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 61,
"score": 101179
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Research_Centre",
"rank": 62,
"score": 101047
},
{
"content": "Title: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars Content: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines is a 2012 book about climate change by the American climatologist and geophysicist Michael E. Mann . In the book Mann describes how he became a researcher investigating the temperature record of the past 1000 years and was lead author , with Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , on the 1999 reconstruction that was the first to be dubbed the hockey stick graph . He concisely explains the basics of climate science including statistical methodology dealing with paleoclimate proxy data , and examines the tactics which opponents of action on climate change use to distort the science and attack the reputations of climate scientists . The book describes both the hockey stick controversy and the broader context of skepticism in science and contrarians rejecting evidence of human influence on climate . The book was picked by Physics Today books editor Jermey Matthews as one of the five top books of the 49 they had reviewed in 2012 .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "The_Hockey_Stick_and_the_Climate_Wars",
"rank": 63,
"score": 100655
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Peter_A._Stott",
"rank": 64,
"score": 100623
},
{
"content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Scott_Denning",
"rank": 65,
"score": 100454
},
{
"content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe",
"rank": 66,
"score": 100189
},
{
"content": "Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Living_in_the_Hothouse",
"rank": 67,
"score": 100098
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_West_Virginia",
"rank": 68,
"score": 100080
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 69,
"score": 99786
},
{
"content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "James_Hansen",
"rank": 70,
"score": 99766
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 71,
"score": 99461
},
{
"content": "Title: RheinBlick2050 Content: RheinBlick2050 is an environmental science research project on the impacts of regional climate change on discharge of the Rhine River and its major tributaries ( here : Moselle and Main rivers ) in Central Europe . The project runtime was from January 2008 until September 2010 , initiated by and coordinated on behalf of the International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin ( CHR ) .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "RheinBlick2050",
"rank": 72,
"score": 99374
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas Stocker Content: Thomas Stocker ( born 1959 ) is a Swiss climate scientist . Born in Zürich , Stocker obtained a degree in physics at the ETH Zurich . He was active in research at the University College London , at McGill University in Montreal and at Columbia University in New York . Since 1993 , he is professor and head of the department of Climate and Environmental Physics at the University of Bern . The focus of Stocker 's research is the development of models of climate change based on , among other , the analysis of ice cores from the polar regions . He significantly contributed to creating the `` hockey stick graph '' that shows a growing increase of global mean temperatures in recent times . Since 1998 , he contributes to the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and is co-chairman of the IPCC Working Group I ( assessing scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change ) from 2008 to 2015 . In 1993 , Stocker was awarded the Swiss National Science Foundation 's National Latsis Prize , and 2009 the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and a member of the Academia Europaea and the American Meteorological Society . Stocker is featured in the film Taking Earth 's Temperature : Delving into Climate 's Past . On February 18 , 2015 , the Swiss government announced it would nominate Dr. Stocker as a candidate for the next chair of the IPCC to succeed Dr. Pachauri .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Thomas_Stocker",
"rank": 73,
"score": 99320
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 74,
"score": 98850
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 75,
"score": 98643
},
{
"content": "Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Nature_Climate_Change",
"rank": 76,
"score": 98638
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 77,
"score": 98591
},
{
"content": "Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World",
"rank": 78,
"score": 98502
},
{
"content": "Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "The_Chilling_Stars",
"rank": 79,
"score": 98471
},
{
"content": "Title: Billy Barr (naturalist) Content: Billy Barr is an American amateur scientist known for his collection of over 40 years of data on snow levels , temperatures and animal migration in the Colorado Rocky Mountains . Barr 's data collection is recognized as critical evidence of the effects of climate change .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Billy_Barr_(naturalist)",
"rank": 80,
"score": 98266
},
{
"content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell",
"rank": 81,
"score": 98001
},
{
"content": "Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Tyndall_Centre",
"rank": 82,
"score": 97997
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment",
"rank": 83,
"score": 97946
},
{
"content": "Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower",
"rank": 84,
"score": 97927
},
{
"content": "Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Friends_of_Science",
"rank": 85,
"score": 97725
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 86,
"score": 97617
},
{
"content": "Title: U.S. Global Change Research Program Content: The United States Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society . The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 ( P.L. 101-606 ) , which called for `` a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand , assess , predict , and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change . '' Thirteen departments and agencies participate in the USGCRP , which was known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program from 2002 through 2008 . The program is steered by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research under the Committee on Environment , Natural Resources and Sustainability , overseen by the Executive Office of the President , and facilitated by a National Coordination Office . During the past two decades , the United States , through the USGCRP , has made the world 's largest scientific investment in the areas of climate change and global change research . Since its inception , the USGCRP has supported research and observational activities in collaboration with several other national and international science programs . These activities led to major advances in several key areas including : Observing and understanding short - and long-term changes in climate , the ozone layer , and land cover ; Identifying the impacts of these changes on ecosystems and society ; Estimating future changes in the physical environment , and vulnerabilities and risks associated with those changes ; and Providing scientific information to enable effective decision making to address the threats and opportunities posed by climate and global change . These advances have been documented in numerous assessments commissioned by the program and have played prominent roles in international assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Program results and plans are documented in the program 's annual report , Our Changing Planet .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program",
"rank": 87,
"score": 97595
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment",
"rank": 88,
"score": 97510
},
{
"content": "Title: Jeffrey Kiehl Content: Jeffrey Theodore Kiehl ( born June 10 , 1952 ) is an American climate scientist . He is head of the Climate Change Research Section in the National Center for Atmospheric Research located in Boulder , Colorado . He completed his atmospheric science doctoral studies at the State University of New York , Albany . He was awarded the 2012 Climate Communication Prize from the American Geophysical Union .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Jeffrey_Kiehl",
"rank": 89,
"score": 97098
},
{
"content": "Title: Helen Cleugh Content: Helen A. Cleugh is an atmospheric scientist . She is currently the Chief Research Scientist in Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) ( Oceans and Atmosphere ) where she leads the Earth Systems and Climate Change Hub . Cleugh 's research focuses on observing and predicting atmospheric , climate and marine systems and determining how they interact with human activities .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Helen_Cleugh",
"rank": 90,
"score": 97077
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 91,
"score": 96748
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 92,
"score": 96710
},
{
"content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Vicky_Pope",
"rank": 93,
"score": 96679
},
{
"content": "Title: Kathleen Miller Content: Kathleen A. Miller is a climate scientist who specializes in the economics of climate change and its effects on institutions , management of risk and investment decisions . She has worked as the lead author on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change chapter on North America in the report Climate Change 2001 : Impacts , Adaptations and Vulnerability . She is based at the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado . Miller undertook her doctorate in Economics at the University of Washington in 1985 . Her dissertation was entitled The Right to Use vs. the Right to Sell : Water Rights in the Western United States . It explored the evolution of property institutions governing access to water in the arid western states and modelled the operation and effects of these institutions in the presence of both scarcity and inter-temporal variability in water supplies .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Kathleen_Miller",
"rank": 94,
"score": 96660
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)",
"rank": 95,
"score": 96522
},
{
"content": "Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy",
"rank": 96,
"score": 96453
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas Knutson Content: Thomas Knutson is a climate modeller at the US Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory , a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research covers hurricane activity , the link between climate change and hurricane incidence and intensity , and climate change detection and attribution . He served as a contributing author on working group 1 of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He is an Associate Editor of the American Meteorological Society 's Journal of Climate . He has published in Science , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Journal of Geophysical Research , Journal of Climate , Tropical Cyclone Research and Review , Tellus A and the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . In 2004 , Knutson published a paper suggesting that increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide would lead to more intense hurricanes . This finding was subsequently supported by independent research . Knutson was invited to discuss his thesis on Ron Reagan 's MSNBC talk show , but the invitation was withdrawn after the White House intervened . Source : New Scientist Magazine 2007-02-03 , p. 5",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Thomas_Knutson",
"rank": 97,
"score": 96135
},
{
"content": "Title: Anders Levermann Content: Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Anders_Levermann",
"rank": 98,
"score": 95969
},
{
"content": "Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "I'm_not_a_scientist",
"rank": 99,
"score": 95792
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Research (journal) Content: Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .",
"qid": "168",
"docid": "Climate_Research_(journal)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 95750
}
] |
They can now model how likely a specific event would be to occur under historical conditions, compared to the record temperatures we’re experiencing. | [
{
"content": "Title: Geospatial predictive modeling Content: Geospatial predictive modeling is conceptually rooted in the principle that the occurrences of events being modeled are limited in distribution . Occurrences of events are neither uniform nor random in distribution -- there are spatial environment factors ( infrastructure , sociocultural , topographic , etc. ) that constrain and influence where the locations of events occur . Geospatial predictive modeling attempts to describe those constraints and influences by spatially correlating occurrences of historical geospatial locations with environmental factors that represent those constraints and influences . Geospatial predictive modeling is a process for analyzing events through a geographic filter in order to make statements of likelihood for event occurrence or emergence .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Geospatial_predictive_modeling",
"rank": 1,
"score": 100734
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical climatology Content: Historical climatology is the study of historical changes in climate and their effect on human history and development . This differs from paleoclimatology which encompasses climate change over the entire history of Earth . The study seeks to define periods in human history where temperature or precipitation varied from what is observed in the present day . The primary sources include written records such as sagas , chronicles , maps and local history literature as well as pictorial representations such as paintings , drawings and even rock art . The archaeological record is equally important in establishing evidence of settlement , water and land usage .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Historical_climatology",
"rank": 2,
"score": 87548
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network",
"rank": 3,
"score": 85728
},
{
"content": "Title: Predictive modelling Content: Predictive modeling uses statistics to predict outcomes . Most often the event one wants to predict is in the future , but predictive modelling can be applied to any type of unknown event , regardless of when it occurred . For example , predictive models are often used to detect crimes and identify suspects , after the crime has taken place . In many cases the model is chosen on the basis of detection theory to try to guess the probability of an outcome given a set amount of input data , for example given an email determining how likely that it is spam . Models can use one or more classifiers in trying to determine the probability of a set of data belonging to another set , say spam or ` ham ' . Depending on definitional boundaries , predictive modelling is synonymous with , or largely overlapping with , the field of machine learning , as it is more commonly referred to in academic or research and development contexts . When deployed commercially , predictive modelling is often referred to as predictive analytics .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Predictive_modelling",
"rank": 4,
"score": 85365
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal history modelling Content: Thermal history modelling is an exercise undertaken during basin modelling to evaluate the temperature history of stratigraphic layers in a sedimentary basin . The thermal history of a basin is usually calibrated using thermal indicator data , including vitrinite reflectance and fission tracks in the minerals apatite and zircon . The temperatures undergone by rocks in a sedimentary basin are crucial when attempting to evaluate the quantity , nature and volume of hydrocarbons ( fossil fuels ) produced by diagenesis of kerogens ( a group of chemicals formed from the decay of organic matter ) . Fourier 's Law provides a simplified one-dimensional description of the variation in heat flow Q as a function of thermal conductivity k and thermal gradient dT/dz : ( The minus sign indicates that heat flows in the opposite direction to increasing depth , that is , towards the Earth 's surface . ) If the assumptions used to justify this simplified approximation ( i.e. steady-state heat conduction , no convection or advection ) are accepted , we define the simple 1-dimensional heat diffusion equation where temperature T at a depth z and time t is given by the equation : where Tt0 is the surface temperature history , Qt is the heat flow history and k is thermal conductivity . The integral thus represents the integrated thermal conductivity history of a 1-dimensional column of rock . Thermal history modelling attempts to describe the temperature history Tz , t and therefore requires a knowledge of the burial history of the stratigraphic layers which is obtained through the process of back-stripping .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Thermal_history_modelling",
"rank": 5,
"score": 83208
},
{
"content": "Title: Debye model Content: In thermodynamics and solid state physics , the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contribution to the specific heat ( heat capacity ) in a solid . It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice ( heat ) as phonons in a box , in contrast to the Einstein model , which treats the solid as many individual , non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators . The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity , which is proportional to -- the Debye T3 law . Just like the Einstein model , it also recovers the Dulong -- Petit law at high temperatures . But due to simplifying assumptions , its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures . See M. Shubin and T. Sunada for a rigorous treatment of the Debye model .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Debye_model",
"rank": 6,
"score": 82573
},
{
"content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record",
"rank": 7,
"score": 79858
},
{
"content": "Title: List of weather records Content: This is a list of weather records , a list of the most extreme occurrences of weather phenomena for various categories . Many weather records are measured under specific conditions -- such as surface temperature and wind speed -- to keep consistency among measurements around the Earth . Each of these records is understood to be the record value officially observed , as these records may have been exceeded before modern weather instrumentation was invented , or in remote areas without an official weather station . This list does not include remotely sensed observations such as satellite measurements , since those values are not considered official records .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "List_of_weather_records",
"rank": 8,
"score": 79833
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years",
"rank": 9,
"score": 78954
},
{
"content": "Title: Event (UML) Content: An event in the Unified Modeling Language ( UML ) is a notable occurrence at a particular point in time . Events can , but do not necessarily , cause state transitions from one state to another in state machines represented by state machine diagrams . A transition between states occurs only when any guard condition for that transition are satisfied . Category : Unified Modeling Language Category : Data modeling",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Event_(UML)",
"rank": 10,
"score": 77470
},
{
"content": "Title: Predictive analytics Content: Predictive analytics encompasses a variety of statistical techniques from predictive modeling , machine learning , and data mining that analyze current and historical facts to make predictions about future or otherwise unknown events . In business , predictive models exploit patterns found in historical and transactional data to identify risks and opportunities . Models capture relationships among many factors to allow assessment of risk or potential associated with a particular set of conditions , guiding decision making for candidate transactions . The defining functional effect of these technical approaches is that predictive analytics provides a predictive score ( probability ) for each individual ( customer , employee , healthcare patient , product SKU , vehicle , component , machine , or other organizational unit ) in order to determine , inform , or influence organizational processes that pertain across large numbers of individuals , such as in marketing , credit risk assessment , fraud detection , manufacturing , healthcare , and government operations including law enforcement . Predictive analytics is used in actuarial science , marketing , financial services , insurance , telecommunications , retail , travel , mobility , healthcare , child protection , pharmaceuticals , capacity planning and other fields . One of the best-known applications is credit scoring , which is used throughout financial services . Scoring models process a customer 's credit history , loan application , customer data , etc. , in order to rank-order individuals by their likelihood of making future credit payments on time .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Predictive_analytics",
"rank": 11,
"score": 76665
},
{
"content": "Title: Event (probability theory) Content: In probability theory , an event is a set of outcomes of an experiment ( a subset of the sample space ) to which a probability is assigned . A single outcome may be an element of many different events , and different events in an experiment are usually not equally likely , since they may include very different groups of outcomes . An event defines a complementary event , namely the complementary set ( the event not occurring ) , and together these define a Bernoulli trial : did the event occur or not ? Typically , when the sample space is finite , any subset of the sample space is an event ( i.e. all elements of the power set of the sample space are defined as events ) . However , this approach does not work well in cases where the sample space is uncountably infinite , most notably when the outcome is a real number . So , when defining a probability space it is possible , and often necessary , to exclude certain subsets of the sample space from being events ( see Events in probability spaces , below ) .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Event_(probability_theory)",
"rank": 12,
"score": 75584
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 13,
"score": 75465
},
{
"content": "Title: Comparative historical research Content: Comparative historical research is a method of social science that examines historical events in order to create explanations that are valid beyond a particular time and place , either by direct comparison to other historical events , theory building , or reference to the present day . Generally , it involves comparisons of social processes across times and places . It overlaps with historical sociology . While the disciplines of history and sociology have always been connected , they have connected in different ways at different times ( see ` Major researchers ' below ) . This form of research may use any of several theoretical orientations . It is distinguished by the types of questions it asks , not the theoretical framework it employs ( see ` Illustrations ' below ) .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Comparative_historical_research",
"rank": 14,
"score": 75055
},
{
"content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Global_temperature_record",
"rank": 15,
"score": 74952
},
{
"content": "Title: Bradley–Terry model Content: The Bradley -- Terry model is a probability model that can predict the outcome of a comparison . Given a pair of individuals and drawn from some population , it estimates the probability that the pairwise comparison turns out true , as where is a positive real-valued score assigned to individual . The comparison can be read as '' is preferred to '' , '' ranks higher than '' , or '' beats '' , depending on the application . For example , may represent the skill of a team in a sports tournament , estimated from the number of times has won a match . then represents the probability that will win a match against . Another example used to explain the model 's purpose is that of scoring products in a certain category by quality . While it 's hard for a person to draft a direct ranking of ( many ) brands of wine , it may be feasible to compare a sample of pairs of wines and say , for each pair , which one is better . The Bradley -- Terry model can then be used to derive a full ranking .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Bradley–Terry_model",
"rank": 16,
"score": 74664
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_graph",
"rank": 17,
"score": 74587
},
{
"content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years",
"rank": 18,
"score": 74568
},
{
"content": "Title: Proxy (climate) Content: In the study of past climates ( `` paleoclimatology '' ) , climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth 's history . Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s , and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began . Examples of proxies include ice cores , tree rings , sub-fossil pollen , boreholes , corals , lake and ocean sediments , and carbonate speleothems . The character of deposition or rate of growth of the proxies ' material has been influenced by the climatic conditions of the time in which they were laid down or grew . Chemical traces produced by climatic changes , such as quantities of particular isotopes , can be recovered from proxies . Some proxies , such as gas bubbles trapped in ice , enable traces of the ancient atmosphere to be recovered and measured directly to provide a history of fluctuations in the composition of the Earth 's atmosphere . To produce the most precise results , systematic cross-verification between proxy indicators is necessary for accuracy in readings and record-keeping . Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the instrumental temperature record and can inform discussions of global warming . The distribution of proxy records , just like the instrumental record , is not at all uniform , with more records in the northern hemisphere .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Proxy_(climate)",
"rank": 19,
"score": 74196
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperature record Content: For extreme records instead of records as a set of data , see List of weather records The temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time . The most detailed information exists since 1850 , when methodical thermometer-based records began . There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation , particularly during the current Holocene epoch . Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Temperature_record",
"rank": 20,
"score": 73743
},
{
"content": "Title: Geologic temperature record Content: The Geologic temperature record are changes in Earth 's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion ( 109 ) year time scales . The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a crucial component of the climate and oceanography of the time .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Geologic_temperature_record",
"rank": 21,
"score": 72553
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical astronomy Content: Historical astronomy is the science of analysing historic astronomical data . The American Astronomical Society ( AAS ) , established 1899 , states that its Historical Astronomy Division '' ... shall exist for the purpose of advancing interest in topics relating to the historical nature of astronomy . By historical astronomy we include the history of astronomy ; what has come to be known as archaeoastronomy ; and the application of historical records to modern astrophysical problems . '' Historical and ancient observations are used to track theoretically long term trends , such as eclipse patterns and the velocity of nebular clouds . Conversely , utilizing known and well documented phenomenological activity , historical astronomers and apply computer models to verify the validity of ancient observations , as well as dating such observations and documents which would otherwise be unknown .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Historical_astronomy",
"rank": 22,
"score": 72539
},
{
"content": "Title: Predictive state representation Content: In computer science , a predictive state representation ( PSR ) is a way to model a state of controlled dynamical system from a history of actions taken and resulting observations . PSR captures the state of a system as a vector of predictions for future tests ( experiments ) that can be done on the system . A test is a sequence of action-observation pairs and its prediction is the probability of the test 's observation - sequence happening if the test 's action-sequence were to be executed on the system . One of the advantage of using PSR is that the predictions are directly related to observable quantities . This is in contrast to other models of dynamical systems , such as partially observable Markov decision processes ( POMDPs ) where the state of the system is represented as a probability distribution over unobserved nominal states .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Predictive_state_representation",
"rank": 23,
"score": 71943
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme weather Content: Extreme weather includes unexpectable , unusual , unpredictable severe or unseasonal weather ; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution -- the range that has been seen in the past . Often , extreme events are based on a location 's recorded weather history and defined as lying in the most unusual ten percent . In recent years some extreme weather events have been attributed to human-induced global warming , with studies indicating an increasing threat from extreme weather in the future .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Extreme_weather",
"rank": 24,
"score": 71255
},
{
"content": "Title: Model output statistics Content: Model Output Statistics ( MOS ) is a multiple linear regression technique in which predicands , often near-surface quantities , such as 2-meter ( AGL ) air temperature , horizontal visibility , and wind direction , speed and gusts , are related statistically to one or more predictors . The predictors are typically forecasts from a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model , climatic data , and , if applicable , recent surface observations . Thus , output from NWP models can be transformed by the MOS technique into sensible weather parameters that are familiar to the `` person on the street '' .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Model_output_statistics",
"rank": 25,
"score": 71109
},
{
"content": "Title: ERA-40 Content: ERA-40 is an ECMWF re-analysis of the global atmosphere and surface conditions for 45-years , over the period from September 1957 through August 2002 by ECMWF . Many sources of the meteorological observations were used , including radiosondes , balloons , aircraft , buoyes , satellites , scatterometers . This data was run through the ECMWF computer model at a 125 km resolution . As the ECMWF 's computer model is one of the more highly regarded in the field of forecasting , many scientists take its reanalysis to have similar merit . The data is stored in GRIB format . The reanalysis was done in an effort to improve the accuracy of historical weather maps and aid in a more detailed analysis of various weather systems through a period that was severely lacking in computerized data . With the data from reanalyses such as this , many of the more modern computerized tools for analyzing storm systems can be utilized , at least in part , because of this access to a computerized simulation of the atmospheric state .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "ERA-40",
"rank": 26,
"score": 71015
},
{
"content": "Title: History of numerical weather prediction Content: The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "History_of_numerical_weather_prediction",
"rank": 27,
"score": 70852
},
{
"content": "Title: Equiprobability Content: Equiprobability is a philosophical concept in probability theory that allows one to assign equal probabilities to outcomes when they are judged to be equipossible or to be `` equally likely '' in some sense . The best-known formulation of the rule is Laplace 's principle of indifference ( or principle of insufficient reason ) , which states that , when `` we have no other information than '' that exactly N mutually exclusive events can occur , we are justified in assigning each the probability 1/N . This subjective assignment of probabilities is especially justified for situations such as rolling dice and lotteries since these experiments carry a symmetry structure , and one 's state of knowledge must clearly be invariant under this symmetry . A similar argument could lead to the seemingly absurd conclusion that the sun is as likely to rise as to not rise tomorrow morning . However , the conclusion that the sun is equally likely to rise as it is to not rise is only absurd when additional information is known , such as the laws of gravity and the sun 's history . Similar applications of the concept are effectively instances of circular reasoning , with `` equally likely '' events being assigned equal probabilities , which means in turn that they are equally likely . Despite this , the notion remains useful in probabilistic and statistical modeling . In Bayesian probability , one needs to establish prior probabilities for the various hypotheses before applying Bayes ' theorem . One procedure is to assume that these prior probabilities have some symmetry which is typical of the experiment , and then assign a prior which is proportional to the Haar measure for the symmetry group : this generalization of equiprobability is known as the principle of transformation groups and leads to misuse of equiprobability as a model for incertitude .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Equiprobability",
"rank": 28,
"score": 70820
},
{
"content": "Title: Conditional dependence Content: In probability theory , conditional dependence is a relationship between two or more events that are dependent when a third event occurs . For example , if A and B are two events that individually affect the happening of a third event C , and do not directly affect each other , then initially ( when the event C has not occurred ) ( A and B are independent ) Eventually the event C occurs , and now if event A occurs the probability of occurrence of the event B will decrease ( similarly event B occurring first will decrease the probability of occurrence of A in future ) . Hence , now the two events A and B become conditionally dependent because their probability of occurrence is dependent on either event 's occurrence . Intuitively we can say that since A and B both were probable causes of C , given C has occurred , occurrence of either of A or B alone could explain away the happening of C. In essence probability comes from a person 's information content about occurrence of an event . For example , let the event A be ' I have a new car ' ; event B be ' I have a new watch ' ; and event C be ' I am happy ' . Let us assume that the event C has occurred -- meaning ' I am happy ' . Now if a third person sees my new watch , he/she will attribute this reason to my happiness . Thus in his/her view the probability of the event A ( ' I have a new car ' ) to have been the cause of the event C ( ' I am happy ' ) will decrease as the event C has been explained away by the event B. Conditional dependence is different from conditional independence . In conditional independence two events ( which may be dependent or not ) become independent given the occurrence of a third event .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Conditional_dependence",
"rank": 29,
"score": 70728
},
{
"content": "Title: Prognostic chart Content: A prognostic chart is a map displaying the likely weather forecast for a future time . Such charts generated by atmospheric models as output from numerical weather prediction and contain a variety of information such as temperature , wind , precipitation and weather fronts . They can also indicate derived atmospheric fields such as vorticity , stability indices , or frontogenesis . Forecast errors need to be taken into account and can be determined either via absolute error , or by considering persistence and absolute error combined .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Prognostic_chart",
"rank": 30,
"score": 70680
},
{
"content": "Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "David_Parker_(climatologist)",
"rank": 31,
"score": 70415
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Climate_model",
"rank": 32,
"score": 70066
},
{
"content": "Title: List of historical earthquakes Content: Historical earthquakes is a list of significant earthquakes from before the 20th century . As the events listed here occurred before routine instrumental recordings , they rely mainly on the analysis of written sources . There is often significant uncertainty in location and magnitude and sometimes date for each earthquake . The number of fatalities is also often highly uncertain , particularly for the older events .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "List_of_historical_earthquakes",
"rank": 33,
"score": 69787
},
{
"content": "Title: Weather Stress Index Content: The Weather Stress Index , or WSI , is a relative measure of the weather conditions , often used as a comfort indicator . The index , a number between 0 and 100 , represents the percentage of time in the past with temperatures below the current temperature , for a given location , day and time . This makes the index a local measure based in past weather conditions . For example , if for a given location , on the 25th of July at 13:00 UTC the WSI is 85 for a temperature of 42 C , this means that the temperature was inferior to 42 ° C in 85 % of the time in the past , on the same place , on the 25th of July at 13:00 UTC ( and superior to 42 ° C in 15 % of the time on the same place , day and hour ) . In other words , the WSI gives the probability of finding a smaller temperature in the local weather history , at a given day and time , than that of the present measurement . Therefore , high values of WSI predict a relative discomfort from excessive heat for local inhabitants .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Weather_Stress_Index",
"rank": 34,
"score": 69526
},
{
"content": "Title: Stochastic prediction procedure Content: In probability theory and statistics , a stochastic prediction procedure is based on a Bernoulli space and may be used to make predictions under specific conditions . In contrast to a prediction obtained in traditional science , predictions obtained by means of a stochastic predíction procedure meet a given reliability requirement and are optimal with respect to accuracy . A prediction procedure refers to a random variable X and predicts future events for X depending on the initial conditions or more precisely said on what is known about the initial conditions .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Stochastic_prediction_procedure",
"rank": 35,
"score": 69395
},
{
"content": "Title: Geospeedometry Content: Geospeedometry is the science of measuring the timescales and/or temperatures of thermal events in the history of a metamorphic or igneous rock using diffusion profiles of elements within individual minerals . `` Geospeedometry '' refers to the speed , or timescale , of thermal events in geologic materials . The term first appeared in the literature in 1983 ; prior thermochronometric studies focused on diffusion of iron and magnesium in olivine provided the foundation for the field . Geospeedometry has since developed rapidly as further studies have experimentally calibrated the diffusivity of elements in various minerals .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Geospeedometry",
"rank": 36,
"score": 69170
},
{
"content": "Title: Pseudoproxy Content: A pseudoproxy is a synthetic dataset used in paleoclimatology to test methods of reconstruction of global or hemispherical climate change from temperature records , developed for reconstructing the temperature record of the past 1000 years using proxies for periods before the instrumental temperature record . In May 2002 Michael E. Mann and Scott Rutherford published a paper introducing this method of adding artificial noise to actual temperature records or to climate model simulations to produce what they called `` pseudoproxies '' . When the reconstruction algorithms were used with these pseudoproxies , the result was then compared with the original record or simulation to see how closely it had been reconstructed . They discussed the issue that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Pseudoproxy",
"rank": 37,
"score": 69127
},
{
"content": "Title: Upper and lower probabilities Content: Upper and lower probabilities are representations of imprecise probability . Whereas probability theory uses a single number , the probability , to describe how likely an event is to occur , this method uses two numbers : the upper probability of the event and the lower probability of the event . Because frequentist statistics disallows metaprobabilities , frequentists have had to propose new solutions . Cedric Smith and Arthur Dempster each developed a theory of upper and lower probabilities . Glenn Shafer developed Dempster 's theory further , and it is now known as Dempster -- Shafer theory : see also Choquet ( 1953 ) . More precisely , in the work of these authors one considers in a power set , , a mass function satisfying the conditions In turn , a mass is associated with two non-additive continuous measures called belief and plausibility defined as follows : In the case where is infinite there can be such that there is no associated mass function . See p. 36 of Halpern ( 2003 ) . Probability measures are a special case of belief functions in which the mass function assigns positive mass to singletons of the event space only . A different notion of upper and lower probabilities is obtained by the lower and upper envelopes obtained from a class C of probability distributions by setting The upper and lower probabilities are also related with probabilistic logic : see Gerla ( 1994 ) . Observe also that a necessity measure can be seen as a lower probability and a possibility measure can be seen as an upper probability .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Upper_and_lower_probabilities",
"rank": 38,
"score": 69038
},
{
"content": "Title: Schottky anomaly Content: The Schottky anomaly is an effect observed in solid-state physics where the specific heat capacity of a solid at low temperature has a peak . It is called anomalous because the heat capacity usually increases with temperature , or stays constant . It occurs in systems with a limited number of energy levels so that E ( T ) increases with sharp steps , one for each energy level that becomes available . Since Cv = ( dE/dT ) , it will experience a large peak as the temperature crosses over from one step to the next . This effect can be explained by looking at the change in entropy of the system . At zero temperature only the lowest energy level is occupied , entropy is zero , and there is very little probability of a transition to a higher energy level . As the temperature increases , there is an increase in entropy and thus the probability of a transition goes up . As the temperature approaches the difference between the energy levels there is a broad peak in the specific heat corresponding to a large change in entropy for a small change in temperature . At high temperatures all of the levels are populated evenly , so there is again little change in entropy for small changes in temperature , and thus a lower specific heat capacity . For a two level system the specific heat coming from the Schottky anomaly has the form : Where kBΔ is the energy between the two levels . This anomaly is usually seen in paramagnetic salts or even ordinary glass ( due to paramagnetic iron impurities ) at low temperature . At high temperature the paramagnetic spins have many spin states available , but at low temperatures some of the spin states are `` frozen out '' ( having too high energy due to crystal field splitting ) , and the entropy per impurity is lowered . It was named after Walter H. Schottky .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Schottky_anomaly",
"rank": 39,
"score": 68937
},
{
"content": "Title: Timeline of meteorology Content: The timeline of meteorology contains events of scientific and technological advancements in the area of atmospheric sciences . The most notable advancements in observational meteorology , weather forecasting , climatology , atmospheric chemistry , and atmospheric physics are listed chronologically . Some historical weather events are included that mark time periods where advancements were made , or even that sparked policy change",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Timeline_of_meteorology",
"rank": 40,
"score": 68800
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical simulation (finance) Content: Historical simulation in finance 's value at risk ( VaR ) analysis is a procedure for predicting the value at risk by ` simulating ' or constructing the cumulative distribution function ( CDF ) of assets returns over time . Unlike parametric VaR models , historical simulation does not assume a particular distribution of the asset returns . Also , it is relatively easy to implement . However , there are a couple of shortcomings of historical simulation . Historical simulation applies equal weight to all returns of the whole period ; this is inconsistent with the diminishing predictability of data that are further away from the present .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Historical_simulation_(finance)",
"rank": 41,
"score": 68779
},
{
"content": "Title: One in ten rule Content: In statistics , the one in ten rule is a rule of thumb for how many predictors can be derived from data when doing regression analysis ( in particular proportional hazards models and logistic regression ) without risk of overfitting . The rule states that one predictive variable can be studied for every ten events . For example , if a sample of 200 patients are studied and 20 patients die during the study , only two pre-specified predictors can reliably be fitted to the total data . Similarly , if 120 patients die during the study ( so that 80 patients survive ) , eight pre-specified predictors ( based on the smallest of the two counts , being 80 ) can be fitted reliably . If more are fitted , overfitting is likely and the results will not predict well outside the training data . It is not uncommon to see the 1:10 rule violated in fields with many variables ( e.g. gene expression studies in cancer ) , decreasing the confidence in reported findings . The one in ten rule is a minimum ; a `` one in 20 rule '' has been suggested , indicating the need for shrinkage of regression coefficients , and a `` one in 50 rule '' for stepwise selection with the default p-value of 5 % . Recent studies , however suggest that the rule may be too conservative and that five to nine events per predictor can be enough , depending on the research question .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "One_in_ten_rule",
"rank": 42,
"score": 68505
},
{
"content": "Title: Applied history Content: Applied history , also widely known as public history , is `` is the explicit attempt to illuminate current challenges and choices by analyzing historical precedents and analogues . Mainstream historians begin with an event or era and attempt to provide an account of what happened and why . Applied historians begin with a current choice or predicament and analyze the historical record to provide perspective , stimulate imagination , find clues about what is likely to happen , suggest possible interventions , and assess probable consequences . '' Applied history incorporates historical events in a hands-on environment encouraging historical analysis , investigation , museum studies , archival work , historic/heritage preservation , documentaries and firsthand experience . Applied history courses are meant to teach history in a way to engage the pupil . It is taught to have the students question , reason and connect with history . Analysis of every event and reflection is highly encouraged . Students investigate history and dig for a deeper level of meaning behind events in history . Such courses stress the idea of museology or museum studies and heritage . Students learn from museum exhibits and displays and material culture and built heritage in their environment . They often participate in the curatorial process and help in conducting research for the museum . Their own perspective on the historic event is then formed and broadens their ideas for the subject . Students gain hands on experience and may even possibly handle historical documents , enriching their experiences with history . Archival work is the direct source , very different from learning from a textbook because they are interpreting the documents itself . Applied history teaches students to immerse themselves in history . Applied History is a course that makes students take on their own approach to history and analyze history to uncover a deeper meaning . Programs of applied history can be found at universities and even some high schools . The course is meant to teach students and engage them in history . In some college programs that offer applied history , `` Coursework includes expository writing , public speaking , museum administration , archives and manuscript preservation , archival records technology , and related subjects . Graduates may become museum curators , lecturers , administrators of historical sites , popular writers , or enter other careers that keep the public aware of its heritage . ''",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Applied_history",
"rank": 43,
"score": 68493
},
{
"content": "Title: Meteoropathy Content: Meteoropathy ( from Greek meteora , celestial phenomena , and pathos , feeling , pain , suffering ) is a physical condition , or symptom associated with weather conditions such as humidity , temperature or pressure . Someone subject to meteoropathy is called meteoropathic . Meteoropathy is different from historical conceptions of `` air '' causing diseases and strongly influencing people 's sense of well-being ( see Miasma theory of disease ) . There appear to be significant and measurable correlations between particular atmospherical events ( such as a sudden increase in humidity and temperature ) and the onset of disease ( such as stroke ) . A few researchers found significant effect on mood correlated with the weather , especially with regards to humidity ( a component of weather not always measured ) : `` Humidity , temperature , and hours of sunshine had the greatest effect on mood . High levels of humidity lowered scores on concentration while increasing reports of sleepiness . Rising temperatures lowered anxiety and skepticism mood scores . -LSB- ... -RSB- The number of hours of sunshine was found to predict optimism scores significantly . As the number of hours of sunshine increased , optimism scores also increased . -LSB- ... -RSB- Mood scores on the depression and anxiety scales were not predicted by any weather variable . `` Pleasant weather ( higher temperature or barometric pressure ) was related to higher mood , better memory , and `` broadened '' cognitive style during the spring as time spent outside increased . The same relationships between mood and weather were not observed during other times of year , and indeed hotter weather was associated with lower mood in the summer . ''",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Meteoropathy",
"rank": 44,
"score": 68474
},
{
"content": "Title: Probability Content: Probability is the measure of the likelihood that an event will occur . Probability is quantified as a number between 0 and 1 , where , loosely speaking , 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty . The higher the probability of an event , the more certain that the event will occur . A simple example is the tossing of a fair ( unbiased ) coin . Since the coin is fair , the two outcomes ( `` heads '' and `` tails '' ) are both equally probable ; the probability of `` heads '' equals the probability of `` tails '' ; and since no other outcomes are possible , the probability of either `` heads '' or `` tails '' is 1/2 ( which could also be written as 0.5 or 50 % ) . These concepts have been given an axiomatic mathematical formalization in probability theory , which is used widely in such areas of study as mathematics , statistics , finance , gambling , science ( in particular physics ) , artificial intelligence/machine learning , computer science , game theory , and philosophy to , for example , draw inferences about the expected frequency of events . Probability theory is also used to describe the underlying mechanics and regularities of complex systems .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Probability",
"rank": 45,
"score": 68264
},
{
"content": "Title: Base conditions Content: Base conditions , also known as standard conditions , consist of a specified absolute pressure and temperature . To ensure accuracy , it is important to refer to base conditions when measuring the volume of a sample of liquid or gas . This applies to both static measurement and flow measurement .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Base_conditions",
"rank": 46,
"score": 68217
},
{
"content": "Title: List of periods and events in climate history Content: Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes further back in time . Some notable climate events known to paleoclimatology are listed here . The timeline of glaciation covers ice ages specifically , which tend to have their own names for phases , often with different names used for different parts of the world . The names for earlier periods and events come from geology and paleontology . The marine isotope stages ( MIS ) are often used to express dating within the Quaternary .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history",
"rank": 47,
"score": 67825
},
{
"content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event",
"rank": 48,
"score": 67579
},
{
"content": "Title: Markov model Content: In probability theory , a Markov model is a stochastic model used to model randomly changing systems where it is assumed that future states depend only on the current state not on the events that occurred before it ( that is , it assumes the Markov property ) . Generally , this assumption enables reasoning and computation with the model that would otherwise be intractable . For this reason , in the fields of predictive modelling and probabilistic forecasting , it is desirable for a given model to exhibit the Markov property .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Markov_model",
"rank": 49,
"score": 67508
},
{
"content": "Title: Empirical probability Content: The empirical probability , relative frequency , or experimental probability of an event is the ratio of the number of outcomes in which a specified event occurs to the total number of trials , not in a theoretical sample space but in an actual experiment . In a more general sense , empirical probability estimates probabilities from experience and observation . Given an event A in a sample space , the relative frequency of A is the ratio m/n , m being the number of outcomes in which the event A occurs , and n being the total number of outcomes of the experiment . In statistical terms , the empirical probability is an estimate or estimator of a probability . In simple cases , where the result of a trial only determines whether or not the specified event has occurred , modelling using a binomial distribution might be appropriate and then the empirical estimate is the maximum likelihood estimate . It is the Bayesian estimate for the same case if certain assumptions are made for the prior distribution of the probability . If a trial yields more information , the empirical probability can be improved on by adopting further assumptions in the form of a statistical model : if such a model is fitted , it can be used to derive an estimate of the probability of the specified event .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Empirical_probability",
"rank": 50,
"score": 67341
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical dynamics Content: Historical dynamics broadly includes the scientific modeling of history . This might also be termed computer modeling of history , historical simulation , or simulation of history - allowing for an extensive range of techniques in simulation and estimation . Historical dynamics does not exist as a separate science , but there are individual efforts such as long range planning , population modeling , economic forecasting , demographics , global modeling , country modeling , regional planning , urban planning and many others in the general categories of computer modeling , planning , forecasting , and simulations . Some examples of `` large '' history where historical dynamics simulations would be helpful include ; global history , large structures , histories of empires , long duration history , philosophy of history , Eurasian history , comparative history , long-range environmental history , world systems theory , non-Western political and economic development , and historical demography .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Historical_dynamics",
"rank": 51,
"score": 67151
},
{
"content": "Title: Probability space Content: In probability theory , a probability space or a probability triple is a mathematical construct that models a real-world process ( or `` experiment '' ) consisting of states that occur randomly . A probability space is constructed with a specific kind of situation or experiment in mind . One proposes that each time a situation of that kind arises , the set of possible outcomes is the same and the probabilities are also the same . A probability space consists of three parts : A sample space , , which is the set of all possible outcomes . A set of events , where each event is a set containing zero or more outcomes . The assignment of probabilities to the events ; that is , a function from events to probabilities . An outcome is the result of a single execution of the model . Since individual outcomes might be of little practical use , more complex events are used to characterize groups of outcomes . The collection of all such events is a σ-algebra . Finally , there is a need to specify each event 's likelihood of happening . This is done using the probability measure function , . Once the probability space is established , it is assumed that `` nature '' makes its move and selects a single outcome , , from the sample space . All the events in that contain the selected outcome ( recall that each event is a subset of ) are said to `` have occurred '' . The selection performed by nature is done in such a way that if the experiment were to be repeated an infinite number of times , the relative frequencies of occurrence of each of the events would coincide with the probabilities prescribed by the function . The Russian mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov introduced the notion of probability space , together with other axioms of probability , in the 1930s . Nowadays alternative approaches for axiomatization of probability theory exist ; see `` Algebra of random variables '' , for example . This article is concerned with the mathematics of manipulating probabilities . The article probability interpretations outlines several alternative views of what `` probability '' means and how it should be interpreted . In addition , there have been attempts to construct theories for quantities that are notionally similar to probabilities but do not obey all their rules ; see , for example , Free probability , Fuzzy logic , Possibility theory , Negative probability and Quantum probability .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Probability_space",
"rank": 52,
"score": 66807
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical cyclone forecast model Content: A tropical cyclone forecast model is a computer program that uses meteorological data to forecast aspects of the future state of tropical cyclones . There are three types of models : statistical , dynamical , or combined statistical-dynamic . Dynamical models utilize powerful supercomputers with sophisticated mathematical modeling software and meteorological data to calculate future weather conditions . Statistical models forecast the evolution of a tropical cyclone in a simpler manner , by extrapolating from historical datasets , and thus can be run quickly on platforms such as personal computers . Statistical-dynamical models use aspects of both types of forecasting . Four primary types of forecasts exist for tropical cyclones : track , intensity , storm surge , and rainfall . Dynamical models were not developed until the 1970s and the 1980s , with earlier efforts focused on the storm surge problem . Track models did not show forecast skill when compared to statistical models until the 1980s . Statistical-dynamical models were used from the 1970s into the 1990s . Early models use data from previous model runs while late models produce output after the official hurricane forecast has been sent . The use of consensus , ensemble , and superensemble forecasts lowers errors more than any individual forecast model . Both consensus and superensemble forecasts can use the guidance of global and regional models runs to improve the performance more than any of their respective components . Techniques used at the Joint Typhoon Warning Center indicate that superensemble forecasts are a very powerful tool for track forecasting .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Tropical_cyclone_forecast_model",
"rank": 53,
"score": 66759
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal history of the Earth Content: The thermal history of the Earth is the study of the cooling history of Earth 's interior . It is a sub-field of geophysics . Thermal histories are also computed for the internal cooling of other planetary and stellar bodies . The study of the thermal evolution of Earth 's interior is uncertain and controversial in all aspects , from the interpretation of petrologic observations used to infer the temperature of the interior , to the fluid dynamics responsible for heat loss , to material properties that determine the efficiency of heat transport .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Thermal_history_of_the_Earth",
"rank": 54,
"score": 66757
},
{
"content": "Title: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure Content: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure are standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements to be established to allow comparisons to be made between different sets of data . The most used standards are those of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) , although these are not universally accepted standards . Other organizations have established a variety of alternative definitions for their standard reference conditions . In chemistry , IUPAC has changed the definition of standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) in 1982 : Until 1982 , STP was defined as a temperature of 273.15 K ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of exactly 1 atm ( 1.01325 × 105 Pa ) . Since 1982 , STP is defined as a temperature of 273.15 K ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of exactly 105 Pa ( 101.3 kPa , 1 bar ) . STP should not be confused with the standard state commonly used in thermodynamic evaluations of the Gibbs energy of a reaction . NIST uses a temperature of 20 ° C ( 293.15 K , 68 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of 1 atm ( 14.696 psi , 101.325 kPa ) . This standard is also called normal temperature and pressure ( abbreviated as NTP ) . The International Standard Metric Conditions for natural gas and similar fluids are 288.15 K and 101.325 kPa . In industry and commerce , standard conditions for temperature and pressure are often necessary to define the standard reference conditions to express the volumes of gases and liquids and related quantities such as the rate of volumetric flow ( the volumes of gases vary significantly with temperature and pressure ) . However , many technical publications ( books , journals , advertisements for equipment and machinery ) simply state `` standard conditions '' without specifying them , often leading to confusion and errors . Good practice always incorporates the reference conditions of temperature and pressure .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure",
"rank": 55,
"score": 66264
},
{
"content": "Title: Backtesting Content: Backtesting is a term used in oceanography , meteorology and the financial industry to refer to testing a predictive model using existing historic data . Backtesting is a kind of retrodiction , and a special type of cross-validation applied to time series data .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Backtesting",
"rank": 56,
"score": 66260
},
{
"content": "Title: Survival analysis Content: Survival analysis is a branch of statistics for analyzing the expected duration of time until one or more events happen , such as death in biological organisms and failure in mechanical systems . This topic is called reliability theory or reliability analysis in engineering , duration analysis or duration modelling in economics , and event history analysis in sociology . Survival analysis attempts to answer questions such as : what is the proportion of a population which will survive past a certain time ? Of those that survive , at what rate will they die or fail ? Can multiple causes of death or failure be taken into account ? How do particular circumstances or characteristics increase or decrease the probability of survival ? To answer such questions , it is necessary to define `` lifetime '' . In the case of biological survival , death is unambiguous , but for mechanical reliability , failure may not be well-defined , for there may well be mechanical systems in which failure is partial , a matter of degree , or not otherwise localized in time . Even in biological problems , some events ( for example , heart attack or other organ failure ) may have the same ambiguity . The theory outlined below assumes well-defined events at specific times ; other cases may be better treated by models which explicitly account for ambiguous events . More generally , survival analysis involves the modelling of time to event data ; in this context , death or failure is considered an `` event '' in the survival analysis literature -- traditionally only a single event occurs for each subject , after which the organism or mechanism is dead or broken . Recurring event or repeated event models relax that assumption . The study of recurring events is relevant in systems reliability , and in many areas of social sciences and medical research .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Survival_analysis",
"rank": 57,
"score": 66200
},
{
"content": "Title: Sailing weather prediction Content: Sailing weather prediction or Sailing weather routing is the art of weather forecasting and routing for adventurers and competitive sailors . Weather forecasting for sailing involves several activities such as weather training and coaching , dissemination of data for use in navigation and route planning software , race modeling which involves historical weather and sea state analysis for yacht and sail design , trip and adventure planning for distance races and record attempts , monitoring for departure and trip weather windows . It involves several type of events such as day races , long-distance races , around-the-world-races , and record attempts . It is routinely used in races such as Volvo Ocean Race , America 's Cup campaigns , and olympic classes regattas .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Sailing_weather_prediction",
"rank": 58,
"score": 66190
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Paleoclimatology",
"rank": 59,
"score": 66152
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Michael_E._Mann",
"rank": 60,
"score": 66147
},
{
"content": "Title: Lovász local lemma Content: In probability theory , if a large number of events are all independent of one another and each has probability less than 1 , then there is a positive ( possibly small ) probability that none of the events will occur . The Lovász local lemma allows one to relax the independence condition slightly : As long as the events are `` mostly '' independent from one another and are n't individually too likely , then there will still be a positive probability that none of them occurs . It is most commonly used in the probabilistic method , in particular to give existence proofs . There are several different versions of the lemma . The simplest and most frequently used is the symmetric version given below . A weaker version was proved in 1975 by László Lovász and Paul Erdős in the article Problems and results on 3-chromatic hypergraphs and some related questions . For other versions , see .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Lovász_local_lemma",
"rank": 61,
"score": 66023
},
{
"content": "Title: Event (relativity) Content: In physics , and in particular relativity , an event is a point in spacetime ( that is , a specific place and time ) and the physical situation or occurrence associated with it . For example , a glass breaking on the floor is an event ; it occurs at a unique place and a unique time . Strictly speaking , the notion of an event is an idealization , in the sense that it specifies a definite time and place , whereas any actual event is bound to have a finite extent , both in time and in space . Upon choosing a frame of reference , one can assign coordinates to the event : three spatial coordinates to describe the location and one time coordinate to specify the moment at which the event occurs . These four coordinates together form a four-vector associated to the event . One of the goals of relativity is to specify the possibility of one event influencing another . This is done by means of the metric tensor , which allows for determining the causal structure of spacetime . The difference ( or interval ) between two events can be classified into spacelike , lightlike and timelike separations . Only if two events are separated by a lightlike or timelike interval can one influence the other .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Event_(relativity)",
"rank": 62,
"score": 65834
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermo-hygrograph Content: A thermo-hygrograph or hygrothermograph is a chart recorder that measures and records both temperature and humidity ( or dew point ) . Similar devices that record only one parameter are a thermograph for temperature and hygrograph for humidity . Thermographs where the variations are recorded using photography were described by several scientists as early as 1845 , including Francis Ronalds who was Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory . An updated model of the initial machine was deployed across the national observational network set up by the new UK Met Office in 1867 and coordinated by Kew Observatory . These instruments then saw extended use around the world . An alternative thermograph configuration has a pen that records temperature on a revolving cylinder . The pen is at the end of a lever that is controlled by a bi-metal strip of temperature-sensitive metal which bends as the temperature changes . A human hair bundle can be used for humidity in such machines .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Thermo-hygrograph",
"rank": 63,
"score": 65819
},
{
"content": "Title: NRLMSISE-00 Content: NRLMSISE-00 is an empirical , global model of the Earth 's atmosphere from ground to space . It models the temperatures and densities of the atmosphere 's components . A primary use of this model is to aid predictions of satellite orbital decay due to atmospheric drag . This model has also been used by astronomers to calculate the mass of air between telescopes and laser beams in order to assess the impact of laser guide stars on the non-lasing telescopes .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "NRLMSISE-00",
"rank": 64,
"score": 65655
},
{
"content": "Title: 2007 Western North American heat wave Content: The 2007 western North American heat wave was a record-breaking event that began in late June 2007 . The heat stretched from Mexico to Alberta , Saskatchewan , Manitoba and into northwestern Ontario . The record heat has exacerbated already present record-breaking drought conditions in much of the Western U.S. , allowing fires to grow to record-breaking sizes . The combination of conditions forced major freeway closures , animal and human deaths , evacuations , and destruction of property . Much of eastern North America experienced more average conditions through July 2007 , with little in the way of prolonged heat waves . However , drought remained a problem in some areas of the east , particularly parts of the southeast .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "2007_Western_North_American_heat_wave",
"rank": 65,
"score": 65650
},
{
"content": "Title: Simulation modeling Content: Simulation modeling is the process of creating and analyzing a digital prototype of a physical model to predict its performance in the real world . Simulation modeling is used to help designers and engineers understand whether , under what conditions , and in which ways a part could fail and what loads it can withstand . Simulation modeling can also help to predict fluid flow and heat transfer patterns . It analyses the approximate working conditions by applying the simulation softwares .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Simulation_modeling",
"rank": 66,
"score": 65502
},
{
"content": "Title: Black's equation Content: Black 's Equation is a mathematical model for the mean time to failure ( MTTF ) of a semiconductor circuit due to electromigration : a phenomenon of molecular rearrangement ( movement ) in the solid phase caused by an electromagnetic field . The equation is : is a constant is the current density is a model parameter is the activation energy is Boltzmann 's constant is the absolute temperature in K The model is abstract , not based on a specific physical model , but flexibly describes the failure rate dependence on the temperature , the electrical stress , and the specific technology and materials . More adequately described as descriptive than prescriptive , the values for A , n , and Q are found by fitting the model to experimental data . The model 's value is that it maps experimental data taken at elevated temperature and electrical stress levels in short periods of time to expected component failure rates under actual operating conditions . Experimental data is obtained by running a combination of high temperature operating life ( HTOL ) , electrical , and any other relevant operating environment variables . Predicted semiconductor failure rates of millions or billions of hours should be used with caution because experimental correlation is all but impossible due to the predominance of other failure modes .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Black's_equation",
"rank": 67,
"score": 65416
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical Records of Australian Science Content: Historical Records of Australian Science is a bi-annual peer-reviewed academic journal covering the history of science in Australia and the south-west Pacific and published by CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Australian Academy of Science . It was established in 1966 as an irregular publication with the title Records of the Australian Academy of Science , the present name being adopted in 1980 . Since then , the journal has appeared annually and , since 1991 , twice a year . The current Editors-in-Chief are Sara Maroske ( Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne ) and Ian Rae , an Honorary Professorial Fellow at the University of Melbourne .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Historical_Records_of_Australian_Science",
"rank": 68,
"score": 65413
},
{
"content": "Title: Cost-loss model Content: The cost-loss model , also called the cost/loss model or the cost-loss decision model , is a model used to understand how the predicted probability of adverse events affects the decision of whether to take a costly precautionary measure to protect oneself against losses from that event . The threshold probability above which it makes sense to take the precautionary measure equals the ratio of the cost of the preventative measure to the loss averted , and this threshold is termed the cost/loss ratio or cost-loss ratio . The model is typically used in the context of using prediction about weather conditions to decide whether to take a precautionary measure or not .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Cost-loss_model",
"rank": 69,
"score": 65377
},
{
"content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "North_Report",
"rank": 70,
"score": 65364
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical Records Content: Historical Records was an American independent record label , set up in 1965 by Arnold S. Caplin . Historical Records re-issued rare blues , gospel , jazz and country recordings of the 1920s .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Historical_Records",
"rank": 71,
"score": 65145
},
{
"content": "Title: Predictive inference Content: Predictive inference is an approach to statistical inference that emphasizes the prediction of future observations based on past observations . Initially , predictive inference was based on observable parameters and it was the main purpose of studying probability , but it fell out of favor in the 20th century due to a new parametric approach pioneered by Bruno de Finetti . The approach modeled phenomena as a physical system observed with error ( e.g. , celestial mechanics ) . De Finetti 's idea of exchangeability -- that future observations should behave like past observations -- came to the attention of the English-speaking world with the 1974 translation from French of his 1937 paper , and has since been propounded by such statisticians as Seymour Geisser .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Predictive_inference",
"rank": 72,
"score": 65016
},
{
"content": "Title: 1990 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1990 heat wave in the United Kingdom was a particularly severe heat event with temperatures hitting record highs of 37.1 C on 3 August . The temperature was recorded at Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , and was a full degree Celsius above the previous record , set in 1911 . However , this record was subsequently broken in the 2003 heatwave .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "1990_United_Kingdom_heat_wave",
"rank": 73,
"score": 64951
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical particularism Content: Historical particularism ( coined by Marvin Harris in 1968 ) is widely considered the first American anthropological school of thought . Closely associated with Franz Boas and the Boasian approach to anthropology , historical particularism rejected the cultural evolutionary model that had dominated anthropology until Boas . It argued that each society is a collective representation of its unique historical past . Boas rejected parallel evolutionism , the idea that all societies are on the same path and have reached their specific level of development the same way all other societies have . Instead , historical particularism showed that societies could reach the same level of cultural development through different paths . Boas suggested that diffusion , trade , corresponding environment , and historical accident may create similar cultural traits . Three traits , as suggested by Boas , are used to explain cultural customs : environmental conditions , psychological factors , and historical connections , history being the most important ( hence the school 's name ) . Critics of historical particularism argue that it is anti theoretical because it does n't seek to make universal theories , applicable to all the world 's cultures . According to the critics , Boas believed that theories would arise spontaneously once enough data was collected , but a more recent work complicates this view ( Lewis 2001 ) . This school of anthropological thought was the first to be uniquely American and Boas ( his school of thought included ) was , arguably , the most influential anthropological thinker in American history .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Historical_particularism",
"rank": 74,
"score": 64721
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical determinism Content: Historical determinism is the stance that events are historically predetermined or currently constrained by various forces . Historical determinism can be understood in contrast to its negation , i.e. the rejection of historical determinism . Some political philosophies ( e.g. Early and Stalinist Marxism ) assert a historical materialism of either predetermination or constraint , or both . Used as a pejorative , it is normally meant to designate an overdetermination of present possibilities by historical conditions .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Historical_determinism",
"rank": 75,
"score": 64705
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 76,
"score": 64690
},
{
"content": "Title: Past Content: The past is a term used to indicate the totality of events that occurred before a given point in time . The past is contrasted with and defined by the present and the future . The concept of the past is derived from the linear fashion in which human observers experience time , and is accessed through memory and recollection . In addition , human beings have recorded the past since the advent of written language . The past is the object of study within such fields as history , memory , flashback , recollection , archaeology , archaeoastronomy , chronology , geology , historical geology , historical linguistics , law , ontology , paleontology , paleobotany , paleoethnobotany , palaeogeography , paleoclimatology , terminology and cosmology .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Past",
"rank": 77,
"score": 64613
},
{
"content": "Title: Probabilistic forecasting Content: Probabilistic forecasting summarizes what is known about , or opinions about , future events . In contrast to single-valued forecasts ( such as forecasting that the maximum temperature at given site on a given day will be 23 degrees Celsius , or that the result in a given football match will be a no-score draw ) , probabilistic forecasts assign a probability to each of a number of different outcomes , and the complete set of probabilities represents a probability forecast . Thus , probabilistic forecasting is a type of probabilistic classification . Weather forecasting represents a service in which probability forecasts are sometimes published for public consumption , although it may also be used by weather forecasters as the basis of a simpler type of forecast . For example forecasters may combine their own experience together with computer-generated probability forecasts to construct a forecast of the type `` we expect heavy rainfall '' . Sports betting is another field of application where probabilistic forecasting can play a role . The pre-race odds published for a horse race can be considered to correspond to a summary of bettors ' opinions about the likely outcome of a race , although this needs to be tempered with caution as bookmakers ' profits needs to be taken into account . In sports betting , probability forecasts may not be published as such , but may underlie bookmakers ' activities in setting pay-off rates , etc. .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Probabilistic_forecasting",
"rank": 78,
"score": 64456
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 79,
"score": 64429
},
{
"content": "Title: Prediction in language comprehension Content: Linguistic prediction is a phenomenon in psycholinguistics occurring whenever information about a word or other linguistic unit is activated before that unit is actually encountered . Evidence from eyetracking , event-related potentials , and other experimental methods indicates that in addition to integrating each subsequent word into the context formed by previously encountered words , language users may , under certain conditions , try to predict upcoming words . In particular , prediction seems to occur regularly when the context of a sentence greatly limits the possible words that have not yet been revealed . For instance , a person listening to a sentence like , `` In the summer it is hot , and in the winter it is ... '' would be highly likely to predict the sentence completion `` cold '' in advance of actually hearing it . A form of prediction is also thought to occur in some types of lexical priming , a phenomenon whereby a word becomes easier to process if it is preceded by a related word . Linguistic prediction is an active area of research in psycholinguistics and cognitive neuroscience .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Prediction_in_language_comprehension",
"rank": 80,
"score": 64356
},
{
"content": "Title: 1994 North American cold wave Content: The 1994 North American cold wave occurred over the midwestern United States , eastern United States , and southern Canada during January 1994 . Two notable cold air events occurred from January 18-19 and from January 21-22 . There were 67 minimum temperature records set on January 19 . Indiana and Kentucky both set state records on January 19 . The United States experienced its coldest temperature month since February 1934 , although much of the West experienced mild temperatures . Washington and Idaho experienced the second warmest January recorded in the previous 100 years . During the same period , the western United States experienced one of its most damaging earthquakes ever , and the eastern United States experienced a major snowfall that significantly delayed traffic . Over 100 deaths occurred in the United States as a result of the cold wave .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "1994_North_American_cold_wave",
"rank": 81,
"score": 64260
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 82,
"score": 64221
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatology Content: Climatology ( from Greek κλίμα , klima , `` place , zone '' ; and - λογία , - logia ) or climate science is the study of climate , scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time . This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical geography , which is one of the Earth sciences . Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry . Basic knowledge of climate can be used within shorter term weather forecasting using analog techniques such as the El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) , the Madden -- Julian oscillation ( MJO ) , the North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) , the Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) which is also known as the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) , the Northern Pacific ( NP ) Index , the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation ( IPO ) . Climate models are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate . Weather is known as the condition of the atmosphere over a period of time . While Climate has to do with the atmospheric condition over an extended to indefinite period of time .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Climatology",
"rank": 83,
"score": 63719
},
{
"content": "Title: Early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave was a heat wave that commenced in late January and led to record-breaking prolonged high temperatures in the region . The heat wave is considered one of the , if not the , most extreme in the region 's history . During the heat wave , fifty separate locations set various records for consecutive , highest daytime and overnight temperatures . The highest temperature recorded during the heat wave was 48.8 ° C in Hopetoun , Victoria , a record for the state . Many locations through the region recorded all-time high temperatures including capital cities Adelaide , which reached its third-highest temperature , 45.7 ° C , and Melbourne , which recorded its highest-ever temperature on record , 46.4 ° C. Both cities broke records for the most consecutive days over 40 ° C , while Mildura , Victoria recorded an all-time record twelve consecutive days over 43 ° C. The exceptional heat wave was caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that settled over the Tasman Sea , with a combination of an intense tropical low located off the North West Australian coast and a monsoon trough over Northern Australia , which produced ideal conditions for hot tropical air to be directed down over southeastern Australia . The heat began in South Australia on 25 January but became more widespread over southeast Australia by 27 January . A weak cool change moved over the southern coastal areas bringing some relief on 30 January , including Melbourne , where the change arrived that evening , dropping temperatures to an average of 30.8 ° C. Higher temperatures returned on the following weekend with Melbourne recording its hottest day since records began in 1855 , 46.4 ° C , also the highest temperature ever recorded in an Australian capital city . The heat wave generated extreme fire conditions during the peak of the 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season , causing many bushfires in the affected region , contributing to the extreme bushfire conditions on 7 February , also known as the Black Saturday bushfires , which claimed 173 lives in Victoria . Ten months after this heat wave , a second struck the same region in November 2009 .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Early_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave",
"rank": 84,
"score": 63634
},
{
"content": "Title: First-hitting-time model Content: Events are often triggered when a stochastic or random process first encounters a threshold . The threshold can be a barrier , boundary or specified state of a system . The amount of time required for a stochastic process , starting from some initial state , to encounter a threshold for the first time is referred to variously as a first hitting time . In statistics , first-hitting-time models are a sub-class of survival models . The first hitting time , also called first passage time , of the barrier set with respect to an instance of a stochastic process is the time until the stochastic process first enters . More colloquially , a first passage time in a stochastic system , is the time taken for a state variable to reach a certain value . Understanding this metric allows one to further understand the physical system under observation , and as such has been the topic of research in very diverse fields , from Economics to Ecology . The idea that a first hitting time of a stochastic process might describe the time to occurrence of an event has a long history , starting with an interest in the first passage time of Wiener diffusion processes in economics and then in physics in the early 1900s . Modeling the probability of financial ruin as a first passage time was an early application in the field of insurance . An interest in the mathematical properties of first-hitting-times and statistical models and methods for analysis of survival data appeared steadily between the middle and end of the 20th century .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "First-hitting-time_model",
"rank": 85,
"score": 63542
},
{
"content": "Title: False positive paradox Content: The false positive paradox is a statistical result where false positive tests are more probable than true positive tests , occurring when the overall population has a low incidence of a condition and the incidence rate is lower than the false positive rate . The probability of a positive test result is determined not only by the accuracy of the test but by the characteristics of the sampled population . When the incidence , the proportion of those who have a given condition , is lower than the test 's false positive rate , even tests that have a very low chance of giving a false positive in an individual case will give more false than true positives overall . So , in a society with very few infected people -- fewer proportionately than the test gives false positives -- there will actually be more who test positive for a disease incorrectly and do n't have it than those who test positive accurately and do . The paradox has surprised many . It is especially counter-intuitive when interpreting a positive result in a test on a low-incidence population after having dealt with positive results drawn from a high-incidence population . If the false positive rate of the test is higher than the proportion of the new population with the condition , then a test administrator whose experience has been drawn from testing in a high-incidence population may conclude from experience that a positive test result usually indicates a positive subject , when in fact a false positive is far more likely to have occurred . Not adjusting to the scarcity of the condition in the new population , and concluding that a positive test result probably indicates a positive subject , even though population incidence is below the false positive rate , is a `` base rate fallacy '' .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "False_positive_paradox",
"rank": 86,
"score": 63440
},
{
"content": "Title: Bitemporal Modeling Content: Bitemporal Modeling is an information modeling technique designed to handle historical data along two different timelines . This makes it possible to rewind the information to `` as it actually was '' in combination with `` as it was recorded '' at some point in time . In order to be able to do so , information can not be discarded even if it is erroneous . Within , for example , financial reporting it is often desirable to be able to recreate an old report both as it actually looked at the time of creation and as it should have looked given corrections made to the data after its creation . Implementations of Bitemporal Modeling are mostly done using relational databases . As such , Bitemporal Modeling is considered different from Dimensional Modeling and complementary to database normalization . The SQL :2011 standard provides language constructs for working with bitemporal data . However , many of current solutions are still vendor-specific .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Bitemporal_Modeling",
"rank": 87,
"score": 63320
},
{
"content": "Title: History Content: History ( from Greek ἱστορία , historia , meaning `` inquiry , knowledge acquired by investigation '' ) is the study of the past as it is described in written documents . Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory . It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory , discovery , collection , organization , presentation , and interpretation of information about these events . Scholars who write about history are called historians . History can also refer to the academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and analyse a sequence of past events , and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them . Historians sometimes debate the nature of history and its usefulness by discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing `` perspective '' on the problems of the present . Stories common to a particular culture , but not supported by external sources ( such as the tales surrounding King Arthur ) , are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends , because they do not show the `` disinterested investigation '' required of the discipline of history . Herodotus , a 5th-century BC Greek historian is considered within the Western tradition to be the `` father of history '' , and , along with his contemporary Thucydides , helped form the foundations for the modern study of human history . Their works continue to be read today , and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing . In Asia , a state chronicle , the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-century BC texts survived . Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today . The modern study of history is wide-ranging , and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation . Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education , and the academic study of history is a major discipline in university studies .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "History",
"rank": 88,
"score": 63288
},
{
"content": "Title: Anoxic event Content: Oceanic anoxic events or anoxic events ( anoxia conditions ) refer to intervals in the Earth 's past where portions of oceans become depleted in oxygen ( O2 ) at depths over a large geographic area . During some of these events , euxinia , waters that contained hydrogen sulfide , developed . Although anoxic events have not happened for millions of years , the geological record shows that they happened many times in the past . Anoxic events coincided with several mass extinctions and may have contributed to them . These mass extinctions include some that geobiologists use as time markers in biostratigraphic dating . Many geologists believe oceanic anoxic events are strongly linked to slowing of ocean circulation , climatic warming , and elevated levels of greenhouse gases . Researchers have proposed enhanced volcanism ( the release of CO2 ) as the `` central external trigger for euxinia '' .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Anoxic_event",
"rank": 89,
"score": 63188
},
{
"content": "Title: Likelihood principle Content: In statistics , the likelihood principle is that , given a statistical model , all of the evidence in a sample relevant to model parameters is contained in the likelihood function . A likelihood function arises from a conditional probability distribution considered as a function of its distributional parameterization argument , conditioned on the data argument . For example , consider a model which gives the probability density function of observable random variable X as a function of a parameter θ . Then for a specific value x of X , the function L ( θ | x ) = P ( X = x | θ ) is a likelihood function of θ : it gives a measure of how `` likely '' any particular value of θ is , if we know that X has the value x. Two likelihood functions are equivalent if one is a scalar multiple of the other . The likelihood principle states that all information from the data relevant to inferences about the value of θ is found in the equivalence class to which the likelihood function belongs . The strong likelihood principle applies this same criterion to cases such as sequential experiments where the sample of data that is available results from applying a stopping rule to the observations earlier in the experiment .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Likelihood_principle",
"rank": 90,
"score": 63084
},
{
"content": "Title: Basin modelling Content: Basin modelling is the term broadly applied to a group of geological disciplines that can be used to analyse the formation and evolution of sedimentary basins , often but not exclusively to aid evaluation of potential hydrocarbon reserves . At its most basic , a basin modelling exercise must assess : The burial history of the basin ( see back-stripping ) . The thermal history of the basin ( see thermal history modelling ) . The maturity history of the source rocks . The expulsion , migration and trapping of hydrocarbons . By doing so , valuable inferences can be made about such matters as hydrocarbon generation and timing , maturity of potential source rocks and migration paths of expelled hydrocarbons .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Basin_modelling",
"rank": 91,
"score": 63083
},
{
"content": "Title: Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory Content: The Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory , also known as Great Blue Hill Weather Observatory , Blue Hill Weather Observatory , or simply the Blue Hill Observatory , in Milton , Massachusetts is the foremost structure associated with the history of weather observations in the United States . Located atop Great Blue Hill at the junction of Interstate 93 and Route 138 about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Boston , Massachusetts , it is home to the oldest continuous weather record in North America , and was the location of the earliest kite soundings of the atmosphere in North America in the 1890s , as well as the development of the radiosonde in the 1930s . Founded by Abbott Lawrence Rotch in 1884 , the observatory took a leading role in the newly emerging science of meteorology and was the scene of many of the first scientific measurements of upper atmosphere weather conditions , using kites to carry weather instruments aloft . Knowledge of wind velocities , air temperature and relative humidity at various levels came into use as vital elements in weather prediction due to techniques developed at this site . By 1895 the observatory was the source of weather forecasts of remarkable accuracy . On October 8 , 1896 , a record of 8740 feet ( 2,665 m ) was achieved for a weather kite . During the Great New England Hurricane of 1938 , the observatory measured the strongest wind gust ever directly measured and recorded in a hurricane at 186 mph ( 299 km/h ) . The observatory remains active to this day , continuing to add to its data base of weather observations now more than one hundred years old , and stands as a monument to the science of meteorology in the United States . The observatory offers meteorological science programs and is open to the public on weekends .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Blue_Hill_Meteorological_Observatory",
"rank": 92,
"score": 63033
},
{
"content": "Title: Stochastic simulation Content: A stochastic simulation is a simulation that traces the evolution of variables that can change stochastically ( randomly ) with certain probabilities . With a stochastic model we create a projection which is based on a set of random values . Outputs are recorded and the projection is repeated with a new set of random values of the variables . These steps are repeated until a sufficient amount of data is gathered . In the end , the distribution of the outputs shows the most probable estimates as well as a frame of expectations regarding what ranges of values the variables are more or less likely to fall in .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Stochastic_simulation",
"rank": 93,
"score": 62759
},
{
"content": "Title: Adverse event prediction Content: Adverse event ( or Adverse effect ) prediction is the process of identifying potential adverse events of an investigational drug before they actually occur in a clinical trial . Predicting adverse events accurately represents a significant challenge to both the pharmaceutical industry and academia , the reason being that our existing knowledge of biology , disease mechanisms ( i.e. how a disease affects the healthy state of a human ) and drug design is incomplete and sometimes incorrect . On top of that , the biological complexity and differences between living organisms is such that even if a treatment appears to work in the laboratory it may not work in humans . The occurrence of an adverse event during a clinical trial is a significant event , not only because of the risk to humans but also from a financial point of view for the organization ( usually a pharmaceutical company ) sponsoring the development of the drug in question . As a result a lot of effort is continuously invested in this area and there are a number of approaches to predicting adverse events including cell line assays , animal models and computer based in silico models . In silico models are usually developed by extracting interactions and behaviors of biological systems either from the literature or from experimental data on a specific disease or biological system and integrating this information in some kind of a mathematical model that can be used to understand and predict the behavior of a drug in an organism . Another relatively recent method is based on mining the scientific literature and correlating evidence from seemingly unrelated drugs or medical conditions . If done correctly this type of analysis can offer quite good predictive accuracy and significant lead times which translates to lower cost and development times for new drugs . While in silico methods aim to capture in depth the current knowledge of a biological system or a disease mechanism , they are still subject to the accuracy of that knowledge and may miss information that while seemingly unrelated , could in a multiply interconnected complex biological system prove highly relevant . This gap is addressed by the literature-based discovery approach which does not capture details to the same extent but compensates by offering complete coverage of the available knowledge from all potentially related fields .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Adverse_event_prediction",
"rank": 94,
"score": 62715
},
{
"content": "Title: 2014 South-Eastern Australian heatwave Content: The 2014 South-Eastern Australian Heatwave was a prolonged period of time in which highly unseasonal weather was recorded across the south and south-eastern corridor of mainland Australia . The heatwave commenced during early May , and was the longest ever recorded in Australia 's modern history , lasting in some places up to 15 days . Sydney , Melbourne and Adelaide were most hard hit , with temperatures in these areas breaking late Autumn records and causing a distinct lack of precipitation , especially in Sydney , Australia 's most populous city . The cause of this phenomenon was a large blocking High pressure system situated over the Tasman sea , which pushed usual Autumn cold fronts far south of the mainland .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "2014_South-Eastern_Australian_heatwave",
"rank": 95,
"score": 62636
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental niche modelling Content: Environmental niche modelling , alternatively known as species distribution modelling , ( ecological ) niche modelling , predictive habitat distribution modelling , and climate envelope modelling refers to the process of using computer algorithms to predict the distribution of species in geographic space on the basis of a mathematical representation of their known distribution in environmental space ( = realized ecological niche ) . The environment is in most cases represented by climate data ( such as temperature , and precipitation ) , but other variables such as soil type , water depth , and land cover can also be used . These models allow for interpolating between a limited number of species occurrence and they are used in several research areas in conservation biology , ecology and evolution . The extent to which such modelled data reflect real-world species distributions will depend on a number of factors , including the nature , complexity , and accuracy of the models used and the quality of the available environmental data layers ; the availability of sufficient and reliable species distribution data as model input ; and the influence of various factors such as barriers to dispersal , geologic history , or biotic interactions , that increase the difference between the realized niche and the fundamental niche . Environmental niche modelling may be considered a part of the discipline of biodiversity informatics .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Environmental_niche_modelling",
"rank": 96,
"score": 62598
},
{
"content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event",
"rank": 97,
"score": 62523
},
{
"content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy",
"rank": 98,
"score": 62514
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleothermometer Content: A paleothermometer is a methodology for determining past temperatures using a proxy found in a natural record such as a sediment , ice core , tree rings or TEX86 .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "Paleothermometer",
"rank": 99,
"score": 62391
},
{
"content": "Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .",
"qid": "169",
"docid": "General_circulation_model",
"rank": 100,
"score": 62348
}
] |
We’ll still be facing extreme heat, but at a far more manageable level than if we’d done nothing to halt climate change. | [
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 1,
"score": 99462
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 2,
"score": 91622
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia",
"rank": 3,
"score": 91122
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 4,
"score": 91051
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 5,
"score": 90095
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat wave Content: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather , which may be accompanied by high humidity , especially in oceanic climate countries . While definitions vary , a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season . Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area . The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century . Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures , thousands of deaths from hyperthermia , and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning . A heat wave is considered extreme weather , and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Heat_wave",
"rank": 6,
"score": 88854
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 7,
"score": 87965
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 8,
"score": 87192
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 9,
"score": 86385
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 10,
"score": 86162
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006",
"rank": 11,
"score": 85308
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 12,
"score": 84637
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas",
"rank": 13,
"score": 84497
},
{
"content": "Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Excessive_heat_warning",
"rank": 14,
"score": 84476
},
{
"content": "Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Excessive_heat_watch",
"rank": 15,
"score": 83407
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 16,
"score": 83108
},
{
"content": "Title: Stop Climate Chaos Content: Stop Climate Chaos is a climate change coalition of primarily environmental and international development NGOs that was formed in September 2005 . The coalition ran the I Count campaign in 2006 -- 07 and organised The Wave , a campaign focused on the climatic impacts of energy production which took place on 5 December 2009 in the run-up to the UN talks in Copenhagen . The coalition encourages individuals to lobby the UK government for what they see as positive policies on climate change . From 2005 to 2010 the director of the coalition was Ashok Sinha . There is also a Scottish secretariat called Stop Climate Chaos Scotland .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Stop_Climate_Chaos",
"rank": 17,
"score": 82542
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 18,
"score": 82060
},
{
"content": "Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet",
"rank": 19,
"score": 81938
},
{
"content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate",
"rank": 20,
"score": 81680
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 21,
"score": 80702
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 22,
"score": 80629
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 23,
"score": 80386
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_inertia",
"rank": 24,
"score": 80378
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Challenge Content: Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_Challenge",
"rank": 25,
"score": 80233
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 26,
"score": 79899
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 27,
"score": 79649
},
{
"content": "Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Ross_Gelbspan",
"rank": 28,
"score": 79611
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 29,
"score": 79413
},
{
"content": "Title: Executive Order 13653 Content: Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Executive_Order_13653",
"rank": 30,
"score": 79098
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 31,
"score": 78962
},
{
"content": "Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Living_in_the_Hothouse",
"rank": 32,
"score": 78829
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Hypercane",
"rank": 33,
"score": 78740
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_poverty",
"rank": 34,
"score": 78682
},
{
"content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Abrupt_climate_change",
"rank": 35,
"score": 78628
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_risk",
"rank": 36,
"score": 78590
},
{
"content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Reasons_for_concern",
"rank": 37,
"score": 78228
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Grenada",
"rank": 38,
"score": 77755
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 39,
"score": 77744
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 40,
"score": 77181
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 41,
"score": 77078
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States",
"rank": 42,
"score": 76725
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_Zealand",
"rank": 43,
"score": 76577
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 44,
"score": 76501
},
{
"content": "Title: Australian flying fox die-offs Content: In the last two decades tens of thousands of Australian flying foxes have died during extreme heat events . Flying fox die-offs feature arguably among the most dramatic mass mortality events witnessed in nature , but they can be indicators of heat stress in more cryptic fauna where impacts are more difficult to assess . The die-offs are important additional threats to Australian flying-foxes and the ecosystem services they provide , and highlight the complex implications of climate change for behaviour , demography , and species survival .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Australian_flying_fox_die-offs",
"rank": 45,
"score": 76415
},
{
"content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 46,
"score": 75997
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka",
"rank": 47,
"score": 75979
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 48,
"score": 75773
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 49,
"score": 75557
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 50,
"score": 75334
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 51,
"score": 75326
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 52,
"score": 75323
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 53,
"score": 75320
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Runaway_climate_change",
"rank": 54,
"score": 75223
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 55,
"score": 74835
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 56,
"score": 74777
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 57,
"score": 74717
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 58,
"score": 74434
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia",
"rank": 59,
"score": 74372
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Climate Challenge Content: During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Climate_Challenge",
"rank": 60,
"score": 74334
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_West_Virginia",
"rank": 61,
"score": 74147
},
{
"content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 62,
"score": 74088
},
{
"content": "Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "European_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 63,
"score": 73960
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 64,
"score": 73790
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_Code_Red",
"rank": 65,
"score": 73787
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 66,
"score": 73744
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 67,
"score": 73708
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Earth's_energy_budget",
"rank": 68,
"score": 73656
},
{
"content": "Title: Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array Content: The Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array ( RAPID/MOCHA ) program is a collaborative research project between the National Oceanography Centre ( Southampton , U.K. ) , the University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( RSMAS ) , and NOAA 's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ( AOML ) that measure the meridional overturning circulation ( MOC ) and ocean heat transport in the North Atlantic Ocean . This array was deployed in March 2004 to continuously monitor the MOC and ocean heat transport that are primarily associated with the Thermohaline Circulation across the basin at 26 ° N . The RAPID-MOCHA array is planned to be continued through 2014 to provide a decade or longer continuous time series . The continuous observations are measured by an array of instruments along 26 ° N . This monitoring array directly measures the transport of the Gulf Stream in the Florida Strait using an undersea cable and a moored array measures bottom pressure and water column density ( including temperature and salinity ) at the western and eastern boundary and on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( MAR ) . Absolute transports including barotropic circulation are monitored using precision bottom pressure gauges . `` Dynamic height '' moorings are used to estimate the spatially average geostropic velocity profile and associated transports over relatively wide mooring separations . The dynamic height moorings requires measurements on both sides of the current field only , rather both the horizontal and vertical structure of the current field to be sufficiently well resolved to estimate transports . The basin-wide MOC strength and vertical structure are estimated via Ekman transports by satellite scatterometer measurements and the geotrophic and direct current observations . RAPID-MOCHA is funded by the National Environmental Research Council ( NERC ) and the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Rapid_Climate_Change-Meridional_Overturning_Circulation_and_Heatflux_Array",
"rank": 69,
"score": 73578
},
{
"content": "Title: Requiem for a Species Content: Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non-fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications . It argues that climate change will bring about large-scale , harmful consequences for habitability for life on Earth including humans , which it is too late to prevent . Hamilton explores why politicians , corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality . He invokes a variety of explanations , including wishful thinking , ideology , consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry . The book builds on the author 's fifteen-year prior history of writing about these subjects , with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change . Requiem for a Species has been reviewed in Resurgence magazine , Socialist Review , Sydney Morning Herald , The Age , The Common Review , and Times Higher Education , which named it `` Book of the Week '' . Extracts of the book have appeared in The Guardian and Geographical magazine . The book won a 2010 Queensland Premier 's Literary Award .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Requiem_for_a_Species",
"rank": 70,
"score": 73578
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 71,
"score": 73517
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 72,
"score": 73461
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 73,
"score": 73457
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 74,
"score": 73438
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermal Credits Content: Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Thermal_Credits",
"rank": 75,
"score": 73425
},
{
"content": "Title: C change Content: C change is a waterproof and windproof temperature adaptive material developed and produced by Schoeller Textiles . The material contains a membrane layer which is set to a predetermined temperature range . Once the climate inside the garment warms ( due to physical exertion or higher ambient temperatures ) , the polymer membrane structure opens up to allow water vapour to escape through the membrane . As the temperature falls , the membrane closes to its original structure , preserving body heat . This can be regarded as an example of biomimicry . The fabric won the 2006 Frost & Sullivan Award for Product Innovation of the Year .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "C_change",
"rank": 76,
"score": 73373
},
{
"content": "Title: Cold and heat adaptations in humans Content: Cold and heat adaptations in humans are a part of the broad adaptability of Homo sapiens . Adaptations in humans can be physiological , genetic , or cultural , which allow people to live in a wide variety of climates . There has been a great deal of research done on developmental adjustment , acclimatization , and cultural practices , but less research on genetic adaptations to cold and heat temperatures . The human body always works to remain in homeostasis . One form of homeostasis is thermoregulation . Body temperature varies in every individual , but the average internal temperature is 37.0 ° C ( 98.6 ° F ) . Stress from extreme external temperature can cause the human body to shut down . When the body becomes hypothermic , the core temperature drops to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) . Hyperthermia results when the core body temperature rises above 37.5-38 .3 ° C ( 99.5-100 .9 ° F ) . These temperatures commonly result in mortality . Humans have adapted to living in these extreme climates primarily through culture and technology , such as the use of clothing and shelter .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans",
"rank": 77,
"score": 73302
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 78,
"score": 73276
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 79,
"score": 72998
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Lynas Content: Mark Lynas ( born 1973 ) is a British author , journalist and environmental activist who focuses on climate change . He is a contributor to New Statesman , The Ecologist , Granta and Geographical magazines , and The Guardian and The Observer newspapers in the UK ; he also worked on the film The Age of Stupid . He was born in Fiji , grew up in Peru and the United Kingdom and holds a degree in history and politics from the University of Edinburgh . He lives in Oxford , England . He has published several books including Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 2007 ) and The God Species : Saving the Planet in the Age of Humans ( 2011 ) . He has stated `` I think there is a 50 -- 50 chance we can avoid a devastating rise in global temperature . ''",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Mark_Lynas",
"rank": 80,
"score": 72997
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_Summit",
"rank": 81,
"score": 72982
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 82,
"score": 72940
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 83,
"score": 72831
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 84,
"score": 72775
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme weather Content: Extreme weather includes unexpectable , unusual , unpredictable severe or unseasonal weather ; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution -- the range that has been seen in the past . Often , extreme events are based on a location 's recorded weather history and defined as lying in the most unusual ten percent . In recent years some extreme weather events have been attributed to human-induced global warming , with studies indicating an increasing threat from extreme weather in the future .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Extreme_weather",
"rank": 85,
"score": 72754
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations",
"rank": 86,
"score": 72727
},
{
"content": "Title: Are We Changing Planet Earth? Content: Are We Changing Planet Earth ? and Can We Save Planet Earth ? are two programmes that form a documentary about global warming , presented by David Attenborough . They were first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 24 May and 1 June 2006 respectively . Part of a themed season by the BBC entitled `` Climate Chaos '' , the programmes were produced in conjunction with the Discovery Channel and the Open University . They were directed by Nicolas Brown and produced by Jeremy Bristow . The music was composed by Samuel Sim . Attenborough undertook the assignment in between his ` Life ' series Life in the Undergrowth and Life in Cold Blood . Around the same time , the naturalist also narrated Planet Earth .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Are_We_Changing_Planet_Earth?",
"rank": 87,
"score": 72659
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes",
"rank": 88,
"score": 72577
},
{
"content": "Title: 2001 Eastern North America heat wave Content: A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States ( with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions ) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July . It began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying . It waned in most areas by the middle of the month , and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves , it was very intense at its peak . The high humidity and high temperatures led to major heat wave that overtook the major Northeast Megalopolis . Temperatures in Central Park , New York City reached a peak of 103 F . The temperature reached 105 F in Newark , New Jersey . Meanwhile , in Ontario and Quebec , extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August . Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached 37 C on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit 38 C on the same day , the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping 35 C. Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave . Even in Nova Scotia , surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures still broke 35 C in some locations . Glace Bay , which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking 35.5 C on August 10 . At least four New Yorkers died of hyperthermia . Chicago had at least 21 deaths .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "2001_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave",
"rank": 89,
"score": 72430
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Massachusetts",
"rank": 90,
"score": 72308
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_system",
"rank": 91,
"score": 72283
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_state",
"rank": 92,
"score": 72129
},
{
"content": "Title: Breeding for heat stress tolerance Content: Plant breeding is process of development of new cultivars . Plant breeding involves development of varieties for different environmental conditions -- some of them are not favorable . Among them , heat stress is one of such factor that reduces the production and quality significantly . So breeding against heat is a very important criterion for breeding for current as well as future environments produced by global climate change ( e.g. global warming ) .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Breeding_for_heat_stress_tolerance",
"rank": 93,
"score": 71972
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 94,
"score": 71926
},
{
"content": "Title: United States temperature extremes Content: For the United States , the extremes are 134 F in Death Valley , California in 1913 and -79.8 F recorded in Prospect Creek , Alaska in 1971 . The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15 , 1972 in Loma , Montana , when the temperature rose from -54 to . The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds . For example , the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 F-change occurred in Spearfish , South Dakota , a rise from -4 to .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "United_States_temperature_extremes",
"rank": 95,
"score": 71897
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 96,
"score": 71868
},
{
"content": "Title: Australian Open extreme heat policy Content: The Extreme Heat Policy is a rule pertaining to the Australian Open ( tennis ) . It was introduced in 1998 after consultation with a number of tennis players .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Australian_Open_extreme_heat_policy",
"rank": 97,
"score": 71776
},
{
"content": "Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 98,
"score": 71667
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme cold warning Content: An extreme cold warning is issued by Environment Canada to inform the public about cold temperatures in their region that are expected to last for at least two hours . As of April 8 , 2014 , Environment Canada replaced the Wind Chill Warning with an Extreme Cold Warning . In the older system a wind chill warning for Southern Ontario and Atlantic Canada was issued when the wind chill dropped to -35 . Thus a temperature of -37 C with no winds would not require a warning be issued . Under the new system the extreme cold warning is issued based on either the temperature or the wind chill being a certain value for at least two hours . The values range from -30 C in the south to -55 C in parts of the Arctic .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Extreme_cold_warning",
"rank": 99,
"score": 71570
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .",
"qid": "171",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Act_2008",
"rank": 100,
"score": 71454
}
] |
If there were [carbon emissions], we could not see because most carbon is black. | [
{
"content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_carbon",
"rank": 1,
"score": 135613
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon black Content: Carbon black ( subtypes are acetylene black , channel black , furnace black , lamp black and thermal black ) is a material produced by the incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products such as FCC tar , coal tar , ethylene cracking tar , and a small amount from vegetable oil . Carbon black is a form of paracrystalline carbon that has a high surface-area-to-volume ratio , albeit lower than that of activated carbon . It is dissimilar to soot in its much higher surface-area-to-volume ratio and significantly lower ( negligible and non-bioavailable ) PAH ( polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon ) content . However , carbon black is widely used as a model compound for diesel soot for diesel oxidation experiments . Carbon black is mainly used as a reinforcing filler in tires and other rubber products . In plastics , paints , and inks carbon black is used as a color pigment . The current International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC ) evaluation is that , `` Carbon black is possibly carcinogenic to humans ( Group 2B ) '' . Short-term exposure to high concentrations of carbon black dust may produce discomfort to the upper respiratory tract , through mechanical irritation .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_black",
"rank": 2,
"score": 129415
},
{
"content": "Title: Brown carbon Content: In chemistry , brown carbon ( Cbrown/BrC ) is brown smoke released by the combustion of organic matter . It coexists with black carbon when released in the atmosphere . Black carbon is primarily released by high-temperature combustion and brown carbon is emitted mainly by biomass combustion . These two are the two most important light absorbing substances in the atmosphere . The climate and radiative transfer are highly impacted by the absorptive properties of these substances .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Brown_carbon",
"rank": 3,
"score": 128988
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Black (company) Content: Carbon Black , Inc. ( formerly Bit9 , Inc ) is a security company based in Waltham , Massachusetts . Carbon Black develops endpoint security software that detects malicious behavior and prevents malicious files from attacking an organization . The company is an actor in the antivirus , endpoint detection and response and endpoint protection platform space . Carbon Black 's competitors in the endpoint security domain include Cylance , FireEye , McAfee , Symantec , and Tanium . To-date the firm has raised $ 190M from investors including Kleiner Perkins , Highland Capital , Sequoia , Accomplice , and Blackstone . According to Bloomberg , the company is currently preparing for an IPO and has hired JPMorgan and Morgan Stanley to lead the offering . In September 2016 , The Wall Street Journal reported the company filed their S-1 privately by using the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act which allows companies with less than $ 1 billion in revenues to file in a confidential manner with limited public disclosure .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_Black_(company)",
"rank": 4,
"score": 118080
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonado Content: Carbonado , commonly known as the `` black diamond '' , is the toughest form of natural diamond . It is an impure form of polycrystalline diamond consisting of diamond , graphite , and amorphous carbon . It is found primarily in alluvial deposits in the Central African Republic and in Brazil . Its natural colour is black or dark grey , and it is more porous than other diamonds .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbonado",
"rank": 5,
"score": 113839
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon flaw Content: A carbon flaw is a blemish present within a diamond crystalline form of carbon , usually seen as a black spot . The blemish may be microscopic or visible to the naked eye . These spots are undesirable imperfections since they can be seen easier than other flaws . It is worth noting that , while diamonds are composed of purely carbon , the black spot flaws could be other inclusions ( foreign matter ) such as olivine , garnet , pyrite , silica , calcite , and iron oxides .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_flaw",
"rank": 6,
"score": 110725
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Law Wind Farm Content: The 42-turbine Black Law Wind Farm has a total capacity of 97 megawatts ( MW ) , sufficient to meet the average electricity needs of 70,000 homes each year - or a town the size of Paisley - and is estimated to save around 200,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions a year . The # 90 million wind farm is located near Forth in Lanarkshire and has been built on an old opencast coalmine site which was completely restored to shallow wetlands during the construction programme . It employs seven permanent staff on site and created 200 jobs during construction . Scottish Power is expected to complete a second phase which will see the installation of a further 12 turbines . The project has received wide recognition for its contribution to environmental objectives , including praise from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds , who said that the scheme was not only improving the landscape in a derelict opencast mining site , but also benefiting a range of wildlife in the area , with an extensive habitat management projects covering over 14 square kilometres .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_Law_Wind_Farm",
"rank": 7,
"score": 109360
},
{
"content": "Title: Kværner-process Content: The Kværner process or the Kværner carbon black & hydrogen process ( CB&H ) is a method for the production of carbon black and hydrogen gas from hydrocarbons such as methane , natural gas and biogas . The process was developed in the 1980s by the Norwegian engineering firm Kværner , and was first commercially exploited in 1999 .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Kværner-process",
"rank": 8,
"score": 101526
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Planet Content: Black Planet may refer to multiple concepts : BlackPlanet , a social networking website geared towards African-Americans Black Planet , a song by The Sisters of Mercy a Carbon planet , a proposed planetary type that is actually black .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_Planet",
"rank": 9,
"score": 99737
},
{
"content": "Title: Zoe Karbonopsina Content: Zoe Karbonopsina , also Karvounopsina or Carbonopsina , i.e. , `` with the Coal-Black Eyes '' ( Ζωή Καρβωνοψίνα , Zōē Karbōnopsina ) , was an empress consort and regent of the Byzantine empire . She was the fourth wife of the Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise and the mother of Constantine VII .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Zoe_Karbonopsina",
"rank": 10,
"score": 98956
},
{
"content": "Title: Bituminous coal Content: Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike substance called bitumen . It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than anthracite . Formation is usually the result of high pressure being exerted on lignite . Its coloration can be black or sometimes dark brown ; often there are well-defined bands of bright and dull material within the seams . These distinctive sequences , which are classified according to either `` dull , bright-banded '' or `` bright , dull-banded '' , is how bituminous coals are stratigraphically identified . Bituminous coal is an organic sedimentary rock formed by diagenetic and sub metamorphic compression of peat bog material . Its primary constituents are macerals : vitrinite , and liptinite . The carbon content of bituminous coal is around 60-80 % ; the rest is composed of water , air , hydrogen , and sulfur , which have not been driven off from the macerals . Bank density is approximately 1346 kg/m ³ ( 84 lb/ft ³ ) . Bulk density typically runs to 833 kg/m ³ ( 52 lb/ft ³ ) . The heat content of bituminous coal ranges from 24 to 35 MJ/kg ( 21 million to 30 million BTU per short ton ) on a moist , mineral-matter-free basis . Within the coal mining industry , this type of coal is known for releasing the largest amounts of firedamp , a dangerous mixture of gases that can cause underground explosions . Extraction of bituminous coal demands the highest safety procedures involving attentive gas monitoring , good ventilation and vigilant site management .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Bituminous_coal",
"rank": 11,
"score": 98370
},
{
"content": "Title: Black sugar Content: Black sugar is a form of crystalline precipitate or a particulate pollution by-product unique from creosote caused by the burning of low grade coal in the 1940 -- 1960s . The outgas from burning coal would be a by-product ( burning coal was used in residential forced hot air furnaces ) for the heating of family housing . Black sugar was often found on porches and the cold ductwork and caused the high carbon , soot-loaded gas to precipitate on the floors and walls and crystallize . Outward appearance was that of very fine , shiny coal , but would not combust when exposed to flames . After a time , the crystalline material would become powdered , to the consistency of white cane sugar , but retain a fine , shiny , black texture , thus the name `` black sugar '' . The material would often be cleaned from duct work by chimney sweeps or cleaning staff on a regular basis in the Beaver-Ambridge-Monaca area of Pennsylvania along the Ohio River near Pittsburgh .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_sugar",
"rank": 12,
"score": 97800
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 13,
"score": 97302
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson",
"rank": 14,
"score": 97240
},
{
"content": "Title: Black snake (firework) Content: Black snake and Pharaoh 's serpent are two similar types of firework . After being lit , both fireworks begin to smoke and spew out ash resembling a snake via an intumescent reaction . They stay on the ground and do not emit sparks , flares , any form of projectiles , or any sound , but may release smoke . Sodium bicarbonate which produces carbon dioxide gas , and sugar forming carbon containing ash , are common chemicals used for the black snake demonstration . Other sources report the contents as `` a nitrated mixture of linseed oil and naphthalenes '' . The traditional `` Pharaoh 's serpent '' version of this firework produces a more impressive snake , but its operation depends upon mercury ( II ) thiocyanate , which is no longer commonly used because of its toxicity .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_snake_(firework)",
"rank": 15,
"score": 97034
},
{
"content": "Title: Anarsia carbonaria Content: Anarsia carbonaria is a moth of the family Gelechiidae . It was described by Meyrick in 1913 . It is found in South Africa and Zimbabwe . The wingspan is 14 -- 15 mm . The forewings are dark grey irregularly irrorated with white , with scattered black scales . The basal half with several small scattered suffused blackish spots and there is an irregular transverse black blotch on the middle of the costa reaching two-thirds across the wing , followed by a patch of light grey suffusion with stronger white irroration extended to the tornus . There is also an oval black spot in the disc at three-fourths and an oblique black mark between this and the costa posteriorly , surrounded with dark suffusion . There are also several suffused black dots towards the costa posteriorly and the termen . The hindwings are grey , paler and thinly scaled anteriorly .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Anarsia_carbonaria",
"rank": 16,
"score": 95934
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Triangle (region) Content: The Black Triangle ( German Schwarzes Dreieck ) is a border region shared by Germany , Poland and the Czech Republic , long characterized by extremely high levels of pollution . The term was coined in the 1980s . For decades , industrially produced air pollutants ( chiefly sulfur dioxide ) , water pollution , acid rain and other effects took an enormous toll on the health of local residents and the surrounding environment . After the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe , the three nations acted to cut emissions . This has resulted in significant environmental improvement .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_Triangle_(region)",
"rank": 17,
"score": 95172
},
{
"content": "Title: Blackwater (coal) Content: Blackwater '' ' is a form of pollution produced in coal preparation . In its purification , coal is crushed in a coal preparation plant and then separated and transported as a coal slurry , From the slurry , incombustible materials are removed and the coal can be sized . After the recovery of the coal particles from this slurry , the remaining water is black , contains very fine particles of coal . This blackwater can not be processed in a water treatment plant .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Blackwater_(coal)",
"rank": 18,
"score": 95165
},
{
"content": "Title: White carbon Content: Chaoite , an allotrophe of carbon Precipitated silica , not carbon , also called ` white carbon black '",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "White_carbon",
"rank": 19,
"score": 94736
},
{
"content": "Title: Euchontha carboniptera Content: Euchontha carboniptera is a moth of the family Notodontidae . It is endemic to the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes . The length of the forewings is 13 -- 14 mm for males . The ground color of the forewings is dark charcoal gray to black . The ground color of the hindwings is dark gray to blackish charcoal gray .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Euchontha_carboniptera",
"rank": 20,
"score": 94725
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon snake Content: Carbon snake is a demonstration of the dehydration reaction of sugar by concentrated sulfuric acid . With concentrated sulfuric acid , granulated table sugar ( sucrose ) performs degradation reaction which changes its form to black solid-liquid mixture . Carbon snake experiment can sometimes be misrecognized as Black snake , `` sugar snake , '' or `` burning sugar '' which involve the reaction with baking soda instead of sulfuric acid .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_snake",
"rank": 21,
"score": 94676
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon (disambiguation) Content: Carbon is a chemical element with atomic number 6 . Carbon may also refer to : Chemistry Carbon black , a filler often used to improve the properties of rubber or plastic compounds Carbon chauvinism , a term meant to disparage the assumption that the molecules responsible for the mechanisms of life must be based on carbon Carbon dioxide equivalent , a greenhouse gas measurement Carbon ( fiber ) , can refer to carbon filament thread , or to felt or woven cloth made from those carbon filaments Carbon offset , a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide Computers and electronics Carbon ( API ) , a deprecated application programming interface for Mac OS X Need for Speed : Carbon , a computer racing game developed by Electronic Arts ThinkPad X1 Carbon , a notebook computer released by Lenovo Rio Carbon , a product line of digital audio players WSO2 Carbon , an open-source middleware platform Places Canada : Carbon , Alberta , a village in Kneehill County United States : Carbon , California , a former settlement in Mendocino County Carbon , Indiana , a town in Clay County Carbon , Iowa , a city in Adams County Carbon , Pennsylvania Carbon , Texas , a town in Eastland County Carbon County ( disambiguation ) , multiple places Other uses Carbon ( journal ) Carbon ( Halo team ) , also known as Team Carbon , a professional Halo team Carbon 15 , a family of firearms Carbon Motors Corporation , an American automotive corporation Corral del Carbón , a building in Granada , Andalusia , Spain",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 22,
"score": 94525
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon print Content: A carbon print is a photographic print with an image consisting of pigmented gelatin , rather than of silver or other metallic particles suspended in a uniform layer of gelatin , as in typical black-and-white prints , or of chromogenic dyes , as in typical photographic color prints . In the original version of the printing process , carbon tissue ( a temporary support sheet coated with a layer of gelatin mixed with a pigment -- originally carbon black , from which the name derives ) is bathed in a potassium dichromate sensitizing solution , dried , then exposed to strong ultraviolet light through a photographic negative , hardening the gelatin in proportion to the amount of light reaching it . The tissue is then developed by treatment with warm water , which dissolves the unhardened gelatin . The resulting pigment image is physically transferred to a final support surface , either directly or indirectly . In an important early 20th century variation of the process , known as carbro ( carbon-bromine ) printing , contact with a conventional silver bromide paper print , rather than exposure to light , was used to selectively harden the gelatin . A wide variety of colored pigments can be used instead of carbon black . The process can produce images of very high quality which are exceptionally resistant to fading and other deterioration . It was developed in the mid-19th century in response to concerns about the fading of early types of silver-based black-and-white prints , which was already becoming apparent within a relatively few years of their introduction . The most recent development in the process was made by the American photographer Charles Berger in 1993 with the introduction of a non-toxic sensitizer that presented none of the health and safety hazards of the toxic ( now EU-restricted ) dichromate sensitizer .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_print",
"rank": 23,
"score": 92576
},
{
"content": "Title: Tihomir Novakov Content: Tihomir Novakov , Ph.D known also as Tica Novakov ( March 16 , 1929 -- January 2 , 2015 ) was a Serbian-born American physicist . As a scientist , Novakov is known for his black carbon , air quality , and climate change research . James Hansen dubbed him `` the godfather of black carbon . ''",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Tihomir_Novakov",
"rank": 24,
"score": 92463
},
{
"content": "Title: Cheilosia carbonaria Content: Cheilosia carbonaria is a European species of hoverfly . Like most Cheilosia it is black , and because of this may often be overlooked as a hoverfly . It is little recorded , and is considered rare and scarce throughout most of its range .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Cheilosia_carbonaria",
"rank": 25,
"score": 92422
},
{
"content": "Title: Sarotherodon linnellii Content: Sarotherodon linnellii , sometimes known as the unga , blackfin tilapia or blackbelly tilapia , is a of cichlid endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo in western Cameroon . This species reaches a length of 18.5 cm SL . It is critically endangered because of pollution and sedimentation due to human activities . It is potentially also threatened by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although studies indicate that Barombo Mbo lacks excess amounts of this gas . Juveniles mainly feed on insects ( including their larvae ) and adults mainly on phytoplankton .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Sarotherodon_linnellii",
"rank": 26,
"score": 92372
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Cities of Black Diamonds Content: The Little Cities of Black Diamonds are the old coal-mining communities of southeast Ohio . Some communities include : Buchtel , Ohio Carbondale , Ohio Carbon Hill , Ohio Corning , Ohio The Diamond , Ohio Glouster , Ohio Hemlock , Ohio Murray City , Ohio Nelsonville , Ohio New Straitsville , Ohio Shawnee , Perry County , Ohio Trimble , Ohio Sunday Creek Associates , a nonprofit organization in this area is responsible for a community building experience named `` Little Cities of Black Diamonds . '' This experience includes organizing local history bus tours , Little Cities of the Forest , Little Cities Archives , Little Cities of Black Diamonds Day , Appalachian Spring Festival . The Little Cities Council is located in Shawnee , Ohio .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Little_Cities_of_Black_Diamonds",
"rank": 27,
"score": 91846
},
{
"content": "Title: Black-body radiation Content: Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment , or emitted by a black body ( an opaque and non-reflective body ) . It has a specific spectrum and intensity that depends only on the body 's temperature , which is assumed for the sake of calculations and theory to be uniform and constant . The thermal radiation spontaneously emitted by many ordinary objects can be approximated as black-body radiation . A perfectly insulated enclosure that is in thermal equilibrium internally contains black-body radiation and will emit it through a hole made in its wall , provided the hole is small enough to have negligible effect upon the equilibrium . A black-body at room temperature appears black , as most of the energy it radiates is infra-red and can not be perceived by the human eye . Because the human eye can not perceive color at very low light intensities , a black body , viewed in the dark at the lowest just faintly visible temperature , subjectively appears grey ( but only because the human eye is sensitive only to black and white at very low intensities - in reality , the frequency of the light in the visible range would still be red , although the intensity would be too low to discern as red ) , even though its objective physical spectrum peaks in the infrared range . When it becomes a little hotter , it appears dull red . As its temperature increases further it eventually becomes blue-white . Although planets and stars are neither in thermal equilibrium with their surroundings nor perfect black bodies , black-body radiation is used as a first approximation for the energy they emit . Black holes are near-perfect black bodies , in the sense that they absorb all the radiation that falls on them . It has been proposed that they emit black-body radiation ( called Hawking radiation ) , with a temperature that depends on the mass of the black hole . The term black body was introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860 . Black-body radiation is also called thermal radiation , cavity radiation , complete radiation or temperature radiation .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black-body_radiation",
"rank": 28,
"score": 91414
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 29,
"score": 91281
},
{
"content": "Title: Cerconota carbonifer Content: Cerconota carbonifer is a moth in the Depressariidae family . It was described by August Busck in 1914 . It is found in Panama , Costa Rica and French Guiana . The wingspan is 19-23 mm . The forewings are light ochreous clouded with brown , with a large , dorsal , evenly rounded patch of black scales , at base of which some are more or less erect . Above and bordering this black space is a small patch of brown scales and there are three dark brown costal spots , one at the basal third , one on the middle , and one at the apical fourth , from the latter starts an indistinct , outwardly curved , row of small brown dots across the wing to the termen and there is a faint row of brown marginal dots along the terminal edge , as well as a small black dot at the end of the cell . The hindwings are light yellowish fuscous .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Cerconota_carbonifer",
"rank": 30,
"score": 91053
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Rock Formation Content: The Black Rock Formation is a geologic formation in England . It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_Rock_Formation",
"rank": 31,
"score": 90993
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 32,
"score": 90520
},
{
"content": "Title: Soot (disambiguation) Content: Soot is the black , impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon . Soot may also refer to : Engebret Soot ( 1786-1859 ) , Norwegian engineer Soot ( software ) , a language manipulation and optimization framework",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Soot_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 33,
"score": 90324
},
{
"content": "Title: Blackdamp Content: Blackdamp ( also known as stythe or choke damp ) is an asphyxiant , reducing the available oxygen content of air to a level incapable of sustaining human or animal life . It is not a single gas but a mixture of unbreathable gases left after oxygen is removed from the air and typically consists of nitrogen , carbon dioxide and water vapour . The suffix damp is believed to derive from the German word for vapours ( `` Dampf '' ) . The word damp is used in similar mining terms such as white damp ( carbon monoxide ) , fire damp ( typically methane ) and stink damp ( hydrogen sulfide ) .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Blackdamp",
"rank": 34,
"score": 90285
},
{
"content": "Title: Plicaria carbonaria Content: Plicaria carbonaria is a species of apothecial fungus belonging to the family Pezizaceae . This is a common European fungus of burnt ground , appearing from spring to autumn as dark brown to black cups up to 3 cm in diameter .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Plicaria_carbonaria",
"rank": 35,
"score": 90116
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon stain Content: Carbon stains are a skin condition characterized by a discoloration of the skin from embedded carbon , usually occurring in children from accidents with firearms or firecrackers , or from a puncture wound by a pencil , which may leave a permanent black mark of embedded graphite , easily mistaken for metastatic melanoma .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_stain",
"rank": 36,
"score": 89992
},
{
"content": "Title: William B. Wiegand Content: William B. Wiegand was a vice president of Columbian Carbon Co. , known for his pioneering work on carbon black technology . Wiegand studied carbon black 's reinforcing effect on rubber , and proposed that the effect arises due to forces acting at the interface between the carbon black and the surrounding elastomer matrix . He was a pioneer in developing the furnace method for producing carbon black . Wiegand was the 1923 ACS rubber division chair . He received the Charles Goodyear Medal in 1960 .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "William_B._Wiegand",
"rank": 37,
"score": 89747
},
{
"content": "Title: Black dwarf Content: A black dwarf is a theoretical stellar remnant , specifically a white dwarf that has cooled sufficiently that it no longer emits significant heat or light . Because the time required for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe ( 13.8 billion years ) , no black dwarfs are expected to exist in the universe yet , and the temperature of the coolest white dwarfs is one observational limit on the age of the universe . The name `` black dwarf '' has also been applied to substellar objects that do not have sufficient mass , less than approximately 0.08 , to maintain hydrogen-burning nuclear fusion . These objects are now generally called brown dwarfs , a term coined in the 1970s . Black dwarfs should not be confused with black holes , black stars , or neutron stars .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_dwarf",
"rank": 38,
"score": 88951
},
{
"content": "Title: Samsung SGH-D900 Content: The Samsung SGH-D900 , also known as the Ultra Edition 12.9 or Black Carbon , is a slider-style mobile phone created by Samsung Electronics that was announced in Q3 2006 . It is marketed as the world 's thinnest slider phone . Since the end of 2006 , a Wine Red edition was added and 2007 marked the introduction of a chrome edition to the lineup . There is also an upgrade of this model , the Samsung D900i which can be used to access documents on your computer from your phone and added an FM radio as well as was made out of higher-quality materials .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Samsung_SGH-D900",
"rank": 39,
"score": 88903
},
{
"content": "Title: Band emission Content: Band emission , is the fraction of the total emission from a blackbody that is in a certain wavelength interval or band . For a prescribed temperature , T and the spectral interval from 0 to λ , is the ratio of the total emissive power of a black body from 0 to λ to the total emissive power over the entire spectrum .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Band_emission",
"rank": 40,
"score": 88811
},
{
"content": "Title: Vantablack Content: Vantablack is a substance made of vertically aligned carbon nanotube arrays and is the blackest artificial substance known , absorbing up to 99.965 % of radiation in the visible spectrum .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Vantablack",
"rank": 41,
"score": 88474
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Creek (Lehigh River) Content: Black Creek is a 4.4 mi brookU.S . Geological Survey , National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data . The National Map , accessed April 1 , 2011 tributary of the Lehigh River in Carbon County , Pennsylvania in the United States , . < ref name = `` gertler '' > Gertler , Edward . Keystone Canoeing , Seneca Press , 2004 . </ref> Its waters start at the very south edge of Weatherly , Pennsylvania at the confluence of Beaver and Quakake Creeks , then runs nearly due east to its mouth on the Lehigh River in Maple Hollow at the former railroad depot of Penn Haven Junction just east of Hinkles Valley . The confluence was a waypoint along the 19th-century Lehigh & Susquehanna Turnpike Black Creek has two major tributaries joining within Weatherly , the 7 mi long Beaver Creek ( Carbon County ) < ref name = GmapMeas > Measured using Google maps ruler tool from source to confluence with Quakake Creek -- which merge creates Black Creek and the network of streams combining as Quakake Creek . </ref> The tributary Quakake Creek , is the more dispersed and disorganized source waters , originating in over half-a-dozen small streams ; it is also listed by the Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS ) as a variant name for Black Creek . Black Creek was named because of the because of the dark background pigment in the water created by anthracite coal , but this was a later development as its confluence origin and main course easterly became far more important hosting Railroad trackage than the Turnpike ever hoped to become . Historically , Black Creek was also known as Hazel Creek , stemming from the hazlenut trees that grew alongside its banks , < ref name = mcall-88-04-18 > How Weatherly Got Its Name , And Other Historical Facts </ref> though that name in the present-day is given a tributary of Beaver Creek closer to Beaver Meadows , PA. . Black Creek , Beaver Creek and Weatherly are all historically related to the Beaver Meadow Railroad , an 1830 predecessor railway to ( purchased in 1855 by the newly formed ) Lehigh Valley Railroad corporation ( LV or LVRR ) , which grew to be a famous Class I railway . The banks-side footpath from the Lehigh River at the 19th century settlement of Lausanne Landing climbed the steep south slopes of Broad Mountain and followed a chain of watercourses to Nescopeck opposite Shickshinny , PA on the main Susquehanna branch . Initially , in 1830 , the Beaver Meadow mining operations sent coal out by pack mules , but then capitalized the railway , when the technology was emergent and untried . Consequently , the creek hosted the first operating steam locomotives employed as mobile traction engines in the United States . Black Creek joins the Lehigh River near the community of Rockport , the closest occupied place to Penn Haven Junction in the midst of the rough terrain of the Lehigh River Gorge .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_Creek_(Lehigh_River)",
"rank": 42,
"score": 88465
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon subsulfide Content: Carbon subsulfide is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula C3S2 . This deep red liquid is immiscible with water but soluble in organic solvents . It readily polymerizes at room temperature to form a hard black solid .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_subsulfide",
"rank": 43,
"score": 88378
},
{
"content": "Title: George Oenslager Content: George Oenslager ( September 25 , 1873 -- February 5 , 1956 ) was a Goodrich chemist who discovered that a derivative of aniline accelerated the vulcanization of rubber with sulfur . He first introduced carbon black as a rubber reinforcing agent in 1912 .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "George_Oenslager",
"rank": 44,
"score": 88375
},
{
"content": "Title: Coal Black Content: Coal Black may refer to : The color black `` Coal Black Rose '' , an American folk song Coal Black and de Sebben Dwarfs , a 1943 Warner Brothers cartoon infamous for its racial stereotypes",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Coal_Black",
"rank": 45,
"score": 87798
},
{
"content": "Title: Coalworker's pneumoconiosis Content: Coal workers ' pneumoconiosis ( CWP ) , also known as black lung disease or black lung , is caused by long exposure to coal dust . It is common in coal miners and others who work with coal . It is similar to both silicosis from inhaling silica dust and to the long-term effects of tobacco smoking . Inhaled coal dust progressively builds up in the lungs and can not be removed by the body ; this leads to inflammation , fibrosis , and in worse cases , necrosis . Coal workers ' pneumoconiosis , severe state , develops after the initial , milder form of the disease known as anthracosis ( anthrac -- coal , carbon ) . This is often asymptomatic and is found to at least some extent in all urban dwellers due to air pollution . Prolonged exposure to large amounts of coal dust can result in more serious forms of the disease , simple coal workers ' pneumoconiosis and complicated coal workers ' pneumoconiosis ( or progressive massive fibrosis , or PMF ) . More commonly , workers exposed to coal dust develop industrial bronchitis , clinically defined as chronic bronchitis ( i.e. productive cough for 3 months per year for at least 2 years ) associated with workplace dust exposure . The incidence of industrial bronchitis varies with age , job , exposure , and smoking . In nonsmokers ( who are less prone to develop bronchitis than smokers ) , studies of coal miners have shown a 16 % to 17 % incidence of industrial bronchitis . In 2013 CWP resulted in 25,000 deaths down from 29,000 deaths in 1990 .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Coalworker's_pneumoconiosis",
"rank": 46,
"score": 87728
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 47,
"score": 87465
},
{
"content": "Title: Super black Content: Super black is a surface treatment developed at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom . It reflects much less light than the darkest conventional matte black paints available previously . Conventional black paint absorbs about 97.5 % of the incident light . Super black absorbs approximately 99.6 % of light at normal incidence . At other angles of incidence , super black is even more effective . At an angle of 45 ° , super black absorbs 99.9 % of light . The technique used for super black is based upon chemically etching a nickel -- phosphorus alloy . Applications for super black are in specialist optical instruments to reduce unwanted reflections . The disadvantage of this material is its low optical thickness , as it is a surface treatment . As a result , infrared light of a wavelength longer than a few micrometers penetrates through the dark layer and has much higher reflectivity . The reported spectral dependence increases from about 1 % at 3 µm to 50 % at 20 µm . In 2009 , a competitor to the super black material was developed based on carbon nanotubes called Vantablack , that has a relatively flat reflectance in a wide spectral range . In 2011 , NASA and the US Army began funding research in the use of nanotube based super black coatings in sensitive optics . Nanotube based superblack arrays and coatings have recently become commercially available .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Super_black",
"rank": 48,
"score": 87276
},
{
"content": "Title: Black coal equivalent Content: Black coal equivalent ( BCE ) is an export coal product derived from the Coldry Process , a patented coal upgrading technology operated by Environmental Clean Technologies Limited , in Victoria , Australia . The Coldry Process is applied to brown coal ( lignite ) with a typical moisture content of 60 per cent by weight and transforms the coal into a densified coal product of equal or better calorific value ( 5,800 kcal/kg ) to typical export quality black coal , with less ash and sulfur content . Black coal equivalent derived from brown coal is ostensibly a ` cleaner ' burning coal fuel than most black coals .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_coal_equivalent",
"rank": 49,
"score": 86805
},
{
"content": "Title: Charcoal Content: Charcoal is a lightweight , black residue , consisting of carbon and any remaining ash , obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances . Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis -- the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen ( see char and biochar ) .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Charcoal",
"rank": 50,
"score": 86048
},
{
"content": "Title: Nick Levay Content: Nick Levay , also known as Rattle , is an American computer security expert and hacker . He is Chief Security Officer at Carbon Black , a computer security company in the Boston area . From 2008 to 2013 he was Director of Technical Operations and Information Security at the Center for American Progress , a public policy research organization .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Nick_Levay",
"rank": 51,
"score": 85783
},
{
"content": "Title: Joseph Black Content: Joseph Black FRSE FRCPE FPSG ( 16 April 1728 -- 6 December 1799 ) was a Scottish physician and chemist , known for his discoveries of magnesium , latent heat , specific heat , and carbon dioxide . He was Professor of Anatomy and Chemistry at the University of Glasgow for 10 years from 1756 , and then Professor of Medicine and Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh from 1766 , teaching and lecturing there for more than 30 years . The chemistry buildings at both the University of Edinburgh and the University of Glasgow are named after Black .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Joseph_Black",
"rank": 52,
"score": 85542
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Content: Black is the darkest color , resulting from the absence or complete absorption of light . Like white and grey , it is an achromatic color , literally a color without hue . It is one of the four primary colors in the CMYK color model , along with cyan , yellow , and magenta , used in color printing to produce all the other colors . Black is often used to represent darkness ; it is the symbolic opposite of white ( or brightness ) . Black was one of the first colors used by artists in neolithic cave paintings . In the 14th century , it began to be worn by royalty , the clergy , judges and government officials in much of Europe . It became the color worn by English romantic poets , businessmen and statesmen in the 19th century , and a high fashion color in the 20th century . In the Roman Empire , it became the color of mourning , and over the centuries it was frequently associated with death , evil , witches and magic . According to surveys in Europe and North America , it is the color most commonly associated with mourning , the end , secrets , magic , force , violence , evil , and elegance .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black",
"rank": 53,
"score": 84603
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_retirement",
"rank": 54,
"score": 84597
},
{
"content": "Title: Hexadecacarbonylhexarhodium Content: Hexadecacarbonylhexarhodium is a metal carbonyl cluster with the formula Rh6 ( CO ) 16 . It exists as black crystals that are soluble in organic solvents .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Hexadecacarbonylhexarhodium",
"rank": 55,
"score": 84067
},
{
"content": "Title: Shungite Content: Shungite is a black , lustrous , non-crystalline mineraloid consisting of more than 98 weight percent of carbon . It was first described from a deposit near Shunga village , in Karelia , Russia , from where it gets its name . Shungite has been reported to contain fullerenes .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Shungite",
"rank": 56,
"score": 83993
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_label",
"rank": 57,
"score": 83976
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 58,
"score": 83867
},
{
"content": "Title: Black cocaine Content: Black cocaine , also known as Coca Negra , is a mixture of regular cocaine base or cocaine hydrochloride with various other substances . These other substances are added to camouflage the typical appearance ( pigments and dyes , e.g. charcoal ) , to interfere with color-based drug tests ( mixing thiocyanates and iron salts or cobalt salts forms deep red complexes in solution ) , to make the mixture undetectable by drug sniffing dogs ( activated carbon may sufficiently absorb trace odors ) . Since the result is usually black , it is generally smuggled as toner , fingerprint powder , fertilizer , pigment or metal moldings . The pure cocaine base can be recovered from the mixture by extraction ( freebase ) or acid-base extraction ( hydrochloride ) using common organic solvents such as acetone . It was reported that in the mid-1980s Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet ordered his army to build a clandestine cocaine laboratory in Chile where chemists mixed cocaine with other chemicals to produce what Pinochet 's former top aide for intelligence Manuel Contreras described as a `` black cocaine '' capable of being smuggled past drug agents in the US and Europe . Black cocaine was detected in Bogota , Colombia in May 1998 . In 2008 , a new type of black cocaine was discovered by police in Spain . It had been manufactured into rubber-like sheets and made into luggage .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_cocaine",
"rank": 59,
"score": 83804
},
{
"content": "Title: Blacklight Content: A blacklight ( or often black light ) , also referred to as a UV-A light , Wood 's lamp , or simply ultraviolet light , is a lamp that emits long-wave ( UV-A ) ultraviolet light and not much visible light . One type of lamp has a violet filter material , either on the bulb or in a separate glass filter in the lamp housing , which blocks most visible light and allows through UV , so the lamp has a dim violet glow when operating . Blacklight lamps which have this filter have a lighting industry designation that includes the letters `` BLB '' . This stands for `` blacklight blue '' , which is a contradiction in that they are the type that does not look blue . A second type of lamp produces ultraviolet but does not have the filter material , so it produces more visible light and has a blue color when operating . These tubes are made for use in `` bug zapper '' insect traps , and are identified by the industry designation `` BL '' . Blacklight sources may be specially designed fluorescent lamps , mercury-vapor lamps , light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) , lasers , or incandescent lamps ; although incandescents produce almost no blacklight ( except slightly more for halogen types ) , and so are not considered true blacklight sources . In medicine , forensics , and some other scientific fields , such a light source is referred to as a Wood 's lamp , named after Robert Williams Wood who invented the original Wood 's glass UV filters . Although many other types of lamp emit ultraviolet light with visible light , black lights are essential when UV-A light without visible light is needed , particularly in observing fluorescence , the colored glow that many substances emit when exposed to UV . Black lights are employed for decorative and artistic lighting effects , diagnostic and therapeutic uses in medicine , the detection of substances tagged with fluorescent dyes , rock-hunting , the detection of counterfeit money , the curing of plastic resins , and attracting insects . Strong sources of long-wave ultraviolet light are used in tanning beds . Although the low-power UV-A emitted by black lights is not a hazard to skin or eyes and can be viewed without protection , powerful ultraviolet sources present dangers and require personal protective equipment such as goggles and gloves .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Blacklight",
"rank": 60,
"score": 83729
},
{
"content": "Title: Black silicon Content: Black silicon is a semiconductor material , a surface modification of silicon with very low reflectivity and correspondingly high absorption of visible ( and infrared ) light . The modification was discovered in the 1980s as an unwanted side effect of reactive ion etching ( RIE ) . Other methods for forming a similar structure include electrochemical etching , stain etching , metal-assisted chemical etching , and laser treatment ( which is developed in Eric Mazur 's laboratory at Harvard University ) , and FFC Cambridge process ( an electrochemical reduction process ) .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_silicon",
"rank": 61,
"score": 83681
},
{
"content": "Title: Vanadium hexacarbonyl Content: Vanadium hexacarbonyl is the inorganic compound with the formula V ( CO ) 6 . It is a blue-black volatile solid . This highly reactive species is noteworthy from theoretical perspectives as a rare isolable homoleptic metal carbonyl that is paramagnetic . Most species with the formula Mx ( CO ) y follow the 18-electron rule , whereas V ( CO ) 6 has 17 valence electrons .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Vanadium_hexacarbonyl",
"rank": 62,
"score": 83480
},
{
"content": "Title: CO-0.40-0.22 Content: CO-0 .40 -0.22 is a high velocity compact gas cloud near the centre of the Milky Way . It is 200 light years away from the centre in the central molecular zone . The cloud is in the shape of ellipse . The differences in the velocity , termed velocity dispersion , of the gas is unusually high at 100 km/s . The velocity dispersion may be due to an intermediate-mass black hole with a mass of about 100,000 solar masses . If it exists , this black hole would be the second largest known in the Milky Way . The molecular cloud has a mass of 4,000 solar masses . It is located at -0.40 ° , -0.22 ° galactic longitude and latitude . The cloud is 0.2 ° away from Sgr C to the galactic southeast . The gas is moving away from Earth at speeds ranging from 20 to 120 km/s . The spectral lines of carbon monoxide reveal that the gas is dense , and warm and fairly opaque . The gas cloud includes carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide molecules . Other molecules detected via microwave spectroscopy include cyanoacetylene , cyclopropenylidene , methanol , silicon monoxide , sulfur monoxide , carbon monosulfide , Thioformaldehyde , Hydrogen isocyanide , Formamide , and ions H2N + and HCO + . The name followed the precedent set by CO-0 .02 -0.02 , which is another high velocity compact cloud in the central molecular zone . Another example of this naming convention is CO -- 0.30 -- 0.07 .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "CO-0.40-0.22",
"rank": 63,
"score": 83024
},
{
"content": "Title: Blue carbon Content: Blue carbon is the carbon captured by the world 's oceans and coastal ecosystems . The carbon captured by living organisms in oceans is stored in the form of biomass and sediments from mangroves , salt marshes , seagrasses and potentially algae .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Blue_carbon",
"rank": 64,
"score": 82564
},
{
"content": "Title: Black body Content: A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation , regardless of frequency or angle of incidence . A white body is one with a `` rough surface -LSB- that -RSB- reflects all incident rays completely and uniformly in all directions . '' A black body in thermal equilibrium ( that is , at a constant temperature ) emits electromagnetic radiation called black-body radiation . The radiation is emitted according to Planck 's law , meaning that it has a spectrum that is determined by the temperature alone ( see figure at right ) , not by the body 's shape or composition . A black body in thermal equilibrium has two notable properties : It is an ideal emitter : at every frequency , it emits as much energy as -- or more energy than -- any other body at the same temperature . It is a diffuse emitter : the energy is radiated isotropically , independent of direction . An approximate realization of a black surface is a hole in the wall of a large enclosure . Any light entering the hole is reflected indefinitely or absorbed inside and is unlikely to re-emerge , making the hole a nearly perfect absorber . The radiation confined in such an enclosure may or may not be in thermal equilibrium , depending upon the nature of the walls and the other contents of the enclosure . Real materials emit energy at a fraction -- called the emissivity -- of black-body energy levels . By definition , a black body in thermal equilibrium has an emissivity of . A source with lower emissivity independent of frequency often is referred to as a gray body . Construction of black bodies with emissivity as close to one as possible remains a topic of current interest . In astronomy , the radiation from stars and planets is sometimes characterized in terms of an effective temperature , the temperature of a black body that would emit the same total flux of electromagnetic energy .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_body",
"rank": 65,
"score": 82545
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Content: Carbon ( from carbo `` coal '' ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent -- making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , C and C being stable , while C is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity . Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18.5 % ) after oxygen . The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb '' γράφειν '' which means `` to write '' ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen . The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4 , while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions . For this reason , carbon has often been referred to as the `` king of the elements '' .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon",
"rank": 66,
"score": 82484
},
{
"content": "Title: Red-short Content: Red-short , hot-short or sulfur embrittlement is the quality possessed by carbon steel that suffers from having too much sulfur as an impurity . Iron or steel , when heated to above 900 ° F ( 460 ° C ) , glows with a red color . The color of any heated object changes predictably ( due to black body radiation ) from dull red through orange and yellow to white , and can be a useful indicator of its temperature . Good quality iron or steel at and above this temperature becomes increasingly malleable and plastic . Iron or steel having too much sulfur , on the other hand , becomes crumbly and brittle . This is due to the sulfur forming iron sulfide/iron mixtures in the grain boundaries of the metal which have a lower melting point than the steel . When the steel is heated up and worked , the mechanical energy added to the workpiece increases the temperature further . The iron sulfide ( FeS ) or iron/iron sulfide alloy ( which has an even lower melting point ) begins to melt , and the steel starts to separate at the grain boundaries . Steelmakers add manganese ( Mn ) to the steel when it is produced , to form manganese sulfide ( MnS ) . Manganese sulfide inclusions have a higher melting point and do not concentrate at the grain boundaries . Thus , when the steel is later heated up and worked , the melting at the grain boundaries does not occur .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Red-short",
"rank": 67,
"score": 82225
},
{
"content": "Title: Hazelwood Power Station Content: The Hazelwood Power Station is a decommissioned brown coal-fuelled thermal power station located in the Latrobe Valley of Victoria , Australia . Built between 1964 and 1971 , the 1,600 megawatt capacity power station was made up of eight 200MW units , and supplied up to 25 % of Victoria 's base load electricity and more than 5 % of Australia 's total electricity demand . It was a ` subcritical ' pulverized coal-fired boiler . The station was listed as the least carbon efficient power station in the OECD in a 2005 report by WWF Australia , making it one of the most polluting power stations in the world . At 1.56 tonnes of CO2 for each megawatt hour of electricity , it was 50 percent more polluting than the average black coal power station in NSW or Queensland . Hazelwood emitted 14 % of Victoria 's annual greenhouse gas emissions and 3 % of Australia 's greenhouse gas emissions . International Power plc purchased Hazelwood Power Station and the adjoining mine from the Victorian Government in 1996 with an expected 40-year life . In 2005 the Bracks Labor Government approved an environmental effects statement ( EES ) that allowed Hazelwood to relocate a road and a section of the Morwell river to allow access to an additional 43 million tonnes of coal in addition to that allowed under the mining licence boundaries set at the time of privatisation . This was estimated to provide sufficient coal for the plant to operate to at least 2030 ( prior to decommissioning plans ) . The EES also capped its expected total greenhouse output at 445 million tonnes of carbon dioxide over its life , after which Hazelwood may have been made to cease operation . Hazelwood was jointly owned by Engie ( formerly GDF Suez ) , with a 72 % share and Mitsui & Co. with a 28 % share . , Hazelwood employed 495 staff directly and on average 300 contractors . On 3 November 2016 , Engie announced that the entire Hazelwood plant would be closed as of the end of March 2017 , giving the workers and local communities only five months notice of the closure .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Hazelwood_Power_Station",
"rank": 68,
"score": 81670
},
{
"content": "Title: Coleotechnites carbonaria Content: Coleotechnites carbonaria is a moth of the Gelechiidae family . It is found in North America , where it has been recorded from Ontario and Tennessee . The wingspan is 7.5 -- 10 mm . The forewings are black with white oblique fasciae and ochreous scales . The hindwings are fuscous . The larvae feed on Juniperus species . They mine the leaves and stems of their host plant . They initially mine the terminal leaves and stem . Overwintering takes place in either the stem or leaf mine . In spring , the larvae continues mining the stem , and hollows out leaves from the inside .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Coleotechnites_carbonaria",
"rank": 69,
"score": 81370
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Coal, Thin Ice Content: Black Coal , Thin Ice is a 2014 Chinese thriller film written and directed by Diao Yinan , and produced by Vivian Qu . The film won the Golden Bear award at the 64th Berlin International Film Festival .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_Coal,_Thin_Ice",
"rank": 70,
"score": 81192
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Trust Content: The Carbon Trust is a not-for-dividend company that helps organisations and companies reduce their carbon emissions and become more resource efficient . Its stated mission is to accelerate the move to a sustainable , low carbon economy . It reinvests surpluses from its group commercial activities into its mission . The Carbon Trust helps companies and organisations reduce carbon emissions and increase resource efficiency through providing specialist help , support and advice . As of December 2014 the Carbon Trust had saved its customers # 5.5 bn in costs and 60Mt . It operates globally and has offices in U.K. , China , Mexico , South Africa , Brazil and United States . It is also active in many other countries including South Korea , Malaysia , Singapore , India , Indonesia , Namibia , Peru , Chile and Panama .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_Trust",
"rank": 71,
"score": 81126
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_shifting",
"rank": 72,
"score": 80901
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 73,
"score": 80327
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Pool Content: Black Pool is a hot spring in the West Thumb Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States . The pool was cool enough up until 1991 for dark orange-brown cyanobacteria to grow throughout the pool . When combined with the blue of the water , the pool appeared to be an exceptionally dark green to almost black , hence the name . An exchange of function took place in 1991 , shifting thermal energy to Black Pool and nearby Abyss Pool , causing them to heat up . Black Pool 's temperature became hot enough to kill all the cyanobacteria in the pool , turning the pool a rich teal blue color . The pool also had frequent boiling eruptions on August 15 , 1991 , doming the water to 3 feet and causing heavy runoff . Black Pool remains extremely hot , and is now one of Yellowstone 's most beautiful and intensely blue pools . The name of the pool remains `` Black Pool . ''",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_Pool",
"rank": 74,
"score": 80269
},
{
"content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme",
"rank": 75,
"score": 80214
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Country Content: The Black Country is an area of the Midlands in England , west of Birmingham , including Dudley , Walsall and Sandwell . In the Industrial Revolution , it became one of the most industrialised parts of Britain with coal mines , coking , iron foundries and steel mills producing a high level of air pollution . The 14 mi road between Wolverhampton and Birmingham was described as `` one continuous town '' in 1785 . The first trace of `` The Black Country '' as an expression dates from the 1840s . The name is believed to come from the soot from the heavy industries that covered the area , although the 30-foot-thick coal seam close to the surface is another possible origin .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_Country",
"rank": 76,
"score": 80003
},
{
"content": "Title: Tetracobalt dodecacarbonyl Content: Tetracobalt dodecacarbonyl is the chemical compound with the formula Co4 ( CO ) 12 . It is a black crystalline compound that is insoluble in water and easily oxidized by air . It is an example of a metal carbonyl cluster .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Tetracobalt_dodecacarbonyl",
"rank": 77,
"score": 79913
},
{
"content": "Title: The Black Family Content: The Black Family is a professional wrestling face / tecnico stable that has been working in AAA since 2000 . Originally a heel / rudo stable , The Black Family currently consists of original member Dark Cuervo as well as the later additions of Dark Ozz , and Dark Espíritu . The group is also referred to as the Dark Family , mainly became all members added the word `` Dark '' to their names in 2007 , the two names are used interchangeably . The Black Family is often part of a much larger stables such as Lucha Libre Latina ( LLL ) or La Secta De Mesias but act as a unit within the larger stable . Members of the group has held the AAA World Tag Team Championship once and the Mexican National Atómicos Championship three times in two different combinations . In October 2010 the stable turned tecnico for the first time . In 2015 Dark Ozz and Espiritu left AAA and Cuervo and Scoria reformed the Black Family",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "The_Black_Family",
"rank": 78,
"score": 79852
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England",
"rank": 79,
"score": 79731
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 80,
"score": 79534
},
{
"content": "Title: NGC 1999 Content: NGC 1999 is a dust-filled bright nebula with a vast hole of empty space represented by a black patch of sky , as can be seen in the photograph . It is a reflection nebula , and shines from the light of the variable star V380 Orionis . It was previously believed that the black patch was a dense cloud of dust and gas which blocked light that would normally pass through , called a dark nebula . Analysis of this patch by the infrared telescope Herschel ( October 9 , 2009 ) , which has the capability of penetrating such dense cloud material , resulted in continued black space . This led to the belief that either the cloud material was immensely dense or that an unexplained phenomenon had been detected . With support from ground-based observations done using the submillimeter bolometer cameras on the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment radio telescope ( November 29 , 2009 ) and the Mayall ( Kitt Peak ) and Magellan telescopes ( December 4 , 2009 ) , it was determined that the patch looks black not because it is an extremely dense pocket of gas , but because it is truly empty . The exact cause of this phenomenon is still being investigated , although it has been hypothesized that narrow jets of gas from some of the young stars in the region punctured the sheet of dust and gas , as well as , powerful radiation from a nearby mature star may have helped to create the hole . Researchers believe this discovery should lead to a better understanding of the entire star forming process . It is located 1,500 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Orion .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "NGC_1999",
"rank": 81,
"score": 79448
},
{
"content": "Title: Black tar heroin Content: Black tar heroin is a form of heroin that is sticky like tar or hard like coal . Its dark color is the result of crude processing methods that leave behind impurities . Despite its name , black tar heroin can also be dark orange or dark brown in appearance . It is generally less expensive than other forms of heroin . Black tar heroin is heroin acetate . Other forms of heroin require additional steps of purification post acetylation . With Black Tar the product 's processing stops immediately after acetylation . Its unique consistency however is due to acetylation without a reflux apparatus . As in Homebake Heroin in Australia and New Zealand the crude acetylation results in a gooey mass . Black Tar as a type holds a variable admixture morphine derivatives -- predominantly 6-MAM ( 6-monoacetylmorphine ) which is another result of crude acetylation . The lack of proper reflux during acetylation fails to remove much of the moisture retained in the acetylating agent , glacial acetic acid . Black tar heroin is often produced in Latin America , and is most commonly found in the western and southern parts of the United States , while also being occasionally found in western Canada and Europe . It has a varying consistency depending on manufacturing methods , cutting agents , and moisture levels , ranging in quality from a black-brown , tarry goo in unrefined form to a uniform , light-brown powder when further processed and cut with lactose .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_tar_heroin",
"rank": 82,
"score": 79436
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 83,
"score": 79397
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for Negative Carbon Emissions Content: The Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) is led by Director Klaus S. Lackner , and was founded in the School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment ( SSEBE ) at Arizona State University in 2014 . CNCE is advancing carbon management technologies that can capture carbon dioxide directly from ambient air in an outdoor operating environment . CNCE aims to demonstrate systems that over time increase in scope , reliability and efficiency while lowering the cost of carbon dioxide capture from air .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Center_for_Negative_Carbon_Emissions",
"rank": 84,
"score": 79311
},
{
"content": "Title: Janthinobacterium lividum Content: Janthinobacterium lividum is an aerobic , Gram-negative , soil-dwelling bacterium that has a distinctive dark-violet ( almost black ) color . This color is due to a compound called violacein , which is produced when glycerol is metabolized as a carbon source . Violacein has anti-bacterial , anti-viral , and anti-fungal properties . Its anti-fungal properties are of particular interest since J. lividum is found on the skin of certain amphibians , including the red-backed salamander ( Plethodon cinereus ) , where it prevents infection by the devastating chytrid fungus ( Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ) .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Janthinobacterium_lividum",
"rank": 85,
"score": 79273
},
{
"content": "Title: Black hair Content: Black hair is the darkest and most common of all human hair colors globally , due to larger populations with this dominant trait . It is a dominant genetic trait , and it is found in people of all backgrounds and ethnicities . It has large amounts of eumelanin and is less dense than other hair colors . Sometimes very dark brown ( blackish-brown ) hair is mistaken for black . In English , black hair is sometimes described as soft-black , raven black , or jet-black . The range of skin colors associated with black hair is vast , ranging from the palest of light skin tones to dark skin . Black-haired humans can have dark or light eyes .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_hair",
"rank": 86,
"score": 79233
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_profiling",
"rank": 87,
"score": 79181
},
{
"content": "Title: Australian Coal Association Content: The Australian Coal Association ( often abbreviated to ACA ) is the major Australian coal mining industry lobby group . It represents the black coal producers of New South Wales and Queensland and consists of a number of relatively small coal mining companies or subsidiaries of larger corporations in those two states . Australia is the world 's largest coal exporter , and black coal is Australia 's second largest commodity export , worth more than A$ 24 billion in the financial year ending June 2008 , and $ 46 billion , or nearly double this amount , for the corresponding calendar year ending December . Black coal provides around 57 per cent of Australia 's grid-connected electricity ( brown coal around 24 % ) and is vital for major industries such as steel making and cement manufacture . On 23 August 2013 , the Australian Coal Association released a statement that it will be subsumed into the Minerals Council of Australia .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Australian_Coal_Association",
"rank": 88,
"score": 79140
},
{
"content": "Title: Organic-rich sedimentary rocks Content: Organic-rich sedimentary rocks are a specific type of sedimentary rock that contains significant amounts ( > 3 % ) of organic carbon . The most common types include coal , lignite , oil shale , or black shale . The organic material may be disseminated throughout the rock giving it a uniform dark color , and/or may be present as discrete occurrences of tar , bitumen , asphalt , petroleum , coal or carbonaceous material . Organic-rich sedimentary rocks may act as source rocks which generate hydrocarbons that accumulate in other sedimentary `` reservoir '' rocks ( see oil sands and petroleum geology ) . Potential source rocks are any type of sedimentary rock that the ability to dispel available carbon from within it ( limestone is a classic example of a source rock ) . Good reservoir rocks are any sedimentary rock that has high pore-space availability . This allows the hydrocarbons to accumulate within the rock and be stored for long periods of time ( a sandstone commonly makes a good source rock ) . Highly permeable reservoir rocks are also of interest to industry professionals , as they allow for the easy extraction of the hydrocarbons within . The hydrocarbon reservoir system is not complete however without a cap rock . Cap rocks are rock units which have very low porosity and permeability , which trap the hydrocarbons within the units below as they try to migrate upwards .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Organic-rich_sedimentary_rocks",
"rank": 89,
"score": 79121
},
{
"content": "Title: Man in Black (Lost) Content: The entity referred to most frequently as The Man in Black ( referred to as The Smoke Monster by the main characters ) is a fictional character and the main antagonist on the American ABC television series Lost . He appeared primarily as a cloud of black smoke ( `` The Smoke Monster '' ) until the final episode of season five , where he appeared as a middle-aged man dressed in black . In season six , he primarily appeared in the physical form of John Locke . He exhibited the ability to `` scan '' the minds and memories of others , allowing him to confront characters such as Mr. Eko and Ben , with `` judgment '' ( a replay of their pasts ) , and to assume the forms and memories of the deceased , starting with the original Man in Black himself , being Jacob 's brother , or Christian , Yemi , Alex , and Locke . According to Jacob , who explains this to Richard Alpert ( Nestor Carbonell ) , it is the incarnation of evil , and its primary goal -- to escape from the island -- would be the `` end of everything good '' . Various other characters have implied that his escape would be catastrophic and could even cause the destruction of reality . A longtime resident of the island that serves as the main setting of Lost , the true nature of the Man in Black was long shrouded in mystery . It had been described by Lost producer Damon Lindelof as `` one of the biggest secrets '' of the mythology , and the producers have often hinted that the black cloud of smoke was not a monster in the traditional sense . TV Guide included him in their 2013 list of The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Man_in_Black_(Lost)",
"rank": 90,
"score": 78985
},
{
"content": "Title: Calorescence Content: Calorescence is when matter absorbs infrared radiant energy and emits visible radiant energy in its place . For example , some kinds of flammable gas give off large amounts of radiant heat and very little visible light when burning , and if a piece of metal is placed into such a flame , the metal will become bright red-hot -- which is to say the metal absorbs invisible infrared and emits visible radiation . The word calorescence was coined in 1864 on the model of the word fluorescence which had been coined in 1852 . At that time , fluorescence was defined as absorption in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum followed by emission in the visible part of the spectrum . Calorescence was defined complementarily as absorption in the infrared followed by emission in the visible . The following is a laboratory demonstration of calorescence . An ordinary lightbulb emits lots of infrared light . Carbon disulfide is a colorless liquid transparent to both infrared and visible . Iodine readily dissolves in this liquid and causes the liquid to turn a black color and to become completely opaque to visible light , given enough iodine . At the same time , however , the iodine has essentially no effect on the transparency of the liquid with respect to infrared light . Hence when light from an ordinary lightbulb is passed through a body of this solution , lots of infrared and only infrared emerges out at the other side . This infrared light can be brought to a focus with a concave mirror ( or an optical lens made from rock-salt , but not a lens made from glass because glass is a poor transmitter of infrared ) . At the point of focus , with a good focusing tool , the infrared beam is strong enough to set paper on fire . If a little piece of non-combustible solid material is placed at the focus , it will glow visibly in the heat ; i.e. the material will absorb infrared and emit visible light . The following is another laboratory illustration of calorescence . In a flame of pure hydrogen burning in oxygen , the hydrogen chemically combines with the oxygen to form water ( H2O ) plus a lot of heat is produced . This heat is a radiant emission from the newly formed water molecules . That is , the heat is thermal radiation whose particular set of radiant frequencies is uniquely characteristic of water molecules , as determined by emission spectroscopy . Water molecules have very little emission in the visible portion of the spectrum at any temperature ( c.f. spectral absorption of water ) . The temperature of the hydrogen flame is more than 2000 degrees Celsius . If a piece of platinum is placed in the flame , the platinum will become `` white hot '' and give out a bright light . The platinum thus absorbs radiation having the spectral profile of water , and emits radiation having the spectral profile of platinum . ( The platinum also picks up heat from collisions with moving gas molecules ) . The term calorescence is rarely seen in use today , whereas the term fluorescence is common . One reason is that there is n't a physical explanation for calorescence that 's specific to calorescence . Relatedly , the physical explanations for some types of fluorescence behavior are also explanations for calorescence and the word fluorescence has been preferred and expanded in customary usage to include calorescence . Another reason is that there is n't a widely used practical application attached to the word calorescence , whereas there is for fluorescence . A related item of physics terminology today is the so-called `` Anti-Stokes Shift '' . A Stokes shift refers to molecular absorptions of radiant energy of higher frequencies followed by emissions of lower frequencies ; and an anti-Stokes shift refers to absorptions of lower frequencies followed by emissions of higher frequencies . With this terminology , practical applications are attached to the term `` anti-Stokes photoluminescence '' in materials science including semiconductors ( see examples ) . Equal terminology in use in laser science is `` infrared upconversion '' , `` upconversion luminescence '' , or simply `` upconversion '' ( see examples ) . This terminology is usually contemplating luminescence , as opposed to incandescence , whereas the word Calorescence belongs to the 19th century when the only known upconversion methods were of the incandescent kind .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Calorescence",
"rank": 91,
"score": 78981
},
{
"content": "Title: Black powder in gas pipelines Content: Black Powder is an industry name for the abrasive , reactive contamination particulate present in all gas and hydrocarbon fluid transmission lines . Black Powder will range from light brown to black and the mineral make up will vary per production field around the world . Black Powder forms throughout the pipeline process ; from producing formations , through well bores , into gathering lines , in reservoirs for fluid separation , and along transmission pipelines . After refinement , Black Powder continues to build in the gas plants and refineries , storage reservoirs and finally through to the end user . Black Powder is a composite of iron oxides , iron sulphides , varying dirt such as silica and calcium as well as chloride , sodium and other material particulate .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_powder_in_gas_pipelines",
"rank": 92,
"score": 78971
},
{
"content": "Title: Spark spread Content: The spark spread is the theoretical gross margin of a gas-fired power plant from selling a unit of electricity , having bought the fuel required to produce this unit of electricity . All other costs ( operation and maintenance , capital and other financial costs ) must be covered from the spark spread . The term was first coined by Tony West 's trading team on the trading floor of National Power Ltd in Swindon , UK during the late 1990s and quickly came into common usage as other traders realised the trading and hedging opportunities . The term dark spread and quark spread refers to the similarly defined difference between cash streams ( spread ) for coal-fired power plants and nuclear plants respectively . These indicators of power plant economics are useful for tracing energy markets . For operating or investment decisions published `` spread '' data are not applicable . Local market conditions , actual plant efficiencies and other plant costs have to be considered . The higher the dark spread the better , for the generator ; an IPP with a dark spread of $ 15/MWh will be more profitable than a competitor with a dark spread of only $ 10/MWh . Further definition of clean spread indicators include the price of carbon dioxide emission allowances ( see : Emission trading ) .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Spark_spread",
"rank": 93,
"score": 78965
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Creek (Nescopeck Creek) Content: Black Creek is a long source tributary of Nescopeck Creek so part of the Susquehanna River drainage basin . It is also the second & longer stream of the same name recognized by the USGS GNIS system in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , USGS GNIS system , search by name in Pennsylvania . Relative lengths from other data sources , but GNIS data puts the differences at over 20 miles . ( See GNIS details : Creek 1169695 , Black Creek vs. 1169696 , Black Creek . ) in the United States -- compared to the Black Creek beyond the ridgeline of the drainage divide , so in the Lehigh River valley and Carbon County . The headwaters of both Black Creeks in Luzerne county are only a few miles apart , and both valleys were traversed by the Lausanne-Nescopeck Turnpike ( Lehigh-Susquehanna Turnpike ) in the first half of the 19th-century . The J-on-its-long-side-shaped brook is approximately 22.6 mi long , and in the early 1800s the sides of its valley became the path of the Lausanne-Nescopeck Turnpike ( Lehigh-Susquehanna Turnpike ) -- connecting Philadelphia and the Delaware basin communities to the new settlements in the mid-Susquehanna and Wyoming valleys via paths along the banks of the Lehigh and the Susquehanna Rivers .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_Creek_(Nescopeck_Creek)",
"rank": 94,
"score": 78890
},
{
"content": "Title: Dark Black Content: Dark Black is the second album by Kristina Train , released on November 5 , 2012 in the UK .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Dark_Black",
"rank": 95,
"score": 78865
},
{
"content": "Title: Blacklead Content: Blacklead may refer to : Graphite , also known as `` black lead '' Blacklead , another name for the Plumbago drawing style and medium Blacklead Island , Nunavut , Canada",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Blacklead",
"rank": 96,
"score": 78784
},
{
"content": "Title: Impsonite Content: Impsonite is a black , carbonaceous substance , with a specific gravity of 1.10 -- 1.25 and a carbon content of 50 -- 85 % . It is described as an asphaltic pyrobitumen . It is believed to be derived from a fluid bitumen which polymerized after filling a vein . The term was coined by George Homans Eldridge in 1901 , referring to the asphaltic material in the Impson Valley in southeastern Oklahoma , later known as the Jumbo mine . The asphaltic material in the Impson Valley was later reclassified as grahamite , based on solubility and chemical similarities with the type grahamite of West Virginia .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Impsonite",
"rank": 97,
"score": 78628
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 98,
"score": 78602
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 99,
"score": 78537
},
{
"content": "Title: Black Mountains (North Carolina) Content: The Black Mountains are a mountain range in western North Carolina , in the southeastern United States . They are part of the Blue Ridge Province of the Southern Appalachian Mountains . The Blacks are the highest mountains in the Eastern United States . The range takes its name from the dark appearance of the red spruce and Fraser fir trees that form a spruce-fir forest on the upper slopes which contrasts with the brown ( during winter ) or lighter green ( during the growing season ) appearance of the deciduous trees at lower elevations . The Eastern Continental Divide , which runs along the eastern Blue Ridge crest , intersects the southern tip of the Black Mountain range . The Black Mountains are home to Mount Mitchell State Park , which protects the range 's highest summit and adjacent summits in the north-central section of the range . Much of the range is also protected by the Pisgah National Forest . The Blue Ridge Parkway passes along the range 's southern section , and is connected to the summit of Mount Mitchell by North Carolina Highway 128 . The Black Mountains are mostly located in Yancey County , although the range 's southern and western extremes are part of Buncombe County .",
"qid": "173",
"docid": "Black_Mountains_(North_Carolina)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 78403
}
] |
Reef material is calcium carbonate, which contains 44 per cent carbon dioxide. | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbonate Content: In chemistry , a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) , characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion , a polyatomic ion with the formula of . The name may also mean an ester of carbonic acid , an organic compound containing the carbonate group C ( =O ) ( O -- ) 2 . The term is also used as a verb , to describe carbonation : the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverageseither by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure , or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water . In geology and mineralogy , the term `` carbonate '' can refer both to carbonate minerals and carbonate rock ( which is made of chiefly carbonate minerals ) , and both are dominated by the carbonate ion , . Carbonate minerals are extremely varied and ubiquitous in chemically precipitated sedimentary rock . The most common are calcite or calcium carbonate , CaCO3 , the chief constituent of limestone ( as well as the main component of mollusc shells and coral skeletons ) ; dolomite , a calcium-magnesium carbonate CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 ; and siderite , or iron ( II ) carbonate , FeCO3 , an important iron ore . Sodium carbonate ( `` soda '' or `` natron '' ) and potassium carbonate ( `` potash '' ) have been used since antiquity for cleaning and preservation , as well as for the manufacture of glass . Carbonates are widely used in industry , e.g. in iron smelting , as a raw material for Portland cement and lime manufacture , in the composition of ceramic glazes , and more .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonate",
"rank": 1,
"score": 180974
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral reef Content: Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals . Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups . The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria , which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones , corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps . Most reefs grow best in warm , shallow , clear , sunny and agitated waters . Often called `` rainforests of the sea '' , shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth . They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface , about half the area of France , yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Paradoxically , coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients . They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters , but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas . Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism , fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$ 29.8-375 billion . However , coral reefs are fragile ecosystems , partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature . They are under threat from climate change , oceanic acidification , blast fishing , cyanide fishing for aquarium fish , sunscreen use , overuse of reef resources , and harmful land-use practices , including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution , which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Coral_reef",
"rank": 2,
"score": 165305
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral calcium Content: Coral calcium is a salt of calcium derived from fossilized coral reefs ( primarily from limestone and coastal deposits ) . It has been promoted as an alternative , but unsubstantiated , treatment or cure for a number of health conditions .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Coral_calcium",
"rank": 3,
"score": 164482
},
{
"content": "Title: Calcium reactor Content: __ NOTOC __ In marine and reef aquariums , a calcium reactor creates a balance of alkalinity . An acidic solution is produced by injecting carbon dioxide into a chamber with salt water and calcium rich media . The carbon dioxide lowers the pH by producing a solution high in carbonic acid , and dissolves calcium . The effluent is returned to the reef aquarium where the calcium is consumed by organisms , primarily corals when building skeletons . A calcium reactor is an efficient method to supply calcium to a reef aquarium . Reactors may be used in elaborate freshwater and brackish aquariums where freshwater clams and other invertebrates need a constant supply of calcium . The reactor dissolves the calcium-laden media to provide bicarbonates HCO3 − ( alkalinity ) and calcium ( Ca + + ) ions at the sames rate as consumed during calcification . Effectively dissolving the media requires an acidic pH. Saltwater may have a pH of 7.8 or higher , so to reduce the pH carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) is used . The reaction formula is : CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 < -- -- > Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − Inside the reaction chamber , a calcium rich media ( aragonite ) , mainly CaCO3 , is forced into contact with water injected with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in order to create carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This increases the solubility of the calcium carbonate . The reaction frees the calcium and carbonate , supplying the aquarium with water rich in Ca2 + and CO32 − , important for maintaining alkalinity and calcium levels . The bubble counter measures carbon dioxide . The flow rate of carbon dioxide is monitored so that the dissolved gas goes into the solution , with a minimum unconsumed . A needle valve or solenoid valve regulates the CO2 bubble rate . Valves with precise adjustment abilities improve bubble control . The feed pump controls the volume of water exchange . This is important because a high rate of water flow into the reactor reduces its efficiency , thus resulting in underproduction and a waste of CO2 . Some reactors siphon water into the input of the reactor 's re-circulation pump . A potential complication is the medium in the reactor becoming compacted , increasing back pressure onto the pump and reducing water into the reactor . Placing a gate or needle valve on the reactor 's outlet side will improve flow characteristics compared to control from the inlet side . A peristaltic pumps are effective operating against pressure , capable of supplying an adjustable and continuous flow over flow rates with minimal maintenance . The pH control is connected to a probe in the reactor and adjusts the rate at which the calcium media dissolves . This probe monitors the pH level in the calcium reactor . The pH range for the typical calcium reactor is 6.5 - 6.8 . When the pH rises above a certain level , a valve opens , allowing carbon dioxide to enter the reactor . The control closes the valve as the pH falls below this level . Some pH controllers have an interface for an air pump . This air pump is connected to an airstone in the sump or main tank . If the probe detects a low pH level , the pump activates . The bubbles raise the pH by dissipating the CO2 gas .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Calcium_reactor",
"rank": 4,
"score": 162182
},
{
"content": "Title: Coenosteum Content: In corals , the coenosteum is the stony skeletal material secreted by the coenosarc , the layer of living material lying between the corallites ( the stony cups in which the polyps sit ) . The coenosteum is composed of aragonite , a crystalline form of calcium carbonate , and is generally a spongy , porous material . Sometimes the coenosteum has ornamentation such as ridges and beads , visible as raised areas of the coenosarc . The coenosteum and corallites together are known as the corallum .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Coenosteum",
"rank": 5,
"score": 155408
},
{
"content": "Title: Calcium bicarbonate Content: Calcium bicarbonate , also called calcium hydrogen carbonate , has a chemical formula Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 . The term does not refer to a known solid compound ; it exists only in aqueous solution containing the calcium ( Ca2 + ) , bicarbonate ( HCO3 − ) , and carbonate ( CO32 − ) ions , together with dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The relative concentrations of these carbon-containing species depend on the pH ; bicarbonate predominates within the range 6.36-10 .25 in fresh water . All waters in contact with the atmosphere absorb carbon dioxide , and as these waters come into contact with rocks and sediments they acquire metal ions , most commonly calcium and magnesium , so most natural waters that come from streams , lakes , and especially wells , can be regarded as dilute solutions of these bicarbonates . These hard waters tend to form carbonate scale in pipes and boilers and they react with soaps to form an undesirable scum . Attempts to prepare compounds such as calcium bicarbonate by evaporating its solution to dryness invariably yield the solid calcium carbonate , instead : Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ( aq ) → CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) + CaCO3 ( s ) . Very few solid bicarbonates other than those of the alkali metals and ammonium ion are known to exist . The above reaction is very important to the formation of stalactites , stalagmites , columns , and other speleothems within caves , and for that matter , in the formation of the caves themselves . As water containing carbon dioxide ( including extra CO2 acquired from soil organisms ) passes through limestone or other calcium carbonate-containing minerals , it dissolves part of the calcium carbonate , hence becomes richer in bicarbonate . As the groundwater enters the cave , the excess carbon dioxide is released from the solution of the bicarbonate , causing the much less soluble calcium carbonate to be deposited . In the reverse process , dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in rainwater ( H2O ) reacts with limestone calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) to form soluble calcium bicarbonate ( Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ) . This soluble compound is then washed away with the rainwater . This form of weathering is called carbonation . In medicine , calcium bicarbonate is sometimes administered intravenously to immediately correct the cardiac depressor effects of hypokalemia by increasing calcium concentration in serum , and at the same time , correcting the acid usually present .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Calcium_bicarbonate",
"rank": 6,
"score": 154668
},
{
"content": "Title: Alcyonacea Content: The Alcyonacea , or soft corals , are an order of corals which do not produce calcium carbonate skeletons . Soft corals contain minute , spiny skeletal elements called sclerites , useful in species identification . Sclerites give these corals some degree of support and give their flesh a spiky , grainy texture that deters predators . In the past soft corals were thought to be unable to lay new foundations for future corals , but recent findings suggest that colonies of the leather-coral genus Sinularia are able to cement sclerites and consolidate them at their base into alcyonarian spiculite , thus making them reef builders . Unlike stony corals , most soft corals thrive in nutrient-rich waters with less intense light . Almost all utilize symbiotic photosynthesizing zooxanthella as a major energy source . However , most will readily eat any free floating food , such as zooplankton , out of the water column . They are integral members of the reef ecosystem and provide habitat for fish , snails , algae and a diversity of other marine species . Many soft corals are easily collected in the wild for the reef aquarium hobby , as small cuttings are less prone to infection or damage during shipping than stony corals . Nevertheless , home-grown specimens tend to be more adaptable to aquarium life and help conserve wild reefs . Soft corals grow quickly in captivity and are easily divided into new individuals , and so those grown via aquaculture are often hardier and less expensive than imported corals from the wild . The most common examples of this are various species of Actinodiscus , especially common red mushroom coral .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Alcyonacea",
"rank": 7,
"score": 148659
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral stone Content: Coral stone may refer to : Calcium carbonate , secreted by corals `` Coral shaped stone '' or staghorn stone , a form of kidney stone",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Coral_stone",
"rank": 8,
"score": 143106
},
{
"content": "Title: Calcium carbonate Content: Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3 . It is a common substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite and aragonite ( most notably as limestone , which contains both of those minerals ) and is the main component of pearls and the shells of marine organisms , snails , and eggs . Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime and is created when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions to create limescale . It is medicinally used as a calcium supplement or as an antacid , but excessive consumption can be hazardous .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Calcium_carbonate",
"rank": 9,
"score": 142845
},
{
"content": "Title: Calcium looping Content: Calcium looping ( CaL ) , or the regenerative calcium cycle ( RCC ) , is a second-generation carbon capture technology . It is the most developed form of carbonate looping , where a metal ( M ) is reversibly reacted between its carbonate form ( MCO3 ) and its oxide form ( MO ) to separate carbon dioxide from other gases coming from either power generation or an industrial plant . In the calcium looping process , the two species are calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) and calcium oxide ( CaO ) . The captured carbon dioxide can then be transported to a storage site , used in enhanced oil recovery or used as a chemical feedstock . Calcium oxide is often referred to as the sorbent . Calcium looping is being developed as it is a more efficient , less toxic alternative to current post-combustion capture processes such as amine scrubbing . It also has interesting potential for integration with the cement industry .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Calcium_looping",
"rank": 10,
"score": 141362
},
{
"content": "Title: Sand Content: Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles . It is defined by size , being finer than gravel and coarser than silt . Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type ; i.e. a soil containing more than 85 % sand-sized particles by mass . The composition of sand varies , depending on the local rock sources and conditions , but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica ( silicon dioxide , or SiO2 ) , usually in the form of quartz . The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate , for example aragonite , which has mostly been created , over the past half billion years , by various forms of life , like coral and shellfish . For example , it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean . Sand is a non renewable resource over human timescales , and sand suitable for making concrete is in high demand .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Sand",
"rank": 11,
"score": 140616
},
{
"content": "Title: Coralline rock Content: Coralline Rock is a type of rock formed by the death of layers of Coralline algae . It is visually quite bright like the algae , and is often desired as aquarium decoration . Since it is formed from the dead algae , it contains some nutrients and calcium carbonate , which has allowed it to be used in some building structures .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Coralline_rock",
"rank": 12,
"score": 139563
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonatation Content: Carbonatation is a chemical reaction in which calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide and forms insoluble calcium carbonate : Ca ( OH ) 2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O The process of forming a carbonate is sometimes referred to as `` carbonation '' , although this term usually refers to the process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonatation",
"rank": 13,
"score": 138508
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonate platform Content: A carbonate platform is a sedimentary body which possesses topographic relief , and is composed of autochthonous calcareous deposits ( Wilson , 1975 ) . Platform growth is mediated by sessile organisms whose skeletons build up the reef or by organisms ( usually microbes ) which induce carbonate precipitation through their metabolism . Therefore , carbonate platforms can not grow up everywhere : they are not present in places where limiting factors to the life of reef-building organisms exist . Such limiting factors are , among others : light , water temperature , transparency and pH-Value . For example , carbonate sedimentation along the Atlantic South American coasts takes place everywhere but at the mouth of the Amazon River , because of the intense turbidity of the water there ( Carannante et al. , 1988 ) . Spectacular examples of present-day carbonate platforms are the Bahama Banks under which the platform is roughly 8 km thick , the Yucatan Peninsula which is up to 2 km thick , the Florida platform , the platform on which the Great Barrier Reef is growing , and the Maldive atolls . All these carbonate platforms and their associated reefs are confined to tropical latitudes . Today 's reefs are built mainly by scleractinian corals , but in the distant past other organisms , like archaeocyatha ( during the Cambrian ) or extinct cnidaria ( tabulata and rugosa ) were important reef builders .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonate_platform",
"rank": 14,
"score": 138358
},
{
"content": "Title: Marl Content: __ NOTOC __ Marl or marlstone is a calcium carbonate or lime-rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and silt . The dominant carbonate mineral in most marls is calcite , but other carbonate minerals such as aragonite , dolomite , and siderite may be present . Marl was originally an old term loosely applied to a variety of materials , most of which occur as loose , earthy deposits consisting chiefly of an intimate mixture of clay and calcium carbonate , formed under freshwater conditions ; specifically an earthy substance containing 35 -- 65 % clay and 65 -- 35 % carbonate . It also describes a habit of coralline red alga . The term is today often used to describe indurated marine deposits and lacustrine ( lake ) sediments which more accurately should be named ` marlstone ' . Marlstone is an indurated ( resists crumbling or powdering ) rock of about the same composition as marl , more correctly called an earthy or impure argillaceous limestone . It has a blocky subconchoidal fracture , and is less fissile than shale . The term ` marl ' is widely used in English-language geology , while the terms Mergel and Seekreide ( German for `` lake chalk '' ) are used in European references . The lower stratigraphic units of the chalk cliffs of Dover consist of a sequence of glauconitic marls followed by rhythmically banded limestone and marl layers . Upper Cretaceous cyclic sequences in Germany and marl -- opal-rich Tortonian-Messinian strata in the Sorbas basin related to multiple sea drawdown have been correlated with Milankovitch orbital forcing . Marl as lacustrine sediment is common in post glacial lake-bed sediments , often found underlying peat bogs . It has been used as a soil conditioner and acid soil neutralizing agent .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Marl",
"rank": 15,
"score": 138156
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef Content: A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface . Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Reef",
"rank": 16,
"score": 136364
},
{
"content": "Title: Holaxonia Content: Holaxonia is a suborder of soft corals , a member of the phylum Cnidaria . Members of this suborder are sometimes known as gorgonians and include the sea blades , the sea fans , the sea rods and the sea whips . These soft corals are colonial , sessile organisms and are generally tree-like in structure . They do not have a hard skeleton composed of calcium carbonate but have a firm but pliable , central axial skeleton composed of a fibrous protein called gorgonin embedded in a tissue matrix , the coenenchyme . In some genera this is permeated with a calcareous substance in the form of fused spicules . Members of this suborder are characterized by having an unspiculated axis and often a soft , chambered central core . The polyps have eight-fold symmetry and in many species , especially in the families Gorgoniidae and Plexauridae , contain symbiotic photosynthetic algae called zooxanthellae . These soft corals are popular in salt water aquaria .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Holaxonia",
"rank": 17,
"score": 135625
},
{
"content": "Title: Limescale Content: Limescale is the hard , off-white , chalky deposit found in kettles , hot-water boilers and the inside of inadequately maintained hot-water central heating systems . It is also often found as a similar deposit on the inner surface of old pipe and other surfaces where `` hard water '' has evaporated . In addition to being unsightly and hard to clean , limescale seriously impairs the operation or damages various components . The type found deposited on the heating elements of water heaters has a main component of calcium carbonate . Hard water contains calcium ( and often magnesium ) bicarbonate or similar ions . Calcium salts , such as calcium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate are both more soluble in hot water than cold water . Thus , heating water does not cause calcium carbonate to precipitate per se . However , there is an equilibrium between dissolved calcium bicarbonate and dissolved calcium carbonate : Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − ⇋ Ca2 + + CO32 − + CO2 + H2O where the equilibrium is driven by the carbonate/bicarbonate , not the calcium . Note that the CO2 is dissolved in the water . There is also an equilibrium of carbon dioxide between dissolved in water ( dis ) and the gaseous state ( g ) : CO2 ( dis ) ⇋ CO2 ( g ) The equilibrium of CO2 also moves to the right towards gaseous CO2 when the water temperature rises . When water that contains dissolved calcium carbonate is warmed , CO2 is removed from the water as gas causing the equilibrium of bicarbonate and carbonate to shift to the right , increasing the concentration of dissolved carbonate . As the concentration of carbonate increases , calcium carbonate precipitates as the salt : Ca2 + + CO32 − ⇋ CaCO3 . As new cold water with dissolved calcium carbonate/bicarbonate is added and heated , CO2 gas is removed , carbonate concentration increases , and more calcium carbonate precipitates . Descaling agents are used to remove scale . Prevention of scale build-up relies on the technologies of water softening .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Limescale",
"rank": 18,
"score": 134814
},
{
"content": "Title: Southeast Asian coral reefs Content: Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world 's marine ecosystems . They serve many functions , such as forming the livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials . Coral reefs are developed by the carbonate-based skeletons of a variety of animals and algae . Slowly and overtime , the reefs build up to the surface in oceans . Coral reefs are found in shallow , warm salt water . The sunlight filters through clear water and allows microscopic organisms to live and reproduce . The Indian Ocean holds 60 % of the world 's coastal reefs , 25 % are in the Pacific and 15 % are in the western Atlantic . There are coral reefs in the Persian Gulf , Madagascar , the Philippines , Hawaiian Islands and off Southeast Asia . Coral reefs have been preserved and identified in rocks over 400 million years old . Coral reefs are actually composed of tiny , fragile animals known as coral polyps . Coral reefs are significantly important because of the biodiversity . Although the number of fish are decreasing , the remaining coral reefs contain more unique sea creatures . The variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than anywhere else in the world . An estimation of 70-90 % of fish caught are dependent on coral reefs in Southeast Asia and reefs support over 25 % of all known marine species . However , those sensitive coral reefs are facing detrimental effects on them due to variety of factors : overfishing , sedimentation and pollution , bleaching , and even tourist-related damage .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs",
"rank": 19,
"score": 133594
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 20,
"score": 132591
},
{
"content": "Title: Listwanite Content: Listwanite ( also sometimes spelled listvenite , listvanite , or listwaenite ) is unusual rock type that forms when ultramafic rocks ( most commonly mantle peridotites ) are completely carbonated . The pyroxene and olivine minerals found in peridotite commonly alter to form carbonate and serpentine minerals . However , peridotites are usually not completely carbonated . Rather , they typically contain carbonate veins ( primarily magnesite ; also calcite , dolomite , and other carbonates ) . Complete carbonation of peridotite means that every single atom of magnesium and calcium as well as some of the iron atoms has combined with CO2 to form secondary carbonate minerals such a magnesite and calcite . The silica atoms in listwanite are found in quartz . Thus , liswanites consist of quartz ( a rusty red color ) and carbonate and also sometimes talc and Cr-muscovite ( a mineral known as mariposite/fuchsite ) .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Listwanite",
"rank": 21,
"score": 131888
},
{
"content": "Title: Bone char Content: Bone char ( carbo animalis ) is a porous , black , granular material produced by charring animal bones . Its composition varies depending on how it is made ; however , it consists mainly of tricalcium phosphate ( or hydroxylapatite ) 57 -- 80 % , calcium carbonate 6 -- 10 % and carbon 7 -- 10 % . It is primarily used for filtration and decolorization .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Bone_char",
"rank": 22,
"score": 131597
},
{
"content": "Title: Limestone Content: Limestone is a sedimentary rock , composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral , forams and molluscs . Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) . About 10 % of sedimentary rocks are limestones . The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes , in which water erodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years . Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock . Limestone has numerous uses : as a building material , an essential component of concrete ( Portland cement ) , as aggregate for the base of roads , as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paints , as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime , as a soil conditioner , or as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens . The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778 .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Limestone",
"rank": 23,
"score": 129177
},
{
"content": "Title: Organ pipe coral Content: The Organ pipe coral ( Tubipora musica ) is an alcyonarian coral native to the waters of the Indian Ocean and the central and western regions of the Pacific Ocean . It is the only known species of the genus Tubipora . This species is a soft coral but with a unique , hard skeleton of calcium carbonate that contains many organ pipe-like tubes . On each tube is a series of polyps which each have eight feather-like tentacles . These tentacles are usually extended during the day , but will swiftly withdraw with any sort of disturbance . The skeleton is a bright red color , but is typically obscured by the numerous polyps , which are green or gray in color . In size , colonies can reach up to a meter across , while the individual polyps are typically less than 3 mm wide and a few mm long . They are restricted to shallow waters and tend to live in sheltered areas . They eat plankton . They are close relatives to other soft coral and sea fans . This species is sometimes kept in aquariums , but is temperamental , and is difficult to maintain .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Organ_pipe_coral",
"rank": 24,
"score": 128040
},
{
"content": "Title: Chalk Content: Chalk ( -LSB- pronˈtʃɔːk -RSB- ) is a soft , white , porous , sedimentary carbonate rock , a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite . Calcite is an ionic salt called calcium carbonate or CaCO3 . It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite shells ( coccoliths ) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores . Flint ( a type of chert unique to chalk ) is very common as bands parallel to the bedding or as nodules embedded in chalk . It is probably derived from sponge spicules or other siliceous organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction . Flint is often deposited around larger fossils such as Echinoidea which may be silicified ( i.e. replaced molecule by molecule by flint ) . Chalk as seen in Cretaceous deposits of Western Europe is unusual among sedimentary limestones in the thickness of the beds . Most cliffs of chalk have very few obvious bedding planes unlike most thick sequences of limestone such as the Carboniferous Limestone or the Jurassic oolitic limestones . This presumably indicates very stable conditions over tens of millions of years . Chalk has greater resistance to weathering and slumping than the clays with which it is usually associated , thus forming tall steep cliffs where chalk ridges meet the sea . Chalk hills , known as chalk downland , usually form where bands of chalk reach the surface at an angle , so forming a scarp slope . Because chalk is well jointed it can hold a large volume of ground water , providing a natural reservoir that releases water slowly through dry seasons .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Chalk",
"rank": 25,
"score": 127933
},
{
"content": "Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carnian_Pluvial_Event",
"rank": 26,
"score": 127868
},
{
"content": "Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Oceanic_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 27,
"score": 127797
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora Content: Acropora is a genus of small polyp stony coral in the phylum Cnidaria . Some of its species are known as table coral , elkhorn coral , and staghorn coral . Over 149 species are described . Acropora species are some of the major reef corals responsible for building the immense calcium carbonate substructure that supports the thin living skin of a reef .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Acropora",
"rank": 28,
"score": 127594
},
{
"content": "Title: Halimeda Content: Halimeda is a genus of green macroalgae . The algal body ( thallus ) is composed of calcified green segments . Calcium carbonate is deposited in its tissues , making it inedible to most herbivores . As in other members of the order Bryopsidales , individual organisms are made up of single multi-nucleate cells . Whole meadows may consist of a single individual alga connected by fine threads running through the substrate . Halimeda is responsible for distinctive circular deposits in various parts of the Great Barrier Reef on the north-east coast of Queensland , Australia . Halimeda beds form in the western or lee side of outer shield reefs where flow of nutrient-rich water from the open sea allows them to flourish , and are the most extensive , actively accumulating Halimeda beds in the world . The genus is one of the best studied examples of cryptic species pairs due to morphological convergence within the marine macroalgae .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Halimeda",
"rank": 29,
"score": 127448
},
{
"content": "Title: Eggshell Content: An eggshell is the outer covering of a hard-shelled egg and of some forms of eggs with soft outer coats . Bird eggshells contain calcium carbonate and dissolve in various acids , including the vinegar used in cooking . While dissolving , the calcium carbonate in an eggshell reacts with the acid to form carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Eggshell",
"rank": 30,
"score": 127328
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef knoll Content: A reef knoll is an immense pile of calcareous material on land that accumulated on the ancient sea floor . At the time of its accumulation it may have had enough structure from organisms such as sponges to have been free-standing and to withstand the sea currents as material accumulated , and was likely an atoll . Another possibility is the remains of deep water coral . Such structures are thus often fossil-rich .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Reef_knoll",
"rank": 31,
"score": 127093
},
{
"content": "Title: Corallite Content: A corallite is the skeletal cup , formed by an individual stony coral polyp , in which the polyp sits and into which it can retract . The cup is composed of aragonite , a crystalline form of calcium carbonate , and is secreted by the polyp . Corallites vary in size , but in most colonial corals they are less than 3 mm in diameter . The inner surface of the corallite is known as the calyx . The vertical blades inside the calyx are known as septa and in some species , these ridges continue outside the corallite wall as costae . Where there is no corallite wall , the blades are known as septocostae . The septa , costae and septocostae may have ornamentation in the form of teeth and may be thick , thin or variable in size . Sometimes there are paliform lobes , in the form of rods or blades , rising from the inner margins of the septa . These may form a neat circle called the paliform crown . The septa do not usually unite in the centre of the corallite , instead they form a columella , a tangled mass of intertwined septa , or a dome-shaped or pillar-like projection . In the living coral , the lower part of the polyp is in intimate contact with the corallite , and has radial mesenteries between the septa which increase the surface area of the body cavity and aid digestion . The septa , palliform lobes and costae can often be seen through the coenosarc , the layer of living tissue that covers the coenosteum or skeleton of the coral . In colonial species , when the corallites each have a surrounding wall , the colony is said to be plocoid . When the walls are tall and tubular , the colony is phaceloid , and when several polyps share a common wall , the colony is cerioid . Sometimes the polyps are in valleys on the surface of solid corals , they are then known as meandroid . Branching corals have two forms of corallites , axial and radial . The axial corallites tend to be shallow and are found near the tips of the branches while the radial corallites are on the sides of the branches . Corallites can be rounded or polygonal and may be inclined ( tilted obliquely to one side ) . As long as the colony is alive , the polyps and coenosarc deposit further calcium carbonate under the coenosarc , thus deepening the corallites . Each polyp has a fixed adult size and , when it is beginning to get submerged in the corallite , it secretes a new floor ( tabula ) beneath itself . Over time , a series of floors builds up below the living polyps , resulting in a thickening and lateral expansion of the coral .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Corallite",
"rank": 32,
"score": 126942
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Content: Corals are marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria . They typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps . The group includes the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton . A coral `` group '' is a colony of myriad genetically identical polyps . Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in length . A set of tentacles surround a central mouth opening . An exoskeleton is excreted near the base . Over many generations , the colony thus creates a large skeleton that is characteristic of the species . Individual heads grow by asexual reproduction of polyps . Corals also breed sexually by spawning : polyps of the same species release gametes simultaneously over a period of one to several nights around a full moon . Although some corals can catch small fish and plankton using stinging cells on their tentacles , most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium that live within their tissues . These are commonly known as zooxanthellae and the corals that contain them are zooxanthellate corals . Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear , shallow water , typically at depths shallower than 60 m. Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters , such as the enormous Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland , Australia . Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live in much deeper water , with the cold-water genus Lophelia surviving as deep as 3000 m . Some have been found on the Darwin Mounds , north-west of Cape Wrath , Scotland . Corals have also been found as far north as off the coast of Washington State and the Aleutian Islands .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Coral",
"rank": 33,
"score": 126567
},
{
"content": "Title: Ooid Content: Ooids are small ( ≤ 2 mm in diameter ) , spheroidal , `` coated '' ( layered ) sedimentary grains , usually composed of calcium carbonate , but sometimes made up of iron - or phosphate-based minerals . Ooids usually form on the sea floor , most commonly in shallow tropical seas ( around the Bahamas , for example , or in the Persian Gulf ) . After being buried under additional sediment , these ooid grains can be cemented together to form a sedimentary rock called an oolite . Oolites usually consist of calcium carbonate ; these belong to the limestone rock family . Pisoids are similar to ooids , but are larger than 2 mm in diameter , often considerably larger , as with the pisoids in the hot springs at Carlsbad ( Karlovy Vary ) in the Czech Republic .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Ooid",
"rank": 34,
"score": 125750
},
{
"content": "Title: Brain coral Content: Brain coral is a common name given to corals in the family Mussidae , so called due to their generally spheroid shape and grooved surface which resembles a brain . Each head of coral is formed by a colony of genetically identical polyps which secrete a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate ; this makes them important coral reef builders like other stony corals in the order Scleractinia . Brain corals are found in shallow warm-water coral reefs in all the world 's oceans . They are part of the phylum Cnidaria , in a class called Anthozoa or `` flower animals '' . The lifespan of the largest brain corals is 900 years . Colonies can grow as large as 1.8 m ( 6 ft ) or more in height . Brain corals extend their tentacles to catch food at night . During the day , they use their tentacles for protection by wrapping them over the grooves on their surface . The surface is hard and offers good protection against fish or hurricanes . Branching corals , such as staghorn corals , grow more rapidly , but are more vulnerable to storm damage . Like other genera of corals , brain corals feed on small drifting animals , and also receive nutrients provided by the algae which live within their tissues . The behavior of one of the most common genera , Favia , is semiaggressive ; it will sting other corals with its extended sweeper tentacles during the night . The genus and species have not been defined through the scientific classification segment .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Brain_coral",
"rank": 35,
"score": 125483
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef House Content: The Reef House is a historic house located at 411 S. Poplar St. in Carbondale , Illinois . William A. Reef built the house for his family circa 1892 . The Queen Anne-style cottage may have been designed by local carpenter A. M. Etherton , though records of its designer do not exist . The house features fishscale shingle siding on its second floor and clapboard siding on its first ; the clapboard siding is adorned with stickwork . A gable on the south side of the house features half-timbering at its top . The house 's front porch features turned posts , a typical Queen Anne feature . The house is one of the only Queen Anne homes in Carbondale which largely retains its original condition . The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 14 , 1985 .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Reef_House",
"rank": 36,
"score": 125377
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Sciences Content: Carbon Sciences '' ' is a public corporation based in Santa Barbara . The company was founded in 2006 and incorporated as Zingerang , Inc. . Originally , the company was involved in mobile communication , but has since switched to developing to fuel technology . Calcium Carbonate , CaCO3 , was briefly looked at as another end product of recycling . On April 2 , 2007 the name was changed to Carbon Sciences Inc. . Their process differs from other projects in that it does not utilize high pressure or high temperature . This would be a significant advantage when trying to scale the technology up to commercial production .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbon_Sciences",
"rank": 37,
"score": 125246
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonated water Content: Carbonated water ( also known as club soda , soda water , sparkling water , seltzer water , or fizzy water ) is water into which carbon dioxide gas under pressure has been dissolved . Some of these have additives such as sodium chloride , sodium bicarbonate , magnesium and other minerals . This process , known as carbonation , is a process that causes the water to become effervescent . Most carbonated water is sold in ready to drink bottles as carbonated beverages such as soft drinks . However , it is rather easy to prepare at home with soda makers .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonated_water",
"rank": 38,
"score": 125148
},
{
"content": "Title: Baralyme Content: Baralyme is a mixture of 80 % calcium hydroxide and 20 % barium hydroxide compounds that is used to absorb the exhaled carbon dioxide in a closed circuit anesthetic system . The substance has been used for carbon dioxide scrubbing in diving bells and the U.S Navy 's engineered SEALAB 's I , II , and the failed SEALAB III .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Baralyme",
"rank": 39,
"score": 124816
},
{
"content": "Title: Gaylussite Content: Gaylussite is a carbonate mineral , a hydrated sodium calcium carbonate , formula Na2Ca ( CO3 ) 2 · 5H2O . It occurs as translucent , vitreous white to grey to yellow monoclinic prismatic crystals . It is an unstable mineral which dehydrates in dry air and decomposes in water .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Gaylussite",
"rank": 40,
"score": 124768
},
{
"content": "Title: Microbiologically induced calcite precipitation Content: Microbiologically induced calcium carbonate precipitation ( MICP ) is a bio-geochemical process that induces calcium carbonate precipitation within the soil matrix . Biomineralization in the form of calcium carbonate precipitation can be traced back to the Precambrian period . Calcium carbonate can be precipitated in three polymorphic forms , which in the order of their usual stabilities are calcite , aragonite and vaterite . The main groups of microorganisms that can induce the carbonate precipitation are photosynthetic microorganisms such as cyanobacteria and microalgae ; sulfate-reducing bacteria ; and some species of microorganisms involved in nitrogen cycle . Several mechanisms have been identified by which bacteria can induce the calcium carbonate precipitation , including urea hydrolysis , denitrification , sulphate production , and iron reduction . Two different pathways , or autotrophic and heterotrophic pathways , through which calcium carbonate is produced have been identified . There are three autotrophic pathways exist . However , all three pathways result in depletion of carbon dioxide and favouring calcium carbonate precipitation . In heterotrophic pathway , two metabolic cycles can be involved : the nitrogen cycle and the sulfur cycle . Several applications of this process have been proposed , such as remediation of cracks and corrosion prevention in concrete , biogrout , sequestration of radionuclides and heavy metals .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Microbiologically_induced_calcite_precipitation",
"rank": 41,
"score": 124449
},
{
"content": "Title: Sclerosponge Content: Sclerosponges are sponges with a soft body that covers a hard , often massive skeleton made of calcium carbonate , either aragonite or calcite . Because of their long life span ( 500-1 ,000 years ) it is thought that analysis of the aragonite skeletons of these sponges could extend data regarding ocean temperature , salinity , and other variables farther into the past than has been previously possible . Their dense skeletons are deposited in an organized chronological manner , in concentric layers or bands . The layered skeletons look similar to reef corals . Therefore , sclerosponges are also called coralline sponges . Sclerosponges were first proposed as a class of sponges , Sclerospongiae , in 1970 by Hartman and Goreau . However , it was later found by Vacelet that sclerosponges occur in different classes of Porifera . That means that sclerosponges are not a closely related ( taxonomic ) group of sponges . Like bats and birds that independently developed the ability to fly , different sponges developed the ability to build a calcareous skeleton independently and during different times in Earth history . Fossil sclerosponges are already known from the Cambrian period . Sclerosponges include the species Ceratoporella nicholsoni , Stromatospongia vermicola , Hispidopetra miniana , S. norae , Goreauiella auriculatra , and Merlia sp. , which were described in detail by Lang et al. in 1975 .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Sclerosponge",
"rank": 42,
"score": 124409
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral rag Content: Coral rag is a rubbly limestone composed of ancient coral reef material . The term also refers to the building blocks quarried from these strata , which are an important local building material in areas such as the coast of East Africa and the southeastern United States littoral ( e.g. Florida , Bermuda ) . It is also the name of a member -- the Coral Rag Member -- of the Upper Oxfordian Coralline Oolite Formation of North Yorkshire , England .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Coral_rag",
"rank": 43,
"score": 123947
},
{
"content": "Title: Talc carbonate Content: Talc carbonates are a suite of rock and mineral compositions found in metamorphic ultramafic rocks . The term refers to the two most common end-member minerals found within ultramafic rocks which have undergone talc-carbonation or carbonation reactions , talc and the carbonate mineral magnesite . Talc carbonate mineral assemblages are controlled by temperature and pressure of metamorphism and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within metamorphic fluids , as well as by the composition of the host rock .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Talc_carbonate",
"rank": 44,
"score": 123740
},
{
"content": "Title: Stereom Content: Stereom is a calcium carbonate material that makes up the internal skeletons found in sea urchins , and all other echinoderms , both living and fossilized forms . It is a sponge-like porous structure which , in a sea urchin may be 50 % by volume living cells , and the rest being a matrix of calcite crystals . The size of openings in stereom varies in different species and in different places within the same organism . When an echinoderm becomes a fossil , microscopic examination is used to reveal the structure and such examination is often an important tool to classify the fossil as an echinoderm or related creature .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Stereom",
"rank": 45,
"score": 123221
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep-water coral Content: The habitat of deep-water corals , also known as cold-water corals , extends to deeper , darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals , ranging from near the surface to the abyss , beyond 2000 m where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 C. Deep-water corals belong to the Phylum Cnidaria and are most often stony corals , but also include black and horny corals and soft corals including the Gorgonians ( sea fans ) . Like tropical corals , they provide habitat to other species , but deep-water corals do not require zooxanthellae to survive . While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species , only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs . Instead , they form aggregations called patches , banks , bioherms , massifs , thickets or groves . These aggregations are often referred to as `` reefs , '' but differ structurally and functionally . Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as `` mounds , '' which more accurately describes the large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off , rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates . Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs . Submarine communications cables and fishing methods such as bottom trawling tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs . The deep-water habitat is designated as a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan habitat .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Deep-water_coral",
"rank": 46,
"score": 122887
},
{
"content": "Title: Polypropylene carbonate Content: Polypropylene carbonate ( PPC ) , a copolymer of carbon dioxide and propylene oxide , is a thermoplastic material . Catalysts like zinc glutarate are used in polymerization .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Polypropylene_carbonate",
"rank": 47,
"score": 122509
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral sand Content: Coral sand is a collection of sand of particles originating in tropical and sub-tropical marine environments from bioerosion of limestone skeletal material of marine organisms . One example of this process is that of parrot fishes which bite off pieces of coral , digest the living tissue , and excrete the inorganic component as silt and sand . However , the term `` coral '' in coral sand is used loosely in this sense to mean limestone of recent biological origin ; corals are not the dominant contributors of sand particles to most such deposits . Rather , remnant skeletal fragments of foraminifera , calcareous algae , molluscs , and crustaceans can predominate . Because it is composed of limestone , coral sand is acid-soluble .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Coral_sand",
"rank": 48,
"score": 122415
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 49,
"score": 122369
},
{
"content": "Title: Lime (material) Content: Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material in which carbonates , oxides , and hydroxides predominate . In the strict sense of the term , lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide . It is also the name of the natural mineral ( native lime ) CaO which occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta . The word lime originates with its earliest use as building mortar and has the sense of sticking or adhering . These materials are still used in large quantities as building and engineering materials ( including limestone products , cement , concrete , and mortar ) , as chemical feedstocks , and for sugar refining , among other uses . Lime industries and the use of many of the resulting products date from prehistoric times in both the Old World and the New World . Lime is used extensively for wastewater treatment with ferrous sulfate . The rocks and minerals from which these materials are derived , typically limestone or chalk , are composed primarily of calcium carbonate . They may be cut , crushed , or pulverized and chemically altered . Burning ( calcination ) converts them into the highly caustic material quicklime ( calcium oxide , CaO ) and , through subsequent addition of water , into the less caustic ( but still strongly alkaline ) slaked lime or hydrated lime ( calcium hydroxide , Ca ( OH ) 2 ) , the process of which is called slaking of lime . Lime kilns are the kilns used for lime burning and slaking . When the term is encountered in an agricultural context , it usually refers to agricultural lime , which is crushed limestone , not a product of a lime kiln . Otherwise it most commonly means slaked lime , as the more dangerous form is usually described more specifically as quicklime or burnt lime .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Lime_(material)",
"rank": 50,
"score": 121229
},
{
"content": "Title: Corallina officinalis Content: Corallina officinalis is a calcareous red seaweed which grows in the lower and mid-littoral zones on rocky shores . It is primarily found growing around the rims of tide pools , but can be found in shallow crevices anywhere on the rocky shore that are regularly refreshed with sea water . It predominantly grows on the lower shore , especially where fucoid algae are absent , but is also found further up shore on exposed coasts . It forms calcium carbonate deposits within its cells which serve to strengthen the thallus . These white deposits cause the seaweed to appear pink in colour , with white patches where the calcium carbonate is particularly concentrated , such as at the growing tips . The calcium carbonate makes it unpalatable to most rocky shore grazers .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Corallina_officinalis",
"rank": 51,
"score": 121036
},
{
"content": "Title: Calcarenite Content: Calcarenite is a type of limestone that is composed predominantly , more than 50 percent , of detrital ( transported ) sand-size ( 0.0625 to 2 mm in diameter ) , carbonate grains . The grains consist of sand-size grains of either corals , shells , ooids , intraclasts , pellets , fragments of older limestones and dolomites , other carbonate grains , or some combination of these . Calcarenite is the carbonate equivalent of a sandstone . The term calcarenite was originally proposed in 1903 by Grabau as a part of his calcilutite , calcarenite and calcirudite carbonate classification system based upon the size of the detrital grains composing a limestone . Calcarenites can accumulate in a wide variety of marine and nonmarine environments . They can consist of grains of carbonate that have accumulated either as coastal sand dunes ( eolianites ) , beaches , offshore bars and shoals , turbidites , or other depositional settings .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Calcarenite",
"rank": 52,
"score": 120315
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonated drink Content: Carbonated drinks are beverages that contain dissolved carbon dioxide . The dissolution of CO2 in a liquid , gives rise to fizz or effervescence . The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure . When the pressure is removed , the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles , which causes the solution to become effervescent , or fizzy . A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water , resulting in carbonated water . Carbon dioxide is only weakly soluble in water , therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released . Carbonated beverages are prepared by mixing flavored syrup with carbonated water , both chilled . Carbonation levels range up to 5 volumes of CO2 per liquid volume . Ginger ale , colas , and related drinks are carbonated with 3.5 volumes . Other drinks , often fruity ones , are carbonated less .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonated_drink",
"rank": 53,
"score": 119837
},
{
"content": "Title: Elemental calcium Content: Elemental calcium is a term used in dietary supplement ingredient lists to refer to the amount of calcium in a product . Calcium pills contain calcium in a variety of molecules , such as carbonate , citrate , citrate-maleate , orotate , etc. . Each pill supplies a different amount of elemental calcium when absorbed , and hence differs in its effectiveness . For example , calcium carbonate is 40 % elemental calcium by weight ; citrate is roughly 20 % calcium , etc. . Thus a 500 mg pill of calcium carbonate contains 200 mg of calcium and the container will indicate each pill has 200 mg of elemental calcium . This is the calcium that is actually available to the body and , as such , is the amount that one needs to consider towards his/her daily requirement . Hence , one should read the label carefully to determine the number of pills to be taken . Other factors may influence the choice of molecule prescribed . Calcium carbonate is by far the best , since it is cheap and allows more calcium intake per dose , but leads to indigestion , flatulence and other intestinal problems in quite a few patients . It also requires that the patient take the tablet after a full meal and avoid taking antacids concomitantly , which is difficult to achieve in patients taking multiple medications . Citrate or citrate-maleate is the molecule of choice in such cases ; these need to be taken before meals and have less/no interaction with antacids .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Elemental_calcium",
"rank": 54,
"score": 119498
},
{
"content": "Title: Scleractinia Content: Scleractinia , also called stony corals or hard corals , are marine animals in the phylum Cnidaria that live on the seabed and build themselves a hard skeleton . The individual animals are known as polyps and have a cylindrical body crowned by an oral disc with a mouth and a fringe of tentacles . Although some species are solitary , most are colonial . The founding polyp settles on the seabed and starts to secrete calcium carbonate to protect its soft body . Solitary corals can be as much as 25 cm across but in colonial species the polyps are usually only a few millimetres in diameter . These polyps reproduce by budding but remain attached to each other , forming a multi-polyp colony with a common skeleton , which may be up to several metres in diameter or height according to species . The shape and appearance of each coral colony depends not only on the species , but also on its location , depth , the amount of water movement and other factors . Many shallow-water corals contain symbiont unicellular organisms known as zooxanthellae within their tissues . These give their colour to the coral which thus may vary in hue depending on what species of symbiont it contains . Stony corals are closely related to sea anemones , and like them are armed with stinging cells known as cnidocytes . Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually . Most species release gametes into the sea where fertilisation takes place , and the planula larvae drift as part of the plankton , but a few species brood their eggs . Asexual reproduction is mostly by fragmentation , when part of a colony becomes detached and reattaches elsewhere . Stony corals occur in all the world 's oceans . Hermatypic corals are mostly colonial and form part of reef structures ; most of these are zooxanthellate and are found in the shallow waters into which sunlight penetrates . Other corals may be solitary or colonial and do not form reefs ; some of these occur at abyssal depths where no light reaches . Stony corals first appeared in the Middle Triassic , but their relationship to the tabulate and rugose corals of the Paleozoic is currently unresolved . Much of the framework of modern coral reefs is formed by scleractinians . Stony corals numbers are expected to decline due to the effects of global warming and ocean acidification .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Scleractinia",
"rank": 55,
"score": 119403
},
{
"content": "Title: Conchiolin Content: Conchiolins ( sometimes referred to as conchins ) are complex proteins which are secreted by a mollusc 's outer epithelium ( the mantle ) . These proteins are part of a matrix of organic macromolecules , mainly proteins and polysaccharides , that assembled together form the microenvironment where crystals nucleate and grow . This organic matrix also holds and binds to the crystals of aragonite which give such shells their stiffness . The ions necessary to form calcium carbonate are also secreted by the mantle , but it is the tailored environment created by the organic matrix which causes aragonite ( rather than calcite ) crystals to nucleate , in much the same way that collagen nucleates hydroxyapatite crystals . Conchiolin serves as a relatively flexible , crack-deflecting matrix for the mineral aggregate particles ; its strength and the strong bonding of perlucin can in some cases ( such as in the formation of nacre ) give the finished material an impressive level of toughness . As well as providing a matrix into which the hard calcium carbonate part of the shell is precipitated , many species of mollusks ( such as the land snail shown above ) also have an outer shell layer called the periostracum which is composed of the protein conchiolin . Some land snails ( especially the taxa that have become adapted to living on acidic soils ) have very thin , transparent , tan-colored shells , even as adults , and those shells are composed entirely of conchiolin .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Conchiolin",
"rank": 56,
"score": 119381
},
{
"content": "Title: Coccolith Content: Coccoliths are individual plates of calcium carbonate formed by coccolithophores ( single-celled algae such as Emiliania huxleyi ) which are arranged around them in a coccosphere .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Coccolith",
"rank": 57,
"score": 119223
},
{
"content": "Title: Shelly limestone Content: Shelly limestone is a highly fossiliferous limestone , composed of a number of fossilized organisms such as brachiopods , bryozoans , crinoids , sponges , corals and mollusks . It varies in color , texture and hardness . Coquina is a poorly indurated form of shelly limestone . Shelly limestone is a sedimentary rock because it is made up of fragments . To be shelly , it is full of broken shells which are `` glued '' together with calcite . Calcium carbonate often makes up around 10 % of the volume , whilst many varied sized shells from granular to very large pebbles . Its color is gray .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Shelly_limestone",
"rank": 58,
"score": 118678
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonic acid Content: Not to be confused with Carbolic acid , an antiquated name for phenol . Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 ( equivalently OC ( OH ) 2 ) . It is also a name sometimes given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water ( carbonated water ) , because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3 . In physiology , carbonic acid is described as volatile acid or respiratory acid , because it is the only acid excreted as a gas by the lungs . It plays an important role in the bicarbonate buffer system to maintain acid -- base homeostasis . Carbonic acid , which is a weak acid , forms two kinds of salts , the carbonates and the bicarbonates . In geology , carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites . It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound . However , in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonic_acid",
"rank": 59,
"score": 118522
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonate hardgrounds Content: Carbonate hardgrounds are surfaces of synsedimentarily cemented carbonate layers that have been exposed on the seafloor ( Wilson and Palmer , 1992 ) . A hardground is essentially , then , a lithified seafloor . Ancient hardgrounds are found in limestone sequences and distinguished from later-lithified sediments by evidence of exposure to normal marine waters . This evidence can consist of encrusting marine organisms ( especially bryozoans , oysters , barnacles , cornulitids , hederelloids , microconchids and crinoids ) , borings of organisms produced through bioerosion , early marine calcite cements , or extensive surfaces mineralized by iron oxides or calcium phosphates ( Palmer , 1982 ; Bodenbender et al. , 1989 ; Vinn and Wilson , 2010 ; Vinn and Toom , 2015 ) . Modern hardgrounds are usually detected by sounding in shallow water or through remote sensing techniques like side-scan radar . Carbonate hardgrounds often host a unique fauna and flora adapted to the hard surface . Organisms usually cement themselves to the substrate and live as sessile filter-feeders ( Brett and Liddell , 1982 ) . Some bore into the cemented carbonate to make protective domiciles ( borings ) for filter-feeding . Sometimes hardgrounds are undermined by currents which remove the soft sediment below them , producing shallow cavities and caves which host a cryptic fauna ( Palmer and Fürsich , 1974 ) . The evolution of hardground faunas can be traced through the Phanerozoic , from the Cambrian Period to today ( Taylor and Wilson , 2003 ) . Carbonate hardgrounds were most commonly formed during calcite sea intervals in Earth history , which were times of rapid precipitation of low-magnesium calcite and the dissolution of skeletal aragonite ( Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . The Ordovician-Silurian and the Jurassic-Cretaceous Systems have the most hardgrounds ( sometimes hundreds in a single section ) and the Permian-Triassic Systems have the least ( usually none ) . This cyclicity in hardground formation is reflected in the evolution of hardground-dwelling communities . There are distinct differences between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic hardground communities : the former are dominated by thick calcitic bryozoans and echinoderms , the latter by oysters and deep bivalve ( Gastrochaenolites ) and sponge ( Entobia ) borings ( Taylor and Wilson , 2003 ) . Stratigraphers and sedimentologists often use hardgrounds as marker horizons and as indicators of sedimentary hiatuses and flooding events ( Fürsich et al. , 1981 , 1992 ; Pope and Read , 1997 ) . Hardgrounds and their faunas can also represent very specific depositional environments such as tidal channels ( Wilson et al. , 2005 ) and shallow marine carbonate ramps ( Palmer and Palmer , 1977 ; Malpas et al. , 2004 )",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonate_hardgrounds",
"rank": 60,
"score": 116669
},
{
"content": "Title: Ankerite Content: Ankerite is a calcium , iron , magnesium , manganese carbonate mineral of the group of rhombohedral carbonates with formula : Ca ( Fe , Mg , Mn ) ( CO3 ) 2 . In composition it is closely related to dolomite , but differs from this in having magnesium replaced by varying amounts of iron ( II ) and manganese . It forms a series with dolomite and kutnohorite . The crystallographic and physical characters resemble those of dolomite and siderite . The angle between the perfect rhombohedral cleavages is 73 ° 48 ' , the hardness is 3.5 to 4 , and the specific gravity is 2.9 to 3.1 . The color is white , grey or reddish to yellowish brown . Ankerite occurs with siderite in metamorphosed ironstones and sedimentary banded iron formations . It also occurs in carbonatites . In sediments it occurs as authigenic , diagenetic minerals and as a product of hydrothermal deposition . It is one of the minerals of the dolomite-siderite series , to which the terms brown-spar , pearl-spar and bitter-spar have been historically loosely applied . It was first recognized as a distinct species by W. von Haidinger in 1825 , and named for Matthias Joseph Anker ( 1771 -- 1843 ) of Styria , an Austrian mineralogist . It has been found in Western Tasmania , in mines in Dundas , Tasmania",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Ankerite",
"rank": 61,
"score": 116143
},
{
"content": "Title: Gerolsteiner Brunnen Content: Gerolsteiner Brunnen GmbH & Co. . KG ( Gerolsteiner ) is a leading German mineral water firm with its seat in Gerolstein in the Eifel mountains . It is well known for its Gerolsteiner Sprudel brand , a bottled , naturally carbonated mineral water . This water , in addition to hydrogen and oxygen ( H2O ) and carbon ( in the carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) carbonation ) , contains at least the following chemical elements in amounts of 100 or more micrograms per liter : bromine , calcium , chlorine , fluorine , lithium , magnesium , manganese , nitrogen , potassium , silicon , sodium , strontium , and sulfur . The strontium is naturally occurring , not the radioactive strontium-90 . Gerolsteiner was also the chief sponsor of a cycling team , Team Gerolsteiner .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Gerolsteiner_Brunnen",
"rank": 62,
"score": 114442
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonatite Content: Carbonatite ( -LSB- pronkɑrˈbɒnətaɪt -RSB- ) is a type of intrusive or extrusive igneous rock defined by mineralogic composition consisting of greater than 50 percent carbonate minerals . Carbonatites may be confused with marble , and may require geochemical verification . Carbonatites usually occur as small plugs within zoned alkalic intrusive complexes , or as dikes , sills , breccias , and veins . They are , almost exclusively , associated with continental rift-related tectonic settings . It seems that there has been a steady increase in the carbonatitic igneous activity through the Earth 's history , from the Archean Eon to the present . Nearly all carbonatite occurrences are intrusives or subvolcanic intrusives . This is because carbonatite lava flows , being composed largely of soluble carbonates , are easily weathered and are therefore unlikely to be preserved in the geologic record . Carbonatite eruptions as lava may therefore not be as uncommon as thought , but they have been poorly preserved throughout the Earth 's history . Only one carbonatite volcano is known to have erupted in historical time , the active Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano in Tanzania . It erupts with the lowest temperature lava in the world , at 500-600 ° C . The lava is natrocarbonatite dominated by nyerereite and gregoryite .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonatite",
"rank": 63,
"score": 114177
},
{
"content": "Title: Znucalite Content: Znucalite or CaZn11 ( UO2 ) ( CO3 ) 3 ( OH ) 20 • 4 ( H2O ) is a rare , radioactive , white to pale cream colored uranium-containing carbonate mineral , hydrated calcium zinc uranyl carbonate hydroxide . Znucalite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system , often forming aggregates or crusts , and is found as a rare secondary species in carbonate-hosted ( meaning it is mined from carbonate containing formations such as limestone ) polymetallic veins , and nearby oxidizing uranium veins ; on dump material and coating mine walls , apparently of post-mine origin . It fluoresces yellow-green under UV light . It was first described in 1989 , after being discovered in Lill Mine , Černojamské deposit ( Black pits deposit ) in the Czech Republic . It was named in 1990 by Petr Ondruš , František Veselovský , and R. Rybka for its constituent elements .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Znucalite",
"rank": 64,
"score": 114070
},
{
"content": "Title: Uranyl carbonate Content: Uranyl carbonate , UO2 ( CO3 ) , is a carbonate of uranium that forms the backbone of several uranyl mineral species such as andersonite , mckelveyite - ( Y ) and wyartite and most importantly rutherfordine . It is also found in both the mineral and organic fractions of coal and its fly ash and is the main component of uranium in mine tailing seepage water . Uranium like other actinides readily forms a dioxide uranyl core ( UO2 ) . In the environment , this uranyl core readily complexes with carbonate to form charged complexes . Although uranium forms insoluble solids or adsorbs to mineral surfaces at alkaline pH it is these soluble carbonate complexes that increase its solubility , availability , and mobility with low affinities to soil . Uranium ( VI ) generally forms a pH-dependent suite of uranyl carbonate and various hydrated complexes in ground water solutions . UO2 ( OH ) 2 + UO2 ( CO3 ) 22 − UO2 ( CO3 ) 34 − UO2 ( CO3 ) ( OH ) 3 − A common method for concentrating uranium from a solution uses solutions of uranyl carbonates , which are passed through a resin bed where the complex ions are transferred to the resin by ion exchange with a negative ion like chloride . After build-up of the uranium complex on the resin , the uranium is eluted with a salt solution and the uranium is precipitated in another process .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Uranyl_carbonate",
"rank": 65,
"score": 114047
},
{
"content": "Title: Oolitic aragonite sand Content: Oolitic aragonite sand forms in tropical waters . Most of the topography of the Bahama Banks is composed of calcium carbonate oolitic aragonite sand material . The natural formation through precipitation and sedimentation of aragonite sand in the Bahamas surpasses anyplace else in the world . There are billions of tons of this type of sand material in reserve and millions of tons more created annually .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Oolitic_aragonite_sand",
"rank": 66,
"score": 113271
},
{
"content": "Title: Merensky Reef Content: The Merensky Reef is a layer of igneous rock in the Bushveld Igneous Complex ( BIC ) in the North West , Limpopo , Gauteng and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa which together with an underlying layer , the Upper Group 2 Reef ( UG2 ) , contains most of the world 's known reserves of platinum group metals ( PGMs ) or platinum group elements ( PGEs ) - platinum , palladium , rhodium , ruthenium , iridium and osmium . The UG2 Reef , the composition of which is relatively consistent throughout the BIC , is rich in chromite , but lacks the Merensky 's gold , copper and nickel by-products , though its reserves may be almost twice those of the Merensky Reef . Chromitite layers occur commonly in large mafic layered intrusions . A current theory is that chromitites form as a result of introduction and mixing of chemically primitive magma with a more evolved magma , which leads to supersaturation of chromite in the mixture , which in turn leads to the formation of a nearly monomineralic layer on the magma chamber floor . The initial recovery of platinum in South Africa took place on several of the large East Rand gold mines and the first separate platinum mine was a short lived venture near Naboomspruit that worked very patchy quartz reefs . The discovery of the Bushveld Igneous Complex deposits was made in 1924 by a Lydenburg district farmer , A F Lombaard . This was an alluvial deposit but its importance was recognised by Hans Merensky whose prospecting work discovered the primary source in the Bushveld Igneous Complex and traced it for several hundred kilometres by 1930 . Extensive mining of the Reef did not take place until an upsurge in the demand for platinum group metals used in exhaust pollution control in the 1950s , made exploitation economically feasible . Extraction of metals from the UG2 chromitite could only take place in the 1970s with major advances in metallurgy .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Merensky_Reef",
"rank": 67,
"score": 112885
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonate rock Content: Carbonate rocks are a class of sedimentary rocks composed primarily of carbonate minerals . The two major types are limestone , which is composed of calcite or aragonite ( different crystal forms of CaCO3 ) and dolostone , which is composed of the mineral dolomite ( CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 ) . Calcite can be either dissolved by groundwater or precipitated by groundwater , depending on several factors including the water temperature , pH , and dissolved ion concentrations . Calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases . When conditions are right for precipitation , calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together or it can fill fractures . Karst topography and caves develop in carbonate rocks because of their solubility in dilute acidic groundwater . Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation . Marble is the metamorphic carbonate rock . Rare igneous carbonate rocks exist as intrusive carbonatites and even rarer volcanic carbonate lava .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonate_rock",
"rank": 68,
"score": 112530
},
{
"content": "Title: Aragonite sea Content: An aragonite sea contains aragonite and high-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic carbonate precipitates . Therefore , the chemical conditions of the seawater must be notably high in magnesium content for an aragonite sea to form . This is in contrast to a calcite sea in which low-magnesium calcite is the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate . The Early Paleozoic and the Middle to Late Mesozoic oceans were predominantly calcite seas , whereas the Middle Paleozoic through the Early Mesozoic and the Cenozoic ( including today ) are characterized by aragonite seas . Aragonite seas form due to several factors , the most obvious of these is a high magnesium content . However , the sea level and the temperature of the surrounding system also determine whether an aragonite sea will form . Calcite seas occurred at times of rapid seafloor spreading and global greenhouse climate conditions . Calcite is the predominant mineral in warm , shallow marine environments . Aragonite on the other hand , is the dominant mineral in cool marine water environments . This trend has been observed by looking at the chemistry of carbonates , dating them and analyzing the conditions under which they were formed . One study has examined the temporal and spatial distribution of limestone-marl alternations in Ordovician , Jurassic and Cretaceous ( times of calcite seas ) . This study concluded that the most abundant of the limestone-marl alternations occurred in settings similar to today 's seas which favor aragonite production .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Aragonite_sea",
"rank": 69,
"score": 112475
},
{
"content": "Title: Barytocalcite Content: Barytocalcite is an anhydrous barium calcium carbonate mineral with the chemical formula BaCa ( CO3 ) 2 . It is trimorphous with alstonite and paralstonite , that is to say the three minerals have the same formula but different structures . Baryte and quartz pseudomorphs after barytocalcite have been observed . Barytocalcite crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system , typically as massive to druzy accumulations of transparent white to yellow to grey aggregates of slender prismatic crystals . It has a Mohs hardness of 4 and a specific gravity of 3.64 to 3.71 . It was first described in 1824 for an occurrence in the Blagill Mine in North Pennines , Cumbria ( Cumberland ) , England , and named for its composition .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Barytocalcite",
"rank": 70,
"score": 111736
},
{
"content": "Title: Nyerereite Content: Nyerereite is a very rare sodium calcium carbonate mineral with formula Na2Ca ( CO3 ) 2 . It forms colorless , platey pseudohexagonal orthorhombic crystals that are typically twinned . It has a specific gravity of 2.54 and indices of refraction of nα = 1.511 , nβ = 1.533 and nγ = 1.535 . Nyerereite is not stable in contact with the atmosphere and rapidly breaks down . Collection specimens must be kept in a sealed argon environment . It has a Hermann -- Mauguin notation of mm2 and the respective space group is Cmc21 . In nature Nyerereite is naturally twinned and is pseudohexagonal with triad twinning ; meaning that this is a six sided crystal that apparently has a hexagonal shape but is not in the hexagonal system . Triad twinning is the intergrowth of three orthorhombic crystals that turn at their center and form hexagonally shaped crystals . Nyerereite is biaxial negative , and has a 2v of 29 degrees . It shows a center acute bisectrix and a birefringence of approximately 0.023 . At high temperatures or just erupted lava nyerereite is uniaxial and shows an interference color of second order blue when twinning is not present , and when twinning is there the interference color of nyerereite is first order grey .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Nyerereite",
"rank": 71,
"score": 111583
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonic anhydrase Content: The carbonic anhydrases ( or carbonate dehydratases ) form a family of enzymes that catalyze the rapid interconversion of carbon dioxide and water to bicarbonate and protons ( or vice versa ) , a reversible reaction that occurs relatively slowly in the absence of a catalyst . The active site of most carbonic anhydrases contains a zinc ion ; they are therefore classified as metalloenzymes . One of the functions of the enzyme in animals is to interconvert carbon dioxide and bicarbonate to maintain acid-base balance in blood and other tissues , and to help transport carbon dioxide out of tissues .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonic_anhydrase",
"rank": 72,
"score": 111468
},
{
"content": "Title: Craniidae Content: The Craniidae are a family of brachiopods ( lamp shells ) . Although it belongs to a subdivision called the inarticulata which have shells where the mineral content consist of calcium phosphate , the Craniidae have shells that consist of calcium carbonate . Other special characteristics of this family are that no outgrowths are developed to form a hinge between both valves , nor is there any support for the lophophore . As adults , craniids either lived free on the ocean floor or , more commonly , were attached to a hard object with all or part of the ventral valve . All other brachiopods are supposed to have a stalk or pedicle , at least as an adolescent , but in craniids a pedicle is not known from any development stage . They are the only members of the order Craniida and the monotypic suborder Craniidina and superfamily Cranioidea ; consequently , the latter two taxa are presently redundant and not used very often . Valdiviathyris and Neoancistrocrania were sometimes separated in a family Valdiviathyrididae but this has turned out to be unjustified . Most Craniidae are long extinct forms known only from fossils like all other Craniforma . However , some 20 species of this 470-million-year-old lineage are surviving today . They include Valdiviathyris quenstedti which has remained essentially unchanged for the last 35 million years or so . Although some minimal evolution would obviously have taken place in the meantime , this was essentially silent mutations and marginal adaptations to cooler habitat . Present-day Valdiviathyris are all but inseparable from those of the Late Eocene and the genus can not even be divided into chronospecies . Thus , V. quenstedti is a true living fossil and one of the oldest and most long-lived species known to science .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Craniidae",
"rank": 73,
"score": 111267
},
{
"content": "Title: Calcimicrobe Content: Characteristic of the Neoproterozoic and Cambrian periods , the heterogeneous group called calcimicrobes are calcareous colonial microfossils , which include many morphologically dissimilar organisms , whose effect in massive aggregations , in association with shelly metazoans , was to lay down the earliest recognizable reef systems : compare Archaeocyathids . The earliest recognizable patch reefs date to the Tommotian . Individual calcimicrobes laid down calcium carbonate in tubules , threads , chambered structures and other forms . The term calcimicrobe is useful in recreating the paleoecology of these systems . The term was first applied by N.P. James and D.I. Gravestock in 1990 .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Calcimicrobe",
"rank": 74,
"score": 111231
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonate–silicate cycle Content: The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere . The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) . The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature . The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonate–silicate_cycle",
"rank": 75,
"score": 110959
},
{
"content": "Title: Pelagosite Content: Pelagosite is a form of pisolitic aragonite ( CaCO3 ) whose type locality is the Croatian island group of Palagruža ( Italian Pelagosa , whence the name ) in the middle of the Adriatic . It was identified by R. Moser in Mineralogische und petrographische Mitteilungen , new series ( Vienna ) 1 ( 1878 ) , 174 . It has a higher content of magnesium carbonate , strontium carbonate , calcium sulfate ( gypsum ) and silicon dioxide ( silica ) than is found in typical limy sediments elsewhere . It occurs as a superficial calcareous crust no more than a few millimetres thick , which is generally white , grey , or brownish with a pearly lustre . It was believed to be formed in the intertidal zone by saltwater spray and evaporation , but an algal contribution has recently been suggested ( Montanari and others ( 2007 ) ) , following an overlooked earlier proposal by E. Onorato in 1926 .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Pelagosite",
"rank": 76,
"score": 110792
},
{
"content": "Title: Tommotiid Content: Tommotiids are Cambrian ( Terreneuvian ) shelly fossils thought to belong to the Brachiopod + Phoronid lineage ( Brachiozoa ) . The majority of tommotiids are mineralised with calcium phosphate rather than calcium carbonate . although silicified examples hint that some species bore carbonate or carbonaceous sclerites . Micrina and Paterimitra possess bivalved shells in their larval phases , which preserve characters that might position them in the Linguliformea and Rhynchonelliformea stem lineages respectively . This would indicate that the brachiopod shell represents the retention of a larval character . For a long part of their history , the tommotiids were only known from disarticulated shells - a complete organism had not been found . The 2008 discovery of Eccentrotheca offered the first insight into a complete organism , and permitted a reconstruction of the animal as a sessile , tube-like animal made up of a spiral of overlapping plates . Articulated specimens of Paterimitra , discovered a year later , suggest a similar form and lifestyle - it is possible that many tommotiids need redescribing as sessile tube-dwellers . These discoveries have produced an alternative model for the origin of the brachiopods ; it suggested that they evolved by the reduction of sessile tube-like organisms , until only two shells were left . This contrasts with the brachiopod fold hypothesis which suggests that they formed by the folding of a halkieriid-like organism .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Tommotiid",
"rank": 77,
"score": 110685
},
{
"content": "Title: Clumped isotopes Content: Clumped isotopes are heavy isotopes that are bonded to other heavy isotopes . The carbonate clumped-isotope thermometer , or `` 13C -- 18O order/disorder carbonate thermometer '' , is a new approach for paleoclimate reconstruction , basing on the temperature dependence of the clumping of 13C and 18O into bonds within the carbonate mineral lattice . This approach has the advantage that the 18O ratio in water is not necessary ( different from the δ18O approach ) , but for precise paleotemperature estimation , it also needs very large and uncontaminated samples , long analytical runs , and extensive replication . Commonly used sample sources for paleoclimatological work include corals , otoliths , bivalves , and foraminifera . Results are usually expressed as Δ47 ( said as `` cap 47 '' ) , which is the deviation of the ratio of isotopologues of CO2 with a molecular weight of 47 to those with a weight of 44 from the ratio expected if they were randomly distributed .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Clumped_isotopes",
"rank": 78,
"score": 110681
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef (company) Content: Reef is a brand of casual sandals , known as Thongs , created by two Argentine brothers , Fernando and Santiago Aguerre . In 1984 they moved from Argentina to the San Diego beach community of La Jolla , California , where they began Reef . Their product became popular amongst surfers and beach goers . Reef has subsequently grown into one of the world 's leading active sandal manufacturers . Reef has been owned by VF Corporation since 2005 .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Reef_(company)",
"rank": 79,
"score": 110177
},
{
"content": "Title: Calcium permanganate Content: Calcium permanganate is an oxidizing agent and chemical compound with the chemical formula Ca ( MnO4 ) 2 . It consists of the metal calcium and two permanganate ions . It is noncombustible , but , being a strong oxidizing agent , it will accelerate the burning of combustible material . If the combustible material is finely divided , the resulting mixture may be explosive . Contact with liquid combustible materials may result in spontaneous ignition . Contact with sulfuric acid may cause fires or explosions . Mixtures with acetic acid or acetic anhydride can explode if not kept cold . Explosions can occur when mixtures of calcium permanganate and sulfuric acid come into contact with benzene , carbon disulfide , diethyl ether , ethyl alcohol , petroleum , or other organic matter . It is prepared from the reaction of potassium permanganate with calcium chloride or from the reaction of aluminium permanganate with calcium oxide . It can be also prepared by reacting manganese dioxide with a solution of calcium hypochlorite and a little bit of calcium hydroxide to increase the pH level . If manganese dioxide is heated with calcium hydroxide with an oxidier such as Ca ( NO3 ) 2 , Ca ( ClO3 ) 2 , or Ca ( ClO4 ) 2 , it will produce calcium manganate or mangamite ( ` hypomanganate ' ) .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Calcium_permanganate",
"rank": 80,
"score": 110004
},
{
"content": "Title: Inorganic ions Content: Inorganic ions in animals and plants are ions necessary for vital cellular activity . In body tissues , ions are also known as electrolytes , essential for the electrical activity needed to support muscle contractions and neuron activation . They contribute to osmotic pressure of body fluids as well as performing a number of other important functions . Below is a list of some of the most important ions for living things as well as examples of their functions : Ca2 + calcium is a component of bones and teeth . It also functions as a biological messenger , as do most of the ions listed below . See hypocalcaemia K + potassium ions ' main function in animals is osmotic balance , particularly in the kidneys . See hypokalemia . Na + sodium ions have a similar role to potassium ions . See sodium deficiency . Mg2 + . Most importantly , magnesium ions are a component of chlorophyll . See magnesium deficiency Cl − . Inability to transport chloride ions in humans manifests itself as cystic fibrosis ( CP ) . The shells of sea creatures are calcium carbonate . In blood approximately 85 % of carbon dioxide , is converted into aqueous carbonate ions ( an acidic solution ) , allowing a greater rate of transportation . , adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) is a common molecule which stores energy in an accessible form . Bone is calcium phosphate . Fe2 + / Fe3 + haemoglobin , the main oxygen carrying molecule has a central iron ion . , source of nitrogen in plants for the synthesis of proteins . Category : Ions Category : Cell biology Category : Signal transduction",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Inorganic_ions",
"rank": 81,
"score": 109340
},
{
"content": "Title: Kutnohorite Content: Kutnohorite is a rare calcium manganese carbonate mineral with magnesium and iron , that is a member of the dolomite group . It forms a series with dolomite , and with ankerite . The end member formula is CaMn2 + ( CO3 ) 2 , but Mg2 + and Fe2 + commonly substitute for Mn2 + , with the Mn content varying from 38 % to 84 % , so the formula Ca ( Mn2 + , Mg , Fe2 + ) ( CO3 ) 2 better represents the species . It was named by Professor Bukowsky in 1901 after the type locality of Kutná Hora , Bohemia , in the Czech Republic . It was originally spelt `` kutnahorite '' but `` kutnohorite '' is the current IMA-approved spelling .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Kutnohorite",
"rank": 82,
"score": 109330
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs",
"rank": 83,
"score": 108851
},
{
"content": "Title: Hermatypic coral Content: Hermatypic corals are those corals in the order Scleractinia which build reefs by depositing hard calcareous material for their skeletons , forming the stony framework of the reef . Corals that do not contribute to coral reef development are referred to as ahermatypic ( non-reef-building ) species . Many reef-forming corals contain symbiotic zooxanthellae which contribute to their nutritional needs . The term `` hermatypic '' is sometimes misused , being assumed to apply to all zooxanthellate corals . However , there are zooxanthellae in many non reef-forming corals ; and not all hermatypic corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae . Further , some hermatypic corals live at depths to which light can not penetrate ; they form deep-water reefs but do not harbour the symbionts .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Hermatypic_coral",
"rank": 84,
"score": 108611
},
{
"content": "Title: Andersonite Content: Andersonite , Na2Ca ( UO2 ) ( CO3 ) 3 · 6H2O , or hydrated sodium calcium uranyl carbonate is a rare uranium carbonate mineral that was first described in 1948 . Named after Charles Alfred Anderson ( 1902 -- 1990 ) of the United States Geological Survey , who first described the mineral species , it is found in sandstone-hosted uranium deposits . It has a high vitreous to pearly luster and is fluorescent . Andersonite specimens will usually glow a bright lemon yellow ( or green with blue hints depending on the deposit ) in ultraviolet light . It is commonly found as translucent small rhombohedral crystals that have angles close to 90 degrees although its crystal system is nominally trigonal . Its Mohs hardness is 2.5 , with an average specific gravity of 2.8 . It occurs in the oxidized zone of uranium-bearing polymetallic ore deposits . It also may occur as an efflorescent crust on the walls and timbers of uranium mines . As this mineral is water-soluble , samples must be stored in dry conditions . It occurs with schrockingerite , bayleyite , shwartzite , boltwoodite , liebigite and gypsum . It was first described in 1948 for an occurrence in the Hillside Mine near Bagdad , Eureka District , Yavapai County , Arizona .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Andersonite",
"rank": 85,
"score": 108567
},
{
"content": "Title: Lead carbonate Content: Lead ( II ) carbonate is the chemical compound PbCO3 . It is prepared industrially from lead ( II ) acetate and carbon dioxide . It occurs naturally as the mineral cerussite .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Lead_carbonate",
"rank": 86,
"score": 108320
},
{
"content": "Title: Calcium acetate/magnesium carbonate Content: Calcium acetate/magnesium carbonate is a fixed-dose combination drug that contains 110 mg calcium and 60 mg magnesium ions and is indicated as a phosphate binder for dialysis patients suffering from hyperphosphataemia ( abnormal high serum phosphorus levels ) . It is registered by Fresenius Medical Care under the trade names Renepho ( Belgium ) and OsvaRen ( a number of other European countries ) .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Calcium_acetate/magnesium_carbonate",
"rank": 87,
"score": 108162
},
{
"content": "Title: Crustose Content: Crustose is a habit of some types of algae and lichens in which the plant grows tightly appressed to a substrate forming a biological layer of the adhering organism . Crustose adheres very closely to the substrates at all points . Crustose is found on rocks and tree bark . -LSB- 5 -RSB- Some species of marine algae of the Rhodophyta , in particular members of the order Corallinales , family Corallinaceae , subfamily Melobesioideae with cell walls containing calcium carbonate grow to great depths in the intertidal zone , forming crusts on various substrates . The substrate can be rocks throughout the intertidal zone , or , as in the case of the Corallinales , reef-building corals , and other living organisms including plants , such as mangroves and animals such as shelled molluscs . The coralline red algae are major members of coral reef communities , cementing the corals together with their crusts . Among the brown algae , the order Ralfsiales comprises two families of crustose algae . Many lichens also grow close to the surface of rocks , tree trunks and other substrata , and are referred to as crustose lichens . Crustose organisms can be detrimental to engineered structures when found on buildings , coastal structures , and ships . There are a different types of Crustose Lichens including : endolithic , endophloidic and leprose . Endolithic is immersed in rocks with their bodies above the surface . Endophloidic is when they are in plant tissue . Leprose is crusts without a layered structure . . Crustose has learned to adapt to its environment . The environment it is currently adapting quite well to is the dry and drought resistant climates . It has seen to work well in deserts , ice free parts of Antarctica and in the Alpine and Arctic regions . . Crustose can come in a variety of colors such as yellow , orange , red , gray and green . These colors tend to be bright and vibrant . Crustose is similar to other lichens because they share a similar internal morphology . The lichen 's body is formed from filaments of the fungal partner . The density of these filaments determines the layers within the lichen .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Crustose",
"rank": 88,
"score": 108056
},
{
"content": "Title: Calcite sea Content: A calcite sea is one in which low-magnesium calcite is the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate . An aragonite sea is the alternate seawater chemistry in which aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are the primary inorganic carbonate precipitates . The Early Paleozoic and the Middle to Late Mesozoic oceans were predominantly calcite seas , whereas the Middle Paleozoic through the Early Mesozoic and the Cenozoic ( including today ) are characterized by aragonite seas ( Wilkinson et al. , 1985 ; Wilkinson and Given , 1986 ; Morse and Mackenzie , 1990 ; Lowenstein et al. , 2001 ; Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . The most significant geological and biological effects of calcite sea conditions include rapid and widespread formation of carbonate hardgrounds ( Palmer , 1982 ; Palmer et al. , 1988 ; Wilson and Palmer , 1992 ) , calcitic ooids ( Sandberg , 1983 ; Wilkinson et al. , 1985 ) , calcite cements ( Wilkinson and Given , 1986 ) , and the contemporaneous dissolution of aragonite shells in shallow warm seas ( Cherns and Wright , 2000 ; Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . Hardgrounds were very common , for example , in the calcite seas of the Ordovician and Jurassic , but virtually absent from the aragonite seas of the Permian ( Palmer , 1982 ) . Fossils of invertebrate organisms found in calcite sea deposits are usually dominated by either thick calcite shells and skeletons ( Wilkinson , 1979 ; Stanley and Hardie , 1998 , 1999 ; Porter , 2007 ) , were infaunal and/or had thick periostraca ( Pojeta , 1971 ) , or had an inner shell of aragonite and an outer shell of calcite ( Harper et al. , 1997 ) . This was apparently because aragonite dissolved quickly on the seafloor and had to be either avoided or protected as a biomineral ( Palmer and Wilson , 2004 ) . Calcite seas were coincident with times of rapid seafloor spreading and global greenhouse climate conditions ( Stanley and Hardie , 1999 ) . Seafloor spreading centers cycle seawater through hydrothermal vents , reducing the ratio of magnesium to calcium in the seawater through metamorphism of calcium-rich minerals in basalt to magnesium-rich clays ( Wilkinson and Given , 1986 ; Lowenstein et al. , 2001 ) . This reduction in the Mg/Ca ratio favors the precipitation of calcite over aragonite . Increased seafloor spreading also means increased volcanism and elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and oceans . This may also have an effect on which polymorph of calcium carbonate is precipitated ( Lowenstein et al. , 2001 ) . Further , high calcium concentrations of seawater favor the burial of CaCO3 , thereby removing alkalinity from the ocean , lowering seawater pH and reducing its acid/base buffering .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Calcite_sea",
"rank": 89,
"score": 107927
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbaminohemoglobin Content: Carbaminohemoglobin ( or carbaminohaemoglobin , also known as carbhaemoglobin and carbohaemoglobin ) is a compound of hemoglobin and carbon dioxide , and is one of the forms in which carbon dioxide exists in the blood . 30 % of carbon dioxide is carried in blood this way ( 60 % carried in blood as bicarbonate -LSB- hydrogen carbonate -RSB- , 10 % carried as free CO2 , in solution , or plasma ) .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbaminohemoglobin",
"rank": 90,
"score": 107889
},
{
"content": "Title: Dolostone Content: Dolostone or dolomite rock is a sedimentary carbonate rock that contains a high percentage of the mineral dolomite , CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 . In old USGS publications it was referred to as magnesian limestone , a term now reserved for magnesium-deficient dolostones or magnesium-rich limestones . Technically , dolostone has a stoichiometric ratio of nearly equal amounts of magnesium and calcium . Most dolostones formed as a magnesium replacement of limestone or lime mud prior to lithification . It is resistant to erosion and can either contain bedded layers or be unbedded . It is less soluble than limestone in weakly acidic groundwater , but it can still develop solution features over time . Dolostone can act as an oil and natural gas reservoir . The term dolostone was introduced to avoid confusion with the mineral dolomite . The usage of the term dolostone is controversial because the name dolomite was first applied to the rock during the late 18th century and thus has technical precedence . The use of the term dolostone is not recommended by the Glossary of Geology published by the American Geological Institute . It is , however , used in some geological publications . The geological process of conversion of calcite to dolomite is known as dolomitization and any intermediate product is known as `` dolomitic limestone . '' The `` dolomite problem '' refers to the vast worldwide depositions of dolostone in past geologic record eluding a unified explanation for their formation .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Dolostone",
"rank": 91,
"score": 107606
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonate minerals Content: Carbonate minerals are those minerals containing the carbonate ion : CO32 − .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Carbonate_minerals",
"rank": 92,
"score": 107449
},
{
"content": "Title: Monohydrocalcite Content: Monohydrocalcite is a mineral that is a hydrous form of calcium carbonate , CaCO3 · H2O . It was formerly also known by the name hydrocalcite , which is now discredited by the IMA . It is a trigonal mineral which is white when pure . Monohydrocalcite is not a common rock-forming mineral , but is frequently associated with other calcium and magnesium carbonate minerals , such as calcite , aragonite , lansfordite , and nesquehonite . Monohydrocalcite has been observed in air conditioning systems , and in moonmilk deposits in caves , both probably formed from spray of carbonate rich fluids . It is well known in Robe on the Limestone Coast of South Australia as a component of beach sands of Lake Fellmongery and Lake Butler , where it is believed to be formed from algal spume . Other lacustrine deposits include Lake Issyk-Kul , Kyrgyzstan , Lake Kivu , Democratic Republic of the Congo , and Solar Lake , Sinai . It has been reported as a significant component of the decomposition of ikaite in the towers of the Ikka Fjord , West Greenland . It is also noted for its bizarre occurrences , which include inside the otoliths of the tiger shark , the bladder of a guinea pig , the calcareous corpuscles of a cestode parasite , and the final stages of decomposition of the putrefying flesh of the giant saguaro cactus . These occurrences suggest a biochemical origin is possible .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Monohydrocalcite",
"rank": 93,
"score": 107360
},
{
"content": "Title: Hydromagnesite Content: Hydromagnesite is a hydrated magnesium carbonate mineral with the formula Mg5 ( CO3 ) 4 ( OH ) 2 · 4H2O . It generally occurs associated with the weathering products of magnesium containing minerals such as serpentine or brucite . It occurs as incrustations and vein or fracture fillings in ultramafic rocks and serpentinites . It occurs in hydrothermally altered dolomite and marble . It commonly appears in caves as speleothems and `` moonmilk '' , deposited from water that has seeped through magnesium rich rocks . It is the most common cave carbonate after calcite and aragonite . It thermally decomposes , over a temperature range of approximately 220 ° C to 550 ° C , releasing water and carbon dioxide leaving a magnesium oxide residue . It was first described in 1836 for an occurrence in Hoboken , New Jersey . Stromatolites in an alkaline ( pH greater than 9 ) freshwater lake ( Salda Gölü ) in southern Turkey are made of hydromagnesite precipitated by diatoms and cyanobacteria . Microbial deposition of hydromagnesite is also reported from playas in British Columbia . The hydromagnesite-magnesite playas near Atlin , British Columbia are some of the most studied deposits of hydromagnesite . These deposits have been characterized in the context of a biogeochemical model for CO2 sequestration . One of the largest deposits of hydromagnesite exists in Greece . It consists of a natural mixture with huntite . Local people have used the white mineral as a source of material for whitewashing buildings for centuries . In the mid 20th century the minerals , ground to a fine powder , found use as a filler for rubber shoe soles . The locals used the granite mills designed for grinding wheat . Commercial exploitation of the minerals began in the late 70s and early 80s with the mineral being exported worldwide . The Greek deposit is still operated commercially , although the world 's largest commercially operated reserves are in Turkey .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Hydromagnesite",
"rank": 94,
"score": 107104
},
{
"content": "Title: Shark River Reef Content: Shark River Reef is an artificial reef located in the Atlantic Ocean , 15.6 miles southeast of Manasquan Inlet , off the coast of Ocean County , New Jersey . The site contains almost 4 million cubic yards of dredge rock material . Although 96 % of the total reef material is rock , the site also contains numerous subway cars . It is the deepest of all New Jersey 's artificial reefs , having an average bottom depth of approximately 125 ' . The site is located near Stolt Dagali wreck ( rammed and sunk in 1964 by the SS Shalom ) . The site contains at least nine vessels , including five tankers . The Shark River Reef was established as part of the New Jersey 's Artificial Reef Program . It is administered by the State of New Jersey 's Division of Fish and Wildlife .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Shark_River_Reef",
"rank": 95,
"score": 106898
},
{
"content": "Title: Aragonite Content: Aragonite is a carbonate mineral , one of the two most common , naturally occurring , crystal forms of calcium carbonate , CaCO3 ( the other forms being the minerals calcite and vaterite ) . It is formed by biological and physical processes , including precipitation from marine and freshwater environments . Aragonite 's crystal lattice differs from that of calcite , resulting in a different crystal shape , an orthorhombic crystal system with acicular crystal . Repeated twinning results in pseudo-hexagonal forms . Aragonite may be columnar or fibrous , occasionally in branching stalactitic forms called flos-ferri ( `` flowers of iron '' ) from their association with the ores at the Carinthian iron mines .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Aragonite",
"rank": 96,
"score": 106729
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef (band) Content: Reef are an English band from Glastonbury , England . The band members include Gary Stringer on vocals , Jesse Wood on guitar ( replacing original guitarist Kenwyn House in 2014 ) , Jack Bessant on bass and Dominic Greensmith on drums .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Reef_(band)",
"rank": 97,
"score": 106642
},
{
"content": "Title: Cholesteryl oleyl carbonate Content: Cholesteryl oleyl carbonate ( COC ) is an organic chemical , an carbonate ester of cholesterol and oleyl alcohol with carbonic acid . It is a liquid crystal material forming cholesteric liquid crystals with helical structure . It is a transparent liquid , or a soft crystalline material with melting point around 20 ° C . It can be used with cholesteryl nonanoate and cholesteryl benzoate in some thermochromic liquid crystals . It is used in some hair colors , make-ups , and some other cosmetic preparations . It can be also used as a component of the liquid crystals used for liquid crystal displays .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Cholesteryl_oleyl_carbonate",
"rank": 98,
"score": 106537
},
{
"content": "Title: Calcite Content: Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) . The Mohs scale of mineral hardness , based on scratch hardness comparison , defines value 3 as `` calcite '' . Other polymorphs of calcium carbonate are the minerals aragonite and vaterite . Aragonite will change to calcite at 380 -- 470 ° C , and vaterite is even less stable .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Calcite",
"rank": 99,
"score": 106527
},
{
"content": "Title: Ikaite Content: Ikaite is the mineral name for the hexahydrate of calcium carbonate , CaCO3 · 6H2O . Ikaite tends to form very steep or spiky pyramidal crystals , often radially arranged , of varied sizes from thumbnail size aggregates to gigantic salient spurs . It is only found in a metastable state , and decomposes rapidly by losing most of its water content once removed from near-freezing water . This ` melting mineral ' is more commonly known through its pseudomorphs .",
"qid": "180",
"docid": "Ikaite",
"rank": 100,
"score": 106219
}
] |
Reefs need carbon dioxide; it’s their basic food. | [
{
"content": "Title: Coral reef Content: Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals . Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups . The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria , which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones , corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps . Most reefs grow best in warm , shallow , clear , sunny and agitated waters . Often called `` rainforests of the sea '' , shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth . They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface , about half the area of France , yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Paradoxically , coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients . They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters , but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas . Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism , fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$ 29.8-375 billion . However , coral reefs are fragile ecosystems , partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature . They are under threat from climate change , oceanic acidification , blast fishing , cyanide fishing for aquarium fish , sunscreen use , overuse of reef resources , and harmful land-use practices , including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution , which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_reef",
"rank": 1,
"score": 130988
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs",
"rank": 2,
"score": 121485
},
{
"content": "Title: Calcium reactor Content: __ NOTOC __ In marine and reef aquariums , a calcium reactor creates a balance of alkalinity . An acidic solution is produced by injecting carbon dioxide into a chamber with salt water and calcium rich media . The carbon dioxide lowers the pH by producing a solution high in carbonic acid , and dissolves calcium . The effluent is returned to the reef aquarium where the calcium is consumed by organisms , primarily corals when building skeletons . A calcium reactor is an efficient method to supply calcium to a reef aquarium . Reactors may be used in elaborate freshwater and brackish aquariums where freshwater clams and other invertebrates need a constant supply of calcium . The reactor dissolves the calcium-laden media to provide bicarbonates HCO3 − ( alkalinity ) and calcium ( Ca + + ) ions at the sames rate as consumed during calcification . Effectively dissolving the media requires an acidic pH. Saltwater may have a pH of 7.8 or higher , so to reduce the pH carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) is used . The reaction formula is : CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 < -- -- > Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − Inside the reaction chamber , a calcium rich media ( aragonite ) , mainly CaCO3 , is forced into contact with water injected with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in order to create carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This increases the solubility of the calcium carbonate . The reaction frees the calcium and carbonate , supplying the aquarium with water rich in Ca2 + and CO32 − , important for maintaining alkalinity and calcium levels . The bubble counter measures carbon dioxide . The flow rate of carbon dioxide is monitored so that the dissolved gas goes into the solution , with a minimum unconsumed . A needle valve or solenoid valve regulates the CO2 bubble rate . Valves with precise adjustment abilities improve bubble control . The feed pump controls the volume of water exchange . This is important because a high rate of water flow into the reactor reduces its efficiency , thus resulting in underproduction and a waste of CO2 . Some reactors siphon water into the input of the reactor 's re-circulation pump . A potential complication is the medium in the reactor becoming compacted , increasing back pressure onto the pump and reducing water into the reactor . Placing a gate or needle valve on the reactor 's outlet side will improve flow characteristics compared to control from the inlet side . A peristaltic pumps are effective operating against pressure , capable of supplying an adjustable and continuous flow over flow rates with minimal maintenance . The pH control is connected to a probe in the reactor and adjusts the rate at which the calcium media dissolves . This probe monitors the pH level in the calcium reactor . The pH range for the typical calcium reactor is 6.5 - 6.8 . When the pH rises above a certain level , a valve opens , allowing carbon dioxide to enter the reactor . The control closes the valve as the pH falls below this level . Some pH controllers have an interface for an air pump . This air pump is connected to an airstone in the sump or main tank . If the probe detects a low pH level , the pump activates . The bubbles raise the pH by dissipating the CO2 gas .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Calcium_reactor",
"rank": 3,
"score": 120234
},
{
"content": "Title: Zooxanthellae Content: Zooxanthellae are single-celled dinoflagellates that are able to live in symbiosis with marine invertebrates such as corals , jellyfish , and sea anemones . Most known zooxanthellae are in the genus Symbiodinium but some are known from the genus Amphidinium , and other taxa , as yet unidentified , may have similar endosymbiont affinities . In freshwater habitats , similar endosymbionts are known as zoochlorellae . Zooxanthellae are photosynthetic organisms , which contain chlorophyll a and chlorophyll c , as well as the dinoflagellate pigments peridinin and diadinoxanthin . These provide the yellowish and brownish colours typical of many of the host species . During the day , they provide their host with the organic carbon products of photosynthesis , sometimes providing up to 90 % of their host 's energy needs for metabolism , growth and reproduction . In return , they receive nutrients , carbon dioxide , and an elevated position with access to sunshine . Dinoflagellates are microscopic single-celled planktonic organisms that used to be classified as algae but are now considered to be in a large and diverse group known as Chromalveolata . They can be free-living or can be present in large number in the tissues of a host . The motile , mastigote stage in the water column has two flagella and a characteristic method of swimming , while inside a host it metamorphoses into a spherical , non-motile , coccoid stage without any flagella . Zooxanthellae are particularly associated with reef-building corals but they also inhabit other invertebrates and protists ; their hosts include many sea anemones , jellyfish , nudibranchs , certain bivalve molluscs like the giant clam Tridacna , sponges and flatworms as well as some species of radiolarians and foraminiferans . Many different species of zooxanthellae are present in host organisms , each species with its own adaptive capabilities and degree of tolerance of varying environmental factors . A juvenile organism or newly established colony can acquire its zooxanthellae via sexual reproduction or directly from the environment . The egg from which the individual developed may have already been infected by zooxanthellae at the time of fertilisation , or cells of the symbiont may have been transferred from the mother in a period during which the larva was brooded by its parent . Alternatively , the new individual may acquire the zooxanthellae direct from sea water in which the dinoflagellates freely live at some stages of their life cycle . Some stony corals use chemotaxis , with infection occurring as a result of the emission by the coral of a chemical attractant . Infection may also occur after ingestion of infected faecal matter by the host , or of prey that already houses the symbionts . Such indirect acquisition can result in the new host being infected by a species of zooxanthella different from that present in its parent . Coral bleaching occurs when corals expel their zooxanthellae in reaction to environmental stress . This process is believed to be a defense mechanism to reduce the short-term metabolic burden on the coral . A coral that has expelled its zooxanthellae may be recolonised by another species that is better adapted to the stressors present in the environment . However there is a risk that the coral will die before that can occur .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Zooxanthellae",
"rank": 4,
"score": 118014
},
{
"content": "Title: Southeast Asian coral reefs Content: Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world 's marine ecosystems . They serve many functions , such as forming the livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials . Coral reefs are developed by the carbonate-based skeletons of a variety of animals and algae . Slowly and overtime , the reefs build up to the surface in oceans . Coral reefs are found in shallow , warm salt water . The sunlight filters through clear water and allows microscopic organisms to live and reproduce . The Indian Ocean holds 60 % of the world 's coastal reefs , 25 % are in the Pacific and 15 % are in the western Atlantic . There are coral reefs in the Persian Gulf , Madagascar , the Philippines , Hawaiian Islands and off Southeast Asia . Coral reefs have been preserved and identified in rocks over 400 million years old . Coral reefs are actually composed of tiny , fragile animals known as coral polyps . Coral reefs are significantly important because of the biodiversity . Although the number of fish are decreasing , the remaining coral reefs contain more unique sea creatures . The variety of species living on a coral reef is greater than anywhere else in the world . An estimation of 70-90 % of fish caught are dependent on coral reefs in Southeast Asia and reefs support over 25 % of all known marine species . However , those sensitive coral reefs are facing detrimental effects on them due to variety of factors : overfishing , sedimentation and pollution , bleaching , and even tourist-related damage .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs",
"rank": 5,
"score": 116223
},
{
"content": "Title: Impacts of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef Content: Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs . The Great Barrier Reef , considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot , is located in Australia . Similar to other coral reefs , it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification . Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which is taken up by the ocean . This process can increase sea surface temperature , decrease aragonite , and lower the pH of the ocean . Calcifying organisms are under risk , due to the resulting lack of aragonite in the water and the decreasing pH. This decreased health of coral reefs , particularly the Great Barrier Reef , can result in reduced biodiversity . Organisms can become stressed due to ocean acidification and the disappearance of healthy coral reefs , such as the Great Barrier Reef , is a loss of habitat for several taxa .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_on_the_Great_Barrier_Reef",
"rank": 6,
"score": 115449
},
{
"content": "Title: Alcyonacea Content: The Alcyonacea , or soft corals , are an order of corals which do not produce calcium carbonate skeletons . Soft corals contain minute , spiny skeletal elements called sclerites , useful in species identification . Sclerites give these corals some degree of support and give their flesh a spiky , grainy texture that deters predators . In the past soft corals were thought to be unable to lay new foundations for future corals , but recent findings suggest that colonies of the leather-coral genus Sinularia are able to cement sclerites and consolidate them at their base into alcyonarian spiculite , thus making them reef builders . Unlike stony corals , most soft corals thrive in nutrient-rich waters with less intense light . Almost all utilize symbiotic photosynthesizing zooxanthella as a major energy source . However , most will readily eat any free floating food , such as zooplankton , out of the water column . They are integral members of the reef ecosystem and provide habitat for fish , snails , algae and a diversity of other marine species . Many soft corals are easily collected in the wild for the reef aquarium hobby , as small cuttings are less prone to infection or damage during shipping than stony corals . Nevertheless , home-grown specimens tend to be more adaptable to aquarium life and help conserve wild reefs . Soft corals grow quickly in captivity and are easily divided into new individuals , and so those grown via aquaculture are often hardier and less expensive than imported corals from the wild . The most common examples of this are various species of Actinodiscus , especially common red mushroom coral .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Alcyonacea",
"rank": 7,
"score": 113193
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef House Content: The Reef House is a historic house located at 411 S. Poplar St. in Carbondale , Illinois . William A. Reef built the house for his family circa 1892 . The Queen Anne-style cottage may have been designed by local carpenter A. M. Etherton , though records of its designer do not exist . The house features fishscale shingle siding on its second floor and clapboard siding on its first ; the clapboard siding is adorned with stickwork . A gable on the south side of the house features half-timbering at its top . The house 's front porch features turned posts , a typical Queen Anne feature . The house is one of the only Queen Anne homes in Carbondale which largely retains its original condition . The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 14 , 1985 .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Reef_House",
"rank": 8,
"score": 112293
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef Content: A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface . Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Reef",
"rank": 9,
"score": 107626
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral reef fish Content: Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs . Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity . Among the myriad inhabitants , the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch . Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef , many of them hidden or well camouflaged . Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs . Coral reefs occupy less than one percent of the surface area of the world oceans , but still they provide a home for 25 percent of all marine fish species . Reef habitats are a sharp contrast to the open water habitats that make up the other 99 % of the world oceans . However , loss and degradation of coral reef habitat , increasing pollution , and overfishing including the use of destructive fishing practices , are threatening the survival of the coral reefs and the associated reef fish .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_reef_fish",
"rank": 10,
"score": 105562
},
{
"content": "Title: Deep-water coral Content: The habitat of deep-water corals , also known as cold-water corals , extends to deeper , darker parts of the oceans than tropical corals , ranging from near the surface to the abyss , beyond 2000 m where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 C. Deep-water corals belong to the Phylum Cnidaria and are most often stony corals , but also include black and horny corals and soft corals including the Gorgonians ( sea fans ) . Like tropical corals , they provide habitat to other species , but deep-water corals do not require zooxanthellae to survive . While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species , only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs . Instead , they form aggregations called patches , banks , bioherms , massifs , thickets or groves . These aggregations are often referred to as `` reefs , '' but differ structurally and functionally . Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as `` mounds , '' which more accurately describes the large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off , rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates . Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs . Submarine communications cables and fishing methods such as bottom trawling tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs . The deep-water habitat is designated as a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan habitat .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Deep-water_coral",
"rank": 11,
"score": 103542
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Triangle Initiative Content: The Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs , Fisheries , and Food Security ( CTI-CFF ) , also shortly known as the Coral Triangle Initiative ( CTI ) , is a multilateral partnership of six countries ( Indonesia , Malaysia , Philippines , Papua New Guinea , Solomon Islands , Timor-Leste ) working together to sustain extraordinary marine and coastal resources by addressing crucial issues such as food security , climate change , and marine biodiversity .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_Triangle_Initiative",
"rank": 12,
"score": 102201
},
{
"content": "Title: Artificial reef Content: An artificial reef is a human-made underwater structure , typically built to promote marine life in areas with a generally featureless bottom , to control erosion , block ship passage , or improve surfing . Many reefs are built using objects that were built for other purposes , for example by sinking oil rigs ( through the Rigs-to-Reefs program ) , scuttling ships , or by deploying rubble or construction debris . Other artificial reefs are purpose built ( e.g. the reef balls ) from PVC or concrete . Shipwrecks may become artificial reefs when preserved on the sea floor . Regardless of construction method , artificial reefs generally provide hard surfaces where algae and invertebrates such as barnacles , corals , and oysters attach ; the accumulation of attached marine life in turn provides intricate structure and food for assemblages of fish .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Artificial_reef",
"rank": 13,
"score": 102112
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 14,
"score": 101713
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesophotic coral reef Content: A Mesophotic coral reef , from meso meaning middle and photic meaning light , is characterised by the presence of both light dependent coral and algae , and organisms that can be found in water with low light penetration . They normally grow between 30-40 m , and up to 150 m in tropical and subtropical water . The most common species at the mesophotic level are corals , sponges and algae . The corals ranges can overlap with Deep-water coral but are distinguished by the presence of zooxanthellae and their requirement for light . They can also be thought of as part of shallow water coral ecosystems , and a crossover of coral species between the two is common . It is thought that these corals could be used as sources for reseeding shallow water coral species .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Mesophotic_coral_reef",
"rank": 15,
"score": 100992
},
{
"content": "Title: Brain coral Content: Brain coral is a common name given to corals in the family Mussidae , so called due to their generally spheroid shape and grooved surface which resembles a brain . Each head of coral is formed by a colony of genetically identical polyps which secrete a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate ; this makes them important coral reef builders like other stony corals in the order Scleractinia . Brain corals are found in shallow warm-water coral reefs in all the world 's oceans . They are part of the phylum Cnidaria , in a class called Anthozoa or `` flower animals '' . The lifespan of the largest brain corals is 900 years . Colonies can grow as large as 1.8 m ( 6 ft ) or more in height . Brain corals extend their tentacles to catch food at night . During the day , they use their tentacles for protection by wrapping them over the grooves on their surface . The surface is hard and offers good protection against fish or hurricanes . Branching corals , such as staghorn corals , grow more rapidly , but are more vulnerable to storm damage . Like other genera of corals , brain corals feed on small drifting animals , and also receive nutrients provided by the algae which live within their tissues . The behavior of one of the most common genera , Favia , is semiaggressive ; it will sting other corals with its extended sweeper tentacles during the night . The genus and species have not been defined through the scientific classification segment .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Brain_coral",
"rank": 16,
"score": 100859
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reefs (film) Content: Coral Reefs ( French title : Le Récif de corail ) is a 1938 French language motion picture adventure drama directed by Maurice Gleize . The screenplay was written by Charles Spaak , based on novel by Jean Martet . The film stars Jean Gabin , Michèle Morgan , Pierre Renoir and Gina Manès . It tells the story of a charged innocent Mexican sailor who escapes to a lagoon in the Pacific Ocean . He meets with a lonely girl in the woods , having an affair . However his current gunrunning operation is noticed by an earnest detective .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_Reefs_(film)",
"rank": 17,
"score": 99882
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral reef protection Content: Coral reef protection is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy coral reefs and to help damaged reefs recover . The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health . One management technique is to create Marine Protected Areas ( MPAs ) that directly limit human activities such as fishing . It takes approximately 10 thousand years for coral polyps to form a reef , and between 100,000 and 30 million years for a fully mature reef to form .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_reef_protection",
"rank": 18,
"score": 99560
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reef Alliance Content: The Coral Reef Alliance ( CORAL ) is a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco , California , that partners with local reef communities around the world to protect coral reefs . CORAL was founded in Berkeley , California , in 1994 by Stephen Colwell , and is currently headed by Dr. Michael Webster . With 19 % of the world 's coral reefs already destroyed and another 35 % at immediate risk or threatened due to human pressures , organizations like CORAL are addressing an urgent need .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_Reef_Alliance",
"rank": 19,
"score": 99530
},
{
"content": "Title: Sargocentron coruscum Content: Sargocentron coruscum , more commonly known as the reef squirrelfish , is a member of the family Holocentridae natve to the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida , USA to northern South America . It lives over sandy and rocky substrates , as well as coral reefs , generally between 1 and deep . It is a nocturnal predator , feeding primarily on shrimps , but will also eat crabs . It searches for food alone or in small schools . It can reach sizes of up to 15.0 cm TL . When alarmed , it will hide in crevices between corals .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Sargocentron_coruscum",
"rank": 20,
"score": 97146
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 21,
"score": 96371
},
{
"content": "Title: Electrolithoautotroph Content: An Electrolithoautotroph is an organism which feeds on electricity . These organisms use electricity to convert carbon dioxide to organic matters by using electrons directly taken from solid-inorganic electron donors . Electrolithoautotrophs are microorganisms which are found in the deep crevices of the ocean . The warm , mineral-rich environment provides a rich source of nutrients . The electron source for carbon assimilation from diffusible Fe ( 2 + ) ions to an electrode under the condition that electrical current is the only source of energy and electrons . Electrolithoautotrophs form a third metabolic pathway compared to photosynthesis ( plants converting light into sugar ) and chemosynthesis ( animals consuming food )",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Electrolithoautotroph",
"rank": 22,
"score": 96371
},
{
"content": "Title: Artificial reefs in Japan Content: Artificial reefs are used to increase sustainable fishing activities on the coastline of Japan , which depends heavily on the sea for food .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Artificial_reefs_in_Japan",
"rank": 23,
"score": 96289
},
{
"content": "Title: Sponge reef Content: Sponge reefs serve an important ecological function as habitat , breeding and nursery areas for fish and invertebrates . The reefs are currently threatened by the fishery , offshore oil and gas industries . Attempts are being made to protect these unique ecosystems through fishery closures and potentially the establishment of Marine Protected Areas ( MAPs ) around the sponge reefs . Hexactinellid sponge reefs were common in the Late Jurassic period , and were believed to have gone extinct during or shortly after the Cretaceous period . Living sponge reefs were discovered in the Queen Charlotte Basin ( QCB ) in 1987 -- 1988 , and were reported in the Georgia Basin ( GB ) in 2005 . These sponge reefs are considered to be `` living fossils '' .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Sponge_reef",
"rank": 24,
"score": 95532
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 25,
"score": 95430
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reef Restaurant Content: The Coral Reef Restaurant is a themed seafood restaurant in The Seas with Nemo & Friends , which is located in Epcot 's Future World . One entire wall of the restaurant consists of a glass window that is eight inches thick and that provides a view into an aquarium . While they eat , restaurant guests are able to watch tarpons , sharks , sea turtles , stingrays , groupers , and sometimes scuba divers in the six-million-gallon aquarium . Artist Kim Minichiello painted the underwater scene that appears on the restaurant 's menu covers . Ron Douglas 's cookbook America 's Most Wanted Recipes : Just Desserts includes two dishes from the Coral Reef Restaurant : the Baileys and Jack Daniel 's Mousse and the Chocolate Wave Cake . One reviewer from The Guardian compares the Coral Reef Restaurant to the Sci-Fi Dine-In Theater Restaurant in Disney 's Hollywood Studios , writing that both restaurants `` are great settings '' where `` eating is awful . '' In The Unofficial Guide to Walt Disney World with Kids 2015 , Bob Sehlinger , Liliane Opsomer , and Len Testa call the Coral Reef Restaurant one of the two most overpriced restaurants in Epcot , the other being Monsieur Paul . In Pauline Frommer 's Walt Disney World and Orlando , Jason Cochran writes of his experience of the Coral Reef Restaurant , saying , `` I had some of the worst food in my life ... although the setting rocks . '' In Beyond the Attractions : A Guide to Walt Disney World with Preschoolers , Lisa Battista calls the aquarium view `` incredible '' .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_Reef_Restaurant",
"rank": 26,
"score": 95139
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef Check Content: Reef Check is an international non-governmental organization dedicated to the conservation of two reef ecosystems : tropical coral reefs and Californian rocky reefs . The Foundation is headquartered in Los Angeles , California , United States , but uses data from volunteer scuba diver teams in over 80 countries , ranging from Australia , Japan , to even Germany . It is the United Nations ' official coral reef monitoring program .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Reef_Check",
"rank": 27,
"score": 94749
},
{
"content": "Title: Hermatypic coral Content: Hermatypic corals are those corals in the order Scleractinia which build reefs by depositing hard calcareous material for their skeletons , forming the stony framework of the reef . Corals that do not contribute to coral reef development are referred to as ahermatypic ( non-reef-building ) species . Many reef-forming corals contain symbiotic zooxanthellae which contribute to their nutritional needs . The term `` hermatypic '' is sometimes misused , being assumed to apply to all zooxanthellate corals . However , there are zooxanthellae in many non reef-forming corals ; and not all hermatypic corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae . Further , some hermatypic corals live at depths to which light can not penetrate ; they form deep-water reefs but do not harbour the symbionts .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Hermatypic_coral",
"rank": 28,
"score": 94485
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral reefs in India Content: Coral reefs in India are one of the most ancient and dynamic ecosystems of India . The coral reefs not only provide a sanctuary to a myriad of marine life but also play a key role in protecting the coastline from erosion . India has about 7517 km of coastline including islands but mainland coast is 6100 km .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_reefs_in_India",
"rank": 29,
"score": 93717
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef aquarium Content: A reef aquarium or reef tank is a marine aquarium that prominently displays live corals and other marine invertebrates as well as fish that play a role in maintaining the tropical coral reef environment . A reef aquarium requires appropriately intense lighting , turbulent water movement , and more stable water chemistry than fish-only marine aquaria , and careful consideration is given to which reef animals are appropriate and compatible with each other .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Reef_aquarium",
"rank": 30,
"score": 93347
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Content: Corals are marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria . They typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps . The group includes the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton . A coral `` group '' is a colony of myriad genetically identical polyps . Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in length . A set of tentacles surround a central mouth opening . An exoskeleton is excreted near the base . Over many generations , the colony thus creates a large skeleton that is characteristic of the species . Individual heads grow by asexual reproduction of polyps . Corals also breed sexually by spawning : polyps of the same species release gametes simultaneously over a period of one to several nights around a full moon . Although some corals can catch small fish and plankton using stinging cells on their tentacles , most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium that live within their tissues . These are commonly known as zooxanthellae and the corals that contain them are zooxanthellate corals . Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear , shallow water , typically at depths shallower than 60 m. Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters , such as the enormous Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland , Australia . Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live in much deeper water , with the cold-water genus Lophelia surviving as deep as 3000 m . Some have been found on the Darwin Mounds , north-west of Cape Wrath , Scotland . Corals have also been found as far north as off the coast of Washington State and the Aleutian Islands .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral",
"rank": 31,
"score": 93316
},
{
"content": "Title: Bar jack Content: The bar jack ( Caranx ruber ) ( also known as the carbonero , red jack , blue-striped cavalla and passing jack ) is a common species of inshore marine fish classified in the jack family , Carangidae . The bar jack is distributed through the western Atlantic Ocean from New Jersey and Bermuda in the north to Venezuela and possibly Brazil in the south , with the largest population in the Gulf of Mexico and West Indies . The bar jack is most simply distinguished from similar jacks by its dark horizontal bar which runs along the back and down the caudal fin , often accompanied by an electric blue stripe immediately below it . Other more detailed differences include dentition and soft ray counts . The bar jack is a moderately large species , growing to a recorded maximum of 65 cm and a weight of 6.8 kg . The species inhabits clear shallow waters , often over coral reefs where it lives either solitarily or in large schools , taking various fishes , crustaceans and cephalopods as prey . Studies in Cuba indicate spawning occurs between March and August , with sexual maturity reached at 26 cm . It is a relatively popular sport fish and can be caught on light tackle with a variety of lures and baits . It is considered to be a good food fish , however many recorded ciguatera cases are attributed to the species , with most cases reported on the island of St. Thomas traced to this single species .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Bar_jack",
"rank": 32,
"score": 93266
},
{
"content": "Title: Millepora alcicornis Content: Millepora alcicornis , or sea ginger , is a species of colonial fire coral with a calcareous skeleton . It is found on shallow water coral reefs in the tropical west Atlantic Ocean . It shows a variety of different morphologies depending on its location . It feeds on plankton and derives part of its energy requirements from microalgae found within its tissues . It is an important member of the reef building community and subject to the same threats as other corals . It can cause painful stings to unwary divers .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Millepora_alcicornis",
"rank": 33,
"score": 91983
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_in_non-tropical_regions",
"rank": 34,
"score": 91950
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reef Adventure Content: Coral Reef Adventure is a 70mm American documentary film released in 2003 to IMAX theaters . It is narrated by actor Liam Neeson , and directed by Greg MacGillivray . Embarking on a 10-month expedition through the islands of the South Pacific , husband and wife underwater photography-duo Michele and Howard Hall explore the declining reefs and failing health of the world 's oceans . From Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , to a friend 's coral reef-sustained village in Fiji , the diving expeditions show a range of coral reefs , from flourishing ones filled with unusual and exotic inhabitants , to vast stretches of bleached coral decline which prompted the Hall 's activism . Along their journey , scientists working to understand and save the reefs meet with the Hall 's . Jean-Michel Cousteau , son of the famed oceanographer Jacques Cousteau , also makes an appearance , as do well-known dive guide and singer Rusi Vulakoro , brother of Vude singer Laisa Vulakoro , who guides the Halls in their dive adventure . This documentary film is the third oceanic , ecologically-themed IMAX production from director MacGillivray , after The Living Sea and Dolphins . Crosby Stills & Nash contribute to the film 's soundtrack . The Giant Screen Theater Association named it the best film achievement of 2003 .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_Reef_Adventure",
"rank": 35,
"score": 91833
},
{
"content": "Title: Coralline algae Content: Coralline algae are red algae in the order Corallinales . They are characterized by a thallus that is hard because of calcareous deposits contained within the cell walls . The colors of these algae are most typically pink , or some other shade of red , but other species can be purple , yellow , blue , white or gray-green . Coralline algae play an important role in the ecology of coral reefs . Sea urchins , parrot fish , limpets ( mollusks ) , and chitons ( mollusks ) , feed on coralline algae . In the temperate Mediterranean sea , coralline algae are the main builders of a typical algal reef , the Coralligène ( `` coralligenous '' ) . Many are typically encrusting and rock-like , found in marine waters all over the world . Only one species lives in freshwater . Unattached specimens ( maerl , rhodoliths ) may form relatively smooth compact balls to warty or fruticose thalli . A close look at almost any intertidal rocky shore or coral reef will reveal an abundance of pink to pinkish-grey patches , splashed as though by a mad painter over rock surfaces . These patches of pink `` paint '' are actually living algae : crustose coralline red algae . The red algae belong to the division Rhodophyta , within which the coralline algae form the order Corallinales . There are over 1600 described species of nongeniculate coralline algae . The corallines are presently grouped into two families on the basis of their reproductive structures .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coralline_algae",
"rank": 36,
"score": 91472
},
{
"content": "Title: Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystems Program Content: The Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystems ( CCRE ) program began with a collaborative field project conceived by six National Museum of Natural History scientists during the early 1970s . The scientists interests included a range of disciplines central to reef ecology , including : invertebrate and vertebrate zoology , botany , carbonate geology , and paleobiology . The primary work site is the Carrie Bow Marine Field Station , a research station at Carrie Bow Cay on the Meso-American Barrier Reef in Belize . The program is an extended duration study of coral reefs , mangroves , sea grass meadows , and the sandy bottoms . It has been a functioning research program since the early 1970s when it was called the Investigations of Marine Shallow-Water Ecosystems ( IMSWE )",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Caribbean_Coral_Reef_Ecosystems_Program",
"rank": 37,
"score": 91293
},
{
"content": "Title: Resilience of coral reefs Content: The resilience of coral reefs is the biological ability of coral reefs to recover from natural disturbances such as storms and bleaching episodes . Resilience refers to the ability of biological or social systems to overcome pressures and stresses by maintaining key functions through resisting or adapting to change . Reef resistance measures how well coral reefs tolerate changes in ocean chemistry , sea level , and sea surface temperature . Reef resistance and resilience are important factors in coral reef recovery from the effects of ocean acidification . Natural reef resilience can be used as a recovery model for coral reefs and an opportunity for management in marine protected areas ( MPAs ) . __ TOC __",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Resilience_of_coral_reefs",
"rank": 38,
"score": 91265
},
{
"content": "Title: Alice Alldredge Content: Alice Alldredge is an American oceanographer and marine biologist who studies marine snow , carbon cycling , microbes and plankton in the ecology of the ocean . She has conducted research in the open sea , at her laboratory at the University of California , Santa Barbara as well as in collaboration with the Long Term Ecological Research Network ( LTER ) at the Mo'orea Coral Reef Long Term Ecological Research Site ( MCR LTER ) in Mo'orea , French Polynesia . According to the annual ISI Web of Knowledge list published by Thomson Reuters , she has been one of the most cited scientific researchers since 2003 .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Alice_Alldredge",
"rank": 39,
"score": 91258
},
{
"content": "Title: Census of Coral Reefs Content: The Census of Coral Reefs ( CReefs ) is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that surveys the biodiversity of coral reef ecosystems internationally . The project works to study what species live in coral reef ecosystems , to develop standardized protocols for studying coral reef ecosystems , and to increase access to and exchange of information about coral reefs scattered throughout the globe . The CReefs project uses the implementation of autonomous reef-monitoring structures ( ARMS ) to study the species that inhabit coral reefs . These structures are placed on the sea floor in areas where coral reefs exist , where they are left for one year . At the end of the year , the ARMS is pulled to the surface , along with the species which have inhabited it , for analysis . Coral reefs are thought to be the most organically different of all marine ecosystems . Major declines in key reef ecosystems suggest a decline in reef population throughout the world due to environmental stresses . The vulnerability of coral reef ecosystems is expected to increase significantly in response to climate change . The reefs are also being threatened by induced coral bleaching , ocean acidification , sea-level rise , and changing storm tracks . Reef biodiversity could be in danger of being lost before it is even documented , and researchers will be left with a limited and poor understanding of these complex ecosystems . In an attempt to enhance global understanding of reef biodiversity , the goals of the CReefs Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems were to conduct a diverse global census of coral reef ecosystems . And increase access to and exchange of coral reef data throughout the world . Because coral reefs are the most diverse and among the most threatened of all marine ecosystems , there is great justification to learn more about them .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Census_of_Coral_Reefs",
"rank": 40,
"score": 90898
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas J. Goreau Content: Thomas J. Goreau ( Tom Goreau , * in Jamaica ) is a biogeochemist and marine biologist ; son of Thomas F. Goreau and Nora I. Goreau . After studying in Jamaican primary and secondary schools , he earned degrees in planetary physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , in planetary astronomy at the California Institute of Technology , and in biogeochemistry at Harvard University ( Ph.D. ) . With his parents he researched the coral reefs of Jamaica , and continues to conduct research on the impacts of global climate change , pollution , and new diseases in reefs all across the Caribbean , Indian Ocean , and Pacific . His current work focuses on coral reef restoration , fisheries restoration , shore line protection , renewable energy , community based coral reef management , mariculture , soil metabolism , and stabilization of global carbon dioxide . He was formerly Senior Scientific Affairs Officer at the United Nations Centre for Science and Technology for Development . He is currently President of the Global Coral Reef Alliance .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Thomas_J._Goreau",
"rank": 41,
"score": 90559
},
{
"content": "Title: Iron fertilization Content: Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron to the upper ocean to stimulate a phytoplankton bloom . This is intended to enhance biological productivity , which can benefit the marine food chain and is under investigation in hopes of increasing carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere . Iron is a trace element necessary for photosynthesis in all plants . It is highly insoluble in sea water and is often the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth . Large algal blooms can be created by supplying iron to iron-deficient ocean waters . A number of ocean labs , scientists and businesses are exploring fertilization as a means to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide in the deep ocean , and to increase marine biological productivity which is hypothesized by some to decline as a result of climate change . Since 1993 , thirteen international research teams have completed ocean trials demonstrating that phytoplankton blooms can be stimulated by iron addition . However , controversy remains over the effectiveness of atmospheric sequestration and ecological effects . The most recent open ocean trials of ocean iron fertilization were in 2009 ( January to March ) in the South Atlantic by project Lohafex , and in July 2012 in the North Pacific off the coast of British Columbia , Canada , by the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation ( HSRC ) . Fertilization also occurs naturally when upwellings bring nutrient-rich water to the surface , as occurs when ocean currents meet an ocean bank or a sea mount . This form of fertilization produces the world 's largest marine habitats . Fertilization can also occur when weather carries wind blown dust long distances over the ocean , or iron-rich minerals are carried into the ocean by glaciers , rivers and icebergs .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Iron_fertilization",
"rank": 42,
"score": 90458
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora cerealis Content: Acropora cerealis is a species of acroporid coral found throughout the Indian and Pacific oceans , from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden to the Hawaiian Islands and the Johnston Atoll . It can be found on upper reef slopes in shallow tropical reefs , from depths of 3 -- 20 m. Crown-of-thorns starfish preferentially prey upon Acropora corals , and this species is also harvested for the aquarium trade .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Acropora_cerealis",
"rank": 43,
"score": 90396
},
{
"content": "Title: International Coral Reef Initiative Content: The International Coral Reef Initiative ( ICRI ) is an informal partnership among nations , international organisations and non-government organisations to help protect coral reefs globally . It aims to implement Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 , Aichi Target 10 of the Convention on Biological Diversity 's 10-year Strategic Plan , and other relevant internationally agreed objectives and targets . It does so by : raising global awareness on the plight of coral reefs around the world promoting the sharing of best practices in coral reef management and building capacity of coral reef managers around the world ensuring that coral reefs are included in relevant international deliberations . It is the `` only global entity solely devoted to coral reefs '' .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "International_Coral_Reef_Initiative",
"rank": 44,
"score": 90385
},
{
"content": "Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Oceanic_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 45,
"score": 90245
},
{
"content": "Title: African coral reefs Content: African coral reefs are coral reefs mainly found along the south and east coasts of Africa . The east coast corals extend from the Red Sea to Madagascar in the south , and are an important resource for the fishersmen of Kenya , Tanzania and Madagascar . As with coral reefs elsewhere , African coral reefs are more biologically diverse than the surrounding ocean , and support species such as the mantis shrimp , potato grouper , humphead wrasse and maxima clam , as well as many seaweeds and corals . On the east coast , temperatures average about 26 C over the year . The average rainfall is highest between January to April , at about 300 mm , and lowest during August to November , at about 100 mm . There are multiple threats to the reefs , such a tourist diving and damaging the corals , or taking samples . Then there are industrial run-offs and pollutants , untreated sewage and the increasing sediment flows in rivers that threaten all of the coastal ecosystems . The reef is also threatened by climate change . Due to global warming , the sea surface temperature increases and in 1997/98 a particularly severe ` El Nino ' killed 90 percent of corals on the reef . The CORDIO ( COral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean ) NGO have set up an East African task force to monitor the reef 's management .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "African_coral_reefs",
"rank": 46,
"score": 90056
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef (novel) Content: Reef is a historical fiction novel written by Sri Lankan-born British author Romesh Gunesekera , first published by Granta Books in 1994 . Written in English and set in Sri Lanka , it tells the story of a talented young chef named Triton who is so committed to pleasing his master , Mr. Salgado , a marine biologist obsessed with swamps and seafood , that he is oblivious to the political unrest threatening his country . It is Gunesekera 's debut novel and second book , following his 1992 collection of short stories , Monkfish Moon . It was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize in 1994 , but lost to How Late It Was , How Late by James Kelman amid much controversy ; and the Guardian Fiction Prize the same year .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Reef_(novel)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 88922
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral trout Content: The coral trout , leopard coral grouper , or leopard coral trout ( Plectropomus leopardus ) is a species of fish in the Serranidae family . Native to the western Pacific Ocean , its natural habitat includes open seas and coral reefs . Coral trout are piscivorous ; juveniles mostly eat crustaceans , especially prawns , and adults feed upon a variety of reef fish , particularly damselfish . Coral trout are the favourite target fish for all sectors of the fishery because they are a good food fish and command high market prices locally and overseas . The total commercial catch of coral trout was reported at over 1500 tonnes in 1998 .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_trout",
"rank": 48,
"score": 88666
},
{
"content": "Title: Supply Reef Content: Supply Reef is a submerged circular reef of volcanic origin in the Northern Mariana Islands chain , about 10 km NW of the Maug Islands . Presently this igneous seamount is roughly 8 m below the ocean 's surface and about 100 m in diameter .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Supply_Reef",
"rank": 49,
"score": 88521
},
{
"content": "Title: Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument Content: The Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument is a U.S. National Monument located off Saint John , Virgin Islands . The clear waters surrounding Saint John support a diverse and complex system of coral reefs . The health of these reefs is closely tied to its component plants and animals as well as adjacent non-coral marine environments such as sandy bottoms , seagrass beds , and mangrove forests . Seeking to provide greater protection to the sensitive coral reef resources , President Clinton established the Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument on January 17 , 2001 . The monument includes 12,708 acres ( 51 km2 ) of federal submerged lands within the 3 mile ( 5 km ) belt off Saint John , including Hurricane Hole and areas north and south of Saint John .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Virgin_Islands_Coral_Reef_National_Monument",
"rank": 50,
"score": 88509
},
{
"content": "Title: Caesar grunt Content: Haemulon carbonarium , the Caesar grunt , is a species of grunt native to the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida to Brazil and also in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico . It inhabits coral or rock reefs and mangrove swamps at depths of from 3 to . This species can reach a length of 36 cm TL though most do not exceed 20 cm . This species is of minor importance to local commercial fisheries and is also popular in public aquariums .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Caesar_grunt",
"rank": 51,
"score": 88280
},
{
"content": "Title: John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park Content: John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park is a Florida State Park located on Key Largo in Florida , and includes approximately 70 nautical square miles ( 240 km ² ) of adjacent Atlantic Ocean waters . It was the first underwater park in the United States . The park was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 14 , 1972 . The primary attractions of the park are the coral reefs ( such as Molasses Reef ) and their associated marine life . In Fiscal Year 2004 the park had more than a million visitors , making it the most popular park in the Florida State Parks system . The Florida Keys and the Flower Garden Banks in the Gulf of Mexico off the Texas coast are the only living coral reef formations in the continental United States .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "John_Pennekamp_Coral_Reef_State_Park",
"rank": 52,
"score": 88130
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific Content: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific ( CRISP ) is a French inter-ministerial project founded in 2002 . Its aims focus on developing a vision for the future for coral reef eco-systems and the communities that depend on them within the French overseas territories and Pacific Island developing countries . Programme coordination is provided by the CRISP Coordination Unit and a programme manager who is supported by scientific counselors . The programme is hosted by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community who is located in Nouméa , New-Caledonia . CRISP is under the institutional protection from the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme . It is a regional initiative that promotes the protection and sustainable management of the coral reefs of the Pacific island states .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_Reef_Initiative_for_the_South_Pacific",
"rank": 53,
"score": 88029
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef safe Content: Reef safe is a distinction used in the saltwater aquarium hobby to indicate that a fish or invertebrate is safe to add to a reef aquarium . There is no fish that is completely reef safe . Every fish that is commonly listed as reef safe are species that usually do not readily consume small fish or invertebrates . Fish listed as reef safe also do not bother fellow fish unless in some cases , for instance tangs , they do not get along with conspecifics and sometimes fish with similar color or body shape . Every fish has a personality , is different , and , in some cases , are opportunistic feeders . Tangs , which by most accounts are reef safe , may in adulthood eat some crustaceans shortly after they molt . Many larger predatory fish , for instance eels and pufferfish , will adapt very well to a reef tank and will be problem-free as long as they have sizable tank-mates and no crustaceans . Some aquarists have also had success in keeping smaller fish with predatory ones in reef tanks by adding the smaller fish at night , sometimes with newly rearranged rockwork .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Reef_safe",
"rank": 54,
"score": 88016
},
{
"content": "Title: Castle Reef Dolomite Content: The Castle Reef Dolomite is a geologic formation in Montana . It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Castle_Reef_Dolomite",
"rank": 55,
"score": 87912
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef (band) Content: Reef are an English band from Glastonbury , England . The band members include Gary Stringer on vocals , Jesse Wood on guitar ( replacing original guitarist Kenwyn House in 2014 ) , Jack Bessant on bass and Dominic Greensmith on drums .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Reef_(band)",
"rank": 56,
"score": 87870
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef (disambiguation) Content: Reef may refer to : Reef , a shallow or underwater obstacle , such as a coral reef Coral reef , a type of reef that is formed by coral Reef knot , a kind of knot Reefing , an action performed on sails to reduce the area on which the wind can act Reef the Lost Cauze , an American rapper Reef ( band ) , a British band Reef ( company ) , an American apparel and shoe company Reef , a slang term for the drug Cannabis . Recife ( Portuguese for `` reef '' ) , capital of the Brazilian state of Pernambuco Gold reef , a synonym for a gold Vein ( geology ) Reef , a 1994 Booker-shortlisted novel written by Romesh Gunesekera",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Reef_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 57,
"score": 87815
},
{
"content": "Title: Middleton Reef Content: Middleton Reef is a coral reef in the Tasman Sea . It is separated by a deep oceanic pass some 45 km wide from nearby Chan Reef , forming part of the Lord Howe Rise underwater plateau . It is around 220 km from Lord Howe Island and 555 km from the coast of New South Wales . In 1997 the Environment , Sport and Territories Legislation Amendment Bill 1996 included the reef in Australia 's Coral Sea Islands Territory . It is among the southernmost platform reefs in the world . Despite its relatively high latitude , there is a wide variety of flora and fauna on the reef and in the surrounding waters , due to converging tropical and temperate ocean currents . It is about 8.9 km long by 6.3 km wide . At low tide most of the reef flat is exposed , at high tide only one cay is visible , The Sound , 100 m by 70 m and one metre above sea level . The reefs form the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve managed by the Government of Australia under the Natural Heritage Trust . -RSB-",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Middleton_Reef",
"rank": 58,
"score": 87614
},
{
"content": "Title: Miami Terrace Reef Content: The Miami Terrace Reef is a coral reef off the coast of Florida stretching from South Miami to Boca Raton , in the Atlantic Ocean . It lies in depths of 650 to on top of a geological formation known as the Miami Terrace , a 65 km long shelf about 15 mi off shore . Much of the platform remains unexplored , and new portions of the reef are still being discovered . University of Miami researchers discovered new reef sites there in December 2005 . The terrace consists of long and well-defined rocky ridges made of limestone that provide a habitat for many types of corals , sponges , and fish . Fish species observed there include wreckfish , barrelfish , and bright red alphonsinos . Recently observed intertebrate species have included Lophelia pertusa coral , stylasterine hydrocoral ( Stylasteridae ) , bamboo coral ( Isididae ) , and various sponges and octocorals . Motile invertebrates such as crabs and urchins have also been observed there , including Asteroporpa sp . ophiuroids , Stylocidaris sp . urchins , Mollusca , Actiniaria , and Decapoda crustaceans ( Chaceon fenneri and Galatheidae ) . Corals on the terrace are vulnerable to the effects of bottom trawling and dredging , and the Miami Terrace has been proposed for protection from these activities .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Miami_Terrace_Reef",
"rank": 59,
"score": 87540
},
{
"content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef is the world 's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2300 km over an area of approximately 344400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland , Australia . The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world 's biggest single structure made by living organisms . This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms , known as coral polyps . It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981 . CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world . The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which helps to limit the impact of human use , such as fishing and tourism . Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff , climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching , and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish . According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985 . The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples , and is an important part of local groups ' cultures and spirituality . The reef is a very popular destination for tourists , especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions . Tourism is an important economic activity for the region , generating over AUD$ 3 billion per year . In November 2014 , Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef . A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought , seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures . In October 2016 , Outside published an obituary for the reef ; the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef . In March 2017 , the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of a 800-kilometre ( 500 mi ) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures , an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef",
"rank": 60,
"score": 87401
},
{
"content": "Title: Zhongzhou Reef Content: Zhongzhou Reef ( ; Bãi Bàn Than ) is a small coral reef within the Tizard Bank of the Spratly Islands . It lies 5 km east of ROC-occupied Taiping Island , 5 km west of Vietnamese-occupied Sand Cay , and has an exposed area of approximately 0.2 ha during high tide , and 0.6 ha during low tide . It consists of an accumulation of seashells , sand , coral reefs and debris which forms a circular coral reef plate , surrounding the reef under the water , with a diameter of approximately 1.3 km . The reef is currently controlled by Taiwan ( ROC ) , under the administration of Cijin District , Kaohsiung . It is also claimed by PRC , Vietnam and the Philippines . As many as 51 species of migratory birds inhabit the reef for short stays . The surrounding waters contain a rich marine ecosystem with plentiful staghorn coral . Shellfish species such as Harpago chiragra and Cassis cornuta can be found on the reef , and the surrounding waters contain various common tropical fish and coral reef fish . The reef geology is not suitable for plant growth . The reef has no groundwater source . Though currently uninhabited by humans , the ROC Coast Guard sends regular patrols via M8 speedboats from nearby Taiping Island . These patrols circle the reef , in addition to landing , making inspections and carrying out ecological surveys .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Zhongzhou_Reef",
"rank": 61,
"score": 87367
},
{
"content": "Title: Fringing reef Content: A fringing reef is one of the three main types of coral reefs recognized by most coral reef scientists . It is distinguished from the other two main types ( barrier reefs and atolls ) in that it has either an entirely shallow backreef zone ( lagoon ) or none at all . If a fringing reef grows directly from the shoreline ( see photo , right ) the reef flat extends right to the beach and there is no backreef . In other cases ( e.g. , most of the Bahamas ) , fringing reefs may grow hundreds of yards from shore and contain extensive backreef areas with numerous seagrass meadows and patch reefs . This type of coral reef is the most common type of reef found in the Caribbean and Red Sea . Darwin believed that fringing reefs are the first kind of reefs to form around a landmass in a long-term reef growth process .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Fringing_reef",
"rank": 62,
"score": 87156
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonate Content: In chemistry , a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) , characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion , a polyatomic ion with the formula of . The name may also mean an ester of carbonic acid , an organic compound containing the carbonate group C ( =O ) ( O -- ) 2 . The term is also used as a verb , to describe carbonation : the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverageseither by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure , or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water . In geology and mineralogy , the term `` carbonate '' can refer both to carbonate minerals and carbonate rock ( which is made of chiefly carbonate minerals ) , and both are dominated by the carbonate ion , . Carbonate minerals are extremely varied and ubiquitous in chemically precipitated sedimentary rock . The most common are calcite or calcium carbonate , CaCO3 , the chief constituent of limestone ( as well as the main component of mollusc shells and coral skeletons ) ; dolomite , a calcium-magnesium carbonate CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 ; and siderite , or iron ( II ) carbonate , FeCO3 , an important iron ore . Sodium carbonate ( `` soda '' or `` natron '' ) and potassium carbonate ( `` potash '' ) have been used since antiquity for cleaning and preservation , as well as for the manufacture of glass . Carbonates are widely used in industry , e.g. in iron smelting , as a raw material for Portland cement and lime manufacture , in the composition of ceramic glazes , and more .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Carbonate",
"rank": 63,
"score": 86940
},
{
"content": "Title: Oyster reef Content: The term oyster reef refers to dense aggregations of oysters that form large colonial communities . Because oyster larvae need to settle on hard substrates , new oyster reefs may form on stone or other hard marine debris . Eventually the oyster reef will propagate by spat settling on the shells of older or nonliving oysters . The dense aggregations of oysters are often referred to as an oyster reef , oyster bed , oyster bank , oyster bottom , or oyster bar interchangeably . These terms are not well defined and often regionally restricted .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Oyster_reef",
"rank": 64,
"score": 86929
},
{
"content": "Title: The Reef Ball Foundation Content: The Reef Ball Foundation , Inc. is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) publicly supported non-profit organization that functions as an international environmental Non-governmental organization . The foundation uses Reef Ball artificial reef technology , combined with coral propagation , transplant technology , public education and community training to build , restore and protect coral reefs . The foundation has established `` Reef Ball reefs '' in 59 countries , and ongoing projects take the total countries reached to more than 70 . Over 550,000 Reef Balls have been deployed in more than 4,000 projects .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "The_Reef_Ball_Foundation",
"rank": 65,
"score": 86912
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonate platform Content: A carbonate platform is a sedimentary body which possesses topographic relief , and is composed of autochthonous calcareous deposits ( Wilson , 1975 ) . Platform growth is mediated by sessile organisms whose skeletons build up the reef or by organisms ( usually microbes ) which induce carbonate precipitation through their metabolism . Therefore , carbonate platforms can not grow up everywhere : they are not present in places where limiting factors to the life of reef-building organisms exist . Such limiting factors are , among others : light , water temperature , transparency and pH-Value . For example , carbonate sedimentation along the Atlantic South American coasts takes place everywhere but at the mouth of the Amazon River , because of the intense turbidity of the water there ( Carannante et al. , 1988 ) . Spectacular examples of present-day carbonate platforms are the Bahama Banks under which the platform is roughly 8 km thick , the Yucatan Peninsula which is up to 2 km thick , the Florida platform , the platform on which the Great Barrier Reef is growing , and the Maldive atolls . All these carbonate platforms and their associated reefs are confined to tropical latitudes . Today 's reefs are built mainly by scleractinian corals , but in the distant past other organisms , like archaeocyatha ( during the Cambrian ) or extinct cnidaria ( tabulata and rugosa ) were important reef builders .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Carbonate_platform",
"rank": 66,
"score": 86840
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral Reefer Band Content: The Coral Reefer Band is the touring and recording band of American singer-songwriter Jimmy Buffett . Originally it was a fictional band consisting of the imaginary members Marvin Gardens , Kay Pasa , Al Vacado and Kitty Litter . The name `` Coral Reefer '' alludes to both coral reefs ( in line with Buffett 's tropical-themed music ) and also `` reefer , '' which is slang for marijuana .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_Reefer_Band",
"rank": 67,
"score": 86682
},
{
"content": "Title: Favosites Content: Favosites is an extinct genus of tabulate coral characterized by polygonal closely packed corallites ( giving it the common name `` honeycomb coral '' ) . The walls between corallites are pierced by pores known as mural pores which allowed transfer of nutrients between polyps . Favosites , like all coral , thrived in warm sunlit seas , forming colorful reefs , feeding by filtering microscopic plankton with their stinging tentacles . The genus had a worldwide distribution from the Late Ordovician to Late Permian .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Favosites",
"rank": 68,
"score": 86637
},
{
"content": "Title: Aquaculture of coral Content: Coral aquaculture , also known as coral farming or coral gardening , is the cultivation of corals for commercial purposes or coral reef restoration . Aquaculture is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs , which have been declining around the world . The process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying . Small corals are propagated in nurseries then replanted on the reef . Coral is farmed by coral farmers who live locally to the reefs and farm for reef conservation or for income . It is also farmed by scientists for research , by businesses for the supply of the live and ornamental coral trade , and by private aquarium hobbyists . __ TOC __",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Aquaculture_of_coral",
"rank": 69,
"score": 86502
},
{
"content": "Title: Coralliozetus springeri Content: Coralliozetus springeri is a species of chaenopsid blenny found in coral reefs from Costa Rica to Ecuador in the eastern central Pacific ocean . It can reach a maximum length of 2.5 cm TL . This species feeds primarily on zooplankton .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coralliozetus_springeri",
"rank": 70,
"score": 86417
},
{
"content": "Title: Indispensable Reefs Content: The Indispensable Reefs are a chain of three large coral atolls in the Coral Sea . They are located about 50 km south of Rennell Island , separated from it by Rennel Trough . The chain stretches over a length of 114 km and its average width is 18 km . Administratively the Indispensable Reef belongs to the Rennell and Bellona Province of the Solomon Islands . The three atolls are steep-to and each encloses a large deep lagoon . They are separated by deep passages 2 - wide . of the Indispensable Reef are aligned in a NW-SE direction : North Reef is 18 km long , and up to 7 km wide . The rim of the atoll has two narrow openings in the north and northwest . The reef has a total area of 100 km2 , including lagoon and reef flat . There are no islets . Middle Reef is 51 km long . Little Nottingham Islet is a small islet located near the center of the reef . Besides its main lagoon , Middle Reef has a separate smaller northern lagoon . The total area is about 300 km2 . South Reef is 21 km long and up to 8 km wide . It encloses a lagoon 18 to deep . The total area exceeds 100 km2 .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Indispensable_Reefs",
"rank": 71,
"score": 86358
},
{
"content": "Title: The Reefs Hotel & Club Content: The Reefs Hotel & Club , commonly known as The Reefs , is a luxury four-star resort hotel in Southampton Parish , Bermuda , located next to the Sonesta Beach Resort and not far from Gibbs Hill Lighthouse . It is considered one of the top hotels in the Caribbean and Atlantic by prestigious publications such as Condé Nast Traveler and Travel + Leisure .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "The_Reefs_Hotel_&_Club",
"rank": 72,
"score": 86352
},
{
"content": "Title: Coral calcium Content: Coral calcium is a salt of calcium derived from fossilized coral reefs ( primarily from limestone and coastal deposits ) . It has been promoted as an alternative , but unsubstantiated , treatment or cure for a number of health conditions .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Coral_calcium",
"rank": 73,
"score": 86325
},
{
"content": "Title: Corallimorpharia Content: Corallimorpharia is an order of marine cnidarians closely related to stony or reef building corals ( Scleractinia ) . They are mostly tropical , with a narrow column topped with a wide oral disc . The tentacles are usually short or very short , arranged in rows radiating from the mouth . Many species occur together in large groups . In many respects , they resemble the stony corals , except for the absence of a stony skeleton . Corallimorpharians occur in a wide range of marine habitats , and are associated with phase shifts in coral reef ecosystems that result in a change from a hard-coral dominated reef to a soft-coral dominated one . Many species are also common invertebrates kept in marine aquaria .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Corallimorpharia",
"rank": 74,
"score": 86277
},
{
"content": "Title: The Reef (2010 film) Content: The Reef is a 2010 Australian horror film . The film was written and directed by Andrew Traucki , his second feature film ( the first being Black Water ) , and is about a group of friends who capsize while sailing to Indonesia . The group decides that their best bet for survival is to swim to a nearby island but they find themselves stalked by a great white shark .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "The_Reef_(2010_film)",
"rank": 75,
"score": 86200
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef (company) Content: Reef is a brand of casual sandals , known as Thongs , created by two Argentine brothers , Fernando and Santiago Aguerre . In 1984 they moved from Argentina to the San Diego beach community of La Jolla , California , where they began Reef . Their product became popular amongst surfers and beach goers . Reef has subsequently grown into one of the world 's leading active sandal manufacturers . Reef has been owned by VF Corporation since 2005 .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Reef_(company)",
"rank": 76,
"score": 86091
},
{
"content": "Title: The Reef (novel) Content: The Reef is a 1912 novel by American writer Edith Wharton . It was published by D. Appleton & Company . It concerns a romance between a widow and her former lover . The novel takes place in Paris and rural France , but primarily features American characters . While writing the novel , Edith Wharton visited England , Sicily , and Germany , among other locations . In a letter to Bernard Berenson in November 1912 , Wharton expressed regret regarding her novel , calling it a `` poor miserable lifeless lump '' . She wrote , `` Anyhow , remember it 's not me , though I thought it was when I was writing it -- & that next time I 'm going to do something worthwhile !! ''",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "The_Reef_(novel)",
"rank": 77,
"score": 86042
},
{
"content": "Title: Gaven Reefs Content: The Gaven Reefs ( Chinese : Nanxun Jiao 南薰礁 and Xinan Jiao 西南礁 , Vietnamese : Đá Ga Ven and '' Đá Lạc '' , Tagalog : Burgos ) is a group of two reefs in the Tizard Bank of the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea . They are controlled by China as part of Sansha , and claimed by Taiwan , the Philippines and Vietnam . They have a supply platform and a reef fortress . The north reef ( Nanxun Jiao ) comprises 86 ha and its highest point is 1.9 m above sea level . The south reef ( Xinan Jiao ) comprises 67 ha .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Gaven_Reefs",
"rank": 78,
"score": 85854
},
{
"content": "Title: Florida Reef Content: The Florida Reef ( also known as the Great Florida Reef , Florida reefs , Florida Reef Tract and Florida Keys Reef Tract ) is the only living coral barrier reef in the continental United States . It is the third largest coral barrier reef system in the world ( after the Great Barrier Reef and Belize Barrier Reef ) . It lies a few miles seaward of the Florida Keys , is about 4 miles ( 6 to 7 km ) wide and extends ( along the 20 meter depth contour ) 270 km from Fowey Rocks just east of Soldier Key to just south of the Marquesas Keys . The barrier reef tract forms a great arc , concentric with the Florida Keys , with the northern end , in Biscayne National Park , oriented north-south and the western end , south of the Marquesas Keys , oriented east-west . The rest of the reef outside Biscayne National Park lies within John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary . Isolated coral patch reefs occur northward from Biscayne National Park as far as Stuart , in Martin County . Coral reefs are also found in Dry Tortugas National Park west of the Marquesas Keys . There are more than 6,000 individual reefs in the system . The reefs are 5,000 to 7,000 years old , having developed since sea levels rose following the Wisconsinan glaciation . The densest and most spectacular reefs are found to the seaward of Key Largo ( in and beyond John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park ) and Elliott Key where the two long keys help protect the reefs from the effects of water exchange with Florida Bay , Biscayne Bay , Card Sound and Barnes Sound . The bays and sounds ( all between the Florida Keys and the mainland ) tend to have lower salinity , higher turbidity and wider temperature variations than the water in the open ocean . Channels between the Keys allow water from the bays to flow onto the reefs ( especially in the middle Keys ) , limiting their growth .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Florida_Reef",
"rank": 79,
"score": 85682
},
{
"content": "Title: Millepora dichotoma Content: Millepora dichotoma '' , the net fire coral , is a species of hydrozoan , consisting of a colony of polyps with a calcareous skeleton . Part of the metabolism of the fire coral relies on zooxanthellae included in their anatomy . They are found from the Red Sea to Samoa and South Africa . They form fan-shaped colonies up to 60 cm across , but clumps may be several metres across . Coloured mustard to olive-yellow , the fans form in a single plane . Feeding polyps snare plankton from the passing current along exposed portions of upper reef slopes up to 15 m depth , growing transverse to the prevailing current to ensure maximum exposure to passing foodstuff . The stinging nematocysts contain a toxin which causes painful burn-like wounds on contact . At worst , this may cause collapse in those with a severe allergic reaction . Skin irritation may continue for up to two weeks .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Millepora_dichotoma",
"rank": 80,
"score": 85644
},
{
"content": "Title: Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary Content: Gray 's Reef National Marine Sanctuary is one of the largest near shore live-bottom reefs in the southeastern United States . The sanctuary , designated in January 1981 , is located 17.5 nmi off Sapelo Island , Georgia , and is one of 13 marine sanctuaries that make up the U.S. National Marine Sanctuary System . Within the 17-square-nautical-mile ( 58 km2 ) sanctuary , there are both rocky ledges and sandy flat places . The reef 's dolomitic sandstone outcrops , submerged beneath 60 to 70 feet ( 18 to 21 m ) of water , can be as tall as 2 to 3 m and are highly complex . These nooks and crannies provide plenty of places for invertebrates to latch on to and for fish to hide in . Together these animals form a dense carpet of living creatures that in places completely hides the rock . That gives the habitat of Gray 's Reef its common name -- a `` live bottom '' . Researchers from NOAA and the University of Georgia have used the site to study invertebrate and vertebrate paleontology as well as the effects of erosion .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Gray's_Reef_National_Marine_Sanctuary",
"rank": 81,
"score": 85496
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 82,
"score": 85414
},
{
"content": "Title: Ekemblemaria myersi Content: Ekemblemaria myersi , the Reefsand blenny , is a species of chaenopsid blenny found from the Gulf of California to Colombia , in the eastern central Pacific ocean . It can reach a maximum length of 7 cm TL . This species feeds primarily on zoobenthos .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Ekemblemaria_myersi",
"rank": 83,
"score": 85273
},
{
"content": "Title: Branch coral Content: The branch coral ( Acropora florida ) is a species of acroporid coral found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan and the East China Sea , Cook Islands and the oceanic west Pacific Ocean . It can be found in shallow reefs on the reef tops , walls and slopes to depths of 30 m.",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Branch_coral",
"rank": 84,
"score": 84986
},
{
"content": "Title: Platygyra lamellina Content: Platygyra lamellina , the hard brain coral , is a species of colonial stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow water in the Indo-Pacific region . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being `` near threatened '' .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Platygyra_lamellina",
"rank": 85,
"score": 84872
},
{
"content": "Title: Minerva Reefs Content: The Minerva Reefs ( Tongan : Ongo Teleki ) , briefly de facto independent in 1972 as the Republic of Minerva , are a group of two submerged atolls located in the Pacific Ocean south of Fiji and Tonga . The reefs were named after the whaleship Minerva , wrecked on what became known as South Minerva after setting out from Sydney in 1829 . Many other ships would follow , for example the Strathcona , which was sailing north soon after completion in Auckland in 1914 . In both cases most of the crew saved themselves in whaleboats or rafts and reached the Lau Islands in Fiji . Of some other ships , however , no survivors are known .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Minerva_Reefs",
"rank": 86,
"score": 84845
},
{
"content": "Title: Agariciidae Content: The Agariciidae are a family of reef-building stony corals . This family includes cactus corals , elephant skin corals , plate corals , and lettuce corals . Members of the family include symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae in their tissues which help provide their energy requirements .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Agariciidae",
"rank": 87,
"score": 84745
},
{
"content": "Title: International Society for Reef Studies Content: The International Society for Reef Studies ( ISRS ) is an international , not-for profit , scientific society dedicated to the conservation of coral reefs through science and understanding . Founded in 1980 , the primary objective of ISRS is the improvement of scientific knowledge and understanding of coral reefs , both living and fossil .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "International_Society_for_Reef_Studies",
"rank": 88,
"score": 84741
},
{
"content": "Title: Platygyra daedalea Content: Platygyra daedalea , sometimes known as the lesser valley coral , is a colonial species of stony coral in the family Merulinidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow water in the Indo-Pacific region . It is a common species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of `` least concern '' .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Platygyra_daedalea",
"rank": 89,
"score": 84733
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora kirstyae Content: Acropora kirstyae is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by Jen Veron and C. C. Wallace in 1984 . Found in marine , tropical , shallow reefs in sheltered areas usually at depths of 10 to , and also occurs in sheltered lagoons . It is listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List , and it is thought to have a decreasing population . It is not common and found over a large area , and is listed on CITES Appendix II .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Acropora_kirstyae",
"rank": 90,
"score": 84616
},
{
"content": "Title: Colpophyllia natans Content: Colpophyllia natans , known as boulder brain coral and large-grooved brain coral , is a species of stony coral found primarily in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico . It inhabits the slopes and tops of reefs , to a maximum depth of fifty metres . It is characterised by large , domed colonies , which may be up to two metres across , and by the meandering network of ridges and valleys on its surface . The ridges are usually brown with a single groove , and the valleys may be tan , green , or white and are uniform in width , typically 2 centimetres . The polyps only extend their tentacles at night .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Colpophyllia_natans",
"rank": 91,
"score": 84561
},
{
"content": "Title: Reefing Content: Reefing is the means of reducing the area of a sail , usually by folding or rolling one edge of the canvas in on itself . The converse operation , removing the reef , is called `` shaking it out . '' Reefing improves the performance of sailing vessels in strong winds , and is the primary safety precaution in rough weather . Reefing sails improves vessel stability and minimizes the risk of damage to the sail or other gear . Proper skills in and equipment for reefing are crucial to averting the dangers of capsizing or broaching in heavy weather .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Reefing",
"rank": 92,
"score": 84519
},
{
"content": "Title: Lithostrotion Content: Lithostrotion is a genus of rugose coral which is commonly found as a fossil within Carboniferous Limestone . Lithostrotion is a member of the Lithostrotionidae family . The genus Lithostrotion , a common and readily recognised group of fossils , became extinct by the end of the Palaeozoic era .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Lithostrotion",
"rank": 93,
"score": 84275
},
{
"content": "Title: Les Kaufman Content: Les Kaufman is an evolutionary ecologist specializing in the biology and conservation of aquatic ecosystems . He has special expertise in coral reef biology , the evolution and ecology of tropical great lakes fishes , and ecosystem-based management of marine resources . Kaufman received his Bachelor of Science and Ph.D. degrees in evolutionary ecology from Johns Hopkins University , receiving his Ph.D. in 1980 . He is based in Boston as Professor of Biology in the Boston University Marine Program , and Faculty Fellow in the Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range Future , where he leads interdisciplinary work on Coupled Human and Natural Systems ( CHANS ) . He conducted post-doctoral research at the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology from 1980 to 1983 , where he remains an Associate in Ichthyology . Kaufman worked full-time with the New England Aquarium from 1983 through 1994 , serving in turn as Curator of Education , Curator of Exhibit Research and Development , and Chief Scientist . Since 2005 he has worked as a senior marine scientist and PI for the Marine Management Areas Science Program ( www.science2action.org ) , and since 2012 as Marine Conservation Fellow in the Betty and Gordon Moore Center for Ecosystem Science and Economics . Since 2010 , he has also served on the advisory board of Healthy Reefs for Healthy People . Kaufman is active in public education and outreach , occasionally involved in the production of popular articles , television , and radio for venues such as National Geographic , Ranger Rick , and the National Public Broadcasting system . He has taken part in four saturation diving missions at the Aquarius underwater laboratory , where he has also performed underwater surgery on fish to implant electronic acoustic tags inside them .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Les_Kaufman",
"rank": 94,
"score": 84267
},
{
"content": "Title: Miri-Sibuti Coral Reef National Park Content: The Miri-Sibuti Coral Reefs National Park is a protected area of coral reefs in Miri Division , Sarawak , Malaysia , off the island of Borneo . The park is a popular dive destination . The Miri-Sibuti Coral Reefs National Park , lying at depths ranging from 7 to at the seaward edge , has an average visibility of 10 to . The best time to dive is from late March through November each year . Popular diving sites includes Luconia Area , Anemone Garden , Grouper Patch Reef , Atago Maru Wreck and Seafan Garden . There are also some wreck dives . It is one of Malaysia 's most recently discovered diving locations and the largest offshore national park created in the state of Sarawak . The reefs house a wide diversity of marine creatures including soft corals like leather corals , sea whips , Bubble corals , staghorn corals , Dendronephthya and Gorgonia sea fans , as well as sponges including elephant ear spongees . Fish species include clown fish , yellow and blueback fusiliers , angelfish , butterfly fish , sea perch , lizardfish , batfish , jackfish , barracudas , Napoleon wrasse and sharks . Other creatures include feather stars , giant clams , nudibranches , anemones and sea horses .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Miri-Sibuti_Coral_Reef_National_Park",
"rank": 95,
"score": 84250
},
{
"content": "Title: Hydrophiinae Content: The Hydrophiinae , commonly known as sea snakes or coral reef snakes , are a subfamily of venomous elapid snakes that inhabit marine environments for most or all of their lives . Most are extensively adapted to a fully aquatic life and are unable to move on land , except for the genus Laticauda , which has limited land movement . They are found in warm coastal waters from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific and are closely related to venomous terrestrial snakes in Australia . All have paddle-like tails and many have laterally compressed bodies that give them an eel-like appearance . Unlike fish , they do not have gills and must surface regularly to breathe . Along with whales , they are among the most completely aquatic of all air-breathing vertebrates . Among this group are species with some of the most potent venoms of all snakes . Some have gentle dispositions and bite only when provoked , but others are much more aggressive . Currently , 17 genera are described as sea snakes , comprising 62 species .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Hydrophiinae",
"rank": 96,
"score": 84210
},
{
"content": "Title: The Reef Content: The Reef may refer to The Reef , an alternative name for the Witwatersrand in South Africa The Reef ( novel ) , a 1912 novel by Edith Wharton The Reef ( 1999 film ) , a film adaptation of the novel The Reef ( 2010 film ) , an Australian film Great Barrier Reef , the planet 's largest coral reef Shark Bait , a 2006 animated film released as The Reef in the United States , South Africa and Ireland ; and as Pi 's Story in South Korea Shark Bait 2 : High Tide , a sequel to that film released as The Reef 2 : High Tide in the United States , South Africa and Ireland and as Pi 's Story 2 : High Tide in South Korea",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "The_Reef",
"rank": 97,
"score": 84194
},
{
"content": "Title: Reef HQ Content: Reef HQ ( typeset as ReefHQ ) is the largest living coral reef aquarium . It is located in Townsville , Queensland , Australia . The aquarium was built as a Bicentennial Commemorative project and is a part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) . The Coral Reef Exhibit has 130 coral species and 120 fish species along with hundreds of species of sea stars , sea urchins , sea cucumbers , brittle stars , feather stars , snails , worms and sponges .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Reef_HQ",
"rank": 98,
"score": 83932
},
{
"content": "Title: Acropora loisetteae Content: Acropora loisetteae is a species of acroporid coral that was first described by C. C. Wallace in 1994 . Found in marine , tropical , shallow reefs in sheltered lagoons , it is found at depths between 1 and . It is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List , and it is thought to have a decreasing population . It is not common but found over a large area , and is listed under CITES Appendix II .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Acropora_loisetteae",
"rank": 99,
"score": 83866
},
{
"content": "Title: Green Flats Reef (New York) Content: Green Flats is a reef in City Island Harbor , between City Island and Rat Island . The reef is composed of mostly small round glacial alluvial rocks and a number of glacial erratics made of granite . It is covered in green seamoss and kelp . Like all true reefs , it is completely underwater ( and a hazard to navigation ) at high tide and visible at low tide . Seagulls take mussels from the shallows and fly about 30 feet above the reef and drop them and smash the shells on the rocks and then eat the broken up mussels there . Great blue herons may be seen there hunting at low tide . Local knowledge has it that the reef is getting smaller due to erosion .",
"qid": "181",
"docid": "Green_Flats_Reef_(New_York)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 83826
}
] |
It has never been shown that human emissions of carbon dioxide drive global warming. | [
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 1,
"score": 162318
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 2,
"score": 162284
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 3,
"score": 158800
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 4,
"score": 152778
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 5,
"score": 151328
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 6,
"score": 149562
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 7,
"score": 148835
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 8,
"score": 146872
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 9,
"score": 145198
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 10,
"score": 145102
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 11,
"score": 143270
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 12,
"score": 142989
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 13,
"score": 142927
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Kaya_identity",
"rank": 14,
"score": 141909
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 15,
"score": 141415
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 16,
"score": 141223
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 17,
"score": 140856
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 18,
"score": 140148
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 19,
"score": 139737
},
{
"content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Politics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 20,
"score": 139572
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 21,
"score": 138870
},
{
"content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut",
"rank": 22,
"score": 138293
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_label",
"rank": 23,
"score": 137491
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 24,
"score": 136063
},
{
"content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32",
"rank": 25,
"score": 134201
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 26,
"score": 133970
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 27,
"score": 133920
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 28,
"score": 133920
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 29,
"score": 133015
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 30,
"score": 132418
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping",
"rank": 31,
"score": 131955
},
{
"content": "Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "The_Green_Initiative",
"rank": 32,
"score": 131865
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 33,
"score": 131759
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 34,
"score": 131730
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 35,
"score": 131603
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 36,
"score": 131295
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 37,
"score": 131180
},
{
"content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Fugitive_emissions",
"rank": 38,
"score": 130624
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 39,
"score": 130446
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry",
"rank": 40,
"score": 130128
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 41,
"score": 130076
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies",
"rank": 42,
"score": 128385
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_footprint",
"rank": 43,
"score": 128018
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Kyoto_Protocol",
"rank": 44,
"score": 127796
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 45,
"score": 127543
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 46,
"score": 126498
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Charles_David_Keeling",
"rank": 47,
"score": 126267
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning",
"rank": 48,
"score": 125906
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 49,
"score": 125411
},
{
"content": "Title: Assigned amount units Content: An Assigned Amount Unit ( AAU ) is a tradable ` Kyoto unit ' or ` carbon credit ' representing an allowance to emit greenhouse gases comprising one metric tonne of carbon dioxide equivalents calculated using their Global Warming Potential . Assigned Amount Units are issued up to the level of initial `` assigned amount '' of an Annex 1 Party to the Kyoto Protocol . The `` assigned amounts '' are the Kyoto Protocol Annex B emission targets ( or `` quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives '' ) expressed as levels of allowed emissions over the 2008-2012 commitment period .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Assigned_amount_units",
"rank": 50,
"score": 124447
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 51,
"score": 124198
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 52,
"score": 123306
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Environmental_issue",
"rank": 53,
"score": 122463
},
{
"content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence",
"rank": 54,
"score": 122100
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 55,
"score": 121918
},
{
"content": "Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Evangelical_Climate_Initiative",
"rank": 56,
"score": 121581
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 57,
"score": 121448
},
{
"content": "Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Emission_Reduction_Unit",
"rank": 58,
"score": 121200
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_inventory",
"rank": 59,
"score": 121007
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 60,
"score": 120861
},
{
"content": "Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Klaus_Lackner",
"rank": 61,
"score": 120802
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 62,
"score": 119942
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 63,
"score": 119932
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 64,
"score": 119230
},
{
"content": "Title: List of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions Content: This is a list of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity . The data presented below from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Energy Information Administration corresponds to emissions in 2014 . Interactive bar charts ( showing state rankings for total and per-capita emissions ) and interactive maps ( for both total emissions and per capita emissions ) for the 2014 data are available on Tableau Public . __ TOC __",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "List_of_U.S._states_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 65,
"score": 118907
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide equivalent Content: Carbon dioxide equivalent ( CDE ) and equivalent carbon dioxide ( e and eq ) are two related but distinct measures for describing how much global warming a given type and amount of greenhouse gas may cause , using the functionally equivalent amount or concentration of carbon dioxide as the reference .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_equivalent",
"rank": 66,
"score": 118339
},
{
"content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme",
"rank": 67,
"score": 117989
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England",
"rank": 68,
"score": 117827
},
{
"content": "Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Wildland_fire_emission",
"rank": 69,
"score": 117105
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 70,
"score": 116652
},
{
"content": "Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Christine_Wiedinmyer",
"rank": 71,
"score": 116479
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmentalism in motorsport Content: The issue of environmentalism in motorsport surrounds the whole of auto racing to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions contributing to global warming .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Environmentalism_in_motorsport",
"rank": 72,
"score": 116122
},
{
"content": "Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Clean_Energy_Act_2011",
"rank": 73,
"score": 115792
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 74,
"score": 115772
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 75,
"score": 115577
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming",
"rank": 76,
"score": 115469
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 77,
"score": 115259
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 78,
"score": 114945
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 79,
"score": 114737
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 80,
"score": 114525
},
{
"content": "Title: Clean Power Plan Content: The Clean Power Plan is an Obama administration policy aimed at combating anthropogenic climate change ( global warming ) that was first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency in June 2014 . It is widely expected to be eliminated under President Donald Trump , who signed an executive order on March 28 , 2017 mandating the EPA to review the plan . The final version of the plan was unveiled by President Obama on August 3 , 2015 . The 460-page rule ( RIN 2060 -- AR33 ) titled `` Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources : Electric Utility Generating Units '' was published in the Federal Register on October 23 , 2015 . The Obama administration designed the plan to lower the carbon dioxide emitted by power generators .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Clean_Power_Plan",
"rank": 81,
"score": 114158
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions",
"rank": 82,
"score": 113608
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 83,
"score": 113557
},
{
"content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme",
"rank": 84,
"score": 113124
},
{
"content": "Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Zero-carbon_city",
"rank": 85,
"score": 112131
},
{
"content": "Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Campus_carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 86,
"score": 111933
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance",
"rank": 87,
"score": 111932
},
{
"content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance",
"rank": 88,
"score": 111491
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 89,
"score": 111451
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 90,
"score": 111443
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_trading",
"rank": 91,
"score": 111374
},
{
"content": "Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Stuart_Agnew",
"rank": 92,
"score": 110841
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Michael_Raupach",
"rank": 93,
"score": 110708
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 94,
"score": 110654
},
{
"content": "Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 95,
"score": 110524
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 96,
"score": 110350
},
{
"content": "Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Zero-emissions_vehicle",
"rank": 97,
"score": 109876
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Carbon_Disclosure_Project",
"rank": 98,
"score": 109580
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Greenhouse_debt",
"rank": 99,
"score": 109386
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "184",
"docid": "Climate-friendly_gardening",
"rank": 100,
"score": 109027
}
] |
Modellers assume carbon dioxide drives climate change | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 1,
"score": 140540
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 2,
"score": 135465
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 3,
"score": 132639
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas Knutson Content: Thomas Knutson is a climate modeller at the US Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory , a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research covers hurricane activity , the link between climate change and hurricane incidence and intensity , and climate change detection and attribution . He served as a contributing author on working group 1 of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He is an Associate Editor of the American Meteorological Society 's Journal of Climate . He has published in Science , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Journal of Geophysical Research , Journal of Climate , Tropical Cyclone Research and Review , Tellus A and the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . In 2004 , Knutson published a paper suggesting that increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide would lead to more intense hurricanes . This finding was subsequently supported by independent research . Knutson was invited to discuss his thesis on Ron Reagan 's MSNBC talk show , but the invitation was withdrawn after the White House intervened . Source : New Scientist Magazine 2007-02-03 , p. 5",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Thomas_Knutson",
"rank": 4,
"score": 130820
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 5,
"score": 130499
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 6,
"score": 129035
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 7,
"score": 127331
},
{
"content": "Title: DICE model Content: The Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy model , referred to as the DICE model or Dice model , is a computer-based integrated assessment model developed by William Nordhaus that `` integrates in an end-to-end fashion the economics , carbon cycle , climate science , and impacts in a highly aggregated model that allows a weighing of the costs and benefits of taking steps to slow greenhouse warming . '' Nordhaus also developed the RICE model ( Regional Integrated Climate-Economy model ) , a variant of the DICE model that was updated and developed alongside the DICE model . Others who collaborated with Nordhaus to develop the model include David Popp , Zili Yang , Joseph Boyer , and other colleagues . The DICE model is one of the three main integrated assessment models used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency , and it provides estimates intermediate between the other two models .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "DICE_model",
"rank": 8,
"score": 127012
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 9,
"score": 126065
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_bubble",
"rank": 10,
"score": 126017
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 11,
"score": 125540
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 12,
"score": 125069
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson",
"rank": 13,
"score": 124946
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_engineering",
"rank": 14,
"score": 124847
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 15,
"score": 124444
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 16,
"score": 123913
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 17,
"score": 123881
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 18,
"score": 123623
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 19,
"score": 122568
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_sensitivity",
"rank": 20,
"score": 122327
},
{
"content": "Title: Ian G. Enting Content: Ian Enting ( born 25 September 1948 ) is a mathematical physicist and the AMSI/MASCOS Professorial Fellow at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Mathematics and Statistics of Complex Systems ( MASCOS ) based at The University of Melbourne . Enting is the author of Twisted , The Distorted Mathematics of Greenhouse Denial in which he analyses the presentation and use of data by climate change deniers . More recently he has been addressing the claims made in Ian Plimer 's book `` Heaven + Earth '' . He has published a critique , `` Ian Plimer 's ` Heaven + Earth ' -- Checking the Claims '' , listing what Enting claims are numerous misrepresentations of the sources cited in the book . From 1980 to 2004 he worked in CSIRO Atmospheric Research , primarily on modelling the global carbon cycle . He was one of the lead authors of the chapter and the Carbon Cycle in the 1994 IPCC report on Radiative Forcing of Climate . Enting has published scientific papers , on mathematical physics and carbon cycle modelling , and a monograph on mathematical techniques for interpreting observations of carbon dioxide and other trace gases .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Ian_G._Enting",
"rank": 21,
"score": 119564
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 22,
"score": 119114
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 23,
"score": 118955
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 24,
"score": 118875
},
{
"content": "Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 25,
"score": 117875
},
{
"content": "Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Evangelical_Climate_Initiative",
"rank": 26,
"score": 116933
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 27,
"score": 115231
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 28,
"score": 115179
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 29,
"score": 115134
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 30,
"score": 114335
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon literacy Content: Carbon Literacy is a term used to describe an awareness of climate change and the climate impacts of mankind 's everyday actions . The term has been used in a range of contexts in scientific literature and in casual usage ( see Research ) , but is most associated with The Carbon Literacy Project ( CLP ) .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_literacy",
"rank": 31,
"score": 114035
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 32,
"score": 113623
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 33,
"score": 113542
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 34,
"score": 113540
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 35,
"score": 113435
},
{
"content": "Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan",
"rank": 36,
"score": 113324
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 37,
"score": 112916
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_model",
"rank": 38,
"score": 112499
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 39,
"score": 112329
},
{
"content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Scott_Denning",
"rank": 40,
"score": 112117
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 41,
"score": 111285
},
{
"content": "Title: C4MIP Content: C4MIP ( more fully , Coupled Climate Carbon Cycle Model Intercomparison Project ) is a joint project between the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ( IGBP ) and the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) . It is a model intercomparison project along the lines of the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project , but for global climate models that include an interactive carbon cycle .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "C4MIP",
"rank": 42,
"score": 110985
},
{
"content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry",
"rank": 43,
"score": 110807
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Act_2008",
"rank": 44,
"score": 110592
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes",
"rank": 45,
"score": 110511
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Dress Content: The Climate Dress was designed in 2009 by Danish design company Diffus Design in collaboration with the Swiss embroidery company Forster-Rohner , Alexandra Institute and the Danish School of Design . The Climate Dress is laced with hundreds of light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) that responds to the level of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the nearby surroundings and are powered through the conductive embroidery by an Arduino Lily pad microprocessor and a carbon dioxide detector , resulting in patterns that range from slow pulses to rapid flashes depending on the concentration of the CO2 . The Climate Dress does not rely on wiring , soldering , or crimping , which is often the case with smart textile products . All functional elements are blended into the embroidery and exposed to the viewer . The Climate Dress was presented at the Cop 15 Climate Summit in Copenhagen in 2009 , at the `` Health Environment Climate '' exhibition . In 2011 the Climate Dress won first prize in the Design That Performs contest , hosted by Samsung .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_Dress",
"rank": 46,
"score": 110351
},
{
"content": "Title: The Carbon Principles Content: The Carbon Principles are a series of guidelines established by three leading Wall Street banks -- Citigroup Inc. , JP Morgan Chase , and Morgan Stanley -- to assess the risks in financing electric power projects in terms of climate change . These principles call for `` enhanced diligence '' in evaluating electric power industry borrowers in terms of their use of energy efficiency ; renewable and low-carbon distributed energy technologies ; and conventional and advanced generating technologies . The Climate Principles are a similar framework for climate change best practice for the financial sector . This is a comprehensive industry framework for a response to climate change and has been adopted by Crédit Agricole , Munich Re , Standard Chartered , Swiss Re and HSBC",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "The_Carbon_Principles",
"rank": 47,
"score": 110056
},
{
"content": "Title: 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 29 to November 10 , 2001 in Marrakech , Morocco . The conference included the 7th Conference of the Parties ( COP7 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The negotiators wrapped up the work on the Buenos Aires Plan of Action , finalizing most of the operational details and setting the stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol . The completed package of decisions is known as the Marrakech Accords . The United States delegation maintained its observer role , declining to participate actively in the negotiations . Other parties continued to express hope that the United States would re-engage in the process at some point and worked to achieve ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by the requisite number of countries to bring it into force ( 55 countries needed to ratify it , including those accounting for 55 % of developed country emissions of carbon dioxide in 1990 ) . The date of the World Summit on Sustainable Development ( August -- September 2002 ) was put forward as a target to bring the Kyoto Protocol into force . The World Summit on Sustainable Development ( WSSD ) was to be held in Johannesburg , South Africa . The main decisions at COP 7 included : Operational rules for international emissions trading among parties to the Protocol and for the CDM and joint implementation ; A compliance regime that outlined consequences for failure to meet emissions targets but deferred to the parties to the Protocol , once it came into force , the decision on whether those consequences would be legally binding ; Accounting procedures for the flexibility mechanisms ; A decision to consider at COP 8 how to achieve a review of the adequacy of commitments that might lead to discussions on future commitments by developing countries . Category :21 st-century diplomatic conferences Category : Diplomatic conferences in Morocco Category : Climate change conferences 2001 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference , 2001 Category :2001 in the environment Category : History of Marrakesh Category : October 2001 events Category : November 2001 events Category :2001 in Morocco",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "2001_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 48,
"score": 109112
},
{
"content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model",
"rank": 49,
"score": 108822
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Research_Centre",
"rank": 50,
"score": 108801
},
{
"content": "Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 51,
"score": 108372
},
{
"content": "Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "William_D._Sellers",
"rank": 52,
"score": 107970
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 53,
"score": 107776
},
{
"content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence",
"rank": 54,
"score": 107298
},
{
"content": "Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Kenneth_Hare",
"rank": 55,
"score": 107292
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Content: The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum ( CSLF ) is an international initiative to advance carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) technology . The Forum is a Ministerial-level organization that includes 23 member countries and the European Commission . Membership is open to national governmental entities that are significant producers or users of fossil fuel and that have a commitment to invest resources in research , development and demonstration activities in carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies . CSLF also recognizes that stakeholders , those organizations that are affected by and can affect the goals of CSLF , form an essential component of CSLF activities . The CSLF Charter , signed in June 2003 , organized the CSLF by creating a Policy Group , which governs the overall framework and policies of the CSLF , a Technical Group , which reviews the progress of collaborative projects and makes recommendations to the Policy Group on any needed actions , and an administrative Secretariat , which organizes CSLF meetings , coordinates communications among CSLF Members , and acts as a clearinghouse of information . In July 2005 , the G8 Summit endorsed the CSLF in its Plan of Action on Climate Change , Clean Energy and Sustainable Development , and identified it as a medium of cooperation and collaboration with key developing countries in dealing with greenhouse gases . Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include : the joint statement of the U.S.-European Union Summit on Energy Security , Energy Efficiency , Renewables and Economic Development , and the Mainz Declaration of Germany and the United States on Cleaner and More Efficient Energy , Development and Climate Change . In 2006 and 2007 , the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage . Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders . The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO2 capture , transport and storage research and activities .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum",
"rank": 56,
"score": 107166
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 57,
"score": 106904
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 58,
"score": 106889
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_scenario",
"rank": 59,
"score": 106861
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 60,
"score": 106717
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 61,
"score": 106580
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Authority",
"rank": 62,
"score": 106571
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 63,
"score": 106524
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 64,
"score": 106447
},
{
"content": "Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Greening_Earth_Society",
"rank": 65,
"score": 105938
},
{
"content": "Title: Ziff–Gulari–Barshad model Content: The Ziff -- Gulari -- Barshad ( ZGB ) model is a simple Monte Carlo method for catalytic reactions of oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide on a surface using Monte-Carlo methods which captures correctly the essential dynamics : the phase transition between two poisoned states ( either CO2 - or O-poisoned ) and a steady-state in between . It is named after Robert M. Ziff , Erdogan Gulari , and Yoav Barshad , who published it in 1986 .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Ziff–Gulari–Barshad_model",
"rank": 66,
"score": 105815
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Levy Content: The Climate Change Levy ( CCL ) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom . Its aim is to provide an incentive to increase energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions ; however , there have been ongoing calls to replace it with a proper carbon tax .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Levy",
"rank": 67,
"score": 105716
},
{
"content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory",
"rank": 68,
"score": 105669
},
{
"content": "Title: CBM-CFS3 Content: CBM-CFS3 ( Carbon Budget Model of the Canadian Forest Sector ) is a Windows-based software modelling framework for stand - and landscape-level forest ecosystem carbon accounting . It is used to calculate forest carbon stocks and stock changes for the past ( monitoring ) or into the future ( projection ) . It can be used to create , simulate and compare various forest management scenarios in order to assess impacts on carbon . It is compliant with requirements under the Kyoto Protocol and with the Good Practice Guidance for Land Use , Land-Use Change and Forestry ( 2003 ) report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . It is the central model of the Government of Canada 's National Forest Carbon Monitoring , Accounting and Reporting System ( NFCMARS ) . The CBM-CFS3 was developed through a collaboration between Natural Resources Canada 's Canadian Forest Service ( CFS ) and the Canadian Model Forest Network , and is currently supported by the CFS . The CBM-CFS3 is distributed at no charge by the Canadian Forest Service through Canada 's National Forest Information System web site . Technical support is available by contacting Stephen Kull , Carbon Model Extension Forester , at the CFS .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "CBM-CFS3",
"rank": 69,
"score": 105664
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme",
"rank": 70,
"score": 105646
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Kaya_identity",
"rank": 71,
"score": 105572
},
{
"content": "Title: Vote Climate U.S. PAC Content: Vote Climate U.S. PAC is an American super PAC founded in 2013 and directed by American political activist Karyn Strickler . Its mission is `` to elect candidates to get off fossil fuels , transition to clean , renewable energy and put a price on carbon , in order to slow global warming and related weather extremes . '' Strickler has named the implementation of a carbon tax as a principal goal . As a super PAC ( a type of political action committee ) , the organization can not contribute to candidates but can make independent expenditures on their behalf .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Vote_Climate_U.S._PAC",
"rank": 72,
"score": 105568
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 73,
"score": 105304
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England",
"rank": 74,
"score": 104813
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_footprint",
"rank": 75,
"score": 104350
},
{
"content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance",
"rank": 76,
"score": 104294
},
{
"content": "Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases",
"rank": 77,
"score": 104026
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 78,
"score": 103948
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 79,
"score": 103934
},
{
"content": "Title: Fee and dividend Content: Fee and Dividend or Carbon Fee and Dividend ( CF&D ) is a market-based mechanism for reducing the carbon emissions that help to drive anthropogenic climate change . Carbon Fee and Dividend begins with levying imposing a progressively-rising fee on carbon-based fuels , then returning some or all of the fees collected to the public as a regular energy dividend . This is intended to incentivize a shift to low-carbon energy while protecting consumers from any increases in the costs of carbon-based fuels . Designed to maintain or improve economic vitality while speeding the transition to a sustainable energy economy , Carbon Fee and Dividend has been proposed as an alternative to emission reduction mechanisms such as cap and trade or a straightforward carbon tax .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Fee_and_dividend",
"rank": 80,
"score": 103431
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 81,
"score": 102080
},
{
"content": "Title: Low Carbon Communities Content: Low Carbon Communities ( LCC ) is one part of Marches Energy Agency ; a leading climate change and sustainable energy social enterprise and a registered charity , based in the West Midlands , England . LCC works with interested communities to find sustainable energy solutions for their community . This involves working with households , businesses , schools and community groups to raise awareness about climate change and help implement sustainable energy measures . This includes energy efficiency measures - both technical and behavioural - and renewable energy installations . Ultimately , LCC aims to help communities obtain the skills and knowledge required to achieve community ownership and enable informed decision-making on energy saving opportunities . A pilot Low Carbon Communities project from 2006-9 in three communities in Shropshire has now ended . The project , based in Ellesmere , Cleobury Mortimer and the `` Floodplain Community '' ( a collection of small villages and farmsteads near Oswestry ) , aimed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 5.88 % or 3868 tonnes within these communities . This acted as a pilot for similar ventures around the country and LCC is now working with a number of communities in the West Midlands and East Midlands .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Low_Carbon_Communities",
"rank": 82,
"score": 101525
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 83,
"score": 101520
},
{
"content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "James_Hansen",
"rank": 84,
"score": 101272
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 85,
"score": 101250
},
{
"content": "Title: Dynamic global vegetation model Content: A Dynamic Global Vegetation Model ( DGVM ) is a computer program that simulates shifts in potential vegetation and its associated biogeochemical and hydrological cycles as a response to shifts in climate . DGVMs use time series of climate data and , given constraints of latitude , topography , and soil characteristics , simulate monthly or daily dynamics of ecosystem processes . DGVMs are used most often to simulate the effects of future climate change on natural vegetation and its carbon and water cycles . DGVMs generally combine biogeochemistry , biogeography , and disturbance submodels . Disturbance is often limited to wildfires , but in principle could include any of : forest/land management decisions , windthrow , insect damage , ozone damage etc. . DGVMs usually `` spin up '' their simulations from bare ground to `` equilibrium '' vegetation to establish realistic initial values for their various `` pools '' : carbon and nitrogen in live and dead vegetation , soil organic matter , etc. corresponding to a documented historical vegetation cover . DGVMs are usually run in a spatially distributed mode , with simulations carried out for thousands of `` cells '' , geographic points which are assumed to have homogeneous conditions within each cell . Simulations are carried out across a range of spatial scales , from global to landscape . Cells are usually arranged as lattice points ; the distance between adjacent lattice points may be as coarse as a few degrees of latitude or longitude , or as fine as 30 arc-seconds . Simulations of the conterminous United States in the first DGVM comparison exercise ( LPJ and MC1 ) called the VEMAP project in the 1990s used a lattice grain of one-half degree . Global simulations by the PIK group and collaborators using 6 different DGVMs ( HYBRID , IBIS , LPJ , SDGVM , TRIFFID , and VECODE ) used the same resolution as the general circulation model ( GCM ) that provided the climate data , 3.75 deg longitude x 2.5 deg latitude , a total of 1631 land grid cells . Sometimes lattice distances are specified in kilometers rather than angular measure , especially for finer grains , so a project like VEMAP is often referred to as 50 km grain . Several DGVMs appeared in the middle 1990s . The first was apparently IBIS ( Foley et al. , 1996 ) , VECODE ( Brovkin et al. , 1997 ) , followed by several others described below : Several DGVMs have been developed by various research groups around the world : LPJ - Germany , Sweden IBIS - Integrated Biosphere Simulator - U.S. MC1 - U.S. HYBRID - U.K. SDGVM - U.K. SEIB-DGVM - Japan TRIFFID - U.K. VECODE - Germany CLM-DVGM - U.S. Ecosystem Demography ( ED , ED2 ) The next generation of models - earth system models ( ex . CCSM , ORCHIDEE , JULES , CTEM ) - now includes the important feedbacks from the biosphere to the atmosphere so that vegetation shifts and changes in the carbon and hydrological cycles affect the climate . DGVMs commonly simulate a variety of plant and soil physiological processes . The processes simulated by various DGVMs are summarized in the table below . Abbreviations are : NPP , net primary production ; PFT , plant functional type ; SAW , soil available water ; LAI , leaf area index ; I , solar radiation ; T , air temperature ; Wr , root zone water supply ; PET , potential evapotranspiration ; vegc , total live vegetation carbon . References : Category : Scientific modeling",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Dynamic_global_vegetation_model",
"rank": 86,
"score": 101235
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate-friendly_gardening",
"rank": 87,
"score": 101191
},
{
"content": "Title: Thermodynamic model of decompression Content: The thermodynamic model was one of the first decompression models in which decompression is controlled by the volume of gas bubbles coming out of solution . In this model , pain only DCS is modelled by a single tissue which is diffusion-limited for gas uptake and bubble-formation during decompression causes `` phase equilibration '' of partial pressures between dissolved and free gases . The driving mechanism for gas elimination in this tissue is inherent unsaturation , also called partial pressure vacancy or the oxygen window , where oxygen metabolised is replaced by more soluble carbon dioxide . This model was used to explain the effectiveness of the Torres Straits Island pearl divers empirically developed decompression schedules , which used deeper decompression stops and less overall decompression time than the current naval decompression schedules . This trend to deeper decompression stops has become a feature of more recent decompression models .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Thermodynamic_model_of_decompression",
"rank": 88,
"score": 101103
},
{
"content": "Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Christopher_Field",
"rank": 89,
"score": 101089
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 90,
"score": 101041
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 91,
"score": 100989
},
{
"content": "Title: Robert Berner Content: Robert Arbuckle Berner ( November 25 , 1935 -- January 10 , 2015 ) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the modeling of the carbon cycle . He taught Geology and Geophysics from 1965 to 2007 at Yale University , where he latterly served as Professor Emeritus until his death . His work on sedimentary rocks led to the co-founding of the BLAG model of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which takes into account both geochemical and biological contributions to the carbon cycle .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Robert_Berner",
"rank": 92,
"score": 100913
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon process management Content: Carbon Process Management ( CPM ) is a management process which promotes environmental effectiveness in organizations . It is designed to maximize efficiencies in the consumption of resources that contribute to climate change . When implemented effectively , CPM techniques can reduce operating costs , realizing gains in brand equity , competitive advantage and stakeholder value . Initially introduced by First Carbon Solutions , CPM uses Japanese kaizen philosophy which continuously improves workplace practices to reduce wastage , this is combined business process management ( BPM ) which increases efficiency . Governments who resorts to legal mechanisms and regulation to deal with the risks of climate change , techniques such as CPM are directed towards a corporate approach in helping reduce greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Carbon_process_management",
"rank": 93,
"score": 100764
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypoxic drive Content: The hypoxic drive is a form of respiratory drive in which the body uses oxygen chemoreceptors instead of carbon dioxide receptors to regulate the respiratory cycle . Normal respiration is driven mostly by the levels of carbon dioxide in the arteries , which are detected indirectly by central chemoreceptors when carbon dioxide crosses the blood -- brain barrier , forming detectable hydrogen ions , and directly by peripheral chemoreceptors , and very little by the oxygen levels . An increase in carbon dioxide will cause chemoreceptor reflexes to trigger an increase in ventilation . Hypoxic drive normally accounts for 10 % of the total drive to breathe . This increases as the PaO2 drops to 70 torr and below , while hypoxic drive is no longer active when PaO2 exceeds 170 torr . The hypoxic drive is so weak that unconsciousness will develop before respiratory distress is noted and is therefore a risk for pilots flying at high altitudes . For this reason , supplemental oxygen is required by Federal Aviation Regulations for pilots flying above an altitude of about 12,500 feet in unpressurized airplanes . In the past , it was believed that in cases where there are chronically high carbon dioxide levels in the blood such as in COPD patients , the body will begin to rely more on the oxygen receptors and less on the carbon dioxide receptors . And that in this case , when there is an increase in oxygen levels the body will decrease the rate of respiration . Recent studies have proven that COPD patients who have chronically compensated elevated levels ( known as '' Retainers '' ) are not in fact dependent on hypoxic drive to breathe . However , when in respiratory failure and put on high inspired oxygen , the in their blood may increase via three mechanisms , namely the Haldane Effect , the ventilation/perfusion mismatch ( where the regional pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction is released ) and by the removal or reduction of the hypoxic drive itself .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Hypoxic_drive",
"rank": 94,
"score": 100739
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 95,
"score": 100595
},
{
"content": "Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Klaus_Lackner",
"rank": 96,
"score": 100564
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 97,
"score": 100506
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006",
"rank": 98,
"score": 100307
},
{
"content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Suess_effect",
"rank": 99,
"score": 100245
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "185",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 100,
"score": 100114
}
] |
The geological history of the planet shows major planetary climate changes have never been driven by a trace gas | [
{
"content": "Title: Geological history of Earth Content: The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth 's past based on the geologic time scale , a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet 's rock layers ( stratigraphy ) . Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula , a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun , which also created the rest of the Solar System . Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies . Eventually , the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere . The Moon formed soon afterwards , possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth . Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere . Condensing water vapor , augmented by ice delivered from comets , produced the oceans . As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years , continents formed and broke apart . They migrated across the surface , occasionally combining to form a supercontinent . Roughly , the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia , began to break apart . The continents later recombined to form Pannotia , , then finally Pangaea , which broke apart . The present pattern of ice ages began about , then intensified at the end of the Pliocene . The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw , repeating every 40,000 -- 100,000 years . The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Geological_history_of_Earth",
"rank": 1,
"score": 93997
},
{
"content": "Title: Lakes on Mars Content: In summer 1965 , the first close-up pictures from Mars showed a cratered desert with no signs of water . However , over the decades , as more parts of the planet were imaged with better cameras on more sophisticated satellites , Mars showed evidence of past river valleys , lakes , and ice in glaciers and in the ground . It was discovered that the climate of Mars displays huge changes over geologic time because its axis is not stabilized by a large moon , as Earth 's is . Also , some researchers maintain that water could exist for periods of time due to geothermal effects or asteroid impacts . Besides seeing features that were signs of past water , researchers found other types of evidence for past water . Minerals detected in many locations needed water to form . An instrument in the Mars Odyssey , an orbiting spacecraft , mapped the distribution of water in the near surface . When the Phoenix spacecraft fired its rockets to land in the far north , ice was exposed . When water enters a large body of water , such as a lake , a delta may form . Many craters and other depressions on Mars show deltas that resemble those on Earth . In addition , if a lake lies in a depression , channels entering it will all stop at the same altitude . Such an arrangement is visible around places on Mars that are supposed to have contained large bodies of water -- including around a possible ocean in the North . Lake formation has been proposed by various researchers for quite some time . One study found 205 possible closed-basin lakes in craters on Mars . The basins have an inlet valley that cuts the crater rim and flows into the basin , but they have no visible outlet valley . The total volume of the basins is equivalent to a depth of 1.2 meters spread evenly over the Martian surface . However , this amount is a small fraction of the current water ice stores on Mars . Another study found 210 open-basin lakes . These were lakes with both an inlet and an outlet ; hence water must have entered the basin , and reached the height of the outlet . Some of these lakes had volumes similar to Earth 's Caspian Sea , Black Sea , and Lake Baikal . Moreover , some basins on Mars form part of long chains of lakes . The Naktong/Scamander/Mamers Valles lake-chain system is about 4500 km ( 2800 miles ) long , with a drainage area similar to that of the Missouri-Mississippi rivers . Another , the Samara/Himera Vallis system , is 1800 km long . Many of the long chains of lakes are found in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle . Some of the lakes appear to have had a high volume as compared to their drainage area ; hence , it is believed that some of the water was groundwater . Further evidence is the existence of knobby material on the basin floors . These knobs can be formed when large amounts of water left the ground . This article describes some of the places that could have held large lakes .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Lakes_on_Mars",
"rank": 2,
"score": 93546
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate",
"rank": 3,
"score": 92738
},
{
"content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Future_of_Earth",
"rank": 4,
"score": 87992
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 5,
"score": 87662
},
{
"content": "Title: Noachian Content: The Noachian is a geologic system and early time period on the planet Mars characterized by high rates of meteorite and asteroid impacts and the possible presence of abundant surface water . The absolute age of the Noachian period is uncertain but probably corresponds to the lunar Pre-Nectarian to Early Imbrian periods of 4100 to 3700 million years ago , during the interval known as the Late Heavy Bombardment . Many of the large impact basins on the Moon and Mars formed at this time . The Noachian Period is roughly equivalent to the Earth 's Hadean and early Archean eons when the first life forms likely arose . Noachian-aged terrains on Mars are prime spacecraft landing sites to search for fossil evidence of life . During the Noachian , the atmosphere of Mars was denser than it is today , and the climate possibly warm enough to allow rainfall . Large lakes and rivers were present in the southern hemisphere , and an ocean may have covered the low-lying northern plains . Extensive volcanism occurred in the Tharsis region , building up enormous masses of volcanic material ( the Tharsis bulge ) and releasing large quantities of gases into the atmosphere . Weathering of surface rocks produced a diversity of clay minerals ( phyllosilicates ) that formed under chemical conditions conducive to microbial life .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Noachian",
"rank": 6,
"score": 86968
},
{
"content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Landfill_gas",
"rank": 7,
"score": 83889
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary Content: The climate across the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg or formerly the K -- T boundary ) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid , volcanism , or sea level changes . While the mass extinction is well documented , there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event . The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known , which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact . Oxygen isotopes across the K -- T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself . Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K -- T boundary suggest rapid , repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction , and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary , indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction . The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate , direct consequences of the impact .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Climate_across_Cretaceous–Paleogene_boundary",
"rank": 8,
"score": 83702
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 9,
"score": 82733
},
{
"content": "Title: Paul Werner Gast Content: Paul Werner Gast ( September 11 , 1930 -- May 16 , 1973 ) was an American geochemist and geologist . He was born in Chicago , and attended Wheaton College , Illinois , whence he graduated in 1952 . He earned a Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1957 . After graduation , he taught at the University of Minnesota until 1965 when he became professor of geology at Columbia . In 1969 Paul Gast assumed leadership of the geo-science management of the Manned Spacecraft Center in preparation for Apollo mission sample return from the Moon . He served as chief scientist of the Apollo Lunar Science Staff . He was one of the science consultant group known unofficially as the `` Four Horsemen '' , along with Jim Arnold , Bob Walker and Gerry Wasserburg . He died at the age of 43 , being survived by his wife , Joyce Rinehart , and two sons and a daughter . During his career he pioneered the study of rare earth elements in examining the crust , mantle , and interior of the planet . He led the development of the use of rubidium-strontium and uranium-lead radiometric dating methods for rocks , particularly for samples returned from the Moon . His examinations of trace elements resulted in new understands of how volcanic fluids originate .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Paul_Werner_Gast",
"rank": 10,
"score": 82683
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Climate_system",
"rank": 11,
"score": 81427
},
{
"content": "Title: Geological history of Mars Content: The geological history of Mars employs observations , indirect and direct measurements , and various inference techniques to estimate the physical evolution of Mars . Methods dating back to 17th century techniques developed by Nicholas Steno , including the so-called law of superposition and stratigraphy , used to estimate the geological histories of Earth and the Moon , are being actively applied to the data available from several Martian observational and measurement resources . These include the landers , orbiting platforms , Earth-based observations , and Martian meteorites . Observations of the surfaces of many Solar System bodies reveals important clues about their evolution . For example , a lava flow that spreads out and fills a large impact crater is likely to be younger than the crater . On the other hand , a small crater on top of the same lava flow is likely to be younger than both the lava and the larger crater since it can be surmised to have been the product of a later , unobserved , geological event . This principle , called the law of superposition , and other principles of stratigraphy , first formulated by Nicholas Steno in the 17th century , allowed geologists of the 19th century to divide the history of the Earth into the familiar eras of Paleozoic , Mesozoic , and Cenozoic . The same methodology was later applied to the Moon and then to Mars . Another stratigraphic principle used on planets where impact craters are well preserved is that of crater number density . The number of craters greater than a given size per unit surface area ( usually million km2 ) provides a relative age for that surface . Heavily cratered surfaces are old , and sparsely cratered surfaces are young . Old surfaces have a lot of big craters , and young surfaces have mostly small craters or none at all . These stratigraphic concepts form the basis for the Martian geologic timescale .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Geological_history_of_Mars",
"rank": 12,
"score": 81375
},
{
"content": "Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "List_of_climate_research_satellites",
"rank": 13,
"score": 81180
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 14,
"score": 81129
},
{
"content": "Title: Eaarth Content: Eaarth : Making a Life on a Tough New Planet is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Henry Holt and Company in 2010 . In the opening chapter , McKibben presents an array of facts and statistics about climate change that are already visible , supported by extensive footnotes . In the second and third chapters , McKibben lays out his analysis of how we have arrived at the current situation , and conveys genuine sorrow as he explains how the drive for economic growth based on hydrocarbons since the 1970s has led the planet to the point of breakdown . In a review of the book , British economist Nicholas Stern suggests that there is no doubting McKibben 's sincerity and his ability to communicate the significant risks which humanity faces . According to Stern , his `` overall thesis that we are already seeing widespread effects of climate change is sound and supported by much robust scientific evidence '' . But Stern says McKibben is too pessimistic when it comes to the recent advances in avoiding even bigger changes to the climate by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Eaarth",
"rank": 15,
"score": 79457
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 16,
"score": 79331
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate of Uranus Content: The climate of Uranus is heavily influenced by both its lack of internal heat , which limits atmospheric activity , and by its extreme axial tilt , which induces intense seasonal variation . Uranus 's atmosphere is remarkably bland in comparison to the other gas giants which it otherwise closely resembles . When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986 , it observed a total of ten cloud features across the entire planet . Later observations from the ground or by the Hubble Space Telescope made in the 1990s and the 2000s revealed bright clouds in the northern ( winter ) hemisphere . In 2006 a dark spot similar to the Great Dark Spot on Neptune was detected .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Climate_of_Uranus",
"rank": 17,
"score": 78591
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 18,
"score": 78219
},
{
"content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Simon_Tett",
"rank": 19,
"score": 78198
},
{
"content": "Title: Milutin Milanković Content: Milutin Milanković ( Милутин Миланковић , pronounced -LSB- milǔtin milǎːnkɔʋitɕ -RSB- 28 May 1879 -- 12 December 1958 ) was a Serbian mathematician , astronomer , climatologist , geophysicist , civil engineer , doctor of technology , university professor and popularizer of science . Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science . The first contribution is the `` Canon of the Earth 's Insolation '' , which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the Solar system . The second contribution is the explanation of Earth 's long-term climate changes caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun , now known as Milankovitch cycles . This explained the ice ages occurring in the geological past of the Earth , as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future . He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth 's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system , Mercury , Venus , Mars , and the Moon , as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets . He demonstrated the interrelatedness of celestial mechanics and the Earth sciences , and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of descriptive sciences into exact ones .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Milutin_Milanković",
"rank": 20,
"score": 77965
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 21,
"score": 77518
},
{
"content": "Title: Hesperian Content: The Hesperian is a geologic system and time period on the planet Mars characterized by widespread volcanic activity and catastrophic flooding that carved immense outflow channels across the surface . The Hesperian is an intermediate and transitional period of Martian history . During the Hesperian , Mars changed from the wetter and perhaps warmer world of the Noachian to the dry , cold , and dusty planet seen today . The absolute age of the Hesperian Period is uncertain . The beginning of the period followed the end of the late heavy bombardment and probably corresponds to the start of the lunar Late Imbrian period , around 3700 million years ago ( Mya ) . The end of the Hesperian Period is much more uncertain and could range anywhere from 3200 to 2000 Mya , with 3000 Mya being frequently cited . The Hesperian Period is roughly coincident with the Earth 's early Archean Eon . With the decline of heavy impacts at the end of the Noachian , volcanism became the primary geologic process on Mars , producing vast plains of flood basalts and broad volcanic constructs ( highland paterae ) . By Hesperian times , all of the large shield volcanoes on Mars , including Olympus Mons , had begun to form . Volcanic outgassing released large amounts of sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) into the atmosphere , causing a transition in the style of weathering from dominantly phyllosilicate ( clay ) to sulfate mineralogy . Liquid water became more localized in extent and turned more acidic as it interacted with SO2 and H2S to form sulfuric acid . By the beginning of the Late Hesperian the atmosphere had probably thinned to its present density . As the planet cooled , groundwater stored in the upper crust ( megaregolith ) began to freeze , forming a thick cryosphere overlying a deeper zone of liquid water . Subsequent volcanic or tectonic activity occasionally fractured the cryosphere , releasing enormous quantities of deep groundwater to the surface and carving huge outflow channels . Much of this water flowed into the northern hemisphere where it probably pooled to form large transient lakes or an ice covered ocean .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Hesperian",
"rank": 22,
"score": 77293
},
{
"content": "Title: History of Earth Content: The history of Earth concerns the development of the planet Earth from its formation to the present day . Nearly all branches of natural science have contributed to the understanding of the main events of the Earth 's past . The age of Earth is approximately one-third of the age of the universe . An immense amount of geological change has occurred in that timespan , accompanied by the emergence of life and its subsequent evolution . Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula . Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere and then the ocean ; but the atmosphere contained almost no oxygen and so would have been toxic to most modern life including humans . Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism . A giant impact collision with a planet-sized body named Theia while Earth was in its earliest stage , also known as Early Earth , is thought to have been responsible for forming the Moon . Over time , the Earth cooled , causing the formation of a solid crust , and allowing liquid water to exist on the surface . The geological time scale ( GTS ) clock ( see graphic ) depicts the larger spans of time from the beginning of the Earth as well as a chronology of some definitive events of Earth history . The Hadean Eon represents time before the reliable ( fossil ) record of life beginning on Earth ; it began with the formation of the planet and ended at 4.0 billion years ago as defined by international convention . The Archean and Proterozoic eons follow ; they produced the abiogenesis of life on Earth and then the evolution of early life . The succeeding eon is the Phanerozoic , which is represented by its three component eras : the Palaeozoic ; the Mesozoic , which spanned the rise , reign , and climactic extinction of the huge dinosaurs ; and the Cenozoic , which presented the subsequent development of dominant mammals on Earth . Hominins , the earliest direct ancestors of the human clade , rose sometime during the latter part of the Miocene epoch ; the precise time marking the first hominins is broadly debated over a current range of 13 to 4 mya . The succeeding Quaternary period is the time of recognizable humans , i.e. , the genus Homo , but that period 's two million-year-plus term of the recent times is too small to be visible at the scale of the GTS graphic . ( Notes re the graphic : Ga means `` billion years '' ; Ma , `` million years '' . ) The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago , during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon . There are microbial mat fossils such as stromatolites found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia . Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland as well as `` remains of biotic life '' found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . According to one of the researchers , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe . '' Living forms derived from photosynthesis appeared between 3.2 and 2.4 billion years ago and began enriching the atmosphere with oxygen . Life remained mostly small and microscopic until about 580 million years ago , when complex multicellular life arose , developed over time , and culminated in the Cambrian Explosion about 541 million years ago . This event drove a rapid diversification of life forms on Earth that produced most of the major phyla known today ; and it marked the end of the Proterozoic Eon and the beginning of the Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era . More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . Geological change has been a constant of Earth 's crust since the time of its formation , and biological change since the first appearance of life . Species continue to evolve , taking on new forms , splitting into daughter species or going extinct in the process of adapting or dying in response to ever-changing physical environments . The process of plate tectonics continues to play a dominant role in the shaping of Earth 's oceans and continents and the living species they harbor . Changes in the biosphere -- now dominated by human activity -- continue , in turn , to produce significant effects on the atmosphere and other systems of the Earth 's surface , such as the integrity of the ozone layer , the proliferation of greenhouse gases , the conditions of productive soils and clean air and water , and others .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "History_of_Earth",
"rank": 23,
"score": 77215
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 24,
"score": 76654
},
{
"content": "Title: Volcanology of Mars Content: Volcanic activity , or volcanism , has played a significant role in the geologic evolution of Mars . Scientists have known since the Mariner 9 mission in 1972 that volcanic features cover large portions of the Martian surface . These features include extensive lava flows , vast lava plains , and the largest known volcanoes in the Solar System . Martian volcanic features range in age from Noachian ( > 3.7 billion years ) to late Amazonian ( < 500 million years ) , indicating that the planet has been volcanically active throughout its history , and some speculate it probably still is so today . Both Earth and Mars are large , differentiated planets built from similar chondritic materials . Many of the same magmatic processes that occur on Earth also occurred on Mars , and both planets are similar enough compositionally that the same names can be applied to their igneous rocks and minerals . Volcanism is a process in which magma from a planet 's interior rises through the crust and erupts on the surface . The erupted materials consist of molten rock ( lava ) , hot fragmental debris ( tephra or ash ) , and gases . Volcanism is a principal way that planets release their internal heat . Volcanic eruptions produce distinctive landforms , rock types , and terrains that provide a window on the chemical composition , thermal state , and history of a planet 's interior . Magma is a complex , high-temperature mixture of molten silicates , suspended crystals , and dissolved gases . Magma on Mars likely ascends in a similar manner to that on Earth . It rises through the lower crust in diapiric bodies that are less dense than the surrounding material . As the magma rises , it eventually reaches regions of lower density . When the magma density matches that of the host rock , buoyancy is neutralized and the magma body stalls . At this point , it may form a magma chamber and spread out laterally into a network of dikes and sills . Subsequently , the magma may cool and solidify to form intrusive igneous bodies ( plutons ) . Geologists estimate that about 80 % of the magma generated on Earth stalls in the crust and never reaches the surface . As magma rises and cools , it undergoes many complex and dynamic compositional changes . Heavier minerals may crystallize and settle to the bottom of the magma chamber . The magma may also assimilate portions of host rock or mix with other batches of magma . These processes alter the composition of the remaining melt , so that any magma reaching the surface may be chemically quite different from its parent melt . Magmas that have been so altered are said to be `` evolved '' to distinguish them from `` primitive '' magmas that more closely resemble the composition of their mantle source . ( See igneous differentiation and fractional crystallization . ) More highly evolved magmas are usually felsic , that is enriched in silica , volatiles , and other light elements compared to iron - and magnesium-rich ( mafic ) primitive magmas . The degree and extent to which magmas evolve over time is an indication of a planet 's level of internal heat and tectonic activity . The Earth 's continental crust is made up of evolved granitic rocks that developed through many episodes of magmatic reprocessing . Evolved igneous rocks are much less common on cold , dead bodies such as the Moon . Mars , being intermediate in size between the Earth and the Moon , is thought to be intermediate in its level of magmatic activity . At shallower depths in the crust , the lithostatic pressure on the magma body decreases . The reduced pressure can cause gases ( volatiles ) , such as carbon dioxide and water vapor , to exsolve from the melt into a froth of gas bubbles . The nucleation of bubbles causes a rapid expansion and cooling of the surrounding melt , producing glassy shards that may erupt explosively as tephra ( also called pyroclastics ) . Fine-grained tephra is commonly referred to as volcanic ash . Whether a volcano erupts explosively or effusively as fluid lava depends on the composition of the melt . Felsic magmas of andesitic and rhyolitic composition tend to erupt explosively . They are very viscous ( thick and sticky ) and rich in dissolved gases . Mafic magmas , on the other hand , are low in volatiles and commonly erupt effusively as basaltic lava flows . However , these are only generalizations . For example , magma that comes into sudden contact with groundwater or surface water may erupt violently in steam explosions called hydromagmatic ( phreatomagmatic or phreatic ) eruptions . Also , erupting magmas may behave differently on planets with different interior compositions , atmospheres , and gravity fields .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Volcanology_of_Mars",
"rank": 25,
"score": 75573
},
{
"content": "Title: Trace gas Content: A trace gas is a gas which makes up less than 1 % by volume of the Earth 's atmosphere , and it includes all gases except nitrogen ( 78.1 % ) and oxygen ( 20.9 % ) . The most abundant trace gas at 0.934 % is argon . Water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Trace_gas",
"rank": 26,
"score": 75333
},
{
"content": "Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Hirnantian",
"rank": 27,
"score": 74333
},
{
"content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years",
"rank": 28,
"score": 74236
},
{
"content": "Title: Geologic temperature record Content: The Geologic temperature record are changes in Earth 's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion ( 109 ) year time scales . The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a crucial component of the climate and oceanography of the time .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Geologic_temperature_record",
"rank": 29,
"score": 74216
},
{
"content": "Title: Bond event Content: Bond events are North Atlantic ice rafting events that are tentatively linked to climate fluctuations in the Holocene . Eight such events have been identified . Bond events were previously believed to exhibit a quasi ~ 1,500-year cycle , but the primary period of variability is now put at ~ 1,000 years . Gerard C. Bond of the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University was the lead author of the 1997 paper that postulated the theory of 1470-year climate cycles in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic . However , more recent work has shown that these tracers provide little support for 1,500-year intervals of climate change , and the reported ~ 1,500 ± 500-year period was a statistical artifact . Furthermore , following publication of the Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 ( GICC05 ) for the North GRIP ice core , it became clear that Dansgaar-Oescher Events also show no such a pattern . The North Atlantic ice-rafting events happen to correlate with episodes of lowered lake levels in the Mid-Atlantic region , USA , the most weak events of the Asian monsoon for at least the past 9,000 years , and also correlate with most aridification events in the Middle East for the past 55,000 years ( both Heinrich and Bond events ) . For reasons that are unclear , the only Holocene Bond event that has a clear temperature signal in the Greenland ice cores is the 8.2 kyr event .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Bond_event",
"rank": 30,
"score": 73675
},
{
"content": "Title: ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter Content: The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter ( TGO ) is a collaborative project between the European Space Agency ( ESA ) and Roscosmos that sent an atmospheric research orbiter and the Schiaparelli demonstration lander to Mars in 2016 as part of the European-led ExoMars programme . The Trace Gas Orbiter delivered the Schiaparelli lander and will start atmospheric mapping in 2017 . A key goal is to gain a better understanding of methane and other trace gases present in the Martian atmosphere that could be evidence for possible biological activity . The programme will follow with the Surface Science Platform and the ExoMars rover in 2020 , which will search for biomolecules and biosignatures ; the TGO will operate as the communication link for the 2020 ExoMars rover and surface science platform and provide communication for other Mars surface probes with Earth . The lander 's radio signal was lost during the descent through the Mars atmosphere and later the lander was confirmed to have crashed .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "ExoMars_Trace_Gas_Orbiter",
"rank": 31,
"score": 73230
},
{
"content": "Title: Planetary geology Content: Planetary geology , alternatively known as astrogeology or exogeology , is a planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons , asteroids , comets , and meteorites . Although the geo - prefix typically indicates topics of or relating to the Earth , planetary geology is named as such for historical and convenience reasons ; applying geological science to other planetary bodies . Due to the types of investigations involved , it is also closely linked with Earth-based geology . Planetary geology includes such topics as determining the internal structure of the terrestrial planets , and also looks at planetary volcanism and surface processes such as impact craters , fluvial and aeolian processes . The structures of the giant planets and their moons are also examined , as is the make-up of the minor bodies of the Solar System , such as asteroids , the Kuiper Belt , and comets .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Planetary_geology",
"rank": 32,
"score": 72861
},
{
"content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 33,
"score": 72833
},
{
"content": "Title: History of paleontology Content: The history of paleontology traces the history of the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the fossil record left behind by living organisms . Since it is concerned with understanding living organisms of the past paleontology can be considered to be a field of biology , but its historical development has been closely tied to geology and the effort to understand the history of Earth itself . In ancient times Xenophanes ( 570-480 BC ) , Herodotus ( 484-425 BC ) , Eratosthenes ( 276-194 BC ) , and Strabo ( 64 BC-24 AD ) , wrote about fossils of marine organisms indicating that land was once under water . During the Middle Ages , fossils were discussed by the Persian naturalist , Ibn Sina ( known as Avicenna in Europe ) , in The Book of Healing ( 1027 ) , which proposed a theory of petrifying fluids that Albert of Saxony would elaborate on in the 14th century . The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo ( 1031 -- 1095 ) would propose a theory of climate change based on evidence from petrified bamboo . In early modern Europe , the systematic study of fossils emerged as an integral part of the changes in natural philosophy that occurred during the Age of Reason . The nature of fossils and their relationship to life in the past became better understood during the 17th and 18th centuries , and at the end of the 18th century the work of Georges Cuvier ended a long running debate about the reality of extinction and led to the emergence of paleontology , in association with comparative anatomy , as a scientific discipline . The expanding knowledge of the fossil record also played an increasing role in the development of geology , particularly stratigraphy . In 1822 the word `` paleontology '' was invented by the editor of a French scientific journal to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils , and the first half of the 19th century saw geological and paleontological activity become increasingly well organized with the growth of geologic societies and museums and an increasing number of professional geologists and fossil specialists . This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth , and progress towards definition of the geologic time scale largely based on fossil evidence . As knowledge of life 's history continued to improve , it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life . This would encourage early evolutionary theories on the transmutation of species . After Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859 , much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding evolutionary paths , including human evolution , and evolutionary theory . The last half of the 19th century saw a tremendous expansion in paleontological activity , especially in North America . The trend continued in the 20th century with additional regions of the Earth being opened to systematic fossil collection , as demonstrated by a series of important discoveries in China near the end of the 20th century . Many transitional fossils have been discovered , and there is now considered to be abundant evidence of how all classes of vertebrates are related , much of it in the form of transitional fossils . The last few decades of the 20th century saw a renewed interest in mass extinctions and their role in the evolution of life on Earth . There was also a renewed interest in the Cambrian explosion that saw the development of the body plans of most animal phyla . The discovery of fossils of the Ediacaran biota and developments in paleobiology extended knowledge about the history of life back far before the Cambrian .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "History_of_paleontology",
"rank": 34,
"score": 72702
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 35,
"score": 72609
},
{
"content": "Title: Cool early Earth Content: The cool early Earth ( CEE ) theory posits that for part of the Hadean geological eon , at the beginning of the Earth 's history , it had a modest influx of bolides and a cool climate , allowing the presence of liquid water . This would have been after the extreme conditions of earth 's earliest history between 4.6 and 4.4 billion years ( Ga ) ago , but before the Late Heavy Bombardment of 4.1 to 3.8 Ga ago . In 2002 John Valley et al argued that detrital zircons found in Western Australia , dating to 4.0 -- 4.4 Ga ago , were formed at relatively low temperatures , that meteorite impacts may have been less frequent than previously thought , and that the earth may have gone through long periods when liquid oceans and life were possible . In 2016 Gavin Kenny et al replied to suggestions that zircons were formed by melting during tectonic subduction at plate boundaries , and argued that at least some of them were formed by meteorite impacts .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Cool_early_Earth",
"rank": 36,
"score": 72179
},
{
"content": "Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Carnian_Pluvial_Event",
"rank": 37,
"score": 72104
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 38,
"score": 72096
},
{
"content": "Title: ExoMars Content: ExoMars ( Exobiology on Mars ) is a two-part Martian astrobiology project to search for evidence of life on Mars , a joint mission of the European Space Agency ( ESA ) and the Russian space agency Roscosmos . The first part , launched in 2016 , placed a trace gas research and communication satellite into Mars orbit and released a stationary experimental lander ( which crashed ) . The second part is planned to launch in 2020 , and to land a rover on the surface , supporting a science mission that is expected to last into 2022 or beyond . ExoMars goals are to search for signs of past and present life on Mars , investigate how the Martian water and geochemical environment varies , investigate atmospheric trace gases and their sources and by doing so demonstrate the technologies for a future Mars sample return mission . The mission will search for biosignatures of Martian life , past or present , employing several spacecraft elements to be sent to Mars on two launches . The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter ( TGO ) and a test stationary lander called Schiaparelli were launched on 14 March 2016 . TGO entered Mars orbit on 19 October 2016 and will proceed to map the sources of methane and other trace gases present in the Martian atmosphere that could be evidence for possible biological or geological activity . The Schiaparelli experimental lander separated from TGO on 16 October and was maneuvered to land in Meridiani Planum . , ESA had not received a signal that the landing was successful . On 21 October 2016 , NASA released a Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter image showing what appears to be the lander crash site . The landing was designed to test new key technologies to safely deliver the 2020 rover mission . The TGO features four instruments and will also act as a communications relay satellite . In 2020 , a Roscosmos-built lander ( ExoMars 2020 surface platform ) is to deliver the ESA-built ExoMars Rover to the Martian surface . The rover will also include some Roscosmos built instruments . The second mission operations and communications will be led by ALTEC 's Rover Control Centre in Italy .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "ExoMars",
"rank": 39,
"score": 71903
},
{
"content": "Title: Geodynamics of Venus Content: NASA 's Magellan spacecraft mission discovered that Venus has a geologically young surface with a relatively uniform age of 500 ± 200 Ma ( million years ) . The age of Venus was revealed by the observation of over 900 impact craters on the surface of the planet . These impact craters are nearly uniformly distributed over the surface of Venus and less than 10 % have been modified by plains of volcanism or deformation . These observations indicate that a catastrophic resurfacing event took place on Venus around 500 Ma , and was followed by a dramatic decline in resurfacing rate . The radar images from the Magellan missions revealed that the terrestrial style of plate tectonics is not active on Venus and the surface appears to be immobile at the present time . Despite these surface observations , there are numerous surface features that indicate an actively convecting interior . The Soviet Venera landings revealed that the surface of Venus is essentially basaltic in composition based on geochemical measurements and morphology of volcanic flows . The surface of Venus is dominated by patterns of basaltic volcanism , and by compressional and extensional tectonic deformation , such as the highly deformed tesserae terrain and the pancake like volcano-tectonic features known as coronae . The planet 's surface can be broadly characterized by its low lying plains , which cover about 80 % of the surface , ` continental ' plateaus and volcanic swells . There is also an abundance of small and large shield volcanoes distributed over the planet 's surface . Based on its surface features , it appears that Venus is tectonically and convectively alive but has a lithosphere that is static .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Geodynamics_of_Venus",
"rank": 40,
"score": 71689
},
{
"content": "Title: Mars Tectonics Content: In the tectonic history of Mars , two primary tectonic events are usually considered . The first is the process that lowered and resurfaced the northern hemisphere , resulting in a planet whose crustal thickness is distinctly bimodal -- this is referred to as the hemispheric dichotomy ( Fig. 1 ) . The second tectonic event is the process that formed the Tharsis rise , which is a massive volcanic province that has had major tectonic influences both on a regional and global scale . These events largely pertain to the three major physiographic provinces of Mars ; the northern plains , the southern highlands , and the Tharsis plateau . The different geological and tectonic characteristics of these regions will be described in the following section . Hypotheses proposed to explain how the two primary tectonic events may have occurred are usually divided into endogenic and exogenic processes , both of which will be discussed in this article . Possible tectonic implications of magnetic anomalies detected on Mars will also be discussed . These magnetic anomalies are linear in shape and of alternating polarity , much like those found on Earth that have been a product of seafloor spreading . A process akin to seafloor spreading has also been proposed to explain the magnetic anomalies on Mars , and will be discussed below . Furthermore , recent research claims to have found the first strong evidence for plate tectonics on Mars . This discovery refers to a large-scale strike-slip fault zone in the Valles Marineris through system , which has been likened to transform faults on Earth such as the San Andreas and Dead Sea faults . This discovery could have major implications for our future understanding of Martian tectonics .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Mars_Tectonics",
"rank": 41,
"score": 71505
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 42,
"score": 71470
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 43,
"score": 71364
},
{
"content": "Title: Gas dwarf Content: A gas dwarf is a gas planet with a rocky core that has accumulated a thick envelope of hydrogen , helium , and other volatiles , having as result a total radius between 1.7 and 3.9 Earth radii . The term is used in a three-tier , metallicity-based classification regime for short-period exoplanets , which also includes the rocky , terrestrial-like planets with less than and planets greater than , namely ice giants and gas giants . No gas dwarfs are known to exist in the Solar System , but they are common in other planetary systems . Smaller gas planets and planets closer to their star will lose atmospheric mass more quickly via hydrodynamic escape than larger planets and planets farther out . The smallest known extrasolar planet that might be a `` gas planet '' is Kepler-138d , which is less massive than Earth but has a 60 % larger volume and therefore has a density ( 2.1 ( +2.2 / -1.2 ) grams per cubic centimetre ) that indicates either a substantial water content or possibly a thick gas envelope . A low-mass gas planet can still have a radius resembling that of a gas giant if it has the right temperature .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Gas_dwarf",
"rank": 44,
"score": 71167
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 45,
"score": 70441
},
{
"content": "Title: Planetary migration Content: Planetary migration occurs when a planet or other stellar satellite interacts with a disk of gas or planetesimals , resulting in the alteration of the satellite 's orbital parameters , especially its semi-major axis . Planetary migration is the most likely explanation for hot Jupiters , extrasolar planets with jovian masses , but orbits of only a few days . The generally accepted theory of planet formation from a protoplanetary disk predicts such planets can not form so close to their stars , as there is insufficient mass at such small radii and the temperature is too high to allow the formation of rocky or icy planetesimals . It has also become clear that terrestrial-mass planets may be subject to rapid inward migration if they form while the gas disk is still present . This may affect the formation of the cores of the giant planets ( which have masses of the order of 10 Earth masses ) , if those planets form via the core accretion mechanism .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Planetary_migration",
"rank": 46,
"score": 70253
},
{
"content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 70157
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Climate_state",
"rank": 48,
"score": 69950
},
{
"content": "Title: Schiaparelli (Martian crater) Content: Schiaparelli is an impact crater on Mars named after Giovanni Schiaparelli located near Mars 's equator . It is 461 km in diameter and located at latitude 3 ° south and longitude 344 ° . A crater within Schiaparelli shows many layers that may have formed by the wind , volcanoes , or deposition under water . Layers can be a few meters thick or tens of meters thick . Recent research on these layers suggests that ancient climate change on Mars , caused by regular variation in the planet 's tilt , may have caused the patterns in layers . On Earth , similar changes ( astronomical forcing ) of climate results in ice-age cycles . The regular appearance of rock layers suggests that regular changes in climate may be the root cause . Regular changes in climate may be due to variations of a planet 's tilt ( called obliquity ) . The tilt of the Earth 's axis changes by only a little more than 2 degrees since our moon is relatively large . In contrast Mars 's tilt varies by tens of degrees . When the tilt is low ( current situation on Mars ) , the poles are the coldest places on the planet , while the equator is the warmest ( as on Earth ) . This could cause gases in the atmosphere , like water and carbon dioxide , to migrate poleward , where they would freeze . When the obliquity is higher , the poles receive more sunlight , causing those materials to migrate away . When carbon dioxide moves from the Martian poles , the atmospheric pressure increases , possibly causing a difference in the ability of winds to transport and deposit sand . Also , with more water in the atmosphere sand grains may stick and cement together to form layers .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Schiaparelli_(Martian_crater)",
"rank": 49,
"score": 69844
},
{
"content": "Title: Geology of West Virginia Content: West Virginia 's geologic history stretches back into the Precambrian , and includes several periods of mountain building and erosion . At times , much of what is now West Virginia was covered by swamps , marshlands , and shallow seas , accounting for the wide variety of sedimentary rocks found in the state , as well as its wealth of coal and natural gas deposits . West Virginia has had no active volcanism for hundreds of millions of years , and does not experience large earthquakes , although smaller tremors are associated with the Rome Trough , which passes through the western part of the state .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Geology_of_West_Virginia",
"rank": 50,
"score": 69779
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical climatology Content: Historical climatology is the study of historical changes in climate and their effect on human history and development . This differs from paleoclimatology which encompasses climate change over the entire history of Earth . The study seeks to define periods in human history where temperature or precipitation varied from what is observed in the present day . The primary sources include written records such as sagas , chronicles , maps and local history literature as well as pictorial representations such as paintings , drawings and even rock art . The archaeological record is equally important in establishing evidence of settlement , water and land usage .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Historical_climatology",
"rank": 51,
"score": 69479
},
{
"content": "Title: Geologic record Content: The geologic record in stratigraphy , paleontology and other natural sciences refers to the entirety of the layers of rock strata -- deposits laid down by volcanism or by deposition of sediment derived from weathering detritus ( clays , sands etc. ) including all its fossil content and the information it yields about the history of the Earth : its past climate , geography , geology and the evolution of life on its surface . According to the law of superposition , sedimentary and volcanic rock layers are deposited on top of each other . They harden over time to become a solidified ( competent ) rock column , that may be intruded by igneous rocks and disrupted by tectonic events .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Geologic_record",
"rank": 52,
"score": 69243
},
{
"content": "Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system",
"rank": 53,
"score": 69146
},
{
"content": "Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment",
"rank": 54,
"score": 69037
},
{
"content": "Title: Iron catastrophe Content: The iron catastrophe was a postulated major event early in the history of Earth . The original accretion of the Earth 's material into a spherical mass is thought to have resulted in a relatively uniform composition . While residual heat from the collision of the material that formed the Earth was significant , heating from radioactive materials in this mass gradually increased the temperature until a critical condition was reached . As material became molten enough to allow movement , the denser iron and nickel , evenly distributed throughout the mass , began to migrate to the center of the planet to form the core . The gravitational potential energy released by the sinking of the dense NiFe globules , along with any cooler , denser solid material , is thought to have been a runaway process , increasing the temperature of the protoplanet above the melting point of most components , resulting in the rapid formation of a molten iron core covered by a deep global silicate magma . This event , an important process of planetary differentiation , occurred at about 500 million years into the formation of the planet .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Iron_catastrophe",
"rank": 55,
"score": 68994
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 56,
"score": 68980
},
{
"content": "Title: Hadean Content: The Hadean ( -LSB- pronˈheɪdiən -RSB- ) is a geologic eon of the Earth predating the Archean . It began with the formation of the Earth about 4.6 billion years ago and ended , as defined by the ICS , 4 billion years ago . The geologist Preston Cloud coined the term in 1972 , originally to label the period before the earliest-known rocks on Earth . W. Brian Harland later coined an almost synonymous term : the `` Priscoan period '' . Other , older texts simply refer to the eon as the Pre-Archean . Nonetheless , in 2015 , traces of carbon minerals interpreted as `` remains of biotic life '' were found in 4.1-billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Hadean",
"rank": 57,
"score": 68567
},
{
"content": "Title: Proxy (climate) Content: In the study of past climates ( `` paleoclimatology '' ) , climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth 's history . Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s , and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began . Examples of proxies include ice cores , tree rings , sub-fossil pollen , boreholes , corals , lake and ocean sediments , and carbonate speleothems . The character of deposition or rate of growth of the proxies ' material has been influenced by the climatic conditions of the time in which they were laid down or grew . Chemical traces produced by climatic changes , such as quantities of particular isotopes , can be recovered from proxies . Some proxies , such as gas bubbles trapped in ice , enable traces of the ancient atmosphere to be recovered and measured directly to provide a history of fluctuations in the composition of the Earth 's atmosphere . To produce the most precise results , systematic cross-verification between proxy indicators is necessary for accuracy in readings and record-keeping . Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the instrumental temperature record and can inform discussions of global warming . The distribution of proxy records , just like the instrumental record , is not at all uniform , with more records in the northern hemisphere .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Proxy_(climate)",
"rank": 58,
"score": 68428
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 59,
"score": 68351
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 60,
"score": 68207
},
{
"content": "Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Stockholm_Memorandum",
"rank": 61,
"score": 67997
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael Schlesinger Content: Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Michael_Schlesinger",
"rank": 62,
"score": 67855
},
{
"content": "Title: Planetary phase of civilization Content: The planetary phase of civilization is a concept defined by the Global Scenario Group ( GSG ) , an environmental organization that specialized in scenario analysis and forecasting . Proponents state that increasing global interdependence and risks , such as climate change , are binding the world into a unitary socio-ecological system . This unprecedented condition signals a historic shift from the period of modernity , characterized by sovereign states , perennial growth of population and economies , abundant resources , and disregard for environmental impacts . The Planetary Phase has many manifestations : economic globalization , biospheric destabilization , mass migration , new global institutions ( like the United Nations and the World Trade Organization ) , the Internet , new forms of transboundary conflict , and shifts in culture and consciousness . Others consider each of these phenomena separately , but give little credence to the theory of a holistic shift in historical dynamics .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Planetary_phase_of_civilization",
"rank": 63,
"score": 67794
},
{
"content": "Title: Tidal heating of Io Content: Tidal heating ( also known as tidal working ) occurs through the tidal friction processes : orbital and rotational energy are dissipated as heat in the crust of the moons and planets involved . Io has a similar mass and size as the Moon , but Io is the most geologically active body in the Solar System . This is caused by the heating mechanism of Io . The major heating source of Earth and its moon is radioactive heating , but the heating source on Io is tidal heating . As Jupiter is very massive , the side of Io nearest to Jupiter has a slightly larger gravitational pull than the opposite side . This difference in gravitational forces cause distortion of Io 's shape . Differently from the Earth 's only moon , Jupiter has several moons ( i.e. Io , Europa , Ganymede and Callisto ) . As Io is the innermost moon of Jupiter , Jupiter pulls Io inward and other moons pull Io outward . This causes Io 's orbit to be elliptical and eccentric . The distance between Jupiter and Io changes all the time and the distortion of Io likewise changes all the time . The constant change in the shape of Io results in a large amount of friction in the moon and the friction-induced heating drives strong volcanic activities on the surface of Io . Although there is general agreement that the cause of the heat as manifested in Io 's many volcanoes is tidal heating from the pull of gravity from Jupiter and its moon Europa , the volcanoes are not in the positions predicted with tidal heating . They are shifted 30 to 60 degrees to the East . A study published in 2015 , explains the eastern shift by an ocean of molten rock under the surface . The movement of this magma would generate extra heat . Liquids especially if they are sticky ( or viscous ) can produce heat through friction . The team who wrote the paper , believe that the subsurface ocean is a mixture of molten and solid rock . When the molten rock flows , it may swirl and rub against the surrounding rock , thus generating heat . Other moons in the Solar System undergo tidal heating , and they too may have more heat generated by this process , including heat from the movement of water . This ability to generate heat in a subsurface ocean increases the chance of life on bodies like Europa and Enceladus .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Tidal_heating_of_Io",
"rank": 64,
"score": 67501
},
{
"content": "Title: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences Content: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences is an annual peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews , which broadly covers Earth and planetary sciences , including geology , atmospheric sciences , climate , geophysics , environmental science , geological hazards , geodynamics , planet formation , and solar system origins . The editors-in-chief are Katherine H. Freeman ( Pennsylvania State University ) and Raymond Jeanloz ( University of California , Berkeley ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 10.188 .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Annual_Review_of_Earth_and_Planetary_Sciences",
"rank": 65,
"score": 67159
},
{
"content": "Title: Global and Planetary Change Content: Global and Planetary Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research into the earth sciences , particularly pertaining to changes in aspects thereof such as sea level and the chemical composition of the atmosphere . It has been published by Elsevier since it was established in 1989 . The editors-in-chief are S.A.P.L. Cloetingh ( Utrecht University ) , T.M. Cronin ( United States Geological Survey ) , K. McGuffie ( University of Technology Sydney ) , and H. Oberhänsli ( Museum für Naturkunde ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 3.155 , ranking it 9th out of 45 journals in the category `` Geography , Physical '' .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Global_and_Planetary_Change",
"rank": 66,
"score": 67110
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Paleoclimatology",
"rank": 67,
"score": 66887
},
{
"content": "Title: Geology Content: Geology ( from the Ancient Greek γῆ , gē , i.e. `` earth '' and - λoγία , - logia , i.e. `` study of , discourse '' ) is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth , the rocks of which it is composed , and the processes by which they change over time . Geology can also refer generally to the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet ( such as the geology of the Moon or Mars ) . Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the primary evidence for plate tectonics , the evolutionary history of life , and past climates . Geology is important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation , evaluating water resources , understanding of natural hazards , the remediation of environmental problems , and for providing insights into past climate change . Geology also plays a role in geotechnical engineering and is a major academic discipline .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Geology",
"rank": 68,
"score": 66819
},
{
"content": "Title: Pre-Tolstojan Content: Pre-Tolstojan , also Pretolstojan Period , refers to the oldest period of the history of Mercury , 4500 -- 3900 MYA . It is the `` first period of the Eomercurian Era and of the Mercurian Eon , as well as being the first period in Mercury 's geologic history '' , and refers to its formation and the 600 million or so years in its aftermath . Mercury was formed with a tiny crust , mantle , and a giant core and as it evolved it faced heavy bombardments that created most of the craters and intercrater plains seen on the planet 's surface today . Many of the smaller basins and multi-ring basins were created during this period . Considered a `` dead '' planet , its geology is highly diverse with craters forming the dominant terrain . The name Pre-Tolstojan refers to the Tolstoj crater on the surface of Mercury , which is believed to have been formed in an impact event circa 3900 MYA . The latter has been named after the Russian writer Leo Tolstoy .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Pre-Tolstojan",
"rank": 69,
"score": 66734
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 70,
"score": 66616
},
{
"content": "Title: NGC 40 Content: NGC 40 ( also known as the Bow-Tie Nebula and Caldwell 2 ) is a planetary nebula discovered by William Herschel on November 25 , 1788 , and is composed of hot gas around a dying star . The star has ejected its outer layer which has left behind a smaller , hot star with a temperature on the surface of about 50,000 degrees Celsius . Radiation from the star causes the shed outer layer to heat to about 10,000 degrees Celsius , and is about one light-year across . About 30,000 years from now , scientists theorize that NGC 40 will fade away , leaving only a white dwarf star approximately the size of Earth .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "NGC_40",
"rank": 71,
"score": 66522
},
{
"content": "Title: Era (geology) Content: A geologic era is a subdivision of geologic time that divides an eon into smaller units of time . The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three such time frames : the Paleozoic , Mesozoic , and Cenozoic represent the major stages in the macroscopic fossil record . These eras are separated by catastrophic extinction boundaries , the P-T boundary between the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic and the K-Pg boundary between the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic . There is evidence that catastrophic meteorite impacts played a role in demarcating the differences between the eras . The Hadean , Archean and Proterozoic eons were as a whole formerly called the Precambrian . This covered the four billion years of Earth history prior to the appearance of hard-shelled animals . More recently , however , those eons have been subdivided into eras of their own .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Era_(geology)",
"rank": 72,
"score": 66432
},
{
"content": "Title: 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora Content: The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora was one of the most powerful eruptions in recorded history , with a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of 7 . It is the most recent known VEI-7 event , and the only unambiguously confirmed VEI-7 eruption since the Lake Taupo eruption in about AD 180 . ( The 946 eruption of Paektu Mountain might also have been VEI-7 . ) The eruption of the volcano , on the island of Sumbawa in the Dutch East Indies ( present-day Indonesia ) , reached a climax on 10 April 1815 and was followed by between six months and three years of increased steaming and small phreatic eruptions . The ash from the eruption column dispersed around the world and lowered global temperatures , leading to worldwide harvest failures in an event sometimes known as the Year Without a Summer in 1816 . The eruption resulted in a brief period of significant climate change that led to various cases of extreme weather . Several climate forcings coincided and interacted in a systematic manner that has not been observed since , despite other large eruptions that have occurred since the early Stone Age . Although the link between the post-eruption climate changes and the Tambora event has been established by various scientists , the understanding of the processes involved is incomplete .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "1815_eruption_of_Mount_Tambora",
"rank": 73,
"score": 66181
},
{
"content": "Title: Henry E. Holt Content: Henry E. Holt ( born 1929 ) is an American astronomer and prolific discoverer of minor planets and comets , who has worked as a planetary geologist at the United States Geological Survey and Northern Arizona University . In the 1960s he studied the photometric properties of the surface of the moon as part of the Surveyor and Apollo programs . Between 1989 and 1993 , he has discovered a total of 683 minor planets , and ranks among the Top 30 discoverers in MPC 's list . His discoveries including the potentially hazardous asteroid 4581 Asclepius , the numbered asteroid that has made the closest approach to Earth at the time , as well as the near-Earth asteroid 4544 Xanthus , and the main-belt asteroid 6312 Robheinlein , which he named after famous science fiction author , Robert Heinlein . He is also a co-discoverer of periodic comets 121P/Shoemaker-Holt , 127P/Holt-Olmstead , and 128P/Shoemaker-Holt . The Mars-crossing asteroid 4435 Holt was named in his honor .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Henry_E._Holt",
"rank": 74,
"score": 66094
},
{
"content": "Title: Cyclostratigraphy Content: Cyclostratigraphy is the study of astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions . Astronomical cycles are variations of the Earth 's orbit around the sun due to the gravitational interaction with other masses within the solar system . Due to this cyclicity solar irradiation differs through time on different hemispheres and seasonality is affected . These insolation variations have influence on Earth 's climate and so on the deposition of sedimentary rocks . The main orbital cycles are precession with at present main periods of 19 and 23 kyr , obliquity with at present main periods of 41 kyr , and 1.2 Myr , and eccentricity with at present main periods of around 100 kyr , 405 kyr , and 2.4 Myr . Cyclostratigraphic studies of rock records can lead to accurate dating of events in the geological past , to increase understanding of cause and consequences of Earth 's ( climate ) history , and to more control on depositional mechanisms of sediments and the acting of sedimentary systems .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Cyclostratigraphy",
"rank": 75,
"score": 65699
},
{
"content": "Title: Planetary science Content: Planetary science or , more rarely , planetology , is the scientific study of planets ( including Earth ) , moons , and planetary systems ( in particular those of the Solar System ) and the processes that form them . It studies objects ranging in size from micrometeoroids to gas giants , aiming to determine their composition , dynamics , formation , interrelations and history . It is a strongly interdisciplinary field , originally growing from astronomy and earth science , but which now incorporates many disciplines , including planetary geology ( together with geochemistry and geophysics ) , cosmochemistry , atmospheric science , oceanography , hydrology , theoretical planetary science , glaciology , and exoplanetology . Allied disciplines include space physics , when concerned with the effects of the Sun on the bodies of the Solar System , and astrobiology . There are interrelated observational and theoretical branches of planetary science . Observational research can involve a combination of space exploration , predominantly with robotic spacecraft missions using remote sensing , and comparative , experimental work in Earth-based laboratories . The theoretical component involves considerable computer simulation and mathematical modelling . Planetary scientists are generally located in the astronomy and physics or Earth sciences departments of universities or research centres , though there are several purely planetary science institutes worldwide . There are several major conferences each year , and a wide range of peer-reviewed journals .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Planetary_science",
"rank": 76,
"score": 65630
},
{
"content": "Title: List of periods and events in climate history Content: Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes further back in time . Some notable climate events known to paleoclimatology are listed here . The timeline of glaciation covers ice ages specifically , which tend to have their own names for phases , often with different names used for different parts of the world . The names for earlier periods and events come from geology and paleontology . The marine isotope stages ( MIS ) are often used to express dating within the Quaternary .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history",
"rank": 77,
"score": 65524
},
{
"content": "Title: Darin Toohey Content: Darin W. Toohey is an American atmospheric scientist . He is a professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences and of environmental studies at the University of Colorado Boulder since 1999 . Toohey 's research addresses the role of trace gases and aerosols on Earth 's climate , atmospheric oxidation , and air quality . He was a Jefferson Science Fellow at the United States Department of State , 2011-2012 .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Darin_Toohey",
"rank": 78,
"score": 65443
},
{
"content": "Title: Timeline of the geologic history of the United States Content:",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Timeline_of_the_geologic_history_of_the_United_States",
"rank": 79,
"score": 65382
},
{
"content": "Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Younger_Dryas",
"rank": 80,
"score": 65293
},
{
"content": "Title: Gastrochaenolites Content: Gastrochaenolites is a trace fossil formed as a clavate ( club-shaped ) boring in a hard substrate such as a shell , rock or carbonate hardground . The aperture of the boring is narrower than the main chamber and may be circular , oval , or dumb-bell shaped ( Kelly and Bromley , 1984 ) . Gastrochaenolites is most commonly attributed to bioeroding bivalves such as Lithophaga and Gastrochaena ( Kleeman , 1980 ) . The fossil ranges from the Ordovician to the Recent ( Taylor and Wilson , 2003 ; Vinn and Wilson , 2010 ) .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Gastrochaenolites",
"rank": 81,
"score": 65278
},
{
"content": "Title: 100,000-year problem Content: The 100,000-year problem ( `` 100 ky problem '' , `` 100 ka problem '' ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800,000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000 , 40,000 , 100,000 , and 400,000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations . While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100,000-year-problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid-Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800,000 years ago . The related `` 400,000-year-problem '' refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "100,000-year_problem",
"rank": 82,
"score": 65098
},
{
"content": "Title: Quaternary Content: Quaternary ( -LSB- pronkwəˈtɜrnəri -RSB- ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy ( ICS ) . It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.588 ± 0.005 million years ago to the present . The Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs : the Pleistocene ( 2.588 million years ago to 11.7 thousand years ago ) and the Holocene ( 11.7 thousand years ago to today ) . The informal term `` Late Quaternary '' refers to the past 0.5 -- 1.0 million years . The Quaternary Period is typically defined by the cyclic growth and decay of continental ice sheets driven by Milankovitch cycles and the associated climate and environmental changes that occurred .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Quaternary",
"rank": 83,
"score": 65056
},
{
"content": "Title: Mars ocean hypothesis Content: The Mars ocean hypothesis states that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was covered by an ocean of liquid water early in the planet 's geologic history . This primordial ocean , dubbed Paleo-Ocean and Oceanus Borealis , would have filled the basin Vastitas Borealis in the northern hemisphere , a region which lies 4 -- 5 km ( 2.5 -- 3 miles ) below the mean planetary elevation , at a time period of approximately 4.1 -- 3.8 billion years ago . Evidence for this ocean includes geographic features resembling ancient shorelines , and the chemical properties of the Martian soil and atmosphere . Early Mars would have required a denser atmosphere and warmer climate to allow liquid water to remain at the surface .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Mars_ocean_hypothesis",
"rank": 84,
"score": 65042
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical geology Content: Historical geology is a discipline that uses the principles and techniques of geology to reconstruct and understand the geological history of Earth . It focuses on geologic processes that change the Earth 's surface and subsurface ; and the use of stratigraphy , structural geology and paleontology to tell the sequence of these events . It also focuses on the evolution of plants and animals during different time periods in the geological timescale . The discovery of radioactivity and the development of several radiometric dating techniques in the first half of the 20th century provided a means of deriving absolute versus relative ages of geologic history . Economic geology , the search for and extraction of fuel and raw materials , is heavily dependent on an understanding of the geological history of an area . Environmental geology , including most importantly the geologic hazards of earthquakes and volcanism , must also include a detailed knowledge of geologic history .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Historical_geology",
"rank": 85,
"score": 65023
},
{
"content": "Title: Hartmut Heinrich Content: Hartmut Heinrich ( born March 5 , 1952 in Northeim , Lower Saxony ) is a German marine geologist and climatologist . Dr. Heinrich is Head of the Physics Department at the Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency ( BSH ) in Hamburg . He is actively involved in GOOS ( Global Ocean Observing System ) . In 1988 he described the suddenly occurring climate changes in the history of the earth , which have since been named after him , Heinrich events . Heinrich studied geology at the University of Göttingen and attained a doctorate at the University of Kiel in marine geology . The discovery which was named for him , Heinrich events -- periods of substantial ice output of the continental ice sheets , by which the global climate is strongly affected -- were subsequently confirmed by investigations of ice core samples from the Greenland ice sheet by the Greenland ice core project ( GRIP ) . Dr. Heinrich warns of the global warming consequences which could occur precipitously and of far larger effects on navigation and population .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Hartmut_Heinrich",
"rank": 86,
"score": 64836
},
{
"content": "Title: Table of historic and prehistoric climate indicators Content: This table is a reference tool for rapidly locating Wikipedia articles on Historic and Prehistoric climate indicators of all types . To Add : Alkenone analysis TEX-86 analysis Nile river flood levels Trace mineral ratios in deltaic sediment Wildlife distribution Pollen analysis Historic storm-related sinkings Sea temperature and atmospheric pressure ( ENSO ) Scientific meteorological measurements ( since 1800s ) air temperature air pressure wind speed and direction Ocean currents and marine productivity Flooding and drought observations on land Volcanic activity elevated charcoal in lake sediments sand dune activation records eolian ( wind-borne ) sediment deposition",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Table_of_historic_and_prehistoric_climate_indicators",
"rank": 87,
"score": 64817
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 80606 b Content: HD 80606 b ( also Struve 1341 B b or HIP 45982 b ) is an eccentric and hot Jupiter 190 light-years from the Sun in the constellation of Ursa Major . HD 80606 b was discovered orbiting the star Struve 1341 B in April 2001 by a team led by Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz . With a mass 4 times that of Jupiter , it is a gas giant . Because the planet transits the host star its radius can be determined using the transit method and was found to be slightly smaller than Jupiter 's . Its density is slightly less than Earth 's . It has an extremely eccentric orbit like a comet , with its orbit taking it very close to its star and then back out very far away from it every 111 days .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "HD_80606_b",
"rank": 88,
"score": 64808
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Capitalism Content: Climate Capitalism : Capitalism in the Age of Climate Change is a 2011 book by L. Hunter Lovins and Boyd Cohen . It presents positive stories and examples of how profit-seeking companies are helping to save the planet , and says that `` the best way to rebuild America 's economy , cities and job markets is to invest in energy efficiency and renewable energy resources , whether climate change is happening or not '' . However , reviewer Gail Whiteman is unconvinced by the argument that naked greed and market forces will drive businesses to cut their greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Climate_Capitalism",
"rank": 89,
"score": 64801
},
{
"content": "Title: Gasconadian Stage Content: The Gasconadian Stage is the first stage of the Ordovician geologic period in North America and of the Lower Ordovician Canadian Epoch , coming immediately after the Late Cambrian Trempealeauan and preceding the middle Canadian Demingian Stage . The Gasconadian is equivalent to the European Tremadocian and roughly to the Skullrockian of the Ibexian series . The Gasconadian is named for the Gasconade Formation of Missouri , named in turn for the Gasconade River , and is represented by the Tribes Hill Formation in New York state and by the upper Bliss Fm and the Sierrite Ls of the El Paso Group in southern New Mexico and west Texas . The Gasconadian is a common term in the paleontological and stratigraphic literature of the previous century , whether used simply for a span of time or for strata laid down during that time .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Gasconadian_Stage",
"rank": 90,
"score": 64776
},
{
"content": "Title: Evershed effect Content: The Evershed effect , named after the British astronomer John Evershed , is the radial flow of gas across the photospheric surface of the penumbra of sunspots from the inner border with the umbra towards the outer edge . The speed varies from around 1 km/s at the border between the umbra and the penumbra to a maximum of around double this in the middle of the penumbra and falls off to zero at the outer edge of the penumbra . Evershed first detected this phenomenon in January 1909 , whilst working at the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory in India , when he found that the spectral lines of sunspots showed doppler shift . Afterwards , measurements of the spectral emission lines emitted in the ultraviolet wavelengths have shown a systematic red-shift . The Evershed effect is common to every spectral line formed at a temperature below 105 K ; this fact would imply a constant downflow from the transition region towards the chromosphere . The observed velocity is about 5 km/s . Of course , this is impossible , since if it were true , the corona would disappear in a short time instead of being suspended over the Sun at temperatures of million degrees over distances much larger than a solar radius . Many theories have been proposed to explain this redshift in line profiles of the transition region , but the problem is still unsolved , since a coherent theory should take into account all the physical observations : UV line profiles are redshifted on average , but they show back and forth velocity oscillations at the same time . In synthesis , the proposed mechanisms are : siphon flows in coronal loops driven by a pressure difference , different cross-sections of the coronal loops footpoints , the return of spicules , multiple flows , nanoflares , and thermal instabilities during chromospheric condensation . The effect was commemorated in a postage stamp issued in India on 2 December 2008 .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Evershed_effect",
"rank": 91,
"score": 64746
},
{
"content": "Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "European_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 92,
"score": 64711
},
{
"content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer",
"rank": 93,
"score": 64619
},
{
"content": "Title: Eruption column Content: An eruption column is a cloud of hot volcanic ash suspended in volcanic gas emitted during an explosive volcanic eruption . The ash forms a column that may rise many kilometres into the air above the vent of the volcano . In the most explosive eruptions , the eruption column may rise over 40 km , penetrating the stratosphere . Stratospheric injection of aerosols by volcanoes is a major cause of short-term climate change . A common occurrence in explosive eruptions is for column collapse to occur . In this case , the eruption column is too dense to be lifted high into the air by air convection , and instead falls down the flanks of the volcano to form a pyroclastic flow or surge . On some occasions , if ash is n't dense enough to fall , it may create pyrocumulonimbus .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Eruption_column",
"rank": 94,
"score": 64520
},
{
"content": "Title: Gas torus Content: A gas torus is a toroidal cloud of gas or plasma that encircles a planet . In the Solar System , gas tori tend to be produced by the interaction of a satellite 's atmosphere with the magnetic field of a planet . The most famous example of this is the Io plasma torus , which is produced by the ionization of roughly 1 ton per second of oxygen and sulfur from the tenuous atmosphere of Jupiter 's volcanic moon Io . Other examples include the largely neutral torus of oxygen and hydrogen produced by Saturn 's moon Enceladus , and the proposed ( though not observationally supported ) torus of nitrogen produced by Saturn 's moon Titan . A fictional gas torus is the setting for Larry Niven 's novels The Integral Trees and The Smoke Ring , in which a gas giant in orbit around a neutron star generates a gas torus of sufficient density and free oxygen to support life ( including humans ) .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Gas_torus",
"rank": 95,
"score": 64515
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene Content: The Paleocene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliəˌsiːn , _ ˈpæ - , _ - lioʊ - -RSB- ) or Palaeocene , the `` old recent '' , is a geologic epoch that lasted from about . It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era . As with many geologic periods , the strata that define the epoch 's beginning and end are well identified , but the exact ages remain uncertain . The Paleocene Epoch brackets two major events in Earth 's history . It started with the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous , known as the Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) boundary . This was a time marked by the demise of non-avian dinosaurs , giant marine reptiles and much other fauna and flora . The die-off of the dinosaurs left unfilled ecological niches worldwide . The Paleocene ended with the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , a geologically brief ( ~ 0.2 million year ) interval characterized by extreme changes in climate and carbon cycling . The name `` Paleocene '' comes from Ancient Greek and refers to the `` old ( er ) '' ( παλαιός , palaios ) `` new '' ( καινός , kainos ) fauna that arose during the epoch .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Paleocene",
"rank": 96,
"score": 64471
},
{
"content": "Title: Geological history of oxygen Content: Before photosynthesis evolved , Earth 's atmosphere had no free oxygen ( O2 ) . Photosynthetic prokaryotic organisms that produced O2 as a waste product lived long before the first build-up of free oxygen in the atmosphere , perhaps as early as 3.5 billion years ago . The oxygen they produced would have been rapidly removed from the atmosphere by weathering of reducing minerals , most notably iron . This `` mass rusting '' led to the deposition of iron oxide on the ocean floor , forming banded iron formations . Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the Great Oxygenation Event . This mass oxygenation of the atmosphere resulted in rapid buildup of free oxygen . At current rates of primary production , today 's concentration of oxygen could be produced by photosynthetic organisms in 2,000 years . In the absence of plants , the rate of oxygen production by photosynthesis was slower in the Precambrian , and the concentrations of O2 attained were less than 10 % of today 's and probably fluctuated greatly ; oxygen may even have disappeared from the atmosphere again around 1.9 billion years ago . These fluctuations in oxygen concentration had little direct effect on life , with mass extinctions not observed until the appearance of complex life around the start of the Cambrian period , . The presence of provided life with new opportunities . Aerobic metabolism is more efficient than anaerobic pathways , and the presence of oxygen undoubtedly created new possibilities for life to explore . Since the start of the Cambrian period , atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15 % and 35 % of atmospheric volume . The maximum of 35 % was reached towards the end of the Carboniferous period ( about 300 million years ago ) , a peak which may have contributed to the large size of insects and amphibians at that time . Whilst human activities , such as the burning of fossil fuels , affect relative carbon dioxide concentrations , their effect on the much larger concentration of oxygen is less significant .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Geological_history_of_oxygen",
"rank": 97,
"score": 64308
},
{
"content": "Title: WASP-4b Content: WASP-4b is an extrasolar planet approximately 1,000 light-years away in the constellation of Phoenix . The planet was discovered orbiting the star WASP-4 in October 2007 . The planet 's mass and radius indicate that it is a gas giant , similar to Jupiter . WASP-4b is close enough to its star to be classified as a hot Jupiter and has an atmospheric temperature of approximately 1650 K. The planet was the discovered by the SuperWASP project using cameras in South Africa . After its discovery , the mass of the WASP-4 b was determined by measuring the radial velocity of WASP-4 , which confirmed that the object that caused the transit was a planet .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "WASP-4b",
"rank": 98,
"score": 64255
},
{
"content": "Title: Surface features of Venus Content: The surface of Venus is dominated by geologic features that include volcanoes , large impact craters , and aeolian erosion and sedimentation landforms . Venus has a topography reflecting its single , strong crustal plate , with a unimodal elevation distribution ( over 90 % of the surface lies within an elevation of -1.0 and 2.5 km ) that preserves geologic structures for long periods of time . Studies of the Venusian surface are based on imaging , radar , and altimetry data collected from several exploratory space probes , particularly Magellan , since 1961 ( see Venus Exploration ) . Despite its similarities to Earth in size , mass , density , and possibly composition , Venus has a unique geology that is unlike Earth 's . Although much older than Earth 's , the surface of Venus is relatively young compared to other terrestrial planets ( < 500 million years old ) , possibly due to a global-scale resurfacing event that buried much of the previous rock record . Venus is believed to have approximately the same bulk elemental composition as Earth , due to the physical similarities , but the exact composition is unknown . The surface conditions on Venus are more extreme than on Earth , with temperatures ranging from 453 to 473 ° C and pressures of 95 bar . Venus lacks water , which makes crustal rock stronger and helps preserve surface features . The features observed provide evidence for the geological processes at work . Twenty feature types have been categorized thus far . These classes include local features , such as craters , coronae , and undae , as well as regional-scale features , such as planitiae , plana , and tesserae .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Surface_features_of_Venus",
"rank": 99,
"score": 64100
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "189",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 100,
"score": 64079
}
] |
Climate change is normal and continual. | [
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 1,
"score": 140000
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)",
"rank": 2,
"score": 119113
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States",
"rank": 3,
"score": 115374
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate pattern Content: A climate pattern is any recurring characteristic of the climate . Climate patterns can last tens of thousands of years , like the glacial and interglacial periods within ice ages , or repeat each year , like monsoons . A climate pattern may come in the form of a regular cycle , like the diurnal cycle or the seasonal cycle ; a quasi periodic event , like El Niño ; or a highly irregular event , such as a volcanic winter . The regular cycles are generally well understood and may be removed by normalization . For example , graphs which show trends of temperature change will usually have the effects of seasonal variation removed .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_pattern",
"rank": 4,
"score": 110718
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_variability",
"rank": 5,
"score": 109577
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 6,
"score": 108925
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Change (journal) Content: Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climatic_Change_(journal)",
"rank": 7,
"score": 107371
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 8,
"score": 106694
},
{
"content": "Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Nature_Climate_Change",
"rank": 9,
"score": 103518
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_Zealand",
"rank": 10,
"score": 103116
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 11,
"score": 102428
},
{
"content": "Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Physical_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 12,
"score": 102112
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 13,
"score": 101989
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_oscillation",
"rank": 14,
"score": 101984
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 15,
"score": 101912
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 16,
"score": 101333
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change (album) Content: Climate Change is the tenth studio album by rapper and songwriter Pitbull . It was released on March 17 , 2017 . through RCA Records , Polo Grounds Music and Mr. 305 Inc. . It features Enrique Iglesias , Flo Rida , Jennifer Lopez and Jason Derulo .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Change_(album)",
"rank": 17,
"score": 100984
},
{
"content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 18,
"score": 100915
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 19,
"score": 100549
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal",
"rank": 20,
"score": 99688
},
{
"content": "Title: A Change of Climate Content: A Change of Climate is a novel by English author Hilary Mantel , first published in 1994 by Viking Books . At the time The Observer described it as the best book she had written . It was published in the United States by Henry Holt in 1997 and was recognised by the New York Times Book Review as one of the notable books of that year . The novel has also been identified as one of the best of the 1990s .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "A_Change_of_Climate",
"rank": 21,
"score": 99629
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate fiction Content: Climate fiction , or climate change fiction , popularly abbreviated as cli-fi ( modelled after the assonance of `` sci-fi '' ) is literature that deals with climate change and global warming . Not necessarily speculative in nature , works of cli-fi may take place in the world as we know it or in the near future . University courses on literature and environmental issues may include climate change fiction in their syllabi . This body of literature has been discussed by a variety of publications , including The New York Times , The Guardian , and Dissent magazine , among other international media outlets .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_fiction",
"rank": 22,
"score": 99423
},
{
"content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Abrupt_climate_change",
"rank": 23,
"score": 99206
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 24,
"score": 98506
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 25,
"score": 98045
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 26,
"score": 98020
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 27,
"score": 98018
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Research_Centre",
"rank": 28,
"score": 97981
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatological normal Content: Climatological normal is a 30-year average of a weather variable . Climatological normals are used as an average or baseline to evaluate climate events and provide context for year-to-year variability . Normals can be calculated for a variety of weather variables including temperature and precipitation and rely on data from weather stations . Variability from the 30-year averages is typical and climate variability looks at the magnitude of extremes .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climatological_normal",
"rank": 29,
"score": 97292
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture",
"rank": 30,
"score": 97235
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_ethics",
"rank": 31,
"score": 96858
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Global_warming_game",
"rank": 32,
"score": 96831
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate commitment Content: Climate commitment describes the fact that climate reacts with a delay to influencing factors ( `` climate forcings '' ) such as the presence of greenhouse gases . Climate commitment studies attempt to assess the amount of future global warming that is `` committed '' under the assumption of some constant level of forcings . The constant level often used for illustrative purposes is doubling or quadrupling ; or the present level of forcing .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_commitment",
"rank": 33,
"score": 96809
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations",
"rank": 34,
"score": 96412
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_adaptation",
"rank": 35,
"score": 95972
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_gender",
"rank": 36,
"score": 95819
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic adaptation Content: Climate adaptation refers to specific adaptations in a living organism that develop in response to changes in climate and habitat . Such adaptations could include physical changes , such as skin or fur color and composition changes , or the adaptations could be behavioral , such as burrowing into the ground or spending more time in water . These are not necessarily permanently expressed traits , instead encompassing the potential for the individual to adapt to certain environments . The change in the environment triggers a change in behavior which would not have been present had the organism not been exposed to that specific stimuli . Climate adaptation is constrained by the genetic variability of the species in question .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climatic_adaptation",
"rank": 37,
"score": 95665
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 38,
"score": 95655
},
{
"content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 39,
"score": 95623
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Act_2008",
"rank": 40,
"score": 95369
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 41,
"score": 95121
},
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 42,
"score": 95119
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Capital Content: Climate Change Capital is a private asset management and advisory group founded in 2003 to support efforts to develop solutions to climate change and resource depletion .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Capital",
"rank": 43,
"score": 94402
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_justice",
"rank": 44,
"score": 94394
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_state",
"rank": 45,
"score": 94147
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 46,
"score": 94085
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 47,
"score": 94067
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Authority",
"rank": 48,
"score": 93891
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 49,
"score": 93861
},
{
"content": "Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower",
"rank": 50,
"score": 93724
},
{
"content": "Title: 4Change Content: 4Change , formerly known as the Climate Change Coalition ( CCC ) , was an Australian political party , which was formed in 2007 with a view to accelerate action by politicians from all parties on global warming and climate change . Its position on working towards addressing climate change , stresses cooperation with big business in order to achieve significant progress on the issue . The party therefore advocates a close working relationship between environmentalists and the business community . The CCC was registered as a political party with the Australian Electoral Commission ( AEC ) on 4 September 2007 and deregistered on 25 March 2010 .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "4Change",
"rank": 51,
"score": 93619
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska",
"rank": 52,
"score": 93388
},
{
"content": "Title: Hard Choices (Coward book) Content: Hard Choices : Climate Change in Canada is a non-fiction compilation book about climate change in Canada , edited by Harold Coward and Andrew J. Weaver . It was published in paperback format by Wilfrid Laurier University Press in 2004 . Hard Choices received favorable reviews in academic journals including Great Plains Research : A Journal of Natural and Social Sciences , Environmental Reviews , Annals of the Association of American Geographers , and Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Hard_Choices_(Coward_book)",
"rank": 53,
"score": 93316
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City",
"rank": 54,
"score": 93222
},
{
"content": "Title: Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change Content: The Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change ( MOECC ) is a Ontario government ministry responsible for protecting and improving the quality of the environment in the Canadian province of Ontario , as well as coordinating Ontario 's actions on climate change . This includes administration of government programs , such as Ontario 's Drive Clean and Clean Water Act . The ministry headquarters are located inside the Ontario Government Buildings . The current Minister is Glen Murray .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Ministry_of_the_Environment_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 55,
"score": 92915
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_system",
"rank": 56,
"score": 92883
},
{
"content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Glacier_mass_balance",
"rank": 57,
"score": 92784
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 Content: The Climate Change ( Scotland ) Act 2009 is an Act of the Scottish Parliament . The Act includes an emissions target , set for the year 2050 , for a reduction of at least 80 % from the baseline year , 1990 . Annual targets for greenhouse gas emissions must also be set , after consultation the relevant advisory bodies . Provisions are included in the Act for the creation of a Scottish Committee on Climate Change , as at present the only advisory body is the UK-wide Committee on Climate Change . Ministers in parliament must now report on the progress of these targets . As of January 2011 , public sector bodies in Scotland must comply with new guidelines set out by the Scottish Government .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Change_(Scotland)_Act_2009",
"rank": 58,
"score": 92779
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_denial",
"rank": 59,
"score": 92677
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather Makers Content: The Weather Makers : The History and Future Impact of Climate Change is a 2005 book by Tim Flannery . The book received critical acclaim . It won the major prize at the 2006 New South Wales Premier 's Literary Awards , and was short-listed for the 2010 Jan Michalski Prize for Literature .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "The_Weather_Makers",
"rank": 60,
"score": 92525
},
{
"content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change",
"rank": 61,
"score": 92508
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 62,
"score": 92476
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment",
"rank": 63,
"score": 92453
},
{
"content": "Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "European_Climate_Change_Programme",
"rank": 64,
"score": 92339
},
{
"content": "Title: 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference was an international meeting of political leaders and activists to discuss environmental issues . It was held in Marrakech , Morocco from November 7 to 18 . The conference incorporated the twenty-second Conference of the Parties ( COP22 ) , the twelfth meeting of the parties for the Kyoto Protocol ( CMP12 ) , and the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement ( CMA1 ) . The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combatting climate change and to '' -LSB- demonstrate -RSB- to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is underway '' . Participants work together to come up with global solutions to climate change . The conference was presided over by Salaheddine Mezouar , the Moroccan Minister for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation . Approximately 20,000 participants were expected to attend . On 2 May 2016 , events firm GL Events signed the service contract . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also lent its support to the preparation for COP 22 '' .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "2016_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 65,
"score": 92208
},
{
"content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 66,
"score": 91615
},
{
"content": "Title: Ministry of Environment and Climate Change (Romania) Content: The Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change ( Ministerul Mediului și Schimbărilor climatice ) is one of the ministries of the Government of Romania . The institution was known as the Ministry of Environment and Waters Management ( Ministerul Mediului și Gospodăririi Apelor ) before April 2007 ; and then the Ministry of Environment and Forests .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Ministry_of_Environment_and_Climate_Change_(Romania)",
"rank": 67,
"score": 91440
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea",
"rank": 68,
"score": 91382
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic",
"rank": 69,
"score": 91337
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Levy Content: The Climate Change Levy ( CCL ) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom . Its aim is to provide an incentive to increase energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions ; however , there have been ongoing calls to replace it with a proper carbon tax .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Levy",
"rank": 70,
"score": 91250
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 71,
"score": 91127
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Challenge Content: Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Challenge",
"rank": 72,
"score": 91048
},
{
"content": "Title: The Climate Monologues Content: The Climate Monologues is an episodic one-woman play , created and performed by Sharon Abreu . Inspired by The Vagina Monologues , The Climate Monologues consists of a series of monologues and original songs from the point of view of people affected by and working to prevent climate change . The play premiered at the Orcas Island Grange in Eastsound , WA , on May 16 , 2010 . On March 11 , 2011 , Abreu received The Spirit of Nature , Ecology and Society Environmental Justice Award . at The Culture of Climate Change colloquium at the City University of New York ( CUNY ) Graduate Center in New York City , for her presentation of The Climate Monologues . Abreu performed an updated version of the show on March 27 , 2016 , in the Los Angeles Women 's Theatre Festival . Orcas Issues said in a review of a September 8 , 2016 , performance at Random Howse in Eastsound , WA : `` Sharon Abreu is an inspired listener . She listens to the stories of West Virginian coal mining families , NW activists , Tribal leaders , Mississippi teachers , a Colorado cowgirl and Orcas ' own Lea Bossler and tells them back to us in compelling , non-scientific language about the world we live in . '' Theater reviewer Lexi Orphanos wrote , `` Abreu 's monologues bring a humanity to the statistics that plaster our newspapers and Facebook feeds . She does n't just give you the facts , she gives you a human life , bent and reshaped by environmental abuse . '' A September 24 , 2016 , performance at the United Solo Theatre Festival sold out , was listed as a bestseller and a repeat performance was added which took place on November 18 , 2016 . The play was featured in chapter 6 , Orcas Island 's Irthlingz : Community Art as Activism in the 2016 book , A Song to Save the Salish Sea : Musical Performance as Environmental Activism , by Mark Pedelty , published by Indiana University Press .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "The_Climate_Monologues",
"rank": 73,
"score": 90769
},
{
"content": "Title: Regime shift Content: In ecology , regime shifts are large , abrupt , persistent changes in the structure and function of a system . A regime is a characteristic behaviour of a system which is maintained by mutually reinforced processes or feedbacks . Regimes are considered persistent relative to the time period over which the shift occurs . The change of regimes , or the shift , usually occurs when a smooth change in an internal process ( feedback ) or a single disturbance ( external shocks ) triggers a completely different system behavior . Although such non-linear changes have been widely studied in different disciplines ranging from atoms to climate dynamics , regime shifts have gained importance in ecology because they can substantially affect the flow of ecosystem services that societies rely upon , such as provision of food , clean water or climate regulation . Moreover , regime shift occurrence is expected to increase as human influence on the planet increases -- the Anthropocene -- including current trends on human induced climate change and biodiversity loss .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Regime_shift",
"rank": 74,
"score": 90603
},
{
"content": "Title: Grantham Institute - Climate Change and Environment Content: The Grantham Institute - Climate Change and Environment ( formerly Grantham Institute for Climate Change ) is one of five Global Institutes at Imperial College London and one of three Grantham sponsored centres in the UK . The Institute was founded in 2007 with a # 12m donation from the Grantham Foundation for the Protection of the Environment , an organisation set up by Hannelore and Jeremy Grantham . The Institute brings together climate and global environmental change expertise from across the College for climate change related research and translation into real world impact . Their aim is to improve the interaction between researchers and decision makers in business and governments , communicating research to help ensure that choices are based on the best understanding of the science and evidence available .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Grantham_Institute_-_Climate_Change_and_Environment",
"rank": 75,
"score": 90572
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation",
"rank": 76,
"score": 90374
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Summit Content: The Climate Summit 2014 ( sometimes also referred to as the Leader 's Climate Summit ) was a meeting on climate change in New York on September 23 , 2014 . UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced it in September 2013 and invited leaders of governments , the private sector , and civil society to unite in taking concrete action towards a low-carbon world . The Summit 's focus was on initiatives and actions rather than on negotiations between countries . It was seen as a milestone on the path towards closing the emissions gap between reduction pledges and the necessary emission cuts for the 2 ° C scenario ( with `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C ) , and to a new legal agreement on climate change , to be approved by the COP21 in Paris in December 2015 . One product of the Summit was the New York Declaration on Forests .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Summit",
"rank": 77,
"score": 90242
},
{
"content": "Title: National Climate Assessment Content: The National Climate Assessment ( NCA ) is a United States government interagency ongoing effort on climate change science conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The NCA is a major product of the U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which coordinates a team of experts and receives input from a Federal Advisory Committee . The Fourth National Climate Assessment is being developed . For the Third National Climate Assessment , released in 2014 , USGCRP coordinated hundreds of experts and received advice from a sixty-member Federal Advisory Committee . NCA research is integrated and summarized in the mandatory ongoing National Climate Assessment Reports . The reports are `` extensively reviewed by the public and experts , including federal agencies and a panel of the National Academy of Sciences . The First National Climate Assessment was published in 2000 . The First National Climate Assessment Report was `` prepared by the National Assessment Synthesis Team ( NAST ) , an advisory committee chartered under the Federal Advisory Committee Act to help the US Global Change Research Program fulfill its mandate under the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The National Science and Technology Council forwarded the report to the President and Congress for their consideration as required by the Global Change Research Act . Administrative support for the US Global Change Research Program is provided by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research , which is sponsored by the National Science Foundation ( NCA 2000 ) . '' Between 2002 and 2009 , USGCRP previously known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) , produced twenty-one Synthesis and Assessment Products ( SAPs ) . The second NCA was published in 2009 and the third was released in 2014 . NCA 's overarching goal according to their May 20 , 2011 engagement strategy summary , `` is to enhance the ability of the U.S. to anticipate , mitigate , and adapt to changes in the global environment ( NCA 2011:2 ) . '' According to the USGCRP official website the NCA , In 2013 , the President 's Climate Action Plan released by the Executive Office of the President specifically noted the importance of the National Climate Assessments in achieving the goal of `` Using Sound Science to Manage Climate Impacts '' .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "National_Climate_Assessment",
"rank": 78,
"score": 90235
},
{
"content": "Title: Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Content: The Copernicus Climate Change Service ( C3S ) is one of the six thematic services provided by the European Union 's Copernicus Programme . The Copernicus Programme is managed by the European Commission and the C3S is implemented by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) and is expected to become operational in 2018 . The objective of the Copernicus Climate Change Service is to build an EU knowledge base in support of mitigation and adaptation policies for Climate Change and Global Warming . The goal of the operational Climate Change service is to provide reliable information about the current and past state of the climate , the forecasts on a seasonal time scale , and the more likely projections in the coming decades for various scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions and other Climate Change contributors .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Copernicus_Climate_Change_Service_(C3S)",
"rank": 79,
"score": 90074
},
{
"content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C",
"rank": 80,
"score": 89855
},
{
"content": "Title: London Climate Change Agency Content: The London Climate Change Agency Limited ( LCCA ) , was a municipal company owned by the London Development Agency ( LDA ) that worked in partnership with private sector companies ( notably EDF Energy ) to design , finance , construct , own and operate decentralised low energy and zero-carbon projects for London , as well as providing services to others . It operated in the areas of energy , water , waste and transport . In 2009 it was integrated into the London Development Agency The Agency was launched on 20 June 2005 to implement a manifesto commitment by Ken Livingstone in the 2004 elections for the Mayor of London . Its budget for 2006-07 is # 815,000 , 63 % of which is funded directly by the LDA . The Chief Executive Officer is Allan Jones , who previously led the development of the pioneering sustainable community energy system in Woking . The London Climate Change Agency plans to create a similar system for London . As of 2006 , London produces 7 % of the UK 's carbon emissions . The LCCA is seen as one of the key vehicles for delivering the Mayor 's energy strategy , which targets cuts in these emissions of 20 % by 2010 and 60 % by 2050 ( although achieving the first of these targets is unlikely ) . The Agency is also expected to play a role in ensuring that the London Olympic games are the first to be powered by low carbon technology .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "London_Climate_Change_Agency",
"rank": 81,
"score": 89702
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental Change Institute Content: The Environmental Change Institute was founded in 1987 in Oxford University in England `` to organize and promote interdisciplinary research on the nature , causes and impact of environmental change and to contribute to the development of management strategies for coping with future environmental change . '' This statement still embodies the ECI 's ethos of purposeful environmental research and knowledge exchange . With an annual research income of # 4.7 million in 2013/14 , a portfolio of 50 active projects , 350 partners and 60 researchers working across 40 countries , the ECI is an active and influential player in environmental change science . The ECI 's research is interdisciplinary , both in outlook and approach . ECI has a well - established track record in relation to climate , energy and ecosystems and a growing expertise in relation to food and water . ECI is a leading player in number of large research activities , including : the UK Climate Impacts Programme ( UKCIP ) which develops new tools to link climate science with stakeholders in business and government in order to create innovative adaptations to the impacts of climate change ; Climateprediction.net the world 's largest citizen science climate ensemble with 350,000 individuals running climate simulations in order to better understand regional climate patterns ; leaders of major EU consortium programmes including one on the impacts and risks of extreme climate change ( Impressions ) ; and coordinators of GEM , a global ecological monitoring programme across remote forest locations in South America , Africa and Asia . The ECI 's full portfolio of projects has led to academic papers and citations totaling over 45,000 since 2000 . The ECI is also home to the MSc in Environmental Change and Management ( ECM ) , the School 's first taught postgraduate masters ' programme , and Oxford 's most popular graduate science course . The Institute is led by Professor Jim Hall .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Environmental_Change_Institute",
"rank": 82,
"score": 89627
},
{
"content": "Title: The Climate Mobilization Content: The Climate Mobilization ( TCM ) is a grassroots environmental advocacy group working toward large-scale political action against global warming , with the belief that the crisis of climate change requires a national economic effort on the scale of the American mobilization of the home front during World War II . It was founded by psychologist Margaret Klein Salamon to confront climate change denial and build the political will necessary to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions and 100 % clean energy within a decade in order to avoid crossing potentially catastrophic climate tipping points and begin restoring a safe climate .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "The_Climate_Mobilization",
"rank": 83,
"score": 89603
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Museum Content: The Climate Museum is a new museum proposed for New York City that will focus on climate change . The founding director is Miranda Massie . The Museum was given a 5-year Charter by the New York State Board of Regents in July , 2015 . As of July 2015 , the museum is in its initial fund-raising and planning phase and has not yet selected a location .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Museum",
"rank": 84,
"score": 89534
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_West_Virginia",
"rank": 85,
"score": 89516
},
{
"content": "Title: International Climate Change Partnership Content: The International Climate Change Partnership ( ICCP ) is an organization of companies and trade associations from around the world working to influence international climate change legislation .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "International_Climate_Change_Partnership",
"rank": 86,
"score": 89472
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical climate Content: A tropical climate in the Köppen climate classification is a non-arid climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures of at least 18 C . In tropical climates there are often only two seasons , a wet season and a dry season . Tropical climates are frost-free and changes in the solar angle are small . In tropical climates temperature remains relatively constant ( hot ) throughout the year .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Tropical_climate",
"rank": 87,
"score": 89420
},
{
"content": "Title: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Content: The Ministry of Environment , Forest and Climate Change ( MoEFCC ) is an Indian government ministry . The ministry portfolio is currently held by Dr. Harsh Vardhan , Union Minister of Environment , Forest and Climate Change . The ministry is responsible for planning , promoting , coordinating , and overseeing the implementation of environmental and forestry programmes in the country . The main activities undertaken by the ministry include conservation and survey of the flora of India and fauna of India , forests and other wilderness areas ; prevention and control of pollution ; afforestation , and land degradation mitigation . It is responsible for the administration of the national parks of India . One of the three All India Services , the Indian Forest Service ( IFoS ) is under the administration and supervision of the Ministry of Environment , Forest and Climate Change .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Ministry_of_Environment,_Forest_and_Climate_Change",
"rank": 88,
"score": 89103
},
{
"content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe",
"rank": 89,
"score": 89097
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006",
"rank": 90,
"score": 89056
},
{
"content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference",
"rank": 91,
"score": 88928
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 92,
"score": 88885
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_poverty",
"rank": 93,
"score": 88864
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Global_warming_hiatus",
"rank": 94,
"score": 88780
},
{
"content": "Title: U.S. Climate Change Technology Program Content: The United States Climate Change Technology Program or CCTP is a multi-agency planning and coordination entity . Its purpose is to accelerate the development and deployment of technologies that can reduce , avoid , or capture and store greenhouse gas emissions . CCTP was established administratively in 2002 , authorized by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , and appropriated funds in 2007 . Currently , the Department of Energy is designated as the lead agency .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "U.S._Climate_Change_Technology_Program",
"rank": 95,
"score": 88736
},
{
"content": "Title: Premier's Climate Change Council Content: The Premier 's Climate Change Council was established by the Government of South Australia under the Climate Change and Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Act 2007 . The Council provides independent advice to the Minister responsible for Climate Change about matters related to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and climate change adaptation and was formed during the Rann Government . The Council 's membership represents the business community , the environment and conservation sector , the scientific community and state and local governments . It is chaired by prominent South Australian businessman Bruce Carter , who was appointed to the role in 2011 . In 2013 , Michelle Lensink MLC questioned the efficacy of the Premier 's Climate Change Council , and asked the Minister for the environment , Ian Hunter about the absence of the Council 's 2011-12 annual report from the Council 's website . In 2013 , the Council published South Australia 's Climate Change Vision : Pathways to 2050 to advise Premier Jay Weatherill and his government on future planning and policy directions for the state . In September 2015 , Bruce Carter said of the Council : '' `` We want to encourage a wide range of views around climate change measures that are dynamic and adaptive . ''",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Premier's_Climate_Change_Council",
"rank": 96,
"score": 88631
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Sweden Content: The issue of climate change in Sweden has received significant public and political attention and the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the three latest Governments of Sweden , the former Cabinet of Göran Persson ( -2006 ) , the previous Cabinet of Fredrik Reinfeldt ( 2006-2014 ) and the current Löfven cabinet ( 2014 - ) . Sweden aims for an energy supply system with zero net atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Sweden",
"rank": 97,
"score": 88619
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate",
"rank": 98,
"score": 88466
},
{
"content": "Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change",
"rank": 99,
"score": 88405
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .",
"qid": "190",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan",
"rank": 100,
"score": 88332
}
] |
The main greenhouse gas is water vapour[…] | [
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 1,
"score": 141886
},
{
"content": "Title: Water vapor Content: Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds . Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution . Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Water_vapor",
"rank": 2,
"score": 138463
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 3,
"score": 128422
},
{
"content": "Title: Vapour-pressure deficit Content: Vapour-pressure deficit , or VPD , is the difference ( deficit ) between the amount of moisture in the air and how much moisture the air can hold when it is saturated . Once air becomes saturated , water will condense out to form clouds , dew or films of water over leaves . It is this last instance that makes VPD important for greenhouse regulation . If a film of water forms on a plant leaf , it becomes far more susceptible to rot . On the other hand , as the VPD increases , the plant needs to draw more water from its roots . In the case of cuttings , the plant may dry out and die . For this reason the ideal range for VPD in a greenhouse is from 0.45 kPa to 1.25 kPa , ideally sitting at around 0.85 kPa . As a general rule , most plants grow well at VPDs of between 0.8 and 0.95 kPa . A series of membership functions for defining optimality degree of VPD at different light condition and growth stages of greenhouse tomato can be found in the work of Shamshiri . In ecology , it is the difference between the actual water vapour pressure and the saturation water vapour pressure at a particular temperature . Unlike relative humidity , vapour-pressure deficit has a simple nearly straight-line relationship to the rate of evapotranspiration and other measures of evaporation .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Vapour-pressure_deficit",
"rank": 4,
"score": 115989
},
{
"content": "Title: Vapor Content: In physics a vapor ( American ) or vapour ( British ) is a substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical temperature , which means that the vapor can be condensed to a liquid by increasing the pressure on it without reducing the temperature . A vapor is different from an aerosol . An aerosol is a suspension of tiny particles of liquid , solid , or both within a gas . For example , water has a critical temperature of 647 K , which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist . In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures , therefore , gaseous water ( known as water vapor ) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently . A vapor may co-exist with a liquid ( or a solid ) . When this is true , the two phases will be in equilibrium , and the gas-partial pressure will be equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid ( or solid ) .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Vapor",
"rank": 5,
"score": 107340
},
{
"content": "Title: SathyabamaSat Content: SathyabamaSat is a micro experimental satellite developed by students and faculty of Sathyabama University , Chennai to collect data on greenhouse gases ( Water vapor , Carbon monoxide , Carbon dioxide , Methane and Hydrogen fluoride ) . It was launched along with the Cartosat-2C satellite atop PSLV-C34 . It was launched on June 22nd , 2016 .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "SathyabamaSat",
"rank": 6,
"score": 105468
},
{
"content": "Title: Physical properties of greenhouse gases Content:",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Physical_properties_of_greenhouse_gases",
"rank": 7,
"score": 101153
},
{
"content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Fugitive_emissions",
"rank": 8,
"score": 99792
},
{
"content": "Title: Vapour pressure of water Content: The vapour pressure of water is the pressure at which water vapour is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed state . At higher pressures water would condense . The water vapour pressure is the partial pressure of water vapour in any gas mixture in equilibrium with solid or liquid water . As for other substances , water vapour pressure is a function of temperature and can be determined with Clausius -- Clapeyron relation .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Vapour_pressure_of_water",
"rank": 9,
"score": 98356
},
{
"content": "Title: Fluorinated gases Content: Fluorinated gases ( F-gases ) are man-made gases that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries and contribute to a global greenhouse effect . There are four types : hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) and nitrogen trifluoride ( NF3 ) .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Fluorinated_gases",
"rank": 10,
"score": 95440
},
{
"content": "Title: Methane Content: Methane ( -LSB- ˈmɛθeɪn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmiːθeɪn -RSB- ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ( one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen ) . It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane , and is the main constituent of natural gas . The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel , though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure . Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor . When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere , it is known as atmospheric methane . The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750 , and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases ( these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect ) .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Methane",
"rank": 11,
"score": 94973
},
{
"content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model",
"rank": 12,
"score": 94719
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 13,
"score": 91227
},
{
"content": "Title: Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride Content: Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride , CF3SF5 , is a rare industrial greenhouse gas , first published in 2000 by a group of researchers from Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States . Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride is considered to be one of the several super greenhouse gases . On a per molecule basis , it is considered to be the most potent greenhouse gas present in Earth 's atmosphere . However , the current concentration of Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride remains at a level that is unlikely to measurably contribute to earth 's warming . The source of the gas is attributed to anthropogenic sources , possibly a by-product of the manufacture of fluorochemicals , originating from reactions of SF6 with fluoropolymers used in electronic devices and in microchips , or the formation can be associated with high voltage equipment created from SF6 ( a breakdown product of high voltage equipment ) reacting with CF3 to form the CF3SF5 molecule .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Trifluoromethyl_sulphur_pentafluoride",
"rank": 14,
"score": 91164
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Item Content: Greenhouse Item was an American nuclear test conducted on May 25 , 1951 , as part of Operation Greenhouse at the Pacific Proving Ground , specifically on the island of Engebi in the Eniwetok Atoll in the Central Pacific Ocean . This test explosion was the first test of a boosted fission weapon . In this test deuterium-tritium ( D-T ) gas was injected into the enriched uranium core of a nuclear fission bomb . The extreme heat of the fissioning bomb produced thermonuclear fusion reactions within the D-T gas , but not enough of them to be considered a full nuclear fusion bomb . This fusion reaction released a large number of free neutrons , which greatly increased the efficiency of the nuclear fission reaction . The explosive yield of this bomb was 45.5 kilotons , about twice the yield of the unboosted bomb . This bomb was known as the `` Booster '' in its development stages , a name for the mechanism coined by Edward Teller in September 1947 . Planning for it had begun in the late 1940s . According to the researcher Chuck Hansen , it was mentioned in official U.S. Atomic Energy Commission documents as early as 1947 . The main problems in development were making modifications to the fission core in order to accept the gas correctly without reducing its own efficiency . The 1951 test was primarily to test the nuclear principles involved , and to gain research data , and it was not considered a design for a weaponizable device . Even as late as 1954 , no boosted weapon had entered into the nuclear-weapons stockpile , and the only use for the Greenhouse Item nuclear test had been for its research results . The `` Booster '' device was detonated at 6:17 am on May 25 , 1951 from a 200 ft on the island of Engebi in the Enewetok Atoll , and its fusion fuel was injected by means of a cryogenic pump at the base of the tower .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_Item",
"rank": 15,
"score": 90744
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 16,
"score": 90031
},
{
"content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Landfill_gas",
"rank": 17,
"score": 88429
},
{
"content": "Title: Vapor recovery Content: Vapor ( or vapour ) recovery is the process of recovery the vapors of gasoline or other fuels , so that they do not escape into the atmosphere . This is often done ( or required by law ) at filling stations , in order to reduce noxious and potentially explosive fumes and pollution . The negative pressure created in the ( underground ) tank by the withdrawal is usually used to pull in the vapors . They are drawn-in through holes in the side of the nozzle and travel through special hoses which have a return path .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Vapor_recovery",
"rank": 18,
"score": 88212
},
{
"content": "Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "The_Green_Initiative",
"rank": 19,
"score": 88188
},
{
"content": "Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Hell_and_High_Water_(book)",
"rank": 20,
"score": 88072
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite",
"rank": 21,
"score": 86705
},
{
"content": "Title: Gasera Content: Gasera Ltd. is a Finnish high-tech company focused on the analysis of gases , liquids and solid materials . The main focus of Gasera is measuring harmful air pollutants in order to protect humans and the environment . Other applications include e.g. greenhouse gas monitoring , automotive and ship emissions monitoring , dissolved gas analysis in transformer oil , CWA and TIC detection , material identification and food production and safety . __ TOC __",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Gasera",
"rank": 22,
"score": 86442
},
{
"content": "Title: Water gas Content: Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen produced from synthesis gas . Synthesis gas is a useful product , but requires careful handling due to its flammability and the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning . The water-gas shift reaction can be used to reduce the carbon monoxide while producing additional hydrogen , resulting in water gas .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Water_gas",
"rank": 23,
"score": 86300
},
{
"content": "Title: Methane emissions Content: Global methane emissions are major part of the global greenhouse gas emissions . Methane in the atmosphere has a 100-year global warming potential of 34 .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Methane_emissions",
"rank": 24,
"score": 86094
},
{
"content": "Title: Water vapor windows Content: In the Earth 's atmosphere , water vapor absorbs many wavelengths of IR energy , while others are not absorbed . Those sections of the Electromagnetic spectrum that it does not absorb , are like windows in the atmosphere , allowing electromagnetic energy to flow freely in and out of the system . Like a window , that allows light to enter and leave . Originally discovered by John Tyndall , most of the infrared coming from the Universe is blocked , absorbed by water vapor ( and other greenhouse gases ) in the Earth 's atmosphere . Those wavelength ranges that can partially reach the surface , are coming through what is called ` water vapor windows ' . These windows are how Astronomers can view the Universe with IR telescopes , called Infrared astronomy . These windows also allow orbiting satellites to measure the IR energy leaving the planet , the SSTs and other important matters . See Electromagnetic_absorption_by_water #Atmospheric _ effects .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Water_vapor_windows",
"rank": 25,
"score": 86074
},
{
"content": "Title: Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act Content: The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) began regulating greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) under the Clean Air Act ( `` CAA '' or `` Act '' ) from mobile and stationary sources of air pollution for the first time on January 2 , 2011 . Standards for mobile sources have been established pursuant to Section 202 of the CAA , and GHGs from stationary sources are currently controlled under the authority of Part C of Title I of the Act . The basis for regulations was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia in June 2012 .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Regulation_of_greenhouse_gases_under_the_Clean_Air_Act",
"rank": 26,
"score": 86002
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 27,
"score": 85988
},
{
"content": "Title: Ventilation air methane thermal oxidizer Content: Ventilation air methane thermal oxidizers ( or VAMTOX ) are a type of processing equipment used for greenhouse gas abatement related to underground mining operations that destroys gaseous methane at a high temperature .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Ventilation_air_methane_thermal_oxidizer",
"rank": 28,
"score": 85930
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas monitoring Content: Greenhouse gas monitoring is the direct measurement of greenhouse gas emissions and levels . Methods include satellite monitoring such as the Orbiting Carbon Observatory and networks of ground stations such as the Integrated Carbon Observation System . The individual units of ground stations often use an infrared detector to assess the concentration of a certain gas .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_monitoring",
"rank": 29,
"score": 85367
},
{
"content": "Title: United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions Content: The United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions is established by the United States Department of Energy under the Energy Policy Act 1992 . It is administered by the Energy Information Administration through the Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Program . Separately , the Environmental Protection Agency in 2009 commenced implementing a mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program , which applies to facilities that emit 25,000 metric tons or more per year .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "United_States_federal_register_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions",
"rank": 30,
"score": 85134
},
{
"content": "Title: Seawater greenhouse Content: A seawater greenhouse is a greenhouse structure that enables the growth of crops in arid regions , using seawater and solar energy . The technique involves pumping seawater ( or allowing it to gravitate if below sea level ) to an arid location and then subjecting it to two processes : first , it is used to humidify and cool the air , and second , it is evaporated by solar heating and distilled to produce fresh water . Finally , the remaining humidified air is expelled from the greenhouse and used to improve growing conditions for outdoor plants . The technology was introduced by British inventor Charlie Paton in the early 1990s and is being developed by his UK company Seawater Greenhouse Ltd. . The more concentrated salt water may either be further evaporated for the production of salt and other elements , or discharged back to the sea . The seawater greenhouse is a response to the global water crisis and peak water .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Seawater_greenhouse",
"rank": 31,
"score": 85116
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 32,
"score": 85017
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 33,
"score": 84995
},
{
"content": "Title: Sulfur hexafluoride Content: Sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) is an inorganic , colorless , odorless , non-flammable , extremely potent greenhouse gas , which is an excellent electrical insulator . has an octahedral geometry , consisting of six fluorine atoms attached to a central sulfur atom . It is a hypervalent molecule . Typical for a nonpolar gas , it is poorly soluble in water but quite soluble in nonpolar organic solvents . It is generally transported as a liquefied compressed gas . It has a density of 6.12 g/L at sea level conditions , considerably higher than the density of air ( 1.225 g/L ) .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Sulfur_hexafluoride",
"rank": 34,
"score": 84670
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 35,
"score": 84654
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 36,
"score": 84546
},
{
"content": "Title: Octafluoropropane Content: Octafluoropropane ( C3F8 ) is a fluorocarbon non-flammable greenhouse gas that can be produced either by electrochemical fluorination or by the Fowler process using cobalt fluoride .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Octafluoropropane",
"rank": 37,
"score": 84339
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_accounting",
"rank": 38,
"score": 84089
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_inventory",
"rank": 39,
"score": 83991
},
{
"content": "Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases",
"rank": 40,
"score": 83674
},
{
"content": "Title: Photocatalytic water splitting Content: Photocatalytic water splitting is an artificial photosynthesis process with photocatalysis in a photoelectrochemical cell used for the dissociation of water into its constituent parts , hydrogen and oxygen , using either artificial or natural light . Theoretically , only solar energy ( photons ) , water , and a catalyst are needed . This topic is the focus of much research , but thus far no technology has been commercialized Hydrogen fuel production has gained increased attention as oil and other nonrenewable fuels become increasingly depleted and expensive . Methods such as photocatalytic water splitting are being investigated to produce hydrogen , a clean-burning fuel . Water splitting holds particular promise since it utilizes water , an inexpensive renewable resource . Photocatalytic water splitting has the simplicity of using a powder in solution and sunlight to produce and from water and can provide a clean , renewable energy , without producing greenhouse gases or having many adverse effects on the atmosphere .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Photocatalytic_water_splitting",
"rank": 41,
"score": 83525
},
{
"content": "Title: Vapor (disambiguation) Content: A vapor is a substance in the gas phase below its boiling point . Vapor or vapour may also refer to :",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Vapor_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 42,
"score": 83162
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_debt",
"rank": 43,
"score": 82512
},
{
"content": "Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "ECOCITIES_(software)",
"rank": 44,
"score": 82200
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas removal Content: Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_removal",
"rank": 45,
"score": 82174
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 46,
"score": 81675
},
{
"content": "Title: Trace gas Content: A trace gas is a gas which makes up less than 1 % by volume of the Earth 's atmosphere , and it includes all gases except nitrogen ( 78.1 % ) and oxygen ( 20.9 % ) . The most abundant trace gas at 0.934 % is argon . Water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Trace_gas",
"rank": 47,
"score": 80528
},
{
"content": "Title: Lisa Gluskin Stonestreet Content: Lisa Gluskin Stonestreet ( born January 31 , 1968 ) is an award-winning American poet . Stonestreet 's second book , The Greenhouse , was awarded the 2014 Frost Place Chapbook Prize and published by Bull City Press in August 2014 . Her first book , Tulips , Water , Ash , was published by Northeastern University Press , and chosen by Jean Valentine as the last Morse Poetry Prize , before its suspension in 2009 .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Lisa_Gluskin_Stonestreet",
"rank": 48,
"score": 79957
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions",
"rank": 49,
"score": 79941
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse whitefly Content: Trialeurodes vaporariorum , commonly known as the glasshouse whitefly or greenhouse whitefly , is an insect that inhabits the world 's temperate regions . Like various other whiteflies , it is a primary insect pest of many fruit , vegetable and ornamental crops . It is frequently found in glasshouses ( greenhouses ) , polytunnels , and other protected horticultural environments . Adults are 1 -- 2 mm in length , with yellowish bodies and four wax-coated wings held near parallel to the leaf surface .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_whitefly",
"rank": 50,
"score": 79865
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse (disambiguation) Content: Greenhouse may refer to : Greenhouse , an indoor covered place where plants are grown and cultivated Greenhouse effect , the effects on a planet when ` greenhouse gases ' cloud the atmosphere Greenhouse and icehouse Earth , periods when the greenhouse effect is dominant or absent Greenhouse effect ( United States Supreme Court ) , postulated effect whereby conservative Supreme Court Justices drift liberal for favorable press Greenhouse debt , the measure to which an entity exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 51,
"score": 79747
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting Content: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is a method of calculating the amount of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) emitted by a region in a given time-scale . A National Emissions Inventory ( NEI ) measuring a country 's GHG emissions in a year is required by the UNFCCC to provide a benchmark for the country 's emission reductions , and subsequently to evaluate international climate policies such as the Kyoto protocol ( although the original has now expired , extensions have been agreed ) as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . There are two conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions : production-based ( sometimes referred to as territorial-based ) or consumption-based . Production-based emissions take place `` within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction '' . Consumption-based emissions encompass those emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports . This means the importing country takes responsibility for emissions related to production of the exporting country 's exports . By these definitions production-based emissions include exports but exclude imports and emissions embodied in international trade , whereas consumption-based emissions refer to the reverse ( Table 1 ) . Which technique is applied by policymakers is fundamental as each can generate a very different NEI . Different NEIs would result in a country 's choosing different optimal mitigation activities , the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging . The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms , although much of the literature favours consumption-based accounting . The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_accounting",
"rank": 52,
"score": 79630
},
{
"content": "Title: Hydrofluorocarbon Content: Hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , organic compounds that contain fluorine and hydrogen atoms , are the most common type of organofluorine compounds . They are commonly used in air conditioning and as refrigerants in place of the older chlorofluorocarbons such as R-12 and hydrochlorofluorocarbons such as R-21 . They do not harm the ozone layer as much as the compounds they replace ; however , they do contribute to global warming . Their atmospheric concentrations and contribution to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly increasing , causing international concern about their radiative forcing . Fluorocarbons with few C -- F bonds behave similarly to the parent hydrocarbons , but their reactivity can be altered significantly . For example , both uracil and 5-fluorouracil are colourless , high-melting crystalline solids , but the latter is a potent anti-cancer drug . The use of the C-F bond in pharmaceuticals is predicated on this altered reactivity . Several drugs and agrochemicals contain only one fluorine center or one trifluoromethyl group . Unlike other greenhouse gases in the Paris Agreement , hydrofluorocarbons have other international negotiations . In September 2016 , the so-called New York Declaration urged a global reduction in the use of HFCs . On 15 October 2016 , due to these chemicals ' contribution to climate change , negotiators from 197 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme in Kigali , Rwanda reached a legally-binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Hydrofluorocarbon",
"rank": 53,
"score": 79561
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 54,
"score": 79551
},
{
"content": "Title: Gas leak Content: In common usage , a gas leak refers to a leak of natural gas or other gaseous product from a pipeline or other containment into a living area or any other area where the gas should not be present . Because flammable gases may explode when exposed to flame or sparks , this situation is very dangerous to the general public . In addition to causing fire and explosion hazards , leaks can kill vegetation , including large trees , and may release powerful greenhouse gases to the atmosphere .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Gas_leak",
"rank": 55,
"score": 79449
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 56,
"score": 79448
},
{
"content": "Title: Condensing boiler Content: Condensing boilers are water heaters fueled by gas or oil . They achieve high efficiency ( typically greater than 90 % on the higher heating value ) by condensing water vapour in the exhaust gases and so recovering its latent heat of vaporisation , which would otherwise have been wasted . This condensed vapour leaves the system in liquid form , via a drain . In many countries , the use of condensing boilers is compulsory or encouraged with financial incentives .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Condensing_boiler",
"rank": 57,
"score": 79381
},
{
"content": "Title: Vapors Content: Vapors ( or vapours ) may refer to : Vapor , a gaseous phase of matter Vapours ( disease ) , an archaic term for certain mental and/or physical illnesses The Vapors , an English new-wave/power pop band `` Vapors '' ( seaQuest DSV ) , a second-season episode of seaQuest DSV `` Vapors '' ( song ) , a 1988 hip-hop song by Biz Markie , covered by Snoop Dogg Vapours ( album ) , a 2009 album by Islands",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Vapors",
"rank": 58,
"score": 79359
},
{
"content": "Title: Włocławek Reservoir Content: Włocławek Reservoir ( Zbiornik Włocławski ) is a water body in the Middle Vistula flow that appeared in 1970 after building of the dam in Włocławek . The length of the reservoir is 58 km from Włocławek to Płock , average width is 1.2 km . It is the biggest reservoir in Poland . Due to the significant amount of organic matter in the tank ( approx . 11.5 % of the dry weight of sediment ) , it emits approx . 400 mg of methane per area of 1 m ² ( which is approx . 27 % of the total amount of gases emitted from the sediment of average 3114 ml m − 2 d − 1 ) . For this reason , is considered an important source of greenhouse gases emission .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Włocławek_Reservoir",
"rank": 59,
"score": 79050
},
{
"content": "Title: Shale gas Content: Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas . Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves . The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low . A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) . Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Shale_gas",
"rank": 60,
"score": 78784
},
{
"content": "Title: GHG footprint Content: The GHG footprint , or greenhouse gas footprint , refers to the amount of GHG that are emitted during the creation of products or services . It is more comprehensive than the commonly used carbon footprint , which measures only carbon dioxide , one of many greenhouse gases . The GHG footprint differs from the ecological footprint in that the former is expressed in units of GHG warming potential ( GGWP ) and is generated by products or services , whereas the latter is expressed in units of land area and is generated by whole societies .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "GHG_footprint",
"rank": 61,
"score": 78673
},
{
"content": "Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Mootral",
"rank": 62,
"score": 78578
},
{
"content": "Title: Water-gas shift reaction Content: The water-gas shift reaction ( WGSR ) describes the reaction of carbon monoxide and water vapor to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen ( the mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is known as water gas ) : CO + H2O CO2 + H2 The water gas shift reaction was discovered by Italian physicist Felice Fontana in 1780 . It was not until much later that the industrial value of this reaction was realized . Before the early 20th century , hydrogen was obtained by reacting steam under high pressure with iron to produce iron , iron oxide and hydrogen . With the development of industrial processes that required hydrogen , such as the Haber -- Bosch ammonia synthesis , a less expensive and more efficient method of hydrogen production was needed . As a resolution to this problem , the WGSR was combined with the gasification of coal to produce a pure hydrogen product . As the idea of hydrogen economy gains popularity , the focus on hydrogen as a replacement fuel source for hydrocarbons is increasing .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Water-gas_shift_reaction",
"rank": 63,
"score": 78281
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel",
"rank": 64,
"score": 78240
},
{
"content": "Title: Oscar Olivera Content: Oscar Olivera Foronda ( born 1955 ) was one of the main leaders of the protesters against the water privatization in Bolivia . The result of these protests was an event known as the Cochabamba Water War . Now he is one of the main leaders of the protests in the Bolivian gas conflict . Oscar Olivera was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2001 .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Oscar_Olivera",
"rank": 65,
"score": 78123
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative",
"rank": 66,
"score": 77937
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming",
"rank": 67,
"score": 77617
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Grenada",
"rank": 68,
"score": 77510
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar hot water in Australia Content: Solar hot water is water heated using natural energy from the sun . Solar energy heats up large panels called thermal collectors . The energy is transferred through a fluid ( often water ) to a reservoir tank for storage and subsequent use . It is then used to heat water for commercial or domestic use and also as an energy input for heating and cooling devices and for industrial ` process heat ' applications . Solar hot water systems are motivated by the desire to reduce energy consumption more specifically , to reduce a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions . In the case of Victoria , for example , converting from electric to solar hot water could save 20 % of the state 's total greenhouse gas emissions . Despite an excellent solar resource , the penetration of solar water heaters in the Australian domestic market is only about 4 % or 5 % , with new dwellings accounting for most sales . During the 1950s , Australia 's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) carried out world leading research into flat plate solar water heaters . A solar water heater manufacturing industry was subsequently established in Australia and a large proportion of the manufactured product was exported . Four of the original companies are still in business and the manufacturing base has now expanded to 24 companies . Water heating is the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions from the average Australian home , accounting for around 28 per cent of home energy use ( excluding the family car ) . The Australian government estimates that installing a climate friendly hot water system can save a family $ 300 to $ 700 off electricity bills each year .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Solar_hot_water_in_Australia",
"rank": 69,
"score": 77495
},
{
"content": "Title: KDF Energy Content: KDF Energy is the leader greenhouse gases emissions trading on the Romanian market . The company was set up in 2002 , has subsidiaries in Bulgaria , Greece and Lithuania and is fully controlled by Romanian citizen George Brailoiu . KDF Energy is a member of Dutch-based environmental commodities exchange Climex and trades with foreign brokers on London 's European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) and Paris-based BlueNext .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "KDF_Energy",
"rank": 70,
"score": 77404
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic methane emissions Content: Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Arctic_methane_emissions",
"rank": 71,
"score": 77355
},
{
"content": "Title: Water Content: Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth 's streams , lakes , and oceans , and the fluids of most living organisms . Its chemical formula is H2O , meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms , that are connected by covalent bonds . Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance , that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure ; but it often refers also to its solid state ( ice ) or its gaseous state ( steam or water vapor ) . It also occurs in nature as snow , glaciers , ice packs and icebergs , clouds , fog , dew , aquifers , and atmospheric humidity . Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . It is vital for all known forms of life . On Earth , 96.5 % of the planet 's crust water is found in seas and oceans , 1.7 % in groundwater , 1.7 % in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland , a small fraction in other large water bodies , and 0.001 % in the air as vapor , clouds ( formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air ) , and precipitation . Only 2.5 % of this water is freshwater , and 98.8 % of that water is in ice ( excepting ice in clouds ) and groundwater . Less than 0.3 % of all freshwater is in rivers , lakes , and the atmosphere , and an even smaller amount of the Earth 's freshwater ( 0.003 % ) is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products . A greater quantity of water is found in the earth 's interior . Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation and transpiration ( evapotranspiration ) , condensation , precipitation , and runoff , usually reaching the sea . Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land . Large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals . Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients . Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world , but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation . There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita . However , some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability . A report , issued in November 2009 , suggests that by 2030 , in some developing regions of the world , water demand will exceed supply by 50 % . Water plays an important role in the world economy . Approximately 70 % of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture . Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world . Much of long-distance trade of commodities ( such as oil and natural gas ) and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas , rivers , lakes , and canals . Large quantities of water , ice , and steam are used for cooling and heating , in industry and homes . Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances ; as such it is widely used in industrial processes , and in cooking and washing . Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment , such as swimming , pleasure boating , boat racing , surfing , sport fishing , and diving .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Water",
"rank": 72,
"score": 77312
},
{
"content": "Title: Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization Content: The Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organisation ( TGO ) ( th : องค์การบริหารจัดการก๊าซเรือนกระจก ; RTGS : Ong Kan Borihan Chat Kan Kat Ruean Krachok ( Ong Kan Mahachon ) ; or th : อบก. ; RTGS : O-Bo-Ko . ) is an autonomous governmental organization under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment ( MNRE ) established by royal decree , Establishment of Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organisation ( Public Organisation ) BE 2550 ( 2007 ) , having chief duties and powers in connection with the reduction of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in Thailand . The royal decree came into force as of 7 July 2007 .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Thailand_Greenhouse_Gas_Management_Organization",
"rank": 73,
"score": 77276
},
{
"content": "Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Zero-emissions_vehicle",
"rank": 74,
"score": 77217
},
{
"content": "Title: Sulfuryl fluoride Content: Sulfuryl fluoride ( also spelled sulphuryl fluoride ) is the inorganic compound with the formula SO2F2 . This acute neurotoxin is an easily condensed gas and has properties more similar to sulfur hexafluoride than sulfuryl chloride , being resistant to hydrolysis even up to 150 ° C. Scientific studies , including 2009 MIT studies , proved that sulfuryl fluoride is a greenhouse gas `` about 4,800 times more potent a heat trapping gas than carbon dioxide '' , and repeated scientific animal studies ( dogs , rabbits , rats and mice ) have proven that sulfuryl fluoride primarily targets the brain , leaving laboratory animals exposed to sulfuryl fluoride with vacuolations ( holes ) in the brain and damage to the white matter , amongst other debilitating symptoms including death . Despite these facts , sulfuryl fluoride is still not only widely used as a structural insecticide fumigant to kill termites and other pests , in the State of Florida the Department of Agriculture reports that fumigations have increased from 10,535 in 2010 to 63,491 in 2014 , a stunning 600 % increase in only four years . Inhalation is hazardous and potentially fatal to humans and animals . And while the EPA has approved this neuro toxin for use in residential homes , the EPA does not require individual States to report to them on the numbers of poisonings . Exposure to sulfuryl fluoride is much farther reaching than just pest control applications as the EPA also approved the use of sulfuryl fluoride on much of the nation 's supply of non-organic foods , U.S. citizens consume the fluoride residues left behind from the sulfuryl fluoride gas .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Sulfuryl_fluoride",
"rank": 75,
"score": 77119
},
{
"content": "Title: Coal gasification commercialization Content: Coal gasification is a process whereby a hydrocarbon feedstock ( coal ) is converted into gaseous components by applying heat under pressure in the presence of steam . Rather than burning , most of the carbon-containing feedstock is broken apart by chemical reactions that produce `` syngas . '' Syngas is primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide , but the exact composition can vary . In Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle ( IGCC ) systems , the syngas is cleaned and burned as fuel in a combustion turbine which then drives an electric generator . Exhaust heat from the combustion turbine is recovered and used to create steam for a steam turbine-generator . The use of these two types of turbines in combination is one reason why gasification-based power systems can achieve high power generation efficiencies . Currently , commercially available gasification-based systems can operate at around 40 % efficiencies . Syngas , however , emits more greenhouse gases than natural gas , and almost twice as much carbon as a coal plant . Coal gasification is also water-intensive . According to the Gasification and Syngas Technologies Council , a trade association , there are globally 272 operating gasification plants with 686 gasifiers and 74 plants with 238 gasifiers under construction . Most of them use coal as feedstock . As of 2017 large scale expansion of the coal gasification industry was occurring only in China where local governments and energy companies promote the industry for the sake of jobs and a market for coal . The central government is aware of the conflict with environmental goals . For the most part the plants are located in remote coal rich areas . In addition to producing a great deal of carbon dioxide the plants use a great deal of water in areas where water is scarce .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Coal_gasification_commercialization",
"rank": 76,
"score": 76924
},
{
"content": "Title: Gascolator Content: A gascolator , also known as a main line strainer , sediment bowl or fuel strainer , acts primarily as a fuel drain for water and small particles of sediment and is usually found at the lowest point of an aircraft 's fuel system . The gascolator is located below the level of the aircraft 's carburetor and fuel tanks and on light aircraft is commonly located on the front of the firewall , as low as possible . There are two types of gascolators : those tapped for a primer port and those without . If equipped with a primer port the aircraft fuel primer will take its fuel supply from the gascolator , used for engine starting . Gascolators are susceptible to the effects of heat from the co-located engine and exhaust components , which can cause fuel vapourization in the gascolator and vapour lock problems . This usually manifests itself as a partial power loss in cruise flight . To combat this problem some installations use a gascolator heat shield or free air blast tubes to cool the gascolator . Some types of gascolators are equipped with a remote spring-loaded knob to drain them . Writer Tony Bingelis says of this type :",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Gascolator",
"rank": 77,
"score": 76914
},
{
"content": "Title: Solar humidification Content: The solar humidification -- dehumidification method ( HDH ) is a thermal water desalination method . It is based on evaporation of sea water or brackish water and consecutive condensation of the generated humid air , mostly at ambient pressure . This process mimics the natural water cycle , but over a much shorter time frame . The simplest configuration is implemented in the solar still , evaporating the sea water inside a glass covered box and condensing the water vapor on the lower side of the glass cover . More sophisticated designs separate the solar heat gain section from the evaporation-condensation chamber . An optimized design comprises separated evaporation and condensation sections . A significant part of the heat consumed for evaporation can be regained during condensation . An example for such an optimized thermal desalination cycle is the multiple-effect humidification ( MEH ) method of desalination . Solar humidification takes place in every greenhouse . Water evaporates from the surfaces of soil , water and plants because of thermal input . In this way the humidification process is naturally integrated within the architecture of the greenhouse . Several companies like Seawater greenhouse utilize this inherent feature of a greenhouse in order to conduct desalination inside the atmosphere of the facility . The integrated biotectural system , or IBTS Greenhouse mimics the natural process of cloud formation respectively desalination exactly .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Solar_humidification",
"rank": 78,
"score": 76836
},
{
"content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 79,
"score": 76781
},
{
"content": "Title: Hydrofluoroether Content: A Hydrofluoroether ( HFE ) is a complex organic solvent . As a non-ozone-depleting chemical , it was developed originally as a replacement for CFCs , HFCs , HCFCs , and PFCs HFE does not occur naturally . It is colorless , odorless , tasteless , low toxicity , low viscosity , and liquid at room temperature . It is visually indistinguishable from water at room temperature . The vapor-point of HFE varies by chemistry from 50C to nearly 100C . Due to its high molecular weight , it remains in the atmosphere for less than two weeks , being absorbed into the ground rather than remaining dissolved in the atmosphere . Although it is a greenhouse gas , the EPA does not regulate its use due to its short atmospheric lifetime and zero ozone depletion potential compared to alternative chemicals . Industrial uses are many and varied : Vapor de-greasing solvent Refrigerant and heat-transfer fluid Anhydrous fluid cleaner Although 3M first developed HFEs , other manufacturers have begun producing them .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Hydrofluoroether",
"rank": 80,
"score": 76684
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Mafia Content: Greenhouse Mafia is the title of a TV program aired by the ABC on the 13 February 2006 episode of its weekly current affairs program Four Corners . The program says the term greenhouse mafia is the `` in house '' name used by Australia 's carbon lobby for itself . The program featured former Liberal Party member Guy Pearse and Four Corners host Janine Cohen , while others concerned about the influence exerted by the fossil fuel lobby also participated . The report was based on a thesis Pearse wrote at the Australian National University between 1999 and 2005 regarding the response of Australian business to global warming . According to the program , lobby groups representing the coal , car , oil , and aluminium industries have wielded their power to prevent Australia from reducing its greenhouse gas emissions , which were already among the highest per capita in the world in 1990 .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_Mafia",
"rank": 81,
"score": 76651
},
{
"content": "Title: Optical properties of water and ice Content: The refractive index of water at 20 ° C is 1.332986 . The refractive index of normal ice is 1.31 . ( From List of refractive indices . ) In general , an index of refraction is a complex number with both a real and imaginary part , where the latter indicates the strength of absorption loss at a particular wavelength . In the visible part of electromagnetic spectrum the imaginary part of the refractive index is very small . However , water and ice absorb in infrared and close the atmospheric window thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect The absorption spectrum of pure water is used in numerous applications , including light scattering and absorption by ice crystals and cloud water droplets , theories of the rainbow , determination of the single scattering albedo , ocean color , and many others .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Optical_properties_of_water_and_ice",
"rank": 82,
"score": 76579
},
{
"content": "Title: 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane Content: 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane is an organic chemical , an organofluoride . It is a colorless gas , usually available in the form of a liquid gas . It is used as a fire suppression agent , a foaming agent , a highly effective refrigerant , a heat transfer medium , a dielectric gas , a sterilant carrier , a polymerization medium , a carrier fluid , a displacement drying agent , a thermodynamic power cycle working fluid , etc. . When used as a fire suppressant , hexafluoropropane carries the DuPont trade name , FE-36 . 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane is a greenhouse gas ; its global warming potential is 6300 . It is manufactured by reacting 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexachloropropane with hydrogen fluoride in gas phase at temperature between 250-400 ° C , in presence of a catalyst in the form of trivalent chromium ( e.g. chromium ( III ) chloride ) supported on carbon with low content of specific impurities .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane",
"rank": 83,
"score": 76514
},
{
"content": "Title: Vapour density Content: Vapour density is the density of a vapour in relation to that of hydrogen . It may be defined as mass of a certain volume of a substance divided by mass of same volume of hydrogen . vapour density = mass of n molecules of gas / mass of n molecules of hydrogen . Therefore : vapour density = molar mass of gas / molar mass of H2 vapour density = molar mass of gas / 2.016 vapour density = ~ 1/2 × molar mass ( and thus : molar mass = ~ 2 × vapour density ) For example , vapour density of mixture of NO2 and N2O4 is 38 . 3 . Vapour density is a unitless quantity .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Vapour_density",
"rank": 84,
"score": 76445
},
{
"content": "Title: Steam Content: Steam is water in the gas phase , which is formed when water boils . Steam is invisible ; however , `` steam '' often refers to wet steam , the visible mist or aerosol of water droplets formed as this water vapour condenses . At lower pressures , such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains , water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 ° C at standard pressure . If heated further it becomes superheated steam . The enthalpy of vaporization is the energy required to turn water into the gaseous form when it increases in volume by 1,700 times at standard temperature and pressure ; this change in volume can be converted into mechanical work by steam engines such as reciprocating piston type engines and steam turbines , which are a sub-group of steam engines . Piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80 % of the world 's electricity . If liquid water comes in contact with a very hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure , it can create a steam explosion . Steam explosions have been responsible for many foundry accidents , and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Steam",
"rank": 85,
"score": 76053
},
{
"content": "Title: International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control Content: The International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on greenhouse gas control . It is published by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is John Gale . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 3.821 ,",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "International_Journal_of_Greenhouse_Gas_Control",
"rank": 86,
"score": 75476
},
{
"content": "Title: Vapours (disease) Content: In archaic usage , the vapours ( or vapors ) is a reference to the treatment of certain mental or physical states , such as hysteria , mania , clinical depression , bipolar disorder , lightheadedness , fainting , flush , withdrawal syndrome , mood swings , or PMS , where a sufferer lost mental focus . Ascribed primarily to women and thought to be caused by internal emanations , it was related to the concept of female hysteria . Vapours were used as a treatment for conditions considered to be the female equivalent to melancholy found in men . The word `` vapours '' , referencing the treatment , was subsequently used to describe a depressed or hysterical nervous condition . Today , the phrase `` a case of the vapors '' is most often used either melodramatically or for comedic effect .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Vapours_(disease)",
"rank": 87,
"score": 75267
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 88,
"score": 75183
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Content: A greenhouse ( also called a glasshouse , or , if with sufficient heating , a hothouse ) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material , such as glass , in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown . These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings . A miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame . The interior of a greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the external ambient temperature , protecting its contents in cold weather . Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers . The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations , heating , cooling , lighting , and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth . Different techniques are then used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate ( i.e. , air temperature , relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit ) in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse",
"rank": 89,
"score": 75116
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greenhouse Project Content: The Greenhouse Project is a non-profit organization which began as an art project by college students to raise awareness about the growing need for aid for Uganda 's orphans . The organization 's main goals are to provide impoverished , underfunded orphanages around the world with the means to become self-sustaining . The original project was named after the Greenhouse Orphanage of Mengo , Uganda , the orphanage which inspired the project 's beginning .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "The_Greenhouse_Project",
"rank": 90,
"score": 74931
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy Content: Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy is a 2007 book by Australian academic Mark Diesendorf . The book puts forward a set of policies and strategies for implementing the most promising clean energy technologies by all spheres of government , business and community organisations . Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy suggests that a mix of efficient energy use , renewable energy sources and natural gas ( as a transitional fuel ) offers a clean and feasible energy future for Australia .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Greenhouse_Solutions_with_Sustainable_Energy",
"rank": 91,
"score": 74844
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 92,
"score": 74815
},
{
"content": "Title: Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Content: The Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord ( Midwestern Accord ) is a regional agreement by six governors of states in the US Midwest who are members of the Midwestern Governors Association ( MGA ) , and the premier of one Canadian province , whose purpose is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . The accord has been inactive since March 2010 , when an advisory group presented a plan for action to the association with a scheduled implementation date of January 2012 . Signatories to the accord are the US states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Illinois , Iowa , Michigan , Kansas , and the Canadian Province of Manitoba . Observers of the accord are Indiana , Ohio , and South Dakota , as well as the Canadian Province of Ontario . While the Midwest has intensive manufacturing and agriculture sectors , making it the most coal-dependent region in North America , it also has significant renewable energy resources and is particularly vulnerable to the climate change caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels . The Midwestern Accord was the fourth tier of the MGA Energy Security and Climate Stewardship Summit Platform , signed on November 15 , 2007 . It established the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Program , which aimed to : establish greenhouse gas reduction targets and time frames consistent with signing states ' targets ; develop a market-based and multi-sector cap-and-trade mechanism to help achieve those reduction targets ; establish a system to enable tracking , management , and crediting for entities that reduce greenhouse gas emissions ; and develop and implement additional steps as needed to achieve the reduction targets , such as a low-carbon fuel standards and regional incentives and funding mechanisms . Through the Midwestern Accord , the governors agreed to establish a Midwestern greenhouse gas reduction program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in their states , as well as a working group to provide recommendations regarding the implementation of the accord . In June 2009 , the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord Advisory Group finalized its draft recommendations . In March 2010 the advisory group presented a plan to the MGA that called for implementation beginning in January 2012 . No further action was taken , as leadership in several of the states switched positions on climate policy . In July 2014 , accord member Kansas and observers Indiana , South Dakota , and Ohio joined a lawsuit opposing the EPA Clean Power Plan , federal climate regulations which could be met by implementation of the accord .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Midwestern_Greenhouse_Gas_Reduction_Accord",
"rank": 93,
"score": 74633
},
{
"content": "Title: GWP Content: GWP can stand for : Global-warming potential , a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere Global Water Partnership , an international network offering practical advice for sustainably managing water resources Gross world product , the combined GNP of all countries in the world Gross Written Premiums , a measure of revenues for insurance businesses Guild Wars Prophecies , an MMORPG Guinea-Bissau peso , the currency code for Guinea-Bissau 's peso from 1975 to 1997 Gigawatt-peak , a measure in gigawatts of the nominal power of a photovoltaic solar energy device under laboratory illumination conditions",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "GWP",
"rank": 94,
"score": 74620
},
{
"content": "Title: Vapor quality Content: In thermodynamics , vapour quality is the mass fraction in a saturated mixture that is vapour ; i.e. saturated vapour has a `` quality '' of 100 % , and saturated liquid has a `` quality '' of 0 % . Vapour quality is an intensive property which can be used in conjunction with other independent intensive properties to specify the thermodynamic state of the working fluid of a thermodynamic system . It has no meaning for substances which are not saturated mixtures ( i.e. , compressed liquids or superheated fluids ) . Quality can be calculated by dividing the mass of the vapour by the mass of the total mixture : where indicates mass . Another definition used by chemical engineers defines quality ( q ) of a fluid as the fraction that is saturated liquid . By this definition , a saturated liquid has q = 1 . A saturated vapour has q = 0 . An alternative definition is the ` equilibrium thermodynamic quality ' . It can be used only for single-component mixtures ( e.g. water with steam ) , and can take values < 0 ( for sub-cooled fluids ) and > 1 ( for super-saturated vapours ) : ; where h is the mixture specific enthalpy , defined as : . Subscripts f and g refer to saturated liquid and saturated gas respectively , and fg refers to vaporisation .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Vapor_quality",
"rank": 95,
"score": 74556
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Polar_amplification",
"rank": 96,
"score": 74537
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 97,
"score": 74157
},
{
"content": "Title: EcoCute Content: The EcoCute is an energy efficient electric heat pump , water heating and supply system that uses heat extracted from the air to heat water for domestic , industrial and commercial use . Instead of the more conventional ammonia or haloalkane gases , EcoCute uses supercritical carbon dioxide as a refrigerant . The technology offers a means of energy conservation and reduces the emission of greenhouse gas .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "EcoCute",
"rank": 98,
"score": 74147
},
{
"content": "Title: Weir Greenhouse Content: Weir Greenhouse is a historic greenhouse located across the street from the main entrance of Green-Wood Cemetery in Sunset Park , Brooklyn , New York , New York . It was designed by George Curtis Gillespie and built in 1895 by James Weir , Jr. , a Brooklyn florist who had been in business for 50 years when he built the greenhouse for the business he operated with his son and grandson . It is a rectangular , wood frame and galvanized iron building with projecting bays and domes in the Victorian commercial style . The main entrance is set at an angle to the street corner and is octagonal in form . The rooftop features an octaginal cupola with a ball finial . Attached to the greenhouse is a one-story brick office structure . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 . The Weirs continued to operate the business until 1971 , when they sold to the McGovern family . The building was designated a New York City Landmark in 1982 . On February 2 , 2012 , the Weir Greenhouse was purchased by the neighboring Green-Wood Cemetery , which plans to preserve the greenhouse and restore elements which have decayed in recent years . By spring , 2015 , structural stabilization of the vacant , decayed building was complete , and the project was scheduled to move toward restoration of the building to its 1895 appearance .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Weir_Greenhouse",
"rank": 99,
"score": 74040
},
{
"content": "Title: Integrated biotectural system Content: The Integrated Biotectural System or IBTS-Greenhouse is a holistic concept developed for hot arid deserts . It relies on a new quality of systems integration including architectural , technological and natural elements . In this case it means the combination of farming and living in one building , as well as desalination of sea water , or brackish groundwater . Neither the superstructure of the IBTS-Greenhouse , nor its technology resembles that of a common greenhouse . A group of companies called LivingDesert was established in 2011 to build the IBTS in Egypt . LD is no longer active . The IBTS was part of the national plan for large scale desert-reclamation with afforestation and for agricultural purposes . The new type of facility has its roots in construction engineering and construction physics in contrast to agriculture as it is for most novel greenhouses . Thus it is also fundamentally different from seawater greenhouses in existence . Without exception alternative desalination-technologies , air-to-water utilities and desalination-greenhouses in testing , require a multiple of the energy for fresh-water production compared to state of the art utilities . The IBTS requires less energy . The significance of the term IBTS lies within the efficiency that only systems integration can achieve . Particular importance lies on the imitation of natural systems , especially closed cycles . The establishment of closed watercycles being the most crucial of all , because of the increasing severeness of the Global Water crisis particularly in hot desert climates . The desalination feature is bound to hot climates because it requires high amounts of solar thermal power . It has turned out to be very suitable in mitigation of the sinking of water tables in agricultural areas of the MENA region and beyond .",
"qid": "194",
"docid": "Integrated_biotectural_system",
"rank": 100,
"score": 73987
}
] |
Carbon dioxide is a non-condensable atmospheric gas like nitrogen and oxygen | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 1,
"score": 162435
},
{
"content": "Title: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Content: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels . Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air ( as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen ) . Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen ( N2 ) , which is essentially non-combustible , the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen . Carbon dioxide , the next largest part of flue gas , can be as much as 10 − 25 volume percent or more of the flue gas . This is closely followed in volume by water vapor ( H2O ) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen . Much of the ` smoke ' seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air . A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and particulate matter . The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel . The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels . The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases their smoky appearance . The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries , petrochemical and chemical plants , and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere . The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas , fuel oil and coal . The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations . It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion . Note : m ³ are standard cubic meters at 0 ° C and 101.325 kPa , and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 ° F and 14.696 psia .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion",
"rank": 2,
"score": 157158
},
{
"content": "Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Asphyxiant_gas",
"rank": 3,
"score": 155997
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Atmosphere",
"rank": 4,
"score": 152329
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_monoxide",
"rank": 5,
"score": 146707
},
{
"content": "Title: NOx Content: In atmospheric chemistry , is a generic term for the nitrogen oxides that are most relevant for air pollution , namely nitric oxide ( NO ) and nitrogen dioxide . These gases contribute to the formation of smog and acid rain , as well as tropospheric ozone . gases are usually produced from the reaction among nitrogen and oxygen during combustion of fuels , such as hydrocarbons , in air ; especially at high temperatures , such as occur in car engines . In areas of high motor vehicle traffic , such as in large cities , the nitrogen oxides emitted can be a significant source of air pollution . gases are also produced naturally by lightning . The term is chemistry shorthand for molecules containing one nitrogen and one or more oxygen atom . It is generally not meant to include nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , a fairly inert oxide of nitrogen that has many uses as an oxidizer for rockets and car engines , an anesthetic , and a propellant for aerosol sprays and whipped cream . Nitrous oxide plays hardly any role in air pollution , although it may have a significant impact on the ozone layer . ( reactive , odd nitrogen ) is defined as the sum of plus the compounds produced from the oxidation of which include nitric acid .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "NOx",
"rank": 6,
"score": 145918
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 7,
"score": 141905
},
{
"content": "Title: Soil gas Content: Soil gases are the gases found in the air space between soil components . The primary natural soil gases include nitrogen , carbon dioxide and oxygen . The oxygen is critical because it allows for respiration of both plant roots and soil organisms . Other natural soil gases are atmospheric methane and radon . Some environmental contaminants below ground produce gas which diffuses through the soil such as from landfill wastes , mining activities , and contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons which produce volatile organic compounds . Soil gases can diffuse into buildings , the chief concerns among these pollutants are radon which is radioactive and causes cancer and methane which can be flammable at only 4.4 % concentration . Gases fill soil pores in the soil structure as water drains or is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root absorption . The network of pores within the soil aerates , or ventilates , the soil . This aeration network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores . Not only are both soil air and soil water very dynamic parts of soil , but both are often inversely related . Composition of air in soil and atmosphere : Nitrogen : Soil Air : 79.2 % Atmosphere : 79.0 % Oxygen : Soil Air : 20.6 % Atmosphere : 20.9 % Carbon Dioxide : Soil Air : 0.25 % Atmosphere : 0.04 % Gas molecules in soil are in continuous thermal motion according to the kinetic theory of gases , there is also collision between molecules - a random walk . In soil , a concentration gradient causes net movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration , this gives the movement of gas by diffusion . Numerically , it is explained by Fick 's law of diffusion .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Soil_gas",
"rank": 8,
"score": 138723
},
{
"content": "Title: Octet rule Content: The octet rule is a chemical rule of thumb that reflects observation that atoms of main-group elements tend to combine in such a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell , giving it the same electronic configuration as a noble gas . The rule is especially applicable to carbon , nitrogen , oxygen , and the halogens , but also to metals such as sodium or magnesium . The valence electrons can be counted using a Lewis electron dot diagram as shown at the right for carbon dioxide . The electrons shared by the two atoms in a covalent bond are counted twice , once for each atom . In carbon dioxide each oxygen shares four electrons with the central carbon , two ( shown in red ) from the oxygen itself and two ( shown in black ) from the carbon . All four of these electrons are counted in both the carbon octet and the oxygen octet .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Octet_rule",
"rank": 9,
"score": 138391
},
{
"content": "Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Modified_atmosphere",
"rank": 10,
"score": 137064
},
{
"content": "Title: Henry's law Content: In chemistry , Henry 's law is one of the gas laws formulated by the English chemist William Henry , who studied the topic in the early 19th century . In his publication about the quantity of gases absorbed by water , he described the results of his experiments : ... `` water takes up , of gas condensed by one , two , or more additional atmospheres , a quantity which , ordinarily compressed , would be equal to twice , thrice , & c. the volume absorbed under the common pressure of the atmosphere . '' In other words , the amount of dissolved gas is proportional to its partial pressure in the gas phase . The proportionality factor is called the Henry 's law constant . An example where Henry 's law is at play is in the depth-dependent dissolution of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood of underwater divers that changes during decompression , leading to decompression sickness . An everyday example is given by one 's experience with carbonated soft drinks , which contain dissolved carbon dioxide . Before opening , the gas above the drink in its container is almost pure carbon dioxide , at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure . After the bottle is opened , this gas escapes , moving the partial pressure of carbon dioxide above the liquid to be much lower , resulting in degassing as the dissolved carbon dioxide comes out of solution .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Henry's_law",
"rank": 11,
"score": 135108
},
{
"content": "Title: Oxide Content: An oxide -LSB- ˈɒksaɪd -RSB- is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula . `` Oxide '' itself is the dianion of oxygen , an O2 -- atom . Metal oxides thus typically contain an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state of − 2 . Most of the Earth 's crust consists of solid oxides , the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water . Hydrocarbon combustion affords the two principal carbon oxides : carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide . Even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating . For example , aluminium foil develops a thin skin of Al2O3 ( called a passivation layer ) that protects the foil from further corrosion . Individual elements can often form multiple oxides , each containing different amounts of the element and oxygen . In some cases these are distinguished by specifying the number of atoms as in carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide , and in other cases by specifying the element 's oxidation number , as in iron ( II ) oxide and iron ( III ) oxide . Certain elements can form many different oxides , such those of nitrogen .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Oxide",
"rank": 12,
"score": 130281
},
{
"content": "Title: Tetracarbon dioxide Content: Tetracarbon dioxide is an oxide of carbon , a chemical compound of carbon and oxygen , with chemical formula C4O2 or O = C = C = C = C =O . It can be regarded as butatriene dione , the double ketone of butatriene -- more precisely 1,2,3-butatriene-1 ,4 - dione . Butatriene dione is the fourth member of the family of linear carbon dioxides O ( = C ) n =O , that includes carbon dioxide CO2 or O = C =O , ethylene dione C2O2 or O = C = C =O , carbon suboxide C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O , pentacarbon dioxide C5O2 or O = C = C = C = C = C =O , and so on . The compound was obtained in 1990 by Maier and others , by flash vacuum pyrolysis of cyclic azaketones in a frozen argon matrix . It was also obtained in the same year by Sülzle and Schwartz through impact ionization of ( ( CH3 - ) 2 ( C4O2 ) ( =O ) 2 = ) 2 in the gas phase . Although theoretical studies indicated that the even-numbered members of the O ( = C ) n =O family should be inherently unstable , C4O2 is indefinitely stable in the matrix , but is decomposed by light into tricarbon monoxide C3O and carbon monoxide CO. . It has a triplet ground state .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Tetracarbon_dioxide",
"rank": 13,
"score": 130223
},
{
"content": "Title: Blackdamp Content: Blackdamp ( also known as stythe or choke damp ) is an asphyxiant , reducing the available oxygen content of air to a level incapable of sustaining human or animal life . It is not a single gas but a mixture of unbreathable gases left after oxygen is removed from the air and typically consists of nitrogen , carbon dioxide and water vapour . The suffix damp is believed to derive from the German word for vapours ( `` Dampf '' ) . The word damp is used in similar mining terms such as white damp ( carbon monoxide ) , fire damp ( typically methane ) and stink damp ( hydrogen sulfide ) .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Blackdamp",
"rank": 14,
"score": 129576
},
{
"content": "Title: Nonmetal Content: In chemistry , a nonmetal ( or non-metal ) is a chemical element that mostly lacks metallic attributes . Physically , nonmetals tend to be highly volatile ( easily vaporized ) , have low elasticity , and are good insulators of heat and electricity ; chemically , they tend to have high ionization energy and electronegativity values , and gain or share electrons when they react with other elements or compounds . Seventeen elements are generally classified as nonmetals ; most are gases ( hydrogen , helium , nitrogen , oxygen , fluorine , neon , chlorine , argon , krypton , xenon and radon ) ; one is a liquid ( bromine ) , and a few are solids ( carbon , phosphorus , sulfur , selenium , and iodine ) . Moving rightward across the standard form of the periodic table , nonmetals adopt structures that have progressively fewer nearest neighbours . Polyatomic nonmetals have structures with either three nearest neighbours , as is the case ( for example ) with carbon ( in its standard state of graphite ) , or two nearest neighbours ( for example ) in the case of sulfur . Diatomic nonmetals , such as hydrogen , have one nearest neighbour , and the monatomic noble gases , such as helium , have none . This gradual fall in the number of nearest neighbours is associated with a reduction in metallic character and an increase in nonmetallic character . The distinction between the three categories of nonmetals , in terms of receding metallicity is not absolute . Boundary overlaps occur as outlying elements in each category show ( or begin to show ) less-distinct , hybrid-like or atypical properties . Although five times more elements are metals than nonmetals , two of the nonmetals -- hydrogen and helium -- make up over 99 per cent of the observable Universe , and one -- oxygen -- makes up close to half of the Earth 's crust , oceans and atmosphere . Living organisms are also composed almost entirely of nonmetals , and nonmetals form many more compounds than metals .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Nonmetal",
"rank": 15,
"score": 128411
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 16,
"score": 126068
},
{
"content": "Title: Afterdamp Content: Afterdamp is the toxic mixture of gases left in a mine following an explosion caused by firedamp , which itself can initiate a much larger explosion of coal dust . It consists of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen . Hydrogen sulfide , another highly toxic gas , may also be present . However , it is the high content of carbon monoxide which kills by depriving victims of oxygen by combining preferentially with haemoglobin in the blood . Afterdamp was the deadly gas which caused the majority of casualties in the many pit disasters of the British coalfields , such as the Senghenydd colliery disaster and elsewhere in the world . Such disasters continue to afflict working mines , especially in mainland China .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Afterdamp",
"rank": 17,
"score": 126009
},
{
"content": "Title: Controlled atmosphere Content: A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen , as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated . Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Controlled_atmosphere",
"rank": 18,
"score": 125311
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate",
"rank": 19,
"score": 123818
},
{
"content": "Title: Air sensitivity Content: Air sensitivity is a term used , particularly in chemistry , to denote the reactivity of chemical compounds with some constituent of air . Most often , reactions occur with atmospheric oxygen ( O2 ) or water vapor ( H2O ) , although reactions with the other constituents of air such as carbon monoxide ( CO ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and nitrogen ( N2 ) are also possible . The range of methods used to work with air-sensitive compounds are known as air-free techniques . Two main methods exist -- gloveboxes and Schlenk lines . Gloveboxes are sealed cabinets filled with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen . Normal laboratory equipment can be set up and manipulated through the use of the gloves . A Schlenk line is a vacuum and inert-gas dual-manifold that allows glassware to be evacuated and refilled with inert gas .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Air_sensitivity",
"rank": 20,
"score": 123565
},
{
"content": "Title: Nitryl Content: Nitryl is the nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) moiety when it occurs in a larger compound . Examples include nitryl fluoride ( NO2F ) and nitryl chloride ( NO2Cl ) . Like nitrogen dioxide , the nitryl moiety contains a nitrogen atom with two bonds to the two oxygen atoms , and a third bond shared equally between the nitrogen and the two oxygen atoms . The nitrogen-centred radical is then free to condense with another radical ( X ) to produce an N-X bond , where X can be F , Cl , OH , etc. .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Nitryl",
"rank": 21,
"score": 123427
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 22,
"score": 123212
},
{
"content": "Title: Industrial gas Content: Industrial gases are gaseous materials that are manufactured for use in Industry . The principal gases provided are nitrogen , oxygen , carbon dioxide , argon , hydrogen , helium and acetylene ; although a huge variety of gases and mixtures are available in gas cylinders . The industry producing these gases is known as the industrial gases industry , which is seen as also encompassing the supply of equipment and technology to produce and use the gases . Their production is a part of the wider chemical Industry ( where industrial gases are often seen as `` speciality chemicals '' ) . Industrial gases are used in a wide range of industries , which include oil and gas , petrochemicals , chemicals , power , mining , steelmaking , metals , environmental protection , medicine , pharmaceuticals , biotechnology , food , water , fertilizers , nuclear power , electronics and aerospace . Industrial gas is sold to other industrial enterprises ; typically comprising large orders to corporate industrial clients , covering a size range from building a process facility or pipeline down to cylinder gas supply . Some trade scale business is done , typically through tied local agents who are supplied wholesale . This business covers the sale or hire of gas cylinders and associated equipment to tradesmen and occasionally the general public . This includes products such as balloon helium , dispensing gases for beer kegs , welding gases and welding equipment , LPG and medical oxygen . Retail sales of small scale gas supply are not confined to just the industrial gas companies or their agents . A wide variety of hand-carried small gas containers , which may be called cylinders , bottles , cartridges , capsules or canisters are available to supply LPG , butane , propane , carbon dioxide or nitrous oxide . Examples are whippets , powerlets , campingaz and sodastream .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Industrial_gas",
"rank": 23,
"score": 123202
},
{
"content": "Title: Volatiles Content: In planetary science , volatiles are the group of chemical elements and chemical compounds with low boiling points that are associated with a planet 's or moon 's crust or atmosphere . Examples include nitrogen , water , carbon dioxide , ammonia , hydrogen , methane and sulfur dioxide . In astrogeology , these compounds , in their solid state , often comprise large proportions of the crusts of moons and dwarf planets . In contrast with volatiles , elements and compounds with high boiling points are known as refractory substances . Planetary scientists often classify volatiles with exceptionally low melting points , such as hydrogen and helium , as gases ( as in gas giant ) , whereas those volatiles with melting points above about 100 K are referred to as ices . The terms `` gas '' and `` ice '' in this context can apply to compounds that may be solids , liquids or gases . Thus , Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants , and Uranus and Neptune are ice giants , even though the vast majority of the `` gas '' and `` ice '' in their interiors is a hot , highly dense fluid that gets denser as the center of the planet is approached . The Moon is very low in volatiles : its crust contains oxygen chemically bound into the rocks ( in , for example , silicates ) , but negligible amounts of hydrogen , nitrogen , or carbon .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Volatiles",
"rank": 24,
"score": 122273
},
{
"content": "Title: Limiting oxygen concentration Content: Limiting oxygen concentration , ( LOC ) , also known as the Minimum oxygen concentration , ( MOC ) , is defined as the limiting concentration of oxygen below which combustion is not possible , independent of the concentration of fuel . It is expressed in units of volume percent of oxygen . The LOC varies with pressure and temperature . It is also dependent on the type of inert ( non-flammable ) gas . The effect of increasing the concentration of inert gas can be understood by viewing the inert as thermal ballast that quenches the flame temperature to a level below which the flame can not exist . Carbon dioxide is therefore more effective than nitrogen due to its higher molar heat capacity The concept has important practical use in fire safety engineering . For instance , to safely fill a new container or a pressure vessel with flammable gasses , the atmosphere of normal air ( containing about 21 volume percent of oxygen ) in the vessel would first be flushed ( purged ) with nitrogen or another non-flammable inert gas , thereby reducing the oxygen concentration inside the container . When the oxygen concentration is below the LOC , flammable gas can be safely admitted to the vessel because the possibility of internal explosion has been eliminated . The limiting oxygen concentration is a necessary parameter when designing hypoxic air fire prevention systems .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Limiting_oxygen_concentration",
"rank": 25,
"score": 122172
},
{
"content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 26,
"score": 122070
},
{
"content": "Title: Flue gas Content: Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue , which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace , oven , furnace , boiler or steam generator . Quite often , the flue gas refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants . Its composition depends on what is being burned , but it will usually consist of mostly nitrogen ( typically more than two-thirds ) derived from the combustion of air , carbon dioxide , and water vapor as well as excess oxygen ( also derived from the combustion air ) . It further contains a small percentage of a number of pollutants , such as particulate matter ( like soot ) , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , and sulfur oxides .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Flue_gas",
"rank": 27,
"score": 121175
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Hypercapnia",
"rank": 28,
"score": 120674
},
{
"content": "Title: Arterial blood gas Content: An arterial blood gas ( ABG ) test is a blood gas test of blood from an artery ; it is thus a blood test that measures the amounts of certain gases ( such as oxygen and carbon dioxide ) dissolved in arterial blood . An ABG test involves puncturing an artery with a thin needle and syringe and drawing a small volume of blood . The most common puncture site is the radial artery at the wrist , but sometimes the femoral artery in the groin or other sites are used . The blood can also be drawn from an arterial catheter . An ABG test measures the blood gas tension values of arterial oxygen tension ( PaO2 ) , arterial carbon dioxide tension ( PaCO2 ) , and acidity ( pH ) . In addition , arterial oxygen saturation ( SaO2 ) can be determined . Such information is vital when caring for patients with critical illness or respiratory disease . Therefore , the ABG test is one of the most common tests performed on patients in intensive care units ( ICUs ) . In other levels of care , pulse oximetry plus transcutaneous carbon dioxide measurement is an alternative method of obtaining similar information less invasively . The test is used to determine the pH of the blood , the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and oxygen , and the bicarbonate level . Many blood gas analyzers will also report concentrations of lactate , hemoglobin , several electrolytes , oxyhemoglobin , carboxyhemoglobin and methemoglobin . ABG testing is mainly used in pulmonology and critical care medicine to determine gas exchange which reflect gas exchange across the alveolar-capillary membrane . ABG testing also has a variety of applications in other areas of medicine . Combinations of disorders can be complex and difficult to interpret , so calculators , nomograms , and rules of thumb are commonly used . ABG specimens originally were sent from the clinic to the medical laboratory for analysis . Today the analysis can be done either in the laboratory or as point-of-care testing , depending on the equipment available in each clinic .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Arterial_blood_gas",
"rank": 29,
"score": 120338
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 30,
"score": 120157
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Paleoatmosphere",
"rank": 31,
"score": 120041
},
{
"content": "Title: Oxocarbon Content: An oxocarbon or oxide of carbon is a chemical compound consisting only of carbon and oxygen . The simplest and most common oxocarbons are carbon monoxide ( CO ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Many other stable ( practically if not thermodynamically ) or metastable oxides of carbon are known , but they are rarely encountered , such as carbon suboxide ( C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O ) and mellitic anhydride ( C12O9 ) . While textbooks will often list only the first three , and rarely the fourth , a large number of other oxides are known today , most of them synthesized since the 1960s . Some of these new oxides are stable at room temperature . Some are metastable or stable only at very low temperatures , but decompose to simpler oxocarbons when warmed . Many are inherently unstable and can be observed only momentarily as intermediates in chemical reactions or are so reactive that they can exist only in the gas phase or under matrix isolation conditions . The inventory of oxocarbons appears to be steadily growing . The existence of graphene oxide and of other stable polymeric carbon oxides with unbounded molecular structures suggests that many more remain to be discovered .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Oxocarbon",
"rank": 32,
"score": 119636
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tetroxide Content: Carbon tetroxide is a highly unstable oxide of carbon with formula . It was proposed as an intermediate in the O-atom exchange between carbon dioxide and oxygen at high temperatures .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_tetroxide",
"rank": 33,
"score": 119287
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel",
"rank": 34,
"score": 118895
},
{
"content": "Title: Selective non-catalytic reduction Content: Selective non-catalytic reduction ( SNCR ) is a method to lessen nitrogen oxide emissions in conventional power plants that burn biomass , waste and coal . The process involves injecting either ammonia or urea into the firebox of the boiler at a location where the flue gas is between 1400 and to react with the nitrogen oxides formed in the combustion process . The resulting product of the chemical redox reaction is molecular nitrogen ( N2 ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and water ( H2O ) . Urea ( NH2CONH2 ) is easier to handle and store than the more dangerous ammonia ( NH3 ) . In the process it reacts like ammonia : NH2CONH2 + H2O - > 2NH3 + CO2 The reduction happens according to ( simplified ) 4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2 - > 4 N2 + 6 H2O The reaction mechanism itself involves NH2 radicals that attach to NO and then decompose . The reaction requires a sufficient reaction time within a certain temperature range , typically 1400 and , to be effective . At lower temperatures the NO and the ammonia do not react . Ammonia that has not reacted is called ammonia slip and is undesirable , as the ammonia can react with other combustion species , such as sulfur trioxide ( SO3 ) , to form ammonium salts . At temperatures above 1093 ° C ammonia decomposes : 4 NH3 + 5 O2 - > 4 NO + 6 H2O In that case NO is created instead of removed . A further complication is mixing . In general , more NO will form in the center and less near the walls , as the walls are cooler than the center . Thus , more ammonia must find its way to the center and less near the walls , otherwise NO in the center meets insufficient ammonia for reduction and excess ammonia near the walls slips through . Though in theory selective non-catalytic reduction can achieve the same efficiency of about 90 % as selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , these practical constraints of temperature , time , and mixing often lead to worse results in practice . However , selective non-catalytic reduction has an economical advantage over selective catalytic reduction , as the cost of the catalyst is not there .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Selective_non-catalytic_reduction",
"rank": 35,
"score": 118712
},
{
"content": "Title: Buffer gas Content: A buffer gas is an inert or nonflammable gas . In the Earth 's atmosphere , nitrogen acts as a buffer gas . A buffer gas adds pressure to a system and controls the speed of combustion with any oxygen present . Any inert gas such as helium , neon , or argon will serve as a buffer gas .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Buffer_gas",
"rank": 36,
"score": 117616
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Content: Carbon ( from carbo `` coal '' ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent -- making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , C and C being stable , while C is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity . Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18.5 % ) after oxygen . The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb '' γράφειν '' which means `` to write '' ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen . The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4 , while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions . For this reason , carbon has often been referred to as the `` king of the elements '' .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon",
"rank": 37,
"score": 117236
},
{
"content": "Title: Traité Élémentaire de Chimie Content: Traité élémentaire de chimie ( Elementary Treatise of Chemistry ) is an influential textbook written by Antoine Lavoisier published in 1789 and translated into English by Robert Kerr in 1790 under the title Elements of Chemistry in a New Systematic Order containing All the Modern Discoveries . This book is considered to be the first modern chemical textbook . The book defines an element as a single substance that ca n't be broken down by chemical analysis and from which all chemical compounds are formed , publishing his discovery that fermentation produces carbon dioxide ( carbonic gas ) and spirit of wine , saying that it is `` more appropriately called by the Arabic word alcohol since it is formed from cider or fermented sugar as well as wine '' , and publishing the first chemical equation `` grape must = carbonic acid + alcohol '' , calling this reaction `` one of the most extraordinary in chemistry '' , noting `` In these experiments , we have to assume that there is a true balance or equation between the elements of the compounds with which we start and those obtained at the end of the reaction . '' The book contains a list of elements , which included oxygen , nitrogen , hydrogen , phosphorus , mercury , zinc , and sulfur , forming the basis for the modern list of elements . His list , however , also included light and caloric , which he believed to be material substances but are not elements .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Traité_Élémentaire_de_Chimie",
"rank": 38,
"score": 116974
},
{
"content": "Title: Gasification Content: Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil fuel based carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide , hydrogen and carbon dioxide . This is achieved by reacting the material at high temperatures ( > 700 ° C ) , without combustion , with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam . The resulting gas mixture is called syngas ( from synthesis gas ) or producer gas and is itself a fuel . The power derived from gasification and combustion of the resultant gas is considered to be a source of renewable energy if the gasified compounds were obtained from biomass . ( dead links ) The advantage of gasification is that using the syngas is potentially more efficient than direct combustion of the original fuel because it can be combusted at higher temperatures or even in fuel cells , so that the thermodynamic upper limit to the efficiency defined by Carnot 's rule is higher or ( in case of fuel cells ) not applicable . Syngas may be burned directly in gas engines , used to produce methanol and hydrogen , or converted via the Fischer -- Tropsch process into synthetic fuel . Gasification can also begin with material which would otherwise have been disposed of such as biodegradable waste . In addition , the high-temperature process refines out corrosive ash elements such as chloride and potassium , allowing clean gas production from otherwise problematic fuels . Gasification of fossil fuels is currently widely used on industrial scales to generate electricity .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Gasification",
"rank": 39,
"score": 116890
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbogen Content: Carbogen , also called Meduna 's Mixture after its inventor Ladislas Meduna , is a mixture of carbon dioxide and oxygen gas . Meduna 's original formula was 30 % CO2 and 70 % oxygen , but the term carbogen can refer to any mixture of these two gases , from 1.5 % to 50 % CO2 .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbogen",
"rank": 40,
"score": 116683
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon hexoxide Content: Carbon hexoxide or carbon hexaoxide is an oxide of carbon with an unusually large quantity of oxygen . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule consists of a six membered ring with five oxygen and one carbon atom , and one oxygen with a double bond with the carbon .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_hexoxide",
"rank": 41,
"score": 116391
},
{
"content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Amorphous_carbonia",
"rank": 42,
"score": 116140
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon trioxide Content: Carbon trioxide ( CO3 ) is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) . Three possible isomers of carbon trioxide , with molecular symmetry point groups Cs , D3h , and C2v , have been most studied by theoretical methods , and the C2v state has been shown to be the ground state of the molecule . Carbon trioxide should not be confused with the stable carbonate ion ( CO32 − ) . Carbon trioxide can be produced , for example , in the drift zone of a negative corona discharge by reactions between carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and the atomic oxygen ( O ) created from molecular oxygen by free electrons in the plasma . Another reported method is photolysis of ozone O3 dissolved in liquid CO2 , or in CO2/SF6 mixtures at -45 ° C , irradiated with light of 2537 Å . The formation of CO3 is inferred but it appears to decay spontaneously by the route 2CO3 → 2CO2 + O2 with a lifetime much shorter than 1 minute . Carbon trioxide can be made by blowing ozone at dry ice ( solid CO2 ) , and it has also been detected in reactions between carbon monoxide ( CO ) and molecular oxygen ( O2 ) .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_trioxide",
"rank": 43,
"score": 115940
},
{
"content": "Title: Gaseous signaling molecules Content: Gaseous signaling molecules are gaseous molecules that are either synthesised internally ( endogenously ) in the organism , tissue or cell or are received by the organism , tissue or cell from outside ( say , from the atmosphere or hydrosphere , as in the case of oxygen ) and that are used to transmit chemical signals which induce certain physiological or biochemical changes in the organism , tissue or cell . The term is applied to , for example , oxygen , carbon dioxide , nitric oxide , carbon monoxide , hydrogen sulfide , sulfur dioxide , nitrous oxide , hydrogen cyanide , ammonia , methane , hydrogen , ethylene , etc. . Many , but not all , gaseous signaling molecules are called gasotransmitters . The biological roles of each of the gaseous signaling molecules are in short outlined below .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Gaseous_signaling_molecules",
"rank": 44,
"score": 115607
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonyl sulfide Content: Carbonyl sulfide is the organic compound with the linear formula OCS . Normally written as COS , it is a colourless flammable gas with an unpleasant odor . It is a linear molecule consisting of a carbonyl group double bonded to a sulfur atom . Carbonyl sulfide can be considered to be intermediate between carbon dioxide and carbon disulfide , both of which are valence isoelectronic with it . Carbonyl sulfide decomposes in the presence of humidity and bases to carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide . This compound is found to catalyze the formation of peptides from amino acids . This finding is an extension of the Miller -- Urey experiment and it is suggested that carbonyl sulfide played a significant role in the origin of life .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbonyl_sulfide",
"rank": 45,
"score": 115582
},
{
"content": "Title: Noble gas Content: The noble gases ( historically also the inert gases ) make a group of chemical elements with similar properties ; under standard conditions , they are all odorless , colorless , monatomic gases with very low chemical reactivity . The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium ( He ) , neon ( Ne ) , argon ( Ar ) , krypton ( Kr ) , xenon ( Xe ) , and the radioactive radon ( Rn ) . Oganesson ( Og ) is predicted to be a noble gas as well , but its chemistry has not yet been investigated . For the first six periods of the periodic table , the noble gases are exactly the members of group 18 of the periodic table . Noble gases are typically highly unreactive except when under particular extreme conditions . The inertness of noble gases makes them very suitable in applications where reactions are not wanted . For example , argon is used in light bulbs to prevent the hot tungsten filament from oxidizing ; also , helium is used in breathing gas by deep-sea divers to prevent oxygen , nitrogen and carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) toxicity . The properties of the noble gases can be well explained by modern theories of atomic structure : their outer shell of valence electrons is considered to be `` full '' , giving them little tendency to participate in chemical reactions , and it has been possible to prepare only a few hundred noble gas compounds . The melting and boiling points for a given noble gas are close together , differing by less than 10 C-change ; that is , they are liquids over only a small temperature range . Neon , argon , krypton , and xenon are obtained from air in an air separation unit using the methods of liquefaction of gases and fractional distillation . Helium is sourced from natural gas fields which have high concentrations of helium in the natural gas , using cryogenic gas separation techniques , and radon is usually isolated from the radioactive decay of dissolved radium , thorium , or uranium compounds ( since those compounds give off alpha particles ) . Noble gases have several important applications in industries such as lighting , welding , and space exploration . A helium-oxygen breathing gas is often used by deep-sea divers at depths of seawater over 55 m to keep the diver from experiencing oxygen toxemia , the lethal effect of high-pressure oxygen , nitrogen narcosis , the distracting narcotic effect of the nitrogen in air beyond this partial-pressure threshold , and carbon dioxide poisoning ( hypercapnia ) , the panic-inducing effect of excessive carbon dioxide in the bloodstream . After the risks caused by the flammability of hydrogen became apparent , it was replaced with helium in blimps and balloons .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Noble_gas",
"rank": 46,
"score": 114943
},
{
"content": "Title: Ideal gas Content: An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of many randomly moving point particles whose only interaction is perfectly elastic collision . The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law , a simplified equation of state , and is amenable to analysis under statistical mechanics . One mole of an ideal gas has a volume of 22.710947 ( 13 ) litres at STP ( a temperature of 273.15 K and an absolute pressure of exactly 105 Pa ) as defined by IUPAC since 1982 . ( Until 1982 , STP was defined as a temperature of 273.15 K and an absolute pressure of exactly 1 atm . The volume of one mole of an ideal gas at this temperature and pressure is 22.413962 ( 13 ) litres . IUPAC recommends that the former use of this definition should be discontinued ; however , some textbooks still use these old values . ) At normal conditions such as standard temperature and pressure , most real gases behave qualitatively like an ideal gas . Many gases such as nitrogen , oxygen , hydrogen , noble gases , and some heavier gases like carbon dioxide can be treated like ideal gases within reasonable tolerances . Generally , a gas behaves more like an ideal gas at higher temperature and lower pressure , as the potential energy due to intermolecular forces becomes less significant compared with the particles ' kinetic energy , and the size of the molecules becomes less significant compared to the empty space between them . The ideal gas model tends to fail at lower temperatures or higher pressures , when intermolecular forces and molecular size become important . It also fails for most heavy gases , such as many refrigerants , and for gases with strong intermolecular forces , notably water vapor . At high pressures , the volume of a real gas is often considerably greater than that of an ideal gas . At low temperatures , the pressure of a real gas is often considerably less than that of an ideal gas . At some point of low temperature and high pressure , real gases undergo a phase transition , such as to a liquid or a solid . The model of an ideal gas , however , does not describe or allow phase transitions . These must be modeled by more complex equations of state . The deviation from the ideal gas behaviour can be described by a dimensionless quantity , the compressibility factor , . The ideal gas model has been explored in both the Newtonian dynamics ( as in `` kinetic theory '' ) and in quantum mechanics ( as a `` gas in a box '' ) . The ideal gas model has also been used to model the behavior of electrons in a metal ( in the Drude model and the free electron model ) , and it is one of the most important models in statistical mechanics .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Ideal_gas",
"rank": 47,
"score": 114866
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_sensor",
"rank": 48,
"score": 114692
},
{
"content": "Title: Sewer gas Content: Sewer gas is a complex mixture of toxic and nontoxic gases produced and collected in sewage systems by the decomposition of organic household or industrial wastes , typical components of sewage . Sewer gases may include hydrogen sulfide , ammonia , methane , esters , carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides . Improper disposal of petroleum products such as gasoline and mineral spirits contribute to sewer gas hazards . Sewer gases are of concern due to their odor , health effects , and potential for creating fire or explosions .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Sewer_gas",
"rank": 49,
"score": 114593
},
{
"content": "Title: Dicyanoacetylene Content: Dicyanoacetylene , also called carbon subnitride or but-2-ynedinitrile '' ' ( IUPAC ) , is a compound of carbon and nitrogen with chemical formula C4N2 . It has a linear molecular structure , N ≡ C − C ≡ C − C ≡ N ( often abbreviated as NC4N ) , with alternating triple and single covalent bonds . It can be viewed as acetylene with the two hydrogen atoms replaced by cyanide groups . At room temperature , dicyanoacetylene is a clear liquid . Because of its high endothermic heat of formation , it can explode to carbon powder and nitrogen gas , and it burns in oxygen with a bright blue-white flame at a temperature of 5260 K ( 4990 ° C , 9010 ° F ) , which is the hottest flame of any known chemical reaction .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Dicyanoacetylene",
"rank": 50,
"score": 114592
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming",
"rank": 51,
"score": 114580
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 52,
"score": 113647
},
{
"content": "Title: Natural gas Content: Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane , but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes , and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide , nitrogen , hydrogen sulfide , or helium . It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years . The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in the gas . Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating , cooking , and electricity generation . It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals . Fossil fuel based natural gas is a non-renewable resource . Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds and as methane clathrates . Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in close proximity to and with natural gas . Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms : biogenic and thermogenic . Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes , bogs , landfills , and shallow sediments . Deeper in the earth , at greater temperature and pressure , thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material . In petroleum production gas is often burnt as flare gas . The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of natural gas are flared or vented annually . Before natural gas can be used as a fuel , most , but not all , must be processed to remove impurities , including water , to meet the specifications of marketable natural gas . The by-products of this processing include : ethane , propane , butanes , pentanes , and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons , hydrogen sulfide ( which may be converted into pure sulfur ) , carbon dioxide , water vapor , and sometimes helium and nitrogen . Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as `` gas '' , especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal . However , it is not to be confused with gasoline , especially in North America , where the term gasoline is often shortened in colloquial usage to gas . Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE ( possibly even 1000 BCE ) . They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt , in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan . The world 's first industrial extraction of natural gas started at Fredonia , New York , United States in 1825 . By 2009 , 66 000 km ³ ( or 8 % ) had been used out of the total 850 000 km ³ of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas . Based on an estimated 2015 world consumption rate of about 3400 km ³ of gas per year , the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of natural gas would last 250 years at current consumption rates . An annual increase in usage of 2 -- 3 % could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less , perhaps as few as 80 to 100 years .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Natural_gas",
"rank": 53,
"score": 113621
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon pentoxide Content: Carbon pentaoxide or carbon pentoxide is an unstable molecular oxide of carbon . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule has a C2 symmetry . It consists of a five membered ring with one carbon and four oxygen atoms . A fifth oxygen atom has a double bond to the carbon . Calculation has resulted in a theoretical structure . The pentagon is not regular , but varies in the length of its sides and angles . The distance between the oxygen atoms that are not attached to carbon is 1.406 Å , whereas the distance between one of these atoms and an oxygen attached to carbon is 1.457 Å . The carbon oxygen bond length is 1.376 Å . The double carbon to oxygen bond is the shortest at 1.180 Å . There is no carbon-to-carbon bond as there is only one carbon atom . The OOO bond angle is 100.2 ° and the OOC angle is 109.1 ° . The OCO bond angle is 125.4 ° .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_pentoxide",
"rank": 54,
"score": 112692
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_suboxide",
"rank": 55,
"score": 112460
},
{
"content": "Title: Indirect calorimetry Content: Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste ( frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms , or urea in terrestrial ones ) , or from their consumption of oxygen . Indirect calorimetry is the method by which the type and rate of substrate utilization , and energy metabolism are estimated in vivo starting from gas exchange measurements ( carbon dioxide production and oxygen consumption during rest and steady-state exercise ) . This technique provides unique information , is noninvasive , and can be advantageously combined with other experimental methods to investigate numerous aspects of nutrient assimilation , thermogenesis , the energetics of physical exercise , and the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Indirect_calorimetry",
"rank": 56,
"score": 111574
},
{
"content": "Title: Octanitrocubane Content: Octanitrocubane ( molecular formula : C8 ( NO2 ) 8 ) is a high explosive that , like TNT , is shock-insensitive ( not readily detonated by shock ) . The octanitrocubane molecule has the same chemical structure as cubane ( C8H8 ) except that each of the eight hydrogen atoms is replaced by a nitro group ( NO2 ) . It is however not as powerful as once thought , as the high density theoretical crystal structure has not been achieved . For this reason heptanitrocubane , the slightly less nitrated form , is believed to have marginally better performance despite having a worse oxygen balance . Octanitrocubane is thought to have 20 -- 25 % greater performance than HMX ( octogen ) . This increase in power is due to its highly expansive breakdown into CO2 and N2 , as well as to the presence of strained chemical bonds in the molecule which have stored potential energy . In addition , octanitrocubane produces no water vapor making it less visible , and both the chemical itself and its decomposition products ( nitrogen and carbon dioxide ) are considered to be non-toxic . Octanitrocubane has a detonation velocity of 10,100 m/s , making it the fastest known explosive . Small amounts have been synthesized in the laboratory , but not enough for performance testing as an explosive . Octanitrocubane was first synthesized by Philip Eaton ( who was also the first to synthesize cubane in 1964 ) and Mao-Xi Zhang at the University of Chicago in 1999 , with the structure proven by crystallographer Richard Gilardi of the United States Naval Research Laboratory . The R.E. factor of octanitrocubane is 2.38 , making it the most effective chemical explosive known .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Octanitrocubane",
"rank": 57,
"score": 111344
},
{
"content": "Title: RuBisCO Content: Ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase , commonly known by the abbreviations RuBisCO , RuBPCase , or RuBPco , is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation , a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose . In chemical terms , it catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ( also known as RuBP ) . It is probably the most abundant enzyme on Earth .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "RuBisCO",
"rank": 58,
"score": 111232
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 59,
"score": 111203
},
{
"content": "Title: Marsh gas Content: Marsh gas , swamp gas and bog gas are common names for biogas which forms in wetlands , whose principal component is methane with hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide as minor compositions , produced naturally within some geographical marshes , swamps , and bogs . The surface of marshes , swamps and bogs is initially porous vegetation that rots to form a crust that prevents oxygen from reaching the organic material trapped below . That is the condition that allows anaerobic digestion and fermentation of any plant or animal material which incidentally also produces methane . In some cases there is sufficient heat , fuel and oxygen to allow spontaneous combustion and underground fires to smolder for some considerable time as occurred at a natural reserve in Spain . Such fires can cause surface subsidence presenting an unpredictable physical hazard and as well as environmental changes or damage to the local environment and the ecosystem it supports .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Marsh_gas",
"rank": 60,
"score": 111018
},
{
"content": "Title: Clean agent FS 49 C2 Content: Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an environmentally engineered , human safe , fast extinguishing Clean Agent fire extinguishing gas for gaseous fire suppression installed in a suited fire suppression system . The Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an extinguishing gas mixture that suppresses fire while maintaining breathable concentrations of oxygen in the air . This makes it possible to extinguish a fire with less danger to people in the room at extinguishing concentrations in contrast to pure Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) based fire suppression system which is deadly to humans when released . In the beginning the gas was called Halotron II B/FS49C2 but later only the name FS 49 C2 is used . It is a gaseous solution of 60-80 % tetrafluoroethane ( R-134a ) , 10-30 % pentafluoroethane ( R-125 ) and 10-30 % carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Former fire chief Einar Gjessing made an article about the product to inform firemen how this gas works in case they need to enter a fire site with FS 49 C2 .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Clean_agent_FS_49_C2",
"rank": 61,
"score": 110814
},
{
"content": "Title: Direct carbon fuel cell Content: A Direct Carbon Fuel Cell ( DCFC ) is a fuel cell that uses a carbon rich material as a fuel such as bio-mass or coal . The cell produces energy by combining carbon and oxygen , which releases carbon dioxide as a by-product . It also called coal fuel cells ( CFCs ) , carbon-air fuel cells ( CAFCs ) , direct carbon/coal fuel cells ( DCFCs ) , and DC-SOFC . The total reaction of the cell is C + O2 → CO2 . The process in half cell notation : Anode : C + 2 O2 − → CO2 + 4 e − Cathode : O2 + 4 e − → 2 O2 − Despite this release of carbon dioxide , the direct carbon fuel cell is more environmentally friendly than traditional carbon burning techniques . Due to its higher efficiency , it requires less carbon to produce the same amount of energy . Also , because pure carbon dioxide is emitted , carbon capture techniques are much cheaper than for conventional power stations . Utilized carbon can be in the form of coal , coke , char , or a non-fossilized source of carbon . At least four types of DCFC exist : The first one is based on the Solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) concept . Overall reaction in the solid oxide electrolyte based DCFC C + O2 → CO2 . Anode reaction <Direct electrochemical oxidation path> C + 2O2 − → CO2 + 4e − C + O2 − → CO + 2e − <Indirect electrochemical oxidation path> CO + O2 − → CO2 + 2e − <Boudouard reaction:indirect chemical reaction path> C + CO2 → 2CO Cathode reaction O2 + 4e − → 2O2 − The second one is molten hydroxides fuel cell . William W. Jacques obtained an US Patent 555,511 in this type of fuel cell in 1896 . Prototypes have been demonstrated by the research group , SARA , Inc. . The third one is based on the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell ( MCFC ) concept . William W. Jacques obtained a Canadian patent in this type of fuel cell in 1897 . It has been developed further at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory . The fourth is a molten tin anode solid oxide fuel cell design , which utilizes molten tin and tin oxide as an inter stage reaction between oxidation of the carbon dissolving in the anode and reduction of oxygen at the solid oxide cathode .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Direct_carbon_fuel_cell",
"rank": 62,
"score": 110737
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Mars",
"rank": 63,
"score": 110680
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-based life Content: Carbon is a key component of all known life on Earth . Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements , especially oxygen , hydrogen and nitrogen , and carbon can bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons . Carbon is abundant on Earth . It is also lightweight and relatively small in size , making it easier for enzymes to manipulate carbon molecules . It is often assumed in astrobiology that if life exists somewhere else in the universe , it will also be carbon-based . Critics refer to this assumption as carbon chauvinism .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon-based_life",
"rank": 64,
"score": 110310
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 65,
"score": 110059
},
{
"content": "Title: NAV-CO2 system Content: Non-flammable Alcohol Vapor in Carbon Dioxide systems ( NAV-CO2 System ) were developed in Japan in the 1990s to sanitize hospitals and ambulances .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "NAV-CO2_system",
"rank": 66,
"score": 109546
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory",
"rank": 67,
"score": 109445
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_laser",
"rank": 68,
"score": 109416
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide transmission rate Content: Carbon dioxide transmission rate ( COTR ) is the measurement of the amount of carbon dioxide gas that passes through a substance over a given period . It is mostly carried out on non-porous materials , where the mode of transport is diffusion , but there are a growing number of applications where the transmission rate also depends on flow through apertures of some description .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_transmission_rate",
"rank": 69,
"score": 109397
},
{
"content": "Title: Total organic carbon Content: Total organic carbon ( TOC ) is the amount of carbon found in an organic compound and is often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality or cleanliness of pharmaceutical manufacturing equipment . TOC may also refer to the amount of organic carbon in soil , or in a geological formation , particularly the source rock for a petroleum play ; 2 % is a rough minimum . For marine surface sediments , average TOC content is 0.5 % in the deep ocean , and 2 % along the eastern margins . A typical analysis for TOC measures both the total carbon present and the so-called `` inorganic carbon '' ( IC ) , the latter representing the content of dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid salts . Subtracting the inorganic carbon from the total carbon yields TOC . Another common variant of TOC analysis involves removing the IC portion first and then measuring the leftover carbon . This method involves purging an acidified sample with carbon-free air or nitrogen prior to measurement , and so is more accurately called non-purgeable organic carbon ( NPOC ) .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Total_organic_carbon",
"rank": 70,
"score": 109340
},
{
"content": "Title: Air-free technique Content: Air-free techniques refer to a range of manipulations in the chemistry laboratory for the handling of compounds that are air-sensitive . These techniques prevent the compounds from reacting with components of air , usually water and oxygen ; less commonly carbon dioxide and nitrogen . A common theme among these techniques is the use of a fine ( 100-10 − 3 Torr ) or high ( 10 − 3-10 − 6 Torr ) vacuum to remove air , and the use of an inert gas : preferably argon , but often nitrogen . The two most common types of air-free technique involve the use of a glovebox and a Schlenk line , although some rigorous applications use a high-vacuum line . In both methods , glassware ( often Schlenk tubes ) are pre-dried in ovens prior to use . They may be flame-dried to remove adsorbed water . Prior to coming into an inert atmosphere , vessels are further dried by purge-and-refill -- the vessel is subjected to a vacuum to remove gases and water , and then refilled with inert gas . This cycle is usually repeated three times or the vacuum is applied for an extended period of time . One of the differences between the use of a glovebox and a Schlenk line is where the purge-and-refill cycle is applied . When using a glovebox the purge-and-refill is applied to an airlock attached to the glovebox , commonly called the `` port '' or `` ante-chamber '' . In contrast when using a Schlenk line the purge-and-refill is applied directly to the reaction vessel through a hose or ground glass joint that is connected to the manifold .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Air-free_technique",
"rank": 71,
"score": 109337
},
{
"content": "Title: Gas carbon Content: Gas carbon is a carbon deposit that forms on the upper parts of the retort of a gasworks .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Gas_carbon",
"rank": 72,
"score": 109058
},
{
"content": "Title: Coal gas Content: Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system . Town gas is a more general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers and municipalities . Coal gas contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen , carbon monoxide , methane and volatile hydrocarbons together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen . Prior to the development of natural gas supply and transmissionduring the 1940s and 1950s in the United States and during the late 1960s and 1970s in Great Britainvirtually all gas for fuel and lighting was manufactured from coal . Town gas was supplied to households via municipally-owned piped distribution systems . Originally created as a by-product of the coking process , its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the industrial revolution and urbanization . By-products from the production process included coal tars and ammonia , which were important chemical feedstock for the dye and chemical industry with a wide range of artificial dyes being made from coal gas and coal tar . Facilities where the gas was produced were often known as a manufactured gas plant ( MGP ) or a gasworks . The discovery of large reserves of natural gas in the North Sea off the Scottish coast during the early 1960s led to the expensive conversion or replacement of most of the UK 's gas cookers and gas heaters , except in Northern Ireland , from the late 1960s onwards . The production process is distinct , both physically and chemically , from that used to create a range of gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas , syngas , hygas , Dowson gas , and producer gas . These gases are made by partial combustion of a wide variety of feed stocks in some mixture of air , oxygen , or steam , to reduce the latter to hydrogen and carbon dioxide although some destructive distillation may also occur .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Coal_gas",
"rank": 73,
"score": 108861
},
{
"content": "Title: Flue-gas stack Content: A flue-gas stack is a type of chimney , a vertical pipe , channel or similar structure through which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air . Flue gases are produced when coal , oil , natural gas , wood or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial furnace , a power plant 's steam-generating boiler , or other large combustion device . Flue gas is usually composed of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor as well as nitrogen and excess oxygen remaining from the intake combustion air . It also contains a small percentage of pollutants such as particulate matter , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides . The flue gas stacks are often quite tall , up to 400 metres ( 1300 feet ) or more , so as to disperse the exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby reduce the concentration of the pollutants to the levels required by governmental environmental policy and environmental regulation . When the flue gases are exhausted from stoves , ovens , fireplaces , or other small sources within residential abodes , restaurants , hotels , or other public buildings and small commercial enterprises , their flue gas stacks are referred to as chimneys .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Flue-gas_stack",
"rank": 74,
"score": 108611
},
{
"content": "Title: Endothermic gas Content: Endothermic gas is a gas that inhibits or reverses oxidation on the surfaces it is in contact with . This gas is the product of incomplete combustion in a controlled environment . An example is hydrogen gas ( H2 ) , nitrogen gas ( N2 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) . The hydrogen and carbon monoxide are reducing agents , so they work together to shield surfaces from oxidation .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Endothermic_gas",
"rank": 75,
"score": 108590
},
{
"content": "Title: NOTT-202 Content: NOTT-202 is a two-part chemical compound , capable of selectively absorbing carbon dioxide . It is like a `` framework of organic metal '' that functions like a sponge , absorbing selected gases at high pressures . Its creation was announced by scientists in 2011 . This structure is an entirely new class of porous material , as so the researchers claim .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "NOTT-202",
"rank": 76,
"score": 108568
},
{
"content": "Title: Nitrous oxide Content: Nitrous oxide , commonly known as laughing gas or nitrous , is a chemical compound , an oxide of nitrogen with the formula . At room temperature , it is a colorless , odorless non-flammable gas , with a slightly metallic scent and taste . At elevated temperatures , nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidizer similar to molecular oxygen . Nitrous oxide has significant medical uses , especially in surgery and dentistry , for its anaesthetic and analgesic effects . Its name `` laughing gas '' is due to the euphoric effects of inhaling it , a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaesthetic . It is also used as an oxidizer in rocket propellants , and in motor racing to increase the power output of engines . Nitrous oxide occurs in small amounts in the atmosphere , but has been found recently to be a major scavenger of stratospheric ozone , with impact comparable to that of CFCs . It is estimated that 30 % of the in the atmosphere is the result of human activity , chiefly agriculture .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Nitrous_oxide",
"rank": 77,
"score": 108556
},
{
"content": "Title: Headspace Gas Chromatography for Dissolved Gas Measurement Content: Headspace Gas Chromatography uses headspace gas injected directly onto a gas chromatographic column . Chemists often use the phrase `` standard temperature and pressure or STP '' to convey that they are working at a temperature of 25 ° C and one atmosphere of pressure . There are three states of matter under these conditions : solids , liquids and gases . Although all three are distinct states both solids and gases can dissolve ( or disperse ) in liquids . The most commonly occurring liquid in the biosphere is water . All components of the atmosphere are capable of dissolving in water to some degree . The bulk of the stable natural components of the atmosphere are nitrogen , oxygen , carbon dioxide , gaseous water , argon and other trace gases . Materials that exist primarily in the gas phase at STP are referred to as `` volatile . '' Many natural and man-made ( anthropogenic ) materials are stable in two states at STP , earning them the title `` semi-volatile . '' A naturally occurring volatile that is sometimes found in aqueous solution is methane , water itself is semi-volatile . Man-made or anthropogenic chemicals also occur in these classes . Examples of volatile anthropogenic chemicals include the refrigerants chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and hydrofluorocarbons ( HCFCs ) . Semivolatile anthropogenics can exist as mixtures , such as petroleum distillates or as pure chemicals like trichloroethylene ( TCE ) . There is a need to analyze the dissolved gas content of aqueous solutions . Dissolved gases can directly interact with aquatic organisms or can volatilize from solution ( the latter described by Henry 's Law ) . These processes can result in exposure that , depending on the nature of the dissolved material , can have negative health effects . There is natural occurrence of various dissolved gases in groundwater and can be a measure of health for lakes , streams and rivers . Dissolved gases also occur as a result of human contamination from fuel and chlorinated spill sites . This method can be used to determine if there is natural biodegradation processes occurring in contaminated aquifers . For example , fuel hydrocarbons will break down into methane . Chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethylene , break down into ethene and chloride . Detecting these compounds can determine if biodegradation processes are occurring and possibly at what rate . Natural gas extracted from the earth also contains many low molecular weight hydrocarbon compounds such as methane , ethane , propane and butane . For example , methane has been found in many water wells in West Virginia . Chromatographic techniques are often useful when mixtures of analytes are present because they are capable of measuring multiple analytes during a single application . They require isolation of the analyte from the matrix they come in ( the body of the sample ) . One of the simpler techniques is to simply trap the analytes in a bubble of air above the sample ( headspace ) and inject part of that bubble directly into the instrument . This procedure is called headspace analysis . One of the most widely used methods for headspace analysis is described by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( USEPA ) and is called RSKSOP-175 . This method is described below .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Headspace_Gas_Chromatography_for_Dissolved_Gas_Measurement",
"rank": 78,
"score": 108376
},
{
"content": "Title: Bicarbonate indicator Content: A bicarbonate indicator ( hydrogencarbonate indicator ) is a type of pH indicator that is sensitive enough to show a color change as the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in an aqueous solution increases . The indicator is used in photosynthesis and respiration experiments to find out whether carbon dioxide is being liberated . It is also used to test the carbon dioxide content during gaseous exchange of organisms . When the carbon dioxide content is higher than 0.04 % , the initial red color changes to yellow as the pH becomes more acidic . If the carbon dioxide content is lower than 0.04 % , it changes from red to magenta and , in relatively very low carbon dioxide concentrations , to purple . Carbon dioxide , even in the concentrations found in exhaled air , will dissolve in the indicator to form carbonic acid , a weak acid , which will lower the pH and give the characteristic colour change . A colour change to purple during photosynthesis shows a reduction in the percentage of carbon dioxide and is sometimes inferred as production of oxygen , but there is not actually any direct evidence for it . Great care must be taken to avoid acidic or alkaline contamination of the apparatus in such experiments , since the test is not directly specific to carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Bicarbonate_indicator",
"rank": 79,
"score": 108314
},
{
"content": "Title: The Nitrogen Fix Content: The Nitrogen Fix is a 1980 science fiction novel by Hal Clement . The plot revolves around a nomadic family in a future where all oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere has combined with nitrogen , so the atmosphere is mostly nitrogen with traces of water , nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide , and the seas are very dilute nitric acid .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "The_Nitrogen_Fix",
"rank": 80,
"score": 107992
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 (disambiguation) Content: CO2 is the molecular formula for carbon dioxide . CO2 , Co2 or C02 may refer to :",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "CO2_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 81,
"score": 107934
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 82,
"score": 107798
},
{
"content": "Title: Gas Content: Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter ( the others being solid , liquid , and plasma ) . A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms ( e.g. a noble gas like neon ) , elemental molecules made from one type of atom ( e.g. oxygen ) , or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms ( e.g. carbon dioxide ) . A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air . What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles . This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer . The interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image . One type of commonly known gas is steam . The gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states , the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases . Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention . High-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas . For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter see list of states of matter .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Gas",
"rank": 83,
"score": 107707
},
{
"content": "Title: Wood gas Content: Wood gas is a syngas fuel which can be used as a fuel for furnaces , stoves and vehicles in place of gasoline , diesel or other fuels . During the production process biomass or other carbon-containing materials are gasified within the oxygen-limited environment of a wood gas generator to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide . These gases can then be burnt as a fuel within an oxygen rich environment to produce carbon dioxide , water and heat . In some gasifiers this process is preceded by pyrolysis , where the biomass or coal is first converted to char , releasing methane and tar rich in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Wood_gas",
"rank": 84,
"score": 107691
},
{
"content": "Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Capnophile",
"rank": 85,
"score": 107545
},
{
"content": "Title: Acid gas Content: Acid gas is a particular typology of natural gas or any other gas mixture containing significant quantities of hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , or similar acidic gases . The terms acid gas and sour gas are often incorrectly treated as synonyms . Strictly speaking , a sour gas is any gas that specifically contains hydrogen sulfide in significant amounts ; an acid gas is any gas that contains significant amounts of acidic gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or hydrogen sulfide . Thus , carbon dioxide by itself is an acid gas but not a sour gas .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Acid_gas",
"rank": 86,
"score": 107431
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "CO2_is_Green",
"rank": 87,
"score": 107425
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon–oxygen bond Content: A carbon -- oxygen bond is a covalent bond between carbon and oxygen . Oxygen has 6 valence electrons and prefers to either share two electrons in bonding with carbon , leaving the 4 nonbonding electrons in 2 lone pairs :O : or to share two pairs of electrons to form the carbonyl functional group . =O : Simple representatives of these two bond types are the _ OH in alcohols such as the ethanol in beverages and fuels and the C =O in ketones ( as well as many other related carbonyl compounds ) .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon–oxygen_bond",
"rank": 88,
"score": 107359
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonic acid Content: Not to be confused with Carbolic acid , an antiquated name for phenol . Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 ( equivalently OC ( OH ) 2 ) . It is also a name sometimes given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water ( carbonated water ) , because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3 . In physiology , carbonic acid is described as volatile acid or respiratory acid , because it is the only acid excreted as a gas by the lungs . It plays an important role in the bicarbonate buffer system to maintain acid -- base homeostasis . Carbonic acid , which is a weak acid , forms two kinds of salts , the carbonates and the bicarbonates . In geology , carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites . It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound . However , in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbonic_acid",
"rank": 89,
"score": 107338
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 90,
"score": 107193
},
{
"content": "Title: The Chemical History of a Candle Content: The Chemical History of a Candle was the title of a series of six lectures on the chemistry and physics of flames given by Michael Faraday at the Royal Institution in 1848 , as part of the series of Christmas lectures for young people founded by Faraday in 1825 and still given there every year . The lectures described the different zones of combustion in the candle flame and the presence of carbon particles in the luminescent zone . Demonstrations included the production and examination of the properties of hydrogen , oxygen , nitrogen and carbon dioxide gases . An electrolysis cell is demonstrated , first in the electroplating of platinum conductors by dissolved copper , then the production of hydrogen and oxygen gases and their recombination to form water . The properties of water itself are studied , including its expansion while freezing ( iron vessels are burst by this expansion ) , and the relative volume of steam produced when water is vaporized . Techniques for weighing gases on a balance are demonstrated . Atmospheric pressure is described and its effects demonstrated . Faraday emphasizes that several of the demonstrations and experiments performed in the lectures may be performed by children `` at home '' and makes several comments regarding proper attention to safety . The lectures were first printed as a book in 1861 . In 2016 , Bill Hammack published a video series of the lectures supplemented by commentary and a companion book .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "The_Chemical_History_of_a_Candle",
"rank": 91,
"score": 107125
},
{
"content": "Title: Oxygen balance Content: Oxygen balance ( OB , or OB % ) is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized . If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to form carbon dioxide from carbon , water from hydrogen molecules , all of its sulfur dioxide from sulfur , and all metal oxides from metals with no excess , the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance . The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than is needed ; the combustion will then be incomplete , and large amount of toxic gases like carbon monoxide will be present . The sensitivity , strength , and brisance of an explosive are all somewhat dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to approach their maxima as oxygen balance approaches zero . The oxygen balance is calculated from the empirical formula of a compound in percentage of oxygen required for complete conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide , hydrogen to water , and metal to metal oxide . The procedure for calculating oxygen balance in terms of 100 grams of the explosive material is to determine the number of moles of oxygen that are excess or deficient for 100 grams of a compound . where X = number of atoms of carbon , Y = number of atoms of hydrogen , Z = number of atoms of oxygen , and M = number of atoms of metal ( metallic oxide produced ) . In the case of TNT ( C6H2 ( NO2 ) 3CH3 ) , Molecular weight = 227.1 X = 7 ( number of carbon atoms ) Y = 5 ( number of hydrogen atoms ) Z = 6 ( number of oxygen atoms ) Therefore OB % = − 74 % for TNT Because sensitivity , brisance , and strength are properties resulting from a complex explosive chemical reaction , a simple relationship such as oxygen balance can not be depended upon to yield universally consistent results . When using oxygen balance to predict properties of one explosive relative to another , it is to be expected that one with an oxygen balance closer to zero will be the more brisant , powerful , and sensitive ; however , many exceptions to this rule do exist . More complicated predictive calculations , such as those discussed in the next section of the explosive materials article , result in more accurate predictions . One area in which oxygen balance can be applied is in the processing of mixtures of explosives . The family of explosives called amatols are mixtures of ammonium nitrate and TNT . Ammonium nitrate has an oxygen balance of +20 % and TNT has an oxygen balance of − 74 % , so it would appear that the mixture yielding an oxygen balance of zero would also result in the best explosive properties . In actual practice a mixture of 80 % ammonium nitrate and 20 % TNT by weight yields an oxygen balance of +1 % , the best properties of all mixtures , and an increase in strength of 30 % over TNT . Examples of materials with negative oxygen balance are e.g. trinitrotoluene ( − 74 % ) , aluminium powder ( − 89 % ) , sulfur ( − 100 % ) , or carbon ( − 266.7 % ) . Examples of materials with positive oxygen balance are e.g. ammonium nitrate ( +20 % ) , ammonium perchlorate ( +34 % ) , potassium chlorate ( +39.2 % ) , sodium chlorate ( +45 % ) , potassium nitrate ( +47.5 % ) , tetranitromethane ( +49 % ) , lithium perchlorate ( +60 % ) , or nitroglycerine ( +3.5 % ) . The theoretical compound trinitrotriazine has an oxygen balance of zero . Commercial explosive materials should have oxygen balance close to zero , in order to minimize the production of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide ; the gaseous products of incomplete combustion are especially dangerous in confined spaces , e.g. coal mines . Category : Explosives engineering",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Oxygen_balance",
"rank": 92,
"score": 107056
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonation Content: In chemistry , carbonation refers to two chemical processes involving the binding of carbon dioxide to substrates . Various applications or manifestations of this reaction are listed in order of their relative scale . In biochemistry . Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO . So important is this carbonation process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme . The production of urea , a widely used fertilizer , involves the combination of carbon dioxide and ammonia : 2 NH3 + CO2 → ( H2N ) 2CO + H2O In inorganic chemistry , carbonation occurs widely . Metal oxides and metal hydroxides react with CO2 to give complexes of carbonate and bicarbonate . In reinforced concrete construction , the chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete is known as neutralisation . Low valent metal complexes react with CO2 to give metal carbon dioxide complexes . In organometallic chemistry , carbonation involves the insertion of CO2 into metal-carbon bonds . The topic has attracted great interest for organic synthesis and even as a means of utilizing CO2 as a feedstock .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Carbonation",
"rank": 93,
"score": 106589
},
{
"content": "Title: Control of ventilation Content: Control of ventilation refers to the physiological mechanisms involved in the control of physiologic ventilation , which refers to the movement of air into and out of the lungs . Ventilation facilitates respiration . Respiration refers to the utilization of oxygen and production of carbon dioxide by the body as a whole , or by individual cells . The most important function of breathing is blood gas homeostasis , i.e. the regulation of the partial pressures of oxygen , , and carbon dioxide , , in the arterial blood ) . The effector of this homeostat is centered primarily on the manner in which the lungs are ventilated . Under most conditions , the partial pressure of carbon dioxide controls the rate of pulmonary ventilation . The sensors for the arterial blood gas regulator are situated in the aortic and carotid bodies , which are primarily sensitive to the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood , and the anterior and lateral surfaces of the medulla oblongata in the brain stem which measures the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and pH of the cerebrospinal fluid and consequently the arterial blood . Information from these sensors is conveyed along nerves to the respiratory center in the brain stem . The respiratory center is situated in the reticular formation and other parts of the brainstem , and consists of 4 interconnected and interacting components : Inspiratory center - reticular formation , medulla oblongata Expiratory center - reticular formation , medulla oblongata Pneumotaxic center - various nuclei of the pons Apneustic center - nucleus of the pons From the respiratory center the skeletal muscles of ventilation , in particular the diaphragm , are alternately activated to cause air to move in and out of the lungs .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Control_of_ventilation",
"rank": 94,
"score": 106467
},
{
"content": "Title: Reducing atmosphere Content: A reducing atmosphere is an atmospheric condition in which oxidation is prevented by removal of oxygen and other oxidizing gases or vapours , and which may contain actively reducing gases such as hydrogen , carbon monoxide , and gases such as hydrogen sulfide that would be oxidized by any present oxygen .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Reducing_atmosphere",
"rank": 95,
"score": 106226
},
{
"content": "Title: Orsat gas analyser Content: An Orsat gas analyser is a piece of laboratory equipment used to analyse a gas sample ( typically fossil fuel flue gas ) for its oxygen , carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide content . Although largely replaced by instrumental techniques , the Orsat remains a reliable method of measurement and is relatively simple to use . It was patented before 1873 by Mr. H Orsat .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Orsat_gas_analyser",
"rank": 96,
"score": 106163
},
{
"content": "Title: Shielding gas Content: Shielding gases are inert or semi-inert gases that are commonly used in several welding processes , most notably gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding ( GMAW and GTAW , more popularly known as MIG and TIG , respectively ) . Their purpose is to protect the weld area from oxygen , and water vapour . Depending on the materials being welded , these atmospheric gases can reduce the quality of the weld or make the welding more difficult . Other arc welding processes use other methods of protecting the weld from the atmosphere as well -- shielded metal arc welding , for example , uses an electrode covered in a flux that produces carbon dioxide when consumed , a semi-inert gas that is an acceptable shielding gas for welding steel . Improper choice of a welding gas can lead to a porous and weak weld , or to excessive spatter ; the latter , while not affecting the weld itself , causes loss of productivity due to the labor needed to remove the scattered drops .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Shielding_gas",
"rank": 97,
"score": 105976
},
{
"content": "Title: Nitrogen dioxide Content: Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula . It is one of several nitrogen oxides . is an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of nitric acid , millions of tons of which are produced each year . At higher temperatures it is a reddish-brown gas that has a characteristic sharp , biting odor and is a prominent air pollutant . Nitrogen dioxide is a paramagnetic , bent molecule with C2v point group symmetry .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Nitrogen_dioxide",
"rank": 98,
"score": 105835
},
{
"content": "Title: List of highly toxic gases Content: Many gases have toxic properties , which are often assessed using the LC50 ( median lethal dose ) measure . In the United States many of these gases have been assigned an NFPA 704 health rating of 4 ( may be lethal ) or 3 ( may cause serious or permanent injury ) , and/or exposure limits ( TLV , TWA or STEL ) determined by the ACGIH professional association . Some , but by no means all , toxic gases are detectable by odor which can serve as a warning . Among the best known toxic gases are carbon monoxide , chlorine , nitrogen dioxide and phosgene .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "List_of_highly_toxic_gases",
"rank": 99,
"score": 105831
},
{
"content": "Title: Medical gas supply Content: Medical gas supply systems in hospitals , and most other healthcare facilities , are essential for supplying piped oxygen , nitrous oxide , nitrogen/surgical air , carbon dioxide , oxygen/nitrous oxide 50/50 , medical vacuum , anaesthetic gas scavenge/waste anesthetic gas disposal and medical air to various parts of the facility . Source equipment systems are monitored by central/source alarm systems , at the point of supply with multiplexed repeater alarms throughout the facility and for monitoring high and low gas pressure in particular areas such as general ward , operating theatres , ICU/ITU/CCU / NICU , recovery , major treatment rooms , etc. . Equipment is connected to the medical gas supply system via station outlets . For emergency gas control area zone service valves are installed in order to prevent contaminated gas going to patient or to stop gas flowing to an area in the event of fire . Valves are positioned at the entrance to all departments and can be accessed via emergency pull out windows .",
"qid": "195",
"docid": "Medical_gas_supply",
"rank": 100,
"score": 105817
}
] |
Without carbon dioxide, all life on Earth would die | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 1,
"score": 110811
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-based life Content: Carbon is a key component of all known life on Earth . Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements , especially oxygen , hydrogen and nitrogen , and carbon can bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons . Carbon is abundant on Earth . It is also lightweight and relatively small in size , making it easier for enzymes to manipulate carbon molecules . It is often assumed in astrobiology that if life exists somewhere else in the universe , it will also be carbon-based . Critics refer to this assumption as carbon chauvinism .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon-based_life",
"rank": 2,
"score": 109443
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 3,
"score": 105670
},
{
"content": "Title: Melissa Trainer Content: Melissa G. Trainer ( April 22 , 1978 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) is an American astrobiologist who in 2004 demonstrated empirically that life could have formed on Earth through the interaction of methane , carbon dioxide and ultraviolet light ( sunlight ) . She is currently Assistant Chief for Science , Operations , and Strategic Planning in the Planetary Environments Laboratory at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Melissa_Trainer",
"rank": 4,
"score": 99428
},
{
"content": "Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Capnophile",
"rank": 5,
"score": 98923
},
{
"content": "Title: The Good Life (Railroad Earth album) Content: The Good Life is the third studio album by the bluegrass/jam band Railroad Earth , released on June 8 , 2004 . So many jam bands seem to forget the importance of good song writing with meaningful lyrics . Railroad Earth 's songs are well-crafted stories , and are delivered with outstanding musicianship and strong vocals . The musical duties are distributed in pretty much the same way here as on their previous two releases : Todd Sheaffer handles vocals and guitar and does the bulk of the songwriting ; John Skehan , Tim Carbone , and Andy Goessling provide the band 's trademark swirling-and-skirling texture ; new bassist Johnny Grubb ( replacing Dave Von Dollen ) and percussionist Carey Harmon provide the solid ground they take off from and land on . Multi-instrumentalist Andy Goessling is credited on banjo , dobro , and sax ( to name a few ) , Tim Carbone on fiddle , accordion , piano and electric guitar , and John Skehan on mandolin , piano , and Hammond organ . Shaeffer often writes tunes about love , being positive , and living a simpler life paired with catchy refrains and memorable melodies , and this effort is not different in that regard . Re-occurring themes of examining one 's destiny , living a good life , and staying true to one 's self resound . The opening track , `` Storms '' uses the metaphor to `` ride out the storm '' in a relationship and stick together through hard times . Perhaps an ode to marriage ? `` Way of the Buffalo '' is an environmental allegory and the title track , `` The Good Life , '' is about living free and `` going back to the country '' evoking images of a simpler time . One of the strongest songs is `` Goat '' which in the live setting extends into a long jammed out vehicle for the band . The somber lyrics , however , paint a picture of how to rid one 's life of negativity .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "The_Good_Life_(Railroad_Earth_album)",
"rank": 6,
"score": 96829
},
{
"content": "Title: Terrestrial biological carbon cycle Content: Carbon is an essential part of life on Earth . About half the dry weight of most living organisms is carbon . It plays an important role in the structure , biochemistry , and nutrition of all living cells . Living biomass holds between 600 and 1,000 gigatons of carbon , most of which is wood , while some 1,200 gigatons of carbon are stored in the terrestrial biosphere as dead biomass . Carbon is cycled through the terrestrial biosphere with varying speeds , depending on what form it is stored in and under which circumstances . It is exchanged most quickly with the atmosphere , although small amounts of carbon leave the terrestrial biosphere and enter the oceans as dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Terrestrial_biological_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 7,
"score": 96795
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Hypercapnia",
"rank": 8,
"score": 90752
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon cycle Content: The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere , pedosphere , geosphere , hydrosphere , and atmosphere of the Earth . Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone . Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle , the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life . It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere , as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks . The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges ( incomes and losses ) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop ( e.g. , atmosphere and biosphere ) of the carbon cycle . An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide . The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier , and popularized by Humphry Davy .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_cycle",
"rank": 9,
"score": 90566
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 10,
"score": 90344
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_scrubber",
"rank": 11,
"score": 90279
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 12,
"score": 90047
},
{
"content": "Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "TanSat",
"rank": 13,
"score": 90019
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 14,
"score": 89476
},
{
"content": "Title: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life Content: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life : The Individual 's Guide to Stopping Climate Change is a 2007 book by Chris Goodall , published by Earthscan/Routledge . According to New Scientist , this book provides `` the definitive guide to reducing your carbon footprint '' . Goodall explains how consumers can cut carbon usage by 75 percent without making drastic lifestyle changes . How to Live a Low-Carbon Life has been reviewed in the Journal of Environmental Health Research , The Guardian , and The Times . How to Live a Low-carbon Life won the 2007 Clarion award for non-fiction . A second edition was published in 2010 .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "How_to_Live_a_Low-Carbon_Life",
"rank": 15,
"score": 87247
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 16,
"score": 87141
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Content: Carbon ( from carbo `` coal '' ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent -- making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , C and C being stable , while C is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity . Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18.5 % ) after oxygen . The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb '' γράφειν '' which means `` to write '' ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen . The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4 , while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions . For this reason , carbon has often been referred to as the `` king of the elements '' .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon",
"rank": 17,
"score": 87066
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonation Content: In chemistry , carbonation refers to two chemical processes involving the binding of carbon dioxide to substrates . Various applications or manifestations of this reaction are listed in order of their relative scale . In biochemistry . Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO . So important is this carbonation process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme . The production of urea , a widely used fertilizer , involves the combination of carbon dioxide and ammonia : 2 NH3 + CO2 → ( H2N ) 2CO + H2O In inorganic chemistry , carbonation occurs widely . Metal oxides and metal hydroxides react with CO2 to give complexes of carbonate and bicarbonate . In reinforced concrete construction , the chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete is known as neutralisation . Low valent metal complexes react with CO2 to give metal carbon dioxide complexes . In organometallic chemistry , carbonation involves the insertion of CO2 into metal-carbon bonds . The topic has attracted great interest for organic synthesis and even as a means of utilizing CO2 as a feedstock .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbonation",
"rank": 18,
"score": 86987
},
{
"content": "Title: Gastric tonometry Content: Gastric tonometry describes the measurement of the carbon dioxide level inside the stomach in order to assess the degree of blood flow to the stomach and bowel . The measurement of gut mucosal carbon dioxide has been used to detect decreased blood flow . Accumulation of carbon dioxide is predominantly a result of hypoperfusion and not hypoxia . Because the introduction of a nasogastric tube is almost routine in critically ill patients , the measurement of gastric carbon dioxide can be an easy method to monitor tissue perfusion . The gastric mucosal pH is measured according to an equation that assumes that arterial bicarbonate is equal to intramucosal bicarbonate , an argument that is not always valid . Given that the gastric mucosal carbon dioxide is the directly measured value , whereas the gastric mucosal pH is the derived and possibly inaccurate value , studies that used gastric pH to monitor perfusion may be inherently flawed . Most studies have failed to effectively affect gastric pH and for this reason failed to produce improvements in outcome . One study , by Gutierrez and colleagues , has shown that therapeutic interventions guided by gastric tonometry improved survival in critically ill patients . In a direct comparison of splanchnic-oriented therapy as guided by gastric tonometry with conventional shock management of trauma patients , there was no difference in mortality rates , organ dysfunction rates , or length of stay . After a surge in popularity , the use of gastric tonometry waned and it is currently found with less frequency in surgical ICUs .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Gastric_tonometry",
"rank": 19,
"score": 86568
},
{
"content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 20,
"score": 86178
},
{
"content": "Title: 1953 Menzengraben mining accident Content: The Menzengraben mining accident was the explosion of a large pocket of carbon dioxide in a salt mine in Menzengraben , East Germany , July 7 , 1953 . During a planned , nightly explosives detonation in the mine , an unusually large pocket of pressurized carbon dioxide was suddenly released , resulting in the ejection of large blocks of salt through the mine shaft at very high velocities . The expanding gas as well as the blocks of salt demolished the building above the mine shaft , resulting in blocks of concrete being ejected as well . Three died as a consequence , one from being hit by debris , two from asphyxiation .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "1953_Menzengraben_mining_accident",
"rank": 21,
"score": 86012
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 22,
"score": 85850
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 23,
"score": 85833
},
{
"content": "Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Klaus_Lackner",
"rank": 24,
"score": 85507
},
{
"content": "Title: CarbFix Content: CarbFix is a project in Iceland intended to lock away carbon dioxide by reacting it with basaltic rocks . Work on the project began in 2007 . The CarbFix team involves American and Icelandic researchers including Iceland geologist Sigurdur Reynir Gislason serving as chief scientist , project technical manager Bergur Sigfusson , manager Juerg Matter who works with Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and scientific overseer , Wallace S. Broecker ( also with Columbia ) . Reykjavik Energy has supplied almost half the $ 10 million spent thus far on CarbFix . Other sponsors include U.S. and Icelandic universities . In addition to finding a new method for permanent carbon dioxide storage , another objective of the project is to train scientists for years of work to come .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "CarbFix",
"rank": 25,
"score": 85476
},
{
"content": "Title: Sherwood B. Idso Content: Sherwood B. Idso ( born June 12 , 1942 ) is the president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization . Prior to that time he was a Research Physicist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Agricultural Research Service at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix , Arizona , where he worked since June 1967 . He was also closely associated with Arizona State University over most of this period , serving as an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Geology , Geography , and Botany and Microbiology . His two sons , Craig and Keith , are , respectively , the founder and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Idso is the author or co-author of over 500 publications including the books Carbon Dioxide : Friend or Foe ? ( 1982 ) and Carbon Dioxide and Global Change : Earth in Transition ( 1989 ) . He served on the editorial board of the international journal Agricultural and Forest Meteorology from 1973 to 1993 and since 1993 has served on the editorial board of Environmental and Experimental Botany . Over the course of his career , he has been an invited reviewer of manuscripts for 56 different scientific journals and 17 different funding agencies , representing an unusually large array of disciplines . He is an ISI highly cited researcher .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Sherwood_B._Idso",
"rank": 26,
"score": 85191
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 27,
"score": 84977
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 28,
"score": 84685
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 29,
"score": 84574
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 30,
"score": 84476
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding",
"rank": 31,
"score": 84416
},
{
"content": "Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Greening_Earth_Society",
"rank": 32,
"score": 83952
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_shifting",
"rank": 33,
"score": 83711
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_Engineering",
"rank": 34,
"score": 82991
},
{
"content": "Title: Stafford rail crash (1996) Content: On 8 March 1996 , a Transrail freight train travelling from Mossend in Glasgow to Willesden in London , derailed after an axle on a wagon carrying liquid carbon dioxide failed due to fatigue at Rickerscote 2.2 km south of Stafford . Almost immediately after the derailment , a Travelling Post Office mail train hauled by a Rail Express Systems British Rail Class 86 electric locomotive ( no 86239 ) collided with a section of the derailed freight train on the adjacent line and fouled the path of the TPO mail train . One person , a mail sorter , was killed in the crash and twenty others including the driver of the mail train were injured . The cause of the collision was the failure of an axle on one of the tanker wagons of the freight train . It caused the wagon and adjacent ones to derail , into the path of the closely approaching mail train , which was travelling at 60 mph . The driver of the mail train had no time to brake and the force of the collision spun the locomotive around and catapulted it up the embankment , where it came to rest against the end wall of a house . The liquid carbon dioxide formed into a gas as it was no longer under pressure and interfered with the rescue effort . One bystander who had gone to help was later found unconscious after suffering the inhalation effects of carbon dioxide . The rescue services were on the scene within four minutes of being notified , despite the signaller at Stafford having to relay the emergency information via another office because the crash had cut his external phone lines , but he was able to phone his supervisor at Crewe . The fire service on site were given the wrong staffing list for the mail train - they had been given a manifest for the amount of mail workers who would have been on the train northbound after leaving Crewe . However , the ambulance service were given a correct head count list from the Royal Mail workers at the lineside . During the investigation , it was discovered that the wagon had travelled 69,000 mi since its last inspection . The recommendation at the time was that wagons were tested every 24,000 mi .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Stafford_rail_crash_(1996)",
"rank": 35,
"score": 82969
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 36,
"score": 82440
},
{
"content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 37,
"score": 82368
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 38,
"score": 82309
},
{
"content": "Title: Life without Death Content: Life without Death is a cellular automaton , similar to Conway 's Game of Life and other cellular automaton rules . In this cellular automaton , an initial seed pattern grows according to the same rule as in Conway 's Game of Life ; however , unlike Life , patterns never shrink . The rule was originally considered by , who called it `` Inkspot '' ; it has also been called `` Flakes '' . In contrast to the more complex patterns that exist within Conway 's Game of Life , Life without Death commonly features still life patterns , in which no change occurs , and ladder patterns , that grow in a straight line .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Life_without_Death",
"rank": 39,
"score": 82104
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 40,
"score": 81904
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Monoxide All Fuels Action Forum Content: The Carbon Monoxide All Fuels Action Forum ( COAFAF ) is an industry-led forum and campaign group comprising various individuals , organisations , charities and policy makers working to reduce death by carbon monoxide poisoning in the UK . The group acts as a sister group to the All-Party Parliamentary Carbon Monoxide Group ( APPCOG ) , an official all-party parliamentary group of the UK Parliament . The Carbon Monoxide All Fuels Action Forum is chaired by Steve Miller , President of the London region at the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health . Its secretariat services are provided by Policy Connect , an independent , not-for-profit think tank based in London .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_Monoxide_All_Fuels_Action_Forum",
"rank": 41,
"score": 81730
},
{
"content": "Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 42,
"score": 81681
},
{
"content": "Title: Alkaline hydrolysis (death custom) Content: Alkaline hydrolysis ( also called biocremation and/or resomation ) is a process for the disposal of human remains which produces less carbon dioxide and pollutants than cremation . The process is being marketed as an alternative to the traditional options of burial or cremation .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Alkaline_hydrolysis_(death_custom)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 81648
},
{
"content": "Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "C3_carbon_fixation",
"rank": 44,
"score": 81535
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide cleaning Content: Carbon dioxide cleaning ( CO2 cleaning ) comprises a family of methods for parts cleaning and sterilization , using carbon dioxide in its various phases . It is often preferred for use on delicate surfaces . CO2 cleaning has found application in the aerospace , automotive , electronics , medical , and other industries . Carbon dioxide snow cleaning has been used to remove particles and organic residues from metals , polymers , ceramics , glasses , hard drives , optics , and other surfaces .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_cleaning",
"rank": 45,
"score": 81535
},
{
"content": "Title: Effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Content: In some individuals , the effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is to cause increased carbon dioxide retention , which may cause drowsiness , headaches , and in severe cases lack of respiration , which may lead to death . People with lung ailments or with central respiratory depression , who receive supplemental oxygen , require careful monitoring .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Effect_of_oxygen_on_chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease",
"rank": 46,
"score": 81406
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory",
"rank": 47,
"score": 81349
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 48,
"score": 81342
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_laser",
"rank": 49,
"score": 81198
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 50,
"score": 81099
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 51,
"score": 80853
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 52,
"score": 80552
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator",
"rank": 53,
"score": 80501
},
{
"content": "Title: Mazuku Content: In geology , a mazuku ( Swahili : evil wind ) is a pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside . Mazuku are created when carbon dioxide accumulates in pockets low to the ground . CO2 is heavier than air , which causes it to stay close to the ground , and is also undetectable by human olfactory or visual senses in most conditions . Mazuku can be related to volcanic activity or to a natural disaster known as a limnic eruption . In the first case , noxious gases are released from the Earth 's crust into the atmosphere , whereas in the second case the gases originate deep in a lake and boil rapidly to the surface . Because of their nature as sporadic and subtle events , few mazuku have been recorded , but there is a growing understanding of them based on historical and fossil evidence .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Mazuku",
"rank": 54,
"score": 80477
},
{
"content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Black_carbon",
"rank": 55,
"score": 80435
},
{
"content": "Title: Lake Monoun Content: Lake Monoun is a lake in West Province , Cameroon , that lies in the Oku Volcanic Field . On August 15 , 1984 , the lake exploded in a limnic eruption , which resulted in the release of a large amount of carbon dioxide that killed 37 people . At first , the cause of the deaths was a mystery , and causes such as terrorism were suspected . Further investigation and a similar event two years later at Lake Nyos led to the currently accepted explanation .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Lake_Monoun",
"rank": 56,
"score": 80141
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-14 Content: Carbon-14 , 14C , or radiocarbon , is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons . Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and colleagues ( 1949 ) to date archaeological , geological and hydrogeological samples . Carbon-14 was discovered on 27 February 1940 , by Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California . Its existence had been suggested by Franz Kurie in 1934 . There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon on Earth : 99 % of the carbon is carbon-12 , 1 % is carbon-13 , and carbon-14 occurs in trace amounts , i.e. , making up about 1 or 1.5 atoms per 1012 atoms of the carbon in the atmosphere . Carbon-12 and carbon-13 are both stable , while the half-life of carbon-14 is 5,730 ± 40 years . Carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14 through beta decay . A gram of carbon containing 1 atom of carbon-14 per 1012 atoms will emit 0.40 beta particles per second . The primary natural source of carbon-14 on Earth is cosmic ray action on nitrogen in the atmosphere , and it is therefore a cosmogenic nuclide . However , open-air nuclear testing between 1955 -- 1980 contributed to this pool . The different isotopes of carbon do not differ appreciably in their chemical properties . This resemblance is used in chemical and biological research , in a technique called carbon labeling : carbon-14 atoms can be used to replace nonradioactive carbon , in order to trace chemical and biochemical reactions involving carbon atoms from any given organic compound .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon-14",
"rank": 57,
"score": 80092
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monoxide poisoning Content: Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs after breathing in too much carbon monoxide ( CO ) . Symptoms of mild acute poisoning include lightheadedness , confusion , headache , feeling like the world is spinning , and flu-like effects . Larger exposures can lead to toxicity of the central nervous system and heart , and death . After acute poisoning , long-term problems may occur . Carbon monoxide can also have negative effects on a baby if exposed during pregnancy . Chronic exposure to low levels of carbon monoxide can lead to depression , confusion , and memory loss . Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas , but , being colorless , odorless , tasteless , and initially non-irritating , it is difficult for people to detect . Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete combustion of organic matter . It is often produced by motor vehicles that run on gasoline , diesel , methane , or other carbon-based fuels and from tools , gas heaters , and cooking equipment that are powered by carbon-based fuels such as propane , butane and charcoal . Exposure at 100 ppm or greater can be dangerous to human health . Carbon monoxide mainly causes adverse effects by combining with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin ( HbCO ) in the blood . This prevents hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the tissues . Additionally , myoglobin and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase are thought to be adversely affected . Carboxyhemoglobin can revert to hemoglobin , but the recovery takes time as the HbCO complex is fairly stable . Treatment of poisoning largely consists of giving 100 % oxygen or providing hyperbaric oxygen therapy , although the optimum treatment remains controversial . Oxygen works as an antidote as it increases the removal of carbon monoxide from hemoglobin , in turn providing the body with normal levels of oxygen . The prevention of poisoning is a significant public health issue . Domestic carbon monoxide poisoning can be prevented by early detection with the use of household carbon monoxide detectors . Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries . It has also commonly been used as a method to commit suicide , usually by deliberately inhaling the exhaust fumes of a running vehicle . Modern automobiles still produce levels of carbon monoxide which will kill in an enclosed space or if the exhaust path is obstructed .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_monoxide_poisoning",
"rank": 58,
"score": 80081
},
{
"content": "Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Asphyxiant_gas",
"rank": 59,
"score": 79791
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonic anhydrase Content: The carbonic anhydrases ( or carbonate dehydratases ) form a family of enzymes that catalyze the rapid interconversion of carbon dioxide and water to bicarbonate and protons ( or vice versa ) , a reversible reaction that occurs relatively slowly in the absence of a catalyst . The active site of most carbonic anhydrases contains a zinc ion ; they are therefore classified as metalloenzymes . One of the functions of the enzyme in animals is to interconvert carbon dioxide and bicarbonate to maintain acid-base balance in blood and other tissues , and to help transport carbon dioxide out of tissues .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbonic_anhydrase",
"rank": 60,
"score": 79623
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Charles_David_Keeling",
"rank": 61,
"score": 79615
},
{
"content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Amorphous_carbonia",
"rank": 62,
"score": 79470
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies",
"rank": 63,
"score": 79341
},
{
"content": "Title: Berry L. Cannon Content: Berry Louis Cannon ( March 22 , 1935 -- February 17 , 1969 ) was an American aquanaut who served on the SEALAB II and III projects of the U.S. Navy . Cannon died of carbon dioxide poisoning while attempting to repair SEALAB III . It was later found that his diving rig 's baralyme canister , which should have absorbed the carbon dioxide Cannon exhaled , was empty .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Berry_L._Cannon",
"rank": 64,
"score": 79203
},
{
"content": "Title: The Day The Earth Nearly Died Content: The Day The Earth Nearly Died is a British documentary produced by BBC to the science and philosophy series Horizon in 2002 . The program focuses on the mystery of the Permian extinction , which scientists believe killed over 90 % of all life on earth at the end of the Permian , some 250 million years ago . The program features scientists like Adrian Jones , Vincent Courtillot , Gregory Retallack , Peter Ward , Michael Benton , Michael Rampino and others .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "The_Day_The_Earth_Nearly_Died",
"rank": 65,
"score": 79091
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 66,
"score": 78895
},
{
"content": "Title: Christine Wiedinmyer Content: Christine Wiedinmyer is a research scientist in the Atmospheric Chemistry Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research . She has a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin . Wiedinmyer developed the Fire INventory from NCAR ( FINN ) , `` a high resolution global fire emissions model now used by local , regional , and global chemical modelers to better quantify the impacts of fire emissions on atmospheric composition , both in hindsight and forecast model applications . '' She used the model to estimate that the 2010 Russian wildfires liberated 22 teragrams of highly toxic carbon monoxide , though this amount was less than the cumulative carbon monoxide emissions of 2012 and 2003 . Wiedinmyer discovered that in the long run , controlled burning of forests will produce up to sixty percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to the full-fledged wildfires they prevented . Undergrowth will be destroyed by the controlled burns while carbon-rich mature trees survive . Without removing the undergrowth , wildfires can quickly escalate out of control using the undergrowth as fuel , and then burn down mature trees as well . Wiedinmyer is also a co-founder of the Earth Science Women 's Network .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Christine_Wiedinmyer",
"rank": 67,
"score": 78752
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_suboxide",
"rank": 68,
"score": 78745
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_bubble",
"rank": 69,
"score": 78497
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_sensor",
"rank": 70,
"score": 78394
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere Content: The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_accumulation_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 71,
"score": 78310
},
{
"content": "Title: Permissive hypercapnia Content: Permissive hypercapnia is hypercapnia , ( i.e. high concentration of carbon dioxide in blood ) , in respiratory insufficient patients in which oxygenation has become so difficult that the optimal mode of mechanical ventilation ( with oxygenation in mind ) is not capable of exchanging enough carbon dioxide . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . In acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ) , decreasing the tidal volume on the ventilator ( usually 8-12 mL/kg ) to 4-6 mL/kg may decrease barotrauma by decreasing ventilatory peak airway pressures and leads to improved respiratory recovery . Hypercapnia ( increased pCO2 ) sometimes needs to be tolerated in order to achieve these lower tidal volumes . The permissive hypercapnia leads to respiratory acidosis which might have negative side effects , but given that the patient is in ARDS , improving ventilatory function is more important . Since hypoxemia is a major life-threatening condition and hypercapnia is not , one might choose to accept the latter . Hence the term , `` permissive hypercapnia . '' Altogether , the negative side effects of permissive hypercapnia may outweigh the benefits . For that reason , the implementation of extracorporeal CO2 removal ( iLA Membrane Ventilator , Novalung ) at an early stage of ARDS , has become a well established standard to allow for protective ventilation and avoid respiratory acidosis .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Permissive_hypercapnia",
"rank": 72,
"score": 78175
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Nation Content: Carbon Nation is a 2010 documentary film by Peter Byck about technological - and community-based energy solutions to the growing worldwide carbon footprint . The film is narrated by Bill Kurtis . ASIN : B0055T46LA ( Rental ) and B0055T46G0 ( Purchase ) . Rather than highlighting the problems with use of fossil fuels , Carbon Nation presents a series of ways in which the 16 terawatts of energy the world consumes can be met while reducing or eliminating carbon-based sources . It contains optimistic interviews with experts in various fields , business CEOs , and sustainable energy supporters to present a compelling case for change while having a neutral , matter-of-fact explanation . Among those interviewed are Richard Branson , former CIA Director R. James Woolsey , Earth Day founder Denis Hayes and environmental advocate Van Jones . Much of the content of the film consists of interviews , some are listed above . The list of interviewees also includes Lester R. Brown President , Earth Policy Institute Sean Casten President & CEO , Recycled Energy Development Ralph Cavanagh Lead Attorney , NRDC Bob Fox , Partner Cook + Fox Architects Thomas Friedman , Author & NY Times Columnist Eban Goodstein Economic Professor , Lewis and Clark College Gary Hirshberg Chairman , President , and CEO of Stonyfield Farm Sadhu Aufochs Johnston Chief Environmental Officer , City of Chicago Amory B. Lovins Chairman & Chief Scientist , Rocky Mountain Institute Joel Makower Executive Director , GreenBiz.com Edward Mazria Executive Director , Solar Richmond Arthur H. Rosenfeld Commissioner , California Energy Commission John Rowe ( CEO ) Exelon Chairman & CEO , Exelon Corporation",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_Nation",
"rank": 73,
"score": 77946
},
{
"content": "Title: RuBisCO Content: Ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase , commonly known by the abbreviations RuBisCO , RuBPCase , or RuBPco , is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation , a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose . In chemical terms , it catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ( also known as RuBP ) . It is probably the most abundant enzyme on Earth .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "RuBisCO",
"rank": 74,
"score": 77884
},
{
"content": "Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network",
"rank": 75,
"score": 77625
},
{
"content": "Title: Hyperventilation Content: Hyperventilation ( also called overbreathing ) occurs when the rate and quantity of alveolar ventilation of carbon dioxide exceeds the body 's production of carbon dioxide . A person may regularly hyperventilate , a condition called hyperventilation syndrome . When alveolar ventilation is excessive , more carbon dioxide will be removed from the blood stream than the body can produce . This causes the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood stream to fall and produces a state known as hypocapnia . The body normally attempts to compensate for this metabolically . If excess ventilation can not be compensated metabolically , it will lead to a rise in blood pH. This rise in blood pH is known as respiratory alkalosis . When hyperventilation leads to respiratory alkalosis , it may cause a number of physical symptoms : dizziness , tingling in the lips , hands or feet , headache , weakness , fainting and seizures . In extreme cases it can cause carpopedal spasms ( flapping and contraction of the hands and feet ) . There are factors that initiate hyperventilation and others can sustain it ; for example , physiological stress or a feeling of anxiety can initiate it ; anxiety may also sustain it . Other factors that initiate or sustain hyperventilation include reduced air pressure at high altitudes , head injury , stroke , respiratory disorders such as asthma and pneumonia , cardiovascular problems such as pulmonary embolisms , anemia , and adverse reactions to certain drugs . Hyperventilation can also be mechanically produced in people on respirators and can also be brought about voluntarily , by taking many deep breaths in rapid succession .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Hyperventilation",
"rank": 76,
"score": 77259
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_label",
"rank": 77,
"score": 77243
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 78,
"score": 77192
},
{
"content": "Title: Metal carbon dioxide complex Content: Metal carbon dioxide complexes are coordination complexes that contain carbon dioxide ligands . Aside from the fundamental interest in the coordination chemistry of simple molecules , studies in this field are motivated by the possibility that transition metals might catalyze useful transformations of CO2 . This research is relevant both to organic synthesis and to the production of `` solar fuels '' that would avoid the use of petroleum-based fuels .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Metal_carbon_dioxide_complex",
"rank": 79,
"score": 77146
},
{
"content": "Title: Lake Nyos disaster Content: The Lake Nyos disaster occurred on 21 August 1986 , when a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos , in northwestern Cameroon , produced a large cloud of carbon dioxide , which descended onto nearby villages , killing 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock . The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000 -- 300,000 tons ( some sources state as much as 1.6 million tons ) of CO2 . This gas cloud rose at nearly 100 km/h and spilled over the northern lip of the lake . It then rushed down two valleys , branching off to the north , displacing all the air and suffocating people and livestock within 25 km of the lake . A degassing system has since been installed at the lake , with the aim of reducing the concentration of in deep waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Lake_Nyos_disaster",
"rank": 80,
"score": 77107
},
{
"content": "Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "C._Kumar_N._Patel",
"rank": 81,
"score": 77070
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 82,
"score": 77043
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 83,
"score": 76859
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming",
"rank": 84,
"score": 76847
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypocapnia Content: Hypocapnia or hypocapnea ( from the Greek words υπό and καπνός kapnós ) , also known as hypocarbia , sometimes incorrectly called acapnia , is a state of reduced carbon dioxide in the blood . Hypocapnia usually results from deep or rapid breathing , known as hyperventilation . Hypocapnia is the opposite of hypercapnia .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Hypocapnia",
"rank": 85,
"score": 76838
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry Content: Hypothetical types of biochemistry are forms of biochemistry speculated to be scientifically viable but not proven to exist at this time . The kinds of living organisms currently known on Earth all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions , water as a solvent , and DNA or RNA to define and control their form . If life exists on other planets or moons , it may be chemically similar ; it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries -- for instance involving other classes of carbon compounds , compounds of another element , or another solvent in place of water . The possibility of life-forms being based on `` alternative '' biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion , informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds . It is also a common subject in science fiction . The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon . Silicon is in the same group as carbon on the periodic table and , like carbon , it is tetravalent , although the silicon analogs of organic compounds are generally less stable . Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia , which , like water , is a polar molecule , and cosmically abundant ; and non-polar hydrocarbon solvents such as methane and ethane , which are known to exist in liquid form on the surface of Titan .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry",
"rank": 86,
"score": 76777
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonic maceration Content: Carbonic maceration is a winemaking technique , often associated with the French wine region of Beaujolais , in which whole grapes are fermented in a carbon dioxide rich environment prior to crushing . Conventional alcoholic fermentation involves crushing the grapes to free the juice and pulp from the skin with yeast serving to convert sugar into ethanol . Carbonic maceration ferments most of the juice while it is still inside the grape , although grapes at the bottom of the vessel are crushed by gravity and undergo conventional fermentation . The resulting wine is fruity with very low tannins . It is ready to drink quickly but lacks the structure for long-term aging . In the most extreme case , such as with Beaujolais nouveau , the period between picking and bottling can be less than six weeks . During carbonic maceration , an anaerobic environment is created by pumping carbon dioxide into a sealed container filled with whole grape clusters . The carbon dioxide gas permeates through the grape skins and begins to stimulate fermentation at an intracellular level . The entire process takes place inside each single , intact berry . Ethanol is produced as a by-product of this process but studies have shown that other unique chemical reactions take place that have a distinctive effect on the wine .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbonic_maceration",
"rank": 87,
"score": 76695
},
{
"content": "Title: Heather Willauer Content: Heather D. Willauer ( born 1974 ) is an American analytical chemist and inventor working in Washington , D.C. , at the United States Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) . Leading a research team , Willauer has patented a method for removing carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from seawater , in tandem with hydrogen ( H2 ) removed simultaneously . Willauer is researching catalysts to enable a continuous Fischer -- Tropsch process to recombine carbon monoxide ( CO ) and hydrogen gases into complex hydrocarbon liquids to synthesize jet fuel for Navy and Marine aviation , and fuel for the U.S. Navy 's ships at sea . The work of Willauer 's team of researchers , once the technology is incorporated into the U.S. Navy 's warships in the 2020s , is expected to release such ships from their reliance on vulnerable replenishment oilers to give them indefinite time on station , if they are sailing in mildly acidic seawater . Especially significant is the ability to maintain naval air operations without regular deliveries of jet fuel . A side benefit of the technology is that it will decrease harmful ocean acidification , by removing CO2 from seawater .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Heather_Willauer",
"rank": 88,
"score": 76596
},
{
"content": "Title: Johnson Sea Link accident Content: The Johnson Sea Link accident was a June 1973 incident that claimed the lives of two divers . During a seemingly routine dive off Key West , the submersible Johnson Sea Link was trapped for over 24 hours in the wreckage of the destroyer , which had been sunk to create an artificial reef . Although the submersible was eventually recovered by the rescue vessel A.B. Wood II , two of the four occupants died of carbon dioxide poisoning : 31-year-old Edwin Clayton Link ( son of Edwin Albert Link , the submersible 's designer ) and 51-year-old diver Albert Dennison Stover . The submersible 's pilot , Archibald `` Jock '' Menzies , and ichthyologist Robert Meek survived . Over the next two years , Edwin Link designed an unmanned Cabled Observation and Rescue Device ( CORD ) that could free a trapped submersible .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Johnson_Sea_Link_accident",
"rank": 89,
"score": 76583
},
{
"content": "Title: CA1 (gene) Content: Carbonic anhydrase 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CA1 gene . Carbonic anhydrases ( CAs ) are a large family of zinc metalloenzymes that catalyze the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide . They participate in a variety of biological processes , including cellular respiration , calcification , acid-base balance , bone resorption , and the formation of aqueous humor , cerebrospinal fluid , saliva , and gastric acid . They show extensive diversity in tissue distribution and in their subcellular localization . CA1 is closely linked to CA2 and CA3 genes on chromosome 8 , and it encodes a cytosolic protein which is found at the highest level in erythrocytes . Transcript variants of CA1 utilizing alternative polyA_sites have been described in literature .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "CA1_(gene)",
"rank": 90,
"score": 76572
},
{
"content": "Title: Robert Berner Content: Robert Arbuckle Berner ( November 25 , 1935 -- January 10 , 2015 ) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the modeling of the carbon cycle . He taught Geology and Geophysics from 1965 to 2007 at Yale University , where he latterly served as Professor Emeritus until his death . His work on sedimentary rocks led to the co-founding of the BLAG model of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which takes into account both geochemical and biological contributions to the carbon cycle .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Robert_Berner",
"rank": 91,
"score": 76537
},
{
"content": "Title: Alberta Carbon Trunk Line Content: The Alberta Carbon Trunk Line ( ACTL ) is a 240 km pipeline in its construction stages that will collect excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the province of Alberta and transport it to various oil reservoirs around the province for enhanced oil recovery applications . Pioneered by Enhance Energy , the ACTL will source its CO2 from a fertilizer manufacturing plant in Redwater , and the North West Redwater Partnership bitumen upgrading plant using gasification . It will initially funnel the collected CO2 to Clive , a field discovered in the 1950s and currently produces about 300 barrels per day .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Alberta_Carbon_Trunk_Line",
"rank": 92,
"score": 76278
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 93,
"score": 76193
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate",
"rank": 94,
"score": 76047
},
{
"content": "Title: Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project Content: The Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project is part of the Gorgon Project , the world 's largest natural gas project . The Gorgon Project , located on Barrow Island in Western Australia , includes a liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) plant , a domestic gas plant , and a Carbon Dioxide Injection Project . The initial carbon dioxide injections are planned to take place by the end of 2017 . Once launched , the Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project will be the world 's largest CO2 injection plant , with an ability to store up to 4 million tons of CO2 per year -- approximately 120 million tons over the project 's lifetime , and 40 percent of total Gorgon Project emissions .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Gorgon_Carbon_Dioxide_Injection_Project",
"rank": 95,
"score": 76024
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon fixation Content: Carbon fixation or сarbon assimilation is the conversion process of inorganic carbon ( carbon dioxide ) to organic compounds by living organisms . The most prominent example is photosynthesis , although chemosynthesis is another form of carbon fixation that can take place in the absence of sunlight . Organisms that grow by fixing carbon are called autotrophs . Autotrophs include photoautotrophs , which synthesize organic compounds using the energy of sunlight , and lithoautotrophs , which synthesize organic compounds using the energy of inorganic oxidation . Heterotrophs are organisms that grow using the carbon fixed by autotrophs . The organic compounds are used by heterotrophs to produce energy and to build body structures . `` Fixed carbon '' , `` reduced carbon '' , and `` organic carbon '' are equivalent terms for various organic compounds .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_fixation",
"rank": 96,
"score": 75986
},
{
"content": "Title: Extreme environment Content: An extreme environment contains conditions that are hard to survive for most known life forms . These conditions may be extremely high or low temperature or pressure ; high or low content of oxygen or carbon dioxide in the atmosphere ; high levels of radiation , acidity , or alkalinity ; absence of water ; water containing a high concentration of salt or sugar ; presence of sulphur , petroleum , and other toxic substances . Examples of extreme environments include the geographical poles , very dry deserts , volcanoes , deep ocean trenches , upper atmosphere , Mt Everest , outer space , and the environments of every planet in the Solar System except the Earth . Any organisms living in these conditions are often very well adapted to their living circumstances , which is usually a result of long-term evolution . Physiologists have long known that organisms living in extreme environments are especially likely to exhibit clear examples of evolutionary adaptation because of the presumably intense past natural selection they have experienced .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Extreme_environment",
"rank": 97,
"score": 75906
},
{
"content": "Title: The World Without Us Content: The World Without Us is a non-fiction book about what would happen to the natural and built environment if humans suddenly disappeared , written by American journalist Alan Weisman and published by St. Martin 's Thomas Dunne Books . It is a book-length expansion of Weisman 's own February 2005 Discover article `` Earth Without People '' . Written largely as a thought experiment , it outlines , for example , how cities and houses would deteriorate , how long man-made artifacts would last , and how remaining lifeforms would evolve . Weisman concludes that residential neighborhoods would become forests within 500 years , and that radioactive waste , bronze statues , plastics , and Mount Rushmore would be among the longest-lasting evidence of human presence on Earth . The author of four previous books and numerous articles for magazines , Weisman traveled to interview academics , scientists and other authorities . He used quotations from these interviews to explain the effects of the natural environment and to substantiate predictions . The book has been translated and published in many countries . It was successful in the U.S. , reaching # 6 on the New York Times Best Seller list and # 1 on the San Francisco Chronicle Best-Sellers list in September 2007 . It ranked # 1 on Time and Entertainment Weekly 's of 2007 . 20th Century Fox has purchased the rights to the book with the intent of creating a motion picture .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "The_World_Without_Us",
"rank": 98,
"score": 75866
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 99,
"score": 75847
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Based Lifeforms Content: Carbon Based Lifeforms ( also known as CBL ) is a Swedish ambient music duo formed in 1996 in Gothenburg , Sweden by Johannes Hedberg and Daniel Segerstad ( né Ringström ) .",
"qid": "196",
"docid": "Carbon_Based_Lifeforms",
"rank": 100,
"score": 75805
}
] |
Plants need almost three times today’s carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere to thrive. | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 1,
"score": 138764
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 2,
"score": 136145
},
{
"content": "Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "C3_carbon_fixation",
"rank": 3,
"score": 124403
},
{
"content": "Title: Free-air concentration enrichment Content: Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment ( FACE ) is a method used by ecologists and plant biologists that raises the concentration of in a specified area and allows the response of plant growth to be measured . Experiments using FACE are required because most studies looking at the effect of elevated concentrations have been conducted in labs and where there are many missing factors including plant competition . Measuring the effect of elevated using FACE is a better way of estimating how plant growth will change in the future as the concentration rises in the atmosphere . FACE also allows the effect of elevated on plants that can not be grown in small spaces ( trees for example ) to be measured .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Free-air_concentration_enrichment",
"rank": 4,
"score": 119938
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator",
"rank": 5,
"score": 118735
},
{
"content": "Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Capnophile",
"rank": 6,
"score": 118151
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 7,
"score": 117372
},
{
"content": "Title: Soil respiration Content: Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna . Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration . The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures . Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth . Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Soil_respiration",
"rank": 8,
"score": 116254
},
{
"content": "Title: Plants in space Content: Plants in space are plants grown in outer space typically in a weightless but pressurized controlled environment in specific space gardens . In the context of human spaceflight , they can be consumed as food and/or provide a refreshing atmosphere . Plants can metabolize carbon dioxide in the air to produce valuable oxygen , and can help control cabin humidity . Growing plants in space may provide a psychological benefit to human spaceflight crews . The first challenge in growing plants in space is how to get plants to grow without gravity . This runs into difficulties regarding the effects of gravity on root development , providing appropriate types of lighting , and other challenges . In particular , the nutrient supply to root as well as the nutrient biogeochemical cycles , and the microbiological interactions in soil-based substrates are particularly complex , but have been shown to make possible space farming in hypo - and micro-gravity . NASA plans to grow plants in space to help feed astronauts , and to provide psychological benefits for long-term space flight .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Plants_in_space",
"rank": 9,
"score": 113370
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Atmosphere",
"rank": 10,
"score": 113171
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 11,
"score": 112491
},
{
"content": "Title: Nitrogen deficiency Content: All plants require sufficient supplies of macronutrients for healthy growth , and nitrogen ( N ) is a nutrient that is commonly in limited supply . Nitrogen deficiency in plants can occur when organic matter with high carbon content , such as sawdust , is added to soil . Soil organisms use any nitrogen to break down carbon sources , making N unavailable to plants . This is known as `` robbing '' the soil of nitrogen . All vegetables apart from nitrogen fixing legumes are prone to this disorder . Nitrogen deficiency can be prevented in the short term by using grass mowings as a mulch , or foliar feeding with manure , and in the longer term by building up levels of organic matter in the soil . Sowing green manure crops such as grazing rye to cover soil over the winter will help to prevent nitrogen leaching , while leguminous green manures such as winter tares will fix additional nitrogen from the atmosphere .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Nitrogen_deficiency",
"rank": 12,
"score": 110676
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 13,
"score": 109836
},
{
"content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 14,
"score": 109200
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 15,
"score": 106460
},
{
"content": "Title: Soil gas Content: Soil gases are the gases found in the air space between soil components . The primary natural soil gases include nitrogen , carbon dioxide and oxygen . The oxygen is critical because it allows for respiration of both plant roots and soil organisms . Other natural soil gases are atmospheric methane and radon . Some environmental contaminants below ground produce gas which diffuses through the soil such as from landfill wastes , mining activities , and contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons which produce volatile organic compounds . Soil gases can diffuse into buildings , the chief concerns among these pollutants are radon which is radioactive and causes cancer and methane which can be flammable at only 4.4 % concentration . Gases fill soil pores in the soil structure as water drains or is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root absorption . The network of pores within the soil aerates , or ventilates , the soil . This aeration network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores . Not only are both soil air and soil water very dynamic parts of soil , but both are often inversely related . Composition of air in soil and atmosphere : Nitrogen : Soil Air : 79.2 % Atmosphere : 79.0 % Oxygen : Soil Air : 20.6 % Atmosphere : 20.9 % Carbon Dioxide : Soil Air : 0.25 % Atmosphere : 0.04 % Gas molecules in soil are in continuous thermal motion according to the kinetic theory of gases , there is also collision between molecules - a random walk . In soil , a concentration gradient causes net movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration , this gives the movement of gas by diffusion . Numerically , it is explained by Fick 's law of diffusion .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Soil_gas",
"rank": 16,
"score": 106140
},
{
"content": "Title: Microaerophile Content: A microaerophile is a microorganism that requires oxygen to survive , but requires environments containing lower levels of oxygen than are present in the atmosphere ( i.e. < 21 % O2 ; typically 2 -- 10 % O2 ) . Many microaerophiles are also capnophiles , requiring an elevated concentration of carbon dioxide ( e.g. 10 % CO2 in the case of Campylobacter species ) .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Microaerophile",
"rank": 17,
"score": 105060
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 18,
"score": 104861
},
{
"content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Keith_E._Idso",
"rank": 19,
"score": 104484
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 20,
"score": 103734
},
{
"content": "Title: Homoiohydry Content: Homoiohydry is the capacity of plants to regulate , or achieve homeostasis of , cell and tissue water content . Homoiohydry evolved in land plants to a lesser or greater degree during their transition to land more than 500 million years ago , and is most highly developed in the vascular plants . It is the consequence of a suite of morphological innovations and strategies that enable plant shoots exploring aerial environments to conserve water by internalising the gas exchange surfaces , enclosing them in a waterproof membrane and providing a variable aperture control mechanism , the stomatal guard cells , which regulate the rates of water transpiration and CO2 exchange . In vascular plants , water is acquired from the soil by roots and transported via the xylem to aerial portions of the plant . Water evaporation from the aerial surfaces of the plant is controlled by a waterproof covering of cuticle . Gas exchange with the atmosphere is controlled by stomata , which can open and close to control water loss , and diffusion of carbon dioxide to the chloroplasts takes place in intercellular spaces between chlorenchyma cells in the stem or in the mesophyll tissue of the leaf . The antonym of homoiohydry is poikilohydry , a condition in which plant water content is passively reduced or increased in equilibrium with environmental water status .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Homoiohydry",
"rank": 21,
"score": 101522
},
{
"content": "Title: Ludwigia glandulosa Content: Ludwigia glandulosa '' ( cylindricfruit primrose-willow ) is an amphibious plant from southeast United States . It can grow partially or fully submerged . It grows very slowly and needs carbon dioxide in order to grow well . The leaves of this plant will turn greener if not enough light is provided .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Ludwigia_glandulosa",
"rank": 22,
"score": 99167
},
{
"content": "Title: Plant nutrition Content: Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant growth , plant metabolism and their external supply . In 1972 , Emanuel Epstein defined two criteria for an element to be essential for plant growth : in its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle . or that the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite . This is in accordance with Justus von Liebig 's law of the minimum . The essential plant nutrients include carbon , oxygen and hydrogen which are absorbed from the air , whereas other nutrients including nitrogen are typically obtained from the soil ( exceptions include some parasitic or carnivorous plants ) . Plants must obtain the following mineral nutrients from their growing medium : the macronutrients : nitrogen ( N ) , phosphorus ( P ) , potassium ( K ) , calcium ( Ca ) , sulfur ( S ) , magnesium ( Mg ) , sodium ( Na ) the micronutrients ( or trace minerals ) : boron ( B ) , chlorine ( Cl ) , manganese ( Mn ) , iron ( Fe ) , zinc ( Zn ) , copper ( Cu ) , molybdenum ( Mo ) , nickel ( Ni ) . and cobalt ( Co ) The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities ; hydrogen , oxygen , nitrogen and carbon contribute to over 95 % of a plants ' entire biomass on a dry matter weight basis . Micronutrients are present in plant tissue in quantities measured in parts per million , ranging from 0.1 to 200 ppm , or less than 0.02 % dry weight . Most soil conditions across the world can provide plants adapted to that climate and soil with sufficient nutrition for a complete life cycle , without the addition of nutrients as fertilizer . However , if the soil is cropped it is necessary to artificially modify soil fertility through the addition of fertilizer to promote vigorous growth and increase or sustain yield . This is done because , even with adequate water and light , nutrient deficiency can limit growth and crop yield .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Plant_nutrition",
"rank": 23,
"score": 98511
},
{
"content": "Title: RuBisCO Content: Ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase , commonly known by the abbreviations RuBisCO , RuBPCase , or RuBPco , is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation , a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose . In chemical terms , it catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ( also known as RuBP ) . It is probably the most abundant enzyme on Earth .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "RuBisCO",
"rank": 24,
"score": 97610
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel",
"rank": 25,
"score": 97122
},
{
"content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Biosequestration",
"rank": 26,
"score": 96968
},
{
"content": "Title: Controlled atmosphere Content: A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations of oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen , as well as the temperature and humidity of a storage room are regulated . Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can be stored in controlled atmospheres .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Controlled_atmosphere",
"rank": 27,
"score": 96916
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 28,
"score": 96633
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 29,
"score": 96577
},
{
"content": "Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Modified_atmosphere",
"rank": 30,
"score": 96233
},
{
"content": "Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "The_Green_Initiative",
"rank": 31,
"score": 96059
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas D. Sharkey (plant biochemist) Content: Thomas D. Sharkey is a plant biochemist who studies gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere . His research has covered ( 1 ) carbon metabolism of photosynthesis from carbon dioxide uptake to carbon export from the Calvin-Benson Cycle , ( 2 ) isoprene emission from plants , and ( 3 ) abiotic stress tolerance . Four guiding questions are : ( 1 ) how leaf photosynthesis affects plant yield , ( 2 ) does some carbon fixation follow an oxidative pathway that reduces sugar output but stabilizes photosynthesis , ( 3 ) why plants make isoprene , and ( 4 ) how plants cope with high temperature .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Thomas_D._Sharkey_(plant_biochemist)",
"rank": 32,
"score": 95953
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 33,
"score": 95013
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 34,
"score": 93831
},
{
"content": "Title: Controlled-environment agriculture Content: Controlled-environment agriculture ( CEA ) is a technology-based approach toward food production . The aim of CEA is to provide protection and maintain optimal growing conditions throughout the development of the crop . Production takes place within an enclosed growing structure such as a greenhouse or building . Plants are often grown using hydroponic methods in order to supply the proper amounts of water and nutrients to the root zone . CEA optimizes the use of resources such as water , energy , space , capital and labor . CEA technologies include hydroponics , aquaculture , and aquaponics . Controllable variables : Temperature ( air , nutrient solution , root-zone ) Humidity ( % RH ) Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) Light ( intensity , spectrum , interval ) Nutrient concentration ( PPM , EC ) Nutrient pH ( acidity ) CEA facilities can range from fully automated glasshouses with computer controls for watering , lighting and ventilation , to low-tech solutions such as cloches or plastic film on field grown crops and plastic-covered tunnels . CEA is used in research so that a specific aspect of production can be isolated while all other variables remain the same . Tinted glass could be compared to plain glass in this way during an investigation into photosynthesis . Another possibility would be an investigation into the use of supplementary lighting for growing lettuce under a hydroponic system . A February 2011 article in the magazine Science Illustrated states , `` In commercial agriculture , CEA can increase efficiency , reduce pests and diseases , and save resources . ... Replicating a conventional farm with computers and LED lights is expensive but proves cost-efficient in the long run by producing up to 20 times as much high-end , pesticidee-free produce as a similar-size plot of soil . Fourteen thousand square feet of closely monitored plants produce 15 million seedlings annually at the solar-powered factory . Such factories will be necessary to meet urban China 's rising demand for quality fruits and vegetables . ''",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Controlled-environment_agriculture",
"rank": 35,
"score": 93459
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 36,
"score": 93315
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 37,
"score": 92880
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Climate-friendly_gardening",
"rank": 38,
"score": 92856
},
{
"content": "Title: Plant factory Content: A plant factory is a closed growing system which enables a farmer ( agrotechnician ) to achieve constant production of vegetables all year around . The facility utilizes artificial control of light , temperature , moisture , and carbon dioxide concentrations .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Plant_factory",
"rank": 39,
"score": 92462
},
{
"content": "Title: Nitrosomonas Content: Nitrosomonas is a genus of rod-shaped chemoautotrophic bacteria . This organism oxidizes ammonia into nitrite as a metabolic process . Nitrosomonas are useful in bioremediation . They are important in the nitrogen cycle by increasing the availability of nitrogen to plants while limiting carbon dioxide fixation . The genus is found in soil , freshwater , and on building surfaces , especially in areas that contains high levels of nitrogen compounds . Nitrosomonas prefers an optimum pH of 6.0-9 .0 and a temperature range of 20 to 30 ° C. Most species are motile with a flagellum located in the polar regions . The organism has power generating membranes , which form long , thin tubes inside the cell . These use electrons from the oxidation of ammonia to produce energy . It obtains the carbon it requires from the atmosphere via carbon fixation , which converts carbon in a gaseous form into carbon bound in organic molecules . Unlike plants , which fix carbon into sugar through energy gained through the process of photosynthesis , Nitrosomonas use energy gained through the oxidation of ammonia to fix gaseous carbon dioxide into organic molecules . Nitrosomonas must consume large amounts of ammonia before cell division can occur , and the process of cell division may take up to several days . This microbe is photophobic , and will generate a biofilm matrix or form clumps with other microbes to avoid light . The species Nitrosomonas europaea has been identified as also being able to degrade a variety of halogenated compounds including trichloroethylene , benzene , and vinyl chloride . Some Nitrosomonas species possess the enzyme urease , which catalyzes the conversion of the urea molecule to two ammonia molecules and one carbon dioxide molecule . Nitrosomonas europaea , as well as populations of soil-dwelling ammonia-oxidizing bacteria ( AOB ) , have been shown to assimilate the carbon dioxide released by the reaction to make biomass via the Calvin Cycle , and harvest energy by oxidizing ammonia ( the other product of urease ) to nitrite . This feature may explain enhanced growth of AOB in the presence of urea in acidic environments . Some sources regard Nitrobacteraceae to be the family of the genus Nicosomonas .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Nitrosomonas",
"rank": 40,
"score": 92261
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 41,
"score": 91883
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 42,
"score": 91824
},
{
"content": "Title: Methanotroph Content: Methanotrophs ( sometimes called methanophiles ) are prokaryotes that metabolize methane as their only source of carbon and energy . They can grow aerobically or anaerobically and require single-carbon compounds to survive . These Methanotrophs are currently being modified to absorb methane from the atmosphere , because methane released into the atmosphere contributes to greenhouse gasses , which heat up the earth and cause global warming .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Methanotroph",
"rank": 43,
"score": 91505
},
{
"content": "Title: Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project Content: The Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project is part of the Gorgon Project , the world 's largest natural gas project . The Gorgon Project , located on Barrow Island in Western Australia , includes a liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) plant , a domestic gas plant , and a Carbon Dioxide Injection Project . The initial carbon dioxide injections are planned to take place by the end of 2017 . Once launched , the Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project will be the world 's largest CO2 injection plant , with an ability to store up to 4 million tons of CO2 per year -- approximately 120 million tons over the project 's lifetime , and 40 percent of total Gorgon Project emissions .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Gorgon_Carbon_Dioxide_Injection_Project",
"rank": 44,
"score": 91114
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 45,
"score": 91023
},
{
"content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Black_carbon",
"rank": 46,
"score": 90930
},
{
"content": "Title: Iron fertilization Content: Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron to the upper ocean to stimulate a phytoplankton bloom . This is intended to enhance biological productivity , which can benefit the marine food chain and is under investigation in hopes of increasing carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere . Iron is a trace element necessary for photosynthesis in all plants . It is highly insoluble in sea water and is often the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth . Large algal blooms can be created by supplying iron to iron-deficient ocean waters . A number of ocean labs , scientists and businesses are exploring fertilization as a means to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide in the deep ocean , and to increase marine biological productivity which is hypothesized by some to decline as a result of climate change . Since 1993 , thirteen international research teams have completed ocean trials demonstrating that phytoplankton blooms can be stimulated by iron addition . However , controversy remains over the effectiveness of atmospheric sequestration and ecological effects . The most recent open ocean trials of ocean iron fertilization were in 2009 ( January to March ) in the South Atlantic by project Lohafex , and in July 2012 in the North Pacific off the coast of British Columbia , Canada , by the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation ( HSRC ) . Fertilization also occurs naturally when upwellings bring nutrient-rich water to the surface , as occurs when ocean currents meet an ocean bank or a sea mount . This form of fertilization produces the world 's largest marine habitats . Fertilization can also occur when weather carries wind blown dust long distances over the ocean , or iron-rich minerals are carried into the ocean by glaciers , rivers and icebergs .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Iron_fertilization",
"rank": 47,
"score": 90894
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 48,
"score": 90743
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_scrubber",
"rank": 49,
"score": 90538
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 50,
"score": 90039
},
{
"content": "Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Stuart_Agnew",
"rank": 51,
"score": 88976
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Paleoatmosphere",
"rank": 52,
"score": 88757
},
{
"content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 53,
"score": 88704
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "CO2_content",
"rank": 54,
"score": 88065
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 55,
"score": 87943
},
{
"content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth",
"rank": 56,
"score": 87859
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 57,
"score": 87243
},
{
"content": "Title: List of carbon ranches Content: This is a working list of Carbon Ranches a term referring to regenerative agriculture practices that specifically accomplish carbon sequestration in the soil . `` The world 's cultivated soils have lost between 50 and 70 percent of their original carbon stock . '' ( Lal ) `` A mere two percent increase in the carbon content of the planet 's soils could offset 100 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions going into the atmosphere . '' ( Lal ) Grasslands cover 350 billion hectares , comprising 70 % of global agricultural land making carbon ranching an especially climate beneficial alternative to meat produced as part of a Concentrated animal feeding operation . Carbon ranching may include , but is not limited to Managed intensive rotational grazing , Compost application , Holistic management ( agriculture ) and Tree planting . There are many research groups and NGO 's studying and advancing this field including Arizona State University , The Carbon Cycle Institute , Holistic Management International , The Ohio State University , The Quivira Coalition , The Savory Institute , The Soil Carbon Coalition , Texas A&M University . This list does not necessarily reflect scientific or academic endorsements insofar as best practices and results vary across ranches , climates , time periods , and sources of funding and are therefore challenging to quantify and/or compare . Currently , confirmation of the carbon ranching designation is confirmed through either third party citation or Soil Organic Matter test result .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "List_of_carbon_ranches",
"rank": 58,
"score": 87133
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Environmental_issue",
"rank": 59,
"score": 87108
},
{
"content": "Title: Heliophyte Content: Sunstroke plants or heliophytes are adapted to a habitat with a very intensive insolation , because of the construction of its own structure and maintenance ( metabolism ) . Solar plants , for example , are mullein , ling , thyme and soft velcro , white clover , and most roses . They are common in open terrain , rocks , meadows , as well as at the mountain pastures and grasslands and other long sunny exposures . Special features of the plant include coarse tiny leaves with hairy and waxy protection against excessive light radiation and water loss . In structure , the leaves vary in frequent double palisade layers . Chloroplasts have a protective element such as carotenoid and the enzymes , and accumulation of ROS to avoid toxic effects . In addition , there are also stoma tal apparatus on the leaves and green shoots , in order to allow a better exchange of gases . At same time , this increases possibilities for photosynthesis . Unlike the shadow-preferring plants , heliophytes have a high light compensation point , and for this they need a higher illumination intensity for effective adoption of carbon dioxide . Sunstroke leaves , in this respect , has a very high capacity , to . However , they have a higher basal metabolism comparing to the other leaves .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Heliophyte",
"rank": 60,
"score": 87074
},
{
"content": "Title: Theoretical production ecology Content: Theoretical production ecology tries to quantitatively study the growth of crops . The plant is treated as a kind of biological factory , which processes light , carbon dioxide , water , and nutrients into harvestable parts . Main parameters kept into consideration are temperature , sunlight , standing crop biomass , plant production distribution , nutrient and water supply .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Theoretical_production_ecology",
"rank": 61,
"score": 86988
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 62,
"score": 86562
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Kaya_identity",
"rank": 63,
"score": 86479
},
{
"content": "Title: Photosynthesis Content: Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms ' activities ( energy transformation ) . This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules , such as sugars , which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water -- hence the name photosynthesis , from the Greek φῶς , phōs , `` light '' , and σύνθεσις , synthesis , `` putting together '' . In most cases , oxygen is also released as a waste product . Most plants , most algae , and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis ; such organisms are called photoautotrophs . Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth 's atmosphere , and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth . Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species , the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments . In plants , these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts , which are most abundant in leaf cells , while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane . In these light-dependent reactions , some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances , such as water , producing oxygen gas . The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that act as an immediate energy storage means : reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate ( NADPH ) and adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , the `` energy currency '' of cells . In plants , algae and cyanobacteria , long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of reactions called the Calvin cycle ; some bacteria use different mechanisms , such as the reverse Krebs cycle , to achieve the same end . In the Calvin cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds , such as ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP ) . Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions , the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates , such as glucose . The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide , rather than water , as sources of electrons . Cyanobacteria appeared later ; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth , which rendered the evolution of complex life possible . Today , the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts , which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization . Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100 -- 115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Photosynthesis",
"rank": 64,
"score": 86461
},
{
"content": "Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network",
"rank": 65,
"score": 86211
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 66,
"score": 85677
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 67,
"score": 85534
},
{
"content": "Title: Flue gas Content: Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue , which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace , oven , furnace , boiler or steam generator . Quite often , the flue gas refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants . Its composition depends on what is being burned , but it will usually consist of mostly nitrogen ( typically more than two-thirds ) derived from the combustion of air , carbon dioxide , and water vapor as well as excess oxygen ( also derived from the combustion air ) . It further contains a small percentage of a number of pollutants , such as particulate matter ( like soot ) , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , and sulfur oxides .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Flue_gas",
"rank": 68,
"score": 85305
},
{
"content": "Title: C4 carbon fixation Content: C4 carbon fixation or the Hatch-Slack pathway is a photosynthetic process in some plants . It is the first step in extracting carbon from carbon dioxide to be able to use it in sugar and other biomolecules . It is one of three known processes for carbon fixation . The C4 in one of the names refers to the 4-carbon molecule that is the first product of this type of carbon fixation . fixation is an elaboration of the more common carbon fixation and is believed to have evolved more recently . overcomes the tendency of the enzyme RuBisCO to wastefully fix oxygen rather than carbon dioxide in the process of photorespiration . This is achieved by ensuring that RuBisCo works in an environment where there is a lot of carbon dioxide and very little oxygen . is shuttled via malate or aspartate from mesophyll cells to bundle-sheath cells . In these bundle-sheath cells is released by decarboxylation of the malate . C4 plants use PEP carboxylase to capture more in the mesophyll cells . PEP Carboxylase ( 3 carbons ) binds to to make oxaloacetic acid ( OAA ) . The OAA then makes malate ( 4 carbons ) . Malate enters bundle sheath cells and releases the . These additional steps , however , require more energy in the form of ATP . Using this extra energy , plants are able to more efficiently fix carbon in drought , high temperatures , and limitations of nitrogen or . Since the more common pathway does not require this extra energy , it is more efficient in the other conditions . The naming Hatch-Slack pathway is in honor of Marshall Davidson Hatch and C. R. Slack , who elucidated it in Australia in 1966 .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "C4_carbon_fixation",
"rank": 69,
"score": 85297
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Tropical_peat",
"rank": 70,
"score": 85177
},
{
"content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme",
"rank": 71,
"score": 85061
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 72,
"score": 84993
},
{
"content": "Title: Plant perception (physiology) Content: Plant perception is the ability of plants to sense and respond to the environment to adjust their morphology , physiology , and phenotype accordingly . Other disciplines such as plant physiology , ecology and molecular biology are used to assess this ability . Plants react to chemicals , gravity , light , moisture , infections , temperature , oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations , parasite infestation , disease , physical disruption , sound , and touch .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Plant_perception_(physiology)",
"rank": 73,
"score": 84788
},
{
"content": "Title: Substomatal cavity Content: In plants , the substomatal cavity is the cavity located immediately proximal to the stoma . It acts as a diffusion chamber connected with intercellular air spaces and allows rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide and other gases ( such as plant pheromones ) in and out of plant cells .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Substomatal_cavity",
"rank": 74,
"score": 84757
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 75,
"score": 84728
},
{
"content": "Title: Andrei Famintsyn Content: Andrei Sergeyevich Famintsyn ( June 17 ( O.S. June 29 ) , 1835 , Moscow -- December 8 , 1918 , Petrograd ) was a Russian botanist , public figure , and academician of the Petersburg Academy of Sciences ( 1884 ) . Famintsyn attended Saint Petersburg State University and studied under Russian fungal expert Lev Semionovich Tsenkovsky . In 1861 , he continued his scientific career as a teacher at his alma mater and became a professor ( 1867-1889 ) . In 1890 , Famintsyn founded and headed the Laboratory of Plant Anatomy and Physiology of the Academy of Sciences ( today 's Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences ) . Famintsyn is considered the founding father of the Petersburg school of plant physiologists ( Ivan Borodin , Alexander Batalin , Dmitry Ivanovsky and others ) . In 1887 , he authored the first Russian textbook on plant physiology . His major works were dedicated to photosynthesis and plant metabolism . He was the first to use artificial light for plant growing and research ( 1868 ) . Famintsyn showed that carbon dioxide conversion by plants and formation of starch may occur under artificial lighting . Together with O. Baranetsky , he was the first to separate the green algae cells from lichens . Famintsyn discovered the symbiosis of algae with radiolarias and developed a theory of symbiogenesis . In 1906-1909 , he was the president of the Free Economic Society . In 1915 , Famintsyn was elected honorary president of the Russian Botanic Society .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Andrei_Famintsyn",
"rank": 76,
"score": 84674
},
{
"content": "Title: Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage Content: Soil carbon storage is an important function of terrestrial ecosystems . Soil contains more carbon than plants and the atmosphere combined . Understanding what maintains the soil carbon pool is important to understand the current distribution of carbon on Earth , and how it will respond to environmental change . While much research has been done on how plants , free-living microbial decomposers , and soil minerals affect this pool of carbon , it is recently coming to light that mycorrhizal fungi -- symbiotic fungi that associate with roots of almost all living plants -- may play an important role in maintaining this pool as well . Measurements of plant carbon allocation to mycorrhizal fungi have been estimated to be 5-20 % of total plant carbon uptake , and in some ecosystems the biomass of mycorrhizal fungi can be comparable to the biomass of fine roots . Recent research has shown that mycorrhizal fungi hold 50 to 70 percent of the total carbon stored in leaf litter and soil on forested islands in Sweden . Turnover of mycorrhizal biomass into the soil carbon pool is thought to be rapid and has been shown in some ecosystems to be the dominant pathway by which living carbon enters the soil carbon pool . Outlined below are the leading lines of evidence on how different aspects of mycorrhizal fungi may alter soil carbon decomposition and storage . Evidence is presented for arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal fungi separately as they are phylogenetically distinct and often function in very different ways .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_soil_carbon_storage",
"rank": 77,
"score": 84529
},
{
"content": "Title: NASA Clean Air Study Content: The NASA Clean Air Study has been led by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) in association with the Associated Landscape Contractors of America ( ALCA ) . Its results suggest that certain common indoor plants may provide a natural way of removing toxic agents such as benzene , formaldehyde and trichloroethylene from the air , helping neutralize the effects of sick building syndrome . The first list of air-filtering plants was compiled by NASA as part of a clean air study published in 1989 , which researched ways to clean air in space stations . As well as absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen , as all plants do , these plants also eliminate significant amounts of benzene , formaldehyde and trichloroethylene . The second and third lists are from B. C. Wolverton 's book and paper and focus on removal of specific chemicals . NASA researchers suggest efficient air cleaning is accomplished with at least one plant per 100 square feet of home or office space . While the original study only considered plants grown hydroponically ( ie without soil ) , more recent research has shown that micro-organisms in the potting mix ( soil ) of a potted plant remove benzene from the air , and that some plant species also contribute to removing benzene .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "NASA_Clean_Air_Study",
"rank": 78,
"score": 84356
},
{
"content": "Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Yedoma",
"rank": 79,
"score": 83970
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_monoxide",
"rank": 80,
"score": 83696
},
{
"content": "Title: Total organic carbon Content: Total organic carbon ( TOC ) is the amount of carbon found in an organic compound and is often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality or cleanliness of pharmaceutical manufacturing equipment . TOC may also refer to the amount of organic carbon in soil , or in a geological formation , particularly the source rock for a petroleum play ; 2 % is a rough minimum . For marine surface sediments , average TOC content is 0.5 % in the deep ocean , and 2 % along the eastern margins . A typical analysis for TOC measures both the total carbon present and the so-called `` inorganic carbon '' ( IC ) , the latter representing the content of dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid salts . Subtracting the inorganic carbon from the total carbon yields TOC . Another common variant of TOC analysis involves removing the IC portion first and then measuring the leftover carbon . This method involves purging an acidified sample with carbon-free air or nitrogen prior to measurement , and so is more accurately called non-purgeable organic carbon ( NPOC ) .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Total_organic_carbon",
"rank": 81,
"score": 83428
},
{
"content": "Title: Toyota flower Content: The Toyota flower comprises two different species of genetically engineered flower by the Japanese automaker Toyota . The flowers , derivatives of the gardenia and the cherry sage plant , respectively ; have been developed for gardens of the Toyota Prius Tsutsumi , Japan plant . The `` Toyota '' sage 's leaves have unique attributes that absorb nitrogen oxides , while the gardenia 's leaves create water vapour in the air to extract atmospheric heat . This in turn reduces the temperature of the areas surrounding the factory , thus reducing the carbon dioxide-emitting energy needed for cooling .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Toyota_flower",
"rank": 82,
"score": 83327
},
{
"content": "Title: Petra Nova Content: The Petra Nova project is a billion dollar endeavor taken upon by NRG Energy and JP Nippon to retrofit their jointly owned W.A Parish coal-fired power plant with post-combustion carbon capture . The plant , which is located in Thompsons , Texas ( just outside of Houston ) , entered commercial service in 1977 , and carbon capture began operation on January 10 , 2017 . The plant generates 240 MW and 90 % of the CO2 ( or 1.4 million tonnes ) is captured per year . The carbon dioxide captured ( 99 % purity ) from the power plant is compressed and piped about 82 miles to West Ranch Oil Field , Texas , where it will be used for enhanced oil recovery . The field has a capacity of 60 million barrels of oil and is expected to increase oil production by a factor of 50 . This project is expected to run for at least another 20 years . To satisfy the Clean Coal Power Initiative requirements , the Texas Bureau of Economic Geology has put in place a monitoring plan to keep track of the injection and movement of the CO2 beneath the surface and in the rock structures at West Ranch .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Petra_Nova",
"rank": 83,
"score": 82751
},
{
"content": "Title: Alberta Carbon Trunk Line Content: The Alberta Carbon Trunk Line ( ACTL ) is a 240 km pipeline in its construction stages that will collect excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the province of Alberta and transport it to various oil reservoirs around the province for enhanced oil recovery applications . Pioneered by Enhance Energy , the ACTL will source its CO2 from a fertilizer manufacturing plant in Redwater , and the North West Redwater Partnership bitumen upgrading plant using gasification . It will initially funnel the collected CO2 to Clive , a field discovered in the 1950s and currently produces about 300 barrels per day .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Alberta_Carbon_Trunk_Line",
"rank": 84,
"score": 82699
},
{
"content": "Title: Friends of the Urban Forest Content: Friends of the Urban Forest is a non-profit organization based in San Francisco that plants and maintains trees within the city . Organized as a response to the city 's lack of trees , the group 's first tree planted was a glossy privet on arbor day , 1981 , in Noe Valley . As of 2006 it had planted 40,000 trees . San Francisco was originally mostly sand dunes and has few native trees . Fog , wind , cold , and salty air made it difficult for native and planted trees to survive . Only buckeye and Pacific willow were common . Most of the 90,000 trees in the city were planted in the 1880s through 1920s as part of large parks and properties . Monterey Pines and Eucalyptus trees were planted in the San Francisco Presidio , Stern Grove , and Golden Gate Park . However , these Monterey Pines have been affected by pitch pine canker and have been dying . At 12 % , San Francisco 's tree canopy cover remains considerably under the 22 % national average . Benefits to planting more trees include aesthetics , improved property values ( mature trees are said to increase surrounding property values by approximately 1 % ) , helping with global warming by absorbing carbon dioxide and providing oxygen , and energy savings due to increased tree canopy . Even at more than 5,000 trees per year as of 2006 , San Francisco 's tree-planting efforts were modest compared to other cities in California and throughout the world . That year Los Angeles announced plans to plant one million trees , and the United Nations had raised funds to plant 121 million trees towards a goal of one billion trees . Friends of the Urban Forest was mentioned in an episode of the Sci Fi Channel reality show Who Wants to Be a Superhero ? .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Friends_of_the_Urban_Forest",
"rank": 85,
"score": 82691
},
{
"content": "Title: Taichung Power Plant Content: The Taichung Power Plant is a coal-fired power plant in Longjing , Taichung , Taiwan . With an installed coal-fired generation capacity of 5,500 MW , it is the largest coal-fired power station in the world , and also the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide with approximately 40 million tons annually ( or about as much as the country of Switzerland as a whole ) . Together with its gas-fired and wind generation units , the total installed capacity of the plant is 5,824 MW .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Taichung_Power_Plant",
"rank": 86,
"score": 82549
},
{
"content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions",
"rank": 87,
"score": 82053
},
{
"content": "Title: Transpiration Content: Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts , such as leaves , stems and flowers . Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism . The remaining 97 -- 99.5 % is lost by transpiration and guttation . Leaf surfaces are dotted with pores called stomata , and in most plants they are more numerous on the undersides of the foliage . The stomata are bordered by guard cells and their stomatal accessory cells ( together known as stomatal complex ) that open and close the pore . Transpiration occurs through the stomatal apertures , and can be thought of as a necessary `` cost '' associated with the opening of the stomata to allow the diffusion of carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis . Transpiration also cools plants , changes osmotic pressure of cells , and enables mass flow of mineral nutrients and water from roots to shoots . Two major factors influence the rate of water flow from the soil to the roots : the hydraulic conductivity of the soil and the magnitude of the pressure gradient through the soil . Both of these factors influence the rate of bulk flow of water moving from the roots to the stomatal pores in the leaves via the xylem . Mass flow of liquid water from the roots to the leaves is driven in part by capillary action , but primarily driven by water potential differences . If the water potential in the ambient air is lower than the water potential in the leaf airspace of the stomatal pore , water vapor will travel down the gradient and move from the leaf airspace to the atmosphere . This movement lowers the water potential in the leaf airspace and causes evaporation of liquid water from the mesophyll cell walls . This evaporation increases the tension on the water menisci in the cell walls and decrease their radius and thus the tension that is exerted on the water in the cells . Because of the cohesive properties of water , the tension travels through the leaf cells to the leaf and stem xylem where a momentary negative pressure is created as water is pulled up the xylem from the roots . In taller plants and trees , the force of gravity can only be overcome by the decrease in hydrostatic ( water ) pressure in the upper parts of the plants due to the diffusion of water out of stomata into the atmosphere . Water is absorbed at the roots by osmosis , and any dissolved mineral nutrients travel with it through the xylem . The Cohesion-tension theory explains how leaves pull water through the xylem . Water molecules stick together , or exhibit cohesion . As a water molecule evaporates from the surface of the leaf , it pulls on the adjacent water molecule , creating a continuous flow of water through the plant .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Transpiration",
"rank": 88,
"score": 82047
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 89,
"score": 82023
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 90,
"score": 81768
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon power Content: Low-carbon power comes from processes or technologies that , produce power with substantially lower amounts of carbon dioxide emissions than is emitted from conventional fossil fuel power generation . It includes low carbon power generation sources such as wind power , solar power , hydropower and , including fuel preparation and decommissioning , nuclear power . The term largely excludes conventional fossil fuel plant sources , and is only used to describe a particular subset of operating fossil fuel power systems , specifically , those that are successfully coupled with a flue gas carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) system .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Low-carbon_power",
"rank": 91,
"score": 81720
},
{
"content": "Title: Anastasios Melis Content: Anastasios Melis is an American biologist at the University of California , Berkeley who is researching the possibility of creating hydrogen from algae . He is currently Professor of Plant & Microbial Biology in the institution and Editor-in-Chief of the Planta journal . Hydrogen power is considered one of the key ways of producing electricity without continuing to use up fossil fuels . The added bonus of using algae in this way is that they could consume carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In 1998 Professor Anastasios Melis discovered , after following Hans Gaffron 's work , that the deprivation of sulfur will cause Chlamydomonas reinhardtii algae to switch from producing oxygen to producing hydrogen . The enzyme , hydrogenase , he found was responsible for the reaction , which is normally a temporary emergency survival mechanism used in an oxygen-deprived environment . The enzyme stops functioning when oxygen is produced , however the deprivation of sulphur ensures continuous hydrogen production . Scientists since the 1940s have been trying to get the algae to produce hydrogen in significant quantities ; he told media his breakthrough was like `` striking oil '' . He currently leads and international effort to improve the efficiency of photosynthesis by 300 % for increased hydrogen production . However , he believes that the only way for cost-competitiveness is to genetically modify the organisms to increase output . In 2001 he co-founded a company , Melis Energy , in order to exploit his discovery , hoping to get it on the market by 2005 . In the autumn of 2001 , the company built a bio-reactor containing 500 litres of water and algae that produced up to 1 litre of hydrogen per hour . A siphoning system extracted the hydrogen , which is stored in its gaseous state . The company attempted to refine the process and improve its reliability , while also searching for investors so that it can increase production volume.It has since been dissolved .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Anastasios_Melis",
"rank": 92,
"score": 81585
},
{
"content": "Title: Soil plant atmosphere continuum Content: The soil-plant-atmosphere continuum ( SPAC ) is the pathway for water moving from soil through plants to the atmosphere . Continuum in the description highlights the continuous nature of water connection through the pathway . The low water potential of the atmosphere , and relatively higher ( i.e. less negative ) water potential inside leaves , leads to a diffusion gradient across the stomatal pores of leaves , drawing water out of the leaves as vapour . As water vapour transpires out of the leaf , further water molecules evaporate off the surface of mesophyll cells to replace the lost molecules since water in the air inside leaves is maintained at saturation vapour pressure . Water lost at the surface of cells is replaced by water from the xylem , which due to the cohesion-tension properties of water in the xylem of plants pulls additional water molecules through the xylem from the roots toward the leaf .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Soil_plant_atmosphere_continuum",
"rank": 93,
"score": 81090
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Carbon_Engineering",
"rank": 94,
"score": 81052
},
{
"content": "Title: Photorespiration Content: Photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) refers to a process in plant metabolism where the enzyme RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP , causing some of the energy produced by photosynthesis to be wasted . The desired reaction is the addition of carbon dioxide to RuBP ( carboxylation ) , a key step in the Calvin -- Benson cycle , however approximately 25 % of reactions by RuBisCO instead add oxygen to RuBP ( oxygenation ) , creating a product that can not be used within the Calvin -- Benson cycle . This process reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis , potentially reducing photosynthetic output by 25 % in plants . Photorespiration involves a complex network of enzyme reactions that exchange metabolites between chloroplasts , leaf peroxisomes and mitochondria . The oxygenation reaction of RuBisCO is a wasteful process because 3-phosphoglycerate is created at a reduced rate and higher metabolic cost compared with RuBP carboxylase activity . While photorespiratory carbon cycling results in the formation of G3P eventually , there is still a net loss of carbon ( around 25 % of carbon fixed by photosynthesis is re-released as ) and nitrogen , as ammonia . Ammonia must be detoxified at a substantial cost to the cell . Photorespiration also incurs a direct cost of one ATP and one NAD ( P ) H. While it is common to refer to the entire process as photorespiration , technically the term refers only to the metabolic network which acts to rescue the products of the oxygenation reaction ( phosphoglycolate ) .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Photorespiration",
"rank": 95,
"score": 80993
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Mars",
"rank": 96,
"score": 80990
},
{
"content": "Title: Bicarbonate indicator Content: A bicarbonate indicator ( hydrogencarbonate indicator ) is a type of pH indicator that is sensitive enough to show a color change as the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in an aqueous solution increases . The indicator is used in photosynthesis and respiration experiments to find out whether carbon dioxide is being liberated . It is also used to test the carbon dioxide content during gaseous exchange of organisms . When the carbon dioxide content is higher than 0.04 % , the initial red color changes to yellow as the pH becomes more acidic . If the carbon dioxide content is lower than 0.04 % , it changes from red to magenta and , in relatively very low carbon dioxide concentrations , to purple . Carbon dioxide , even in the concentrations found in exhaled air , will dissolve in the indicator to form carbonic acid , a weak acid , which will lower the pH and give the characteristic colour change . A colour change to purple during photosynthesis shows a reduction in the percentage of carbon dioxide and is sometimes inferred as production of oxygen , but there is not actually any direct evidence for it . Great care must be taken to avoid acidic or alkaline contamination of the apparatus in such experiments , since the test is not directly specific to carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Bicarbonate_indicator",
"rank": 97,
"score": 80942
},
{
"content": "Title: Integrated gasification fuel cell cycle Content: Lower-temperature fuel cell types such as the proton exchange membrane fuel cell , phosphoric acid fuel cell , and alkaline fuel cell require pure hydrogen as fuel , typically produced from external reforming of natural gas . However , fuels cells operating at high temperature such as the solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) are not poisoned by carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide , and in fact can accept hydrogen , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , steam , and methane mixtures as fuel directly , because of their internal shift and reforming capabilities . This opens up the possibility of efficient fuel cell-based power cycles consuming solid fuels such as coal and biomass , the gasification of which results in syngas containing mostly hydrogen , carbon monoxide and methane which can be cleaned and fed directly to the SOFCs without the added cost and complexity of methane reforming , water gas shifting and hydrogen separation operations which would otherwise be needed to isolate pure hydrogen as fuel . A power cycle based on gasification of solid fuel and SOFCs is called an Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell ( IGFC ) cycle ; the IGFC power plant is analogous to an integrated gasification combined cycle power plant , but with the gas turbine power generation unit replaced with a fuel cell ( high temperature type such as SOFC ) power generation unit . By taking advantage of intrinsically high energy efficiency of SOFCs and process integration , exceptionally high power plant efficiencies are possible . Furthermore , SOFCs in the IGFC cycle can be operated so as to isolate a carbon dioxide-rich anodic exhaust stream , allowing efficient carbon capture to address greenhouse gas emissions concerns of coal-based power generation .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Integrated_gasification_fuel_cell_cycle",
"rank": 98,
"score": 80879
},
{
"content": "Title: Frederick Blackman Content: Frederick Frost Blackman FRS ( 25 July 1866 -- 30 January 1947 ) was a British plant physiologist . Frederick Blackman was born in Lambeth , London to a doctor . He studied medicine at St. Bartholomew 's Hospital , graduating MA . In the subsequent years , he studied natural sciences at the University of Cambridge and was awarded DSc . He conducted research on plant physiology , in particular photosynthesis , in Cambridge until his retirement in 1936 . Gabrielle Matthaei was his assistant until 1905 . He was elected in May 1906 a Fellow of the Royal Society , his candidature citation reading `` Fellow of St John 's College , Cambridge . Ex-Lecturer and now Reader in Botany in the University . He has made distinguished investigations in physiology of plants , of which the following may be mentioned : Experimental Researches on Vegetable Assimilation and Respiration , viz : - On a New Method for investigating the Carbonic Acid Exchanges of Plants ( Phil Trans , 1895 ) ; On the Paths of Gaseous Exchange between Aerial Leaves and the Atmosphere ( ibid , 1895 ) ; by his pupil , Miss Mattaei , On the Effect of Temperature on Carbon-Dioxide Assimilation ( ibid ) ; A Quantitative Study of Carbon-Dioxide Assimilation and Leaf-Temperature in Natural Illumination ( Proc Roy Soc , 1905 , with Miss Matthaei ) ; Optima and Limiting Factors ( Ann of Bot , 1905 ) ; On the Reaction of Leaves to Traumatic Stimulation ( ibid , 1901 ) ; and other papers . In 1921 he was awarded their Royal Medal and in 1923 delivered their Croonian lecture . He was buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge , with his wife Elsie ( 1882 - 1967 ) .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Frederick_Blackman",
"rank": 99,
"score": 80697
},
{
"content": "Title: Crown (botany) Content: The crown of a plant refers to the totality of an individual plant 's aboveground parts , including stems , leaves , and reproductive structures . A plant community canopy consists of one or more plant crowns growing in a given area . The crown of a woody plant ( tree , shrub , liana ) is the branches , leaves , and reproductive structures extending from the trunk or main stems . Shapes of crowns are highly variable . The major types for trees are the excurrent branching habit resulting in conoid shapes and decurrent ( deliquescent ) branching habit , resulting in round shapes . Crowns are also characterized by their width , depth , surface area , volume , and density . Measurements of crowns are important in quantifying and qualifying plant health , growth stage , and efficiency . Major functions of the crown include light energy assimilation , carbon dioxide absorption and release of oxygen via photosynthesis , energy release by respiration , and movement of water to the atmosphere by transpiration . These functions are performed by the leaves . Branches of the crown provide mechanical support to distribute the leaves efficiently and serve as conduits for resources ( water , nutrients , photosynthates ) to perform these functions .",
"qid": "197",
"docid": "Crown_(botany)",
"rank": 100,
"score": 80397
}
] |
For decades horticulturalists have pumped carbon dioxide into glasshouses to increase yields. | [
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Content: A greenhouse ( also called a glasshouse , or , if with sufficient heating , a hothouse ) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material , such as glass , in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown . These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings . A miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame . The interior of a greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the external ambient temperature , protecting its contents in cold weather . Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers . The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations , heating , cooling , lighting , and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth . Different techniques are then used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate ( i.e. , air temperature , relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit ) in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Greenhouse",
"rank": 1,
"score": 143697
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse whitefly Content: Trialeurodes vaporariorum , commonly known as the glasshouse whitefly or greenhouse whitefly , is an insect that inhabits the world 's temperate regions . Like various other whiteflies , it is a primary insect pest of many fruit , vegetable and ornamental crops . It is frequently found in glasshouses ( greenhouses ) , polytunnels , and other protected horticultural environments . Adults are 1 -- 2 mm in length , with yellowish bodies and four wax-coated wings held near parallel to the leaf surface .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Greenhouse_whitefly",
"rank": 2,
"score": 143161
},
{
"content": "Title: Controlled-environment agriculture Content: Controlled-environment agriculture ( CEA ) is a technology-based approach toward food production . The aim of CEA is to provide protection and maintain optimal growing conditions throughout the development of the crop . Production takes place within an enclosed growing structure such as a greenhouse or building . Plants are often grown using hydroponic methods in order to supply the proper amounts of water and nutrients to the root zone . CEA optimizes the use of resources such as water , energy , space , capital and labor . CEA technologies include hydroponics , aquaculture , and aquaponics . Controllable variables : Temperature ( air , nutrient solution , root-zone ) Humidity ( % RH ) Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) Light ( intensity , spectrum , interval ) Nutrient concentration ( PPM , EC ) Nutrient pH ( acidity ) CEA facilities can range from fully automated glasshouses with computer controls for watering , lighting and ventilation , to low-tech solutions such as cloches or plastic film on field grown crops and plastic-covered tunnels . CEA is used in research so that a specific aspect of production can be isolated while all other variables remain the same . Tinted glass could be compared to plain glass in this way during an investigation into photosynthesis . Another possibility would be an investigation into the use of supplementary lighting for growing lettuce under a hydroponic system . A February 2011 article in the magazine Science Illustrated states , `` In commercial agriculture , CEA can increase efficiency , reduce pests and diseases , and save resources . ... Replicating a conventional farm with computers and LED lights is expensive but proves cost-efficient in the long run by producing up to 20 times as much high-end , pesticidee-free produce as a similar-size plot of soil . Fourteen thousand square feet of closely monitored plants produce 15 million seedlings annually at the solar-powered factory . Such factories will be necessary to meet urban China 's rising demand for quality fruits and vegetables . ''",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Controlled-environment_agriculture",
"rank": 3,
"score": 137171
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator",
"rank": 4,
"score": 127268
},
{
"content": "Title: Thanet Earth Content: Thanet Earth is a large industrial agriculture / plant factory project consortium in the United Kingdom . Located on the Isle of Thanet , in Kent it is the largest greenhouse complex in the UK , covering 90 hectares , or 220 acre of land . The glasshouses produce approximately 225 million tomatoes , 16 million peppers and 13 million cucumbers a year , equal to roughly 12 , 11 and 8 per cent respectively of Britain 's entire annual production of those salad ingredients . Thanet Earth 's main customers are Asda , Sainsbury 's , Tesco , M&S and agency HRGO",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Thanet_Earth",
"rank": 5,
"score": 122974
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 6,
"score": 116297
},
{
"content": "Title: Severinghaus electrode Content: The Severinghaus electrode is an electrode that measures carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It was developed by Dr. John W. Severinghaus and his technician A. Freeman Bradley in 1958 . It utilizes a CO2-sensitive glass electrode in a surrounding film of bicarbonate solution covered by a thin plastic carbon dioxide permeable membrane , but impermeable to water and electrolytic solutes . The carbon dioxide pressure of a sample gas or liquid equilibrates through the membrane and the glass electrode measures the resulting pH of the bicarbonate solution .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Severinghaus_electrode",
"rank": 7,
"score": 112118
},
{
"content": "Title: Azolla event Content: The Azolla event occurred in the middle Eocene epoch , around , when blooms of the freshwater fern Azolla are thought to have happened in the Arctic Ocean . As they sank to the stagnant sea floor , they were incorporated into the sediment ; the resulting draw-down of carbon dioxide has been speculated to have helped transform the planet from a `` greenhouse Earth '' state , hot enough for turtles and palm trees to prosper at the poles , to the icehouse Earth it has been since .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Azolla_event",
"rank": 8,
"score": 108290
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse (car) Content: The greenhouse ( or glasshouse ) of a car comprises the windshield , rear and side windows , the pillars separating them ( designated A-pillar , B-pillar and so on , starting from the car 's front ) , and the car 's roof . The shape and position of the greenhouse have a defining influence on the looks of the car and are a prime factor in differentiating between body styles such as saloon/sedan , coupé , estate/wagon and hatchback . In the 2000s and 2010s , greenhouses have become narrower because of design trends and crash regulations . Some manufacturers incorporate trademark design features in the greenhouse that are present across several model series , one example being the BMW Hofmeister kink .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Greenhouse_(car)",
"rank": 9,
"score": 108226
},
{
"content": "Title: George Tod Content: George Tod was a British surveyor and hothouse builder who provided colour illustrations and descriptions of 26 `` glass houses , '' chiefly of his own design , in an 1807 publication . The text presents plans , elevations and sections of hothouses , greenhouses , conservatories , and an aquarium built in different parts of England for various noblemen and gentlemen , including a hothouse and greenhouse in the gardens at Frogmore . In a review in The Literary Panorama of 1807 , Tod 's book is priced at # 2 . 12s . 6d. , and is praised for giving greenhouse examples that could be reproduced `` by any ingenious workman '' .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "George_Tod",
"rank": 10,
"score": 107163
},
{
"content": "Title: Huff and puff apparatus Content: The huff and puff apparatus is used in school biology labs to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is a product of respiration . A pupil breathes in and out of the middle tube . The glass tubing is arranged in such a way that one flask bubbles as the pupils breathes in , the other as the pupil breathes out . A suitable carbon dioxide indicator , such as limewater or bicarbonate indicator shows the increased presence of carbon dioxide in the outgoing breath.This turns the bicarbonate into milky white substance .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Huff_and_puff_apparatus",
"rank": 11,
"score": 107091
},
{
"content": "Title: Free-air concentration enrichment Content: Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment ( FACE ) is a method used by ecologists and plant biologists that raises the concentration of in a specified area and allows the response of plant growth to be measured . Experiments using FACE are required because most studies looking at the effect of elevated concentrations have been conducted in labs and where there are many missing factors including plant competition . Measuring the effect of elevated using FACE is a better way of estimating how plant growth will change in the future as the concentration rises in the atmosphere . FACE also allows the effect of elevated on plants that can not be grown in small spaces ( trees for example ) to be measured .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Free-air_concentration_enrichment",
"rank": 12,
"score": 106782
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 13,
"score": 106239
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Climate-friendly_gardening",
"rank": 14,
"score": 105977
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 15,
"score": 105893
},
{
"content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Biosequestration",
"rank": 16,
"score": 103712
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecological yield Content: Ecological yield is the harvestable population growth of an ecosystem . It is most commonly measured in forestry : sustainable forestry is defined as that which does not harvest more wood in a year than has grown in that year , within a given patch of forest . However , the concept is also applicable to water , soil , and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed -- called renewable resources . The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is `` renewed '' ( refreshed or regrown or rebuilt ) is consumed . Ecosystem services analysis calculates the global yield of the Earth 's biosphere to humans as a whole . This is said to be greater in size than the entire human economy . However , it is more than just yield , but also the natural processes that increase biodiversity and conserve habitat which result in the total value of these services . `` Yield '' of ecological commodities like wood or water , useful to humans , is only a part of it . Very often an ecological yield in one place offsets an ecological load in another . Greenhouse gas released in one place , for instance , is fairly evenly distributed in the atmosphere , and so greenhouse gas control can be achieved by creating a carbon sink literally anywhere else . Ecocide is thought by some green economists to be accelerated by debt instruments which demand a yield greater than the ecological capacity to renew . This is a major question in monetary reform .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Ecological_yield",
"rank": 17,
"score": 103459
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding",
"rank": 18,
"score": 102581
},
{
"content": "Title: Glasshouses Content: Glasshouses is a small village in Nidderdale , North Yorkshire , England . It lies about 1 mile south-east of Pateley Bridge on the east side of Nidderdale and has a recently rebuilt river bridge across the river Nidd . The old twine mill , on the banks of the Nidd , now houses a number of small businesses . There is a public house , The Birch Tree Inn , on the main Harrogate to Pateley Bridge road just outside the village . May day is celebrated every year with traditional May Pole dancing and the crowning of the ` May Queen ' on the village green .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Glasshouses",
"rank": 19,
"score": 102235
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 20,
"score": 101913
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide cleaning Content: Carbon dioxide cleaning ( CO2 cleaning ) comprises a family of methods for parts cleaning and sterilization , using carbon dioxide in its various phases . It is often preferred for use on delicate surfaces . CO2 cleaning has found application in the aerospace , automotive , electronics , medical , and other industries . Carbon dioxide snow cleaning has been used to remove particles and organic residues from metals , polymers , ceramics , glasses , hard drives , optics , and other surfaces .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_cleaning",
"rank": 21,
"score": 101395
},
{
"content": "Title: Glasshouse (The Temptations song) Content: `` Glasshouse '' is a 1975 R&B single by The Temptations . It was written by Motown songwriting team Charlemagne , which consisted of James Carmichael , Ronald Miller and Kathy Wakefield . The song appeared on the album A Song for You . All five Temptations alternate lead vocals , singing about how people who live in glasshouses `` should n't throw no stones '' . It was the last top forty hit for The Temptations , going to number thirty-seven pop and number nine on the R&B charts .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Glasshouse_(The_Temptations_song)",
"rank": 22,
"score": 100958
},
{
"content": "Title: Glasshouse (British Army) Content: Glasshouse , or the Glasshouse , is the term for a military prison in the United Kingdom . The first military prisons were established in 1844 . The term Glasshouse originated from the military prison at Aldershot , which had a glazed roof . Over time , the word Glasshouse came to be applied to all military prisons . Aldershot prison , which was also called the Detention Barracks , had begun as several barracks in 1856 , before being replaced by a single , large building , modelled on the then civilian prison system in 1870 . This building was destroyed by fire in a riot of 1946 when the prisoners ( labeled as ` mutineers ' in the press ) were protesting about their rations and conditions given that the Second World War was over . Glasshouses gained a reputation for brutality , as depicted in Allan Campbell McLean 's novel , The Glass House and the Sean Connery film , The Hill . Today , the British Army has only one remaining correction facility , the Military Corrective Training Centre at Colchester . Whilst the MCTC is not a prison , it is inspected by the Justice Inspectorate and any serviceperson convicted of a crime that warrants prison time , will be sent to the MCTC for processing , before being sent to a civilian prison . The MCTC at Colchester was featured in a Channel 4 documentary in 1994 ( The Glasshouse ) which prompted an Early day motion in the House of Commons over the inmates having access to ammunition and weapons ( as part of normal military drill . ) This was because the government at the time , were seeking to use the MCTC as a model for youth custody in civilian prisons . ITV Anglia also produced a TV-documentary series , The Real Red Caps , ( 2003 ) .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Glasshouse_(British_Army)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 100682
},
{
"content": "Title: Sheffield Winter Garden Content: Sheffield Winter Garden in the city of Sheffield in South Yorkshire is one of the largest temperate glasshouses to be built in the UK during the last hundred years , and the largest urban glasshouse anywhere in Europe . It is home to more than 2,000 plants from all around the world . It was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 22 May 2003 . Part of the # 120 million Heart of the City regeneration project that has created the Peace Gardens and the # 15 million Millennium Galleries , the Winter Garden was designed by Pringle Richards Sharratt Architects and Buro Happold and is some 70 m long and 21 m high . The building has background frost protection to minimum of 4 degrees Celsius and it is one of the largest Glued Laminated Timber or `` Glulam '' buildings in the UK ( Glulam is made by forming and gluing strips of timber into specific shapes ) . The wood used is Larch , a durable timber which will , over time , turn a light silvery grey colour . The larch , derived from sustainable forests , requires no preservatives or coatings . This reduces the use of solvents and also avoids the use of chemicals that could kill the plants . It has an intelligent Building Management System which controls fans and vents to make sure the plants are cooled in summer and kept warm in winter . The system will `` learn '' year-on-year . The bedding plants are changed five times a year , to give a seasonal change , and all the plants are watered by hose or by watering can , as it is the only way to ensure that all the plants get the correct amount of water .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Sheffield_Winter_Garden",
"rank": 24,
"score": 100669
},
{
"content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Keith_E._Idso",
"rank": 25,
"score": 100358
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 26,
"score": 99991
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 27,
"score": 99599
},
{
"content": "Title: Season extension Content: In agriculture , season extension refers to anything that allows a crop to be grown and harvested beyond its normal outdoor growing season and harvesting window . For colder climates , the fully heated and artificially lit greenhouse is the ultimate season extension device , allowing some crops to be grown year-round , through sub-zero winters . An energy-expensive approach . There are many other ways to beat the cold , for earlier spring planting and growing into the fall and winter : Row covers : Light fabric placed over plants retains heat and can offer up to several degrees of frost protection . In smaller gardens almost any type of cover , including newspaper cones , miscellaneous bits of plastic , etc. , can serve the same purpose . Hoop houses : Plastic sheeting is placed over a frame ( usually in an arced shape ) , to create a type of greenhouse . Hoophouses can be large or small , simple or nearly as functional as greenhouses . Cold frames : Transparent-roofed enclosure , built low to the ground , used to protect plants from cold weather . Cold frames are found in home gardens and in vegetable farming . They are most often used for growing seedlings that are later transplanted into open ground . Hotbeds : A mass of hot compost is used for the heat it gives off to warm a nearby plant . Typically a few centimeters of soil are placed on top of the compost mass , and the plant grows there , above the rising heat . Mulches : Any material placed on the soil around plants will help retain heat . Organic mulches include straw , compost , etc. . Synthetic mulches , typically , plastic sheeting with slits through which plants grow , is used extensively in large-scale vegetable growing . Raised beds : Beds where the soil has been loosened and piled a few inches to over a foot above the surrounding ground heat up more quickly in spring , allowing earlier planting . Season extension techniques are most effective when combined with crop varieties selected for the extended growing conditions . Many approaches are used in large-scale agriculture , as well as in small-scale organic farming , and home gardening . Using unheated , unlit methods , depending on the crop , up to several weeks of productivity can be added , where shortened period of sunlight and cold weather end the growing season . Season extension can apply to other climates , where conditions other than cold and shortened period of sunlight end the growing year ( e.g. a rainy season ) .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Season_extension",
"rank": 28,
"score": 98883
},
{
"content": "Title: Richard Turner (iron-founder) Content: Richard Turner ( 1798 -- 1881 ) was an Irish iron founder and manufacturer of glasshouses , born in Dublin . His works included the Palm House at Kew Gardens ( with Decimus Burton ) , the glasshouse in the Winter Gardens at Regent 's Park in London , the Palm House at Belfast Botanic Gardens and the Curvilinear Range at the Irish National Botanic Gardens , Glasnevin , Ireland . He was a pioneer in the structural use of wrought iron . The glasshouses which he designed were sophisticated and innovative , as the use of wrought and cast iron was at the leading edge of building technology at the time . He used standardised components and prefabricated elements manufactured off-site for later assembly , together with curved glass in long lengths . Turner designed and constructed the railway sheds at Westland Row and at the Broadstone in Dublin , and Lime Street in Liverpool , but also turned his hand to the design and manufacture of railings , boilers , cisterns and bedsteads . His entry in Thom 's directory for 1849 describes him as ` manufacturer of wrought-iron gates , railway conservatories , hothouses etc. , and hot water engineer ' , indicating the broad range of activities which the firm undertook . Turner entered the initial competition for designs for the London International Exhibition of 1851 and out of 233 entries was jointly awarded the second prize along with an entry by Hector Horeau . The final built design was `` The Crystal Palace '' by Joseph Paxton .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Richard_Turner_(iron-founder)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 98436
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 30,
"score": 98152
},
{
"content": "Title: Walter Nicol Content: Walter Nicol ( 20 April 1769 - 5 March 1811 ) was a Scottish garden and hothouse designer , who wrote several books on practical horticulture . Nicol was born in Niddrie . He was employed at a number of estates in Scotland and improved the design and layout of gardens and glasshouses . Nicol is in particular responsible for the walled garden layout at Dalhousie Castle in Midlothian .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Walter_Nicol",
"rank": 31,
"score": 97983
},
{
"content": "Title: Sylvan Wittwer Content: Sylvan Harold Wittwer ( January 17 , 1917 -- January 20 , 2012 ) was an American agronomist who served as director of the agricultural experiment station at Michigan State University . Wittwer was born in 1917 in Hurricane , Utah . He received his bachelor 's degree at Utah State University and his doctors degree from the University of Missouri . Wittwer developed a chemical known as Gibberellins . He wrote Feeding a Billion ( 1987 ) and Food , Climate , and Carbon Dioxide : The Global Environment and World Food Production ( 1995 ) . Another book he wrote was Greenhouse Tomatoes , Lettuce and Cucumber ( 1979 ) . Wittwer served as the first president of the Lansing Michigan Stake of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( LDS Church ) beginning in 1962 . Wittwer had also served as the first bishop of the church 's Lansing Ward beginning in 1952 . Wittwer was a member of the board of the Greening Earth Society and the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Wittwer authored `` Feeding a Billion '' in 1987 published by Michigan State University Press with cover design by Lynne Brown Wittwer was on the board of directors of Deseret Valley Academy , an anticipated independent LDS liberal arts college .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Sylvan_Wittwer",
"rank": 32,
"score": 97864
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 33,
"score": 97419
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 34,
"score": 97312
},
{
"content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Amorphous_carbonia",
"rank": 35,
"score": 96380
},
{
"content": "Title: Forsyth Barr Stadium Content: The Forsyth Barr Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in Dunedin , New Zealand . At various stages of development it was also known as Dunedin Stadium or Awatea Street Stadium , or its non-commercial official name during the 2011 Rugby World Cup and 2015 FIFA U-20 World Cup , Otago Stadium . It is also known colloquially as ` the glasshouse ' due to its resemblance to a horticultural hothouse . The stadium was opened by New Zealand Prime Minister John Key on 5 August 2011 , replacing Carisbrook as the home stadium of the Highlanders team in Super Rugby and the Otago in the domestic ITM Cup . The stadium hosted four matches of the 2011 Rugby World Cup , and after hosting Elton John in November 2011 hosted more major music events in April 2013 , when Aerosmith and Paul Simon performed in New Zealand for the first time .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Forsyth_Barr_Stadium",
"rank": 36,
"score": 95472
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_laser",
"rank": 37,
"score": 95040
},
{
"content": "Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "C3_carbon_fixation",
"rank": 38,
"score": 94956
},
{
"content": "Title: Carl David Bouché Content: Carl David Bouché ( 4 June 1809 -- 27 September 1881 ) was a German botanist and gardener . He served as Inspector ( technical director ) of the Royal Botanic Garden in Berlin from 1843 to 1881 . Bouché described 107 plant species . Bouché was a member of a prominent family of botanists and gardeners . His grandfather , Jean David Bouché ( 1747 -- 1819 ) , a Berlin nurseryman of French origin , installed glasshouses which became popular with the Prussian nobility . His uncle , Peter Friedrich Bouché ( 1785 -- 1856 ) , and father Peter Karl Bouché ( 1783 -- 1856 ) continued the business . Peter Karl was also a student of Carl Ludwig Willdenow .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carl_David_Bouché",
"rank": 39,
"score": 94850
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas D. Sharkey (plant biochemist) Content: Thomas D. Sharkey is a plant biochemist who studies gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere . His research has covered ( 1 ) carbon metabolism of photosynthesis from carbon dioxide uptake to carbon export from the Calvin-Benson Cycle , ( 2 ) isoprene emission from plants , and ( 3 ) abiotic stress tolerance . Four guiding questions are : ( 1 ) how leaf photosynthesis affects plant yield , ( 2 ) does some carbon fixation follow an oxidative pathway that reduces sugar output but stabilizes photosynthesis , ( 3 ) why plants make isoprene , and ( 4 ) how plants cope with high temperature .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Thomas_D._Sharkey_(plant_biochemist)",
"rank": 40,
"score": 94211
},
{
"content": "Title: Wavertree Botanic Gardens Content: Wavertree Botanic Gardens ( formerly Wavertree Botanic Garden and Park ) is an example of a mid 19th century public park . It incorporates an earlier walled botanic garden , founded by William Roscoe as Liverpool Botanic Garden and relocated from land near Mount Pleasant in the 1830s . The gardens include the Grade II curator 's lodge built between 1836-1837 . On 20 November 1940 a stray German bomb caused all the glass in the botanic glasshouse to be broken , the plants inside were shredded . As it was winter , everyone helped remove the surviving plants into nearby private glasshouses until the war ended . The Orchids were located at Sudley House . The botanic glasshouse was never reinstated after the war , but due to the major efforts by Percy Conn , the new Superintendent of Liverpool Parks , who had the vision to revive the work of William Roscoe & John Shepherd ( horticulturalist ) in the Mount Pleasant days , the Liverpool Botanic Garden arose anew in the Harthill Estate grounds at Calderstones Park . On 22 August 2013 the botanic park and gardens were listed at Grade II * in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . In 1886 the International Exhibition of Navigation , Commerce and Industry was held here .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Wavertree_Botanic_Gardens",
"rank": 41,
"score": 94115
},
{
"content": "Title: Repressuring Content: Repressuring is the method by which the pressure inside a crude oil well is increased so as to increase the output of the well . Pumping crude oil from a reservoir causes its pressure to drop , which further reduces pumpability . Returning the natural gas or other inert gases to the oil well increases the pumpability of the crude present inside the well by decreasing its viscosity and density . In one instance , slower rate of oil production and recycling of natural gas at 9.6 MPa enabled a net recovery of 70 % of the oil originally present . Although recovery can be increased even by repressuring with air , air is seldom used because it causes an inferior quality of product . Instead carbon dioxide or natural gas itself is used so as to not only increase the recovery from the oil well but also to maintain the high quality of the product .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Repressuring",
"rank": 42,
"score": 93850
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning",
"rank": 43,
"score": 93548
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 44,
"score": 93490
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 45,
"score": 93222
},
{
"content": "Title: Temperate House Content: The Temperate House , opened in 1862 , is a Grade I-listed showhouse for Kew 's largest plants . Rectangular , with pitched roofs , its pillars support wrought-iron ribs . Decimus Burton , the designer , gave the House a mix of decorative motifs , finials , pediments , acanthus leaf capitals , Coade stone urns and statues . According to Greg Redwood , Kew 's head of glasshouses , `` The effect is similar to the contemporary iron pier pavilions of Eugenius Birch . '' It was positioned to be the first feature visitors saw as they entered the gates with the anticipated coming of the first railway station at Kew expected to be at the end of the adjacent avenue . However , Kew Gardens station ( London ) , was built 500 yards to the north - leaving the glasshouse `` somewhat stranded in the landscape '' . In 2011 Kew had to launch a # 15m public appeal to address needed repairs to the Temperate House . An early exercise in cast - and wrought-iron and glass construction , the building is structurally sound but the Victorians hid utilitarian features liked drainpipes inside the stone columns . Water round the edge of the building leads to rust on the iron to push against the masonry which is falling away . Decorative features made of wood are rotting . It last underwent a major restoration in the late 1970s .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Temperate_House",
"rank": 46,
"score": 92936
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming",
"rank": 47,
"score": 92921
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaliapparat Content: A kaliapparat is a laboratory device invented in 1831 by Justus von Liebig ( 1803 -- 1873 ) for the analysis of carbon in organic compounds . The device , made of glass , consists of a series of five bulbs connected and arranged in a triangular shape . To determine the carbon in an organic compound with a kaliapparat , the substance is first burned , converting any carbon present into carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The vaporous products are passed through the kaliapparat , which is filled with potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) solution . The potassium hydroxide reacts with the CO2 to make potassium carbonate . The reaction , ignoring ionic dissociation , can be written as follows : 2 KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O . Subtracting the mass of the kaliapparat before the combustion from that found after the combustion gives the amount of CO2 absorbed . From the mass of CO2 thus found , standard stoichiometric calculations then give the mass of carbon in the original sample . A stylized symbol of a kaliapparat is used in the American Chemical Society logo , originally designed in the early 20th century by Tiffany 's Jewelers .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Kaliapparat",
"rank": 48,
"score": 92845
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 49,
"score": 92838
},
{
"content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 50,
"score": 92655
},
{
"content": "Title: Enid A. Haupt Glass Garden Content: The Enid A. Haupt Glass Garden was built in 1958 as part of the Rusk Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine at New York University Medical Center . It provides horticultural therapy for patients , but is also open to the public . It is contained in a 17000 sqft greenhouse at 34th Street and First Avenue in New York City . The garden was gift from Enid A. Haupt .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Enid_A._Haupt_Glass_Garden",
"rank": 51,
"score": 92427
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 52,
"score": 92370
},
{
"content": "Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 53,
"score": 92277
},
{
"content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 54,
"score": 91472
},
{
"content": "Title: Biological pump Content: The biological pump , in its simplest form , is the ocean 's biologically driven sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere to deep sea water and sediment . It is the part of the oceanic carbon cycle responsible for the cycling of organic matter formed mainly by phytoplankton during photosynthesis ( soft-tissue pump ) , as well as the cycling of calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) formed into shells by certain organisms such as plankton and mollusks ( carbonate pump ) .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Biological_pump",
"rank": 55,
"score": 91430
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 56,
"score": 91430
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Charles_David_Keeling",
"rank": 57,
"score": 91304
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Content: The Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum ( CSLF ) is an international initiative to advance carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) technology . The Forum is a Ministerial-level organization that includes 23 member countries and the European Commission . Membership is open to national governmental entities that are significant producers or users of fossil fuel and that have a commitment to invest resources in research , development and demonstration activities in carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies . CSLF also recognizes that stakeholders , those organizations that are affected by and can affect the goals of CSLF , form an essential component of CSLF activities . The CSLF Charter , signed in June 2003 , organized the CSLF by creating a Policy Group , which governs the overall framework and policies of the CSLF , a Technical Group , which reviews the progress of collaborative projects and makes recommendations to the Policy Group on any needed actions , and an administrative Secretariat , which organizes CSLF meetings , coordinates communications among CSLF Members , and acts as a clearinghouse of information . In July 2005 , the G8 Summit endorsed the CSLF in its Plan of Action on Climate Change , Clean Energy and Sustainable Development , and identified it as a medium of cooperation and collaboration with key developing countries in dealing with greenhouse gases . Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include : the joint statement of the U.S.-European Union Summit on Energy Security , Energy Efficiency , Renewables and Economic Development , and the Mainz Declaration of Germany and the United States on Cleaner and More Efficient Energy , Development and Climate Change . In 2006 and 2007 , the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage . Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders . The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO2 capture , transport and storage research and activities .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum",
"rank": 58,
"score": 90947
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 59,
"score": 90846
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecohouse Content: An Eco-house ( or eco-home ) is an environmentally low-impact home designed and built using materials and technology that reduces its carbon footprint and lowers its energy needs . This includes : Glass that has two or three layers with a vacuum in between to prevent heat loss ; Solar panels or wind turbines ; Geothermal heating and growing plants on the roof to regulate temperature , quieten the house , and to produce oxygen ; A Vegetable patch outside the house for some food The concept of an eco-house means a dwelling that has a low impact on the environment .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Ecohouse",
"rank": 60,
"score": 90784
},
{
"content": "Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "The_Green_Initiative",
"rank": 61,
"score": 90567
},
{
"content": "Title: Alberta Carbon Trunk Line Content: The Alberta Carbon Trunk Line ( ACTL ) is a 240 km pipeline in its construction stages that will collect excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the province of Alberta and transport it to various oil reservoirs around the province for enhanced oil recovery applications . Pioneered by Enhance Energy , the ACTL will source its CO2 from a fertilizer manufacturing plant in Redwater , and the North West Redwater Partnership bitumen upgrading plant using gasification . It will initially funnel the collected CO2 to Clive , a field discovered in the 1950s and currently produces about 300 barrels per day .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Alberta_Carbon_Trunk_Line",
"rank": 62,
"score": 90510
},
{
"content": "Title: Glassy carbon Content: Glass-like carbon , often called glassy carbon or vitreous carbon , is a non-graphitizing , or nongraphitizable , carbon which combines glassy and ceramic properties with those of graphite . The most important properties are high temperature resistance , hardness ( 7 Mohs ) , low density , low electrical resistance , low friction , low thermal resistance , extreme resistance to chemical attack and impermeability to gases and liquids . Glassy carbon is widely used as an electrode material in electrochemistry , as well as for high temperature crucibles and as a component of some prosthetic devices , and can be fabricated as different shapes , sizes and sections . The names glassy carbon and vitreous carbon have been introduced as trademarks ; therefore , IUPAC does not recommend their use as technical terms . Vitreous carbon can also be produced as a foam . It is then called reticulated vitreous carbon ( RVC ) . This foam was first developed in the mid to late 1960s as a thermally insulating , microporous glassy carbon electrode material . RVC foam is a strong , inert , electrically and thermally conductive , and corrosion resistant porous form of carbon with a low resistance to gas and fluid flow . Due to these characteristics , the most widespread scientific use of RVC is in electrochemistry ( Sumita , 1985 ; Friedrich et al. , 2004 ; Rogulski et al. , 2004 ) . Additionally , RVC foams are characterized by an exceptionally high void volume , high surface area , and very high thermal resistance in non-oxidising environments , which allows for heat sterilization and facilitates manipulation in biological applications .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Glassy_carbon",
"rank": 63,
"score": 90416
},
{
"content": "Title: Glasshouse (novel) Content: Glasshouse is a science fiction novel by British author Charles Stross , first published in 2006 . The novel is set in the twenty seventh century aboard a spacecraft adrift in interstellar space . Robin , the protagonist , has recently had his memory erased . He agrees to take part in an experiment , during which he is placed inside a model of a late twentieth/early twenty-first century Euroamerican society . Robin is given a new identity and body , specifically that of a woman named `` Reeve '' . Major themes of this novel are identity , gender determinism , self-image - and conformity . Contrary to popular belief , it is not a sequel to his 2005 novel Accelerando , although Stross has stated that the two novels are not obviously incompatible . Glasshouse won the Prometheus Award for 2007 , and was nominated for the Hugo , Campbell , and Locus Awards in 2007 .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Glasshouse_(novel)",
"rank": 64,
"score": 90408
},
{
"content": "Title: Glass House Mountains, Queensland Content: Glass House Mountains ( also spelled Glasshouse Mountains ) is a hinterland town and locality of the Sunshine Coast Region , Queensland , Australia , named after the famous Glass House Mountains of the area . Colloquially it is often known simply as `` Glasshouse '' . At the 2011 census , Glass House Mountains had a population of 4,791 .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Glass_House_Mountains,_Queensland",
"rank": 65,
"score": 90192
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 66,
"score": 88675
},
{
"content": "Title: Gasogene Content: The gasogene ( or gazogene or seltzogene ) is a late Victorian device for producing carbonated water . It consists of two linked glass globes : the lower contained water or other drink to be made sparkling , the upper a mixture of tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate that reacts to produce carbon dioxide . The produced gas pushes the liquid in the lower container up a tube and out of the device . The globes are surrounded by a wicker or wire protective mesh , as they have a tendency to explode . The earliest occurrence of the word noted in the Oxford English Dictionary dates from 1853 , quoting a reference in Practical Mechanic 's Journal on `` Gaillard and Dubois ' ` Gazogene ' or Aerated Water apparatus '' . A gasogene is mentioned as a residential fixture at 221B Baker Street in Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes story A Scandal in Bohemia : `` With hardly a word spoken , but with a kindly eye , he waved me to an armchair , threw across his case of cigars , and indicated a spirit case and a gasogene in the corner . '' The device plays a key role in Bernard Shaw 's 1905 comic play Passion , Poison , and Petrifaction , Or The Fatal Gazogene .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Gasogene",
"rank": 67,
"score": 88557
},
{
"content": "Title: Head gardener Content: The head gardener ( also known as a curator ) or as a Master Gardener is an individual who manages the staff of a large garden , landscape or park , such as a residential garden , botanical garden , theme park , public park , museum or roadside embankments and islands . A head gardener 's responsibility may therefore cross over into the managing of or communicating with individuals from other disciplines , such as landscaping , construction and cooking and not be limited to gardening , the activity of growing and maintaining the garden . A large or stately property may include several different types of garden , such as the formal garden ( also English garden ) , lawns , white garden , Japanese garden , miniature or bonsai garden , tropical garden , cold climate garden , rockery , fernery , water garden , herb garden , orchard , and the management of related buildings and setups such as greenhouses ( hothouses , glasshouses and shadehouses ) , water features and aquaria . A head gardener may also be the directing gardener on a lifestyle television show ; compare celebrity gardener .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Head_gardener",
"rank": 68,
"score": 88422
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 69,
"score": 88220
},
{
"content": "Title: Enhanced coal bed methane recovery Content: Enhanced coal bed methane recovery is a method of producing additional coalbed methane from a source rock , similar to enhanced oil recovery applied to oil fields . Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) injected into a bituminous coal bed would occupy pore space and also adsorb onto the carbon in the coal at approximately twice the rate of methane ( CH4 ) , allowing for potential enhanced gas recovery . This technique may be used in conjunction with carbon capture and storage in mitigation of global warming where the carbon dioxide that is sequestered is captured from the output of fossil fuel power plants . A research project at ETH Zurich is studying the process of pumping carbon dioxide into unminable coal seams and recovering the methane that is subsequently displaced . An extensive experimental investigation about the process of desorbing methane by adsorbing carbon dioxide in real coal samples was performed . The proof of principle and the technical feasibility of the method could be verified with these measurements . These research results indicate that CBM can become an alternative to conventional natural gas . ECBM provides additional to CBM the advantage of long-term CO2 storage in the underground coal seams . However , without other incentives , enhanced coal bed methane recovery is not economical as the commercial value of the released methane does not completely offset the cost of pumping . Penetration of CO2 into coal is simulated using a stress-enhanced diffusion model .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Enhanced_coal_bed_methane_recovery",
"rank": 70,
"score": 88206
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 71,
"score": 88085
},
{
"content": "Title: Crop yield Content: In agriculture , crop yield ( also known as `` agricultural output '' ) refers to both the measure of the yield of a crop per unit area of land cultivation , and the seed generation of the plant itself ( e.g. if three grains are harvested for each grain seeded , the resulting yield is 1:3 ) . The figure , 1:3 is considered by agronomists as the minimum required to sustain human life . One of the three seeds must be set aside for the next planting season , the remaining two either consumed by the grower , or one for human consumption and the other for livestock feed . The higher the surplus , the more livestock can be established and maintained , thereby increasing the physical and economic well-being of the farmer and his family . This , in turn , resulted in better stamina , better over-all health , and better , more efficient work . In addition , the more the surplus the more draft animals -- horse and oxen -- could be supported and harnessed to work , and manure , the soil thereby easing the farmer 's burden . Increased crop yields meant few hands were needed on farm , freeing them for industry and commerce . This , in turn , led to the formation and growth of cities . Formation and growth of cities meant an increased demand for food stuffs by non-farmers , and their willingness to pay for it . This , in turn , led the farmer to ( further ) innovation , more intensive farming , the demand/creation of new and/or improved farming implements , and a quest for improved seed which improved crop yield . Thus allowing the farmer to raise his income by bringing more food to non-farming ( city ) markets .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Crop_yield",
"rank": 72,
"score": 88072
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 73,
"score": 88049
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_scrubber",
"rank": 74,
"score": 88012
},
{
"content": "Title: Sherwood B. Idso Content: Sherwood B. Idso ( born June 12 , 1942 ) is the president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization . Prior to that time he was a Research Physicist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Agricultural Research Service at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix , Arizona , where he worked since June 1967 . He was also closely associated with Arizona State University over most of this period , serving as an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Geology , Geography , and Botany and Microbiology . His two sons , Craig and Keith , are , respectively , the founder and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . Idso is the author or co-author of over 500 publications including the books Carbon Dioxide : Friend or Foe ? ( 1982 ) and Carbon Dioxide and Global Change : Earth in Transition ( 1989 ) . He served on the editorial board of the international journal Agricultural and Forest Meteorology from 1973 to 1993 and since 1993 has served on the editorial board of Environmental and Experimental Botany . Over the course of his career , he has been an invited reviewer of manuscripts for 56 different scientific journals and 17 different funding agencies , representing an unusually large array of disciplines . He is an ISI highly cited researcher .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Sherwood_B._Idso",
"rank": 75,
"score": 87933
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 76,
"score": 87854
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel",
"rank": 77,
"score": 87822
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 78,
"score": 87714
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_shifting",
"rank": 79,
"score": 87642
},
{
"content": "Title: Gas reinjection Content: Gas reinjection is the reinjection of natural gas into an underground reservoir , typically one already containing both natural gas and crude oil , in order to increase the pressure within the reservoir and thus induce the flow of crude oil or else sequester gas that can not be exported . This is not to be confused with gas lift , where gas is injected into the annulus of the well rather than the reservoir . After the crude has been pumped out , the natural gas is once again recovered . Since many of the wells found around the world contain heavy crude , this process increases their production . The basic difference between light crude and heavy crude is its viscosity and pumpability - the lighter the crude the easier it is to pump . Recovery of hydrocarbons in a well is generally limited to 50 % ( heavy crudes ) and 75-80 % ( light crudes ) . Recycling of natural gas or other inert gases causes the pressure to rise in the well , thus causing more gas molecules to dissolve in the oil lowering its viscosity and thereby increasing the well 's output . Air is not suitable for repressuring wells because it tends to cause deterioration of the oil , thus carbon dioxide or natural gas is used to repressure the well . The term ` gas-reinjection ' is also sometimes referred to as repressuring -- the term being used only to imply that the pressure inside the well is being increased to aid recovery . Injection or reinjection of carbon dioxide also takes place in order to reduce the emission of CO2 into the atmosphere , a form of carbon sequestration . This has been proposed as a method to combat climate change , allowing mass storage of CO2 over a geological timescale . Reinjection of carbon dioxide in the Norwegian Sleipner gas field saves the operators 1 million Norwegian Kroners per day in national carbon taxes .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Gas_reinjection",
"rank": 80,
"score": 87611
},
{
"content": "Title: Glass enclosure Content: A glass enclosure is an enclosure made mostly out of glass and may more specifically refer to : A container or cage such as a fish tank , terrarium , etc. . A building , such as a greenhouse ( or glasshouse ) , that may or may not have a curtain wall Display case Casing around an object , such as a light bulb , LED , fuse ( electrical ) , vacuum tube , glass case in electronic packaging , etc. ( and at the top of a lighthouse , a lantern , the Popemobile , etc. . )",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Glass_enclosure",
"rank": 81,
"score": 87591
},
{
"content": "Title: Plant factory Content: A plant factory is a closed growing system which enables a farmer ( agrotechnician ) to achieve constant production of vegetables all year around . The facility utilizes artificial control of light , temperature , moisture , and carbon dioxide concentrations .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Plant_factory",
"rank": 82,
"score": 87502
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 83,
"score": 87178
},
{
"content": "Title: List of carbon ranches Content: This is a working list of Carbon Ranches a term referring to regenerative agriculture practices that specifically accomplish carbon sequestration in the soil . `` The world 's cultivated soils have lost between 50 and 70 percent of their original carbon stock . '' ( Lal ) `` A mere two percent increase in the carbon content of the planet 's soils could offset 100 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions going into the atmosphere . '' ( Lal ) Grasslands cover 350 billion hectares , comprising 70 % of global agricultural land making carbon ranching an especially climate beneficial alternative to meat produced as part of a Concentrated animal feeding operation . Carbon ranching may include , but is not limited to Managed intensive rotational grazing , Compost application , Holistic management ( agriculture ) and Tree planting . There are many research groups and NGO 's studying and advancing this field including Arizona State University , The Carbon Cycle Institute , Holistic Management International , The Ohio State University , The Quivira Coalition , The Savory Institute , The Soil Carbon Coalition , Texas A&M University . This list does not necessarily reflect scientific or academic endorsements insofar as best practices and results vary across ranches , climates , time periods , and sources of funding and are therefore challenging to quantify and/or compare . Currently , confirmation of the carbon ranching designation is confirmed through either third party citation or Soil Organic Matter test result .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "List_of_carbon_ranches",
"rank": 84,
"score": 87058
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 85,
"score": 86842
},
{
"content": "Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Maximilian_Auffhammer",
"rank": 86,
"score": 86698
},
{
"content": "Title: Planktology Content: Planktology is the study of plankton , various small drifting plants , animals and microorganisms that inhabit bodies of water . Planktology topics include primary production , energy flow and the carbon cycle . Plankton drive the `` biological pump '' , a process by which the ocean ecosystem transports carbon from the surface euphotic zone to the ocean 's depths . Such processes are vital to carbon dioxide sinks , one of several possibilities for countering global warming . Modern planktology includes behavioral aspects of drifting organisms , engaging modern in situ imaging devices . Some planktology projects allow the public to participate online , such as the Longterm Ecological Observatory .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Planktology",
"rank": 87,
"score": 86561
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 88,
"score": 86517
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 89,
"score": 86323
},
{
"content": "Title: Glass House (Budapest) Content: The Glass House ( Üvegház ) was a building used by the Swiss diplomat Carl Lutz to help Jews in Budapest during the Holocaust .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Glass_House_(Budapest)",
"rank": 90,
"score": 86128
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles Thilorier Content: Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier was a student at the École polytechnique in the class / year of 1815 , who was mistakenly believed to have been the first person to create solid carbon dioxide ( `` dry ice '' ) . Actually , a French inventor , Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier ( 1790 -- 1844 ) , discovered dry ice . Unfortunately , in almost all of his technical articles , Adrien Thilorier gave his name simply as `` Thilorier '' ; similarly , whenever others referred to him in technical articles , his name was also given only as `` Thilorier '' . This impeded efforts by scholars to identify him subsequently . The confusion was compounded when Paul Thénard wrote a biography of his father , Louis Thénard , a French chemist : In 1835 , Adrien Thilorier had created dry ice by spraying liquid carbon dioxide into a glass vessel . He had thought that the dry ice was merely snow ; that is , water vapor from the atmosphere which had condensed as a result of the cold that the evaporation of the liquid carbon dioxide had produced . Louis Thénard had explained to Thilorier that his `` snow '' was actually solidified carbon dioxide . In a footnote of Louis Thénard 's biography , Paul Thénard identified the `` Thilorier '' who discovered dry ice as `` Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier '' , a student at the École polytechnique in the class of 1815 . This ( mistaken ) identification was mentioned by Duane H. D. Roller , a graduate student at Harvard University , in a paper that was published in 1952 . Consequently , many sources claim that Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier discovered dry ice . Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier was an employee of the French Post Office in Paris who invented , among other things , an oil lamp , a gas compressor , and an apparatus for producing liquid carbon dioxide . It was a French scholar who revealed that he had discovered dry ice . During the 1960s , Madeleine Ambrière-Fargeaud , a scholar in France , was trying to identify the person who served as the model for a `` mad scientist '' character , Balthazar Claës , in Honoré de Balzac 's novel La Recherche de l'absolu ( The Quest of the Absolute ) . Her research suggested that Claës was inspired ( in part ) by Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier . By 2003 , Joost Mertens , a Dutch historian of science , had verified many of the findings that Ms. Ambrière-Fargeaud had made about Thilorier . That `` Thilorier '' is actually Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier is proved by French government documents , especially patents . In 1826 , he was granted a patent for a `` hydrostatic lamp '' ; the patent lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' of Paris . His 1831 patent for a gas compressor also lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and describes him as an employee of the `` Administration des postes '' ( i.e. , the Post Office ) in Paris . In 1832 , the Bulletin of the laws of the kingdom of France also lists him as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and as an employee of the Post Office , who resided at number 21 on the Place Vendôme in Paris , and as the inventor of a gas compressor .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Charles_Thilorier",
"rank": 91,
"score": 85973
},
{
"content": "Title: Glass House Point Content: Glass House Point in James City County , Virginia is the northern terminus of the Jamestown Ferry , which was relocated there as part of the development of Jamestown for the celebration the 350th anniversary in 1957 . The state-operated ferry service crosses the James River to Scotland in Surry County . It is named for the Jamestown Glasshouse , a popular exhibit at Jamestown operated by the National Park Service . Category : Geography of James City County , Virginia",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Glass_House_Point",
"rank": 92,
"score": 85703
},
{
"content": "Title: Glass recycling Content: Glass recycling is the processing of waste glass into usable products . Glass waste should be separated by chemical composition , and then , depending on the end use and local processing capabilities , might also have to be separated into different colors . Many recyclers collect different colors of glass separately since glass retains its color after recycling . The most common types used for consumer containers are colorless glass , green glass , and brown/amber glass . Glass is ideal for recycling since none of the material is degraded by normal use . Glass makes up a large component of household and industrial waste due to its weight and density . The glass component in municipal waste is usually made up of bottles , broken glassware , light bulbs and other items . Adding to this waste is the fact that many manual methods of creating glass objects have a defect rate of around forty percent . Glass recycling uses less energy than manufacturing glass from sand , lime and soda . Every metric ton ( 1,000 kg ) of waste glass recycled into new items saves 315 kg of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere during the creation of new glass . Glass that is crushed and ready to be remelted is called cullet . Many collection points have separate bins for clear , green and amber . Glass reprocessors that intend to make glass containers require separation by color , because glass tends to retain its color after recycling . If the recycled glass is intended for other products , or if the glass reprocessor uses newer optical sorting equipment , separation by color at the collection point may not be required . Heat-resistant glass like Pyrex or borosilicate glass should not be disposed of in the glass container as even a single piece of such material will alter the viscosity of the fluid in the furnace at remelt .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Glass_recycling",
"rank": 93,
"score": 85695
},
{
"content": "Title: University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden Content: The University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden ( Botanisk have ) , usually referred to simply as Copenhagen Botanical Garden , is a botanical garden located in the centre of Copenhagen , Denmark . It covers an area of 10 hectares and is particularly noted for its extensive complex of historical glasshouses dating from 1874 . The garden is part of the Natural History Museum of Denmark , which is itself part of the University of Copenhagen Faculty of Science . It serves both research , educational and recreational purposes .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "University_of_Copenhagen_Botanical_Garden",
"rank": 94,
"score": 85662
},
{
"content": "Title: Forest glass Content: Forest glass ( Waldglas in German ) is late Medieval glass produced in northwestern and central Europe from approximately 1000 -- 1700 AD using wood ash and sand as the main raw materials and made in factories known as glasshouses in forest areas . It is characterized by a variety of greenish-yellow colors , the earlier products often being of crude design and poor quality , and was used mainly for everyday vessels and increasingly for ecclesiastical stained glass windows . Its composition and manufacture contrast sharply with Roman and pre-Roman glassmaking centered on the Mediterranean and contemporaneous Islamic glass making to the east .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Forest_glass",
"rank": 95,
"score": 85575
},
{
"content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction",
"rank": 96,
"score": 85537
},
{
"content": "Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "C._Kumar_N._Patel",
"rank": 97,
"score": 85513
},
{
"content": "Title: The Glass House (band) Content: The Glass House was an American R&B / soul group from Detroit , Michigan . The Glass House was an assembly of house musicians put together by Holland-Dozier-Holland for their Invictus Records label in 1969 . The group was led by Ty Hunter and included Scherrie Payne , sister of soul singer Freda Payne . The group released two full-length albums and had a string of chart hits through 1972 , but once their popularity had dried up , Invictus dissolved the group . Shortly thereafter , Ty Hunter and Scherrie Payne joined the Motown roster . Ty joined the singing group The Originals . Scherrie Payne joined The Supremes .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "The_Glass_House_(band)",
"rank": 98,
"score": 85365
},
{
"content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme",
"rank": 99,
"score": 85262
},
{
"content": "Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .",
"qid": "198",
"docid": "Stuart_Agnew",
"rank": 100,
"score": 85234
}
] |
In the past, warming has never been a threat to life on Earth. | [
{
"content": "Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "United_Nations_Ocean_Conference",
"rank": 1,
"score": 99149
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Earth_2100",
"rank": 2,
"score": 89952
},
{
"content": "Title: Life on Mars Content: The possibility of life on Mars is a subject of significant interest to astrobiology due to the planet 's proximity and similarities to Earth . To date no proof has been found of past or present life on Mars . However , cumulative evidence is now building that the ancient surface environment of Mars had liquid water and may have been habitable for microorganisms . The existence of habitable conditions does not necessarily indicate the presence of life . Scientific searches for evidence of life began in the 19th century , and they continue today via telescopic investigations and landed missions . While early work focused on phenomenology and bordered on fantasy , modern scientific inquiry has emphasized the search for water , chemical biosignatures in the soil and rocks at the planet 's surface , and biomarker gases in the atmosphere . On November 22 , 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars . The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior . Mars is of particular interest for the study of the origins of life because of its similarity to the early Earth . This is especially so since Mars has a cold climate , and lacks plate tectonics or continental drift , so it has remained almost unchanged since the end of the Hesperian period . At least two thirds of Mars 's surface is more than 3.5 billion years old , and Mars may thus hold the best record of the prebiotic conditions leading to abiogenesis , even if life does not or has never existed there . In May 2017 , evidence of the earliest known life on land on Earth may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old geyserite and other related mineral deposits ( often found around hot springs and geysers ) uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia . These findings may be helpful in deciding where best to search for early signs of life on the planet Mars . On January 24 , 2014 , NASA reported that the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers started searching for evidence of past life , including a biosphere based on autotrophic , chemotrophic , or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms , as well as ancient water , including fluvio-lacustrine environments ( plains related to ancient rivers or lakes ) that may have been habitable . The search for evidence of habitability , taphonomy ( related to fossils ) , and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Life_on_Mars",
"rank": 3,
"score": 87821
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth immune system Content: The Earth immune system is a controversial proposal , claimed to be a consequence of the Gaia hypothesis . The Gaia hypothesis holds that the entire earth may be considered a single organism ( Gaia ) . As a self-maintaining organism , Earth would have an immune system of some sort in order to maintain its health . Some proponents of this speculative concept , for example , hold that humankind can be considered an `` infection '' of Gaia , and that AIDS is an attempt by this immune system to reject the infection . `` Cancer '' might be a more accurate term , as humans evolved within Gaia , and are not external invaders . An opposite view is that humankind is Gaia 's immune system itself , perhaps evolved to avert future catastrophes such as the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions of species . James Lovelock 's book `` The Revenge of Gaia '' suggests that Gaia has many mechanisms for eliminating civilizations that do harm through greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , but suggests that with increasing heat being received from the sun , Gaia 's ability to `` bounce back '' as it did after the Permian and Cretaceous extinction events , may be increasingly compromised . Paul Hawken suggests in Blessed Unrest that when Earth is considered a living system then Earth 's immune system is made up of the million or so organizations all around the globe that are working for social justice , the environment , and indigenous people 's rights . Many of these groups are linked through the Internet and other means so there is a vast network of interconnected people and groups working to protect the planet , its people , and all beings . For example , one organization that serves to link groups working on sustainable energy is Inforse in Denmark .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Earth_immune_system",
"rank": 4,
"score": 84195
},
{
"content": "Title: Are We Changing Planet Earth? Content: Are We Changing Planet Earth ? and Can We Save Planet Earth ? are two programmes that form a documentary about global warming , presented by David Attenborough . They were first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 24 May and 1 June 2006 respectively . Part of a themed season by the BBC entitled `` Climate Chaos '' , the programmes were produced in conjunction with the Discovery Channel and the Open University . They were directed by Nicolas Brown and produced by Jeremy Bristow . The music was composed by Samuel Sim . Attenborough undertook the assignment in between his ` Life ' series Life in the Undergrowth and Life in Cold Blood . Around the same time , the naturalist also narrated Planet Earth .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Are_We_Changing_Planet_Earth?",
"rank": 5,
"score": 84168
},
{
"content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Reasons_for_concern",
"rank": 6,
"score": 84013
},
{
"content": "Title: A Friend of the Earth Content: T. Coraghessan Boyle 's novel A Friend of the Earth ( 2000 ) is a story of environmental destruction . The novel is set in 2025 ; as a result of global warming and the greenhouse effect , the climate has drastically changed , and , accordingly , biodiversity is a thing of the past .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "A_Friend_of_the_Earth",
"rank": 7,
"score": 83010
},
{
"content": "Title: Our Angry Earth Content: Our Angry Earth : A Ticking Ecological Bomb ( 1991 ) is a non-fiction book and polemic against the effects humankind is having on the environment by the science fiction writers Isaac Asimov and Frederik Pohl . In his last non-fiction book , Asimov co-writes with his long-time friend science fiction author Frederik Pohl , and deals with elements of the environmental crisis such as overpopulation , oil dependence , war , global warming and the destruction of the ozone layer . It suggests monumental disasters are threatening to destroy humankind and argues that `` it is too late to save our planet from harm '' . The book has four sections : `` The Background '' , `` The Problems '' , `` The Technocures '' and `` The Way to Go '' . It was first published by Tor Books in 1991 , ISBN 0-312-85252-5 .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Our_Angry_Earth",
"rank": 8,
"score": 81581
},
{
"content": "Title: Modern Mars habitability Content: One of the central questions of modern Astrobiology is whether there is , or ever has been life on Mars . Mars probably had oceans in the past , and it definitely had lakes and a thicker atmosphere . Modern Mars has become cold , dry , and almost uninhabitable , yet , if life did ever arise on Mars , some hardy microbes and perhaps even multicellular life might survive there right through to the present . The only missions to search for life on Mars , the two Viking missions , returned results that were inconclusive . However the instruments were not designed to cope with the unusual conditions which Viking discovered on Mars , which may have confused the results of the experiments . Also , they did n't know enough about Mars at that time to target the regions we now think are most likely to have present day life . Life would meet many challenges on present day Mars . Liquid water boils at 0 ° C , over much of its surface . Even at the depths of the Hellas basin , any water is close to its boiling point of 10 ° C and will dry out quickly . Ice also evaporates into the atmosphere over geological timescales - and most of the equatorial regions are thought to be dry to depths of tens of meters . As its axial tilt varies , Mars atmosphere is sometimes thicker , and liquid water may then form on the surface - but any dormant life in the top few meters of soil would be destroyed over periods of millions of years by cosmic radiation . However , in 2008 , droplets were observed on the landing legs of Phoenix . Sadly , there was no way to analyse them , but the leading hypothesis is that they were droplets of salty water . Phoenix also made isotopic measurements which show that the Mars atmosphere has exchanged oxygen molecules with liquid on the surface in the recent geological past . This could indicate either recent episodic occurrences of liquid water ( for instance after a meteorite strike ) or water present every year , in contact with the atmosphere . We now know of many seasonal changes in the surface of Mars which are only visible in high resolution photographs . Most of these are now thought to be caused by dry ice or wind effects . However , the `` Recurrent slope lineae '' , and some of the `` flow like features '' form in conditions that suggest the occasional presence of small quantities of water on Mars . The evidence of flowing brines in the RSLs is strong , though it 's not known if they are habitable . Curiosity has also found indirect evidence of a brine layer 15 cm below the sands that it drives over , though most scientists think that this layer is not habitable for Earth life . Recent Mars surface simulations by Nilton Renno and his team have shown that small droplets of water can form on salt / ice interfaces for a few hours per day almost anywhere on the surface of Mars , and this may explain the Phoenix leg droplets observations . In a separate development , research by the German aerospace company DLR in Mars simulation chambers and on the ISS show that some Earth life can survive simulated Mars surface conditions without any water at all , and photosynthesize and metabolize , slowly . It can do this using the high relative humidity of the Mars atmosphere at night . All of this work was done after the Phoenix discoveries in 2008 . Other potential habitats include lakes formed in the higher latitudes after cometary or meteorite impacts , or as a result of volcanism . Covered by ice , these may remain liquid for centuries , or up to a few thousand years for the largest impacts . The planet may also have underground trapped layers of water heated by geothermal hotspots . Also there are suggestions that Mars may have a deep hydrosphere , a liquid layer below its cryosphere , a few kilometers below the surface . Deep rock habitats on Earth are inhabited by life so if this layer exists , it may also be habitable on Mars . The main questions are Do these potential habitats exist ? Are they habitable ? For instance , liquid water , if present , could be too cold , or too salty for Earth life Are they in fact inhabited by any forms of life ? As Mars is so inhospitable , life might not be able to spread to new habitats easily . So there might be life in some of the habitats and not in others . Or life on Mars may have gone extinct , or never evolved at all , in which case none of the habitats would be inhabited . These discoveries have renewed interest in this topic , with many astrobiologists saying that they think present day Mars may be more habitable than previously thought . The first conference on the Present Day Habitability of Mars was held in 2013 in UCLA . The 2017 conference session on Modern Mars Habitability will run from April 24 -- 28 in Mesa , Arizona",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Modern_Mars_habitability",
"rank": 9,
"score": 80730
},
{
"content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future",
"rank": 10,
"score": 80637
},
{
"content": "Title: What a Way to Go: Life at the End of Empire Content: What A Way To Go : Life at the End of Empire is a 2007 documentary film about the current situation facing humanity and the world . It discusses issues such as peak oil , climate change and the effects of global warming , population overshoot and species extinction , as well as how this situation has developed . The documentary features supporting data and interviews of Daniel Quinn , environmental activist Derrick Jensen and academics such as Richard Heinberg and many others . The tagline of the documentary is , `` A middle-class white guy comes to grips with Peak Oil , Climate Change , Mass Extinction , Population Overshoot and the demise of the American lifestyle . ''",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "What_a_Way_to_Go:_Life_at_the_End_of_Empire",
"rank": 11,
"score": 79576
},
{
"content": "Title: Eaarth Content: Eaarth : Making a Life on a Tough New Planet is a book written by Bill McKibben , published by Henry Holt and Company in 2010 . In the opening chapter , McKibben presents an array of facts and statistics about climate change that are already visible , supported by extensive footnotes . In the second and third chapters , McKibben lays out his analysis of how we have arrived at the current situation , and conveys genuine sorrow as he explains how the drive for economic growth based on hydrocarbons since the 1970s has led the planet to the point of breakdown . In a review of the book , British economist Nicholas Stern suggests that there is no doubting McKibben 's sincerity and his ability to communicate the significant risks which humanity faces . According to Stern , his `` overall thesis that we are already seeing widespread effects of climate change is sound and supported by much robust scientific evidence '' . But Stern says McKibben is too pessimistic when it comes to the recent advances in avoiding even bigger changes to the climate by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Eaarth",
"rank": 12,
"score": 77474
},
{
"content": "Title: Extinction risk from global warming Content: The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Extinction_risk_from_global_warming",
"rank": 13,
"score": 77463
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans",
"rank": 14,
"score": 77417
},
{
"content": "Title: Life on Earth (TV series) Content: Life on Earth : A Natural History by David Attenborough is a television natural history series made by the BBC in association with Warner Bros. and Reiner Moritz Productions . It was transmitted in the UK from 16 January 1979 . During the course of the series presenter David Attenborough , following the format established by Kenneth Clark 's Civilisation and Jacob Bronowski 's The Ascent of Man ( both series which he designed and produced as director of BBC2 ) , travels the globe in order to trace the story of the evolution of life on the planet . Like the earlier series , it was divided into 13 programmes ( each of around 55 minutes ' duration ) . The executive producer was Christopher Parsons and the music was composed by Edward Williams . Highly acclaimed , it is the first in Attenborough 's ` Life ' series of programmes and was followed by The Living Planet ( 1984 ) . It established Attenborough as not only the foremost television naturalist , but also an iconic figure in British cultural life .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Life_on_Earth_(TV_series)",
"rank": 15,
"score": 77106
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 16,
"score": 76229
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 17,
"score": 75961
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations",
"rank": 18,
"score": 75685
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs",
"rank": 19,
"score": 75579
},
{
"content": "Title: Life on Venus Content: The speculation of life currently existing on Venus decreased significantly since the early 1960s , when spacecraft began studying Venus and it became clear that the conditions on Venus are extreme compared to those on Earth . The fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth , raising temperatures on the surface to nearly 735 K , the atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth , and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect , make water-based life as we know it unlikely on the surface of the planet . However , a few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature , acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Life_on_Venus",
"rank": 20,
"score": 75398
},
{
"content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean",
"rank": 21,
"score": 74975
},
{
"content": "Title: Evolutionary history of life Content: The evolutionary history of life on Earth traces the processes by which living and fossil organisms have evolved since life appeared on the planet , until the present day . Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ( Ga ) ago and there is evidence that life appeared as early as 4.1 Ga. . The similarities between all present-day organisms indicate the presence of a common ancestor from which all known species have diverged through the process of evolution . More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . The earliest evidence for life on Earth is graphite found to be a biogenic substance in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia . More recently , in 2015 , `` remains of biotic life '' were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . In March 2017 , researchers reported evidence of possibly the oldest forms of life on Earth . Putative fossilized microorganisms were discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec , Canada , that may have lived as early as 4.280 billion years ago , not long after the oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago , and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago . According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe . '' Microbial mats of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early Archean and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place within them . The evolution of photosynthesis , around 3.5 Ga , eventually led to a buildup of its waste product , oxygen , in the atmosphere , leading to the great oxygenation event , beginning around 2.4 Ga. . The earliest evidence of eukaryotes ( complex cells with organelles ) dates from 1.85 Ga , and while they may have been present earlier , their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their metabolism . Later , around 1.7 Ga , multicellular organisms began to appear , with differentiated cells performing specialised functions . Sexual reproduction , which involves the fusion of male and female reproductive cells ( gametes ) to create a zygote in a process called fertilization is , in contrast to asexual reproduction , the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of macroscopic organisms , including almost all eukaryotes ( which includes animals and plants ) . However the origin and evolution of sexual reproduction remain a puzzle for biologists though it did evolve from a common ancestor that was a single celled eukaryotic species . Bilateria , animals with a front and a back , appeared by 555 Ma ( million years ago ) . The earliest land plants date back to around 450 Ma , although evidence suggests that microorganisms formed the earliest terrestrial ecosystems , at least 2.9 Ga. . Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the Phanerozoic . Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event . Ediacara biota appear during the Ediacaran period , while vertebrates , along with most other modern phyla originated about during the Cambrian explosion . During the Permian period , synapsids , including the ancestors of mammals , dominated the land , but most of this group became extinct in the Permian -- Triassic extinction event . During the recovery from this catastrophe , archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates ; one archosaur group , the dinosaurs , dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods . After the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event killed off the non-avian dinosaurs , mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity . Such mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Evolutionary_history_of_life",
"rank": 22,
"score": 74807
},
{
"content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 74740
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 24,
"score": 74598
},
{
"content": "Title: Years of Living Dangerously Content: Years of Living Dangerously is an American documentary television series focusing on global warming . The first season , of nine weekly episodes , premiered in the US on April 13 , 2014 , on Showtime . It won an Emmy Award as Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series . The second season , consisting of eight episodes , aired on the National Geographic Channel , beginning on October 30 , 2016 , with broader international distribution than the first season . Executive producers included James Cameron , Arnold Schwarzenegger , Robert Palumbo , and series creators Joel Bach and David Gelber ( formerly of 60 Minutes ) . Joseph Romm and Heidi Cullen were the chief science advisors . The weekly episodes featured celebrity hosts with a history of environmental activism and well-known journalists with a background in environmental reportage . These `` correspondents '' traveled the world and throughout the U.S. to interview experts and ordinary people affected by , and seeking solutions to , the effects of global warming . They acted as reporters and proxies for the audience , asking questions to find out people 's opinions and to discover the scientific evidence . The final episode of season one featured an interview of President Barack Obama . Executive producers for season one were Cameron , Schwarzenegger , clean energy investor and environmental activist Daniel Abbasi , Jerry Weintraub , Bach and Gelber . Episodes explored the effects of rising sea levels , historic droughts and flooding , water scarcity , ocean acidification , deforestation and the rapidly increasing extinction rate of species , but also focused on `` solutions that individuals , communities , companies and even governments can use to address worldwide climate change '' , including cheaper solar and wind energy , advancing battery technology and electric cars . Hosts included Cameron , Schwarzenegger , Harrison Ford , Ian Somerhalder , America Ferrera , David Letterman , Gisele Bündchen , Jack Black , Matt Damon , Jessica Alba , Sigourney Weaver , and various other actors and journalists . Schwarzenegger reflected on how the series tries to make the issue of climate change resonate with the public : `` I think the environmental movement only can be successful if we are simple and clear and make it a human story . We will tell human stories in this project . The scientists would never get the kind of attention that someone in show business gets . '' Cameron elaborated : `` We did n't use our celebrities as talking head experts , because they 're not climate experts . They were concerned , intelligent , curious citizens who were out to find answers . They were functioning as journalists . '' Newsweek said that the celebrity hosts `` lend sparks to an issue that sends most viewers for the exits '' .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Years_of_Living_Dangerously",
"rank": 25,
"score": 74588
},
{
"content": "Title: Virgin Earth Challenge Content: The Virgin Earth Challenge is a competition offering a $ 25 million prize for whoever can demonstrate a commercially viable design which results in the permanent removal of greenhouse gases out of the Earth 's atmosphere to contribute materially in global warming avoidance . The prize was conceived and financed by Sir Richard Branson , a successful British entrepreneur , and was announced in London on 9 February 2007 by Branson and former US Vice President and 2007 Nobel Prize winner Al Gore , creator of the 2006 film An Inconvenient Truth on climate change . Among more than 2600 applications , 11 finalists were announced on 2 November 2011 . These are Biochar Solutions , from the US ; Biorecro , Sweden ; Black Carbon , Denmark ; Carbon Engineering , Canada ; Climeworks , Switzerland ; COAWAY , US ; Full Circle Biochar , US ; Global Thermostat , US ; Kilimanjaro Energy , US ; Smartstones -- Olivine Foundation , Netherlands , and The Savory Institute , US .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Virgin_Earth_Challenge",
"rank": 26,
"score": 73751
},
{
"content": "Title: List of World Heritage in Danger Content: The List of World Heritage in Danger is compiled by the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) through the World Heritage Committee according to Article 11.4 of the World Heritage Convention , Full title : Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage which was established in 1972 to designate and manage World Heritage Sites . Entries in the list are threatened World Heritage Sites for the conservation of which major operations are required and for which `` assistance has been requested '' . The list is intended to increase international awareness of the threats and to encourage counteractive measures . Threats to a site can be either proven imminent threats or potential dangers that could have adverse effects on a site . In the case of natural sites , ascertained dangers include the serious decline in the population of an endangered or other valuable species or the deterioration of natural beauty or scientific value of a property caused by human activities such as logging , pollution , settlement , mining , agriculture and major public works . Ascertained dangers for cultural properties include serious deterioration of materials , structure , ornaments or architectural coherence and the loss of historical authenticity or cultural significance . Potential dangers for both cultural and natural sites include development projects , armed conflicts , insufficient management systems or changes in the legal protective status of the properties . In the case of cultural sites , gradual changes due to geology , climate or environment can also be potential dangers . Before a property is inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger , its condition is assessed and a potential programme for corrective measures is developed in cooperation with the State Party involved . The final decision about inscription is made by the committee . Financial support from the World Heritage Fund may be allocated by the committee for listed properties . The state of conservation is reviewed on a yearly basis , after which the committee may request additional measures , delete the property from the list if the threats have ceased or consider deletion from both the List of World Heritage in Danger and the World Heritage List . Of the two Former UNESCO World Heritage Sites , the Dresden Elbe Valley was delisted after placement on the List of World Heritage in Danger while the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary was directly delisted . As of 2016 , there are 55 entries ( 18 natural , 38 cultural ) on the List of World Heritage in Danger . Some sites have been designated as World Heritage Sites and World Heritage in Danger in the same year , such as the Church of the Nativity , traditionally considered to be the birthplace of Jesus . Arranged by the UNESCO regions 21 of the listed sites are located in the Arab States ( of which 7 are located in Syria and 5 in Libya ) , 17 in Africa ( of which 5 are in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ) , 7 in Latin America and the Caribbean , 6 in Asia and the Pacific , and 4 in Europe and North America ( all by 2016 ) . Includes two sites in Georgia The majority of the endangered natural sites ( 13 ) are located in Africa . In some cases , danger listing has sparked conservation efforts and prompted the release of funds , resulting in a positive development for sites such as the Galápagos Islands and Yellowstone National Park , both of which have subsequently been removed from the List of World Heritage in Danger . Despite this , the list itself and UNESCO 's implementation of it have been the focus of criticism . In particular , States Parties and other stakeholders of World Heritage Sites have questioned the authority of the Committee to declare a site in danger without their consent . Until 1992 , when UNESCO set a precedent by placing several sites on the danger list against their wishes , States Parties would have submitted a programme of corrective measures before a site could be listed . Instead of being used as intended , the List of World Heritage in Danger is perceived by some states as a black list and according to Christina Cameron , Professor at the School of Architecture , Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage , University of Montreal , has been used as political tool to get the attention of States Parties . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) notes that UNESCO has referenced the List of World Heritage in Danger ( without actually listing the site ) in a number of cases where the threat could be easily addressed by the State Party . The Union also argues that keeping a site listed as endangered over a long period is questionable and that other mechanisms for conservation should be sought in these cases .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "List_of_World_Heritage_in_Danger",
"rank": 27,
"score": 72788
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu",
"rank": 28,
"score": 72723
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka",
"rank": 29,
"score": 71907
},
{
"content": "Title: Rare Earth (book) Content: Rare Earth : Why Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe is a 2000 popular science book about xenobiology by Peter Ward , a geologist and paleontologist , and Donald E. Brownlee , an astronomer and astrobiologist , both faculty members at the University of Washington . The book is the origin of the term ` Rare Earth Hypothesis ' which , like the book , asserts the concept that complex life is rare in the universe . The book was eventually succeeded by a follow-up book called The Life and Death of Planet Earth , also by Ward and Brownlee , which talks about the Earth 's long term future and eventual demise under a warming and expanding Sun , showing readers the concept that planets like Earth have finite lifespans , and complex life is not just rare in space , but also rare in time , and is more likely to die out within a short time on geological timescales , while microbes dominate most of the planet 's history .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Rare_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 30,
"score": 71592
},
{
"content": "Title: John Lawrence Daly Content: John L. Daly ( 31 March 1943 -- 29 January 2004 ) was an Australian teacher and self-declared `` Greenhouse skeptic . '' He was known for speaking out publicly against what he called the `` Global Warming scare , '' and authored the book The greenhouse trap : Why the greenhouse effect will not end life on earth , published in 1989 by Bantam Books . Since his death his website , Still Waiting for Greenhouse is maintained by Jerry Brennan , though updates slowed considerably after Daly 's death and stopped completely in 2008 . Daly investigated various studies by scientists which appear to support global warming scenarios and raised objections to them . For example , he denied that the average sea level is rising , on the basis the ` Isle of the Dead ' mean ocean level benchmark .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "John_Lawrence_Daly",
"rank": 31,
"score": 71401
},
{
"content": "Title: Live Earth (2007 concert) Content: Live Earth was a one off event developed to combat climate change . The first series of benefit concerts were held on July 7 , 2007 . The concerts brought together more than 150 musical acts in eleven locations around the world which were broadcast to a mass global audience through televisions , radio , and streamed via the Internet .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Live_Earth_(2007_concert)",
"rank": 32,
"score": 71334
},
{
"content": "Title: Silence of the Songbirds Content: Silence of the Songbirds ( ISBN 978-0-8027-1609-5 ) is a book by bird lover and scientist Bridget Stutchbury about the rapid decline and loss of many species of songbirds . Some major threats covered include pesticides , sun-grown coffee , city lights , cowbirds , and global warming . The book was published by HarperCollins in 2007 , and has 243 pages . Kirkus Reviews published a review of the book on June 1 , 2007 , and compared it to Silent Spring by Rachel Carson . Stutchbury describes the link between Latin American deforestation and the loss of food for migratory birds , and the impact of large amounts of pesticides . However , deforestation is minimal for shade-grown coffee . She mentions additional threats to songbirds : light pollution , tall buildings , and wind farms . Despite the diminishing populations of songbirds in recent decades , she provides advice for their survival .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Silence_of_the_Songbirds",
"rank": 33,
"score": 71241
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 34,
"score": 71063
},
{
"content": "Title: Life Time (Rollins Band album) Content: Life Time is the first full-length studio album by Rollins Band , fronted by ex-Black Flag singer , Henry Rollins . The album was produced by Ian MacKaye , well known in the genre of hardcore punk for his work with Minor Threat and as co-owner of the Dischord record label . MacKaye was also a childhood friend of Rollins , who acted as a roadie for MacKaye 's band The Teen Idles . It was originally released in 1987 and included four live tracks recorded in Kortrijk , Belgium in October 1987 . It was subsequently re-mastered and re-released in 1999 without the live tracks , but with the addition of three session tracks from the Do It album of 1987 . The 2014 reissue on Dischord includes the live tracks but not the bonus tracks included on the 1999 reissue .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Life_Time_(Rollins_Band_album)",
"rank": 35,
"score": 71056
},
{
"content": "Title: Last Days on Earth Content: The Last Days on Earth is a 20/20 science special which aired on ABC in August 2006 and has been aired on The History Channel . The show counts down the seven most likely ways in which human life could end , including gamma ray bursts , black holes , machine rule , asteroids , super volcanoes , nuclear war , pandemic flu , and climate change . It includes input from a number of scientists including Michio Kaku , Neil deGrasse Tyson , Stephen Hawking and Kevin Warwick . In 2007 it received an Emmy nomination for its graphic and artistic design .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Last_Days_on_Earth",
"rank": 36,
"score": 70905
},
{
"content": "Title: The Living Planet Content: The Living Planet : A Portrait of the Earth is a BBC nature documentary series written and presented by David Attenborough , first transmitted in the UK from 19 January 1984 . The sequel to his pioneering Life on Earth , it is a study of the ways in which living organisms , including humans , adapt to their surroundings . Each of the twelve 55-minute episodes ( one fewer than his previous series ) featured a different environment . The executive producer was Richard Brock and the music was composed by Elizabeth Parker of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop . Part of David Attenborough 's ` Life ' series , it was followed by The Trials of Life ( 1990 ) . However , before the latter , Attenborough wrote and presented two shorter series : The First Eden ( 1987 ) , about man 's relationship with the natural habitats of the Mediterranean , and Lost Worlds , Vanished Lives ( 1989 ) , concerning the discovery of fossils .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "The_Living_Planet",
"rank": 37,
"score": 70849
},
{
"content": "Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Storms_of_My_Grandchildren",
"rank": 38,
"score": 70457
},
{
"content": "Title: Living Earth Simulator Project Content: The living Earth simulator is a proposed massive computer simulation system intended to simulate the interactions of all aspects of life , human economic activity , climate , and other physical processes on the planet Earth as part of the FuturICT project , in response to the European FP7 `` Future and Emerging Technologies Flagship '' initiative . There are over 300 international teams seeking ~ $ 1 billion for the 10-year Future and Emerging Technologies ` flagship ' competition . The Earth Simulator was not selected since the two winners have been announced as of March 2013 . The winners were Graphene and Human Brain .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Living_Earth_Simulator_Project",
"rank": 39,
"score": 70379
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 40,
"score": 70107
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow Content: The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Committee_for_a_Constructive_Tomorrow",
"rank": 41,
"score": 69545
},
{
"content": "Title: Living on Earth Content: Living on Earth is a weekly , hour-long and award-winning environmental news program distributed by Public Radio International . Hosted by Steve Curwood , the program features interviews and commentary on a broad range of ecological issues , exploring how humans interact with their landscape . The show airs on over 300 public radio stations nationwide and reaches 80 % of the United States . It is produced and recorded in Somerville , Massachusetts . As an independent media program , Living on Earth ( LOE ) relies entirely on contributions from listeners and institutions supporting public service including PRI affiliates and PRI . In previous years , the program had been distributed by National Public Radio . Living on Earth is currently based at the University of Massachusetts Boston . The program has received numerous awards including : The 2005 Science Journalism Award from the American Association for the Advancement of Science , the Radio and Television News Directors Association 's Edward R. Murrow Award , Society of Environmental Journalists ' The 2002 First Place Award for Reporting on the Environment , and Gracie Allen Awards from the Foundation of American Women in Radio and Television .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Living_on_Earth",
"rank": 42,
"score": 69463
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 43,
"score": 69438
},
{
"content": "Title: The Amazonia Conference Content: The Amazonia Conference is a global warming activist organization with a particular focus on education of the public . The Conference was established in April 1990 , when governments of the world were discussing the dangers of global warming at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 . The Conference is an educational organisation with the aim of educating people about the realities of the endangered environment and the inevitable catastrophic consequences if no proactive and preventive steps are taken . The project has reached many institutions and organisations all over the world , spreading the message Education for Preservation . The organisation has given birth to other initiatives , such as The Amazonia Society , the Amazonia Seminar , the Amazonia Experience , and the Amazonia Files . The Amazonia Conference is an educational organisation which , unlike other environmental organisations , focuses in education instead of radical campaigning . This does not mean that the organisation does not campaign . The organisation believes that it is effectively easier to ` form the minds of the young instead of attempting to amend adult ones . ' Therefore , by educating the young , next generations will be equipped with environmentally aware citizens . The project also has a special division which visits companies and other organisations to educate their employees or members , on the current environmental issues which our planet is suffering due to human activities . The Amazonia Conference is considered to be the biggest educational project in Portugal ( Diario de Noticias , 2000 ) , and has recently received the British Airways Best Environmental Project Award 2004 .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "The_Amazonia_Conference",
"rank": 44,
"score": 69306
},
{
"content": "Title: Australian flying fox die-offs Content: In the last two decades tens of thousands of Australian flying foxes have died during extreme heat events . Flying fox die-offs feature arguably among the most dramatic mass mortality events witnessed in nature , but they can be indicators of heat stress in more cryptic fauna where impacts are more difficult to assess . The die-offs are important additional threats to Australian flying-foxes and the ecosystem services they provide , and highlight the complex implications of climate change for behaviour , demography , and species survival .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Australian_flying_fox_die-offs",
"rank": 45,
"score": 69120
},
{
"content": "Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Living_in_the_Hothouse",
"rank": 46,
"score": 68968
},
{
"content": "Title: Always Has Been Content: Always Has Been is the first EP released by indie hip hop artist J-Live , released in 2003 on the label Triple Threat Productions . It is an EP and consists of six songs recorded early in J-Live 's career , prior to the release of his first album The Best Part . It was released simultaneously as Always Will Be , another EP by J-Live , which is made up of eight new tracks . The tracks `` Braggin Writes '' and `` Schools In '' were rerecorded for The Best Part , but here they appear in their original form . The tracks `` Longevity '' , `` Can I Get It '' , and `` Hush the Crowd '' had not been released on either of J-Live 's previous albums .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Always_Has_Been",
"rank": 47,
"score": 68737
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Greenhouse_effect",
"rank": 48,
"score": 68687
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 49,
"score": 68521
},
{
"content": "Title: Lifemapper Content: Lifemapper is building a species diversity map of the world . It is similar to the SETI@Home client , in that it uses a distributed computing client running primarily on home user 's computers to correlate georeferenced biological samples with environmental models of the Earth . It is an experimental GIS , or Geographic Information System , that uses a special genetic algorithm to see if predicted rules about where a species lives match up with the species ' observed natural settings . It is hoped that this technique will be able to both represent a current `` map '' of all organisms habitats on Earth as well as predict where organisms may possibly thrive or face extinction due to climate change and other ecological transformations .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Lifemapper",
"rank": 50,
"score": 68467
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Greenhouse_debt",
"rank": 51,
"score": 68256
},
{
"content": "Title: Saving Our Vanishing Heritage Content: Saving Our Vanishing Heritage : Safeguarding Endangered Cultural Heritage Sites in the Developing World was a report released by Global Heritage Fund on October 17 , 2010 . It illuminated five accelerating man-made threats facing global heritage sites in developing countries : development pressures , unsustainable tourism , insufficient management , looting , and war and conflict . Based on these threats , the report surveyed 500 major archaeological and heritage sites in developing countries to evaluate current loss and destruction , conservation and development . It identified nearly 200 of these sites as `` At Risk '' or `` Under Threat , '' and the following 12 as `` On the Verge '' of irreparable loss and destruction : Bangladesh 's Mahasthangarh Guatemala 's Mirador Haiti 's Sans-Souci Palace India 's Maluti Temples Iraq 's Nineveh Kenya 's Lamu Cyprus ' Famagusta Pakistan 's Taxila Palestine 's Hisham 's Palace Philippines ' Intramuros and Fort Santiago Turkey 's Ani Ukraine 's Chersonesos The report 's editorial committee was composed of 24 experts in global heritage conservation and sustainable development from leading universities , institutions and international agencies , including the World Archaeological Congress , Archaeological Institute of America , ICOMOS ( International Council on Monuments and Sites ) , Stanford University , the University of Pennsylvania , University College of London , and others . The report has garnered much attention from major media , including National Geographic , CNN , Wall Street Journal , Reuters , Huffington Post , MSNBC , USA Today , and more .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Saving_Our_Vanishing_Heritage",
"rank": 52,
"score": 68151
},
{
"content": "Title: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life Content: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life : The Individual 's Guide to Stopping Climate Change is a 2007 book by Chris Goodall , published by Earthscan/Routledge . According to New Scientist , this book provides `` the definitive guide to reducing your carbon footprint '' . Goodall explains how consumers can cut carbon usage by 75 percent without making drastic lifestyle changes . How to Live a Low-Carbon Life has been reviewed in the Journal of Environmental Health Research , The Guardian , and The Times . How to Live a Low-carbon Life won the 2007 Clarion award for non-fiction . A second edition was published in 2010 .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "How_to_Live_a_Low-Carbon_Life",
"rank": 53,
"score": 68109
},
{
"content": "Title: The Fate of the Earth Content: The Fate of the Earth is a 1982 book by Jonathan Schell . This `` seminal '' description of the consequences of nuclear war `` forces even the most reluctant person to confront the unthinkable : the destruction of humanity and possibly most life on Earth '' . The book is regarded as a key document in the nuclear disarmament movement . The book is composed of three essays . The third and final , `` The Choice , '' is an argument that the source of the nuclear threat is the nation-state system , and that the choice is between survival and national sovereignty .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "The_Fate_of_the_Earth",
"rank": 54,
"score": 67852
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 55,
"score": 67755
},
{
"content": "Title: Heat advisory Content: A Heat Advisory is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States . . Local offices often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Heat_advisory",
"rank": 56,
"score": 67701
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth to America (film) Content: Earth to America was a 2-hour television special that aired on TBS on June 30 , 2005 . Hosted by Tom Hanks , the show used a comic approach to raise awareness of issues concerning the environment , mostly global warming . It was taped at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas . The performers scheduled to appear were : Jack Black Cedric `` The Entertainer '' Rob Corddry Larry David Will Ferrell Tom Hanks Julia Louis-Dreyfus Bill Maher Steve Martin Kevin Nealon ( Subliminal Man ) Ray Romano Martin Short Ben Stiller Wanda Sykes Robin Williams The Cast Of Avenue Q Robert F Kennedy Jr. . Triumph The Insult Comic Dog The Blue Man Group",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Earth_to_America_(film)",
"rank": 57,
"score": 67611
},
{
"content": "Title: GEO-2000 Content: GEO-2000 is the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Global Environment Outlook 2000 . The UNEP launched the Global Environment Outlook in 1995 to assess environmental issues and to have them published . The first report was published in 1999 . As well as some of the more well known issues the report identified new threats such as : nitrogen 's harmful impact on ecosystems increased severity of natural disasters species invasion as a result of globalization increased environmental pressures caused by urbanization decline in the quality of governance in some countries new wars which impact on both the immediate environment and neighbouring states the impact of refugees on the natural environment",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "GEO-2000",
"rank": 58,
"score": 67384
},
{
"content": "Title: Surviving the Century Content: Surviving the Century : Facing Climate Chaos and Other Global Challenges , edited by Herbert Girardet , is the first major book from the World Future Council , published by Earthscan in 2007 . Eight main issues relating to the politics of climate change are covered in the book : countering climate chaos , renewable energy policy , creating sustainable cities , local farming systems , rainforests and climate change , cradle to cradle production systems , an alternative vision for trade and creating a living democracy .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Surviving_the_Century",
"rank": 59,
"score": 67189
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 60,
"score": 67140
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 61,
"score": 67054
},
{
"content": "Title: Conservation of fungi Content: Fungi are considered to be in urgent need of conservation by the British Mycological Society on the grounds that it is a traditionally neglected taxon which has legal protection in few countries . Current threats to fungi include destruction of forests worldwide , fragmentation of habitat , changes in land use , pollution , anthropogenic climate change and over-exploitation of commercially attractive species . The Species Survival Commission of the IUCN has five specialist groups dealing with the conservation of fungi : Chytrid , Zygomycete , Downy Mildew and Slime Mold Specialist Group Cup-fungus , Truffle and Ally Specialist Group Lichen Specialist Group Mushroom , Bracket and Puffball Specialist Group Rust and Smut Specialist Group Lack of knowledge is considered a major concern with a general paucity of comprehensive checklists , even for developed nations . In addition , the criteria for `` red-listing '' is not specifically designed for fungi and the kinds of data required , viz . population size , lifespan , spatial distribution and population dynamics are poorly known for most fungi . As a result in practice , indicator species are identified as target foci for the conservation of threatened fungi .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Conservation_of_fungi",
"rank": 62,
"score": 66702
},
{
"content": "Title: Our Final Hour Content: Our Final Hour is a 2003 book by the British Astronomer Royal Sir Martin Rees . The full title of the book is Our Final Hour : A Scientist 's Warning : How Terror , Error , and Environmental Disaster Threaten Humankind 's Future In This Century - On Earth and Beyond . It was published in the United Kingdom under the more prosaic title Our Final Century : Will the Human Race Survive the Twenty-first Century ? . The premise of the book is that the Earth and human survival are in far greater danger from the potential effects of modern technology than is commonly realised , and that the 21st century may be a critical moment in history when humanity 's fate is decided . Rees discusses a range of existential risks confronting humanity , and controversially estimates that the probability of extinction before 2100 CE is around 50 percent , based on the possibility of malign or accidental release of destructive technology .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Our_Final_Hour",
"rank": 63,
"score": 66205
},
{
"content": "Title: All Through a Life Content: All Through a Life is an EP by Rites of Spring , released in 1987 ( after the band had broken up ) . It is regarded as the release that bridged the early DC sound of Minor Threat and Scream and the later DC sound of Embrace and One Last Wish .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "All_Through_a_Life",
"rank": 64,
"score": 65970
},
{
"content": "Title: Life on Earth (album) Content: Life on Earth is the second full-length album released by Tiny Vipers on Sub Pop Records on July 7 , 2009 . In a June 2009 track review , Pitchfork Media awarded `` Dreamer '' their Best New Music accolade . Luckyhorse Industries released a 180 gram double vinyl edition on November 16 , 2009 . It was limited to 500 copies with numbered handmade covers , the first 30 of which were printed on green marble vinyl . `` Audrey 's Well '' is included as a bonus track .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Life_on_Earth_(album)",
"rank": 65,
"score": 65967
},
{
"content": "Title: Survival with Ray Mears Content: Survival with Ray Mears is a 3 part television series hosted by Ray Mears , as he tracks predators in their natural habitats . The series was broadcast by ITV , and was billed as the return of the Survival brand . It was followed by Wild Britain with Ray Mears . Survival consists of three , hour-long , programmes , focusing on Mears ' tracking of the world 's top predators . He follows the leopard in Namibia , the bear in British Columbia , and the wolf in Central Idaho . An underpinning theme is the threats faced by each species : in Idaho the crew arrives with only days to countdown before the wolf 's status as a protected species is lifted , and local farmers indicate their intention to begin hunting them ; in British Columbia the impact of global warming on the salmon population is felt by the bear ; and in Namibia the uneasy co-existence between leopards and local farmers is highlighted .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Survival_with_Ray_Mears",
"rank": 66,
"score": 65786
},
{
"content": "Title: Life on Earth (Musiq Soulchild album) Content: Life on Earth is the seventh studio album by American R&B singer-songwriter Musiq Soulchild . It was released on April 15 , 2016 , by eOne Music . It is the first album to be released on an independent label , after previously recording several albums on Def Jam Recordings and Atlantic Records . The album entered the US Billboard 200 at number 27 .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Life_on_Earth_(Musiq_Soulchild_album)",
"rank": 67,
"score": 65760
},
{
"content": "Title: Marine Connection Content: Marine Connection is a London , UK-based animal welfare charity working both nationally and internationally for the welfare , protection , and conservation of cetaceans : dolphins , whales and porpoises . The charity aims to achieve its objectives via various campaigns , educational and research programmes ; events and press coverage . It also encourages the general public , private companies and celebrities to become involved . Threats to cetaceans has never been greater than they are today . These threats include such factors as bycatch , which is the painful , often drawn-out suffocation of marine mammals after having been accidentally caught in large fishing nets and pair trawlers ; environmental and noise pollution of the marine environment ; loss of natural habitat and food supplies often due to such modern-day problems as exploring and expanding new underwater petroleum supplies , navigation , over-fishing , climate change and global warming . By raising public awareness to these issues concerning threats to marine life and their underwater environment , Marine Connection hopes to promote a better understanding of these problems through educational and public outreach programmes . Also , by conducting ongoing research and examining these issues now , the charity hopes to identify upcoming problems before they happen so changes can be made before it 's too late to stop the destruction of the marine habitat that 's already occurring at such a rapid pace . Another example of Marine Connection 's ongoing commitment to cetaceans is examining the effectiveness of current legislation and calling for stronger laws to protect the marine environment . Marine Connection seeks to actively secure a safer and therefore healthier future for all dolphins and whales as well as the oceans in which they live .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Marine_Connection",
"rank": 68,
"score": 65572
},
{
"content": "Title: Outline of life forms Content: A life form or lifeform is an entity or being that is living . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . More than 99 % of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Outline_of_life_forms",
"rank": 69,
"score": 65230
},
{
"content": "Title: Conservation in Brazil Content: Even though progress has been made in conserving Brazil 's landscapes , the country still faces serious threats due to its historical land use . Amazonian forests substantially influence regional and global climates and deforesting this region is both a regional and global driver of climate change due to the high amounts of deforestation and habitat fragmentation that have occurred this region . Brazil has established an extensive network of protected areas which covers more than 2 million km2 ( 25 % of Brazil 's national territory ) and is divided almost equally between protected natural areas or conservation units and indigenous land ( `` Terras Indígenas '' ) . Despite these measures , environmental protection is still a concern as indigenous tribes and Brazilian environmental activists contend with ranchers , illegal loggers , gold and oil prospectors and drug traffickers who continue to illegally clear forests .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Conservation_in_Brazil",
"rank": 70,
"score": 65225
},
{
"content": "Title: Human extinction Content: In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action . The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low . For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate . Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Human_extinction",
"rank": 71,
"score": 64993
},
{
"content": "Title: Historical impacts of climate change Content: Climate has affected human life and civilization from the emergence of hominins to the present day . These historical impacts of climate change can improve human life and cause societies to flourish , or can be instrumental in civilization 's societal collapse .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Historical_impacts_of_climate_change",
"rank": 72,
"score": 64919
},
{
"content": "Title: Life on Earth Content: Life on Earth may refer to : Life Life on Earth ( TV series ) , a 1979 nature documentary series Life on Earth ( film ) ( La Vie Sur Terre ) , a 1998 Malian film Life on Earth ( album ) , an album by Tiny Vipers Life on Earth ( Musiq Soulchild album ) , 2016",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Life_on_Earth",
"rank": 73,
"score": 64891
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Earth's_energy_budget",
"rank": 74,
"score": 64839
},
{
"content": "Title: Life on Titan Content: Whether there is life on Titan , the largest moon of Saturn , is at present an open question and a topic of scientific assessment and research . Titan is far colder than Earth , and its surface lacks stable liquid water , factors which have led some scientists to consider life there unlikely . On the other hand , its thick atmosphere is chemically active and rich in carbon compounds . On the surface there are bodies of liquid methane and ethane ; some scientists speculate that these liquids might take the place of water in living cells different from those on Earth . In June 2010 , scientists analysing data from the Cassini -- Huygens mission reported anomalies in the atmosphere near the surface which could be consistent with the presence of methane-producing organisms , but may alternatively be due to non-living chemical or meteorological processes . The Cassini -- Huygens mission was not equipped to look directly for micro-organisms or to provide a thorough inventory of complex organic compounds .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Life_on_Titan",
"rank": 75,
"score": 64822
},
{
"content": "Title: Human impact on marine life Content: Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.According to the IPCC (2019), since 1950 \"many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats.\"It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as wilderness, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast.",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Human_impact_on_marine_life",
"rank": 76,
"score": 64790
},
{
"content": "Title: Earth (2007 film) Content: Earth is a 2007 nature documentary film which depicts the diversity of wild habitats and creatures across the planet . The film begins in the Arctic in January of one year and moves southward , concluding in Antarctica in the December of the same year . Along the way , it features the journeys made by three particular species -- the polar bear , African bush elephant and humpback whale -- to highlight the threats to their survival in the face of rapid environmental change . A companion piece to the 2006 BBC/Discovery television series Planet Earth , the film uses many of the same sequences , though most are edited differently , and features previously unseen footage . Earth was co-directed by Alastair Fothergill , the executive producer of the television series , and Mark Linfield , the producer of Planet Earth '' 's `` From Pole to Pole '' and `` Seasonal Forests '' episodes . It was co-produced by BBC Natural History Unit and Greenlight Media , with Discovery providing some of the funding . It was also the first film released under the Disneynature label . The same organisations collaborated on Fothergill 's previous film , Deep Blue ( 2003 ) , itself a companion to his 2001 television series on the natural history of the world 's oceans , The Blue Planet . The British version of Earth was narrated by Patrick Stewart and the US version was narrated by James Earl Jones.Earth was released in cinemas internationally during the final quarter of 2007 and throughout 2008 . With total worldwide box office revenue exceeding $ 100 million , Earth is the second-highest grossing nature documentary of all time . A sequel , titled Earth : One Amazing Day '' , is scheduled for release in 2017 .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Earth_(2007_film)",
"rank": 77,
"score": 64735
},
{
"content": "Title: The Good Life (Railroad Earth album) Content: The Good Life is the third studio album by the bluegrass/jam band Railroad Earth , released on June 8 , 2004 . So many jam bands seem to forget the importance of good song writing with meaningful lyrics . Railroad Earth 's songs are well-crafted stories , and are delivered with outstanding musicianship and strong vocals . The musical duties are distributed in pretty much the same way here as on their previous two releases : Todd Sheaffer handles vocals and guitar and does the bulk of the songwriting ; John Skehan , Tim Carbone , and Andy Goessling provide the band 's trademark swirling-and-skirling texture ; new bassist Johnny Grubb ( replacing Dave Von Dollen ) and percussionist Carey Harmon provide the solid ground they take off from and land on . Multi-instrumentalist Andy Goessling is credited on banjo , dobro , and sax ( to name a few ) , Tim Carbone on fiddle , accordion , piano and electric guitar , and John Skehan on mandolin , piano , and Hammond organ . Shaeffer often writes tunes about love , being positive , and living a simpler life paired with catchy refrains and memorable melodies , and this effort is not different in that regard . Re-occurring themes of examining one 's destiny , living a good life , and staying true to one 's self resound . The opening track , `` Storms '' uses the metaphor to `` ride out the storm '' in a relationship and stick together through hard times . Perhaps an ode to marriage ? `` Way of the Buffalo '' is an environmental allegory and the title track , `` The Good Life , '' is about living free and `` going back to the country '' evoking images of a simpler time . One of the strongest songs is `` Goat '' which in the live setting extends into a long jammed out vehicle for the band . The somber lyrics , however , paint a picture of how to rid one 's life of negativity .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "The_Good_Life_(Railroad_Earth_album)",
"rank": 78,
"score": 64514
},
{
"content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Future_of_Earth",
"rank": 79,
"score": 64408
},
{
"content": "Title: The Threats Content: The Threats are a punk band from Dalkeith and Edinburgh , Scotland . Originally formed in 1979 as the Reflectors , the band soon renamed themselves Threats .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "The_Threats",
"rank": 80,
"score": 64342
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Ice_cap_climate",
"rank": 81,
"score": 64321
},
{
"content": "Title: Threat (computer) Content: In computer security a threat is a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach security and therefore cause possible harm . A threat can be either `` intentional '' ( i.e. hacking : an individual cracker or a criminal organization ) or `` accidental '' ( e.g. the possibility of a computer malfunctioning , or the possibility of a natural disaster such as an earthquake , a fire , or a tornado ) or otherwise a circumstance , capability , action , or event .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Threat_(computer)",
"rank": 82,
"score": 64193
},
{
"content": "Title: Threat Content: A threat is a communicated intent to inflict harm or loss on another person . A threat is considered an act of coercion . Threats ( intimidation ) are widely observed in animal behavior , particularly in a ritualized form , chiefly in order to avoid the unnecessary physical violence that can lead to physical damage or the death of both conflicting parties . Some of the more common types of threats forbidden by law are those made with an intent to obtain a monetary advantage or to compel a person to act against his or her will . In all US states , it is an offense to threaten to ( 1 ) use a deadly weapon on another person ; ( 2 ) injure another 's person or property ; or ( 3 ) injure another 's reputation .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Threat",
"rank": 83,
"score": 64037
},
{
"content": "Title: Live Earth Content: Live Earth is an event developed to increase environmental awareness through entertainment .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Live_Earth",
"rank": 84,
"score": 63908
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Climate_system",
"rank": 85,
"score": 63850
},
{
"content": "Title: The Sacred Balance Content: The Sacred Balance is a book by environmentalist David Suzuki , which is in its second edition as of 2007 . The book explores human society 's impact on the natural world , both for the planet and the people living on it . Suzuki reveals how dependent humankind is upon the planet 's water , soil , sunlight , and the breath of its vegetation . Threats to the planet 's balance , ranging from toxic pollution to global warming are also discussed . A series of documentary films , also called The Sacred Balance , is based on the book produced by Kensington Communications , Inc. . Producer Robert Lang was the producer of the series .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "The_Sacred_Balance",
"rank": 86,
"score": 63682
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 87,
"score": 63501
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 88,
"score": 63358
},
{
"content": "Title: Threat (film) Content: Threat ( 2006 ) is an independent film about a straightedge `` hardcore kid '' and a hip hop revolutionary whose friendship is doomed by the intolerance of their respective street tribes . It is an ensemble film of kids living in New York City in the aftermath of 9-11 , each of them suffering from a sense of doom brought on by dealing with HIV , racism , sexism , class struggle , and general nihilism . The intellectual issues are played out amid an aesthetic of raw ultraviolence that has earned director Matt Pizzolo both accolades and condemnations ( such as Film Threat 's rave review stating `` great art should assail the status quo , and that is what Pizzolo and Nisa 's film has skillfully accomplished '' in contrast to Montreal Film Journal 's scathing review saying the film `` openly glorifies murderous revolt , literally telling the audience to go out and beat up random people , just because '' ) . Unlike past urban dramas , the film does not outright condemn its characters ' violent outbursts . Although it does show harsh consequences for acts of violence , numerous critics have pointed out that it is unclear whether or not the film intends to glorify violence and/or class conflict .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Threat_(film)",
"rank": 89,
"score": 63356
},
{
"content": "Title: My Life's Been a Country Song Content: My Life 's Been a Country Song is the fourth studio album by American country music artist Chris Cagle . It was released in February 2008 on Capitol Records Nashville . The album 's lead-off single was `` What Kinda Gone '' , which peaked at No. 3 on the country music charts in April 2008 , the second single , `` No Love Songs '' , peaked at No. 53 , while the third single , `` Never Ever Gone '' , failed to chart . The album debuted at number eight on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , selling about 37,000 copies in its first week . It also debuted at number one on Billboard 's Top Country Albums chart . It is also Cagle 's final album for Capitol . The song `` I Do n't Wan na Live '' was also recorded by Josh Gracin on his 2008 album We Were n't Crazy as `` I Do n't Want to Live '' . `` Keep Me From Loving You '' was also recorded by Clay Walker on his 2010 album , She Wo n't Be Lonely Long .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "My_Life's_Been_a_Country_Song",
"rank": 90,
"score": 63347
},
{
"content": "Title: Ringed seals and climate change Content: Ringed seals are the smallest and most abundant member of the seal family that live in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions . The average life span of a ringed seal is 40 years , with a diet based mainly on Arctic cod and planktonic crustaceans . Typically about 5 ft long , the ringed seal is known to be solitary with their main predator being polar bears . Recently , however , the biggest predator to ringed seals has been the changing temperature in the Arctic and the detrimental changes to sea ice that follow . With declines in snowpack and sea ice due to warming ocean and atmospheric temperatures , survival has become tougher for ringed seals in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions . Yet ringed seals are also potentially projected to thrive due to warming , considering the early extinction of their predators . Climate change is sure to change the fate of all ringed seals in the coming years for better or worse .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Ringed_seals_and_climate_change",
"rank": 91,
"score": 63326
},
{
"content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "James_Hansen",
"rank": 92,
"score": 63310
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 93,
"score": 63177
},
{
"content": "Title: Threat (disambiguation) Content: A threat is an act of coercion . Threat may also refer to : Threat ( computer ) , a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach security Threat display , a behaviour aiming at intimidation of a potential enemy Threat of force ( public international law ) , an act of coercion between nations In art and entertainment : The Threat ( film ) , a 1949 American film noir directed by Felix E. Feist Threat ( film ) , a 2006 American film by Matt Pizzolo The Threat ( Animorphs ) , a novel by K.A. Applegate `` The Threat '' ( Dynasty ) , an episode of the TV series Dynasty it : Minaccia",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Threat_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 94,
"score": 63080
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Paleoclimatology",
"rank": 95,
"score": 63072
},
{
"content": "Title: Why The Future Doesn't Need Us Content: `` Why The Future Does n't Need Us '' is an article written by Bill Joy ( then Chief Scientist at Sun Microsystems ) in the April 2000 issue of Wired magazine . In the article , he argues ( quoting the sub title ) that `` Our most powerful 21st-century technologies -- robotics , genetic engineering , and nanotech -- are threatening to make humans an endangered species . '' Joy warns : While some critics have characterized Joy 's stance as obscurantism or neo-Luddism , others share his concerns about the consequences of rapidly expanding technology .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Why_The_Future_Doesn't_Need_Us",
"rank": 96,
"score": 63048
},
{
"content": "Title: Warming center Content: A warming center is a short-term emergency shelter that operates when temperatures or a combination of precipitation , wind chill , wind and temperature become dangerously inclement . Their paramount purpose is the prevention of death and injury from exposure to the elements . This may include acute trauma from falling objects such as trees , or injury to extremities due to frostbite . A more prevalent emergency which warming centers seek to prevent is hypothermia , the risk for which is aggravated by factors such as age , alcohol consumption , and homelessness .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Warming_center",
"rank": 97,
"score": 62872
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe",
"rank": 98,
"score": 62857
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 99,
"score": 62815
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .",
"qid": "199",
"docid": "Effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 100,
"score": 62805
}
] |
if we halved today’s atmospheric carbon dioxide content, all life would die. | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 1,
"score": 125015
},
{
"content": "Title: Haldane effect Content: The Haldane effect is a property of hemoglobin first described by John Scott Haldane . Oxygenation of blood in the lungs displaces carbon dioxide from hemoglobin which increases the removal of carbon dioxide . This property is the Haldane effect . Conversely , oxygenated blood has a reduced affinity for carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Haldane_effect",
"rank": 2,
"score": 111825
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 3,
"score": 111001
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 4,
"score": 108425
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 5,
"score": 107963
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 6,
"score": 107427
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 7,
"score": 106034
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 8,
"score": 104694
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 9,
"score": 103988
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 10,
"score": 102557
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 11,
"score": 100036
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 12,
"score": 98942
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 13,
"score": 98661
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 14,
"score": 98384
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 15,
"score": 98091
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Charles_David_Keeling",
"rank": 16,
"score": 98085
},
{
"content": "Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Asphyxiant_gas",
"rank": 17,
"score": 97285
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 18,
"score": 97057
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Now! Content: Kyoto Now ! ( stylized as KyotoNOW ! ) is a student-led movement at colleges and universities across the United States , through which students hope to make American universities commit to reducing carbon dioxide emissions . The name of the movement reflects the Kyoto Protocol , which the USA currently is not considering ratifying . Cornell University 's Kyoto Now ! was the first of such groups formed , after a sit-in protest in then President Rawlings ' office . The group demanded that the University commit `` to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 7 percent below the 1990 levels of emissions by 2007 . These reductions are not on a square foot basis , but based on the total campus emissions . '' Hal Craft , VP at the time , signed the Protocol , committing the University to emissions reductions , and the school is now on track to meet that commitment through construction of a combined heat and power plant that will take waste heat produced by the cogen plant and use it to heat the campus buildings . Punk band Bad Religion wrote a song called `` Kyoto Now ! '' for their 2002 album , The Process of Belief , which spoke about the Kyoto Protocol and their opinions on it . It can be considered an anthem for the Kyoto Now ! movement . The writer of `` Kyoto Now ! '' , Greg Graffin , is , in fact , an alumnus of Cornell University . Category : Student political organizations",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Kyoto_Now!",
"rank": 19,
"score": 96691
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 20,
"score": 96063
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 21,
"score": 94413
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 22,
"score": 93930
},
{
"content": "Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Modified_atmosphere",
"rank": 23,
"score": 93741
},
{
"content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Biosequestration",
"rank": 24,
"score": 93427
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 25,
"score": 93336
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Paleoatmosphere",
"rank": 26,
"score": 92782
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 27,
"score": 92234
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 28,
"score": 92033
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 29,
"score": 91961
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_scrubber",
"rank": 30,
"score": 91786
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory",
"rank": 31,
"score": 91670
},
{
"content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 32,
"score": 91525
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 33,
"score": 90927
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Atmosphere",
"rank": 34,
"score": 90148
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 35,
"score": 89914
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere Content: The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_accumulation_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 36,
"score": 89697
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 37,
"score": 89625
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 38,
"score": 89612
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 39,
"score": 89597
},
{
"content": "Title: Primordial soup Content: `` Primordial soup '' is a term introduced by Soviet biologist Alexander Oparin and English scientist John Burdon Sanderson Haldane . In 1924 , he proposed a theory of the origin of life on Earth through the transformation , during the gradual chemical evolution of particles that contain carbon in the primordial soup . Biochemist Robert Shapiro has summarized the `` primordial soup '' theory of Oparin and Haldane in its `` mature form '' as follows : Early Earth had a chemically reducing atmosphere . This atmosphere , exposed to energy in various forms , produced simple organic compounds ( `` monomers '' ) . These compounds accumulated in a `` soup '' , which may have been concentrated at various locations ( shorelines , oceanic vents etc. ) . By further transformation , more complex organic polymers -- and ultimately life -- developed in the soup .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Primordial_soup",
"rank": 40,
"score": 89595
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 41,
"score": 89420
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_shifting",
"rank": 42,
"score": 88850
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 43,
"score": 88749
},
{
"content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence",
"rank": 44,
"score": 88449
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "CO2_content",
"rank": 45,
"score": 87733
},
{
"content": "Title: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Content: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 is a chemical process whereby carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons by the energy of incident light . This process needs to be catalyzed either homogeneously or heterogeneously in order to proceed , and current research is aimed at developing these catalysts , most of which are semiconducting materials . Semiconducting catalysts provide favourable electron transfer kinetics . Motivation for research in this area is strong due to the current attention to atmospheric carbon dioxide as the reduction of carbon dioxide would be one route for removal and sequestration . Furthermore , the reduced species may prove to be a valuable feedstock for other processes . If the incident light utilized is solar in nature then this process also potentially represents energy routes which combine renewable energy with CO2 reduction .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_CO2",
"rank": 46,
"score": 87696
},
{
"content": "Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution",
"rank": 47,
"score": 87661
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_retirement",
"rank": 48,
"score": 86871
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 49,
"score": 86793
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_Engineering",
"rank": 50,
"score": 86780
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Environmental_issue",
"rank": 51,
"score": 86745
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Hypercapnia",
"rank": 52,
"score": 86541
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 53,
"score": 86530
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 54,
"score": 86109
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Kaya_identity",
"rank": 55,
"score": 85988
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_offset",
"rank": 56,
"score": 85978
},
{
"content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction",
"rank": 57,
"score": 85891
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 58,
"score": 85808
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues with coral reefs Content: Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs",
"rank": 59,
"score": 85760
},
{
"content": "Title: Reducing atmosphere Content: A reducing atmosphere is an atmospheric condition in which oxidation is prevented by removal of oxygen and other oxidizing gases or vapours , and which may contain actively reducing gases such as hydrogen , carbon monoxide , and gases such as hydrogen sulfide that would be oxidized by any present oxygen .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Reducing_atmosphere",
"rank": 60,
"score": 85574
},
{
"content": "Title: The Nitrogen Fix Content: The Nitrogen Fix is a 1980 science fiction novel by Hal Clement . The plot revolves around a nomadic family in a future where all oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere has combined with nitrogen , so the atmosphere is mostly nitrogen with traces of water , nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide , and the seas are very dilute nitric acid .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "The_Nitrogen_Fix",
"rank": 61,
"score": 85560
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies",
"rank": 62,
"score": 85546
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 63,
"score": 85434
},
{
"content": "Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "TanSat",
"rank": 64,
"score": 85357
},
{
"content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Scott_Denning",
"rank": 65,
"score": 85335
},
{
"content": "Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Tropical_peat",
"rank": 66,
"score": 85289
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming",
"rank": 67,
"score": 85217
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 68,
"score": 84943
},
{
"content": "Title: ISS ECLSS Content: The International Space Station Environmental Control and Life Support System ( ECLSS ) is a life support system that provides or controls atmospheric pressure , fire detection and suppression , oxygen levels , waste management and water supply . The highest priority for the ECLSS is the ISS atmosphere , but the system also collects , processes , and stores waste and water produced and used by the crew -- a process that recycles fluid from the sink , shower , toilet , and condensation from the air . The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station . The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation ( SFOG ) canisters . Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Russian Vozdukh system in Zvezda , one Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly ( CDRA ) located in the U.S. Lab module , and one CDRA in the U.S. Node 3 module . Other by-products of human metabolism , such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat , are removed by activated charcoal filters or by the Trace Contaminant Control System ( TCCS ) .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "ISS_ECLSS",
"rank": 69,
"score": 84867
},
{
"content": "Title: Bicarbonate indicator Content: A bicarbonate indicator ( hydrogencarbonate indicator ) is a type of pH indicator that is sensitive enough to show a color change as the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in an aqueous solution increases . The indicator is used in photosynthesis and respiration experiments to find out whether carbon dioxide is being liberated . It is also used to test the carbon dioxide content during gaseous exchange of organisms . When the carbon dioxide content is higher than 0.04 % , the initial red color changes to yellow as the pH becomes more acidic . If the carbon dioxide content is lower than 0.04 % , it changes from red to magenta and , in relatively very low carbon dioxide concentrations , to purple . Carbon dioxide , even in the concentrations found in exhaled air , will dissolve in the indicator to form carbonic acid , a weak acid , which will lower the pH and give the characteristic colour change . A colour change to purple during photosynthesis shows a reduction in the percentage of carbon dioxide and is sometimes inferred as production of oxygen , but there is not actually any direct evidence for it . Great care must be taken to avoid acidic or alkaline contamination of the apparatus in such experiments , since the test is not directly specific to carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Bicarbonate_indicator",
"rank": 70,
"score": 84849
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_sink",
"rank": 71,
"score": 84707
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 72,
"score": 84707
},
{
"content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change",
"rank": 73,
"score": 84432
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_monoxide",
"rank": 74,
"score": 84118
},
{
"content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson",
"rank": 75,
"score": 84067
},
{
"content": "Title: Capnophile Content: Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Capnophile",
"rank": 76,
"score": 84015
},
{
"content": "Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network",
"rank": 77,
"score": 83559
},
{
"content": "Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Kenneth_Hare",
"rank": 78,
"score": 83408
},
{
"content": "Title: Terrestrial biological carbon cycle Content: Carbon is an essential part of life on Earth . About half the dry weight of most living organisms is carbon . It plays an important role in the structure , biochemistry , and nutrition of all living cells . Living biomass holds between 600 and 1,000 gigatons of carbon , most of which is wood , while some 1,200 gigatons of carbon are stored in the terrestrial biosphere as dead biomass . Carbon is cycled through the terrestrial biosphere with varying speeds , depending on what form it is stored in and under which circumstances . It is exchanged most quickly with the atmosphere , although small amounts of carbon leave the terrestrial biosphere and enter the oceans as dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Terrestrial_biological_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 79,
"score": 83369
},
{
"content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme",
"rank": 80,
"score": 82756
},
{
"content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage",
"rank": 81,
"score": 82589
},
{
"content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Keith_E._Idso",
"rank": 82,
"score": 82352
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England",
"rank": 83,
"score": 82308
},
{
"content": "Title: Robert Berner Content: Robert Arbuckle Berner ( November 25 , 1935 -- January 10 , 2015 ) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the modeling of the carbon cycle . He taught Geology and Geophysics from 1965 to 2007 at Yale University , where he latterly served as Professor Emeritus until his death . His work on sedimentary rocks led to the co-founding of the BLAG model of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which takes into account both geochemical and biological contributions to the carbon cycle .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Robert_Berner",
"rank": 84,
"score": 81951
},
{
"content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Revelle_factor",
"rank": 85,
"score": 81798
},
{
"content": "Title: Melissa Trainer Content: Melissa G. Trainer ( April 22 , 1978 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) is an American astrobiologist who in 2004 demonstrated empirically that life could have formed on Earth through the interaction of methane , carbon dioxide and ultraviolet light ( sunlight ) . She is currently Assistant Chief for Science , Operations , and Strategic Planning in the Planetary Environments Laboratory at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Melissa_Trainer",
"rank": 86,
"score": 81721
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbonyl reduction Content: In organic chemistry , carbonyl reduction is the organic reduction of any carbonyl group by a reducing agent . Typical carbonyl compounds are ketones , aldehydes , carboxylic acids , esters , and acid halides . Carboxylic acids , esters , and acid halides can be reduced to either aldehydes or a step further to primary alcohols , depending on the strength of the reducing agent ; aldehydes and ketones can be reduced respectively to primary and secondary alcohols . In deoxygenation , the alcohol can be further reduced and removed altogether . Metal hydrides based on boron and aluminum are common reducing agents ; catalytic hydrogenation is also an important method of reducing carbonyls . Before the discovery of soluble hydride reagents , esters were reduced by the Bouveault -- Blanc reduction , employing a mixture of sodium metal in the presence of alcohols .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbonyl_reduction",
"rank": 87,
"score": 81714
},
{
"content": "Title: Paul Wennberg Content: Paul O. Wennberg is the R. Stanton Avery Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry and Environmental Science and Engineering at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) . He is the director of the Ronald and Maxine Linde Center for Global Environmental Science . He is chair of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network and a founding member of the Orbiting Carbon Observatory project , which created NASA 's first spacecraft for analysis of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . He is also the principal investigator for the Mars Atmospheric Trace Molecule Occultation Spectrometer ( MATMOS ) to investigate trace gases in Mars 's atmosphere . Wennberg 's research focuses on the atmospheric chemistry of planets , including air quality , photochemistry , and the carbon cycle . He designs and builds remote-sensing and in-situ scientific instruments which are used in field investigations supported by the National Science Foundation and NASA . His scientific instruments have made it possible to measure radicals in the atmosphere at concentrations that could not previously be detected . He measures atmospheric trace gases , making it possible to accurately describe the exchange of carbon dioxide and other gases between the atmosphere and the land and ocean . His research has substantially advanced understanding of the atmospheric chemistry of the troposphere and the stratosphere .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Paul_Wennberg",
"rank": 88,
"score": 81618
},
{
"content": "Title: Gastric tonometry Content: Gastric tonometry describes the measurement of the carbon dioxide level inside the stomach in order to assess the degree of blood flow to the stomach and bowel . The measurement of gut mucosal carbon dioxide has been used to detect decreased blood flow . Accumulation of carbon dioxide is predominantly a result of hypoperfusion and not hypoxia . Because the introduction of a nasogastric tube is almost routine in critically ill patients , the measurement of gastric carbon dioxide can be an easy method to monitor tissue perfusion . The gastric mucosal pH is measured according to an equation that assumes that arterial bicarbonate is equal to intramucosal bicarbonate , an argument that is not always valid . Given that the gastric mucosal carbon dioxide is the directly measured value , whereas the gastric mucosal pH is the derived and possibly inaccurate value , studies that used gastric pH to monitor perfusion may be inherently flawed . Most studies have failed to effectively affect gastric pH and for this reason failed to produce improvements in outcome . One study , by Gutierrez and colleagues , has shown that therapeutic interventions guided by gastric tonometry improved survival in critically ill patients . In a direct comparison of splanchnic-oriented therapy as guided by gastric tonometry with conventional shock management of trauma patients , there was no difference in mortality rates , organ dysfunction rates , or length of stay . After a surge in popularity , the use of gastric tonometry waned and it is currently found with less frequency in surgical ICUs .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Gastric_tonometry",
"rank": 89,
"score": 81611
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_profiling",
"rank": 90,
"score": 81438
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 91,
"score": 81428
},
{
"content": "Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Gilbert_Plass",
"rank": 92,
"score": 81360
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite",
"rank": 93,
"score": 81322
},
{
"content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Suess_effect",
"rank": 94,
"score": 81296
},
{
"content": "Title: 1953 Menzengraben mining accident Content: The Menzengraben mining accident was the explosion of a large pocket of carbon dioxide in a salt mine in Menzengraben , East Germany , July 7 , 1953 . During a planned , nightly explosives detonation in the mine , an unusually large pocket of pressurized carbon dioxide was suddenly released , resulting in the ejection of large blocks of salt through the mine shaft at very high velocities . The expanding gas as well as the blocks of salt demolished the building above the mine shaft , resulting in blocks of concrete being ejected as well . Three died as a consequence , one from being hit by debris , two from asphyxiation .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "1953_Menzengraben_mining_accident",
"rank": 95,
"score": 81252
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_label",
"rank": 96,
"score": 81250
},
{
"content": "Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme",
"rank": 97,
"score": 81225
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping",
"rank": 98,
"score": 81094
},
{
"content": "Title: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life Content: How to Live a Low-Carbon Life : The Individual 's Guide to Stopping Climate Change is a 2007 book by Chris Goodall , published by Earthscan/Routledge . According to New Scientist , this book provides `` the definitive guide to reducing your carbon footprint '' . Goodall explains how consumers can cut carbon usage by 75 percent without making drastic lifestyle changes . How to Live a Low-Carbon Life has been reviewed in the Journal of Environmental Health Research , The Guardian , and The Times . How to Live a Low-carbon Life won the 2007 Clarion award for non-fiction . A second edition was published in 2010 .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "How_to_Live_a_Low-Carbon_Life",
"rank": 99,
"score": 81074
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "200",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 100,
"score": 81058
}
] |
In our lifetime, there has been no correlation between carbon dioxide emissions and temperature | [
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 1,
"score": 126129
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 2,
"score": 124428
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 3,
"score": 122129
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 4,
"score": 118435
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 5,
"score": 116290
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 6,
"score": 115532
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 7,
"score": 113942
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 8,
"score": 113378
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 9,
"score": 110869
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 10,
"score": 110745
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 11,
"score": 110611
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_shifting",
"rank": 12,
"score": 110505
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 13,
"score": 109510
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 14,
"score": 108656
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 15,
"score": 108430
},
{
"content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources",
"rank": 16,
"score": 107152
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 17,
"score": 106700
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_label",
"rank": 18,
"score": 106507
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 19,
"score": 106144
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 20,
"score": 106080
},
{
"content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Kaya_identity",
"rank": 21,
"score": 105240
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 22,
"score": 105118
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007",
"rank": 23,
"score": 104871
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 24,
"score": 104483
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 25,
"score": 103479
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 26,
"score": 103292
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Low-carbon_economy",
"rank": 27,
"score": 103265
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 28,
"score": 103163
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 29,
"score": 102970
},
{
"content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 30,
"score": 102675
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 31,
"score": 102663
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 32,
"score": 101457
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 33,
"score": 101279
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 34,
"score": 101190
},
{
"content": "Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Evangelical_Climate_Initiative",
"rank": 35,
"score": 101084
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 36,
"score": 100827
},
{
"content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut",
"rank": 37,
"score": 100485
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 38,
"score": 99684
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 39,
"score": 99624
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_neutrality",
"rank": 40,
"score": 99522
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_finance",
"rank": 41,
"score": 99284
},
{
"content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32",
"rank": 42,
"score": 98920
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_monitoring",
"rank": 43,
"score": 98620
},
{
"content": "Title: Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy Content: In the United States about 10 % of the population , 35 million people , live within 100 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day , which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants . Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma , lung and heart disease , and cancer among others . Car pollutants include carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , particulate matter ( fine dusts and soot ) , and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations , they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses . The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the unborn babies .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy",
"rank": 44,
"score": 98540
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 45,
"score": 97621
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact",
"rank": 46,
"score": 97578
},
{
"content": "Title: Vatican Climate Forest Content: The Vatican Climate Forest , to be located in the Bükk National Park , Hungary , was donated to the Vatican City by a carbon offsetting company . The forest is to be sized to offset the carbon emissions generated by the Vatican during 2007 . The Vatican 's acceptance of the offer , at a ceremony on July 5 , 2007 , was reported as being `` purely symbolic '' , and a way to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet . No trees have been planted under the project and the carbon offsets have not materialised . In a more effective move to combat global warming , in May 2007 , the Vatican announced that the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall would be covered with photovoltaic panels . The installation was officially placed into service on November 26 , 2008 .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Vatican_Climate_Forest",
"rank": 47,
"score": 97383
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 48,
"score": 97315
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan",
"rank": 49,
"score": 96743
},
{
"content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia",
"rank": 50,
"score": 96633
},
{
"content": "Title: Paser Content: A PASER ( from the acronym of Particle Acceleration by Stimulated Emission of Radiation ) is a device that accelerates a coherent beam of electrons . This process was demonstrated for the first time in 2006 at the Brookhaven National Lab by a team of physicists from the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology . Relativistic electrons from a conventional particle accelerator pass through a vibrationally excited carbon dioxide medium in which the electrons undergo millions of collisions with excited carbon dioxide molecules and are accelerated in a coherent fashion . No heat is generated in this quantum energy transfer , thus all the energy transferred to the electrons is used in accelerating the electrons . The electron beam created from this process may result in electrons that are highly collimated in velocity in comparison to other acceleration methods . The vibrationally excited carbon dioxide is the same medium used in a carbon dioxide laser . This medium resonantly amplifies light with a wavelength near 10.6 or 9.4 micrometers , corresponding to a frequency of approximately 30 terahertz . In order to be accelerated , incident electrons must be microbunched at this frequency . An appropriately bunched electron beam strikes excited carbon dioxide molecules resonantly in order to efficiently stimulate energy emission .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Paser",
"rank": 51,
"score": 96614
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 52,
"score": 96597
},
{
"content": "Title: Road-effect zone Content: The Road-effect zone is the area in which effects on the natural environment extend outward from a road . Such effects are substance emissions like carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , particulate matter , nitrogen oxide , volatile organic compounds , biological matter , rubber , or salt , intangible emissions like noise or light , and changes of the micro climate like alterations of wind , water flows , temperature or moisture .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Road-effect_zone",
"rank": 53,
"score": 96489
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_retirement",
"rank": 54,
"score": 96451
},
{
"content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme",
"rank": 55,
"score": 96021
},
{
"content": "Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Klaus_Lackner",
"rank": 56,
"score": 95904
},
{
"content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program",
"rank": 57,
"score": 95653
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 58,
"score": 95334
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_profiling",
"rank": 59,
"score": 95274
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 60,
"score": 95270
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita",
"rank": 61,
"score": 95249
},
{
"content": "Title: Thin filament pyrometry Content: Thin Filament Pyrometry ( TFP ) is an optical method used to measure temperatures . It involves the placement of a thin filament in a hot gas stream . Radiative emissions from the filament can be correlated with filament temperature . Filaments are typically Silicon carbide ( SiC ) fibers with a diameter of 15 micrometres . Temperatures of about 800 - 2500 K can be measured .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Thin_filament_pyrometry",
"rank": 62,
"score": 95247
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 63,
"score": 95166
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 64,
"score": 94938
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_footprint",
"rank": 65,
"score": 94895
},
{
"content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning",
"rank": 66,
"score": 94866
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_China",
"rank": 67,
"score": 94837
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions in Kentucky Content: The report `` Kentucky Greenhouse Gas Inventory '' provides a detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and sinks for Kentucky in 1990 . Emissions were estimated using methods from EPA 's 1995 guidance document State Workbook : Methodologies for Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions . In 1990 , Kentucky emitted 35.4 million metric tons of carbon equivalent ( MMTCE ) . In addition , Kentucky estimated emissions of 0.4 MMTCE from biofuels . Emissions from biofuels are not included . The principal greenhouse gases were carbon dioxide , comprising 87.9 million metric tons ( 24.0 MMTCE ) , and methane , with 1.1 million metric tons ( 6.4 MMTCE ) . Other emissions included 0.0016 million metric tons of perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) ( 4.8 MMTCE ) , and 0.003 million metric tons of nitrous oxide ( 0.2 MMTCE ) The major source of carbon dioxide emissions was fossil fuel combustion ( 96 % ) , the majority of which is utility coal . Minor emissions came from cement and lime production and forest/grassland conversion . Carbon dioxide sinks ( i.e. , an increase in forest carbon storage ) offset about 26 % of the total carbon dioxide emissions . Sources of methane emissions were coal mining ( 73 % ) , domesticated animals ( 12 % ) , landfills ( 10 % ) , manure management ( 3 % ) , and natural gas/oil extraction ( 2 % ) . Nitrous oxide emissions were from fertilizer use . Sources of perfluorocarbons were HCFC-22 production ( 91 % ) and aluminum production ( 9 % ) . Kentucky 's emissions in 1990 were 9.6 MTCE per capita , compared to 1990 U.S. emissions of 6.4 MTCE per capita . Kentucky 's per capita emissions are high due to the large volume of coal-related activities in the state .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_in_Kentucky",
"rank": 68,
"score": 94797
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 69,
"score": 94768
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_emission_trading",
"rank": 70,
"score": 94272
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate",
"rank": 71,
"score": 94114
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England",
"rank": 72,
"score": 94098
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport",
"rank": 73,
"score": 94040
},
{
"content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Fugitive_emissions",
"rank": 74,
"score": 93401
},
{
"content": "Title: Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project Content: The Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project is part of the Gorgon Project , the world 's largest natural gas project . The Gorgon Project , located on Barrow Island in Western Australia , includes a liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) plant , a domestic gas plant , and a Carbon Dioxide Injection Project . The initial carbon dioxide injections are planned to take place by the end of 2017 . Once launched , the Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project will be the world 's largest CO2 injection plant , with an ability to store up to 4 million tons of CO2 per year -- approximately 120 million tons over the project 's lifetime , and 40 percent of total Gorgon Project emissions .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Gorgon_Carbon_Dioxide_Injection_Project",
"rank": 75,
"score": 93180
},
{
"content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Black_carbon",
"rank": 76,
"score": 93087
},
{
"content": "Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Maximilian_Auffhammer",
"rank": 77,
"score": 92853
},
{
"content": "Title: Emission intensity Content: An emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity ; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced , or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted , the number of animals in animal husbandry , on industrial production levels , distances traveled or similar activity data . Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities . The related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are often used interchangeably , but `` factors '' exclude aggregate activities such as GDP , and `` carbon '' excludes other pollutants . One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour , or CIPK , which is used to compare different sources of electrical power .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Emission_intensity",
"rank": 78,
"score": 92748
},
{
"content": "Title: List of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions Content: This is a list of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity . The data presented below from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Energy Information Administration corresponds to emissions in 2014 . Interactive bar charts ( showing state rankings for total and per-capita emissions ) and interactive maps ( for both total emissions and per capita emissions ) for the 2014 data are available on Tableau Public . __ TOC __",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "List_of_U.S._states_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions",
"rank": 79,
"score": 92719
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel",
"rank": 80,
"score": 92718
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting",
"rank": 81,
"score": 92553
},
{
"content": "Title: Eddy covariance Content: The eddy covariance ( also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux ) technique is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers . The method analyzes high-frequency wind and scalar atmospheric data series , and yields values of fluxes of these properties . It is a statistical method used in meteorology and other applications ( micrometeorology , oceanography , hydrology , agricultural sciences , industrial and regulatory applications , etc. ) to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields , and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas . It is frequently used to estimate momentum , heat , water vapour , carbon dioxide and methane fluxes The technique is also used extensively for verification and tuning of global climate models , mesoscale and weather models , complex biogeochemical and ecological models , and remote sensing estimates from satellites and aircraft . The technique is mathematically complex , and requires significant care in setting up and processing data . To date , there is no uniform terminology or a single methodology for the Eddy Covariance technique , but much effort is being made by flux measurement networks ( e.g. , FluxNet , Ameriflux , ICOS , CarboEurope , Fluxnet Canada , OzFlux , NEON , and iLEAPS ) to unify the various approaches . The technique has additionally proven applicable under water to the benthic zone for measuring oxygen fluxes between seafloor and overlying water . In these environments , the technique is generally known as the eddy correlation technique , or just eddy correlation . Oxygen fluxes are extracted from raw measurements largely following the same principles as used in the atmosphere , and they are typically used as a proxy for carbon exchange , which is important for local and global carbon budgets . For most benthic ecosystems , eddy correlation is the most accurate technique for measuring in-situ fluxes . The technique 's development and its applications under water remains a fruitful area of research .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Eddy_covariance",
"rank": 82,
"score": 92349
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 83,
"score": 92072
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_offset",
"rank": 84,
"score": 91846
},
{
"content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme",
"rank": 85,
"score": 91528
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 86,
"score": 91445
},
{
"content": "Title: List of countries by carbon intensity Content: This article lists countries by their carbon intensity . Carbon intensity is defined as a country 's annual carbon dioxide emissions divided by the country 's gross domestic product . National incomes are calculated using market exchange rates ( MER ) and purchasing power parities ( PPP ) . Units are metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity",
"rank": 87,
"score": 91208
},
{
"content": "Title: Energy efficiency in British housing Content: Domestic housing in the United Kingdom presents a possible opportunity for achieving the 20 % overall cut in UK carbon dioxide emissions targeted by the Government for 2010 . However , the process of achieving that drop is proving problematic given the very wide range of age and condition of the UK housing stock .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Energy_efficiency_in_British_housing",
"rank": 88,
"score": 91162
},
{
"content": "Title: Clean coal technology Content: Clean coal technology is a collection of technologies being developed to attempt to mitigate the environmental impact of coal energy generation and to mitigate climate change . When coal is used as a fuel source , the gaseous emissions generated by the thermal decomposition of the coal include sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , mercury , and other chemical byproducts that vary depending on the type of the coal being used . These emissions have been established to have a negative impact on the environment and human health , contributing to acid rain , lung cancer and cardiovascular disease . As a result , clean coal technologies are being developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions to the atmosphere . Some of the techniques that would be used to accomplish this include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal , gasification ( see also IGCC ) , improved technology for treating flue gases to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and at higher efficiency , carbon capture and storage technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and dewatering lower rank coals ( brown coals ) to improve the calorific value , and thus the efficiency of the conversion into electricity . Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal . Historically , the primary focus was on SO2 and NOx , the most important gases in causation of acid rain , and particulates which cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on human health . Concerns exist regarding the economic viability of these technologies and the timeframe of delivery , potentially high hidden economic costs in terms of social and environmental damage , and the costs and viability of disposing of removed carbon and other toxic matter .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Clean_coal_technology",
"rank": 89,
"score": 90694
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme",
"rank": 90,
"score": 90254
},
{
"content": "Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Emission_Reduction_Unit",
"rank": 91,
"score": 90019
},
{
"content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence",
"rank": 92,
"score": 89999
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for Negative Carbon Emissions Content: The Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) is led by Director Klaus S. Lackner , and was founded in the School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment ( SSEBE ) at Arizona State University in 2014 . CNCE is advancing carbon management technologies that can capture carbon dioxide directly from ambient air in an outdoor operating environment . CNCE aims to demonstrate systems that over time increase in scope , reliability and efficiency while lowering the cost of carbon dioxide capture from air .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Center_for_Negative_Carbon_Emissions",
"rank": 93,
"score": 89994
},
{
"content": "Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Clean_Energy_Act_2011",
"rank": 94,
"score": 89709
},
{
"content": "Title: Kyoto Now! Content: Kyoto Now ! ( stylized as KyotoNOW ! ) is a student-led movement at colleges and universities across the United States , through which students hope to make American universities commit to reducing carbon dioxide emissions . The name of the movement reflects the Kyoto Protocol , which the USA currently is not considering ratifying . Cornell University 's Kyoto Now ! was the first of such groups formed , after a sit-in protest in then President Rawlings ' office . The group demanded that the University commit `` to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 7 percent below the 1990 levels of emissions by 2007 . These reductions are not on a square foot basis , but based on the total campus emissions . '' Hal Craft , VP at the time , signed the Protocol , committing the University to emissions reductions , and the school is now on track to meet that commitment through construction of a combined heat and power plant that will take waste heat produced by the cogen plant and use it to heat the campus buildings . Punk band Bad Religion wrote a song called `` Kyoto Now ! '' for their 2002 album , The Process of Belief , which spoke about the Kyoto Protocol and their opinions on it . It can be considered an anthem for the Kyoto Now ! movement . The writer of `` Kyoto Now ! '' , Greg Graffin , is , in fact , an alumnus of Cornell University . Category : Student political organizations",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Kyoto_Now!",
"rank": 95,
"score": 89704
},
{
"content": "Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme",
"rank": 96,
"score": 89694
},
{
"content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Politics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 97,
"score": 89676
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture",
"rank": 98,
"score": 89506
},
{
"content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Biosequestration",
"rank": 99,
"score": 89486
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .",
"qid": "203",
"docid": "Carbon_Disclosure_Project",
"rank": 100,
"score": 89428
}
] |
after a natural orbitally driven warming, atmospheric carbon dioxide content increases 800 years later | [
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 1,
"score": 131148
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 2,
"score": 131082
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 3,
"score": 124699
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 4,
"score": 116034
},
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 5,
"score": 114990
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Global_warming_potential",
"rank": 6,
"score": 112963
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 7,
"score": 112939
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory",
"rank": 8,
"score": 111192
},
{
"content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "350.org",
"rank": 9,
"score": 109681
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 10,
"score": 108333
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas",
"rank": 11,
"score": 107081
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 12,
"score": 106781
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 13,
"score": 106425
},
{
"content": "Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "993–994_carbon-14_spike",
"rank": 14,
"score": 105801
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom",
"rank": 15,
"score": 105613
},
{
"content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change",
"rank": 16,
"score": 104604
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States",
"rank": 17,
"score": 103375
},
{
"content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike",
"rank": 18,
"score": 103328
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_tax",
"rank": 19,
"score": 103204
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 20,
"score": 102733
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling (disambiguation) Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that depicts the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the twentieth century . It is named after Charles David Keeling who discovered the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations and plotted the graph . Keeling may also refer to : Keeling , Virginia North Keeling Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Surname Charles Keeling , climatologist Edward Keeling Harold Keeling John Keeling , MP Ralph Keeling , son of Charles , also climatologist William Keeling , English sea captain",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Keeling_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 21,
"score": 102454
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 22,
"score": 101417
},
{
"content": "Title: Steptoean positive carbon isotope excursion Content: The Steptoean Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion ( SPICE ) was a geological event which occurred about 500 million years ago at the end of the Cambrian Period . The SPICE event was a sudden reversal of the anoxia ( lack of oxygen ) that had steadily spread throughout the oceans during the Cambrian which also affected the atmosphere . After the SPICE event , oxygen levels recovered and levels in the atmosphere may have risen as high as 30 % , higher than the 21 % of the atmosphere that prevails today . The sudden increase in oxygen led to an explosion of life across the globe .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Steptoean_positive_carbon_isotope_excursion",
"rank": 23,
"score": 101069
},
{
"content": "Title: 100,000-year problem Content: The 100,000-year problem ( `` 100 ky problem '' , `` 100 ka problem '' ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800,000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000 , 40,000 , 100,000 , and 400,000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations . While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100,000-year-problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid-Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800,000 years ago . The related `` 400,000-year-problem '' refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "100,000-year_problem",
"rank": 24,
"score": 100694
},
{
"content": "Title: Huronian glaciation Content: The Huronian glaciation ( or Makganyene glaciation ) was a glaciation that extended from 2.4 billion years ago ( Ga ) to 2.1 Ga , during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era . The Huronian glaciation followed after the Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE ) , a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane . The oxygen combined with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water , which does not retain heat as well as methane does . It is the oldest and longest ice age , occurring at a time when , in a biological sense , only simple , unicellular life existed on Earth . This ice age led to a mass-extinction on Earth .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Huronian_glaciation",
"rank": 25,
"score": 100567
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "CO2_content",
"rank": 26,
"score": 99944
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_sequestration",
"rank": 27,
"score": 99886
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 28,
"score": 99755
},
{
"content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event",
"rank": 29,
"score": 98983
},
{
"content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals",
"rank": 30,
"score": 98135
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Charles_David_Keeling",
"rank": 31,
"score": 98006
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming",
"rank": 32,
"score": 97707
},
{
"content": "Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Gilbert_Plass",
"rank": 33,
"score": 97540
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_diet",
"rank": 34,
"score": 97393
},
{
"content": "Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Bomb_pulse",
"rank": 35,
"score": 96619
},
{
"content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years",
"rank": 36,
"score": 95370
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 37,
"score": 95048
},
{
"content": "Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Kenneth_Hare",
"rank": 38,
"score": 94556
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan",
"rank": 39,
"score": 94211
},
{
"content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Biosequestration",
"rank": 40,
"score": 93569
},
{
"content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change",
"rank": 41,
"score": 93539
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth",
"rank": 42,
"score": 93093
},
{
"content": "Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Yedoma",
"rank": 43,
"score": 92939
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_rift",
"rank": 44,
"score": 92740
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 45,
"score": 91732
},
{
"content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Revelle_factor",
"rank": 46,
"score": 91371
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios",
"rank": 47,
"score": 91358
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Global_Carbon_Project",
"rank": 48,
"score": 91002
},
{
"content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2",
"rank": 49,
"score": 90447
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypoxic drive Content: The hypoxic drive is a form of respiratory drive in which the body uses oxygen chemoreceptors instead of carbon dioxide receptors to regulate the respiratory cycle . Normal respiration is driven mostly by the levels of carbon dioxide in the arteries , which are detected indirectly by central chemoreceptors when carbon dioxide crosses the blood -- brain barrier , forming detectable hydrogen ions , and directly by peripheral chemoreceptors , and very little by the oxygen levels . An increase in carbon dioxide will cause chemoreceptor reflexes to trigger an increase in ventilation . Hypoxic drive normally accounts for 10 % of the total drive to breathe . This increases as the PaO2 drops to 70 torr and below , while hypoxic drive is no longer active when PaO2 exceeds 170 torr . The hypoxic drive is so weak that unconsciousness will develop before respiratory distress is noted and is therefore a risk for pilots flying at high altitudes . For this reason , supplemental oxygen is required by Federal Aviation Regulations for pilots flying above an altitude of about 12,500 feet in unpressurized airplanes . In the past , it was believed that in cases where there are chronically high carbon dioxide levels in the blood such as in COPD patients , the body will begin to rely more on the oxygen receptors and less on the carbon dioxide receptors . And that in this case , when there is an increase in oxygen levels the body will decrease the rate of respiration . Recent studies have proven that COPD patients who have chronically compensated elevated levels ( known as '' Retainers '' ) are not in fact dependent on hypoxic drive to breathe . However , when in respiratory failure and put on high inspired oxygen , the in their blood may increase via three mechanisms , namely the Haldane Effect , the ventilation/perfusion mismatch ( where the regional pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction is released ) and by the removal or reduction of the hypoxic drive itself .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Hypoxic_drive",
"rank": 50,
"score": 90235
},
{
"content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Scott_Denning",
"rank": 51,
"score": 90058
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 189733 b Content: HD 189733 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 63 light-years away from the Solar System in the constellation of Vulpecula . The planet was discovered orbiting the star HD 189733 A on October 5 , 2005 , when astronomers in France observed the planet transiting across the face of the star . With a mass 13 % higher than that of Jupiter , HD 189733 b orbits its host star once every 2.2 days at an orbital speed of 152.5 km/s , making it a hot Jupiter with poor prospects for extraterrestrial life . Being the closest transiting hot Jupiter to Earth , HD 189733 b is a subject for extensive atmospheric examination . HD 189733 b was the first extrasolar planet for which a thermal map was constructed , to be detected through polarimetry , to have its overall color determined ( deep blue ) , to have a transit detected in X-ray spectrum and to have carbon dioxide detected in its atmosphere . In July , 2014 , NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on three exoplanets ( HD 189733b , HD 209458b , WASP-12b ) orbiting Sun-like stars .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "HD_189733_b",
"rank": 52,
"score": 89909
},
{
"content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Low-carbon_emission",
"rank": 53,
"score": 89883
},
{
"content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Black_carbon",
"rank": 54,
"score": 88922
},
{
"content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Keith_E._Idso",
"rank": 55,
"score": 88759
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia",
"rank": 56,
"score": 88730
},
{
"content": "Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network",
"rank": 57,
"score": 88309
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Atmosphere",
"rank": 58,
"score": 87925
},
{
"content": "Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Ocean_acidification",
"rank": 59,
"score": 87895
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network",
"rank": 60,
"score": 87435
},
{
"content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Economics_of_global_warming",
"rank": 61,
"score": 87277
},
{
"content": "Title: Svante Arrhenius Content: Svante August Arrhenius ( 19 February 1859 -- 2 October 1927 ) was a Nobel-Prize winning Swedish scientist , originally a physicist , but often referred to as a chemist , and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry . He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903 , becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate , and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death . His lasting contributions to science are exemplified and memorialized by the Arrhenius equation , Arrhenius definition of an acid , lunar crater Arrhenius , the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University , all named after him . He was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide increase Earth 's surface temperature through the Arrhenius effect , leading Keeling to conclude that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are large enough to cause global warming .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Svante_Arrhenius",
"rank": 62,
"score": 87205
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 63,
"score": 87052
},
{
"content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 64,
"score": 86847
},
{
"content": "Title: Venus Content: Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellites . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows at night and , though rare , occasionally be visible in broad daylight . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its maximum angular distance from the Sun ( elongation ) is 47.8 ° . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism . As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the `` morning star '' and `` evening star '' . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC . As the closest planet to Earth , Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 in 1962 ) , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 in 1970 ) . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Venus",
"rank": 65,
"score": 86847
},
{
"content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming",
"rank": 66,
"score": 86494
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal",
"rank": 67,
"score": 86468
},
{
"content": "Title: Paul Wennberg Content: Paul O. Wennberg is the R. Stanton Avery Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry and Environmental Science and Engineering at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) . He is the director of the Ronald and Maxine Linde Center for Global Environmental Science . He is chair of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network and a founding member of the Orbiting Carbon Observatory project , which created NASA 's first spacecraft for analysis of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . He is also the principal investigator for the Mars Atmospheric Trace Molecule Occultation Spectrometer ( MATMOS ) to investigate trace gases in Mars 's atmosphere . Wennberg 's research focuses on the atmospheric chemistry of planets , including air quality , photochemistry , and the carbon cycle . He designs and builds remote-sensing and in-situ scientific instruments which are used in field investigations supported by the National Science Foundation and NASA . His scientific instruments have made it possible to measure radicals in the atmosphere at concentrations that could not previously be detected . He measures atmospheric trace gases , making it possible to accurately describe the exchange of carbon dioxide and other gases between the atmosphere and the land and ocean . His research has substantially advanced understanding of the atmospheric chemistry of the troposphere and the stratosphere .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Paul_Wennberg",
"rank": 68,
"score": 86144
},
{
"content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia",
"rank": 69,
"score": 86064
},
{
"content": "Title: Crystal Geyser Content: Crystal Geyser is located on the east bank of the Green River approximately 4.5 mi downstream from Green River , Utah , United States . It is a rare example of a cold-water carbon dioxide driven geyser ; geothermal activity does not play a role in the activity of the geyser . The ground water near the geyser has significant quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide , along with substantial underground gas accumulations in the surrounding area . Saturation of the aquifer with creates enough pressure to force groundwater through the geyser and out on to the surface . The geyser erupts sometimes to a height of 130 ft or more . During 2005 , a study of the timing of the eruptions found them to be bimodal . About 66 % of eruptions in the study occurred about 8 hours after the previous eruption , and the rest about 22 hours after . The geyser erupts for an average of one hundred minutes a day , with eruptions either lasting 7 -- 32 minutes , or 98 -- 113 minutes . The bimodal distribution of eruptions is not a well-understood pattern , but is found in other geysers , both cold-water and otherwise . Between eruption events , the water level is approximately seventeen feet below the surface of the geyser -- at the level of the water table . In the preface to an eruption , water surfaces , fills the pond around the geyser , and begins to bubble . Bubbling events occur with increasing frequency in the time leading up to an eruption , but are not constant ; bubbling events last for a few minutes , with a few minutes of calm in between . Bubbling events at the main geyser also frequently alternate with bubbling events at natural side-pools . The current form of the geyser was created by an exploration well drilled in 1935 in attempt to locate oil . The well was originally 2600 ft deep , but an earlier owner of the land partially filled it in , meaning that the well is now only a couple hundred metres deep . The area surrounding the modern geyser is covered in a thick layer of orange travertine . Near the river , adjacent to the modern orange travertine , are substantial deposits of white travertine , perhaps reflecting the original depositional environment of the geyser ( before the exploratory well was drilled . ) The first written record of Crystal Geyser comes from the report of the Powell Geographic Expedition of 1869 , July 13 , 1869 : We stop to examine some interesting rocks , deposited by mineral springs that at one time must have existed here , but which are no longer flowing ...",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Crystal_Geyser",
"rank": 70,
"score": 85748
},
{
"content": "Title: Outline of Venus Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Venus : Venus -- second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellite . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Outline_of_Venus",
"rank": 71,
"score": 85705
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates",
"rank": 72,
"score": 85636
},
{
"content": "Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "TanSat",
"rank": 73,
"score": 85627
},
{
"content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies",
"rank": 74,
"score": 85584
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_price",
"rank": 75,
"score": 85051
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_shifting",
"rank": 76,
"score": 84661
},
{
"content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Mesopause",
"rank": 77,
"score": 84658
},
{
"content": "Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World",
"rank": 78,
"score": 84571
},
{
"content": "Title: MAVEN Content: Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN Mission ( MAVEN ) is a space probe developed by NASA designed to study the Martian atmosphere while orbiting Mars . Mission goals include determining how the planet 's atmosphere and water , presumed to have once been substantial , were lost over time . MAVEN was successfully launched aboard an Atlas V launch vehicle at the beginning of the first launch window on November 18 , 2013 . Following the first engine burn of the Centaur second stage , the vehicle coasted in low Earth orbit for 27 minutes before a second Centaur burn of five minutes to insert it into a heliocentric Mars transit orbit . On September 22 , 2014 , MAVEN reached Mars and was inserted into an areocentric elliptic orbit 6200 km by 150 km above the planet 's surface . The principal investigator for the spacecraft is Bruce Jakosky of the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder . On 5 November 2015 , NASA announced that data from MAVEN shows that the deterioration of Mars ' atmosphere increases significantly during solar storms . That loss of atmosphere to space likely played a key role in Mars ' gradual shift from its carbon dioxide-dominated atmosphere - which had kept Mars relatively warm and allowed the planet to support liquid surface water - to the cold , arid planet seen today . This shift took place between about 4.2 to 3.7 billion years ago .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "MAVEN",
"rank": 79,
"score": 84419
},
{
"content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Hypercapnia",
"rank": 80,
"score": 84299
},
{
"content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Suess_effect",
"rank": 81,
"score": 84161
},
{
"content": "Title: Orbital forcing Content: Orbital forcing is the effect on climate of slow changes in the tilt of the Earth 's axis and shape of the orbit ( see Milankovitch cycles ) . These orbital changes change the total amount of sunlight reaching the Earth by up to 25 % at mid-latitudes ( from 400 to 500 Wm − 2 at latitudes of 60 degrees ) . In this context , the term `` forcing '' signifies a physical process that affects the Earth 's climate . This mechanism is believed to be responsible for the timing of the ice age cycles . A strict application of the Milankovitch theory does not allow the prediction of a `` sudden '' ice age ( rapid being anything under a century or two ) , since the fastest orbital period is about 20,000 years . The timing of past glacial periods coincides very well with the predictions of the Milankovitch theory , and these effects can be calculated into the future .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Orbital_forcing",
"rank": 82,
"score": 84089
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Venus",
"rank": 83,
"score": 83759
},
{
"content": "Title: Criegee intermediate Content: A Criegee intermediate ( also called a Criegee zwitterion or Criegee biradical ) is a carbonyl oxide with two charge centers . These molecules help to break down sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere , and may help offset global warming . The formation of this sort of structure was first postulated in the 1950s by Rudolf Criegee , for whom it is named , but it was n't until 2013 that direct detection of such chemicals was reported . Infrared spectroscopy suggests the electronic structure is a zwitterion rather than a biradical as some had proposed .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Criegee_intermediate",
"rank": 84,
"score": 83500
},
{
"content": "Title: Stuart Agnew Content: John Stuart Agnew ( born 30 August 1949 ) is a Member of the European Parliament for the East of England region for the UK Independence Party . He was elected in 2009 . Agnew was born in Norwich . He was educated at Gordonstoun School and the Royal Agricultural College . He is a Norfolk farmer who formerly represented Norfolk on the NFU Council . He is a long term UKIP member . In the European Parliament he sits on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development . He ran for UKIP in the 2001 General Election in Mid Norfolk and in the 2005 General Election in Norfolk North , and stood in Broadland in the 2010 and 2015 UK General Elections . Agnew describes climate change science as `` the global warming scam '' . In March 2015 he spoke in the European Parliament , saying that plants need carbon dioxide as food , so `` if you succeed in decarbonising Europe , our crops will have no natural gas to grow from '' . Richard A. Betts of the UK Met Office described this as a misunderstanding , since cutting emissions did not mean reducing existing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In March 2016 Fincham Farm , owned and run by Agnew , was featured in a video investigation by Hillside Animal Sanctuary . It showed supposedly free range chickens living in squalid conditions , infested with mites , and with high levels of ammonia .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Stuart_Agnew",
"rank": 85,
"score": 83499
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_leakage",
"rank": 86,
"score": 83206
},
{
"content": "Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carnian_Pluvial_Event",
"rank": 87,
"score": 83077
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate",
"rank": 88,
"score": 83070
},
{
"content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Amorphous_carbonia",
"rank": 89,
"score": 82772
},
{
"content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions",
"rank": 90,
"score": 82551
},
{
"content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 91,
"score": 82485
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Atmosphere_of_Mars",
"rank": 92,
"score": 82286
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere Content: The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_accumulation_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 93,
"score": 82276
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Carbon_sink",
"rank": 94,
"score": 82084
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation",
"rank": 95,
"score": 82054
},
{
"content": "Title: Afterdamp Content: Afterdamp is the toxic mixture of gases left in a mine following an explosion caused by firedamp , which itself can initiate a much larger explosion of coal dust . It consists of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen . Hydrogen sulfide , another highly toxic gas , may also be present . However , it is the high content of carbon monoxide which kills by depriving victims of oxygen by combining preferentially with haemoglobin in the blood . Afterdamp was the deadly gas which caused the majority of casualties in the many pit disasters of the British coalfields , such as the Senghenydd colliery disaster and elsewhere in the world . Such disasters continue to afflict working mines , especially in mainland China .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Afterdamp",
"rank": 96,
"score": 81919
},
{
"content": "Title: Respiratory acidosis Content: Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Respiratory_acidosis",
"rank": 97,
"score": 81905
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho",
"rank": 98,
"score": 81779
},
{
"content": "Title: HD 209458 b Content: HD 209458 b ( sometimes unofficially called Osiris ) is an exoplanet that orbits the solar analog HD 209458 in the constellation Pegasus , some 150 light-years from the Solar System . The radius of the planet 's orbit is 7 million kilometres , about 0.047 astronomical units , or one eighth the radius of Mercury 's orbit . This small radius results in a year that is 3.5 Earth days long and an estimated surface temperature of about 1,000 ° C ( about 1,800 ° F ) . Its mass is 220 times that of Earth ( 0.69 Jupiter masses ) and its volume is some 2.5 times greater than that of Jupiter . The high mass and volume of HD 209458 b indicate that it is a gas giant . HD 209458 b represents a number of milestones in extraplanetary research . It was the first of many categories : a transiting extrasolar planet the first planet detected through more than one method an extrasolar planet known to have an atmosphere an extrasolar planet observed to have an evaporating hydrogen atmosphere an extrasolar planet found to have an atmosphere containing oxygen and carbon one of the first two extrasolar planets to be directly observed spectroscopically the first extrasolar gas giant to have its superstorm measured the first planet to have its orbital speed measured , determining its mass directly . Based on the application of new , theoretical models , as of April 2007 , it is alleged to be the first extrasolar planet found to have water vapor in its atmosphere . In July , 2014 , NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on HD 209458 b and two other exoplanets ( HD 189733 b and WASP-12b ) orbiting Sun-like stars .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "HD_209458_b",
"rank": 99,
"score": 81657
},
{
"content": "Title: Total inorganic carbon Content: The total inorganic carbon ( CT , or TIC ) or dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) is the sum of inorganic carbon species in a solution . The inorganic carbon species include carbon dioxide , carbonic acid , bicarbonate anion , and carbonate . It is customary to express carbon dioxide and carbonic acid simultaneously as CO2 * . CT is a key parameter when making measurements related to the pH of natural aqueous systems , and carbon dioxide flux estimates . CT = -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- + -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- + -LSB- CO32 − -RSB- where , CT is the total inorganic carbon -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- is the sum of carbon dioxide and carbonic acid concentrations ( -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- = -LSB- CO2 -RSB- + -LSB- H2CO3 -RSB- ) -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- is the bicarbonate concentration -LSB- CO32 − -RSB- is the carbonate concentration Each of these species are related by the following pH-driven chemical equilibria : CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H + + HCO3 − 2H + + CO32 − The concentrations of the different species of DIC ( and which species is dominant ) depends on the pH of the solution , as shown by a Bjerrum plot . Total inorganic carbon is typically measured by the acidification of the sample which drives the equilibria to CO2 . This gas is then sparged from solution and trapped , and the quantity trapped is then measured , usually by infrared spectroscopy .",
"qid": "204",
"docid": "Total_inorganic_carbon",
"rank": 100,
"score": 81536
}
] |
Each of the six major past ice ages began when the atmospheric carbon dioxide content was far higher than at present. | [
{
"content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous",
"rank": 1,
"score": 139279
},
{
"content": "Title: Huronian glaciation Content: The Huronian glaciation ( or Makganyene glaciation ) was a glaciation that extended from 2.4 billion years ago ( Ga ) to 2.1 Ga , during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era . The Huronian glaciation followed after the Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE ) , a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane . The oxygen combined with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water , which does not retain heat as well as methane does . It is the oldest and longest ice age , occurring at a time when , in a biological sense , only simple , unicellular life existed on Earth . This ice age led to a mass-extinction on Earth .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Huronian_glaciation",
"rank": 2,
"score": 137652
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum",
"rank": 3,
"score": 132870
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_age",
"rank": 4,
"score": 132177
},
{
"content": "Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Yedoma",
"rank": 5,
"score": 131134
},
{
"content": "Title: Timeline of glaciation Content: There have been five known ice ages in the Earth 's history , with the Earth experiencing the Quaternary Ice Age during the present time . Within ice ages , there exist periods of more severe glacial conditions and more temperate referred to as glacial periods and interglacial periods , respectively . The Earth is currently in such an interglacial period of the Quaternary Ice Age , with the last glacial period of the Quaternary having ended approximately 11,700 years ago with the start of the Holocene epoch . Based on climate proxies , paleoclimatologists study the different climate states originating from glaciation .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Timeline_of_glaciation",
"rank": 6,
"score": 128074
},
{
"content": "Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Quaternary_glaciation",
"rank": 7,
"score": 127969
},
{
"content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth",
"rank": 8,
"score": 122453
},
{
"content": "Title: Charles Thilorier Content: Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier was a student at the École polytechnique in the class / year of 1815 , who was mistakenly believed to have been the first person to create solid carbon dioxide ( `` dry ice '' ) . Actually , a French inventor , Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier ( 1790 -- 1844 ) , discovered dry ice . Unfortunately , in almost all of his technical articles , Adrien Thilorier gave his name simply as `` Thilorier '' ; similarly , whenever others referred to him in technical articles , his name was also given only as `` Thilorier '' . This impeded efforts by scholars to identify him subsequently . The confusion was compounded when Paul Thénard wrote a biography of his father , Louis Thénard , a French chemist : In 1835 , Adrien Thilorier had created dry ice by spraying liquid carbon dioxide into a glass vessel . He had thought that the dry ice was merely snow ; that is , water vapor from the atmosphere which had condensed as a result of the cold that the evaporation of the liquid carbon dioxide had produced . Louis Thénard had explained to Thilorier that his `` snow '' was actually solidified carbon dioxide . In a footnote of Louis Thénard 's biography , Paul Thénard identified the `` Thilorier '' who discovered dry ice as `` Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier '' , a student at the École polytechnique in the class of 1815 . This ( mistaken ) identification was mentioned by Duane H. D. Roller , a graduate student at Harvard University , in a paper that was published in 1952 . Consequently , many sources claim that Charles-Saint-Ange Thilorier discovered dry ice . Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier was an employee of the French Post Office in Paris who invented , among other things , an oil lamp , a gas compressor , and an apparatus for producing liquid carbon dioxide . It was a French scholar who revealed that he had discovered dry ice . During the 1960s , Madeleine Ambrière-Fargeaud , a scholar in France , was trying to identify the person who served as the model for a `` mad scientist '' character , Balthazar Claës , in Honoré de Balzac 's novel La Recherche de l'absolu ( The Quest of the Absolute ) . Her research suggested that Claës was inspired ( in part ) by Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier . By 2003 , Joost Mertens , a Dutch historian of science , had verified many of the findings that Ms. Ambrière-Fargeaud had made about Thilorier . That `` Thilorier '' is actually Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier is proved by French government documents , especially patents . In 1826 , he was granted a patent for a `` hydrostatic lamp '' ; the patent lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' of Paris . His 1831 patent for a gas compressor also lists his name as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and describes him as an employee of the `` Administration des postes '' ( i.e. , the Post Office ) in Paris . In 1832 , the Bulletin of the laws of the kingdom of France also lists him as `` Thilorier ( Adrien-Jean-Pierre ) '' and as an employee of the Post Office , who resided at number 21 on the Place Vendôme in Paris , and as the inventor of a gas compressor .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Charles_Thilorier",
"rank": 9,
"score": 118233
},
{
"content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 10,
"score": 117535
},
{
"content": "Title: Dry ice Content: Dry ice , sometimes referred to as `` cardice '' ( chiefly by British chemists ) , is the solid form of carbon dioxide . It is used primarily as a cooling agent . Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue ( other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere ) . It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable . Dry ice sublimates at − 78.5 ° C ( − 109.3 ° F ) at Earth atmospheric pressures . This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing ( frostbite ) . While generally not very toxic , the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia ( abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood ) due to buildup in confined locations .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Dry_ice",
"rank": 11,
"score": 116462
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ice Age Content: The Ice Age may refer to : The Last glacial period , which occurred from c. 110,000 -- c. 11,700 years ago The Pleistocene , a geological epoch lasting from c. 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago and spanning the world 's most recent period of repeated glaciations . The Plio-Pleistocene , a geological pseudo-period which begins about 5 million years ago and combines the time ranges of the formally defined Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events lasting from the Quaternary period to the present . For the general period of temperature reduction , see Ice age .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "The_Ice_Age",
"rank": 12,
"score": 115594
},
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 13,
"score": 115071
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere",
"rank": 14,
"score": 112555
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice age (disambiguation) Content: __ NOTOC __ An ice age is a geologic period characterized by the presence of polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Periods of major glaciation ( commonly also referred to as ice ages ) are scientifically termed glacial periods . Ice Age may also refer to :",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_age_(disambiguation)",
"rank": 15,
"score": 112021
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate",
"rank": 16,
"score": 110835
},
{
"content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Cap_carbonate",
"rank": 17,
"score": 110216
},
{
"content": "Title: Karoo Ice Age Content: The Karoo Ice Age from 360 -- 260 million years ago ( Mya ) was the second major ice age of the Phanerozoic Eon . It is named after the tillite ( Dwyka Group ) found in the Karoo region of South Africa ( and adjacent areas ) , where evidence for this ice age was first clearly identified in the 19th century . The tectonic assembly of the continents of Euramerica ( later with the Uralian orogeny , into Laurasia ) and Gondwana into Pangaea , in the Hercynian-Alleghany Orogeny , made a major continental land mass within the Antarctic region , and the closure of the Rheic Ocean and Iapetus Ocean saw disruption of warm-water currents in the Panthalassa Ocean and Paleotethys Sea , which led to progressive cooling of summers , and the snowfields accumulating in winters , causing mountainous alpine glaciers to grow , and then spread out of highland areas , making continental glaciers which spread to cover much of Gondwana . At least two major periods of glaciation have been discovered : The first glacial period was associated with the Mississippian subperiod ( 359.2 -- 318.1 Mya ) : ice sheets expanded from a core in southern Africa and South America . The second glacial period was associated with the Pennsylvanian subperiod ( 318.1 -- 299 Mya ) ; ice sheets expanded from a core in Australia and India . The extent of ancient glaciations in Antarctica is not well known , because the present ice sheet hides the evidence .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Karoo_Ice_Age",
"rank": 18,
"score": 110146
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 19,
"score": 109807
},
{
"content": "Title: Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier Content: Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier ( 16 February 1790 -- 2 December 1844 ) was a French inventor who was the first person to produce solid carbon dioxide ( `` dry ice '' ) .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Adrien-Jean-Pierre_Thilorier",
"rank": 20,
"score": 108525
},
{
"content": "Title: Azolla event Content: The Azolla event occurred in the middle Eocene epoch , around , when blooms of the freshwater fern Azolla are thought to have happened in the Arctic Ocean . As they sank to the stagnant sea floor , they were incorporated into the sediment ; the resulting draw-down of carbon dioxide has been speculated to have helped transform the planet from a `` greenhouse Earth '' state , hot enough for turtles and palm trees to prosper at the poles , to the icehouse Earth it has been since .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Azolla_event",
"rank": 21,
"score": 107548
},
{
"content": "Title: Interstellar ice Content: Interstellar ice consists of grains of volatiles in the ice phase that form in the interstellar medium . Ice and dust grains form the primary material out of which the Solar System was formed . Grains of ice are found in the dense regions of molecular clouds , where new stars are formed . Temperatures in these regions can be as low as 10 K , allowing molecules that collide with grains to form an icy mantle . Thereafter , atoms undergo thermal motion across the surface , eventually forming bonds with other atoms . This results in the formation of water and methanol . Indeed , the ices are dominated by water and methanol , as well as ammonia , carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide . Frozen formaldehyde and molecular hydrogen may also be present . Found in lower abundances are nitriles , ketones , esters and carbonyl sulfide . The mantles of interstellar ice grains are generally amorphous , only becoming crystalline in the presence of a star . The composition of interstellar ice can be determined through its infrared spectrum . As starlight passes through a molecular cloud containing ice , molecules in the cloud absorb energy . This adsorption occurs at the characteristic frequencies of vibration of the gas and dust . Ice features in the cloud are relatively prominently in this spectra , and the composition of the ice can be determined by comparison with samples of ice materials on Earth . In the sites directly observable from Earth , around 60 -- 70 % of the interstellar ice consists of water , which displays a strong emission at 3.05 μm from stretching of the O -- H bond . In September 2012 , NASA scientists reported that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) , subjected to interstellar medium ( ISM ) conditions , are transformed , through hydrogenation , oxygenation and hydroxylation , to more complex organics - `` a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides , the raw materials of proteins and DNA , respectively '' . Further , as a result of these transformations , the PAHs lose their spectroscopic signature which could be one of the reasons `` for the lack of PAH detection in interstellar ice grains , particularly the outer regions of cold , dense clouds or the upper molecular layers of protoplanetary disks . ''",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Interstellar_ice",
"rank": 22,
"score": 107528
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (Magic: The Gathering) Content: Ice Age is a block of three sets in Magic : The Gathering , consisting of the Ice Age , Alliances and Coldsnap sets . It is also the titular first set in the block . The Ice Age set is the eleventh set and the sixth expansion set , released in June 1995 . Set in the years from 450 to 2934 AR , the set describes a world set in perpetual winter due to the events in Antiquities . Ice Age was followed up June 1996 with Alliances , the fourteenth Magic : The Gathering set and eighth expansion set. ; and on July 21 , 2006 with Coldsnap . The time period between Alliances and Coldsnap was the longest period of time between the beginning and the completion of a full block in Magic . Originally , the set Homelands , released in October 1995 , was the second set in the Ice Age block ( with Alliances being the third set ) , but following the release of Coldsnap , Homelands was removed from the block in favor of Coldsnap .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(Magic:_The_Gathering)",
"rank": 23,
"score": 106363
},
{
"content": "Title: Pleistocene Content: The Pleistocene ( -LSB- pronˈplaɪstəˌsiːn , _ - toʊ - -RSB- , often colloquially referred to as the Ice Age ) is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago , spanning the world 's most recent period of repeated glaciations . The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period and also with the end of the Paleolithic age used in archaeology . The Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era . In the ICS timescale , the Pleistocene is divided into four stages or ages , the Gelasian , Calabrian , Ionian and Tarantian . All of these stages were defined in southern Europe . In addition to this international subdivision , various regional subdivisions are often used . Before a change finally confirmed in 2009 by the International Union of Geological Sciences , the time boundary between the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene was regarded as being at 1.806 million years Before Present ( BP ) , as opposed to the currently accepted 2.588 million years BP : publications from the preceding years may use either definition of the period .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Pleistocene",
"rank": 24,
"score": 105035
},
{
"content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Amorphous_carbonia",
"rank": 25,
"score": 104803
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (band) Content: Ice Age was a progressive band from New York City , USA . Founded by guitarist Jimmy Pappas , vocalist/keyboardist Josh Pincus , drummer Hal Aponte and bassist Arron DiCesare , the band released their debut album in 1999 , titled The Great Divide . Liberation followed in 2001 , both on Magna Carta Records . Ice Age are influenced by pop/progressive bands such as Yes , Kansas and Rush , but also by more modern progressive metal bands like Queensrÿche , and Dream Theater . In 2006 , the band officially changed their name to Soulfractured . This was accompanied by an announced shift in the band 's music - less overt progressive experimentation , with closer attention paid to melodic structure and songcraft . In this incarnation the band released the Soulfractured EP , made available through the band 's websites . They had previously released the Little Bird EP as Ice Age . Shortly after the second EP 's release , the group disbanded .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(band)",
"rank": 26,
"score": 104063
},
{
"content": "Title: Dry ice color show Content: Dry ice color show is the formation of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) by the reaction of dry ice , the solid form of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and water , which lower the pH to the acidic solution . By applying Universal Indicator to the solution , the changing of pH can be indicated as the color of the solution changes into the contrast color . This experiment is usually conducted as a classroom demonstration of pH and properties of carbon dioxide since the materials required are handful and prepared easily .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Dry_ice_color_show",
"rank": 27,
"score": 103219
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (franchise) Content: Ice Age is an American media franchise centering on a group of mammals surviving the Paleolithic ice age . It is produced by Blue Sky Studios , a division of 20th Century Fox , and featuring the voices of Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary , and Chris Wedge . Five films have been released in the series thus far with Ice Age in 2002 , Ice Age : The Meltdown in 2006 , Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 , and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 . It has received some criticism for making no attempt to be scientifically accurate . As of April 2016 , the franchise had generated $ 6 billion in revenue , making it one of the highest-grossing media franchises of all time .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(franchise)",
"rank": 28,
"score": 101911
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ice Age (novel) Content: The Ice Age is a 1977 novel by British Novelist Margaret Drabble . The novel follows the experiences of former BBC producer Anthony Keating as he experiences the ups and downs of life during the 1960s and 1970s . Depicting the property crisis in Britain during that period , novel diverges from her earlier psychological studies of individuals , focusing more on the `` state of England '' .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "The_Ice_Age_(novel)",
"rank": 29,
"score": 101861
},
{
"content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike",
"rank": 30,
"score": 101805
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Atmospheric_methane",
"rank": 31,
"score": 101781
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (1975 film) Content: Ice Age ( Eiszeit ) is a 1975 West German drama film directed by Peter Zadek . It was entered into the 25th Berlin International Film Festival . Eiszeit began as a theatre play by Tankred Dorst ( 1973 ) about Knut Hamsun , a Nobel Prize-winning author but unrepentant admirer of Nazi Germany .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(1975_film)",
"rank": 32,
"score": 101673
},
{
"content": "Title: Vashon Glaciation Content: The Vashon Glaciation or Vashon Stade was the most recent period of very cold climate in which glaciers existed at elevations at and near sea level in the western part of present-day Washington state . It occurred during a colder than present part of the current ice age . The Vashon Glaciation lasted from about 19,000 - 16,000 BP ( Before Present - present defined as January 1 , 1950 for this scale ) . The Cordilleran Ice Sheet was an ice sheet that covered present-day southern Alaska and parts of western Canada . During the Vashon Glaciation , the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced into the Puget Sound region .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Vashon_Glaciation",
"rank": 33,
"score": 100787
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Ages (band) Content: Ice Ages is an Austrian dark electro/industrial band signed to Napalm Records . The band is a one-man band consisting of Richard Lederer from Summoning and Die Verbannten Kinder Evas .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_Ages_(band)",
"rank": 34,
"score": 100723
},
{
"content": "Title: Martian polar ice caps Content: The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Martian_polar_ice_caps",
"rank": 35,
"score": 100487
},
{
"content": "Title: Jacques Beaulieu Content: For the Canadian ice hockey coach , seeJacques Beaulieu ( ice hockey ) Jacques A. Beaulieu , ( born April 15 , 1932 ) is a Canadian physicist who invented the first transversely excited atmospheric carbon dioxide laser or TEA laser in 1968 . In 1978 , he was awarded the Royal Society of Canada 's Thomas W. Eadie Medal . In 2002 , he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada in recognition of his `` major influence on the development of lasers and their application in the fields of defence and medicine '' . In 1999 , he was made a Grand Officer of the National Order of Quebec . In 1980 , he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Jacques_Beaulieu",
"rank": 36,
"score": 100364
},
{
"content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850",
"rank": 37,
"score": 100125
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice cloud Content: An ice cloud is a colloid of ice particles dispersed in air . The term has been used to refer to clouds of both water ice and carbon dioxide ice on Mars . Such clouds can be sufficiently large and dense to cast shadows on the Martian surface .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_cloud",
"rank": 38,
"score": 99961
},
{
"content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide",
"rank": 39,
"score": 99242
},
{
"content": "Title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis Content: The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis or Clovis comet hypothesis originally proposed that a large air burst or earth impact of one or more comets initiated the Younger Dryas cold period about 12,900 BP calibrated ( 10,900 14C uncalibrated ) years ago . The hypothesis has been contested by research showing that most of the conclusions can not be repeated by other scientists , and criticized because of misinterpretation of data and the lack of confirmatory evidence . The current impact hypothesis states that the air burst ( s ) or impact ( s ) of a swarm of carbonaceous chondrites or comet fragments set areas of the North American continent on fire , causing the extinction of most of the megafauna in North America and the demise of the North American Clovis culture after the last glacial period . The Younger Dryas ice age lasted for about 1,200 years before the climate warmed again . This swarm is hypothesized to have exploded above or possibly on the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the region of the Great Lakes , though no impact crater has yet been identified and no physical model by which such a swarm could form or explode in the air has been proposed . Nevertheless , the proponents suggest that it would be physically possible for such an air burst to have been similar to , but orders of magnitude larger than , the Tunguska event of 1908 . The hypothesis proposed that animal and human life in North America not directly killed by the blast or the resulting coast-to-coast wildfires would have likely starved on the burned surface of the continent .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis",
"rank": 40,
"score": 98799
},
{
"content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Deglaciation",
"rank": 41,
"score": 98545
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon dioxide snow Content: Carbon dioxide snow may refer to : Dry ice , a solid form of carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide cleaning , an industrial cleaning method",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Carbon_dioxide_snow",
"rank": 42,
"score": 98507
},
{
"content": "Title: Last glacial period Content: The last glacial period , popularly known as the Ice Age , was the most recent glacial period , which occurred from years ago . This most recent glacial period is part of a larger pattern of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation ( years ago to present ) . From this point of view , scientists consider this `` ice age '' to be merely the latest glaciation event in a much larger ice age , one that dates back over two million years and is still ongoing . During this last glacial period , there were several changes between glacier advance and retreat . The Last Glacial Maximum , the maximum extent of glaciation within the last glacial period , was approximately 22,000 years ago . While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar , local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent ( see picture of ice core data below for differences ) . Approximately 13,000 years ago , the Late Glacial Maximum began . Around 11,700 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch , which includes the Holocene glacial retreat . From the point of view of human archaeology , it falls in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods . When the glaciation event started , Homo sapiens were confined to Africa and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Homo erectus in Asia . Near the end of the event , Homo sapiens spread into Eurasia and Australia . Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover . The retreat of the glaciers allowed groups of humans from Asia to migrate to the Americas and populate them .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Last_glacial_period",
"rank": 43,
"score": 98462
},
{
"content": "Title: True polar wander on Mars Content: For some time , scientists have thought that the location of the poles of Mars have shifted due to the great mass of volcanic material in the Tharsis dome which includes Olympus Mons , the highest volcano in the solar system . A study published in Nature supports this idea . For a period early in the history of Mars , the poles were about 20 degrees away from their present positions . At that time ice was deposited in a region called Dorsa Argentea Formation . Also , the Martian dichotomy was aligned along the equator . A band of rivers formed at around 25 degrees south carried water from the southern highlands to the northern lowlands . After the polar shift , the location of the dichotomy boundary and the band of river valleys shifted . Dorsa Argentea was no longer at the pole . To produce the change in the pole location , the tilt of the planet remained unchanged , rather the crust and mantle moved . They rotated around the core . This new study suggests that the volcanoes and the movement of the poles occurred at about the same time . Volcanoes were erupting when the rivers were flowing with water . Perhaps the volcanoes supplied much water to the atmosphere , as well as carbon dioxide to warm the atmosphere ; these effects would provide water for the rivers . Tharsis is found in the Amazonis quadrangle and the Tharsis quadrangle .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "True_polar_wander_on_Mars",
"rank": 44,
"score": 97362
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age",
"rank": 45,
"score": 97148
},
{
"content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar",
"rank": 46,
"score": 96871
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (video game) Content: Ice Age is a 2002 platform game based on the film of the same name , developed by Artificial Mind and Movement , published by Ubi Soft Entertainment and released for the Game Boy Advance .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(video_game)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 96497
},
{
"content": "Title: Frost line (astrophysics) Content: In astronomy or planetary science , the frost line , also known as the snow line or ice line , is the particular distance in the solar nebula from the central protostar where it is cold enough for volatile compounds such as water , ammonia , methane , carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide to condense into solid ice grains . This condensation temperature depends on the volatile substance and the partial pressure of vapor in the protostar nebula . The actual temperature and distance for the snow line of water ice depend on the physical model used to calculate it and on the theoretical solar nebula model : 170 K at 2.7 AU ( Hayashi , 1981 ) 143 K at 3.2 AU to 150 K at 3 AU ( Podolak and Zucker , 2010 ) 3.1 AU ( Martin and Livio , 2012 ) ≈ 150 K for μm-size grains and ≈ 200 K for km-size bodies ( D'Angelo and Podolak , 2015 ) The radial position of the condensation/evaporation front varies over time , as the nebula evolves . Occasionally , the term snow line is also used to represent the present distance at which water ice can be stable ( even under direct sunlight ) . This current snow line distance is different from the formation snow line distance during the formation of Solar System , and approximately equals 5 AU . The reason for the difference is that during the formation of Solar System , the solar nebula was an opaque cloud where temperature were lower close to the Sun , and the Sun itself was less energetic . After formation , the ice got buried by infalling dust and it has remained stable a few meters below the surface . If ice within 5 AU is exposed , e.g. by a crater , then it sublimates on short timescales . However , out of direct sunlight ice can remain stable on the surface of asteroids ( and the Moon ) if it is located in permanently shadowed craters , where temperature may remain very low over the age of the Solar System ( e.g. 30 -- 40 K on the Moon ) . Observations of the asteroid belt , located between Mars and Jupiter , suggest that the water snow line during formation of Solar System was located within this region . The outer asteroids are icy C-class objects ( e.g. Abe et al. 2000 ; Morbidelli et al. 2000 ) whereas the inner asteroid belt is largely devoid of water . This implies that when planetesimal formation occurred the snow line was located at around 2.7 AU from the Sun . For example , the dwarf planet Ceres with semi-major axis of 2.77 AU lies almost exactly on the lower estimation for water snow line during the formation of the Solar System . Ceres appears to have an icy mantle and may even have a water ocean below the surface . Each volatile substance has its own snow line , e.g. carbon monoxide and nitrogen , so it is important to always specify which material 's snow line is meant . The lower temperature in the nebula beyond the frost line makes many more solid grains available for accretion into planetesimals and eventually planets . The frost line therefore separates terrestrial planets from giant planets in the Solar System . However , giant planets have been found inside the frost line around several other stars ( so-called hot Jupiters ) . They are thought to have formed outside the frost line , and later migrated inwards to their current positions . Earth , which lies less than a quarter of the distance to the frost line but is not a giant planet , has adequate gravitation for keeping methane , ammonia , and water vapor from escaping it . Methane and ammonia are rare in the Earth 's atmosphere only because of their instability in an oxygen-rich atmosphere that results from life forms ( largely green plants ) whose biochemistry suggests plentiful methane and ammonia at one time , but of course liquid water and ice , which are chemically stable in such an atmosphere , form much of the surface of Earth . Researchers Rebecca Martin and Mario Livio have proposed that asteroid belts may tend to form in the vicinity of the frost line , due to nearby giant planets disrupting planet formation inside their orbit . By analysing the temperature of warm dust found around some 90 stars , they concluded that the dust ( and therefore possible asteroid belts ) was typically found close to the frost line . The term is borrowed from the notion of `` frost line '' in soil science .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Frost_line_(astrophysics)",
"rank": 48,
"score": 96447
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Ic Content: Ice Ic ( pronounced `` ice one c '' or `` ice icy '' ) is a metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice . H. König was the first to identify and deduce the structure of ice Ic . The oxygen atoms in ice Ic are arranged in a diamond structure and is extremely similar to ice Ih having nearly identical densities and the same lattice constant along the hexagonal puckered-planes . It forms at temperatures between 130 and 220 K ( − 140 and − 50 ° C ) upon cooling , and can exist up to 240 K upon warming , when it transforms into ice Ih . Apart from forming from supercooled water , ice Ic has also been reported to form from amorphous ice as well as from the high pressure ices II , III and V . It can form in and is occasionally present in the upper atmosphere and is believed to be responsible for the observation of Scheiner 's halo , a rare ring that occurs near 28 degrees from the Sun or the Moon . Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_Ic",
"rank": 49,
"score": 96242
},
{
"content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Keeling_Curve",
"rank": 50,
"score": 96217
},
{
"content": "Title: International Petroleum Exchange Content: The International Petroleum Exchange , now ICE Futures ( since 2005-04-7 ) , based in London , was one of the world 's largest energy futures and options exchanges . Its flagship commodity , Brent Crude was a world benchmark for oil prices , but the exchange also handled futures contracts and options on fuel oil , natural gas , electricity ( baseload and peakload ) , coal contracts and , as of 22 April 2005 , carbon emission allowances with the European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) . The IPE was acquired by the Intercontinental Exchange in 2001 . The IPE was an open outcry exchange until 7 April 2005 , when its name was changed to ICE Futures and all trading was shifted onto an electronic trading platform .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "International_Petroleum_Exchange",
"rank": 51,
"score": 95946
},
{
"content": "Title: Water on Mars Content: Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice , though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere and occasionally as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil . The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap . Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate latitudes . More than five million cubic kilometers of ice have been identified at or near the surface of modern Mars , enough to cover the whole planet to a depth of 35 meters . Even more ice is likely to be locked away in the deep subsurface . Some liquid water may occur transiently on the Martian surface today , but only under certain conditions . No large standing bodies of liquid water exist , because the atmospheric pressure at the surface averages just 600 Pa -- about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure -- and because the global average temperature is far too low ( 210 K ) , leading to either rapid evaporation ( sublimation ) or rapid freezing . Before about 3.8 billion years ago , Mars may have had a denser atmosphere and higher surface temperatures , allowing vast amounts of liquid water on the surface , possibly including a large ocean that may have covered one-third of the planet . Water has also apparently flowed across the surface for short periods at various intervals more recently in Mars ' history . On December 9 , 2013 , NASA reported that , based on evidence from the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus , Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life . Many lines of evidence indicate that water is abundant on Mars and has played a significant role in the planet 's geologic history . The present-day inventory of water on Mars can be estimated from spacecraft imagery , remote sensing techniques ( spectroscopic measurements , radar , etc. ) , and surface investigations from landers and rovers . Geologic evidence of past water includes enormous outflow channels carved by floods , ancient river valley networks , deltas , and lakebeds ; and the detection of rocks and minerals on the surface that could only have formed in liquid water . Numerous geomorphic features suggest the presence of ground ice ( permafrost ) and the movement of ice in glaciers , both in the recent past and present . Gullies and slope lineae along cliffs and crater walls suggest that flowing water continues to shape the surface of Mars , although to a far lesser degree than in the ancient past . Although the surface of Mars was periodically wet and could have been hospitable to microbial life billions of years ago , the current environment at the surface is dry and subfreezing , probably presenting an insurmountable obstacle for living organisms . In addition , Mars lacks a thick atmosphere , ozone layer , and magnetic field , allowing solar and cosmic radiation to strike the surface unimpeded . The damaging effects of ionizing radiation on cellular structure is another one of the prime limiting factors on the survival of life on the surface . Therefore , the best potential locations for discovering life on Mars may be in subsurface environments . On November 22 , 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice on the planet Mars -- the volume of water detected is equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior . Understanding water on Mars is vital to assess the planet 's potential for harboring life and for providing usable resources for future human exploration . For this reason , ` Follow the Water ' was the science theme of NASA 's Mars Exploration Program ( MEP ) in the first decade of the 21st century . Discoveries by the 2001 Mars Odyssey , Mars Exploration Rovers ( MERs ) , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ( MRO ) , and Mars Phoenix lander have been instrumental in answering key questions about water 's abundance and distribution on Mars . The ESA 's Mars Express orbiter has also provided essential data in this quest . The Mars Odyssey , Mars Express , MER Opportunity rover , MRO , and Mars Science Lander Curiosity rover are still sending back data from Mars , and discoveries continue to be made .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Water_on_Mars",
"rank": 52,
"score": 95666
},
{
"content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal",
"rank": 53,
"score": 95285
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon hexoxide Content: Carbon hexoxide or carbon hexaoxide is an oxide of carbon with an unusually large quantity of oxygen . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule consists of a six membered ring with five oxygen and one carbon atom , and one oxygen with a double bond with the carbon .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Carbon_hexoxide",
"rank": 54,
"score": 94877
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age (2002 film) Content: Ice Age is a 2002 American computer-animated buddy comedy road film directed by Chris Wedge and co-directed by Carlos Saldanha from a story by Michael J. Wilson . Produced by Blue Sky Studios as its first feature film , it was released by 20th Century Fox on March 15 , 2002 . The film features the voices of Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Chris Wedge . The film is set during the days of the ice age ; animals begin migrating south to escape the winters . Once Manny , a no-nonsense mammoth meets Sid , a loudmouthed ground sloth and the two find a human baby , they set out to return the baby . Joining them is a saber-tooth tiger named Diego , who is commanded by his pack leader to bring the baby to him to enact revenge against the humans . This film was met with mostly positive reviews and was nominated at the 75th Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature . It was a box office success by grossing over $ 383 million , starting the Ice Age franchise . It was followed by four sequels , Ice Age : The Meltdown in 2006 , Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 , and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_Age_(2002_film)",
"rank": 55,
"score": 94778
},
{
"content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum",
"rank": 56,
"score": 94764
},
{
"content": "Title: Dry-ice blasting Content: Dry ice-blasting is a form of carbon dioxide cleaning , where dry ice , the solid form of carbon dioxide , is accelerated in a pressurized air stream and directed at a surface in order to clean it . An alternative media for non-abrasive blasting is water-ice , known as ice blasting . The method is similar to other forms of abrasive blasting such as sand blasting , plastic bead blasting , or sodablasting substituted for dry ice as the blasting medium . Dry-ice blasting leaves no chemical residue as dry ice sublimates at room temperature .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Dry-ice_blasting",
"rank": 57,
"score": 94509
},
{
"content": "Title: North Carolina ice storm of 2002 Content: The North Carolina ice storm of 2002 caused up to an inch of freezing rain from December 4 -- 5 in central North Carolina . A total of 24 people were killed , and as many as 1.8 million people were left without electricity on December 6 . Power outages began December 4 , and power was not completely restored to until December 14 . Raleigh received the most freezing rain from a single storm since 1948 , and Bristol , Tennessee received the most ice it had seen in 28 years . The storm also produced heavy rain in both the mountains and coastal plain of North Carolina . Much of the Southern Plains and the Northeast received snow with this system . During the power outages many residents used propane and kerosene powered generators and heaters to combat the cold , with some resorting to moving charcoal grills indoors to heat their households . The increased usage of these heating methods , particularly grills led to a substantial number of cases of carbon monoxide poisoning . Varying reports allege 48 to 200 cases of poisoning . Hispanic residents were disproportionally affected by the impacts of the ice storm , sustaining 23 % of total injuries and 65 % of carbon monoxide poisonings during the storm period .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "North_Carolina_ice_storm_of_2002",
"rank": 58,
"score": 94322
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice (anime) Content: is a 2007 three-episode original video animation created by Yasushi Akimoto and directed by Makoto Kobayashi . It is set in the ruins of Tokyo in the near future , after an unspecified catastrophe has led to the death of all human males and many females . The small groups of women who survive face the impending extinction of humanity . There are suggestions that the disaster was caused by human interference with nature , possibly biological warfare experiments or genetic engineering . Many of the survivors blame men 's warlike nature and scientific arrogance for the catastrophe . However , even though men have perished , the women who remain are forced to use violence in the face of bioterrorism and other threats . While some accept their fate as the last generation of humans , others see biological engineering as a final hope for the survival of the species .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_(anime)",
"rank": 59,
"score": 94098
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice core Content: An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition . Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable . An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_core",
"rank": 60,
"score": 94035
},
{
"content": "Title: Last Glacial Period Content: The Last Glacial Period (LGP) occurred from the end of the Eemian to the end of the Younger Dryas, encompassing the period c. 115,000 – c. 11,700 years ago. The LGP is part of a larger sequence of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation which started around 2,588,000 years ago and is ongoing. The definition of the Quaternary as beginning 2.58 million years ago is based on the formation of the Arctic ice cap. The Antarctic ice sheet began to form earlier, at about 34 Ma, in the mid-Cenozoic (Eocene–Oligocene extinction event). The term Late Cenozoic Ice Age is used to include this early phase.During this last glacial period there were alternating episodes of glacier advance and retreat. Within the last glacial period the Last Glacial Maximum was approximately 22,000 years ago. While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar, local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent (see picture of ice core data below for differences). Approximately 12,800 years ago, the Younger Dryas, the most recent glacial epoch, began, a coda to the preceding 100,000 year glacial period. Its end about 11,550 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene, the current geological epoch. From the point of view of human archaeology, the last glacial period falls in the Paleolithic and early Mesolithic periods. When the glaciation event started, Homo sapiens were confined to lower latitudes and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Denisovans and Homo erectus in Asia. Near the end of the event, Homo sapiens migrated into Eurasia and Australia. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover.",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Last_Glacial_Period",
"rank": 61,
"score": 93930
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ice People Content: The Ice People is a 1998 science fiction novel by Maggie Gee , set in a future world dominated by a new ice age . The novel examines different elements of contemporary society : the fundamental roles and relationships of men and women , sexuality , politics and the issue of global warming . Global warming is the initial context , where increases in temperature are then followed by the cyclic appearance of an ice age . The reaction of society and individuals to these dramatic extremes sites the novel within the genre of dystopian science fiction , but closer to the author 's heart seem to be the changes within such a scenario of issues we face today : the changes in racism as different parts of the planet change in their attractiveness ; the changes in social position as `` Insiders '' and `` Outsiders '' -- the `` haves '' and the `` have-nots '' -- live within differing conditions ; the value , status and interpretation of marriage ; parenthood -- the increasing difficulties in conception and the subsequent single-parenthood versus family issues ; the `` gang '' mentality of men and women ; the way politics is perceived , used and power abused . The Ice People has been compared to George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "The_Ice_People",
"rank": 62,
"score": 93881
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice giant Content: An ice giant is a giant planet composed mainly of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium , such as oxygen , carbon , nitrogen , and sulfur . There are two known ice giants in the Solar System , Uranus and Neptune . Ice giants consist of only about 20 % hydrogen and helium in mass , as opposed to the Solar System 's gas giants ( Jupiter and Saturn ) , which are both more than 90 % hydrogen and helium in mass . In the 1990s , it was realized that Uranus and Neptune are a distinct class of giant planet , separate from the other giant planets . They have become known as ice giants because their constituent compounds were ices when they were primarily incorporated into the planets during their formation , either directly in the form of ices or trapped in water ice . The amount of solid volatiles within the ice giants today is , however , very small .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_giant",
"rank": 63,
"score": 93762
},
{
"content": "Title: Heinrich event Content: A Heinrich event is a natural phenomenon in which large armadas of icebergs break off from glaciers and traverse the North Atlantic . First described by marine geologist Hartmut Heinrich ( Heinrich , H. , 1988 ) , they occurred during five of the last seven glacial periods or `` ice ages '' over the past 640,000 years ( Hodell , et al. , 2008 ) . Heinrich events are particularly well documented for the last glacial period but notably absent from the penultimate glaciation ( Obrochta et al. , 2014 ) . The icebergs contained rock mass , which has been eroded by the glaciers , and as they melted , this matter was dropped onto the sea floor as ice rafted debris ( abbreviated to `` IRD '' ) . The icebergs ' melting caused extensive amounts of fresh water to be added to the North Atlantic . Such inputs of cold and fresh water may well have altered the density-driven , thermohaline circulation patterns of the ocean , and often coincide with indications of global climate fluctuations . Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the cause of Heinrich events , most of which imply instability of the massive Laurentide ice sheet , a continental glacier covering North America during the last glacial period . Other northern hemisphere ice sheets were potentially involved as well ( Scandinavia , Iceland , Greenland ) . However , the initial cause of this instability is still debated .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Heinrich_event",
"rank": 64,
"score": 93668
},
{
"content": "Title: Elster glaciation Content: The Elster glaciation ( Elster-Kaltzeit , Elster-Glazial or Elster-Zeit ) or , less commonly , the Elsterian glaciation -- in the older and popular scientific literature also called the Elster Ice Age ( Elster-Eiszeit ) -- is the oldest known ice age that resulted in the large-scale glaciation of North Germany . It is temporally identified with the south German Mindel glaciation . The Elster glaciation is currently dated to about 400,000 to 320,000 years ago . It succeeded a long period of rather warmer average temperatures , the Cromerian Complex . Two ice advances were very extensive . The Elster was followed by the Holstein interglacial . The glacial period is named after the White Elster , a right tributary of the Saale .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Elster_glaciation",
"rank": 65,
"score": 93421
},
{
"content": "Title: January 2009 North American ice storm Content: The January 2009 North American ice storm was a major ice storm that impacted parts of Oklahoma , Arkansas , Missouri , Illinois , Indiana , West Virginia , and Kentucky . The storm produced widespread power outages for over 2 million people due to heavy ice accumulation . The hardest hit areas were in Western Kentucky with over 500,000 residences without power during the height of the storm , including 100,000 without power for over one week , and northern Arkansas , with 300,000 residences without power . This ice storm killed 65 people nationwide , 35 in Kentucky . Most deaths were attributed to carbon monoxide poisoning due to power generators or kerosene heaters being used indoors without proper ventilation . Kentucky Governor Steve Beshear called up the entire Kentucky Army National Guard to deal with the after effects of this storm , the largest National Guard call up in that state 's history . Emergency response teams from NRWA state affiliates , including the Arkansas , Kentucky , Oklahoma , Missouri and Florida rural water associations provided portable generators and technical assistance to maintain the water supply in the impacted areas .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "January_2009_North_American_ice_storm",
"rank": 66,
"score": 93420
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age Entertainment Content: Ice Age Entertainment is a record label created and owned by southern rapper Mike Jones and business partner Ray `` Mello '' Moore . The record label was created around late 2001 . Mike Jones has re-signed with Swishahouse , and has come to terms with them . Swishahouse will now distribute albums released under Ice Age Entertainment . The record label is based in two cities , Houston and Atlanta .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_Age_Entertainment",
"rank": 67,
"score": 93277
},
{
"content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle",
"rank": 68,
"score": 93071
},
{
"content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event",
"rank": 69,
"score": 92916
},
{
"content": "Title: Information and Content Exchange Content: Information and Content Exchange ( ICE ) is an XML-based protocol used for content syndication via the Internet . By using XML both sender and receiver have an agreed-upon language in which to communicate . Using a client -- server architecture , ICE defines a syndicate/subscribe model that is comparable to the binary publish/subscribe protocol standards used in CORBA and DCOM . However , in ICE messages are delivered through XML , typically over an HTTP connection , rather than through a lower-level binary protocol .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Information_and_Content_Exchange",
"rank": 70,
"score": 92774
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice-type model Content: In statistical mechanics , the ice-type models or six-vertex models are a family of vertex models for crystal lattices with hydrogen bonds . The first such model was introduced by Linus Pauling in 1935 to account for the residual entropy of water ice . Variants have been proposed as models of certain ferroelectric and antiferroelectric crystals . In 1967 , Elliott H. Lieb found the exact solution to a two-dimensional ice model known as `` square ice '' . The exact solution in three dimensions is only known for a special `` frozen '' state .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice-type_model",
"rank": 71,
"score": 92420
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 72,
"score": 92415
},
{
"content": "Title: Early Palaeozoic Icehouse Content: The Early Palaeozoic Icehouse was a cool period that interrupted the greenhouse temperatures of the Ordovician and Silurian periods , culminating in the Hirnantian glaciation and the Ordovician extinction event . The icehouse was formerly thought only to consist of the Hirnantian glaciation itself , but has now been recognized as a longer , more gradual event .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Early_Palaeozoic_Icehouse",
"rank": 73,
"score": 92269
},
{
"content": "Title: Six Ages of the World Content: The Six Ages of the World ( Latin : sex aetates mundi ) , also rarely Seven Ages of the World ( Latin : septem aetates mundi ) , is a Christian historical periodization first written about by Saint Augustine circa 400 AD . It is based upon Christian religious events , from the creation of Adam to the events of Revelation . The six ages of history , with each age ( Latin : aetas ) lasting approximately 1,000 years , were widely believed and in use throughout the Middle Ages , and until the Enlightenment , the writing of history was mostly the filling out of all or some part of this outline . The outline accounts for Seven Ages , just as there are seven days of the week , with the Seventh Age being eternal rest after the Final Judgement and End Times , just as the seventh day of the week is reserved for rest . It was normally called the Six Ages of the World because in Augustine 's schema they were the ages of the world , of history , while the Seventh Age was not of this world but , as Bede later elaborated , ran parallel to the six ages of the world . Augustine 's presentation deliberately counters chiliastic and millennial ideas that the Seventh Age , World to Come , would come after the sixth .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Six_Ages_of_the_World",
"rank": 74,
"score": 92246
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon pentoxide Content: Carbon pentaoxide or carbon pentoxide is an unstable molecular oxide of carbon . The molecule has been produced and studied at cryogenic temperatures . The molecule is important in atmospheric chemistry and in the study of cold ices in the outer solar system and interstellar space . The substance could form and be present on Ganymede or Triton , moons in the outer solar system . The molecule has a C2 symmetry . It consists of a five membered ring with one carbon and four oxygen atoms . A fifth oxygen atom has a double bond to the carbon . Calculation has resulted in a theoretical structure . The pentagon is not regular , but varies in the length of its sides and angles . The distance between the oxygen atoms that are not attached to carbon is 1.406 Å , whereas the distance between one of these atoms and an oxygen attached to carbon is 1.457 Å . The carbon oxygen bond length is 1.376 Å . The double carbon to oxygen bond is the shortest at 1.180 Å . There is no carbon-to-carbon bond as there is only one carbon atom . The OOO bond angle is 100.2 ° and the OOC angle is 109.1 ° . The OCO bond angle is 125.4 ° .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Carbon_pentoxide",
"rank": 75,
"score": 91854
},
{
"content": "Title: Middle Miocene disruption Content: The term Middle Miocene disruption , alternatively the Middle Miocene extinction or Middle Miocene extinction peak , refers to a wave of extinctions of terrestrial and aquatic life forms that occurred around the middle of the Miocene , roughly , during the Langhian stage of the Miocene . This period was preceded by the Miocene Climatic Optimum , a period of relative warmth from 18 to 14 Ma . Cooling that led to the Middle Miocene disruption has been attributed to CO2 being pulled out of the atmosphere by organic material before becoming caught in different locations like the Monterey Formation . Madelaine Bohme observed the occurrence of Varanidae , Chameleonidae , Cordylidae , Tomistominae , Alligatoridae , and giant turtles which indicate survival through the Miocene Climatic Optimum ( 18 to 16 Ma ) in Central Europe ( 45-42 ° N palaeolatitude ) . A major and permanent cooling step occurred between 14.8 and 14.1 Ma , associated with increased production of cold Antarctic deep waters and a major growth of the East Antarctic ice sheet . Two crocodilians of the genera Gavialosuchus and Diplocynodon were noted to have been extant in these northern latitudes prior to the permanent cooling step then became extinct 13.5 to 14 Ma . A Middle Miocene delta18O increase , that is a relative increase in the heavier isotope of oxygen , has been noted in the Pacific , the Southern Ocean and the South Atlantic .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Middle_Miocene_disruption",
"rank": 76,
"score": 91686
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice World (film) Content: Ice World is a 2002 television documentary on the Discovery Channel about humans during the last ice age . The program follows their struggle to survive in the cold and harsh environment of the Europe of 24,000 years ago .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_World_(film)",
"rank": 77,
"score": 91528
},
{
"content": "Title: 2012: Ice Age Content: 2012 : Ice Age is a 2011 disaster film produced by the independent film group The Asylum . It is the third and final film in The Asylum 's 2012 trilogy , which are mockbusters of the Roland Emmerich film 2012 .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "2012:_Ice_Age",
"rank": 78,
"score": 91412
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center",
"rank": 79,
"score": 91330
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ice Organisation Content: The Ice Organisation is a UK Loyalty programme . Ice promotes brands , goods and services that are more sustainable , with the aim of mitigating climate change through mass consumer purchase power . Like other loyalty schemes , customers are rewarded with Ice points which they earn when shopping with a retailer who is part of the programme . Customers can spend their points at Ice retailers for money off their purchases or get it for free . Depending on the retailer , customers can collect and spend Ice points either online , via the telephone or in-store . The Ice Organisation is run by Jude Thorne ( CEO , former CEO of Airmiles ) , Michael Baulk ( Chairman , former Chairman and Chief Executive of AMV plc from Jan 1997 to 2006 ) and Tessa Tennant ( President , Co-founder of the UK Social Investment Forum , and the Carbon Disclosure Project ) and the scheme tries to make people think about the environmental impacts of their shopping baskets and rewards them for making more environmentally friendly purchases .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "The_Ice_Organisation",
"rank": 80,
"score": 91285
},
{
"content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Interglacial",
"rank": 81,
"score": 90891
},
{
"content": "Title: Laschamp event Content: The Laschamp event was a short reversal of the Earth 's magnetic field . It occurred 41,400 ( ± 2,000 ) years ago during the last ice age and was first recognised in the late 1960s as a geomagnetic reversal recorded in the Laschamp lava flows in the Clermont-Ferrand district of France . The magnetic excursion has since been demonstrated in geological archives from many parts of the world . The period of reversed magnetic field was approximately 440 years , with the transition from the normal field lasting approximately 250 years . The reversed field was 75 % weaker whereas the strength dropped to only 5 % of the current strength during the transition . This reduction in geomagnetic field strength resulted in more cosmic rays reaching the Earth , causing greater production of the cosmogenic isotopes beryllium 10 and carbon 14 .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Laschamp_event",
"rank": 82,
"score": 90480
},
{
"content": "Title: European Climate Exchange Content: The European Climate Exchange ( ECX ) manages the product development and marketing for ECX Carbon Financial Instruments ( ECX CFIs ) , listed and admitted for trading on the ICE Futures Europe electronic platform . It is no longer a subsidiary of the Chicago Climate Exchange but rather a sister company . Both companies are owned by Climate Exchange Plc a holding company listed on the London Stock Exchange 's AIM market . ECX / ICE Futures is the most liquid , pan-European platform for carbon emissions trading , with its futures contract based on the underlying EU Allowances ( EUAs ) and Certified Emissions Allowances ( CERs ) attracting over 80 % of the exchange-traded volume in the European market . ECX contracts ( EUA and CER Futures , options and spot contracts ) are standardised exchange-traded products and all trades are cleared by ICE Clear Europe ( LCH.Clearnet was the designated clearing house prior to November 2008 ) . More than 100 leading businesses , including global companies such as Barclays , BP , Newedge , E.ON UK , Endesa , Fortis , Goldman Sachs , Morgan Stanley and Shell have signed up for membership to trade ECX products . In addition , several hundred clients can access the market daily via banks and brokers in a process called ` order-routing ' without having to be a member themselves . ECX is a member of the Climate Exchange Plc group of companies , founded by Richard Sandor . Other member companies include the Chicago Climate Exchange ( `` CCX '' ) and IFEX . Climate Exchange Plc is listed on AIM on the London Stock Exchange , and was bought in April 2010 by IntercontinentalExchange ( ICE ) . The current Chief Executive is Patrick Birley , son of archaeologist Robin Birley .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "European_Climate_Exchange",
"rank": 83,
"score": 90217
},
{
"content": "Title: Crisis of the Late Middle Ages Content: The crisis of the Late Middle Ages refers to a series of events in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that brought centuries of European prosperity and growth to a halt . Three major crises led to radical changes in all areas of society : demographic collapse , political instabilities and religious upheavals . A series of famines and plagues , beginning with the Great Famine of 1315 -- 17 and especially the Black Death of 1348 , reduced the population perhaps by half or more as the Medieval Warm Period came to a close and the first century of the Little Ice Age began . Popular revolts in late medieval Europe and civil wars between nobles within countries such as the Wars of the Roses were common -- with France fighting internally nine times -- and there were international conflicts between kings such as France and England in the Hundred Years ' War . The unity of the Roman Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism . The Holy Roman Empire was also in decline ; in the aftermath of the Great Interregnum ( 1247 -- 1273 ) , the Empire lost cohesion and politically the separate dynasties of the various German states became more important than their common empire .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages",
"rank": 84,
"score": 89765
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice VII Content: Ice VII is a cubic crystalline form of ice . It can be formed from liquid water above 3 GPa ( 30,000 atmospheres ) by lowering its temperature to room temperature , or by decompressing heavy water ( D2O ) ice VI below 95 K. Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih , ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures . Ice VII is metastable over a wide range of temperatures and pressures and transforms into low-density amorphous ice ( LDA ) above 120K . Ice VII has a triple point with liquid water and ice VI at 355 K and 2.216 GPa , with the melt line extending to at least 715 K and 10 GPa . It can also be created by increasing the pressure on ice VI at ambient temperature . Like the majority of ice phases ( including ice Ih ) , the hydrogen atom positions are disordered . In addition , the oxygen atoms are disordered over multiple sites . The structure of ice VII comprises a hydrogen bond framework in the form of two interpenetrating ( but non-bonded ) sublattices . Hydrogen pass through the center of the water hexamers and thus do not connect the two lattices . Ice VII has a density of about 1.65 g cm − 3 ( at 2.5 GPa and 25 ° C ) , which is less than twice the cubic ice density as the intra-network O -- O distances are 8 % longer ( at 0.1 MPa ) to allow for interpenetration . The cubic unit cell has a side length of 3.3501 Å ( for D2O , at 2.6 GPa and 22 ° C ) and contains two water molecules . Ice VII is the only disordered phase of ice that can be ordered by simple cooling , and it forms ( ordered ) ice VIII below 273 K up to ~ 8 GPa . Above this pressure , the VII -- VIII transition temperature drops rapidly , reaching 0 K at ~ 60 GPa . Thus , ice VII has the largest stability field of all of the molecular phases of ice . The cubic oxygen sub-lattices that form the backbone of the ice VII structure persist to pressures of at least 128 GPa ; this pressure is substantially higher than that at which water loses its molecular character entirely , forming ice X . In high pressure ices , protonic diffusion ( movement of protons around the oxygen lattice ) dominates molecular diffusion , an effect which has been measured directly . Scientists hypothesize that ice VII may comprise the ocean floor of Titan as well as extrasolar planets ( such as Gliese 436 b and GJ 1214 b ) that are largely made of water .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_VII",
"rank": 85,
"score": 89747
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Paleoatmosphere",
"rank": 86,
"score": 89608
},
{
"content": "Title: Topographical areas of Yorkshire Content: In Yorkshire there is a very close relationship between the major topographical areas and the geological period in which they were formed . The Pennine chain of Hills in the west is of Carboniferous origin . The central vale is Permo-Triassic . The North York Moors in the north-east of the county are Jurassic in age while the Yorkshire Wolds to the south east are Cretaceous chalk uplands . The plain of Holderness and the Humberhead levels both owe their present form to the Quaternary ice ages . Much of Yorkshire presents heavily glaciated scenery as few places escaped the great ice sheets as they advanced during the last ice age .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Topographical_areas_of_Yorkshire",
"rank": 87,
"score": 89480
},
{
"content": "Title: Radiocarbon dating Content: Radiocarbon dating ( also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating ) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon , a radioactive isotope of carbon . The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists . Libby received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in 1960 . The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen . The resulting radiocarbon combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide , which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis ; animals then acquire by eating the plants . When the animal or plant dies , it stops exchanging carbon with its environment , and from that point onwards the amount of it contains begins to decrease as the undergoes radioactive decay . Measuring the amount of in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died . The older a sample is , the less there is to be detected , and because the half-life of ( the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed ) is about 5,730 years , the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to around 50,000 years ago , although special preparation methods occasionally permit accurate analysis of older samples . The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward , but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained . Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years . The resulting data , in the form of a calibration curve , is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample 's calendar age . Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of in different types of organisms ( fractionation ) , and the varying levels of throughout the biosphere ( reservoir effects ) . Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil , and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s . Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its to decay below detectable levels , fossil fuels contain almost no , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century . Conversely , nuclear testing increased the amount of in the atmosphere , which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began . Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices , which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying atoms in a sample . More recently , accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice ; it counts all the atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements ; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples ( as small as individual plant seeds ) , and gives results much more quickly . The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology . In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods , it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances . Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the `` radiocarbon revolution '' . Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated , such as the end of the last ice age , and the beginning of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in different regions .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Radiocarbon_dating",
"rank": 88,
"score": 89241
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age: The Meltdown Content: Ice Age : The Meltdown is a 2006 American computer-animated comedy adventure film produced by Blue Sky Studios and released by 20th Century Fox . As the first sequel to the 2002 film Ice Age , it focuses on the herd escaping an upcoming flood , during which Manny finds love . It was directed by Carlos Saldanha , co-director of the first film , with the music composed by John Powell . The original voice cast -- Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Chris Wedge -- is joined by Queen Latifah , Seann William Scott and Josh Peck . The film premiered in Belgium on March 1 , 2006 . It was eventually released in 70 countries , with the last release being in China , on June 9 , 2006 . The Meltdown received mixed critical reaction but was a box office success by earning over $ 660 million . Three more sequels were released -- Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_Age:_The_Meltdown",
"rank": 89,
"score": 89044
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States",
"rank": 90,
"score": 88989
},
{
"content": "Title: Information Council on the Environment Content: The Information Council on the Environment ( ICE ) , was a U.S. organization created by the National Coal Association , the Western Fuels Association , and Edison Electrical Institute .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Information_Council_on_the_Environment",
"rank": 91,
"score": 88791
},
{
"content": "Title: Eocene Content: The Eocene ( -LSB- pronˈiːəˌsiːn , _ ˈiːoʊ - -RSB- ) Epoch , lasting from , is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era . The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Paleocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch . The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C . The end is set at a major extinction event called the Grande Coupure ( the `` Great Break '' in continuity ) or the Eocene -- Oligocene extinction event , which may be related to the impact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake Bay . As with other geologic periods , the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified , though their exact dates are slightly uncertain . The name Eocene comes from the Ancient Greek ἠώς ( ēṓs , `` dawn '' ) and καινός ( kainós , `` new '' ) and refers to the `` dawn '' of modern ( ` new ' ) fauna that appeared during the epoch .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Eocene",
"rank": 92,
"score": 88734
},
{
"content": "Title: Rock & Ice Content: Rock & Ice is a magazine published by Big Stone Publishing focusing on rock and ice climbing . The magazine got its start in early 1984 and the first issue was in late 1985 . The first publisher was Neal Kaptain , and it was bought out within the first year by George Bracksieck , who remained editor until 1997 . His company , North-South Publications , sold it to Primedia , a company led by Dougald MacDonald and others . The magazine is published eight times a year . It was headquartered in Boulder , Colorado until 2002 when it moved to Carbondale , Colorado . The cover of the first issue featured Alex Lowe climbing the first ascent of The Fang in Vail , Colorado .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Rock_&_Ice",
"rank": 93,
"score": 88722
},
{
"content": "Title: Late Ordovician glaciation Content: The Late Ordovician Glaciation is a period at the end of the Ordovician that started at the border between the Katian and Hirnantian about 440-460 Ma ( million years ago ) . The major glaciation during this period is widely considered to be the leading cause of the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event . Evidence of this glaciation can be seen in places such as Morocco , Libya , and Wyoming . More evidence derived from isotopic data is that during the Late Ordovician , Tropical ocean temperatures were about 5 ° C cooler than present day , this would have been a major factor that aided in the glaciation process . The Late Ordovician is the only glacial episode that appears to have coincided with a major mass extinction of nearly 61 % of marine life . Estimates of peak ice sheet volume range from 50 to 250 million cubic kilometers , and its duration from 35 million to less than 1 million years . There were also two peaks of glaciation . Also , glaciation of the Northern Hemisphere was minimal because a large amount of the land was in the southern hemisphere .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Late_Ordovician_glaciation",
"rank": 94,
"score": 88565
},
{
"content": "Title: Carbacid Investments Content: Carbacid Investments Limited ( CIL ) , is a manufacturing and investment company in Kenya , the largest economy in the East African Community . The company manufactures and markets carbon dioxide gas for industrial and medical use as well as dry ice . It also tests and validates gas cylinders . Carbacid is a monopoly and currently has a market share of more than 95 % in the regional carbon dioxide market . The shares of the company 's stock are listed on the Nairobi Securities Exchange ( NSE ) , where they trade under the symbol CARB .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Carbacid_Investments",
"rank": 95,
"score": 88235
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice nucleus Content: An ice nucleus is a particle which acts as the nucleus for the formation of an ice crystal in the atmosphere .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_nucleus",
"rank": 96,
"score": 88089
},
{
"content": "Title: Riss glaciation Content: The Riss glaciation , Riss Glaciation , Riss ice age , Riss Ice Age , Riss glacial or Riss Glacial ( Riß-Kaltzeit , Riß-Glazial , Riß-Komplex or ( obsolete ) Riß-Eiszeit ) is the second youngest glaciation of the Pleistocene epoch in the traditional , quadripartite glacial classification of the Alps . The literature variously dates it to between about 300,000 to 130,000 years ago and 347,000 to 128,000 years ago . It coincides with the nocat = y glaciation of North Germany . The name goes back to Albrecht Penck and Eduard Brückner who named this cold period after the river Riss in Upper Swabia in their 3 volume work Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter ( `` The Alps in the Ice Age '' ) published between 1901 and 1909 .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Riss_glaciation",
"rank": 97,
"score": 87989
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice Age Giants Content: Ice Age Giants is a British television documentary series created and produced by the BBC Natural History Unit , first shown in the UK on BBC Two and BBC Two HD on 19 May 2013 . The series steps back to 20,000 years in time and follows the trail of the prehistoric mammals in the ice age on North America and European region that lived through it to life by using the latest scientific knowledge and a little graphic wizardry . The series was presented by Dr. Alice Roberts and composed by David Mitcham .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Ice_Age_Giants",
"rank": 98,
"score": 87857
},
{
"content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect",
"rank": 99,
"score": 87854
},
{
"content": "Title: Last ice age Content: Last ice age may refer to : Quaternary glaciation , the period of the last few million years Last glacial period , the most recent glacial period of the current ice age Little Ice Age , a hundred years of relative cold in the Middle Ages after what historians term the Medieval Warm Period",
"qid": "207",
"docid": "Last_ice_age",
"rank": 100,
"score": 87752
}
] |
For decades, most scientists saw climate change as a distant prospect. | [
{
"content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "History_of_climate_change_science",
"rank": 1,
"score": 127888
},
{
"content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming",
"rank": 2,
"score": 123996
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change",
"rank": 3,
"score": 121638
},
{
"content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change",
"rank": 4,
"score": 120218
},
{
"content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change",
"rank": 5,
"score": 119136
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture",
"rank": 6,
"score": 118009
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program",
"rank": 7,
"score": 116919
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climate_change",
"rank": 8,
"score": 114636
},
{
"content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Leipzig_Declaration",
"rank": 9,
"score": 111636
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change",
"rank": 10,
"score": 107489
},
{
"content": "Title: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement Content: The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Laboratoire_des_sciences_du_climat_et_de_l'environnement",
"rank": 11,
"score": 106419
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents",
"rank": 12,
"score": 104279
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Global_warming",
"rank": 13,
"score": 103696
},
{
"content": "Title: James Croll Content: James Croll , FRS , ( 2 January 1821 -- 15 December 1890 ) was a 19th-century Scottish scientist who developed a theory of climate change based on changes in the Earth 's orbit .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "James_Croll",
"rank": 14,
"score": 103562
},
{
"content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)",
"rank": 15,
"score": 103450
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming",
"rank": 16,
"score": 103015
},
{
"content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Ice2sea",
"rank": 17,
"score": 102255
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Research_Centre",
"rank": 18,
"score": 101156
},
{
"content": "Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Christopher_Field",
"rank": 19,
"score": 100263
},
{
"content": "Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "List_of_climate_research_satellites",
"rank": 20,
"score": 100140
},
{
"content": "Title: Michael MacCracken Content: Michael Calvin MacCracken ( born 1942 ) , has been Chief Scientist for Climate Change Programs with the Climate Institute in Washington DC since 2002 ; he was also elected to its Board of Directors in 2006 .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Michael_MacCracken",
"rank": 21,
"score": 99958
},
{
"content": "Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "I'm_not_a_scientist",
"rank": 22,
"score": 99501
},
{
"content": "Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Tyndall_Centre",
"rank": 23,
"score": 98623
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Peter_A._Stott",
"rank": 24,
"score": 98355
},
{
"content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change",
"rank": 25,
"score": 98344
},
{
"content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis",
"rank": 26,
"score": 98077
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Change (journal) Content: Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climatic_Change_(journal)",
"rank": 27,
"score": 98006
},
{
"content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists",
"rank": 28,
"score": 97163
},
{
"content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment",
"rank": 29,
"score": 97069
},
{
"content": "Title: Jeffrey Kiehl Content: Jeffrey Theodore Kiehl ( born June 10 , 1952 ) is an American climate scientist . He is head of the Climate Change Research Section in the National Center for Atmospheric Research located in Boulder , Colorado . He completed his atmospheric science doctoral studies at the State University of New York , Albany . He was awarded the 2012 Climate Communication Prize from the American Geophysical Union .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Jeffrey_Kiehl",
"rank": 30,
"score": 96977
},
{
"content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster",
"rank": 31,
"score": 96973
},
{
"content": "Title: James Annan Content: James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "James_Annan",
"rank": 32,
"score": 96802
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climate_change_denial",
"rank": 33,
"score": 96582
},
{
"content": "Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Ian_Clark_(geologist)",
"rank": 34,
"score": 96541
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Research (journal) Content: Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climate_Research_(journal)",
"rank": 35,
"score": 96452
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit Content: The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit",
"rank": 36,
"score": 96437
},
{
"content": "Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Nature_Climate_Change",
"rank": 37,
"score": 96056
},
{
"content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 38,
"score": 95733
},
{
"content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy Content: The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy",
"rank": 39,
"score": 95681
},
{
"content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén",
"rank": 40,
"score": 95525
},
{
"content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration Content: The Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration was created as part of the Clear Skies Initiative in February 2002 by George W. Bush , as a Cabinet-level effort to coordinate climate change science and technology research . The White House says : `` The Secretary of Commerce and Secretary of Energy will lead the effort , in close coordination with the President 's Science Advisor . The research effort will continue to be coordinated through the National Science and Technology Council in accordance with the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . ''",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change_Science_and_Technology_Integration",
"rank": 41,
"score": 95264
},
{
"content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Global_warming_controversy",
"rank": 42,
"score": 95218
},
{
"content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)",
"rank": 43,
"score": 95200
},
{
"content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Scott_Denning",
"rank": 44,
"score": 95185
},
{
"content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell",
"rank": 45,
"score": 95117
},
{
"content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment",
"rank": 46,
"score": 94977
},
{
"content": "Title: Kevin Anderson (scientist) Content: Kevin Anderson is the Deputy Director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research ; holds a joint chair in Energy and Climate Change at the School of Mechanical , Aerospace and Civil Engineering at the University of Manchester and School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ; and is an honorary lecturer in Environmental Management at the Manchester Business School . He is an adviser to the British Government ( as of 2009 ) on climate change .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Kevin_Anderson_(scientist)",
"rank": 47,
"score": 94816
},
{
"content": "Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy",
"rank": 48,
"score": 94796
},
{
"content": "Title: U.S. Global Change Research Program Content: The United States Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society . The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 ( P.L. 101-606 ) , which called for `` a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand , assess , predict , and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change . '' Thirteen departments and agencies participate in the USGCRP , which was known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program from 2002 through 2008 . The program is steered by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research under the Committee on Environment , Natural Resources and Sustainability , overseen by the Executive Office of the President , and facilitated by a National Coordination Office . During the past two decades , the United States , through the USGCRP , has made the world 's largest scientific investment in the areas of climate change and global change research . Since its inception , the USGCRP has supported research and observational activities in collaboration with several other national and international science programs . These activities led to major advances in several key areas including : Observing and understanding short - and long-term changes in climate , the ozone layer , and land cover ; Identifying the impacts of these changes on ecosystems and society ; Estimating future changes in the physical environment , and vulnerabilities and risks associated with those changes ; and Providing scientific information to enable effective decision making to address the threats and opportunities posed by climate and global change . These advances have been documented in numerous assessments commissioned by the program and have played prominent roles in international assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Program results and plans are documented in the program 's annual report , Our Changing Planet .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program",
"rank": 49,
"score": 94722
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climate_ethics",
"rank": 50,
"score": 94425
},
{
"content": "Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "John_Christy",
"rank": 51,
"score": 94257
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow",
"rank": 52,
"score": 94193
},
{
"content": "Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Paleoclimatology",
"rank": 53,
"score": 93869
},
{
"content": "Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Petar_Gburčik",
"rank": 54,
"score": 93863
},
{
"content": "Title: Tom Wigley Content: Tom Wigley is a climate scientist at the University of Adelaide . He is also affiliated with the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) . He was named a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) for his major contributions to climate and carbon cycle modeling and to climate data analysis , and because he is `` one of the world 's foremost experts on climate change and one of the most highly cited scientists in the discipline . '' His h-index ( August 2014 ) is 64 , one of the highest in the discipline . He contributed to many of the reports published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . Wigley was educated as a mathematical physicist and earned his doctorate at the University of Adelaide in Australia . He served as director of the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom from 1978 to 1993 . In 1993 he went on to the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder , Colorado , where he was appointed a senior scientist in 1994 . He subsequently moved to the University of Adelaide where he currently ( 2014 ) holds a Professorial Fellowship . His published papers include the first paper to demonstrate 20th century warming using both land and marine data , the first paper to include the effects of aerosol cooling on projections of future climate change , the first paper to provide realistic scenarios for the stabilization of atmospheric CO2 , and the first paper to use pattern-based methods to identify a significant human influence on the climate . Wigley has also published a number of highly cited papers in aqueous geochemistry , including a now-standard method for carbon dating of groundwater . Wigley has argued in the popular media that the IPCC has been too optimistic about the prospect of averting harmful climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions through the use of renewable technologies alone , and argued that any realistic portfolio must include significant contributions from nuclear energy . He has also pointed out that `` the human-induced changes that are expected over the next 100 years are much , much greater than any changes that societies experienced in the past . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Tom_Wigley",
"rank": 55,
"score": 93693
},
{
"content": "Title: Woods Hole Research Center Content: The Woods Hole Research Center ( WHRC ) is a scientific research organization that studies climate change , land use change , soils , wetlands , and forests . WHRC was named the world 's top climate change think tank for 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 by the International Center for Climate Governance . The Center conducts research throughout the Amazon , the Arctic , central Africa , and North America . WHRC collaborates with a wide variety of partners to understand the causes and impacts of climate change and to implement more science-based policies .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Woods_Hole_Research_Center",
"rank": 56,
"score": 93689
},
{
"content": "Title: Jimmy Adegoke Content: James O. Adegoke ( born 1963 ) is an award-winning climate scientist and professor at the University of Missouri-Kansas City ( UMKC ) where he served as Chair of the Department of Geosciences ( 2008-2010 ) . He also served as an appointee of the Mayor of Kansas City Missouri on the city 's Environmental Management Commission ( EMC ) and has testified before the South Africa Parliament 's Portfolio Committee on Science and Technology and the Climate Change Committee of the Nigerian House of Representatives . In the United States , he has testified at the United States House of Representatives for the United States House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming . He also serves on the Technical Advisory Board of several United Nations ( UN ) applied science programs , including the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) project on the application of remote sensing for water resources and ecosystem management in Africa .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Jimmy_Adegoke",
"rank": 57,
"score": 93609
},
{
"content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change",
"rank": 58,
"score": 93376
},
{
"content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Global_cooling",
"rank": 59,
"score": 93198
},
{
"content": "Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Friends_of_Science",
"rank": 60,
"score": 93082
},
{
"content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme",
"rank": 61,
"score": 92978
},
{
"content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Vicky_Pope",
"rank": 62,
"score": 92850
},
{
"content": "Title: Kathleen Miller Content: Kathleen A. Miller is a climate scientist who specializes in the economics of climate change and its effects on institutions , management of risk and investment decisions . She has worked as the lead author on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change chapter on North America in the report Climate Change 2001 : Impacts , Adaptations and Vulnerability . She is based at the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado . Miller undertook her doctorate in Economics at the University of Washington in 1985 . Her dissertation was entitled The Right to Use vs. the Right to Sell : Water Rights in the Western United States . It explored the evolution of property institutions governing access to water in the arid western states and modelled the operation and effects of these institutions in the presence of both scarcity and inter-temporal variability in water supplies .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Kathleen_Miller",
"rank": 63,
"score": 92799
},
{
"content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory",
"rank": 64,
"score": 92771
},
{
"content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "David_Karoly",
"rank": 65,
"score": 92691
},
{
"content": "Title: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars Content: The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines is a 2012 book about climate change by the American climatologist and geophysicist Michael E. Mann . In the book Mann describes how he became a researcher investigating the temperature record of the past 1000 years and was lead author , with Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , on the 1999 reconstruction that was the first to be dubbed the hockey stick graph . He concisely explains the basics of climate science including statistical methodology dealing with paleoclimate proxy data , and examines the tactics which opponents of action on climate change use to distort the science and attack the reputations of climate scientists . The book describes both the hockey stick controversy and the broader context of skepticism in science and contrarians rejecting evidence of human influence on climate . The book was picked by Physics Today books editor Jermey Matthews as one of the five top books of the 49 they had reviewed in 2012 .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "The_Hockey_Stick_and_the_Climate_Wars",
"rank": 66,
"score": 92615
},
{
"content": "Title: Helen Cleugh Content: Helen A. Cleugh is an atmospheric scientist . She is currently the Chief Research Scientist in Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) ( Oceans and Atmosphere ) where she leads the Earth Systems and Climate Change Hub . Cleugh 's research focuses on observing and predicting atmospheric , climate and marine systems and determining how they interact with human activities .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Helen_Cleugh",
"rank": 67,
"score": 92446
},
{
"content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera",
"rank": 68,
"score": 92375
},
{
"content": "Title: Thomas Stocker Content: Thomas Stocker ( born 1959 ) is a Swiss climate scientist . Born in Zürich , Stocker obtained a degree in physics at the ETH Zurich . He was active in research at the University College London , at McGill University in Montreal and at Columbia University in New York . Since 1993 , he is professor and head of the department of Climate and Environmental Physics at the University of Bern . The focus of Stocker 's research is the development of models of climate change based on , among other , the analysis of ice cores from the polar regions . He significantly contributed to creating the `` hockey stick graph '' that shows a growing increase of global mean temperatures in recent times . Since 1998 , he contributes to the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and is co-chairman of the IPCC Working Group I ( assessing scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change ) from 2008 to 2015 . In 1993 , Stocker was awarded the Swiss National Science Foundation 's National Latsis Prize , and 2009 the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and a member of the Academia Europaea and the American Meteorological Society . Stocker is featured in the film Taking Earth 's Temperature : Delving into Climate 's Past . On February 18 , 2015 , the Swiss government announced it would nominate Dr. Stocker as a candidate for the next chair of the IPCC to succeed Dr. Pachauri .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Thomas_Stocker",
"rank": 69,
"score": 91959
},
{
"content": "Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Peter_Thejll",
"rank": 70,
"score": 91916
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina",
"rank": 71,
"score": 91876
},
{
"content": "Title: George Kukla Content: George Kukla ( born Jiří Kukla ; 14 March 1930 -- 31 May 2014 ) was a senior research scientist at the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University . Kukla was a member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences , prior to emigrating to the US , and a pioneer in the field of astronomical climate forcing . In 1972 he became a central figure in convincing the United States government to take the dangers of climate change seriously . Kukla and geologist , Robert Matthews of Brown University , convened a historic conference , themed : `` The Present Interglacial : How and When will it End ? '' Kukla and Matthews then highlighted the dangers of global cooling in Science magazine and , to President Richard Nixon . The Nixon administration reacted swiftly to their letter , which described calamities such as killer frosts , lower food production and floods , to come . By February 1973 , the State Department had established a Panel on the Present Interglacial , which advised Drs. Kukla and Matthews that it `` was seized of the matter '' and numerous other government agencies were soon included . Kukla was co-author of a chapter in the book `` Natural Climate Variability on Decade to Century Time Scales '' published by the National Research Council . Kukla believed all glacial periods in Earth 's history began with global warming ( understood as an increase of area-weighted average global mean temperature ) . He believed Earth 's recent warming is mostly natural and will ultimately lead to a new ice age .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "George_Kukla",
"rank": 72,
"score": 91836
},
{
"content": "Title: Jim Salinger Content: Michael Jim Salinger is an Auckland-based climate change scientist who formerly worked for the Crown Research Institute National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . From 2006 to 2010 , Salinger was President of the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology at the World Meteorological Organization . On 23 April 2009 , Salinger was dismissed by NIWA , ostensibly for breaching NIWA 's media policy . Salinger had represented NIWA to the public and media for many years and the dismissal caused a ` wide public outcry ' according to Television New Zealand . The Institute of Agricultural and Horticultural Science described the incident as a ` national embarrassment ' . In late May 2009 , Salinger stated that mediation with NIWA over the dismissal had failed and that he would be lodging a claim with the Employment Relations Authority . On 19 October 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority in Auckland began a hearing into Salinger 's dismissal ; during the hearing it emerged the Salinger has suffered from depression . In December 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority upheld Salinger 's dismissal . In 2012 , Salinger was Lorry Lokey Visiting Professor at Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Jim_Salinger",
"rank": 73,
"score": 91731
},
{
"content": "Title: Attorney General of Virginia's climate science investigation Content: The Attorney General of Virginia 's climate science investigation was a `` Civil Investigative Demand '' initiated in April 2010 by Virginia Attorney General Ken Cuccinelli for a wide range of records held by the University of Virginia related to five grant applications for research work by a leading climate scientist Michael E. Mann , who was an assistant professor at the university from 1999 to 2005 . The demand was issued under the Virginia Fraud Against Taxpayers Act in connection with claims by Cuccinnelli that Mann had possibly violated state fraud laws in relation to five research grants , by allegedly manipulating data . No evidence of wrongdoing was presented to support the claim . Mann 's earlier work had been targeted by climate change skeptics in the hockey stick controversy , and allegations against him were renewed in late 2009 in the Climatic Research Unit email controversy but found to be groundless in a series of investigations . Widespread concerns were raised by University of Virginia 's faculty and numerous scientists and science organizations that Cuccinelli 's actions posed a threat to academic freedom , and would have a chilling effect on research in the state . The university filed a court petition and the judge dismissed Cuccinelli 's demand on the grounds that no justification had been shown for the investigation . Cuccinelli tried to re-open his case by issuing a revised subpoena , and appealed the case to the Virginia Supreme Court . The case was defended by the university , and the court ruled that Cuccinelli did not have the authority to make these demands . The outcome was hailed as a victory for academic freedom .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Attorney_General_of_Virginia's_climate_science_investigation",
"rank": 74,
"score": 91722
},
{
"content": "Title: Anders Levermann Content: Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Anders_Levermann",
"rank": 75,
"score": 91493
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climate_Change_Authority",
"rank": 76,
"score": 91480
},
{
"content": "Title: Environmental Change Institute Content: The Environmental Change Institute was founded in 1987 in Oxford University in England `` to organize and promote interdisciplinary research on the nature , causes and impact of environmental change and to contribute to the development of management strategies for coping with future environmental change . '' This statement still embodies the ECI 's ethos of purposeful environmental research and knowledge exchange . With an annual research income of # 4.7 million in 2013/14 , a portfolio of 50 active projects , 350 partners and 60 researchers working across 40 countries , the ECI is an active and influential player in environmental change science . The ECI 's research is interdisciplinary , both in outlook and approach . ECI has a well - established track record in relation to climate , energy and ecosystems and a growing expertise in relation to food and water . ECI is a leading player in number of large research activities , including : the UK Climate Impacts Programme ( UKCIP ) which develops new tools to link climate science with stakeholders in business and government in order to create innovative adaptations to the impacts of climate change ; Climateprediction.net the world 's largest citizen science climate ensemble with 350,000 individuals running climate simulations in order to better understand regional climate patterns ; leaders of major EU consortium programmes including one on the impacts and risks of extreme climate change ( Impressions ) ; and coordinators of GEM , a global ecological monitoring programme across remote forest locations in South America , Africa and Asia . The ECI 's full portfolio of projects has led to academic papers and citations totaling over 45,000 since 2000 . The ECI is also home to the MSc in Environmental Change and Management ( ECM ) , the School 's first taught postgraduate masters ' programme , and Oxford 's most popular graduate science course . The Institute is led by Professor Jim Hall .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Environmental_Change_Institute",
"rank": 77,
"score": 91411
},
{
"content": "Title: List of climate scientists Content: This list of climate scientists contains famous or otherwise notable persons who have contributed to the study of climate science . The list is compiled manually so will not be complete or up to date . See also : Category : Climatologists and List of authors of Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis . The list includes scientists from several specialities or disciplines .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "List_of_climate_scientists",
"rank": 78,
"score": 91149
},
{
"content": "Title: Corinne Le Quéré Content: Corinne Le Quéré FRS ( born July 1966 ) is a Franco-Canadian scientist . She is Professor of Climate Change Science and Policy at the University of East Anglia and Director of Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Corinne_Le_Quéré",
"rank": 79,
"score": 90961
},
{
"content": "Title: Murry Salby Content: Murry Lewis Salby is an atmospheric scientist who focused on upper atmospheric wave propagation for most of his early career , and who more recently has argued against aspects of the scientific consensus that human activity contributes to climate change . From the mid 1980s , Salby conducted research out of University of Colorado Boulder . In 2005 , the National Science Foundation opened an investigation into Salby 's federal funding arrangements and found that he had displayed `` a pattern of deception -LSB- and -RSB- a lack of integrity '' in his handling of federal grant money . He resigned his position in Colorado in 2008 and became professor of climate risk at Macquarie University in Macquarie Park , New South Wales . In 2013 he was dismissed by the university on grounds of refusal to teach and misuse of university resources . He has written two textbooks , Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics ( 1996 ) , and Physics of the Atmosphere and Climate ( 2011 ) . The latter textbook , building on his first book , offers an overview of the processes controlling the atmosphere of Earth , weather , energetics , and climate physics .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Murry_Salby",
"rank": 80,
"score": 90957
},
{
"content": "Title: Skeptical Science Content: Skeptical Science ( occasionally abbreviated SkS ) is a climate science blog and information resource created in 2007 by Australian cognitive scientist John Cook . In addition to publishing articles on current events relating to climate science and climate policy , the site maintains a large database of articles analyzing the merit of arguments commonly put forth by those who oppose the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Skeptical_Science",
"rank": 81,
"score": 90909
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change and indigenous persons Content: Indigenous actors have a myriad experiences because of the wildly different areas they inhabit across the globe and they bring a wide variety of experiences that Western science is beginning to include in its research of climate change and its solutions .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climate_change_and_indigenous_persons",
"rank": 82,
"score": 90734
},
{
"content": "Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Ecological_forecasting",
"rank": 83,
"score": 90662
},
{
"content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States",
"rank": 84,
"score": 90548
},
{
"content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Roger_Pulwarty",
"rank": 85,
"score": 90380
},
{
"content": "Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower",
"rank": 86,
"score": 90218
},
{
"content": "Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Arturo_Villavicencio",
"rank": 87,
"score": 90142
},
{
"content": "Title: Heidi Cullen Content: Heidi Cullen is the chief scientist for the non-profit environmental organization , Climate Central , located in Princeton , New Jersey . In addition , she is a guest lecturer at nearby Princeton University , and the author of the book , The Weather of the Future . An expert and commentator about issues related to climate change and the environment , she was an on-air personality at The Weather Channel , and is a senior research fellow at the University of Pennsylvania ( Penn ) .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Heidi_Cullen",
"rank": 88,
"score": 90141
},
{
"content": "Title: Sharon Robinson (scientist) Content: Sharon Anita Robinson is an Antarctic researcher known for her work on climate change and bryophytes . She is the Co-Director of the Centre for Sustainable Ecosystem Solutions , ( CSES ) at the University of Wollongong .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Sharon_Robinson_(scientist)",
"rank": 89,
"score": 90055
},
{
"content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "James_Hansen",
"rank": 90,
"score": 89972
},
{
"content": "Title: Lee Hannah Content: Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Lee_Hannah",
"rank": 91,
"score": 89938
},
{
"content": "Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990",
"rank": 92,
"score": 89908
},
{
"content": "Title: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium Content: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium is an annual high level international event where top researchers and politicians , senior business executives , representatives of NGOs and other decision makers meet to share experiences and to discuss climate change solutions . The topics are related to the challenges of climate change , other environmental issues , and issues directly connected to the Arctic and the Northern areas which could have major global consequences . Participation is limited to 45 people , by invitation only . The Symposium takes place on Svalbard at 79 degrees north . It is the world 's northernmost permanent settlement and is only 1200 km from the North Pole . The Norwegian Government has transformed this former mining community into a major base for scientific research and environmental monitoring in the Arctic . The base hosts scientists from more than 20 nations and plays an important role in international climate change research . It is owned and operated by the governmental company Kings Bay AS , a coal mining company in earlier days . The scenery is exceptional , with a backdrop of unspoiled Arctic nature . The purpose of the Symposium is to exchange knowledge , improve the understanding and seek solutions of the challenging impacts these issues have both on the Arctic regions and internationally . The Symposium is organized by Kings Bay AS in cooperation with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research , the Ministry of the Environment -RSB- , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , the Ministry of Justice and the Police , and the -LSB- Research Council of Norway -RSB- . Statkraft AS is a co-organizer and sponsor of the Symposium . The secretariat is by CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo . His Royal Highness Crown Prince Haakon of Norway is patron of the Symposium . The first Symposium was arranged in March 2006 . The main themes for the symposia have been : 2006 - The changing Arctic - new opportunities and challenges 2007 - The changing Arctic - global climate change - the need for action 2008 - Global climate change and research challenges 2009 - Climate change : Understanding global politics towards Copenhagen and beyond 2010 - The Changing Arctic and Its Global Implications 2011 - cancelled due to volcanic ash cloud 2012 - Towards a green economy : the role of technology 2013 - The Changing Arctic - Opportunity or Threat 2014 - Breaking the Climate Stalemate",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "The_Ny-Ålesund_Symposium",
"rank": 93,
"score": 89863
},
{
"content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change",
"rank": 94,
"score": 89830
},
{
"content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis",
"rank": 95,
"score": 89691
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 96,
"score": 89602
},
{
"content": "Title: David Wratt Content: David Stuart Wratt QSO is the Chief Scientist ( Climate ) at the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) and is responsible for NIWA 's National Climate Centre . He has a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury . He has worked in the USA and Australia as well as New Zealand . His expertise includes climate and meteorology , climate change science and impacts , mountain meteorology , and air quality . He is a Companion of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He chairs the Climate Committee of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He is a member of the Bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and he is a Vice-Chair of IPCC Working Group 1 , which assesses the physical science of climate change . He was a Coordinating Lead Author of the `` Australia and New Zealand '' chapter of the IPCC Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . After gaining a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury and a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Illinois , he worked for the New Zealand Meteorological Service . In 1992 he and other climate researchers transferred to NIWA . Wratt has stated : `` There 's a strong scientific case for significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions . We need a combination of reducing our emissions in New Zealand and being part of international negotiations to reduce emissions globally in order to forestall the worst effects . '' Wratt was made a Companion of the Queen 's Service Order in the 2012 New Year Honours , for services to science .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "David_Wratt",
"rank": 97,
"score": 89352
},
{
"content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report",
"rank": 98,
"score": 89309
},
{
"content": "Title: Saleemul Huq Content: Saleemul Huq ( সালিমুল হক born 2 October 1952 ) is a Bangladeshi scientist based in London . He is a Senior Fellow in the Climate Change Group at the International Institute for Environment and Development ( IIED ) .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Saleemul_Huq",
"rank": 99,
"score": 89206
},
{
"content": "Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .",
"qid": "211",
"docid": "Petr_Chýlek",
"rank": 100,
"score": 89148
}
] |